Biological Conservation 1992, 62, 205- 218 Preliminary assessment of the distribution, status and biological importance of coastal forests in Tanzania Neil D. Burgess Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire, UK, SG19 2DL Leonard B. Mwasumbi Herbarium, Botany Department, University of Dar es Salaam, PO Box 35060, Tanzania William J. Hawthorne 7 Poplar Road, Botley, Oxford, UK, OX2 9LA Alex Dickinson Coastal Forest Research Programme, Frontier-Tanzania, Studio 210, Thames House, 566 Cable Street, London, UK, El 9HB & Rosalyn A. Doggett Cambridge Regional College, Newmarket Road, Cambridge, UK, CB5 8EG (Received 9 April 1991; revised version received 19 November 1991; accepted 23 November 1991) The lowland forests of coastal Tanzania comprise small and geographically isolated remnants of evergreen or semi-evergreen forest vegetation of the Zanzibar-Inhambane regional mosaic-undifferentiated forest type. Most of these ‘coastal forests’ are located at less than 600 m altitude and within 50 km of the coast. They have been isolated from other forest-blocks in Africa for perhaps the past 30 million years and have considerable biological importance, with high levels of endemism. This paper presents a preliminary assessment of the distribution, status and biological importance of those Tanzanian coastal forests over 2 km2 in extent. Twenty-four definite and 17 probable forests are identified. The largest are located on the Matumbi Massif to the southeast of Utete (c. 25 km*), Zaraninge Plateau to the east of Sadaani (c. 20 km*), Gendagenda to the west of Pangani (c. 26 km*), Pugu Kazimzumbwi (c. 30 km*) and inland from Kilwa (up to 100 km2). However, individual forests generally occupy less than 20 km*, and the total area of forest remaining may be under 400 km*. Collectively these forests support many rare and poorly known plant species, including around 50 believed to be endemic to a single forest, seven bird species and subspecies of global conservation significance, several rare mammals, reptiles and amphibians, and an invertebrate fauna with many rare and undescribed species. All Tanzanian coastal forests are being destroyed by unsustainable human actions generally following the sequence (a) logging for timber and fuel; (b) polecutting to build houses; (c) wholesale burning for charcoal; (d) wholesale conversion to agriculture. At the present rate of destruction the Tanzanian coastal forests and their globally important flora and fauna may be completely removed. Biological Conservation 0006-3207/92/$05.00 0 1992 Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd. 205 206 N. D. Burgess et INTRODUCTION Coastal forest was once extensive in Tanzania but has largely been removed from the heavily populated coastal region to provide timber, fuelwood and farmland (Hamilton, 1981; Howell, 1981). Studies published on remaining Tanzanian coastal forests show that they support large numbers of endemic and near-endemic plants and animals (Polhill, 1968; 1989; Howell, 1981; White, 1983; Hawthorne, 1984; Collar & Stuart, 1985; Lovett, 1985, 1988a & b, 1989; Kingdon, 1990; Stuart et a/., 1990). For example, the best-studied of these forests, on the Pugu Hills c. 25 km to the westsouthwest of Dar es Salaam, covers only 10 km2 but is thought to support 11 endemic or nearendemic plant taxa, several endemic invertebrates, and six species and subspecies of birds confined to coastal forests (Howell, 1981; Hawthorne, 1984; Collar & Stuart, 1988; L. B. Mwasumbi, unpublished data). This high level of endemism and nearendemism is believed to be due to the existence of forest cover in the area since the late Cretaceous (S&l00 million years), by the isolation of the coastal forests from other African forest blocks since the Miocene (up to 27 million years) (Lovett, 19886; Kingdon, 1990), and possibly by the isolation of the remaining forest fragments by the more recent glacially related climatic fluctuations. Despite the high conservation importance of Tanzanian coastal forests, their status, distribution and biological importance is poorly known (Polhill, 1968, 1989; Howell, 198 1; Hawthorne, 1984; Bensted-Smith & Msangi-Msangi, 1989; Campbell, 1989). In this paper we present upgraded information on the known resource of Tanzanian coastal forests. Where possible, this includes an assessment of the area of each forest, a summary of important biological data, and an evaluation of the threats to each site. Our principal aim is to raise awareness of the importance of these forest areas and to suggest that they require increased scientific investigation and protection. CLIMATE AND GEOLOGY Climate The higher ground close to the eastern coast of Africa has probably received moisture from the Indian Ocean throughout the past 30 million years. This has allowed evergreen and semi-evergreen forest to persist in the wettest locations, despite the al. regular occurrence of dry periods over the past few million years which have destroyed forests in drier parts of Africa (Hamilton, 1981; Kingdon, 1990). Currently rainfall in the lowlands along the coast of Tanzania lies somewhere between 1000 mm and 1200 mm per annum (White, 1983), although over higher ground it is certainly higher. The rainfall pattern is controlled by the predictable and relatively stable monsoons. For example, around Lindi in southern Tanzania there is a single pronounced dry season from May to early October and a wet season from late October to late May. In comparison, around Tanga in northern Tanzania there are two rainy seasons, the ‘long rains’ from March to late May and the ‘short rains’ from late October to early December (White, 1983). The pattern in the Dar es Salaam area is intermediate between these two extremes. Geology The solid geology of coastal Tanzania comprises terrestrial and marine muds, silts, sands and limestones. In the zone immediately adjacent to the coast these have generally been deposited within the last one million years. Further inland, most rocks date from the Miocene to Pleistocene (27-2 million years BP). However, there are also outcrops of older Jurassic and Cretaceous marine silts and limestones, most notably on the Matumbi Massif south of the Rufiji River and inland from Tanga. A generalised geological section of the coastal strip, from the recent coastal sediments to the Precambrian basement complex (east to west), is presented in Hawthorne (1984). STUDY METHODS Coastal forest is defined as evergreen or largely evergreen closed canopy vegetation >8 m tall (usually considerably taller), forming part of the Zanzibar-Inhambane regional vegetation mosaic (White, 1983), subject to a monsoonal climatic regime, and growing on Mesozoic or post-Mesozoic rocks generally within 50 km of the coast and below 600 m altitude. Coastal thicket, ~8 m tall, often occurs in intimate mosaics with forest and in such locations is included in the area of the forest. Evergreen vegetation which has been heavily disturbed by man but was forest in the recent past is included, but all mangrove-dominated vegetation and deciduous woodland is excluded. 