Lianas and Livelihoods: The Role of Fibrous Forest Plants in Food Security and Society around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda1 O. MUHWEZI2, A. B. CUNNINGHAM*,3,4, AND R. BUKENYA-ZIRABA5 2 National Environment Management Authority (NEMA), P.O. Box 22255( Kampala, Uganda School of Plant Biology, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, 6009, Australia 4 People and Plants International, 84 Watkins St., White Gum Valley, Fremantle, Australia 5 Department of Botany, Makerere University, P.O. Box 7062( Kampala, Uganda *Corresponding author; e-mail: tonyc05@bigpond.net.au 3 Lianas and Livelihoods: The Role of Fibrous Forest Plants in Food Security and Society around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park, Uganda This paper documents the role that fibrous plants play in rural economies of farming communities in southwestern Uganda. Thirty-five plant species from 20 plant families are used to weave baskets, stretchers, granaries, and protective coverings for clay pots. These products play a crucial role in local culture, the local economy, and social institutions as well as in food security due to their use in carrying, processing, or storing crops. Lianas (Loeseneriella apocynoides, Smilax anceps, and to a lesser extent, Cyphostemma bambuseti, Flabellaria paniculata, Hippocratea odongensis, Salacia elegans, and Urera hypselodendron) are the most important plant life-forms used, followed by bamboo (Sinarundinaria alpina). The extent of use of plant species for granaries varied significantly with altitude, vegetation type, and land-cover across the wide altitudinal range of the study area (1,440–2,600 m asl). Granaries used by farmers at lower altitudes used a higher diversity of species compared to those at a higher altitude, where 82% of granaries were constructed from bamboo (Sinarundinaria alpina). Tightly woven, durable granaries are important for food storage and therefore to the food security and sustainable livelihoods of subsistence farmers. Where length, strength, and durability of weaving fibers were required, such as for stretchers (engozi) used as local “ambulances,” only two liana species were favored. The most commonly used species was the forest liana Loeseneriella apocynoides (Celastraceae), used for up to 77% of engozi stretchers and 83% of tea-picking baskets. While most species are abundant and can be sustainably harvested, L. apocynoides is overexploited, posing problems for local people and the national park. Key Words: Loeseneriella apocynoides, Smilax anceps, Bakiga, food security, Uganda. Introduction Most African subsistence farmers use baskets for harvesting, drying, winnowing, grinding, and storing agricultural produce. This has been well documented in southern Africa (Cunningham and Terry 2006), but less is known about wild plant use for these purposes in East Africa. Lianas 1 Received 26 May 2009; accepted 9 October 2009; published online ___________. are commonly used for weaving purposes in montane southwestern Uganda (Cunningham 1996), in part due to the absence of rattan (Calamus deeratus) and the limited availability of other palms (Raphia, Phoenix, Borassus). In tropical Africa, however, forest managers of commercial timber commonly view lianas as a nuisance, requiring that lianas are either cut or poisoned to prevent them from suppressing growth of timber species. One example of liana removal as a timber management strategy is from Budongo forest, Uganda (Plumptre 1996). Local Economic Botany, XX(X), 2009, pp. 1–13. © 2009, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A. ECONOMIC BOTANY people have a very different perspective, seeing lianas as very useful and using them for a wide range of household needs. In their review of the importance of lianas in West African forest management, Bongers et al. (2002) emphasized that further study of liana use by local people was needed, with a focus on the most valued liana species, making suggestions for their sustainable use. This study was carried out in the landscape surrounding Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (331 km2), a World Heritage Site and an important protected area in the Albertine Rift ecoregion, which has global conservation significance (Olson and Dinerstein 1998). Human population densities in this ecoregion are extremely high, reaching 600–700 people/ km2 in the central part of the Albertine Rift (Plumptre et al. 2003). This is a major challenge to conservation implementation. Most local farmers living adjacent to the national park are Bakiga ethnic group, apart from a small proportion of Bafumbira farmers and Batwa (Abayanda) pygmy people living in the study area. Agriculture is the dominant economic activity in the region and is largely on subsistence level with