Malvaceae and its Subfamilies
Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Manila
BS Biology 2-1
1
Renzo Val Agapito, and 1Kyrie Eleison Lababo
2
Ma. Eleanor Calapatia-Salvador
1
Biology Student, Department of Biology, College of Science, Polytechnic University of the Philippines
2
Faculty, Department of Biology, College of Science, Polytechnic University of the Philippines
Abstract
The
Malvaceae
is
subdivided
into
9
subfamilies
namely
Bombacoideae,
Brownlowioideae, Byttnerioideae, Dombeyoideae, Grewioideae, Helicteroideae, Malvoideae,
Sterculioideae and Tilioideae. It is comprised of many important agricultural crops like
Gossypium sp., Abelmoschus sp., Durio sp. and Theobroma cacao.
The family is distinctive in having stellate trichomes, typically with an epicalyx, the
calyx valvate, corolla often convolute [sometimes valvate or imbricate] the stamens connate as a
tube or 5 ∞ bundles, with monothecal or dithecal anthers.
Keywords: Malvaceae, Gossypium, Abelmoschus, Durio, Theobroma, stellate trichomes, and epicalyx
Introduction
The traditional Malvaceae s.s., consists of about 111-119 genera. It is a homogenous and
cladistically monophyletic family, therefore, subfamilies are not applicable and only divided into
tribes. In the broader APG circumscription, Malavaceae s.l has been more recently defined on
the basis that molecular techniques have shown the commonly recognized families
Bombacaceae, Tiliaceae, and Sterculiaceae, which have always been considered closely allied to
Malvaceae s.s., are not monophyletic groups. Thus, the family has expanded to include 243
genera, and about 4225 species and has been divided into 9 subfamilies, one of which is
Malvaceae s.s. (Edlin, 1935) (Bayer et. al., 1999).
The 9 subfamilies of Malvaceae s.l. (hereafter simply Malvaceae) are Bombacoideae,
Brownlowioideae, Byttnerioideae, Dombeyoideae, Grewioideae, Helicteroideae, Malvoideae,
Sterculioideae and Tilioideae. A tentative cladogram was shown
Scientific classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
below (Fig. 1). The diamond denotes a poorly supported
branching (<80%).
(unranked): Angiosperms
(unranked): Eudicots
(unranked): Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Juss.
Figure 1 shows the tentative cladogram of subfamilies of Malvaceae based
on Angiosperm Phylogeny Website
Subfamilies
Malvaceae family members are often herbs or shrubs,
Bombacoideae
Brownlowioideae
Byttnerioideae
Dombeyoideae
Grewioideae
Helicteroideae
Malvoideae
Sterculioideae
Tilioideae
rarely small (Thespesia) or large (Tilia) trees. Plants are usually
mucilaginous. Leaves are alternate, simple, sometimes palmately
lobed (Gossypium), palmately veined, pubescence stellate or of
peltate scales, stipules present. Inflorescence is cymose
(Pavonia) or flowers solitary axillary. Flowers are bracteate
(Abutilon) or ebracteate (Hibiscus) bisexual, actinomorphic,
hypogynous. Calyx with 3 to 5 sepals, more or less united, often
subtended by epicalyx (bracteoles), epicalyx 3 (Malva), 5-8
(Althaea) or absent (Sida). Corolla consists of 3 to 5 petals
(rarely none), free, imbricate, and often adnate at base to staminal tube. Androecium with 5 to
many stamens, filaments united into a tube (monadelphous), epipetalous, anthers monothecous,
dehiscence transverse, pollen grains large with spinous exine, triporate or multiporate, tricolpate
in Abutilon. Gynoecium with 2 to many (rarely 1) united carpels (syncarpous), multilocular
(locules as many as carpels) with many ovules, placentation axile, ovary superior, styles
branched above, stigmas as many as carpels or twice as many (Malvaviscus). Fruit a loculicidal
capsule or schizocarp (Malva), follicles (Sterculia), rarely a berry (Malvaviscus); seeds 1-many,
embryo curved, endosperm absent. Flowers are insect pollinated, nectar usually produced by
inner surface of calyx. Dispersal may occur by wind, water, or animals. Large indehiscent pods
of Adansonia are dispersed by large mammals.
Members of the family are distributed worldwide, especially in tropical regions.
Economic importance includes medicinal plants; several fiber plants, especially Gossypium spp.
(cotton, the world’s most important fiber plant) and Ceiba pentandra (kapok), in both of which
the seed trichomes are utilized, and Corchorus spp. (jute), a bast fiber plant and source of burlap;
food and flavoring plants, such as Theobroma cacao (cacao, the source of chocolate), Cola nitida
(cola), Abelmoschus (okra), and Durio zibethinus (durian); wood, such as Ochroma pyramidale
(balsa) and Pachira aquatica; and numerous ornamental cultivars, such as Brachychiton,
Chorisia (floss-silk tree), Dombeya, Fremontodendron, Hibiscus (mallows), and Tilia (linden
tree). Many others, such as Adansonia digitata (baobab, tropical Africa) are of great local
economic or ecological importance.
K 3-5 or (3-5) C 3-5 [0] A 5-∞ G 2-∞ [1], superior [rarely inferior].
Methodology
The information on the botanical description, species distribution, propagation, and
economical uses of the representative species from the 9 subfamilies under Malvaceae family
were collated from different journals, researches, studies and steadfast websites.
Results
Subfamily Malvoideae
Subfamily Malvoideae is almost cosmopolitan with 111-115 genera and 1800-2000
species, throughout the warm temperate and temperate zones worldwide, but mostly in the New
World where 78 genera and about 1200-1400 species are present.
List of genera
Tribe Kydieae
*Abelmoschus
Kosteletzkya
Pavonia
Kydia
Anotea
Malachra
Peltaea
Tribe Hibisceae
*Hibiscus
Malvaviscus
Phragmocarpidium
Rojasimalva
Bakeridesia
Gaya
Nototriche
Talipariti
Bastardia
Herissantia
Palaua
Urena
Bastardiastrum
Hochneutinera
Periptera
Wercklea
Bastardiopsis
Horsfordia
Phymosia
Tribe Gossypieae
Batasimalva
Kearnemalvastrum
Pseudabutilon
Cienfuegosia
Billieturnera
Krapovickasia
Rhynchosida
*Gossypium
Bordasia
Lecanophora
Robinsonella
Thespesia
Briquetia
Lavatera
*Sida
Tribe Malveae
Callirhoe
Malacothamnus
Sidalcea
Abutilon
Calyculogygas
Malva
Sidasodes
Acaulimalva
Calyptraemalva
Malvastrum
Sidastrum
Akrosida
Corynabutilon
Malvella
Spirabutilon
Alcea
Cristaria
Meximalva
Sphaeralcea
Alcea rosea
Dendrosida
Modiola
Tarasa
Allosidastrum
Dirhamphis
Modiolastrum
Tetrasida
Allowissadula
Eremalche
Monteiroa
Wissadula
Andimalva
Fryxellia
Neobaclea
Anoda
Fuertesimalva
Neobrittonia
* genera of chosen representative species
Species under Subfamily Malvoideae are usually herbs, shrubs or trees. Leaves are
alternate, simple to dissected, ovate to lanceolate or cordate. Leaf venation with 3-5-nerved from
the base, margins entire, crenate, or serrate, stipules present, often falling early; indumentum
usually of stellate hairs or simple, glandular or lepidote hairs, sometimes with extrafloral
nectaries. Flowers usually bisexual, actinomorphic, axillary or terminal, solitary or in fasciculate
panicles, racemes or spikes; epicalyx present or absent. Calyx of 5 sepals fused basally, corolla
of 5 petals, these usually clawed, adnate to base of the stamens. Androecium consists of few to
many stamens, filaments fused into a tube. The position of ovary superior, syncarpous, 1-40locular, styles usually branched.
Fruit a loculicidal capsule or schizocarp with variously
ornamented mericarps, rarely a berry. Seeds are solitary to numerous, pubescent or glabrous;
endosperm oily.
K 5 C 5 A ∞, superior
Representative Species
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Malvoideae
Tribe:
Hibisceae
Genus:
Abelmoschus
Species:
A. esculentus
(L.) Moench
Common Name
Figure 2 shows the fruit (A), leaves (B), flower (C) and the whole plant of
Abelmoschus esculenta
Okra, lady’s fingers
Etymology
The word ‘okra’ came from a West African word, perhaps from the root nkru. Its specific
epithet ‘esculenta’, is the scientific Latin for esculent or edible.