207 Coastal forests of Tanzania Crude calculations of forest area were made from satellite photographs (Rodgers et al., 1985~) and 1: 50 000 scale maps produced by the Surveys and Mapping Division of the Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. For many sites the forest area was checked by ground survey. Much of the information presented here was gathered from early June 1989 to late November 1991 by the Frontier-Tanzania TZOl to TZlO expeditions, a joint initiative of the Society for Environmental Exploration, UK, and the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Further data were obtained from published papers, unpublished reports and by personal communication with experts around the world. The status of forest birds given in this paper is in accordance with criteria in Collar and Stuart (1985). Botanical nomenclature follows Polhill (1952-). ASSESSMENT OF COASTAL FOREST RESOURCE The positions of known and probable coastal forests in Tanzania are presented in Fig. 1, and described below by Tanzanian District, in a sequence from north to south. 1c Muheza District Satellite photographs of this area (Rodgers et al., 1985a) indicate that in the 1970s lowland forest existed in Tongwe Forest Reserve (5” 20’ S, 38” 43’ E), Kwani Forest Reserve (5” 20’ S, 38” 45’ E), Bassi Forest Reserve (5’ 10’ S, 38” 56’ E) and Kolekole Forest Reserve (5” 10’ S, 38” 58’ E). Natural forest remains in Tongwe Forest Reserve, Bassi Forest Reserve currently supports a plantation forest (Faldborg et al., 1991), Kwani has disappeared, and the status of Kolekole is not known. There are also considerable areas of lowland forest on the eastern flanks of the East Usambara mountains (Hamilton & BenstedSmith, 1989). Tanga District Tanga Limestone Forests (approximately 5” 4’ S, 39” 2’ E) Description. Hawthorne (1984) has described the forest patches growing on the Tanga Limestone, of Jurassic age, immediately inland of the coastal ,o--. , ./ , - zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQ Fig. 1. Location and approximate size of known and probable coastal forests over 2 km* in extent in coastal Tanzania. 1, Foothills of the Usambara Mountains; 2, Tanga Limestone Forests; 3, Kolekole Forest Reserve; 4, Tongwe Forest Reserve; 5, Gendagenda Forest Reserves; 6, Msumbugwe Forest Reserve; 7, Kiono/Zaraninge Forest Reserve; 8, Possible Forest South of Kiono; 9, Ruvu North Forest Reserve; 10, Pande Forest Reserve; 11, Pugu Forest Reserve; 12, Kazimzumbwi Forest Reserve; 13, Ruvu South Forest Reserve; 14, Vikindu Forest Reserve; 15, Kisiju Forest; 16, Mchungu/ Kikale Forest Reserves; 17, Kiwengoma Forest Reserve; 18, Kitope Hill Forest Reserve; 19, Tong’omba Forest Reserve; 20, Mitundumbea Forest Reserve; 21, Rungo Forest Reserve; 22, Ngarama Forest Reserve; 23, Pindiro Forest Reserve; 24, Ndiba Forest Reserve; 25, Ruawa Forest Reserve; 26, Makangala Forest Reserve; 27, Matapwa Forest Reserve; 28, Litipo Forest Reserve; 29, Chitoa Forest Reserve; 30, Rondo Forest Reserve; 31, Chilangala Forest Reserve; 32, Mahuta and Namikupula Forest Reserves; 33, Nyangamara Forest Reserve; 34, Ngezi Forest Reserve; 35, Mwitu Mkuu Forest; 36, Ras Kiuyu Forest; 37, Jozani Forest Reserve; 38, Muyuni Forest; 39, Coral Rag thicket/forest, Mafia Island. 208 N. D. Burgess et al. town of Tanga. During his visits in 1982 three visits to the area in 1990 (Faldborg et al., 1991) forests were present: (a) alongside the Mukulusuggest that much of the forest remaining in 1982 muzi River near the Amboni Caves, c. 2.5 km has now been cleared, mainly for agriculture. west of Tanga (2-3 km2 of forest); (b) further upstream, c. 8 km west of Tanga (34 km2 of forest); Conservation status. Any forest patches survivand (c) just north of the village of Amboni and ing in this area are not protected and their proxthe Sigi River, c. 5 km northwest of Tanga (limity to Tanga must cast serious doubts over their 2 km2 of forest). A brief visit in 1990 (Faldborg zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFE et survival. Because of the high diversity of plants al., 1991) suggests that the only fragment of forest and the presence of rare and endemic species, the remaining is at the Amboni Caves. conservation importance of any remaining forests is extremely high. Ecology. The irregularities of the landscape allowed great variation in forest-types and species Handeni District composition in this area. Hawthorne (1984) showed that the composition of the remaining Gendagenda Forests (5’ 33’ S, 38” 38’ E) river-valley forests was diverse, with moist forest Description. Two Forest Reserves comprise this in the valley bottoms, a drier evergreen forest on forested area-Gendagenda North and Gendamany of the slopes, and evergreen thicket on the genda South, located some c. 30 km southwest of ridge tops and plateaux. The forest in the valley Pangani and c. 20 km inland from the Indian bottoms was dominated by trees such as LecanOcean. Work in 1991 indicates that about 26 km2 iodiscus fiaxintfolius, Combretum schumannii, of forest is present in and around the Forest Sorindeia madagascariensis and Adansonia digitata. Reserves. The highest point in the forest rises to The vegetation on drier slopes was typical of dry 500 m above sea level and is probably comprised evergreen forest, with Scorodophloeus jischeri and of Miocene sandstones over Mesozoic strata, Cynometra webberi as canopy dominants, and typwith many rocky outcrops on the steeper slopes ical dry forest shrubs such as Croton pseudopul(Hawthorne, 1984). However, the bulk of the chellus, &aria acuminata, Coflea pseudozangueforest is growing on lower slopes comprised of bariae, Sclerochiton vogelii, Asteranthe asterias marine clays, mudstones and limestones of and M ildebraedia carpintfolia. Plateau areas were Miocene to Pleistocene age. dominated by thicket species, with a few forest shrubs and ruderals in more recently disturbed Ecology. The canopy of the lower and gentler areas. The endemic species Tricalysia elegans was slopes within the forest is dominated by Cynomerecorded from the valley bottom of the Mukulutra webberi, M anilkara sulcata and Scorodophloeus muzi River. Moreover, the Tanga Limestone fischeri. On the steeper east-facing and more moisforests are the type locality for the African violet ture-rich slopes over a clay-rich brown soil Ludia Saintpaulia ionantha (Johansson, 1978) with two mauritiana, Diospyros greenway i and M anilkara endemic species found in these forest patches. sulcata are dominant, with M imusops fruticosa, Uvariodendron kirkii and Psy chotria riparia also Other rare plant species present, which are also known from the Kaya forests of Kenya, are Allobecoming more common (Hawthorne, 1984). No phyllus zimmermannianus, Thecacoris usambarensis, endemic plant species have been identified Gynura colorata, Gigasiphon macrosiphon, M icro(Hawthorne, 1984), but the rare Saintpaulia tongcocca scariosa, W arburgia stuhlmanii and Chlamywensis was recorded in 1991 (K. Volleson, pers. dacanthus lindavianus (Hawthorne, 1984; Beentje, comm.). 