few cash crops and poor marketing infrastructure. Although fibrous plants were harvested from Bwindi forest for centuries, including when the forest was proclaimed a forest reserve in 1934, access to these resources was lost in 1991 when the area was declared a national park (Wild and Mutebi 1996). Although forest conservation policies often take little or no account of the importance of non-timber products in national economies or to local people (Howard 1991; Pinedo-Vasquez et al. 1990), the Uganda Wildlife Authority tried some innovative approaches to conflict resolution around Bwindi Impenetrable National Park (BINP) (Bitariho et al. 2006; Cunningham 1996; Ndangalasi et al. 2007; Wild and Mutebi 1996). The objectives of this study were as follows: 1) to record fibrous plant species used for weaving baskets; 2) to quantify the use of different plant species in making four categories of commonly used large baskets: granaries, winnowing trays, stretcher baskets (engozi), and baskets used by commercial tea pickers; and 3) to quantitatively assess local knowledge and use of Loeseneriella apocynoides, as this was both the most valued and most vulnerable of the liana species. [VOL Material and Methods The type and amount of weaving materials and species used by the local people was determined by carrying out household surveys and field collections in the forest. Household surveys were done by sampling homes along the main trails or paths that traversed each of the three parishes in a distance of 30 m to 50 m from the trail path within a one-hour walking distance to the forest boundary. Each household was visited in company of a well-known local person. Interviews were conducted by one of us (OM), who is from a nearby parish and for whom Rukiga is his home language. If people were not at home, then interviews were done at the next household. In each parish, 50 households were visited to assess plant use for weaving household items. This represented about 4% of households in each parish selected: in Mpungu, 4.38% of 1,141 households; in Nteko, 4.8% of 1,041 households; and in Kitojo, 4.1% of 1,217 households. These parishes were selected because each was adjacent to the national park boundary. Two of these parishes (Mpungu and Nteko) were involved in a multiple-use program under the Uganda Wildlife Authority with some access to plants in multiple-use zones at the edge of the national park. Information was recorded on each handcrafted item relating to species composition, amount used, source of the materials used, age of the item, and condition. Data were then collected on the basketry items used in each household, including the plant species used to weave them. These were identified, with voucher specimens collected for uncommon or poorly known species. Results and Discussion FIBROUS PLANT SPECIES USE Fibrous plants (35 plant species from 20 families) are used for a diverse range of baskets and granaries by local farming communities (Table 1). Plant materials used vary from fastgrowing, productive wetland species such as Cyperus papyrus to scarce, slow-growing forest climbers that are found at low density in forest (Loeseneriella apocynoides). To local people, lianas are the most important life form used for basketry. Loeseneriella apocynoides was the most important weaving material used, followed by the smaller liana Smilax anceps and the montane bamboo, Sinarundinaria alpina. Reasons why L. apocynoides is favored compared to other 2009] MUHWEZI ET AL : LIANAS AND LIVELIHOODS IN UGANDA TABLE 1. FIBROUS PLANT SPECIES USED FOR WEAVING BASKETS, GRANARIES, AND STRETCHERS BY LOCAL PEOPLE LIVING AROUND BWINDI IMPENETRABLE NATIONAL PARK, UGANDA. Family Species (*noting introduced species) Local Name Part Used Annonaceae Arecaceae Arecaceae Asteraceae Celastraceae Celastraceae Celastraceae Celastraceae Combretaceae Cyperaceae Cyperaceae Draceanaceae Fabaceae Fabaceae Malphigiaceae Malvaceae Malvaceae Marantaceae Marantaceae Musaceae Plantaginaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Poaceae Sapindaceae Smilacaceae Tiliaceae Tiliaceae Tiliaceae Tiliaceae Urticaceae Verbenaceae Vitaceae Monathotaxis littoralis Phoenix reclinata Raphia farinifera Vernonia brachycalyx Hippocratea odongensis Loeseneriella apocynoides Salacia sp. Salacia elegans Combretum paniculatum Cyperus latifolius Cyperus papyrus Draceana laxissima Acacia mearnsii* Abrus canescens Flabellaria paniculata Hibiscus sp. Hibiscus fuscus Ataenidia conferta Marantochloa leucantha Musa paradisica Plantago palmata Eleusine indica Setaria plicatilis Sinarundinaria alpina Pennisetum purpureum Dodonaea viscosa Smilax anceps Glyphaea brevis Grewia sp. Triumfetta tomentosa Triumfetta macrophylla Urera hypselodendron Lantana camara* Cyphostemma bambuseti entaro ekyindo