Human Disturbance, Plant Species Composition, Diversity and Community
Types of Kafta-Sheraro National Park, Tigray Region, Ethiopia
Fitsum Temesgen1*, Bikila Warkineh2, Addisu Asefa3
1
Addis Ababa University, Center of Environmental Sciences, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
Addis Ababa University, Center of Environmental Sciences, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
3
Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Authority, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
2
* Corresponding Author: fitsetee21@gmail.com
Abstract
Background: Ethiopia is rich in woodland natural forest although of increasingly subjected to
deforestation and forest degradation with extensive expansion of settlement and agricultural practices. In
developing countries like Ethiopia forest is one of the vital resources that determine the livelihood of the
local communities. Consequently, woodlands’ of the country’s are under heavy pressure by shifting
cultivation and charcoal production. Kafta-sheraro national park is newly established woodland area
which lacks documented vegetation diversity and human disturbance on the forest. The study was
conducted to quantify plant species richness and diversity along altitude; and identify anthropogenic
disturbance on vegetation composition and community diversity of the park.
Methods: a Systematic sampling method was used to determine species composition, abundance, and
diversity. 161 quadrats each (400 m2) lying 200 m far apart for trees and shrubs while sub-plots (1 m2) for
herbs and grasses along transects were established over an altitudinal gradient of 539-1111 m.a.s.l. All
vascular plant species were collected and brought to National Herbarium, Addis Ababa University for
identification.The degree of disturbance data as (low, moderate and heavy) were visually estimated for
each plot.
Result: a total of 182 plant species: 63 (34.6%) herbs,46 (25.3%) trees, 38 (20.9%) grasses, 18(9.89%)
shrubs, 11 climbers (6.04%), and 6 (3.3%) tree ̸ shrub), belonging to 142 genera and 53 families, were
identified. Fabaceae was represented by the highest number of species (37 species; 20.3%) followed by
Poaceae (36 species; 19.8%) and Asteraceae, 10 species (5.49%). Three plant communities’ types were
identified: Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca (1); Hyphaene thebaica-Ziziphus spina-christi (2);
Combretum hartmannianum-Terminalia brownii-Boswellia papyrifera (3). Species richness was highest
in community 1 (mid-altitude: 607-640 m.a.s.l.).The highest Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H`=2.82)
for the forest was in community 2 (low altitude: 539-610 m.a.s.l.) while evenness (J=0.72) was highest in
community 3 (high altitude: 674-1111 m.a.s.l.) There was a significant correlation between species
richness (p=0.024) and altitude per plot while species diversity was non significant (p>0.05) over altitude.
Human activities also strongly correlated with species richness and diversity of specific community type.
Conclusion: the site has pronounced floristic composition and diversity. Altitudinal difference and the
degree of human disturbance determine variation in species composition and richness among
communities. Altitude is significantly correlated with species richness of all community types while it is
more strongly correlated with community type1.Crop cultivation, illegal fire, and overpopulation of
livestock grazing are the main threats in community types 2 and 3. However, this document is a baseline
to vegetation information of the park. detailed study on conservation challenges (anthropogenic
disturbance) of the park vegetation and prioritize their mitigation measures should be arranged.
Key words: Species composition, plant community, species diversity, human interference
1. Background
Ethiopia is known as the eastern Afro-montane and the Horn of Africa biodiversity hotspot
(World conservation Monitoring Centre, 1994; Conservation International, 2011), with a high level
of endemism, center of origin and diversification for a significant number of animals, plants and
their wild relatives due to its dramatic geological history, broad latitudinal spread and immense
altitudinal range. This variety led to the emergence of habitats that are suitable for the evolution
and survival of various plants and animal species, which are contribute to the overall biodiversity
existence of the country (Tewoldebirhan, 1989; Tamene et al., 2011).
The vegetation classification of Africa lay into 21 floristic regional centers of endemism.
Ethiopia is dominantly part of Somalia-Masai, and Sudanian regional center of endemism
(White, 1983). The diverse topographic factors coupled with the diverse climatic factors have
created diverse vegetation types in the country. Consequently, the potential vegetation of
Ethiopia is systematically classified into 12 vegetation types. Based on this vegetation
classification the study area dominantly classified under Acacia-Comiphora woodland and
bushland, and Combretum-Terminalia woodland. Acacia-Comiphora woodland ecosystem: is
characterized by drought-resistant trees and shrubs, either deciduous or with small, evergreen
leaves, and most of the National Parks in the country are found in this ecosystem. While
Combretum-Terminalia woodland ecosystem: is characterized by small to moderate-sized trees
with large deciduous leaves (Friis et al., 2010).
The biodiversity-rich resources of Ethiopia are vanishing at an alarming rate due to extensive
deforestation. Although several factors drive natural forest destruction in Ethiopia, agricultural
land expansion triggered the increasing human population is probably the dominant force
(Motuma et al., 2010; Mulugeta and Demel, 2006). Ethiopia is also known as one of the richest
in biodiversity and hot spot of species endemism in the world (World conservation Monitoring
Centre, 1994) despite the degradation crisis increasingly continues. Because most of the
biological resources of the country are degrading and has faced serious challenges from illegal
settlement, illegal poaching of wildlife, deforestation, and degradation, illegal agricultural
expansion, conflicts on competing park resources, habitat destruction and loss, grazing of
livestock, soil degradation, bush fire by the investors and farmers around the park, charcoal
production that threaten their existence and sustainability and over-exploitation of natural
resources (Getachew and Weldemariam, 2016; Malede and Girma, 2015).
The forests of the East Africa region account for 21% of the forest area of Africa continent.
However, the annual rate of deforestation in the region has increased from 0.7% during the
period 1981-1990 (FAO, 1993) to 1% between of 1990-2000 (FAO, 2001). Ethiopia is one of the
countries in this region an annual deforestation rate of 0.8% (FAO, 2001). About 65% of
Ethiopian land mass is located in dry land areas and they are associated with tropical dry forest
(National Conservation Strategy Secretariat, 1993). Woodland’s of Combretum-Terminalia and
Acacia-Commiphora are the two dominant vegetation types that cover large parts of the dry land
areas (Abeje et al., 2011). Woodlands’ of the country’s are under heavy pressure and shrinking
overtime for extracting fuel and construction wood, for expansion of cash crops (e.g., Sesame).
Additionally, population growth and government induced resettlement programs aggravate
deforestation (Abeje et al., 2012; Garedew et al., 2009). Forests, woodlots, and grazing lands
have been predominantly common-pool resources or open access resources in the region.
Deforestation due to cutting trees for fuel, timber and agricultural implements, and clearing
forests and woodlands to expand agricultural lands is common practices (Fujisawa, 2004;
Berhanu et al., 2000) and mainly contribute to an increased pressure on remnant forest stands.
Although significant area is used for grazing, shortage of feed sources in dry season is the major
livestock production problem which increases pressure on batches of forest stands (Berhanu et
al., 2000).
Kafta-sheraro national park is a dryland protected area in the border of Eritrea and transvers by
Tekeze River. However, Kafta Sheraro National Park (KSNP) is a newly established which was
recognized as a park in 2007; now it is one of the 21 known national parks in Ethiopia. Before
2007 the park were found as “Shire wildlife reserve” managed by Tigray national regional state
(Blanc et al., 2003). The area has scarcely populated and relatively better natural vegetation
cover as compared to other part of the region. The park has great wildlife resources, thus,
preliminary wildlife survey of the park indicates that 318 African elephants (Loxodonta
africana), 500 Greater kudu (Tragelaphus stoep sicores), 50 Red Fronted gazelle (Gazella rufi
fronts), 60 Orbi (Ourebia ourebia), 1000 Anubis Baboon (Papio anubis), 180 Common
Bushbuck (Tragelaphus imberbis), 40 Warthog (Phacochoerus africanus),500 Grey duiker
(Sylvicapra grimmia), 141 Soemmerings (Gazella soemmeringi), 50 Ground squirrel (Xerus
rutilus) (KSNPCL, 2008). The hydrology of Tekeze River together with high wildlife resources
and natural vegetation makes the park an important site for conservation purpose.
