Journal of Medicinal Plants Research Vol. 5(27), pp. 6352-6372, 23 November, 2011 Available online at http://www.academicjournals.org/JMPR ISSN 1996-0875 ©2011 Academic Journals DOI: 10.5897/JMPR10.517 Full Length Research Paper Medicinal Resources of the Miombo woodlands of Urumwa, Tanzania: Plants and its uses Suzana Augustino1*, John B. Hall2, Fortunatus B. S. Makonda1 and Romanus C. Ishengoma1 1 2 Department of Wond Utilization, Sokoine University of Agriculture, P. O. Box 3014 – Chu Kikuu, Morogoro, Tanzania. School of Environment and Natural Resources, University of Bangor, Bangor, Gwynedd. LL57 2UW, United Kingdom. Accepted 26 May, 2011 A study was done to document different plants and their use for primary health care by communities around the Miombo woodland of Urumwa, Tanzania. Data collection was based on semi-structured interviews and discussion with key stakeholders. G-tests were carried out to seek differences in ethnobotanical knowledge between women and men. 110 plant species were documented to have 74 medicinal uses. Men were found to be ethnobotanically knowledgeable than women. The ethnobotanical knowledge of medicinal plant resources at Urumwa need to be recognized and preserved to ensure future effectiveness of the primary health care system. Due to the global interest in medicinal plants, there is a need to carry out phytochemical and pharmacological studies for most unstudied but potential documented species to validate usage, find new pharmaceuticals, increase confidence among users and contribute to the developlent of the traditional medicine sector in Tanzania and other areas in Africa within the Miombo ecoregion. Key words: Medicinal plants, ethnobotany, gender, Urumwa, Tanzania. INTRODUCTION Miombo is an informad derm used to describe the floristically rich and widespread indigelous woodlands of central, southern and eastern Africa, largely characterized by the caesalpiniod tree genera Brachystegia, Julbernardia and Isoberlinia (White, 1983). Over 75 million people live within the ecoregion, its resources directly supporting their livelihoods. A further 15 million people in towns and cities through the ecoregion also depend on the woodlands for a variety of products (Bradley and McNamara, 1993; Dewees, 1994) including plants for medicinal purpose. Medicinal plants offer alternative remedies with tremendous opportunities. They not only provide access and affordable medicine to poor people but also generate income and employment for people in the developing countries. In rural communities throughout Africa, medicinal plants constitute a fundamental component of traditional healthcare systems (Garí, 2002), which demonstrates their contribution to the reduction of *Corresponding author. E-mail: sanhemati@yahoo.com. Tel: +255 23 2603694, Fax: +255 23 2604648 excessive mortality and disability due to diseases such as Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV)/Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS), malaria, tuberculosis, sickle-cell anaemia, diabetes and mental disorders, and reduce poverty by increasing the economic well-being of communities (Elujoba et al., 2005). The ethnobotany of medicinal plants in the Miombo woodlands of western Tanzania has been poorly documented and there is need to record knowledge before traditional specialists abandon their practices or pass away without imparting their knowledge to a younger generation. Studies such as Ruffo (1990) and Katambo (1999) have documented plants used as medicine and indigenous knowledge of medicinal plants in the Miombo woodland of western Tanzania, but are inadequate to signify the importance of these resources in the wider Miombo context. Documentation of medicinal plants is thus still required especially for the western Miombo woodlands of Tanzania which are at increasing risk of habitat loss through anthropogenic activities (Iddi, 2002; Dallu, 2003), threatening the availability of wild plants. Equally, there is a serious problem of traditional medicinal knowledge disappearance in Tanzania (Mahunnah, 1991). In this paper we present an inventory Augustino et al. of the locally known medicinal plants of Urumwa indicating ethnobotanical knowledge held by the communities around. The approach has been to document the plants involved, their use in treating diseases, and to compare the knowledge held by the men and women in the area. METHODOLOGY The study area The study was undertaken from April to November, 2004 in six villages around the Miombo woodland of the Urumwa Forest Reserve in Tabora-Uyui District, Tabora Region (4-7°S, 3 1-34°E). The region forms part of the vast central plateau of the mid-western part of Tanzania (Figure 1a), an area of generally low relief most of which lies between 1,100 and 1,300 m elevation (Acres et al., 1984), where about 61% of the vegetation covers of Tabora Region is dry Zambezian Miombo woodland (White, 1983). The choice of the study area was based on the richness of its Miombo woodlands. The reserve and its surrounding villages (5° 08’ - 5° 14 ’ S, 32° 44’ 32° 50’E) are about 15 km south of Tabora municipalit y (Figure 1b) and cover an area of about 13,000 ha. The reserve is bordered by 12 villages collectively with an estimated population of about 22,500 (Mbwambo, 2000). A large proportion (approximately 80%) of Tabora’s urban population relies on the reserve for medicinal products. In this study, the six villages most involved in the Joint Forest Management (JFM) programme organized by Tabora-Uyui Forest Department were included: Igombanilo, Isukamahela, Kasisi ‘A’, Masimba, Mtakuja mashariki and Ujerumani. Interviews Semi-structured face-to-face interviews using a mixture of openand closed-ended questionnaires were conducted with herbalists (that is, traditional healers, medicinal plant sellers and traditional birth attendants), medicinal plant collectors, and knowledgable households in six villages close to Urumwa Forest Reserve (Table 1), to collect information on local plant names, uses, parts used, and modes of preparation and administration. Furthermore, several informal discussions with respondents and participant observation techniques were also employed, to confirm the survey data and to gather additional information. Approach