ekihungye efunda oruyangaro omugyega bwara oruyangara endegamantare ekigaga efundjo echence bulikoti ekyanyamashozi stem leaves leaves stem stem stem stem stem stem leaves culms stem bark stems stems bark bark stems stems fibrous leaf bases flower stalks leaves leaves stem stem stem horizontal runners stem stem stem bark bark stem stem omuchibikanumi omusinga ekitatara omwiru embatabata enchenzi ekikoka omugano emingo omushambya ensuli omusingati omutahendeka omunaba omunaba omushe omuhukye embungwe fibrous plants are due to its durability, as the stems are resistant to rot or attack by wood-boring insects and can be dried and stored for up to 10 years. This is likely to be due to the presence of triterpene alkaloids in L. apocynoides stems. Although no analyses have been done of L. apocynoides stem chemistry, sesquiterpenoids, including those with insect anti-feedant properties, are widespread in the Celastraceae (Gao et al. 2007). In part, this also accounts for use of L. apocynoides for stretchers and granaries mainly in low altitude areas of Mpungu and Nteko. This difference in use may be attributed to two factors: resource availability and high prevalence of wood borers (which attack Smilax anceps stretchers) due Voucher # 3123 AC 3184 AC 3095 AC RBG 53 RB 4095 AC RBG 3223 AC 3275 AC 3239, 4069 AC, 131 RB 3200 AC RBG 35 RB 141 RB 3258 AC 3134 AT 54 RB 3029 AC 4094 AC 3028, 4091 AC to the prevalence of these insects at lower altitudes. On the other hand, in high altitude areas of Kitojo, temperatures are low and attack by wood borers is less common, enabling people to use bamboo. When fibers are needed for weaving, L. apocynoides stems are soaked in water for about seven days before splitting. By contrast, other lianas (with the exception of Smilax anceps) needed to be used when fresh. In addition, L. apocynoides stems are long, flexible, very strong, and yet light enough so that large baskets such as granaries and stretchers are portable. Due to the strength of its fibers, this liana was also traditionally used by the Abayanda pygmy people (known by Bakiga farmers as Batwa) for trapping forest animals. ECONOMIC BOTANY This use has now ceased due to the availability of new technology (wire for snares) and, more recently, due to conservation restrictions and severe penalties for hunting within the national park. Despite the widespread use of baskets, skilled basket weavers are relatively few in number, particularly for specialized baskets made by men, such as winnowing trays and stretchers. The most widely used baskets are the flat, circular baskets which are placed adjacent to the grinding stone to collect ground flour (orugali) (Fig. 1A), the deep, bowl-shaped millet basket (echibo), a larger and shallower bowl-shaped basket for grain (entemere), a larger basket for carrying headloads of crops (etchitukuru) (Fig. 1B), and the winnowing basket (entara) (Fig. 3E). The first three basket types are mainly made by women, using a coil-foundation technique with grass (Eleusine indica) and papyrus (Cyperus papyrus) for the coils, and Plantago palmata flower stalks for the dark design. Women also make mats (omucheche) for sitting or sleeping on, as well as for drying millet (etchigaru). These are made from Cyperus latifolius leaves, bound with twined Triumfetta bark, sometimes with dark banana fiber woven in for a decorative pattern. The etchitukuru basket is woven using a checker-weave by both men and women (Fig. 1C), using either Smilax anceps or bamboo (Sinarundinaria alpina), and is the type of basket most commonly sold at markets. Woven Stretchers (Engozi) Woven stretchers play a very important role in the rugged terrain of southwestern Uganda for the transport of sick (or dead) people. The contribution of these stretchers in addressing challenges of transport if the rugged terrain is high. Stretchers are made mainly by men, who sometimes also weave winnowing baskets, and there are very few of these specialists within the study area. With the rare exception of Phoenix reclinata leaf-stems, they are entirely constructed from two forest lianas, L. apocynoides and S. anceps, and are a mainstay of stretcher-bearer societies (ekyibinachengozi [ekyibina = society; engozi = stretcher]), social institutions resembling a local medical aid association. Stems of L. apocynoides are commonly used for horizontal weaving of stretchers in many of the communities adjacent to the park. Out of the 46 stretchers surveyed, 28 (60.9%) were made of L. apocynoides. Out of the 21 stretchers recorded in Mpungu, 16 (76.2%) were made from L. apocynoides. In Nteko, [VOL out of 13 stretchers 10 (76.9%) were made L. apocynoides and the remainder (23.1%) from S. anceps. In Kitojo, the highest altitude site, 83% of stretchers were made from S. anceps, which is