Applied Water Science
(2023) 13:175
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13201-023-01987-2
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Biosynthesis of magnesium oxide nanoparticles using Hagenia
abyssinica female flower aqueous extract for characterization
and antibacterial activity
Belete Yilma Hirphaye1 · Nafikot Berhanu Bonka1 · Alemu Mekonnen Tura1 · Gada Muleta Fanta1
Received: 16 March 2023 / Accepted: 9 August 2023
© The Author(s) 2023
Abstract
The present study deals with the biosynthesis of magnesium oxide nanoparticles using the Hagenia abyssinica female flower
aqueous extract. The prepared MgO NPs were characterized by visual observation, UV–Vis, XRD, FTIR, and SEM studies.
Optimum parameters such as plant extract volume (25 mL), temperature (60 ℃), pH (12), precursor concentration (1 mM),
reaction time (120 min), and the formation of the MgO NPs in the colloidal solution were monitored by a UV–Vis spectrophotometer. XRD patterns of MgO NPs confirmed the face-centered cubic structure and average crystallite size of NPs at
12.8 nm. The FTIR spectra depicted a peak at 407 cm−1, which corresponds to the stretching vibration of MgO and is the
characteristic peak for MgO NPs. SEM confirms spherical morphology, and the overall size of MgO NPs ranges from 10 to
40 nm. The antibacterial activity of synthesized MgO NPs was determined by the agar-well-diffusion method, which found
that nanoparticles have significant antibacterial activity zone of inhibition against Staphylococcus aureus (27 ± 0.28 mm)
and against Escherichia coli (15 ± 0 mm).
Keywords Biosynthesis · MgO NPs · Hagenia abyssinica · Morphology · Antibacterial activity
Introduction
Nanoscience and nanotechnology have been interesting
fields of research and have gained much attention in the last
three decades. A nanoparticle can be defined as a microscopic particle whose size falls between 1 and 100 nm
(Amrulloh et al. 2021a, b, c; He et al. 2021; Fadaka et al.
2021).
It plays an essential role as a building block of nanotechnology. Nowadays, nanoscience as well as nanotechnology
* Gada Muleta Fanta
gadamuleta2019@gamil.com
Belete Yilma Hirphaye
y.belete2@gmail.com
Nafikot Berhanu Bonka
berhanunafkot066@gmail.com
Alemu Mekonnen Tura
kiyyach@gmail.com
1
Department of Chemistry, College of Natural
and Computational Sciences, Arba Minch University,
Arba Minch, Ethiopia
are widely applied in different fields, mainly in sensors, electronics, water purification, cosmetics, biomedical devices,
pharmaceuticals, environmental remediation, catalysis, and
material applications (Asadi et al. 2018). The size, crystallinity, and morphology of the nanomaterial can greatly influence its catalytic, magnetic, electronic, and optical properties (Cui and Lieber 2001).
NPs are synthesized through physical, chemical, and
biological approaches (Gudikandula and Charya Maringanti 2016; Karimi and Ansari. 2018; Suresh et al. 2018).
Recently, biosynthesis has become a popular way to produce
NPs due to its low cost, environmental compatibility, workability in ambient conditions, and non-toxicity when compared to chemical and physical methods (Fatiqin et al. 2021).
Plant extracts contain enzymes (including hydrogenases and
reductases) and secondary metabolites such as flavonoids,
terpenoids, phenols, and many other compounds that may
react with metal salts to form precursors of metal oxide
nanoparticles within a few minutes or hours (Amrulloh
et al. 2021a, b, c; Suresh et al. 2018). Today, considerable
interest is seen in the biosynthesis of different NPs as well
as in evaluating their antibacterial activities (Gudikandula
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and Charya Maringanti 2016; Ibrahim 2015; Prasanth et al.
2019; Yadav et al. 2017).
Owing to their ability to withstand harsh process conditions, inorganic materials, especially metals and metal
oxides, have attracted a lot of attention over the last few
decades (Asadi et al. 2018; Suresh et al. 2018). Magnesium
oxide (MgO) is of particular interest because it is not only
stable under difficult process conditions but is also regarded
as a safe material for animals and humans (Stoimenov et al.