To aggravate the problems in the past three decades Ethiopia has tried to conserve and manage
the biodiversity through establishing protected areas. However, most of the protected areas of the
countries have lack scientific documented and relevant periodic baseline ecological information;
consequently, their management intervention makes a challenge. Kafta-sheraro national park
(KSNP) is one of protected areas in the country which is home of African elephant (Loxodonta
Africana L.); lacks primary data of vegetation composition, diversity and the effects of human
disturbance on vegetation composition and species richness. Thus, studying the current status of
the park vegetation contributes for sustainable utilization of vegetation and determines feeding
ecology of African elephant and to identify the problems and threats associated with the forest.
Furthermore, quantitatively assess the effects of human disturbance and elevation on these
woody plant communities and their species richness. Based on a survey of 161 vegetation plots,
the specific objectives were: (1) to generate scientific knowledge and documents the baseline
data of the park vegetation composition, diversity, plant community type (2) to quantify plant
species richness and diversity along altitude and identify indicator species for each community
type; and (3) to assess the impacts of human induced disturbance on plant community
composition, richness and diversity. This provides the park reliable information for the
development of appropriate management plan.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1 Description of study site
Kafta-Sheraro National Park (KSNP) was designated as a park in 2007 (Letter, No:
13/37/82/611) with an area of 2176.43 km2, while the park was formerly named as “Shire
Wildlife (game) Reserve” which was established in 1973 with an estimated area of 750 km2
governed by the National Regional State of Tigray. Kafta-Shirero national park is located in
Kafta-humera and Tahitay adiyabo district of Western and North-western Zones of Tigray region
1356 km far from Addis Ababa and 490 km of Mekelle City, the capital of Tigray National
Regional State. The park is situated in the northwest of Ethiopia between latitude 14005′-14027′
N and longitude 36042′-37039′ E. The park bordered by Eritrea in the north through Tekeze River
(Fig.1). The elevation of the park varies from 539 to 1130 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l). The
landforms of the areas are heterogeneous in nature and consist of flat plain, undulating to rolling,
some isolated hills and ridges, chain of mountains and valleys (Fitsum and Bikila, 2020).
The mean monthly temperature ranges from 28.35°C to 35.1°C. The coolest temperatures occur
from July to September while the warmest temperatures occur from March to May. The
maximum mean monthly temperature is in March (33.15°C) and May (34.4°C) while the
minimum is both in August (28.35°C) and January (28.65°C) respectively. The rainfall pattern is
bimodal with two distinct seasons. The short rains occur during May to mid June and September
whereas the long rains occur during July (174 mm) and August (252 mm) (Fig. 2) (Fitsum and
Bikila, 2020).
Based on vegetation classification of Ethiopia (Friis et al., 2010) Kafta-sheraro national park
forest communities broadly categorized as Acacia-Comiphora woodland and bushland proper
with dominant Acacia mellifera and Balanites aegyptiaca species; Combretum-Terminalia
woodland and wooded grassland with Terminalia brownii and Boswellia papyrifera as frequent
species; and Riparian/ riverine forest with Hyphaen ethebaica as dominant species. Selected
parts of this study were dominated by Boswellia papyrifera species which is a Frankincense
producing tree (Abeje et al., 2011). Thus, the severity and vegetation cover decline is higher in
these lowland protected areas because they are remote and have a scarcity of resources (Feoli et
al., 2002).
African elephant (Loxodonta africana L.), Roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus), Demoiselle
crane (Anthropoides virgo), Oribi (Ourebia ourebi), Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), Greater
kudus (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), warthog (Phacochoerus africanus), Anubis baboon (Papio
anubis), Grivet monkey (Chlorocebus aethiops), Fish species and crocodile species along Tekeze
River were some of fauna species observed during the field work of 2018 ̸ 2019. However, the
management practices of KSNP is good relative to other protected areas; the home range of the
wild animals specifically elephants is collapsed and limited to specific area of Acacia mellifera-
Balanites aegyptiaca community. Because most part of Tekeze riverside of the park area is
practiced cultivation of vegetables, fruit crops and under risk by temporary human settlements
(Fig. 3).
2.2 Unique features of Kafta-Sheraro National Park
Migratory bird species: a Wintering site of Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo) which is the
only avifauna species found from the Ethiopian bird sites. This bird species seasonally exists in
Tekeze river sides and usually arrive in the park in the middle of December and leave from the
area in April (Berihun et al., 2009). Generally, including the crane, the total bird species of the
park were 158 as reported by 2020 (Teklay et al., 2020).
Gum and raisin sources: Some of the species of Kafta-sheraro national park (KSNP) were
Boswellia papyrifera, Acacia Senegal, Acacia seyal, Acacia polyacantha, Commiphora
boranensis and Sterculia Africana. For example, Yetan zaf (Boswellia papyrifera) is the
dominant plant species inside and outside the south part of the park. This plant is potential
sources of job opportunity and income generation in the region.
Permanent River: half part in the north and northeast of the park enclosed and traversed in the
east part by the Tekeze River (F.g.1) and its many tributary rivers which is basic environmental
factor for the life of existing wildlife particularly African elephant (Loxodonta africana L.) and
Demoiselle crane (Anthropoides virgo).
Non renewable natural resources: the area naturally has high deposition of quality gold,
sandstone (Marble) and expensive other stone minerals. This creates a good source of incom for
the whole Tigray region young peoples.
Wild honey: the area is also a potential source of honey for the nearby communities.The
communities are collected wild honey for house hold consumption.
2.3 Sampling design
A reconnaissance survey was taken from August 18 to 25, 2018 in order to have an impression of
the forest sites and was performed to assess the variation in plant composition and woody
vegetation structure. The survey was concluded with the preliminary identification of three
physiognomically distinct vegetation types (strata) namely; Acacia-Comiphora woodland and
bushland, Combretum terminalia woodland and Riparian/riverine forest. Following the
reconnaissance systematic sampling design was applied (Fitsum and Bikila, 2020). a quadrats
size of 20 m × 20m (400 m2) were established along a line. In the three vegetation type (strata) a
total of 161 plots and adjacent 32 transects were placed at a distance of 200 m and 300 m apart
respectively. All transects and plots located on the ground using compass and GPS navigation
system (Fitsum and Bikila, 2020).
Fig. 1: Location map of the study site (Source: Fitsum and Bikila, 2020)
Rainfall
Temperature
300
35
250
30
200
25
20
150
15
100
10
50
5
0
Mean rainfall (mm month-1)
Mean temperature (oC)
40
0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May June July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Fig.2: Average Rainfall and Temperature (Source: Fitsum and Bikila, 2020)
Fig. 3: Tekeze riverside irrigated farm land and settlement in side Kafta-sheraro national park
2.4 Data collection
2.4.1 Human impact data (disturbance information)
In addition to recoding the altitude, aspect and geographical coordinate of all quadrates’;
anthropogenic disturbances like grazing and other illegal activities (cutting, firewood collection,
fire, charcoal production and trampling in the vegetation) were noticed and recorded. Thus
following (Kebrom et al., 1997; Zerihun and Backeus, 1991) impact of grazing intensity class
was estimated as: (3=heavy; 2=moderate; 1=lightly; and 0=not grazed). While the state of illegal
human activities was estimated following (Leul et al., 2010; Kumelachew and Tamrat, 2002)
modified a 0-3 subjective scale to record the degree of the impacts of fire wood collection,
charcoal production, and expansion of agriculture by burning of vegetation as: (3= heavy; 2=
moderate; 1=low; and 0= nil (absent)). The sum of all scores for each plot provides an overall
ranking of Human disturbances index in each community. High ranks lead high levels of
anthropogenic disturbance and low ranks indicate low levels of disturbance (Venkateswaran and
Parthasarathy, 2003).
