Tag Archives: sexual classification

by Piter Keo | August 25, 2018 · 8:00 am

The history of Systematics: Plants in Systema Naturae, 1758 (Part 9)

by Piter Kehoma Boll

The last part of the series is finally here! See also parts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8. The only class that remains to be introduced is Cryptogamia, the plants without flowers.

24. Cryptogamia (“hidden marriages”)

“Marriage is celebrated privately”, i.e., sexual organs are not clearly visible.

24.1 Filices (ferns): Equisetum (horsetails), Onoclea (sensitive fern), Ophioglossum (adder’s-tongue ferns), Osmunda (royal ferns), Acrostichum (leather ferns), Polypodium (polypodies), Hemionitis (hemionitises), Asplenium (spleenworts), Blechnum (hard ferns), Lonchitis (lonchitises), Pteris (brakes), Adiantum (walking ferns), Trichomanes (britstle ferns and lace ferns), Marsilea (water clovers), Pilularia (pillworts), Isoetes (quillworts).

Linnaeus’ order Filices included (from left to right, top to bottom) the common horsetail (Equisetum arvense), the sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis), the common adder’s tongue (Ophioglossum vulgatum), common royal fern (Osmunda regalis), golden leather-fern (Acrostichum aureum), Chinese brake (Pteris vittata), western hard fern (Blechnum occidentale), black spleenwort (Asplenium adiantum-nigrum), common polypody (Polypodium vulgare), Venus-hair fern (Adiantum capillus-veneris), lace fern (Trichomanes chinensis, now Sphenomeris chinensis), European water clover (Marsilea quadrifolia), common pillwort (Pilularia globulifera), and lake quillwort (Isoetes lacustris). Credits to Rob Hille (horsetail), Kurt Stueber (royal fern), Krzysztof Ziarnek (hard fern), Forest & Kim Starr (spleenwort, lace fern), H. Zell (polypody), Tato Grasso (Venus-hair fern), Daria Inozemtseva (quillwort), Wikimedia users JMK (brake), Keisotyo (water clover) and Kembangraps (pillwort), flickr user peganum (sensitive fern).

24.2 Musci (mosses): Lycopodium (club mosses), Porella (scaleworts), Sphagnum (sphagnums), Phascum (phascum mosses), Fontinalis (fountain mosses), Buxbaumia (bug mosses), Splachnum (dung mosses), Polytrichum (haircap mosses), Mnium (calcareous mosses), Bryum (common mosses), Hypnum (flat mosses).

Among the species in the order Musci there were (from left to right, top to bottom) the common club moss (Lycopodium clavatum), pinnate scalewort (Porella pinnata), prairie sphagnum (Sphagnum palustre), common fountain moss (Fontinalis antipyretica), common bug moss (Buxbaumia aphylla), Alpine haircap (Polytrichum alpinum), horn calcareous moss (Mnium hornum), silver moss (Bryum argenteum), cypress moss (Hypnum cupressiforme). Credits to Christian Fischer (club moss), Rafael Medina (scalewort), Bern Haynold (sphagnum), Hermann Schachner (haircap, silver moss), Bernard Dupont (calcareous moss), and Wikimedia users AnRo0002 (fountain moss) and Aconcagua (cypress moss).

24.3 Algae (algae): Jungermannia (leafy liverworts), Targionia (targionias), Marchantia (thallose liverwort), Blasia (blasia), Riccia (crystalworts), Anthoceros (hornworts), Lichen (lichens), Chara (stoneworts), Tremella (several jelly-like organisms), Fucus (brown and red algae), Ulva (sea lettuces and lavers), Conferva (several filamentous algae), Byssus (several crusty and wooly organisms), Spongia (sponges).

The diverse order Algae included (from left to right, top to bottom) the forest leafy liverwort (Jungermannia nemorea, now Scapania nemorea), common targionia (Targionia hypophylla), green tongue liverwort (Marchantia polymorpha), blasia (Blasia pusilla), floating crystalwort (Riccia fluitans), smooth horwort (Anthoceros laevis, now Phaeoceros laevis), map lichen (Lichen geographicus, now Rhizocarpon geographicum), common stonewort (Chara vulgaris), witch’s jelly (Tremella nostoc, now Nostoc commune), serrated wrack (Fucus serratus), common sea lettuce (Ulva lactuca), rock weed (Conferva rupestris, now Cladophora rupestris), golden wool (Byssus aurea, now Trentepohlia aurea), bath sponge (Spongia officinalis). Credits to Bernd Haynold (leafy liverwort, blasia), Luis Fernández García (targionia), Denis Barthel (green tongue), Christian Fischer (crystalwort), Fritz Geller-Grimm (lichen), Lairich Rig (witch’s jelly), Kristian Peters (sea lettuce), Bioimages (rock wed), JK Johnson (golden wool), Guido Picchetti (sponge) and Wikimedia users Oliver s. (hornwort), Mnolf (stonewort) and Citron (wrack).

24.4 Fungi (fungi): Agaricus (gilled mushrooms), Boletus (pore-bearing mushrooms), Hydnum (toothed mushrooms), Phallus (phallic mushrooms), Clathrus (finger-shaped fungi), Elvela (saddle-like mushrooms), Peziza (cup-shaped mushrooms), Clavaria (club-shaped mushrooms), Lycoperdon (ball-shaped mushrooms), Mucor (molds).

The order Fungi contained (from left to right, top to bottom) the field mushroom (Agaricus campestris), common red shelf-mushroom (Boletus sanguineus, now Pycnoporus sanguineus), sweet tooth (Hydnum repandum), common stinkhorn (Phallus impudicus), carnival candy slime-mold (Clathrus denudatus, now Arcyria denudata), vinegar cup (Peziza acetabulum, now Helvella acetabulum), sweet club-mushroom (Clavaria pistillaris, now Clavariadelphus pistillaris), grassland puffball (Lycoperdon cervinum, now Lycoperdon lividum), common pin-mold (Mucor mucedo). Credits to Nathan Wilson (field mushroom), Instituto Últimos Refúgios (shelf mushroom), H. Krisp (sweet tooth, vinegar cup), Jörg Hempel (stinkhorn), Bea Leiderman (slime mold), Francisco J. Díez Martín (club mushroom), Michel Beeckman (puffball) and James Lindsey (pin mold).

Here we can see that Linnaeus’ mess reached its limit. There are even animals classified as plants, as you can see sponges appearing as algae. Actually, the order Algae included species belonging to almost every currently recognized kingdom, from bacteria to animals, fungi, plants and heterokonts. The other orders are considerably more uniform.

We finished Linnaeus’ System! Yay!

I will make an additional post with a summary and then we can move on to changes that happened in following systems. See you there!

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Reference:

Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae per regna tria Naturae…

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All images are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

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Filed under Botany, Systematics, taxonomy

Tagged as Linnaeus, Linné, Linnean taxonomy, sexual classification, Species Plantarum, Systema Naturae

by Piter Keo | July 30, 2018 · 2:02 pm

The history of Systematics: Plants in Systema Naturae, 1758 (Part 8)

by Piter Kehoma Boll

This is the last part of Linnaeus’ classification of plants dealing with flowering plants (see parts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7) and presents three classes composed by plants that contain more than one type of flower. The last part of the system (part 9) will deal with non-flowering plants.

21. Monoecia (“single house”)

“Husbands inhabit with women in the same house, but in different bedroom”, i.e., male and female organs occur in the same plant, but in different flowers.

21.1 Monoecia Monandria (“single house, single male”), male flowers having a single stamen: Zannichellia (horned pondweeds), Ceratocarpus (hornfruits), Hippomane (manchineels), Cynomorium (desert thumb).

21.2 Monoecia Diandria (“single house, two males”), male flowers having two stamens: Lemna (duckweeds).

The horned pondweed (Zannichellia palustris, left), the manchineel tree (Hippomane mancinella, center-left) and the desert thumb (Cynomorium coccineum, center-right) were classified in the order Monoecia Monandria, while the common duckweed (Lemna minor, right) was classified in the order Monoecia Diandria. Credits to Yu Ito (horned pondweed), Hans Hillewaert (manchineel, desert thumb) and Wikimedia user 3268zauber (duckweed).

21.3 Monoecia Triandria (“single house, three males”), male flowers having three stamens: Typha (cattails or bulrushes), Sparganium (bur-reeds), Zea (maize), Tripsacum (gamagrasses), Coix (Job’s tear), Olyra (carrycillo), Carex (true sedges), Axyris (pigweeds), Omphalea (cobnuts), Tragia (noseburns), Hernandia (hernandias), Phyllanthus (chamber bitters, Indian gooseberries and alike).

The order Monoecia Triandria included (from left to right, top to bottom) the common cattail (Typha latifolia), branched bur-reed (Sparganium erectum), maize (Zea mays), eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides), Job’s tear (Coix lacryma-jobi), carrycillo (Olyra latifolia), carnation-sedge (Carex panicea), Jamaican cobnut (Omphalea triandra), Indian noseburn (Tragia involucrata) and chamber bitter (Phyllanthus urinaria). Credits to H. Zell (maize), Mason Brock (gamagrass), Alex Popovkin (carrycillo), Kristian Peters (sedge), and Wikimedia users AnRo0002 (cattail), Hugo.arg (bur-reed), Vinayaraj (Job’s tear, Indian noseburn), Carstor (cobnut) and Atsuko-y (chamber bitter).

21.4 Monoecia Tetrandria (“single house, four males”), male flowers with four stamens: Betula (birches and alders), Buxus (box), Urtica (nettles), Morus (mulberry trees).

The dwarf birch (Betula nana, left), the common box (Buxus sempervirens, center-left), the common nettle (Urtica dioica, center-right) and the black mulberry tree (Morus nigra, right) were classified in the order Monoecia Tetrandria. Credits to Uwe H. Friese (nettle), Fritz Geller-Grimm (mulberry tree) and Wikimedia users El Grafo (birch) and Abrimaal (box).

21.5 Monoecia Pentandria (“single house, five males”), male flowers with five stamens: Xanthium (cockleburs), Ambrosia (ragweeds), Parthenium (feverfews), Iva (marsh elders), Amarantus (pigweeds).

The common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium, left), the common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia, center-left), the American feverfew (Parthenium integrifolium, center), the annual marsh elder (Iva annua, center-right) and the spiny pigweed (Amaranthus spinosus, right) were part of the order Monoecia Pentandria. Credits to Javier Martin (cocklebur), Meneerke Bloem (ragweed), Krzysztof Ziarnek (feverfew), and Forest & Kim Starr (pigweed).

21.6 Monoecia Hexandria (“single house, six males”), male flowers with six stamens: Zizania (wild rice), Pharus (stalkgrass), Solandra (a species of doubtful identifcation).

21.7 Monoecia Heptandria (“single house, seven males”), male flowers with seven stamens: Guettarda (beach gardenia).

1758Linnaeus_monoecia_hexandria-heptandria

The wild rice (Zizania aquatica, left) and the broadleaf stalkgrass (Pharus latifolius, center) were placed in the order Monoecia Hexandria, while the beach gardenia (Guettarda speciosa) was in the order Monoecia Heptandria. Credits to Michael Wolf (wild rice), Alex Popovkin (stalkgrass) and Cas Liber (beach gardenia).

21.8 Monoecia Polyandria (“single house, many males”), male flowers with many stamens: Ceratophyllum (hornworts), Myriophyllum (watermilfoils), Sagittaria (arrowheads), Theligonum (dog’s cabbage), Poterium (burnets), Quercus (oaks), Juglans (walnut trees), Fagus (beeches and chestnut trees), Carpinus (hornbeams), Corylus (hazels), Platanus (planes), Liquidambar (sweetgums).

Linnaeus included in the order Monoecia Polyandria (from left to right, top to bottom) the common hornwort (Ceratophyllum demersum), whorl-leaf watermilfoil (Myrophyllum verticillatum), common arrowhead (Sagittaria sagittifolia), common oak (Quercus robur), common walnut tree (Juglans regia), common beech (Fagus sylvatica), common hornbeam (Carpinus betulus), common hazel (Corylus avellana), Eastern plane (Platanus orientalis) and American sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua). Credits to Christian Fischer (hornwort, arrowhead), Piotr Panek (watermilfoil), Krzysztof Ziarnek (oak), H. Zell (walnut tree), Franz Xaver (hornbeam), André Karwath (hazel), Dimitar Nàydenov (plane), Kurt Stueber (sweetgum) and Wikimedia user Der Michels (beech).

21.9 Monoecia Monadelpha (“single house, single brothers”), male flowers with stamens fused in a single body by their filaments: Pinus (pines, larches, spruces and firs), Thuja (thujas), Cupressus (cypresses), Acalypha (acalyphas), Croton (crotons), Jatropha (physicnuts), Ricinus (castor oil plants), Sterculia (bastard poon tree), Plukenetia (Inca nut tree), Hura (possumwood).

The order Monoecia Monadelpha included (from left to right, top the bottom) the Swiss pine (Pinus cembra), eastern thuja (Thuja occidentalis), Mediterranean cypress (Cupressus sempervirens), Indian acalypha (Acalypha indica), garden croton (Croton variegatus, now Codiaeum variegatum), black physicnut (Jatropha gossypifolia), castor oil plant (Ricinus communis), bastard poon tree (Sterculia foetida), Inca nut (Plukenetia volubilis) and possumwood (Hura crepitans). Credits to Wouter Hagens (thuja), J. M. Garg (acalypha, croton, physicnut), Martina Nolte (castor oil plant), Raju Kasambe (bastard poon tree), Hans Hillewart (possumwood) and Wikimedia users Moroder (pine), Philmarin (cypress) and NusHub (Inca nut).

21.10 Monoecia Syngenesia (“single house, same generation”), male flowers with stamens united forming a cylinder: Trichosanthes (snake gourd), Momordica (bitter melons and luffas), Cucurbita (pumpkins, squashes, calabashes, watermelon), Cucumis (melons, cucumbers), Bryonia (bryonies), Sicyos (bur cucumber).

21.11 Monoecia Gynandria (“single house, female husband”), male flowers with stamens united to the (sterile) pistil: Andrachne (andrachne).

1758Linnaeus_monoecia_syngenesia_gynandria

The order Monoecia Syngenesia included (from left to right) the snake gourd (Trichosanthes cucumerina), bitter melon (Momordica charantia), pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo), cucumber (Cucumis sativus), white bryony (Bryonia alba) and oneseed bur cucumber (Sicyos angulatus), while the order Monoecia Gynandria included the common andrachne (Andrachne telephioides, right). Credits to Florian Wickern (pumpkin), H. Zell (cucumber), Robert H. Mohlenbrock (bur cucumber), Vojtĕch Zavadil (andrachne), flickr user tanakawho (snake gourd) and Wikimedia users Prenn (bitter melon) and Sannse (bryony).

22. Dioecia (“two houses”)

“Husbands and women live in different bedrooms and houses”, i.e., male and female organs occur in different flowers and in different plants.

22.1 Dioecia Monandria (“two houses, single male”), male flowers having a single stamen: Najas (naiads).

22.2 Dioecia Diandria (“two houses, two males”), male flowers having two stamens: Vallisneria (eelgrasses), Cecropia (trumpet tree), Salix (willows).

The order Dioecia Monandria included a single species, the spiny naiad (Najas marina, left). The order Dioecia Diandria included the common eelgrass (Vallisneria spiralis, center-left), trumpet tree (Cecropia pelatata, center-right) and weeping willow (Salix babylonica, right). Credits to Stefan Lefnaer (naiad), Ori Fragman-Sapir (eelgrass), and Wikimedia users Cmales (trumpet tree) and Viaouest (willow).

