Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) - World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices: The Agronomy and Economy of Turmeric and Ginger [1st ed. 2019] 978-3-030-29188-4, 978-3-030-29189-1

Table of contents :
Front Matter ....Pages i-xxii
Turmeric: Origin and History (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 1-6
The Botany of Turmeric (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 7-35
Genetics of Turmeric (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 37-51
The Chemistry of Turmeric (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 53-66
The Biotechnology of Turmeric (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 67-84
The Agronomy of Turmeric (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 85-103
Nutrition and Nutrient Management in Turmeric (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 105-123
Turmeric Entomology (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 125-144
Turmeric Nematology (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 145-150
Diseases of Turmeric (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 151-171
Harvesting and Postharvest Management of Turmeric (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 173-193
Nutraceutical Properties of Turmeric (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 195-222
The Ornamental Curcuma (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 223-234
Turmeric in Ayurveda (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 235-243
The Agronomy and Economy of Ginger (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 245-315
The Chemistry of Ginger (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 317-365
Ginger Physiology (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 367-373
Cropping Zones and Production Technology (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 375-403
The Biotechnology of Ginger (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 405-432
Ginger Nutrition (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 433-440
The Diseases of Ginger (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 441-460
The Insect Pests of Ginger and Their Control (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 461-467
The Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 469-492
Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 493-518
Pharmacology and Nutraceutical Uses of Ginger (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 519-539
Ginger as a Spice and Flavorant (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 541-554
Additional Economically Important Ginger Species (Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair)....Pages 555-568

Citation preview

Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) - World’s Invaluable Medicinal Spices The Agronomy and Economy of Turmeric and Ginger

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) - World’s Invaluable Medicinal Spices

India’s great President, late Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, launching the book Issues in National and International Agriculture authored by Professor Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair, in Raj Bhavan, Chennai, Tamil Nadu, India

Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair

Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) - World’s Invaluable Medicinal Spices The Agronomy and Economy of Turmeric and Ginger

Kodoth Prabhakaran Nair International Agricultural Scientist Calicut, Kerala, India

ISBN 978-3-030-29188-4 ISBN 978-3-030-29189-1 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1

(eBook)

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG. The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

This book, written under very trying circumstances, is dedicated to my wife, Pankajam, a Nematologist trained in Europe but one who gave up her profession and, instead, chose to be a homemaker almost four decades ago, when we had our son and daughter. She is my all, and she sustains me in this difficult journey, that is, life.

Contents

1

Turmeric: Origin and History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Area and Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Global Turmeric Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

1 3 4 5

2

The Botany of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Origin and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2 Turmeric Taxonomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Taxonomic Investigations in Curcuma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4 Use of Isoenzymes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Molecular Markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6 Morphology of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.1 Habit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.2 Leaves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.3 Epidermis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.4 Hypodermis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.5 Mesophyll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.6 Vascular Bundles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.7 Leaf Sheath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.8 Rhizome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.9 Nodes and Internodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.10 Aerial Shoot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.11 Shoot Apex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.12 Roots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.13 Root Epidermis and Cortex Originate from Single Tier of Common Initials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.6.14 Turmeric Rhizome: Its Developmental Anatomy . . . 2.6.15 Inflorescence, Flower, Fruit, and Seed Set . . . . . . . 2.7 Germination of Seed and Establishment of Seedling Progenies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7 7 7 9 11 11 13 14 14 14 14 16 16 17 17 17 18 18 18

. . .

19 19 20

.

22 vii

viii

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2.8 2.9 2.10 2.11 2.12 2.13 2.14 2.15 2.16

The Curcuma Cytology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Curcuma Karyomorphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Curcuma Meiotic Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Curcuma Nuclear DNA Content . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chromosome Number in Curcuma Seedling Progenies . . . . . Turmeric Crop Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Clonal Selection in Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Turmeric Improvement by Seedling Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . Mutation- and Selection-Induced Crop Improvement in Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.17 Hybridization and Selection in Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . .

22 25 25 26 27 27 27 31

. . .

31 32 32

Genetics of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 The Diversity of Turmeric Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Curcuma spp.: Its Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Molecular Characterization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 The Diversity in Turmeric Cultivars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Genetic Variability in Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.6 The Conservation and Management of Turmeric Genetic Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.7 Biodiversity and GIS Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.8 Turmeric and Intellectual Property Rights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9 Controversial Patent Cases Involving Turmeric and Traditional Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.1 Protection of Plant Varieties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.9.2 Geographical Indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

37 40 40 41 42 43

. . .

45 46 47

. . . .

48 49 49 50

4

The Chemistry of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Turmeric Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Turmeric Oleoresin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Microencapsulation of Oleoresin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Volatiles of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 The Constituents of Volatile Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Turmeric Turmerones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Turmeric Curcuminoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Specific Beneficial Properties of Curcuminoids . . . . . . . . . . . 4.6 Extraction and Estimation of Curcumin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.7 Biosynthesis of Curcuminoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .

53 53 54 54 55 55 56 58 59 60 61 63

5

The Biotechnology of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Tissue Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Explants and Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Callus Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

67 67 68 70

3

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5.4 5.5

72

In Vitro Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Exchange of Turmeric Germplasm and In Vitro Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Cryopreservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.7 In Vitro Mutagenesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.8 In Vitro Pollination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.9 Microrhizomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10 Molecular Markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10.1 Molecular Characterization and Diversity Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.10.2 Checking Adulteration and Purity Assessment . . . . . 5.10.3 Genetic Fidelity and Identification of SCV . . . . . . . . 5.11 Early Flowering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.12 Genetic Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

76 78 79 80 80 81

6

The Agronomy of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Soil and Climate Suitability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Propagation of the Crop . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Seed Rhizome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Size of the Seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Rate of the Seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Transplantation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Crop Season . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.1 Treating the Seed Stock . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.2 Preparatory Tillage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.3 Planting Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.4 Depth of Planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.6 Plant Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7 Intercultivation Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7.1 Mulching Practices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7.2 Hilling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7.3 Weed Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.7.4 Cropping Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.8 Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.9 Storage of Seed Rhizome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

85 85 86 86 87 87 88 88 89 89 89 90 91 91 92 92 93 94 95 97 98 98

7

Nutrition and Nutrient Management in Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Soil Tests and Nutrient Availability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Nutrient Requirement and Uptake . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Manuring of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Inorganic Fertilization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Effect of Micronutrients on Turmeric Production . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . .

105 106 106 108 108 112

73 73 74 74 74 76

x

Contents

7.5 The Role of Organic Manures in Turmeric Production . . . . . . 7.6 Organic Farming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.7 Biofertilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.8 The Role of Growth Regulators in Turmeric Production . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . .

113 114 117 117 118

8

Turmeric Entomology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Major Insect Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.1 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.2 Nature of Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.3 Life History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.4 Seasonal Incidence of Insect Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.5 Host Plants of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.6 Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.7 Natural Enemies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.8 Managing Insect Control in Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1.9 Sex Pheromones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Rhizome Scale (Aspidiella hartii Ckll) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1 Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.2 Crop Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.3 Life History of the Pest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.4 Host Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.5 Turmeric Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.6 Natural Enemies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.7 Management of Rhizome Scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Other Insect Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.1 Grasshoppers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.2 Scale Insects and Mealy Bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.3 Aphids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.4 Hemipteran Bugs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.5 Thrips . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.6 Leaf-Feeding Beetles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.7 Rhizome Borers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.8 Rhizome Maggots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.9 Leaf-Feeding Caterpillar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Storage Pests of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.1 Distribution of the Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.2 Damage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.3 Life History of the Insect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.4 Management of the Insect Pest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Other Insect Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

125 125 125 126 126 126 129 130 130 132 132 133 133 133 133 133 134 134 134 134 134 135 135 135 136 136 136 137 138 138 139 139 140 140 141 141

9

Turmeric Nematology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 9.1 Nematode Pests of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

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9.2 Symptoms of Nematode Infestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Economic Consequences of Nematode Infestation . . . . . . . . . . 9.4 Field Management of Nematode Infestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.5 Preventive Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.6 Planting Nematode-Resistant Lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.7 Chemical Control of Nematodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.8 Biological Control of Turmeric Nematodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

147 147 148 148 148 149 149 149

10

Diseases of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 Major Diseases of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.1 Rhizome Rot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.2 Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.3 Crop Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.4 Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.5 The Management of Turmeric Rhizome Rot . . . . . . . 10.1.6 Disease Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.7 Leaf Blotch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.8 Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.9 Crop Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.10 Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.11 The Management of the Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.12 Disease Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.13 Leaf Spot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.14 Disease Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.15 Crop Loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.16 Epidemiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.17 The Management of Leaf Spot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1.18 Disease Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Minor Diseases of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.1 Leaf Blast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.2 Leaf Spots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.3 Leaf Blight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.4 Damage Caused by Nematodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2.5 Brown Rot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 Bacterial Diseases of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 Storage Diseases of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.1 Crop Loss During Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.2 Management of Storage Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.4.3 Host Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

151 151 151 152 153 153 155 157 158 158 158 158 159 159 160 160 161 161 161 162 163 163 163 163 163 164 164 164 165 165 166 168

11

Harvesting and Postharvest Management of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . 173 11.1 Harvesting of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173 11.2 Washing the Rhizomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174

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11.3

12

Processing of the Rhizomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3.1 Boiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3.2 Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3.3 Polishing the Rhizomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3.4 Coloring the Rhizomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Grading of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5 Storage of Turmeric Rhizomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6 General Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7 Quality Specifications of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.1 Cleanliness Specifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.2 Health Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.7.3 Commercial Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8 Value Additions in Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8.1 Turmeric Powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8.2 Turmeric Oleoresin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8.3 Essential Oils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.8.4 Curry Powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9 Newer Methods of Value Addition to Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9.1 Spray-Dried Turmeric Oleoresin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9.2 Supercritical CO2 Extraction of Curcuminoids and Turmerones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.9.3 Microwave-Assisted Extraction Technique for Curcuminoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Nutraceutical Properties of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1 The Principal Compounds in Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Medicinal Properties of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.1 Anti-inflammatory Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.2 Wound Healing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.3 Arthritis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.4 Inflammatory Bowel Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 Antioxidant Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4 Chemopreventive and Bioprotectant Properties . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.1 Antimutagenic and Anticarcinogenic Properties . . . 12.4.2 Antimicrobial Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.3 Antidiabetic Property . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.4 Antiangiogenic and Antithrombotic Effects . . . . . . 12.4.5 Hepatoprotective Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.6 Effect on AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5 Additional Therapeutic Properties of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.1 Tardive Dyskinesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.5.2 Gastrointestinal and Respiratory Disorders . . . . . . . 12.5.3 The Protective Effect on Iron Overload . . . . . . . . . 12.5.4 Effect on Hyperoxaluria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

175 175 178 180 181 181 182 184 184 185 186 186 187 187 189 189 190 190 190

. 190 . 191 . 191 195 198 199 199 199 200 201 201 203 204 206 208 211 212 213 214 214 215 215 216

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xiii

12.5.5 Use of Turmeric in Cosmetology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 12.6 Additional Curative Properties of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 13

The Ornamental Curcuma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1 Description of Species . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1.1 Curcuma alismatifolia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1.2 Curcuma amada . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1.3 Curcuma angustifolia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1.4 Curcuma aromatica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1.5 Curcuma zedoaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2 Genetic Diversity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.1 Genetic Diversity Based on Isozyme Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 Breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 Cultural Investigations in Curcuma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4.1 Tuberous (t) Root Number on Flowering Date and Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4.2 Mulching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5 Growth Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6 Photoperiodic Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.7 Nutrition of Ornamental Curcuma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.8 Tissue Culture in Ornamental Curcuma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.9 Storage of Ornamental Curcuma Rhizome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.10 Postharvest Physiology of Ornamental Curcuma . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

223 224 224 225 225 225 225 226 226 227 227 227 228 228 229 231 231 232 232 233

14

Turmeric in Ayurveda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1 Nomenclature of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2 Turmeric Varieties Used in Ayurveda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Pharmacological Properties of Turmeric . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Use of Turmeric in Ayurveda . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.5 Excellent Turmeric-Based Ayurvedic Formulations . . . . . . . . 14.6 The Multifaceted Uses of Turmeric in Ayurveda . . . . . . . . . . 14.7 Corroboration with Scientific Evidence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . .

235 235 236 237 238 240 241 241 242

15

The Agronomy and Economy of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1 Introduction: A Peek into the History of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 India and Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3 Global Centers of Ginger Cultivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.1 India and Other South Asian Countries . . . . . . . . . 15.3.2 Nigeria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.3 Jamaica . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.4 Fiji . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.5 Ghana . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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245 245 249 252 253 253 254 254 254

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15.4 15.5

15.6 15.7 15.8

15.9 15.10 15.11 15.12

15.13

15.14

15.15 15.16 15.17 15.18 15.19 15.20

15.3.6 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.7 Sierra Leone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.8 Mauritius, Trinidad, and Tobago . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.9 Southeast Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.10 Indonesia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.11 Sri Lanka . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.12 Philippines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Uses of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Botany of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5.1 Zingiber Boehmer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5.2 Zingiber officinale Rosc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Taxonomical Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . The Morphology and Anatomy of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Rhizome Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.8.1 Rhizome Enlargement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.8.2 Development of Oil Cells and Oil Ducts . . . . . . . . . 15.8.3 The Schizogenous Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.8.4 The Lysigenous Type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Initiation and Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Secretion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quiescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Root Apical Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.12.1 Cytophysiological Organization of the Root Tip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Ontogeny of Buds, Roots, and Phloem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.13.1 The Nature of the Shoot Apex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.13.2 Procambial Differentiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.13.3 Axillary Bud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.13.4 Development of the Root . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.13.5 Phloem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.13.6 Sieve Tube . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.13.7 Phloem Parenchyma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Anatomical Features of Ginger in Comparison to Related Taxa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.14.1 Leaf Anatomical Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.14.2 Stomatal Ontogeny . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.14.3 Anatomical Features of Dry Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . Microscopic Features of Ginger Powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Floral Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Floral Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Self-Incompatibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Embryology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cytology, Cytogenetics, and Palynology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.20.1 Mitotic Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

254 255 255 255 256 256 256 256 257 258 259 260 260 262 263 264 264 264 265 265 265 266 266 267 268 269 269 269 270 270 271 271 273 274 275 275 276 278 279 279 280 280

Contents

15.20.2 Meiosis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.20.3 Pollen Morphology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.21 Physiology of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.21.1 Effect of Day Length on Flowering and Rhizome Enlargement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.21.2 Chlorophyll Content and Photosynthetic Rate in Relation to Leaf Maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.21.3 Stomatal Behavior and Chlorophyll Fluorescence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.21.4 Photosynthesis and Photorespiration . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.21.5 Effect of Growth Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.21.6 Growth-Related Compositional Changes . . . . . . . . . 15.22 Genetic Resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.22.1 Conservation of Ginger Germplasm . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.22.2 In Vitro Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.22.3 Characterization and Evaluation of Germplasm . . . . . 15.22.4 Biochemical Variability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.22.5 Path Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.23 Crop Improvement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.24 Evaluation and Selection for Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.25 Breeding Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.25.1 Conventional Method: The Clonal Selection Pathway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.25.2 Mutation Breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.25.3 Polyploidy Breeding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16

The Chemistry of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1 The Composition of Ginger Rhizome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 Extraction, Separation, and Identification Methods . . . . . . . . . 16.2.1 Extraction Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2.2 Hydrodistillation and Steam Distillation . . . . . . . . . . 16.2.3 Solvent Extraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2.4 Solid-Phase Microextraction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2.5 Extraction by Supercritical Carbon Dioxide . . . . . . . 16.3 Analytical and Isolation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3.1 Liquid Column Chromatography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3.2 Thin-Layer Chromatography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3.3 High-Performance Liquid Chromatography . . . . . . . 16.3.4 Gas Chromatography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3.5 Other GC Methods: Dynamic Headspace . . . . . . . . . 16.3.6 GC Artifacts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3.7 Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry Coupling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xv

280 282 283 283 284 285 285 286 287 288 290 292 293 295 296 300 301 302 302 303 307 308 317 317 321 321 321 321 322 322 324 324 325 326 327 329 329 330

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16.3.8

Retention Indices as Filters (or Relative Retention
αg) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3.9 Selected Ion Monitoring Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4 Chemical Ionization Technique . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5 Miscellaneous Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6 Oleoresins: Gingerols, Shogaols, and Related Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.7 Synthesis and Biosynthesis of Pungent Compounds of Ginger Rhizomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8 Essential Oils of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8.1 Physicochemical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8.2 Chemical Composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8.3 Essential Oils from India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8.4 Essential Oils from China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8.5 Essential Oils from Other Countries in Asia (Vietnam, Korea, Japan, Indonesia, Fiji, the Philippines, and Malaysia) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8.6 Essential Oils in Ginger Grown in Africa (Nigeria) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8.7 Essential Oils in Ginger Grown in Other Countries (Australia, Brazil, Poland, Mauritius Island, and Tahiti) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8.8 Essential Oils from Wild Ginger (Zingiber zerumbet Smith) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8.9 Diterpenoids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.9 Characteristic Flavor and Odor in Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.9.1 Chromometrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.9.2 Synthesis of some Authentic Samples . . . . . . . . . . 16.9.3 Synthesis of Zingiberenol and β-Sesquiphellandrols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.9.4 Precursors of Aroma and Flavoring Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.10 Properties of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.11 Processing of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.11.1 Deterpenation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.11.2 Preservation and Encapsulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.11.3 Irradiation Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.12 Formulations and Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.12.1 Anecdote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

. . . .

330 333 334 334

. 335 . . . . . .

338 338 339 340 340 342

. 343 . 344

. 345 . . . . .

346 346 347 348 349

. 350 . . . . . . . . .

350 351 354 354 354 355 356 357 357

Ginger Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 17.1 Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367 17.2 Carbon Assimilation and Photosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

Contents

17.3 Light and Physiological Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4 Water Stress and Mulching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.5 Growth Regulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xvii

. . . .

370 371 371 372

18

Cropping Zones and Production Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1 Climatic Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2 Soil Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3 Cropping Zones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4 Production Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.1 Planting Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.2 Land Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.3 Planting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.4 Mulching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.5 Weed Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.6 Earthing Up (Hilling) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.7 Irrigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.8 Shade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.9 Cropping Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.10 Harvesting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.11 Seed Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.4.12 Alternate Method of Ginger Production . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

375 375 376 377 378 378 382 383 385 388 388 389 390 390 393 394 395 396

19

The Biotechnology of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.1 Tissue Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.1.1 Micropropagation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.2 Direct Regeneration for Aerial Stem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.3 Anther Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.4 Inflorescence Culture and In Vivo Development of Fruit . . . . 19.5 Microrhizomes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.6 Plant Regeneration from Callus Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.7 Suspension Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.8 Protoplast Culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.9 In Vitro Selection/Induction of Systemic Resistance . . . . . . . 19.10 Somaclonal Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.11 Production of Secondary Metabolites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.12 In Vitro Polyploidy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.13 Field Evaluation of Tissue-Cultured Plants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.14 Germplasm Conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.14.1 In Vitro Conservation and Cryopreservation . . . . . . 19.15 Synthetic Seeds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.16 Molecular Markers and Diversity Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.17 Molecular Phylogeny of Zingiber . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.18 Application of Molecular Markers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

405 405 405 407 408 408 409 410 412 412 413 413 414 414 415 416 416 417 418 420 422

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

xviii

Contents

19.18.1 19.18.2 19.18.3 19.18.4 19.18.5

Detection of Adulteration in Traded Ginger . . . . . . Molecular Markers in Genetic Fidelity Testing . . . . Tagging Genes of Interest Using Markers . . . . . . . . Isolating Candidate Genes for Resistance . . . . . . . . Isolating Candidate Genes for Other Agronomically Important Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19.19 Genetic Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

20

Ginger Nutrition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.1 Uptake and Requirement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20.2 Organic and Integrated Nutrient Management . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . .

21

The Diseases of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.1 Diseases Caused by Oomycetes and True Fungi . . . . . . . . . . 21.1.1 Soft Rot (Pythium spp.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.1.2 Fusarium Yellows or Dry Rot (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. zingiberi) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.1.3 Phyllosticta Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta zingiberi) . . . . . 21.1.4 Thread Blight (Pellicularia filamentosa) . . . . . . . . . 21.1.5 Leaf Spot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.1.6 Storage Diseases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.2 Diseases Caused by Bacterial Pathogens . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.2.1 Bacterial Wilt of Ginger (R. solanacearum) . . . . . . 21.3 Diseases Caused by Viruses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.1 Mosaic Disease of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.2 Chlorotic Fleck Disease . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.3 Big Bud . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.3.4 Chirke Virus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.4 Diseases Caused by Nematodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21.4.1 Management of the Nematode Infection . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 441 . 441 . 443 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

447 449 449 450 450 451 451 457 457 457 457 457 457 458 458

The Insect Pests of Ginger and Their Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.1 Shoot Borer (Conogethes punctiferalis Guen) . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.1.1 Management of the Pest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2 Rhizome Scale (Aspidiella hartii Ckll) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.2.1 Management of the Pest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3 White Grubs (Holotrichia spp.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.3.1 Management of the Pest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4 Minor Insect Pests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4.1 Leaf/Shoot-Feeding Caterpillars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22.4.2 African Black Beetle (Heteronychus sp.) . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .

461 461 462 462 462 463 463 463 463 463

22

422 423 423 423

. 424 . 425 . 426 433 433 434 439

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xix

22.5

Nematode Pests of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 22.5.1 Management of Nematode Infestation . . . . . . . . . . . 464 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465 23

The Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . 23.1 Harvest Maturity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.2 Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.2.1 Peeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.2.2 Drying . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.2.3 Polishing and Storage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.2.4 Cleaning and Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.3 The Incidence of Aflatoxin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.4 Chemical Composition of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.5 Ginger Powder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.6 Distillation of the Volatile Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.6.1 Water and Steam Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.6.2 Steam Distillation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.7 Composition of Ginger Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.8 Organoleptic Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.9 Oil of Green (Fresh) Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.10 Ginger Oil from Scrapings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.10.1 Characteristics of Ginger Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.11 Oleoresin Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.11.1 Green Ginger Oleoresin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.11.2 Modified Oleoresin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.11.3 Microencapsulated Ginger Oil and Oleoresin . . . . . . 23.12 Preserved Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.12.1 Ginger in Syrup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.12.2 Ginger in Brine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.12.3 Crystallized Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.12.4 Ginger Puree and Ginger Paste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.13 Uses of Ginger and Ginger Products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.13.1 Flavoring Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23.14 Uses of Ginger Oil and Oleoresin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

469 469 470 470 472 474 474 478 478 480 482 482 482 483 483 484 484 484 485 485 485 486 486 486 487 487 488 488 488 490 491

24

Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.1 Area Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.2 Yield . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3 India . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3.1 Production Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.3.2 Trends in Area, Production, and Productivity . . . . . . 24.4 China . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.5 Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.6 Thailand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

493 496 497 497 498 498 501 502 502

xx

25

Contents

24.7

Marketing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.7.1 Products of Commerce . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.7.2 Market Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.7.3 Factors Controlling Demand/Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.7.4 Indian Dried Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.7.5 Economics of Dry Ginger Production . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.7.6 World Scenario . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.7.7 Main Suppliers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.8 World Trade . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.8.1 Distribution Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.8.2 Dry Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.8.3 Fresh and Preserved Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.9 Export . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.9.1 Export Instability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.9.2 Composition of Indian Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.9.3 Direction of Indian Exports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.9.4 Export Promotion Program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.10 Imports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.10.1 Indian Import of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.11 Market Opportunities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.11.1 Dry Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.11.2 Fresh Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.11.3 Preserved Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.12 Competitiveness of Indian Ginger Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24.13 Risks and Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

503 503 504 505 505 505 506 506 507 507 507 507 507 509 510 510 511 512 512 512 512 514 514 514 515 517

Pharmacology and Nutraceutical Uses of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.1 Antimicrobial Property of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.2 Antifungal Activity of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.3 Larvicidal Activity of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.4 Anthelmintic Activity of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.5 Insecticidal Property of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.6 Pharmacological Studies on Ginger Extracts and Active Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.7 Medicinal Uses of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.8 Ginger in Indian System of Medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.8.1 Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.8.2 Indications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.8.3 Contraindications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.9 Experimental and Clinical Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.9.1 Effect on Digestive System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.9.2 Cardiovascular and Related Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.9.3 Antiemetic and Antinauseant Properties . . . . . . . . . .

519 520 521 521 521 522 522 522 523 524 525 525 525 525 526 527

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25.9.4

Anti-inflammatory Properties: Effect on Rheumatoid Arthritis and Musculoskeletal Disorders . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.9.5 Chemoprotective Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.9.6 Hypolipidemic Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.9.7 Antimicrobial and Insecticidal Properties . . . . . . . . 25.9.8 Anxiolytic-Like Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.9.9 Effect on Liver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.10 Other Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.10.1 Toxicity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.10.2 Purification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.10.3 Ginger in Home Remedies (Primary Health Care) . . 25.11 Ginger in Chinese and Japanese Systems of Medicine . . . . . . 25.11.1 Functions and Clinical Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.11.2 Major Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.11.3 Cautions and Contraindications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.11.4 Chinese Healing with Moxibustion: The Ginger Moxa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25.12 Ginger in Traditional Medical Care in Other Countries . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .

528 529 529 530 530 531 531 531 532 532 534 535 535 536

. 536 . 536 . 536

26

Ginger as a Spice and Flavorant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.1 Forms of Ginger Used in Cooking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.2 Ginger as a Flavorant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.3 Ginger as a Deodorizing Agent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.4 Frequency Patterning Analysis of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.5 Ginger as a Flavorant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.5.1 Flavor Properties of Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.6 Ginger as an Antioxidant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.6.1 Peroxidation Value . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.7 Antimicrobial Activity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .

27

Additional Economically Important Ginger Species . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1 General Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.1 Zingiber mioga Roscoe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.2 Zingiber montanum (Koenig) Link ex Dietr. (¼Zingiber cassumunar Roxb.) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.3 Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Smith . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.4 Zingiber americanus BI. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.5 Zingiber aromaticum Val. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.6 Zingiber argenteum J. Mood and I. Theilade . . . . . 27.1.7 Zingiber bradleyanum Craib. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.8 Zingiber chrysanthum Rosc. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.9 Zingiber citriodorum J. Mood and I. Theilade . . . . . 27.1.10 Zingiber clarkei King ex Benth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. 555 . 555 . 556 . . . . . . . . .

541 542 543 544 544 546 546 549 549 550 553

557 559 561 561 561 562 562 562 562

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27.1.11 Zingiber collinsii J. Mood and I. Theilade . . . . . . . . 27.1.12 Zingiber corallinum Hance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.13 Zingiber eborium J. Mood and I. Theilade . . . . . . . . 27.1.14 Zingiber griffithii Baker . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.15 Zingiber gramineum Noronha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.16 Zingiber lambi J. Mood and I. Theilade . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.17 Zingiber longipedunculatum Ridley . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.18 Zingiber malaysianum C.K. Lim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.19 Zingiber neglectum Valet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.20 Zingiber niveum J. Mood and I. Theilade . . . . . . . . . 27.1.21 Zingiber ottensi Valet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.22 Zingiber pachysiphon B.L. Burtt and R.M. Sm . . . . . 27.1.23 Zingiber rubens Roxb. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.24 Zingiber spectabile Griff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.1.25 Zingiber vinosum J. Mood and I. Theilade . . . . . . . . 27.2 Wild Ginger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Chapter 1

Turmeric: Origin and History

Abstract The chapter discusses at length the origin and history of turmeric. Additionally, it covers details on area of turmeric production, nationally and globally. Keywords History · Turmeric · Indian production · Global production

When one leafs through ancient scripture, primarily Indian, the most important plant that one comes across is turmeric. Turmeric, also known as “Indian saffron,” has been in use dating back to 4000 bc. It is mentioned in Ayurveda, the age-old Indian system of medicine, and one encounters its name and use recorded in Sanskrit, the ancient Indian language describing the ageless Vedas (ancient Indian scriptures), between 1700 and 800 bc during the period known as the Vedic age. In fact, the use of turmeric spans many purposes, as a dye, condiment, and medicine. In Sanskrit, it is referred to as Haridra, a word which has two parts: “Hari” and “Dara,” meaning Vishnu, also known as “Hari,” the omnipotent and omnipresent Hindu deity, and “Dara” meaning what one wears, obviously referring to the fact that Vishnu used it on his body. In India, it is put to several uses, as a coloring material, flavoring agent with digestive properties, and in fact, no Indian preparation (vegetarian or nonvegetarian) is complete without turmeric as an ingredient. The bright yellow color of the now famous Indian curry is due to turmeric. Turmeric is much revered by the Hindus and, interestingly, is given as Prasad (a benedictory material) in powdered form, in some temples. Obviously, whoever originated this idea had two purposes in mind—to bless the recipient and to give him or her material that has great medicinal value. Charaka and Sushruta, the great ancient Indian physicians who systematized the Ayurvedic system of medicine, have cataloged the various uses of turmeric (Anon 1950; Nadkarni 1976). Also the Greek physician Dioscorides, in the Roman Army (ad 40–90), makes a mention of turmeric. In Malaysia, a paste of turmeric is spread on the mother’s abdomen and on the umbilical cord after childbirth in the belief that it would ward off evil spirits and also would provide some medicinal value, primarily antiseptic. Both the East and the West have held turmeric in high esteem for its medicinal properties. The Indus Valley Civilization dating back to 3300 bc in Western India was involved in the spice trade, of which turmeric © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 K. P. Nair, Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_1

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1 Turmeric: Origin and History

was an important constituent. The Greco-Roman, Egyptian, and Middle East regions were all familiar with turmeric (Raghavan 2007). The crushed and powdered rhizome of turmeric was used extensively in Asian cookery, medicines, cosmetics, and fabric dying for more than 20,000 years (Ammon and Wahl 1991). Early European explorers to the Asian continent introduced turmeric to the Western world in the fourteenth century (Aggarwal et al. 2007). About 40 species of the genus Curcuma are indigenous to India, which point to its Indian origin (Velayudhan et al. 1999). Apart from Curcuma longa, several species of economic importance are available, such as Curcuma aromatica Salisb., Curcuma amada Roxb., Curcuma caesia Roxb., Curcuma aeruginosa Roxb., and Curcuma xanthorrhiza Roxb. About 70–110 species of the genus have been reported throughout tropical Asia. The species in India, Myanmar, and Thailand show the greatest diversity. Some species are seen as far away as China, Australia, and the South Pacific, while some other popular species are cultivated all over the tropics. Turmeric, originating from India, reached the coast of China in ad 700 and reached East Africa 100 years later and West Africa 500 years later. Arab traders were instrumental in spreading the plant to the European continent in the thirteenth century. There is a parallel here between black pepper and turmeric. The first explorers who went out in search of both spices were Arabs, and in fact the sea route was a secret until the Europeans came on to the scene, as exemplified by the landing of Vasco da Gama in coastal Malabar in Kappad, in Kozhikode district in Kerala State, India. The exact location in India where turmeric originated is still in dispute, but all the available details point to its origin in western and southern India. Turmeric has been in use in India for more than 5000 years now. Marco Polo described it in ad 1280 in his travel memoirs about China. During his several legendary voyages to India via the “Silk Route,” Marco Polo was so impressed by turmeric that he had mentioned it as a vegetable which possesses properties akin to saffron but is not actually saffron (Parry 1969). Probably that is also the reason why it was then known as “Indian saffron.” Turmeric derives its name from the Latin word terra merita, meaning meritorious earth, which refers to the color of ground turmeric, resembling a mineral pigment. The botanical name is Curcuma domestica Val. syn. Curcuma longa L. belongs to the family Zingiberaceae. The Latin name for turmeric is Curcuma longa, which has its origin in the Arabic name Kurkum, for this plant (Willamson 2002). In Sanskrit, it is called Haridra (“The Yellow One”), Gauri (“The One Whose Face Is Light and Shining”), Kanchani (“Golden Goddess”), and Aushadi (“Herb”). Haridra also comes from the Mundas, a pre-Aryan population, who lived through much of their life in northern India (Frawley and Lad 1993). The ancient Indian Vedas also refer to a set of people called Nishadas, literally translated as “Turmeric Eaters.” Turmeric has also been used as a dye for mustards, canned chicken broth, and pickles. It has been coded as food additive “E 100” in canned beverages, baked products, dairy, ice cream, yogurts, yellow cakes, biscuits, popcorn, sweets, cake icing, cereal, sauces, gelatin, and also direct compression tablets. Because of its unique color and history, turmeric has a special place in both Hindu and Buddhist religious ceremonies. Initially, it was cultivated as a dye because of its

1.1 Area and Production

3

brilliant yellow color. With the passage of time, ancient populations came to know of its varied uses, and they began introducing it into cosmetics. The plant’s roots are used in one of the most popular Indian Ayurvedic preparations called Dashmularishta, a concoction prepared from ten different types of roots, which relieve fatigue, and have been in use since thousands of years. The plant’s flowers are used as an antidote against worms in the stomach of humans and can also cure jaundice and venereal diseases and have been known to have specific properties to combat mental disorders. Human breast tumors can be treated with turmeric leaf extracts.

1.1

Area and Production

About 80% of world turmeric production is from India. India is the largest producer, consumer, and exporter. The plant grows extensively in the country, but the southern states of Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra in central, and West Bengal in East India, respectively, grow it extensively (Spices Board 2007). Overseas producers are Thailand, China, Taiwan, South America, and the Pacific islands. Major importers are Japan, the United States, the United Kingdom, Sri Lanka, North African countries and Ethiopia in East Africa, and Middle Eastern countries. Iran is the largest importer. China produces about 8%, followed by Myanmar (4%), while Nigeria and Bangladesh combined contribute 6% of world production. Recent statistical estimates indicate Indian production at 856,464 metric tons from a total acreage of 183,917 hectares (Spices Board). In 2006–2007, India exported 51,500 metric tons valued at US$35.77 million. In 2007–2008, world export totaled 49,250 metric tons valued at US$33.87 million, and in the following year, the corresponding figures were 52,500 metric tons valued at US$35.77 million. From India’s total export, 65% is exported to the United Arab Emirates (UAE), the United States, Japan, Sri Lanka, the United Kingdom, and Malaysia. The institutional sector in the West buys ground turmeric and oleoresins, while dry turmeric is preferred by the industrial sector. Table 1.1 gives the details about the turmeric scenario in India. In India, turmeric is produced in 230 districts in 22 states (Table 1.1). Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Odisha, Karnataka, and West Bengal are the major turmericproducing states which contribute 90% of the production in the country. Turmeric is available in two seasons in India (February–May and August–October). The different varieties of turmeric traded in India are Alleppey Finger, from the State of Kerala; Erode Turmeric and Salem Turmeric, both from the State of Tamil Nadu; Rajapore Turmeric and Sangli Turmeric from the State of Maharashtra; and Nizamabad Bulb from the State of Andhra Pradesh. The major turmeric trading centers in India are Nizamabad and Duggirala in Andhra Pradesh; Sangli in Maharashtra; and Salem, Erode, Dharmapuri, and Coimbatore in Tamil Nadu.

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1 Turmeric: Origin and History

Table 1.1 Turmeric area, production, and productivity in Indian states State Southern states Andhra Pradesh Tamil Nadu Karnataka Kerala Central states Maharashtra Gujarat Rajasthan Northern states Himachal Pradesh Madhya Pradesh Jammu and Kashmir Chhattisgarh Eastern states Odisha West Bengal Assam Bihar Tripura Uttar Pradesh Meghalaya Nagaland Sikkim Uttarakhand Arunachal Pradesh Manipur Mizoram Union territory Andaman and Nicobar Total

Area (ha)

Production (t)

Productivity (t/ha)

64,500 30,530 12,720 3920

400,920 175,390 82,470 9980

6.22 5.74 6.48 2.54

6798 1297 140

8508 16,909 620

1.25 13.03 4.43

187 670 0 879

99 585 0 743

0.53 0.87 0 0.85

24,730 13,660 11,740 3038 1150 2000 1910 18 580 630 600 400 1740

59,360 30,070 8540 2981 3380 6000 14,350 62 1920 6068 2300 280 24,460

2.40 2.20 0.72 0.98 2.94 3.00 10.59 3.40 3.31 9.63 3.83 0.70 14.17

80 183,917

469 856,464

5.86 4.66

Source: Spices Board, Kerala State, India

1.2

Global Turmeric Scenario

The global turmeric production is around 1,100,000 tons per annum. India’s position in global turmeric trade is formidable, with a total of 48% in volume and 44% in value. Table 1.2 gives a country-wise breakdown. India is the global leader in turmeric export and its value-added products. The UAE is the major importer of turmeric from India, and it accounts for about 18% of the total export volume. The UAE is followed by the United States with 8%. The other leading importers are Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Japan, Egypt, the

References Table 1.2 Export of turmeric from India around the world in US$ (million)

5

Destination UAE Japan USA Iran Malaysia UK Egypt (ARE) Bangladesh Pakistan Sri Lanka South Africa The Netherlands Morocco Germany Saudi Arabia France Canada Singapore Kuwait Russia Israel Others Total

2006–2007 Quantity Value 7823.8 4.818 2631.9 2.572 2460.6 2.983 6094.7 3.151 2263.5 1.647 2896.1 2.313 2057.0 1.259 4039.2 2.245 47.6 0.024 3725.0 1.496 2195.2 1.563 1816.7 1.528 736.3 0.439 1155.8 1.052 1406.1 1.070 627.5 0.497 347.4 0.416 622.5 0.471 320.1 0.281 567.3 0.378 632.7 0.363 7033.1 5.483 51500.0 35.74

2007–2008 Quantity 5150.6 2797.1 2648.6 3708.7 2895.4 2460.6 2438.8 2879.5 2756.2 3453.0 1842.8 1700.3 1772.0 1255.2 1239.0 761.3 600.3 868.1 519.4 635.3 621.7 6246.3 49250.1

Value 3.121 2.676 2.609 2.032 1.969 1.852 1.529 1.503 1.480 1.382 1.364 1.325 1.105 1.009 0.988 0.626 0.485 0.588 0.417 0.409 0. 367 5.120 33.96

Source: Spices, Kerala State, India

United Kingdom, Malaysia, South Africa, the Netherlands, and Saudi Arabia. These countries together account for 75% of the total import volume. Asian countries are the main suppliers of turmeric with India leading the pack. The remaining 25% of the total global import volume is met by Europe, North America, and Central and Latin American countries. The United States imports 97% of its turmeric requirement from India and the remaining 3% from the islands of the Pacific and Thailand. Of the total global production, the UAE accounts for 18% of the imports, followed by the United States (11%), Japan (9%), and Sri Lanka, the United Kingdom and Malaysia put together (17%).

References Aggarwal, B. B., Sundaram, C., Malani, N., & Ichikawa, H. (2007). Curcumin: The Indian solid gold. Advances in Experimental Medicine and Biology, 595, 1–75. Ammon, H. P. T., & Wahl, M. A. (1991). Pharmacology of Curcuma longa. Planta Medica, 57, 1–7.

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Anon. (1950). Curcuma in “The wealth of India”, raw materials (Vol. 401, p. 11). New Delhi: Publications and Information Directorate, CSIR. Frawley, D., & Lad, V. (1993). The yoga of herbs. New Delhi: Lotus Light Publications. Nadkarni, K. M. (1976). Indian matera medica. Bombay: Popular Prakashan Publications. Parry, J. W. (1969). Spices. Vol I. The story of spices and spices described. Vol II (Morphology, histology and chemistry). New York: Chemical Publishing. Raghavan, S. (2007). Handbook of spices, seasonings and flavourings. Boca Raton: CRC Press. (ISBN O-8493–2842-X). Spices Board. (2007). http://www.indianspices.com/ Velayudhan, K. C., Muralidharan, V. K., Amalraj, V. A., Gautam, P. L., Mandal, S., & Kumar, D. (1999). Curcuma genetic resources (Scientific monograph no. 4, pp. 149) New Delhi: National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources. Willamson, E. (2002). Major herbs of Ayurveda. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone.

Chapter 2

The Botany of Turmeric

Abstract The chapter discusses the botany of turmeric and would cover areas, such as origin and distribution, taxonomy, use of isozymes, molecular marking, morphology, and cytology of turmeric including turmeric crop improvement. Keywords Turmeric · Taxonomy · Molecular marking · Morphology · Cytology · Crop improvement

Curcuma longa L. belongs to the family Zingiberaceae which falls under the order Zingiberales of monocots and is an important genus in the family. The family is composed of 47 genera and 1400 species of perennial tropical herbs, found usually in the ground flora of lowland forests. It is a very popular family which includes other important spices, such as cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum Maton.), large cardamom (Amomum subulatum), and ginger (Zingiber officinale).

2.1

Origin and Distribution

The exact geographic origin of turmeric is unknown, but it is a safe bet that it could be in Southeast Asia (Velayudhan et al. 1999). Watt (1972) reported that there is no conclusive evidence to show that C. longa is a native of India, though several species of Curcuma are found in India. The greatest diversity of turmeric species is found in India, Myanmar, and Thailand. Table 2.1 gives a geographic distribution worldwide.

2.2

Turmeric Taxonomy

Despite systematic investigation by taxonomists, starting from Linnaeus, Hooker, Rendle, Watt, Valeton, and Hutchinson (Hooker 1894; Hutchinson 1934; Valeton 1918), the classification and nomenclature of Curcuma remained quite confusing. © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 K. P. Nair, Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_2

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Table 2.1 Curcuma distribution worldwide Country Bangladesh China India Cambodia, Vietnam, and Laos Malaysia Nepal The Philippines Thailand Total

Approximate number of species 16–20 20–25 40–45 20–25 20–30 10–15 12–15 30–40 100–110

Source: Ravindran et al. (2007)

Hooker (1894) described Curcuma under the natural order Scitamineae and tribe Zingibereae. However, Rendle (1904) introduced the subfamily Zingiberoideae under Zingiberaceae and described Curcuma under the tribe Hedychieae, which was corroborated by Hutchinson (1934). Holtum’s (1950) classification of the Zingiberaceae family is presumed to be the most authoritative to date, wherein he divided the family into two subfamilies, namely, Zingiberoideae and Costoideae, and Curcuma was included in Zingiberoideae, under the tribe Hedychieae. The description of the Curcuma genus (Holtum 1950), as referred by Ravindran et al. (2007), is presented below. A fleshy complex rhizome, the base of each aerial stem consisting of an erect, ovoid, or ellipsoid structure (primary tuber), ringed with the bases of old-scale leaves, bearing several horizontal or curved rhizomes, when mature, which are again branched. Fleshy roots, many of them bearing ellipsoid tubers. Leafy shoots bearing a group of leaves surrounded by bladeless sheaths, the leaf sheaths forming a pseudostem; total height of leafy shoots ranging from 1 to 2 m. Leaf blades usually more or less erect, often with a purple-flushed strip on either side of the midrib; size and proportional width varying from the outermost to the innermost (uppermost) leaf. Petioles of outermost leaf short or none, of inner leaves fairly long, channeled. Ligule forms a narrow upgrowth across the base of the petiole; its ends join to form thin edges of the sheath, the ends in most species simply decurrent, rarely raised as prominent auricles. Inflorescence either terminal on the leafy shoot, the scape covered by rather large bladeless sheaths. Bracts are large, very broad, each joined to those adjacent to it for about half of its length, the basal parts thus forming enclosed pockets, the free ends more or less spreading, the whole forming a cylindrical spike; uppermost bracts usually larger than the rest and differently colored; a few of them sterile (the group is called coma). Flowers in cincinni of two to seven, each cincinnus in the axil of a bract. Bracteoles thin, elliptic with the sides inflexed, each one at right angles to the last, quite enclosing the flower buds but not tubular at the base. Calyx short, unequally toothed, and split nearly halfway down one side. Corolla tube and stamina tube tubular at the base, the upper portion half cupped, the corolla lobes inserted on the edges of the cup, and the lip, staminodes, and stamen just above them. Corolla lobes thin, translucent white or pink to purplish, the dorsal one hooded and ending in a hollow hairy point. Staminodes elliptic-oblong, their inner edges folded under the hood of the dorsal petal. Labellum obovate, consisting of a thickened yellow middle band which points straight toward or somewhat reflexed, its tip slightly cleft, and thinner pale (white or pale yellow) side-lobes upcurved and overlapping the staminodes. Filament of stamen short and broad, constricted at the top, anther versatile, the filament joined to its back, the pollen

2.3 Taxonomic Investigations in Curcuma

9

sacs parallel, with usually a curved spur at the base of each; connective sometimes protruded at the apex into a small crest. Stylodes cylindrical, 4–8 mm long. Ovary trilocular; fruit ellipsoid, thin-walled, dehiscing and liberating the seeds in the mucilage of the bracht pouch; seeds ellipsoid with a lacerate aril of few segments which are free to the base.

The above description was adapted by many of the later taxonomists and reviewers as a basis for describing or redescribing the genus Curcuma (Velayudhan et al. 1999).

2.3

Taxonomic Investigations in Curcuma

It was in 1753 that the genus Curcuma was established by Linnaeus in his Species Plantarum (Linnaeus 1753). This was based on a plant observed by Hermann in what was then known as Ceylon (now Sri Lanka). The generic name might have originated from the Arabic word Kurcum, meaning yellow color, and Curcuma is the Latinized version (Islam 2004; Ravindran et al. 2007). Curcuma was described early (1678–1693) by Van Rheede (1678) in Hortus Indicus Malabaricus. He recorded two species of Curcuma under the local names Kua and Manjella Kua, which were later identified as C. zedoaria Rosc. and C. longa L., respectively (Burtt 1977). Manjella Kua was selected as lectotype of C. longa by Burtt (1977). Baker (1890, 1898) confirmed 27 species of Curcuma in British India (The Flora of British India) and subdivided the genus into three sections, namely, Exantha, Mesantha, and Hitcheniopsis. The section Exantha comprises 14 species, including turmeric and other economically important species, such as C. angustifolia Roxb., C. aromatica Salisb., and C. zedoaria Rose (Velayudhan et al. 1999). Valeton (1918) classified the genus into two subgenera, namely, Paracurcuma and Eucurcuma, based on the presence or absence of the anther spur. He included two species C. ecalcarata and C. aurantiaca in Paracurcuma, as they lack the anther spur or possess a very short spur. Eucurcuma was further divided into three sections, namely, tuberosa (presence of sessile root tubers), non-tuberosa (absence of sessile root tubers), and stolonifera (presence of stoloniferous tubers). He identified C. longa as C. domestica, which was later accepted as a synonym for C. longa L. Fischer (1928) reported eight species of Curcuma from South India, and Kumar (1991) reported the occurrence of five species, namely, C. angustifolia Roxb., C. aromatica Salisb., C. caesia Roxb., C. longa L., and C. zedoaria (Christm.) Rose in different altitudinal zones of Sikkim State in the Himalayas, India. Taxonomic and polygenic studies on South Indian Zingiberaceae by Sabu (1991) revealed that 12 Curcuma species, including C. coriaceae, C. ecalcarata, C. haritha, C. kudagensis, C. neilgherrensis, C. raktakanta, C. vamana, and C. oligantha var. lutea, are endemic to South India. This investigation included the identification of eight new taxa from South India which included four new Curcuma species, namely, C. coriaceae Mangaly and Sabu, C. haritha Mangaly and Sabu, C. raktakanta Mangaly and Sabu, and C. vamana Sabu and Mangaly.

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The South Indian Curcuma was revised in 1993 (Mangaly and Sabu 1993). They identified 17 species and included 16 of them in the subgenus Eucurcuma and a single species C. ecalcarata under subgenus Hitcheniopsis as it had unspurred anther. They prepared artificial keys for identification of the taxa, their descriptions, illustrations, and other relevant notes. Forty Curcuma species were reported from India (Velayudhan et al. 1999), which were accommodated into two subgenera proposed by Valeton (1918), based on the presence or absence of anther spurs. These authors described new species, namely, C. malabarica, C. kudagensis, and C. thalaaveriensis (Velayudhan et al. 1999). These 40 Curcuma species reported from India (Velayudhan et al. 1999) have already been detailed in Table 3.2. New species of Curcuma, namely, C. rubrobracteata (Mizoram State, India), C. codonantha (Andaman Islands, Indian Union territory), C. mutabilis (South India), were reported by Skornickova (Sirirugsa 1997; Skornickova et al. 2004). Skornickova and Sabu (2005) provided detailed description of C. roscoeana Wall in India based on live specimens and historical nomenclatural details and also presented a detailed account of identity and description of C. zanthorrhiza (Skornickova and Sabu 2005). The genus Curcuma was recircumscribed to include the monotypic genus Paracautleya and renamed Paracautleya bhatii as C. bhatii by the same authors (Skornickova and Sabu 2005). Skornickova et al. (2008) investigated the identity and nomenclatural history of C. zedoaria and C. zerumbet in India. This investigation revealed that the name C. zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe is currently applied to several superficially similar taxa in different parts of India and Southeast Asia. They explained the identity of plant representing C. zedoaria in the sense lectotypified by Brutt (1977), with photographic evidence. The plant described and depicted by Roxburgh as C. zerumbet Roxb. is illegitimate and is named C. picta. Skornickova et al. (2008) discussed the typification of C. longa while investigating the identity of turmeric in 2008. They concluded that the genus Curcuma is one of those in which the meanings of words, and often also the inadequate state of herbarium specimens, do not convey the necessary information for unambiguous application of specific names. Although the correct application of the Linnaean name C. longa was first questioned by Guibourt, his observations and the proposal of the new name C. tinctoria did not affect the situation, as his remarks have remained obscure. Yet, despite early warnings by Trimen (1887) of the existence of Hermann’s specimen and its importance to Linnaeus, confusion about the identity of C. longa was perpetuated by various authors Valeton (1918) and Burtt and Smith (1972), blurring the situation more and leaving the turmeric without a type. Skornickova et al. (2008) based on their analysis and examination designated the Hermann’s specimen, which is the basis of Linnaeus’ C. longa as the lectotype of C. longa. The taxonomical investigations reveal that sufficient attention has been given to identify the Curcuma species present in Asia, in general, and India, in particular. Curcuma species in South India have been thoroughly investigated by many researchers. However, confusion in the classification of Curcuma still persists, considering the interspecific and intraspecific variations. This has to be resolved

2.5 Molecular Markers

11

by detailed investigations on Curcuma species from different parts of the world and simulation data from morphology, cytology, and molecular markers. Correct phylogeny of cultivated C. longa is yet to be established. Use of biochemical and molecular markers to determine phylogeny and diversity of Curcuma in the current decade has shown that biochemical and molecular markers have been widely employed to elucidate taxonomical relationships, phylogeny, and genetic diversity in Curcuma.

2.4

Use of Isoenzymes

Monomorphism of malate enzyme and glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase was found in four species of Curcuma including C. domestica, C. manga, C. zanthorrhiza, and C. zedoaria and polymorphism of esterase and peroxidase isoenzymes with 2–6 and 3–11 bands, respectively (Ibrahim 1996). Oischi (1996) reported the monomorphism found at two loci for leucine aminopeptidase (LAP) and one locus each for glucose-6-phosphate isomerase (GPI) and phosphoglucomutase (PGM) in C. alismatifolia samples collected from Thailand which suggested that the material investigated were of clonally propagated sources. Apavatjrut et al. (1999) used isoenzymes to identify some early flowering Curcuma species, namely, C. zedoaria Rosc., C. zanthorrhiza Roxb., C. rubescens Roxb., C. elata Roxb., and C. aeruginosa Roxb., and two unidentified species. Of the 21 isoenzymes initially tested, 8 showed reliable polymorphism to distinguish between the taxa analyzed. The cluster analysis of data indicated that these taxa are not as closely related as one may assume from the overall morphology and the similarity in their growth and reproductive habits. Paisooksantivatana and Thepsen (2001) studied seven enzyme systems to reveal the genetic diversity among the natural populations of C. alismatifolia Gagnep., compared to cultivated populations from Thailand. Of the seven enzyme systems analyzed in this study, five enzymes (ADH, GDH-1, LAP-1, GPI-2, and PGM) which showed reproducible and consistent bands were used to determine the diversity. Mean genetic diversity over all loci across all populations was 0.444. Mean genetic identity between cultivated populations (IC), lowland populations (IL), highland populations (IH), and across all populations (IAP) were 0.950, 0.947, 0.944, and 0.922, respectively.

2.5

Molecular Markers

The phylogeny of the members of Zingiberaceae was investigated using morphological and molecular markers (Kress et al. 2002). For this DNA, sequences of the nuclear ITS and plastid matK were employed, and the authors suggested a new classification. Their studies suggest that at least some of the morphological traits

12

2 The Botany of Turmeric

based on which members of Zingiberaceae are classified are homoplasious, and three of the tribes are paraphyletic. The African genus Siphonochilus and the Bornean genus Tamijia are basal clades. The former Alpineae and Hedychieae for the most part are monophyletic taxa with the Globbae and Zingibereae included within the latter. They proposed a new classification of the Zingiberaceae that recognizes subfamilies and tribes into four groups as detailed here: (i) subfamily Siphonochiloideae (tribe, Siphonocilieae), (ii) subfamily Tamijioideae (tribe, Tamijieae), (iii) subfamily Alpinioideae (tribe, Alpineae, Riedelieae), and (iv) subfamily Zingiberoideae (tribe, Zingibereae, Globbae). As per the above classification, the genus Curcuma was included in the tribe Zingibereae, instead of Hedychieae as in earlier classifications. To establish a rapid and simple molecular identification of six species of Curcuma, namely, C. longa, C. phaeocaulis, C. sichuanensis, C. chuanyujin, C. chuanhuangjiang, and C. chuanezhu in Sichuan Province, the trnK nucleotide sequencing was used (Cao and Komatsu 2003), and they stated that sequence data were potentially informative in the identification of these six species at the DNA level. Ngamriabsakul et al. (2004) performed a phylogenetic analysis of the tribe Zingibereae (Zingiberaceae) using nuclear ribosomal DNA (ITS1, 5.8S, and ITS2) and chloroplast DNA (trnL (UAA) 50 exon to trnF (GAA)). They stated that the tribe is monophyletic with two major clades, the Curcuma clade and the Hedychium clade. The genera Boesenbergia and Curcuma are apparently not monophyletic. Cao et al. (2001) analyzed medicinally used Chinese and Japanese Curcuma based on 18S rRNA gene and trnK gene sequences and reported that the molecular data can be used to confirm the Curcuma species and their derived drugs. Single-nucleotide polymorphism based on sequence of trnK gene to identify the plants and drugs derived from C. longa, C. phaeocaulis, C. zedoaria, and C. aromatica was used by Sasaki et al. (2004). Xia et al. (2005) used 5S rRNA spacer domain-specific primers to verify the component species of Curcuma used in the Chinese medicinal formulation Rhizoma curcumae (Ezhu). They found that apart from the three genuine ingredients C. wenyujin, C. phaeocaulis, and C. kwangsiensis, other species, namely, C. longa and C. chaniyujin, are used as adulterants. The phylogenetic analysis by comparing the sequence data showed that C. phaeocaulis, C. kwangsiensis, and C. wenyujin formed a single group with closest homology between C. phaeocaulis and C. wenyujin, while C. longa and C. chanyujin showed only 50–55% DNA similarity between them. They also reported the taxonomic confusion regarding the position of C. wenyujin and C. chanyujin, the latter growing in the Sichuan province of China is also known as C. sichuanensis. RAPD analyses to estimate the level of genetic diversity within and between natural populations of C. zedoaria in Bangladesh were performed by Islam et al. (2005). They observed that hilly populations maintain rather higher genetic diversity than that of the plains and plateau land populations. Syamkumar and Sasikumar (2007) prepared molecular genetic fingerprints of 15 Curcuma species using inter simple sequence repeat (ISSR) and RAPD markers to elucidate the genetic diversity

2.6 Morphology of Turmeric

13

and relatedness among the species. Cluster analysis of data using UPGMA algorithm placed the 15 species into 7 groups in partial agreement with the morphological grouping proposed by the earlier investigators. The investigation also pointed out the limitations of the conventional taxonomic tools to resolve the taxonomic confusion prevailing in the genus and suggested the need to use molecular markers in conjunction with morpho-taxonomic and cytological studies while revising the genus. They observed the maximum molecular similarity between the two of the Curcuma species, namely, C. raktakanta and C. montana, suggesting the important need to reexamine the separate status given to these two species. These investigators also suggested a reassessment of the status of the two species, namely, C. montana and C. pseudomontana, based on the presence of sessile tubers. The SCAR DNA marker technique to identify important Curcuma species of Thailand and their hybrids was employed by Anuntalabhochai et al. (2007). The genetic variability of 12 starchy Curcuma species was investigated. All of the 12 species investigated were separated into 3 clusters using the UPGMA technique. C. aromatica, C. leucorrhiza, and C. brog formed a cluster within which C. longa and C. zedoaria formed a subgroup. C. haritha was genetically distinct from all the other Curcuma species. A set of 30 accessions of 4 Curcuma species, namely, C. latifolia, C. malabarica, C. manga, and C. raktakanta, and 13 morphotypes of C. longa conserved in vitro was subjected to RAPD analysis. Mean genetic similarities based on Jaccard’s similarity coefficient ranged from 0.18 to 0.86 in accessions of cultivated species and from 0.25 to 086 in wild species. They observed the primers OPC-20, OPO-06, OPC-01, and OPL-03 to be highly informative in discriminating the germplasm of Curcuma. Ahmed et al., while investigating the genetic variation of chloroplast DNA in Zingiberaceae from Myanmar using PCR–RFLP polymorphism analysis, observed that the two Curcuma species, namely, C. zedoaria and C. zanthorrhiza, appeared to be identical, supporting their recent classification as synonymous. It is evident from literature that isozyme analysis was attempted only by a limited number of authors for diversity analysis in Curcuma even though it is a reliable marker system. Molecular markers, such as RAPDs, ISSR, SCAR DNA markers, PCR–RFLP, and DNA sequence-based analysis, were performed by different investigators. But more molecular data on different species of Curcuma has to be generated to have a clear understanding of phylogeny and diversity among the species.

2.6

Morphology of Turmeric

Holtum (1950) presented the morphological description of turmeric, which was subsequently cited by several other authors (Purseglove et al. 1981; Ravindran et al. 2007). The following descriptions need to be noted.

14

2.6.1

2 The Botany of Turmeric

Habit

Turmeric is an erect perennial herb, grown as an annual and in certain cases as a biennial as well. It grows to a height of around 120 cm, but significant variations exist in plant height, among varieties as well as in plants grown under different agroclimatic conditions (Rao et al. 2006).

2.6.2

Leaves

Leaves are borne in a tuft, alternate, obliquely erect, or subsessile, with long leaf stalks or sheaths forming a pseudostem or the aerial shoot. The leafy shoots rarely exceed 1 m in height and are erect. Usually, there will be 6–10 leaves in a leafy shoot. The thin petiole is rather abruptly broadened to the sheath. The ligule lobes are small, and sheaths near the ligules have ciliate edges. The lamina is lanceolate, acuminate, and thin, dark green above and pale green beneath with pellucid dots; it is usually up to 30 cm long and 7–8 cm wide and is rarely over 50 cm long (Purseglove et al. 1981). Foliar anatomy of different species of Curcuma including C. longa has been investigated by Das et al. (2004) and Jayasree and Sabu (2005). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) investigations of the turmeric leaf showed dense, uneven, and waxy cuticle depositions, uniformly spread over epidermal boundaries (Das et al. 2004). The stomata are tetracytic type with long axis of the pore parallel to the veins. They are mostly seen on the abaxial epidermis. Stomata are very few on the adaxial epidermis (Jayasree and Sabu 2005). The stomatal aperture is elliptic with a somewhat incomplete cuticle rim around it. Transection of turmeric leaf across the midvein showed the following structure (Das et al. 2004) (Figs. 2.1 and 2.2).

2.6.3

Epidermis

Uniseriate, thin-walled, barrel-shaped parenchymatous cells. Trichomes are less frequent at the adaxial surface. At the abaxial surface, small, unicellular, hooklike trichomes are present with a slightly bulbous base.

2.6.4

Hypodermis

Multiseriate, mostly one or two-layered, composed of irregularly polygonal colorless cells, present interior to both upper and lower epidermis.

2.6 Morphology of Turmeric

Fig. 2.1 An excellent turmeric crop in the field

Fig. 2.2 An excellent turmeric crop in the field

15

16

2.6.5

2 The Botany of Turmeric

Mesophyll

Mesophyll is not differentiated into palisade and spongy tissue according to Das et al. (2004). But Jayasree and Sabu (2005) reported one-layered palisade tissue in all species of Curcuma. Mesophyll tissue is traversed by a single layer of abaxial air canals alternating with vascular bundles, which are embedded in a distinct abaxial band of chlorenchyma. Air canals are traversed by thin-walled trabeculae, which form a loose mesh within.

2.6.6

Vascular Bundles

The vascular bundles are arranged in three layers, developing unequally at different levels. Main vascular bundles form a single conspicuous abaxial arc, alternating with air canals, and embedded in chlorenchyma. The abaxial conducting systems consists of an arc of vascular bundles of different sizes that are circular in outline. The adaxial conducting system consists of vascular bundles that are similar in appearance to the main vascular bundles but are sclerenchymatous sheath above the xylem and below the phloem, extruded protoxylem, small mass of metaxylems, and phloem tissue. Vascular bundles of accessory arcs have reduced vascular tissues and contracted protoxylem. Abaxial bundles are enveloped within almost a complete fibrous sheath. Curcuma species differ in fine anatomical features (Das et al. 2004; Jayasree and Sabu 2005). The latter authors presented a detailed account of such variations in 15 Curcuma species found in India with reference to dermal morphology, petiole, midrib, leaf margin, and venation pattern of brachts. Using the additional information generated, these authors prepared an anatomical key to identify these species. The epidermal and stomatal structures of turmeric and C. amada were investigated by Raju and Shah (1975). They have reported that the upper epidermis consists of polygonal cells which are predominantly elongated at right angles to the long axis of leaf. Irregular polygonal cells are present on the lower epidermis, except at the vein region, where they are vertically elongated and thick-walled. The epidermal cells in the scale and sheath leaves (the first 2–5 leaves above ground without the leaf blade) are elongated parallel to the axis of the leaf. Oil cells are rectangular thickwalled and suberized and are frequent in the lower epidermis. They observed that the leaves are amphistomatic, with a distinct substomatal cavity, and stomata may be diperigenous, tetraperigenous, or anisocytic. Often, two subsidiary cells align completely with guard cells. Stomatal development was also described in detail by the aforementioned authors.

2.6 Morphology of Turmeric

2.6.7

17

Leaf Sheath

Das et al. (2004) investigated the transections of the sheathing petiole and found that the sheathing petiole is horseshoe shaped in outline, and the marginal parts are inflexed adaxially. Vascular bundles are arranged in three systems forming arcs. Those of the abaxial main conducting system are alternate with large air canals, which are traversed internally by trabeculae. Toward the margin, the vascular bundles seem to arrange themselves in a single row. Both the upper and the lower epidermis are uniseriate, consisting of rectangular cells.

2.6.8

Rhizome

The rhizome is the underground stem of turmeric, which can be divided into two parts, the central pear-shaped “mother rhizome” and its lateral axillary branches known as “fingers.” Normally, there is only one main axis. Either a complete finger or a mother rhizome is used as planting material. It is also called the “seed rhizome.” Normally, the “seed rhizome” produces only one main axis, which develops into the aerial leafy shoot. The base of the main axis enlarges and becomes the first formed unit of the rhizome which ultimately develops into the mother rhizome. Axillary buds from the lower nodes of the “mother rhizome” develop and give rise to the first order of branches, often called the “primary fingers.” Their number varies from two to five. Primary branches grow to some length and either develop into an aerial shoot or stop growing further. They grow in a haphazard manner in different directions and in some cases grow up to the ground level with one or two, or even no, leaves. Secondary branches developing at higher nodes of primary branches are diageotropic (Raju and Shah 1975). Some primary branches after hitting ground level do not form any aerial shoot but exhibit positive geotropic growth. Such branches arising from the mother rhizome may be diageotropic, orthogeotropic, and plagiotropic (Ravindran et al. 2007). Primary fingers branch further, resulting in secondary and tertiary branches, and these branches do not produce aerial shoots. The majority of them show positive geotropic growth or obliquely downward growth. The C. longa types have more sideward growth, while the C. aromatica types have more downward growth (Ravindran et al. 2007).

2.6.9

Nodes and Internodes

Mature mother rhizomes may have 7–12 nodes, and the intermodal length varies from 0.3 to 0.6 cm. However, the first few internodes at the proximal end are elongated due to which the mother rhizome reaches the ground level (Shah and Raju 1975). Primary and secondary fingers have longer internodes of about 2 cm

18

2 The Botany of Turmeric

length, compared to mother rhizomes. Except the first one or two, all the other nodes in the mother rhizome as well as fingers have axillary buds. The mother rhizome has scale leaves only at the first two to four nodes; the rest of them have sheath leaves and foliage leaves. The secondary and tertiary branches have only scale leaves. The branches with negative geotropic growth have pointed scale leaves or sheath leaves (Ravindran et al. 2007).

2.6.10 Aerial Shoot The foliage leaves emerge from the buds on the axils of the nodes of the underground bulb and sometimes from the primary finger also. The petiole of the foliage leaf is long and has a thick leaf sheath. The long leaf sheaths overlap and give rise to the aerial shoot (Ravindran et al. 2007).

2.6.11 Shoot Apex The apical meristem of the shoot has the tunica–corpus-type configuration. The tunica is two-layered, with cells dividing anticlinally, while in the corpus, which is the region proximal to tunica, the cells divide in all directions. The central region underlying the corpus layer is the rib meristem which gives rise to a file of cells, which later become the ground meristem. The central region is surrounded by the flank meristem, which produces the procambium, cortical region, and leaf primordium (Ravindran et al. 2007).

2.6.12 Roots Roots emerge from the mother rhizomes and often from fingers, not from the secondary and tertiary fingers. Some of the roots enlarge and become fleshy due to storage of food materials. They serve the function of nutrient and water absorption, anchorage, and storage of assimilated food. In certain species, some of the roots terminate in bulbous tubers (Ravindran et al. 2007). It has been observed that the true seedling progenies of turmeric at their early stages of rhizome formation will produce root tubers as per unpublished data from IISR. Root initials originate from the narrow cell zone separating the inner and outer ground tissues termed the diffuse meristem, which is an extension of the primary elongating meristem and is noticeable below the second or third node. Root meristem originates from the diffuse meristem. The root apex of turmeric shows three sets of initials developing from the

2.6 Morphology of Turmeric

19

diffuse meristem, one each for root cap and plerome and a common zone of dermatogens and plerome. The root cap has two regions, namely, a columella in the middle and a calyptras at the periphery. The columella consists of 5–7 layers of vertical files of cells, which divide mostly peridermally. The cells in the peripheral region of calyptras undergo kappa-type divisions followed by cell enlargement resulting in broadening of this region toward the distal end (Raju and Shah 1975).

2.6.13 Root Epidermis and Cortex Originate from Single Tier of Common Initials The protoderm–periblem complex is composed of 1–7 cells in the horizontal row. Epidermis and cortex are established from this row by the Korper-type divisions (T-divisions). These divisions, followed by cell enlargement, enable the tissue to widen toward the proximal end. The epidermis is differentiated from the outermost layer. The stellar and pith cells are formed from a group of cells located above the epidermis (the cortical initial) (Raju and Shah 1975). A detailed account of the differentiation of cell layers in turmeric root has been reported by Pillai et al. (1961).

2.6.14 Turmeric Rhizome: Its Developmental Anatomy The turmeric rhizome anatomy and its development have been investigated (Ravindran et al. 1998; Sherlija et al. 1999). These investigators provided a detailed description of the rhizome and its different developmental stages based on histology. Transverse sections of rhizomes show an outer zone and an inner zone, separated by intermediate layers. Both have vascular bundles. The vessels show spiral and scalariform perforation plates. The phloem contains sieve tubes and two or three companion cells. Early in rhizome development, when it is about 4–7 mm in diameter, the outer zone is 1.5–2.5 mm, the inner zone is 2.5–3.5 mm, and the intermediate layer is about 0.5 mm in thickness. A mature mother rhizome measures about 2–3 cm across, having an outer zone of about 6–10 mm, inner zone about 10–12 mm, and the intermediate layer about 1–1.5 mm in thickness. At this stage, the primary finger is about 1–2 cm in diameter, outer zone 4–5 mm, and inner zone 9–10 mm and intermediate layer about 1 mm in thickness. Rhizome enlargement initiates through the activity of meristematic cells, present below the young primordial of the developing rhizome. These cells develop into primary thickening meristem (PTM), which is responsible for the initial thickening in the width of the developing cortex by producing primary vascular bundles that are collateral. At the lower levels of the developing rhizome, the PTM becomes primarily a rootproducing meristem. After the formation of the primary vascular cylinder, some of

20

2 The Botany of Turmeric

the pericycle cells at different places undergo one or more periclinal divisions, forming secondary thickening meristems (STMs), which vary from two to six layers. This meristem produces secondary vascular bundles and parenchyma cells on its inner side. These parenchyma cells become packed with starch grains on maturity. The crowded arrangement of the secondary vascular bundles, which are amphicribral, and their distribution clearly distinguish them from the primary bundles which are collateral and scattered. The cambrium-like zones (PTM and STM) constitute ray initials and fusiform initials, which are visible in certain loci. In addition to this cambial activity, increase in size of the rhizome is also the result of the activity of ground meristem that divides at many loci, followed by cell enlargement. The ground parenchyma in actively growing regions contains oil canals along with phloem and xylem. Oil canals are formed lysigenously by the disintegration of entire cells (Ravindran et al. 2007).

