Malvaceae and its Subfamilies

Renzo Val  Agapito

The Malvaceae is subdivided into 9 subfamilies namely Bombacoideae, Brownlowioideae, Byttnerioideae, Dombeyoideae, Grewioideae, Helicteroideae, Malvoideae, Sterculioideae and Tilioideae. It is comprised of many important agricultural crops like Gossypium sp., Abelmoschus sp., Durio sp. and Theobroma cacao. The family is distinctive in having stellate trichomes, typically with an epicalyx, the calyx valvate, corolla often convolute [sometimes valvate or imbricate] the stamens connate as a tube or 5 ∞ bundles, with monothecal or dithecal anthers.

Malvaceae and its Subfamilies Polytechnic University of the Philippines, Manila BS Biology 2-1 1 Renzo Val Agapito, and 1Kyrie Eleison Lababo 2 Ma. Eleanor Calapatia-Salvador 1 Biology Student, Department of Biology, College of Science, Polytechnic University of the Philippines 2 Faculty, Department of Biology, College of Science, Polytechnic University of the Philippines Abstract The Malvaceae is subdivided into 9 subfamilies namely Bombacoideae, Brownlowioideae, Byttnerioideae, Dombeyoideae, Grewioideae, Helicteroideae, Malvoideae, Sterculioideae and Tilioideae. It is comprised of many important agricultural crops like Gossypium sp., Abelmoschus sp., Durio sp. and Theobroma cacao. The family is distinctive in having stellate trichomes, typically with an epicalyx, the calyx valvate, corolla often convolute [sometimes valvate or imbricate] the stamens connate as a tube or 5 ∞ bundles, with monothecal or dithecal anthers. Keywords: Malvaceae, Gossypium, Abelmoschus, Durio, Theobroma, stellate trichomes, and epicalyx Introduction The traditional Malvaceae s.s., consists of about 111-119 genera. It is a homogenous and cladistically monophyletic family, therefore, subfamilies are not applicable and only divided into tribes. In the broader APG circumscription, Malavaceae s.l has been more recently defined on the basis that molecular techniques have shown the commonly recognized families Bombacaceae, Tiliaceae, and Sterculiaceae, which have always been considered closely allied to Malvaceae s.s., are not monophyletic groups. Thus, the family has expanded to include 243 genera, and about 4225 species and has been divided into 9 subfamilies, one of which is Malvaceae s.s. (Edlin, 1935) (Bayer et. al., 1999). The 9 subfamilies of Malvaceae s.l. (hereafter simply Malvaceae) are Bombacoideae, Brownlowioideae, Byttnerioideae, Dombeyoideae, Grewioideae, Helicteroideae, Malvoideae, Sterculioideae and Tilioideae. A tentative cladogram was shown Scientific classification Kingdom: Plantae below (Fig. 1). The diamond denotes a poorly supported branching (<80%). (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Juss. Figure 1 shows the tentative cladogram of subfamilies of Malvaceae based on Angiosperm Phylogeny Website Subfamilies Malvaceae family members are often herbs or shrubs, Bombacoideae Brownlowioideae Byttnerioideae Dombeyoideae Grewioideae Helicteroideae Malvoideae Sterculioideae Tilioideae rarely small (Thespesia) or large (Tilia) trees. Plants are usually mucilaginous. Leaves are alternate, simple, sometimes palmately lobed (Gossypium), palmately veined, pubescence stellate or of peltate scales, stipules present. Inflorescence is cymose (Pavonia) or flowers solitary axillary. Flowers are bracteate (Abutilon) or ebracteate (Hibiscus) bisexual, actinomorphic, hypogynous. Calyx with 3 to 5 sepals, more or less united, often subtended by epicalyx (bracteoles), epicalyx 3 (Malva), 5-8 (Althaea) or absent (Sida). Corolla consists of 3 to 5 petals (rarely none), free, imbricate, and often adnate at base to staminal tube. Androecium with 5 to many stamens, filaments united into a tube (monadelphous), epipetalous, anthers monothecous, dehiscence transverse, pollen grains large with spinous exine, triporate or multiporate, tricolpate in Abutilon. Gynoecium with 2 to many (rarely 1) united carpels (syncarpous), multilocular (locules as many as carpels) with many ovules, placentation axile, ovary superior, styles branched above, stigmas as many as carpels or twice as many (Malvaviscus). Fruit a loculicidal capsule or schizocarp (Malva), follicles (Sterculia), rarely a berry (Malvaviscus); seeds 1-many, embryo curved, endosperm absent. Flowers are insect pollinated, nectar usually produced by inner surface of calyx. Dispersal may occur by wind, water, or animals. Large indehiscent pods of Adansonia are dispersed by large mammals. Members of the family are distributed worldwide, especially in tropical regions. Economic importance includes medicinal plants; several fiber plants, especially Gossypium spp. (cotton, the world’s most important fiber plant) and Ceiba pentandra (kapok), in both of which the seed trichomes are utilized, and Corchorus spp. (jute), a bast fiber plant and source of burlap; food and flavoring plants, such as Theobroma cacao (cacao, the source of chocolate), Cola nitida (cola), Abelmoschus (okra), and Durio zibethinus (durian); wood, such as Ochroma pyramidale (balsa) and Pachira aquatica; and numerous ornamental cultivars, such as Brachychiton, Chorisia (floss-silk tree), Dombeya, Fremontodendron, Hibiscus (mallows), and Tilia (linden tree). Many others, such as Adansonia digitata (baobab, tropical Africa) are of great local economic or ecological importance. K 3-5 or (3-5) C 3-5 [0] A 5-∞ G 2-∞ [1], superior [rarely inferior]. Methodology The information on the botanical description, species distribution, propagation, and economical uses of the representative species from the 9 subfamilies under Malvaceae family were collated from different journals, researches, studies and steadfast websites. Results Subfamily Malvoideae Subfamily Malvoideae is almost cosmopolitan with 111-115 genera and 1800-2000 species, throughout the warm temperate and temperate zones worldwide, but mostly in the New World where 78 genera and about 1200-1400 species are present.  List of genera Tribe Kydieae *Abelmoschus Kosteletzkya Pavonia Kydia Anotea Malachra Peltaea Tribe Hibisceae *Hibiscus Malvaviscus Phragmocarpidium Rojasimalva Bakeridesia Gaya Nototriche Talipariti Bastardia Herissantia Palaua Urena Bastardiastrum Hochneutinera Periptera Wercklea Bastardiopsis Horsfordia Phymosia Tribe Gossypieae Batasimalva Kearnemalvastrum Pseudabutilon Cienfuegosia Billieturnera Krapovickasia Rhynchosida *Gossypium Bordasia Lecanophora Robinsonella Thespesia Briquetia Lavatera *Sida Tribe Malveae Callirhoe Malacothamnus Sidalcea Abutilon Calyculogygas Malva Sidasodes Acaulimalva Calyptraemalva Malvastrum Sidastrum Akrosida Corynabutilon Malvella Spirabutilon Alcea Cristaria Meximalva Sphaeralcea Alcea rosea Dendrosida Modiola Tarasa Allosidastrum Dirhamphis Modiolastrum Tetrasida Allowissadula Eremalche Monteiroa Wissadula Andimalva Fryxellia Neobaclea Anoda Fuertesimalva Neobrittonia * genera of chosen representative species Species under Subfamily Malvoideae are usually herbs, shrubs or trees. Leaves are alternate, simple to dissected, ovate to lanceolate or cordate. Leaf venation with 3-5-nerved from the base, margins entire, crenate, or serrate, stipules present, often falling early; indumentum usually of stellate hairs or simple, glandular or lepidote hairs, sometimes with extrafloral nectaries. Flowers usually bisexual, actinomorphic, axillary or terminal, solitary or in fasciculate panicles, racemes or spikes; epicalyx present or absent. Calyx of 5 sepals fused basally, corolla of 5 petals, these usually clawed, adnate to base of the stamens. Androecium consists of few to many stamens, filaments fused into a tube. The position of ovary superior, syncarpous, 1-40locular, styles usually branched. Fruit a loculicidal capsule or schizocarp with variously ornamented mericarps, rarely a berry. Seeds are solitary to numerous, pubescent or glabrous; endosperm oily. K 5 C 5 A ∞, superior Representative Species Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Malvoideae Tribe: Hibisceae Genus: Abelmoschus Species: A. esculentus (L.) Moench Common Name Figure 2 shows the fruit (A), leaves (B), flower (C) and the whole plant of Abelmoschus esculenta Okra, lady’s fingers Etymology The word ‘okra’ came from a West African word, perhaps from the root nkru. Its specific epithet ‘esculenta’, is the scientific Latin for esculent or edible. Description Abelmoschus esculentus (okra) is an annual herb growing up to 2 m. tall. Its stems are succulent and setulose. Leaf lamina measures up to 25 × 25 cm., suborbicular in outline, palmatifid, -lobed or -sect, sparsely to densely setulose or setose-pilose on both surfaces especially on the nerves. Leaf margin is serrate, its base is cuneate to cordate. Petiole rises up to 30 cm. long; stipules are up to 15 mm. long, filiform, densely pilose. Flower is 8 cm. in diameter, with five white to yellow petals, often with a red or purple spot at the base of each petal; peduncle 1–4 cm. long, stout, thickened in fruit. Epicalyx with 10–12 bracts; bracts up to 25 × 2.5 mm., narrowly linear-triangular, caducous. Calyx is 3–4 cm. long, with 5 short linear teeth. Petals are up to 7–8 cm. long. Staminal tube 12–20 mm. long; free parts of filaments up to 0·5 mm. long. Style is projecting up to 1 mm. beyond the staminal tube. Fruit is capsule growing up to 14 cm. long, ellipsoid to very narrowly ellipsoid, at first appressed-setose and pubescent, later glabrescent. Seed size is 5 × 4 mm., depressed-globose, slightly humped, with concentric lines of minute stellate hairs or scales and sometimes pilose. Ecology and Species Distribution Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) is widely distributed in tropical to subtropical regions in Africa, Asia, Southern Europe, Mediterranean countries, and America. Okra is mainly grown as a vegetable in the plains of Egypt. It grows well under warm climatic conditions (temperatures above 26°C). Threats and Conservation Status Abelmoschus esculentus is not in the list of IUCN Red List and therefore have been widely cultivated in different regions. Propagation Okra is typically propagated from seed. The seeds were soaked in water overnight prior to planting helps the plants to germinate. Economic Uses Food   Immature fruit can be cooked or added to soups etc. They can be used fresh or dried.  