(2023) 12:85
Iwara et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci
https://doi.org/10.1186/s43088-023-00422-4
Beni-Suef University Journal of
Basic and Applied Sciences
Open Access
RESEARCH
Evaluation of the therapeutic potentials
of extract fractions of Vernonia calvoana
on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats:
approach through in silico, in vitro and in vivo
studies
Iwara Arikpo Iwara1* , Victor S. Ekam1, Eve O. Mboso1, Michael Oko Odey1, Ofem E. Eteng1,
Joe Enobong Eshiet1, Godwin Oju Igile1, Friday Effiong Uboh1 and Mbeh Eteng Ubana1
Abstract
Background Diabetes is a serious metabolic disorder and many medicinal plants are used in traditional medicine
to manage it. This study aimed to evaluate the therapeutic effects of Vernonia calvoana (V. calvoana) extract fractions on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rat models. In this study, we first investigated the binding affinity of ligands
from extracts of V. calvoana crystal structure proteins using a molecular docking approach. Furthermore, the in silico
predictions were validated by in vitro and in vivo biochemical evaluations to ascertain the efficacy of these extract
fractions. The in vitro antioxidant activity of the fractions was evaluated using DPPH, FRAP, SOD, and LPx scavenging.
For biological activity, extract fractions of V. calvoana and metformin (400 mg and 500 mg/kg body weight, respectively) were administered to diabetic rats for 21 days after induction and confirmation of diabetes.
Results The radical scavenger activities of the fractions showed a good dose-dependent reaction activity. A significant reduction in hyperglycemia, hyperlipidemia, nephrotoxicity, and hepatotoxicity was observed in all experimental
treated groups. Improved hematological and histopathological changes were also observed.
Conclusion The In silico analyses revealed that all the compounds from extract fractions of V. calvoana have varying binding affinity for PFK and lipoprotein lipase, with some showing higher affinity than the standard drug, further
validating the biological activity of the plant. The results of this study indicated that V. calvoana extracts might have
potential value in treating complications arising from diabetes mellitus.
Keywords Diabetes mellitus, Molecular docking, Vernonia calvoana, Antioxidants, Bioactive compound
*Correspondence:
Iwara Arikpo Iwara
arikpoeteng@unical.edu.ng; iwaraiwara83@gmail.com
1
Department of Biochemistry, College of Medical Sciences, Faculty
of Basic Medical Sciences, University of Calabar, P.M.B 1115, Calabar,
Nigeria
1 Background
Diabetes mellitus is a group of metabolic disorders characterized by hyperglycemia arising from disorders in
the production/secretion and action of insulin, or both.
The disease is mainly influenced by various genetic factors, and people with these diseases are predisposed to
developing diabetes-related complications [1]. According to a study by the WHO, approximately 422 million
people have diabetes mellitus. Most people with diabetes
© The Author(s) 2023. Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which
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Iwara et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci
(2023) 12:85
mellitus fall into two broad categories: type 1 and type 2.
Type 1 diabetes is characterized by a lack of insulin production in the body. Type 2 diabetes is becoming more
common in lower and middle-class countries. It is estimated to be considered the leading cause of liver disease
and liver disease is a primary reason of death in type 2
diabetes [2]. The link between diabetes and atherosclerosis has been extensively studied to explain the risk of cardiovascular disease in diabetes. It is associated with the
hyperglycemia-induced formation of advanced glycation
end products (AGEs) and/or reactive glycation oxygen
species that impair the stability of the diabetic apo-lipoprotein complex and lead to an atherogenic state [3].
Access to affordable treatment is crucial for people with
diabetes. Currently, drugs used to treat type 2 diabetes
have high side effects and are expensive.
Vernonia calvoana (V. calvoana) is sometimes referred
to as the sweet and bitter leaf. The plant is grown in
swampy or wet soil and is more likely to grow in a wet
environment (personal interaction with natives). Despite
their extensive use of plants of the genus Vernonia in
food and medicine, and a review of the genus Vernonia in humans and animals by [4], V. calvoana Hook. F.
was one of the least studied species of the genus until
recently. During the screening of antidiabetic natural
products in our laboratory, it was found that V. calvoana
leaf extract possesses phytochemical compounds with
hypoglycemic activity, antioxidant activity, and hepatoprotective activity [5, 6]. A report by [7] documented
the potent antioxidant potential of the inflorescences
part of this plant. [8] reported on the lipid-lowering and
cardio-protective effects of V. calvoana ethanol extract
on paracetamol-induced liver toxicity in experimental
rats. Authors [9] also demonstrated the enhancing potential of this plant in acetaminophen-treated rats. Reports
from our laboratory, which served as a pilot study for this
research, showed the presence of bioactive compounds
with in vitro antioxidant activity [5, 6]. Given the reports
of this plant as highlighted above and concerns about the
side effects of available treatment options, the search for
viable alternative treatment options that are freely available and affordable is imminent. Therefore, these studies
examine the therapeutic effects of extracts of V. calvoana
on streptozotocin-induced diabetics.
2 Method
2.1 Plant collection and preparation
Garden-fresh leaves of V. calvoana were bought very
early in the day in Ugep, in Yakurr L.G.A., Cross River
State. The leaves were identified and confirmed by Dr.
Michael Eko in the University of Calabar Department
of Botany, and a specimen (BCH/VC/01) was deposited
in the Department’s herbarium. The leaves were cleaned
Page 2 of 15
and left to dry for a week before being ground into
powder.
2.2 Extraction
The pulverized leaves weighing 5 kg were extracted using
8000 ml (8.0 L) of 80% ethanol for 48 h. The extract
was filtered twice, first with a chess cloth and then with
Whatman 1 filter paper. The filtrate was concentrated to
10% by volume at 45 °C. in a rotary evaporator and then
left to dry completely in a water bath, with a black paste
(crude extract) obtained and refrigerated at − 4 °C.
