Second Country Report (2022)

1. Regarding to the poor forest dependent people who live in the forest reserve area
after 30 June 1998 but before 2014, they could enter into an agreement with the government to
allow them to stay in the forest reserve but have to plant at least 200 forest trees (Any tree
species that is in the list of table 1-3) for every 0.16 ha land they occupied. They can decide on
the area of the occupied land where they wish to plant and the tree species involved. The
Governmental will provide the free seedlings required. They can harvest the non-forest product
from the planted trees (from leaves and fruits as food or medicinal products) in their occupied
land. The rest of occupied land could be planted by any appropriate agricultural plants and
crops they have selected. Besides, the situation has changed since the Community Forest Act
was approved by the cabinet in 2019. Therefore, this Act could strengthen and incentivize the
local community to conserve and utilize the community sustainably.

Institutional framework for forest management

Thanks to both a strong environmental movement and firm government
commitment, King Rama V founded the RFD in September 1896 to oversee teak
concessions which were mainly awarded to western businesses. In an attempt to promote
a more holistic approach to forest management, in 2002 the government restructured the
RFD into 3 departments, all of which employ experienced forestry specialists: the RFD,
the DNP and the DMCR. Some duties related to forests and forestlands have also been
assigned to the Office of the Permanent Secretary.

However, with regard to the formulation of policy and the functions of planning
and management, authorities have overlapping responsibilities, for example, for the
NESDP and the Environmental Plan. While MNRE’s three departments noted above are
tasked with the daily administration and control of forest resources and biodiversity over
more than half the country, the ONEP also has a mandate to plan nature conservation
and biodiversity protection. Hence, problems arise when policies are translated into laws
which line ministries then administer. Implementation is further hampered because matters
pertaining to the health
of the environment do not take precedence over many regulations governing land use
which fall under different ministries.

In practice, MNRE coordinates inter-ministerial policies through the National
Environment Board which the Prime Minister chairs. Conflicts over land uses due to
overlapping mandates emerge frequently, for example, mining, road construction, and
infrastructure development in class 1 watersheds. Disputes must often be settled by cabinet
resolution. Cooperation among authorities is needed while overlapping mandates and
policies among the responsible agencies should be revised through a national steering
committee or through departmental committees, sub-committees and task forces.

At the local level, local authorities in Thailand consist of provincial administrative
organizations, district organizations, and tambol organizations or TAOs (1 tambol = 10-
15 villages). By the end of 1999, around 6,800 TAOs were established throughout the

44

country, effectively passing authority to the grass-roots. The TAO Act of 1994 and the
1998 Decentralization Act clearly state the mandate and duty of TAOs in the protection
and maintenance of natural resources and the environment within their jurisdiction.
However, TAOs have exercised little power in these areas to date because most are still
concentrating on infrastructure development. The role of other local authorities in the
management of natural resources and the environment is not clearly specified in law.

Forest research

Forest research in Thailand started ten years before the RFD was founded in order
to develop knowledge on the extent of teak resources. For the early decades, research
emphasized the management of natural forest. Four regional silvicultural research stations
were established in 1952, and others were added subsequently. The Teak Improvement
Center (TIC) in Lampang and the Pine Improvement Center in Chiang Mai were established
with Danish support. Four lac research stations were also established to conduct research
on Laccifer lacca. Collaborative research projects were carried out with the support of
some developed countries. However, after the government restructured the MNRE many
research projects have been conducted on a variety of topics under each responsible
organization for forest conservation and sustainable uses at DNP, RFD, DMCR, BEDO and
etc.

The Contribution of Forest Genetic Resources to Food Security, Poverty Alleviation
and Sustainable Development

Introduction

Generally, the history of mankind and civilizations is connected with forests
and plants. Forests are important because of the goods and services they provide to
people in various aspects. Forests are deeply rooted in people’s social, cultural and spiritual
spheres so it can be said that the livelihoods of most dependent people around the world
are linked with forests and its health.

Forests cover approximately 30% of the global surface and provide ecological
goods and services including food, medicines, fuel and other basic necessities to
approximately 1.6 billion people across the world. As a consequence, forest resources
have been heavily utilized to serve the growing demand of people who, in their daily lives
depend upon products gathered from the forests. This situation has lead to the heavily
deterioration of forest resources in most regions of the world. According to the FAO
(2009), deforestation rates were estimated around 13 m ha per year with particularly
7.3 m ha per year during 2000-2005. Such heavy deforestation has seriously impacted
the biodiversity of forest resources with approximately 8,000 tree species, or 9 per cent
of the total number of tree species worldwide currently under threat of extinction
(United Nations Forum on Forests [UNFF], 2010).

45

In Thailand, out of a total population of 65 million over 70% of the population
resides in rural areas of the country. Some 1.2 to 2 million people are reported to live in
and around protected areas, while 20 – 25 million people are living in and near national
forest reserves. Most of those 20 plus million people use forest products for household
consumption or for sale in markets for cash income (Wichawutipong, 2005). However, 46
per cent of these rural people are found to be in a high or medium level of poverty,
and forest products are an important source of their livelihood. Poverty is then accounted
as the most significant cause of deforestation and loss of biodiversity of the country (FAO,
2009).

In order to mitigate the problems of deforestation and loss of biodiversity,
sustainable management and the fair, equitable sharing of the benefits derived from the
use of forest products, biodiversity and genetic resources should be concerned.
Moreover, appropriate access and adequate management for diversity and multiple benefits
of genetic resources will not only sustainably maintain a healthy natural habitat for forest
biodiversity, but will also increase the capacity for poverty reduction of those forest
dependants through food security and economic enhancement. This chapter will discuss
forest genetic resources in relation to economic, social and environmental aspects as well
as their contribution to food security, poverty alleviation and sustainable development.

Forest biodiversity: a major pool of genetic resources to provide food security
and poverty alleviation

According to Turner et al. (2012), the global potential for biodiversity conservation to
support poor communities is considered rather high. The aggregate benefits are valued
at three times the estimated opportunity costs and exceed $1 per person per day for 331
million of the world’s poorest people. In the national scale, Thailand is species-rich in
floral, faunal and cultural diversity, accounting for 7 per cent of the world’s flora and
fauna. There are approximately 15,000 plant species, 4,591 species of vertebrates and
about 83,000 invertebrate species, of which 14,000 species can be identified. Some of those
flora and fauna have been gathered and utilized by forest dependants since ancient times.
Due to the implementation of a nation-wide logging concession ban in 1989, local
dwellers are not allowed to fell or harvest any kind of living trees from natural forests
for household or commercial consumption. However, local people are allowed to collect
dry wood and other NWFPs for their subsistence needs. NWFPs such as mushrooms,
rattan, bamboo and bamboo shoots, wild vegetables, flowers, fruits and nuts, and
medicinal plants are mostly used for household consumption to supplement diets, but
are also sold to local markets for cash income.

Due to the high economic potential of NWFPs, as they provide for the material
needs, cash income and employment for local inhabitants, their significance to the rural
[and up to national] economies should then be considered. They can alleviate or reduce
rural poverty, as they offer the means to increase both the food production and incomes
of the local poor (Martinez, 2004). Emphandhu and Kalyawongsa (2003) found high
usage of NWFPs in term of harvested products from both flora and fauna of 200 villages
living within protected areas of the Western Forest Complex (WEFCOM) of the country.

46

However, according to the FAO (2009), 500 species of edible natural plants are
traditionally used across the country in particular, 85 percent of them are consumed by
households. Table 1.9 lists the potential uses of example trees and other woody species
that are important in Thailand for food security and livelihoods. Recently, to improve the
livelihood of forest dependants who live in forest area, DNP and RFD have revised the laws
related to forest Act and Forest Community Bill to allow forest dependants live in forest
and use forest product genetic resources sustainably under appropriate regulation

In order to illustrate the significance of Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs)
in responding to poverty alleviation, the potential of such plants as bamboo and rattan is
listed as an example below:

Table 1.9 List of potential uses for food security and poverty reduction of example trees and
other woody species that are important in Thailand

Species Native Use for food Use for poverty
Botanical name (N) or security reduction
exotic (E)
Irvingia malayana Edible nut Seed can be sold as cosmetic
Aquilaria crassna N ingredient
Dioscorea hispida Bulb can be used as Incensed wood is used as
Senna siamea N major starch fragrance wood and perfume oil
Young leaves can be
N eaten Young leaves contain medicinal
Young leaves can be property
E eaten Young leaves contain medicinal
property
Sesbania grandiflora E Young leaves can be
eaten Seed contains medicinal property
Xylia xylocarpa N Young leaves can be Young leaves contain medicinal
Cratoxylum formosum N eaten property
Young shoot can be
Sauropus androgynus E eaten Stem can be sold as raw material
Dendrocalamus membranaceus N Young shoot can be for construction
Bambusa nana E eaten Stem can be sold as raw material
Bambusa blumeana N for construction
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii N Young shoot can be Stem can be sold as raw material
eaten Sfotermcocnasntrubcetisoonld as raw material
Young shoot can be for construction
eaten
Bambusa sp. N

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Species Native Use for food Use for poverty
Botanical name (N) or security reduction
exotic (E)
Spondias pinnata Fruit can be eaten Bark can be used as natural dye
Diospyros mollis N Mature fruit use for Seed contains medicinal property
Phyllanthus emblica N Mdyienor fruit Fruit contains medicinal property
Tamarindus indica N Fruit Fruit contains medicinal property
Gluta usitata E Lacquer sap for Lacquer sap can be used in
N Lacquer ware lacquerware industry
Parkia timoriana Seed can be eaten
N

Bamboo Approximately 60 species of bamboo were reported in Thailand covering
800,000 ha in 1998 with an average annual yield of 0.1 ton/ha green weight. The country’s
potential annual production of bamboo from natural sources is about 500,000 tons. Since
bamboo shoots are edible, local villagers use them for their own consumption whereas bamboo
poles are sold in the domestic market for wood used in construction. A major species of edible
shoots is Dendrocalamu asper which is extending rapidly. Estimated average bamboo
production from 1980 to 1990 was 49.2 million culms or about 147,600 tons (FAO, 2009).
With its characteristic of fast growth, easy propagation, and short maturity period, bamboo is
a suitable species for afforestation, for soil conservation and for community forestry programs.
Compared to tree crops, bamboo can produce an economic return in a shorter period of time
and can more easily be converted to value-added products. Developing bamboo cultivation and
marketing channels will increase household income and livelihood of local dwellers and
improve the rural economy

Rattan Rattan is used by local people to produce various utensils for their own use.
Cash income can also be obtained from rattan handicrafts. Rattan species were considered as
non-reserved forest products and no permission was required for harvesting until a Royal
Decree was enacted in 1987 which specified rattan as a reserved forest product. Rattan species
are naturally distributed in Thailand belonging to the genus Calamus, Daemorops, Korthalsia,
Plectocomia, Plectocomiopsis, Myrialepis. As a consequence, Thailand has banned the
harvesting of rattan in natural forests and its export in raw form. However, harvesting for food
from local forest dependants is still allowed, while growing rattan on private lands has also
become popular. Rattan gardens increase food security and as traded goods enhance household
income. Edible rattan shoots can be harvested in 1-1.5 years from planting, while full
production is achieved at 6 years. Shoot production can last more than 20 years. It is estimated
that a shoot can yield up to 1,562 tones/ha (FAO, 2009).

In addition to the direct benefits from such products, indirect benefits will also be
derived from the genetic resource pool. Activities like ecotourism, which has become more
popular among nature-lovers, can be counted in this case, since ecotourism involves travelling
to natural areas for nature study as well as admiring the beauty of scenic areas. Ecotourism has
the additional benefit of improving the welfare of local inhabitants (Changtragoon, 2003a). In
particular, tourism in Thailand is well-developed and diverse, representing a huge market
potential for nature-based tourism in the country. The government’s policy on tourism for the
past few years has been geared more towards sustainable tourism development with emphasis

48

on community participation, safety and non- exploitation. One of the fastest-growing sectors
of the tourism industry is ecotourism, whereby tourists visit undisturbed natural areas to
experience spectacular scenery and to view wildlife. The presence of local people can add value
to the ecotourism experience through the inclusion of cultural aspects.

Policy and legal frameworks to support sustainable management of biodiversity
and genetic resources

Over the last four decades of national development, Thailand has had to continuously adjust to
changing socio-economic situations. According to the FAO (2009), the First and Second
NESDP (1961-1971) emphasized economic growth through investment in infrastructure for
civilization. Until the Eighth Plan (1997-2001), participation from all levels of society was
addressed in order to create a balance in the development of the economy, society and
environment, while the Ninth Plan (2002-2006) stated the Sufficiency Economy philosophy to
guide the development and administration of the country. Development goals were to balance
the development of the country by respecting people, society, economy and the environment
in order to achieve sustainable development and the well-being of the Thai people. In this
regard, public awareness of natural resources through formal education and information
campaigns was developed. The Tenth Plan (2007-2011) aimed to keep ecological balance as
well as to maximize the social benefits and environmental protection. Up to the present, the
upcoming Eleventh plan (2012-2016) promises to maintain the environment in good condition
and adopt environment-friendly production systems to achieve sustainability.
Regarding legal framework, The Government of Thailand has established stringent laws for
the protection, use and conservation of forest areas as well as biodiversity. Presently, there are
two main Forestry Acts that support those conceptual ideas:

1. Forest Act, B.E. 2484 (1941) concerns logging operations and non-wood forest
product (NWFP) collection.

2. National Forest Reserve Act, B.E. 2507 (1964) includes the determination of the
National Reserved Forest and the control and maintenance of the National Reserved Forest.