2002). MgO NPs have gained much interest in recent years
due to their attractive properties, including unique ionic
character, simple stoichiometry, crystal structure, surface
structural defects, larger surface area-to-volume ratio,
thermal and electrical properties, strong adsorption ability toward dye wastes and toxic gases, antimicrobial activity, non-toxicity, and biocompatibility (Bindhu et al. 2016;
Bhagya et al. 2017; De-Silva et al. 2017). These also find
extensive applications in catalysis, toxic waste remediation,
paints, and superconducting devices. In addition, it is used in
optical and electrical devices, including semiconductors. Its
antibacterial properties are utilized in medicinal chemistry
(Rao et al. 2014). Therefore, many authors report the successful synthesis of MgO NPs by using a biological method,
and several plants are currently being investigated for their
utility in the synthesis of MgO NPs. In this paper, the synthesis of MgO NPs using H. abyssinica female flowers is
reported.
H. abyssinica (Bruce) Gmel. is a species of flowering
plant native to the high elevation Afromontane regions of
Central and Eastern Africa (Fig. 1). It is a multipurpose
dioecious tree with separate female and male plants and is
included in the family of Rosaceae (Azene et al. 1993). H.
abyssinica has been used for centuries in Ethiopia and has
great local importance. It is used locally for its medicinal
properties; an infusion of dried female flowers is used to
Fig. 1 Hagenia Abyssinica female flower
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(2023) 13:175
treat tapeworm; the roots are cooked with meat to make a
soup for treating general illness and malaria; and the bark
can be used to treat diarrhea and stomach aches (Desta
1995; Giday et al. 2003).
This work is aimed at the biosynthesis of MgO NPs
using H. abyssinica female flower extract for characterization and antibacterial activity. The present approach has
the advantage of easier work-up and cost-effectiveness.
Also, this route is eco-friendly, and the conditions are
milder without using any special equipment or high pressure or temperature. Characterization and antibacterial
studies on the MgO NPs also were carried out.
Materials and methods
Chemicals
Chemicals used in this investigation include magnesium
nitrate hexahydrate (98%, Mg (NO3)2·6H2O), hydrochloric
acid (35.4%, HCl), and sodium hydroxide (98%, NaOH).
Chemicals were used without further purification. The pH
of the solution was adjusted by using 1 M of HCl and 1 M
of NaOH.
Collection of plant
Fresh female flowers of H. abyssinica were collected from
Dorze, Gamo Zone, SNNPR, Ethiopia, during the months
of October to December, 2018. Identification of the plant
species was confirmed with standard morphological characteristic features.
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Test microorganisms
Two clinical microorganisms were collected from the Microbial Biotechnology Laboratory, Arba Minch University,
Arba Minch, Ethiopia. The organisms used were: gramnegative bacteria (E. coli) and gram-positive bacteria (S.
aureus). Both of these microorganisms were used for evaluating the antimicrobial efficiency of the synthesized NPs.
Page 3 of 12
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muddy brown solution in Fig. 2. The solution was then
stirred for 2 h, while 1 M of NaOH was added drop by
drop until the pH reached 12. The obtained solution was
centrifuged and dried in an oven overnight at 60 ℃ and
then calcinated at 500 ℃ for 3 h. Finally, the synthesized
MgO NPs were stored for further characterization and
application.
Plant extraction
Effect of parameters on the biosynthesis of MgO NPs
The shade-dried flowers of H. abyssinica (at room temperature) were powdered using a mortar and pestle. Five grams
of ultra-fine powder from H. abyssinica female flowers and
100 mL of deionized water were put into a 250-mL beaker.
The mixture was heated at 100 °C on a hot plate for 30 min.
Then, the extract was allowed to cool down to room temperature and filtered through filter paper (Whatman No. 1). The
filtrate extract was stored at 4 °C for the next experiment.