19886). The Tanga Limestone vegetation has strong affinities with that of similar karst landHuman use. The local people have removed subscapes north of Mombasa (Hawthorne, 1984). stantial areas of forest on the lower slopes for the Few data are available on the fauna of the Tanga production of charcoal. Moreover, disturbance as Limestone forests. evidenced by entanglement of the forest-vegetation with lianas and a sparse canopy is typical of Human use. Considerable clearance of the all areas close to villages (Hawthorne, 1984). remaining forested patches for agriculture and replanting with non-native species of tree or sisal Conservation status. Much of the forested area was occurring in 1982 (Hawthorne, 1984). Brief falls outside the Gendagenda North and Genda- 209 Coastalforests of Tanzania genda South Forest Reserves. Forest vegetation on the western facing slopes had been completely removed by 1982, but that on the steeper easterly facing slopes is largely undisturbed (Hawthorne, 1984). Ongoing scientific study indicates that this forest has significant botanical importance, in particular as a site for Saintpaulia tongwensis. Pangani District M sumbugwe Forest (5” 32’ S, 38” 4.5’ E) This forest is located on low-lying land up to 200 m above sea level, some 15 km inland from the Indian Ocean and 24 km southwest of Pangani. Forest vegetation presently covers around 15 km2 (Faldborg et al., 1991), whereas Polhill (1968) gave the forested area as 25 km2, and Hawthorne (1984) studied old aerial photographs which showed considerable areas of forest to the south and immediately north of the Pangani River, which have now largely been removed. The landscape and flora of the remaining forest at Msumbugwe reflects its proximity to the Pangani River with channels draining from the forest into the river. The bedrock comprises marine clays, mudstones and limestones of Miocene to Pleistocene age. Description. The forest canopy of Msumbugwe is by Cynometra webberi and M anilkara sulcata, with Scorodophloeus fischeri found on shallow ridges or hummocks (Hawthorne, 1984). Other trees present include Hymenaea verrucosa, Ecology. dominated Bombax schumannianum, Brachy laena Human use. Conservation status. Msumbugwe Forest falls entirely within the Msumbugwe Forest Reserve. Currently the main threats are fire and removal of timber and poles. In 1982 large areas had been heavily disturbed and some reduced to woodland (Hawthorne, 1984) a situation similar to that in 1990 (Faldborg et al., 1991). The patches of forest at Bushiri and the Mwera Estate have no formal protection and their present status is unknown. Bagamoyo District Kiono/Zaraninge Forest (between 6” 6’ and 6” IO S and 38” 3.5’ and 38” 39’ E) Description. KionoLZaraninge Forest is located some 15 km inland from the Indian Ocean and 20 km southwest of the coastal town of Sadaani. The forest covers between 19 and 22 km2, principally on a plateau of harder limestones and sandstones which may be as old as Jurassic. The plateau rises to 300 m above sea level. There are also patches of forest and evergreen thicket in the surrounding area, some of which are 1 km2 or more in extent. huillensis, and Croton jatrophoides. The evergreen tree Stuhlmannia moavi is present, representing a monospecific genus endemic to the forests of this area. Other rare trees present are W arburgia stuhlmannii and Haplocoelum trigonocarpum (Hawthorne, 1984; Beentje, 19883). Data on birds and larger mammals are presented in Faldborg et al. (1991), and no rare species were recorded. There may be further forest patches in the immediate vicinity of Msumbugwe. For instance, forest is believed still to be in existence on the Bushiri Estate on the other side of the river from Msumbugwe, where old collections have provided the type specimens for several species such as Uvaria faulknerae and Cordia faulknerae. Ery thrina sacleuxii lensis, Bombax have been extensively removed from Msumbugwe, and there are few commercial species remaining. Poles have also been cut throughout the forest, and fires and charcoal-burning have influenced the forest margins. Most areas have been heavily disturbed by these activities, with some areas being converted to woodland. Some trial planting of exotic trees also occurred within the Forest Reserve in 1963/64. angolensis The timber trees Brachy laena huilrhodognaphalon and Pterocarpus The vegetation is fairly homogeneous over large parts of the forest, with variation at the interface between forest and woodland, and around a swampy area within the forest. The canopy is dominated by M anilkara sulcata, Ecology. Scorodophloeus fischeri, Bombax schumannianum, spp., Ery thrina sacleuxii, Ficus spp. and Ricinodendron heudelotii, which are smothered with the epiphytic orchid M icrocoelia sp. Many of the shrubs are similar to Pande Forest, including &aria pandensis, Uvaria sp. nov. and giant forms of the herb Ecbolium umbrossus. Burgess et al. (1991) identified 5 1 species of forest birds in Kiono, including the vulnerable Sokoke pipit Anthus sokokensis and three nearthreatened species-southern banded snake eagle Circaetus fasciciolatus, plain-backed sunbird Anthreptes reichenowi and Uluguru violet-backed sunbird A. neglectus. Cynometra 210 zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA N. D. Burgess et al. Small mammals within the forest include the rare lesser pouched rat Beamys hindei. A list of amphibians, reptiles and smaller mammals captured in this forest in early 1990 is presented in Sheil and Burgess (1990). Human use. It is local tradition to cultivate the margins of the forest as subsistence farmland. However, villagers from Gongo have recently been clearing substantial areas of forest in order to grow cash crops. Each family farm utilises around 1 ha of forest every 2-3 years using this farming method. Local people also take poles and some timber from the forest and set traps for mammals. Commercial logging operations have been conducted since the 1950s and logging of valuable timber trees, particularly Brachy laena huillensis, continued until 1985. Conservation status. Kiono/Zaraninge Forest falls within the Zaraninge Proposed Forest Reserve. The proximity of the forest to the Sadaani Game Reserve has allowed game animals to survive in the forest, whereas they have been all but eliminated from the surrounding area. Despite over 50% of the forest showing evidence of logging, some regions appear to be in a primary condition. The presence of many rare species shows that this forest has an extremely high conservation importance. Other possible forests in Bagamoyo District Satellite photographs from the 1970s indicate large areas of forest to the south of Kiono/ Zaraninge (see Fig. 1); however, the type and status of this forest have not been checked on the ground. Forest indicated in Ruvu North Forest Reserve (Fig. 1: 6” 35’ S, 38” 55’ E) may have been cleared since the 1970s. Kinondoni District Pande Forest (6” 42’ S, 39” 5’ E) Description. Pande Forest is located approximately 25 km northwest of Dar es Salaam and 16 km inland from the sea on a ridge of clay-bound sands and gravels of Miocene to Pliocene age, which extend up to c. 250 m above sea level. Approximately 11 km2 of forest remains and the forested area slopes gently off a central plateau. The forest vegetation at Pande is highly heterogeneous, largely reflecting an extended Ecology. period of human disturbance with logging, charcoal-burning and fires. Botanical collections have been made over many years (e.g. Hawthorne, 1984; L. B. Mwasumbi, unpublished data), but are probably still incomplete. The canopy of the forest interior is dominated by Scorodophloeus fischeri, Cynometra webberi, Scheflerodendron M anilkara usambarense, sulcata, M . discolor, Dry petes arguta and Bombax schumannianum (Hawthorne, 1984; L. B. Mwasumbi, unpublished data). Three plants occur which are believed to be endemic: Tricalysiu bridsoniana var. pandensis, Sapium sp. nov. and Leptactina sp. A. Moreover, Uvaria pandensis, &aria sp. nov., Nesogordonia holtzii and Ecbolium umbrossus are known from very few other coastal forests (Hawthorne, 1984; Rodgers et al., 1985b; Beentje, 1988b; L. B. Mwasumbi, unpublished data). Preliminary work on the avifauna (Burgess et al., 1991) shows that at least 37 species of forest birds occur, including the plain-backed sunbird. Few data are available on the other fauna, although larger mammals are thought to be absent. Human use. The populations of local villages utilise the forest as a source of building poles and timber. Up to 70% of available poles have been cut in the forest margins, with lower exploitation in the forest interior (Hall & Rodgers, 1986). During 1988 and 1989 timber was extensively removed and areas of forest were clear-felled and burnt to produce charcoal. This activity has been somewhat curtailed since 1990, but charcoalburning is still continuing. Pande has recently been made a Game Reserve in an attempt to prevent further damage from logging and charcoalburning, However, due to a lack of resources for enforcing the regulations, these activities are continuing unabated. The presence of several endemic and rare plant species shows that the conservation importance of the forest is high. Conservation status. Kisarawe District Pugu Forest Reserve (6” 54’ S, 39” 5’ E) Description. The Pugu Forest Reserve is located c. 25 km to the south-southwest of Dar es Salaam, on the Pugu Hills. The forest currently occupies about 10 km2, although in 1970 it was believed to cover 22 km2 (Howell, 1981). The Pugu Hills are a dissected range of kaolinitic sandstones of 211 Coastalforests of Tanzania zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQP Miocene to Pliocene age which extend up to 305 m above sea level and receive 1250 mm of rainfall per annum at Kisarawe (Howell, 1981). Ecology. Scientifically, this is the best-studied coastal forest in Tanzania. The vegetation is extremely heterogeneous with characteristic ridgetop, valley-slope and valley-bottom vegetation types, including both dry and moist forest stands (Hawthorne, 1984). Different areas of the canopy .we dominated by Scorodophloeus fischeri, Antiaris toxicaria, M alacantha alntfolia, M anilkara sulcata ,or Dialium holtzii. Botanical collections have so far identified 14 plant species and varieties which are believed to be endemic or near-endemic to Pugu; these are Cojiea sessiltflora var. mwasumbii, Humbertochloa greenway i, Lasiodiscus holtzii, Alchornea engleri, Casearia holtzii, Baphia puguensis, M illettia puguensis, Rhynchosia holtzii, Diospyros engleri, Sapium triloculare, Grumilea rufescens, sp. nov. and Aspilia sp. (Howell, 1981; L. B. Mwasumbi, unpublished data). However, the taxonomic status of some of these species is uncertain and with further work some may prove to be conspecific with other named taxa. Other rare plant species in Pugu, also known from coastal forests in Kenya, are HaploTapinanthus longipes, Uvaria coelopis africana, Haplocoelum mombasense, Neso- and Vitex zanzibarensis (Beentje, 1988b). A very small burial grove at Gongolambolo, close to the Pugu Hills, is the only known locality for the endemic genus and species Stephanostemma stenocarpum (Apocynaceae). This highlights the extent to which extremely rare species are probably living undiscovered in small, remote patches of coastal forest. The avifauna of the Pugu Forest has been investigated over the past 50 years (Fuggles-Couchman, 1939; Howell, 1981; Collar & Stuart, 1985; 1988; N. Baker, pers. comm.; C. Mlingwa, pers. comm.). Around 65 species of forest birds are known from the site, including the vulnerable Sokoke pipit, the rare east-coast akalat Sheppardia gunningi and spotted ground thrush Turdus fischeri, and the Uluguru violet-backed sunbird and southern banded snake eagle. Moreover, an endemic subspecies of pale-breasted illadopsis-Trichostoma rufipennis puguensis- is present. Howell (1981) presents details of the small mammals and invertebrates of the site, including two endemic or near-endemic reptiles, and several invertebrate species. Large mammals used to be present but have mostly been hunted out. gordonia holtzii Human use. Most of the forest was logged in the colonial era and some areas were replanted with exotic species between 1959 and 1964. Since then, further areas of natural vegetation have been cleared by the Forest Department and replanted with the exotic species of Grevillea, Eucalyptus, Cassia and teak, a policy being pursued as recently as 1982. Moreover, poles, timber and charcoal are removed from the forest, often illegally. For example, in 1985 around 50% of the available poles had been taken from accessible areas (Hall & Rodgers, 1986). The reserve also contains one of the largest deposits of kaolin in the world and brick and tile industries are established, both of which require fuelwood. Hunting pressure from the kaolin mine workers has all but removed pygmy antelopes (duiker Cephalopus sp. and suni Neotragus moschatus) from the forest. Conservation status. The entire forest falls within the Pugu Forest Reserve, which was gazetted prior to independence (before 1962). The presence of several endemic or rare species within the forest indicates its extremely high conservation importance. Kazimzumbwi Forest (6” 58’ S, 39” 3’ E) Kazimzumbwi Forest is located on the Pugu Hills some 25 km to the south-southwest of Dar es Salaam and is only separated from the Pugu Forest Reserve by a narrow strip of cleared land. Around 20 km2 of forest vegetation is currently present at Kazimzumbwi, though much of it is severely degraded, 8 km2 being reduced to thicket. Description. Ecology. Scientifically Kazimzumbwi has been far less studied than Pugu because permission to visit has been difficult to obtain. As a consequence little is known about the flora and fauna. However, preliminary studies in 1990 and 1991 have tended to confirm expectations that the flora and fauna are similar to that in Pugu Forest Reserve, and therefore of very high biological importance. Human use. In common with Pugu, Kazimzumbwi has been extensively logged in the past, and logging and pole removal are still continuing, albeit illegally. In particular, the southwest of the forest has large areas without any canopy above 3 m. Moreover, much of the southern forest was replanted with exotic trees (Cassia and Eucalyptus) between 1961 and 1964, and there is evidence of recent charcoal-burning both on the forest margin 212 N. D. Burgess et and more than 1 km within the forest. However, in the northern half there are still areas of primary forest vegetation, which appear less disturbed than similar areas in Pugu. Conservation status. The entire forest falls within the Kazimzumbwi Forest Reserve, gazetted prior to independence. The forest vegetation appears slightly better preserved than at the adjacent Pugu Forest Reserve. Preliminary studies on the flora and fauna indicate that it is of similar importance to that at Pugu. A recent initiative by the Wildlife Conservation Society of Tanzania has considerably reduced levels of illegal logging and charcoal-burning (N. Baker, pers. comm.). Vikindu Forest (6” 59’ S, 39” 17’ E) Description. This highly damaged forest is located about 17 km to the south of Dar