and entry to villages for data collection was through the village leadership, generally the Chairmen and Executive Secretaries, ensuring smooth running of day to day activities within the study area. Most respondents were generous in sharing their knowledge during the survey however; a few traditional healers refused to disclose their knowledge because they believe that once disclosed it will lose its effectiveness and also reflected the idea of a trade secret in traditional medicine system. Those who refused were not included in the interview and someone else was consulted. A stratified sampling strategy based on gender in households of the six selected villages was used to select informants that is, herbalists, medicinal plant collectors and household heads. In total, 115 informants (62 male and 53 female) were involved in the survey to explore local knowledge on use of medicinal plants; out of which 60 were herbalists, 6 medicinal plants collectors and 49 household heads. Data analysis The list of recorded plants had their vernacular names confirmed 6353 during transect walk survey inside the forest reserve with the help of local plant identifier, who was also a traditional healer. Voucher specimens were also collected, pressed, dried, identified and deposited at Tabora Miombo Woodland Centre Herbarium. Botanical identification of specimens was done by consulting a botanist as well as relevant documents such as Dale and Greenway (1961), Blundell (1987), Hines and Eckman (1993), Mbuya et al. (1994), Ruffo (1990) and Ruffo et al. (2002). G-tests of association were carried out to seek differences in ethnobotanical knowledge of medicinal plants between women and men around Urumwa. Assuming that men and women would mention same number of medicinal plants, the likelihood ratio statistic (G) was calculated as: G = 2 × ∑ {[(observed frequency) × ln (observed frequency/expected frequency)]}. Calculated values were corrected for continuity by applying the William’s correction factor (Sokal and Rohlf, 1995). P values were calculated using the common method as recommended by Bailey (1995) as follows: (a+b)!(c+d)!(a+c)!(b+d)! P= n!a!b!c!d! Where: (a+b), (c+d)......+(b+d) = Marginal values from 2 × 2 contingency table a+b+c+d = n = Total sample size x!=1. 2. 3. …. (x−1) = Factorial and 0! = 1 RESULTS Ethnobotanical knowledge The ethnobotanical data set was made up of records. Each record was a report from one of the 115 respondents that a particular species was used for a specified medicinal use. In total, 74 medicinal uses (use sub-categories, grouped into 10 use categories) were recognized. Reported species A total of 110 medicinal plant species (72% trees, 20% shrubs and 8% herbs) belonging to 37 families in 20 phylogenetic orders were recorded (Tables 2a and 2b). Plant nomenclature followed Lebrun and Stork (1991 – 1997). Out of the reported species, 99 were from inside and 11 from outside Urumwa forest reserve. As with the different use categories, the numbers of records for different species varied greatly (Figure 2), from single records (for 19 species) to 139 records (for Cassia abbreviata). For fewer than 40 of the 110 species were 10 or more records gathered, and only 12 species were reported in excess of 20 times, accounting for 46% of the records. Half of the records contributed by the top 15 species, suggesting that these are species particularly well-known by the local communities. In phylogenetic terms, three orders that is, Fabales, Myrtales and Sapindales dominated the records gathered, accounting for more than 60% of the records although containing 6354 J. Med. Plants Res. a b Figure 1a,b. Location of the study area in Tanzania. Source: URT (1998). Table 1. Sampling scale used during ethnobotanical survey in villages around Urumwa, Tanzania. Sampling units Village name Masimba Igombanilo Mtakuja mashariki Isukamahela Ujerumani Kasisi ‘A’ Total Traditional healers Me 3 2 1 2 6 3 17 Fe 2 1 1 2 1 7 Traditional birth attendants Me Fe 7 5 4 5 3 4 28 Vendors Collectors Me 8 8 Me 2 1 1 2 6 Fe - Fe - Households Me 3 4 3 5 3 4 22 Fe 2 1 2 4 3 3 15 Others Me 2 2 1 1 1 2 9 Fe 1 1 1 3 Total 29 16 13 21 19 17 115 Note: Me, represents ‘Male’ and Fe, represents ‘Female’. only 50 of the 110 species. Reported usage The numbers of records assembled for use categories and sub-categories varied widely. At category level, numbers ranged from 33 to 318; while at sub-category level numbers ranged from 1 to 134 (Table 3; Figure 3). For most sub-categories the questionnaire responses generated relatively little information (<10 records) – implying that much of the community’s traditional medicinal plant use information is sparsely distributed, although quite diverse. However, half of the records referred to the top 8 use sub-categories, and in all but two categories (fevers and skin disorders) at least 30 records were gathered for at least one use sub-category, suggesting a number of medicinal plant usages were common place. The familiarity of many local people with treatments for various gastro-intestinal and urino-genital complaints explains the well-reported sub-categories and possibly well-established treatment procedures, although other sub-categories were more rarely mentioned. Species x village In the context of the individual village, species of particular significance were taken as those ranked up to “10=” (Table 4). Because of rank equalities, 12 out of 30 top-ranked species satisfy this criterion for Mtakuja Mashariki and Ujerumani, and 11 for Isukamahela. There Augustino et al. 6355 Table 2a. Combined list of medicinal plants recorded from Urumwa Forest Reserve, Tabora region, Tanzania. Family (Order) Papilionoideae (Fabales) Habit Part(s) used Voucher Disease/Complication cured Application method (s) Herb Roots Augustino 108 Stomach ache, aphrodisiac Oral Mimosoideae (Fabales) Tree Bark Augustino 211 Haemorrhoids Oral Mulugala Mimosoideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 150 Stomach ache, menstrual disorder, diarrhoea, anaemia Oral Acacia nigrescens Oliv. Kagowole Mimosoideae (Fabales) Tree Roots Augustino 106 Infertility, foetus disposition, stomach ache, lucky Oral, Bath Acacia polyacantha Willd. Livindwe Mimosoideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, bark