COMPREHENSIVE INVENTORIES OF SELECTED
BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES WITHIN TARGETED
WATERSHEDS AND ECOLOGICAL CORRIDORS OF
SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR
IMPROVED MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF CRITICAL
WATERSHEDS PROJECT
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
1
SEPTEMBER 2009
THIS PUBLICATION HAS BEEN PRODUCED FOR REVIEW BY THE UNITED STATES AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT. IT WAS
PREPARED BY DEVELOPMENT ALTERNATIVES INC. (DAI) AND SALVANATURA.
COMPREHENSIVE INVENTORIES OF SELECTED
BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES WITHIN TARGETED
WATERSHEDS AND ECOLOGICAL CORRIDORS OF
SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR
IMPROVED MANAGEMENT AND CONSERVATION OF
CRITICAL WATERSHEDS (IMCW) PROJECT
Contract No. EPP-I-00-04-00023-00
Strategic Objective No. 519-022
Contractor Name: DAI
Date: September 2009
Oliver Komar, editor.
Research Supervisor, Improved Management and Conservation of Critical Watersheds
Project, and Director, Conservation Science Department, SalvaNATURA, San Salvador,
El Salvador
Chapter authors are Oliver Komar, José L. Linares, Francisco Chicas Batres, José Alberto
González Leiva, Vladlen Henríquez, Xiomara Henríquez, Luis E. Girón, Melissa Rodríguez,
and James G. Owen.
Recommended citation: Komar, O. (Editor). 2009. Comprehensive Inventories of Selected
Biological Resources within Targeted Watersheds and Ecological Corridors of Southwestern
El Salvador. USAID El Salvador, Improved Management and Conservation of Critical
Watersheds Project.
Or for individual chapters, following this example: Linares, J. L. 2009. Flora inventory in
Southwestern El Salvador. in Komar, O. (editor). Comprehensive Inventories of Selected
Biological Resources within Targeted Watersheds and Ecological Corridors of Southwestern
El Salvador. USAID El Salvador, Improved Management and Conservation of Critical
Watersheds Project.
This study is made possible by the support of the American People through the United States
Agency for International Development (USAID.) The contents of this study are the sole
responsibility of Development Alternatives, Inc. (DAI) and do not necessarily reflect the views
of USAID or the United States Government.
Cover: Cuscatlania vulcanicola, a species rediscovered in the Coatepeque watershed. Photo
by Frank Sullyvan Cardoza.
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Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ............................................................................................................... 7
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .............................................................................................................. 9
1. SYNTHESIS AND SUMMARY OF THE BIODIVERSITY FIELD INVENTORIES ................ 14
2. FLORA INVENTORY ............................................................................................................. 32
3. PRELIMINARY INVENTORY OF FISH SPECIES IN ELEVEN WATERSHEDS ................. 76
4. INVENTORY OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES ............................................................... 107
5. INVENTORY OF BIRDS ...................................................................................................... 133
6. INVENTORY OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS ..................................................................... 203
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................... 234
TABLES AND FIGURES
TABLES
1. Geographic distribution of field days for the biodiversity surveys carried out during
2007 in the IMCW project area .................................................................................................. 18
2. Historical and new records of flora and fauna in the project area, through 2007 ................. 19
3. Species recorded in the IMCW project area, through 2007 .................................................. 21
4. Level of inventory completeness recorded by watershed ..................................................... 22
5. Level of inventory completeness in the municipalities ........................................................... 23
6. Level of inventory completeness recorded by ecosystem ..................................................... 24
7. Importance rankings by ecosystem ....................................................................................... 27
8. Summary of recommendations for conservation, organized by taxonomic group ................ 29
9. Sampling sites for trees and total botanical sampling effort .................................................. 34
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
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10. Indicator species for inventory completeness of trees in the study area ............................ 38
11. Tree species recorded in the study area ............................................................................. 46
12. Flora of conservation importance in the project area .......................................................... 64
13. Inventory completeness for tree species and relative importance of ecosystems .............. 65
14. Plants endemic to the IMCW project area, with collection locations from the present
study ........................................................................................................................................... 66
15. Botanical species of interest collected in the study area ..................................................... 67
16. Inventory completeness for tree species and relative importance of watersheds .............. 73
17. Inventory completeness for tree species and relative importance of municipalities ........... 74
18. Watersheds, municipalities, and ecosystems considered in the evaluation of the fish
inventory ..................................................................................................................................... 80
19. List of fish species considered to be indicators of complete site inventories in
southwestern El Salvador, but not yet recorded ........................................................................ 82
20. Fish recorded in southwestern El Salvador, by ecosystem, through 2008 ......................... 92
21. Level of fish inventory completeness by watershed in southwestern El Salvador .............. 99
22. Level of fish inventory completeness by municipality in southwestern El Salvador ......... 100
23. Level of fish inventory completeness by habitat in southwestern El Salvador.................. 101
24. Conservation-important fish in southwestern El Salvador ................................................. 102
25. Description of the sampling sites and effort for the herpetofauna study ........................... 109
26. Indicator species for inventory completeness .................................................................... 113
27. List of indicator species for conservation important sites .................................................. 116
28. Herpetofauna species recorded in the study area ............................................................. 118
29. Inventory completeness for amphibians and reptiles and relative importance of
watersheds ............................................................................................................................... 125
30. Inventory completeness for amphibians and reptiles and relative importance of
municipalities ............................................................................................................................ 126
31. Inventory completeness for amphibians and reptiles and relative importance of
ecosystems ............................................................................................................................... 127
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Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
32. Inventory completeness for amphibians and reptiles and relative importance of
protected natural areas ............................................................................................................ 128
33. Estimators of herpetofauna species richness in each protected natural area
studied ...................................................................................................................................... 129
34. Estimators of herpetofauna species richness in each ecosystem studied ........................ 131
35. Localities where bird inventory field work was carried out by the IMCW project .............. 136
36. The 74 resident bird species, expected in any municipality or watershed of the study
area, that serve as indicators of inventory completeness (―test‖ species) at the site level ..... 138
37. Bird species used as ―test species‖ to indicate relative levels of inventory
completeness at the ecosystem level, in southwestern El Salvador ....................................... 142
38. Birds of national conservation concern (188 species), useful as indicators for site
prioritization in the study area .................................................................................................. 152
39. Types of avian locality records available for the present analysis .................................... 163
40. Sampling effort for birds at each study site during 2007 field work ................................... 163
41. List of 431 bird species recorded in the project area ......................................................... 169
42. Inventory completeness for birds and relative importance of watersheds ........................ 198
43. Inventory completeness for birds and relative importance of municipalities ..................... 199
44. Inventory completeness for birds and relative importance of ecosystems........................ 200
45. Sites and sampling efforts for mammals ............................................................................ 205
46. Indicator species (mammals) of inventory completeness.................................................. 207
47. Mammals that are indicators of important sites for conservation ...................................... 209
48. Individual mammals counted during the study................................................................... 211
49. List of terrestrial mammal species recorded in southwestern El Salvador through 2007 . 221
50. Level of mammal inventory completeness in the protected natural areas ........................ 228
51. Inventory completeness for mammals and relative importance of watersheds ................ 228
52. Inventory completeness for mammals and relative importance of municipalities ............. 229
53. Inventory completeness for mammals and relative importance of ecosystems ................ 229
54. Estimators of terrestrial mammal species richness in the study area and in each
ecosystem ................................................................................................................................. 231
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
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FIGURES
1. The IMCW project area contains 11 watersheds and 25 municipalities, as well as
several adjoining protected natural areas .................................................................................. 16
2. Ecoregions, natural ecosystems, and anthropogenic land uses in the study area ............... 17
3. improvements in the inventory of birds during 2007, for watersheds and municipalities ..... 25
4. Study area, watersheds, and sampling sites for flora ............................................................ 37
5. Selected photographs of flora taken during the study ..................................................... 60–63
6. Ichthyogeographic provinces of Central America .................................................................. 77
7. The Tropical Eastern Pacific biogeographic region ............................................................... 78
8. Study area in southwestern El Salvador, with watersheds and municipalities labeled ......... 81
9. Map of the sampling sites of the study of amphibians and reptiles during 2007 ................ 109
10. Selected photographs of amphibians and reptiles taken during the study ............... 120–123
11. Accumulation curve of herpetofauna species from each protected natural area
studied ...................................................................................................................................... 129
12. Accumulation curve for herpetofauna species from southwestern El Salvador ................ 130
13. Accumulation curve for herpetofauna species from each ecosystem studied .................. 131
14. Map of bird inventory field sites during 2007 ..................................................................... 135
15. Selected photographs of birds taken during the field study....................................... 165–168
16. Increment in inventory completeness index for birds in watersheds, resulting
from the field study ................................................................................................................... 197
17. Map of sites sampled for mammals in 2007 ...................................................................... 204
18. Mammal photographs taken during the study............................................................ 217–220
19. Species accumulation curve for terrestrial mammals in southwestern El Salvador ......... 230
20. Accumulation curves for terrestrial mammal species by ecosystem ................................. 231
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Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This study was funded by a contract from USAID to DAI, Inc. and a subcontract to
SalvaNATURA. This study was made possible by the support of the land managers who gave
their permissions to carry out field work, including managers of the Protected Natural Areas
System at the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources, in particular Zulma Ricord de
Mendoza, Walter Rojas, Alfonso Sermeño, and Patricia Quintana.
In the natural areas visited, we thank the following for their collaboration: Carlos Batres of
Finca Monte Carlo Estate at Laguna de Las Ninfas; Nidia Lara of AGAPE at Plan de Amayo;
the Instituto Salvadoreño de Turismo for work at Cerro Verde; Martha Huezo de Sandoval for
lodging at Playa Los Cóbanos; FUNDARRECIFE, especially Luis Pineda, at Los Cóbanos;
Walter Martínez of Asociación de Desarrollo Comunal Nueva Esperanza (ADESCONE) at
Bosque Santa Rita; COEX and Finca El Pireo at Laguna de Las Ranas; Cooperativa San
Rafael Los Naranjos at Cerro El Aguila; María Isabel Morales of Asociación Salvadoreña para
la Conservación del Medio Ambiente (ASACMA) at Complejo San Marcelino; staff of the
Natural Areas Department of SalvaNATURA (Francisco Soto and Enrique Fuentes in
particular) at Los Volcanes National Park and at El Imposible National Park. Also personnel of
CATIE and Cooperativa María Auxiliadora for assistance at Los Volcanes National Park.
Personnel of the Santo Domingo de Guzmán mayor’s office assisted with visits to the
municipality. The National Civil Police provided lodging at Barra Salada.
Botanical field trips and reports were assisted by Frank Sullyvan Cardoza, Vladlen Henríquez,
Xiomara Henríquez, and Manuel Méndez. Herpetology field trips were accompanied by
student volunteers Diana Quijano, Eder Caceros, Esmeralda Martínez, Jorge Herrera, and
Vanessa Amaya. Karla Lara collected herpetofaunal data at Los Cóbanos. Mammalogy field
trips were assisted by Arnulfo Morán, Elias Delgado, Alexandro Molina, and volunteer
students Karla Lara, Stefany Henríquez, Verónica Guzmán, Jonathan Hernández, Enrique
Fajardo, and Jorge García. Ornithology field trips technicians included Jesse Fagan, Carlos
Funes, Jorge Jiménez, Sofia Trujillo, Iselda Vega, and Carlos Zaldaña and several volunteers.
All of the field trips were greatly assisted by numerous park wardens, for whom we are
grateful, and apologize for not listing all of their names. Similarly, numerous officers of the
National Civil Police, Environment division, provided security and assistance at several field
sites.
The data in the SalvaNATURA flora and fauna database comes from many sources, both
published and unpublished. Of particular note are extensive unpublished observations of birds
contributed by Néstor Herrera, Ricardo Ibarra, Tom Jenner, Oliver Komar, Alvaro Moises, and
Walter Thurber. The data base contains thousands of banding and observation records from
the SalvaNATURA bird monitoring program, collected mostly by Lety Andino, Vicky Galán,
Roselvy Juárez, Jennifer Smith, and their assistants.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
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Gerrit Davidse of the Missouri Botanical Garden graciously provided all the records from that
institution that were requested. Frank Sullyvan Cardoza assisted with the flora database of the
Escuela Agrícola Panamericana.
Héctor Manuel Quezada, Karen Xiomara García, and German Bladimir Sánchez provided
valuable collaboration in the compilation of información in the fish database. Authorities and
technical staff of the Natural History Museum of El Salvador and Miriam Cortez de Galán,
coordinator of the zoology collections at the School of Biology of the University of El Salvador,
facilitated the review of preserved fish collections.
Maps were prepared by Vladlen Henríquez, Juan Felipe Gutiérrez, and Luis Girón. For the
many contributors, we extend sincere thanks and apologize for not listing everyone’s name.
All chapters were reviewed by Oliver Komar. Selected chapters were reviewed by Néstor
Herrera, Ricardo Ibarra Portillo, and Enrique Barraza. Marta Lilian Quezada and Melissa
Rodríguez assisted with formatting. The director of the Improved Management and
Conservation of Critical Watersheds Project during the implementation of this study was Steve
Romanoff.
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Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Comprehensive biological inventories were carried out during the second half of 2007 as part
of the Improved Management and Conservation of Critical Watersheds (IMCW) Project, in
southwestern El Salvador. This field work focused on trees, herpetofauna (amphibians and
reptiles), mammals, and birds in the principal natural areas, such as at Los Volcanes and El
Imposible National Parks, and in targeted watersheds and ecological corridors. Specific field
trips were designed to fill gaps in the biological inventory. Also, bibliographical and museum
data on fishes were collected and reviewed.
The objective of this work was to develop more complete information on the status of
biological resources, and effectively complete baseline information on distribution of key
indicator species. Widely-distributed species that are habitat generalists were used as
indicators of inventory progress, permitting the estimation of relative levels of inventory
completeness for the entire project area and also at the finer scales of watersheds and
municipalities, and in some cases, protected natural areas. Globally and nationally threatened
(red-listed) species were used as indicators for conservation importance of sites.
Field surveys were carried out in six or more priority watersheds for each of the taxonomic
groups studied, but not all taxonomic groups were studied in every watershed visited. In all,
field studies of flora and/or fauna were carried out in 10 of the Project area’s 11 watersheds
during the study period. The studies increased the completeness of the biological inventory in
10 different ecosystems, and in 11 municipalities.
The study area contains the country’s two largest national parks, El Imposible and Los
Volcanes, and other important natural areas such as the Los Cóbanos coral reef, with many
species of conservation importance. The Barra de Santiago mangrove estuary is also well
known for important natural resources, including some unique aquatic species found nowhere
else in the country. Field work was carried out at Los Volcanes National Park (plants,
herpetofauna, mammals, birds), El Imposible National Park (plants, herpetofauna, mammals),
and numerous corridor sites, such as within the Barra de Santiago—Garita Palmera estuaries
(reptiles, mammals, birds), the El Imposible—Los Volcanes corridor (all taxonomic groups),
and Barra de Santiago—El Imposible (birds). Fish resources were evaluated, via a desk
study, in all of these areas.
The biodiversity inventory in the study area is probably the most complete of any area in El
Salvador. We have identified 2719 species, including 584 trees and 1287 other plants, 220
fishes, 96 amphibians and reptiles, 101 mammals, and 431 birds, based on a cumulative
database of nearly 40,000 modern and historical locality records. More than 1% of the species
(37) are globally threatened (red-listed), and 15% (402) are nationally threatened. Some of the
country’s rarest species exist only in the project area. Of special note are at least 22
vertebrate species (without considering fishes) that are restricted in El Salvador to the area’s
natural habitats. One fish, described for science in 2007, is considered restricted (in the world)
to Lake Coatepeque (Schmitter-Soto 2007). Even more impressive, at least 14 plant species
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
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(10 trees and four herbs) are unique to the study area, including 6 new plant species
discovered for science during the field work; these are natural resources found nowhere else
in the world.
FLORA
The field work was carried out during 65 days, between the months of June 2007 and January
2008, recording a total of 1164 herbarium samples coming from approximately 707 vascular
plant species. The results found include up to 11 probable new species for science, plus two
new records for Central America, 10 new records for El Salvador, and two rediscoveries. Of
the 584 tree species recorded, 23 of these are on the IUCN list of globally threatened (redlisted) species and one more should be included due to its rarity. Fourteen plant species are
restricted in the world to the area of the project, including 10 trees and 4 herbs. Six of these
endemic plants have yet to be described for science.
At the watershed level, the Cara Sucia watershed presents the most advanced tree inventory,
with 82% of the expected tree species recorded. Before the execution of this study, only 64%
had been recorded. At the municipal level, San Francisco Menéndez presents an 86% level of
inventory completion, an increase from 68%. At the ecosystems level, Humid Forest and
Savannas present 100% inventory completion, based on the presence of expected tree
species, and the Cloud Forest 95%. Dry Forest presents an 86% level of completion. The Dry
Forest’s ecosystem presents a greater amount of species that are recognized as important for
conservation, 12 species; followed by Humid Forest with 9 and Cloud Forest with 4 species.
FISH
A comprehensive bibliographic revision was made on the fish studies in the study area up
until 2007, and the collections at the School of Biology of the University of El Salvador and at
the Museum of Natural History of El Salvador were also verified. Only 753 records of fish
species were found, documenting 220 fish species, of which 19 are Freshwater, 16
Freshwater-Brackish, 57 Estuarine, 21 Marine, 18 Reef-Marine and 89 Reef. Consequently,
the level of inventory completion per ecosystem was: Freshwater 63% of expected species
recorded, Estuarine had 56%, Reef had 55% and Marine barely reached 18%. The estimated
percentage progress of the inventory for the whole study area was 41%.
The fish inventories within individual watersheds are very incomplete. The greatest inventory
completion estimates at the watershed level were presented in Coatepeque with 32%, Los
Cóbanos with 29%, Barra de Santiago with 24%, and Cara Sucia with 12%. The analysis by
municipality shows records in just seven municipal districts, of which Acajutla has reached
27% inventory completion, Jujutla 24%, Tacuba and San Francisco Menéndez 19% and 12%
respectively, while Sonsonate and Chalchuapa each register 8%.
Fifty-one fish species have been recognized as important for conservation, including
freshwater species and others that are strictly reef-associated. According to the IUCN Red
List, three reef species and one marine species in the study area are globally threatened. The
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Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
most important areas for conservation are the Los Cóbanos Reef System and Barra de
Santiago estuary, as these are deemed highly productive areas and operate as integrated
habitats for many coastal fish populations. Lake Coatepeque and the fluvial systems of the
area are also included herein as conservation priorities, as these maintain the freshwater
native species.
AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES
Field work was carried out for a 130-day period, during the months of June and December
2007, registering a total of 96 species (22 amphibian species and 74 reptile species) with a
total of 1279 records. The results obtained included 20 new records, five new reports for the
project area and 17 new records at the departmental level. Of the 96 species that were
registered, 50 are on the national or global threatened species list and of these eight are
globally threatened.
At the watershed levels, the Izalco watershed presents a more advanced level of inventory
completion with 74% of the expected species (indicators of inventory completion). Before the
execution of this Project, the level of completion for this watershed was 47%. At the municipal
level, San Francisco Menéndez presents a high level of inventory completion at 92% (an 18%
increase). At the ecosystems level, the Dry Forest presents a relatively complete inventory
(100% of the indicator species were detected) and another four ecosystems have completed
inventories in a similar or greater percentage to 80%. At the level of the six Protected Natural
Areas, where this study was carried out, the El Imposible National Park presents an inventory
completeness of 85%. The five remaining natural areas present a level of inventory
completenesse between 65 and 80%.
The Humid Forest ecosystem presents a greater amount of conservation importance species
(28 species) followed by freshwater ecosystems (12 species) and the Dry Forest (10 species).
BIRDS
The ornithology team worked for 116 days in the field, at 8 sites, comprising 7 watersheds, 8
municipalities, and 6 ecosystems. The sites included 7 protected natural areas, and some
non-protected areas. The team logged 10,724 mistnetting hours, and 296 hours of
observations, generating 4,068 new locality records, supplementing the 21,724 locality
records previously available from southwestern El Salvador. The bird list for the study area
was increased from 412 to 424 bird species by the field work. Seven additional species
(mostly marine species) have been discovered independently, thus the project area’s bird list
is now 431 species (79% of the country’s avifauna). Ten of 11 watersheds now have
reasonably complete inventories (on average, 86% of the expected inventory-indicator
species have been recorded), compared to five watersheds with well-advanced inventories
prior to this study. Only eight municipalities have sufficiently complete (>75%, mean 92%)
inventories for analysis, compared with five prior to the study. Six of eight ecosystems now
have complete inventories (>80%, mean of 90%). These 10 watersheds, 8 municipalities, and
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
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6 ecosystems can be compared for their importance for conservation of threatened bird
species.
The 188 nationally threatened bird species used as indicators for prioritizing sites of national
conservation importance include 31 that are critically endangered, 69 endangered, and 88
vulnerable. The Cara Sucia and the Barra de Santiago watersheds (both include parts of El
Imposible National Park and parts of Barra de Santiago estuary) have the highest
conservation importance, with more than 70% of the area’s nationally-threatened bird species
present. They are distantly followed by the Coatepeque and Izalco watersheds (which both
include parts of the Apaneca-Ilamatepec Biosphere Reserve). At the municipal level, the most
important cities are San Francisco Menéndez (El Imposible National Park and Santa Rita
Forest) and Jujutla (Barra de Santiago Protected Natural Area), with 68% and 57% of the
area’s threatened bird species, respectively. Estuaries have 39% of the threatened bird
species (including many shorebirds and water birds). Although Humid Forest and Dry Forest
have fewer threatened birds (33% and 26%, respectively), these are mostly forest specialists,
which are at risk from fragmentation and climate change.
MAMMALS
Field work was carried out during 105 days, registering 1296 individuals of 72 mammal
species, of which 49 were captured, 17 photographed with camera traps, 21 were recorded by
observations and five were recorded only outside of the standardized sampling. Four species
were recorded for the first time in the whole study area (including one that was new for the
country, Van Gelder’s Bat Bauerus dubiaquercus), increasing the mammal list for the study
area to 101 species. We estimated that an index of inventory completion for the study area
went from 92% to 100% after this study, suggesting that the mammal inventory is virtually
complete. Nonetheless, specific natural areas still have incomplete lists. The protected natural
areas with the most advanced mammal inventories are: El Imposible (81%), Santa Rita (63%),
and Los Volcanes (52%).
Twenty-two mammal species recorded in the study area are nationally threatened, or are
indicators of conservation-importance sites. Such species include the Margay Cat (Leopardus
wiedii), the Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), the River Otter (Lontra longicaudis), and Baird’s Tapir
(Tapirus bairdi) (these last three species have been recorded in previous years, but not during
this study). At the national level, 11 threatened species and seven endangered species are
reported (MARN 2004), as well as one species considered globally endangered (IUCN 2008).
Based on the presence of nationally and globally threatened and endangered terrestrial
mammal species, the Dry Forest ecosystem is more important than the Humid Forest.
However, the rest of the ecosystems, the majority of the watersheds, the municipalities, and
the protected natural areas cannot be compared for conservation importance, because their
mammal inventories are not yet reasonably complete.
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Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
RECOMMENDED STRATEGIES FOR CONSERVATION AND
SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT
Conservation strategy recommendations for estuaries focus mostly on education and
awareness-building, while for upland habitats, forests need to be expanded and organized to
connect fragments via altitudinal corridors, ideally along rivers. More flora and faunal inventory
work is needed (especially flora), as well as long-term population monitoring, in order to track
progress with climate change adaptability projects that should be implemented in the region.
Ten recommendations for sustainable economic development identify the need to increase or
promote activities such as payments for environmental services, sustainable forestry, urban
and rural planning, agricultural certification, wildlife farms for diverse markets and export
opportunities, development of sustainable businesses (such as ecotourism services), and
government involvement in facilitating access by ecotourists to natural areas. Scientific
tourism presents great potential, as a sustainable use of natural resources, and could also
generate greater demand among international tourists for visiting natural areas in the project
area, such as the national parks, biosphere reserves, and coral reef. A reintroduction program
for the locally-extinct Scarlet Macaw can help rally multilateral support for sustainable
development in the Barra de Santiago–El Imposible biological corridor. Certain development
―opportunites‖ may cause more harm than good, however, and much care should be taken
before promoting practices such as expansion of biofuels or other high-input agricultural
crops, or factories that require high inputs of water or fuels.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
13
CHAPTER 1:
SYNTHESIS AND SUMMARY OF THE
BIODIVERSITY FIELD INVENTORIES
Oliver Komar
Conservation Science Department, SalvaNATURA
San Salvador, El Salvador
okomar@salvanatura.org
1. INTRODUCTION
A key element to the sustainable economic development of southwestern El Salvador is
conservation of biodiversity. This region of El Salvador contains several of the country’s most
important wildlife reserves, including the two largest national parks and one of the country’s
two biosphere reserves. It has substantial tourism and ecotourism potential, with resources
such as ―la Ruta de las Flores‖, El Salvador’s largest volcano (Ilamatepec) and its youngest
(Izalco), the country’s only coral reef, and extensive beaches. Despite a long history of
biodiversity investigation in the area, the flora and fauna inventory was both taxonomically and
geographically incomplete (Komar 2007). As a signatory to the Convention on Biological
Diversity, for some time it has been a national priority in El Salvador to complete the
inventories of all flora and fauna groups (MARN 2000a). Knowledge of the wildlife species
present and their patterns of distribution and habitat use are essential for truly sustainable
development to take place.
A principal objective of the Improved Management and Conservation of Critical Watersheds
(IMCW) Project, which was planned to run from the end of 2006 through the end of 2009, is
the conservation of biodiversity in several watersheds of Ahuachapán and Sonsonate,
southwestern El Salvador. One of the scheduled outputs of this project is the realization of a
comprehensive, multi-taxon biodiversity field inventory in selected watersheds, which this
report summarizes. The IMCW Project also commissioned a preliminary study of the baseline
biodiversity information available, which was completed prior to the initiation of the present
study (Komar 2007). That report summarized the state of knowledge about plants, butterflies,
amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds. It determined that 2,457 species of flora,
butterflies, amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and birds had been recorded through 2006. More
than half (1716 species) were plants. They included 325 nationally threatened species and 24
globally threatened species of flora and fauna. This latter group includes mostly trees and just
seven vertebrates (four sea turtles, two frogs, and tapir which is presumed to be extirpated).
However, there are extensive areas where practically no inventory efforts have been
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Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
undertaken, and the inventory is still far from complete for most taxonomic groups. Also
reported in the baseline preliminary inventory was the presence of 48 plant species and 22
vertebrates (excluding fish) in the Project area that have not been recorded in other localities
of El Salvador (Komar 2007). Reported separately was a unique fish in Lake Coatepeque,
which thus became the only endemic vertebrate known to be unique to El Salvador
(Schmitter-Soto 2007).
The IMCW project was interested in determining if specific watersheds or sites within
southwestern El Salvador were more important than others for conserving biodiversity. In
order to conserve overall diversity, maintaining a large number of species in a region, a
strategy must focus on assuring that habitat specialists (and their habitats) are preserved,
even if some specialized habitats have relatively few (but unique) species. It is not necessary
for every habitat conserved to be of high species richness or diversity. Thus in seeking
conservation priorities across sites, one must look for unique and rare species at the sites,
and not simply count species. Comparison of sites requires the existence of complete
inventories at the site level, rather than standardized counts of species. The purpose of the
present study was to advance the state of the flora and fauna inventories for a series of sites
and ecosystems in southwestern El Salvador, such that relative value for biodiversity
conservation could be assessed.
The following chapters include the evaluation of the current state of inventories (at the
beginning of 2008) for flora, fishes, herpetofauna (amphibians and reptiles), mammals, and
birds in the entire IMCW project area. The present chapter includes a summary and
comparison of the state of the inventories among these taxonomic groups. The main purpose
is to establish conservation priorities and recommendations for future economic development.
2. STUDY AREA AND METHODS
The study area includes 11 watersheds that drain into the Pacific Ocean (Fig. 1), defined
following the preliminary analysis that served as a baseline to this study (Komar 2007), as
follows. The relatively large Río Banderas watershed was divided into three watersheds for
the purpose of biological analysis: the lower Río Banderas (coastal plain), the Izalco
watershed which drains most of Los Volcanes National Park, and the San Julian watershed
which drains the northwestern sector of the Sierra del Bálsamo. The Los Cóbanos area was
treated as a single watershed, although technically it consists of seven minor watersheds,
each draining a small segment of the Los Cóbanos plain (an ancient landslide originating from
the Santa Ana volcano); the divides of these tiny watersheds are almost indistinguishable in
the field. The large Barra de Santiago watershed was divided into two: ―Cara Sucia,‖ which
drains the western two-thirds of El Imposible National Park, and ―Barra de Santiago‖ which
drains the eastern third of the national park and several valleys to the east. Most of the rivers
in the Cara Sucia watershed are drained or go underground before they reach the ocean.
Data previously available (Komar 2007) was combined with new data generated from the field
work for conservation analyses of 11 watersheds and 25 municipalities that form the IMCW
Project area in southwestern El Salvador (Fig. 1). This area covers the southern region of the
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
15
department of Ahuachapán, the entire department of Sonsonate, and marginal areas of the
departments of Santa Ana and La Libertad. Three additional municipalities within the Project
area (Ahuachapán, Atiquizaya, and El Congo) were excluded from the analysis because only
insignificant areas of their territories are within the Project area. In total, the Project area
covers 1545 km 2, or 7.4% of El Salvador. The Project area includes four terrestrial
ecoregions, nine natural ecosystem types and a variety of anthropogenic land uses (Fig. 2). It
also includes dozens of fragments of natural habitat areas, including 10 natural areas in
various states of formal protection that were visited during the field surveys.
Field inventories were conducted during 2007 (and January 2008) for selected taxonomic
groups: trees (and opportunistically other types of flora), amphibians, reptiles, mammals, and
birds. Other groups, such as insects and other invertebrates, were not included in the study
plan because they are harder to identify, and relative importance for conservation has not
been established at the species level (i.e, we don’t know which species are threatened with
extinction). Butterflies were originally included in the study plan but removed when
negotiations with a potential field team were unsuccessful. Fish were originally excluded from
the study plan because El Salvador lacked a list of threatened fish species and because of
lack of taxonomists in the country. Part of the savings from the canceled buttefly inventory
were reinvested in a preliminary baseline evaluation of the state of knowledge of the fish
inventory, which is included as a chapter in this report.
FIGURE 1. THE IMCW PROJECT AREA CONTAINS 11 WATERSHEDS AND 25
MUNICIPALITIES, AS WELL AS SEVERAL ADJOINING PROTECTED NATURAL AREAS.
16
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
FIGURE 2. ECOREGIONS, NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS, AND ANTHROPOGENIC LAND
USES (TOP TO BOTTOM) IN THE STUDY AREA.
Maps prepared by J. F. Gutiérrez.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
17
TABLE 1. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF FIELD DAYS FOR THE BIODIVERSITY
SURVEYS CARRIED OUT DURING 2007 IN THE IMCW PROJECT AREA.
WaterMuniciAmphibians
Location
Flora
Mammals Birds
shed(s)
palities
& Reptiles
Cara Sucia, San Franciso
El Imposible
25
20
40
0
Barra de
Menéndez,
National Park
Santiago
Tacuba
Los Volcanes
Izalco, Santa
Izalco
15
20
20
20
National Park
Ana
Plan de
San Julian
Caluco
15
20
10
12
Amayo PNA
Complejo
San
Izalco,
Izalco
5
20
5
0
Marcelino
Coatepeque
PNA
Río Grande
Cerro El
de
Juayúa
5
0
0
0
Águila PNA
Sonsonate
Santa Rita y
San Franciso
Cara Sucia
0
20
5
20
Zanjón El
Menéndez
Chino PNA
Laguna de
Río Grande
Las Ninfas
de
Apaneca
0
20
5
11
PNA
Sonsonate
Los Cóbanos
Los
Sonsonate,
0
10
10
20
PNA
Cóbanos
Acajutla
Laguna de
Río Grande
Juayúa,
las Ranas
de
0
0
10
10
Chalchuapa
PNA
Sonsonate
Santo
Santo
Domingo de
San Pedro
Domingo de
0
0
0
4
Guzmán
Guzmán
Barra Salada
Lower Río
Sector (Los
Sonsonate
0
0
0
19
Banderas
Cóbanos
PNA)
Total days of field work
65
130
105
116
PNA = Protected Natural Area
18
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 2. HISTORICAL AND NEW RECORDS OF FLORA AND FAUNA IN THE IMCW
PROJECT AREA, THROUGH 2007 (SOURCE: SALVANATURA’S FLORA AND FAUNA
DATABASE*).
Other records
Taxon
Specimens
(observations,
Totals
photos, etc.)
Plants
5,313
2,686
7,999
Fish
615
138
753
Amphibians & reptiles
1,500
500
2,000
Mammals
1,200
1,616
2,816
Birds
2,076
23,716
25,792
All combined
10,704
28,656
39,360
*Primary sources include museums, natural history collections (national and foreign), data
published in scientific literature and gray literature (project technical reports, etc.), and
unpublished data contributed by independent researchers. More details are included in the
thematic chapters of this report and in a previous report (Komar 2007).
Field collections or observations for the taxonomic groups were carried out in at least six
watersheds, as required in the study’s terms of reference, but not necessarily in the same
watersheds for each group. The locations for each field inventory during 2007 and early 2008
are given in Table 1.
The various field methods used are detailed in the following chapters for each taxonomic
group. In general, a team of botanists and zoologists sought to document the presence and
relative abundance of as many species as possible, but with a focus on finding species that
were not previously documented in the area. Thus field sites were selected with the aim of
filling gaps in the inventory, rather than with the aim for standardized sampling (Komar 2007).
This was justified by the objective of evaluating conservation importance, rather than
comparing species diversity among sites. In order to ducument the presence of species, the
biologists focused on collecting voucher specimens when possible, with one specimen
collected for the El Salvador national museum of natural history, and a duplicate collected for
a natural history museum or herbarium located outside of El Salvador. Additional specimens
captured by various trapping methods were released unharmed. When possible, digital
cameras were used to document the presence of species that could not be captured. The field
teams used standard capture methods, which do not harm the individuals, such as mist nets
for birds and harp traps for bats, under license from the Ministry of Environment and Natural
Resources. Camera traps (movement-triggered digital and analog cameras) were used to
document the presence of larger mammals.
The new data collected from the field surveys was logged in flora and fauna databases
managed in SalvaNATURA’s conservation science department. These data were added to
the more than 29,000 locality records from the Study Area that had been assembled prior to
the field surveys (Komar 2007; Table 2). After completing the field surveys, the updated data
set was used to determine the relative level of inventory completeness, both for the whole
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
19
project area as well as for individual watersheds, municipalities, and ecosystems. For some
groups, completeness levels were evaluated for individual Protected Natural Areas.
Completeness was evaluated using the same method used for the baseline evaluation
(Komar 2007, following Gómez de Silva and Medellín 2001), which identifies the list of
generalist and relatively common species that would be present in any site that has been
subjected to a proper inventory effort. Because these are generalist species, they may exist in
a variety of habitats, a variety of altitudes, and sites with or without disturbance. These
species are used as a ―test‖ or indicator for the effectiveness of the efforts to collect data on
all the species in an area, and the proportion of test species recorded represents an index of
inventory completeness. When 100% of the test species have been recorded, the inventory is
considered relatively complete, although some rare species may not yet have been recorded.
The species that do not qualify as tests (indicators), such as species restricted to certain
natural habitats (―habitat specialists‖), naturally rare species (predators at the top of the food
chain), or species of cryptic behavior, may be present but not yet recorded. The method is
nonetheless useful for identifying large gaps in the inventory, and to prioritize where to focus
future inventory efforts.
Threatened species (i.e., species that are considered endangered and require conservation
efforts to prevent local or global extinction) were used as indicators of conservation
importance. Threatened status was based on IUCN (2007), MARN (2004), Greenbaum and
Komar (2005), and Komar et al. (2009). Conservation priorities among sites were determined
by comparing the numbers of nationally and globally threatened species recorded from the
field sites, with highest priority assigned to sites with the most threatened species. Since
many threatened species are rare, sites with incomplete inventories may not be comparable
simply because their threatened species have not yet been documented (Remsen 1994,
Komar 2003, Greenbaum and Komar 2005, Komar 2007). Only sites with reasonably
complete inventories were used to evaluate site conservation priorities. In the case of the bird
inventory, statistics were used to demonstrate the level of completeness required to include a
site in the analysis of conservation importance. The richness of threatened species was
regressed against the inventory completeness index score to determine if inventory effort was
a significant predictor of conservation importance. If the slope of the regression line was
significantly different from zero (P<0.05), then sites with low completeness scores were
removed from the analysis until the regression slope was not significantly different from zero
(P>0.05), indicating that inventory completeness was not a good predictor for conservation
importance. This occurred when all sites included in the analysis had reasonably complete
inventories (see Chapter 6).
3. RESULTS
More than 10,600 individual plants and animals were logged and mapped in the study area,
permitting the documentation of numerous new species previously unknown from this area.
As described in detail in the chapter on flora by José Linares, the 154 new tree species and
many other new plant species documented included no fewer than 11 thought to be new
species for science, as well as two first records for Central America, 10 additional first records
for El Salvador, and two rediscoveries of species last reported by botanists in 1922, and
known only from El Salvador. The project area appears to include all or part of a focal area for
20
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
evolutionary diversification of plants, because at least 14 plant species are known only from
the project area and nowhere else in the world.
The herpetofaunal field survey documented five species not previously recorded in the study
area, including one frog (amphibian) and four reptiles (Henríquez and Henríquez, this report).
The mammal surveys found four new species for the study area (Girón et al., this report). The
bird surveys reported 12 new species for southwestern El Salvador. In total, the taxa studied
for this report number 2719 species (Table 3). Apparently 14 plant species and one vertebrate
(a fish) found in the study area have never been detected elsewhere in the world.
TABLE 3. SPECIES RECORDED IN THE IMCW PROJECT AREA, THROUGH 2007. 1
Nationally
Globally
Taxon
All species
threatened species
threatened species
Trees
584
17
23
Other plants (including
1287
78
1
orchids)
Fish
220
51
4
Amphibians & reptiles
96
50
8
Mammals
101
18
1
Birds
431
188
0
All combined
2719
402
37
1
The species’ names are given in the following chapters.
3.1. IMPROVED FLORA AND FAUNA INVENTORIES
The tree inventory improved dramatically in the study area, from 76% of the test species
registered in the data base prior to field work, to 93% registered after completing the field
phase. The fish inventory became available for the first time, with an estimate of 41%
inventory completeness for the study area. The mammal inventory improved from 92% to
100%. The amphibians, reptiles, and birds inventories were already relatively complete
(100% of test species recorded) before field work began, but those inventories improved
greatly at the scale of watersheds (Table 4) and municipalities (Table 5), and several new
species were recorded in the study area. Nonetheless, some watersheds and municipalities
continue to be severely undersampled. The improvement in the overall coverage of inventory
efforts and the relative completeness of the inventories is demonstrated graphically for the
bird results (Fig. 3).
For the first time, the state of the flora and fauna inventories have been evaluated at the level
of ecosystems (Table 6) and in some cases, protected natural areas. For protected natural
areas, only mammal and herpetofaunal inventories have been assessed for completeness
(see Chapters 4 and 5). Individual areas have mammal inventories that are still very
incomplete (generally 30–60% complete). The best inventoried protected natural area in
southwestern El Salvador is El Imposible National Park, with 81% of the expected ―test‖
species documented.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
21
TABLE 4. LEVEL OF INVENTORY COMPLETENESS RECORDED BY WATERSHED.
“Test” species recorded (%)
22
Watersheds
Trees
Fishes
Amphibians
& Reptiles
Mammals
Birds
San Juan
Barra Salada
San Pedro
Los Cóbanos
San Julián
Río Cauta
Río Grande de Sonsonate
Izalco
Coatepeque
Cara Sucia
Barra de Santiago
Complete Project Area
0
0
5
0
57
0
19
58
44
82
38
93
0
0
5
29
0
5
0
0
32
12
24
41
0
4
26
30
66
2
17
74
25
60
58
100
15
0
17
40
46
0
67
31
67
83
79
100
4
57
89
73
93
74
85
96
93
99
100
100
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
COMBINED
(proportion
average)
4
12
28
33
52
16
38
52
52
67
60
86
TABLE 5. LEVEL OF INVENTORY COMPLETENESS IN THE MUNICIPALITIES.
“Test” species recorded (%)
Amphibians &
Municipality
Trees
Fishes
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
Acajutla
0
27
25
46
69
Apaneca
9
0
11
29
61
Armenia
0
0
0
19
0
Caluco
57
0
64
46
92
Chalchuapa
2
8
0
31
0
Concepción de Ataco
5
0
0
0
62
Cuisnahuat
0
0
0
0
0
Guaymango
0
0
0
0
0
Izalco
58
0
57
23
97
Juayúa
13
0
4
21
97
Jujutla
5
24
6
42
95
Nahuizalco
0
0
2
21
41
Nahulingo
0
0
0
0
27
Salcoatitán
0
0
0
0
0
San Antonio del Monte
0
0
0
0
0
San Francisco Menéndez
86
12
92
85
100
San Julián
1
0
30
0
8
San Pedro Puxtla
0
0
13
13
68
Santa Ana
45
0
13
60
77
Santa Catarina Masahuat
0
0
0
0
0
Santo Domingo de Guzmán
0
0
7
0
61
Sonsonate
3
8
43
10
82
Sonzacate
0
0
2
0
0
Tacuba
5
19
15
46
93
Tepecoyo
0
0
0
0
0
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
COMBINED
(proportion average)
32
22
4
52
8
13
0
0
47
27
34
13
5
0
0
75
8
19
39
0
14
29
0
35
0
23
TABLE 6. LEVEL OF INVENTORY COMPLETENESS RECORDED BY ECOSYSTEM.
“Test” species recorded (%)
24
Ecosystem
Trees
Fishes
Amphibians &
Reptiles
Terrestrial
Mammals
Birds
Humid forest
Dry forest
Cloud forest
Savanna (palm and morro)
Freshwater
Intertidal zone (rocks and beaches)
Estuary
Coral reef
Marine
100
86
95
100
------
----63
-56
55
18
95
100
83
0
90
80
0
0
0
79
90
67
40
33
0
33
---
98
97
98
35
84
81
83
64
64
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
COMBINED
(proportion
average)
93
93
86
44
68
54
43
37
26
FIGURE 3. IMPROVEMENTS IN THE INVENTORY OF BIRDS DURING 2007, FOR
WATERSHEDS (ABOVE) AND MUNICIPALITIES (BELOW). DARKER SHADING
REPRESENTS MORE COMPLETE INVENTORIES. THE LEFTHAND COLUMN
REPRESENTS THE STATE OF THE INVENTORY BEFORE FIELD WORK, AND THE
RIGHTHAND COLUMN THE IMPROVED COVERAGE AFTER FIELD WORK.
3.2. PRIORITY AREAS FOR BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
Several natural areas within the IMCW Project area are clearly priorities for biodiversity
conservation, on a national and even global scale. As have several prior studies, the
present inventory has demonstrated the presence of globally threatened species at most
of the remaining natural areas. These areas have now been identified as globallyimportant Key Biodiversity Areas (Henríquez 2009) and Important Bird Areas (Komar &
Ibarra Portillo 2009). In particular, the areas identified in those documents include Barra
de Santiago, Plan de Amayo, San Marcelino, and Santa Rita reserves, as well as El
Imposible and Los Volcanes National Parks. The latter park, along with surrounding areas
that form the Apaneca-Ilamatepec Biosphere Reserve, were jointly identified as a Key
Biodiversity Area. Much of the unprotected part of the Los Cóbanos peninsula was also
identified as an Important Bird Area, because of the presence of a suite of dry forest bird
species representative of the Pacific dry forest biome that stretches from northwestern
México to Costa Rica.
All of the aforementioned areas, including virtually all natural habitat remnants in the
project area, are therefore of global importance for biodiversity conservation.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
25
Nonetheless, we considered the question: which areas within the study area stand out as
having greater priority for biodiversity conservation? Our aim was to use nationally and
globally threatened species as indicators of conservation importance. A condition for such
an analysis is that the areas being compared are sufficiently well studied such that the
value is not biased by the level of inventory effort. Unfortunately, for some of the desired
comparisons, that condition was not met and the analysis could not be completed.
For several taxonomic groups (trees, fish, amphibians, and reptiles), the biological
inventories of watersheds were too variable or incomplete to permit comparisons. For
mammals, only two watersheds could be analyzed, suggesting that the Cara Sucia
watershed was more important than the Barra de Santiago watershed, probably due to
the presence of the Santa Rita swamp forest in Cara Sucia. For birds, 10 watersheds
were analyzed. Both Barra de Santiago and Cara Sucia had far greater importance than
any other watershed, presumably because of El Imposible National Park (which straddles
both watersheds). Barra de Santiago ranked slightly higher, probably because of the
presence of more threatened waterbirds than in Cara Sucia. The next most important
watersheds for birds were Coatepeque and Izalco, due to natural areas in Los Volcanes
National Park and other areas of the Apaneca-Ilamatepec Biosphere Reserve.
Although most groups could not be analyzed at the municipality level, the bird inventories
were sufficiently complete in eight municipalities. Thus, it appears that San Francisco
Menéndez (El Imposible National Park and Santa Rita Forest Protected Natural Area) and
Jujutla (Barra de Santiago estuary) have considerably more conservation importance than
Sonsonate (Los Cóbanos and Barra Salada Protected Natural Areas), which in turn is
more important for birds than Tacuba, Izalco and Santa Ana (the latter two municipalities
include Los Volcanes National Park and San Marcelino Complex of Protected Natural
Areas). These results only partially mimic the results generated by analyzing birds at the
watershed level.
The inventories for the different taxonomic groups were more complete at the ecosystem
level, permitting more useful analysis. Only fish data were excluded from this analysis
(because of incomplete sampling), although current data strongly suggest a priority for
coral reef habitat. The relative importance scores were not consistent among taxonomic
groups, demonstrating the importance of including several taxonomic groups in the
analysis. For example, the priorities for birds did not match the priorities for trees,
mammals, amphibians, or reptiles (Table 7). The top-scoring ecosystems included humid
forest (for trees, amphibians, and reptiles), dry forest (for mammals), and mangrove
estuaries (for birds). When scores were combined, humid forest obtained the highest
score. The humid forest ecosystem includes the permanently green forests growing at
mid elevations, generally from 800 to 1800 meters above sea level; this is the area that
has been most threatened by the expansion of coffee culture on montane hillsides. The
cloud forest ecosystem scored consistently low across all groups.
Although not part of the formal terms of reference for this study, some authors analyzed
the relative conservation importance of the specific Protected Natural Areas studied.
Sampling was sufficiently complete for such analysis only for amphibians and reptiles
(birds were not considered, but may also have complete sampling). For the herpetofauna,
El Imposible National Park scored highest, followed in declining order by Los Volcanes
National Park, and then corridor sites Santa Rita, San Marcelino, Plan de Amayo, and
Laguna de las Ninfas (See Chapter 4 for details).
26
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 7. IMPORTANCE RANKINGS BY ECOSYSTEM.*
Amphibians &
Combined
Mammals
Birds
Reptiles
(average rank)
Humid forest
52
58
32
33
44
Dry forest
52
20
47
26
36
Cloud forest
16
12
-17
15
Savanna (palm and morro)
0
0
-5
2
Freshwater
-26
-20
23
Intertidal zone ( beaches)
-8
-13
11
Estuary
---39
39
*The rankings represent proportions of conservation-important indicator species (generally, threatened species) expected to be found in
the study area.
Ecosystem
Trees
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
27
4. RECOMMENDED CONSERVATION STRATEGIES
Conservation strategy recommendations for estuaries focus mostly on education and
awareness-building, while for upland habitats, forests need to be expanded and organized
to connect fragments via altitudinal corridors, ideally along rivers. More flora and faunal
inventory work is needed (especially flora), as well as long-term population monitoring, in
order to track progress with climate change adaptability projects that should be
implemented in the region. The recommendations from the thematic chapters are
summarized by taxonomic group in Table 8.
Some clear geographic conservation priorities are evident with respect to species of
conservation importance, and in particular, globally threatened species. Threatened tree
species, or plant species known only from southwestern El Salvador (unique world
resources), are found mostly in the uplands of the Sierra de Bálsamo and Sierra de
Apaneca. Remnant dry forests and limestone soil enclaves of the western end of the
Sierra del Bálsamo at Plan de Amayo and nearby Protected Natural Areas stand out, as
do the moist Sierra Madre de Chiapas forests of southfacing slopes at mid elevations in
the Sierra de Apaneca, especially at El Imposible National Park. Also of importance, but
less so, for plant conservation are the very humid montane forests (cloud forests) on the
peaks of the Sierra de Apaneca, such as at Laguna de las Ranas, Cerro El Águila, Cerro
Verde, and the Los Andes section of Los Volcanes National Park (collectively, the
Apaneca-Ilamatepec Biosphere Reserve).
The most important fish area in southwestern El Salvador appears to be the coral reef at
Los Cóbanos, followed by freshwater habitats, in particular Lake Coatepeque. Globally
threatened sea turtles occupy most of the area’s beaches for breeding, and also feed at
Los Cóbanos reef. The globally vulnerable American Crocodile (Crocodylus acutus) is
resident in the mangrove estuaries of the study area. Nationally threatened birds are
concentrated in El Imposible National Park (Komar 2002).
Relatively little natural area remains in the study area. Virtually every remnant natural
area, as well as ecologically sustainable production areas such as shaded coffee
plantations in the ecological corridors that connect the natural areas, present some
justifications to protect local biodiversity. Site conservation priorities for fish and reptiles
are very different than priorities for trees, amphibians, and birds, which makes
prioritization particularly challenging.
28
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 8. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CONSERVATION, ORGANIZED
BY TAXONOMIC GROUP.
Amphibians
Actions
Flora
Fish
Mammals
Birds
& Reptiles
X
X
Fill geographic gaps
X
(coastal
X
X
(atlas
in the inventory
(coastal zone)
zone)
mapping)
X
X
Fill taxonomic gaps in
X
(Use
(repeat
the inventory, using
(herbs,
Anabat for
during
distinct detection
bushes,
high-flying
spring
methods
epiphytes)
bats)
migration)
Evaluate use of
coffee plantations as
X
a biological corridor
X
Monitor populations
X
(frogs, sea
of threatened species
(esp.
turtles,
at permanent plots
felines)
crocodiles)
Expand long-term
monitoring of
X
common species
Monitor habitat
X
quality using indicator
(epiphytes)
species
Provide training to
park rangers about
the conservationX
X
important
(threatened) species
Provide
X
environmental
X
(especially
education near
(especially ref.
coastal
Protected Natural
vipers)
areas)
Areas
Undertake ecological
research to better
X
X
understand how
species are using the
environment
Strengthen habitat
and species
protection at
important
X
X
conservation sites,
and expand natural
habitat cover
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
29
Actions
Flora
Improve ecological
function of rivers and
riparian (and
altitudinal) corridors
Establish sustainable
management
programs at Lake
Coatepeque and
other lakes
5.
Fish
Amphibians
& Reptiles
Mammals
X
Birds
X
X
RECOMMENDATIONS
DEVELOPMENT
FOR
ECONOMIC
The results of the taxonomic inventory provide abundant information about conservation
priorities for biodiversity in the project area. Hopefully, the future economic development
of the area can be sensitive to the needs of flora and fauna species, since this biodiversity
is an integral part of the local natural heritage and a valuable natural resource that should
be preserved and managed for the benefit of present and future generations. Biodiversity
provides diverse benefits for all people (Martínez et al. 2009), and its conservation should
be a priority not only in the Protected Natural Areas but also throughout the rural
agricultural landscape (Harvey et al. 2008). Below are 10 suggestions for sustainable
economic development suggested by the taxonomic inventory results.
