Journal of Agricultural Technology 2013 Vol. 9(2): 439-449
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Journal of Agricultural
Technology
2013, Vol. 9(2): 439-449
ISSN 1686-9141
Nutritional and phytochemical compositions of fireweed
(Crassocephalum crepidioides)
Arawande, Jacob Olalekan1*, Komolafe, Eniayo Ayodeji2 and Imokhuede,
Bamidele1
1
Department of Science Laboratory Technology, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic P.M.B. 1019 Owo,
Ondo-State, Nigeria, 2Department of Food Science Technology, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic
P.M.B. 1019 Owo, Ondo-State, Nigeria.
Arawande, Jacob Olalekan, Komolafe, Eniayo Ayodeji and Imokhuede, Bamidele (2013)
Nutritional and phytochemical compositions of fireweed (Crassocephalum crepidioides).
Journal of Agricultural Technology 9(2):439-449.
The stems and leaves of fireweed were cut into smaller pieces, dried and ground into very fine
powder. The powdered sample was analyzed for proximate and mineral constituents and this
was further subjected to extraction using acetone, chloroform, ethylacetate, methanol and water.
The powdered sample as well as its solvent-extracts was screened for phytochemicals. The
result revealed that moisture, crude protein, lipid, ash, crude fibre, carbohydrate and food
energy value were 10.160.22%, 15.090.42%, 2.480.21%, 13.150.18%, 13.270.14%,
56.010.17% and 306.721.02Kcal/100g respectively. The mineral composition of fireweed
was
calcium
(105.090.62mg/Kg),
sodium
(64.860.43mg/Kg),
potassium
(791.401.08mg/Kg), magnesium (20.340.17mg/Kg), iron (1.920.01mg/Kg), manganese
(2.160.09mg/Kg), while zinc, lead, copper and selenium ranged between 0.090.00mg/Kg and
0.140.00mg/Kg. It was found out that the powdered sample contained flavonoid, phenol,
oxalate, tannin, saponin, phytate and ascorbic acid but no alkaloid was present. Water extract
contained all the phytochemicals present in the sample but methanol extract contained all the
phytochemicals present in the sample except flavonoids. It was only phytate found in
ethylacetate extract. Chloroform extract contained phytate and ascorbic acid while acetone
extract contained oxalate, saponin, phytate and ascorbic acid. Fireweed is very rich in nutrient
and methanol as well as water is very effective in extracting bioactive materials from the
sample than ethylacetate, chloroform and acetone.
Key words: Fireweed, Proximate, Mineral, Solvent-Extracts and Phytochemicals.
Introduction
Fireweed is one of the neglected and under-utilized vegetables among the
Yorubas in Nigeria. One of the major reasons among others for neglecting the
plant is because of the unpleasant odour (aroma) that is inherent in the
*
Corresponding author: Arawande, Jacob Olalekan; e[mail: joawande1@yahoo.com
439
vegetable and this might be because of the certain phytochemical constituent of
the plant. Due to this, it is considered as weed, commonly found in abandoned
farmlands, wastage places, plantations and backyard gardens that are rich in
organic matter (Zollo et al., 2000). The plant’s temperature requirement is 23300C and annual rainfall of 600-1500 is suitable. It prefers well-drained,
dogged condition and grows well under shade in cocoa or tea plantation
(Burkilli, 1995). It belongs to the family of Asteraceae (sunflower family) and
taxonomically known as Crassocephalum crepidioides (Cronquist, 1981). Its
English names are thickhead, red flower ragleaf while the Yoruba tribe in
South-West of Nigeria calls it “Efo Ebolo or Ebire” (Burkilli, 1995).
Generally, vegetables are those herbaceous plants whose part or parts are
eaten as supporting food or main dishes and they may be aromatic, bitter or
tasteless (Mensah et al., 2008; Edema, 1987). Okafor (1983) reported that
vegetables are the cheapest and most available sources of important protein,
vitamins, minerals and essential amino acids. They are included in meals
mainly for their nutritional value; however, some are reserved for the sick and
convalescence because of their medicinal properties (Mensah et al., 2008).