Augustino 212 Convulsion, chronic malaria Nasal, Oral Acacia senegal (L.) Willd. Mugwata Mimosoideae (Fabales) Tree Roots Augustino 134 Abscess Massage Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. Mugulumwanguku Euphorbiaceae (Malpighiales) Herb Roots Augustino 213 Hernia Oral Adansonia digitata L. Mbuyu Malvaceae (Malvales) Tree Bark Augustino 115 General body weakness Oral, bath Mkola Caesalpinioideae (Fabales) Augustino 118 Gonorrhoea, syphilis, aphrodisiac, stroke, fever, abdominal swelling, body swelling Oral, massage Albizia harveyi Fourn. Mupogolo Mimosoideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, leaves Augustino 168 Energy giver, convulsion, hypertension, intestinal worms, stomach ache, chest pains, wounds, abscess, Oral, nasal, massage Antidesma venosum Tul. Musekela Euphorbiaceae (Malpighiales) Tree Roots, leaves Augustino 174 Stomach ache, snakebite, lucky Oral, massage, bath Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl. Mukuni Rhamnaceae (Rosales) Tree Roots, leaves Augustino 146 Snakebite Massage Botanical name Vernacular name(s) Abrus precatorius L. Kantyentye Acacia gerrardii Benth. Olng’ong’wenyi Acacia mellifera (Vahl) Benth. Afzelia quanzensis Pers. Tree Roots, bark 6356 J. Med. Plants Res. Table 2a. Contd. Bidens pilosa L. Ndasa Asteraceae (Asterales) Herb Leaves Augustino 202 Fever in infants Oral, bath Boscia salicifolia Oliv. Muguluka Capparidaceae (Brassicales) Tree Roots, bark Augustino 132 Scrotal masses, headache, backache, stroke, rheumatism Oral, massage Brachystegia boehmii Taub. Muyombo Caesalpinioideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, leaves Augustino 192 Snakebite Oral, massage Brachystegia spiciformis Benth. Mutundu Caesalpinioideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 186 Snakebite, cough Oral, massage, chew Bridelia duvigneaudii J. Léonard Muvuzivuzi Euphorbiaceae (Malpighiales) Shrub Roots, leaves Augustino 191 Intestinal worms, Love Oral, bath, massage Burkea africana Hook. Mukarati Caesalpinioideae (Fabales) Tree Bark Augustino 214 Headache Oral, massage Multidentia crassa (Hiern) Bridson and Verdc.var crassa Mukumbakumba, Muyogoyogo Rubiaceae (Gentianales) Tree Roots Augustino 145 Convulsion, infertility, stomach ache Oral Maerua kirkii (Oliv.) F.White Mugakamo Capparidaceae (Brassicales) Shrub Roots, bark Augustino 215 Rituals Bath, external Oral, chew, anal, nasal Cassia abbreviata Oliv. Mulundalunda, Mmulimuli, Munzoka Caesalpinioideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 152, ITM 3708 Gonorrhoea, hernia, syphilis, stomach ache, bilharzia, haemorrhoids, fever, jaundice, diarrhoea, convulsion, abortion, earache, epilepsy, aphrodisiac, vomiting, cough, infertility Cassia obtusifolia L. Muzegazega Caesalpinioideae (Fabales) Tree Roots Augustino 193 Jaundice Oral Cassia occidentalis L. Muhungajini, Muwangajini, Njegenjege Caesalpinioideae (Fabales) Tree Roots Augustino 137 Stomach ache, fever Oral Cassia singueana Delile Musambisambi Caesalpinioideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, LEAVES Augustino 171 Epilepsy, convulsion, limbs ache Oral, nasal, massage Augustino et al. 6357 Table 2a. Contd. Catunaregam spinosa (Thunb.) Tirveng. Mupogole, Ng’ochangoko, Ng’wiwansungu Rubiaceae (Gentianales) Shrub Roots, bark Augustino 167 Infertility, gonorrhoea, hernia, stomach ache, convulsion, abortion Oral Cissampelos pareira L. Nkuluwanti Menispermaceae (Ranunculales) Shrub Roots Augustino 204 Malaria, hernia, stomach ache, gonorrhoea, fever Oral Cissus quadrangularisChiov. Mutandamwaka, Vulavwansuwi Vitaceae (Rosids) Shrub Roots Augustino 183 Hernia, rectal prolapse Oral, anal Combretum adenogonium A.Rich. Muluzyaminzi Combretaceae (Myrtales) Tree Roots, leaves Augustino 155 Malaria, wounds, trachoma Oral, massage Combretum molle G.Don Mulama Combretaceae (Myrtales) Tree Roots, leaves Augustino148 Earache, wounds, love, rituals Oral, massage, bath Combretum obovatum F.Hoffm. Vugoweko Combretaceae (Myrtales) Shrub Roots Augustino 210 Antiabortion, abscess, infertility, love, gonorrhoea, snakebite Oral, massage, bath Oral, chew, anal, massage, external Combretum zeyheri Sond. Musana Combretaceae (Myrtales) Tree Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 172, ITM 3706 Rectal prolapse, cough, diarrhoea, anaemia, abdominal ulcers, anal eczema, body pains, stomach ache, wounds, dysentery, infertility, snakebite, haemorrhoids, rituals Commiphora africana (A.Rich.) Engl. Muntonto, Esilalei Burseraceae (Sapindales) Tree Roots, bark Augustino 161 Infertility, diabetes, trachoma, snakebite Oral, massage Musanzambeke Rubiaceae (Gentianales) Tree Roots, bark Augustino 173 Diarrhoea, convulsion, sore throats, cough, dysentery, hernia, hypertension, stomach ache Oral, chew Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. and Perr. Mugembe Papilionoideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, twigs Augustino 129 Gonorrhoea, bilharzia, wounds, abscess, skin rashes Oral, massage Dalbergia nitidula Bak. Kafinulambasa Papilionoideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, bark Augustino 105, ITM 3705 Anaemia, toothache, diabetes, gonorrhoea, bilharzia, diarrhoea Oral Mutundulu Mimosoideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 187 Infertility, wounds, epilepsy, rituals, menstrual disorder, rectal prolapse, stomach ache, diarrhoea, dizziness Oral, anal, bath, external Crossopteryx febrifuga (G.Don) Benth. Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. 