The effects of the initial volume of H. abyssinica female
flower aqueous extract (5–50 mL), precursor concentration (0.5–2.5 mM), reaction pH (2–12), temperature (30–200 °C), and heating time (30–240 min) were
investigated and quantified spectrophotometrically in the
200–800 nm wavelength range. These parameters were
varied one at a time, keeping all others constant.
Phytochemical screening test
Characterization
The screening was carried out as per the standard methods.
The extracts from H. abyssinica female flower were screened
for the presence of naturally occurring biologically active
compounds such as alkaloids, carbohydrates, proteins, tannins, phenols, saponins, flavonoids, terpenoids, steroids and
glycosides. The screening was carried out as per the standard
methods (Anantharaman et al. 2016; Amrulloh et al. 2021a,
b, c).
Biosynthesis of MgO NPs was confirmed by measuring the absorbance in UV–Vis spectra at a wavelength
range of 200–800 nm. The powdered NPs samples were
analyzed by XRD (Shimadzu, XRD-7000, Japan), FTIR
(Shimadzu, IR Affinity-1S, Japan) and SEM (JSM-6390,
Eindhoven, Netherlands). The average crystallite size,
structure and phase of samples were determined by XRD
with CuKα radiation (Voltage = 40 kV, Current = 30 mA,
λ = 1.5406 Å, scan speed 3.0 deg/min and scan range 2θ
from 10 to 80 degrees). FTIR spectra were collected for
both of H. abyssinica female flower aqueous extract and
synthesized NPs. The spectra were obtained by employing
potassium bromide (KBr) pellet method for the solid sample, while liquid sample was placed between two sodium
chloride plates and the wavelength ranging from 400 to
4000 cm−1 was recorded. SEM reveals the morphological
characteristics and distribution of the synthesized NPs.
Biosynthesis of MgO NPs using H. abyssinica flower
extract
The biosynthesis of MgO NPs was performed after optimization of the synthesis parameters. Both H. abyssinica
flower extract and magnesium nitrate hexahydrate solution
were mixed in a 1:2 ratio and heated at 60℃ with constant
stirring by a magnetic stirrer for 20 min to achieve the
Fig. 2 Process flowcharts for the preparation of MgO NPs
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Antimicrobial activity of MgO NPs
E. coli (gram-negative) and S. aureus (gram-positive) were
maintained at 4 °C on broth media before use. A single colony of tested bacterial strain was grown overnight in a nutrient broth medium on a rotatory shaker at 200 rpm at 37 °C.
200 µL of freshly prepared culture and 700 µL of sterilized
distilled water were taken through a micropipette and then
mixed. Each diluted bacterial culture was uniformly spread
on Muller-Hinton agar plates and left for 10 min for absorption. For spreading bacterial culture, sterile cotton swabs
were used. The agar plates were punched for making wells
of 6 mm in diameter for evaluating the antimicrobial activity
of NPs using a sterilized cork borer. Four wells were made
in each plate and then filled with 50 µL of various amounts
(0.2, 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 mg/mL) of synthesized MgO NPs. The
antibiotic drug, chloramphenicol (30 µg), and sterile distilled
water were used as positive and negative controls, respectively. The plates were then incubated for 24 h at 37 °C,
where an inhibitory activity of NPs was observed as a clearing zone around the wells. The diameter of the clearing zone
was measured in millimeter using the ruler scale.
Results and discussions
Phytochemical analysis
The phytochemical components of the H. abyssinica female
flower were analyzed qualitatively for active compounds,
and the results are given in Table 1. Aqueous extract of the
plant flower showed the presence of phytochemically active
compounds such as saponins, alkaloids, phenols, tannins,
steroids, flavonoids, proteins and carbohydrate. But glycosides and terpenoids were absent. Aqueous flower extract
exhibited the presence of saponins, alkaloids, phenols,
(2023) 13:175
tannins, steroids, flavonoids, proteins and carbohydrates.
These bioactive compounds can serve as reducing, capping
and stabilizing agents toward the synthesis of MgO NPs.