es Salaam and 0.5 km northwest of the village of Vikindu. The main Dar es Salaam-Kilwa road passes directly through the forest, which presently covers about 10 km2 of relatively low-lying and flat land over clay-bound sands and gravels of Miocene to Pliocene age. The major part of the forested area has been extensively logged and replanted with exotic trees so that native forest vegetation now only exists along river valleys. Ecology. Botanical collections have been made in this site over many years but the flora has never really been fully described. However, the possibly endemic plant species Wurburgia elongata and the rare Tristemma schliebenii are present. Ornithological investigations in 1989 located a pair of Sokoke pipit (Mlingwa, 1991), but little else is known of the fauna. Human use. The entire forest was logged and all usable trees were extracted from before independence into the 1970s. Much of the area was replanted with Eucalyptus and Cassia siamea in 1956 and 1963/64 and these are now being logged. Some of the native trees and shrubs remaining along the rivers are removed by local people for timber, poles and charcoal. However, the surviving areas of natural vegetation are regenerating and, if left, will return to high forest as there is little agricultural encroachment. Conservation status. The entire Vikindu Forest falls within the Vikindu Forest Reserve. Due to a lack of detailed study on the flora and fauna, it is al. not possible to make a full assessment of the conservation importance of this site. However, the presence of one possible endemic plant and the vulnerable Sokoke pipit indicates a high conservation importance. Kisiju Forest (7” 24’ S, 39” 20’ E) Description. Kisiju Forest is located a few metres above sea level on a sandy island some 5 km north of the coastal village of Kisiju. The main forest currently occupies some 2 km2, although other fragments are located on nearby islands and the mainland. Ecology. The primary forest is typified by large canopy trees, a well-developed shrub layer and a sparse ground flora. However, there are many abandoned farm clearings which support secondary vegetation typified by the absence of large trees, and a tangle of lianas and ruderals. Ninety species of plants have been recorded and the two dominant forest trees have been identified as Baphiu kirkii and Hymenaea verrucosa (Hawthorne, 1984). Less prominent canopy elements are Afzeliu quanzensis, Albizia petersiana, Craibia zimmermannii, Manilkara sansibarensis and Holarrhena pubescens. Completely endemic species appear to be absent, but rare species present are Xylopia sp. nov. and Oxyanthus sp. nov. B, the latter known only from one other site near Dar es Salaam (Hawthorne, 1984). Burgess et al. (1991) have shown that the avifauna comprises a depauperate assemblage of 13 species of forest birds, with no rarities. Few other data are available on the fauna. Human use. In 1982 most of this forest was unused by man, except adjacent to the one small settlement on the island (Hawthorne, 1984). However, since then many areas of the forest have been cut down and burnt to provide poor-grade agricultural land for subsistence farmers. At the present rate of destruction no primary forest will remain in lo-15 years time. Conservation status. This forest has no formal protection and is severely threatened. The preliminary studies on the flora and fauna indicate that its conservation importance is considerable. Other forests in Kisarawe District Forest exists in the Ruvu South Forest Reserve (at 7“ 0’ S, 38” 45’ E), approximately 50 km inland 213 Coastalforests of Tanzania from Dar es Salaam. About 98 km2 of coastal thicket/forest with a scattered canopy is present on ground around 300 m above sea level and c. 10 km* is regarded as high forest. The rare fruit bat A21y ony cterisrelicta and the lesser pouched rat were discovered in this forest in 1991, along with large populations of African elephant Loxodontu africuna. Rufiji District Kiwengoma Forest (between 8” 20’ and 8” 23’ S and 38” 54’ and 38” 58’ E) Description. Kiwengoma Forest is located on the Matumbi Massif some 25 km to the southeast of Utete and about 20 km inland from the Indian Ocean. The complex topography of the 400 km2 Matumbi Massif is comprised of Jurassic and Cretaceous estuarine and marine shales and sandstones which are dissected by numerous eroding valleys, in some of which forest vegetation occurs. It is estimated that Kiwengoma Forest contains between 10 and 25 km2 of forest, lying in valleys over 600 m above sea level (Kingdon, 1989; Sheil & Burgess, 1990). used by local people farmland. for poles and temporary The Kiwengoma Forest Reserve is enforced to contain most of the forest presently studied. However, there is unprotected forest elsewhere on the Matumbi Massif. Preliminary data on the flora and fauna of Kiwengoma suggest that forests in this area have very high conservation importance. The rapid rate of logging in the river valleys supporting Saintpauliu ionantha casts doubt on the long-term survival of the species at this site. Conservation status. Other forests in Rufiji District A small amount of forest (l-3 km2) is present in Mchungu and Kikale Forest Reserves (approximately 7” 45’ S and 39” 16’ E), on the coast just north of the main Rufiji Delta. These forests are not well-developed and are geologically very young. They do not appear to possess any notable species and their conservation importance is expected to be low (T. Waters & N. D. Burgess, unpublished data). Further areas of forest occur on islands in the Rufiji Delta, often on ridges of sand; Ecology. The canopy of this forest is dominated zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCB however, their number, area and biological comby Khaya nyasica, M ilitia (= Chlorophora) excelsa, position are unknown. Dalborgia melanoxylon and Pterocarpus sp., with a diverse shrub layer. The forest supports large popKilwa District ulations of the rare African violet Saintpaulia ionantha in river valleys, and mist regularly forms Tong’omba Forest Reserve (8” 32’ S, 30” 0’ E) has on ridge-tops, providing a distinct microhabitat. been found to contain an extensive (>lO km2) Burgess et al. (1991) have recorded 44 species of block of apparently primary coastal forest. Other forest birds at Kiwengoma, including the Uluguru forests in Kilwa District are extremely poorly violet-backed sunbird and southern banded snake known, despite satellite photographs from the eagle. Rare mammals present include the lesser 1970s (Rodgers et al., 1985a), suggesting that pouched rat and the fruit bat M y ony cteris relicta there may be considerable areas of forest in some (Kingdon, 1989). Preliminary investigation of the Forest Reserves, e.g. Kitope Hill (So 25’ S, 30” 0 diverse invertebrate assemblage has discovered 16 E), Ngarama (9” 17’ S, 39” 15’ E to 9” 30’ S, 39” new species of millipedes in seven new genera, one 28’ E), Pindiro (So 30’ S, 39” 17’ E), Rungo (9” 22’ new genus of spider, one new genus of neuropS, 38” 52’ E) and Mitundumbea (9” 10’ S, 39” 16 teran and one new species of snail (K. M. Howell, E). Visiting these areas and assessing any forests pers. comm.). present is an urgent priority. Human use. On the plateau tops virtually all the vegetation is secondary, having been cleared and cultivated over the past 100 years, although most has regenerated since 1962 when the. area became a Forest Reserve. Until 1986 there had been little logging since pre-independence times. However, since then virtually all accessible Khaya nyasica and M ilitia excelsa trees have been removed from the three main valleys. The remaining forest is Lindi District Rondo Forest (10’ 8’ S, 39” 12’ E) Description. Forest is located on the Rondo Plateau around 870 m above sea level (10” 10’ S, 39” 15’ E), and in the Mchindiji valley (loo 7’ S, 39” 12’ E). The plateau forest is about 4 km from Rondo village, itself about 60 km west of Lindi, and covers 18-20 km2 (M. Huxham, pers. comm.). 