PRIMATES,35(1): 1-14, January 1994
1
Seasonal Change in the Composition of the Diet of
Eastern Lowland Gorillas
JUICH! YAMAGIWA, Kyoto University
NDUNDA MWANZA, Centre de Recherches en Sciences Naturelles
TAKAKAZU YUMOTO, Kobe University
and TAMAKI MARUHASHI, Musashi University
ABSTRACT. Details are presented of the composition of the diet of eastern lowland gorillas, derived
mainly from a study of their fresh trails and fecal analysis, during the course of an entire year in the
tropical lowland forests of the Itebero region, Zaire. Gorillas ate 194 plant foods from 121 species
and 45 families. They consumed 48 species of fruits; and 89~ of fecal samples contained fruit seeds,
but fruits were a relatively small part (25070) of the total number of food items. The composition of
their diet changed seasonally. When consumption of fruit decreased in the long rainy and the long
dry seasons, the gorillas ate, in addition to Zingiberaceae and Marantaceae, many kinds of leaf and
bark, which may be an important buffer against the shortage of fruits. Gorillas also fed regularly
on ants (Ponerinae), and the frequency of consumption showed small seasonal variations. From a
comparison of diet composition, eastern lowland gorillas appeared to be intermediate between the
other two subspecies. The choice of food showed differences in preference of fruits and insects
between subspecies and may reflect high similarities within subspecies in lowland and montane
forests.
Key Words: Diet; Seasonal change; Frugivory; Insectivory; Gorilla gorilla graueri.
INTRODUCTION
Primate species that live in a variety of habitats show variations in the composition of
their diet. Data from a single population may be atypical of the species as a whole and may
obscure generalizations that are necessary for inter-species comparisons. Variety in respect
to diet differs widely between populations as a direct result of differences in the availability
of particular foods (CLUTTON-BROCK,1977). By contrast, a high similarity in the choice of
particular foods is always found between local populations within species, and a comparison of diets a m o n g local populations helps us to reconstruct details of the previous
differentiation and dispersal of the species (UEHARA, 1977).
Gorillas live in a wide range of habitats in Equatorial Africa and have been classified
into three subspecies, namely, western lowland gorillas (Gorilla gorilla gorilla), eastern
lowland gorillas (G. g. grauerl), and mountain gorillas (G. g. beringet). The former two
subspecies inhabit both lowland and montane forests, and the latter inhabits higher
montane forests. From a comparison of their morphological traits, it appears that
G. g. graueri is intermediate between the other two subspecies (GRovEs, 1967; CORBET,
1967; GOODALL & GROVES, 1977). From the sizes of males, GROVES (1970) noted that
G. g. gorilla was the smallest and G. g. graueri was the largest of the three subspecies, and
HARCOURT et al. (1981) suggested that this order of male size matches the median group
size in the range of distribution of each species.
2
J. YAMAGIWAet al.
Most of the information available about the ecology of gorillas comes from mountain
gorillas that live in the small, isolated habitat of the Virunga Volcanoes. Mountain gorillas
are regarded as relatively specialized, terrestrial folivores (SCHALLER,1963; FOSSEY, 1974;
FOSSEY & HARCOURT, 1977; Vedder, 1984; WATTS, 1984). With the exception of bamboo
shoots, the availability of particular plant foods does not appear to change throughout the
year. The gorillas eat insects deliberately but such insectivory is infrequent and is not necessary for meeting their nutritional needs (HARCOURT8r HARCOURT, 1984; WATTS, 1989).
Recent studies of western lowland gorillas indicate that these gorillas eat a great variety
of fruits (SABATERPI, 1977; TUTIN & FERNANDEZ,1985; WILL1AMSONet al., 1990; ROGERS
et al., 1990; NISHIHARA, 1992). Gorillas range in both secondary regenerating forests and
mature primary forests (JONES& SABATERPI, 1971; TUT1N & FERNANDEZ,1984), and they
tend to feed regularly on insects, such as termites and ants (TUTIN & FERNANDEZ,1983,
1992; CARROLL, 1986; NISHIHARA& KURODA, 1991). Western lowland gorillas may exploit
a broad frugivorous niche, as do chimpanzees in West Africa.
Unlike the other two subspecies, eastern lowland gorillas have been rather poorly characterized. Gorillas inhabiting montane forests of the Kahuzi region have recently been classified as G. g. graueri (CASIMIR, 1975; GROVES & STOTT, 1979). Gorillas in this region are
regarded as folivores, although they eat large amounts of fruits seasonally (CASIMIR, 1975;
GOODALL, 1977). The variety of types of vegetation in the Kahuzi region and the seasonal
variation in the distribution of particular foods, such as fruits and bamboo shoots, may
be the cause of their longer travel distances and the larger size of their home ranges, as
compared to those of mountain gorillas (CASIMIR& BUTENANDT, 1973; CASIMIR, 1975;
GOODALL, 1977; YAMAGIWA,1983). Eastern lowland gorillas inhabiting lowland forests
also range in various types of vegetation (MWANZAet al., 1992). They have a more conspicuously frugivorous diet than gorillas in montane forests and they also tend to feed regularly
on insects, as do western lowland gorillas (YAMAGIWAet al., 1991, 1992). Such frugivory
and insectivory may possibly enlarge the breadth of their diet and act to extend their daily
travel distances. However, the limited available information about their diet prevents us
from making far-reaching comparisons of the ecology of the three subspecies. This report
presents, for the first time, the composition of the diet of eastern lowland gorillas in
lowland forests. Seasonal changes in the composition of their diet are described, and their
choice of food is compared within and among subspecies.
STUDY AREA AND METHODS
The survey was conducted in the Itebero region, Zaire (Fig. 1). The study area is located
at an altitude of 600 to 1300 m, and it has been protected since 1980 as an extension of
Kahuzi-Biega National Park. It is covered with tropical forests, which include primary
forest, secondary forest, ancient secondary forest, abandoned cultivated fields and swamps.
