Useful Plants of Bas-Congo Province, Democratic Republic of Congo Volume 1 Paul Latham Augustin Konda ku Mbuta Title : Useful Plants of Bas-Congo province, Democratic Republic of Congo Authors : Paul Latham & Augustin Konda ku Mbuta Second edition : 2014 Copyright © Paul Latham & Augustin Konda ku Mbuta I SBN No. 978-0-9554208-7-0 Note: This is the English edition of a manual produced in French to encourage the conservation and planting of useful plants in Bas-Congo province of the Democratic Republic of the Congo. Many of the plants mentioned are however present in countries throughout the humid tropics of Africa so it is hoped the manual will be of use to farmers, development workers and schools in the region. The first edition of this publication was an output from a project part funded by the United Kingdom Department for I nternational Development (DFI D) for the benefit of developing countries. The views expressed are not necessarily those of DFI D. [ Advisory and Support Services Contract, project code ZX0077] Warning: A number of the plants listed in this publication are known to be poisonous. The authors do not accept responsibility for any harm resulting from their use. Cover photo: Kalumba, Alphonse making up baskets at Kubana village from Mbamba ( Eremospatha haullevilleana) “The best time to plant a tree is twenty years ago, the second best is now ” Chinese proverb. This edition is dedicated to Professor Luc Pauw els, director of the Kisantu Botanic Garden from 1968 to 1974. 1 The authors Paul Latham is a retired Salvation Army officer, who has worked in Africa for over twenty years, mostly spent on farmer training in East Africa. More recently he has worked with a Salvation Army rural development programme in the Bas-Congo province, D.R. Congo and was involved in the development of a beekeeping project in that province and the preparation of a number of teaching booklets for farmers. He is married and now lives in Scotland. Paul Latham, Croft Cottage, Forneth, Blairgowrie, PH10 6SW, U.K. E mail paul@latham9.fsnet.co.uk Augustin Konda ku Mbuta is a biologist. He is a researcher in applied ethno-pharmacology at the I nstitut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé (I .R.S.S.) in Kinshasa. He has been the organiser of ANAMED D.R. Congo since 1996 and promotes traditional knowledge of medicinal plants for health and welfare. Upon request, he hosts seminars and workshops across the country on natural medicine for healers, nurses, farmers and teachers. I n 1999 he created and now manages Bumbu's Centre de Santé de Médecine Naturelle et Moderne in Kinshasa, which puts ANAMED's knowledge into practice. He also manages the educative and productive garden of medicinal plants at Mingadi, in Kinshasa's suburbs. He has been a consultant on the biology of bees and bee botany on the APEFE SNV project in Bas-Congo. He is author of numerous scientific articles on ethnobotanics and co-writer of pamphlets and posters on natural medicine. He is married and lives in Kinshasa. E mail anamed_kin@yahoo.fr Then God said, "Let the land produce vegetation: seedbearing plants and trees on the land that bear fruit with seed in it, according to their various kinds." And it was so. The land produced vegetation: plants bearing seed according to their kinds and trees bearing fruit with seed in it according to their kinds. And God saw that it was good. Genesis 1:11,12 NIV In humble praise of Him who has made all things well. 2 Contents Volume 1 I ntroduction and acknowledgements 4 Useful plants of Bas-Congo 4 Map of Cataractes & Lukaya districts of D.R.Congo 6 7 – 284 Plants in alphabetical order Volume 2 285 – 502 Plants in alphabetical order Some unidentified plants used as vegetables 503 Some wild edible mushrooms 504 - 510 Traditional processing of cassava 511 - 520 References 521 - 532 Glossary 533 – 535 I ndex of general photos 536 I ndex of edible caterpillars 537 - 538 I ndex of Kikongo names 539 - 545 I ndex of common names 546 - 551 I ndex of scientific names 552 - 558 3 I ntroduction and acknow ledgements The first edition of this book was produced as a result of a request by The Salvation Army in the Democratic Republic of Congo, for a manual for use by staff of the Projet de Développement I ntégré (P.D.I .) which operated in Bas-Congo province. The publication of that, and the present edition, has been largely financed by salvationists and friends in the United Kingdom. The authors are most grateful for their encouragement and support. We would especially like to thank Professor Luc Pauwels, to whom this book is dedicated, at one time director of the Jardin Botanique de Kisantu, for his willingness to share his knowledge of the plants of the province and for helping us to identify most of them from herbarium material and photos. We are also grateful to the late Kibungu Kembelo and to Nsimundele Nkondo, also past directors, for their help in this respect. We greatly appreciate the help of the staff of the library at the Royal Botanical Garden, Edinburgh in researching information on the wider uses of the various plants. We would also like to thank most sincerely Dr. Marco Schmidt and Dr. Stefan Dressler of the West African Plant database, Dr. Gaby Schmelzer of the PROTA Europe office, Quentin Luke, botanist with the East African Herbarium, Stephen Davis, database manager SEPASAL and Quentin Meunier, botanist specializing in tropical tree propagation and cultivation, for checking this edition and for their valuable comments. Our thanks also go to Dr. Hans Martin Hirt, the director of ANAMED, and to the ANAMED team in D.R. Congo, for their voluntary work in helping people to a better understanding of the medicinal value of the plants around them. Most of the information on the various uses of the plants comes from their work with the people. We would also like to thank the organizations that funded our visits to meet traditional healers throughout the province. Among others these included:- l’I nstitut de Recherche en Sciences de la Santé (I RSS), Difaem, Buwetu, COE, Misereor, CFI -HFB, Dialog international, Diocèse de Rottenburg We are grateful to a number of people who have kindly allowed us to use their photographs. These have been acknowledged in the text. The book also contains photographs of people we have been privileged to work with or have met during our visits. We wish to thank them for allowing us to include them here. Unless indicated otherwise photographs were taken by the authors. The province of Bas-Congo has been well researched in past years and the following sources of information, have been particularly useful:- Gillet J. & Pâque E. (1910) Plantes principales de la région de Kisantu ; Gillet, J. (1927) Catalogue des plantes du Jardin d’Essais de la Mission de Kisantu; De Wildeman, E. (1934) Documents pour l'étude de l'alimentation végétale de l'indigène du Congo-belge; Drachoussoff, V. (1947) Essai sur l'agriculture indigène au Bas-Congo; Renier, M (1948) Flore du Kwango; Compère, P. (1970) Carte des sols et de la végétation du Congo, du Rwanda et du Burundi – Ch. 25 Bas-Congo; Daeleman, J. & Pauwels, L. (1983) Notes d'ethnobotanique Ntandu (Kongo) and Pauwels, L. (1993) Nzayilu N'ti. Useful Plants of Bas-Congo Bas-Congo province lies between the coast and Kinshasa in the Democratic Republic of the Congo. I t covers an area of nearly 55,000 km sq. and has an estimated population of about 5 million. Soils in the districts of Cataractes and Lukaya in which the study is based are either deep sand or clay. Altitude at Kisantu is 530 m, with a rainfall of 1474 mm per year and an average temperature of 22° C. Traditionally people have used a wide range of plants and plant products for their daily needs - poles from certain trees for building their homes; timber for making furniture, tools and equipment; suitable trees for firewood or charcoal; various leaves for vegetables; fruits and seeds which can be eaten, made into drinks or used medicinally or to control pests; forage plants for livestock; food plants for edible insects and plants whose flowers are visited by honey bees for nectar and pollen. The variety of products obtained from the local forest or savanna is vast and life becomes progressively more difficult if these resources are unavailable locally and have to be brought in from any distance from the village. The importance of having good medical resources and safe water available for rural and urban dwellers in developing countries has been well publicised but equal importance needs to be given to maintaining the availability of a wide range of useful plants on which rural, and also urban life depend. Without many of these products life becomes harder, particularly for the poorest. 4 The forest fallow, in particular, is a resource which is not only vital for replenishing soil fertility in BasCongo but contains a wide variety of useful plants and insects. Traditionally the area for fallow was designated by the village chief and was sometimes enriched by scattering the seeds of valuable trees such as Pentaclethra macrophylla and P. eetveldeana and of Millettia versicolor or the planting of Milicia excelsa and various palm trees etc. (Drachoussoff 1947 p 492, see also Compère, P. (1970), Getahun et al. in MacDonald (Ed.) 1982, Nsimundele Nkondo et al. 2010). Many villages however no longer maintain the forest fallow system and have experienced real hardship through declining crop yields, increased erosion and loss of bio-diversity. Where there is access to transport the increased demand for charcoal has meant that trees have been cut down and removed before the fallow reached maturity. Other causes have been the increase in population, the lack of properly maintained fire-breaks and the invasion of the exotic Chromolaena odorata which smothers the often slower growing indigenous plants. Yet it has been shown that the annual value of honey and edible caterpillars alone, produced from an area of forest, can far exceed the value of food crops produced at the end of the fallow period off the same area (Munthali & Mughogho 1992). On the other hand by systematically felling the forest every 15 to 20 years not only is maximum use made of the built up fertility for staple crop production, but biodiversity is enhanced, as species which are more light demanding are able to become re-established. Though much maligned for being wasteful and inefficient the traditional slash and burn system of farming does maintain bio-diversity and thus the range of products required by the village (Nye & Greenland 1960). Areas of primary forest, such as would be found in certain forest reserves and national parks, are also of vital importance in maintaining biodiversity. Though the plants listed include some of the major staple food crops and exotic fruit trees with which many people will be familiar, we have tried to include information on their recommended propagation and cultivation as well as their various local uses etc. We have also included information about plants which are less well known and for which information is not so easily found. A number of the species covered are not normally cultivated and some are increasingly difficult to find in the wild. Some of these plants are cultivated in other parts of Africa or elsewhere and farmers and development workers are encouraged to try the various methods of propagation mentioned or to try out their own methods. Again a wide range of uses is suggested for many of the plants and again some of the uses listed have come from other countries. I t may be worth trying some of these out though great care should be taken with some of the medicinal or food uses given as correct preparation is often very important. Where there are other uses, which have not been mentioned here, we would be very glad to have information. A companion volume, “Some honeybee plants of Bas-Congo province”, by the same authors, gives similar information on a number of plants not covered in this book (see References in Volume 2). A village near Mbanza Nzundu 5 Cataractes & Lukaya districts in Bas-Congo Province Democratic Republic of Congo Bas-Congo province (in red) 6 Abelmoschus esculentus (Malvaceae) Synonym Hibiscus esculentus Common names Dongo, lonto (Kongo), dongo dongo (Lingala), gombo (Fr.), okra Description An erect annual herb which may grow up to 4 m. high. Leaves are 3 to 5 lobed, spirally arranged and may be up to 50 cm in diameter with a petiole of similar length. The solitary yellow flowers have a purple centre and arise from the leaf axils. Fruit is produced during the rain season and is a cylindrical capsule 5 – 35 cm long and 1 – 5 cm in diameter. Ecology A few plants are generally grown near the home, often with other vegetables. The plants prefer soils which are well drained, fertile, with adequate organic matter but can also grow on soils of moderate fertility. Propagation Seed is normally used and is best stored in the fruits until required. Soak seeds for 24 hours before planting, discarding any that float. Sow in deeply cultivated land and, if grown commercially, plant rows 60 - 80 cm apart allowing 15 - 20 cm between plants. Management Mulching the crop is beneficial as it provides a cool microclimate for the young plants and suppresses weed growth. The terminal bud is sometimes removed to encourage branching. The fruits should be harvested while they are still crisp and can be snapped easily. 4 - 6 fruits are produced per plant over a period of 30 - 40 days. The harvesting of young fruits encourages vegetative growth prolonging the harvest. Nematode damage is best controlled by crop rotation, avoiding growing on land where okra, cotton, roselle or kenaf have recently been grown, and by applying high amounts of organic manure. Uses The young immature fruits (gombo) are either boiled or fried, being particularly liked in soups and stews because of their stickiness. They may also be dried and powdered and used for flavouring. Leaves and young shoots are eaten, both fresh and fried, either alone or with the fruits and flowers and are a common market vegetable. Eating the plant is known to prevent goitre. The roasted seed can be used as a substitute for coffee. References Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983, Siemonsma & Kasem Piluek 1993, Burkill 1997, Schippers 2002, Siemonsma & Kouamé 2004, SEPASAL (Accessed 6.12. 2013) 7 Abelmoschus manihot (Malvaceae) Synonym Hibiscus manihot Common names Kingombo (Kongo), sunset hibiscus Description An annual or perennial shrub 1 – 3 m tall. The root system is fairly shallow. I n the tropics the plant is usually perennial and rarely flowers. Stems are erect, woody and branching and the prickly hairs found in wild species are absent. Leaves are simple, alternate and extremely variable in shape, colour and marking. Flowers are large, bell shaped, 7 – 15 cm diameter, pale yellow with a dark brown or reddish central heart. This species has much smaller fruits (3.5 – 6 cm long) than okra. The fruits are not normally eaten because they are covered with prickly hairs. Ecology Originally from S.E. Asia. Sometimes grown in compounds and as a hedge. Altitude range 0 – 1,200m. Grows best in well drained loams. Propagation Cuttings grow slowly in the first 2 – 3 months. However after harvesting starts the plant develops a compact bushy growth. Management I n well weeded, fertile soils or when mulched produces larger leaves. the plant Uses Leaves and young fruits are eaten in Bas-Congo. The leaves and young tops can be eaten either raw or cooked and have a protein content of up to 4.1% . They become slimy on cooking. The plant is also grown as an ornamental. References Terra 1966, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Gurnah 1993, Siemonsma & Hamon 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 Photos: Dinesh Valke 8 Abelmoschus moschatus (Malvaceae) Common names Dilendila, kingombo (Kongo), gombo musqué (Fr.), musk mallow All photos: Phuong Tran Description An erect hairy bush up to 2 m high. Leaves are extremely variable. Flowers are regular, bisexual, yellow with a purple centre. Fruit is a capsule containing black seeds. Ecology I ntroduced and cultivated in West Africa. Possibly originally from western Asia and Polynesia. Propagation Musk mallow is grown from seed. Uses I n Bas-Congo the crushed leaves are used to treat rheumatism. Leaves and young shoots are widely eaten in soups or as a vegetable. They have good nutritional value. I n D.R. Congo the crushed leaves are reported to reduce the pain in rheumatism. Stem bark yields a jute-like fibre which is suitable for string. The seeds are widely used as a scent and to protect clothing from insect damage. References Staner & Boutique 1937, Burkill 1997, Sri Hajati Widodo 1999, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 9 Abrus precatorius (Papilionaceae) Common names Ngenguba (Kongo), lucky bean Description A sub-woody creeper with stems up to 3 m long and 1.5 cm thick. Small white or purple flowers are borne in dense racemes and are very conspicuous. Seeds are bright scarlet with a black spot at one end. Ecology An introduced plant, native to I ndonesia. I n Bas-Congo the plant is frequently found in the savanna but also in villages or around homes. I t grows throughout the tropics and sub-tropics in thickets, clearings and secondary forest, often in slightly damp places and can be highly invasive. Uses I n Bas-Congo the leaves are either eaten fresh or boiled and the liquid is drunk to treat stomach pain, increase breast milk in lactating mothers and to relieve coughing or asthma. The seeds, after soaking in water, are used to control intestinal worms and as an emetic but, unless cooked, are known to be highly poisonous. The seeds are also used as necklaces. The plants are boiled in water and the liquid given to treat Newcastle Disease in poultry. The roots are sweet tasting and resemble liquorice. Elsewhere the leaf is commonly chewed or sucked for its sweet taste. I t is boiled with food as a sweetener and eaten as a vegetable. The plant has possible use as a green manure. The pulped leaf and sap is used to treat sores, cuts and wounds and the fresh leaves may be pressed on to the gums to relieve mouth sores. There are numerous other medicinal uses. Stems yield a fibre used for basket making. The flowers are very attractive to bees. An extract from the plant is reported to have virus-controlling properties. Remarks A. canescens (nzala kwenda) is also present. The plant is rubbed on the legs of children who have difficulty walking. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 -68, Wild 1972, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Burkill 1995, Stoll 2000, SEPASAL (Accessed 6.12.2013) 10 Acacia auriculiformis (Mimosaceae) Common names Acacia (name used in Bas-Congo), northern black wattle Description Usually a low to medium sized tree 8 - 20 m high, heavily branched with a short, crooked trunk. I mproved straighter varieties are now being produced. Leaves are replaced by curved phyllodes, 10 – 16 cm long by 1 – 3 cm wide. The yellow flowers are followed by twisted pods containing small black seeds attached to the pods by a bright orange cord. Acacia auriculiformis grown for charcoal Ecology Originally from Australia, the tree grows on a wide range of deep and shallow acid soils low in nitrogen and organic material and is particularly useful for poor, sterile, sandy soils with a moderate rainfall. However adequate phosphorus is needed for good nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Branches break in high winds and the tree is not fire resistant. I t also does not withstand drought as well as Eucalypts and will not grow in waterlogged soils. Propagation Sow seed direct or transplant nursery grown plants. Seeds remain viable for 4 years. Seeds should be put in boiling water which is then allowed to cool. Soak for 24 hours. Germination rate ranges from 40 to 80% . Seedlings are susceptible to weed competition in the early stages. Cuttings can be taken from young twigs. Management Stems generally grow crooked though selection should be able to produce improved form. The tree coppices poorly but, after felling, a good crop of seedlings usually emerge. Growth may be up to 6 m in 2 years or 17 m in 8 years. I n I ndonesia and Malaya annual wood production of 17 - 20 cubic metres per ha. with rotations of 10 12 years is achieved. Even on poor soils production reaches 10 cubic metres per ha. per year in moist conditions. Uses The wood is mainly used for fuel, producing from 16 - 25 tons/ ha. Timber is dense and has a high energy value, making it popular as firewood. The charcoal produced glows well and burns without smoke or sparks. The tree produces a 11 I mbrasia obscura feeding on leaves good fine-grained timber. Branches can be used for rough poles though they are often crooked. The tree is planted as an ornamental or shade tree as it withstands city heat better than many others. Tannin can be obtained from the bark. I t is useful for smothering coarse grasses including I mperata but Chromolaena odorata thrives beneath it. Because of its densely matted root system it is useful for stabilizing soils on steep sterile slopes. The fallen leaves produce large amounts of litter, which is not eaten by stock, is nitrogen rich and builds up both fertility and tilth. Bees collect some pollen from the flowers. Edible fungi grow on the wood. I n Bas-Congo Lobobunaea phaedusa, I mbrasia obscura, I mbrasia eblis and I mbrasia epimethea edible caterpillars feed on the plant. Often people transfer caterpillars found in the bush/ forest to an Acacia tree in the village to rear the caterpillars and sometimes will allow them to pupate, in which case they are likely to return the following season. Remarks A possible soil borne disease frequently affects trees and makes the planting of pure stands risky in Bas-Congo. I t is preferable to plant a mixture of species. References Leloup 1956, NAS 1979, 1980, 1983, Turnbull 1987, Mbuya et al 1994, Turnbull & Kamis Awang 1997, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 28.2.2013) Traditional forest fallow (nkunku) near Mayenga village (see page 4) 12 Acacia mangium (Mimosaceae) Common names Mangium, black wattle Description A single-stemmed evergreen tree or shrub that grows to 25 - 35 m tall. Bark in older trees is rough, hard, fissured near the base. The phyllodes, modified leaves, are up to 25 cm long and 3.5 10 cm broad, often straight along one side and curved along the other. The inflorescence is composed of many tiny white or cream flowers. Pods are coiled when ripe, 3 - 5 mm wide and 7 - 10 cm long. Ripening pods change from green to brown, becoming stiff and dry. Seeds are black and shiny. Photo: J. Lejoly Ecology Originally from the tropical rain forests of Queensland in Australia. I t grows well on disturbed or burned sites, and on very poor and eroded sites invaded by I mperata grass. The tree can grow on acid soils. I t grows best in full sunlight. Propagation Most easily grown from seed but also grown by air-layering and from cuttings. Collect pods when they turn brown. Dry away from sun and extract seed immediately. Seed can be stored for up to 2 years. I mmerse seed in boiling water for 30 seconds then soak in cold water for 24 hours. The germination rate is high. Seeds may be sown in seedbeds and pricked out 6 – 10 days after sowing. Management Seedlings are transplanted into the field when 25 – 30 cm high. The site is usually burned to remove grass competition and the stems are then trampled down. Spacing is normally 3 m x 3 m. Where there is heavy I mperata growth the area surrounding the young tree can be cleared with a machete every 1.5, 3 and 5 months and between rows at 3 months. Canopy normally closes after 9 months to 3 years, depending on fertility. As the plant hybridizes with A. auriculiformis to give a poor form of the latter it should be grown separately. Natural regeneration often takes place after fire. Uses The wood makes good quality charcoal. I t is an important source of timber and is used for construction, boat building, furniture and veneers. I t makes attractive furniture. However it contains knots and flutes, is likely to rot and is often attacked by termites. The tree is planted to control erosion. Because of its dense foliage, which is present throughout the year, the tree makes a good shade tree. I t can also be planted as a wind or firebreak. Trees fix nitrogen improving soil fertility and can be grown with maize or groundnuts. References NAS 1979, NAS 1983, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 6.5.2013). 13 Acalypha w ilkesiana ‘Marginata’ (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Acalypha, beef steak plant, copper leaf Description A densely branched shrub 1 – 3 m tall. Leaves are 10 – 20 cm x 5 – 15 cm, having toothed edges, and are brown or green with a white border. Many cultivars exist. Ecology Originally from the islands of the Pacific. Propagation Easily grown from cuttings. Management Space 1 m apart for a hedge. Pinch out the tips to encourage branching. Uses Grown for its ornamental foliage. I t is widely cultivated in the tropics as an ornamental, but also used as a hedge plant. The leaves and young shoots are used as vegetables in some areas, being eaten with rice dishes. The plant is also fed to livestock and is eaten by rabbits and guinea pigs. The flowers are attractive to honeybees. References Gillet 1927, Van den Abeele & Vandenput 1956, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Mansfeld (Accessed 28.1.2013) 14 Acanthospermum hispidum (Asteraceae) Common names Madiata nzau (Kongo)(diata = be crushed, nzau = elephant; the elephant crushes the plant without it being harmed), hispid starbur, bristly starbur Description An erect much branched, bushy annual up to 60 cm high having hard spiny bracts. The plant is feared by anyone going barefoot! Stems are covered with coarse white hairs. Leaves are simple 6 – 8 cm long by 2 – 4 cm broad. The flowers are pale greenish-yellow. The fruits are star shaped achenes (small, dry, thin walled fruits) covered with sharp hooked bracts, two of which are horn shaped and longer than the others. This feature differentiates it from A. australe which is also present. Ecology Originally from tropical America. A common weed of cultivation, pastures, roadsides and widespread in West, Central and East Africa. Propagation The plant reproduces by seed. The fruits attach themselves to clothing and animal fur. Uses I n Bas-Congo an extract of the leaves is used as an anti-spasmodic, and to treat eczema and haemorrhoids. The leaves, mixed with chalk and oil are rubbed on the body to improve strength. Honeybees were seen collecting pollen and nectar in December. Photo: Dinesh Valke References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Agyakwa & Akobundu 1987, Neuwinger 2000 15 Acosmium panamense (Papilionaceae) Common names Bilihuete (Fr.), Billyweb Sweetia Description A tree growing up to 40 m high. The trees seen at Lembulu were 8 - 10 m high and were seen in flower in January and February. Acosmium panamense in secondary forest at Lembulu Ecology An introduced tree from South and Central America. Uses The tree makes a good fire break and is recommended for use in re-afforestation. I t has a bitter bark, which is used for the treatment of scrofula and malaria. Wood is strong and durable and can be used for tool handles and heavy construction work. The tree is reported locally as a good bee fodder with abundant flowering. Acosmium panamense bearing fruit at Nkundi in Manianga District References Uphof 1968, Pauwels et al. 1999. 16 Acridocarpus smeathmannii (Malpighiaceae) Description A straggling or climbing shrub growing 3 - 4.5 m high. Stems may be up to 6 cm in diameter. Young shoots are rust coloured, older stems being green and grey. Leaves are up to 12 cm long and 5 cm wide, thick and become narrower at the base. Flowers are yellow. The bright red-purple fruits have wings and are 5 cm long by 1.5 cm wide. Acridocarpus smeathmannii growing beside the track near Kinsambi Ecology I n forests the plant grows as a creeper, in savanna as a shrub. I t is usually present in forests near water, though plants are also present in savanna woodland. Present from Liberia to Angola. Uses The shrub is sometimes grown as an ornamental. I n Nigeria the leaf sap is used as an eye lotion. I t is also used to treat Onchocerca worm infection and taken internally for fever. The root is pounded and taken in a decoction for colic and constipation. References I rvine 1961, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Bongers et al. 2005 17 Adansonia digitata (Bombacaceae) Common names Nkondo (Kongo), pain de singe (Fr.), monkey bread, baobab Description A massive deciduous tree with a bottle shaped trunk and not more than 20 m tall. I t may have a girth of 20 m. Leaves are shed in the dry season. Ecology The tree is sometimes found on the site of old villages though is not particularly common in Cataractes and Lukaya districts of Bas-Congo. Found in most countries south of the Sahara. Grows on well drained soils and is drought resistant. Propagation Can be grown from seed. I mmerse in hot water, allow to cool and then soak for 24 hours. Seed can be stored for a long time if kept cool and dry. Germination takes place over a period of 3 - 6 months, but good seed can germinate after 30 - 50 days. Seedlings are fragile during their early stages. Management The tree is fire and termite resistant and coppices well. Right: I nside the fruit pod showing the edible pulp Uses The dry pulp surrounding the seeds is eaten. The pulp is high in vitamin C and can be made into a refreshing drink which is taken to treat fever and dysentery. I t is also used to curdle milk and to coagulate the latex of Landolphia heudelotii. The seeds can be ground up to make a flour which is then boiled and eaten or used to make a cake. Though the leaves are rich in vitamin C, and are eaten as spinach elsewhere, they do not appear to be eaten in Bas-Congo. They can also be dried and powdered and used in soups. Fallen leaves provide a good livestock fodder in the dry season. Young foliage is sometimes cut for the same purpose. Roots may be cooked and eaten or used as a tonic after a bout of malaria. A soluble red dye is obtained from the root. I n some drought prone countries the trunk, after being hollowed out, is used to store water. Fibre from the inner bark is strong and durable and widely used for rope, baskets, nets and cloth making. Glue is made from the pollen mixed with water. The ash from the bark and fruit, boiled in oil, f it is used as soap. The smoke from burnt pith is used to smoke fish and keep insects away from stock. The fruit shells are used to make utensils. The fruit can be fed to livestock. The roots and bark are used medicinally. The flowers are attractive to bees. 18 The leaves are also rich in vitamin C Remarks Pollination is mainly by bats, moths and flies. References De Wildeman 1903, Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Wickens 1982, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, HDRA 2000, Nsimundele 2004, SEPASAL (Accessed 6.12.2013) Preparing land for planting in Manianga district. Grass is put in heaps, covered over with soil and then set on fire. Cassava cuttings are planted in the mounds. 19 Adenia lobata (Passifloraceae) Common names N’kenketi, mupemba, kalawanti (Kongo) Description A large semi-woody to woody creeper from 5 - 45 m long. The stem may be round or angled and up to 2.5 cm in diameter. Leaves are 3.5 - 25 cm long by 2 - 20 cm wide. Male and female flowers are separate. Adenia lobata growing on a pergola near Kisantu Ecology Found in dense, swamp and riverine forest which may be flooded. Also in secondary or open forest, and sometimes associated with termite mounds in wooded savanna. Rwanda, Burundi, Ethiopia, Angola, Mozambique and from Senegal to Sudan. I t is also present in Propagation Can be grown from cuttings. Management The plant grows strongly and can be trained to grow over a pergola in a similar fashion to passion fruit. Uses The leaves are occasionally eaten as a vegetable in Bas-Congo and elsewhere. They are finely cut before cooking. The leaves of other species of Adenia are also known to be edible. I f the stem is cut, as much as a glass of liquid is produced, which can be drunk. Stems, leaves and leafy twigs have various medicinal uses. As with other species of Adenia, the flowers are very attractive to bees. Stems are used for tying items temporarily. Remarks The plant regenerates rapidly after bush fires. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, Williamson 1975, Ambougou 1991, Peters et al. 1992, Konda et al. 1992, FAC 1995, Burkill 1997 20 Aerva lanata (Amaranthaceae) Common name Muana nkasi (Kongo) Photo: Dinesh Valke Description A straggling, succulent herb, up to about 1 m long growing from a perennial woody rootstock. The stem and branches are covered with yellowish shaggy hairs. Leaves are small, alternate and 1 - 2 cm long. Flowers are produced almost throughout the year. Ecology Grows in fallow land, around villages and common along roadsides, in abandoned fields, damp sites and waste places. I t is present from Sierra Leone to southern Nigeria and across to East Africa. Also present in I ndia, Sri Lanka and Malaysia. Uses The leaves are edible and livestock also eat them. I n Bas-Congo an infusion of the plant is used to treat diarrhoea. The leaves are also used to relieve stomach-ache. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Burkill 1985, Bunyapraphatsara & Lemmens 1999, Neuwinger 2000 21 Aframomum alboviolaceum (Zingiberaceae) Common names Kitundibila, ntundibila, ntundulu (Kongo) Description A herbaceous plant with creeping rhizomes relatively deeply buried, producing stems up to 3 m high. Ecology Common in the savanna in Bas-Congo. Found in the tall grass - tree savanna from Guinea to east Cameroon and south to Zambia. Uses The fruit, called ntundulu, has an acid flavour and is very refreshing. I t is often eaten to ease thirst and fatigue on a journey and is also given to children to ease coughing. The young shoots are chewed to ease toothache and treat swollen gums. The leaves are boiled, together with those of Alchornea cordifolia, and the vapour inhaled to reduce fever. The sap from the rhizome is boiled and eaten with honey to expel worms. Fruit of Kitundibila Nkombo nseke, I mbrasia anthina, and I mbrasia alopia edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Delaude & Breyne 1971, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Malaisse 1997, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Ruffo et al. 2002, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 22 Aframomum angustifolium (Zingiberaceae) Synonym A. sanguineum Common names Kinsansi, binsansi, dinsasa (Kongo), mtunguru, (Swahili), wild cardamom. Description A herb, 1.5 – 4 m tall, growing in dense stands with erect leafy shoots, the stem consisting of long tubular, sheathing leaf bases. Leaves arise in two ranks from fleshy underground rhizomes which are often aromatic and rich in oils. Rhizomes are extensive, up to 15 mm across and covered with stiff red-brown scales up to 7 cm long. Leaf blades are 40 cm x 12 cm, and the tip suddenly narrows to a point. Flower stalk is thick, 30 – 70 cm long, and emerges from the base of the leafy shoot. 4 – 10 large flowers grow in a head of overlapping bracts about 6 cm across. The unusual flowers are very striking, red-maroon-yellow-pink. Each flower has a hooded or concave redmaroon petal, 4 cm x 2 cm, 2 narrow pale pink lateral petals and a yelloworange lower lip, about 7 cm long x 4 cm across which curls underneath. Fruit is a tough orange-red black berry with a smooth fleshy wall, oval, 7 – 9 cm long including the calyx beak, 3 cm across. The oval dark brown seeds are hard and smooth, and surrounded by masses of white sweet-acid pulp inside 3 membranes. Ecology Common in moist areas in forest undergrowth, in riverine vegetation and at the edges of swamps. I t does well at medium altitudes, 1000 – 1700 m, with a rainfall of 900 to 2,200 mm per annum. Adapted to various soil types but does well in sandy clay loam and sandy loam. Widespread in tropical Africa from the Sudan to Mozambique and Madagascar. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Uses The sugary pulp is eaten, especially by children, and the dried crushed seeds are used a substitute for pepper. A volatile oil, resin and colouring matter are present in the fruits. The plant is also grown as an ornamental. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Watt & Breyer Brandwijk 1962, Williamson 1975, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Ruffo et al. 2002, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 23 Aframomum melegueta (Zingiberaceae) Common names Ndungu zi nzo (Kongo), poivre de Guinée, maninguette (Fr.), Melegueta pepper Description A bushy, perennial growing from a short, scaly rhizome with surface roots. Stems grow from 90 cm to 1.2 m tall and are covered with leaf sheaths up to 2 m long. Flowers are up to 13 cm long, trumpet shaped, pale mauve, pink or white, growing from the base of the stem. Fruits are oval in shape, red, 5 - 10 cm long, with white flesh and contain darkbrown seeds. The whole plant is aromatic, especially the seeds. Aframomum melegueta growing in a garden at Kisantu Ecology shaded Grows in forest from Guinea and into central tropical Africa. Widely cultivated with other crops. Prefers well drained soils, even if rocky, but the plant is not drought tolerant. I t requires some, but not excessive shade. Propagation By seed or by division of the rhizomes. Management Cropping commences after 3 years and can be continued for up to 4 years depending on adequate weeding and removal of excessive shading. Fruits are picked when ripe and are usually sun dried. Uses Powdered seeds are used in place of pepper and to aid Photo: Quentin Luke digestion. When eaten fresh with a kola nut they are useful as a cure for coughing. Traditionally in Bas-Congo the powder was sprinkled into the eyes of those suffering from sleeping sickness. The seeds are also used medicinally to cure female sterility, haemorrhoids, mental disorders, hernias, mastitis, rheumatism, asthma, coughing and epilepsy. The fruit flesh is edible, especially before it is fully ripe, and chewed as a stimulant. Photo: I nna Moody References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Van Harten 1970, Lock et al. 1977, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Abbiw 1990, Borget 1993, Burkill 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 24 Agelaea spp. (Connaraceae) Species present in Bas-Congo A. paradoxa, A. pentagyna, A. poggeana and A. rubiginosa. Description A. pentagyna is a scrambling shrub or creeper up to 15, sometimes even 20 m long. Agelaea species have 3 leaflets per leaf. Leaflets are broadly elliptic, the terminal one having the base rounded or wedge shaped, with a pointed tip, 6 – 15 cm by 4 – 11 cm, with some hairs on the lower Agelaea sp., probably A. pentagyna. growing near Kinsambi surface (these are denser on the nerves). The white flowers are fragrant. Flowers are borne in terminal heads 10 – 30 cm long. Fruit is red, egg shaped, 14 – 20 mm long. Seeds have a white aril. A. paradoxa is sometimes common in the under-storey of mature forest. I t has small flowers growing from leaf joints, and bright red fruits 3 cm long, containing a single shiny black seed with a bright orange aril. I t is very similar to A. pentagyna. Ecology With the exception of A. pentagyna, which is usually present in the savanna, plants are normally found in closed forest. Range is from western Cameroon, D.R. Congo to Angola. I t is also present in Kenya. Uses I n D.R. Congo a bark decoction of A. pentagyna is taken for earache. I n Congo (Brazzaville) pain in the side and chest is treated by scraping and drying the bark from the twigs and dusting with a powder prepared from the twigs together with the roots of a species of Rauvolfia. A leaf-tea is drunk for urethral discharge. I n Central Africa sap is dropped into the eye to treat conjunctivitis. I n East Africa root tea is drunk for fever. I n Benin a decoction of leafy twigs is drunk with shea butter to treat convulsions. I n I vory Coast leaf sap is dropped into the nose to treat haemorrhage and headache. I n Madagascar wood tea is drunk for urine retention and general fatigue. The leaves are eaten by an edible caterpillar in Bas-Congo. The liquid from the cut stems of several species of Agelaea can be drunk. The flowers are visited by honeybees. References De Wildeman 1934, Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993, Beentje 1994, White & Abernethy 1997, Neuwinger 2000 25 Ageratum conyzoides (Asteraceae) Common names Mpata kasakula (Kongo), herbe aux sorciers (Fr.), billy goat weed Description An erect soft, hairy, aromatic, annual herb up to 70 cm high reproducing by seed. The stem is weak, branched and softly hairy. The leaves are opposite, ovate, up to 8 cm long and 5 cm broad with a pointed tip and toothed margins. They are softly hairy on a petiole 5 cm long. The flower heads are composed of clusters of about 10 flowers, each up to 7 mm across. The flowers are pale blue or white. Fruits are slender and black and the seeds are dispersed by animals or wind. Ecology A common weed around villages and in fields in Bas-Congo. Present in field crops throughout tropical Africa, though not as common in drier areas. Uses I n Bas-Congo the leaves are considered to be antiseptic and widely used for dressing wounds and burns. They are also used to encourage sweating and reduce fever and in the treatment of conjunctivitis and pneumonia. The plant has also been used as a substitute for salt in D.R. Congo. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees for nectar and pollen. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Burkill 1985, Daeleman & Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Pousset 2004 26 Albizia adianthifolia var. adianthifolia (Mimosaceae) Common name Mulu (Kongo) Description A tree 5 - 10 m high. I t has a few wide spreading branches and a flat crown. The bark is deeply fissured. Leaves are composed of 4 – 8 pairs of pinnae each with 5 – 14 pairs of rhomboid shaped, densely pubescent leaflets 7 – 17 mm long and 4 – 9 mm wide. Flowers are white. Ecology Present in moist savanna regions from Senegal to the Sudan and South Africa. A pioneer species. The tree is common in Bas-Congo and spreads rapidly. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Collect the pods from the tree before they split open. Seed should not be stored for longer than 3 months. Ash is sometimes mixed with the seed to control insects. Wild seedlings can be transplanted. Trials in Uganda on A. grandibracteata and A. gummifera showed that root cuttings and air layering could also be used for propagation. Management Growth rate is moderate and the tree can be grown intercropped with food crops without affecting yields. Uses I n D.R. Congo young leafy shoots, coarsely cut up, are eaten cooked. Fresh leaves are reported to have a protein content of over 10% . Leaves are also used as a vegetable relish in Zimbabwe. A decoction of the leaves is used to improve appetite and digestion in Bas-Congo. The timber is used for pestles, carving and hut building, though it is coarse and soft and not resistant to termites. The firewood gives a good heat but burns quickly. The wood is also used for making charcoal. The tree fixes nitrogen. I n Gabon A. adianthifolia is reported as a bee forage. I n Bas-Congo it is the food plant of two species of edible caterpillar ( I mbrasia eblis and an Anaphe species). References Gillet & Pâque 1910, I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Ambougou 1991, Konda et al. 1992, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Meunier et al. 2010 27 Albizia adianthifolia var. intermedia (Mimosaceae) Synonym A. gummifera var. ealensis Common name Nkasakasa (Kongo) Description A semi-deciduous tree usually 15 - 20 m tall. The crown is light, feathery and flat. The bark is greyish and exudes a yellowish, clear gum. The slash is orange yellow and coarsely fibrous. The leaves are compound with 5 - 7 pairs of pinnae, each with 8 - 17 pairs of small, sessile, rhomboid shaped leaflets. Clustered heads of white flowers are produced in the leaf axils. The pods are straw coloured, flat, hairless, oblong and contain 6 - 8 dark green, flat, oval seeds. The tree is recognized by its flat crown, dark green foliage and rhomboidal leaflets. Ecology I n Bas-Congo the tree is found in secondary forest and farmland and is fast to colonize any clearing. I t is also present in Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, Sudan and Angola and is widespread in tropical Africa. Propagation See the previous species. I t has a moderate growth rate on most soils. Uses The wood is light, soft, straight grained, yellow to light brown, coarse textured, tough and springy. I t works well and easily and is used for general carpentry. As with the previous species the wood is used for firewood but this burns quickly. I t can also be used for charcoal. Ashes are used to make indigo. The trunk yields sassa gum which is used in the preparation of cosmetics and for book binding. I n Bas-Congo a decoction of the bark is used to treat scabies. One of the Minsendi group of edible caterpillars feeds on the leaves. Albizia species have promise as soil improvers because they are well nodulated and fix nitrogen in the soil. However it has very specific rhizobial strain requirements so some soil from existing plants should be used when planting the tree. The flowers are visited by honeybees. References Gillet & Paque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Allen & Allen 1981, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995 28 Albizia chinensis (Mimosaceae) Synonym A. stipulata Common names Chinese albizia, silktree Description A tree usually from 5 to 15 m high, but it can grow up to 20 m. The compound leaves have from 4 to 14 pairs of pinnae each with 20 - 30 pairs of leaflets. The white flowers are 8 - 12 mm long, in heads 20 - 25 mm in diameter, usually borne in terminal panicles. The corolla is white with stamens up to 30 mm long. Pods are flat, 10 - 17 cm long. Seeds are laterally flattened and 7 mm long. Albizia chinensis growing in the botanic garden at Kisantu Ecology The tree, originally from the tropical rain forests of south-eastern Asia, which have an annual rainfall of 1,000 - 5,000 mm, was introduced to Bas-Congo from Australia. I t is particularly suited to poor soils. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Remarks The tree resists wind damage better and boring insects than Falcataria moluccana (syn. Albizia falcataria). Uses Produces a soft, light timber which can be used for furniture and planking and may be useful for paper manufacture. I t is sometimes grown for shade in plantations and for the fertility building value of the fallen leaves. I t is also reported as an important Photo: N.J. Cordeiro, Tanzania Plant Collaboration browse tree. The branches are used for fodder at the end of the growing season when the leaves are past their succulent stage. However they should not be fed to livestock over a long period. References NAS 1979, Pauwels 1993, Wagner et al. 1999 29 Albizia ferruginea (Mimosaceae) Common name Sela (Kongo) Description A forest tree growing to 45 m high with spreading flat branches and a domed crown. Flowers are greenish-white, up to 12 mm long, and are borne in small clusters on hairy stalks. They have long protruding stamens. Albizia ferruginea in flower near Gombe Matadi Ecology Present in the savanna in Bas-Congo. Also present from Senegal to Uganda and south to Angola. Propagation Can be grown from seed or seedlings collected from the wild. See notes on A. adianthifolia var. adianthifolia. Uses A good timber tree with possibilities as an oak substitute. The timber is hard, easy to work and resistant to decay. I n Bas-Congo it is often used for charcoal making. I t is a promising species for afforestation and coppices freely. I t is probable that roots fix nitrogen in the soil. Minsangula, Mimpemba, N'kankiti, Masela and Minsendi edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Bees were seen working the flowers during September. I t is also known as a bee forage in Gabon. References I rvine 1961, NAS 1979, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Keay 1989 30 Albizia lebbeck (Mimosaceae) Common names Langue de femme (Fr.), woman's tongue tree Description A deciduous tree from 5 – 15 m high, with characteristic seed pods. Ecology Originally from tropical mainland Asia it is occasionally planted in villages in Bas-Congo. I t is tolerant to grass fires. The tree is not wind-firm because of its shallow root system. Propagation The tree produces large quantities of seed which germinate easily after being put in boiling water. This is then left to cool for 24 hours. Seed can be stored but must be quite dry. I t can be sown in a nursery or planted direct into the field. The tree can also be grown from stem or root cuttings. I t sprouts root suckers when its roots are injured. Shade inhibits germination and seedling growth. Management The tree is fast growing and can be pollarded and coppiced. Because of its shallow roots it should not be planted near houses. The young plants must be well weeded for the first two years and livestock must be kept away from young trees. Uses The tree is sometimes planted as a shade tree and along roadsides. I t is useful for erosion control and produces small timber which is good for fuelwood and charcoal. The wood is sometimes used for furniture and house construction but is attacked by borers and fungi. I t is difficult to saw. Leaves can be used for fodder. They contain up to 20% protein and the The flowers only last a few days flowers and pods are particularly valuable for fodder during the dry season. The tree fixes nitrogen in the soil and the leaves are useful as mulching and for green manure. The pounded bark can be used as a soap substitute. Bees forage for pollen and nectar, especially at lower altitudes and in dry areas. The light coloured honey has a pleasant flavour. References Gillet 1927, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, NAS 1980, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Mbuya et al. 1994, Burkill 1995, Agroforestree database (Accessed 2.3.2013) 31 Albizia saman (Mimosaceae) Synonym Samanea saman Common names Arbre à pluie (Fr.), rain tree, Saman Description A semi-deciduous tree up to 20 m tall with a wide spreading canopy. Bark is smooth. Leaves are 15 - 40 cm long, with 4 – 6 pinnae, 7 - 15 cm long, and 4 - 8 pairs of leaflets. Flowers are white below, pink above, solitary or in small clusters. Pods are straight with thickened edges, 12 - 20 cm long, containing many seeds embedded in a brownish pulp. Ecology Originally from South America. The tree tolerates most soils, though it grows best in moist conditions. Propagation Usually grown from seed, though it can also be grown from stem and root cuttings. Pods are collected from the ground. Mature seed is immersed in hot water for 3 minutes and then soaked overnight in cool water. Uses The tree makes a valuable shade tree and encourages grass growth below the canopy. The pods are edible and contain a sweet-flavoured pulp. They are also eaten by livestock. The sapwood is a cream colour and the heartwood dark brown, both taking a good polish and used for carving, furniture and panelling. The tree grows back well after being cut down and the wood can be used for firewood and charcoal. The tree fixes nitrogen and root nodulation has been confirmed, however fallen leaves are responsible for the higher nitrogen content of the soil surrounding the tree. Bees are probably the main pollinators. Both photos: I I TA image library. References Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Katende et al. 1995, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 8.3.2013). 32 Alchornea cordifolia (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Kibunsi, kibunsila, bunzi (Kongo), Christmas bush Description Often a scrambling, perennial shrub or small tree up to 4 m high. The stem much branched and bushy when young. Leaves are simple and alternate, 10 - 28 cm long 16.5 cm wide. The leaf blade is heart shaped at the base, pointed at the apex, and borne petiole. Male flowers are borne on long spikes while the female flowers are produced on short is woody, and 6.5 on a long stalks. Alchornea cordifolia beside water at Mingadi Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa in forest regrowth and riverine forest. Found particularly in marshy areas but sometimes in drier sites. I t will grow on acid soils. Propagation Most easily propagated from stem cuttings, which take in about 9 weeks, but can also be grown from seed. Germination takes place after 3 -12 weeks when directly planted into moist soil. Management Coppice regrowth is vigorous and better than many other species. Uses I n Bas-Congo the stems are used as poles and the red fruits attract birds, which are then trapped using latex smeared on the twigs. Traditionally the fruits were used as a black dye for clothing. The juice from the leaves is reported to be effective in treating scabies. The bark is chewed for tooth ache and coughs, and a decoction of the roots is taken to treat dysentery. I t is widely used medicinally and the leaves have been shown to be effective in the treatment of diarrhoea. The tree is reported to Male flowers improve soil fertility and is known to be effective in restoring calcium levels particularly in acid soils. I t is one of the first trees to re-establish in land infested with Chromolaena odorata. I t produces good firewood, stakes and abundant foliage. The dried leaves can be used to make a tisane. The tree is recommended as a browse plant for livestock. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees from June to August. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Castagné 1983, Cobbina & Reynolds 1988, Kang & Reynolds 1989, Pauwels 1993, Slaats 1995, Neuwinger 2000, Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 33 Aleurites moluccana (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Noix des I ndes, bancoulier (Fr.), candlenut tree, I ndian walnut Description An evergreen, monoecious tree, 15 m tall, with a heavy, irregular, crown, which appears whitish from a distance due to the white hairs which cover the young growth. Bark is grey and rough. The simple leaves are borne in clusters at the ends of the branches. Petioles are up to 16 cm long. Leaves are alternate, oval, 12 – 15 cm long by 6 – 8 cm wide with entire margins and a pointed apex. Male and female flowers are borne separately, the male flowers more numerous and opening earlier in bunches around the female flowers. The olive green fruits contain whitish flesh and one or two black seeds with hard shells. Ecology Originally from the drier areas of S.E. Asia. I t is able to grow on poor sand soils. The tree is sometimes grown as an avenue tree. Propagation Usually grown from seed or from wild seedlings. The germination rate is between 30 and 40% and seeds can be cracked, scarified or heated and cooled several times to improve germination. Sow seeds 3 – 10 cm deep. Seed can be stored for up to a year. The tree can also be grown from cuttings. Management Plant out at 10 x 10 m square. The tree can be coppiced or pollarded. Collect the nuts from the ground after the outer coat has decayed. Sun dry and extract the kernels mechanically by crushing, heating and cooling. Uses The wood is used for firewood and the seed for food and oil extraction. The tree is also useful for shade and for ornamental purposes. Seeds have a high fat content (65% ) and may be pounded and ground to a paste which then adds texture and flavour to food. Uncooked nuts are poisonous. The seed oil, called candle-nut or lumbang oil, is used industrially in paints, varnishes, soap manufacture and in wood preservation, for illumination in lamps and in candles. The fruit is used as a mild purgative and against hair loss. A mature tree can yield 5 – 30 kg oil per year. The seed is used as a spice in I ndonesia. The oil cake is a valuable source of nitrogen and phosphorus fertilizer. The tree grows well in sedge infested fields. Wood is light and can be made into small items of furniture and implements. References Gillet 1927, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Siemonsma 1999, van Wyk 2005 34 Allanblackia floribunda (Clusiaceae) Common names Nionzo, nzibu (Kongo), vegetable tallow tree Description An evergreen dioecious tree up to 30 m tall. Leaves are opposite, elliptic to ovate, 8 – 25 cm by 3 – 8 cm on short petioles. Flowers are produced in a terminal raceme or panicle with short branches, or flowers may be single or in pairs in leaf axils. They are pinkish or reddish, rarely white. Fruits are 20 – 50 cm long, containing 40 – 80 seeds which are embedded in a pink coloured aril. Ecology Present in the rain forest zone from Nigeria, east to the Central African Republic and eastern D.R. Congo, and south to northern Angola. Propagation Seed germination can take 6 - 18 months and germination rates are very low. Cuttings can be grown in a non-mist propagator and take 6 months to root. Both male and female trees must be planted. Seedlings are difficult to transplant. Uses The seeds, after being roasted in ashes, are eaten in times of food scarcity and are also used as bait in traps for small game. The fat obtained from the seed, known as ‘allanblackia fat’ or ‘beurre de bouandjo’ in Congo, is used in making margarine. The fruit’s slimy pulp can be made into jams and jellies. I n D.R. Congo a decoction of the bark or leaves is taken to treat asthma, bronchitis and coughing. The flowers are reported to be visited by honeybees. The bark is used medicinally in Equateur province to stimulate contractions of the uterus and to treat swelling of the spleen. Recently, the international food industry has become interested in the fat as a natural solid component for margarine and similar products. The wood is locally used, but is of secondary importance. I n Nigeria it is used for house construction. Twigs have been used as candlesticks. I n Gabon sap squeezed from the bark is a component of a medicine used to treat urethral discharge. Small twigs are used as chew-sticks or toothpicks. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Pauwels 1993, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 2012, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 6.5.2013) 35 Allium fistulosum (Alliaceae) Common names Ndembi, bola, bola di nseki, niasibola (Kongo), ciboule (Fr.), Japanese bunching onion, welsh onion Description A perennial herb which grows in clumps up to 50 cm high. The welsh onion produces a relatively insignificant bulb up to 10 cm long and 2.5 cm in diameter. Leaves are hollow and 15 - 50 cm long. White flowers are borne in an umbel on a hollow stalk 40 - 50 cm tall. Weeding Allium fistulosum at Cochards farm Ecology Originally from north western China. The plant is grown particularly in Kinshasa (commune de N’sele) and around Mbanza Ngungu. Widely grown in tropical Africa, it prefers well-drained soils with plenty of organic matter. I t tolerates both heavy rainfall and drought, once established, and grows well up to 2,000 m, but prefers altitudes over 1,000 m where it gives better yields. Propagation By division of the clumps. The tops should be reduced by a third when planting out. Plant at 24 - 30 cm between rows and 15 - 20 cm in the row. Management Harvesting may be extended by detaching the outer leafy shoots from the main cluster without disturbing the parent plant. Alternatively the whole plant can be lifted and divided. Plants are usually ready to harvest 60 - 120 days after planting depending on the particular variety. Yield can be up to 20 tons/ ha. Uses A very popular vegetable in Kinshasa and Bas-Congo and also an important commercial crop to farmers in the these areas. Leaves and bulbs are used for flavouring soups, eaten as a boiled vegetable with cassava leaves, fried with simsim, or cooked with pumpkin, fish, meat, beans or eggs. A special delicacy is prepared using hot peppers. The flowers (right) are an important source of nectar in areas where the plant is grown extensively. Flowering is induced by low temperatures once the plants reach a critical size. Blanched leaf bases, produced by earthing-up, may be used instead of leeks. Plants are reported to reduce termite infestation in the garden. References Gillet 1927, Herklots 1972, Purseglove 1972, Siemonsma & Kasem Piluek 1993, Brewster 1994, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 36 Allophylus africanus (Sapindaceae) Common names Kinsamba (Kongo), African false currant Photo: Marco Schmidt www.westafricanplants.senckenberg.de Description A usually shrubby species, but sometimes growing into a small tree which may be recognized very easily by its leaves. The tree branches low down and the young stems are brown and hairy. Leaves are alternate and trifoliate, the terminal leaflet being the largest. Flowers are small creamy-yellow and sweet scented. The flowers are conspicuous but very small, crowded into panicles at the ends of shoots and very attractive to insects. Fruit is fleshy, near-spherical and red to black when ripe. Ecology Usually found in secondary forest, on forest margins and on stream banks in the savanna. I t is commonly associated with ants and termite mounds in D.R. Congo. Widespread in West Africa and also present in East, Central and southern Africa. Propagation Seedlings or wildlings can be used when propagating species of Allophylus. Uses The aril around the seeds is eaten in Bas-Congo. Minsamba and Minkelele edible caterpillars feed on this tree. The wood is of poor quality. Elsewhere the roots and twigs are used as chew-sticks. Wood is white, hard and dense but limited in usefulness by its small size. I t makes good firewood which burns with a clear smokeless flame. The charcoal is especially liked by blacksmiths. Bees find the flowers very attractive. I n the Central African Republic leaves are put in the entrance of beehives to quieten the bees. The plant is used to treat headaches and tooth-ache. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, van Wyk & van Wyk 1997, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Harris & Wortley 2008, Odugbemi 2008, Malaisse 2010, Fayaz 2011 37 Aloe buettneri (Aloaceae) Synonym A. congolensis Common name Ba di nseki Description A low growing succulent plant with spines along the leaf edges. Ecology I n Bas-Congo the plant is found in the savanna and is fairly common. Propagation Stem cuttings, offsets or leaf cuttings may be used. Cuttings root easily. Allow them to dry for several days before planting. The plant can also be grown from seed. Uses The leaf sap is applied to sores, wounds and especially burns. I t is also used to treat skin eruptions (e.g. ringworm), pain in the joints, inflammation of the breast and as a laxative. The leaves are used to treat scabies in goats. The flowers are reported to be visited by honeybees. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Renier 1948, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004 Left: Chopped leaves of Aloe ferox at the ANAMED centre in Kinshasa. 38 Alstonia congensis (Apocynaceae) Common name Nzanga (Kongo). Description A tree from 10 to 15 m high, sometimes having buttresses. Leaves are in whorls of 5 – 8, each being 8 – 24 cm long and 4 – 11 cm wide. They have prominent lateral veins. Flowers are in terminal heads. The paired slender fruits hang down and are conspicuous, being up to 40 cm long. Ecology Occurs in swamp forests. Present from southern Nigeria to the Central African Republic and south to D.R. Congo. Propagation A similar species, A. boonei is grown from seed or wild seedlings in Uganda. The pods are collected before they split open. No treatment is required before planting. Management A. boonei is fast growing. The crowns should not be pruned, but allowed to grow and replace older ones. Uses A timber tree producing light, soft, white wood, used to make musical instruments. The bark, which is bitter and contains echitamine, is reputed to be effective in controlling intestinal worms. The roots are also reported to have a similar effect. However the remedy Young tree growing beside water is said to cause some stomach cramps and tightening of the throat. The bark, sap and leaves are used in Equateur province and elsewhere in D.R. Congo to treat diarrhoea, painful menstruation, haemorrhoids, vaginitis, sexually transmitted diseases, rheumatism, stomach cramp, hernia and problems with the spleen. Elsewhere in Congo, the Mongo people use the smoked leaves to relieve coughs and a decoction of the bark to relieve chest pains. I n Central Africa a root decoction is drunk as an emetic. A bark extract is used to treat malaria. I n Bas-Congo the flowers are reported to be visited by bees. Bees are reported to visit the flowers of Alstonia boonei in Gabon. Remarks As with A. boonei it is advisable not to plant the tree near buildings as the branches break easily in strong winds. References Gillet 1927, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Konda 1991, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Neuwinger 2000 39 Alternanthera sessilis (Amaranthaceae) Common names Ndumbwa (ndumbwa = to be mixed), teta ndumbu, teta ndamba, taka ndumbu, kindumbu (Kongo), brède chevrette, magloire (Fr.), sessile joyweed, dwarf copperleaf Both photos: Wikimedia (Authors not known) Description A very variable creeping annual or perennial herb growing to 60 cm high or more. Leaves are opposite, 1 – 15 cm × 0.2 – 3 cm. I nflorescence is compact, 5 mm in diameter, solitary or in clusters of up to 5, having very small and white to pinkish flowers which are borne in the leaf axils. Fruit is a capsule about 2 mm long, dark brown, containing 1 seed. Ecology Present in dry situations but also in swampy places in the savanna. I t is found throughout West Africa and in warmer places worldwide. The plant possibly originates from tropical America but is now widespread in the tropics and subtropics of the world, including the whole of tropical Africa. Uses Leaves are eaten as a vegetable in BasCongo. The plant is widely eaten as a cooked vegetable or raw as a salad. I t is used to treat fever, stomach disorders, diarrhoea, dysentery and as a plaster for diseased wounds. References Gillet & Paque 1910, Martin & Ruberte 1975, Williamson 1975, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Jansen 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Malaisse 2010 40 Amaranthus hybridus subsp. cruentus (Amaranthaceae) Synonym A. cruentus Common names Mbwembo, ngwengu (Kongo), biteku teku (Lingala), amarante (Fr.), amaranth Description An annual herb up to 2 m tall. The leaves are twice or three times as long as wide and often have pointed leaf tips. This species is known to be highly resistant to root-knot eelworms. A variety called Bowa, with red and green leaves, is also grown. Ecology Cultivated throughout the tropics and subtropics. The growth rate is best at high temperatures, in bright light and with adequate water and minerals. Daily watering is required as shortage of water causes early flowering, reduces yield and produces a poor quality crop. Amaranths grow better than Celosia in open areas, the latter preferring some shade. The crop responds well to organic manure, which tends to encourage leaf production and delay flowering. I t grows well on decomposed town waste. Propagation By seed, but germination is irregular. Planting can be done at any time and the seedlings can be either left in the planting bed and harvested whole or transplanted 20 x 20 cm apart once they are 5 - 8 cm high. The side shoots are then harvested as required. Tender plants need some protection from heavy rain. Right: Amaranthus dubius Management Harvesting can begin 3 to 4 weeks after planting. The crop is either uprooted whole or cut back at a height of 10 - 15 cm to produce side shoots. Cutting low down retards bolting but at least two leaves and buds should be left on the plant. Yields of 30 to 40 tons/ ha may be obtained. Wet rot or stem rot is a major problem, favoured by wet conditions and poor soil fertility. Avoid planting too densely. Caterpillars, in particular, but also grasshoppers and stem borer larvae, can be troublesome. Nematodes are not a serious problem. 41 Uses An important green leaf vegetable with a high dry matter content (9 - 22% ). Average protein content of 100 g edible portion of Amaranthus sp. is 4.6 g. The shoots can be picked regularly at 2 - 3 week intervals and make good spinach. The plant is an important source of vitamins A and C, calcium and iron and also of Lysine, an essential amino-acid lacking in diets based on cassava. Protein concentration is highest before flowering. No more than 200 g of leaves should be eaten per day to avoid oxalate poisoning. Two wild species A. spinosus Bowa di nsende and A. blitum subsp. emarginatus Nkuka bangulu are also eaten in Bas-Congo. Left: Nsunda, Jean Pierre with a plant being grown for seed. References Konda et al. 1992, Martin et al 1998, Schippers 2002, Grubben 2004, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 Kisantu Botanic Garden staff 42 Amorphophallus angolensis subsp. angolensis (Araceae) Synonym A. leopoldianus Common name Ngoma kiula (Kongo) Description A herbaceous plant growing from a large underground tuber. A single leaf, nearly 1 m in diameter, is produced on a stalk 60 cm long. The inflorescence is made up of a dark brown-purple and white bract (below right) enclosing the fleshy flower spike (below left). Ecology Present from D.R. Congo to Angola and elsewhere in tropical Africa. Uses The tubers are bitter, acidic and cause inflammation of the mucous membranes. However the tubers of other species are edible after careful preparation. The plants are sometimes grown as ornamentals. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Fayaz 2011 All photos: © by Wilbert Hetterscheid 43 Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae) Common names Nkasu, mabotu (Kongo), cajou, anacardier (Fr.), cashew nut Description A low sprawling evergreen bush or tree up to 7 m tall. Trees with sparse foliage indicate poor conditions. Shoot growth occurs throughout the year where rainfall is well distributed. Both tap and lateral roots are very extensive. Flowering takes place after the growth flush at the end of the rainy season. The flowering period may extend over 4 months. I nsects especially ants and bees are known to be important for pollination. Ecology Originally from South America. I t is subspontaneous in Bas-Congo. The tree is drought resistant and requires deep, friable, sandy loam soils. Dry weather is needed during flowering and as the fruit matures. Humid conditions during flowering may encourage powdery mildew. Propagation Normally grown from seed. I t is important to select large nuts from a high yielding tree. They should not float when put in water, and should have a high kernel to shell ratio. Dry seed in the sun for 2 days and do not keep longer than 7 months before planting. Soak seeds in water first. Seed should be planted direct into the field. Seedlings grow up to 1 m per year. However if grown in bags first, seedlings should be planted out no later than 7 days after germination. Plant at 5 cm deep, spaced at 15 x 15 m. Uses Both the nut and fleshy fruit are edible. The kernel contains 21% protein, 44% fat and 29% carbohydrate. Though average yields may be only 9.5 kg, up to 60 kg nuts can be harvested from a single tree. The apple is rich in vitamin C and riboflavin. I t is eaten fresh or used to make jam, syrup, juice or candied fruit. The tender young leaves can be used to flavour rice. The leaves are used medicinally to treat diabetes and toothache and the bark for high blood pressure and toothache. The wood is termite resistant and suitable for house building. I t also produces a good firewood and charcoal. The gum obtained from the trunk resembles gum arabic, is a good adhesive, insect repellent and is used for bookbinding. Cashew nut shell oil (CNSL) is an important industrial product used in the production of preservatives and for waterproofing. I t is also used for brake and clutch linings and in insecticides and fungicides. The fleshy fruit is rubbed on the gum to treat toothache in Bas-Congo. Bees frequently visit the flowers for both pollen and nectar. The honey produced is light when first collected but becomes darker when stored. I t granulates slowly. The yellow, oily liquid from the shell of the nut contains cardol, which is caustic and blistering. I t is mixed with chalk to make an ink for tattooing and marking clothes. References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Ohler 1979, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Pauwes 1993, Lakshmi et al. 2000, Raemaekers 2001, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 44 Some edible insects in Bas-Congo I nsects are an important part of the diet in Bas-Congo. Here a cricket, Nzenze’ (Brachytrupes sp.), is dug out of its burrow underground. A tell-tale pile of soil on the surface is the only sign to guide the hunter. (See also page 267) Right: Kungu nsudi grasshoppers feed in groups, so can be caught in greater numbers. They are also called Fwetete, Matuana and Mankonko ma matebo. Left: Bunaea alcinoe collected from Cananga odorata on the school compound at Kavwaya 45 Ananas comosus (Bromeliaceae) Common names Kikakasi, nanasi, kifubu (Kongo), ananas (Fr.), pineapple Description A perennial, semi-succulent plant, 50 – 150 cm tall. Leaves are gutter-shaped, up to 1 m long and channel rain-water down the stem. Fruit can be 20 cm long with a diameter of 14 cm and weigh 1 – 2.5 kg. Smooth Cayenne is the cultivar most commonly grown, the leaves having no spines. Ecology Originally from South America. Low altitudes produce very sweet fruit while altitudes above 2,000 m produce acid fruit. I n Bas-Congo the plant is sometimes found growing wild in the forest but is also commonly planted. Good drainage is important and the soil should be deeply cultivated and not compacted. Cloudy days reduce growth and result in small fruits but intense sun during fruit ripening can cause sun-scald. Propagation Can be grown from suckers, slips or crowns. Suckers take only one year from planting to fruiting, slips take a year and a half and crowns generally even longer. They should be stored upside down in the shade until the butt is dried. Plant out at 50 x 40 cm. Management Weeding is important. Remove unwanted suckers and slips. Protect the fruits from sunscald with dry grass. Uses An excellent fruit which is rich in vitamin C. Fresh fruits contain a protein digesting enzyme that is not produced commercially. Eating ripe fruit can help relieve stomach pains. Leaves contain 3% fibre, known as lukonge (Kongo), which is used for tying in Bas-Congo. I n the past it was used for fishing lines. I n the Philippines the fibre is used to make a fine fabric called pina silk. Slightly unripe fruit is eaten to treat tooth decay and to expel intestinal worms but very unripe fruit is toxic and should not be eaten. The water from boiling the roots can be taken to encourage urination. The unripe fruit was used as an abortive and in the preparation of certain nkisi (prepared by the nganga nkisi = herbalist). The juice is used to treat scabies or itch in goats. Remarks Ripe fruit does not travel well, but though unripe fruit may be easier to transport, the taste is often poor. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Nair 1980, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Nakasone & Paull 1998, Raemaekers 2001, Pousset 2004 46 Anchomanes difformis (Araceae) Common names Dioko di kisimbi, kikwa ki bankita, mpansa makunsi (Kongo), forest anchomanes Description A large herbaceous plant arising from a horizontal rhizome up to 80 cm long by 20 cm wide, with distinct annual leaf base scars. The stem or leaf stalk is stout, dark to purplish green, speckled white and spiny, growing to 3 m high. This bears a huge much-divided leaf, up to 1.5 m in width. The flower is borne on a prickly stalk 75 cm long and may be pink, greenish purple-brown or reddish-brown, 10 – 20 cm long, producing red to purplish single seeded berries 1.5 – 2 cm long. Left: Anchomanes difformis in forest near Kinsinga village Ecology Occurs in forested areas, sometimes beside water, and in savanna woodland up to 1,200 m. Present from Sierra Leone to Cameroon and south to D.R. Congo. Also present in Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia. Uses I n Bas-Congo both the leaves and the underground tuber are used medicinally to treat increased heartbeat, hernias and rheumatism. The tuber is boiled with palm oil and used to treat infertility in women. I t is also used to treat hernias in men, being mixed with the fruit of Oncoba welwitschii and Rhipsalis baccifera and boiled up in palm oil. The rhizome is eaten in times of scarcity. Some people say it requires repeated washing in water treated with ashes and prolonged cooking, others report that it can be prepared just as for cassava. I t can also be sun-dried and stored. The rhizome is used medicinally elsewhere in Africa. References Burkill 1985, FTEA 1985, Peters et al 1992, White & Abernethy 1997, Bown 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 47 Aneilema aequinoctiale (Commelinaceae) Common name N’lakisi (Kongo). This name is also used for other species of Aneilema and for Commelina diffusa and other Commelina species. Photo: Muhammad Mahdi Karim/ www.micro2macro.net Description A densely-hairy herb with scrambling or erect stems up to 1.5 m high. Stems are covered with long rusty brown hooked hairs making the plant feel sticky and clinging to clothing and fur. The leaves are alternate, about 14 cm long and 6 cm broad. The inflorescence is a spreading panicle, 10 cm long and 6 cm across, bearing yellow flowers which open between 7 and 10 am. The fruits are capsules with two little horn like projections at the corners. The plant reproduces by seed. There are 4 species of Aneilema present in Bas-Congo. Ecology A weed of cropland and in forest, commonly found under shade and also in plantation crops. Present from Liberia to southern Nigeria and in South Africa. Uses No use is recorded for this plant in Bas-Congo but in East Africa and Zimbabwe the leaves are cooked and eaten as spinach. I n East Africa an infusion of the leaves is given to children as a remedy for kwashiorkor and it is also used as a face wash. Flower nectar and juice are used to treat eye problems. An infusion of the non-flowering parts is drunk or the powder is taken as a snuff for colds in coastal areas. Chimpanzees are known to swallow the leaves whole, not for food, but to expel intestinal worms. I t is thought the rough surface on the leaves helps to physically extract them. References I rvine 1930, Greenway 1937, Renier 1948, Wild 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Peters et al. 1992, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Kokwaro 2009, Wikipedia (Accessed 11.9.2012). 48 Anisophyllea quangensis (Anisophylleaceae) Common names Mfungu mfungu, mfungu (Kongo), mbila esobe (Lingala) Description A shrub 20 – 60 cm high growing from a fibrous rhizome more than 1 cm in diameter. Leaves have petioles 1 - 3 mm long and are 2.5 - 8 long and 1 - 3 cm wide. The fruits are red, 25 - 35 mm long and 13 - 20 mm wide. Ecology Present in the dry savanna where it is often found in patches up to 10 m in diameter. I t is also present in Gabon, Angola and Zambia. The plant has been over-exploited in some places. Propagation Can be planted using seed. Uses The fruits are edible and produced throughout the year. They are rich in vitamin C and have a pleasant, refreshing taste. Honeybees are reported to visit the flowers. A decoction made from boiling the leaves is taken for asthma. The roots crushed and soaked in water are used as an aperitif. References Adriaens 1951, FAC 1987, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Nsimundele 2004 Erosion is often a serious problem on the hard, savanna soils. To protect them, ridges for planting crops should run across, rather than down the slope. Photo: Emmanuel Miaglia 49 Annona muricata (Annonaceae) Common names Mbundu ngombe (Kongo), corossol, corossol épineux (Fr.), soursop Description A shrub or small tree growing from 5 to 8 m high. Leaves are 12 – 13.5 cm long and 4 – 6 cm wide, hairless and shiny on the upper surface. Flowers are solitary and whitish. The prickly fruits are 15 – 20 cm long. Ecology Originally from tropical America, the tree is grown in much of tropical Africa and requires an annual rainfall of 1,000 mm or more. I t grows well in sunlight or partial shade and prefers fairly rich, deep, well drained soils. Propagation Usually grown from seed, which can be stored for several months. Sow seed in a moderately shaded nursery bed, in loose moist soil, rich in organic matter. Germination occurs after 15 - 20 days, but sometimes can take up to 3 months. Transplant in a ball of soil when 15 cm high. Seedlings or grafted plants grow rapidly and usually bear fruit after three years. Trees can also be easily established from cuttings. Young trees should be mulched and watered in the first year. They are ready for grafting after 5 - 6 months. Budding is carried out using a dormant bud taken from 1 year old, well matured wood. Management Generally planted out after 4 months at a spacing of 5 - 7 m. Apply manure in the early stages and add mulch to keep the soil moist and control weeds. Encourage the tree to branch once it reaches 1 m tall. Hand pollination improves fruiting. Fruits must not be picked until ripe. Trees are sometimes attacked by mealy bugs and scale insects. The latter can be controlled with a spray made from hot chillies and sugar-cane alcohol, but preventing the ants, which carry the scale insects, from climbing the trees, is a better remedy. This can be done by wrapping plastic sheet, covered with a layer of grease, around the main stem, just below the first branch. Uses Fruit is eaten fresh, used in sorbets or sieved to obtain the juice. The fruit pulp is rich in vitamins B and C. The leaves can be made into a tea which causes sweating. Remarks The seeds are poisonous and should not be eaten. An insecticide can be prepared from the leaves or seeds of all Annona species. The spray prepared from the seeds is more effective than from the leaves. Crush 40 g seeds and soak them in 1 litre of water for 1 - 2 days. Filter and spray plants affected by ants, aphids etc. Crops can be eaten two days later. Crushed seeds and leaves can also be used to treat head lice but great care should be taken during preparation and use to see that the crushed seeds and leaf pow der do not get into the eyes. References Gillet 1927, NAS 1975, Burkill 1985, Morton 1987, Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Veheij & Coronel 1991, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al 1995, Stoll 2000 50 Annona senegalensis var. oulotricha (Annonaceae) Common names Kilolo, nlolo (Kongo), wild custard apple Description A spreading, slow growing shrub or small tree from 1 to 6 m high. Established trees are fire resisting and sprout readily from the stumps. Ecology A common savanna species in BasCongo. Found all over Africa in semi-arid to sub-humid regions. Grows mostly as an under-storey shrub on light, infertile and shallow soils. I t grows best where water is readily available. Annona senegalensis bearing fruit in January near Kinsadi Propagation Use seed, root suckers or wild seedlings. Seeds may be sown without treatment, though scarification may improve germination. Seeds germinate well on recently cultivated or burnt land. They are susceptible to insect damage and lose viability after 6 months. Root suckers are produced after fire or by mechanical damage. Uses The fruit is edible and good for quenching thirst, but the seeds should not be eaten as they are poisonous if crushed. Stems are used in hut building and for tool handles. The timber makes good firewood. Rope is made from young sucker shoots. The soluble wood ash can be used for making soap. The young leaves and roots are used in Bas-Congo to treat diabetes, painful joints, anaemia and epilepsy and the gum is applied to cuts and wounds to seal them. Elsewhere the bark, leaves, roots and seeds are said to have medicinal and insecticidal properties. Eating the fruit is useful for the treatment of guinea worm. The leaves are eaten by Lobobunaea phaedusa and Minsendi edible caterpillars in Bas-Congo. Honeybees are reported to visit the flowers from September to November. References Butaye 1909, Gillet 1927, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 – 1968, Williamson 1975, Kokwaro 1976, Arkinstall 1979, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, , Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 20.11.2012) Left: Minsendi edible caterpillars feeding on the d d bl ll f leaves. d 51 Annona squamosa (Annonaceae) Common names Pomme cannelle, attier (Fr.), sweetsop, sugar-apple Description A woody, semi-deciduous shrub or small tree growing 3 - 6 m high. Fruits are sweet but also slightly acid. Ecology Occurs at low and medium altitudes throughout the tropics. Generally, it does best in dry areas and it has high drought tolerance. The tree is shallow-rooted and needs a welldrained sandy soil. Propagation Normally grown from seed, which can be kept for up to 3 years, but grafting is used to improve production. The seeds germinate better if left for a week after removal from the fruit. Germination may take 30 days or more but can be hastened by soaking for 3 days, though the number germinating is said to be better using seeds that have not been soaked. Management Pruning to improve shape and strength of the tree must be done only at the start of the rains, when the sap is rising, otherwise pruning may kill the tree. Hand pollinating the flowers can increase yields. Seedlings, 5 years old, can produce 50 fruits per tree. With age, the fruits become smaller and it is considered best to replace trees after 10 to 20 years. I f picked before the white, yellowish or red tint appears between the rind segments the fruits will not ripen but just turn black and dry. However if fruits are allowed to ripen for too long on the tree, they fall apart. Uses The fruit is edible. A highly purgative tea is made from the roots, and a mildly laxative and tonic tea from the leaves. Crushed leaves and seeds can be used to control aphids and other crop pests as described for A. muricata. The leaves may be put in poultry nests to repel lice. References Gillet 1927, Morton 1987, Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Veheij & Coronel 1991 52 Anonidium mannii (Annonaceae) Common names Mobe, mundenge (Kongo) Description A tree 15 - 30 m high with a girth of up to 2 m. The trunk is short, dark grey to dark green. The outer bark is thick and spongy, while the inner bark is fibrous and aromatic. The tree has a dense crown with branches arching down. Leaves have petioles 0.3 – 1 cm long and are 20 – 40 cm long by 7 – 17 cm broad. The tree is easily recognized by its large leaves and the flowers and fruits borne on the trunk and on older leafless branches below the foliage. Flowers are either male or hermaphrodite. Fruits are 20 – 30 cm long, green at first then turning yellow and finally black. I n the botanic garden at Kisantu fruit is produced in January. Anonidium mannii tree at Kisantu botanic garden Ecology Present in dense lowland rain forest in Nigeria, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon, Congo and Ghana. Propagation Can be grown from seed though these are often attacked by insects and fungi and are slow to germinate. Uses Fruit pulp is edible with a sweet/ sour taste, some fruits being sweeter than others. Some people consider it the best of the Annonaceae. I n the Congo pieces of bark are put in water and the liquid drunk for gastro-intestinal problems. The bark, fruit sap, seeds and roots are used elsewhere in Africa to treat a wide range of illnesses including dysentery, coughs, rheumatism, oedema, feverish stiffness in the limbs, wounds, snake-bite, epilepsy, dizziness, caries, angina, to ease childbirth, haemorrhoids, constipation, female sterility, diarrhoea, asthma and rectal prolapse. References De Wildeman 1934, I rvine 1961, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Danforth & Noren 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Termote 2012 53 Anthocleista schw einfurthii (Gentianaceae) Common name Mpukumpuku (Kongo) Photos of tree and flower: Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez Description A bush or tree from 3 to 30 m high with a trunk 8 – 70 cm in diameter. The large leaves may be up to 45 cm long and 3.5 – 18 cm wide. Flowers are white or cream 55 – 60 cm long. Ecology Found both in the bush and savanna, generally in dry sites up to 1,800 m. The tree is common in Bas-Congo and is also present from south-western Nigeria to Sudan and south to Zambia and Angola. Uses I n Bas-Congo a root decoction is taken to prevent malaria, to expel worms and to treat hard abscesses. The white wood does not last in the soil. The leaves are eaten by Mimpemba edible caterpillars. Bees are reported to visit the flowers for nectar. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele Mimpemba edible caterpillar 1966 – 68, FAC 1979, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Neuwinger 2000 Photo: L. Lemaire 54 Antidesma membranaceum (Euphorbiaceae) Synonym A. meiocarpum Common names Zala di nkanka (= squirrel’s nest), fitidi, kifitidi (Kongo), pink tassle-berry Left: Branch bearing fruit Description A shrub or small tree to 15 m high. Bark pale grey, slightly fissured, pink when cut. Twigs and young foliage have a dense mat of short hairs. Leaves are 3.5 – 15 cm long and 2 – 6 cm wide and rather densely hairy on the nerves and on the under surface of the veins. The petiole is slender, about 6 mm long and hairy. The yellowish-green flowers are produced on the main trunk and older branches from just above ground level to 7 m. The male flowers have an unpleasant smell. Fruits are black when ripe, very shortly stalked, oval, 2 – 5 mm long, in racemes up to 25 cm long. Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa from Senegal to I vory Coast, and from Angola to Mozambique where it is mainly found in fringing forest in savanna regions. Right: ( Bisu ) I mbrasia petiveri edible caterpillars feeding. Uses The leaves and an infusion of the roots is used to calm coughs. I n Bas-Congo scrapings from the roots are used to cure mouth ulcers in children. Elsewhere the roots are used to treat pneumonia and kwashiorkor. Powdered bark is used as a dusting on wounds in Tanzania. Bisu ( I mbrasia petiveri) edible caterpillars eat the leaves of this tree. Honeybees are reported to visit the flowers. References Kokwaro 1976, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Coates Palgrave 1996, Nsimundele 2004 55 Antidesma venosum (Euphorbiaceae) Common name Kifitidi ki nseke (Kongo) Description A small tree with a straight, grey trunk growing to 2 - 8 m high. Bark is fibrous, grey or grey-brown, and pinkish-brown when cut. Leaves are alternate with short petioles, oval to elliptic and often rounded at both ends, 3 - 20 cm long and 2 - 9 cm wide, sometimes densely hairy on the under surface. Flowers pale yellow. The male and female flowers hang down in spikes and are on different trees. Fruit is white when young but turns red and then black in long pendulous spikes. Ecology Found in woodland, forest margins and wooded savanna from Senegal to Namibia and from Sudan to Natal. Propagation Can be grown from seed and by dividing the roots. Collect the fruits, dry in the shade and sow in a mixture of half river sand and half loam soil. Cover the seeds with a thin layer of sand and keep moist and warm. Seeds usually germinate after 10 - 20 days. Germination rate is normally 70 80% . Uses The wood is hard but brittle. Poles are used for hut building and the branches make good firewood. Fruits are edible with a slightly acid to sweet mulberry-like taste. A blackpurple dye can be made from them. Flowers are reported to be visited by bees. An infusion made from the leaves and roots is taken for coughs. Minsongo ( I mbrasia anthina) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves in Bas-Congo. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, I mbrasia anthina Wild et al. 1972, Pauwels 1993, Venter & Venter 1996, Ruffo et al. 2002 56 Antrocaryon nannanii (Anacardiaceae) Synonym A. brieyi Common names Kula panda, gonyo (Kongo), manga ya sende (Lingala) Photo: Celine Termote Description A large tree, 20 – 40 m tall, with a straight bole. Bark grey-brown to black-olive, peeling in thick, concave sheets. Leaves are thick, 12 x 5 cm, reddish when young, hairy and 20 - 40 cm long. Fruits resemble mangoes and have a strong turpentine-like smell. They contain a fibrous kernel with very hard wart-like projections. Ecology Present in old woodland on sandy soils in Bas-Congo. Found only in primary and secondary forests in Gabon and D.R. Congo. Propagation The nuts are usually dispersed by animals. The tree can possibly be grown from cuttings using a similar method to that used for Spondias species. Uses Fruit pulp is eaten, though it is very sour. The kernel has a nut-like flavour and is eaten raw or may be pounded and added to season food. The tree produces an attractive mahogany-like timber which is also used as firewood. The whole plant, but especially the leaf, is rich in tannin. An infusion of the leaves is used to treat anorexia in Equateur province. A leaf decoction is used in a vapour bath to treat rheumatism and feverish stiffness of the limbs. Leaf or bark tea is drunk to treat coughs and stomach complaints. Antrocaryon species are reported to be important honeybee forage in equatorial Africa. Remarks The fruit of A. klaineanum (Ngongo - Kongo) is also eaten in Bas-Congo. References Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Neuwinger 2000, Harris 2002, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 2012, Termote 2012, CI RAD website (Accessed 27.6.12), CJB website (Accessed 27.6.2012) 57 Arachis hypogaea (Papilionaceae) Common names Nguba (Kongo), arachide (Fr.), groundnut Description Groundnuts may be either upright, bush types, 30 - 60 cm tall or prostrate, running types, up to 20 cm tall. Mainly bush types are grown in Bas-Congo. The ADEP farmers group, near Mbanza Nzundu with a harvested crop. Ecology The plant is deep rooted and should be preferably grown on a well-drained sandy loam. Calcium deficiency may lead to ‘blind’ nuts. To avoid a build up of pests and diseases groundnuts should not be sown more frequently than every 3 or 4 years. Adequate soil moisture is required at planting, during flowering and as the pods develop. Propagation Seed should be shelled just before planting. Plant 2 seeds per hole, 5 - 7 cm deep. Space 15 - 25 cm apart. Close spacing and early planting helps to reduce ‘rosette’ disease (GRV). Management Groundnuts mature after 3 - 4 months. 1,000 – 1,350 kg per ha is a good yield but 500 kg per ha is more usual. Uses The roasted nuts are an important food in Bas-Congo. A favourite dish is made from peanut butter sauce eaten with mfumbwa ( Gnetum africanum ) or with caterpillars. A vegetable oil can be obtained from the seed. Remarks Bacterial wilt may be serious in wet areas. Resistant varieties are available. I n damp conditions groundnuts can become infected with a mould, Aspergillus flavus, which produces dangerous aflatoxin. Rust and Groundnut Rosette Virus (GRV) are also serious problems. I mproved cultivars are being developed by SADC/ I CRI SAT. Photo: Luc Pauwels References Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1968, Godin and Spensley 1971, FAO 1986, Raemaekers 2001 58 Artemisia annua (Asteraceae) Common names Armoise annuelle (Fr.), sweet Annie, sweet wormwood Description An annual, aromatic herb, which can grow to 2 m high. An improved variety, suited to the tropics, is being promoted by ANAMED using hybrid seed. The plant grows to 3 m high and contains from 1 - 1.4 % artemisinin. This Artemesia plant, growing in a container at the ANAMED centre in Kinshasa, produced 340 g dried, powdered leaves for use as an infusion. Ecology Originally from China. The plant grows best in full sunlight and in sandy soils. Propagation Most easily grown from 2 cm cuttings after removing the leaves. Do not try to collect the seed from existing plants as these will not grow well. Hybrid seed should be sown in seed boxes. Soil should be heated to kill weed seeds before planting. Mix 10 parts old compost or black soil with 10 parts sand. Add 20 parts water and boil for at least 5 minutes. When planting the seeds in a seed box do not cover with soil. Cover the box with clear plastic and make a few small holes in it. Place in a bright place but not in direct sunlight. Do not allow the soil to dry out. Transplant seedlings that are too close. Transplant into pots or bags when 5 cm high and then plant out when 15 cm high to 60 cm apart in the field. Soil should be kept moist after transplanting. Uses The leaves, either fresh or dried, are made into a tea which is used to treat malaria. Leaves should be harvested when the first flower buds appear and cut up and dried within 3 days. They are then crushed and passed through a mosquito net sieve. Remove all pieces of stem. Keep in the dark in an air-tight container. Though WHO do not currently recommend this treatment, it has been found effective by ANAMED in DRC and elsewhere. As a precaution the tea should not be given to women in the first 3 months of pregnancy. The leaves are also used to treat haemorrhoids, colitis and to increase the immunity of AI DS patients. The plant is also used in the treatment of jaundice and skin diseases. References Uphof 1968, Simon et al. 1990, Hirt & M’Pia 2001, WHO 2012 Planting cassava after clearing the forest. Planting new trees at this time and leaving the old tree stumps to regenerate will speed up the return of the forest after the crop has been harvested. Photo: Emmanuel Miaglia 59 Artocarpus altilis (Moraceae) Synonyms A. communis, A. incisus Common names Kikwa ki santu Petelo (Kongo), arbre à pain (Fr.), breadfruit Breadfruit in the botanic garden at Kisantu Description A tree up to 35 m tall producing a wide crown. All parts of the tree produce a white, bitter latex. Fruits are nearly spherical, 15 - 30 cm in diameter, and either contain large seeds (breadnut) or are rough, but not spiny, and seedless (breadfruit). The fruiting season may last for 5 months. Ecology The tree is occasionally found in villages in Bas-Congo. I t thrives in a humid climate at low altitudes. The young plants require some shade, but for fruiting, full sun is needed. I t dislikes shallow or waterlogged soils. Good drainage is essential. Best growth is obtained in deep moist soils with high humus content and high fertility. Right: A young plant grown from a root cutting Propagation The tree can be grown most easily from root suckers. Air layering may also be used or even cuttings, but this is not easy. Root cuttings are taken from mature healthy trees, (indicated by the presence of plenty of latex). These should be taken from roots that lie just below the soil surface, at the end of the dry season. They should be about 2.5 cm in diameter and are cut into 20 – 25 cm lengths. The cuttings should be planted at an angle in shaded beds and watered frequently. Shoots and new roots may not be produced for several months. Once 60 shoots appear the roots can be divided up and planted in tubes. The cuttings must not be injured. Tar may be used to seal the thickest end. Provide shade over the cuttings. Transplant when shoots are 25 30 cm long. This is normally after 14 months. Growth is rapid. Management Fruits are harvested when they turn yellowish and drops of latex appear on the surface. The cut stalk must be immediately covered to stop bleeding. Uses The fruit is eaten in Bas-Congo and is an important food plant in much of the tropics. Fruit is preferred baked in ashes or it may be boiled, when it becomes like I rish potato. The fruit, after being cut up and dried, can be powdered and made into flour which, for many recipes, can replace wheat flour. Some people recommend that the fruit should only be picked once it is completely ripe, others just before this. Fruit is normally ready 2 - 3 months from the emergence of the flowers. The light, soft wood is yellow and said to be resistant to white ants. I t can be used for making boxes. The latex can be used for sealing canoes. Leaves are used as livestock fodder in periods of drought. The fruit of some varieties needs to be boiled in two lots of water. Starch can be obtained from the fruit. The immature seeds of the breadnut are edible after roasting or boiling in water to which salt has been added. References Gillet 1927, Swaby 1979, FAO 1982, Burkill 1985, Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988, Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Pauwels 1993, Ragone 1997 A young charcoal maker learns his father’s trade 61 Artocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae) Common names Jacquier (Fr.), jackfruit Description An evergreen tree which normally grows up to 20 m high. The fruits may weigh more than 50 kg, though the average is 18 kg. Seedlings have a long delicate tap-root which makes them hard to transplant. No root suckers are produced. Ecology Thrives in a moist tropical climate, though less exacting than breadfruit. Young plants require protection from the sun. The tree needs adequate soil moisture and prefers a deep, fertile, well drained soil. Propagation Grown from seed. These lose their viability quickly so should be planted within one month of harvest. Heavier seeds remain viable for longer and grow faster. Seeds should be rubbed with sand to remove the coat and then can be kept in moist sand until planted. Germination takes 35 – 40 days and soaking the seeds for 24 hours improves and hastens germination. Seeds should be planted flat or with embryo downwards in a container which can rot down afterwards. Management Cut back fruiting twigs after harvest. Pruning low branches encourages the production of large fruit on the trunk rather than small fruit along the branches. Cuts or gashes can also be made in the trunk to encourage fruiting. Trees may fruit after 3 years, or once they have reached 10 m high. Uses A good shade tree, producing edible fruit. This is usually eaten fresh but may be cut into chips and sun dried or boiled with salt. The starchy seeds are also edible after boiling. The water should however be changed once or twice to get rid of the objectionable smell. The tree produces a good timber, which is used for house building, furniture and tool handles. A dye is obtained from boiling the yellow heartwood. The bark contains resin, which is used for repairing pots. The leaves are eaten by livestock, especially goats. I mbrasia petiveri edible caterpillars also feed on the leaves. References Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997 62 Asparagus flagellaris (Asparagaceae) Synonym A. abyssinicus Common names Nkila mfwenge (= fox tail), nsielele nseke, nsasa mpakasa (Kongo), asperge sauvage (Fr.), wild asparagus Description An erect perennial climber, up to 2 m tall, growing from a swollen root tuber. Branches are spiny, tough and wiry. Thin branches, which look like leaves, grow along the stems in whorls and are about 2 – 2.5 cm long. Numerous flowers are produced on the branched flowering stems after the rains. 1 or 2 fragrant, white to purple flowers grow together. The plant bears an orange-red berry 5 – 7 mm in diameter containing one seed. Ecology Grows in woodland, savanna and on wasteland. The plant is found from Ethiopia and Sudan south to Mozambique and in the Congo basin. Propagation Can be grown from seed or root suckers. A fertile soil is required to produce thick succulent shoots. Uses. Young shoot tips, as they emerge from the ground, are edible and have a strong but pleasant taste. The fleshy root tubers are also edible after several hours of cooking. The fruits are sometimes eaten by children. Stems are used to make traps in West Africa. I n Bas-Congo the plant is used as a medicinal plant. The branchlets are used to treat guinea worm and to make up an ointment for hair loss. The plant is also used medicinally in Senegal and East Africa. The flowers are an important honey source where the plant is plentiful. Bees are known to collect pollen and nectar from a related species in Ethiopia. Remarks There are 4 species of Asparagus present. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Burkill 1995, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Neuwinger 2000, Ruffo et al. 2002, van der Burg 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 63 Asystasia gangetica var. micrantha (Acanthaceae) Common names Ndamimina (Kongo), creeping foxglove, Ganges primrose Description An annual herb, 20 – 30 cm tall. Stems are erect or semi straggling, quadrangular in cross section, segmented into nodes 10 – 15 cm apart, and may be smooth or slightly hairy. Leaves are opposite, triangular, 3 – 7 cm long and 3 – 3.5 cm wide, smooth to softly hairy. Tubular flowers, 1.5 cm long, are borne on one side of the flower stalk which is approximately 10 cm long. Petals are white, 5 lobed, with purple or violet nectar guides on the lower lip. Fruit is a dry dehiscent capsule about 2 cm long. The plants form a dense ground cover, flowering over a long period. Photo: Jean Lejoly Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa. Also present in tropical Asia and in southern Africa. Found on roadsides and as a weed in cropland. The plant can be grown in shade. Propagation Reproduces naturally by seed. I t can also be grown by layering or from cuttings. Management Asystasia gangetica is a fast growing and spreading plant. Uses The leaves, sometimes cooked with seeds of Cucurbits or meat, are eaten as a vegetable in D. R. Congo, and in Uganda, Nigeria, Kenya and Philippines, particularly in times of food scarcity. The flowers are visited by bees. Plants can be fed to livestock. The plant can be grown as a cover crop and used to check erosion. I n Equateur province leaves are soaked in water and the liquid, in combination with pineapple or sugar cane juice, is taken to treat heart palpitations. Photo: Susan McGregor References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Blundell 1987, Ambougou 1991, Konda et al. 1992, Lesitner 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Katende et al. 1999, Neuwinger 2000, Adetula 2004, Lithudzha & Reynolds 2004, Konda et al 2012 64 Averrhoa carambola (Oxalidaceae) Common names Pakapaka (in Kinshasa), carambolier (Fr.), carambola, star fruit Averrhoa carambola growing at the Kisantu botanic garden Description A much branched tree from 5 to 10 m tall. I t comes into bearing in the fourth or fifth year after planting out. The flowers are cross-pollinated by bees, flies and other insects. Though fruit set is fairly high, much of the fruit drops late in the growing period. Yields of 45 kg per tree can be obtained even without applying fertilizers. Ecology Originally from tropical Asia the tree grows best in the hot humid areas with a definite dry season. The tree will thrive on poor sandy soils in sheltered situations up to 1,200 m altitude and tolerates light shade. Soil drainage must be good. Propagation Seed is usually used. Clean and dry the seed before sowing and then plant in pots or boxes in light shade and keep regularly watered. Sow the seed as soon as possible. After germination the seedlings should be transplanted to a nursery and gradually hardened off. Budding, grafting or layering is preferred as this will ensure that the trees produce more quickly and evenly. The tree can also be grown from root suckers. A mix of cultivars should be planted for effective cross-pollination. Management Recommended spacing 7 - 8 m. Trees should be pruned and the fruit crop thinned out in the early years. The tree is fast growing. 65 Uses Fruits have a pleasant acid like flavour and, though usually eaten raw, are best cooked with some sugar. The ripe fruits can also be eaten with slightly over-ripe bananas. Peel off the winged edges first. The fruits contain vitamins A, B and some C with valuable minerals, particularly potassium. The fruit juice can be used as a detergent and removes stains from clothing. Juice from immature fruits can also be used for cleaning brass. The flowers are very attractive to bees. References Gillet 1927, FAO 1982, Garner & Chaudhri 1988, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Macmillan 1991, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Nakasone & Paull 1998, Raemaekers 2001. A rat trap maker on his way to Buba market to sell a trap. The small basket at the end is made from Mbamba = Eremospatha sp. (see page 199). Many older people have a great knowledge of the resources of the country as well as skills in using local materials. I t is vital that this knowledge is passed on to the next generation. 