22.3 Dioecia Triandria (“two houses, three males”), male flowers having three stamens: Empetrum (crowberries), Osyris (osyris), Excoecaria (blind-your-eye mangrove).

The black crowberry (Empetrum nigrum, left), osyris (Osyris alba, center) and blind-your-eye mangrove (Excoecaria agallocha, right) were part of the order Dioecia Triandria. Credits to Krzysztof Ziarnek (crowberry), Hans Hillewaert (osyris) and Wikimedia user Vengolis (blind-your-eye mangrove).

22.4 Dioecia Tetrandria (“two houses, four males”), male flowers having four stamens: Trophis (trophis), Batis (beachwort), Viscum (mistletoes), Hippophae (sea buckthorns), Myrica (bog myrtles and wax myrtles).

The beachwort (Batis maritima, left), common mistletoe (Viscum album, center-left), common sea buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides, center-right) and bog myrtle (Myrica gale, right) made up the order Dioecia Tetrandria. Credits to Forest & Kim Starr (beachwort), Karunakar Rayker (sea buckthorn), Sten Porse (bog myrtle) and Wikimedia user AnRo0002 (mistletoe).

22.5 Dioecia Pentandria (“two houses, five males”), male flowers having five stamens: Pistacia (pistachios and lentiscs), Zanthoxylum (prickly ashes), Ceratonia (carob tree), Iresine (Juba’s bush), Antidesma (heen embilla), Spinacia (spinach), Acnida (water hemp), Cannabis (hemp), Humulus (hop), Zanonia (zanonia), Fevillea (javillo).

The order Dioecia Pentandria included (from left to right, top to bottom) the pistachio (Pistacia vera), souther prickly ash (Zanthoxylum clava-herculis), carob tree (Ceratonia siliqua), Juba’s bush (Iresine celosia, now Iresine diffusa), spinach (Spinacia oleracea), hemp (Cannabis sativa), the common hop (Humulus lupulus), zanonia (Zanonia indica) and javillo (Fevillea cordifolia). Credits to Franz Xaver (Juba’s bush), Dinesh Valke (hemp), Fritz Geller-Grimm (hop), P. Acevedo (javillo) and Wikimedia users NAEINSUN (pistachio), Rickjpelleg (carob tree), Rasban (spinach) and Vinayaraj (zanonia).

22.6 Dioecia Hexandria (“two houses, six males”), male flowers having six stamens: Tamus (lady’s seal), Smilax (smilaxes), Rajania (rajanias), Dioscorea (true yams).

Linnaeus included the lady’s seal (Tamus communis, now Dioscorea communis, left), common smilax (Smilax aspera, center) and air yam (Dioscorea bulbifera, right) in the order Dioecia Hexandria. Credits to Alan Fryer (lady’s seal), Carsten Niehaus (smilax) and Dinesh Valke (yam).

22.7 Dioecia Octandria (“two houses, eight males”), male flowers having eight stamens: Populus (aspens and poplars), Rhodiola (golden root).

22.8 Dioecia Enneandria (“two houses, nine males”), male flowers having nine stamens: Mercurialis (mercuries), Hydrocharis (frogbits).

1758Linnaeus_dioecia_octandria-enneandria

The order Dioecia Octandria included the common aspen (Populus tremula, left) and the golden root (Rhodiola rosea, center-left), while the order Dioecia Enneandria included the dog’s mercury (Mercurialis perennis, center-right) and the common frogbit (Hydrocharis morsus-ranae, right). Credits to Wikimedia users AnRo0002 (aspen), Amazonia Exotics U.K (golden root), BerndH (mercury) and Salicyna (frogbit).

22.9 Dioecia Decandria (“two houses, ten males”), male flowers with ten stamens: Carica (papaya tree), Kiggelaria (wild peach), Coriaria (coriarias), Datisca (datiscas).

22.10 Dioecia Polyandria (“two houses, many males”), male flowers with many stamens: Cliffortia (Cliffortias).

1758Linnaeus_dioecia_decandria-polyandria

The order Dioecia Decandria included (from left to right) the papaya tree (Carica papaya), wild peach (Kiggelaria africana), huique (Coriaria ruscifolia) ad Asian datisca (Datisca cannabina), while the prickly cliffortia (Cliffortia ruscifolia, right) was one of the few members of the order Dioecia Polyandria. Credits to Vijayan Rajapuram (papaya tree), Franz Xaver (huique), H. Zell (datisca), and Wikimedia users JMK (wild peach) and Dwergenpaartje (cliffortia).

22.11 Dioecia Monadelphia (“two houses, single brothers”), male flowers with stamens fused in a single body by their filaments: Juniperus (junipers), Taxus (yews), Ephedra (joint pines), Cissampelos (velvetleaf), Adelia (adelias).

Among the members of the order Dioecia Monadelphia there were (from left to right) the Phoenician juniper (Juniperus phoenicea), European yew (Taxus baccata), common joint pine (Ephedra distachya) and velvetleaf (Cissampelos pareira). Credits to Isidre Blanc (juniper), Didier Descouens (yew), Dinesh Valke (velvetleaf) and Wikimedia user Le.Loup.Gris (joint pine).

22.12 Dioecia Syngenesia (“two houses, same generation”), male flowers with stamens fused into a cylinder: Ruscus (butcher’s brooms and poet’s laurel).

22.13 Dioecia Gynandria (“two houses, female husband”), male flowers with stamens united to the (sterile) pistil: Clutia (lightning bushes).

1758Linnaeus_dioecia_syngenesia-gynandria

The common butcher’s broom (Ruscus aculeatus, left) was in the order Dioecia Syngenesia, and the common lightning bush (Clutia pulchella, right) was in the order Dioecia Gynandria. Credits to Fritz Geller-Grimm (butcher’s broom) and Wikimedia user JMK (lightning bush).

23. Polygamia (“many marriages”)

“Husbands with wives as well as unmarried ones live together in different bedrooms”, i.e., there are hermaphroditic flowers, as well as male-only or female-only flowers in the same species.

23.1 Polygamia Monoecia (“many marriages, single house”), hermaphrodite flowers occur in the same plant in which male-only or female-only flowers occur: Musa (banana trees), Ophioxylon (devil pepper), Celtis (hackberries), Veratrum (false hellebores), Andropogon (beard grasses, bluestems, spear grasses, lemon grasses, among others), Holcus (soft grasses, fountaingrasses, sorghums, among others), Apluda (Mauritian grass), Ischaemum (murainagrass), Cenchrus (sandspurs), Aegilops (goatgrasses), Valantia (valantias), Parietaria (pellitories), Atriplex (oraches), Dalechampia (dalechampias), Clusia (copeys), Acer (maples), Begonia (begonias), Mimosa (mimosas, shimbilloes, sennas, blackbeads, among others).

The diverse order Polygamia Monoecia included (from left to right, top to bottom) the banana tree (Musa paradisiaca, currently Musa × paradisiaca, a hybrid), devil pepper (Ophioxylon serpentinum, now Rauvolfia serpentina), Mediterraean hackberry (Celtis australis), white hellebore (Veratrum album, broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), creeping soft grass (Holcus mollis), Mauritian grass (Apluda mutica), common murainagrass (Ischaemum aristatum), common sandspur (Cenchrus echinatus), bearded goatgrass (Aegilops triuncialis), wall valantia (Valantia muralis), upright pellitory (Parietaria officinalis), garden orache (Atriplex hortensis), common dalechampia (Dalechampia scandens), lesser copey (Clusia minor), red maple (Acer rubrum), Antillean begonia (Begonia obliqua), and touch-me-not (Mimosa pudica). Credits to Franz Xaver (banana tree), H. Zell (devil pepper), Krish Dulal (hackberry), Hedwig Storch (white hellebore), Harry Rose (bluestem), Krzysztof Ziarnek (soft grass), J. M. Garg Mauritian grass), Javier Martin (goatgrass), Radio Tonreg (pellitory), Stefan Lefnaer (orache), David J. Stang (copey), Yercaud Elango (begonia), flickr user Macleay Grass Man (sandspur) and Wikimedia users Keisotyo (murainagrass), Aroche (valantia), Aniprina (dalechampia), Famartin (maple) and Werner1122 (touch-me-not).

23.2 Polygamia Dioecia (“many marriages, two houses”), hermaphrodite flowers and male-only or female-only flowers occur in different plants: Gleditsia (locusts), Fraxinus (ashes), Diospyros (persimmon trees), Nyssa (tupelo), Anthospermum (anthosperm), Arctopus (bear foot), Pisonia (birdcatcher trees), Panax (ginseng).

In the order Polygamia Dioecia, Linnaeus included (from left to right, top to bottom) the honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), common ash (Fraxinus excelsior), American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica), bear foot (Arctopus echinatus), thorny birdcatcher tree (Pisonia aculeata) and American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius). Credits to Andrew Butko (locust), Donar Reiskoffer (ash), Dinesh Valke (persimmon), Winfried Bruenken (bear foot), Alex Popvkin (birdcatcher tree), Dan J. Pittillo (ginseng) and Flickr user lucianvenutian (tupelo).

23.3 Polygamia Trioecia (“many marriages, three houses”), there are plants with only male flowers, others with only female flowers and others with both male and female flowers: Ficus (fig trees).

The order Polygamia Trioecia included only the genus Ficus, with species such as the common fig tree (Ficus carica, left) and the sacred fig tree (Ficus religiosa, right). Credits to Flickr user INRA DIST (common fig tree) and Wikimedia user Amada44 (sacred fig tree).

By classifying all plants with flowers of different sexualities in three classes, Linnaeus made a complete mess. We usually can see at least a vague pattern toward what was later found to be phylogenetically true in some other groups, but it is hard to find anything still relevant today here.

We only need one more part and we will finally finish Linnaeus’ system!

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Reference:

Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae per regna tria Naturae…

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All images are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

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Filed under Botany, Systematics, taxonomy

Tagged as Linnaeus, Linné, Linnean taxonomy, polyamory, polygamy, profane flowers, promiscuity, sexual classification, Species Plantarum, Systema Naturae

by Piter Keo | December 5, 2017 · 6:44 pm

The history of Systematics: Plants in Systema Naturae, 1758 (Part 7)

by Piter Kehoma Boll

We are approaching the end of the description of Linnaeus’ classification of Plants (see parts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). Today I’ll show two more classes, the last two of plants with mainly hermaphrodite flowers.

19. Syngenesia (“same generation”)

“Husbands composed of a generative compact”, i.e., the stamens are united, forming a cylinder.

19.1 Syngenesia Polygamia Aequalis (“same generation, many equal marriages”), compound flowers formed by several small compact flowers, all having stamens and pistils: Scolymus (golden thistles), Cichorium (chicories), Catananche (cupid’s darts), Hypochaeris (cat’s ears), Andryala (andryalas), Tragopogon (goatsbeards), Picris (oxtongues), Leontodon (hawkbits and dandelions), Sonchus (sow thistles), Scorzonera (salsifies), Crepis (hawksbeards), Chondrilla (skeletonweeds), Prenanthes (rattlesnake roots), Lactuca (lettuces), Hieracium (hawkweeds), Lapsana (nippleworts), Hyoseris (hyoserises), Elephantopus (elephant’s foot), Atractylis (spindle thistles), Carlina (carline thistles), Cnicus (thistles), Arctium (burdocks), Carthamus (distaff thistles), Cynara (alcachofras), Carduus (more thistles), Onopordum (cotton thistles), Serratula (plumeless saw-worts), Echinops (globe thistles), Ageratum (whiteweeds), Cacalia (false plantains), Chrysocoma (goldenhairs), Eupatorium (thoroughworts), Santolina (cotton lavenders), Bidens (beggarticks), Staehelina (staehelinas), Stoebe (stoebes), Tarchonanthus (camphor bush).

1758Linnaeus_syngenesia_polygamia_aequalis

The diverse order Syngenesia Polygamia Aequalis included (from left to right, top to bottom) the common goatsbeard (Tragopogon porrifolius), black salsify (Scorzonera hispanica), bristly oxtongue (Picris echioides, now Helminthotheca echioides), common sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus), garden lettuce (Lactuca sativa), rush skeletonweed (Chondrilla juncea), common rattlesnake root (Prenanthes purpurea), common dandelion (Leontodon taraxacum, now Taraxacum officinale), rattlesnake hawkweed (Hieracium venosum), beaked hawksbeard (Crepis vesicaria), common andryala (Andryala integrifolia), smooth hyoseris (Hyoseris scabra), common cat’s ear (Hypochaeris radicata), common nipplewort (Lapsana communis), blue cupid’s dart (Catananche caerulea), common chicory (Cichorium intybus), Spanish golden thistle (Scolimus hispanicus), smooth elephant’s foot (Elephantopus scaber), great globe thistle (Echinops sphaerocephalus), great burdock (Arctium lappa), dyer’s plumeless saw-wort (Serratula tinctoria), musk thistle (Carduus nutans), holy thistle (Cnicus benedictus, now Centaurea benedicta), common cotton thistle (Onopordum acanthium), globe artichoke (Cynara scolymus), common carline thistle (Carlina vulgaris), common spindle thistle (Atractylus huilis), safflower (Carthamus tinctorius), common beggartick (Bidens pilosa), Alpine plantain (Cacalia alpina, now Adenostyles alpina), tall thoroughwort (Eupatorium altissimum), common whiteweed (Ageratum conyzoides), dubious staehelina (Staehelina dubia), common goldenhair (Chrysocoma coma-aurea), camphor bush (Tarchonanthus camphoratus), and common cotton lavender (Santolina chamaecyparissus). Credits to Stephen Lea (goatsbeard), H. Zell (salsify, lettuce, cotton thistle), Tony Wills (sow thistle), Radio Toreng (skeletonweed), Jane Shelby Richardson (hawkweed), Manfred Moitzi (hawksbeard), Pablo Alberto Salguero Quilles (andryala), smooth hyoseris (Hyoseris scabra), Javier Martin (hyoseris, spindle thistle), Phil Sellens (nipplewort), Isidre Blanc (cupid’s dart, staehelina), Joaquim Alves Gaspar (chicory, golden thistle, globe artichoke), Dinesh Valke (elephant’s foot), Enrico Blasutto (burdock), Kristian Peters (plumeless saw-wort), Bernd Haynold (musk thistle), Philipp Weigell (carline thistle), Vishesh Bajpai (beggartick),Benjammin Zwittnig (Alpine plantain), Frank Mayfield (thoroughwort), Peter A. Mansfeld (goldenhair), Paul Venter (camphor bush), Marie-Lan Nguyen (cotton lavender), and Wikimedia users AnemoneProjectors (oxtongue, cat’s ear), Calimo (rattlesnake root), Kropsoq (dandelion), Epp (globe thistle), 00temari (holy thistle), Pseudoanas (safflower) and Leoadec (whiteweed).*

19.2 Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua (“same generation, many remaining marriages”), compound flowers formed by several small compact flowers forming a central disk of hermaphrodite flowers surrounded by a ring of feminine flowers. Both hermaphrodite and feminine flowers are fertile and produce seeds: Tanacetum (tansies), Artemisia (artemisias), Gnaphalium (cudweeds), Xeranthemum (dry everlastings), Carpesium (carpesiums), Baccharis (baccharises), Conyza (horseweeds), Erigeron (fleabanes), Tussilago (coltsfoots), Senecio (ragworts and groundsels), Aster (asters), Solidago (goldenrods), Inula (inulas), Arnica (arnicas), Doronicum (leopard’s banes), Helenium (sneezeweeds), Bellis (daisies), Tagetes (marigolds), Zinnia (zinnias), Pectis (cinchweeds), Chrysanthemum (chrysanthemums and daisies), Matricaria (chamomiles), Cotula (water buttons), Anacyclus (anacycles), Anthemis (false chamomiles), Achillea (yarrows), Tridax (coatbuttons), Amellus (amelluses), Sigesbeckia (St. Paul’s worts), Verbesina (crownbeards), Tetragonotheca (neverays), Buphthalmum (ox-eyes).