High stands of trees, such as Gilbertiodendron dewevrei, Staudtia gabonensis, Michelsonia microphylla, and Cynometra alexandri, are frequently found together with scarce
ground vegetation in the primary forest. Musanga cecropioides and herbaceous plants,
such as Zingiberaceae or Marantaceae, are found in gaps in the forest, beside ravines and
along rivers. Secondary forests are characterized by Musanga cecropioides and Macaranga
spinosa with densely distributed herbaceous plants. Several, small, cultivated fields,
surrounded by secondary forest, were abandoned by the local people prior to 1985. Palm
trees (Elaeis guineensis) are frequently found in these areas. Ancient secondary forests were
Diet of Eastern Lowland Gorilla
3
=
ZAIRE
N
1
0 1 ]00
~ , E~rd
KAHUZI-BIEGAEpGA}"'''",{,
Tang"""
200kin ~Laken ....
Fig. 1. Map showing the Kahuzi-Biega National Park in eastern Zaire. The black area and the dotted
area show the original part of the Park (montane forests) and the extension of the Park (tropical
forests), respectively. The black circle show the study area of the Itebero region.
produced as a result of deforestation by a mineral company in the colonial era and subsequent successional reforestation. Ficus sur, Uapaca guineensis, and Celtis brieyi are
c o m m o n l y found in this forest. Halopegia azurea is one of the dominant herbaceous
plants, and Uapaca corbisieri is occasionally found in swamps. By reference to the annual
rainfall records of the Meteorological Station near Mt. Kahuzi, a year in the study area can
be divided into four seasons: the long rainy season, M a r c h - J u n e ; the long dry season,
J u n e - S e p t e m b e r ; the short rainy season, S e p t e m b e r - D e c e m b e r ; and the short dry
season, D e c e m b e r - March.
Data were collected intermittently from 1987 to 1991 (Table 1). The periods during which
we collected fresh samples of gorillas' feces cover 11 months. March was not sampled, and
only one month, October, was sampled twice. We found at least ten groups of gorillas and
nine solitary males in 1987 within the study area, which covered an area of 340 km 2. The
density of the population was estimated to be 0.27 - 0.32 gorillas/km 2. Gorillas in this area
did not tolerate the presence of humans because of the previous high incidence of hunting.
Low visibility in the tropical forest also prevented us from observing gorillas. Therefore,
data cited here are mostly derived from fresh fecal samples (up to 1 day old) and fresh
feeding signs (up to 2 days old) collected on the gorillas' fresh trails. Since the size of dung
Table 1. Study period and trail evidences.
No. of days on which trail evidence was collected
Period
Feeding signs*
Fecal samples**
A p r - May 1991
23
28
J u l - A u g 1987
20
31
J u n - Jul 1991
Short rainy
S e p t - Oct 1987
34
38
O c t - Nov 1989
Short rainy
Dec 1989-Feb 1990
41
37
*Number of days on which fresh trails (up to 2 days old) were followed for more than 100 m; **number of days
on which flesh fecal samples (up to 1 day old) were collected.
Season
Long rainy
Long dry
4
J. YAMAGIWAet al.
balls is correlated with the gorilla's age (SCHALLER,1963), we measured the diameter of
flesh feces left by gorillas on their trails and inside or beside beds at each bed site. In order
to avoid overlapping of samples, we collected one fecal sample from each night bed and
a few fecal samples on the trails per day. We allocated the feces by reference to size to five
age-sex classes (infant: less than 3 cm in diameter; immature: 3 - 5 cm; subadult and adult:
5 - 7 cm; silverback male: more than 7 cm).
Feces collected in the field were washed in 1-mm mesh sieves, dried in sun-lightand stored
in plastic bags. The contents o f each sample were divided into seeds, fruit skins, fiber,
leaves, fragments of insects, and other matter. Large seeds were counted. Small seeds, fiber,
and leaves were rated as being abundant, common, or rare. Samples of seeds and insects
were preserved in 10% ethanol. Plant specimens were identified at the National Botanical
Garden in Belgium.
To define the forest's structure, we made a belt transect of 10 m in width and 8,000 m
in length, and every tree above 10 cm in diameter at breast height (DBH) was recorded. We
also made a short transect (2 m in width and 50 m in length) and counted the number of
other plants of each type.
RESULTS
COMPOSITION OF THE D I E T
Appendix 1 lists all the plant species consumed by gorillas at least twice during the study
periods in the Itebero region. Gorillas were found to eat 194 foods from at least 121 plant
species that represent 45 families (Table 2). The list of food items come from 50 tree species,
12 shrubs, 23 vines, 20 herbs, 4 palms, 8 epiphytes, 2 ferns, and 2 grass species. More than
one third (38%) of the total tree species (132 species) above 10 cm in D B H were used for
food by gorillas. A m o n g them, 11 species are listed among the 20 species that were presented at the highest densities in the belt transect. Staudtia gabonensis, Polyalthia suaveolens,
Gilbertiodendron dewevrei, Diospyros hoyleana, and Pycnanthus angolensis were among
the ten species present at highest densities.
Plant parts eaten by gorillas were divided into fruit/seed (48 species), leaf (79 species),
pith/stem/twig (39 species), bark (17 species), root (10 species), and rotten trunk (1 species,
Table 2). Most kinds of fruit (71%) and bark (71%) eaten by gorillas were from trees. About
half (46%) the kinds of pith were from herbs. Seeds of Gilbertiodendron dewevrei and the
rotten trunk of Maranthes glabra were also eaten. Fragments o f petioles, epithelium from
roots, galls, tendrils, and fungus were detected in the feces.
Table 2. Number of species per plant form per plant part eaten by gorillas in the Itebero region, Zaire.
Total*
Plant form
Fruit/seed
Leaf
Pith/stem/twig
Bark
Tree
Shrub
Vine
Herb
Other
34
2
2
7
3
28
12
21
5
13
6
3
4
18
8
12
1
3
0
1
Root
5
0
1
4
0
Other
1
0
0
0
0
Sp.
50
12
23
20
16
86
18
31
34
25
Total
48
79
39
17
10
1
121
194
*Total shows number of species per plant form (Sp.) and number of species x parts (Parts).