Description
Abelmoschus esculentus (okra) is an annual herb growing up to 2 m. tall. Its stems are
succulent and setulose. Leaf lamina measures up to 25 × 25 cm., suborbicular in outline,
palmatifid, -lobed or -sect, sparsely to densely setulose or setose-pilose on both surfaces
especially on the nerves. Leaf margin is serrate, its base is cuneate to cordate. Petiole rises up to
30 cm. long; stipules are up to 15 mm. long, filiform, densely pilose. Flower is 8 cm. in
diameter, with five white to yellow petals, often with a red or purple spot at the base of each
petal; peduncle 1–4 cm. long, stout, thickened in fruit. Epicalyx with 10–12 bracts; bracts up to
25 × 2.5 mm., narrowly linear-triangular, caducous. Calyx is 3–4 cm. long, with 5 short linear
teeth. Petals are up to 7–8 cm. long. Staminal tube 12–20 mm. long; free parts of filaments up to
0·5 mm. long. Style is projecting up to 1 mm. beyond the staminal tube. Fruit is capsule
growing up to 14 cm. long, ellipsoid to very narrowly ellipsoid, at first appressed-setose and
pubescent, later glabrescent. Seed size is 5 × 4 mm., depressed-globose, slightly humped, with
concentric lines of minute stellate hairs or scales and sometimes pilose.
Ecology and Species Distribution
Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is widely distributed in tropical to subtropical regions in
Africa, Asia, Southern Europe, Mediterranean countries, and America. Okra is mainly grown as
a vegetable in the plains of Egypt. It grows well under warm climatic conditions (temperatures
above 26°C).
Threats and Conservation Status
Abelmoschus esculentus is not in the list of IUCN Red List and therefore have been
widely cultivated in different regions.
Propagation
Okra is typically propagated from seed. The seeds were soaked in water overnight prior
to planting helps the plants to germinate.
Economic Uses
Food
Immature fruit can be cooked or added to soups etc. They can be used fresh or dried.
Mucilagens of the fruit are commonly used as a thickening for soups, stews and sauces.
tofu.
The seeds can be cooked or ground into a meal and used in making bread or made into
The roasted seed is a coffee substitute.
The seed contains up to 22% of edible oil. The leaves, flower buds, flowers and calyces
can be eaten cooked as greens.
The leaves can be dried, crushed into a powder and can be used as a flavoring.
Medicinal Use
The juice of the roots is used externally in Nepal to treat cuts, wounds and boils. A
decoction of the immature capsules is demulcent, diuretic and emollient.
It is used in the treatment of catarrhal infections, ardor urinae, dysuria and gonorrhea.
Fiber
The fiber obtained from the stems is used as a substitute for jute.
It is also used in making paper and textiles.
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Malvoideae
Tribe:
Gossypieae
Genus:
Gossypium
Species:
G. hirsutum L.
Common Name
Upland cotton, Mexican cotton
Figure 3 shows the leaves (A), flower (B), cotton (C) and fruit (D) of
Gossypium hirsutum
Etymology
The
word
gossypium
came
from
Latin
word
From
Latin
‘gossypinus’,
‘gossympĭnus’ meaning “cotton”. Its specific epithet hirsutum was derived from a Latin word
'hirsutus' meaning "shaggy"
Description
Gossypium hirsutum (cotton) is an annual herb or perennial shrub up to 3 m tall, usually
much branched, with nearly all parts irregularly dotted with black oil glands. Leaves spirally
arranged; stipules ovate to lanceolate, often falcate, 5–15(–20) mm × 2–5 mm; petiole 2–10 cm
long; blade orbicular in outline, 3–15 cm in diameter, palmately 3-lobed, rarely palmatifid, lower
ones sometimes 5-lobed, upper ones occasionally ovate and entire, base cordate, lobes broadly
ovate to triangular, apex acute to acuminate, sinuses acute to rounded, margin entire, densely
pubescent to glabrous, palmately 5–7-veined, with nectaries on the central basal veins beneath.
Flowers solitary, usually on sympodial branches; pedicel 1–4 cm long, not articulated,
with 3 nectaries below the insertion of the epicalyx segments; epicalyx segments (bracteoles) 3,
free, closely enveloping the flower and fruit, ovate to triangular, 2–6.5 cm × 1.5–4 cm, cordate at
base, margin with 3–19 acuminate teeth, persistent; calyx campanulate to cupular, 5–7 mm long
and 6 mm in diameter, truncate or with 5 rounded (rarely acuminate) segments, outside with 3
inconspicuous nectaries, ruptured after flowering; corolla usually pale yellow to white, rarely
with a purplish centre, petals 5, imbricate, obovate, 2–5.5 cm long; stamens numerous, forming a
column 1–2 cm long, filaments 3–4 mm long, anthers 1-celled; pistil with 3–5-celled ovary and
one short style with clavate, 3–5-sulcate stigma. Fruit (‘boll’) an ovoid or globose capsule 2–5
cm × 1–1.5 cm, rostrate at the apex, coarsely pitted, glabrous, opening loculicidally, 3–5-celled
with several seeds per cell. Seeds ovoid, 3.5–10 mm long, acute at the hilum, black or brown
with a dense covering of white or rusty, long, woolly hairs (lint or floss) and with a fine, short
tomentum (fuzz) everywhere or only at the hilum. The seedlings are with epigeal germination.
Ecology and Species Distribution
Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) is a native of Central America, southern North America. It
is also cultivated in the Philippines. The cotton grows well under warm climatic conditions
(temperatures 25-30°C).
Threats and Conservation Status
Gossypium hirsutum is not included in the list of IUCN Red List and therefore still
propagating well and has a great number of populations throughout the world.
Propagation
Cotton is propagated from seed by planting directly in a prepared field when growing
conditions are favorable (suitable temperature, adequate rainfall etc). Cotton should only be
planted when the soil has warmed to at least 18.3°C (65°F). Generally, seeds should be sown at a
depth of 0.25 cm (1 in), with 3–6 seed sown in each hole.
Economic Use
Fiber
Main fibers are used for making yarn to be woven into textile fabrics, alone or in
combination with other plant, animal or synthetic fibers.
nets.
writing, book and drawing paper.
explosives, plastics and photographic film.
been used for the production of cellulose acetate and viscose.
Cotton lint is also made into other products including sewing thread, cordage and fishing
Cotton textile cuttings and rags serve in the paper industry for the production of the best
Short fibres (‘fuzz’ or ‘linters’) are processed into papers, twine, automobile upholstery,
Linter pulp is made into various types of paper, depending on its grade. Linters have also
Cotton stalks are processed into paper and paperboard, for instance in China, and into
cement-bonded particle board.
Seed
Oil in cotton seed is used in a range of products, including margarine, mayonnaise, salad
and cooking oils, salad dressing and shortening.
It is also made into soap, cosmetics, lubricants, sulphonated oils and protective coatings.
Locally it serves for cooking and frying.
Blends of cotton-oil biodiesel and diesel fuel can be used in conventional diesel engines
without any major changes.
The seeds are ground in cold water to produce paint.
Medicinal Use
The powdered seed or a seed decoction is taken against convulsions with fever.
The root is chewed or a root decoction drunk against stomach-ache. Also used to treat
postpartum relapse sickness, to treat boils, sores and inflammations.
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Malvoideae
Tribe :
Hibisceae
Genus:
Hibiscus
Species:
H. rosa-sinensis
L.
Common Name
Figure 4 shows the whole flower (A) and the monadelphous stamen (B)
of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis
Gumamela, China rose,
Shoe flower
Etymology
The English word “hibiscus” comes almost directly from the Greek word “hibiskos.” The
flowers received their name from Pedanius Dioscorides. The Latin term rosa-sinensis literally
means "rose of China", though it is not closely related to the true roses.
Description
Gumamela (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) is an ornamental shrub. Leaves are alternate, simple,
serrate, stipulate, unicostate reticulate. The inflorescence is solitary axillary, peduncle jointed.
The flower is ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, bisexual, hypogynous,
mucilaginous, pentamerous, cyclic. The epicalyx is 5-7, free, green and linear. Calyx has 5
gamosepalous, campanulate, valvate, green, inferior tepals. Corolla has 5, polypetalous, twisted,
red, mucilaginous, inferior. Androecium has many, monadelphous, epipetalous, staminal tube
with 5 antipetalous teeth at apex, anthers monothecous, transversely attached, dehiscence
longitudinal, extrorse. Gynoecium has pentacarpellary syncarpous superior ovary, pentalocular,
ovules many, placentation axile, style divided above into 5 branches, stigmas 5, capitate. The
fruit is loculicidal capsule.
Ecology and Species Distribution
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis are native to Tropical Asia. A native of Southeastern Asia (China),
the plant is commonly found throughout the tropics and as a house plant throughout the world.
Most ornamental varieties are hybrids. The present wide range of cultivars is considered to be a
complex of inter specific hybrids, between 8 or more different species originating from the
African East Coast and islands in the Indian and Pacific Ocean.
Threats and Conservation Status
Gumamela (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) is not included in the IUCN Red List of threatened
species.
Propagation
It is normally propagated by softwood stem tip cuttings taken in late spring. Also by
seeds, it should be collected before they are ejected from the capsule in the spring and scarified
Economical use
The flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis are edible and are used in salads in the Pacific
Islands.
The flower is additionally used in hair care as a preparation. It is also used to shine shoes
in certain parts of India.
dark pink or magenta color and basic solutions to green.
It can also be used as a pH indicator. When used, the flower turns acidic solutions to a
It may have some potential in cosmetic skin care; for example, an extract from the
flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis has been shown to function as an anti-solar agent by
absorbing ultraviolet radiation.