1. Create financial incentives for the protection of natural habitats through the
development of payments for environmental services, such as water conservation
generated by forests, erosion control through abandonment of farming on steep
slopes, and carbon sequestration by reforestation or by farming shaded
permanent crops (coffee, cacao).
2. Develop the forestry industry. If extensive farmlands in the project area can be
converted to sustainable forestry, biodiversity conservation can be benefited by
increasing the functionality of ecological corridors. Forestry projects could be
designed to benefit biodiversity by employing diversified plantings, including fruit
trees or trees that otherwise provide foraging opportunities for wildlife. Forestry
can also contribute to climate change adaptation and mitigation.
3. Keep urban development in the cities. Planned urban and rural development can
help reduce the threat to biodiversity from new suburban residential areas
sprouting up in former farmland, far from urban centers, and also prevent any
further agricultural expansion.
4. Reduce agriculture’s impact on natural habitat, by adopting less intensive
production techniques, such as organic production, and promoting certification
programs that provide market incentives for adopting environmentally friendly
practices. Such programs exist or are under development by SalvaNATURA for
the major export crops in the project area, coffee and sugar cane.
30
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
5. Promote industries or businesses that provide jobs for the rural population, and
otherwise reduce the threat of extractions of wildlife from their natural hábitats,
such as wild animal farms (zoocriaderos). Wild species that could be farmed and
exported for various uses and markets include: native palms, shrubs, ferns,
orchids, and other flowers; freshwater fish such as tilapia and others; estuarine
shell fish such as clams, mussels, conchas, crabs, and shrimp; crocodile and
cayman, freshwater turtles, iguanas; deer, paca, armadillo, and rabbits.
6. Promote business practices that permit sustainable use of natural resources, such
as ecotourism in the region’s national parks and Protected Natural Areas, and in
estuaries or on beaches.
7. The national government could increase interest in sustainable tourism within
southwestern El Salvador, by placing more signage on the highways for tourist
attractions (such as the national parks), by improving some rural access roads to
the parks, and by developing publicity campaigns for the natural areas, such as
the biosphere reserves.
8. Biodiversity research, and scientific tourism in general, can have a multiplicative
positive impact on local economies near the natural ecosystems of Protected
Natural Areas. Not only does it bring some direct economic investment
(construction of biological field stations, use of lodging facilities and local services
by visiting scientists), but also can result in international publicity generated by
publication of scientific investigation, which can greatly increase visitation from
international ecotourists.
9. SalvaNATURA is currently developing a program that could help develop the
market for sustainable tourism, and increase local pride in the native biodiversity.
This program aims to reintroduce the locally extinct Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) in
the Barra de Santiago-El Imposible corridor (Bjork 2009), where the species can
become a flagship for sustainable development in the corridor. Other high-profile
reintroduction programs could be developed for species extirpated from the project
area, such as Spider Monkeys (Ateles geoffroyi). These programs will require
broad support and participation, not only from local communities but also local and
national governments, donors, and businesses.
10. Business or agricultural activities that could harm the environment should be
avoided. Examples include high-input crops (non-shade varieties of coffee, for
example), or crops that may require further deforestation (such as biofuel crops),
crops that require burning (certain varieties of sugar cane), factories that are not
equipped to handle their waste properly or that require excessive quantities of
water or fuel. Also not recommended are breeding programs of parrots for the pet
industry, although at first glance, such an activity would seem to reduce pressure
on the wild population. Nonetheless, it could also promote the practice of keeping
parrots, which could create more demand for wild birds.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
31
CHAPTER 2:
FLORA INVENTORY OF
SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR
José Ledis Linares
Conservation Science Department, SalvaNATURA.
San Salvador, El Salvador
linaresj_98@yahoo.com
1. INTRODUCTION
The southwestern region of El Salvador, made up of the southern region of the
Department of Ahuachapán, the southern edge of the Department of Santa Ana and the
entire Department of Sonsonate, is an intricate network of many ecosystems and
vegetation types immerse in a matrix of annual and permanent crops. It is almost
impossible to know the distribution and extension of the types of original vegetation.
However, there are still vestiges of what could have been the original vegetation. These
small vegetation remnants and spots reveal that the region hosted and still hosts a
substantial floral biodiversity.
The flora inventory of El Salvador is far from being acceptable and even less complete. In
spite of this, the aforementioned region is probably the best studied in the country, and
even so, we continue to find new relatively large and noticeable tree species such as
Dalbergia salvanaturae (Linares & Sousa 2008) endemic to El Imposible National Park.
No accurate flora inventory of the area has yet been published and until the present
study, there were only partial inventories of certain groups which are included in more
general works such as the Flora appendix called ―Trees of the El Imposible Forest‖ by
Reyna in Serrano et al. (1993), the list of trees prepared by Linares (2005) or the orchid
inventory prepared by Hamer (1974, 1981). Most of the works conducted in the zone are
undergraduate or graduate theses little known but valuable because of the information
they provide such as the studies carried out at Cerro El Águila by Amaya et al. (2003) and
Cerén et al. (2003). In other areas such as Las Lajas forest, we have the work of Komar &
Herrera (1995) and the work of Villacorta (2000), and at El Imposible, the work of Ramírez
(2001) also stands out in addition to the aforementioned work of Serrano (1993).
To date, 1000 tree species are on record in El Salvador (Linares 2005) of which samples
of 378 species were collected in the southwest region of the country with replicates
deposited in local or foreign herbariums, until 2006. Of these collected tree samples, 185
were generalist species which are used as indicators of the level of completeness of an
inventory. Prior to field work of the present study, the tree inventory was deemed 55%
32
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
complete if we consider only those records supported by herbarium samples. The
baseline study (Linares 2007) recognized that the inventory was incomplete since only
76% of the expected tree species in the area were recorded. This 76% also included
studies or consultancies which did not have voucher specimens but were deemed reliable
by the author. In total, the baseline study recognized 1716 flora species of which only 430
were trees and of these 255 were indicators of a complete inventory. Past studies on
vegetation have been mainly focused on El Imposible National Park, which in view of its
wealth of species, types of vegetation, easy access, and good state of conservation, has
captured much attention since the 1980s.
The primary objectives of this study were to determine the species, mainly trees, of
interest for conservation in six watersheds of the southwestern region of El Salvador, as
well as to try to fill information gaps regarding the presence and status of the populations
of some tree species considered threatened, or otherwise important for the conservation
of the biological diversity that still remains in the country.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. STUDY AREA
The study was conducted in 6 of the 11 watersheds located in the southwestern region of
El Salvador, which correspond to 7 of the 25 municipalities distributed among the
Departments of Ahuachapán, Sonsonate, Santa Ana and La Libertad that make up the
area of USAID’s Improved Management and Conservation of Critical Watersheds
(―IMCW‖) Project. Table 9 and Fig. 4 detail the locations where the flora studies were
carried out.
2.2. SAMPLING DESIGN
Between June 2007 and January 2008, intensive searches were conducted based on
1000 m2 transects at each sampling site. In sites which comprised several types of
forests, a transect was carried out in each forest type. Additionally, intensive searches
were undertaken to locate species, either trees or other plants, that were not found in
those transects. Samples that would allow proper identification were collected as needed.
The samples or vouchers were deposited with the Herbarium of the Natural History
Museum of El Salvador. Table 9 shows a detail of the sampling efforts and the number of
species recorded in each natural area.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
33
TABLE 9. SAMPLING SITES FOR TREES AND TOTAL BOTANICAL SAMPLING EFFORT.
Site
Days
Number of
Transects (1000
m2 each)
June 29 to July 3,
July 10 to 14, from
November 11 to
15, from December
26 to 30, 2007 and
from January 8 to
12, 2008
25
2
Lava flows of varying
successional stages
and rermnants of
tropical dry forest
From July 27 to
August 5, 2007
10
2
montane humid forest
December 19 to
21, 27 to 28, 2007
5
1
Location
Description
Barra de
Santiago
Cerro Campana sector,
Municipality of San Francisco
Menéndez, high part of El
Imposible (13.86° N; 89.91°W),
Dept. of Ahuachapán
Undisturbed montane
humid forest.
Cara Sucia
San Fco. Menéndez sector,
Municipality of San Francisco
Menéndez, between cantones
El Corozo and El Sacramento
(13.84°N; 90.01°W), Dept. of
Ahuachapán
Evergreen broadleaf
forest with
anthropogenic
disturbance due to the
presence of a
community within the
area.
El Imposible
National Park
Izalco
Los Volcanes
National Park
Izalco
34
Dates
Watershed
María Auxiliadora sector,
Municipality of Izalco, between
the cantones of Chorro Abajo,
Chorro Arriba, Shonshón,
Teshcal, Las Marías, La
Quebrada Española and
Cuyagualo (13.89°N; 89.63°W),
Dept. of Sonsonate
Cerro Verde sector, Municipality
of Santa Ana, Cantón Lomas de
San Marcelino (13.82ºN;
89.62ºW ), Dept. of Santa Ana
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 9. SAMPLING SITES FOR TREES AND TOTAL BOTANICAL SAMPLING EFFORT.
Site
Plan de Amayo
Protected Natural
Area
San Marcelino
Complex
Protected Natural
Area
Cerro El Águila
Protected Natural
Area
Watershed
Location
Description
Dates
Days
Number of
Transects (1000
m2 each)
San Julián
Municipality of Caluco, between
the cantones of Plan de Amayo
and El Castaño (13.41°N;
89.39°O), Dept. de Sonsonate
Cliff vegetation,
tropical dry forest (in
the areas closest to
the cliffs) and gallery
forests (in the lower
parts).
August 22 to 31,
2007 and January
22 to 26, 2008
15
2
Vegetation
succession on
volcanic lava of
different ages,
deciduous forest, and
evergreen broadleaf
forest.
December 12 to
16, 2007
5
1
Wooded summit
consists of humid
montane forest
November 18 to
22, 2007
5
1
Municipalities of Izalco y
Armenia, the cantones of Las
Lajas, El Guayabo, Los
Mangos, El Rosario, San Isidro
and Las Marías, Dept. of
Coatepeque
Sonsonate. Municipalities of
and Izalco
Santa Ana and El Congo,
between the cantones of Lomas
de San Marcelino (13.49°N;
89.34°W), Montebello, El Rodeo
and La Presa, Dept. of Santa
Ana (13.69°N; 89.64°W)
Río Grande
Municipality of Juayúa (13.88°N;
de
89.68°W), Dept. of Sonsonate
Sonsonate
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
35
2.3. LEVEL OF INVENTORY COMPLETENESS
In order to make an analysis of the inventory progress or completeness in the
municipalities and watersheds, I first prepared a list of indicator species for inventory
completeness (Gómez de Silva & Medellín 2001). This list consists of generalist species,
which are those that live in a variety of habitats and can be found in both disturbed and
non-disturbed habitats. The relationship between the species that were recorded during
the study and the list of expected generalist species represents an index of inventory
completeness expressed as percent progress. The number of expected species recorded
is divided by the total number of expected generalist species, which is 335 (listed in
Linares 2007), and multiplied by one hundred.
A single list of expected species was determined for watersheds and municipalities;
however, separate lists of indicator species for inventory completeness were determined
for each ecosystem or vegetation type (Table 10). The reason why each habitat has
different indicator species for inventory completeness is that some generalist species of
the low and medium altitude zones do not live in habitats of the higher altitude zones.
2.4. SELECTION OF SPECIES CONSIDERED IMPORTANT FOR
CONSERVATION
The main criterion to select species important for conservation is whether the species is
included on the Red List of globally endangered species (IUCN 2008). We considered
the tree Machaerium sp. to be an additional indicator of conservation importance,
because we believe it meets the IUCN criteria for threatened status but the species has
not yet been evaluated formally. All but one of the indicators are trees; the exception is a
globally-vulnerable cycad Zamia herrerae, which is also included as an indicator in this
analysis.
2.5. DATA SOURCES
Most of the information on the species recorded in the project area comes from the
databases of the Panamerican School of Agriculture (EAP, for its acronym in Spanish)
and the Missouri Botanical Garden (MO) herbaria and from fieldwork of the present study.
It was deemed that the majority of records in local herbaria are already included in the
consulted databases because duplicates of the collected items were frequently sent to
one of these foreign herbaria. Some of these data, specifically those from El Imposible
and Cerro Verde, have been complemented with information that previously existed on
these Protected Natural Areas (summarized in Linares 2007). The bibliographic
information mainly comes from thesis works and consultancies carried out in the different
Protected Natural Areas and cited in the Introduction.
36
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
7
1
2
4
3
6
5
FIGURE 4. STUDY AREA, WATERSHEDS, AND SAMPLING SITES FOR FLORA: (1)
CERRO CAMPANA (EL IMPOSIBLE), (2) SAN FRANCISCO MENÉNDEZ SECTOR (EL
IMPOSIBLE), (3) MARÍA AUXILIADORA SECTOR (LOS VOLCANES) (4) CERRO
VERDE (LOS VOLCANES NATIONAL PARK), (5) PLAN DE AMAYO, (6) COMPLEJO
SAN MARCELINO, (7) CERRO EL ÁGUILA.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
37
TABLE 10. INDICATOR SPECIES FOR INVENTORY COMPLETENESS OF TREES IN
THE STUDY AREA.
Species
CF
DF
HF
S
Acacia angustissima (Mill.) Kuntze
X
Acacia cornigera (L.) Willd.
X
Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.
X
Acacia hindsii Benth.
X
Acacia polyphylla DC.
X
Aegiphila panamensis Moldenke
X
Albizia adinocephala (Donn. Sm.) Britton & Rose
X
X
Albizia carbonaria Britton
Albizia niopoides (Spruce ex Benth.) Burkart
X
X
Alibertia edulis (Rich.) A. Rich. ex DC.
X
Allophylus occidentalis (Sw.) Radlk.
Alstonia pittieri (Donn. Sm.) A.H. Gentry
X
Alvaradoa amorphoides Liebm.
X
Andira inermis (W. Wright) Kunth ex DC.
X
X
Annona diversifolia Saff.
X
Annona glabra L.
X
Annona macroprophyllata Donn. Sm.
X
Annona reticulata L.
Apeiba tibourbou Aubl.
X
X
Aralia humilis Cav.
X
Ardisia compressa Kunth
X
X
Ardisia paschalis Donn. Sm.
X
X
Astronium graveolens Jacq.
X
X
Banisteriopsis acapulcensis (Rose) Small
Bauhinia cookii Rose
X
Bauhinia divaricata L.
X
Bauhinia pauletia Pers.
X
X
Bauhinia ungulata L.
X
Bixa orellana L.
X
X
Bocconia arborea S. Watson
X
Boehmeria caudata Sw.
Boehmeria ulmifolia Wedd.
X
Bourreria huanita (Lex.) Hemsl.
X
Brachistus stramoniifolius (Kunth) Miers
X
Brosimum alicastrum Sw.
X
X
Bunchosia nitida (Jacq.) DC.
X
Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg.
X
X
Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth
X
Caesalpinia eriostachys Benth.
X
Caesalpinia exostemma DC.
X
Calatola laevigata Standl.
X
X
Calophyllum brasiliense var. rekoi (Standl.) Standl.
X
Calycophyllum candidissimun (Vahl) DC.
X
Capparis discolor Donn. Sm.
X
38
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Species
Capparis flexuosa (L.) L.
Capparis frondosa Jacq.
Capparis indica (L.) Druce
Capparis mollicella Standl.
Capparis odoratissima Jacq.
Capparis pringlei Briq.
Capparis quiriguensis Standl.
Carica cauliflora Jacq.
Carica papaya L.
Cascabela ovata (Cav.) Lippold
Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold
Casearia aculeata Jacq.
Casearia commersoniana Cambess.
Casearia corymbosa Kunth
Casearia sylvestris Sw.
Casimiroa sapota Oerst.
Cassia grandis L. f.
Cassine xylocarpa Vent
Castilla elastica Sessé ex Cerv.
Cecropia obtusifolia Bertol.
Cecropia peltata L.
Cedrela odorata L.
Cedrela salvadorensis Standl.
Ceiba aesculifolia (Kunth) Britten & Baker f.
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.
Celtis iguanaea (Jacq.) Sarg.
Cestrum nocturnum L.
Cestrum tomentosum L. f.
Chiococca alba (L.) Hitchc.
Chiococca pachyphylla Wernham
Chrysobalanus icaco L.
Chrysophyllum mexicanum Brandegee ex Standl.
Citharexylum donnell-smithii Greenm.
Clethra mexicana DC.
Clibadium arboreum Donn. Sm.
Clusia guatemalensis Hemsl.
Coccoloba barbadensis Jacq.
Coccoloba caracasana Meisn.
Cochlospermum vitifolium (Willd.) Spreng.
Colubrina arborescens (Mill.) Sarg.
Colubrina heteroneura (Griseb.) Standl.
Conocarpus erectus L.
Conostegia xalapensis (Bonpl.) D. Don ex DC.
Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Oken
Cordia dentata Poir.
Cordia panamensis L. Riley
Cornutia pyramidata L.
CF
DF
X
HF
S
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
X
X
X
X
X
39
Species
Coutarea hexandra (Jacq.) K. Schum.
Crateva tapia L.
Critonia daleoides DC.
Critonia hebebotrya DC.
Critonia morifolia (Mill.) R.M. King & H. Rob.
Cupania guatemalensis (Turcz.) Radlk.
Curatella americana L.
Dalbergia chontalensis Standl. & L.O. Williams
Dendropanax arboreus (L.) Decne. & Planch.
Dichapetalum donnell-smithii Engl. var donnell-smithii
Diospyros salicifolia Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
Diphysa americana (Mill.) M. Sousa
Drypetes lateriflora (Sw.) Krug & Urb.
Dussia cuscatlanica (Standl.) Standl. & Steyerm.
Ehretia latifolia DC.
Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb.
Eremopsis triflosculosa (Kunth) Gleason subsp.
triflosculosa
Erythrina berteroana Urb.
Eugenia jutiapensis Standl. & Steyerm.
Eugenia lindeniana O. Berg
Eugenia salamensis Donn. Sm.
Eugenia sasoana Standl. & Steyerm.
Exostema caribaeum (Jacq.) Roem. & Schult.
Exostema mexicanum A. Gray
Exothea paniculata (Juss.) Radlk.
Ficus aurea Nutt.
Ficus citrifolia Mill.
Ficus costaricana (Liebm.) Miq.
Ficus cotinifolia Kunth var. cotinifolia
Ficus insipida Willd.
Ficus maxima Mill.
Ficus obtusifolia Kunth
Ficus ovalis (Liebm.) Miq.
Ficus pertusa L. f.
Ficus trigonata L.
Forchhammeria trifoliata Radlk.
Garcia nutans Vahl
Gaultheria erecta Vent.
Genipa americana L.
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp.
Godmania aesculifolia (Kunth) Standl.
Guarea glabra Vahl
Guazuma ulmifolia Lam.
Guettarda deamii Standl.
Guettarda macrosperma Donn. Sm.
Guettarda subcapitata C.M. Taylor
40
CF
DF
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
HF
X
S
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Species
Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq.
Hamelia patens Jacq.
Hauya elegans subsp. lucida (Donn. Sm. & Rose) P.H.
Raven & Breedlove [= Hauya lucida Donn. Sm. & Rose]
Heliocarpus mexicanus (Turcz.) Sprague
Hemiangium excelsum (Kunth) A.C. Sm.
Heteropterys laurifolia (L.) A. Juss.
Hibiscus pernambucensis Arruda
Hintonia latiflora (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Bullock
Hintonia lumaeana (Baill.) Bullock
Hymenaea courbaril L.
Hyperbaena mexicana Miers
Hyperbaena tonduzii Diels
Inga flexuosa Schltdl.
Inga pavoniana G. Don
Inga punctata Willd.
Inga vera Willd.
Ipomoea wolcottiana Rose subsp. wolcottiana
Jacaratia mexicana A. DC.
Jacquinia longifolia Standl.
Jacquinia nervosa C. Presl.
Karwinskia calderonii Standl.
Laguncularia racemosa (L.) C.F. Gaertn.
Lasianthaea fruticosa (L.) K.M. Becker
Ledenbergia macrantha Standl.
Licania arborea Seem.
Licania platypus (Hemsl.) Fritsch
Licania retifolia S.F. Blake
Lippia umbellata Cav.
Lippia cardiostegia Benth.
Lippia myriocephala Schltdl. & Cham.
Lonchocarpus guatemalensis Benth.
Lonchocarpus minimiflorus Donn. Sm.
Lonchocarpus rugosus subsp. apricus (Lundell) M.Sousa
Lonchocarpus salvadorensis Pittier
Lonchocarpus santarosanus Donn. Sm.
Luehea candida (Moc. & Sessé ex DC.) Mart.
Lycianthes arrazolensis (J.M. Coult. & Donn. Sm.) Bitter
Lycianthes heteroclita (Sendtn.) Bitter
Lysiloma acapulcense (Kunth) Benth.
Lysiloma auritum (Schltdl.) Benth.
Lysiloma divaricatum (Jacq.) J.F. Macbr.
Machaerium biovulatum Micheli
Machaerium salvadorense (Donn. Sm.) Rudd
Maclura tinctoria (L.) D. Don ex Steud.
Malpighia glabra L.
Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. var. arboreus
CF
DF
X
X
HF
S
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
41
Species
Margaritaria nobilis L. f.
Miconia argentea (Sw.) DC.
Miconia laevigata (L.) D. Don
Montanoa grandiflora Alaman es DC.
Montanoa guatemalensis B.L. Rob. & Greenm.
Montanoa hibiscifolia Benth.
Montanoa tomentosa subsp.. xanthiifolia (Sch. Bip. ex C.
Koch) V.A. Funk
Muntingia calabura L.
Myriocarpa longipes Liebm.
Myrospermum frutescens Jacq.
Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae (Royle) Harms
Nectandra martinicensis Mez
Neea psychotrioides Donn. Sm.
Ochroma pyramidale (Cav. ex Lam.) Urb.
Ocotea veraguensis (Meisn.) Mez
Omphalea oleifera Hemsl.
Pachira aquatica Aubl.
Pachythamnus crassirameus (B.L. Rob.) R.M. King & H.
Rob.
Parathesis vulgata Lundell
Peltostigma pteleoides (Hook.) Walp.
Perymenium grande Hemsl. var. grande
Perymenium grande var. nelsonii (B.L. Rob. & Greenm.)
J.J. Fay
Phenax hirtus (Sw.) Wedd.
Phenax mexicanus Wedd.
Pilocarpus racemosus subsp. viridulus Kaastra
Piper amalago L.
Piper marginatum Jacq.
Piper sanctum (Miq.) Schltdl. ex C. DC.
Piper tuberculatum Jacq.
Piptadenia obliqua (Pers.) J.F. Macbr.
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Plumeria rubra forma acutifolia (Poir.) Woodson
Poeppigia procera C. Presl
Pogonopus speciosus (Jacq.) K. Schum.
Posoqueria latifolia (Rudge) Roem. & Schult.
Prockia crucis P. Browne ex L.
Pseudobombax ellipticum (Kunth) Dugand [=Bombax
ellipticum H.B.K.]
Pseudobombax septenatum (Jacq.) Dugand
Psidium guajava L.
Psidium guianense Pers.
Psychotria limonensis K. Krause
Psychotria microdon (DC.) Urb.
Psychotria pubescens Sw.
42
CF
DF
HF
S
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Species
Quercus elliptica Née
Quercus lancifolia Schltdl. & Cham.
Quercus salicifolia Née
Quercus sapotifolia Liebm.
Quercus skinneri Benth.
Randia armata (Sw.) DC.
Randia grandifolia (Donn. Sm.) Standl.
Robinsonella densiflora Fryxell
Roldana petasioides (Greenm.) H. Rob.
Rondeletia deamii (Donn. Sm.) Standl.
Rondeletia laniflora Benth.
Rondeletia thiemei Donn. Sm.
Roupala glaberrima Pittier
Ruprechtia costata Meisn.
Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr.
Sapindus saponaria L.
Sapium macrocarpum Müll. Arg.
Sapranthus violaceus (Dunal) Saff.
Schoepfia schreberi J.F. Gmel.
Sciadodendron excelsum Griseb.
Senna nicaraguensis (Benth.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby
Senna pallida (Vahl) H.S. Irwin & Barneby
Senna reticulata (Willd.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby
Sideroxylon capiri subsp. tempisque (Pittier) T.D. Penn.
Simarouba glauca DC.
Sinclairia deamii (B.L. Rob. & Bartlett) Rydb.
Sinclairia discolor Hook. & Arn.
Sinclairia glabra (Hemsl) Rydb.
Sinclairia sublobatum (B. L. Rob.) Rydb.
Sloanea terniflora (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Standl.
Solanum erianthum D. Don
Solanum hazenii Britton
Solanum lanceolatum Cav.
Solanum umbellatum Mill.
Spondias mombin L.
Spondias purpurea L.
Spondias radlkoferi Donn. Sm.
Stemmadenia donnell-smithii (Rose) Woodson
Stemmadenia eubracteata Woodson
Stemmadenia obovata K. Schum.
Stenocereus aragonii (F.A.C. Weber) Buxb.
Styrax argenteus C. Presl
Swartzia simplex (Sw.) Spreng.
Swietenia humilis Zucc.
Swietenia macrophylla King
Synardisia venosa (Mast.) Lundell
Tabebuia chrysantha (Jacq.) G. Nicholson
CF
X
X
X
X
X
DF
HF
X
X
X
X
X
S
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
X
43
Species
CF
Tabebuia donnell-smithii Rose
Tabebuia impetiginosa (Mart. ex A. DC.) Standl.
Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) A. DC.
Tabernaemontana amygdalifolia Jacq.
Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth
X
Telanthophora arborescens (Steetz) H. Rob. & Brettell
X
Terminalia oblonga (Ruiz & Pav.) Steud.
Thouinia velutina Radlk.
Thouinia villosa DC.
Thouinidium decandrum (Bonpl.) Radlk.
Trema micrantha (L.) Blume var. micrantha
Trema micrantha var strigillosa (Lundell) Standl. &
X
Steyerm.
Trichilia americana (Sesse & Moc.) T.D. Penn.
Trichilia havanensis Jacq.
X
Trichilia hirta L.
Trichilia martiana C. DC.
Trichospermum galeottii (Turcz.) Kosterm.
Triplaris melaenodendron (Bertol.) Standl. & Steyerm.
Trophis racemosa (L.) Urb.
Turpinia occidentalis (Sw.) G. Don
X
Ulmus mexicana (Liebm.) Planch.
X
Urera baccifera (L.) Gaudich. ex Wedd.
X
Urera corallina (Liebm.) Wedd.
X
Urera eggersii Hieron.
X
Verbesina guatemalensis B.L. Rob. & Greenm.
Verbesina turbacensis Kunth
X
Vernonia deppeana Less.
Vernonia patens Kunth
Viburnum hartwegii Benth.
X
Ximenia americana L.
Xylosma chlorantha Donn. Sm.
X
Xylosma flexuosum (Kunth) Hemsl.
X
Zanthoxylum culantrillo Kunth
Zanthoxylum microcarpum Griseb.
Zapoteca formosa (Kunth) H.M. Hern. subsp. formosa
Zinowiewia cuneifolia Lundell
X
* CF: Cloud Forest; DF: Dry Forest; HF: Humid forest; S: Savanna.
44
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
DF
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
HF
S
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. SPECIES RECORDED
During the study, we collected a total of 1164 herbarium samples coming from
approximately 707 vascular plant species. With this new data, the floral inventory for the
study area now presents 584 tree species (Table 11). This figure includes about 430
species that were already cited in previous reports or were collected previously in different
locations of the project area. The remaining 154 were not recorded in the existing
literature and/or were not included in the databases available at the beginning of the
present study. During field work, botanical voucher specimens were collected for at least
415 tree species, giving priority to rare species or to those for which few specimens had
been collected previously. The 584 tree species found in the project area represent
approximately 58% of all trees known in the country. Many of the tree species found are
completely restricted to the study area or their largest populations are known from the
study area.
At El Imposible National Park, the list of trees reached a total of 269 species, including the
species reported in previous studies. A total of 190 species were recorded in Plan de
Amayo, and 172 species in San Marcelino Complex Protected Natural Area. The list of
trees from Cerro Verde reached a total of 94 species. A total of 84 species were recorded
in the María Auxiliadora sector at Los Volcanes National Park, and 45 species on Cerro El
Águila.
3.2. IMPORTANT SPECIES FOR CONSERVATION
The study area presents 25 indicators of conservation importance (Table 12). The natural
areas with the most threatened species are Plan de Amayo, El Imposible National Park,
and Los Volcanes National Park with 12 species each, followed by San Marcelino with
eight, and finally, El Águila with only two species. However, Plan de Amayo presents five
species that are not shared with any of the other conservation areas, which also represent
very rare species in El Salvador, such as Lonchocarpus molinae (Leguminosae). This is
a species recorded in the country for the first time and also endemic to lowland karst
(limestone) soil, which makes it very unlikely to find in another area of El Salvador. El
Imposible National Park hosts 12 species of the IUCN red list and only has one of the 25
indicators, the Mahogany tree (Swietenia macrophylla), not shared with any other area of
southwestern El Salvador.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
45
TABLE 11. TREE SPECIES RECORDED IN THE STUDY AREA.
Family
Species
Indicator (I)
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Cactaceae
Achatocarpaceae
Leguminosae
Arecaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Verbenaceae
Opiliaceae
Opiliaceae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Euphorbiaceae
Rubiaceae
Sapindaceae
Betulaceae
Apocynaceae
Simaroubaceae
Ulmaceae
Rutaceae
Rutaceae
Anacardiaceae
Leguminosae
Annonaceae
Annonaceae
Annonaceae
Annonaceae
Annonaceae
Annonaceae
Annonaceae
Annonaceae
Tiliaceae
Ulmaceae
Acanthaceae
Apocynaceae
Acacia angustissima (Mill.) Kuntze
Acacia cornigera (L.) Willd.
Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd. var. farnesiana
Acacia hindsii Benth.
Acacia polyphylla DC.
Acacia riparia Kunth
Acacia sp.
Acalypha sp.
Acalypha diversifolia Jacq.
Acalypha villosa Jacq.
Acanthocereus tetragonus (L.) Hummelinck
Achatocarpus nigricans Triana
Acosmium panamense (Benth.) Yakovlev
Acrocomia aculeata (Jacq.) Lodd. ex Mart.
Adelia barbinervis Schltdl. & Cham.
Aegiphila panamensis Moldenke
Agonandra loranthoides L.O. Williams
Agonandra racemosa (DC.) Standl.
Albizia adinocephala (Donn. Sm.) Britton & Rose
Albizia carbonaria Britton
Albizia niopoides (Spruce ex Benth.) Burkart
Alchornea latifolia Sw.
Alibertia edulis (Rich.) A. Rich. ex DC.
Allophylus occidentalis (Sw.) Radlk.
Alnus acuminata subsp. arguta (Schltdl.) Furlow
Alstonia longifolia (A. DC.) Pichon
Alvaradoa amorphoides Liebm.
Ampelocera hottlei (Standl.) Standl.
Amyris balsamifera L.
Amyris guatemalensis Lundell
Anacardium occidentale L.
Andira inermis (W. Wright) DC.
Annona cherimola Mill.
Annona diversifolia Saff.
Annona glabra L.
Annona macroprophyllata Donn. Sm.
Annona reticulata L.
Annona sp.
Annona squamosa L.
Annonaceae indet.
Apeiba tibourbou Aubl.
Aphananthe monoica (Hemsl.) J.-F. Leroy
Aphelandra schiedeana Schltdl. & Cham.
Apocynaceae indet.
I
I
46
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Family
Species
Indicator (I)
Araliaceae
Myrsinaceae
Myrsinaceae
Myrsinaceae
Bignoniaceae
Apocynaceae
Asteraceae
Anacardiaceae
Verbenaceae
Verbenaceae
Asteraceae
Rubiaceae
Malpighiaceae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Aralia humilis Cav.
Ardisia sp.
Ardisia compressa Kunth
Ardisia paschalis Donn. Sm.
Arrabidaea costaricensis (Kraenzl.) A.H. Gentry
Aspidosperma megalocarpon Müll. Arg.
Asteraceae indet.
Astronium graveolens Jacq.
Avicennia bicolor Standl.
Avicennia germinans (L.) Stearn
Baccharis sp.
Balmea stormae Martínez
Banisteriopsis acapulcensis (Rose) Small
Bauhinia cookii Rose
Bauhinia divaricata L.
Bauhinia pauletia Pers.
Bauhinia seleriana Harms (= Bauhinia paradisii
Standl. & L.O. Williams)
Bauhinia ungulata L.
Begonia calderonii Standl.
Cydista sp.
Berberis johnstonii Standl. & Steyerm.
Bernardia sp.
Bixa orellana L.
Bixa urucurana Willd.
Bocconia arborea S. Watson
Boehmeria caudata Sw.
Boehmeria ulmifolia Wedd.
Bourreria huanita (Lex.) Hemsl.
Brachistus stramoniifolius (Kunth) Miers
Bravaisia integerrima (Spreng.) Standl.
Brosimum alicastrum Sw.
Buddleja americana L.
Bunchosia nitida (Jacq.) DC.
Bursera graveolens (Kunth) Triana & Planch.
Bursera longicuspis Lundell
Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg.
Byrsonima crassifolia (L.) Kunth
Caesalpinia eriostachys Benth.
Caesalpinia exostemma DC.
Calatola laevigata Standl.
Calliandra sp. nov.
Callitropsis lusitanica (Mill.) D.P. Little
Calophyllum brasiliense var. rekoi (Standl.) Standl.
Calycophyllum candidissimun (Vahl) DC.
Capparis discolor Donn. Sm.
I
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Begoniaceae
Bignoniaceae
Berberidaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Bixaceae
Bixaceae
Papaveraceae
Urticaceae
Urticaceae
Boraginaceae
Solanaceae
Acanthaceae
Moraceae
Loganiaceae
Malpighiaceae
Burseraceae
Burseraceae
Burseraceae
Malpighiaceae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Icacinaceae
Leguminosae
Cupressaceae
Clusiaceae
Rubiaceae
Capparaceae
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
47
Family
Species
Indicator (I)
Capparaceae
Capparaceae
Capparaceae
Capparaceae
Capparaceae
Capparaceae
Capparaceae
Capparaceae
Solanaceae
Caricaceae
Caricaceae
Apocynaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Rutaceae
Leguminosae
Celastraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Cecropiaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Bombacaceae
Bombacaceae
Ulmaceae
Ulmaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Arecaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Chrysobalanaceae
Sapotaceae
Verbenaceae
Verbenaceae
Capparis flexuosa (L.) L.
Capparis frondosa Jacq.
Capparis indica (L.) Druce
Capparis mollicella Standl.
Capparis odoratissima Jacq.
Capparis pringlei Briq.
Capparis quiriguensis Standl.
Capparis sp.
Capsicum ciliatum (Kunth) Kuntze
Carica cauliflora Jacq.
Carica papaya L.
Cascabela ovata (Cav.) Lippold
Casearia aculeata Jacq.
Casearia arguta Kunth
Casearia coronata Standl. & L.O. Williams
Casearia tremula (Griseb.) Griseb. ex C. Wright
Casearia commersoniana Cambess
Casearia sp.
Casearia corymbosa Kunth
Casearia sylvestris Sw. var. sylvestris
Casimiroa sapota Oerst.
Cassia grandis L. f.
Cassine xylocarpa Vent
Castilla elastica Sessé ex Cerv.
Cecropia obtusifolia Bertol.
Cecropia peltata L.
Cedrela fissilis Vell.
Cedrela odorata L.
Cedrela salvadorensis Standl.
Cedrela tonduzii C. DC.
Ceiba aesculifolia (Kunth) Britten & Baker f.
Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn.
Celtis caudata Planch.
Celtis iguanaea (Jacq.) Sarg.
Cestrum dumetorum Schltdl.
Cestrum nocturnum L.
Cestrum pacayense Francey
Cestrum racemosum Ruiz & Pav.
Cestrum tomentosum L. f.
Chamaedorea tepejilote Liebm. ex Mart.
Chiococca alba (L.) Hitchc.
Chiococca pachyphylla Wernham
Chrysobalanus icaco L.
Chrysophyllum mexicanum Brandegee ex Standl.
Citharexylum costaricense Moldenke
Citharexylum donnell-smithii Greenm.
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
48
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Family
Species
Verbenaceae
Clerodendrum pittieri Moldenke
Clethraceae
Clethra mexicana DC.
Clethraceae
Clethra sp.
Clethraceae
Clethra suaveolens Turcz.
Asteraceae
Clibadium arboreum Donn. Sm.
Clusiaceae
Clusia guatemalensis Hemsl.
Cnidoscolus aconitifolius (Mill.) I.M. Johnst. subsp.
Euphorbiaceae
aconitifoliussp.
Euphorbiaceae
Cnidoscolus
Polygonaceae
Coccoloba acapulcensis Standl.
Polygonaceae
Coccoloba barbadensis Jacq.
Polygonaceae
Coccoloba caracasana Meisn.
Polygonaceae
Coccoloba montana Standl.
Polygonaceae
Coccoloba sp. nov.
Polygonaceae
Coccoloba venosa L.
Cochlospermaceae
Cochlospermum vitifolium (Willd.) Spreng.
Leguminosae
Cojoba arborea (L.) Britton & Rose
Leguminosae
Cojoba graciliflora (S.F. Blake) Britton & Rose
Rhamnaceae
Colubrina arborescens (Mill.) Sarg.
Rhamnaceae
Colubrina heteroneura (Griseb.) Standl.
Combretaceae
Combretum fruticosum (Loefl.) Stuntz
Combretaceae
Conocarpus erectus L.
Melastomataceae
Conostegia xalapensis (Bonpl.) D. Don ex DC.
Boraginaceae
Cordia alliodora (Ruiz et Pav.) Oken
Boraginaceae
Cordia collococca L.
Boraginaceae
Cordia dentata Poir.
Boraginaceae
Cordia panamensis L. Riley
Boraginaceae
Cordia salvadorensis Standl.
Verbenaceae
Cornutia pyramidata L.
Chrysobalanaceae
Couepia polyandra (Kunth) Rose
Rubiaceae
Coutarea hexandra (Jacq.) K. Schum.
Capparaceae
Crateva tapia L.
Bignoniaceae
Crescentia cujete L.
Asteraceae
Critonia sp.
Asteraceae
Critonia daleoides DC.
Asteraceae
Critonia hebebotrya DC.
Asteraceae
Critonia morifolia (Mill.) King et Rob
Celastraceae
Crossopetalum sp. nov.
Euphorbiaceae
Croton guatemalensis Lotsy
Euphorbiaceae
Croton reflexifolius Kunth
Euphorbiaceae
Croton sp. nov.
Sapindaceae
Cupania guatemalensis (Turcz.) Radlk.
Sapindaceae
Cupania mollis Standl.
Dilleniaceae
Curatella americana L.
Annonaceae
Cymbopetalum penduliflorum (Dunal) Baill.
Leguminosae
Dalbergia calycina Benth.
Leguminosae
Dalbergia chontalensis Standl. & L.O. Williams
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Indicator (I)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
49
Family
Species
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Thymelaeaceae
Leguminosae
Araliaceae
Dichapetalaceae
Ebenaceae
Ebenaceae
Ebenaceae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Euphorbiaceae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Boraginaceae
Leguminosae
Dalbergia congestiflora Pittier
Dalbergia melanocardium Pittier
Dalbergia salvanaturae J. Linares et M. Sousa
Daphnopsis witsbergeri Nevling, Matek. & Barringer
Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf.
Dendropanax arboreus (L.) DCne. et Planch.
Dichapetalum donnell-smithii Engl.
Diospyros morenoi A. Pool
Diospyros nicaraguensis (Standl.) Standl.
Diospyros salicifolia Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
Diphysa americana (Miller) M. Sousa
Diphysa humilis Oerst.
Drypetes lateriflora (Sw.) Krug & Urb.
Dussia cuscatlanica (Standl.) Standl. & Steyerm.
Dyphisa americana (Mill.) M. Sousa
Ehretia latifolia DC.
Enterolobium cyclocarpum (Jacq.) Griseb.
Eremopsis triflosculosa (Kunth) Gleason subsp.
triflosculosa
Erythrina berteroana Urb.
Erythroxylum areolatum L.
Erythroxylum havanense Jacq.
Erythroxylum rotundifolium Lunan
Eugenia alfaroana Standl.
Eugenia sp.1
Eugenia sp. 2
Eugenia jutiapensis Standl. & Steyerm.
Eugenia lindeniana O. Berg
Eugenia oerstediana O. Berg
Eugenia quercetorum Standl. & L.O. Williams ex
Barrie
Eugenia salamensis Donn. Sm. var. salamensis
Eugenia salamensis var. rensoniana (Standl.)
McVaugh
Eugenia sasoana Standl. & Steyerm.
Euphorbia leucocephala Lotsy
Euphorbia schlechtendalii Boiss.
Euphorbia sp.
Euphorbiaceae indet. (sp. nov.?)
Exostema caribaeum (Jacq.) Roem. & Schult.
Exostema mexicanum A. Gray
Exothea paniculata (Juss.) Radlk.
Eysenhardtia adenostylis Baill.
Faramea occidentalis (L.) A. Rich.
Ficus aurea Nutt.
Ficus citrifolia Mill.
Asteraceae
Leguminosae
Erythroxylaceae
Erythroxylaceae
Erythroxylaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Sapindaceae
Leguminosae
Rubiaceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
50
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Indicator (I)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Family
Species
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Apocynaceae
Onagraceae
Euphorbiaceae
Clusiaceae
Ericaceae
Rubiaceae
Leguminosae
Bignoniaceae
Nyctaginaceae
Nyctaginaceae
Meliaceae
Sterculiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Hernandiaceae
Hernandiaceae
Rubiaceae
Malvaceae
Ficus costaricana (Liebm.) Miq.
Ficus cotinifolia Kunth var. cotinifolia
Ficus goldmanii Standl.
Ficus insipida Willd.
Ficus jimenezii Standl.
Ficus maxima Mill.
Ficus obtusifolia Kunth
Ficus ovalis (Liebm.) Miq.
Ficus trigonata L.
Forchhammeria trifoliata Radlk.
Fuchsia paniculata Lindl.
Garcia nutans Vahl
Garcinia intermedia (Pittier) Hammel
Gaultheria erecta Vent.
Genipa americana L.
Gliricidia sepium (Jacq.) Kunth ex Walp.
Godmania aesculifolia (Kunth) Standl.
Grajalesia fasciculata (Standl.) Miranda
Guapira witsbergeri Lundell
Guarea glabra Vahl
Guazuma ulmifolia Lam.
Guettarda macrosperma Donn. Sm.
Guettarda subcapitata C.M. Taylor
Gymnanthes riparia (Schltdl.) Klotzsch
Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq.
Gyrocarpus jatrophifolius Domin
Hamelia patens Jacq.
Hampea stipitata S. Watson
Hauya elegans subsp. lucida (Donn. Sm. & Rose)
Onagraceae
P.H. Raven & Breedlove
Tiliaceae
Heliocarpus mexicanus (Turcz.) Sprague
Hippocrateaceae
Hemiangium excelsum (Kunth) A.C. Sm.
Malpighiaceae
Heteropterys laurifolia (L.) A. Juss.
Malvaceae
Hibiscus pernambucensis Arruda
Rubiaceae
Hillia tetrandra Sw.
Rubiaceae
Hintonia latiflora (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Bullock
Rubiaceae
Hintonia lumaeana (Baill.) Bullock
Malpighiaceae
Hiraea sp.
Malpighiaceae
Hiraea velutina Nied.
Chrysobalanaceae Hirtella racemosa var. hexandra (Willd. ex Roem. &
Schult.)
Prance
Euphorbiaceae
Hura
polyandra
Baill.
Leguminosae
Hymenaea courbaril L.
Menispermaceae
Hyperbaena mexicana Miers
Menispermaceae
Hyperbaena tonduzii Diels
Aquifoliaceae
Ilex discolor Hemsl. var discolor
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Indicator (I)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
51
Family
Aquifoliaceae
Rutaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Celastraceae
Meliaceae
Melastomataceae
Sapindaceae
Sapotaceae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Convolvulaceae
Amaranthaceae
Amaranthaceae
Amaranthaceae
Rubiaceae
Caricaceae
Theophrastaceae
Juglandaceae
Rhamnaceae
Rhamnaceae
Rhamnaceae
Lythraceae
Combretaceae
Asteraceae
Phytolaccaceae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Chrysobalanaceae
Chrysobalanaceae
Chrysobalanaceae
Lauraceaeindet
Lauraceae
Verbenaceae
Verbenaceae
Verbenaceae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
52
Species
Ilex discolor var. tolucana (Hemsl.) Edwin ex T.R.
Dudley
Indeterminada
Indeterminada
Indeterminada
Indeterminada
Indeterminada
Indeterminada
Indeterminada
Inga calderonii Standl.
Inga flexuosa Schltdl.
Inga oerstediana Benth. ex Seem.
Inga pavoniana G. Don
Inga punctacta Willd.
Inga sapindoides Willd.
Inga vera Willd.
Ipomoea wolcottiana Rose subsp. wolcottiana
Iresine diffusa Humb. & Bonpl. ex Willd.
Iresine herrerae Conz. & S.F. Blake
Iresine nigra Uline & W.L. Bray
Ixora floribunda (A. Rich.) Griseb.
Jacaratia mexicana A. DC.
Jacquinia longifolia Standl.
Juglans olanchana Standl. & L.O. Williams
Karwinskia calderonii Standl.
Krugiodendron ferreum (Vahl) Urb.
Krugiodendron sp. nov.
Lafoensia punicifolia DC.
Laguncularia racemosa (L.) C.F. Gaertn.
Lasianthaea fruticosa (L.) K.M. Becker
Ledenbergia macrantha Standl.
Lennea viridiflora Seem.
Leucaena diversifolia (Schltdl.) Benth.
Leucaena shannonii Donn. Sm.
Licania arborea Seem.
Licania platypus (Hemsl.) Fritsch
Licania retifolia S.F. Blake
Licaria capitata (Schltdl. & Cham.) Kosterm.
Licaria sp.
Lippia cardiostegia Benth.
Lippia myriocephala Schltdl. & Cham.
Lippia umbellata Cav.
Lonchocarpus sp.
Lonchocarpus acuminatus (Schltdl.) M. Sousa
Lonchocarpus guatemalensis Benth.
Lonchocarpus lanceolatus Benth.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Indicator (I)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Family
Species
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Lonchocarpus michelianus Pittier
Lonchocarpus minimiflorus Donn. Sm.
Lonchocarpus molinae Standl. & L.O. Williams
Lonchocarpus parviflorus Benth.
Lonchocarpus peninsularis (Donn. Sm.) Pittier
Lonchocarpus phaseolifolius Benth.
Lonchocarpus purpusii Brandegee
Lonchocarpus retiferus Standl. & L.O. Williams
Lonchocarpus rugosus subsp. apricus (Lundell) M.
Sousa
Lonchocarpus salvadorensis Pittier
Lonchocarpus sanctuarii Standl. & L.O. Williams
Lonchocarpus santarosanus Donn. Sm.
Lonchocarpus schiedeanus (Schltdl.) Harms
Lonchocarpus stenophyllus M. Sousa
Luehea candida (Moc. & Sessé ex DC.) Mart.
Luffa operculata (L.) Cogn.
Lycianthes arrazolensis (J.M. Coult. & Donn. Sm.)
Bitter
Lycianthes heteroclita (Sendtn.) Bitter
Lycianthes orogenes Standl. & Steyerm.
Lysiloma acapulcense (Kunth) Benth.
Lysiloma auritum (Schltdl.) Benth.
Lysiloma divaricatum (Jacq.) J.F. Macbr.
Machaerium biovulatum Micheli
Machaerium kegelii Meisn.
Machaerium salvadorense (Donn. Sm.) Rudd
Machaerium sp.
Maclura tinctoria (L.) D. Don ex Steud.
Malpighia glabra L.
Malpighia sp.
Malvaviscus arboreus Cav. var. arboreus
Manilkara chicle (Pittier) Gilly
Manilkara zapota (L.) P. Royen
Margaritaria nobilis L. f.
Matayba glaberrima Radlk.
Maytenus chiapensis Lundell
Maytenus sp. nov.
Miconia sp.
Miconia argentea (Sw.) DC.
Miconia laevigata (L.) D. Don
Montanoa grandiflora Alaman es DC.
Montanoa guatemalensis B.L. Rob. & Greenm.
Montanoa hibiscifolia Benth.
Montanoa tomentosa subsp. xanthiifolia (Sch. Bip.
ex C. Koch) V.A. Funk
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Tiliaceae
Cucurbitaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Moraceae
Malpighiaceae
Malpighiaceae
Malvaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Sapindaceae
Celastraceae
Celastraceae
Melastomataceae
Melastomataceae
Melatomataceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Indicator (I)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
53
Family
Species
Myricaceae
Morella cerifera (L.) Small
Melastomataceae Mouriri myrtilloides subsp. parvifolia (Benth.) Morley
Elaeocarpaceae
Muntingia calabura L.
Myrtaceae
Myrcianthes fragrans (Sw.) McVaugh var. fragrans
Myrtaceae
Myrcianthes sp.
Urticaceae
Myriocarpa longipes Liebm.
Leguminosae
Myrospermum frutescens Jacq.
Leguminosae
Myroxylon balsamum var. pereirae (Royle) Harms
Lauraceae
Nectandra martinicensis Mez
Lauraceae
Nectandra mirafloris
Lauraceae
Nectandra salicifolia (Kunth) Nees
Nyctaginaceae
Neea psychotrioides Donn. Sm.
Asteraceae
Neurolaena lobata (L.) Cass.
Bombacaceae
Ochroma pyramidale (Cav. ex Lam.) Urb.
Lauraceae
Ocotea botrantha Rohwer
Lauraceae
Ocotea salvadorensis (Lundell) van der Werff
Lauraceae
Ocotea sinuata (Mez) Rohwer
Lauraceae
Ocotea veraguensis (Meisn.) Mez
Euphorbiaceae
Omphalea oleifera Hemsl.
Euphorbiaceae
Ophellantha spinosa Standl.
Araliaceae
Oreopanax xalapensis (Kunth) Decne. & Planch.
Ochnaceae
Ouratea lucens (Kunth) Engl.
Bombacaceae
Pachira aquatica Aubl.
Pachythamnus crassirameus (B.L. Rob.) R.M. King
Asteraceae
& H. Rob.
Palicourea padifolia (Willd. ex Roem. & Schult.)
Rubiaceae
C.M. Taylor
& Lorence
Myrsinaceae
Parathesis
columnaris
Lundell
Myrsinaceae
Rutaceae
Lauraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Urticaceae
Urticaceae
Lauraceae
Lauraceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Ulmaceae
Simaroubaceae
Rutaceae
Pinaceae
Piperaceae
54
Parathesis vulgata Lundell
Peltostigma pteleoides (Hook.) Walp.
Persea americana Mill.
Perymenium grande Hemsl. var. grande
Perymenium grande var. nelsonii (B.L. Rob. &
Greenm.) J.J. Fay
Phenax hirtus (Sw.) Wedd.
Phenax mexicanus Wedd.
Phoebe acuminatissima Lundell
Phoebe sp.
Phyllanthus elsiae Urb.
Phyllanthus mocinianus Baill.
Phyllanthus sp.
Phyllostylon rhamnoides (J. Poiss.) Taub.
Picramnia antidesma subsp. fessonia (DC.) W.W.
Thomas
Pilocarpus racemosus subsp viridulus Kaastra
Pinus oocarpa Schiede ex Schltdl.