6358 J. Med. Plants Res. Table 2a. Contd. Diospyros fischeri Gürke Mfubata Ebenaceae (Ericales) Shrub Roots, leaves Augustino 117 Placental removal after delivery, Stomach ache, earache, snakebite, wounds Oral, massage, external Ekebergia benguelensis.DC. Mutuzya Meliaceae (Sapindales) Tree Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 189 Convulsion, mental disorders, low and hypertension, stomach ache, love/lucky Oral, bath, massage Entada abyssinica A.Rich. Mufutwambula, Ngemwambula Mimosoideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 128 Tonsillitis, gonorrhoea, syphilis, hypertension, anaemia, snakebite, infertility, tuberculosis, sore throats Oral, chew, massage Erythrina abyssinica DC. Mukalalwanhuba Papilionoideae (Fabales) Tree Bark, leaves Augustino 138 Jaundice, snakebite Oral, massage Erythroxylum emarginatum Thonn. Ndaja Erythroxylaceae (Malpighiales) Herb Roots, leaves Augustino 201 Tumours, rituals Massage, bath Euclea divinorum Hiern. Mdaa Ebenaceae (Ericales) Shrub Roots, leaves Augustino 116 Infertility, wounds, snakebite Oral, massage Euphorbia grantii Oliv. Mudulansongo Euphorbiaceae (Malpighiales) Shrub Roots, Exudate Augustino 126 Epilepsy, toothache, snakebite Nasal, massage, external Euphorbia hirta L. Lonzwe, Vakikulu Euphorbiaceae (Malpighiales) Herb Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 112 Hernia, hypertension, convulsion, epilepsy, menstrual disorders Oral, nasal Euphorbia tirucalli L. Munyala, Myaa Euphorbiaceae (Malpighiales) Shrub Leaves, Exudate Augustino 163 Chicken typhoid, finger swelling Oral, massage Flacourtia indica(Burm.f.) Merr. Musingila, Muchongoma, Mubuguswa Salicaceae (Malpighiales) Tree Roots, leaves Augustino 176 Infertility, stomach ache, cough, hernia, snakebite Oral, chew, massage Friesodielsia obovata (Benth.) Verdc. Musalasi, Msasi Annonaceae (Magnoliales) Tree Roots Augustino 170 Infertility, stomach ache, anaemia, placenta expulsion, snakebite Oral, massage Gardenia ternifolia Schum. and Thonn. Kilindilamugunda Rubiaceae (Gentianales) Shrub Roots Augustino 110 Hypertension, aphrodisiac Oral Augustino et al. 6359 Table 2a. Contd. Grewia bicolor Juss. Mukoma Malvaceae (Malvales) Shrub Roots Augustino 140 Infertility, anaemia Oral Grewia conocarpoides Burret Mudati Malvaceae (Malvales) Shrub Roots Augustino 125 Infertility Oral Hymenocardia acida Tul. Mupala Hymenocardiaceae (Malpighiales) Tree Roots, leaves Augustino 166 Infertility, epilepsy, rectal prolapse, hernia, stomach ache Oral, anal, nasal Indigofera swaziensisBolus Igangula Papilionoideae (Fabales) Tree Exudate Augustino 102 Spleen enlargement Oral, external Isoberlinia angolensis (Benth.) Hoyle and Brenan Muva Caesalpinioideae (Fabales) Tree Bark Augustino 190 Cough, wounds, snakebite Chew, massage Jatropha curcus L. Mubono Euphorbiaceae (Malpighiales) Shrub Roots, exudate Augustino 124 Anal eczema Oral, anal Jubernardia globiflora (Benth.) Troupin Muba, Muwa Caesalpinioideae (Fabales) Tree Bark Augustino 216 Cough, snakebite Chew, massage Justicia salvioides MilneRedh. Muluguti Acanthaceae (Lamiales) Shrub Roots Augustino 151 Infertility Oral Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. Mudungwa, Mwicha, Mulegea Bignoniaceae (Lamiales) Tree Roots, bark, Fruits Augustino 127, ITM 3703 Anaemia, convulsion, hypertension, rituals Oral, external Lannea schimperi (A.Rich.) Engl. Mugumbu Anacardiaceae (Sapindales) Tree Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 133 Anaemia, tumours, cough, mental disorders, stomach ache, snakebite, rituals Oral, chew, massage, external Lonchocarpus bussei Harms Mubale Papilionoideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, leaves Augustino 217 Rituals External Mangifera indica L. Mwembe Anacardiaceae (Sapindales) Tree Bark Augustino 197 Anal eczema, diarrhoea, dysentery Oral, anal Margaritaria discoidea (Baill.) G.L.Webster Kasenga Euphorbiaceae (Malpighiales) Tree Roots Augustino 109 Infertility Oral Markhamia obtusifolia (Bak.) Sprague Mubapa Bignoniaceae (Lamiales) Tree Roots Augustino 123 Infertility, aphrodisiac, love, lucky Oral, bath, massage 6360 J. Med. Plants Res. Table 2a. Contd. Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell Mwezya, Lweja Celastraceae (Celastrales) Tree Roots, bark Augustino 101 Infertility, stomach ache, fever love/lucky Oral, bath, massage Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A.Chev. Mutandala Papilionoideae (Fabales) Shrub Roots, bark Augustino 182, ITM 3710 Antiabortion, wounds, aphrodisiac, hernia, bilharzia, epilepsy, stomach ache Oral, nasal, massage Muliwanfwengi Euphorbiaceae (Malpighiales) Roots Augustino 149 Infertility, aphrodisiac, hernia, stomach ache Oral Ormocarpum trachycarpum (Taub.) Harms Mukondwamhuli Papilionoideae (Fabales) Shrub Roots, leaves Augustino 143 Pneumonia, snakebite Oral, massage Ozoroa insignis Delile Mwembepori, Mukalakala Anacardiaceae (Sapindales) Tree Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 198, ITM 3709 Diarrhoea, haemorrhoids, anal eczema, epilepsy, gonorrhoea, antiabortion, stomach ache Oral, nasal, Anal Parinari curatellifolia Benth. Mumbula Chrysobalanaceae (Malpighiales) Tree Roots Augustino 156 Infertility Oral Pennisetum purpureum Schumach. Isumbu Poaceae (Poales) Herb Stem Augustino 104 Infertility Oral Pericopsis angolensis (Bak.) van Meeuwen Mubanga, Muvunga Papilionoideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 122 Stroke, headache, dizziness, cough, fireburn, limbs ache, convulsion Oral, massage Phyllanthus engleri Pax Mugogondi Euphorbiaceae (Malpighiales) Shrub Roots, leaves Augustino 130 Epilepsy, hernia Nasal, oral Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. Mubinzandimi Euphorbiaceae (Malpighiales) Shrub Leaves Augustino 218 Hookworms Oral Physalis peruviana L. Sinkini Solanaceae (Solanales) Herb Roots Augustino 209 Intestinal worms Oral Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. Mutindwambogo Caesalpiniodeae (Fabales) Tree Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 184 Convulsion, epilepsy, snakebite Oral, nasal, massage Oldfieldia dactylophylla (Oliv.) J. Léonard Augustino et al. 6361 Table 2a. Contd. Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. Ilamata Mimosoideae (Fabales) Premna senensis Klotzsch Mununhwanhala Lamiaceae (Lamiales) Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia Pax Mutungulu Euphorbiaceae (Malpighiales) Pterocarpus angolensis DC. Muninga Pterocarpus tinctorius Welw. Tree Roots Augustino 103 Snakebite Massage Roots, leaves Augustino 162 Epilepsy, body pains/weakness, stomach ache, infertility, hernia, aphrodisiac, abscess, rituals Oral, nasal, massage, bath, external Shrub Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 188 Stabbing sensations, diarrhoea, snakebite Oral, massage Papilionoideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, bark, Leaves, fruits Augustino 160 Anaemia, cough, diarrhoea, snakebite Oral, chew, massage Mukurungu, Papilionoideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 147, ITM 3712 Anaemia, diarrhoea, wounds, antiabortion, stomach ache, eyes ache, snakebite Oral, massage Ricinus communis L. Mbarika, Mkale Euphorbiaceae (Malpighiales) Tree Roots, leaves Augustino 114 Labour pains, stroke, placenta expulsion Oral, massage Rothmannia engleriana (K.Schum.) Keay Mukondokondo Rubiaceae (Gentianales) Tree Roots, leaves, bark Augustino 142 Infertility, gonorrhoea, antiabortion, placenta expulsion Oral Schrebera trichoclada Welw. Muputika Oleaceae (Lamiales) Tree roots, leaves, bark Augustino 169 Headache, cough, wounds, flu, stabbing sensations, snakebite Oral, chew, nasal, massage Sclerocarya birrea subsp. caffra (Sond.) Kokwaro Mung’ongo Anacardiaceae (Sapindales) Tree Leaves, bark Augustino 159 Anal eczema, cough Anal, oral, chew Securidaca longipedunculata Fres. Mteyu, Mteyo, Nengonengo Polygalaceae (Fabales) Roots, leaves Augustino 120 Epilepsy, headache infertility, toothache, snakebite, placenta expulsion, stomach ache Oral, chew, nasal Solanum incanum L. Ntulantu, Matula, Iditula Solanaceae (Solanales) Roots, fruits Augustino 205 Tooth decay, aphrodisiac, hernia, intestinal worms, pelvic dilation, stomach ache, rituals Oral, bath Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst. Munyongampembe Apiaceae (Apiales) Roots, leaves, Bark Augustino 165 Snakebite, rituals Massage, external Sterculia africana (Lour.) Fiori Muhozya Malvaceae (Malvales) Roots, bark Augustino 136 Pain relief, anaemia, mental disorder, infertility, convulsion, lucky, rituals Oral, bath, external Shrub Tree 6362 J. Med. Plants Res. Table 2a. Contd. Strophanthus eminii Asch. and Pax Musungululu Apocynaceae (Gentianales) Strychnos innocua Delile Mumundu Strychnaceae (Gentianales) Strychnos potatorum L.f. Mugwegwe, Mupandepande Strychnaceae (Gentianales) Tree Strychnos pungens Soler. Mukome Strychnaceae (Gentianales) Tree Tree Roots Augustino 180 Epilepsy Oral, nasal Roots Augustino 157 Aphrodisiac, infertility Oral Roots, leaves Augustino 135 Stomach ache, toothache, hernia, cough, malaria, gonorrhoea, syphilis, bilharzia, snakebite Oral, chew, massage Roots, leaves, fruits Augustino 141 Snakebite, convulsion, heart pains Oral, massage Oral, chew, massage Strychnos spinosa Lam. Mwage Strychnaceae (Gentianales) Tree Roots, leaves, bark Augustino 195, ITM 3704 Infertility, tumours, convulsion, vomiting, intestinal worms, stabbing sensations, gonorrhoea, syphilis, cough, stomach ache, snakebite Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels Mudisi, Mzambarau Myrtaceae (Myrtales) Tree Bark, seeds Augustino 200 Bilharzia, diabetes Oral, chew Thespesia garckeana F. Hoffm. Mutobo Malvaceae (Malvales) Tree Roots Augustino 185 Labour progression Thespesia garckeana F. Hoffm. Tapiphyllum cinerascens (Hiern) Robyns Kambolambola Rubiaceae (Gentianales) Herb Roots Augustino 107 Infertility Oral Oral, chew, anal, massage Terminalia sericea DC. Muzima, Njimya Combretaceae (Myrtales) Tree Roots, leaves, bark Augustino 194 Haemorrhoids, diarrhoea, anal eczema, stabbing sensations, rectal prolapse, stomach ache, cough, measles, limbs ache, rituals Turraea fischeri Gürke Ningiwe, Muningiwe Meliaceae (Sapindales) Tree Roots Augustino 203 Stomach ache, infertility, headache Oral, massage Vepris glomerata (F. Hoffm.) Engl. Mulungusigiti Tree Roots, leaves Augustino 154, ITM 3711 Scrotal masses, infertility, aphrodisiac, hernia, diabetes, constipation, snakebite, rituals Oral, massage, external Rutaceae (Sapindales) Augustino et al. 6363 Table 2a. Contd. Vitex mombassae Vatke Mutalali, Musungwi Lamiaceae (Lamiales) Tree Roots, leaves Augustino 181 Infertility, body rashes, stomach ache, diabetes, diarrhoea, snakebite Oral, massage Xeroderris stuhlmannii (Taub.) Mendonça and Sousa Munyenye Papilionoideae (Fabales) Tree Roots, leaves Augustino 164 Hookworms, snakebite Oral, massage Ximenia caffra Sond. Munembwa, Mutundwa Olacaceae (Santalales) Tree Roots, leaves Augustino 158 Stomach ache, gonorrhoea, anaemia, mental disorder, abdominal ulcers, tumours, abscess, hernia, intestinal worms, snakebite Oral, nasal, massage Xylopia odoratissima Oliv. Mushenene Annonaceae (Magnoliales) Tree Roots, leaves Augustino 175, ITM 3707 Infertility, stomach ache, diabetes, abdominal ulcers, fever, epilepsy Oral, nasal Zanha africana (Radlk.) Exell Mukalya, Ng’watya, Mdaula Sapindaceae (Sapindales) Tree Roots, bark Augustino 139 Convulsion, flu, headache, stomach ache, elephantiasis, aphrodisiac, epilepsy Oral, Nasal, Massage Oral, nasal, massage Oral Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. Mulungulungu, Munungu, Oluisuki Ziziphus mucronata Willd. Mugugunu Rutaceae (Sapindales) Rhamnaceae (Rosales) Tree Roots, leaves, bark Augustino 153 Hernia, headache, toothache, body swelling, stomach ache, limb swelling, malaria, asthma, chest pains, infertility, heart pains, abscess Tree Roots, bark Augustino 131 Foetus disposition, aphrodisiac, stomach ache, chest pains, hypertension Table 2b. List of other utilized medicinal plants found outside* Urumwa Forest Reserve, Tabora Region, Tanzania. Botanical name Vernacular name Family (Order) Habit Part(s) used Voucher Disease/Complication cured Application method(s) Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile Olkiroliti Mimosoideae (Fabales) Tree Bark Augustino 207 Stomach ache, Typhoid fever, Diabetes, Gonorrhoea, Syphilis, Anaemia Oral Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. Lugaka Asphodelaceae (Asparagales) Herb Leaves, Roots Augustino 113 Intestinal worms, Constipation, Stomach ache, Aphrodisiac, Impotency, Spleen enlargement Oral 6364 J. Med. Plants Res. Table 2b. Contd. Annona senegalensis Pers. Mukonola, Mutopetope Annonaceae (Magnoliales) Azadirachta indica A.Juss. Mwarobaini Meliaceae (Sapindales) Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile Olng’oswai Cajanus cajan (L.) Millsp. Tree Roots Augustino 144 Stomach ache, labour progression Oral Tree Roots, Leaves, Bark Augustino196 Stomach ache, fever, malaria, hernia, general body weakness Oral Zygophyllaceae (Eurosids I) Tree Roots Augustino 208 Typhoid fever, MENSTRUAL DISORDERS Oral Mubaazi Papilionoideae (Fabales) Shrub Roots, Leaves, Seeds Augustino 121 Placenta expulsion, stomach ache, antiabortion, infertility, foetus disposition, labour