214 N. D. Burgess et al. The soil of the forest is sandy and is derived from terrestrial sands, gravels, calcretes and laterites of Miocene to Pleistocene age. Average rainfall is around 1100 mm. Ecology. The forest vegetation is very heterogenous with logged areas, plantations, cleared glades and some stands in almost primary condition. The canopy consists of trees such as Miliciu excelsa, Riciniodendron gracilator, Afzelia quanzensis and Bombax rhodognaphalon. Caloncoba welwitschii, a tree species typical of sub-montane forest, is also present. There are also large areas of plantation, particularly of Pinus species, teak, Grevillea and Cupressus, some within the natural forest. Polhill (1968) presents a list of the plants which are believed to be endemic to this forest and the surrounding area; these are Ipomoea consimilis, Xylopia collina, X. latipetala, Warburgia ugandensis ssp. longtfolia, Dichapetalum macrocarpum, Vismianthus punctatus, Ipomoea flavivillosa, Diospyros eggelingii, Zimmermannia grandtflora, Homalium elegantulum, Vismia paucifora, Bussea eggelingii, Mimosa busseana, Erythrina schliebenii, Millettia makondensis, Paropsia schleibeniana, Cuviera semseii, Heinsia bussei, H. parviflora, Leptactina bussei, Pavetta lutambensis, P. schliebenii, Vepris schliebenii, Solanum lamprocarpum, Cola discoglypremnophylla and Grewia meizophylla. However, it is not known how many of these are present in the forest itself. Further preliminary collections by staff from Kew Gardens in 1988 and 1991 have recorded additional new species, indicating that the area warrants considerable further botanical attention. Recent work on the avifauna (Bagger et al., 1989; Faldborg et al., 1991; Holsten et al., 1991) shows that at least 55 species of forest birds are present, including the rare east coast akalat and spotted ground thrush, an almost endemic subspecies of green barbet Stactolaema olivacea woodwardi, and the Uluguru violet-backed sunbird, plain-backed sunbird and southern banded snake eagle. The amphibians and reptiles have also received some study (Howell, 1981), an undescribed species of frog (Stephopaede sp.) is present, and a rare Mertensophryne species. Human use. This was the finest Militia excelsa forest in East Africa before it was logged in the late 1940s and 1950s. In 1952 the Rondo Forest Project was initiated which planted over 1100 ha of hardwoods and 1700 ha of pine, some at the expense of the natural forest (Procter, 1968). Planting was stopped in 1982 as the exotic trees were growing poorly. Timber is removed under licence and hardwood poles and some charcoal are taken by local people, some illegally. The most serious threat to the forest is posed by deliberate fires started by the local people which sometimes burn hundreds of hectares of land, including young forest. Conservation status. Virtually all of the Rondo Forest falls within the Rondo Forest Reserve (see Faldborg et al., 1991). The limited studies undertaken on the flora and fauna suggest that its conservation importance is extremely high. Other forests in Lindi District Litipo Forest (10’ 2’ S, 39” 29’ E) is known to support around 10 km2 of evergreen forest (Bagger et al., 1989; Faldborg et al., 1991). It is the type locality for several plant species which may be endemic, and the east coast akalat. Chitoa Forest Reserve (IO” 2’ S, 39” 20’ E) covers around 7 km2 and is also known to support forest. Forest is also present at Nyangamara (loo 23’ S, 39” 35’ E), c. 40 km south-southeast of Lindi (Faldborg et al., 1991). Other Forest Reserves in Lindi District which may support coastal forest, as they appear forested on satellite photographs, are Ndiba (9” 37’ S, 39” 39’ E), Ruawa (9” 40’ S, 39” 35’ E), Makangala (10” 0’ S, 39” 20’ E) and Matapwa (9” 57’ S, 39” 30’ E). Mtwara, Newala and Masasi Districts Forest is also believed to remain in the Chilangala (10’ 33’ S, 39” 8’ E) and Mahuta and Namikupala Forest Reserves (10’ 52’ S, 39” 55, E) (S. Bearder, pers. comm.). No scientific data are available. In general the southeastern part of Tanzania has received little recent scientific investigation and much further work is required before a complete picture of the forest resource in this area and its biological importance is available. Zanzibar Island The best-known coastal forest on Zanzibar is Jozani Forest Reserve (6” 15’ S, 39” 24’ E), which lies c. 35 km southeast of Zanzibar town. This forest may cover up to 4 km2 (Pakenham, 1979), although the area of undamaged forest may be as little as 1.3 km* (Robins, 1976). Botanically it is unlike those of the mainland as Calophyllum ino- 215 Coastalforests of Tanzania in 1987/88 for the planting of coconuts (Greenway and Eugenia sp. dominate the canopy, with et al., 1988). However, coastal thicket, with some Pandanus sp., Vitex doniana and Elaeis guineensis small patches of forest, still survives on the 40 km as subdominants (Robins, 1976; Beentje, 1990a). long X 1 km wide strip of coral rag along the Jozani is mainly noted as the stronghold for the eneastern seaboard of the island. This forest has demic subspecies of red colobus monkey Colobus recently been shown to support two undescribed badius kirkii (Zanzibar red colobus), but apart from species and one undescribed subspecies of butterthe Arabuko-Sokoke Forest in Kenya is also the fly, an undescribed species of toad and two only known site for Ader’s duiker Cephalophus undescribed genera and five undescribed species adersi. Beentje (1990a) presents preliminary details of millipede. of an additional 28 km2 area of forest and thicket at Muyuni (6” 20’ S, 39” 25’ E) and Stuart et al. (1990) mention small forests at Muungwi, STATUS OF COASTAL FOREST IN OTHER Mapopwe and Uzi Island.00 zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFEDCBA phyllum EAST AFRICAN COUNTRIES Pemba Island The largest surviving forest is Ngezi Forest Reserve (4” 55’ S, 39” 42’ E) (Pakenham, 1979; Rodgers et al., 1986; Beentje, 1990b). The forested area occupies around 14.4 km2 and is located at the base of the Kingomasha peninsula in northwest Pemba, astride the Konde-Ras Kigomasha vehicle track. Forest vegetation lies on rich alluvium and sands of c. 20 m elevation above sea level and has a mean annual precipitation of 1900 mm, with only two dry months per year. The main forest is dominated by Antiaris toxicaria, Odyendea zimmermannii, Bombax schumannianum, Blighia unijugata, Croton sy lvaticus, Erythrophleum suaveolens, M acaranga capensis, M ajidea zangue- and Terminalia sambesiaca. A lower canopy layer comprises Uapaca guineensis, Syzygium cordatum and Pachy stela spp. Ngezi Forest supports two endemic plants-Chrysalidocarpus pembanus and Ensete proboscoideum-as well