The contribution of forest genetic resources to food security and poverty
alleviation in the regional context

At the Association of Southeast Asian Nation - Food and Agriculture Organization (ASEAN-
FAO) Regional Conference on Food Security held in Bangkok during 27-28 May 2009, food
security and sustainable development of agriculture and forestry, as well as mitigation of
climate change of the region were addressed within the conference. As a consequence, the
ASEAN Secretariat then developed an inclusive participatory mechanism to achieve the
proposed concept called “Multi-Sectoral Framework on Climate Change and Food Security”.
This framework intends to “identify and address emerging issues related to food security and
emerging issues related to Food Security of the ASEAN Integrated Food Security Framework
(AIFS) and Strategic Plan of Action on Food Security” which were adopted by the ASEAN
Summit in March 2009. In this regard, relevant government agencies will be responsible for
preparing a detailed action plan at the national level to ensure the achievement of food security
and poverty alleviation.

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An alternative approach for genetic resource management to contribute food
security and poverty alleviation: community forestry programs in the national context

Community forestry programs have been well accepted worldwide as a “pro poor”
strategy for promoting sustainable forest management. The programs propose many activities
such as agro-forestry to secure food while helping to alleviate poverty across the world. So far,
about 11,400 villages (or 15.5 per cent of all the villages) have been involved in managing
community forests in Thailand, of which approximately 8,331 villages are reported to have
formally registered their community forest with the RFD. These community forests are
reported to cover an area of 196,667 ha in national forest reserves (112,869 ha) and other forest
areas (83,798 ha), accounting for about 1.2 percent of the total forest area (Community Forest
Management Bureau, 2010) of Thailand. Particularly, 72 per cent of existing community
forests is concentrated in the Northeast and North regions where the majority of the poor live.

Generally, many community forests across the country are found to be rich in
biodiversity as a genetic resource pool. This richness is beneficial in terms of biodiversity
conservation, as well as for forest resource utilization. Local dwellers are allowed to use
community forests to collect dead wood for subsistence needs while NWFPs such as
mushrooms, rattan, bamboo and bamboo shoots, wild vegetables, flowers, fruit and nuts, and
medical plants are also allowed to be collected. Those selected species will not only provide
multiple benefits as a “natural supermarket” to ensure food security to the community, but will
also provide genetic resource conservation. Furthermore, collected species are used mostly for
household consumption especially during the time of food shortage and for supply to local
markets for cash income. The types of NWFPs collected from community forests vary from
place to place, and their volumes can be locally highly significant. For example, in 2004,
Wichawuthipong (2005) found that villagers collected about 13 tons of NWFPs from a Dry
Dipterocarp Forest covering 287 ha in Nong Song Hong and Dong Keng community forests in
Khon Kaen Province. Although few households were reported to be engaged in the marketing
of NWFPs, cash generated through forest product trade in local markets was expected to be
high. For example, in Dong Keng in 2004, NWFPs sold in the local market accounted for 5.25
per cent of the average annual household income. According to the Thailand Environment
Monitor Series in 2004 (as cited in FAO, 2009), a village generates, on average over US$
25,000 per year by selling NWFPs. Thus, with 73,467 villages in the country, this would
amount to approximately US$2 billion per annum from the NWFP trade in the local market
alone.

Future challenge for alleviating poverty and supporting sustainable forest
management

Problem solving for the loss of local genetic resources and biodiversity should be based
on the consideration of inviting local communities living nearby their natural resources to
participate in management and conservation plans. A combination of local and scientific
knowledge could create a pathway that would be in harmony with the natural environment and
would lead to sustainable development. This combination holds the potential to raise the quality
of life of local dwellers that depend upon the natural resources for their livelihood.

The Thai Forestry Master Plan of 1992 recognized community forestry as one of the
main strategies to achieve sustainable forest management (RFD, 1993). The following set of
keybuilding blocks for effective community forestry development are necessary in order to
create sustainable genetic resource conservation.

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Community forestry policy and strategy There is a need to recognize the key role of
knowledge of forests and forest products by the local people, as well as their successful efforts
in managing and regenerating forests and trees in their villages. Communities must encourage
permanent training, technical assistance and transfer of technical know-how within and
between communities. Furthermore, NTFPs are a main component of the rural economy and
on which many livelihoods rely for subsistence so that their marketing and their role in
livelihood development and poverty reduction should be emphasized within the national level
of policy and strategy.

Benefits and costs of community forestry Benefits are perceived as a key to attract local
people for active participation in community forestry activities. Community forestry should
consider the production of goods and services beyond subsistence needs, i.e. development of
commercial operations including collection and sales of NWFPs. This would help to raise the
income of poor households while adding value to forests for society at large.

Tenure and use rights of forest and forest products “Sense of ownership” and “secured
use rights” of forest and forest products are other important factors for motivating community
forestry programs. This concept places a stress on “authorities” and “responsibilities” of the
community for the protection and management of community forests. Effective community
forestry programs should be concerned with these functions and include them within the
capacity building program.

Organizing communities and forest-based community enterprises
Community members need to organize themselves to be able to manage the forest and to
ensure that different forest goods and services are available in a sustainable and equitable
manner. Communities can generate revenue to reduce poverty while contributing to the
attainment of broader societal needs of forest goods and services. Both domestic and
international markets for NWFPs have expanded dramatically and as a new opportunity for
payment schemes for environmental services. Local people are already extensively involved
in collecting NWFPs within and outside community forests and trading them in local markets.
It is necessary to link community forest groups with these various initiatives through training,
communication and eventual adjustment of financing instruments.

Challenge of future forest management

Participatory approaches to forest management are gaining momentum in Thailand
and are seen as an effective way to address and resolve issues. However, decentralization
and public involvement in policy, planning, and management of natural resources are still
rather limited, even though local administrative organizations have been empowered to some
extent in recent years and their input is being sought in the development of policies and
legislation. Cooperation among authorities and stakeholders is crucial to ensure sustainable
forest management in the long run.

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Chapter 2

State of Other Wood lands

State of natural forest and other wooded lands

In terms of natural forest, forest covers an area of 31.64% of the country area. The
majority of forest cover is located in North (52.38% or 17.19 ha) followed by Central (33.16%
or 6.74 million ha) of, South (24.31% or 7.38 million ha), East (22.4% or 3.6 million ha), and
Northeast (14.99% or 16.77 million ha), respectively (RFD, 2020a) (Table 2.1).

Table 2.1 Forest areas (ha) in five regions of Thailand in 2010.

Region Forest Area Total %
52.38
North 9,008736.52 17,198,367.92 14.99
22.4
Northeast 2,514,887.95 16,771,793.48 33.16
24.31
East 820,208.76 3,662,301.83 31.64

Central 2,237,208.36 6,747,344.49

South 1,795,515.98 7,384,784.22

Total 16,376,557.56 51,764,591.94

Source: Royal Forest Department (2020a)

Apart from natural forest, economic forest mainly located in outside natural forest could
be classified as wooded lands. The majority of the wooded lands contain native and exotic
species namely Teak, Tectona grandis and Eucalyptus species covering an area of 0.15 ha and
0.56 ha, respectively. Another group of the wood lands is the area of economic trees of mixed
species registered under Commercial Forest Plantation Act*, B.E. 2535 (1992).

As for teak, Forest Industry Organization (FIO) is the most important stakeholder of
teak wood industry in the country. FIO is the state enterprise under Ministry of Natural
Resources and Environment that involves with wood industry of few species such as Tectona
grandis, Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Eucalyptus but Tectona grandis is the major species.

Regarding Eucalyptus, the species showed the highest proportion among other wooded
lands since the species is the major species of chip wood for pulp and paper. The species is
considered as fast growing (exotic) tree species and has been planted widely in Central and
Northeast Thailand (Table 2.2).

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Table 2.2 Major species/groups of other wooded lands on private and government lands

Species in different Types of Organization in charge of data hectare
types of lands Land (million)
Tectona grandis Government Forest Industry Organization, Ministry of 0.15
Natural Resources and Environment
Eucalyptus spp. Private Office of Agricultural Economics, 0.56
Ministry of Agriculture and
Cooperatives. 0.56 Forest Industry
Organization

Economic forest Private Royal Forest Department, Ministry of 0.23
Natural Resources and Environment
trees (mixed-species)
0.94
Total

For the area of economic trees of mixed species, this group is classified as the major
forest plantation extension program of the government. The registration under Commercial
Forest Plantation Act*, B.E. 2535 (1992) is actually not compulsory but it is only served for
tree farmers who want to acquire forest certification. The certified wood could be processed
through international wood trade who need wood certification i.e. FSC, PEFC.

Latest information showed that an areas of 0.23 million hectare of all 77 provinces were
registered with the number of 81,496 households and 81,701 plots. The major species
registered were Tectona grandis, Dalbergia cochinchinensis, Dipterocarpus alatus,
Pterocarpus marcrocarpus and other species. (Annex 2) (RFD, 2022)

Trends affecting other wooded lands and their management

There are several approaches on both international and domestic to support increasing
wooded lands in particular economic forest areas. For international approaches, Thailand also
engages in international several regimes such as COP26, carbon neutrality, carbon credit
climate change, REDD+, and sustainable forest management. For domestic approaches, based
on national forest policy, 40% of forest areas composed of 25% conservation forest (18.11
million hectare) and 15% economic forest (7.76 million hectare) were set up to meet the target
in the year 2037. The policies related to production forests and wood industries include: 1)
promote afforestation in private land and the public land permitted for utilization; 2) promote
and assist value chain process from wood industries and biodiversity-based economy
development; 3) develop licensing and national and international certification of timber,
including for small- and medium- sized enterprises. Specific target were set up for economic
forest to meet 15% of country area such as private lands, agricultural land reform area,
plantation area of Forest Industry Organization, and Kor Tor Cho (KTC) areas (allocation of
arable lands where government provides sustainable arable land but no ownership but certified
rights).

In addition, for economic forest, Thailand has developed Strategy and Action Plan for
Extension of Integrated Economic Trees (2018-2036). The strategies are described as

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following: 1. Development and improvement of laws and regulations to enhance the extension
of economic. 2. Preparation of potential areas for extension of integrated economic trees. 3.
Development of fiscal, financial and marketing measures to provide incentives for farmers and
entrepreneurs. 4. Developing the potential of farmers and entrepreneurs. 5. Research and
development of technology and innovation for integrated economic trees. 6. Optimization of
administration systems for extension of integrated economic trees 7. Development of forest
certification system and entrepreneurs achieved forest certification (Table 2.3) (Faculty of
Forestry, 2017)

Table 2.3 Strategies and Goals of Strategy and Action Plan for Extension of Integrated

Economic Trees (2018-2036).

Strategy Goal

1. Development and improvement of laws Laws and regulations for supporting the

and regulations to enhance the extension planning, development, promotion,

of economic trees supervision and monitoring to strengthen the

capacity of farmers and entrepreneurs

2. Preparation of potential areas for Potential areas not less than 26 million rais

extension of integrated economic trees

3. Development of fiscal, financial and Fiscal and financial measures, marketing

marketing measures to provide incentives systems and funding sources for farmers and

for farmers and entrepreneurs entrepreneurs as well as business channels

motivating economic tree planting

4. Developing the potential of farmers and Farmers and entrepreneurs’ potential and

entrepreneurs readiness for planning of economic tree

planting and production

5. Research and development of technology The knowledge, technology and innovation

and innovation for integrated economic trees of integrated economic trees

6. Optimization of administration systems Unified and effective systems, mechanisms

for extension of integrated economic trees and tools to support the administration of

integrated economic trees

7. Development of forest certification • National forest certification system in

system accordance with the international standards

• Potential farmers and entrepreneurs

achieved forest certification

KO Tor Cho (KTC) areas

KTC is mainly located in the national reserved forest (NRF) but the government allows
local people to use arable by verifying rights, compromising, and controlling forest area. Local
people will not relegate except capitalists. Implementation of KTC focuses mainly on arranging
arable land for the community in the form of aggregate plots without giving ownership. It is
permitted to use the state's land as a group or community in accordance with the rules and
conditions. Each local people allow using land as appropriate but must not exceed 3.2 hectares
per person. The target KTC areas of economic forest mostly located in NRF forest classified
as the watershed area, class 3, 4, 5 before the Cabinet resolution of June 30, 1998 cover an area
of 0.59 million hectares. This KTC area is asked to plant 50% economic forests in the arable
areas.