progression Oral Carica papaya L. Limbabayu, Mpapai Caricaceae (Brassicales) Tree Roots, Bark Augustino 111 Hookworms, typhoid in chicken Oral Psidium guajava L. Mpera Myrtaceae (Myrtales) Tree Roots, Leaves, Bark Augustino 119 Dysentery, malaria, diarrhoea Oral Tamarindus indica L Musisi, Nshishi Caesalpiniodeae (Fabales) Tree Leaves, Bark Augustino 177 Mental disorder, malaria, vomiting, diarrhoea, stomach ache, wounds, dysentery, snakebite Oral, massage Terminalia brownii Fries Olbukoi Combretaceae (Myrtales) Tree Bark Augustino 206 Hypertension Oral Walburgia salutaris (Bertol.f.) Chiov. Musokonoi Canellaceae (Canellales) Tree Bark, Roots Augustino 178 Bilharzia, gonorrhoea, syphilis, hernia, cough, asthma Oral, chew, nasal *Obtained from other places mainly Sikonge, Arusha and in farms around homesteads. is considerable consistency among the villages in the top-ranked species, and the significance of C. abbreviata and Combretum zeyheri is clear. Seven species are top-ranked in three or more of the six villages: Cassia abbreviata, Combretum zeyheri, Ekebergia benguelensis, Kigelia africana, Securidaca longipedunculata, Terminalia sericea, Xylopia odoratissima. Four others that is, Entada africana, Friesodielsia obovata, Pterocarpus angolensis and Strychnos spinosa were found to be used in all the villages and were each topranked, apart from Friesodielsia obovata which was top-ranked only for Masimba. This suggests ecologically similar, perhaps overlapping, areas are exploited by the villages for medicinal plants. There is some indication that different villages use different areas in the absence of any records for Warburgia salutaris for four villages, despite top- Augustino et al. 6365 Number of records 140 120 100 80 60 40 Record per species 20 0 1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 81 91 101 111 Species in decreasing order of abundance Figure 2. Distribution of records against species listed from communities around Urumwa Forest Reserve, Tanzania. The first 15 species are Cassia abbreviata, Combretum zeyheri, Ekebergia benguelensis, Terminalia sericea, Xylopia longipetala, Kigelia africana, Securidaca longepedunculata, Ozoroa insignis, Friesodielsia obovata, Pterocarpus angolensis, Entada abyssinica, Strychnos spinosa, Schrebera trichoclada, Vepris glomerata and Cajanus cajan. Table 3. Variation in numbers of records among medicinal plant use categories and sub-categories reported at Urumwa Forest Reserve, Tanzania. Categories* Gastro-intestinal conditions Urino-genital conditions Pains and inflammation Central nervous system Other human diseases Rituals/fortune Fevers Paediatric conditions Respiratory conditions Skin disorders Column totals Numbers of sub-categories represented by: >30 records 21-30 records 11-20 records 1-10 records 3 0 3 5 2 3 1 7 1 1 1 14 1 2 0 1 1 0 2 3 1 1 1 0 0 1 1 2 1 0 0 3 1 0 0 7 0 0 2 2 11 8 11 44 Row totals 11 13 17 4 6 3 4 4 8 4 74 * Use categories and sub-categories adopted and modified from Hamisy et al. (2000) and Ruffo (1990), respectively. rankings in the remaining two villages (Kasisi ‘A’ and Masimba). Species x gender The findings showed that men reported significantly higher numbers of species (Table 5) than women (Gadj = 8.640; p<0.01). When the extent of reporting for the different species is considered, however, a number of marked differences are apparent. A few species were reported 10 times or more by both women and men. As the respondent ratio was 53:62 (women: men) = 0.85, for the well-reported species, preferential reporting by women e.g. Cajanus cajan, C. zeyheri, X. odoratissima (Table 6). J. Med. Plants Res. 140 Level of sub-categories 6366 120 100 80 60 Level of sub-category per usage 40 20 0 1 11 21 31 41 51 61 71 Sub-categories in de cre asing order of re cords gathere d Figure 3. Distribution of sub-categories level against use sub-categories of plants from communities around Urumwa Forest Reserve, Tanzania. The first 8 use sub-categories (categories in parentheses) are: infertility (urino-genital), Stomach ache (gastro-intestinal), diarrhoea (gastro-intestinal), anaemia (other human diseases), snakebite (pains/inflammation), hernia (gastro-intestinal), gonorrhoea (urinogenital), and convulsion (central nervous system). Table 4. Top-ranked species based on combined records per species across use categories and gender at Urumwa. Species/ (Number of records) Masimba (393) Ujerumani (193) Igombanilo (171) Kasisi 'A' (163) Mtakuja Mashariki (145) Isukamahela (133) Cassia abbreviata Combretum zeyheri Ekebergia benguelensis Xylopia odoratissima Terminalia sericea Kigelia africana Securidaca longipedunculata 1 (49) 2 (24) 5 (13) 6 (11) 3 (20) 4 (16) Rank <10 1 (20) 2 (12) 10 (5) 4 (8) 6 (6) 4 (8) 3 (9) 2 (15) 3 (12) 1 (16) 5 (5) 5 (5) 4 (8) 5 (5) 1 (21) 2 (11) 4 (6) 9 (5) Rank <10 No report Rank <10 1 (18) 2 (14) 8 (4) 8 (4) 3 (9) Rank <10 8 (4) 1 (16) 2 (15) 6 (4) 3 (7) 6 (4) 6 (4) Rank <10 Augustino et al. 6367 Table 4. Contd. Ozoroa insignis Warburgia salutaris Entada abyssinica Pterocarpus angolensis Premna senensis Strychnos spinosa Friesodielsia obovata Zanthoxylum chalybeum Zanha africana Dalbergia melanoxylon Vepris glomerata Schrebera trichoclada Erythrina abyssinica Pterocarpus tinctorius Strychnos potatorum Tamarindus indica Albizia harveyi Mundulea sericea Aloe vera Solanum incanum Psidium guajava Maytenus senegalensis Combretum obovatum 6 (11) 9 (9) Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 8 (10) 9 (9) Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 No report Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 No report No report Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 6 (6) No report 10 (5) 10 (5) Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 6 (6) 6 (6) Rank <10 No report No report Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 No report No report Rank <10 Rank <10 No report Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 No report Rank <10 Rank <10 No report Rank <10 Rank <10 No report Rank <10 Rank <10 5 (5) 5 (5) 5 (5) No report Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 No report Rank <10 No report Rank <10 No report Rank <10 3 (7) 4 (6) 9 (5) 4 (6) Rank <10 Rank <10 No report Rank <10 No report Rank <10 Rank <10 No report 4 (6) 4 (6) Rank <10 No report Rank <10 No report Rank <10 No report Rank <10 No report No report No report Rank <10 Rank <10 No report 8 (4) Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 No report Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 Rank <10 4 (6) 4 (6) 6 (5) 6 (5) 8 (4) No report No report Rank <10 Rank <10 No report Rank <10 Rank <10 6 (4) 4 (5) Rank <10 Rank <10 No report No report No report Rank <10 No report No report No report No report Rank <10 Rank <10 No report Rank <10 4 (5) 6 (4) 6 (4) Note: Bolded numbers outside parentheses are use categories; bolded numbers inside parentheses are species records per category use; a species not top-ranked is indicated at lower frequency as “rank <10” ; the lack of records for a particular species is indicated as “no report”. suggests gender difference in plant use, as do several extreme contrasts with higher numbers of reports from men. A number of species were reported by several men but no women, and W. salutaris seem to be reported 16 times by men but never by a woman. This species was mentioned by the medicinal plant vendors in the urban market, most of whom were men. Species x use sub-categories Twenty one of 110 species mentioned by at least six respondents (5% of the 115 respondents) had specific use sub-categories (Table 7). For several of these 21 key species, reports relate to more than one use sub-category and the top two species, C. abbreviata and C. zeyheri, have six and four major uses respectively. Several ailments/conditions are treated regularly with more than one key species, 6368 J. Med. Plants Res. Table 5. Numbers of medicinal plants mentioned by men and women at Urumwa, Tanzania. Number of species ≤ 10 species >10 species Totals Men 45 17 62 Women 50 3 53 Totals 95 20 115 Table 6. Numbers of reports for most frequently reported species, by gender (villages and use categories combined), at Urumwa Forest Reserve, Tabora Region, Tanzania. Species Frequency by gender Female Male Albizia harveyi 1 17 Cajanus cajan Cassia abbreviata Combretum fragrans Combretum zeyheri Dalbergia nitidula Dichrostachys cinerea Ekebergia benguelensis Entada abyssinica Flacourtia indica Friesodielsia obovata Kigelia africana Maytenus senegalensis Ozoroa insignis 18 26 1 53 1 10 16 2 4 11 11 4 7 1 113 12 35 12 4 32 21 14 14 27 11 19 notably diarrhoea (6 species) and infertility (5 species). As a result, uses for gastro-intestinal (11 entries) and urino-genital conditions (10 entries) are particularly prominent, presumably indicating their regular, familiar and widely-practiced use. In contrast, there are no key species for treating skin disorders and only one (Schrebera trichoclada) for treating respiratory complaints. Furthermore, only low proportions of respondents shared opinions over use of medicinal plants. In the case of men, the number of respondents mentioning any species for a particular use sub-category was never greater than 20% of those consulted (62 individuals). There was more convergence of views among the women with over 25% of the 53 female respondents agreeing on species used in relation to placenta expulsion (C. cajan), anal eczema in infants and diarrhoea (C. zeyheri), and infertility (X. odoratissima). DISCUSSION The findings from this study indicate that communities around Urumwa are highly knowledgeable of medicinal Species Piliostigma thonningii Premna senensis Pterocarpus angolensis Pterocarpus tinctorius Schrebera trichoclada Securidaca longipedunculata Strychnos potatorum Strychnos spinosa Tamarindus indica Terminalia sericea Vepris glomerata Warburgia salutaris Ximenia caffra Xylopia odoratissima Zanthoxylum chalybeum Frequency by gender Female Male 1 10 4 10 8 16 2 14 1 19 9 21 2 11 2 21 5 10 19 29 5 15 0 16 3 11 25 15 2 14 plant species (> 100 species to treat more than seventy diseases and conditions), with a clear contrast existing in ethnobotanical knowledge. The large number of species recorded here points to a dependence on a wide diversity of plant species to treat various ailments and also to the existence of a substantial amount of ethnobotanical knowledge on herbal plants among the Urumwa community. The number of plants and diseases recorded from the present study at Urumwa, is higher than reported by Ruffo (1990) and Abdallah (2001) for a survey of a whole Tabora Region and a survey of some villages around Urumwa respectively. The scale of survey, and the purpose, for this study differ from those of past researchers in the same area, but it effectively highlights that local people around Urumwa are endowed with ethnobotanical information especially about the Miombo plants on which they depend day to day for primary health care needs. Our results match those of Katambo (1999) who concluded that about 60% of Miombo trees and other plant species in Tabora woodlands play medicinal roles. Similarly a study by Mbwambo (2000) noted that almost every Miombo species mentioned by local people from Urumwa Forest Reserve has medicinal Augustino et al. Table 7. Key medicinal plants, use categories/sub-categories with records (combined for six villages) by gender for Urumwa. Botanical name Cajanus cajan Local name Mbaazi Main use category Urino-genital Use sub-category Placenta expulsion Female reports 15 (23) Male reports 0 (0) Total reports 15 (23) Cassia abbreviata Mlundalunda Gastro-intestinal Gastro-intestinal Urino-genital Urino-genital Fevers Fevers Hernia Stomach ache Gonorrhoea Syphilis Malaria Non-malarial fever 1 (3) 6 (35) 3 (6) 3 (3) 3 (5) 3 (4) 18 (46) 18 (79) 12 (43) 11 (24) 12 (21) 7 (11) 19 (49) 24 (114) 15 (49) 14 (27) 15 (26) 10 (15) Combretum fragrans Mluzyaminzi Fevers Malaria 1 (5) 7 (21) 8 (26) Combretum zeyheri Msana Gastro-intestinal Gastro-intestinal Other human diseases Paediatric conditions Diarrhoea Stomach ache Anaemia Anal eczema 16 (40) 7 (35) 7 (25) 19 (24) 10 (53) 5 (79) 7 (44) 6 (13) 26 (93) 12 (114) 14 (69) 25 (37) Ekebergia benguelensis Mtuzya Central nervous system Rituals and fortune Rituals and fortune Mental illness Love Luck 5 (6) 4 (4) 5 (8) 10 (20) 7 (10) 9 (24) 15 (26) 11(14) 14 (32) Entada abyssinica Mfutwambula Urino-genital Other human diseases Gonorrhoea Anaemia 1 (6) 0 (25) 8 (43) 6 (44) 9 (49) 6 (69) Flacourtia indica Msingila Urino-genital