Optimization of synthesis parameters
Effect of volume of plant extract
Among different volumes of H. abyssinica female flower
extracts, 25 mL yielded a higher proportion of MgO NPs
at λmax = 267 nm, as shown in Fig. 3a. This result is similar to the previously published studies (Jayarambabu et al.
2016). Absorbance increased with increasing the volume
of aqueous flower extract from 15 to 25 mL. However, a
further increase in the volume of flower extract resulted in
a decrease in absorbance. Absorption was decreased with a
higher volume of extract; this may be due to the presence of
excess biomolecules in the plant's flowers. Therefore, 25 mL
of extract volume is selected for the synthesis of MgO NPs.
Effect of temperature
On the basis of UV–Vis studies, 60 °C was found to be better for the synthesis of MgO NPs, as shown in Fig. 3b. This
shows that the optimum temperature for a higher yield of
NPs is 60 °C. The increase in absorbance increased with
the increase in temperature (observed from 30 to 60 °C) and
began to decline until it reached 200 °C. Temperatures above
and below 60 °C led to lower yields of MgO NPs. Lower
temperature is not sufficient for particle formation, and also
higher temperatures degrade the active phytochemicals (Jeevanandam 2017). Similar temperature conditions were also
used in synthesizing MgO NPs from plant extracts, in earlier
studies (Jeevanandam et al. 2017).
Effect of pH
Table 1 Phytochemical analysis of H. abyssinica female flower aqueous extract
No
Phytochemical
Name of the test
Result
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Saponins
Alkaloids
Phenols
Terpenoids
Steroids
Flavonoids
Glycosides
Tannins
Proteins
Carbohydrate
Foam test
Wagner test
FeCl3 test
Chloroform test
Chloroform test
NaOH test
Salkowski’s test
KOH test
Millon’s test
Fehling’s test
+
+
+
−
+
+
−
+
+
+
+ Present and − Absent
13
In our study, the solution was adjusted to different pH values
(pH 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, and 12), and other parameters were kept
constant. At neutral pH (i.e., pH 7), the reaction started as
soon as the magnesium nitrate hexahydrate was added to the
reaction medium. Reduction of Mg2+ ions was observed,
which corresponds to the SPR peak at 267 nm. The highest absorption peak was at pH 12 in Fig. 3c, indicating the
surplus formation of NPs. At pH 2–10, the absorbance peak
observed was lower in comparison with pH 12, which indicates the poor degree of formation of NPs. Therefore, pH
12 was found to be effective for the synthesis of MgO NPs.
Generally, alkaline pH was found to be optimum for the synthesis of NPs. Similar results were reported in the synthesis of MgO NPs using seeds and fruit waste (Ashwini et al.
2016; Jeevanandam et al. 2017).
0.6
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(b)
5 mL
15 mL
25 mL
35 mL
50 mL
0.4
0.3
0.1
300
400
500
600
700
300
400 500 600
Wavelength (nm)
700
800
1.6
(c)
1.2
1.4
pH 2
pH 4
pH 6
pH 8
pH 10
pH 12
0.8
0.6
0.8
2.5 mM
0.6
0.2
0.2
500
600
700
800
(e)
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.0
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
Wavelength (nm)
Wavelength (nm)
1.4
1 mM
1.5 mM
2 mM
0.4
400
0.5 mM
1.0
0.4
300
(d)
1.2
Absorbance
1.0
Absorbance
0.4
0.0
200
800
1.4
Absorbance
0.6
0.2
Wavelength (nm)
0.0
200
30 oC
60 oC
90 oC
120 oC
200 oC
0.8
0.2
0.0
200
175
1.0
(a)
0.5
Absorbance
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Absorbance
Applied Water Science
30 min
60 min
120 min
180 min
240 min
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
200
300
400 500 600
Wavelength (nm)
700
800
Fig. 3 Effective parameters on MgO NPs synthesis: a volume of flower extract, b temperature, c pH, d precursor concentration and e heating
time
The unregulated nucleation and agglomeration at low
pH, caused by enhanced interaction of negatively charged
particles, can be attributed to the occurrence of larger NPs
and platelets. On the other hand, in acidic pH, increased
aggregation outdoes the nucleation process, while at
alkaline pH, a greater number of nuclei formation instead
of aggregation leads to the synthesis of more NPs with
a smaller diameter (Anantharaman et al. 2016). Acidity
suppresses the formation of NPs, but the basic conditions
enhance their formation. This indicates that pH plays a
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very important role in controlling the size and shape of
MgO NP synthesis.
applied in the biosynthesis of MgO NPs using mushroom
extract (Jhansi et al. 2017).