Parts
Diet of Eastern Lowland Gorilla
5
Table 3. Number of plant species of which a given number of different parts was eaten by gorillas.
No. of parts eaten
Life form
1
2
3
4
Total
Tree
Shrub
Vine
Herb
Other
27
7
15
12
7
14
4
8
4
9
5
1
0
2
0
4
0
0
2
0
50
12
23
20
16
Total
68
39
8
6
121
From most (88~ of the plant species eaten, gorillas ate two or fewer different parts
(Table 3). Most of the plant species of which gorillas ate more than three parts were trees
and herbs. They ate four different parts of some tree species, namely, Ficus sur, Pentadesma
lebrunii, Symphonia globulifera, and Uapaca guineensis, and o f some herbs, namely,
Aframomum laurentii and Megaphryniurn macrostachyum.
Most feces (89.0~ of a total o f 327 fecal samples) included seeds of fruits; 33.6070 included rare and 25.4070 included abundant fruit seeds, and all the feces included fibers or
fragments of leaves. These seeds were swallowed whole by gorillas. The seeds of Gilbertiodendron dewevrei and Klainedoxa gabonensis were found as fragments in feces and seemed
to have been crushed by the gorillas' teeth.
Most parts of shrubs, vines, herbs, and other plant species were eaten on the ground.
Large number o f feeding signs, in the case of Aframomum laurentii and Halopegia azurea,
for example, were found on the gorillas' trails in valleys and swamps. Leaves and bark of
Landolphia owariensis, Urera hyposelodendron, Celtis brieyi, Ficus spp., Myrianthus
arboreus, and Uapaca spp., were sometimes eaten in trees. Fruits of trees were eaten both
on the ground and in trees, and leaves, barks, stems or roots were eaten from immature
trees on the ground. Leaves of Pycnanthus angolensis were the most frequently eaten
food item in primary and ancient secondary forests. Fallen ripe fruits, such as those of
Anonidium mannii and Klainedoxa gabonensis, were eaten on the ground, and fruits of
Dialium polyanthum, Ficus sur, Gambeya lacouritiana, and Uapaca guineensis were eaten
in trees. Immature gorillas were occasionally observed to climb up to more than 20 m above
the ground to eat fruits of Dialium polyanthum and Canarium schweinfurthii. About half
(42070) of the 375 night beds were found in trees. In primary forest, 25~ of the beds were
found 10 - 30 m above the ground in trees. Gorillas in this area must be excellent climbers.
About 38070 of total fecal samples included fragments of insects: 31070 included ants, 4070
included termites, and 3070 included other insects. Most of the fragments found in feces
were chitinous, such as heads, mandibles or legs, that had not been digested during their
passage through the gorillas' intestines. The amount of insect remains in each fecal sample
was always very small. The ants collected at the feeding sites were identified as Ponerinae,
which form relatively small colonies of 10 to 1,000 adults ( H O L L D O B L E R & W I L S O N , 1990).
Most of the termites consumed by gorillas were Cubitermes sp. These termites build gray,
earthen mounds against living tree trunks. No evidence was found to suggest that the
gorillas used tools to acquire insects. The mounds seemed to be destroyed manually by the
gorillas, as reported for western lowland gorillas in G a b o n (TtJTIN & FERNANDEZ, 1983).
The other insects found in feces were larvae, bees, and caterpillars and were probably
ingested inadvertently with vegetable matter.
Field signs showed that gorillas collected ants by scratching or digging in the soil. All
the ant-feeding sites were found in primary or ancient secondary forests on ridges or slopes.
6
J. YAMAGIWAet al.
SEASONAL VARIATIONS
The composition of the gorilla's diet changed seasonally. Less than half (40%) of the
plant species used for food were eaten by gorillas in three or more seasons. Herbaceous
plants tended to be used during the whole year, while trees and vines were used in a single
season (Fig. 2). About half kinds (44%) of pith were eaten during the whole year. By
contrast, many kinds of fruits (44%), leaf (48%), and bark (53%) were eaten in single
season. Plant species from which different parts were used for food, were eaten in more
different seasons. Among 14 plant species from which more than three different parts were
used for food, all species were eaten in three seasons and ten were eaten in four seasons.
Figure 3 shows the seasonal changes in the number of food-plant species in terms of each
part eaten by gorillas in the Itebero region. In the long rainy season, gorillas ate the most
kinds of food item, in which leaves constituted the major parts. The number of fruit species
gradually increased from the long rainy season to the short rainy season, while the numbers
of leaf, pith, and bark species decreased. The prominent decrease in kinds of fruiting tree
in May (the long rainy season) and June (the long dry season) may possibly be responsible
for such a change. A difference in composition of diet is distinguishable between the
minor-fruiting seasons (the long rainy and the dry seasons) and the major-fruiting seasons
(the short rainy and the dry seasons). Most of the leaves (64%) and bark (93%) eaten in
the former season, but not eaten in the latter, were from trees and vines. These non-fruit
foods may possibly compensate for the scarcity of fruits in the minor-fruiting seasons.
Quantitative analysis of fecal samples also revealed the infrequent fruit-eating in the
minor-fruiting seasons (Table 4a). In the long rainy and the long dry seasons, 13% and
No. o f species
40
~
L
/
30
Plant form
Part
20
/
eaten
t
F
V
10
0
4
3
2
1
No. of seasons
Fig. 2. Number of plant species eaten by eastern lowland gorillas during the whole four seasons to
single season. Plant form: T: tree; S: shrub; V: vine; H: herb; O: other form. Part eaten: F: fruit;
L" leaf; P: pith; B: bark; O: other part.
Diet of Eastern Lowland Gorilla
7
NO. of species
50
4O
F
k
P
30
2O
~~
0
Long rainy
Long dry
(]17)
Short
(93)
rainy
Short dry
Season
(84)
(No. of food
(84)
items)
Fig. 3. Number of food-plant species in terms of each part eaten by gorillas during each season in
the Itebero region. F: Fruit; L: leaf; P: pith/stem/twig; B: bark; O: other parts.