common on the margins of higher altitude forest, and only 17% from L. apocynoides. Granaries Granaries are the major means of storing crops in the study area and are found at every homestead. Men construct most granaries, using a diversity of plant species (Table 1 and Fig. 2). Three types of granary are made. First, large granaries (ebitara) are used for storing grain. At lower altitudes, these are mainly used to store finger millet and maize, and at higher altitudes, sorghum and root crops (mainly potatoes and Ipomoea batatas). Secondly, smaller tightly-woven granaries (ebihumi) are used for storing beans and cow peas. These granaries are kept inside the people’s homes. The third type of granary is made from crop surplus (omuguri) shortly after harvest, mainly from sorghum or maize stocks and dry banana leaves. These are mainly used for storing sorghum in the open, and their lifespan is short, between harvesting and growing sorghum seasons. On average each household has at least one granary. Out of a total of 303 granaries recorded in the sampled parishes, 89 (29.4%) were made from L. apocynoides. Twenty-two (44%) of the households in Mpungu used L. apocynoides, 1 (2%) in Nteko, and none in Kitojo (Fig. 2). Out of 137 granaries sampled in Mpungu, 88 (64.2%) were made from L. apocynoides. In Nteko, only 1 granary, representing 2%, was made from the species, and none in Kitojo (Fig. 2) Out of the 115 granaries sampled in Kitojo, 97 (84.3%) were made from Sinarundinaria alpina. The low use of L. apocynoides in Kitojo is attributed to the lack of the liana at high altitude and presence of the suitable substitute S. alpina (bamboo) for making granaries. The high demand for granaries in Mpungu and Kitojo was attributed to the abundant agricultural produce in the areas. In Mpungu and Kitojo, there is high production of sorghum, millet, peas, beans, and potatoes. On the other hand, due to low agricultural production in Nteko, fewer granaries were being made. In Mpungu, where the L. apocynoides was more accessible in river valleys dominated by an Alchornea hirtella mid-canopy, it was commonly used for granaries prior to the 1992 harvest ban (Fig. 3). 2009] MUHWEZI ET AL : LIANAS AND LIVELIHOODS IN UGANDA Fig. 1. Basket diversity and livelihoods: A. Finger millet flour ground onto a flat, circular basket adjacent to a grinding stone and four bowl-shaped millet baskets (echibo). B. Smilax anceps used to weave a carrying basket (etchitukuru). C. Carrying baskets made from Sinarundinaria alpina. D. Completed etchitukuru from Smilax anceps. E. Fish trapping using a basket from Marantochloa leucantha. F. Basket fiber and a partly completed millet basket (echibo) from Eleusine indica with a dark design of Plantago palmata flower stalks. Locally forged basketry needle at bottom right. ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 100 Vernonia brachycalyx Triumfetta tometosa 90 Sorghum stalks Sinarundaria alpina Senecio syringifolius 80 Pennisetum purpureum Munyatabe Loeseneriella apocynoides 70 Gouania longispicata Eucalyptus Ensete ventricosum PERCENTAGE % 60 Dodonea viscosa Cyphostemma bambuseti 50 Cuppresus Combretum paniculatum Camelia sinensis 40 Alchornea hirtella Aiodes usambarensis 30 20 10 0 Mpungu (n=137) Nteko (n=51) Kitojo (n=115) Plant species used for weaving 303 granaries in three study areas around Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park: Mpungu (n=137), Kitijo (n=115), and Nteko (n=51). Fig. 2. Winnowing Baskets Winnowing baskets (entara), essential for crop processing, are made mainly by men. They are woven using a checker-weave, with Smilax anceps the most common weaving fiber in all study areas (Fig. 4) and minor use of Marantochloa leucantha and Pennisetum trachyllum. Carrying Baskets L. apocynoides was the dominant weaving material used for carrying baskets (Fig. 1B–D) in two areas, Mpungu and Kitojo, whereas in Nteko, bamboo baskets (Sinarundinaria alpina) were more common (Fig. 5). In Mpungu, 68% of the 79 baskets sampled were woven from L. apocynoides, and the remainder (32%) from Smilax anceps. In Kitojo, 82% of 37 carrying baskets examined were constructed from L. apocynoides, while the remainder were made from split stems of the shrub Dodonaea viscosa (12%), Pennisetum purpureum (4%), S. anceps (4%), and strips from petioles of the palm Raphia farinifera (1%). In Nteko, the 79 baskets examined were either made from the bamboo Sinarundinaria alpina (73%) or Smilax anceps (27%). 