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Malvoideae
Tribe :
Malveae
Genus:
Sida
Species:
S. acuta Burm.f.
Common Name
Common Wireweed
Figure 5 shows the leaves (A), and the flowers (B) closer view of flower
(C) of Sida acuta
Etymology
The genus name Sida is from the Greek for "pomegranate or water lily". The specific
epithet ‘acuta’ means small radius as in angle (acute).
Description
S. acuta is a small, erect, perennial shrub, branching profusely from the base. It usually
ranges from 30-150 cm in height, but grows to 3 m in favorable conditions in northern Australia.
The stems are fibrous to almost woody, with a tough stringy bark. There is a deep, tough taproot.
The leaves are alternate, lanceolate, acute, tapering towards both ends, and on a short, hairy
petiole 3-6 mm long. The leaves have toothed margins, are smooth or have sparse stellate hairs
and have prominent veins on the undersurface. The leaves are quite variable in size, from 2-9 cm
long and 0.5-4 cm wide. The pair of stipules at the base of each leaf are not equal, with one
frequently much narrower than the other. The flowers are yellow, solitary, 1-2 cm in diameter
and on a short stalk 0.3-0.8 cm long. There are five petals, joined at the base and with a shallow
notch at the apex. The fruit is a hard, brown capsule, 3-5 mm in diameter, breaking into 5-8
triangular segments. Each segment contains one seed and has a pair of sharp awns or 'beaks' 11.5 mm long which attach readily to animal fur or clothing. The seeds are small, reddish-brown
to black, wedge-shaped, deeply indented on both sides, rounded on the back and about 1.5 mm
long.
Ecology and Species Distribution
This species may have originated in Central America, but it is now widespread
throughout the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world (i.e. pan-tropical). It invades open
woodlands, pastures, waterways (i.e. riparian vegetation), plantations, crops, gardens, disturbed
sites, roadsides and waste areas. Widely naturalized overseas, including in eastern Asia (i.e.
China and Taiwan) and on several Pacific islands (e.g. the Galapagos Islands, the Chuuk Islands,
Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia,
Niue, Palau and the Solomon Islands).
Threats and Conservation Status
It is not included in the IUCN and CITES list of threatened species.
Economic Uses
Medicinal Uses
Decoction of roots and leaves are emollient; taken internally for hemorrhoids, fever, and
impotency and as a tonic.
Decoction also used as demulcent; for gonorrhea and rheumatism.
Roots use as stomachic and antipyretic.
Decoction or infusion used for fevers, dyspepsia and debility.
complaints, a teacupful twice a day.
An infusion with ginger added is given in intermittent fevers and chronic bowel
Root juice, sugared or mixed with honey, used to expel worms.
Fresh juice of roots applied to wounds and ulcers to promote healing.
Juice of leaves, mixed with honey, given for dysentery and chest pains.
In Nicaragua, whole plant used for asthma, colds, fever, worms, and renal inflammations.
In India, used for fever, bronchitis, ulcers, diarrhea, skin diseases; paste of leaves mixed
with coconut oil used for dandruff and hair strengthening. In Nigeria, used for malaria,
ulcer, fever, breast cancer, poisoning, inducing abortion. In Sri Lanka, roots and leaves
used for hemorrhoids, fever, impotency, gonorrhea, and rheumatism. (13)
In the Yucatan, decoction of roots used for vomiting of blood; decoction of leaves used
for fever.
In India, seeds are given for enlarged glands and for inflammatory swellings.
Others
Fiber from the bark is yellow, delicate, filamentous, soft, very lustrous and silky in
appearance, of medium strength. In Ilocos, it is used to make a superior-quality rope, of
pleasing color and gloss.
Stems are used for making brooms and baskets.
Subfamily Byttneroideae
Subfamily Byttneroideae is a pan- and subtropical and consists of 27 genera and c. 650
species. It is widely distributed in Africa and Latin America with eight genera and 280-300
species in the Neotropics. About half the genera are restricted to Australia. Some groups are
mainly found in humid tropical forest, while others are restricted in drier habitats.
List of Genera
Ayenia
Hermannia
Waltheria
Byttneria
Herrania
Rayleya
Guazama
Melochia
*Theobroma
Ambroma
* genera of chosen representative species
Species under Subfamily Byttneroideae are usually small shrubs, less often trees, lianas
or herbs. Its bark is highly fibrous. Leaves are alternate or two-ranked, simple to rarely palmate
(Herrania), venation is palmate or 3-nerved. Leaf margin is often serrate, stipules are present and
often falling early; indumentum, if present is stellate. Inflorescence is axillary, leaf-opposed or
rarely terminal thyrses, sometimes reduced to solitary flowers or cauliflorous fascicles
(Theobroma and Herrania. Flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic; epicalyx are usually absent;
calyx has 5 sepals fused for less than ½ their length; corolla of 5 free petals, these are often
cupped of hooded and with a strap-like appendage, basally free from the androecium, sometimes
completely reduced (species of Hermannia, Melochia, Waltheria); the androgynophore is absent.
Androecium has 5-10 stamens rarely more, fused into short tube or fascicles, anthers usually
dithecal rarely trithecal; the ovary is superior in position, (1-3) 5-locular; style is simple. Fruit a
many seeded, indehiscent, fleshy berry, dehiscent capsule or schizocarp with 1-many-seeded
mericarps. Seeds are usually glabrous, sometimes it is arrilate or pubescent.
Representative Species
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Byttneroideae
Genus:
Theobroma
Species:
T. cacao L.
Common Name
Cocoa, food of the Gods,
chocolate tree
Figure 6 shows the flower (A), biological illustration (B), cross section of
the fruit (C) and the fruits of Theobroma cocoa
Etymology
The generic name comes from the Greek ‘theos’ (god), and ‘broma’ (food) and means the
‘food of the gods’.
Description
Theobroma cacao is cauliflorous and semi-deciduous. The tree is low, reaching an
average height of 5-10 m. The main trunk is short; branches in whorls of 5, dimorphic; vertical
chupons growing from the trunk have leaves arranged in 5/8 phyllotaxy. The lateral branches
(fans) have 1/2 phyllotaxy. Petiole of the leaves with 2 joined pulvini, one at the base and the
other at the point of insertion of the leaf. Stipules 2, deciduous. Leaf lamina is elliptical-oblong
or obovate-oblong, simple, 10-45 cm long; generally smooth, sometimes hairy, rounded and
obtuse at the base, pointed apex. Inflorescence is dichasial; primary peduncle very short, often
thick and lignified. Flower has a peduncle 1-4 cm long. Calyx has 5 sepals, triangular, whitish or
reddish in color. Corolla has 5 petals, joined at the base into a cuplike structure, whitish-yellow
with dark purple bands adaxially; ligules spathulate, yellowish. Androecium has 5 stamens ,
fertile, alternating with 5 staminodes, the 2 whorls uniting to form a tube. Anthers 2, stamens
fused. Ovary is superior in position with a single style terminating in 5 sticky stigmatic surfaces.
Fruit variable in shape, ovoid, oblong; sometimes pointed and constricted at the base or almost
spherical, with 10 furrows of which 5 are prominent. Axial placentation, seeds embedded in
mucilage, flat or round with white or purple cotyledons.
Ecology and Species Distribution
In its natural habitat, T. cacao is an under storey plant of forest in the wet humid tropics.
Native to lowlands of South America the Cacao trees grow wild and scattered in the tropical
rainforest. In the early seventeenth century, the trees were introduced to Africa by the
Portuguese.
Threats and Conservation Status
T. cacao is not in the list of IUCN Red List and therefore huge number of population still
exists in the wild.
Economic Use
Food
The cocoa bean, with up to 50% fat, is a valuable source of vegetable fat, cocoa butter.
The residual cocoa powder is used in cakes, biscuits, drinking chocolate and other
confectioneries.
Fodder
The cocoa-pod husk has a low alkaloid content, while tannin is practically absent.
The crude fibre content is low; it is completely unlignified and compares favourably with
Panicum maximum and Centrosema pubescens.
Fuel
The cocoa bean testa has a calorific value of 16 000-19 000 BTU/kg, a little higher than
that for wood.
Lipids
The ash from pod husks contains potassium oxide, which can be extracted in the form of
potassium hydroxide, a useful alkaline in the saponification process.
Cocoa-bean fat from unfermented cocoa beans can be extracted and used in soap making.
Alcohol
The cocoa-pod husk can be hydrolyzed under pressure for fermentation into alcoholic
drinks.
Medicine
The rural people in Amazonas State, Brazil, rub cocoa butter on bruises.
Soil improver
There is considerable nutrient cycling through the development of a deep leaf litter under
the cocoa canopy.
Intercropping
Cocoa has traditionally been established in thinned forest following logging and 1-3 years
of food-crop production before the canopy closes. Crops such as maize, cocoyam, yams
and plantain are commonly intercropped with cocoa in Ecuador, Jamaica and West
Africa.