33~
respectively, o f fecal s a m p l e s d i d n o t include any seeds, a n d feces t h a t i n c l u d e d
abundant seeds were very few in number. By contrast, n o feces w i t h o u t seeds were f o u n d ,
a n d over 40~ o f fecal s a m p l e s i n c l u d e d abundant seeds in the s h o r t rainy a n d the s h o r t
d r y seasons. A l t h o u g h s o m e feces i n c l u d e d abundant seeds in the long rainy season, the
percentage o f abundant seeds in this season (13o70) was significantly lower t h a n those in the
s h o r t rainy (41o70) a n d the s h o r t d r y (45o70) seasons (X2=16.5 a n d 18.0, df=l, p < 0 . 0 1 ) .
T h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s suggest t h a t n o t o n l y the n u m b e r o f fruit species b u t also the a m o u n t
o f fruit c o n s u m e d by gorillas decreased in the m i n o r - f r u i t i n g seasons.
T h e frequency o f insect-eating d i d n o t a p p e a r to c h a n g e s e a s o n a l l y (Table 4b). F r o m the
fecal analyses, it seemed likely t h a t gorillas o f each age a n d sex class, except for infants,
Table 4. Number of fecal samples that included seeds (a) and fragments of insects (b) as a percentage
of the total samples collected in each season (N).
(a)
Season
Minor-fruiting
Long rainy
Long dry
Major-fruiting
Short rainy
Short dry
Relative amount of seeds (~
+
++
+++
76
80
13
33
44
51
25
16
13
0
87
67
102
69
0
0
22
14
37
41
41
45
100
100
N
Total
(b)
Season
Long rainy
Long dry
Short rainy
Short dry
N
76
80
102
69
Percentage
Ants
20
29
41
30
of fecal samples (070)
Termites
Other insects
0
0
5
9
4
1
9
3
Any insect
20
41
45
42
8
J. YAMAGIWAet al.
ate ants on at least one occasion during the study period. Silverback males, adults,
subadults, and solitary males (usually young silverback males) fed on ants in all four
seasons. Although these adult and subadult gorillas tended to consume ants more often in
the short rainy season than in the long rainy season (X2=9.20, df=l, p<0.01), no differences were found between any other pairs of seasons (X2-- 1.72, 2.22, 3.02, 0.05, and 2.04,
df= 1, p > 0.05). Fecal samples including fragments of termites or other insects were very
few in number. However, such fragments were found in feces of all age-sex classes, with the
exception of infants, and they were found in feces collected in the long dry, the short rainy,
and the short dry seasons.
DISCUSSION
Eastern lowland gorillas inhabiting the tropical lowland forests of the/tebero region eat
a more varied diet than previously anticipated. During a short visit to the Utu region (which
is very close to the Itebero region), SCHALLER(1963) recorded that only 20 foods from 17
plant species were eaten by gorillas, including 4 species of fruits, and he reported that the
diet of gorillas in this region depended as heavily on foliage as does that o f mountain
gorillas. By contrast, our study identified 194 foods from at least 121 plant species. This
number exceeds the number of plant-food species for gorillas identified in the montane
forests o f Virunga (49 species: FOSSEY, 1983; 41 species: WATTS, 1984) and Kahuzi
(56 species: CASIMIR, 1975), and is equivalent values obtained to those in the tropical
lowland forests of Equatorial Guinea (92 species: SABATER PI, 1977) and Gabon (134
species: WILLIAMSON et al., 1990).
From a comparison of the composition of their diet, eastern lowland gorillas appear to
be intermediate between mountain gorillas and western lowland gorillas. A mere three
species of fruits were listed in the diet and were eaten only infrequently by mountain
gorillas in the Central Virunga (WATTS, 1984). Leaves and stems of herbaceous plants were
their major food items. By contrast, western lowland gorillas exhibit frugivorous characteristics in various habitats in lowland forests (SABATERPI, 1977; TUTIN & FERNANDEZ,
1985; CARROLL,1986; N1SHIHARA,1992). Remains of fruits were recorded in 98% of feces,
and fruits constituted more than half (55~ of the recorded food items eaten by western
lowland gorillas in Gabon (WILLIAMSON et al., 1990). In this study we also found fruit
seeds in 89% of feces, but fruits form a relatively small part (25%) of total number of food
items eaten by eastern lowland gorillas in the Itebero region. These gorillas eat many kinds
o f leaf and the fibrous parts o f various plants.
The Itebero region is located about 100 km from the Kahuzi region (Fig. 1), The former
lowland forests are connected by a corridor to the latter montane forests. More than 90%
o f plant foods do not overlap between the two regions and are not available in both of the
two regions. Nevertheless, this study suggests that the diet of eastern lowland gorillas in
the lowland forests may bear some resemblance to that in the montane forests. Gorillas in
the Itebero region eat many kinds of leaf and bark o f vines, as observed in the case of
gorillas in the Kahuzi region (CASIMIR, 1975; GOODALL, 1977). Although the Kahuzi
gorillas eat few kinds o f fruit, they eat a large amount o f fruit from two types of tree
(Syzygium guinense and Myrianthus holstiO. The Itebero gorillas also eat fruits of Syzygiurn rowland# and Myrianthus arboreus. Ficus spp., and Symphonia globulifera provide
many parts (fruits, leaves, and bark) as food for gorillas in both regions. Leaves and pith
of Urera hypselodendron (vine) and the pith of Cyathea rnanniana (tree fern) are staple and
important foods for the Kahuzi gorillas, and they are also eaten by the Itebero gorillas.
Diet of Eastern Lowland Gorilla
9
GOODALL and GROVES (1977) reported that the Kahuzi gorillas climbed trees frequently
and skillfully when they ate fruits, as deduced in the case of the Itebero gorillas in this
study. The composition of the diet of gorillas may primarily reflect the diversity of food
in their habitats. However, the choice of food may reflect high similarities within subspecies
in lowland and montane forests.