2009] MUHWEZI ET AL : LIANAS AND LIVELIHOODS IN UGANDA Fig. 3. Uses of a key liana, Loeseneriella apocynoides: A. Giant baskets (engozi) are shared between local medical aid associations for use as stretchers. B. Thick Loeseneriella stems are split prior to weaving. C. A granary woven from L. apocynoides. D. Commercial tea-picking basket. E. A flat winnowing basket (entara) being used to dry finger millet (Eleusine coracana). Tea Baskets Tea-picking baskets (orutete) are made more commonly now than in the past, preferentially from L. apocynoides. Thick (2–4 cm) liana stems are used after splitting them into thinner strips (Fig. 3B). Use of tea baskets is only in areas at low altitudes, that is, the northern sector and part of the southern sector in the parishes of Mukono and Bujengwe. Out of the 179 tea baskets recorded in Mpungu, 149 (83.2%) were made from L. apocynoides (Fig. 6). ECONOMIC BOTANY 100 It is clearly evident from the household surveys conducted in this research study that L. apocynoides was the most important weaving fiber to people in communities adjacent to BINP. For this reason, we gathered additional information on local knowledge, harvest, and preparation of L. apocynoides. 90 80 Percentage % [VOL 70 60 50 40 30 LOCAL KNOWLEDGE, HARVEST, PREPARATION OF LOESENERIELLA 20 AND 10 APOCYNOIDES 0 Nteko (n = 53) Mpungu (n =54) Marantochloa leucantha Smilax anceps Fig. 4. Plant species used for weaving winnowing trays in three study areas, showing the dominant use of the liana, Smilax anceps in Kitojo (n=48 baskets), Nteko (n=79) and Mpungu (n=54 baskets). Woven Pot Covers Before the introduction of aluminum containers and plastic jerry-cans, clay pots were an essential household item. Clay pots were used for fetching water, cooking, brewing, water, and porridge storage. Beer brewing not only has social and cultural value, but adds value to crops. It also is an important source of income to some households. Clay beer pots are prized but easily broken. To reduce the chances of pots breaking, they are covered by a woven protective surround. These woven surrounds for pots are also used in other parts of Africa (Cunningham and Terry 2006). Although other species such as black wattle bark (Acacia mearnsii) and S. anceps are used, L. apocynoides remains the most favored species for this purpose. In Mpungu, 11 (22%) of the 50 households used Loeseneriella apocynoides, compared to 17 (34%) out of the 50 households in Nteko and only 1 (2%) of households in Kitojo, where beer pot covers were woven from ebikokwe, an unidentified liana (13%), or bark of the introduced tree, Acacia mearnsii (74%). The difference in the extent of use of woven pot covers may be explained by the fact that in Nteko brewing of local beer (omuramba) was the second most important economic activity after timber selling, while brewing beer was less important in Mpungu. On the other hand, while beer brewing was important in Kitojo, metal drums instead of clay pots are used for preparation and storage of beer. Folk Taxonomy There were big differences in local knowledge about L. apocynoides. Compared to Bakiga farmers, the Abayanda pygmies were most knowledgeable about L. apocynoides as in the past they harvested the liana to exchange it for food with the Bakiga agriculturists who needed the stem fiber to make baskets, granaries, stretchers, and the outer covers of beer pots. L.apocynoides was identified from other plants mainly by the reddish spotted white bark of the stem. Scraping off the bark leaves reveals a reddish color that is another identifying characteristic of the species. Two forms of L. apocynoides are differentiated based on stem color, which in turn was said to depend upon where these folk varieties of L. apocynoides grow. L. apocynoides with reddish stems grow on slopes, and those with whitish stems grow in valley forests. 100 90 80 70 PERCENTAGE % Kitojo (n = 48) Pennisetum trachyllum 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Kitojo (n = 37) Pennisetum trachyllum Nteko (n = 79) Sinarundinaria alpina Mpungu (n =79) Smilax anceps Fig. 5. Plant species used for weaving the common carrying basket (etchitukuru) in three study areas, showing the dominant use of the liana, Smilax anceps in Kitojo (n=37 baskets), Nteko (n=79), and Mpungu (n=79). 2009] MUHWEZI ET AL : LIANAS AND LIVELIHOODS IN UGANDA 100 90 80 PERCENTAGE % 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 Mpungu (n=179) Smilax anceps Loeseneriella apocynoides Dodonea viscosa Pennisetum purpureum Raphia farinifera Fig. 6. Plant species used for weaving tea-picking baskets in Mpungu, an area where small-scale farmers (“outgrowers”) commercially produce tea for the factory at Kayonza, showing the use of L. apocynoides (n=179 baskets). In both Rukiga and Rufumbira, L. apocynoides is referred to as omugyega, a name that signifies the importance of this species for basketry, as it is derived from the word ekigyega, which means a basket in both of these local languages. Local knowledge of the people about L. apocynoides varied within the local community, largely due to people’s field