2.6.15 Inflorescence, Flower, Fruit, and Seed Set Both the cultivar and the climatic conditions decide pattern of flowering in turmeric. After 109–155 days of planting flowering commences. This time range will vary depending on the specific cultivar. This is only a range. The inflorescence lasts about 1–2 weeks after emergence (Pathak et al. 1960). Inflorescence is a cylindrical spike, 10–15 cm long and 5–7 cm wide, which is terminal on the leafy shoot with the scape partly enclosed by leaf sheaths. The brachts are spirally arranged and closely overlapped giving the inflorescence a cone-like appearance. The brachts are adnate for less than half of their length and are elliptic–lanceolate and acute, 5–6 cm long and about 2.5 cm wide. The upper 3–7 and lower 5–10 brachts are sterile with no flowers. The upper sterile brachts are white or white-streaked with green, pinktipped in some cultivars grading to light green brachts lower down. The bracteoles are thin, elliptical, and about 3.5 cm long. The flowers are borne in cincinni of two in the axils and brachts, opening one at a time. The number of flowers per inflorescence ranges from 26 to 35 (Purseglove et al. 1981; Sherlija et al. 2001). Cultivars Rajendra-Sonia and BSR-2 produce 50–100 flowers per inflorescence (IISR personal communication, unpublished data). The flowers are thin-textured and fugacious and are about 5 cm long. The calyx is short, tubular, uniquely toothed, and split nearly halfway down one side. The corolla is tubular at the base with the upper half cup-shaped with three unequal lobes inserted on the edge of the cup lip. It is whitish, thin, and translucent with the dorsal lobe hooded. There are two lateral staminodes, elliptic–oblong, which are creamy white in color and with the inner edges folded under the hood of the dorsal petal. The lip or labellum is obovate, with a broad thickened yellow band down the center and thinner creamy white side lobes upcurved and overlapping the staminodes. The stamen is epipetalous and attached to the throat of the corolla. The fertile stamen has two anther lobes. The filament of

2.6 Morphology of Turmeric

21

the stamen is short and broad, united to a versatile anther about the middle of the anther sacs, and with a broad, curved large spur at the base. The cylindrical stylodes are about 4 mm long. The ovary is inferior, tricolor, and syncarpus with a slender style passing between the anther lobes and held by them. The placentation is axile (Nazeem et al. 1993; Purseglove et al. 1981). Anthesis is between 7 AM and 9 AM, peaking at 8 AM. Anther dehiscence is between 7:15 AM and 7:45 AM (Nazeem et al. 1993; Rao et al. 2006). Based on cultivation place, slight variation of flower open and anther dehiscence have been noted (Nambiar et al. 1982). Pollen fertility is cultivar-dependent. In three cultivars of C. longa, it is 45.7–48.5%, and in five cultivars of C. aromatica it is between 68.6% and 74.5% (Nambiar et al. 1982). Pollen grains are ovoid to spherical, light yellow in color, and slightly sticky (Nazeem et al. 1993). Based on acetocarmine staining, these authors investigated pollen fertility in eight cultivars and found that it ranges from 71% in Kodur to 84.5% in Kuchipudi. Though pollen fertility in five accessions can range from 53% to 58% based on the above method, actual germination in Brewbaker and Kwack medium containing less than 20% sucrose is less than 10% (Nair et al. 2004). This, probably, is the reason for infrequent seed set in turmeric. Turmeric is a cross-pollinated crop (Nazeem et al. 1993). Seed set in 11 cultivars of C. aromatica, 6 of C. longa was compared by open pollination, where it was found that only 9 of the former set seed, while none in the latter (Nambiar et al. 1982). Poor pollen fertility in the latter, owing to it being triploid, was the reason for the total absence of seed set. Selfing, crossing, and open pollination investigations carried out by Nazeem et al. (1993) using three cultivars of C. domestica (synonym of C. longa), and five cultivars of C. aromatica showed total absence of seed set in self-pollination. Of the 11 cross-combinations, 8 resulted in seed set, and the one open-pollinated had the maximum seed set. They suggested self-incompatibility as the reason for absence of seed setting in self-pollination. Crossing investigations by Renjith et al. (2001) employing 2 medium-duration and 5 short-duration cultivars resulted in seed set in 3 out of 12 cross-combinations, all involving short-duration types. Thus, it appears, some compatibility mechanisms operate in the crosses involving different cultivars, which have to be investigated further. A case of seed setting in cultivated turmeric types was reported by Lad (1993). Nair et al. (2004) obtained seed set in two accessions of C. longa, which was later repeated in many germplasm collections. Turmeric fruit is a trilocular capsule with numerous arillate seeds. The mature fruit will give the appearance of a small garlic bulb and is white in color. The immature seeds are white to light brown in color, and mature seeds are brownish black in color. Histological analysis of fruits and seeds by Nair et al. (2004) showed that seeds are attached to the central column inside the fruit. Different seeds derived from the same fruit showed embryos of different developmental stages occasionally. The embryos were clearly monocotyledonary, resembling the embryos of cardamom in structure. Persistence of the nucellus was evident in the mature seed (Nair et al. 2004).

22

2.7

2 The Botany of Turmeric

Germination of Seed and Establishment of Seedling Progenies

Nambiar et al. (1982) was the first to report on seed germination and establishment of seedling progenies in turmeric (C. aromatica). Seeds matured in 23–29 days after opening of flowers, according to these authors. They germinated within 10–18 days and germination percentage ranged from 30.5 to 62.5 in different cultivars. At germination, seeds absorb moisture and nutrients and enlarge before plumule emergence. The plumule is with two protuberances at the base which later develop into primary roots. The seedling progenies produced mainly roots and root tubers in the first year of growth. The rhizomes were very small. Normal rhizome development occurred in the second year. In the southern state of Andhra Pradesh of India, cultivars of C. longa flowered very rarely, but viable seeds could be collected from flowering types (Purseglove et al. 1981). Seedlings were found to be tardy in growth and development, and rhizome formed was of poor quality. Seedling progenies of many turmeric cultivars from crossed and open-pollinated seeds were established by Nazeem et al. (1993). These investigators observed that in seeds from 17 to 26 days after sowing, seed germination commences and its duration ranged from 10 to 44 days, depending on the crosses. Percentage of germination varied from 17.22 to 100 in different crosses and was 26.48% in the case of the openpollinated progenies of cultivar Nandyal. Variations in morphological characters of seedling progenies were observed, and it was suggested that there was scope for selection among the progenies. Seedlings produced only one mother rhizome with root tubers in the first year of growth, and the weight ranged from 14.18 to 49.4 g. Size of the mother rhizomes progressively increases over the years, and full growth is observed in the third year after sowing. With increase in rhizome size, a number of root tubers decline. Seed germination from two accessions from open-pollinated seeds showed that only few seeds germinated within a month of sowing and majority of seeds germinated after 5 months showing 75% and 3% germination, respectively, in Accession No. 126 and Accession No. 399. Subsequently, more than 250 open-pollinated progenies of 23 C. longa genotypes were established at IISR in 2003–2004, and their evaluation is underway (Nair et al. 2004).

2.8

The Curcuma Cytology

It was in 1936 that the first report on Curcuma chromosome number was made by Sugiura, who observed a chromosome number of 2n ¼ 64 (Sugiura 1936). Since then, several reports on Curcuma cytology have appeared in scientific literature, most of them confining just to the chromosome number. Table 2.2 summarizes these reports.

2.8 The Curcuma Cytology

23

Table 2.2 Species specific chromosome number in Curcuma

Species C. aeruginosa Roxb.

Number of chromosomes (2n) 63

C. alismatifolia Gagnep. C. amada Roxb.

42

C. amarissima Rosc. C. angustifolia Roxb.

63 42

C. aromatica Salisb.

42

C. attenuata Wall.ex Baker C. aurantiaca Van Zip. C. borg Val. C. caesia Roxb. C. colorata F. C. comosa Roxb. C. decipiens Dalz. C. elata Roxb. C. gracillima Gagnep. C. haritha Mangaly and Sabu C. harmandii Gagnep. C. haeyneana Val. & Zip C. kwangsiensis S. G. Lee & C. F. Liang C. latifolia Rosc. C. longa L.

84

C. malabarica Vel. et al. C. manga Val. and Zip

32

References Joseph et al. (1999) and Paisooksantivatana and Thepsen (2001) Paisooksantivatana and Thepsen (2001) Raghavan and Venkatasubban (1943), Chakravorti (1948) and Sharma and Bhattacharya (1959) Islam (2004) Chakravorti (1948), Sharma and Bhattacharya (1959) and Islam (2004) Raghavan and Venkatasubban (1943) and Chakravorti (1948)

42 63 22 62 42 42 63 24 42 20 63

Das et al. (1999) Joseph et al. (1999) Ramachandran (1961, 1969)

Joseph et al. (1999) Paisooksantivatana and Thepsen (2001)

84

63 32 48 61 62 63 64 84 93 42

Islam (2004) Sato (1948) Das et al. (1999) and Nayak et al. (2006) Nair and Sasikumar (2009) Raghavan and Venkatasubban (1943) Chakravorti (1948) and Nair and Sasikumar (2009) Sugiura (1936) and Chakravorti (1948) Nair and Sasikumar (2009) Nair and Sasikumar (2009) Joseph et al. (1999)

42 63 (continued)

24

2 The Botany of Turmeric

Table 2.2 (continued)

Species C. neilgherrensis Wight C. oligantha Trim. C. parviflora Wall.

C. petiolata Roxb. C. phaeocaulis Val. C. purpurrascens Blume C. raktakanta Mangaly and Sabu C. rhabdota Sirigusa & M.F. Newman C. roscoeana Wall. C. rubescens Roxb. C. sessilis Gage C. soloensis Val. C. viridiflora Roxb. C. thorelii Gagnep. C. wenyujin Y.H. Chen & C. Ling C. zanthorrhiza Roxb. C. zedoaria Rosc.

Number of chromosomes (2n) 42 42 40 28 30 32 34 36 42 64 42 62, 63, 64 63 63 42 24 42 63 42 84 46,92 63 42 34 36 63 63 42 63 64 66

References Chakravorti (1948) and Ramachandran (1961, 1969)

Paisooksantivatana and Thepsen (2001)

Joseph et al. (1999)

Islam (2004) Islam (2004)

Islam (2004)

Paisooksantivatana and Thepsen (2001) Chakravorti (1948) and Ramachandran (1961, 1969) Chakravorti (1948)

Source: Modified from Ravindran et al. (2007) and Skornickova et al. (2007)

The most commonly reported and generally accepted chromosome number of Curcuma is 2n ¼ 63 (Chakravorti 1948; Islam 2004; Ramachandran 1961). Deviations have also been reported, as detailed in Table 2.2. The basic chromosome

2.10

The Curcuma Meiotic Investigations

25

number of the genus Curcuma was suggested as x ¼ 21, which in turn originated by dibasic amphidiploidy from x ¼ 9 to x ¼ 12 by secondary polyploidy (Ramachandran 1961, 1969). The abovementioned authors suggested that turmeric is a triploid and might have originated as a hybrid between tetraploid C. aromatica (2n ¼ 84) and an ancestral diploid C. longa (2n ¼ 42) or one of these has evolved from the other through mutation, represented by the intermediate type which is known to occur. The herbaceous perennial habit of this species, its vegetative mode of propagation, and the small size of the chromosomes favor the perpetuation of polyploidy (Ramachandran 1961). This suggestion of the hybrid origin of C. longa was later corroborated by Nambiar (1979). His investigations revealed intercellular variation in chromosome number in different cultivars of C. longa and C. aromatica.

2.9

The Curcuma Karyomorphology

Karyomorphological investigations have been rather scanty in Curcuma. Sato (1948) while investigating the karyotype of Zingiberaceae reported the karyology of C. longa as well. He designated chromosomes of Zingiberaceae from A to H based on morphology. He reported that C. longa has 32 chromosomes and suggested that the species could be an allotetraploid with a basic number of x ¼ 8. The karyotype formula was presented as 2tAm + 10Asm + 12Bsm + 6Cot + 2tCot. The m, sm, and ot represent the centromeric positions, and t indicates the presence of a satellite. Joseph et al. (1999) reported the karyotype of six species of Curcuma, namely, C. aeruginosa (2n ¼ 63), C. caesia (2n ¼ 63), C. comosa (2n ¼ 42), C. haritha (2n ¼ 42), C. malabarica (2n ¼ 42), and C. raktakanta (2n ¼ 63). They found symmetrical karyotypes in all these species. The chromosome length ranged from 0.24 to 0.99 μm3 among these species, and total chromosome length varied from 16.21 to 33.06 μm3. The average chromosome length varied from 0.39 to 0.52 μm3. Based on the karyomorphological data of these species, they concluded that both numerical and structural variations have operated in the evolution of the genus Curcuma (Joseph et al. 1999). Das et al. (1999) reported the karyotypes of C. amada and C. caesia and two varieties of C. longa. They reported chromosome numbers of 2n ¼ 40 for C. amada, 2n ¼ 22 for C. caesia, and 2n ¼ 48 for two varieties of C. longa, namely, Suroma and TC-4, which are drastically different from most of the earlier reports.

2.10

The Curcuma Meiotic Investigations

Information on chromosome orientation in C. longa and a few related species was reported by Ramachandran (1961) and Nambiar (1979). Meiosis in C. decipiens (2n ¼ 42) and C. longa (2n ¼ 63) was investigated by Ramachandran (1961), and he

26

2 The Botany of Turmeric

concluded that meiosis is regular with the formation of bivalents only at metaphase I in the former, while in the latter, a high percentage of trivalent associations was produced despite small chromosome size. Nambiar (1979) analyzed meiosis in three cultivars of C. longa and five cultivars of C. aromatica. A maximum number of quadrivalents and hexavalents were found in C. longa and C. aromatica, respectively. Bivalents were predominant in all the cultivars of both species. Later stages of meiosis were almost regular in the cultivars of C. aromatica, though increased abnormalities were observed in the cultivars of C. longa. Microsporogenesis and megasporogenesis in C. aurantiaca and C. lorgengii were reported by Strapradja and Aminali, as cited by Ravindran et al. (2007).

2.11

The Curcuma Nuclear DNA Content

Researchers have investigated the nuclear DNA content of Curcuma, among which Das et al. (1999) are at the forefront. They observed that 4C DNA content of Curcuma species varied significantly from 3.12 to 5.26 pg among species/varieties. Interphase nuclear volume varied from 224.56 in C. caesia to 422.56 μm3 in C. longa. Nayak et al. (2006) observed significant variation in 4C DNA content of 17 cultivars of C. longa, all having 2n ¼ 48. They attributed this variation to the loss or addition of highly repetitive sequences in the genome. Islam (2004), while investigating cytogenetic makeup of Curcuma species and accessions from Bangladesh, observed that the 2C DNA content varied from 2.12 to 5.32 pg among species and accessions investigated. The author employed flow cytometry technique. Further, it was observed that there existed variation in nuclear DNA content among populations of C. zedoaria as well. Skornickova et al. (2007) made detailed analysis of chromosome number and genome size variation in Indian Curcuma species, where it was noted that six different chromosome counts, namely, 2n ¼ 22, 2n ¼ 42, 2n ¼ 63, 2n ¼ >70, 2n ¼ 77, and 2n ¼ 105, existed. The 2C DNA values varied from 1.66 in C. vamana to 4.76 pg in C. oligantha, which shows a 287% increase, almost a threefold. Three groups of taxa with significantly different homoploid genome sizes and distinct geographical distribution were identified. Five species exhibited intraspecific variation in nuclear DNA content, attaining 15.1% in cultivated C. longa. Based on these investigations, these authors suggested that the basic chromosome number of subgenus of Curcuma is x ¼ 7 and different published reports corresponds to 6x, 9x, 11x, 12x, and 15x. They also presented an exhaustive review on chromosome number and DNA content of different turmeric species from various centers around the world. Table 2.2 has already presented these data.

2.14

2.12

Clonal Selection in Turmeric

27

Chromosome Number in Curcuma Seedling Progenies

Chromosome number in seedling progenies is an important trait in understanding the genetics of plants. Curcuma is no exception. Numerical variation in chromosome number in Curcuma germplasm and seedling progenies has been reported by some researchers, among which the investigations of Nair and Sasikumar (2009) are important. They determined chromosome numbers in 22 germplasm collections and 28 open-pollinated seedling progenies. Among the germplasm collections analyzed, twenty had 2n ¼ 63, one had 2n ¼ 61, and another one had 2n ¼ 84. The seedling progenies showed various chromosome numbers as expected, ranging from 2n ¼ 63 to 2n ¼ 86, of which 2n ¼ 84 was the most frequent. These authors attributed the abnormalities to triploid chromosome segregation, which produced gametes with differing chromosome numbers, resulting in chromosome number variation among progenies. These authors also suggested the origin of germplasm collections with varied chromosome number as natural seedling progenies. Mitotic metaphase has shown diploid chromosome number of 2n ¼ 63 in a cultivar and 2n ¼ 84 in a seedling progeny of C. longa.

2.13

Turmeric Crop Improvement

Generally, crop improvement in turmeric was restricted to clonal selection, induced mutation, and subsequent selection. The principal target in crop improvement was yield enhancement, attaining high curing percentage, and curcumin content. Following reports of seed set in C. longa and C. aromatica, through open pollination and controlled crosses, the possibility of utilizing recombination breeding opened up in genetic improvement of the crop (Nambiar et al. 1982; Nazeem et al. 1993; Sasikumar et al. 1994). Both IISR at Kozhikode (Calicut) in Kerala State and the AICRP scattered in different parts of India engage in crop improvement programs. Table 2.3 gives salient results with regard to these efforts.

2.14

Clonal Selection in Turmeric

Turmeric crop improvement by clonal selection played the most significant role in developing high-yielding varieties. Rare seed set and insufficient knowledge on establishing seedling progenies were the reasons for this. Selection was mainly applied on landraces collected from different turmeric growing regions of India. More improved varieties of C. longa were developed as compared to C. aromatica

Table 2.3 Crop improvement in Indian turmeric

Variety Krishna

Sugandham

Roma

Ranga

Rasmi

RajendraSonia

Megha

Pant Peetabh

Suranjana

Pedigree Clonal selection from Tekurpeta (Maharashtra Agricultural University) Germplasm selection (Gujarat Agricultural University) Clonal selection T. Sunder (Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology) Clonal selection from Rajpuri local (Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology) Clonal selection from Rajpuri local (Orissa University of Agriculture and Technology) Germplasm selection (Rajendra Agricultural University) Selection from Lakadong types (ICAR Research Center Shillong) Germplasm selection (GB Pant University of Agriculture and Technology) Germplasm selection (Uttar Bengal Krishi Viswavidyalaya)

Crop yield (t/ha) 240

Fresh recovery (%) 9.2

Dry content (%) 16.4

Curcumin features 2.8

210

15.0

23.3

3.1

Moderately tolerant to pests and diseases

250

20.7

31.0

6.1

Suitable for hilly areas

250

29.0

24.8

6.3

Bold rhizomes, moderately resistant to leaf blotch and rhizome scales

240

31.3

23.0

6.4

Bold rhizomes

225

23.0

18.0

8.4

Bold and plumpy

300– 315

20.0

16.37

6.8

Bold rhizomes

–

29.0

18.5

7.5

Resistant to rhizome rot

235

–

21.2

5.7

Tolerant to rhizome rot and leaf blotch, resistant to rhizome scales and moderately resistant to shoot borer

Remarks Moderately tolerant to pests and diseases

(continued)

2.14

Clonal Selection in Turmeric

29

Table 2.3 (continued)

Variety Suvarna

Suguna

Sudharshana

IISR Alleppey Supreme IISR Kedaram

Kanthi

Sobha

Sona

Varna

IISR Prabha

IISR Pratibha

Pedigree Germplasm selection (Indian Institute of Spices Research) Germplasm selection (Indian Institute of Spices Research) Germplasm selection (Indian Institute of Spices Research) Selection from finger (Indian Institute of Spices Research) Germplasm selection (Indian Institute of Spices Research) Selection from Mydukur (Kerala Agricultural University) Germplasm selection (Kerala Agricultural University) Germplasm selection (Kerala Agricultural University) Germplasm selection (Kerala Agricultural University) Open-pollinated seedling selection (Indian Institute of Spices Research) Open-pollinated seedling selection (Indian Institute of Spices Research)

Crop yield (t/ha) 200

Fresh recovery (%) 17.4

Dry content (%) 20.0

Curcumin features 4.3

190

29.3

20.4

7.3

Short-duration type, tolerance to rhizome rot

190

28.8

20.6

5.3

Short-duration type, tolerance to rhizome rot

210

35.4

19.0

5.55

Tolerant to turmeric leaf blotch

210

35.5

18.9

5.9

Tolerant to leaf blotch

240– 270

37.65

20.15

7.18

240– 270

35.88

19.38

7.39

240– 270

4.02 dry

18.88

7.12

Big mother rhizomes and bold fingers with short internodes Big mother rhizomes and bold fingers with short internodes Field tolerant to leaf blotch

240– 270

4.16 dry

19.05

7.87

205

37.47

19.50

6.50

225

39.12

18.50

6.21

Remarks Bright orangecolored rhizomes

Bold rhizome with internodes, field tolerant to leaf blotch

(continued)

30

2 The Botany of Turmeric

Table 2.3 (continued)

Variety CO-1

BSR-1

BSR-2

Suroma

Pedigree X-ray mutant selection from Erode local (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University) X-ray mutant selection from Erode local (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University) X-ray mutant selection from Erode local (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University) Tamil Nadu Agricultural University X-ray mutant selection from Tsunder (Tamil Nadu Agricultural University)

Crop yield (t/ha) 270

Fresh recovery (%) 30.5

Dry content (%) 19.5

Curcumin features 3.2

285

30.7

20.5

4.2

Suitable for drought-prone areas

245

32.7

26.0

6.1

Bold rhizomes, resistant to scale insects

253

20.0

–

–

Field tolerant leaf blotch, leaf spot, and rhizome scale

Remarks Bold, bright orange rhizomes, suitable for droughtprone areas

Source: Ravindran et al. (2007)

or C. amada. High-yielding variety Krishna (7.2 t/ha) was developed by Pujari et al. (1986) for general cultivation in Maharashtra, which was found suitable for Konkan region later (Jalgaonkar et al. 1988). Two high-yielding and diseasetolerant lines with high dry recovery and quality, namely, PTS-10 and PTS-24, were identified by HARS, Pottangi (Odisha), and were releases as Roma and Suroma (Table 2.3) and recommended for large-scale cultivation to replace local varieties (Ravindran et al. 2007). Evaluation of about 19 high-yielding lines identified at IISR on multilocation testing resulted in PCT-8, PCT-13, and PCT-14, with high yield and curcumin content and were released as Suvarna, Suguna, and Sudharshana (Ratnambal and Nair 1986; Ratnambal et al. 1992). Suguna and Sudharshana are short-duration varieties and are also field tolerant to rhizome rot (Ravindran et al. 2007). These were better performers in the State of Andhra Pradesh in India (Reddy et al. 1989). Two more high-yielding and highquality varieties, namely, IISR Alleppey Supreme and IISR Kedaram, were released from IISR through clonal selection (Sasikumar et al. 2005). Maurya

2.16

Mutation- and Selection-Induced Crop Improvement in Turmeric

31

Fig. 2.3 The popular “Alleppey Supreme” turmeric variety

(1990) recommended RH-Rajendra-Sonia for the State of Bihar in India. Its yield potential is about 24 t/ha of fresh rhizomes and 8.4% curcumin content (Fig. 2.3).

2.15

Turmeric Improvement by Seedling Selection

Reports on seed set and seed germination in C. aromatica (Nambiar et al. 1982) and C. longa (Nair et al. 2004; Nazeem et al. 1993) opened new vistas in crop improvement in turmeric. Evaluation of 15 open-pollinated seedling progenies of C. longa at IISR, Calicut, India during 1990–1991 resulted in short listing of seven lines. These on multilocation trials during 1992–1995 threw up two promising lines which were releases for commercial cultivation by IISR as IISR Prabha and IISR Pratibha. Hence, it is evident that seedling progenies have the potential to generate sufficient variability for selection of better genotypes for commercial cultivation.

2.16

Mutation- and Selection-Induced Crop Improvement in Turmeric

X-ray irradiation was used to develop all the mutant cultivars. Three mutants, namely, CO-1, BSR-1, and BSR-2, from Erode local were developed by X-ray irradiation and were subsequently released for large-scale commercial cultivation (Balashanmugham et al. 1986; Cheziyan and Shanmugasundaram 2000). Suroma is another mutant selection from Tsunder subsequent to X-ray irradiation. Gamma ray effect on mutation in turmeric has been reported (Rao 1999). Use of chemical mutagens, such as colchicine, EMS, and MNG, each at 20, 500, and 1000 ppm on cultivar Mydukur, resulted in taller and high-yielding colchiploids (Ravindran et al. 2007).

32

2.17

2 The Botany of Turmeric

Hybridization and Selection in Turmeric

Successful hybridization and establishment of hybrid progenies have been reported (Nazeem et al. 1993) in crosses between C. longa and C. aromatica. Seed sets in C. longa crosses were obtained involving short-duration types (Renjith et al. 2001). However, no commercial cultivars have been released by hybridization and selection so far. A systematic investigation on the incompatibility mechanisms and production of inbred progenies in turmeric may help evolve desirable recombinants and heterotic hybrids.

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Pillai, S. K., Pillai, A., & Sachdeva, S. (1961). Root apical organization in monocotyledons— Zingiberaceae. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences Series B, 53, 240–256. Pujari, P. P., Patil, R. B., & Sakpal, R. T. (1986). Krishna—A high yielding variety of turmeric. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices Journal, 9, 65–66. Purseglove, J. W., Brown, E. G., Green, C. L., & Robin, S. R. J. (1981). Turmeric in: Spices, 2 (pp. 532–580). Essex: Longman. Raghavan, T. S., & Venkatasubban, K. R. (1943). Cytological studies in the family Zingiberaceae with special reference to chromosome number and cyto-taxonomy. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences Series B, 17, 118–132. Raju, E. C., & Shah, J. J. (1975). Studies in stomata of ginger, turmeric and mango ginger. Flora, 164, 19–25. Ramachandran, K. (1961). Chromosome numbers in the genus Curcuma Linn. Current Science, 30, 194–196. Ramachandran, K. (1969). Chromosome number in Zingiberaceae. Cytologia, 34(2), 213–221. Rao, D. V. R. (1999). Effect of gamma irradiation on growth, yield and quality of turmeric. Advances in Horticulture and Forestry, 6, 107–110. Rao, A. M., Jagadeeshwar, R., & Sivaraman, K. (2006). Turmeric. In P. N. Ravindran, K. Nirmal Babu, K. N. Shiva, & A. K. Johny (Eds.), Advances in spices research (pp. 433–492). Jodhpur: Agribios. Ratnambal, M. J., & Nair, M. K. (1986). High yielding turmeric selection PCT-8. Journal of Plantation Crops, 14, 94–98. Ratnambal, M. J., Babu, K. N., Nair, M. K., & Edison, S. (1992). PCT 13 and PCT 14—Two high yielding varieties of turmeric. Journal of Plantation Crops, 20, 79–84. Ravindran, P. N., Remashree, A. B., & Sherlija, K. K. (1998). Developmental morphology of rhizomes of ginger and turmeric. Final report of Indian Council of Agricultural Research New Delhi Ad-hoc Project, Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut, Kerala State, India. Ravindran, P. N., Babu, K. N., & Shiva, K. N. (2007). In turmeric—The genus Curcuma. In P. N. Ravindran, K. N. Babu, & K. N. Shiva (Eds.), Botany and crop improvement of turmeric (pp. 15–70). Boca Raton: CRC Press. Reddy, M. L. N., Rao, A. M., Rao, D. V. R., & Reddy, S. A. (1989). Screening of short duration turmeric varieties/cultures suitable for Andhra Pradesh. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices Journal, 12, 87–89. Rendle, A. B. (1904). The classification of flowering plants I. gymnosperms and monocotyledons (p. 403). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Renjith, D., Nazeem, P. A., & Nybe, E. V. (2001). Response of turmeric (Curcuma domestica Val.) to in vivo and in vitro pollination. Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops, 10(2), 135–139. Sabu, M. A. (1991). Taxonomic and phylogenetic study of South Indian Zingiberaceae. PhD thesis, University of Calicut, Kerala State, India, pp. 322. Sasaki, Y., Fushimi, H., & Komatasu, K. (2004). Application of single-nucleotide polymorphism analysis of the trnK gene to the identification of the Curcuma plants. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 27, 144–146. Sasikumar, B., Ravindran, P. N., & George, J. K. (1994). Breeding ginger and turmeric. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices Journal, 18(1), 10–12. Sasikumar, B., George, J. K., Saji, K. V., & Zachariah, T. J. (2005). Two new high yielding, high curcumin, turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) varieties—“IISR Kedaaram” and “IISR Alleppey” Supreme. Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops, 14(1), 71–74. Sato, D. (1948). The karyotype analysis in Zingiberaceae with special reference to the protokaryotype and stable karyotype. Scientific papers of the College of General Education, 10. University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan, Vol. 2, pp. 225–243. Shah, J. J., & Raju, E. C. (1975). General morphology, growth, and branching behavior of the rhizome of ginger, turmeric and mango ginger. New Botanist, 11(2), 59–69. Sharma, A. K., & Bhattacharya, N. K. (1959). Cytology of several members of Zingiberaceae. La Cellule, 10, 297–346.

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Chapter 3

Genetics of Turmeric

Abstract The chapter elaborately discusses the genetics of turmeric, molecular characterization, turmeric cultivars including genetic variability in turmeric, and conservation of genetic resources. The chapter would also discuss the conservation and management of turmeric resources and GIS technology, and there would also be a discussion on protection of turmeric plant varieties, including a discussion on intellectual property rights with regard to turmeric. Keywords Turmeric · Genetics · Molecular characterization · Cultivars · Intellectual property rights

Turmeric has a rich genetic background. The genus Curcuma has about 100 species, and Table 3.1 catalogs the most important of them. These varied species originate from South and Southeast Asia. Some of the floristic studies of the Curcuma genus are of those described by Gamble (1925), Hooker (1886), and Roxburgh (1832). In addition to Curcuma longa, the other economically important ones are C. aromatica, used in medicine and toiletry article manufacture. Also, those used in folklore medicines in Southeast Asia, such as C. kwangsiensis, C. ochrorhiza, C. pierreana, C. zedoaria, and C. caesia, are important. C. alismatifolia and C. roscoeana have floricultural importance. The popular C. amada is used extensively for culinary use, such as in pickles and salads. C. zedoaria, C. malabarica, C. pseudomontana, C. montana, C. decipiens, C. angustifolia, C. rubescens, C. haritha, and C. caulina are used in the manufacture of arrowroot powder (Sasikumar 2005). The other important species are C. purpurescens, C. mangga, C. heyneana, C. xanthorrhiza, C. aeruginosa, C. phaeocaulis, and C. petiolata. Though it is widely believed and acclaimed that Curcuma originated in the IndoMalaysian region, its spread and acclimatization in South and Southeast Asian regions seem to have religious connotations. The Hindu religion might have triggered its spread to different Asian countries during the post-Aryan period. According to Marco Polo, turmeric reached China in ad 700 (Ridley 1912). Purseglove et al. (1981) stated that the people of Malaysia believed in a Malaysia– Polynesian connection in the origin of turmeric in that country. Burkill (1966) © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 K. P. Nair, Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_3

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3 Genetics of Turmeric

Table 3.1 Turmeric species of economic importance S. no. 1.

Species C. longa L. syn C. domestica Val.

2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

C. amada Roxb, C. mangga Val. and Zijp. C. zedoaria Roxb. C. ochrorhiza Val. and Van Zijp. C. pierreana Gagnep. C. aromatica Salisb.

7.

C. kwangsiensis S.G. Lec and C.F. Liang syn C. chuanyujin, C. phaeocaulis Val. C. caesia Roxb. C. comosa Roxb. C. angustifolia Roxb., C. zedoaria Roxb. C. caulina F. Grah., C. pseudomontana F. Grah C. montana Roxb., C. rubescens Roxb. C. leucorrhiza, C. xanthorrhiza Roxb. C. decipiens Dalz., C. malabarica Val. C. raktakanta Mangaly and Sabu C. haritha Mangaly and Sabu C. aeruginosa Roxb. C. alismatifolia Gagnep., C. thorelli C. roscoeana Wall.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19.

Economic importance Dye manufacture, perfumery, aroma therapy, insect repellant, and in religious use Spice, medicine, pickles, salads Folklore medicine, arrowroot manufacture Malaysian folklore medicine Vietnamese folklore medicine Medicine, toiletry articles, and insect repellant Chinese folklore medicine Spice and medicine Thai folklore medicine Arrowroot manufacture Arrowroot manufacture Arrowroot manufacture Arrowroot manufacture Arrowroot manufacture Arrowroot manufacture Arrowroot manufacture Arrowroot manufacture Cut flower production Cut flower production

believed that the crop spread to West Africa in the thirteenth century and to East Africa in the seventeenth century. It was introduced to Jamaica in 1983. Its introduction to Central American countries is of recent origin. The genus Curcuma, considered to have originated in the Indo-Malaysian region (Purseglove 1968), has a widespread occurrence in the tropical belt of Asia to Africa and also Australia. Of the 100 or so species reported in the Curcuma genus, about 40% is of Indian origin (Velayudhan et al. 1999). Taxonomy of the Curcuma genus is still far from being clearly established. Some investigations on the anatomical and morphological characteristics of the Curcuma species and turmeric varieties have been made but, scarcely, if any, molecular characterization. A few investigations on isozyme polymorphism and identification of species based on 18S rRNA and trnK genes have been made. Cytology of 12 species of Curcuma is reported. C. longa, cultivated turmeric, is now grown in India, China, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Vietnam, Thailand, the Philippines, Japan, Korea, Sri Lanka, Nepal, South Pacific Islands, East and West Africa, Malaysia, Caribbean Islands, and Central America. There is rich diversity of Curcuma in India, especially species and cultivar (Sasikumar et al. 1999). About 40 Curcuma species, 50 cultivars, and 20 improved varieties of C. longa and one improved variety of C. amada are available in India. Table 3.2 lists the different species in India.

3 Genetics of Turmeric

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Table 3.2 Indian Curcuma species Species C. aeruginosa C. albiflora C. amada C. amarissima C. angustifolia C. aromatica C. caesia C. caulina C. comosa C. petiolata C. decipiens C. rubescens C. ferruginea C. longa C. montana C. neilgherrensis C. oligantha C. pseudomontana C. reclinata C. xanthorrhiza C. zedoaria C. sylvatica C. aurantiaca C. sulcata C. indora C. ecalcarata C. soloensis C. brog C. haritha C. raktakanta C. kudagensis C. thalakaveriensis C. malabarica C. karnatakensis C. cannanorensis C. vamana C. lutea C. coriacea C. nilamburensis C. leucorhiza

Statewise geographic distribution West Bengal Kerala Throughout India West Bengal Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Northeast India Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, and Bihar West Bengal Maharashtra West Bengal West Bengal Kerala and Karnataka West Bengal West Bengal Throughout India Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh Same as above Kerala Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh Madhya Pradesh West Bengal Throughout India Kerala Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, and Andhra Pradesh Maharashtra Gujarat, Maharashtra, and Karnataka Kerala West Bengal West Bengal Kerala Kerala Karnataka Karnataka Kerala and Karnataka Karnataka Kerala Kerala Kerala and Karnataka Kerala Kerala West Bengal

Source: Velayudhan et al. (1999)

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3.1

3 Genetics of Turmeric

The Diversity of Turmeric Species

Of the 100 turmeric species, 41 are known to occur in India, of which at least 10 are endemic to the Indian subcontinent. The ecology of the species varies so much that their habitat ranges from the sea level (sandy coastal habitat) to high altitude, such as more than 2000 msl (mean sea level) in the Western Ghats and Himalayas in India. While species such as C. longa, C. zedoaria, C. amada, and C. aromatica are found predominantly in the plains, C. angustifolia, C. neilgherrensis, C. kudagensis, C. thalakaveriensis, C. pseudomontana, and C. coriacea are confined to hills at an altitude above 1000–2500 msl (Velayudhan et al. 1999). Species diversity is at its maximum in South and Northeast India and the Andaman and Nicobar islands. Taxonomic revision of Curcuma genus is underway. The species C. zedoaria syn. and C. xanthorrhiza are considered synonymous, and C. amada closely resembles C. mangga inasmuch as quality attributes are concerned. Quite likely, the number of Indian species may be reduced to just 30. Similarly, it has now been established that the Chinese species C. albicoma and C. chuanyujin are synonyms of C. sichuanensis and C. kwangsiensis, respectively. The Chinese species C. wenyujin is now recognized as a synonym of C. aromatica, while C. phaeocaulis was misidentified as C. zedoaria, C. caesia, and C. aeruginosa in China in the past (Liu and Wu 1999). C. kwangsiensis var. puberula and var. affinis are not accepted, and the identity of the Taiwan species C. viridiflora remains undecided (Liu and Wu 1999). However, new species, such as C. rhabdota, are also reported from Southeast Asia (Sirirugsa and Newman 2000). C. prakasha sp. nov. from India (Tripathi 2001) and C. bicolor, C. glans, and C. rhomba from Thailand (Mood and Larsen 2001) have also been reported.

3.2

Curcuma spp.: Its Characterization

Employing numerical taxonomy, 31 species of Curcuma were investigated by Velayudhan et al. (1999). These could be clustered into nine groups in the dendrogram. In general, the sessile tuberizing species were distinct from the species without sessile tubers. They also collected extensive data on distribution, habitat, flowering time, floral characters, quantitative characters of the floral parts, and features of above- and belowground characters of the 31 species. Most of them exhibited distinguishable morphological features.

3.3 Molecular Characterization

3.3

41

Molecular Characterization

The molecular characterization of Curcuma species is in its infancy. Randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) profiling of rhizome DNA was done by Sreeja (2002) on five Curcuma species, namely, C. longa, C. zedoaria, C. caesia, C. amada, and C. aromatica. Three random decamer primers generated 11 polymorphic bands among the species investigated. A novel attempt to identify the genuine Curcuma species traded as drug in China and Japan, based on sequence analysis of the 188 rRNA and trnK genes coupled with amplification refractory mutation system (ARMS) analysis, was done (Sasaki et al. 2002). Though designed to identify the spurious Curcuma spp. in the marketed drug, this method is also helpful in the molecular taxonomy profiling of Curcuma. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique to identify genuine botanical Curcuma species in the marketed turmeric powder was developed by Sasikumar et al. (2004). RAPD markers to identify C. longa and C. zedoaria in the marketed turmeric powder have been reported in literature. Apavatjrut et al. (1999) investigated isozyme polymorphism in seven early flowering and two unidentified Curcuma species of Thailand. Of the 21 isozymes investigated, 8 were found to be polymorphic, and the species were grouped into distinct clusters depicting their polygenetic relationships. Comparative isozyme polymorphism of the cultivated and natural populations from Thailand and Japan revealed that the cultivated population was far more uniform genetically (Paisookasantivatana et al. 2001). trnk nucleotide sequencing technique to identify six medicinal Curcuma species, namely, C. longa, C. phaeocaulis, C. sichuanensis, C. chuanyujin, C. chuanhuangjiang, and C. chuanezhu found in Sichuan, in China, was employed by Cao and Komatsu (2003). The new polygenetic analysis of Zingiberaceae based on DNA sequences of the nuclear internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and plastid mat K regions has been recently proposed (Kress et al. 2002). Results suggest that Curcuma is paraphyletic with Hitchenia, Stahlianthus, and Smithatris. A novel method of identification of C. longa and C. aromatica called “loop-mediated isothermal amplification” (LAMP) has also been reported (Sasaki and Nagumo 2007). Isozyme polymorphism in a germplasm collection of C. longa was investigated by Shamina et al. (1998). Acid phosphatase, superoxide dismutase, esterase, polyphenol oxidase, peroxidase, and catalase showed good polymorphism in 15 accessions investigated. Though turmeric is predominantly vegetatively propagated, the variability observed in the isozymes indicates the role of natural selection and conscious selection by human hand over the years in evolving locally adapted cultivars.

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3.4

3 Genetics of Turmeric

The Diversity in Turmeric Cultivars

Many local cultivars of turmeric are known mostly by the names of the locality. Moderate genetic variability exists in the crop, and the cultivars vary in yield, duration, and quality. About 70 cultivars were identified. Region-specific varieties are cataloged in Table 3.3. Both collections and species of Curcuma differ in their floral characteristics, aerial and rhizome morphology, and chemical constituents (Valeton 1918; Velayudhan et al. 1999). India boasts more than 70 turmeric types belonging to C. longa, with a few belonging to C. aromatica. There are many popular cultivars, which are specific to each region where the crop is cultivated. Duggirala, Armoor, Sugandham, Nandyal, Alleppey, Rajapuri, GL Puram, Bhavanisagar, Gorakhpur, and Jabedi are some of the more popular local cultivars, which have acquired their names from the regions where they are grown extensively (Nair et al. 1980). Existence of wide variability among the existing cultivars in respect of growth parameters, yield attributes, resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses, and quality characteristics was reported by many researchers (Velayudhan et al. 1999). The cultivars are grouped into short duration, known as “Kasturi” types, medium duration known as “Kesari” types, and long duration, with no specific names as in the former cases (Rao and Rao 1994). Cultivars Armoor, Tekurpet, and Mydukkur are long-duration types, while cultivar Kothapeta is medium-duration type and Kasturi short-duration type. There is reasonable variation with regard to reaction to pests and diseases. Cultivars Mannuthy local and Kuchipudi are tolerant to shoot borer, while cultivars Mannuthy local, Tekurpet, and Kodur are tolerant to leaf blotch. Cultivars Suguna and Sudarshana are tolerant to the dreaded disease rhizome rot. Both foliar and rhizome diseases affect turmeric. Among the foliar diseases, leaf spot caused by Colletotrichum capsici and leaf blotch caused by Taphrina maculans are quite serious. Rhizome rot caused by Pythium gramicolum is the most serious malady of the crop. An important breeding objective is to identify disease-resistant varieties. Table 3.3 The Indian turmeric cultivars Indian state Andhra Pradesh Karnataka Shillong Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Odisha Tamil Nadu Northeast

Cultivar description Duggirala, Mydukkur, Armoor Local, Cuddapah, Kodur, Tekurpet, Kasturi, Chaya Pasupu, Armoor, Amdapuram Kasturi, Mudaga, Balaga, Cuddapah, Rajapuri, Amalapuram Alleppey, Moovattupuzha, Wyanad Local, Tekurpetta, Armoor, Duggirala Raigarh, Jangir, Bilaspur Krishna, Rajapuri, Sugandham Dindigam Erode, Salem Lakadong

3.5 Genetic Variability in Turmeric

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Table 3.4 Indian popular local cultivars Cultivar name Andhra Pradesh Kasturi types—C. aromatica Kasturi Kothapeta Kasturi Tanuku Kasturi Amalapuram Chaya pasupu Kesari types—C. longa Kesari Duvvur Amruthapani Kothapeta Long-duration types Duggairala Tekurpeta Mydukur Armoor Sugandham Vontimitta Nandyal Avanigadda Tamil Nadu Erode Salem Kerala Alleppey Mannuthy local Assam Shillong Tall Karbi Maharashtra and Gujarat Rajapuri Eavaigon

Yield (t/ha)

Remarks

15–20 12–15 10–12

Susceptible to leaf spot Same as above Same as above

– 25

Susceptible to leaf blotch Same as above

32 – 32 25 20–25 20 – 15–18

Susceptible to leaf spot Tolerant to leaf spot Susceptible to leaf rot and leaf spot Susceptible to leaf rot and leaf spot Susceptible to leaf blotch – – –

30–32 –

– –

25 24

– –

40 30–40

Tolerant to leaf blotch and leaf rot Tolerant to leaf rot and leaf spot

20

Resistant to leaf spot and susceptible to leaf blotch and leaf rot –

45

The various collections of turmeric germplasm showed high variability in resistance to pests and diseases. Table 3.4 lists the details of popular turmeric cultivars.

3.5

Genetic Variability in Turmeric

Genetic variability in quality attributes of more than 100 collections of turmeric from India, belonging to both the C. longa and C. aromatica types, a few exotic ones and some wild collections were investigated with respect to oleoresin and essential oil

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Table 3.5 Genetic variability in turmeric types Type C. domestica Val. (C. longa)

C. aromatica Salisb.

Genetic traits Dry recovery (%) Oleoresin (%) Curcumin (%) Oil (%) Dry recovery (%) Oleoresin (%) Oil (%) Curcumin (%)

Range 13.5– 32.4 10.0– 19.0 2.8– 10.9 4.0– 9.5 14.0– 28.0 9.6– 19.2 4.0– 9.0 2.3– 8.0

Good cultivars and accessions Ernad, Cl.No.5A, Amrithapani, Kothapeta, Amalapuram, Sel.III Chamakuchi, Kayyam, Gudalur, Palani Amalapuram, Sel.III, Rorathong E. Sikkim Kaziranga, Jorhat, CII.328, Sugandham, Kayyam, Gudalur, Edapalayam, Erathkunnam, Palapally, Trichur Ernad, Kakkayam local, Kahikuchi Burahazer, Dibrugarh Hahim Konni Konni Nadavayal Kasturi, Armoor Dibrugarh

contents, and dry recovery of harvested turmeric by Ratnambal and Nair (1986). Data on these are reported in Table 3.5. Dry recovery, oleoresin, and curcumin contents determine the quality of turmeric, and high variability was observed in these important traits. Remarkable genetic advancement coupled with high heritability in rhizome yield, crop duration, leaf number, number of primary fingers, yield of secondary fingers, and height of pseudostem was reported (Indiresh et al. 1992; Philip and Nair 1986; Singh et al. 2003). These authors suggested that superior genotypes may be obtained by selection based on the number and weight of mother, primary, and secondary rhizomes. Turmeric yield is primarily influenced by length of primary fingers, mother rhizome diameter, and length and girth of secondary fingers. When these genetic traits are correlated with yield, the correlation was both positive and significant (Cholke 1993; Rao 2000). Leaf number, number of primary fingers, and crop duration had shown positive correlation with rhizome yield, at both genotypic and phenotypic levels (Panja et al. 2002; Reddy 1987). Curcumin, oleoresin, and essential oils were negatively correlated with rhizome yield. For turmeric improvement, plant height and leaf number have to be considered as they are important determinants of the potential for the genotypic yield (Narayanpur and Hanamashetti 2003). From this, it can be concluded that plant height is the single most morphological trait while selecting genotypes for yield. Genetic divergence investigations (D2 analysis) with 54 genotypes showed wide diversity among genotypes and were grouped in as many as six clusters (Rao 2000). PCT-13 and Lakadong formed solitary groups and were genetically most distant. The land races of the northeast region of India were almost clustered in low- to moderate-yield groups, while genotypes from the southern region were scattered among different complexes ranging from moderate to high yielders (Chandra et al. 1997, 1999). PCT-10, 13, and 14 of shorter duration, medium yield, and good

3.6 The Conservation and Management of Turmeric Genetic Resources

45

curcumin content were identified as potential parents in future breeding programs. There is extensive reference to genetic variability in turmeric influencing important yield attributes and yield (Chandra et al. 1999; Hazra et al. 2000; Lynrah et al. 1998). Environmental effects on curcumin content of turmeric varieties have been reported (Zachariah et al. 1998). The curcumin content of turmeric varieties shows high location specific-genotypic effects. Turmeric cultivars are classified either based on their crop duration, as short, medium, and long, or depending on the curcumin content, as low or high curcumin content varieties (Sasikumar et al. 1994).

3.6

The Conservation and Management of Turmeric Genetic Resources

India must be credited with the highest collection of genetic resources of turmeric. Within the country, the Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR) at Calicut, Kerala State, under the administrative control and funding of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR), New Delhi, has a good collection of turmeric germplasms maintained in field gene banks. There are other centers also maintaining gene banks. At IISR, these nucleus germplasms are planted in tubs to maintain purity, as planting in fields would lead to mixing and loss of purity. An in vitro gene bank of important genotypes is also maintained at IISR and the National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources, New Delhi, (NBPGR, Geetha 2002; Ravindran et al. 2004). Ex situ gene banks were also established at IISR, NBPGR, and in a Regional Research Station in Trichur, Kerala State. These gene banks are established by collecting germplasms from all over the country. The turmeric conservatory at IISR has 1040 accessions, 1018 cultivars, 16 accessions of related taxa, and 6 exotic collections. The NBPGR Regional Research Station in Trichur has 650 accessions. In addition to the above, the central government-funded All India Coordinated Research Project on Turmeric (AICRPT) also maintains germplasm collection, details of which are given in Table 3.6. Table 3.6 AICRPT germplasm collections AICRPT center Pottangi Jagtial Dholi Raigarh Kumarganj Pundibari Solan Coimbatore Total

Number of cultivated germplasms 197 273 87 42 126 136 145 258 1264

Source: Annual report, AICRP on Spices, 2007

Wild and related species – – 2 – – 14 – – 16

Total 197 273 89 42 126 150 145 258 1280

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3 Genetics of Turmeric

The turmeric research centers under the AICRP on Spices, funded by the ICAR, maintain about 1280 germplasm accessions. Utilizing these germplasms, 22 highyielding varieties, with good yield attributes and resistance to pests and diseases, have been developed and released for widespread cultivation within the country in different agroclimatic conditions. Management of turmeric genetic resources is a very complex process, starting from the identification of a target gene pool for conservation and their subsequent management, which demands precise attention on specific growth stages and other mutually dependent stages. Many of these activities not only generate but also require georeferenced data. Analysis of these data with geographic information system (GIS) technology can make the process more effective and time efficient. GIS technology has successfully been employed to study the spread of turmeric germplasms and also generate data on the incidence of pests and diseases.

3.7

Biodiversity and GIS Technology

Ecosystem diversity, species, and genetic diversity constitute biodiversity. This is a vast area of scientific scrutiny, as the number of parameters involved is quite large. Biodiversity investigations demand cataloging collections to establish relationships among varied databases. GIS differentiation of plant populations reflects the dynamics of gene flow and natural selection. Sampling of geographically distinct populations is a practical approach to understand biodiversity of genetic variation. Sampling among distinct and diverse ecogeographic regions is specifically recommended for conserving genetic diversity in the case of rare and wild species. The application of geographic analysis (GA) of the collected germplasms helps predict the occurrence of species naturally or artificially and where successfully introduced. GA is based on the deployment of three basic technologies, namely, global positioning system (GPS), remote sensing devices (RSD), and GIS technology. The analysis of spatial information with GIS technology introduces new strategies for understanding and exploiting patterns of geographic diversity and can be carried out efficiently with personal computers and GIS software. GIS is a mapping software that links information about where things are with information about what things are like. A GIS map can combine many layers of information to provide a full view of the crop in question. Hence, if the biodiversity data obtains the assistance of GIS to arrange its collection data, then it will be facile to accommodate all the necessary information at one place. A GIS analysis makes it possible to link, or integrate, information that is difficult to associate through any other means. Hence, a GIS can use combinations of mapped variables to build and analyze new variables. A common strategy for sampling intraspecific genetic diversity is to maximize the sampling of geographically distinct populations. A GIS is a computer-based tool to map and analyze geographic phenomena that exist and events that occur on the Earth. Overall, GIS should be viewed as a technology, not simply as a computer

3.8 Turmeric and Intellectual Property Rights

47

system. It is an integrated set of hardware and software tools used for the manipulation and management of digital spatial (geographic) and related attribute data. Habitat loss and fragmentation are among the most common threats facing endangered species, making GIS-based evaluations an essential component of population viability analyses. Agricultural crop distribution is rarely limited to a crop’s native range. Introductions of crops to new areas largely result in crop range. This may not provide optimum growing conditions. For sustainable agricultural production, land suitability analysis is an important prerequisite. It is an interdisciplinary approach, which includes information from different domains, such as crop and soil science, meteorology, social science, economics, and management. Being interdisciplinary, it deals with information that is measured in different scales, including ordinal, nominal, and ratio scales. The turmeric crop can grow in diverse tropical conditions, from 1500 msl elevation, at a temperature range of 20–30  C, with an annual rainfall of 1500 mm or more, under rainfall or irrigated conditions. It grows in diverse soils but does best in well-drained sandy or clay loams. Based on these facts, a land suitability map for turmeric has been prepared employing the Ecocrop model of DIVA GIS (Utpala et al. 2007). It shows that suitable places like Assam, parts of Andhra Pradesh, and Bihar can grow turmeric of high quality. Assamese farmers grow excellent local varieties, such as Nowgam, which has 20% dry recovery, Hajo with 21% dry recovery, Barhola Jorhat with 25% dry recovery, Dardra Gauhati with 23.2% dry recovery, and Maran with 26% dry recovery (Ratnambal and Nair 1986).

3.8

Turmeric and Intellectual Property Rights

The Intellectual Property Rights (IPR) issue is one of the most vexing questions internationally. A decade ago, a global trade row was kicked up on account of the infringement of IPR rights, and India had to fight its way through to settle the issues. The primary reason for this is the very high medicinal value of turmeric. The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture recognizes the great importance of plant genetic resources and their proper conservation. The Treaty was adopted by the FAO Conference on November 3, 2001, and came into force on June 29, 2004. The sheer time span spent between the initial date of introduction of the Treaty and its final official recognition speaks volumes for the kind of pressures and/or counterpressures in streamlining a very important Treaty, which will have far-reaching consequences to humankind. Article 5 relating to the conservation, exploration, collection, characterization, evaluation, and documentation of plant genetic resources says: “Each Contracting Party shall, in cooperation with other Contracting Parties, promote an integrated approach to the exploration, conservation and sustainable use of plant genetic resources for food and agriculture.” And yet, one notes with utter dismay the kind of poaching and pirating of rare plant species around the developing world, through overt or covert collaboration of the natives, often by scientists and officials in responsible positions and often through

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3 Genetics of Turmeric

the sheer ignorance of the natives, as, for instance, in the case of the very many tribal communities who cultivate these rare plant species and who are ignorant of the immense potential value of the rare plant genetic resources in the developed world, for pecuniary benefits. Turmeric is a classical example of this biopiracy. India is a party to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD, 1992). CBD recognizes the sovereign rights of states to use their own biological resources. It expects the parties concerned to facilitate access to genetic resources by other Parties, subject to national legislation and on mutually agreed upon terms (Article 3 and 15 of CBD). Article 8(j) of the CBD recognizes the contributions of local and indigenous communities to the conservation and sustainable utilization of biological resources through traditional knowledge, practices, and innovations and provides for equitable sharing of the benefits that accrue with such people, arising from the utilization of their knowledge, practices, and innovations. However, the actual practice of these provisions is an exception to the rule, as has been exemplified by the Indian Basmati rice IPR fiasco and neem and turmeric IPR controversies, to name a few.

3.9

Controversial Patent Cases Involving Turmeric and Traditional Knowledge

Turmeric has been domesticated in Southeast Asian countries since very early times. It has properties which make it a very effective pharmaceutical and nutraceutical ingredient, cosmetics, and as a color dye. The following is a glaring example with regard to breach of IPR. In 1995, two Indian nationals at the University of Mississippi Medical Center were granted US Patent No. 5401, 5504 on “use of turmeric in wound healing.” The Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) in New Delhi, India, requested the US Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO), to reexamine the granting of the patent. CSIR argued that turmeric has been in use for thousands of years in India as an Ayurvedic preparation (Indian traditional medicine) in formulating medical preparations, as it shows rare properties in healing wounds and rashes, and therefore, its medicinal value, as claimed in the US Patent, was not original. The CSIR claim was supported by documentary evidence of traditional knowledge, including an ancient Sanskrit text and a research paper published in 1953 in the Journal of the Indian Medical Association. Despite arguments by the patentees to the contrary, the USPTO upheld the objections raised by the CSIR and revoked the patents granted (Anon 2007).

3.9 Controversial Patent Cases Involving Turmeric and Traditional Knowledge

3.9.1

49

Protection of Plant Varieties

Another important aspect of the IPR is the Trade-Related Intellectual Property Rights (TRIPS) agreement. After having the ratified TRIPS, India had to give effect to para 27(3) of Part II of TRIPS agreement in relation to plant varieties and would imply that India adopts an effective sui generis plant variety protection law. Registration and protection of plant varieties in India are covered under “The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers Rights Act, 2002,” a sui generis system of plant variety protection. The idea behind this Act is to establish an effective and efficient, fool proof, system of protecting plant varieties, farmers’ rights, and the right of plant breeders to develop new plant varieties. Conditions of registration are that the material is “new” (novel), distinct, uniform, and stable for new varieties and distinct (at least in one plant trait), uniform, and stable for extant varieties. The guidelines for Distinctness, Uniformity, and Stability (DUS) testing in turmeric are prepared by Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights Authority (PPF&FRA), New Delhi, India, in collaboration with IISR and notified the public. As the DUS guidelines are notified, varieties are eligible for registration under this Act in India.

3.9.2

Geographical Indications

To protect the unique origin of products and/or organisms, the geographical indication (GI) concept has been developed. It is in this context that GI becomes relevant. For instance, “Malabar pepper” is unique not just to the specific “Malabar” region in Kerala State, India, and hence, pepper grown elsewhere in the country cannot usurp this GI. The same holds good for Scotch whisky of Scotland or champagne of France. A GI is a sign for goods or brands that have a specific geographical origin and possesses qualities or reputation that are due to only that place of origin. Most commonly, a GI consists of the name of the place of origin of the good in question. Agricultural products typically have qualities that derive from their place of production and are influenced by specific local factors, such as climate and soil. Whether a sign functions as a GI is a matter of national law and consumer protection. GIs may be used for a wide variety of agricultural and horticultural products. One comes across hundreds of such products that bear a specific GI—Basmati rice, Benares silk, Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) tea, Indian curry, Swiss cheese, Russian Vodka, etc. Indian turmeric possesses unique features, and precise cataloging of these will help protect them through GI indication, which will eliminate unfair trade practices. Examples of possible Indian GI in turmeric are Lakadong Turmeric or Alleppey Finger Turmeric. Both command a huge market within the country and overseas.

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3 Genetics of Turmeric

References Anon. (2007). Traditional knowledge and geographical indications. http://www.iprcommis-sion. org/graphic/documents/final_report.htm/ Apavatjrut, P., Anuntalabhochai, P., Sirirugsa, P., & Alisi, C. (1999). Molecular markers in the identification of some early flowering Curcuma L. (Zingiberaceae) species. Annals of Botany, 84, 529–534. Burkill, T. H. (1966). A dictionary of economic products of the Malay Peninsula. Kualalumpur: Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operatives. Cao, H., & Komatsu, K. (2003). Molecular identification of six medicinal Curcuma plants produced in Sichuan: Evidence from plastid trnK gene sequences. Yao Xue Xue Bao, 38, 871–875. Chandra, R., Desai, A. R., Govind, S., & Gupta, P. N. (1997). Metroglyph analysis in turmeric (C. longa L.) germplasm in India. Scientia Horticulturae, 70, 211–233. Chandra, R., Govind, S., & Desai, A. R. (1999). Growth, yield and quality performance of turmeric (C. longa L.) genotypes in mid altitudes of Meghalaya. Journal of Applied Horticulture, 1, 142–144. Cholke, S. M. (1993). Performance of turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) cultivars. MSc (Ag) thesis, University of Agricultural Sciences, Dharvad, India. Gamble, J. S. (1925). Flora of the presidency of Madras II. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, India. Geetha, S. P. (2002). In vitro technology for genetic conservation of some genera of Zingiberaceae. PhD thesis, Calicut University, Calicut, Kerala State, India. Hazra, P., Roy, A., & Bandhopadyay, A. (2000). Growth characters as rhizome yield components of turmeric. Crop Research, 19, 235–246. Hooker, J. D. (1886). The flora of British India (Vol. V, pp. 78–95). London: Reeve L and Co. Indiresh, K. M., Uthaiiah, B. C., Reddy, M. J., & Rao, K. B. (1992). Genetic variability and heritability studies in turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices Journal, 27, 52–53. Kress, W. J., Prince, L. M., & Williams, K. J. (2002). The phylogeny and a new classification of the gingers (Zingiberaceae): Evidence from molecular data. American Journal of Botany, 89, 1682–1696. Liu, N., & Wu, T. L. (1999). Notes on Curcuma in China. Journal of Tropical and Subtropical Botany, 7, 146–150. Lynrah, P. G., Barua, P. K., & Chakrabarti, B. K. (1998). Pattern of genetic variability in a collection of turmeric genotypes. The Indian Journal of Genetics and Plant Breeding, 28, 201–207. Mood, J., & Larsen, K. (2001). New Curcuma species from South East Asia. The New Plantsman, 8, 207–217. Nair, M. K., Nambiar M. C., Ratnambal, M .J. (1980). Cytogenetics and crop improvement of ginger and turmeric. In Proceedings of the national seminar on ginger and turmeric, Calicut, India, pp. 15–23. Narayanpur, V. B., & Hanamashetti, S. I. (2003). Genetic variability and correlation studies in turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Journal of Plantation Crops, 31(2), 48–51. Paisookasantivatana, Y., Kako, S., & Seko, H. (2001). Isozyme polymorphism in Curcuma alismatifolia Gagnep. (Zingiberaceae) populations from Thailand. Scientia Horticulturae, 88, 244–307. Panja, B. N., De, D. K., Basak, S., & Chattopadhyay. (2002). Correlation and path analysis in turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops, 11, 70–73. Philip, J., & Nair, P. C. S. (1986). Studies on variability, heritability and genetic advance in turmeric. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices Journal, 10, 29–30. Purseglove, J. W. (1968). Tropical crops: Monocotyledons. London: Longman. Purseglove, J. W., Brown, E. G., Green, C. L., & Robin, S. R. (Eds.). (1981). Spices (Vol. II, pp. 532–580). New York: Longman.

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Rao, A. M. (2000). Genetic variability, yield and quality studies in turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). PhD thesis, ANGRAU, Rajendranagar, India. Rao, M. R., & Rao, D. V. R. (1994). Genetic resources of turmeric. In K. L. Chadha & P. Rathinam (Eds.), Advances in horticulture: Plantation crops and spices (Vol. 9, pp. 131–150). New Delhi: Malhotra Publishing House. Ratnambal, M. J., & Nair, M. K. (1986). High yielding turmeric selection PCT 8. Journal of Plantation Crops, 14, 91–98. Ravindran, P. N., Nirmal Babu, K., Saji, K. V., Geetha, S. P., Praveen, K., & Yamuna, G. (2004). Conservation of Spices genetic resources in in-vitro gene banks (ICAR project report, pp. 81). Calicut: Indian Institute of Spices Research. Reddy, M. L. N. (1987). Genetic variability and association in turmeric (Curcuma longa L.). Progress in Horticultural Science, 19, 83–86. Ridley, H. N. (1912). Spices. London: Macmillan. Roxburgh, W. (1832). In W. Carey (Ed.), Flora indica or description of Indian plants. Serampur: Mission Press. Sasaki, Y., & Nagumo, S. (2007). Rapid identification of Curcuma longa and C. aromatica by LAMP. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 30(11), 2229–2230. Sasaki, Y., Fushimi, H., Hui, C., Shao Qing, C., & Komatsu, K. (2002). Sequence analysis of Chinese and Japanese Curcuma drugs on 18S rRNA genes and trnK gene and the application of amplification refractory mutation system analysis for their authentication. Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 25, 1593–1599. Sasikumar, B. (2005). Genetic resources of Curcuma: Diversity, characterization and utilization. Plant Genetic Resources, 3(2), 230–251. Sasikumar, B., Ravindran, P. N., & George, J. K. (1994). Breeding ginger and turmeric. Indian Cocoa, Arecanut and Spices Journal, 18, 10–12. Sasikumar, B., Krishnamoorthy, B., Johnson, K. G., Saji, K. V., Ravindran, P. N., & Peter, K. V. (1999). Biodiversity and conservation of major spices in India. Plant Genetic Resources Newsletter, 118, 19–26. Sasikumar, B., Syamkumar, S., Remya, R., & Zachariaj, T. J. (2004). PCR based detection of adulteration in market samples of turmeric powder. Food Biotechnology, 18, 299–306. Shamina, A., Zachariah, T. J., Sasikumar, B., & Johnson, K. G. (1998). Biochemical variation in turmeric (C. longa) accessions based on isozyme polymorphism. The Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology, 73, 479–483. Singh, G., Singh, O. P., de Lampasona, M. P., & Catalan, C. (2003). Curcuma amada Roxb. chemical composition of rhizome oil. Indian Perfumer, 47, 143–148. Sirirugsa, P., & Newman, M. A. (2000). A new species of Curcuma L. (Zingiberaceae) S.E. Asia. The New Plantsman, 7, 196–199. Sreeja, S. G. (2002). Molecular characterization of Curcuma species using RAPD markers. MSc (Biotech) thesis, Periyar University, Tamil Nadu, India. Tripathi, S. (2001). Curcuma prakasha sp. nov. (Zingiberaceae) from North Eastern India. Nordic Journal of Botany, 21, 549–550. Utpala, P., Johny, A. K., Jayarajan, K., & Parthasarathy, V. A. (2007). Site suitability for turmeric production in India—A GIS interpretation. Natural Product Radiance, 6(2), 142–147. Valeton, T. H. (1918). New notes on the Zingiberaceae of Java and Malaya. Bulletin du Jardin botanique de Buitenzorg, 27, 1–81. Velayudhan, K. C., Muralidharan, V. K., Amalraj, V. A., Gautam, P. L., Mandla, S., & Kumar, D. (1999). Curcuma genetic resources (Scientific monograph no. 4). New Delhi: National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources. Zachariah, T. J., Sasikumar, B., & Nirmal Babu, K. (1998). Diversity for quality components in ginger and turmeric germplasm and interaction with environment. In B. Sasikumar, B. Krishnamoorthy, J. Rema, P. N. Ravindran, & K. V. Peter (Eds.), Proceedings of the golden jubilee national symposium on spices, medicinal and aromatic plants—Biodiversity, conservation and utilization (pp. 16–120). Calicut: Indian Institute of Spices Research.

Chapter 4

The Chemistry of Turmeric

Abstract The chemistry of turmeric: The chapter would discuss turmeric oil, turmeric oleoresin, microencapsulation, turmeric volatiles, turmeric turmerones, curcuminoids, and extraction procedures of curcumin. Keywords Turmeric · Chemistry · Turmeric oil · Oleoresin · Microencapsulation · Turmerones · Curcuminoids · Curcumin

There are various products obtained from turmeric, which have tremendous potential as commercial products. Turmeric, like other spices such as black pepper and cardamom, is available in the market as whole, ground, or as oleoresin. The institutional sector in Western countries buys turmeric oleoresins, whereas in the industrial sector, demand is more for whole turmeric; value-added products from turmeric include dehydrated turmeric powder, turmeric oils, oleoresins, and curcuminoids.

4.1

Turmeric Oil

The volatile turmeric oil is extracted from dried rhizomes, containing about 5–6% oil and leaves about 1.5%. It is generally extracted by steam distillation, and processing and extraction techniques play a vital role in maximizing oil yield, pigments, and their constituents (Chempakam and Parthasarathy 2008). Generally, the volatile oil is extracted by steam or hydrodistillation. Supercritical extraction, using carbon dioxide, is also used to extract volatile oil and oleoresin. The characteristic turmeric aroma is imparted by ar-turmerone, the major aroma principle in the oil (Chempakam and Parthasarathy 2008).

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 K. P. Nair, Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_4

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4.2

4 The Chemistry of Turmeric

Turmeric Oleoresin

Turmeric oleoresin is the organic extract of turmeric and is added to food items as a coloring agent. This is obtained by the extraction of the ground spice with organic solvents, such as acetone, ethylene dichloride, or ethanol, for 4–5 h (Krishnamurthy et al. 1976). Supercritical CO2 extraction and molecular distillation are the latest technologies followed to extract and separate turmeric oleoresin and to get a highquality product. Supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) does not result in thermal degradation products or contamination of the solvent. The extraction rate of turmeric oil in supercritical CO2 is a function of pressure, temperature, and flow rate at constant extraction time. The total yield decreased with temperature at constant flow rate but increased with flow rate at constant pressure and temperature. The optimum pressure for the extraction was found to be 22.5 MPa (Gopalan et al. 2000). Turmeric oleoresin is orange red in color. Its yield ranges from 5% to 15%. Curcumin, the principal coloring matter, forms about a third of the good-quality oleoresin. Its use is mainly in institutional cooking of meat and fish products, and also certain products, such as mustard, pickles, butter, and cheese. Oleoresin is composed of 30–45% of curcuminoid pigments and 15–20% of volatile oil. The latter contains 60% turmerone, 25% zingiberene, and small quantities of d-α-phellandrene, d-sabinene, cineole, and farnesol. It undergoes oxidative degradation. The pigments decompose on exposure to O2. The hydroxyl groups of pigments are converted to unstable ketones, which are further decomposed to colorless compounds with a short-carbon skeleton. Microencapsulation overcomes these problems.