Phytochemicals are plant secondary metabolites which are naturally occurring
biological active plant compounds that have potential disease-inhibiting
capabilities. It is believed that phytochemicals may be effective in combating or
preventing diseases due to their antioxidant effect (Akinmoladun et al., 2007;
Farombi et al., 1998). Arawande et a.l (2012) reported that the availability of
these phytochemicals in vegetables and other plants is not unrelated to their
antioxidant potentials and medicinal properties of the plants and their extracts.
Fireweed contains fleshy, mucilaginous leaves and stems which are eaten
as vegetable. A lotion of the leaves is used as a mild medicine that strengthens
the stomach and excites its action. The plant is said to contain antiseptic
compounds (which inhibit bacterial growth) and anti-inflammatory substances
(Small and Catling, 1999). Nigerian and British researchers have confirmed that
high intake of local vegetables prevent, correct or treat health disorders such as
diabetes, cancers, arthritis, obesity, high blood pressure, haemorrhoids and
gallstone (Auld and Medd, 2003). Considering the various ways of fireweed
usage by ancient and local people suggest that the plant contains nutritional and
bioactive substances. Therefore, the aim of this study is to evaluate the
nutritional and mineral composition as well as qualitative phytochemical
screening of the plant and the extracts obtained from it using different solvents
with the view of sensitizing people on the need for the consumption of the plant
as well as establishing the best solvent for phytochemical extraction.
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Journal of Agricultural Technology 2013, Vol. 9(2): 439-449
Materials and methods
Source and Preparation of Fireweed
Fireweed (stems and leaves) was obtained from an open land near an
ancient dilapidated building in Iyere Owo, Ondo-State, Nigeria. The stems and
leaves of fireweed were rinsed in water, cut into smaller pieces for easy drying.
The dried plant parts were ground using electric blending machine and the
powdered sample was packed into a black polyethene bag prior to further
analysis and extraction.
Determination of Nutritional Composition and Food Energy Value of
Fireweed
The proximate composition (moisture, fat, protein, ash, crude fibre and
carbohydrate) of powdered sample of fireweed were determined according to
the methods described by AOAC (2005). The gross food energy value was
estimated by multiplying the crude protein, crude fat and carbohydrate contents
by Atwater factor of 4, 9 and 4 respectively (Osborn and Vooget, 1978).
Determination of Mineral Composition of Fireweed
The sample was ashed and digested with 2M HNO3. The mixture was
filtered and the filtrate was made up to 100ml with de-ionized water in a 100ml
volumetric flask. Jenway Digital Flame Photometer (PFP7 Model) was used in
reading the concentration of calcium, potassium and sodium while Buck
Scientific Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (BUCK 210 VGP Model)
was used in reading concentration of magnesium, iron, zinc, manganese, lead,
copper and selenium at their respective wavelengths (Osborn and Vooget,
1978).
Solvent Extraction of Fireweed
Ten gram of the powdered sample was weighed into five cleaned and
dried reagent bottles and 100ml of each solvent (methanol, ethhylacetate,
acetone, water and chloroform) was separately added to each bottle and left for
72hours during which it was intermittently shaken on a shaking orbit machine.
The mixture was filtered through a 0.45μm Nylon membrane filter. The
extracts were evaporated to dryness under reduced pressure at 400C by a rotary
evaporator (Amir et al., 2005).
441
Qualitative Phytochemical Screening of Powdered Fireweed sample and its
extracts
Phytochemical screening was carried out on the powdered sample of
fireweed and its acetone, chloroform, ethylacetate, methanol and water extracts
using standard procedures as described by Sofowora (2008), Trease and Evans
(1989), Odebiyi and Sofowora (1978) and Harborne (1973)
Test for Flavonoid
About 0.2g of sample was dissolved in dilute NaOH solution and HCl
solution was added. A yellow solution that turns colourless indicates the
presence of flavonoids. Extracts were equally screened.