experience. Because of more than one response per respondent, the answers are more than the total number of respondents. Of all the 60 respondents, 33 (55%) knew that the plant is a climber, 27 (45%) were aware of its mode of distribution in the park, and only 24 (40%) could identify it in the field. Even fewer knew that it resprouted after cutting 21 (35%), and only 1 (1.7%) knew that it produced flowers. Harvesting and Preparation Harvesting of the liana L. apocynoides is from late secondary forest. Both Abayanda pygmies and Bakiga farmers typically collected the liana shortly before crop harvesting time when there is great demand for granaries. Harvesters were exclusively men, since prior to the ban on harvest within most of the national park, resource collection involved long trips into the forest to locate sizeable stems. In the early 1950s, harvesting involved cutting the trees in which the liana held itself before being cut into small pieces. In the 1990s, one of the harvesters in the group typically climbed the tree to get the liana, cutting the tree’s branches to make it easy to pull the liana from the ground. Large L. apocynoides stems are split when still fresh if needed immediately, or, in some cases, are stored whole. Before use, stems are wound and split into fibers. This involves cutting stems of 2–4 cm in diameter at a height of 0.3 m from the ground, pulled down and cut into pieces of 2–2.5 m long. After being cut into small pieces, the stem is wound (okuhotora) and split (okushatura) into narrower strips that are used for weaving (Fig. 3B). In the 1960s, when stems 4–5 cm in diameter were harvested, it took about one hour to obtain the weaving materials, compared to four hours in 1970s and seven to eight hours in 1992, when stem diameter size had dropped to 2 cm. According to Abayanda harvesters, it takes 10–20 years for L. apocynoides to reach a high quality useable diameter (3–4 cm), although there are no data on climber growth rates to confirm this. Today, due to the ban on L. apocynoides harvest in the national park, local farmers have shifted to using S. anceps for stretchers and winnowing trays, and even making granaries of clay and wattle (Aaccia mearnsii) poles. COMMERCIAL TEA PRODUCTION, LOESENERIELLA DECLINE, AND A FAIR TRADE OPPORTUNITY Tea production based on a small-scale outgrowers scheme was started in southwestern Uganda in 1966, but went into decline in the 1970s during the rule of the military dictator, Idi Amin. Since the early 1990s, growth of the tea industry has had negative, but unintended and largely unnoticed, consequences on stocks of forest lianas, with a ripple effect on their use for other household purposes. The first species to be affected was L. apocynoides, as it is the most favored species for making tea baskets. In 1992, according to data from the Uganda Tea Growers ECONOMIC BOTANY Corporation (UTGC) factory at Butogota, there are 1,597 outgrowers in the study area. Based on an average of three pickers per outgrower, each with a basket made from L. apocynoides (weighing 500 g and said to last four years), this represented the use of 2.4 tons of this climber every four years (or approximately 600 kg per year). This contributed to overexploitation of a liana occurring at a low density in lower altitude (1,500–1,750 m) forest (Muhwezi 1997). Although plants resprout after cutting of the large stems, such cutting represents loss of mature stems producing flowers and seeds. The situation has worsened markedly since then. In their recent study, for example, Olupot et al. (2009) found that L. apocynoides only occurred in 2.1% (41) of plots along 1-km long transects into Bwindi-Impenetrable National Park. As further evidence of harvest impacts close to the national park boundary, Olupot et al. (2009) detected a positive, although not statistically significant, increase (p = 0.060) in L. apocynoides densities deeper into the forest. In 1994, the tea industry received a European Union donation of USD 40,000,000. This enabled tea nurseries to be developed all around BINP, in Kabarole, Kyenjojo, Bushenyi, Rukungiri, Kabale, and Mukono districts. By 2007, Uganda was producing more tea than ever before. Today, the Kayonza Growers Tea Factory Ltd. alone has 5,000 smallholder tea growers. Based on the calculations used above, this would represent use of an estimated 1,875 kg of L. apocynoides per year, if this were available. Following the ban on the harvesting of the liana by Uganda Wildlife Authority, other plant species have been adopted. These include the Smilax anceps, Dodonaea viscosa, Phoenix reclinata, Raphia farinifera, and Pennisetum purpureum. All of these species are less durable than L. apocynoides. Given the ban on harvest of both bamboo and L. apocynoides within BINP, with added