Mucilagens of the fruit are commonly used as a thickening for soups, stews and sauces.  tofu. The seeds can be cooked or ground into a meal and used in making bread or made into The roasted seed is a coffee substitute.   The seed contains up to 22% of edible oil. The leaves, flower buds, flowers and calyces can be eaten cooked as greens. The leaves can be dried, crushed into a powder and can be used as a flavoring. Medicinal Use   The juice of the roots is used externally in Nepal to treat cuts, wounds and boils. A decoction of the immature capsules is demulcent, diuretic and emollient. It is used in the treatment of catarrhal infections, ardor urinae, dysuria and gonorrhea. Fiber   The fiber obtained from the stems is used as a substitute for jute. It is also used in making paper and textiles. Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Malvoideae Tribe: Gossypieae Genus: Gossypium Species: G. hirsutum L. Common Name Upland cotton, Mexican cotton Figure 3 shows the leaves (A), flower (B), cotton (C) and fruit (D) of Gossypium hirsutum Etymology The word gossypium came from Latin word From Latin ‘gossypinus’, ‘gossympĭnus’ meaning “cotton”. Its specific epithet hirsutum was derived from a Latin word 'hirsutus' meaning "shaggy" Description Gossypium hirsutum (cotton) is an annual herb or perennial shrub up to 3 m tall, usually much branched, with nearly all parts irregularly dotted with black oil glands. Leaves spirally arranged; stipules ovate to lanceolate, often falcate, 5–15(–20) mm × 2–5 mm; petiole 2–10 cm long; blade orbicular in outline, 3–15 cm in diameter, palmately 3-lobed, rarely palmatifid, lower ones sometimes 5-lobed, upper ones occasionally ovate and entire, base cordate, lobes broadly ovate to triangular, apex acute to acuminate, sinuses acute to rounded, margin entire, densely pubescent to glabrous, palmately 5–7-veined, with nectaries on the central basal veins beneath. Flowers solitary, usually on sympodial branches; pedicel 1–4 cm long, not articulated, with 3 nectaries below the insertion of the epicalyx segments; epicalyx segments (bracteoles) 3, free, closely enveloping the flower and fruit, ovate to triangular, 2–6.5 cm × 1.5–4 cm, cordate at base, margin with 3–19 acuminate teeth, persistent; calyx campanulate to cupular, 5–7 mm long and 6 mm in diameter, truncate or with 5 rounded (rarely acuminate) segments, outside with 3 inconspicuous nectaries, ruptured after flowering; corolla usually pale yellow to white, rarely with a purplish centre, petals 5, imbricate, obovate, 2–5.5 cm long; stamens numerous, forming a column 1–2 cm long, filaments 3–4 mm long, anthers 1-celled; pistil with 3–5-celled ovary and one short style with clavate, 3–5-sulcate stigma. Fruit (‘boll’) an ovoid or globose capsule 2–5 cm × 1–1.5 cm, rostrate at the apex, coarsely pitted, glabrous, opening loculicidally, 3–5-celled with several seeds per cell. Seeds ovoid, 3.5–10 mm long, acute at the hilum, black or brown with a dense covering of white or rusty, long, woolly hairs (lint or floss) and with a fine, short tomentum (fuzz) everywhere or only at the hilum. The seedlings are with epigeal germination. Ecology and Species Distribution Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) is a native of Central America, southern North America. It is also cultivated in the Philippines. The cotton grows well under warm climatic conditions (temperatures 25-30°C). Threats and Conservation Status Gossypium hirsutum is not included in the list of IUCN Red List and therefore still propagating well and has a great number of populations throughout the world. Propagation Cotton is propagated from seed by planting directly in a prepared field when growing conditions are favorable (suitable temperature, adequate rainfall etc). Cotton should only be planted when the soil has warmed to at least 18.3°C (65°F). Generally, seeds should be sown at a depth of 0.25 cm (1 in), with 3–6 seed sown in each hole. Economic Use Fiber  Main fibers are used for making yarn to be woven into textile fabrics, alone or in  combination with other plant, animal or synthetic fibers.  nets.  writing, book and drawing paper.  explosives, plastics and photographic film.  been used for the production of cellulose acetate and viscose. Cotton lint is also made into other products including sewing thread, cordage and fishing Cotton textile cuttings and rags serve in the paper industry for the production of the best Short fibres (‘fuzz’ or ‘linters’) are processed into papers, twine, automobile upholstery, Linter pulp is made into various types of paper, depending on its grade. Linters have also Cotton stalks are processed into paper and paperboard, for instance in China, and into cement-bonded particle board. Seed   Oil in cotton seed is used in a range of products, including margarine, mayonnaise, salad and cooking oils, salad dressing and shortening. It is also made into soap, cosmetics, lubricants, sulphonated oils and protective coatings. Locally it serves for cooking and frying.   Blends of cotton-oil biodiesel and diesel fuel can be used in conventional diesel engines without any major changes. The seeds are ground in cold water to produce paint. Medicinal Use   The powdered seed or a seed decoction is taken against convulsions with fever. The root is chewed or a root decoction drunk against stomach-ache. Also used to treat postpartum relapse sickness, to treat boils, sores and inflammations. Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Malvoideae Tribe : Hibisceae Genus: Hibiscus Species: H. rosa-sinensis L. Common Name Figure 4 shows the whole flower (A) and the monadelphous stamen (B) of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Gumamela, China rose, Shoe flower Etymology The English word “hibiscus” comes almost directly from the Greek word “hibiskos.” The flowers received their name from Pedanius Dioscorides. The Latin term rosa-sinensis literally means "rose of China", though it is not closely related to the true roses. Description Gumamela (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) is an ornamental shrub. Leaves are alternate, simple, serrate, stipulate, unicostate reticulate. The inflorescence is solitary axillary, peduncle jointed. The flower is ebracteate, pedicellate, complete, actinomorphic, bisexual, hypogynous, mucilaginous, pentamerous, cyclic. The epicalyx is 5-7, free, green and linear. Calyx has 5 gamosepalous, campanulate, valvate, green, inferior tepals. Corolla has 5, polypetalous, twisted, red, mucilaginous, inferior. Androecium has many, monadelphous, epipetalous, staminal tube with 5 antipetalous teeth at apex, anthers monothecous, transversely attached, dehiscence longitudinal, extrorse. Gynoecium has pentacarpellary syncarpous superior ovary, pentalocular, ovules many, placentation axile, style divided above into 5 branches, stigmas 5, capitate. The fruit is loculicidal capsule. Ecology and Species Distribution Hibiscus rosa-sinensis are native to Tropical Asia. A native of Southeastern Asia (China), the plant is commonly found throughout the tropics and as a house plant throughout the world. Most ornamental varieties are hybrids. The present wide range of cultivars is considered to be a complex of inter specific hybrids, between 8 or more different species originating from the African East Coast and islands in the Indian and Pacific Ocean. Threats and Conservation Status Gumamela (Hibiscus rosa-sinensis) is not included in the IUCN Red List of threatened species. Propagation It is normally propagated by softwood stem tip cuttings taken in late spring. Also by seeds, it should be collected before they are ejected from the capsule in the spring and scarified Economical use  The flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis are edible and are used in salads in the Pacific Islands.  The flower is additionally used in hair care as a preparation. It is also used to shine shoes  in certain parts of India.  dark pink or magenta color and basic solutions to green. It can also be used as a pH indicator. When used, the flower turns acidic solutions to a It may have some potential in cosmetic skin care; for example, an extract from the flowers of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis has been shown to function as an anti-solar agent by absorbing ultraviolet radiation. Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Malvoideae Tribe : Malveae Genus: Sida Species: S. acuta Burm.f. Common Name Common Wireweed Figure 5 shows the leaves (A), and the flowers (B) closer view of flower (C) of Sida acuta Etymology The genus name Sida is from the Greek for "pomegranate or water lily". The specific epithet ‘acuta’ means small radius as in angle (acute). Description S. acuta is a small, erect, perennial shrub, branching profusely from the base. It usually ranges from 30-150 cm in height, but grows to 3 m in favorable conditions in northern Australia. The stems are fibrous to almost woody, with a tough stringy bark. There is a deep, tough taproot. The leaves are alternate, lanceolate, acute, tapering towards both ends, and on a short, hairy petiole 3-6 mm long. The leaves have toothed margins, are smooth or have sparse stellate hairs and have prominent veins on the undersurface. The leaves are quite variable in size, from 2-9 cm long and 0.5-4 cm wide. The pair of stipules at the base of each leaf are not equal, with one frequently much narrower than the other. The flowers are yellow, solitary, 1-2 cm in diameter and on a short stalk 0.3-0.8 cm long. There are five petals, joined at the base and with a shallow notch at the apex. The fruit is a hard, brown capsule, 3-5 mm in diameter, breaking into 5-8 triangular segments. Each segment contains one seed and has a pair of sharp awns or 'beaks' 11.5 mm long which attach readily to animal fur or clothing. The seeds are small, reddish-brown to black, wedge-shaped, deeply indented on both sides, rounded on the back and about 1.5 mm long. Ecology and Species Distribution This species may have originated in Central America, but it is now widespread throughout the tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world (i.e. pan-tropical). It invades open woodlands, pastures, waterways (i.e. riparian vegetation), plantations, crops, gardens, disturbed sites, roadsides and waste areas. Widely naturalized overseas, including in eastern Asia (i.e. China and Taiwan) and on several Pacific islands (e.g. the Galapagos Islands, the Chuuk Islands, Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Kiribati, the Marshall Islands, Nauru, New Caledonia, Niue, Palau and the Solomon Islands). Threats and Conservation Status It is not included in the IUCN and CITES list of threatened species. Economic Uses Medicinal Uses    Decoction of roots and leaves are emollient; taken internally for hemorrhoids, fever, and impotency and as a tonic. Decoction also used as demulcent; for gonorrhea and rheumatism. Roots use as stomachic and antipyretic.   