Test for Phenol
About 0.5g of sample was added to 1ml of 10% FeCl3 solution. A deep
bluish green colouration was an indication for the presence of phenol. Extracts
were equally screened.
Test for Oxalate
About 0.5g of sample was boiled with 1ml of 2% H2SO4 solution on
water bath. It was filtered while warm and few drops 1% KMnO4 was added.
Pink colour confirms the presence of oxalate. Extracts were equally screened.
Test for Tannin
0.5g of sample was mixed with 2ml of water and heated on water bath.
The mixture was filtered and 1ml of 10% FeCl3 solution was added to the
filtrate. A dark green solution indicates the presence of tannin. Extracts were
equally screened.
Test for Saponin
About 0.2g of sample was shaken with 4ml of distilled water and then
heated to boil. Appearance of creamy miss of small bubbles (Frothing) shows
the presence of saponin. Extracts were equally screened.
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Journal of Agricultural Technology 2013, Vol. 9(2): 439-449
Test for Alkaloid
About 0.5g of sample was warmed with 2ml of 2% H2SO4 solution on
water bath for two minutes. It was filtered and few drops of Dragendoffs
reagent were added. Orange red precipitate confirms the presence of alkaloids.
Extracts were equally screened.
Test for Phytate
About 0.5g of the sample was mixed with 2ml of 2% HCl solution. It was
filtered and two drops of 0.3% ammonium thiocynate (NH4SCN) solution and
2ml of distilled water were added and shaken. 3 to 4drops of 10% FeCl3
solution were then added. Yellow colouration indicates the presence of phytate.
Extracts were equally screened.
Test for Ascorbic acid
About 0.5g of sample was added to 2ml of acetic acid and it was shaken
for 3minutes, and then filtered. Few drops of 2, 6-dichlorophenolinddophenol
solution were added to the filtrate. The presence of faint pink colour confirms
that ascorbic acid is present. Extracts were equally screened.
Results and discussions
Table 1. Proximate Composition (%Dry weight) and Energy Value of Fireweed
Parameter
Value
Moisture (%)
10.160.22
Crude Protein (%)
15.090.42
Lipid (%)
2.480.21
Ash (%)
13.150.18
Crude Fibre (%)
13.270.14
Carbohydrate (%)
56.010.17
Energy Value (Kcal/100g)
306.721.03
Values represent means of triplicate determinationstandard deviation.
The result of the proximate analysis and energy value of fireweed as
shown in Table1 revealed that moisture, crude protein, lipid, ash, crude fibre,
carbohydrate and energy value were 10.160.22%, 15.090.42%, 2.480.21%,
13.150.18%, 13.270.14%, 56.010.17% and 306.721.03Kcal/100g
respectively. The crude protein value was lower than 20.71%-22.50% crude
protein for some prawns reported by Abulude et al., (2006); 17.28% and
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17.50% crude protein reported for Ocimum gratissium and Pengluria extensa
respectively (Okwu, 2006) and 23.8%-27.6% protein for jack beans as reported
by Eke et al. (2007). However, fireweed crude protein value was higher than
5.7% protein for chaya (tree spinach) reported by Booth et al (1992) and 7.44%
crude protein for Tetraplueura tetraptera fruit (Okwu, 2006). The lipid content
of fireweed fell within 0.79% and 3.18% fat content of some Nigerian cowpea
varieties (Chinma et al., 2008) but far less than 11.18% and 20.36% reported
for Pengluria extensa leaves and Tetraplueura tetraptera fruit (Okwu, 2006).