54

Drivers of change in other wooded lands and consequences for forest genetic resources.
International commitment, such as COP26, carbon neutrality, carbon credit climate

change, REDD+, forest certification, and sustainable forest management could serve as the key
drivers to meet the 15% economic forest target.

Strategy and Action Plan for Extension of Integrated Economic Trees (2018-2036)
launched Local people have participation on restoring and maintaining NRF (by growing
economic forest at least 50% of the area while they can utilize forest under regulation and
agreement that lead to reduce poverty and sustainable NRF management.

Challenges and opportunities of these trends and drivers create for the conservation, use
and development of forest genetic resources

As for economic forest, benefits from wood production are the most important.
Therefore, effective and efficient tree breeding program need to strengthen. Improved genetic
materials should be promoted to tree farmer. Conservation in terms of breeding approach of
major species should develop and updated.

Planting scheme benefits to ex situ gene conservation since the essential step of the
breeding strategy namely plus tree selection is considered as supporting implementation of
establishing germplasm collection or gen bank. This would support ex situ gene conservation
activity and use of selected genetic resources.

Planting economic forest in KTC area in NRF also indirectly support conservation use
and environment on watershed areas. It promotes conservation approaches in terms of
watershed protection, reducing forest destruction, land use planning for sustainable natural
resources and environment management. However, evaluation and monitoring the
implementation both measures for solving land allocation issues in NRF and forest restoration
framework are needed.

Forest Plantation
The three primary industrial species planted are rubber, eucalyptus species such as

Eucalyptus camaldulensis, and teak with smaller plantations of Acacia species, Albizzia
lebbeck, Leucaena leucocephala, Gmelina aborea, and pine species such as Pinus merkusii.
Other broadleaved species such as Pterocarpus maccrocarpus, Dipterocarpus species,
Swiettenia macrophylla and Hopea odorata are also planted on a small scale. Summary of
registration data for forest plantations in accordance with the Forest Park Act 1992 and amended
Act. The Royal Forest Department has compiled from the report of the Provincial Bureau of
Natural Resources and Environment (from 1992 to present) in the total of 68,868 plots of land
area 174,208.01 ha (1,088,800.06 rai) with the details of trees in Table 2.4, 2.5 and 2.6. There
are number of planted tree species namely Teak, Eucalyptus, Acacia, rubber and other tree
species in different location of Forest Industry Organization (FIO) land including North,
Northeastern and Southern part of Thailand with amount of 177,238.27 ha (1,107,739.213
rai) as in Table 2.7 and 2.8. Cutting circle is varied among tree species. Teak Cutting circle
is 30 years through thinning for the first stage and the final felling is 50 years for 10 trees
left standing per 0.16 ha (per rai). Teak, Eucalyptus and rubber production which were
managed by FIO during 2015-1019 is as shown in Table 2.9.

55

Table 2.4 Ordinary prohibited wood category A*

No. Botanical name No. Botanical name
1 Holoptelea integrifolia 2 Careya sphaerica
3 Acacia spp 4 Sandoricum spp.
5 Elaeocarpus spp. 6 Mitragyna spp.
7 lrvingia malayana 8 Anisoptera spp.
9 Shorea spp. 10 Hydnocarpus spp.
11 Castanopsis spp. Lithocarpus spp. & 12 Polyalthia spp.

Quercus spp.) 14 Walsura spp.
16 Swintonia spp.
13 Calophyllum spp. 18 Shorea faguetiana
15 Fagraea fragrans Roxb. 20 Lannea coromandelica
17 Nauclea spp. 22 Manikara hexandra
19 Betula alnoides 24 Haldina cordifolia, Metadenia spp.
21 Scorodocarpus borneensis 26 Rhizophora spp.
23 Xerospermum spp. 28 Pterospermum spp.
25 Maclura cochinchinensis 30 Parashorea spp.
27 Erythroxylum cuneatum 32 Ulmus lancifolia
29 Artocarpus spp. 34 Dialium spp.
31 Millettia spp. 36 Albizia spp.
33 Cassia garrettiana 38 Cassia fistula
35 Engelhardtia spp. 40 Shorea henryana
37 Aglaia spp. 42 Nephelium spp.
39 Cotylelobium melanoxylon 44 Fraxinus floribunda
41 Stereospermum spp. 46 Palaquium spp. & Aesandra krabiensis
43 Myristica spp.
45 Manglietia spp. Michelia spp. & 48 Prunus spp.
50 Hopea spp.
Aromadendron spp. 52 Neesia spp.
47 Carallia brachiata 58 Xylia spp.
49 Shorea thorelii 60 Schoutenia spp.
51 Durio spp. 62 Garuga pinnata
57 Erythrophleum spp. 64 Shorea gratissima
59 Acrocarpus fraxinifolius 66 Xylocarpus spp.
61 Schleichera olcosa 68 Terminalia spp.
63 Balanocarpus heimii 70 Planchonella spp.
65 Anogeissus acuminata 72 Vitex spp.
67 Lagerstroemia spp. 74 Duabanga grandiflora
69 Amoora spp. 76 Pentaspadon velutinus
71 Cratoxylum spp. 78 Ganua spp
73 Alstonia spp. 80 Litsea spp.
75 Shorea obtuse S.siamensis Pentacme suavis 82 Peltophorum spp.
77 Bischofia javanica
79 Koompassia spp. 84 Platymitra siamensis, Cyathocalyx martabanicus
81 Cinnamomum porrectum C.parthenoxylon 86 Mesua spp.
88 Bruguiera spp.
& C. ilicioides C. siamense 90 Kydia calycina
92 Ceriops spp.
83 Antiaris toxicaria 94 Endospermum diadenum
85 Persea spp. 96 Podocapus spp.
87 Pterocarpus spp. 98 Helicia spp.
89 Alangium salviifolium 100 Dipterocarpus spp.
91 Brownlowia helferiana 102 Diospyros spp.
93 Canaga spp.
95 Lumnitzera spp.
97 Shorea hypochra
99 Dracontomelon mangiferum
101 Memecylon ovatum

56

No. Botanical name No. Botanical name

103 Shorea spp. 104 Garcinia spp.

105 Vatica spp. 106 Schima wallichii

107 Mimusops spp. & Payena spp. 108 Gardenia spp.

109 Adenanthera spp. 110 Canarium spp.

111 Sindora spp. 112 Afzelia xylocarpa

113 Drypetes spp. 114 Madhuca spp.

115 Protium serratum 116 Mangifera spp.

117 Cynometra spp. 118 Crypteronia spp.

119 Wrightia tomentosa 120 Holarrhena antidysenterica

121 Toona spp. , Cedrela spp. 122 Chukrasia spp

123 Dipterocarpus spp. 124 Melanorrhoea spp.

125 Semecarpus spp. 126 Kokoona spp.

127 Goniothalamus macrophyllus 128 Shorea curtisii

129 Dehaasia spp. 130 Berrya spp.

131 Melia spp. 132 Knema spp.

133 Peronema canescens 134 Pinus spp.

135 Dacrydium elatum 136 Altingia spp.

137 Tetrameles nudiflora 138 Shorea leprosula & S. parvifolia

139 Lophopetalum spp. 140 Azadirachta indica

141 Phoebe spp. 142 Premna tomentosa. & P.pyramidata

143 Dillenia spp. 144 Pometia spp.

145 Mammea spp. 146 Pentace spp.

147 Casearia spp. 148 Parinari anamense

149 Shorea guiso 150 Intsia spp.

151 Eugenia spp. 152 Donella lanceolata Chrysophyllum roxburghii

153 Buchanania spp. 154 Parkia spp.

155 Cinnamomum spp. 156 Neolitsea zeylanica

157 Shorea glauca 158 Homalium spp.

Remarks: * Ordinary prohibited wood category A is the species of wood that provides good quality wood

which can be used to build houses. The authorities will allow to cut and transport for make products, however,

must be obtained permission from the competent official of Royal Forest Department.

Table 2.5 Special forbidden wood category B

No. Botanical name
1 Hydnocarpus anthelminthicus
2 Zanthoxylum spp.
3 Styrax spp.
4 Aglaia pyramidata
5 Mansonia gagei
6 Tarenna hoaensis
7 Dyera costulata
8 Elateriospermum tapos
9 Garcinia acuminata & G.hanburyi
10 Calocedrus macrolepis
11 Scaphium spp.
12 Strychnos spp.
13 Ficus albipila

Remarks: * Special forbidden wood category B is the species of plants that the government
considers to be a good species with rare value and a special type of restricted wood. It is
prohibited for cutting unless it is permitted by the Minister for the exceptional cases.

57

Table 2.6 List of 58 plants and trees species that encourages planting and can be cut to use in
proprietary areas without requesting permission

No. Botanical Name No. Botanical Name

1* Tectona grandis 30* Albizia lebbeck

2* Dalbergia cochinchinensis 31 Millingtonia hortensis

3* Dalbergia oliveri 32* Lagerstroemia floribunda

4* Dalbergia parviflora 33* Lagerstroemia loudonii

5* Dalbergia cultrata 34* Lagerstroemia speciosa

6* Millettia leucantha var. 35* Terminalia mucronata

buteoides

7* Xylia xylocarpa var. kerii 36* Mesua nervosa

8* Pterocarpus macrocarpus 37 Magnolia spp.

9* Pterocarpus indicus 38 Dolichandrone serrulata

10* Afzelia xylocarpa 39 Cassia bakeriana

11* Sindora siamensis var. 40* Cassia fistula

siamensis

12* Cotylelobium lanceolatum 41 Cochlospermum regium

13* Shorea henryana 42 Roseodendron donnell-smithii

14* Shorea obtusa 43* Artrocarpus lacucha

15* Shorea siamensis 44 Phyllanthus emblica

16* Shorea roxburghii 45 Syzegium cumini

17* Hopea odorata 46* Albizia saman

18* Hopea ferrea 47 Microcos tomentosa

19* Neobalanocarpus heimii 48* Fagraea fragrans

20* Dipterocarpus spp. 49* Litsea grandis

21* Azadirachta indica 50* Intsia palembanica

22 Azadirachta excelsa 51 Aquilaria crassna

23 Neolamarckia cadamba 52 Aquilaria malaccensis

24* Chukrasia tabularis 53* Cinnamomum parthenoxylon

25* Toona ciliata 54 Caesalpinia sappan

26* Prunus cerasoides 55 All Bamboo Species

27* Peltophorum pterocarpum 56* Mangifera spp.

28* Alstonia scholaris 57* Durio spp.

29 Cerbera odollam 58 Tamarindus indica .

Remarks: * is a forest plants or trees species that is in the list of ordinary prohibited wood category A

(41 species).

Table 2.7 Summary of numbers of registered trees, cutting and remaining trees

Tree type Number of registered Number of trees Number of trees
trees that reported remaining
Teak (Tree) cuttings (Tree) (Tree)
Rubber tree 140,067585 8,927,818 131,139,767
Rosewood 688,330 215,644 472,686
Other 297,979 530 297,449
Total 1,449,180 65,404 1,383,776
142,503,074 9,209,396 133,293,678

58

Table 2.8 Forest Plantation Area and Planted Tree species, FIO

Region Branch Teak Teak and Eucalyptus Area cla
other Eucalyptus
Forest Industry Ban Pong 8,343.144 species 2,015.295 and other
1,052.044 39.392 1,852.873
Organization Sriracha 9,395.190 3,868.168 species
Central Region 1,989.296 60.177 2,384.816 -
2,733.563
Total 347.464 99.569 40.832
18.274 2,727.904
Forest Industry Khon Kaen 43.906 7,846.283 40.832
2,380.666 - -
Organization Nakhon 7.911
- - 39.949
North-Eastern Ratchasima 537.666
0.944 18.274 545.577 -
Region Ubon 0.944 536.444
12,308.192 - 39.949
Ratchathani 15,344.020 75.630
14,520.493 - 27.242 -
Total 42,172.705 - 639.316
9,725.732 768.404 2,070.640 -
Forest Industry Surat Thani 7,059.802 21.221 10.845 -
Organization 6,663.983 297.650
23,449.517 - - -
59 Southern Region 2,081.486
Hat Yai 77,399.023 789.625 -
388.718 14,980.830
Total 297.650
51.272 0.484
Forest Industry Chiang Mai -
-
Organization Phrae -
439.990
Upper Northern 0.484
1,347.459
Region Lampang 378.915

Total

Forest Industry Tak

Organization Phitsanulok

Lower Northern

Region Uttaradit

Total

Grand Total

Remarks: Information of land use classification during 2012 -2017 (Inf

59

O (The Forest Industry Organization)

assified by plant species (Unit: Has)

Rubber Rubber Acacia Other Other area Grand Total
species
and other mangium 3,391.252 14,349.627
73.696 4,760.068 11,317.928
species 1,195.658 8,151.319 25,667.556
1,269.354 3,837.553 10,392.402
478.633 8.215 - 8,313.971 12,543.266
447.190
1,633.073 15.090 707.794 364.932 9,676.346 14,800.722
21,827.870 37,736.390
2,112.025 23.304 707.794 27.374
1,711.512 3.761 - 839.495 5,850.712 9,554.043