1758Linnaeus_syngenesia_polygamia_superflua

Linnaeus put this species in the order Syngenesia Polygamia Superflua (from left to right, top to bottom): common tansy (Tanacetum vulgare), wormwood (Artemisia absinthium), heath cudweed (Gnaphalium sylvaticum), annual dry everlasting (Xeranthemum anuum), saltbush (Baccharis halimifolia), one-flower fleabane (Erigeron uniflorus), common coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara), common groundsel (Senecio vulgaris), Italian aster (Aster amellus), seaside goldenrod (Solidago sempervirens), hairy inula (Inula hirta), mountain arnica (Arnica montana), common leopard’s bane (Doronicum pardalianches), common sneezeweed (Helenium autumnale), common daisy (Bellis perennis), French marigold (Tagetes patula), Peruvian zinnia (Zinnia peruviana), Indian chrysanthemum (Chrysanthemum indicum), common chamomile (Matricaria chamomilla), buttonweed (Cotula coronopifolia), common anacycle (Anacyclus valentinus), sea false-chamomile (Anthemis maritima), common yarrow (Achillea millefolium), coatbuttons (Tridax procumbens), eastern St. Paul’s wort (Siegesbeckia orientalis), ox-eye (Buphthalmum salicifolium>). Credits to Muriel Bendel (tansy), Hermann Schachner (cudweed), Musa Geçit (dry everlasting), Bob Peterson (saltbush, coatbuttons), André Karwath (coltsfoot, daisy), C T Johansson (aster), Sam Fraser-Smith (goldenrod), Kurt Stüber (inula), Isidre Blanc (arnica), Agnieszka Kwiecien (sneezeweed), Lynda Poulter (chamomile), Walter Siegmund (buttonweed), Denis Barthel (false-chamomile), Petar Milošević (yarrow), and Wikimedia users N-Baudet (wormwood), Ghislain118 (fleabane), AnRo0002 (groundsel), Jamain (leopard’s bane, ox-eye), Rasbak (marigold), Vengolis (zinnia), Joydeep (chrysanthemum), Philmarin (anacycle) and Elouanne (St. Paul’s wort).

19.3 Syngenesia Polygamia Frustranea (“same generation, many marriages in vain”), compound flowers formed by several small compact flowers forming a central disk of hermaphrodite flowers surrounded by a ring of neutral flowers, without sexual organs, therefore only the flowers of the disk are fertile and produce seeds: Helianthus (sunflowers), Rudbeckia (black-eyed-susans), Coreopsis (coreopsises), Gorteria (gorterias), Centaurea (knapweeds), Gundelia (gundelia).

1758Linnaeus_syngenesia_polygamia_frustranea

The order Syngenesia Polygamia Frustranea included (from left to right) the common sunflower (Helianthus annuus), common black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia hirta), lance-leaved coreopsis (Coreopsis lanceolata), bachelor’s button (Centaurea montana), gundelia (Gundelia tournefortii). Credits to Frank Mayfield (black-eyed susan), Jean-Pol Grandmont (bachelor’s button), Gundelia (gundelia) and Wikimedia users i_am_jim (sunflower) and KENPEI (coreopsis).*

19.4 Syngenesia Polygamia Necessaria (“same generation, many unavoidable marriages”), compound flowers formed by several small compact flowers forming a central disk of hermaphrodite flowers, but whose feminine part is sterile, surrounded by a ring of fertile feminine flowers, therefore only the flowers of the ring produce seeds: Milleria (millerias), Silphium (rosinweeds), Chrysogonum (golden knees), Melampodium (blackfoots), Calendula (pot marigolds), Arctotis (bear’s ears), Osteospermum (daisybushes), Othonna (othonnas), Polymnia (leafcups), Eriocephalus (snow bushes), Filago (cudweeds), Micropus (cotton seeds), Sphaeranthus (ballflowers).

1758Linnaeus_syngenesia_polygamia_necessaria

These 7 species were included by Linnaeus in the order Syngenesia Polygamia Necessaria (from left to right, top to bottom): starry rosinweed (Silphium asteriscus), common golden knee (Chrysogonum virginianum), common pot-marigold (Calendula officinalis), whiteflower leafcup (Polymnia canadensis), Cape snow bush (Eriocephalus africanus), common cudweed (Filago germanica, now Filago vulgaris), Indian ballflower (Sphaeranthus indicus). Credits to James H. Miller (rosinweed), Fritz Flohr Reynolds (golden knee, leafcup), Wouter Hagens (pot marigold), Juanita Vilas Marchant (snow bush), Wim Rubers (cudweed), Dinnesh Valke (balflower).*

19.5 Syngenesia Monogamia (“same generation, one marriage”), stamens united forming a cylinder, but with single flowers, not forming inflorescences: Seriphium (seriphiums), Corymbium (plampers), Jasione (scabiouses), Lobelia (lobelias), Viola (violets and pansies), Impatiens (balsams).

The sheep’s scabious (Jasione montana, left), garden lobelia (Lobelia erinus, center left), common violet (Viola odorata, center right), and garden balsam (Impatiens balsamina, right) were part of the order Syngenesia Monogamia. Credits to André Karwath (lobelia), Bernard Dupont (violet) and Wikimedia users Darkone (scabious) and Joydeep (balsam).*

20. Gynandria (“female husband”)

“Husbands monstruously united to women”, i.e., flowers with stamens united to the pistils.

20.1 Gynandria Diandria (“female husband, two husbands”), two stamens united to the pistils: Orchis (orchids), Satyrium (satyre orchids), Ophrys (fly and bee orchids), Serapias (Serapis orchids), Limodorum (grass pinks), Arethusa (dragon’s mouth and snake’s mouths), Cypripedium (lady’s slippers orchids), Epidendrum (epiphytic orchids).

The order Gynandria Diandria included (from left to right, top to bottom) the military orchid (Orchis militaris), fly orchid (Ophrys insectifera), tuberous grass pink (Limodorum tuberosum, now Calopogon tuberosus), dragon’s mouth (Arethusa bulbosa), yellow lady’s slipper (Cypripedium calceolus), spathulate vanda (Epidendrum spathulatum, now Taprobanea spathulata). Credits to Holger Krisp (military orchid, fly orchid), Chris Meloche (dragon’s mouth), and Wikimedia users Algirdas (lady’s slipper) and CyberWikipedian (vanda).*

20.2 Gynandria Triandria (“female husband, three husbands”), three stamens united to the pistils: Sisyrinchium (blue-eyed grasses).

20.3 Gynandria Tetrandria (“female husband, four husbands”), four stamens united to the pistils: Nepenthes (pitcher plants).

20.4 Gynandria Pentandria (“female husband, five husbands”), five stamens united to the pistils: Ayenia (ayenias), Passiflora (passion flowers).

1758Linnaeus_gynandria_triandria_tetrandria_pentandria

The common blue-eyed grass (Sisyrinchium bermudianum, left) was the only member of the order Gynandria Triandria. The distiller pitcher-plant (Nepenthes distillatoria, center) was the only member of the order Gynandria Tetrandria. The purple passion flower (Passiflora incarnata) was one of the members of the order Gynandria Pentandria. Credits to Wouter Hagens (blue-eyed grass), James & Jana Hans (pitcher-plant), Oliver P. Quillia (passion flower).*

20.5 Gynandria Hexandria (“female husband, six husbands”), six stamens united to the pistils: Aristolochia (pipevines), Pistia (water lettuce).

20.6 Gynandria Decandria (“female husband, ten husbands”), ten stamens united to the pistils: Helicteres (screw trees).

1758Linnaeus_gynandria_hexandria_decandria

The order Gynandria Hexandria included the smearwort (Aristolochia rotunda, left) and the water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes, center). The order Gynandria Decandria included the Indian screw tree (Helicteres isora, right). Credits to J. M. Garg (screw tree) and Wikimedia users Hectonichus (smearwort) and Keisotyo (water lettuce).*

20.7 Gynandria Polyandria (“female husband, many husbands”), many stamens united to the pistils: Xylopia (xylopias), Grewia (crossberries), Arum (arums), Dracontium (arum yams), Calla (callas), Pothos (pothos), Zostera (eelgrasses).

The order Gynandria Polyandria included (from left to right) the crossberry (Grewia occidentalis), dragon arum (Arum dracunculus, now Dracunculus vulgaris), elephant-foot yam (Dracontium polyphyllum, now Amorphophallus paeoniifolius), wild calla (Calla palustris) and climbing pothos (Pothos scandens). Credits to P. Pickaert (arum), Kurt Stüber (calla), and Wikimedia users Consultaplantas (crossberry), Fotokannan (yam) and Vinayaraj (pothos).*

As you can see, the class Syngenesia is much more regular than the class Gynandria. Most species of Syngenesia are currently included in the family Asteraceae. Gynandria, on the other hand, includes a variety of unrelated plants, including orchids, arum plants and even passion flowers!

Here we finish all plants with hermaphroditic flowers. We only need two more posts and we will have seen the whole system of Linnaeus!

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References:

Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae per regna tria Naturae…

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Tagged as Linnaean taxonomy, Linnaeus, Linné, polyamory, polygamy, profane flowers, promiscuity, sexual classification, Species Plantarum, Systema Naturae

by Piter Keo | September 16, 2017 · 5:10 pm

The history of Systematics: Plants in Systema Naturae, 1758 (Part 6)

by Piter Kehoma Boll

Finally a new post in the History of Systematic series. This is the sixth part of Linnaeus’ classification of plants. See parts 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8 and 9. Here, I’ll present thre more classes which are characterized by having the stamens arising from a common base in the flower.

16. Monadelphia (“single brothers”)

“Husbands, or brothers, arising from one base”, i.e., the filaments of the stamens are fused in a single body.

16.1 Monadelphia Pentandria (“single brothers, five males”), five stamens fused into a single structure: Waltheria (gray mallows), Hermannia (hermannias), Bombax (cotton trees), Melochia (melochias).

These 5 species belonged Linnaeus’ Monadelphia Pentandria (from left to right): sleepy morning (Waltheria indica), three-leaved hermannia (Hermannia trifoliata), chocolateweed (Melochia corchorifolia), red cotton tree (Bombax aculeatum, now Bombax ceiba). Credits to J. M. Garg (sleepy morning), C. E. Timothy Paine (hermannia), Jeevan Jose (chocolatewed), Dinesh Valke (cotton tree).

16.2 Monadelphia Decandria (“single brothers, ten males”), ten stamens fused into a single structure: Connarus (Indian zebrawood), Geranium (geraniums), Hugonia (a species of doubtful identity).

The above species were put by Linnaeus in the order Monadelphia Decandria: Indian zebrawood (Connarus monocarpus, left) and bigroot geranium (Geranium macrorhizum, right). Credits to Dinesh Valke (zebrawood) and Wikipedia user Hardyplants (geranium).

16.3 Monadelphia Polyandria (“single brothers, many males”), many stamens fused into a single structure: Stewartia (silky camellia), Napaea (glade mallow), Sida (fanpetals), Adansonia (baobabs), Pentapetes (gojikas), Gossypium (cottons), Lavatera (tree mallows), Malva (mallows), Malope (mallow worts), Urena (caesarweeds), Alcea (hollyhocks), Hibiscus (hibiscuses), Althaea (marshmallows), Camellia (camélia).

Linnaeus classified the above species as Monadelphia Polyandria (from left to right, top to bottom): common baobab (Adansonia digitata), arrowleaf fanpetal (Sida rhombifolia), glade mallow (Napaea dioica), common marshmallow (Althaea officinalis), common hollyhock (Alcea rosea), common mallow (Malva sylvestris), garden tree mallow (Lavatera thuringiaca), common caesarweed (Urena lobata), Levant cotton (Gossypium herbaceum), Chinese hibiscus (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis), gojika (Pentapetes phoenicea), silky camellia (Stewartia malacodendron), common camellia (Camellia japonica). Credits to Jeevan Jose (fanpetal), Pablo Alberto Salguero Quiles (marshmallow), Stan Shebs (hollyhock), Joanna Voulgaraki (mallow), Bob Peterson (caesarweed), H. Zell (cotton), Andrew Fogg (hibiscus), Frank Vicentz (camellia), Wikimedia users Atamari (baobab), Botaurus stellaris (tree mallow), Melburnian (silky camellia), flickr users peganum (glade mallow), Lalithamba (gojika).

17. Diadelphia (“two brothers”)

“Husbands originating from a double base, as well as a double mother”, i.e., the filaments of the stamens are gathered in two bodies.

17.1 Diadelphia Pentandria (“two brothers, five males”), two structures formed of five fused stamens: Monnieria (monnieria).

17.2 Diadelphia Hexandria (“two brothers, six males”), two structures formed of six fused stamens: Fumaria (fumitories).

17.3 Diadelphia Octandria (“two brothers, eight males”), two structures formed of eight fused stamens: Polygala (milkworts), Securidaca (safeworts).

1758Linnaeus_diadelphia_hexandria_octandria

The plant to the left, the common fumitory (Fumaria officinalis) was in the order Diadelphia Hexandria, while the plant to the right, the common milkwort (Polygala vulgaris), was in the order Diadelphia Octandria. Credits to Isidre Blanc (fumitory) e Radio Tonreg (milkwort).

17.4 Diadelphia Decandria (“two brothers, ten males”), two structures formed of ten fused stamens: Amorpha (false indigo), Ebenus (ebonies), Erythrina (coral trees), Spartium (brooms), Genista (more brooms), Lupinus (lupins), Anthyllis (kidney vetches), Aeschynomene (jointvetches), Piscidia (), Borbonia (cape gorses), Aspalathus (more cape gorses), Ononis (restharrows), Crotalaria (rattlepods), Colutea (bladder sennas), Phaseolus (beans), Dolichos (longbeans, lablab bean), Orobus (vetchlings), Pisum (peas), Lathyrus (more vetchlings), Vicia (vetches), Astragalus (milkvetches), Biserrula (more milkvetches), Phaca (even more milkvetches), Psoralea (some trefoils), Trifolium (clovers or trefoils), Glycyrrhiza (licorices), Hedysarum (sweetvetches), Coronilla (more vetches), Ornithopus (bird’s-foot), Scorpiurus (scorpion’s-tails), Hippocrepis (horseshoe vetches), Medicago (alfalfas), Trigonella (fenugreek and allies), Glycine (soybeans), Clitoria (pigeonwings), Robinia (locusts, caraganes, riverhemps), Indigofera (indigos), Ulex (gorses), Cicer (chickpea), Ervum (lentils, vetches), Cytisus (laburnums and even more brooms), Galega (galegas), Lotus (bird’s-foot-trefoils), Arachis (peanut).