The ash content was higher than 2.72%-3.26% reported for some
Nigerian local varieties of cowpea seeds (Chinma et al., 2008) and 8.40% and
5.00% reported for ash content for Pengluria extensa leaves and Tetraplueura
tetraptera fruit respectively (Okwu, 2006). The crude fibre content of fireweed
fell within 11.12%-16.23% reported for some prawns (Abulude et al., 2006) but
less than 18.50% and 25.50% reported for Gongronema latifolium and Gnetum
africana vegetables respectively (Mensah et al., 2008). The high fibre content
of fireweed promotes bowel regularity and enhances frequent waste elimination
including bile acids, sterols and fat. Regular intake of fireweed will help to
reduce the intake of starchy food, enhances gastrointestinal function, prevents
constipation and may reduce the incidence of metabolic diseases like aging,
diabetic mellitus etc (Mensah et al., 2008; Egwaikhide et al., 2007). The
carbohydrate content of fireweed is higher than 47.9% reported for Vernonia
amygdalina (Mensah et al., 2008). Fireweed energy value was lower than
337.57- 360.67Kcal/100g for some cowpea seeds (Chinma et al., 2008) but
higher than 234.42 and 273.34Kcal/100g for Ocimum gratissium and Pengluria
extensa leafy vegetables respectively (Okwu, 2006).
Table 2. Mineral Composition of Fireweed
Parameter
Value (mg/Kg)
Ca
105.09±0.63
Na
64.86±0.43
K
791.40±1.08
Mg
20.34±0.17
Fe
1.92±0.01
Zn
0.09±0.00
Mn
2.16±0.09
Pb
0.10±0.00
Cu
0.14±0.00
Se
0.09±0.00
Values represent means of triplicate determinationstandard deviation
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Table 2. depicts the mineral composition of fireweed. Calcium, sodium,
potassium, magnesium, iron and manganese contents (mg/Kg) were
105.09±0.63, 64.86±0.43, 791.40±1.08, 20.34±0.17, 1.92±0.01 and 2.16±0.09
respectively while zinc, lead, copper and selenium fell within 0.09±0.00 and
0.14±0.00Mg/Kg dry. Among the minerals determined, potassium had the
highest value while zinc and selenium had the lowest value. The high content of
calcium in fireweed makes it good for bone and teeth formation in children
because calcium in conjunction with other minerals (magnesium, manganese
and phosphorus), vitamins (A, C and D) as well as protein are involved in bone
formation and strengthening, although calcium is the principal contributor
(Abulude et al., 2006). Fireweed is much richer in calcium, magnesium and
iron than Celosia argentea, Ocimum gratissum, Vernonia amygdalina, Telferia
occidentalis, Gnetum africana and Piper guineense (Mensah et al., 2008). The
calcium content of fireweed was lower than 152.0mg/Kg -162.5mg/Kg reported
for Penaeus notialis and Procambanis clarkia respectively but the potassium,
sodium and iron contents were higher in fireweed than some prawns found in
coaster areas of Ondo-State, Nigeria (Abulude et al., 2006). The high content of
potassium in fireweed suggests among other things that potassium-rich
chemical fertilizer would be required for planting in order to replace the large
intake of potassium by the plant. Potassium is primarily an intracellular cation,
in large part, this cation is bound to protein with sodium to influence osmotic
pressure and contribute to normal pH equilibrium. The calcium, sodium,
potassium, magnesium, iron and zinc contents of fireweed were lower than the
values obtained for chaya leaf (tree spinach)(Cnidoscolus aconitifolius) (Oboh,
2005).
Table 3. Qualitative Phytochemical Screening of Powdered and SolventExtracts of Fireweed
Constituents
Powdered
Sample
Flavonoids
+
Phenol
+
Oxalate
+
Tannin
+
Saponin
+
Alkaloids
Phytate
+
Ascorbic
+
acid
+ = Present - = Absent
Solvent- Extracts of Powdered Fireweed Sample
Acetone
+
+
+
+
Chloroform
+
+
Ethylacetate
+
-
Methanol
+
+
+
+
+
+
Water
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
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Qualitative phytochemical screening of powdered and solvent-extracts of
fireweed is shown in Table 3. The phytochemical screening of the powdered
sample of fireweed revealed that the plant contained bioactive plant chemicals
such as flavonoids, phenol, oxalate, tannin, saponin, phytate and ascorbic acid.