Piper amalago L.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Indicator (I)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Family
Species
Indicator (I)
Piperaceae
Piperaceae
Piperaceae
Piperaceae
Piperaceae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Nyctaginaceae
Nyctaginaceae
Nyctaginaceae
Nyctaginaceae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Asteraceae
Apocynaceae
Asteraceae
Polygonaceae
Leguminosae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Rosaceae
Bombacaceae
Bombacaceae
Myrsinaceae
Myrtaceae
Myrtaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Piper marginatum Jacq.
Piper sanctum (Miq.) Schltdl. ex C. DC.
Piper sp.
Piper tuberculatum Jacq.
Piper yzabalanum C. DC.
Piptadenia obliqua (Pers.) J.F. Macbr.
Piscidia carthagenensis Jacq.
Piscidia grandifolia (Donn. Sm.) I.M. Johnst.
Pisonia aculeata Jacq.
Pisonia donnellsmithii Heimerl ex Standl.
Pisonia macranthocarpa (Donn. Sm.) Donn. Sm.
Pisonia sp. nov.
Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth.
Pithecellobium microstachyum Standl.
Platymiscium parviflorum Benth.
Pluchea odorata (L.) Cass.
Plumeria rubra forma acutifolia (Poir.) Woodson
Podachaenium eminens (Lag.) Sch. Bip.
Podopterus mexicanus Bonpl.
Poeppigia procera C. Presl
Pogonopus speciosus (Jacq.) K. Schum.
Posoqueria latifolia (Rudge) Roem. & Schult.
Pouteria compechiana (Kunth) Baehni
Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) H.E. Moore & Stearn
Pouteria viridis (Pittier) Cronquist
Prockia crucis P. Browne ex L.
Prunus sp.
Prunus axitlana Standl.
Prunus brachybotrya Zucc.
Prunus salasii Standl.
Prunus skutchii I.M. Johnst.
Pseudobombax ellipticum (Kunth) Dugand
Pseudobombax septenatum (Jacq.) Dugand
Psidium guajava L.
Psidium guineense Sw.
Psidium sp,
Psychotria sp.
Psychotria costivenia Griseb.
Psychotria limonensis K. Krause
Psychotria microdon (DC.) Urb.
Psychotria pubescens Sw.
Quercus elliptica Née
Quercus lancifolia Schltdl. & Cham.
Quercus salicifolia Née
Quercus sapotifolia Liebm.
Quercus segoviensis Liebm.
I
I
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
55
Family
Species
Indicator (I)
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Fagaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Myrsinaceae
Asteraceae
Quercus skinneri Benth.
Quercus sp.
Quercus tristis Liebm.
Randia sp. 1
Randia sp. 2
Randia sp. 3
Randia aculeata L.
Randia armata (Sw.) DC.
Randia grandifolia (Donn. Sm.) Standl.
Randia monantha Benth.
Randia obcordata S. Watson
Randia pleiomeris Standl.
Randia thurberi S. Watson
Rapanea sp.
Rensonia salvadorica S.F. Blake
Rhamnus sphaerosperma var. mesoamericana
M.C. Johnst. & L.A. Johnst.
Rhizophora mangle L.
Robinsonella densiflora Fryxell
Roldana petasioides (Greenm.) H. Rob.
Rollinia membranacea Triana & Planch.
Rondeletia cordata Benth.
Rondeletia deamii (Donn. Sm.) Standl.
Rondeletia laniflora Benth.
Rondeletia thiemei Donn. Sm.
Roupala glaberrima Pittier
Ruprechtia chiapensis Lundell
Ruprechtia costata Meisn.
Samanea saman (Jacq.) Merr.
Sapindus saponaria L.
Sapium macrocarpum Müell. Arg.
Sapranthus microcarpus (Donn. Sm.) R.E. Fr.
Sapranthus palanga R.E. Fr.
Sapranthus violaceus (Dunal) Saff.
Saurauia kegeliana Schltdl.
Schizolobium parahyba (Vell.) S.F. Blake
Schoepfia schreberi J.F. Gmel.
Schoepfia vacciniiflora Planch. ex Hemsl.
Sciadodendron excelsum Griseb.
Semialarium mexicanum (Miers) Mennega
Senna nicaraguensis (Benth.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby
Senna pallida (Vahl) H.S. Irwin & Barneby
Senna reticulata (Willd.) H.S. Irwin & Barneby
Sideroxylon sp.
Sideroxylon capiri subsp. tempisque (Pittier) T.D.
Penn.
I
Rhamnaceae
Rhizophoraceae
Malvaceae
Asteraceae
Annonaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Proteaceae
Polygonaceae
Polygonaceae
Leguminosae
Sapindaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Annonaceae
Annonaceae
Annonaceae
Actinidiaceae
Leguminosae
Olacaceae
Olacaceae
Araliaceae
Hippocrateaceae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Leguminosae
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
56
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Family
Sapotaceae
Sapotaceae
Simaroubaceae
Rubiaceae
Rubiaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Elaeocarpaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Solanaceae
Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Anacardiaceae
Apocynaceae
Apocynaceae
Apocynaceae
Apocynaceae
Apocynaceae
Cactaceae
Sterculiaceae
Loganiaceae
Leguminosae
Styrax
Styracaceae
Leguminosae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Theaceae
Symplocaceae
Symplocaceae
Myrsinaceae
Bignoniaceae
Bignoniaceae
Bignoniaceae
Bignoniaceae
Apocynaceae
Sapindaceae
Bombacaceae
Species
Sideroxylon persimile (Hemsl.) T.D. Penn. ssp.
persimile
Sideroxylon tepicense (Standl.) T.D. Penn.
Simarouba glauca DC.
Simira calderoniana (Standl.) Steyerm.
Simira salvadorensis (Standl.) Steyerm.
Sinclairia deamii (B.L. Rob. & Bartlett) Rydb.
Sinclairia discolor Hook. & Arn.
Sinclairia glabra (Hemsl) Rydb.
Sinclairia sublobatum (B. L. Rob.) Rydb.
Sloanea terniflora (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Standl.
Solanum diphyllum L.
Solanum erianthum D. Don
Solanum hazenii Britton
Solanum lanceolatum Cav.
Solanum sp.
Solanum umbellatum Mill.
Spondias mombin L.
Spondias purpurea L.
Spondias radlkoferii Donn. Sm.
Stemmadenia donnell-smithii (Rose) Woodson
Stemmadenia eubracteata Woodson
Stemmadenia obovata K. Schum.
Stemmadenia pubescens Benth.
Stemmadenia robinsonii Woodson
Stenocereus aragonii (F.A.C. Weber) Buxb.
Sterculia apetala (Jacq.) H. Karst.
Strychnos brachistantha Standl.
Styphnolobium sporadicum M. Sousa & Rudd
Styrax argenteus C. Presl.
Styrax warscewiczii Perkins
Swartzia simplex var. ochnacea (DC.) R.S. Cowan
Swietenia humilis Zucc.
Swietenia macrophylla King.
Symplocarpon sp.
Symplococarpon purpusii (Brandegee) Kobuski
Symplocos limoncillo Bonpl.
Synardisia venosa (Mast.) Lundell
Tabebuia chrysantha (Jacq.) G. Nicholson subsp.
chrysantha
Tabebuia donnell-smithii Rose
Tabebuia impetiginosa (Mart. ex DC.) Standl.
Tabebuia rosea (Bertol.) A. DC.
Tabernaemontana amygdalifolia Jacq.
Talisia olivaeformis (Kunth) Radlk.
Tecoma stans (L.) Juss. ex Kunth
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Indicator (I)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
57
Family
Compositae
Combretaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Sapindaceae
Sapindaceae
Sapindaceae
Sapindaceae
Sapindaceae
Melastomaceae
Boraginaceae
Boraginaceae
Anacardiaceae
Ulmaceae
Ulmaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Meliaceae
Tiliaceae
Polygonaceae
Moraceae
Moraceae
Staphyleaceae
Ulmaceae
Urticaceae
Urticaceae
Urticaceae
Urticaceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Asteraceae
Caprifoliaceae
Hydrophyllaceae
Celastraceae
Olacaceae
Verbenaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Flacourtiaceae
Rutaceae
58
Species
Telanthophora arborescens (Steetz) H. Rob. &
Brettell
Terminalia oblonga (Ruiz & Pav.) Steud.
Tetrorchidium sp. nov.
Thouinia brachybotrya Donn. Sm.
Thouinia velutina Radlk.
Thouinia villosa DC.
Thouinidium decandrum (Bonpl.) Radlk.
Thouinidium sp.
Tibouchina sp.
Tournefortia acutiflora M. Martens & Galeotti
Tournefortia glabra L.
Toxicodendron striatum (Ruiz & Pav.) Kuntze
Trema micrantha (L.) Blume var. micrantha
Trema micrantha var. strigillosa (Lundell) Standl. &
Steyerm.
Trichilia americana (Sesse & Moc.) T.D. Penn.
Trichilia glabra L.
Trichilia havanensis Jacq.
Trichilia hirta L.
Trichilia martiana C. DC.
Trichilia sp.
Trichospermum galeotti (Turcz.) Kosterm.
Triplaris melaenodendron (Bertol.) Standl. &
Steyerm.
Trophis mexicana (Liebm.) Bureau
Trophis racemosa (L.) Urb.
Turpinia occidentalis (Sw.) G. Don
Ulmus mexicana (Liebm.) Planch.
Urera baccifera (L.) Gaudich. ex Wedd.
Urera corallina (Liebm.) Wedd.
Urera eggersii Hieron.
Urera sp. nov.
Verbesina guatemalensis B.L. Rob. & Greenm.
Verbesina turbacensis Kunth
Vernonia deppeana Less.
Vernonia patens Kunth
Viburnum hartwegii Benth.
Wigandia urens (Ruiz & Pav.) Kunth
Wimmeria cyclocarpa Radlk.
Ximenia americana L.
Xolocotzia asperifolia Miranda
Xylosma chlorantha Donn. Sm.
Xylosma flexuosa (Kunth) Hemsl.
Xylosma sp.
Zanthoxylum aguilarii Standl. & Steyerm.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Indicator (I)
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
Family
Species
Indicator (I)
Rutaceae
Rutaceae
Rutaceae
Rutaceae
Zanthoxylum culantrillo Kunth
Zanthoxylum kellermanii P. Wilson
Zanthoxylum melanostictum Schltdl. & Cham.
Zanthoxylum microcarpum Griseb.
I
Rutaceae
Zanthoxylum nicaraguense Standl. & L.O. Williams
Zanthoxylum riedelianum Engl.
Zapoteca formosa (Kunth) H.M. Hern. subsp.
Leguminosae
formosa
Celastraceae
Zinowiewia cuneifolia Lundell
*I=Indicator species for evaluating the completeness of an inventory.
I
Rutaceae
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
I
I
59
60
Figure 5A. Diospyros morenoi (Zapote negro). Finca
María Auxiliadora, Los Volcanes National Park, July
2007. Previously known only from Cinquera, Cabañas
Department, El Salvador, and a locality in Nicaragua.
Figure 5B. Pinus oocarpa (Pino). Los Volcanes
National Park, Izalco Vocano, December 2007.
Figure 5C. Guapira witsbergerii (Siete camisas rojo).
Los Volcanes National Park, Cerro Verde, December
2007. First photographic record of this species endemic
to the study area.
Figure 5D. Triphora mexicana, a very rare orchid.
Finca María Auxiliadora, Los Volcanes National Park.
July 2007.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Figure 5E. Oxalis salvadorensis (Trébol de peña, or cliff
clover), Plan de Amayo Protected Natural Area, August
2007. Endemic to the Project area.
Figure 5F. Zamia herrerae (Palmita), Plan de Amayo
Protected Natural Area, August 2007. Listed as
Vulnerable in the IUCN Red List.
Figure 5G. Peperomia linaresii. Plan de Amayo
Protected Natural Area, August 2007. Very rare, known
only from two localities, both within the Project area.
Figure 5H. Balmea stormae, Cerro El Águila Protected
Natural Area, November 2007. Listed in the IUCN Red
List.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
61
62
Figure 5I. Phyllostylon rhamnoides, Plan de Amayo
Protected Natural Area, August 2007. First record for El
Salvador.
Figure 5J. Tetrorchidium sp. Cerro El Águila Protected
Natural Area, November 2007.
Figure 5K. Phytolacca riviniodes. Cerro El Águila
Protected Natural Area, November 2007. First record for
El Salvador.
Figure 5L. Flower of Cuscatlania vulcanicola
(Cuscatlania), San Marcelino Complex Protected
Natural Area, December 2007. Rediscovery, being the
first record since 1922 of a species known only from El
Salvador.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Figure 5M. Urera sp. El Imposible National Park,
December 2007. Species new to science.
Figure 5N. Prunus axitlana. El Imposible National Park,
December 2007.
Figure 5O. Sedum salvadorense. El Imposible National
Park, December 2007. Very rare plant, known in the
world only from the Project area, and never before
photographed.
Figure 5P. Bursera longicuspis (Jiote rojo). San
Marcelino Complex Protected Natural Area, December
2007. First records for El Salvador.
FIGURE 5. SELECTED PHOTOGRAPHS OF FLORA TAKEN DURING THE STUDY (by Frank Sullyvan Cardoza).
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
63
TABLE 12. FLORA OF CONSERVATION IMPORTANCE IN THE PROJECT AREA.
Species
Risk*
F** SM PA PNEI PNLV AG
Aegiphila panamensis Moldenke
VU A1c
HF
X
Agonandra loranthoides L.O.
VU C1
DF
X
Williams
Bauhinia paradisi Standl. & L.O.
CR C2a
DF
X
Williams
VU
Cedrela odorata L.
DF
X
X
X
X
A1cd+2cd
Cordia salvadorensis Standl.
raro
DF
X
Dalbergia retusa Hemsl.
VU A1acd
DF
X
Dichapetalum donnell-smithii
VU D2
HF
X
X
Engl.
Eugenia salamensis Donn. Sm.
EN C2a
DF
X
X
X
X
Juglans olanchana Standl. &
EN C2a
CF
X
L.O. Williams
Lennea viridiflora Seem.
VU A2c
DF
X
Lonchocarpus minimiflorus
EN C2b
DF
X
X
X
X
Donn. Sm.
Lonchocarpus molinae Standl. &
EN C2b
HF
X
L.O. Williams
Lonchocarpus phaseolifolius
EN C2b
DF
X
X
Benth.
Lonchocarpus retiferus Standl.
EN C2a
HF X
& L.O. Williams
Lonchocarpus sanctuarii Standl.
CR C2b
DF
X
X
& L.O. Williams
Lonchocarpus santarosanus
VU B1+2c
HF X
X
X
Donn. Sm.
Machaerium sp.***
raro
HF
X
Parathesis vulgata Lundell
EN C2a
CF
X
X
Persea schiedeana Nees
VU A1c
CF
X
Pisonia donnellsmithii Heimerl
VU B1+2c
HF X
X
X
ex Standl.
Quercus skinneri Benth.
VU A1c
CF
X
X
X
Swietenia humilis Zucc.
VU A1cd
DF
X
X
VU
Swietenia macrophylla King
HF
X
A1cd+2cd
Xolocotzia asperifolia Miranda
EN C2a
DF
X
Zamia herrerae S. Calderón &
VU C1
HF
X
X
Standl.
* Risk codes come from IUCN (2007): CR=Critically Endangered, EN=Endangered,
VU=Vulnerable, NT=Near-Threatened, DD=Data Deficient. The other codes presented are
the criteria used to assign risk classifications and are explained in IUCN (2007).
64
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
**F=Type of Forest; CF=Cloud Forest, DF=Dry Forest, HF=Humid Forest; SM=San
Marcelino Complex Protected Natural Area, PA=Plan de Amayo Protected Natural Area,
PNEI=El Imposible National Park, CV=Cerro Verde, AG=Cerro El Águila Protected Natural
Area, PNLV=Los Volcanes National Park.
***Still not on the IUCN Red List, but should be evaluated.
TABLE 13. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS FOR TREE SPECIES AND RELATIVE
IMPORTANCE OF ECOSYSTEMS.
Number of
Level of
Number of
Expected
Indicator
Species
Inventory
Conservation
Ecosystem
Species
Species for
Recorded
Completeness
Important
Recorded
Inventory
(%)
Species
Completeness
Humid
249
135
135
100
13
Forest
Dry Forest
281
166
194
86
13
Cloud
134
57
60
95
4
Forest
Savanna
51
35
35
100
0
At the ecosystem level, the habitats presenting the largest amount of threatened and
endangered species are humid forest and dry forest with 13 species each. Cloud forest
only has four threatened species. The savanna did not present any globally threatened
tree species (Table 13).
Although our objective was to evaluate which watersheds and municipalities of the study
area showed the highest indices of importance for tree conservation, it was impossible to
make this analysis because the inventories for specific watersheds and municipalities are
largely incomplete, with the exception of one watershed (Cara Sucia) and one municipality
(San Francisco Menéndez). Comparisons based on incomplete inventories would produce
misleading results. They reflect the level of research effort and not real values of
conservation importance (Komar 2007).
3.3. SPECIES OF INTEREST
Fourteen plant species are restricted globally to the project area, including 10 trees or
shrubs and 4 herbaceous species (Table 14). Prior to this study, several of these endemic
species were known only from El Imposible National Park. One of the important findings of
this study is that nearly all of these species exist in other locations of southwestern El
Salvador. New locations have been documented for Daphnopsis witsbergerii, the famous
Guapira witsbergerii (―siete camisas rojo‖, Fig. 5C), and the recently named Dalbergia
salvanaturae, three trees originally described for science from El Imposible and known
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
65
only to exist in the study area. Furthermore, new localities were found for the herbaceous
species Ageratum salvanaturae and Peperomia linaresii.
Some plants found in the study area stand out either because they represent new records
for El Salvador, for Central America, or because they are probably new species to science
(Table 15). We believe that 11 of the species collected are indeed new for science,
although it may take several years for their descriptions to be reviewed by the scientific
community and published. Six of these have never been documented outside of the study
area (see Table 14), but five are recognized by the author from his own collecting work in
other parts of Central America. Although they were collected prior to the present study,
they have yet to be described formally in the scientific literature (J. Linares, unpublished
data). Others represent a second or third collection for El Salvador, or even more special,
a second collection for science. For example, worth mentioning is the discovery of several
specimens of Styphnolobium sporadicum (―almendro de montaña‖) previously known only
from one collection in Colombia, one in Mexico and one in El Salvador. Today the species
is known from two locations within the project area.
TABLE 14. PLANTS ENDEMIC TO THE IMCW PROJECT AREA, WITH COLLECTION
LOCATIONS FROM THE PRESENT STUDY.
Collection
Species
Family
Habit
Locality
No.
El Imposible,
Ageratum salvanaturae B.
Asteraceae
Herb Plan de Amayo,
12523
Smalla et N. Kilian
& San Marcelino
Besleria sp. nov.
Gesneriaceae
Herb
Cerro El Aguila
12797
Calliandra sp. nov.
Leguminosae
Shrub
El Imposible
13227
Dalbergia salvanaturae J.
Leguminosae
Tree
El Imposible
12664
Linares et M. Sousa
Daphnopsis witsbergeri
Thymelaeaceae Tree
El Imposible
12707
Nevling, Matek. & Barringer
Eugenia alfaroana Standl.
Myrtaceae
Tree
El Imposible
12162
Cerro Verde, El
Guapira witsbergeri Lundell
Nyctaginaceae
Tree
12171
Imposible, Plan
de Amayo
Lonchocarpus stenophyllus
Leguminosae
Tree
Plan de Amayo
12617
M. Sousa
Maytenus sp. nov.
Celastraceae
Tree
Los Volcanes
12259
Peperomia linaresii Véliz
Piperaceae
Herb
Plan de Amayo
12533
Pisonia sp. nov.
Nyctaginaceae Shrub San Marcelino
12944
Sedum salvadorense Standl.
Crassulaceae
Herb
El Imposible
13040
Tetrorchidium sp. nov.
Euphorbiaceae Tree
Cerro El Aguila
12832
Urera sp. nov.
Urticaceae
Tree
El Imposible
13228
66
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 15. BOTANICAL SPECIES OF INTEREST COLLECTED IN THE STUDY AREA.
Criterion
Species
Family
Locality
New species for
Besleria sp.
Gesneriaceae
El Águila
science
New species for
Calliandra sp.
Leguminosae
El Imposible
science
New species for
Coccoloba sp.
Polygonaceae
Plan de Amayo
science
New species for
Crossopetalum sp.
Celastraceae
Plan de Amayo
science
New species for
Croton sp.
Euphorbiaceae
Plan de Amayo
science
New species for
Indet.
Euphorbiaceae
El Imposible
science
New species for
El Imposible y
Krugiodendron sp?
Rhamnaceae
science
Plan de Amayo
New species for
Pisonia sp.
Nyctaginaceae
San Marcelino
science
New species for
Tetrorchidium sp.
Euphorbiaceae
El Águila
science
New species for
Urera sp.
Urticaceae
El Imposible
science
New for Central
Iresine herrerae Conz. &
Amaranthaceae
El Imposible
America
S.F. Blake
New for Central
El Imposible y
Manfreda pubescens
Amaryllidaceae
America
Plan de Amayo
First record in El
Agonandra loranthoides
Opiliaceae
San Marcelino
Salvador
L.O. Williams
First record in El
Alysicarpus vaginalis (L.)
Leguminosae
Plan de Amayo
Salvador
DC.
First record in El
Amyris guatemalensis
Rutaceae
El Imposible
Salvador
Lundell
First record in El
Arrabidaea costaricensis
Bignoniaceae
San Marcelino
Salvador
(Kraenzl.) A.H. Gentry
Eugenia quercetorum
First record in El
Standl. & L.O. Williams ex
Myrtaceae
Cerro Verde
Salvador
Barrie
First record in El
Lonchocarpus molinae
Leguminosae
Plan de Amayo
Salvador
Standl. & L.O. Williams
First record in El
Nectandra mirafloris van
Lauraceae
El Águila
Salvador
der Werff
First record in El
Philactis liebmannii (Klatt)
Asteraceae
El Imposible
Salvador
S.F. Blake
First record in El Phyllostylon rhamnoides (J.
Ulmaceae
Plan de Amayo
Salvador
Poiss.) Taub.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
67
Criterion
First record in El
Salvador
Rediscovery
Rediscovery
Species
Phytolacca rivinoide Kunth
& C.D. Bouché
Cuscatlania vulcanicola
Standl.
Sedum salvadorense
Standl.
Family
Locality
Phytolaccaceae
El Águila
Nyctaginaceae
San Marcelino
Crassulaceae
El Imposible
Here, these species are presented as: Probable new species to science, new records for
Central America, first records for El Salvador, and rediscoveries, according to the details
provided below.
PROBABLE NEW SPECIES TO SCIENCE
Besleria sp. (Gesneriaceae, African violet family).
During the field trip to Cerro El Águila Protected Natural Area, we observed several
Besleria sp., an epyphite growing on large trees. The plants were losing their leaves and
only some of them had fruit, therefore only a few botanical samples were collected. In
1993, the author collected a specimen at the same location, which was determined in 1996
by Dr. L. Skog of the U.S. National Herbarium, an expert on the family, to be a probable
new species (L. Skog, pers. com.) but it has not been collected again in this area. The new
specimens complement the previous collections in the same area because those only had
flowers.
Calliandra sp. (Leguminosae, Bean family).
A shrub or small tree only observed in the path known as ―El Gallinero‖, on rocky and
exposed ridges of El Imposible National Park. It is not more than 4 m high and is very
similar to Calliandra mexicana with which it can be mistaken, but its leaves are glabrous
with very marked nerves. If this is not a new species it should be classified at least as a
subspecies given its geographic isolation and incipient morphological differentiation.
According to Stevents et al. (2001), this species would be part of a group of species and
subspecies distributed from the north of Mexico to Panama, and is poorly known
taxonomically. The flowers are red and showy and the plant is known locally as ―barba‖ or
―barba de rey‖ (beard or king’s beard).
Coccoloba sp. (Polygonaceae, ―Papaturro‖ family)
Shrub or small tree known locally as ―papaturrito‖. It is particulary noticeable for its smallsized leaves, probably the smallest of the genus, at least in Central America. The
Coccoloba nicaraguensis has leaves as small as our specimen but this species is only
known from one single collection deposited with the herbarium of the Panamerican School
of Agriculture and looks different. According to data from the park rangers of Plan de
Amayo Protected Natural Area, this plant was observed by them for the first time in
Caluco, Sonsonate, in May 2007. This probable new species could also be identified as
Coccoloba acuminata, a species from the rain forests of the Atlantic or the Caribbean
68
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
slope, from Mexico to Brazil. If this species is confirmed, our collection would be the first
specimen on record for the Pacific slope area.
Croton sp. (Euphorbiaceae, Poinsettia family)
This tree is very closely related to Croton guatemalensis (Copalchí). The main difference
between them is that it has hairs and scales instead of just scales as in C. guatemalensis.
It was found in Plan de Amayo Protected Natural Area.
Crossopetalum sp. (Rhamnaceae, ―Huilihuishte‖ family)
This tree collected in Plan de Amayo Protected Natural Area does not match with any of
the species known in the region. It could be a non-described species or a new country
record.
Euphorbiaceae indet.
Samples of this tree species have not previously been collected in El Salvador. So far, we
have not been able to establish the genus to which it belongs because female flowers or
fruits are required. In any case, if it is not a new species for science, it would be a new
species for Central America. It was found on the way down from Cerro La Cumbre, on a
ridgetop, at El Imposible National Park.
Krugiodendron sp. (Rhamnaceae, ―Huilihuishte‖ family)
This tree was only known from a collection deposited with the herbarium of La Laguna
Botanical Garden (LAGU) and was tagged as Karwinskia sp. To the author, it is obvious
that it is not a Karwinskia; furthermore, it does not match with any of the Krugiodendron
species from Mesoamerica described so far. During the present study, abundant material
was collected from Plan de Amayo, Las Lajas forest, and El Imposible, but it is still
necessary to collect material with flowers in good condition in order to be sure that this is a
new species to science. It is a small tree found in rocky areas of the aforementioned
locations.
Maytenus sp. (Celastraceae)
A small tree, collected in the higher part of Finca María Auxiliadora inside an active coffee
plantation (buffer zone of Los Volcanes National Park). The flowers are greenish and
inconspicuous. Only four trees of this apparently new species for science were observed,
and botanical samples were collected. These trees were all at risk of being eliminated
through normal coffee plantation maintenance, as they had grown up among the coffee
shrubs.
Pisonia sp. (Nyctaginaceae, Bougainvillea family).
The plant is a spread-out shrub as opposed to other Pisonia species existing in the
country, which are erect trees. E. Martínez from the National Herbarium of Mexico, a
Mesoamerican tree expert, was consulted and has concluded that this tree could belong to
an undescribed species, new to science. Only four individuals were observed at the top of
Cerro Chino, in San Marcelino Complex Protected Natural Area. We did not determine a
local name for this species, but other species of the genus are commonly called ―uña de
gato‖ (cat´s claw) because of the curved thorns on the stem. This plant should be included
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
69
on the IUCN Red List because its worldwide distribution may be limited to this location.
Fertile botanical specimens were collected.
Tetrorchidium sp. (Euphorbiaceae, Poinsettia family)
This tree was found in Cerro El Águila Protected Natural Area, without any flower or fruit,
but its vegetative features match with those of the Tetrorchidium genus, even though the
size and shape of the leaves do not match with any of the five species of this genus
currently on record for Central America. This genus was not recorded by Linares (2003
[2005]) on his list of trees. Only two sterile trees were observed and samples of each were
collected (Fig. 5J).
Urera sp. (Urticaceae, ―Ortiga‖ or Nettle family).
It is a medium-sized tree from 6 to 10 m high that has only been found in the higher parts
of the headwaters of the El Venado River at El Imposible National Park (Fig. 5M). Its
inflorescence is 3–5 cm long and forms under the leaves, and for this reason it is difficult to
observe in the field. As a result, there are no previous collections of this plant. It does not
match any of the Urera tree species described for northern Central America. To classify
this species it will be necessary to compare the material with collections housed in other
countries.
NEW RECORDS FOR CENTRAL AMERICA
Two plants were found, one herbaceous and one arboreal, known until now from the
Pacific coast of central and southern Mexico and reported here for the first time for Central
America. These findings help us to confirm the links between the flora of southwestern El
Salvador and that of the Pacific coast of central and southern Mexico.
Iresine herrerae (Amaranthaceae, ―Amaranto‖ family).
This species is a tree that grows more than 10 m high and has up to 20 cm diameter,
which is significant for a genus mainly made up of shrubs and small trees. It was originally
described as native to Puchutla on the Mexican Pacific slope, in the State of Oaxaca, the
same as Manfreda pubescens (see previous paragraph). It was found at El Imposible
National Park.
Manfreda pubescens (Amarillydaceae, ―Búcaros‖ family).
In El Salvador, the genus only has one additional species, Manfreda brachystachys that
grows in the northern mountain range in pine-oak forests. Our species has wider leaves
with pubescent and purple spots which give it a very colorful appearance. It was found in
Plan de Amayo Protected Natural Area and El Imposible National Park.
FIRST RECORDS FOR EL SALVADOR
Agonandra loranthoides (Opiliaceae, ―Opilias‖ family).
This tree is noted in the field for its small and fleshy leaves, reddish and slightly ribbed
stem with bark exfoliation occurring in long, thin, and irregular plates. Several specimens
were observed in San Marcelino Complex Protected Natural Area and even though they
70
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
were sterile, their identification is accurate given the unmistakable characteristics
described above. Samples had only been previously collected in Honduras, that is, it was
considered endemic to that country. This is the first record outside of Honduras. The
species was not known to the local guides and did not have a common name. This is the
second location in the world for this species since it was only known to the Comayagua
valley. This species is included on the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable. Botanical samples
were collected.
Alysicarpus vaginalis (Leguminosae).
It is an invasive herbaceous plant native to the Old World and recently naturalized in
Central America. It can be a very aggressive weed. It was found in Plan de Amayo
Protected Natural Area.
Amyris guatemalensis (Rutaceae, citrus family).
This species is a tree that grows 5–10 m high. Until now, it was only known from semideciduous forests of Guatemala at altitudes below 400 m. It differs from Amyris
balsamifera by having much larger folioles and opposing leaves. It was collected at El
Imposible also at altitudes below 400 m.
Arrabidaea costaricensis (Bignoniaceae, ―Maquilishuat‖ family).
This plant was found as a small tree of a little more than 5 cm diameter. It was originally
described as native to Costa Rica and then to Mexico, where it was described with the
name of Arrabidaea erecta. It is easily recognized even in sterile state because it is the
only tree or shrub species of a genus where all the rest are climbing vines. It was collected
in Plan de Amayo (Municipality of Caluco, Department of Sonsonate) as well as in Las
Lajas forest in San Marcelino Protected Natural Area.
Eugenia quercetorum (Myrtaceae, Guava family).
This species is a small tree collected previously only in Honduras. Only one specimen was
observed at the foot of Cerro Verde, near the Izalco Volcano. Botanical samples were
collected. This is the first record outside of Honduras.
Lonchocarpus molinae (Leguminosae).
This species, which is included on the IUCN red list, was described in Honduras but had
not been collected in the region since 1950. It has been occasionally collected in Mexico.
It is a conspicuous tree because its trunk has several thick ribs that resemble intertwined
snakes, hence the common name ―culebro‖ (snake). It was found in Plan de Amayo
Protected Natural Area.
Nectandra mirafloris (Lauraceae, Avocado family).
So far, this tree had only been collected in one specific location of Nicaragua. Several
specimens were observed in this study in the cloud forest of Cerro El Águila Protected
Natural Area. Samples were collected.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
71
Philactis leibmannii (Asteraceae, Sunflower family).
This species is a small shrub known from Mexico and Guatemala. In the latter country it
was reported in Santa Rosa, a department with which El Imposible forest shares many
species. Therefore, it is not surprising that it was found there. It was collected at El
Pedrerón lookout, on the way to La Fincona, in El Imposible National Park.
Phyllostylon rhamnoides (Ulmaceae, Elm family).
This tree is typical of dry or very dry forests and relatively common in other countries of
Central America, but never reported in El Salvador. It was found in Plan de Amayo
Protected Natural Area (Fig. 5I).
Phytolacca rivinoides (Phytolaccaceae).
This shrub with spread-out and fleshy stems is common to the Honduran and Guatemalan
area of El Trifinio (Komar et al. 2006), but it had not been recorded before in El Salvador
until it was collected on Cerro El Águila. It has distinct morphology because it is the only
species of its genus which has the form of a shrub. Fertile botanical samples of this
species were collected (Fig. 5K).
REDISCOVERIES:
Cuscatlania vulcanicola (Nyctaginaceae).
This small herbaceous plant was described in 1923 from material collected in San Vicente,
El Salvador, in 1922. Only two herbarium sheets were known with very little material (two
small branches with some leaves and very few flowers). It had not been reported since
from anywhere in the world. We found a population at San Marcelino Protected Natural
Area (Las Lajas forest), with probably more than 30 plants. It is a rediscovery, a major
botanical finding that emphasizes the importance of the locality as a reservoir of rare
plants unique in the world. Botanical samples were collected and the finding was amply
documented with photographs taken by Frank Sullyvan Cardoza (Fig. 5L).
Sedum salvadorense (Crassulaceae).
This potentially ornamental herbaceous plant was collected and described by Standley at
Finca Las Colinas (wrongly cited as Colima) in January 1922. In 1999, Eliberto Sandoval
collected some specimens at El Imposible National Park that were identified as Sedum sp.
We have now documented the existence of this species in the area with several herbarium
specimens and many photographs (Fig. 5O). We do not know of any records of the
species in another country, and therefore, we consider it a rediscovery of an endemic
species not reported since its discovery in 1922.
72
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
3.4. COMPLETENESS OF THE TREE INVENTORY
The tree inventory for southwestern El Salvador made progress, from a completeness
estimate of 76% prior to the study to a completeness estimate of 93% at the end of the
present study. In other words, 312 of the 335 species that are widely distributed and
considered to be indicators for inventory completeness have been recorded.
The completeness of the tree inventory at the level of watersheds progressed significantly
in the six watersheds where the flora studies were carried out. Currently, the watersheds
with the most advanced tree inventories are Cara Sucia (82%), Izalco (58%), and San
Julián (57%). In spite of the little time invested, the Coatepeque and Río Grande de
Sonsonate watersheds also reported some progress although none of them exceeded
50% (Table 16).
Through the present study, the tree inventory in the municipality of San Francisco
Menéndez has almost been completed (Table 17). Another municipality that shows a high
level of completeness is the municipality of Caluco, which prior to the research was at 0%.
The municipality of Izalco shows a completeness level of 65%. The remaining
municipalities show an inventory completeness level below 40%. Twelve municipalities do
not have any records of trees in the data bases consulted (Table 17).
At the ecosystem level, complete inventories have been attained for Humid Forest and
Savanna (Table 13). The inventory of the Dry Forest is nearly complete, that is, 86% of
the expected species are on record. The Cloud Forest is 95% complete. However, it is still
possible to detect new ―unexpected‖ species in all of these ecosystems.
TABLE 16. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS FOR TREE SPECIES AND RELATIVE
IMPORTANCE OF WATERSHEDS.
Inicial Level
Final Level of
Expected
Registered
of Inventory
Inventory
Watershed
Registered
Species
Completeness Completeness
Species (of 355)
(%)
(%)
Barra de Santiago
128
128
38
38
Barra Salada
0
0
0
0
Cara Sucia
334
274
64
82
Izalco
225
193
15
58
Lago de
175
148
13
44
Coatepeque
Los Cóbanos
1
1
0
0
Río Cauta
0
0
0
0
Río Grande de
44
44
13
19
Sonsonate
San Juan
0
0
0
0
San Julian
295
190
1
57
San Pedro
79
62
5
5
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
73
TABLE 17. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS FOR TREE SPECIES AND RELATIVE
IMPORTANCE OF MUNICIPALITIES.
Expected Initial Level of
Final Level of
Species
Species
Inventory
Inventory
Municipality
Recorded
Recorded Completeness
Completeness
(of 355)
(%)
(%)
Acajutla
4
4
1
1
Apaneca
50
29
9
9
Armenia
0
0
0
0
Caluco
295
190
0
57
Chalchuapa
12
12
6
16
Concepción de
16
16
5
5
Ataco
Cuisnahuat
0
0
0
0
El Congo
200
143
10
43
Guaymango
0
0
0
0
Izalco
225
193
15
58
Juayua
79
45
7
13
Jujutla
18
18
5
5
Nahuizalco
0
0
0
0
Nahulingo
0
0
0
0
Salcoatitan
0
0
0
0
San Antonio del
0
0
0
0
Monte
San Francisco
334
276
68
86
Menéndez
San Julián
2
2
1
1
San Pedro Puxtla
0
0
0
0
Santa Ana
195
151
6
45
Santa Catarina
0
0
0
0
Masahuat
Santo Domingo de
0
0
0
0
Guzmán
Sonsonate
10
10
3
3
Sonzacate
0
0
0
0
Tacuba
16
16
5
5
Tepecoyo
0
0
0
0
74
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
4. RECOMMENDATIONS
Continue the flora inventory efforts in the southwest region of El Salvador with the
goal of completing the inventories at the levels of ecosistema, watershed,
municipality, and protected natural areas.
Conduct new inventory efforts in the savannas of palm trees and ―morros‖
(Crescentia alata) and other ecosystems, with an emphasis on other plant groups
such as herbaceous and shrublike species because samples of these were not
taken in this study.
Prepare sampling protocols for epyphitic species because they indicate to a large
extent the degree of maturity and/or conservation of the ecosystems as well as the
levels of degradation and/or contamination.
Carry out training workshops for the park rangers of the Protected Natural Areas,
focused on the threatened and endangered species recorded for those areas.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
75
CHAPTER 3:
PRELIMINARY INVENTORY OF FISH
SPECIES IN ELEVEN WATERSHEDS
OF SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR
Francisco Chicas Batres
School of Biology
Faculty of Natural Sciences and Mathematics
University of El Salvador
francisco.chicas@ues.edu.sv
José Alberto González Leiva
Institute of Marine Sciences and Limnology of El Salvador
University of El Salvador
ICMARES/UES
albergleiva@yahoo.es
1. INTRODUCTION
2008
Mesoamerica is considered one of the most important regions of the American continent
for its great diversity of species (CEPF 2004, PNUMA 2004). From the moment it was
formed, the region has functioned as the link between the two major continental masses,
facilitating the migration processes of the terrestrial fauna (Jiménez 1994, Waid et al.
1999). Dynamic geological processes such as plate tectonics and volcanism have
constantly modified the relief, allowing the formation of geographic barriers that along with
the modification of niches have facilitated vicariant processes and dispersion events of
many taxa, among them freshwater fish species (Concheiro Pérez et al. 2006, Hrbek
2007, Martin & Bermingham 1997, Morrone 2007, Perdices et al. 2002).
It is estimated that the number of freshwater fish species of the Mesoamerican region
reaches at least 446 (Myers 1966) with very specific distribution patterns in certain zones.
Accordingly, Bussing (1976) proposed four icthyogeographic provinces (Fig. 6). One of
them is the Chiapas–Nicaraguan province which comprises the entire Salvadoran territory
and which is considered poor in species and with little endemism (Bussing 1998), a
condition attributed to the ―recent‖ closing of the Isthmus of Panama that started
approximately 3 million years ago (Bermingham et al. 1997). This may have been too
recent to allow a higher degree of speciation of the representative genera of the group, as
76
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
has occurred in North and South America. Perhaps for these reasons and because their
size is smaller than the size of their congeners of other regions, the native populations of
freshwater fish species of El Salvador have been more or less ignored. Their conservation
has been similarly ignored, to the extent that the introduction of exotic species was
recommended in order to diversify the diet and increase the income of the rural population
(Hildebrand 1925, Lin 1957).
FIGURE 6: ICHTHYOGEOGRAPHIC PROVINCES OF CENTRAL AMERICA
Source: Bussing (1998).
On the other hand, the marine ichthyofauna of El Salvador is included in the biogeographic
region known as the Tropical Eastern Pacific (TEP), which extends from the southern part
of Magdalena Bay (~ 24°N) in Baja California, passing through the Gulf of California and
south along the continental coastline to approximately Cabo Blanco (4°S) in Perú (Zapata
& Robertson 2006). This region also comprises five oceanic islands and groups of islands:
Revillagigedos, Clipperton Island, Coco Island, Malpelo Island, and the Galapagos Islands
(Fig. 7). The TEP has a coastal fish fauna that comprises approximately 1,285 known
species, where the highest number (740–760 species) is located in Costa Rica and
Panama. The TEP has the highest endemism rate, with 911 endemic species from coastal
habitats (79%), when compared to any other tropical region of similar size (Robertson &
Allen 2008).
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
77
FIGURE 7. THE TROPICAL EASTERN PACIFIC BIOGEOGRAPHIC REGION
Source: Zapata & Robertson 2006.
In an analysis of the matter specifically made for El Salvador, we establish that several
ichthyofauna studies which comprise two nationwide inventories have been carried out
(Hildebrand 1925, Boeseman 1956), and more recently, Orellana (1992) published a work
that compiles the research conducted in the country as of that year. With regard to lakes
(lotic systems), the main studies are the research conducted by Monterrosa (1960),
Johnson (1971a) and Ulloa & Castro (1985b) on Lake Gϋija; Lake Ilopango by Johnson &
Argumedo (1971a), Godínez & Castro (1977), Ulloa & Melgar (1983), López (1995) and
Huezo & Rosales (2001); Lake Coatepeque by Johnson & Argumedo (1971b); Laguna de
Apastepeque by Johnson & Ramírez (1975); Laguna de Olomega by Johnson (1971b) and
Castro & Godínez (1978); Laguna de Metapán by Ulloa & Castro (1985a); and the works
of Castro (1983) and Ulloa et al. (1988) on the Cerrón Grande Reservoir. The studies of
García (1974), García & Robinson (1974), Castro (1976) and Castro & Robinson (1976)
on the Paz, Lempa and Grande de San Miguel rivers cover the lentic systems.
One of the most recent studies on freshwater fish species was conducted by González
(1995) and addressed endangered native fish species associated with the main
continental water bodies of the country. Another was conducted by PREPAC (2005), which
characterized and updated the state of use and conservation of the fishing resources of
lakes and lagoons and some estuaries of the country. After an analysis of the IUCN criteria
and the conservation status of the water bodies of the country, the study recommended to
treat the native freshwater species as Vulnerable.
With respect to marine fish, the most recent country-wide research was carried out by
Fuentes and Hernández (2004), covering the entire Salvadoran coast and various
bathimetric strata within the four fishing regions of the country. Other studies that include
78
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
sampling on the continental shelf have been carried out to evaluate the effectiveness of
circular fish hooks for catching migratory fish (Pacheco & Cokkom 2007) and in-shore
species (Barahona & Henríquez 2007). The remaining research has been directed towards
certain geographic areas of the country such as the Jiquilisco Bay (Calderón & Hernández
1974, Phillips & Ulloa 1981, Mejía & Chicas 2007, Méndez 2006); Estero de Jaltepeque
(Candray & Ríos 2005, González & Ramírez 2007, Ulloa et al. 2003); Barra de Santiago
(Orellana 1992, Vázquez 1995); and Gulf of Fonseca (Chicas et al. In preparation).
The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the status of inventory completeness of
the fish communities existing in the hydrographic watersheds of the southwestern region of
El Salvador through a review of the studies carried out or published as of 2007 and a
visual sampling report from the Los Cóbanos Reef System as of 2008, prepared by
Enrique Barraza.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. STUDY AREA
The study area comprises eleven hydrographic watersheds of southwestern El Salvador,
located across 25 municipalities of the Departments of Ahuachapán, Sonsonate and part
of Santa Ana (Table 18). The study area is characterized by a complex hydrological
system formed by rivers with different flow intensity, lakes, and ponds. The area also
includes estuarine ecosystems connected to the sea such as Barra de Santiago, Bocana
San Juan, Cauta, and Barra Salada (Fig. 8). Los Còbanos ―watershed‖ is important
because of it’s rocky reef ecosystem with coral formations that maintain a diversity of
species.
2.2. INFORMATION COLLECTION
The present report only consisted in a thorough bibliographic review of the fish studies
carried out in the study area (Hildebrand 1925, Boeseman 1956, García & Robinson 1974,
Orellana 1985, 1992, Jiménez 1986, Vásquez 1993, González 1995, MARN 2000b, 2005,
Galdámez 2002, Reyes Bonilla & Barraza 2003, Fuentes & Hernández 2004, PREPAC
2005, ICMARES 2006, 2007, Segovia & Navarrete 2007, Schmitter-Soto 2007). The scope
of these studies ranges from lists of species to deep-sea fishing research in the open sea
where large fish species such as mahi-mahi or dolphinfish, shark and sword fish are
caught. Additionally, the catalogued collections of the School of Biology of the University of
El Salvador and the Natural History Museum of El Salvador as well as the references of
other museums cited in scientific publications were verified. This information was used to
prepare a species database, arranging them by ecosystem, watershed, and municipality. It
is important to mention that georeferenced records are very few.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
79
TABLE 18. WATERSHEDS, MUNICIPALITIES, AND ECOSYSTEMS LOCATED IN THE
DEPARTMENTS OF AHUACHAPAN, SANTA ANA, AND SONSONATE, CONSIDERED
IN THE EVALUATION OF THE FISH INVENTORY.
Departament
Ahuachapán
Santa Ana
Watershed
Municipality
Ecosystem
Cara Sucia, Barra
de Santiago,
*Bocana de San
Juan, *Cauta, *San
Pedro, *Grande de
Sonsonate
Coatepeque
Concepción de Ataco,
Guaymango, Jujutla, San
Francisco Menéndez, San
Pedro Puxtla, Tacuba
Freshwater rivers and
lakes, estuarine and
marine environments
El Congo
Freshwater lake
Acajutla, Armenia,
Apaneca, Caluco,
*Bocana de San
Cuisnahuat, Santa Isabel
Juan,
Freshwater rivers,
Ishuatán, Izalco, Juayúa,
*Cauta, *San
estuarine and
Nahuizalco, Nahulingo,
Pedro,
mangrove forests
Chalchuapa, San Antonio
Sonsonate
Los Cóbanos,
environments, marine
del Monte, San Julián,
*Grande de
environments, rocky
Sonsonate, Izalco, Santa Catarina Masahuat,
beach with coral
Santo Domingo de
Barra Salada y San
outcrops, coral reef
Guzmán, Sonsonate,
Julián
Salcoatitán y Sonzacate
*Watersheds shared by the departments of Ahuachapán and Sonsonate.
The classification criterion of Froese & Pauly (2007) was used in the ecological
organization of the species on record. This classification establishes four types of habitats:
Marine, Brackish, Reef-Associated, and Freshwater. Since a species may live in more
than one habitat, we created combinations of those that can be inhabited by the same
species, resulting in six categories: Reef, Marine, Marine-Reef, Marine-Brackish,
Freshwater-Brackish, and Freshwater. The list of species was organized in alphabetical
order by family and according to genus and species.
2.3. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS LEVEL
The inventory completeness level was obtained from the relationship between the number
of species recorded in the study area and the expected number of species to be found in
the same area. The latter criterion was based on the records of generalist species found in
other areas of the country as of 2007 and the reef fish studies of Los Cóbanos carried out
by Segovia in 2007 (in preparation) and sampling undertaken by Barraza in the same area
in 2008 (E. Barraza, unpublished data).
80
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
FIGURE 8. STUDY AREA IN SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR, WITH WATERSHEDS
AND MUNICIPALITIES LABELED.
Map by J. F. Gutiérrez.
The works on regional fish distribution that refer to the presence of species in El Salvador
(Villa 1971, 1982, Bussing 1998, Bussing & López 1993, Perdices et al. 2002, Smith &
Bermingham 2005, Hernández 2006, Soto-Galera 2006, Ornelas-García et al. 2008,
Robertson & Allen 2008, Froese & Pauly 2009) were consulted as well, comparing them
with MARN records. As a result, the number of expected species in the study area is at
least 541 (Table 19).
2.4. SELECTION OF IMPORTANT SPECIES FOR CONSERVATION
Species considered important for conservation were selected according to their ecological
and economic importance, vulnerability, and conservation status established in other
studies and in the regional and worldwide databases (PREPAC 2005, IUCN 2007, 2009,
Robertson & Allen 2008, Froese & Pauly 2009). For the present study, they were grouped
in six categories: (A) included on the IUCN Red List, (B) freshwater species that are
threatened or are indicative of environmental health, (C) endemic species, (D) living fossil,
(E) scuba diving tourism, and (F) fishing importance.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
81
TABLE 19. LIST OF FISH SPECIES CONSIDERED TO BE INDICATORS OF
COMPLETE SITE INVENTORIES IN SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR, BUT NOT YET
RECORDED.
No.
Family
Scientific Name
Habitat
Trinectes fimbriatus
Achiridae
Marine
1
Trinectes fonsecensis
Achiridae
Marine-Brackish
2
Albula vulpes
Albulidae
Marine-Reef associated
3
Alopias pelagicus
Alopiidae
Reef associated
4
Ammodytoides gilli
Ammodytidae
Marine
5
Reef associated
Antennarius avalonis
Antennariidae
6
Reef associated
Antennarius sanguineus
Antennariidae
7
Reef associated
Antennarius
strigatus
Antennariidae
8
Bagre pinnimaculatus
Ariidae
Freshwater-Brackish
9
Cathorops fuerthii
Ariidae
Marine-Brackish
10
Cathorops multiradiatus
Ariidae
Freshwater-Brackish
11
Cathorops steindachneri
Ariidae
Marine-Brackish
12
Marine-Brackish
Notarius biffi
Ariidae
13
Marine-Brackish
Notarius planiceps
Ariidae
14
Marine-Brackish
Genus A platypogon
Ariidae
15
Atherinella
argentea
Atherinopsidae
Freshwater
16
Atherinella eriarcha
Atherinopsidae
Reef associated
17
Atherinella nepenthe
Atherinopsidae
Marine
18
Atherinella pachylepis
Atherinopsidae
Reef associated
19
Membras gilberti
Atherinopsidae
Marine
20
Reef
associated
Canthidermis maculata
Balistidae
21
Reef associated
Melichthys niger
Balistidae
22
Ablennes hians
Belonidae
Marine-Reef associated
23
Tylosurus
crocodilus
fodiator
Belonidae
Reef associated
24
Marine
Tylosurus pacificus
Belonidae
25
Marine
Strongylura scapularis
Belonidae
26
Reef associated
Entomacrodus chiostictus
Blenniidae
27
Reef associated
Hypsoblennius brevipinnis
Blenniidae
28
Marine
Bothus constellatus
Bothidae
29
Marine
Bothus leopardinus
Bothidae
30
Marine
Engyophrys sanctilaurentii
Bothidae
31
Marine
Monolene
asaleus
Bothidae
32
Marine
Perissias taeniopterus
Bothidae
33
Marine
Brama dusumieri
Bramidae
34
Marine
Bregmaceros bathymaster
Bregmacerotidae
35
Reef associated
Grammonus diagramus
Bythitidae
36
Reef associated
Ogilbia ventralis
Bythitidae
37
Marine
Carangoides otrynter
Carangidae
38
Marine
Caranx lugubris
Carangidae
39
Marine
Caranx
melanpigus
Carangidae
40
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Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
No.