2.4.2 Vegetation data
The detail vegetation data were collected during flowering and fruiting season from August 2630 December 2018. Trees and shrubs: in (400 m2 plot) individual plants (stems) of all tree and
shrub species with diameter at breast height (DBH) ≥2.5 cm abudndance were counted and
recorded their circumferance (diameter). Height of individual trees and shrubs >2 m were
recorded for every woody individual plants having DBH >2.5 cm. Herbs and grasses: Finally
within each 25 m2 sub-plots, five further 1m × 1m (1 m2) sub-plot was laid out to collect data on
the species diversity and richness of herb and grass species (Fitsum and Bikila, 2020).
Cover abundance: ground cover percentage was estimated following the procedure of BraunBlanquet (Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974; Braun-Blanquet, 1965). The percent cover
values, visually estimated in the field, were later converted into 1-9 modified Braun-Blanquet
(van der Maarel, 1979) scales; 1=≤ 0.1%, 2=0.1 to 1%, 3=1 to 2%, 4=2 to 5%, 5=5 to 10%, 6=10
to 25%, 7=25 to 50%, 8=50 to 75%, and 9 >75%.
Plant species identification: The scientific name was identified using Flora of Ethiopia and
Eritrea Volume-1 toVolume-8 for trees and shrubs canbe found in (Fitsum and Bikila, 2020) and
for herbs and grasses (Hedberg et al., 2006; Phillips, 1995). Specimens of identified and
unidentified species were collected, pressed and dried properly, following standard Herbarium
procedures, and taken to the National Herbarium (ETH) at Addis Ababa University for further
confirmation and identification of specimens which could not be identified in the field (Fitsum
and Bikila, 2020).
2.5 Data analysis
2.5.1 Plant community analysis
The community types of vegetation in the study area were determined by conducting the cluster
analysis techniques. The cover abundance data were analyzed and classified using Community
Analysis Package version 5.0 (CAP5.0). The Hierarchical Agglomerative Clustering technique
(Ward’s method) was employed to classify sites and species of the study area. Agglomerative
methods of classification have been widely advocated (Sneath and Sokal, 1973); while Ward’s
method is the most commonly used and robust method among the hierarchical classification
techniques (Ward, 1963).The raw data contained 161 quadrats and 166 species. However, 182
specimens were collected; sixteen species were collected outside the quadrats for floristic
composition only and are not included in other parameters analysis. The plant communities were
named after one or two dominant indicator species. A dominating species in this case is a species
having a synoptic cover-abundance value (mean frequency * mean cover-abundance) (Kent,
2012; van der Maarel et al., 1978) and a characteristic species having a high frequency in the
type and a lower frequency in most other types.
Diversity analysis: The diversity of woody species were determined using the Shannon-Wiener
Diversity Index (H') and Equitability (evenness) Index (J) (Barnes et al., 1998; Krebs, 1989).
Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index (H’): high Wiener index indicates high diversity and often low
disturbance whereas low index value shows low diversity and often high disturbance.
H’=∑𝐒𝐢=𝟏 (𝐏𝐢)(𝐥𝐧𝐩𝐢)
(1)
Where, H'=the Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index; ∑=sum of species from species 1 to species S,
Pi=ni/N and is the proportion of the total number of all species in a quadrat; S=numbers of
species encountered and ln=natural logarithm in base e, Ni= number of individuals of species i;
total number of individuals of all species.
Species richness: is the number of species in a given area. It is most often used in conservation
studies to determine the sensitivity of ecosystems and their resident species. Species richness was
calculated in equation form as:
S=∑𝒔𝒊=𝟏 , 𝐒𝐢 = 𝐒
(2)
th
Where, Si is the number of individuals in the i species
Equitability index (Evenness): is measured the relative abundance of the different species
making up the richness of an area;
𝐇’
J=H’/H’max= =∑𝐒𝐢=𝟏
𝐥𝐧𝐬
(𝐏𝐢) (𝐥𝐧𝐩𝐢)
𝐥𝐧𝐒
(3)
Where, J=Evenness, H'max= lnS, H’=Shannon Wiener diversity index, lnS =the natural logarithm
of the total number of species in each community, S=number of species in each community.
Communities’ similarity: Ecological resemblance refers to similarity or dissimilarity between
samples in terms of their species composition-two samples sharing the same species in the same
abundances show the highest similarity (lowest dissimilarity).
Sorensen’s similarity index: used to evaluate species composition and species distribution among
the three plant community of KSNP vegetation following (Kent and Coker, 1992).
Ss=
𝟐𝒂
(𝟐𝒂+𝒃+𝒄)
(4)
Where, Ss=Sorensen’s similarity coefficient; b=number of species in community-1; c=number
of species in community-2; a=number of species common to both communities 1 and 2.
2.5.2 Anthropogenic disturbance analysis
The magnitude of the impacts of the disturbance was quantified based on the variables score
(level) recorded in each plot (Table 1). The type and degree of anthropogenic disturbance were
analyzed for the three community and scores of each type of disturbance obtained from plots
were summed and taken the average value. Finally, each community disturbance scores had
pointed to indicate the highest disturbance rate and absence of disturbance (Table 5).
Table 1: Anthropogenic disturbance parameters in sample plots
Scores (levels)
Disturbance types
Grazing
Fire wood collection
Crop cultivation
Charcoal production
Gold mining
Illegal fire
0
Not grazed
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
Nil
1
Lightly
Low
Low
Low
Low
Low
2
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
Moderate
3
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
Heavy
2.6.3 Statistical analysis
The deviation of species richness, diversity and the eveness of all woody species in response to
altitude along sampling plots were estimated by the analysis of variance to measure any
significant difference. The species richness of the three plant communities in response to human
disturbance intensity (no or low, moderate and heavy disturbance level) were analyzed using
regression and Correlation statistical method. All analysis was facilitated using the R-statistical
package (R-Development Core Team, 2019). For qualitative analysis, descriptive statistics were
used and these descriptive statistics graphs were performed with the Microsoft Office Excel 2007
software (Fitsum and Bikila, 2020).
3. Result
3.1 Vegetation composition of kafta-sheraro national park
A total of 182 species belonging to 142 genera and 53 families were recorded in Kafta-sheraro
national park (Appendix 1). The habit contains 63 (34.6%) herbs, 46 (25.3%) trees, 38 (20.9%)
grasses, 18 (9.89%) shrubs, 6 (3.3%) trees/shrubs and 11 (6.04%) herbaceous climbers. In the
park herbs occupied the highest proportion followed by trees and grasses (Fig. 4). Out of the total
182 species identified from the study area, 166 species which were collected from the 161
quadrats were used in the floristic analysis. The rest sixteen plant species were collected from
outside of the quadrats, and included in the plant composition list only.