These 36 plants were included in the order Diadelphia Decandria (from left to right, top to bottom): coral bean (Erythrina herbacea), fishfuddle (Piscidia erythrina, now Piscidia piscipula), heart-shaped capegorse (Borbonia cordata, now Aspalathus cordata), weaver’s broom (Spartium junceum), dyer’s broom (Genista tinctoria), desert false-indigo (Amorpha fruticosa), Indian jointvetch (Aeschynomeme indica), blue rattlepod (Crotalaria verrucosa), field restharrow (Ononis arvensis), common kidney vetch (Anthyllis vulneraria), white lupin (Lupinus albus), bladder senna (Colutea arborescens), common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris), lablab bean (Dolichos lablab, now Lablab purpureus), common pea (Pisum sativum), hairy vetchling (Orobus hirsutus, now Lathyrus hirsutus), grass vetchling (Lathyrus nissolia), common vetch (Vicia sativa), Chickpea (Cicer arietinum), lentil (Ervum lens, now Lens culinaris), common laburnum (Cytisus laburnum, now Laburnum anagyroides), common gorse (Ulex europaeus), peanut (Arachis hypogaea), licorice (Glycyrrhiza glabra), scorpion vetch (Coronilla glauca), little white bird’s-foot (Ornithopus perpusillus), horseshoe vetch (Hippocrepis comosa), prickly scorpion’s-tail (Scorpiurus muricatus), alpine sweetvetch (Hedysarum alpinum), indigo (Indigofera tinctoria), common galega (Galega officinalis), Asian pigeonwing (Clitoria ternatea), common soybean (Glycine max), alpine milkvetch (Astragalus alpinus), white clover (Trifolium repens), Cretan ebony (Ebenus cretica). Credits to Everglades NPS (coral bean), Jon Richfield (capegorse), Bernd Haynold (dyer’s broom), Dinesh Valke (jointvetch), J. M. Garg (rattlepod), Kristian Peters (restharrow, vetch, bird’s-foot), Massimiliano Marcelli (lupin), Mauricio Laurente (bean), Bogdan Giuşcă (hairy vetchling), Carl Davies-CSIRO (chickpea), Christian Kooyman (lentil), Jean François Gaffard (laburnum), H. Zell (peanut), Carsten Niehaus (scorpion vetch), Isidre Blanc (horseshoe vetch), Hans Hillewaert (scorpion’s-tail, clover), Nicola Cocchia (galega), Tusli Bhagat (pigeonwing), Jörg Hempel (milkvetch), Rüdiger Kratz (ebony), flickr users jayeshpatil912 (fishfuddle) and Eskimo Potato (sweetvetch), Wikimedia users Hectonichus (weaver’s broom), AnRo0002 (false indigo, kidney vetch, bladder senna), Dalgial (lablab), Rasbak (pea), Sannse (grass vetchling), Rosser1954 (gorse), Pharaoh han (liquorice), Pancrat (indigo), vegetalist (soybean).

18. Polyadelphia (“many brothers”)

Husbands originating from more than two mothers, i.e., stamens are gathered in three or many bodies.

18.1 Polyadelphia Pentandria (“many brothers, five males”), more than two structures of five fused stamens: Theobroma (cacao and bay cedar).

18.2 Polyadelphia Icosandria (“many brothers, twenty males”), more than two structures of twenty fused stamens: Citrus (citrus fruits trees).

18.3 Polyadelphia Polyandria (“many brothers, many males”), more than two structures of many fused stamens: Hypericum (St. Johnswort), Ascyrum (St. Andrew’s cross).

The cacao tree (Theobroma cacao, left) was one of the members of the order Polyadelphia Pentandria; the citron (Citrus medica, middle left) was a member of the order Polyadelphia Icosandria; and the Balearic St. Johnswort (Hypericum balearicum, middle right) and the St. Andrew’s cross (Ascyrum hypericoides, now Hypericum hypericoides) were members of the order Polyadelphia Polyandria. Credits to H. Zell (cacao tree), Christer T Johansson (citron), Wikimedia user Eric in SF (St. Johnswort), Bob Peterson (St. Andrew’s cross).

With a few exceptions, most of the plants in these classes currently belong to the families Malvaceae and Fabaceae (Leguminosae) of flowering plants. I guess we still need three more posts on the plants and then we are done! I hope the next part won’t take so long.

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References:

Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae…

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Tagged as chocolate, cocoa, legumes, Linnaean taxonomy, Linnaeus, Linné, mallow, polyamory, polygamy, profane flowers, promiscuity, sexual classification, vegetables

by Piter Keo | December 12, 2016 · 10:37 pm

The history of Systematics: Plants in Systema Naturae, 1758 (Part 5)

by Piter Kehoma Boll

After taking four posts (you can read them here: 1, 2, 3, 4) to present all regular hermaphroditic flowers in Linnaeus’ system, it’s time to move to irregular hermaphroditic flowers (which will continue in post 6). Here I’ll present you two classes characterized by having stamens of two different sizes.

14. Didynamia (“two forces”)

“Four husbands, two of them longer and two of them shorter”, i.e., two longer stamens and two shorter stamens in a hermaphroditic flower.

14.1 Didynamia Gymnospermia (“two forces, naked seeds”), two longer stamens (and two shorter ones) and exposed seeds without a surrounding fruit: Ajuga (bugleweeds), Teucrium (germanders), Satureja (savories), Thymbra (Mediterranean thymes), Hyssopus (hyssops), Nepeta (catnips), Lavandula (lavenders), Betonica (betonies), Sideritis (ironworts), Mentha (mints), Glechoma (ground ivies), Lamium (dead nettles), Orvala (more dead nettles), Galeopsis (hempnettles), Stachys (woundworts), Ballota (horehounds), Marrubium (more horehounds), Leonurus (lion’s tails), Phlomis (Jerusalem sage), Moluccella (bells-of-Ireland), Clinopodium (wild basils), Thymus (thymes), Origanum (oreganos), Melissa (balms), Dracocephalum (dragonheads), Horminum (dragonmouth), Melittis (bastard balm), Ocimum (basils), Trichostema (bluecurls), Scutellaria (skullcaps), Prunella (self-heals), Prasium (white hedge-nettle), Phryma (lopseed).

These 32 species were classified by Linnaeus as Didynamia Gymnospermia (from left to right, top to bottom): common bugleweed (Ajuga reptans), wall germander (Teucrium chamaedrys), winter savory (Satureja montana), spicate Mediterranean thyme (Thymbra spicata), herb hyssop (Hyssopus officinalis), true catnip (Nepeta cataria), French lavender (Lavandula stoechas), common betony (Betonica officinalis, now Stachys officinalis), Syrian ironwort (Sideritis syriaca), spear mint (Mentha spicata), common ground-ivy (Glechoma hederacea), white dead-nettle (Lamium album), common hempnettle (Galeopsis tetrahit), hedge woundwort (Stachys sylvatica), black horehound (Ballota nigra), common horehound (Marrubium vulgare), motherwort (Leonurus cardiaca), common Jerusalem sage (Phlomis fruticosa), common-bells-of-Ireland (Moluccella laevis), common wild-basil (Clinopodium vulgare), common thyme (Thymus vulgaris), common oregano (Origanum vulgare), lemon balm (Melissa officinalis), Moldavian dragonhead (Dracocephalum moldavica), dragonmouth (Horminum pyrenaicum), bastard balm (Melittis melissophyllum), sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum), forked blue curls (Trichostema dichotomum), blue skullcap (Scutellaria lateriflora), common self-heal (Prunella vulgaris), white hedge-nettle (Prasium majus), lopseed (Phryma leptostachya). Credits to H. Zell (bugleweed, hyssop, betony, mint, dead nettle), Bernd Haynold (germander, dragonmouth), Agnieszka Kwiecień (savory), Gideon Pisanty (Mediterranean thyme, lemon balm), Hans Hillewaert (lavender), C T Johansson (ironwort), Kristian Peters (ground ivy), Ivar Leidus (woundwort, self-heal), Olivier Pichard (black horehound), Eugene Zelenko (common horehound), Karel Jakubec (motherwort), Peter A. Mansfeld (Jerusalem sage), Muriel Bendel (wild basil), Henry Brisse (thyme), Frank Vicentz (oregano), Karen Hine (dragonhead), Jacopo Werther (blue curls), Rolf Engstrand (skullcap), Zeynel Cebeci (white hedge-nettle), and Wikimedia users KENPEI (catnip), BerndH (hempnettle, bastard balm), HelloMojo (bells-of-Ireland), Wildfeuer (basil) and Dalgial (lopseed).

14.2 Didynamia Angiospermia (“two forces, enclosed seeds”), two longer stamens (and two shorter ones) and seeds enclosed in a fruit: Bartsia (velvetbells), Rhinanthus (rattles), Euphrasia (eyebrights), Melampyrum (cow wheats), Lathraea (toothworts), Schwalbea (chaffseed), Tozzia (tozzias), Pedicularis (louseworts), Gerardia (gerardias), Chelone (turtleheads), Gesneria (gesnerias), Antirrhinum (snapdragons), Cymbaria (cymbarias), Craniolaria (craniolarias), Martynia (cat’s claw), Torenia (wishbone flowers), Besleria (beslerias), Scrophularia (figworts), Celsia (celsia), Digitalis (foxgloves), Bignonia (crossvines), Citharexylum (fiddlewoods), Halleria (tree fuchsia), Crescentia (calabash tree), Gmelina (gmelinas), Petrea (sandpaper vines), Lantana (lantanas), Cornutia (cornutias), Loeselia (loeselias), Capraria (goatweeds), Selago (selages), Hebenstretia (hebenstretias), Erinus (fairy foxgloves), Buchnera (buchneras), Browallia (browallias), Linnaea (twinflower), Sibthorpia (sibthorpia), Limosella (mudworts), Stemodia (twintips), Aeginetia (forest ghost flower), Obolaria (obolarias), Orobanche (broomrapes), Dodartia (dodartias), Lippia (lippias), Sesamum (sesames), Mimulus (monkeyflowers), Ruellia (ruellias), Barleria (Philippine violets), Duranta (dewdrops), Ovieda (ovieda), Ellisia (ellisia), Volkameria (glory bowers), Clerodendrum (more glory bowers), Vitex (chastetree), Bontia (wild olive), Columnea (flying goldfish plants), Acanthus (bear’s breeches), Pedalium (pedalium), Melianthus (honeyflowers).

The order Didynamia Angiospermia included these plants (from left to right, top to bottom): common velvetbells (Bartsia alpina), field cow-wheat (Melampyrum arvense), common toothwort (Lathraea squamaria), American chaffseed (Schwalbea americana), common lousewort (Pedicularis sylvatica), white turtlehead (Chelone glabra), garden snapdragon (Antirrhinum majus), cat’s claw (Martynia annua), common figwort (Scrophularia nodosa), common foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), common crossvine (Bignonia capreolata), tree fuchsia (Halleria lucida), Calabash tree (Crescentia cujete), West Indian lantana (Lantana camara), common goatweed (Capraria biflora), Alpine balsam (Erinus alpinus), twinflower (Linnaea borealis), water mudwort (Limosella aquática), seaside twintip (Stemodia marítima), forest ghost flower (Aeginetia indica), branched broomrape (Orobanche ramosa), common sesame (Sesamum indicum), square-stemmed monkeyflower (Mimulus ringens), minnieroot (Ruellia tuberosa), crested Philippine violet (Barleria cristata), golden dewdrop (Duranta erecta), common glory bower (Volkameria inermis), Hill glory bower (Clerodendrum infortunatum), common chastetree (Vitex agnus-castus), wild olive (Bontia daphnoides), common bear’s breeches (Acanthus mollis), pedalium (Pedalium murex), giant honeyflower (Melianthus major). Credits to Jörg Hempel (velvetbells, toothwort), Hans Hillewaert (cow wheat), H. Zell (turtlehead, chastetree), Michael Apel (snapdragon), Jean François Gaffard (figwort), Melissa McMasters (crossvine), Stan Shebs (tree fuchsia, honeyflower), Franz Xaver (lantana, sesame, bear’s breeches), Scott Zona (goatweed), François Van Der Biest (Apline balsam), Paul Chapman (twinflower), Christian Fischer (mudwort), Alex Popovkin (twintip), C T Johansson (forest ghost flower), Javier Martin (broomrape), Jason Hollinger (monkeyflower), Varun Pabrai (minnieroot), Forest & Kim Starr (common glory bower), D. Eickhoff (wild olive), Marco Schmidt (pedalium), and Wikimedia users Orchi (lousewort), Vinayaraj (cat’s claw, hill glory bower), Yann (foxglove), Jamesbamba (calabash tree), Vengolis (Philippine violet) and Mokkie (dewdrop).

15. Tetradynamia (“four forces”)

“Six husbands, four of them longer in a hermaphrodite flower”, i.e., four longer stamens and two shorter stamens in a hermaphroditic flower.

15.1 Tetradynamia Siliculosae (“four forces, siliculose”), four longer stamens (and two shorter ones) and seeds in a short pod (silicle): Myagrum (myagers), Vella (vellas), Anastatica (rose of Jericho), Subularia (awlworts), Draba (whitlow grasses), Lepidium (peppercresses), Thlaspi (pennycresses), Cochlearia (spoonworts), Iberis (candytufts), Alyssum (alyssums), Clypeola (more alyssums), Biscutella (biscutellas), Lunaria (honesties).

Linnaeus put in the order Tetradynamia Siliculosae, among others, the following plants (from left to right, top to bottom): rose of Jericho (Anastatica hierochuntica), early whitlow-grass (Draba verna), garden cress (Lepidium sativum), field pennycress (Thlaspi arvense), common spoonwort (Cochlearia officinalis), evergreen candytuft (Iberis sempervirens), spiny madwort (Alyssum spinosum), sweet alyssum (Clypeola maritima, now Lobularia maritima), common honesty (Lunaria annua). Credits to Michael H. Lemmer (whitlow grass), Krish Dulal (garden cress), Karel Jakubec (spoonwort), Kurt Stüber (madwort), André Karwath (honesty) and Wikimedia users Phil41 (rose of Jericho), Bff (pennycress), Bouba (candytuft) and Hectonichus (sweet alyssum).

15.2 Tetradynamia Siliquosae (“four forces, siliquose”), four longer stamens (and two shorter ones) and seeds in a long pod (silique): Dentaria (bittercresses), Cardamine (more bittercresses), Sisymbrium (hedge mustards), Erysimum (wallflowers), Cheiranthus (more wallflowers), Hesperis (dame’s rockets), Arabis (rockcresses), Turritis (towercresses), Brassica (cabbages, mustards and allies), Sinapis (some mustards), Raphanus (radishes), Bunias (warty cabbages), Isatis (woads), Crambe (seakales), Cleome (spiderflowers).

The order Tetradynamia Siliquosa included (from left to right, top to bottom): narrowleaf bittercress (Cardamine impatiens), common hedge-mustard (Sisymbrium officinale), common dame’s rocket (Hesperis matronalis), Alpine rockcress (Arabis alpina), common towercress (Turritis glabra), cabbage (Brassica oleracea), wild mustard (Sinapis arvensis), cultivated radish (Raphanus sativus), common woad (Isatis tinctoria), common seakale (Crambe maritima), African spiderflower (Cleome gynandra). Credits to Meneerke Bloem (bittercress), James K. Lindsey (hedge mustard), Jason Pratt (dame’s rocket), Jerzy Opiała (rockcress), Olivier Pichard (wild mustard), Curtis Clark (radish), Kurt Stüber (woad), Anne Burgess (seakale), Ton Rulkens (spiderflower) and Wikimedia users Rigel7 (towercress) and Griensteidl (cabbage).

