Abstract
Phytoremediation of the eutrophic water bodies by using various macrophytes has long been considered effective and economical. However, the understanding of combining macrophytes to maximize efficacy in the restoration is still limited. In this study, three different life-form macrophytes were employed to explore the optimal plant combination of eutrophic water purification, including Pontederia cordata L. (E: emergent), Pistia stratiotes L. (F: floating), and Hydrilla verticillata (L. f.) Royle (S: submerged). The effects on water quality, removal of the excess nutrients (TN, NH3-N, NO3-N, and TP) in the water, along with the growth response and the nutrient accumulation of the macrophytes were investigated both individually and in combination. The phytoremediation of every single macrophyte was significantly improved by combined planting and increasing the diversity of the combination led to better enhancements. In general, the treatment with macrophytes in three life forms (EFS) not only resulted in the highest removal rates of the TN, NH3-N, NO3-N, and TP (40.89, 33.50, 46.81, and 43.55%, respectively) but also decreased the turbidity and increased the dissolved oxygen more effectively and efficiently. Furthermore, EFS mitigated the environmental stress of plants and promoted the accumulation of TN and TP in them, especially the emergent macrophyte P. cordata. The combinations with macrophyte in two life forms (EF, ES, and FS) also exhibited unique strengths: the removal efficacy of TN (39.25%) and TP (46.16%) in FS, and NO3-N in EF (48.54%) and ES (49.90%) were also at the forefront; the biomass and nutrient content of the submerged macrophyte H. verticillata in ES were the highest. Moreover, a strong correlation between the eutrophic factors and the plant physiological indexes was observed. These findings highlighted the role of combined planting in phytoremediation and provided a valuable reference for the development of ecological restoration for eutrophic ecosystems.
This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.
Similar content being viewed by others
Data availability
All the data and materials can be provided upon request.
References
Andreo-Martínez P, García-Martínez N, Quesada-Medina J, Almela L (2017) Domestic wastewaters reuse reclaimed by an improved horizontal subsurface-flow constructed wetland: a case study in the southeast of Spain. Bioresour Technol 233:236–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2017.02.123
Ay M, Kisi O (2012) Modeling of dissolved oxygen concentration using different neural network techniques in foundation creek, El Paso Count, Colorado. J Environ Eng 138. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000511
Babourina O, Rengel Z (2010) Nitrogen removal from eutrophicated water by aquatic plants. Springer, Dordrecht, pp 355–372. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-9625-8_18
Bachand P, Horne AJ (1999) Denitrification in constructed free-water surface wetlands: I. Very high nitrate removal rates in a macrocosm study. Ecol Eng 14:9–15. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-8574(99)00016-6
Bornette G, Puijalon S (2011) Response of aquatic plants to abiotic factors: a review. Aquat Sci 73:1–14. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00027-010-0162-7
Carpenter SR, Caraco NF, Correll DL, Howarth RW, Sharpley AN, Smith VH (1998) Nonpoint pollution of surface waters with phosphorus and nitrogen. Ecol Appl 8:559–568. https://doi.org/10.1890/1051-0761(1998)008[0559:NPOSWW]2.0.CO;2
Chen S (1991) Injury of membrane lipid peroxidation to plant cell. Plant Physiol Commun 27:84–90 (In Chinese)
Chen WY, Chen ZH, He Q, Wang XY, Wang C, Chen DF, Lai ZL (2007) Root growth of wetland plants with different root types. Acta Ecol Sin 27(2):450–458. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1872-2032(07)60017-1
Clarke E, Baldwin AH (2002) Responses of wetland plants to ammonia and water level. Ecol Eng 18:257–264. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-8574(01)00080-5