4.2.1

Microencapsulation of Oleoresin

The specific advantages of turmeric oleoresin over ground turmeric are offset by their sensitivity to light, heat, oxygen, and alkaline conditions. This can be overcome by microencapsulation, which is defined as the technique of embedding minute particles of core material with a continuous polymer film that is designed to release its core material under predetermined conditions. This also protects the flavors from undesirable interactions (Amol et al. 2009). These investigators used gum arabic and maltodextrin to evaluate the appropriate wall material for encapsulation of turmeric oleoresin by spray drying. To prepare the microencapsulated free-flowing powder, the wall material was dissolved in water, and oleoresin was dispersed therein to obtain a dispersion or emulsion that has a continuous phase containing the filmformer and a discontinuous phase containing the oleoresin. The emulsion was stabilized using a stabilizer and/or emulsifying agent under continuous vigorous agitation. Gum acacia, dextrinized starch, maltodextrin, pectin, alginate, or a proteinaceous material such as gelatin or casein is used as a stabilizer. Alternatively, nonpolymeric emulsion stabilizers such as fatty acid partial esters of sorbitol

4.2 Turmeric Oleoresin

55

anhydride (sorbitan or Span) and polyoxyethylene derivatives of fatty acid partial esters of sorbitol anhydride (tween) are used. The dispersions are then emulsified by using a homogenizer, which can then be spray dried (Amol et al. 2009).

4.2.2

Volatiles of Turmeric

Dried and cured C. longa generally yields 1.5–3.0% volatile oil. C. aromatica is comparatively much higher in volatile oil (4–8%) and low in curcuminoids (1.5%). Turmeric owes its aromatic taste to the volatile oils present in the rhizome (Chempakam and Parthasarathy 2008).

4.2.3

The Constituents of Volatile Oils

Fresh turmeric oil from rhizomes obtained from French Polynesia is reported to contain 20 components with zingiberene (16.7%), ar-turmerone (15.5%), and α-phellandrene (10.6% as the major components; Lechat et al. 1996). GC and GC–MS analysis of the rhizome oils from turmeric grown in Bhutan showed ar-turmerone content of 16.7–25%, α-turmerone (30.1–30.2%), and β-turmerone (14.7–18.4%) as chief constituents (Sharma et al. 1997). Leaf oil from turmeric grown in North Indian plains showed 20 compounds by GC–MS, dominated by monoterpenes (57%), sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, and oxygenated mono- and sesquiterpenes which contributed 10%, 3.3%, and approximately 0.1%, respectively. The major compounds identified were p-cymene (25.4%), 1,8-cineole (18%), cissabinol (7.4%), and β-pinene (6.3%) (Garg et al. 2002). In another investigation, the rhizome oil of Chinese-origin turmeric indicated 17 chemical constituents of which turmerone (24%), ar-turmerone (18%), and germacrone (11%) were considered the major constituents (Zhu et al. 1995). Green leaves of C. longa from India for monoterpenes showed high concentration of α-phellandrene and terpinolene. The rhizome oil did not contain α-pinene but included car-3-ene, α-terpinene, θ-terpinene, and terpinolene (McCarron et al. 1995). GC–MS analysis of the hydrodistilled oil from three Curcuma species, namely, C. longa, C. aromatica, and C. xanthorhiza, indicated α and β content of 19–24% and 11–36% of turmerone, respectively, and 4–14% of ar-turmerone (Kojima et al. 1998). Gopalan et al. (2000) compared the composition of steamdistilled essential oil and the oil extracted by supercritical CO2 by GC–MS technique and found that of the 21 components identified, ar-turmerone and turmerone constituted nearly 60% of the total oil extracted. Analysis of the cyclohexane extract of turmeric by GC–MS coupled with pseudo-Sadtler retention indices revealed a series of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids along with sesquiterpenes. The fatty acids

56

4 The Chemistry of Turmeric

reported were tetradecanoic acid, cis-9-hexadecenoic acid, hexadecanoic acid, cis– cis-9, 12-octadecenoic acid, cis–trans-9-octadecenoic acid, octadecanoic acid, and eicosadecanoic acid. The constituents of essential oil from leaves, flowers, rhizomes, and roots of turmeric showed that the oils from rhizomes and roots were similar when compared to that from leaves and flowers. This indicates the presence of biologically linked traits (Leela et al. 2002). Volatile oils from flowers and leaves were dominated by monoterpenes, while major part of the oil from roots and rhizomes contained sesquiterpenes (Table 4.1). Bansal et al. (2002) analyzed oil from leaf lamina, petiole, stem, inflorescence, primary and secondary rhizomes, and rhizoids. Essential oil from the stem, rhizome, and rhizoid were similar in composition. Essential oils in rhizome were dominated by α- and ar-turmerones (40.8%), myrcene (12.6%), 1,8-cineole (7.7%), and p-cymene (3.8%). Essential oils in leaf, petiole, and lamina were dominated by myrcene (35.9%), 1,8-cineole (12.1%), and p-cymene (21.7%). Essential oil from the leaf of turmeric from Nigeria showed α-phellandrene (47.7%) and terpinolene (28.7%) as the major constituents (Table 4.2).

4.3

Turmeric Turmerones

The unique aroma of turmeric is derived from two major ketonic sesquiterpenes, namely, ar-turmerone and turmerone (C15H20O and C15H22O), which were identified in 1934. Additionally, p-cymene, β-sesquiphellandrene, and sesquiterpene alcohols have also been reported (Chempakam and Parthasarathy 2008). Golding et al. (1982) demonstrated the structure of the two turmerones and defined them as 2-methyl-6- (4-methylcyclohexa-2,4-dien-1-yl)-hept-2-en-4-one (α-turmerone) and 2-methyl-6- (4-methylenecyclohex-2en-1-yl)-hept-2-en-4-one (β-turmerone).The ratio of turmerone to ar-turmerone is reported to be 60:40, while analysis of the volatile oils from commercial oleoresin shows a ratio of 80:20 (Rupe et al. 1934; Salzer 1977). Essential oil from rhizomes of different maturity levels grown in Sri Lanka indicated that the ar-turmerone content ranged from 24.7% to 48.9%, while turmerone varied from 20% to 39%, both of which were the major constituents (Cooray et al. 1988). Ar-turmerone has been proved to be a potential antivenom agent (Ferreira et al. 1992). It is because of the biological importance of turmerones that attempts were made to isolate them in pure form. Negi et al. (1999) isolated turmerones from the mother liquor of turmeric oleoresin. Extraction of mother liquor with hexane followed by column chromatography using silica gel and elution with 5% ethyl acetate yields mainly ar-turmerone, turmerone, and curlone. Chang et al. (2006) isolated ar-turmerone from the supercritical CO2 extracted turmeric oil by normal phase-silica-gel column chromatography. Kao et al. (2007) were able to enrich α-, β-, and ar-turmerone in oil up to 91.8%, using SFEs followed by solid– liquid column partition fractionation. Rhizome oils from five different Curcuma species showed ar-turmerone content in the range of 2.6–70.3%, ar-turmerone content in the range of trace to 46.2%, and zingiberene content in the range of

4.3 Turmeric Turmerones

57

Table 4.1 The composition of essential oils in different vegetative parts of Curcuma longa L Constituent α-Pinene β-Pinene Myrcene α-Phellandrene ω-3-Carene α-Terpinene p-Cymene β-Phellandrene 1,8-Cineole Z-β-Ocimene E-β-Ocimene r-Terpinene Terpinolene Linalool 1,3,8-Paramenthatriene p-Methyl acetophenone p-Cymen-8-ol α-Terpineol Thymol Carvacrol r-Curcumene ar-Curcumene α-Zingiberene β-Bisabolene β-Sesquiphellandrene E-Nerolidal Dehydrocurcumene ar-Turmerone Turmerone Curlone Curcuphenol 6S-7R-Bisabolene Others

Concentration (%) Leaf Flower 2.1 0.4 2.8 0.1 2.3 0.2 32.6 – 1.1 0.6 1.3 0.1 5.9 1.6 3.2 Traces 6.5 4.1 0.2 – 0.4 – 1.5 – 26.0 7.4 0.7 1.1 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.3 0.8 26.0 0.4 1.1 0.3 – 0.1 – 0.1 Traces 0.2 1.9 0.5 0.8 – 0.9 0.3 1.1 0.1 1.1 – – 0.1 1.2 0.9 1.0 0.2 0.3 Traces Traces 0.1 0.4 9.0 48.0

Root 0.1 0.1 Traces 0.1 – – 3.3 – 0.7 – – – 0.1 0.1 – Traces 1.5 0.1 0.1 0.3 0.4 7.0 Traces 2.3 Traces – 4.3 46.8 – 0.6 0.6 1.2 30.3

Rhizome 0.1 Traces 0.1 0.1 – – 3.0 Traces 2.4 – – – 0.3 – – Traces 0.3 0.2 – 0.1 0.1 6.3 Traces 1.3 2.6 – 2.2 31.1 10.0 10.6 0.5 0.9 27.8

Source: Leela et al. (2002)

trace to 36.8%. A number of sesquiterpenes have been identified in volatile oils of turmeric rhizome. Turmeronol A and B, two sesquiterpene ketoalcohols isolated from the dried rhizomes of turmeric, inhibited soybean lipoxygenase activity (Imai et al. 1990). Five sesquiterpenes, namely, germacrone-1 3-al, 4-hydroxybisabola-2, 10-diene-9-one, 4-methoxy-5-hydroxy-bisabola-2, 10-diene-9-one,2, 5-dihydroxybisabola-3,10-diene, and procurcumadiol, were

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4 The Chemistry of Turmeric

Table 4.2 Composition of essential oil of Curcuma Longa L. leaves Components α-Pinene β-Pinene + myrcene α-Phellandrene ω-3-Carene α-Terpinene p-Cymene Limonene +1,8-cineole r-Terpinene Terpinolene Sesquiphellandrene α-Terpineol 4-Terpineol Sabinol

Composition (%) 2.2 6.3 47.7 1.2 1.8 1.2 6.0 2.0 28.9 0.8 June planting. The emergence pattern, growth and yield of turmeric plants, and weed growth in the field experiment suggested that turmeric planting should be done in April followed by March in Okinawa, Japan (Ishimine et al. 2004). Hossain (2005) concluded that seed rhizomes weighing 30–40 g and/or mother rhizome could be planted in a 30 cm triangular pattern at a depth of 8–12 cm on two ridges spaced 75–100 cm apart from March to April in order to reduce weed infestation and obtain higher yield in Japan; besides, mulching also reduced weed growth and improved rhizome yield. He suggested integrating biological weed management practices using rabbits, goats, sheep, ducks, cover crops, or intercrops to control weeds in turmeric fields. The investigation by Hossain et al. (2008) indicated that for reducing weed interference, and obtaining high yield, turmeric should be planted in a 30 cm triangular pattern, on two-row ridge spaced 75–100 cm apart. Turmeric when planted in this triangular geometry effectively utilizes all the available space for the growth and enlargement of the rhizome, which ensures a higher weed control (9%) and higher rhizome yield (11%), without any additional cost. Weed infestation did not vary with the planting patterns until about 50 DAP, as all the plants cannot emerge during this period. Hossain et al. (2008) reported that purple nut sedge (1000 m above MSL) is 2000–2500 kg/ha (Aiyadurai 1966). In Queensland, seed rates of 8–10 t/ha are required on fully mechanized farms, but farmers invariably use 4–6 t/ha (Whiley 1974). Seed rate of 6 t/ha, corresponding to 1,400,000 plant population/ha, was adopted by Lee et al. (1981). In China, seed rate of 5.25–7.5 t/ ha with seed sizes of 50–75 g are used. However, under less intensive agricultural conditions, as in India and Sri Lanka, 1.5–4 t/ha seed rate is used (Weiss 1997). In India, in the state of Kerala, a seed rate of 800–1100 kg/ha is adopted (Mirchandani 1971), whereas in Himachal Pradesh, a seed rate of 2.3–3.5 t/ha is used. In the northeastern states of India and adjoining areas, farmers plant whole rhizomes and unearth the mother rhizome when the crop reaches 30–35 cm height after 3 months of planting and 94.6% of seed is recovered (germinability) (Singh 1982). By using this method, farmers get back 60–75% of the seed cost. Thus, detaching and recycling the sets in the same season or subsequently provides a means of achieving rapid seed ginger multiplication and higher aggregate yield (Okwuowulu 2005). It is not followed in intensive irrigated production systems, and other places where agricultural laborers are unavailable in sufficient number.

18.4

Production Technology

381

Table 18.1 Planting time, seed rate, and spacing recommended at different places Country/state India Kerala State Odisha Himachal Pradesh Sikkim Bihar Meghalaya Andhra Pradesh Other countries Australia China Jamaica

Planting time

Seeding rate (kg/ha)

Seed size (g)

Spacing (cm)

April–June April March–April

1500–1800 1800 2500–3500

15 15–20 50–100

20–25  20–25 25  20 30  20

February– April April–June March–April April–June

3000–6000

75–150

45–60  30

1800 2500–3500 1700

18–20 25–50 20–25

25  20 30  30 30  20

September January–April

8000–10,000 5250–7250

50–80 75–100

May–June

4000–6000

45–50

40–60  15 60–65  20; 50– 55  20 15–20  15–20

Source: Srinivasan et al. (2008)

18.4.1.3

Seed Treatment

Seed treatment induces early germination and prevents seed-borne pathogens and pests. Seed rhizomes have to be treated before planting to control rhizome rot and other seed-borne diseases. Park (1937) reported the beneficial effect of seed treatment against Sclerotium rolfsii. Seed treatment by farmers in Kerala is done by dipping seed rhizome in cow dung emulsion (Mirchandani 1971), and another way is to smoke the seed rhizomes once or twice before storage (Mirchandani 1971). Hot water treatment of seed rhizomes at 48  C for 20 min before planting was also an effective seed treatment (Colbran and Davies 1969). The cut end of seeds is dipped for 10 min in benomyl 0.25% to prevent entry of pathogens (Whiley 1974). Treating the seed with formulations such as Agallol 0.5% for 3 min or wettable Ceresan 0.1% for 30 min or Coppersan 0.3% for 60 min (CSIR 1976), wettable Ceresan 0.25% (Kannan and Nair 1965), and Dithane M 45 (Mohanty et al. 1990) are recommended as seed treatments. Treating the rhizome in Ethrel increased the growth and development of ginger (Islam et al. 1978). A preplant soak application of Ethephon at 750 ppm with warm (51  C) water for 10 min has increased shoot number of ginger cultivars (Furutani et al. 1985). Ra et al. (1989) have observed that the low temperature (5  C) treatment of seed rhizomes decreased plant weight and rhizome yield. Treating by steeping seed rhizomes in spore suspension of T. viride or T. hamatum was found effective against the pathogen P. aphanidermatum causing rot (Bharadwaj et al. 1988). T. harzianum, T. aureoviride, G. virens, and T. viride treatments reduced rhizome rot caused by F. solani or P. myriotylum and

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18 Cropping Zones and Production Technology

significantly increased growth, development, and yield of ginger (Ram et al. 2000). The cut rhizome pieces are dipped in fresh and clean plant ash to seal off the wounds (Xizhen et al. 2005).

18.4.2 Land Preparation Fields put to ginger cultivation must have soil which is loose and friable. The preparation of the field depends on climate, soil type, farm size, and irrigation methods. In arriving at the right decision as to how to go about ginger cultivation, the farmer must exercise his or her discretion and judgment. The soil should be thoroughly broken up, pulverized with a hoe or plow, and if possible, harrowed subsequently. Without such improvement in the tilth, the crop would fail to produce well-shaped rhizomes. Well-shaped rhizomes are desirable to fetch a good market and amenable for ease of postharvest curing methods. In India, the land plowed several times or dug thoroughly with the receipt of early summer showers help in obtaining good tilth. In Jamaica, clayey soils are forked and left to dry for 3 months prior to planting, and again a month before planting the soils are forked and drained by means of trenches (Graham 1936), and for planting, the ridge and furrow method is used. In the furrow method, the seed rhizomes are planted in furrows 22.5 cm deep and 22.5 cm apart. When the ridge method is used, the rhizome pieces are planted 30 cm apart, but only a few centimeters below the surface in prepared ridges, which is about 30 in. high (Lawrence 1984). In Queensland, after initial plowing during November–December, a cover crop of maize is planted during summer to build up organic matter or the land is kept fallow. Poultry manure or press mud (sugarcane factory waste) provides additional organic matter and root-knot nematode infestation is controlled by soil fumigation (Whiley 1974). Plowing six times brings soil to good tilth. In West Bengal, after the first rains, during March–April, 12–13 plowings are done and the soil is then leveled and water channels are formed to irrigate the crop. The water channels are made 60–80 ft. apart and connected by smaller ones running at right angles to the main channels, which is about 8 ft. apart (Ridley 1912). However, there is no added advantage in plowing the land over the minimum requirement of 3–5 plowings (Aiyadurai 1966). Solarization of beds for 40 days by using transparent polythene sheets with Trichoderma application is recommended for areas prone to rhizome rot and nematode infestation. Tillage starts after the harvest of previous crop during autumn or winter in China. Plowing 25–30 cm deep promotes root penetration and enlarges root foraging area. After harrowing once or twice, 75–120 t/ha of good-quality farmyard manure is applied, and the land is leveled (Xizhen et al. 2005). Plowing followed by harrowing several times at a 5- to 7-day interval to kill weed growth and weed seed germination and rotovating is common in African region (Okwuowulu 2005). In hill slopes, beds are laid along contours to reduce soil erosion. Ridge and furrow with 40 cm spacing

18.4

Production Technology

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apart for irrigated crop is practiced. Aiyadurai (1966) suggested that the flatbed system for sandy loam soil and raised beds for clay loam soil were the most suited for successful ginger cultivation. Two distinct methods of cultivation, namely, Malabar (Kerala State) and South Kanara (Karnataka State) systems, are prevalent in India. In the Malabar system, beds of 3 m  1 m in size are formed 30–45 cm apart with small shallow pits on beds for planting the sets at required spacing, and a handful of cattle manure is applied to each of these pits. In the South Kanara system, there are no beds; instead, a mixture of manure and burnt earth is applied in the form of a small 5-cm-thick ridge in between the rows 100–200 cm apart from each other, and the seed rhizomes are placed in the rows and earthed to make the ridges 15–20 cm high (CSIR 1976). Ginger is planted on a raised bed to facilitate drainage in China. Planting ginger in raised beds, and irrigating the crop, gave a higher yield compared to the crop planted in ridges, furrows, and flat ground in field research trials. Raising ginger in flatbeds in sandy loam soil and on raised beds in clay loam soil, followed by earthing up, with the application of fertilizers, is most suited for successful cultivation of ginger (Singh et al. 2003). Shaikh et al. (2006a) compared three systems of planting, namely, flatbed, ridges and furrows, and raised beds, and observed that planting in flatbeds resulted in the highest yield of fresh and dry rhizomes (153.8 and 30.35 g/plant, respectively), and green rhizomes yield (20.34 t/ha). Regions away from environmental contamination sources with good drainage are eminently suitable for organic ginger cultivation. A buffer zone with suitable physical/tree barriers or buffer crops all around the organic plantation to avoid contamination by drift from neighboring conventional plantations is absolutely necessary. Ginger grown in the isolation zone as a buffer crop is not sold as organic. The area of buffer zone may vary with the landscape and will be specified and certified by the certification agencies based on the local agro situations (Srinivasan et al. 2008). A large number of tribal farmers in northeastern India still practice the traditional methods of cultivation, wherein ginger is cultivated in Jhum lands, Buns, Zabo lands, terraced lands, and in the plains. In the traditional methods of cultivation, farmers rely on organic inputs, local resources, and practices (Rahman et al. 2009).

18.4.3 Planting The time of planting is very important in ginger cultivation as it affects both yield and quality. The main factors considered while planting are season, date of planting, spacing, and depth of seed placement (Parthasarathy et al. 2003). The planting time depends on the onset of monsoon. In India, generally planting is done during March– June (Table 18.1) (Phogat and Pandey 1988; Randhawa et al. 1972). Studies have shown that planting during April gives better growth and development of rhizomes and fewer incidences of diseases. In Australia and Fiji, planting is done during September (Whiley 1974), while in West Indies it is during March–April

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(Ridley 1912). It is in the mid-April in southeastern Nigeria (Okwuowulu et al. 1989), May–June in Jamaica (Prentice 1959), February–April in Taiwan (Lawrence 1984), April–May in Sierra Leone and Hawaii (Furutani et al. 1985), June in Ghana (Lawrence 1984), and January–April in China (Xizhen et al. 2005). However, the irrigated crop can be planted any time of the year, the optimum time being mid-February in India. Normally, ginger planting commences with the onset of SW monsoon in India, which normally breaks in the first week of June in the Kerala State. Aiyadurai (1966) observed a yield increase of 200% by planting ginger during the first week of April, with the receipt of summer showers, than in the normal planting time of May–June. Early planting of ginger is beneficial as the crop can grow sufficiently well to withstand heavy rains, by July–August (Nair and Varma 1970). Better yield was obtained when planting was done on May 15, which was found on par with planting on April 30 (Nimkar and Korla 2009). The cost–benefit ratio of ginger cultivation indicated that planting on April 30 with mulching and application of FYM was quite remunerative in the mid-hilly regions of Himachal Pradesh, India. Generally, ginger production is not by transplantation, but in the hilly regions of Himachal Pradesh this practice is followed. The highest yield of 1.08 kg/plant was recorded transplanting 90-day-old seedlings and the lowest yield of 0.48 kg/plant was obtained transplanting 30-day-old seedlings (Kumar and Korla 1998).

18.4.3.1

Spacing

Plant population in a unit area of land is an important factor, which decides the yield, and it depends on spacing and varies with soil type, variety, climate, and management practices. Closer spacing gives higher yield with maximum plant density (Aiyadurai 1966; Nair 1982). Different spacings are 15–45 cm  15–45 cm, which is recommended (Table 18.1), 40 cm  15 cm (Lee et al. 1981) and 60 cm  11.8 cm in Australia (Whiley 1981), 38.1 cm  38.1 cm in Mauritius, and 45 cm  40 cm in Trinidad, West Indies (Wilson and Ovid 1993). In China, 60–65 cm  19–20 cm spacing with a planting density of 1,05,000–1,12,500 plants/ ha for Lai Wu slice ginger gave better yield (Xizhen et al. 2005). In Africa, spacing of 20 cm  20 cm for ware–ginger production and 10–15 cm  10–15 cm for seed ginger production through mini set technique is followed (Okwuowulu 2005). By adopting a correct spacing of 20 cm  20 cm and by timely planting, weed density could be reduced to the bare minimum. Whiley (1990) observed that higher planting densities with intra-row spacings of 11.2 and 17.0 cm increased rhizome yield up to 43% and reduced the time to final first harvest maturity (35% fiber-free rhizome) by about 10 days. Zaman et al. (2008) reported that spacing of 40 cm  20 cm significantly gave the highest among all yield attributes, leading to the highest (30.81 t/ha) yield. The combination of 40 cm  20 cm spacing and planting at 9 cm depth gave the maximum yield (40.0 t/ha) and cost–benefit ratio of 1.00:3.41.

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18.4.3.2

385

Depth of Planting

Optimum depth is essential for early germination/emergence, and planting depth may vary depending on seed size, soil type, and soil moisture conditions at the time of planting. In general, planting is deeper for bolder rhizomes and shallower for smaller ones. Based on field trials, planting on raised beds at a spacing of 20–25 cm  20–25 cm and a depth of 4–10 cm with the viable bud facing upward is recommended (Kannan and Nair 1965; Lee et al. 1981). Okwuowulu (1992) has reported that planting at 5 cm depth predisposes the rhizome to significant desiccation loss under delayed harvest; hence, the author recommended deeper seed placement at a depth of 10 cm. Zaman et al. (2008) have found that rhizome placement at 9.0 cm depth produced the highest yield (31.58 t/ha). Lighter irrigation after planting is beneficial for better germination. Ginger takes 10–15 days after planting to sprout under ideal conditions, but sprouting might prolong up to 2 months. Kandiannan et al. (2010) have reported that around 400 growing degree days (GDD) or heat sums/heat units are required for proper emergence.

18.4.4 Mulching The purpose of mulching, in rainfed areas, is to primarily conserve soil moisture and check weed growth. Additionally, it also checks surface runoff, when there is excessive downpour, as can happen in Indian conditions, and helps conserve soil. It also provides shade to the sprouting rhizome. In subtropical and temperate conditions, mulching can lead to rising of soil temperature. Other advantages are the following: it enhances germination, increases water infiltration, conserves soil moisture, regulates soil temperature, decreases surface evaporation, enhances microbial activity, and improves soil fertility by adding organic matter. Mulching could change the physical and chemical properties of the soil, resulting in increased availability of certain nutrients like phosphorus and potassium (Muralidharan 1973). In Fiji, it was found that mulching led to a decrease in nematode infestation (Haynes et al. 1973). The quantity of mulch applied varies with the availability of the material used for mulching. In general, 10–30 t/ha or even more is applied twice or thrice during crop growth, the first at planting time, the second 45 days after planting, and the third 90 days after planting. Mulching the beds with green leaves at 15 t/ha after planting followed by two mulchings (at 7.5 t/ha) at 45 days and 90 days after planting is an essential practice (Nybe and Mini Raj 2005). Research findings have shown that straw mulching increased yield by 12.2% over unmulched conditions (Joachim and Pieris 1934). Application of forest leaves at 20 t/ha in two equal splits, the first at planting time and the second 45 days after planting, increased ginger yield by 200% (Kannan and Nair 1965). Application of 35 t/ha FYM as mulch increased yield by 65% (Aiyadurai 1966). Application of mulch at the rate of 12.5, 5.0, and 5.0 t/ha at the first, second, and third time,

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respectively, is optimum (Randhawa and Nandpuri 1970). Kingra and Gupta (1977) used dry grass and forest leaves as mulch, at a rate of 15 t/ha, whereas Mohanty and Sarma (1979) used 15 t/ha green leaves at planting and 7.5 t/ha each at 45 days and 90 days after planting. Owadally et al. (1981) stated that mulching with sugarcane trash and rice straw was beneficial. Performance of different live mulches (like a standing crop of sun hemp, Crotalaria juncea, in the ginger field) was similar but superior to unmulched conditions. Korla et al. (1990) found that FYM mixed with grass, pine needles, and paddy straw was effective mulch and led to increased yield. Mulching three times with leaves and growing an intercrop like soybean as live mulch were equally effective (AICRPS 1992). Polythene as mulch material gave fresh yield of 19.9 t/ha compared to 12.0 t/ha obtained in unmulched plots (Mohanty et al. 1990). Commonly used mulch materials are green and dry forest leaves, residues such as sugarcane trash, paddy, wheat, finger millet, barley straw and coconut leaves, banana leaves, dry sal leaves, and vegetation from the locality. Coconut leaves (Aclan and Quisumbing 1976), banana leaves (Mohanty 1977), dry sal leaves (AICSCIP 1985), shisham (Jha et al. 1986), and green forest leaves (Roy and Wamanan 1989) performed well as good mulches and increased ginger yield. Mishra and Mishra (1982) have reported that mulching with dry leaves suppressed the weed growth and increased seedling emergence, growth, and yield. Ahmad et al. (1983) have tested three different types of mulches, namely, sawdust, sand, and sawdust + sand, and found that sawdust has proved the best of all as there was positive association between this material and the yield components. Das (1999) has showed that mulching with neem leaves (Melia azadirachta) reduced the rhizome rot caused by Pythium infection. FYM and compost are also used as mulches. If the quantities of the abovementioned materials are in short supply, live mulches like sun hemp, green gram, horse gram, black gram, niger, sesbania, cluster bean, French bean, soybean, cowpea, dhaincha, and red gram can also be grown as intercrops and mulched in situ between 45 and 60 days after planting of ginger (Kandiannan et al. 1996). Growing green manure crops like Sesbania rostrata, S. aculeata, S. speciosa, or fodder cowpea among ginger crops and using as a second or third mulch provided biomass of 4 kg green leaves per 1.5 m2 (Valsala et al. 1990), which reduced weed growth and increased ginger yield (Kurian et al. 1997). In Sikkim, ginger beds are usually covered with leaves and twigs of various forest trees after planting. In Meghalaya, application of locally available organic mulches like paddy straw and dry leaf mulch of Schima wallichii at a rate of 16 t/ha increased the dry yield of ginger. One-fourth of the recommended rate (30 t/ha) of green mulch could be saved if ginger is intercropped under coconut plantations with 25% shade (Babu and Jayachandran 1997). Ginger when intercropped with green manure crops, like dhaincha and sun hemp, the latter are plowed into the soil at the time of their flowering and used as mulch. In African countries, green leaves of guinea grass (Panicum maximum), Elizabeth weed (Chromolaena odorata), and rubber at the rate of 10 t/ha, decomposed sawdust

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(with low C:N ratio) at 30 t/ha, or well-rotted deep litter poultry manure or cow dung at 20 t/ha are commonly used for mulching (Okwuowulu 2005). In China, mulching with a layer of 3–5-cm-thick wheat straw, applied at the rate of 3–4.5 t/ha, decreased soil temperature, maintained soil moisture, and improved the field microclimate. Plastic film mulching, stretching a double layer of black plastic film tightly over the ridge, is also popular among ginger growers, as it is a better material than straw, which led to about 8–30% increase in yield and economic benefit (Xianchang et al. 1996). Polythene as mulch material gave 19.9 t/ha of fresh rhizome compared to 12 t/ ha in unmulched plots (Mohanty et al. 1990). Chukwu and Onyekwere (1996) have reported that inorganic fertilizer + mulch or mulch alone increased the productivity and sustainable production of irrigated ginger on soils of moderate fertility in Nigeria. Three mulches, namely, paddy straw, Gliricidia maculata, and Lantana (a pernicious weed in red laterite soils), were compared as mulches in rainfed ginger. Paddy straw retained the highest soil moisture. However, Gliricidia recorded the highest average rhizome yield (7.29 t/ha), net returns (Rs 69,095/ha approximately US$ 1200 at current rate of exchange) and a benefit–cost ratio of 1.76 in India. Highest rainfall water use efficiency was also obtained with Gliricidia mulch (7.15 kg/ha/mm) (Das et al. 2006). Vanlalhluna and Sahoo (2008) compared three mulches, namely rice straw, subabul leaf, and common weeds, at 6, 8, and 10 t/ha, respectively. Soil moisture retention in the plots was in the following order, straw > subabul leaf > weeds, and the rates used were classified as follows: 10 > 8 > 6 t/ha. The number of sprout, sprout frequency, tiller height, and finger size of ginger were better in the mulched plots when compared with the unmulched (control) plots. Ginger yield in the mulched plots found to be in the following order: subabul leaf > rice straw > weeds. This clearly shows that though straw retained more soil moisture, it was subabul leaf that led to higher ginger yield. The slower decomposition of rice straw (because of wide C:N ratio) caused greater retention of moisture, while quick decomposition of subabul leaf caused increased addition of nitrogen to soil thereby increased ginger yield. Ghosh (2008) has reported that paddy straw mulch produced the highest yield (28.70 t/ha) followed by composted coir pith (27.60 t/ha) and water hyacinth (27.40 t/ha), as compared to the lowest yield (15.3 t/ha) in the control treatment. The net return from intercrop was highest in the case of straw mulch at Rs 132,400/ha (approximately US$ 2300 at the current exchange rate) with the maximum benefit–cost ratio of 1.36. Application of FYM at 10 t/ha as mulch resulted in the maximum rhizome yield, compared to other mulches (Mishra and Pandey 2009). Mulched plants matured earlier than unmulched ones (Ning et al. 2009). Sengupta et al. (2009) have reported that dry leaves mulch at the rate of 5 t/ha led to maximum height of the ginger plants (78.05 cm), number of pseudostem per clump (4.26), leaves per clump (62.65), and the highest yield (52.17 t/ha). Mulching is especially beneficial when ginger is grown under rainfed conditions.

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18.4.5 Weed Management Initial slow growth of the ginger plant facilitates rapid weed growth. Weeds compete for moisture, nutrition, space, and sunlight. Mulching suppresses weed growth and increases the crop emergence, growth, and, ultimately, yield (Mishra and Mishra 1982). In general, 2–3 weedings are done depending on weed growth (Mohanty et al. 1990). The first weeding is done just before second mulching (at 45 days after planting), and the second weeding is done 120–135 days after planting (Kannan and Nair 1965). Weed flora varies from place to place. Melifonwu and Orkwor (1990) have recorded some of the commonly occurring weeds in ginger fields in Nigeria. Galinsoga parviflora, Cyperus sp., Euphorbia sp., and Setaria glauca (S. pumila) are the major weeds in Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India (Sinha 2002). Manual weeding consists of either just pulling out the weeds, chipping with a hoe, or just cutting the roots with a knife (Purseglove et al. 1981). The preemergent herbicide Diuron (4.5 kg a.i./ha) is used to control weeds in Queensland, Australia, but its action might vary depending on the soil in which it is used (Whiley 1974). Paraquat is used as a postemergence herbicide in the early stages of plant growth, applied between plant rows, and in later stages limited to spot spraying between the beds. Preemergence application of 2,4-D at the rate of 1 kg a.i./ha (Mishra and Mishra 1982) or atrazine at 1.5 kg a.i./ha was also found effective in controlling weeds (Rethinam et al. 1994). Preemergence applications of mixtures of alachlor + chloramben or fluometuron at the rate of 0.75 + 0.75 kg a.i./ha has provided effective control of some weed species, though not all, and has led to higher rhizome yield (Melifonwu and Orkwor 1990). Kurian et al. (1997) have reported that in situ green manuring reduced the weed problem in ginger. Herbicide usage reduced labor requirement in Nigeria (Aliyu and Lagoke 2001). Black polythene mulch was also effective in weed suppression. But, the cost–benefit ratio was higher in the case of grass + FYM mulching (Sinha 2002). Emulsifiable concentrate (EC) of 40% pendimethalin + acetochlor as a preemergence herbicide was found to effectively check weed growth than in the case of separate applications (Yang et al. 2004). Barooah and Saikia (2006) have reported that mulching after planting + hoeing 40 days after planting + grubber at 60 days after planting + hand weeding at 90 days after planting + mulching resulted in significant increase in yield attributes, dry ginger yield, oleoresin, and volatile oil contents. Weed management is an important cultural operation in ginger production, but traditional manual weeding is no more possible because of labor paucity. An important offshoot of excessive use of chemical herbicides is the adverse environmental fallout.

18.4.6 Earthing Up (Hilling) Soil stirring and earthing up are essential to break the soil hardpan formed by rain or irrigation, and it also helps in checking weed growth, conserving soil moisture,

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mixing applied manure thoroughly with the soil, enlargement of daughter rhizomes, and provides adequate aeration for root expansion and protects the rhizomes from the ravages of scale insects (Panigrahi and Patro 1985). Earthing up may be combined with hand hoeing (weeding) and mulching. Shaikh et al. (2006b) have found that earthing up 4 months after planting led to higher rhizome yield (19.10 t/ha) compared to earthing up 3 and 5 months after planting (14.33 and 15.94 t/ha, respectively).

18.4.7 Irrigation Ginger is principally cultivated as a rainfed crop. Where rainfall is less, the crop needs regular/supplemental irrigation. According to the Queensland Irrigation and Water Supply Commission, ginger requires 1320–1520 mm of water during its complete crop cycle. In India, irrigation at fortnightly intervals, usually during the middle of September to the middle of November increased the yield by 56% and resulted in better quality of the product (Aiyadurai 1966). In Queensland, Australia, irrigation is provided to ensure that the crop receives approximately 10 mm of water every second day from mid-January until early March, when the most rapid growth takes place (Whiley 1974). Overhead sprinkling to protect against sunburn is extremely important in late October, November, and December. Australia has a polar climate and the summer is intense from November onward until the end of December. At this time, irrigation is usually provided between 10 AM and 3 PM daily. This establishes a cool microclimate for the crop. In South Africa (also where the climate is polar), when the ambient temperature reaches 26  C during October– November and 30  C during December–March, impulse sprinkler irrigation creates a favorable microclimate for the crop (Anderson et al. 1990). This results in better plant growth and enhances yield by about 25%. Ginger planted in the first week of May in Odisha State, India, needs two or four initial pot watering at weekly interval depending on soil type. Following this the rainfall breaks, which lasts until the end of September. Subsequently, the crop has to be provided pot watering commencing from mid-October to the end of December at fortnightly intervals (Panigrahi and Patro 1985). The critical stages for irrigation are germination stage, rhizome initiation stage (90 days after planting), and rhizome development stage (135 days after planting). Vaidya et al. (1972) has recommended that the first irrigation is at immediately after planting and subsequent irrigations are given at intervals of 10 days with a total water usage of 90–100 cm in 16–18 irrigations. A fortnightly irrigation during the drier part of monsoon months contributed to increased yield and quality of the produce (Gupta 1974). Increased water supply has increased the yield of rhizomes and essential oil content (Lawrence 1984). Scheduling of irrigation at 60 mm cumulative pan evaporation (CPE) (Gavande 1986) and irrigation water (IW)/CPE ratio of I.O (KAU 1994) produced the maximum rhizome yield. Irrigation once in a 4- to 6-day interval during summer or drought months is practiced in China to keep the soil moisture at about 70–80% (Xizhen et al. 2005).

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18.4.8 Shade Ginger prefers light shade for good growth (CSIR 1976) and shade requirement depends on location. Shading is helpful in reducing water loss and general cooling of the plant (Lawrence 1984). Instead of shade, overhead sprinkler irrigation protects the crop from sunburn by evaporative cooling (Whiley 1974). Aclan and Quisumbing (1976) have recorded shorter plants with fewer leaves per tiller when ginger was grown under full sunlight in the Philippines, whereas Wilson and Ovid (1993) have observed increased height and tiller number under shade. Shade also enhanced the net assimilation rate (NAR) and chlorophyll content (KAU 1992). Under low to medium shade, higher dry matter production, nutrient uptake (KAU 1992), yield (Aclan and Quisumbing 1976), and quality (Ancy and Jayachandran 1993) were obtained. Heavier shade (beyond 50%) decreased tiller and leaf number (KAU 1992) and yield (Aclan and Quisumbing 1976). Ginger grown in shade shrinks, and, hence, Graham (1936) recommended that ginger be grown in the open in Jamaica. Growing ginger completely exposed to sun resulted in higher yield (Aiyadurai 1966) and oleoresin content (KAU 1992), than when the crop was grown in shade. But, Ravisankar and Muthusamy (1986) have reported that shade had no adverse effect on the quality of the rhizome. Variety Himachal was found to perform well both in the open and in low light intensity (75% shade) with respect to dry matter accumulation and uptake of N, P, and K (George et al. 1998). Ginger grown under low to medium shade (25%) recorded good-quality parameters (volatile oil and starch contents, less crude fiber) (Ajithkumar and Jayachandran 2003), compared to those grown under open and heavy shade in the climatic conditions prevailing in Kerala State, India. Under low and medium shade, nutrient uptake and rhizome yield of ginger were more comparable with that grown in high shade or in the open (Ancy and Jayachandran 1996). The cultivars Jamaica, Valluvanad, Jorhat, and Rio de Janeiro are suitable for intercropping in plantations with 50% or more shade levels. The incidence of Phyllosticta leaf spot is also much less under shade. Hazarika et al. (2009) have found that intercropping ginger in som (Persea bombycina) plantations planted with a spacing of 3 m  3 m showed maximum plant height, leaf number per plant, finger number per rhizome, length and weight of single finger, and single rhizome weight compared to that grown in the open. Shade requirement depends on location and differential response of varieties also. The farmer should be the best judge to arrive at the right decision considering various aspects, detailed above, to get the best possible results.

18.4.9 Cropping Systems Generally, ginger is grown as a sole crop, and often it can also be grown as an intercrop under other perennial crops, such as areca nut, coconut, cocoa, and rubber,

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for the farmer to get additional income. It can also be intercropped with vegetables, such as cabbage, tomato, chili (green), French bean, and lady’s finger, pulses (pigeon pea, black gram, and horse gram), cereals (maize, finger millet), oilseeds (castor, soybean, sunflower, and niger), and other crops such as sesame, tobacco, and pineapple. Intercropping with soybean (AICRPS 1992), lady’s finger (Chowdhury 1988), pineapple (Lee 1974), and maize (Kandiannan et al. 1999) was found advantageous. Ginger can also be grown as a mixed crop with castor, red gram, maize, and finger millet. As ginger requires partial shade, it can also be grown as an under crop in coconut, areca nut, rubber, orange, stone fruit, litchi, guava, mango, papaya, loquat, peach, coffee, and poplar plantations. Singh et al. (1991) indicated that ginger is the most favored crop component in agroforestry. In coffee-based spices (black pepper, cardamom, etc.), a multistoried cropping system, local cultivars of ginger grown as an intercrop fetched a gross income of Rs 79,800/ha (approximately US$ 1400 at the current rate of exchange) during the fourth year from the date of the commencement of the multistoried cropping system (Korikanthimath et al. 1995). Ginger is a very common intercrop in the coconutbased cropping system. As an intercrop in an areca nut plantation, ginger showed a higher yield coupled with bigger rhizomes and taller plants, but the duration of the crop was lengthier (199 days) than in the case where the crop is grown solely in the open (Hegde et al. 2000). It is possible to raise green manure crops like dhaincha (Sesbania aculeata) in the interspaces of beds (of the main crop), which could add 50% of the green leaves required for mulching, suppressing weed growth, and reducing cost of production. Ginger is grown as a mixed crop with castor, red gram, finger millet, and maize. Sharma and Bajaj (1998) have recommended intercropping ginger with bell pepper (Capsicum annum) for reducing nematode infestation. This system reduced the yellow ginger mosaic virus disease by 76% (Dohroo and Sharma 1997). In Bangladesh, ginger produced high yield (4.33 t/ha) and benefit–cost ratio (1:6.2) when grown under juvenile mango trees (8–10 years old) (Haque et al. 2004). Growing the fodder tree Quercus leucotrichophora with ginger is found to be the most ideal and remunerative silvi-horticultural combination in the hills of Uttar Pradesh in India (Bisht et al. 2000). Nutrient use efficiencies were higher under Ailanthus–ginger mixed cropping (Thomas et al. 1998). Ginger in the interspaces. of 5-year-old Ailanthus trees with 52% mean daily PAR flux or 73% midday PAR flux exhibited better growth and maximum rhizome yield compared to sole crop and also Ailanthus + ginger combinations, which also improved the soil nutrient status (Kumar et al. 2001). Ginger yield reduced when it was intercropped under closely planted poplar tree (Populus deltoides “G-3” March) when compared to the situation where the poplar trees were planted at a spacing of 5 m  4 m (Jaswal et al. 1993). In Eastern China, ginger was found to be an ideal shade crop in Paulownia elongata plantations (Newman et al. 1997). Yield of ginger was found to be higher in the open field (14.7 ha) compared to that obtained in plots of agroforestry (Ghosh et al. 2006). In an agroforestry system, the highest ginger yield (12.3 t/ha) was obtained when ginger was grown in the alleys of P. deltoides (poplar tree) and the lowest (3.3 t/ha) when grown in the alleys of

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Casuarina equisetifolia. There exists a significant positive correlation between yield of ginger and PAR and atmospheric and soil temperature. However, yield showed a negative correlation with RH. Sanwal et al. (2006) found that different intercropping systems affected some of the growth characteristics and yield of ginger in a negative manner except when legumes are grown as intercrop. Obviously, the soil fertility enriching characteristics of the legumes must have been the dominant source of influence in this positive effect. The highest net monetary return recorded was in the ginger + cowpea combination followed by ginger + French bean combination. When ginger was intercropped with nonleguminous crops, the total N and K uptake differed significantly. Land equivalent ratio (LER) values were always more than one in intercropping systems. Overall, ginger intercropped with cowpea and French bean was found to be the most suitable and an economically viable combination in the mid-hill agroclimatic conditions of northeast hill regions of India, such as Assam, Meghalaya, and Manipur. Investigations of Prajapati et al. (2007) showed that the growth and biomass of ginger were higher in unpruned Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn compared to pruned condition. Kumar et al. (2010) reported that interception of PAR by ginger crop 150 days after planting as intercrop in tamarind plantation (6 m  6 m spacing) was 25,229 lx compared with 31,643 lx in open space. Higher number of rhizomes and yield (173.89 g/plant) were recorded in the intercropped area compared to sole crop grown in open space.

18.4.9.1

Crop Rotation

Crop rotation is essential, as ginger depletes a lot of soil nutrients and monoculture with ginger can lead to soil infestation with pathogens, primarily Pythium, which causes the dreaded rhizome rot. Ginger is rotated with tapioca, chilies, sesame, little millet, and dry paddy in rainfed conditions, while finger millet, groundnut, maize, and vegetables are rotated with ginger where the crop is grown in irrigated conditions. Pegg et al. (1969) recommended beans, cucurbits, and strawberries as suitable crops for rotation as cover crops to minimize nematode infestation. Crop rotation with tomato, potato, eggplant, and peanut should be avoided as these plants are hosts of the wilt-causing pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum. Ridley (1912) reported of an instance of a farmer who continuously grew ginger in the same field year after year without any yield reduction or any of the associated problems mentioned above. Obviously, this was a long time ago, when farming was still uncomplicated and without the trappings of the chemically driven so-called green revolution that started in the early 1960s when high-input technology took over. Along with it, a host of soil and environmental-related problems also began to prevail. There are a number of instances now to prove this.

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18.4.10

393

Harvesting

The harvest time depends on the product for which the rhizomes are eventually used, prevalent price trend in the market, and climatic conditions. When the rhizome is used as a vegetable or for preparation of ginger preserve, candy, soft drinks, pickles, and alcoholic beverages, harvesting should be done 4–5 months after planting, whereas when it is used as dried ginger, and also for the preparation of valueadded products like ginger oil, oleoresin, and dehydrated and bleached ginger, harvesting should be done between 8 and 10 months. Fiber, volatile oil contents, and pungency levels are the most important criteria to assess the suitability of ginger rhizomes for processing (Purseglove et al. 1981). And relative abundance of these components depends on the stage of maturity at harvest (Natarajan et al. 1972). Oleoresin and oil contents rose sharply after 5½–6 months, beyond which there was a decline and fiber development was extremely rare between 6 and 7 months of growth (Winterton and Richardson 1965). Although there is fiber in the rhizome which develops from time to time, the amount is insignificant in the initial stages. Aiyadurai (1966) has reported that crude fiber content increased beyond 260 days after planting. The diameter and strength of fiber increase with the physiological age of the rhizome. Fibrous ginger is unacceptable in the manufacture of processed confectionary because of its reduced palatability. In Australia, harvesting of confectionary grade ginger begins when 40–50% by weight of the rhizome is free of commercial fiber, which continues down to a 35% level (Whiley 1990). Increase in crude fiber and decrease in fat and protein contents of rhizome was noticed after 6½ months after planting (Jogi et al. 1972). Oleoresin and oil contents of different cultivars reached their maximum 265 DAP (Nybe et al. 1982). Ratnambal et al. (1989) have observed that dry recovery, starch, and crude fiber were positively correlated with maturity, whereas essential oil, oleoresin, and protein contents were negatively correlated with maturity. In India, early harvest at 200–215 DAP gave higher yield than at late harvest at 230–245 DAP (Aiyadurai 1966). In Australia, early harvest yielded 50 t/ha and late harvest 90–100 t/ha (Lee et al. 1981). However, Nair and Varma (1970) and Pawar and Patil (1987) have observed no differences in yield when ginger was harvested 215–275 DAP. Harvesting of ginger is done using a spade, hoe, or digging fork in India, while mechanical diggers are used in Australia. It is extremely important that care is taken to minimize physical damage to the rhizomes while harvesting. The soil, roots, and tops are separated from the rhizomes and washed in clean running water. In India, harvest is generally carried out in the months of January–April and the date may vary with the locations. Irrigation is completely stopped a month prior to harvest allowing the plant tops to dry. Leaves and stem are cut to the ground, and the rhizomes are dug out by hoeing or plowing. In the plains where the average temperature fluctuates between 30  C and 35  C, the crop is ready for harvest in about 8 months after planting, when the plants turn yellow and start drying up gradually. In Nepal, Sikkim, and Darjeeling in India, removal of seed (mother) rhizome after 2–3 months of planting is a local practice. By this practice, farmers

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get back their investment on seed rhizome. Late harvest is practiced in areas where there is no damage to the rhizome due to heat or pests and diseases. The fresh rhizome yield varies with variety and time of harvest; in general, yield may vary between 20 and 50 tons of fresh rhizomes/ha. The dry recovery also varies as a consequence of dry yield. Organic farming experiments on ginger produced a yield (14.3 t/ha) which was 22.8% and 25% lower compared to chemical and integrated farming in the first year of experimentation (IISR 2005). But the practical experience with organic farming is that in the first 3 years after a switch from intensive chemical farming to organic farming, there is a yield depression, thereafter yield stabilizes and then gradually increases.

18.4.11

Seed Storage

Seed storage in ginger is a very important operation to ensure good germination when the sets from stored seed are used for subsequent planting. Duration between first harvest and the next planting is approximately 120–150 days, sometimes even longer. As ginger is vegetatively propagated, the rhizomes should be stored safely during the off-season, but they are highly perishable and susceptible to soilborne fungal and insecticidal attacks. The seed rhizomes should be appropriately stored so that rotting, shriveling, dehydration, and sprouting are avoided until the following season. Farmers adopt different methods of storage of seed ginger (Kannan and Nair 1965). Storage losses can often be as high as 50%. Recovery of seed rhizomes at planting was as high as 96.05% and dipping in Dithane M 45 0.3% solution for 30 min and drying under shade and then storing in pits (wherever bacterial wilt is a problem, the seeds should be treated with streptocycline 200 ppm) (NRCS 1989). Elpo et al. (2008) reported that paucity of good storage facilities is an important constraint in ginger production. Maintaining a storage temperature of 22–25  C makes the growing buds fat and strong, and temperature higher than 28  C in the long run makes the buds thin and weak. If the storage humidity is too low, the ginger rhizome epidermis may also lose water and then wrinkle, consequently adversely affecting the rhizome quality and speed of sprouting (Xizhen et al. 2005). Ginger can be stored in pits (1 m  1 m  1 m size), with the inner walls lined with stones/bricks. The bottom of these pits is filled with 10 cm thick dry sand. Disease-free bold rhizomes are selected after harvest, cleaned, and treatment with Bordeaux mixture (1:1:100) for 20 min is recommended for seed rhizomes (Xizhen et al. 2005). Prestorage steeping of rhizomes in T. hamatum or T. viride culture also showed inhibition against Fusarium equiseti infection (Bharadwaj et al. 1988). Treated rhizomes are placed in pits leaving 10–15 cm space on the top, covered with wooden plank to have space for aeration and plastered with cow dung. Covering the seed material with a layer of Glycosmis pentaphylla leaves is also beneficial (Nybe and Mini Raj 2005). In China, cellars, holes dug out of the earth in shady or covered places, are used commonly for storage of seed rhizomes. A zero energy cool chamber (ZECC) is found ideal for storing

18.4

Production Technology

395

fresh ginger. The loss in weight of the rhizomes was only 23% after storing for 4 months in this chamber, while the ginger stored in open conditions was shrunken in 4 months (IISR 2002). Studies on storage of “seed pieces” of ginger showed that, in general, the number of days to germinate decreased with length of storage period, while percentage germination and yield increased from 0 to 42 days of storage. However, germination and yield were consistently lower after 35 days of storage. This anomalous response may be due to secondary dormancy during which the seed pieces lose their dormancy up to 21 days of storage, but regain or enter into secondary dormancy at 35 days and again lose dormancy after 42 days (Timpo and Oduro 1977). In Nigeria, delayed harvesting with grass mulching up to 15 cm thick in the field itself or storage of harvested rhizomes in shade on layers of sand or grass cover are some alternate methods of seed ginger storage (Anonymous 1970). Mature ginger rhizomes can be stored at 12–14  C with 85–90% RH for 60–90 days (Paull et al. 1988). Storage at 13  C with 65% RH leads to extensive dehydration and a wilted appearance (Akamine 1962). Superficial mold growth can occur if condensation occurs on rhizomes. Chhata et al. (2007) suggested that ginger rhizomes might be stored at 10  C and less than 30% RH to reduce storage rot. The stored rhizomes are examined each month, and rotten rhizomes are taken out to preserve the rest in a good healthy condition, free from disease and pest infestation.

18.4.12

Alternate Method of Ginger Production

Soilborne diseases and nematode infestation are high in ginger fields. Aeroponic cultivation of ginger can provide high-quality rhizomes which are free from pesticides and nematodes, which are produced in mild-winter temperature greenhouses. The hydroponic system produced more yield and better quality rhizomes. Preliminary observations in South Florida showed that cost of production was lower in a hydroponic system due to reduced maintenance costs, arising from disease, pest, and weed infestations (Rafie et al. 2003). Hayden et al. (2004) in Arizona also tried soilless aeroponic cultivation of ginger to obtain high-quality rhizomes, in mildwinter temperature greenhouses, which are pesticide-free and without nematode infestation. The unique aeroponic system of ginger cultivation has growing units, incorporating “rhizome compartments” separated and elevated above an aeroponic spray chamber. Plants received bottom heat on perlite medium which showed accelerated growth and faster maturity. A noncirculating hydroponic method was used in Hawaii to produce disease-free ginger for seed (Hepperly et al. 2004). The disadvantages of this system are (i) initial heavy capital investment for erecting greenhouses or shelter structures, plastic composite benches, an efficient irrigation system, pots, and clean potting medium; (ii) a reliable source of clean water, preferably from a reliable “piped-in” source; (iii) availability of wilt-free starters; and (iv) assurance of strict sanitation measures in the greenhouse to preempt onset of disease and pest attack.

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Ratooning is not common in ginger and is not encouraged or preferred, as the end product contains more fiber. However, Ridley (1912) mentioned that a few farmers in Jamaica practiced ratooning. Extracts from ratoon ginger had a higher “fiery taste” and less flavor than from those obtained from normal planting (Purseglove et al. 1981).

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Natarajan, C. P., Bai, R. P., Krishnamurthy, M. N., Raghavan, B., Sankaracharya, N. B., Kuppuswamy, S., et al. (1972). Chemical composition of ginger varieties and dehydration studies of ginger. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 9, 120–124. Newman, S. M., Bennet, K., & Wu, Y. (1997). Performance of maize, beans and ginger as intercrops in Paulownia plantations in China. Agroforestry Systems, 39(1), 23–30. Nimkar, S. A., & Korla, B. N. (2009). Yield and economics of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) cultivation. Green Farming, 13(1), 948–949. (Special). Ning, T. G., Shu, L. L., Jing, J., & Wang, H. H. (2009). Early growing technique of deep sowing ginger in level row with plastic mulch. China Vegetables, 2, 65–67. Nizam, S. A., & Jayachandran, B. K. (2001). Performance of mini seed rhizome as planting material in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.). In Proceedings of the 13th Kerala Science Congress (pp. 457–458). Trivandrum: STEC. NRCS. (1989). Storage method of ginger seed rhizomes. Calicut: National Research Centre for Spices. Nybe, E. V., & Mini Raj, N. (2005). Ginger Production in India and Other South Asian Countries I. In P. N. Ravindran & K. Nirmal Babu (Eds.), Ginger: The Genus Zingiber Medicinal and Aromatic Plants—Industrial Profiles (Vol. 41, pp. 211–240). Washington, DC: CRC Press. Nybe, E. V., Nair, P. C. S., & Mohankumar, N. (1982). Assessment of yield and quality components in ginger. In M. K. Nair, T. Premkumar, P. N. Ravindran, & Y. R. Sarma (Eds.), Proceedings National Seminar on Ginger and Turmeric (pp. 24–29). Kasaragod: Central Plantation Crops Research Institute. Okwuowulu, P. A. (1988). Effect of seed ginger weight on flowering and rhizome yield of field grown edible ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) in Nigeria. Tropical Science, 28, 171–176. Okwuowulu, P. A. (1992). Effects of depth of seed placement and age at harvest on the tuberous stem yield and primary losses in edible ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) in south eastern Nigeria. Tropical Landwirtsch Vet Medicine, 2, 163–168. Okwuowulu, P. A. (2005). Ginger in Africa and the Pacific Ocean islands. In P. N. Ravindran & K. Nirmal Babu (Eds.), Ginger: The Genus Zingiber Medicinal and Aromatic Plants— Industrial Profiles (Vol. 41, pp. 279–303). Washington, DC: CRC Press. Okwuowulu, P. A., Ene, L. S. O., Odurukwe, S. O., & Ojinaka, T. (1989). Effect of time of planting and age at harvest on yield of stem tuber and shoots in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) in the rain forest zone of southeastern Nigeria. Experimental Agriculture, 26, 209–212. Owadally, A. L., Ramtohul, M., & Heasing, J. M. (1981). Ginger production and research in its cultivation. Revue agricole et sucrière de l'Ile Maurice, 60, 131–148. Panigrahi, U. C., & Patro, G. K. (1985). Ginger cultivation in Orissa. Indian Farming, 35(5), 3–4. Park, M. (1937). Seed treatment of ginger. Tropical Agriculture, 89, 3–7. Parthasarathy, V. A., Kandiannan, K., Anandaraj, M., & Devasahayam, S. (2003). Technical advances for improving production of ginger. In H. P. Singh & M. Tamil Selvan (Eds.), Indian ginger—production and utilization (pp. 24–40). Calicut: Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development. Paull, R. E., Chen, N. J., & Goo, T. T. C. (1988). Control of weight loss and sprouting of ginger rhizome in storage. Horticultural Science, 23, 734–736. Paulose, T. T. (1973). Ginger cultivation in India Proceedings of the Conference on Spices (pp. 117–121). London: Tropical Products Institute. Pawar, H. K., & Patil, B. R. (1987). Effects of application of NPK through FYM and fertilizers and time of harvesting on yield of ginger. Journal of Maharashtra Agriculture University, 12, 350–354. Pegg, K. G., Moffett, M. L., & Colbran, R. C. (1969). Diseases of Ginger in Queensland. The Buderim Ginger Growers Cooperative Association Limited, Australia. Phogat, K. P. S., & Pandey, D. (1988). Influence of the time of planting on the growth and yield of ginger var Rio de Janeiro. Progressive Horticulture, 20, 40–68.

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Chapter 19

The Biotechnology of Ginger

Abstract The chapter discusses tissue culture (micropropagation), direct regeneration from the aerial stem, anther culture, inflorescence culture and in vivo development of fruit, microrhizomes, plant regeneration from callus culture, suspension culture, protoplast culture, in vitro selection/induction of systemic resistance, soma clonal variation, production of secondary metabolites, in vitro polyploidy, and field evaluation of tissue-cultured plants. The chapter will additionally talk about germplasm conservation, in which in vitro conservation and cryopreservation are discussed. Also, the place of synthetic seeds in ginger production is discussed in the chapter. Further, molecular markers and diversity studies including molecular phylogeny of ginger are also discussed. Additionally, the application of molecular markers for detection of adulteration in traded ginger, in genetic fidelity testing, is discussed. Tagging genes of interest using molecular markers, isolating candidate genes for other agronomically important traits, and genetic transformation are also discussed. Keywords Biotechnology · Tissue culture · Germplasm conservation · Molecular markers · Molecular phylogeny · Gene tagging

19.1

Tissue Culture

19.1.1 Micropropagation In vitro culture is one of the key tools of plant biotechnology that exploits the totipotency nature of plant cells, a concept proposed by Haberlandt (1902) and unquestionably demonstrated, for the first time, by Steward et al. (1958). Tissue culture is alternatively called cell, tissue, and organ culture through in vitro conditions (Debergh and Read 1991). The cell and tissue culture techniques have immense advantages in ginger, a vegetatively propagated crop, mainly because conventional breeding programs are hampered due to lack of fertility and natural seed set.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 K. P. Nair, Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_19

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Protocols for micropropagation and somaclonal variation, plant regeneration, meristem culture, in vitro pollination, microrhizome induction, protoplast culture, synseeds, and cryopreservation are optimized in ginger. Exploitation of somaclonal variation can help in inducing variability, leading to high-yielding, high-quality, and disease-resistant lines. Meristem culture can help in isolating disease-free plants. Even though micropropagation technology is more expensive than conventional propagation methods, and unit cost per plant reaches unaffordable levels, compelling adoption of alternative strategies other than micropropagation to minimize production cost and to lower cost per plant and its dependability has been the reason for its preferential choice and widespread adoption by many researchers. Clonal multiplication of ginger from vegetative buds has been reported by many investigators Babu et al. (1997) and Nadgauda et al. (1980). Shooting was observed in the presence of BAP, IAA, IBA, Kinetin, and NAA. NAA was found to increase shoot length in both solid and liquid media (Arimura et al. 2000a). However, absence of BAP increased shoot number in liquid media (Arimura et al. 2000b). Some authors report maximum shoot production in MS media (Murasighe and Skoog 1962) supplemented with ordinary sugar and no growth regulators (Sharma and Singh 1995a). Among the different explants, shoot tips gave the best results (Rajani and Patil 2009) and emerged as suitable explants for ginger culture establishment. Behera and Sahoo (2009) tried liquid culture with vegetative buds and obtained good multiplication, rooting, and establishment of plants in the field. Production of etiolated adventitious shoots is also reported in ginger (Arimura et al. 2000a). On account of diseases of ginger being spread through infected seed rhizomes, meristem culture was optimized in ginger with a view to produce disease-free planting materials (Rout et al. 2001). Meristems of developed shoots were cultured on MS medium supplemented with coconut water initially for rapid screening of bacterial blight infection. The bacteria-free shoots were multiplied on MS medium supplemented with BAP or 2iP, and ginger plantlets were transferred ex vitro, which produced bacteria-free rhizomes showing vigorous growth, high survival percentage, and high yield (Kirdmanee et al. 2004). Minas (2010) reports a protocol for micropropagation from meristem tips on MS with BAP ascorbic acid. An efficient method for micropropagation of ginger that can increase plantlet production from a single shoot tip by 19-fold after every 12 weeks was developed. Among the various growth regulators used, a combination of BAP, IBA, kinetin, and/or IAA, with half- and three-quarter-strength MS medium was superior for morphogenesis. The liquid phase enhanced shoot multiplication due to agitation. All regenerated shoots produced functional roots in the same media (Tauqeer et al. 2007). In vitro shoot clusters of ginger were initiated from the meristem culture in a bioreactor in the presence of BAP and NAA. Increased levels of sucrose promoted both proliferation and growth of in vitro shoots without hyperhydricity (Ahn et al. 2007). Field performance of micropropagated (MP) ginger was evaluated in earthen pots with different compositions of sand, soil, cow dung (a common source of organic manure in India), and chemical fertilizer. Rooting performance was good in MS basal liquid media, while field establishment was better in garden soil/sand (1:1) mixture, which resulted in maximum height of the plants. Jasarai et al. (2000)

19.2

Direct Regeneration for Aerial Stem

407

reported good establishment in the mixture of garden soil, sand, and compost (40:20:40). A low-cost glass fermenting device for massive micropropagation of ginger in liquid media was developed by Hernandez-Soto et al. (2008). Rooting was induced best with IBA for direct regeneration (Rajani and Patil 2009) and also callus-regenerated (Sultana et al. 2009) plantlets from different explants. Kavyashree (2009) reports rooting on LSBM fortified with BAP, where simultaneous shooting and rooting were observed. Dogra et al. (1994) and Arimura et al. (2000b) reported the use of NAA for rooting. Kambaska and Santilata (2009) reported rooting on half-strength MS. Root number and length were enhanced in liquid medium (Arimura et al. 2000b) regardless of plant growth regulator treatment, while Devi et al. (1999) and Arimura et al. (2000a) reported establishment of roots in a growth regulator-free medium. The longest roots were obtained on potato extract and dextrose medium (Sharma and Singh 1995a). Cha-um et al. (2005) studied ex vitro survival and growth of ginger plantlets cultured photoautotrophically after in vitro acclimatization and found that the plantlets acclimatized under high RH with CO2 enrichment conditions showed the highest adaptive abilities, resulting in the highest survival percentage (90–100%) after transplantation to ex vitro. The regenerated plantlets were successfully established in the field with 86% survival frequency after a few days of indoor acclimatization (Kavyashree 2009). The potential of beneficial bacteria to improve the growth of MP plants of ginger using reduced fertilizer inputs for improved growth of ginger tissue culture plants, where rhizome fresh weight, shoot, and root dry weights increased significantly compared to controls has been investigated. Protocols for micropropagation of an economically and medicinally important Zingiber species, viz., Z. cassumunar (Roxb.), were optimized by Chirangini and Sharma (2005). They reported in vitro propagation on MS media fortified with NAA and BAP. Prathanturarug et al. (2004) reported in vitro propagation of Z. petiolatum, a rare plant from Thailand using seedling explants on MS medium containing 6-BAP alone or in combination with NAA. Rooting was spontaneously achieved in MS medium without growth regulators.

19.2

Direct Regeneration for Aerial Stem

Direct organogenesis from the aerial stem in the form of shoots and roots was observed in all combinations of BAP and NAA, leading to multiple shoots. Eightyfive percent of the plantlets could be established in the field, which after 8 months yielded approximately 100 g fresh rhizome/plant (Lincy 2007). Lincy et al. (2009) reported indirect and direct somatic embryogenesis from aerial stem explants of ginger. Somatic embryos were induced in a medium containing BAP. The mature, club-shaped somatic embryos germinated in the presence of BAP and NAA in different concentrations. Direct somatic embryogenesis was observed from the plants in aerial stem and leaf base explants in the presence of TDA and IBA.

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Kackar et al. (1993) successfully induced embryogenic callus in ginger on MS medium from young leaf segments of in vitro shoot cultures. Dicamba was the most effective in inducing and maintaining embryogenic cultures. Efficient plant regeneration was achieved on transfer to BAP-supplemented media. Histological studies revealed various stages of somatic embryogenesis characteristic of the monocot system. The in vitro-raised plants were successfully established in soil.

19.3

Anther Culture

Production of haploids through anther culture can be used for inducing mutations, for transformation, for cell line selection, and in the production of homozygous lines for further breeding programs. Plant regeneration from anther callus was reported from diploid and tetraploid ginger (Babu 1997). Ginger anthers collected at the uninucleate microspore stage were subjected to a cold treatment (0
C) for 7 days and induced to develop profuse callus on MS medium supplemented with 2,4-D. Plantlets could be regenerated from these calli on MS medium supplemented with BAP and 2,4-D. The regenerated plantlets could be established in soil with 85% success. This protocol can be used for the possible development of androgenic haploids and dihaploids in ginger. Callus formation, development of roots, and rhizome-like structures were reported earlier from excised ginger anthers cultured on MS medium containing 2,4-D and coconut milk (Ramachandran and Chandrashekaran 1992). Kim et al. (2000) induced compact embryogenic calli from anther explants on N6 medium with NAA. Regeneration occurred after 40 days of transfer to media in the presence of BA.

19.4

Inflorescence Culture and In Vivo Development of Fruit

Immature inflorescences form ideal explants for micropropagation of many crop species mainly due to the fact that the regenerated plants derived immature inflorescence, which usually maintain the genetic characteristics of the parent plants. In ginger, immature floral buds were converted into vegetative buds which subsequently developed into complete plants. Vegetative shoots were produced in 70% of the explants when 1-week-old inflorescences were cultured on MS medium supplemented with 10 mg/l BAP and 0.2 mg/l 2,4-D. These shoots grew into complete plantlets in 7–8 weeks’ time (Babu et al. 1992). It is already known that ginger does not set fruit. However, by supplying required plant nutrients to young flowers, in vitro pollination could be effected to develop “fruit,” and subsequently plants could be recovered from these fruits (Babu et al. 1992). Development of seeds by in vitro pollination in ginger was also reported by

19.5

Microrhizomes

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Valsala et al. (1996). Dark-colored arillate mature seeds obtained after pollination germinated on half-strength MS medium with 2,4-D, BA, and NAA. The in vitroproduced seeds grew rapidly during the initial period (20 DAP), but there was little subsequent growth. The maturation period of seeds was 2–3 months under in vitro conditions as observed from the change in seed color. In vitro pollination was successfully attempted by Nazeem et al. (1996) to overcome the prefertilization barriers like spiny stigma, long style, and coiling of pollen tube that interfered with natural seed set in ginger. They also developed a viable protocol for rapid multiplication of tiny seedlings which emerged from in vitro-raised seeds. This opens up new possibilities of sexual reproduction and development of seed-derived progenies of ginger, bringing in new possibilities in the improvement of the ginger crop.