Decoction or infusion used for fevers, dyspepsia and debility.  complaints, a teacupful twice a day. An infusion with ginger added is given in intermittent fevers and chronic bowel  Root juice, sugared or mixed with honey, used to expel worms.  Fresh juice of roots applied to wounds and ulcers to promote healing.  Juice of leaves, mixed with honey, given for dysentery and chest pains. In Nicaragua, whole plant used for asthma, colds, fever, worms, and renal inflammations. In India, used for fever, bronchitis, ulcers, diarrhea, skin diseases; paste of leaves mixed with coconut oil used for dandruff and hair strengthening. In Nigeria, used for malaria, ulcer, fever, breast cancer, poisoning, inducing abortion. In Sri Lanka, roots and leaves   used for hemorrhoids, fever, impotency, gonorrhea, and rheumatism. (13) In the Yucatan, decoction of roots used for vomiting of blood; decoction of leaves used for fever. In India, seeds are given for enlarged glands and for inflammatory swellings. Others  Fiber from the bark is yellow, delicate, filamentous, soft, very lustrous and silky in appearance, of medium strength. In Ilocos, it is used to make a superior-quality rope, of  pleasing color and gloss. Stems are used for making brooms and baskets. Subfamily Byttneroideae Subfamily Byttneroideae is a pan- and subtropical and consists of 27 genera and c. 650 species. It is widely distributed in Africa and Latin America with eight genera and 280-300 species in the Neotropics. About half the genera are restricted to Australia. Some groups are mainly found in humid tropical forest, while others are restricted in drier habitats.  List of Genera Ayenia Hermannia Waltheria Byttneria Herrania Rayleya Guazama Melochia *Theobroma Ambroma * genera of chosen representative species Species under Subfamily Byttneroideae are usually small shrubs, less often trees, lianas or herbs. Its bark is highly fibrous. Leaves are alternate or two-ranked, simple to rarely palmate (Herrania), venation is palmate or 3-nerved. Leaf margin is often serrate, stipules are present and often falling early; indumentum, if present is stellate. Inflorescence is axillary, leaf-opposed or rarely terminal thyrses, sometimes reduced to solitary flowers or cauliflorous fascicles (Theobroma and Herrania. Flowers are bisexual, actinomorphic; epicalyx are usually absent; calyx has 5 sepals fused for less than ½ their length; corolla of 5 free petals, these are often cupped of hooded and with a strap-like appendage, basally free from the androecium, sometimes completely reduced (species of Hermannia, Melochia, Waltheria); the androgynophore is absent. Androecium has 5-10 stamens rarely more, fused into short tube or fascicles, anthers usually dithecal rarely trithecal; the ovary is superior in position, (1-3) 5-locular; style is simple. Fruit a many seeded, indehiscent, fleshy berry, dehiscent capsule or schizocarp with 1-many-seeded mericarps. Seeds are usually glabrous, sometimes it is arrilate or pubescent. Representative Species Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Byttneroideae Genus: Theobroma Species: T. cacao L. Common Name Cocoa, food of the Gods, chocolate tree Figure 6 shows the flower (A), biological illustration (B), cross section of the fruit (C) and the fruits of Theobroma cocoa Etymology The generic name comes from the Greek ‘theos’ (god), and ‘broma’ (food) and means the ‘food of the gods’. Description Theobroma cacao is cauliflorous and semi-deciduous. The tree is low, reaching an average height of 5-10 m. The main trunk is short; branches in whorls of 5, dimorphic; vertical chupons growing from the trunk have leaves arranged in 5/8 phyllotaxy. The lateral branches (fans) have 1/2 phyllotaxy. Petiole of the leaves with 2 joined pulvini, one at the base and the other at the point of insertion of the leaf. Stipules 2, deciduous. Leaf lamina is elliptical-oblong or obovate-oblong, simple, 10-45 cm long; generally smooth, sometimes hairy, rounded and obtuse at the base, pointed apex. Inflorescence is dichasial; primary peduncle very short, often thick and lignified. Flower has a peduncle 1-4 cm long. Calyx has 5 sepals, triangular, whitish or reddish in color. Corolla has 5 petals, joined at the base into a cuplike structure, whitish-yellow with dark purple bands adaxially; ligules spathulate, yellowish. Androecium has 5 stamens , fertile, alternating with 5 staminodes, the 2 whorls uniting to form a tube. Anthers 2, stamens fused. Ovary is superior in position with a single style terminating in 5 sticky stigmatic surfaces. Fruit variable in shape, ovoid, oblong; sometimes pointed and constricted at the base or almost spherical, with 10 furrows of which 5 are prominent. Axial placentation, seeds embedded in mucilage, flat or round with white or purple cotyledons. Ecology and Species Distribution In its natural habitat, T. cacao is an under storey plant of forest in the wet humid tropics. Native to lowlands of South America the Cacao trees grow wild and scattered in the tropical rainforest. In the early seventeenth century, the trees were introduced to Africa by the Portuguese. Threats and Conservation Status T. cacao is not in the list of IUCN Red List and therefore huge number of population still exists in the wild. Economic Use Food   The cocoa bean, with up to 50% fat, is a valuable source of vegetable fat, cocoa butter. The residual cocoa powder is used in cakes, biscuits, drinking chocolate and other confectioneries. Fodder   The cocoa-pod husk has a low alkaloid content, while tannin is practically absent. The crude fibre content is low; it is completely unlignified and compares favourably with Panicum maximum and Centrosema pubescens. Fuel  The cocoa bean testa has a calorific value of 16 000-19 000 BTU/kg, a little higher than that for wood. Lipids   The ash from pod husks contains potassium oxide, which can be extracted in the form of potassium hydroxide, a useful alkaline in the saponification process. Cocoa-bean fat from unfermented cocoa beans can be extracted and used in soap making. Alcohol  The cocoa-pod husk can be hydrolyzed under pressure for fermentation into alcoholic drinks. Medicine  The rural people in Amazonas State, Brazil, rub cocoa butter on bruises. Soil improver  There is considerable nutrient cycling through the development of a deep leaf litter under the cocoa canopy. Intercropping  Cocoa has traditionally been established in thinned forest following logging and 1-3 years of food-crop production before the canopy closes. Crops such as maize, cocoyam, yams and plantain are commonly intercropped with cocoa in Ecuador, Jamaica and West Africa. Subfamily Bombacoideae Subfamily Bombacoideae is mostly present in the New World tropics and contains 27 genera (c. 250 species); a few of those genera (Adansonia L., Bombax L., Camptostemon Mast., and Lagunaria (DC.) Rchb.), containing c. 19 species, are restricted to the Old World tropics.  List of Genera *Adansonia *Ceiba Matisia Pseudobombax Aguiaria Chiranthodendron Neobuchia Quararibea Bernoullia Eriotheca Ochroma Rhodognaphalon Bombax Fremontodendron *Pachira Scleronema Camptostemon Gyranthera Patinoa Septotheca Catostemma Huberodendron Pentaplaris Spirotheca Cavanillesia Lagunaria Phragmotheca Uladendron * genera of chosen representative species Species under Subfamily Bombacoideae are usually trees, often buttressed and/or with a bottle-shaped trunk, and/or with chunky spines, rarely shrubs or climbers. Leaves are alternate, palmately lobed or palmate, rarely simple (Matisia and Quararibea); leaf venation is palmate or 3-nerved, the margins entire, rarely dentate; stipules present, often falling early; indumentum, if present, stellate or rarely lepidote. Inflorescence is of few-flowered, axillary clusters or panicles, solitary or rarely in leaf-opposing cymes. Flowers bisexual, actinomorphic; epicalyx conspicuous, of 2-3 bracts, usually present; calyx tubular, 5-lobed fused for ½ its length; corolla contorted, 5 free petals attached basally to the androecium; stamens 5 to numerous (up to 1,000), filaments fused into a tube or in antepetalous fascicles, anthers usually monothecal, straight, reniform or spirally contorted; ovary superior, (2-)5(-8)-locular; style with short stylar branches. Fruit a many-seeded, dehiscent, often ligneous capsule with densely hairy endocarp (e.g. kapok) or indehiscent, juicy, 1-5-seeded drupe, rarely winged. Seeds are usually glabrous, sometimes arillate or winged. Representative Species Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Bombacoideae Genus: Ceiba Species: Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn Common Name Kapok, Ceiba, Silk-cotton tree Figure 7 shows the fruit (A), whole tree (B), buttress roots (C), and the spikes on the trunk of Ceiba pentandra Etymology The generic name comes from a local South American word. The specific name “petandra”, is