As you can notice, these classes include many culinary plants. And finally we are getting close to the end of flowering plants, but there are still quite a lot to show.

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References:

Linnaeus, C. 1758. Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae…

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All images are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

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Filed under Botany, Systematics, taxonomy

Tagged as broccoli, Linnaean taxonomy, Linnaeus, polyamory, polygamy, profane flowers, promiscuity, sexual classification, spices, vegetables

by Piter Keo | June 29, 2016 · 11:47 am

The history of Systematics: Plants in Systema Naturae, 1758 (Part 4)

by Piter Kehoma Boll

Here comes the forth part of the classification of plants proposed by Linnaeus. See here parts 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7.

12. Icosandria (“twenty males”)

“Twenty husbands in each marriage”, i.e., twenty stamens in a hermaphrodite flower:

12.1 Icosandria Monogynia (“twenty males and one female”), twenty stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Cactus (cactuses), Philadephus (mock-oranges), Psidium (guavas), Eugenia (surinam cherry, mango pine, malay apples), Myrtus (myrtles, Brazil cherry, allspice etc), Punica (pomegranate), Amygdalus (almonds and peaches), Prunus (apricots, cherries, plum, etc).

Linnaeus’ order Icosandria Monogynia included (from left to right, top to bottom): wooly nipple cactus (Cactus mammillaris, now Mammillaria mammillaris), sweet mock-orange (Philadelphus coronaries), common guava tree (Psidium guajava), Surinam cherry (Eugenia uniflora), common myrtle (Myrtus communis), pomegranate tree (Punica granatum), almond tree (Amygdalus communis, now Prunus dulcis), plum tree (Prunus domestica). Credits to Isidre Blanc (mock-orange), Zeynel Cebeci (Surinam cherry), Forest & Kim Starr (myrtle), Mzelle Laure (almond), flickr users Lourdes (cactus), mauroguanandi (guava), and Wikimedia user Rasbak (plum).

12.2 Icosandria Digynia (“twenty males and two females”), twenty stamens and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Crataegus (hawthorns and rowans).

12.3 Icosandria Trigynia (“twenty males and three females”), twenty stamens and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Sorbus (more rowans), Sesuvium (sea-purslane).

The scarlet hawthorn (Crataegus coccinea, left) was in the order Icosandria Digynia, while the European rowan (Sorbus aucuparia, center) and the shoreline purslane (Sesuvium portulacastrum, right) were in the order Icosandria Trigynia. Credits to Eric Guinther (shoreline purslane) and Wikimedia user VoDeTan2 (hawthorn).

12.4 Icosandria Pentagynia (“twenty males and five females”), twenty stamens and five pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Mespilus (medlar, firethorn, shadbush, etc), Pyrus (pears, apples, quince), Tetragonia (tetragonias), Mesembryanthemum (iceplants), Aizoon (immortals), Spiraea (meadowsweets), Dalibarda (dewdrop).

The order Icosandria Pentagynia included (from left to right, top to bottom) the medlar (Mespilus germanica), common pear tree (Pyrus communis), common iceplant (Mesembryanthemum crystallinum), Canary Island immortal (Aizoon canariense), common meadowsweet (Spiraea tomentosa), and dewdrop (Dalibarda repens). Credits to H. Zell (medlar), Hans Bernhard (iceplant), Gabrielle Kothe-Heinrich (immortal), Steven G. Johnson (meadowsweet), and Wikimedia user Jomegat (dewdrop).

12.5 Icosandria Polygynia (“twenty males and many females”), twenty stamens and many pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Rosa (roses), Rubus (blackberries and raspberries), Fragaria (strawberries), Potentilla (cinquefoils), Tormentilla (more cinquefoils), Geum (avens), Dryas (dryads), Comarum (marsh cinquefoil), Calycanthus (sweetbrush).

The order Icosandria Polygynia included (from left to right, top to bottom) the French rose (Rosa gallica), red raspberry (Rubus idaeus), wild strawberry (Fragaria vesca), sulphur cinquefoil (Potentilla recta), European cinquefoil (Tormentilla reptans, now Potentilla reptans), wood avens (Geum urbanum), white dryad (Dryas octopetala), marsh cinquefoil (Comarum palustre), and sweetbrush (Calycanthus floridus). Credits to Bogdan Giuşcă (rose), Sander van der Molen (strawberry), Enrico Blasutto (European cinquefoil), Randy A. Nonemacher (avens), Isidre Blanc (dryad), and Wikimedia users Wo st 01 (raspberry), AnRo0002 (sulphur cinquefoil), Beentree (marsh cinquefoil), Phyzome (sweetbrush).

13. Polyandria (“many males”)

“Many husbands in each marriage”, i.e., many stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

13.1 Polyandria Monogynia (“many males and one female”), many stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Lecythis (monkey pots), Marcgravia (monkey-paws vine), Morisonia (morisonias), Capparis (capers), Actaea (bugbanes), Bocconia (tree poppy), Sanguinaria (bloodroot), Podophyllum (mayapple), Chelidonium (celandines), Papaver (poppies), Argemone (prickly poppies), Cambogia (gamboge), Muntingia (calabur tree), Sarracenia (trumpet pitchers), Nymphaea (water lilies), Bixa (achiote), Sloanea (carrabeens), Prockia (guasimilla), Laetia (laetia), Seguieria (forest lemon), Mammea (mammee and fish poison tree), Grias (anchovy pear), Ochna (ochnas), Chrysobalanus (coco plum), Calophyllum (tamanus), Tilia (basswoods), Microcos (shiral), Elaeocarpus (Ceylon olive), Elima (an unknown species), Mesua (Sri Lankan ironwood), Vateria (white dammar), Lagerstroemia (crape myrtle), Thea (tea), Caryophyllus (clove), Mentzelia (blazing stars), Plinia (grapetrees), Cistus (cistuses), Corchorus (jutes).

The diverse order Polyandria Monogynia included (from left to right, top to bottom): common monkey pot (Lecythis ollaria), common monkey-paws vine (Marcgravia umbellata), common caper (Capparis spinosa), baneberry (Actaea spicata), tree poppy (Bocconia frutescens), bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum), greater celandine (Chelidonium majus), opium poppy (Papaver somniferum), Mexican prickly poppy (Argemone Mexicana), calabur tree (Muntingia calabura), purple pitcher (Sarracenia purpurea), white water-lily (Nymphaea alba), achiote (Bixa orellana), mammee (Mammea Americana), coco plum (Chrysobalanus icaco), tamanu (Calophyllum inophyllum), American basswood (Tilia americana), Ceylon olive (Elaeocarpus serratus), Sri Lankan ironwood (Mesua ferrea), white dammar (Vateria indica), crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica), tea (Thea sinensis, now Camellia sinensis), clove (Caryophyllus aromaticus, now Syzygium aromaticum), narrow-leaved cistus (Cistus monspeliensis), common jute (Corchorus olitorius). Credits to Pau Cabot (caper), H. Zell (baneberry), Forest & Kim Starr (tree poppy, coco plum, tamanu), Nicholas A. Tonelli (bloodroot), Hedwig Storch (mayapple, water lily), Angie Harms (poppy), Bruno Navez (prickly poppy), Denis Conrado (achiote), Fritz Flohr Reynolds (basswood), Lionel Allorge (crape myrtle), Meneerke Bloem (clove), Joaquim Alves Gaspar (cistus), and Wikimedia users Nvivas (monkey pot), Marcoarbo (mammee), Vinayaraj (Ceylon olive, Sri Lankan ironwood), Forestowlet (white dammar), apple2000 (jute).

13.2 Polyandria Digynia (“many males and two females”), many stamens and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Paeonia (peônia), Curatella (curatellas), Calligonum (orta).

13.3 Polyandria Trigynia (“many males and three females”), many stamens and three pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Delphinium (larkspurs), Aconitum (wolfsbanes).

The common peony (Paeonia officinalis, left) and the orta (Calligonum polygonoides, center-left) were in the order Polyandria Digynia, while the candle larkspur (Delphinium elatum, center-right) and the northern wolfsbane (Aconitum lycoctonum, right) were in the order Polyandria Trigynia. Credits to H. Zell (peony), Antti Bilund (wolfsbane) and Wikimedia users LRBurdak (orta) and Bff (larkspur).

13.4 Polyandria Tetragynia (“many males and four females”), many stamens and four pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Tetracera (hornvines).

13.5 Polyandria Pentagynia (“many males and five females”), many stamens and five pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Aquilegia (granny’s bonnet), Nigella (love-in-a-mists), Reaumuria (reaumurias).

13.6 Polyndria Hexagynia (“many males and six females”), many stamens and six pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Stratiotes (water soldier).

The common hornvine (Tetracera volubilis, left) was the only species in the order Polyandria Tetragynia; the common granny’s bonnet (Aquilegia vulgaris, center-left) and the love-in-a-mist (Nigella damascena, center-right) were in the order Polyandria Pentagynia; and the water soldier (Stratiotes aloides, right) was the only species in the order Polyandria Hexagynia. Credits to Daniel H. Janzen (hornvine), Isidre Blanc (granny’s bonnet), Christian Fischer (water soldier).

13.7 Polyandria Polygynia (“many males and many females”), many stamens and many pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Dillenia (elephant apple), Liriodendron (tulip tree), Magnolia (magnolias), Michelia (champak), Uvaria (uvaria and kadsura), Annona (sugar apples), Anemone (anemones), Atragene (clematises and anemones), Clematis (clematises), Thalictrum (meadow-rues), Adonis (adonises), Ranunculus (buttercups and water crowfoots), Trollius (globeflowers), Isopyrum (isopyrums), Helleborus (hellebores), Caltha (marsh-marigold), Hydrastis (goldenseal).

The heterogeneous order Polyandria Polygynia included (from left to right, top to bottom): elephant apple (Dillenia indica), tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), champak (Michelia champacca, now Magnolia champaca), custard apple (Annona squamosal), poppy anemone (Anemone coronaria), Alpine clematis (Atragene alpina, now Clematis alpina), purple clematis (Clematis viticella), early meadow-rue (Thalictrum dioicum), pheasant’s eye (Adonis annua), Persian buttercup (Ranunculus asiaticus), European globeflower (Trollius europaeus), common isopyrum (Isopyrum thalictroides), black hellebore (Helleborus niger), marsh-marigold (Caltha palustris), goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis). Credits to Shamim Munshi (elephant apple), Bruce Marlin (tulip tree), Anna Anichkova (magnolia), Denis Conrado (champak), Meneerke Bloem (custard apple), Zachi Evenor (anemone, buttercup), Enrico Blasutto (Alpine clematis), Frank Liebig (purple clematis), Alberto Salguero (pheasant’s eye), H. Zell (globeflower), Isidre Blanc (marsh-marigold), Ryan Hagerty (goldenseal), and Wikimedia users Cbaile19 (meadow-rue) and Wildfeuer (hellebore).

So we conclude the first load of plants. From the next post on, we will enter in the world of the less regular flowers.

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References:

Linnaeus, C. 1758. Systema Naturae per Regna Tria Naturae…

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All images are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License.

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Filed under Botany, Systematics, taxonomy

Tagged as fruits, Linnaean taxonomy, Linnaeus, polyamory, polygamy, profane flowers, promiscuity, roses, sexual classification, strawberries

by Piter Keo | May 8, 2016 · 6:34 pm

The history of Systematics: Plants in Systema Naturae, 1758 (Part 2)

by Piter Kehoma Boll

This posts continues to present the classification of plants according to Linnaeus that started in part 1. Se also parts 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

5. Pentandria (“five males”)

“Five husbands in each marriage”, i.e., five stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

5.1 Pentandria monogynia (“five males and one female”), five stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Heliotropium (heliotropes), Myosotis (forget-me-nots), Lithospermum (gromwells), Anchusa (buglosses), Cynoglossum (houndstongues), Pulmonaria (lungworts), Symphytum (comfreys), Cerinthe (honeyworts), Borago (borages), Asperugo (madwort), Lycopsis (monksworts), Echium (viper’s bugloss), Varronia (varronia), Tournefortia (soldier’s bushes), Chiococca (cahincas), Diapensia (pincushions), Aretia (Alpine rock-jasmine), Androsace (rock-jasmines), Primula (primroses), Cortusa (Alpine bells), Soldanella (snowbells), Dodecatheon (shooting stars), Cyclamen (cyclamens), Menyanthes (bogbeans), Hottonia (water violets), Hydrophyllum (waterleaves), Lysimachia (loosestrifes), Anagallis (pimpernels), Theophrasta (theophrastas), Patagonula (patagonulas), Spigelia (pinkroots), Ophiorrhiza (snakeroots), Randia (indigoberries), Azalea (azaleas), Plumbago (leadworts), Phlox (phloxes), Convolvulus (bindweeds), Ipomoea (morning glories), Polemonium (Jacob’s ladders), Campanula (bellflowers), Roella (roellas), Phyteuma (rampions), Trachelium (throatworts), Samolus (brookweeds), Rondeletia (Panama roses), Portlandia (Jamaican bells), Bellonia (bellonias), Cinchona (quinines), Psychotria (wild coffees), Coffea (coffee), Lonicera (honeysuckles), Triosteum (horse-gentians), Erithalis (blacktorches), Morinda (morindas), Conocarpus (button trees), Mussaenda (mussaendas), Genipa (genipapo), Mirabilis (four o’clocks), Coris (bugflowers), Verbascum (mulleins), Datura (trumpets), Hyoscyamus (henbanes), Nicotiana (tobacco plants), Atropa (nightshades and mandrakes), Physalis (groundcherries), Solanum (nightshades, tomatoes, potato, aubergine), Capsicum (bell peppers, chili peppers), Strychnos (strychnine trees), Chironia (chironias), Cordia (manjacks), Brunfelsia (brunfelsias), Ehretia (ehretias), Cestrum (cestrums), Lycium (boxthorns), Chrysophyllum (goldleaves), Sideroxylon (bully trees), Rhamnus (buckthorns), Phylica (cape myrtles), Ceanothus (wild lilacs), Myrsine (African boxwood), Celastrus (staff vines), Euonymus (spindles), Hartogia (Cape buchu), Byttneria (byttnerias), Diosma (diosmas), Brunia (brunias), Itea (sweetspires), Galax (wandplant), Cedrela (new world cedars), Mangifera (magoes), Cupania (cupanias), Ribes (gooseberries and currants), Gronovia (gronovia), Hedera (ivies), Vitis (grape vines), Lagoecia (lagoecias), Sauvagesia (sauvagesias), Claytonia (miner’s lettuces), Achyranthes (chaff-flowers), Celosia (cockscombs), Illecebrum (coral necklace), Glaux (sea milkweed), Thesium (thesiums), Rauvolfia (devil-pepper), Cerbera (mango mangroves), Vinca (periwinkles), Nerium (oleanders), Plumeria (plumerias), Cameraria (camerarias), Tabernaemontana (milkwoods), Ceropegia (strings of hearts).