as the nearendemic Philippia mafiensis and Typhanodorum hndleyanum. An endemic subspecies of the swallowtail butterfly, Graphium leonidas, and several other rare animals occur (Beentje, 1990b). All M ilitia excelsa has been logged from this forest and the shrub layer has been damaged by brashing to favour timber production (Rodgers et al., 1986). Smaller areas of forests on Pemba are located at Mwitu Mkuu (4” 55’ S, 39” 48’ E), Ras Kiuyu (4” 52’ S, 39” 50’ E) and on certain islands off the coast. The largest of these occupy between 2 and 3 km2. No scientific data are available. barica Mafia Island There were extensive areas of coastal forest on Mafia Island in the 1930s the last being destroyed The coastal forests of Tanzania form a part of a continuous belt of similar forests extending from Somalia in the north to Mozambique in the south. Somalia. Some 14 km2 of coastal forest occurred in the Jubba Valley from Bu’aale to Fanoole in the mid 1980s (Madgewick et al., 1988; Wood, 1988; Madgewick, 1989). Data were collected on the mammals, plants and birds in these areas. No other coastal forests are thought to exist and those originally described may have been removed. Kenya. The coastal forests of Kenya are quite well-known, having been the subject of research for several years (Doute et al., 1981; Hawthorne, 1984; Kelsey & Langton, 1984; Young, 1984; Robertson, 1987; Tetlow, 1987; Beentje, 1988a; Luke, 1988; Stuart et al., 1990). This work has shown that there are at least 67 patches of coastal forest; two, Arabuko-Sokoke (c. 170 km2) and the Shimba Hills (130 kmz), appearing to be much larger than any coastal forest in Tanzania. However, these are also under threat from overuse, especially the remaining small forests such as the kayas (religious forests). M ozambique. The coastal forests of Mozambique are very poorly known. Collar and Stuart (1988) note the presence of several small patches along the coast of Mozambique, all in Sofala Province, and they present preliminary data on their plants and birds. Stuart et al. (1990) also note the presence of coastal forest in the northern provinces of Cabo Delago and Nampula. However, few data appear to be available on these areas. Therefore, those. Tanzanian coastal forests described in this paper form part of a poorly known chain supporting a globally important 216 N. D. Burgess et al. to be assessed. It is particularly important that the flora and fauna. All the coastal forests of East probable forests in Kilwa District are visited. Africa, especially those in Tanzania, Somalia and Mozambique, urgently require further scientific investigation to assess their biological importance as a basis on which to ensure an increased level of ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS protection to preserve their biological diversity. zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFE Most of the field support for this work was provided by Frontier-Tanzania, a joint initiative of CONCLUSIONS the Society for Environmental Exploration, UK and the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. The coastal forests of Tanzania are little studied Jon Lovett commented extensively on previous but are rich in endemic and near-endemic flora drafts of this paper. Thanks are also expressed to and fauna. Twenty-four coastal forests of over the staff of the International Council for Bird 2 km* are known to exist, covering less than Preservation (ICBP) (Cambridge), the World Con350 km*; and a further 17 are thought to be preservation Monitoring Centre (Cambridge), and sent. However, taking into consideration the probthe Oxford Forestry Institute (Oxford) for the able presence of forests in some other areas, the generous provision of unpublished data on Tanzatrue area of coastal forest in Tanzania is probably nian coastal forests. Barbera Mackinder, Roger closer to 400 km*. Polhill and Kaj Volleson of the Herbarium of the Around 40% of the trees in these forests are Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, Ann Robertson endemic to the Zanzibar-Inhambane Regional and Quentin Luke of the Coast Forest Survey in Mosaic (White, 1983); some are very rare (see Kenya, Neil and Liz Baker of the Wildlife ConserBeentje, 19883). This paper indicates that at least vation Society of Tanzania in Dar es Salaam, Kim 50 species of plant may be confined to single Howell, Peter Kasigwa and Charles Mlingwa of forests, with many others known from very few the University of Dar es Salaam, Alan Rodgers of localities. Moreover, these forests are shown to the Wildlife Institute in India, John Hall of the support seven species and subspecies of birds of University of Wales in Bangor, Jonathon Kingdon global conservation importance, and poorly of the University of Oxford, Katherine Homeknown assemblages of mammals, amphibians, repwood and Brian Wood of University College tiles and invertebrates all of considerable global London, Mark Huxham of the University of conservation significance. Aberdeen, Simon Bearder of Oxford Polytechnic, Most of the coastal forests described have been Stan Davies and Zul Bhatia of the Royal Society heavily damaged by man, and the level of damage for the Protection of Birds, Graham Tucker and appears to be increasing. At the present rate of deJohn Fanshawe of the ICBP, Hilary Neve of struction, forest cover will eventually be comAction Health, and Nicholas Payne, Eibleis pletely removed from most sites recently visited, Fanning, Phil Clarke, Anya Cockle, Clare Ansell, with the consequent extinction of many species. Douglas Sheil and Tertia Waters of the FrontierAll remaining coastal forests must therefore be Tanzania Expeditions TZ02 to TZ09 all genergranted maximum conservation priority, both naously provided information, advice and criticism. tionally and internationally. Thanks are also expressed to all other students Several of the forests mentioned in this paper and staff members of Frontier-Tanzania expedihave not been visited by the authors, and for tions TZOl to TZ09, as without their help this others data on size, biological importance and paper would have been impossible. status are very scanty. It is therefore important that the coastal forest research programmes initiated in 1988 by the Wildlife Conservation REFERENCES Society of Tanzania and in 1989 by the Society for Environmental Exploration are continued. Recent Bagger, J., Halberg, K. & Nyiti, P. Y. (1989) Observations of aerial photographs or satellite images would enbirds in Rondo and Litipo forests, SE Tanzania. Preliminary report of the Danish-Tanzanian ICBP expedition. Inable more accurate base maps of the probable disstitute of Population Biology, University of Copenhagen/ tribution of forests along the coast to be comICBP-Danish Section. visits would identified, site piled. Once Beentje, H. J. (1988~). Atlas of rare trees of Kenya. Utafiti, 1, 71-120. enable the biological importance of these forests 217 Coastal forests of Tanzania Beentje, H J. (19886). An ecological and floristic study of the forests of the Taita Hills, Kenya. Utujiti, 1, 23-66. Beentje, H. J. (1990~). A reconnaissance survey of Zanzibar forests and coastal thicket. FINNIDA, Department of Environment, Commission of Lands and Environment, Dar es Salaam (unpublished report). Beentje, H. J. (1990b). Botanical assessment of Ngezi Forest, Pemba. FINNIDA, Department