66 Azadirachta indica (Meliaceae) Common names Nîm (Fr.), neem Description A small to medium sized, deep rooted, evergreen tree up to 15 m tall. The red heart-wood is hard and durable. Leaves are alternate and crowded towards the end of the branches. Fruits, 1 – 2 cm long, become yellow when ripe. Ecology Native to I ndia but grown widely in the tropics. The tree is drought tolerant and grows well on most soils, including dry, stony, clay and shallow soils. However it will not grow in waterlogged soils. Roots can extract moisture and nutrients from poor sandy soils. Not tolerant to fire. Propagation Normally grown from fresh seed (which should be sown not more than 2 - 3 weeks after harvesting) in a nursery or can be planted direct with crops. Germination takes place after about one week with a germination rate of 75 – 90% . No seed treatment is necessary. The tree can also be grown from root and shoot cuttings. I t requires careful weeding until established. Light shade assists early growth. Plant out at a spacing of 2.5 x 2.5 m. Management The tree coppices freely and young shoots grow fast. Uses The tree is a fast growing source of good firewood which can be cut in an 8 year cycle. The wood resists decay and termite damage and is used for house construction and making furniture. Neem poles are straight and strong. The seeds contain up to 40% oil which can be used as a fuel for lamps. The seeds and leaves contain azadirachtin which is effective against a large range of insect pests. They also contain other chemicals which repel insects. The fruits must be harvested when yellow, not greenish-yellow or brownish-yellow and should not come into contact with soil to avoid the risk of developing aflotoxins. These reduce the pest control effectiveness and can be harmful to humans. The fruit pulp should be first removed and the seed dried in the sun for one day followed by 3 days in the shade, being stirred regularly so that seeds are well dried. Store in well aerated bags. Seeds between 3 and 10 months old have the highest amount of azadirachtin. To make up a spray pound the seeds gently and add 50 g to 1 litre of water and allow to stand overnight. Filter and add 1 ml liquid soap to the solution. Leaves can also be used at the rate of 1 kg leaves to 5 litres water. Chop and soak the leaves overnight. Add 1 ml liquid soap to 1 litre solution. The leaves are used medicinally to treat fever, stomach ulcers and malaria. I n I ndia the flowers are an important source of a light golden honey. References NAS 1980, Crane et al. 1984, I CRAF 1998, Stoll 2000, Raemaekers 2001, Pousset 2004, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 7.9.2007), SEPASAL (Accessed 6.12.2013) 67 Baikiaea insignis (Caesalpiniaceae) Photo: Tony Rodd Description A tree from 8 – 25 m tall with a straight trunk and a small dense crown. Bark is thin, greybrown, smooth or lightly fissured. Leaves are pinnate on petioles 4 – 17 cm long, with 3 – 8 leaflets 7 – 40 cm long and 3 – 17 cm wide. The leaves are stiff and leathery. The scented flowers are in racemes and have 5 petals, 4 large and white 6 – 10 cm long and one narrower yellow petal, having wavy edges. Anthers prominent, 2 cm long. Fruits are woody flat pods, 25 cm long and 7 cm wide, which hang down. They are covered with dense brown hairs and break open explosively at both edges, twisting spirally to set free the thin dark red seeds, which are rounded and flat and about 3.5 cm long. Ecology Present in riverine, gallery and terra firma forests from Angola. Cameroon to Propagation Use seeds gathered from below the tree. Soak them in water overnight before planting. Store in ash to prevent insect damage. Management Trees are slow growing and can be coppiced or pollarded when still young. Uses Leaves and seeds are eaten in BasCongo. Timber is pale brown, moderately hard, heavy and strong. I t is suitable for joinery, cheap furniture and shelving but must be treated to protect from borer attack. Photo: Marina Khaytarova References Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Katende et al. 1995, Nsimundele 2004, Fayaz 2011 68 Bambusa vulgaris (Poaceae) Common names Tutu (Kongo), bambou (Fr.), bamboo Description A bamboo of medium size with quick growing stems to 10 m high. The stems are very strong. Another variety with yellow stems, striped with green, is also present in Bas-Congo. Ecology Originally from Java but now widely cultivated throughout tropical Africa. Propagation By division of the clumps or by cuttings from rhizomes or stems. Management Bamboo be cut in a 3 year cycle. Uses can Widely used for construction purposes for houses, huts, bridges, reinforcement for cement water tanks etc. Split poles can be used for roofing tiles, top bars for hives (though they should be well dried out first) and planting tubes for tree seedlings. Stem sheaths can be used as covers for beehives. Goats browse the leaves. The plant is especially useful for erosion control e.g. around water sources. I t can also be used for making paper, plywood, charcoal etc. The young shoots are edible. Split bamboo used as a cover for a bee hive Remarks Bamboo is very susceptible to borer attack. Soaking the stems in water for 2 - 3 months helps to make them last longer. References Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1972, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994 69 Barleria lupulina (Acanthaceae) Common names Hophead, porcupine flower, snake bush Description An erect shrub up to 1 m tall. The stems and leaves are hairless but spines, between 1 - 2 cm long, are borne in the lower axils. Leaves, 3.5 - 9 cm long and 0.8 - 1.2 cm wide, are tipped with spines. Petioles are 2 - 3 mm long. I nflorescence is a terminal spike with overlapping bracts, 15 mm long, green with a purple upper half. Calyx segments are spinetipped. Corolla is yellow with the tube being approximately 3 cm long. Ecology Native to Madagascar and I ndia and widely spread elsewhere. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Seed is spread short distances when the capsules rupture. Seeds are also spread by water. Uses An ornamental plant sometimes grown as a hedge. Remarks B. alata and B. villosa are also present in the Kinshasa area. References Pauwels 1982, Llamas 2003, Staples & Herbst 2005 Photo: Dinesh Valke 70 Basella alba (Basellaceae) Common names Taka ngola (Kongo), épinard I ndien, baselle (Fr.) Description A short-lived creeper with fleshy, green or purplish, twining stems. Plants usually grow up to approximately 4 m long. Ecology The green form is native to Africa while the red form is from tropical Asia. The latter is now grown in many tropical regions. The plant tolerates a wide range of soil conditions and grows best in fertile soils well supplied with organic material. Additional nitrogen assists early growth. I t is also well adapted to high temperatures and high rainfall though some varieties can withstand drought better than others. Lack of adequate water causes early flowering. Light shading will encourage the plant to produce larger leaves. Propagation Can be grown from seed or 20 cm long cuttings. For seed the whole fruit is planted in nurseries and then transplanted when 10 - 12 cm high. Management I n Bas-Congo cuttings or seedlings are usually transplanted into raised beds at a spacing of 40 – 50 cm and harvested after 2 – 4 months. However they can also be grown on a fence or trellis providing shoots over a longer period. Frequent pruning of lateral shoots is done when harvesting in order to prolong the vegetative stage and prevent early fruiting. Remove shoots when they are from 15 - 25 cm long. The crop is very susceptible to nematodes but applying organic manure is helpful. The plant is otherwise relatively free from pests and diseases. Right: Fruiting vines growing over a trellis at Sona Bata Uses The young shoots and leaves are relatively high in food value providing a useful source of minerals and vitamins. The red form is preferred because it is reported to produce more leaves. Reference Gillet 1927, Tindall 1983, AbukutsaOnyango 2004 71 Bauhinia tomentosa (Caesalpiniaceae) Common names Ndemba ndemba (Kongo), yellow Bauhinia, bell Bauhinia, St. Thomas’s tree Photo: Maria do Carmo M. I annaccone Description . A shrub 2 - 4 m tall. Leaves are 3.5 - 9.5 cm long, 4 – 11 cm wide and are divided into two lobes. They are light green in colour, with a leathery texture, and carried on branches that are often drooping. A variable species, one form having golden yellow flowers which turn pink with age. Another selection has light yellow flowers which have pink edges and smaller leaves. Fruits are flat pods 10 – 16 cm long and 1 – 1.3 cm wide. Ecology Native to Africa and sometimes planted as a hedge around villages in Bas-Congo. Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings. The plant grows relatively fast. The soil needs to be well drained. Uses The flowers from this tree, rich in pollen and nectar, attract various insects including honeybees. The heart-wood is dark red, hard, and tough. Shrubs yield a fibre suitable for making baskets. Leaves are used to manufacture a yellow dye. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Watt & Breyer Brandwijk 1962, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Blundell 1987, Macmillan 1991, Pauwels 1993, Llamas 2003, Le Roux 2005 72 Photo: Man Wah Leung Bellucia pentamera (Melastomataceae) Synonym B. axinanthera Common names Ekoti ya monseigneur (Lingala), néflier de Costa Rica, chapeau de Monseigneur (Fr.) Description A tree up to 10 m high. Bark on the trunk is fissured but scaly on the twigs. Leaves 20 – 30 cm long and 10.5 – 19 cm wide with clearly marked nerves inside the edges. Flowers are borne on the trunk or below the leaves on the branches. The tree grows quickly and produces abundant fruit. Left: Young Kasangulu trees growing at Ecology An introduced tree from Central America. I t now grows alongside streams and rivers in several places in Bas-Congo where it has become an invasive weed. Propagation The tree grows best from seed, though wildlings can also be used. Recommended spacing is 3 -6 m x 3 -6 m. Uses The fruits are pleasant but not particularly tasty. The inner flesh is squeezed out and eaten. Fruit is produced over a long period. Flowers and fruit appearing together in January References Gillet 1927, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Pauwels 1993, Danforth & Noren 1997 73 Berlinia bruneelii (Caesalpiniaceae) Synonym B. grandiflora var. bruneelii Description A shrub or spreading tree to 20 m high, but quite often small with the trunk dividing low down. Bark is dark-grey or brown and flakes. The compound leaves are made up of 3 – 5 pairs of leaflets, 14 – 30 cm long and 5 – 11 cm wide. Flowers are in panicles. The central white petal is up to 6 cm long. Fruit pod brown, 34 x 10 cm wide, densely covered with short hairs and with a wrinkled surface. Seeds are expelled explosively when the pod ripens. Berlinia bruneelii beside a stream at Boko, near Kavwaya Ecology The tree grows in swamp forest areas in Congo and Central Africa. Found in lowland and fringing forests near streams and at the edge of marshes in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Gabon and Congo. Uses The bark is used as a purgative in Bas-Congo. The tree is sometimes used as a shade for coffee trees or planted in the villages as an ornamental with sweet smelling flowers. The hard heavy timber is not easy to work. I t is used for planks and general carpentry and for utensils for fermenting sugar cane. Wood is attacked by borers but not termites. Poles are used as hut posts. A wild silk worm Epanaphe moloneyi feeds on the leaves. Remarks A second species B. giorgii var. gilletii (bwati) is present in wooded savanna. References I rvine 1961, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, White & Abernethy 1997, Nsimundele 2004 Photo: David Harris/ Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 74 Bertiera racemosa (Rubiaceae) Common name Kolo di munsala (Kongo) Description An erect to scrambling shrub or small tree 2 - 6 m high. Leaves 12 – 25 x 5 – 11 cm Ecology Present on the edges of swamps or water courses from Sierra Leone to D.R. Congo and across the Congo basin to East Africa. Uses In Bas-Congo the resistant wood is used in hut construction. The flowers are reported to be visited by honeybees. References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997 Mural on the hospital wall at Maluku 75 Bidens pilosa (Asteraceae) Common names Nsolokoto, solokoto, kimana-ngansi (Kongo), Spanish needles Description An erect, aromatic, annual herb up to 1.5 m high, reproducing by seeds. Seed is about 1 cm long, tipped with 2 - 4 barbed bristles which catch on animal fur and clothing (see photo below). Ecology Commonly found in disturbed and cultivated land. The plant is native to South America but now spread through much of Africa. A serious weed of fields and gardens. I t often grows along roadsides, and in waste places. Uses The leaves, together with Capsicum peppers, are used to treat haemorrhoids. I n Bas-Congo they are also used for chest infections and the leaf juice is used for eye problems. A dye to colour the teeth is made from the roots. I n Uganda they are boiled in water and used as a tea substitute to relieve wind. Plant extracts have shown anti-bacterial activity. Elsewhere the leaves are used to treat high blood pressure, stomach ulcers, intestinal worms, wounds and recurrent fevers in children. The roots are used to treat constipation and malaria. Though the leaves are not eaten in Bas-Congo they are an important green vegetable elsewhere. They keep well and have good texture both before and after cooking. Some people like the resinous flavour. The young shoots 2.5 - 5.0 cm long are a favourite dish throughout southern Africa eaten fresh, or dried and stored for later use. The plant is readily browsed by all domestic stock including rabbits and poultry and has a high nutritive value. Bees collect abundant pollen and small amounts of nectar, producing a good flavoured honey which granulates slowly. References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Morton 1962, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Goode 1974, Martin & Ruberté 1975, Crane et al. 1984, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Ruffo et al 2002, Mvere 2004, Pousset 2004 76 Bixa orellana (Bixaceae) Common names Nteke (Kongo), rocouyer (Fr.), bixa, anatto tree Description A shrub or small tree up to 5 m high. Leaves 8 – 24 cm long and 5 - 15 cm wide, sometimes with reddish veins. Flowers are about 6 cm in diameter in terminal panicles, petals white or pale pink. Fruit is a capsule about 5 cm long, covered with soft spines, usually red but sometimes green drying brown. Seeds are numerous and surrounded by a thin, pulpy, bright red skin. Ecology Native to tropical America and the West I ndies, but now widely introduced in the tropics, becoming naturalized in some areas. I t prefers a deep loamy soil. The tree is fairly drought resistant and is sometimes grown in village compounds. Propagation Usually planted from seed. Seedlings are spaced at 6 x 5 m. Sow in a nursery bed and transplant when 40 cm high. The tree can also be layered or grown from cuttings. Management The tree starts bearing seed after 3 years. I t should be pruned and thinned to maintain production. Uses I n Bas-Congo the pulp around the seeds is used for colouring the body. A food dye is obtained by soaking the seeds in water. The pigment sinks to the bottom and is dried into cakes. Yield is 5 - 6% of the weight of seeds. The main commercial use is for colouring foodstuffs - butter, margarine, cheese and chocolate. The dye varies from red to orange and bright yellow. I n addition to food colouring, in Brazil it is used for pottery and as an insect repellent and, in the Philippines, for floor, furniture and shoe polishes, nail varnish, brass lacquer and hair oil. The tree can be grown as a hedge. I n Malaya it has been reported to be able to grow up through I mperata cylindrica and therefore has possibilities for regenerating degraded land. The bark produces a fairly good fibre. The wood is very light. Annato dye is not durable and it is no longer used on fabrics. The crushed seeds, mixed in vegetable oil, can be applied to burns. References Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1968, Burkill 1985, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Macmillan 1991, Pauwels 1993, Pousset 2004 77 Blighia w elw itschii (Sapindaceae) Common names Bwalu nkusu, nkusu nkusu, kote (Kongo) Description A forest tree with weak buttresses and a sheer trunk up to 40 m. The bark surface is smooth to slightly fissured. The young orange twigs are hairy. Leaves are alternate with 2 – 4 pairs of leaflets 6 – 20 cm x 3 – 8 cm. This species is easily confused with B. sapida but the leaflets are more elongated in B. welwitschii. The inflorescence is a false axillary raceme up to 12 cm long. Fruits in this species are sharply angled. Seeds are black with a yellow aril. Ecology Occurs naturally from Sierra Leone eastward to Uganda and south to D.R. Congo and northern Angola. It is only occasionally planted, for instance in botanical gardens. Photo: Carel Jongkind Uses The arils are reported to be edible but the arils of unripe seeds may be toxic, as are the seeds. The wood, traded as ‘tsana’, is commonly used for light construction, light flooring, joinery, furniture, poles, piles, mine props, toys, novelties, boxes, crates, pestles, mortars, agricultural implements, oars and turnery. I t is suitable for ship building, railway sleepers, veneer, plywood and pulpwood. I n D.R. Congo the bark is used to relieve kidney and costal pain and lumbago. A bark decoction is taken as a purgative and to treat coughs. I n Congo leaf sap is applied to treat ear inflammations. I n Liberia the fragrant young leaves are used for flavouring soup. References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Nsimundele 2004, White & Abernethy 1996, Burkill 2000, Obeng 2010 78 Boehmeria macrophylla (Urticaceae) Synonym B. platyphylla Common names Mungulungulu (Kongo), African jolanettle Photo: Dineshe Valke Description An erect, shrubby or herbaceous perennial up to 3 m tall. Stems are sparsely branched, or with long, often overhanging, thinner branches. Leaves are opposite, 15 – 30 x 7 –15 cm ovate to lanceolate and the margin has 15 – 35 teeth on each side. Each inflorescence is produced singly in the upper leaf axils, spikes are up to 30 cm. long, with the flowers in dense bunches. The plant is very variable in form. Ecology Widespread in tropical Africa in damp places, beside streams and moist rocks. Plants can form a dense tangle. Also present in Asia, I ndia, China, Philippines and Australia. Uses The leaves are occasionally eaten as a vegetable in D.R. Congo. They are also used as a wound dressing. Fibre is obtained from the stem which is of excellent quality. The fibre is shiny, white and strong and is used for making nets, sacks, fishing lines and rough clothes. I t could possibly be used for textiles. Wood is moderately hard but too small for much use. Stems make a good fuel. References Gillet & Pãque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Terra 1966, Uphof 1968, Flore Zambesiaca 1991 Photo: Satish Nikam 79 Boerhavia diffusa (Nyctaginaceae) Common names Dibata bata (Kongo), hogweed Both photos: Phuong Tran Description A semi-prostrate annual herb with ascending or erect stems up to 60 cm tall, arising from a fleshy tuberous root. I t reproduces from seed. Flowers are deep purple or crimson. The fruit is a one seeded capsule about 3 mm long. Ecology A tropical weed of cultivated fields, waste ground and roadsides. Uses The whole plant, and particularly the root, is used medicinally in BasCongo as a snake-bite antidote and to counter inflammation. The roots are also used as an aphrodisiac. The plant has numerous medicinal uses elsewhere in Africa. A decoction of the root is taken to promote urination and the root is chewed or an extract from the root drunk for gastro-intestinal problems. Root tea is drunk for prolapse of the uterus. Fresh plants are attractive to lice and used to trap them. The whole plant is then burnt. Leaves are eaten as a vegetable in Kwango-Kwilu, though, as they contain various amounts of alkaloids, can be toxic. The plant is under observation at the national Horticultural Research Station at I badan, Nigeria as a new leafy vegetable. Seed and root are also eaten in some countries. Stock, especially sheep will eat the plant. I n Bas-Congo goats often return home with caterpillars, also called Bata bata, which have been feeding on the plant, around their mouths. These are edible. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees and are known to be bee forage in the central highlands of Angola. References Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Peters et al. 1992, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Schippers 2002, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004 80 Borassus aethiopum (Arecaceae) Common names Ba di madibu, ba di ndingi (Kongo), rônier (Fr.), African fan palm Description A straight unbranched palm, 20 – 30 m tall, with a crown up to 8 m wide, forming 15 - 30 fan-shaped leaves up to 3.5 m long. Old trees (over 25 years) have a swelling of the trunk at 12 - 15 m above ground. Flowers are yellowish. Male flowers are clustered in a branched spike up to 1.5 m long. Female flowers have an unbranched and shorter spike. The fruit is large 12 x 14 cm, orange to brown when ripe. The fibrous pulp contains 3 woody kernels with a coat which becomes hard when ripe. Ecology Grows in the savanna and is also sometimes planted in avenues in Bas-Congo. The tree is widespread throughout the dry areas of tropical Africa usually on heavy soils or in seasonally wet depressions. I ts rainfall range is 500 – 1,000 mm, and it has an altitude range up to 1,350 m. Propagation The tree can be grown by direct sowing and by using seedlings. Seeds should be dried in the shade. They can be sown without removing the pulp. Germination takes one month and seeds remain viable for 6 months. Management A slow growing plant, the true stem does not appear above ground for 6 - 8 years. I t then grows from 30 to 40 cm a year reaching its final size after 25 years. Uses I n Bas-Congo the nuts (right) were used to make rattles for dogs when hunting. The fruit pulp is sometimes eaten and the immature seeds contain a sweet jelly which has a refreshing taste. I n Katanga the fibrous material around the seed is chewed and in Benin the young germinating shoots are fried and eaten. The tree is used for poles and for firewood and charcoal, and the strong trunks are hard and resistant to termites and decay. They are used as posts and for the construction of bridges. The timber is also used for doorframes, beehives and drums. The fruits and young leaves can Photo: Roy Danforth be used for fodder and the older leaves for thatching. A fibre is extracted from the leaves, which is used as string, and baskets and mats are made from young leaves before they unfold. Oil can be obtained from the fruit and pulp. Root buds are sometimes eaten as a vegetable. References Butaye 1909, Gillet 1927, Leloup 1956, Purseglove 1972, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, SEPASAL (Accessed 6.12.2013) 81 Brassica carinata (Brassicaceae) Synonym B. integrifolia Common names Nkofi (Kongo), épinard (Fr.), Ethiopian mustard Nkofi growing in a vegetable garden in Kisantu Description A herb which usually grows to 50 cm tall, but may reach 120 cm. The main features differentiating this plant from B. juncea are the blue-green coloured leaves which have no hairs, pale yellow flowers and seed pods which are flat when the pods are quite dry. I n warm climates seed is produced readily. Ecology The plant is of African origin and cultivated in the Ethiopian highlands between 1,500 and 2,600 m. Also present in Tanzania and Central and West Africa but nowhere common. Occasionally found as a weed in cultivated ground. I t grows best in fertile soil. Propagation The crop is grown from seed in lines or broadcast. Mix the seeds with ash to discourage pest attack. Management Cutting the plant at a height of about 15 cm encourages it to produce larger leaves. Uses Leaves and young shoots are used as a vegetable or fodder. Leaves are soft textured and have a special mustard-like taste which can be quite sharp. The seeds are crushed and the oil is used for cooking or oiling earthenware baking plates in Ethiopia. The seeds are also eaten with meat in Ethiopia. Bees collect both pollen and nectar from the flowers. References Oomen & Grubben 1978, Maundu et al. 1999, Schippers 2002 82 Brassica juncea (Brassicaceae) Common names Nkofi (Kongo), moutard indigene, moutard de Chine, chou vert (Fr.), I ndian or brown mustard Description An erect, much branched, strong smelling, annual herb which grows up to 1 m high. Leaves are light green and have small hairs. Some varieties bear bright yellow flowers. The seed-pods are rounded (when compared with B. carinata). The plant flowers in its first year but early flowering plants should be discarded for seed production. The vegetative stage is shorter than for B. carinata and B. oleracea. Ecology Originally from Asia. This plant performs better during the cooler dry season as high temperatures encourage disease and early flowering. Soils should be high in organic matter but well drained. Farmers in Zimbabwe often grow the crop on old anthills where the soil is more fertile. Propagation Seed is sown in nursery beds and transplanted when 7 - 8 cm tall. The seeds are best mixed with sand and broadcast to avoid having to remove too many seedlings later on. The first harvest can be in the form of thinned-out seedlings, collected after about 35 days from sowing. Leaves or shoots can be harvested weekly, extending over a 6-week period, after which the plant is uprooted. Management Plants are usually harvested 50 - 70 days after sowing. The plant is more prone to disease than B. carinata. Uses The leaves are used as a cooked vegetable but should not be eaten too often, and only after boiling twice, to reduce the risk of goitre. However as they contain anti-carcinogenic properties they are of medicinal value. I t is an important oil crop in I ndia, as the seed contains 35% oil. This is used in cooking and as a substitute for olive oil. Remarks Bees collect both pollen and nectar and are important for pollination. I ncreased yields of seed are known to result from honeybee pollination. References Terra 1966, Purseglove 1968, Tindall 1983, Crane & Walker 1984, Schippers & Mnzava 1997, Schippers 2002 83 Brassica oleracea (Brassicaceae) Common names Nkofi nkolula (Kongo), sukuma wiki (Swahili), chou vert (Fr.), kale Description A perennial, stalk-forming cabbage growing up to 1 m high. Stems, up to 3 cm diameter, are sturdy and bear blue-green leaves on long stalks. Usually seed is not produced in the tropics because flowering requires a cool resting period. Ecology The plant requires a well drained and manured soil, preferably a sandy loam. I t grows best at higher altitudes. Propagation Normally grown from side shoots which should be planted in moist soil, preferably with added compost. I n Bas-Congo the crop is grown in the valley bottoms during the dry season. Plant out at 50 x 60 cm spacing. Young plants may be attacked by click beetles which eat small holes in the leaves. Management Harvest tender side shoots before they become too large. Uses An important green leaf vegetable in some places (e.g. Manianga), and often sold in markets. I n Bas-Congo it is reported to be the most popular of the Brassicas. The protein content of the fresh leaf is approximately 2.5% . Leaves also contain vitamins A, B complex and C. Avoid overcooking which reduces the vitamin C content in particular. Remarks Club root can be a major problem. I f possible grow on ground which has not had cabbage related plants before. Pests can also be a problem and control can sometimes be achieved by grinding them up, mixing in water and spraying the liquid on the plants! References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Terra 1966, Purseglove 1968, Williamson 1975, Tindall 1983, Burkill 1985, Macmillan 1991, Martin et al 1998, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 84 Brassica rapa subsp. chinensis (Brassicaceae) Common names Pointe noire (Fr.) This is the common name used in Bas-Congo. Pakchoi = Chinese white cabbage Description The petiole in Pakchoi is much thicker and longer than for Chinese cabbage and the leaves are fleshy, more rounded and dark-green. Ecology The plant is tolerant of a wide range of soil conditions, although excessively well drained soils are unsuitable. Soil must be well manured and the plant requires plenty of moisture and full sunlight. High temperature reduces the tendency to early flowering but may result in bitter tasting leaves. Propagation Seeds are sown in nursery beds and transplanted 15 to 20 days later into rows 50 cm apart allowing 30 - 50 cm between plants. Transplant late in the afternoon to avoid excessive wilting. Seeds can also be sown direct and thinned to 30 - 40 cm apart. For the nonheading variety 300 – 600 g seed are needed for 1 ha. Mulching is useful for conserving moisture and control of weeds. Management Harvesting can take place, for the non-headed variety, from 40 - 60 days after sowing. Harvest in the early morning and market within 2 days. Yields can be 10 - 30 tons per ha. Uses Normally eaten as a cooked vegetable and in stir-fries. I t is much more nutritious than white, headed cabbage and is a good source of calcium and vitamins A and C. The leaves can be dried for later use. Popularity for this vegetable is increasing in the humid tropics of Africa. Bees collect pollen and nectar during August. A crop of “Pointe noire” being grown for seed near Kasangulu References Tindall 1983, Martin et al 1998, Toxopeus & Baas 2004, van Wyk 2005 85 Brassica rapa subsp. pekinensis (Brassicaceae) Common names Chou de Chine (Fr.), Chinese cabbage Description An annual or biennial herb with a stout taproot producing short barrel-shaped to long torpedo-shaped heads. The heads are not compact. Basal leaves are broad, bright green, 20 - 50 cm long, with thickened white petioles, but not as thick as in Pakchoi (see following page). Flowers are pale yellow 1 cm long. The fruits are slender 3 - 6 cm long. Ecology The crop is widely grown in Bas-Congo, often on raised beds. I t is tolerant to a wide variety of soils, though fertile soils, which retain moisture, are best. Add compost if possible and mulch the soil. Plants require full sun and can withstand heavy rainfall. Propagation Seeds are sown in a nursery bed and should be transplanted out in the late afternoon, to avoid excessive wilting. Plant out in rows 40 - 45 cm apart allowing 30 - 50 cm between plants. Alternatively seed can be sown direct and plants thinned out to 30 - 40 cm. Management Can be harvested from 30 to 45 days after planting. The crop is perishable. Harvesting should be done early in the day and the crop marketed within 2 days. Uses Leaves can be cooked or eaten fresh. They have twice the nutritive value of headed cabbage. Remarks Bees have been shown to increase the seed yields of all Brassica crops. References Purseglove 1968, Tindall 1983, Jones 1999, Toxopeus & Baas 2004 86 Bridelia ferruginea (Phyllanthaceae) Common name Kimwindu ki nseke (Kongo) Photo: Jean - Louis Pousset Description A shrub or small straggling tree 1 – 8 m high. I t develops branches low down. The bark is dark grey, rough and often scaly. Smaller branches are long and thin, sometimes with short spines. Twigs are usually covered with short rust coloured hairs. Leaves are alternate, 4 – 16 cm long and 2.5 – 9 cm wide. The underside of the leaves is generally furry and dull, sometimes with a coppery hue. The leaves curl downwards at the tip. The flowers develop in small bunches in the leaf axils. They have green sepals and tiny white petals. The small fruits have a sweet sugary flesh and are usually dispersed by birds. Ecology A common tree in the savanna. I ts range extends from Guinea to Angola. Propagation The tree can probably be grown in the same way as B. micrantha. Uses I n Bas-Congo the liquid resulting from soaking the root and stem bark is used to treat diarrhoea, stomach-ache and coughing. A paste made from scraping the inside of the bark (see right) is used as a wound dressing. Elsewhere the bark is used to treat dysentery and rheumatism. The small sweet fruits are edible. The young shoots are also reported to be edible. The bark is used for tanning and a dye is made from the leaves. The tree is fire resistant and the wood is termite proof and used for making granaries. The liquid, after boiling the bark in water and mixing it with clay, forms a kind of cement and can be used to protect flat roofs from rain and is of sufficient strength to build terraces and houses. A macerate of the wood is used in Congo for glazing pottery. The timber makes good firewood, long lasting and picking up quickly from the embers, with a hot flame and little smoke. N'kumbi ( Anaphe sp.) edible caterpillar and several other species of Anaphe, including Anaphe infracta feed on the leaves. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees in Bas-Congo and are known as a bee forage in Gabon. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Uphof 1968, Lobreau-Callen 1988, Keay 1989, I wu 1993, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Kibungu Kembelo 1996, White & Abernethy 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 87 Bridelia micrantha (Phyllanthaceae) Common names Kimwindu, kimzindu, fibweza, muindu, kimwindu ki mfinda (Kongo) t Description A shrub or tree growing to 8 m but of rather crooked growth. I t has a dense, widely spreading crown. The trunk and branches, occasionally spiny when young, become fibrous and hairless later. Bark is light grey - brown. The tree branches low down and sometimes has stilt roots. Ecology Common in the savanna, at the forest edge and in secondary forest in tropical Africa. I t is often found in wet places but also in open woodland. Grows well in poor soils. Propagation The tree is easily propagated from seed or can be grown from stem cuttings. Pick the ripe fruits when they turn purple or collect them from the ground. Squash and remove the seed. Rinse clean in water and dry for 2 days in the shade. The fruit pulp contains a growth inhibitor and must therefore be removed from the seed. Sow seed immediately. Germination is even and good, reaching 90 -100% after 30 days. Sow the seeds in a river sand compost mix (2:1) keeping it moist. Transplant at the two leaf stage. Seedlings and young plants transplant easily. The tree can also be grown by ground and air layering and from root suckers. Management The tree grows fast and can be coppiced on a 30 year rotation or pollarded. I n Uganda it is grown in coffee and banana plantations to provide shade. Uses The tree is host to several species of African silk worms including Anaphe infracta, A. panda and A. reticulata. Planting this tree has been encouraged for the production of silk worms, particularly in Uganda, but since the larvae are often eaten first, there are too few remaining to use for silk production (McCrae - personal communication). N'kumbi edible caterpillars also eat the leaves in Bas-Congo. Left: N’kankiti edible caterpillars (Anaphe sp.) form a sack in which they remain during the daytime emerging at night to feed. 88 I n Bas-Congo the liquid from the root bark and the trunk is used to treat dental caries, anaemia and haemorrhoids. After boiling down the leaves, the liquid is used to treat coughs and diarrhoea. The bark and roots also have medicinal uses. The wood is greyish with a dark brown heart, hard, naturally lustrous, very durable, heavy and termite proof. When worked it takes a good polish and large timbers are good for indoor carpentry and furniture. The wood is very durable in contact with the ground and in water. I t makes a good firewood and charcoal, giving out an intense heat. The roots are extensive and are useful for binding soil along drainage ditches etc. The shoots and fruits are edible and the leaves can be used as a fodder. The tree makes a good shade for coffee and cocoa. I n the inner bark Nkankiti caterpillars inside the sack and outer sapwood there is a sticky substance which is adhesive. I n the Gambia the inner bark, with that of the Baobab, is used to produce glue for repairing boots and shoes. Bark can also be pounded to a paste for filling in door cracks and caulking boats. I n Bas-Congo the flowers are reported to be visited by bees. The twigs and young leaves give a black dye used to colour pottery. The pounded bark yields a red dye. References Gillet 1927, I rvine 1961, Busson 1965, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Kokwaro 1976, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Coates Palgrave 1996, Venter & Venter 1996, Msanga 1998, Pousset 2004, Meunier et al. 2010, SEPASAL (Accessed 29.4.2013) Collecting water from a protected spring 89 Brillantaisia ow ariensis (Acanthaceae) Synonym B. patula Common name Lemba lemba (Kongo = calm the nerves) Description A robust shrub with square stems, growing up to 2 m high. Leaves are pointed, toothed, 25 - 30 cm long and 11 - 13 cm wide, with a petiole winged along its whole length. Flowers are terminal, blue-violet or pink. Fruit is a capsule 25 mm long, bearing about 20 seeds. Ecology Present in gallery forests and commonly planted in villages in Bas-Congo. Also found from Togo to Angola and in East Africa. Propagation Can be grown from seed or by division. Uses I n Bas-Congo the presence of the plant is believed to bring calm to an argument in the village. The roots, stem and leaves of this plant are commonly used medicinally. The leaves, after being pounded and steeped in water, are used to treat dementia, coughs, intestinal worms, heart problems and stomachache. They are also used in the treatment of drug dependency with Tapinanthus poggei, Amaranthus hybridus subsp. cruentus and Nymphaea lotus. The plant is held, in Congo, to have magical power to exorcise evil spirits, and when treatment for epilepsy or insanity is being carried out, the patient is given lotions and hot vapour baths made from the roots. Photo: Jesús Cabrera References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Burkill 1985, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004 90 Brucea javanica (Simaroubaceae) Synonym B. sumatrana Common names Nkenkina, kwinkwina (Kongo), Java brucea Description A small tree or shrub, usually from 1 3 m high with soft hairy twigs and leaves. Leaves are 20 – 50 cm long and composed of 3 – 15 leaflets. The small purple flowers are borne in clusters. Fruits are oval shaped, purple to black, and 4 – 5 mm long. Each contains one flat seed. Ecology I ntroduced into Bas-Congo via Kisantu Botanic Garden. Widespread in the tropics occurring from Sri Lanka and I ndia to I ndo-China, southern China, Taiwan, Thailand and in Australia. Propagation The shrub can be grown from seed. Management The dried Photos: Steve & Alison Pearson, Airlie Beach ripe fruits or seeds are usually collected from the wild. Uses I n Bas-Congo the plant is used to treat malaria. Extracts from the dried ripe fruits are widely used to treat amoebic dysentery, diarrhoea and malaria. Fruits and seeds, known as Macassar kernels, have been used in poultices in the treatment of boils, for ringworm, and various intestinal worms, including whipworm, roundworm and tapeworm. The seeds and roots are also used to treat diarrhoea and to reduce fever. A related species, B. antidysenterica, is a source of pollen and nectar to bees in Ethiopia. References Gillet 1927, Uphof 1968, Macmillan 1991, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Siregar 1999, van Wyk & Wink 2004 91 Buchholzia tholloniana (Capparaceae) Description A tree growing to 17 m tall with a diameter of up to 50 cm. The black bark produces a smell of mustard when rubbed and the wood smells of onion. The leaves are alternate, grouped at the end of branches, 15 - 35 cm long and 3 - 10 cm wide, on a petiole 2 - 8 cm long. Flowers have no petals and are composed of a group of about 40 stamens, 2 cm long, surrounding the ovary. Fruits are round, 6 - 10 cm in diameter, containing a brown pulp and from 1 to 4 seeds with yellow cotyledons. Ecology Grows in secondary forest usually on firm soils. Present in Cameroon, Gabon and the Central African Republic and in Lukaya, Cataractes and Mayombe districts of Bas-Congo. The tree is sometimes planted. Propagation The seeds germinate easily. Uses The fruit tastes like hot pepper ( Capsicum ‘frutescens’) and the seeds are used as a substitute for pepper. The bark is soaked in water and used to treat stomachache and inflammation of the ear. I n the Central Africa Republic the seed kernel is held for some time in the mouth, without being chewed, to treat migraine. The seed pulp is rubbed around the area affected by snakebite and the seed is eaten to ease coughing. The timber is used in construction work in Gabon. References FAC 1951, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1985, Vivien & Faure 1996 Left: Skin removed to show kernel 92 Cajanus cajan (Papilionaceae) Common names Wandu (Kongo), pois-cajan, ambrevade (Fr.), pigeon pea Description A short lived woody perennial shrub up to 2 m high. There are two species both widely cultivated in the tropics and sub-tropics. Plants grown for food should be cut down after one year as productivity declines thereafter. Ecology Sometimes grown as a hedge in BasCongo. I t is moderately drought resistant. However it does not like waterlogged soils nor is it particularly suited to the humid conditions. The plant grows best where there is adequate calcium and so does well around villages, where wood ash is present in the soil. Propagation Seed is sown direct after being soaked in water for 24 hours. I t can be stored if kept dry and cool, but is very susceptible to insect attack, so is often mixed with wood ash as a precaution. Germination is usually 85 - 95% . Uses Grown mainly for the ripe edible seeds which are a good source of protein (22% ) and of vitamin B. Young green pods are also eaten as a vegetable. Field plants provide good fodder and browse for livestock. Plants can be grown as windbreaks and as a temporary shade for cacao. I t makes a useful nurse crop for tree seedlings. I n I ndia silk worms are fed the leaves. I n Manianga juice from the leaves is used to treat eye problems. Elsewhere in Africa a decoction of the leaves is used medicinally to treat dysentery and an extract from the root is used to treat stomach ache. The stems make good firewood. Bees visit the flowers producing a honey with a distinctive greenish colour in the comb. I t is a major nectar source in I ndia and Mozambique. The plant fixes nitrogen, improving soil fertility. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Arkinstall 1979, Allen & Allen 1981, Crane et al. 1984, Van den Belt 1988, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Raemaekers 2001, Pousset 2004 93 Caladium bicolor (Araceae) Common names Malanga (Kongo = something which covers; criminals use it for cover), Caladium, angel-wings, elephant ear Description A perennial herb, about 60 cm tall, with a crown of large mottled and coloured leaves growing from a tuberous rootstock. The leaves are borne on petioles, 15 - 30.5 cm long that arise directly from the underground tuber. The petioles are attached to the leaves near the centre. Leaf shape, size and colour vary among the hundreds of selections, but most are heart, lance or arrowhead shaped, 15 - 35 cm long, and variously spotted or streaked with pink, red, grey, or white. The inflorescence is a 23 cm long greenish white fleshy spike enclosed in a spathe. Small white berries eventually develop on the spadix. Ecology The wild variety is common in swamps and along river banks in moist shady areas. The plant is originally from the South American tropical rain forests and the Caribbean but now widely distributed throughout the tropics. Propagation Tubers should be cut into pieces with at least two buds ("eyes") each, at the end of the dormant period. Set tubers about 2 cm deep. Tubers should be planted in well drained, humus rich soil. Most cultivars require partial to full shade, but some tolerate sunny positions. The plants need adequate water during their growing season. They do poorly in dry climates. The dormant tubers, however, must be kept dry. Uses An ornamental plant grown for its large, showy leaves. The fresh rhizome is used as an emetic and a purgative. I n Congo the rhizome is applied to painful areas, oedemas, boils, abscesses and ulcers. Leaves are reported to be eaten for insomnia and nightmares. The fruits are also used medicinally. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Burkill 1985, Phillips & Rix 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Llamas 2003, Floridata website (Accessed 6.7.2007). 94 Calamus deerratus (Arecaceae) Synonym C. laurentii Common names Nkau (Kongo), rotin (Fr.), rattan Both photos: Luc Pauwels Description A slender to moderately robust rattan palm, climbing up to 20 m high, often forming dense clumps. The stems and leaves are armed with spines. Stems have an extended whip-like organ, called a flagella, up to 2 m long, with hooks which help the palm climb into the tops of forest trees. Canes may grow to 5 cm diameter but are usually only 1 – 3 cm. Old stems lose their thorns. Ecology Grows in swamp and riverine forest but is less common in areas with high rainfall. I t is the most widely distributed of the African rattans. Propagation Seeds germinate better when the fleshy layer has been removed. I n Ghana the plant has been successfully propagated using rhizomes, with about 20% sprouting. Uses I n Bas-Congo the stems are used to make baskets and were traditionally made into canes for chiefs. The skin of the stem is removed with a knife and then the cane is dried. Elsewhere the canes are used to make furniture, walking sticks, belts for climbing palm trees and bored out to make flutes. The stems are also used for fencing and ties for house building. When the rind is peeled off the fibre makes a strong rope. Remarks The stems are not as flexible as those of Eremospatha nor or as large, strong or long lasting as those of Laccosperma species. References Purseglove 1972, Burkill 1997, Bongers et al. 2004, Sunderland 2007, Sunderland 2011 95 Caloncoba w elw itschii (Flacourtiaceae) Synonym Oncoba welwitschii Common names Kisani, kisania, nsani (Kongo) Description A shrub or tree to 5 – 6 m tall. The leaves are ovate in shape ending in a long point. They are flat or very broadly rounded at the base, with 5 nerves. Leaf stalks are 5 – 22 cm long. Flowers are large (5 cm across) and showy, with 3 - 4 broad overlapping sepals and 5 - 13 white petals. The numerous stamens are bright orange. Fruits are covered with slender spines up to 5 cm long. Ecology Very common in secondary forest in Bas-Congo. Also present in Nigeria, Cameroon, Gabon, Angola, Malawi and Mozambique. Propagation and management The tree can be grown from seed and coppices well. Uses Poles are used for house construction and charcoal and the fruit pulp is eaten in Bas-Congo. The leaves are eaten by Nsani ( Cymothoe caenis), Mimpemba and Matambungu edible caterpillars. Though the former is not one of the tastiest species it is available in large quantities in January and again at the end of the rain season. The flowers are frequently visited by bees, though some people report that the nectar produces a bitter honey. The plant has a number of medicinal uses. I n Bas-Congo the flowers and fruits are used to treat mental illness, asthma, gallstones and intestinal worms. The fruits, boiled with pineapple juice, are given to pregnant women to reduce colic pains. The leaves are also used to treat fleas in poultry. I n Congo (Brazzaville) the leaves and bark are made into poultices to mature abscesses and into plasters for bronchial infections and rheumatism. Pounded leaves are applied to reduce swellings in bone fractures before fixing splints. Powdered leaves are sprinkled on the severed umbilical cord of new-born babies. Pulped bark with palm oil is used to treat itch, and juice extracted from the bark is used to expel parasites. Root scrapings are rubbed on to kill body lice. The seed oil has been used in Congo for leprosy, and contains chaulmoogric and hydnocarpic acids. Remarks Some people say the wood should not be used to make beehives or top bars as it can kill the bees. Leaf pulp is used to repel bees during honey harvest in the Central African Republic. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Aké Assi et al. 1981, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 Cymothoe caenis edible caterpillars 96 Camoensia scandens (Papilionaceae) Synonym C. maxima Common name Nkadinkadi (Kongo) Description A scrambling woody shrub or creeper up to 30 m long. Young parts are densely covered with fine hairs. Leaves are 4.5 – 24 cm long and 2.5 – 9 cm wide. Flowers, including calyx, may be up to 25 cm long. Fruits are 18 – 22 cm long and 3 – 4 cm wide. Seeds are 2.5 x 2 cm. Photo: Gracia Matondo Ecology Present in forest and savanna, being colonized by forest, in D.R. Congo, Angola and Tanzania. I t requires a moist, fertile soil. Propagation Grow from cuttings or by air-layering. seed, Uses Grown as an ornamental. I n Equateur province the powdered root is applied externally to wounds. References Staner & Boutique 1937, FAC 1953, FTEA Pauwels 1993, Fayaz 2011 1971, Photo: Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez 97 Cananga odorata (Annonaceae) Common name Ylang-ylang Description A large evergreen tree 25 – 30 m tall. The trunk is straight and the branches droop. The bark is smooth and ash coloured. Leaves are alternate, elliptic, 9 – 20 cm long and 5 – 10 cm wide with wavy margins. Flowers are borne on 3 – 5 cm stalks arising in the leaf axils. There are 3 sepals, 5 mm long and 6 greenishyellow twisted petals 4 cm long. Fruit is stalked, oval in shape, 1.5 cm long and has 10 – 12 segments containing 6 – 12 seeds. The fragrant flowers are produced throughout the year. Ecology Native to East I ndies, Burma, the Philippine islands and throughout Malaysia but now planted widely throughout the tropics. I t is not common in Bas-Congo but occasionally planted as an ornamental tree. I t grows well in a moist tropical climate, preferably close to sea level in deep, fertile sandy soils. I t has a long taproot. Propagation Usually grown from seed, rarely from cuttings. Fresh seed does not germinate well and is best left for a year before planting. Seed can be planted in a seed bed or planted direct in the field. Mix manure in the planting hole and plant at a spacing of 6 m x 6 m. Management I f trees are grown for commercial production of flowers they should be topped at 3.3 m to facilitate harvesting. Mulching prolongs the flowering. The flowers are picked just as they turn from yellowish-green to yellow, before dawn to conserve the perfume. The flowers must be picked very carefully to avoid bruising or crushing. Damaged flowers turn black and cause fermentation. Flowers harvested in the dry season contain more oil. The oil must be kept in the dark. A full grown tree yields 10 – 12 kg of fresh flowers per season and 100 kg flowers produce 0.5 kg oil. Total yield of ylang-ylang and cananga oil is 0.5 – 2.5% of the weight of the flowers. The two oils are produced in equal amounts. Environmental factors influence oil yield and quality. Trees may remain productive for 25 – 50 years. Uses The perfume ylang-ylang is obtained on first distillation. The second distillation yields an inferior oil, cananga oil or macassar oil. Ylang-ylang is extensively used in fixing floral perfumes though no more than 1% of the oil is used in a perfume. I t is used in face powders, creams, detergents, lotions and soaps. I t is also used to flavour baked goods, sweets, alcoholic beverages, chewing gums, gelatines, icing, puddings, soft drinks at levels of less than 5 ppm. The oil is used to treat gout and opthalmia and has been used as a substitute for quinine in the treatment of malaria. The leaves also yield an essential oil. The wood is suitable for use in packing cases, boxes and for turnery. Bark can be used to make rope. The white to grey timber is not durable, but used for household implements. I n Ghana the tree is planted for shade. Bunaea alcinoe (Makedi kedi) and Lobobunea phaedusa (Kaba) edible caterpillars were seen feeding on the leaves at Kavwaya in January. References Burkill 1985, Williamson 1991, Duke & DuCellier 1993, Pauwels 1993, Llamas 2003 98 Canarium schw einfurthii (Burseraceae) Common names Kibidi, mbidi, nsafu mfinda (Kongo), elemier d'Afrique (Fr.), African elemi, incense tree Description A tree up to 45 m tall, usually rather slender, with a spreading crown. I t makes a good shade tree. Ecology Grows in secondary forest and is sometimes planted. Widespread in tropical Africa from Sierra Leone to Angola and Tanzania. Propagation Can be grown from seed. The fruits fall to the ground when ripe. Collect them together, allow the outer coat to decompose, then separate from the stone. Crack open the stone which contains 3 seeds. Seeds store well. Before planting immerse them in hot water, which is then allowed to cool and soak for 24 hours. Wild seedlings can also be transplanted. Management The tree grows slowly and does not compete with crops. Uses The black fruits are edible, particularly after being boiled or baked in ashes. Even softening the fruits in hot water makes them more palatable. The wood is used for construction. The abundant resin, obtained from cuts in the bark, is used for preparing ointments, for burning as incense and for making ink and varnishes. Powdered resin is used to treat haemorrhoids. The bark, after soaking in water, is also used to treat haemorrhoids and to ease coughing. I n Angola it is used for the treatment of ulcers and also as an insecticide. I n Bas-Congo an edible caterpillar (Mbidi) is sometimes found in large numbers on this tree. Flowers are reported to be visited by bees in Gabon. Traditionally the seeds were used as bullets in BasCongo. Ripe fruits fall to the ground References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Uphof 1968, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, I wu 1993, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembel 2010, Meunier et al. 2010 Left: Resin flowing from a wound in the trunk. 