19.5

Microrhizomes

Low efficiency of vegetative propagation, susceptibility of rhizomes used for vegetative propagation to diseases, and degeneration of rhizomes on long-term storage, coupled with poor flowering and seed set, have adversely affected ginger cultivation and breeding (Zheng et al. 2008). These can all be easily overcome through microrhizome technology. In vitro induction of microrhizomes in ginger was reported by many investigators (Babu et al. 1997; Babu et al. 2003; Sakamura et al. 1986). Microrhizomes resemble the normal rhizomes in all respects, except in their smaller size. The microrhizomes consist of 2–4 nodes and 1–6 buds. They also have the aromatic flavor of ginger, and they resemble the normal rhizome in anatomical features by the presence of well-developed oil cells, fibers, and starch grains. The microrhizome-derived plants have more tillers, but the plant height is smaller. In vitro-formed rhizomes are genetically more stable compared to MP plants. Seed rhizomes weigh about 2–8 g as compared to 20–30 g in the case of conventionally propagated plants. Microrhizomes gave very high recovery through lesser yield per bed. Microrhizomes also were genetically stable. This, coupled with its disease-free nature, will make microrhizomes an ideal source of planting material suitable for germplasm exchange, transportation, and conservation (Babu et al. 2003). Microrhizomes were produced on medium BA and IAA (Rout et al. 2001), while Sharma and Singh (1995b) obtained microrhizome induction in MS supplemented with only sucrose. Zheng et al. (2008) reports a major role of sucrose and larger effect of GA compared to kinetin and NAA on microrhizome induction. They also reported that increasing macro- and microelement content in MS medium can increase the weight of each microrhizome and the induction of microrhizomes; however, when macroelements were above 2.0, toxic effects on ginger plantlets

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occurred in vitro, resulting in etiolation and ultimately plant death. Tyagi et al. (2006) reported no significant effect of maleic hydrazide on microrhizome production. Tyagi et al. (2006) reported a significant effect of light treatments on survival of cultures but not on rhizome formation. Zheng et al. (2008) reported a photoperiod of 24 L:0D (light/dark periods). At 16/8 h (day/night) photoperiod, light intensity of 40% of full sunlight and air temperature of 22–30
C resulted in optimum rhizome growth and photosynthetic ability as per Hyun et al. (1997). Cho et al. (1997) reported plant acclimatization under 85 μE/m/s light for 7 days before transplantation to be advantageous. In vitro-grown rhizomes of ginger grew well on the carbonized rice husk/peat medium (5:1) ratio (Cho et al. 1997). The percentage of established plants and sanitary conditions tended to be better in the presence of sand only or sand in combination with other media (Him de Freitez and Paez de Casares 2004). The microrhizomes sprouted in a soil mixture within 2 weeks of planting (Rout et al. 2001). The sprouted plantlets survived under field conditions with normal growth. Sharma and Singh (1995b) observed 80% survival on storage in moist sand at room temperature for 2 months. Geetha (2002) reports 85% success on direct field planting without any hardening, and Zheng et al. (2008) reports a survival rate of 100%. A multiplication rate of 70,000 plants-rhizome/year was observed (Him de Freitez and Paez de Casares 2004). Quality analysis of in vitro-developed rhizomes indicated that they contain the same constituents as the original rhizome but with quantitative differences. The composition of basal medium seems to affect the composition of oil (Sakamura et al. 1986). Chirangini and Sharma (2005) reported development of microrhizomes induction in Z. cassumunar (Roxb.) when in vitro-derived shoots were cultured on MS media supplemented with sucrose within 8 weeks of incubation. Average fresh weight of 0.81 g was observed.

19.6

Plant Regeneration from Callus Culture

Plant regeneration from calli is possible by de novo organogenesis or somatic embryogenesis. Callus cultures also facilitate the amplification of limiting plant material. In addition, plant regeneration from calli permits the isolation of rare somaclonal variants which result either from an existing genetic variability in somatic cells or from the induction of mutations, chromosome aberrations, and epigenetic changes by the in vitro-applied environmental stimuli, including growth factors added to the cultured cells. Regeneration through callus phase via both organogenesis and embryogenesis was reported in ginger from leaf, vegetative bud, ovary, anthers, and shoot tips (Nadgauda et al. 1980). Callus from ovary tissues showed both organogenesis and embryogenesis, while those from other explants

19.6

Plant Regeneration from Callus Culture

411

showed plantlet regeneration on media supplemented with BAP and 2,4-D. NAA was found to enhance secondary embryoid production and formation of plantlets and rooting (Babu et al. 1992). Palai et al. (2000) reported plantlet regeneration from callus in four varieties of ginger in MS basal medium supplemented with BAP, IAA, and adenine sulfate. Jamil et al. (2007) reported best callus induction on media supplemented with IAA and BAP. Xuan et al. (2004) reported 2,4-D and kinetin for better callusing and Kinetin and NAA for differentiation. Callusing was usually found in the presence of IAA. However, dicamba induced callusing; Sultana et al. (2009) reported that leaf explants gave best results over shoot tip and root explants. Basal leaf sections of in vitro plants were found to be good for callus induction as per Him de Freitez and Paez de Casares (2004). Dicamba promoted callusing (Sultana et al. 2009) but showed a tendency to develop rhizogenic callus-like tissue in media containing only 2,4-D (Him de Freitez and Paez de Casares 2004). Kinetin and BAP were best for regeneration (Sultana et al. 2009). Him de Freitez and Paez de Casares (2004) maintained cultures under dark conditions for 60 days. Organogenic callus was found to have high carbohydrate and protein content than nonorganogenic callus. Six specific polypeptides accumulated during organogenesis and five expressed during rooting. Peroxidase and catalase activities were higher during rooting. Acid phosphatase activities were high during organogenesis and declined during root induction. Ishida and Adachi (1997) studied the effects of phytohormones on the regeneration of plantlets in two morphological types of callus developed by culturing shoot meristem domes of three cultivars (Indo, Taiwan, and Ooshouga) on MS medium containing 2,4-D. Two types of callus, type I, which is compact with parenchymalike cells and large vacuoles that developed green spots and became covered in structures like root hairs, and type II, a sticky callus composed of small, square to rectangular cells with dense cytoplasms, and small or no vacuoles were found. Adventitious shoots and plantlet production were obtained only from sticky callus on MS medium containing NAA and BA. Jamil et al. (2007) studied the effect of CO2 enrichment on the differentiation and plant regeneration in ginger plant from callus culture through organogenesis. Callus initiated from shoot tips on exposure to elevated (5400–4000 ppm) atmospheric CO2 leads to an increase in adventitious bud and shoot primordial. But the growth of adventitious bud and shoot primordium were reduced at 800 ppm. Guo and Zhang (2005) reported establishment of somatic embryogenic cell suspension cultures of four ginger cultivars on MS agar medium supplemented with 2,4-D, kinetin, and NH4NO3. The somatic embryos produced shoots and roots and developed into complete plantlets on MS medium supplemented with BA and NAA. The suspension cultures retained their embryonic potential even after subculture for 8 months. Palai et al. (2000) reported rooting on half-strength basal MS medium supplemented with either IAA or IBA within 7–8 days. Sultana et al. (2009) reported that IBA gave the best results for rooting.

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Suspension Culture

When a callus tissue is dispersed into a liquid medium and agitated, it is found to disperse throughout the medium and form a cell suspension culture. These cells are capable of synthesizing any of the compounds normally associated with the plant. They provide an ideal system when rapid cell division and uniform conditions are required. They also can facilitate rapid production of variant cell lines through selection procedures that can help in production of new plant varieties and secondary metabolites (Gurel et al. 2002). Suspension cultures have been used to study the metabolic activities as well as to screen cell lines for resistance to diseases. The accumulation of (6)-gingerol and (6)shogaol was much higher in culture systems of ginger where morphological differentiation was apparent (Zarate and Yeoman 1996). Cultures grown on a callusinducing medium also accumulated these metabolites but to a lesser extent. There is a positive relationship between product accumulation and morphological differentiation, although unorganized callus tissue also seems to possess the necessary biochemical machinery to produce and accumulate some phenolic pungent principles. There was no positive correlation between the amount of (6)-gingerol accumulated and the number of pigmented cells in either of the culture systems investigated (Zarate and Yeoman 1996).

19.8

Protoplast Culture

Cultured protoplasts can be used not only for somatic cell fusions but also for taking up foreign DNA, cell organelles, bacteria, and virus particles. Using single cells such as protoplasts as starting material, one can also overcome the problems associated with multicellular tissues or organs like induction of chimeric polyploids. Protoplasts could be isolated successfully from leaf tissues as well as from cell suspension cultures in ginger on digestion in a mixture of macroenzyme R10, hemicellulase, and cellulose Onozuka R10. Seventy-two percent of the protoplasts were viable with a size of 0.39 mm. These viable protoplasts could be successfully plated on culture media to develop microcalli (Babu et al. 1997; Geetha 2002). Guo et al. (2007) described a procedure to regenerate plants from embryogenic suspension-derived protoplasts of ginger from shoot tips in the presence of NH4NO3, 2,4-D, and kinetin. Protoplasts were isolated from embryogenic suspensions using a mixture of cellulose, macroenzyme, and pectolyase in the presence of 2-(Nmorpholino) ethane sulfonic acid. The protoplasts were cultured initially in liquid MS medium with 2,4-D and kinetin, and protoplast-derived calli were transferred to 2,4-D and BA to produce white somatic embryos that later developed into shoots and complete plants on plain MS medium lacking growth regulator and solid MS

19.10

Somaclonal Variation

413

medium supplemented with BA and NAA. PVP and DTT could improve callus formation, shoot differentiation, growth, and rooting.

19.9

In Vitro Selection/Induction of Systemic Resistance

Kulkarni et al. (1987) reported isolation of Pythium-tolerant ginger by using culture filtrate (CF) as the selecting agent. In vitro selection for resistant types to soft rot and bacterial wilt using CFs of the pathogen or pathotoxin as the selecting agent was attempted by Dake et al. (1997). Tilad et al. (2002) treated ginger callus cultures with salicylic acid (SA) prior to selection with CF of F. oxysporum f. sp. Zingiberi that increased the callus survival against the pathogen. Exogenous application of SA resulted in increased activity of peroxides and β-1,3-glucanase enzymes in the callus cultures. Two new protein bands of approximately 97 and 38 kDa were observed in SDS-PAGE analysis of soluble proteins from SA-treated calli and the 38 kDa protein cross-reacted with PR-1 monoclonal antibody used in immunodetection. In vitro antifungal activity of protein extract of SA-treated calli showed significant reduction in spore germination and germ tube elongation. The induction of resistance to fungus may be due to increased activity of peroxides, β-1,3-glucanase, and antifungal PR-proteins. Gosh and Purkayastha (2003) induced systemic protection against P. aphanidermatum in ginger (cultivar Suprabha) by soaking rhizome seeds separately in selected synthetic chemicals or herbal extracts for 1 h prior to sowing. Jasmonic acid (JA, 5 mM) and 10% leaf extract of Acalypha indica reduced disease significantly, with concomitant increase of defense-related proteins.

19.10

Somaclonal Variation

Coupling somaclonal variation methods with strategic and efficient in vitro selection pressures can lead to generation of variants. This is especially useful in ginger, where the lack of sexual reproduction hampers crop improvement programs. Somaclones could also be used for screening against biotic and abiotic stresses after screening and confirmation using standard reliable methods. Field evaluation of somaclones indicated variability with regard to various agronomic characters and other yield parameters (Babu et al. 1997; Samsudeen 1996). Tashiro et al. (1995) treated excised shoot tips from three ginger cultivars with 5 mM N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (MNU) for 5–20 min and cultured on MS medium supplemented with NAA and BA. About 25% of MNU-treated plants differed in the basic isoenzyme patterns of GOT, 6-PGDH, PGM, or SKDH. All of them showed morphological mutations, such as multiple shoot formation, dwarfing, and abnormal leaves. The results indicated that treating cultured shoot tips with MNU effectively induces physiological and morphological mutations in ginger plants.

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The Biotechnology of Ginger

Production of Secondary Metabolites

Plant cells cultured in vitro produce a wide range of primary and secondary metabolites of economic value. Hence, plant tissue culture can be used as an alternative to whole plants as a biological source of potentially useful metabolites and biologically active compounds (Yeoman 1987). Production of phytochemicals from plant cell cultures has been used for pharmaceutical products. Production of flavor components and secondary metabolites in vitro using immobilized cells may be tried in some species. Successful establishment of cell suspension cultures in ginger was reported by Babu et al. (1997). These cultures are maintained by weekly transfers to the fresh nutrient medium containing MS basal salts and 2,4-D for over 2 years and are in continuous growth and multiplication. The cells were heterogenous, and during the process of subcultures, some of the cells differentiated into a few oil-producing cells. Callus and cell cultures and cell immobilization techniques for production of essential oils have been standardized for ginger (Ilahi and Jabeen 1992). Production of volatile constituents in ginger cell cultures was reported earlier by Sakamura et al. (1986). Ilahi and Jabeen (1987) also reported preliminary studies on alkaloid biosynthesis in callus cultures of ginger, while Charlwood et al. (1988) have reported the accumulation of flavor compounds.

19.12

In Vitro Polyploidy

Ginger displays high sterility as a result of chromosome aberrations such as translocations and inversions. Hence, other breeding methods such as mutation and polyploidy breeding are required to obtain genetically improved plants. In vivo induction of tetraploid is a difficult process, and in vitro colchicine treatment produces polyploids with higher efficiency than in vivo treatments (Adaniya and Shirai 2001). Adaniya and Shirai (2001) reported in vitro induction of tetraploid ginger on MS medium containing BA, NAA, and colchicines. Induced tetraploid had higher pollen fertility and germinability. In the tetraploid strains, pollen fertility and germination rates were very high. Smith et al. (2004) reported development of autotetraploid ginger with improved processing quality through in vitro colchicine treatment. Shoot tips immersed in colchicines and dimethyl sulfoxide on culture produced stable autotetraploid lines with significantly wider, greener leaves and fewer but thicker shoots. One superior line with improved aroma/flavor profile, fiber content, and consistently good rhizomes yield was released as “Buderim Gold.” More importantly, it produced large rhizome sections, resulting in a higher recovery of premium grade confectionery ginger and a more attractive fresh market product. Babu et al. (1993) also reported selection of a tetraploid line with extra-bold rhizomes from ginger somaclones.

19.13

Field Evaluation of Tissue-Cultured Plants

415

Wang et al. (2010) compared using shoot cultures and the doubling effects of somatic cell chromosome under in vitro conditions with different colchicines, concentration, and treating time period. Shoots when treated in liquid culture medium of 0.2% colchicines for 8 days showed the best inducement and survival rates of 42.86% and 70.0%, respectively. The chromosome number of tetraploid was 2n ¼ 4x ¼ 44, while that of the control diploid was 2n ¼ 2x ¼ 22. The tetraploids were taller with a thicker stem and have larger, broader, and thicker leaf blades, fewer stomata per unit area, larger stomata, and more chloroplasts in stomatal guard cell. The density of stomata and chloroplast number in guard cells could be important characteristics distinguishing tetraploid from diploid. Studies on pollen germination in vitro of a tetraploid ginger showed that the optimal pollination environment of the tetraploid ginger was 17–20
C under 100% RH (Adaniya 2001).

19.13

Field Evaluation of Tissue-Cultured Plants

Field evaluation of tissue-cultured plants indicated that MP plants require at least two crop seasons to develop rhizomes of normal size that can be used as seed rhizomes for commercial cultivation (Babu et al. 1998). Similar results were obtained by Smith and Hamill (1996) wherein the first generation ex vitro MP plants had significantly reduced the rhizome yield with smaller knobs and more roots. MP plants have a greater shoot–root (rhizome) ratio than seed-derived plants. Shoots from MP plants were also significantly smaller with a greater number of shoots per plant. They suggested that factors that can improve rhizome yield at low production costs need to be identified before MP plants can be recommended for use as a source of pest-free planting material. Lincy et al. (2008) studied the relationship between vegetative and rhizome characters and rhizome yield in MP ginger plants over two generations. Correlation and path analysis for yield and yield contributing characters in plantlets directly regenerated from aerial stem explants and plantlets regenerated from aerial stemderived callus over two generations revealed a high positive correlation of in vitroderived plants for yield to rhizome characters and negative correlation for yield to tiller number in the first generation. In the second generation of the aerial stemregenerated plants, tiller number, number of nodes per cormlets, circumference of cormlets, number of cormlets, and plant height exhibited high positive correlation and maximum direct effect with rhizome yield. However, the callus-regenerated plants showed the same trend in both generations. Tissue-cultured ginger plantlets developed a functional photosynthetic apparatus and antioxidant enzymatic protective system during acclimation. The development of newly formed leaves after plant transplanting is crucial to the plant photosynthesis and growth (Guan et al. 2008). Based on the high survival rate of acclimatized plants and the higher levels of total soluble sugars and starch in early stages of cultivation, acclimation is recommended to ensure higher plant survival and reserve allocation

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(Giradi and Pescador 2010). The growth and performance of plants derived from tissue culture are as good as plants propagated by seed after second generation ex vitro (Smith and Hamill 1996). Seedlings from in vitro cultivation were assessed for the efficacy of coconutbased substrates in ginger flower acclimation for survival rate, aerial part height, fresh matter, number of seedlings, root dry matter, and substrate pH. Sand, powder coconut + sand, and defibered coconut + sand showed the best results for all variables analyzed and were recommended for ginger flower (Etlingera elatior) acclimatization (Assiss et al. 2009). Ginger plants were propagated in vitro and acclimated under different photosynthetic photon flux densities. In vitro plantlets exhibited higher chlorophyll (Chl) content and Chl a/b ratio and exhibited low photosynthesis. The new leaves formed during acclimation in both treatments showed higher photosynthetic capacity than the leaves formed in vitro. Also, activities of antioxidant enzymes of MP ginger plantlets changed during acclimation (Guan et al. 2008). Ginger rhizome buds were induced to produce multiple shoots on MS with BA and IBA and successfully field planted with high survival percentage (Chan and Thong 2004). Metabolic profiling using GC/MS and LC-ESI-MS revealed a chemical difference between the different lines and tissues (such as rhizome, root, leaf, and shoot) tested. However, conventional greenhouse-grown and in vitro-derived plants did not show any significant difference on analysis of gingerols and gingerol-related compounds, other diarylheptanoids, and methyl ether derivatives of these compounds, as well as major mono- and sesquiterpenoids identified. The field performance of MP and conventionally grown plants (CP) of ginger was compared qualitatively and quantitatively, and it was observed that the MP plants took 2 months longer to yield as much oleoresin and gingerols as CP plants. Periodic fluctuations in the yield and rhizome composition of various compounds were observed (Bhagyalakshmi and Singh 1994). Screening and inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in ginger plants is a feasible procedure to increase the oleoresin production of Z. officinale and consequently increase the aggregate value in ginger rhizome production (Silva et al. 2008). Field establishment of in vitro plantlets was better in a combination of garden soil/sand (1:1 ratio, Ipsita et al. 2010).

19.14 19.14.1

Germplasm Conservation In Vitro Conservation and Cryopreservation

Being a vegetatively propagated crop, ginger is seriously affected by an accumulation of pathogens. Establishing in vitro germplasm collection is a process that cleans the plants from all diseases but viruses. It gives a good control on the preservation of genetic resources and facilitates international exchange of healthy plant material. Two kinds of in vitro germplasm preservation were considered: slow growth

19.15

Synthetic Seeds

417

condition culture for midterm preservation and cryopreservation using the encapsulation–dehydration technique for long-term preservation. In vitro conservation of germplasm of gingers was reported by Babu et al. (1999) and Geetha (2002). Minimal growth was induced, and ginger plantlets could be successfully conserved for an extended period over 12 months on half-strength MS basal medium supplemented with a high concentration of sucrose and mannitol, sealed with aluminum foil, and maintained at 22  2
C (Babu et al. 1999; Geetha 2002). Balachandran et al. (1990) reported that ginger cultures could be maintained up to 7 months without subculture by using polypropylene caps. Dekkers et al. (1991) reported that ginger shoots could be maintained for over 1 year at ambient temperatures (24–29
C) in mannitol overlayed with mineral oil. Use of in vitro rhizomes for germplasm conservation revealed that they remain healthy and viable up to 22 months at 25
C. Presence of light enhanced survival of cultures (Tyagi et al. 2006). An optimum subculture interval of 8–24 months was reported for different Zingiber species. Tyagi et al. (1998) and Yamuna et al. (2007) developed efficient cryopreservation technique for in vitro-grown shoots of ginger based on encapsulation–dehydration, encapsulation–vitrification, and vitrification procedures. Plants could be successfully regenerated from cryopreserved shoots of ginger (Ravindran et al. 2004; Yamuna et al. 2007). Vitrification procedure resulted in higher regrowth than in other methods (Yamuna 2007). DMSO and glycerol were used as cryoprotectants, and glycerol and sucrose were used as osmoprotectants. The genetic stability of cryopreserved ginger shoot buds was confirmed using IISR and RAPD profiling.

19.15

Synthetic Seeds

Germplasm of ginger conserved in field gene banks is often infected by soilborne pathogens, and the exchange of germplasm as rhizomes is problematic. Synseed technology is an important asset for (i) micropropagation, possessing the ability of regrowth and development into plantlets (conversion) for in vitro and in vivo use, and (ii) for exchange of germplasm with potential storability, ease of handling, limited quarantine restrictions, and low cost of production. Furthermore, they can be used for cryopreservation through encapsulation–dehydration and encapsulation– vitrification methods. Fabre and Dereuddre reported encapsulation–dehydration, a new approach in cryopreservation of Solanum shoot tips. Thus, the synthetic seed technology is designed to combine the advantages of clonal propagation with those of seed propagation and storage. Reports on synthetic seeds are available in ginger. Sharma et al. (1994) successfully encapsulated ginger shoot buds in 4% sodium alginate gel for production of disease-free encapsulated buds, which were germinated in vitro to form roots and shoots. Sajina et al. (1997) reported development of synthetic seeds in ginger by encapsulating the somatic embryos and in vitro-regenerated shoot buds in calcium

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alginate. These synseeds are viable up to 9 months at room temperature of 22
C  2
C and germinated into normal plants on MS medium supplemented with BAP and IBA (Geetha 2002; Sajina et al. 1997). Synseeds of ginger were produced using aseptically proliferated 2-week-old microshoots. Shoot/synseed production was enhanced significantly higher in the presence of BAP. For short-term storage, sucrose-dehydrated synseeds were found to be better than air-dehydrated or fresh synseeds. Plantlets obtained from stored synseeds established successfully ex vitro and exhibited genetic fidelity. This synseed protocol could be useful for short-term storage and exchange of germplasm of ginger between national as well as international laboratories (Sundararaj et al. 2010).

19.16

Molecular Markers and Diversity Studies

Markers are of interest as a source of genetic information in a particular crop and for use in indirect selection of marker-linked traits. The use of molecular markers is very common these days and facilitates molecular breeding which involves primarily “gene tagging,” followed by “marker-assisted selection” of desired genes or genomes. Gene tagging refers to the identification of existing DNA or the introduction of new DNA that can function as a tag or label for the gene of interest. Molecular markers fall into two broad classes: those based on gene product (biochemical markers like isozymes) and those relying on a DNA assay (molecular markers) (Semagn et al. 2006). The two types of markers were extensively used in the improvement of this obligatory asexual crop. The most significant advancement is the development and utilization of DNA markers to detect and exploit genetic polymorphism in germplasms, in genetic fidelity testing of in vitro-propagated plantlets, in barcoding and phylogeny construction, and in checking adulteration in traded commodities and drugs, besides gene tagging and marker-assisted selection. Isoenzyme studies have been reported in ginger. He et al. (1995) compared 28 ginger cultivars for peroxidase isoenzyme patterns by fuzzy cluster analysis and found differences in zonal number, activity intensity, and isoenzyme pattern, which were related to rhizome size, growth intensity, and blast (P. solanacearum) resistance. Isoenzymes of glutamate dehydrogenase (GDH), glutamate-oxaloacetate transaminase (aspartate aminotransferase) (GOT), malate dehydrogenase (MDH), 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase (6-PGDH), phosphoglucoisomerase (glucose6-phosphate isomerase) (PGI), phosphoglucomutase (PGM), and shikimate dehydrogenase (SKDH) were analyzed in ginger cultivars and its relatives by electrophoresis (Tashiro et al. 1995). There was no variation between the three ginger cultivars in any of the isoenzyme profiles. However, isoenzyme profiles varied between the species were investigated. Excised shoot tips from 5 mM N-methyl-N-nitrosourea were treated, and the regenerants on analysis showed variation in characteristic isoenzyme profiles of

19.16

Molecular Markers and Diversity Studies

419

GOT, 6-PGDH, PGN, or SKDH in 25% of plantlets. All of these mutants also showed morphological mutations, such as multiple shoot formation, dwarfing, and abnormal leaves (Tashiro et al. 1995). Babu et al. (1997) and Sumathi (2007) morphologically characterized platelets obtained through micropropagation, callus regeneration, and microrhizome pathways and observed certain amount of variations. The callus-regenerated plants show maximum variation in plant height, number of tillers per plant, number of leaves per plant, leaf length, rhizome yield, and primary and secondary fingers. However, plant height, number of leaves, yield, primary and secondary fingers, number of nodes of mother rhizome, and intermodal length of primary and secondary fingers did not show any variation. Biochemical characterization of ginger somaclones indicated significant variations in percentage of oil, oleoresin, starch, and fiber content. Negligible variation was observed between MP microrhizome and CP with regard to biochemical characters. However, callus regenerants showed significant variation, and a few promising lines having important useful traits were selected (Babu et al. 1997; Sumathi 2007). Chromosome indexing of selected somaclones showed deviations in chromosome numbers and structural aberrations in the case of callus-regenerated plants. The numerical variations were mainly aneuploids with lesser number of chromosomes (2n ¼ 53, 55, 57) than the normal number except one plant with higher number of chromosomes (2n ¼ 65) (Sumathi 2007). A few promising high-yielding somaclones tolerant to rhizome rot were identified (Babu et al. 1997). RAPD characterization of these somaclones showed profile variations indicating genetic differences (Sumathi 2007). A comprehensive metabolic fingerprinting from the leaves of three MP ginger cultivars was done to detect chemical variations including the volatile and nonvolatile oleoresins. It was apparent that the chemical variations were due to genetic effects rather than environmental and intrinsic factors. Molecular characterization of MP plants by Rout et al. (1998) indicated that RAPD profiles did not indicate any polymorphism among the MP plants. However, Babu et al. (2003) reported RAPD profile differences among MP ginger also. Variations among regenerated plants were reported in Kaempferia galanga (Ajithkumar and Seeni 1995) using RAPD markers. Isozymes and RAPD markers have been used in this direction (Tashiro et al. 1995). Jatoi et al. (2006) tested cross-amplification potential of microsatellite markers among taxa to identify a larger number of genetic markers. Eight to 12 rice SSR markers amplified fragments in 14 genotypes from three genera—Zingiber, Curcuma, and Alpinia. Though the sequence analysis of these bands confirmed the absence of target repeat motif, amplification of a large number of polymorphic bands provided a basis for genetic diversity analysis. Lee et al. (2007) reported isolation and characterization of eight polymorphic microsatellite markers for ginger. These were used to detect a total of 34 alleles across the 20 accessions with an average of alleles per locus. The data generated indicate the existence of moderate level of genetic diversity among the ginger accessions genotyped with eight markers

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Molecular Phylogeny of Zingiber

Chase (2004) investigated the phylogeny and relationships in monocots based on DNA analysis sequence data of seven genes representing all the three genomes of Zingiberales. A phylogenetic analysis of the tribe Zingibereae (Zingiberaceae) was performed by Ngamriabsakul et al. (2003) using nuclear ribosomal DNA (ITSI, 5.8S, and ITS2) and chloroplast DNA (trnL (UAA) 50 exon to trnF (GAA)) and suggested that the tribe Zingiberaceae as well as the genus Curcuma are monophyletic. Kress et al. (2002) studied the phylogeny of the gingers (Zingiberaceae) based on DNA sequences of the nuclear ITS and plastid matK regions and proposed a new classification of the Zingiberaceae. Gao et al. (2006) used SRAP markers to analyze phylogenetic relationships of 22 species of Chinese Hedychium which grouped into three clusters on phylogenetic analysis. Limited research on characterization at the DNA level has hindered the improvement of cultivated ginger through molecular approaches. Ninety-six accessions of ginger were analyzed using RAPD profiling and interrelationships studied. The polymorphism detected is moderate to low in ginger (Sasikumar and Zacharariah 2003). Wahyuni et al. (2003) studied genetic relationships among ginger accessions based on AFLP markers. Kavitha and Thomas (2008) reported Z. zerumbet (L) Smith, a wild species, as a potential resistance donor against soft rot disease in ginger caused by P. aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp. They studied the genetic diversity and P. aphanidermatum resistance of Z. zerumbet accessions in 15 populations. AFLP analysis of Z. zerumbet accessions revealed a high genetic diversity in Z. zerumbet, unexpected for a clonal species. In the UPGMA dendrogram, accessions were clustered mostly according to their geographical origin. Though good variability for pathogen resistance among Z. zerumbet accessions was observed, no clear correspondence was observed between the clustering pattern of accessions and their responses to P. aphanidermatum. Wahyuni et al. (2003) studied genetic relationships among ginger accessions based on AFLP markers. Intraspecific genetic variation was assessed in cultivated ginger and its three wild congeners, Z. neesanum, Z. nimmonii, and Z. zerumbet, from Western Ghats in southern India using 169 AFLP markers generated by six primer combinations. The very low level of genetic diversity recorded in ginger complies with its obligatory asexual breeding behavior (Kavitha et al. 2010). The genetic variation among three Z. officinale cultivars was studied using 16 arbitrary RAPD primers to determine genetic differences between the cultivars (Muda et al. 2004). The existing variation among 16 promising cultivars as observed through differential rhizome yield (181.9–477.3 g) was proved to have genetic basis using different genetic markers such as karyotype, 4C nuclear DNA content, and RAPD. The karyotypic analysis revealed a differential distribution of A, B, C, D, and E type of chromosomes among different cultivars as represented by different karyotype formulae. A significant variation of 4C DNA content was recorded at intraspecific level. RAPD analysis revealed a different polymorphism of DNA showing a number

19.17

Molecular Phylogeny of Zingiber

421

of polymorphic bands ranging from 26 to 70 among 16 cultivars. The RAPD primers OPCO2, OPAO2, OPD20, and OPNO6 showing strong resolving power were able to distinguish all of the 16 cultivars. Genetic diversity analyses revealed a conspicuous genetic diversity among different cultivars investigated (Nayak et al. 2005). The RAPD-based method was optimized for the identification and differentiation of the commercially important Z. officinale Roscoe from the closely related species Z. zerumbet. RAPD was used to identify putative species-specific amplicons for Z. officinale that were cloned and sequenced to develop SCAR markers. The developed SCAR markers were tested in several non-Zingiber species commonly used in ginger-containing formulations. One of the markers, P3, was found to be specific for Z. officinale and was successfully applied to detect Z. officinale from trikatu, a multicomponent formulation. The genetic relatedness among 51 accessions, 14 species of the genus Zingiber, and the genetic variability of a clonally propagated species, Z. montanum (Koenig) Link ex Dietr. from Thailand, were studied by using RAPD method. Jaccard’s coefficient of similarity varied from 0.119 to 0.970, indicative of distant genetic relatedness among the genotype investigated. UPGMA clustering indicated eight distinct clusters of Zingiber, with a high cophenetic correlation (r ¼ 1.00) value. Genetic variability in Z. montanum was exhibited by the collections from six regions of Thailand. High molecular variance (87%) within the collection regions of Z. montanum accessions was displayed by ANOVA data and also explained by the significant divergence among the sample from six collection regions. The results indicate that RAPD technique is useful to detect the genetic relatedness within and among species of Zingiber and that high diversity exists in the clonally propagated species Z. montanum (Bua-in and Paisooksantivatana 2010). Diversity of 21 cultivars and 3 wild accessions of Z. officinale, 84 accessions of 5 wild species of Zingiber, and 1 accession of Hedychium were examined using AFLP markers (Kavitha et al. 2007). No polymorphism was detected at more than 500 loci screened in ginger cultivars, showing an extreme case of genetic narrowness in a species. The study points out that monotypic nature of ginger cultivars may hinder the possibility of their identification based on their nucleic acid profiles. The present study also suggests the application of genomic tools to access the soft rot resistance trait in Z. zerumbet to develop transgenic ginger tolerant to this disease. Ahmad et al. (2009) examined genetic variation in 22 accessions belonging to 11 species in 4 genera of Zingiberaceae, mainly from Myanmar by PCR-RFLP to investigate their relationships within this family. Two out of ten chloroplast gene regions (trnS-trnfM and trnK2-trnQr) showed differential PCR amplification across the taxa. The study showed that C. zedoaria and C. xanthorrhiza appeared to be identical, supporting their recent classification as synonyms. Nucleotide diversity of a defense gene, PR5, and a nondefense gene, methionine synthase, was compared in Zingiber species with contrasting breeding system to reveal higher levels of nucleotide diversity in PR5 genes as compared to methionine synthase and evidence for transient episodes of positive selection experienced by this gene in the past. Contrary to expectations, the nucleotide diversity was higher in obligatory asexual Z. officinale, suggesting the possibility of accumulation of

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deleterious mutations. Results indicate accelerated evolution of PR5 genes in Zingiber species, perhaps to coevolve variants against evolving pathogen populations (Thomas et al. 2010).

19.18 19.18.1

Application of Molecular Markers Detection of Adulteration in Traded Ginger

A simple and rapid method to isolate good quality DNA with fairly good yields from mature rhizome tissues of turmeric and ginger has been perfected. Isolated DNA was amenable to restriction digestion and PCR amplification. Genetic profiling of traded ginger from India and China using 20 RAPD primers and 15 ISSR primers gave consistent amplification pattern. Significant variation was observed between the produce from the two countries. The 46 accessions were characterized using two types of molecular markers, RAPD and ISSR. UPGMA dendrograms constructed based on three similarity coefficients, i.e., Jaccard’s, Sorensen-Dice, and simple matching, using the combined RAPD and ISSR markers placed the accessions in four similar clusters in all three dendrograms revealing the congruence of clustering patterns among the similarity coefficients and a rather less genetic distance among the accessions. Improved varieties/cultivars are grouped together with primitive types. Moreover, in the clustering pattern, it was evident that germplasm collected from nearby locations, especially with vernacular identity, may not be generally distinct. The clustering of accessions was largely independent on its agronomic features (Jaleel and Sasikumar 2010). Jiang et al. (2006) used metabolic profiling and phylogenetic analysis for authentication of ginger species and closely related species in the genus Zingiber. Z. officinale samples from different geographical origins were genetically indistinguishable, while other Zingiber species were significantly divergent, allowing all species to be clearly distinguishable. The metabolic profiling revealed that ginger from different origins showed no qualitative differences in major volatile compounds, but some quantitative differences in nonvolatile composition, regarding the contents of (6)-, (8)-, and (10)-gingerols were observed. Comparative DNA sequence/chemotaxonomic phylogenetic trees showed that the chemical characters of the investigated species generated essentially the same phylogenetic relationships as the DNA sequences. This supports the contention that chemical characters can also be used effectively to identify relationships between plant species. However, identification and quantification of the actual bioactive compounds are required to guarantee the bioactivity of a particular Zingiber sample even after performing authentication by molecular and/or chemical markers.

19.18

Application of Molecular Markers

19.18.2

423

Molecular Markers in Genetic Fidelity Testing

Studies on RAPD profiling within the replicates of in vitro-conserved and cryopreserved lines of ginger using Operon random primers (RAPD) did not detect any polymorphism between the conserved lines in any of the primers tested, indicating genetic stability (Geetha 2002). Rout et al. (1998) reported that molecular characterization of MP plants by RAPD revealed no variation. Babu et al. (2003) used RAPD profiles as an index to estimate genetic fidelity of selected “variants” among MP and callus-generated plants. It was observed that micropropagation even without callus phase induced variations. Similar differences were noticed among callus-regenerated plants (Sumathi 2007). In general, this indicates that variability exists at genetic level among the MP and callus-regenerated plants of ginger, probably due to the accumulated natural mutations in ginger, which has eventually led to many varieties and cultivars even without sexual reproduction.

19.18.3

Tagging Genes of Interest Using Markers

Ginger being sterile, no sexual progenies are available, and hence no mapping population could be developed. Thus, other approaches need to be used to tag genes of interest. Gao et al. (2008) reported development of a mapping population in a related genera, Hedychium, using two species—one is Hedychium coronarium J. Konig, a cultivated species with sweet fragrance and imbricate bracts, and the other is Hedychium forrestii Diels., a wild species with light aroma and tubular brachts, as parents. Using the same technique, medium-density maps of two species used as parents were constructed. The maternal parent contained 139 loci and spanned 917.1 cM. These loci were distributed in 18 linkage groups. But the data was insufficient to join these two maps.

19.18.4

Isolating Candidate Genes for Resistance

In the absence of sexual reproduction, using information from other sources with comparisons at heterologous genomes or genes will give us the necessary leads for tagging. Candidate genes responsible for pathogenesis can also be identified from sequence information available in databases. This approach using degenerate primers and functional genomics is more suitable for ginger improvement. Information available from the Arabidopsis genome on resistance (Laurent et al. 1998) can be used for tagging and isolating genes for biotic and abiotic resistance in ginger. In ginger, Aswati Nair and Thomas (2006) reported isolation, characterization, and expression of resistance gene candidates (RGCs) using degenerate primers based on conserved motifs from the NBS domains of plant resistance from cultivated and

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wild Zingiber species. They also reported evaluation of resistance gene (R-gene) specific primer sets and characterization of RGCs in ginger. They designed 14 oligonucleotide primers, specific to the conserved regions of 4 classes of cloned R-genes. Clones derived from 17 amplicons generated by 12 successful primers were sequence characterized. Clones derived from three primers showed strong homology to cloned R-genes or RGCs from other plants and conserved motifs characteristic of non-TIR subclass of NBS-LRR R-gene superfamily. Phylogenetic analysis separated ginger RGCs into two distinct subclasses corresponding to clades 3 and 4 of non-TIR-NBS sequences described in plants. This study provides a base for future RGC mining in ginger and valuable insights into the characteristics and phylogenetic affinities of non-TIR-NBS-LR R-gene subclass in ginger genome. Priya and Subramanian (2008) reported isolation and molecular analysis of R-gene in resistant ginger varieties against F. oxysporum. They observed that the R-gene is present only in resistant ginger varieties. These cloned R-genes provide a new resource of molecular markers for marker-assisted selection (MAS) and rapid identification of Fusarium yellow-resistant ginger varieties. Kavitha and Thomas (2006) reported Z. zerumbet, a close relative of ginger, as a potential donor for P. aphanidermatum resistance in ginger. They employed AFLP markers and mRNA differential display to identify genes whose expression was altered in a resistant accession of Z. zerumbet before and after inoculation. A few differentially expressed transcript-derived fragments (TDFs) were isolated, cloned, and sequenced. Homology searches and functional categorization of some of these clones revealed the presence of defense/stress/signaling groups, which are homologous to genes known to be actively involved in various pathogenesis- related functions in other plant species. They found that Z. zerumbet showed adequate variability both at the DNA level and in response to Pythium (Kavitha and Thomas 2006). Aswati Nair et al. (2010) identified a member of the pathogenesis-related protein group 5 (PR5) gene family in Z. zerumbet that is expressed constitutively but is unregulated in response to infection by P. aphanidermatum. Isolation of R-genes from such related genera will help in ginger improvement via transgenic approaches. Transient knockdown of gene expression for downregulating phytoene desaturase was achieved in the culinary ginger in relation to infection by barley stripe mosaic virus infecting two species within Zingiberaceae. The results suggest the extension of BSMV-VIGS to monocots other than cereals, which has the potential for directed genetic analyses of many important temperate and tropical crop species (Renner et al. 2009).

19.18.5

Isolating Candidate Genes for Other Agronomically Important Traits

Chen et al. (2005) reported for the first time isolation, cloning, and characterization of a mannose-binding lectin from cDNA derived from ginger rhizomes. The full-

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Genetic Transformation

425

length cDNA (746 bp) of Z. officinale agglutinin (ZOA) was cloned by rapid amplification of cDNA ends (RACE), and this contained a 510 bp open reading frame (ORF) encoding a lectin precursor of 169 amino acids with a signal peptide. ZOA have three typical mannose-binding sites (QDNY). Semiquantitative RT-PCR analysis revealed that ZOA was expressed in all the tested tissues of Z. officinale, including leaf, root, and rhizome, suggesting it to be a constitutively expressing one. ZOA protein was successfully expressed in E. coli with the molecular weight as expected. Yua et al. (2008) reported isolation and functional characterization of β-eudesmol synthase from Z. zerumbet Smith. They identified a new sesquiterpene synthase gene (ZSS2) from Z. zerumbet Smith. Functional expression of ZSS2 in E. coli and in vitro enzyme assay showed that the encoded enzyme catalyzed the formation of β-eudesmol and five additional by-products. Quantitative RT-PCR analysis revealed that ZSS2 transcript accumulation in rhizomes has strong seasonal variations. They introduced a gene cluster encoding six enzymes of the mevalonate pathway into E. coli and coexpressed it with ZSS2 to further confirm the enzyme activity of ZSS2 and to assess the potential for metabolic engineering of β-eudesmol production. When supplemented with mevalonate, the engineered E. coli produced a similar sesquiterpene profile to that produced in the in vivo enzyme assay, and the yield of β-eudesmol reached 100 mg/l. Huang et al. (2007) reported molecular cloning and characterization of violaxanthin de-epoxidase (VDE) in ginger. A full-length (2000 bp) cDNA encoding violaxanthin de-epoxidase (GVDE) (AY876286) was cloned from ginger using RT-PCR and RACE. The expression patterns of GVDE in response to light were characterized. GVDE has a 1431 bp ORF, and the predicted polypeptide contains 476 amino acids with the molecular mass of 53.7 kDa. Northern blot analysis showed that the GVDE was mainly expressed in leaves. GVDE mRNA level increased as the illumination time prolonged under high light. To determine the GVDE function, its antisense sequence was inserted into tobacco plants via EHA105. PCR-Southern blot analysis confirmed the integration of antisense GVDE in the tobacco genome. Chlorophyll fluorescence measurements showed that transgenic plants had lower values of non-photochemical quenching (NPQ) and the maximum efficiency of PSII photochemistry (Fv/Fm) compared with the untransformed controls under high light. The size and the ratio of xanthophyll cycle pigment pool were lower in T-VDE tobacco plants than in control, indicating that GVDE was suppressed in antisense T-VDE tobacco. These results showed that VDE plays a major role in alleviating photoinhibition.

19.19

Genetic Transformation

Genetic transformation is one of the most promising strategies to introduce new resistance factors. Gene transfer compatible regeneration protocols have been optimized in ginger for full exploitation of this technique to introduce novel genes,

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especially those for disease resistance/tolerance. Transient expression of GUS was successful in ginger. Embryogenic callus was bombarded with plasmid vector pAHC 25 and promoter Ubi-1 (maize ubiquitin) using a gene gun (Babu et al. 1997). The pAHC 25 vector harboring GUS (β-glucuronidase) and BAR (phosphinothricin acetyl transferase) genes were used (Christensen and Quail 1996). Agrobacterium tumefaciens strain EHA105/p35SGUSInt, effective in expressing β-glucuronidase activity, was used to standardize the transformation protocol in ginger, which was confirmed by histochemical GUS assay and PCR (Suma et al. 2008). The transcripts of the (S)-α-bisabolene synthase gene were detected in young rhizomes of ginger. The cDNA, designated ZoTps1, potentially encoded a protein that comprised 550 amino acid residues and exhibited 49–53% identity with those of the sesquiterpene synthases already isolated from the genus Zingiber (Fugisawa et al. 2010).

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Rout, G. R., Palai, S. K., Samantaray, S., & Das, P. (2001). Effect of growth regulator and culture conditions on shoot multiplication and rhizome formation in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) in vitro. In Vitro Cell Development Biology Plant, 37(6), 814–819. Sajina, A., Mini, P. M., John, C. Z., Babu, K. N., Ravindran, P. N., & Peter, K. V. (1997). Micropropagation of large cardamom (Amomum subulatum Roxb.). Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops, 6, 145–148. Sakamura, F., Oghihara, K., Suga, T., Taniguchi, K., & Tanaka, R. (1986). Volatile constituents of Zingiber officinale rhizome produced by in vitro shoot tip culture. Phytochemical, 25(6), 1333–1335. Samsudeen, K. (1996). Studies on Somaclonal Variation Produced by In Vitro Culture in Zingiber officinale Rosc. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Calicut, Calicut, Kerala State. Sasikumar, B., Zacharariah, J. (2003). Organization of ginger and turmeric germplasm based on molecular characterization. In: Final Report ICAR Ad Hoc Project IISR, Calicut, Kerala State. Semagn, K., Bjornstad, A., & Ndjiondjop, M. N. (2006). An overview of molecular marker methods for plants. African Journal of Biotechnology, 5, 2540–2568. Sharma, T. R., & Singh, B. M. (1995a). Simple and cost-effective medium for propagation of ginger (Zingiber officinale). Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 65, 506–508. Sharma, T. R., & Singh, B. M. (1995b). In vitro micro rhizome production in Zingiber officinale Roscoe. Plant Cell Reports, 15, 274–277. Sharma, T. R., Singh, B. M., & Chauhan, R. S. (1994). Production of encapsulated buds of Zingiber officinale Roscoe. Plant Cell Reports, 13, 300–302. Silva, M. F., da Pescador, R., Rebelo, R. A., & Stumer, S. L. (2008). The affect of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal isolates on the development and oleoresin production of micropropagated zingiber officinale. Brazilian Journal of Plant Physiology, 20, 119–130. Smith, M. K., & Hamill, S. D. (1996). Field evaluation of micropropagated and conventionally propagated ginger in subtropical Queensland. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 36, 347–354. Smith, M. K., Hamill, S. D., Gogel, B. J., & Severn-Ellis, A. A. (2004). Ginger (Zingiber officinale) autotetraploid with improved processing quality produced by an in vitro colchicines treatment. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture, 44, 1065–1072. Steward, F. C., Mapes, M. O., & Mears, J. S. (1958). Growth and organized development of cultured cells. II Organization in cultures grown from freely suspended cells. American Journal of Botany, 45, 705–708. Sultana, A., Hassan, L., Ahmad, S. D., Shah, A. H., Batool, F., Rahman, R., et al. (2009). In vitro regeneration of ginger using leaf, shoot tip and root explants. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 41, 1667–1676. Suma, B., Keshavachandran, R., & Nybe, E. V. (2008). Agrobacterium tumefaciens mediated transformation and regeneration of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.). Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 46, 38–44. Sumathi, V. (2007). Studies on Somaclonal Variation in Zingiberaceous Crops. Ph.D. Thesis, Calicut University, Calicut, Kerala State, p. 227. Sundararaj, G., Anuradha, A., & Rishi, K. T. (2010). Encapsulation for in vitro short-term storage and exchange of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) germplasm. Scientia Horticulturae, 125, 761–766. Tashiro, Y., Onimaru, H., Shigyo, M., Isshiki, S., & Miyazaki, S. (1995). Isozyme mutations induced by treatment of cultured shoot tips with alkylating agent in ginger cultivars (Zingiber officinale Rosc.). Bulletin of the Faculty of Agriculture Saga University, 79, 29–35. Tauqeer, A., Nazreen, Z., & Khan, N. H. (2007). Enhanced Zingiber officinale shoot multiplication in liquid culture. Pakistan Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 50, 145–148. Thomas, E. G., Aswati Nair, R., Sabu, M., & George, T. (2010). Molecular evolution of a PR-5 protein gene in Zingiber species with contrasting breeding systems. In: Proceedings of International Symposium on Biocomputing No 45.

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Tilad, P., Sharma, R., & Singh, B. M. (2002). Salicylic acid induced insensitivity to culture filtrate of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Zingiberi in the calli of Zingiber officinale Roscoe. European Journal of Plant Pathology, 108, 31–39. Tyagi, R. K., Bhat, S. R., & Chandel, K. P. S. (1998). In vitro conservation strategies for species crop germplasm: Zingiber, Curcuma and Piper species. In N. M. Mathew & C. K. Jacob (Eds.), Developments in plantation crop research (pp. 77–82). New Delhi: Allied Publishers Limited. Tyagi, R. K., Agarwal, A., & Yusuf, A. (2006). Conservation of Zingiber germplasm through in vitro rhizome formation. Scientia Horticulturae, 108, 210–219. Valsala, P. A., Nair, G. S., & Nazeem, P. A. (1996). Seed set in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) through in vitro pollination. Journal of Tropical Agriculture, 34, 81–84. Wahyuni, S., Xu, D. H., Bermawie, N., Tsunematsu, H., & Ban, T. (2003). Genetic relationships among ginger accessions based on AFLP marker. Journal of Bioteknologi Pertanian, 8, 60–68. Wang, M., Niu, Y., Song, M., & Tang, Q. L. (2010). Tetraploid of Zingiber officinale Roscoe. in vitro inducement and its morphology analysis. China Vegetables DOI: CNKI: SUN: ZGSC. O.2010-04-013. Xuan, P., Guo, Y., Yue, C., & Yin, C. (2004). Study on tissue culture and rapid propagation of ginger (Zingiber officinale). Southwest China Journal of Agriculture, 17, 484–486. Yamuna, G. (2007). Studies on cryopreservation of spices genetic resources. Ph.D. Thesis, Calicut University, Calicut, Kerala State. Yamuna, G., Sumathi, V., Geetha, S. P., Praveen, K., Swapna, N., & Babu, K. N. (2007). Cryopreservation of in vitro grown shoot of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc). Cryo Letters, 28, 241–252. Yeoman, M. M. (1987). Bypassing the plant. Annals of Botany, 60, 175–188. Yua, F., Haradab, H., Yamasakia, K., Okamotoa, S., Hirasec, S., Tanakac, Y., et al. (2008). Isolation and functional characterization of a β-eudesmol synthase, a new sesquiterpene synthase from Zingiber zerumbet Smith. FEBS Letters, 582, 565–572. Zarate, R., & Yeoman, M. M. (1996). Changes in the amounts of (6) gingerol and derivatives during a culture cycle of ginger, Zingiber officinale. Plant Science (Limerick), 121, 115–122. Zheng, Y., Liu, Y., Ma, M., & Xu, K. (2008). Increasing in vitro microrhizome production in ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe.). Acta Physiology Plant, 1, 519–523.

Chapter 20

Ginger Nutrition

Abstract The chapter will discuss nutrients’ requirements and their uptake and organic integrated nutrient management. Keywords Nutrition · Nutrient requirement · Integrated nutrient management

20.1

Uptake and Requirement

Ginger is a very nutrient exhaustive crop, and so supplemental application of chemical fertilizers and/or organic manures is absolutely essential. Ginger rhizomes are mainly N and K exhausting, intermediate in P and Mg removal, and least in Ca removal (Nagarajan and Pillai 1979). Haag et al. (1990) reported an accumulation of macronutrients in the following decreasing order, N < K < Ca < Mg < S and P, and micronutrients in this order, Fe < Mn < Zn < B and Cu. However, nutrient uptake varies considerably with soil type, climatic conditions, levels of nutrients in the soil, and variety/cultivar cultivated. Govender et al. (2009) found that the soil quality influenced the elemental distribution within the ginger rhizome and the plant has the inherent capacity to control the amount of elements absorbed. The ginger “flesh” tends to accumulate Mn and Mg. A synergistic relationship between Cr and Mn and an antagonistic relationship between Fe and Cu and Fe and Cr are observed. The development of ginger with respect to the development of the aerial tissues can be classified into three distinct growth phases, namely, (i) active growth (90–120 DAP), (ii) slow vegetative growth (120–180 DAP), and (iii) senescence (180 DAP), in which the rhizome development continues until harvest. The uptake of N, P, and K in leaf and pseudostem increases until harvest (Johnson 1978). Xu et al. (2004) observed that ginger shoots and leaves are the centers of growth at the seedling stage, and 80.7% of the carbon (C) assimilated is transferred to these parts. Subsequently, the distribution rate for shoots and leaves decreased gradually with the growth of the plant, whereas the distribution rate into the rhizome lessened. During the vigorous growth stage of the rhizome, C assimilation is mainly transported from

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 K. P. Nair, Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_20

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the leaves to the rhizomes; thus rhizome becomes the growth center. The absorption and utilization of N were the same as for C assimilates. About 48.41% of the N absorbed from the applied fertilizer at seedling stage was distributed to the shoots and leaves. While 65.43% of the N derived from the applied fertilizer at various stages of growth of the rhizomes was distributed to the rhizomes, and only 32.04% was distributed to the shoots and leaves. The results indicated that the rate of fertilizer–N utilization increased with delayed application. The exchange of C and N nutrition between the aboveground parts and underground seed of ginger and their transportation and distribution during the growth of the ginger plant ensures that the seed ginger will not shrivel and dry. An average yield of 40 t/ha dry ginger rhizomes removes 70 kg N, 17 kg P2O5, 117 kg K2O, 8.6 kg Ca, 9.1 kg Mg, 1.8 kg Fe, 500 g Mn, 130 g Zn, and 40 g Cu/ha. For healthy growth of ginger, very low external Ca is required. A heavy ginger crop removes 35–50 kg P/ha. The leaves of healthy ginger plants contain 1.1–1.3% of Ca, and concentrations as low as 2 ppm is sufficient to achieve 90% of maximum yield. In order to calculate the nutrient requirement of the crop, Johnson (1978) recommended the fifth pair of leaves during the 90–120 DAP stage for foliar diagnosis of N, P, and K.

20.2

Organic and Integrated Nutrient Management

The requirement of organic matter for ginger may be met from various sources, such as green/organic manures and mulches. This was very much evidenced by the good performance of the crop shown in high fertility conditions of Wayanad, Kerala State, India, which supplied with 10 t of organic manure and 15 t of green leaf mulch per hectare, without any application of chemical fertilizers (Thomas 1965). Ginger performs well with the supply of humus and organic matter, which showed a positive correlation with yield (Cho et al. 1987). FYM, poultry manure, green leaf, compost, press mud, oil cakes, and biofertilizers are used as sources of organics. The quantity of organics applied may vary with availability of the material, and generally it varies between 5 and 30 t/ha. Organic manures are mostly applied as basal doses, and in certain places it is also applied after the emergence of the crop, as a mulch. However, farmers in Maharashtra apply heavy doses of FYM, about 40–50 t/ha. In Kerala, the recommended dose of organic manure is 25–30 t/ha of FYM and 30 t/ha of green leaf mulch applied in three split applications. Application of FYM up to 48 t/ha resulted in the highest yield and benefit–cost ratio in Kerala (Chengat 1997). Rhizome yield increases with the increase in the level of FYM applied. Application of FYM at 6 t/ha was found to be superior to achieve a high yield (3.2 t/ha) and additional net profit of Rs 6820/ha in Madhya Pradesh (Khandkar and Nigam 1996). Application of organic cakes increased nutrient availability, improved physical conditions of the soil, and increased yield and oleoresin extracted from the rhizomes. Maximum availability of exchangeable Ca in the soil was recorded by the application of FYM at a rate of 10 t/ha (Sadanandan and Iyer 1986). Application of coconut

20.2

Organic and Integrated Nutrient Management

435

cake (0.3% w/w, Rajan and Singh 1973), neem cake at 2 t/ha (Sadanandan and Iyer 1986), or groundnut cake at 1 t/ha (Sadananadan and Hamza 1998) improved yield and quality parameters and reduced soft rhizome rot incidence. Neem cake application significantly increased the N availability, and the highest available N was recorded in soils, which received half the dose of urea along with neem cake at 2 t/ha. In addition to neem cake, phosphobacteria and P as rock phosphate increased the availability of P, Ca, Mg, Zn, and Mn (Annual Report IISR 2004). Incorporation of inorganic N with neem cake (50% N), poultry manure (25% N), and groundnut cake (50% N) was found to be the best treatment to increase ginger yield up to 29 t/ ha. Also, application of neem cake at 2 t/ha along with NPK at 75:50:50 kg/ha increased the yield of ginger and reduced the rhizome rot incidence in Kerala, India. Among other organic sources, application of coir compost (Terracare) at 2.5 kg/ha increased the yield by 37.5% over the control treatment (Srinivasan et al. 2000a). Gradual availability of nutrients through decomposition of organics throughout the growth phase may be the probable cause for better growth and development of the plant and ultimate yield, when inorganics were substituted with organics at different levels of application (Roy and Hore 2007). Trials on different management systems on ginger at the IISR, Calicut, Kerala State, India, showed that higher soil nutrient buildup with the highest organic carbon content (2.33%) was in the organic system, which was on par with the integrated system of nutrient management and among the different systems of nutrient management. Organic management system recorded the highest availability of soil P, Ca, Mg, Zn, and Cu. The effect of different cropping systems on microbial population in soil also showed that the population of Pseudomonas fluorescens, Azospirillum, and phosphobacteria was highest in the organic system of nutrient management. The activities of enzymes, such as dehydrogenase, acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, cellulase, and urease, were significantly higher under the organic system of nutrient management as compared to the exclusive inorganic system or integrated system of nutrient management. However, during the initial years, 15–20% reduction in yield under the organic system of nutrient management was encountered (Srinivasan et al. 2008). The results also indicated that certain crop quality parameters registered an increase in organically managed plots as compared to integrated or exclusively inorganic nutrient management systems. In ginger, oil content did not vary significantly among the treatments, as shown in Table 20.1. However, the fiber content was significantly reduced in the organic system of nutrient management. Interestingly, both oleoresin and starch contents were the maximum in the organic system of nutrient management, and, in both cases, there Table 20.1 Effect of different nutrient management systems on the quality of ginger Management system Organic Inorganic Integrated LSD (95%)

Oil content (%) 1.20 1.20 1.25 NS

Oleoresin content (%) 3.96 3.15 3.36 0.23

Starch (%) 70.07 62.21 55.82 9.89

Fiber (%) 1.69 1.90 1.90 0.08

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were statistically significant differences among the three systems of nutrient management. The maximum yield and oleoresin content was obtained with the application of 10 t/ha of FYM + 1.25 t/ha of compost +20 kg/ha of Azospirillum, which also showed higher nutrient uptake (Srinivasan et al. 2000a). Gas chromatography in conjunction with mass spectrometry analysis of organically grown samples of fresh Chinese white and Japanese yellow varieties of ginger showed the presence of 20 hitherto unknown natural products and 31 compounds of previously reported ginger constituents (Jolad et al. 2004). These include paradols, dihydroparadols, gingerols, acetyl derivatives of gingerols, shogaols, 3-dihydroshogaols, gingerdiols, mono- and diacetyl derivatives of gingerdiols, 1-dehydrogingerdiones, diarylheptanoids, and methyl ether derivatives of some of these compounds. Among the different combinations of composts/manures tried, to supplement the nutrient requirement of ginger, the highest (statistically significant) fresh yield of rhizome of ginger (14 t/ha) was obtained in FYM (10 t/ha) + neem cake (2 t/ ha) + vermicompost (4 t/ha) combination followed by 10 t/ha coir compost +8 t/ha of vermicompost. These combinations also resulted in higher oleoresin and lower fiber contents in ginger rhizomes. Field trials conducted through the AICRP on spices at various locations in India revealed that combined application of different organic sources such as FYM + pongamia oil cake + neem oil cake + stera meal + rock phosphate + wood ash yielded on par with the conventional practice. The experiment on the effects of organic manure on the yield components of ginger conducted in Nigeria showed that organic manures gave significantly higher rhizome yield, between 114.3% and 250.6% relative to the control treatment. The highest yield of 11.42 t/ha was obtained in plots where 30 t/ha cow dung and 10 t/ha of poultry litter were applied. The cow dung and poultry litter application increased the soil pH, organic matter, total N content, available P and K contents, and exchangeable K, Ca, and Mg contents relative to the control treatment (Ayuba et al. 2005). Organic manures, namely, FYM, vermicompost, neem cake, and green leaf manures, and microbial inoculants, namely, AMF and Trichoderma and their combinations, were tried for the organic production of ginger grown as an intercrop in coconut gardens. Among the different combinations tried, FYM (30 t/ ha) + neem cake + AMF + Trichoderma and FYM + AMF produced significantly higher yield (Sreekala and Jayachandran 2006), compared to other treatments. LSD, least significant difference; NS, not significant. Mulches add organic matter, check soil erosion, conserve soil moisture, reduce soil temperature, improve soil physical properties, and suppress weed growth. Mulching can alter the physical and chemical properties of the soil and increase the availability of P and K. In general, 10–30 t/ha mulch is applied twice or thrice, the first time at planting, the second time at 45 DAP, and the third time at 90 DAP. Some of the commonly used mulch materials are green and dry forest leaves, coconut leaves, banana leaves, dry sal leaves, and shisam residues like sugarcane trash, paddy, wheat, finger millet, little millet, and barley straw, and also weeds and other vegetations are used as mulch. FYM and compost are also used as mulch. If these materials are not available in sufficient quantity, live mulches such as sun

20.2

Organic and Integrated Nutrient Management

437

hemp, green gram, horse gram, black gram, niger, sesbania, cluster bean, French bean, soybean, cowpea, dhaincha, and red gram can be grown as an intercrop and used for in situ mulching from 45 to 60 DAP (Kandiannan et al. 1996; Valsala et al. 1990). Fodder cowpea and dhaincha are suitable green manure crops for a selfsustainable system to provide mulch material of 89% and 69%, respectively, of the total requirement during the first sowing itself. Fodder cowpea was also found to be ideal for a third mulching (Kurian et al. 1997). Application of green leaf mulch at 2 t/ha in two equal splits, one at planting and second at 45 DAP, resulted in 200% increase in yield under high fertility conditions of Wayanad, Kerala State, India (Kannan and Nair 1965). Polythene mulch also gave a yield of 19.9 t/ha (Mohanty et al. 1990). Ginger beds were covered by leaves and twigs of various forest trees after sowing in Sikkim. In East Khasi hills, traditionally “jhum cultivation” (slash-and-burn farming) is practiced, where dry grasses (30–45 t/ ha) on the beds are burnt and ginger is planted (Chandra 1996). Jhum cultivation not only improves the soil fertility but also controls the weeds. One-fourth (7.5 t/ha) of the recommended dose (30 t/ha) of green mulch could be saved, resulting in a yield of 5246 kg/ha of dry ginger, if grown under 25% shade (Babu and Jayachandran 1997). In Meghalaya, application of locally available organic mulches, namely, paddy straw and Schima wallichii dry leaf mulches at 16 t/ha, increased ginger yield by 43.6% and 39.7%, respectively. Mulching three times with leaves and growing soybean intercrops as live mulch was found to be equally effective. Mulching at 12.5, 5.0, and 5.0 t/ha for the first, second, and third mulching, respectively, is considered to be optimum for ginger cultivation (Randhawa and Nandpuri 1970). The CPCRI in Kasaragod, Kerala State, India, recommended mulching with dry sal leaves. Intercropping ginger under Ceiba pentandra obtained a higher yield and income under unpruned conditions with an application of FYM at 30 t/ha, compared with 25% pruning of the principal crop. As ginger is a shadeloving crop, it gives good yield with organic matter application when grown under optimum shade. Both photosynthetic activity and translocation of photosynthates to the roots were enhanced due to FYM application due to the initiation of more stems and consequently more dry matter production (rhizome yield) going up to 14.4 t/ha (Prajapati et al. 2007). Investigations at the Regional Research Station of Kerala Agricultural University at Ambalavayal, Kerala State, India, showed that organic amendments such as coconut oil cake, sesamum cake, and cashew shell when applied to the soil to supply 50 kg N/ha were found to reduce soft rot incidence caused by Pythium aphanidermatum. Lime application is practiced in acidic soils to correct soil acidity, which leads to nutrient availability imbalance in soil. In Kerala, where soils are acidic, application of rock phosphate along with FYM enhanced P availability and overcame P fixation. One of the branded rock phosphates, Rajphos, was found to be quite efficient among those tried. However, inasmuch as phosphate recovery, agronomic efficiency of the applied rock phosphate, and percentage increase in yield were concerned, another branded rock phosphate, Gafsaphos, was found to be superior to Rajphos and was applied with FYM (Srinivasan et al. 2000b).

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Both the nature and level of organic manures markedly influence the growth and yield attributes of ginger. Roy and Hore (2007) reported that the maximum plant height, tiller number, leaf number, clump weight and length, and per plot yield (13.76 kg/3 m2) and projected yield (29.72 t/ha) were recorded when one-fourth of N was applied through poultry manure and three-fourths of N as urea. Plants raised when groundnut cake (one-half of N) + urea (the other half) applied had the highest number of primary fingers compared to the lowest number when one-fourth of N was applied as mustard cake + three-fourths of N as urea. A field experiment on ginger (cultivar Nagaland) conducted on an Alfisol in Medziphema, Nagaland, India, revealed that the highest number of tillers per plant (10.1), highest fresh rhizome yield (29.4 t/ha), highest oil content (0.47 ml %), and highest oleoresin content (5.57 ml %) were observed with the application of pig manure, and this treatment was significantly superior to the treatment where either FYM or poultry manure was applied. Singh and Singh (2007) also observed the highest uptake of N (136.7 kg/ha) and K (73.9 kg/ha) with the application of pig manure. Azospirillum has a prominent role in increasing the productivity and quality of ginger while reducing rhizome rot. In some situations, application of inorganic N rate can be reduced up to 30% in the presence of biofertilizers, and economic returns can be obtained. Azospirillum has a marked positive influence on ginger production. The influence of Azospirillum, FYM, and their combinations were investigated at Pottangi in Odisha State, India. The highest fresh rhizome yield (1.87 t/ha), lowest rhizome rot (11%), oleoresin content (5.82%), and a benefit–cost ratio of 2.4 were obtained with 100% recommended rates of fertilizers, along with Azospirillum application at a rate of 10 kg/ha combined with FYM at 10 t/ha (Dash et al. 2008). Earlier, Jana (2006) reported that soil application of Azospirillum at 5 kg/ha, FYM at 15 t/ha, and 50% of recommended rate of N fertilizer registered the highest fresh rhizome yield. (15.9 t/ha), highest essential oil content (1.50%), highest oleoresin content (6.65%), and a cost–benefit ratio of 1.59 compared to the recommended rates of fertilizers only. Besides, Azospirillum inoculation with VAM and Glomus mosseae led to better growth of the ginger plant and final yield in Himachal Pradesh, India (Sharma et al. 1997). Soil application of Gigaspora at the time of planting (2.5 g/ rhizome) was also found to increase the yield as in the case of pine needle organic amendment and seed treatment with T. harzianum. Also, the effects of humic acid fertilizer on soil urease activity and available N content, N uptake, and rhizome yield were reported (Mei et al. 2009). The beneficial effects of slow-releasing humic acid fertilizer in increasing soil urease activity, available N, and N uptake and increase in rhizome yield by 9.17% have been noted. Time and again, a combination of inorganic and organic fertilizers have proved very beneficial in ginger production. Field studies on ginger cultivar Nadia, conducted at Umiam, Meghalaya, India, in a sandy loam soil revealed that N at 100 kg/ha + FYM was the best treatment to obtain the highest yield and good crop quality (Majumdar et al. 2003).

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Prajapati, R. K., Nongrum, K., & Singh, L. (2007). Growth and productivity of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) under Kapok (Ceiba pentandra L. Gaertn) based agri–silviculture system. Indian Journal of Agroforestry, 9, 12–19. Rajan, K. M., Singh, R. S., (1973). Effect of organic amendment of soil on plant growth yield and incidence of soft rot of ginger. In: Potty, S. N. (Ed.), Proceedings of the National Symposium on plantation crops, Kerala, 1 (pp. 102–106). Journal of Plantation Crops, Calicut, Kerala State, India. Randhawa, K. S., & Nandpuri, K. S. (1970). Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) in India—A review. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 10, 111–112. Roy, S. S., & Hore, J. K. (2007). Influence of organic manures on growth and yield of ginger. Journal of Plantation Crops, 35, 52–55. Sadananadan, A. K., & Hamza, S. (1998). Effect of organic farming on nutrient uptake, yield and quality of ginger (Zingiber officinale R). In: Sadanandan A. K., Krishnamurthy K. S., Kandiannan K, Korikanthimath V. S. (Eds.). Proceedings of the water and nutrient Management for Sustainable Production and Quality of spices, Madikeri, Karnataka State, India, pp. 89–94. Sadanandan, N., & Iyer, R. (1986). Effect of organic amendments on rhizome rot of ginger. Indian Cocoa Arecanut Spices Journal, 9, 94–95. Sharma, S., Dohroo, N. P., & Korla, B. N. (1997). Effect of VAM inoculation and other field practices on growth parameters of ginger. Journal of Hill Research, 10, 74–76. Singh, V. B., & Singh, A. K. (2007). Effect of types of organic manure and methods of nitrogen application on growth, yield and quality of ginger. Environment and Ecology, 25, 103–105. Sreekala, G. S., & Jayachandran, B. K. (2006). Effect of organic manures and microbial inoculants on nutrient uptake, yield and nutrient status of soil in ginger intercropped coconut garden. Journal of Plantation Crops, 34, 25–31. Srinivasan, V., Sadanandan, A. K., & Hamza, S. (2000a). An IPNM approach in spices with special emphasis on coir compost (pp. 1363–1365). New Delhi: Proceedings of the International Conference on Managing Natural Resources for Sustainable Agricultural Production in the 21st Century, 14–21 February. Indian Agricultural Research Institute. Srinivasan, V., Sadananadan, A. K., & Hamza, S. (2000b). Efficiency of rock phosphate sources on ginger and turmeric in an Ustic Humitropept. Journal of the Indian Society of Soil Science, 48, 532–536. Srinivasan, V., Shiva, K. N., & Kumar, A. (2008). Ginger. In V. A. Parthasarathy, K. Kandiannan, & V. Srinivasan (Eds.), Organic Spices (pp. 335–386). New Delhi: New India Publishing Agency. Thomas, K. M. (1965). Influence of N and P2O5 on the yield of ginger. Madras Agricultural Journal, 52, 512–515. Valsala, P. A., Prasannakumari, A. S., & Sudhadevi, P. K. (1990). Glycosidically bound aroma compounds in ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe.). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 38, 1553–1556. Xu, K., Guo, Y. Y., & Wang, X. F. (2004). Transportation and distribution of carbon and nitrogen nutrition in ginger. Acta Horticulturae, (629), 347–353.