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
Family
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carapidae
Carapidae
Carcharhinidae
Carcharhinidae
Carcharhinidae
Carcharhinidae
Centropomidae
Centropomidae
Centropomidae
Chaenopsidae
Chaenopsidae
Characidae
Cichlidae
Cichlidae
Cichlidae
Cichlidae
Cichlidae
Cirrhitidae
Clupeidae
Clupeidae
Clupeidae
Clupeidae
Clupeidae
Clupeidae
Congridae
Congridae
Congridae
Congridae
Congridae
Congridae
Coryphaenidae
Scientific Name
Chloroscombrus orqueta
Decapterus maroadsi
Decapterus macrosoma
Hemicaranx leucurus
Hemicaranx zelotes
Naucrates ductor
Selar crumenophthalmus
Seriola lalandi
Seriola peruana
Seriola rivoliana
Trachinotus kennedyi
Trachinotus rhodopus
Uraspis secunda
Carapus dubius
Carcharhinus albimarginatus
Carcharhinus galapagensis
Negaprion brevirostris
Prionace glauca
Rhizoprionodon longurio
Centropomus unionensis
Centropomus viridis
Ekemblemaria myersi
Emblemaria piratica
Roeboides bouchellei
Oreochromis mosambicus
Oreochromis aureus
Oreochromis urolepis hornorum
Parachromis dovii
Tilapia rendalli
Oxycirrhites typus
Etrumeus teres
Harengula thrissina
Odontognathus panamensis
Opisthonema bulleri
Opisthonema medirastre
Opisthopterus dovii
Ariosoma gilberti
Chiloconger dentatus
Gnathophis cinctus
Gorgasia punctata
Paraconger californiensis
Rhynchoconger nitens
Coryphaena equiselis
Habitat
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Reef associated
Marine-Brackish
Marine-Brackish
Reef associated
Reef associated
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Reef associated
Marine-Brackish
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Reef associated
Reef associated
Marine-Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Marine
Freshwater
Freshwater
Freshwater
Freshwater
Freshwater
Freshwater
Reef associated
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
83
No.
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120
121
122
123
124
125
126
84
Family
Cynoglossidae
Cynoglossidae
Cynoglossidae
Cynoglossidae
Cynoglossidae
Cynoglossidae
Cynoglossidae
Cynoglossidae
Cynoglossidae
Cynoglossidae
Cynoglossidae
Cynoglossidae
Dactyloscopidae
Dactyloscopidae
Dactyloscopidae
Dactyloscopidae
Dactyloscopidae
Dasyatidae
Dasyatidae
Diodontidae
Echeneidae
Echeneidae
Echeneidae
Engraulidae
Engraulidae
Engraulidae
Engraulidae
Engraulidae
Engraulidae
Engraulidae
Engraulidae
Engraulidae
Exocoetidae
Exocoetidae
Exocoetidae
Exocoetidae
Exocoetidae
Exocoetidae
Exocoetidae
Gerreidae
Gerreidae
Gerreidae
Gerreidae
Scientific Name
Symphurus atramentatus
Symphurus callopterus
Symphurus chabanaudi
Symphurus elongatus
Symphurus fasciolaris
Symphurus gorgonae
Symphurus leei
Symphurus melanurus
Symphurus melasmatotheca
Symphurus prolatinaris
Symphurus undecimplerus
Symphurus williamsi
Dactyloscopus pectoralis
Gillellus arenicola
Gillellus searcheri
Gillellus semicinctus
Heteristius cinctus
Dasyatis brevis
Dasyatis dipterura
Chilomycterus affinis
Remora australis
Remora osteochir
Remorina albescens
Anchoa mundeola
Anchoa walkeri
Anchoa argentivittata
Anchoa curta
Anchoa exigua
Anchoa ischana
Anchoa nasus
Cetengraulis mysticetus
Lycengraulis poeyi
Cypselurus callopterus
Exocoetus volitans
Fodiator rostratus
Hirundichthys marginatus
Hirundichthys speculiger
Oxyporrhamphus micropterus
Prognichthys tringa
Eucinostomus entomelas
Eugerres axillaris
Eugerres brevimanus
Eugerres lineatus
Habitat
Reef associated
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine-Brackish
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Freshwater-Brackish
Marine
Freshwater-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine-Brackish
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Marine
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
No.
127
128
129
130
131
132
133
134
135
136
137
138
139
140
141
142
143
144
145
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
155
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
166
167
168
169
Family
Ginglymostomatidae
Gobiesocidae
Gobiesocidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gymnuridae
Haemulidae
Haemulidae
Haemulidae
Haemulidae
Haemulidae
Haemulidae
Haemulidae
Haemulidae
Haemulidae
Haemulidae
Haemulidae
Haemulidae
Hemiramphidae
Hemiramphidae
Hemiramphidae
Kyphosidae
Labridae
Labridae
Labridae
Labridae
Labridae
Labridae
Labrisomidae
Scientific Name
Ginglymostoma cirratum
Gobiesox papillifer
Tomicodon petersii
Akko rossi
Chriolepis cuneata
Elacatinus digueti
Elacatinus puncticulatus
Gobioides peruanus
Gobiosoma etheostoma
Gobiosoma nudum
Gobiosoma paradoxum
Gobulus hancocki
Gymneleotris seminuda
Microgobius brevispinis
Microgobius cyclolepis
Microgobius emblematicus
Microgobius erectus
Microgobius tabogensis
Parrella maxillaris
Gymnura marmorata
Anisotremus dovii
Anisotremus pacifici
Conodon serrifer
Haemulon maculicauda
Haemulopsis axillaris
Haemulopsis elongatus
Haemulopsis nitidus
Orthoptristis cantharinus
Orthoptristis chalceus
Pomadasys bayanus
Pomadasys branickii
Xenistius californiensis
Hemiramphus saltator
Hyporhamphus gilli
Hyporhamphus rosae
Kyphosus analogus
Decodon melasma
Halichoeres chierchiae
Halichoeres melanotis
Iniistius pavo
Novaculichthys taeniourus
Polylepion cruentum
Dialommus macrocephalus
Habitat
Marine-Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine-Reef associated
Marine-Reef associated
Freshwater-Brackish
Marino
Reef associated
Marine-Reef associated
Reef associated
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Freshwater-Brackish
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Marine
Freshwater-Brackish
Marine
Reef associated
Reef associated
Reef associated
Reef associated
Reef associated
Reef associated
Marine
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
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No.
170
171
172
173
174
175
176
177
178
179
180
181
182
183
184
185
186
187
188
189
190
191
192
193
194
195
196
197
198
199
200
201
202
203
204
205
206
207
208
209
210
211
212
86
Family
Labrisomidae
Labrisomidae
Labrisomidae
Lophiidae
Lutjanidae
Lutjanidae
Malacanthidae
Malacanthidae
Malacanthidae
Microdesmidae
Monacanthidae
Moridae
Mugilidae
Mugilidae
Mugilidae
Mugilidae
Mullidae
Muraenesocidae
Muraenidae
Muraenidae
Muraenidae
Muraenidae
Muraenidae
Muraenidae
Muraenidae
Muraenidae
Myliobatidae
Myliobatidae
Myliobatidae
Myliobatidae
Narcinidae
Narcinidae
Nettastomatidae
Ogcocephalidae
Ophichtidae
Ophichtidae
Ophichtidae
Ophichtidae
Ophichtidae
Ophichtidae
Ophichtidae
Ophidiidae
Ophidiidae
Scientific Name
Labrisomus multiporosus
Malacoctenus ebisui
Paraclinus mexicanus
Lophiodes caulinaris
Lutjanus jordani
Lutjanus viridis
Caulolatilus affinis
Caulolatinus hubbsi
Caulolatinus princeps
Microdesmus dipus
Aluterus monocerus
Physiculus nematopus
Chaenomugil proboscideus
Joturus pichardi
Mugil hospes
Xenomugil thuborni
Pseudupeneus grandiscuamis
Cynoponticus coniceps
Anarchias galapagensis
Enchelycore octaviana
Gymnomuraena zebra
Gymnothorax panamensis
Muraena argus
Muraena lentiginosa
Muraena clepsydra
Uropterygius macrocephalus
Manta birostris
Mobula japanica
Mobula thursoni
Rhinoptera steindachneri
Diplobatis ommata
Narcine entemedor
Hoplunnis sicarius
Zalieutes elater
Echiophis brunneus
Myrichthys tigrinus
Ophichthus frontalis
Ophichthus longipenis
Ophichthus mecopterus
Ophichthus triserialis
Ophichthus zophochir
Brotula clarkae
Lepophidium negropinna
Habitat
Reef associated
Marine
Reef associated
Marine
Reef associated
Reef associated
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Reef associated
Marine
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Freshwater-Brackish
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Reef associated
Reef associated
Marine
Reef associated
Reef associated
Reef associated
Reef associated
Reef associated
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
No.
213
214
215
216
217
218
219
220
221
222
223
224
225
226
227
228
229
230
231
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
239
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
251
252
253
254
255
Family
Ophidiidae
Ophidiidae
Opistognathidae
Opistognathidae
Ostraciidae
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthyidae
Paralichthyidae
Poeciliidae
Poeciliidae
Poeciliidae
Poeciliidae
Priacanthidae
Pristidae
Pristigasteridae
Pristigasteridae
Profundulidae
Pseudocharchariidae
Rhinobatidae
Rhinobatidae
Rhinobatidae
Scaridae
Scaridae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Scientific Name
Lepophidium prorates
Ophidion imitator
Opisthognatus punctatus
Opisthognatus scops
Lactoria diaphana
Ancylopsetta dendritica
Citharichthys xanthostigma
Cyclopsetta panamensis
Cyclopsetta querna
Etropus crossotus
Etropus peruvianus
Hippoglossina bollmani
Hippoglossina tetrophthalma
Paralichthys woolmani
Syacium latifrons
Syacium ovale
Poecilia marcellinoi
Poeciliosis pleurospilus
Poecilia salvatoris
Poeciliopsis turrubarensis
Cookeolus japonicus
Pristis pristis
Neoopisthopterus tropicus
Pliosteostoma lutipinnis
Profundulus labialis
Pseudocarcharias kamoharai
Rhinobates leucorhynchus
Rhinobatos glaucostigma
Zapterix exasperata
Nicholsina denticulata
Scarus ghobban
Bairdiella armata
Corvula macrops
Cynoscion albus
Cynoscion phoxocephalus
Elattarchus archidium
Isopisthus remifer
Larimus effulgens
Larimus argenteus
Larimus pacificus
Menticirrhus panamensis
Menticirrhus elongatus
Menticirrhus nasus
Habitat
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine-Brackish
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Freshwater
Freshwater
Freshwater
Freshwater-Brackish
Reef associated
Freshwater-Brackish
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Freshwater
Marine
Marine
Marine
Reef associated
Reef associated
Marine-Brackish
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
87
No.
256
257
258
259
260
261
262
263
264
265
266
267
268
269
270
271
272
273
274
275
276
277
278
279
280
281
282
283
284
285
286
287
288
289
290
291
292
293
294
295
296
297
298
88
Family
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Scombridae
Scombridae
Scombridae
Scombridae
Scombridae
Scombridae
Scombridae
Scorpaenidae
Scorpaenidae
Scorpaenidae
Scorpaenidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Scientific Name
Menticirrhus paitensis
Menticirrus undulatus
Ophioscion imiceps
Ophioscion scierus
Ophioscion strabo
Paralonchurus goodei
Paralonchurus petersii
Pareques viola
Stellifer ericymba
Stellifer fuerthii
Stellifer illecebrosus
Umbrina dorsalis
Umbrina analis
Umbrina bussingi
Umbrina xanti
Acanthocybium solandri
Auxis rochei rochei
Auxis thazard thazard
Katsuwonus pelamis
Sarda orientalis
Scomber japonicus
Thunnus albacares
Pontinus sierra
Scorpaena histrio
Scorpaena russula
Scorpaenodes xyris
Alphestes multiguttatus
Dermatolepis dermatolepis
Diplectrum eumelum
Diplectrum euryplectrum
Diplectrum labarum
Diplectrum macropoma
Diplectrum pacificum
Diplectrum rostrum
Epinephelus acanthistius
Epinephelus exsul
Epinephelus niphobles
Hemanthias peruanus
Hemanthias signifer
Mycteroperca xenarcha
Pronotogrammus multifasciatus
Pseudogramma thaumasium
Serranus fasciatus
Habitat
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Marine
Marine
Reef associated
Marine
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Reef associated
Marine-Reef associated
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
No.
299
300
301
302
303
304
305
306
307
308
309
310
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
Family
Sparidae
Sphyrnidae
Sphyrnidae
Sphyrnidae
Stromateidae
Syngnathidae
Synodontidae
Synodontidae
Tetraodontidae
Triakidae
Trichiuridae
Triglidae
Triglidae
Triglidae
Triglidae
Triglidae
Triglidae
Tripterygiidae
Tripterygiidae
Uranoscopidae
Urolophidae
Urolophidae
Zanclidae
Scientific Name
Calamus brachysomus
Sphyrna corona
Sphyrna media
Sphyrna mokarran
Peprilus medius
Syngnathus auliscus
Synodus lacertinus
Synodus sechurae
Sphoeroides sechurae
Mustelus dorsalis
Trichiurus lepturus
Bellator loxias
Prionotus albirostris
Prionotus birostratus
Prionotus horrens
Prionotus ruscarius
Prionotus stephanophrys
Axoclinus lucillae
Enneanectes carminalis
Kathetostoma averruncus
Urobatis halleri
Urotrygon rogersi
Zanclus cornutus
Habitat
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine-Reef associated
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Marine
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine
Marine-Brackish
Reef associated
Reef associated
Marine
Marine
Marine
Reef associated
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
89
3. RESULTS
3.1. FISH SPECIES RECORDED IN THE STUDY AREA
It was possible to establish that the study area presents 753 records of 220 fish species
(Table 20) corresponding to 139 genera of 72 families. This value is equivalent to 40% of
the nationwide list of fish species. Out of this total, 19 are primary freshwater species; 16
are from freshwater-brackish environments; 57 from marine-brackish or estuarine
environments; 20 are strictly marine species; 13 are marine-reef species; and 89 are reef
species.
Most of the recorded species have nutritional and economic importance for the local
communities engaged in the extraction and commercialization of this resource. These
include commonly consumed species such as: snappers of the genus Lutjanus, jurels of
the genera Caranx and Elagatis, bass of the genus Centropomus, ―mojarras‖ represented
by the genera Eucinostomus currani and Diapterus peruvianus, ―roncadores‖ of the genera
Pomadasys and Haemulopsis, mahi-mahi or dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus), and
mackerel (Scomberomorus sierra).
3.2. SPECIES RECORDED BY ECOSYSTEM
FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEM
Lake Coatepeque and Laguna de Las Ninfas are among the most notable lotic
ecosystems, complementing a very broad fluvial system formed by the Apancoyo, Grande
de Sonsonate, Banderas, Las Marías and other minor rivers (Fig. 3-3). To date, the
number of freshwater and freshwater-brackish species recorded in the area is 35. Most of
them are native occurring in almost all the watersheds of the country, such as Astyanax
fasciatus, Amphiolophus macracanthus, Rhamdia quelen, Poeciliopsis gracilis y P.
sphenops. Eight families comprise the freshwater species: Atherinopsidae, Characidae,
Cichlidae, Gobiidae, Eleotridae, Heptapteridae, Lepisosteidae, and Poecilidae.
The freshwater-brackish species are frequently found in the upper parts of the estuaries or
temporarily living there looking for food or the proper environmental conditions to spawn
(Bussing 1998) when the salinity decreases as a result of the rains. They include Pacific
four-eyed fish (Anableps dowei), freshwater mullet (Agonostomus monticola), Pacific
sleeper (Gobiomorus maculatus), and marbled swamp eel (Synbranchus marmoratus).
90
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 20. FISH RECORDED IN SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR, BY ECOSYSTEM,
THROUGH 2008.
Spanish Common
Nº
Family
Scientific Name
Name
Coral Reef
Acanthurus triostegus
1
Acanthuridae
cirujano
Acanthurus xanthopterus
2
Acanthuridae
cirujano
Prionurus laticlavius
3
Acanthuridae
cirujano
Prionurus punctatus
4
Acanthuridae
cirujano
Apogon dovii
5
Apogonidae
cardenal
Apogon pacificus
6
Apogonidae
cardenal
Apogon retrosella
7
Apogonidae
cardenal
Balistes polylepis
8
Balistidae
tunco
Pseudobalistes naufragium
9
Balistidae
tunco
Sufflamen verres
10
Balistidae
tunco
Ophioblennius steindachneri
11
Blenniidae
señorita
Plagiotremus azaleus
12
Blenniidae
diente sable
Alectis cilliaris
13
Carangidae
jurel
Caranx vinctus
14
Carangidae
jurel
Elagatis bipinnulata
15
Carangidae
salmón
Gnathonodon speciosus
16
Carangidae
jurel
Carcharhinus
falciformis
17
Carcharhinidae
tiburón
Carcharhinus longimanus
18
Carcharhinidae
tiburón
Chaetodon humeralis
19
Chaetodontidae
mariposa limón
Johnrandallia nigrirostris
20
Chaetodontidae
señorita
Cirrhitus rivulatus
21
Cirrhitidae
tigre
Cirrihitichtys oxycephalus
22
Cirrhitidae
tigre
Diodon holocanthus
23
Diodontidae
zorroespín
Diodon hystrix
24
Diodontidae
zorroespín
Chaetodipterus zonatus
25
Ephippidae
pañuelo
Fistularia commersonii
26
Fistulariidae
aguja
Bathygobius andrei
27
Gobiidae
mojarra
Bathygobius ramosus
28
Gobiidae
gobio
Coryphopterus urospilus
29
Gobiidae
gobio
Microgobius miraflorensis
30
Gobiidae
gobio
Anisotremus caesius
31
Haemulidae
ruco
Anisotremus interruptus
32
Haemulidae
melón
Anisotremus taeniatus
33
Haemulidae
melón
Haemulon flaviguttatum
34
Haemulidae
ruco
Haemulon scudderi
35
Haemulidae
ruco
Haemulon sexfasciatum
36
Haemulidae
ruco
Haemulon
steindachneri
37
Haemulidae
naguilla
Pomadasys macracanthus
38
Haemulidae
ruco
Pomadasys panamensis
39
Haemulidae
ruco
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
91
Nº
Family
Scientific Name
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
Holocentridae
Holocentridae
Kyphosidae
Labridae
Labridae
Labridae
Labridae
Labridae
Labrisomidae
Labrisomidae
Lutjanidae
Lutjanidae
Lutjanidae
Lutjanidae
Lutjanidae
Lutjanidae
Lutjanidae
Lutjanidae
Monacanthidae
Mullidae
Muraenidae
Muraenidae
Muraenidae
Muraenidae
Pomacanthidae
Pomacanthidae
Pomacanthidae
Pomacentridae
Pomacentridae
Pomacentridae
Pomacentridae
Pomacentridae
Pomacentridae
Scaridae
Scaridae
Scaridae
Scorpaenidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Signatidae
Tetraodontidae
Myripristis leiognathus
Sargocentron suborbitalis
Kyphosus elegans
Bodianus diplotaenia
Halichoeres dispilus
Halichoeres nicholsi
Halichoeres notospilus
Thalassoma lucasanum
Malacoctenus margaritae
Malacoctenus tetranemus
Hoplopagrus guentherii
Lutjanus aratus
Lutjanus argentiventris
Lutjanus colorado
Lutjanus guttatus
Lutjanus novemfasciatus
Lutjanus peru
Lutjanus inermis
Aluterus scriptus
Mulloidichthys dentatus
Echidna nebulosa
Echidna nocturna
Gymnothorax castaneus
Gymnothorax dovii
Chromis atrilobata
Holacanthus passer
Pomacanthus zonipectus
Abudefduf concolor
Abudefduf troschelii
Microspathodon bairdii
Microspathodon dorsalis
Stegastes acapulcoensis
Stegastes flavilatus
Scarus compressus
Scarus perrico
Scarus rubroviolaceus
Scorpaena mystes
Alphestes immaculatus
Cephalopholis panamensis
Epinephelus analogus
Paralabrax loro
Paranthias colonus
Serranus psittacinus
Hippocampus ingens
Arothron hispidus
92
Spanish Common
Name
salmonete
salmonete
chopa
perico
perico
perico
perico
cortez
sarado
sarado
sardo
pargo
pargueta
pargo rojo
lunarejo
dentón
guachinango
pargo
cuche
salmonete
culebra
culebra
morena
morena
castañuela
muñeca rey
ángel
burra
burra verde
burra
burra
burrita
burrita
lora
pez lora
perico
pez escorpión
tigre
señorita
cabrilla
cabrilla
cabrilla
loro
caballo de mar
globo
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Nº
Family
Scientific Name
85
86
87
88
89
Tetraodontidae
Tetraodontidae
Tetraodontidae
Tetraodontidae
Tetraodontidae
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
Carcharhinidae
Clupeidae
Coryphaenidae
Dasyatidae
Engraulidae
Exocoetidae
Fistulariidae
Gerreidae
Gobiesocidae
Haemulidae
Haemulidae
Muraenidae
Nematistiidae
Ophichtidae
Ophidiidae
Rhincodontidae
Sciaenidae
Scombridae
Scombridae
Sphyraenidae
Uranoscopidae
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
Carangidae
Carcharhinidae
Carcharhinidae
Carcharhinidae
Echeneidae
Ephippidae
Gerreidae
Gerreidae
Hemiramphidae
Kyphosidae
Labridae
Scaridae
Serranidae
Muraenidae
Arothron meleagris
Canthigaster punctatissima
Sphoeroides angusticeps
Sphoeroides annulatus
Sphoeroides lobatus
Marine
Nasolamia velox
Opisthonema libertate
Coryphaena hippurus
Dasyatis longa
Anchoa mundeoloides
Cheilopogon xenopterus
Fistularia corneta
Diapterus aureolus
Arcos rhodospilus
Microlepidotus brevipinnis
Xenichthys xanti
Gymnothorax equatorialis
Nematistius pectoralis
Myrophis vafer
Lepophidium microlepis
Rhincodon typus
Larimus acclivis
Euthynnus lineatus
Scomberomorus sierra
Sphyraena qenie
Astroscopus zephyreus
Marine–Reef associated
Caranx sexfasciatus
Carcharhinus leucas
Carcharhinus limbatus
Galeocerdo cuvier
Echeneis naucrates
Parapsettus panamensis
Eucinostomus argenteus
Gerres cinereus
Hyporhamphus unifasciatus
Sectator ocyurus
Thalassoma grammaticum
Scarus ghobban
Rypticus nigripinnis
Muraena lentiginosa
Spanish Common
Name
globo
globo
tamboril
tamboril
tamboril
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
tiburón volador
sardina boquita
dorado
raya
sardina
volador
aguja
iscanala
calate
ruco
ruco
morena
gallo
anguila
congrio
tiburon ballena
pancha
atún
macarela
picuda
astrólogo
jurel
gambuso
tiburón
tiburón
luna
mojarra
mojarra
gorrión
pichel
cortez
lora
loro
morena
93
Nº
Family
Scientific Name
15
16
17
18
Serranidae
Serranidae
Serranidae
Sphyraenidae
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
Achiridae
Achiridae
Ariidae
Batrachoididae
Belonidae
Belonidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carangidae
Carcharhinidae
Centropomidae
Centropomidae
Centropomidae
Clupeidae
Elopidae
Engraulidae
Engraulidae
Engraulidae
Engraulidae
Gerreidae
Gerreidae
Gerreidae
Gobiesocidae
Gobiidae
Haemulidae
Hemiramphidae
Labridae
Labrisomidae
Mugilidae
Mugilidae
Myliobatidae
Narcinidae
Paralichthyidae
Polynemidae
Alphestes multiguttatus
Epinephelus itajara
Epinephelus labriformis
Sphyraena ensis
Marine-Brackish (Estuarine)
Achirus mazatlanus
Achirus scutum
Sciades seemanni
Batrachoides waltersi
Porichthys margaritatus
Strongylura exilis
Caranx caballus
Caranx caninus
Oligoplites altus
Oligoplites saurus
Oligoplites refulgens
Selene brevoortii
Selene orstedii
Trachinotus paitensis
Selene peruviana
Carcharhinus porosus
Centropomus armatus
Centropomus medius
Centropomus robalito
Lile stolifera
Elops affinis
Anchoa lucida
Anchoa panamensis
Anchoa starksi
Anchovia macrolepidota
Diapterus peruvianus
Eucinostomus currani
Eucinostomus gracilis
Gobiesox daedaleus
Ctenogobius sagittula
Haemulopsis leuciscus
Hyporhamphus snyderi
Halichoeres aestuaricola
Malacoctenus zonifer
Mugil cephalus
Mugil curema
Aetobatus narinari
Narcine vermiculatus
Citharichthys gilberti
Polydactylus approximans
94
Spanish Common
Name
tigre
mero
mero
picuda
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
lenguado
lenguado
bagre negro
sapamiche
sapamiche
volador
jurel
jurel
perro
chucha
chucha
caballo
papelillo
palometa
caballo frances
punta
robalo
chichiguique
aleta
sardina
macabilo
sardina
sardina
sardina
sardina bocona
mojarra
pampano
mojarra
calate
guavina
ruco
fósforo
perico
trambollo
lebriancha
lisa
gavilan
raya eléctrica
pez caite
barbona
Nº
Family
Scientific Name
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
Polynemidae
Pristigasteridae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sciaenidae
Sphyrnidae
Stromateidae
Synodontidae
Synodontidae
Urolophidae
Urolophidae
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Anablepidae
Ariidae
Ariidae
Ariidae
Centropomidae
Chanidae
Eleotridae
Eleotridae
Engraulidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Gobiidae
Lepisosteidae
Mugilidae
Poeciliidae
Synbranchidae
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Atherinopsidae
Characidae
Cichlidae
Cichlidae
Cichlidae
Cichlidae
Cichlidae
Cichlidae
Cichlidae
Cichlidae
Polydactylus opercularis
Ilisha fuerthii
Bairdiella ensifera
Cynoscion reticulatus
Cynoscion squamipinnis
Cynoscion stolzmanni
Micropogonias altipinnis
Nebris occidentalis
Odontoscion xanthops
Paralonchurus dumerilii
Stellifer crysoleuca
Sphyrna lewini
Peprilus snyderi
Synodus evermanni
Synodus scituliceps
Urotrygon chilensis
Urotrygon munda
Freshwater–Brackish
Anableps dowei
Bagre panamensis
Sciades troschelii
Sciades guatemalensis
Centropomus nigrescens
Chanos chanos
Dormitator latifrons
Eleotris picta
Anchoa spinifer
Awaous banana
Gobiomorus maculatus
Gobionellus microdon
Atractosteus tropicus
Agonostomus monticola
Poecilia sphenops
Symbranchus marmoratus
Freshwater
Atherinella guatemalensis
Astyanax fasciatus
Amatitlania coatepeque
Amatitlania nigrofasciata
Amphilophus citrinellum
Amphiolophus macracanthus
Cichlasoma trimaculatum
Parachromis managuense
Parachromis motaguense
Oreochromis niloticus niloticus
Spanish Common
Name
barbona
sardina
pancha
pancha rayada
curvina
curvina
ratón
guavina
ratón
pacún
panchita
tiburón martillo
tilosa
garrobo
garrobo
murciélago
murciélago
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
cuatro ojos
bagre
tacazonte
bagre
robalo
sábalo
sambo
ilama
sardina
talalais
guavina
luciernaga
machorra
tepemechín
chimbolo
anguila
ejote
plateada
mojarra negra
mojarra negra
mojarra negra
burra
guapote
guapote tigre
guapote tigre
tilapia
95
Nº
Family
Scientific Name
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Cichlidae
Gobiidae
Heptapteridae
Heptapteridae
Poeciliidae
Poeciliidae
Profundulidae
Profundulidae
Sygnathidae
Vieja guttalata
Sicydium multipunctatum
Rhamdia laticauda
Rhamdia quelen
Poecilia gillii
Poeciliopsis gracilis
Profundulus guatemalensis
Profundulus punctatus
Pseudophallus starksii
Spanish Common
Name
burra
culebra
juilín
juilín
chimbolo
bute
chimbola
chimbola
anguila
One species of special interest is the Tropical gar (Atractosteus tropicus) considered a
living fossil, apparently confined to Zanjón del Chino, Department of Ahuachapán but
occasionally it expands its distribution to the estuarine environments of Barra de Santiago
(Solís 2006). Another is the native ―convict cichlid‖ Amatitlania coatepeque endemic to the
Coatepeque Lake, considered until 2006 as Cichlasoma nigrofasciatum, but recent studies
showed that this is a new species (Schmitter-Soto 2007).
Other species have been introduced to diversify income and improve nutrition of the
communities living near water bodies. We refer to the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus
niloticus), guapote tigre (Parachromis managuense) and false yellowjacket cichlid (P.
motaguense), recorded in the Cara Sucia and Coatepeque watersheds. Tilapia is from the
African continent and the last two come from Nicaraguan lakes.
ESTUARINE ECOSYSTEM
The estuarine ecosystems, mainly those associated with mangrove ecosystems, are
among the most productive in the world and are used by fish species for reproduction,
feeding, and shelter (Day et al. 1989). Besides they function as biological corridors for
movement and gene flow of freshwater and marine ichthyofauna (Yañez-Arancibia 1975).
The present study reports 57 species recorded. Even though they are not strictly estuarine
as a whole, the may occur frequently and they can even penetrate rivers with sufficient
flow for short periods of time and during the highest tides. Schools of fish such as ―jurel‖
(Caranx caninus), ―mojarras‖ (Diapterus peruvianus and Eucinostomus currani), ―lisas‖
(Mugil curema), sardines and anchovies (Lile stolifera and Anchoa spp.), bass
(Centropomus armatus, C. medius and C. robalito) can be frequently observed. Also
representative of this ecosystem are the corvinas (Cynoscion reticulatus, C.
phoxocephalus, C. squamipinnis, and C. stolzmani).
MARINE ECOSYSTEM
Given the continuity of the marine ecosystem habitats and the capacity of many species to
move from one place to another, we recognize that the 39 species recorded only
represents a small fraction of the species distributed in this habitat. These species are
strictly marine, but can also be found in rocky environments and reefs. A wide variety of
96
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
pelagic species of commercial importance occur in this habitat such as mackerel
(Scomberomorus sierra), tuna (Euthynnus lineatus), and highly migratory species such as
mahi-mahi or dolphinfish (Coryphaena hippurus). Consequently, fisheries productivity is
very important in this zone, as shown in a study conducted to evaluate the by-catch
ichthyofauna in industrial shrimping (Fuentes & Hernández 2004). This study showed that
this coastal strip reported the highest volume of fish catch. Whale shark (Rhincodon
typus), a species included on the IUCN Red List as Vulnerable, is also present.
REEF ECOSYSTEM
Coral reefs are considered among the most diverse and productive ecosystems in the
world because their structure provides different habitats and microenvironments that
facilitate the establishment of a complex food network. This complexity allows them to
function as breeding, feeding, shelter, and reproduction zones for many marine organisms
(Ruiz et al. 2003). Approximately 45 reef-forming coral species and approximately 25 km 2
of structural reefs are found in the TEP region. They are located in Baja California,
Revillagigedos archipelago, Tres Marías Islands, Nayarit and the South Pacific Coast of
Mexico, Los Cóbanos in El Salvador, Culebra Bay, Ballena Marine Park and Cocos Island
in Costa Rica, as well as Coiba Island, Rey Island and San José in Panamá, and
Galapagos Islands in Ecuador (Cortés 1997, Robertson & Allen 2008).
The entire area is influenced by two zones where equatorial and temperate waters
combine, bordering north with the California Current and south with the Peru Current (an
extension of the Humboldt Current). The superficial current pattern of the zone varies
bidirectionally, depending on the time of the year (Fisher et al. 1995). This condition turns
the reef patches into strategic habitats that facilitate the dispersion of larvae of many coral,
crustacean, echinoderm, mollusk, and fish species. It also intervenes in migratory
processes, movement, and distribution of other fauna groups of regional and global
importance, including marine turtles, whales, sharks, and tuna fish.
The studies carried out in the reef zone of Los Cóbanos show records of 89 reef fish
species and reef-associated fish species, even though the total number probably amounts
to more than 170 species. We were able to identify 13 families directly depending on reef
environments. Although some of them can sporadically penetrate the neighboring
estuaries, they spend most of their life cycle in the reef. These families are: Acanthuridae,
Balistidae, Cirrhitidae, Labridae, Labrisomidae, Pomacantidae, Pomacentridae, and
Serranidae. Fishing this group is a significant means of support for the area’s coastal
communities since th studies indicate that more than 800 artisanal fishermen benefit from
the reef ecosystem (ICMARES 2006) and according to CENDEPESCA (2006), this group
provided 23% of the total catch in the country for a total of U.S. $918,747.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
97
3.3. LEVEL OF INVENTORY COMPLETENESS
The level of inventory completeness by watershed shows very low percentages with
marked differences among them. Coatepeque reports the highest percentage, 32%; Los
Cóbanos, 29%; Barra de Santiago, 24%; and Cara Sucia and Cauta report 12% and 5%,
respectively, while the lowest values are reported by Grande de Sonsonate, 0.4%, and
Barra Salada, 0.2%. The remaining watersheds, Bocana de San Juan, Izalco, and San
Julián do not have any records (Table 21).
TABLE 21. LEVEL OF FISH INVENTORY COMPLETENESS BY WATERSHED IN
SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR.
Watershed
Species
Recorded
Species Expected
Level of Inventory
Completeness (%)
Los Cóbanos
Barra de Santiago
Barra Salada
Cara Sucia
Bocana de San Juan
Cauta
Grande de Sonsonate
San Pedro
Coatepeque
Izalco
San Julián
156
114
1
58
0
25
2
26
10
0
0
536
483
483
483
483
483
483
483
31
26
26
29
24
0
12
0
5
0
5
32
0
0
The inventory completeness by municipality is also very low since only 7 of the 25
municipalities in the study area presented records, illustrating the sparse coverage of prior
research in the study area. The highest percentages were reported by El Congo, 32%;
Acajutla, 27%; Jujutla, 24%; Tacuba and San Francisco Menéndez, 22% and 19%,
respectively; while the lowest percentages were reported in Sonsonate and Chalchuapa
reaching 8% each (Table 22). Given the spatial arrangement of the ecosystems, it is
important to coordinate municipal efforts to improve land use planning.
Knowing the completeness of the species inventory for a given ecosystem provides
valuable information about its potential for maintaining biodiversity and presents an
opportunity to evaluate the ecological functionality of the taxonomic groups and species in
general with the purpose of identifying those with the highest relevance and providing
guidance for conservation efforts. In this regard, the highest percentages for inventory
completeness were reported for the Freshwater ecosystem, 62%; the Reef ecosystem
reached 55%; and the Estuarine ecosystem, 56%. The lowest percentage was reported for
the Marine ecosystem with only 17% (Table 23).
98
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 22. LEVEL OF FISH INVENTORY COMPLETENESS BY MUNICIPALITY IN
SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR.
Species
Species
Level of Inventory
Municipality
Recorded
Expected Completeness (%)
Acajutla
142
529
27
Jujutla
118
485
24
San Francisco Menéndez
57
485
12
Sonsonate
41
529
8
El Congo
10
31
32
Tacuba
5
26
19
Chalchuapa
2
26
8
Apaneca
0
26
0
Armenia
0
26
0
Caluco
0
26
0
Concepción de Ataco
0
26
0
Cuisnahuat
0
26
0
Guaymango
0
26
0
Izalco
0
26
0
Juayúa
0
26
0
Nahuizalco
0
26
0
Nahulingo
0
26
0
Salcoatitán
0
26
0
San Antonio del Monte
0
26
0
San Julián
0
26
0
San Pedro Puxtla
0
26
0
Santa Catarina Masahuat
0
26
0
Santa Isabel Ishuatán
0
26
0
Santo Domingo de Guzmán
0
26
0
Sonzacate
0
26
0
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
99
TABLE 23. LEVEL OF FISH INVENTORY COMPLETENESS BY HABITAT IN
SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR.
Ecosystem
Species Recorded
Total Indicator
Species
Level of Inventory
Completeness (%)
Freshwater
Estuarine
Marine
Reef
Total
35
57
39
89
220
56
102
222
161
541
63
56
18
55
41
3.4. IMPORTANT SPECIES FOR CONSERVATION
The analysis of the information indicates that 51 species are important for conservation, of
which the native freshwater species such as ―mojarra‖ Amatitlania coatepeque, a species
endemic to Lake Coatepeque (Schmitter-Soto 2007) and the only vertebrate species
restricted to El Salvador, have the highest ecological importance. Likewise, the tropical gar
Atractosteus tropicus is unique because it represents a group of fish already extinct. The
freshwater mullet Agonostomus monticola is also important because of it’s role in the diet
of the local communities along the rivers where it dwells; it reaches up to 40 cm in length.
This species lives in mountain rivers when it reaches maturity, but the larvae grow in
coastal waters and estuaries. This species could be used as a bioindicator of
environmental health.
Other freshwater species such as ―plateada‖ (Astyanax fasciatus), ―juilín‖ (Rhamdia
quelen), ―bute‖ (Poeciliopsis gracilis), ―mojarra negra‖ (Amphiolophus macracanthus), are
also included owing to the deterioration experienced by their populations because they are
still extracted without any fishing regulation. As a result, they were defined as vulnerable in
the study carried out by PREPAC (2005).
Other species important for conservation are strictly reef-dwelling, such as ―cirujanos‖
(Prionurus punctatus, Acanthurus xanthopterus), ―peces tigre‖ (Cirrithus rivulatus) and
(Cirrhitichthys oxycephalus). The shark (Carcharhinus longimanus), hammerhead shark
(Sphyrna lewini), whale shark (Rhincodon typus), and grouper (Epinephelus itajara), are
included on the IUCN Red List as globally threatened.
All snapper species recorded in the area have also been included as a priority for
conservation since they have high value in the local market and hence generate income
and provide food for more than 21 fishermen communities (Galdámez 2002, Rojas et al.
2004, CENDEPESCA 2006), but their extraction is not regulated in terms of catch volumes
and commercialization sizes. The following species are included: Lutjanus aratus, L.
argentiventris, L. colorado, L. guttatus, L. novemfasciatus, and L. peru.
100
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 24. CONSERVATION-IMPORTANT FISH IN SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR.
Spanish
Nº
Family
Scientific Name
Common
Categories* Ecosystem
Name
Acanthurus
1 Acanthuridae
cirujano
E,1
Reef
xanthopterus
Prionurus punctatus
2 Acanthuridae
cirujano
E,1
Reef
Carcharhinus
3 Carcharhinidae
tiburón punta
F
Marine
falciformis
Marine
4 Carcharhinidae Carcharhinus leucas
tiburón
F,2,3
Carcharhinus
Marine
5 Carcharhinidae
tiburón
F,2
limbatus
Carcharhinus
6 Carcharhinidae
tiburón
A1; F,2
Marine Reef
longimanus
Carcharhinus
7 Carcharhinidae
tiburón
F
Marine
porosus
Reef
8 Chaetodontidae Chaetodon humeralis
mariposa
E,1; F
Johnrandallia
Reef
9 Chaetodontidae
mariposa
E,1; F
nigrirostris
Astyanax fasciatus
10
Characidae
plateada
B; F,4
Freshwater
Amatitlania
Freshwater
11
Cichlidae
mojarra
C
coatepeque
Amatitlania
Freshwater
12
Cichlidae
chiva
F,3
nigrofasciata
Amphilophus
Freshwater
13
Cichlidae
mojarra
F,3
macracanthus
Freshwater
Vieja guttulata
14
Cichlidae
burrita
F,1,3
Cirrhitichthys
Reef
15
Cirrhitidae
rayado
E,1
oxycephalus
Reef
Cirrhitus rivulatus
16
Cirrhitidae
tigre
E,1
Dasyatis longa
17
Dasyatidae
raya
F,4
Marine
Eleotris picta
18
Eleotridae
ilama
B
Freshwater
Freshwater19 Lepisosteidae Atractosteus tropicus
machorra
D
Estuarine
Lutjanus aratus
22
Lutjanidae
pargo
F,2
Reef
Lutjanus
23
Lutjanidae
pargueta
F,1
Reef
argentiventris
Lutjanus colorado
24
Lutjanidae
pargo rojo
F,2
Reef
Lutjanus guttatus
25
Lutjanidae
lunarejo
F,1,2
Reef
Lutjanus
26
Lutjanidae
pargo negro
F,2
Reef
novemfasciatus
Lutjanus peru
27
Lutjanidae
guachinango
F,2
Reef
Aetobatus narinari
28 Myliobatidae
gavilán
A,3; F,2
Marine
Agonostomus
29
Mugilidae
tepemechín
B; F
Estuarine
monticola
Poecilia sphenops
30
Poecilidae
chimbolo
B; F,3
Freshwater
Poeciliopsis gracilis
31
Poecilidae
chimbolo
B; F,3
Freshwater
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
101
Nº
Family
32 Pomacanthidae
33 Pomacanthidae
34 Pomacentridae
35 Pomacentridae
36
Profundulidae
37
Profundulidae
38 Rhincodontidae
Scientific Name
Holocanthus passer
Microspathodon
bairdii
Microspathodon
dorsalis
Pomacanthus
zonipectus
Profundulus
guatemalensis
Profundulus
punctatus
Rhincodon typus
Spanish
Common
Name
sarado
Categories*
Ecosystem
E,1; F
Reef
Reef
frentudo
E
frentudo
E
ángel
E,1; F
chimbola
B; F,3
chimbola
B, F3
tiburón
ballena
lora
perico
A,1; E,2
Reef
Reef
Freshwater
Freshwater
Marine
Reef
Scarus compressus
E,3; F
Reef
Scarus perrico
E,3
Scarus
Reef
41
Scaridae
lora
E,3
rubroviolaceus
Alphestes
Reef
42
Serranidae
tigre
E,1
inmacularus
Epinephelus
Reef
43
Serranidae
cabrilla
E,2
analogus
Reef
Epinephelus itajara
44
Serranidae
mero
A,2; E,2
Epinephelus
Reef
45
Serranidae
cabrilla
E,2
labriformis
Epinephelus
Reef
46
Serranidae
mero
E,2
niphobles
Cephalopholis
Reef
47
Serranidae
mero
A,2; E,2
panamensis
Reef
Paranthias colonus
48
Serranidae
E,1
Reef
Sphyrna lewini
49
Sphyrnidae
charruda
F
Marine
Urotrygon chilensis
50 Urotrygonidae
raya
F,4
Marine
Urotrygon munda
51 Urotrygonidae
raya
F,4
*Criteria and justification for classifying species as important to conservation:
A) Included in the IUCN Red List (2009): 1-Vulnerable at the global level, 2-Critically
Endangered at the global level, 3-Near Threatened.
B) Threatened freshwater species or environmental health indicator in El Salvador.
C) Endemic to Lake Coatepeque, El Salvador.
D) Living fossil.
E) Scuba diving tourism: 1-and aquarium; 2-and fishery importance; 3-and substrateforming.
F) Fishery or food importance: 1-and aquaculture; 2- and sport fishing; 3-and aquariums;
4-low importance
39
40
102
Scaridae
Scaridae
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
4. DISCUSSION
The southwestern region of El Salvador is characterized by a complex network of aquatic
systems that provide distinctive habitats, some of which function as migration corridors for
the local and regional ichthyofauna. Recorded species richness is 220 species, which is
relatively high when compared with other regions of the country. For example, Jiquilisco
Bay, Jaltepeque Estuary, and the Gulf of Fonseca have reported totals of 56, 138, and 116
species, respectively (Calderón & Hernández 1974, Fuentes & Hernández 2004, Chicas et
al. in prep.). Notwithstanding, the number of coastal fish species for this region is at least
541 (MARN 2003, Robertson & Allen 2008) and the inventory is southwestern El Salvador
is only about 40% complete. The difference in the number of species is probably due to
incomplete sampling.
Not only is the study area highly diverse and important for maintaining biodiversity, but it
also features a speciation site, because a ―mojarra‖ (Amatitlania coatepeque) is endemic
to Lake Coatepeque. Mesoamerica is an important place for the evolution of certain
groups of freshwater fish, particularly the family Cichlidae (Cocheiro Pérez et al. 2006).
Special efforts should be made to characterize the ecology and population dynamics of
this species in order to establish a sound and effective conservation program.
Another conservation priority is the Tropical gar (Atractosteus tropicus), considered to be a
living fossil (Mora et. al. 1997, Sangado-Maldonado et al. 2004), which has three separate
populations in the Mesoamerican region, two of which are located in the Atlantic slope and
one in the Pacific slope. The first of them can be found in the area from the Usumacinta
River to the Coatzocoalcos River in southern Mexico and Guatemala; the other, further
south in Lake Nicaragua and Río San Juan. On the Pacific slope, the population is
distributed in a strip from the south of Chiapas to Río Negro in Nicaragua (Bussing 1987),
and Froese & Pauly (2009) mention 5 reports for Costa Rica. The only place where the
species can be found in El Salvador is Zanjón del Chino and adjoining Barra de Santiago
(Solís 2006).
Another important species is the freshwater mullet (Agonostomus monticola) in view of its
important contribution to the local population’s nutrition (Phillips 1983, Cruz et. al. 1987),
but lack of protection is decimating the fish population. Most records are from El Imposible
National Park.
On the other hand, freshwater ―mojarra‖ (Amphiolophus macracanthus, A. citrinellum and
Vieja guttalata), ―guapotes‖ (Parachromis managuense, P. motaguense and Cichlasoma
trimaculatum), among others, which occur in most of the lakes and ponds and are of
nutritional importance, and indicators of environmental health such as ―bute‖ Poecilia
sphenops, ―plateada‖ Astyanax fasciatus, ―burra‖ Amatitlania nigrofasciata, among others,
are important because they are considered in need of critical conservation efforts
(PREPAC 2005), due to population decreases.
Los Cóbanos Reef System is a very particular case because coral reefs are considered
among the most productive ecosystems of the world, providing habitat, feeding areas,
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
103
shelter, and spawning areas for most coastal fish. As a consequence, they can sustain a
high diversity of species such as ―burras‖ (Abudefduf concolor, A. troschelii, Stegastes
acapulcoensis), ―cirujanos‖ (Prionurus punctatus, Acanthurus xanthopterus), ―pez tigre‖
(Cirritos rivulatus), groupers (Alphestes inmaculatus and Epinephelus itajara), ―señoritas‖
(Chaetodon humeralis and Johnrandallia nigrirostris), among others. The grouper
recorded, Epinephelus itajara, and the sharks Carcharhinus longimanus, C. leucas, C.
porosus, and C. limbatus, are species characterized by low fertility and late reproduction
(Baum et al. 2003, Bishop et al. 2006), making them vulnerable to overexploitation.
According to FAO (2009), the shark harvest in El Salvador decreased from 1,202 t in 2005
to 715 t in 2007. This problem hinders their recovery capacity, placing them in the
threatened categories of the IUCN Red List (2008).
5. CONCLUSIONS
The important sites for conservation are Los Cóbanos Reef System and Barra de Santiago
estuary as well as Lake Coatepeque and the fluvial system because they function as
bridges that facilitate the local and regional migration of the ichthyofauna of the ChiapasNicaraguan province. Los Cóbanos is the only major reef formation in the country and
Barra de Santiago supports important mangrove forest coverage. For both cases, Art. 74
of the Environmental Law (MARN 2006) refers to mangroves and reefs as fragile
ecosystems and therefore no disturbance whatsoever is allowed. This fragility is based on
their functionality as feeding, shelter and reproduction zones for the fish species and most
marine taxonomic groups. The high productivity of these ecosystems maintains a wide
variety of species and contributes to the economic support and as a food source of the
local population. The beautiful scenery can be used to promote environmentally
sustainable tourism. The functional complexity of those ecosystems and anthropogenic
damage also render them vulnerable, and for that reason, it is urgent to establish
conservation measures to make them sustainable.
The sparse coverage of research conducted in the zone explains why the level of fish
inventory completeness in southwestern El Salvador is just 40%. The best inventoried
watershed within the study area, Lake Coatepeque, probably has only 32% of its species
identified. Three watersheds present no fish records at all. Only seven municipalities in the
study area present fish records.
The southwestern region of El Salvador is important for biodiversity maintenance and
development of evolutionary speciation processes. There are records of 220 species, one
of them is endemic to Lake Coatepeque (Amatitlania coatepeque) and another, the
Tropical gar (Atractosteus tropics), represents a group of extinct fish species, and is
restricted in El Salvador to Zanjón del Chino and Barra de Santiago, Ahuachapán. The
location of El Salvador allows it to function as a native ichthyologic fauna reservoir, a
condition that facilitates genetic material exchange among the populations distributed from
the south of Mexico to the north of Costa Rica. Additionally, the native and exotic
ichthyofauna is very important as a source of food and income for the local population.
104
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
6. RECOMMENDATIONS
Recommendations for improved ichthyofauna management in the watersheds of
southwestern El Salvador:
1. Conduct field research on the distribution and abundance of the ichthyofauna of the
area with emphasis on watersheds with few records in order to increase the level of
inventory completeness. The studies should include molecular markers to establish
phylogenetic relationships and distributional ranges, and the nation-wide update of
species taxonomy.
2. Conduct ichthyoplancton studies, reproductive and feeding studies of the fish
populations associated with the aquatic ecosystems such as estuaries, reefs, and
adjacent marine waters in order to identify the areas used for spawning,
reproduction, and feeding. This will elucidate species interactions and contribute to
applying management and conservation strategies with an ecosystem focus.
3. The conservation programs of important sites for biodiversity management, mainly
Los Cóbanos Complex and Barra de Santiago, should be strengthened, since
these sites present a diversity of aquatic environments that maintain a wide variety
of species and facilitate migration processes. Therefore, specific research aimed at
key groups of the system, such as fish, is critical to the implementation of
management alternatives with a biological foundation.
4. The ecosystemic functionality of the fluvial system made up of the river watersheds
of San Julián, San Pedro, Cara Sucia, Bocana de San Juan, Cauta, Grande de
Sonsonate, and Barra Salada, which as a whole form a biological corridor that
facilitates local migration and provides a habitat for the species, should be
conserved.
5. Establish a comprehensive watershed management program for Lake Coatepeque
and other lakes in the study area since they provide habitat to native freshwater
fish species, which are important food sources for local communities.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
105
CHAPTER 4:
INVENTORY OF AMPHIBIANS AND
REPTILES IN SOUTHWESTERN
EL SALVADOR
Vladlen Henríquez & Xiomara Henríquez
Conservation Science Department, SalvaNATURA
San Salvador, El Salvador
vhenriquez@salvanatura.org
1. INTRODUCTION
The southwestern region of El Salvador is a mosaic of heterogeneous vegetation
communities surrounded by agricultural landscapes. The area presents a wide variety of
rivers and a few lakes that together with the different types of vegetation form ideal
habitats for many amphibians and reptiles (herpetofauna). However, there is not enough
information about many of these sites with regard to which and how many herpetofauna
species are present, which makes it difficult to make decisions and take actions
concerning biodiversity protection and conservation of these zones.
In El Salvador, 132 herpetofauna species have been detected so far (Köhler et al. 2006,
Herrera et al. 2007, Henríquez & Vaquerano 2008). As of 2006, 91 species were on record
in the area of the Improved Management and Conservation of Critical Watersheds (IMCW)
Project. The zone is formed by eleven watersheds in addition to several natural areas that
function as refuges for threatened or endangered herpetofauna species. Herpetofauna
research in this area has been conducted mainly at El Imposible and Los Volcanes
National Parks, where national and foreign researchers have made several collecting
expeditions, as recently as 2006 (Henríquez 2004, Henríquez & Komar 2006, Köhler et al.
2006).
The main objectives of this study were: to determine species of interest for conservation in
11 watersheds of the southwestern region of El Salvador; to fill information gaps regarding
the presence and status of the herpetofauna populations in the municipalities and
watersheds that form the IMCW Project area; and to use the results as a decision-making
tool for biodiversity protection and conservation.
106
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. STUDY AREA
The study was conducted in seven of the 11 watersheds in the southwestern region of El
Salvador, which correspond to 11 of the 25 municipalities distributed among the
Departments of Ahuachapán, Sonsonate, Santa Ana and La Libertad that make up the
area of the MMCC Project. Fig. 9 and Table 25 show a detail of the sites where the
herpetofauna studies were carried out.