The occurrence of the richest families were Fabaceae, which had, 37 species (20.3 %); Poaceae
followed by 36 species (19.8%); Asteraceae,10 species (5.49%); Combretaceae and Solanaceae
8 species each (8.8%); Tiliaceae, 5 species (2.75%); Rhamnaceae; Malvaceae; Euphorbiaceae
and Lamiaceae, 4 speciecs each (8.8%); Capparaceae, Rubiaceae, Anacardiaceae, Cucurbitaceae,
Amaranthaceae, Asclepiadaceae, and Acanthaceae, 3 species each ( from total species occupied
11.55% ); Cyperaceae, Burseraceae, Ebenaceae, Apocynaceae and Liliaceae, 2 species each
(5.5%) and 30 families had each 1 species (16.5%) of from the total family (Fig. 5).
% coverage
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
34.6
25.3
20.9
9.89
3.3
6.04
Habit ̸ Life form
Fig. 4: Life form (habit) distribution of Kafta-Sheraro National Park vegetation
Number of species
40 3736
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
10
8 8
5 4 4 4 4
3 3 3 3 3 3 3 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Fabaceae
Poaceae
Asteraceae
Solanaceae
Combretaceae
Tiliaceae
Malvaceae
Rhamnaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Lamiaceae
Capparaceae
Rubiaceae
Asclepiadaceae
Anacardiaceae
Cucurbitaceae
Amaranthaceae
Acanthaceae
Cyperaceae
Burseraceae
Ebenaceae
Apocynaceae
Liliaceae
Balanitaceae
Celastraceae
Oleaceae
Casuarinaceae
Salvadoraceae
Arecaceae
Moringaceae
Caesalpiniaceae
Moraceae
Bignoniaceae
Boraginaceae
Sterculiaceae
Pittosporaceae
Meliaceae
Caricaceae
Rutaceae
Simaroubacea
Plumbaginace
Loganiaceae
Vitaceae
Menispermaceae
Scrophulariaceae
Polygalaceae
Commelinaceae
Asparagaceae
Ζygophyllaceae
Pedaliaceae
Verbenaceae
Araceae
Musaceae
Bombacaceae
0
Family
Fig. 5: The number of plant species in each family in Kafta-sheraro national park (KSNP)
3.2 Classification of plant communities in Kafta-sheraro natioanl park vegetation
3.2.1 Plant community types
The vegetation classification was done by using the percent cover abundance value data estimate
of each species included in the analysis. Vegetation classification is a powerful tool to
summarize the knowledge of vegetation patterns in a given forest areas (Jennings et al., 2003). In
KSNP vegetation three plant community types were identified from the Agglomerative
hierarchical cluster analysis program using the Community Analysis Package version 5.0
(CAP5.0). The package for determining the optimal number of clusters was used to decide the
number of plant community types. Ward’s method and Euclidean distance were used to draw the
Dendrogram showing the linkage among the three clusters (Fig. 6). Community names were
given after one or two species that had higher species synoptic mean value (Table 2). In all
observed plant communities, species with higher indicator values are those that were easily
observed repeating themselves in associations. The identified groups are more or less coinciding
with the real natural associations while walking through the forest. The identified plant
community in the park were; Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca (Community Type 1);
Hyphaene thebaica- Ziziphus spina-christi (Community Type 2); Combretum hartmannianum Terminalia brownii-Boswellia papyrifera (Community Type 3).
Fig. 6: Dendrogram showing plant communities ‘types of Kafta-Sheraro National Park using
Agglomerative hierarchical Ward’s method and Euclidean distance (C1plots:1-30,32,34,37-77,
79,84,88,91,93,96-100,103,107,109,112,119,131,133,135;C2plots:31,35,36,78,80-83,85,86,87,89,90,92,94,95,101,
102,104,105,106,108,110,111,113,114,161;C3plots:16,33,115-118,120-130,132,134,136,137-160).
Community type 1: Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca community
Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca community type was represented by 90 quadrats (3.6 ha)
and 87 species at altitudinal range of 610-640 m.a.s.l. This community had an average plot-level
species richness of 4.7 ± 1.6 and Shannon diversity of 1.3 ± 0.3. Acacia oerfota, Acacia Senegal
and Dicrostachy scinerea were the dominant trees and shrubs species. The other associated trees
and shrubs of this plant community were: Dalbergia melanoxylon, Grewia bicolor, Acacia seyal,
Sterculia africana, Maytenus senegallensis, Adansonia digitata, Capparis decidua, Grewia
villosa, Grewia flavescens, Acacia lahai, Acacia etbaica, Acacia tortilis, Plumbago zeylanica,
Cissus guadrangularis. While the dominant herbs of the community are: Achyranthes aspera,
Phyllanthus maderaspatensis, Sida acuta, Senna obtusifolia, Guizotia schimperi, Amaranthus
spinosus, Abelmoschus esculentus, Ocimum gratissimum, Bidens pachyloma. Whereas, the
dominant grasses layers are; Stipa tenuissima, Phragmites australis, Cymbopogon caesius,
Cenchrus ciliaris. The African elephant is dominantly concentrated in this community (Fig. 7).
Fig. 7: Some floras of Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca community type
Community type 2: Hyphaene thebaica- Ziziphus spina-christi
Hyphaene thebaica-Ziziphus spina-christi community type was located along Tekeze river side
and tributary streams of the park (Fig. 8). This community type was distributed at altitudinal
ranges between 539-607 m.a.s.l. and is comprised of 27 quadrats (1.08 ha) and 50 species. Have
an average species richness of 5.5 ± 2.0 and Shannon diversity of 1.4 ± 0.3 per plot. Anogeissus
leiocarpus, Tamarindus indica and Casuarina equisetifolia are dominant tree species of this
community next to Hyphaene thebaica and Ziziphus spina-christi species. Other associated trees
include: Diospyros mespiliformis, Burkea africana, Jasminum abyssinicum, Salvadora persica,
Ζiziphus mauritiana, Feretia arodanthera, Diospyros abyssinica. Common grass species of the
commuity were Cyperus rotundus and Cyperus scariosus.
Fig. 8: Hyphaene thebaica- Ziziphus spina-christi community type
Community type 3: Combretum hartmannianum-Terminalia brownii-Boswellia papyrifera
Combretum hartmannianum-Terminalia brownii-Boswellia papyrifera community type
comprised of 44 quadrats (1.76 ha) and 66 species with an average of species richness and
Shannon diversity of 4.7 ± 1.7, 1.3 ± 0.4 per plot respectively. The community is located
between 674-1111 m.a.s.l altitudinal ranges (Fig. 9). Boswellia papyrifera is next dominant
characteristics of the community. Combretum molle, Commiphora boranensis, Ziziphus
mucronata, Stereospermum kunthianum, Pittosporum viridiflorum, Boscia angustifolia, Acacia
polyacantha were other associated tree species. The common herb species were Scorpiurus
muricatus, Ocimum gratissimum and Nicandra physaloids while dominant grass layers were
Oxytenanthera abyssinica, Pennisetum typhoideum and Heteropogon contortus.