Effect of precursor concentration
Characterization of MgO NPs
Results of our study on the effect of metal salt solution
showed that a 1 mM concentration of magnesium nitrate
hexahydrate resulted in the formation of maximum nanosized particles with an absorbance peak at 267 nm, as shown
in Fig. 3d. The higher absorbance indicates a better yield
of NPs. This result is in good agreement with the results of
earlier investigations (Sharma et al. 2017).
The synthesis of NPs increased with the increase in magnesium nitrate hexahydrate concentration from 0.5 to 1 mM.
Beyond this, there was again a fall in the absorbance. In this
case, it was speculated that an increase in the magnesium
nitrate concentration beyond 1 mM may yield more amounts
of microparticles, but the characteristic absorbance of metal
oxide NPs was poor at those higher precursor concentrations. Therefore, it can be depicted that metal ion concentration also plays a crucial role in NP formation.
Visual observation
Plant-mediated synthesis of MgO NPs is cost-effective, easily available, eco-friendly, and non-toxic, and there is no
need to use high pressure, temperature, or energy, and also
no requirement of cultural or isolation techniques for the
performance of synthesis. In the preset study, the precursor
is dissolved in deionized water, to which the flower extract
is added under constant stirring, and the mixture is heated
at 60 °C for 20 min. A color change from reddish brown to
muddy brown was observed during the course of the reaction in Fig. 4. This change is caused by the coherent oscillation of electron gas at the surface of NPs, which results in
surface plasma resonance (SPR) (Jayarambabu et al. 2016).
The color change indicates the reduction of metal salts
and hence corresponds to the successful synthesis of NPs
(Sharma et al. 2017).
Effect of heating time
UV–Vis spectroscopy
Among various batches of varying heating times, the absorbance observed at 267 nm was the highest for the sample subjected to 120 min of heating time in Fig. 3e. UV–Vis absorbance increased gradually with increasing the heating time
from 30 to 120 min and then began to decline until it reached
240 min. The size of NPs increased after the threshold time
of heating (Jeevanandam 2017). Despite this, 120 min of
heating time is selected as the optimum condition because
it produces smaller NPs. Similar heating times were also
Figure 5 shows the optical absorption of UV–Vis absorption of MgO NPs solution and initial aqueous extract of H.
abyssinica female flower and magnesium nitrate solution.
It was observed at a wavelength of 267 nm, which is in the
range of 260–280 nm and is specific for MgO NPs. Similarly, MgO NPs synthesized using Trigonella foenum-graecum leaf extract (Vergheese and Kiran-Vishal 2018) showed
very similar absorption peaks to bio-assisted MgO NPs. No
Fig. 4 Visual observation of MgO NPs synthesis a magnesium nitrate solution, b H. abyssinica female flower extract and c final color change in
reaction mixture
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Fig. 5 UV–Vis absorption spectra of a final MgO NPs solution and b initial aqueous extract of H. abyssinica female flower and magnesium
nitrate solution
other peaks were observed in the spectrum of synthetized
NPs, which confirms the purity of MgO NPs.