More than a hundred genera made up the order Pentandria Monogynia. Among the species there were (from left to right, top to bottom): European heliotrope (Heliotropium europaeum), true forget-me-not (Myosotis scorpioides), common gromwell (Lithospermum officinale), common bugloss (Anchusa officinalis), common houndstongue (Cynoglossum officinale), common lungwort (Pulmonaria officinalis), common comfrey (Symphytum officinale), common honeywort (Cerinthe major), common borage (Borago officinalis), madwort (Asperugo procumbens), red monkswort (Lycopsis vesicaria, now Nonea vesicaria), Italian viper’s bugloss (Echium italicum), cahinca (Chiococca alba), pincushion (Diapensia lapponica), northern rock-jasmine (Androsace septentrionalis), cowslip (Primula veris), Alpine bells (Cortusa matthioli or Primula matthioli), Alpine snowbell (Soldanella alpina), common shooting star (Dodecatheon meadia), European cyclamen (Cyclamen purpurascens), bogbean (Menyanthes trifoliata), water violet (Hottonia palustris), Virginia waterleaf (Hydrophyllum virginianum), yellow loosestrife (Lysimachia vulgaris), red pimpernel (Anagallis arvensis), American theophrasta (Theophrasta americana), white indigoberry (Randia aculeata), Japanese azalea (Azalea indica, now Rhododendron indicum), Ceylon leadwort (Plumbago zeylanica), garden phlox (Phlox paniculata), field bindweed (Convolvulus arvensis), cypress vine (Ipomoea quamoclit), common Jacob’s ladder (Polemonium caeruleum), giant bellflower (Campanula latifolia), round-headed rampion (Phyteuma orbiculare), blue throatwort (Trachelium caeruleum), seaside brookweed (Samolus valerandi), common Jamaican bell (Portlandia grandiflora), coffee (Coffea arabica), Italian honeysuckle (Lonicera caprifolium), common blacktorch (Erithalis fruticosa), great morinda (Morinda citrifolia), common button tree (Conocarpus erectus), wild mussaenda (Mussaenda frondosa), genipapo (Genipa americana), common four o’clock (Mirabilis jalapa), common mullein (Verbascum thapsus), common devil’s trumpet (Datura metel), black henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), common tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), deadly nightshade (Atropa belladonna), common groundcherry (Physalis viscosa), potato (Solanum tuberosum), bell pepper (Capsicum annuum), nux vomica (Strynchos nux-vomica), Assyrian plum (Cordia myxa), American brunfelsia (Brunfelsia americana), night-blooming cestrum (Cestrum nocturnum), goji (Lycium barbarum), satinleaf (Chrysophyllum oliviforme), common buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica), mountain sweet (Ceanothus americanus), African boxwood (Myrsine africana), American bittersweet (Celastrus scandens), European spindle (Euonymus europaeus), Virginia sweetspire (Itea virginica), Cuban cedar (Cedrela odorata), mango tree (Mangifera indica), red currant (Ribes rubrum), common ivy (Hedera helix), grape vine (Vitis vinifera), Siberian miner’s lettuce (Claytonia sibirica), common chaff-flower (Achyranthes aspera), common cockscomb (Celosia cristata), coral necklace (Illecebrum verticillatum), sea milkweed (Glaux maritima, now Lysimachia maritima), devil-pepper (Rauvolfia tetraphylla), sea mango (Cerbera manghas), lesser periwinkle (Vinca minor), oleander (Nerium oleander), red plumeria (Plumeria rubra), broad-leaf cameraria (Cameraria latifolia), string of hearts (Ceropegia candelabrum). Credits to Ivar Leidus (forget-me-not), Hans Hillewaert (gromwell, honeywort), Andreas Eichler (bugloss, comfrey), H. Zell (borage, cowslip, coffee, tobacco, potato, mountain sweet, spindle), Hermann Schachner (madwort), Scott Zona (cahinca, cameraria), Opioła Jerzy (Alpine bells), Agnes Monkelbaan (cyclamen), J.-H. Janßen (water violet), Frank Vicentz (loosestrife, cockscomb), Reuven Karp (pimpernel), Smithsonian Institute (theophrasta), Bob Peterson (indigoberry), J. M. Garg (leadwort), Anneli Salo (bindweed), Hafiz Issadeen (cypress vine), Erlend Bjørtvedt (bellflower), Javier Martin (throatwort), Raffi Kojian (Jamaican bell), Stefan Lefnaer (honeysuckle), Callie Oldfield (blacktorch), Ulf Mehlig (button tree), João Medeiros (genipapo), Zoya Akulova (groundcherry), Marco Schmidt (Assyrian plum), Andel Früh (brunfelsia), Cary Bass (cestrum), Danny S. (goji), Homer Edward Price (satinleaf), Krzysztof Ziarnek (buckthorn), Carla Antonini (mango), Stefan Kampf (currant), Isidre Blanc (ivy), Wouter Hagens (grape vine), Walter Siegmund (miner’s lettuce), Jeevan Jose (chaff-flower), Christian Fischer (sea milkweed), Christer Johansson (periwinkle), Ian W. Fieggen (oleander), Indian Biodiversity Portal (string of hearts), and Wikimedia users Aroche (heliotrope, brookweed), Fornax (houndstongue, rock jasmine), Belladona2 (lungwort), Cerencin (viper’s bugloss), Alinja (pincushion), Cptcv (snowbell), Uoaei1 (bogbean), Jnn (azalea), Epibase (phlox), Tigerente (rampion), The Photographer (morinda), Vinayaraj (mussaenda, nux vomica, devil pepper), Wildfeuer (four o’clock), 428mdk09 (mullein), Better days came (trumpet), Imanrtin6 (henbane), Aktron (nightshade), Carstor (bell pepper), JMK (African boxwood), SB_Johnny (sweetspire), Weddi (coral necklace), BotBln (sea mango), and KayEss (plumeria).

5.2 Pentandria digynia (“five males and two females”), five stamens and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Periploca (silkvines), Cynanchum (dog-strangling vines), Apocynum (dogbanes), Asclepias (milkweeds), Stapelia (carrion flowers), Herniaria (rupturewort), Chenopodium (goosefoots), Beta (beets), Salsola (saltworts), Anabasis (anabases), Cressa (alkaliweeds), Trianthema (pigweeds), Gomphrena (bachelor buttons), Bosea (yervamora), Ulmus (elms), Nama (fiddleleaves), Heuchera (alumroots), Swertia (felworts), Gentiana (gentians), Phyllis (phyllis), Eryngium (sea hollies), Hydrocotyle (water pennyworts), Sanicula (sanicles), Astrantia (masterworts), Bupleurum (hare’s ears), Echinophora (thorn-bearers), Tordylium (hartworts), Caucalis (bur-parsley), Artedia (artedia), Daucus (carrots), Ammi (false bishop’s weeds), Bunium (black cumin), Conium (hemlocks), Selinum (milk parsleys), Athamanta (athamantas), Peucedanum (hog’s fennels), Crithmum (sea fennels), Cachrys (cachrys), Hasselquistia (Egyptian hartwort), Ferula (giant fennels and asafoetidas), Laserpitium (sermountains), Heracleum (hogweeds), Ligusticum (lovages), Angelica (angelicas), Sium (water-parsnips), Sison (stone-parsnips), Bubon (mountain-parsnips), Cuminum (cumin), Oenanthe (water dropworts), Phellandrium (water dropworts and lovages), Cicuta (water hemlocks), Aethusa (fool’s parsley), Coriandrum (corianders), Sandix (cicelies and shepherd’s-needles), Chaerophyllum (chervils), Imperatoria (true masterwort), Seseli (moon carrots and fennels), Thapsia (deadly carrots), Pastinaca (parsnips), Smyrnium (alexanders), Anethum (dill), Carum (caraway), Pimpinella (anis), Apium (celery and parsley), Aegopodium (ground elders).

The order Pentandria Digynia included the following species (from left to right, top to bottom): common silkvine (Periploca graeca), acute dog-strangling vine (Cynanchum acutum), fly-trap dogbane (Apocynum androsaemifolium), white milkweed (Asclepias variegata), starfish flower (Stapelia hirsuta), smooth rupturewort (Herniaria glabra), white goosefoot (Chenopodium album), beet (Beta vulgaris), common saltwort (Salsola soda), common alkaliweed (Cressa cretica), black pigweed (Trianthema portulacastrum), bachelor button (Gomphrena globosa), American elm (Ulmus americana), American alumroot (Heuchera americana), common felwort (Swertia perennis), great yellow gentian (Gentiana lutea), culantro (Eryngium foetidum), marsh pennywort (Hydrocotyle vulgaris), common sanicle (Sanicula europaea), great masterwort (Astrantia major), sickle-leaved hare’s ear (Bupleurum falcatum), Mediterranean hartwort (Tordylium apulum), bur-parsley (Caucalis platycarpos), artedia (Artedia squamata), carrot (Daucus carota), false bishop’s weed (Ammi majus), black cumin (Bunium bulbocastanum), poison hemlock (Conium maculatum), hog’s fennel (Peucedanum officinale), sea fennel (Crithmum maritimum), giant fennel (Ferula communis), broad-leaved sermountain (Laserpitium latifolium), common hogweed (Heracleum sphondylium), Scots lovage (Ligusticum scoticum), garden angelica (Angelica archangelica), great water-parsnip (Sium latifolium), cumin (Cuminum cyminum), tubular water dropwort (Oenanthe fistulosa), cowbane (Cicuta virosa), fool’s parsley (Aethusa cynapium), coriander (Coriandrum sativum), shepherd’s-needle (Scandix pecten-veneris), bulbous-chervil (Chaerophyllum bulbosum), true masterwort (Imperatoria ostruthium or Peucedanum ostruthium), fennel (Seseli foeniculum, now Foeniculum vulgare), villous deadly carrot (Thapsia villosa), parsnip (Pastinaca sativa), alexander (Smyrnium olusatrum), dill (Anethum graveolens), caraway (Carum carvi), anis (Pimpinella anisum), celery (Apium graveolens), ground elder (Aegopodium podagraria). Credits to Isidre Blanc (dog-strangling vine), Stan Shebs (dogbane), Eurico Zimbres (starfish flower), Kristian Peters (rupturewort), Luigi Rignanese (saltwort), Michael J. Plagens (pigweed), Melissa McMasters (elm), Derek Ramsey (alumroot), Bernd Haynold (felwort), H. Zell (masterwort, hemlock, hogweed, cowbane, fool’s parsley, fennel, celery), Donald Hobern (hartwort), Stefan Lefnaer (bur-parsley), Daniel Villafruela (false bishop’s weed), Radio Tonreg (hog’s fennel), Jean Tosti (giant fennel), Meneerke Bloem (sermountain, true masterwort), Christian Fischer (angelica, water dropwort), Jeremy Halls (water-parsnip), G. Hagedorn (shepherd’s-needle), Franz Xaver (chervil, ground elder), Magnus Manske (parsnip), Tato Grasso (alexander), Matt Lavin (dill), Rolf Engstrand (caraway), Raffi Kojian (anis), Wikimedia users Lucarelli (silkvine), Rasbak (beet), Vinayaraj (bachelor button), Philipendula (gentian), Mokkie (culantro), Alians PL (pennywort), Fornax (hare’s ear), Ixitixel (carrot), Aroche (sea fennel), Stemonitis (lovage), Rlevse (coriander), and flickr users Gaspa (black cumin) and alliumherbal (cumin).

5.3 Pentandria Trigynia (“five males and three females”), five stamens and three pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Rhus (sumacs), Viburnum (viburnums), Cassine (false olives), Sambucus (elders), Staphylea (bladdernuts), Tamarix (tamarisks), Turnera (turneras), Telephium (telephiums), Corrigiola (strapwort), Pharnaceum (carpetweeds), Alsine (chickweeds), Basella (Indian spinachs), Sarothra (orangegrass).

The 12 species in this image were in the order Pentandria Trigynia (from left to right, top to bottom): ladder’s sumac (Rhus coriaria), wayfarer (Viburnum lantana), Cape saffron (Cassine peragua), European black elder (Sambucus nigra), European bladdernut (Staphylea pinnata), French tamarisk (Tamarix gallica), yellow alder (Turnera ulmifolia), common telephium (Telephium imperati), strapwort (Corrigiola litoralis), chickweed (Alsine media, now Stellaria media), Malabar spinach (Basella alba), orangegrass (Sarothra gentianoides, now Hypericum gentianoides). Credits to Isidre Blanc (wayfarer), Sten Porse (bladdernut), Michael Wolf (yellow alder), Gideon Pisanti (telephium), Bob Peterson (orangegrass), and Wikimedia users Aroche (strapwort) and Shizhao (Malabar spinach).

5.4 Pentandria Tetragynia (“five males and four females”), five stamens and four pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Parnassia (grass of Parnassus).

5.5 Pentandria Pentagynia (“five males and five females”), five stamens and five pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Aralia (spikenards), Barreria (a species of unresolved identity), Statice (statices), Linum (flaxes), Aldrovanda (waterwheels), Drosera (sundews), Crassula (crassulas), Suriana (bay cedar), Sibbaldia (sibbaldia).

5.6 Pentandria Polygynia (“five males and many females”), five stamens and many pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Myosurus (mousetails).

(From left to right, top to bottom) A single species, the grass-of-Parnassus (Parnassia palustris) made up the order Pentandria Tetragynia. The following eight species were in the order Pentandria Pentagynia: devil’s walkingstick (Aralia spinosa), common statice (Statice limonium, now Limonium vulgare), common flax (Linum usitatissimum), waterwheel (Aldrovanda vesiculosa), common sundew (Drosera rotundifolia), pine crassula (Crassula tetragona), bay cedar (Suriana maritima), creeping sibbaldia (Sibbaldia procumbens). The last species, the mousetail (Myosurus minimus), was the only one in the order Pentandria Polygynia. Credits to James H. Miller & Ted Bodner (devil’s walkingstick), Olivier Pichard (statice), Denis Barthel (waterwheel), Michal Rubeš (sundew), André Karwath (crassula), B. Navez (bay cedar), Wikimedia users Tigerente (grass-of-Parnassus), 4d44 (flax) and Fornax (mousetail), and flickr user pellaea (sibbaldia).

6. Hexandria (“six males”)

“Six husbands in each marriage”, i.e., six stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

6.1 Hexandria Monogynia (“six males and one female”), six stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Bromelia (large spiny bromeliads), Tillandsia (airplants), Renealmia (airplant mosses), Burmannia (bluethreads), Tradescantia (spiderworts), Pontederia (pickerel weeds), Galanthus (snowdrops), Leucojum (snowbells), Narcissus (daffodils), Pancratium (rain flowers), Crinum (swamplilies), Amaryllis (amaryllis and rain lilies), Bulbocodium (meadow-saffrons), Aphyllanthes (straw lily), Allium (garlics, leeks, onions, chives), Lilium (true lilies), Fritillaria (fritillaries), Uvularia (bellworts), Gloriosa (glory lily), Erythronium (dog’s-tooth-violet), Tulipa (tulips), Ornithogalum (stars-of-Bethlehem), Scilla (squills), Asphodelus (asphodels), Anthericum (St. Bernard’s-lilies), Leontice (lion flowers), Asparagus (asparaguses), Convallaria (lily-of-the-valley, solomon’s-seals), Polianthes (tuberose), Hyacinthus (hyacinths and bluebells), Cyanella (little blues), Aletris (colicroots), Yucca (yuccas), Aloe (aloes), Agave (agaves), Hemerocallis (daylilies), Hypoxis (stargrasses), Acorus (sweetflags), Orontium (golden club), Haemanthus (blood lilies), Calaus (rotang), Juncus (rushes), Hippocratea (hippocratea), Richardia (pusleys), Achras (sapodilla), Prinos (winterberries), Berberis (barberries), Loranthus (mistletoes), Frankenia (seaheaths), Peplis (water-purslane).