Fig. 9: Combretum hartmannianum -Terminalia brownii dominated community type
Table 2: Indicator species (Mean cover abundance estimates) in each communities and the bold
values indicate the name of the representative plant community
Species name
Acacia mellifera
Balanites aegyptiaca
Acacia oerfota
Acacia senegal
Dicrostachy scinerea
Dalbergia melanoxylon
Adansonia digitata
Sterculia africana
Hyphaene thebaica
Ziziphus spina-christi
Tamarindus indica
Anogeissus leiocarpus
Casuarina equisetifolia
Diospyros mespiliformis
Combretum hartmannianum
Terminalia brownii
Boswellia papyrifera
Combretum molle
Lannea microcarpa
Commiphora boranensis
C1
6.96
3.70
1.79
1.54
0.43
0.36
0.26
0.22
0.15
0.27
0.02
0.17
0.00
0.00
0.03
0.02
0.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
C2
0.93
0.20
0.16
0.57
0.11
0.15
0.20
0.00
8.66
6.46
3.03
2.23
1.70
1.11
0.16
1.01
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
C3
0.00
0.02
0.00
0.00
0.05
0.00
0.01
0.06
0.03
0.05
0.03
0.08
0.00
0.00
9.37
5.24
4.84
3.90
0.45
0.33
Note: C1=Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca, C2= Hyphaene thebaica- Ziziphus spina-christi
and C3= Combretum hartmannianum-Terminalia brownii-Boswellia papyrifera
3.2.2 Similarity between the communities
The highest similarity was calculated between communities one and three (CC=0.46) followed
by community one and two (CC=0.43) while the least similarity was calculated between
communities two and three (CC=0.41). Community one commonly shared 52 species with
community two and 65 species with community three whereas community two shared 41 species
with community three (Table 3).
Table 3: Similarity between the three plant communities types (C1, C2, and C3) in Kafta-sheraro
national park vegetation
Plant communities C 1
C2
C3
C1
0.43
0.46
C2
0.41
CCa=2*52/2*52+87+50
a
a
C3
CC =2*65/2*65+87+66
CC =2*41/2*41+50+66
Note: C1: Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca; C2: Hyphaene thebaica- Ziziphus spina-christi
C3: Combretum hartmannianum-Terminalia brownii-Boswellia papyrifera
a
CC = Sorensen’s similarity Coefficient, the formula is given in the upper-left hand the calculated results
are presented in the bottom-right sides of the table
3.2.3 Richness, Diversity, and Evenness of the plant communities
Based on the analysis of Shannon-Wiener diversity index the three plant communities’ diversity
and equitability index value of Kafta-sheraro national park (KSNP) vegetation was computed.
The clusters are ranking in increasing order of total number of species in the community richness
of 1> 3> 2 and diversity of 2>1>3.Thus, community type 2 has the highest species diversity and
lowest species richness whereas community type 3 has the least species diversity and
intermidiate species richness. Both highest diversity index (H’=2.82) and evenness (J=0.720)
was observed in community 2 though it has the smallest number of sampled quadrats
(27plots=1.08 ha). While lowest value was in community 3 (H’=2.750 and J=0.656 respectively).
Species richness is relatively higher in community 1 (87 species) at mid-altitude (610-640 m
a.s.l.).Whereas lowest in community 2 (50 species) at lower altitude (539-607 m.a.s.l) of riparian
(Tekeze and its tributary rivers) vegetation (Table 4).
The result also showed negative correlation relation (r=-0.18, p=0.024) between species richness
per plot (1-161) and altitudinal gradient (from 539-1111 m.a.s.l.) with statsiticallly significant
variation in species richness being explained by altitude (Fig.10).The highest number of species
(11) was recorded at plot 47 that was found in the mid-altitude ranges of community type 1
(610-640 m a.s.l.) while the least number of species (1) reported at plot 128 that was found at
highest altitude ranges of community type 3 (674-1111 m.a.s.l.). Additionally, number of
species in community types 1 (610-640 ma.s.l.) and 2 (539-607 m.a.s.l) fell approximately to
nearby the regression line. Community types 1 and 2 were found in the lower and middle altitude
the park vegetation, which had higher species (137) occurring in 117 sampled quadrats (4.6 ha).
Table 4: Species richness, Shannon-Wiener diversity index, and evenness of Kafta-Sheraro
National Park vegetation
Community type
Altitude
Species
Diversity
Hmax
Evenness
(m.a.s.l)
richness(S)
index (H’)
(lnS)
J= H’̸ Hmax
1 (90 plots)
610-640
87
2.81
4.46
0.630
2 (27 plots)
539-607
50
2.82
3.91
0.720
3 (44plots)
674-1111
66
2.75
4.19
0.656
Average
67
2.46
2.77
0.668
The regression analysis relationship of species diversity and eveness (equitability index)
response to altitude were statistically non significant at p=0.28 (a) and p=0.48 (b) per plots
respectively (Fig.11).
Fig. 10: Scatter plots with least squares regression line showing relationship between patterns of
species richness per plot and altitude. Least square regression line equation: Species richness per
plot(y) =6.56-0.0024Altitude(x); Correlation coefficient(r) = -0.18; coefficient of determination
(R2) =0.025; estimate for the slope=-0.32295183+/-0.02308234 at a 95% of confidence level,
and standard error of the regression slope=0.001056
Fig.11: Scatter plots with least squares regression line showing relationship between patterns of
species diversity and eveness per plot and altitude. Correlation cofficient: r=-0.08 (a), r= 0.05 (b)
3.2.4 Anthropogenic disturbance in the three communities
The estimated disturbance levels in the three plant communities varied from a maximum mean
score total of 11.05 for Combretum hartmannianum-Terminalia brownii-Boswellia papyrifera
Community Type-3 and a minimum score of 8.9 for Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca plant
community Type-1 while 9.93 for Hyphaene thebaica-Ziziphus spina-christi Community Type-2
(Table 5). In the plant Community Type-3, almost all plots were subjected to signs of
disturbance whereas; in the plant community-1(50% plots) and community-2(20% plots) did not
show any signs of anthropogenic disturbance respectively.
Table 5: Degree of Anthropogenic disturbance (mean value) along the three plant communities
GR
FWC
CC
CP
GM
IF
Total
Community type
1 Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca
1.45 1.69
1.23 2.20 1.19 1.14
8.90
2 Hyphaene thebaica-Ziziphus spina-christi
1.79 1.43
2.50 2.07 1.93 1.21
9.93
3 Combretum hartmannianum1.91 0.80
3.30 1.93 1.93 1.18 11.05
Terminalia brownii-Boswellia papyrifera
Note: GR=grazing, FWC=Firewood collection, CC= Crop cultivation, CP= Charcoal production,
GM= Gold mining, and IF= Illegal fire
The species richness of the three comminities along human disturbance intensity (no or low,
moderate and heavey) was ploted and exhibited significantly. Community 1 species richness was
influnced by human disturbance intensity at highly significant (p<0.001) level while community
2 and 3 were significant at (p=0.04 and 0.02) respectively. The mean range of heavy human
disturbance was observed in Combretum hartmannianum-Terminalia brownii-Boswellia
papyrifera community type 3 where as the lowest was in Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca
community type 1(Fig.12).
In the present analysis also, human disturbances factors were compared with species richness,
diversity and eveness using the Pearson correlation coefficient (r). The comparison correlation
result of the three communities generally showed both negative and positive relationships (Table
6). In Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca community type 1 firewood collection and crop
cultivation had a significant weak positive relationship (r=0.06, p=0.004 and r=0.46, p=0.05)
with a species richness respectively. Firewood was correlated negatively and crop cultivation
positively with species diversity and eveness. Grazing, charcoal production, gold mining, and
illegal fire showed a disturbance sign in the plots, however, statistically had no significant
(weak) correlation relationship with species richness, diversity and eveness. Similarly, in
Hyphaene thebaica-Ziziphus spina-christi community type 2 a significant relationship was
exhibited by crop cultivation (r=0.73, p<0.001) and charcoal production (r=0.07, p=0.008) with
speciess richness. Species diversity and eveness were also weak positive correlation with both
cultivation (r=0.51, p<0.001) and charcoal production (r=0.08, p=0.008). Grazing, firewood
collection, illegal fire, and gold mining had no significant relationship with species richness;
however, these variables showed a sign of disturbance in the entire sample plots of this
community. In the plant community of Combretum hartmannianum-Terminalia browniiBoswellia papyrifera type 3 a crop cultivation and illegal fire showed highly significant (strong)
negative and positive correlation relationship (r=-0.611, p<0.001 and r=0.314, p<0.001) with
species richness respectively. Diversity and eveness negatively correlated with cultivation and
positively with fire. The rest human disturbance variables (grazing, firewood collection charcoal
production and gold mining) in community 3 had no significant correlation (Table 6).