Subfamily Bombacoideae
Subfamily Bombacoideae is mostly present in the New World tropics and contains 27
genera (c. 250 species); a few of those genera (Adansonia L., Bombax L., Camptostemon Mast.,
and Lagunaria (DC.) Rchb.), containing c. 19 species, are restricted to the Old World tropics.
List of Genera
*Adansonia
*Ceiba
Matisia
Pseudobombax
Aguiaria
Chiranthodendron
Neobuchia
Quararibea
Bernoullia
Eriotheca
Ochroma
Rhodognaphalon
Bombax
Fremontodendron
*Pachira
Scleronema
Camptostemon
Gyranthera
Patinoa
Septotheca
Catostemma
Huberodendron
Pentaplaris
Spirotheca
Cavanillesia
Lagunaria
Phragmotheca
Uladendron
* genera of chosen representative species
Species under Subfamily Bombacoideae are usually trees, often buttressed and/or with a
bottle-shaped trunk, and/or with chunky spines, rarely shrubs or climbers. Leaves are alternate,
palmately lobed or palmate, rarely simple (Matisia and Quararibea); leaf venation is palmate or
3-nerved, the margins entire, rarely dentate; stipules present, often falling early; indumentum, if
present, stellate or rarely lepidote.
Inflorescence is of few-flowered, axillary clusters or
panicles, solitary or rarely in leaf-opposing cymes. Flowers bisexual, actinomorphic; epicalyx
conspicuous, of 2-3 bracts, usually present; calyx tubular, 5-lobed fused for ½ its length; corolla
contorted, 5 free petals attached basally to the androecium; stamens 5 to numerous (up to
1,000), filaments fused into a tube or in antepetalous fascicles, anthers usually monothecal,
straight, reniform or spirally contorted; ovary superior, (2-)5(-8)-locular; style with short stylar
branches. Fruit a many-seeded, dehiscent, often ligneous capsule with densely hairy endocarp
(e.g. kapok) or indehiscent, juicy, 1-5-seeded drupe, rarely winged. Seeds are usually glabrous,
sometimes arillate or winged.
Representative Species
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Bombacoideae
Genus:
Ceiba
Species:
Ceiba pentandra
(L.) Gaertn
Common Name
Kapok, Ceiba, Silk-cotton tree
Figure 7 shows the fruit (A), whole tree (B), buttress roots (C), and the
spikes on the trunk of Ceiba pentandra
Etymology
The generic name comes from a local South American word. The specific name
“petandra”, is Latin for ‘five-stemmed’; from the Greek word “penta” (five) and “andron”
(male).
Description
Ceiba pentandra is a tall, deciduous tree bearing short, sharp prickles all along the trunk
and branches; supported by pronounced buttresses at the base. It has a light crown and is leafless
for a long period. The leaf is glabrous and digitate, being composed of 5, 7 or 9 leaflets. Leaves
are alternate with slender green petioles. There are usually 5 leaflets in a mature form. The
leaflets hang down on short stalks; short pointed at the base and apex, not toothed on edges, thin,
bright to dark green above and dull green beneath. Great quantities of flowers are in lateral
clusters near the ends of the twigs. Calyx is cup-shaped, with 5-10 shallow teeth. Petals 5, white
to rose colored; brown, silky, densely hair on the outer surface; Stamens 5, longer than petals,
united into a column at the base. Pistil a 5- celled ovary with a long style curved near the apex
and enlarged stigma. Fruit a leathery, ellipsoid, pendulous capsule, 10-30 cm long, usually
tapering at both ends, rarely dehiscing on the tree. White, pale yellow or grey floss originates
from the inside wall of the fruit. Seed capsules split open along 5 lines. Each capsule releases
120-175 seeds rounded black seeds embedded in a mass of grey woolly hairs. Seeds are dark
brown.
Ecology and Species Distribution
C. pentandra can be found in various types of moist evergreen and deciduous forests, as
well as in dry forests and gallery forests. As a pioneer species, it mostly occurs in secondary
forests. It is widely planted in settled areas throughout the Philippines. Kapok tree are native in
India, Indonesia and United States of America. It is also cultivated in South Africa, Cambodia
and Thailand.
Threats and Conservation Status
Ceiba pentandra is not in the IUCN Red List of threatened species.
Economic Uses
Apiculture
The tree is important source honey source. Honey light amber with characteristic flavor.
Fiber
The fiber from the inner wall of the fruit is unique that it combines springiness and
resilience and is resistant to vermin, to make it ideal for stuffing pillows, mattresses and
cushions. It is light, water repellent and buoyant, making it ideal for life jackets, lifeboats
and other naval safety apparatus. It is an excellent material for insulating ice boxes,
refrigerators, cold-storage plants, offices, theaters and aeroplanes. It is a good sound
absorber and is widely used for acoustic insulation; it is indispensable in hospitals, since
mattresses can be dry sterilized without losing original quality.
Timber
Wood is easy to peel for veneer. Reported users of wood include plywood, packaging,
lumber core stock, light construction, pulp and paper products, canoes and rafts, farm
implements, furniture and matches.
Lipids
C. pentandra seed contains 20-25% non-drying oil, similar to cottonseed oil, used as
lubricant, in soap manufacturing and cooking.
Medicine
Compressed fresh leaves are used against dizziness; decoction of the boiled roots is used
to treat oedoema; gum is eaten to relieve stomach upset; tender shoot decoction is
contraceptive and leaf infusion is taken orally against cough and hoarse throat. In
Tamilnadu, India, the leaves are pounded together with fermented boiled rice water and
the extract is administered to cows orally as remedy for reproductive problems.
Services
In Java, the tree is grown as a boundary tree and fences along roadsides, for boundary or
barrier support.
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Bombacoideae
Genus:
Pachira
Species:
P. aquatica Aubl.
Common Name
French peanut, Guinea peanut,
money tree, lucky tree
Figure 8 shows the foliage (A), flower (B), fruit (C) and seeds (D) of
Pachira aquatica
Etymology
The name "money tree" seems to refer to a story of its origin, where a poor man prayed
for money, found this "odd" plant, took it home as an omen, and made money selling plants
grown from its seeds.
Description
Pachira aquatica is a very showy evergreen tree with greenish bark that can grow to 60
ft. in the tropics. The leaves are shiny, bright green, alternate palmately compound that grows
about 12 inches long and are quickly shed. The large and showy flowers are perfect and
terminal, with a long peduncle. The petals and numerous stamens are white. The fruit is a
smooth, green capsule, 4-8 inches (10-20 cm) in length, and splits opens naturally on
longitudinal sutures when ripe. The seeds are rounded but irregular, with about 10-25 per fruit.
They are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, with a light brown testa. The tightly packed seeds
(nuts) inside enlarge until the pod bursts and the seed fall to the ground. The rounded seeds are
without floss and 1/2 inch or larger in diameter.
Ecology and Species Distribution
Money tree or Pachira aquatica is native to Central America and northern South
America. It is cultivated in many tropical regions, including Hawaii and Southern California. In
the wild, Pachira aquatica is a wetland tree that grows in freshwater swamps associated with
tropical estuaries. It often grows alongside rivers, where its branches arch out over the water.
Threats and Conservation Status
P. aquatic is not in the IUCN List of Threatened Species.
Economical Uses
Edible Uses
Seed - raw or cooked. The raw seed taste like peanuts, when roasted or fried in oil it has
the flavor of chestnuts. The roasted seeds taste like cocoa. The roasted seed is sometimes
used to make a beverage
The seed can be ground into a flour and used to make a bread
Young leaves and flowers - cooked and used as a vegetable
Medicinal
The skin of the immature green fruit is used in the treatment of hepatitis.
The bark is used medicinally to treat stomach complaints and headaches while
The seeds are used as an anaesthetic.
A tisane from the boiled bark is used as a blood tonic
A cold water infusion of the crushed leaves is used to treat a burning sensation in the skin
Other Uses
A fibre, obtained from the bark is used for caulking boats and cordage.
Yellow dye and red dye is obtained from the bark.
The oil from the seed has industrial potential for manufacturing soap.
The fruit is spread on the ground in order to repel sand fleas.
The white wood is light in weight, fibrous, soft and of low durability. It is used only for
low quality purposes such as making boxes and matches and is suitable for
manufacturing paper, yielding 36% cellulose paste.
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Bombacoideae
Genus:
Adansonia
Species:
A. digitata Linn.
Common Name
Baobab, Dead-rat tree,
Upside-down tree
Figure 9 shows the decidous type of tree (A), the palm-like leaves (B), the
fruit (C) and the flower (D) of Adansonia digitata
Etymology
The scientific name of the Baobab, Adansonia digitata comes from the French explorer
and botanist, Michel Adanson (1727-1806). He officially discovered it in 1749 on the island of
Sor in Senegal. He concluded of all the trees he studied, the baobab “is probably the most useful
tree in all.” He consumed baobab juice twice a day, while in Africa. He remained convinced that
it maintained his health for him. ‘Digitata’ refers to the digits of the hand. The baobab's branches
and leaves are akin to a hand.