Water was able to extract 100% of the phytochemicals found in the powdered
sample of the plant; methanol was capable of extracting 86% of the
phytochemicals found in the powdered sample of the plant while acetone was
able to extract about 57% of the phytochemicals found in the powdered sample
of the plant. Chloroform extracted phytate and ascorbic acid amounting to
about 29% of the phytochemicals found in the powdered sample of the plant
while ethylacetate was able to extract phytate amounting to about 14% of the
phytochemicals found in the powdered sample of the plant. It is obvious that as
the polarity of the solvent increases so also is their extractive value increases.
This is because most of these plant chemicals (bioactive matter) are polar in
nature and they are best extracted by polar solvents (Arawande and Komolafe,
2010; Egwaikhide and Gimba, 2007). The presence of these phytochemicals in
powdered sample, methanol and water extracts of fireweed suggests that they
have therapeutic significance while acetone, chloroform and ethylacetate
extracts of fireweed had less or no therapeutic significance.
Flavonoids are natural biological response modifiers because of strong
experimental evidence of their inherent ability to modify the body’s reaction to
allergen, virus and carcinogens (Eghareva and Kunle, 2010). It is known to
inhibit platelets aggregation (Formica and Regelson, 1995), and could exert a
membrane stabilizing action that may protect liver from injury. Its
detoxification and antioxidant activities have been established (Iweala and
Obidoa, 2009). Phenol and phenolic compounds are anti-microbial agents
hence it is extensively used in disinfections and remain the standard with which
other bactericides are compared (Okwu, 2006). Tannin has biological activities
that are of benefit in the production and management of many aliments owing
to their antiviral, antibacterial and anti-tumor activities (Eghareva and Kunle,
2010). Saponin is being used as mild detergent and in intracellular
histochemistry staining to allow antibody access to intracellular proteins. It is of
great importance in medicine because it is used in hypercholesterolaemia,
hyperglycaemia, antioxidant, anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory and body loss.
Steroidal saponins are used as contraceptive and precursors for sex hormones
while glycosidal saponins are cardiotonic (Eghareva and Kunle, 2010; Okwu,
2006, Evans, 2002; Sieigler, 1998).Phytate has therapeutic uses as
phytonutrient, providing an antioxidant effect. It has a strong binding affinity to
important minerals such as calcium, magnesium, iron and zinc; and as such it
becomes insoluble precipitate and will be nonabsorbed in the intestine. The
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Journal of Agricultural Technology 2013, Vol. 9(2): 439-449
mineral binding properties of phytate prevent colon cancer by reducing
oxidative stress in the intestinal tract (Osagie, 1998).Ascorbic acid is an
antioxidant which helps to protect the body against cancer and other generative
diseases such as arthritis and type II diabetes mellitus. It also strengthens the
body’s immune system (Egwaikhide and Gimba, 2007). Ascorbic acid is a
reductone sugar acid with antioxidant properties. The water soluble compounds
of sodium, potassium and calcium salts of ascorbic acid are commonly used as
antioxidant food additives but these can not protect fats from oxidation except
the fat soluble ester of ascorbic acid with long chain fatty acids (ascorbyl
palmitate or ascorbyl stearate) is used.
Conclusion
Fireweed has a very high nutrient, mineral and antioxidant potential and it
can serve as potent nutritious food supplements to improve the health status of
its consumers as a result of high phytochemical and crude fibre contents for
sustainable healthy living. Methanol and water are suitable solvents for the
extraction of phytochemicals from fireweed. The antioxidant and antimicrobial
activities of methanol and water extracts of this plant can be further
investigated on edible oils and microorganism infested materials respectively.
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