Chapter 21

The Diseases of Ginger

Abstract The chapter will elaborately discuss diseases caused by oomycetes and true fungi, such as soft rot caused by Pythium spp. and its symptomatology, genetic diversity PCR-based identification, and management. Further discussion will be on dry rot caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. zingiberi. The leaf spot caused by Phyllosticta zingiberi will be also discussed. The thread blight disease caused by Pellicularia filamentosa and its management will also be discussed. Further discussion will be on leaf spot. Diseases caused by bacterial pathogens (bacterial wilt) will also be discussed. There would also be discussion on diseases caused by viruses like chlorotic fleck disease, big bud, and chirke virus infection. Additionally, a discussion on diseases caused by nematodes and their management will also be discussed in the chapter. Keywords Ginger · Diseases · Major · Minor · Virus disease

Ginger is grown by small and marginal farmers in the states of Assam, Himachal Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala, Meghalaya, Odisha, Sikkim, and other northeastern regions of India, as well as Southeast Asian countries, Africa, and Hawaii (USA). The ginger crop is affected by many pests and diseases. Of these, soft rot, bacterial wilt, yellows, Phyllosticta leaf spot, and several types of storage rots are major diseases which cause severe economic losses. Bacterial wilt and soft rot are prevalent in all major ginger-growing areas across the ginger-growing countries. Pythium spp., Fusarium oxysporum, Ralstonia solanacearum, and Pratylenchus coffeae are potent pathogens causing soft rot, yellows, bacterial wilt, and dry rot in the field. Table 21.1 details the disease, the causal pathogen, and the distribution within India and overseas.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 K. P. Nair, Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_21

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Table 21.1 Diseases of ginger and their causal organisms Disease Soft rot

Causal pathogen Pythium species

P. aphanidermatum

P. gracile, P. deliense P. myriotylum P. ultimum

P. pleroticum P. vexans P. splendons F. solani Bacterial wilt

R. solanacearum Biovar III and IV

Yellows

Fusarium spp.

Leaf spots

F. oxysporum f. sp zingiberi F. moniliforme F. graminearum F. equiseti Phyllosticta zingiberis Helminthosporium maydis Colletotrichum zingiberis Pyricularia zingiberis Leptosphaeria zingiberis Coniothyrium zingiberis Curvularia lunata Vermicularia zingiberis Septoria zingiberis

Nematodes

Meloidogyne spp., Radopholus similis, Pratylenchus coffeae

Distribution in India Andhra Pradesh, Assam Bihar, Gujarat, Kerala Karnataka, Maharashtra Madhya Pradesh West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Kerala, Maharashtra Rajasthan Himachal Pradesh All over India Himachal Pradesh Rajasthan

Kerala, Karnataka Himachal Pradesh Bihar Andhra Pradesh Assam Meghalaya Assam Bihar Andhra Pradesh Kerala, Sikkim

Global distribution India, Japan, China, Nigeria, Fiji, Taiwan, Australia, Hawaii, Sri Lanka, Korea

India, Japan, China, Nigeria, Fiji, Taiwan, Australia, Hawaii, Sri Lanka, Korea India, Australia, Hawaii

India

India, Fiji, Australia (continued)

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Table 21.1 (continued) Disease Leaf blight/dry rot

Causal pathogen Rhizoctonia solani

Thread blight Basal rot

Pellicularia filamentosa

Sheath rot Virus diseases

21.1

R. bataticola

Sclerotium rolfsii (Corticum rolfsii) Fusarium spp. Cucumber mosaic virus (CMV), Chlorotic Fleck virus (GCFV), Chirke virus

Distribution in India Himachal Pradesh Haryana, Kerala Kerala

Global distribution India

India

Maharashtra

India

Maharashtra Kerala, Assam

India India, Malaysia, Mauritius, Australia

Diseases Caused by Oomycetes and True Fungi

21.1.1 Soft Rot (Pythium spp.) Soft rot is also referred to as rhizome rot or Pythium rot in scientific literature. The disease is prevalent in all the ginger-growing countries across the world, such as India, Japan, China, Nigeria, Fiji, Taiwan, Australia, Hawaii, Sri Lanka, and Korea (Lin et al. 1971). Several species of Pythium, such as Pythium aphanidermatum, P. myriotylum, P. vexans, P. ultimum, P. splendans, and P. deliense have been recorded as causal agents of soft rot of ginger across the world. Among the diseases that affect ginger crop in the world, soft rot is the most destructive in all stages of its growth. Soft rot disease is both soil- and seed-borne (McRae 1911; Mundkar 1949). The disease occurs during the months of July and September in India, the time coinciding with the onset of the southwest monsoon in India. High soil moisture and low ambient temperature (25–28
C) in this period are highly conducive for the spread of the disease. Pythium is a large genus of the class Oomycetes, including more than 120 described species (Dick 1990). Pythium species often infect immature and undifferentiated parts of the plant. Roots, rhizomes, emerging sprouts, and the pseudostem of ginger are all prone to infection, depending on the stage of their maturity. About seven Pythium species, namely, P. aphanidermatum, P. butleri, P. deliense, P. myriotylum, P. pleroticum, P. ultimum, and P. vexans, have been reported to cause soft rot in different parts of India (Dohroo 1987). The most commonly encountered are P. aphanidermatum and P. myriotylum (Sarma 1994). Using conational, taxonomical tools/keys, the species are separated primarily by differences in oogonial diameter and number of antheridia per oogonium (Van der Plaats-Niterink 1981). Identification and characterization of Pythium species are often based on the morphological characteristics, but complications might arise due to the absence of sexual structures and the failure to induce zoosporogenesis.

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Fig. 21.1 Rhizome rot affected ginger clump

Fig. 21.2 Rhizome rot affected ginger plant with rotten clumps

In addition, environmental factors such as ambient temperature, media type, and age of the culture can affect the morphological and physiological characteristics and thus hinder the identification process (Hendrix and Papa 1974) (Figs. 21.1 and 21.2). Molecular techniques are now widely used to study fungal taxonomy and phylogeny (Taylor 1986). The technique is useful to determine the relatedness between the isolates within a species and to distinguish species from one another. Ribosomal DNA (rDNA) of eukaryotes is arranged in tandem repeats in specific chromosomes and is subjected to concerted evolution. The ITS region of rDNA is used as a target for species-specific detection of fungi and is variable between species, but is largely conserved within species (Chen 1992). The ITS region consists of noncoding variable regions that are located within two rDNA repeats, the highly conserved small subunit rRNA genes. The ITS region is a particularly useful area for molecular characterization investigations in fungi (Sreenivasaprasad 1996) (Figs. 21.3 and 21.4).

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Fig. 21.3 Rhizome rot affected ginger plant

Fig. 21.4 Rhizome rot affected ginger plant

21.1.1.1

Symptoms of the Disease

The disease is predisposed to waterlogged conditions and is caused by several species of Pythium. The plant is susceptible to Pythium infection during all the stages of growth. All the underground parts like roots, stem, and emerging sprouts are susceptible to this disease. The buds, roots, developing underground stem, the rhizome, and collar regions are the portals of infection. When the seed rhizomes are infected, they fail to sprout due to the rotting of young buds. After sprouting, the infection takes place through the root or through the collar region, finally reaching the rhizome. Symptoms appear initially as water-soaked patches at the collar region. These patches enlarge, and the collar region becomes soft and watery and then rots. P. aphanidermatum was found pathogenic to germinating buds and mature rhizomes of ginger, and infection was more severe when the tissues were wounded (Indrasenan and Paily 1973). In mature plants, collar infection leads to yellowing of leaves. This yellowing starts from the leaf tip and spreads downward, mainly along the margins of the leaves resulting in the death of the leaves. The dead leaves droop and hang down the pseudostem until the entire shoot becomes dry. The basal portion of the plant exhibits a pale translucent coloration. This area subsequently becomes water- soaked and soft to such an extent that the whole shoot either topples or can easily be pulled out. Rhizomes first turn brown and gradually decompose, forming a

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watery mass of putrefying tissue enclosed by the tough skin of the rhizome. The fibrovascular strands are not affected and remain isolated within the decaying mass. Roots arising from the affected regions of the rhizome become soft and rotten. The rotten parts emit a foul smell. Rotting attracts opportunistic fungi, bacteria, and insects, and in particular, scavengers. Rhizome rot of ginger is the eventual status of the ginger rhizomes incited by primary pathogens such as Pythium or Ralstonia. The term rhizome rot is loosely used to describe any ultimate state of a rhizome due to any of the abovementioned organisms. Though each of the abovementioned organisms causes its own disease in ginger, the final state of the rhizome is complete rotting or partial rotting, hence the term rhizome rot.

21.1.1.2

Genetic Diversity of Pythium

Twenty-nine isolates of Pythium, isolated from the major ginger-growing locations of India, were characterized by adopting certain phenotypic and molecular methods. PCXR-RFLP by using ITS primers revealed four clusters among the isolates, which were morphologically identified as P. myriotylum, P. ultimum var. sporangiiferum, P. ultimum var. ultimum, and P. deliense (Jooju 2005). The pathogenic potential of the isolates varied among the isolates collected from the different geographical locations (Kumar et al. 2007). The isolates obtained from high-altitude regions like Sikkim, India, showed less aggressive infective ability on ginger than when assayed in the plains, at lower altitudes. Isolates required 2–10 weeks to induce soft rot in ginger, and their rhizome rot potential also varied among the isolates. P. myriotylum and P. deliense were among the most virulent species as they were found to cause over 85% reduction in rhizome yield. The majority of the isolates collected from throughout Kerala State in India belonged to P. myriotylum (Kumar et al. 2008).

21.1.1.3

PCR-Based Identification of Pythium

The species of Pythium, which causes soft rot of ginger in the states of Kerala, Karnataka, Uttar Pradesh, and Sikkim, India, were identified as P. myriotylum. A PCR-based method was found suitable for identification of P. myriotylum. Primers specific for P. myriotylum were found to amplify 150 bhp sequences in the genomic DNA of P. myriotylum (Kumar et al. 2008). Among the 29 Pythium isolates, 14 isolates from the states of Assam, Sikkim, Uttar Pradesh, Kerala, and Karnataka were identified as P. myriotylum, based on the size of the species-specific amplicon (150 bp) using the oligo primers Pmy5 and ITS2. It was found that the isolates from different geographical regions were P. myriotylum. The suitability of the primer combination of Pmy5 (50 -GTCGCTGTTATGGCGGAG-30 ) and ITS2 (50 -GCTGCGTTCTTCATCGATGC-30 ) (Wang et al. 2003) at the species-level identification of P. myriotylum is validated among Indian isolates (Kumar et al. 2008). Six pathogenic Pythium isolates obtained from diseased ginger (Z. officinale)

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Diseases Caused by Oomycetes and True Fungi

447

rhizomes were identified as P. myriotylum based on various morphological and physiological characteristics. The isolates showed strong virulence on buds, crowns, rhizomes, and roots, as well as on leaves and stems. The maximum, optimum, and minimum growth temperatures for P. myriotylum were 39–45
C, 33–37
C, and 5–7
C, respectively. The optimum pH for growth is 6–7. Mycelial linear growth was most rapid on V-8 juice agar, but aerial mycelia were most abundant on PDA and cornmeal agar. Zoosporangial and oogonial formation was greatest on V-8 juice agar. Optimum temperatures for the production of zoosporangia and oogonia were 20–35
C and 15
C, respectively (Kim et al. 1997).

21.1.1.4

Management of Soft Rot

1. Seed rhizome selection and treatment: Infected rhizomes are the primary source of infection and spread of soft rot in the field. The best method to manage the disease is by the use of disease-free rhizomes for planting. Use apparently goodlooking and healthy rhizomes for planting. 2. Chemical treatment: Treat the seed rhizomes for 30 min with mancozeb (0.3%) or carbendazim (0.3%) in the case of soft rot prior to storing and planting. Carbendazim alone or in combination with mancozeb is also used to prevent the seed-borne inoculums of Pythium and Fusarium. 3. Cultural methods: One of the predisposing factors for soft rot spread of ginger is ill-drained fields in continuous wet weather. Proper drainage in sandy loam soil for cultivation ensures a healthy crop. 4. Soil solarization: Soil solarization is a soil disinfection practice achieved by covering moist soil with transparent polythene film during the period of prevalent high temperatures and intense solar radiation. Wherever possible, this practice can be adopted. 5. Soil drenching: Soil drenching with mancozeb (0.3%) or cheshunt compound to control soft rot or metalaxyl at the rate of 500 ppm as a soil drench was found to reduce the soft rot incidence. Metalaxyl in combination with copper or biocontrol organisms has been used successfully to reduce crop loss. 6. Biological control: Antagonistic fungi, namely, Trichoderma harzianum, T. hamatum, and T. virens, and bacterial isolates Bacillus and Pseudomonas fluorescens have been reported to suppress soilborne pathogens of ginger.

21.1.2 Fusarium Yellows or Dry Rot (Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. zingiberi) This disease is caused by F. oxysporum f. sp. zingiberi, predisposed by nematode infestation by Pratylenchus coffeae. Ginger yellows was originally reported from Queensland and subsequently from Hawaii (USA) and India (Haware and Joshi 1974; Trujillo 1963).

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Fusarium rhizome rot: A very common and serious fungal disease which is specific to ginger. Infected plants are stunted and yellow, lower leaves dry out and turn brown. Eventually, all of the aboveground shoots dry out completely. The plant’s collapse is very slow, which can last for several weeks, compared with the rapid collapse associated with bacterial wilt infection. Diseased rhizomes show a brown internal discoloration, are normally shriveled in appearance, and eventually decay, leaving the outer shell intact with fibrous internal tissue remaining. Increased nematode infestations are usually associated with Fusarium rhizome rot, accentuating yield losses. Fusarium is also responsible for serious loss of planting pieces and poor germination. Symptoms of the disease: On leaves, symptoms appear as yellowing of the leaf margins of the lower leaves, which gradually spread over the entire leaf. Older leaves dry up first, followed by the younger leaves. Plants may also show premature drooping, wilting, and drying in patches in the field or in the whole bed. Plants generally do not lodge on the ground as noticed in the case of soft rot or bacterial wilt. In rhizomes, a cream-to-brown discoloration accompanied by shriveling is commonly seen. Vascular rot is also prominent. In the final stages of infection, only the fibrous tissues remain within the rhizomes. A white cottony fungal growth may develop on the surface of stored rhizomes. This disease, along with nematode infestation, severely reduces the marketability of the rhizomes. When used as seed rhizome, the disease may affect the germination of the rhizomes. To ensure that there is no incidence of this disease, collect the planting materials from areas or regions known to be free from the disease. This is a very important precautionary measure to preempt the disease incidence. When cutting up the rhizome, the pieces showing shriveling or discoloration symptoms must be discarded, and the cutting knife must be regularly dipped in methyl alcohol or in any other commercial disinfectant. As soon as possible after preparation, the seed pieces should be dipped in benomyl solution for a minute. Avoid areas with heavy nematode infestation. Crop rotation for at least 2–5 years between ginger crops will help reduce Fusarium infestation. The maximum germination of ginger sets occurred with a treatment consisting of pine needles, organic amendment, and a seed treatment consisting of a mixture of mancozeb + thiophanate-methyl at 0.25% concentration and carbendazim at 0.1% concentration for 1 h. Pine needle amendment alone and in combination with a fungicidal seed treatment and a combination of T. harzianum and Gigaspora margarita gave the best control of ginger yellows caused by F. oxysporum f. sp. zingiberi, resulting in the highest yield of fresh ginger. Inhibition of Meloidogyne spp. and Pratylenchus spp. was obtained best with pine needle organic amendment in combination with T. harzianum seed and soil application. 1. Healthy rhizome selection: As the disease spreads through contaminated rhizomes, selection of healthy rhizomes has been found to be an effective preventive measure for disease control. 2. Rhizome treatment with hot water: This is done with hot water (51
C) for 10 min, and is particularly recommended in places where the disease is endemic.

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3. Chemical control: Mancozeb (0.3%) and carbendazim (0.05%) are found to reduce the disease incidence. 4. Biological control: Biochemical agents such as T. harzianum, T. hamatum, and T. virens as seed treatment and soil application were found to control the disease.

21.1.3 Phyllosticta Leaf Spot (Phyllosticta zingiberi) This disease is widespread in most ginger-growing countries, including India. Leaf spot disease of ginger was reported for the first time in the Godavari and Malabar districts in Andhra Pradesh and Kerala, India, respectively, by Ramakrishnan (1942). Symptoms: A phyllosphere fungus, Phyllosticta zingiberi, causes this disease. Small, spindle to oval, or elongated spots appear on younger leaves. The spots have white papery centers and dark brown margins surrounded by yellowish halos. The spots later increase in size and coalesce to form large spots, which eventually decrease the effective photosynthetic area on the leaf surface. As the plants put forth fresh leaves, they subsequently become infected. Such infected areas often dry up at the center, forming holes. In the case of a severe attack, the entire leaf dries up. As a result of infection, the crop develops a grayish, disheveled look.

21.1.3.1

Management of the Disease

1. Seed rhizome selection: The seed rhizomes should be selected from disease-free areas, as the disease can spread through rhizomes which appear to be normal. 2. Rhizome treatment: Seed rhizomes can be treated with a carbendazim + mancozeb combination or carbendazim (0.25%) before planting. Prochloraz, tebuconazole, chlorothalonil, mancozeb, captan, and chlorothalonil + copper gave the best control and increased ginger yield in Brazil (De Nazareno 1995). 3. The natural way to control leaf spot is to grow ginger under shade trees, such as coconut trees.

21.1.4 Thread Blight (Pellicularia filamentosa) Sundram (1954) reported this disease for the first time in the Malabar district of Kerala State, India. The disease is not of much significance and occurs very rarely during heavy rainfall. This disease is caused by Pellicularia filamentosa. Symptoms: Small water-soaked lesions appear on the leaf margins or other parts of the leaf during the initial stages of this disease. Subsequently, the infected leaves lose their turgidity, wilt, and may become detached from the sheath. Fine hyphal threads spread over the infected parts, and small brown sclerotia are present on the

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lower surface. The infected portion of the leaf turns white and papery on drying. Protective spraying with Bordeaux mixture (1%) before the start of heavy rains and an application of carbendazim (0.2%) as a spray is found to reduce the incidence of the disease.

21.1.5 Leaf Spot Dry rot caused by Macrophomina phaseolina (Tassi) Goid, basal sheath rot by Aphelenchus (nematode), and a Fusarium sp. basal rot by Sclerotium rolfsii (Corticum rolfsii), violet rot pathogen, Helicobasidium mompa Tanaka, black rot by Rosellinia zingiberis Stevens, leaf spot by Leptosphaeria zingiberis, Coniothyrium zingiberis, and Cercoseptoria sp., Curvularia lunata (Cochliobolus lunatus), Vermcularia zingiberae, Pyricularia zingiberis, Colletotrichum zingiberis, Septoria zingiberis, Helminthosporium sp. were all found to be associated with ginger leaves or rhizomes. Rhizoctonia (Corticium) solani causing pseudostem rot and Rhizoctonia bataticola (Macrophomina) causing leaf blight are other diseases affecting ginger crops on a limited scale.

21.1.6 Storage Diseases As ginger undergoes 3 months of dormancy in storage during the months of April and May, it is important to protect it from various storage losses due to microorganisms and insect pests apart from abiotic stress such as heat buildup. Under storage, different fungi and bacteria have been found to be associated with ginger rhizomes which results in rotting and decaying of the rhizomes. In storage, the fungi, such as F. oxysporum, P. deliense, P. myriotylum, Geotrichum candidum, Aspergillus flavus, Cladosporium lennissimum, Gliocladium roseum, Graphium album, Mucor racemosus, Stachybotrys sansevieriae, Thanatephorus cucumeris, and Verticillium chlamydosporium, are known to affect the ginger rhizomes. The fungus A. flavus in association with ginger rhizomes was implicated in the production of carcinogenic aflatoxin. Root patterns were grouped into four different types: yellow soft rot, brown rot, localized ring rot, and water-soaked rot. Water-soaked rot was the most frequent (40%) and ring rot the least frequent (14%). Causal pathogens were identified as Erwinia carotovora and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (yellow soft rot), F. solani and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (brown rot), F. solani (localized ring rot), and P. spinosum and P. ultimum (water-soaked rot). P. myriotylum, the causal pathogen of Z. officinale rhizome rot which occurs severely in the fields, was rarely detected from storage seed rhizomes, suggesting its minor involvement with storage rot. Pathogenic Pythium isolates were frequently obtained from both the rhizome surface and the inner tissues of rotten rhizomes (Kim et al. 1998).

21.2

21.2

Diseases Caused by Bacterial Pathogens

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Diseases Caused by Bacterial Pathogens

21.2.1 Bacterial Wilt of Ginger (R. solanacearum) Bacterial wilt disease of ginger blast is one of the most important production constraints in tropical, subtropical, and warm temperate regions of the world. Bacterial wilt of ginger inflicts serious economic losses to small and marginal farmers who depend on this crop for their sustenance. Bacterial wilt of ginger is an important production constraint, and it is widely distributed in most of the tropical and subtropical regions of the world (Kumar and Sarma 2004). The causative organism, R. solanacearum (Pseudomonas solanacearum Smith, 1896), is a soiland plant-inhabiting bacterium. R. solanacearum affects monocotyledonous and dicotyledonous plants. R. solanacearum is widely distributed in tropical, subtropical, and temperate regions of the world. The bacterial wilt is characterized by the entry of the bacterium into the host followed by its multiplication and movement through the xylem vessels of the host plant. In the process, the bacteria interfere with the translocation of water and nutrients, which in turn results in drooping, wilting, and death of the aboveground plant parts. In the case of the ginger plant, the first noticeable symptom of bacterial wilt is downward curling of leaves due to loss of turgidity, and within 3–4 days, the leaves dry up. The affected rhizomes start to rot and putrefy due to the attack of saprophytic soil microorganisms. The rotted rhizomes emit a foul smell, and the affected plants wither and die within 2–3 weeks (Fig. 21.5). Geographical distribution of the pathogen has expanded in the last few years, because of inadvertent transmission of the bacterium along with contaminated planting material (infected rhizomes) (Kumar and Hayward 2005; Kumar et al. 2004). Bacterial wilt infection spreads when environmental conditions such as heavy rainfall and cool weather prevail, making them predisposing conditions for the spread of the disease. Rhizome-borne inoculum is primarily responsible for the initiation of the disease in the field, which further spreads horizontally across the field due to incessant rain. It is speculated that the rhizomes collected from

Fig. 21.5 Bacterial wilt disease affected ginger plant in the field

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previously diseased fields carry the inoculum to new locations, as well as to the next season (Kumar and Hayward 2005). A PCR-based method has been described for the detection of the bacterial wilt pathogen in soil and in planting material such as potato tubers (Kumar et al. 2002). The detection method for the bacterial wilt pathogen on symptomless tuber has been reported (Janse 1988). Several advances have been made for the detection of the bacterial wilt pathogen in environmental samples (Kumar and Anandaraj 2006; Schaad et al. 1995). Primers specific for PCR-based detection of Rhizoctonia solanacearum in plant and soil samples have been reported (Ito et al. 1998). This bacterial pathogen survives in soil and makes it unsuitable for ginger cultivation for long periods once introduced through infected planting material. Once introduced in an area, the soil becomes unsuitable for further cultivation of ginger. The severity of the disease is evident from its rapid spread in the field when environmental conditions (heavy and incessant rainfall, alternating with warm weather) are favorable for the onset and spread of the disease. Each of the infected plants is capable of releasing hundreds of thousands of bacterial cells in the form of bacterial ooze. Preplant detection of the bacterium in seed rhizomes and soil assumes significance to avoid the disease epidemic. Serological method, such as the indirect ELISA method, has been indicated for the detection of the disease in the soil (Prioru et al. 1999), in addition to environmental methods, such as isolation on semiselective medium (Englebrecht 1994) or bioassays using indicator host plants. Conventional methods are unsuitable to detect the pathogen, as it survives at a very low population density in the soil. However, these methods, particularly the serological ones, are not universal, as they are known to yield false-positive results when adopted in new host–pathogen systems. Another potential alternative approach would be DNA-based methods such as PCR using pathogen-specific probes or oligo primers to detect the pathogen.

21.2.1.1

The Bacterial Wilt Pathogen

Bacterial wilt of ginger is caused by the bacterium R. solanacearum biovar III (Smith) Yabuuchi, which is one of the important rhizome-borne diseases affecting ginger in the field. In India, biovar III causes rapid wilt in ginger within 5–7 days after infection under artificial stem inoculation and 7–10 days under soil inoculation of the pathogen (Kumar and Sarma 2004). Traditionally, ginger is cultivated in previously fallowed soil or on virgin soil. Incidence of bacterial wilt noticed in such fields is one of the indirect evidences of the rhizome-borne nature of R. solanacearum in ginger. Being a vascular pathogen, it is presumed that the pathogen R. solanacearum can survive in ginger plants at a very low level of inoculum without adversely affecting the normal state of the plant growth. Bacterial wilt caused by R. solanacearum (Smith) Yabuuchi is one of the important production constraints in ginger production in India and other parts of the world. In India, this disease has been found in all major ginger-growing states and is

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Diseases Caused by Bacterial Pathogens

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particularly severe in hot and humid southern states (ambient temperature varying between 28
C and 30
C), as well as in the cold high-altitude Eastern Himalayan state of Sikkim (ambient temperature is 7–22
C), where ginger farming in the northern and eastern districts has been severely affected by bacterial wilt during the last decade. These geographical, micro-, and macroclimatic variations and differences in the method of ginger production in these locations did not deter the severity of bacterial wilt in the Indian subcontinent. Genetic comparison was attempted between these two populations of strains causing bacterial wilt of ginger from these geographically well-isolated locations. Initially, the bacterial wilt pathogen was isolated from wilted ginger plants from these geographical locations. Ten isolates were obtained from wilted ginger plants from the North and the East Sikkim districts of the Eastern Himalayan regions, at an altitude of over 5500 m above mean sea level (msl). These isolates were phenotypically and genotypically compared with 13 other strains isolated from Kerala and Karnataka, in the southern states of India. The strains were isolated on CPG agar and identified by PCR-based assay using universal Rs-specific primers which produced a single 280 bp amplicon specific for R. solanacearum. Phenotypic characterization revealed the occurrence and dominance of biovar III over IV among the collections. Interestingly, biovar IV was rarely encountered in both the locations compared with biovar III. The biovar III strains were highly aggressive on the ginger plant, causing wilt in 5–7 days of soil inoculation, whereas the biovar IV strains took 3–4 weeks to wilt the ginger plants. However, in places like Hawaii (USA), biovar III is of little significance, and biovar IV is responsible for a very rapid spread, leading to wilting of the plant and causing heavy losses to the crop. The genetic diversity of R. solanacearum strains isolated from ginger growing on the Hawaiian island was determined by analysis of AFLPs, which revealed that R. solanacearum strains obtained from ginger grown in Hawaii are genetically distinct from the local strains from tomato (Race 1) and Heliconia (Race 2) (Yu et al. 2003). A weakly pathogenic strain of R. solanacearum isolated from ginger was shown to differ from a local tomato strain in cross-inoculation studies. Infected plants become stunted and yellow, and the lower leaves dry out over a prolonged period before the plants finally wilt and die (Lum 1973).

21.2.1.2

Diversity of Bacterial Wilt Pathogen

Isolates of R. solanacearum causing bacterial wilt of ginger in the northeastern states of Sikkim and Kerala were found to be 100% similar in REP, ERIC, and BOX PCR profiles. A very close similarity coefficient between these two geographically wellseparated locations clearly indicated the strain migration from one location to another. They belong to biovar III or biovar IV and caused wilt within 5–7 days of inoculation. Biovar III and biovar IV could be differentiated in REP-PCR-based fingerprinting (Kumar et al. 2004).

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The Diseases of Ginger

Close similarity among the isolates from these geographically well-separated locations indicated that the strains had migrated from one place to another, most likely through the rhizomes, as ginger rhizome exchanged among small and marginal farmers in India is an important activity during peak planting season. This result further confirmed the role of apparently good-looking but contaminated/ latently infected rhizomes in the spread and distribution of bacterial wilt in India. This emphasized the need for an effective internal quarantine measure to regulate the unorganized movement of rhizomes from the affected areas to prevent the possible spread and outbreak of bacterial wilt in newer locations in India.

21.2.1.3

Resistance

Over the years, the Indian Institute of Spices Research in Calicut, Kerala State, India, has collected more than 700 accessions of ginger through a germplasm exploration program. The systematic selection program has resulted in the release of three highyielding ginger varieties. However, none of these varieties are resistant (or tolerant) to any of the economically important diseases of ginger, in particular, Pythium rot and Ralstonia wilt. This is due to lack of genetic variability among the accessions for genetically important traits, such as pest and disease resistance, which is one of the bottlenecks in ginger genetic improvement. Mutation breeding, though it appeared promising initially, did not subsequently yield any desirable results, until now. In recent years, the search for resistance has been extended to another genus in the family Zingiberaceae. Among the Zingiberaceae members, such as C. amada, C. longa, C. zedoaria, C. aromatica, Kaempferia galanga, Elettaria cardamomum, Z. officinale, and Z. zerumbet, evaluated for their reaction to ginger strain R. solanacearum biovar III and Pythium species, C. amada Roxb., the Indian mango ginger (rhizomes have an aroma of green mango), was found to resist infection by both pathogens. The pathogen R. solanacearum could be detected in soil, root, and on the surface of the rhizome of mango ginger in PCR-mediated assay using R. solanacearumspecific primers. The survival of R. solanacearum in soils planted with C. amada was confirmed by bioassay where the ginger plants transplanted in soil in the vicinity of surviving C. amada was found to wilt within 5–7 days of infection. This clearly indicated that the pathogens were unable to infect the plant when inoculated in soil. Interestingly, the C. amada plants succumbed to wilt when the pathogen was directly delivered into the pseudostem through pin pricking. This further confirms that the plant per se is not antagonistic to the pathogen in soil. It could be due to nonrecognition of the plant by R. solanacearum. The C. amada plants hold promise for developing bacterial wilt-resistant ginger plants if the precise mechanism of resistance is unraveled. The literature survey did not indicate any resistant host in Zingiberaceae for bacterial wilt. A thorough genetic analysis would unravel the factors (genes) governing the resistance in C. amada against R. solanacearum and Pythium species.

21.2

Diseases Caused by Bacterial Pathogens

21.2.1.4

455

PCR-Based Identification/Detection of R. solanacearum

A PCR-based method for identification of bacterial wilt pathogen was optimized for unambiguous identification of R. solanacearum. The bacterium produced 280 bp amplicon in a PCR performed with a primer (primer sequence). An efficient DNA isolation protocol and PCR-based detection of bacterial pathogen in soil are standardized. The DNA isolation method and PCR-based approach using universal R. solanacearum-specific primer to detect the bacterium in the soil offer rapid methods for unambiguous detection of this pathogen in soil which can be employed to monitor soil samples for this globally important plant pathogen. The PCR-based assay could detect the pathogen concentration at a concentration of 103–104 cells per gram of soil (Kumar and Anandaraj 2006). The rhizome-borne nature of the bacterial wilt pathogen R. solanacearum in ginger was confirmed using PCR-based detection assay. Surviving rhizomes collected from previous bacterial wilt-infected fields, which appeared outwardly healthy, were found to be infected with R. solanacearum. The soil collected from the vicinity of the healthy rhizomes in the bacterial wilt-affected fields also tested positive for R. solanacearum. The results underscore the potential threat of using apparently “healthy” rhizomes from such latently infected fields, as well as the “avoidance” of visibly healthy-looking rhizomes for planting purpose, from such locations. The study further emphasizes the need for strict rules in restricting the movement of such rhizomes from endemic locations to nontraditional areas (Kumar and Abraham 2008). Healthy and diseasefree planting material is the foundation for good ginger production.

21.2.1.5

Management of Bacterial Wilt

Various control measures have been evaluated to combat the disease only with limited success. Bacterial wilt is a major problem in the production of ginger and other vegetable crops, owing to the wider host range and genetic variability that it exhibits. Besides, the pathogen is endowed with multiple modes of survival and rapid transmission capability within and between crop fields. The strategies for the wilt disease management are: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Selection of healthy rhizome material from disease-free area Selection of field with no history of bacterial wilt in the past Preplant rhizome treatment by heat or rhizome solarization (Kumar et al. 2005) Strict phytosanitation in the field including restrictions on movement of farm workers and irrigation water across the fields Clean cultivation and minimum tillage Crop rotation with nonhost plants such as paddy and maize Insect pests and nematode control in the field Soil amendments including biological control agents

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Preplant rhizome treatment: Rhizome heat treatment aided by solar radiation is called “rhizome solarization.” This method has been standardized in the case of bulk rhizome disinfection. Rhizome temperature over 45
C was achieved when rhizomes were subjected to sunlight, either directly or after blanketing them with polythene sheets (100 or 200 μm). Initially the rhizome heating was optimized using 1 kg of seed rhizomes in polythene bags of 200-μm quality, which was found to be cumbersome and labor intensive. To ease this, the method of rhizome treatment was modified to suit the bulk requirement where a large quantity of rhizome could be treated with minimal labor in a short span of time. Soon after harvest and before sprouting, the rhizomes were spread on a long polythene sheet followed by wrapping them with another sheet and exposing them to direct sunlight during a bright sunny day to achieve the required temperature of 47
C in the vascular region. The treatment can be done at any time in a day when the uninterrupted sunlight intensity is 2100 mmoles/m2/s. The light intensity and concentration of CO2 inside the polythene blanket were found to be 1600–1700 mmoles/m2/s and 1800–1850 ppm (four- to fivefold increase compared to the ambient concentration), respectively. The elevated rhizome temperature was observed especially in the vascular region, where the pathogen is reported to survive. One of the major sources of variability in rhizome heat buildup vis-à-vis the survival of R. solanacearum as well as the viability of the rhizome is the variation due to the varying size and shape of the rhizome. Larger rhizomes (100 g) recorded 1–3
C higher temperatures than smaller ones (10 g). Many ideally heated rhizomes were found that were optimally solarized, besides a certain proportion of under- or over-heated rhizomes, as the variation in the sizes and shapes of the rhizome is inherent. Post enrichment DAS-ELISA for R. solanacearum and microbiological plate assay with solarized (heat-treated) rhizomes further confirmed that R. solanacearum and other microorganisms could not survive in solarized rhizomes. The assay clearly indicated that the rhizome solarization was capable of disinfecting the rhizomes infected by the pathogen R. solanacearum, as indicated by the low A405 values recorded in DAS-ELISA. Greenhouse trials using naturally and artificially infected rhizomes after rhizome solarization produced healthy plantlets. It was found that the freshly harvested rhizomes were highly amenable to heat treatment, as these rhizomes are intact without any juvenile and heat-sensitive sprouts. Besides, interruption by premonsoon clouds seldom occurred when the treatment was done before storage of the rhizomes in storage cabinets. The other effects observed due to “rhizome solarization” were early breaking of rhizome dormancy and obtaining a significantly high number of good sprouts. The partially shrunk rhizomes become shriveled or completely rotten after solarization. Thus, the method of rhizome solarization was proven to be an efficient method for selection of good and pathogen-free rhizomes for planting purposes. A greenhouse-based culture system to produce ginger rhizomes free of bacterial wilt has been developed by a group of Hawaiian scientists working on bacterial wilt of ginger (Hepperly et al. 2004).

21.4

21.3

Diseases Caused by Nematodes

457

Diseases Caused by Viruses

21.3.1 Mosaic Disease of Ginger The symptoms of this disease appear as a yellow and dark green mosaic pattern on leaves. The affected plants show stunting. The virus causing mosaic disease in ginger has spherical particles with a diameter of 23–38 μm. It shows a positive serological reaction with antiserum to cucumber mosaic virus (CMV). The virus is known to be transmitted by the plant sap to different plants known to be hosts to CMV.

21.3.2 Chlorotic Fleck Disease The geographical distribution of the virus is uncertain but is thought to occur in India, Malaysia, and Mauritius. The virus is mechanically transmitted by Myzus persicae, Pentalonia nigronervosa, Rhopalosiphum maidis, or R. padi (Thomas 1986).

21.3.3 Big Bud The tomato big bud organism causes this disease in ginger. The affected plants cease to grow, and leaves become bunched at the top of the stem. As the disease advances, plants turn yellow and die. The pathogen has a wide range of hosts, and the disease is transmitted by leafhoppers. In seed-production areas, affected plants are removed and destroyed carefully.

21.3.4 Chirke Virus Raychaudhary and Ganguly (1965) reported Chirke virus on ginger, which is a known disease in the large cardamom crop in India.

21.4

Diseases Caused by Nematodes

Several plant parasitic nematodes infect ginger, and among them, Meloidogyne spp., Radopholus similis, and Pratylenchus spp. have been reported to be the major ones of economic importance as they cause significant damage to ginger plants. Meloidogyne incognita was found to cause damage to Z. officinale in Kerala State, India (Mammen 1973). Marketability of the ginger rhizome was found to be severely

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The Diseases of Ginger

affected if the rhizomes are infested by nematodes, in particular by Pratylenchus coffeae. The nematode is found to reduce the germination of the rhizomes when used as seed rhizomes and further aggravated the infection by Fusarium. Linear growth and hyphal thickness of F. oxysporum f. sp. zingiberi were greater when exposed to an extract of ginger root infected with Meloidogyne incognita than when exposed to an extract of healthy root (Agrawal et al. 1974). Butler and Vilsoni (1975) reported that Radopholus similis was found on rhizomes of Z. officinale and transmission was mainly through planting infested vegetative “seeds” in Fiji. Histopathological studies demonstrate that the nematodes enter the rhizomes and penetrate the tissue intracellularly, large infestations resulting in the destruction of tissues and the formation of channels and galleries within the rhizomes. Secondary organisms eventually rot the entire rhizome. The symptoms shown by infested ginger plants include stunting, chlorosis, and failure to tiller profusely (Vilsoni et al. 1976).

21.4.1 Management of the Nematode Infection Soil application of carbofuran at 3 kg a.i./ha 3 weeks after planting of the ginger crop was found to decrease yield losses due to the infestation of Meloidogyne. Preplanting application of neem (Azadirachta indica) cake at 1 t/ha followed by postplanting application of carbofuran at 1 kg a.i./ha 45 days after planting (DAP) is recommended to control Meloidogyne incognita infestation (Mohanty et al. 1995). The highest level of control was achieved by sawdust mulching combined with postplanting treatment with branded nematicides, Nemacur, or Oxamyl. Postplant treatment with Nemacur or Oxamyl reduced the incidence of Fusarium.

References Agrawal, P. S., Joshi, L. K., & Haware, M. P. (1974). Effect of root knot extract of ginger on Fusarium oxysporum f. zingiberi Trujillo causing yellows disease. Current Science, 43, 23–52. Butler, L. D., & Vilsoni, F. (1975). Potential hosts of burrowing nematode in Fiji. Fiji Agriculture Journal, 37, 38–39. Chen, W. (1992). Restriction fragment length polymorphisms in enzymatically amplified ribosomal DNAs of three heterothallic Pythium species. Phytopathology, 82, 1467–1472. De Nazareno, N. R. X. (1995). Control of yellow leaf spot (Phyllosticta sp.) of ginger with commercial fungicides. Horticultura-Brasileira, 13, 142–146. Dick, M. W. (1990. Keys to Pythium (pp. 214–216). University of Reading, UK. Dohroo, N. P. (1987). Pythium ultimum on Zingiber officinale. Indian Phytopathology, 40(2), 275. Englebrecht, M. C. (1994). Modification of a semi-selective medium for the isolation and quantification of Pseudomonas solanacearum. In A. C. Hayward (Ed.), Bacterial Wilt Newsletter (Vol. 10, pp. 3–5). Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research. Haware, M. P., & Joshi, L. K. (1974). Studies on soft rot of ginger from Madhya Pradesh. Indian Phytopathology, 27, 158–161.

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Hendrix, F. J., & Papa, K. E. (1974). Taxonomy and genetics of Pythium. Proceedings of American Phytopathology Society, 1, 200–207. Hepperly, P., Zee, F. T., Kai, R. M., Arakawa, C. N., Meisner, M., Krarky, B., et al. (2004). Producing bacterial wilt-free ginger in green house culture. Extention Service Bulletin, 10, 6. Indrasenan, G., & Paily, P. V. (1973). Studies on the soft rot of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe) caused by Pythium aphanidermatum (Edison) Fitz. Agriculture Research Journal of Kerala, 11 (1), 53–56. Ito, S., Ushijima, Y., Fuji, T., Tanaka, S., Kameya-Iwaki, M., Yoshiwara, S., et al. (1998). Detection of viable cells of Ralstonia solanacearum on soil using semi selective medium and a PCR technique. Journal of Phytopathology, 146, 379–384. Janse, J. D. (1988). A detection method for Pseudomonas solanacearum in symptomless potato tubers and some data on its sensitivity and specificity. Bulletin OEPP, 18, 343–351. Jooju, B.2005. Evaluation of genetic diversity of pythium spp. causing soft rot of ginger using phenotypic and molecular methods. M. Phil. Thesis, Bharathidasan University, Trichy, Tamil Nadu, India, p. 72. Kim, C.-H., Yang-Sung, S., Park-Kyong, S., Kim, C. H., Yang, S. S., & Park, K. S. (1997). Pathogenicity and mycological characteristics of Pythium myriotylum causing rhizome rot of ginger. Korean Journal of Plant Pathology, 13(3), 152–159. Kim, C.-H., Yang-Jong, M., Yang-Sung, S., Kim, C. H., Yang, J., & Yang, S. S. (1998). Identification and pathogenicity of microorganisms associated with seed-rhizome rot of ginger in underground storage caves. Korean Journal of Plant Pathology, 14(5), 484–490. Kumar, A., & Abraham, S. (2008). PCR based detection of bacterial wilt pathogen Ralstonia solanacearum in ginger rhizomes and soil collected from bacterial wilt affected field. Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops, 17(2), 109–113. Kumar, A., & Anandaraj, M. (2006). Method for isolation of soil DNA and PCR based detection of ginger wilt pathogen, Ralstonia solanacearum. Indian Phytopathology, 59(2), 154–160. Kumar, A., & Hayward, A. C. (2005). In P. N. Ravindran & K. N. Babu (Eds.), Bacterial diseases of ginger and their control (pp. 341–366). Boca Raton: Monograph on Ginger CRC Press. Kumar, A., & Sarma, Y. R. (2004). Characterization of Ralstonia solanacearum causing bacterial wilt of ginger in India. Indian Phytopathology, 57, 12–17. Kumar, A., Sarma, Y. R., & Priou, S. (2002). Detection of Ralstonia solanacearum ginger rhizomes using post-enrichment NCM-ELISA. Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops, 51, 35–40. Kumar, A., Sarma, Y. R., & Anandaraj, M. (2004). Evaluation of genetic diversity of Ralstonia solanacearum causing bacterial wilt of ginger using Rep-PCR and RFLP-PCR. Current Science, 87(11), 1555–1561. Kumar, A., Anandaraj, M., & Sarma, Y. R. (2005). Rhizome solarization and microwave treatment: ecofriendly methods for disinfecting ginger rhizomes. In P. Prior, C. Allen, & A. C. Hayward (Eds.), Bacterial Wilt and Ralstonia Solanacearum Spices Complex (pp. 185–196). American Phytopathological Society Press. Kumar A., Thomas R. S., Jooju B., Suseelabhai R., & Shiva K. N. (2007). PCR based identification of Pythium myriotylum causing soft rot of ginger. In: Proceedings of the Nineteenth Kerala Science Congress, 29–31 January 2007, Kannur, Kerala State, India, pp. 700–702. Kumar, A., Reeja, S. T., Suseela Bhai, R., & Shiva, K. N. (2008). Distribution of Pythium myriotylum Dreschsler causing soft rot of ginger. Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops, 17 (1), 5–10. Lin, L. N., Cheong, S. S., & Leu, L. S. (1971). Soft rot of ginger. Plant Protection Bulletin, 13, 54–67. Lum, K. Y. (1973). Cross inoculation studies of Pseudomonas solanacearum from ginger. MARDIResearch Bulletin., 1(1), 15–21. Mammen, K. V. (1973). Root gall nematodes as a serious pest of ginger in Kerala. Current Science, 42, 15–549. McRae, W. (1911). Soft rot of ginger in Rangpur district of East Bengal (E. Pakistan). Agricultural Journal of India, 6, 139–146.

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Mohanty, K. C., Ray, S., Mohapatra, S. N., Patnaik, P. R., & Ray, P. (1995). Integrated management of root knot nematode in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.). Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops, 4, 70–73. Mundkar, B. B. (1949). Fungi and Plant Disease (p. 246). London: Macmillan and Co. Prioru, S., Gutarra, L., Fernandez, H., & Alley, P. (1999). Sensitive detection of Ralstonia solanacearum in latently infected potato tubers and soil by post enrichment ELISA CIP programme report 1997–98 (pp. 111–121). Lima: International Potato Centre. Ramakrishnan, T. S. (1942). A leaf spot disease of Zingiber officinale caused by Phyllosticta zingiberi sp. Proceedings of the Indian Academy of Sciences Section B, 20(4), 167–171. Raychaudhary, S. P., & Ganguly, B. (1965). Further studies on Chirke disease of large cardamom by aphid species. Indian Phytopathology, 18, 373–377. Sarma, Y. R. (1994). Rhizome rot disease of ginger and turmeric. Advances in Horticultural, 10, 1134–1136. Schaad, N. W., Cheong, S. S., Tanaka, S., Hatziloukas, E., & Panpaulos, N. J. (1995). A combined biological and enzymatic amplification (BIO-PCR) technique to detect Pseudomonas syrigiae pv. Phaseolicola in bean seed extracts. Phytopathology, 85, 243–248. Sreenivasaprasad, S. (1996). Phylogeny and systematics. Genome, 39, 499–512. Sundram, S. V. (1954). Thread blight of ginger. Indian Phytopathology, 6, 80–85. Taylor, J. W. (1986). Fungal evolutionary biology and mitochondrial DNA. Experimental Mycology, 10, 259–269. Thomas, J. E. (1986). Purification and properties of ginger chlorotic fleck. Annals of Applied Biology, 108(1), 43–50. Trujillo, E. E. (1963). Fusarium yellows and rhizome rot of common ginger. Phytopathology, 53, 1370–1371. Van der Plaats-Niterink, A. J. (1981). Monographs of the genus Pythium. Studies in Mycology, 21, 1–242. Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures, Baam. Vilsoni, F., McCure, M. A., & Butler, L. D. (1976). Occurrence, host range and histopathology of Radopholus similis in ginger (Zingiber officinale). Plant Disease Report, 60(5), 417–420. Wang, P. H., Chung, C. Y., Lin, Y. S., & Yeh, Y. (2003). Use of polymerase chain reaction to detect the soft rot pathogen, Pythium myriotylum infected ginger rhizomes. Letters to Applied Microbiology, 36, 116–120. Yu, Q., Alvarez, A. M., Moore, P. H., Zee, F., Kim, M. S., de Silva, A., et al. (2003). Molecular diversity of Ralstonia solanacearum isolated from ginger in Hawaii. Phytopathology, 93(9), 1124–1130.

Chapter 22

The Insect Pests of Ginger and Their Control

Abstract The insect pests of ginger and their control: Primary discussion is on shoot borer (Conogethes punctiferalis Guen.), infestation, and its control. Further discussion is on rhizome scale (Aspidiella hartii (Cockerell 1895)) and its control and white grubs (Holotrichia spp.) and its control. There is also a discussion on minor pests, such as African black beetle, and also a discussion on nematode infestation and its control. Keywords Insect pests · Shoot borer · Major · Minor pests

22.1

Shoot Borer (Conogethes punctiferalis Guen)

The shoot borer (C. punctiferalis) (Pyralidae) is the most serious insect pest of ginger and turmeric in India. The larvae bore into the pseudostems and feed on the internal shoot, resulting in yellowing and drying of infested pseudostems. The presence of a borehole on the pseudostem through which frass is extruded and the withered central shoot are the characteristic symptoms of the pest infestation (Devasahayam and Koya 2005). The adults are medium-sized moths with a wingspan of 18–24 mm; the wings and body are pale straw yellow with minute black spots. There are five larval instars, and fully grown larvae are light brown with sparse hairs and measure 16–26 mm in length. Adult females lay 30–60 eggs during their life span, and six to seven generations are completed during a crop season in the field. The pest is observed in the field throughout the crop season, and its population is higher during September–October in Kerala State, India. The shoot borer is highly polyphagous and has been recorded on more than 35 host plants, including several economically important plants in India (Devasahayam and Koya 2005; Jacob 1981).

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 K. P. Nair, Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_22

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22.1.1 Management of the Pest Spraying malathion 0.1% solution at monthly intervals during July–October is effective for the management of the shoot borer on ginger. A sequential sampling strategy to monitor the pest infestation in the field as a guide to take control measures has also been formulated (Koya et al. 1986). An integrated strategy involving pruning and destroying freshly infested shoots during June–August and spraying insecticide such as malathion 0.1% solution during September–October has also been suggested to control the pest infestation on ginger (IISR 2001a). In Nagaland, mulching with mahaneem (Melia dubia Cav.) leaves (Lalnuntluanga and Singh 2008) or spraying quinalphos 0.05% + Ozoneem 1500 ppm (3 ml/l) (Mhonchumo et al. 2010) has been suggested for the management of the pest. On turmeric, spraying of malathion 0.1% solution during July–October at 21-day interval is effective to control the pest infestation (IISR 2001b). Various natural enemies including the mermithid nematode (Hexamermis sp.), hymenopterous parasitoids (Xanthopimpla australis Kr. Ichneumonidae), Apanteles taragamae Viereck, and Myosoma sp. (Braconidae) and general predators such as spiders, earwigs, and asilid flies have been recorded on shoot borers infesting ginger and turmeric. Conservation of natural enemies plays a significant role in reducing the population of the pest in the field (Devasahayam 1996).

22.2

Rhizome Scale (Aspidiella hartii Ckll)

The rhizome scale (A. hartii) (Diaspididae) infests rhizomes of ginger and turmeric both in the field and in storage in India. In the field, the pest infestation is generally seen during the dry post monsoon season and severely infested plants wither and dry. In storage, the pest infestation results in shriveling of buds and rhizomes; when the infestation is severe, it adversely affects the sprouting rhizome (Devasahayam and Koya 2005). The adult females are minute in size, circular, and light brown to gray in color, measuring about 1.5 mm in diameter. Females are ovoviviparous and also reproduce parthenogenetically. The rhizome scale also infects yams, tannia, and taro (Devasahayam and Koya 2005).

22.2.1 Management of the Pest Timely harvest and discarding severely infested rhizomes during storage reduce further spread of the pest infestation in storage. Dipping of seed rhizomes in quinalphos 0.075% solution after harvest and storage in dry leaves of Strychnos nux-vomica L. + sawdust in a 1:1 ratio is effective in controlling rhizome scale infestation on ginger and turmeric (IISR 2004–2005).

22.4

22.3

Minor Insect Pests

463

White Grubs (Holotrichia spp.)

White grubs (Holotrichia spp.) (Melolonthinae) often cause serious damage to ginger plants in certain regions of northeastern India. The grubs feed on roots and on newly formed rhizomes. The pest infestation leads to yellowing of leaves, and in severe cases of infestation, the pseudostem must be cut at the base to stop further infestation. The entire crop may be lost in severely infested plantations. The adults of Holotrichia spp., commonly occurring in Sikkim, India, are dark brown beetles measuring about 2.5 cm  3.5 cm in size. The grubs are creamy white, occurring in the soil. The adults emerge in large numbers with the summer showers during the months of April and May (Varadarasan et al. 2000).

22.3.1 Management of the Pest Mechanical collection and destruction of adults during their peak periods of manifestation and application of the entomophagous fungus Metarhizium anisopliae mixed with fine cow dung is effective in managing the white grubs. However, in severely affected areas, drenching with chlorpyriphos 0.075% solution may be necessary, along with mechanical collection and destruction of beetles (IISR 2001c).

22.4

Minor Insect Pests

22.4.1 Leaf/Shoot-Feeding Caterpillars The larvae of the leaf roller (Udaspes folus Cram.) (Pieridae) cut and fold leaves of ginger and turmeric and feed from within, especially during the monsoon season in India. A spray with carbaryl 0.1% solution or 0.05% solution of dimethoate may be done if the infestation is severe (IISR 2001b, c). Larvae of cutworms of Heliothis sp. (Noctuidae) feed on the young shoots at the ground level in Australia. Spraying of a branded insecticide is recommended for the control of this minor pest (Broadley 2010).

22.4.2 African Black Beetle (Heteronychus sp.) The adults of the African black beetle (Heteronychus sp.) (Scarabaeidae) feed on ginger pseudostems below the ground level in Australia, causing the plant to collapse. The adults are dark brown to black in color and measure about 12 mm in length. The larvae are soil dwelling and white in color with a prominent brown head,

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measuring about 25 mm in length. Spraying with a branded insecticide, when the first symptoms of infestation emerge, so as to wet the soil up to 5 cm depth, is recommended to manage the pest effectively (Broadley 2010).

22.5

Nematode Pests of Ginger

Among the various nematode species, which infest ginger and turmeric in India, the root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne spp.) (Meloidogynidae), burrowing nematode (Radopholus similis), lesion nematode (Pratylenchus coffeae) (Pratylenchidae), and reniform nematode (Rotylenchulus reniformis Linford and Oliveira, 1940) (Rotylenchulidae) are important (Koshy et al. 2005). Meloidogyne spp. and R. similis are major nematode pests of ginger in Australia (Pegg et al. 1974) and Fiji (Butler and Vilsoni 1975). Root-knot nematodes cause galling and rotting of roots and rhizomes of both ginger and turmeric. Extensive internal lesions are formed in the fleshy roots and rhizomes. The infested rhizomes have brown, water-soaked areas on the outer tissues, and the nematodes continue to develop after the crop gets matured and is harvested. Heavily infested plants are stunted with very few tillers and have chlorotic leaves with marginal necrosis, which die prematurely leaving a poor crop stand on the field at harvest. The incidence of rhizome rot in ginger caused by the fungus P. aphanidermatum (Edson) Fitzp. 1923 is reported to be severe when rhizomes are also infested with nematodes, such as infestation by M. incognita and P. coffeae (Dohroo et al. 1987; Ramana and Eapen 1998). Root-knot nematode infestation is reported to cause yield loss from 46.4% to 57.0% in India (Charles 1978) and Australia (Pegg et al. 1974), respectively. Ginger and turmeric plants infected by R. similis exhibit stunting, loss of vigor, and production of tillers. The topmost leaves become chlorotic with scorched tips. The affected plants tend to mature and dry out faster than the healthy ones. Incipient infections of the rhizomes are evidenced by small, shallow, sunken, and watersoaked lesions (Sundarraju et al. 1979). P. coffeae is reported to cause “ginger yellows” disease and is more prevalent in Himachal Pradesh. The nematode infestation causes yellowing of leaves and dry rot-like symptoms on rhizomes. Dark brown necrotic lesions can be observed within the infected rhizomes (Kaur and Sharma 1988).

22.5.1 Management of Nematode Infestation 1. Cultural Control: Since the seed material generally harbors nematodes, selection of seed rhizomes is critical for the management of nematode infestation. Nematode-free planting material should be selected from fields with a known history. Disinfestation of ginger rhizomes can also be achieved by hot water or

References

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Table 22.1 Major insect and nematode pests of ginger Crop Shoot borer (C. punctiferalis Guen.) Rhizome scale (A. hartii Ckll.) White grub (Holotrichia spp.) Root-knot nematode (M. incognita) Burrowing nematode (R. similis) (Cobb, 1893), (Thorne, 1949) Lesion nematode (P. coffeae) (Zimmerman, 1898), (Filipjev and Stekhoven, 1941) Reniform nematode (R. reniformis Linford and Oliveira, 1940)

2.

3.

4.

5.

Order/family Lepidoptera: Pyralidae Homoptera: Diaspididae Coleoptera: Melolonthidae Tylenchida: Meloidogynidae (Kofoid and White, 1919), (Chitwood, 1949) Tylenchida: Pratylenchidae

Tylenchida: Rotylenchulidae

steam treatment (Vadhera et al. 1998). Crop rotation with forage sorghum (Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench cv. Jumbo) or lablab (Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet cv. Highworth) along with application of poultry manure and/or sawdust resulted in negligible nematode damage (Stirling and Nikulin 2008). Organic Amendments: Mulching with mahaneem leaves or sawdust or applying well- decomposed cattle manure, poultry manure, compost, or neem oil cake reduces nematode buildup in ginger (Kaur 1987; Stirling 1999). Biological Control: Application of fungal antagonists such as Verticillium chlamydosporium Goddard, Purpureocillium lilacinus, Fusarium sp., Aspergillus nidulans (Eidam) G.Winter, and Scopulariopsis sp., along with organic material suppressed nematode populations (Eapen and Ramana 1996). Host Resistance: “IISR Mahima,” an improved variety of ginger, is reported to be resistant to M. incognita (Sasikumar et al. 2003). The high-yielding varieties PCT-8, PCT-10, Suguna, and Sudharshana are generally free from M. incognita infestation in Andhra Pradesh, India (Rao et al. 1994). Chemical Control: Application of carbofuran or phorate at 1 kg a.i./ha suppresses M. incognita infestations in ginger and turmeric (Gunasekharan et al. 1987) (Table 22.1).

References Broadley, R. (2010). Ginger in Queensland. Commercial production. Department of Employment, Economic Development and Innovation, Queensland Government. Accessed from: http://www. deedi.qld.gov.au/, 20 July 2010. Butler, E. J., & Vilsoni, F. (1975). Potential hosts of burrowing nematode in Fiji. Fiji Agricultural Journal, 37, 38–39. Charles, J. S. (1978). Studies on the Nematode diseases of ginger. MSc thesis, Kerala Agricultural University, Vellayani, Kerala State. Devasahayam, S. (1996). Biological control of insect pests of spices. In M. Anandaraj & K. V. Peter (Eds.), Biological control in spices (pp. 33–45). Calicut: Indian Institute of Spices Research.

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Devasahayam, S., & Koya, K. M. A. (2005). Insect pests of ginger. In P. N. Ravindran & K. N. Babu (Eds.), Ginger. The genus Zingiber (pp. 367–389). Washington, DC: CRC Press. Dohroo, N. P., Shyam, K. R., & Bharadwaj, S. S. (1987). Distribution, diagnosis and incidence of rhizome rot complex of ginger in Himachal Pradesh. Indian Journal of Plant Pathology, 5, 24–25. Eapen, S. J., & Ramana, K. V. (1996). Biological control of plant parasitic nematodes of spices. In M. Anandaraj & K. V. Peter (Eds.), Biological control in spices (pp. 20–32). Calicut: Indian Institute of Spices Research. Gunasekharan, C. R., Vadivelu, S., & Jayaraj, S. (1987). Experiments on nematodes of turmeric— A review. In Proceedings of the third group discussion on the nematological problems of plantation crops, 29–30 October 1987. Sugarcane Breeding Institute, Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, pp. 45–46. IISR. (2001a). Annual report. Calicut: Indian Institute of Spices Research. IISR. (2001b). Annual report. Turmeric (Extension Pamphlet). Calicut: Indian Institute of Spices Research. IISR. (2001c). Annual report. Ginger (Extension Pamphlet). Calicut: Indian Institute of Spices Research. IISR. (2004–2005). Annual report. Calicut: Indian Institute of Spices Research. Jacob, S. A. (1981). Biology of Dichocrocis punctiferalis Guen. on turmeric. Journal of Plantation Crops, 9, 119–123. Kaur, K. J. (1987). Studies on Nematodes associated with ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) in Himachal Pradesh. Thesis submitted to the Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla, India. Kaur, D. J., & Sharma, N. K. (1988). Occurrence and pathogenicity of Meloidogyne arenaria on ginger. Indian Phytopathology, 41, 467–468. Koshy, P. K., Eapen, S. J., & Pandey, R. (2005). Nematode parasites of spices, condiments and medicinal plants. In M. Luc, R. A. Sikora, & J. Bridge (Eds.), Plant parasitic nematodes in subtropical and tropical agriculture (2nd ed., pp. 751–791). Wallingford: CABI Publishing. Koya, K. M. A., Balakrishnan, R., Devasahayam, S., & Banerjee, S. K. (1986). A sequential sampling strategy for the control of shoot borer (Dichocrocis punctiferalis Guen.) on ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) in India. Tropical Pest Management, 32, 343–346. Lalnuntluanga, J., & Singh, H. K. (2008). Performance of certain chemicals and neem formulations against ginger shoot borer (Dichocrocis punctiferalis Guen.). The Indian Journal of Entomology, 70, 183–186. Mhonchumo, N. P., & Singh, H. K. (2010). Eco-friendly management of shoot borer and rhizome fly of ginger in Nagaland. In V. Sema, V. Srinivasan, & M. Shitri (Eds.). Proceedings and recommendations, national symposium on spices and aromatic crops (SYMSAC–V), 30–31 October 2009, Medziphema, Central Institute of Horticulture, pp. 117–123. Pegg, K. C., Moffett, M. L., & Colbran, R. C. (1974). Diseases of ginger in Queensland. The Queensland Agricultural Journal, 100, 611–618. Ramana, K. V., & Eapen, S. J. (1998). Plant parasitic nematodes associated with spices and condiments. In P. C. Trivedi (Ed.), Nematode diseases in plants (pp. 217–251). New Delhi: CBS Publishers and Distributors. Rao, P. S., Krishna, M. R., Srinivas, C., Meenakumari, K., & Rao, A. M. (1994). Short duration, disease-resistant turmerics for northern Telangana. Indian Horticulture, 39, 55–56. Sasikumar, B., Saji, K. V., Antony, A., George, K. G., Zachariah, T. J., & Eapen, S. J. (2003). IISR Mahima and IISR Rejatha—Two high yielding and high quality ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) cultivars. Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops, 12, 34–37. Stirling, G. R. (1999). Organic amendments for control of root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) on ginger. Australasian Plant Pathology, 18, 39–44. Stirling, G. R., & Nikulin, A. (2008). Crop rotation, organic amendments and nematicides for control of root-knot nematode (Meloidogyne incognita) on ginger. Australasian Plant Pathology, 27, 234–243.

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Sundarraju, P., Sosamma, V. K., & Koshy, P. K. (1979). Pathogenicity of Radopholus similis on ginger. The Indian Journal of Nematology, 9, 91–94. Vadhera, I., Tiwari, S. P., & Dave, G. S. (1998). Plant parasitic nematodes associated with ginger (Zingiber officinale) in Madhya Pradesh and denematization of infested rhizome by thermotherapy for management. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 68, 367–370. Varadarasan, S., Singh, J., Pradhan, L. N., Gurung, N., & Gupta, S. R. (2000). Bioecology and management of white grub Holotrichia seticollis Mosher (Melolonthinae: Coleoptera), a major pest on ginger in Sikkim. In N. Muraleedharan & R. R. Kumar (Eds.), Recent advances in plantation crops research (pp. 323–326). New Delhi: Allied Publishers Limited.

Chapter 23

The Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger

Abstract The chapter discusses harvest maturity, processing, polishing, cleaning and grading, and storage. The ginger aflatoxin infection is also discussed. Keywords Harvest · Maturity · Processing · Aflatoxin infection

23.1

Harvest Maturity

Ginger is used both as a fresh vegetable and as a dried spice. The crop is ready for harvest in about 8 months after planting, when leaves turn yellow and start drying up gradually. The clumps are lifted carefully with spade or digging fork, and the rhizomes are separated from the dried leaves, roots, and adhering soil. To prepare vegetable ginger harvesting is done from the 6th month onward after planting. The most important criteria in assessing the suitability of ginger rhizomes for specific processing purposes are the fiber and volatile oil contents and the pungency level. The relative abundance of these three components in the fresh rhizome is governed by its state of maturity at harvest. Tender rhizomes lifted at the beginning of the harvesting season, about 5–7 months after planting, are preferred for the production of preserved ginger as the fiber content is negligible and the pungency is mild. As the season progresses, the relative abundance of the volatile oil, the pungent constituents, and the fiber content increase. At about 9 months after planting, the volatile oil and pungent principle contents reach the maximum, and thereafter their relative abundance falls as the fiber content continues to increase. In India, the volatile oil content of ginger has been reported to be at maximum between 215 and 260 days after planting (Purseglove et al. 1981). The fresh ginger after harvest is sometimes subjected to washing, which is performed to remove soil dirt, spray residues, and other foreign materials. Manual cleaning by rubbing under the thumb is commonly followed for small-scale cleaning in the farm. In large plantations, a high-pressure jet is used for washing. For this type of cleaning, the ginger rhizomes are soaked in still water overnight, and the

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 K. P. Nair, Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_23

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following day, a high-pressure water spray jet is directed on the rhizomes, which forcefully removes the firmly attached dirt. A drum-type washer is also quoted as a commercial device (Kachru and Srivastava 1988) for cleaning ginger rhizomes. However, the use of such a washer has not been reported earlier. The washing of ginger is essentially followed when the oil is extracted from green ginger without drying. Sreekumar et al. (2002) have reported the use of washed, cleaned fresh ginger for extraction of essential oil in the processing facility set up at Manipur in India.

23.2

Processing

23.2.1 Peeling Peeling serves to remove the scaly epidermis and to facilitate drying. The outer skin of ginger is scraped off with a bamboo splinter or wooden knife with a pointed end. An iron knife is not recommended as it may leave black stains on the peeled surface, adversely affecting the appearance of the rhizome, or it may lead also to fading the rhizome’s color. During peeling, it should be ensured that the cortical parenchyma, which is rich in essential oil-bearing cells, is not removed or cut, as it would cause the loss of volatile oil and, thereby, decrease the aroma of the peeled rhizome. Since scraping of ginger is a laborious process, attempts have been made for chemical and mechanical peeling of ginger.

23.2.1.1

Chemical Peeling

Chemical peeling using sodium hydroxide (NaOH), widely known as lye peeling, is one of the most common and the oldest methods for peeling fruits and vegetables. Theoretically, lye peeling is a complex process involving diffusion and chemical reactions. Once the caustic solution of NaOH comes in contact with the surface of the fruit, it dissolves the epicuticular waxes, penetrates the epidermis, and diffuses through the skin into the fruit (Floros et al. 1987). Randhawa and Nandpuri (1970) reported that peeling of ginger was made easier by dipping it in boiling lye, followed by washing and steeping in acid solution. The process consisted of putting the ginger to be peeled in a wire-gauze cage and dipped into hot boiling lye for the required period. The lye solution causes the separation of the skin of the rhizome from the flesh beneath the epidermal layer. Dipping for 5½ min in a boiling lye solution of 20%, 25%, and 50% concentrations, respectively, removed the peel. The ginger was then washed in running water and finally kept in a 4% citric acid solution for 2 h. However, this process did not result in quality dried product and is not commercially practiced. Trials have been carried out by dipping the ginger rhizomes in boiling water for a short time prior to peeling (Lawrence

23.2

Processing

471

1984; Natarajan et al. 1972). Ginger treated with boiling water gives a dark final product, and hence, this treatment is not recommended. The effect of lye pretreatment on the peeling efficiency and ginger meat loss before mechanical peeling was investigated by Charan et al. (1993). Lye treatment of ginger in a 7.5% solution for 5 min before machine peeling indicated that the peeling efficiency of the machine could be increased and the meat loss decreased. Peeling efficiency of the machine operating in three and four passes increased from 73% to 83% and from 75% to 86%, respectively, by lye pretreatment, whereas the corresponding meat loss was reduced from 3.3% to 1.9% and from 3.8% to 2.4%, respectively. However, the application of this unit in large scale needs to be investigated further and then optimized.

23.2.1.2

Mechanical Peeling

Ginger rhizomes have an irregular shape for a machine to handle, especially when only a thin layer of its skin must be removed. Natarajan et al. (1972) have reported about some commercial undertakings that attempted to use machines fitted with abrasive rollers, but this met with little success. As the time of abrasive peeling increased, more and more of the outer skin and tissue layers were lost, resulting in a progressive decrease in oil content recovered. A mechanical brush-type ginger peeling machine was developed by Agrawal et al. (1983). It essentially consisted of two continuous brush belts being driven in opposite directions with a downward relative velocity by a variable speed motor. The movement of the brush belts in opposite directions provides the abrasive action on the ginger rhizomes passing in between, while the downward relative velocity provided the downward flow of ginger. The spacing between the belts and the belt velocity could be varied. The machine was reported to function satisfactorily during the limited tests performed on stored ginger. Evaluating the machine parameters was essential because peeling of the rhizome’s skin was associated with the loss of ginger meat from underneath the skin. The epidermal cells in ginger contain most of the essential oil which imparts the ginger’s characteristic aroma and is perhaps the most important factor in determining its market price (Jaiswal 1980). Therefore, the loss of ginger meat from underneath the skin would result not only in the reduction of ginger weight but also in the heavy economic loss of the value of the ginger. Agrawal et al. (1987) optimized the operational parameters of the abrasive brushtype ginger peeling machine for maximum peeling efficiency with minimum loss of ginger meat. The parameters optimized were brush belt spacing (1 cm) and belt speed (65 rpm) of the driving brush belt, resulting in the belt relative velocity of 199 cm/s. Number of passes required was four to five, and the capacity of the machine at the recommended parameter values with five passes was 20 kg/h. When operated at full capacity, the machine had a peeling efficiency of 71% with ginger meat loss of 1.6%.