Description
Adansonia digitata is a large, round canopied tree with a swollen trunk, about 10-25 m in
height, often with a bole of 3-10 m (giant individuals attain a girth of up to 28 m); bark is soft,
smooth, fibrous, reddish-brown, greyish-brown or purplish-grey; bark of leaf-bearing branches is
normally ashy on the last node; a green layer below the outer, waxy layer of the bark,
presumably to assist in photosynthesis when the tree has shed its leaves. The thick, fibrous bark
is remarkably fire resistant, and even if the interior is completely burnt out, the tree continues to
live. Regrowth after fire results in a thickened, uneven integument that gives the tree its gnarled
appearance resembling an elephant’s skin but that serves as added protection against fire. Mature
thick and extensive lateral roots anchor the tree on the ground and end in clusters of potatolike
tubers; the thick, strong, prominent taproot at 6 months is 3 times the length of the seedling;
roots grow fast but never penetrate far beyond a depth of 2 m, which explains why in old age
they are often found toppled when the branches increase in weight. Leaves alternate, digitately
3- to 9-foliate; leaflets oblong to ovate, 5-15 x 3-7 cm, lower leaflets being the smallest and
terminal leaflet the largest; leaflets dark green, with short, soft hairs; lateral veins looping; apex
and base tapering; margin entire; petiolules absent or almost so; petiole up to 12 cm long.
Flowers a waxy white, up to 20 cm in diameter, axillary, solitary, pendulous, bisexual; all floral
parts in 5s; calyx deeply lobed, with white, silky hairs inside; large, crinkly, spreading petals;
many stamens on a large central column that is shed with the petals; ovary superior, 5-10
chambered; petals bruise easily and become brown; flowers have an unpleasant scent. Fruit
ovoid, 12 cm or more in length, with a hard, woody shell, covered with yellowish-grey velvety
hairs, indehiscent; seeds smooth, embedded in a whitish powdery pulp, have little or no
endosperm.
Ecology and Species Distribution
The tree is characteristic of thorn woodlands of the African savannahs, which are
characterized by low altitudes with 4-10 dry months a year split into 1 or 2 periods. It occurs as
isolated individuals or grouped in clumps irrespective of soil type. It is not found in areas of deep
sand, presumably because it is unable to obtain sufficient anchorage and moisture. A. digitata is
very sensitive to waterlogging and frost. All A. digitata locations can be described as arid and
semi-arid, with not more than a day frost per year.
Native to: Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia,
Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, South
Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe.
Exotic to: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Central African Republic, Cuba,
Democratic Republic of Congo, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Gabon, Grenada,
Guadeloupe, Guyana, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Malaysia, Martinique, Mauritius,
Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, New Caledonia, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Sao Tome et
Principe, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, US,
Virgin Islands (US)
Threats and Conservation Status
As of April 2015 from the IUCN Red List criteria, baobabs are not yet classified, but they
are a part of the “Catalogue of Life.” Although this species not classified, it is an extant species
and is found in wide ranges.
Economic Uses
Food
An edible white, powdery pulp found in the fruit is very rich in vitamin C and B2 and
makes a refreshing drink.
Ripe fruits are collected and cracked to remove the ‘flour’, which is mixed with milk to
prepare a flavoured fermented porridge.
Young leaves are also rich in Vitamin C, contain uronic acids, and are high in demand in
West Africa as a soup vegetable. In Ferlo, North Senegal, an extract of the leaves, called
‘lalo’, is used to give couscous (millet porridge) a smooth consistency.
The leaves also form an excellent condiment and seasoning.
The small stem and roots of the seedlings are eaten as vegetable; mature, thick roots are
cooked and eaten during famine.
A root decoction is widely used in Sierra Leone as food. It is prepared by boiling,
roasting, soaking or fermenting the roots, and tastes like almonds. Having high water
content, the wood is chewed by humans and animals in case of extreme water scarcity.
The wood can be used as a salt substitute.
The acid pith is used as a substitute for cream of tartar in baking, to curdle milk and
smoke fish. It is also roasted and used as a coffee substitute.
The seeds contain appreciable quantities of tartaric acid and potassium bitar; they are
refreshing to suck, and when soaked in water make a palatable drink.
Fuel
The long-fibred wood is suitable for firewood. The shell and seeds are also used for fuel,
which potters use to smooth earthenware necklaces before firing.
Other services
In dry regions, A. digitata plays a vital role in water storage; a hollowed trunk may be
carved out in 3-4 days. A medium-sized tree may hold 400 gallons while a large tree
could contain over 2000 gallons, and water stored in them is said to remain sweet for
several years if the hollow is kept well closed.
Subfamily Sterculioideae
Subfamily Sterculioideae has a pan-tropical distribution, consisting of about 12 genera. It
is being found in New Caledonia and other Pacific islands, Australasia, South, South East and
East Asia, Madagascar, tropical Africa, Central America, the Caribbean and tropical South
America. It is most diverse in South East Asia.
List of Genera
Acropogon
Firmiana
Pterygota
Argyrodendron
Heritiera
Scaphium
Brachychiton
Hildegardia
*Sterculia
*Cola
Franciscodendron
Octolobus
Pterocymbium
* genera of chosen representative species
The subfamily Sterculioideae is a division of the angiosperm family Malvaceae. It
appears to be a well-defined group, characterized by apetalous (lacking petals), exinvolucellate
(lacking an epicalyx) flowers with a fleshy, usually petaloid, gamosepalous (fused) calyx, an
absence of staminodes, a monadelphous staminal column, an androgynophore (a stalk separating
the calyx from the stamens and styles), and apocarpous (i.e. separated) ovaries and fruits. The
flowers are typically monoecious, i.e. have separate male and female flowers borne on the same
plant.
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Sterculioideae
Genus:
Cola
Species:
C. nitida
Schott & Endl.
Common Name
Cola, kola nut , kola and bitter
kola
Figure 10 shows the tree (A), leaves (B), Star-shaped flowers (C) and seed
of Cola nitida
Etymology
Cola came from the African vernacular name, kola; nitida means shiny or glossy.
Description
Cola nitida is an understorey, evergreen tree, generally growing 9-12 m high, sometimes
reaching 27 m, with a diameter up to 1.5 m, narrow buttresses extending for 1 m in old trees, or
absent, bole not always straight and cylindrical; bark grey or greyish brown, rough with
longitudinal fissures; slash pinkish red, thick and fibrous, darkening to brown on exposure.
Leaves are simple, alternate, petiolate; petiole 1.2-10 cm long; blade broadly oblong to broadly
elliptic or elliptic-oblanceolate, 10-33 x 5-13 cm, apex abruptly and shortly acuminate, base
obtuse or rounded, margins wavy, glabrous or nearly so; leathery, dark green lateral nerves 6-10.
Inflorescence are axillary, an irregularly branched panicles 5-10 cm long, shorter than the
leaves; flowers unisexual, 5-merous, apetalous. Male flowers with cup-shaped calyx, about 2 cm
in diameter, deeply lobed, stamens numerous, in two whorls. Female flowers with calyx about 5
cm in diameter, with 5 carpels and numerous rudimentary anthers at the base. Fruits oblongellipsoid follicles 13 x 7 cm, green, shiny-surfaced, smooth to the touch but knobbly with large
tubercules. Seeds are 4-8 (10) per carpel, ovoid or subglobose 3-3.5 x 2-2.5 cm, either red or
white.
Ecology and Species Distribution
Originally a tree of tropical rainforest, it needs a hot humid climate but can withstand a
dry season on sites with a high ground water level. It may be cultivated in drier areas where
ground water is available. C. nitida is a shade bearer but develops a better spreading crown
which yields more fruits in open places. Though it is a lowland forest tree it has been found at
altitudes over 300 m on deep rich soils under heavy and evenly distributed rainfall.
Cola nitida is native to West Africa (from Guinea to Ghana) and has been introduced
throughout the forested areas of West and Central Africa. Commercial crops are grown mainly in
Nigeria, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire and Sierra Leone and also to some extent in India, Brazil and
Jamaica.
Threats and Conservation Status
Cola nitida is not in the IUCN Red List of threatened species.
Economic Uses
Food
The nuts taste bitter when chewed at first but they leave a sweet taste in the mouth later.
Thus chewing cola nuts before drinking water helps to render the water sweeter.
The bitter tasting seeds are much appreciated by Muslims in the drier region of West
Africa, especially during the month of Ramadhan. Seeds consist of 13.5% water, 9.5%
crude protein, 1.4% fat, 45% sugar and starch, 7% cellulose, 3.8% ash, also rich in
alkaloids, caffeine (2.8%), theobroine (0.05%) and kolatine.
The red nuts are a potential source of food colourant.
Cola nuts, in combination with coca-leaf are incorporated in brands of cocoa, tonic wines
and other beverages. The nuts are said to be restraining and to possess thirst-restraining
properties. The nuts are used for non-alcoholic soft drinks like Coca-Cola. Nuts are very
rich in caffeine.
Fuel
A good source of fuelwood.
Timber
Sapwood is pinkish-white and the heartwood dull yellow. Suitable for furniture, house
and boat building, coachwork, plates, domestic utensils, gun stocks, joinery and carvings.