99 Canavalia ensiformis and C. gladiata (Papilionaceae) Common names C. ensiformis = Nkasa zi madeso (Kongo), pois sabre (Fr.), Jack bean. C. gladiata = sword bean Canavalia gladiata growing on the edge of a plot of Capsicum peppers Description The Jack bean is usually an erect shrubby annual up to 1 m tall while the sword bean is a high climbing, twining perennial with runners up to 10 m long. Jack beans produce pods up to 30 cm long and 3.5 cm wide while sword beans can be up to 40 cm long and 5 cm wide. Jack bean seeds are white, sword bean seeds red. Roots are deep penetrating and help to aerate the soil. Ecology C. ensiformis is a native of Central America but is now dispersed throughout the tropics and common in cultivation throughout West Africa. I t tolerates shade. C. gladiata is widely cultivated in I ndia and Asia and is more commonly found in Bas-Congo than C. ensiformis. I t grows well on acid, leached soils and can be grown over fences. Propagation Seed germinates quickly. Plant 5 – 7.5 cm deep. Management The plant is fast growing producing seed after 3 - 4 months. I f cut back it produces a bushy form. Normal yield of seed is 800 – 1,500 kg per ha. Uses The young pods and very young seeds of both species can be eaten as a vegetable. However the seeds have a Seeds of Canavalia gladiata strong flavour and a tough seed coat, which is best removed after cooking and before eating. The water used for cooking should be changed several times. Seeds can be used as a livestock feed for cattle and poultry. The plant is grown as a valuable green manure in some countries. I n Bas-Congo seeds are occasionally planted at the edge of a food farm in the belief that it will prevent people stealing the crop (see also Burkill 1995). Leaves and young pods of Jack bean are used as a tasty green vegetable in South Africa. The seeds are also used in South Africa as a coffee substitute. References Kay 1979, NAS 1979, Siemonsma & Kasem Piluek 1993, Burkill 1995, van Wyk et al. 2000, Bosch 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 100 Canna indica (Cannaceae) Synonym C. bidentata Common names Kombu kombu, tundungoma (Kongo), I ndian shot, wild canna lily Description A herb growing from a much branched rhizome with stems up to 2.5 m tall. Leaves are ovate-oblong, 30 – 60 cm long and 10 – 20 cm wide with green or purple leaf sheaths. Flowers are red to yellow in racemes. Sepals pale purplish-green. Fruit is a capsule 1.2 – 1.8 cm long. Ecology I n Bas-Congo the plant is frequently found growing wild in abandoned villages. I t is believed to have originally come from South America but is now cultivated throughout the tropics. Propagation Can be grown from rhizomes or seed. Uses The black, hard-coated seeds are used in bells, rosaries, as beads and as bullets to kill birds in BasCongo. I n Congo a tisane is made from the leaves and given to children with severe coughing. The sap is applied to sores and to stop bleeding. The leaves are also used for wrapping. An aqueous decoction is used to treat irregular periods in women. The Photo: Luc Pauwels rhizomes can be eaten raw but are usually consumed after boiling or cooking in various ways. Flour can be made from the rhizomes by peeling, drying and milling. The starch is used in foods. Young shoots can be eaten as a green vegetable. Children suck the base of the flowers for nectar. Both the leaves and the rhizomes can be used as cattle feed. Canna species are also well known as garden ornamentals because of their attractive flowers and foliage. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Williams 1949, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Llamas 2003, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Fayaz 2011 101 Capsicum annuum (Solanaceae) Common names Ndungu zi mafofolo, ndungu zi nkombo (Kongo), Piment (Fr.), capsicum, bell pepper, sweet pepper Description An annual or short lived perennial herb, 0.5 to 1.5 m high usually grown as an annual. This is the most variable species of the genus. Fruits are borne singly. The following varieties are present: Long peppers Fruits 20 - 30 cm in length, cream, yellow or red, tapering; Sweet, Bell and Paprika peppers - large, inflated, thick fleshed; Chilli peppers - more than 9 cm long, narrow, pointed; Wrinkled peppers - less than 5 cm in length, and wrinkled; Cherry peppers - rounded, with firm flesh, yellow, red or purple; Cluster peppers - fruits in clusters. Many intermediate forms occur. Ecology Originally from Mexico. Peppers can be grown from sea level to 2,000 m or more. Fertile loam soils with high organic content are preferred. Normally grown during the rain season, but heavy rain causes poor fruit set and rotting of the fruit. Poor drainage results in leaf fall. Mulching is beneficial in both dry and wet seasons. Propagation Grown from seed which is normally planted in a nursery. Seeds retain their viability for 2 - 3 years. Extract and dry seed from ripe fruit. Seeds are sown in containers or seedbeds and transplanted when 8 - 10 cm high. Germination occurs after 6 - 10 days. Transplant when 15 cm high. They may be topped 10 days beforehand to encourage branching. Management Transplant to rows 60 - 80 cm apart and 35 - 45 cm between plants or 50 - 60 cm square. Plant on ridges during the rain season, timing this so that fruit will ripen in the dry season. Harvesting can start 50 - 80 days after transplanting and continue for 60 days or more. Pick fruits every 1 or 2 weeks. Uses The fruit is used in soups, stews and also eaten raw in salads. Sweet peppers have the mildest flavour with little of the pungent principle and are rich in vitamin C. Young tops and leaves can also be eaten and have a protein content of about 8% . Some people say the fruits give food the taste of goat meat. Capsicum chinense – Aromatic pepper. This species, together with C. annuum and C. frutescens, are all descended from a common ancestor. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Terra 1966, Purseglove 1968, Tindall 1983, Grubben & el Tahir 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 102 Capsicum ‘frutescens’ (Solanaceae) Common names Ntendi, Ndungu zi ntendi, Ndungu zi fioti or matubulu (with round fruits)(Kongo), pilipili (Sw.), piment capsique (Fr.), bird pepper, hot pepper, Tabasco pepper Description A perennial sub-shrub, usually living for 2 - 3 years, up to 1.25 m tall. Fruits are small, 1 2 cm long, green to start with but turning red on maturity. Ecology, propagation and management as for C. annuum Uses Ripe fruits are highly pungent and widely used as a condiment with most meals. I n reasonable quantities they stimulate the appetite and aid digestion. They may be eaten fresh or dried and powdered (see page 386). The leaves are sometimes eaten as a seasoning or even as a vegetable. The fruits and leaves are used medicinally to treat rheumatoid arthritis, sprains, muscle pain, lumbago and sciatica. They are also used for flatulence and haemorrhoids, skin diseases and shingles and to relieve labour pains. Right: The variety called Matabulu with round fruits. “ Lundungu lu n’tendi lu yedila mu kati” (Ndia Nsoki 1994) = The variety of Capsicum frutescens called “n’tendi” may be small but its size is no indication of its hotness. (Ndia Nsoki 1994) Remarks Though C. frutescens is now considered to be a synonym of C. annuum it is recognised locally as being a distinct species. The fruits must be handled carefully to avoid contact w ith the eyes, nose, anus or open w ounds. Wash your hands w ell after touching the fruit. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1968, Burkill 2000, Hirt & M'Pia 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 103 Carapa procera (Meliaceae) Common names Bula nima, futi, nkasa nkumbi, nzau nti (Kongo), crab nut Description A spreading tree growing up to 30 m high. Branches arise low down on the trunk which may be fluted. The compound leaves are made up of 5 – 9 pairs of opposite leaflets, 16 – 55 cm long and 5 – 15 cm wide, and borne on petioles up to 25 – 150 cm long. Young leaves are light green or bright pink. The scented flowers are in panicles up to 75 cm long. The fruit (see below right) is a capsule 10 cm in diameter, splitting into 5 sections with rough edges and containing 12 – 20 seeds. Seeds are angular and dark brown. Ecology Found in primary forests from Guinea to Uganda and Angola. Also present in tropical America. Propagation Sow seeds in pots, after soaking in water overnight, or transplant wild seedlings. Seed should be stored in ash to avoid insect damage. Management Shade and weed control are necessary during early growth until the trees are well established. The tree can be pruned to obtain a single stem. Uses The bark is used to treat dysentery in Bas-Congo. The timber is heavy and tough and used for making furniture, panelling and veneers and also for firewood and charcoal. Seeds (left) are edible when roasted and also produce an edible oil known as crab oil. This is used as a cosmetic and to treat wounds and painful areas. The bark and seeds contain chemicals that have insecticidal properties. Elsewhere in Africa the bark is used to treat coughs and fever. Bees are reported to visit the flowers in Gabon. References De Wildeman 1903, Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, White & Abernethy 1997, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004 104 Cardiospermum grandiflorum & C. halicacabum (Sapindaceae) Common names Pois de coeur (Fr.), balloon vine Description Weak, annual, slender, climbing herbs. Leaves are compound having three leaflets in groups of three. Leaflets have sharp edges and are usually toothed. I n C. grandiflorum the petals are larger (8 – 9 mm) and the fruit is broadest at the middle. I n C. halicacabum the petals are 2 – 3 mm long and the fruit is broadest towards the apex. Both photos are of C. grandiflorum . Ecology Found in gallery and rain forests, at forest edges, in savanna, fields and fallow land. Widespread across tropical Africa and south to South Africa. Also present in Central America and Australia. C. Uses The roots of halicacabum are used as an emetic in Bas-Congo. The roots are known to be soothing to inflamed areas. I n D.R. Congo a leaf and stalk infusion is given by enema to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. Leaves are sometimes used as a vegetable in Ghana. The flowers of both species are known to be a valuable source of honey in Africa and in Texas, USA. The seeds are decorative and the seed oil has potential use in the food industry. References Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Rojo & Pitargue 1999, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000 105 Carica papaya (Caricaceae) Common names Payi payi, dipapayi (Kongo), papayer (Fr.), pawpaw Description A short-lived, fast growing tree with a soft-wooded stem. Male and female flowers are normally borne on different plants. The male flowers are carried in long hanging racemes and are often fragrant. The female flowers are borne on the main stem. Ecology Originally from Central America and grown throughout the tropics. The tree does best below 1,500 m in well drained, fertile soils. Propagation The tree grows easily from seed which should be washed to remove the flesh and air-dried in the shade. Seeds may be sown direct or in a nursery bed and germinate after 12 - 20 days. Seedlings can then be transplanted into pots at the two-leaf stage. As it is not possible to tell male and female plants at this stage, 3 - 5 seedlings are planted together in the field with the groups spaced at 3 x 2 m. Dig out a hole 50 x 50 x 50 cm and add manure or compost. 3 young plants are then allowed to grow on until they flower. Once flowering commences thin out the plants to leave one male to 15 to 20 females. Management Mulching the plants greatly assists growth and production. Uses The fruit is easy to digest, a good source of provitamin A and ascorbic acid and a fair source of calcium. The latex, containing the enzyme papain, obtained from scratching the surface of unripe fruit, is used to make meat tender. Wrapping tough meat in the leaves and leaving it overnight has the same effect. Papain can also be applied to ulcers and burns to assist healing, and in water to clean dirty wounds. I t has important medicinal uses for the treatment of back pain, tuberculosis, digestive problems, intestinal and urinary problems and guinea worm. The seeds, sap and flowers can be used to kill or expel intestinal worms. All residues, including the leaves, can be used as a livestock feed. Bees obtain pollen from male flowers, in some cases in sufficient amounts to stimulate brood rearing, and also nectar from female and bisexual flowers. The presence of bees is reported to increase fruit production. They sometimes collect juice from damaged fruit. References Gillet 1927, Morton 1964, Crane et al. 1984, Ambougou 1991, Clauss 1992, I wu 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Nakasone & Paull 1998, Hirt & M’Pia 2001, Raemaekers 2001, Pousset 2004 106 Carpolobia alba (Polygalaceae) Synonym C. glabrescens Common name Poor man’s candle Description A shrub or small tree up to 10 m tall. Leaves are alternate, papery, 5 – 14 cm long and 2 – 7 cm wide, on a petiole 1 – 3 mm long. I nflorescence is composed of 2 – 4 flowers. Corolla is white, turning yellow. There are 5 petals, the keel petal being up to 1.5 cm long, limb as long as claw, 2 – 3 cm wide when folded. The smooth, orange fruits are ovoid, 1.8 cm in diameter, and have 3 lobes. Ecology Present in gallery and secondary forests. Found from west tropical Africa south to Angola and in Central Africa. Altitude range 200 – 1,000 m. Uses Fruits are edible and in Bas-Congo they are also used as an aphrodisiac. The yellow wood is very hard, heavy, termite resistant, fine textured, carving smoothly and taking a good polish. I t is used for rat-traps, walking sticks, cudgels, tool handles and house posts. Stems are used for chew sticks and after stripping off the bark can also be used instead of candles as they burn even when fresh. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees in Gabon. References Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Abbiw 1990, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, Hawthorne & Jongkind 2006, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 107 Cascabela thevetia (Apocynaceae) Synonyms Thevetia peruviana, T. neriifolia Common names Chapeau de Napolean (Fr.), exile tree, yellow oleander Description A multi-stemmed shrub or small tree growing to 6 m high. Leaves are narrow, 12 - 15 long and 0.7 - 1 cm wide, and produced alternately in a spiral. The flowers, 6 cm long, are normally yellow but may also be white or pink. Ecology Originally from tropical America and the West I ndies but now frequently cultivated throughout the tropics and often grown in villages in Bas-Congo. The tree is drought resistant and tolerates most types of soil, though it prefers sandy soils. Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings. Seed can be stored for up to 3 months and has a germination rate of up to 80% . Management The tree is fast-growing. For a good display of flowers it should be pruned one month before flowering. Uses The fruit or leaves are crushed and put on food to poison wild animals e.g. cane rats = nsisi (Kongo) or nsimbiliki (Lingala), which can then be eaten, though they must be cleaned out carefully beforehand. Widely grown as an ornamental for its yellow flowers which are produced throughout the year. Makes a good hedge, suppressing weeds in its shade. Latex is present in all parts of the plant. The wood is used to make tool handles and even building poles. The fruits, and particularly the kernels, have insecticidal activity. Medicinally the plant is used as a purgative and an emetic, however all parts of the plant are very poisonous. Remarks Every part of the plant is very poisonous. Children should not play w ith the fruits. References Gillet 1927, Uphof 1968, Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995 108 Catharanthus roseus (Apocynaceae) Common names Pervenche de Madagascar (Fr.), mtunda (Swahili), Madagascar periwinkle Description A perennial shrub, up to 1 m tall, with bright pink flowers which are produced throughout the year. Stems grow to 60 cm and are often woody at the base. Leaves are 2.5 – 8.5 cm long and 1 – 4 cm wide, oblong and shiny green. Flowers are 3 cm across, generally pink but sometimes white with a red, pale yellow or white centre. Ecology The plant is originally from Madagascar but is now naturalised throughout the tropics. I t grows well on sandy soils and can be found in dry rocky sites. I t is often planted as an ornamental in villages. I t withstands drought well but not very high temperatures. Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings. Seed does not always germinate immediately after harvest and may need to be kept for a few weeks before planting. Seed can be kept for up to 5 years and germination is usually good. Cuttings, taken from greenwood or semi-ripe stems, are best grown in a closed container. Uses The plant is effective in reducing certain nematodes in the soil, even when populations are high. Trials show a reduction of 95% of reniform, root-knot and stunt nematodes. The roots are used to treat amoebic dysentery in Bas-Congo. The plant contains alkaloids which are used in the treatment of cancer and leukaemia. I n Africa the whole plant, fresh or dried leaves, roots and flowers are used to treat coughs and asthma, diabetes, fatigue, blood in urine, bacterial dysentery, gastric ulcers, rheumatism, high blood pressure, hypertension, abscesses, warts, insect stings, skin rashes and venereal disease. References Phillips & Rix 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Stoll 2000, Pousset 2004, Schmelzer 2007 109 Cecropia pachystachya (Cecropiaceae) Common name Ambay pumpwood Description A small to medium dioecious tree 5 – 15 m tall. Large trees have stilt roots. The tree produces very few branches. The stems are hollow. The tree is easily identified by its large, circular, palmately lobed leaves, about 30 - 40 cm in diameter and deeply divided into 7-11 lobes. When the branches are cut, they release a watery, often mucilaginous sap which turns black when exposed to the air. Ecology The trees are invasive, make few demands on the soil and grow very quickly. The species was introduced to Bas-Congo from the Kisantu botanic garden. Native to the American tropics. Propagation Fruits are collected from the tree, placed in a plastic bag and allowed to decompose. The seeds are then separated out, washed and dried in the sun. Plant immediately in an open seedbed. Transplant when 5 cm high. Uses The main use of Cecropia trees is to prevent soil erosion. I n Equateur province the leaves are used to treat dysentery and heart palpitations, and the roots to treat elephantiasis, dental caries and coughs. The wood from Cecropia trees is used to make flutes, guitars, matches and light boxes. The fibres of the bark can be made into ropes and used for bowstrings and hammocks. The fruits are reported to be eaten in Brazil. References Lorenzi 1992, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 2012, Wikipedia (Accessed 4.10.13) Tree in flower in August at Eala 110 Ceiba pentandra (Bombacaceae) Common names Mfuma (Kongo), fromager (Fr.), kapok, silk cotton tree Description A large deciduous tree growing to 40 m high with horizontal branches. When young the trunk is covered with large spines. The fruit pods are from 10 - 26 cm long and contain black seeds surrounded with fine, silky (kapok) fibres. Ecology Native to Central America and West Africa. Cultivated or found in secondary forest in Bas-Congo. I t prefers deep, permeable, volcanic soils, free from water-logging. Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings. Seeds, which retain their viability for up to one year at room temperature, should first be soaked in cold water for 24 hours before planting. Management The tree can be coppiced or pollarded. Uses The floss has the advantage of being resistant to vermin. Hospital mattresses, using the floss, can be sterilized without losing their original quality. Because of its buoyancy and resistance to wetting it is used in life jackets, rafts and naval equipment. I t can also be used as a substitute for cotton wool. The floss can be used to protect young plants from browsing damage by goats. Wood is of poor quality but easy to work and used for chairs, dishes, boxes and drums when seasoned. Wood ash is used as a salt substitute and for making soap. Young leaves can be cooked and eaten as a vegetable or used as a stock feed. The flowers are also edible and are sold in Kinshasa. Seeds yield an edible oil which can also be used in the manufacture of soap. The bark is used as a purgative and to cause vomiting in the event of poisoning. A decoction of the roots is used as a diuretic and to treat dysentery. I n Bas-Congo the dried leaves, together with plantain, are used to treat haemorrhoids. Flowers provide a valuable source of nectar and pollen to honeybees. Though opening at night they remain open for a short time early in the morning when bees visit. C i t Remarks The tree roots are shallow and the tree is liable to be blown over by high winds. The roots may damage buildings if planted too close. Left: Floss and dried flowers A Kikongo proverb states that:- “Mbemba wo diengeni diengeni kundulu mfuma” (Ndia Nsoki 1994) = After having wandered in the sky the vulture returns to his perch in the mfuma tree, meaning that a person may wander wherever he wants but one day he will die and return to God. References Staner & Boutique 1937, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1985, von Carlowitz 1991, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 111 Celosia argentea (Amaranthaceae) Common names Lundala ndala (= swallow) (Kongo), célosie (Fr.), Lagos spinach Description An erect annual herb growing up to 2 m with leaves 15 x 7 cm. Ecology Originally from West Africa. Sometimes planted but it also grows spontaneously especially in marshy soils in Bas-Congo. A high level of organic matter and adequate water is required for good yields. The plant will also grow well in partial shade. Long dry periods result in early flowering. Propagation I f grown for continued harvesting over a long period the seed should be first sown in a nursery and then transplanted. More even sowing can be obtained if the seed is mixed with some fine, dry sand. Management Seedlings are transplanted when about 10 15 cm high, being spaced at 15 - 30 cm each way. The crop will grow on poor soils but yields are greatly increased if grown in fertile conditions. Harvesting of whole plants takes place when they reach 20 - 40 cm high. I f cut at 15 - 20 cm they develop side shoots which are then harvested when they reach 15 cm from the node. A total of four cuttings can be made at three week intervals. Uses Grown as a vegetable though Mbwembo ( Amaranthus hybridus subsp. cruentus) is preferred. Young leaves have the best nutritional value with a protein content of 4.7% . The boiled leaves and young shoots are softer and more slimy than those of amaranth and are used in soups and stews, especially with fish. The young flowers are also eaten. The Celosia argentea flowering in February near Sona Bata. leaves are sometimes dried for later use. The plant has a high oxalate content, which can give rise to kidney stones, so should only be eaten in moderate amounts. The leaves are used to treat coughs and the roots promote urination. The seeds are used to treat diarrhoea. Bees collect nectar from the flowers. Remarks The plant is very susceptible to nematodes, Cercospora leaf spot and spider mite but it grows faster than amaranth and has a higher dry matter content. I mproved varieties from Nigeria mature later, can be harvested over a longer period and are more productive. References De Wildeman 1903, Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Terra 1966, Oomen & Grubben 1978, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Konda et al 1992, Schippers 2002, Denton 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 112 Celosia trigyna (Amaranthaceae) Common names Teta bowa, nkaka bowa, tusevo (Kongo) Description A much branched herb, 30 cm to 1 m high, with thin, weak stems and many flowers. Stems are often green-red and striped. Leaves are alternate, 2 – 8 cm long and 1 – 4 cm wide with a petiole up to 5 cm long. Most leaves fall as the fruit matures. The terminal flower head is 20 cm long with widely spaced clusters of flowers. Each is very small, with pink/ white sepals and red anthers. Ecology Widespread at low altitudes as a weed in abandoned cultivation, forest clearings, along tracks and roadsides. Also found in damp ground beside water. I t can be present both in relatively dry areas and in the more humid forest zone. Photo: Jean Lejoly Uses The leaves, which are rather bitter, are eaten by some people in Bas-Congo. Young shoots are harvested about 2 months from sowing prior to the development of the flower shoots, which can be spiny. There are however people who like this species and it is currently being studied in Nigeria where improved selections have been made. I t is rich in saponins and one should therefore be careful not to eat too much. I n Bas-Congo, Kivu and Rwanda the plant is used as an intestinal worm remedy particularly for tapeworms in children. I t is also used ‘to enrich the blood’. References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937, Delaude & Breyne 1971, Van Epenhuijsen 1974, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Konda et al. 1992, Ruffo et al. 2002, Schippers 2002, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Malaisse 2010 113 Cenchrus purpureus (Poaceae) Synonym Pennisetum purpureum Common names Diadi, ndiadi, madiadia, mbulu mbakala (Kongo), herbe à elephant (Fr.), elephant grass, napier grass Description A robust, deep rooted erect perennial grass with stems growing to 2 – 4 m and forming large clumps. Leaves are 30 - 120 cm long by 1 - 5 cm wide with a prominent midrib. The leaf sheath is hairy. Ecology Grows in damp, fertile sites in deep soil though it will grow in a wide variety of soils. I t can withstand periods of drought. I t does not tolerate waterlogging. Propagation Most easily planted using stem cuttings having at least 3 nodes. Cuttings are planted diagonally or vertically with 2 nodes below ground. For good soil conservation, plant along the contour at a close spacing. Otherwise for fodder production plant at a spacing of 50 – 90 cm. After cutting back top growth to ground level clumps can be divided and planted out. Management To obtain best food value cut regularly when leaves reach 100 – 120 cm. The plant responds well to nitrogen fertilizer if available. Alternatively Desmodium intortum can be planted in combination to fix nitrogen. Uses I n Bas-Congo the stems are used for making screens, in house construction and for fish traps. The young white tender shoots are edible. When young the shoots are a good cattle fodder. I t makes a good forage grass for stall feeding livestock, though it can also be grazed. I ts feed value however depends on the ratio of stem to leaf and on age. Young leaves have a much better digestibility than older leaves, particularly if stems are present with the latter. Plants are valuable for erosion control when planted in a continuous line along the contour at 2 m vertical intervals. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Bogdan 1977, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Crane & Walker 1984, ‘t Mannetje 1992, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 114 Centella asiatica (Apiaceae) Common names I ndian pennywort, ecuelle d’eau (Fr.), hydrocotyle Description A low growing creeping herb. The plant has slender stems, rounded leaves and small flowers. I t roots at the nodes forming a mat. Ecology Found in marshy places in Bas-Congo. Also found on roadsides at all altitudes. Grows throughout the tropics and present in Asia and S. America. I t is sometimes found in lawns and has been grown in Java to prevent erosion. Propagation The plant roots from the nodes. Uses I n Bas-Congo the plant is applied to heal wounds. Leaf infusions are used in I ndia to treat leprosy and skin infections and for their diuretic effect. Asiaticoside has been extracted from the leaves and found to be effective in healing wounds. The whole plant is dried and incorporated into ointments for use in treating wounds, burns and ulcers, to improve healing and prevent the formation of scar tissue. I t is also used to treat stomach and duodenal ulcers. The leaves are sometimes eaten as a vegetable or dietary supplement. References Staner & Boutique 1937, Malaisse 1997, Burkill 2000, Van Wyk & Wink 2004 115 Centrosema pubescens (Papilionaceae) Common names Centro, pois bâtard (Fr.), butterfly pea Description A vigorous, climbing plant, semi-woody at the base, scrambling over vegetation, or forming a thick intertwining mat up to 30 cm deep. Leaves have 3 dark green leaflets 1.5 - 7 cm long and 0.6 - 4.5 cm wide. The undersides are covered with fine hairs. The flowers are in short, dense, axillary racemes. Flowers are dark or pale lilac. Pods are linear, 4 - 17 cm long and 0.7 cm containing up to 20 reddish-brown seeds. Growth is slow to start with but after 4 - 6 months ground cover is complete. Ecology Originally from tropical America but now found in most tropical countries. I t will stand full sunlight but not dense shade. Grows well on sand or clay soils and tolerates acid soils. Because of its deep roots it can tolerate drought periods. Propagation I mmerse seed in hot water (77°C for 15 minutes) to improve germination. Sow in rows 1 m apart after inoculation with the correct strain of Bradyrhizobium . Uses Commonly used as a ground cover before establishing permanent plantation crops such as oil palm, cacao and rubber. I t is also grown with grass for feeding sheep and for fattening pigs. I t has the same nutritive value (i.e. 11 - 24% crude protein content and 54% digestibility) as Guinea grass ( Panicum maximum ) and grows well with it. Palatability is good but less than associated grasses. Nitrogen fixing is high, between 75 and 100 kg/ ha/ year. The leaves are eaten by Mukenga caterpillar and also by goats. Remarks Regenerates from seed after fire. References Skerman 1977, Burkill 1995, Raemaekers 2001 116 Chaetocarpus africanus (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Nkungu nteke, nkungulu teke, kikungu, sesa (= brush)(Kongo) Description A shrub or small tree 2 - 7 m high. Leaves are 2.5 - 19 cm long and 1.5 - 7 cm wide. Flowers are white and small and are followed by almost round red fruits 7 – 10 mm in diameter. Flowers and fruit may be present on the plant together. Ecology This bush is commonly found in secondary forest in Gabon, D.R. Congo and Congo (Brazzaville), Angola and Zambia. Uses The thin branches are widely used for making brushes in Bas-Congo. Poles are used for house building, firewood and charcoal making and the leaves are used as fodder for livestock. Bees forage actively for pollen and nectar over long periods during the rainy edible season. Kwesu ( I mbrasia eblis) caterpillars feed on the leaves. References Gillet & Paque 1910, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Latham 2003 I mbrasia eblis feeding on Chaetocarpus africanus 117 Chenopodium ambrosioides (Chenopodiaceae) Common names Nkasa kindongo, kula nioka (= intestinal worm or snake) (Kongo), chénopode vermifuge (Fr.), I ndian wormseed Description An annual, occasionally perennial, herb of varying form, growing to over 1 m high, covered with aromatic glandular hairs and with a strong rank smell when bruised. Ecology Originally from Mexico but now spread widely and sometimes cultivated around villages. Often found on roadsides in both savanna and forest areas in Bas-Congo. Propagation Can be sown from seed. Uses An important medicinal plant. I n Bas-Congo the leaves are soaked in water and used to treat spasms, flatulence, coughing intestinal worms and to stimulate blood flow in the pelvic region. The leaves are also pounded and applied to the body when feverish or to sores. An essential oil is found in the glandular hairs covering the plant and especially in the fruit skin. This is effective against hookworm, roundworm and amoebic dysentery in humans and animals. The oil is obtained by steam distillation and the composition varies with geographical locality. Sometimes planted to keep snakes away or burnt around the house for the same reason. The leaves have a pungent taste and are sometimes added to soup. I n Tanzania the dried, powdered plant has been found effective in protecting stored grain from insect attack. However because of its pungent taste it is mainly used for seed grain. References Gillet 1927, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Wild 1972, Williamson 1975, Burkill 1985, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004 118 Chlamydocola chlamydantha (Sterculiaceae) Synonym Cola chlamydantha Common name Kilensi (Kisuku) Ripening fruits in October Description A straight boled tree up to 18 m high but usually less. Leaves are large and finger shaped, pink when young, on stout petioles 20 – 50 cm long. They have 5 – 10 leaflets each, up to 45 cm long and 15 cm wide, narrowing towards the base and with corky swellings. Flowers are red with a vinegarlike smell, in clusters on old stems. 6 – 7 orange or red fruits are produced, often clasping the stem, turning brown when dry, 13 – 20 cm long and 4 – 7 cm wide, often covered with ants. Each contains 7 – 10 scarlet seeds. Ecology A small tree of swampy ground, sometimes common in the understorey of deciduous and evergreen forest forests. I t occurs from Guinea and Sierra Leone to the Central African Republic and D.R. Congo. Propagation Seeds germinate easily and the tree may become a weed in forest plantings. Management The tree coppices well. Uses The timber is clear yellow-brown and hard. I t is used for pestles, poles for hut construction and firewood. The thin white, fibrous pulp in the fruit is sour-sweet and edible. The seeds are used as a tonic in Bas-Congo. The seed cotyledons are chewed as an inferior substitute for those of the true kola. The mucilage obtained from young branches or fruits is used in sauces. Decoctions of the bark are taken to calm intestinal pain in Côte d’I voire, and against coughs in Central Africa. The colourless liquid from the fruit cavity is used to treat eye inflammation in Central Africa. Remarks The tree is host to the virus causing swollen shoot disease in cacao. References Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, I rvine 1961, Burkill 2000, Brink 2007 119 Chlorophytum stolzii (Anthericaceae) Synonym Anthericum welwitschii Common names Walu, bwalu mabundu (Kongo) Description A robust plant, up to 2.5 m high growing from a bulb covered by concentric leaf-scars. Numerous thin to slightly spongy roots have long tubers at the tips. Firm linear, glabrous leaves up to 80 cm long and 2 – 3.5 cm wide, are borne in two rows on either side of the stem. The angled flower stalk has bract-like leaves for its entire length, and is up to 200 cm. long. The inflorescence is unbranched, or with a few branches at the base, and is up to 70 cm long. Flowers are white with a green keel, sometimes slightly pinkish. Stamens often arranged in groups. Fruit is an oval capsule, nearly rounded in cross-section, and 10 – 12 mm. long. Seeds are 1.5 – 2.5 mm. in diameter. Ecology Grows in humid sites in Bas-Congo. Also present on the Nyika plateau in Malawi and in Mozambique, Zambia, Burundi and Tanzania. Propagation Chlorophytum species may be propagated by seed or division. Uses The bulb is used in Bas Congo to treat fungal infection on children’s heads. The flowers are eaten in South Katanga. References Daeleman & Pauwels Baumann 2005, Malaisse 2010 1983, FTEA 120 1997, Chrysobalanus icaco subsp. atacorensis (Chrysobalanaceae) Synonym C. atacorensis Common names Kibulu, mafulu (Kongo), icaquier, prunier des Andes (Fr.), coco plum Photo: Sanibel-Captiva Conservation Foundation Description An evergreen shrub or tree 3 – 25 m tall. Leaves are deep green, leathery, glossy, 5 – 9 cm long and 2.5 - 4.5 cm wide. The inflorescence, produced in the axils, is up to 3 cm long, but usually much less. Fruit is variable in shape and size, 1.6 cm long, longitudinally ridged. At the Kisantu botanic garden the plant is reported to bear fruit in July. The pulp is attached to the stone. Ecology The sub-species is present in both coastal and inland sites, in riverine and seasonally flooded forest, from Sierra Leone to Nigeria and south to Angola and Zambia. I t is reported to be the first plant to colonize new formed land on sandbanks in the Congo river. The plant is often cultivated in tropical and sub-tropical America as an ornamental. Propagation Plant from seed or cuttings. Management The shrub can be grown as a hedge. Uses The bark, leaves and flowers are astringent. The fruit is not very popular, being rather sour, but it makes good jam. I t can be eaten raw, boiled, candied or made in to syrup. There are wide differences in palatability, some finding it sweet others bitter, unpleasant and astringent. There is probably good scope for selection of more palatable types. I n Angola the fruit pulp is eaten after being dried. The wood is reddish-brown, very hard and dense, but workable. I t provides heavy timbers and is also used for fencing and firewood. I n Congo a bark decoction is used to wash people affected by itch or dermatitis. The seed contains an oil which can be burnt to give light. The tannin in the fruit is used to tan leather. The plant is sometimes grown to stabilize sand dunes. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Burkill 1985, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Pauwels 1993, Brown in University of Florida website (Accessed 6.9.2012) 121 Chrysophyllum lacourtianum (Sapotaceae) Synonym Gambeya lacourtiana Common names Mubamfu, mamba, mukulumu (Kongo) Description A tree up to 30 m tall. Leaves oblong, pointed, tapering at the base 11 - 36 cm long and 4.5 - 12.5 cm wide with petioles 2 - 3 cm long. Red or orange fruits are 10 x 7 cm. Ecology Occurs mainly in mature wet forest in Cameroon, Gabon and Congo (Brazzaville). Present in Bas-Fleuve, Cataractes and Lukaya districts in Bas-Congo. Uses The fruit is edible the juicy flesh around the seeds being sweet. The root bark is used to treat ear problems and the bark from the trunk for haemorrhaging or inflammation of the uterus and vagina. A steam bath, using a decoction of the bark, is used for treating rheumatism, kidney pain and feverish stiffness of the joints. Powdered bark is used as a wound dressing. The wood is hard and durable. Remarks I n northern Gabon the fruits are markets. often sold in local References Gillet 1927, Pauwels 1993, White & Abernethy 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 122 Cinnamomum verum (Lauraceae) Common names Cannellier de Ceylon, arbre de bonheur (Fr.), cinnamon Ecology Cultivated throughout the tropics. I t is best grown under light shade at low altitudes on poor white sands. Pollination is by insects, especially flies. Birds are fond of the fruits so the trees may need to be netted if seeds are required for planting. Propagation Fruits are piled up to allow the flesh to rot. The seed is then washed and dried in the shade and should be sown as soon as possible. I t can either be sown in a nursery or planted direct. Germination takes 2 - 3 weeks. Plants can also be grown from cuttings of young 3 leafed shoots, by layering shoots or by division of the rootstock. Management Provide shade in the early stages. The tree is normally kept as a low shrub producing many stems. Plant at 1.75 x 2.5 m spacing. Cut the tree back, at 2 years old, to 5 - 10 cm above ground and cover the stumps with soil. Allow 4 - 6 shoots to grow for a further 2 years before harvesting. Keep shoots straight by pruning. Stems are cut into segments 30 cm long when 2 - 3 m high and 1.3 to 5 cm in diameter. Stems should be cut during rains to facilitate peeling. Leaves and twigs are trimmed off and the bark removed by making two longitudinal cuts on either side so that the two sides can be removed whole. Ferment the bark for 24 hours in covered heaps and then scrape the outer bark off. After drying, the tubes of bark (called pipes or quills), are packed one inside the other to form a compound bundle 1 m long. These are further dried in the shade. Best quality cinnamon is obtained from stems in the centre of the bush and from the middle portion of the stem. Bark should be no more than 0.5 cm thick. Uses Cinnamon bark is tart, and acts as a stimulant and reduces wind. I t also checks nausea and vomiting. The oil from the bark is used in teas for its antibacterial and fungicidal properties and to treat loss of appetite and digestive problems. The dried bark is an important spice for flavouring cakes and sweets, in curry powder and in incense, toothpaste and perfumes. Several essential oils are found in the leaves, bark, stems and roots. The wood burns well and can also be put among clothes to repel insects. References Purseglove 1968, Borget 1993, Katende et al. 1995, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999 123 Cissus aralioides (Vitaceae) Common names Kibwa mpimbidi, zenga bitini, kindamina (Kongo) Description A strong forest creeper which grows to the top of the forest canopy. Stems are green and succulent, woody at the base. Leaves are glabrous and usually have 5 leaflets, each up to 18 cm long and 5.8 cm wide on a petiole to 15 cm long. The greenish-white flowers are borne in many-flowered heads. The fruits are round, 2 cm in diameter. Ecology Common in damp forests throughout Central Africa. Propagation By seed or cuttings. Uses An important medicinal plant used to treat laryngitis, painful periods, stomach-ache and difficult urination. The sticky sap is used to treat scabies. The stem is crushed and rubbed on the skin to treat snakebite. The Hausa use the stem, after the leaves have been removed, to cure leather. 750 g stem cut in small pieces is pounded in a mortar and then steeped in 14 litres water for 2 hours. 10 goat skins, from which the hair has been removed, are then soaked in this for a day prior to tanning. Other species, e.g. Cissus rubiginosa, are visited by bees in Bas-Congo. References Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 124 Citrullus lanatus (Cucurbitaceae) Synonym C. vulgaris Common names Mbika ntetu, ntetu (Kongo)(Mbika is the name given to pumpkins with edible seed in Bas-Congo). Pastèque (Fr), watermelon Description An annual climbing or trailing herb 3 – 5 m long, with tendrils. Large round to oblong or cylindrical fruits are normally from 7 - 20 cm in diameter. Flesh, which is bland tasting, is usually red but may be green, orange, yellow or white. Bees were very active on the flowers of this crop planted near I nkisi Ecology Widely grown throughout the tropics. Growth and fruit production are most rapid during dry, sunny periods. Excessive rainfall and high humidity reduce productivity by affecting flowering and encouraging leaf diseases. Dry areas are best for producing the sweetest fruit. The plant requires a long, warm growing season. I t is fairly drought resistant and flourishes on fertile, sandy soils, preferably with a high organic matter content. Propagation Watermelons are usually planted on mounds 2 m apart, 2 - 3 seeds are sown on each mound and the seedlings are thinned to 1 - 2. The crop matures in 75 - 95 days. Freshly harvested seed may be dormant but can be pre-soaked to hasten germination. Raised beds improve drainage, modify temperature and increase depth of rooting. Uses Grown mainly for their edible seeds in Bas-Congo. The fruits are stacked in heaps or buried during the rain season and the seed is sun-dried after the flesh has rotted away. They are roasted or ground into flour and added to soup or made into a sauce or porridge. Seeds are rich in methionine, have an oil content of 15 - 45% and a protein content of 25 - 32% . Oil extracted from the seed is used for cooking and the high protein residue can be made into fried seed balls. Young leaves (laba) are also eaten in Bas-Congo after removing the prickly skin from the midrib. The leaves are crushed and boiled with salt. They are often eaten with salted fish. Watermelons can be eaten fresh, but in Africa they are also cooked, depending on the degree of sweetness or bitterness present. Bees forage for pollen and nectar from the flowers and are important for pollination. References De Wildeman 1934, Terra 1966, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983, Burkill 1985, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Robinson & Decker-Walters 1997, Raemaekers 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 125 Citrus aurantiifolia (Rutaceae) Common names Dingama (Kongo), limettier (Fr.), lime Description An evergreen shrub or much branched tree up to 5 m tall with many short sharp spines on the stem and beside the leaves. Leaves are oval, 4 – 8 cm long and shiny green. The leaf stalk has a narrow wing, an extra leafy growth and a “joint” with the leaf blade. 1 – 7 white flowers are produced in the leaf axils, each about 2 cm across. Fruit is round or oval up to 6 cm diameter but usually smaller, peel very thin, green to yellow, difficult to remove, pulp green, very acid, but juicy. Trees can be found in flower throughout the year. Ecology Probably from I ndia or I ndonesia but now cultivated throughout the tropics and subtropics. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Squeeze out seeds and sow immediately. Uses Grown for its small fruits. Lime-juice is widely used in local medicine, often in conjunction with other herbs usually as a flavouring. Fresh juice is used to cleanse and stimulate healing wounds and cut limes are applied to chronic sores. Branches are used for firewood. Citric acid and lime oil can be extracted from the fruits. The fruits are also used as a condiment or for seasoning. The rich flavour and acid taste make lime a favourite for hot and spicy dishes, either fresh or in the form of pickles and sauces. Lime tea makes a refreshing drink and lime juice is squeezed on other fruit, e.g. papaya. I t is also enjoyed as an appetizer when fried in oil with sugar added. The leaves and fruits have many medicinal uses. Copious secretion of nectar from the flowers attracts insects, especially honeybees, which pollinate the flowers. Honeybees collect both nectar and pollen. The tree has a long flowering period and bees find the flowers attractive particularly when there Both photos: Phuong Tran are few other sources of nectar. Remarks Citrus fruits are excellent sources of vitamin C. References Gillet 1927, Crane et al.1984, Pauwels 1993, Davies & Albrigo 1994, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Burkill 1997 126 Citrus limon (Rutaceae) Common names Lala di ngani, lala ma nsa, madimanga (Kongo), citronnier (Fr.), lemon Description A small tree, 3 – 6 m high bearing yellow fruits. Rough lemon ( Citrus jambhiri) rootstocks produce large, vigorous, and very productive lemon trees, particularly in deep sandy soils. The root system is extensive making trees drought tolerant. Ecology Originally from South East Asia. I n the humid tropics the tree tends to produce excessive vegetative growth and is susceptible to fungal and algal diseases. However yields are generally high. Excessive temperatures reduce yields. Poorly drained and nutrient deficient soils should be avoided. Propagation I n Bas-Congo most citrus fruits are grown using budded stock. Trials at Mvuazi found that Bigerade rootstocks were the best for Hertaciones lemon. Plant Tristeza resistant stock/ scion material. Nursery site should be open, free drained and on land not planted to citrus before. Seed should be washed to remove the stickiness and placed in water at 51° C for 10 minutes to control Phytophthera disease. Seed can be stored in ground charcoal for a few weeks. Plant seeds after soaking in water. A fertile soil is vital for adequate growth of young trees and for later fruit production. I f commercial fertilizers are not available, only a few trees should be grown, preferably near the home, where they will receive as much household waste, ash and compost or manure as possible. Management Weed control is most important. Remove all suckers which arise below the graft and thin out branches to allow light to penetrate. Remove dead or weak, spindly branches. Heading back may also be necessary to promote lateral bud growth. I nsects should be removed by hand during regular inspection of the plants. Uses Fruits, which are rich in vitamin C, have traditionally been eaten to prevent scurvy. The juice is usually added to water and drunk but the fruits are also used to produce lemon oil, citric acid and pectin. Citrus peel oils are also used for perfumes. I n Bas-Congo an infusion of the leaves is drunk to treat fever. The juice or the leaves, either alone or mixed with other citrus species, are soaked in water and the liquid is also rubbed on the body to promote sweating to cure fever. A decoction of the leaves and roots is used for coughs, colds, angina, rheumatism and gout in the Congo (Brazzaville). Bees are the primary pollinators for Citrus species. I n Gabon the plants are grown as a hedge. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Purseglove 1968, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Drachoussoff 1993, Pauwels 1993, Davies & Albrigo 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Burkill 1997, Hirt & M’Pia 2001 127 Citrus sinensis (Rutaceae) Common names Lala, lalansa, didiya, lala dinzenzo (Kongo), oranger doux (Fr.), sweet orange Description Rough lemon rootstocks produce large, vigorous, and very productive sweet orange, grapefruit, mandarin and lemon trees, particularly when grown in deep sandy soils. The root system is extensive, reaching depths of up to 4.6 m, making trees drought tolerant with good adaptation to a wide pH range. However, fruit quality is often poor. Ecology Originally from China or Vietnam. This is the most commonly cultivated citrus in Bas-Congo. Trees prefer a deep, light loam or sandy soil that is free draining. A distinct dry season is needed to induce flowering, which then takes place at the start of the rains. The peel colour is affected by climate as is the vigour of the trees. Fruits remain green where temperatures are high and there is fast growth. Fruit quality is also affected, the quality of the orange juice being poor in hot, humid tropical conditions. Propagation I n Bas-Congo most citrus fruits are grown using budded stock. Rough lemon seedlings are grown for rootstocks and then Navel or Valencia scion material is grafted in. Nursery site should be open, free drained and on land not planted to citrus before. Seed should be washed to remove slime and placed in water at 51° C for 10 minutes to control Phytophthera disease. Seed can be stored for up to 2 years. Plant seeds after pre-soaking in water at 0.5 cm deep, 1 cm apart in the row and 15 – 30 cm between rows. Germination takes place after 2 - 3 weeks. Transplant seedlings, when 4 - 8 mm in diameter, to a second nursery allowing 50 – 60 cm between plants and 1 – 2 m between rows. Bud using T or inverted T method. (I nverted T is used in high rainfall areas to provide a rain shield). Bud-wood for the scion is collected when buds are not growing. Make a vertical cut 1 – 2 cm long and then the horizontal cut, once bark slipping has taken place to allow insertion of the bud. The bud is cut from the bud-wood and inserted and then bound tightly with tape. Buds take usually within 2 - 3 weeks. Bud at 30 cm above soil level to avoid soil-borne diseases. I f done higher growth of tree will be affected. Generally buds taken from the top section of the bud stick take more readily. Afterwards the new shoots are forced by cutting off the rootstock plant above the graft. Transplant to final site spacing at 6 - 7 x 6 – 7 m. Do not allow bare rooted trees to dry out and plant at the same depth to avoid collar and root rot. Nitrogen (and P, K, Mg, Ca and S) are vital for adequate growth of young trees and for later fruit production. I f commercial fertilizers are not available, only a few trees should be grown, preferably near the home where they will receive as much household waste, ash and compost or manure as possible. Management Weed control is most important. Remove all suckers that arise below the graft and thin out branches to allow light to penetrate. Remove dead or weak, spindly branches. Heading back may 128 also be necessary to promote lateral bud growth. I nsects should be removed by hand during regular inspection of the plants. Uses Oranges are an excellent source of vitamin C, and the orange and other orange-coloured citrus fruits are fair sources of provitamin A and good sources of calcium. The fruit is eaten fresh and is widely marketed in Bas-Congo. A decoction of the leaves is taken for diabetes. The roots, crushed and soaked in water, are used to treat venereal disease. Bees are the primary pollinators for citrus. The flowers attract bees, often yielding significant quantities of nectar and pollen from October onwards. However pesticides sprayed during flowering often kill many bees. Hives should be closed up to prevent bees flying during spraying. Honey from oranges is light coloured, has a high density, characteristic flavour, is slow to granulate and has a good market. References Johannesmeier 1975, Crane et al 1984, Martin et al. 1987, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Davies & Albrigo 1994 Sign at the entrance to the botanic garden at Kisantu commemorating Justin Gillet, the founder 129 Cleome gynandra (Capparaceae) Synonym Gynandropsis gynandra Common names Mumpala (Kongo), gynandro (Fr.), cat’s whiskers, spider plant Description An annual herb up to 1 m tall. Vegetative growth declines rapidly as soon as flowering starts. Farmers often remove flowers to prevent this. Photo: Rudy Schippers Ecology A common weed, especially around villages, found throughout the tropics, though less common at high altitudes. Requires full sun and prefers a fertile soil, high in organic matter. I t is tolerant to drought. Cultivation of this vegetable is on the increase. Propagation Seeds are broadcast on well cultivated land in pure stands or mixed with other vegetables. Seedlings must be thinned out and cannot be transplanted easily because of the long taproot. Topping, cutting back to the ground and removing the flowers as soon as they appear are practices that increase leaf production for harvesting. The leaves are picked individually or leafy branches are harvested. Whole plants may also be uprooted. Uses Leaves, often together with the flowers, are widely used as a vegetable, eaten cooked and in soups. By themselves the leaves are bitter. To remove the bitterness the leaves are allowed to wither and then are soaked in several changes of water before being cooked. The leaves may also be dried for later use. They are rich in calcium and iron. Young pods may also be eaten. The plant is used widely to relieve local pain, being rubbed on the part affected or applied as a poultice. I t is often used in this way for ear-ache. I n some countries the seed oil is used as a hair-dressing to kill lice and against ticks on livestock. Bees collect pollen and nectar from the flowers which are produced all year round, especially after rains. References Staner & Boutique 1937, Burkill 1985, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Konda et al 1992, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Heller 1996, Chweya & Mnzava 1997, Maundu et al. 1999, Schippers 2002 130 Cleome rutidosperma (Capparaceae) Synonym C. ciliata Common names Munsemfi (Kongo), mgagani (Swahili) Description An erect annual herb up to 50 cm tall flowering and fruiting throughout the year but mainly in the rain season. Ecology A common annual weed of waste places. I t is usually found in rather damp places, often in disturbed land. Present from Guinea to Cameroon and south to D.R. Congo and Angola. Also present in Uganda and Tanzania. Uses Leaves are collected from the wild and eaten as a cooked vegetable or added to soups. I t is eaten in a similar way to C. gynandra. The leaves are sometimes sold in local markets. The leaves are used in Equateur province to treat mental disorders, tooth decay and earache. They are also used to treat earache and deafness in Ghana and Gabon. Cleome species are important honeybee forage in savanna zones in Africa. Photo: Jeevan Jose References Burkill 1985, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 1992, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Schippers 2002, Jansen 2004, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 2012 The old ferry at Luozi 131 Clerodendrum formicarum (Lamiaceae) Common name Makuku matatu (Kongo = three ears) Description An under-shrub with slender hollow branches which are often occupied by ants as the plant gets older. Leaves are in groups of 3. The numerous small white flowers, up to 0.8 cm long, are borne in a terminal flower head. Ecology Common in the savanna. Also found in secondary forest and fallows throughout tropical Africa. Propagation The plant can be grown from seed. Uses I n Bas-Congo the whole plant, and particularly the leaves, are used medicinally to treat rheumatism, wasting and epilepsy. I n Ghana the stems are used for smoking pipes. Clerodendrum species are important honeybee forage plants in the southern dry savanna zone of Africa. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 2000, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 132 Clitandra cymulosa (Apocynaceae) Synonym C. arnoldiana Common name Dinkalanga (Kongo) Description A strong creeper sometimes reaching a length of 100 m and a girth of 1.25 m. White latex is present in all parts. Leaves are opposite, 4.3 – 20 cm long and 1.8 – 8 cm wide. The small, creamywhite, scented flowers are produced in the leaf axils. Fruits are round, 6 – 8 cm in diameter. Ecology Found in the forest and on forest edges on sandy soils in the Congo basin. Also present from Guinea to northern Nigeria, and in Angola, Uganda and Tanzania. Propagation Can be grown from seed which germinates easily. Uses The pink to blood-red fruits are edible, acid tasting and very popular. They are sometimes sold in markets in Bas-Congo. The plant contains abundant watery, latex, which is sticky. Some plants yield a black rubber of good quality which has been exploited in Guinea and I vory Coast. Children use it to make footballs. The sap of Costus lucanusianus is used to coagulate the latex. References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Katende et al 1999, FTEA 2002, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 133 Cnestis ferruginea (Connaraceae) Common names Kitete mbika, kinkanda, mbwa nkanka, nfumba (Kongo) Description An erect sometimes scrambling shrub or small tree up to 6 m high, covered with short hairs. The leaves are variable in size and are borne in whorls, up to 30 cm long composed of 6 – 12 pairs of leaflets, 4.5 x 2 cm, with rounded base, glossy above and softly hairy below. The white flowers, in short spikes, are pinkish and fragrant and are followed by rich velvety, orange-red fruits 4 x 2 cm, which are curved and beaked, with a juicy, though bitter, aril protruding from the ripe fruit. Ecology A common plant of secondary scrub and forest and in open forest clearings. I t is a characteristic plant of the forest edge. Found from Senegal to D.R. Congo and in Angola and extending to Sudan, Uganda and Kenya. Propagation The plant can be grown from seed. Uses I n D.R.Congo the root is used as a purgative and the leaf juice as an abortive, for dressing wounds and to treat colds. Leaf tips contain liquid which can be drunk. The stems are used to make the nsoso (the entrance of the central part of a fish trap). Fruits are juicy and taste acid and bitter. They are commonly used for cleaning teeth in much of West Africa. They have a very refreshing and cleansing influence on the mouth and teeth. Kwesu ( I mbrasia eblis) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, White & Abernethy 1997, Neuwinger 2000 134 Cocos nucifera (Arecaceae) Common names Ba di nkandi (Kongo), cocotier (Fr.), coconut Ecology Widely cultivated in BasCongo. I t prefers a warm, humid climate with adequate sunshine and good drainage. A deep, open soil is best. Propagation Select nuts from trees bearing the greatest number of heavy nuts. Allow these to ripen for a month before planting. Trim the fibre from the germ end to assist the shoot to come through. Dig out a trench slightly wider than the length of the coconut and place them in this, lying across the furrow. Cover two thirds of the nuts with soil. Plant in full sunlight in a light, rich soil. Select the seedlings again in the seedbed. Those germinating first and with a large number of short leaves are best. The nut has considerable food reserves and can be transplanted with ease. When planting into the field dig out a hole 1.2 m x 1.2 m x 0.90 m for each germinating nut and fill in with equal amounts of husks and manure. Plant at the same depth as in the nursery. Uses The flesh from the nut is eaten and the liquid inside the kernel makes a pleasant drink. Coconut milk is used to counter dehydration and to treat cholera. The fruits have comparatively good protein content. The coconut is an excellent source of oil though this is mostly composed of saturated fatty acids. I ts phosphorus content is high, and its iron content is excellent, but its vitamin B content is very low. The dried flesh, copra, is sold commercially. Coconut oil is used for making margarine and soap. The coconut husk provides fibre for mats, floor coverings and sacks. The shells make good charcoal, especially liked by blacksmiths. The trunk can be used for construction or bridge building. The leaves are used for thatching, matting, screens and baskets. Smoke from burning the husk is a good mosquito repellent. The flowers are an important bee forage throughout the year. During flowering palm wine can be collected which may also be used as a source of yeast for bread making. References Frémond et al. 1966, Castagné 1983, Martin et al. 1987, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Pousset 2004 135 Coffea canephora (Rubiaceae) Common names Kafi, nti kafi (Kongo), caféir robusta (Fr.), robusta coffee Description A shrub or small tree from 2 – 12 m high. A hardy, vigorous and very variable tree. There are two main forms but the ‘robusta’ form is the more important. The bisexual flowers are fragrant but self-sterile. Flowers are mainly wind pollinated and cross-pollination gives 30 – 40% fruit set. Coffea liberica is also grown in Bas Congo. Ecology Widely cultivated in Bas-Congo. A dry period is required for flowering which occurs in flushes during the rain season. Robusta coffee tolerates poorer conditions than C. arabica. Most cultivars are resistant to Hemileia. Propagation Plants are best grown from cuttings set in trenches filled with sawdust and covered with jute sacking. This method gave 60% successful rooting. Management Plant out after 6 - 10 months at 3 m square for erect varieties and 4.5 m for spreading varieties. Shade should be provided particularly in the early years. Grow erect varieties on a multiple stem system allowing a succession of stems to be produced. I n the shrubby spreading Nganda types seedlings 1 – 2 m high are bent over and the shoots which grow from these are in turn bent over to produce more shoots. Stems are then released to grow naturally, producing a fountain effect, no further pruning being done. The branches are pulled out by the weight of fruit and more upright branches grow out from the centre. As the ripe cherries are held on the tree only one harvest need be taken. Normal yields are 400 – 500 kg per tree. Standard practice in Congo is to prune at 4 or 5 year intervals keeping one bud-bearing branch. Croton mubango, Margaritaria discoidea and Albizia adianthifolia var. intermedia planted as shade trees one year prior to planting the coffee trees gave increased yields when compared with other leguminous trees, natural forest, oil palm or rubber trees. Planting density recommended is between 1,000 to 2,000 trees per ha. Stylosanthes guianensis was the best cover crop providing complete cover and appreciable amounts of humus. Uses An important beverage crop in Bas-Congo and also the main source of instant coffee. Honeybees visit the flowers in Bas-Congo and are known to be a source of honey in Gabon. Bees are reported to increase crop yields. Many insects visit the flowers, but their contribution to pollination varies. Coffea 136 species are important honeybee forage in equatorial and savanna zones of Africa. They produce a light honey with characteristic flavour though some report it to be bitter. Honey from orange and coffee combined is very highly valued. Robusta coffee contains higher amounts of caffeine than Arabica. Caffeine stimulates the mind and improves physical performance. I t is known to relieve pain, reduce the severity of migraine headaches and reduce asthma symptoms. However its use can result in higher rates of some forms of cancer. Caffeine is being tested as a pesticide against slugs and snails. References Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1968, Crane & Walker 1984, Ambougou 1991, Macmillan 1991, Drachoussoff 1993, Pauwels 1993, Roubik 1995, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Jones 1999, van Wyk & Gericke 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 Yam pieces sold hot in the market at Selembao 137 Cogniauxia podolaena (Cucurbitaceae) Common name Kisakamba (Kongo) Description A climbing herb growing to 6 m long or it may form clumps on the ground. The plant is tender when young but becomes robust with age. The leaves are typical of the Cucurbit family with 5 distinct lobes. Large yellow flowers are produced, which last only 1 or 2 days. Fruits are up to 15 cm long, pale green with darker longitudinal lines. When dry the numerous black, flattened seeds fall from an opening at its tip. Kisakamba flowering Selu in December . at Ecology Found from eastern Cameroon to Congo and into Angola. Grows in secondary bush or in clearings in the forest. Also found in disturbed areas around villages, beside paths and in open areas along streams and rivers. Uses Both rhizomes and leaves are used medicinally for the treatment of epilepsy, constipation in young children, interruption of periods without pregnancy and skin problems. I n Bas-Congo the rhizome is also used as a purgative and to ease delivery in childbirth. The seeds are very oily. Farmers grow the plant around their hen cages as it is believed that eating the seeds prevents chicks from dying. The leaves are reported to be edible. I n Gabon the dried fruit is used as a sponge and the dried leaves are used to treat burns. Bees are reported to visit the flowers. Nsanzungu edible caterpillars are reported to feed on the leaves. Propagation The plant can be grown from seed or rhizomes. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkhill 1985, Ambougou 1991, White & Abernethy 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 138 Coix lacryma - jobi (Poaceae) Common names Yobi, mansanga masanta yobi (Kongo), larmes de Job, larmilles, herbe à chapelets (Fr), Job’s tears Description An erect, perennial grass up to 3 m tall, branched in the upper part. Leaf blade 8 – 100 cm long and 1.5 – 7 cm wide. I nflorescences are borne in the axils of upper leaves. Photo: Luc Pauwels Ecology I ntroduced from Asia. I n Africa it is found around villages and on abandoned fields. Propagation Can be grown from seed which is planted 5 cm deep in rows spaced 40 – 80 cm apart. I t can also be grown from cuttings. Management Several cuts per year are possible. I t is sown random or plants are grown along field borders. Propagation by cuttings is possible and recommended for fodder production. Propagation by seed gives deeper rooting, and higher grain yield. Usually, whole plants are cut at the base when the grain is ripe. The stubble can be left in the field and will then tiller again; Threshing and husking is done manually as for rice, the grain is sun-dried on mats. Uses The new fresh leaves are an excellent livestock fodder. The hard seeds which are enclosed in the female spikes are used for rosary beads and necklaces in Bas-Congo. Types of Job’s tears with softshelled false fruits can be easily husked and have large grains which are eaten in the same way as rice, alone or mixed with it. They can be substituted for rice in all foodstuffs. The whole grain and the bran are fed to poultry. References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Van den Abeele & Vandenput 1956, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Busson 1965, Purseglove 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, van Wyk 2005, Jansen 2006 139 Cola acuminata (Sterculiaceae) Common names Nkasu (Kongo), kolatier (Fr.), commercial cola or kola Description A shade loving tree, 10 – 20 m high, and branching low down. Branches are ascending, forming a spreading crown and the foliage is often one sided almost reaching the ground. Bark is dark green and rough and old bark splits into squares. Leaves are borne mostly at the end of branches and are curved and twisted, with a long pointed apex. The fruits are russet coloured, rough to touch, up to 20 cm long by 6 cm wide, containing up to 14 seeds covered with white skin. The seeds are generally red or pink but sometimes may be white and have more than 2 cotyledons. The kola nut of commerce is the seed after removal of the thin white covering, which is done by soaking or fermentation between broad leaves. The nuts can be stored by being buried, often in ant-hills. For transport the nuts are packed in baskets with fresh leaves of Anthocleista spp. or Alchornea cordifolia and occasionally sprinkled with water. Ecology Often planted in the villages in Bas-Congo. Found from Sierra Leone to Congo. Propagation The pods should be heaped together in the shade and dampened regularly for 16 days from harvesting. The seed coat should be removed and the seed planted 10 cm deep, direct into the field to avoid damaging the roots. I t is normal to transplant naturally produced seedlings. Some people plant a tree to commemorate a social occasion, others don't, believing that the person who does so will die when the tree flowers. 140 Management Growth is slow in the early stages and the trees reach about 2 m after 4 years. The trees are often grown with other field crops and fruiting commences after 7 years. Full production is reached after 20 years and can continue for 70 - 100 years. Uses The seeds are greatly prized and presented to visitors as a welcome present. They act as a nerve stimulant and a tonic but can be dangerous in excess. They contain about 2% caffeine and traces of theobromine and kolanin, the latter being a heart stimulant. Seed also contains 9% protein, 2% fat, 2% fibre and 74% carbohydrate. Sap-wood is white to slightly pink, heart-wood is yellow-brown to red and suitable for general carpentry, carving and construction work. I t is attacked by borers but not termites. Small roots can be used as toothbrushes. The bark, fruit and seeds are also used elsewhere in Africa to treat venereal disease, colic, diarrhoea, abscesses, skin rashes and stomach problems. References Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Purseglove 1968, Uphof 1968, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 On the road to Kinshasa 141 Colletoecema dew evrei (Rubiaceae) Common names Mbendi mbendi (Kongo), mbuma makaku (Lingala) Description A small tree or bush growing up to 12 m high. Ecology Common in secondary forest in some areas of Bas-Congo. Also found in forest regrowth in Cameroon and Gabon. Uses The small dark fruits are sweet and edible. Reference Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 Photo: Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez 142 Colocasia esculenta (Araceae) Common names Langa (= something which covers)(Kongo), taro Description A perennial herb growing from 1 - 2 m high from a large corm. The latter may be up to 30 cm long and 15 cm in diameter and weigh up to 4 kg. Smaller corms (cormels) surround the main corm. Leaf stalks are not attached at the leaf margin but towards the centre, in contrast to Xanthosoma sagittifolium . Ecology Mainly grown in hot, humid conditions. Best results are from deep, friable sandy-clay soils with a high water table. Plants tolerate shade and can, for example, be grown with bananas. Propagation This is done by planting the upper tip of the corm with the lower 15 25 cm of the stalk attached. The crop is normally planted on mounds or ridges. Plant 5 cm deep and 100 x 60 cm apart at the start of the rain season. Management Weeding is most important. Growth time to harvest is 6 - 10 months. The corms are ready for harvest when the leaves turn yellow and begin to wither. Uses The corms are much appreciated in Bas-Congo and are used as a staple or subsistence crop throughout the tropics. They are rich in starch and can be eaten after removing the sharp crystals. To do this the corms are boiled for a long time, baked, roasted or fried in oil. The starch is easily digested, but if large quantities of the corm are eaten, goitre can result. Excessive consumption is also reported to increase the possibility of contracting leprosy. However eating the corm lowers the incidence of dental caries. The young leaves of this species are also eaten. Tubers can be used for the production of alcohol and the manufacture of paper. Remarks Yields of between 5 and 10 t/ ha. are normal but, by selecting high yielding planting material and thorough weeding, better yields can be obtained. I mproved varieties containing less calcium oxalate, having high yields and better keeping qualities are being bred in Ghana, Cameroon and at I I TA in Nigeria. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Photo: © 2005 David Monniaux from Wikimedia Commons Van Den Abeele & Vandenput 1956, Kay 1973, Leakey & Wills 1977, Burkill 1985, Raemaekers 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 143 Combretum hensii (Combretaceae) Synonym Quisqualis hensii Common name Nsumbala (Kongo)(This name is also used for other creeping species of Combretaceae). Description A scrambling bush or creeper. Leaves are opposite 5 – 15 cm long and 2 – 4 cm wide. The flowers are borne in axillary racemes and the individual flowers are 12 – 16 mm long. Ecology Found in secondary forests and fallow land. I t is also present in Gabon and Congo (Brazzaville). Uses I n Bas-Congo the flexible stems are used for roofing. A decoction of the leaves is used to treat asthma and anaemia. The pounded leaves are used to treat diarrhoea. A maceration of the leaves is used as a wash to treat haemorrhoids. Leaf sap is also applied for haemorrhoids. A maceration of the roots is drunk for dysentery. Bark pulp is taken for haemorrhages in women. Leaf or bark powder is eaten to treat blood in urine. Plant sap is applied for coughing fits, tuberculosis and to heal wounds. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees. Combretum hensii in flower in July References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, FAC 1968, Pauwels 1993, Neuwinger 2000, Mabberley 2002 144 Commelina africana (Commelinaceae) Common names Lakisi (Kongo), yellow commelina, wandering Jew, day flower Photo: Warren McCleland Description A variable perennial easily distinguished from other Commelina species by its yellow instead of blue, purplish or pink flowers. I t has fleshy tuberous roots and creeping or straggling stems. Leaves are arranged spirally, blade being 6 – 11.5 cm long and 1.2 – 2.2 cm wide. The flower stalk is 8 – 40 mm long. The lower petal of the flower is 5 mm × 2 mm, the paired petals with claw are 3 – 4 mm long. The flowers open from 7 – 10 am. Fruit is a capsule 5 – 6 mm long containing 3 – 5 seeds. Ecology The plant is indigenous and widespread in Africa, occurring from Senegal to Ethiopia, and south to South Africa. I t occurs in secondary growth and disturbed localities, and as a weed on farms. After the onset of the rains, the plant sprouts earlier than other plants and it is therefore useful as a fodder plant after prolonged drought. The same applies for its use as a vegetable. Uses I n Bas-Congo the plant was used traditionally to make a belt around the waist to ease pain in the kidneys. I n Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania the leaves are cooked and eaten as a vegetable. They are chopped and boiled in water or in fresh or sour milk. Sesame seeds and groundnut paste are added for flavour and consistency. I t is eaten with the staple food as a substitute for more popular vegetables. Many other uses are reported for the plant. I n Kenya and Tanzania the leaves are fed to livestock, especially pigs and rabbits. The flowers provide bee forage. I n D.R. Congo the root is used to treat ‘weak heart’ and nervousness. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, van der Burg 2004 145 Commelina diffusa (Commelinaceae) Common names N’lakasi, n’lakisi (Kongo), spider wort, water grass, wandering Jew, spreading dayflower Description A creeping, perennial herb with much branched, prostrate or erect fleshy stems up to 45 cm high, rooting at the nodes. The stems may be hairy. Leaves are spear shaped, 3 – 7 cm long and 1 – 2 cm wide. The blue flowers are either borne terminally or in the axils. The upper flowers are either male or sterile, the lower flowers are bisexual. Ecology Grows in moist fields, along ditches, on waste land, on soils rich in clay or humus, up to an altitude of 2,000 m. I t is widespread in the tropics and subtropics. Uses The leaves are used with Synedrella nodiflora (madya manlumba) as a pig feed in Bas-Congo. I n South East Asia the young shoots are eaten after steaming. The leaves are widely used as poultices for wounds and skin infections (boils and ulcers) and the fresh juice is used to treat diarrhoea. The sap is used widely to treat eye inflammation in Africa. References FAO 1988, I sa I por 2001 Photo: Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez 146 Conyza sumatrensis (Asteraceae) Common names Fumu di kiula, fumu di matebo, fumu di bakuyu (Kongo), fleabane Description An erect, softly-hairy, annual herb growing up to 120 cm tall. The stem is semi-woody at the base, ribbed, hairy and often not branched below the flower head. The leaves are variable with the upper ones alternate on the stem, while the lower ones are in a rosette at the base. The leaves are 4 - 8 cm long and 1 5 cm wide, with toothed edges, gradually becoming winged at the base. Clusters of numerous small, dull-yellow to brown florets, about 6 mm long, are borne in a long leafy flower head. The plant reproduces by seed. Ecology A common weed of cultivated fields, open waste places and roadsides and widely found in the tropics. Uses The leaves are used medicinally in Bas-Congo to treat snake bites, leprosy and pain in the breast. Elsewhere in the Congo the plant is used to treat opthalmia, fever and stiffness. I n I vory Coast it is used to treat fever in young children. Remarks Conyza aegyptiaca (kinkombo ki nseke) is used to flavour food as it gives the taste of goat meat. The leaves are sometimes sold in markets. References Gillet & Paque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 1987, 147 Corchorus olitorius (Tiliaceae) Common names Mulembo (Kongo), dongo dongo (Lingala), Jew's mallow Description An erect herb, usually 0.5 to 1.2 m high. Cultivated varieties are very variable and there is good scope for developing improved varieties. Large, deep green, glossy leaves, late flowering, rapid early growth and multiple branching are characters normally selected by vegetable growers. I n some places certain leaf types are associated with the desirable slimy property. Ecology Grows in a wide range of environmental conditions but is susceptible to drought, especially during flowering. Soil should be well drained and fertile A sandy loam is preferable and the plants respond well to additions of organic (e.g. poultry) manure. I n its natural environment it is often found near swamps or wet areas beside rivers. Propagation Seed should be harvested when pods are still yellow. This improves germination and early growth of seedlings. Large seeds, harvested from the top and middle of seed heads, are best. Seed can be stored for long periods when dry and should be put in nearly boiling water for 5 seconds to give good, even germination. I t is normally broadcast but this is wasteful and makes weeding difficult. Corchorus olitorius can be planted together with staple food crops. Seed may be first grown in a nursery and then transplanted to 30 cm between rows and 10 cm between plants. The plants are later thinned to 20 cm apart. Transplants, when successful, produce more and stronger side shoots. Uses Leaves and fruits are eaten in Bas-Congo. The plan t is widely cultivated as a vegetable in sub-Saharan Africa, as well as in Egypt and the Middle East. I t is normally cooked with other coarse vegetables. Soup made from the leaves makes foods like yam and cassava more palatable. Management The plant is easy to grow and matures in 5 - 6 weeks after transplanting. Harvesting is done by uprooting the entire plant or cutting off the small side shoots. The latter practice encourages new growth. Pests and diseases The plant is susceptible to nematode attack and leaf eating grasshoppers. Nematodes can cause total crop failure. Photo: Phuong Tran References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Denton 1997, Maundu et al. 1999, Schippers 2002, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 148 Costus afer (Costaceae) Common names Minkeni (Kongo), ginger lily, spiral ginger Photos: I I TA image library Description A tall perennial semi-woody herb with leafy canes up to 4 m high bearing terminal heads of white and pink flowers. These have an orange-yellow area in the throat. The leaf sheath is equipped with a row of hairs. Ecology A common perennial herb in moist places. Widespread in the forest zone in tropical Africa. Sometimes grown as an ornamental. Propagation Can be grown from seed, stem cuttings planted in moist sand or the rhizomes can be divided. Uses The leaves are eaten fresh, sometimes with cassava leaves (pondu) in Bas-Congo. The plant is well known for quenching thirst and also for treating inflammation of the gums. The crushed leaves and shoots are used to treat intestinal worms, rheumatism and haemorrhoids. The stems can be sucked to ease coughing and the leaves boiled to treat rheumatism. References Staner & Boutique 1937, Nsimundele 1966 -68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Pousset 2004, Aweke 2008, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Konda et al. 2012 Photo: Frieda Billiet 149 Costus lucanusianus (Costaceae) Common names Boso boso, musanga vulu, ngo n’keni (Kongo) Description A semi-woody herb with stems up to 3 m high, bearing a terminal inflorescence. Ecology Found in forests away from water from Guinea to western Cameroon and in Bioko and Gabon. Uses Leaves are eaten cooked after being lightly wilted and finely chopped. Stems are crushed and the juice used to calm whooping cough. The juice is also mixed with sugar-cane wine and a little fufu (cassava porridge), and used as a substitute for asprin. The plant is used to treat diabetes and, in combination with other plants, to treat gonorrhoea and epilepsy (maladi ya ndeke). Sap is used to coagulate the latex of Clitandra cymulosa and species of Landolphia and Funtumia. References Renier 1948, Delaude & Breyne 1971, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Konda et al. 1992, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Neuwinger 2000 Photo: Quentin Luke Village in Manianga district 150 Costus phyllocephalus (Costaceae) Common names Munkeni, munkuiza (Kongo) Description A fleshy, smooth-stemmed perennial herb growing up to 2.5 m long with leaves produced spirally on the stem. Leaf blades 8 – 17 cm long by 4 – 6.5 cm wide. The terminal flower head is composed of several individual white flowers, 5 cm long, having a pink lip. Costus phyllocephalus in flower at Kingabwa, Kinshasa Ecology Commonly found growing in shade in forest re-growth and wooded valleys in BasCongo, sometimes in association with Aframomum angustifolium . Uses Both the young leaves and the centre of the stem are eaten raw in Bas-Congo, often with cassava bread (chikwangue). They have a pleasant, refreshing and slightly acid taste, similar to sorrel. The plant is used to coagulate wild rubber from Clitandra sp. It also has medicinal use in the treatment of insomnia, migraine, rheumatism, nervous disorders, bed-wetting and loss of voice. I t is the host plant of Nkoombo nseke and Minsongo ( I mbrasia alopia) edible caterpillars. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Daeleman & Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004, van der Burg 2004 151 Costus spectabilis (Costaceae) Common names Lubata bata (= small and curved)(Kongo), dwarf savanna ginger lily. Description A succulent stemless herb produced from a long rhizome, with a rosette of a few fleshy leaves, often edged pink, which lie flat on the ground. Flowers can be bright orange or yellow. Costus spectabilis growing in shade near Sonabata Ecology Grows in rocky savanna and commonly seen in patches in shady places after the annual burning and before the rains. Present from Senegal to Sudan and south to Angola and Zimbabwe. Uses The cooked roots are sometimes eaten in Bas-Congo. They are very bitter. The leaves are also reported to be edible. I n Manianga the plant is used with a Dissotis sp. and Schwenckia americana to treat heart pain and palpitations. Also grown as an ornamental though it is not easy to cultivate. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Konda et al. 1992 152 Coula edulis (Olacaceae) Common names Nkumunu (Kongo), noisette (Fr.) All photos: Roy Danforth Description An evergreen tree 15 – 20 m tall branching low down and having thin bark. Leaves 10 - 30 x 4 cm. Young shoots and leaves are covered with rust-coloured hairs. Flowers are small and in short racemes. The petals are rather thick and greenish-yellow. Fruit is a drupe, 3 - 4 cm long, with an extremely hard kernel. Flesh surrounding the kernel is green or reddish and smooth. Ecology Present from Sierra Leone to D.R. Congo in evergreen wet forest. Propagation germination slow taking years with a used instead Young plants Seed is very up to 4 percentage of about 45% . Air layering can be (Personal communication – Quentin Meunier). require shade and grow slowly. Uses The seeds contain 22 – 30% oil and are eaten by some people in Bas-Congo. They can be eaten raw, grilled or boiled and are sold in the markets in Kinshasa. The red wood is extremely hard, heavy, close-grained, and resists water well. I t is also resistant to insect attack, particularly termites. However it is liable to crack. I t produces good charcoal. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, FAO 1982, Vivien & Faure 1996, Bonnéhin 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, World Agroforestree Database (Accessed 27.9.2012) 153 Crassocephalum crepidioides (Asteraceae) Synonym Gynura crepidioides Common names Nlalunlalu, nlalu, bunguni (Kongo), thick head, red-flowered ragleaf Description An erect, slightly succulent, annual herb growing up to 100 cm tall. Stem rather stout, soft, ribbed with the branches covered with soft hairs. Leaves arranged spirally. Lower leaves have a short stalk the upper ones arise direct from the stem. Leaves are lobed, 6 – 18 cm long and 2 – 5.5 cm wide. I nflorescence is terminal and composed of many individual flowers. The ribbed fruit has one seed. Ecology A common weed in abandoned farm land and waste places up to an altitude of 2,000 m. I t may be the dominant species in shifting cultivation sites that have been recently burned. I t prefers well drained rich soils and tolerates wet but not waterlogged soils and shade. Occurs throughout tropical Africa from Senegal to Ethiopia and south to South Africa. Also present in Asia, Australia, Fiji, Tonga and the Americas. Propagation Seedlings emerge 8 – 10 days after sowing. Seed is sometimes sown in nurseries and then transplanted in a ball of earth when 8 – 10 cm tall. Plant out in the field at 30 x 30 cm. Management Harvesting can be started 40 – 45 days after germination. Photo: Phuong Tran Uses Leaves of this species and of C. montuosum and C. vitellinum are eaten as a vegetable in Congo and throughout Africa. The tender and succulent leaves and stems are mucilaginous and are used in soups and stews, especially in West and central Africa. The flavour is much appreciated being sharp but not bitter. I n Bas-Congo the leaves are applied to heal sores and wounds. Elsewhere in D.R. Congo the leaf sap is used to treat indigestion. The dried leaf powder is also applied as a snuff to stop nose bleeding and smoked to treat sleeping sickness. The plant has been used successfully to trap adult corm weevils in bananas. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Konda et al. 1992, Denton 2004 154 Craterispermum schw einfurthii (Rubiaceae) Common names Muntoma ntoma, ntata nkedinga, muntomina (Kongo) Description A shrub or small tree growing to 15 m high. Bark is greyish white with swollen nodes. Leaves 7 – 17 cm long and 2 – 7.3 cm wide. Flower buds are sometimes tinged with pink and are sweet smelling. Fruits are green or black, round, 5 – 6 mm in diameter. Craterispermum schweinfurthii flowering in August near Kavwaya Ecology Found in forests in both Congos. I t grows in fringing forest, beside water and in woodland and in drier evergreen forest and thickets in the savanna. Present from northern Nigeria across east and central tropical Africa to Mozambique. Propagation Can be grown easily from cuttings. Uses The bark is sweet tasting and frequently chewed, especially to relieve coughing. I t is reported to be an aphrodisiac. The young shoots are also reported to be edible. I n BasCongo the dead wood, kept in moist conditions, becomes red and is used in the preparation of nkula, a red ointment used to colour the face in traditional ceremonies. The wood is used in constructing huts. The bark and leaves are used as a source of yellow or brown dye. I n Angola the plant is used as a live fence as it resists fire. I t has numerous medicinal uses. The stems are used as chew-sticks or tooth-brushes. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees in BasCongo. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, I rvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, FTEA 1976, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, Jansen 2005, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 155 Crescentia cujete (Bignoniaceae) Common names Arbre à calebasses (Fr.), calabash tree Description A handsome tree growing up to 8 m high. I t has rough bark. Leaves are up to 18 cm long and 5 cm wide. The flowers appear directly from nodes on the trunk and branches, and bloom at night. The fruits develop after pollination by bats. They are round and up to 25 cm in diameter with a hard green woody shell. The flat seeds are small and embedded in the pulp. Ecology Originally from Mexico, Colombia and the Caribbean region but now widely dispersed in the tropics, though uncommon in Bas-Congo. Left: Tree Mayenga growing near Propagation Can be grown from seed or cuttings. Uses The fruit shell is widely used elsewhere as a container or cup and may also be carved and made into ornaments. The seed and fruit are edible. The pulp can be made into a juice and a cough medicine. The young fruits can also be pickled. I n Central America bees often collect nectar from the fallen flowers. Blocks of wood made from Crescentia cujete are used for growing orchids in the West I ndies. The plant has various medicinal uses in West Africa. Fallen flowers References Gillet 1927, I rvine 1961, Uphof 1968, Espina & Ordetx 1983, Burkill 1985, Macmillan 1991 156 Crinum zeylanicum (Amaryllidaceae) Synonyms C. scabrum, C. ornatum Common names Munsele – bende (Kongo) is used for a Crinum sp. in Manianga country. Milk and wine lily Description A bulbous plant with leaves 75 cm long by 6 cm wide, and a stem 60 – 100 cm high. I t bears 4 – 6 white flowers in a large umbel up to 15 cm across with a broad purple band along the centre. Ecology Found in slightly damp sites in the savanna. I t is sometimes grown in villages. Common from Senegal to west Cameroon, and widespread throughout much of tropical Africa. Also present in Sri Lanka and continental Asia. Propagation By separation of bulbs. Uses I n Bas-Congo the bulbs are used to treat leprosy. The bulb is also crushed and used to treat itching or scabies. In Manianga it is used to treat weakness in the legs especially after a long illness. I t has numerous other medicinal uses in Africa. The bulb causes inflammation of the skin and mucous membranes and is used to treat rheumatism. The plant is often cultivated as an ornamental and has been much used in horticulture for hybridizing with other species. I n Senegal, Mali and Guinea it has a common name meaning ‘poison’ and is recognized as causing diarrhoea that is difficult to control. Remarks Three species are reported to be present in Bas-Congo. Crinum zeylanicum is the most common. References Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Arkinstall 1979, Pauwels 1982, Konda et al. 2012 157 Crossopteryx febrifuga (Rubiaceae) Synonym C. kotschyana Common names Kigala (Kongo), ordeal tree Description A small twisted tree or bush up to 5 m tall with conspicuous flowers and persistent fruits. Ecology A common savanna shrub in Bas-Congo. Widely spread from Senegal to Sudan and from East Africa to Zimbabwe. Propagation I t is best grown from seed but cuttings grow well if taken during the dry season. Germination rate is reported to be up to 80% communication). after 20 days (Kibungu Kembelo personal Uses The wood is light brown, pinkish, fine textured, hard and heavy and takes a good polish. I t is widely used for carving, firewood and charcoal. Ngala ( Cirina forda), Munsona and N'kwati edible caterpillars eat the leaves, the first species being particularly appreciated. I n Bas-Congo the plant is used to treat fever, hernias, and swelling of the legs. The bark is used to treat stomach-ache and as a purgative. I t is also used in nasal drops for headaches. A maceration of the bark is used to treat intestinal worms and sleeplessness. The leaves and a decoction of the root bark are used as an enema to treat diarrhoea in children as well as for intestinal worms and colic. A weak decoction of the roots is used to treat coughing, constipation and poisoning. Similarly a weak decoction of leaves is used to treat rheumatism. How ever great care should be taken w hen using this plant medicinally as it can be highly poisonous. Bees were Ngala edible caterpillar seen collecting nectar in November. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 -68, Delaude & Breyne 1971, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Villieres 1987, Keay 1989, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Pousset 2004 158 Crotalaria retusa (Papilionaceae) Common names Sonnettes, arachide de brousse (Fr.), rattle box, devil bean Description An erect annual or shortlived semi-woody shrub, 0.5 – 1.5 m tall, usually branched. Leaves are simple, 3.5 – 11 cm long and 1.5 – 4 cm wide on a petiole 2 – 4 mm long. Flowers are borne in racemes 10 – 30 cm long, pale yellow, veined with the outside being reddish-purple. Fruits 4 – 5 cm long contain 12 – 20 seeds. The plant is known to nodulate widely. Ecology A shrubby tropical plant from I ndia or Malaysia. Found in crop land, waste places and roadsides. Propagation Grows from seed readily and smothers weeds. Uses The flowers are reported to be edible and are known to be eaten in Gabon and Senegal and also in I ndia and Tanzania. The plant used to be cultivated as a vegetable in some parts of D.R. Congo. I t is grown as an ornamental plant in Florida and tropical America. I t makes a good cover crop in plantations. I n I ndia it is grown for its fibre which is mixed with sun hemp ( C. juncea). This is used for ropes in East Africa and Sudan. There are conflicting reports of its use as a livestock fodder and it may be toxic at some stages. I t is used as a dye plant in East Africa. The plant is used medicinally in treating colic and flatulence. I n Nigeria the leaves are used to treat fever. The flowers are reported as bee forage in Bas Congo. Crotalaria species are known to be visited by honeybees in the Sahel zones in Africa. References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937, Allen & Allen 1981, Burkill 1995, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Flora Zambesiaca 2003 159 Croton mubango (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Mubango mbango, nbangu nbangu, saku (Kongo) Description A bush or small tree, with a twisted trunk, from 3 - 15 m high. Leaves are 4 - 16 cm long and 2 – 8.5 cm wide, dark green above and silvery below. The fruits split open when ripe throwing the seeds out. Croton mubango growing in a village near Manni Ecology Found in secondary forest, but sometimes planted in villages. The tree occurs in D.R. Congo and Angola. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Uses The wood is hard and of good quality. The leaves and crushed bark, together with hot peppers, are used to flavour food in Bas-Congo. The bark was traditionally soaked in palm wine and rubbed on painful areas, particularly for lumbago. I t is also widely used medicinally as a purgative and to treat haemorrhoids, hernias, skin eruptions, painful periods, tooth decay and gastritis. The leaves are eaten to ease pain. For toothache the bark is pulped and then rubbed on the affected tooth. The bark, after being soaked in water, is also rubbed on the body as a tonic. Flowers are good bee forage, appearing from July to September. Bees were seen very actively collecting pollen in the early morning. Ndienga and Kaba ( Lobobunaea phaedusa) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Sillans 1953, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 160 Croton sylvaticus (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Kidianga, dianga, dibimbi di muaka nungu (Kongo), forest fever berry, woodland croton Description A fast growing semideciduous bush or tree to 20 m. The bark smells of black pepper and is smooth and grey in colour. The fruits are orange and pointed. Ecology Occurs in secondary forest in Bas-Congo. I t is sometimes planted as a garden ornamental. Found from Guinea to Sudan and Ethiopia and south to Natal and Angola (in savanna and secondary forest regrowth in West Africa). Common from low to high altitude forests in Zimbabwe. Propagation Collect the fruits and lay them on a plastic sheet. Put in the sun and collect the seed after the capsules have split open. Sow them in containers filled with a mixture of river sand and compost (1:2). Cover the seeds lightly with compost and keep moist. Even germination occurs after 2 - 3 weeks. Transplant when two leaves appear, either direct to the site or into plastic bags filled with a river sand/ compost mix (1:1). Prefers to be planted in light to deep shade but will survive in full sun. Uses The timber, which is soft and light, is used for making furniture, shelves and fruit boxes. I t is also very good firewood which burns even when green. The tree is used as a shade tree, particularly for coffee. Wood scrapings are rubbed on the foot to treat elephantiasis in Bas-Congo. Oil extracted from the seed is an effective purgative. The powdered bark is used as a remedy for gall sickness in cattle. The bark is also used medicinally to relieve severe abdominal and chest pain. A decoction of the root or bark is used to treat fever, digestive problems and pleurisy. A decoction of root bark is drunk to treat tuberculosis. A leaf tea is drunk as a purgative. Ndienga edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Many insects were seen collecting nectar from a tree near Madimba in January and the flowers are probably useful bee forage. References Gillet 1927, Watt & Breyer Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Wild et al 1972, Kokwaro 1976, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Beentje 1994, Burkill 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Venter & Venter 1996, Neuwinger 2000, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 1.2.2013) 161 Cryptolepis oblongifolia (Apocynaceae) Synonym Ectadiopsis oblongifolia Common names Ndulunsi, mvulumuna (Kongo) Description A slender creeper with small white flowers produced in January. Ecology The plant grows in the savanna and secondary forest. Uses The vine makes good tying material for fastening horizontal laths and roof beams when house building. I t is also used for making fish traps etc. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983 Papa Nsimba constructing a house in Bas-Congo. I t required a variety of products – poles, laths made from the mid-rib of palm-leaves, tying material and palm leaves for roofing – all extracted from the forest. 162 Cucumeropsis mannii (Cucurbitaceae) Synonym I ncludes Cucumeropsis edulis Common names Mbika nsudi (Kongo), concombre amer (Fr.) Description A herbaceous creeper, up to 5 m long, climbing by means of tendrils. The stem is angular with scattered hairs. Leaves are 9 – 18 cm long and 7 – 15 cm wide. Male and female flowers are borne on the same plant. Fruits are 17 – 25 x 8 – 18 cm. Ecology The plant thrives on soils rich in barely decomposed organic waste. This is the reason it is cultivated as a first crop plant after clearing the forest. With the continuing loss of forest the crop is in decline. The plant requires some shade and also support and grows well over fallen branches etc. Grows or is planted with other crops in the forest zone from Guinea-Bissau to Cameroon, south to Angola and east into Uganda. Propagation Grown from seed that is normally planted 3 or 4 per hole. Management The vine can be grown over fences. Harvesting takes place when the stems dry and the fruits become yellow. Bees are the principle pollinators. Uses The flesh of the fruit is edible but the plant is mainly grown for its oily edible seeds. These are removed from the flesh by stacking the fruit and allowing decomposition to take place. This should be done some distance from the home because of the smell. The seeds are washed out after 10 - 15 days, then dried and stored. They are prepared for Photo: Rudy Schippers eating by dry heating and then pounding to free the seed coat from the kernel. They are eaten raw or cooked, but more usually are ground to a powder, which is added to soups and stews. I n flavour they resemble groundnuts but are richer in oil and contain more protein. The kernel is rich in amino acids. The oil is a good substitute for cotton-seed oil and is used for soapmaking and lighting. Seed yield 300 – 900 kg/ ha. References Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Ambougou 1991, Egunjobi & Adebisi 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 Photo: Hanno Schaefer 163 Cucurbita maxima (Cucurbitaceae) Common names Mbika malenge (Kongo), courge (Fr.), pumpkin, squash Description A trailing herbaceous annual, up to 6 m long, which can sometimes form a bush. 3 - 6 fruits are produced per plant with fruits weighing from 2 - 5 kg. Cucurbita maxima growing near Mbanza Nzundu Ecology I n Bas-Congo the pumpkin is often cultivated on mounds of earth and burned grass (mafuku – see page 19). Originally from South America it is now grown throughout Africa. The plant grows well in soils enriched with organic matter and ashes or where burning has taken place. Some varieties tolerate slightly acid soils. Dry periods favour growth and squashes grow best in full sunlight. Diseases are a common problem in humid conditions. Propagation Fruits should be stored for about 6 weeks before seeds are extracted. Normally 3 - 10 seeds are sown, 2 – 3 m apart and then thinned out to 1 - 3 plants. Plant the seed 2 - 4 cm deep. Right: Bees collecting nectar from flowers Management Harvest when the skin starts to harden. Uses Grown mainly for its seeds though young leaves and fruit flesh are eaten in Bas-Congo. Fruits with hard skin can be stored for out of season use. Dried fruit shells can be used for making bowls etc. The pounded seeds, mixed with honey, are used to expel tapeworms. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Tindall 1983, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Raemaekers 2001, Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 164 Curcuma longa (Zingiberaceae) Common names Kingondi, bola di mputu, niasi tondo (Kongo), safran des I ndes (Fr.), turmeric Description A perennial herb with leafy shoots surrounding the stem. I t grows 1 - 1.5 m tall from a rhizome. These have a characteristic smell. I nflorescence is a spike arising from the base of the stem, 10 - 15 cm long. Flowers appear in the leaf axils. Fruits and seeds are rarely produced. Ecology Requires warm, moist conditions, and well-drained, loose, friable and fertile soil. Shade reduces yields. I t is often cultivated in BasCongo. Propagation is by division of the rhizomes. The pieces should be about 4 cm long and have 1 – 2 buds. They are planted 5 – 7.5 cm deep. Management Normally only one or two plants are grown. The crop benefits from mulching, and where soils are either wet or very dry it is best to grow the plants on ridges. The rhizomes are harvested 7 - 10 months after planting and care should be taken that the tubers are not damaged. Uses I n Bas-Congo the rhizome is pounded and added to pumpkin and squash or beans to improve the taste and appearance of the food. To develop the yellow colour and aroma, the rhizomes are cleaned and then boiled for an hour before being dried in the sun for 6 - 8 days. They are then ground, since this spice is usually marketed as a powder. Turmeric is mainly used in curry powders and as a colouring agent and condiment in mixed spice powders, mustard etc. I n Bas-Congo the rhizome is used medicinally to treat mental illness, hernias and anaemia. Mixed with warm milk the rhizomes can be used to cure colds. Juice from fresh rhizomes is applied to skin infections and a decoction of rhizomes is effective against eye disorders. Research has shown the plant to be useful in the treatment of cancer, dermatitis, AI DS, inflammation, high cholesterol and digestive problems. I t is also used for liver complaints, bilious disorders, jaundice and to treat intestinal worms and parasites. Turmeric is used for dyeing cotton, silk and wool. I t is recognized in the dyeing industry as one of the ‘direct colours’ because it can be used without a mordant. However as the pigment is extremely sensitive to light it easily loses its colour, and is usually used in a weak solution of acetic acid or alum. I t is also used as a cosmetic in Africa and Asia. Young shoots and young rhizomes can be eaten fresh as a spicy vegetable. The plant has potential for use as an insecticide, fungicide and against nematodes. References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Uphof 1968, Purseglove 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1993, Borget 1993, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999, Burkill 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Jansen 2005 165 Cyathea dregei (Cyatheaceae) Synonym Alsophila dregei Common names Ba di masa, maba ma masa (Kongo), South African tree fern. Description A stout tree fern up to 5 m tall usually with an unbranched stem, 20 – 45 cm in diameter. The fronds are produced in a cluster at the top of the stem and are leathery and up to 3 m long. I f the fronds are damaged or lost, the plant will produce new foliage more easily than other tree ferns. Ecology I n Bas-Congo the fern is found in damp sites. I t is also present in Cameroon and the forests and grasslands of South Africa, Madagascar and East Africa. I t grows over a large area in which the climate ranges from temperate to tropical, and areas with dry winters and wet summers as well as areas that are the other way around. Management Tougher and more adaptable than other tree ferns. However it is very slow-growing. Photo: Ruth Palsson Uses The terminal bud and young leaves are eaten in Bas-Congo. Remarks C. camerooniana is also present in Bas-Congo and bears the same name in Kikongo. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Pauwels 1993, van Wyk & van Wyk 1997, van Wyk et al. 2000, Leyens & Lobin 2009. Photo: I vo M. Vermeulen, Courtesy The New York Botanical Garden 166 Cymbopogon citratus (Poaceae) Common names Sinda, sinda dimputu (Kongo), citronelle (Fr.), lemon grass Description A tufted, perennial grass growing to 2 m high. Ecology Originally from I ndia but now cultivated tropics. throughout the Propagation Divide the clumps and plant in fertile soil in partial shade. Water well until established. Management Cut the plant down to 8 - 10 cm, once it has grown to about 1 m, to obtain fresh growth. Uses The plant is grown in gardens, borders and to check erosion. I t is often burnt, either green or dry, in houses to get rid of mosquitoes. The leaves are frequently used to make a tea which is sedative and is also used medicinally to relieve colds, flu, pneumonia etc. The plant helps to relieve cramp and stimulates digestion. Drinking the tea increases the rate at which the body sweats and the frequency of urination, helping to wash out harmful substances. I t is used with other plants in Bas-Congo to relieve pain in the joints and for coughs. I n Asia the leaves are used to flavour food. Distilling the grass yields an essential oil which is used as a pesticide and a preservative. I t has antifungal properties. References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Macmillan 1991, Burkill 1994, Hirt & M’Pia 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004 Dry season vegetable garden near Kasangulu 167 Cymbopogon densiflorus (Poaceae) Common names Lusangusangu, kyangu (Kongo) Description A tufted perennial grass up to 1.8 m high. Leaves are rounded at the base, up to 30 cm long and 2.5 cm wide. The flowering panicle is dense, 15 - 20 cm long and 10 cm wide. Ecology Grows in open spaces along roadsides and in wooded grassland. The plant is cultivated in villages in Bas-Congo and elsewhere. I t is native to Central Africa, from Gabon, Angola and south to Zimbabwe. Propagation Grown from seed or basal cuttings. Left: Lusangusangu growing at Kintudi village. Uses The flower heads are used to flavour tea or coffee and also as a condiment with meat. The leaves may also be boiled to make a tisane. I t is commonly grown for its aromatic oil and as a medicinal and ornamental plant. Various parts of the plant are used to treat diabetes, dementia and repeated miscarriages. The plant sap, together with the leaves of Ocimum basilicum , is taken for epilepsy. I n BasCongo the flower head is also boiled in water and the decoction taken to ease coughing. I n Gabon the crushed leaves are used for rheumatism. I n Malawi the flower head is smoked to relieve bronchial problems and the plant sap is used for the same purpose in Congo (Brazzaville). References Adriaens 1951, FG 1962, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Burkill 1994, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 Left photo: Luc Pauwels Right: Dried flowering head 168 Cyperus articulatus (Cyperaceae) Common names Lusaku saku, nsaku-nsaku (Kongo), jonc vulgaire (Fr.) Description A tough sedge growing up to 1.5 m with fragrant, sweet-scented tuberous roots Ecology Grows in low lying, damp areas and is sometimes cultivated in the villages in Bas-Congo. I t is found throughout tropical Africa, and in Egypt, and Madagascar. Propagation The plant can be grown from seed or by dividing the rootstock. Uses Traditionally in BasCongo the knotted roots were pounded and used to treat lumbago and pain in the kidneys. The bark from the root, seeds and shoots is used medicinally to treat sciatica, painful joints, fatigue, wounds, asthma, bed wetting, fear of noise and haemorrhoids. Roots are used for perfuming clothes. The stems are made into mats. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, FM & C 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Neuwinger 2000 169 Cyperus esculentus (Cyperaceae) Common names Nkamu (Kongo), souchet comestible (Fr), yellow nut grass, chufa, tiger nut Description A perennial grass-like plant 30 - 80 cm tall, with slender, bright green leaves, growing from small, brown tuberous rhizomes. The wild form produces flowers but the cultivated form only rarely. The fleshy tubers are 15 – 25 mm in diameter. Ecology I ndigenous to western Asia and Africa, it was cultivated, especially in the Mediterranean area. The wild form has become a serious weed in many parts of the world. I t is widespread in wet marshy places, in damp, sandy soil and grassland and in irrigated fields. The plant also grows on saline soils. Management The cultivated variety is harvested 3 – 5 months after planting. Uses The new bulbs, Photo: Stephen Buchan, Green Light I mages which are rich in carbohydrates and oil, are the size of small onions. They are sweet tasting and can be chewed raw or cooked as vegetables. I n Bas-Congo they are available during most of the year. Tubers can also be roasted and eaten like potatoes or they can be made into flour. They can also be cooked and made into a milk drink with water, sugar and cinnamon. After roasting and grinding they may be used as a coffee substitute. This plant is one of the main sources of potash for softening and flavouring green leaves. The whole plant is chopped up small and burnt. The ashes are placed in a sieve. Water is dripped slowly through the ash and collected in a container and then kept ready for use. Tubers contain up to 47% sugars and starch, 20% oil, and 8% proteins. The over-ground parts and tubers are sometimes used as fodder. Pigs are very fond of the bulbs. At present the cultivated strains are mostly regarded as the cultivar 'Chufa'. Photo: Thomas Palmer References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Terra 1966, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Nsimundele 2004, van Wyk 2005 170 Cyperus papyrus (Cyperaceae) Common names Bu (Kongo), papyrus, souchet à papier (Fr), papyrus Description A robust, perennial herb 2 – 3 m tall with a creeping rhizome 2 – 6 cm thick and densely covered with black scales. Leaves are produced in 3 vertical ranks. The inflorescence is a terminal, umbel, 30 – 60 cm long and 30 – 80 cm wide. Ecology Cyperus papyrus originated in Central Africa and has spread over tropical Africa. I t has been cultivated in Egypt and neighbouring areas since ancient times. Uses I n Bas-Congo the stems are used to make mats and the heads are used as brooms. The pith of the stem was used by early civilizations (Egyptians, Greeks, Romans) to make a primitive form of paper. The fibrous outer parts of the stem were used for making ropes, baskets, nets, sails, mats and sandals. The stems were also made into boats. I n refugee camps in the Great Lakes region an innovative process has been developed for manufacturing sanitary napkins from papyrus pith, waste paper, and water. I n Central Africa the pith of the old, dried stems is eaten. I n southern Africa the lower part of the stem is eaten and the pith is chewed like sugar cane. The rhizome is edible as well. The plant is browsed by livestock. The dried rhizomes as well as the stems can be used as fuel. I n Burundi the ash from burnt plants has been used as a vegetable salt. Experiments indicate that the high biomass production of Cyperus papyrus makes it effective in removing N and P from waste and pond water, and papyrus swamps serve as natural filters of sediment and pollutants and as stabilizers for river banks. The nutrient and pollutant-removal action of papyrus can be used in man made waste-treatment ditches or constructed wetlands. Other interesting environmental services are its potential carbon sequestration in the peaty sediments formed under papyrus swamps, though this peat is rapidly oxidized during periods of low water, releasing the stored carbon. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Vaughan 2011 171 Dacryodes edulis (Burseraceae) Common names Nsafu (Kongo), safoutier (Fr.), African pear Description A fruit bearing tree growing up to 18 m tall. Ecology Commonly planted in villages in Bas-Congo. I t can be grown in a wider variety of conditions than oil palms. Propagation Usually grown from fresh seed, sown direct or in long polythene bags, but resulting trees vary greatly in total fruit production and composition of fruit. Air layering, which takes from 4 - 6 months, can be up to 80% successful. Large diameter, horizontal branches with thick bark should be used and the new plants should not be separated when the mother tree is about to produce new growth. Propagation of good varieties using large cuttings is sometimes carried out in Bas-Congo but this is not always successful. The top of the cutting must be covered with soil, or a pad of leaves, and kept humid until it has rooted. Management Avoid breaking branches during harvest, as this can delay the next flowering for a whole year. Gashes are sometimes cut in the tree trunk to improve fruiting. Uses The tree is planted for shade and for its edible fruit, which may be boiled in water for 2 - 3 minutes, roasted in hot ashes or fried. I t is usually eaten with salt. Fruit pulp is rich in oil (30 - 60% on a dry matter basis). Production of fruit from 20-year-old trees can reach 110 kg per tree. Yields decline after that. The wood is heavy and used for tool handles and furniture. The flowers are important bee forage. I n Bas-Congo a decoction of the bark is used to treat dysentery. The resin and leaf juices are used medicinally in Gabon. Minsongo ( I mbrasia alopia), Makedi kedi ( Bunaeae alcinoe) and Kaba ( Lobobunaea phaedusa) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. References Gillet 1927, Burkill 1985, Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Kengue 2002, Verheij 2002, Nsimundele 2004 172 Datura metel (Solanaceae) Common names Trente six oiseaux, concombre diable, trompette de la mort (Fr.), devil’s trumpet Description A semi woody annual or short lived perennial up to 7 m high with large purple flowers up to 20 cm long. Flowers are closed during much of the day and open in the afternoon and evening. They are reported to be pollinated by hawk moths and are largely self-fertile. Ecology Found in waste places and around villages up to 1,000 m altitude. I t is sometimes planted as an ornamental. Possible origin Central America. Propagation Grown from seed which usually germinates in 3 - 6 weeks. Soaking the seed overnight improves germination. Space 70 – 100 cm. Plants should not be grown near potatoes or tomatoes as they can harbour viruses affecting these crops. Uses The dried leaves, roots and flowers are widely smoked as cigarettes in Africa and Asia to relieve asthma, coughing, tuberculosis and bronchitis. I t is effective in some cases but not in others. I t is also used for sedating people with mental disorders. The plant is widely used as a pesticide. Seeds are mixed with maize or wheat to control insect pests. Plant extracts are used to control caterpillars in forestry and cotton. They are also used to control fleas and jiggers and can be used to control the nematode Meloidogyne javanica. The flowers are occasionally visited by honeybees for nectar. The flowers of Datura species are also reported to be visited by bees in Gabon. A bee emerging from a flower. Remarks A very poisonous herb. All parts of Datura plants may be fatal if eaten by humans or animals. References Ambougou 1991, Burkill 2000, Pousset 2004, Nuga & Setshogo 2008 173 Desmodium gangeticum (Papilionaceae) Common name Dintata (Kongo) Description An erect semi-woody herb or under-shrub up to 2 m high. The petals vary from purple to bluish or white. Leaves and seed burrs stick to clothing and animal fur. Ecology Widely dispersed in gallery forest, damp sites, savanna and fallow land in tropical Africa, I ndia, South East Asia and in the West I ndies. Propagation by seed or cutting. Photos: Valke Dinesh Uses I n Bas-Congo the leaves are used medicinally to treat diarrhoea and female sterility. The plant has possible use as a ground cover and green manure for rubber plantations. The stems are fibrous and can be used for making paper. The plant, particularly the root, contains antibiotic and fungicidal substances. I t is also used to treat catarrh, asthma and to reduce fever. A maceration of the root is used to treat chest complaints. Desmodium species are known to be useful bee forage plants. References De Wildeman 1903, Staner & Boutique 1937, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Abbiw 1990, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Burkill 1995, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 174 Desmodium incanum (Papilionaceae) Synonyms D. mauritianum, D. canum Common names Lunzilanzila, nzila nzila (nzila = path in Kongo; the plant is commonly found beside paths) Description A scrambling to erect perennial herb or low shrub up to 60 cm tall, but in a grazed pasture situation it is usually prostrate and less than 20 cm tall. Stems are fibrous to woody, sometimes being below the soil surface. The root system is deep and wellbranched. Photo: João des Deus Medeiros Leaves are trifoliate, with petioles up to 3.5 cm long. Leaflets are very variable, mostly elliptic, with terminal leaflets 2 - 9 x 1.5 - 4.5 cm and lateral ones up to 6 x 3 cm. I nflorescence is a terminal or axillary raceme, up to 20 cm long. The blue, red or purple flowers are solitary or in groups of 3. Pods are up to 4 cm long, the upper margin being straight and the lower strongly indented, and are covered with hooked hairs. Desmodium incanum is a very variable species. I nitial growth is slow, but later improves, providing moisture is adequate. Trailing stems begin to develop some 6 months after sowing. I n regions with a seasonal climate, growth during the dry season is slow. The plant is naturally spread by animals and humans, as the hooked hairs on the pod catch on to fur or clothing. Ecology Common in tropical Africa and the Mascarene islands. Propagation Plants root readily at the nodes. Photo : Bob Peterson Uses A potentially very useful pasture legume for grass-legume mixtures on low fertility soils in the tropics. Several decades ago very promising cultivation trials were made. I n Bas-Congo the leaves are used to treat opthalmia and in Equateur to treat impotence. I n Madagascar the plant is used to treat asthma. I n Uele and Maniema the leaves are used to treat dysentery. The flowers are visited by honeybees. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983 175 Desmodium velutinum (Papilionaceae) Synonym D. lasiocarpum Common names Dintata, lunama (Kongo) Description A semi-woody, erect, hairy undershrub growing from 1 to 2 m high; branches are covered with dense brown hairs. Leaves are ovate, up to 15 cm long and 8 cm wide. Flowers are pink or purplish. Pods about 1.8 cm long, are densely hairy and deeply indented on one side. The seeds cling to clothing. Ecology Commonly found in the savanna, along roadsides and in clearings from Senegal to Nigeria and from Cameroon to Angola and also in southern Sudan. I t grows well in high rainfall areas. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Uses I n Bas-Congo the crushed leaves are used to dress wounds and as an aphrodisiac. The leaves are also used to treat female sterility, uterine sores and diarrhoea. Elsewhere a root decoction is used to treat blood in the urine and is drunk for cardiac problems and toothache. A decoction of leaves is drunk for coughs and dysentery. A leaf tea is drunk for threatened abortion. For eye injuries the leaf sap is used as drops and leaves are bound on to wounds to heal them. Livestock browse the plant. References Gillet 1927, I rvine 1930, Staner & Boutique 1937, Skerman 1977, Arkinstall 1979, Burkill 1995, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 Ox ploughing in Manianga 176 Desplatsia dew evrei (Tiliaceae) Common names Kukoto, nuwanda (Kongo) Description A shrub or tree 4 - 20 m tall, trunk up to 60 cm in diameter, with stout branches and a widely spreading crown. Leaves 10 – 35 cm long, 3.5 – 14 cm wide, coarsely and irregularly toothed, Flowers are yellow or white. Fruit is greenish yellow, 10 – 25 cm long, 8– 20 cm wide, flattened at the ends. Desplatsia dewevrei in the botanic garden at Kisantu Ecology Present in rain and swamp forest, wooded savanna, also in deciduous and evergreen forest, along water courses and in wet places. From I vory Coast to west Cameroon and across the Congo basin to Uganda. Uses The flat seeds are eaten in Bas-Congo. The leaves are used medicinally in Equateur province. The young fruits produce a dye, colouring cloth red-brown. The inner portion of the fruit is eaten with salt in Congo (Brazzaville) and to treat heart problems. Wood is very soft. Photo of fruit: David Harris/ Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 2000, Harris 2002, Nsimundele Hawthorne 2006, Konda et al. 2012 2004, Photo of flowers: Bart Wursten © Jardin botanique national de Belgique 177 Dialium pachyphyllum (Caesalpiniaceae) Synonym D. polyanthum Common names Mboti mfinda, ntadianti, penza, keli keti, nkekete (Kongo) Description A tree 8 – 20 m tall. Leaves are unevenly pinnate with a single terminal leaflet. Compound leaves are leathery, 8 – 23 cm long and 3.5 – 8 cm wide. Flowers are borne in terminal and axillary panicles. They are small, yellow and scented. Fruit is an indehiscent, pod 2.5 cm long and 1.5 cm wide, with persistent sepals containing one seed. Ecology Grows in swamp forest and on firm ground. Present in Cameroon, Gabon, Angola and D.R. Congo, (Mayombe, BasCongo, Kasai, Forestier Centrale). Uses I n Bas-Congo the fruit pulp and seeds are eaten. The bark was used as a trial poison. I n Equateur province a decoction of the bark is used to treat sterility. The timber is red brown, hard, termite and fungus resistant and used for heavy construction and building homes. References Nsimundele 1966 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Neuwinger 2000, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 2012 Photo: Bart Wursten 178 Dichrostachys cinerea subsp. platycarpa (Mimosaceae) Common names Nsende n’vanga, nsendi mpanga (Kongo), sickle bush Description A small tree or shrub growing to 8 m high, branching low down and often forming thickets. The single thorns are short. Fruits are formed in a cluster of twisted, flattened pods. Ecology Grows in savanna in tropical and sub-tropical Africa, tropical Asia and Australia. Propagation By seed. This is best done by direct sowing, so as to avoid damaging the long tap-root. I t can also be grown from 10 cm long root suckers and cuttings. The tree produces large amounts of seed when growing in open sites. Seed can be stored but only in a cold room. When planting immerse in hot water and allow to cool overnight. Take care not to damage the tap-root once the seedlings emerge. Management The tree can be coppiced or pollarded. Uses Timber is hard and heavy but normally produced in small dimensions. The wood produces a very hot, long lasting fire, and a good quality charcoal. I t is excellent for tool handles due to its strength and hardness. The inner bark is tough and can be used as rope. The cut branches are used as a barrier to livestock. The tree is nitrogen fixing. Bees collect nectar and pollen from the flowers. The roots, leaves, spines and bark are used to treat spasms, stomach problems and as an antidote for snake-bites. I n Bas-Congo the plant is used to treat female sterility, intercostal pain, gastritis, heart palpitations, poisoning, male impotence and rheumatism. Photo: Ton Rulkens References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Pauwels 1993, Bein et al. 1996, Venter & Venter 1996, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 179 Dictyophleba lucida (Apocynaceae) Common name Mamasi masi (Kongo) (Masi = oil, grease; the latex is sticky). Both photos: Bart Wursten www.zimbabweflora.co.zw Description A much branched creeper reaching up to 35 m with a girth up to 50 cm. Leaves 5.5 - 14 cm long and 3 – 8 cm wide. I nflorescence is a loose terminal panicle with a few sweet scented flowers. Corolla pink or yellowish when in bud, becoming white with pale to dark pink tube. Fruit is up to 3 x 4·5 cm. in diameter, spherical, green to yellow or red with yellow edible pulp. Tendrils grow from the old inflorescence. Ecology Found in primary forest. Present in Angola, D.R. Congo, Central African Republic, Cameroon, Nigeria, Kenya, Tanzania, Malawi, Zimbabwe and Mozambique Uses A large creeper with sticky latex sometimes used to make glue. The fruit is edible. The white latex is of variable quality, sparse or abundant, fluid or tacky, coagulating to give a poor quality rubber. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Burkill 1985, Beentje 1994 180 Dioscorea alata (Dioscoreaceae) Common names Mansungu, kikwa kimansunga (Kongo), greater yam, winged yam, water yam Description This is the highest yielding of all yams usually producing single watery tubers, of variable size weighing between 5 and 10 kg. Stems are square, winged and twine to the right. Mbala ya nguvu variety. Ecology Requires at least 1,500 mm rainfall and fertile deep soils for maximum production. The crop is not widely grown in Bas-Congo. Propagation Yams are grown vegetatively from pieces of tuber weighing from 0.1 to 2 kg. Setts are best taken from the top of the yam tuber and can be grown in a nursery until ready for planting out. These usually sprout more quickly and give higher yields than setts taken from other parts. Management The tubers are normally harvested after 9 to 10 months. They cannot be left in the field once mature. Farmers sometimes grow the vines through hollowed out bamboo poles to protect them from livestock. Uses The tubers are eaten after being Yams and “chikwangue” being cooked together. young shoots can also be eaten as a vegetable. Remarks Other species grown include D. baya = Mpundi, but there are numerous other named species and varieties present in Bas-Congo. Yams should never be eaten raw. Right: D. dumetorum = Nsemi nsemi. The stems twine to the left. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1972, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Raemaekers 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 181 peeled and boiled or baked. They contain nearly 90% carbohydrate and 7% protein. Eating the tubers helps prevent scurvy. The Dioscorea sp. (Dioscoreaceae) Nzau or Mboma variety Nzau, nguvu or mboma variety 182 Dioscorea bulbifera (Dioscoreaceae) Common names Mpenga, ngembu, ngombo, soko, (Kongo), potato yam, aerial yam Description A climbing plant which twines to the left growing to about 6 m high from a small woody tuber. I t produces aerial bulbils in the leaf axils. Stems are cylindrical. Leaves are large, simple and ovate. Flowers are also large. I mproved varieties have angular, grey bulbils whereas wild varieties have dark brown to liver coloured rounded bulbils. The flesh of the improved varieties is pale yellow to almost white. Ecology Found throughout Africa. I t is a hardy plant able to produce on shallow soils and can be found up to 1,800 m altitude. Propagation Can be grown from bulbils or tubers either whole or in small pieces. Tubers produced from bulbils are very small in the first year so are then used as setts for the following season Management Bulbils are ready for harvest after 2 years when the plant dries up and the bulbils fall off when touched. Uses The aerial bulbils are edible, particularly those of improved varieties which are less bitter and also less poisonous. Some of these can even be eaten raw. The aerial bulbils of improved varieties normally weigh about 0.5 kg but can weigh up to 2 kg. They keep well and the flesh is slimy, containing up to 80% carbohydrate. Bulbils from wild varieties are used as a famine food. Long soaking and boiling is required to make them safe to eat. Protein content is 10.5% (dry matter basis). The bulbils, leaves and roots are used medicinally elsewhere in Africa to treat abscesses, skin parasites, rheumatism and eye infections. References Kay 1973, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Malaisse 1997, Katende et al. 1999, Neuwinger 2000, Raemaekers 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 183 Dioscorea praehensilis (Dioscoreaceae) Synonym D. cayenensis var. praehensilis Common names Kisadi, sadi, bisadi (Kongo), igname de brousse (Fr.), bush yam, forest yam Left: Young shoots growing from a stem node Description A sturdy climbing plant, up to 15 m long, growing from a large tuber which protrudes from the ground. The latter is armed with curving, protective, spiny roots that arise from the top of the tuber. Stems are hairless, purplish-green and lightly ribbed longitudinally. The tuber has white flesh tinged yellow and may be either oblong or round. Leaves are 4 – 10 x 3 – 5 cm. Ecology Grows wild in forests and gallery forests from Sierra Leone to Nigeria and in Gabon and the Congo. Right: Globular form of tuber Uses The young shoots growing from the vine are eaten like asparagus in Bas-Congo. I n Congo (Brazzaville) the older stems are cut up and an infusion is used for stomach complaints, urethral discharge and oedemas. Tuber flesh is bitter and only eaten after careful preparation and usually as a famine food. Left: Young shoots harvested for eating near Kintudi References Dalziel 1937, Burkill 1985, van der Burg 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 184 Diospyros heterotricha (Ebenaceae) Common names Lufwa, lufwa lu ndomba (Kongo) Description A shrub up to 3 m high. The young branches are covered with hairs. Leaves are 5 – 10 cm long and 2 – 4.5 cm wide. The male inflorescence is composed of 2 or 3 flowers, the terminal one being the first to open. The female flower is solitary. Fruits 1 – 1.6 cm diameter. Ecology Present in forest in D.R. Congo (Mayombe and Bas-Congo) and Angola. Uses The fruits are edible. The twigs are used as chew-sticks to clean the teeth. The wood, which becomes brown in contact with the air, is sometimes used to colour the lips. The tree has been introduced into West Africa for its edible fruits. References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, FAC 1987, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994 185 Diospyros mannii (Ebenaceae) Photos: Roy Danforth Description A tree 20 - 30 m tall. I t has a symmetrical branching habit with whorls of branches up the stem. Leaves 12 x 5 cm, with hairs on the leaf surfaces and stems. Fruits 10 cm across, almost circular with reddish, irritating hairs covering a thin yellow-green skin. Black wedge shaped seeds, 5 cm long, are arranged around the centre. An almost clear gelatinous aril surrounds each seed. The fruit flesh is starchy white and flaky. Ecology Present in closed evergreen forest often in wet situations from Sierra Leone to southern Nigeria and into the Congo basin. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Management Probably requires shade in the early stages. Uses The fruit is edible. Remove the irritating hairs by rubbing the fruit on the ground or with a leaf. The fruit has a butter-like texture and the aril gives a flavour of cantaloupe pie. The tree is reported to produce fruit every 3 years. Sap-wood is pale lemon in colour. The black heart wood is used for carving in Sierra Leone and for furniture. I t is soaked in water before use to strengthen the colour. The tree is also used medicinally. References Burkill 1994, Danforth & Noren 1997 186 Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (Apocynaceae) Common names Nvondongolo, mvondongolo (Kongo), wild rubber, horn-pod tree Description A shrub from 3 - 12 m high with a trunk from 1 – 20 cm in diameter. The bark is fissured. Leaves are hairless, 4 – 9.5 cm long and 2.5 – 5.5 cm wide. Flower head is 2 – 9 cm long, composed of white to cream coloured, fragrant flowers. Fruits are oblong 3.5 cm long. Ecology Found in savanna and wooded grassland. Present from D.R. Congo to South Africa. Uses I n Bas-Congo the latex from cuts made in the bark is used to repair gourds and bicycle inner tubes and as a varnish. I n Malawi the latex is smeared on wounds to assist healing. The plant is used as a snake-bite remedy. The heart-wood produces a long-lasting timber. Makedi kedi ( Bunaea alcinoe) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Right: Bunaea alcinoe is an important species of edible caterpillar in BasCongo. I t feeds on a variety of trees and is found in January and February. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Williamson 1975, Kokwaro 1976, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, FTEA 2002 187 Dorstenia psilurus (Moraceae) Common names Kintamba, kinkama (Kongo) Description A semiwoody, erect, herbaceous plant growing from a horizontal rootstock or rhizome. Leaves are alternate, 7 – 18 cm long and 3 – 7 cm wide, having petioles 1.5 to 5 cm long. Flowers, which are produced throughout the year, are borne in the leaf axils; male flowers have one stamen, female flowers have a protruding style. Ecology An understorey shrub of old forests and damp sites, but also present in the savanna, and often associated with termite hills. Grows up to 1,760 m. Sometimes planted in villages in Bas-Congo. Propagation by seed or cutting. Uses I n Bas-Congo the roots are used to treat coughs, haemorrhoids, elephantiasis, male impotence and heart palpitations. The roots are sometimes mixed with tobacco to improve the flavour. They are also used by herbalists to make nkisi. Elsewhere in the Congo the roots are used as a deodorant and to give cooking pots a pleasant smell. Both roots and leaves are reported to be eaten. A maceration of the root is drunk and the body washed in the liquid as a treatment for malaria. The pounded leaves are applied in the treatment of rheumatism. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, FAC 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 188 Dracaena aubryana (Dracaenaceae) Synonym Draco thaliodes Common names Ba kaziete (Kongo), dwarf Dracaena, lance Dracaena Photo: © L. Pauwels Description An unbranched, slender, erect or scrambling shrub, 1.2 – 2.5 m tall, which grows in a spiral form. Stems are woody with overlapping leaf bases. The pseudo-petiole is up to 40 cm long. Leaves are 20 - 50 cm by 5 – 9 cm wide, the blade being longitudinally ribbed. The fragrant, usually branched inflorescence, is 15 – 90 cm long and has white, greenish-white or yellowish flowers. Fruit is a round berry, containing 1 – 3 seeds. Ecology Present in shaded, humid, undisturbed forests from Sierra Leone across Central Africa to Uganda, Zambia and Angola. The plant is cultivated in Gabon and is also present in Asia. Propagation Can be grown from cuttings or seed. Uses Traditionally the young leaves were cut in thin strips, dried in the sun, then cooked in water and eaten as a vegetable at Kisantu. (This is also done with D. mannii see below). The attractive long leaves make it a good ornamental plant. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Fayaz 2011, ZipcodeZoo (Accessed 23.4.2013) 189 Dracaena mannii (Dracaenaceae) Common names Kidiadi, ndiadi mbulu (Kongo), dragonnier Description A tree growing up to 10 m high. Leaves are 15 – 24 cm long. Flowers are produced in terminal panicles 35 – 100 cm long. Ecology I n Bas-Congo the tree is common on sandy soils in secondary forest. Propagation Grows easily from large cuttings. Can also be grown from seedlings. Seeds cannot be stored so should be planted immediately. Management The tree grows back fast after felling. Uses The young shoots are sometimes eaten. I n BasCongo the decomposing tree provides a base for Bukutukutu or Bunkanga edible mushrooms ( Auricularia cornea (syn. A. polytricha)). The tree is occasionally used to mark boundaries and is the source of a light-coloured dye. The leaves can be fed to livestock. The rotting leaves make good mulch and improve soil fertility. Right: The core of young leaves is taken from the growing tip of a branch and used as a vegetable. Bukutukutu mushrooms growing on a dead stump The root bark was traditionally used to make a red paste called nkula diari used as a cosmetic. The plant was used as an abortive. The fruits are reported to be very poisonous to pigs. The male flowers are an important source of pollen for honey bees and other species of Dracaena are reported to yield both nectar and pollen. Remarks There are nine species of Dracaena present in Bas-Congo and other species are grown in gardens. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, I rvine 1961, Uphof 1968, Aumeeruddy & Pinglo 1988, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Mbuya et al. 1994, Burkill 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 190 Duranta erecta (Verbenaceae) Synonym D. repens Common names Golden dewdrop, pigeon berry Description A shrub or small tree, sometimes thorny, growing to 5 - 6 m high. Flowers are blue or white followed by bright orange-yellow berries about 1 cm long, containing many white seeds. Ecology Originally from Central and South America and the West I ndies. Propagation By seed or cutting. Uses The fruits are edible. The shrub can be grown as a hedge plant. The juice from both leaves and fruit promotes urination. The fruit has been used as an anti-malarial medicine. The fruit juice has been found to be lethal to anopheline and culicine mosquitos at a concentration of 1:100. Bees collect nectar in January in Bas-Congo, but frequent clipping of the bush is reported to reduce flowering. Remarks The plant can be invasive. References Macmillan 1991, Pauwels 1993, Johannsmeier & Allsopp 1995, Katende et al. 1999, Burkill 2000 191 Eichhornia crassipes (Pontederiaceae) Synonym Piaropis crassipes Common names Jacinthe d’eau (Fr.), water hyacinth Description A free-floating aquatic herb growing to 50 cm high. I t may form dense floating mats. I ts leaves are thick, waxy, rounded, and glossy and rise well above the water surface on stalks. They are broadly ovate to circular, 10 – 20 cm in diameter. Leaf stalks are bulbous and spongy. A single spike of 8 – 15 purple to blue flowers is produced. Ecology Originally from the Amazon basin but now an invasive weed in waterways in Africa. Uses The plant is an excellent source of protein, vitamins and minerals and the leaves can be used for protein rich animal food. I n S.E. Asia the plant is an important food for pigs, 1.5 kg being fed per day. The plant can be used to produce biogas, 1 kg dry matter being reported to yield 370 litres of gas. I t is also valued as a manure, being rich in potash. When dried and burned it produces a valuable ash. Even without burning it makes good compost. The flowers are edible. Remarks Snout beetles ( Neochetina spp.), imported from Australia, have been successful in controlling water hyacinth in Lake Victoria. References Duke 1983, Gopal 1987, Burkill 1997, Lindsey & Hirt 1999, Wilson et al. 2007 192 Elaeis guineensis (Arecaceae) Common names Ba di nsamba, ba di ngasi (Kongo), palmier à huile (Fr.), oil palm Ecology I n Bas-Congo scattered trees are commonly left in the bush fallow. Oil palms near Mbanza Nzundu Propagation Seed requires heat treatment before it will germinate and even then is slow and variable. I t is best to use pre-germinated seed from improved Tenera types. Management Cultivated palms commence bearing after 4 years and reach their peak after 12 - 15 years. They may continue producing for 40 to 50 years. Wild plants may take 10 years to start fruiting. Uses I n Bas-Congo the fruits are a source of cooking oil and an important cash income. The fruits are first boiled then pressed as in the photo on the right. Red palm oil is important as a local food and for cooking, supplying fat in areas where cattle cannot be kept due to tsetse fly. I t is a good source of vitamin A. The slightly unripe fruit is cooked over ashes to produce a delicacy. Sap is also collected for toddy making. The male flowers are an important pollen source for honeybees. The trunk, which is neither strong nor lasting and is readily attacked by termites, is often used for building poles, rafters, bridges, fences and even for fuel wood. Right: Extracting oil in the village. 193 Left: Nsombi (palm worms = Oryctes spp.) are collected from the decaying trunk and fed on cassava meal for a few days before being cooked and eaten. The leaves are used for thatching, matting, and making walls and fences, but their removal reduces fruit yield. Cracking the seed shells is a laborious task but the shells are highly valued for fuel as they give out a considerable heat, and are therefore much favoured by blacksmiths. The midrib is used for house building, making baskets (ntete), traps, beds (see page 272) etc. The terminal bud provides the hearts of palm, a much appreciated vegetable with an artichoke–like flavour. The dry flowers are used for kindling. They were also burnt and the ash soaked in hot water which was then used as salt. Edible mushrooms (Lumiengi = Psathyrella cf. tuberculata) are grown on the dead flowers which are heaped together and covered with palm leaves. Palm wine is then poured over the heap and the mushrooms are produced after 2 - 3 days. Ash obtained from both male and female flowers is used as salt. Right: Lumiengi mushrooms growing on discarded oil palm seeds. I nter-cropping with cassava, soya beans or sesame for the first 29 months makes good use of the land. I f leguminous crops are grown, the palms will benefit from the improved fertility and subsequent yields of oil are likely to be increased. Papa Alphonse with a fish trap made from oil palm leaf stalks Right: Ditoko, Helen making string from oil palm leaf stems for tying chikwangue packets. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Godin & Spensely 1971, Castagné 1983, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Crane et al. 1984, Ambougou 1991, Burkill 1994, Raemaekers 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 194 Emilia coccinea (Asteraceae) Common names Nkofi masa, zima tiya (Kongo), mundumbu (in Manianga), Emilie, cucolie écarlate (Fr.), yellow tasselflower Description An erect, annual, weak stemmed herb to 1 m high. Leaves are alternate, oval or oblong, wider at the base clasping the stem, often purple below with lightly toothed edges. Flowers are borne in loose terminal heads, bright yellow to orange and 6 – 8 mm across. The seeds have bristles. Seed dispersal is by wind. Ecology Common beside water, in old cultivated land, along roadsides and in forest clearings from Guinea to Sudan and south to Mozambique. The plant is also present in tropical Asia. Uses I n Bas-Congo the crushed leaves are used as a poultice to heal the navel wound at birth. Fresh leaf juice has shown antimicrobial, anti-oxidant and antiinflammatory activity and is used to treat itch or scabies in BasCongo. I n Manianga the leaves are rubbed into small cuts to treat swellings. The plant is well known in the central forest zone as a remedy for inflamed lymph nodes. The leaves were traditionally eaten in Madimba and are eaten fresh or cooked as spinach in Kenya, Tanzania and Malawi. The plant can also be fed to rabbits and guinea pigs. The ground leaves are used to treat colic. Photo: Maurizio References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Ruffo et al 2002, Bosch 2004, Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 195 Entada abyssinica (Mimosaceae) Common names Nsiesa, nsiensie, nsiesi mfinda (Kongo) Description A shrub or small tree from 3 to 8 m high. I t flowers during the rain season. Ecology The tree prefers sandy loam soils and will grow on shallow soils. I t is widespread in wooded grassland savanna from I vory Coast to Angola and from Ethiopia to Zimbabwe. Propagation Grow from seed. Pre-treatment is sometimes necessary because of the hardness of the seed coat. Put the seed in boiling water and allow this to cool immediately. Germination rate is very high, between 70 and 100% . The seed can be stored. Management The regenerates naturally being cut down. tree after Uses Used for firewood and charcoal in Bas-Congo. I t is the food plant for Nsofi and Minsangula edible caterpillars and is reported as a bee forage. The tree makes a good shade tree. I t is nitrogen fixing and can be grown with crops as it does not deplete yields. The heartwood is moderately light and easy to work. A decoction of the bark is used to relieve abdominal pains in Congo (Brazzaville). The wood ash is used as a lye in soap making. Young regowth in a plot of maize References Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Burkill 1995, Katende et al. 1995 196 Entada gigas (Mimosaceae) Common names Futi (Kongo), Mackay bean Description A stout creeper growing to 50 m long. The stem may be over 10 cm in diameter. The compound leaves are composed of 4 – 5 pairs of leaflets borne on stalks 4 – 12 cm long with petioles 1 – 3 mm long. Leaflets are 6 – 9 cm long and 2.5 – 3.7 cm wide increasing in width towards the tip. The flowers are yellow-green and borne on a stalk up to 20 cm long. The fruit is a large woody pod up to 2 m long and 10 cm wide containing seeds about 5 cm in diameter. Left: Entada gigas growing in secondary forest near Kavwaya Ecology Widely dispersed across central tropical Africa and in tropical America, Australia and Asia, in forests, on the edge of the savanna and often along water courses. Uses I n Bas-Congo the seeds were traditionally scattered with those of and P. Pentaclethra macrophylla eetveldeana to enrich the forest fallow (nkunku) after cultivation. The plant yields a good strong fibre used for tying. The fibre has long strands which make it useful for fishing lines. I n some areas the plant has become uncommon due to over collection. Right: The fibre being used to tie up a sack of charcoal near Mbanza Nzundu References Gillet & Pâque 1910, FAC 1952, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1995, Malaisse 1997, White & Abernethy 1997 197 Entada mannii (Mimosaceae) Description Usually found as a climbing shrub, up to 30 m long, but sometimes tree like in growth and form. The plant seen was covering several trees. The compound leaves have 8 - 13 pairs of leaflets, each with a mid-rib at about the centre. Leaf tips are rounded or have a notched tip, about 2 cm. long and 1 cm broad. Each leaflet has 4 - 6 pairs of pinnae, the end pair sometimes in the form of tendrils. Flower spikes arise near the tops of the shoots. Fruits may be up to 45 cm long and over 10 cm wide. Seeds are 2 cm long by 1 cm wide. Ecology Grows in closed forest along streams and on rocky hills. Present from Senegal to Angola. Propagation E. mannii can probably be planted in the same way as for E. abyssinica. Uses Species of Entada are known to be important bee forage plants. I n Gabon the inner bark is used to make a fibre for carrying belts for baskets and as a harness for climbing oil palms. References I rvine 1961, Ambougou 1991, Burkill 1995, Hepburn & Radloff 1998 198 Eremospatha haullevilleana (Arecaceae) Common names Muka, mbamba, lubamba (Kongo), rattan Description A rattan palm climbing to 25 m or more. Stems are 1 cm in diameter with inter-nodes more or less 15 cm. The leaves, which end in a long tendril, are fiercely spiked at the end, and may reach 1 m long. Fruit is oval in shape, 2.5 - 3 cm long, 1.1 - 1.5 cm wide. Ecology Grows in riverine and swamp forest from Gabon to Uganda. Management Remove foliage and cut stems from the stump immediately after harvesting. This will enable the stump to start growing again. The plants can then be harvested every 3 - 5 years. Uses Stems are used for basket-work (see front cover and page 66), canes, house-building, furniture and to make belts for climbing oil palm trees. The leaves are used for roofing. Other species are used to make bridges, furniture and fencing. The bark is used for tying hut frames and posts. The sap has abortive properties. Rattan from the stem “ Lubamba wo lu monekesi n'tu kuna nseki, zayo vo kuna mfiinda lu sala nkata”. = I f the lubamba rears its head above the forest it is a sign that the forest has been there for many years. (Kikongo proverb) Left: a stool made from the split stems References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, FTEA 1986, Burkill 1997, Sunderland et al. 1999 199 Eriosema psoraleoides (Papilionaceae) Common names Kiwandu ki nseke, gwandu ya nseke, mwandu mwandu (Kongo) Description An erect herb or shrub, 1 – 2 m high, growing from a perennial woody rootstock. The plant fixes nitrogen, improving soil fertility. Ecology A common shrub in wooded savanna, particularly in moist areas. Found throughout tropical Africa and in South Africa. Uses The leaf has insecticidal properties being rubbed on to dogs to keep lice away. The whole plant is used, together with Dichrostachys cinerea to trap cane rats. I n Bas-Congo a decoction of the leaves is used as an expectorant. The pounded roots, leaf sap, juice from the fruits are used in various ways to treat abdominal pain, blood in the urine, stomach pain, asthma, conjunctivitis, haemorrhoids, jaundice, syphilis and injuries to the foot. The plant is only eaten by stock at the end of the dry season. I t is reported to be a host plant for one of the Minsendi species of edible caterpillar. The yellow seeds are cooked and eaten in South Africa. The tubers of some species of Eriosema are eaten in Katanga. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, I rvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Wild 1972, Skerman 1977, Allen & Allen 1981, Burkill 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Malaisse 1997, Neuwinger 2000 200 Erythrina abyssinica (Papilionaceae) Synonym E. tomentosa Common names Kikumbu, kikumbu ki nzambi (Kongo), arbre corail (Fr.), red-hot poker tree Description A shrub or small deciduous tree with deeply grooved bark from 6 to 12 m high. The scarlet flowers appear before the leaves during the dry season. Seeds are shiny red. Ecology The tree is occasionally found in BasCongo and sometimes planted in villages. I t grows best on well-drained soils. Trees can be planted near the home and around field boundaries. Normally found in warm temperate and tropical areas of Africa and particularly in the Zambezian region. Propagation Grows easily from cuttings. Plant 50 cm cuttings at the start of the rain season or just before flowering. Larger cuttings, up to 2 m long, may also be used. Germination rate of seed is variable, though scarifying the seed and soaking in water overnight, may improve it. Management Trees are slow-growing, but can be coppiced and pollarded for feeding livestock. Uses Wood is light, soft and not very durable. I t is used for carved items (kitchen utensils and mortars) and sometimes for firewood. The bark and leaves are used medicinally in Bas-Congo to treat skin disorders, diabetes, madness, nervous disorders, still births or frequent abortions, rheumatism, heart palpitations, eating without feeling satisfied, asthma, anaemia and gastritis. I n South Africa the main use for a related species containing erythraline and erysovine, (which is present in E. abyssinica), is to treat sores, wounds and abscesses. Powdered, burnt bark is applied to the area. The leaves provide fodder for sheep and goats, and also make good mulching. The tree is nitrogen fixing and therefore useful for soil improvement. Bees forage for nectar and pollen at the end of the dry season. Cut branches are used for making live fences. A brown dye is extracted from the bark. Remarks The tree tolerates fire and is fairly termite resistant. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Egli & Kalinganire 1988, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Van Wyk et al. 1997, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Meunier et al. 2010, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 12.2.2013) 201 Erythrococca atrovirens var. flaccida (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Nzekenzeke, nsusa (Kongo) Description A weak shrub or small tree growing from 4 to 6 m high. Bark is smooth and light grey. Leaves have petioles up to 1.5 cm long, sometimes with small conical orange-brown glands near the top. Leaves are ovate or elliptic-oblong 8 - 13 x 3 - 7 cm, pointed at the end, mature leaves being hairless below. Ecology Found in secondary forest in Bas-Congo and also in Cameroon and Uganda. Uses The leaves are collected from the wild and used as a vegetable in Bas-Congo. Other species are used as vegetables elsewhere in Africa. Left: Nzekenzeke collected in the botanic garden at Kisantu References FTEA 1987, Peters et al. 1992, Pauwels 1993, Martin et al. 1998, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 Photo : Emmanuel Miaglia Planting cassava after burning the forest fallow Photo: Emmanuel Miaglia 202 Erythrophleum suaveolens (Caesalpiniaceae) Synonym E. guineense Common names N’kasa (= ordeal tree)(Kongo), bois rouge, poison d’épreuve (Fr.), alui, talu (Fr. trade), erun (Eng. Trade), ordeal tree, red water tree, sassy bark Description A medium-sized tree up to 25 m tall, often branching low; bark finely fissured, scaly, grey. Leaves alternate, bipinnately compound with 2 – 4 pairs of pinnae; petiole and rachis up to 35 cm long; leaflets alternate, 7 – 14 per pinna, up to 9 cm × 5.5 cm. I nflorescence an axillary panicle consisting of spike-like racemes up to 12 cm long, shortly yellowish and hairy. Flowers yellowish white to greenish yellow; Fruit a flat, slightly curved, dehiscent pod 5–17 cm × 3–5 cm. Fruits remain half-opened on the tree. Ecology Present in old forests in Bas-Congo. Also found in moist semi-deciduous forests, gallery forest and wooded grasslands. The tree is distributed from Senegal to Sudan and Kenya in the east and south to Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Propagation The tree can be grown from seed which takes 3 weeks to germinate. I noculation with Bradyrhizobium is beneficial. Uses The bark, traded as ‘sassy-bark’, ‘mancona bark’ or ‘casca bark’ is used as an emetic and purgative. The crushed bark is applied to swellings caused by Filaria. I n D.R. Congo the dried powdered bark is taken as a snuff to cure headaches. I n the Western world, bark extracts were used in the late 19th century to treat heart failure. 203 The tree produces quite hard, heavy and durable wood, marketed as ‘alui’, ‘tali’, ‘erun’, ‘missanda’ or ‘sasswood’, which is suitable for joinery, flooring, railway sleepers, harbour and dock work, turnery, construction and bridges. I t is also used for boat building and wheel hubs. The bark has been used in West Africa for tanning hides and skins; it is used in D.R. Congo to dye leather brown. The tree is planted as an ornamental and avenue tree. Dried leaves are mixed with stored grains and pulses to repel or kill storage insects. The tree has potential use in agroforestry. I t is nitrogen fixing and the large amount of leaf litter benefit inter-planted crops. However, in experiments a negative effect of leaf mulch on the yield of crops has been noted. When clearing bush to prepare fields, trees are often left standing because the wood is hard to fell. The wood is not highly valued as firewood but charcoal made from it is excellent. References Gillet 1927, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Okeyo 2006 Traditional collapsible seat 204 Eucalyptus spp. (Myrtaceae) Common name Eucalyptus Description Large trees. The most common species in Bas-Congo are E. citriodora, E. deglupta, E. robusta and E. saligna. Ecology The tree will grow on a wide range of soils, including waterlogged places and on saline and poor, gravel soils. E. saligna, E. deglupta and E. citriodora prefer a well drained soil and a well distributed rainfall. E. robusta can withstand waterlogging. Altitude range 0 – 1,100 m. Propagation Normally grown from seed planted in a nursery. E. deglupta can be grown from branch cuttings less than 2 years old using a hormone rooting compound. Cuttings should have a stem node and a segment of leaf. Management The tree is fast-growing but weed growth must be kept down for the first two years. After being cut down the trees coppice well. Uses Eucalypts are a valuable source of firewood, charcoal, timber, posts, bee forage and make good windbreaks. E. robusta and E. citriodora are reliable honey producers and the latter is an important source of honey in the central highlands of Angola. E. saligna flowers every two years giving high honey yields but other species may flower annually or every 2, 3 or 4 years. E. deglupta produces valuable timber. An essential oil is obtained from the leaves of E. citriodora and the leaves are put in boiling water to produce an inhalant to relieve colds. E. robusta is reported to have significant anti-malarial properties. Remarks Eucalypts should not be planted near crops as yields of the latter are likely to be reduced. References Gillet 1927, Morton 1964, Crane et al 1984, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Agroforestree Database (Accessed 6.2.2011) 205 Eulophia bouliaw ongo (Orchidaceae) Common names Malafu ma nsongi (Kongo). Description A tall terrestrial orchid growing up to 3 m tall. Leaves are 50 – 200 cm long. 15 – 20 flowers are produced. Ecology Grows in swampy areas in Angola, Cameroon, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Nigeria, Republic of Congo. Uses An highly ornamental orchid. I n Malawi and north western Zambia the tubers of some Eulophia species are made into a paste after being cleaned, peeled and mashed. This is then mixed with a banana ash extract, made from dripping water through the ash. Peanuts and other ingredients are then added and cooked. I t is then made into a pudding like cake. I n some areas the harvesting of tubers has become unsustainable due to over collection. References FCA 1984, Malaisse 2010 206 Eulophia cucullata (Orchidaceae) Common names Konga di nseke, kimfusa ki nseke, kanga miese (Kongo), foxglove orchid, blunt spurred ground orchid Description A large terrestrial orchid, up to 1.3 m tall, with a tuberous root system, producing a flower-like spike followed much later by a pair of stiffly erect narrow leaves. The flower-spike is 50 – 75 cm long with 5 – 10 flowers which may be pink or purplish with yellow or white markings in the throat. The flowers are sweet scented. Ecology Present in grassy savanna in seasonally damp ground. The plant prefers a deep rich soil. Common across the West African region from Senegal to west Cameroon and generally widespread in the rest of tropical Africa. Propagation Difficult to grow. Uses I n Bas-Congo the crushed pseudo-bulb is used to treat scabies and other skin problems. I n Kenya groundnut seed is coated in a paste of the tubers to protect the seed from insect damage. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Renier 1948, Williams 1949, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Flora Zambesiaca 1988, Burkill 1997 Eulophia angolensis growing in swampy ground Photo: Jean-Luc & Pauline Alliez 207 Euphorbia hirta (Euphorbiaceae) Synonym Chamaesyce hirta Common names Kikula ntedi, kula ntedi, kula ntese (Kongo), malnommée (Fr.), asthma weed Description An annual creeping herb up to 50 cm tall with opposite leaves on short stalks. The plant has tiny, stiff, yellow hairs. When cut or broken the plant yields a white sap. Flowers are pink and very small. The fruit contains 3 three-edged seeds 0.8 mm long. Ecology A common weed, often present around villages, growing in fertile sandy soil in full sun. Uses The whole plant is cut just above ground and boiled in water The liquid is drunk to treat amoebic and bacillary dysentery and also asthma. I t is also used for interrupted milk supply, mastitis, rheumatism, urinary tract infections, kidney infections, intestinal cramp and worms, diarrhoea, (particularly for babies), haemorrhoids and for treating warts. The plant is widely used elsewhere in Africa to treat diarrhoea. The tiny flowers are attractive to bees which collect nectar. References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, Burkill 1994, Neuwinger 2000, Hirt & M'Pia 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Pousset 2004 ADERUKI farmers group near Kikola in their cassava field. 208 Euphorbia sp. (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Kidisa, kikula nzazi (Kongo), African milk tree Description A spiny succulent tree, generally without leaves and shaped like a candelabra. Stems are generally 3 - 4 winged and contain caustic latex. I f leaves are present they are highly reduced. The flowers are unisexual and usually regular. Ecology Grows in dry, poor soils. Propagation Stem cuttings root easily after allowing the latex to dry and harden. Uses Widely used as a hedge plant in villages. Remarks The name Kidisa is also used for other stem succulents of Euphorbia and Cereus species. References Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983 Sleeping mats being taken to market 209 Euphorbia tirucalli (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Ngewu, ngego, nlembo nlembo (nlembo = finger)(Kongo), Euphorbe effilée, tirucalli (Fr), finger tree, finger euphorbia, African milkbush Photo: Dinesh Valke Description A leafless succulent shrub with cylindrical shoots 2 - 8 m tall. All parts produce copious white to yellowish latex. Dense clusters of flowers are produced at the ends of the branches. Fruit is a nearly round capsule about 8 mm × 8.5 mm, containing 3-seeds. Ecology Often planted on graves, in markets and around homes in Bas-Congo. Originally from eastern tropical Africa, it has long since become naturalized in other parts of Africa, including South Africa and the I ndian Ocean islands. Propagation Usually grown from stem or root cuttings, it establishes quickly on almost any soil. Cuttings should be at least 10 cm long and should be left to dry for at least 24 hours before planting. For hedges use cuttings up to 1 m long. When grown as a fuel crop, cuttings can be planted very densely. Management Euphorbia tirucalli may be coppiced, trimmed and top-pruned to establish a hedge. Uses The plant is widely naturalized and planted as a hedge throughout the tropics and subtropics. I n Bas-Congo a few drops of the latex are used as a strong and sometimes dangerous purgative. Coagulated and dried, a pinch is taken for the same purpose with palm wine. I n higher dose it is used as an ordeal poison and often results in death. I t causes painful blistering and inflammation, and may cause blindness if it comes into contact with the eyes. The latex is externally applied to warts, wounds and for skin complaints. The latex is also used as a fly repellent in West Africa and a mosquito and termite repellent in Tanzania. I n I ndia the latex is used as an insecticide. The latex is very irritating to the skin and mucosa. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Grace 2008 210 Ficus exasperata (Moraceae) Common names Kikuya, kikuyia (Kongo), forest sandpaper fig. Description A tree up to 15 m tall. Bark smooth, pale yellow-green, often with ring marks. Older trees may have buttresses. Leaves 2.5 – 12 cm long, rough and sandpaper-like on both surfaces, the tip usually pointed, and narrowing towards the base. Young leaves and coppice shoots bear 3 lobed leaves. Mature leaves are not lobed. Leaf edges are finely toothed and have 3 veins from the base, the two laterals reaching beyond the middle of the blade. Figs are rounded 1 – 2.5 cm across, red when ripe with a hairy surface. Ecology A forest tree widespread from Senegal to Mozambique. Propagation Can be grown from seedlings or wildlings. Extract the seeds from fruit and dry before sowing. Management The tree is fast growing and can be pollarded or coppiced. Uses I n Bas-Congo the rough leaves are often used as a substitute for sandpaper for polishing wood or metal. They were also used to rub areas of the skin affected by ringworm. Young branches are used for making pipe stems. Ficus exasperata is sometimes planted as an avenue shade tree, and wild trees are kept as a shade trees in banana, coffee or cocoa plantations. Various parts of the tree are used medicinally. Remarks The name Kikuya is also used for F. asperifolia, the leaves of which are also used as a sandpaper substitute. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Paque 1910, Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Berg & Wiebes 1992, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Burrows & Burrows 2003, Niangadouma 2010 Photo: Kadavoor 211 Ficus lutea (Moraceae) Synonym F. vogelii Common names Bubu (Kongo), common fig Description An epiphytic shrub or evergreen spreading tree up to 20 m tall, which may have aerial roots. The bark is grey brown. Leaves are 7 – 20 cm by 3 - 10 cm, on a stalk 1.5 – 13 cm long. They are leathery, dark green with a few prominent lateral nerves. Stout shoots bear figs along their whole length. The yellow or orange, round, figs are borne in leaf axils or just below the leaves, and are 1 – 1.3 cm across. Ecology Present in gallery forests and planted in villages in Bas-Congo. Propagation Grows easily from cuttings. Uses I n Bas Congo the tree is often planted as a shade tree in markets, for ornament or as a live fence. The plant has medicinal uses, fruit is edible and the wood is used for making soap. Figs are sometimes eaten by children. The latex is a source of Dahomey rubber, a resinous rubber of poor quality. Nigerian samples yielded 47.7% resin and 49.2% rubber. Host plant of Bubu and Ntedi edible caterpillars. The latter appear in February. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, I rvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Uphof 1968, Keay 1989, Berg & Wiebes 1992, Pauwels 1993 212 Ficus sur (Moraceae) Synonyms F. capensis, F. mallotocarpa Common names Kindomba, nkaka kikuyia, kaya (Kongo), Cape fig, broom cluster fig Description A large deciduous tree to 25 m high with a trunk up to 150 cm diameter, occasionally buttressed. Tree is very variable in form, in leaf size and hairiness. Leaves are thin, leathery, 4 – 20 cm long and 3 – 13 cm wide on a stalk 1 – 7 cm long. Fruits are borne in large, branched, leafless trusses with 10 – 100 fruits per truss. Fruits are round to pear shaped, turning red-brown when ripe. Abundant latex is produced from any damaged part. I t can be grown with agricultural crops as it does not compete with them. Ecology Present in riverine and secondary forests from Senegal to Ethiopia and to South Africa. Propagation Slice the figs and dry in the sun. Remove seeds and sow immediately. Germination is fast and seedlings grow quickly. Transplant into containers and plant out when 1 m tall. Cuttings and truncheons can also be used for propagation. Avoid planting the tree close to buildings or where the roots can get into drainage pipes. Uses The fruits are edible. They are said to be the most palatable of all the African figs. They are eaten when they turn pink and soft. Those forming on the exposed roots are said to be the sweetest. Figs can also be made into jam. Wood is soft and white and used for mortars. Often used as a shade tree. The inner bark can be used to make rope. I n Bas-Congo the latex is painted below the eyes to simulate tears. A decoction of leaves and bark is used to treat anaemia. Bees are reported to suck the fruits of some species of Ficus. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Berg & Wiebes 1992, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1999, Burrows & Burrows 2003 213 Ficus thonningii (Moraceae) Synonyms F. hochstetteri, F. persicifolia Common name Nsanda (Kongo) Description A tree, shrub or hemi-epiphyte (i.e. start as an epiphyte and later become rooted in the ground or vice versa), up to 15 m high with a dense crown. Bark is smooth, pale brown or grey. When cut it exudes abundant white latex, which often turns pinkish. Ecology I n Bas-Congo the tree is often planted for shade or as a hedge in villages. It is widespread in tropical Africa and South Africa. I t grows best on rich, deep loamy soils. I t is relatively drought resistant. Propagation Stem cuttings, 20 cm long, take easily, sprouting after 7 - 9 days. Remove most of the leaves, leaving only a few at the top. Larger cuttings, 2 m long, can also be planted for hedges, but should be left in the shade for a few days before planting. Root cuttings can also be used. Management Protect from browsing when young. The tree should not be planted near buildings as the roots may damage the foundations. Uses Often planted as a livestock enclosure, boundary marker and to provide shade. I n BasCongo the foliage is fed to goats. Livestock eat the dry leaves in particular. A decoction of the leaves is used to treat mental disorders, stomach-ache, coughs and abscesses. A wash is made from the pounded leaves to treat haemorrhoids. The bark is pounded, soaked in water and used to treat Livestock fence made from Ficus thonningii at Kinseki rheumatism. The fruits are edible and can be made into a good jam. Latex is used as glue. An inedible caterpillar species, Nsanda, feeds on the leaves. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Cobbina & Reynolds 1988, Keay 1989, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Venter & Venter 1996, Maundu 1999, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 214 Ficus umbellata (Moraceae) Common name Muteri (Kongo) Description A tree up to 10 m tall, branching low down, which may be hemi-epiphytic (see F. thonningii) or it may grow only from the ground. Leaves are borne on a petiole 3 – 9 cm long and are broadly ovate to broadly elliptic, 10 – 25 cm long and 6.5 – 20 cm wide. The yellowish-green figs are produced on spurs up to 1 cm long on older wood. Similar to F. bubu , but has a leaf that is usually broadest below the middle whereas F. bubu has a leaf broadest at or above the middle. Ecology Present in savanna woodland, gallery forest and rain forest at low altitudes from N.W. Angola to the C.A.R and west to Senegal. Propagation The tree is easily planted using large cuttings. Uses Planted in villages as a shade tree, roadside avenue tree and for hedges. Fruits are edible. Latex is sometimes used as rubber substitute. Bark is scented. Bark decoction is widely taken for stomach troubles. References FAC 1948, Berg & Weiebes 1992, Burkill 1997, Figweb (Accessed 4.11.2013) 215 Flacourtia jangomas (Flacourtiaceae) Common names Confiture, prunier d'I nde (Fr,), I ndian plum Description A shrub or small deciduous tree, up to 14 m high, spiny when young. Leaves are 5 - 11 cm long by 2 - 5 cm wide. The fruits are about 2 cm in diameter and turn red or blackish as they ripen. Flacourtia jangomas growing in a garden in Kinshasa Ecology Cultivated in tropical Africa, and Asia. The shrub can be grown up to an altitude of 600 m. I t prefers sandy soil and a high water table. I t will also grow on red clay, sand and poor rocky soils. Propagation Grown from seed. Uses The fruit is eaten raw but has an astringent taste. I t is more usually made into jam and jelly. The bush makes a good hedge or windbreak and the branches can be used for firewood. The leaves and roots contain tannin and are used to treat diarrhoea. The wood is hard and can be used for making small utensils. References Gillet 1927, Verheij & Coronel 1991, Katende et al. 1995 216 Funtumia africana (Apocynaceae) Synonym F. latifolia Common names Kimbaki rubber tree, silk rubber (Kongo), false Description A fast-growing tree with a straight trunk up to 30 m high. When cut the bark yields large amounts of thin, white, sticky latex, which does not form into a ball of rubber when kneaded in the hand. The leaves are 12 – 28 cm long and the paired fruits 8.5 – 16 cm long. Ecology Found in secondary forest. I t colonizes abandoned farmland. I t is widespread in tropical Africa, from Senegal to Mozambique. Propagation Can be grown from seed or wild seedlings. Fruit is collected from the tree when mature and left to split open in a dry place. I t should be sown as soon as possible. No treatment is necessary. Air layering may also be used. Uses I n Bas-Congo the poles are sometimes used for house construction. The wood is white, soft, even-textured and fine-grained. I t is used for carving, stools, bowls, doors, paddles etc. I t is said to be durable enough for sawing into planks and house timbers but subject to stain and attack by beetles. Cheap furniture is made from it. The wood burns well. The latex coagulates with difficulty and produces a poor rubber. I t is sometimes used as a glue. Floss from around the seeds is of good quality and used for pillows. The leaves, stem bark and latex are used medicinally to treat coughs, burns, incontinence, haemorrhoids, diarrhoea, chest pain, constipation and to aid conception. Mvinsu or Nvinsu ( I mbrasia epimethea), Kaba ( Lobobunaea phaedusa) and Mbambi edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Top bar for a beehive Gillet 1927, I rvine 1961, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Beentje 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Coates Palgrave 1996, Neuwinger 2000, Meunier et al. 2010 217 Gaertnera paniculata (Rubiaceae) Common names Kimbodi, kimbodia (Kongo) Description Usually a shrub or small tree but it can grow up to 18 m tall. Ecology Grows in moist deciduous forest particularly forest edges and beside rivers. Found from Guinea to Cameroon and across the Congo basin to Zambia. Gaertnera paniculata in flower near Mbanza Nzundu in September Propagation The seed germinates readily underneath mature trees. Uses I n Bas-Congo, the tree is believed to improve fertility in the forest fallow. Stems are used in house construction and for charcoal making. Bees collect nectar often in sufficient quantities for a honey flow where the shrub is abundant. Timber is reddish and is good for turning. I n Nigeria it is used for pestles. The plant is used medicinally, the leaves being eaten to cure fever and the leaf pulp is sometimes applied externally for rheumatism. A decoction of the bark is taken to relieve cough and chest pains. Young tender shoots and the roots are sometimes eaten. The leaves are eaten by goats. Saponin is present in moderate quantity in the roots. Remarks Three other related species present in Bas-Congo are also reported to be good nectar sources for bees. References Butaye 1909, De Wildeman 1934, Drachoussoff 1947, I rvine 1961, Walker & Sillans 1961, Castagné 1983, Burkill 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Latham 2003, Nsimundele 2004 218 Garcinia huillensis (Clusiaceae) Common name Kisima (Kongo) Description An evergreen shrub from 2 to 5 m high containing yellow sap. The bark is greyish brown. The leaves are dark glossy green, leathery, with short, often reddish stalks and are from 6 – 10 cm long and 1.5 – 6 cm wide. The flowers are small, yellow with several being borne together. Fruit is fleshy and about 2 cm in diameter. Ecology Found in the savanna in both Congos, Angola, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Malawi and Tanzania. Garcinia huillensis growing in wooded savanna near Mbanza Nzundu Uses The sweet, edible fruit is eaten raw. I t contains ascorbic acid. I n BasCongo the wood from the roots is used for toothpicks. Bark from the roots soaked in water is used to treat intestinal worms. The bark made into a powder is used to dress wounds. Small pieces of root are sold as an aphrodisiac in Bas-Congo and the roots and bark are widely used to treat painful joints, haemorrhoids, painful and frequent periods, interruption in milk flow, tuberculosis, male impotence, constipation and throat infections. Elsewhere in Africa an infusion of the bark is used as a lotion to treat sores. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Wild 1972, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 219 Garcinia kola (Clusiaceae) Common names Ngadiadi, ngadidi, ngadiadia (Kongo), bitter kola Description An evergreen tree 35 - 40 m high. The flowers are finely hairy and large orange-like fruits are produced. Ecology I n Bas-Congo the tree is found in dense forests and beside water. I t occurs up to 1,200 m and is cultivated in Nigeria. Propagation Freshly harvested seed, soaked in cold water and then incubated in a thick transparent polyethylene bag, proved most effective in improving the germination. Alternatively 80% germination after 55 days was obtained by burying seed inside a plantain banana stem for 3 weeks. Uses The flesh surrounding the seeds, though very sour, is eaten in Bas-Congo. The pounded seeds are used to control intestinal worms and to ease stomach ache. The bark and seeds are used to treat excessive crying in babies, heart palpitations, epilepsy, diarrhoea and as a tonic. The main use throughout West Africa is as chew sticks for which young trees are felled and split into pencil sized pieces. They are reputed to whiten the teeth. The roots are also used as chew sticks. A useful timber is produced. The wood is yellowish, darkening to brown at the centre, hard and close grained. "Ngadiadi ka yi diwuluaanga ku yaangi ko" = One doesn't eat the fruit of Ngadiadi unless one is serious! (because of its sourness). Ndia N'soki 1994 References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Peters et al. 1992, I wu 1993, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Sunderland et al. 1999, Nzegbule & Mbakwe 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 220 Garcinia mangostana (Clusiaceae) Common names Mangoustanier (Fr.), mangosteen Description A tree growing to 10 m high, with dense foliage and large leathery leaves 10 - 14 cm long and 7 – 9 cm wide. Fruits are round, 5 – 7 cm in diameter, and turn purple on ripening. Ecology Originally from Malaysia. I t grows on a wide variety of soils, but not on sands low in humus. Water is important at all times and the tree can withstand some waterlogging. Shade is essential during the first 2 - 4 years. Propagation By seed, cuttings or layering. Seeds are only viable for 3 days once removed from the fruit. They remain viable for 3 - 5 weeks if kept in the fruit. The heavier seeds give the best results as early growth is slow and the seedling is therefore able to depend on food reserves within the seed for longer. Plant seed in well drained soil, keep moist and provide some shade. Cuttings can be taken from ripened branches. They root easily in sand in a closed container. Fruit yield can be improved by grafting or budding. Management Transplant seedlings once they have reached 60 cm. Planting holes 1.2 x 1.3 m are dug and organic matter is added one month before planting out. Plants are spaced at 8 - 10 m apart and must be shaded. I t is important that the last pair of leaves are not allowed to wither, as this will result in a severe growth check or death. Maintain a good mulch around the plants at all times. Pruning should be carried out when there are no flowers, fruit or new leaves and should be light and limited to removing inside shoots and suckers. The tree is slow growing and starts to bear fruit after 10 to 15 years. Trees tend to bear every other year and especially after dry weather. Uses An increasingly important fruit crop in Bas-Congo, being mainly grown for sale. Fruit should be picked every 2 - 3 days, while light red in colour and while the skin is still soft. Ripening occurs after 5 days when the colour changes to dark purple. Ripe fruit has a shelf life of 7 days. I t can be stored for up to 14 days if kept in damp sawdust. The thick skin can be used to tan leather and to dye fabric black. The wood is dark red, coarse and strong and can be used for carpentry work. The fruit is used to treat bilious fevers, dysentery and as a purgative. The flowers are reported to be visited by bees. References Gillet 1927, FAO 1982, Pauwels 1993, Nakasone & Paull 1998 221 Gardenia ternifolia subsp. jovis-tonantis (Rubiaceae) Common names Lemba nzau, kilemba, kilemba nzau (Kongo), laurier d'Afrique, gardenia mâle (Fr.) Description A variable species of shrub or small tree to 5 m high. Flowers white and fragrant. Tree is tough and solidly rooted. Ecology Found in grassland and wooded savanna where it grows on clay soils. Present across tropical Africa. Propagation The tree can be grown from cuttings, which should preferably be dipped in rooting hormone first. Choose branches up to 8 cm diameter and plant in coarse sand. I t may also be possible to grow the plant from seed. Transplant at the three-leaf stage. Uses An important medicinal plant. The ground up bark, soaked in water, is used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery, and a decoction of the bark is used to treat headaches. The leaves are also used to treat diarrhoea. A decoction, made from the roots, is used for rheumatism. The plant is also used to treat dental caries and as a tonic in BasCongo. Elsewhere an infusion of the roots is administered after snake-bite. This causes the patient to vomit, counteracting the effects of the poison. A decoction of the fruits is taken for malaria and also acts as a purgative. When branches are placed on house-roofs, or the tree grows near houses, they are believed to prevent lightning damage. Branches were traditionally used for making pipe stems which were often decorated with carved figures. The branches are used for fencing and to support beehives. The wood is pale yellow to pale red, very hard, fine-grained and compact, probably insect proof and used for carving, turning and tool-handles. The twigs are used as chew-sticks. Ash from the wood is used in making soap and for dyeing. Suitable as an ornamental tree, but slow growing. Dry branches burn slowly with a bright flame and can be used as candles. Seeds yield a black dye. There are numerous medicinal uses for this plant in Africa. The ripe fruits are eaten in Uganda. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Kokwaro 1976, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Venter & Venter 1996, Katende et al. 1999, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 222 Gilbertiodendron dew evrei (Caesalpiniaceae) Synonym Macrolobium dewevrei Common names Lukaya kaya, mabedi (Kongo), limbali (commercial). Description A tree 25 – 40 m tall with a cylindrical straight, unbuttressed bole to 20 m, and 2 m in diameter, bearing a dense crown. Leaves are up to 40 cm long and 18 cm wide. Flowers are in lax panicles composed of one large red petal and 4 small petals. Fruits are short velvety pods 15 – 30 cm long and 6 – 9 cm wide. Photo: Bruce MacCallum Ecology Sometimes found in nearly pure stands, on sandy soils in riverine and swampy locations of the evergreen rain forest of southern Nigeria to D.R. Congo and Angola. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Uses The wood is light brown and heavy. Used in construction work and carpentry in D.R. Congo. Leaves are sometimes used for roofing. Seeds are roasted and eaten with peanuts. They are also eaten in times of famine. Bees are known to visit the flowers in Gabon. Gilbertiodendrum species are important bee fodder trees in equatorial zone in Africa. Some people in D.R. Congo make flour from the seeds of this tree. A species of edible caterpillar feed on the leaves. Remarks I n parts of Central Africa the tree forms almost pure stands, which can cover hundreds of square kilometres. I n years when most trees produce fruits, up to 5 tons of nutritious seeds fall to the ground in each square kilometre attracting large numbers of elephants, pigs, and gorillas. Until recently these seeds were also an important food source for forest dwelling people. Photo: Celine Termote References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, White & Abernethy 1997, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Konda ku Mbuta et al 2012 223 Gladiolus dalenii (I ridaceae) Common names Katalanga (Kongo), African gladiolus Description An erect robust herb, 50 to 150 cm tall, with sword-like leaves 40 to 120 cm long, growing from a woody corm, 3.5 cm in diameter. I t is the largest of the West African Gladiolus species with 3 – 9 showy white, yellow, orange or red flowers, variously spotted or heavily mottled dark orange. Flowers are produced throughout the rainy season. Ecology Present throughout much of Africa. The plants grow best in full sunlight in a well drained, fertile soil. Propagation Young corms can be separated from the parent plant and should be planted out 12 cm deep, spaced at 12 cm. Deep planting helps the plants stay upright. Plants can also be grown from seed. Sow the seed thinly so that the seedlings can be grown on in the pot without disturbance for their first year. Pot up the small bulbs when they are dormant in the autumn, placing about 2 - 3 bulbs in each pot. Uses Worth cultivating for its showy flowers. The corm is starchy and used as a supplementary food with guinea corn flour in Nigeria. A decoction of the corm is used to treat dysentery and diarrhoea. The corm is used as a soap substitute in Tanzania. The plant has numerous medicinal uses. The flowers are eaten raw or cooked after removing the anthers. Children suck the flowers for their nectar References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Burkill 1994, Philips & Rix 1997, Neuwinger 2000 224 Gloriosa superba (Colchicaceae) Common names Kibanda banda (Kongo), lis grimpant (Fr.), gloriosa lily Glorios superba at Mingadi in July Description A semi woody, herbaceous plant which dies back each year to a perennial underground tuber; it is very variable in form, stems may be climbing and over 2 m in length or erect and up to 1 m tall. Leaves are narrow and pointed with the midrib extending to a tendril. Flowers may be yellow, flame-coloured or red or mixed, occasionally almost white; the petals are narrow and ribbon-like, 5 - 15 cm long. Ecology A common creeper found at the edges of forest in tropical Africa and Asia. I t also grows in the savanna in fertile soil. Propagation Can be grown from seed or small tubers. Uses Widely cultivated as a garden ornamental. The flowers attract butterflies but not bees. I n Lisala region (D.R. Congo) the plant is used to treat inflamed swellings of the lymph glands. The seeds, and to a lesser extent, the tuber contain colchicine which is used to treat gout. The plant is used in the preparation of salt. References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1995, Pousset 2004 225 Glycine max (Papilionaceae) Common names Soja (Fr.), soya bean Description An erect bushy annual, 20 - 180 cm tall, with hairy stems, leaves and fruit pods. The plant is deep rooted, sometimes going down 2 m, though most roots are in the top 30 60 cm of soil. Most cultivars drop their leaves as the pods mature. Ecology Frequently grown in Manianga district of Bas-Congo. Prefers a hot damp climate and low humidity may result in shattering of pods. The crop recovers well after a period of drought and, because of its long flowering period, produces new flowers after a dry spell, even if earlier flowers were lost. Thrives on fertile sandy or clay loams and alluvial soils. I f possible lime should be added to acid soils. Propagation Seeds germinate after 3 - 5 days. Plant seeds in rows 30 cm apart spaced at 10 cm in the row. Management I noculation with the correct rhizobium ( Bradyrhizobium japonicum ) is important on land where the crop has not been grown before. However locally selected varieties nodulate well with native rhizobia present in the soil. Soya beans are one of the most efficient legumes for fixing nitrogen. The crop can be grown with maize. The seeds can be stored for 2 to 3 years. Uses An important source of oil and protein. Soya beans contain about 20% oil and 40% protein. Soya milk can be made by boiling one measure of seeds with 6 measures of water for 20 minutes. This is then ground to a smooth paste, another 6 measures of water are added and the mixture is strained through a clean muslin cloth. The milk is a valuable protein supplement for feeding young children, and is used in the treatment of kwashiorkor. Alternatively the beans can be left whole after boiling as above, and eaten with tomato, groundnut, onion or other beans. Drying plants under the eaves of a house References Purseglove 1968, Burkill 1995, Raemaekers 2001 226 Glyphaea brevis (Tiliaceae) Common names Nzadi nzadi, kombi kombi, litamba, mazeha, vinsu vinsu (Kongo) Description A spreading shrub, climber or small tree from 3 to 5 m high. Easily recognised by its spindle shaped grooved fruit (see below) and yellow flowers. The tree is often in flower. Ecology Common in the undergrowth of closed forest, secondary forest and on river banks. Also present in Cameroon, Central African Republic, Ghana, Nigeria, Tanzania, Guinea Bissau, Gabon and Uganda. Propagation Cuttings strike easily. Uses Stems are used for hut building and, because they are light and pliable, for bows. Also used for canes, snares, fish traps, tool handles and walking sticks. Twigs are used as chew-sticks. Fibrous bark can be made into rope. The leaves, flower buds, flowers and fruits are edible. I n Bas-Congo the ash produced from burning the fruits is used to cure toothache. The seeds, leaves, roots and fruit are used medicinally to treat coughs, jaundice, heart palpitations, chest problems, digestive disorders, conjunctivitis, lice, throat problems, inflammation of the eyes, toothache, to ease childbirth and as an aphrodisiac in various countries in Africa. Sometimes it is planted as a hedge in villages or as an ornamental shrub. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 2000, Neuwinger 2000 227 Gmelina arborea (Lamiaceae) Common name Gmelina Description A deciduous tree, which grows 18 - 21 m high, but is often smaller. Bark is smooth, light brown. Leaves are 5 – 15 cm x 10 – 18 cm, have petioles 12 cm long, and are heart shaped, with pointed tips. Flowers are orange-yellow with dark brown streaks, 2.5 cm long, in terminal panicles. The black fruits are oval and 4 mm long. Ecology Originally from I ndia, Pakistan and southeast Asia. The tree tolerates dry conditions, though growth rate is reduced. I t requires a definite dry season as a resting period. Altitude range up to 1,200 m. Propagation Can be grown from seed, sown direct, or cuttings can be used. Seed can be stored for up to one year. Soak in water for 24 hours before sowing. Young trees must be well weeded until established. Management When grown as a plantation tree the tree is fast growing with a cycle of 10 years, in good conditions. The tree coppices well. Young trees must be protected from livestock. Uses A valuable general purpose timber tree which has potential for reafforestation in deciduous dry forest regions. Sap-wood is dark grey while heartwood is yellowish grey. I t seasons quickly but resists preservative treatment. I t works easily but blunts tools. Used for musical instruments, furniture and also for heavy-duty building work, being resistant to water. Suitable for production of cardboard. Wood does not produce much heat when burnt. The tree can be grown as an avenue tree and its shade kills off I mperata cylindrica. Leaves can be used as a cattle feed. The fruit is edible and can also be used to make a yellow dye. The flowers are a good bee forage. Originally introduced to Bas-Congo for the production of matches. References Gillet 1927, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Burkill 2000 228 Gnetum africanum (Gnetaceae) Common names Mfumbu, mfumbwa (Kongo), koko (Fr.), eru Description A creeper which grows to 10 m or more. Female plants, which can be distinguished by their red fruit, tend to be more vigorous and stronger than male plants. New leaves are formed throughout the year. Leaf shape and colour tend to vary with the amount of shade. Right: Fruits of Gnetum africanum Ecology The plant is found at the edges of primary forest and in secondary forest. I t does well on fertile sites in areas with high rainfall. I t is also present from Nigeria to the Central African Republic and in Angola. Propagation I n Bas-Congo plants are sometimes grown from wild seedlings. They do not grow easily from seed. Plants can also be grown from cuttings rooted in decomposed sawdust or fine river sand. The leaves, however, should be reduced by half and must be kept moist. Reduce evaporation by growing them under shade. Select vines which have broad, thick, dark green leaves. Rooting normally takes place in three weeks. Plant out in tubes filled with 25% sand, some compost and forest soil and allow adequate space between plants once the side shoots start to develop. Management The plant requires a certain amount of shade and a strong support and is therefore best grown at the forest edge to scramble up trees. However it appears to have certain host plant preferences. Only the leaves should be collected, allowing the stems to sprout again. 3 to 4 harvests can probably be taken each year, the first being taken 6 – 9 months after planting out. Most collection has been done from the wild during the dry season and because of over collection the plant has virtually disappeared from many forests. Uses Valued as a tasty vegetable, the leaves are Mfumbwa as sold in the market eaten finely shredded in a peanut butter sauce, added to soup, made into condiments or even eaten raw. They contain about 10% protein. They can be stored for up to a week, for example when being taken to distant markets. On arrival they are soaked in water to freshen them. Reference Schippers 2002, Schippers and Besong 2004 229 Gossypium barbadense (Malvaceae) Common names Gusu, wusu (Kongo), cotonnier (Fr.), Egyptian cotton, sea island cotton Description A perennial under-shrub from 1 to 3 m high. Leaves are 3 - 5 lobed and about 10 cm in diameter. Flowers are solitary arising from the axils. There are normally up to 3 open at any one time and flowers last for one day only. There is one set of floral nectaries present and 4 sets of extra-floral nectaries. Three of these are associated with the outside of the flower and one set on the lower veins of the leaves. Ecology Originally from South America. Often planted or self seeded in and around villages in BasCongo. I t will grow in light sands as well as on heavy alluvial soils. The plant recovers well after a dry spell. Propagation Grown from seed. Uses Traditionally in Bas-Congo mothers used hand spun and woven cloth to carry their babies. Cotton is grown internationally for the fibre, for spinning and weaving, and G. barbadense produces the longest of any species (up to 5 cm). I t is strong and of excellent quality. An infusion is made from the leaves and taken for colds, bronchitis, rheumatism and haemorrhoids. The seeds are used together with several other plants to treat prolonged periods. The roots are also used with other plants to treat vomiting. I n D.R. Congo the young shoots, after being pulped, are taken for palpitations and as a dressing for wounds. Cotton flowers are reported to be visited by bees in Bas-Congo and known to be an important nectar source in Senegal, Russia and USA. Honey bees are important for pollination, even though they are sometimes reluctant to visit the flowers, and increased yields of cotton are known to result from honey bee pollination. However pesticides kill more bees on this crop than on any other. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Purseglove 1968, Crane et al. 1984, Villières 1987, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Free 1993, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 230 Grevillea robusta (Proteaceae) Common name Chêne argenté (Fr.) Description A fast growing tree on good sites reaching 20 m in 15 - 20 years. Ecology Originally from coastal Australia. Now grown throughout the subtropics. I t will stand 6 - 8 dry months. Grows in sandy soils, loams of medium fertility and acid soils and tends to be deep rooting. I t does not tolerate water logging. Cluster roots enable the tree to extract phosphorus from soil very low in available phosphorus. Propagation Large quantities of seed are produced but it is difficult to collect as there are only 2 - 3 days between seed maturity and dispersal by wind. Wild seedlings can be transplanted. Seed is viable for up to 3 months but can be kept for 2 years stored in a refrigerator. Only mature seed should be used and it should be put out in sunlight for a few hours before planting. Germination rate is up to 65% . Natural seeding is fairly common in cultivated land. Transplant seedlings when 60 cm tall. Management Moderate to fast growing. When grown with food crops, branches are pruned and pollarded and lateral roots may also be pruned to reduce competition with crops. Trees should be protected from fire. Uses A valuable timber tree used for furniture making and also good for firewood and charcoal. Leaf litter makes good mulch. The tree can be planted around fields without affecting crop yields. The flowers are a valuable pollen and nectar source for honey bees. The nectar secretion is abundant with high sugar concentration and the pollen yield is heavy. Bees forage all day and, when flowering is profuse, a surplus of honey is produced. Photo: Tom Johnson Remarks The tree is being grown in some areas in Manianga district and could be planted more widely in the province. References Leloup 1956, NAS 1980, Crane et al. 1984, Egli & Kalinganire 1988, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Mbuya et al 1994 231 Hallea stipulosa (Rubiaceae) Mitragyna Synonyms Fleroya stipulosa stipulosa, Common names Longwa, nlongu (Kongo), tilleul d’Afrique (Fr.), African linden Description A tree to 30 m with a rounded crown. Leaves are 20 to 30 cm long and 15 – 20 cm wide. Flowers are small and white. Ecology The tree grows in swamp and savanna forest at low to medium elevations from Gambia to Angola and east to Uganda. I t requires subsoil moisture throughout the year. Propagation The tree can be grown from large cuttings, air layering or using wild seedlings. Some report that seeds germinate easily after 5 - 8 days while others say germination is irregular and poor. Seed should in any case be planted in a nursery using swamp soil. Uses The tree is a useful species for the afforestation of swamps. The wood is soft and fine-grained. Though subject to borer attack and decay it is used for drums, barrels, canoes, mortars and pestles etc. I t is also suitable for making paper. I n Bas-Congo all parts, but especially the bark, are used as a medicine to reduce fever. A decoction of the bark is used to treat diabetes, rheumatism, river blindness and abscesses. A wash, made from pounded bark, is used for haemorrhoids. The bark is used to enhance palm wine. I n Bas-Congo bees visit the flowers during March and April. The mushroom Lulongu grows on the wood. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Leloup 1956, I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Keay 1989, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Meunier et al. 2010 Left: Fruiting head 232 Harungana madagascariensis (Hypericaceae) Common name Ntunu (Kongo) Description A fast growing tree or shrub from 2 to 12 m high. The under-sides of the leaves are pale brown. Ecology I n Bas-Congo the tree is commonly found in forest regrowth, damp sites and riverine forest. Common even on very poor soils and widespread in tropical Africa. Photo: Rainer Wendt Propagation Seed grows well if fresh. Collect the fruit from the tree and remove the pulp. The seeds should be planted as soon as possible. The tree can also be established from vertical root cuttings, 7 to 10 cm long. Plant with 2 – 3 cm of the root above the soil level. Any stress from lack of water results in death of the cuttings. Management The tree coppices or grows back well after being cut down. Uses I n Bas-Congo the stems are used for house building, once the bark has been removed, and for charcoal production. They make good firewood. Wood is light, orange-yellow, works well and is durable in contact with the soil. The yellow gum obtained from the bark was traditionally used for repairing calabashes (gourd containers) and sealing various items. I n Madagascar and East Africa it is used as a dye. The bark and leaves are used as a fumigant and to treat liver diseases. The tree has been recommended for browse establishment in S.E. Nigeria and is reported to improve fertility in acid soils. I t is a vigorous colonizer being the first to occupy savanna areas after fire. Fruits are edible though laxative and are eaten in Uganda and Nigeria. The leaves are eaten by Biswangi and Bidiaka edible caterpillars. The tree is an important source of nectar in February in Bas-Congo and also known as a honey source in Congo (Brazzaville) References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, I rvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Williamson 1975, Kokwaro 1976, Castagné 1983, Crane et al. 1984, Cobbina & Reynolds 1988, Kang & Reynolds 1989, Keay 1989, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Meunier et al. 2010 233 Heinsia crinita (Rubiaceae) Common names Kinkete, kibwa (Kongo) Description A scrambling shrub with attractive white star-shaped, fragrant flowers. Ecology Grows in secondary forest from Guinea to Angola. Also found in East Africa and South Africa. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Uses The fruits are eaten in Bas-Congo. A decoction of the roots is used to treat inflammation of the gums and mouth. The roots, shoots and leaves are used to treat a wide variety of illnesses including mental disorders, epilepsy, stomach pain, sores in the uterus, swollen and painful breasts, heart palpitations, male impotence, hernias, coughs, anaemia, ear infections, rheumatism, pneumonia and tuberculosis. The seeds are eaten for back pain and the leaves are used by children as toilet paper - the Kikongo name kinkete means "cleanliness". Elsewhere in Africa the fresh leaves are burnt and the smoke inhaled or a decoction of the roots is drunk for fever particularly when accompanied by convulsions. Wood is hard and flexible but available only in small diameter so is mainly used for tool handles and traps etc. The bark is used as a cosmetic by women in Sierra Leone. Leaves are eaten in a soup in Liberia and Nigeria though, as they have a high oxalic acid content, the water should be discarded once or twice during preparation. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Peters et al. 1992, Pauwels 1993, Coates Palgrave 1996, Burkill 1997, Kibungu Kembelo 2003, Nsimundele 2004 234 Heisteria parvifolia (Olacaceae) Common name Lubanse (Kongo) Description A shrub or small tree 10 – 20 m tall, tending to branch low down into a dense bush. Leaves are 6 – 25 long and 2.5 – 12 cm wide, elliptic or elliptic oblong, wedge shaped or rounded at the base with a pointed tip. The terminal branchlets are rarely without a few pink new leaves and there are generally a few older yellow leaves about to fall. Both photos: David Harris/ Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh The tiny greenish-white flowers have a persistent green calyx which enlarges and becomes deep scarlet enclosing the developing fruit. I t opens to reveal the pearly white fruit about 1 cm long with a thin, edible, sugary flesh. Fruit is an ovoid drupe 1 cm long resembling a large pearl which is enclosed in a red or pink coloured calyx 3 – 4 cm in diameter. The thin flesh surrounding the seed has a jelly-like consistency and can be easily separated from the seed. The plant casts a heavy shade and tends to kill everything below it. Ecology Present in the understorey of evergreen and deciduous forest and in swampy sites under high bush. Frequently found on sandy soils. Common from Sierra Leone and Mali to west Cameroon and Bioko and into the Congo basin and Angola. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Germination is good (50 – 60% ) and takes place after 2 – 4 weeks. Uses The seeds are eaten roasted, boiled or fresh in Bas-Congo. The taste is similar to hazelnut. The plant makes a handsome shrub with its dark green glossy foliage. The wood is rosy-grey, hard, heavy and fine grained. I t is used in carpentry, hut construction and tool handles. The stems and wood are flexible so also have use in traps, bows, fish spears and fishing rods. Twigs are used for chew-sticks. The tree is also used medicinally. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1912, Renier 1948, Busson 1965, Vivien & Faure 1989, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1997, White & Abernethy 1997, Nsimundele 2004 235 Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae) Common names Tournesol (Fr.), sunflower Description An annual plant with large flowers. The common sunflower can grow 150 - 240 cm tall with flower heads up to 35 cm across. Dwarf varieties grow to 120 cm high. Sunflowers are deep rooted. Ecology An extremely adaptable plant. I t thrives in the tropics at medium and high elevations and grows on soils of moderate fertility. Dwarf varieties are hardier than the taller types and give reasonable yields under less than 25 cm rain per annum, but rainfall should be evenly distributed during the growing season. A dry period is necessary during the later stages of ripening. Sunflower growing beside a house in Kinsadi village Propagation and management Seed is planted 2 - 3 cm deep. Birds can cause considerable damage to the maturing crop. To avoid loss of seed the flower heads can be cut before the seeds are quite ripe and exposed face up to dry. Uses The large seeds can be roasted, salted and eaten. They are also used as poultry food. The crop is grown mainly to produce seed for edible oil extraction. Oil content may be 40 52% of shelled seed. Poor grades are used for making soap. The petals yield a yellow dye. Sunflowers are an important bee plant and worth planting for this reason. Dried green stems and leaves make a good bee smoker fuel. References Godin & Spensley 1971, Acland 1977, Crane et al 1984 A bee collecting nectar 236 Helichrysum mechow ianum (Asteraceae) Common name Ludimi lu mbwa (Kongo) Description A perennial herb, with long hairy leaves, growing up to 20 cm high. Flowers are borne in terminal panicles. Ecology Grows in the savanna and in mountain grassland areas which are sometimes burned. I t is also present in Togo, Cameroon and across Africa to Tanzania, Zimbabwe and Angola. Propagation Use seed or rhizomes. Uses I n Bas-Congo, the leaves and roots are used to treat loss of nails, still births and miscarriages, rheumatism, skin infections and anaemia. The leaves are also used to treat colic. The powdered dry leaves are put on wounds and, elsewhere in the Congo, the pulped leaves are rubbed on to relieve joint pains and for lumbago. The leaf sap is drunk in palm wine for anaemia, liver malfunction and stomach upsets. Leaves are boiled in water and the liquid is drunk for headaches. The plant is added to poultry drinking water to treat chicken cholera. References Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Van Wyk et al. 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 Photo: Frank Cuypers 237 Heliotropium indicum (Boraginaceae) Common names Herbe papillon (Fr.), I ndian heliotrope Description An erect annual or perennial herb up to 1.5 m tall, woody at the base and usually much branched. Leaves are 1 – 7 cm long and 1.5 – 10 cm wide. Flowers are produced progressively on an arching stem 2.5 – 45 cm long. Fruits are 2 – 3 mm long, which split into 4 nutlets. Ecology Probably native to tropical America. Widespead throughout Africa where it is found in open sites on waste land and as a weed in cultivated land. Uses I n Bas-Congo the plant is used to reduce fever and the sap is applied as an eye lotion. A leaf infusion is used elsewhere in D.R. Congo to treat fever. The plant has been widely used on warts and to treat inflammations and tumours. I t is used to treat rheumatism, as a diuretic and for many skin problems throughout Africa. References Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1985, Gurib-Fakim 2006 238 Hibiscus acetosella (Malvaceae) Common names Nsa, nsa mbwaki, nsa magonki (Kongo), ngai ngai (Lingala), fausse oseille de Guinée (Fr.), false roselle Description An annual or short-lived perennial up to 2 m high. Two varieties are present. One has small red leaves and dark pink flowers, the other has green leaves and yellow flowers. Leaves vary in shape. Sometimes the lower leaves are three- or five-fingered and the middle ones threefingered. Ecology Origin is probably Angola and southern Congo. Grows on waste ground, forest clearings and abandoned fields. The plant tolerates shade, cloud cover and frequent rain better than kenaf and roselle. Propagation Grown from seed. Management The green variety is widely grown in raised beds (see below). The plants soon cover the ground making weeding unnecessary. Both varieties can be grown as a hedge plant, because of their branching habit, and can thus produce quite large amounts of leaves in a limited space. The purple form of Hibiscus acetosella Uses Leaves of the purple variety are sometimes used as a vegetable in BasCongo but more often as a medicine to treat anaemia and fever. The red juice from the leaves resembles blood and is probably rich in iron. Leaves are also used to treat colds and inflammation of the respiratory tract. Leaves of the green variety can be eaten raw or cooked, have a pleasant sour taste and are somewhat mucilaginous, like roselle. The fresh leaves have a protein content of 3.4% and are often eaten with fish. I n most places roselle has taken over from false roselle because of the latter’s sourness. Fibre can be obtained from the stem. Bees are reported to visit the flowers. The purple variety is sometimes grown as an ornamental. Remarks Both H. acetosella and H. sabdariffa are resistant to root knot nematodes. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mbemba & Remacle 1992, Siemonsma & Kasem Piluek 1993, Martin et al. 1998, Schippers 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 239 Hibiscus cannabinus (Malvaceae) Common names Oseille indigène (Fr.), kenaf, Guinea hemp Description An erect, sparsely branched annual herb. Some forms grow to 3 m tall and are practically unbranched. The stem contains long fibres. The leaves are alternate, have long petioles and are usually simple, but can occasionally have 3 lobes. The calyx is covered with bristly spines. Flowers are yellow with purple centres. Ecology Commonly found growing wild throughout tropical and subtropical Africa. It frequently appears growing in cultivated land. Full sunlight is required for good growth. The plants withstand drought quite well. Soils should be well drained and sandy. Satisfactory leaf and fibre production depend on good fertility. Propagation Grown from seed which may be planted 3 - 5 per hole, then thinned to a spacing of 40 cm. The dried seed can be stored for up to 6 months. Management Kenaf grows much faster than roselle but is more susceptible to nematode attack. The shoots or individual leaves are picked with or without the stalk. The first crop of leaves can be taken 3 – 4 weeks after planting and a total of 4 – 5 harvests can be made at 2 – 3 week intervals. Uses Chopped leaves are eaten with the seed kernels of various pumpkin type vegetables in BasCongo. The shoots, flowers and young fruits are also sometimes eaten as a vegetable. Roselle ( H. sabdariffa) and kenaf are closely related and both are grown for their leaves and occasionally for their fibre. Children chew the bark for its sweetness. Cattle eat the young plants. The stems are a source of fibre used for making twine, rope and sacks. The stems can be used for firewood. The leaves, flower extract, seed pulp and roots are used medicinally to treat syphilitic sores, conjunctivitis, coughs, jaundice, stomach problems, eczema, female sterility, gonorrhoea, constipation, malaria, snake bite, tetanus and wounds. Remarks The plants are visited by honey bees. I n D.R. Congo six different species of Hibiscus are collected for use as vegetables from the wild. References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Dupriez & De Leener 1989, Neuwinger 2000, Raemaekers 2001, Schippers 2002, Bukenye – Ziraba 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 240 Hibiscus sabdariffa (Malvaceae) Common names Kombi kombi, makombo, nguka nzizi, nzanzeka, nsa lukaya (Kongo), ngai ngai (Lingala), oseille de Guinée (Fr.), roselle Plant growing beside a road in Manianga district Description A woody, much branched annual up to 4 m high. Both red- and green-leaved varieties are grown. Ecology Occasionally grown around homesteads. I t is particularly common in the savanna region of West and Central Africa. The plants can sometimes be found growing wild but do not grow well in acid, or poorly aerated soils, preferring sandy loams. I t is deep rooted and drought tolerant. Propagation Grown from seed. Germination takes 7 days and then 3 to 4 weeks to the first leaf harvest. Uses The leaves are eaten as a vegetable. Both leaves and flowers are eaten cooked with fish or meat. They can also be dried for later use. The dried red calyces are commonly used as a refreshing tea, called bissap, drunk hot or, more commonly, cold after adding some sugar. Fibre from the stems is a good substitute for jute. I n Bas-Congo the fruits are soaked in water and drunk to counter the effects of loss of blood. Reference Gillet 1927, Schippers 2002, Nsimundele 2004, Pauwels – personal communication 241 Holarrhena floribunda (Apocynaceae) Common names Kinzenze (Kongo), holarrhene (Fr), false rubber tree Description A tree or shrub from 2 to 25 m high with a girth of up to 1 m. The bark is grey, smooth, with a pale brown slash and produces copious latex. Leaves are ovate, 10.5 – 14 cm long and 3.5 – 5 cm wide, hairless below, with 8 12 pairs of prominent lateral veins. The abundant flowers are white scented. Fruits are slender up to 60 cm long, containing flattened seeds with many brown silky hairs in a tuft at the apex. Ecology Present in secondary forest in BasCongo and from Senegal to Sudan and south to Angola. Right: I mbrasia epimethea caterpillars on a tree trunk Propagation. Can be grown from seed. Small diameter cuttings also grow well. Uses The timber is used for house construction, carpentry and charcoal in Bas-Congo. The latex is used as glue. Wood is soft and white and used for making drums, spoons, stirers, packing cases etc. I t is not attacked by insects but is affected by damp. A decoction of the bark from the trunk is used to treat amoebic dysentery and trichomonas. The plant is a source of steroidal hormones. Mvinsu ( I mbrasia epimethea) and Mbambi edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. Seed and floss are used to stuff pillows in Gabon. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, White & Abernethy 1997, Latham 2003, Pousset 2004 242 Hua gabonii (Huaceae) Common names Mvenzi, kiwaya (Kongo), garlic plant. Photo: Celine Termote Description A shrub growing to 8 m tall with grey bark. Leaves are alternate, elliptic and spirally arranged, 14 cm long and 6 cm wide, on a short stalk. The flowers have dark red to violet petals with short yellow anthers. Fruits are reddish and ovoid, 3 cm in diameter, opening with 5 valves. The plant is not common in Bas-Congo. Ecology Found in damp forest sites in western Central Africa, in Gabon and D.R. Congo. Uses The leaves are used as a substitute for garlic by some people in Bas-Congo, though not by all. Elsewhere in D.R. Congo, the bark, leaves and fruits are used to season food. A bark decoction is drunk to treat flatulence and gastro-intestinal pain. A decoction of the twigs is used as a wash to treat fever in children. References Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Pauwels 1993, Mabberley 1997, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Termote 2012 243 Hugonia platysepala (Linaceae) Common names Kidioko dioko, kisilu (Kongo) Description A shrub or creeper growing up to 20 m high and armed with hooks. Young stems are sparsely covered with short light-brown hairs. Leaf blade is 5.5 – 23 cm long and 3.5 – 8 cm broad, slightly toothed along the margins. I nflorescence is composed of two or more flowers. The yellow or white petals are 1.5 – 2 cm long, shortly clawed, with short or long silky hairs on both surfaces. Fruit is orange and round, 1 – 2 cm. in diameter, containing a single seed. Ecology Present in river and gallery forests. Also present from Guinea to Tanzania and in Sudan, Uganda and Angola. Right: Hugonia sp. with fruit, showing the characteristic hook used for climbing up trees. Uses The wood is used in construction. I t is resistant to humidity but not insect attack. Fruits are reported to be laxative. The sap is used in Bas-Congo to treat eye problems. Large stems are used to make drums. The fruits are used in catapults to knock birds down. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1995, Pauwels 1993 244 Hura crepitans (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Sablier, bombardier (Fr.), sand box tree, monkey's dinner bell Description A tree to 12 m high with a spiny trunk and branches. Leaves are heart shaped. Male flowers are deep red and borne in terminal spikes. Female flowers are solitary. Fruits are depressed in the centre, becoming woody and exploding with a loud report, hence its West I ndian name 'monkey's dinner bell'. Ecology I n Bas-Congo it is frequently planted in villages for shade. Native of tropical America but now widely distributed in the tropics. Uses A widely spreading shade tree. The semi-drying oil from the seeds is used as a strong purgative. The caustic latex contains very poisonous substances, hurin and crepitin, which are reported to cause blindness. The wood is yellowish with a silky lustre, light in weight but of good strength. The Male flower cone indehiscent fruits were traditionally boiled in oil and, after removing the seeds, were used to make hourglasses (hence the name sablier in French). Left: Tree with fruit near Sona Bata References Gillet 1927, I rvine 1961, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994 245 Hymenocardia acida (Phyllanthaceae) Common names Kigete, mugete, mvete, ngete, mpete, pete pete, luhete (Kongo) Description A shrub or small tree from 3 to 6 m high with twisted branches. Bark is light grey, smooth or flaking to reveal patches of bright brown under-bark, which may be corky. Young branches are orange to rust-coloured. The red male catkins and the immature winged fruits are distinctive. Ecology A common savanna shrub. Found from Senegal to Angola and from Ethiopia to Mozambique. Male flower Uses The close-grained wood is pale brown to pink, becoming orange. I t is hard, dense and durable, and resistant to termites. Traditionally the stems were used for making poultry houses and the charcoal is especially valued by blacksmiths. The leaves are edible and eaten as a vegetable. The tree is widely used for medicine in Bas-Congo, particularly for the treatment of diarrhoea, for which the bark is used. Powdered bark from the stem is applied to wounds. Bark is also used as an antidote for poisoning. Young fruits and shoots are acid in taste and occasionally eaten to relieve coughing, especially by children. A decoction of the young leaves or bark is used to treat colds and muscular pain. An infusion of the leaves, together with those of H. ulmoides, a Dissotis sp. and the juice of Costus lucanusianus is used to treat coughing accompanied by fever. The bark and roots are boiled and the liquid drunk to relieve stomach-ache and constipation. A decoction of the roots is reported to be used for treating anaemia. The sap from the bark is put in the eyes to treat epilepsy. Bees forage for nectar and pollen. I n Bas-Congo Kaba ( Lobobunaea phaedusa) edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. The bark is used for tanning leather. References Butaye 1909, Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Renier 1948, Busson 1965, Nsimundele 1966 - 68, Delaude & Breyne 1971, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Villieres 1987, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Martin & Ruberté 1998, Burkill 2000, Penge 2004 246 Hymenocardia ulmoides (Phyllanthaceae) Common name Munsanga (Kongo) Description A bush or tree from 10 – 15 m tall, with smooth grey bark. Leaves are oval in shape 1.5 6.5 x 1 - 3 cm. The tree bears separate male and female flowers. Fruits have a pink or pale yellow wing surrounding them and are 2 cm in diameter. Ecology Common in forest regrowth, on poor sandy soils up to 1,500 m and found from Cameroon to Angola and from Sudan to Natal in South Africa. Management The tree grows back well after being cut down. Uses The red shoots and leaves are edible and taste like sorrel. They are also frequently used as a stock fodder for sheep and goats. The wood is strong, straight and flexible and very resistant to insect attack. Poles are used for house construction and fencing posts and smaller stems for fish traps and brooms. The wood is also suitable for making charcoal. I n Bas-Congo, a decoction of young leaves is used as a stimulant and to treat stomachShoots cut for goat forage ache, cramp and coughs and a decoction of the roots is used for anaemia. The bark from the roots is also used to treat anaemia. A decoction of the bark, which is astringent, is taken for headaches and coughs and is used to treat diarrhoea and sore throats. Left: Antheua insignata (Nsanga) edible caterpillars feeding on the leaves. The leaves, roots and bark are used elsewhere in Africa to treat coughs, asthma, haemorrhoids, genito-urinary infections, bronchitis, epilepsy, fever, intestinal worms, throat problems, oral diseases, feverish stiffness of the limbs, rheumatism, abscesses, and threatened abortion. References Butaye 1909, Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Staner & Boutique 1937, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Arkinstall 1979, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, FAC 1987, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 247 Hyphaene guineensis (Arecaceae) Common names N’teva (Kongo) Description A single stemmed, unbranched palm growing 6 to 20 m tall alone or in open groups. The stem is covered with a lattice of old leaf basis. Leaves are up to 180 cm long and 200 cm wide. Photo: Anny Mandungu Ecology Coastal tall grass savanna. Present between Boma and Moanda. The palm can survive bush fires. Propagation Seeds germinate after about 75 days. Uses Leaf segments are used to make coarse bags for peanuts and oil palm nuts in Congo and Angola. Fruits are edible with a pineapple like flavour and a fruity fragrance, some say like gingerbread. They are produced in March – April and are eaten fresh. The thick woody endocarp was used as palm ivory. Terminal buds are boiled in water and the liquid drunk to hasten childbirth in Congo. References Neuwinger 2000, Valkenburg & Dransfield 2004, Pauwels – personal communication 248 Hypoxis angustifolia (Hypoxidaceae) Common names Dioko di ngumbi (Kongo), slender star lily, African potato Description The plant grows in clumps from a perennial corm. The black corm is covered with brown fibres and has yellow flesh. Leaves are up to 30 cm long, less than 5 mm wide, grass-like and ridged, arising in a rosette from the base of the plant, with star shaped hairs on both sides. Flowers are bright yellow, star shaped, in pairs, on a short and hairy leafless stalk, which has a deep red vein. Fruit is a 3 part brown capsule containing many rough black spherical seeds, sometimes close to the ground and almost buried. Flowers are pollinated by solitary bees and honeybees. Ecology Grows in seasonally waterlogged grassland areas in low lying open grassland on black cotton or sandy soils. Also found on rocky sites. Widespread in the savanna and mountain grasslands of tropical Africa and in Cameroon, Madagascar, Mozambique, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Photo: Marco Schmidt Propagation By division. Spreads to form a clump. Uses I n Bas-Congo the tuber is pounded and applied to infected wounds to mature them and to maintain the flow of pus from them. The bulb is eaten raw in Karamajong, Uganda. The seeds from the capsules buried just below the soil surface are eaten by children in Uganda. The bulb is also eaten by the Maasai and Kipsigis children in Kenya who also use the bulbs as toys. The plant can be grown as an ornamental. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, Wild et al. 1972, Cribb & Leedal 1983, Burkill 1994, Katende et al. 1999, PlantZAfrica (Accessed 3.3.12) 249 Hypselodelphys scandens (Marantaceae) Synonym Trachyphrynium scandens Common name Lutete (Kongo) Description A bamboo-like climber 3 - 9 m high; bracts and flower stalks are dull purplish-brown; flowers pale violet, white and brown in an arching inflorescence. Ecology An undershrub of moist forest, swamps and gallery forests in I vory Coast, southern Nigeria and across the Congo to Uganda. Uses I n Bas-Congo the stems are used for tying on cross members in hut construction and the leaves for wrapping cassava bread (chikwangue). The leaves are used for thatching in Gabon. I n Equateur a root decoction is applied anally to treat haemorrhoids. References Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1997, Biloso & Lejoly 2006, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 2012, FWTA 250 Hyptis suaveolens (Lamiaceae) Common names Gros baume (Fr.), bush tea bush Description A stout shrub or herb, with a much branched habit, strongly aromatic 0.5 - 1.5 m or more in height, with a square stem. Leaves are broadly oval, 4 - 5 cm long and up to 4 cm wide, slightly hairy above, with white hairs especially on the veins. The leaves are shed during the dry season. The blue flowers are produced throughout the year in 2 - 5 flowered heads. Fruits are approximately 11 mm long when mature. Ecology A weed of roadside, waste places and cultivated land up to 1,300 m altitude. Native to tropical America but now widespread in Africa, Asia and Queensland, Australia. I t is occasionally cultivated in Mexico and I ndia. Propagation The plant can be grown from cuttings. Uses The plant is used as a spice in Manianga district. The shoot tips are used as flavouring for food and the roots as an appetizer. The tips can be used as a tea substitute. Cattle will eat the plant. I n the West I ndies it is an important forage for bees producing a light coloured honey. The plant is used medicinally to promote lactation, as a stimulant, an antiseptic for wounds, to cure catarrh, skin infections and rheumatism. Leaves are used to repel bed bugs and to treat river blindness. The fresh plants and the smoke from burning them have been found to repel mosquitoes. Photo: Phuong Tran References Crane et al. 1984, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987, de Guzman & Siemonsma 1999, Pousset 2004 251 I mpatiens balsamina (Balsaminaceae) Common names Nsa lwansa (Kongo = juice from the leaves is acidic), garden balsam, rose balsam Photo: Dinesh Valke Description An annual herb 60 - 100 cm tall. Stems erect, robust, succulent, with many fibrous roots, with swollen lower nodes. Leaves alternate, though sometimes the lowest ones are opposite; leaf blade 4 - 12 cm long and 1.5 - 3 cm wide, with a pair of sessile black glands toward base. I nflorescences have 1, 2 or 3 flowers in the leaf axils. Flowers are white, pink, or purple, simple or with double petals. The fruit is a capsule 1 - 2 cm long, densely hairy, spindle shaped, containing many, black-brown seeds 1.5 3 mm in diameter. Ecology An ornamental plant originally from tropical Asia. I t sometimes grows spontaneously in BasCongo. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Uses The leaves are edible. The seeds are also edible and contain 27% of a green viscous oil which can be used for cooking and lighting. I t is widely known in Asia as a substitute for henna for dyeing the fingernails for which the flower petals are used, though it is said the leaves also yield a dye. An alcoholic extract of the flowers has antibiotic properties. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Burkill 1985, van Valkenburg & Bunyapraphatsara 2001, Phillips & Rix 1997, Fayaz 2011, Encyclopedia of Life (Accessed 19.1.2013) 252 I mpatiens irvingii (Balsaminaceae) Common names Nsa lwansa (Kongo), balsamine (Fr.) Description A sprawling or more or less erect perennial herb with a succulent stem up to 1.5 m long. A very variable species, especially in leaf shape and flower size. Leaves are arranged spirally with a petiole up to 1.5 cm long; blade up to 18 cm long and 4.5 cm wide. Flowers are axillary, solitary or in groups of 2 – 3, bisexual, rose-violet or pale purple and about 5 cm long. Fruit is a fleshy, explosive, 5valved capsule. I n its natural range it flowers throughout the year. I n Nigeria aquatic snail species were found to be strongly associated with I mpatiens irvingii, which is helpful in monitoring and controlling snails that host schistosomiasis. Photo: Warren McCleland Ecology Present along stream banks and in swamps in Bas-Congo. The plant grows in moist localities in rain forest, sometimes in shallow water. I t occurs from Guinea east to Gabon, the Central African Republic, D.R. Congo, south-western Sudan, Rwanda and southern and western Tanzania, and south to Angola, Malawi and northern Zambia. Uses The leaves are eaten as a vegetable like sorrel (oseille) in Bas-Congo and also in Liberia. The plant is also used in Gabon and Sudan to produce a high quality vegetable salt. The young leaves are used in I vory Coast as a treatment for schistosomiasis. I t is occasionally grown as an ornamental pot plant. References Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Bosch 2004 253 I mperata cylindrica (Poaceae) Common names Nsoni, nsonia (Kongo = disgrace; it is a disgrace to have this grass in your field). Description A stout perennial grass, tufted and erect, often in dense stands, reaching 1.5 m tall, spreading widely by means of long, deeply penetrating underground stems or rhizomes. Stems are hairless with 3 – 4 nodes. Leaves are crowded near the base, leaf blade is tough and rigid, sword shaped with a long tapering point, flat or curled, 2 – 4 mm wide and up to 30 cm long. Edges are rough, and there are long silky hairs at the junction of the leaf blade to the sheath, Flowers are borne in dense, fluffy, cotton like cylindrical flower spikes up to 20 cm long. Ecology A serious weed of cropland and difficult to eradicate. I t tends to invade land cultivated too frequently. Bundles of dry grass for thatching Widespread in savanna grasslands. Thatching a kitchen at Mbanza Nzundu Uses The grass is used for thatching in Bas-Congo. The rhizomes are sometimes chewed to quench thirst and taste slightly sweet. Livestock eat the young shoots. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Katende et al. 1999 254 I nga edulis (Mimosaceae) Common names I nga, pois sucré (Fr.), ice-cream bean tree Description A tree which can grow to 30 m high. I t grows best once nodulated. Ecology The tree is originally from Central America. I t grows on poor and acid soils which may be waterlogged for 2 - 3 months at a time. I t is also resistant to drought. Propagation Seed can only be stored for 1 - 2 weeks. Best results are obtained by removing the pulp and storing the seed in plastic bags. Only one seed should be sown per pot or tube, at no more than 2 cm deep. Provide light shade. Seeds germinate readily within 2 - 3 days. Plant out after 2 months. Remove shade one month before transplanting. Some farmers sow seed direct during the season of high rainfall. Bare rooted seedlings can be transplanted. Management An area of 1 m diameter should be kept clear of weeds around the tree during the first 6 months, until it becomes established. The tree grows back well if a few branches are left uncut when pruning. Cut carefully at least 3 cm above a node. Uses The pith in the fruit pods is sweet tasting and is especially enjoyed by children. The tree is a good source of firewood. I t provides shade and litter, reduces erosion and weed growth and improves associated crop yields due to nitrogen fixation. Litter is slow to decompose but provides a long-term build up of organic nitrogen. The tree is therefore suitable for agroforestry. I t is also a potentially important bee plant in Bas-Congo. References Crane et al. 1984, Lawrence 1993 255 I pomoea aquatica (Convolvulaceae) Common names Tofa tofa (Lingala), water spinach, swamp morning glory, kangkong Both photos: Nigel Durrant Description A perennial herb with smooth, hollow stems, rooting at the nodes. Leaves are alternate, simple and may vary in shape. Flowers are 5 cm wide, purple, pink or white often with a purple centre. Ecology Widespread as a swamp weed in all tropical and many subtropical lowland areas. The major area of production is in South-East Asia. Propagation The plant can be grown as a field crop, when it is usually grown from seed. Young plants require plenty of water. Alternatively it can be grown from cuttings planted 3 – 5 cm deep in wet conditions. Uses The leaves are eaten as a vegetable. I n D.R. Congo they are normally collected wild rather than from cultivated plants. The leaves are rich in folic acid and iron so are good for people suffering from anaemia. I pomoea species produce a pearly white honey, often thin-bodied, with a distinctly pleasant flavour and aroma. References Busson 1965, Crane 1975, Jansen 2004, van Wyk 2005, Biloso & Lejoly 2006 256 I pomoea batatas (Convolvulaceae) Common names Mvunguta, kikwa ki mvunguta, mbala (Kongo), patate douce (Fr.), sweet potato Description A perennial creeping plant, usually grown as an annual. Ecology Cultivated throughout the tropics. Growth is restricted by cool weather. Low humidity is needed as the crop nears maturity. Though the plant is drought tolerant there must be sufficient moisture 50 - 60 days after planting for tuber development. Sweet potatoes grow best in sandy loams reasonably high in organic matter. Propagation Cuttings taken from the tip are best as they grow faster and give a higher yield than cuttings taken from the base or middle of the vines. Cuttings should be 20 - 40 cm long and have 3 - 4 buds. They should be left to wilt for 24 - 48 hours and then two-thirds of the cutting should be planted below the soil level at an angle. Plant 2 cuttings every 25 – 35 cm along the ridge or on mounds 30 – 40 cm high and 60 cm wide. Management Harvest the crop when the leaves turn slightly red or yellow and the tuber can be cut without the sap rapidly turning black. Tubers cannot be stored so are best dug when required. The crop is normally ready after 3 - 4 months but may take 6 months. Uses An important food crop. Tubers are baked, boiled or fried. Chips may be dried in the sun and then ground into flour. There are three main types 1) Dry and Leaves being cut up prior to cooking mealy when cooked 2) Soft and watery 3) Coarse fleshed. A number of varieties are cultivated in Bas-Congo - mvunguta bwaaka, mvunguta mpeembe, mbuungu meenga, kileenge (tubers are yellow and sweet) and tembele (see upper photo). The young shoots and leaves of the last two are eaten as vegetables. Vines can also be used as a livestock feed. Bees sometimes collect nectar from the flowers. Reference Gillet & Pâque 1910, Purseglove 1968, Kay 1973, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Raemaekers 2001, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 257 I rvingia smithii (I rvingiaceae) Common name Mumbombo (Kongo) Description A tree up to 20 m tall. Leaves 5 – 17 x 3 – 8 cm. White fragrant flowers, in groups of 20, are produced in panicles up to 10 cm long. The reddish-orange fruit, 3 – 4 x 2 cm, speckled with whitish dots has a hard stone containing a single seed. Ecology The tree is common and widespread in the savanna woodland. I t only grows near water and is present from Nigeria to Sudan and in Angola. Propagation Fruits float and are spread downstream. They germinate when water is low but in their first few years they are under water for several months each year. Photo of Harris/ Royal Edinburgh ripe fruits: Botanic David Garden Uses The seeds are edible but are difficult to separate from the hard shells. They are rich in fatty matter. Fruits are also used to attract fish. The sapwood is yellowish-white and the reddish-brown heart wood is very hard and durable. The tree is the source of an essential oil used in Africa for perfumery. I rvingia species are important honeybee forage in equatorial and northern dry savanna zones in Africa. References Gillet 1927, De Wildeman 1934, Renier 1948, Uphof 1968, Arkinstall 1979, Keay 1989, Peters et al. 1992, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Harris et al. 2011 258 Jatropha curcas (Euphorbiaceae) Common names Mpuluka (Kongo), purghère (Fr.), physic nut Description A shrub or small tree up to 6 m tall. Branches contain latex. Leaves are alternate, varying from 6 to 15 cm in length. Ecology I n Bas-Congo the plant is often grown as a hedge plant. I t is deep-rooted and can survive long dry periods by simply shedding its leaves. I t will grow on arid and stony soils. Propagation Usually grown from cuttings but seed can also be used. For cuttings select 1.5 - 2.5 cm diameter pieces from the central trunk which should have short nodes. Cuttings should be 45 - 100 cm long. Cut the stem with a sharp knife and dip the end in ashes. Store with the cut end upright until planting. Cuttings are buried in the soil and soon develop roots. Propagation using cuttings is more rapid than by seed. I f seed is used plant 2.5 cm deep and space at 25 cm to form a hedge. Germination normally takes 4 weeks but is improved if seeds are placed between wet sacks before planting. Jatropha curcas in flower Management Cut the branches back when the plant becomes old. The prunings can be used for firewood. Plants start producing 3 years after planting from seed or one year after planting cuttings. Normally the seeds are collected from the ground. Yields: 2 kg/ m hedge where there are 8 plants per metre but can be up to 4 kg/ m. Uses Often grown as a hedge in villages. The seeds are used as a drastic purgative. Traditionally the seeds, after being burnt and ground to powder, were smeared on the skin by women at funerals. The seed is the source of an oil 259 which can be used, with ash from plantains, for making soap, as a substitute for paraffin for lighting and as a medicinal oil. I t can also be used as a diesel substitute. The oil can be extracted from unshelled nuts with a screw press. The oil is reported to be effective against snails carrying bilharzia. I n Bas-Congo sap is used to treat hair loss in children and is reported to be effective against scabies. The sap can be applied to wounds to assist healing and incorporated in soap as an antiseptic. Bees collect nectar and pollen and the plant is mainly pollinated by bees. Processing After harvesting, the fruits are put into heaps to dry, where they open on their own. The seeds are then separated from the shell and allowed to dry. Finally they are roasted and ground. As an alternative to using a press the ground seeds can be boiled in water and, when the oil floats to the surface, it can be ladled off. Remarks The plants are termite resistant. The residue pulp after extraction has the same fertilizer value as chicken manure and can be used for mushroom growing and as a fuel in stoves. I t should be stored for 10 weeks before using for mushrooms. I n East Africa the plant is used as a support for vanilla. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Gillet 1927, Renier 1948, I rvine 1961, Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, I wu 1993, Pauwels 1993, Amponsah et al. 2002, Pousset 2004 Chief Lutangu (right) and helpers during the nsafu harvest at Koma village. Luvuma, Th ér èse, who ran the Programme Developpement I ntegr é in Bas-Congo is in front of Paul Latham. 260 Kalaharia schaijesii (Lamiaceae) Common names Baka nlele (Baka = take hold of, nlele = clothing. The thorns catch on clothing), fua ndolo, nkaka-(ki)koonki (Kongo). Description A woody creeper, its thorny branches spread over the ground. The yellow flowers are produced in the dry season. The leaf stalk, after the leaves have been shed, becomes tough and bends to form a hook. Ecology I n Bas-Congo the plant is found in the savanna. Also present in Zimbabwe on Kalahari sand in woodland and wooded grassland. Uses The root and fruits are reported to be eaten in BasCongo. A decoction of the root is used as a gargle for sore throats and as a purgative. I n East Africa the plant is used as a cure for bilharzia. The boiled root decoction is given to the patient to drink three times a day. The plant is reported to be poisonous to cattle. The flowers are an important honeybee forage. References Gillet & Paque 1910, Gillet 1927, Breyer-Brandwijk 1962, Delaude & Breyne 1971, Wild et al. 1972, Williamson 1975, Kokwaro 1976, Tanaka 1980, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Ambougou 1991, Peters et al. 1992, Malaisse 1997, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Malaisse 2010, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 261 Kalanchoe crenata (Crassulaceae) Common name Never-die Photo: Pashkand Description A perennial, succulent herb 30 cm to 2 m high. Stems are fleshy and usually unbranched. Leaves are succulent and tough, 4·3 – 25 cm long and 1·5 - 12 cm wide, ovate, notched and sometimes edged with red or purple. Flowers may be yellow or red. Ecology The plant grows in open places at the forest edge, on roadsides or besides streams, often among rocks, in scrub and grassland, mostly in damp places. I t is native to tropical and South Africa but is also present in Arabia, tropical America, I ndia and Malaysia. Propagation Seed or leaf cuttings can be used. Management The plant is sometimes grown as an ornamental shrub in villages. Uses The sap is used to treat eye problems. When warmed it is also used to treat ear ache. The sap is also used to encourage scar formation on wounds and to cure colds. I n Equateur the leaves or the liquid squeezed from them is used to treat a variety of illnesses. The juice of the leaves is generally used for its antiseptic, anti-inflammatory and counter-irritant properties. References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Burkill 1985, Konda ku Mbuta 2012 262 Kalanchoe pinnata (Crassulaceae) Synonym Bryophyllum pinnatum Common names Luyuki (Kongo), resurrection plant, Canterbury bells, air plant Description An erect succulent perennial shrub growing to 1.5 m high. The flowers are borne in a loose drooping panicle arising from the top of the plant and have corolla tubes which are reddishpurple. Ecology Originally from Madagascar but now spread throughout West Africa and the Congo basin. A common weed around fields and villages. Propagation The leaf buds root easily. The plant is also spread by seed. Uses An important medicinal plant. The leaf juice is used to treat earache in BasCongo. Leaf sap is given to children with convulsions and epilepsy elsewhere in D.R. Congo and two drops of leaf sap inserted up the nose before going to sleep is recommended to silence snorers! A cough medicine is made from the roots in Sierra Leone. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Bouquet 1969, Burkill 1985, Akobundu & Agyakwa 1987 Photo: HappyYoga 263 Kigelia africana (Bignoniaceae) Common names Nsasa mpwatu (Kongo), saucissonnier, faux baobab (Fr.), sausage tree Description A tree from 6 – 8 m tall, branching low down and producing a large spreading crown. Leaves are compound, opposite and composed of 7 – 17 leaflets 10 – 20 cm long and 6 – 13 cm wide. Often they have a sharp tip. The red-brown to purple flowers are borne at the end of stalks 2 – 3 m long. They have an unpleasant smell but contain large amounts of nectar. Fruits are cylindrical, up to 40 cm long. Ecology Occasionally found in the savanna or forests in Bas-Congo. Present in tropical Africa, often in damp sites and, in South Africa, it is common on alluvial soils. Propagation Seed is collected from fallen fruit and can be stored for up to 2 months at room temperature. Soak the seeds for a few minutes before planting. Germination is good and uniform reaching 50% after 15 days and 95% after 20 days. The tree can also be propagated from large stem cuttings. Management The tree is slow growing and relatively pest-free. I t does not compete with field crops but should not be planted near buildings. I t makes a good shade and street tree in tropical Africa and Australia. Uses I n Bas-Congo the fruits are used to treat dysentery. The leaves are used for the same purpose in I vory Coast. Powdered fruit is applied as a dressing for wounds, abscesses and ulcers and is known to have antibacterial activity. Wood is light, white with a pale brown heart and of little commercial value. I t is used for firewood and charcoal in Tanzania and in Malawi for canoes, mortars, tool handles and drums. Roots are said to yield a bright yellow dye. I n time of scarcity, seeds are roasted and eaten. Bees collect nectar from the flowers. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Photo: Scott Zona Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Burkill 1985, Pauwels 1993, Mbuya et al. 1994, Katende et al. 1995, Venter & Venter 1996, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Msanga 1998, Meunier et al. 2010, SEPASAL (Accessed 7.12.2013) 264 Laccosperma secundiflorum (Arecaceae) Synonym Ancistrophyllum secundiflorum Common names Nkau, nkawu (Kongo), palmier-rotang (Fr.), large rattan Photo: Anny Mandungu Description A robust species with wide leaflets. Stems are from 25 to 50 m long and up to 3 cm diameter. Plants have very spiny leaf sheaths, and after the inflorescence has died the individual stem also dies. Older stems loose their thorns. Ecology Found in small woodlands beside water and in wet forest from Senegal to Nigeria and Cameroon and south to Angola. I t will grow in moving water. Photo: J. Lowe Uses Batons are made from the stem, called nkawu in Kongo, which symbolize the authority of the chief. The stems are widely used in building, making baskets and other objects. This species is the most desired large diameter cane species in West Africa and represents the most widely traded rattan in the region. Split canes are used for binding house frames together and for fish traps, baskets and other woven products. Formerly the leaves were used for thatching. The gum is used as a base for a drug containing Hua gabonii. The stem yields sap which can be drunk. The terminal bud is edible, sometimes raw, though the taste may be bitter at first, later becoming sweet. I t is thought to contain an active heart stimulant which promotes a feeling of wellbeing, similar to kola nut. 265 The fresh new shoots emerging from the ground are also eaten, after being boiled to remove any bitterness and then fried in butter. They resemble endive. They can also be braised over hot embers. The canes are more brittle and the nodes are closer together than for the Malayan rattan. Both photos: John Dransfield, RBG Kew References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Renier 1948, I rvine 1961, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1997, Sunderland 2007, Bongers et al. 2008 Road repairs! 266 Fruit bats and crickets Fruit bats are caught and traded for food in some markets Crickets (Nzenze) Brachytrupes membranaceus for sale (see also page 45) 267 Lagenaria siceraria (Cucurbitaceae) Common names Mbika nkalu (Kongo), calebasse (Fr.), bottle gourd, calabash Description An annual, climber or trailer up to 10 m long. Flowers are large and white. Fruits vary in shape, size, colour and patterns. Ecology Cultivated throughout the tropics and particularly suited to wet areas. Drought causes the fruits to drop. The plant can be grown over fences etc. Uses Mainly grown for edible seeds which, after shelling, may contain 40 50% oil. This is suitable for cooking. The hard-shelled fruit is used as a container or a ladle after the pulp and seeds have been removed and the bitterness leached out by soaking. The young fruits are sometimes placed upright to ensure they form a flat bottom. Dried gourds are often used as musical instruments. They are light and strong and suitable for carrying or storing liquids. I n some forms the bitterness of the pulp has been selected out and the fruits can be eaten, though normally only when young. Young shoots and tender leaves may be eaten as a vegetable. A dressing of crushed leaves and palm oil is used to relieve pain caused by stinging caterpillars in the Congo. The plant is widely used medicinally, especially to relieve stomach ache. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Williamson 1975, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Robinson & DeckerWalters 1997, Maundu et al. 1999, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 Left: Shelling seeds prior to cooking 268 Landolphia camptoloba (Apocynaceae) Common names Mbungu mbungu, dinsania, dinsona (Kongo). Magoki is also used for all Landolphia species with edible fruit. Description A slender vine or shrub growing from 30 cm to 8 m long. Mature fruits can be found throughout the year. The fruit has a white pulp. Left: Landolphia camptoloba in secondary forest near Kasangulu Ecology Grows on sand at the forest edge in dry forests, woodlands or savanna in Angola and adjacent parts of D.R. Congo and Zambia. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Uses The fruits are eaten, particularly by children. The latex is extracted from the roots and used for repairing bicycle inner tubes. Unripe fruit is eaten to relieve coughing. Fruits are crushed and soaked in water and the liquid taken to expel intestinal worms. The fruit extract is dropped into the eyes to treat conjunctivitis. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Renier 1948, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Persoon et al. 1992, Neuwinger 2000, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 Dinzenge (above and right), a low growing species of Landolphia found in the savanna. The fruit is also edible. 269 Landolphia lanceolata (Apocynaceae) Common names Dimbulu, mabulu (Kongo) Description A low, erect shrub or herb, 15 - 70 cm high. Leaves are often in whorls of 3 or 4. Flowers are fragrant, white, yellow or cream. Mature fruits may be found throughout the year. Right: Fruits are often sold by children at the roadside Ecology Grows in the savanna and woodland in southern and western D.R. Congo and in adjacent parts of Angola, often on sandy soils. Altitude range 0 – 1,500 m. Uses Produces a rubber of low quality. The fruits are edible and frequently sold in BasCongo. The leaves are boiled and the liquid drunk for coughs. f dl References Gillet & Paque 1910, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1985, Persoon et al. 1992, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 270 Landolphia ow ariensis (Apocynaceae) Common names Mawumuna, masangu, masuki, disuki (Kongo), white rubber vine Description A large, vigorous, woody vine up to 100 m long, which scrambles high into trees. The fruit flesh is white. Left: Landolphia owariensis growing near Nkundi village in Manianga distict Ecology Grows in wooded savanna and forest in Bas-Congo. Altitude range 0 – 1,700 m. Present in tropical Africa, especially from Senegal to Angola and from Sudan to Zambia. I t can survive bush fires and puts up new shoots after burning. Uses The fruit is eaten raw and has an acid-tasting pulp. I t keeps and travels well. The plant used to be an important source of vine rubber. The latex is used to repair punctures and to trap birds. The latex may be either taken by mouth or used in an enema to get rid of intestinal worms. Right: Fruits of Landolphia owariensis Below : Another Landolphia species growing near Kasangulu with fruit opened (below right). References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Uphof 1968, Burkill 1985, Persoon et al. 1992, Nsimundele 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010, Termote 2012 271 Making a bed from leaf stems of oil palm Fastening the stems for the base 272 Lannea antiscorbutica (Anacardiaceae) Common names Kikumbi, nkumbi (= shackle for the feet)(Kongo) Description A shrub or tree growing from 5 to 15 m high. Leaves are produced at the ends of young branches and are composed of 2 – 4 pairs of opposite leaflets 6 – 12 cm by 2.5 – 4.5 cm. Flowers are pink, either male or female. Fruit is an ovoid drupe appearing before the leaves. Ecology Grows at forest edges and in savanna in the process of reforestation. Present in D.R. Congo, Angola and Zambia. Propagation The tree can be grown from large cuttings and from seed, though germination is uneven. Approximately 30% seeds germinate after 3 weeks. The skin and pulp are removed by soaking the fruit in water and then the seeds are squashed out by hand. Seeds are washed and any that float are rejected. No pre-treatment is required. Uses Poles are used for fencing and construction work. The timber is white and hard and used for making two types of drum – mondo, which is used to call villagers from the fields and kwiti, a musical instrument with a bicycle pump action. Traditionally the wood was used to shackle thieves, adulterers or a violent person. The tree has a number of medicinal uses, for example the bark from the twigs is used to cure heart palpitations and to treat dental caries. I n Bas-Congo the flowers are reported to be a good bee forage from June to August. Lannea spp. are known to be nectar sources in Katanga. Nkulu caterpillars N'kankiti and Nkulu edible caterpillars feed on the leaves. The head and gut of the latter are removed. They are then cooked in a little water until this dries up and the caterpillars are then grilled with salt and chilli pepper. References Renier 1948, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Uphof 1968, Lobreau-Callen 1988, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 1995, Malaisse 1997, Msanga 1998 Branch with immature fruit 273 Lantana camara (Verbenaceae) Common names Landani (Kongo), lantana Description A shrub or climbing bush from 1 to 5 m high, but the stems can grow up to 12 m long forming a dense impenetrable bush. Stems may be covered with curved spines. Leaves are 2 – 12 cm long and 2 – 7 cm wide with petioles up to 2 cm long. Flowers may vary in colour from red, purple to pink with the central florets being of a different colour e.g. orange, yellow and red. Fruits are fleshy, purple or black, 3 – 5 mm in diameter. Ecology Originally from Brazil. Found in old cultivated land, around villages, on road-sides, in forest clearings and old cultivations up to an altitude of 2,040 m throughout the tropics and sub-tropics. Uses I n Bas-Congo the plant is used to treat coughs and fevers. Children sometimes eat the fruits, though the immature fruits are known to be poisonous. Powdered plant material has been found effective in killing and repelling maize weevil in stored maize. The stems are used to construct maize stores in Kenya. Bees only visit this plant when there is a lack of other pollen or nectar sources. Lantana stems being used to construct a maize store Remarks A noxious weed, which can render large areas useless for grazing. Although used as a fodder this is dangerous as it is known to be poisonous to sheep and cattle. References Gillet 1927, Morton 1964, Busson 1965, Lobreau-Callen et al. 1989, FTEA 1992, Pauwels 1993, Fichtl & Adi 1994, Roothaert et al. 2001, Ogendo et al. 2003 274 Uncontrolled fires are a major problem to regenerating forest fallow (Nkunku). Tata Paul and Tata Masikidi with a good fire break round a nkunku near Mbanza Nzundu . 275 Lasimorpha senegalensis (Araceae) Synonym Cyrtosperma senegalense Common names Kilodi, kilodia, kityokolo (Kongo), swamp arum Description An herbaceous plant with large arrow-shaped leaves borne on prickly petioles 1.70 m long. The plant grows from a rhizome and has a large flowering stem which may grow to nearly 4 m high. Left: Kibungu, Kembelo, former director of the Kisantu botanic garden with a plant from the garden Ecology Found in forest margins, damp sites and in shallow water in savanna throughout West Africa and the Congo basin. I t may be present in large colonies. Propagation Can be grown from seed or division of the rootstock. Uses I n Bas-Congo the seeds are used with clay and palm oil to treat painful breasts while nursing. The leaves are also used to wrap chikwangue and as a medicinal plant to treat coughs, ease childbirth, and to treat abscesses and head lice. The leaves are sometimes eaten as a vegetable. The plant is also used to produce salt, being burnt, ground up in water, filtered and left to crystallize. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, De Wildeman 1934, Burkill 1989, Konda ku Mbuta et al. 1992, Bown 2000, Neuwinger 2000, Kibungu Kembelo 2003 276 Leea guineensis (Vitaceae) Common names Nkula katende, ndosho ndosho (Kongo), West I ndian holly Description A shrub 2 – 4 m high. Leaves 4 – 20 x 2 – 7 cm. I nflorescence 5 – 20 cm across. Very variable with bright red, orange or yellow flowers and purple fruits. Ecology Found in moist, shady places and in forest edges. Present in West, NE, E and south tropical Africa and in tropical Asia. Propagation Can be grown from stem cuttings or seed. Uses I n Bas-Congo a decoction of the leaves and fruits, together with cane sugar, is used to treat gonorrhoea. The fruits are edible and are eaten for stomach ache. Vapour from boiling the leaves is inhaled to treat fever in Manianga. Leaves are applied externally as poultices for muscular pains, arthritis and rheumatism. The plant is grown as a hedge in Jamaica. The foliage, flowers and fruit are ornamental. References Gillet 1927, Staner & Boutique 1937, Peters et al. 1992, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1995, Neuwinger 2000, Harris & Wortley 2008 277 Leptactina leopoldi-secundi (Rubiaceae) Common names Kisiamuna, makiwa (Kongo) Description A shrub 1 – 3 m tall which can sometimes climb. The branches are covered with a fine matt of red-brown hairs. Leaves are 6 – 12 cm long and 4 – 7 cm wide. Flowers are up to 10 cm long. Fruits oblong 20 x 10 mm with 10 sides and contain a large number of shiny black seeds. Ecology Found in forest regrowth and secondary forest in Gabon, Congo (Brazzaville), Central African Republic and in the central forest and Bas-Congo provinces in D.R. Congo. Uses Fruits of Leptactina species are edible. The roots are used as an aphrodisiac. The leaves are used as toilet paper, especially by children. Remarks This is the most common species in Bas-Congo. L. pynaertii and L. liebrechtsiana (nsembo nsembo) are also present. The leaves of the former are edible and the second is much larger and has longer fruits. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Pauwels 1993, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 278 Leptaspis zeylanica (Poaceae) Synonym L. cochleata Common name Nzundu (Kongo) Description A perennial, spreading grass growing to 1 m high from a rhizome. I t produces slender stilt-like roots from the lower nodes. The leaf blade is 10 - 30 cm long and 2·5 - 6 cm wide. I nflorescence is a loose panicle up to 45 x 20 cm, in a whorl of 2 - 3 branches. Both photos: Bart Wursten Ecology Found in the ground layer and in shaded places in forest from Guinea to Bioko, and across tropical Africa, to Madagascar, the Mascarenes, Sri Lanka, S.E. Asia and Polynesia. The plant can spread to cover large areas. Uses Used for making partitions in houses in Bas-Congo. The leaves have an absorbent capacity and are used in the Central African Republic by honey gatherers to mop up spilled honey. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Flora Zambesiaca 1981, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Burkill 1994, Neuwinger 2000 279 Lindackeria dentata (Flacourtiaceae) Synonym Oncoba dentata Common names Nkaka kisani, mbamba (Kongo) Description A shrub or small tree 6 – 10 m tall. Leaves are round and coarsely toothed, though not always so, 8 – 28 cm long and 4 – 14 cm wide on a stalk 4 – 18 cm long. The fragrant white flowers are produced in a panicle 7 – 10 cm long. Fruit capsule is orange when ripe, 2 – 3 cm in diameter, having numerous spurs. I t contains a few shiny black seeds with a red aril. Ecology Often found in disturbed areas such as old fields and in secondary forest from Guinea to Cameroon, Sudan, D.R. Congo and Angola. Uses The stems are used in house building. I n Equateur province a decoction of the bark is used as an anthelmintic. The pulverized leaves are used to kill lice. Around Yangambi a decoction of the leaves is used as an enema for colic. I n Uele a maceration of the root bark is used for abscesses in the gums. The seed yields an oil which is used in Ubangi to treat yaws and leprosy. A leaf decoction is used in Ubangi to kill fleas. A root decoction is drunk and root ash is rubbed on areas of oedema in Ubangi. I n Congo (Brazzaville) a leaf decoction is used to treat mental problems and in Photo: David Harris/ Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh equatorial Africa a root decoction is used to relieve headaches. The plant yields a vegetable salt. Seed oil is applied to skin infections. Lindackeria species are important honeybee forage in the equatorial zone of Africa. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Staner & Boutique 1937, Daeleman & Pauwels 1983, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 1994, White & Abernethy 1997, Hepburn & Radloff 1998, Neuwinger 2000, Harris et al 2011 280 Lippia multiflora (Verbenaceae) Common names Bulukutu, malukutu, mbulunkutu (Kongo) These names are also used for Dactyladenia buchneri and Maranthes glabra. Bush tea, Gambian tea bush Description A low bush from 1 - 3 m high, with ridged stems. Leaves are 10 cm long and 2.5 cm wide, aromatic, toothed and hairy underneath. The white flowers have yellow centres and are borne on stalked heads. Ecology Found in savanna, waste ground and old farm land in D.R. Congo and throughout tropical West Africa. I n Bas-Congo it is sometimes grown for home use. Propagation Can be grown from seed. Uses Leaves, which may be dried and stored, are used as a tea substitute. The tea is relaxing and is reported to relieve coughing, irritability, nervousness or madness, and is also used to treat rheumatism and diabetes. Lippia species contain the chemical carvacrol which has been shown to have antiseptic, antifungal and larvicidal properties. The oil obtained from distillation, together with paraffin, can be used to treat scabies. The plant is also used to lower blood pressure and has possible uses as an insecticide. Other species, L. nodiflora is known to be a good bee forage in the Americas. Beehives are sometimes smoked with this fragrant herb to attract bees in Gambia. The ashes from burning the roots are sometimes used as a substitute for salt. Right: Packet of dried leaves as sold in the market. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, I rvine 1961, Nsimundele 1966 – 68, Crane et al. 1984, Mukoko Matondo 1991, Pauwels 1993, Burkill 2000, Kunle et al 2003, Nsimundele 2004, Pousset 2004, Kibungu Kembelo 2010 281 Loeseneriella clematoides (Celastraceae) Common name Kinsundi (Kongo) Description A creeper with smooth, hairless stems, up to 20 cm in diameter, which grows to a length of 40 – 100 m. Leaf petioles are 7 – 15 mm long and the leaves are oval shaped, rounded to acute at the base, 4.5 - 13 cm long and 2.5 - 7.5 cm wide. Flowers are pale-green becoming yellowish-brown with a white central column. Ecology Grows in gallery forests and marshland throughout Congo and is also present in Guinea, Gabon, Angola, Uganda and Malawi. Uses The leaves are eaten as a vegetable and are reported to be more tender than those of "mbondi" Salacia pynaertii. The sap is squeezed into the nostrils of children suffering from fever. Minsundi edible caterpillars feed on the leaves in Bas-Congo. The plant is often debarked and therefore becoming scarce. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, FAC 1960, FTEA 1994, Neuwinger 2000 Makala (= Charcoal)! Many trees have been felled for this load of charcoal. Who will replace them? 282 Lovoa trichilioides (Meliaceae) Common names Noyer d’Afrique (Fr.), African walnut Description A tree up to 45 m tall, having a straight trunk with small buttresses. Bark is smooth, grey to black and scented. Leaves are compound having 5 – 15 leaflets 5 – 25 cm long and 2 - 10 cm wide. The leaf stalk is winged. I nflorescence is up to 25 cm long. Fruits are capsules having 4 sides, 4 – 7 cm long. The tree is sometimes found in groups. Branch from a tree in flower in January at Ndembo mission Ecology Occurs in lowland rain forest from Sierra Leone to southern Nigeria and across equatorial Africa to Uganda and Angola. The tree requires fertile soil. Propagation The tree produces seed every 3 - 4 years. Seed loses viability quickly but can be stored in sealed containers with ash to reduce insect damage. Sow seed with wings up and only partially cover with soil. Natural regeneration is normally good. Seedlings tolerate shade and grow quickly once the forest canopy is removed but they are often attacked by insects. Stumps or small striplings may be used for planting. Management Seedlings reach a height of 60 cm in about 15 months. Uses A valuable timber tree producing a white sap-wood and a clear brown heart-wood. The wood is strong, hard and resistant to termites and fungal attack but susceptible to borers. I t seasons quite well if properly stacked and works well taking nails, glue and varnish. Pounded leaves are rubbed on the chest for lung complaints. Bees were very active collecting nectar at midday on a tree at Ndembo mission in January. Reported as a bee forage in Gabon in November. Remarks This tree is heavily exploited and is not common in Bas-Congo. Listed as a vulnerable species on the I UCN Red List. References Leloup 1956, Bouquet 1969, Keay 1989, Ambougou 1991, Pauwels 1993, Katende et al. 1995, Burkill 1997, Hawthorne & Gyakari 2006 283 Luffa cylindrica (Cucurbitaceae) Common names Nsanu, musaka saka (Kongo), éponge végétale (Fr.), loofah, vegetable sponge Description A herbaceous annual climber 6 - 10 m long. The slightly hairy stem is 5 lobed. Loofah species have glands that secrete nectar. Ecology Commonly cultivated but also naturalized in the humid tropics. Loofah grows best on fertile, mildly acidic to neutral, well-drained soil. Sunny, hot, humid conditions favour growth. The plant is best grown in the dry season as heavy rainfall during flowering and fruiting leads to poor fruit production. Propagation Seed from ripe fruits is used. Management The plant is best grown over a trellis. Side branches should be pruned to encourage growth of the main stem and 20 - 25 fruits only should be allowed per vine. Harvest when fully mature, indicated by the yellowing of the base and apex 4 - 5 months after planting. I mmerse fruits in running water until outer wall disintegrates. Seeds are then washed out. Uses The fibrous skeleton of the fruit, obtained after it has been allowed to rot and been thoroughly washed, is used as a sponge when bathing and to clean dishes. I t is also used to filter palm wine. The cooked leaves are eaten in BasCongo. The roasted seeds are also edible and immature fruits can be fed to pigs. I mmature fruits, harvested when about 10 cm long, can be boiled and used in curries. The sponge has potential for use in hat manufacture, insoles for shoes, marine engine filters, tablemats, door and bath mats, gloves and for sound and shock absorbing purposes. As with other Cucurbitaceae the flowers are very attractive to bees. References Gillet & Pâque 1910, Purseglove 1968, Burkill 1985, Robinson & Decker-Walters 1997 284