Latin for ‘five-stemmed’; from the Greek word “penta” (five) and “andron” (male). Description Ceiba pentandra is a tall, deciduous tree bearing short, sharp prickles all along the trunk and branches; supported by pronounced buttresses at the base. It has a light crown and is leafless for a long period. The leaf is glabrous and digitate, being composed of 5, 7 or 9 leaflets. Leaves are alternate with slender green petioles. There are usually 5 leaflets in a mature form. The leaflets hang down on short stalks; short pointed at the base and apex, not toothed on edges, thin, bright to dark green above and dull green beneath. Great quantities of flowers are in lateral clusters near the ends of the twigs. Calyx is cup-shaped, with 5-10 shallow teeth. Petals 5, white to rose colored; brown, silky, densely hair on the outer surface; Stamens 5, longer than petals, united into a column at the base. Pistil a 5- celled ovary with a long style curved near the apex and enlarged stigma. Fruit a leathery, ellipsoid, pendulous capsule, 10-30 cm long, usually tapering at both ends, rarely dehiscing on the tree. White, pale yellow or grey floss originates from the inside wall of the fruit. Seed capsules split open along 5 lines. Each capsule releases 120-175 seeds rounded black seeds embedded in a mass of grey woolly hairs. Seeds are dark brown. Ecology and Species Distribution C. pentandra can be found in various types of moist evergreen and deciduous forests, as well as in dry forests and gallery forests. As a pioneer species, it mostly occurs in secondary forests. It is widely planted in settled areas throughout the Philippines. Kapok tree are native in India, Indonesia and United States of America. It is also cultivated in South Africa, Cambodia and Thailand. Threats and Conservation Status Ceiba pentandra is not in the IUCN Red List of threatened species. Economic Uses Apiculture  The tree is important source honey source. Honey light amber with characteristic flavor. Fiber  The fiber from the inner wall of the fruit is unique that it combines springiness and resilience and is resistant to vermin, to make it ideal for stuffing pillows, mattresses and cushions. It is light, water repellent and buoyant, making it ideal for life jackets, lifeboats and other naval safety apparatus. It is an excellent material for insulating ice boxes, refrigerators, cold-storage plants, offices, theaters and aeroplanes. It is a good sound absorber and is widely used for acoustic insulation; it is indispensable in hospitals, since mattresses can be dry sterilized without losing original quality. Timber  Wood is easy to peel for veneer. Reported users of wood include plywood, packaging, lumber core stock, light construction, pulp and paper products, canoes and rafts, farm implements, furniture and matches. Lipids  C. pentandra seed contains 20-25% non-drying oil, similar to cottonseed oil, used as lubricant, in soap manufacturing and cooking. Medicine  Compressed fresh leaves are used against dizziness; decoction of the boiled roots is used to treat oedoema; gum is eaten to relieve stomach upset; tender shoot decoction is contraceptive and leaf infusion is taken orally against cough and hoarse throat. In Tamilnadu, India, the leaves are pounded together with fermented boiled rice water and the extract is administered to cows orally as remedy for reproductive problems. Services  In Java, the tree is grown as a boundary tree and fences along roadsides, for boundary or barrier support. Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Bombacoideae Genus: Pachira Species: P. aquatica Aubl. Common Name French peanut, Guinea peanut, money tree, lucky tree Figure 8 shows the foliage (A), flower (B), fruit (C) and seeds (D) of Pachira aquatica Etymology The name "money tree" seems to refer to a story of its origin, where a poor man prayed for money, found this "odd" plant, took it home as an omen, and made money selling plants grown from its seeds. Description Pachira aquatica is a very showy evergreen tree with greenish bark that can grow to 60 ft. in the tropics. The leaves are shiny, bright green, alternate palmately compound that grows about 12 inches long and are quickly shed. The large and showy flowers are perfect and terminal, with a long peduncle. The petals and numerous stamens are white. The fruit is a smooth, green capsule, 4-8 inches (10-20 cm) in length, and splits opens naturally on longitudinal sutures when ripe. The seeds are rounded but irregular, with about 10-25 per fruit. They are about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in diameter, with a light brown testa. The tightly packed seeds (nuts) inside enlarge until the pod bursts and the seed fall to the ground. The rounded seeds are without floss and 1/2 inch or larger in diameter. Ecology and Species Distribution Money tree or Pachira aquatica is native to Central America and northern South America. It is cultivated in many tropical regions, including Hawaii and Southern California. In the wild, Pachira aquatica is a wetland tree that grows in freshwater swamps associated with tropical estuaries. It often grows alongside rivers, where its branches arch out over the water. Threats and Conservation Status P. aquatic is not in the IUCN List of Threatened Species. Economical Uses Edible Uses  Seed - raw or cooked. The raw seed taste like peanuts, when roasted or fried in oil it has the flavor of chestnuts. The roasted seeds taste like cocoa. The roasted seed is sometimes   used to make a beverage The seed can be ground into a flour and used to make a bread Young leaves and flowers - cooked and used as a vegetable Medicinal   The skin of the immature green fruit is used in the treatment of hepatitis.  The bark is used medicinally to treat stomach complaints and headaches while  The seeds are used as an anaesthetic.  A tisane from the boiled bark is used as a blood tonic A cold water infusion of the crushed leaves is used to treat a burning sensation in the skin Other Uses    A fibre, obtained from the bark is used for caulking boats and cordage. Yellow dye and red dye is obtained from the bark. The oil from the seed has industrial potential for manufacturing soap.   The fruit is spread on the ground in order to repel sand fleas. The white wood is light in weight, fibrous, soft and of low durability. It is used only for low quality purposes such as making boxes and matches and is suitable for manufacturing paper, yielding 36% cellulose paste. Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Bombacoideae Genus: Adansonia Species: A. digitata Linn. Common Name Baobab, Dead-rat tree, Upside-down tree Figure 9 shows the decidous type of tree (A), the palm-like leaves (B), the fruit (C) and the flower (D) of Adansonia digitata Etymology The scientific name of the Baobab, Adansonia digitata comes from the French explorer and botanist, Michel Adanson (1727-1806). He officially discovered it in 1749 on the island of Sor in Senegal. He concluded of all the trees he studied, the baobab “is probably the most useful tree in all.” He consumed baobab juice twice a day, while in Africa. He remained convinced that it maintained his health for him. ‘Digitata’ refers to the digits of the hand. The baobab's branches and leaves are akin to a hand. Description Adansonia digitata is a large, round canopied tree with a swollen trunk, about 10-25 m in height, often with a bole of 3-10 m (giant individuals attain a girth of up to 28 m); bark is soft, smooth, fibrous, reddish-brown, greyish-brown or purplish-grey; bark of leaf-bearing branches is normally ashy on the last node; a green layer below the outer, waxy layer of the bark, presumably to assist in photosynthesis when the tree has shed its leaves. The thick, fibrous bark is remarkably fire resistant, and even if the interior is completely burnt out, the tree continues to live. Regrowth after fire results in a thickened, uneven integument that gives the tree its gnarled appearance resembling an elephant’s skin but that serves as added protection against fire. Mature thick and extensive lateral roots anchor the tree on the ground and end in clusters of potatolike tubers; the thick, strong, prominent taproot at 6 months is 3 times the length of the seedling; roots grow fast but never penetrate far beyond a depth of 2 m, which explains why in old age they are often found toppled when the branches increase in weight. Leaves alternate, digitately 3- to 9-foliate; leaflets oblong to ovate, 5-15 x 3-7 cm, lower leaflets being the smallest and terminal leaflet the largest; leaflets dark green, with short, soft hairs; lateral veins looping; apex and base tapering; margin entire; petiolules absent or almost so; petiole up to 12 cm long. Flowers a waxy white, up to 20 cm in diameter, axillary, solitary, pendulous, bisexual; all floral parts in 5s; calyx deeply lobed, with white, silky hairs inside; large, crinkly, spreading petals; many stamens on a large central column that is shed with the petals; ovary superior, 5-10 chambered; petals bruise easily and become brown; flowers have an unpleasant scent. Fruit ovoid, 12 cm or more in length, with a hard, woody shell, covered with yellowish-grey velvety hairs, indehiscent; seeds smooth, embedded in a whitish powdery pulp, have little or no endosperm. Ecology and Species Distribution The tree is characteristic of thorn woodlands of the African savannahs, which are characterized by low altitudes with 4-10 dry months a year split into 1 or 2 periods. It occurs as isolated individuals or grouped in clumps irrespective of soil type. It is not found in areas of deep sand, presumably because it is unable to obtain sufficient anchorage and moisture. A. digitata is very sensitive to waterlogging and frost. All A. digitata locations can be described as arid and semi-arid, with not more than a day frost per year. Native to: Angola, Botswana, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Namibia, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Somalia, South Africa, Sudan, Tanzania, Togo, Zambia, Zimbabwe. Exotic to: Antigua and Barbuda, Bahamas, Barbados, Central African Republic, Cuba, Democratic Republic of Congo, Dominica, Dominican Republic, Egypt, Gabon, Grenada, Guadeloupe, Guyana, Haiti, India, Indonesia, Jamaica, Malaysia, Martinique, Mauritius, Montserrat, Netherlands Antilles, New Caledonia, Philippines, Puerto Rico, Sao Tome et Principe, St Kitts and Nevis, St Lucia, St Vincent and the Grenadines, Trinidad and Tobago, US, Virgin Islands (US) Threats and Conservation Status As of April 2015 from the IUCN Red List criteria, baobabs are not yet classified, but they are a part of the “Catalogue of Life.” Although this species not classified, it is an extant species and is found in wide ranges. Economic Uses Food  An edible white, powdery pulp found in the fruit is very rich in vitamin C and B2 and makes a refreshing drink.  