Medicine
Cola nuts stimulate the nervous system when chewed. They counteract overstrain and
depression thus improving the physical and mental state. The principle action is that of
caffeine. Other active principles include theobromine and kolatine.
A non-addictive stimulant used medicinally for diarrhoea and to prevent vomiting in
cases of high fever. In combination with the coca-leaf a drug was made which was used
as ‘Forced March’ tablets by explorers and military expeditions.
The crushed nuts are boiled together with the leaves of Morinda lucida and the liquid
taken internally to cure piles. The nuts ground to a fine paste together with the leaves of
Scooparia dulce, are dissolved in a little water and a few drops are administered orally to
babies for headache.
An infusion of the bark mixed with ginger and a little pepper is taken internally to cure
stomach ulcers.
The nuts are also used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery.
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Sterculioideae
Genus:
Sterculia
Species:
S. foetida L.
Common Name
Kalumpang, Hazel sterculia, and
Wild almond tree
Figure 11 shows the leaves (A), the whole tree (B), the inflorescence (C)
and the fruit (D) of Sterculia foetida
Etymology
The name of the genus comes from the Latin “stercus” = dung, manure, with reference to
the unpleasant odour of the flowers and the leaves of some species; the name of the species, is
the Latin adjective “foetidus, a, um” = fetid, stinking, with reference to the unpleasant smell of
the flowers.
Description
S. foetida is a great deciduous tree, up to 40 m tall, with erect trunk with greyish bark and
almost horizontal branches arranged in verticils (3 or more inserted on the same node). The
leaves, grouped at the apex of the branches on a 10-30 cm long petiole, are palmate-compound
with 5-9 leaflets from elliptic to lanceolate, 6-15 cm long and 2-5 cm broad, with entire margin
and long pointed apex, initially pubescent, then glabrous, of glossy green colour and of
unpleasant odour. Sub-terminal spike shaped inflorescences, produced before the emission of
the leaves, carrying stinking unisexual flowers on the same plant, of about 2 cm of diameter on a
1,5-2,5 cm long peduncle, without corolla, having campanulate calyx with 5 lanceolate lobes
with retroflexed apex, of yellowish colour at the opening, then red or purple, pubescent; male
flowers with bent staminal column about 1 cm long with 10-15 anthers grouped on top, female
flowers with gynophore (column supporting the ovary), about 0,6 cm long, pubescent ovary with
five lobes and bent style. The fruit is composed by 1 to 5 ellipsoid follicles, about 10 cm long
and 4 cm broad, woody, initially green, then red, opening when ripe, containing 10-15 oblong,
slate-grey seeds, 1,5-2,5 cm long, placed along the borders of the opening.
Ecology and Species Distribution
The species is native to Australia (Queensland), Bangladesh, Cam- bodia, India,
Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam, where it grows in
the deciduous forests mainly along the coasts and the water streams.
Threats and Conservation Status
S. foetida is not listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Economic Use
It is utilized at times as shade tree in great parks and gardens and in the road trees, but at
a certain distance from the homes.
It is also used for monitoring the erosion.
furniture and locally for making boats and musical instruments.
The wood, of pink color, easy to work and to finish, is employed in the construction of
The leaves are often utilized as fodder for animals.
The resin exuding from the trunk and the branches is used as glue.
Finally, cordages are gotten form the bark.
The unripe seeds are not edible, they can be consumed ripe and roasted, with a taste
similar to that of the chestnuts (Castanea sativa Mill.), but with moderation as it has a
laxative action.
Leaves and flowers are utilized in the traditional medicine, as well as the oil obtained
from the seeds, whose main component (53%) is the sterculic acid, which has proven to
have interesting and promising pharmacological applications.
The oil has also an insecticidal activity and a potentiality as biodiesel.
Subfamily Helicterioideae
The subfamily Helicterioideae is comprised of 16 genera, some of these genera like
Hypophyllanthus, Neoregnellia, Ungeria, Veeresia are yet to discover its species according to
Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Typically, species were distributed in
tropical regions of the world. Durio is one of the important representative genera of this
subfamily.
List of Genera
Tribe Durioneae
Lahia
Tribe Helicterieae
Ungeria
*Durio
Neesia
Achantia
Veeresia
Boschia
Kostermansia
Helicteres
Triplochiton
Coelostegia
Hypophyllanthus
Reevesia
Cullenia
Mansonia
Neorenellia
* genera of chosen representative species
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Helicterioideae
Tribe:
Durioneae
Genus:
Durio
Species:
D. zibethinus
Murr
Common Name
Figure 12 shows the tree (A), flowers (B), longitudinal section of fruit (C)
and fruit showing conspicuous spines (D) of Durio zibethinus
Durian, Civet-fruit
Etymology
The generic epithet is derived from the Malay word “duri” (thorn), alluding to the spiny
fruit.
Description
Durio zibethinus is a medium to large buttressed tree, up to 45 m tall in dense lowland
forests and 10-15 m in orchards and backyards; Bark dark red brown, peeling off irregularly.
Leaves are elliptic or lanceolate-elliptic, 10-15 cm long, 3-4 cm wide, papery; base acute; apex
acuminate, upper surface glabrous, glossy, lower surface densely covered with silvery or golden
scales; secondary veins in about 15 pairs, distinctly looping near the margin; venation indistinct
below. Petioles 1-1.5 cm long, angular. Flowers are in fascicles of corymbose inflorescences.
Pedicels 5-7 cm long; Calyx saccate, flattened at the base, with tube about 2 cm long and 1.5 cm
in diameter; Petals white or creamy, spatulate, 5 cm long and 2 cm wide at the broadest part.
Stamen white, 4 cm long in 5 distinct phalanges, each filament with up to 12 reniform anthers
dehiscing by a slit. Ovary is ovoid; Style slender, 4 cm long, stigma yellow. Fruit varies greatly
in size; 15-25 cm in diameter, green to yellowish brown, with spines that are variable in length
and shape. Seeds are chestnut brown, completely enclosed in a thick, white or yellow, soft,
sweet, fragrant aril.
Ecology and Species Distribution
Durian is strictly tropical; it grows successful near the equator, and up to 18 deg from the
equator in Thailand and Australia. At these extreme latitudes, extension grows to halt during
coolest months. It needs well-distributed rainfall, but relatively dry spell stimulates and
synchronizes flowering.
It is native to Indonesia and Malaysia and countries like Australia, Cambodia and other
Asian countries were cultivating the Durio zibethinus.
Threats and Conservation Status
Based on IUCN Red List, Durio zibethinus are not in list of threatened species.
Economic Uses
Food
Durian fruit is a good source of carbohydrates and also contains significant amounts of
protein and vitamins B and C. Its rich pulp is eaten raw, cooked as a vegetable, frozen or
dried for later use. Indonesians ferment the pulp for a side dish or mix the fleshy arils
with rice and sugar to produce a local dish, lempong.
The seeds can be boiled or roasted and used as confections.
Apiculture
The nectar and pollen that honeybees collect from the tree is an important honey source.
Timber
Heartwood is dark red. The relatively durable wood is used in interior construction and
for making cheaper types of furniture and packing cases.
Subfamily Grewioideae
The subfamily Grewioideae consists of 25 genera with about 770 species that are mostly
native to the tropical areas of the world. The representatives of the Grewioideae typically have
free sepals. Nectar glands can sit on the petals or on the androgynophore.
List of Genera
Ancistocarpus
Apeiba
*Clappertonia
Colona
*Corchorus
Desplastia
Duboscia
Eleutherostylis
Entelea
Erinocarpus
Glyphaea
Goethalsia
Grewia
Heliocarpus
Hydrogaster
Luehea
Lueheopsis
Microcos
Pseudocorchorus
Mollia
Sparrmannia
Tetralix
Trichospermum
Triumfetta
Vasivaea
Vinticena
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Grewioideae
Genus:
Corchorus
Species:
C. olitorius L.
* genera of chosen representative species
Common Name
Saluyot, Nalta jute, tossa jute,
and Jew's mallow
Figure 13 shows the plant (A), flower (B), fruit (C) and seeds (D) of
Corchorus olitorius
Etymology
The word 'jute' is probably coined from the word jhuta or jota meaning ‘twisted hair’.
Description
Corchorus olitorius is an annual, much-branched herb 90-120 cm tall; stems glabrous.
Leaves 6-10 cm long, 3.5-5 cm broad, elliptic-lanceolate, apically acute or acuminate, glabrous,
serrate, the lower serratures on each side prolonged into a filiform appendage over 6 mm long,
rounded at the base, 3-5 nerved; petioles 2-2.5 cm long, slightly pubescent, especially towards
the apex; atipules subulate, 6-10 mm long. Flowers pale yellow; bracts lanceolate; peduncle
shorter than the petiole; pedicles 1-3, very short. Sepals ca. 3 mm long, oblong, apiculate. Petals
grow 5 mm long, oblong spathulate. Style is short; stigma microscopically papillose. Fruit is
capsule growing 3-6.5 cm long, linear, cylindric erect, beaked, glabrous, 10-ribbed, 5-valved;
valves with transverse partitions between the seeds. Seeds are trigonous, black.