The order Hexandria Monogynia included (from left to right, top to bottom): karatas bromeliad (Bromelia karatas), narrowleaf airplant (Tillandsia tenuifolia), Spannish moss (Renealmia usneoides, now Tillandsia usneoides), Virginia spiderwort (Tradescantia virginiana), common pickerel weed (Pontederia cordata), common snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis), summer snowbell (Leucojum aestivum), poet’s daffodil (Narcissus poeticus), Ceylon’s rain flower (Pancratium zeylanicum), American swamplily (Crinum americanum), belladonna-lily (Amaryllis belladonna), spring meadow saffron (Bulbocodium vernum, now Colchicum bulbocodium), straw lily (Aphyllanthes monspeliensis), garlic (Allium sativum), Madonna lily (Lilium candidum), imperial fritillary (Fritillaria imperialis ), perfoliate bellwort (Uvularia perfoliata), glory lily (Gloriosa superba), dog’s-tooth-violet (Erythronium dens-canis), garden tulip (Tulipa gesneriana), Prussian asparagus (Ornithogalum pyrenaicum), Alpine squill (Scilla bifolia), onion-leaved asphodel (Asphodelus fistulosus), branched St. Bernard’s-lily (Anthericum ramosum), common lion flower (Leontice leontopelatum), garden asparagus (Asparagus officinalis), lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria majalis), tuberose (Polianthes tuberosa), common hyacinth (Hyacinthus orientalis), common colicroot (Aletris farinosa), aloe yucca (Yucca aloifolia), tiger aloe (Aloe variegata), centuryplant (Agave americana), lemon lily (Hemerocallis lilioasphodelus), South American stargrass (Hypoxis decumbens), sweetflag (Acorus calamus), golden club (Orontium aquaticum), blood lily (Haemanthus coccineus), rotang (Calamus rotang), sharp rush (Juncus acutus), Florida pusley (Richardia scabra), sapodilla (Achras zapota, now Manilkara zapota), common winterberry (Prinos verticillatus, now Ilex verticillata), common barberry (Berberis vulgaris), western mistletoe (Loranthus occidentalis, now Oryctanthus occidentalis), common seaheath (Frankenia laevis), water purslane (Peplis portula, now Lythrum portula). Credits to Kurt Stüber (karatas, spiderwort, snowbell), Michael Wolf (airplant), Christian Hummert (daffodil), Muhammad Mahdi Karim (rain flower), Gerald J. Lenhard (swamplily), Stan Shebs (belladonna-lily), Muriel Bendel (meadow saffron), Hans Hillewaert (straw lily, asphodel), Jason Hollinger (bellwort), Jean-Jacques Milan (glory lily), Accord H. Brisse (dog’s-tooth-violet, seaheath), Andreas Eichler (squill), Albert Häglsperger (St. Bernard’s lily), Kristian Peters (asparagus), H. Zell (lily of the valley, sweetflag), Jayesh Patil (tuberose), Stanislav Doronenko (lemon lily), Bernard Dupont (rotang), Krzysztof Ziarnek (rush), Bob Peterson (pusley), Fritz Flohr Reynolds (winterberry), Teun Spaans (barberry), Reinaldo Aguilar (mistletoe), Olivier Pichard (water-purslane) and Wikimedia users KENPEI (pickerel weed, centuryplant, blood lily), Caroig (snowdrop), AfroBrazilian (garlic), Gidip (Madonna lily), Fizykaa (tulip), Patrice78500 (Prussian asparagus), Averater (lion flower), Eitan f (hyacinth), 1978 (stargrass), Aruna (sapodilla).

6.2 Hexandria Digynia (“sex males and two females”), six stamens and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Velezia (velezia), Oryza (rice), Atraphaxis (atraphaxis).

The small order Hexandria Digynia contained this three species (from left to right): velezia (Velezia rigida), rice (Oryza sativa), spiny atraphaxis (Atraphaxis spinosa). Credits to Barry Breckling (velezia) and Ori Fragman-Sapir (atraphaxis).

6.3 Hexandria Trigynia (“six males and three females”), six stamens and three pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Flagellaria (whip vine), Rumex (docks and sorrels), Scheuchzeria (podgrass), Triglochin (arrowgrasses), Melanthium (bunchflowers), Medeola (Indian cucumber and some asparagus), Trillium (trilliums), Menispermum (moonseeds), Saururus (lizard’s tail), Colchicum (meadow saffrons), Helonias (swamp pink).

These 11 species (from left to right, top to bottom) were in the order Hexandria Trigynia: whip vine (Flagellaria indica), patience dock (Rumex patientia), podgrass (Scheuchzeria palustris), marsh arrowgrass (Triglochin palustris), Virginia buchflower (Melanthium virginicum), Indian cucumber (Medeola virginiana), nodding trillium (Trillium cernuum), Canadian moonseed (Menispermum canadense), American lizard’s tail (Saururus cernuus), common meadow-saffron (Colchicum autumnale), swamp pink (Helonias bullata). Credits to Raffi Kojian (whip vine), Emőke Dénes (dock), Kristian Peters (arrowgrass), Fritz Flohr Reynolds (lizard’s tail), H. Zell (swamp pink), and Wikimedia users Bertblok (podgrass), Uleli (bunchflower), Jomegat (Indian cucumber), Fungus Guy (trillium), Nadiatalent (moonseed), Cquoi (meadow-saffron).

6.4 Hexandria Tetragynia (“six males and four females”), six stamens and four pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Petiveria (guinea henweed).

6.5 Hexandria Polygynia (“six males and many females”), six stamens and many pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Alisma (water-plantains).

The guinea henweed (Petiveria alliacea, left) was the single species in the order Hexandria Tetragynia, and the common water-plantain (Alisma plantago-aquatica, right) was one of the few species in the order Hexandria Polygynia, Credits to Wikimedia users Toluaye (guinea henweed) and Bff (water-plantain).

Several plants that are indeed genetically related, such as those that would later be called “Umbelliferae” and “Liliaceae”, appear in the same orders already in Linnaeus’ System, but there are yet many bizarre discrepancies. For example, how could he classify the rice so distant from other cereals and grasses?

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References:

Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae per regna tria Naturae…

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Filed under Systematics, taxonomy

Tagged as Linnaeus, Linné, Linnean taxonomy, polyamory, polygamy, profane flowers, promiscuity, sexual classification, Species Plantarum, Systema Naturae

by Piter Keo | April 26, 2016 · 2:35 pm

The history of Systematics: Plants in Systema Naturae, 1758 (Part 1)

by Piter Kehoma Boll

Now that I finished introducing Linnaeus classification of animals (see here parts 1, 2, 3, and 4), it’s time to talk about the plants. This is Part 1. See here parts 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and 7.

Linnaeus’ classification of plants actually started a little bit earlier than that of animals, in his work Species Plantarum published in 1753. The system he used there, however, did not change very much from the one presented in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae, so I’ll begin from there, so that they will be following animals at the same pace.

If you have a considerable knowledge on living beings, you can easily notice that plants are much more “regular” in anatomy than animals. Even though plants are usually assymetrical, branched and with temporary organs, they all have basically the same general structure composed by a root, a stem, leaves and reproductive organs.

Linnaeus struggled to find ways to classify animals based on the same organs in all groups. As a result, his classification of animals had an “ugly” tree structure. There were 6 classes, each with different orders, i.e., it was impossible for him to use the same criteria to define the orders of mammals that he used to define orders of birds or worms, but in plants that worked and, as a result, the classification of plants had a “beautiful” table structure.

The 24 classes of plants were based primarily on the number of male sexual organs. The orders, on the other hand, were based on the number of female sexual organs. As a result, orders are not exactly subordinate to classes, but coexist with them in a “crossed”, tabular way.

1. Monandria (“single male”)

“A single husband in the marriage”, i.e., a single stamen in a hermaphrodite flower.

1.1 Monandria monogynia (“single male and single female”), a single stamen and a single pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Canna (canna lilies), Amomum (gingers and cardamoms), Costus (spiral gingers), Alpinia (ginger lilies), Maranta (arrowroots), Curcuma (turmeric and Chinese ginger), Kaempferia (sand gingers), Thalia (alligator flags), Boerhavia (spiderlings), Salicornia (glasswort), Hippuris (mare’s tails).

This eleven species were classified by Linnaeus as Monandria Monogynia, having “monogamic flowers”: Canna indica, garden ginger (Amomum zingiber, now Zingiber officinalis), Arabic spiral ginger (Costus arabicus), Lesses Antilles’ ginger lily (Alpinia racemosa, now Renealmia pyramidalis), West Indian arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea), turmeric (Curcuma longa), sand ginger (Kaempferia galanga), bent alligator flag (Thalia geniculata), erect spiderling (Boerhavia erecta), common glasswort (Salicornia europaea), common mare’s tail (Hippuris vulgaris). Credits to Wikimedia user Asio otus (Canna), Reinaldo Aguilar (garden ginger), Smithsonian Institute (spiral ginger, ginger lily, sand ginger), Alexis López Hernández (arrowroot), H. Zell (turmeric, mare’s tail), Meneerke Bloem (alligator flag), J. M. Garg (spiderling), Wikimedia user Ghislain18 (glasswort).

These eleven species were classified by Linnaeus as Monandria Monogynia, having “monogamic flowers” (from left to right, top to bottom): Canna indica, garden ginger (Amomum zingiber, now Zingiber officinalis), Arabic spiral ginger (Costus arabicus), Lesses Antilles’ ginger lily (Alpinia racemosa, now Renealmia pyramidalis), West Indian arrowroot (Maranta arundinacea), turmeric (Curcuma longa), sand ginger (Kaempferia galanga), bent alligator flag (Thalia geniculata), erect spiderling (Boerhavia erecta), common glasswort (Salicornia europaea), common mare’s tail (Hippuris vulgaris). Credits to Wikimedia user Asio otus (Canna), Reinaldo Aguilar (garden ginger), Smithsonian Institute (spiral ginger, ginger lily, sand ginger), Alexis López Hernández (arrowroot), H. Zell (turmeric, mare’s tail), Meneerke Bloem (alligator flag), J. M. Garg (spiderling), Wikimedia user Ghislain18 (glasswort).

1.2 Monandria digynia (“single male and two females”), a single stamen and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Corispermum (bugseeds), Callitriche (water starworts), Blitum (goosefeet), Cinna (woodreeds).

The order Monandria Digynia, “a husband with two wives”, included the following species (from left to right): hyssop-leaved bugseed (Corispermum hyssopifolium), common water starwort (Callitriche palustris), strawberry goosefoot (Blitum capitatum), sweet woodreed (Cinna arundinacea). Credits to Yu Ito (water starwort), Derek Ramsey (goosefoot), John Hilty (woodreed).

2. Diandria (“two males”)

“Two husbands in each marriage”, i.e., two stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

2.1 Diandria Monogynia (“two males and single female”), two stamens and a single pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Nyctanthes (jasmines), Jasminum (more jasmines), Ligustrum (privets), Phyllirea (mock privets), Olea (olives), Chionanthus (fringetrees), Syringa (lilacs), Eranthemum (blue sages), Circaea (enchanter’s nightshades), Veronica (speedwells), Justicia (shrimp plants), Dianthera (water willows), Gratiola (hedgehyssops), Pinguicula (butterworts), Utricularia (bladderworts), Verbena (vervains), Lycopus (gypsyworts), Amethystea (Indian gems), Ziziphora (ziziphores), Monarda (bergamots), Rosmarinus (rosemary), Salvia (sages), Collinsonia (ox-balm), Morina (whorlflower).

The order Diandria Monogynia, “two husbands and a wife”, included the following species (from left to right, top to bottom): night-flowering jasmine (Nyctanthes arbor-tristis), common jasmine (Jasminum officinale), common privet (Ligustrum vulgare), mock privet (Phillyrea latifolia), olive (Olea europaea), white fringetree (Chionanthus virginicus), common lilac (Syringa vulgaris), Paris enchanter’s nightshade (Circaea lutetiana), bird’s-eye speedwell (Veronica chamaedrys), squirrel’s tail (Justicia betonica), American water-willow (Dianthera americana, now Justicia americana), Austral brooklime (Gratiola peruviana), pale butterwort (Pinguicula lusitanica), common bladderwort (Utricularia vulgaris), common vervain (Verbena officinalis), gypsywort (Lycopus europaeus), headed ziziphore (Ziziphora capitata), bee balm (Monarda fistulosa), rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), common sage (Salvia officinalis), ox-balm (Collinsonia canadensis), prickly whorlflower (Morina persica). Credits to J. M. Garg (night-flowering jasmine), Wikimedia user Pancrat (jasmine), Andrew Butko (privet), legambientearcipelagotoscano.it (mock privet), H. Zell (olive, gypsywort, ox-balm), Ranko Tomić (lilac), Wikimedia user Pethan (enchanter’s nightshade, whorlflower), Wikimedia user Algirdas (speedwell), India Biodiversity Portal (squirrel’s tail), flickr user peganum (water-willow), John Tann (brooklime), Noah Elhardt (butterwort), Christian Fischer (bladderwort), Denis Barthel (vervain), Gideon Pisanty (ziziphore), Kurt Stüber (bee balm), Giancarlo Dessi (rosemary), Wikimedia user Duk (sage).

2.2 Diandria Digynia (“two males and two females”), two stamens and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Paspalum (paspalums), Anthoxanthum (vernal grasses), Bufonia (bufonias).

2.3 Diandria Trigynia (“two males and three females”), two stamens and three pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Piper (peppers and radiator plants).

The two first species (from left to right) were included in the order Diandria Digynia: knotgrass (Paspalum distichum) and sweet vernal grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum). The last species, the black pepper (Piper nigrum) was in the order Diandria Trigynia. Credits to Wikimedia user Keisotyo (knotgrass), Christian Fischer (vernal grass), H. Zell (pepper).

3. Triandria (“three males”)

“Three husbands in each marriage”, i.e., three stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

3.1 Triandria Monogynia (“three males and one female”), three stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Valeriana (valerians), Hirtella (pigeon berries), Olax (mella), Tamarindus (tamarind), Cneorum (spurge olive), Comocladia (maidenplums), Melothria (creeping cucumber), Ortegia (ortegias), Loeflingia (pygmyleaves), Polycnemum (needleleaves), Cassytha (love vines), Crocus (crocuses), Ixia (corn lilies, irises, harlequin flowers), Gladiolus (sword lilies), Antholyza (sword lilies, bugle-lilies, etc), Iris (irises), Wachendorfia (redroots), Commelina (dayflowers and spiderworts), Xyris (yelloweyed grasses), Schoenus (bogrushes, pricklegrasses and sawgrasses), Cyperus (sedges), Scirpus (clubrushes and spikerushes), Eriophorum (cottongrasses), Nardus (matgrass), Lygeum (esparto grass).