743.388 -- 58.284 3,385.334 7,501.419
9,236.045 17,055.462
2,325.191 - - 241.270 7,585.098 23,871.093
4,780.091 3.761 - 299.555 2,717.703 18,479.785
2,215.003 4,655.850 19,417.534
2,793.214 774.933 68.989 233.176 14,958.650 61,768.412
102.472 3,082.413 15,644.131
2,929.643 402.640 3.921 2,550.651 4,110.001 11,312.382
5,722.857 1,177.573 72.910 1,376.519 8,053.941
1.069 48.830 8,568.933 35,010.454
126.564 32.670 80.365
88.035 - - 13.439 62,742.818 177,238.274
142.730
111.476 - -
5,101.785
326.076 32.670 1.069
2.586 - 324.727
- -
-
- -
-
2.586 -
324.727

12,943.635 1,237.308 1,106.500

formation: April 2018)

Table 2.9 Teak (Tectona grandis), Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) and Eucalyptus production in
forest plantation (m3) Year 2015-2019

Species Year 2015 Production in the forest plantation (m3) Year 2019
53,725.83 59,685.02
Teak (Tectona grandis) 32,121.15 Year 2016 Year 2017 Year 2018 70,621.24
Rubber (Hevea brasiliensis) 116,542.10 58,170.33 71,645.03 71,954.53 60,726.74
Eucalyptus 109,461.73 93,723.43 78,690.44
113,849.27 89,661.86 40,258.17

Private plantation

There are number of private sector and famers invested in forest plantation. Forest
plantation cooperatives has 1,268 plantation members. They invested in forest plantation with
areas at least 8,000 ha (50,000 rai). Double A and SCG companies have Eucalyptus farmer
members who planted Eucalyptus in their own land for at least 480,000 ha (3,000,000 rai).
Those companies use the wood products as the fiber for paper industries. The Eucalyptus
famers get the income on selling the Eucalyptus wood chip during thinning for 512 USD per
0.16 ha (16,000 baht per rai) at the fourth year of investment.

60

Chapter 3

State of diversity between trees and other woody plant species

In Thailand, there are 10 main forest types, namely Moist Evergreen Forest, Dry
Evergreen Forest, Hill Evergreen Forest, Pine Forest, Peat Swamp Forest, Mangrove Forest,
Beach Forest, Mixed Deciduous Forest, Dry Dipterocarp Forest and Bamboo Forest. The
dominant tree species differ in each forest type. Some dominant forest tree species are
characterized by seed sources and provenance zones in different regions of Thailand. A
number of major of economically and ecologically important forest trees and wild plants such
as Pinus merkusii, teak (Tectona grandis), Dipterocarpus alatus, Rhizophora apiculata, R.
mucronata, Bambusa bambos and wild orchid (Paphiopedium exul) were investigated for their
genetic diversity and mating systems using allozyme gene and molecular makers. The
information provided could be used to establish criteria for gene conservation and reforestation
programs of these species. It was reported that 340 forest trees and native species are
threatened, especially siamese rosewood (Dalbergia cochinchinensis). Therefore, priority tree
species were listed based on different categories namely economic, fuel wood, rehabilitation,
rare and endangered species and non-wood forest products. Siamese rosewood was identified
both as an economically important and endangered trees species.

Although Thailand has a high species diversity, with over 3,000 species of trees, but over
the past century forest planting in tropical zones, including Thailand, focuses on only three
groups of wood, namely teak, pine and eucalyptus as well as the development of forest genetic
resources in Thailand with initially operated with teak, pine and eucalyptus respectively.
However, around 1997; the Royal Forest Department recommended 27 tree species for
plantations later in 2001, the Royal Forest Department recommended utilization tree species for
forest plantation from the workshop to strengthen Thailand's forest genetic resource
management by national consultative workshop on strengthening Forest Genetic resource
management of Thailand to selecting tree species. There were divided into 5 types: economic
trees, energy trees, trees to restore the ecosystem, rare, endangered species and trees for forest
minor products. In 2018, The Forest Research and Development Office, the Royal Forest
Department, has revised the list of some of the tree species from the current situation of wood
used in Thailand.

Major plant species that are considered as “forest genetic resources” and managed or
utilized in the forestry context (including agroforestry) in Thailand

There are two sources of domestic timber in Thailand: planted timber and natural forest.
The majority of domestic timber in the country is sourced from plantations. Such can come from
private or public owners. Public plantations can be found inside National Forest Reserve (NFR),
in degraded areas, or outside such NFR areas. The volume of legally produced logs from natural
forest in Thailand is small. Official statistics record no timber production from natural forest
areas, though it is believed that small volumes may become available through legal conversion.

61

In addition, confiscated illegal logs are sold by the Forest Industry Organization (FIO). Logging
concessions are no longer allowed in the country. This is largely due to 1989 logging ban. The
logging ban, however, still allows the felling of trees in forest plantations, and allows the
clearing of forests for infrastructure projects. Concessions are no longer used in Thailand. Thus,
there are two sources of forestry context used in Thailand as follow:

Private land

Timber grown on private land is considered to be the private property of the owner and is not
under the jurisdiction of forestry law. A person can start a plantation, and harvest, transport, process and
trade timber grown on private land without permission. However, permission related to harvesting,
transporting, processing and trading of teak (Tectona grandis), yang (Dipterocarpus alatus), and
rosewood (Dalbergia spp.) are legally required under the Forest Act.

Public land

On any public land (National Forest Reserve (NFR) or plantation), a harvesting permit is
required for all restricted species, regardless of whether they are planted or from a natural forest.
Restricted species are declared in The Royal Decree on Restricted Timber Species (1987) and the Royal
Decree on Restricted Forest Products (1987) where they are classified into two categories: ‘A’ and ‘B’.
Section 3 of the Forest Act specifies that harvesting of ‘Category A restricted species require an RFD-
issued permit, while harvesting of ‘Category B restricted species’ requires ministerial authorization.

According to The Forest Research and Development Office, the Royal Forest Department
in 2018 was recommended 27 tree species list for forestry context for public and private land. It
can be classified into;

1. Native species
Toona ciliate (Meliaceae), Tectona grandis (Lamiaceae), Pterocarpus macrocarpus
(Fabaceae), Dipterocarpus spp. (Dipterocarpaceae), Xylia xylocarpa (Fabaceae),
Intsia palembanica (Fabaceae), Afzelia xylocarpa (Fabaceae), Dalbergia
cochinchinensis (Fabaceae), Dalbergia oliveri (Fabaceae), Hopea odorata
(Dipterocarpaceae), Shorea henryana (Dipterocarpaceae), Chukrasia tabularis
(Meliaceae), Mangifera caloneura (Anacardiaceae), Magnolia champaca
(Magnoliaceae), Rhizophora apiculate (Rhizophoraceae), Cinnamomum porrectum
(Lauraceae), Diospyros mollis (Ebenaceae), Bamboo.

2. Introduced species
Acacia auriculiformis (Fabaceae), Acacia mangium (Fabaceae), Acacia hybrids
(Fabaceae), Albizia saman (Fabaceae), Azadirachta excelsa (Meliaceae), Azadirachta
indica (Meliaceae), Eucalyptus camaldulensis (Myrtaceae), Pinus caribaea
(Pinaceae), Swietenia macrophylla (Meliaceae)

62

Plants that are list as introduced species in Thailand. They can propagate naturally widely
and quickly and increasing until affecting the livelihood of native species or organisms, or have
a weed-like habit such as Leucaena leucocephala, Acacia auriculiformis, Acacia mangium,
Acacia confusa, Acacia catechu, Senna spectabilis and Albizia saman by these plants when
leaves or parts that fall to the ground release a lot of chemicals, thereby affecting other plants in
unable to germinate and grow or reducing the yield. It is called allelopathic effect. In addition,
eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.), although not well propagated naturally but can release cineole and
alpha-pinene chemicals that affect germination and the growth of native plants as well.

Bamboo resources
Thailand has 12 genera and about 60 species of bamboo. The main species are

Thyrsostachy siamensis, Banbusa blumena, B. polyumorpha, B. mana, B. arundiancea,
Dendrocalamus hamiltonii, D. giganteus, and D. brandisi. Bamboos constitute the natural
undergrowth in deciduous forests. The latest survey (1998) showed that bamboo covers a total
area of 800,000 hectares. On the basis of an average annual yield of 0.1 tone/hectare green
weight, Thailand’s potential annual production of bamboo from natural sources is about 500,000
tones. Bamboo is used extensively as a substitute for timber in construction, scaffolding,
ladders, bridges, fences, and in pulp making. Numerous articles such as baskets, furniture, toys,
musical instruments, sticks, beds, fans, fishing rods and traps, water containers, etc. are also
made from bamboo. About 80 percent of the bamboo production in Thailand goes to non-
industrial uses and about 20 percent has gone to the pulp industry but the latter use has been
declining. The pulp industry’s preference is to use eucalyptus if available in the market.

Rattan
In the past all rattan species grew in the natural forest, except Calamus caesius in the 14

southern provinces. Rattan was originally a non-reserved forest product and no permission was
required for harvesting which led to serious overexploitation. The situation was changed through
a Royal Decree in 1987 which specified rattan as a reserved forest product. To gather rattan in
the forest, permission is required from the RFD and royalty is also to be paid. Thailand has
banned the harvesting of rattan in natural forest and its export in raw form.

63

Rattan plantations
The rapid reduction of rattan in natural forests prompted Thailand and other cane

producing countries to establish plantations, as an obvious strategy for sustainable development
of rattan resources. Rattan gardens can also serve as a safety net for farmers. When they need
cash, they can harvest some stems for sale. Selection of suitable species of rattan for plantation
depends upon the targeted use:

• Large cane: Calamus mananu, C. blumei, C. peregrinus, C. latifoluis, C. rudentum.
• Small cane: Calamus caesuis, C. pandanosmus, C. myrianthus, C. palustris, C.

rudentum, C. javensis and, Daenomorops sabut
• Edible shoots: Calamus viminalis, C. siamensis and C. tenuis.

Other non-wood forest products
Non-wood forest products (NWFPs) have high economic potential and therefore, they

should often be raised as crops so that people do not have to depend on wild plants. At least five
million people are assumed to be critically dependent on NWFPs as they provide material needs,
cash income and employment at levels which are significant to the rural and national economies.
In addition, their extraction usually represents a non-exhaustive sustainable form of tropical
forest utilization.

Besides bamboo and rattan, many edible and medicinal plants, seeds, mushrooms, honey,
wax, lac and resin etc. belong to NWFPs. But their significance in the rural and national
economies has been little appreciated. Yet they can play a key role in alleviating rural poverty,
as they offer the poor the means to increase both their food production and their incomes.

Traditionally used medicinal plants in Thailand are Rauwolfia serpentine, Gloriosa
superba, Cassia augustifolis, Amomum hrevanh, Dioscorea spp, Derris elliptical, Hydrocarpus
anthelmintica, Calophucllum inophylum and Stemona tuberosa. More than 500 species of edible
plants are found in Thailand. About 85 percent of major natural forest-based food products such
as bamboo shoots, mushrooms and vegetable are consumed by households. There are no
estimates available on the amount of food collected from natural forests. Mushrooms have been
cultivated during the last 30 years and annual production is about 70,000 tones valued at
US$27.5 million.

It is gratifying that the current trend of plantation especially trees are on alert and added
to the factor to enhance many aspects of government policy. There is a clear policy framework
for reforestation and forestry context purposes from the framework of 3 levels, namely the
national strategy level which is considered a large frame as the main goal in the overall picture
in which the forest reforestation-related timber is a national strategy for building growth on an
environmentally sound quality of life. The second level is regarded as the method level (Ways)
is the master plan involved in the forest sector under national strategy in the aspect of creating
sustainable growth by considered in conjunction with the National Forest Development Master

64

Plan, and the third level is considered the action level (Means), meaning the Government Action
Plan or action plan in which the three frameworks are interconnected. For action plans, there
may be operations from the agency itself or according to a specific action plan (Function), which
this new action plan facilitating cross-integration work more agencies than in the past. The
Comprehensive Economic Timber Promotion Program (2018-2036) is considered very useful
as it has clearly defined goals, indicators and sub-strategies (7 issues). It can be used as a
guideline for promoting both in the short term and in the long term. It is an important mechanism
that will help drive promote economic plantation to be successful faster and more efficiently as
in-situ conservation and conserved the tree genetics.

65

Chapter 4

State of diversity within trees and other woody plants species

In Thailand, there are ten main ecosystem types. Table 4.1 shows dominant tree flora
species and available information of area in each ecosystem type. Some dominant forest tree
species are characterized by seed sources and provenance zones in different regions of
Thailand.