Eastern lowland gorillas in the Itebero region eat a great variety of fruits, as reported
in the case of western lowland gorillas. Western lowland gorillas tend to avoid unripe or
fatty fruits in Gabon (ROGERS et al., 1990). We found that eastern lowland gorillas
generally ate ripe fruits in trees and on the ground. They also totally ignored several fruits
with a high lipid content, such as Pycnanthus angolensis and Staudtia gabonensis, of which
they frequently ate the leaves and bark. However, eastern lowland gorillas also ate fatty
fruits, such as Canarium schweinfurthii, Dacryodes edulis, and Elaeis guineensis. These
fruits are a major part of the diet of sympatric populations of chimpanzees in both Gabon
and Zaire, where the two kinds of ape tend to use same kinds of plant for food (TUTIN &
FERNANDEZ, 1985; ROGERS et al., 1990; YAMAGIWAet al., 1992). These differences should
be analyzed in relation to the sympatry of gorillas and chimpanzees in future studies.
Eastern lowland gorillas in the Itebero region consumed more than 19 species of fruits
in each season. However, the frequency of fruit-eating by gorillas changed seasonally.
Gorillas may change their choice of food between the minor-fruiting and the major-fruiting
seasons. They tended to eat many kinds of leaf and bark in response to a decrease in
fruiting trees in the minor-fruiting seasons. An increase of foliage and a decrease in fruits
in the diet was also observed in the case of chimpanzees during the dry season in Gombe
National Park, Tanzania (WRANGHAM, 1977). Bark consumption by both western lowland
gorillas in Gabon and chimpanzees in Tanzania tends to increase when few fruits are available (NISHIDA, 1976; ROGERS et al., 1990).
When fruits were scarce, the eastern lowland gorillas also increased their intake of
fibrous foods from herbaceous vegetation, such as Zingiberaceae and Marantaceae, as
reported for western lowland gorillas in Gabon (ROGERS et al., 1988). These herbaceous
plants are staple foods of gorillas in tropical lowland forests (SABATERPI, 1977; TUTIN &
FERNANDEZ, 1985; NISHIHARA, 1992; YAMAGIWAet al., 1992). Terrestrial herbaceous plants
and other forms of foliage could serve as an important buffer against seasonal shortages
o f fruits for both gorillas and chimpanzees across their habitats in tropical lowland forests
(HLADIK, 1973; ROGERS& WILLIAMSON, 1987).
Gorillas in lowland forests tend to feed regularly on insects. Fecal samples of gorillas
have included insects at similar frequencies across various habitats of tropical forests: 30%
in Gabon (TuTIN & FERNANDEZ, 1992); 43% in the Central African Republic (CARROLL,
1986); 24% in Congo (NISHIHARA, 1992); and 38% in Zaire (this study). These observations contrast with the rather inadvertent ingestion of insects by mountain gorillas
(HARCOURT & HARCOURT, 1984) and the infrequent feeding on driver ants by young
mountain gorillas (WATTS, 1989) in the Virunga region. Neither eastern nor western
lowland gorillas seem to use tools for the acquisition of insects. They collect ants by
scratching or digging in the soil (YAMAGIWAet al., 1991; NISHIHARA & KURODA, 1991), and
they capture termites by breaking up mounds by hand (TuTIN & FERNANDEZ, 1983, 1992,
this study). This study revealed no age differences and only small seasonal variations in the
frequency of insect-eating by eastern lowland gorillas, as reported for western lowland
gorillas (TUTIN & FERNANDEZ, 1992). Eastern lowland gorillas that inhabit the montane
forests of Kahuzi occasionally feed on ants (Crematogaster spp.), but the frequency of
ant fragments in feces is very low (unpubl. data).
10
J. YAMAGIWAet al.
T h e t y p e o f insect eaten by gorillas a n d the frequency o f c o n s u m p t i o n show local
differences within t r o p i c a l l o w l a n d forests. A n t s constitute the m a j o r i t y o f insects
eaten by eastern l o w l a n d gorillas, while b o t h ants a n d termites are frequently eaten by
western l o w l a n d gorillas (TUTIN & FERNANDEZ, 1983, 1992; CARROLL, 1986). NO fecal
s a m p l e s o f eastern l o w l a n d gorillas included weaver ants ( O e c o p h y l l a l o n g i n o d a ) , which
a c c o u n t e d for 88~ o f insect r e m a i n s in feces o f western l o w l a n d gorillas in G a b o n (TuTIN
& FERNANDEZ, 1992). E a s t e r n l o w l a n d gorillas eat six species o f ants t h a t b e l o n g to the
Ponerinae, which possess a p a i n f u l sting. By contrast, stinging ants are n o t eaten by
western l o w l a n d gorillas in G a b o n . Such local differences in insect-eating have also been
r e p o r t e d for c h i m p a n z e e s (NISHIDA, 1973; MCGREW, 1983; UEHARA, 1986). A l t h o u g h
m o r e d a t a are n e e d e d o n the e c o l o g y o f these insects in E q u a t o r i a l A f r i c a , t h e frequencies
o f insect-eating by gorillas m a y reflect differences in the d i s t r i b u t i o n o f insects between the
l o w l a n d a n d m o n t a n e forests, a n d / o r m a y reflect t r a d i t i o n a l differences between h a b i t a t s
or communities.
Acknowledgements. This study was financed by the Monbusho (Ministry of Education, Science, and
Culture, Japan) International Scientific Research Program (Nos. 630430810, 01041089) in cooperation
with C.R.S.N. (Centre de Recherches en Sciences Naturelles) in Zaire. We would like to thank I.Z.C.N.
(Institut Zairois pour Conservation de la Nature) for granting permission to carry out research in
their National Park; Dr. N. ZANA, Dr. B. BALUKU, Dr. M. M. MANKOIO, Mr. M. O. MANKOTO,
Dr. BERND STEINHAUER-BURKART,Mr. M. MASHAGmO,Mr. M. E. LINZOMm, Mr. K. K. B. KIMVUN1,
and Mr. M. M. A. WATHAUTfor their administrative help and hospitality; and Mr. K. NIgUMBOand
Mr. N. BOS1LANAfor their technical help. We are also greatly indebted to all guides, guards, and field
assistants at the Kahuzi-Biega National Park for their technical help and hospitality throughout the
fieldwork.