Consequently, the cumulative human disturbance variables of the three communities were highly
significant (p<0.001) over species richness, diversity and eveness.
Fig.12: Box-plot showing the species richness (S) response of the three community along human
disturbance intensity (no or low, moderate and heavy) for each community the degree of
disturbance is presented. (C1=Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca, C2=Hyphaene thebaicaZiziphus spina-christi and C3=Combretum hartmannianum-Terminalia brownii-Boswellia
papyrifera community types).
Tabel 6: Pearson correlation coefficient (r) between species richness, diversity, eveness
(p<0.001) and human disturbances variables of the three communities
1. Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca community type (C1)
Attributes
GR
FWC
CC
CP
GM
ns
1.00
GR (p=0.56 )
0.42
1.00
FWC (p=0.004 )**
*
-0.16
-0.47
1.00
CC (p=0.05 )
ns
-0.23
-0.26
0.85
1.00
CP (p=0.9 )
ns
-0.04
-0.35
0.90
0.73
1.00
GM (p=0.9 )
ns
-0.03
-0.34
0.89
0.71
0.92
IF (p=0.8 )
#Species richness
-0.007
0.06
0.46
0.46
0.44
#Species diversity
0.01
-0.05
0.45
0.39
0.43
#Species eveness
-0.23
-0.32
0.02
-0.05 -0.02
2. Hyphaene thebaica-Ziziphus spina-christi community type (C2)
Attributes
GR
FWC
CC
CP
GM
1.00
GR (p=0.44 )ns
0.55
1.00
FWC (p=0.38 ) ns
0.27
0.11
1.00
CC (p<0.001 )***
**
0.34
0.23
0.39 1.00
CP (p=0.008 )
ns
0.83
0.63
0.37 0.35
1.00
GM (p=0.86 )
ns
0.01
0.37
-0.36
0.43
0.00
IF (p=0.11 )
#Species richness
0.30
0.35
0.73 0.07
0.38
#Species diversity
0.24
0.11
0.51 0.08
0.23
# Species eveness
0.17
0.23
-0.12 0.16
0.21
IF
SRI
DI
E
1.00
0.42
0.46
-0.01
1.00
0.58
-0.08
1.00
0.31
1.00
IF
SRI
DI
E
1.00
-0.20
-0.28
0.22
1.00
0.53
-0.06
1.00
0.26
1.00
3.Combretum hartmannianum-Terminalia brownii-Boswellia papyrifera Community type (C3)
Attributes
GR
FWC
CC
CP
GM
IF
SRI
DI
E
ns
1.00
GR (p=0.18)
0.15
1.00
FWC (p=0.90) ns
***
0.01
0.08
1.00
CC (p=0.0002 )
ns
0.07
0.05
0.80 1.00
CP (p=0.76)
0.06
0.25
0.65
0.67
1.00
GM(p=0.4)ns
***
0.34
0.18
0.13
0.08
-0.07
1.00
IF (p=0.0002 )
#Species richness
0.009
0.02
-0.61 -0.49 -0.42
0.31
1.00
#Species diversity
-0.002
0.09
-0.45 -0.29 -0.25
0.37
0.83
1.00
# Species eveness
0.04
-0.03
-0.07
0.09
-0.02
0.18
0.28
0.65 1.00
***
p<0.001, *p<0.05, *p<0.1, ns= non significant, SRI= species richness, DI=diversity, E=
eveness, GR=grazing, FWC=fire wood collection, CC= crop cultivation, CP= charcoal
production, GM= gold mining, and IF= illegal fire
4. Discussion
4.1 Vegetation composition and diversity of the study area
The number of total species recorded in Kafta-sheraro national park (182 species) was higher
than other areas of the country like Alemsaga:124 species (Getinet et al., 2015); Chencha:174
species (Desalegn and Zerihun, 2005; Denkoro forest :174 plant species, (Abate et al., 2006),
Dodola forest:113 species, (Kitessa et al., 2007); Dello Menna :171 species (Motuma et al.,
2010); Belete forest:157 species, (Kflay and Kitessa, 2014); Kimphe Lafa:130 plant species
(Kedir et al., 2015); Peninsula-Zegie with 113 species (Alemnew et al., 2007); Grat-Kahsu dry
Forest of Tigray region :102 species (Leul et al., 2010); Komto forest:180 plant species (Fekadu
et al., 2015) and Tara Gedam with 143 species (Haileab et al., 2011); Bepo forest reserve
Ghana:108 species, (Addo-Fordjour et al., 2009); Serengeti National Park, Tanzania:163 species
(Mligo, 2015).
However, the species richness was lower than that of Sire Beggo:185 species (Abyot et al.,
2014); Jibat forest:183 plant species (Tesfaye et al., 2013); Mana Angetu: 211 plant species
(Ermias et al., 2008); Bale Mountains National Park: 230 species (Haile et al., 2008); Bonga
forest:243 species (Ensermu Kelbessa and Teshome, 2008); Daketa valley:202 species (Demel
and Tamrat,1995); Babile elephant sanctuary dry forest :237 species (Anteneh et al., 2011 );
Nechisar national park (208 species (Samson et al., 2010); Berbere forest: 201 species (Tesfaye
et al., 2017a); Ilu Gelan district: 214 species (Zerihun et al., 2017); dry land vegetation of Wello:
216 species (Getachew et al., 2008), and Serengeti ecosystem Tanzania: 262 species (Mligo,
2015).
The dominant families occurring in the area were Fabaceae representing 37 species of (20.3 %),
Poaceae 36 species(19.8 %) and Asteraceae 10 species (5.49%).The dominant families Fabaceae
reported from similar vegetation studies of dry land deciduous forest: 26(15%) (Motuma et al.,
2010); Odo forest: 8 species (Markos and Simon, 2015) Zegie peninsula:11 species (Alemnew et
al., 2007);Tara Gedam forest (Haileab et al., 2005); Belete forest (Kitessa and Tsegaye, 2008);
Nechisar national park (Samson et al., 2010); Grat-kahsu:12 species (Tesfay et al., 2019); Babile
elephant sanctuary: 36 species (Anteneh et al., 2011); Sire Beggo: 23 species (Abyot et al.,
2014); Berbere forest: 23 species (Tesfaye et al., 2017a); Ilu Gelan district: 23 species (Zerihun
et al., 2017); Metema deciduous woodlands:16 (18.39 %) species (Haile et al., 2012b); Awash
national park: 12 species (Yohannes et al., 2013);18(32.14%) species, (Kedir et al., 2015;
Getachew et al., 2008; Teshome et al., 2004). Specially, the family Fabaceae contains drought
tolerant, deciduous and spiny species that are well adapted to the prevailing drought conditions
of the Kafta-sheraro national park and have potential to diverse ecologies of the countries. Those
families also show dominant position in Flora of Ethiopia and Eritrea (Fabaceae: 678 species;
Poaceae: 609 species and Asteraceae: 472 species (Ensermu and Sebsebe, 2014). Fabaceae and
Asteraceae might have got the top dominant position probably due to having efficient
pollination and successful seed dispersal mechanisms that might have adapted them to a wide
range of ecological conditions in the past (Ensermu and Teshome, 2008).