3
1
2
8
4
5
6
7
FIGURE 9. MAP OF THE SAMPLING SITES OF THE STUDY OF AMPHIBIANS AND
REPTILES DURING 2007: (1) EL IMPOSIBLE NATIONAL PARK, (2) LAGUNA DE LAS
NINFAS, (3) LOS ANDES SECTOR, LOS VOLCANES NATIONAL PARK, (4) LAVAS DE
IZALCO/FINCA MARÍA AUXILIADORA (LOS VOLCANES NATIONAL PARK), (5) SAN
MARCELINO COMPLEX, (6) PLAN DE AMAYO, (7) LOS CÓBANOS, (8) SANTA RITA
FOREST.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
107
TABLE 25. DESCRIPTION OF THE SAMPLING SITES AND EFFORT FOR THE HERPETOFAUNA STUDY.
Study Site
El Imposible
National Park
El Imposible
National Park
108
Watershed
Barra de
Santiago
Barra de
Santiago
Los Volcanes
National Park
Izalco
Los Volcanes
National Park
Santa Ana
Geographic Location
Cerro Campana Sector,
Municipality of Tacuba,
between the cantones of
El Sincuyo and La
Montaña (13.86° N;
89.91°O), Dept. of
Ahuachapán
San Francisco Menéndez
Sector, Municipality of
San Francisco Menéndez,
between the cantones of
El Corozo and El
Sacramento (13.84°N;
90.01°O), Dept. of
Ahuachapán
María Auxiliadora Sector,
Municipality of Izalco,
between the cantones of
Chorro Abajo, Chorro
Arriba, Shonshón,
Teshcal, Las Marías, La
Quebrada Española and
Cuyagualo (13.89°N;
89.63°O), Dept. of
Sonsonate
Los Andes Sector,
Municipalities of Santa
Description
Date
Days
Hours of
Transects
June 25 to
July 4 and
July 10 to
19, 2007
20
50
July 27 to
August 05
and August
01 to
October 10,
2007
20
69
Undisturbed very
humid mountain
forest.
Evergreen riparian
broadleaf forest with
anthropogenic
disturbance as there
is a community
within the area
Lava flows that have
different succesional
stages and
remnants of Tropical
Dry Forest.
Very humid
montane forest with
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Study Site
Santa Rita y
Zanjón El Chino
Protected Natural
Area
Plan de Amayo
Protected Natural
Area
San Marcelino
Complex Protected
Natural Area
Watershed
Geographic Location
Description
Ana and Chalchuapa,
between the cantones of
Palo de Campana,
Potrero Grande Arriba
and Buenos Aires
(13.86°N; 89.63°O), Dept.
of Santa Ana
some sites affected
by the Santa Ana
volcano eruption in
2005 and other sites
with Cypress
(Cupressus
lusitanicus)
plantations.
Cara Sucia
Municipality of San
Francisco Menéndez,
between the cantones of
Cara Sucia, La
Hachadura and Garita
Palmera (13.80°N;
90.06°O), Dept. of
Ahuachapán
San Julián
Municipality of Caluco,
between the cantones of
Plan de Amayo and El
Castaño, Dept. of
Sonsonate
Cliff vegetation,
tropical dry forest (in
the parts closest to
the cliff) and moist
tropical forest (in the
lower parts)
Lago de
Coatepeque
and Izalco
Municipalities of Izalco
and Armenia, between the
cantones of Las Lajas,
El Guayabo, Los Mangos,
El Rosario, San Isidro and
Successional
vegetation on
volcanic lava of
different ages, Dry
Tropical Dry Forest
Tropical evergreen
floodplain forest,
surrounded by
intensive agricultural
activity.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Date
Days
Hours of
Transects
August 08
to 17 and
October 13
to 22, 2007
20
63
August 22
to 31 and
October 26
to
November
04, 2007
20
64
September
18 to 27 and
December
03 to 12,
2007
20
77
109
Study Site
Watershed
Geographic Location
Description
Las Marías, Departament
of Sonsonate.
Municipalities of Santa
Ana and El Congo,
between the cantones of
Lomas de San Marcelino,
Montebello, El Rodeo and
La Presa, Dept. of Santa
Ana (13.69°N; 89.64°O)
(deciduous and
subdeciduous).
Laguna de Las
Ninfas Protected
Natural Area
Río Grande de
Sonsonate
Municipality of Apaneca
(13.87°N; 89.80°O), Dept.
of Ahuachapán
Los Cóbanos
Marine Park
Protected Natural
Area*
Los Cóbanos
Municipality of Acajutla,
Dept. of Sonsonate
(13°12´N; 89°30´0)
Forested zone
around the lake
consists of montane
humid forest with an
area of 80 mz.
Rocky beach with
volcanic origens as
well as mangroves,
rivers, estuaries,
and agriculture
fields.
*Data collected by Karla Lara Sandoval.
110
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Date
Days
Hours of
Transects
September
08 to 17 and
November
20 to 29,
2007
20
72
August 20
to 29, 2007
10
15
2.2. SAMPLING DESIGN
Extensive searches were conducted based on transects with a duration of 1 hour,
separated by 15 minutes between each one, without repeating transects. The field work
was carried out during 120 field days (June to December 2007) with sampling schedules
from 8:00 to 13:00 hours and from 20:00 to 22:00 hours. The study included the rainy
season, the transition from the rainy to the dry season, and the beginning of the dry
season. The sampling sites were selected based on conditions for higher probability of
finding amphibians and reptiles. For reptiles, we selected exposed sites with trunks and
shrubs useful for hiding; for amphibians, very humid places, swampy areas in pastures or
inside forests as well as small pools in ravines and streams. This report includes
observations of amphibians and reptiles by other field teams working at the protected
natural areas of Los Cóbanos Marine Park, Laguna de las Ranas, and Barra Salada. It
also includes species identified through photographs taken by other researchers at sites
where herpetofauna studies were not conducted. Table 25 shows a detail of the sampling
effort and the number of species recorded in each natural area.
2.3. LEVEL OF INVENTORY COMPLETENESS
In order to analyze progress or completeness of the inventories in the municipalities and
watersheds, we first prepared a list of species indicative of a complete inventory (a
method adapted from Gómez de Silva & Medellín 2001). This list usually consists of
generalist species which are those that live in a variety of habitats and eat a variety of
food types, and are found in both disturbed and undisturbed habitats (for example, the
black iguana Ctenosaura similis). We prepared lists of expected generalist species for
each municipality, watershed, natural ecosystem, and protected natural area. We
compared the species recorded during the study to the list of expected generalist species
in order to obtain an inventory completeness index score for each site (Table 26). The
index score is the percentage of expected species that have been recorded; the number
of expected species recorded is divided by the total number of expected generalist
species, and multiplied by one hundred.
A common list of 46 expected species was determined for watersheds and municipalities;
however, specific lists of indicator species for inventory completeness were determined
for each ecosystem and natural area and they differ from one ecosystem or site to
another. The reason why each habitat has different indicator species for inventory
completeness is that some generalist species of the low and medium elevational zones
do not live in the higher zones.
Also, we used species accumulation curves to determine the degree of inventory
completeness. Data from the curves were used to generate species richness estimates
based on ACE (Abundance-based Coverage Estimator), ICE (Incidence-based Coverage
Estimator), Chao 1, Chao 2, Jack-Knife 1 and Jack-Knife 2 indices, calculated with the
program EstimateS® version 7.51 (Colwell 2006).
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
111
TABLE 26. INDICATOR SPECIES FOR INVENTORY COMPLETENESS.
Species
HF
DF
FE
CF
S
RIZ
Dermophis
x
x
x
x
mexicanus
Craugastor
x
x
rhodopis
Craugastor
x
x
x
rupinius
Rhinella marina
x
x
x
x
x
Incilius coccifer
x
x
x
x
Incilius luetkenii
x
x
x
x
Agalychnis
x
x
moreletii
Scinax staufferi
x
x
x
x
Smilisca baudinii
x
x
x
x
Trachycephalus
x
x
x
x
venulosus
Leptodactylus
x
x
x
x
fragilis
Leptodactylus
x
x
x
x
melanonotus
Engystomops
x
x
x
x
pustulosus
Lithobates forreri
x
x
x
x
Lithobates
x
x
x
maculatus
Crocodylus acutus
x
Caiman crocodilus
x
Chelonia mydas
x
Eretmochelys
x
imbricata
Lepidochelys
x
olivacea
Dermochelys
x
coriacea
Gonatodes
x
x
x
albogularis
Phyllodactylus
x
x
x
tuberculosus
Basiliscus vittatus
x
x
x
Ctenosaura similis
x
x
x
x
Iguana iguana
x
x
x
Norops crassulus
x
Norops
x
x
macrophallus
Norops sericeus
x
x
x
x
x
Norops serranoi
x
x
x
Sceloporus
x
x
x
malachiticus
Sceloporus
x
x
x
x
x
squamosus
112
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
E
CR
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Species
HF
DF
FE
CF
S
RIZ
E
CR
Mabuya
x
x
x
unimarginata
Ameiva undulata
x
x
x
x
x
Aspidoscelis
x
x
x
x
x
deppii
Boa constrictor
x
x
x
x
x
Conophis concolor
x
x
x
x
x
x
Drymobius
x
x
margaritiferus
Drymarchon
x
x
x
x
melanurus
Leptodeira
x
x
x
septentrionalis
Masticophis
x
x
x
x
x
mentovarius
Mastigodryas
x
dorsalis
Ninia sebae
x
x
Oxybelis aeneus
x
x
x
x
x
Oxybelis fulgidus
x
Scolecophis
x
x
atrocinctus
Senticolis triaspis
x
x
x
Spilotes pullatus
x
x
x
x
Stenorrhina
x
x
x
x
freminvilli
Trimorphodon
x
x
x
x
biscutatus
Micrurus
x
x
x
x
x
nigrocinctus
Cerrophidion
x
godmani
Crotalus simus
x
x
x
HF: Humid forest; DF: Dry forest; FE: Freshwater Ecosystems; CF: Cloud Forest; S:
Savanna; RIZ: Rocky Intertidal Zone; E: Estuaries; CR: Coral Reefs
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
113
2.4. SELECTION OF SPECIES CONSIDERED IMPORTANT FOR
CONSERVATION
The main criterion to select species important for conservation is whether the species is
included on the Red List of Endangered Species (UICN 2008) or if it is considered a
threatened species in the country according to MARN (2004) or Greenbaum & Komar
(2005) (Table 27).
2.5. DATA SOURCES
Most of the information on the species recorded in the project zone comes from the field
stage of the study; however, these data have been complemented with information
already existing from each Protected Natural Area and other parts of the study area. The
bibliographic information, summarized in Komar 2007, comes from books (Leenders
2003, Köhler et al. 2006) and reports from consultancies carried out in the different
Protected Natural Areas (Rivera Muñoz 2000, Paz Quevedo & Ventura Centeno 2003,
Herrera & Valle Andrade 2003, Henríquez & Komar 2006) as well as from other
publications (Herrera et al. 2005, Herrera et al. 2007).
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. SPECIES RECORDED
The present study has recorded 74 amphibian and reptile species, bringing the total
recorded for the IMCW project area to 96 species, including 91 species recorded in
previous studies. The 22 amphibian and 74 reptile species represent 73% of the 132
species recorded in El Salvador (Table 28). None of the recorded species has a
distribution that is fully restricted to El Salvador, however, in the country two species have
only been recorded in the project area. They are the lizard Celestus atitlanensis and the
toad Incilius valliceps.
Some of the species recorded are restricted in El Salvador to the western region of the
country (including some regions outside of the study area), such as the Keeled Helmeted
Basilisk (Corytophanes percarinatus), the anole lizard Norops crassulus, and the
Godman’s Montane Pitviper (Cerrophidion godmani). Other species found present few
records in the country, such as the burrowing toad (Rhinophrynus dorsalis), freshwater
turtles Trachemys venusta and Staurotypus salvinii, the American Crocodile (Crocodylus
acutus), the Spectacled Cayman (Caiman crocodilus), a skink (Mesoscincus managuae),
and several snakes (Mastigodryas melanolomus, Imantodes gemmistratus, Leptodrymus
pulcherrimus, Rhadinaea pilonaorum, Scaphiodontophis annulatus, Scolecophis
atrocinctus, Sibon nebulatus, Tantilla taeniata, Tropidodipsas fischeri, Loxocemus bicolor
and Atropoides nummifer). Four species of sea turtles are known in the study area: the
Green Sea Turtle (Chelonia mydas), Hawksbill Sea Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricate), Olive
Ridley Sea Turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea), and Leatherback Sea Turtle (Dermochelys
coriacea); all are endangered species worldwide.
114
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 27. LIST OF INDICATOR SPECIES FOR CONSERVATION IMPORTANT SITES.
National Status (according
National Status
Family
Species
to Greenbaum & Komar
(according to MARN 2004)
2005)
Dermophis mexicanus
Caeciliidae
Not Threatened
Least Concern
Oedipina taylori
Plethodontidae
Threatened
Vulnerable
Incilius canaliferus
Not Threatened
Endangered
Bufonidae
Incilius valliceps
Endangered
Critically Endangered
Agalychnis moreletii
Not Threatened
Endangered
Dendropsophus
Hylidae
Threatened
Vulnerable
robertmertensi
Trachycephalus venulosus
Not Threatened
Vulnerable
Gastrophryne usta
Threatened
Vulnerable
Microhylidae
Hypopachus barberii
Threatened
Endangered
Rhinophrynus dorsalis
Rhinophrynidae
Threatened
Endangered
Chelonia mydas
Endangered
Vulnerable
Eretmochelys imbricata
Cheloniidae
Endangered
Vulnerable
Lepidochelys olivacea
Endangered
Endangered
Dermochelys coriacea
Dermochelydae
Endangered
Critically Endangered
Trachemys venusta
Emydidae
Endangered
Endangered
Staurotypus salvinii
Kinosternidae
Threatened
Endangered
Caiman crocodilus
Alligatoridae
Endangered
Critically Endangered
Crocodylus acutus
Crocodylidae
Endangered
Vulnerable
Celestus atitlanensis
Anguidae
Threatened
Endangered
Coleonyx mitratus
Eublepharidae
Not Threatened
Endangered
Corytophanes percarinatus
Threatened
Vulnerable
Iguanidae
Iguana iguana
Threatened
Least Concern
Scincidae
Colubridae
Mesoscincus managuae
Coniophanes fissidens
Not Threatened
Not Threatened
Endangered
Vulnerable
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Global Status (according
to IUCN 2008)
Vulnerable
Data Deficient
Least Concern
Least Concern
Critically Endangered
Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern
Endangered
Least Concern
Endangered
Critically Endangered
Endangered
Critically Endangered
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Near-threatened
Vulnerable
Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern
Least Concern
Not Evaluated
115
Family
Colubridae
Elapidae
Viperidae
116
Not Threatened
Not Threatened
Not Threatened
Threatened
Not Threatened
Endangered
Threatened
Not Threatened
Threatened
Threatened
Threatened
National Status (according
to Greenbaum & Komar
2005)
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Critically Endangered
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Threatened
Endangered
Not Evaluated
Not Threatened
Not Threatened
Threatened
Threatened
Not Threatened
Threatened
Not Threatened
Threatened
Threatened
Not Threatened
Threatened
Threatened
Threatened
Threatened
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Endangered
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
Least Concern
Not Evaluated
Not Evaluated
Not Evaluated
Not Evaluated
Not Evaluated
Not Evaluated
Not Evaluated
Least Concern
Not Evaluated
Not Evaluated
Not Evaluated
Near-threatened
Not Evaluated
Not Evaluated
National Status
(according to MARN 2004)
Species
Coniophanes piceivittis
Drymarchon melanurus
Imantodes gemmistratus
Lampropeltis triangulum
Leptodeira nigrofasciata
Leptodrymus pulcherrimus
Mastigodryas melanolomus
Oxybelis fulgidus
Pliocercus elapoides
Rhadinaea godmani
Rhadinaea pilonaorum
Scaphiodontophis
annulatus
Scolecophis atrocinctus
Senticolis triaspis
Sibon anthracops
Sibon nebulatus
Spilotes pullatus
Tantilla taeniata
Trimorphodon biscutatus
Tropidodipsas fischeri
Micrurus nigrocinctus
Pelamis platurus
Atropoides nummifer
Agkistrodon bilineatus
Cerrophidion godmani
Crotalus simus
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Global Status (according
to IUCN 2008)
Least Concern
Least Concern
Not Evaluated
Not Evaluated
Least Concern
Not Evaluated
Least Concern
Not Evaluated
Not Evaluated
Not Evaluated
Not Evaluated
TABLE 28. HERPETOFAUNA SPECIES RECORDED IN THE STUDY AREA.
Order
Family
Species
Dermophis mexicanus
Gymnophiona
Caeciliidae
Oedipina taylori
Plethodontidae
Craugastor rhodopis
Craugastoridae
Craugastor rupinius
Rhinella marina
Incilius canaliferus
Incilius coccifer
Bufonidae
Incilius luetkenii
Incilius valliceps
Agalychnis moreletii
Dendropsophus robertmertensi
Scinax staufferi
Anura
Hylidae
Smilisca baudinii
Trachycephalus venulosus
Engystomops pustulosus
Leiuperidae
Leptodactylus fragilis
Leptodactylidae
Leptodactylus melanonotus
Gastrophryne usta
Microhylidae
Hypopachus barberi*
Lithobates forreri
Ranidae
Lithobates maculatus
Rhinophrynus dorsalis
Rhinophrynidae
Caiman crocodilus
Alligatoridae
Crocodylia
Crocodylus acutus*
Crocodylidae
Chelonia mydas*
Eretmochelys imbricata
Cheloniidae
Lepidochelys olivacea*
Dermochelys coriacea*
Dermochelydae
Testudines
Trachemys venusta
Emydidae
Rhinoclemmys pulcherrima
Geoemydidae
Kinosternon scorpioides
Kinosternidae
Staurotypus salvinii
Celestus atitlanensis*
Anguidae
Coleonyx mitratus
Eublepharidae
Gonatodes albogularis
Hemidactylus frenatus
Gekkonidae
Phyllodactylus tuberculosus
Gymnophthalmus speciosus*
Gymnophthalmidae
Basiliscus vittatus
Corytophanes percarinatus
Ctenosaura similis
Squamata
Iguana iguana*
Norops crassulus
Iguanidae
Norops macrophallus
Norops sericeus
Norops serranoi
Sceloporus malachiticus
Sceloporus squamosus
Mabuya unimarginata
Scincidae
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
117
Order
Species
Mesoscincus managuae*
Sphenomorphus assatus
Ameiva undulata
Teiidae
Aspidoscelis deppii
Lepidophyma smithii
Xantusiidae
Boa constrictor
Boidae
Coniophanes fissidens
Coniophanes piceivittis
Conophis concolor
Drymarchon melanurus
Drymobius margaritiferus
Imantodes gemmistratus
Lampropeltis triangulum
Leptodeira annulata
Leptodeira nigrofasciata
Leptodeira septentrionalis
Leptodrymus pulcherrimus
Matigodryas dorsalis*
Mastigodryas melanolomus*
Masticophis mentovarius
Ninia sebae
Oxybelis aeneus
Colubridae
Oxybelis fulgidus
Pliocercus elapoides*
Rhadinaea godmani*
Rhadinaea pilonaorum*
Scaphiodontophis annulatus
Scolecophis atrocinctus
Senticolis triaspis
Sibon anthracops
Sibon nebulatus*
Spilotes pullatus
Stenorrhina freminvillii
Tantilla brevicauda
Tantilla taeniata*
Trimorphodon biscutatus
Tropidodipsas fischeri*
Tropidodipsas sartorii
Micrurus nigrocinctus
Elapidae
Pelamis platurus*
Leptotyphlops goudotii*
Leptotyphlopidae
Loxocemus bicolor*
Loxocemidae
Atropoides nummifer
Agkistrodon bilineatus
Cerrophidion godmani
Viperidae
Crotalus simus*
Porthidium ophryomegas
* Species registered in prior studies but not during the present study.
Note: Scientific names according to Köhler et al. (2006). Recent changes in scientific
name and families according to IUCN (2009).
118
Family
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Figure 10A. Taylor’s Worm Salamander
(Oedipina
taylori),
El
Imposible
National Park, Cerro Campana sector,
July 2007.
Figure 10B. Red Toad
(Incilius
canaliferus), San Marcelino Complex
Protected Natural Area, September
2007.
Figure 10C. Black-eyed Tree Frog Figure 10D. Yellow Cricket Tree Frog
(Agalychnis moreletii), El Imposible (Dendropsophus robertmertensi), Santa
National Park, December 2006.
Rita and Zanjón El Chino Protected
Natural Area, October 2007.
Figure 10E. Milk Frog (Trachycephalus Figure 10F. Narrow-mouthed Toad
venulosus), Plan de Amayo Protected (Gastrophryne usta), Plan de Amayo
Natural Area, August 2007.
Protected Natural Area, August 2007.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
119
Figure
10G.
Burrowing
Toad
(Rhinophrynus dorsalis), Santa Rita
and Zanjón El Chino Protected Natural
Area, October 2007.
Figure 10H. Salvin’s Snapping Turtle
(Staurotypus salvinii), Santa Rita and
Zanjón El Chino Protected Natural Area,
August 2007.
Figure
10I.
Cayman
(Caiman
crocodilus), Santa Rita and Zanjón El
Chino Protected Natural Area, August
2007.
Figure 10J. Leopard Gecko (Coleonyx
mitratus), Santa Rita and Zanjón El
Chino Protected Natural Area, October
2007.
Figure 10K. Keeled Helmeted Basilisk Figure 10L. Painted Whiptail Lizard
(Corytophanes
percarinatus),
El (Ameiva undulata), Plan de Amayo
Imposible
National
Park,
Cerro Protected Natural Area, August 2007.
Campana sector, July 2007.
120
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Figure 10M. Boa constrictor (Boa Figure
10N.
Yellowbelly
Snake
constrictor), Plan de Amayo Protected (Coniophanes fissidens), Santa Rita and
Natural Area, October 2007.
Zanjón El Chino Protected Natural Area,
August 2007.
Figure 10O. Central American Tree Figure 10P. Milk Snake (Lampropeltis
Snake (Imantodes gemmistratus), Plan triangulum), Plan de Amayo Protected
de Amayo Protected Natural Area, Natural Area, November 2004.
October 2007.
Figure 10Q. Black-banded Cat-eyed
Snake (Leptodeira nigrofasciata), Plan
de Amayo Protected Natural Area,
November 2007.
Figure
10R.
Black-banded
Snake
(Scolecophis atrocinctus), El Imposible
National Park, Cerro Campana sector,
July 2007.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
121
Figure 10S. Green Rat Snake (Senticolis Figure 10T Cope´s Snail Sucker Snake
triaspis), Plan de Amayo Protected (Sibon anthracops), Plan de Amayo
Natural Area, October 2007.
Protected Natural Area, July 2007. By
Luis Girón
Figure 10U. Tiger Rat Snake (Spilotes
pullatus), Santa Rita and Zanjón El
Chino Protected Natural Area, August
2007. By Xiomara Henríquez
Figure 10V. Merten´s Centipede Snake
(Tantilla brevicauda). Los Volcanes
National Park, Los Andes sector,
October 2007.
Figure
10W.
Mexican
Cantil
(Agkistrodon bilineatus), Santa Rita and
Zanjón El Chino Protected Natural Area,
August 2007.
Figure 10X. Godman´s Montane Pit Viper
(Cerrophidion godmani), Los Volcanes
National Park, Los Andes sector,
October 2007.
FIGURE 10. SELECTED PHOTOGRAPHS OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES TAKEN
DURING THE STUDY. (Photos by Vladlen Henríquez except where indicated.)
122
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
3.2 IMPORTANT SPECIES FOR CONSERVATION
The study area presents 50 species which are on the lists of threatened species
nationwide and worldwide. In the case of worldwide threatened species, eight species
were recorded in the project area including two amphibians and six reptiles. There are 42
other species which are included on the list of nationally endangered species (MARN
2004, Greenbaum & Komar 2005). See Table 27.
3.3 NEW RECORDS FOR THE STUDY AREA
Of the 73 species recorded during the present study, five are new records for the project
area and for the departments where they were recorded. These include Narrow Mouthed
Toad (Gastrophryne usta), an exotic (non-native) gecko Hemidactylus frenatus, the Blackbanded Cat-eyed Snake (Leptodeira nigrofasciata), and False Coral Snake (Sibon
anthracops). The Terrestrial Snail Sucker (Tropidodipsas sartorii), a snake encountered
on the Santa Ana Volcano, is a new record for the project area but was previously
recorded in the northwest zone of the Santa Ana department.
Including these five species, a total of 20 new reports were recorded at the level of
department. First records for the Department of Ahuachapán include cricket tree frog
(Dendropsophus robertmertensi), swamp tree frog (Scinax staufferi), milk frog
(Trachycephalus venulosus), white lipped frog (Leptodactylus fragilis), narrow mouthed
toad (Gastrophryne usta), burrowing toad (Rhinophrynus dorsalis), Mesoamerican slider
(Trachemys venusta), Pacific coast giant musk turtle (Staurotypus salvinii), black-striped
snake (Coniophanes piceivittis), annulated cat-eyed snake (Leptodeira annulata), neckbanded snake (Scaphiodontophis annulatus), common cantil (Agkistrodon bilineatus), and
Godman’s montane pitviper (Cerrophidion godmani).
First records for the Department of Sonsonate include: Narrow-mouthed Toad
(Gastrophryne usta), Hawksbill Sea Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), Gecko
(Hemidactylus frenatus), False Coral Snake (Lampropeltis triangulum), Black-banded Cateyed Snake (Leptodeira nigrofasciata), Brown Vinesnake (Oxybelis aeneus), and False
Coral Snake (Sibon anthracops).
3.4 LEVEL OF INVENTORY COMPLETENESS
In general, the level of herpetofauna inventory completeness increased in nine
watersheds in 2007. Currently, the watersheds with the most advanced inventories are
Izalco, San Julián, Cara Sucia, and Barra de Santiago. Notwithstanding the sampling
efforts made in the Río Grande de Sonsonate and Coatepeque watersheds, their levels of
inventory completeness is below 50% (Table 29).
The inventory of the municipality of San Francisco Menéndez was almost completed
(92%) with this study. The municipality of Caluco shows a high level of inventory
completeness (65%) whereas before this study it was at 0%. The municipality of Izalco
also shows a relatively high completeness level of 57%. The remaining municipalities
show inventory completeness levels below 40%. Ten municipalities do not have any
herpetofauna records (Table 30).
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
123
At the level of ecosystems, six present almost complete inventories (80–90%) as is the
case of humid forest, freshwater ecosystems, and the rocky intertidal zone. The dry forest
presents a relatively complete inventory, that is, 100% of the expected species are
recorded. However, it is still possible to detect new ―unexpected‖ species. The intertidal
zone presents an almost complete inventory but no sampling efforts were made during
this study. Research has yet to be conducted in savannas and estuaries (Table 31).
TABLE 29. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES AND
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF WATERSHEDS.
Watershed
Cara Sucia
Barra de
Santiago
San Juan
Río Cauta
San Pedro
Río Grande
Sonsonate
Izalco
San Julian
Lago de
Coatepeque
Barra
Salada
Los
Cóbanos
124
Species
Recorded
Expected
Species
Recorded
(of 53)
Initial level of Final Level of
Inventory
Inventory
Completeness Completeness
(%)
(%)
52
32
51
60
74
42
31
49
58
50
0
3
15
0
1
14
0
2
23
0
2
26
0
2
0
10
9
10
17
2
57
43
39
35
47
32
74
66
32
22
26
13
23
25
8
2
2
0
4
0
27
16
26
30
4
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Proportion of
Conservation
Important
Species (%)
TABLE 30. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES AND
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF MUNICIPALITIES.
Expected Initial Level of Final Level of Proportion of
Species
Species
Inventory
Inventory
Conservation
Municipality
Recorded Recorded Completeness Completeness
Important
(of 53)
(%)
(%)
Species (%)
San
Francisco
67
49
74
92
68
Menéndez
Concepción
0
0
0
0
de Ataco
Apaneca
9
6
6
11
2
San Pedro
13
7
7
13
2
Puxtla
Guaymango
0
0
0
0
0
Tacuba
13
8
1
15
12
Jujutla
10
3
3
6
10
Acajutla
24
13
13
25
6
San Antonio
0
0
0
0
0
del Monte
Salcoatitán
0
0
0
0
0
Santa
0
0
0
0
0
Catarina
Masahuat
Izalco
40
30
29
57
24
Juayúa
2
2
1
4
2
Nahuizalco
1
1
1
2
0
San Julián
24
16
16
30
10
Caluco
41
34
32
64
20
Armenia
0
0
0
0
0
Tepecoyo
0
0
0
0
0
Santo
3
3
1
7
2
Domingo de
Guzmán
Cuisnahuat
0
0
0
0
0
Nahulingo
0
0
0
0
0
Sonsonate
30
23
19
43
8
Sonzacate
1
1
2
2
0
Santa Ana
7
7
7
13
8
Chalchuapa
0
0
0
0
0
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
125
TABLE 31. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES AND
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF ECOSYSTEMS.
No. of
Proportion of
Level of
Expected
Indicator
Conservation
Species
Inventory
Ecosystem
Species
Species for
Important
Recorded
Completeness
Recorded
Inventory
Species
(%)
Completeness
(%)
Humid
58
42
44
95
58
Forest
39
36
36
100
20
Dry Forest
Freshwater
Ecosystems
Cloud
Forest
Savanna
Rocky
Intertidal
Zone
Estuaries
Coral Reefs
45
36
40
90
26
13
10
12
83
12
0
0
20
0
0
8
8
10
80
8
9
9
15
60
1
0
0
0
0
2
With regards to the Protected Natural Areas, the analysis of inventory completeness
based on the expected generalist species indicates that El Imposible National Park
reports the largest number of recorded species (57 species) and the highest percentage
of inventory completeness (85%). It also reports the largest number of threatened and
endangered species (23 species). The rest of the natural areas have similar quantities of
important species for conservation and level of inventory completeness (see Table 32).
Therefore, more field efforts should be made to complete the inventories of the study
areas.
We obtain the same result from an analysis based on species accumulation curves and
wealth estimators. The species accumulation curves of the Protected Natural Areas
indicate that most of them do not show a trend towards stabilization and therefore it is
necessary to make more sampling efforts (Fig. 11). Only the curve of Laguna de las
Ninfas Protected Natural Area shows a trend towards stabilization. The wealth estimators
indicate that the inventory of some of the Protected Natural Areas could be almost
complete. The wealth estimators of El Imposible National Park indicate that up to 58
species could be recorded of which 57 are already on record. The estimators of Los
Volcanes National Park indicate that up to 49 species could be recorded of which 46 are
already on record, and consequently, their inventory is almost complete. Some species
are yet to be recorded in San Marcelino Complex, Santa Rita and Plan de Amayo
Protected Natural Areas (Table 4-9). The wealth estimators of Laguna de Las Ninfas
Protected Natural Area indicate that up to 9 species could be recorded but 10 species are
already on record and it is possible that additional field work could discover more.
126
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 32. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS FOR AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES AND
RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF PROTECTED NATURAL AREAS.
Protected
Natural
Area
El
Imposible
National
Park
Los
Volcanes
National
Park
Laguna
de Las
Ninfas
San
Marcelino
Complex
Santa
Rita y
Zanjón El
Chino
Plan de
Amayo
No. of
Level of
Proportion of
Indicator
Inventory
Conservation
Species for
Completeness
Important
Inventory
(%)
Species (%)
Completeness
Species
Recorded
Expected
Species
Recorded
57
39
46
85
46
46
35
45
78
34
10
8
12
67
6
40
32
41
78
22
45
33
42
79
28
41
29
41
71
16
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
127
45
Number of Species
40
35
SMC
30
PA
25
LC
20
SR
LVNP
15
EINP
10
5
0
1
3
5
7
9
11
13
15
17
19
Sampling Days
FIGURE 11. ACCUMULATION CURVE OF HERPETOFAUNA SPECIES FROM EACH
PROTECTED NATURAL AREA STUDIED.
TABLE 33. ESTIMATORS OF HERPETOFAUNA SPECIES RICHNESS IN EACH
PROTECTED NATURAL AREA STUDIED.
Estimated Richness
Richness Estimator
EINP
LVNP
SMC
SR
LLN
PA
ACE
51
39
35
49
9
44
ICE
51
43
46
52
8
50
Chao 1
50
37
33
43
8
41
Chao 2
52
38
35
57
7
56
Jack-Knife 1
49
42
37
55
9
47
Jack-Knife 2
58
49
42
54
8
57
EINP = El Imposible National Park
LVNP = Los Volcanes National Park
SMC = San Marcelino Complex Protected Natural Area
SR = Santa Rita Protected Natural Area
LLN = Laguna de Las Ninfas Protected Natural Area
PA = Plan de Amayo Protected Natural Area
LC = Los Cóbanos Marine Park Protected Natural Area
128
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
LC
22
20
22
19
19
23
80
Number of Species
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
9
17
25
33
41
49
57
65
73
81
89
97 105 113 121
Sampling days
FIGURE 12. ACCUMULATION CURVE FOR HERPETOFAUNA SPECIES FROM
SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR.
As we have seen in the case of the Protected Natural Areas, the use of species
accumulation curves is another way to determine inventory completeness. Only the data
obtained during the field stage for 74 species were used to analyze the entire project
area. The curve demonstrates that stabilization has not been achieved after 120 days of
sampling (Fig. 12). Richness estimators based on the curve suggest that southwestern El
Salvador presently has between 84 and 95 herpetofauna species (Table 34). Considering
previous studies, 96 species are already recorded. This suggests that all amphibians and
reptiles in the area have already been recorded. However, at a finer scale such as at the
level of watershed, municipality, ecosystems, or individual natural areas, the curves and
estimators show that additional field work is required.
For ecosystems, the species accumulation curve did not approach stabilization (Fig. 13).
Richness estimators for the Dry Forest indicate that up to 39 species should be found; for
Humid Forest up to 74, for Cloud Forest up to 17, and for Freshwater Ecosystems, up to
64 (Table 4-9). In the case of Dry Forest, considering previous studies, the species list
already reached a total of 39, and therefore it is likely that the inventory for this habitat is
already complete. The estimators for the Humid Forest, Cloud Forest, and Freshwater
Ecosystems indicate that other species are yet to be recorded.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
129
50
45
Number of Species
40
Humid Forest
35
Freshwater
Ecosystems
Dry Forest
30
25
20
Cloud Forest
15
10
5
0
1
4
7
10
13
16
19
22
25
28
Sampling Days
FIGURE 13. ACCUMULATION CURVE FOR HERPETOFAUNA SPECIES FROM EACH
ECOSYSTEM STUDIED.
TABLE 34. ESTIMATORS OF HERPETOFAUNA SPECIES RICHNESS IN EACH
ECOSYSTEM STUDIED.
Richness
Estimator
ACE
ICE
Chao 1
Chao 2
Jack-Knife 1
Jack-Knife 2
130
Estimated Richness
Project
Area
87
86
86
84
89
95
Dry Forest
Humid Forest
Cloud Forest
34
36
31
33
37
39
66
74
67
70
64
71
15
17
13
13
17
15
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Freshwater
Ecosystems
49
62
43
56
55
64
3.5 IMPORTANCE OF THE AREAS FOR CONSERVATION
The level of inventory completeness in watersheds and municipalities is not adequate to
evaluate the relative importance of these areas for herpetofauna conservation. However,
at the level of Protected Natural Area and ecosystem, the inventories are relatively
complete (67%–85% for Protected Natural Areas and five ecosystems have reached a
completeness level of 80%), suggesting that the proportion of indicator species for
conservation recorded in these areas will be useful as an importance index.
Among the Protected Natural Areas, El Imposible reports the highest importance index
followed by Los Volcanes, Santa Rita, San Marcelino Complex, Plan de Amayo, and
Laguna de Las Ninfas (Table 32).
Among the ecosystems, the Humid Forest presents the largest number of threatened and
endangered species with a total of 28 species (Table 31). It also presents the highest
species richness (58 species). The Freshwater ecosystem presents 12 species important
for conservation and the second richest ecosystem with 45 species. The Dry Forest
presents 10 threatened species and 39 species in total. The Cloud Forest presents six
threatened species (out of 13 total). The habitat of the Intertidal and Rocky Zone reports
only two endangered species; however, it should be considered that this type of habitat is
only used by sea turtles to lay their eggs and by some lizard species which are not
threatened. The Coral Reef and the Savanna do not yet have formal herpetofauna
records. Considering that the inventories of the five ecosystems are well advanced, it is
unlikely that the order of importance will change if more studies are conducted. However,
our understanding of the conservation status of each species could change, which could
modify the relative importance of each ecosystem.
4. RECOMMENDATIONS
Below are some recommendations for educational and scientific purposes:
Further efforts should be made to carry out inventories of the coastal zone habitats
such as reefs, estuaries, intertidal and rocky zone, and savanna since these
habitats were not included in the sampling. It is particularly urgent to conduct
studies in the savannas since it is a distinct and reduced ecosystem of the study
area that could have species important for biodiversity maintenance in the study
area.
Monitoring protocols should be prepared for the eight globally threatened
herpetofauna species that have been recorded in the project area.
Training workshops for park rangers in the Protected Natural Areas should be
provided, focusing on the threatened and endangered species recorded in those
areas.
Park rangers and members of the communities near the Protected Natural Areas
should receive environmental education about venomous snakes and first-aid
training.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
131
CHAPTER 5:
INVENTORY OF BIRDS IN
SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR
Oliver Komar
SalvaNATURA, Conservation Science Department
San Salvador, El Salvador
okomar@salvanatura.org
1. INTRODUCTION
Of all of the classes of flora and fauna, birds (Aves) are the best known, not only by
scientists but also by the general public. They are more easily seen and heard than
mammals, amphibians, reptiles, insects and fish. As intelligent vertebrates, they capture
people’s attention and imagination more so than other life forms, such as plants and
insects. At the level of sites, such as particular Protected Natural Areas or forests, birds
are frequently more completely documented then other kinds of animals or plants. Most
species have been studied in some depth, and virtually all species were long ago
described for science. Numerous books have been written to help people know birds; all
of El Salvador’s birds are illustrated in several field guides written for the public (such as
Howell and Webb 1995). That cannot be said for some other groups of animals and
especially for plants. In fact, annually, several new plants, insects, fish, and amphibians
are still being described for science in Central America. The rate of discovery for other
vertebrates (reptiles and mammals) is lower, but still higher than for birds. This high level
of knowledge available for birds allows this taxonomic group to serve as good indicators
for environmental change or for relative importance of sites as biodiversity refuges.
There are three characteristic criteria for identifying a good indicator species: it must be
easily identifiable, detectable, and sensitive to change. Birds can typically be identified in
the field by experienced observers, and there is abundant literature available to assist
biologists in learning to identify them. Most birds are reasonably easy to detect, being
generally showy creatures, and often advertising their own presence by singing. Finally,
many birds are sensitive to changes in the environment: birds are diverse creatures and
in virtually any bird community, one can find at least some species that are sensitive to
ecological change. The mere presence of certain generalist species can signal
perturbations in the environment; population declines can reflect disturbances such as
contamination or habitat fragmentation. The presence of certain habitat specialists can
signal sites of conservation value. Thus, birds can be indicators of sites with high quality
habitat, or sites useful as biological corridors. In order to be able to use birds as indicators
for site quality, they must be inventoried and monitored.
132
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
The birds of southwestern El Salvador, in the area where USAID has sponsored the
Improved Management and Conservation of Critical Watersheds (IMCW) project, have
been studied frequently since 1925. Through 2006, there were at least 25 field studies,
generating 21,724 records of birds, based on approximately 1,388 days of field
observations (detailed in Komar 2007b). All of this work documented 413 bird species,
including 100% of the 74 widespread, generalist bird species that serve as indicators of a
complete inventory. A baseline study has documented the relative completeness of the
bird inventory in each of 11 watersheds and in each of 25 municipalities within
southwestern El Salvador (Komar 2007b). The mean completeness of the inventories,
based on the presence of expected generalist species was 68% for watersheds, and 36%
for municipalities.
While the bird inventory for the entire region of southwestern El Salvador appeared to be
complete, the inventories for specific sites within that region were considerably less
complete. Some entire municipalities and some specific Protected Natural Areas within
southwestern El Salvador had never had their birds documented at all. The IMCW project
was interested in determining if specific watersheds or municipalities within southwestern
El Salvador were more important than others for conserving biodiversity. Comparison of
sites, using indicator species, requires the existence of complete inventories at the site
level (Remsen 1994, Komar 2003). Otherwise, the sites with more complete inventories
will simply appear to be of greater value, regardless of their true relative value. The
purpose of the present study was to advance the state of the bird inventories for a series
of sites and ecosystems in southwestern El Salvador, such that relative value for
biodiversity conservation could be assessed.
2. STUDY AREA AND METHODS
The study area included seven of the 11 watersheds within the IMCW project area
(Fig.14). The Río Banderas watershed was divided into three watersheds for the purpose
of biological analysis: the lower Río Banderas (coastal plain), the Izalco watershed which
drains most of Los Volcanes National Park, and the San Julian watershed which drains
the northwestern sector of the Sierra del Bálsamo. The Los Cóbanos watershed actually
consists of a series of approximately seven minor watersheds, each emptying into the
Pacific Ocean, and almost indistinguishable on the ground. The Barra de Santiago
watershed was divided into two: ―Cara Sucia,‖ which drains the western two-thirds of El
Imposible National Park and ―Barra de Santiago‖ which drains the eastern third of the
national park and several valleys to the east. Most of the rivers in the Cara Sucia
watershed are drained or go underground before they reach the estuary.
The IMCW project area encompasses 28 municipalities, although three only marginally.
Field work was carried out at eight sites located within eight municipalities (Table 35). Not
reported here are the results of monitoring of bird populations carried out during 2007 and
2008, at numerous additional sites. These results also contribute to the ongoing inventory
but will be reported separately.
Below I describe the process for creating lists of three types of indicator bird species,
used for the evaluation of the completeness of the inventory work or the evaluation of site
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
133
importance for the conservation of biodiversity. First is the list of widespread, common
species that are guaranteed to occur in any reasonably large and heterogeneous area,
such as a municipality or a watershed. These species serve as indicators of inventory
completeness at the site level (Gómez de Silva & Medellín 2001, Komar 2007). Second is
the list of common ecosystem indicators, which can be generalist or specialist species,
and that are expected to be found in any existing patch of appropriate habitat. These
species serve as indicators of inventory completeness at the ecosystem level. Third is the
list of threatened species, which should serve as indicators of conservation importance for
the sites where they occur (Komar 2007). For example, conservation priority should be
assigned to a site with higher richness of threatened species. This is an important
distinction, since some sites may have higher overall species richness but have low
richness for conservation-importance indicator species; such sites should not be
mistakenly considered to be important for conservation simply for having high numbers of
species and high levels of biodiversity (Komar 2003).
3
7
8
4
1
2
6
5
FIGURE 14. MAP OF BIRD INVENTORY FIELD SITES DURING 2007: (1) SANTO
DOMINGO DE GUZMÁN, (2) PLAN DE AMAYO, (3) LAGUNA DE LAS NINFAS, (4)
LAVAS DE IZALCO/FINCA MARÍA AUXILIADORA, (5) BARRA SALADA, (6) LOS
CÓBANOS, (7) LAGUNA DE LAS RANAS, (8) BOSQUE SANTA RITA.
134
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 35. LOCALITIES WHERE BIRD INVENTORY FIELD WORK WAS CARRIED
OUT BY THE IMCW PROJECT.
Site
Santo
Domingo
de Guzmán
Watershed
Municipality
San Pedro
Santo
Domingo de
Guzmán
Ecosystems
Freshwater
wetlands
(Riparian
forest and
rivers)
Plan de
Amayo
San Julian
Caluco
Dry forest
Laguna de
las Ninfas
Río Grande
de
Sonsonate
Apaneca
Humid
montane
forest
Lavas de
Izalco/Finca
María
Auxiliadora
Izalco
Izalco
Dry forest
Barra
Salada
Barra
Salada
Sonsonate
Estuary
(including
mangrove
forest)
Los
Cóbanos
Los
Cóbanos
Acajutla y
Sonsonate
Savanna, dry
forest, and
beach
Laguna de
las Ranas
Río Grande
de
Sonsonate
Juayúa
Cara Sucia
San
Francisco
Menéndez
Bosque
Santa Rita
Humid
montane
forest
Freshwater
wetlands
(swamp
forest)
Dates (in 2007)
Field team1
4 days
(16–19 July)
JF, CF, JJ,
ST, IV
12 days
(20–24 June,
15–21 October)
11 days
(29 June to 8
July and then 20
July)
20 days
(3–12 August
and 1–10
November)
19 days
(3–12 September
and 15–23
December)
20 days
(20–29 August,
and 3–12
December)
CF, JF, JJ,
ST, IV, CZ
JF, CF, KL,
ST, IV, CZ
CF, LA, JF,
JJ. LS, IV,
CZ
CF, JJ, OK,
LS, ST, IV,
CZ
CF, JJ, OK,
KL, LS, ST,
IV, CZ
10 days
(1–10 October)
CF, JF, JJ,
ST, IV, CZ
20 days
(17–26
September, 14–
23 November)
JF, CF, JJ,
KL, LS, IV,
CZ
1
LA=Lety Andino, CF=Carlos Funes, JF=Jesse Fagan, JJ=Jorge Jiménez, OK=Oliver
Komar, KL=Karla Lara, LS=Lya Samayoa, ST=Sofía Trujillo, IV=Iselda Vega, CZ=Carlos
Zaldaña
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
135
2.1. INDICATORS OF INVENTORY COMPLETENESS
Following the methodology of Gómez de Silva and Medellín (2001), I first considered
which resident bird species are widespread generalists and expected in virtually any
watershed or municipality of the study area. Such species can be considered ―test‖
species, for testing how complete inventory efforts have been at any given site. To
determine the test species appropriate for sites within the IMCW project area, I selected
species from the revised bird list of El Salvador (Komar et al. 2009), which includes a total
of 548 species each classified for status as habitat generalists or specialists, residents or
migrants, and for threat at the national level. To build the list of test species, I first
selected species classified as permanent residents or partially migratory residents that
are also forest generalists. From the resulting list of 94 permanent residents and seven
partially migratory residents, I eliminated 57 species classified as nationally threatened
(including critically endangered, endangered, vulnerable, or near-threatened), because
these are rare species not likely to be widespread in the study area. Of the remaining 44
species, I eliminated 4 species restricted to highlands above 1000 m elevation. I
considered if some of the species on the remaining list may be restricted only to the
lowest elevations, but although several are more common in the lowlands, none were
restricted to them. As would be predicted, the remaining 40 species are widespread in El
Salvador and should be found in every municipality or watershed within Ahuachapán and
Sonsonate. Although these species are all forest species, they can be found in disturbed
forests including tree plantations and urban parks, and are by no means restricted to
natural areas or Protected Natural Areas.
I then added to the list of test species resident birds that live in open areas rather than
forests. I culled the overall bird list for resident species (including species that are partially
migratory) classified as open area generalists. From the resulting lists of 49 permanent
residents and 5 partially migratory resident species, I eliminated 12 threatened and nearthreatened species, and 3 species restricted to high altitudes, generating a list of 39
species that should be registered at any given non-forest site within Ahuachapán or
Sonsonate. Several species were eliminated from this list for various reasons. The
Tropical Mockingbird (Mimus gilvus) was considered to be restricted to very low
elevations close to the coast. The Rock Pigeon (Columba livia) and House Sparrow
(Passer domesticus), both introduced species, were considered to be restricted to urban
and other non- natural habitats. The Nutting’s Flycatcher (Myiarchus nuttingi) is probably
restricted to low elevations (<500 m) and is of uncertain occurrence in the study area. The
Zone-tailed Hawk (Buteo albonotatus) has a breeding range in El Salvador restricted to
areas outside the study area. The resulting list of open area generalist species, useful as
indicators for inventory completeness (i.e., test species) was 34 species. The combination
of forest and open-area site inventory indicators was 74 species (Table 36).
The species in Table 36 should be registered in any complete inventory of a
heterogeneous area with both forest and non-forest habitats. All of these species should
occupy every municipality or watershed in the study area. These are all common,
widespread species, and are useful for identifying gaps in the inventory. Nonetheless, an
area with 100% of these species recorded may still have an incomplete inventory, as rare
species may still not be included in a site’s inventory despite being present and despite all
of the common species having been detected.
136
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 36. THE 74 RESIDENT BIRD SPECIES, EXPECTED IN ANY MUNICIPALITY
OR WATERSHED OF THE STUDY AREA, THAT SERVE AS INDICATORS OF
INVENTORY COMPLETENESS (“TEST” SPECIES) AT THE SITE LEVEL.