Appendix 1. Species of plants and their parts eaten by gorillas in the Itebero region,
Parts eaten
Scientific name
Family
LR
LD
SR
Trees
F
Afrosersalisia cerasifera
Sapotaceae
F
A lbizia gummifera
Mimosaceae
B
B, R
F
Anonidiurn mannff
Annonaceae
L
Anthonota gilletii
Caesalpiniaceae
L
Antiaris toxicaria
Moraceae
L, B
F
Antrocaryon nannanii
Anacardiaceae
F
Canarium schweinfurthii
Burseraceae
F
F
L
Carpolobia glabrescens
Polygalaceae
F, L
F
Celtis brieyi
Ulmaceae
F, L, B
L, B
L
Chlorophora excelsa
Moraceae
L
F
Dacryodes edulis
Burseraceae
F
Dialium polyanthum
Caesalpiniaceae
Diospyros spp*
Ebenaceae
L
Fagara inaequalis
Rutaceae
E L
Ficus densistipulata
Moraceae
L
F, L
Ficus natalensis
Moraceae
EL
EL,~B
Ficus sur
Moraceae
F, L
F, L
F
Ficus sp. 1
Moraceae
F
Ficus sp. 2
Moraceae
F
Gambeya lacouritiana
Sapotaceae
Garcinia epunctata
Guttiferae
Garcinia ovalifolia
Guttiferae
R
F
Gilbertiodendron dewevrei
Leguminosae
F
Grewia mildbraedii
Anacardiaceae
F
F
Zaire.
SD
F
R
F
L
F,L
F
F
F
EL
EL
EL
F
F
EL
F
F
(continued)
11
Diet o f Eastern Lowland Gorilla
A p p e n d i x 1. (continued)
Scientific name
Grossera multinervis
Khaya ivorensis
Klainedoxa g a b o n e n s i s
Lebrunia bishaie
Macaranga spinosa
Maranthes g l a b r a
Musanga cecropioides
Myrianthus arboreus
Pentadesma lebrunii
Phylanthus sp.
Piptadeniastrum africanum
Polyalthia suaveolens
Pycnanthus a n g o l e n s i s
Ricinodendron africanum
Staudtia gabonensis
Symphonia globulifera
Syzygium rowlandii
Treculia africana
Trichilia welwitschii
Trilepisium madagascariensis
Titrraeanthus africana
Uapaca guineensis
Uapaca paludosa
Uapaca corbisieri
Uvariopsis congolana
Zanthoxylum lemairei
Family
Euphorbiaceae
Meliaceae
Irvingiaceae
Guttiferae
Euphorbiaceae
Chrysobalanaceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Guttiferae
Euphorbiaceae
Mimosaceae
Annonaceae
Myristicaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Myristicaceae
Guttiferae
Myrtaceae
Moraceae
Meliaceae
Moraceae
Meliaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Annonaceae
Rutaceae
Parts eaten
LR
LD
F
F
SR
SD
F
L
P
F, L
B
L, B
L, B
F
L, B
F
L
R
F, L
F, L
F, B
L, B, R
L
F, L
L
P
T
F, L, P
F, L
L, B
L
L, B
L, B
L
T
F, L
F
F, L
L, B
F, L
F
F,
F,
R
F,
P,
L
L
P, B
B
F
L
R
F, P
F, B
F
F
L
F, P
F
F, L, P
L, P
L
L, P
F,L,P
F
L
Shrubs
Alchornea floribunda
Alchornea c o r d i f o l i a
Heckeldora staudtii
Massularia acuminata
Mimulopsis arborescens
Pseuderanthemum ludovicimussi
Psychotria kimuenzae
Rinorea oblongifolia
Rothmannia fischeri
Thomandersia hensii
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Meliaceae
Rubiaceae
Acanthaceae
Acanthaceae
Rubiaceae
Violaceae
Rubiaceae
Acanthaceae
Unidentified sp. 1
Unidentified sp. 2
P
F,L,P
L
F, L
L
L, P
L
L
L
L
L
L
L,B
L
L,B
P
L
L
L
L
Vines
Ancylobotrys pyriformis
Baissea axillaris
Baissea mortehanii
Baissea multiflora
Cissus dinklagei
Cuervea m a c r o p h y l l a
Efulensia montana
Eremospatha haulbevilleana
Hugonia platysepala
lodes africana
Landolphia o w a r i e n s i s
Maesobotrya floribunda
Salacia kivuensis
Salacia adolf-friedericff
Salacia c h l o r a n t h a
Strychnos congolana
Strychnos memecyloides
Tetratoria poggei
Apocynaceae
Apocynaceae
Apocynaceae
Apocynaceae
Vitaceae
Hippocrateaceae
Passifloraceae
Palmae
Linaceae
Icaninaceae
Apocynaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Hippocrateaceae
Hippocrateaceae
Hippocrateaceae
Loganiaceae
Loganiaceae
Dilleniaceae
L
L
L
L, P
L
L
P
L, P
L
L, B
L
L
L
L, B
L
L
L
P
L, P
L
F
L
L, B
L
L
L
L
L
(continued)
12
J. YAMAGIWAet al.
Appendix 1. (continued)
Scientific name
Tylophora s y l v a t i c a
Urera hypselodendron
Unidentified sp. 3
Unidentified sp. 4
Unidentified sp. 5
Family
Asclepiadaceae
Urticaceae
Acanthaceae
Curcubitaceae
Parts eaten
LR
L, B
L
L
L
L
LD
SR
SD
L, P
L
L, R
P
L
Herbs
Aframomum l a u r e n t i i
Aframomum sanguineum
Aframomum sp.
Ataenidia conferta
Brillantaisia cicatricosa
Costus afer
Culcasia angolensis
Dicellandra b a r t e r i
Halopegia azurea
Haumania liebrechtsiana
Marantochloa holostachya
Marantochloa l e u c a n t h a
Megaphrynium macrostachyum
Palisota ambigua
Palisota hirsuta
Palisota schweinfurthii
Renealmia c o n g o l a n a
Sarcophrynium leiogonium
Thaumatococcus daniellii
. ..~n!d~nt.!f. ! ~ . s ~ : . 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Zingiberaceae
Zingiberaceae
Zingiberaceae
Marantaceae
Acanthaceae
Zingiberaceae
Araceae
Melastomataceae
Marantaceae
Marantaceae
Marantaceae
Marantaceae
Marantaceae
Commelinaceae
Commelinaceae
Commelinaceae
Zingiberaceae
Marantaceae
Marantaceae
E P
F
P
L
P
F, P
F
F
P
P
P
L
P
F, P
P
P
L, P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
P
F, P
P
P
L, P
P
P
P
F
P
F, P
~a~.ant.ac~.a~ ...........