Coleman J, Hench K, Garbutt K, Sexstone A, Bissonnette G, Skousen J (2001) Treatment of domestic wastewater by three plant species in constructed wetlands. Water Air Soil Pollut 128:283–295. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1010336703606
Costa JM, Weirich CE, Boscolo WR, Fiden A (2014) Biomass production of water hyacinth in different levels of shading. Scientia Agraria Paranaensis 13(1):40–46. https://doi.org/10.18188/1983-1471/sap.v13n1p40-46
de Vasconcelos VM, de Morais ERC, Faustino SJB, Hernandez MCR, Gaudêncio HRDSC, de Melo RR, Junior APB (2021) Floating aquatic macrophytes for the treatment of aquaculture effluents. Environ Sci Pollut Res 28:2600–2607. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-020-11308-8
Del Bubba M, Arias CA, Brix H (2003) Phosphorus adsorption maximum of sands for use as media in subsurface flow constructed reed beds as measured by the Langmuir isotherm. Water Res 37(14):3390–3400. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0043-1354(03)00231-8
Desmet NJS, Van Belleghem S, Seuntjens P, Bouma TJ, Buis K, Meire P (2011) Quantification of the impact of macrophytes on oxygen dynamics and nitrogen retention in a vegetated lowland river. Phys Chem Earth 36:479–489. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pce.2008.06.002
Fujibayashi M, Takakai F, Masuda S, Okano K, Miyata N (2020) Effects of restoration of emergent macrophytes on the benthic environment of the littoral zone of a eutrophic lake. Ecol Eng 155:105960. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2020.105960
Gao Y, Neng Y, Zhang ZY, Liu HQ (2012) Effect of water hyacinth on N2O emission through nitrification and denitrification reactions in eutrophic water. Acta Scien Circum 32:349–359 (In Chinese)
Gu D, Xu H, He Y, Zhao F, Huang M (2015) Remediation of urban river water by Pontederia cordata combined with artificial aeration: organic matter and nutrients removal and root-adhered bacterial communities. Int J Phytoremediation 17:1105–1114. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2015.1045121
Gu Y, Wang J, Wang J, Fang G, Han L (2017) Morphological response and growth strategy of the submerged macrophyte Vallisneria natans under different water depths. J Lake Sci 29:654–661. https://doi.org/10.18307/2017.0314
Han P, Vijayaraghavan K, Reuben S, Estrada ES, Joshi UM (2013) Reduction of nutrient contaminants into shallow eutrophic waters through vegetated treatment beds. Water Sci Technol 68:1280–1287. https://doi.org/10.2166/wst.2013.361
Henry-Silva GG, Camargo AFM (2008) Shrimp wastewater treatment by floating aquatic macrophytes. Rev Bras Zootec 37(2):181–188. https://doi.org/10.1590/S1516-35982008000200002
Hu L, Hu W, Deng J, Li Q, Feng G, Zhu J, Tao H (2010) Nutrient removal in wetlands with different macrophyte structures in eastern lake Taihu, China. Ecol Eng,ss 36: 1725-1732. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2010.07.020
Hua Y, Peng L, Zhang S, Heal KV, Zhao J, Zhu D (2017) Effects of plants and temperature on nitrogen removal and microbiology in pilot-scale horizontal subsurface flow constructed wetlands treating domestic wastewater. Ecol Eng 108:70–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2017.08.007
Iamchaturapatr J, Su WY, Rhee JS (2006) Nutrient removals by 21 aquatic plants for vertical free surface-flow (VFS) constructed wetland. Ecol Eng 29:287–293. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2006.09.010
Ji G, Xu ZX, Wang LQ (2016) Effects of floating-leaved macrophytes on water quality and phytoplankton:an in situ experiment in a Chinese shallow lake. Desalin Water Treat 57(57):27519–27530. https://doi.org/10.1080/19443994.2016.1180641
Jin SQ, Zhou JB, Zhu XL (2010) Comparison of nitrogen and phosphorus uptake and water purification ability of ten aquatic macrophytes. J Agro-Environ Sci 29:1571–1575. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2006.09.010
Karathanasis AD, Potter CL, Coyne MS (2003) Vegetation effects on fecal bacteria, bod, and suspended solid removal in constructed wetlands treating domestic wastewater. Ecol En. 20:157–169. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-8574(03)00011-9