Understanding the current status of genetic resources across the country is imperative
before efficient forest gene conservation programs can be designed. In Thailand, a number of
economically and ecologically important forest tree and plant species are under threat due to
human pressures. The status of genetic resources of forest tree and plant species can be explored
by investigating the extent of genetic variation and the mating system of each species. The
extent and distribution of genetic variation within species are of fundamental importance to
their evolutionary potential and chances of survival under unpredictable environmental
conditions. Therefore, assessment of genetic variation is of key importance for developing
effective gene conservation plans and strategies.

The status of genetic diversity of some economically and ecologically important forest
tree and plant species in Thailand has been evaluated using molecular markers such as
microsatellites or simple sequence repeats (SSR), Random Amplified Polymorphic DNA
(RAPD), Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLPs), as well as isoenzymes (Table
4.2 and 4.3).

The results showed that the genetic diversity and mating system varied among species.
For instance, Pinus merkusii had low genetic diversity (He=0.058) and a relatively low
outcrossing rate (tm=0.017-0.843) while teak had high genetic diversity (He=0.310) and a high
outcrossing rate (tm=0.872-0.995). In Dipterocarps, Dipterocarpus alatus had moderate
genetic diversity (He=0.0924) (Changtragoon, 2008). Shorea obtusa had high level of genetic
diversity (He = 0.664). Genetic differentiations between populations, although significant, were
low with approximately 3 % of genetic variation partitioned among populations (Senakun et
al., 2011). In mangrove forests, Rhizophora apiculata had also unexpectedly high genetic
diversity (He=0.316) and a highly variable mating system among populations and families
(tm=0.241-0.978), while R. mucronata contained high genetic diversity as well (He=0.385).
Surprisingly, high genetic diversity was found in wild bamboo (Bambusa bambos) and lady
slipper orchids (Paphiopediium exul) with the values of expected heterozygosity (He) 0.369
and 0.301, respectively. However, the genetic differentiation among populations (Fst and Theta
P) of those species ranged from 0.082 to 0.243. Previous ten years, more study focusing on
threaten high economic trees in Thailand especially Dalbergia cochinchinensis and D. oliveri.
Therefore, in Dalbergia spp., D. cochinchinensis and D. oliveri contained high genetic
diversity (He=0.39, He=0.77 respectively). Based on the investigated genetic diversity
parameters among species, plans are to propose different strategies for in situ and ex situ
conservation for the genetic resources of these forest trees and wild plants in Thailand
(Changtragoon, 2008; Changtragoon, 2021).

66

To provide further determination of genetic diversity of other medicinal and endangered
forest tree species, numbers of microsatellite (SSR) markers were developed in neem
(Azadiarchta spp.), Phyllanthus emblica and siamese rosewood (Dalbergia cochinchinensis).

The genetic differentiation between populations in adaptive traits (survival, health and
vigor) is difficult to assess, because it normally requires long-term field trials. However, in the
case of teak, a series of trials have been established and evaluated (Kaosa-ard, 1996, 2000).
These studies revealed much genetic differentiation between populations within Thailand and
also that Thailand represents a unique gene pool of this very important species (Kjær et al.,
1996; Graudal et al., 1999) (Table 4.2 and 4.3).

Changtragoon (2021) reviewed the study of genetics and forest genetic diversity by
using molecular genetic markers for application in breeding and conservation of forest plant
genetics in Thailand as shown in Table 4.2 and 4.3. Forest Genetic and Rare Plants Research
Group (Former Forest Genetic and Biotechnology Group), Forest and Plant Conservation
Research Office of the DNP developed a database system to compile and update genetic
diversity research in forest trees in Thailand as shown in Table 4.2 and DNA barcoding of
protected and CITES forest tree species shown in Table 4.4. The objective of this database is
to provide information about the status of genetic diversity of economically and ecologically
important forest tree and plant species. Based on the information provided in the database, a
conservation program and management of the investigated species can be designed for in situ,
ex situ and reforestation (Changtragoon and Finkeldey, 1995a, 1995b; Changtragoon, 1997,
2001a, 2001b, 2003b, 2005, 2007, 2008; Graudal et al., 1999). Those information has been
used as identification of forest tree species and DNA fingerprinting of confiscated wood for
DNA forensic cases in Thailand (Changtragoon, 2021).

However, capacity-building to enhance assessments and monitoring of inter-specific
and intra-specific genetic variations are still needed. DNA fingerprinting to identify the origin
of populations and countries of highly economic and endanger species is required, since the
populations are under threat due to habitat loss caused by illegal logging and human pressure
for agricultural land.

Know-how on phylogeography using DNA fingerprinting and stable isotopes are also
needed to identify the origin of wood products among Association of Southeast Asian Nations
(ASEAN) regions, so that we can prevent and rectify the illegal logging across borders of the
ASEAN region. Work on use of SSR markers to test the origin of teak timber is in progress in
Thailand (Changtragoon, pers. com).

67

The main value of forest genetic resources
The main forest trees species that are actively managed for production purposes by the

private sector are both native to Thailand e.g., teak for furniture and construction and agarwood
Aquilaria crassna, A. rugosa and A. malaccensis. for incensed wood and medicinal uses and
exotic , e.g., Eucalyptus species, for the paper pulp and fiber board industries. There are no
specific forest tree species managed solely for ecosystem service, but the forest ecosystem also
serves as a valuable source of fresh air, water, ecotourism and food. However, Pooma (2005,
2008); Santisuk (2004) reported that 340 forest tree species are threatened (listed in Annex 3)
and besides the loss of options for future use and biodiversity values per se, degradation of the
genetic pool may jeopardize ecosystem functioning in unpredictable ways due to complex
interaction among species.

68

Table 4.1 Major ecosystem types and flora composition in Thailand

Area Dominant species for each type
(covered by
Major ecosystem type)
ecosystem
1 000 Other species if
Types ha applicable

km2 Trees

1. Moist 1,544.89 15,448.85 Dipterocarpus spp. Bamboos
Evergreen Forest Hopea spp. (Dendrocalamus,
2,290.32 22,903.16 Shorea spp. Bambusa, Gigemtochloa
2. Dry Evergreen 1,432.70 14,327.04 Syzygium spp. etc.)
Forest 46.21 462.08 Vatica spp. Palms (Areca, Pinanga,
56.08 560.79 Livistona etc.)
3. Hill Evergreen 245.25 2,452.55 Dipterocarpus spp. Rattans (Plectocomiaopsis,
Forest Hopea spp. Calamus, Korthalsia,
Afzelia xylocarpa Plectocomia,
4. Tropical Pine Hydnocapus spp. Daemonorops)
Forest Vatica odorata Bamboos (Bambusa and
Vatica cinerea Gigamtothloa)
5. Peat Swamp Lithocarpus spp. rattans (Calamus and
Forest Castanopsis spp. Daemorops)
Quercus spp.
6. Mangrove Cinnamomum spp. Cinnamonum spp.
Forest Magnolia spp. Schima wallichii
Pinus merkusii Manglietia garrettii
P. kesiya Magnolia spp.
Quercus kerrii Calophyllum polyanthum
Q. brandisiana Adinandra laotica
Castanopsis indica Embelia subcoriacea
Lithocarpus fenestratus Maesa Montana
Calophyllum Phoenix humilis
inophylloide Cycas pectinata
Baccaurea bracteata Vaccinium sprengelii
Blumeodendron kurzii Oncosperma tigillarium
Stemonurus Livistona saribus
malaccensis Licuala spinosa
Ardisia lanceolata
Rhizophora spp. Embelia ribes
Xylocarpus spp. Eleiodoxa conferta
Bruguiera spp. Korthalsia lacinosa
Sonneratia spp. Acanthus ebracteatus
Avicennia spp. Nypa fruticans
Suaeda maritima
Acrostichum aureum
Derris trifoliata
Finlaysonia maritima
Aegiceras corniculatum

69

Table 1 (Cont.)

Area Dominant species for each type
(covered by
Major ecosystem type)
ecosystem
1 000 Other species if
Types ha applicable

km2 Trees

7. Beach Forest 12.50 124.96 Casuarina equisetifolia. Vitex trifolia
8,744.47 87,444.74 Calophyllun inophyllum Ipomoea pes-caprae
8. Mixed 1,856.95 18,569.52 Terminalia catappa Launaea sarmentosa
Deciduous Forest Spinifex littoreus
150.35 1,503.50 Tectona grandis Canavalus spp.
9. Dry Xylia xylocarpa. kerrii Dendrocalamus
Dipterocarp Pterocarpus membranaceus D. strictus
Forest macrocarpus D. hamiltonii
Afzelia xylocarpa Bambusa nutans
10. Bamboo Dalbergia oliveri B. tulda
Forest Dalbergia cana Gigantochloa albociliata
Shorea obtusa Thyrsostachys siamensis
S. siamensis Cycas siamensis
Dipterocarpus Vietnamosasa pusilla
tuberculatus Vietnamosasa ciliata
D. intricatus
Dalbergia oliveri -
Lagertroemia
cochincinesis
Terminalia
calamansanai
-

Source: DNP (2008)

70

Table 4.2 The study of genetics and forest genetic diversity by using molecular genetic markers
for application in breeding and conservation of forest plant genetics in Thailand

Species Application Type of molecular References
A. indica var. markers
siamensis -Genetic diversity - Changtragoon et al., 1996a
A.exelsa -DNA fingerprinting -Isoenzyme - Boontong et al. 2009
Acacia -Mating system - microsatellite - Changtragoon et al., 1996a
auriculiformis -Genetic diversity -Isoenzyme - Changtragoon et al., 1996a

Avicennia alba -Isoenzyme
Azadirachta indica
Azadirachta indica -Clonal identification -Isoenzyme - Changtragoon, 1996
Bambusa bambos - Changtragoon and Woo, 1996
-Mating system -Isoenzyme - Changtragoon, 1997
Calamus pulustris -Controlled crosses -Isoenzyme - Changtragoon et al., 1998
-Hybrid identification -Isoenzyme - Changtragoon, 2000
Castanopsis
acuminatissima -DNA fingerprinting -microsatellite - Arnaud-Haond et al., 2009
-Genetic diversity -Isoenzyme
-AFLP - Changtragoon et al., 1996a
-DNA fingerprinting - microsatellite - Singh et al., 1999
-Clonal identification -Isoenzyme - Boontong et al., 2009
-AFLP - Changtragoon, 1996
-Specie identification
and genetic relationship -AFLP - Laphom and Changtragoon,
-Genetic diversity -microsatellite 2005
-DNA fingerprinting

-Genetic diversity -Isoenzyme - Changtragoon et al., 2001
-Mating system -RAPD - Changtragoon et al., 1996b
-DNA fingerprinting -Isoenzyme - Changtragoon (unpublished
results)
-microsatellite
- Blakesley et al., 2004

71

Table 4.2 (Cont.)

Species Application Type of References
molecular
Castanopsis sp. -DNA fingerprinting markers - Chokchaichamnankit et al., 2008
Lithocarpus sp. -ISSR
Quercus sp. -DNA fingerprinting - Ge and Sun, 2001
Ceriops tagal -Genetic diversity -microsatellite - Changtragoon and Finkelday, 2000
-DNA fingerprinting - Changtragoon et al., 2021
Cycas siamensis -Genetic diversity -Isoenzyme - Changtragoon and Singthong, 2021
-Genetic diversity - Soonhuae et al., 1995
Dalbergia oliveri -microsatellite - Changtragoon et al., 2019
-SNPs - Changtragoon et al., 2018
D. cochinchinnensis -Isoenzyme - Changtragoon and Boontawee,
-SNPs 1999
D. cochinchinnensis -DNA fingerprinting -microsatellite - Changtragoon, 2001b
-Genetic diversity - Taeprayoon et al., 2015
Dipterocarpus -Isoenzyme - Prathepha, 2000
alatus - Szmidt et al., 1996
-microsatellite
Eleais guineensis -DNA fingerprinting - Wanichkul and Changtragoon, 2005
Melientha suavis -Genetic diversity -RAPD
P.khasya - Genetic diversity - Changtragoon and Finkeldey, 1995a
-Isoenzyme - Szmidt et al., 1996
Paphiopedilum -Genetic diversity -Cp (RFLP’s) - Changtragoon and Finkeldey, 1995b
parishii -Genetic diversity -AFLP - Pakkad et al., 2003
Pinus merkusii - Liengsiri et al., 1995
-Isoenzyme
Prunus cerasoides -Mating system -Cp (RFLP’s) - Pakkad et al., 2008
-Isoenzyme
Pterocarpus alatus -DNA fingerprinting - Changtragoon, 2007
-microsatellite - Changtragoon, 2007
Quercus -Genetic diversity - Changtragoon, 2007
semiserrata -Mating system -Isoenzyme - Senakun et al., 2011
R. mucronata -DNA fingerprinting -Isoenzyme
-microsatellite
Rhizophora -Genetic diversity
apiculata -AFLP
Shorea obtusa -Genetic diversity -AFLP
-Mating system -Isoenzyme
-DNA fingerprinting -microsatellite

72

Table 4.2 (Cont.)