2.3 Fractionation
The crude extract was chromatographically fractionated
using separate solvents (methanol and n-hexane) in a column filled with 60–120 mesh silica gel.
The fractions were combined, rotary evaporated at
60 °C to 10% of their volume, and then placed in a water
bath for complete dryness. The dried extract fractions
were labeled and kept refrigerated at 4 °C until needed
for use.
2.4 In vitro evaluation of the antioxidant activity
of n‑hexane and methanol fractions
2.4.1 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) method
Evaluation of the antioxidant activity of fractions of V.
calvoana was assessed using the DPPH scavenger assay
as described by [10]. Two mils of graded concentrations
of the fractions (10–400 g/mL each) were dissolved with
1 mL of 0.5 mM DPPH solution. The mixture was thoroughly mixed and allowed to stand at room temperature
for 30 min. The color change of DPPH was estimated by
measuring absorbance at 517 nm with ascorbic acid as a
reference standard.
Percent antioxidant activity was calculated as:
%Antioxidant Activity = 100 −
(Abs sample − Abs blank)
× 100
Abs control
where Ab is absorbance.
2.4.2 Ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) method
The scavenging activity of V. calvoana extracts was estimated using the FRAP test method as described by
[11]. Freshly prepared working solution (2 ml acetate
buffer, 2.5 ml TPTZ, and 2.5 ml FeCl 3 6H2O at a temperature of 37 °C) and 0.1 ml fractions in methanol were
mixed together and the absorbance at 593 nm after
30 min measured. Using known concentrations (100
to 1000 mol/L) of FeSO4 × 7H2O, a standard plot was
drawn and the antioxidant activity was estimated from
the known concentrations of the Fe2 + solution. Ascorbic
acid was used as a standard.
The FRAP value was estimated using the formula
Iwara et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci
FRAP value(µM) =
(2023) 12:85
Page 3 of 15
change in absorbance of room 0 − 4 min
× FRAP value of STD
Change in absorbance of STD 0 − 4 min
of 25 °C. The rats were acclimatized in the animal facility of the Department of Biochemistry for three weeks.
The extracts were administered twice daily. The rats were
divided into six groups of six animals each as follows:
FRAP value of STD = 1000 µM
2.4.3 Superoxide anion assay
Riboflavin light nitrogen blue tetrazolium (NBT) system
assay was performed for superoxide scavenging activity as described by [12]. The assay mixture contained
0.5 mL phosphate buffer (50 mM, pH 7.6), 0.3 mL riboflavin (50 mM), 0.25 mL PMS (20 mM), and 0.1 mL NBT
(0.5 mM) with the addition of 1 ml fraction in methanol.
The test mixture was illuminated with a fluorescent lamp
to initiate the reaction and the absorbance was measured
at 560 nm against a control sample. Percent inhibition of
superoxide anion generation was calculated using the following formula:
% scavenging activity =
1−
Absorbance of fraction
Absorbance of control
× 100
2.4.4 Anti-lipid peroxidation assay
The anti-lipid peroxidation assay was performed according to a modified procedure from [13]. An aliquot of egg
York homogenate (0.5 ml of 10% v/v) made up of KCl
(1.15%, w/v) and 0.1 ml extracts were mixed in a test tube
and made up with distilled water to 1 ml, then 1.5 ml 20%
acetic acid (pH adjusted to 3.5 with NaOH) and 1.5 ml
0.8% (w/v) TBA solution in 1.1% sodium dodecyl sulfate
and 0.5 ml 20% TCA was added, the resulting mixture
was vortex and then heated to 95 °C for 60 min. After
cooling, 5.0 mL of butanol was added to all tubes and
centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 10 min. The absorbance of
the supernatant was observed at 532 nm. The absorbance
of the supernatant at 532 nm was recorded. Percentage
anti-lipid peroxidation was measured by the formula:
S
× 100
% anti - lipid peroxidation = 1 −
C
where C represents the absorbance of the control, and S
represents the absorbance of the test sample.
2.5 Animal handling/design
The experimental design was approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of the Faculty of Basic Medical
Sciences with approval number 149BCM3021. In the
present study, 36 albino rats of both sexes weighing 100–
150 g separated into 6 wooden cages of 6 animals each
were used for this study. The rats were fed pellets and had
access to water ad libitum at a control room temperature
• Group 1: Normal control (NC) treated with 0.2 mL
of dimethylsulfoxide
• Group 2: Diabetic control (DC) treated with 0.2 mL
of dimethylsulfoxide.
• Group 3: Diabetic treated with 500 mg/kg b.w of
metformin.
• Group 4: Diabetic treated with 400 mg/kg b.w of
methanol fraction of V. calvoana.
• Group 5: Diabetic treated with 400 mg/kg b.w of
n-hexane fraction of V. calvoana.
• Group 6: Diabetic treated with 400 mg/kg b.w of
crude extract of V. calvoana.
2.6 Induction of diabetes
Diabetes was induced in the test animal by injection of
45 mg/kg b.w of streptozotocin (intraperitoneally) in
0.1 M sodium citrate buffer (pH 4.5), obtained from
Sigma (Steinheim, Switzerland) (14) with slight modifications. Fasting blood glucose (FBG) was recorded
using an Accu-check glucometer. Animals with a fasting
blood sugar of more than 7.8 mmol/l or 200 mg/dl were
employed for the study [14]. Before the injection of streptozotocin, animals were fasted overnight but had access
to water.
2.7 Experimental protocol
The grouping and treatment of experimental animals
were as described above. The doses administered were
as previously reported [15] and administration was twice
daily (10:00 am: 4:00 pm) via oral gastric intubation. The
treatment lasted 21 days experimental period.