Ripe fruits are collected and cracked to remove the ‘flour’, which is mixed with milk to prepare a flavoured fermented porridge.  Young leaves are also rich in Vitamin C, contain uronic acids, and are high in demand in West Africa as a soup vegetable. In Ferlo, North Senegal, an extract of the leaves, called ‘lalo’, is used to give couscous (millet porridge) a smooth consistency.  The leaves also form an excellent condiment and seasoning.  The small stem and roots of the seedlings are eaten as vegetable; mature, thick roots are cooked and eaten during famine.  A root decoction is widely used in Sierra Leone as food. It is prepared by boiling, roasting, soaking or fermenting the roots, and tastes like almonds. Having high water content, the wood is chewed by humans and animals in case of extreme water scarcity.  The wood can be used as a salt substitute.  The acid pith is used as a substitute for cream of tartar in baking, to curdle milk and smoke fish. It is also roasted and used as a coffee substitute.  The seeds contain appreciable quantities of tartaric acid and potassium bitar; they are refreshing to suck, and when soaked in water make a palatable drink. Fuel  The long-fibred wood is suitable for firewood. The shell and seeds are also used for fuel, which potters use to smooth earthenware necklaces before firing. Other services  In dry regions, A. digitata plays a vital role in water storage; a hollowed trunk may be carved out in 3-4 days. A medium-sized tree may hold 400 gallons while a large tree could contain over 2000 gallons, and water stored in them is said to remain sweet for several years if the hollow is kept well closed. Subfamily Sterculioideae Subfamily Sterculioideae has a pan-tropical distribution, consisting of about 12 genera. It is being found in New Caledonia and other Pacific islands, Australasia, South, South East and East Asia, Madagascar, tropical Africa, Central America, the Caribbean and tropical South America. It is most diverse in South East Asia.  List of Genera Acropogon Firmiana Pterygota Argyrodendron Heritiera Scaphium Brachychiton Hildegardia *Sterculia *Cola Franciscodendron Octolobus Pterocymbium * genera of chosen representative species The subfamily Sterculioideae is a division of the angiosperm family Malvaceae. It appears to be a well-defined group, characterized by apetalous (lacking petals), exinvolucellate (lacking an epicalyx) flowers with a fleshy, usually petaloid, gamosepalous (fused) calyx, an absence of staminodes, a monadelphous staminal column, an androgynophore (a stalk separating the calyx from the stamens and styles), and apocarpous (i.e. separated) ovaries and fruits. The flowers are typically monoecious, i.e. have separate male and female flowers borne on the same plant. Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Sterculioideae Genus: Cola Species: C. nitida Schott & Endl. Common Name Cola, kola nut , kola and bitter kola Figure 10 shows the tree (A), leaves (B), Star-shaped flowers (C) and seed of Cola nitida Etymology Cola came from the African vernacular name, kola; nitida means shiny or glossy. Description Cola nitida is an understorey, evergreen tree, generally growing 9-12 m high, sometimes reaching 27 m, with a diameter up to 1.5 m, narrow buttresses extending for 1 m in old trees, or absent, bole not always straight and cylindrical; bark grey or greyish brown, rough with longitudinal fissures; slash pinkish red, thick and fibrous, darkening to brown on exposure. Leaves are simple, alternate, petiolate; petiole 1.2-10 cm long; blade broadly oblong to broadly elliptic or elliptic-oblanceolate, 10-33 x 5-13 cm, apex abruptly and shortly acuminate, base obtuse or rounded, margins wavy, glabrous or nearly so; leathery, dark green lateral nerves 6-10. Inflorescence are axillary, an irregularly branched panicles 5-10 cm long, shorter than the leaves; flowers unisexual, 5-merous, apetalous. Male flowers with cup-shaped calyx, about 2 cm in diameter, deeply lobed, stamens numerous, in two whorls. Female flowers with calyx about 5 cm in diameter, with 5 carpels and numerous rudimentary anthers at the base. Fruits oblongellipsoid follicles 13 x 7 cm, green, shiny-surfaced, smooth to the touch but knobbly with large tubercules. Seeds are 4-8 (10) per carpel, ovoid or subglobose 3-3.5 x 2-2.5 cm, either red or white. Ecology and Species Distribution Originally a tree of tropical rainforest, it needs a hot humid climate but can withstand a dry season on sites with a high ground water level. It may be cultivated in drier areas where ground water is available. C. nitida is a shade bearer but develops a better spreading crown which yields more fruits in open places. Though it is a lowland forest tree it has been found at altitudes over 300 m on deep rich soils under heavy and evenly distributed rainfall. Cola nitida is native to West Africa (from Guinea to Ghana) and has been introduced throughout the forested areas of West and Central Africa. Commercial crops are grown mainly in Nigeria, Ghana, Côte d’Ivoire and Sierra Leone and also to some extent in India, Brazil and Jamaica. Threats and Conservation Status Cola nitida is not in the IUCN Red List of threatened species. Economic Uses Food   The nuts taste bitter when chewed at first but they leave a sweet taste in the mouth later. Thus chewing cola nuts before drinking water helps to render the water sweeter. The bitter tasting seeds are much appreciated by Muslims in the drier region of West Africa, especially during the month of Ramadhan. Seeds consist of 13.5% water, 9.5% crude protein, 1.4% fat, 45% sugar and starch, 7% cellulose, 3.8% ash, also rich in   alkaloids, caffeine (2.8%), theobroine (0.05%) and kolatine. The red nuts are a potential source of food colourant. Cola nuts, in combination with coca-leaf are incorporated in brands of cocoa, tonic wines and other beverages. The nuts are said to be restraining and to possess thirst-restraining properties. The nuts are used for non-alcoholic soft drinks like Coca-Cola. Nuts are very rich in caffeine. Fuel  A good source of fuelwood. Timber  Sapwood is pinkish-white and the heartwood dull yellow. Suitable for furniture, house and boat building, coachwork, plates, domestic utensils, gun stocks, joinery and carvings. Medicine  Cola nuts stimulate the nervous system when chewed. They counteract overstrain and depression thus improving the physical and mental state. The principle action is that of caffeine. Other active principles include theobromine and kolatine.  A non-addictive stimulant used medicinally for diarrhoea and to prevent vomiting in cases of high fever. In combination with the coca-leaf a drug was made which was used as ‘Forced March’ tablets by explorers and military expeditions.  The crushed nuts are boiled together with the leaves of Morinda lucida and the liquid taken internally to cure piles. The nuts ground to a fine paste together with the leaves of Scooparia dulce, are dissolved in a little water and a few drops are administered orally to babies for headache.  An infusion of the bark mixed with ginger and a little pepper is taken internally to cure stomach ulcers.  The nuts are also used to treat diarrhoea and dysentery. Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Sterculioideae Genus: Sterculia Species: S. foetida L. Common Name Kalumpang, Hazel sterculia, and Wild almond tree Figure 11 shows the leaves (A), the whole tree (B), the inflorescence (C) and the fruit (D) of Sterculia foetida Etymology The name of the genus comes from the Latin “stercus” = dung, manure, with reference to the unpleasant odour of the flowers and the leaves of some species; the name of the species, is the Latin adjective “foetidus, a, um” = fetid, stinking, with reference to the unpleasant smell of the flowers. Description S. foetida is a great deciduous tree, up to 40 m tall, with erect trunk with greyish bark and almost horizontal branches arranged in verticils (3 or more inserted on the same node). The leaves, grouped at the apex of the branches on a 10-30 cm long petiole, are palmate-compound with 5-9 leaflets from elliptic to lanceolate, 6-15 cm long and 2-5 cm broad, with entire margin and long pointed apex, initially pubescent, then glabrous, of glossy green colour and of unpleasant odour. Sub-terminal spike shaped inflorescences, produced before the emission of the leaves, carrying stinking unisexual flowers on the same plant, of about 2 cm of diameter on a 1,5-2,5 cm long peduncle, without corolla, having campanulate calyx with 5 lanceolate lobes with retroflexed apex, of yellowish colour at the opening, then red or purple, pubescent; male flowers with bent staminal column about 1 cm long with 10-15 anthers grouped on top, female flowers with gynophore (column supporting the ovary), about 0,6 cm long, pubescent ovary with five lobes and bent style. The fruit is composed by 1 to 5 ellipsoid follicles, about 10 cm long and 4 cm broad, woody, initially green, then red, opening when ripe, containing 10-15 oblong, slate-grey seeds, 1,5-2,5 cm long, placed along the borders of the opening. Ecology and Species Distribution The species is native to Australia (Queensland), Bangladesh, Cam- bodia, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Vietnam, where it grows in the deciduous forests mainly along the coasts and the water streams. Threats and Conservation Status S. foetida is not listed in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Economic Use   It is utilized at times as shade tree in great parks and gardens and in the road trees, but at a certain distance from the homes.  