Ecology and Species Distribution
Rather pantropical in distribution, perhaps more often a weed than a cultivar. Considered
a serious weed in Australia, Egypt, Mozambique, the Philippines, Senegal, and Thailand, a
principal weed in the Sudan, and a common weed in Afghanistan, India, Kenya, Nepal, Turkey,
and Zambia. Systematic attempts have been made to grow jute in West Africa, Sudan, Egypt,
Turkey, Iran, Thailand, Java, Paraguay, Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico.
Threats and Conservation Status
The species C. olitorius is not in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species.
Economic Use
Food
Jew’s mallow is used as a leafy mucilaginous vegetable. The cooked leaves form a sticky
sauce, comparable to okra.
The immature fruits, called bush okra, are also dried and ground to powder for the
preparation of the slimy sauce.
Fiber
Whole jute stems are suitable as raw material for paper pulp – produces sugar bags and
wrapping; and is also made into hard, thick paper, suitable for cards and labels.
The woody central core (stick) can be processed into paper, board and cellulose.
It can also be used as a source of fiber. Its fiber is strong and waterproof, making it
perfect for the production of burlap sacks, furnishings and even clothing.
Nutritive value
The leaves are very nutritious, rich in beta-carotene, iron, protein, calcium, thiamin,
riboflavin, niacin, folate, vitamin C and E and dietary fiber.
Medicinal use
Root scraping and decoction is reportedly used to treat toothache and as a tonic.
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Grewioideae
Genus:
Clappertonia
Species:
C. ficifolia
(Willd.) Decne.
Common Name
Bolo-bolo
Figure 14 shows the plant (A), fruit (B), flower (C) and closer view of plant (D)
of Clappertinia ficifolia
Etymology
The genus name Clappertonia is derived from the 19th century British explorer named
Hugh Clapperton. Its species name “ficifolia” means “fig-like”, in reference to the highly
variable (on the same plant) leaves which can sometimes resemble the lobed leaves of the edible
fig (Ficus carica).
Description
Clappertonia ficifolia is a shrub up to 3 m tall; young branches reddish, with dull
yellowish to brownish stellate hairs. Leaves alternate, simple; stipules lanceolate, 8-12 mm long;
petiole 0.5-9 mm long, with short and soft hairs; blade usually oblong to ovate, 1-15 cm, lower
leaves 3-5-lobed, base rounded to subcordate, apex rounded, margin toothed, upper surface green
and with stiff hairs or minutely soft hairy, lower surface short soft hairy to densely white hairy,
5-7-veined from the base. Inflorescence a terminal or axillary panicle up to 15 cm long, with 13-flowered axillary cymes up to 3.5 cm long; bracts conspicuous, unequal, caducous. Flowers
bisexual, regular, 4(-5)-merous; pedicel 5-14 mm long; sepals up to 3.5 cm long, 6 mm wide,
pinkish to purplish red; petals round, up to 3 cm - 2 cm, clawed, bright pink, purple or bluemauve, rarely white; fertile stamens 16, yellow or pink, staminodes numerous; ovary superior,
oblong, 4-8-celled, densely yellow-hairy. Fruit a capsule 3-7 cm, entirely covered with hairy
prickles, each tipped with a bristle, many-seeded. Seeds round, c. 2 mm in diameter, greyish.
Ecology and Species Distribution
Clappertonia ficifolia is very widespread in continental tropical Africa. It is introduced
and grown as an ornamental in many tropical gardens, for instance in Sri Lanka, Singapore,
Borneo, New Guinea, Panama and the southern United States. Originally in tropical Africa, but
introduced in tropical Asia and the Pacific. In Borneo collected in Sarawak and East-Kalimantan.
Introduced in tropical Asia, and usually growing in secondary vegetation types or planted near or
in villages.
Economic Use
Fiber
The fiber is used for making rope, twine, cordage and mats, nets, hammocks, fish traps
and paper pulp.
Other Uses
In Cameroon, the leafy stems are pounded with water and in this way a slimy liquid is
produced that is added to mud and manure. This mixture is smeared on house walls and
floors. Beehives made from culms are smeared with the same preparation.
The wood is used for making floats for fishing.
Subfamily Brownlowioideae
Brownlowioideae is a subfamily of Malvaceae with only ten genera, and approximately
70 species. It is predominantly South East Asian (Sri Lanka and south east India, through South
East Asia to the Pacific Islands as far as Fiji, and North to Hainan, but Christiana has one species
in Tahiti, two in South America, and a fourth ranging from Madagascar through tropical Africa
to Northern South America, and Carpodiptera is found in East Africa, the Comoros, Mexico,
Trinidad and the Antilles.
List of Genera
*Berrya
Christiana
Pentace
Indagator
Brownlowia
*Diplodiscus
Pityranthe
Hainania
Carpodiptera
Jarandersonia
* genera of chosen representative species
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Brownlowioideae
Genus:
Berrya
Species:
B. cordifolia
(Willd.) Burret
Common Name
Trincomalee Wood
Figure 15 shows the branch with inflorescence (A), the flower (B), and
the whole tree (C) of Berrya cordifolia
Etymology
Berrya cordifolia is commonly known as Trincomalee tree, which came from the place
where the wood is annually exported from. (Trincomalee, Sri Lanka).
Description
B. cordifolia are trees that grows 4-6(-35) m tall, 10-20 cm dbh. Stipules are filiform, 1-2
cm, glabrous; petiole grows 3.5-10 cm; leaves are ovate to ovate-oblong, 10-20(-25) × 6-8(-14)
cm, thinly leathery, very sparsely stellate pubescent, soon glabrous, lateral veins 4 or 5 pairs,
base cordate, apex acuminate. Inflorescences are panicle measures as long as 20 cm, and are
hairy. Pedicel measures ca. 10 mm. Calyx has 3-5-lobed, 3-5 mm, lobes triangular-ovate, hairy.
Petals are white or pink, filiform, 6-8 mm, becoming reflexed. Stamens grows 5-6 mm. Ovary
hairy; style short. Capsule with persistent calyx, globose, 1-1.3 cm wide, pubescent, with 6(or 8)
horizontally spreading thin wings, wings 2.5-3 × 0.7-1 cm. Seeds ca. 6 × 3 mm, with brown or
yellow, caducous bristles.
Ecology and Species Distribution
Berrya cordifolia requires partial shade especially in the seedling stage; solitary trees in
full sun grow poorly. It does not grow well on clayey soils; it tolerates poor drainage, but it is not
resistant to drought. In Thailand, fire was found to favor germination of the seeds in soil.
Berrya cordifolia occurs naturally in tropical Asia: Taiwan [Cambodia, India, Indonesia,
Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam.]
Threats and Conservation Status
Berrya cordifolia is not in the list of IUCN Red List and therefore have been widely
cultivated in different regions. But because of the wide geographic distribution of it, there is a
little risk of genetic erosion.
Economic Uses
The wood of Berrya cordifolia yields to a valuable timber used for high quality furniture,
but suitable for a wide range of uses, including light and heavy construction, flooring mine
props, boat building, vehicle bodies, cartwheels, tool handles, ladders, sporting goods,
agricultural implements, boxes and other packing materials, sleepers and beams, poles carving,
turnery, draining boards, cooperage, oars and paddles, paneling and paper making.
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Brownlowioideae
Genus:
Diplodiscus
Species:
D. paniculatus
Turcz.
Common Name
Baroba
Figure 16 shows the flower (A) and the leaves (B) of Diplodiscus
paniculatus
Etymology
The specific epithet paniculatus meaning tuft (bunch of hairs that grow close together)
probably refers to its flower.
Description
Diplodiscus paniculatus is a tree reaching a height of about 20 meters and a diameter of
80 centimeters with an irregular trunk and a buttressed base. Its bark is brown, flaky, and fibrous.
Its leaves are simple, alternate, chartaceous, and each measures15 to 25 centimeters long. The
leaf base is obtuse to rounded and frequently inequilateral. The apex is acute and its upper
surface is shiny while the lower is grayish. Young leaves have a purplish tinge. Its flowers are
yellowish white, fragrant, short pedicelled, and each has five calyx segments and five petals.
The stamens are interlaced. The ovary is scale covered and style-free towards the top. Its fruits
are brown, scaly, somewhat ridged longitudinally, sub-globosely hard, and each measures about
two centimeters in diameter.
Ecology and Species Distribution
Diplodiscus paniculatus is very common and widely distributed in the forests of northern
Luzon to southern Mindanao at low and medium altitudes. It has a wide distribution in Luzon
(Cagayan to Sorsogon), Alabat, Catanduanes, Mindoro, Masbate, Ticao, Samar, Leyte, Cebu,
Panay, Dinagat, and all provinces of Mindanao in primary and secondary forests at low and
medium attitudes.
Threats and Conservation Status
Diplodiscus paniculatus or barobo tree (balobo, bayobo in some areas) is in the "Red
List" of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Red list, according to
classification standards of the said organization is a database of threatened species. Rates of
habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines.