2.8 Collection of samples for analysis
After the 21-day experimental period, the animals were
fasted overnight by removing food with constant access
to water. Before sacrifice, the test animal was anesthetized with chloroform vapor. Whole blood was collected
by cardiac puncture using sterilized syringes and needles.
The sample was poured into a test tube containing EDTA
for hematological analysis, while the remaining samples
were allowed to stand in an EDTA bottle at 4 °C for 2 h.
Centrifugation of the sample was carried out at 3000 rpm
for 10 min to obtain plasma from the cells. The plasma
Iwara et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci
(2023) 12:85
was separated into plain test tubes and kept refrigerated until when needed for analysis. The liver tissue was
removed and blotted with filter paper to remove blood.
Thereafter, a portion of the tissue was sliced into 10% fixative (formal saline) for histological analysis.
Page 4 of 15
the ligand to the protein of the target and their binding
affinities were estimated. Chimera 1.14 and Discovery
Studio were used for the visualization of the interactions
between the ligands and the protein.
3 Results
2.9 Biochemical analysis
3.1 Molecular docking analysis
Serum lipid parameters: TG, T CHOL, HDL-C, VLDL
and LDL, enzyme activity (ALT and AST), serum blood
glucose, electrolyte profiles, namely K+, CL−, Na+,
HCO−3, urea, and creatinine levels were determined
using assay kit by AGAPPE Diagnostic (Switzerland) as
described by the manufacturing method. The free fatty
acid concentration was determined using BioVision’s
Free Fatty Acid Quantification Kit and Lipase activity by
Fotress diagnostic kit method.
Estimation of Percentage Change in Fasting Blood
Glucose
The 3D and 2D structures, docking results of the PKF
and lipoprotein lipase co-crystallized compound, and
some compounds with the highest affinity from extract
fractions of V. calvoana are shown in Figs. 1a–c, 2a–c,
3a–c, 4a–c, and Table 1. Twenty-two compounds from
V. calvoana were docked against PFK and lipoprotein
lipase proteins. The results showed compounds from
extract fractions of V. calvoana had different degrees of
binding affinities for PKF and lipoprotein lipase depending on the change in Gibbs free energy. In the binding
of compounds from the n-hexane fraction with PFK, it
was observed that 8,9,13-trihydroxydocosanoic acid had
the highest binding energy (6.0 kcal/mol), followed by
9-methyl-z,z-10,12-hexadecadien-1-ol acetate (-5.8) and
gamma-homolinolenic acid (-5.3 kcal/mol). Also, the
binding of compounds from the methanol fraction with
PFK showed that 72–9 (e)-11-tetradecen-1-ol acetate had
the highest binding energy (-5.6 kcal/mol), followed by
sterculic acid (-5.5 kcal/mol), and then n-oleoylethanolamine (-5.4). The interaction of metformin with PFK was
observed to have a binding energy of − 5.0 kcal/mol. The
compounds (ligands) were also docked to the lipoprotein
lipase protein. From the result obtained, it became apparent that in compounds from the n-hexane fraction, it was
observed that compounds (phytol, gamma-hemolinolenic
acid, and 8,9,13-trihydroxydocosanoic acid) had different
binding values ranging from − 5.0 to 5.8 kcal/mol, which
were either higher than metformin or − 5.0. Compounds
from the methanol fraction (sterculic acid, n-oleoylethanolamine, and limonene oxide) also had varying binding
energies ranging from − 5.0 to 5.9 kcal/mol, either higher
than metformin’s − 5.0 kcal/mol. However, other compounds from the fractions also showed varying degrees
of binding affinities.
% change in FBG =
Final FBG − Initial FBG
× 100
Final FBG
2.10 Histopathology
Histological observation of the liver of the test animals
was evaluated using the differential staining method
described by [16].
2.11 Statistical analysis
Results were analyzed for statistical significance by oneway ANOVA with post hoc Tukey’s test at (p < 0.05) using
the Prism GraphPad 8 (GraphPad Software, La Jolla,
USA). All data were expressed as mean ± SEM (n = 6
replicates).
2.12 Preparation of compounds and molecular docking
analysis using PyRx
Compounds reported in our earlier study [6] were
employed for the in silico analysis. The chemical structures of these compounds and that of the co-crystallized
(standard ligand) to the protein were retrieved from
PubChem’s database (https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.
gov). The 3D structures of the protein molecules (PKF
and lipoprotein lipase) were taken from the Protein
Data Bank (www.rcsb.org). The ligand structural data
files (SDF) were downloaded and subjected to molecular docking with PKF and lipoprotein lipase protein
targets. The protein was prepared using Chimera 1.14
by removing non-essential water molecules, and nonstandard proteins, and adding hydrogen and charges. The
(SDF) formats of the ligands were minimized and converted into a Protein Database, Partial Charge (Q), and,
Atom Type (T) (PDBQT) file using the PyRx tool. Autodock Vina from PyRX [17] was used for the docking of
3.2 Effect of fractions of V. calvoana leaves on free
radical scavenging activity using DPPH, FRAP, SOD,
and anti‑lipid peroxidation methods
The findings of measuring the scavenging activity utilizing DPPH, FRAP, SOD, and anti-lipid peroxidation
techniques are shown in Fig. 5a–e. Figure 5a shows a
comparison between the antioxidants found in V. calvoana and ascorbic acid in terms of their ability to scavenge
free radicals. In comparison to the n-hexane fraction, it
was found that the methanol fraction had the strongest radical scavenging activity and was most similar to
Iwara et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci
(2023) 12:85
Page 5 of 15
Fig. 1 3D and 2D view of the molecular interactions of amino acid residues of PFK with (A) Metformin (B) 8, 9, 13-trihydroxydocosanoic acid (C)
9-methyl-z,z-10,12-hexadecadien-1-ol acetat compounds of n-hexane fraction of V. calvoana
Fig. 2 3D and 2D view of the molecular interactions of amino acid residues of PFK with (A) Metformin (B) 72–9 (e)-11-tetradecen-1-ol acetate (C)
Sterculic acid compounds of methanol fraction of V. calvoana
ascorbic acid. Additionally, the DPPH’s ability to scavenge free radicals was dose-dependent and most effective for the methanol fraction (70.03%) at 400 g/mL,
whereas n-hexane (48.97%) was compared to ascorbic
acid (77.16%). Additionally, the n-hexane fraction’s FRAP
activity was shown to be maximum at 400 g/mL (1.919%)
and strongly connected to ascorbic acid, as shown in
Fig. 5c.