Family
Species
Spanish name
English name
Tinamidae
Crypturellus cinnamomeus
Tinamú Canelo
Thicket Tinamou
Cracidae
Ortalis leucogastra
Chachalaca Vientreblanco
White-bellied
Chachalaca
Odontophoridae
Colinus cristatus
Codorniz-cotui
Centroamericana
Cathartidae
Coragyps atratus
Zopilote Negro
Black Vulture
Cathartidae
Cathartes aura
Aura Cabecirroja
Turkey Vulture
Accipitridae
Buteogallus anthracinus
Aguililla Negra Menor
Common Black-Hawk
Accipitridae
Buteo magnirostris
Aguililla Caminera
Roadside Hawk
Accipitridae
Buteo nitidus
Aguililla Gris
Gray Hawk
Falconidae
Herpetotheres cachinnans
Halcón Guaco (Guas)
Laughing Falcon
Columbidae
Patagioenas flavirostris
Paloma Morada
Red-billed Pigeon
Columbidae
Zenaida asiatica
Paloma Aliblanca
White-winged Dove
Columbidae
Columbina inca
Tórtola Colilarga
Inca Dove
Columbidae
Columbina talpacoti
Tortolita Rojiza
Ruddy Ground-Dove
Columbidae
Leptotila verreauxi
Paloma Arroyera
(Rodadora)
White-tipped Dove
Psittacidae
Aratinga canicularis
Perico Frentinaranja
Orange-fronted
Parakeet
Psittacidae
Brotogeris jugularis
Periquito Barbinaranja
Orange-chinned
Parakeet
Cuculidae
Piaya cayana
Chocolatero, Piscoy
Squirrel Cuckoo
Cuculidae
Morococcyx erythropygus
Cuco-terrestre Menor
Lesser Ground-Cuckoo
Cuculidae
Crotophaga sulcirostris
Pijuyo
Groove-billed Ani
Strigidae
Glaucidium brasilianum
Tecolotito Común
(Aurorita)
Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl
Strigidae
Ciccaba virgata
Búho Café
Mottled Owl
Caprimulgidae
Nyctidromus albicollis
Tapacaminos Pucuyo
(Caballero)
Common Pauraque
Apodidae
Streptoprocne rutila
Vencejo Cuellicastaño
Chestnut-collared Swift
Apodidae
Streptoprocne zonaris
Vencejo Cuelliblanco
White-collared Swift
Apodidae
Chaetura vauxi
Vencejo de Vaux
Vaux’s Swift
Crested Bobwhite
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
137
Family
Species
Spanish name
English name
Trochilidae
Campylopterus
hemileucurus
Fandanguero Morado
Violet Sabrewing
Trochilidae
Chlorostilbon canivetii
Esmeralda de Canivet
Canivet's Emerald
Trochilidae
Amazilia beryllina
Colibrí de Berilo
Berylline Hummingbird
Trochilidae
Amazilia rutila
Colibrí Canelo
Cinnamon Hummingbird
Trogonidae
Trogon violaceus
Trogón Violaceo (Coa
Pechiamarilla)
Violaceous Trogon
Trogonidae
Trogon elegans
Trogón Elegante (Coa
Pechiroja)
Elegant Trogon
Momotidae
Momotus momota
Momoto Coroniazul
(Talapo)
Blue-crowned Motmot
Momotidae
Eumomota superciliosa
Momoto Cejiturqueza
(Torogoz)
Turquoise-browed
Motmot
Picidae
Melanerpes aurifrons
Carpintero Frentidorado
Golden-fronted
Woodpecker
Picidae
Piculus rubiginosus
Carpintero Olivaceo
Golden-olive
Woodpecker
Furnariidae
Xiphorhynchus flavigaster
Trepatroncos Piquiclaro
Ivory-billed
Woodcreeper
Thamnophilidae
Thamnophilus doliatus
Batará Barrada
Barred Antshrike
Tyrannidae
Tolmomyias sulphurescens
Picoplano Ojiblanco
Yellow-olive Flycatcher
Tyrannidae
Contopus cinereus
Pibí Tropical
Tropical Pewee
Tyrannidae
Myiarchus tuberculifer
Copetón Triste
Dusky-capped
Flycatcher
Tyrannidae
Pitangus sulphuratus
Luis Grande (Cristo
Fue)
Great Kiskadee
Tyrannidae
Megarynchus pitangua
Luis Piquigrueso
Boat-billed Flycatcher
Tyrannidae
Myiozetetes similis
Luis Gregario (Chio)
Social Flycatcher
Tyrannidae
Tyrannus melancholicus
Tirano Tropical
Tropical Kingbird
Incertae sedis
Pachyramphus aglaiae
Cabezón Degollado
Rose-throated Becard
Incertae sedis
Tityra semifasciata
Titira Enmascarada
(Torreja)
Masked Tityra
Vireonidae
Cyclarhis gujanensis
Vireón Cejirrufo
Rufous-browed
Peppershrike
Corvidae
Calocitta formosa
Urraca-hermosa
Cariblanca (Urraca)
Hirundinidae
Progne chalybea
Martín Pechigris
138
White-throated MagpieJay
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Gray-breasted Martin
Family
Species
Spanish name
English name
Hirundinidae
Stelgidopteryx serripennis
Golondrina-aliserrada
Norteña
Northern Rough-winged
Swallow
Troglodytidae
Campylorhynchus
rufinucha
Guacalchía (Matraquita
Nuquirrufa)
Rufous-naped Wren
Troglodytidae
Thryothorus modestus
Saltapared Sencillo
Plain Wren
Troglodytidae
Troglodytes aedon
Saltapared Continental
Norteño
House Wren
Sylviidae
Polioptila albiloris
Perlita Cejiblanca
Turdidae
Turdus grayi
Zorzal Pardo
Clay-colored Robin
Parulidae
Euthlypis lachrymosa
Chipe Roquero
Fan-tailed Warbler
Parulidae
Basileuterus rufifrons
Chipe Gorrirrufo
Rufous-capped Warbler
Thraupidae
Thraupis episcopus
Tángara Azuligris
Blue-gray Tanager
Thraupidae
Thraupis abbas
Tángara Aliamarilla
Yellow-winged Tanager
Emberizidae
Volatinia jacarina
Semillero Brincador
Blue-black Grassquit
Emberizidae
Sporophila torqueola
Semillero Collarejo
White-collared
Seedeater
Emberizidae
Aimophila ruficauda
Cardinalidae
Saltator coerulescens
Saltator Grisáceo
(Dichoso-fuí)
Grayish Saltator
Cardinalidae
Saltator atriceps
Saltator Cabecinegro
(Chepito)
Black-headed Saltator
Cardinalidae
Passerina caerulea
Picogrueso Azul
Blue Grosbeak
Icteridae
Dives dives
Tordo Cantor
Melodious Blackbird
Icteridae
Quiscalus mexicanus
Zanate Mayor
(Zanate♀,
Clarinero♂)
Great-tailed Grackle
Icteridae
Molothrus aeneus
Vaquero Ojirrojo
Bronzed Cowbird
Icteridae
Icterus pustulatus
Bolsero Dorsirrayado
Streak-backed Oriole
Icteridae
Icterus pectoralis
Icteridae
Icterus gularis
Bolsero de Altamira
Altamira Oriole
Icteridae
Amblycercus holosericeus
Cacique Piquiclaro
Yellow-billed Cacique
Fringillidae
Euphonia affinis
Eufonia Gorjinegro
Scrub Euphonia
Fringillidae
Carduelis psaltria
Dominico Dorsioscuro
Lesser Goldfinch
White-lored
Gnatcatcher
Zacatonero
Cabecirrayado
Bolsero
Pechimanchado
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Stripe-headed Sparrow
Spot-breasted Oriole
139
To evaluate the level of completeness for the bird inventory at the level of ecosystems (or
habitats), first I adopted as the ecosystems of interest the eight ecosystems identified as
priority conservation objects for the study area by the IMCW project (Komar & Girón
2007). These included cloud forest, humid montane forest, dry forest, estuarine habitat
(including mangrove forest and mudflats), beaches, savannas, and coral reefs. Also
included were freshwater wetlands, a broad category that includes lakes, rivers, swamp
forest (such as at Bosque Santa Rita, which is seasonally flooded), and riparian habitat at
the edges of waterways. I assembled lists of habitat specialists and generalists that are
sufficiently common to be expected in every existing patch of natural habitat within each
of these ecosystem categories. For forest ecosystems, these lists tended to include all 40
of the forest generalists included in Table 36, but in the case of forest habitats restricted
to narrow elevational ranges, such as cloud forest and mangrove, not all 40 were
included. Added to the lists of indicators were specialist species found only in the given
habitat, if the species is sufficiently common to be expected in every patch. For non-forest
ecosystems, the 34 open-area generalists were likely to all be included, as well as a few
additional open-area specialist species if these are quite common or widespread across
patches. The resulting lists of inventory indicator species are presented in Table 37.
2.2. INDICATORS OF CONSERVATION IMPORTANCE
Globally-threatened species are often considered the best indicators for identifying sites
of conservation importance; such species are listed annually by the World Conservation
Union (IUCN 2008). Globally-threatened species are used worldwide as principal
indicators for identifying Important Bird Areas, Key Biodiversity Areas, and Alliance for
Zero Extinction sites. Relatively few globally-threatened species, however, occur in El
Salvador. In fact, no resident bird species recorded in the study area are globallythreatened, and just one, the Great Curassow (Crax rubra), is classified as globally nearthreatened (several migratory visitors—non-residents—are also globally near-threatened).
The curassow is believed to be restricted in El Salvador to the forests of El Imposible
National Park.
Another group of species sometimes used as indicators of conservation importance are
migratory birds. U.S.-based bird conservation donors tend to support projects that aim to
protect migratory birds that breed in northern latitudes and winter in Central America.
Such species are often thought to be vulnerable because their migratory habits expose
them to diverse threats in different places at different times. The accumulation of threats
on the breeding grounds, migratory stopover sites, and wintering grounds suggests that
these species should be protected wherever they go, to minimize the accumulation of
threats. However, most migratory species are actually well adapted to diverse conditions,
including severe habitat disturbance. Most of these species are widely distributed, with
abundant populations, and are not considered threatened in any of the areas where they
breed or winter. The Swainson’s Thrush (Catharus ustulatus), for example, has an
estimated North American population of over 100 million individuals (Rich et al. 2004).
Nearly 200 migratory species visit El Salvador each year. Just a few of these species
have been classified in continent-wide conservation plans and analyses as of
conservation concern (Kushlan et al. 2002, Rich et al. 2004).
140
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 37. BIRD SPECIES USED AS “TEST SPECIES” TO INDICATE RELATIVE LEVELS OF INVENTORY COMPLETENESS AT THE
ECOSYSTEM LEVEL, IN SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR.
Species
English name
Crypturellus cinnamomeus
Ortalis leucogastra
Dendrortyx leucophrys
Colinus cristatus
Dactylortyx thoracicus
Sula granti
Sula leucogaster
Pelecanus occidentalis
Phalacrocorax brasilianus
Fregata magnificens
Ardea herodias
Ardea alba
Egretta thula
Egretta tricolor
Bubulcus ibis
Butorides virescens
Nyctanassa violacea
Eudocimus albus
Coragyps atratus
Cathartes aura
Pandion haliaetus
Elanus leucurus
Accipiter striatus
Buteogallus anthracinus
Buteo magnirostris
Thicket Tinamou
White-bellied Chachalaca
Buffy-crowned Wood-Partridge
Crested Bobwhite
Singing Quail
Nazca Booby
Brown Booby
Brown Pelican
Neotropic Cormorant
Magnificent Frigatebird
Great Blue Heron
Great Egret
Snowy Egret
Tricolored Heron
Cattle Egret
Green Heron
Yellow-crowned Night-Heron
White Ibis
Black Vulture
Turkey Vulture
Osprey
White-tailed Kite
Sharp-shinned Hawk
Common Black-Hawk
Roadside Hawk
Humid
forest
Dry
forest
x
x
Cloud
forest
Estuaries &
mangroves
Beaches
Freshwater
Savannas
wetlands
Coral
reef
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
x
x
x
x
x
141
Species
English name
Buteo platypterus
Buteo nitidus
Buteo brachyurus
Buteo swainsoni
Buteo albonotatus
Buteo jamaicensis
Micrastur semitorquatus
Caracara cheriway
Herpetotheres cachinnans
Falco sparverius
Falco columbarius
Falco peregrinus
Burhinus bistriatus
Pluvialis squatarola
Charadrius wilsonia
Charadrius semipalmatus
Charadrius vociferus
Himantopus mexicanus
Jacana spinosa
Actitis macularius
Tringa melanoleuca
Tringa semipalmata
Tringa flavipes
Numenius phaeopus
Arenaria interpres
Calidris alba
Calidris pusilla
Broad-winged Hawk
Gray Hawk
Short-tailed Hawk
Swainson’s Hawk
Zone-tailed Hawk
Red-tailed Hawk
Collared Forest-Falcon
Crested Caracara
Laughing Falcon
American Kestrel
Merlin
Peregrine Falcon
Double-striped Thick-knee
Black-bellied Plover
Wilson’s Plover
Semipalmated Plover
Killdeer
Black-necked Stilt
Northern Jacana
Spotted Sandpiper
Greater Yellowlegs
Willet
Lesser Yellowlegs
Whimbrel
Ruddy Turnstone
Sanderling
Semipalmated Sandpiper
142
Humid
forest
x
x
x
x
x
Dry
forest
x
x
x
Cloud
forest
Estuaries &
mangroves
Beaches
x
x
x
x
x
Freshwater
Savannas
wetlands
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Coral
reef
Species
English name
Calidris mauri
Calidris minutilla
Limnodromus griseus
Larus atricilla
Larus pipixcan
Chlidonias niger
Sterna hirundo
Thalasseus maximus
Thalasseus sandvicensis
Thalasseus elegans
Rynchops niger
Stercorarius pomarinus
Stercorarius parasiticus
Patagioenas flavirostris
Zenaida asiatica
Zenaida macroura
Columbina inca
Columbina passerina
Columbina minuta
Columbina talpacoti
Leptotila verreauxi
Geotrygon albifacies
Aratinga canicularis
Brotogeris jugularis
Piaya cayana
Morococcyx erythropygus
Crotophaga sulcirostris
Western Sandpiper
Least Sandpiper
Short-billed Dowitcher
Laughing Gull
Franklin’s Gull
Black Tern
Common Tern
Royal Tern
Sandwich Tern
Elegant Tern
Black Skimmer
Pomarine Jaeger
Parasitic Jaeger
Red-billed Pigeon
White-winged Dove
Mourning Dove
Inca Dove
Common Ground-Dove
Plain-breasted Ground-Dove
Ruddy Ground-Dove
White-tipped Dove
White-faced Quail-Dove
Orange-fronted Parakeet
Orange-chinned Parakeet
Squirrel Cuckoo
Lesser Ground-Cuckoo
Groove-billed Ani
Humid
forest
Dry
forest
Cloud
forest
Estuaries &
mangroves
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Beaches
Freshwater
Savannas
wetlands
Coral
reef
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
143
Species
English name
Megascops cooperi
Glaucidium brasilianum
Ciccaba virgata
Chordeiles acutipennis
Nyctidromus albicollis
Chaetura vauxi
Campylopterus rufus
Campylopterus
hemileucurus
Colibri thalassinus
Anthracothorax prevostii
Chlorostilbon canivetii
Amazilia beryllina
Amazilia rutila
Lampornis viridipallens
Eugenes fulgens
Archilochus colubris
Trogon melanocephalus
Trogon violaceus
Trogon elegans
Momotus momota
Eumomota superciliosa
Ceryle alcyon
Chloroceryle americana
Aulacorhynchus prasinus
Melanerpes aurifrons
Piculus rubiginosus
Pacific Screech-Owl
Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl
Mottled Owl
Lesser Nighthawk
Common Pauraque
Vaux’s Swift
Rufous Sabrewing
144
Violet Sabrewing
Green Violet-ear
Green-breasted Mango
Canivet's Emerald
Berylline Hummingbird
Cinnamon Hummingbird
Green-throated Mountain-gem
Magnificent Hummingbird
Ruby-throated Hummingbird
Black-headed Trogon
Violaceous Trogon
Elegant Trogon
Blue-crowned Motmot
Turquoise-browed Motmot
Belted Kingfisher
Green Kingfisher
Emerald Toucanet
Golden-fronted Woodpecker
Golden-olive Woodpecker
Humid
forest
Cloud
forest
x
Dry
forest
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Estuaries &
mangroves
x
x
x
x
x
Beaches
Freshwater
Savannas
wetlands
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
x
x
x
Coral
reef
Species
English name
Dryocopus lineatus
Xiphorhynchus flavigaster
Lepidocolaptes affinis
Thamnophilus doliatus
Grallaria guatimalensis
Camptostoma imberbe
Elaenia flavogaster
Elaenia frantzii
Zimmerius vilissimus
Todirostrum cinereum
Rhynchocyclus brevirostris
Tolmomyias sulphurescens
Contopus cinereus
Empidonax flaviventris
Empidonax traillii
Empidonax minimus
Empidonax flavescens
Myiarchus tuberculifer
Myiarchus tyrannulus
Pitangus sulphuratus
Megarynchus pitangua
Myiozetetes similis
Myiodynastes luteiventris
Tyrannus melancholicus
Tyrannus verticalis
Tyrannus tyrannus
Tyrannus forficatus
Lineated Woodpecker
Ivory-billed Woodcreeper
Spot-crowned Woodcreeper
Barred Antshrike
Scaled Antpitta
Northern Beardless-Tyrannulet
Yellow-bellied Elaenia
Mountain Elaenia
Paltry Tyrannulet
Common Tody-Flycatcher
Eye-ringed Flatbill
Yellow-olive Flycatcher
Tropical Pewee
Yellow-bellied Flycatcher
Willow Flycatcher
Least Flycatcher
Yellowish Flycatcher
Dusky-capped Flycatcher
Brown-crested Flycatcher
Great Kiskadee
Boat-billed Flycatcher
Social Flycatcher
Sulphur-bellied Flycatcher
Tropical Kingbird
Western Kingbird
Eastern Kingbird
Scissor-tailed Flycatcher
Humid
forest
Dry
forest
x
x
Cloud
forest
Estuaries &
mangroves
x
Beaches
Freshwater
Savannas
wetlands
Coral
reef
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
145
Species
English name
Pachyramphus aglaiae
Rose-throated Becard
Tityra semifasciata
Masked Tityra
Vireo pallens
Mangrove Vireo
Vireo flavifrons
Yellow-throated Vireo
Vireo solitarius
Blue-headed Vireo
Vireo gilvus
Warbling Vireo
Vireo leucophrys
Brown-capped Vireo
Vireo flavoviridis
Yellow-green Vireo
Hylophilus decurtatus
Lesser Greenlet
Cyclarhis gujanensis
Rufous-browed Peppershrike
Cyanocitta stelleri
Steller’s Jay
Calocitta formosa
White-throated Magpie-Jay
Cyanocorax melanocyaneus
Bushy-crested Jay
Progne chalybea
Gray-breasted Martin
Tachycineta albilinea
Mangrove Swallow
Tachycineta thalassina
Violet-green Swallow
Stelgidopteryx serripennis Northern Rough-winged Swallow
Petrochelidon pyrrhonota
Cliff Swallow
Hirundo rustica
Barn Swallow
Campylorhynchus rufinucha
Rufous-naped Wren
Thryothorus maculipectus
Spot-breasted Wren
Thryothorus rufalbus
Rufous-and-white Wren
Thryothorus pleurostictus
Banded Wren
Thryothorus modestus
Plain Wren
Troglodytes aedon
House Wren
Troglodytes rufociliatus
Rufous-browed Wren
Ramphocaenus melanurus
Long-billed Gnatwren
146
Humid
forest
x
Dry
forest
x
x
Cloud
forest
Estuaries &
mangroves
x
x
x
Beaches
Freshwater
Savannas
wetlands
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
x
x
x
Coral
reef
Species
English name
Polioptila caerulea
Polioptila albiloris
Myadestes occidentalis
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher
White-lored Gnatcatcher
Brown-backed Solitaire
Orange-billed NightingaleThrush
Ruddy-capped NightingaleThrush
Swainson’s Thrush
Black Robin
Clay-colored Robin
White-throated Robin
Tropical Mockingbird
Blue-and-white Mockingbird
Cedar Waxwing
Tennessee Warbler
Crescent-chested Warbler
Yellow Warbler
Catharus aurantiirostris
Catharus frantzii
Catharus ustulatus
Turdus infuscatus
Turdus grayi
Turdus assimilis
Mimus gilvus
Melanotis hypoleucus
Bombycilla cedrorum
Vermivora peregrina
Parula superciliosa
Dendroica petechia
Dendroica petechia
xantholora
Dendroica magnolia
Dendroica virens
Dendroica townsendi
Mniotilta varia
Setophaga ruticilla
Helmitheros vermivorum
Seiurus aurocapillus
Seiurus noveboracensis
Humid
forest
x
Dry
forest
x
x
Cloud
forest
Beaches
Freshwater
Savannas
wetlands
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Coral
reef
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Mangrove Warbler
Magnolia Warbler
Black-throated Green Warbler
Townsend’s Warbler
Black-and-white Warbler
American Redstart
Worm-eating Warbler
Ovenbird
Northern Waterthrush
Estuaries &
mangroves
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
x
147
Species
English name
Geothlypis trichas
Wilsonia pusilla
Wilsonia canadensis
Myioborus miniatus
Euthlypis lachrymosa
Basileuterus rufifrons
Icteria virens
Habia rubica
Habia fuscicauda
Piranga rubra
Piranga ludoviciana
Piranga bidentata
Piranga leucoptera
Thraupis episcopus
Thraupis abbas
Cyanerpes cyaneus
Volatinia jacarina
Sporophila torqueola
Sporophila minuta
Diglossa baritula
Melozone leucotis
Aimophila ruficauda
Ammodramus savannarum
Saltator coerulescens
Saltator atriceps
Pheucticus ludovicianus
Cyanocompsa parellina
Common Yellowthroat
Wilson’s Warbler
Canada Warbler
Slate-throated Redstart
Fan-tailed Warbler
Rufous-capped Warbler
Yellow-breasted Chat
Red-crowned Ant-Tanager
Red-throated Ant-Tanager
Summer Tanager
Western Tanager
Flame-colored Tanager
White-winged Tanager
Blue-gray Tanager
Yellow-winged Tanager
Red-legged Honeycreeper
Blue-black Grassquit
White-collared Seedeater
Ruddy-breasted Seedeater
Cinnamon-bellied Flowerpiercer
White-eared Ground-Sparrow
Stripe-headed Sparrow
Grasshopper Sparrow
Grayish Saltator
Black-headed Saltator
Rose-breasted Grosbeak
Blue Bunting
148
Humid
forest
x
x
x
x
x
Dry
forest
Cloud
forest
Estuaries &
mangroves
Beaches
Freshwater
Savannas
wetlands
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Coral
reef
Species
English name
Passerina caerulea
Passerina cyanea
Passerina ciris
Spiza americana
Agelaius phoeniceus
Sturnella magna
Dives dives
Quiscalus mexicanus
Molothrus aeneus
Icterus maculialatus
Icterus spurius
Icterus pustulatus
Icterus pectoralis
Icterus gularis
Icterus galbula
Amblycercus holosericeus
Euphonia affinis
Euphonia hirundinacea
Chlorophonia occipitalis
COUNT
Blue Grosbeak
Indigo Bunting
Painted Bunting
Dickcissel
Red-winged Blackbird
Eastern Meadowlark
Melodious Blackbird
Great-tailed Grackle
Bronzed Cowbird
Bar-winged Oriole
Orchard Oriole
Streak-backed Oriole
Spot-breasted Oriole
Altamira Oriole
Baltimore Oriole
Yellow-billed Cacique
Scrub Euphonia
Yellow-throated Euphonia
Blue-crowned Chlorophonia
Humid
forest
Dry
forest
x
x
x
Cloud
forest
Estuaries &
mangroves
Beaches
Freshwater
Savannas
wetlands
x
x
x
x
x
Coral
reef
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
110
55
71
66
x
x
x
x
x
83
106
x
46
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
11
149
A third option, and one which should be followed in El Salvador, is to use nationally
threatened bird species as the indicators for conservation importance of sites (Komar
2002). Komar et al. (2009) recently reevaluated all El Salvador birds to determine the
national threat status. They produced a list of 246 nationally threatened species, based
on international standards promoted by the World Conservation Union (IUCN 2003),
and including migratory species recognized as of conservation importance by any of
the several continental wide conservation plans developed for North American
migratory birds. This large list of rare and threatened species permits more options for
prioritizing areas for conservation than would a very small list of globally threatened or
near-threatened bird species (Komar 2002). Not all of the country’s nationally
threatened bird species are found in the study area, as some are restricted to other
areas such as the pine-oak forests and cloud forests along the Honduran border.
Approximately 188 nationally threatened species are useful indicators for prioritizing
sites of national conservation importance within the study area (Table 38). These
species can be stratified by level of threat. For example, 31 are critically endangered,
69 endangered, and 88 vulnerable.
2.3. SOURCE OF LOCALITY DATA
At the start of field work, SalvaNATURA’s flora y fauna database included 21,724 avian
locality records from the Project area, including mostly unpublished observations from
field notes, but also mist net captures and some museum specimens (Table 39). The
14,679 observation records represented over 76,000 individual birds. During field work,
thousands of new locality records were collected, and the database for the project area
was increased to 25,792 avian records. Of these, 4,068 were collected during the field
study by project staff. The 1,767 new observation records represent 6,083 individual
birds.
2.4. FIELD METHODS
New information on bird distribution and abundance was collected in the field via
observations and net captures. Observations were made during 296 hours by walking
through the study areas during most mornings, covering new territory each day as
much as possible, noting all birds identified in a field notebook. Observers varied, but
generally two people per field trip were assigned to this task, and they worked together,
such that each observation hour represents a team of two observers working for one
hour. Observations effort was distributed among all of the field sites (Table 40). When
possible, species observed were documented by photographs.
Birds were captured in standard, black nylon, 36 mm mesh mist nets, measuring 12 m
long by 2.6 m high purchased from the Association of Field Ornithologists (USA). The
nets were placed at ground-level, in various configurations adapted to the terrain,
considered by the field team to be useful for maximizing captures. No attempt was
made to standardize mist net effort among sites, since the purpose was to contribute to
the advancement of the existing inventory, rather than compare capture rates among
sites. Nonetheless, mist-netting effort (net-hours) were recorded so as to better
interpret the results from each site (Table 40). Once captured, birds were identified in
150
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 38. BIRDS OF NATIONAL CONSERVATION CONCERN (188 SPECIES),
USEFUL AS INDICATORS FOR SITE PRIORITIZATION IN THE STUDY AREA.
English
Family
Species
Spanish name
Status1
name
Anatidae
Cairina moschata
Pato Real
Muscovy
Duck
VU
Cracidae
Penelope
purpurascens
Pavo Cojolito
Crested Guan
CR
Cracidae
Penelopina nigra
Pajuil (Pava
Negra)
Highland
Guan
EN
Cracidae
Crax rubra
Hocofaisán
(Pajuil)
Great
Curassow
CR
Podicipedidae
Tachybaptus
dominicus
Zambullidor
Menor
Least Grebe
EN
Podicipedidae
Podilymbus
podiceps
Zambullidor
Piquipinto
Pied-billed
Grebe
EN
Pelicanidae
Pelecanus
erythrorhynchos
Pelicano Blanco
Americano
American
White Pelican
VU
Pelicanidae
Pelecanus
occidentalis
Pelicano Café
Brown Pelican
VU
Anhingidae
Anhinga anhinga
Pato Aguja
Anhinga
CR
Fregatidae
Fregata
magnificens
Fragata
Magnificent
Frigatebird
EN
Ardeidae
Botaurus pinnatus
Avetoro
Neotropical
Pinnated
Bittern
CR
Ardeidae
Ixobrychus exilis
Avetorito
Americano
Least Bittern
CR
Ardeidae
Tigrisoma
mexicanum
Garza Tigre
Gorjinuda
Bare-throated
Tiger-Heron
EN
Ardeidae
Egretta thula
Garza Nivea
Snowy Egret
EN
Ardeidae
Egretta caerulea
Garza Azul
Little Blue
Heron
EN
Ardeidae
Egretta tricolor
Garza Tricolor
Tricolored
Heron
CR
Ardeidae
Egretta rufescens
Garza Rojiza
Reddish Egret
VU
Ardeidae
Nycticorax
nycticorax
Garza-nocturna
Coroninegra
Blackcrowned
Night-Heron
EN
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
151
Family
Species
Spanish name
English
name
Status1
Ardeidae
Nyctanassa
violacea
Garza-nocturna
Coroniclara
Yellowcrowned
Night-Heron
VU
Ardeidae
Cochlearius
cochlearius
Garza Cucharón
Boat-billed
Heron
EN
Threskiornithidae
Eudocimus albus
Ibis Blanco
White Ibis
VU
Threskiornithidae
Platalea ajaja
Espátula Rosada
Roseate
Spoonbill
EN
Ciconiidae
Mycteria
americana
Cigueña
Americana
(Pulido)
Wood Stork
EN
Cathartidae
Sarcoramphus
papa
Zopilote Rey (Rey
Zope)
King Vulture
CR
Accipitridae
Leptodon
cayanensis
Milano Cabecigris
Gray-headed
Kite
EN
Accipitridae
Elanoides
forficatus
Milano Tijereta
Swallow-tailed
Kite
EN
Accipitridae
Elanus leucurus
Milano Coliblanco
White-tailed
Kite
VU
Accipitridae
Rostrhamus
sociabilis
Milano
Caracolero
Snail Kite
EN
Accipitridae
Ictinia plumbea
Milano Plomizo
Plumbeous
Kite
EN
Accipitridae
Busarellus
nigricollis
Aguililla Canela
Black-collared
Hawk
CR
Accipitridae
Geranospiza
caerulescens
Gavilán Zancudo
Crane Hawk
CR
Accipitridae
Leucopternis
albicollis
Aguililla Blanca
White Hawk
CR
Accipitridae
Buteogallus
urubitinga
Aguililla Negra
Mayor
Great BlackHawk
EN
Accipitridae
Parabuteo
unicinctus
Aguililla de Harris
Harris’s Hawk
EN
Accipitridae
Buteo swainsoni
Aguililla de
Swainson
Swainson’s
Hawk
VU
Accipitridae
Buteo albicaudatus
Aguililla
Coliblanca
White-tailed
Hawk
CR
152
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Family
Species
Spanish name
English
name
Status1
Accipitridae
Spizaetus tyrannus
Águila Tirana
(Águila Crestada
Negra)
Black HawkEagle
CR
Accipitridae
Spizaetus ornatus
Águila Elegante
Ornate HawkEagle
CR
Falconidae
Micrastur ruficollis
Halcón-selvático
Barrado
Barred
Forest-Falcon
EN
Falconidae
Caracara cheriway
Caracara Común
(Querque)
Crested
Caracara
VU
Falconidae
Falco rufigularis
Halcón
Murcielaguero
Bat Falcon
CR
Rallidae
Laterallus ruber
Polluela Rojiza
Ruddy Crake
VU
Rallidae
Aramides axillaris
Rascón
Cuellirrufo
Rufousnecked
Wood-Rail
VU
Rallidae
Aramides cajanea
Rascón Cuelligris
Gray-necked
Wood-Rail
CR
Rallidae
Porzana flaviventer
Polluela
Pechiamarilla
Yellowbreasted
Crake
EN
Rallidae
Porphyrio
martinica
Gallineta Morada
Purple
Gallinule
VU
Rallidae
Gallinula chloropus
Gallineta Común
Common
Moorhen
EN
Rallidae
Fulica americana
Gallareta
Americana
American
Coot
CR
Aramidae
Aramus guarauna
Carao (Garza
Caracolera)
Limpkin
VU
Burhinidae
Burhinus bistriatus
Alcaraván
Americana
Doublestriped Thickknee
VU
Charadriidae
Pluvialis
squatarola
Chorlo Gris
Black-bellied
Plover
VU
Charadriidae
Pluvialis dominica
Chorlo Dorado
Americano
American
Golden-Plover
EN
Charadriidae
Charadrius
alexandrinus
Chorlito Niveo
Snowy Plover
CR
Charadriidae
Charadrius
wilsonia
Chorlito
Piquigrueso
Wilson’s
Plover
EN
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
153
Family
Species
Spanish name
English
name
Status1
Charadriidae
Charadrius
vociferus
Chorlito Tildío
Killdeer
VU
Haematopodidae
Haematopus
palliatus
Ostrero
Americano
American
Oystercatcher
CR
Recurvirostridae
Himantopus
mexicanus
Cadelero
Americano
(Policía)
Black-necked
Stilt
EN
Recurvirostridae
Recurvirostra
americana
Avoceta
Americana
American
Avocet
VU
Scolopacidae
Tringa solitaria
Playero Solitario
Solitary
Sandpiper
EN
Scolopacidae
Tringa incana
Playero
Vagabundo
Wandering
Tattler
VU
Scolopacidae
Tringa
melanoleuca
Patamarilla
Mayor
Greater
Yellowlegs
VU
Scolopacidae
Tringa
semipalmata
Playero Pihuihui
Willet
VU
Scolopacidae
Tringa flavipes
Patamarilla
Menor
Lesser
Yellowlegs
VU
Scolopacidae
Bartramia
longicauda
Zarapito Ganga
Upland
Sandpiper
EN
Scolopacidae
Numenius
phaeopus
Zarapito Trinador
Whimbrel
EN
Scolopacidae
Numenius
americanus
Zarapito
Piquilargo
Long-billed
Curlew
CR
Scolopacidae
Limosa fedoa
Picopando
Canelo
Marbled
Godwit
EN
Scolopacidae
Arenaria interpres
Vuelvepiedras
Rojizo
Ruddy
Turnstone
EN
Scolopacidae
Aphriza virgata
Playero de
Marejada
Surfbird
EN
Scolopacidae
Calidris canutus
Playero Gordo
Red Knot
EN
Scolopacidae
Calidris alba
Playero Blanco
Sanderling
EN
Scolopacidae
Calidris pusilla
Playerito
Semipalmado
Semipalmated
Sandpiper
VU
Scolopacidae
Calidris mauri
Playerito
Occidental
Western
Sandpiper
EN
154
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Family
Species
Spanish name
English
name
Status1
Scolopacidae
Calidris minutilla
Playerito Mínimo
Least
Sandpiper
VU
Scolopacidae
Calidris
himantopus
Playero Zancudo
Stilt
Sandpiper
VU
Scolopacidae
Tryngites
subruficollis
Playerito Pradero
Buff-breasted
Sandpiper
CR
Scolopacidae
Limnodromus
griseus
Costurero
Piquicorto
Short-billed
Dowitcher
EN
Scolopacidae
Gallinago delicata
Agachona de
Wilson
Wilson’s
Snipe
VU
Scolopacidae
Phalaropus tricolor
Falarapo de
Wilson
Wilson’s
Phalarope
EN
Scolopacidae
Phalaropus lobatus
Falarapo
Cuellirojo
Red-necked
Phalarope
VU
Scolopacidae
Phalaropus
fulicarius
Falarapo
Piquigrueso
Red
Phalarope
VU
Laridae
Larus pipixcan
Gaviota de
Franklin
Franklin’s Gull
VU
Laridae
Sternula antillarum
Golondrinamarina Mínima
Least Tern
CR
Laridae
Gelochelidon
nilotica
Golondrinamarina
Piquigruesa
Gull-billed
Tern
EN
Laridae
Chlidonias niger
Golondrinamarina Negra
Black Tern
VU
Laridae
Sterna dougallii
Golondrinamarina Rosada
Roseate Tern
EN
Laridae
Sterna forsteri
Golondrinamarina de Forster
Forster’s Tern
VU
Laridae
Thalasseus
maximus
Golondrinamarina Real
Royal Tern
VU
Laridae
Thalasseus
elegans
Golondrinamarina Elegante
Elegant Tern
VU
Laridae
Rynchops niger
Rayador
Americano
Black
Skimmer
CR
Columbidae
Columbina minuta
Tórtola Pechilisa
Plainbreasted
Ground-Dove
EN
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
155
Family
Species
Spanish name
English
name
Status1
Columbidae
Claravis pretiosa
Tórtola Azul
Blue GroundDove
EN
Columbidae
Geotrygon
albifacies
Paloma-perdiz
Cariblanca
White-faced
Quail-Dove
VU
Columbidae
Geotrygon
montana
Paloma-perdiz
Rojiza
Ruddy QuailDove
VU
Psittacidae
Aratinga
holochlora
Perico Gorjirrojo
Green
Parakeet
EN
Psittacidae
Aratinga strenua
Perico Verde
Centroamericano
Pacific
Parakeet
VU
Psittacidae
Amazona albifrons
Loro Frentiblanco
White-fronted
Parrot
VU
Psittacidae
Amazona
auropalliata
Loro
Nuquiamarillo
Yellow-naped
Parrot
EN
Cuculidae
Coccyzus minor
Cuco Manglero
Mangrove
Cuckoo
VU
Tytonidae
Tyto alba
Lechuza de
Campanario
Barn Owl
VU
Strigidae
Megascops
trichopsis
Tecolote
Bigotudo
Whiskered
Screech-Owl
EN
Strigidae
Pulsatrix
perspicillata
Búho de Anteojos
Spectacled
Owl
VU
Strigidae
Bubo virginianus
Búho Cornudo
Great Horned
Owl
EN
Strigidae
Ciccaba
nigrolineata
Búho
Blanquinegro
Black-andwhite Owl
CR
Caprimulgidae
Chordeiles
acutipennis
Chotacabras
Menor
Lesser
Nighthawk
EN
Nyctibiidae
Nyctibius
jamaicensis
Bienparado
Norteño
Northern
Potoo
VU
Apodidae
Cypseloides niger
Vencejo Negro
Black Swift
VU
Apodidae
Aeronautes
saxatalis
Vencejo
Gorjiblanco
Whitethroated Swift
VU
Apodidae
Panyptila
cayennensis
Vencejo-tijereta
Menor
Lesser
Swallow-tailed
Swift
EN
156
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Family
Species
Spanish name
English
name
Status1
Trochilidae
Anthracothorax
prevostii
Mango
Pechiverde
Greenbreasted
Mango
VU
Trochilidae
Abeillia abeillei
Colibrí
Barbiesmeralda
Emeraldchinned
Hummingbird
VU
Trochilidae
Hylocharis eliciae
Zafiro Gorjiazul
Blue-throated
Goldentail
VU
Trochilidae
Hylocharis leucotis
Colibrí
Orejiblanco
White-eared
Hummingbird
VU
Trochilidae
Lampornis
viridipallens
Colibrí-serrano
Gorjiverde
Greenthroated
Mountain-gem
VU
Trochilidae
Lampornis
amethystinus
Colibrí-serrano
Gorjiamatisto
Amethystthroated
Hummingbird
VU
Trochilidae
Eugenes fulgens
Colibrí Magnífico
Magnificent
Hummingbird
VU
Trochilidae
Doricha enicura
Tijereta
Centroamericana
Slender
Sheartail
EN
Trochilidae
Tilmatura dupontii
Colibrí Colipinto
Sparklingtailed
Hummingbird
EN
Trochilidae
Atthis ellioti
Zumbador
Centroamericano
Wine-throated
Hummingbird
EN
Trogonidae
Trogon
melanocephalus
Trogón
Cabecinegro
Black-headed
Trogon
VU
Momotidae
Hylomanes
momotula
Momoto Enano
Tody Motmot
CR
Alcedinidae
Ceryle torquatus
Martín-pescador
Collarejo
Ringed
Kingfisher
CR
Alcedinidae
Chloroceryle
aenea
Martín-pescador
Enano
American
Pygmy
Kingfisher
VU
Ramphastidae
Aulacorhynchus
prasinus
Tucaneta Verde
(Tucán Verde)
Emerald
Toucanet
VU
Ramphastidae
Pteroglossus
torquatus
Tucancillo
Collarejo (Pico de
Navaja)
Collared
Aracari
VU
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
157
Family
Species
Spanish name
English
name
Status1
Picidae
Veniliornis
fumigatus
Carpintero Café
Smoky-brown
Woodpecker
EN
Picidae
Dryocopus lineatus
Carpintero
Lineado
Lineated
Woodpecker
VU
Picidae
Campephilus
guatemalensis
Carpintero
Piquiclaro
Pale-billed
Woodpecker
EN
Furnariidae
Synallaxis
erythrothorax
Guitío Pechirrufo
Rufousbreasted
Spinetail
EN
Furnariidae
Dendrocincla
homochroa
Trepatroncos
Rojizo
Ruddy
Woodcreeper
CR
Furnariidae
Sittasomus
griseicapillus
Trepatroncos
Olivaceo
Olivaceous
Woodcreeper
EN
Furnariidae
Xiphocolaptes
promeropirhynchus
Trepatroncos
Gigante
Strong-billed
Woodcreeper
EN
Furnariidae
Dendrocolaptes
sanctithomae
Trepador Barrado
Northern
BarredWoodcreeper
CR
Furnariidae
Lepidocolaptes
souleyetii
Trepatroncos
Corona-rayada
Streakheaded
Woodcreeper
VU
Formicariidae
Grallaria
guatimalensis
Hormiguerocholino
Escamoso
Scaled
Antpitta
EN
Tyrannidae
Mionectes
oleagineus
Mosquero
Vientre-ocre
Ochre-bellied
Flycatcher
VU
Tyrannidae
Zimmerius
vilissimus
Mosquerito
Cejiblanco
Paltry
Tyrannulet
VU
Tyrannidae
Oncostoma
cinereigulare
Picocurvo
Norteño
Northern
Bentbill
VU
Tyrannidae
Rhynchocyclus
brevirostris
Picoplano de
Anteojos
Eye-ringed
Flatbill
EN
Tyrannidae
Platyrinchus
cancrominus
Picochato Rabón
Stub-tailed
Spadebill
CR
Tyrannidae
Contopus cooperi
Pibí Boreal
Olive-sided
Flycatcher
VU
Tyrannidae
Empidonax traillii
Mosquero
Saucero
Willow
Flycatcher
VU
Tyrannidae
Sayornis nigricans
Mosquero Negro
Black Phoebe
EN
158
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Family
Species
Spanish name
English
name
Status1
Tyrannidae
Attila spadiceus
Atila Rabadillabrillante
Bright-rumped
Attila
EN
Tyrannidae
Myiarchus
tyrannulus
Copetón Tirano
Browncrested
Flycatcher
EN
Incertae sedis
Pachyramphus
major
Cabezón
Cuelligris
Gray-collared
Becard
VU
Pipridae
Chiroxiphia linearis
Saltarín Colilargo
(Toledo)
Long-tailed
Manakin
VU
Vireonidae
Vireo pallens
Vireo Manglero
Mangrove
Vireo
VU
Vireonidae
Vireo bellii
Vireo de Bell
Bell’s Vireo
EN
Vireonidae
Vireo leucophrys
Vireo Gorripardo
Browncapped Vireo
EN
Vireonidae
Vireolanius
pulchellus
Vireón Esmeraldo
Green ShrikeVireo
CR
Troglodytidae
Salpinctes
obsoletus
Saltapared
Roquero
Rock Wren
EN
Troglodytidae
Troglodytes
rufociliatus
Saltapared
Cejirrufo
Rufousbrowed Wren
VU
Sylviidae
Ramphocaenus
melanurus
Soterillo Picudo
Long-billed
Gnatwren
VU
Turdidae
Sialia sialis
Azulejo
Gorjicanelo
Eastern
Bluebird
VU
EN
Turdidae
Catharus frantzii
Zorzalito de
Frantzius
Ruddycapped
NightingaleThrush
Turdidae
Hylocichla
mustelina
Zorzalito
Maculado
Wood Thrush
VU
Turdidae
Turdus infuscatus
Zorzal Negro
Black Robin
VU
Turdidae
Turdus assimilis
Zorzal
Gorjiblanco
Whitethroated
Robin
VU
Turdidae
Turdus rufitorques
Zorzal Cuellirufo
Rufouscollared Robin
EN
Mimidae
Melanotis
hypoleucus
Mulato
Pechiblanco
Blue-andwhite
Mockingbird
VU
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
159
160
Family
Species
Spanish name
English
name
Status1
Parulidae
Vermivora pinus
Chipe Aliazul
Blue-winged
Warbler
VU
Parulidae
Vermivora
chrysoptera
Chipe Alidorado
Goldenwinged
Warbler
EN
Parulidae
Parula superciliosa
Chipe Cejiblanco
Crescentchested
Warbler
VU
Parulidae
Dendroica
petechia
xantholora
Chipe de Manglar
Mangrove
Warbler
VU
Parulidae
Dendroica
chrysoparia
Chipe Caridorado
Goldencheeked
Warbler
CR
Parulidae
Dendroica
occidentalis
Chipe
Cabeciamarillo
Hermit
Warbler
VU
Parulidae
Dendroica graciae
Chipe de Grace
Grace’s
Warbler
EN
Parulidae
Protonotaria citrea
Chipe
Protonotario
Prothonotary
Warbler
VU
Parulidae
Helmitheros
vermivorum
Chipe Gusanero
Worm-eating
Warbler
VU
Parulidae
Oporornis
formosus
Chipe de
Kentucky
Kentucky
Warbler
VU
Parulidae
Geothlypis
poliocephala
Mascarita
Piquigruesa
Gray-crowned
Yellowthroat
VU
Parulidae
Wilsonia
canadensis
Chipe Collarejo
Canada
Warbler
VU
Parulidae
Cardellina
rubrifrons
Chipe Carirrojo
Red-faced
Warbler
VU
Parulidae
Myioborus pictus
Pavito Aliblanco
Painted
Redstart
VU
Parulidae
Basileuterus
culicivorus
Chipe Coronadorada
Goldencrowned
Warbler
EN
Thraupidae
Habia rubica
Tángarahormiguera
Coronirroja
Red-crowned
Ant-Tanager
EN
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Family
Species
Spanish name
English
name
Status1
Thraupidae
Piranga bidentata
Tángara
Dorsirrayada
Flame-colored
Tanager
VU
Emberizidae
Amaurospiza
concolor
Semillero Azul
Blue
Seedeater
EN
Diglossa baritula
Picaflor Vientrecanelo
Cinnamonbellied
Flowerpiercer
VU
Emberizidae
Melozone leucotis
Rascador
Orejiblanco
White-eared
GroundSparrow
VU
Cardinalidae
Passerina ciris
Colorín
Sietecolores
Painted
Bunting
EN
Cardinalidae
Spiza americana
Arrocero
Americano
Dickcissel
VU
Icteridae
Icterus wagleri
Bolsero de
Wagler
Black-vented
Oriole
EN
Icteridae
Cacicus
melanicterus
Cacique
Mexicano
Yellowwinged
Cacique
CR
Fringillidae
Euphonia
hirundinacea
Eufonia
Gorjiamarillo
Yellowthroated
Euphonia
VU
Fringillidae
Euphonia
elegantissima
Eufonia Capuchaazul
Elegant
Euphonia
VU
Fringillidae
Chlorophonia
occipitalis
Clorofonia
Coroniazul
Blue-crowned
Chlorophonia
VU
Emberizidae
1
CR=Critically Endangered, EN=Endangered, VU=Vulnerable. Source: Komar et al.
(2009).
the hand and recorded in the field notes. Each species was documented by digital
photographs. Most individuals were released unharmed after capture, although some
individuals, generally one or two per species at each site, were collected as voucher
specimens and deposited in the scientific collections of the El Salvador Natural History
Museum and the Univeristy of Kansas Natural History Museum and Biodiversity
Research Center (Lawrence, Kansas, USA). All handling and collecting of birds was
carried out with authorization from the Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
161
TABLE 39. TYPES OF AVIAN LOCALITY RECORDS AVAILABLE FOR THE
PRESENT ANALYSIS.
IMCW
Record type
Ahuachapán
Sonsonate
Santa Ana
Project
Area
Prior to Field Study
Museum specimens
467
876
327
1,670
Photographic records
136
8
271
415
Mist net captures
1,708
1,484
1768
4,960
Observational records
10,470
2,122
2087
14,679
Museum specimens
126
266
14
406
Mist net captures
667
547
681
1895
Observational records
491
1197
79
1767
Total record count
14,065
6,500
5,227
25,792
During Field Study
Source: SalvaNATURA Flora & Fauna Database.
TABLE 40. SAMPLING EFFORT FOR BIRDS AT EACH STUDY SITE DURING 2007
FIELD WORK.
Observation
Mist-netting
Site
hours
hours
Santo Domingo de Guzmán
21
0
Plan de Amayo
50
837
Laguna de las Ninfas
15
1,545
Lavas de Izalco/Finca María Auxiliadora
10
1,940
Barra Salada
35
1,536
Los Cóbanos
63
1,933
Laguna de las Ranas
30
567
Bosque Santa Rita
72
2,366
Totals
296
10,724
162
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. SPECIES RECORDED
At the start of the study (mid 2007), 412 bird species (75% of the 548 species recorded
in the country) were recorded within the IMCW project area, including all of the 74
inventory indicator (test) bird species, as well as 167 conservation important species. In
general, the Project area was already well inventoried for birds, with recording localities
scattered across all 11 watersheds and 16 of the 25 municipalities (Komar 2007).
Contemporaneous with this study, one new species was added to the national bird list,
and shortly after the field study, two additional species were discovered for the national
list. All three were wandering migratory species that were recorded inside the project
area: one was a Magellanic Penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) washed ashore at
Barra de Santiago in June 2007 and found by park guards (reported in Jones and
Komar 2008); the other was a White-eyed Vireo (Vireo griseus) captured at a bird
monitoring station in El Imposible National Park in March 2008, by IMCW project
workers (Lety Andino, pers. comm.). The third was a group of Black-vented
Shearwaters (Puffinus opisthomelas) found in off-shore waters of Los Cóbanos
Protected Natural Area by Ministry of Environment and Natural Resources staff in
October 2008 (Ricardo Ibarra, pers. comm.). Studies of marine birds off Los Cóbanos
have since discovered at least four additional species for the study area (R. Ibarra,
pers. comm.).
Although the ornithology team in this study did not detect any new species for El
Salvador, they did detect many new species for the project area, and for the
Ahuachapán and Sonsonate departments, despite the inventory having already been
relatively complete (100% of test species had already been recorded). The proportion
of test species recorded serves as a relative indicator, or index, of inventory
completeness, but the possibility of finding new, rare species once all of the test
species are encountered always exists. The team detected 12 new bird species for the
Project Area, bringing the total bird list for the area to 431 species (Table 41),
representing 79% of the national list.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
163
164
Figure 15A.Wine-throated Hummingbird (Atthis ellioti),
Laguna de Las Ranas. October 2007. By: Carlos Funes.
Figure 15B. Emerald-chinned Hummingbird (Abeillia
abeillei), Laguna de Las Ranas. October 2007. By:
Carlos Funes.
Figure 15C. Great Horned Owl (Bubo virginianus), Plan
de Amayo. October 2007. By: Carlos Funes.
Figure 15D. Emerald Toucanet (Aulacorhynchus
prasinus), Laguna de Las Ranas, October 2007. By:
Carlos Funes.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Figure 15E. Eggs of the White-collared Swift
(Streptoprocne zonaris), found in Santo Domingo de
Guzmán. July 2007. By: Carlos Funes.
Figure 15F. Scaled Antpitta (Grallaria guatimalensis),
Laguna de las Ninfas. July 2007. By: Karla Lara.
Figure 15G. Rock Wren (Salpinctes obsoletus), an
individual captured in the lava field of Volcán de Izalco.
August 2007. By: Carlos Funes.
Figure 15H. Tricolored Munia (Lonchura malacca), Santa
Rita Protected Natural Area. September 2007. By: Carlos
Funes.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
165
166
Figure 15I. Boat-billed Heron (Cochlearius cochlearius),
Santa Rita Protected Natural Area, September 2007. By:
Carlos Funes.
Figure 15J. American Pygmy Kingfisher (Chloroceryle
aenea) female, Santa Rita Protected Natural Area,
September 2007. By: Carlos Funes.
Figure 15K. Rose-throated Becard (Pachyramphus
aglaiae) female, Santa Rita Protected Natural Area,
November 2007. By: Jorge Jiménez.
Figure 15L. Yellow-winged Cacique (Cacicus
melanicterus), Los Cóbanos, August 2007. By: Carlos
Funes.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Figure 15M. Wandering Tattler (Tringa incana), Los
Cóbanos Protected Natural Area. December 2007. By:
Karla Lara.
Figure 15N. Pomarine Jaeger (Stercorarius pomarinus),
Los Cóbanos Protected Natural Area. December 2007.
By: Karla Lara.
Figure 15O. Green-breasted Mango (Anthracothorax
prevostii), Los Cóbanos. August 2007. By: Carlos
Funes.
Figure 15P. Purple Gallinule (Porphyrio martinica), Playa
El Zope, Los Cóbanos Protected Natural Area. August
2007. By: Carlos Funes.
FIGURE 15. SELECTED PHOTOGRAPHS OF BIRDS TAKEN DURING THE FIELD STUDY.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
167
TABLE 41. LIST OF 431 BIRD SPECIES RECORDED IN THE PROJECT AREA (order follows AOU Checklist, www.aou.org).