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The Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger

The performance of the abrasive brush-type ginger peeling machine could be improved by redesigning the peeling unit (Ali et al. 1990). Experiments were conducted to study the effect of various combinations of brush spacing, height, and recommended optimum machine operational parameters. It was recommended that brush spacing of 1.9 cm and brush height of 2 cm and four or five passes with brush tip spacing of 1 cm at the relative velocity of 199 cm/s in a downward direction were the best parameters to peel 2 cm thick ginger. The average peeling efficiency and material loss were found to be 87.92% and 8.22%, respectively. The final prototype of the abrasive brush-type ginger peeling machine was reported by Ali et al. (1991). The machine essentially consists of two continuous vertical abrasive belts with the brush of 32 SWG thick steel wires, 2 cm long, with a spacing of 1.90 cm. The peeling zone of the ginger peeling machine was increased from 15 cm  90 cm to 30 cm  150 cm. Thus, the number of the passes was reduced from five to three. The gear reduction device was replaced by the jack pulley for power transmission. The peeling efficiency and material loss were 83.46% and 4.33%, respectively. The capacity of the machine at the recommended parameters was 200 kg/h. Charan et al. (1993) developed a small manually operated ginger peeling machine for application by farmers. The machine was fabricated using locally available materials. The moving abrasive surface was made of coconut fiber brushes (30 mm length) mounted on two endless canvas belts that were 40 mm wide and 5 mm thick. The stationary abrasive surface was also developed with the same abrasive brushes arranged side by side on a wooden plank of 780 mm  240 mm  15 mm in size. The capacity of the machine to peel untreated ginger is 24 kg/h. The peeling efficiency and loss of ginger meat were 71% and 1.3%, respectively, showing that the machine is quite efficacious in doing its intended job.

23.2.2 Drying Peeled rhizomes are washed and dried uniformly under the sun for 7–10 days. Ginger should be dried on a clean surface to ensure that no extraneous matter contaminates the product. Care should be taken to avoid growth of mold on the rhizomes while drying. During the first few days of drying, each rhizome is turned at least once a day to ensure that it dries uniformly. In order to get rid of the last bit of debris sticking to the rhizomes or to the peeled skin, the rhizomes are rubbed together during drying. Rhizomes must be dried to a moisture content of 10% and stored properly to avoid infestation by storage pests. Improperly or inadequately dried ginger is susceptible to microbial and fungal growth, which in turn will vastly reduce its market value. Traditionally, ginger is sun dried in a single layer in the open farmyard. The dried ginger presents a brown, irregular wrinkled surface and when broken shows a dark brownish color. The drying of ginger usually leads to the loss of volatile oil by

23.2

Processing

473

Fig. 23.1 Dried ginger

evaporation. Mathew et al. (1973) have shown that this loss may be as high as 20%. The extent of cleaning the rhizomes prior to drying has a considerable influence on the volatile oil content of the end product. Removal of cork skin not only reduces the fiber content but also enhances the loss of volatile oil through rupture of the oil cells, which are present near the epidermis. Jamaican ginger, which is cleanly peeled, has somewhat lower quantities of volatile oil and fiber content than the commercially dried gingers which are partially peeled or unpeeled (Purseglove et al. 1981). Mani et al. (2000) studied different drying methods for dry ginger. The drying methods reported were sun drying, vacuum oven drying at 60  C under 500 mmHg vacuum pressure, and hot-air oven drying at 60  C. Sun drying took 104 h for complete drying. Vacuum oven drying, though it took only 48 h to completely dry, caused a growth of black fungi all over the surface of the rhizome. In a hot-air oven, drying continued even after 88 h. However, the ginger dried after cutting the rhizomes into slices of 1.27 cm thick, without peeling, and dried under the sun, helped to recover higher amounts of volatile oil (Fig. 23.1). Kachru and Srivastava (1988) reported about a tray-type solar dryer, designed and developed by Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan State, India, for drying ginger. The total time required to dry ginger from initial moisture content of 455% to 10% (dry basis) or less by use of a solar cabinet dryer was 30 h compared to 45–60 h required when the rhizomes are dried on a concrete surface in the open. Drying of ginger in an integral-type natural convection solar dryer coupled with a biomass stove was reported by Prasad and Vijay (2005). It was found that 18 kg of fresh ginger with an initial moisture content of 319.74% (dry basis) was dried to a final moisture content of 11.8% (dry basis) within 33 h. Drying of the product was also investigated under “solar-only” conditions and in the open in the same climatic conditions, and the results indicated that drying was faster in the hybrid dryer. It took only 33 h in the hybrid dryer, as against 72 h in the “solar-only” operation of the same dryer and 192 h in the open sun. The developed dryer is simple, can be manufactured locally, and can be used to dry other agricultural products.

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The Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger

Charan (1995) reported mechanical drying of peeled ginger in two stages: drying up to 50% moisture content (wet basis) at 85  C and then to the required moisture at 65  C gave the best organoleptic and biochemical qualities. A tray-type dryer to dry ginger was reported by Philip et al. (1996). The main parts were a drying chamber, plenum chamber, and a chimney with butterfly valve. Trays of wire mesh were provided in the drying chamber to keep the materials to be dried. The plenum chamber encloses the burning-cum-heat exchanging unit. Preliminary tests showed that 10 h of drying at 60  C reduced the moisture content of ginger from 90% to 11%. The product obtained was also of high quality.

23.2.3 Polishing and Storage Polishing of dried ginger is done to remove the wrinkles developed during the drying process. It is generally done by rubbing the dried rhizomes against a hard surface, such as a granite stone/slab. Polishing of dry ginger is also carried out by putting the dried rhizomes in a gunnysack and swirling or swaying the sack between two persons standing in opposite directions. Hand- or power-operated mechanical polishers are also employed for this purpose. Kachru and Srivastava (1988) reported a mechanical polisher developed at Sukhadia University, Udaipur, Rajasthan, India, as in the case of a tray-type solar cabinet dryer. It has a capacity to dry 15–20 kg/h and could give 5–7% polish. As far as storage of ginger is concerned, it could be stored in the dried rhizome form without any significant change in biochemical constituents for over a year.

23.2.4 Cleaning and Grading Once the ginger rhizomes are dry, they are sorted and graded. Grading of ginger takes into consideration the size of the rhizome, its color, shape, extraneous matter, the presence of light pieces, and the extent of residual lime it carries in the case of bleached ginger. The specifications of various grades of Indian ginger and ginger powder under the Indian AGMARK specifications are given Tables 23.1, 23.2, 23.3, 23.4, and 23.5. AGMARK certification is currently not mandatory for export trade in ginger. However, it is still valued as a mark of quality. Indian Standard Specifications (ISS) for ginger are almost in line with AGMARK specifications. The minimum size of rhizomes for domestic trade as per ISS is 20 mm (IS 1908, 1993). The American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) specifications for cleanliness of ginger are given in the following table (Table 23.6). The tolerance levels of pesticide residues in ginger under the US regulations are given in the following table (Table 23.7).

Size of rhizome (length in mm) min 20.0 15.0

Source: Spices Board (2011)

Grade/ designation Special Standard

Organic extraneous matter % (m/m), max 1.5 1.5

Inorganic extraneous matter % (m/m) max 0.5 0.5

Table 23.1 AGMARK grade designations of garbled nonbleached ginger (whole) Moisture(%) (m/m) max 12.0 13.0

Total ash (%) (m/m) max 8.0 8.0

Calcium (as CaO%) max 1.1 1.1

Volatile oil (%) (ml/100 g) (m/m), max min 1.5 1.0

23.2 Processing 475

Source: Spices Board (2011)

Size of rhizome (length in mm) min 20.0 15.0

Organic extraneous matter % (m/m) max 1.5 1.5

Inorganic extraneous matter % (m/m) max 0.5 0.5

Very light pieces % (m/m) max 4.0 6.0

Moisture % (m/m) max 12.0 13.0

Total ash % (m/m) max 8.0 8.0

Calcium as CaO% (m/m), max 1.1 1.1

Volatile oil, % (ml/100 g) min 1.5 1.0

23

Grade/ designation Special Standard

Table 23.2 AGMARK grade designations and quality of ungarbled and nonbleached ginger (whole)

476 The Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger

Size of rhizomes (length in mm) min 20.0 15.0

Organic extraneous matter, % (m/m) max 1.5 1.5

Inorganic extraneous matter % (m/m) Max 0.5 0.5

Moisture (%) (m/m), max 12.0 13.0

Total ash (%) (m/m) max 12.0 12.0

Calcium (CaO %) (m/m) max 2.5 4.0

Volatile oil (%) (ml/100 g) min 1.5 1.0

Pieces of rhizomes smaller than 15 mm can be graded with the marking “garbled bleached ginger (pieces).” It may be marked as “garbled bleached calicut” (BGK) or “garbled bleached cochin” (BGC) depending on its place of origin Source: Spices Board (2011)

Grade/ designation Special Standard

Table 23.3 AGMARK grade designations of garbled bleached ginger (whole)

23.2 Processing 477

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The Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger

Table 23.4 AGMARK grade designations of ungarbled bleached ginger (whole)

Grade/ designation Special Standard

Size of rhizomes (length in mm) min (m/m) 20.0 15.0

Extraneous matter (%) max (m/m) 2.0 2.0

Very light pieces (%) max 4.0 5.0

Moisture (%) (m/m) max 12.0 13.0

Total ash (%) (m/m) max 12.0 12.0

Calcium (CaO%) (m/m) max 2.5 4.0

Volatile oil (%) (ml/100 g) min 1.5 1.0

Pieces of rhizomes smaller than 15 mm can be graded with the marking “garbled nonbleached ginger pieces.” It may be marked as “ungarbled bleached calicut” (BUGK) or “ungarbled bleached cochin” (BUGC) depending on its place of origin Source: Spices Board (2011)

23.3

The Incidence of Aflatoxin

An important issue in the quality of spice is the presence of aflatoxins. Aflatoxins are a group of secondary metabolites of the fungi Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus and are rated as potent carcinogens. Inadequate and unhygienic drying of the ginger rhizomes leads to the growth of these fungi on ginger. Aflatoxins in spices are generally classified into four categories: B1, B2, G1, and G2. B1 and B2 are produced by A. flavus, whereas G1 and G2 are produced by A. parasiticus. Of these, B1 is the most virulent carcinogen and has received the most attention. The tolerance limits for aflatoxins under German law (Spices Board 2002) are given in Table 23.8. The maximum permissible limits for trace metals in ginger powder under Japanese specifications are given in the following table (Table 23.9). The nutritional data for 100 g dry ginger is given in the following table (Table 23.10).

23.4

Chemical Composition of Ginger

Ginger rhizomes contain volatile oil, pungent compounds, starch and other saccharides, proteins, crude fiber, waxes, coloring matter, and trace elements. The presence of vitamins and amino acids also has been reported. The relative percentages of these components vary with the ginger cultivar, soil in which grown, and climate. Starch is the most abundant of the constituents, comprising 40–60% of the weight of the dry rhizome (Lawrence 1984). Crude protein, total lipids, and crude fiber have been reported to vary between 6.2% and 19.8%, 5.7–14.5%, and 1.1–7.0%, respectively, in different cultivars (Jogi et al. 1972). Minute glands containing essential oil and resin are scattered throughout the rhizome but are particularly numerous in the epidermal tissues (Guenther 1952). Ginger rhizome also contains a number of amino acids. The presence of aspartic acid, threonine, serine, glycine, cysteine, valine, isoleucine, leucine, and arginine has been reported (Takahashi et al. 1982).

Moisture (%) (m/m) max 20.0 13.0

Source: Spices Board (2011)

Grade/ designation Special Standard

Total ash (%) (m/m) max 8.0 8.0

Acid-insoluble ash (%) (m/m) max. 1.0 1.0

Water-soluble ash (%) ash (%) (m/m) min 1.9 1.7

Table 23.5 AGMARK grade designations and quality of ginger powder Calcium soluble (as CaO) (m/m) max 1.1 4.0

Alcohol -soluble extract (%) 5.1 4.5

Cold water extract (%) (m/m) min 11.4 10.0

Volatile oil (%) (ml/100 g) min 1.5 1.0

23.4 Chemical Composition of Ginger 479

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Table 23.6 American Spice Trade Association (ASTA) cleanliness specifications for ginger

The Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger

Parameter Whole insects, dead (by count) Excreta, mammalian (mg/lb) Excreta, other (mg/lb) Mold (% by weight)a Insect defiled/infested (% by weight)a Extraneous foreign matter (% by weight) a

Table 23.7 Tolerance levels for pesticide residues in ginger under US regulations

Upper limit 4 3 3 3 3

Moldy pieces and/or insect-infested pieces by weight Pesticides Lindane BHC Heptachlor Heptachlor epoxide Trifluralin Ethylene oxide Propylene oxide Diquat Dichlorvos Dalapon Aluminum phosphide 2,4-D Glyphosate Methyl bromide

Tolerance limit (ppm) 0.50 0.05 0.01 0.01 0.05 50.0 300.0 0.02 0.50 0.20 0.10 0.10 0.20 100

Table 23.8 Tolerance limits for aflatoxins in spices S. no. 1

German Law

2

European Commission Regulations

Aflatoxin B1+B2+G1+G2 B1 B1+B2+G1+G2 B1

Tolerance limit (ppb maximum) 4 2 10 5

ppb parts per billion

23.5

Ginger Powder

Ginger powder is made by pulverizing the dry ginger to a mesh size of 50–60 (Natarajan and Lewis 1980). Ginger powder forms an important component in curry powder. It also finds direct application in a variety of food products.

23.5

Ginger Powder

481

Table 23.9 Maximum permissible limits for trace metals in ginger powder under Japanese specifications

Metal Magnesium Zinc Copper Aluminum Arsenic Boron Barium Beryllium Chromium Manganese Molybdenum Nickel Antimony Selenium Silicon Tin Lithium Strontium Titanium Bismuth Cadmium Gallium Lead Tellurium

Table 23.10 Nutritional data for 100 g dry ginger

Details Water Food energy Protein Fat Total carbohydrate Fiber Ash Calcium Iron Magnesium Phosphorus Potassium Sodium Zinc Niacin Vitamin A Other vitamins

Upper limit (ppm) 2000 33 3.7 42 0 1.5 15 0.038 0.4 270 0.47 0.97 2.2 0.14 21 4.4 0 1.2 0 0 0 0 0 0

Content 9.4 g 347 kcal 9.1 g 6.0 g 70.8 g 5.9 g 4.8 g 116 mg 12 mg 184 mg 148 mg 1342 mg 32 mg 5 mg 5 mg 147 IU Negligible

482

23.6

23

The Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger

Distillation of the Volatile Oil

Essential oils are the volatile organic constituents of fragrant plant matter. They are generally composed of a number of compounds, including some which are the solids at normal temperature, possessing different chemical and physical properties. The aroma profile of the oil is a cumulative contribution from the individual compounds. The boiling points of most of these compounds range from 150 to 300  C at atmospheric pressure. If heated to this temperature, labile substances would be destroyed, and strong resinification would occur. Hydrodistillation permits the safe recovery of these heat-sensitive compounds from the plant matter. Hydrodistillation involves the use of water or steam to recover volatile principles from plant materials. The fundamental feature of the hydrodistillation process is that it enables a compound or mixture of compounds to be distilled and subsequently recovered at a temperature substantially below that of the boiling point of the individual constituents.

23.6.1 Water and Steam Distillation Here the plant material is supported on a perforated grid inside the still. The lower part of the still is filled with water to a level below the grid. The water is heated to generate steam. The steam, usually wet and at low temperature, rises through the charge carrying the essential oil. The advantage of this method over water distillation is that the raw material is not in contact with boiling water. The exhausted plant material can be handled easily as it does not form a slurry with water.

23.6.2 Steam Distillation This is the most widely used industrial method for the isolation of essential oil from plant material. Here the steam is produced outside the still, usually in a steam boiler. Steam at optimum pressure is introduced into the still below the charge through a perforated coil or jets. Steam distillation is relatively rapid and is capable of greater control by the operator. The steam pressure inside the still could be progressively increased as distillation proceeds for complete recovery of high-boiling constituents. The still can be emptied and recharged quickly. With the immediate reintroduction of steam, there is no unnecessary delay in the commencement of the distillation process. Oils produced by this method are of more acceptable quality than those produced by other methods. Ginger oil is commercially produced by steam distillation of the comminuted dried spice. The spice is powdered and charged in a stainless steel still of optimum dimensions. The still is attached to a heat exchanger (condenser) and a separator.

23.8

Organoleptic Properties

483

Direct steam is admitted from the bottom of the still. The steam, which rises through the charge, carries along with it the vapors of the volatile oil. The oil vapor–steam mixture is cooled in the condenser. The oil is separated from water in the separator and collected in glass or stainless bottles. The oil is thoroughly dried and stored airtight in full containers in a cool dry place protected from light.

23.7

Composition of Ginger Oil

Essential oils, in general, contain volatile compounds of many classes of organic substances. Guenther (1972) has classified the essential oil components into four main groups: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Terpenes, related to isoprene or isopentene Straight-chain compounds, not containing any branches Benzene derivatives Miscellaneous (compounds other than those belonging to the first three groups shown above, specific for a few species)

The most characteristic group of compounds present in essential oils are the terpenes, which comprise of hydrocarbons (C5H8)n and their oxygenated derivatives. Even though the chemistry of the volatile components of ginger oil has been investigated exhaustively, for a long time, modern analytical techniques have served to decipher the composition quite exhaustively. The main constituent of the ginger oil is the sesquiterpene zingiberene (C15H24). Lawrence (1984) has carried out extensive investigations on the composition of ginger oil using a combination of distillation, CC, GC, NMR spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy, and MS. The results showed that the oil, which was found to be very complex in nature, contained about 83% hydrocarbons and 10% oxygenated compounds, with the rest of the constituents unidentified.

23.8

Organoleptic Properties

The specific gravity, refractive index, and optical rotation are the primary quality determinants of ginger oil, occasionally supplemented by gas chromatographic composition of the constituents. Even if the physical properties and the level of major components as disclosed by the chromatogram exhibit similarity, variation in the minor components can influence the organoleptic profile of the oil. For applications that cannot accommodate any flavor variations, repeated supplies of the oil must possess consistent flavor quality. Sensory analysis of the oil by a well-trained panel of technicians remains the ultimate method for validating flavor quality of in such cases.

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23

Table 23.11 Properties of oil from green ginger

The Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger

Details Specific gravity (25  C) Refractory index (25  C) Optical rotation Acid number Ester number

Value 0.8702 1.4895 ( ) 40 1.41 6.20

Source: Natarajan et al. (1970) Table 23.12 Properties of oil from air-dried scrapings of Cochin ginger Varier (1945) Property Specific gravity Optical rotation Refractive index Acid number Ester number Ester number after acetylation

23.9

Moudgill 0.8816 (27  C) 9.85 (30  C) 1.4862 (25  C) 1.0 10.0 103.0

Varier 0.8905 (30  C) 5.2 1.4859 (30  C) 0.90 6.10 72.2

Oil of Green (Fresh) Ginger

Essential oil can also be distilled from fresh ginger. When ginger is dried, numerous complex chemical changes take place within the tissues, and the freshness of the spice is lost. Oil from fresh ginger retains the true aroma of the fresh spice and finds application in delicate flavor and perfumery formulations. An analysis of oil prepared from green ginger is given in Table 23.11.

23.10

Ginger Oil from Scrapings

The ginger scrapings, normally thrown away by the farmers, also can be utilized for the recovery of oil (Moudgill 1928). This author obtained 0.9% and 0.8% oil, respectively, from air-dried scrapings of Cochin ginger. The properties of these oils are given in Table 23.12. The oil contains all major components present in normal ginger oil. However, the odor of the oil is heavy and earthy and the color is darker.

23.10.1

Characteristics of Ginger Oil

Ginger oil possesses the following characteristics that make it a better substitute for the raw spice in a number of applications (Balakrishnan 1991):

23.11

1. 2. 3. 4.

Oleoresin Ginger

485

Represents the true aroma of the spice Does not impart color to the end product Has uniform flavor quality Is free from enzymes and tannins

However, the oil lacks the nonvolatile principles which contribute to the taste characteristics of the spice.

23.11

Oleoresin Ginger

The essential oil of ginger derived by steam distillation represents only the aromatic odorous constituents of the spice; it does not contain the nonvolatile pungent principles for which ginger is highly in demand. The oleoresin, obtained by extraction of the spice with volatile solvents, contains the aroma as well as the taste principles of ginger in highly concentrated form. The oleoresin represents the wholesome flavor of the spice—a cumulative effect of the sensation of smell and taste. It consists of the volatile essential oil and nonvolatile resinous fraction comprising taste components, fixatives, antioxidants, pigments, and fixed oils naturally present in the spice. The oleoresin is, therefore, designated as “true essence” of the spice and can replace spice powders in food products without altering the flavor profile.

23.11.1

Green Ginger Oleoresin

The oleoresin extracted from fresh ginger retains the fresh aroma and wholesome flavor that closely matches the parent spice. The oleoresin of fresh ginger is termed green ginger oleoresin. Green ginger oleoresin finds application in flavor formulation where the fresh note of the spice is the prime quality determinant.

23.11.2

Modified Oleoresin

Sometimes a straight extracted oleoresin may require modification to suit specific applications. It can be fortified with distilled essential oil to achieve a balance between pungency and aroma. The strength of the oleoresin can be adjusted to the required level by dilution with permitted diluents. Diluents also improve the flow properties of the product. The oleoresin may be rendered water soluble using permitted emulsifiers or converted to powder form by dispersing on dry carriers such as flour, salt, dextrose,

486

23

The Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger

or rusk powder. These plated products impart the strength of good-quality freshly ground spices and can be easily incorporated in food.

23.11.3

Microencapsulated Ginger Oil and Oleoresin

Microencapsulated extracts are microfine particles of oils and oleoresins coated with an envelope of an edible medium such as starch, maltodextrin, or natural gums so that the flavor is locked within the tiny capsule. The encapsulated product is usually prepared by spray-drying technique. When incorporated in food, the outer coating dissolves off, thereby releasing the flavor. Encapsulated oleoresins can be designed to contain a predetermined level of the core material. Ginger oil as well as oleoresin can be microencapsulated/spray-dried to convert to powder form with an improved shelf life and application convenience. Microencapsulation serves the following purposes: 1. Controls the release of the core material 2. Locks in the flavor to ensure against loss on storage 3. Offers convenience in handling by converting liquids and semisolids into freeflowing powder 4. Provides uniform dispersibility in the food matrix.

23.12

Preserved Ginger

Traditional methods of preserving ginger by immersion in brine or syrups consisting of a mixture of dissolved sugars have been practiced for centuries (Brown 1969). The quality requirements of ginger for making preserved ginger are different from those for dried ginger. The ginger for the preserve should not be very hot or fibrous and hence should be harvested at an earlier stage than that for drying and further processing.

23.12.1

Ginger in Syrup

In commercial sugar syruping, the peeled rhizomes are normally held in a preserving solution prior to treatment to prevent possible mold formation (Ingleton 1966). The preserving solution is usually brine at a concentration range of 14–17%. The preserving solution is drained out on a loose mesh sieve. The salt must be washed off the rhizomes before the sugar treatment. Sometimes the rhizomes are also given a

23.12

Preserved Ginger

487

boiling treatment prior to syruping to soften it (Brown 1969). The ginger is then diced into pieces of required size and shape and immersed in sugar syrup. Alternatively, the sugar syrup may be circulated through the ginger pieces held in vats. The syrup concentration is gradually increased to minimize shrinkage. Process conditions are so selected to ensure optimum sugar absorption (Brown 1969). The invert sugar-sucrose ratio requires close control to prevent crystallizing of the syrup. It has been found that the optimum reducing sugar concentration is 25–33% of the total sugars. The optimum pH for syruping has been reported to be 4.3 for the desirable flavor. The ginger, after attaining the desirable level of absorption, is packed in its own syrup in small glass jars. The addition of honey up to 15% of the weight of the syrup produced a distinctive flavor in ginger in syrup.

23.12.2

Ginger in Brine

Tender rhizomes are also preserved in brine. This is used to make sauces and pickles and can also form the raw material for syruping after the salt has been removed by boiling in water (Sills 1959).

23.12.3

Crystallized Ginger

Another version of preserved ginger is the crystallized or candied ginger produced by taking the ginger-in-syrup process to a stage further. To produce crystallized ginger, the ginger is further dipped in syrups of progressively increasing concentration (Ingleton 1966). Optimum process conditions are followed for satisfactory sugar absorption, weight gain, desirable color, and desirable texture. The ginger is then removed from the syrup, rolled in castor sugar in a rotating drum, and dried in air-draft dehydrators (Leverington 1969). The product is then cooled and packed in sealed polythene bags. In crystallized ginger, the pieces are small but of regular size and uniformity of cut. Different additives may also be incorporated to give a noticeable improvement in crispness of texture as well as to modify the flavor (Natarajan et al. 1970). Solutions of gelatin of varying strengths and temperatures, as well as hot pectin solutions, were found to be suitable adhesives to hold the sugar crystals onto the ginger (Leverington 1969). These candies are perfect to settle the stomach and soothe the throat during long travel by road or rail in India. They may be popped into the mouth and chewed to enjoy the flavor and taste the sweet heat. They also help to relieve the heaviness in the stomach after a full meal. Candied ginger can be chopped and used as a topping on ice cream or added in cookies or cakes.

488

23.12.4

23

The Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger

Ginger Puree and Ginger Paste

Ginger puree consists of fresh ginger that has been peeled, washed, sanitized, cooked briefly, and ground. The puree may be stored frozen or permitted preservatives may be added to keep the quality. Ginger paste, on the other hand, is salted and seasoned. Commercial packs contain salt, oil, acetic acid/vinegar, permitted preservatives, and occasionally, spices. Smooth and instant ginger in these forms adds convenience to cooking. Ginger puree and paste are used in stir fries, soups, sauces, cakes, breads, puddings, chutneys, creams, filings, and marinades.

23.13

Uses of Ginger and Ginger Products

Ginger is perhaps the most widely used spice, both for flavoring and for medicinal purposes.

23.13.1

Flavoring Applications

23.13.1.1

Culinary Purposes

Fresh ginger is an essential ingredient in the preparation of Oriental dishes, both sweet and savory, from entrees to desserts. It finds application in almost all meat, poultry, seafood, and vegetable preparations. Ginger contributes a freshness to foods that other spices do not (Farrell 1985). A tenderizing effect has been observed when meat is cooked with slices of fresh ginger (Lawrence 1984). Tender rhizomes are used in pickling. Ginger is used extensively in the preparation of different types of condiments and to flavor breads, cakes, biscuits, cookies, candy, jelly, toffees, and beverages.

23.13.1.2

Gingerbread

Gingerbread is prepared by incorporating finely grated fresh ginger, cold fresh ginger juice, or ginger powder in the dough. Occasionally, this is supplemented with other spices such as garlic, cinnamon, and cloves.

23.13

Uses of Ginger and Ginger Products

23.13.1.3

489

Ginger Biscuits, Cookies, and Cakes

These traditional family favorites are unique in their warm spicy flavor. Typical dosage is one teaspoon of ginger powder for four cups of flour. Sometimes small quantities of cinnamon and nutmeg are also added.

23.13.1.4

Ginger Drinks

Ginger drinks are cool, refreshing beverages and provide health benefits to the consumer. The most popular ginger drinks are ginger ale and ginger beer, which are carbonated ginger-flavored soft drinks. Even though the two terms are used interchangeably, often the term “ginger beer” is associated with the spicier ginger ale. Ginger ale can be conveniently prepared at home. Even though a vast number of recipes are available, the essential steps for a typical preparation may be summarized as follows: To 50 g grated or crushed ginger, add 5 l of boiling water. Add 500 g sugar and stir to dissolve. Leave to cool. When the contents cool to lukewarm, strain and add 15 g yeast. Flavoring agents like lime or lemon juice, vanilla essence, or other spices may also be added at this stage to suit the taste. Cover the container opening with a clean cloth and leave in a warm place overnight. Remove any scum from the top of the mixture the following day, strain, and transfer the clear liquid into sterilized bottles. Seal the bottles with screw caps and leave for 2 days at room temperature. Leaving the bottles at room temperature too long will cause over-carbonation, and the drink will taste too yeasty. Refrigerate to finish the aging process. Add sparkling water or club soda and serve. The quantities of ingredients may be altered to suit the taste. Drinking ginger ale or ginger beer has all the benefits of consuming ginger.

23.13.1.5

Ginger Wine

Ginger wine is a popular beverage that is very warming in the winter weather. It is brewed by the fermentation of grapes or raisins with sugar, ginger, and yeast. Fifty grams of ginger would be required for making 1 l of wine. The wine is usually stored for 3–4 months to age. It may be served as is or blended with other alcoholic drinks.

23.13.1.6

Ginger Tea

Ginger tea is a standard remedy for sore throat, colds, and influenza. This is an infusion prepared by steeping grated fresh ginger in boiling water for 5–0 min. The liquid is then strained and mixed with honey or sugar to taste. Some lemon juice also may be added. This soothing tea may be taken hot in winter and iced in summer. This

490

23

The Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger

tea is also good after a meal to aid good digestion. Powdered dry ginger can also replace fresh ginger for making ginger tea.

23.13.1.7

Ginger Syrup

Ginger syrup can make perfectly spiced sweet ginger drinks. To make ginger syrup, boil 50 g of finely chopped ginger in sugar syrup containing one cup of sugar in two cups of water. Simmer and cook for 1 h. Strain the liquid and add vanilla or lemon essence to taste. Cover and refrigerate. This syrup will keep for several days. The concentrated syrup may be extended with carbonated or plain water. The syrup could also be drizzled over ice cream. The syrup from candied/crystallized ginger processing can also be used in the same manner.

23.13.1.8

Ginger Coffee

Ginger coffee is a blend of roasted coffee powder and ginger powder. A hot beverage is prepared by boiling the powder in water. Milk and sugar are optional. Ginger coffee is a cordial and beneficial beverage in cold weather. It is a remedy for colds, cough, and influenza. Ginger is also the major component, along with turmeric, in the preparation of Indian masala, the base ingredient for the famous Indian curry. Ginger is also an important ingredient in the masala tea, a spicy tea which is very popular in the North Indian States.

23.14

Uses of Ginger Oil and Oleoresin

Ginger oil and oleoresin can replace raw ginger in all flavoring and medicinal applications. These concentrates, which can be standardized to the required level of aroma and taste, overcome all the disadvantages associated with the raw spice, especially with respect to flavor consistency and shelf life. They are used extensively in the processed food industry for formulating seasonings for meat, poultry, seafood, and a variety of vegetable preparations. They also find applications in flavoring baked goods, confectionery, beverages, cordials, liqueurs, spicy table sauces, and pharmaceutical preparations for cough syrups and creams for the relief of joint pain. Ginger oil finds a limited use in perfumery, where it imparts an individual note to compositions of the Oriental type. It is also recognized as a masking agent for mouth odor in dentifrices and oral hygiene products. Toothpaste flavored with ginger oil has a unique, refreshing taste.

References

491

Table 23.13 Approximate dosages of ginger oil and oleoresin for typical applications Details of applications Nonalcoholic beverages Ice cream, ices, and so on Candy Baked goods Condiments Meats

Ginger oil (ppm) 17 20 14 47 13 12

Ginger oleoresin (ppm) 79 36–65 27 52 10–1000 30–250

The approximate dosages of ginger oil and oleoresin for typical applications are given in Table 23.13 (Fenaroli 1975). The figures are only indicative and vary with regional preferences. Exact dosage levels may be determined through application trials.

References Agrawal, Y. C., Singhvi, A., & Sodhi, R. S. (1983). Ginger peeling—Development of an abrasive brush type ginger peeling machine. Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 20(3&4), 179–182. Agrawal, Y. C., Hiran, A., & Galundia, A. S. (1987). Ginger peeling machine parameters. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa & Latin America, 18(2), 59–62. Ali, Y., Kandelwal, N. K., Sharma, P., & Agrawal, Y. C. (1990). Standardization of peeling unit of an abrasive brush type ginger peeling machine. Journal of Agricultural Engineering, 27(1–4), 85–90. Ali, Y., Jain, G. C., Kapdi, S. S., Agrawal, Y. C., & Bhatnagar, S. (1991). Development of an abrasive brush type ginger peeling machine. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa & Latin America, 22(2), 71–73. Balakrishnan, K. V. (1991). An insight into spice extractives. Indian Spices, 28(2), 22–26. Brown, B. I. (1969). Processing and preservation of ginger by syruping under atmospheric conditions I. Preliminary investigations of vat systems. Food Technology, 23, 87–91. Charan, R. (1995). Developments in ginger processing. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa & Latin America, 26(4), 49–51. Charan, R., Agrawal, Y. C., Bhatnagar, S., & Mehta, A. K. (1993). Application of abrasive and lye peeling of ginger at individual farmer’s level. Agricultural Mechanization in Asia, Africa & Latin America, 24(2), 61–64. Farrell, K. T. (1985). Spices, condiments and seasonings (pp. 121–126). Westport: The AVI Publishing. Fenaroli, G. (1975). Ginger, second ed. Fenaroli’s handbook of flavor ingredients (Vol. 1, pp. 364–365). Boca Raton: CRC Press. Floros, J. D., Wetzstein, H. Y., & Chinnan, M. S. (1987). Chemical (NaOH) peeling as viewed by scanning electron microscopy: Pimiento peppers as a case study. Journal of Food Science, 52 (5), 1312–1320. Guenther, E. (1952). The essential oils (Vol. 5, pp. 106–120). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Guenther, E. (1972). The essential oils, vol. 1 (Vol. 18, pp. 88–104). New York: Robert K. Krieger Publishing. Ingleton, J. F. (1966). Preserved and crystallised ginger. Confectionery Production, 32, 527–528. IS. (1908). Spices and condiments – Ginger, whole, in pieces or ground–specification (second rev.) (Vol. 1993). New Delhi: Bureau of Indian Standards.

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Jaiswal, P. L. (1980). Handbook of agriculture (pp. 1179–1184). New Delhi: Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Jogi, B. S., Singh, I. P., Dua, H. D., & Sukhija, P. S. (1972). Changes in crude fibre, fat and protein content in ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) at different stages of ripening. Indian Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 42, 1011–1015. Kachru, R. P., & Srivastava, P. K. (1988). Post harvest technology of ginger. Cardamom, 21(5), 49–57. Lawrence, B. M. (1984). Major tropical spices—Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.). Perfumer & Flavorist, 9, 1–40. Leverington, R. E. (1969). Ginger processing investigations improving the quality of processed ginger. Queensland Journal of Agricultural and Animal Science, 26, 264–270. Mani, B., Paikada, J., & Varma, P. (2000). Different drying methods of ginger (Zingiber officinale) a comparative study. Spice India, 13(6), 13–15. Mathew, A. G., Krishnamurthy, N., Namboodiri, E. S., & Lewis, Y. S. (1973). Oil in ginger. Flavour India, 3, 78–81. Moudgill, K. L. (1928). Essential oils of Travancore. Part VII. From the rhizomes of ginger, Zingiber officinale. Journal of the Indian Chemical Society, 5, 251–259. Natarajan, C. P., Lewis, Y. S.. (1980, April 8–9). Technology of ginger and turmeric. Status papers and abstracts National Seminar on ginger and turmeric. Calicut: Central Plantation Crops Research Institute. Natarajan, C. P., Kuppuswamy, S., Sankaracharya, N. B., Padma Bai, R., Raghavan, B., Krishnamurthy, M. N., et al. (1970). Product development of ginger. Indian Spices, 7(4), 8–12. 24–28. Natarajan, C. P., Panda Bai, R., Krishnamurthy, M. N., Raghavan, B., Sankaracharya, N. B., Kuppuswamy Govindarajan, V. S., et al. (1972). Chemical composition of ginger varieties and dehydration studies on ginger. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 93(3), 120–124. Philip, G. J., Bastin, A., & Devi, M. (1996). Ginger drier. Spice India, 9(10), 4. Prasad, J., & Vijay, V. K. (2005). Experimental studies on drying of Zingiber officinale, Curcuma longa and Tinospora cordifolia in solar-biomass hybrid drier. Renewable Energy, 30(14), 2097–2109. Purseglove, J. W., Brown, E. G., Green, C. L., & Robin, S. R. J. (1981). Spices—II. New York: Longman. Randhawa, K. S., & Nandpuri, K. S. (1970). Ginger (Zingiber officinale roscoe.) in India—Review. Punjab Horticultural Journal, 10, 111–122. Sills, V. E. (1959). Ginger products. Colon Fiji Agricultural Journal, 29, 13–16. Spices Board. (2002). In C. R. Sivadasan & P. M. Kurup (Eds.), Quality requirements of spices for export. Cochin: Spices Board. Spices Board. (2011). Quality standards Agmark grade specifications for spices 2005. http://www. indianspices.com/. Accessed 10.05.2011. Sreekumar, M. M., Sankarikutty, B., Nirmala Menon, A., Padmakumari, K. P., Sumathikutty, M. A., & Arumughan, C. (2002). Fresh flavoured spice oil and oleoresin. Spice India, 15(4), 15–19. Takahashi, M., Osawa, K., Sato, T., & Ueda, J. (1982). Components of amino acids of Zingiber officinale Roscoe. Annual Report of Tohuku College of Pharmacy (Tohuku, Japan), 29, 75–76. Varier, N. S. (1945). A note on the essential oil from ginger scrapings. Current Science, 14, 322.

Chapter 24

Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger

Abstract The chapter will elaborately discuss ginger production worldwide, production economics, and future market opportunities. Keywords Global production · Market opportunities

Ginger is an important commercial crop grown for its aromatic rhizomes, which are used both as a spice and as a medicine. India accounts for about 30% of world production, followed by China at 20%. The world production is approximately 0.75–0.8 million tons annually from an area of around 0.3 million hectares. Table 24.1 gives an account of this. During the same period, the export was around 20% of the total world production valued at US$ 105.73 million. Even though India is the largest producer of ginger in the world, the country occupied only the seventh position in export during 1999–2000, after China at the number one position, followed by Thailand, Brazil, Taiwan, Nigeria, and Indonesia. The major importing countries are the United Kingdom, the United States, Japan, and Saudi Arabia. In India, the most amounts of ginger-producing states are Kerala, Meghalaya, Odisha, West Bengal, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Sikkim, and Himachal Pradesh. Official statistics on area, production, and productivity, although conflicting and often confusing, are available through FAOSTAT (statistical data of FAO) and SPICESSTAT (Spices Statistical database of the Integrated National Agricultural Resources Information System, INARIS of the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, India, located at the Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut, Kerala State, India). However, trade-related data available are relatively complete and make a distinction between dried and fresh ginger. A multitude of processed ginger products entering the world market are not taken into account separately. Despite certain limitations in the availability, this chapter will make use of the time series data on production, export, and import. The objective of this effort is to obtain a broad indication on the possible changes which have taken place in the economy of ginger production during the last three to four decades starting from 1970 to 1971 and examine further prospects, both national and global, for the crop. From 1975 to

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 K. P. Nair, Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_24

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Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger

Table 24.1 Ginger production: A world scenario Country Traditional Bangladesh China Dominica Dominican Republic Fiji Islands India Jamaica Korea Malaysia Nigeria Philippines Sri Lanka Thailand Newcomers Australia (1990) Bhutan (1980) Cameroon Costa Rica Ethiopia (1993) Ghana Indonesia (1981) Kenya (1989) Madagascar (1992) Mauritius (1985) Nepal (1985) Pakistan (1994) Reunion (1985) Saint Lucia (1985) Uganda (1990) United States (1985) Zambia World Total

Area 14,5344 6879 13,200 45 400

Percentage of world acreage 45.84 2.17 4.16 0.01 0.13

Total production 650,330 38,000 160,000 100 1500

Percentage of total production 84.37 4.93 20.76 0.01 0.19

65 83,220 180 4255 1000 17,400 4700 2000 12,000 15,261 150 350 1370 1600 150 0.00 10,000

0.02 26.25 0.06 1.34 0.32 5.49 1.48 0.63 3.78 4.81 0.05 0.11 0.43 0.50 0.05 60 3.15

2500 281,160 620 7950 2500 90,000 28,000 8000 30,000 12,4948 4500 3100 7500 21,000 400 0.01 77,500

55 8

0.02 0.00

150 30

0.02 0.00

70

0.02

200

0.03

1,200 78 30 25

0.38 0.02 0.01 0.01

3200 28 500 60

0.42 0.00 0.06 0.01

50 125

0.02 0.04

120 6500

0.02 0.84

0.000 31,7055

100 100.00

0.01 770,778

0.32 36.48 0.08 1.03 0.32 11.68 3.63 1.04 3.89 16.21 0.58 0.40 0.97 2.72 0.05 – 10.05

– 100.00

Figures in parentheses indicate the earliest year of initiating ginger production in the country mentioned Source: FAO (2003)

24

Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger

495

Table 24.2 Ginger production in major ginger-producing countries: a world view (1975–2002) Period 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002

Percentage share of the total India China Indonesia 30.67 11.68 – 33.47 20.75 – 35.37 12.89 12.56 31.35 11.05 16.27 30.11 20.00 11.34 28.58 23.70 15.52 27.83 23.98 15.18

World production (mt) Others 57.65 45.78 39.18 41.33 38.55 32.20 33.01

147,213 246,316 390,259 491,153 728,376 962,060 988,182

Source: FAO (2003)

1980, India was the major producer of ginger with a total share of 30–35% of the total production, followed by China at 15%. China increased its share of world production up to 24% in the recent past, but India was on the decline and only produced 28% during this period. Indonesia totaled about 15% of world production, and together these three countries contribute more than one-third of world’s production of ginger. The decline in ginger production in India in the 1970s has a parallel in cardamom production, coinciding with the same period, and while in the case of cardamom, Guatemala surpassed India, and in the case of ginger, China started approaching India. Table 24.2 gives a global picture with regard to production by major ginger-producing countries. The supply of ginger on a country-wise basis is computed taking into consideration area, production, and exports. The analysis brings out inconsistencies in yield and expansion of area. In order to make a meaningful analysis, ginger-producing countries are grouped into two major categories: (i) traditional producers and (ii) newcomers. Data in Table 24.1 give a bird’s-eye view of the entire situation. The groupings suggest that up to 1980, there were about 15 countries engaged in the production of ginger. Since ginger cultivation and processing are labor intensive, most of the African countries have neglected this crop, and consequently, they are not very active now in the world market, though there is tremendous potential for the production of this crop on the African continent. But many other countries have entered the ginger market, as the data in Table 24.1 show. The number has almost doubled to date. The average share of newcomers in total global ginger production during the recent past (1998–2001) is 16.21%, which is on the increase. Among the newcomers, Indonesia, although it entered the field of ginger production quite late in 1981, has made remarkable progress (Table 24.1). It accounts for more than 10% of total world production now. It is quite possible that many more countries like Indonesia have entered this lucrative market, but reliable statistical data is difficult to find.

496

24.1

24

Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger

Area Expansion

An analysis of the world scenario on ginger production in terms of the acreage covered reveals the following: 1. China recorded the highest growth in acreage during 1991–2002 (10.969%) among all the ginger-growing countries. Indonesia and India, the other major producers, showed moderate growth at 5.6% and 3.006%, respectively, during the same period. 2. Other countries showing considerable growth in ginger acreage during the abovementioned period are Sri Lanka, (0.26%), the United States (5.92%), Costa Rica (7.57%), Mauritius (1.31%), Bangladesh (1.34%), and Nigeria (5.8%). On the other hand, Uganda showed negative growth (
20.35%), as did Fiji (
8.29%), Pakistan (
13%), and Jamaica (
10.41%). These countries are newcomers. 3. The Philippines, Nepal, and Thailand showed relatively lower decline in acreage at
3.35%,
3.35%, and
4.69%, respectively. 4. An interesting phenomenon observed in terms of fluctuations in growth in acreage is that a high growth rate in a specific region (country) during a particular period is generally followed or preceded by a period of low or negative growth. 5. There is no striking difference between performances of traditional growers and newcomers. In terms of growth in acreage, some newcomers have fared well, whereas some others have failed miserably. The same argument holds true in respect of traditional ginger-producing countries, as well. The world scenario inasmuch as ginger production is concerned highlights the recent trends: 1. China recorded the highest growth (11.39%) during 1991–1997, followed by Mauritius (11.15%) and Kenya (9.95%). Next in order are Nigeria (8.56%), Malaysia and Sri Lanka (both 6.78%), Madagascar (5.96%), and South Korea (4.36%). 2. A number of countries have recorded a high rate of negative growth, Uganda with the highest negative growth (
21.67%), followed by Fiji (
17.24%). 3. Between the above two extremes lie the other countries, some showing moderate positive growth while others moderate negative growth. Regarding growth, the cyclical nature of the growth pattern was observed over the decades for both area and production. With the exception of Fiji, the nature of fluctuations in acreage and production was almost identical (in terms of both peak and trough) for other countries. Again, on average, the growth pattern in production is also not group specific.

24.3

24.2

India

497

Yield

In terms of productivity performance, the world scenario shows the following: 1. Except in Fiji, South Korea, the Philippines, and Nigeria, the traditional growers of ginger, the cyclical growth fluctuations are not that sharp in other countries. 2. The fluctuations are highly erratic in Fiji, recording a high negative growth during 1971–1980 and a very high positive growth in the following decade, only to come down to around 3% during 1991–1997. In order to analyze the salient features of major ginger-producing and gingerconsuming countries individually, an effort is made to present country-wise details separately.

24.3

India

Ginger is grown in almost all the states in India. However, the major gingerproducing states are Kerala, Odisha, Meghalaya, West Bengal, Karnataka, Sikkim, Andhra Pradesh, and Himachal Pradesh. Kerala accounts for the major share of production (19%) and acreage (19%). This figure has remained more or less unchanged during the last more than three decades. Odisha comes after Kerala, followed by Meghalaya. These three traditional ginger-growing states in India account for approximately 40% of India’s production. In South India, although ginger cultivation was confined only to Karnataka State in the earlier years, during the past decade, it has been making inroads into the paddy fields of Kerala and Tamil Nadu, including Karnataka. In Karnataka State, ginger is cultivated on a commercial scale in the Coorg and Chikmagalur districts, with a reported area of approximately 5000 ha (Korikanthimath and Govardhan 2001a). Enterprising farmers from the adjoining Wayanad district of Kerala State lease paddy fields for ginger cultivation. Fresh ginger harvested during the months of January–March has buyers coming from as far as Nagpur district and Mumbai in Maharashtra State and also from Bengaluru in Karnataka State. A sizeable quantity of fresh ginger goes to the traditional ginger-growing districts of Ernakulam and Kottayam in Kerala State for processing into dry ginger. In Kerala State, Wayanad and Idukki districts contribute the most for the export of quality ginger. Incidentally, these two districts have the most intensive ginger cultivation in India. Farmers from Karnataka have a unique practice of putting back a certain portion of harvested ginger in the ground and preserving it as “old ginger” for the succeeding year. This is because of the low ginger price during harvest season. During the following year, this ginger is used for sowing, and more rhizomes develop, and the farmers hope to get more money for the fresh produce and the old produce. The major cultivars used are Himachal, Maran, and Rio de Janeiro (Spices Board 1988).

498

24

Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger

24.3.1 Production Economics Examination of the time series data indicates that the coefficient of variation for the farm price of ginger was higher than the production cost incurred over a period, indicating the huge fluctuation in the market price of ginger in India. This had a greater impact on the production economics of the farming community. The problem can be better understood by the following facts. Farmers buy seed rhizomes for prices as high as Rs 50/kg (approximately US$ 1) at times, but the harvest price could fetch them only one-fifth of this price paid. In order to preempt price-related risks, the farmer cultivates ginger as an intercrop in the main crop, such as coffee. In the major ginger-growing state, Kerala, approximately one-fourth of the cultivated area is in the uplands as pure crop, whereas the major area (45%) is in the garden lands category, and the rest is under a mixed cropping system. A study on economics showed that banana + ginger + vegetable (cowpea) intercropping system fetched close to an equivalent of US$ 2000/ha. The benefit–cost ratio was also highest in the banana + ginger mixture (2.28), whereas the lowest benefit–cost ratio (1.56) was recorded in the banana + turmeric system (Regeena and Kandaswamy 1987). It takes about approximately 10 cents to produce a kilogram of ginger in Kerala. An investigation conducted in Maharashtra to work out the economics of ginger production revealed that the average production cost per quintal (100 kg) is approximately US$ 40 and the estimated cost–benefit ratio is 1.38. The cost of the seed rhizome accounts for approximately 40% of the total cost of production (Gaikwad et al. 1998). Korikanthimath and Govardhan (2001b) conducted an investigation to compare the economics of ginger cultivation in the uplands and paddy fields of Karnataka, which indicated that the cost–benefit ratio is more favorable in paddy fields (1.7) as compared to upland cultivation (1.11). This higher profitability is mainly due to higher productivity (23.5 t/ha) achieved in the paddy fields, when compared to the yield level of 13.5 t/ha in the uplands.

24.3.2 Trends in Area, Production, and Productivity The time series data on area, production, and productivity of ginger along with the growth index worked out for the last three decades indicates the following.

24.3.2.1

Area

The area under ginger cultivation has shown remarkable increase during the last three decades, with occasional fluctuations attributed to the ups and downs in price

24.3

India

499

structure. Low profit in a specific year due to unfavorable price structure leads to reduction in the area cultivated, which reflects on the production levels in the subsequent years.

24.3.2.2

Production

India’s production of ginger has been increasing steadily from 29.59 thousand tons/ ha during 1970–1971 to 263.17 thousand tons/ha by 1999–2000. This is almost a 100-fold increase. Precisely, this works out to 789% increase, which resulted from a combined improvement in both area cultivated and the concomitant increase in productivity. Both Kerala and Meghalaya put together accounted for more than 65% of the total production in India. If one makes a region-wise grouping, the southern region comprising Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, and Andhra Pradesh accounts for 52.4% of production with a corresponding total area of 42.4% in the period from 1990–1991 to 2000–2001. District-wise, ginger production area shows that ginger cultivation is mainly confined to Kerala and Meghalaya. The state-wise area, production, and productivity of ginger for three periods, 1982–1983, 1992–1993, and 1998–1999, show that as against the national average yield of around 3371 kg/ha achieved during 1992–1993, states such as Meghalaya, Andhra Pradesh, Sikkim, and Tamil Nadu have consistently recorded a higher yield. Tamil Nadu achieved the highest yield of 19,450 kg/ha during the period and has attained a record productivity of 31,683 kg/ha during the 1998–1999 crop season. The insignificant change in area in Tamil Nadu is taken care of by a significant growth in yield in the state, thereby helping it to register a healthy growth in production. Nagaland, Mizoram, Arunachal Pradesh, and Meghalaya are the other states in order to achieve higher productivity (more than 5500 kg/ha) during the same period. Andhra Pradesh registered 7164 kg/ha, Meghalaya 5137 kg/ha, and Mizoram 5000 kg/ha, while Odisha registered the lowest figures (1990 kg/ha) (DASD 2002).

24.3.2.3

Productivity

Further analysis of the time series data between 1970–1971 and 1997–1998 indicated that the yield level of ginger in India increased over the years from 1371 kg/ha during 1970–1971 to 3391 kg/ha during 1997–1998. The yield level which was approximately 1371 kg/ha during 1970–1971 did not show much improvement until the end of 1980, except for occasional fluctuations toward the higher side (up to 1991 kg/ha) during 1977–1978. It seems the yield increase during this period did not contribute much to the overall increase in production. The increase in production during that period was largely due to an increase in cropped area. However, the productivity level improved from 1980 to 1981 onward and reached an average of

500

24

Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger

Table 24.3 Change in ginger production, area, and the relative contribution of changes in area and yield on the changes in production during different periods in India 1980–1981/1984–1985 to 1985–1986/1989– 1990

Details Change in: Production 40.22 Area 18.28 Productivity 19.54 Change in production due to change in: Area 49.66 Productivity 52.81

1985–1986/1989–1990 to 1990–1991/1994– 1995

1990–1991/1994–1995 to 1995–1996/1999– 2000

26.84 10.10 15.01

30.47 21.47 8.16

40.48 58.83

73.11 29.49

Analysis based on the method followed by Librero et al. (1988)

3188 kg/ha from 1990–1991 to 1998–1999. Productivity registered during 2000–2001 was more than twofold the productivity of 1970–1971. The estimated growth index for the year 1998–1999 in production was 254% over the base year 1970–1971. To ascertain the impact of area expansion and productivity on the overall production during different periods, period-wise data were analyzed using a simple technique followed by Librero et al. (1988). Results show that there is a positive sign in all three parameters, indicating the steady improvement in production due to both area expansion and productivity increase. Results are shown in Table 24.3. However, the detailed component analysis revealed that the change in productivity had a more positive role in the first two periods, whereas in the last, area expansion played a major role in the expansion of production.

24.3.2.4

Growth Estimates

In order to obtain the long-term trends in area, production, and productivity in the major ginger-growing states in India, semilogarithmic growth equations were estimated, which indicated that the overall trend in the area under ginger cultivation registered an average annual growth rate of 4.3% for the period 1990–1999. Growth in production was at the rate of 6.11% during the same period, indicating a slight improvement in productivity, which was approximately 1.82% for the period.

24.3.2.5

Production Constraints

A status paper prepared by the Spices Board (1990) on the ginger crop highlights the fact that mostly small and marginal growers cultivate ginger in India. They face enormous problems and constraints which hamper the ginger productivity. Major

24.4

China

501

production constraints in ginger cultivation listed by various investigators, including the Spices Board of India (Kithu 2003; Selvan and Thomas 2003), are: 1. Low productivity (3391 kg/ha) compared to an achieved average productivity of more than 1 lakh kg/ha elsewhere in the world. 2. Prevalence of innumerable traditional cultivars, which are mostly poor yielders. Absence of an adequate supply of planting materials of improved cultivars. 3. Being a predominantly rainfed crop, failure of rains, and increased labor costs are some of the factors responsible for the higher cost of cultivation of ginger in India. 4. Nonadoption of integrated plant protection measures to control pests and diseases, such as rhizome rot, which cause heavy production and postharvest losses in the crop in many parts of the country. 5. Lack of suitable postharvest processing facilities and poor marketing facilities, especially in the northeastern states of India, which result in poor returns to the farmers. 6. Lack of remunerative prices for the produce in subsequent years, which leads to diminished enthusiasm of the farmers to cultivate ginger, which eventually leads to the neglect of the crop in the country, adversely affecting the overall production and growth rate of the crop. Taking the above points into consideration, there is an imminent need to develop cropping systems with ginger as a component. Although the crop is being cultivated as an intercrop in coconut and areca nut plantations, the researchers have yet to develop ideal cropping systems focusing primarily on the cost–benefit ratio for the famer and other associated environmental considerations, such as soil degradation.

24.4

China

In China, ginger is grown extensively in all the central and southern provinces. It is cultivated as either an annual or perennial crop. China emerged as the second largest producer during the year 2002 (23.98% of the total world production), next to India. During 1990, China’s production was 54,284 t, accounting for 11.05% of total world production. Within the next decade, there was a more than fourfold increase in production, and the production level reached one-fourth of the total world production. This achievement is primarily due to high average productivity of 115,104 kg/ ha, an unheard of production level anywhere in the world, and the highest level was 120,641 kg/ha in 1996. Since Chinese ginger contains less fiber, the rhizomes being bigger in size, and the end-product competitive in price, Chinese ginger commands the first place in the world production. In 1994, China exported 52.05% of total production, and this continued until 2000, which accounted for 61.59% of total world exports. Of the

502

24

Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger

annual export of 91,000 t, Chinese export accounts for more than 61%. Many importing countries prefer Chinese ginger for its price competitiveness and quality of produce. Ginger from China is also exported in crystallized form in earthenware jugs and as syrup in wooden kegs. Harvesting of ginger in China commences in April and extends up to June. Harvested ginger is transported to processing plants in Chiang Rai for export, mostly to Japan. Young ginger is preserved in vinegar bottles and consumed as pickles.

24.5

Australia

Commercial cultivation of ginger in Australia was first started in Buderim in Southeast Queensland as early as the 1940s mainly for the domestic ginger market. Ginger is now grown in the Caboolture, Nambour, and Gympie areas for processing at Yandina. Twenty-four growers currently represent the Australian ginger industry with approximately 150 ha under cultivation. The bulk of production is processed, with smaller volumes sold in the domestic and export markets. Buderim Ginger Ltd. is the only ginger-processing facility in Australia. This factory, through production quotas and a differential pricing system, controls the quality and quantity of ginger production for processing. Most growers derive the majority of their income from processed ginger. A few also supply the domestic fresh ginger market, and only two to three growers export fresh product. In 1987, Royal Pacific Foods began exporting Buderim ginger to the United States. Now the Australian products under the brand name “The Ginger People” are freely available on the market shelves of many wellknown food chain stores the world over. The Australian ginger farmer has achieved a reasonably higher productivity against the world average as shown in Table 24.4.

24.6

Thailand

Thailand produces about 32,000 t of ginger annually. The crop is cultivated extensively in the northern part of the country, especially in the mountains. Ninety percent of the production comes from the hills. Thailand has had a slow increase in ginger production. Without much improvement in the recorded productivity of 25,000 kg/ ha, improvement in the overall production was achieved through area expansion. The estimated normal growth rate for the period 1990–2002 was 2.7%, 2.81%, and Table 24.4 Australian ginger yield

Harvest Early Early-late Late

Time of harvest Late February–early March April–August Mid-June–early October

Yield (t/ha) 12–50 20–50 38–75

24.7

Marketing

503

0.10%, respectively, for area, production, and productivity. Ginger from Thailand is noticeably distinguishable compared to others because of its plumpness, roundness, and short internodes. The popular dried “Golden” variety from Thailand is packed and exported.

24.7

Marketing

24.7.1 Products of Commerce Three primary products of ginger rhizome traded nationally and globally are fresh ginger, (ii) preserved ginger in syrup or brine, and (iii) dried ginger. Preserved ginger is made from the immature rhizome, whereas the pungent and aromatic dried spice is prepared from harvesting and drying the mature rhizome. Fresh ginger, consumed as a vegetable, is harvested both when immature and mature. The preserved and dried products are the major forms in which ginger is internationally traded. Fresh ginger is of less importance in international trade, but this is the major form in which ginger is consumed in the producing countries. Dried ginger is used directly as a spice and also for the preparation of extractives, ginger oleoresin, and ginger oil (ITC 1995). Commercial ginger in India is graded according to the region where it is produced, number of fingers contained in the rhizome, and its size, color, and fiber content. Among the Indian states, it is only in the State of Madhya Pradesh where grading of ginger is done. The first grade, popularly known as “Gola” in the local market, comprises very bold and round bits of dry ginger, which have maximum dry matter and low-fiber content. The second grade, known as “Gatti,” includes bits of bold, round to oblong pieces, which are smaller than the “Gola” variety. The third and fourth grades are smaller bits with low dry matter and high-fiber content (Jaiswal 1980). For export purposes, Calicut and Cochin ginger are graded into special, good, and nonspecial grades, depending on the size of the rhizomes and the percentage of the presence of extraneous material. Dried ginger has been traditionally traded internationally in the whole or split forms and is grounded in the consuming centers. Export of the ground spice from the dried ginger-producing countries is on an extremely small scale. The major use of ground dried ginger on a worldwide basis is for domestic culinary purposes, whereas in the industrialized Western countries, it also finds extensive use in the flavoring of processed foods. Ground dried ginger is employed in a wide range of food stuffs, especially in bakery products and desserts (Anonymous 1996). Ginger oleoresin, an important value-added product, is obtained by solvent extraction of dried ginger and is prepared both in certain industrialized Western countries as well as in some of the spice-producing countries, most notably India and Australia. This product possesses the full organoleptic properties of the spice— aroma, flavor, and pungency—and finds similar applications as in the case of ground

504

24

Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger

spice in the flavoring of processed foods. The oleoresin is also used in certain beverages and to a limited extent in pharmaceutical preparations. The new process developed by the Regional Research Laboratory in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala State, India, for extracting oil and oleoresin from fresh ginger, will lead to a higher recovery of the oil superior organoleptic qualities and will drastically reduce spoilage of fresh ginger during harvesting season. This technology, which is highly suitable for the northeastern states of India, can utilize the cheap raw material available during the harvesting season to convert it into high-priced value-added products. The operating cost of the fresh ginger-processing facility is much lower than that of conventional plants. Further, drying, peeling, and so forth are dispensed with, and because the processing is done during the ginger harvesting season, the raw material inventory can be reduced drastically. It is expected that adoption of this new technology can boost the country’s prospects in adding value to the export of Indian ginger. Ginger oil is distilled from the dried spice mainly in the major spice-importing countries of Western Europe and North America, as well as in some of the spiceproducing countries such as India. This product possesses the aroma and flavor of the spice but lacks the pungency. It finds its main application in the flavoring of beverages and also is used in confectionery and perfumery. Preserved ginger is prepared mainly in China, Hong Kong, Australia, and India, but smaller quantities of fresh ginger are processed in some importing countries as well. It is used both for domestic culinary purposes and in the manufacture of processed foods, such as jams, marmalades, cakes, and confectionery (Sreekumar and Arumugham 2003).

24.7.2 Market Structure Regarding the market structure, there are a number of firms and individuals actively participating in the ginger trade, especially in the case of dried ginger. A large number of brokers, dealers, and various other intermediaries between the dealer and the consumer or even within dealers exist both in exporting and in importing countries. Singapore, London, New York, Hamburg, and Rotterdam are major trading centers. In the case of preserved ginger, Hong Kong is the major trading center. Fresh ginger is marketed through the fruits and vegetables trade network. The market framework indicated that in terms of the ratio between farm harvest price and retail price, it was observed that the ratio was higher in 1989 as compared to 1995. Moreover, fluctuations in the ratio were also less in 1989. The ratio between the farm harvest prices and wholesale prices has also gone down in recent years, indicating that the producer is able to obtain a better price for the produce and there is less exploitation by middlemen in the ginger business.

24.7

Marketing

505

24.7.3 Factors Controlling Demand/Export A major factor that contributes to the export/demand potential of a commodity is quality. In ginger, quality parameters are fiber, volatile oil, and nonvolatile ether extract contents. Ginger grown in various parts of the country varies considerably in its intrinsic properties and its suitability for processing. This is perhaps more important with regard to preparing dried ginger than preserved ginger. The rhizome size is relevant in particular with regard to processing of dried ginger, and mediumsized rhizomes are generally the most suitable. Some areas grow ginger types yielding very large rhizomes, which are marketed as fresh ginger but are unsuitable to convert to the dried spice, owing to their high moisture content. This causes difficulties in drying; frequently a heavy wrinkled product is obtained, and the volatile oil content is often low and below standard requirements. From the above point of view, ginger produced in certain pockets of Kerala is in more demand and has more export potential in the global market.

24.7.4 Indian Dried Ginger Two types of Indian ginger entering the international market are (i) Cochin and Calicut, named after two production centers and major ports of the Malabar Coast in Kerala State, India. The bulk of Indian exports is rough-shaped, whole rhizomes. In addition to this, some bleached or limed ginger is also produced, but this is mainly exported to the Middle East, as it is not favored in European and North American markets. Cochin and Calicut ginger have volatile oil contents in the range of 1.9–2.2%. They are characterized by a lemon-like aroma and flavor, which is more pronounced with the Calicut spice. They are starchier but are almost as pungent as Jamaican ginger. Their nonvolatile ether extract content is about 4.3%. They are widely used for blending purposes, and ginger beer manufacturers prefer these types (Spices Board 1992).

24.7.5 Economics of Dry Ginger Production In India, production of the dried ginger of commerce is confined exclusively to Kerala State, and the product is of two types—Cochin and Calicut. Cochin type, preferred over the Calicut type, is grown in central Kerala, mainly concentrated in the Ernakulam and Idukki districts, while the Calicut type is confined to the Malabar region, including the Wayanad district in northern Kerala State. There is no other recognized commercial variety of dried ginger produced in other parts of India other than the Cochin and Calicut types. Kerala ginger is considered to be superior because of its low-fiber content, boldness, and

506

24

Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger

characteristic aroma and pungency. Ginger produced in other parts of India have more fiber, which are largely used for domestic consumption in the form of green ginger. Kerala State accounts for over 60% of the total dried ginger production and about 90% of India’s ginger export trade. In contrast to Jamaican ginger, which is clean peeled, Indian dried ginger is usually rough peeled or scraped. The rhizomes are peeled or scraped only on the flat sides of the hands; much of the skin between the “fingers” remains intact. The dry ginger so produced is known as the rough or unbleached ginger of commerce, and the bulk of the dried ginger produced in central Kerala consists of only this quality. Sometimes Indian ginger is exported unpeeled. For the foreign market, both Cochin and Calicut ginger are graded according to the number of “fingers” in the rhizomes. They are classified as follows: “B” for three fingers, “C” for two fingers, and “D” for pieces. In addition to these well-known types of Indian ginger, another type, Kolkata ginger, is occasionally seen in the market as well (Pruthi 1989).

24.7.6 World Scenario As ginger is mainly used as a spice and condiment, its per capita consumption is not high enough to sustain its world-level production with the growing number of new ginger-producing countries taking recourse to the international trade in ginger. However, the market information indicates that there is a “hot trend” in the US market, which means an escalating demand for many other spices like black pepper, chilies, and ginger. This is a clear reflection of the changing food habits of the Americans, which is veering toward spicy food, as compared to the earlier bland types. This could also emanate from the new ethnic mix in the population. Chinese food and Indian curry, in which ginger is a principal ingredient, are increasingly being favored by the Americans. There is also a growing demand for ginger products worldwide. A recent development noted in ginger trade is the increasing use of ginger oils, oleoresins, and powdered and processed ginger in major gingerimporting countries, especially the United States and Europe.

24.7.7 Main Suppliers Major ginger exporters are India and China. Others which also export are Indonesia, Brazil, Sierra Leone, Australia, Fiji, Nigeria, and Jamaica. Indonesia, Taiwan, China, and Thailand are major exporters of fresh ginger. Important suppliers of preserved ginger are Hong Kong, which reexports refined fresh ginger, and Australia (ITC 1995).

24.9

Export

507

In the world trade, there are two categories: (i) producer exporters (countries engaged in ginger cultivation which usually export after meeting the domestic consumption; occasionally these countries may also import to meet domestic needs) and (ii) countries which reexport.

24.8

World Trade

24.8.1 Distribution Channels Specialized importers still play an important role in the global ginger trade. A list of the importers can be obtained from the International Trade Centre (ITC).

24.8.2 Dry Ginger The traditional distribution system for dry ginger has declined as a result of the increase in purchase by dealers and processors directly from the source of production. There has also been an increase in trade in some countries among certain ethnic communities. Asians, in particular, have developed their own system of distribution based on direct trading with the producing countries and a network of small retail outlets.

24.8.3 Fresh and Preserved Ginger The marketing structure for fresh and preserved ginger is similar to that of vegetables in India. The recent rise of supermarkets in India has eroded the position and clout of wholesale dealers as some importers sell directly to supermarkets. In some importing countries, however, ginger in its fresh form is seen almost exclusively in shops catering to ethnic communities.

24.9

Export

During 1994, China contributed 52.05% of total ginger export worldwide, followed by Thailand at 16.77%, Indonesia 9.73%, Brazil 6.24%, Taiwan 3%, Costa Rica 2.23%, India 1.98%, Nigeria 1.61%, Vietnam 1.37%, Malaysia 1.36%, and the United States 0.93%. Clearly, despite India’s preeminent production level in the

508

24

Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger

world, it only contributed a small percentage of world export in 1995. China and Thailand maintained top export positions until 2000, in fact, showing a surge by China at 61.59%, followed by Thailand at 23%. The ginger export of Jamaica and Sierra Leone is considered to be of high quality on account of their superior flavor and clean appearance. However, the price of Jamaican ginger is quite high, which has led importers to search for cheaper alternatives. Today, the ginger from Australia is regarded as being of high quality due to its standardized and clean appearance and steady price. Grinders have favored Chinese ginger, but the use of bleaching agents and sulfur dioxide has adversely influenced Chinese exports to Europe and North America, as they are highly conscious of additives in food stuff. In order to examine the trend in returns from trade earned by the exporting countries, Datta et al. (2003) have used a simple index (VADD) defined as follows: VADD ¼ Unit Value of Exports
Unit Value of Imports where Unit value of exports ¼ total value of exports/total quantity exported Unit value of imports ¼ total value of imports/total quantity imported Datta et al. (2003) have ranked all the countries in terms of VADD in decreasing order and reported that: 1. Out of the top 15 exporting countries, only 3 belong to the producer–exporter group. The rest are all from the reexporter group. 2. Only two countries are the traditional producers. 3. Of the major producers, India ranked 40th with a VADD of 0.38, followed by China at 44th place with a VADD of 0.21. In the case of Indonesia, the VADD estimate turned out to be negative at
0.13, meaning that Indonesia imported ginger at a higher unit value than it exported. 4. Thus, reexporters have, in general, succeeded in achieving a greater value addition to their export of ginger into the world market. A further analysis of the import–export reexport trade showed that the unit price (US$ 2.18/kg) earned by the European Union (EU) countries (reexporters) from export is much higher than the average unit price (US$ 1.53/kg) earned by other producer exporters to EU countries. The Netherlands, Germany, and the United Kingdom are the major reexporters of ginger in Europe. Obviously, value addition to the imported material turned out to be the biggest money spinner to the EU countries. This is also a good and clear lesson to be learned from the world ginger trade, that is, unless the producer countries have a clear road map to the value addition process, merely producing ginger in large quantities is of no avail for reaping great pecuniary benefits from the ginger trade. This is a fundamental lesson that all the developing countries have to learn in world trade. Extending this logic further, many examples can be cited in world agricultural trade, where the reexporter and not the producing

24.9

Export

509

countries benefits from world commodities trade. For instance, the best cocoa is grown in Africa, either in Ghana or in the Republic of Cameroon. But the pecuniary benefits in large measure go to Paris, not to the toiling African farmer sweating it out under the scorching sun. It is here that technology plays a crucial role. Many examples can be cited to prove this point. Datta et al. (2003) have analyzed the export performance of Indian ginger economy between 1961 and 1996, which shows the following: 1. The physical volume of exports has increased approximately to 2.96% annually, whereas the annual growth in value terms works out to be approximately 10%. The annual growth in the unit price realization over this period works out to be approximately 6.9%. 2. At a decadal disaggregated level, however, the performance of ginger export from India does not appear encouraging. There is a steady decline in unit value realization from ginger exports. During the 1960s, the unit value realization grew at an annual rate of more than 19%, despite the fact that there was a negative growth in the physical volume of exports. The growth in the physical volume of exports picked up considerably during the 1970s, although at the cost of a decline in the growth in unit value realization. The 1980s witnessed a fall in the growth rate of both of these attributes. During the first half of the 1990s, however, a spurt in the growth of physical exports is observed, accompanied by an almost stagnant unit value realization, despite considerable devaluation of the Indian rupee (Indian currency, which is now trading (at the time of writing this book, 2012) at Rs 55 per US$, a depreciation of almost 20% during the past few months).