In the present study, both anti-lipid peroxidation and
superoxide anion activities were also assessed. Based on
the results obtained (Fig. 5d, e), extracts from V. calvoana
showed impressive scavenging activities, with significant
Iwara et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci
(2023) 12:85
Page 6 of 15
Fig. 3 3D and 2D view of the molecular interactions of amino acid residues of LPL with (A) Metformin (B) phytol (C) 8, 9, 13-trihydroxydocosanoic
acid compounds of n-hexane fraction of V. calvoana
Fig. 4 3D and 2D view of the molecular interactions of amino acid residues of LPL with (A) Metformin (B) Sterculic acid (C) n-oleoylethanolamine
compounds of methanol fraction of V. calvoana
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Page 7 of 15
Table 1 IC50 Values of different antioxidant assays (µg/ml)
Activity
n‑hexane Methanol Standard
Superoxide radical scavenging
activity
337.6 ± 0.3 235.3 ± 0.3
Anti-lipid peroxidation
329.0 ± 0.4 158. 6 ± 0.2 37.6 ± 0.1
Ferric reducing antioxidant power
0.97 ± 0.4
0.6 ± 0.2
68.0 ± 0.2
2.0 ± 0.0
Values are means ± SD of three independent determinations. Values with
different letters in the same line are significantly different (p < 0.05)
activity observed in the methanol fraction. The activities that were seen also had a dosage dependency. A pattern comparable to that shown for DPPH was seen in
the IC50 data (Table 2) for FRAP, SOD, and anti-lipid
peroxidation.
3.3 Effect of extracts of V. calvoana and metformin
on fasting blood glucose (FBG)
In Fig. 6a–c are the results of the effect of crude extracts
of V. calvoana and metformin on FBG. As can be seen
from the result, the serum blood a significant increase
in concentration in the DC group compared to the NC
group. On treatment, a significant decrease in concentration was observed in the extract and metformin-treated
groups compared to the DC group (Fig. 6A). Also in
Fig. 6b, the percentage change in FBG was recorded with
the result showing a significant decrease in FBG of the
metformin and VC nhexane group compared to the DC
group. However, groups treated with VC crude and VC
meth recorded a significant (p < 0.increaseased in FBG
compared to the other experimental groups.
3.4 Effect of extracts of V. calvoana and metformin on liver
serum enzyme and lipase activities
The results of the effects of V. calvoana and metformin
on some liver serum enzymes (AL, AST, and AST: ALT)
are shown in Fig. 7a–c. From the result, no significant
(p > 0.05) change was observed in ALT activity in all
experimental groups (Fig. 7a). Also observed was a significant (p < 0.05) increase in AST activity of the DC group
compared to NC, which on treatment with the crude
extract, methanol, and metformin, a significant (p < 0.05)
decrease in enzyme activity was observed compared to
the DC group (Fig. 7b). Moreover, the AST: ALT ratio
enzyme activity was observed to increase significantly
(p < 0.05) the DC group compared to NC. The observed
activity was significantly decreased (p < 0.05) in groups
treated with metformin, crude extract and methanol
compared to the DC group (Fig. 7c). Pancreatic lipase
enzyme activity were significantly (p < 0.05) increased in
all experimental groups compared to DC group (Fig. 7d).
3.5 Effects of treatment on histology of liver tissue
In Fig. 8a–f, the effect of V. calvoana extracts and metformin on the cellular architecture of liver tissue is
shown. In the NC group (Fig. 8a) it was observed that the
liver tissue was preserved with a noticeable central vein
with the hepatocytes observed to radiate outwardly and
intensely stained nuclei indicating a clear cytoplasm. The
portal tract was intact with dilated sinusoid spaces. The
DC group (Fig. 8b) consisted of a conserved architectural
layer of liver cells radiating from a central vein. Reduction in the sinusoidal spaces was noticed with intact
limiting portal area and containing a bile duct, a hepatic
artery and a portal vein. When treated with extracts of
V. calvoana and metformin (Fig. 8c–f ), the hepatocytes
were seen as normal intact sinusoidal spaces and portal
tract, with the cells having abundant cytoplasm, prominent basophilic nuclei and free space around them.
3.6 Effect of extracts of V. calvoana and metformin
on electrolyte parameters
The levels of K+ were observed to increase in the experimental treatment groups when compare to the DC with
similar trend observed for sodium concentration. A significant (p < 0.05) decrease in chloride concentration in
the DC group was observed compared to other experimental groups. In addition, the urea and creatinine concentrations increased significantly in the DC groups
compared to the NC groups (p < 0.05). After treatment,
their concentrations decreased significantly (p < 0.05) in
all treated groups compared to the DC group, while the
bicarbonate level decreased significantly in the n-hexane treated group compared to DC group(p < 0.05).
(Fig. 9a-f ).