A fundamental property of nanosized metal oxides is the
bandgap energy. The band gap energy is the energy separation between the filled valence band and the empty conduction band (Moustafa et al. 2017). The energy bandgap
can be estimated by assuming direct transmission between
conduction and valance bands. From the optical absorption
spectra, the direct optical bandgap was calculated (Alagesan
and Venugopal 2019) using Equation: (𝛼hv)n = A(hv − Eg ),
where Eg = the energy gap, 𝛼 = the absorption coefficient,
h = Planck’s constant, v = the frequency of light, A = the
constant of proportionality, and n = 2, for direct band gap
energy. The energy bandgap (Eg) of synthesized nanoparticle can be obtained by plotting (αhν)2 versus photon energy
(hν) and extrapolating the linear portion of the curve to the
photon energy axis. The result revealed that the obtained
energy bandgap of synthesized MgO NPs is 4.19 eV, from
the extrapolation to linear line of the curve in Fig. 6. This is
in close agreement with the previously published studies on
Citrus limon, where the energy band gap was also 4.2 eV for
MgO NPs (Haneefa 2017).
Fig. 6 Bandgap energy of MgO NPs synthesized
X‑ray diffraction
X-ray diffraction (XRD) is a versatile, non-destructive analytical method for identification and quantitative determination of various crystalline forms present in powder and
solid samples (Rao et al. 2014). Figure 7 represents the XRD
patterns of the product obtained by calcination of the synthesized NPs precursor at 500 °C for 3 h. The sharp peaks of the
synthesized MgO NPs clearly illustrate that the particles are
highly crystalline. The interplanar spacing (dhkl values), 2θ
values and relative intensity values of MgO corresponding
Fig. 7 XRD pattern of synthesized MgO nanoparticles
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to the observed diffraction peaks were compared with the
standard values of MgO (as reported by JCPDS-International Centre for Diffraction Data). XRD analysis showed
a series of diffraction peaks at 2θ of 36.87°, 42.85°, 62.18°,
74.58° and 78.49° corresponding to the crystal planes of
(111), (200), (220), (311) and (222), respectively, with no
characteristic peaks corresponding to the impurities, which
further confirms the formation of pure stable MgO phase.
Stronger intense peak with 100% intensity belongs to (200)
plane. As the width of the peak increases, size of particle
decreases, reaching the order of nanorange. Confirmation
of the results obtained is verified using the JCPDS standard
XRD data (No: 01-023-0074).
The crystalline size of the synthesized MgO NPs was
determined by using the Debye–Scherrer equation as
follows:
k𝜆
D=
𝛽cos𝜃
where D = particle size of the crystal, k = Scherrer constant
(usually 0.9), λ = wavelength of X-ray source, CuKα radiation (1.5406 Å), 𝛽 = full width at half-maximum (FWHM)
of the diffraction peak in radian, and θ = Bragg’s diffraction
angle. The average crystalline size of MgO NPs calcined at
500 °C for 3 h was found to be 12.8 nm.
Fourier transforms infrared
Functional groups of possible bioactive molecules present in
the H. abyssinica female flower extract, which act as reducing, capping, and stabilizing agents of synthesized MgO
NPs, were identified using FTIR spectroscopy. Figure 8
shows that the changes in the intensity and small shifts were
observed in the spectra of the H. abyssinica female flower
extract and synthesized NPs. There are prominent absorption
bands at 2330, 2093, 1654, 1427, 1061, 852, and 407 cm−1.
The spectra show an absorption peak at 2330 cm−1, which
indicates N–H stretching vibrations of secondary amine.
The peak at 1654 cm−1 represents the stretching vibration
of the N–H bond, while the peak observed at 2093 cm−1
corresponds to the C–C stretching vibration of polyol, carboxylic acid, ether, and ester. The absorption bands between
680 and 1454 cm−1 can be assigned to alcohols, phenolic
groups, and the C–N stretching vibrations of amines (Kurniawan et al. 2021; Ratnani and Malik 2022). The absorption peak associated with the MgO stretching band clearly
appears at 407 cm−1, confirming the formation of MgO
NP. The FTIR spectra of several MgO NPs samples synthesized using plant extracts have been demonstrated, and
various MgO band positions appear at 610 cm−1 (Rahmani-Nezhad et al. 2017), 587–681 cm−1 (Fardood et al.