It is also used for monitoring the erosion.  furniture and locally for making boats and musical instruments. The wood, of pink color, easy to work and to finish, is employed in the construction of The leaves are often utilized as fodder for animals.    The resin exuding from the trunk and the branches is used as glue. Finally, cordages are gotten form the bark. The unripe seeds are not edible, they can be consumed ripe and roasted, with a taste similar to that of the chestnuts (Castanea sativa Mill.), but with moderation as it has a  laxative action. Leaves and flowers are utilized in the traditional medicine, as well as the oil obtained from the seeds, whose main component (53%) is the sterculic acid, which has proven to  have interesting and promising pharmacological applications. The oil has also an insecticidal activity and a potentiality as biodiesel. Subfamily Helicterioideae The subfamily Helicterioideae is comprised of 16 genera, some of these genera like Hypophyllanthus, Neoregnellia, Ungeria, Veeresia are yet to discover its species according to Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN). Typically, species were distributed in tropical regions of the world. Durio is one of the important representative genera of this subfamily.  List of Genera Tribe Durioneae Lahia Tribe Helicterieae Ungeria *Durio Neesia Achantia Veeresia Boschia Kostermansia Helicteres Triplochiton Coelostegia Hypophyllanthus Reevesia Cullenia Mansonia Neorenellia * genera of chosen representative species Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Helicterioideae Tribe: Durioneae Genus: Durio Species: D. zibethinus Murr Common Name Figure 12 shows the tree (A), flowers (B), longitudinal section of fruit (C) and fruit showing conspicuous spines (D) of Durio zibethinus Durian, Civet-fruit Etymology The generic epithet is derived from the Malay word “duri” (thorn), alluding to the spiny fruit. Description Durio zibethinus is a medium to large buttressed tree, up to 45 m tall in dense lowland forests and 10-15 m in orchards and backyards; Bark dark red brown, peeling off irregularly. Leaves are elliptic or lanceolate-elliptic, 10-15 cm long, 3-4 cm wide, papery; base acute; apex acuminate, upper surface glabrous, glossy, lower surface densely covered with silvery or golden scales; secondary veins in about 15 pairs, distinctly looping near the margin; venation indistinct below. Petioles 1-1.5 cm long, angular. Flowers are in fascicles of corymbose inflorescences. Pedicels 5-7 cm long; Calyx saccate, flattened at the base, with tube about 2 cm long and 1.5 cm in diameter; Petals white or creamy, spatulate, 5 cm long and 2 cm wide at the broadest part. Stamen white, 4 cm long in 5 distinct phalanges, each filament with up to 12 reniform anthers dehiscing by a slit. Ovary is ovoid; Style slender, 4 cm long, stigma yellow. Fruit varies greatly in size; 15-25 cm in diameter, green to yellowish brown, with spines that are variable in length and shape. Seeds are chestnut brown, completely enclosed in a thick, white or yellow, soft, sweet, fragrant aril. Ecology and Species Distribution Durian is strictly tropical; it grows successful near the equator, and up to 18 deg from the equator in Thailand and Australia. At these extreme latitudes, extension grows to halt during coolest months. It needs well-distributed rainfall, but relatively dry spell stimulates and synchronizes flowering. It is native to Indonesia and Malaysia and countries like Australia, Cambodia and other Asian countries were cultivating the Durio zibethinus. Threats and Conservation Status Based on IUCN Red List, Durio zibethinus are not in list of threatened species. Economic Uses Food  Durian fruit is a good source of carbohydrates and also contains significant amounts of protein and vitamins B and C. Its rich pulp is eaten raw, cooked as a vegetable, frozen or dried for later use. Indonesians ferment the pulp for a side dish or mix the fleshy arils  with rice and sugar to produce a local dish, lempong. The seeds can be boiled or roasted and used as confections. Apiculture  The nectar and pollen that honeybees collect from the tree is an important honey source. Timber  Heartwood is dark red. The relatively durable wood is used in interior construction and for making cheaper types of furniture and packing cases. Subfamily Grewioideae The subfamily Grewioideae consists of 25 genera with about 770 species that are mostly native to the tropical areas of the world. The representatives of the Grewioideae typically have free sepals. Nectar glands can sit on the petals or on the androgynophore.  List of Genera Ancistocarpus Apeiba *Clappertonia Colona *Corchorus Desplastia Duboscia Eleutherostylis Entelea Erinocarpus Glyphaea Goethalsia Grewia Heliocarpus Hydrogaster Luehea Lueheopsis Microcos Pseudocorchorus Mollia Sparrmannia Tetralix Trichospermum Triumfetta Vasivaea Vinticena Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Grewioideae Genus: Corchorus Species: C. olitorius L. * genera of chosen representative species Common Name Saluyot, Nalta jute, tossa jute, and Jew's mallow Figure 13 shows the plant (A), flower (B), fruit (C) and seeds (D) of Corchorus olitorius Etymology The word 'jute' is probably coined from the word jhuta or jota meaning ‘twisted hair’. Description Corchorus olitorius is an annual, much-branched herb 90-120 cm tall; stems glabrous. Leaves 6-10 cm long, 3.5-5 cm broad, elliptic-lanceolate, apically acute or acuminate, glabrous, serrate, the lower serratures on each side prolonged into a filiform appendage over 6 mm long, rounded at the base, 3-5 nerved; petioles 2-2.5 cm long, slightly pubescent, especially towards the apex; atipules subulate, 6-10 mm long. Flowers pale yellow; bracts lanceolate; peduncle shorter than the petiole; pedicles 1-3, very short. Sepals ca. 3 mm long, oblong, apiculate. Petals grow 5 mm long, oblong spathulate. Style is short; stigma microscopically papillose. Fruit is capsule growing 3-6.5 cm long, linear, cylindric erect, beaked, glabrous, 10-ribbed, 5-valved; valves with transverse partitions between the seeds. Seeds are trigonous, black. Ecology and Species Distribution Rather pantropical in distribution, perhaps more often a weed than a cultivar. Considered a serious weed in Australia, Egypt, Mozambique, the Philippines, Senegal, and Thailand, a principal weed in the Sudan, and a common weed in Afghanistan, India, Kenya, Nepal, Turkey, and Zambia. Systematic attempts have been made to grow jute in West Africa, Sudan, Egypt, Turkey, Iran, Thailand, Java, Paraguay, Brazil, Argentina, and Mexico. Threats and Conservation Status The species C. olitorius is not in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Economic Use Food   Jew’s mallow is used as a leafy mucilaginous vegetable. The cooked leaves form a sticky sauce, comparable to okra. The immature fruits, called bush okra, are also dried and ground to powder for the preparation of the slimy sauce. Fiber    Whole jute stems are suitable as raw material for paper pulp – produces sugar bags and wrapping; and is also made into hard, thick paper, suitable for cards and labels. The woody central core (stick) can be processed into paper, board and cellulose. It can also be used as a source of fiber. Its fiber is strong and waterproof, making it perfect for the production of burlap sacks, furnishings and even clothing. Nutritive value  The leaves are very nutritious, rich in beta-carotene, iron, protein, calcium, thiamin, riboflavin, niacin, folate, vitamin C and E and dietary fiber. Medicinal use  Root scraping and decoction is reportedly used to treat toothache and as a tonic. Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Grewioideae Genus: Clappertonia Species: C. ficifolia (Willd.) Decne. Common Name Bolo-bolo Figure 14 shows the plant (A), fruit (B), flower (C) and closer view of plant (D) of Clappertinia ficifolia Etymology The genus name Clappertonia is derived from the 19th century British explorer named Hugh Clapperton. Its species name “ficifolia” means “fig-like”, in reference to the highly variable (on the same plant) leaves which can sometimes resemble the lobed leaves of the edible fig (Ficus carica). Description Clappertonia ficifolia is a shrub up to 3 m tall; young branches reddish, with dull yellowish to brownish stellate hairs. Leaves alternate, simple; stipules lanceolate, 8-12 mm long; petiole 0.5-9 mm long, with short and soft hairs; blade usually oblong to ovate, 1-15 cm, lower leaves 3-5-lobed, base rounded to subcordate, apex rounded, margin toothed, upper surface green and with stiff hairs or minutely soft hairy, lower surface short soft hairy to densely white hairy, 5-7-veined from the base. Inflorescence a terminal or axillary panicle up to 15 cm long, with 13-flowered axillary cymes up to 3.5 cm long; bracts conspicuous, unequal, caducous. Flowers bisexual, regular, 4(-5)-merous; pedicel 5-14 mm long; sepals up to 3.5 cm long, 6 mm wide, pinkish to purplish red; petals round, up to 3 cm - 2 cm, clawed, bright pink, purple or bluemauve, rarely white; fertile stamens 16, yellow or pink, staminodes numerous; ovary superior, oblong, 4-8-celled, densely yellow-hairy. Fruit a capsule 3-7 cm, entirely covered with hairy prickles, each tipped with a bristle, many-seeded. Seeds round, c. 2 mm in diameter, greyish. Ecology and Species Distribution Clappertonia ficifolia is very widespread in continental tropical Africa. It is introduced and grown as an ornamental in many tropical gardens, for instance in Sri Lanka, Singapore, Borneo, New Guinea, Panama and the southern United States. Originally in tropical Africa, but introduced in tropical Asia and the Pacific. In Borneo collected in Sarawak and East-Kalimantan. Introduced in tropical Asia, and usually growing in secondary vegetation types or planted near or in villages. Economic Use Fiber  The fiber is used for making rope, twine, cordage and mats, nets, hammocks, fish traps and paper pulp. Other Uses  In Cameroon, the leafy stems are pounded with water and in this way a slimy liquid is produced that is added to mud and manure. This mixture is smeared on house walls and  floors. Beehives made from culms are smeared with the same preparation. The wood is used for making floats for fishing. Subfamily Brownlowioideae Brownlowioideae is a subfamily of Malvaceae with only ten genera, and approximately 70 species. It is predominantly South East Asian (Sri Lanka and south east India, through South East Asia to the Pacific Islands as far as Fiji, and North to Hainan, but Christiana has one species in Tahiti, two in South America, and a fourth ranging from Madagascar through tropical Africa to Northern South America, and Carpodiptera is found in East Africa, the Comoros, Mexico, Trinidad and the Antilles.  