3.7 Effect of extracts of V. calvoana and metformin
on hematological parameters
White blood cell counts in the DC, metformin, and crude
extract-treated groups increased significantly (p < 0.05)
compared to the NC group and decreased compared to
the DC group. In addition, it was observed that MCV
and PLT concentrations increased significantly (p < 0.05)
in the extract-treated groups compared to the DC group
(Tables 3 and 4).
3.8 Effect of extracts of V. calvoana and metformin on lipid
parameters and free fatty acid levels
It was found that the TC and LDL-C concentrations
increased significantly in the DC group compared to the
NC group (p < 0.05). When treated, a decrease in TC concentration was observed in all treated groups compared
to the DC group (Fig. 10a, e). More so, TG, HDL-C, and
VLDL-C concentrations showed a significant increase
(p < 0.05) in all experimental treated groups compared to
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(2023) 12:85
Page 8 of 15
Fig. 5 Estimation of in vitro antioxidant activity of extracts of VC. A DPPH B IC50 of DPPH C FRAP D anti-lipid peroxidation E superoxide radical.
Data are represented as mean ± SD. N = 3
Table 2 Binding affinities (∆G in kcal/mol) of PFK and LPL with bioactive components of V. calvoana (∆G Energy (Kcal/mol)
Compound name
CID Numbers
Binding Affinity (kcal/mol)
PFK
LPL
Methanol
Valeric acid
7991
− 3.3
− 4.2
Isovaleric acid
10430
− 3.7
− 4.4
Cycloheptatriene;
11000
− 3.4
− 4.5
Sterculic acid
12921
− 5.5
− 5.9
Limonene oxide
91496
− 3.5
− 5.4
Trans-vaccenic acid
5281127
− 3.5
− 5.1
72–9 (e)-11-tetradecen-1-ol acetate
5367650
− 5.6
− 4.9
N,n-bis(3-methylbutyl)hydroxylamine
88536504
− 3.6
− 5.0
N-oleoylethanolamine
5283454
− 5.4
− 5.6
Z-4-nonadecen-1-ol acetate
5363395
− 3.6
− 5.4
1,26-hexacosanediol
16747787
− 3.3
− 4.7
Palmitic acid
985 − 4.8
− 5.3
Furfuryl alcohol
7361
− 3.5
− 4.0
Phytol
5280435
− 3.7
− 5.8
Υ-homolinolenic acid
5280581
− 5.3
− 5.4
9-methyl-z,z-10,12-hexadecadien-1-ol acetate
5363214
− 5.8
− 5.4
Trans-2-tridecen-1-ol
5364949
− 3.3
− 5.0
9,12,15-octadecatrien-1-ol
5367327
− 3.6
− 5.4
Stearic acid
5281
− 4.8
− 5.1
Nonadecane
12401
− 3.2
− 4.9
8,9,13-trihydroxydocosanoic acid
99112
− 6.0
− 5.6
Metformin (standard)
4091
− 5.0
− 5.0
n‑hexane
Iwara et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci
(2023) 12:85
Page 9 of 15
(A)
(B)
Serum blood glucose (mg/dl)
200
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Fig. 6 a, b Serum blood glucose (A) and % changes in fasting blood glucose (B) after 21 days administration of extract of HC and metformin
in diabetic rat models. NC: Normal control; DC: Diabetic control; MET: Metformin, VC crude: V. calvoana crude, VC meth: V. calvoana Methanol and VC
nhexane: V. calvoana n-hexane. Data are represented as mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05 versus NC and.ap < 0.05 versus DC. n = 6
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nh
VC
VC
m
et
h
de
in
cr
u
rm
fo
et
M
VC
C
D
C
N
C
0
0
N
0
Fig. 7 Liver enzyme activity after 21 days administration of extract of HC and metformin in diabetic rat models. A AST B ALT and C ALT: AST. D
Pancreatic lipase enzyme. NC: Normal control; DC, Diabetic control; MET, Metformin, VC crude: V. calvoana crude, VC meth: V. calvoana Methanol
and VC nhexane: V. calvoana n hexane. Data are represented as mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05 versus NC and.ap < 0.05 versus DC. n = 6
the DC group (Fig. 10b–d). Free fatty acid concentration
was significantly (p < 0.05) decreased in all experimental
groups compared to the DC group (Fig. 10f ).
4 Discussion
In our previous studies, GC–MS analysis of fractions of V.
calvoana indicated the presence of bioactive compounds
with possible antidiabetic and antioxidant activities and
may be suggested to be responsible for these observed
biological activities [5, 6]. In the present study, the molecular interactions of the bioactive compounds present in
the fractions of V. calvoana were first evaluated against
human phosphofructokinase (PFK) and lipoprotein
lipase (LPL) crystal structure proteins using molecular
docking analyses with further validation of this activity
with biological analysis. The compounds from fractions
of V. calvoana showed varying binding affinities for the
target proteins, with some of the compounds exhibiting
a docking score that was either equal to or higher than
that of metformin. Phosphofructokinase plays a central
role as it is considered to be the pacemaker enzyme of the
signaling pathway [18]. It plays a rate-limiting role as it
acts as an indicator of the glycolysis pathway, which is the
main pathway of glucose utilization, and thus could affect
glycemic control. [19, 20] reported that metformin maintains the inhibition of PFK in skeletal muscle, liver, and
adipose tissue and also reverses its down-regulation and
intracellular distribution in the heart of diabetic mice.
Pancreatic lipoprotein lipase independently regulates
islet glucose metabolism and normal insulin secretion. It
catalyzes the partial hydrolysis of core triglycerides from
chylomicrons and VLDL to monoglycerides and fatty
Iwara et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci
(2023) 12:85
Page 10 of 15
Fig. 8 Photomicrographs of liver tissue. A Normal control B diabetic control C metformin D crude extract E methanol group and F n hexane group.