2018), 500–800 cm−1 (Palanisamy and Pazhanivel 2017),
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Fig. 8 FTIR spectra for a aqueous extract of H. abyssinica female
flower and b synthesized MgO NPs
649.5–561.1 cm−1 (Jayarambabu et al. 2016), 419 cm−1 and
407 cm−1 (Dobrucka 2018). These results support our findings from the FTIR spectra of synthesized MgO NPs.
Scanning electron microscopy
Figure 9 shows the SEM image of synthesized NPs at different magnifications, such as X500, X1500, X3500, and
X10000. The green-synthesized MgO NPs are spherical in
shape and in the form of agglomerates, which may be due to
the interactions and van der Waals forces between the particles (Sharma et al. 2017). The average particle size of MgO
as seen in the SEM micrographs ranged from 10 to 40 nm.
Similar results have been reported by another research group
(Munja et al. 2017). Figure 10 shows the particle size distribution of the nanoparticles was estimated from the ImageJ
software by treating the nanoparticles as spheres and thus
calculating the particle size distribution from the deduced
area.
Stability studies
The optimized as-prepared MgO NPs were kept as such in
the dark at room temperature, and the stability of the synthesized NPs was monitored using UV–Vis spectral analysis by
taking the spectra at different time intervals (1, 2, 3, 4, and
5 months). In the present study, there is no obvious change
in color intensity, spectral peak position, or absorbance of
NPs when monitored at regular intervals over a period of
5 months in Fig. 11. Greenly synthesized MgO NPs are uniform and stable, and they can be stored in the refrigerator
for 5 months without any visible change. Stability of MgO
NPs is much more important for applications (antimicrobial
property). To attain greater stability and maximum yield
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6
2.0
5
1.9
4
3
2
1
0
150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Diameter (nm)
Absorbance
Count
Fig. 9 SEM image of the synthesized MgO NPs
1.8
1.7
1.6
1.5
1
2
3
Months
4
5
Fig. 10 Size distribution of MgO nanoparticles
with controlled size, it is imperative to optimize the different
parameters used in the H. abyssinica female flower aqueous
extract-mediated MgO NPs synthesis.
Antibacterial studies on MgO nanoparticles
E. coli and S. aureus are the most infectious agents of
nosocomial diseases, besides having broad-spectrum antibiotic resistance due to the excessive use of antibiotics
(Mahdy et al. 2017). Antibacterial activities of synthesized NPs are tested on both gram-positive (S. aureus) and
Fig. 11 Relation of absorption with MgO NPs solution at different
time interval
gram-negative (E. coli) bacteria using the agar-well diffusion method. The results showed that green-synthesized
MgO NPs demonstrated excellent antimicrobial activity
against all tested strains. It has been found that the inhibition activity of NPs (0.8 mg/mL) against these microbial pathogens is high, and the ZID against S. aureus is
27 ± 0.28 mm, whereas the ZID value corresponding to
chloramphenicol is 21 mm. On the other hand, the ZID
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against E. coli was at 15 ± 0 mm, compared to the case of
chloramphenicol, which has a value of 18.5 mm in Table 2.
Our results also revealed that the antimicrobial activity
of synthesized MgO NPs increases as the quantity of NPs
increases. In Fig. 12, it is shown that the zone of inhibition
was found to be greater in gram-positive bacteria compared
to gram-negative bacteria. A similar finding was reported
by some authors, who found that the maximum bacterial
effect on S. aureus is because of the easier interaction with
these gram-positive bacteria, causing the distortion of the
membrane structure of the bacteria's cell wall (Karthikeyan
et al. 2016). In addition to this, gram-positive bacteria are
characterized by having no outer membrane in the cell wall,
and the thick cell wall is composed of multilayers of peptidoglycan. On the other hand, gram-negative bacteria have
a more complex cell wall structure, with a layer of peptidoglycan between the outer membrane and the cytoplasmic
membrane (Bindhu et al. 2016). Thus, the cell membrane of
gram-positive bacteria can be damaged more easily. Previous inhibition results obtained are such that by Ibrahem et al.