pressure on S. anceps for a wide range for basketry needs, this is unlikely to be sustained. Bamboo baskets were suggested in 1992 (Cunningham 1996). Bitariho and McNeilage (2007) suggest that local bamboo stocks in Echuya forest are in decline, with bamboo harvest impacts by local people the main cause. We disagree with Bitariho and McNeilage’s (2007) view. Instead, based on field observation in montane forests of Echuya, Mgahinga, and BINP, we concur with Agnew’s (1985) conclusion that decline in Sinarundinaria alpina is primarily due to forest succession. The area of S. [VOL alpina in BINP is relatively small (< 3 km2), however, and is well inside the national park. The best solutions, therefore, are bamboo planting and provision of tea pickers with bamboo or plastic baskets, rather than to continue to deplete local liana resources, exacerbating conflict with BINP. Cafédirect, the UK’s largest Fairtrade hot drinks company and a direct buyer from Kayonza Growers Tea Factory Ltd., would be a good candidate to encourage the implementation of these recommendations. LIVELIHOODS AND LOST ACCESS: AND BAMBOO LIANAS Proclamation of BINP in 1991, and thus loss of access to lianas and bamboo, has had significant implications for local farmers on three fronts. First, it affects an important set of decentralized local institutions, the stretcher-bearer societies known locally as ekyibina kyengozi, whose existence and provision of emergency health care depend on the giant stretcher baskets made from lianas (L. apocynoides, S. anceps) and bamboo (Sinarundinaria alpina). The ekyibina kyengozi and their stretchers (engozi), locally referred to as “ambulances,” play a crucial transport role in the rural communities of Kigezi highlands due to the poor road network and distant health units, including areas surroundings the national park. The lifespan of the stretcher depends on the plant species used, lasting between 3–5 years with L. apocynoides, which is the toughest material. Because S. anceps and bamboo are easily attacked by the wood borers or weevils, stretchers especially made from S. anceps need to be regularly oiled, and even then do not last as long. Secondly, we suggest that a decline in the quality and durability of plant fibers used for food processing and storage negatively affects local food security in several ways. Three main components of food security are widely recognized, all influenced by the effectiveness of postharvest food storage: food availability (through the market or people’s own production); enough buying power or social capital to access food with cash or through barter; and last, people getting sufficient nutrients from the food they eat (Boko et al. 2007). Post-harvest loss is a worldwide problem, exacerbated by the current high cost of food. For small-scale farmers, even small losses of stored crops can be serious. In southern Sudan, stored cereal crop loss can be as high as 40% (Itto and Wongo 2002). In the study area, losses due 2009] MUHWEZI ET AL : LIANAS AND LIVELIHOODS IN UGANDA to insects, fungi, rats, or even baboons breaking into poorly made granaries to eat finger-millet pose several problems. Not only are the chances of stored crop loss increased with poor construction materials, but granary construction is a laborintensive process that has to be repeated more often when L. apocynoides is not available. RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: WHICH ARE THE PRIORITY SPECIES? For resource management purposes, basketry materials could be divided into four categories: (1) Common, widespread species whose use can be sustained without externally imposed resource management. In this category are plant species common in disturbed sites such as roadsides and old fields: Eleusine indica (enchenzi), Plantago palmata (embatambata), and locally common wetland species, which have high biomass production, Cyperus papyrus (efundjo) and C. latifolius (ekigaga). Use is generally selective, e.g., for long Plantago palmata flower stalks or long Eleusine indica leaves, generally from plants growing in shady, moister sites. (2) Resilient species where potential conflicts with the core conservation area can be managed through multiple-use zoning or, in the case of bamboo, through planting. These are species growing in secondary forest and scrub, with Smilax anceps (enshuli) and the scandent shrub Grewia sp. (omutahendeka) most popular, followed by the high-altitude bamboo, Sinarundinaria alpina, and then to a lesser extent Urera hypselodendron (omushe) and Flabellaria paniculata, which are used for “bush rope” or for granaries. Use of Urera hypselodendron and Flabellaria is limited to granaries, and impact is considered negligible. (3) Species that are widespread nationally and regionally, that are locally