(× 400)
acids [21]. Metformin is known to increase bulk serum
lipoprotein lipase (LPL) levels [22]. The observed high
docking score of V. calvoana bioactive compounds compared to metformin suggests extracts of V. calvoana may
present an alternative therapeutic agent in the management of diabetic and associated cardiovascular disease.
Oxidation by lipid peroxidation is believed to play
a crucial role in the pathogenesis of diabetes mellitus.
DNA and protein damage leads to the development of
diabetes and its associated complications [23]. In recent
years, the search for bioactive constituents with biological activities has been on the increase due to their possible therapeutic use in the management of numerous
chronic and infectious diseases. In exploring for new
medicinal plant with therapeutic efficacy, within the
ongoing research, we carried out investigations on the
in vitro antioxidant activities of extracts of V. calvoana
due to the diverse nature of free radicals; we tested V.
calvoana extracts against numerous reactive oxygen species radicals to demonstrate their antioxidant activity
through different mechanisms The antioxidant properties
of the extracts are initially assessed based on their ability to scavenge free radicals DPPH. It is a stable free radical that easily accepts an electron and is converted into a
stable molecule [24]. In this study, it was observed that
extracts from methanol had a higher scavenging potential against DPPH compared to n-hexane. Furthermore,
this observed scavenging property was dose-dependent
and most effective at a higher concentration.
In addition, the reducing power of the extracts was
evaluated using the FRAP test, which serves as an indicator of their antioxidant potential. The result of this study
thus showed a remarkable difference in the activity of
the extracts, with the n-hexane fraction showing greater
activity against iron radicals compared to methanol.
This indicates the ability of the extract to reduce Fe3 + to
Fe2 + by donating electrons and this can be attributed to
the bioactive components present in this plant that we
previously reported, which can serve as electron donors.
(2023) 12:85
Page 11 of 15
(A)
(B)
6
100
50
e
V
C
nh
ex
an
et
h
de
an
e
et
h
V
C
nh
ex
m
V
C
fo
M
et
nh
V
C
de
in
N
C
an
e
et
h
ex
m
V
C
cr
u
de
in
et
M
V
C
V
C
C
D
fo
rm
ex
N
C
an
e
et
h
0
nh
V
C
m
cr
u
de
in
V
C
C
D
M
et
fo
rm
C
m
20
0.0
N
V
C
40
cr
u
0
0.5
a
C
10
a
D
20
*
60
1.0
Urea(µmol/l)
Creatinine (µmol/l)
Bicarbonate(µmol/l)
*
30
in
(F)
80
1.5
40
V
C
fo
M
et
nh
V
C
(E)
50
cr
u
N
C
an
e
et
h
ex
m
V
C
cr
u
V
C
fo
M
et
nh
V
C
(D)
de
in
C
rm
N
D
C
e
0
ex
m
an
et
h
de
cr
u
V
C
V
C
C
D
et
fo
rm
M
N
in
0
C
0
2
V
C
20
*
4
C
40
150
rm
60
8
rm
Sodium (mg/dl)
Chloride(mg/dl)
80
(C)
200
Potassium(md/dl)
100
D
Iwara et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci
Fig. 9 Electrolytes parameters concentration after 21 days administration of extract of HC and metformin in diabetic rat models. A Chloride B
Sodium C Potassium D Bicarbonate E Creatinine F Urea Normal control; DC, Diabetic control; MET, Metformin, VC crude: V. calvoana crude, VC meth:
V. calvoana Methanol and VC nhexane: V. calvoana n hexane. Data are represented as mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05 versus NC and.ap < 0.05 versus DC. n = 6
Table 3 Effect of crude extract, methanol, n-hexane fractions of V.C leaves and metformin Hematological parameters in different
experimental groups
Grouping
PLT
WBC (X103/µl)
RBC (X103/µl)
HGB (g/dl)
HCT (%)
MCV (fl)
MCHC (dl)
MCH (Pg)
NC
12.03 ± 1.03
7.97 ± 0.57
14.40 ± 0.55
47.93 ± 1.57
60.78 ± 4.78
30.13 ± 1.56
18.16 ± 0.63
712 ± 56.58
DC
17.63 ± 1.92*
8.05 ± 0.25
14.66 ± 0.27
48.13 ± 1.58
59.76 ± 0.40
30.50 ± 0.45
18.26 ± 0.24
737 ± 99.34
MET
15.16 ± 2.16*a
7.73 ± 0.21
14.93 ± 0.54
47.53 ± 1.33
61.43 ± 03.17
31.49 ± 0.51
19.36 ± 0.41
744 ± 75.80
VC crude
18.32 ± 9.46*
7.93 ± 0.98
14.13 ± 1.27
43.76 ± 4.77*a
55.63 ± 1.22*
32.43 ± 0.79*a
18.12 ± 0.83
426 ± 87.12*a.b
VC meth
a
14.18 ± 0.50
43.53 ± 2.06*
a
57.73 ± 1.32*
a
18.73 ± 0.40
893 ± 38.49*a.b
40.06 ± 2.33*
a
a
18.06 ± 0.61
VC nhexane
10.91 ± 0.15
7.53 ± 0.31
a
12.13 ± 1.48
7.25 ± 0.39
13.06 ± 0.34
55.30 ± 0.79*
32.43 ± 0.43*
32.73 ± 1.05*
822.33 ± 40.35*a,b
Values are Mean ± SEM. NC, Normal control; DC: Diabetic control; MET: Metformin, V.C crude; Vernonia calvoana crude, VC meth: Vernonia calvoana methanol and VC
n-hexane: Vernonia calvoana n hexane. Data are represented as mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05 versus NC and ap < 0.05 versus DC. n = 6
Table 4 Effects of the extract of VC leaves on differential White
blood cell count in the different experimental groups
Grouping
LYMP (× 103/ul)
MXD (× 103/ul)
NEU (× 103/ul)
2.10 ± 0.43
NC
9.40 ± 0.81
0.53 ± 0.14
DC
13.83 ± 1.29*
1.00 ± 0.14*
2.80 ± 0.43
MET
10.96 ± 1.61*a
0.63 ± 0.13*
3.56 ± 0.78
VC crude
12.20 ± 5.34*a
0.93 ± 0.78*
5.16 ± 3.37*a
a
a
VC meth
8.93 ± 0.03
0.26 ± 0.03
1.70 ± 0.11
VC nhexane
9.23 ± 1.25a
0.46 ± 0.03a
2.43 ± 0.23
Values are Mean ± SEM. NC, Normal control; DC: Diabetic control; MET:
Metformin, V.C crude; Vernonia calvoana crude, VC meth: Vernonia calvoana
methanol and VC n-hexane: Vernonia calvoana n hexane. Data are represented as
mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05 versus NC and ap < 0.05 versus DC. n = 6
Superoxide radicals are very damaging to biological
materials and also serve as a precursor for the generation of various reactive oxygen species [25], and can also
cause the generation of H2O2 in the biological system