24.9.1 Export Instability In order to estimate instability in ginger exports in terms of quantity, value, and price, an instability analysis was done using the time series data, and the results are presented in Table 24.5. It can be observed from Table 24.5 that there was instability in the case of volume of ginger exported, value, and unit value of ginger export. The instability was relatively higher in the case of the volume of ginger exported (72.91%) compared to the value of the export (57.41%) and the unit value of the Table 24.5 Instability indices (Coppock’s instability index) of ginger exports (1970–2000) Particulars Volume of export Value of export Unit value of export

1970–1971 to 1979–1980 47.95

1980–1981 to 1989–1990 60.37

1990–1991 to 1999–2000 84.71

1970–1971 to 1999–2000 72.91

51.60

62.35

63.50

57.41

49.44

68.81

34.62

29.15

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Table 24.6 Contents of Indian export basket (1990–1991 to 1999–2000 average) Details Dry ginger Fresh ginger Ginger powder Ginger oil Ginger oleoresin Total

Percentage share of the total Quantity (Mt) Value (approx. US$) 4,587.80 405,000 10,138.07 200,000 418.32 20,000 7.63 18,000 59.63 12,000 15, 211.45 8,000

Unit Price (approx. US$) (Per kg) 90 cents 10 cents 90 cents 40.00 US$ 22.00 US$ 60 cents

Source: Spices Board (2008)

export (29.15%). This instability index was a close approximation of the average year-to-year percentage variation in the three parameters studied, which was adjusted for the trends.

24.9.2 Composition of Indian Exports As far as item-wise export of ginger from India is concerned, there has been a marked improvement in recent years. More than half of the total export value is earned by dry ginger, which accounts for 30.16% in terms of quantity (Table 24.6). Fresh ginger, though, accounts for 66.65% of the total quantity exported; in terms of value, the percentage share is 24.67. Ginger oil and oleoresin are the other products exported that have fetched a high value. As in the case of reexporting countries, especially EU countries, India has the potential to strengthen the processing industry to add more value-added products onto its export basket. India exports a sizeable quantity of fresh ginger through land custom stations in the northeastern states to Bangladesh. Although this export channel provides an opportunity to market the exportable surplus across the border at a reasonable price, whenever the price goes up, Bangladesh turns to a cheap supply from China and Indonesia. The same is the case with the other neighboring country, Pakistan (John 2003).

24.9.3 Direction of Indian Exports Until the end of the 1980s, more than 30% of Indian exports was to Arabian countries, in general, which has shown a declining trend ever since then, and India is finding a new market in Pakistan and Bangladesh. However, these countries turn

24.9

Export

511

Table 24.7 Hirschman index for export of ginger Period 1981–1982 1991–1992 1999–2000

Particulars Volume of ginger export Value of ginger export Unit value of ginger export

Quantity 44.35 48.52 48.42

Value 45.47 38.63 36.87

to other sources, wherever the prices are competitive. During 1991, India exported more than 49% to Pakistan. However, during 1999–2000, Pakistan’s share of Indian import declined to 33%. A similar situation was witnessed in Bangladesh as well. Other main markets for Indian ginger are Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates (UAE), Morocco, the United States, Republic of Yemen, the United Kingdom, and the Netherlands. To analyze the concentration of ginger exports to various countries, both in terms of quantity and in value of export markets, the Hirschman index was estimated, which is presented in Table 24.7. Generally, the index number above 40% is considered to be a high concentration. Here, the estimated index for quantity is more than 40 during all the three periods indicating higher concentration. In the case of value as well, the index was more than 40% in the first period, and it was nearer to 40% in the remaining two periods, as well. This indicates that the country has a set of markets, which prefer Indian ginger.

24.9.4 Export Promotion Program The Spices Board, Government of India, implements a number of programs to promote ginger export. These are: 1. Assistance in establishing improved cleaning and processing facilities 2. Support for setting up high-technology assisted processing facilities 3. Assistance in establishing and strengthening in-house quality laboratories to test various quality parameters 4. Assistance for new product/end-use development 5. Assistance for improved packaging 6. Assistance for undertaking promotional sale tours and participation in international spice fairs 7. Support for promoting branded consumer-packed ginger in identified markets overseas 8. Support for organic certification to process ginger derivatives

512

24.10

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Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger

Imports

The major importers globally are the United States, Japan, and the United Kingdom, where an increase in terms of volume and value has been observed over recent years. However, these countries import ginger mainly from China and Thailand and not from India. Japan accounted for the major share (58.74%) of imported ginger during 1995, followed by the United States (9.93%), Hong Kong (7.62%), Singapore (5.16%), Saudi Arabia (4.37%), the United Kingdom (4.36%), Canada (2.39%), the Netherlands (1.93%), Germany (1.25%), and Malaysia (0.78%) and the rest by others, including India. Japan, a major importer, imports more than 50% of its requirement from China. Thailand exports mostly preferred fresh ginger in large quantities to Japan. Japan’s import from India constitutes mainly dry ginger. Of late, the Spices Board is exploring the Japanese market to increase India’s export to that country.

24.10.1

Indian Import of Ginger

A sizeable quantity of ginger imported into India is of the green form. The major imports in fresh form are from Nepal, where dried ginger is imported from China and Nigeria. The Indian import scenario is given in Table 24.8.

24.11

Market Opportunities

According to an ITC market development paper (1995), consumption of spices is likely to increase due to an augmented production of highly flavored food by the food industry. In addition, an increasing interest in health food, consequently, “natural” instead of “artificially” flavored food, will also increase the consumption of natural, unadulterated spices.

24.11.1

Dry Ginger

A development noted in the ginger trade has been the increasing use of oils, oleoresins, and powdered and processed ginger in major importing countries, especially in the United States and EU countries. Ginger exports for the manufacture of powdered ginger must be fiber-free, whereas the products exported for the manufacture of ginger oil and oleoresins should have a high oil content. Export efforts should be based on increased productivity and improved postharvest technology.

1995–1996 Q 782.6 6682.2 –

V 218.5 429.0 –

1996–1997 Q 133.9 9277.7 – V 64.7 580.7 –

1997–1998 Q 247.4 1185.4 –

Q ¼ quantity in metric tons, V ¼ in lakhs (1 lakh Indian rupees ¼ US$ 1995 approx.)

Dry ginger Fresh ginger Ginger power

Item

Table 24.8 Item-wise import of ginger into India during 1995–2000 V 106.2 703.1 –

1998–1999 Q 542.3 9727.2 Negligible

V 291.4 614.8 0.03

1999–2000 Q 4695.0 7614.2 13.0

V 1198.5 688.7 6.4

24.11 Market Opportunities 513

514

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Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger

Fresh Ginger

There may be some prospects for a modest increase in international trade in fresh ginger, mainly to cater to the ethnic market, especially of the Asian communities settled in the United States and European countries.

24.11.3

Preserved Ginger

Japan will continue to have the world’s largest market in preserved ginger. This is because preserved ginger finds a place in an array of Japanese food. There is also the prospect of a modest market for preserved ginger in the United States and Western European countries, especially to cater the ethnic taste. The Chinese segment is, in particular, important in this context. However, the growth in this segment can only be modest, as of now, and also in the future.

24.12

Competitiveness of Indian Ginger Industry

In order to understand better the position and competitiveness of individual exporters in world trade of ginger, market shares and unit value ratios were calculated and are presented in Table 24.9. In the absence of time series data on prices for individual products from various countries, the unit price was worked out from the value of the export and quantity exported. While calculating unit price, individual items of export were not taken into account. Hence, there is bound to be a slight variation depending on the share of value-added products in the export basket of individual countries. However, the estimated unit–value ratios help in comparing the prices of each Table 24.9 Unit–price ratio for various exporting countries from 1994 to 1998 Country China Thailand Indonesia Brazil Taiwan Costa Rica India Nigeria Vietnam Malaysia United States Others

1994 0.90 0.87 0.54 1.61 3.18 1.19 1.23 0.74 0.50 0.35 1.99 1.77

1995 0.83 1.06 0.51 1.64 3.83 1.33 2.07 0.97 0.67 0.43 1.96 1.53

1996 1.17 0.91 0.43 1.11 2.00 0.89 1.06 0.85 0.57 0.32 0.86 0.96

1997 1.03 0.82 0.62 1.26 2.43 1.01 1.20 1.16 0.89 0.37 1.04 1.12

1998 0.94 0.73 0.48 1.36 3.21 1.10 1.80 1.36 0.56 0.38 1.45 1.65

1994–1998 0.96 0.86 0.53 1.35 2.76 1.10 1.40 1.06 0.66 0.36 1.29 1.33

24.13

Risks and Uncertainty

515

exporting country with another and with the average of total exports. The ratio is computed by dividing the price received for a country’s export by the world average price. When the unit–price ratio is less than 1, then it is considered that the country possesses competitiveness in the export market for its product. Accordingly, as can be observed from the data in Table 24.9, Indonesia, China, Thailand, Vietnam, and Malaysia with a unit–price ratio less than 1 are highly competitive, whereas India, with an average unit–price ratio of 1.40, is less competitive in its price structure in the world market. Any country’s competitive power in exporting a commodity depends crucially on its relative price and the quality of that commodity over the competing countries. India has a weak competitive position in the international market for ginger, which is mainly because of a very low productivity of 3357 kg/ha as compared to 55,636 kg/ ha of the United States and an average world productivity of 10,179 kg/ha (FAO 2003). Moreover, the increased cost of production due to lower productivity of Indian ginger compared to that of other producing countries makes it imperative for India to increase its ginger productivity, which also can reduce the cost of production. The country has enough potential to increase its ginger productivity. To be successful in the changing environment, it is essential to be innovative and proactive. India, being the major producer of ginger in the world, stands seventh in ranking when its performance is compared with that of other countries. The gross margin is a good measure for comparing the economic and productive efficiency of similar-sized farms. More importantly, it represents the bare minimum that a farm must generate in order to stay in business. The cost–benefit ratio worked out for ginger production in the United States was 1.34. Productivity achieved on the ginger farms of Hawaii ranged from 50,000 lbs/acre to a low of 27,500 lbs/acre. The reported average returns for the farm with a productivity of 46,200 pounds depend not only on the yield but also price.

24.13

Risks and Uncertainty

Risk is inherent in all of agriculture, but the ginger industry appears to be more exposed to risk than many other agricultural endeavors (Fleming and Sato 1998). A review by the Hawaii Agricultural Statistics Services (HASS) reveals considerable volatility in ginger price and yield, with relatively little correlation between the two variables. In addition to abruptly fluctuating prices, ginger is relatively susceptible to serious disease problems, providing an ever-present possibility for a disease problem to reduce yields sharply (Nishina et al. 1992). A sustainable ginger economy is possible only when these risks are minimized. Along with price risk, cash flow implications are the perceived crop risk for a crop such as ginger. This is related to age to first bearing and longevity of the crop. Production and marketing risks are greater the longer the crop takes to bear and the greater the life of the crop. The length of the harvest period also has its risks: the longer the harvest period, the greater the risk of failure. Vinning (1990), in the

516

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Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger

Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research (ACIAR) technical report for marketing perspectives on a “Potential Pacific Spice Industry,” has given crop failure ratings for different spice crops, based on the above points. It was found that ginger topped the list as a “high-risk” commodity, followed by vanilla. The ginger industry is facing risk and uncertainty in different forms. Each country has to face considerable competition from other ginger-producing countries because of many new countries entering into the ginger industry in recent years. Over the years, India has lost its market to China and Indonesia, as is the case of cardamom, where India lost the market to Guatemala. This is primarily because of the competitive price edge in the case of Chinese and Indonesian ginger as compared to India’s. From the point of view of Indian farmers, the prices have been generally good during the past decade, although there was a drastic reduction in 1996 and 1997 and 2001 and 2002. During 1999–2000, ginger farmers received an all-time high price, which was more than double the price in the preceding year. The price was always above the break-even point, with the average of US 10 cents/kg for fresh ginger in the northeastern states, where fresh ginger is marketed, thus leading to profitable ginger farming. The price for dry ginger was well below the break-even point in the 1980s and in the early 1990s, as well. From 1982 to 1984 and 1993 to 1995, the price almost doubled. In addition to this abrupt fluctuation in price, the ginger crop is also highly susceptible to serious disease problems, leading to a reduction in rhizome yield and an unmarketable production. At times, the farmer might lose up to 80% of the crop toward harvest time. Thus, the ginger crop industry is influenced by the risk factors associated with yield and seasonal price fluctuations, though these factors seem unrelated on a long-term basis. However, the ANOVA indicates that the price variability of ginger is greater than the yield variability. Some of the policy measures appropriate to the ginger industry are the following: 1. Healthy seed production through the “Seed Village Concept” by regular field monitoring for diseases and pests and enforcing seed certification measures. 2. Impose quarantine measures to restrict free and uncontrolled movement from one place to another, especially where bacterial wilt is endemic. 3. An integral approach to control the most serious problem in ginger cultivation— the prevalence of rhizome rot. This could be further complicated by bacterial, fungal, and insect attack on the ginger plant. 4. High-fiber content and high cost of production are the deterrents which make Indian ginger uncompetitive, both quality wise and price wise. Ginger breeding must focus especially on the former, while ginger agronomy should focus on the latter. 5. Develop cropping systems most suited to ginger as an intercrop, especially in coconut and areca nut gardens. In developing such cropping systems, adequate attention must be given to the cost–benefit ratio. 6. Value addition is a key component in making the ginger market attractive and profitable. In the global scenario, reexport from EU countries shows that India has to learn how best to exploit this avenue.

References

517

7. Since the importing countries, especially Japan, the United States, and EU countries, are highly quality conscious, there is an imminent need to focus more on postharvest measures, where the end produce is free of all extraneous materials, including pesticide residue. Good and attractive packing makes the ginger market more consumer friendly. 8. Indian farmers need to be urgently educated on various aspects of ginger production, right from sowing to harvest and proper postharvest technology. As of now, many are not properly oriented, neither is there a concerted effort to bring them up to international standards. 9. High-value organic farming is an emerging market. There is a great urgency to popularize the concept among as many ginger farmers as possible to reap the full benefit of global ginger marketing from this segment. 10. There should be no mistaking that value addition confines only to the manufacture and sale of ginger derivatives, such as oleoresins and volatile oils. One EU document reveals that in the export market, “Buyers are looking for clean, well flavored, artificially dried product with high hygiene levels, in contrast to the bulk of the materials which has been sundried on the ground”. For the successful implementation of the abovementioned policy-related suggestions, there is an imminent need to develop a special database regarding all aspects of ginger-based crop production, which include marketing, employment potential, production techniques, cost of cultivation, and value addition. This in turn, will help in creating decision support systems to benefit the stakeholders, both producer and consumer.

References Anonymous. (1996). Guidelines for exporters of spices to the European market. London: Commonwealth Secretariat. DASD. (2002). Arecanut and Spcices database. Directorate of Arecanut and Spices Development (DASD), Calicut. Datta, S. K., Singh, G., & Chakrabarti, M. (2003, May 12–13). Ginger and its products: Management of marketing and exports with special reference to the eastern Himalayan region. National Consultative meeting for improvement in productivity and utilization of ginger. Aizwal. FAO. (2003). FAOSTAT, FAO, Rome www.Faostat.org/ Fleming, K., & Sato, K., 1998. Economics of ginger root production in Hawaii. Agribusiness December 1998 AB-12 College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii. Gaikwad, S. H., Thorve, P. V., & Bhole, B. D. (1998). Economics of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) production in Amravati District (Maharashtra, India). Journal of Spices and Aromatic Crops, 7(1), 7–11. ITC. (1995). Market Development: Market brief on Ginger. Rome: International Trade Centre, UNCTAD/WTO. Jaiswal, P. C. (1980). Handbook of agriculture (pp. 1179–1184). New Delhi: ICAR.

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John, K. (2003, May 12–13). Organic agriculture and possibilities for organic production of ginger in Mizoram. National Consultative Meeting for improvement in productivity and utilization of ginger, Aizwal. Kithu, C. H. (2003, May 12–13). Marketing and export prospects of ginger. National Consultative Meeting for improvement in productivity and utilization of ginger, Aizwal. Korikanthimath, V. S., & Govardhan, R. (2001a). Resource productivity in ginger (Zingiber officinale) cultivation in paddy fields and upland situations in Karnataka. Indian Journal of Agronomy, 46(2), 368–371. Korikanthimath, V. S., & Govardhan, R. (2001b). Comparative economics of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) cultivation in paddy fields and uplands (open, vacant areas). Mysore Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 34, 368–371. Librero, A. R., Nineveth, E. E., & Myrna, B. O. (1988). Estimating returns to research Investment in Mango in the Philippines. Los Banos: Philippine Council of Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development. Nishina, M. S., Sato, D. M., Nishijima, W. T., & Mau, R. F. I. (1992). Ginger root production in Hawaii (Commodity fact sheet GIN-3(A)). Honolulu: College of Tropical Agriculture and Human Resources, University of Hawaii. Pruthi, J. S. (1989, March 6–11). Post-harvest technology of spices and condiments—Pretreatments, curing, cleaning, grading and packing. Report of the Second Meeting of International Spice Group, Singapore. Regeena, S., & Kandaswamy, A. (1987). Economics of ginger cultivation in Kerala. South Indian horticulture, 40(1), 53–56. Selvan, T., & Thomas, K. G. (2003, May 12–13). Development of ginger in India. National Consultative meeting for Improvement in productivity and utilization of ginger, Aizwal. Spices Board. (1988). Report on the domestic survey of spices (Part 1). Cochin: Spices Board, Ministry of Commerce, Government of India. Spices Board. (1990). Production and Export of Ginger Status. Cochin: Spices Board. Spices Board. (1992). Report of the forum for increasing export of spices. Cochin: Spices Board, Ministry of Commerce, Government of India. Spices Board. (2008). Report on the domestic survey of spices (Part I). Cochin: Spices board, Ministry of Commerce, Government of India. Sreekumar, M. M., & Arumugham, C. (2003, May 12–13). Technology of fresh ginger processing for ginger oil and oleoresin. National Consultative Meeting of Improvement in productivity and utilization of ginger, Aizwal. Vinning, G. (1990). Marketing perspectives on a potential Pacific spice industry (ACIAR Technical Reports No 15. p. 60). Canberra: Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research.

Chapter 25

Pharmacology and Nutraceutical Uses of Ginger

Abstract The chapter discusses, at length, pharmacological, and nutraceutical properties of ginger. Keywords Pharmacological · Nutraceutical properties

Ginger rhizomes have been widely used as a cooking spice and herbal remedy to treat a variety of human conditions, diseases, or otherwise. Fresh and dried ginger is used for different clinical purposes in traditional Chinese medicine (Kampo). Fresh ginger (Zingiberis Recens Rhizoma; Sheng Jiang in Chinese, Shoga in Japanese) is used as an antiemetic, antitussive, or expectorant and is used to induce perspiration and dispel cold, whereas dried ginger (Zingiberis Rhizoma; Gan Jiang in Chinese) is used for stomachache, vomiting, and diarrhea accompanied by cold extremities and faint pulse (Benskey and Gamble 1986). Dried ginger, either simply dried in the shade (Gan Sheng Jiang, or simply Gan Jiang in Chinese, Shokyo in Japanese) or processed ginger that is heated in pans with hot sand (Rhizoma Zingiberis Preparata, Pao Jiang in Chinese), is often used in China. The simply dried ginger and the processed ginger are not clearly differentiated in clinical use. On the other hand, different types of dried gingers have been used in traditional Japanese medicine, such as dried (Shokyo in Japanese, as cited above) and steamed and dried ginger (Zingiberis Siccatum Rhizoma, Kankyo in Japanese). Steamed and dried ginger are rarely used in traditional Chinese medicine. Here we describe the “simply dried ginger” as “dried ginger” (Shokyo) and the “steamed and dried ginger” as steamed ginger (Kankyo). Gingerols and shogaols are identified as the main components of dried ginger (Shokyo) and steamed ginger (Kankyo), respectively. However, before this study was conducted, only little was known about the scientific reasons why Shokyo and Kankyo were used for different clinical purposes. The juice from freshly squeezed ginger (containing gingerols) has been reported to be hypoglycemic in diabetic rats. The diabetic state alters the microvascular function and affects the synthesis of prostacyclin, thromboxane, and leukotrienes. Similarly, the gingerols have been reported to inhibit both cyclooxygenase and

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 K. P. Nair, Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_25

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lipoxygenase and to diminish the production of prostaglandins and leukotrienes. The chemical structures of gingerols are similar in part to those of prostaglandins. The therapeutic application of gingerol in the diabetic state (i.e., gingerol lowering the blood glucose level) is an area of much interest. A lot of investigations have been carried out in this connection, using mice as test animals. However, data from investigations in the case of humans is rare. Recent research at the University of Sydney found that ginger has the power to control blood glucose by using muscle cells. Professor Basil Roufogalis, specializing in pharmaceutical chemistry, who led the research, said, “Ginger extracts obtained from Buderim Ginger were able to increase the uptake of glucose into muscle cells independently of insulin. This assists in the management of high levels of blood sugar that create complications for longterm diabetic patients, and may allow cells to operate independently of insulin.” He also added, “The components responsible for the increase in glucose were gingerols, the major phenolic components of the ginger rhizome. Under normal conditions, blood glucose level is strictly maintained within a narrow range, and skeletal muscle is a major site of glucose clearance in the body.” This investigation was published recently in the reputable publication Planta Medica (Business Line, August 8, 2012). Ethanolic extract of ginger fed orally produced significant antihyperglycemic effect in diabetic rats, lowered serum total cholesterol, triglycerides, and increased the HDL-cholesterol levels. Ginger extract treatment lowered the liver and pancreas thiobarbituric acid reactive substance (TBARS) values compared to pathogenic diabetic rats. The results of the test drug were comparable to gliclazide, a standard antihyperglycemic agent, indicating that the ethanolic extract of ginger can protect the tissues from lipid peroxidation. The extract also exhibited significant lipidlowering activity in diabetic rats (Bhandari et al. 2005). Treatment with extracts of ginger increased the lowered levels of RBC and WBC counts and PCV in diabetic rats, and it also decreased the elevated levels of platelets and glucose concentration of diabetic rats. Thus, oral ginger administration might decrease the diabetes-induced disturbances of some hematologic parameters in alloxan-induced diabetic rats (Olayaki et al. 2007).

25.1

Antimicrobial Property of Ginger

The essential oil of ginger showed antimicrobial activity against all Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria tested, as well as against yeasts and filamentous fungi, using the agar diffusion method (Martins et al. 2001). Ginger oil extracts, especially fresh extracts, exhibited significant activity against Salmonella typhi (Chaisawadi et al. 2005).

25.4

25.2

Anthelmintic Activity of Ginger

521

Antifungal Activity of Ginger

There are but very few reports on antifungal proteins from rhizomes, and there is none from the family Zingiberaceae. An antifungal protein with a novel N-terminal sequence was isolated from ginger rhizomes. It exhibited an apparent molecular mass of 32 kDa and exerted antifungal activity toward various fungi including Botrytis cinerea, F. oxysporum, Mycosphaerella arachidicola, and Physalospora piricola (Wang and Ng 2005). Endo et al. (1990) elucidated the structures of antifungal diarylheptenones; gingerenones A, B, and C; and isogingerenone B, which were isolated from the rhizomes. The essential oils of ginger exhibited high activity against the yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Cryptococcus neoformans, Candida albicans, tropicalis, and Torulopsis glabrata (Jantan et al. 2003). Gingerols, the pungent constituents of ginger, were assessed as agonists of the capsaicin-activated vanilloid receptor (VRI). [6]-Gingerol and [8]-gingerol evoked capsaicin-like intracellular Ca2+ transients and ion currents in cultured dorsal root ganglion neurons. These effects of gingerols were blocked by capsazepine, the VRI receptor antagonist. The potency of gingerols increased with increasing size of the side chain and with the overall hydrophobicity in the series. It is concluded that gingerols represent a novel class of naturally occurring VRI receptor agonists that may contribute to the medicinal properties of ginger, which have been known for centuries. The gingerol structure may be used as a template for the development of drugs acting as moderately potent activators of the VRI receptor (Dedov et al. 2002).

25.3

Larvicidal Activity of Ginger

Essential oil of ginger served as a potential larvicidal and repellant agent against the filarial vector Culex quinquefasciatus (Pushpanathan et al. 2008).

25.4

Anthelmintic Activity of Ginger

Crude powder and crude aqueous extract of dried ginger exhibited a dose- and timedependent anthelmintic effect in sheep, naturally infected with mixed species of gastrointestinal nematodes, thus justifying the age-old traditional use of this plant in helminth infestation (Iqbal et al. 2006).

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Pharmacology and Nutraceutical Uses of Ginger

Insecticidal Property of Ginger

Vacuum-distilled ginger extracts are repellents toward the adult maize weevil, Sitophilus zeamais, in both the absence and the presence of maize grains (Zea mays). Fractions containing oxygenated compounds accounted for the repellent activity, three major compounds identified in the behaviorally active functions to be 1,8-cineole, neral, and geranial, in a ratio of 5.48:1:2.13, respectively. The report by Ukeh et al. (2009) provides the scientific basis for the observed repellent properties of ginger and demonstrates the potential for their use in stored-product protection at the small-scale farmer level.

25.6

Pharmacological Studies on Ginger Extracts and Active Components

In vitro studies have demonstrated that an aqueous extract of fresh ginger inhibits the activities of cyclooxygenase, as a result of which, it inhibits arachidonic acid metabolism and platelet aggregation (Srivastava 1984). Oral administration of the acetone extract of dried ginger promotes gastrointestinal motility in rats (Mustafa and Srivastava 1990). In a Danish study, blood thromboxane B2 levels were lowered after consumption of fresh ginger, an effect which must be due to inhibition of cyclooxygenase by the active components of fresh ginger.

25.7

Medicinal Uses of Ginger

The past decade has witnessed a considerable increase in interest in the use of various traditional herbs and plant extracts in primary health care and conventional medicine. They form part of traditional systems of medicine, and a vast body of anecdotal evidence exists supporting their use and efficiency. Some of these traditional medicines (especially in the Chinese system of medicine) have stood the test of time and have been substantiated by modern clinical investigations and interpretations, whereas the so-called miracle cures of others have been either disproved or not substantiated. There is, evidently, a lack of scientific data from well-planned clinical trials, and the situation is further complicated by the fact that the herbs are almost always used as complex polyherbal mixtures. Among the herbal drugs, one raw drug that has undergone considerable study is ginger. Ginger is perhaps most widely used in the Indian system of medicine known as Ayurveda. Ginger is also a very important drug in both the Chinese and the Japanese systems of medicine.

25.8

25.8

Ginger in Indian System of Medicine

523

Ginger in Indian System of Medicine

In the Ayurvedic system of medicine, both fresh and dry ginger are used. Ginger has been widely used as a common household remedy for various illnesses since ancient times. The properties and uses of ginger in Ayurvedic medicine are available from authentic ancient treatises like Charaka Samhita and Susrutha Samhita, which are the basics for this system. Descriptions of ginger are available from similar documents of Chinese and Sanskrit literature written in the subsequent centuries. Dry ginger seems to be an essential ingredient in several Ayurvedic preparations, and hence, ginger is called Mahaoushadha, the great cure. This emphasizes the extensive usage of ginger in Ayurveda. Fresh and dry ginger in Ayurveda are used in the following ways: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

As a single medicine for internal use As an ingredient in compound medicines For external use As an adjuvant As an antidote For the purification of some mineral drugs

In Sanskrit literature, ginger has several synonymous words, which are indicative of its properties, and in Ayurveda different terms are used to denote the usage of ginger in different contexts. The following synonyms are quoted by Aiyer and Kolammal (1966): 1. Ardrika, Ardraka: that which waters the tongue and also shows the relation to the star Ardra 2. Sringivera, Sringa, Sringika: that which resembles the shape of the horns of animals 3. Chatra, Rahuchatra: that which dispels diseases 4. Sunti, Kaphahari, Soshana: that which overcomes diseases due to kapha (phlegm) 5. Mahaushadha: the great cure 6. Viswa, Viswabeshaja: universal remedy 7. Nagara: that which is commonly found in towns 8. Katubhadra: drug that has a pungent taste, which is capable of bringing goodness 9. Katootkata, Katuka, Katu, Ushna, Katigranthi: drug that has a pungent taste 10. Gulma moola: rhizome (root) which is generally spongy in nature 11. Saikatesta: that which grows generally in sandy places 12. Anoopaja: the plant that requires plenty of water for its growth

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Pharmacology and Nutraceutical Uses of Ginger

25.8.1 Properties Fresh and dry ginger are similar in their properties. The only difference is that fresh ginger is not so easily digested, while the dried one is (Aiyer and Kolammal 1966). All the Ayurvedic classics like Charaka Samhita, Susrutha Samhita, Ashtanga Hridaya, and Nighantus give the same properties for ginger as shown below: Rasa (taste)—Katu (pungent) Guna (property)—Laghu, Snigdha (light and unctuous) Veerya (potency)—Ushna (hot) Vipaka (metabolic property)—Madhura (sweet). Ginger rhizome has a pungent taste and is considered to be converted to sweet products after metabolic changes. Being hot and light, ginger is easily digestible. It has an unctuous quality. In Bhavaprakasa (an important and ancient text in Ayurveda, authored by Bhavamisra), fresh ginger is called rooksha, meaning dry. It acts as an appetizer, carminative, and stomachic. Ginger is acrid, anodyne, antirheumatic, antiphlegmatic, diuretic, aphrodisiac, and cordial. It has anti-inflammatory and antiedematous action according to Dhanwantary nighantu, yet another ancient text on Ayurveda, written by Rishi (meaning Sage in the ancient Indian language, Sanskrit) Dhanwantari. It cleanses the throat, is good for the voice (corrective of larynx affections), reduces vomiting, relieves flatulence and constipation, and relieves neck pain (Saligrama nighantu, yet another ancient Ayurvedic text). Due to its hot property, ginger is capable of causing dryness and is thus antidiarrheal in effect. Bhavaprakasa specifically emphasizes the antiarthritic and antifilarial effects of dry ginger. It is also good for asthma, bronchitis, piles, eructation, and ascites. Kittikar and Basu (1935) mentioned a remedy for cough in which fresh ginger is made into pills along with honey and ghee, and taken in a dose of four pills a day. It is applied externally to boils and enlarged glands and internally as a tonic in Cambodia (Kittikar and Basu 1935). The outer skin of ginger is used as a carminative and is said to be a remedy for opacity of the cornea. In acute ascites with dropsy arising from liver cirrhosis, complete subsidence by the use of fresh ginger juice is reported. The juice also acts as a strong diuretic (Kittikar and Basu 1935). Ginger strengthens memory, according to Nadkarni (1976), and removes obstructions in the blood vessels, incontinence of urine, and nervous diseases. Dry ginger paste with water is effective in remedying the adverse effects of fainting and helps the patient recover fast. This paste can also be applied to the eye lids, and the ginger powder can also be used as a snuff. Bhaishajya ratnavali (another ancient Ayurvedic text) gives an important combination of dry ginger, rock salt, long pepper, and black pepper, powdered and mixed with fresh ginger juice, to be gargled after warming, as a specific drug for phlegmatic affections of the heart, head, neck, and thoracic region. It is very effective for all types of severe fevers and their associated symptoms. Ginger is made use of in veterinary science as a stimulant and carminative in indigestion in horses and cattle, in spasmodic colic of horses, and to prevent gripping by purgatives (Pruthi 1979).

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Experimental and Clinical Investigations

525

The ginger sprouts and shoots do not have any conspicuous taste and are said to aggravate Vata and Kapha (Saligrama nighantu)1 (Aiyer and Kolammal 1966).

25.8.2 Indications Apart from its extensive use as a spice, ginger plays an important and unavoidable role in traditional medicine, with a wide range of indications. On account of its carminative, stimulant, and digestive properties, wet or dry ginger is commonly used in fever, anorexia, cough, dyspnea, vomiting, cardiac complications, constipation, flatulence, colic, swelling, elephantiasis, dysuria, diarrhea, cholera, dyspepsia, diabetes, tympanitis, neurological disorders, rheumatism, arthritis, and inflammation of liver. It is also indicated in all the phlegmatic conditions and respiratory problems, such as asthma and cough.

25.8.3 Contraindications In diseases such as leprosy, anemia, leukoderma, painful micturition, hematemesis, ulcers, and fevers of Pitha predominance and in hot seasons, wet or dry ginger is not indicated (Bhavaprakasa and Saligrama nighantu).

25.9

Experimental and Clinical Investigations

25.9.1 Effect on Digestive System Goso et al. (1996) investigated the effect of ginger on gastric mucin against ethanolinduced gastric injury in rats and found that the oral administration of ginger significantly prevented gastric mucosal damage. Patel (1996) and Patel and Srinivasan (2000) investigated the influence of dietary spice on digestive enzymes experimentally. Dietary ginger prominently enhanced the secretion of saliva and

1

According to the Indian Ayurvedic system of medicine, all physiological functions of the human body are governed by three basic biological parameters: Thridoshas or the three basic qualities, namely, vata, pitta, and kapha (kafa). Vata is responsible for all voluntary and involuntary movements in the human body; pitta is responsible for all digestive and metabolic activities; and kapha provides the static energy (strength) for holding tissues together, and also provides lubrications at various joints of friction. When these three qualities (doshas) are in a normal state of equilibrium, the human body is healthy and sound, but when they lose the equilibrium and become vitiated, by varying internal and external factors, they produce varied diseases. Ayurvedic treatment of any disease is aimed at restoring the basic equilibrium of the three doshas or qualities.

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Pharmacology and Nutraceutical Uses of Ginger

intestinal lipase activity by chymotrypsin and pancreatic amylase as well as the disaccharides sucrose and maltose. The positive influence of this terminal enzyme of the digestive process could be an additional feature of this spice to stimulate digestion. Ginger contains proteolytic enzymes which promote the digestive process and also enhance the action of the gall bladder and protects the liver against toxins (Yamahara et al. 1990). Yoshikawa et al. (1994) analyzed ginger for its stomachic principles. An antiulcer constituent (6-gingesulfonic acid), three monoacyl digalactosyl glycerols (gingerogly-colipids A, B, C), and (+)-angelicoidenol (2-O-β-d-glucopyranoside) were isolated.

25.9.2 Cardiovascular and Related Actions Suekawa et al. (1984) reported that gingerol and shogaol present in ginger juice cause vagal stimulation leading to a decrease in both the blood pressure and heart rate. Janssen et al. (1996) studied the effect of the dietary consumption of ginger on platelet thromboxane production in humans. The result of the clinical assay of the raw and cooked ginger does not support the hypothesis on the antithrombolic activity of ginger in humans. Lamb (1994) investigated the effect of dried ginger on human platelet function, thrombogen, and hemostasis. The use of ginger as an antiemetic in the preoperative period has been criticized because of its effect on thromboxane synthetase activity and platelet aggregation. When administered to the elderly volunteer, ginger had no dose-dependent effect on thromboxane synthetase activity or such an effect only occurs in the fresh state of the product, that is, the ginger. However, in a previous investigation involving ten male healthy volunteers, it was shown that 5 g of ginger taken with a high-fat meal for seven days was able to inhibit significantly the enhanced tendency to platelet aggregation normally seen after a high-fat food intake (Verma et al. 1993). It has also been reported earlier that ginger, in addition to inhibiting platelet aggregation, also reduces platelet thromboxane synthesis in both in vivo and in vitro conditions (Srivastava 1989). However, this effect on in vivo conditions was seen after consumption of 5 g of ginger/day for 7 days. It is unknown whether this positive effect would also be seen under normal patterns of food consumption. It is unlikely that 5 g of ginger/day would be part of a normal consumption pattern, and this amount is far in excess of what is currently available in ginger-containing food products. Bordia et al. (1997) showed that the dose of 10 g powdered ginger administered to patients suffering from coronary artery disease produced a significant reduction in ADP- and epinephrine-induced platelet aggregation. An aqueous extract of ginger has strong anticlotting properties. Some components present in ginger have been shown to prevent blood clotting through physiological changes exerted on the arachidonic acid metabolism and eicosanoid metabolism (Srivastava 1986).

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Experimental and Clinical Investigations

527

25.9.3 Antiemetic and Antinauseant Properties One of the best-known and best-studied areas of ginger use is for the treatment of various forms of nausea. Many animal and clinical trials have been conducted to investigate the use of ginger in preventing nausea of various types. Arfeen et al. (1995) carried out a double-blind randomized clinical trial to investigate the effect of ginger on the nausea and vomiting following gynecological laparoscopic surgery. Both 0.5 and 1.0 g rates of ginger were effective in reducing vomiting. Phillips et al. (1993) reported that ginger was as effective as metoclopramide in reducing postoperative nausea and vomiting. Suekawa et al. (1984) reported that 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol suppressed gastric contraction but increased gastrointestinal motility and spontaneous peristaltic activity in laboratory animals. However, these positive effects were observed only when ginger was administered orally or intravenously. This suggests that direct contact with the intestinal mucosa and not delivery by the blood is required for the action of ginger; possibly, the hepatic metabolism is involved in the action. Treatment of morning sickness, where ginger is used, is a widely researched topic. FischerRasmussen et al. (1991), in a double-blind randomized crossover trial, found that 1 g/day of ginger was effective in reducing the symptoms of morning sickness and did not appear to have any adverse side effects on pregnancy. Recently, Keating and Chez (2003) administered ginger syrup in water to study the ameliorating effect of ginger on nausea in early pregnancy. This double-blind study showed a positive improvement in 77% of the cases investigated. The authors concluded that 1 g ginger in syrup for in a divided dose daily is useful in some patients who experience nausea and vomiting during the first trimester of pregnancy. Fulder and Tenne (1996) reported that ginger is an over-the-counter medicine recommended to manage pregnancy-related nausea in many Western countries. Ernst and Pittler (2000) carried out a systematic review of the evidence accumulated from randomized clinical trials on the effect of ginger in treating nausea and vomiting. They observed that only six trials satisfied all the experimental conditions. Among the three trials on postoperative nausea and vomiting, only two indicated that ginger was superior to placebo and equally effective as metoclopramide. The pooled information indicated only a statistically nonsignificant difference between ginger and placebo groups when 1 g ginger was taken prior to surgery. One study was found for each of the following conditions: seasickness, morning sickness, and chemotherapy-induced nausea. These studied collectively favored ginger than placebo. Ginger is also reported to be an effective remedy for travel and morning sickness. Mowrey and Clayson (1982) have conducted the best-known experiments in this area. Among 39 men and women investigated, who reported a high susceptibility to motion sickness, the following observations were made: motion sickness was induced when subjected to a rotating chair, while blindfolded, under controlled conditions. It was found that ginger was significantly more effective in reducing motion sickness than antihistaminic dimenhydrinate and a placebo.

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Pharmacology and Nutraceutical Uses of Ginger

A Danish controlled trial on seasickness involved 80 naval cadets who were unaccustomed to sailing in rough seas. The subjects reported that ginger consumption reduced the tendency to vomiting and cold sweating better than the placebo. The general hypothesis of the mode of action of ginger is that it ameliorates nausea associated with motion sickness by preventing the development of gastric dysrhythmias and the elevation of plasma vasopressin. Ginger also prolonged the latency before nausea onset and shortened the recovery time. Hence, ginger is recommended as a novel agent in the prevention and treatment of motion sickness (Holtmann et al. 1989).

25.9.4 Anti-inflammatory Properties: Effect on Rheumatoid Arthritis and Musculoskeletal Disorders In the Indian system of medicine (Ayurveda), ginger is used as an anti-inflammatory drug. It has been suggested that ginger may be useful as a remedy for arthritis, and a number of commercial preparations are available for this use. For instance, Bio-organics Arthri-Eze Forte (Bullivants, Australia) and Extralife Artri-care (Felton Grimwade & Brickford Ltd, Australia) are marketed as arthritis treatments and contain 500 mg dried, powdered ginger rhizome. Srivastava and Mustafa (1989) reported that more than 75% of patients receiving 3–7 g of powdered ginger a day for 56 days had a significant reduction in pain and swelling associated with either rheumatoid or osteoarthritis. Adverse effects have not been reported. These results prove the anti-inflammatory properties of ginger. Follow-up studies carried out (from 3 months to 2.5 years) in patients using 0.5–1 g/day exhibited significant reduction in pain and swelling to the extent of 75% and 100%, respectively, of arthritis (rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis) and muscular discomfort. The World Health Organization (WHO) documents 2000 reports that 5–10% ginger extract administration brought about full or partial pain relief or recovery of joint function and a decrease in swelling in patients with chronic rheumatic pain and also lower back pain. Kishore and Pande (1980) clinically evaluated the effects of a ginger and Tinospora cordifolia combination in rheumatoid arthritis. The combination showed better results compared to other traditional medicines. The antiarthritic effect of ginger and eugenol was studied by Sharma et al. (1997), who reported that ginger significantly suppressed the development of adjuvant arthritis. Bliddal et al. (2000) carried out a randomized, placebo-controlled, crossover study on the effects of ginger extract and ibuprofen (a commonly prescribed painkiller in patients with common arthritic/back pain problems) to study their effect on osteoarthritis. Ginger extract showed significant positive effect in pain reduction. A common adverse side effect of treating inflammation with modern allopathic drugs is that it leads to ulcer formation in the intestines due to acidity formation. This

25.9

Experimental and Clinical Investigations

529

can lead to ulcer formation in the digestive tract. Ginger not only prevents these symptoms of inflammation but also prevents ulcer formation in the digestive tract (Anonymous 2003).

25.9.5 Chemoprotective Properties There is considerable emphasis on identifying potential chemoprotective agents present in foods consumed by the human population. In prior in vitro studies, water or organic solvent extract of ginger was shown to possess antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties. Sharma and Gupta (1998) investigated the effect of ginger in reversing the delay in gastric emptying caused by the anticancer drug Cisplatin. Cisplatin causes nausea, vomiting, and inhibition of gastric emptying. Acetone and 50% ethanolic extracts of ginger (100, 200, and 500 mg/kg p.o.) and ginger juice (2 and 4 ml/kg body weight) were investigated against Cisplatin effects on gastric emptying in rats. Ginger administration significantly reversed Cisplatininduced delay in gastric emptying. The ginger juice and acetone extracts were more effective than the 50% ethanolic extract. The reversal produced by the ginger acetone extract was similar to that caused by the 5-HT3 receptor antagonist ondansetron; however, ginger produced better reversal than ondansetron. These investigators suggested that ginger, used as an antiemetic in cancer therapy, may also be useful in improving the gastrointestinal side effects of cancer chemotherapy. Chih Peng et al. (1995) showed that the extract of dried ginger rhizome exhibited biphasic effects on the secretion of cytokines by human peripheral blood mononuclear cells in vitro. The stimulatory effect of the extract on cytokine secretion was shown to be time dependent; a significant increase in the secretion of cytokines was noted in the presence of low doses of ginger extract (10–30 mg/ml) 18–24 h after administration. At a higher concentration of the extract, cytokine production was suppressed. Kim et al. (2002) found that the four types of shogaols from ginger protect IMR 32 neuroblastoma and normal human umbilical vein endothelial cells from β-amyloid at EC50 ¼ 4.5–8.0 μM/l. The efficacy of cell protection from β-amyloid insult by the shogaols was shown to improve as the length of the side chain increases.

25.9.6 Hypolipidemic Effect Sharma et al. (1996) studied hypolipidemic and antiatherosclerotic effects of Z. officinale in cholesterol-fed rabbits. The administration of GE increased the fecal excretion of cholesterol, thus suggesting a modulation of absorption; the treatment reduced total serum cholesterol and low-density cholesterol (LDC) levels. The atherogenic induct was reduced from 4.7 to 1.12.

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Pharmacology and Nutraceutical Uses of Ginger

Lamb (1994) investigated the effect of dried ginger on human platelet function, thrombogen, and hemostasis. The use of ginger as an antiemetic in the preoperative period has been criticized because of its effect on thromboxane synthetase activity and platelet aggregation. Bordia et al. (1997) studied the effect of ginger and fenugreek on blood lipids, blood sugar, and platelet aggregation in patients with coronary artery disease (CAD). A single dose of ginger powder (10 g) administered to CAD patients significantly reduced platelet aggregation induced by ADP or epinephrine and found no effect on blood lipid or blood sugar.

25.9.7 Antimicrobial and Insecticidal Properties Hiserodd et al. (1998) successfully isolated 6-, 8-, and 10-gingerol and evaluated their activity to inhibit Mycobacterium avium and M. tuberculosis. 10-Gingerol was identified as an active inhibitor of these two bacteria in vitro. The protective effect of a traditional Chinese medicine, Shigyakuto (containing 50% ginger), against infection of herpes T virus was investigated by Ikemoto et al. (1994). The drug was found to be protective through the activation of CD8+ T cells. No virucidal or virostatic activity was observed. The bioactivity of ginger extract on adult Schistosoma mansoni worms and their egg production under in vitro and in vivo conditions in laboratory mice showed the following results. Ethyl acetate extract of ginger at a concentration of 200 mg/l of extract killed almost all worms within 24 h. Male worms are more susceptible than the females. The cumulative egg output of surviving worm pairs in vitro was considerably reduced when exposed to the extract. After 4 days of exposure to 50 mg/l, the cumulative egg output was only 0.38 eggs per worm pair compared to 36.35 for untreated worms. However, in vivo GE did not show any significant effect on worms or their egg-laying capacity. Extract of the rhizome of Z. corallium was shown to be effective in killing the larvae of S. japonicum cercariae (Shuxuan et al. 2001).

25.9.8 Anxiolytic-Like Effect A combination of ginger and Ginkgo biloba was studied experimentally in elevated plus maze by Hasenohrl et al. (1996). The investigation evidently proved anxiolytic effect of ginger comparable to diazepam. But the action is biphasic; in high doses, it may also have an anxiogenic effect. The known antiserotonergic action of ginger and G. biloba is considered to be the responsible factor for the anxiolytic-like action.

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Other Properties

531

25.9.9 Effect on Liver Yamaoka et al. (1996) investigated a kampo medicine for its action in augmenting natural killer (NK) cell activity. This medicine is used in Japan to treat chronic hepatitis, distress, and dullness in the chest and in the ribs. Ginger is one of its seven ingredients, and studies showed that extracts of ginger and Zizyphus jujuba and the other three components augmented NK cell activity. Sohni and Bhatt (1996) studied the activity of a formulation in hepatic amebiasis and in immunomodulation studies. The ingredients in the formulation were Boerhavia diffusa, Tinospora cordifolia, Berberis aristata, Terminalia chebula, and Z. officinale. The formulation showed a maximum cure rate of 73%. Humoral immunity was enhanced. The cell-mediated immune response was stimulated as observed in the leukocyte migration inhibition test.

25.10

Other Properties

Dedov et al. (2002) showed that gingerol functions as an agonist of the capsaicinactivated VRI. 6-Gingerol and 8-gingerol evoked capsaicin-like intracellular Ca2+ transients and ion currents in cultured dorsal root ganglion neurons. These effects of gingerols were blocked by capsazepine, the VRI receptor antagonist. The potency of gingerols increased with the increasing size of the side chain. The authors concluded that gingerol represents a novel class of naturally occurring VR1 receptor agonists that may contribute to the medicinal properties of ginger. Ginger has also been shown to possess an antivertigo activity similar to Dramamine (Tyler 1996). A significant decrease in induced vertigo indicated a possible inhibitory action of ginger on the vestibular impulses to the brain (Grontved and Hentzer 1986). Ginger has a strong antitussive effect and helps dispel bronchial congestion. A cup of hot ginger tea containing one-fourth tablespoon of ginger powder mixed with honey relieves bronchial congestion and has been reported to be more effective, when a cough mixture proved ineffective (McCaleb 1996). Both gingerol and shogaol possess an antitussive property; shogaol is more potent (Miller and Murray 1998).

25.10.1

Toxicity

Normally, ginger is a safe drug without any adverse reactions to the human body and has a wide range of utility. Paradoxically, it is included in the list of plants containing poisonous principles (Chopra et al. 1958) because of its oxalic acid content.

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Pharmacology and Nutraceutical Uses of Ginger

Studies on ginger oleoresin on adult Swiss mice showed the following results. The oleoresin exhibited a marked action on the CNS. A single dose up to 0.5 g/kg body weight resulted in vasodilation, activeness, and alertness in animals. A dose up to 3 g/kg body weight was nonlethal, whereas doses above that resulted in mortalities, an abnormal gait associated with abdominal cramps, and gastric irritation. The LD50 is 6.284 g/kg body weight. Death may be due to the direct action on CNS resulting in respiratory failure as well as circulatory arrest.

25.10.2

Purification

Fresh and dry ginger are used as such and are generally not subjected to any purification methods. Yet, there are some references in Ayurvedic preparations where purification is used. Methods for purification of dry ginger and fresh ginger juice are available from Arogya Kalpadruma (an Ayurvedic text which concentrates on pediatrics). Purification of ginger may therefore be intended only for pediatric use, that is, to reduce the potency and pungency for infant use. Purification of ginger involves immersing the rhizome in lime water for an hour to an hour and a half, washing with sour gruel or sour rice washings, and drying in bright sunlight. The expressed fresh juice is to be kept undisturbed until the particles settle down. The supernatant alone is then poured into a red-hot iron vessel, which then gets purified.

25.10.3

Ginger in Home Remedies (Primary Health Care)

1. Decoction of dry ginger with jaggery (a dark brown form of Indian sugar sold in cubes obtained from fresh crystallized sugarcane juice) relieves dropsy (excessive accumulation of watery fluid in any of the tissues or cavities of the human body). 2. Hot decoction of dry ginger is stomachic and digestive which relieves cough, asthma, colic, and angina pectoris. 3. Ginger juice with an equal quantity of milk is indicated in ascites (abnormal accumulation of fluid in the peritoneal cavity). The ghee (Indian molten butter, which is a common ingredient in many vegetarian dishes of the country) prepared with ten times the ginger juice also has a similar effect. 4. Warm juice of ginger mixed with gingelly (sesamum) oil, honey, and rock salt is a good eardrop for otalgia (pain in the ear). 5. Paste of ginger made with Ricinus communis (castor) root decoctions is cooked over red-hot coals after covering with mud, and the juice is collected with this special method called Pudapaka swarasa. This juice, if taken along with honey, cures the symptoms of rheumatic fever. 6. Juice of ginger with old jaggery cures urticaria (nettle rash) and is a digestive.

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Other Properties

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7. Ghee prepared with ginger juice, ginger paste, and milk relieves edema, sneezing, ascites, and indigestion. 8. Ginger juice along with lemon juice and mixed with little rock salt powder is effective in controlling flatulence (presence of excessive gas in the stomach and intestine), indigestion, and anorexia (having no appetite for food). 9. Dry ginger is effective in all the symptoms due to the ingestion of jackfruit. 10. Ginger immersed in lime water (CaOH) and applied to the skin can remove warts. 11. Ginger juice and clear lime water mixed and applied cures corn (a small painful growth on the sole of the foot or the toes, akin to a callus). 12. Ginger juice and honey (from Apis indica) in equal proportions is hypotensive in action, and of course, is excellent in relieving cough. 13. Application of ginger juice around the umbilical region is a good cure for diarrhea. 14. Purified ginger juice, onion juice, and honey in equal parts is taken at bed time and is anthelmintic in action. 15. Dry ginger pounded in milk and then the expressed juice is used as a nasal drop, which relieves headache and associated symptoms. 16. Dry ginger powder, tied in a small piece of cloth, if massaged onto the scalp after heating will cure alopecia (hair loss, a condition in which the hair falls from one or more round or oval areas, leaving the skin smooth and white) and promotes hair regrowth. 17. Dry ginger paste, taken along with milk is indicated in jaundice, and when applied to the forehead relieves headache. 18. Dry ginger boiled in buttermilk is antipoisonous and is administered for internal use. 19. Dry ginger paste taken internally with hot water and applied over the whole body is an antidote for the toxic effects of Gloriosa (fire lily). 20. In snake poisoning, the external application with ginger over the snake bite wound and cold body parts and drinking of ginger decoction is believed to be an effective antidote for snake bite. 21. Ginger juice is an excellent adjuvant for the medicinal preparation Vettumaran (an Ayurvedic preparation) which is indicated in such conditions as fever, chicken pox, and mumps. 22. Ginger juice is used in the purification of cinnabar (HgS) before incinerating it to lessen its toxicity and to make it biologically acceptable. Ginger forms a component of a large variety of Ayurvedic preparations. However, the following precautionary measures are indicated. Ginger has ushna (hot) and tikshna (intense, pungent) attributes and hence is contraindicated in anemia, burning sensation, calculus (a concretion formed in any part of the body, usually by compounds of salts of organic or inorganic acids), hemorrhage of liver, leprosy, and blood-related diseases. Its consumption should be reduced or avoided in the hot summer season. Green ginger should not be used for medicinal purposes according to Nadkarni (1976). Ginger is also used in homeopathy and the Unani system of

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Pharmacology and Nutraceutical Uses of Ginger

medicine (Indian). In the former, it is used to treat albuminemia (the presence of serum albumin and serum globulin in urine), bad breath, dropsy, and retention of urine in the bladder. In the latter, ginger is used for its anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, carminative, digestive, and sedative properties and also in treating headache, lumbago, nervous diseases, pain in the human body, and rheumatism and to strengthen memory (Nadkarni 1976). Ginger is also used in veterinary medicine in horses and cattle for rheumatic complaints, and as an antispasmodic, and as a carminative in atonic indigestion (Blumenthal 1998).

25.11

Ginger in Chinese and Japanese Systems of Medicine

Ginger rhizome is an important drug in the Chinese and Japanese systems of medicine (known as Sheng Jiang in Chinese [Mandarin] and Shokyo in Japanese). In fact, in the Chinese medicine, fresh and dry ginger are used for different clinical purposes. Generally, fresh ginger (Zingiberis Recens Rhizoma, Sheng Jiang) is used as an antiemetic, antitussive, or expectorant and is used to induce perspiration and to dispel cold. Dried ginger (Zingiber Rhizoma, Gan Jiang in China) is used for stomachache, vomiting, and diarrhea accompanied by cold extremities and faint pulse (Benskey and Gamble 1986). In China, ginger dried in the sun as well as heated and dried in pans with or without hot sand is used. In Japanese medicine, ginger dried in the sun (Shokyo in Japanese) as well as steamed and dried (Kankyo in Japanese) are used differently. In Chinese Materia Medica (Benskey and Gamble 1986), ginger is indicated to have the following functions and clinical uses: 1. Releases the exterior and disperses cold: used for exterior cold patterns 2. Warms the middle burner and alleviates vomiting: used for cold in the stomach, especially when there is vomiting 3. Disperses cold and alleviates coughing: used for cough emanating from acute wind, cold cough patterns, and chronic lung disorders and phlegm 4. Reduces the poisonous effects of toxic herbs: used to detoxify or treat overdoses of other herbs such as radix, aconiti carmichaeli praeparata (Fuzi), or Rhizoma Pinelliae ternate (Ban Xia) 5. Adjusts the nutritive and protective Qi: used for exterior deficient patients who sweat without an improvement in their condition In the Divine Husbandman’s Classic of the Materia Medica of China, ginger rhizome is indicated to have the following functions and chemical uses: vomiting, diarrhea, light-headedness, blurred vision, and numbness in the mouth and extremities. In advanced cases, there can be premature atrial contractions, dyspnea, tremors, incontinence, stupor, and a decrease in temperature and blood pressure.

25.11

Ginger in Chinese and Japanese Systems of Medicine

25.11.1

535

Functions and Clinical Uses

1. Warms the middle body (stomach region) and expels cold: used to warm the spleen and stomach, especially in deficiency cold patterns with such manifestations as pallor, poor appetite, cold limbs, vomiting, diarrhea, cold painful abdomen and chest, a deep, slow pulse, and a pale tongue with a moist, white coating. 2. Rescues devastated Yang and expels interior cold: used in patterns of devastated or deficient Yang with such signs as a very weak pulse and cold limbs. 3. Warms the lungs and transforms phlegm: used in cold lung patterns with expectoration of thin, watery, or white sputum. 4. Warms the channels and stops bleeding: used for deficiency cold patterns that may present with hemorrhages of various types, especially uterine bleeding. Ginger is used in hemorrhage only if the bleeding is chronic and pale in color and is accompanied by cold limbs, ashen white face, and a soggy, thin pulse.

25.11.2

Major Combinations

With Radix Glycyrrhizae uralensis (Gan Cao) for epigastric pain and vomiting due to cold-deficient stomach and spleen. With Rhizoma Alpiniae officinari (Gao Liang Jiang) for abdominal pain and vomiting due to cold stomach. With Rhizoma Pinelliae ternate (Ban Xia) for vomiting due to cold-induced congested fluids. Add radix ginseng (Ren Shen) for vomiting due to deficiency cold. With Rhizoma Coptidis (Huang Lian) for epigastric pain and distension, dysenterylike disorders, and indeterminate gnawing hunger. The latter is a syndrome characterized by a feeling of hunger, vague abdominal pain, or discomfort sometimes accompanied by belching, distension, and nausea, which gradually culminates in pain. With Cortex Magnoliae officinalis (Hou Po) for epigastric distension and pain due to cold-induced congealed fluids. With Rhizoma Atractyloids macrocephalae (Bai Zhu) for deficient spleen and diarrhea. If both herbs are charred, they can be used for bloody stool and excessive uterine hemorrhage. With Fructus Schisandrae chinensis (Wu Wei Zi) for coughing and wheezing due to congested fluids preventing the normal descent of the lungs’ Qi. Compared to Rhizoma Zingiberis officinalis Recens (Sheng Jiang), Rhizoma Zingiberis officinalis (Gan Jiang) is more effective in warming the middle burner and expelling interior cold, whereas Rhizoma Zingiberis officinalis Recens (Sheng Jiang) promotes sweating and disperses exterior cold.

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25.11.3

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Pharmacology and Nutraceutical Uses of Ginger

Cautions and Contraindications

1. Contraindicated in deficient Yin patterns with heat signs 2. Contraindicated in reckless marauding of hot blood 3. Use cautiously during pregnancy

25.11.4

Chinese Healing with Moxibustion: The Ginger Moxa

Moxibustion is a Chinese treatment practice used along with acupuncture for conditions ranging from bronchial asthma to arthritis with amazing success. In moxibustion, the leaves of the herb (Artmesia vulgaris, Chinese mugwort) are dried, rolled into pencil-like sticks, and burned, and this burning stick is used for the treatment. The ginger moxa is one type of treatment that combines the therapeutic properties of moxibustion with those of ginger. A slice of ginger, 1–2 cm thick, is cut and pierced with tiny holes. Dried mugwort leaves are then rolled into a short cone. The ginger disk is placed on the umbilicus of a patient suffering from diarrhea or abdominal pain. The moxa cone is placed on the ginger disk and then carefully lit with a small flame. The burning nugget of moxa and ginger remain on the umbilicus until the patient perspires and the area turns red. New cones are added as the original cones burn down and this continues until four to five cones are consumed. Ginger moxa also has been proven to be beneficial in the treatment of painful joints (Balfour 2003).

25.12

Ginger in Traditional Medical Care in Other Countries

Ginger is used in primary health care in almost all ginger-growing countries. The most important use is to cure indigestion and stomachache. The expressed juice of fresh ginger mixed with sugar or honey is used widely for these purposes.

References Aiyer, K. N., & Kolammal, M. (1966). Pharmacognosy of ayurvedic drugs of Kerala, vol. 9. Trivandrum: Department of Pharmacognosy, University of Kerala. Anonymous. (2003). The medicinal properties of ginger Buderim Ginger Consumer promotion. http://www.buderimginger.com/. Accessed 30 July 2003.

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Arfeen, Z., Owen, H., Plummer, J. L., Isley, A. H., Sorby-Adams, R. A., & Doecke, C. J. (1995). A double blind randomized controlled trial on ginger for the prevention of postoperative nausea and vomiting. Anaesthesia and Intensive Care, 23, 440–452. Balfour, T. (2003). Chinese healing with moxibustion: Burrn your ailments away. www.balfourhealing.com/mox. Accessed 30 July 2003. Benskey, D., & Gamble, A. (Eds.). (1986). Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica. Seattle: Eastland Press. Bhandari, U., Kanojia, R., & Pillai, K. K. (2005). Effect of ethanolic extract of Zingiber officinale on dyslipidaemia in diabetic rats. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 97(2), 227–230. Bliddal, H., Rosetzsky, A., Schlchting, P., Weidner, M. S., Anderson, L. A., Ibfelt, H. H., et al. (2000). A randomized, placebo-controlled, cross-over study of ginger extracts and ibuprofen in osteoarthritis. Osteoarthritis and Cartilage, 8, 9–12. Blumenthal, M. (Ed.). (1998). The complete German Commission E. Monographs therapeutic guide to herbal medicine. Austin: American Botany Council. Bordia, A., Verma, S. K., & Srivastava, K. C. (1997). Effect of ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) and fenugreek (Trigonella foenumgraecum L.) on blood lipids, blood sugar and platelet aggregation in patients with coronary artery disease. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 56, 379–384. Business Line, August 8, 2012. Chaisawadi, S., Thongbute, D., Methawiriyasilp, W., Pitakworarat, N., Chaisawadi, A., Jaturonrasamee, K., et al. (2005). Preliminary study of antimicrobial activities on medicinal herbs of Thai food ingredients. Acta Horticulturae, 675, 111–114. Chih Peng, C., Jan Yi, C., Fang, Y. W., & Jan Gowth, C. (1995). The effect of Chinese medicinal herb Zingiberis rhizoma extract on cytokine secretion by human peripheral blood mono- nuclear cells. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 48, 13–19. Chopra, R. N., Chopra, I. C., Handa, K. L., & Kapoor, L. D. (1958). Indigenous drugs of India. Calcutta: Academic Publishers. Dedov, V. N., Tran, V. H., Duke, C. C., Connor, M., Christie, M. J., Mandadi, S., et al. (2002). Gingerols: A novel class of vanilloid receptor (VRI) agonists. British Journal of Pharmacology, 137(6), 793–798. Endo, K., Kanno, E., & Oshima, Y. (1990). Structures of antifungal diarylheptenones, gingerenones A, B, C and isogingerenone B, isolated from the rhizomes of Zingiber officinale. Phytochemistry, 29(3), 797–799. Ernst, E., & Pittler, M. H. (2000). Efficiency of ginger for nausea and vomiting: A systematic review of randomized clinical trials. British Journal of Anaesthesia, 84, 367–377. Fischer-Rasmussen, W., Kajaer, S. K., Dahl, C., & Aspong, U. (1991). Ginger treatment of hyperemis gravidarum. European Journal of Obstetrics, Gynecology, and Reproductive Biology, 38, 19–24. Fulder, S., & Tenne, M. (1996). Ginger as an anti-nausea remedy in pregnancy—The issue of safety. HerbalGram, 38, 47–50. Goso, Y., Ogara, Y., Ishikara, K., & Hotta, K. (1996). Effects of traditional herbal medicine on gastric mucin against ethanol-induced gastric injury in rats. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology. Pharmacology, Toxicology and Endocrinology, 113, 17–21. Grontved, A., & Hentzer, E. (1986). Vertigo-reducing effect of ginger root. Journal of Oto-RhinoLaryngology and its Related Specialties, 48, 282–286. Hasenohrl, R. U., Nichau, C., Frisch, C., de Souza Silva, M. A., Huston, J. P., Mattern, C. M., et al. (1996). Anxiolytic-like effect of combined extracts of Zingiber officinale and Gingko biloba in the elevated plus-maze. Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior, 53(2), 271–275. Hiserodd, R. D., Franzbleau, S. G., & Rosen, R. T. (1998). Isolation of 6-, 8-, and 10-gingerol from ginger rhizome by HPLC and preliminary evaluation of inhibition of Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46, 504–508. Holtmann, S., Clarke, A. H., Scherer, H., & Hohm, M. (1989). The automotion sickness mechanism of ginger, a comparative study. Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 3–4, 168–174.

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Ikemoto, U. T., Utsunomiya, T., Ball, M. A., Kobayashi, M., Pollard, R. B., & Suzuki, F. (1994). Protective effect of shigyaku-to, a traditional Chinese herbal medicine on the infection of herpes simplex virus type-1 (HSV-1) in mice. Experientia, 50, 456–460. Iqbal, Z., Lateef, M., Akhtar, M. S., Ghatyur, M. N., & Gilani, A. H. (2006). In vivo anthelmintic activity of ginger against gastrointestinal nematodes of sheep. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 106(2), 285–287. Janssen, P., Meyboom, S., Staveren Van, W. A., de Vegt, F., & Katan, M. B. (1996). Consumption of ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe.) does not affect ex vivo platelet thromboxane production in humans. European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 50(11), 772–774. Jantan, I. B., Yassin, M. S. M., Chin, C. B., Chen, L. L., & Sim, N. L. (2003). Antifungal activity of the essential oils of nine Zingiberaceae species. Pharmaceutical Biology, 41(5), 392–397. Keating, A., & Chez, R. A. (2003). Ginger syrup as an antiemetic in early pregnancy. Alternative Therapies in Health and Medicine, 8(5), 89–91. Kim, D. S. H. L., Dongseon, K., & Oppel, M. N. (2002). Shogaols from Zingiber officinale protect IMR 32 human neuroblastoma and normal human umbilical vein endothelial cells from β-amyloid insult. Planta Medica, 68, 375–376. Kishore, P., & Pande, P. N. R. (1980). Role of Sunthi gudochi in the treatment of Amavata (rheumatoid arthritis). Journal of Research in Ayurveda & Siddha, 1(3), 417–428. Kittikar, K. R., & Basu, B. D. (1935). Indian Medicinal Plants (Vol. 4). Dehradun: Bishen Singh Mahendrapal Singh. Lamb, A. B. (1994). Effect of dried ginger on human platelet function. Thrombosis and Haemostasis, 71, 110–111. Martins, A. P., Salgueiro, L., Goncalves, M. J., Cunha, A. P., Vila, R., Canigueral, S., et al. (2001). Essential oil composition and antimicrobial activity of three Zingiberaceae from S.Tome e Principe. Planta Medica, 67(6), 580–584. McCaleb, R. (1996). Ginger: The anti-inflammatory pain relievers from nature. http://sunsite. unc. edu/herbs/. Quoted from Pakrashi and Pakrashi, 2003. Miller, L. G., & Murray, W. J. (1998). Herbal Medicines—A Clinician’s Guide. New York: Pharmaceutical Press. Mowrey, D. B., & Clayson, D. E. (1982). Motion sickness, ginger and psychophysics. Lancet, 1 (8273), 655–657. Mustafa, T., & Srivastava, K. (1990). Ginger (Zingiber officinale) in migraine headache. Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 29, 267–273. Nadkarni, K. M. (1976). Third ed. Indian Materia Medica (Vol. 1). Bombay: Popular Prakashan. Olayaki, L. A., Ajibade, K. S., Gesua, S. S., & Soladoye, A. O. (2007). Effect of Zingiber officinale on some hematologic values in alloxan-induced diabetic rats. Pharmaceutical Biology, 45(7), 556–559. Patel, K. (1996). Cited from Patel and Srinivasan, 2000. Patel, K., & Srinivasan, R. (2000). Influence of dietary spices and their active principles on pancreatic digestive enzymes in albino rats. Nabrung, 44, 42–46. Phillips, S., Ruggier, R., & Hutchinson, S. E. (1993). Zingiber officinale (Ginger)—An antiemetic for day case surgery. Anaesthesia, 48, 715–717. Pruthi, J. S. (1979). Spices and Condiments. New Delhi: National Book Trust of India. Pushpanathan, T., Jebanesan, A., & Govindarajan, M. (2008). The essential oil of Zingiber officinale Linn. (Zingiberaceae) as a mosquito larvicidal and repellent agent against the filarial vector Culex quinquefasciatus Say (Diptera: Culicidae). Parasitology Research, 102(6), 1289–1291. Sharma, S. S., & Gupta, Y. K. (1998). Reversal of cisplatin-induced delay in gastric emptying in rats by ginger (Zingiber officinale). Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 62, 49–55. Sharma, I., Gosain, D., & Dixit, V. P. (1996). Hypolipidaemia and antiatherosclerotic effects of Zingiber officinale in cholesterol fed rats. Phytober Research, 10, 517–518.