These 22 species were classified by Linnaeus as Triandria Monogynia: garden valerian (Valeriana officinalis), pigeon berry (Hirtella americana), tamarind (Tamarindus indica), spurge olive (Cneorum tricoccon), creeping cucumber (Melothria pendula), Spanish ortegia (Ortegia hispanica), field needleleaf (Polycnemum arvense), love vine (Cassytha filiformis), saffron crocus (Crocus sativus), harlequin flower (Ixia bulbifera, now Sparaxis bulbifera), long-tubed painted lady (Gladiolus angustus), bulbil bugle-lily (Antholyza meriana, now Watsonia meriana), bearded iris (Iris germanica), straw redroot (Wachendorfia paniculata), common dayflower (Commelina communis), Indian yelloweyed grass (Xyris indica), black bogrush (Schoenus nigricans), papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), floating clubrush (Scirpus fluitans, now Isolepis fluitans), hare’s-tail cottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum), matgrass (Nardus stricta), esparto grass (Lygeum spartum). Credits to Kurt Stüber (valerian, papyrus), INBio Costa Rica (pigeon berry), Wikimedia user Tau’olonga (tamarind), Jean Tosti (spurge olive), Smithsonian Institute (creeping cucumber), Luis Fernández García (ortegia), Mark Marathon (love vine), Wikimedia user KENPEI (crocus, bearded iris), Wikimedia user Ixitixel (harlequin flower), Andrew Massy (painted lady), Forest & Kim Starr (bugle-lily), Ori Fragman-Sapir (redroot), Bogdan Giușcă (dayflower), Wikimedia user Quoilp (yelloweyed grass), Yu Ito (clubrush), Kristian Peters (cottongrass), James K. Lindsey (matgrass), Wikimedia user Nanosanchez (esparto grass).

These 22 species were classified by Linnaeus as Triandria Monogynia (from left to right, top to bottom): garden valerian (Valeriana officinalis), pigeon berry (Hirtella americana), tamarind (Tamarindus indica), spurge olive (Cneorum tricoccon), creeping cucumber (Melothria pendula), Spanish ortegia (Ortegia hispanica), field needleleaf (Polycnemum arvense), love vine (Cassytha filiformis), saffron crocus (Crocus sativus), harlequin flower (Ixia bulbifera, now Sparaxis bulbifera), long-tubed painted lady (Gladiolus angustus), bulbil bugle-lily (Antholyza meriana, now Watsonia meriana), bearded iris (Iris germanica), straw redroot (Wachendorfia paniculata), common dayflower (Commelina communis), Indian yelloweyed grass (Xyris indica), black bogrush (Schoenus nigricans), papyrus (Cyperus papyrus), floating clubrush (Scirpus fluitans, now Isolepis fluitans), hare’s-tail cottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum), matgrass (Nardus stricta), esparto grass (Lygeum spartum). Credits to Kurt Stüber (valerian, papyrus), INBio Costa Rica (pigeon berry), Wikimedia user Tau’olonga (tamarind), Jean Tosti (spurge olive), Smithsonian Institute (creeping cucumber), Luis Fernández García (ortegia), Mark Marathon (love vine), Wikimedia user KENPEI (crocus, bearded iris), Wikimedia user Ixitixel (harlequin flower), Andrew Massy (painted lady), Forest & Kim Starr (bugle-lily), Ori Fragman-Sapir (redroot), Bogdan Giușcă (dayflower), Wikimedia user Quoilp (yelloweyed grass), Yu Ito (clubrush), Kristian Peters (cottongrass), James K. Lindsey (matgrass), Wikimedia user Nanosanchez (esparto grass).

3.2 Triandria Digynia (“three males and two females”), three stamens and two pistils in an hermaphrodite flower: Bobartia (bobartias), Cornucopiae (hooded grasses), Saccharum (sugar cane), Phalaris (canarygrasses and cutgrasses), Panicum (panicgrasses and barnyard grasses), Phleum (cat’s-tails), Alopecurus (foxtail grasses), Milium (milletgrass), Agrostis (bentgrasses), Aira (hairgrasses), Melica (melicgrasses), Poa (meadowgrasses), Briza (quaking grasses), Uniola (sea oats), Dactylis (cocksfeet), Cynosurus (dogstail grasses), Festuca (fescues), Bromus (bromes), Stipa (feather grasses), Avena (oats and oatgrasses), Lagurus (hare’s tail), Arundo (canes, bamboos, reeds), Aristida (three-awns and grama grasses), Lolium (ryegrasses), Elymus (wild ryes), Secale (ryes), Hordeum (barleys), Triticum (wheats).

Among the species making up the order Triandria Digynia were (from left to right, top to bottom): Indian bobartia (Bobartia indica), common hooded grass (Cornucopiae cucullatum), sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum), common canarygrass (Phalaris cannariensis), switchgrass (Panicum virgatum), timothy-grass (Phleum pretense), meadow foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis), wood millet (Milium effusum), common bent (Agrostis capillaris), silver hairgrass (Aira caryophyllea), hairy melic (Melica ciliata), Alpine meadowgrass (Poa alpina), big quaking grass (Briza maxima), sea oat (Uniola paniculata), cock’s foot (Dactylis glomerata), crested dog’s-tail (Cynosurus cristatus), red fescue (Festuca rubra), rye brome (Bromus secalinus), European feather grass (Stipa pennata), common oat (Avena sativa), hare’s tail (Lagurus ovatus), giant cane (Arundo donax), six-weeks three-awn grass (Aristida adscensionis), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), Canada wild rye (Elymus canadensis), rye (Secale cereale), barley (Hordeum vulgare), common wheat (Triticum aestivum). Credits to Andrew Massyn (bobartia), Ori Fragman-Sapir (hooded grass), Bruno Navez (sugar cane), biopix.com (canarygrass), Kelly O’Donnell (switchgrass), Wikimedia user Rasbak (timothy-grass, foxtail, crested dog’s-tail, ryegrass, rye, barley), Gustav Svensson (millet), James K. Lindsey (bent), Wikimedia user Xemenendura (melic), Jerzy Opiła (meadowgrass), H. Zell (quaking grass, oat), Hans Hillewaert (sea oat), flickr user foxypar4 (cock’s foot), Kristian Peters (fescue), Kurt Stüber (rye brome, hare’s tail), Wikimedia user Prazak (feather grass), Peter Forster (giant cane), Marco Schmidt (three-awn grass), Matt Lavin (wild rye), Petr Filippov (wheat).

3.3 Triandria Trigynia (“three males and three females”), three stamens and three pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Eriocaulon (pipeworts), Montia (blinks), Proserpinaca (mermaidweeds), Triplaris (ant tree), Holosteum (jagged chickweeds), Polycarpon (allseeds), Mollugo (carpetweeds), Minuartia (sandworts), Queria (more sandworts), Lechea (pinweeds).

These 8 species were in the order Triandria Trigynia (from left to right, top to bottom): ten-angled pipewort (Eriocaulon decangulare), water blink (Montia fontana), marsh mermaidweed (Proserpinaca palustris), ant tree (Triplaris americana), jagged chickweed (Holosteum umbellatum), four-leaved allseed (Polycarpon tetraphyllum), green carpetweed (Mollugo verticillata), thymeleaf pinweed (Lechea minor). Credits to James K. Lindsey (blink), Wikimedia user JMK (ant tree), Forest & Kim Starr (allseed), Wikimedia user Eric in SF (carpetweed), John Hility (pinweed).

4. Tetrandria (“four males”)

“Four husbands in each marriage”, i.e., four stamens in a hermaphrodite flower.

4.1 Tetrandria Monogynia (“four males and one female”), four stamens and one pistil in a hermaphrodite flower: Leucadendron (sugar bushes), Protea (silver trees), Cephalanthus (buttonbushes), Globularia (globe daisies), Dipsacus (teasels), Scabiosa (scabioses), Knautia (more scabioses), Allionia (windmills), Hedyotis (starviolets), Spermacoce (false buttonweeds), Sherardia (field madders), Asperula (woodruffs), Diodia (buttonweeds), Knoxia (knoxia), Houstonia (bluet), Galium (bedstraws), Crucianella (crossworts), Rubia (madders), Fuchsia (fuchsias), Siphonanthus (Turk’s turban), Catesbaea (Lily thorn), Ixora (jungle flames), Scurrula (metrosexuals), Pavetta (pavettas), Avicennia (mangroves), Petesia (tropicroses), Mitchella (partridge berries), Callicarpa (beautyberries), Polypremum (juniperleaf), Penaea (leatherleaves), Blaeria (Blair’s heath), Buddleja (butterfly bushes), Exacum (tropicbouquets), Plantago (plantains), Scoparia (broomworts), Rhacoma (maidenberry), Centunculus (chaffweed), Sanguisorba (burnets), Cissus (sorrelvines), Epimedium (barrenworts), Cornus (dogwoods), Fagara (wild limes), Tomex (Malayan lilac), Ptelea (hoptrees), Ludwigia (water primroses), Oldenlandia (chay roots), Ammannia (redstems), Isnardia (water purslane), Trapa (water caltrop), Dorstenia (contrayervas), Elaeagnus (silverberries), Brabejum (wild almond), Krameria (rhatanies), Rivina (pigeonberry and hoopvine), Salvadora (toothbrush tree), Camphorosma (camphorwort), Alchemilla (lady’s mantles).

The diverse order Tetrandria Monogynia included many species, such as (from left to right, top to bottom): king sugar bush (Leucadendron cynaroides, now Protea cynaroides), silver leaf tree (Protea argentea, now Leucadendron argenteum), common buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), common ball flower (Globularia bisnagarica), wild teasel (Dipsacus fullonum), yellow scabiose (Scabiosa alpina, now Cephalaria alpina), common windmill (Allionia incarnata), ear starviolet (Hedyotis auricularia), slender false buttonweed (Spermacoce tenuior), blue field madder (Sherardia arvensis), blue woodruff (Asperula arvensis), Virginia buttonweed (Diodia virginiana), azure bluet (Houstonia caerulea), European bedstraw (Galium rubioides), narrowleaf crosswort (Crucianella angustifolia), common madder (Rubia tinctorum), three-leaved fuchsia (Fuchsia triphylla), Turk’s turban (Siphonanthus indicus, now Clerodendron indicum), lily thorn (Catesbaea spinosa), common jungle flame (Ixora coccinea), metrosexual (Scurrula parasitica), Indian pavetta (Pavetta indica), Indian mangrove (Avicennia officinalis), partridge berry (Mitchella repens), American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana), juniperleaf (Polypremum procumbens), cup leatherleaf (Penaea sarcocolla, now Saltera sarcocolla), American butterfly bush (Buddleja americana), greater plantain (Plantago major), sweet broom (Scoparia dulcis), maidenberry (Rhacoma crossopetalum, now Crossopetalum rhacoma), chaffweed (Centunculus minimus, now Lysimachia minima), great burnet (Sanguisorba officinalis), sorrelvine (Cissus trifoliata), Alpine barrenwort (Epimedium alpinum), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), wild lime (Fagara pterota, now Zanthoxylum fagara), great wooly Malayan lilac (Tomex tomentosa, now Callicarpa tomentosa), common hoptree (Ptelea trifoliata), rattlebox (Ludwigia alternifolia), chay root (Oldenlandia umbellata), monarch redstem (Ammannia baccifera), water purslane (Isnardia palustris, now Ludwigia palustris), water caltrop (Trapa natans), true contrayerva (Dorstenia contrajerva), senjed (Elaeagnus angustifolia), wild almond (Brabejum stellatifolium), abrojo Colorado (Krameria ixine), pigeonberry (Rivina humilis), toothbrush tree (Salvadora persica), common camphorwort (Camphorosma monspeliaca), common lady’s mantle (Alchemilla vulgaris). Credits to Stan Shebs (sugar bush, windmill, plantain), Wikimedia user Chinasaur (silver leaf tree), Bob Peterson (buttonbush, buttonweed, juniperleaf), Hedwig Storch (ball flower), Muriel Bendel (teasel), Wikimedia user Dinkum (scabiose), flickr user john_amend_all2000 (starviolet), Smithsonian Institute (false buttonweed, fuchsia, maidenberry, sorrelvine, abrojo colorado), Wikimedia user Strobilomyces (field madder), Kurt Süber (woodruff), Rob Duval (bluet), Jan Ševčík (bedstraw), Michael Kesl (crosswort), H. Zell (madder, hoptree, lady’s mantle), Forest & Kim Starr (Turk’s turban), Louise Wolff (jungle flame), Indian Biodiversity Portal (metrosexual), Wikimedia user Vinayaraj (pavetta, Malayan lilac), Wikimedia user Vengolis (Indian mangrove), Wikimedia user Jomegat (partridge berry), John Murphy (beautyberry), Wikimedia user Nanosanchez (leatherleaf), Dick Culbert (butterfly bush), Alex Popovkin (chaffweed), Wikimedia user Anonymous Powered (burnet), Christian Hummert (barrenwort), Derek Ramsey (dogwood), flickr user homeredwardprice (wild lime), Fritz Flohr Reynolds (rattlebox), flickr user Lalithamba (chay root), Jayesh Patil (redstem), George Shramayr (water caltrop), Jim Conrad (contrayerva), Georg Slickers (senjed), Andew Massyn (wild almond), Wikimedia user KENPEI (pigeonberry), J. M. Garg (toothbrush tree), Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle. Service du Patrimoine Naturel (camphorwort).

4.2 Tetrandria digynia (“four males and two females”), four stamens and two pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Aphanes (parsley-piert), Cruzeta (Juba’s bush), Hamamelis (witch-hazel), Cuscuta (dodders), Hypecoum (wingpoppies).

The order Tetrandria Digynia included (from left to right) the common parsley-piert (Aphanes arvensis), the Juba’s bush (Cruzeta hispanica, now Iresine diffusa), the common witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), the European dodder (Cuscuta europaea), and the prostrate wingpoppy (Hypecoum procumbens). Credits to Wikimedia user Kenraiz (parsley-piert), Dick Culbert (Juba’s bush), Wikimedia user BotBln (witch-hazel), Michael Becker (dodder), Javier Martin (wingpoppy).

4.3 Tetrandria tetragynia (“four males and four females”), four stamens and four pistils in a hermaphrodite flower: Ilex (hollies), Coldenia (coldenias), Potamogeton (pondweeds), Ruppia (ditchgrasses), Sagina (pearlworts), Tillaea (pygmyweeds).

Linnaeus classified as Tetrandria Tetragynia (from left to right) the European holly (Ilex aquifolium), prostrate coldenia (Coldenia procumbens), claspingleaf pondweed (Potamogeton perfoliatus), ditchgrass (Rupia maritima), matted pearlwort (Sagina procumbens), and water pygmyweed (Tillaea aquatica, now Crassula aquatica). Credits to Hans Hillewaert (holly), J. M. Garg (coldenia), Kristian Peters (pondweed), Yu Ito (ditchgrass), Wikimedia user Density (pearlwort), Hörður Kristinsson (pygmyweed).

Linnaeus classified as Tetrandria Tetragynia (from left to right, top to bottom) the European holly (Ilex aquifolium), prostrate coldenia (Coldenia procumbens), claspingleaf pondweed (Potamogeton perfoliatus), ditchgrass (Rupia maritima), matted pearlwort (Sagina procumbens), and water pygmyweed (Tillaea aquatica, now Crassula aquatica). Credits to Hans Hillewaert (holly), J. M. Garg (coldenia), Kristian Peters (pondweed), Yu Ito (ditchgrass), Wikimedia user Density (pearlwort), Hörður Kristinsson (pygmyweed).

That is all for now, but there is a lot more to show. As one can clearly see, Linnaeus’ knowledge on plants was astonishingly higher than his knowledge on animals, afterall, he was a botanist and not a zoologist.

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References:

Linnaeus, C. (1758) Systema Naturae per regna tria Naturae…

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Filed under Botany, Systematics

Tagged as Linnaean taxonomy, Linnaeus, Linné, polyamory, polygamy, profane flowers, promiscuity, sexual classification, Species Plantarum, Systema Naturae

Tag Archives: sexual classification

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