(2017), the values are 27 mm and 24 mm against S. aureus
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, respectively, for 1 mg/mL
of MgO NPs, by Sundrarajan et al. (2012), the values are
23 mm and 21 mm against S. aureus and E. coli, respectively, for MgO NPs, and by Sharma et al. (2017), the values
are also 17 mm and 18 mm against S. aureus and E. coli,
respectively, for 0.25 µg/µL of MgO NPs, and we can report
our obtained results have shown prominent activity.
Many studies report the ability of metal oxide NPs as an
alternative to antibiotics due to the strong germicidal nature
of the former. The antimicrobial mechanism of MgO NPs
Table 2 Diameter of the
inhibition zone of prepared
MgO NPs
Tested bacteria
S. aureus
E. coli
(2023) 13:175
has been explained by a number of mechanisms, including
the generation of ROS, an alkaline effect, and the interaction
of NPs with bacteria and the subsequent damaging of the
microbial cell (Tang and Lv 2014). Earlier authors propose
that MgO NPs and bacteria interact in some way, leading
to numerous antibacterial mechanisms (Cai et al. 2018).
The NPs of MgO could strongly disrupt cell membranes
essential functions of bacteria after the cells were exposed
to suspensions of nanoparticle. In addition, the negatively
charged pathogens are directly adhered to by the positively
charged NPs. Firstly, the MgO NPs course ROS production
or mechanical injure for damage cell wall and structure of
membrane to initiate a leakage of cytoplasm in the cells.
Then, the MgO NPs reduce the bacterial motility by inhibiting the aggregation of biofilms on the surface.
In addition, after permeating into the cells, the ROS
could destroy DNA, eventually resulting in bacterial death.
Ramanujam and Sundrarajan (2014) reported that the
enhancement of the antimicrobial activity of MgO NPs
against two pathogens (S. aureus and E. coli) was due to
the decay of the outer membranes of bacteria by ROS (primarily ·OH), which cause cell death (Ramanujam and Sundrarajan 2014). It was reported that NPs that can directly
contact the cell membrane of bacteria are bactericidal,
and eventually the cell will die. The interaction of MgO
NPs with bacteria, subsequently damaging the bacterial
surface, has been proposed to explain the antimicrobial
activity of MgO NPs. Suresh et al. (2013) suggested that
MgO NPs inhibit the growth of microorganisms by using
an electrochemical mode of action. When MgO NPs penetrate the cell wall, leakage of metabolites occurs and other
Diameter of zone of inhibition (in mm)
0.2 mg/mL
0.4 mg/mL
0.6 mg/mL
0.8 mg/mL
Control
14 ± 0.76
8 ± 0.25
17 ± 0.86
10 ± 0.5
20 ± 0.5
13 ± 0.86
27 ± 0.28
15 ± 0
21
18.5
Control Chloramphenicol, mean zone inhibition (mm) ± standard deviation of three replicates
Fig. 12 Antibacterial activity
(zone of inhibition): images
of MgO nanoparticles against
pathogen a Staphylococcus
aureus and b Escherichia coli
13
Applied Water Science
(2023) 13:175
Page 11 of 12
Table 3 Comparison of antibacterial activity with other research
studies
Metal oxide
nanoparticles
Bacteria
Zone inhibi- References
tion (mm)
MgO
MgO
MgO
MgO
MgO
MgO
MgO
MgO
S. aureus
E. coli
S. aureus
E. coli
S. aureus
E. coli
S. aureus
E. coli
27 ± 0.28
15 ± 0
27
21
23
21
17
18
Present work
Ibrahem et al. (2017)
Ibrahem et al. (2015)
Sundrarajan et al. (2012)
Sharma et al. (2017)
cell functions are stopped, thereby preventing the organism from functioning or reproducing. Table 3 shows the
comparison of antibacterial activity with other research
studies.
175
Declarations
Conflict of interest The authors assert that the publication of this work
is free of conflicts of interest.
Ethical approval This article does not contain any studies involving
human, animal, or patient participants performed by any of the authors.
Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long
as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source,
provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes
were made. The images or other third party material in this article are
included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated
otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in
the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not
permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will
need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a
copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.
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