Economic Uses
The wood of Diplodiscus paniculatus is used for Venetian blinds, bowling pins, bobbins,
spindles and shuttles, house posts, agricultural implements, general construction work, and
charcoal produced by retort method. Seed kernels roasted or boiled can be eaten like peanuts.
Balobo is also ideal for toothpicks, tool handles, packing boxes and for pulp and paper.
Subfamily Dombeyoideae
Dombeyoideae are shrubs, trees or herbs with stellate or lepidote indumentums. Leaves
are simple, sometimes cordate and/or palmatilobed or rarely dissected. Flowers in axillary cymes
or solitary on indeterminate shoots; epicalyx bracts present, often distant from calyx, sometimes
incised or partite, distinct, rarely fused to form a closed envelope enclosing flower buds; sepals
basally fused to almost free, often with glandular hairs on ventral face, sometimes persistent;
petals usually contorted, often asymmetric, sometimes persistent; androgynophore absent;
stamens usually forming a staminal tube, more rarely almost free, anthers on distinct, partly free
filaments; staminodes usually integrated in staminal tube, entire, usually linear to ovate, rarely
lacking; ovary (1-) 5 (-10)- locular, locules 1- to many- ovulate, style usually with apical style
branches. Fruits are usually capsular, thick and woody to coriaceous or thin, membranaceous,
endocarp often pubescent, especially at central part of septae; seed coat glabrous; endosperm
abundant or reduced; cotyledons usually bilobed to bipartite, radicle next to hilum.
Dombeyoideae is a subfamily consisting of 20 genera and 350 species, which can be
found in Madagascar, Mascaranes, Africa, South Asia, Malesia, Philippines and St. Helena.
List of Genera
Astiria
Burretiodendron
Corchoropsis
Ruizia
Cheirolaena
Harmsia
Sicrea
Trochetiopsis
Eriolaena
Nesogordonia
*Dombeya
Trochetia
Helmiopsiella
Pentapetes
Paramelhania
Helmiopsis
Pentapetes
Paradombeya
Melhania
Pterospermum
Schoutenia
*genera of chosen representative species
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Dombeyoideae
Genus:
Dombeya
Species:
D. acutangula
Cav.
Common Name
Bois Bete (French)
Figure 17 shows the leaves (A) and flowers (B) of Dombeya acutangula
Etymology
The genus name Dombeya was named after a French botanist Joseph Dombey, the
species epithet acutangula is derived from Latin acuti- (pointed, acute, sharp) and anguli- (angle,
corner) components meaning 'with sharp angles' in reference to its leaves.
Description
Dombeya acutangula is a shrub or small tree. Leaves are broadly ovate to suborbicular,
6-16 cm long and broad, stellate tomentose on both sides, deeply cordate, serrate, 3-5-lobed,
lobes acute-acuminate; petiole 4-18 cm long, patent hairy. Inflorescence is an axillary cyme,
peduncle 5-8 cm long, tomentose. Flowers are pinkish, 2-3 cm across; pedicel 1.5-2.5 cm long,
tomentose; bracts 3, ovate, c. 1 cm long, c. 5-6 mm broad, acuminate, caducous. Sepals are
linear-lanceolate, 1-1.5 cm long, 3-4 mm broad, pubescent outside, persistent. Petals are obliqueobovate, 1.5-2 cm long, 1-1.5 cm broad. Fertile stamens are 8-10 mm long, staminode measures
1-1.5 cm long. Carpels are 5; ovary oblong, densely villous; style as long as staminodes;
stigmas 5, recurved-coiled. Fruit is oblong, pentagonal, 5-8 cm long, 3-4 mm broad, densely
villous.
Ecology and Species Distribution
Dombeya acutangula occurs in tropical lowland montane forest at 300-500 m altitude.
The species is Indigenous to Mascarene Isles; introduced in Pakistan, India and U.S.A.
Threats and Conservation Status
Dombeya acutangula is in the list of IUCN Red List and categorized as critically
endangered since year 2000. There is a net decline. in area of occupancy based on direct
observation. The total population is recorded as being less than 50 individuals. Exsitu conservation of this species has already been implemented, and it occurs in cultivation as
ornamental plants in private gardens.
Economic Uses
It serves as an ornamental tree since it has charming pale (white or light pink) flowers in
small clusters, but since it is almost extinct due to habitat loss, it is not considered as its
economic use.
Subfamily Tilioideae
Tilioideae is a subfamily consisting of 3 genera and 30 species that can be found in
temperate decidouous forest in eastern North America (extending to South East Canada, North
East Mexico and the highlands of Southern Mexico), Europe and South West Asia, Siberia and
East Asia but absent from Western North America and the temperate Himalayas.
List of genera
Craigia
Mortoniodendron
*Tilia
* genera of chosen representative species
Tilioideae are trees with simple, usually serrate leaves, often with hairy domatia.
Inflorescences axillary, 3 to many flowered, usually dichasial. Flowers actinomorphic; sepals
distinct, often with trichomatous nectar at ventral base; petals narrowly ovate; stamens
numerous, distinct or almost so, antepetalou, in Craigia in groups of 4 enclosed by petals and
staminodes; anthers dithecal; staminodes antepetalous, sometimes resembling the petals,
sometimes absent; ovary usually 5-locular, locules with 2 ascending or numerous ovules.
Scientific Classification
Kingdom:
Plantae
(unranked):
Angiosperms
(unranked):
Eudicots
(unranked):
Rosids
Order:
Malvales
Family:
Malvaceae
Subfamily:
Tilioideae
Genus:
Tilia
Species:
T. cordata Mill.
Common Name
Small-leaved Lime, Little-leaf
Linden
Figure 18 shows the heart-shaped leaves (A) and the inflorescence of Tilia cordata
Etymology
Teil is an old name for the lime tree. Latin tilia is cognate to Greek ptelea, "elm tree",
tiliai, "black poplar", ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European word ptel-ei̯ ā with a meaning of
"broad" (feminine); perhaps "broad-leaved" or similar. The specific epithet cordata is a Latin
adjective meaning heart-shaped probably refers to leaves.
Description
Tilia cordata is a deciduous tree growing to 20–40 m (66–131 ft) tall, diameter 1/3 to 1/2
the height, with a trunk up to 1 m diameter. The bark is smooth and grayish when young, firm
with vertical ridges and horizontal fissures when older. The crown is rounded in a formal oval
shape to pyramidal. Branching is upright and increases in density with age. The leaves are
alternately arranged, rounded to triangular-ovate, 3–8 cm long and broad, mostly hairless. The
leaves are distinctively heart-shaped. The buds are alternate, pointed egg shaped and have red
scales. It has no terminal bud. The small yellow-green hermaphrodite flowers are produced in
clusters of five to eleven in early summer with a leafy yellow-green subtending bract, have a
rich, heavy scent; the trees are much visited by bees. The fruit is a dry nut-like drupe 6–7 mm
long by 4 mm broad.
Ecology and Species Distribution
Tilia cordata is easily grown in average, medium, well-drained soils in full sun to part
shade. Prefers moist, fertile, well-drained loams, but adapts to a wide range of soil conditions.
Good tolerance for urban conditions. Tolerant of heavy pruning, and may be grown as a hedge.
Tilia cordata is a species of Tilia native to much of Europe from Britain, through central
Scandinavia, to central Russia, and south to central Spain, Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania,
Turkey, the Caucasus, and western Asia.
Threats and Conservation Status
Tilia cordata is not in the list of IUCN Red List and therefore have been widely
cultivated in different regions.
Economic Uses
Medicine
The flowers of Tilia cordata are a popular domestic remedy for a number of ailments,
especially in the treatment of colds and other ailments where sweating is desirable.
hypotensive, laxative and sedative.
hardening of the arteries, hysteria, nervous vomiting or palpitation.
A tea made from the fresh or dried flowers is antispasmodic, diaphoretic, expectorant,
Lime flower tea is also used internally in the treatment of indigestion, hypertension,
Flowers of Tilia cordata are said to develop narcotic properties as they age and so they
should only be harvested when freshly opened.
A charcoal made from the wood is used in the treatment of gastric or dyspeptic
disturbances and is also made into a powder then applied to burns or sore places.
Fiber
A fiber from the inner bark is used to make mats, shoes, baskets, ropes etc. It is also
suitable for cloth. It is harvested from trunks that are 15 - 30cm in diameter.
The fiber can also be used for making paper.
Conclusion
The Malvaceae is a cosmopolitan family with many members that are agriculturally very
important, like Gossypium sp. (cotton), Theobroma cacao (chocolate), Durio zibethinus (durian
fruit), Corchorus olitorius (jute), Abelmoschus esculenta (okra) and other ornamentals like
Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Abutilon sp., Althaea sp., Malva sp., and Tilia sp.
Plants under this family are distinctive in being herbs, shrubs, or trees, often with stellate
trichomes, typically with an epicalyx, the calyx valvate, the corolla often convolute [sometimes
valvate or imbricate] the stamens connate as a tube or 5 ∞ bundles, with monothecal or dithecal
anthers, gynoecium syncarpous [rarely apocarpous], ovary superior [rarely inferior], ovules axile
or marginal, the fruit a capsule, schizocarp of mericarps, berry, or samara.
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