The highest Shannon - Wiener diversity index and evenness in the study area were (H’= 2.82,
J=0.72) which is comparable with other Ethiopian forests.Yemrehane Kirstos Church: H’=2.88,
J=0.79 (Amanuel and Gemedo, 2018); Berbere: H’=2.95, J=0.76 (Tesfaye et al., 2017a); Tara
Gedam: H’ = 2.98, J=0.65 (Haileab et al., 2011); Doshke: H’=3.04, J=0.85 (Ayalew et al., 2018).
But diversity index is higher than Grat-Kahsu protected dry natural vegetation of Tigray region:
H’=2.38 (Tesfay et al., 2019) and H’=2.4: (Mligo, 2015). Diversity indices provide more
information about community composition than simply species richness by taking into account
relative abundance of different species (Giliba et al., 2011). Usually Shannon-Wiener diversity
index (H’) varies between 1.5 and 3.5 rarely exceeds 4.5 as supported by (Kent and Coker,
1992). According to (Barbour et al., 1987), Shannon’s index of value greater than 2 is assigned
as medium to high diversity.
4.2 Socio-economic important of plant species
Kafta-sheraro national park forest consists of locally available home commodity tools, medicinal
value, natural gum and resin bearing species of acacia, Boswellia, Sterculia, Commiphora and
palms. Similarly as reported by (Chikamai, 1996; Vollesen, 1989) over 60 gum and resin bearing
species are found in Ethiopia. Some of the species of Kafta-Sheraro National Park were
Boswellia papyrifera, Acacia Senegal, Acacia seyal, Acacia polyacantha, Commiphora
boranensis, Hyphanene thebaica and Sterculia Africana. From the listed species in the park
Boswellia papyrifera was dominant and also reported by (White, 1983) geographically being
dominant in Ethiopia, Eritrea and Somalia. Internationally the resin of B. papyrifera is an
important commodity as it is a source of essential oils in among others the cosmetic and
pharmaceutical industry (Mulugeta and Demel, 2003). The leaves and seeds of B.papyrifera are
highly valued as dry season fodder for goats, camels and other livestock’s (Kindeya et al., 2003).
The leaves, barks, root, and the resin are also used as traditional medicines for curing various
diseases (Abeje et al., 2005; Tucker, 1986). Hyphanene thebaica leaves are widely used for
weaving mates, bags, baskets and coarse textiles while fruits are edible (Mohamed et al., 2008).
4.3 Altitudinal difference and plant communities
Elevation across the kafta-sheraro national park (KSNP) was found to significantly affect the
distribution of woody plant species among the identified three communities. The regression
analysis of the study exhibited that the woody trees/shrubs species richness was significantly
correlated with altitude. Elevation is known to influence species distribution through its direct
effects on climate (Jafari et al., 2004). Statistically, the impact of altitude on species divesity
were not significant, however, there was a mean variation of plant diversity and eveness along
altitude. Consquently, the elevation variation between sites (cummunities) was relatively limited
in this study area. Because it was a key factor in separating our communities is likely due to its
co-variation with the type of parental material (Zebire et al., 2019), and its effects on the
communities hydrological regimes which exerts strong influence on species composition
(Clilverd et al., 2013)..For example, in the riparian site of the KSNP (here after community 2) is
strongly influenced by seasonal floods and overflows from the streams discharging into Tekeze
River. Moreover, the dry season water availability is higher close to streams at this lower
elevation. In contrast, community 1 and 3 is typically characterized by dry sites (water stress) for
8 months due to its location away from Tekeze river and tributary rivers, inaddition these areas
(sites) are in higher elevations which are more exposed to illegal fire during the prolonged dry
season. By considering other factors, according to Chang et al. (2005) plant species diversity
response to altitudinal gradients was reported in five major alternatives as: (1) decline with
higher altitude; (2) increase with higher altitude; (iii) bulge at mid-altitude; (iv) dip at midaltitude; or (v) have no clear relationship with altitude.
4.4 Human disturbance across the plant community types
Human-environment interactions often have pronounced effects on forest ecosystems and their
potential to provide ecosystem services (Keenan et al., 2015; Ge et al., 2019). Human
disturbance significantly impacted species composition, species richness and diversity of the
identified plant communities. The three plant communities in Kafta-sheraro national park varies
in species richness, diversity and eveness. This variation might be created by pronounced human
interference in the park vegetation. According to Utaile et al. (2020) human disturbance intensity
significantly influenced community composition, and positively correlated with species richness
and diversity. In this study Community 1 had relatively highest species composition and
intermediate diversity. This community with the lower diversity because its species are unevenly
distributed and highest species was recorded. Community 1 has more priority of conservation as
a usual site of African elephant, even though, most area of this vegetation was highly affected
before 12 years being used as farming land, grazing area and charcoal production but now it is in
good regeneration status of Acacia and Balanites tree species. Moreover, herb and grass species
are dominant as result disturbance events that created gaps in canopy cover increasing open
spaces in favor of herbaceous species. Species richness and diversity can also increase following
human disturbances which favors shrubs and bush expansion (Sahu et al., 2008; Asefa et al.,
2015). In the long term, increasing cover of such disturbance may recover and establishment of
native species (Asefa et al., 2015). Partially, in this site African elephant population and
firewood collection (Fig.13a) have influenced the speciess richness and diversity of vegetation
regeneration activities. For example, Adansonia digitata and Sterculia Africana species had
absent of seedling and sapling in this community. Firewood collection significantly influnced
species richness and diversity of Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca community type (C1).
Community 1 is relatively less affected when we compare with community 2 and 3 by
disturbance variables like cattle grazing, illegal fire and extensive farming because the site is
more or less protected from 2007 by the government as usual habitat of African elephants.
Community 2 has held the highest species diversity even though species composition was
lowest. This community was with the higher diversity because its species are evenly
(homogenous) distributed and relatively lowest species were recorded. Community 2 vegetation
stands are concentrated along Tekeze river and its tributary streams. Still now along the Tekeze
river side irrigation of dominant banana plantation (Fig.13b) and other fruits and vegetables
crops cultivation, illegalfire, gold mining, animal rearing and charcoal production were
dominantly influenced this vegetation community( Fig.13c & d). It was also noticed large
hectares of the vegetation coverage was being converted to banana plantation farm. Many
investors are working in Tekeze river side fruit production. From the statistical correlation
analysis crop cultivation by irrigation and charoal production are highly significant and more
influnced the speciess richness and diversity of the riverine forest of this community. About
29,760 km2 is deforested in Africa and 80% of this is charcoal based deforestation (Neufeldt et
al., 2015). As reported by Msuya et al. (2010) charcoal burning to be the main causes of forest
degradation in Tanzania.
Fig.13 photographs showing human inducing disturbances in Kafta-sheraro national park:
firewood collection in Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca community (a), banana (Musa sp.)
and maize (Zea mays) cultivation in Tekeze river sides (b), charcoal product loaded by horse
cart(c) and traditional gold mining (d)
Community 3 had intermediate species richness and lowest diversity than community one and
two. This community was the lowest diversity because its species are unevenly distributed and
relatively lower than community one species were recorded. During field observation this
community was highly influenced by seasonal farming through burning (fire) and cultivation of
cereal crops (Fig.14d), mass grazing and browzing of animals (Fig.14 a & b) can be found in (
Fitsum and Bikila, 2020), gum and raisin collection, gold mining, and charcoal production.