Species Application Type of References
Tamarindus indica molecular
Tectona grandis -Genetic diversity markers - Diallo et al., 2007
-Clonal identification -RAPD
Xylia xylocarpa -DNA fingerprinting - Changtragoon, 1996
-Isoenzyme
-Genetic diversity - Changtragoon and Szmidt, 2000
-Mating system -RAPD - Hansen et al., 2015; Fofana et al.,
-DNA fingerprinting -microsatellite 2008; Fofana et al., 2009
- Changtragoon and Szmidt, 2000
-Isoenzyme - Changtragoon, 2001a
-RAPD - Changtragoon and Szmidt, 1999
-Isoenzyme - Wattanakulpakin et al., 2015
-SSCPs

73

Table 4.3 Comparison of genetic diversity (He; Expected heterozygosity*) and genetic
differentiation (Fst**) among populations of forest trees and other plant species in
Thailand

Type of Species Genetic Genetic References
molecular Diversity differentiation
markers
0.301 FST GST
0.316
AFLP Paphiopedilum parishii 0.082 0.21 Wanichkul and Changtragoon,
2005

Rhizophora apiculata 0.250 Changtragoon, 2007

Rhizophora mucronata 0.385 0.212 Changtragoon, 2007

SSR Bambusa bambos 0.369 0.243 Laphom and Changtragoon,
2005

Castanopsis acuminatissima 0.483 - 0.537 0.006 Blakesley et al., 2004

Eleais guineensis 0.58±0.15 0.20 Taeprayoon et al., 2015

Prunus cerasoides 0.480 - 0.574 0.115 Pakkad et al., 2003

Quercus semiserrata 0.68 (nSSR) 0.12 Pakkad et al., 2008
0.16 (cpSSR) 0.83

Shorea obtusa 0.664 0.030 0.117 Senakun et al., 2011
0.63
Tectona grandis 0.28-0.78 0.227 Hansen et al., 2015
0.489
Dalbergia cochinchinensis 0.39 0.22 Fofana et al., 2009

Dalbergia oliveri 0.55 0.21 Fofana et al., 2008
Azadirachta indica var. 0.77 0.18 Changtragoon et al., 2018
indica
A. indica var. siamensis 0.63 0.25 Hartvig et al., 2017
0.61
0.13 Changtragoon et al., 2021

Boontong et al., 2009

Avicennia alba 0.06ns Arnaud-Haond et al.,
2009

74

Table 4.3 (Cont.)

Type of Species Genetic Genetic References
molecular Diversity differentiation
markers
FST GST

ISSR Ceriops tagal 0.0084 0.061 0.529 Ge and Sun, 2001
SSCPs Xylia xylocarpa 0.0924 0.182
Wattanakulpakin et al., 2015
Changtragoon and Boontawee, 1999

Isoenzyme Dipterocarpus alatus 0.128 0.067 Changtragoon, 2001b
Gene Pinus merkusii
Changtragoon and Finkeldey,
markers 1995b

Tectona grandis 0.058 0.104 Changtragoon and Szmidt, 1999
0.31 0.217

RAPD Tectona grandis 0.110-0.371 0.21 Changtragoon and Szmidt, 2000

Remarks

* He (Expected heterozygosity) is defined as the estimated fraction of all individuals that would be
heterozygous for any randomly chosen locus.

** Fst is the effect of subpopulations compared to the total populations.
*** Study both primary forests and planted forests.

75

Table 4.4 Examples of application of DNA barcodes to study the diversity and genetic
relationship and evolution of tropical and wild plant species in Thailand.

DNA Species Reference
barcodes

• trnH- Senna alata, S. alexandrina, S. fruticose, S. garrettiiana, S. hirsute, S. Monkheang et al.,
psbA occidentalis, S. pallida, S. siamea. S. sophera, S. spectabilis, S. sulfurea, S. 2011
surattensis, S. timoriensis, S. tora
• MatK
• rbcL Avicennia alba, A. marina, Alstonia macrophylla, A. scholaris, Canarium Changtragoon, 2021
• trnH-
denticulatum, C. subulatum, Anisoptera costata, Dipterocarpus alatus, D. kerrii,
psbA
Shorea gratissima, S. roxburghii, S. siamensis, Vatica odorata, Diospyros

malabarica, D. mollis, D. var.toposioides, Adenanthera pavonina, Albizia

saman, Callerya atropurpurea, Cassia bakeriana, C. fistula, Dalbergia

cochinchinensis, D. oliveri, Intsia palembanica, Parkia speciose, Phyllocarpus

septentrionalis, Sindora siamensis, Xylia xylocarpa, Irvingia malayana, Tectona

hamiltoniana, Cinnamomum bejolghota, C. camphora, C. parthenoxylon,

Careya arborea, Magnolia thailandica, Michelia baillonii, Neesia altissima,

Pterospermum diversiolium, P. jackianum, Azadirachta indica, Artocarpus

thailandicus, Knema globularia, Fraxinus floribunda, Prunus cerasoides,

Gardenia sootepensis, Strychnos nux-vomica

• MatK Avicennia officinalis, Dracontomelon dao, Holarrhena pubescens, Wrightia arborea,
• rbcL Dillenia scabrella, Dipterocarpus intricatus, Vatica diospyroides, Diospyros
hasseltii, D. montana, D. wallichii, Afzelia xylocarpa, Dalbergia assamica, D.
• MatK parviflora, D. sissoo, Millettia leucantha, Pterocarpus macrocarpus, Cinnamomum
• trnH- iners, Michelia alba, Toona ciliata, Xylocarpus moluccensis, Nepenthes mirabilis,
Phyllanthus emblica, Morinda coreia, Madhuca motleyana, M. pierrei, Tetrameles
psbA nudiflora

Polyalthia viridi, Archidendron ellipticum, Lithocarpus fenestratus,
Apodytes dimidiate, Beilschmiedia globularia, Phoebe lanceolate, Magnolia
sirindhorniae, Chionanthus ramiflorus, Adinandra integerrima,
Xanthophyllum virens, Acronychia pedunculata, Aquilaria crassna,

• rbcL Hydnocarpus castaneas, Dracaena cochinchinensis, Stereospermum fimbriatum,
• trnH- Mapania cuspidate, Dipterocarpus obtusifolius, Hopea pierrei, H. odorata,
Shorea laevis, Castanopsis inermis, Tectona grandis, Gmelina arborea, Vitex
psbA pinnata, Sonneratia alba, Aglaia grandis, Chukrasia tabularis, Xylocarpus
granatum, Pinus merkusii, Podocarpus neriifolius, Carallia brachiate,
Homalium tomentosum, Nephelium
lappaceum, Sarcosperma arboretum, Stemonurus malaccensis

76

Table 4.4 (Cont.)

DNA Species Reference
barcode Changtragoon,2021

• MastK Buchanania arborescens, Semecarpus curtisii, Goniothalamus laoticus,

Cerbera odollam, Ilex confertiflora, Mammea siamensis, Mesua ferrea,

Terminalia alata, Dillenia excels, Diospyros areolate, D. castanea, D.

glandulosa, Elaeocarpus robustus, Endospermum diadenum, Peltophorum

dasyrachis, Castanopsis acuminatissima, Platea latifolia, Litsea glutinosa,

Neolitsea siamensis, N. zeylanica, Lagerstroemia cuspidate, Sonneratia

caseolaris, Hibiscus macrophyllus, Chisocheton cumingianus, Ficus

benjamina, Eugenia cumini, Syzygium nervosa, S. claviflora, S. cumini, Eurya

acuminate, Ardisia nervosa, Ochreinauclea maingayi, Mischocarpus

pentapetalus, Styrax apricus, Symplocos lucida, Gmelina arborea,

Alseodaphne birmanica

• rbcL Acanthus ilicifolius, Hydnocarpus calvipetalus, Canaga odorata, Mangifera
gedebe, M. lagenifera, Melodorum fruticosum, Mayodendron igneum,
Calophyllum inophyllum, Parinari anamensis, Terminalia citrina, Alangium
kurzii, Dillenia indica, Cotylelobium melanoxylon, Shorea hypochra, S.
obtuse,S. robusta, Diospyros rhodcalyx, D. decandra, D. frutescens,
D. undulata, Elaeocarpus rugosus, Cleidion javanicum, Cynometra
malaccensis, Peltophorum pterocarpum, Pterocarpus indicus,
Castanopsis costata, Fagraea fragrans, Garcinia atroviridis, G. cowa, G.
eugenifolia, Cratoxylum cochinchinense,
C. maingayi, Tectona philippinensis, Vitex glabrata, Cinnamomum
ilicioides, C. verum, Barringtonia acutangula, Lagerstroemia calyculata,
L. speciose, Magnolia champaca, Heritiera littoralis, H. macrophylla, H.
sumatrana, Aglaia cucullata, Lansium parasiticum, Artocarpus
thailandicus, Horsfieldia amygdalina, Ochna integerrima, Pinus kesiya,
Dendrocalamus pendulus, Dacrydium elatum, Coccoloba uvifera,
Bruguiera cylindrical, B. gymnorrhiza, B. parviflora, Ceriops decandra,
C. tagal,
C. zippeliana, Limonia acidissima, Mimusops elengi, Palaquium
obovatum, Scaphium affine

• trnH- Canaga odorata, Casuarina equisetifolia, Calocedrus macrolepis,
psbA Tamarindus indica, Lithocarpus vestitus, Quercus kingiana, Syzygium
siamense, Canthium parvifolium, Lepisanthes rubiginosa, Symplocos
longifolia, S. sumuntia,

77

Some species are identified by using International Union for Conservation of Nature
(IUCN) Red list Categories as critically endangered (CR), endangered (EN), vulnerable (VU)
and data deficient (DD). For instance, due to the high demand across the border, siamese
rosewood in the north-eastern region of Thailand was reported by the DNP, the RFD and a
number of local newspapers to be the subject of 454 cases of illegal logging in protected areas.
Two hundred twentynine suspects were arrested during October 2010 to July 2011 (Thai News
Agency, 2011) . During Jan 2011 to Dec 2011, there were 667 cases of illegal logging, 389
suspects were arrested, and 5,785 logs were put on exhibit. Table 4.5, 4.6 and Figure 4.1 and
4.2 show illegal logging and deforestation cases during 2009-2021 (DNP, 2021). According to
the surveying, it was found that most of the siamese rosewood was located in the
northeastern forests (16,000 ha) and was divided into two forest groups: 1) Phupan forest
complex and 2) Phanom Dong Rak forest complex. Most of the illegal logging was in the Phu
Jong Na Yoy National Park which harbors the last siamese rosewood forest of the world. It
contains trees more than 300 years old with high economic and ecological values.
Table 4.5 Illegal logging and deforestation cases during 2009-2021

Years 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021
Cases 4632 4578 4323 6352 5147 7385 6062 4323 4221 3337 2634 2622 1822

Figure 4.1 Illegal logging and deforestation cases during 2009-2021
Source: DNP (2021)

78

Table 4.6 Summary of illegal logging in Thailand during 2009-2021

Fiscal Wood volumes (m3)
years
Teak Siamese Rosewood Inferior wood
2009 564.400
2010 481.820 184.171 6,593.960
2011 504.242
2012 358.127 318.565 5,086.206
2013 494.497
2014 733.224 596.993 6,540.552
2015 142.423
2016 292.068 884.144 6,122.810
2017 269.204
2018 87.351 1,063.206 3,691.264
2019 60.497
2020 165.508 1,849.796 5,878.592
2021 83.069
489.216 1,915.421

348.538 1,900.880

336.183 1,579.619

226.338 2,074.469

114.315 1,145.743

47.756 1,162.848

21.210 2,183.539

Figure 4.2 Summary of illegal logging in Thailand during 2009-2021
Source: DNP (2021)

79

Iron wood (Xylia xylocarpa var. kerrii, makamong (Afzelia xylocarpa, makatae
(Sindora siamensis) and pradu (Pterocarpus macrocarpus) are naturally distributed in all
regions of Thailand. They are commonly known to be threatened, since they are valued for
their uses in railroad sleepers, furniture and construction. However, private companies claimed
that the wood used to produce furniture and construction material was imported from
neighboring countries, namely Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar. Therefore, tools to identify
sources of wood, such as genetic markers, is very important.

There are a number of initiatives focusing on the identification of priority threatened
forest species and their potential for use in Thailand. Thailand Conservative Workshop on
Forest Genetic Resources Conservation developed an updated priority species listing based on
current forest genetic resources status and consultancy Forest Genetic Resources Conservation
and Management Project (FORGENMAP) (FORGENMAP, 2000). The members of the
workshop agreed that priority species be prioritized into five groups based upon their economic
and ecological importance: (A) economic trees; (B) fuel wood; (C) rehabilitation trees; (D)
rare/endangered trees; and (E) NWFP species. However, in 2021 there were the consultation
among relevant stakeholders which have prioritized top five species for reforestation as shown
in Table 4.7.

Some actions on tree improvement and conservation approaches have been taken for
the economic trees group. However, for the other groups no action has been taken strategically;
therefore, the development of an action plan is needed.