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Sharma, J. N., Ishak, F. I., Yusuf, A. P. M., & Srivastava, K. C. (1997). Effects of eugenol and ginger oil on adjuvant arthritis and the kallikreins in rats. Asia Pacific Journal of Pharmacology, 12, 9–14. Shuxuan, J., Xiu Qin, H., Zheng, X., Li Mei, M., Ping, L., Juan, D., et al. (2001). Experimental study on Zingiber corallium Hance to prevent infection with Schistosoma japonicum cercaria. Chinese Journal of Schistosomiasis Control, 13, 170–172. Sohni, Y. R., & Bhatt, R. M. (1996). Activity of a crude extract formulation in experimental hepatic amoebiasis and in immunomodulation studies. Journal of Pharmacology, 54, 119–124. Srivastava, K. C. (1984). Aqueous extracts of onion, garlic, and ginger inhibit platelet aggregation and alter arachidonic acid metabolism. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 43, 335–346. Srivastava, K. C. (1986). Isolation and effects of some ginger components on platelet aggregation and cicosanoid biosynthesis. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 35, 183–185. Srivastava, K. C. (1989). Effect of onion and ginger consumption on platelet thromboxane production in humans. Prostaglandins, Leukotrienes, and Essential Fatty Acids, 35, 183–185. Srivastava, K. C., & Mustafa, T. (1989). Ginger (Zingiber officinale) and rheumatoid disorders. Medical Hypotheses, 29, 25–28. Suekawa, M., Ishige, A., Yuasa, K., Sudo, K., Aburada, M., & Hosoya, E. (1984). Pharmacological studies on ginger I. Pharmacological actions of pungent constituents, (6)-gingerol and (6)shogaol. Journal of Pharmacobio-Dynamics, 7, 836–848. The New Sunday Express Magazine, August 19, 2012. www.drweil.com/ Tyler, V. E. (1996). What pharmacists should know about herbal remedies. Journal of the American Pharmaceutical Association (Washington, DC), 36, 29–37. Ukeh, D. A., Birkett, M. A., Pickett, J. A., Bowman, A. S., & Mordue, A. J. (2009). Repellent activity of alligator pepper, Aframomum melegueta and ginger, Zingiber officinale, against the maize weevil, Sitophilus zea mais. Phytochemistry, 70(6), 751–758. Verma, S. K., Singh, J., Khamesra, R., & Bordia, A. (1993). Effect of ginger on platelet aggregation in man Indian. Journal of Meat Research, 98, 240–242. Wang, H., & Ng, T. B. (2005). An antifungal protein from ginger rhizomes. Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, 336(1), 100–104. Yamahara, J., Huang, Q. R., Li, Y. H., Xu, L., & Fujimura, H. (1990). Gastrointestinal motility enhancing effect of ginger and its active constituents. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 38, 430–431. Yamaoka, Y., Kawakita, T., Kaneoko, M., & Nomoto, K. (1996). A polysaccharide fraction of Zizyphi fructus in augmenting natural killer activity by oral administration. Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 19, 936–939. Yoshikawa, M., Yamaguchi, S., Kunimi, K., Matsuda, H., Okuno, Y., Yamahara, J., et al. (1994). Stomachic principles in ginger. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 42, 1226–1230.

Chapter 26

Ginger as a Spice and Flavorant

Abstract Discussion in the chapter is about ginger as a spice and flavorant. Keywords Spice · Flavorant

Spices are added to contribute flavor to bulk foods, which are generally insipid, to increase their acceptability and intake. The term flavor is usually used to mean a combination of taste and aroma, but a comprehensive definition is the total effect provided in the mouth, when a prepared food is eaten. This includes, besides aroma and taste, other perceptions such as pungency, astringency, warmth, and cold. It is essentially these sensations, which produce the physiological reactions leading to humeral and hormonal secretions and in turn give the cues to their acceptance or rejection reactions. Apart from salt (sodium chloride), spices are considered to be the most important enhancers of taste and flavor. Spices are often used in association with the term condiments. Both terms are used indiscriminately and interchangeably. However, for the chef, food technologist, and connoisseur of food, spices and condiments mean different things. Spices are fragrant, aromatic, or pungent edible plant products, which contribute flavor and relish or piquancy to foods or beverages. Condiments, on the other hand, are prepared food compounds containing one or more spices or spice extractives, which, when added to a food after it has been served, enhances the flavor of the food (Farrell 1985). Hence, condiments are compound food additives, and they are added after the food has been served. Seasoning is another term that is related to both spices and spice extractives, which when added to food, either during its manufacture or in its preparation, before it is served, enhances the natural flavor of the food and thereby increases its acceptance by the consumer (Farrell 1985). Seasonings are added before or during the preparation of a food, whereas condiments are added after the preparation of the food or after it has been served. Spices have various effects: they impart flavor, pungency, and color, and they also have antioxidant, antimicrobial, nutritional, and medicinal functions. In addition

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 K. P. Nair, Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_26

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to these direct effects, spices have complex or secondary effects when used in cooking, such as salt reduction and improvement of texture of certain foods.

26.1

Forms of Ginger Used in Cooking

Ginger is, more or less, a universal spice, although its use is more predominant in certain countries such as China. Ginger is used in cooking, in various forms such as immature ginger, mature fresh ginger, dry ginger, ginger oil, ginger oleoresin, dry soluble ginger, ginger paste, and ginger emulsion. Essential oil, oleoresin, and other extractives are standardized by the manufacturers to yield the same aromatic and flavorant characteristics of the specific spice. Manufacturers usually determine the ground spice equivalence of the extract before marketing. Spice equivalence of extract is defined as the number of pounds of oleoresin required to equal 100 pounds of freshly ground spice in aromatic and flavorant characteristics (Farrell 1985). The weight of oleoresin is added to sufficient salt, sugar, dextrose, or other edible dry material as a carrier to 100 pounds of dry, soluble spice. One pound of such dry, soluble spice is equivalent to one pound of the corresponding freshly ground spice. The spice extractive equivalencies of ginger are given in Table 26.1. Spices have little value as nutrients, as they are used only in very small quantities. However, when ginger is consumed as ginger beer or ale, the intake also may be significant nutritionally. The nutritional composition of ginger is given in Table 26.2.

Table 26.1 Spice extractive equivalencies of ginger

Extractives Ginger (African) Ginger (Cochin) Ginger (commercial)

Type OS

g/type equivalent to 1oz ground spice 1.134

Percentage extractives on soluble dry edible carrier 4

Minimum percentage volatile oil in vol/wt 28

Federal specifications Volatile oil Extract on extract dry carrier in percentage vol/wt 4 25

SR

1.134

4

28

4

25

SR

1.134

4

28

4

25

Source: Farrell (1985) OR oleoresin, SR superresin (a blend of oleoresin and essential oil)

26.2

Ginger as a Flavorant

Table 26.2 Nutritional composition of ginger (ground)

543 Composition Ground Water (g) Food energy (kcal) Protein (g) Fat (g) Carbohydrates (g) Ash (g) Calcium (g) Phosphorus (mg) Sodium (mg) Potassium (mg) Iron (mg) Thiamine (mg) Riboflavin (mg) Niacin (mg) Ascorbic acid (mg) Vitamin activity (RE)

USDA Handbook 8-2a 9.38 347.00 9.12 5.95 70.79 4.77 0.116 148.00 32.00 1342 11.52 0.046 0.185 5.155 – 15

ASTAb 7.0 380.00 8.5 6.4 72.4 5.7 0.1 150.00 30.00 1400.00 11.3 0.050 0.130 1.90 ND 15

Source: Tainter and Grenis (2001) ND not detected a Composition of Foods: Spices and Herbs, USDA, Agricultural Handbook 8, 2 January 1977 b The nutritional composition of spices. ASTA Research Committee, February 1977

26.2

Ginger as a Flavorant

Spices are used in food for four basic purposes: (i) for flavoring, (ii) for masking or deodorizing, (iii) for imparting pungency, and (iv) for adding color. In addition, they also have ancillary properties such as antimicrobial and nutritional. However, when spices are used in cooking, complex secondary effects often result, leading to changes such as salt reduction and improved texture for certain foods. Each spice has one of the basic functions mentioned previously; in addition, it may perform one or more secondary functions (Hirasa and Takemasa 1998). When a spice is used in cooking, its overall quality has to be evaluated. Heating can lead to the loss of essential oil, and hence, it results in the reduction of overall quality of flavor. Because of this diverse effect of heat, the timing of adding a spice is a very important aspect. In addition, the taste of a food often changes in combination with another food or beverage. When one food component enhances the taste of another component, it results in a significant synergistic effect. On the other hand, certain tastes are decreased in intensity by combining with certain other food components resulting in a suppressive effect or “offset effect.” The synergistic effect is said to involve a “taste illusion”; the best-known example is the taste enhancement caused by the addition of sodium glutamate. In fact, ginger has a remarkable synergistic effect when it is used in soft drinks as well. Ginger has a typical earthy smell but has a refreshing flavor

544

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and imparts a “freshness stimulus.” Such qualities enhance the freshness of some soft drinks when ginger is added to them (Hirasa and Takemasa 1998). The functionally significant components of ginger are primarily its aroma and secondarily its pungency. Many investigations have been published on the chemical component, which contribute to its functional qualities. Salzer (1975) has suggested the following determinants of ginger quality: 1. Citral and citronellyl acetate are important codeterminants of odor. 2. Zingiberene and β-sesquiphellandrene are the main components of the freshly prepared oil. 3. These components are converted to ar-curcumene with storage. 4. The ratio of zingiberene + β-sequiphellandrene to ar-curcumene is indicative of the age of the oil. However, the sensory evaluation studies conducted subsequently, mainly by Govindarajan and his group (1982), have given us a much greater insight into the flavorant characteristics of ginger. They have developed the TLC aromagram technique to evaluate the flavor quality of individual components of ginger oil. Such studies have highlighted the importance of compounds such as borneol, α-terpineol, citral, and nerolidol to the total ginger aroma. The ginger aroma should have the proper blend of lemony, camphory, stale coconut (sweet rooty), and flavorant aromatic notes; the full flavor requires the impact of the pungency as well.

26.3

Ginger as a Deodorizing Agent

Spices perform a deodorizing function in food. According to the Weber–Fecher law, the strength of an odor perceived by the sense of the smell is proportional to the logarithm of the concentration of the smelled compounds. In other words, the sensational strength perceived with the five senses is proportional to the logarithm of the actual strength of these stimuli. Hence, even if 99% of the total smelled compound is eliminated chemically, the sensational strength perceived is reduced to 66% (Hirasa and Takemasa 1998). In food items, spices are employed to mask or deodorize the remaining 1%. Spices differ much in their ability to mask odors. Ginger is, in fact, very weak in this property, having a deodorizing rate of only 4%, as shown in Table 26.3.

26.4

Frequency Patterning Analysis of Ginger

Food technologists have analyzed the use of spices in various countries and in various preparations and developed a frequency patterning analysis of each spice. This analysis gives information on natural trends and the suitability of a

26.4

Frequency Patterning Analysis of Ginger

Table 26.3 Deodorizing rate of ginger in comparison with other common spicesa

Spice Ginger Turmeric Cardamom Black pepper Star anise Allspice Cloves Coriander Fennel Cumin Anise Celery Mint Rosemary Thyme

545 Deodorizing rate (%) 4 5 9 30 39 61 79 3 0 11 27 44 90 97 99

Source: Tohita et al. (1984) Deodorizing rate—percent of methyl mercaptan (500 mg) captured by methanol extract of each spice a

spice for a particular type of preparation. The information on ginger is summarized below (Hirasa and Takemasa 1998). 1. Ginger is more suitable for dishes in Japan, China, India, and Southeast Asia. But, it is less preferred in countries like United Kingdom. 2. Ginger is suitable for preparations of meat, seafood, milk, egg, grains, vegetables, fruit, beans, seeds, and beverages. 3. Ginger is also suitable for boiled, baked, fried, deep fried, steamed, food processed with sauce, pickled, and fresh food; however, it is more suitable for fried and steamed dishes. 4. Ginger is used to impart pungency to food in Japan, China, Southeast Asia, India, and the United Kingdom; it is most commonly used in Chinese cooking. Analysis of the ethnic foods in the United States has indicated that ginger is an important spice in the dishes of the following ethnic groups: Armenian, Cambodian, Chinese, Cuban, Danish, Egyptian, Finnish, French, German, Hungarian, Indonesian, Iranian, Korean, Lebanese, Norwegian, Polynesian, Puerto Rican, Russian, Spanish, Swedish, Syrian, Turkish, and Vietnamese (Farrell 1985). However, compared to other major spices (e.g., black pepper and cinnamon), ginger is not usually found in seasoning (including spice blends). The spices usually used in Asian cooking formulations are ginger, cumin, coriander, basil, mint, and celery. Special seasoning masalas (Indian cooking medium with several spices) often create an almost magical effect on fish and meat dishes. In most of such blends, ginger is essential, and in certain dishes ginger is a predominant component, for instance, ginger chicken, ginger fish, and ginger vegetables.

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26

Table 26.4 Typical curry powder formulations containing ginger

Ginger as a Spice and Flavorant

Ingredients Coriander Cumin Turmeric Fenugreek Ginger Celery Black pepper Red pepper Cinnamon Nutmeg Cloves Caraway Fennel Cardamom Salt

Typical range (%) 10–50 5–20 10–35 5–20 5–20 0–15 0–10 0–10 0–15 0–15 0–15 0–15 0–15 0–15 0–10

Source: Tainter and Grenis (1993)

Ginger is an ingredient in many curry powder formulations. The compositions of some typical curry powder blends are provided in Tables 26.4 and 26.5. The federal specifications of curry powder (Sp. No. EES-631) contain not less than 3% of ginger. Ginger also forms a part of a typical pickling spice combination, ranging from 0% to 5% in various brands. Ginger is a component of the popular pumpkin pie spice formulation (Table 26.6). A selection of curry flavor formulations in vogue in various countries is given in Table 26.7.

26.5

Ginger as a Flavorant

In many other cases, ginger may not form a complement in the formulation itself but is added while cooking with, for example, fresh ginger, ginger paste, or ginger powder.

26.5.1 Flavor Properties of Ginger The aromatic compounds present in ginger contribute to its flavorant properties. The pungency and hotness are the principal sensations, which make it more palatable. Although, generally, volatile compounds contribute to flavor, in ginger, both volatile and nonvolatile constituents are important to impart the totality of flavor properties such as taste, odor, and pungency. The flavor quality depends on factors such as variety, geographical origin, processing methods, and storage conditions. African

26.5

Ginger as a Flavorant

547

Table 26.5 Curry powder blends as per US specifications Freshly ground spice Coriander Turmeric Fenugreek Cinnamon Cumin Cardamom Ginger (Cochin) Pepper (white) Poppy seed Cloves Cayenne pepper Bay leaf Chili peppers Allspice Mustard seed Lemon peel (dried)

US standard Formula no. 1 (%) 32 38 10 7 5 2 3

Formula no. 2 (%) 37 10 0 2 2 4 2

General-purpose curry formula Formula Formula no. 3 (%) no. 4 (%) 40 35 10 25 0 7 10 0 0 15 5 0 5 5

Formula no. 5 (%) 25 25 5 0 25 5 5

3 0 0 0

5 35 2 1

15 0 3 1

5 0 0 5

0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 0 0

5 0 3 0 3

0 0 0 3 0

0 5 0 5 0

Formula 1 is the US Military specifications Mil-C-35042A. Formula 2 is considered a mild curry. Formula 3 is a sweet curry. Formula 4 is a hot curry type. Formula 5 is a very hot pungent Indianstyle curry Source: Farrell (1985) Table 26.6 Pumpkin pie spice formulation

Ingredients Ground cinnamon Ground nutmeg Ground ginger Ground cloves Ground black pepper

Typical range (%) 40–80 10–20 10–20 10–20 0–5

ginger has a harsh, strong flavor as compared to the mild, sweet flavor of Jamaican ginger. Peeling of green ginger for drying should be carried out carefully to avoid the loss of volatile oil due to damage of oil cells present below the epidermal layer. Cochin ginger has a softer and richer flavor than African ginger. Flavorant properties of ginger depend both on volatile oil and its nonvolatile fraction. Volatile oil is composed mainly by sesquiterpene hydrocarbons, of which α-zingiberene, β-bisabolene, and ar-curcumene are the major compounds. The major flavor constituents for the pungent principle of ginger have been reported to be 6-, 8-, or 10-shogaols. The type of ginger plays a prominent role in the flavor; the method of adoption for extraction influences the type of compounds and their quality. Bartley

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Table 26.7 Curry blends and masala mixes with ginger as a component Spice Japanese seven spice blend Teriyaki blend and sauce Indian curry blends

Chat masala

Tandoori masala

Pickling masala blends

Burmese curry blend Malaysian curry blend Japanese curry blend

Mediterranean spice blend

French spice blend Mozambique blend (piri-piri) West African spice blend Global spice blend (green)

Ingredients Ginger, red pepper, orange/tangerine peel, dried nori/seaweed flakes, white and black pepper, sesame seed, and white poppy seeds Soy sauce, sugar, vinegar, sweet wine, ginger, chives, sesame, and fish stock Basic curry blend consists of coriander, cumin, red pepper, and turmeric. Special blends (e.g., for fish or meat) contain, in addition to the above, ginger, cardamom, cloves, cinnamon, mustard, fenugreek, curry leaf, mint, coriander leaf, and celery seeds depending on the particular blend A specific north Indian curry masala blend consisting of green chilies, coriander leaf, coriander, cumin, ajwain, black pepper, ginger, asafetida, and dried mango powder (amchoor) An aromatic, spicy masala blend used to marinate meat before baking in a tandoor (a type of clay oven). The blend consists of ginger, chilies, cumin, coriander, cloves, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, pepper, and bay leaf Many different types of pickling blends are in vogue. The important ingredients are mango or lime pieces, chili, pepper, ginger, garlic, mustard oil, mustard seed paste, turmeric, sesame seeds, mint, and cilantro. Mango, lime, and mixed fruit pickles are the common ones Onion, garlic, ginger, turmeric, fish sauce, chilies, and tamarind Lemongrass, star anise, ginger, galangal, pandan leaf, tamarind, mint, coriander, turmeric, and shallot Hot and fiery curry blend consisting of ginger, galangal, black pepper, red pepper, and cassia cinnamon. Apart from these spices, meat and fish stocks and a variety of other ingredients are also used Cardamom, ginger, cassia cinnamon, black pepper, cumin, fenugreek, lovage, mace, cubeb, long pepper, allspice, nutmeg, rose petals, lavender blossoms, orange blossoms, grains of paradise, chilies, nigella, onion, thyme, rosemary, and turmeric White/black pepper, ginger, nutmeg, cloves, mace, cinnamon, allspice, bay leaf, sage, marjoram, and rosemary Hot and fiery curry blend consisting of bird’s eye chilies, garlic, ginger, onion, hot paprika, black pepper, olive oil, and lemon juice Black pepper, red chilies, pink pepper, ginger, cubebs, and grains of paradise Leafy spices (e.g., basil, cilantro, parsley, mint), green pepper, ginger, garlic, and lemon

Source: Compiled from various sources worldwide

and Foley (1994) have reported neral, geranial, zingiberene, α-bisabolene, and β-sesquiphellandrene as major flavoring compounds of Australian ginger and reported that 6-gingerol is the major contributor to the pungency (Bartley 1995). Nishimura (1995) investigated the volatile compounds responsible for the aroma of fresh rhizomes of ginger, and the compounds with high dilution factor were linalool, geraniol, neral, isoborneol, borneol, 18-cineol, 2-pineol, geranyl acetate, 2-octenal, 2-decenal, and 2-dodecenal. The author also reported that linalool, 4-terpineol,

26.6

Ginger as an Antioxidant

549

borneol, and isoborneol contribute to the characteristic aromatic flavors of Japanese fresh ginger. The pungent principle of ginger, 6-gingerol, has been reported to be a potential antioxidant among 10 phenolic compounds separated by TLC.

26.6

Ginger as an Antioxidant

Ginger has a high content of antioxidants and has been grouped as one of the spices with good antioxidant activity, with a 1.8 index rating (Chipault et al. 1952). This makes it a free radical scavenger (Lee and Ahn 1985). Sethi and Aggarwal (1957) reported that dried ginger has weak antioxidant properties. The antioxidant property of ginger in comparison with other common spices is given in Table 26.8.

26.6.1 Peroxidation Value Studies on the antioxidant properties of the chemical compounds of many ginger spices revealed that the shogaol and zingiberene found in ginger exhibited strong antioxidant activities. The antioxidant activity of ginger is dependent on the side chain structures and substitution patterns on the benzene ring. Twelve compounds showed higher activity than α-tocopherol. Mainly, the antioxidant activity is exerted by gingerol and hexahydrocurcumin (Tsushida et al. 1994). Ginger added at a level of 1–5% to soybean oil and cottonseed oil exerted antioxidant activity during storage, and the activity was equivalent to BHT. In general, the increase in concentration of crude gingerol increases the antioxidant activity. However, the thermal stability studies by heating the gingerol component at 165 C for 30 min indicated the Table 26.8 Antioxidant activity of ginger in comparison with other common spices against lard Spice Ginger Turmeric Black pepper Chilies Cardamom Cinnamon Cloves Mace Nutmeg Rosemary Sage

Ground spice POV (mEq/kg) 40.9 399.3 364.5

Petroleum ether- soluble fractions POV (mEq/kg) 24.5 430.6 31.3

Petroleum ether- insoluble fractions POV (mEq/kg) 35.5 293.7 486.5

108.3 423.8 324.0 22.6 13.7 205.6 3.4 2.9

369.1 711.8 36.4 33.8 29.0 31.1 6.2 5.0

46.2 458.6 448.9 12.8 11.3 66.7 6.2 5.0

Concentration added was 0.02%

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retention of the antioxidant activity only to 10%. Shogaol has been shown to be a compound with high antioxidant activity when a methanolic extract of the spices was further fractionated by ethyl acetate, and the activity potency was similar to tocopherol. In animal experiments (Ahmed et al. 2001), the diet containing ginger showed a highly protective effect against the malathion-induced oxidative damage exhibiting the antioxidative activity. Incorporation of salt and ginger extract to precooked lean beef retarded rancidity during storage, increased the tenderness, and extended shelf life (Kim and Lee 1995).

26.7

Antimicrobial Activity

Although used in food preservation, ginger is not very effective in preventing spoilage of food due to microbial contamination and oxidative degradation. Ginger has only mild antimicrobial activity. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of ginger against Clostridium botulinum (the bacterium causing severe food poisoning) was shown to be about 2000 μg/ml. The essential oil in ginger was shown to inhibit both cholera and typhoid bacteria. The components of oil responsible for this antimicrobial effect were shown to be gingerone and gingerol (Hirasa and Takemasa 1998). Other investigations reporting the antimicrobial properties of gingerols are in relation to B. subtilis and E. coli (Yamada et al. 1992) and Mycobacterium (Galal 1996). Ginger stimulates appetite; acts as an antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antiflatulent; and hence has a tremendous use in processed food products. Ginger has occupied the pride of place in many food products, such as masala powders, curry mixes, readyto-eat foods, and pastes. A list of processed foods, processed foods with specific actions, manufactured products, and a selection of dishes with ginger is provided in Tables 26.9, 26.10, 26.11, and 26.12. Table 26.9 Processed foods containing ginger Processed food Plum appetizer Cake Chicken feet jokpyun Apple–ginger-based squash Baby food Beverage Bread Fragrant beef Wooung kimchi Chicken patties Semidry fish sausage Meat pickle Pickle

Concentration 1.5% ginger extract Ginger 0.1% ginger 10% ginger Ginger Ginger Ginger Ginger 1.3% ginger Ginger 0.1% ginger 10% ginger Ginger

References Barwal and Sharma (2001) Donovan (2001) Lal et al. (1999) Theuer (2000) Edjeme and Stapanka (1999) Ludewig et al. (1999) Feng and Cai (1998) Nath et al. (1996) Joshi and Rudrashetty (1994) Dhanapal et al. (1994) Sachdev et al. (1994)

26.7

Antimicrobial Activity

551

Table 26.10 Processed foods containing ginger with specific actions Food products Meat and meat products

Chicken meat Chicken meat Sheep meat Rape seed oil Infant food Beef patties Meat patties Ready-to-serve tomato juice Meat products Lean beef, cooked Korean cereal product Buffalo meat Soybean oil, cottonseed oil

Action Tenderizing Antioxidant Antimicrobial Antioxidant, antimicrobial Tenderizing Tenderizing, antioxidant Antioxidant Reduce gastrointestinal reflux Antioxidant Antioxidant Increased flavor and taste Superior sensory quality Antioxidant Antioxidant Antimicrobial Antioxidant

References Naveena and Mendirattta (2001a)

Naveena et al. (2001) Naveena and Mendiratta (2001b) Mendiratta et al. (2000) Takacsova et al. (1999) Theuer (2000) Mansour and Khalil (2000) Abd-ElAlim et al. (1999) Manimegalai et al. (1996) Syed-Ziauddin et al. (1995) Kim and Lee (1995) Lee and Park (1995) Syed-Ziauddin et al. (1995)

Table 26.11 Manufactured products containing ginger Masalas

Pickle and chutney Sauce Powder and paste Mixes/ready-to-eat products

Others

Meat, tandoori chicken, garam, channa, instant khara bath, kitchen king, chat, tea, gobi manchurian, pav bhaji, fish, kabab, chole, biryani/pulav, rajma, stuffed vegetable Ginger pickle, mango–ginger pickle, ginger thokku, spice-up tomato chutney, red chili chutney, onion chutney Chinese chili sauce, stromy sauce-chili tomato, manchurian, Schezuan hot Dry ginger powder, ginger–garlic paste, ginger paste Butter chicken mix, tikka gravy, paneer makhanwala, vegetable jawa mix, shahi gravy, channa gravy, chicken kolhapuri mix, yellow curry paste, chicken mughlai mix, chole gravy mix, gobi manchurian mix, navaratna ready- to-eat, mixed vegetable curry (ready-to-eat), pav bhaji mix, vegetable pulav, instant khara bath Ginger biscuits, ginger and mint, ginger fresh (mouth freshener), oriental stir fry

Source: All of the food products listed are very popular Indian vegetarian and nonvegetarian dishes; compiled from various sources

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Table 26.12 Selection of dishes using ginger as a spice and flavorant Nonvegetarian dishes

Vegetables

Ginger sweets and desserts

Ginger cakes, ginger breads, and ginger biscuits

Ginger jams, ginger pickles, and ginger chutneys

Ginger soft drinks, beverages

Ginger chicken, ginger fried chicken, chicken pulao, mutanjan, taash kabab, mutton vindaloo, mutton chops with curd, mutton curry, mince pie, masala liver, minced fish, malai curry, fish kebabs, fish roast Spicy vegetable pie, end of the month pie, cauliflower in ginger manchurian, potatoes and aubergines with ginger, mushroom– ginger manchurian, sweet and sour ginger curry, spicy besan pakories, ginger pachadi, sindhi channa, ginger pakories, ginger dip Ginger preserve, crystallized ginger, potato–ginger halwa, quick ginger pudding, ginger–custard pudding, gingerbread pudding, crisp fruit pudding, ginger refrigerated cake, oriental sundae, ginger snow, ginger snaps, brandy snaps, gingered pears, baked semolina pudding with ginger sauce, pumpkin pie, creamy custard flan, carrot fruit custard, ginger muffins, apple–ginger tarts, ginger crispies, ginger sugar puffs, ginger cake doughnuts American hot cheese cakes, ginger dundee cake, ginger pastry, ginger cake (eggless), ginger preserve cake, ginger sponge with treacle, date–ginger cake, fruit and nut bars, ginger dessert cake, ginger fruit cake, ginger nuts, simple ginger biscuits, frosted ginger cake, fruit gingerbread, lemon gingerbread, grantham gingerbread, grasmere gingerbread, spice leaf, sindhi masala bread, gingerbread nuts, ginger rock bun, Canadian gingerbread Apple–ginger jam, tomato marmalade, beetroot jam with ginger, parvel preserve with ginger, hot chili pickle, ginger– prawn pickle, lime–ginger pickle, ginger–mango pickle, ginger–garlic pickle, ginger–onion pickle, ginger–apple pickle, mixed fruit pickle, Ceylonese (now Sri Lankan) mixed pickle, mustard mango pickle, mutton pickle, dry fruit pickle, plantain stem pickle, prawn belches, sour lime pickle, beetroot pickle in water, tomato chutney, ginger chutney, ginger–pineapple chutney, plum chutney, ripe tomato chutney, mango bud chutney, sweet pumpkin chutney, hot mango chutney, sweet mango chutney Melon–ginger cocktail, ginger wine, rich ginger wine, lemon– ginger punch, orange–ginger punch, raspberry–ginger punch, cool ginger mint, hot lemon–ginger, ginger pop, ginger beer, gingerade, ginger tonic, ginger–orange milkshake, pineapple– ginger cocktail, ginger punch, ginger–vegetable soup, ginger– Chinese soup, ginger–mutton soup, ginger–chicken soup, ginger–seafood chowder soup, Marwari tea, kothamalli (coriander) tea

Source: Compiled from various sources. All the indigenous names refer to Indian cuisine (gingerbased)

References

553

References Abd-El-Alim, S. S. I., Lugasi, A., Hovari, J., & Dworschak, E. (1999). Culinary herbs inhibit lipid oxidation in raw and cooked minced meat patties during storage. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 79(2), 277–285. Ahmed, N., Katiyar, S. K., & Mukhtar, H. (2001). Antioxidants in chemoprevention of skin cancer. Current Problems in Dermatology, 29, 128–139. Bartley, J. P. (1995). A new method for the determination of pungent compounds in ginger. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 68(2), 215–222. Bartley, J. P., & Foley, P. (1994). Supercritical fluid extraction of Australian grown ginger. Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture, 66(3), 365–371. Barwal, V. S., & Sharma, R. (2001). Standardization of recipe for the development of plum appetizer. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 38(3), 248–250. Chipault, J. R., Mizuna, G. R., Hawkins, J. M., & Landberg, W. O. (1952). The antioxidant properties of natural spices. Food Research, 17, 46–49. Dhanapal, K., Ratnakumar, K., Indra Jasmine, G., & Jayachandran, P. (1994). Processing chunk meat into pickles. Fishery Technology, 31(2), 188–190. Donovan, M. E. (2001). No fat, no cholesterol cake and process for making the same. US Patent 6235334B1. Edjeme, G. A. J., & Stapanka, S. (1999). Beverage based preparation based on ginger, oranges and lemons. French Patent 19980407. Farrell, K. T. (1985). Spices, condiments and seasonings. Westport: The AVI Publ Co Inc. Feng, Z. Y., & Cai, H. M. (1998). Techniques for producing soft pack fragrant beef. Meat Research, 2, 20–22. Galal, A. M. (1996). Antimicrobial activity of 6-paradol and related compounds. International Journal of Pharmacognosy, 34, 64–66. Govindarajan, V. S. (1982). Flavour quality of ginger. In M. K. Nair, T. Premkumar, P. N. Ravindran, & Y. R. Sarma (Eds.), Ginger and Turmeric. Proceedings of the National Seminar CPCRI (pp. 147–166). Kasaragod: Central Plantation Crops Research Institute. Hirasa, K., & Takemasa, M. (1998). Spices—Science and technology. New York: Marcel Dekker. Joshi, V. R., & Rudrashetty, T. M. (1994). Effect of different levels of spice mixture, salt in the preparation of semidried fish sausages. Fishery Technology, 31(1), 52–57. Kim, K. J., & Lee, Y. B. (1995). Effect of ginger rhizome extract on tenderness and shelf life of precooked lean beef. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 8(4), 343–346. Lal, B. B., Joshi, U. K., Sharma, R. C., & Sharma, R. (1999). Preparation and evaluation of apple and ginger based squash. Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research, 58(7), 530–532. Lee, I. K., & Ahn, S. Y. (1985). The antioxidant activity of gingerol. Korean Journal of Food Scicence and Technolnology, 17(2), 55–59. Lee, J. H., & Park, K. M. (1995). Effect of ginger and soaking on the lipid oxidation of Yackwa. Journal of the Korean Society of Food Science, 11(2), 93–97. Ludewig, H. G., Stoffels, I., & Bruemmer, J. M. (1999). Investigation with the handmade production and shelf life of brown ginger bread. Getreide Mehl Und Brot, 53, (2), 112–118. Manimegalai, G., Premalatha, M. R., & Vennila, P. (1996). Formulation of delicious tomato RTS. South Indian horticulture, 44(1–2), 52–54. Mansour, E. H., & Khalil, A. H. (2000). Evaluation of antioxidant activity of some plant extracts and their application to ground beef patties. Food Chemistry, 69, 135–141. Mendiratta, S. K., Anjaneyulu, A. S. R., Lakshmanan, V., Naveena, B. M., & Right, G. S. (2000). Tenderizing and antioxidant effect of ginger extract on sheep meat. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 37(6), 651–655. Nath, R. I., Mahapatra, C. M., Kondaiah, N., & Singh, J. N. (1996). Quality of chicken patties as influenced by microwave and conventional oven cooking. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 33(2), 162–164.

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Naveena, B. M., & Mendiratta, S. K. (2001a). Ginger as a tenderizing, antioxidant and antimicrobial agent for meat and meat products. Indian Food Industry, 20(6), 47–49. Naveena, B. M., & Mendiratta, S. K. (2001b). Tenderization of spent hen meat using ginger extract. British Poultry Science, 42(3), 344–349. Naveena, B. M., Mendiratta, S. K., & Anjaneyalu, A. S. R. (2001). Quality of smoked hen meat treated with ginger extract. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 38(5), 522–524. Nishimura, O. (1995). Identification of the characteristic odorants in fresh rhizomes of ginger. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 43(11), 2941–2945. Sachdev, A. K., Gopal, R., Verma, S. S., Kapoor, K. N., & Kulshrestha, S. B. (1994). Quality of chicken gizzard pickle during processing and storage. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 31(1), 32–35. Salzer, U. H. (1975). Analytical evaluation of seasoning extracts (oleoresins) and essential oils from seasoning. Internation Journal of Flavours Food Additives, 6, 206–210. Sethi, S. C., & Aggarwal, J. C. (1957). Stabilization of edible fats by spices. Journal of Science and Indian Research, 16, 81–84. Syed-Ziauddin, K., Rao, D. N., & Amla, B. L. (1995). Effect of lactic acid, ginger extract and sodium chloride on quality and shelf life of refrigerated buffalo meat. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 33(2), 126–128. Tainter, D. R., & Grenis, A. T. (2001). The spices and seasonings, second ed (p. 97). New York: Wiley. Takacsova, M., Kristianova, K., Nguyen, D. V., & Dang, M. N. (1999). Influence of extracts from some herbs and spices on stability of rapeseed oil. Bull. Potravinarskebo-Vyskumu, 38(1), 17–24. Food Chem. 80(2):135–141. Theuer, R. C. (2000). Ginger containing baby food preparation and methods therefore. US Patent 6051235. Tohita et al., (1984). The Spices and Seasonings, 2 ed., Wiley, New York, p. 97. Tsushida, T., Suzuki, M., & Kurogi, M. (1994). Evaluation of antioxidant activity of vegetable extracts and determination of some active compounds. Journal of Japanese Society for Food Science and Technology, 41(9), 611–618. Yamada, Y., Kikuzaki, H., & Nakatani, N. (1992). Identification of antimicrobial gingerols from ginger (Zingiber officinale). Journal of Antibacterial and Antifungal Agents, 20, 309–311.

Chapter 27

Additional Economically Important Ginger Species

Abstract The chapter discusses additional economically important ginger species and their general features, including wild ginger. Keywords Additional economically important ginger species · Wild ginger

The genus Zingiber, the type genus of the family Zingiberaceae, forms an important group of the order Zingiberales. The word “ginger” refers to the edible ginger of commerce, Z. officinale. Ginger is also the common term for the members of the family Zingiberaceae, which includes the many other species of Zingiber besides Z. officinale, worth growing as ornamentals, while some others are of great medicinal value. Many species are grown in the garden as ornamental crops. They bear showy, long-lasting inflorescences and often brightly colored bracts and floral parts; they are widely used as cut flowers in floral arrangements. The gradual changing of the inflorescence bracts from green to yellow to various shades of red and finally to deep red adds to the beauty of the inflorescence. Many wild species have great potential as ornamentals. Some of them are good foliage plants due to their arching form and shining leaves. Leaves exhibit shades of light green to dark green, variegated with yellow and white, or with deep purple undersurfaces. Many of the inflorescence bracts, when squeezed, release a thick juice with the form of mucilage or a shampoolike substance. Hence, those gingers which have this mucilage in their bracts are called “shampoo gingers.” The following is a brief description of Zingiber species which have economic importance as local medicine, as spice, or as ornamental plants.

27.1

General Features

The ginger plants are perennial in growth and are medium-sized herbs with stout rhizomes. Most of the species produce the inflorescence on a separate shoot directly from the rhizome at the tips of a short or long peduncle. In a few species, the © Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019 K. P. Nair, Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_27

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inflorescence develops at the tips of the leafy shoots (Zingiber capitatum). The inflorescence possesses a number of closely overlapping bracts, each bearing a single flower. The flowers are peculiar in that the lateral staminodes are fused with the labellum, whereas in the other genera, they are free, highly reduced, or absent. The anther is unique in having a curved beak or horn-like appendage. This genus resembles the other genera such as Alpinia, Amomum, Hedychium, and so on in the vegetative stage, but it can be distinguished from the others because it has a pulvinus at the base of the petiole. The rhizome and pseudostem of Zingiber spp. are fleshier when compared with Alpinia, Amomum, and so on. The duration of the flowers in the genus is very short and differs from one species to another, but it is constant for each species. In Zingiber zerumbet, the flowers open from morning until evening in the inflorescence. The flowers are usually cross-pollinated. The pollination in the species of Zingiber is rather simple because of the specially modified anther structure and the nature of the staminodes. An insect visiting a flower first lands on the labellum and moves to the throat of the corolla tube. When the insect’s front portion pushes the base of the anther, the anther bends forward and dusts the pollen grains on the back of the insect. As it bends forward, the stigma protrudes and arches through the long anther crest and presses against the proboscis of the insect. Thus, pollen grains from other flowers deposited on the back of the insect stick to the stigma, and pollination is affected.

27.1.1 Zingiber mioga Roscoe Z. mioga (myoga ginger or Japanese ginger) is a perennial woodland species, endemic to Japan, where it is most popular. It is grown for its edible flowers and young shoots, both of which are used extensively as vegetables. The flowers are mostly sterile, and the propagation of this species is through rhizome division, as in the case of true ginger (Z. officinale). The species is unique in having a pentaploid chromosome number of 2n ¼ 55. In Japan, it is widely grown as a seasonal crop, and the flower bud-producing season is summer. Forced production in glass houses and heated polyhouses occurs during the winter months, and the product attracts a premium price (Sterling et al. 2003). From Japan, myoga cultivation has spread to China, Vietnam, Taiwan, Thailand, Australia (Queensland), and New Zealand. The myoga plant needs well-drained and fertile soil to grow well. In poor drainage, the growth of the plant is retarded, and the rhizome can rot. Myoga shoots emerge in the spring and produce dense foliage on robust stalks. The sterile flowers are produced at the ground level from the underground stem sprouts in spring and growth continues. The crop is propagated by planting 25-cm-long rhizome pieces (sets) and planted about 10 cm deep and 40 cm apart in rows. Harvesting the flower buds begins in the second year. An annual fertilizer application of 200–300 kg/ha of nitrogen– phosphorus–potassium fertilizer is suggested (Paghat, 2003).

27.1

General Features

557

Myoga flower buds are picked before they emerge above the soil surface from the underground shoots. To facilitate harvest, a 10–15 cm layer of sawdust is used to mulch the base of the plants. The buds are located in the sawdust and are harvested individually at the appropriate stage twice to thrice each week. Export-grade buds need to be more than 6 g and be plum or pink in color. The harvested flower buds can be kept in cold storage, and the production is around 8–13 t/ha in a second-year crop. Sterling et al. (2003) showed that flower bud production is influenced by photoperiod. Myoga cultivation has become quite popular in Australia and New Zealand of late. In Australia, a superior type of myoga plant has been identified and multiplied through tissue culture on a large scale for distribution among farmers. The myoga industry in both Australia and New Zealand depends on this superior line, and cultural conditions have been standardized to grow this type of ginger (Clark and Warner 2000). A dwarf variegated variety, known as “Dancing Crane,” is an ornamental plant, growing about 45 cm tall which produces yellow flowers. This variant has leaves with white stripes on a green background. Myoga ginger is used in Japan as a spice and as a substitute for true ginger. Two compounds, namely, galanal A and galanal B, were isolated from myoga rhizomes. These are known to contribute to the characteristic flavor of the myoga rhizomes. The pungent principle in myoga was identified as (E)-8β(17)β-epoxylated-12-ene15, 16-diel, commonly known as myogadial. When isolated, this compound, and also galanal A and galanal B which are reduced, and myogadinol are tasteless. The pungency of myogadial depends on the presence of the αβ-unsaturated -1,4-dialdehyde group (Abe et al., 2002). In the Chinese pharmacopoeia, myoga ginger is used to treat fever and also as a vermifuge.

27.1.2 Zingiber montanum (Koenig) Link ex Dietr. (¼Zingiber cassumunar Roxb.) Z. montanum is a native of India and is present throughout the Malaya Peninsula, Sri Lanka, and Java. It is also cultivated in tropical Asia. Its rhizome is an ingredient in many traditional medicines. It is usually used together with the rhizomes of Zingiber americanus, Zingiber aromaticum, Z. officinale, and Kaempferia galanga. In the Philippines, the decoction from these rhizomes is used to relieve cough and asthma (Quisumbing 1978). The rhizome is also used as an antidiarrheal medicine in its powdered form, or it is made into a paste with rice water (Saxena et al. 1981). As a paste, it can also be given twice daily for three days as an antidote to snake bite. It has been shown that the oil of Z. montanum has antibacterial and antifungal properties. The rhizome is also considered a good tonic and appetizer. It is given with black pepper against cholera and is also used as a vermifuge (Barghava 1981).

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Z. montanum is cultivated in the United States as garden ginger and is often called “Chocolate Pinecone Ginger.” The stems are tall and thin, and the bracts are brown, thus the common name. Z. cassumunar is propagated vegetatively through the division of suckers. The rhizomes on storage are easily affected by fungi, which causes rotting. Rhizome pieces with one or two emerging shoots are used for planting immediately after separation from the mother stock. Poosapaya and Kraisintu (2003) developed a tissue culture multiplication protocol. Shoot tips cultured in LS medium, supplemented with 4 mg/l BAP, produced an average of 13 shoots within 8 weeks. The incorporation of antibiotics is essential to suppress microbial contamination. The rooting of shoots was achieved in a medium with a low concentration of NAA or with the addition of activated charcoal. Many investigations have been made on the medicinal properties, especially of the anti-inflammatory effect, of Z. cassumunar. Ozaki et al. (1991) isolated three compounds identified as (E)-1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)but-1-ene, (E)-1-(3,4dimethoxyphenyl) butadiene, and zerumbone. The methanol extract was found to possess the anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities, which comes from the first compound (E)-1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)but-1-ene. Masuda et al. (1995) isolated cassumunarins A, B, and C, three anti-inflammatory antioxidants, and determined their structures. Cassumunarins are complex curcuminoids. Their antioxidant efficiency was determined by the inhibition of linoleic acid’s antioxidation in a buffer-ethanol system. The anti-inflammatory effect was measured by the inhibition of an edema formation on a mouse ear and induced by 12-o-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate. The cassumunarins showed greater activity than curcumin in both assays. Masuda and Jitoe (1995) isolated four phenylbutanoid monomers from the fresh rhizomes of Z. cassumunar from Indonesia as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4.

(E)-4-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)but-2-en-1-ylacetate (E)-4-(4-Hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl)but-2-en-1-ol (E)-2-Hydroxy-4-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)but-3-1-ol (E)-2-Methoxy-4-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)but-3-en-1-ol

In addition, Masuda and Jitoe (1995) also isolated three phenylbutanoid monomers that are already known. Nugroho et al. (1996) screened the rhizomes of 18 species for insecticidal activity, and the rhizomes of Kaempferia rotunda and Z. cassumunar exhibited a marked insecticidal activity in chronic feeding bioassays at concentrations of 2500 and 1250 ppm, respectively. Bioassay-guided isolation led to two phenylbutanoids from the rhizomes of Z. cassumunar (an LC50 of 121 and 127 ppm). Both compounds were active in the residue-contact bioassay (LC50 of 0.5 and 0.36 μg/cm2). The presence of oxygenated substitutes in the side chain nullified the insecticidal activity. Panthong et al. (1997) assayed the anti-inflammatory activity of the compound D ((E)-4-(30 40 -dimethoxyphenyl)but-3-en-2-ol) isolated from the hexane extract of Z. cassumunar rhizome using various inflammatory models in comparison with

27.1

General Features

559

aspirin, indomethacin (indimetacin), and prednisolone. The results showed that the anti-inflammatory effect of compound D mediated prominently on the acute phase of inflammation. It exerted a marked inhibition of carrageenan-induced rat paw edema, exudate formation, leukocyte accumulation, and prostaglandin biosynthesis in carrageenan-induced rat pleurisy. Compound D possessed only a slight inhibition of both the primary and secondary lesions of adjuvant-induced arthritis and had no effect on cotton pellet-induced granuloma in rats. Compound D elicited analgesic activity when tested on the acetic acid-induced writhing response in mice but had weak inhibitory activity on the tail flick responding to radiant heat. Compound D possessed marked antipyretic effect when tested on yeast-induced hyperthermia in rats. Nagano et al. (1997) investigated the effect of cassumunarins A and B, isolated from Z. cassumunar, in dissociated rat thymocytes suffering from oxidative stress induced by 3 mM H2O2 and ethidium bromide by using flow cytometry. The effects were then compared with those of curcumin. The pretreatment of rat thymocytes with cassumunarins (100 and 3.0 μM) dose dependently prevented H2O2-induced decrease in cell viability. Cassumunarins were also more effective when administered before the start of the oxidative stress. The respective potencies of cassumunarins A and B in protecting the cells suffering from H2O2-induced oxidative stress were greater than that of curcumin. Bordoloi et al. (1999) investigated the essential oil composition of Z. cassumunar from the northeast India using GC-MS, analyzing oil hydrodistilled from rhizomes and leaves. The rhizome essential oil contained terpenen-4-ol (50.5%), E-1(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)buta-1,3-diene (19.9%), E-1-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)but-1ene (6.0%), and β-sesquiphellandrene (5.9%) as major constituents out of the 21 compounds identified. In the leaf essential oil, 39 compounds were identified. The main components were 1(10),4-furanodien-6-one (27.3%), curzerenone (25.7%), and β-sesquiphellandrene (5.7%).

27.1.3 Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Smith This is native of tropical Asia, occurring at an altitude of 1200 m above MSL. It is commonly known as “Shampoo Ginger;” it is also known as “Pinecone Ginger” in the southern United States. The inflorescence resembles a tight pinecone and releases a thick juice when squeezed. This juice is used to make Paul Mitchell and Freemans shampoos. Pseudostems grow 0.6–2.0 m, the leaves are sessile or petiolate, and the rhizomes are light yellow inside. The inflorescence, produced at the tip of a long peduncle, is green when young. The flowers are white in color and three to four are produced at a time. The color of the inflorescence changes from green to red on aging and lasts many weeks. Hence, it is widely used as a cut flower for decorative purposes. Capsule is ellipsoid, and seeds are black. Some of the variegated forms of this species are also grown in gardens. The variegated form, called Darceyi, is very

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Additional Economically Important Ginger Species

popular in the United States. Another form, called “Twice as Nice,” produces both basal inflorescences and occasional terminal spikes on a very compact plant. Srivastava (2003) studied the pharmacognosy of this species on which the following discussion is based. The rhizome is 7–15 cm long and 1–2.5 cm broad and is irregularly branched. In commerce, the rhizome is found in pieces 4–7 cm long, which are irregular, wrinkled, and brown, and shows a large central pith. The dried rhizome is hard, brittle, with a fragrant odor and an aromatic, spicy taste. A transverse section of the rhizome shows a single, layered epidermis, below which are 7–10 layers of thin-walled cork cells. The cortex consists of several layers of parenchymatous cells, with intercellular air spaces, and oil cells are present. The endodermis is made of a single layer of cells. The stele consists of a broad central zone of ordinary parenchymatous cells. Closed collateral vascular bundles are found in a circle just inside the endodermis. Throughout the remaining region of the stele, closed collateral bundles, partially covered by sclerenchymatous fibers, are scattered. The tracheids are nonlignified and have reticulate, spiral, or scalariform thickening on the wall. The very tender rhizomes are eaten. The decoction of the rhizomes is used to cure various kinds of diseases. Tewtrakui et al. (1997) analyzed the water-distilled volatile oil composition of Z. zerumbet by GC and MS. The main component of the volatile oil was found to be zerumbone (8-oxohumulene) (56.48%). Other components in significant amounts were 1,8-cineole (1.07%), o-caryophyllene (2.07%), α-humulene (25.70%), caryophyllene oxide (1.41%), humulene epoxide (3.62%), and humulene epoxide 11 (2.45%). Also, 3,4-o-diacetylafzelin and zerumbone epoxide were isolated from rhizomes (Rastogi and Mehrotra, 1993). The most investigated chemical compound is the sesquiterpene zerumbone, which is reported to be a potent inhibitor of a tumor promoter, the 12-otetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA)-induced Epstein–Barr virus activation. The IC50 value of zerumbone (0.14 μM) was noticeably lower than those of the antitumor promoters hitherto obtained (Murakami et al. 1999). Murakami et al. (2002) reported that zerumbone has potent anti-inflammatory and chemopreventive qualities. They found that zerumbone effectively suppressed TPA-induced superoxide anion generation from both nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (reduced) (NADH)-oxidase in dimethyl sulfoxide-differentiated HL-60 human acute promyelocytic leukemia cells and xanthine oxidase in AS 52 Chinese hamster ovary)-2, together with the release of tumor necrosis factor (α) in RAW 264.7 mouse macrophages, which were also markedly diminished. These suppressive effects were accompanied with a combined decrease in the medium concentrations of nitrite and prostaglandin E2, whereas the expression level of Cox-1 was unchanged. Zerumbone inhibited the proliferation of human colonic adenocarcinoma cell lines in a dose-dependent manner, whereas the growth of the normal human dermal (2FO-C25) and colon (CCD-1 8CO) fibroblasts was less affected. It also induced apoptosis in COLO205 cells, as detected by the dysfunction of the mitochondria transmembrane, the Annexin N-detected translocation of phosphatidylserine, and the chromatin condensation. α-Humulene, a structural analog lacking only the carbonyl group in zerumbone, was virtually inactive in all the experiments, indicating that the

27.1

General Features

561

α, β-unsaturated carbonyl group in zerumbone may play some pivotal role in the interactions with an unidentified target molecule. The results strongly support the claim that zerumbone is a food phytochemical (nutraceutical), which has a potential use in anti-inflammation, chemoprevention, and chemotherapy strategies. Dai et al. (1997) reported that zerumbone has a potent HIV-inhibitory action.

27.1.4 Zingiber americanus BI. Z. americanus is a medicinally important spice species. The rhizome is small, yellow, hard, weakly fragrant, and bitter. The propagation is done through rhizome cuttings. It prefers shady, humid soils, rich in humus. It grows wild in teak forests of Southeast Asia, where it is used for several medicinal purposes. The old rhizomes are used as an ingredient in various traditional medicines. The pounded rhizome is usually used as a poultice for women after childbirth. It has gained importance as an attractive garden plant and is grown widely in the United States. The young rhizomes are eaten as a vegetable in Java (Prance and Sarket 1997).

27.1.5 Zingiber aromaticum Val. This plant grows up to a height of about 1.5 m. The yellow flowers come from a striking red cone produced from the base of the plant. The rhizome is strongly aromatic and fibrous, resembling Z. americanus in taste and aroma. The specific epithet is derived from the strong aroma of the rhizome. It is considered to be a native of tropical Asia and is called Puyung in Indonesia. Z. aromaticum is also widely cultivated in kitchen gardens and also as an ornamental plant. Its fresh and tender shoots and flowers are eaten and used to flavor foods. The rhizomes are used as an ingredient in folk medicines as well as a poultice (Prance and Sarket 1997). From the rhizome of this species, zerumbone and 300 c,400 -o-diacetylafzelin were isolated. Zerumbone exhibited HIV-inhibitory and cytotoxic activities (Dai et al. 1997).

27.1.6 Zingiber argenteum J. Mood and I. Theilade This species is endemic to Sarawak, Malaysia. Z. argenteum is a small plant, the pseudostem reaching about 75 cm. Its leaves grow to 15–18 cm in length, with an upper surface that is silvery green with a dark green cloud along the midrib, while the lower surface is green. It produces cream-colored flowers and spikes 8–9 cm long which are broadly elliptic. Its bracts are bright orange colored, with the lower ones

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Additional Economically Important Ginger Species

turning red. This species is related to Z. coloratum and Z. lambi. It is a very attractive plant and is valued much by ginger lovers. Under cultivation, the plant becomes highly floriferous (Theilade and Mood 1997).

27.1.7 Zingiber bradleyanum Craib. This plant is now cultivated in the United States and is mainly grown for its foliage; its leaves have a beautiful silvery stripe along the midrib. The plant has a natural dormancy and therefore may be winter-hardy in subtropical climates.

27.1.8 Zingiber chrysanthum Rosc. This is a medium-sized Zingiber with stems about 1–1.5 m tall. It produces a typical basal inflorescence, but the individual flowers are long-lasting and very colorful, with a spotted lip. The seed capsules are also ornamental bright red in color and remain on the stalk until the stalks wither in winter.

27.1.9 Zingiber citriodorum J. Mood and I. Theilade This species is from Thailand and has been under cultivation for several years in the United States as an ornamental plant under the name “Chiang Mai Princess.” It was recently described as a new species, Z. citriodorum. It is a beautiful plant, with sharply pointed bracts starting out green and maturing to bright red color. The flowers are white. The pseudostems and foliage have a silvery gray color. This species can be difficult to grow in cool climates, as the rhizomes are subject to rotting during dormancy if kept too wet. This is a valuable ornamental plant used as a potted plant or as a cut flower for decorative purposes.

27.1.10

Zingiber clarkei King ex Benth

Z. clarkei is a native of the Sikkim Himalayas of India and has been adopted as a valuable ornamental plant in the subtropical and temperate countries. The plants are tall with a foot-long inflorescence which appears from the main stem rather than from the ground. The bracts form a tight, cone-shaped spike, and the individual flowers are dull yellow in color, with a dotted lip. Among the Zingiber species, this is unique because the spike is produced laterally and not radially as in the other species.

27.1

General Features

27.1.11

563

Zingiber collinsii J. Mood and I. Theilade

A recently described beautiful Zingiber species, Z. collinsii, was discovered and introduced by Mark Collins. This one has silvery stripes across the leaves, somewhat similar to Alpinia pumila but much taller in height. This species has become a favorite of plant lovers in the United States and Europe.

27.1.12

Zingiber corallinum Hance

This Zingiber species is a medium-sized plant producing long, pointed, red-bracted inflorescences near the ground. The foliage is medium green in color. This species has been proven to be winter-hardy, down to 20  F. The rhizome is used in traditional Chinese medicine. The effect of this species in preventing skin invasions by Schistosoma japonicum cercariae was investigated in mice. A worm reduction rate of 91% was found at 5% concentration of the rhizome extract (Shuxuan et al. 2001). Z. corallinum is valued as an ornamental plant as well as a medicinal spice of immense value.

27.1.13

Zingiber eborium J. Mood and I. Theilade

This species is endemic to Borneo in Indonesia and is the unique white ginger, ivory ginger, or ivory spike ginger in the parlance of nurserymen. It grows about 0.75–1 m in height, with dark green, ovate leaves, glabrous above, and with fine silky hairs below. It has a pale reddish scape sheath, with an inflorescence about 7–8 cm long. Its bracts are ivory white in color and flowers are orange colored. The white spike and the orange flower make this a very attractive garden plant and a favorite among the ginger lovers in the Western world. Under cultivation, the plant flowers profusely, making it a valuable potted plant (Theilade and Mood 1997). It tolerates freezing.

27.1.14

Zingiber griffithii Baker

This is a Malaysian species, having oblong, glabrous leaves, a short-peduncled cylindrical spike, and bright red, obovate, obtuse bracts. The tip of the bract is yellowish white and three lobed. It is a common ornamental plant. Zakaria and Ibrahim (1986) reported four phenolic compounds of the catechol and pyrogallol type, three flavonoids, and terpenoids in its volatile oil.

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27.1.15

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Additional Economically Important Ginger Species

Zingiber gramineum Noronha

This plant is cultivated in US gardens under the common name “Palm Ginger.” It is a thin-stemmed and narrow-leafed plant.

27.1.16

Zingiber lambi J. Mood and I. Theilade

This is a Malaysian ginger endemic to the eastern region of the country. It is a small plant with a leafy stem about 60 cm tall. Its leaves are glabrous, with a silvery green upper surface, ribbed side nerves, and a green lower surface. Its fusiform spike grows up to 10–12 cm in length. The bracts are orange colored, greenish toward the apex, and they turn pink with age. This species produces yellow flowers and a light yellow labellum. Z. lambi is unusual for its beautiful silvery green leaves, orange spikes, and yellow flowers. It has become a valuable garden plant within a short span of time. The species is related to Z. argenteum.

27.1.17

Zingiber longipedunculatum Ridley

Reportedly this plant has been in cultivation in Australia for many years and has been a valuable garden plant used for cut-flower purposes. The spikes are often used in floral arrangements.

27.1.18

Zingiber malaysianum C.K. Lim

This garden plant has become extremely popular and is widely sold in the United States under the name “Midnight Beauty.” It has shiny dark brown, almost black leaves and produces bright red inflorescences at its base. It is an evergreen species and must be protected in winter from frost. It is a very attractive ornamental plant and is much in demand by plant lovers to be used as a potted plant or in garden beds. Its spikes are used as cut flowers and in floral arrangements.

27.1.19

Zingiber neglectum Valet

This is another popular plant in cultivation in the United States, one of the most sought-after plants by ginger plant collectors. It has very long inflorescences with beautiful cup-shaped bracts similar to Zingiber spectabile, with purple flowers.

27.1

General Features

27.1.20

565

Zingiber niveum J. Mood and I. Theilade

Zingiber niveum is an ornamental ginger plant sold commonly in the United States for several years under the name “Milky Way.” It produces milky white, rounded spikes that look very unusual, with yellow flowers. The stems and leaves are silvery gray, and this attractive ornamental plant grows to a height of about only 3 ft.

27.1.21

Zingiber ottensi Valet

This is a native of Southeast Asia. The stem is reddish and attractive and hence is widely cultivated as an ornamental. The inflorescence is more or less similar to Z. zerumbet, but the color is red from the beginning and it persists for a long time. The peroxidase isozyme studies have proven that this is very close to Z. zerumbet and Z. montanum. The rhizome is used as a poultice in postnatal treatment and also as an appetizer. Three sesquiterpenes—humulene, humulene epoxide, and zerumbone—and a diterpene, (E)-landa-8 (17), 12-diene-, 15,16-diel-, were isolated from dried rhizome (Sirat, 1994). It is a valuable ornamental plant, both as a potted one and also as a cut flower.

27.1.22

Zingiber pachysiphon B.L. Burtt and R.M. Sm

This is in cultivation in Australia. The plant has a beautiful purplish-colored inflorescence with white edges to the bracts. The species is rather rare and valued much by the ginger plant lovers as a very attractive potted plant.

27.1.23

Zingiber rubens Roxb.

This species is from the Indo-Malaysian region and has been introduced to the gardens in the United States as a potted plant, where it has become very popular. The plant is about 6–8 ft tall, and leaves are 4–5 in. long, which are pubescent beneath the surface. Its spike is dense and globose, with a small peduncle, bright red bracts, red corolla segments, with an oblong lip that is much spotted and streaked with red color. The paste of the rhizome (10 g) is given after heating and is also applied to the forehead of those who suffer from giddiness (Saxena et al. 1981).

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27.1.24

Additional Economically Important Ginger Species

Zingiber spectabile Griff.

This is also known as “Beehive Ginger,” owing to the peculiar shape of the spike. The plants are large, grow up to a height of 8 ft, and the inflorescence is large and very attractive. The spike turns from yellow to red on aging. As it has a shelf life of a few weeks, it is widely used as a cut-flower plant. It is also used as a flavoring agent and an ornamental plant (Holttum 1950). This species is widely used in Malay traditional medicine (Burkill and Haniff 1930) and is very popularly cultivated in the United States. It comes in two varieties, one with red bracts and the other with golden yellow bracts. The latter is often sold as “Golden Shampoo Ginger.” Both are very much valued as potted plants and for making ornamental cut flowers. Ibrahim and Zakaria (1987) analyzed the rhizome using TLC and GC and reported 18 compounds, the major ones being trans-d-bergamotene, β-elemene, isobutyl benzoate, β-copaene, and β-terpineol.

27.1.25

Zingiber vinosum J. Mood and I. Theilade

This species of ginger is a native of Salah, East Malaysia, and its cultivation as an ornamental plant has spread rapidly in the United States. It is a short-statured plant with dark green upper foliage that is deep maroon on the underside. Its leafy shoot grows to about 1–1.25 m long and is dark burgundy at the base. Its spike can be 15–30 cm long, and the bracts are burgundy. The flowers are white, with a snow white labellum. The attractive foliage and red inflorescence make this species a highly popular garden plant. The rhizome is moderately aromatic. In addition to the aforementioned species, there are also others which can be groomed into attractive garden, potted, and cut-flower plants.

27.2

Wild Ginger

In the United States and Europe, the term “Wild Ginger” commonly denotes Asarum canadense (Aristolochiaceae), which is not related to ginger in any way. It is an inconspicuous, herbaceous perennial, about 30 cm long in height, found growing in rich soil on roadsides and in the woods. The plant is almost stemless, usually possessing two heart-shaped leaves and carrying a solitary bell-shaped flower between the two petioles at the base. The root stock is yellowish and creeping in structure and is sold in pieces 10–12 cm long. The plant has brownish ends that are wrinkled on the outside, whitish inside, fragrant, aromatic, spicy, and slightly bitter in taste (Grieve 2003). It is called “Wild Ginger” because it emanates a ginger-like smell. Native Americans have used the root to flavor foods, just like the true ginger. They have

References

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also used the root to treat digestive ailments, especially the problem of gas formation in the stomach, and it is also used as a poultice on skin sores. It is often used to promote sweating, which reduces fever, and also to counteract cough and sore throat. The plant extract has also been shown to have antimicrobial properties (Reed 2003).

References Abe, M., Ozawa, Y., Uda, Y., Yamada, Y., Morimitsu, Y., Nakamura, Y., et al. (2002). Labdanetype diterpenoid dialdehyde, pungent principle of myoga. Zingiber mioga Roscoe. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, 66, 2698–2700. Barghava, N. (1981). Plants in folk life and folklore in Andaman and Nicobar Islands. In S. K. Jain (Ed.), Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany (pp. 329–344). New Delhi: Oxford/IBH Publishing Co. Bordoloi, A. K., Sperkova, J., & Leclercq, P. A. (1999). Essential oil of Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. from Northeast India. Journal of Essential Oil Research, 11, 441–445. Burkill, T. H., & Haniff, M. (1930). The Malay village medicines. Garden Bulletin Singapore, 6, 262–268. Clark, R. J., & Warner, R. A. (2000). Production and marketing of Japanese ginger (Zingiber mioga) in Australia RICRDC Pub. 00/117. Rural Ind. Res. & Dev. Corporation, Australia. http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/AFO/00-117.sum.html. Accessed 05 Oct 2003. Dai, J. R., Cardelina, J. H., McMahan, J. B., & Boyd, H. R. (1997). Zerumbone, an HIV-inhibitory and cytotoxic sesquiterpene of Zingiber aromaticum and Zingiber zerumbet. Natural Product Letters, 10, 115–118. Grieve, M. B. (2003). A modern herbal. http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/g/ginwil14. html. Accessed 10 May 2003. Holttum, R. E. (1950). Zingiberaceae of the Malay Peninsula. Garden Bulletin Singapore, 13, 1–249. Ibrahim, H., & Zakaria, M. B. (1987). Essential oils from three Malaysian Zingiberaceae species. The Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences, 9, 73–76. Masuda, T., & Jitoe, A. (1995). Pheylbutenoid monomers from the rhizomes of Zingiber cassumunar. Phytochemistry, 39, 459–461. Masuda, T., Jitoe, A., & Mabry, M. J. (1995). Isolation and structure determination of cassumunarins A, B and C: new anti-inflammatory antioxidants from a tropical ginger, Zingiber cassumunar. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 72, 1053–1057. Murakami, A., Takahashi, M., Jiwajinda, S., Koshimizu, K., & Ohigashi, H. (1999). Identification of zerumbone in Zingiber zerumbet Smith as a potent inhibitor of 12-0-tetradecanoylphorbol13-acetate-induced Epstein–Barr virus activation. Bioscience, Biotechnology, and Biochemistry, 63, 1811–1812. Murakami, A., Takahashi, D., Kiroshita, T., Koshimizu, K., Kim, H. W., Yoshihiro, A., et al. (2002). Zerumbone, a Southeast Asian ginger sesquiterpene, markedly suppresses free radical generation, pro-inflammatory protein production, and cancer cell proliferation accompanied by apostasies: the α and β-unsaturated carbonyl group is a prerequisite. Carcinogenesis, 23, 795–802. Nagano, T., Oyama, Y., Kajita, N., Chikahisa, I., Nakata, M., Ozaki, E., et al. (1997). New curcuminoids isolated from Zingiber cassumunar protect cells suffering from oxidative stress: A flow-cytometric study using rat-thymocytes and H2O2. Japanese Journal of Pharmacology, 75, 363–370. Nugroho, E. W., Schwarz, B., Wray, B., & Proksch, P. (1996). Insecticidal constituents from rhi zomes of Zingiber cassumunar and Kaempferia rotunda. Phytochemistry, 41, 129–132. Ozaki, Y., Kawahara, N., & Harada, M. (1991). Anti-inflammatory effect of Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. and its active principles. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin, 39, 2353–2356.

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Paghat. (2003). Paght’s garden: Zingiber mioga “Dancing Crane”. http://www.paghat.com/ japaneseginger.html. Accessed 15 Oct 2003. Panthong, A., Kanhanapothi, D., Niwatananant, W., Tuntiwachurittikul, P., & Reutrakul, V. (1997). Anti-inflammatory activity of compound D ((E)-4-(30 4 0 -dimethoxyphenyl)but-3en-2-ol) isolated from Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. Phytomedicine, 4, 207–212. Poosapaya, P., Kraisintu, K., 2003. Micropropagation of Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. ISHS. http:// www.Acta.Hort.org/books/344/344-64.htm. Accessed 10 May 2003. Prance, M. S., & Sarket, D. (1997). Root and tuber crops. Bogor: SDE-40. Quisumbing, E. (1978). Medicinal Plants of Philippines (pp. 186–202). Queen City: JMC Press Inc. Rastogi, R. P., & Mehrotra, B. N. (1993). Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants, 1980–1984 (Vol. 3). New Delhi: NISCOM. Reed, D., 2003. Wild ginger (Asarum canadense). Wild flowers of the Southern United States. http://2bnthewild.com/plants/H36.htm. Accessed 10 May 2003. Saxena, H. O., Braamam, M., & Dutta, P. K. (1981). Ethnobotanical studies in Orissa. In S. K. Jain (Ed.), Glimpses of Indian Ethnobotany (pp. 232–244). New Delhi: Oxford/IBH Publishing Co. Shuxuan, J., Xiu Qin, H., Zheng, X., Li Mei, M., Ping, L., Juan, D., et al. (2001). Experimental study on Zingiber corallium Hance to prevent infection with Schistosoma japonicum cercariae. Chinese Journal of Schistosomiasis Control, 13, 170–172. Sirat, H. M. (1994). Study on the terpenoids of Zingiber ottensii. Planta Medica, 60, 497. Srivastava, A. K. (2003). Pharmacognostic studies on Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Sm. Aryavaidyan, 16, 206–211. Sterling, K. J., Calrk, R. J., Brown, P. H., & Wilson, S. J. (2003). Effect of photoperiod on flower bud initiation and development in myoga (Zingiber mioga Roscoe.). http://agsci.eliz.tased.edu. au/jgp/jgp7.htm. Accessed 10 May 2003. Tewtrakui, S., Sardsangjun, C., Itchaypruk, J., & Chaitongruk, P. (1997). Studies on volatile oil components in Zingiber zerumbet rhizomes. Songklanakarin Journal of Science and Technology, 19, 197–202. Theilade, I., & Mood, J. (1997). Two new species of Zingiber (Zingiberaceae) from Sabah, Borneo. Sandakania, 9, 21–26. Zakaria, M. B., & Ibrahim, H. (1986). Phytochemical screening of some Malaysian species of Zingiberaceae. The Malaysian Journal of Medical Sciences, 8, 125–128.