Kumar S, Deswal S (2020) Phytoremediation capabilities of Salvinia molesta, water hyacinth, water lettuce, and duckweed to reduce phosphorus in rice mill wastewater. Int J Phytoremediat 22:1–13. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2020.1731729
Kyaing MS, Jiang GL (2011) The role of nitrate reductase and nitrite reductase in plant. Curr Biotechnol 3:159–164 (In Chinese)
Lai WL, ZhangY CZH (2012) Radial oxygen loss, photosynthesis, and nutrient removal of 35 wetland plants. Ecol Eng 39:24–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2011.11.010
Lenhart HA, Hunt WF, Burchell MR (2012) Harvestable nitrogen accumulation for five storm water wetland plant species: trigger for storm water control measure maintenance? J Environ Eng 138(9):972–978. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)EE.1943-7870.0000550
Li L, Yang Y, Tam NFY, Yang L, Mei XQ, Yang FJ (2013) Growth characteristics of six wetland plants and their influences on domestic wastewater treatment efficiency. Ecol Eng 60:382–392. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2013.09.044
Li Y, Wang L, Chao C, Yu H, Yu D, Liu C (2021) Submerged macrophytes successfully restored a subtropical aquacultural lake by controlling its internal phosphorus loading. Environ Pollut 268:115949. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115949
Li YL, Fan XR, Shen QR (2008) The relationship between rhizosphere nitrification and nitrogen-use efficiency in rice plants. Plant Cell Environ 31:73–85. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3040.2007.01737.x
Liu J, Liu J, Zhang R, Zou Y, Wang H, Zhang Z (2014) Impacts of aquatic macrophytes configuration modes on water quality. Water Sci Technol 69:253–261. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.115949
Lu B, Xu Z, Li J, Chai X (2018) Removal of water nutrients by different aquatic plant species: an alternative way to remediate polluted rural rivers. Ecol Eng 110:18–26. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2017.09.016
Luo SS (2019) Effect of light itensity and water depth on the growth and physiology of Hydrilla verticillata. Jiangxi Normal University (In Chinese)
Mei XQ, Yang Y, Tam FY, Wang YW, Li L (2014) Roles of root porosity, radial oxygen loss, Fe plaque formation on nutrient removal and tolerance of wetland plants to domestic wastewater. Water Res 50:147–159. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2013.12.004
Moore MT, Locke MA, Krger R (2016) Using aquatic vegetation to remediate nitrate, ammonium, and soluble reactive phosphorus in simulated runoff. Chemosphere 160:149–154. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.06.071
Qiu D, Wu Z, Liu B, Deng J, Fu G, He F (2001) The restoration of aquatic macrophytes for improving water quality in a hypertrophic shallow lake in Hubei Province, China. Ecol Eng 18:147–156. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0925-8574(01)00074-X
Rahman MA, Hasegawa H (2011) Aquatic arsenic: phytoremediation using floating macrophytes. Chemosphere 83:633–646. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2011.02.045
Ranković V, Radulović J, Radojević I, Ostojić A, Ćomić L (2010) Neural network modeling of dissolved oxygen in the Gruža re servoir, Serbia. Ecol Model 221:1239–1244. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolmodel.2009.12.023
Rehman F, Pervez A, Khattak BN, Ahmad R (2017) Constructed wetlands: perspectives of the oxygen released in the rhizosphere of macrophytes. Clean - Soil Air. Water 45. https://doi.org/10.1002/clen.201600054
Ren L, Yang J (2000) Nitrogen nutrients cycling in marine environment and its modeling research. Adv Earth Sci 15:58–64 (In Chinese)
Sandoval L, Zamora-Castro SA, Vidal-Lvarez M, Marín-Muiz JL (2019) Role of wetland plants and use of ornamental flowering plants in constructed wetlands for wastewater treatment: a review. Appl Sci 2019:685. https://doi.org/10.3390/app9040685
Schindler DW, Carpenter SR, Chapra SC, Hecky RE, Orihel DM (2016) Reducing phosphorus to curb lake eutrophication is a success. Environ Sci Technol 50:8923–8929. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.est.6b02204