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Crypturellus cinnamomeus
Tinamú Canelo
Thicket Tinamou
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Dendrocygna autumnalis
Pijiji Aliblanco (Pishishe)
Black-bellied Whistling-Duck
Resident
Cairina moschata
Pato Real
Muscovy Duck
Resident
Anas americana
Pato Chalcuan
American Wigeon
Visitor
Anas platyrhynchos
Cerceta Cuello Negro
Mallard
Migratory Vagrant
Anas discors
Cerceta Aliazul, Pajarilla
Blue-winged Teal
Visitor
Anas clypeata
Pato Cucharón Norteño
Northern Shoveler
Visitor
Oxyura jamaicensis
Pato Tepalcate
Ruddy Duck
Status Uncertain
Ortalis leucogastra
Chachalaca Vientre-blanco
White-bellied Chachalaca
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Penelope purpurascens
Pavo Cojolito
Crested Guan
Resident
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Penelopina nigra
Pajuil (Pava Negra)
Highland Guan
Resident
Forest Specialist
Highlands
Crax rubra
Hocofaisán (Pajuil)
Great Curassow
Resident
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Dendrortyx leucophrys
Gallina-de-monte
Centroamericana
Buffy-crowned Wood-Partridge
Resident
Forest Generalist
Highlands
168
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Colinus cristatus
Codorniz-cotui Centroamericana
Crested Bobwhite
Resident
Open Area
Generalist
Lowlands
Dactylortyx thoracicus
Codorniz Silbadora
Singing Quail
Resident
Forest Generalist
Highlands
Tachybaptus dominicus
Zambullidor Menor
Least Grebe
Resident
Podilymbus podiceps
Zambullidor Piquipinto
Pied-billed Grebe
Resident and
migratory
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Spheniscus magellanicus
Pingüino de Magellanes
Magellanic Penguin
Migratory Vagrant
Marine Waters
Lowlands
Puffinus pacificus
Pardela Colicuña
Wedge-tailed Shearwater
Visitor
Marine Waters
Lowlands
Puffinus opisthomelas
Pardela Mexicana
Black-vented Shearwater
Visitor
Marine Waters
Lowlands
Puffinus lherminieri
Pardela de Audubón
Audubon’s Shearwater
Visitor
Marine Waters
Lowlands
Phaethon aethereus
Rabijunco Piquirrojo
Red-billed Tropicbird
Non-migratory
Vagrant
Marine Waters
Lowlands
Sula granti
Bobo Enmascarado de Grant
Nazca Booby
Visitor
Marine Waters
Lowlands
Sula nebouxii
Bobo Patiazul
Blue-footed Booby
Visitor
Marine Waters
Lowlands
Sula leucogaster
Bobo Vientre-blanco
Brown Booby
Visitor
Marine Waters
Lowlands
Pelecanus erythrorhynchos
Pelicano Blanco Americano
American White Pelican
Visitor
Pelecanus occidentalis
Pelicano Café
Brown Pelican
Visitor
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
169
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Phalacrocorax brasilianus
Cormorán Neotropical
Neotropic Cormorant
Resident
Anhinga anhinga
Pato Aguja
Anhinga
Resident
Fregata magnificens
Fragata
Magnificent Frigatebird
Visitor
Ixobrychus exilis
Avetorito Americano
Least Bittern
Resident
Tigrisoma mexicanum
Garza Tigre Gorjinuda
Bare-throated Tiger-Heron
Resident
Ardea herodias
Garzon Cenizo
Great Blue Heron
Visitor
Ardea alba
Garza Grande
Great Egret
Egretta thula
Garza Nivea
Snowy Egret
Egretta caerulea
Garza Azul
Little Blue Heron
Visitor
Egretta tricolor
Garza Tricolor
Tricolored Heron
Resident and
migratory
Egretta rufescens
Garza Rojiza
Reddish Egret
Visitor
Bubulcus ibis
Garza Ganadera (Garrapatera)
Cattle Egret
Resident
Butorides virescens
Garza Verde
Green Heron
Resident and
migratory
170
Resident and
migratory
Resident and
migratory
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Habitat
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Elevation
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Nycticorax nycticorax
Garza-nocturna Coroninegra
Black-crowned Night-Heron
Resident
Nyctanassa violacea
Garza-nocturna Coroniclara
Yellow-crowned Night-Heron
Visitor
Cochlearius cochlearius
Garza Cucharón
Boat-billed Heron
Resident
Eudocimus albus
Ibis Blanco
White Ibis
Resident
Platalea ajaja
Espátula Rosada
Roseate Spoonbill
Resident
Mycteria americana
Cigueña Americana (Pulido)
Wood Stork
Coragyps atratus
Zopilote Negro
Black Vulture
Cathartes aura
Aura Cabecirroja
Turkey Vulture
Cathartes burrovianus
Aura Sabanera
Lesser Yellow-headed Vulture
Sarcoramphus papa
Zopilote Rey (Rey Zope)
Pandion haliaetus
Habitat
Elevation
Resident and
migratory
Resident and
migratory
Resident and
migratory
Non-migratory
Vagrant
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Specialist
King Vulture
Resident
Forest Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Gavilán Pescador
Osprey
Visitor
Wetlands
Specialist
Lowlands
Leptodon cayanensis
Milano Cabecigris
Gray-headed Kite
Resident
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Chondrohierax uncinatus
Milano Piquiganchudo
Hook-billed Kite
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
171
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Elanoides forficatus
Milano Tijereta
Swallow-tailed Kite
Transient
Forest Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Elanus leucurus
Milano Coliblanco
White-tailed Kite
Resident
Rostrhamus sociabilis
Milano Caracolero
Snail Kite
Status Uncertain
Harpagus bidentatus
Milano Bidentado
Double-toothed Kite
Non-migratory
Vagrant
Forest Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Ictinia mississippiensis
Milano de Misisipi
Mississippi Kite
Transient
Forest Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Ictinia plumbea
Milano Plomizo
Plumbeous Kite
Breeding Visitor
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Busarellus nigricollis
Aguililla Canela
Black-collared Hawk
Extinct (Locally)
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Circus cyaneus
Gavilán Rastrero
Northern Harrier
Visitor
Open Area
Generalist
Lowlands
Accipiter striatus
Gavilán Pajarero
Sharp-shinned Hawk
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Accipiter cooperi
Gavilán de Cooper
Cooper’s Hawk
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Geranospiza caerulescens
Gavilán Zancudo
Crane Hawk
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Leucopternis albicollis
Aguililla Blanca
White Hawk
Resident
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Buteogallus anthracinus
Aguililla Negra Menor
Common Black-Hawk
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
172
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Open Area
Generalist
Wetlands
Specialist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Buteogallus urubitinga
Aguililla Negra Mayor
Great Black-Hawk
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Parabuteo unicinctus
Aguililla de Harris
Harris’s Hawk
Resident
Buteo magnirostris
Aguililla Caminera
Roadside Hawk
Resident
Buteo platypterus
Aguililla Aluda
Broad-winged Hawk
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Highlands
Buteo nitidus
Aguililla Gris
Gray Hawk
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Buteo brachyurus
Aguililla Colicorta
Short-tailed Hawk
Resident and
migratory
Forest Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Buteo swainsoni
Aguililla de Swainson
Swainson’s Hawk
Transient
Buteo albicaudatus
Aguililla Coliblanca
White-tailed Hawk
Resident
Buteo albonotatus
Aguililla Aura
Zone-tailed Hawk
Resident and
migratory
Open Area
Generalist
Lowlands
Buteo jamaicensis
Aguililla Colirroja
Red-tailed Hawk
Resident and
migratory
Forest Generalist
Highlands
Spizaetus tyrannus
Águila Tirana (Águila Crestada
Negra)
Black Hawk-Eagle
Resident
Forest Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Spizaetus ornatus
Águila Elegante
Ornate Hawk-Eagle
Extinct (Locally)
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Micrastur ruficollis
Halcón-selvático Barrado
Barred Forest-Falcon
Resident
Forest Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Micrastur semitorquatus
Halcón-selvático Barrado
Collared Forest-Falcon
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Open Area
Specialist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
173
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Caracara cheriway
Caracara Común (Querque)
Crested Caracara
Resident
Open Area
Generalist
Lowlands
Herpetotheres cachinnans
Halcón Guaco (Guas)
Laughing Falcon
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Falco sparverius
Cernícalo Américano
American Kestrel
Resident and
migratory
Open Area
Specialist
Altitude
Generalist
Falco columbarius
Esmerejón
Merlin
Visitor
Open Area
Generalist
Lowlands
Falco rufigularis
Halcón Murcielaguero
Bat Falcon
Resident
Open Area
Generalist
Lowlands
Falco peregrinus
Halcón Peregrino
Peregrine Falcon
Visitor
Open Area
Generalist
Lowlands
Aramides axillaris
Rascón Cuellirrufo
Rufous-necked Wood-Rail
Resident
Forest Specialist
Aramides cajanea
Rascón Cuelligris
Gray-necked Wood-Rail
Resident
Wetlands
Specialist
Porzana carolina
Polluela Sora
Sora
Visitor
Wetlands
Specialist
Lowlands
Porphyrio martinica
Gallineta Morada
Purple Gallinule
Resident
Wetlands
Specialist
Lowlands
Gallinula chloropus
Gallineta Común
Common Moorhen
Resident and
migratory
Wetlands
Specialist
Lowlands
Fulica americana
Gallareta Americana
American Coot
Resident and
migratory
Wetlands
Specialist
Altitude
Generalist
174
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Heliornis fulica
Pájaro-cantil
Sungrebe
Non-migratory
Vagrant
Wetlands
Specialist
Lowlands
Aramus guarauna
Carao (Garza Caracolera)
Limpkin
Resident
Wetlands
Specialist
Lowlands
Burhinus bistriatus
Alcaraván Americana
Double-striped Thick-knee
Resident
Pluvialis squatarola
Chorlo Gris
Black-bellied Plover
Visitor
Pluvialis dominica
Chorlo Dorado Americano
American Golden-Plover
Transient
Charadrius collaris
Chorlito Collarejo
Collared Plover
Visitor
Charadrius alexandrinus
Chorlito Niveo
Snowy Plover
Visitor
Charadrius wilsonia
Chorlito Piquigrueso
Wilson’s Plover
Resident and
migratory
Charadrius semipalmatus
Chorlo Semipalmado
Semipalmated Plover
Visitor
Charadrius vociferus
Chorlito Tildío
Killdeer
Visitor
Haematopus palliatus
Ostrero Americano
American Oystercatcher
Resident
Himantopus mexicanus
Cadelero Americano (Policía)
Black-necked Stilt
Resident
Jacana spinosa
Jacana Mesoamericana
Northern Jacana
Resident
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Open Area
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
175
176
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Actitis macularius
Playero Alzacolita (Alzaculito)
Spotted Sandpiper
Visitor
Tringa solitaria
Playero Solitario
Solitary Sandpiper
Visitor
Tringa incana
Playero Vagabundo
Wandering Tattler
Visitor
Tringa melanoleuca
Patamarilla Mayor
Greater Yellowlegs
Visitor
Tringa semipalmata
Playero Pihuihui
Willet
Visitor
Tringa flavipes
Patamarilla Menor
Lesser Yellowlegs
Visitor
Bartramia longicauda
Zarapito Ganga
Upland Sandpiper
Transient
Numenius phaeopus
Zarapito Trinador
Whimbrel
Visitor
Numenius americanus
Zarapito Piquilargo
Long-billed Curlew
Visitor
Limosa fedoa
Picopando Canelo
Marbled Godwit
Visitor
Arenaria interpres
Vuelvepiedras Rojizo
Ruddy Turnstone
Visitor
Aphriza virgata
Playero de Marejada
Surfbird
Transient
Calidris canutus
Playero Gordo
Red Knot
Visitor
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Habitat
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Open Area
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Elevation
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Calidris alba
Playero Blanco
Sanderling
Visitor
Wetlands
Specialist
Lowlands
Calidris pusilla
Playerito Semipalmado
Semipalmated Sandpiper
Visitor
Wetlands
Specialist
Lowlands
Calidris mauri
Playerito Occidental
Western Sandpiper
Visitor
Calidris minutilla
Playerito Mínimo
Least Sandpiper
Visitor
Calidris melanotos
Playero Pectoral
Pectoral Sandpiper
Transient
Calidris himantopus
Playero Zancudo
Stilt Sandpiper
Transient
Limnodromus griseus
Costurero Piquicorto
Short-billed Dowitcher
Visitor
Gallinago delicata
Agachona de Wilson
Wilson’s Snipe
Visitor
Phalaropus lobatus
Falarapo Cuellirojo
Red-necked Phalarope
Visitor
Marine Waters
Lowlands
Phalaropus fulicarius
Falarapo Piquigrueso
Red Phalarope
Migratory Vagrant
Marine Waters
Lowlands
Leucophaeus atricilla
Gaviota Reidora
Laughing Gull
Visitor
Leucophaeus pipixcan
Gaviota de Franklin
Franklin’s Gull
Transient
Larus delawarensis
Gaviota Piquianillada
Ring-billed Gull
Migratory Vagrant
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
177
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Chlidonias niger
Golondrina-marina Negra
Black Tern
Transient
Sterna dougallii
Golondrina-marina Rosada
Roseate Tern
Migratory Vagrant
Sterna hirundo
Golondrina-marina Común
Common Tern
Visitor
Thalasseus maximus
Golondrina-marina Real
Royal Tern
Visitor
Thalasseus sandvicensis
Golondrina-marina de Sandwich
Sandwich Tern
Visitor
Marine Waters
Lowlands
Thalasseus elegans
Golondrina-marina Elegante
Elegant Tern
Rayador Americano
Black Skimmer
Stercorarius pomarinus
Salteador Pomarino
Paloma Doméstica (Paloma de
Castillo)
Pomarine Jaeger
Rock Pigeon
Resident
Marine Waters
Wetlands
Specialist
Marine Waters
Open Area
Generalist
Lowlands
Rynchops niger
Transient
Resident and
migratory
Transient
Patagioenas flavirostris
Paloma Morada
Red-billed Pigeon
Resident
Forest Generalist
Patagioenas fasciata
Paloma Encinera
Band-tailed Pigeon
Zenaida asiatica
Paloma Aliblanca
White-winged Dove
Resident
Resident and
migratory
Zenaida macroura
Paloma Huilota
Mourning Dove
Visitor
Columbina inca
Tórtola Colilarga
Inca Dove
Resident
Columbina passerina
Tórtola Común
Common Ground-Dove
Resident
Columbina minuta
Tórtola Pechilisa
Plain-breasted Ground-Dove
Resident
Forest Specialist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Specialist
Open Area
Specialist
Columba livia
178
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Habitat
Wetlands
Specialist
Marine Waters
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Elevation
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Columbina talpacoti
Tortolita Rojiza
Ruddy Ground-Dove
Resident
Claravis pretiosa
Leptotila verreauxi
Geotrygon albifacies
Geotrygon montana
Tórtola Azul
Paloma Arroyera (Rodadora)
Paloma-perdiz Cariblanca
Paloma-perdiz Rojiza
Blue Ground-Dove
White-tipped Dove
White-faced Quail-Dove
Ruddy Quail-Dove
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Open Area
Generalist
Forest Specialist
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Aratinga holochlora
Perico Gorjirrojo
Green Parakeet
Status Uncertain
Forest Specialist
Aratinga strenua
Perico Verde Centroamericano
Pacific Parakeet
Resident
Forest Generalist
Aratinga canicularis
Perico Frentinaranja
Orange-fronted Parakeet
Resident
Forest Generalist
Brotogeris jugularis
Amazona albifrons
Amazona auropalliata
Piaya cayana
Coccyzus americanus
Periquito Barbinaranja
Loro Frentiblanco
Loro Nuquiamarillo
Chocolatero, Piscoy
Cuco Piquiamarillo
Orange-chinned Parakeet
White-fronted Parrot
Yellow-naped Parrot
Squirrel Cuckoo
Yellow-billed Cuckoo
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Coccyzus minor
Cuco Manglero
Mangrove Cuckoo
Tapera naevia
Cuco Rayado
Striped Cuckoo
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Transient
Resident and
migratory
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Highlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Morococcyx erythropygus
Cuco-terrestre Menor
Lesser Ground-Cuckoo
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Geococcyx velox
Correcaminos Menor
Lesser Roadrunner
Resident
Crotophaga sulcirostris
Pijuyo
Groove-billed Ani
Resident
Tyto alba
Lechuza de Campanario
Barn Owl
Resident
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Habitat
Forest Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Elevation
Lowlands
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
179
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Megascops cooperi
Megascops trichopsis
Pulsatrix perspicillata
Tecolote de Cooper
Tecolote Bigotudo
Búho de Anteojos
Pacific Screech-Owl
Whiskered Screech-Owl
Spectacled Owl
Resident
Resident
Resident
Forest Generalist
Forest Specialist
Forest Specialist
Bubo virginianus
Búho Cornudo
Great Horned Owl
Resident
Forest Generalist
Glaucidium brasilianum
Tecolotito Común (Aurorita)
Ferruginous Pygmy-Owl
Resident
Forest Generalist
Ciccaba virgata
Búho Café
Mottled Owl
Resident
Forest Generalist
Ciccaba nigrolineata
Búho Blanquinegro
Black-and-white Owl
Resident
Pseudoscops clamator
Búho-cornudo Cariblanco
Striped Owl
Resident
Chordeiles acutipennis
Chotacabras Menor
Lesser Nighthawk
Resident and
migratory
Common Pauraque
Resident
Chuck-will’s-widow
Forest Specialist
Open Area
Specialist
Open Area
Specialist
Open Area
Generalist
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Highlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Caprimulgus carolinensis
Tapacaminos Pucuyo
(Caballero)
Tapacaminos Carolinense
Caprimulgus vociferus
Tapacaminos Cuerprihuio
Whip-poor-will
Nyctibius jamaicensis
Bienparado Norteño
Northern Potoo
Transient
Resident and
migratory
Resident
Cypseloides niger
Vencejo Negro
Black Swift
Status Uncertain
Streptoprocne rutila
Vencejo Cuellicastaño
Chestnut-collared Swift
Resident
Streptoprocne zonaris
Vencejo Cuelliblanco
White-collared Swift
Resident
Chaetura vauxi
Vencejo de Vaux
Vaux’s Swift
Resident
Nyctidromus albicollis
180
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Aeronautes saxatalis
Vencejo Gorjiblanco
White-throated Swift
Visitor
Panyptila cayennensis
Vencejo-tijereta Menor
Lesser Swallow-tailed Swift
Resident
Panyptila sanctihieronymi
Vencejo-tijereta Mayor
Great Swallow-tailed Swift
Resident
Campylopterus rufus
Fandanguero Rufo
Rufous Sabrewing
Resident
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Forest Specialist
Campylopterus hemileucurus
Fandanguero Morado
Violet Sabrewing
Resident
Forest Generalist
Florisuga mellivora
Jacobino Nuquiblanco
White-necked Jacobin
Non-migratory
Vagrant
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Colibri thalassinus
Orejavioleta Verde
Green Violetear
Resident
Open Area
Specialist
Highlands
Anthracothorax prevostii
Mango Pechiverde
Green-breasted Mango
Resident and
migratory
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Abeillia abeillei
Colibrí Barbiesmeralda
Resident
Forest Specialist
Highlands
Chlorostilbon canivetii
Hylocharis eliciae
Amazilia beryllina
Esmeralda de Canivet
Zafiro Gorjiazul
Colibrí de Berilo
Emerald-chinned
Hummingbird
Canivet's Emerald
Blue-throated Goldentail
Berylline Hummingbird
Resident
Resident
Resident
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Amazilia rutila
Colibrí Canelo
Cinnamon Hummingbird
Resident
Lampornis viridipallens
Colibrí-serrano Gorjiverde
Resident
Highlands
Lampornis amethystinus
Colibrí-serrano Gorjiamatisto
Green-throated Mountain-gem
Amethyst-throated
Hummingbird
Forest Generalist
Forest Specialist
Forest Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Forest Generalist
Resident
Forest Generalist
Highlands
Eugenes fulgens
Colibrí Magnífico
Magnificent Hummingbird
Resident
Open Area
Specialist
Highlands
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Habitat
Elevation
Highlands
Lowlands
Highlands
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
181
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Heliomaster longirostris
Picolargo Coroniazul
Long-billed Starthroat
Resident
Lowlands
Heliomaster constantii
Picolargo Coronioscuro
Plain-capped Starthroat
Resident
Doricha enicura
Tijereta Centroamericana
Slender Sheartail
Status Uncertain
Tilmatura dupontii
Colibrí Colipinto
Sparkling-tailed Hummingbird
Status Uncertain
Forest Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Specialist
Open Area
Specialist
Archilochus colubris
Colibrí Gorjirrubi
Ruby-throated Hummingbird
Visitor
Atthis ellioti
Zumbador Centroamericano
Wine-throated Hummingbird
Resident
Selasphorus platycercus
Zumbador Coliancho
Broad-tailed Hummingbird
Trogon melanocephalus
Hylomanes momotula
Trogón Cabecinegro
Trogón Violaceo (Coa
Pechiamarilla)
Trogón Elegante (Coa
Pechiroja)
Momoto Enano
Momotus momota
Highlands
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Black-headed Trogon
Non-migratory
Vagrant
Resident
Open Area
Specialist
Open Area
Generalist
Forest Generalist
Violaceous Trogon
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Elegant Trogon
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Tody Motmot
Resident
Forest Specialist
Momoto Coroniazul (Talapo)
Blue-crowned Motmot
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Eumomota superciliosa
Momoto Cejiturqueza (Torogoz)
Turquoise-browed Motmot
Resident
Megaceryle torquata
Martín-pescador Collarejo
Ringed Kingfisher
Resident
Megaceryle alcyon
Martín-pescador Norteño
Belted Kingfisher
Visitor
Trogon violaceus
Trogon elegans
182
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Open Area
Generalist
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Highlands
Highlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Chloroceryle amazona
Martín-pescador Amazona
Amazon Kingfisher
Resident
Chloroceryle americana
Martín-pescador Verde
Green Kingfisher
Resident
Chloroceryle aenea
Martín-pescador Enano
American Pygmy Kingfisher
Resident
Wetlands
Specialist
Wetlands
Specialist
Forest Generalist
Notharchus macrorhynchos
Buco Collarejo
White-necked Puffbird
Status Uncertain
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Aulacorhynchus prasinus
Tucaneta Verde (Tucán Verde)
Emerald Toucanet
Resident
Forest Generalist
Highlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Collared Aracari
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Melanerpes formicivorus
Tucancillo Collarejo (Pico de
Navaja)
Carpintero Arlequín
Acorn Woodpecker
Resident
Forest Specialist
Melanerpes aurifrons
Carpintero Frentidorado
Golden-fronted Woodpecker
Resident
Forest Generalist
Sphyrapicus varius
Chupasavia Vientre-amarillo
Yellow-bellied Sapsucker
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Veniliornis fumigatus
Carpintero Café
Smoky-brown Woodpecker
Resident
Forest Specialist
Colaptes rubiginosus
Carpintero Olivaceo
Golden-olive Woodpecker
Resident
Forest Generalist
Dryocopus lineatus
Carpintero Lineado
Lineated Woodpecker
Resident
Forest Generalist
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Campephilus guatemalensis
Carpintero Piquiclaro
Pale-billed Woodpecker
Resident
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Synallaxis erythrothorax
Guitío Pechirrufo
Rufous-breasted Spinetail
Resident
Open Area
Specialist
Lowlands
Dendrocincla homochroa
Trepatroncos Rojizo
Ruddy Woodcreeper
Resident
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Sittasomus griseicapillus
Trepatroncos Olivaceo
Olivaceous Woodcreeper
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Glyphorynchus spirurus
Trepatroncos Piquicuna
Wedge-billed Woodcreeper
Resident
Non-migratory
Vagrant
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Pteroglossus torquatus
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
183
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Xiphocolaptes
promeropirhynchus
Trepatroncos Gigante
Strong-billed Woodcreeper
Resident
Forest Specialist
Highlands
Dendrocolaptes sanctithomae
Trepatroncos Barrado
Northern Barred-Woodcreeper
Resident
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Xiphorhynchus flavigaster
Trepatroncos Piquiclaro
Ivory-billed Woodcreeper
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Lepidocolaptes souleyetii
Trepatroncos Corona-rayada
Streak-headed Woodcreeper
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Lepidocolaptes affinis
Trepatroncos Corona-punteada
Spot-crowned Woodcreeper
Resident
Forest Generalist
Highlands
Thamnophilus doliatus
Batará Barrada
Barred Antshrike
Resident
Forest Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Grallaria guatimalensis
Hormiguero-cholino Escamoso
Scaled Antpitta
Resident
Forest Generalist
Highlands
Camptostoma imberbe
Mosquerito Lampiño Norteño
Northern Beardless-Tyrannulet
Resident
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Myiopagis viridicata
Elenia Verdosa
Greenish Elaenia
Resident
Lowlands
Elaenia flavogaster
Mosquero Elenia Ventriamarillo
Yellow-bellied Elaenia
Resident
Elaenia frantzii
Mionectes oleagineus
Elenia Serrana
Mosquero Vientre-ocre
Mountain Elaenia
Ochre-bellied Flycatcher
Resident
Resident
Forest Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Zimmerius vilissimus
Mosquerito Cejiblanco
Paltry Tyrannulet
Resident
Forest Generalist
Oncostoma cinereigulare
Todirostrum cinereum
Picocurvo Norteño
Espatulilla Común
Northern Bentbill
Common Tody-Flycatcher
Resident
Resident
Forest Specialist
Forest Specialist
Rhynchocyclus brevirostris
Picoplano de Anteojos
Eye-ringed Flatbill
Resident
Forest Specialist
Tolmomyias sulphurescens
Picoplano Ojiblanco
Yellow-olive Flycatcher
Resident
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Platyrinchus cancrominus
Picochato Rabón
Stub-tailed Spadebill
Resident
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Onychorhynchus coronatus
Mosquero Real
Royal Flycatcher
Status Uncertain
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
184
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Lowlands
Highlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Contopus cooperi
Pibí Boreal
Olive-sided Flycatcher
Transient
Forest Generalist
Contopus sordidulus
Pibí Occidental
Western Wood-Pewee
Transient
Forest Generalist
Contopus virens
Pibí Oriental
Eastern Wood-Pewee
Forest Generalist
Contopus cinereus
Pibí Tropical
Tropical Pewee
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Empidonax flaviventris
Mosquero Vientre-amarillo
Yellow-bellied Flycatcher
Transient
Resident and
migratory
Visitor
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Forest Generalist
Empidonax alnorum
Mosquero Ailero
Alder Flycatcher
Transient
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Empidonax traillii
Mosquero Saucero
Willow Flycatcher
Visitor
Empidonax albigularis
Mosquero Gorjiblanco
White-throated Flycatcher
Status Uncertain
Empidonax minimus
Empidonax hammondii
Empidonax flavescens
Empidonax fulvifrons
Sayornis nigricans
Attila spadiceus
Mosquero Mínimo
Mosquero de Hammond
Mosquero Amarillento
Mosquero Pechicanelo
Mosquero Negro
Atila Rabadilla-brillante
Least Flycatcher
Hammond's Flycatcher
Yellowish Flycatcher
Buff-breasted Flycatcher
Black Phoebe
Bright-rumped Attila
Visitor
Visitor
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Specialist
Forest Generalist
Forest Specialist
Forest Generalist
Forest Specialist
Especialista ríos
Forest Generalist
Myiarchus tuberculifer
Copetón Triste
Dusky-capped Flycatcher
Resident
Forest Generalist
Myiarchus nuttingi
Copetón de Nutting
Nutting's Flycatcher
Resident
Myiarchus crinitus
Copetón Viajero
Great Crested Flycatcher
Myiarchus tyrannulus
Copetón Tirano
Brown-crested Flycatcher
Visitor
Resident and
migratory
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Open Area
Generalist
Forest Generalist
Forest Specialist
Elevation
Lowlands
Highlands
Lowlands
Highlands
Highlands
Highlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
185
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Pitangus sulphuratus
Luis Grande (Cristo Fue)
Great Kiskadee
Resident
Open Area
Generalist
Lowlands
Megarynchus pitangua
Luis Piquigrueso
Boat-billed Flycatcher
Resident
Forest Generalist
Myiozetetes similis
Luis Gregario (Chio)
Social Flycatcher
Resident
Forest Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Myiodynastes luteiventris
Papamoscas Vientre-amarillo
Sulphur-bellied Flycatcher
Breeding Visitor
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Tyrannus melancholicus
Tirano Tropical
Tropical Kingbird
Resident
Tyrannus verticalis
Tirano Occidental
Western Kingbird
Visitor
Tyrannus tyrannus
Tirano Viajero
Eastern Kingbird
Transient
Tyrannus forficatus
Tirano-tijereta Rosado
Scissor-tailed Flycatcher
Visitor
Pachyramphus major
Pachyramphus aglaiae
Cabezón Cuelligris
Cabezón Degollado
Gray-collared Becard
Rose-throated Becard
Resident
Resident
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Forest Specialist
Forest Generalist
Tityra semifasciata
Titira Enmascarada (Torreja)
Masked Tityra
Resident
Forest Generalist
Chiroxiphia linearis
Saltarín Colilargo (Toledo)
Long-tailed Manakin
Forest Specialist
Pipra mentalis
Saltarín Cabecirrojo
Red-capped Manakin
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Vireo griseus
Vireo pallens
Vireo Ojoblanco
Vireo Manglero
White-eyed Vireo
Mangrove Vireo
Resident
Non-migratory
Vagrant
Migratory Vagrant
Resident
Highlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Vireo bellii
Vireo de Bell
Bell’s Vireo
Visitor
Vireo flavifrons
Vireo plumbeus
Vireo Gorgiamarillo
Vireo Plomizo
Yellow-throated Vireo
Plumbeous Vireo
Visitor
Status Uncertain
Forest Generalist
Forest Specialist
Open Area
Generalist
Forest Generalist
Forest Specialist
186
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Highlands
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Vireo solitarius
Vireo Solitario
Blue-headed Vireo
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Vireo gilvus
Vireo Gorjeador
Warbling Vireo
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Vireo leucophrys
Vireo philadelphicus
Vireo Gorripardo
Vireo Filadelfia
Brown-capped Vireo
Philadelphia Vireo
Resident
Visitor
Forest Specialist
Forest Generalist
Vireo olivaceus
Vireo Ojirrojo
Red-eyed Vireo
Transient
Forest Generalist
Vireo flavoviridis
Hylophilus decurtatus
Vireolanius pulchellus
Vireo Amarillo-verdoso
Verdillo Menor
Vireón Esmeraldo
Yellow-green Vireo
Lesser Greenlet
Green Shrike-Vireo
Breeding Visitor
Resident
Resident
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Forest Specialist
Cyclarhis gujanensis
Vireón Cejirrufo
Rufous-browed Peppershrike
Resident
Forest Generalist
Calocitta formosa
Urraca-hermosa Cariblanca
(Urraca)
White-throated Magpie-Jay
Resident
Open Area
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Highlands
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Cyanocorax melanocyaneus
Chara Centroamericana
Bushy-crested Jay
Resident
Forest Generalist
Highlands
Cyanolyca pumilo
Chara de Niebla
Black-throated Jay
Resident
Progne chalybea
Martín Pechigris
Gray-breasted Martin
Resident
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Tachycineta bicolor
Golondrina Arbolera
Tree Swallow
Visitor
Tachycineta albilinea
Golondrina Manglera
Mangrove Swallow
Resident
Tachycineta thalassina
Golondrina Cariblanca
Violet-green Swallow
Visitor
Stelgidopteryx serripennis
Golondrina-aliserrada Norteña
Northern Rough-winged
Swallow
Resident
Forest Specialist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Wetlands
Specialist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Elevation
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
187
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Riparia riparia
Golondrina Riverena
Bank Swallow
Transient
Petrochelidon pyrrhonota
Golondrina Risquera
Cliff Swallow
Transient
Petrochelidon fulva
Golondrina Pueblera
Cave Swallow
Visitor
Hirundo rustica
Golondrina Ranchera
Barn Swallow
Visitor
Campylorhynchus rufinucha
Guacalchía (Matraquita
Nuquirrufa)
Rufous-naped Wren
Resident
Salpinctes obsoletus
Saltapared Roquero
Rock Wren
Resident
Thryothorus maculipectus
Saltapared Pechimanchado
Spot-breasted Wren
Resident
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Thryothorus rufalbus
Saltapared Rufiblanco
Rufous-and-white Wren
Resident
Forest Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Thryothorus pleurostictus
Saltapared Vientre-barrado
Banded Wren
Resident
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Thryothorus modestus
Saltapared Sencillo
Plain Wren
Resident
Open Area
Generalist
Troglodytes aedon
Saltapared Continental Norteño
House Wren
Resident
Forest Generalist
Troglodytes rufociliatus
Saltapared Cejirrufo
Rufous-browed Wren
Resident
Forest Specialist
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Highlands
Henicorhina leucophrys
Saltapared-selvático Pechigris
Gray-breasted Wood-Wren
Resident
Forest Specialist
Highlands
Ramphocaenus melanurus
Soterillo Picudo
Long-billed Gnatwren
Resident
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Polioptila caerulea
Polioptila albiloris
Sialia sialis
Perlita Grisilla
Perlita Cejiblanca
Azulejo Gorjicanelo
Blue-gray Gnatcatcher
White-lored Gnatcatcher
Eastern Bluebird
Visitor
Resident
Resident
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Highlands
188
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Habitat
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Specialist
Elevation
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Myadestes occidentalis
Clarín Jilguero
(Guardabarranco)
Brown-backed Solitaire
Resident
Forest Generalist
Highlands
Catharus aurantiirostris
Zorzalito Piquinaranja
Resident
Forest Generalist
Highlands
Catharus frantzii
Zorzalito de Frantzius
Resident
Forest Specialist
Highlands
Catharus ustulatus
Zorzalito de Swainson
Swainson’s Thrush
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Catharus guttatus
Zorzalito Colirrufo
Hermit Thrush
Migratory Vagrant
Forest Generalist
Hylocichla mustelina
Zorzalito Maculado
Wood Thrush
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Turdus infuscatus
Zorzal Negro
Black Thrush
Resident
Forest Specialist
Turdus grayi
Zorzal Pardo
Clay-colored Thrush
Resident
Forest Generalist
Turdus assimilis
Zorzal Gorjiblanco
White-throated Thrush
Resident
Turdus rufitorques
Zorzal Cuellirufo
Rufous-collared Robin
Resident
Forest Specialist
Open Area
Specialist
Dumetella carolinensis
Pájaro-gato Gris
Gray Catbird
Migratory Vagrant
Mimus gilvus
Cenzontle Sureño
Tropical Mockingbird
Resident
Melanotis hypoleucus
Mulato Pechiblanco
Blue-and-white Mockingbird
Resident
Anthus rubescens
Bisbita Americana
American Pipit
Migratory Vagrant
Bombycilla cedrorum
Ampelis Americano
Cedar Waxwing
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Vermivora pinus
Chipe Aliazul
Blue-winged Warbler
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Orange-billed NightingaleThrush
Ruddy-capped NightingaleThrush
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Forest Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Forest Specialist
Open Area
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Highlands
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Highlands
189
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Vermivora chrysoptera
Chipe Alidorado
Golden-winged Warbler
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Vermivora peregrina
Chipe Peregrino
Tennessee Warbler
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Vermivora celata
Chipe Corona-naranja
Orange-crowned Warbler
Migratory Vagrant
Vermivora ruficapilla
Chipe de Nashville
Nashville Warbler
Visitor
Parula superciliosa
Parula americana
Chipe Cejiblanco
Parula Norteña
Crescent-chested Warbler
Northern Parula
Parula pitiayumi
Parula Tropical
Tropical Parula
Dendroica petechia
Chipe Amarillo
Yellow Warbler
Resident
Migratory Vagrant
Non-migratory
Vagrant
Visitor
Dendroica petechia xantholora
Chipe de Manglar
Mangrove Warbler
Dendroica pensylvanica
Chipe Flanquicastaño
Dendroica magnolia
190
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Forest Specialist
Forest Generalist
Highlands
Highlands
Forest Generalist
Highlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Resident
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Chestnut-sided Warbler
Migratory Vagrant
Forest Generalist
Chipe de Magnolia
Magnolia Warbler
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Dendroica tigrina
Chipe Atigrado
Cape May Warbler
Migratory Vagrant
Forest Generalist
Dendroica caerulescens
Chipe Azuloso
Black-throated Blue Warbler
Migratory Vagrant
Dendroica chrysoparia
Chipe Caridorado
Golden-cheeked Warbler
Visitor
Open Area
Generalist
Forest Specialist
Dendroica virens
Chipe Dorsiverde
Black-throated Green Warbler
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Dendroica townsendi
Dendroica occidentalis
Chipe de Townsend
Chipe Cabeciamarillo
Townsend’s Warbler
Hermit Warbler
Visitor
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Forest Specialist
Dendroica fusca
Chipe Gorjinaranja
Blackburnian Warbler
Transient
Forest Generalist
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Forest Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Highlands
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Elevation
Dendroica graciae
Dendroica discolor
Chipe de Grace
Chipe Pradeño
Grace’s Warbler
Prairie Warbler
Resident
Migratory Vagrant
Forest Specialist
Forest Generalist
Mniotilta varia
Chipe Trepador
Black-and-white Warbler
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Setophaga ruticilla
Pavito Migratorio
American Redstart
Visitor
Forest Specialist
Helmitheros vermivorum
Chipe Gusanero
Worm-eating Warbler
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Limnothlypis swainsonii
Chipe de Swainson
Swainson’s Warbler
Migratory Vagrant
Forest Generalist
Seiurus aurocapilla
Chipe-suelero Coronado
Ovenbird
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Seiurus noveboracensis
Chipe-suelero Chaquero
Northern Waterthrush
Visitor
Forest Specialist
Seiurus motacilla
Chipe-suelero Arroyero
Louisiana Waterthrush
Visitor
Forest Specialist
Oporornis formosus
Chipe de Kentucky
Kentucky Warbler
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Oporornis philadelphia
Chipe Llorón
Mourning Warbler
Transient
Forest Generalist
Oporornis tolmiei
Chipe de Tolmie
MacGillivray’s Warbler
Visitor
Geothlypis trichas
Mascarita Común
Common Yellowthroat
Visitor
Geothlypis poliocephala
Mascarita Piquigruesa
Gray-crowned Yellowthroat
Resident
Wilsonia citrina
Chipe Encapuchado
Hooded Warbler
Visitor
Highlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Specialist
Forest Generalist
191
192
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Wilsonia pusilla
Chipe de Wilson
Wilson’s Warbler
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Wilsonia canadensis
Chipe Collarejo
Canada Warbler
Transient
Forest Generalist
Cardellina rubrifrons
Myioborus miniatus
Euthlypis lachrymosa
Basileuterus culicivorus
Chipe Carirrojo
Pavito Gorjigris
Chipe Roquero
Chipe Corona-dorada
Red-faced Warbler
Slate-throated Redstart
Fan-tailed Warbler
Golden-crowned Warbler
Visitor
Resident
Resident
Resident
Forest Specialist
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Forest Specialist
Basileuterus rufifrons
Chipe Gorrirrufo
Rufous-capped Warbler
Resident
Forest Generalist
Icteria virens
Gritón Pechiamarillo
Yellow-breasted Chat
Visitor
Open Area
Generalist
Lowlands
Habia rubica
Tángara-hormiguera Coronirroja
Red-crowned Ant-Tanager
Resident
Forest Specialist
Altitude
Generalist
Habia fuscicauda
Tángara-hormiguera Gorjirroja
Red-throated Ant-Tanager
Resident
Forest Specialist
Lowlands
Piranga rubra
Piranga olivacea
Tángara Roja
Tángara Escarlata
Summer Tanager
Scarlet Tanager
Visitor
Transient
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Piranga ludoviciana
Tángara Occidental
Western Tanager
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Piranga bidentata
Piranga leucoptera
Tángara Dorsirrayada
Tángara Aliblanca
Flame-colored Tanager
White-winged Tanager
Resident
Resident
Thraupis episcopus
Tángara Azuligris
Blue-gray Tanager
Resident
Thraupis abbas
Tángara Aliamarilla
Yellow-winged Tanager
Resident
Forest Specialist
Forest Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Highlands
Highlands
Cyanerpes cyaneus
Mielero Patirrojo
Red-legged Honeycreeper
Resident and
migratory
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Forest Generalist
Elevation
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Highlands
Highlands
Lowlands
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Volatinia jacarina
Semillero Brincador
Blue-black Grassquit
Resident
Sporophila torqueola
Semillero Collarejo
White-collared Seedeater
Resident
Sporophila minuta
Semillero Pechicanelo
Ruddy-breasted Seedeater
Resident
Amaurospiza concolor
Semillero Azul
Blue Seedeater
Resident
Tiaris olivaceus
Semillero Olivaceo
Yellow-faced Grassquit
Resident
Diglossa baritula
Picaflor Vientre-canelo
Atlapetes albinucha
Melozone biarcuata
Melozone leucotis
Saltón Nuquiblanco
Rascador Patilludo
Rascador Orejiblanco
Cinnamon-bellied
Flowerpiercer
White-naped Brush-Finch
Prevost’s Ground-Sparrow
White-eared Ground-Sparrow
Aimophila ruficauda
Zacatonero Cabecirrayado
Stripe-headed Sparrow
Resident
Aimophila rufescens
Zacatonero Rojizo
Rusty Sparrow
Resident
Ammodramus savannarum
Gorrión Chapulín
Grasshopper Sparrow
Visitor
Melospiza lincolnii
Gorrión de Lincoln
Lincoln’s Sparrow
Visitor
Zonotrichia capensis
Gorrión Chingolo
Rufous-collared Sparrow
Resident
Saltator coerulescens
Saltator Grisáceo (Dichoso-fuí)
Grayish Saltator
Resident
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Resident
Resident
Resident
Resident
Habitat
Elevation
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Specialist
Altitude
Generalist
Forest Specialist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Specialist
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Forest Specialist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Specialist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Highlands
Highlands
Highlands
Highlands
Highlands
Lowlands
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Highlands
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
193
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Habitat
Saltator atriceps
Saltator Cabecinegro (Chepito)
Black-headed Saltator
Resident
Forest Generalist
Rose-breasted Grosbeak
Visitor
Forest Generalist
Blue Bunting
Resident
Resident and
migratory
Forest Specialist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Specialist
Open Area
Specialist
Cyanocompsa parellina
Picogrueso Pechirrosado
(Puñalada)
Colorín Azulinegro
Passerina caerulea
Picogrueso Azul
Blue Grosbeak
Passerina cyanea
Colorín Azul
Indigo Bunting
Visitor
Passerina ciris
Colorín Sietecolores
(Sietecolores)
Painted Bunting
Visitor
Spiza americana
Arrocero Americano
Dickcissel
Visitor
Agelaius phoeniceus
Tordo Sargento
Red-winged Blackbird
Resident
Sturnella magna
Pradero Común
Eastern Meadowlark
Resident
Dives dives
Tordo Cantor
Melodious Blackbird
Resident
Quiscalus mexicanus
Zanate Mayor (Zanate♀,
Clarinero♂)
Great-tailed Grackle
Resident
Molothrus aeneus
Vaquero Ojirrojo
Bronzed Cowbird
Resident
Icterus wagleri
Icterus maculialatus
Bolsero de Wagler
Bolsero Guatemalteco
Black-vented Oriole
Bar-winged Oriole
Resident
Resident
Icterus spurius
Bolsero Castaño
Orchard Oriole
Visitor
Pheucticus ludovicianus
194
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Forest Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Elevation
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Highlands
Highlands
Lowlands
Species
Spanish name
English name
Seasonality
Icterus pustulatus
Bolsero Dorsirrayado
Streak-backed Oriole
Resident
Icterus pectoralis
Bolsero Pechimanchado
Spot-breasted Oriole
Resident
Icterus gularis
Bolsero de Altamira
Altamira Oriole
Resident
Icterus galbula
Bolsero de Baltimore
Baltimore Oriole
Visitor
Amblycercus holosericeus
Cacique Piquiclaro
Yellow-billed Cacique
Resident
Cacicus melanicterus
Cacique Mexicano
Yellow-winged Cacique
Resident
Euphonia affinis
Eufonia Gorjinegro
Scrub Euphonia
Resident
Open Area
Generalist
Forest Generalist
Euphonia hirundinacea
Eufonia Gorjiamarillo
Yellow-throated Euphonia
Resident
Forest Specialist
Euphonia elegantissima
Chlorophonia occipitalis
Carduelis notata
Eufonia Capucha-azul
Clorofonia Coroniazul
Dominico Cabecinegro
Elegant Euphonia
Blue-crowned Chlorophonia
Black-headed Siskin
Resident
Resident
Resident
Carduelis psaltria
Dominico Dorsioscuro
Lesser Goldfinch
Resident
Passer domesticus
Gorrión Doméstico
House Sparrow
Resident
Lonchura malacca
Capuchino de Cabeza Negra
Tricolored Munia
Non-migratory
Vagrant
Forest Generalist
Forest Generalist
Forest Specialist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Habitat
Elevation
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Open Area
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Altitude
Generalist
Forest Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
Lowlands
Altitude
Generalist
Highlands
Highlands
Highlands
Altitude
Generalist
Lowlands
Lowlands
195
3.2. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS
It is important to evaluate completeness of the inventories before comparing the sites,
because species richness is influenced by inventory effort (Komar 2002, 2007). Before
the field study began, the baseline bird inventory of the watersheds within the IMCW
Project area was substantially incomplete, with only 5 of the 11 watersheds above 80%
completeness (based on the presence of 74 test species). After field work, 10 of the 11
watersheds now have reasonably complete inventories, averaging 86% complete, and
can be compared for conservation importance (Fig. 16, Table 42). The only watershed
that will be not be analyzed, for lack of data, is the Bocana San Juan Watershed. In seven
watersheds, more than 85% of the test species have been recorded. In the three
watersheds with 57% to 74% of test species recorded, the watersheds lack middle and
higher elevations, such that some of the test species may actually be absent, thus these
areas may have more complete inventories than indicated here.
Prior to field work, the level of inventory completeness (or effort) was a reasonably good
predictor of the number of threatened bird species recorded from each watershed (linear
regression R-squared=0.466, P=0.021, statistically signficant), indicating that lists of
threatened species were not comparable among watersheds. But after completing the
field work and eliminating the one watershed with a very poor inventory, the level of
inventory completeness is no longer a good predictor of the number of threatened bird
species present (R2=0.281, P=0.115, not statistically significant). Now we can assume
that the number of threatened birds present is relatively accurate and can be used as an
index of relative conservation importance to prioritize the 10 watersheds for conservation
action.
FIGURE 16. INCREMENT IN INVENTORY COMPLETENESS INDEX FOR BIRDS IN
WATERSHEDS OF SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR, RESULTING FROM FIELD
STUDY.
196
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
TABLE 42. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS FOR BIRDS AND RELATIVE
IMPORTANCE OF WATERSHEDS.
Inventory
Inventory
Conservation Conservation
test
test
important
important
species
species
species
species
Watershed
recorded
recorded
recorded
recorded
through
through
through 2006 through 2007
2006 (%)
2007 (%)
(%)
(%)
Bocana San Juan
4
4
5
5
Barra Salada
22
57
15
26
Los Cóbanos
66
73
25
30
San Julián
74
93
15
17
Cauta
74
74
21
21
San Pedro
76
89
12
22
Grande de Sonsonate
82
85
24
27
Izalco
86
96
26
31
Coatepeque
93
93
39
39
Cara Sucia
99
99
72
72
Barra de Santiago
100
100
71
74
Full Project Area
100
100
The 25 municipalities have widely varying levels of inventory effort, and in fact nine
municipalities still present no data on bird presence. After completing the inventory field
work, eight municipalities now have inventories with more than 75% of test species
recorded (i.e., inventory completeness), including six with more than 90%. Prior to field
work, only five municipalities had inventory completeness above 75% (Table 43). The
inventory completeness level for all municipalities combined is a very good predictor for
the proportion of threatened bird species present (R2=0.632, F=39.44, P<0.001), which
demonstrates that the varying levels of effort significantly biases the apparent relative
importance of the municipalities for threatened bird species. If we eliminate municipalities
with <60% inventory completeness, inventory effort is still a good predictor (R2=0.369,
F=6.44, P=0.028).
But if we consider only municipalities with >75% inventory
completeness, the relative completeness is a very poor predictor of threatened bird
species present (R2=0.046, F=0.29, P=0.609), such that this group of municipalities can
be compared. The mean completeness score for this group is 92%.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
197
TABLE 43. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS FOR BIRDS AND RELATIVE
IMPORTANCE OF MUNICIPALITIES.
Inventory
Inventory
Conservation Conservation
test
test
important
important
species
species
species
species
Municipality
recorded
recorded
recorded
recorded
through
through
through 2006
through 2007
2006 (%)
2007 (%)
(%)
(%)
Acajutla
66
69
30
33
Apaneca
45
61
13
18
Armenia
0
0
0
0
Caluco
74
92
14
15
Chalchuapa
0
0
0
0
Concepción de Ataco
62
62
9
9
Cuisnahuat
0
0
0
0
Guaymango
0
0
0
0
Izalco
93
97
26
28
Juayúa
61
97
15
18
Jujutla
95
95
57
57
Nahulingo
27
27
0
0
Nahuizalco
41
41
1
1
Salcoatitán
0
0
0
0
San Antonio del Monte
0
0
0
0
San Francisco
Menéndez
100
100
66
68
San Julián
8
8
3
3
San Pedro Puxtla
68
68
13
13
Santa Ana
77
77
32
32
Sta. Catarina
Masahuat
0
0
0
0
Santo Domingo de
Guzmán
0
61
0
2
Sonsonate
66
82
18
39
Sonzacate
0
0
0
0
Tacuba
93
93
30
30
Tepecoyo
0
0
0
0
Full Project Area
100
198
100
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Inventory effort for the eight ecosystems varies widely, according to the proportion of test
species that have been recorded in each ecosystem (Table 44). The differing levels of
effort appear to bias the relative importance scores for the ecosystems, although the
linear regression (threatened bird species richness regressed against proportion of test
species recorded) is not quite statistically significant (R 2=0.442, F=4.751, P=0.072).
Removing the two poorly-studied ecosystems (savanna and coral reef) removes most of
the bias. The remaining six ecosystems all have inventory completeness scores above
80%. For this group of reasonably completely studied ecosystems, the conservation
importance score (threatened species richness) is not at all predicted by the level of
inventory effort (regression results: R2=0.013, F=0.0054, P=0.828), suggesting that the
numbers of threatened bird species recorded can be compared among sites and used as
an indicator of conservation importance.
TABLE 44. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS FOR BIRDS AND RELATIVE
IMPORTANCE OF ECOSYSTEMS.
Conservation
Inventory test
important species
Ecosystem
species recorded
recorded through
through 2007 (%)
2007 (%)
Humid Forest
98
33
Dry Forest
97
26
Cloud Forest
98
17
Estuaries (and Mangroves)
83
39
Beaches
81
13
Freshwater Wetlands (and swamp
forests)
84
20
Savanna
35
5
Coral Reef
64
2
3.3. EVALUATION OF CONSERVATION IMPORTANCE AMONG
AREAS AND ECOSYSTEMS.
The Cara Sucia and the Barra de Santiago watersheds (both include parts of El Imposible
National Park and parts of Barra de Santiago estuary) have the highest conservation
importance, with more than 70% of the area’s nationally threatened bird species present.
They are distantly followed by the Coatepeque and Izalco watersheds (which combined
include Los Volcanes National Park and the San Marcelino Protected Natural Area
complex, each a part of the Apaneca-Ilamatepec Biosphere Reserve), which have 39%
and 31% of the threatened bird species present, respectively. The greater importance for
birds of the El Imposible area with respect to the San Marcelino area was previously
noted by Komar & Herrera (1995). Other watersheds have fewer threatened birds present
(Table 42).
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
199
Among municipalities, San Francisco Menéndez (El Imposible National Park and Santa
Rita Protected Natural Area) and Jujutla (Barra de Santiago estuary and Protected
Natural Area) have considerably more conservation importance than Sonsonate (Los
Cóbanos and Barra Salada Protected Natural Areas), which in turn is more important for
birds than Tacuba, Izalco and Santa Ana (the latter two municipalities include Los
Volcanes National Park and San Marcelino Complex of Protected Natural Areas). The
lowest importance scores were for Juayúa (Laguna de las Ranas) and Caluco (Plan de
Amayo Protected Natural Area) (Table 43).
Estuaries (Mangroves), such as at Barra de Santiago, are the most important ecosystem
for bird conservation, with 39% of the area’s threatened bird species, more than humid
forest (33%) and dry forest (26%; Table 44). These ecosystems are followed in
importance by freshwater wetlands, cloud forest, and beaches.
4. RECOMMENDATIONS
I present below two types of recommendations: those that relate to bird conservation
strategies, resulting from the results reported herein, and those that relate to filling gaps in
the existing bird inventory. Although field surveys carried out during 2007 were intensive,
and the study area has been extensively studied for birds previously (Komar 2007), there
are still noteworthy gaps in the ornithological inventory.
The field surveys reconfimed what was generally already known about the Study Area.