Even though an inventory of genetic diversity of the aforementioned species has been
carried out, it has not been repeated periodically. Therefore, it is unknown whether genetic
diversity has decreased or increased over time. However, forest cover has decreased from 53%
in 1961 to 31.68% in RFD (2019). This information may indicate that the genetic diversity of
most of the forest tree species is decreasing collectively over time. The loss of populations
representing unique genecolocal/floristic zones calls for special concern (Suangtho et al.,
1999).

80

Table 4.7 Top five priority species summarized into five groups based on economic and
ecological importance

No Economic Non- Fuel Wood Rare/Endanger Tree Species Rare/Endang
. Tree Wood Species ered Tree
forest Inland Mangrove/Be Species
Species product Forest ach Forest

1 Tectona Basmpebcuiseas Eucalyptus spp. Ficus spp. ** Rhizophora Dalbergia
grandis spp. * ** spp. cochinchinens

2 Dalbergia Calamus Leucaena Peltophorum Avicennia CisinnaPmieormreum
cochinchine spp. * leucocephala dasyrachis officinalis porrectum

3 nPsteisrocarpus Aquilaria (SLenamna.) sdieamWeiat A(Mlbiiqz.i)aKurz Melaleuca (MRaonxsbo.n)Kiaoster

macocarpus spp. ** lebbeck leucadendron mga.ge1i

4 REouxcbal.yptus Garcinia Rhizophora ABzeandthir.achta C(La.s)uLa.rina JG.Rlu.tDaruumsimta.ta
spp. ex Prain
spp. ** spp. indica, ** equisetifolia

5 Acacia spp. Acacia Combretum Duabanga SJ.oRn.n&erGat.iFaorst Cinnamomum

** catechu quadrangulare grandiflora caseolaris camphora

** Exotic (L.f. Willd Kurz (Roxb. ex (L.) Engl. (L.) J. Presl 1
DC.) Walp.
) **
Remarks: * Non-tree species

** Exotic species

1 Azadirachta indica A. Juss., Cinnamomum porrectum (Roxb.)Kosterm. and Cinnamomum

camphora (L.) J. Presl are also valuable for minor forest products.

Source: RFD (2008a)

81

However, genetic diversity of exotic species namely Eucalyptus spp. may increase,
since the private sector has produced a number of new clones and may introduce additional
clones and seed lots to Thailand for paper plantation industries.

Factors influencing the state of forest genetic diversity

The relative importance of the main forest species being used for timber production has
changed significantly over the past 20 years. The forces that are driving the changes are policy
change, the high cost of timber products, public awareness and cultivation of forest genetic
resources. The farmed genetic resources, as well as forest tree plantations and rubber tree
plantations run by the private sector, influence markets for substitute timber products with
lower costs.

In 1961, nearly 53% of the total land area in Thailand was under forest cover. However
due to an increasing emphasis on agricultural and economic development, coupled with
increasing population growth, the natural biological resources in the forest have been steadily
declining (Office of Environmental Policy and Planning [OEPP], 1997). It is estimated that
illegal logging and over-logging of forests, as well as the demand for agricultural land in
Thailand, have caused the reduction in forest area to 25.28 % (RFD, 1999). A comparison of
existing forest area and periodic changes during 1961-2009 is shown in Table 4.8 and Figure
4.3. Between 1961 and 1995, Thailand lost a forest area nearly 3.5 times the area of Switzerland
(Changtragoon and Finkeldey, 2000). In the past, the average reduction of forest area was about
23,500 ha (235 km2) per year (OEPP, 1997). It is in the backdrop of natural decline of forest
resources that attempts need to be made to conserve the genetic resources of at least the most
important forest tree species and hot-spot forest ecosystem types. As mentioned earlier, from
2000 onwards, forest assessment has being improved by using a higher intensity scale. This
technical improvement revealed that more forest cover could be detected as shown in Table 4.8
and Figure 4.3.

One of the major threats to forest resources in Thailand is illegal logging. Apart from
the loss of uncountable biological diversity, logging operations have resulted in severe soil
erosion and flooding, leading to a number of social and economic problems in the country. The
logging concessions were withdrawn in 1989, but illegal logging is still active in some region
of the country, mainly in reserved forests, which are outside protected areas. Mining industries
and infrastructure construction have also caused forest cover loss. Still, Noochdumrong (1998)
indicated that the main forces driving land use and land cover change are anthropologic factors
such as population growth, income levels, technical change, economic growth, political and
economic structure and life style. Among the several measures for trying to maintain the
remaining forest resources, the RFD of Thailand has initiated a forest community project and
supported the private sector’s investment in forest tree plantations in order to reduce the
pressure of the demand for wood and agricultural land (Changtragoon, 2001a).

82

Table 4.8 Forest area in Thailand during 1973-2020

Years Ha (1000) Area in Percentage
2,217,070 Km2 43.21
1973 1,984,170 38.67
1976 1,752,240 221,707 34.15
1978 1,566,000 198,417 30.52
1982 1,508,660 175,224 29.40
1985 1,438,030 156,600 28.03
1988 1,434,170 150,866 27.95
1989 1,366,980 143,803 26.64
1991 1,335,540 143,417 26.03
1993 1,314,850 136,698 25.62
1995 1,297,220 133,554 25.28
1998 1,701,108 131,485 33.15
2000 1,675,910 129,722 32.66
2004 1,610,013 170,111 31.38
2005 1,586,526 167,591 30.92
2006 1,715,857 161,001 33.44
2008 1,633,913 158,653 31.57
2013 1,636,566 171,586 31.62
2014 1,635,856 163,391 31.60
2015 1,634,797 163,657 31.58
2016 1,634,502 163,586 31.58
2017 1,639,813 163,480 31.68
2018 1,639,745 163,450 31.68
2019 1,637,656 163,981 31.64
2020 163,975
163,766

Source: RFD (2020)

83

Figure 4.3 Percentage of forest area in Thailand during 1973-2020.
Source: RFD (2020)

In 1985, national forest policy set a goal of 40% of the geographical area of the nation
to be under forest cover, with nearly 25 % comprising conserved forest and 15 % economic
forest. Based on remote-sensed imaging during 2009, the DNP reported a forest cover of
33.56%.

Genetic erosion of forest genetic resources has been assessed to some extent in species,
ecosystems and degree of genetic diversity. As mentioned earlier, 340 threatened species were
reported (Annex 3). One mangrove species, lampaen (Sonneratia alba) is rarely found in
natural mangrove forests. For ecosystem assessment, forest ecosystem hot spots have been
surveyed by the ONEP and Tiyanon (pers. com). The levels of genetic diversity and genetic
erosion were assessed by Changtragoon (2007) for Rhizophora mucronata in degraded
mangrove forests and areas of habitat loss in the resort areas at Chang Island in Trat province
(Eastern Thailand).

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An information system on threatened species has been published and disseminated
through the website of the DNP. Trends in threat and risk disaster analysis for forest genetic
resources have been established and undertaken at the forest area and ecosystem level. A survey
of peat wetland status was reported in 2009 by the ONEP. A forest fire risk map in Thailand
was assessed by Podchong (2010). Ecosystem assessment outside protected areas was
undertaken by the ONEP in collaboration with Kasetsart University. Additionally, invasive
alien plant species in Kaeng Krachan Forest Complex were surveyed as shown in Annex 4.
Their effects upon forest ecosystems were estimated and reported by Jintana et al.
(2008a, 2008b); Ketanond (2009); ONEP (2009b, 2009c); Wittayawongruji et al. (2011).
Thailand also has a policy and protection measure to get rid of alien species (ONEP, 2010).

Based on the modeling of potential changes to forests areas in Thailand under climate
change, it suggests that the tropical dry forest ecosystem has the greatest potential to expand
into the subtropical moist forest. This analysis further suggests that climate change would have
a profound impact on the future distribution and health of forests in Thailand (Boonprakob and
Santisirisomboon, 1996). The unusual and frequent heavy rainfall and flooding in Thailand in
2011 may be one of the impacts of climate change. Human pressure for agriculture land,
especially rubber plantations, has also affected forest habitat loss. The combination of land use
demand and climate change may accelerate forest ecosystem change and habitat loss.
Therefore, the country needs priorities to improve forest genetic resources as a disaster
response mechanism require a holistic policy and management approach across relevant
ministries on human, natural resources and environmental effects. Such policy would need to
focus on proper zoning of land uses for forest conservation/protected areas and on utilization
of land for agriculture and other sectors. The policy-planning process would require a
heightened public awareness and public participation.

Thailand’s country priorities to improve monitoring of genetic erosion and vulnerability
and to improve the response to observed erosion and vulnerability are as following: 1) long-
term genetic diversity assessment in priority and targeted species; 2) long-term satellite and
inventory survey on forest cover change and GIS system mapping of endangered and priority
species; 3) long-term biodiversity survey by enhancing local community participation; and 4)
enhanced public awareness and public participation on values of biodiversity and sustainable
use.

Future needs and priorities

The Flora of Thailand Project is a major project to identify species of forest genetic
resources by botanists of the RFD and the DNP over a time period of many decades. However,
the project lacks an ecologist to investigate the abundance and natural regeneration of identified
species. In terms of genetic diversity, the number of forest tree species and wild plants have
been investigated using isoenzymes and molecular markers (microsatellites, Random
Amplified Polymorphic DNA; RAPD, Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms ; AFLPs
). However, major constraints are the lack of manpower and adequate budget to run the research
projects on the genetic diversity of forest trees as well as DNA forensics in forest trees cases.

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Priorities for improving the understanding of the state of diversity of forest genetic
resources, including associated biodiversity, are to build capacity and manpower in order to
estimate genetic diversity and to conduct a species and ecosystem survey on abundance, natural
regeneration and habitat loss. Therefore, the capacity-building needs to enhance assessments
of the state of diversity of forest genetic resources, including ways to better assess genetic
erosion and understanding of its causes, are for research on genetic diversity estimation and
haplotype diversity (phylogeographic study), a social economic study on the livelihood of local
communities and on economic investment related to natural products. The priorities to better
understand the roles and values of the diversity of forest genetic resources are economic, social,
cultural and ecological values respectively.

In order to establish a strategic direction relevant to improving the understanding of the
state of forest genetic diversity and to maintaining this diversity, a national committee on forest
genetic resources should be established. Both top-down and bottom-up approaches should be
initiated. The country report on forest genetic resources will help by drawing the attention of
policy makers to the importance and critical status of forest genetic resources. A national forest
genetic resources strategic action plan should be set up through relevant stakeholder
consultations. During the process, knowledge on forest genetic resources and public awareness
should be transferred to all levels of stakeholders. Therefore, research projects should be
identified by all aspects related to conservation, protection and sustainable use of forest genetic
resources, especially the estimation of genetic diversity and erosion, in order to use the research
findings as criteria and guidance for proper and efficient forest genetic resources management.
At the regional level, Thailand is in a good position to serve as a hub for genetic diversity of
forest trees in the lower greater Mekong sub-region and beyond, since the DNP has an excellent
facility in its DNA and Isoenzyme Laboratory. Therefore, research projects and networking
among countries should be established and supported by international organizations and
initiatives.

In order to improve understanding of the state of forest resource genetic diversity and
conservation and management, a sound strategy for the conservation of genetic resources of a
species should begin with the identification of clearly defined conservation objectives.
Furthermore, genetic resources must be selected mainly based on the available knowledge of
spatial patterns of genetic variation. The choice of conservation method refers to the physical
preservation of genetic information, usually by preserving the selected organisms. The final
step for a conservation program is the regeneration of the resource (Hattemer, 1995; Finkeldey
and Hattemer, 1993). Finkeldey (1998) pointed out that inventories using gene markers are the
most important tools for the selection of genetic resources since the center of genetically
differentiated populations can be identified by such inventories. However, it is also possible to
identify populations containing otherwise rare or even unique alleles in high frequency. The
occurrence of localized common alleles also points towards valuable genetic resources (Brown,
1978). Therefore, a combination of different methods is recommended for the identification of
forest genetic resources that need to be conserved.

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After the genetic variation within and among populations of any species has been
investigated, the most variable populations with relatively high outcrossing rates (for
outcrossing species) should be chosen as the sources for gene conservation. Since forest trees
live longer than annual or crop plants, high levels of genetic variation and outcrossing would
guarantee better possibilities for their survival, longevity and resistance to disease and pests for
the present and forthcoming generations (Changtragoon and Szmidt, 1997). The combination
of marker-aided population genetic analysis and information about adaptive and quantitative
traits as well as forest ecosystems would allow comprehensive conservation programs for
individual species in each forest type (Changtragoon, 2001a). Recent technological progress
has allowed use of novel technologies for such integrated programs (Neale and
Kremer, 2011). Therefore, national, regional and global interventions are required.