Schwantes D, Gonçalves AC Jr, Schiller ADP, Manfrin J, Campagnolo MA, Somavilla E (2019) Pistia stratiotes in the phytoremediation and post-treatment of domestic sewage. Int J Phytoremediation 21:714–723. https://doi.org/10.1080/15226514.2018.1556591
SEPA (2002) Monitoring and analytical method of water and wastewater, fourth edn. Environmental and Scientific Press of China, Beijing
Smith CJ, Dong LF, Wilson J, Stott A, Osborn AM, Nedwell DB (2015) Seasonal variation in denitrification and dissimilatory nitrate reduction to ammonia process rates and corresponding key functional genes along an estuarine nitrate gradient. Front Microbiol 6:542. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2015.00542
Smith VH, Tilman GD, Nekola JC (1999) Eutrophication: impacts of excess nutrient inputs on freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems. Environ Pollut 100:179–196. https://doi.org/10.3389/fmicb.2015.00542
Sooknah RD, Wilkie AC (2004) Nutrient removal by floating aquatic macrophytes cultured in anaerobically digested flushed dairy manure wastewater. Ecol Eng 22:27–42. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2004.01.004
Su F, Li Z, Li Y, Xu L, Li Y, Chen H, Zhuang P, Wang F (2019) Removal of total nitrogen and phosphorus using single or combinations of aquatic plants. Int J Environ Res Public Health 16:4663. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16234663
Sudiarto SIA, Renggaman A, Choi HL (2019) Floating aquatic plants for total nitrogen and phosphorus removal from treated swine wastewater and their biomass characteristics. J Environ Manage 231:763–769. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2018.10.070
Vinçon-Leite B, Casenave C (2018) Modelling eutrophication in lake ecosystems: a review. Sci Total Environ 651:2985–3001. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2018.09.320
Vymazal J (2011) Plants used in constructed wetlands with horizontal subsurface flow: a review. Hydrobiologia 674:133–156. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-011-0738-9
Vymazal J (2013) Emergent plants used in free water surface constructed wetlands: a review. Ecol Eng 61:582–592. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoleng.2013.06.023
Wang C, Zheng SS, Wang PF, Qian J (2014) Effects of vegetations on the removal of contaminants in aquatic environments: a review. J Hydrodyn 26:497–511. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-6058(14)60057-3
Wang H (2015) Nine plant species adaptability to constructed wetland environment. Shandong Agricultural University (In Chinese)
Wang LK, Ivanov V, Tay JH, Hung YT (2010) Environmental Biotechnology 10. Springer Science & Business Media
Wang X, Jain A, Chen B, Wang Y, Jin Q, Yugandhar P, Xu Y, Sun S, Hu F (2022) Differential efficacy of water lily cultivars in phytoremediation of eutrophic water contaminated with phosphorus and nitrogen. Plant Physiol Biochem 171:139–146. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plaphy.2021.12.001
Wang XF, Xu KP, Ye SG, Xue LL, Liu GH, You AJ, Su F (2013) Purification efficiency of four combinations of aquatic macrophytes on eutrophic water body in winter. Chinese J Ecol 32:401–406 (In Chinese)
Xie D, Dan Y, You WH, Wang LG (2013) Algae mediate submerged macrophyte response to nutrient and dissolved inorganic carbon loading: a mesocosm study on different species. Chemosphere 93:1301–1308. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemosphere.2013.07.008
Xie WM, Li SJ, Shi WM, Zhang HL, Fang F, Wang GX, Zhang LM (2020) Quantitatively ranking the influencing factors of ammonia volatilization from paddy soils by grey relational entropy. Environ Sci Pollut Res 27:2319–2327. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-019-06952-8
Xing W, Han Y, Guo Z, Zhou Y (2020) Quantitative study on redistribution of nitrogen and phosphorus by wetland plants under different water quality conditions. Environ Pollut 261:114086. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114086
Xu J, Yin K, Lee JHW, Liu H, Ho AYT, Yuan X, Harrison PJ (2010) Long-term and seasonal changes in nutrients, phytoplankton biomass, and dissolved oxygen in Deep Bay, Hong Kong. Estuar Coast 33:399–416. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12237-009-9213-5