The natural habitats are highly fragmented and of very reduced size. Most birds found in
these habitats are generalist species adapted to rapidly changing landscapes and
disturbance. Conserving the few habitat specialist species that persist in southwestern El
Salvador will require great efforts to increase natural vegetation cover, especially forest
cover but also natural savanna vegetation. Ideally, reforestation or habitat recuperation
can be organized so as to create natural habitat corridors connecting patches of habitat,
such as the mangrove estuaries to the humid forests that still remain in the upper
watersheds.
The small fragments of natural habitat are subject to numerous threats (Komar & Girón
2007), one of which is global climate change which is probably already causing
ecosystem adjustments that will stress the remaining wildlife populations. Such large
scale landscape processes stress the need for a major effort to invest in re-greening the
landscape. The best way to allow the ecosystems to adapt to climate change is to
provide space across an altitudinal gradient for natural ecosystems to migrate as
temperature regimes change.
Where are the priority sites for implementing habitat conservation? While the mangrove
ecosystems are home to the most threatened bird species, many of those species are
waterbirds and migratory shorebirds, neither of which will benefit greatly from
reforestation or expanding habitat corridors. Waterbirds and shorebirds are indeed highly
threatened, because of their habitat specializations. Many shorebirds migrate to El
Salvador from Arctic breeding grounds which are themselves threatened by climate
change and by anthropogenic activities such as oil drilling. The recommended
conservation strategy for these birds in El Salvador is to increase education for local
200
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
fishermen and tourists. As users of the estuaries learn about the special challenges these
birds face, they may increase their appreciation for the birds and take more care to
protect them.
The next highest priorities are in the humid forest and dry forests ecosystems. These are
the areas that most require efforts to expand natural areas and connect them via
corridors. Especially useful would be to reforest the riparian areas, connecting the
remnant transition forests behind the mangroves to small patches of dry forest and further
upstream, to humid forest.
Also important for the long-term conservation of birds in southwestern El Salvador is to
expand bird monitoring efforts. Long-term monitoring of bird populations is needed to
determine if birds are able to withstand the various stresses, and can indicate to
conservation managers if efforts are not enough. Current monitoring efforts carried out by
SalvaNATURA at the two national parks in the Study Area are not sufficient, and
additional monitoring stations are needed both as study replicates, and also to monitor
birds in additional habitats, such as in mangrove forests and on mudflats (where
shorebirds feed).
The 2007 field inventories failed to ―complete‖ the local bird inventories, in part, because
of the seasonality of the field work. Sites were visited twice (two different seasons) during
the second semester of the year, but bird communities vary across the entire year, and a
third visit (at least) would be required to cover all seasons important for documenting bird
communities. For example, none of the sites were visited during spring (April and early
May), when spring migration is in full swing and when most local resident birds are
beginning their breeding season. The results indicate that only one of the watersheds and
only one municipality have complete inventories (100% of test species registered),
therefore considerable work across the study area is still needed to complete the
inventories. More complete inventories could reveal different or additional conservation
priorities within the study area. They could also provide more information useful for
valuing the area’s natural resources, such as by identifying localities where species
attractive for ecotourism can be found reliably by tourists.
Given that southwestern El Salvador is arguably the best inventoried area in the country
(for birds), I recommend using this area to initiate a pilot project to take the bird inventory
to a new level. In many countries, ornithologists have used an inventory method known
as atlas mapping, in particular for documenting the local breeding ranges of resident bird
species. This method consists of dividing the study area into a series of grid squares, and
then mobilizing many observers (ornithologists and bird enthusiasts) to visit each grid to
determine the bird species that breed within the grid. A reasonable grid size would be 5 x
5 km, or 25 km 2. Biologists documenting breeding birds could also document other types
of flora and fauna during their visits to each grid. The atlas would determine much more
accurately the actual distribution and range size for each species in the study area. It
would also be useful for collecting data on elevational ranges for species, which are
needed to determine long-term adaptability to projected climate change for each species.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
201
CHAPTER 6:
INVENTORY OF TERRESTRIAL
MAMMALS IN SOUTHWESTERN
EL SALVADOR
Luis Girón, Melissa Rodríguez, and James G. Owen
Conservation Science Department
SalvaNATURA, San Salvador, El Salvador
legiron@salvanatura.org
1. INTRODUCTION
El Salvador’s natural areas are highly fragmented and anthropogenically disturbed, which
complicates the study of wild mammals. Mammalian inventories have not been completed
in any of the country’s natural areas. The first terrestrial mammal collection efforts in
southwestern El Salvador were carried out in 1927 and 1942 (Burt and Stirton 1961). The
second phase of collections was carried out by Heinz Felten, between 1952 and 1954
(Felten 1956). Then, during a third collection phase between 1988 and 2005, James G.
Owen invested the largest effort so far to document mammals of El Salvador. The most
recent efforts documenting mammals in the southwestern region of the country, mainly
bats, began in 2003 with the Neobats–El Salvador program carried out by Luis Girón of
SalvaNATURA. Neobats–El Salvador provided data up to 2006 (unpublished data).
The information from mammal studies carried out previously in southwestern El Salvador
was systematized prior to field work, generating a list of 97 mammal species recorded in
the study area (Girón & Owen 2007). The purpose of this study was to complement these
inventories with field work and make an evaluation of mammals in selected watersheds,
municipalities, ecosystems, and Protected Natural Areas.
2. METHODOLOGY
2.1. STUDY AREA
The study was conducted in eight Protected Natural Areas, in seven of the 11 watersheds
of southwestern El Salvador (Fig. 17). These sites correspond to eight of the 25
municipalities located within the IMCW project area, within the Departments of
202
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Ahuachapán, Sonsonate, and Santa Ana (Tabla 5-1). The ecosystems included Dry
Forest, Humid Forest, Cloud Forest, and a Savanna dominated by Crescentia alata.
2.2. FIELD METHODOLOGY
During June–December 2007, traps were placed at each site, usually two harp traps to
capture bats, 50 Sherman live traps for small rodents, five Tomahawk traps for mediumsized mammals, and 12 camera traps. We also established observation transects at each
site (except for Laguna de las Ninfas). Sampling efforts per site are given in Table 45.
In order to calculate the relative frequency and relative abundance, each day was used as
a sampling unit. The relative frequency was obtained by multiplying the number of
samples (days) by 100, in which each one of the species appeared, divided by the total
number of samples. The relative abundance was obtained by dividing the number of each
individual species observed between the total numbers of individuals observed of all of
the species multiplying the result by 100.
1
2
3
4
8
5
6
7
FIGURE 17. MAP OF SITES SAMPLED FOR MAMMALS IN 2007: (1) EL IMPOSIBLE
NATIONAL PARK, (2) SIERRA DE APANECA WEST (LAGUNA DE LAS NINFAS), (3)
SIERRA DE APANECA EAST (LAGUNA DE LAS RANAS), (4) LOS VOLCANES
NATIONAL PARK, (5) SAN MARCELINO COMPLEX, (6) PLAN DE AMAYO, (7) LOS
CÓBANOS, (8) BOSQUE SANTA RITA.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
203
TABLE 45. SITES AND SAMPLING EFFORTS FOR MAMMALS.
Specific Site
Municipality
Departament
Latitude
and
Longitude
Laguna de
las Ninfas
Apaneca
Ahuachapán
13.8733º
-89.80557º
1500
5
0
320
20
12
40
Laguna de
las Ranas
Chalchuapa
Santa Ana
13.90391º
-89.72281º
1750
10
10
320
20
8
88
Caluco
Sonsonate
335
5
10
220
15
5
64
Acajutla
Sonsonate
3
10
10
480
40
16
80
Santa Rita
San Francisco
Menéndez
Ahuachapán
33
10
10
162
20
6
81
San
Marcelino
Izalco
Sonsonate
917
5
10
240
16
8
64
Los Andes
Santa Ana
Santa Ana
20
20
550
55
22
184
Cerro Verde
Santa Ana
Santa Ana
40
36
850
80
36
352
Site
Sierra de
Apeneca
West
Sierra de
Apaneca
East
Plan de
Amayo
Los
Cóbanos
Los
Volcanes
La Fincona
El
Imposible
San Benito
San Francisco
Menéndez
San Francisco
Menéndez
Ahuachapán
Ahuachapán
Cerro
Campana
Tacuba
Ahuachapán
Guayapa
San Francisco
Menéndez
Ahuachapán
13.69088º
-89.64741º
13.52764º
-89.80955º
13.80º
-90.06º
13.81040º
-89.57049º
13.86848º
-89.62009º
13.82611º
-89.62389º
13.84320º
-89.97761º
13.82712º
-89.94712º
13.85675º
-89.91398º
13.82778º
-89.93663º
Elevation
Days
TH
RTN
TTN
HTN
CTN
1735
2000
738
730
1350
478
TOTAL
105
106 3,142
266
113
953
TH: Transect hours; RTN: Rodent trap nights; TTN: Tomahawk trap nights; HTN: Harp trap nights; CTN: Camera trap days & nights.
204
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
2.3. LEVEL OF INVENTORY COMPLETENESS
A list of 48 generalist species expected in the area was created, to determine the degree
of inventory completeness in the study area’s municipalities and watersheds (Table 46),
modifying a method proposed by Gómez de Silva and Medellín (2001). In ecological
terms, the generalist species are those that exist in a variety of habitats and eat varied
foods that are found in both disturbed and pristine habitats. These species are expected
to be present in every site in the departments of Ahuachapán, Santa Ana, and Sonsonate.
We compared the generalist species recorded with the list of expected generalist species
for each municipality, watershed, ecosystem, and protected natural area, to calculate the
percentage level of inventory completeness.
As a complement, we used species accumulation curves and to estimate the inventory
completeness. From the curves, we generated various estimates of species richness,
using ACE (Abundance-based Coverage Estimator), ICE (Incidence-based Coverage
Estimator), Chao 1, Chao 2, Jack-Knife 1 and Jack-Knife 2 methods, all calculated with
the EstimateS version 7.51 program (Colwell 2006). The accumulation curves were
obtained taking each day as a sampling unit, using data from all of the combined
techniques, to achieve a similar sampling effort for each sampling day.
2.4. EVALUATION OF THE RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF SITES
We prepared a list of 34 species of conservation importance that can be found in
southwestern El Salvador (Table 47). For each municipality, watershed, ecosystem, and
Protected Natural Area, we determined the percentage of these species that have been
recorded. This percentage represents the relative importance of a site for mammal
conservation. Since the level of inventory completeness can influence the proportion of
conservation-important species reported (Komar 2007), we only evalutated the
importance of the sites when these showed an inventory completeness of more than 70%.
3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
3.1. RECORDED SPECIES
We recorded 1296 individuals representing 72 species, of which 49 were captured, 17
were photographed by camera traps, 21 were observed in transects, and five were
recorded only outside of standardized sampling. We recorded 16 species at Sierra de
Apaneca West, 27 at Plan de Amayo, 16 at Los Cóbanos, 13 at Santa Rita, 21 at Sierra
de Apaneca East, 22 at Los Volcanes, 21 at San Marcelino, and 54 at El Imposible.
Regarding ecosystems, 44 species were recorded in Dry Forest, 44 in Humid Forest, 30
in Cloud Forest, and 17 in Savanna. The species that showed the greatest relative
frequency were the Central American Agouti (Dasyprocta punctata) which appeared in
46% of the samples followed by the Nine-banded Armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) and
Common Opposum (Didelphis marsupialis), which appeared in 40% and 31% of the
samples, respectively. The species with greatest relative abundance, both bats, were the
Jamaican Fruit-eating Bat (Artibeus jamaicensis), with 17% of all records, followed by the
Hairy-legged Myotis (Myotis keaysi) with 13% of all records (Table 48).
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
205
TABLE 46. INDICATOR SPECIES (MAMMALS) OF INVENTORY COMPLETENESS.
Family
Species
Spanish Name
Didelphidae
Didelphis marsupialis
Tacuazín Negro
Didelphidae
Didelphis virginianus
Tacuazín Blanco
Didelphidae
Marmosa mexicana
Tacuazín Ratón
Didelphidae
Phylander opossum
Hurón o Cuatro Ojos
Dasypodidae
Dasypus novemcinctus
Cuzuco
Emballonuridae
Saccopteryx bilineata
Murciélago Grande de Líneas
Blancas
Mormoopidae
Pteronotus davyi
Murciélago de Espalda Desnuda
Phyllostomidae
Phyllostomus discolor
Murciélago Hoja de Lanza Menor
Phyllostomidae
Glossophaga soricina
Murciélago Longi Rostro Común
Phyllostomidae
Glossophaga leachii
Murciélago Longirostro Gris
Phyllostomidae
Glossophaga commissarisi
Murciélago Longorostro de
Commissaris
Phyllostomidae
Carollia subrufa
Murciélago de Cola Corta Gris
Phyllostomidae
Carollia perspicillata
Murciélago Frutero Común de Cola
Corta
Phyllostomidae
Sturnira lilium
Murciélago Frutero Común de
Hombros Amarillos
Phyllostomidae
Artibeus intermedius
Murciélago Frutero Intermedio
Phyllostomidae
Artibeus jamaicensis
Murciélago Frutero de Jamaica
Phyllostomidae
Artibeus toltecus
Murciélago Frutero Tolteca
Phyllostomidae
Artibeus phaeotis
Murciélago Peludo de Ojos Grandes
Phyllostomidae
Uroderma bilobatum
Murciélago Constructor de Tiendas
Común
Phyllostomidae
Artibeus helleri
Murciélago de Heller
Phyllostomidae
Chiroderma villosum
Murciélago Frutero de Velvety
Phyllostomidae
Desmodus rotundus
Vampiro Común
206
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Family
Species
Spanish Name
Vespertilionidae
Myotis nigricans
Murciélago Negruzco Común
Vespertilionidae
Myotis keaysi
Murciélago de Patas Peludas
Vespertilionidae
Rhogeessa tumida
Murciélago Enano de Alas Negras
Molossidae
Molossus ater
Murciélago Mastín Negro
Molossidae
Molossus molossus
Murciélago Mastín Común
Sciuridae
Sciurus variegatoides
Ardilla Gris
Geomyidae
Orthogeomys grandis
Taltuza
Heteromyidae
Liomys salvini
Ratón Bolsero
Cricetidae
Sigmodon hispidus
Rata Algodonera
Cricetidae
Reithrodontomys gracilis
Ratón Cosechador
Cricetidae
Peromyscus mexicanus
Ratón Venado Mexicano
Cricetidae
Baiomys musculus
Ratón Bolsero del sur
Cricetidae
Ototylomys phyllotis
Rata Escaladora de Orejas Grandes
Cricetidae
Nyctomys sumichrasti
Ratón
Cricetidae
Rattus rattus
Rata Negra
Cricetidae
Mus musculus
Ratón Casero
Erethizontidae
Sphiggurus mexicanus
Puerco Espín o Zorro Espín
Dasyproctidae
Dasyprocta punctata
Cotuza
Leporidae
Sylvilagus floridanus
Conejo Silvestre
Canidae
Urocyon cinereoargenteus
Zorra Gris
Procyonidae
Procyon lotor
Mapache
Mustelidae
Mustela frenata
Comadreja
Mephitidae
Mephitis macroura
Zorrillo Listado
Mephitidae
Spilogale angustifrons
Zorrillo Manchado
Felidae
Puma yagouaroundi
Gato Zonto
Cervidae
Odocoileus virginianus
Venado Cola Blanca
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
207
TABLE 47. MAMMALS THAT ARE INDICATORS OF IMPORTANT SITES FOR
CONSERVATION.1
Species
Spanish Name
National
Status
(MARN
2004)
Chironectes minimus
Tacuazín de Agua
Endangered
Tamandua mexicana
Oso Hormiguero
Threatened
Rhynchonycteris naso
Murciélago
Threatened
Saccopteryx leptura
Murciélago Pequeño de
Líneas Blancas
Threatened
Peropteryx macrotis
Murciélago
Threatened
Balantiopteryx plicata
Murciélago de Alas de
Saco Gris
Threatened
Noctilio albiventris
Murciélago Pescador
Pequeño
Threatened
Mormoops megalophylla
Murciélago Rostro de
Fantasma
Threatened
Pteronotus personatus
Murciélago Bigotudo
Pequeño
Threatened
Pteronotus gymnonotus
Murciélago de Espalda
Desnuda Grande
Threatened
Micronycteris microtis
Murciélago Orejón
Común
Threatened
Lonchorhina aurita
Murciélago Orejón
Nariz de Espada
Threatened
Macrophyllum
macrophyllum
Murciélago de Patas
Largas
Threatened
Trachops cirrhosus
Murciélago con
Verrugas en el Labio
Threatened
Chrotopterus auritus
Murciélago Falso
Vampiro
Threatened
Leptonycteris yerbabuenae
Murciélago Magueyero
Endangered
208
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Red List
(IUCN 2008)
Vulnerable
Species
Spanish Name
National
Status
(MARN
2004)
Artibeus hartii
Murciélago Frutero
Pigmeo
Threatened
Uroderma magnirostrum
Murciélago Constructor
de Tiendas Café
Diaemus youngi
Vampiro de Ala Blanca
Bauerus dubiaquercus2
Murciélago de Van
Gelder
Lasiurus blossevilli
Murciélago Rojo
Eumops auripendulus
Murciélago
Threatened
Eumops underwoodi
Murciélago de
Underwood
Endangered
Neotoma mexicana
Rata de Bosque
Mexicana
Threatened
Cuniculus paca
Tepezcuintle
Threatened
Eira barbara
Tayra o Perico Ligero
Endangered
Lontra longicaudis
Nutria
Endangered
Puma concolor
Puma
Endangered
Leopardus pardalis
Ocelote
Endangered
Leopardus wiedii
Tigrillo
Endangered
Tapirus bairdi
Tapir o Danta
Tayassu tajacu
Cuche de Monte
Red List
(IUCN 2008)
Endangered
Endangered
Endangered
1
Threatened or endangered at the national level (MARN 2004, modified by the authors).
Species recently reported for the country that has not been evaluated for the national
level threatened species list.
2
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
209
TABLE 48. INDIVIDUAL MAMMALS COUNTED DURING THE STUDY.
Ecosystem
RA
(%)
(%)
DF
HF
CF
S
WA
PA
LV
LC
SR
EA
SM
EI
Didelphis marsupialis
31
3
11
24
6
3
1
5
2
3
1
3
5
24
44
Didelphis virginiana
16
2
1
9
9
6
1
8
6
1
2
7
25
Philander opossum
6
1
9
3
9
Scientific Name
Marmosa mexicana1
3
1
Dasypus novemcinctus
(Fig. 18A)
40
4
Tamandua mexicana (Fig. 18B)
1
0
Saccopteryx bilineata
1
0
Balantiopteryx plicata
4
1
Pteronotus parnellii (Fig. 18C)
1
0
Pteronotus davyi
4
1
Pteronotus personatus
1
0
Trachops cirrhosus (Fig. 18D)
1
0
1
Micronycteris microtis (Fig. 18E)
2
1
1
Phyllostomus discolor
1
0
1
210
Sampled Sites
RF
12
3
18
2
32
57
1
1
1
1
1
1
15
18
15
2
1
1
14
2
3
5
2
1
3
2
2
12
1
25
Total
2
1
1
1
1
5
2
1
1
1
1
6
1
1
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
8
1
6
7
1
Ecosystem
RF
RA
(%)
(%)
Anoura geoffroyi
1
0
Glossophaga leachii
13
2
10
6
4
Glossophaga commissarisi
12
2
12
10
2
Glossophaga soricina
5
1
2
Choeroniscus godmani
1
0
Carollia subrufa
6
1
Scientific Name
DF
HF
CF
Sampled Sites
S
WA
PA
LV
LC
SR
EA
SM
1
3
1
2
2
2
2
2
3
1
Artibeus intermedius2
6
1
5
10
20
5
14
24
2
7
1
1
2
15
1
1
14
52
222
2
5
18
2
19
25
2
1
7
5
1
43
32
Artibeus jamaicensis
23
17
147
Artibeus lituratus
9
1
11
Artibeus toltecus
10
2
14
Artibeus aztecus
2
0
Artibeus phaeotis
1
0
1
1
1
Artibeus hartii
1
0
1
1
1
Artibeus helleri
1
0
1
1
Uroderma bilobatum
1
0
5
7
2
4
117
5
32
7
Total
1
1
9
EI
2
3
1
3
3
1
1
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
1
3
1
211
Ecosystem
RF
RA
(%)
(%)
Chiroderma salvini
2
0
Centurio senex (Fig. 18F)
3
1
8
Sturnira lilium
11
1
3
Sturnira ludovici
8
2
Diphylla ecaudata
1
0
1
Desmodus rotundus
6
2
15
2
4
Natalus stramineus
4
0
1
2
2
Eptesicus furinalis
1
0
1
Eptesicus fuscus
1
0
Bauerus dubiaquercus (Fig. 51G)
1
0
Myotis elegans
2
0
5
Myotis keaysi
26
13
8
Myotis nigricans
2
1
Rhogeessa tumida
4
0
Scientific Name
212
DF
HF
CF
1
2
8
4
9
16
Sampled Sites
S
WA
PA
LV
LC
SR
EA
SM
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
2
14
3
8
4
2
2
1
31
34
7
2
1
3
8
8
9
17
9
25
1
1
4
21
3
5
1
1
1
2
100
2
1
1
Total
1
1
3
62
EI
1
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
35
1
3
3
3
5
67
170
6
1
7
2
4
RF
RA
(%)
(%)
Sciurus deppei
12
1
Sciurus variegatoides
9
1
Orthogeomys grandis
4
Liomys salvini
Scientific Name
Ecosystem
DF
Sampled Sites
HF
CF
1
16
1
6
2
3
1
0
1
1
3
11
1
9
6
Oryzomys couesi
1
0
Ototylomys phyllotis (Fig. 18H)
4
0
Tylomys nudicaudatus
2
0
Neotoma mexicana (Fig. 18I)
1
0
Nyctomys sumichrasti
7
1
Peromyscus mexicanus (Fig.
18J)
18
8
Reithrodontomys mexicanus
1
0
Sigmodon hispidus
5
0
WA
1
PA
2
LV
2
LC
SR
EA
12
3
1
1
2
1
4
1
1
SM
4
2
4
11
1
1
5
7
4
16
1
1
1
5
4
14
84
8
1
1
2
8
15
63
3
3
4
1
1
7
62
14
14
98
1
3
20
6
1
1
3
1
1
46
1
1
1
4
3
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Total
17
1
1
1
EI
1
3
Coendou mexicanus1
Dasyprocta punctata (Fig. 18K)
S
9
7
1
2
6
1
1
74
98
213
Ecosystem
Sampled Sites
RF
RA
(%)
(%)
DF
HF
Cuniculus paca (Fig. 18L)
21
4
5
50
Urocyon cinereoargenteus
(Fig. 18M)
18
2
3
Puma yaguarondi (Fig. 18N)
2
0
1
Leopardus wiedii (Fig. 18Ñ)
1
0
1
1
1
Mephitis macroura1
1
1
1
Spilogale angustifrons1
1
1
1
Mustela frenata1
1
Scientific Name
S
WA
PA
LV
LC
SR
EA
SM
EI
55
23
3
1
1
2
21
3
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
Potos flavus (Fig. 18O)
13
1
6
5
Bassariscus sumichrasti
8
1
2
7
Nasua narica (Fig. 18P)
13
3
Procyon lotor (Fig. 18Q)
17
2
18
Sylvilagus floridanus
6
1
1
Odocoileus virginianus (Fig. 18R)
19
2
1
8
5
3
1
45
2
4
2
13
4
7
1
18
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
1
16
4
9
4
1
Total
55
29
1
Eira barbara
214
CF
2
1
1
1
11
19
8
9
45
45
4
24
7
2
14
32
Ecosystem
Sampled Sites
RF
RA
(%)
(%)
DF
HF
Tayassu tajacu (Fig. 18S)
4
1
1
6
Total records
-
-
370
480
376
71
70
168
214
71
54
91
Species recorded during the
study
-
-
44
44
31
17
16
27
22
16
13
Total species3
-
-
78
70
56
25
18
31
47
25
40
Scientific Name
CF
S
WA
PA
LV
LC
SR
EA
SM
EI
Total
7
7
68
575
1296
21
21
53
72
21
43
72
101
RF (%) = Relative Frequency, RA (%) = Relative Abundance, DF = Dry Forest, HF = Humid Forest, CF= Cloud Forest, S= Savanna,
WA=West Apaneca, PA = Plan de Amayo, LV = Los Volcanes (only in cloud forest), LC = Los Cóbanos, SR = Santa Rita, EA=East Apaneca,
SM = San Marcelino, EI = El Imposible.
1
Reported outside of sampling.
2
A. intermedius may be a subspecies of A. lituratus (Reid 1997).
3
Species totals take into account prior investigations.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
215
Figure 18A. Nine-banded Armadillo
(Dasypus novemcinctus), El Imposible
National Park, taken with camera traps,
November 2007.
Figure
18B.
Northern
Tamandua
(Tamandua mexicana), El Imposible
National Park, taken with camera traps,
December 2007.
Figure 18C. Common Moustached Bat
(Pteronotus parnellii), San Marcelino
Complex
Protected Natural
Area,
October 2007, by Melissa Rodríguez.
Figure 18D. Fringe-lipped Bat (Trachops
cirrhosus), Santa Rita Protected Natural
Area, Sepember 2007, by Melissa
Rodríguez.
Figure 18E. Common Big-eared Bat Figure 18F. Wrinkle-faced bat (Centurio
(Micronycteris microtis), El Imposible senex), El Imposible National Park,
National Park, October 2007, by Stefany December 2007, by Melissa Rodríguez.
Henríquez.
216
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Figure 18G. Van Gelder´s Bat (Bauerus
dubiaquercus), Imposible National Park,
Cerro Campana sector, December 2007,
by Luis Girón.
Figure 18H. Big-eared Climbing Rat
(Ototylomys phyllotis), San Marcelino
Complex
Protected
Natural
Area,
October 2007, by Luis Girón.
Figure 18I. Mexican Wood Rat (Neotoma
mexicana), Cerro Verde, Los Volcanes
National Park, September 2007, by Luis
Giròn.
Figure 18J. Mexican Deer Mouse
(Peromyscus mexicanus), Laguna Las
Ranas Protected Natural Area, October
2007, by Melissa Rodríguez.
Figure 18K. Central American Agouti
(Dasyprocta punctata), Laguna Las
Ranas Protected Natural Area, taken
with camera traps, October 2007.
Figure 18L. Paca (Cuniculus paca), El
Imposible National Park, taken with
camera traps, December 2007.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
217
Figure 18M. Gray Fox (Urocyon
cinereoargenteus),
Los
Volcanes
National Park, Los Andes sector,
taken with camera traps, August 2007.
Figure 18Ñ. Margay (Leopardus
wiedii), Plan de Amayo Protected
Natural Area, taken with camera
traps, July 2007.
Figure 18P. Coati (Nasua narica), El
Imposible National Park, taken with
camera traps, December 2007.
218
Figure
18N.
Jaguarundi
(Puma
yagouaroundi),
Plan
de
Amayo
Protected Natural Area, taken with
camera traps, July 2007.
Figure 18O. Kinkajou (Potos flavus),
El
Imposible
National
Park,
November 2007, by Luis Girón.
Figure 18Q. Northern Raccoon (Procyon
lotor), El Imposible National Park, taken
with camera traps, October 2007.
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
Figure 18R. White-tailed Deer
(Odocoileus
virginianus),
Los
Volcanes National Park, Cerro
Verde, taken with camera traps,
September 2007.
Figure 18S. Collared Peccary (Tayassu
tajacu), El Imposible National Park,
taken with camera traps, November
2007.
FIGURE 18. SELECTED MAMMAL PHOTOGRAPHS TAKEN DURING THE STUDY.
3.2. STATUS OF INVENTORY COMPLETION
Four new species, all bats, were recorded in the study area for the first time
(Micronycteris microtis, Pteronotus parnelli, Pteronotus personatus, and Bauerus
dubiaquercus), increasing the list of mammals for the study area to 101 species (Table
49). Bauerus dubiaquercus was new for El Salvador (Girón, Owen & Rodríguez in press).
Considering the list of 48 indicator species used to evaluate inventory completion, we
estimated that the level of inventory completeness for the study area increased from 92%
to 100%. The Protected Natural Areas with the most complete inventories are: El
Imposible (81%), Santa Rita (63%), and Los Volcanes (52%) (Table 50).
Inventory completeness indices have been calculated for nine watersheds. The
watersheds with the highest level of inventory completeness are: Cara Sucia (83%), Barra
de Santiago (79%), Grande de Sonsonate (67%), and Coatepeque (67%) (Tabla 51).
Indices of completeness were calculated for 16 municipalities. Those with the highest
indices are San Francisco Menéndez (85%), Santa Ana (60%), Tacuba (46%), Acajutla
(46%), and Caluco (46%) (Table 52). Among ecosystems, the habitats with the highest
inventory completeness indices are: Dry Forest (90%), Humid Forest (79%), and Cloud
Forest (67%) (Table 53).
Biodiversity field inventories in selected watersheds
219
TABLE 49. LIST OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMAL SPECIES RECORDED IN SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR THROUGH 2007.
Order
Family
Scientific Name
Spanish Common Name
English Common Name
Source
DIDELPHIMORPHA
DIDELPHIDAE
Didelphis marsupialis
Tacuazín Negro
Common Opossum
Present Study
Didelphis virginiana
Tacuazín Blanco
Virginia Opossum
Present Study
Philander opossum
Tacuazín Cuatro Ojos o Hurón
Gray Four-eyed Opossum
Present Study
Marmosa mexicana
Tacuazín Ratón
Mexican Mouse Opossum
Present Study
SalvaNATURA
Chironectes minimus
Tacuazín de Agua
Water Opossum
Database
XENARTHRA
DASYPODIDAE
Dasypus
Cusuco
Nine-banded Armadillo
Present Study
novemcinctus
MYRMECOPHAGIDAE
Tamandua mexicana
Oso Hormiguero
Northern Tamandua
Present Study
INSECTIVORA
SORICIDAE
SalvaNATURA
Cryptotis parva
Musaraña Listada
Least Shrew
Database
Néstor Herrera,
Cryptotis merriami
Musaraña de Orejas Cortas
Merriam´s Short-eared Shrew
unpublished data
CHIROPTERA
EMBALLONURIDAE
Murciélago Grande de Líneas
Saccopteryx bilineata
Greater White-lined Bat
Present Study
Blancas
Balantiopteryx plicata
Murciélago Gris de Alas de Saco
Gray Sac-winged Bat
Present Study
SalvaNATURA
Peropteryx macrotis
Murciélago
Lesser Doglike Bat
Database
MORMOOPIDAE
Pteronotus parnellii
Murciélago Bigotudo Común
Common Mustached Bat
Present Study
220
Baseline inventory of flora and fauna
Order
Family
Scientific Name
Pteronotus davyi
Pteronotus
personatus
NOCTILIONIDAE
Spanish Common Name
Murciélaguito de Espalda Desnuda
English Common Name
Davy's Naked-backed Bat
Source
Present Study
Murciélago Bigotudo
Lesser Mustached Bat
Present Study
Noctilio leporinus
Murciélago Pescador
Fishing Bat
Noctilio albiventris
Murciélago Pescador Pequeño
Lesser Fishing Bat
SalvaNATURA
Database
SalvaNATURA
Database
PHYLLOSTOMIDAE
Fringe-lipped Bat
Present Study
Micronycteris microtis
Murciélago con Verrugas en el
Labio
Murciélago Orejudo Común
Common Big-eared Bat
Chrotopterus auritus
Murciélago Falso Vampiro
Woolly False Vampire Bat
Murciélago Hoja de Lanza Menor
Murciélago Longirostro Común de
Piernas Peludas
Murciélago Longirostro gris
Murciélago Longirostro de
Commissari
Murciélago Longirostro Común
Pale Spear-nosed Bat
Present Study
SalvaNATURA
Database
Present Study
Geoffroy's Tailless Bat
Present Study
Gray Long-tounged Bat
Commissaris's Long-tounged
Bat
Pallas's Long-tounged Bat
Present Study
Murciélago de Godman
Godman’s Whiskered Bat
Present Study
Trachops cirrhosus
Phyllostomus discolor
Anoura geoffroyi
Glossophaga leachii
Glossophaga
commissarisi
Glossophaga soricina
Choeroniscus
godmani
Carollia perspicillata
Carollia subrufa
Artibeus intermedius
Artibeus jamaicensis
Artibeus lituratus
Artibeus toltecus
Artibeus aztecus
Murciélago Frutero Común de Cola
Corta
Murciélago de Cola Corta Común
Murciélago Frutero Intermedio
Murciélago Frutero de Jamaica
Murciélago Frutero Mayor
Murciélago Frutero Tolteca
Murciélago Frutero Azteca
Seba's Short-tailed Bat
Gray Short-tailed Bat
Intermediate Fruit-eating Bat
Jamaican Fruit-eating Bat
Great Fruit-eating Bat
Toltec Fruit-eating Bat
Aztec Fruit-eating Bat
Baseline inventory of flora and fauna
Present Study
Present Study
SalvaNATURA
Database
Present Study
Present Study
Present Study
Present Study
Present Study
Present Study
221
Order
Family
Scientific Name
Artibeus phaeotis
Artibeus hartii
Artibeus helleri
Uroderma bilobatum
Chiroderma salvini
Spanish Common Name
Murciélago Peludo de Ojos
Grandes
Murciélago Frutero Pigmeo
Murciélago de Heller
Murciélago Constructor de Tiendas
Común
Murciélago de Ojos Grandes de
Salvin
English Common Name
Source
Hairy Big-eyed Bat
Present Study
Pygmy Fruit-eating Bat
Heller’s Broad-nosed Bat
Present Study
Present Study
Common Tent-making Bat
Present Study
Salvin's Big-eyed Bat
Present Study
Chiroderma villosum
Murciélago Frutero de Velvety
Velvety Fruit-eating Bat
Centurio senex
Murciélago de Cara Arrugada
Murciélago Frutero Común de
Hombros Amarillos
Wrinkle-faced Bat
SalvaNATURA
Database
Present Study
Little Yellow Shouldered Bat
Present Study
Sturnira lilium
Sturnira ludovici
Diphylla ecaudata
Desmodus rotundus
Vampiro de Patas Peludas
Vampiro Común
Highland Yellow-shouldered
Bat
Hairy-legged Vampire Bat
Common Vampire Bat
Murciélago de Orejas de Embudo
Mexican Funnel-eared Bat
Present Study
Murciélago Vespertino Menor
Murciélago Café Gande
Murciélago de Van Gelder
Murciélago Amarillo del sur
Murciélago Amarillo
Centroamericano
Murciélago Elegante
Murciélago de patas peludas
Murciélago Negruzco Común
Murciélago Enano de Alas Negras
Argentine Brown Bat
Big Brown Bat
Van Gelder´s Bat
Southern Yellow Bat
Elegant Myotis
Hairy-legged Myotis
Black Myotis
Black-winged Little Yellow Bat
Present Study
Present Study
Present Study
Girón 2005
SalvaNATURA
Database
Present Study
Present Study
Present Study
Present Study
Murciélago Cara de Perro de
Greenhall's Dog-faced Bat
Girón 2005
Murciélago Frutero de Occidente
Present Study
Present Study
Present Study
NATALIDAE
Natalus stramineus
VESPERTILIONIDAE
Eptesicus furinalis
Eptesicus fuscus
Bauerus dubiaquercus
Lasiurus ega
Lasiurus intermedius
Myotis elegans
Myotis keaysi
Myotis nigricans
Rhogeessa tumida
Central American Yellow Bat
MOLOSSIDAE
Molossops greenhalli*
222
Baseline inventory of flora and fauna
Order
Family
Scientific Name
Spanish Common Name
Greenhall
English Common Name
Molossus molossus
Murciélago Mastín Común
Pallas's Mastiff Bat
Molossus ater
Murciélago Mastín Negro
Black Mastiff Bat
Eumops underwoodi
Murciélago de Underwood
Underwood’s Bonneted Bat
SalvaNATURA
Database
SalvaNATURA
Database
SalvaNATURA
Database
Moloso Cola de Ratón Mediano
Broad-eared Bat
Girón 2005
Ardilla Cuzca o Ardilla Café
Ardilla Gris
Deppe's Squirrel
Variegated Squirrel
Present Study
Present Study
Taltuza
Giant Pocket Gopher
Present Study
Ratón Bolsero
Salvin's Spiny Pocket Mouse
Present Study
Ratón Casero
House Mouse
Rata Negra
House Rat, Black Rat
Ratón Bolsero del Sur
Southern Pygmy Mouse
Ratón Arrocero de Coues
Coues’ Rice Rat
Oryzomys rostratus
Ratón Arrocero
Rusty Rice Rat
Ototylomys phyllotis
Rata Escaladora de Orejas
Grandes
Big-eared Climbing Rat
Present Study
Ratón Arrocera Pigmea del Norte
Northern Pygmy Rice Rat
Ibarra 2005
Nyctinomops
laticaudatus*
Source
RODENTIA
SCIURIDAE
Sciurus deppei
Sciurus variegatoides
GEOMYIDAE
Orthogeomys grandis
HETEROMYIDAE
Liomys salvini
CRICETIDAE
Mus musculus
Rattus rattus
Baiomys musculus
Oryzomys couesi
Olygoryzomys
fulvescens
Baseline inventory of flora and fauna
SalvaNATURA
Database
SalvaNATURA
Database
SalvaNATURA
Database
Present Study
SalvaNATURA
Database
223
Order
Family
Scientific Name
Tylomys nudicaudus
Neotoma mexicana
Nyctomys sumichrasti
Peromyscus
mexicanus
Reithrodontomys
gracilis
Reithrodontomys
mexicanus
Rheomys thomasi
Sigmodon hispidus
ERETHIZONTIDAE
Sphiggurus
mexicanus
DASYPROCTIDAE
Dasyprocta punctata
CUNICULIDAE
Cuniculus paca
CARNIVORA
CANIDAE
Canis latrans
Urocyon
cinereoargenteus
Spanish Common Name
Rata Escaladora del norte
Rata Mexicana de Bosque
Ratón Jocotero
English Common Name
Northern Climbing Rat
Mexican Wood Rat
Vesper Rat
Source
Present Study
Present Study
Present Study
Ratón Venado Mexicano
Mexican Deer Mouse
Present Study
Ratón Cosechador
Slender Harvest Mouse
SalvaNATURA
Database
Ratón Cosechador Mexicano
Mexican Harvest Mouse
Present Study
Ratón de Agua
Thomas's Water Mouse
Rata Algodonera
Hispid Cotton Rat
SalvaNATURA
Database
Present Study
Puerco Espín o Zorro Espín
Mexican Porcupine
Present Study
Cotuza
Central American Agouti
Present Study
Tepezcuintle
Paca
Present Study
Coyote
Coyote
Nestor Herrera,
unpublished data
Zorra Gris o gato de monte
Gray Fox
Present Study
Yaguarundi o Gato Zonto
Jaguarundi
Puma
Puma
Ocelote
Ocelot
Present Study
Néstor Herrera,
unpublished data
SalvaNATURA
Database
FELIDAE
Puma yagouaroundi
Puma concolor
Leopardus pardalis
224
Baseline inventory of flora and fauna
Order
Family
Scientific Name
Leopardus wiedii
Spanish Common Name
Tigrillo
English Common Name
Margay, Tree Ocelot
Source
Present Study
Mephitis macroura
Zorrillo Listado
Common Hog-nosed Skunk
Conepatus leuconotus
Zorrillo Lomo Blanco
Hooded Skunk
Spilogale angustifrons
Zorrilo Manchado
Spotted Skunk
Present Study
Néstor Herrera, Data not
published
Present Study
Comadreja Andina (Comadreja)
Tayra
Long-tailed Weasel
Tayra
Nutria
Neotropical River Otter
Micoleón
Kinkajou
Present Study
Cacomistle, Guayanoche
Central American Cacomistle
Present Study
Pezote
Mapache
Coatimundi
Northern Raccoon
Present Study
Present Study
Conejo Silvestre
Eastern Cottontail
Present Study
Venado Cola Blanca
White-tailed Deer
Present Study
Cuche de monte
Collared Peccary
Present Study
Tapir o Danta
Baird´s Tapir
SalvaNATURA
Database
MEPHITIDAE
MUSTELIDAE
Mustela frenata
Eira barbara
Lontra longicaudis
Rivera Muñoz 2000
Present Study
SalvaNATURA
Database
PROCYONIDAE
Potos flavus
Bassariscus
sumichrasti
Nasua narica
Procyon lotor
LAGOMORPHA
LEPORIDAE
Sylvilagus floridanus
ARTIODACTYLA
CERVIDAE
Odocoileus
virginianus
TAYASSUIDAE
Tayassu tajacu
PERISODACTYLA
TAPIRIDAE
Tapirus bairdi
9
27
101
Baseline inventory of flora and fauna
225
The records deposited in the SalvaNATURA database for this study come from specimens fround in the following museums: American Museum
of Natural History (AMNH), Carnegie Museum of Natural History (CM), Museo de Historia Natural de El Salvador (MUHNES), Harrison Museum
(HM), Royal Ontario Museum of Natural History, Texas Cooperative Wildlife Collection (TCWC), Museum of Vertebrate Zoology (MVZ) y The
Museum of Natural History of the University of Kansas (KU). Furthermore, data has been taken from the SalvaNATURA/WCS Neobats-El
Salvador project.
* = Ultrasound record. Never collected in the country.
226
Baseline inventory of flora and fauna
TABLE 50. LEVEL OF MAMMAL
PROTECTED NATURAL AREAS.
Species
Recorded
in the
Study
Species
Recorded
in the Site
El Imposible
Los
Cóbanos
Los
Volcanes
Plan de
Amayo
San
Marcelino
53
Santa Rita
Protected
Natural
Area
INVENTORY
COMPLETENESS
Inventory
Completeness
IN
THE
Conservation
Important Species
%
Previous
%
Current
%
Previous
%
Current
72
63
81
32
41
16
25
2
40
3
6
23
47
33
52
15
21
27
31
23
52
0
12
21
43
42
63
12
12
13
40
52
63
3
9
21
2
35
0
0
18
0
29
0
3
103
92
100
47
65
Sierra de
Apaneca
21
East
Sierra de
Apaneca
16
West
TOTAL7
73
7
The entire study area.
TABLE 51. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS FOR MAMMALS AND RELATIVE
IMPORTANCE OF WATERSHEDS.
Watershed
Barra de Santiago
Barra Salada
Bocana San Juan
Cara Sucia
Cauta
Coatepeque
Grande de Sonsonate
Izalco
Los Cóbanos
San Julián
San Pedro
Inventory Completeness
Conservation Important
Species
% Previous
% Current
% Previous
% Current
54
0
15
58
0
46
42
21
2
19
13
79
0
15
83
0
67
67
31
40
46
17
18
0
0
35
0
18
3
0
3
0
3
24
0
0
41
0
21
6
0
6
18
3
Baseline inventory of flora and fauna
227
TABLE 52. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS FOR MAMMALS AND RELATIVE
IMPORTANCE OF MUNICIPALITIES.
Municipality
Acajutla
Apaneca
Armenia
Atiquizaya
Caluco
Chalchuapa
Concepción de Ataco
Cuisnahuat
El Congo
Guaymango
Izalco
Juayua
Jujutla
Nahuizalco
Nahulingo
Salcoatitán
San Antonio del Monte
San Francisco Menéndez
San Julián
San Pedro Puxtla
Santa Ana
Santa Catarina Masahuat
Sto. Domingo de Guzmán
Sonsonate
Sonzacate
Tacuba
Tepecoyo
Inventory Completeness
Conservation Important
Species
% Previous
% Current
% Previous
% Current
17
0
0
0
19
4
0
0
0
0
2
17
23
21
0
0
0
56
0
13
52
0
0
2
0
21
0
46
29
19
27
46
31
0
0
19
0
23
21
42
21
0
0
0
85
0
13
60
0
0
10
0
46
0
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
3
0
0
0
0
18
0
0
12
0
0
3
0
0
0
9
3
3
0
12
0
0
0
6
0
0
0
9
0
0
0
0
44
0
0
12
0
0
3
0
26
0
TABLE 53. INVENTORY COMPLETENESS FOR MAMMALS AND RELATIVE
IMPORTANCE OF ECOSYSTEMS.
Inventory Completeness
Ecosystem
Humid forest
Cloud forest
Dry forest
Freshwater
Intertidal
Mangrove
Savanna
228
Conservation Important
Species
% Previous
% Current
% Previous
%
Current
48
50
69
33
0
33
2
79
67
90
33
0
42
40
15
9
24
6
0
6
3
32
21
47
6
0
9
6
Baseline inventory of flora and fauna
Another way of calculating inventory completeness is by using species accumulation
curves. For this study the accumulation curve is still not stabilized after 98 days of
standardized sampling efforts (Fig.19). Based on this curve, different estimators project
from 91 up to 138 species of land mammals in the southwestern region of El Salvador
(Table 54). On the other hand, taking into account that we have already recorded 101
species and we are still missing 12 species of conservation importance that are potentially
present in the area, we can estimate the existence of at least 113 terrestrial mammal
species in the study area. In any case, we expect additional species, particularly bats and
rodents, even though 100% of the expected generalists have already been detected.
FIGURE 19. SPECIES ACCUMULATION CURVE OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMALS IN
SOUTHWESTERN EL SALVADOR.
For ecosystems, the accumulation curves also do not become stabilized (Fig. 20). For Dry
Forest, the richness calculators estimate there could be up to 69 species, for the Humid
Forest up to 75, for the Cloud Forest up to 43 and for Savanna up to 26 (Table 54). In the
case of Dry Forest, 78 species have been recorded including previous studies (greater
than the estimated richness) and very few expected species are still missing to complete
the inventory; it is a similar case with the Humid Forest and the Cloud Forest, reporting 70
and 57 species, respectively. Savanna reports 25 species whereas a maximum of 26 are
estimated.
Baseline inventory of flora and fauna
229
TABLE 54. ESTIMATORS OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMAL SPECIES RICHNESS IN THE
STUDY AREA AND IN EACH ECOSYSTEM.
Estimated Richness (Colwell 2006)
Richness
Estimator
ACE
ICE
Chao 1
Chao 2
Jack-Knife 1
Jack-Knife 2
Average
Total
Area
Dry Forest
Humid Forest
Cloud Forest
Savanna
92
95
138
99
91
107
104
67
63
67
59
60
69
64
54
67
53
68
62
75
63
34
40
33
36
40
43
38
20
23
19
21
23
26
22
The fact that both the Dry Forest and Cloud Forest present lists with more species than
were estimated from the species accumulation curve, suggests that some of the species
reported in the past are already locally extinct. Some examples of possibly extinct
species are: Chrotopterus auritus collected only once in 1927 at the Barra de Santiago,
Reithrodontomys gracilis collected for the last time in 1958 at Lake Coatepeque and
Tapirus bairdi for which there is a report of a skull found in 1987 near El Imposible
National Park although it is unknown when the specimen was alive. Although there are
no formal records, elderly persons living in the area still remember when the jaguar
(Pantera onca) existed (Karla Lara, pers. comm.) and it is also possible that the Spider
Monkey Ateles geoffroyi lived in the area many years ago.
FIGURE 20. ACCUMULATION CURVES OF TERRESTRIAL MAMMAL SPECIES BY
ECOSYSTEM.
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Baseline inventory of flora and fauna
3.3. SPECIES OF CONSERVATION IMPORTANCE
Twenty-two threatened species, indicators of conservation importance, have been
recorded in the study area. Examples include the Margay Cat (Leopardus wiedii), Ocelot
(Leopardus pardalis), Central American River Otter (Lontra longicaudis), and the Baird’s
Tapir (Tapirus bairdi). There are 11 threatened species and seven endangered species at
the national level (MARN 2004), and also one globally endangered species (IUCN 2008)
(See Table 47).
Below is a description of some important species:
Trachops cirrhosus (Fig. 18D). Up until 2004 this species was only known in El Salvador
from three sites in the departments of La Libertad and San Miguel. On 19 September
2007, we found the second record for Santa Rita and the second record since 1953 in the
country. The first record from Santa Rita was in June 2005 during the Neobats-El
Salvador project. The species is considered nationally threatened (MARN 2004).
Micronycteris microtis (Fig. 18E). This species had not been captured in El Salvador since
1978 and was only known in El Salvador from four sites in the departments of San Miguel
and La Libertad. We recorded the species at Plan de Amayo on 21 July 2007 and at El
Imposible National Park on 31 October 2007. These are the first records for the project
area and for the departments of Sonsonate and Ahuachapán, respectively. This species
is considered nationally threatened (MARN 2004).
Bauerus dubiaquercus (Fig. 18G). On 15 December 2007, this species was recorded for
the first time in El Salvador at El Imposible National Park (Girón et al. in press).
Previously, its known distribution range was highly fragmented, with populations known
from Jalisco, Guerrero and the Island of Tres Marías in Mexico, and on the Caribbean
slopes of Honduras and Costa Rica. It has a globally Near-Threatened status (IUCN
2008).
Neotoma mexicana (Fig. 18I). This species had only been collected in Montecristo and at
the Santa Ana Volcano. On 9 September 2007, we found an individual at Cerro Verde,
the first collection of the species since 1979. This rodent is considered nationally
endangered (MARN 2004).
Leopardus wiedii (Fig. 18Ñ). This species was only documented from five sities around
the country: Cerro Cacahuatique, Montecristo, Jucuarán, La Montañona, and El
Imposible. We provide the first record for Plan de Amayo, from a camera trap on 22 July
2007.
3.4. EVALUATION OF CONSERVATION IMPORTANCE FOR THE
SITES AND ECOSYSTEMS UNDER STUDY.
Of the list of 34 threatened species identified as indicators of site importance, the
proportion actually recorded in the project area increased from 47% to 65%. At the
watershed level, only two have reasonably complete inventories, permitting comparisons
of site importance. The Cara Sucia watershed has 41% indicators for site importance,
Baseline inventory of flora and fauna
231
while the Barra de Santiago has only 24% (Table 51). Only one municipality has a
reasonably complete inventory, therefore the relative importance of the municipalities
cannot be analyzed. Regarding ecosystems, only two relatively complete inventories can
be compared. The Dry Forest (47%) is more important than the Humid Forest (32%)
(Table 53). Only one Protected Natural Area has a nearly complete inventory, therefore
the Protected Natural Areas cannot be analyzed for relative importance.
4. RECOMMENDATIONS
To complement the efforts made and complete the inventories, we recommend working at
the following sites: San Marcelino, Plan de Amayo and in the coffee plantations of the
Apaneca mountain range to see if mammal species may be using the scattered remnants
of natural forest and shaded plantations as a biological corridor. For example, the Large
Brown Bat (Eptesicus fuscus) has been recorded at the eastern extreme of the mountain
range (Santa Ana Volcano) and at west side of the range, at Laguna de Las Ninfas. San
Marcelino and Plan de Amayo are important sites for mammal conservation but have not
been studied in depth and their inventories are incomplete.
Permanent monitoring stations with camera traps should be established in the natural
areas where felines have been detected; little is known about their populations and all of
the members of the cat family are nationally threatened, which makes it important to study
these species.
The Anabat acoustic sampling technique should be carried out to detect high flying bats as
these are captured only on very rare occasions, such as the Greenhall Dog-faced Bat
(Molossops greenhalli), which has only been recorded in El Salvador by that technique.
It is very important to monitor and carry out ecological studies of some mammal species
that enter into conflict with humans due to their interference with agricultural crops. This
situation is mentioned constantly in communities adjoining the natural areas and we
recommend studying this problem. If it is documented that some species may cause more
harm to the crops and therefore generate economic losses, then a strategy could be
established to minimize the problem without harming the mammal populations involved.
Some mammal population controls may be warranted, because of the demise of natural
predators, such as the jaguar (Panthera onca) and the puma (Puma concolor).
232
Baseline inventory of flora and fauna
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