List of Genera *Berrya Christiana Pentace Indagator Brownlowia *Diplodiscus Pityranthe Hainania Carpodiptera Jarandersonia * genera of chosen representative species Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Brownlowioideae Genus: Berrya Species: B. cordifolia (Willd.) Burret Common Name Trincomalee Wood Figure 15 shows the branch with inflorescence (A), the flower (B), and the whole tree (C) of Berrya cordifolia Etymology Berrya cordifolia is commonly known as Trincomalee tree, which came from the place where the wood is annually exported from. (Trincomalee, Sri Lanka). Description B. cordifolia are trees that grows 4-6(-35) m tall, 10-20 cm dbh. Stipules are filiform, 1-2 cm, glabrous; petiole grows 3.5-10 cm; leaves are ovate to ovate-oblong, 10-20(-25) × 6-8(-14) cm, thinly leathery, very sparsely stellate pubescent, soon glabrous, lateral veins 4 or 5 pairs, base cordate, apex acuminate. Inflorescences are panicle measures as long as 20 cm, and are hairy. Pedicel measures ca. 10 mm. Calyx has 3-5-lobed, 3-5 mm, lobes triangular-ovate, hairy. Petals are white or pink, filiform, 6-8 mm, becoming reflexed. Stamens grows 5-6 mm. Ovary hairy; style short. Capsule with persistent calyx, globose, 1-1.3 cm wide, pubescent, with 6(or 8) horizontally spreading thin wings, wings 2.5-3 × 0.7-1 cm. Seeds ca. 6 × 3 mm, with brown or yellow, caducous bristles. Ecology and Species Distribution Berrya cordifolia requires partial shade especially in the seedling stage; solitary trees in full sun grow poorly. It does not grow well on clayey soils; it tolerates poor drainage, but it is not resistant to drought. In Thailand, fire was found to favor germination of the seeds in soil. Berrya cordifolia occurs naturally in tropical Asia: Taiwan [Cambodia, India, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Vietnam.] Threats and Conservation Status Berrya cordifolia is not in the list of IUCN Red List and therefore have been widely cultivated in different regions. But because of the wide geographic distribution of it, there is a little risk of genetic erosion. Economic Uses The wood of Berrya cordifolia yields to a valuable timber used for high quality furniture, but suitable for a wide range of uses, including light and heavy construction, flooring mine props, boat building, vehicle bodies, cartwheels, tool handles, ladders, sporting goods, agricultural implements, boxes and other packing materials, sleepers and beams, poles carving, turnery, draining boards, cooperage, oars and paddles, paneling and paper making. Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Brownlowioideae Genus: Diplodiscus Species: D. paniculatus Turcz. Common Name Baroba Figure 16 shows the flower (A) and the leaves (B) of Diplodiscus paniculatus Etymology The specific epithet paniculatus meaning tuft (bunch of hairs that grow close together) probably refers to its flower. Description Diplodiscus paniculatus is a tree reaching a height of about 20 meters and a diameter of 80 centimeters with an irregular trunk and a buttressed base. Its bark is brown, flaky, and fibrous. Its leaves are simple, alternate, chartaceous, and each measures15 to 25 centimeters long. The leaf base is obtuse to rounded and frequently inequilateral. The apex is acute and its upper surface is shiny while the lower is grayish. Young leaves have a purplish tinge. Its flowers are yellowish white, fragrant, short pedicelled, and each has five calyx segments and five petals. The stamens are interlaced. The ovary is scale covered and style-free towards the top. Its fruits are brown, scaly, somewhat ridged longitudinally, sub-globosely hard, and each measures about two centimeters in diameter. Ecology and Species Distribution Diplodiscus paniculatus is very common and widely distributed in the forests of northern Luzon to southern Mindanao at low and medium altitudes. It has a wide distribution in Luzon (Cagayan to Sorsogon), Alabat, Catanduanes, Mindoro, Masbate, Ticao, Samar, Leyte, Cebu, Panay, Dinagat, and all provinces of Mindanao in primary and secondary forests at low and medium attitudes. Threats and Conservation Status Diplodiscus paniculatus or barobo tree (balobo, bayobo in some areas) is in the "Red List" of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). Red list, according to classification standards of the said organization is a database of threatened species. Rates of habitat loss through logging and shifting cultivation have led to considerable population declines. Economic Uses The wood of Diplodiscus paniculatus is used for Venetian blinds, bowling pins, bobbins, spindles and shuttles, house posts, agricultural implements, general construction work, and charcoal produced by retort method. Seed kernels roasted or boiled can be eaten like peanuts. Balobo is also ideal for toothpicks, tool handles, packing boxes and for pulp and paper. Subfamily Dombeyoideae Dombeyoideae are shrubs, trees or herbs with stellate or lepidote indumentums. Leaves are simple, sometimes cordate and/or palmatilobed or rarely dissected. Flowers in axillary cymes or solitary on indeterminate shoots; epicalyx bracts present, often distant from calyx, sometimes incised or partite, distinct, rarely fused to form a closed envelope enclosing flower buds; sepals basally fused to almost free, often with glandular hairs on ventral face, sometimes persistent; petals usually contorted, often asymmetric, sometimes persistent; androgynophore absent; stamens usually forming a staminal tube, more rarely almost free, anthers on distinct, partly free filaments; staminodes usually integrated in staminal tube, entire, usually linear to ovate, rarely lacking; ovary (1-) 5 (-10)- locular, locules 1- to many- ovulate, style usually with apical style branches. Fruits are usually capsular, thick and woody to coriaceous or thin, membranaceous, endocarp often pubescent, especially at central part of septae; seed coat glabrous; endosperm abundant or reduced; cotyledons usually bilobed to bipartite, radicle next to hilum. Dombeyoideae is a subfamily consisting of 20 genera and 350 species, which can be found in Madagascar, Mascaranes, Africa, South Asia, Malesia, Philippines and St. Helena.  List of Genera Astiria Burretiodendron Corchoropsis Ruizia Cheirolaena Harmsia Sicrea Trochetiopsis Eriolaena Nesogordonia *Dombeya Trochetia Helmiopsiella Pentapetes Paramelhania Helmiopsis Pentapetes Paradombeya Melhania Pterospermum Schoutenia *genera of chosen representative species Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Dombeyoideae Genus: Dombeya Species: D. acutangula Cav. Common Name Bois Bete (French) Figure 17 shows the leaves (A) and flowers (B) of Dombeya acutangula Etymology The genus name Dombeya was named after a French botanist Joseph Dombey, the species epithet acutangula is derived from Latin acuti- (pointed, acute, sharp) and anguli- (angle, corner) components meaning 'with sharp angles' in reference to its leaves. Description Dombeya acutangula is a shrub or small tree. Leaves are broadly ovate to suborbicular, 6-16 cm long and broad, stellate tomentose on both sides, deeply cordate, serrate, 3-5-lobed, lobes acute-acuminate; petiole 4-18 cm long, patent hairy. Inflorescence is an axillary cyme, peduncle 5-8 cm long, tomentose. Flowers are pinkish, 2-3 cm across; pedicel 1.5-2.5 cm long, tomentose; bracts 3, ovate, c. 1 cm long, c. 5-6 mm broad, acuminate, caducous. Sepals are linear-lanceolate, 1-1.5 cm long, 3-4 mm broad, pubescent outside, persistent. Petals are obliqueobovate, 1.5-2 cm long, 1-1.5 cm broad. Fertile stamens are 8-10 mm long, staminode measures 1-1.5 cm long. Carpels are 5; ovary oblong, densely villous; style as long as staminodes; stigmas 5, recurved-coiled. Fruit is oblong, pentagonal, 5-8 cm long, 3-4 mm broad, densely villous. Ecology and Species Distribution Dombeya acutangula occurs in tropical lowland montane forest at 300-500 m altitude. The species is Indigenous to Mascarene Isles; introduced in Pakistan, India and U.S.A. Threats and Conservation Status Dombeya acutangula is in the list of IUCN Red List and categorized as critically endangered since year 2000. There is a net decline. in area of occupancy based on direct observation. The total population is recorded as being less than 50 individuals. Exsitu conservation of this species has already been implemented, and it occurs in cultivation as ornamental plants in private gardens. Economic Uses It serves as an ornamental tree since it has charming pale (white or light pink) flowers in small clusters, but since it is almost extinct due to habitat loss, it is not considered as its economic use. Subfamily Tilioideae Tilioideae is a subfamily consisting of 3 genera and 30 species that can be found in temperate decidouous forest in eastern North America (extending to South East Canada, North East Mexico and the highlands of Southern Mexico), Europe and South West Asia, Siberia and East Asia but absent from Western North America and the temperate Himalayas.  