P ................
(. ...............
F, L, P, R
F
P
F, P
F
F
P
L, P, R
P
P
P
P
F
P
P
L, P
P
P
P
P
F, R
P
P
E L, P, R
P
P
P
P
P
P ................
(. ..............
Others (palm, epiphyte, fern, grass, etc.)
Afroraphidophora africana
Araceae
L, P
L
L
L
Anubis heterophyllum
Araceae
L
L
Barteria sp.
Passifloraceae
L, P
Calamus deerratus
Palmae
P
P
P
Cyathea manniana
Cyatheaceae
L, P
P
P
P
Elaeis guineensis
Palmae
P
P
F, P
P
Elaphoglossum sp.
Cyatheaceae
L
L
Ficus dryepondtiana
Moraceae
F, L
L
L
Ficus lingua
Moraceae
L, B
L
L
Hyplytum testui
Cyperaceae
L
Leptaspis cochleata
Gramineae
F, L
F, L
Marattiafraxinea
Marattiaceae
L, P
L, P
P
Microsorum punctatum
Polypodiaceae
L
Raphia sp.
Palmae
P
P
P
P
Schefflera urostachya
Araliaceae
L
L
Sclerosperma mannii
Palmae
P
P
L, P
P
Seasons: LR: long rainy season; LD: long dry season; SR: short rainy season; SD: short dry season. Food items:
F: fruit/seed; L: leaf; P: pith/stem/twig; B: bark; R: root; T: rotten trunk. *Diospyros spp. includes at least four
species (D. hoyleana, D. zenkeri, D. bipindensis, and D. abyssinica).
REFERENCES
CARROLL, R. W., 1986. Status o f the lowland gorilla and other wildlife in the D z a n g a - S a n g h a region
o f southwestern Central African Republic. Prim. Conserv., 7: 3 8 - 4 1 .
CASIMIR, M. J., 1975. Some morphological data on the systematic position o f the eastern gorilla
p o p u l a t i o n o f the Mt. Kahuzi region (Zaire). Z. Morphol. AnthropoL, 66: 1 8 8 - 2 0 1 .
- - ,
1975. Feeding ecology and nutrition o f an eastern gorilla group in the Mr. Kahuzi region
(R~publique du Zaire). Folia. Primatol., 2 4 : 8 1 - 1 3 6 .
Diet of Eastern Lowland Gorilla
13
& E. BUTENANDT, 1973. Migration and core area shifting in relation to some ecological
factors in a mountain gorilla group (Gorilla gorilla beringel3 in the Mt. Kahuzi region (R6publique du Zaire). Z. Tierpsychol., 33: 514-522.
C!J.ITTON-BROCK, T. H., 1977. Some aspects of intraspecific variation in feeding and ranging
behaviour in primates. In: Primate Ecology T. H. CLUTTON-BROCK(ed.), Academic Press, New
York, pp. 539-556,
CORBET, G. B., 1967. The nomenclature of the eastern lowland gorilla. Nature (London), 215:
1171 - 1172.
FOSSEY, D., 1974. Observations on the home range of one group of mountain gorillas (Gorilla
gorilla beringel). Anita. Behav., 22: 5 6 8 - 581,
- - ,
1983. Gorillas in the Mist. Houghton Mifflin, Boston.
(~ A. H. HARCOURT, 1977. Feeding ecology of free-ranging mountain gorilla (Gorilla
gorilla beringez). In: Primate Ecology, T. H. CLUTTON-BROCK(ed.), Academic Press, New York,
pp. 415 - 447.
GOODALL, A. J., 1977. Feeding and ranging behavior of a mountain gorilla group (Gorilla gorilla
beringel~ in the Tshibinda-Kahuzi region (Zaire). In: Primate Ecology, T. H. CLUTTON-BROCK
(ed.), Academic Press, New York, pp. 450-479.
GOODALL, A. G. & C. P. GROVES, 1977. The conservation of the eastern gorillas. In: Primate
Conservation, H. S. H. PRINCE RAINIERI I I & G. H. BOURNE (eds.), Academic Press, New York,
pp. 5 9 9 - 637.
GROVES, C. P., 1967. Ecology and taxonomy of the gorilla. Nature (London), 213: 890-893.
- - ,
1970. Population systematics of the gorilla. J. Zool. (London), 161: 287-300.
- & K. W. STOTT, JR., 1979. Systematic relationships of gorillas from Kahuzi, Tshiaberium
and Kayonza. Folia Primatol., 32:161 -179.
HARCOURT, A. H., O. FOSSEY, & J. SABATER PI, 1981. Demography of Gorilla gorilla. J. Zool.
(London), 195: 215-233.
- (~ S. A. HARCOURT, 1984. Insectivory by gorillas. Folia Primatol., 43: 229-233.
HLADIK, C. M., 1973. Alimentation et activit6 d'un groupe de Chimpanz6s reintroduits en for~t
Gabonaise. Terre et Vie, 27: 343-413.
HOLLDOBLER, B. • E. O. WILSON, 1990. The Ants. The Belknap Press of Harvard Univ. Press,
Cambridge, Massachusetts.
JONES, C. (~ J. SABATERPI, 1971. Comparative ecology of Gorilla gorilla (SAVAGEand WYMAN) and
Pan troglodytes (BLUMENBACH)in Rio Muni, West Africa. Bibl. Primatol., 1 3 : 1 - 9 6 .
MCGREW, W, C., 1983. Animal foods in the diets of wild chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): why crosscultural variation? J. Ethol., 1: 4 6 - 6 1 .