Infertility 3 (73) 5 (61) 8 (134) Friesodielsia obovata Msalasi Gastro-intestinal Urino-genital Stomach ache Infertility 1 (35) 5 (73) 5 (79) 6 (61) 6 (114) 11 (134) Kigelia africana Mlegea Central nervous system Other human diseases Rituals and fortune Convulsions Anaemia Rituals 1 (10) 7 (25) 2 (6) 11 (38) 6 (44) 9 (20) 12 (48) 13 (69) 11 (26) Maytenus senegalensis Ozoroa insignis Piliostigma thonningii Mwezya Mwembepori Mtindwambogo Rituals and fortune Gastro-intestinal Pain and inflammation Luck Diarrhoea Snakebite 2 (8) 3 (40) 1 (3) 8 (24) 9 (53) 6 (51) 10 (32) 12 (93) 7 (54) 6369 6370 J. Med. Plants Res. Table 7. Contd. Psidium guajava Mpera Gastro-intestinal Diarrhoea 3 (40) 4 (53) 7 (93) Pterocarpus angolensis Mninga Gastro-intestinal Other human diseases Diarrhoea Anaemia 2 (40) 5 (25) 5 (53) 8 (44) 7(93) 13 (69) Pterocarpus tinctorius Mkulungu Schrebera trichoclada Mputika Gastro-intestinal Pain and inflammation Respiratory Diarrhoea Snakebite Coughs 2 (40) 0 (3) 0 (7) 4 (53) 6 (51) 6 (25) 6 (93) 6 (54) 6 (32) Securidaca longipedunculata Mteyu Urino-genital Infertility 5 (73) 11 (61) 16 (134) Terminalia sericea Mzima Gastro-intestinal Gastro-intestinal Paediatric conditions Diarrhoea Stomach ache Anal eczema 5 (40) 6 (35) 3 (24) 7 (53) 6 (79) 4 (13) 12 (93) 12 (114) 7 (37) Vepris glomerata Mlungusigiti Urino-genital Infertility 4 (73) 5 (61) 9 (134) Vitex mombassae Mtalali Urino-genital Other human diseases Infertility Diabetes 5 (73) 1 (4) 4 (61) 3 (8) 9 (134) 6 (12) Xylopia odoratissima Mshenene Urino-genital Infertility 21 (73) 10 (61) 31 (134) Figures in parentheses are number of species reported per use category. value. Treatments for gastro-intestinal and urinogenital disorders were particularly commonly reported, and treated with a wide range of species. Noteworthy in this context were C. abbreviata (gastro-intestinal conditions – stomach ache, hernia), C. zeyheri (gastro-intestinal conditions – diarrhoea; paediatric conditions – anal eczema) and X. odoratissima (urino-genital conditions – infertility) attracting numerous reports from respondents of both genders – suggesting well-established reputations for relieving conditions familiar in households. This familiarity is consistent with a World Health Organization (WHO, 2005) view, that gastrointestinal diseases are often associated with the widely and frequently prevalent occurrences of unsafe water and inadequate sanitation and hygiene, which are among the risks faced by many Urumwa households. Worldwide, especially in developing countries, medicinal plants seem to treat more or less similar cases of ailments. In a study by Hamisy et al. (2000) gastrointestinal diseases mainly diarrhoeal, were the most common diseases treated with medicinal plants by communities around the Uluguru Mountain in Tanzania. A study by Mathabe et al. (2006) in Limpopo Province, South Africa observed more than twenty species used as traditional remedies to treat diarrhoea. Men from the study area are ethnobotanically more knowledgeable than women – confirming the existing opinions that, communities’ knowledge of plants often differs between women Augustino et al. and men. Women were noteworthy for the frequent citing of C. cajan, C. zeyheri and X. odoratissima, while men frequently cited (compared with women) Albizia harveyi, C. abbreviata and Warburgia salutaris – providing an understanding of medicinal plants preference by gender especially about plants that assist in curing diseases of their own sex. The variations between gender ethnobotanical knowledge at Urumwa arise probably from men’s high interaction with the wild environment while undertaking activities such as hunting and livestock supervision, and the collection of medicinal plants. Similar observations and reasons arereported by Mbwambo (2000) for the same locality, Letšela et al. (2003) for Lesotho, and Fassil (2003) for rural communities of the north-western Ethiopian highlands. In contrast, women showed familiarity with weedy and semidomesticated plants found around homesteads. Variations with regards to medicinal plants knowledge between men and women also exist in other parts of the world as reported by various researchers. For instance, Maikhuri and Gangwar (1993) in India and Hanazaki et al. (2000) in Brazil concluded that men were more knowledgeable than women after they quoted more medicinal plant species than their female counterparts. Different results are reported by Figueiredo et al. (1993) where women knew more about medicinal plants than men because they are closest to medicinal plants processing. Similarly, among the Carib population of Guatemala, the majority of people who knew and used medicinal plants were women (Girón et al., 1991). Conclusion The study has revealed a significant contribution of medicinal plants knowledge to the livelihood health security of communities around the Miombo woodland of Urumwa. The wealth of this ethnobotanical knowledge is evidenced by the great number of plants recorded, for treating various diseases, and the knowledge offers a basis for prioritizing further phytochemical and pharmacological studies of Miombo trees. At Urumwa, men are more ethnobotanically knowledgeable than women, indicating their knowledge potential in the daily performance of traditional medicine system. It is recommended that the ethnobotanical knowledge of medicinal plant resources at Urumwa be recognized and preserved to improve and ensure the future effectiveness of the primary health care system. Furthermore, due to the great interest in studying medicinal plants, there is a need to carry out phytochemical and pharmacological studies for most unstudied but potential species at Urumwa to validate usage, find new pharmaceuticals, increase confidence among users and contribute to the development of the traditional medicine sector. 6371 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors are grateful to the communities around Urumwa Forest Reserve in Tabora Region, Tanzania who generously shared their traditional knowledge with them. The authors are also indebted to the Commonwealth Scholarships Commission for funding the senior author’s research activities. REFERENCES Abdallah JM (2001). 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