through a dismutation reaction. Medicinal plant extracts
are composed of numerous components that scavenge
free radicals and may act synergistically in scavenging
free radicals in a range of oxidative stress and diseases
such as diabetes [26]. The experimental finding showed
that extracts from V. calvoana exhibited remarkable
scavenging activities against superoxide anion and lipid
peroxidation, with marked activities being observed in
the methanol fraction. The observed activities were also
Iwara et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci
(2023) 12:85
Page 12 of 15
Fig. 10 Lipid parameters concentration after 21 days administration of extract of HC and metformin in diabetic rat models. A T-Chol B TG and C
HDL-C D VLDL-C E LDL-C F Free fatty acid. NC Normal control; DC Diabetic control; MET Metformin, VC crude V. calvoana crude, VC meth: V. calvoana
Methanol and VC nhexane: V. calvoana n hexane. Data are represented as mean ± SEM. *p < 0.05 versus NC and.ap < 0.05 versus DC. n = 6
dose-dependent and may be attributed to the bioactive
compounds present in these plant extracts.
Injection of streptozotocin caused diabetes mellitus,
probably due to the destruction of cells in the islets of
Langerhans in the pancreas [27]. This leads to excessive
glucose production and reduction in tissue utilization
which forms the basis of hyperglycemia in diabetes mellitus. In this study, induction of diabetes with streptozotocin resulted in an increase in the test animal’s fasting
blood glucose level compared to the control. The elevated
blood glucose levels observed in the study are consistent
with reports from several researchers that STZ-induced
diabetes mellitus leads to elevated blood glucose levels [27]. However, the reduction in serum blood glucose
observed after treatment with V. calvoana extracts further confirms our previous study on this plant, [5] attributed the anti-hyperglycemic activity of this plant to the
presence of a bioactive component in the plant.
Diabetes is considered the commonest cause of liver
disease and is believed to play a significant role in the
cause of death in people with type 2 diabetes [28]. Liver
tissue plays an important role in glucose metabolism,
including glucose uptake, storage, and synthesis. Distributed in the liver are transaminase enzymes (including ALT, AST, and GGT) that synthesize and break down
some amino acids to derive energy from these stored
molecules. Changes in enzymatic activities such as AST,
ALT, and ALP in diabetics are of physiological and clinical importance [29]. In this study, it was observed that
induction of diabetes with streptozotocin in rats significantly increased AST and ALT activity indicating liver
damage. When treated with extracts of V. calvoana and
metformin, however, a significant decrease in the activities of these enzymes was observed indicating a possible
hepato-protective effect of these plant extracts against
diabetes-induced hepatotoxicity. The findings from this
study corroborated with the report by [5] who documented that this plant has a protective effect against paracetamol-induced liver damage in rats. The functional
integrity of liver tissue can be assessed based on the histological integrity of liver tissue [30].
Streptozotocin-induced diabetes in rats led to a disorganized liver architecture in this investigation, which is
comparable with the report of [30] on the liver’s integrity in diabetic rats. Therefore, the increase in serum
liver enzyme concentrations that was previously noted in
this investigation coincides with the observed alteration
in the integrity of the liver cells. However, the disrupted
architecture of hepatocytes gradually recovered after
being treated with metformin and V. calvoana extracts.
Hypertriglyceridemia and other lipoprotein alterations that support atherosclerosis occur as a result of
decreased lipoprotein lipase activity and decreased
breakdown of triacylglycerol-rich lipoproteins in diabetic
circumstances. Low levels of circulating LPL and low LPL
protein mass have also been linked to insulin resistance
[21]. The loss of the insulin-producing pancreatic beta
cell caused a significant increase in the serum pancreatic
Iwara et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci
(2023) 12:85
lipase enzyme activity in this study when diabetes was
induced by streptozotocin. Several studies have reported
elevated lipase activity in subjects with type 2 diabetes
[31] All experimental groups that received V. calvoana
extract showed an increase in pancreatic lipase enzyme
activity, suggesting that this extract may have the ability
to promote the circulation of these enzymes and potential repair of pancreatic cell integrity.
Diabetes leads to elevated blood sugar levels, which
leads to a loss of body fluids and electrolytes. Poor retention of body fluids and electrolytes in diabetics is often
compounded by the underlying use of conventional medications to treat diabetes and renal failure [32], which
can lead to changes in electrolyte homeostasis. These
alterations in sodium and potassium levels may be pathophysiologic and clinically characteristic of diabetes. In
this present study, the levels of K+, Na+, and CL− were
observed to slightly increase in the experimental treatment group. The observed change in electrolyte levels
in animals treated with an extract of V. calvoana and
metformin correlates with a finding earlier reported by
[33] on the effect of Vernonia amygdalina on diabetic
animals.