MWANZA, N., J. YAMAGIWA,T. YUMOTO, & T. MARUHASHI, 1992. Distribution and range utilization
of eastern lowland gorillas. In: Topics in Primatology, Vol. 2. Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation, N. ITO1GAWA,Y. SUGIYAMA,G. P. SACKETT, (~ R. K. R. THOMPSON (eds.), Univ. of Tokyo
Press, Tokyo, pp. 2 8 3 - 300.
NISHIDA, T., 1973. The ant-gathering behaviour by the use of tools among wild chimpanzees of the
Mahale Mountains. J. Human Evol., 2: 357-370.
- - ,
1976. The bark-eating habits in primates, with special reference to their status in the diet
of wild chimpanzees. Folia Primatol., 25: 2 7 7 - 287.
NISHIHARA, T., 1992. A preliminary report on the feeding habits of western lowland gorillas (Gorilla
gorilla gorilla) in the Ndoki Forest, Northern Congo. In: Topics in Primatology, Vol. 2. Behavior,
Ecology, and Conservation, N. ITOIGAWA,Y. SUGIYAMA,G. P. SACKETT, (~ R. K. R. THOMPSON
(eds.), Univ. of Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 2 2 5 - 240.
- & S. KURODA, 1991. Soil-scratching behaviour by western lowland gorillas. Folia Primatol.,
57: 4 8 - 51.
ROGERS, M. E., E MA1SELS, E. A . WILL1AMSON, M. FERNANDEZ, (~: C. E. G. TUTIN, 1990. Gorilla diet
in the Lop6 Reserve, Gabon: a nutritional analysis. Oecologia, 84: 326-339.
- (~ E. A. WILLIAMSON,1987. Density of herbaceous plants eaten by gorillas in Gabon: some
preliminary data. Biotropica, 19(3): 2 7 8 - 281.
, - - ,
C. E. G. TUTIN, & M. FERNANDEZ, 1988. Effects of the dry season on gorilla
diet in Gabon. Primate Rep., 22: 2 5 - 33.
SABATER PI, J., 1977. Contribution to the study of alimentation of lowland gorillas in the natural
state, in Rio Muni, Republic of Equatorial Guinea (West Africa). Primates, 18: 183-204.
14
J. YAMAGIWAet al.
SCHALLER, G. B., 1963. The Mountain Gorilla: Ecology and Behavior Univ. of Chicago Press,
Chicago.
TUTIN, C. E. G. & M. FERNANDEZ, 1983. Gorillas feeding on termites in Gabon, West Africa. J.
Mammal., 64:511 - 513.
&- - ,
1984. Nationwide census of gorilla (Gorilla g. gorilla) and chimpanzee (Pan
t. troglodytes) populations in Gabon. Amer. J. Primatol., 6: 313-336.
& - - ,
1985. Food consumed by sympatric populations of Gorilla g. gorilla and Pan
t. troglodytes in Gabon: some preliminary data. Int. J. PrimatoL, 6: 2 7 - 4 3 .
& - - ,
1992. Insect-eating by sympatric lowland gorillas (Gorilla g. gorilla) and
chimpanzees (Pan t. troglodytes) in the Lop6 Reserve, Gabon. Amer. J. Primatol., 28: 2 9 - 4 0 .
UEHARA, S., 1977. A biogeographic study of adaptation of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata),
from viewpoint of food habits: an essay on reconstruction of the history of Japanese monkeys'
distribution. In: Morphology, Evolution, and Primates, Y. KATO,S. NAKAO,& T. UMESAO(eds.),
Chuokoronsha, Tokyo, pp. 189-232. (in Japanese)
- - ,
1986. Sex and group differences in feeding on animals by wild chimpanzees in the Mahale
Mountains National Park, Tanzania. Primates, 27: 1-13.
VEDDER, A., 1984. Movement patterns of a group of free-ranging mountain gorillas (Gorilla gorilla
beringeO and their relation to food availability. Amer. J. Primatol., 7: 7 3 - 88.
WATTS, D. P., 1984. Composition and variability of mountain gorilla diets in the central Virungas.
Amer. J. Primatol., 7: 323-356.
- - ,
1989. Ant eating behaviour of mountain gorillas. Primates, 30:121 -125.
WILLIAMSON,E. A., C. E. G. TUTIN, M. E. ROGERS, & M. FERNANDEZ, 1990. Composition of the diet
of lowland gorillas at Lop6 in Gabon. Amer. J. Primatol., 21: 2 6 5 - 277.
WRANGHAM, R. W., 1977. Feeding behaviour of chimpanzees in Gombe National Park, Tanzania.
In: Primate Ecology, T. H. CLUTTON-BROCK(ed.), Academic Press, New York, pp. 504-538.
YAMAGIWA, J., 1983. Diachronic changes in two eastern lowland gorilla groups (Gorilla gorilla
grauerO in the Mt. Kahuzi region, Zaire. Primates, 24: 174-183.
- - ,
N. MWANZA,T. YUMOTO,& T. MARUHASHI, 1991. Ant eating by eastern lowland gorillas.
Primates, 32: 2 4 7 - 253.
&
,1992. Travel distances and food habits of eastern lowland
gorillas: a comparative analysis. In: Topics in Primatology, Vol. 2. Behavior, Ecology, and
Conservation, N. ITOIGAWA,Y. SUGIYAMA,G. P. SACKETT,& R. K. R. THOMPSON(eds.), Univ. of
Tokyo Press, Tokyo, pp. 267-281.
-
-
--
Received: May 20, 1993; Accepted: August 30, 1993
Authors' Names and Addresses: JuIcHl YAMAGIWA,Primate Research Institute, Kyoto University, Kanrin,
Inuyama, Aichi 484, Japan; NDUNDAMWANZA,Centre de Recherches en Sciences Naturelles, Lwiro, D. S. Bukavu,
Zaire; TAKAKAZUYUMOTO,Faculty of Science, Kobe University, Nada-ku, Kobe, Hyogo 657, Japan; TAMAKI
MARUHASHI,Department of Human and Cultural Sciences, Musashi University, Toyotamakami, Nerima-ku,
Tokyo 176, Japan.