uncommon, but where resource management is a lower priority due to limited use and low-impact harvests. This applies to Marantaceae restricted to moist valleys and gullies in lower-altitude (1,500–1,750 m) sites in the forest—Marantochloa leucantha (omwiru) and Ataenidia conferta (ebitatara), or the palm Raphia farinifera (Arecaceae), which is also restricted to moist valleys at 1,500 m; (4) Slow-growing liana species in high demand from late secondary forest and mature forest. These lianas are all in the Celastraceae (not Apocynaceae, as incorrectly recorded by Ndangalasi et al. [2007] in what may have been a misidentification of Loeseneriella, which has no milky latex). The highest priority and most widely-used species is L. apocynoides (omujega). Other lianas are Salacia sp. (bwara), Hippocratea odongensis (oruyangaro), and Salacia elegans (orudyangara). These categories represent increasingly scarce species with specific habitat requirements (canopy gaps). Although all resprout, the availability of the wind-dispersed L. apocynoides seeds for establishment in new canopy gaps is in decline due to felling of reproductively mature stems. The impact of cutting Salacia sp. (bwara), Salacia elegans (orudyangara), and H. odongensis (oruyangaro) for granaries is unknown, but from discussions with local resource users is judged to be far less than that on L. apocynoides (omujega), which is considered to be the slowest growing of these forest climbers. It is also in greatest demand for a wide variety of uses, from a general purpose “bush rope” of exceptional strength to use for tea baskets, stretchers, and granaries. According to resource users, it takes 10–20 years for L. apocynoides to reach a high quality useable diameter (3–4 cm). Our unpublished data on climber growth rates confirm this slow growth rate. L. apocynoides has come under markedly increased harvesting pressure with the development of the tea industry around BwindiImpenetrable National Park, as it is the most favored species for making tea baskets. In this case, there is an opportunity for commercial tea companies to provide pickers with baskets made of alternative materials. Conclusions Fibrous plants, including several liana species, are important to the livelihoods of subsistence farmers around BINP. Most important of all are two liana species (L. apocynoides and S. anceps) and the montane bamboo (Sinarundinaria ECONOMIC BOTANY alpina). L. apocynoides is the slowest growing of the plants used for weaving. It is also in greatest demand for a wide variety of subsistence uses, from a general purpose “bush rope” of exceptional strength to use for stretchers and granaries. Both Smilax anceps and Sinarundinaria alpina occur in secondary forest recovering from disturbance, with S. anceps found across a wide altitudinal range. By contrast, L. apocynoides occurs in late secondary and primary forest. Clearing of forest for agriculture, followed by recent development of the tea industry, led to increased use of L. apocynoides for tea baskets in addition to other competing uses (for granaries, stretchers, and as a general purpose binding material). The expansion of commercial tea-picking may represent a threefold increase in Loeseneriella apocynoides use since 1992, from an estimated 600 kg/year to 1,875 kg/year today. Although bamboo is used more today, this still represents a significant added impact on mature stems of Loeseneriella apocynoides, the availability of which has declined over the past 30 years. A ban on harvest of lianas and bamboo within BINP, with consequent loss of access to these species, poses a significant challenge to subsistence farmers that needs to be recognized and dealt with through provision of viable alternatives. Acknowledgments We are greatly indebted to the WWFUNESCO-Kew People and Plants Initiative for funding the initial field work that has led to the production of this paper, and to the Government of Uganda for additional financial support to one of us (Onesimus Muhwezi) during the research and more recent phase of updating this study. The staffs of the Institute of Tropical Forest Conservation (ITFC), CARE-Uganda office in Kabale, and Kayonza Tea Factory are also thanked for their assistance. In particular, we would like to thank Mayoba Godfrey, Owoyesingyire Narcis, Twebaze Leo, and Ngambeneza Caleb for their help during fieldwork. Michelle Cunningham is thanked for preparing the graphs as are Robert Voeks and three anonymous reviewers for their comments. Literature Cited Agnew, A. D. Q. 1985. Cyclic Sequences of Vegetation in the Plant Communities of the Aberdare Mountains, Kenya. Journal of the East Africa Natural History Society and National Museum 75:1–12. [VOL Bitariho, R. and A. 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