High levels of urea and creatinine have been implicated
in the development of insulin resistance. The impairment
of creatinine and urea are the indicators of chronic kidney disease in diabetic subjects [34]. The result from this
study indicated a significant reduction in the urea and
creatinine concentration which may be suggestive that
this plant has the ability to ameliorate chronic kidney disease which is an associated complication of diabetes mellitus. However, [35] documented that while the change in
electrolyte imbalance is noticeable in diabetics, no actual
cause can be given for body fluids and electrolytes.
Diabetes mellitus is one of the important secondary
causes of dyslipidemia since the atherogenic combination
of high triacylglycerol, high low-density lipoprotein, and
reduced high-density lipoprotein concentration is known
to play a role in diabetics [36]. However, from this study,
it was observed that triacylglycerol and high-density lipoprotein were present in a significant concentration in all
experimentally treated animals. This indicates the ability
of these plant extracts to ameliorate dyslipidemia conditions associated with the diabetic condition as a result of
increasing levels of high-density lipoprotein, which aids
in the transport of lipids from cells.
One of the illnesses that are more frequently linked
to diabetes mellitus is anemia [37]. Due to the kidneys’
failure to produce enough erythropoietin, reports have
shown a link between the development of anemia and a
lack of renal clearance in diabetes illness. Additionally,
studies have associated hyperglycemia-induced nonenzymatic glycosylation of RBC membrane proteins with
Page 13 of 15
an increase in anemia in diabetics [38]. In this investigation, there was no discernible difference between the
experimental groups given plant extract treatment and
NC in terms of RBC, HGB, HCT, MCHC, and MCH
levels. The creation of diabetes was found to greatly
enhance platelet count, nevertheless. [39] asserts that
hypertriglyceridemia and hyperglycemia increase platelet
reactivity by directly simulating the glycation of platelet
proteins. And the combination of insulin resistance and
insulin insufficiency makes this worse. [40] It has been
proposed that giving insulin to diabetic patients may
possibly limit platelet activity. In order to improve metabolic control, medications that can also improve insulin
sensitivity and preserve pancreatic cell function are likely
to decrease platelet reactivity and enhance the effects
of antiplatelet medications. According to this study’s
findings, therapy with a V. calvoana extract dramatically decreased levels of platelet count, which is consistent with an earlier proposal made by [41]. As oxidative
stress intensifies this impact by decreasing NO activity
and encouraging platelet activation, this suggests that
extracts from this plant may be linked to a decrease in
platelet aggregation through the antioxidant function of
the plant.
5 Conclusion
In this study, the therapeutic effects of V. calvoana
extract fractions on streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats
were evaluated. First, we investigated the binding affinity of metformin and compounds from extracts of V.
calvoana to the binding domains of human phosphofructokinase and lipoprotein lipase and further validated our
results with in vitro and in vivo biochemical assessments.
From this, it can be concluded that extract fractions of V.
calvoana possess the ability to prevent the occurrence of
hyperglycemia and may be exploited in the management
of diabetes and it associated complications.
Abbreviations
V. C
V. calvoana
PFK
Phosphofructokinase
LPL
Lipoprotein lipase
DPPh
2,2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl
FRAP
Ferric reducing antioxidant power
SOD
Super oxide demutase
LPx
Lipid peroxidation
WHO
World Health Organization
BCH
Biochemistry
NBT
Nitrpgen blue tetraolium
TCHOL
Total cholesterol
TG
Triacylglycerol
HDL-C
High density lipoprotein cholesterol
VLDL-C Very low density lipoproteins cholesterol
LDL-C
Low density lipoproteins
AST
Aspartate amino transferase
ALT
Alanine amino transferase
Iwara et al. Beni-Suef Univ J Basic Appl Sci
K+
CL−
Na+
HCO−3
ANOVA
SDF
PDBQT
FBG
DC
NC
MCV
GGT
MCHC
HCT
MCH
RBC
HGB
PLT
(2023) 12:85
Page 14 of 15
Potassium
Chloride
Sodium
Hydrogen bicarbonate
Analysis of variance
Structural data files
Protein Database, Partial Charge (Q) and Atom Type (T)
Fasting blood glucose
Diabetic control
Normal control
Mean corpuscular volume
Gamma-glutamy transferase
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration
Hematocrit
Mean corpuscular hemoglobin
Red blood cell
Hemoglobin
Platelet
4.
Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Professor Patrick Ekong Ebong of the Department
of Biochemistry, University of Calabar, Nigeria, for making available the facilities in his Endocrine and Phytomedicine Laboratory for successful completion
of this research work.
10.
Author contributions
IAI contributed to conceptualization and investigation; VSE contributed to
conceptualization; GOI contributed to supervision, methodology, and validation. JEE contributed to methodology. EOM contributed to formal analysis
and roles/writing—original draft. MOO contributed to roles/writing—original
draft. FEU contributed to resources and writing—review and editing. MEU
contributed to project administration, validation, and resources. OEE contributed to project administration.
12.
Funding
Not applicable.
15.
Availability of data and materials
Not applicable.
16.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
11.
13.
14.
17.
Declarations
Ethics approval and consent to participate
The experimental design was approved by the Animal Ethics Committee of
the Faculty of Basic Medical Sciences with approval number 149BCM3021.
Consent to participate is not applicable.
Consent for publication
Not applicable.
18.
19.
20.
Competing interests
The authors declare no competing interests.
21.
Received: 4 May 2023 Accepted: 12 September 2023
22.
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