of Environment, Commission of Lands and Environment, Dar es Salaam (unpublished report). Bensted-Smith, R. & Msangi-Msangi, T. H. (1989). Tropical forestry action plan: United Republic of Tanzania. Forest and Beekeeping Division of the Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism, Dar es Salaam (unpublished report). Burgess, N. D., Huxham, M. R., Mlingwa, C. 0. F., Davis, S. G. & Cutts, C. J. (1991). Preliminary assessment of forest birds in Kiono, Pande, Kisiju and Kiwengoma coastal forests, Tanzania. Scopus, 14, 97-106. Campbell, D. G. (1989). Introduction. In Floristic Inventory of Tropical Countries, ed. D. G. Campell & D. Hammond. New York Botanic Garden, New York, pp. 630. Collar, N. J. & Stuart, S. N. (1985). Threatened Birds of Africa Book, and Related Islands: The ICBP/IUCN Red Data Part I, 3rd edn. International Council for Bird Preservation and International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources, Cambridge. Collar, N. J. & Stuart, S. N. (1988). Key forests for threatened birds in Africa. ICBP Monogr., No. 3. Doute, R., Ochanda, N. & Epp, H. (1981). A forest inventory of Kenya using remote sensing techniques. Kenya Rangeland Ecological Monitoring Unit, Nairobi (unpublished report). Faldborg, J., Halberg, K., Brammer, F. & Eriksen, T. (1991). Observations of birds and mammals in six coastal forests of Tanzania. Preliminary report of the Danish-Tanzanian ICBP expedition. Institute of Population Biology, University of Copenhagen/ICBP-Danish Section. Fuggles-Couchman, N. R. (1939). Notes on some birds of the Eastern Province of Tanganiyka Territory. Ibis, 1939, 76106. Greenway, P. J., Rodgers, W. A., Wingfield, R. J. & Mwasumbi, L. B. (1988). The vegetation of Mafia Island, Tanzania. Kirkia, 13, 197-238. Hall, J. B. & Rodgers, W. A. (1986). Pole cutting pressure in Tanzanian Forest. Forest Ecol. & Manage., 14, 13340. Hawthorne, W. J. (1984). Ecological and biogeographical patterns in the Coastal Forests of East Africa. PhD thesis, University of Oxford. Holsten, B., Braunlich, A. & Huxham, M. R. (1991). Rondo Forest Reserve: an ornithological note including new records of east coast akalat Sheppardia gunningi, spotted ground thrush Turdus jischeri and rondo green barbet Stactolaema olivacea woodwardi. Scopus, 14, 125-8. Hamilton, A. C. (1981). The quaternary history of African forests: its relevance to conservation. Afr. J. Ecol., 19, l-6. Hamilton, A. C. & Bensted-Smith, T. (eds) (1989). Forest Conservation in the East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania. IUCN, Gland/Cambridge, and Forest Division, Ministry of Lands, Natural Resources and Tourism, Dar es Salaam. Howell, K. M. (1981). Pugu Forest Reserve: biological values and development. Afr. J. Ecol., 19, 73-81. Johansson, R. R. (1978). Saintpaulias in their natural environment. Biol. Conserv., 14, 45560. Kelsey, M. G. & Langton, T. E. S. (1984). The Conservation of the Arabuko-Sokoke Report, no. 4. International Forest, Kenya. ICBP Study Council for Bird Preservation/ University of East Anglia, Cambridge. Kingdon, J. (1989). Frontier-Tanzania Expedition 1989-1994: Matumbi interim report. Society for Environmental Exploration, London (unpublished report). Kingdon, J. (1990). Island Africa: The Evolution of Africa’s Rare Animals and Plants. Collins, London. Lovett, J. C. (1985). An overview of the moist forests of Tanzania. Tanzania National Scientific Research Council Research Monographs, Dar es Salaam (unpublished). Lovett, J. C. (1988~). Practical aspects of moist forest conservation in Tanzania. In Modern Systematic Studies in African Botany, ed. P. Goldblatt & P. P. Lowry II. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Botanical Garden, 25, St Louis, Missouri, pp. 491-6. Lovett, J. C. (1988b). Endemism and affinities of the Tanzanian montane forest flora. In Modern Systematic Studies in African Botany, ed. P. Goldblatt & P. P. Lowry II. Monogr. Syst. Bot. Missouri Botanical Garden, 25, St Louis, Missouri, pp. 591-8. Lovett, J. C. (1989). Tanzania. In FIoristic Inventory of Tropical Countries, ed. D. G. Campbell & D. Hammond. New York Botanic Garden, New York, pp. 233-5. Luke, Q. (1988). New records of rare Kenyan plants. Utafiti, 1, 68-70. Madgewick, J. (1989). Somalia’s threatened forests. Oryx, 23, 84101. Madgewick, J., Maunder, M., Varty, N. & Wood, B. (1988). An ecological study of the remaining areas of riverine forest in the Jubba Valley, southern Somalia; final report. University College London, London (unpublished report). Mlingwa, C. 0. F. (1991). Further records of Sokoke pipit Anthus sokokensis from Tanzania. Scopus, 15, 57-8. Pakenham, R. H. W. (1979). The Birds of Zanzibar and Pemba. British Ornithologists Union Check-list, No. 2. London. Polhill, R. M. (ed.) (1952-). Flora of Tropical East Africa. Prepared at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, with assistance from the East African Herbarium, Nairobi; A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, on behalf of the East African Government. Polhill, R. M. (1968). Tanzania. Acta Phytogeogr. Suet., 54, 16678. Polhill, R. M. (1989). East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, Uganda). In Floristic Inventory of Tropical Countries, ed. D. G. Campbell & D. Hammond. New York Botanic Garden, New York, pp. 23641. Procter, J. (1968). Tree growth in trial plots on the Rondo Plateau. Tanzan. Silvic. Res. Note, No. 5, l-6. Robertson, S. A. (1987). Preliminary floristic survey of Kaya forests of coastal Kenya. National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi (unpublished report). Robins, R. J. (1976). The composition of the Jozani Forest, Zanzibar. Bot. J. Linn. Sot., 72, 223-34. Rodgers, W. A., Mizray, W. & Shishra, E. K. (1985~). The extent of forest cover in Tanzania using satellite imagery. University of Dar es Salaam Institute ment Research Paper, No. 12, l-15. Rodgers, W. A., Mwasumbi, of Resource Assess- L. B. & Hall, J. B. (1985b). The Floristics of Three Coastal Forests near Dar es Salaam. Departments of Zoology, Botany and the Division of Forestry of the University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam. Rodgers, W. A., Hall, J. B., Mwasumbi, L. B., Swai, I. & Volleson, K. (1986). The Conservation and Values of Ngezi Reserve, Pemba Island, Tanzania. Report of the Forest Conservation Group, University of Dar es Salaam, Dar es Salaam. Sheil, R. D. & Burgess, N. D. (1990). Preliminary results of 218 N. zyxwvutsrqponmlkjihgfedcbaZYXWVUTSRQPONMLKJIHGFE D. Burgess et al. biological surveys of Zaraninge (Kiono) and Kierengoma (Matumbi Hills) Forest Reserves, Tanzania: January to March 1990, Interim Report. Society for Environmental Exploration, London. (unpublished report). Stuart, S. N., Adams, R. J. & Jenkins, M. D. (1990). Biodiversity in sub-Saharan Africa and its Islands: Conservation, Management and Sustainable Use. Oct. Pap. IUCN Species Survival Commn, No. 6. Tetlow, S. L. (1987). Cambridge Conservation Study 1985: Taita Hills, Kenya. ICBP Study Report, No. 19. ICBP, Cambridge. White, F. (1983). The Vegetation of Africa. UNESCO, Paris. Wood, B. (1988). The bird community of riverine forest in Somalia. Biogeographica, 14, 83- 9. Young, T. P. (1984). Kenya’s indigenous forests: status, for conservation threats, and prospects action. IUCNWWF Eastern Africa Regional Office, Nairobi (unpublished report).