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Chapter 5

In situ Conservation of Forest Genetic Resources

Introduction

The Royal Forest Department (RFD) was founded in 1896 to strengthen the Thai
government's control over timber extraction from the country's forests. The RFD's original
mission was to establish plantations, conduct silvicultural research, manage national parks,
wildlife, and watersheds, as well as protect forests. Following the RFD's structural
reorganization in 2002, the RFD assumed responsibility for forests outside protected areas,
which are managed by the Department of National Parks, Wildlife and Plant Conservation
(DNP), while the Department of Marine and Coastal Resources (DMCR) manages coastal flora
and fauna, including mangrove forests, through conservation and rehabilitation. As a result, the
DNP was assigned responsibility for resource assessment and monitoring within protected
areas, while the RFD was assigned responsibility for reserved forests located outside protected
areas. As a result, the DNP and RFD, with the assistance of the International Tropical Timber
Organization (ITTO), established a national forest resource monitoring information system,
establishing a network of 1,285 permanent sample plots for the collection of biophysical data
over time. Additionally, data from 1,129 additional plots were collected and used to update the
national forest database. A preliminary mapping of tree volume has been conducted across the
country's forests. A "panel" approach to plot measurement has been developed, in which one-
fifth of the plots are re-measured annually. The sampling design employed a single systematic
sample of points on a 20 km x 20 km systematic grid, encompassing all of Thailand's land
mass, vegetated or unvegetated, and including fresh water bodies. Sampling began in 2008,
and data from sample plots have been used to update information on forest cover, genetic
resources, and deforestation, establishing a forest reference/emission level for DNP's REDD+
implementation (DNP, 2021b). In addition to an ITTO-supported national forest resources
monitoring information system, relevant organizations have adopted management, restoration,
and conservation of biological diversity and forest genetic resources in protected areas as one
of their strategic frameworks.

The status of in situ gene conservation

Generally, in situ conservation implies the continuing maintenance of a population
within the environment where it originally evolved, and to which it is adapted. In situ
conservation can have different purposes but, in this report, it refers to genetic conservation
and includes protected areas that are established for other conservation purposes and also
provide protection for genetic resources.

In situ genetic conservation within protected areas

Thailand's protected area system began in 1962 with the designation of Khao Yai as the
country's first national park, following the passage of the National Parks Act in 1961.
Subsequently, the areas covered by legal protection have grown significantly larger. Thailand

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established a target of 25% protected areas on the total land area of the country in the 7th
National Economic and Social Development Board Plan 1992–1996 (NESDB, 1992). At the
moment, the protected area system is divided into three categories: (1) protected areas
designated by Royal Decrees, such as national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and non-hunting
areas; (2) protected areas designated by Ministerial Declarations, such as forest parks, botanical
gardens, and arboretums; and (3) protected areas designated by Cabinet Resolutions, such as
watershed classes 1 and 2, and conservation mangroves. By 2020, Thailand's protected areas
(managed by the DNP) would account for approximately 20.75 percent of the country's total
land area (DNP, 2020). All 133 national parks and 60 wildlife sanctuaries have been
designated, covering 12.27 and 7.22 percent of the country's total land area, respectively
(6,353,249 and 3,737,712 ha, respectively). Furthermore, there are 88 non-hunting areas
totaling 651,376 ha on both private and public lands. Additionally, 91 forest parks totaling
105,194 ha have been declared through Ministerial Declarations. These protected areas are
managed in situ, and forest genetic resources are generally well preserved because of stringent
laws and regulations. Watershed areas are also included in the protected area system, although
they largely overlap with other protected areas. The updated categories and protected areas that
serve as the national in situ conservation are listed in Table 5.1.

Along with the protected area system, Thailand has established 1,221 national forest
reserves covering a total of 23,208,064 ha and prohibiting logging. The RFD is responsible for
only 10,346,783 ha of forest reserves, as more than 30% of the area overlaps with protected
areas (RFD, 2020b). Additionally, the RFD has registered 1,221,482 ha of community forest
in 17,442 villages, with approximately 80% of the area falling within forest reserves (RFD,
2020c). However, forest reserves have less stringent laws and regulations than protected areas.
Furthermore, several protected areas in Thailand are internationally recognized: World
Heritage (Nature), Ramsar Site, Biosphere Reserve, and ASEAN Heritage (Table 5.1).

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Table 5.1 Category and area of protected areas in Thailand

Category IUCN Number Total area Percentage of
protected areas (100 ha) total country
By Royal Decrees 133
National Park1 category 7 60 63,532.49 area
Wildlife Sanctuary1 88 37,377.12
Non-Hunting Area1 II 6,513.76 12.27
By Ministerial Declarations Ia & IIb 133 7.22
Forest Park1 15 1,051.94 1.26
Botanical Garden1,2 IV 52 49.27
Arboretum1,2 34.35 0.20
By Cabinet Resolutions III - 0.01
Watershed Class 1 & 23 IV - 135,228.53 0.01
Conservation Mangrove4 IV 1,686.98
By International Recognition 3 26.12
World Heritage (Nature)5,6 I, II, IV & VI 5 - 0.33
Biosphere Reserve7 VI 15 -
Ramsar Site8 7 405.2 (114.8) -
ASEAN Heritage Parks6,9 II - -
IV 0.08 (0.02)
IV -
II

Note:
1 Data in 2020 by DNP (2020)
2 Not include as in situ gene conservation
3 Data in 2021 by ONWR (2021)
4 Data in 2018 by DMCR (unpublished)
5 Data in 2021 by UNESCO (2021b)
6 The Word Heritage and ASEAN Heritage sites are either wildlife sanctuaries or national parks. Total land

area is not shown in overlap with other categories.
7 Data in 2021 by UNESCO (2021c)
8 Data in 2021 by The Convention on Wetlands (2021). Eleven out of fifteen Ramsar sites are protected areas

and the total area shown in parenthesis is excluded the protected area.
9 Data in 2021 by ASEAN Centre for Biodiversity (2021)

Conservation of target forest species for in situ genetic conservation

Thailand has a long history of conservation of forest genetic resources. The process
began with Thai-Danish collaboration on tree development, specifically teak in 1965 and pine
and fast-growing species in 1969 (Sumantakul, 2004). Subsequently, improvement,
conservation, and utilization activities have progressed well. In 1977, intensive in situ
conservation activities began with Pinus merkusii Jungh. & de Vriese, a lowland source
(Sumantakul, 2004). Although P. merkusii is not widely planted in Thailand, it is an excellent
species for reforestation of poor and degraded soils as well as community forests. Local
communities have heavily exploited natural stands, particularly in northeast Thailand,
primarily for resin and fire sticks. Additionally, many healthy stands are fragmented and
declining as a result of widespread forest conversion to farmland and frequent fires. Lowland
stands that performed best in provenance trials are even threatened with extinction (Hansen et
al., 2001). The objective of in situ conservation of P. merkusii was thus to conserve genetic
variation within the species by selecting populations from various parts of the distribution area.
These populations will serve as a source for genetic resource protection, management, and

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maintenance by providing a basis for future selection and breeding activities, as well as seed
sources with a diverse genetic base (DFSC, 2000). Since 1977, two populations in distinct parts
of the distribution area have been protected and managed: Nong Khu in Surin province,
covering 100 ha; and Khong Chiam in Ubon Ratchathani province, covering 960 ha. Eight
genecological zones were later identified to meet conservation criteria. Natural stands within
each zone were identified, and conservation measures and management options for each zone
were proposed based on available data on its population size, legal protection, social aspects,
commercial value, and management costs (DFSC, 2000). Moreover, an inventory of P.
merkusii genetic diversity was conducted using isozymes as genetic markers (Changtragoon
and Finkeldey, 1995a). P. merkusii has been conserved as an in situ conservation area in three
lowland stands in northeastern Thailand (zone 8) and one lowland stand in the southwest (zone
1). Additionally, P. merkusii and Pinus kesiya Royle ex Gordon in situ conservation areas, as
well as their various seed stands, have been used as genetic resources for further tree
improvement and plantation extension programs for these two species (RFD, 2019).

Teak, Tectona grandis L.f., is also a crucial species for in situ conservation of genetic
resources in Thailand, as teak forests are threatened and have already suffered significantly
from overexploitation and conversion to agricultural land. Teak grows naturally in northern
Thailand and is generally restricted to mixed deciduous forest between 100 and 900 m above
mean sea level. Thailand has been a significant supplier of valuable teak timber to the global
market for at least 125 years, and this timber was harvested through selective logging in natural
forests, which may have favored trees with inferior stem form genetically. While a logging
prohibition was enacted in 1989, illegal felling has continued. Mahidol University and RFD
(1995) conducted a survey of natural teak forests and discovered that fragments of the original
teak forests remain in a total of 15 areas covering more than 10 km2, primarily in seven national
parks in the north, but only Mae Yom National Park contains a sizable area of natural teak
forests. The teak tree density in each national park was also intensively surveyed, and
approximately 16–80 reproductive trees with a diameter at breast height (DBH) >10 cm were
discovered per ha in the areas. Additionally, five genecological zones for Thailand's remaining
natural teak have been identified based on topography, climate, and vegetation (Graudal et al.,
1999). Measures proposed or under consideration for the in situ conservation of teak genetic
resources have been tentatively identified in 15 locations spanning all genecological zones, and
implementation of a conservation plan encompassing a number of activities has been
recommended: field survey and population selection; demarcation and protection; monitoring;
and management guidelines (Graudal et al., 1999). Following that, three natural teak stands
were chosen for in situ ecosystem conservation, as shown in Table 5.2.

Recently, the natural distribution of teak forest, which covers an area of 1.457 million
ha, was reported to be 59% in protected areas and 41% outside protected areas (DNP, 2021c),
which is less than previously reported (Sumantakul and Sangkul, 1998). A teak protected area
covering an area of 862,500 ha is primarily preserved in northern Thailand, where it grows
naturally in national parks (57%), wildlife sanctuaries (28%), and other protected areas
(Tangmitcharoen, 2021). Furthermore, Hauy Tak Teak Biosphere Reserve, one of five
biosphere reserves designated by UNESCO in 1977, is now recognized as one of the best

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national and global gene banks for teak and serves as a training center for forestry managers
and researchers, as well as other fields of research, to support national and global development
(Tangmitcharoen, 2021). In 2006, Thailand's last great stand of teak forest was discovered in
the Pai Watershed Wildlife Sanctuary, Mae Hong Son province, covering an area of 9,600 ha
and growing at a high elevation of 1,230 m above mean sea level. Later that year, as part of the
Royal Initiatives, it was established as the King's initiative project "Nawawintara Rachinee
Teak Forest" for the purpose of conserving teak genetic resources and enhancing the quality of
life for local people in the Pai watershed area (DNP, 2011). Alternatively, over the years, large
teak plantations established as seed stands, provenances, and clonal test plots, as well as seed
orchards managed by the teak improvement program, have established a broad genetic base for
future genetic replenishment. However, while it is likely that in situ and ex situ teak
conservation efforts in Thailand have been successful, several recommendations from the 2013
World Teak Conference still need to be implemented for more effective and efficient
sustainable teak genetic conservation (Tangmitcharoen, 2021).

Due to the great quality of its hardwood and its durability, Siamese rosewood,
Dalbergia cochinchinensis Pierre, has been designated as a priority species, contributing
significantly to Thailand's conservation and economic well-being. It is indigenous to Thailand,
Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam, where it is found primarily in dry evergreen and mixed
deciduous forests between 100 and 775 m above sea level (Eiadthong and Tangmitcharoen,
2015). Additionally, it was classified as "vulnerable" and red-listed as a threatened species by
the IUCN (IUCN, 2009), resulting in a high demand for its wood and a high price (Forest
Research and Development Office, 2010). The species has gained substantial attention over the
last decade and has been seriously harmed by illegal logging, resulting in a slow decline in its
populations in natural forest (Phunchaisri et al., 2020). The diminishing number of individual
trees of this species is a serious matter that requires immediate attention. DNP (2013)
discovered that Siamese rosewood's natural distribution remained fragmented in four forest
units in northeast and central Thailand, covering only 40,000 ha: (1) Phu Phan-Phu Sra Dok
Bua Forest Unit; (2) Phanom Dong Rak-Pha Taem Forest Unit; (3) Phu Khiao-Namnao Forest
Unit; and (4) Dong Phayayen-Khao Yai Forest Unit. In these locations, which are protected, in
situ gene conservation has been carried out (Tangmitcharoen, 2019). While the relevant
departments have made significant efforts to safeguard this species, it remains severely
threatened, putting it at risk of genetic and diversity loss in the future. Alternatively, since 1987,
RFD has focused on the conservation and management of this species, which includes
germplasm collection, tree selection, and the construction of gene conservation plots to
promote enhanced genetic materials for tree farmers (Tangmitcharoen, 2019).

Ecosystem conservation for in situ genetic conservation

The rapid depletion of natural forests in Thailand over the last four decades has resulted
in a massive loss of genetic diversity among plants, animals, and organisms. Ecosystem
conservation is critical for the survival of economically significant plant and tree species for
future use in a variety of fields of study, recreation, tree improvement, and climate change.
Thus, the RFD has been promoting in situ conservation of forest genetic resources in the
context of "ecosystem conservation" in Thailand since 1999, with the goal of preserving the

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