List of genera Craigia Mortoniodendron *Tilia * genera of chosen representative species Tilioideae are trees with simple, usually serrate leaves, often with hairy domatia. Inflorescences axillary, 3 to many flowered, usually dichasial. Flowers actinomorphic; sepals distinct, often with trichomatous nectar at ventral base; petals narrowly ovate; stamens numerous, distinct or almost so, antepetalou, in Craigia in groups of 4 enclosed by petals and staminodes; anthers dithecal; staminodes antepetalous, sometimes resembling the petals, sometimes absent; ovary usually 5-locular, locules with 2 ascending or numerous ovules. Scientific Classification Kingdom: Plantae (unranked): Angiosperms (unranked): Eudicots (unranked): Rosids Order: Malvales Family: Malvaceae Subfamily: Tilioideae Genus: Tilia Species: T. cordata Mill. Common Name Small-leaved Lime, Little-leaf Linden Figure 18 shows the heart-shaped leaves (A) and the inflorescence of Tilia cordata Etymology Teil is an old name for the lime tree. Latin tilia is cognate to Greek ptelea, "elm tree", tiliai, "black poplar", ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European word ptel-ei̯ ā with a meaning of "broad" (feminine); perhaps "broad-leaved" or similar. The specific epithet cordata is a Latin adjective meaning heart-shaped probably refers to leaves. Description Tilia cordata is a deciduous tree growing to 20–40 m (66–131 ft) tall, diameter 1/3 to 1/2 the height, with a trunk up to 1 m diameter. The bark is smooth and grayish when young, firm with vertical ridges and horizontal fissures when older. The crown is rounded in a formal oval shape to pyramidal. Branching is upright and increases in density with age. The leaves are alternately arranged, rounded to triangular-ovate, 3–8 cm long and broad, mostly hairless. The leaves are distinctively heart-shaped. The buds are alternate, pointed egg shaped and have red scales. It has no terminal bud. The small yellow-green hermaphrodite flowers are produced in clusters of five to eleven in early summer with a leafy yellow-green subtending bract, have a rich, heavy scent; the trees are much visited by bees. The fruit is a dry nut-like drupe 6–7 mm long by 4 mm broad. Ecology and Species Distribution Tilia cordata is easily grown in average, medium, well-drained soils in full sun to part shade. Prefers moist, fertile, well-drained loams, but adapts to a wide range of soil conditions. Good tolerance for urban conditions. Tolerant of heavy pruning, and may be grown as a hedge. Tilia cordata is a species of Tilia native to much of Europe from Britain, through central Scandinavia, to central Russia, and south to central Spain, Italy, Greece, Bulgaria, Romania, Turkey, the Caucasus, and western Asia. Threats and Conservation Status Tilia cordata is not in the list of IUCN Red List and therefore have been widely cultivated in different regions. Economic Uses Medicine  The flowers of Tilia cordata are a popular domestic remedy for a number of ailments,  especially in the treatment of colds and other ailments where sweating is desirable.  hypotensive, laxative and sedative.  hardening of the arteries, hysteria, nervous vomiting or palpitation. A tea made from the fresh or dried flowers is antispasmodic, diaphoretic, expectorant, Lime flower tea is also used internally in the treatment of indigestion, hypertension, Flowers of Tilia cordata are said to develop narcotic properties as they age and so they should only be harvested when freshly opened.  A charcoal made from the wood is used in the treatment of gastric or dyspeptic disturbances and is also made into a powder then applied to burns or sore places. Fiber   A fiber from the inner bark is used to make mats, shoes, baskets, ropes etc. It is also suitable for cloth. It is harvested from trunks that are 15 - 30cm in diameter. The fiber can also be used for making paper. Conclusion The Malvaceae is a cosmopolitan family with many members that are agriculturally very important, like Gossypium sp. (cotton), Theobroma cacao (chocolate), Durio zibethinus (durian fruit), Corchorus olitorius (jute), Abelmoschus esculenta (okra) and other ornamentals like Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, Abutilon sp., Althaea sp., Malva sp., and Tilia sp. Plants under this family are distinctive in being herbs, shrubs, or trees, often with stellate trichomes, typically with an epicalyx, the calyx valvate, the corolla often convolute [sometimes valvate or imbricate] the stamens connate as a tube or 5 ∞ bundles, with monothecal or dithecal anthers, gynoecium syncarpous [rarely apocarpous], ovary superior [rarely inferior], ovules axile or marginal, the fruit a capsule, schizocarp of mericarps, berry, or samara. References                Abelmoschus esculenta, Kew Botanical Garden. Retrieved August 22, 2015 from http://apps.kew.org/efloras/namedetail.do?qry=namelist&flora=fz&taxon=772&nameid= 1960. Abelmoschus esculenta L., Plants for a Future. Retrieved August 22, 2015 from http://www.pfaf.org/user/plant.aspx?latinname=Abelmoschus+esculentus. Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Retrieved August 15, 2015 from http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/research/APweb/ Bayer, C., Fay, M.F., Bruijn, A.Y.D., Savolainen, V., Morton, C.M., Kubitzki, K., Alverson, W.S. and Chase, M.W., Support for an expanded family concept of Malvaceae within a recircumscribed order Malvales: a combined analysis of plastid atpB and rbcL DNA sequences, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 129: 267-303 (1999). BNHS Bloggers (2011) Doon Po Sa Amin, May Punong Dakila. Barobo Tree: A Story of Life. Retrieved from http://barobotree.blogspot.com/2011/11/legendary-tree.html Classification: Sterculioideae. Retrieved August 22, 2015 from http://www.malvaceae.info/Classification/Sterculioideae.html Cola nitida. Retrieved August 21, 2015 from Kew Royal Botanical Garden (http://www.kew.org/science-conservation/plants-fungi/cola-nitida-kola-nut) Corchorus olitorius. Retrieved August 21, 2015 from https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Corchorus_olitorius.html Duke, James. (1996) Chorchorus olitorius L. Retrieved from: https://www.hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Corchorus_olitorius Edlin, H.L., A Critical Revision of Certain Taxonomic Groups of the Malvales, New Phytologist, (120): 122-143 (1935). Flower Meaning. Retrieved August 20, 2015 from http://www.flowermeaning.com/hibiscus-flower-meaning/ Gossypium hirsutum, Go Botany. Retrieved August 15, 2015 from https://gobotany.newenglandwild.org/species/gossypium/hirsutum/. Grewia occidentalis. (2007) Retrieved from: https://toptropicals.com/cgibin/garden_catalog/cat.cgi?uid=Grewia_occidentalis Hickey, M. and King, C. (1988). 100 Families of Flowering Plants. Cambridge University Press. History of Hibiscus. Retrieved August 20, 2015 from http://www.herbs2000.com/flowers/hi_history.htm Ikitoo, E.C., 2011. Gossypium hirsutum L. [Internet] Record from PROTA4U. Brink, M. & Achigan-Dako, E.G. (Editors). PROTA (Plant Resources of Tropical Africa, Wageningen, Netherlands. <http://www.prota4u.org/search.asp>. Accessed 22 August 2015.                 Neotropical Malvaceae. Retrieved August 19. 2015 from http://www.kew.org/science/tropamerica/neotropikey/families/Malvaceae_(Malvoideae). htm. Neotropical Malvaceae (Bombacoideae). Retrieved August 19. 2015 from http://www.kew.org/science/tropamerica/neotropikey/families/Malvaceae_(Bombacoidea e).htm Neotropical Malvaceae (Byttneroideae). Retrieved August 19. 2015 from http://www.kew.org/science/tropamerica/neotropikey/families/Malvaceae_(Byttneroidea) .htm Neuwinger, H.D., 2000. African traditional medicine: a dictionary of plant use and applications. Medpharm Scientific, Stuttgart, Germany. 589 pp. Orwa C, A Mutua, Kindt R , Jamnadass R, S Anthony. 2009 Agroforestree Database:a tree reference and selection guide version 4.0 (http://www.worldagroforestry.org/sites/treedbs/treedatabases.asp) Pachira aquatica. Retrieved August 22, 2015 from http://stipulae.johnvanhulst.com/DOCS/PDF/Pachira%20aquatica%20en.pdf Plant Garden. Retrieved August 19, 2015 from https://www.plantvillage.com/en/topics/okra/infos/diseases_and_pests_description_uses_ propagation. Popenoe, J, (2008). Hibiscus rosa-sinensis. University of Florida. Sida acuta. Retrieved August 22, 2015 from http://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/49985#toDescriptionThe IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Silk, Ferry. Clappertonia ficifolia. Retrieved from: http://www.asianplant.net/Malvaceae/Clappertonia_ficifolia.htm Smith, C.W. & Cothren, J.T. (Editors), 1999. Cotton: origin, history, technology, and production. John Wiley & Sons, New York, United States. 850 pp. Solomon, Lorraine. (2014) Grewia occidentalis. Retrieved from: http://kumbulanursery.co.za/plants/grewia-occidentalis Spinyhead sida. Retrieved August 22, 2015 from http://keyserver.lucidcentral.org/weeds/data/03030800-0b07-490a-8d040605030c0f01/media/Html/Sida_acuta.htm Sterculioideae. Retrieved August 19, 2015 from http://www.malvaceae.info/Classification/Sterculioideae.html Sterculia foetida. Retrieved August 21, 2015 from http://www.photomazza.com/?Sterculia-foetida Tezoo, V. (TPTNC) &Strahm, W. 2000. Dombeyaacutangula.The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2015.2. <www.iucnredlist.org>. Downloaded on 04 September 2015The Philippine Star (2012) Tree of the Month Part 1 Barobo Tree. Retrieved from http://www.philstar.com/cebu-news/2012/09/10/847430/tree-month-part1   Useful Tropical Plants. Retrieved August 22, 2015 from http://tropical.theferns.info/viewtropical.php?id=Pachira+aquatica Watson, L., and Dallwitz, M.J. 1992 onwards. The families of flowering plants: descriptions, illustrations, identification, and information retrieval. Version: 11th May 2015. delta-intkey.com.

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