Xu S, Li X, Zhong P, Liu Z (2012) The uptake of nitrate and ammonium by the root of Vallisneria natans. Ecol Sci 31:312–317 (In Chinese)
Xu X, Zhou Y, Han R, Song K, Zhou X, Wang G, Wang Q (2019) Eutrophication triggers the shift of nutrient absorption pathway of submerged macrophytes: implications for the phytoremediation of eutrophic waters. J Environ Manage 239:376–384. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jenvman.2019.03.069
Yang S, Chen X, Hui W, Ren Y, Ling MA (2016) Progress in responses of antioxidant enzyme systems in plant to environmental stresses. J Fujian Agric Forestry Univ (Natural Science Edition) 45:481–489 (In Chinese)
Zhang XB, Liu P, Yang Y, Chen W (2007) Phytoremediation of urban wastewater by model wetlands with ornamental hydrophytes. J Environ Sci 19:902–909. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(07)60150-8
Zhao D, Chen C, Yang J, Zhou S, Du J, Zhang M, An S (2021) Mutual promotion of submerged macrophytes and biofilms on artificial macrophytes for nitrogen and COD removal improvement in eutrophic water. Environ Pollut 277:116718. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2021.116718
Zhao QL, Li XZ (1998) Inhibition of microbial activity by ammonia-nitrogen in landfill leachate. Environ Pollut Control 20:1–4 (In Chinese)
Zhao S, Yin L, Chang F, Olsen S, Søndergaard M, Jeppesen E, Wei L (2015) Response of Vallisneria spinulosa (Hydrocharitaceae) to contrasting nitrogen loadings in controlled lake mesocosms. Hydrobiologia 766:215–223. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10750-015-2456-1
Zhao YQ (2006) The growth of the invasive species Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms under different nutrient levels and its impact on local aquatic plants. Zhejiang University (In Chinese)
Zhou Y, Zhou X, Han R, Xu X, Wang G, Liu X, Bi F, Feng D (2017) Reproduction capacity of Potamogeton crispus fragments and its role in water purification and algae inhibition in eutrophic lakes. Sci Total Environ 580:1421–1428. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.12.108
Funding
This work was supported by the Fundamental Research Funds for the Central Universities (KYZZ2022004, KYQN2022045, KYZZ2021003, KYZZ201919, Y0201800349), a Project Funded by the Priority Academic Program Development of Jiangsu Higher Education Institutions, and the National Natural Science Foundation of China (42107428).
Author information
Authors and Affiliations
Contributions
Xiaowen Wang and Yanjie Wang conducted the experiments, analyzed the data, prepared the final figures, and wrote the manuscript. Wenpei Yao carried out part of the experiments. Lingfei Shangguan and Cong Xin helped in the analysis of the data. Xiaobin Zhang and Ping Qian offered technical assistant. Qijiang Jin helped in reviewing and editing the manuscript. Yingchun Xu conceived the study, participated in planning the experiments, analyzed the data, and helped in writing the manuscript.
Corresponding author
Ethics declarations
Ethical approval
Not applicable.
Consent to participate
All of the authors agree to participate in the research project.
Consent to publish
The participants have consented to the submission of the manuscript to the journal.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
Additional information
Responsible Editor: Elena Maestri
Publisher’s note
Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Rights and permissions
Springer Nature or its licensor (e.g. a society or other partner) holds exclusive rights to this article under a publishing agreement with the author(s) or other rightsholder(s); author self-archiving of the accepted manuscript version of this article is solely governed by the terms of such publishing agreement and applicable law.
About this article
Cite this article
Wang, X., Wang, Y., Yao, W. et al. Improving the efficacy of different life-form macrophytes in phytoremediation of artificial eutrophic water by combined planting. Environ Sci Pollut Res 30, 67621–67633 (2023). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27238-0
Received:
Accepted:
Published:
Issue Date:
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-023-27238-0