Moreover, mass conversion of vegetation area into cultivation of Sesamum indicum was
increasingly practiced by the surrounding of the local communities (Fig.14c). Illegal fire hinders
Boswellia papyrifera seedling and sapling regeneration capacity. Community 3 was the most
disturbed, i.e. having the highest mean human disturbance, likely due to proximity to adjacent
agricultural activities. As Htun et al., (2011) reported that human disturbances generally can
cause various impacts on forest communities of Popa Mountain Park, Myanmar and in
Ngumburuni Forest Reserve Tanzania also reported that fire was observed to be the central part
of several disturbances such as shifting cultivation, charcoaling, and logging (Kimaro and
Lulandala, 2013). Moreover, in Pugu Forest Reserve of Tanzania fire incident affects significant
habitat destruction (Milgo, 2019). In conclusion, community two and three of this study are
directly interlinked with nearby human community livelihood.
Fig.14: photographs showing anthropogenic activities: Livestock browsing and grazing (a & b),
Sesamum indicum cultivation (c) and sorghum bicolor cultivation (d) inside Kafta-Sheraro
National Park dry forest
The results from the three communities were generally arranged in increasing disturbance scores
as: Acacia mellifera-Balanites aegyptiaca community <Hyphaene thebaica-Ziziphus spinachristi <Combretum hartmannianum-Terminalia brownii-Boswellia papyrifera community. All
three communities are subjected to disturbance by firewood collection, charcoal production and
illegal fire. The energy consumption and house building of the park surrounding villages are
totally depending on trees. Community-3 was ranked as highly disturbed in all variable
categories and had a greater disturbance score than community 1 and 2 because of its proximity
to human settlements, suitability to agriculture and less attention was given by the responsible
sector for protection. As result of the disturbance level in community 1 is low, the composition
and species richness of this community are relatively high.
Therefore, the variation in species composition and diversity of a plant community is directly
related to soil contents, altitude, aspect, moisture, illegal human activities and grazing intensity
(Tamrat, 1993). Furthermore, human impact created more variation than other environmental
gradients on species composition of a community (Leul et al., 2010); high anthropogenic
influences (selective removal of economically important trees and grazing by livestock) could
contribute for the low species richness and diversity in a given forest (Fekadu et al., 2013);
climate change and anthropogenic disturbances (Darbyshire et al., 2003); high human
dependence on natural resources by the local community within any ecosystem has caused
depletion in resources (Brookfield et al., 2002); intensive anthropogenic activities in unprotected
habitats had caused heavily degraded and increased scarcity of resources outside the protected
areas, and communities were forced illegally obtained resources from the adjacent protected
areas (Mligo, 2015). Moreover, in oak forests of Iran plant composition and plant diversity were
decreased dramatically along the disturbance gradient (Eshaghi Rad et al., 2018).
Even if the effect of grazing was not statistically significant on species richness and diversity of
Kafta-sheraro national park of the three communities, species richness declines in heavy grazing
natural vegetation (Tessema et al., 2011). Grazing activity by livestock not only affects
understory density but other structural attributes, for example, a high density of livestock in
forest areas declines the value of abundance, size and stand basal area of woody plants
(Echeverria et al., 2007; Veblen et al., 1993). Moreover, regeneration of trees is significantly
affected by the presence of livestock (Zamorano-Elgueta et al., 2012). Livestock also affects
understory structure by grazing and trampling the herbaceous layer (Belsky and Blumenthal,
1997). Rummell (1951) showed that grazing by livestock reduced understory vegetation by 4561% in ponderosa pine forests. Understory density mainly of bamboo was significantly reduced
in highly grazed stands in comparison to less disturbed stands in Argentina (Veblen et al.,
1993).The lowest mean values of litter depth reported in plots that were subjected to the presence
of livestock (Caviedes and Ibarra, 2017). Livestock grazing of plant biomass located above
ground minimizes the quantity of biomass for litter conversion (Belsky and Blumenthal, 1997).
Similarly, in California reported that litter depth was significantly lower in grazed sites in
comparison to un-grazed sites when investigating the impact of cattle grazing on a coastal prairie
plant community (Hayes and Holl, 2003).
Traditional gold mining was another human-induced factor by digging the vertical soil profile of
the park approximately 25-30m downward (Figure 13(d)). In addition to damage the plant root,
gold mining had also a direct contributor to a fire extinigushing in the forest area by the gold
miner in order to prepare their daily food. Statistically, there was no significant correlation
between gold mining and species richness, diversity and eveness; however, the traditional gold
mining showed a clear mean disturbance sign in almost all plots (Fitsum and Bikila, 2020).
There were no previous research studies related to traditional gold mining impact on plant
richness and diversity, except the study done on the negative impact of gold mining on the
population of wildlife in Kafta Sheraro National Park (Berihun et al., 2016). Hence, it was very
difficult to compare and contrast gold mining with other research findings (Fitsum and Bikila,
2020).
5. Conclusion
Kafta-sheraro national park (KSNP) vegetation and the hydrology of Tekeze River are
ecologically and economically very important for livelihood of the surrounding community. The
park has documented 182 species, 142 genera and 53 families. The site has high floristic
composition similarity with dry protected areas (e.g. Babile elephant sanctuary woody species
and Hugumburda forests of Tigray region) but dissimilar with Afromontane forests; because,
structurally and floristically the tropical dry forests are less complex than the wet forests.
Fabaceae and Poaceae were found to be the most dominant family followed by Astraceae,
Combretaceae, Solanaceae, and Malvaceae while herbs were the dominant growth forms.
The vegetation of Kafta-sheraro national park (KSNP) vegetation was grouped into three plant
community types. These communities were arranged along different altitudinal ranges. Plant
community one exhibited the highest species richness (87) while the highest diversity and even
distribution of individuals was observed for community type two. Community type three was
with intermediate species richness and lowest diversity. The variation in species composition and
richness among communities might be associated to altitudinal difference and degree of
disturbance. Altitude is significantly correlated with specis richness all community types while it
is more strongly correlated with community type 1. Human disturbance significantly influenced
plant community composition and positively correlated with species richness and diversity of
specific community type. Despite these disturbances, KSNP still holds important proportions of
both animal and plant species. The ongoing human activities have already caused size and
quality degradation of useful plants and enhanced species diversification impacts to the forest
ecosystem.The similarity of communities was higher when we compare with dry vegetation type
study in the region and the country. Therefore, detail study on conservation challenges of the
park vegetation; the government and responsible sectors jointly work with the community for
sustainable utilization of the forest resources; community awareness creation on environmental
role of trees and develop alternative livelihood for the communities who are living near the park.
Abbreviations
FAO: Food and Agricultural Organization; KSNP: Kafta-sheraronational park; KSNPCL: Kafta Sheraro
national park census list; NCSS: National Conservation Strategy Secretariat; CAP: community analysis
package; ETH: Ethiopian Herbarium; GPS: Geographical positioning system; EWCA: Ethiopian wildlife
conservation authority; and DBH: daimeter at breast height.
Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the invaluable help of the park “SCOUTS” for their unlimited assistance
during field work. Without their devoted assistance, the field data collection in such remote and harsh
environmental condition would have been impossible.
Authors’ contributions
Fitsum Temesgen has leaded the overall activities of the research process such as the design, data
collection, entry, analysis, and interpretation of results as well as writing up of the draft manuscript.
Bikila Warkineh has involved in constructive guidance, comments and suggestions on the manuscript.
Addisu Asefa has also supported on comments of the paper.
Funding statement
This research was supported financially by EWCA during field data collection.
Availability of data and materials
The datasets used and/or analyzed during the current study are available from the corresponding author
upon request via personal email.
Ethics approval and consent to participate
Prior to conduct the research activities a research site permission letter was obtained from EWCA. Hence,
as the researcher, the authors take full responsibility for all the contents and any mistakes in the
document.
Consent for publication
Authors have agreed to submit for Forest ecosystem and approved the manuscript for submission.
Conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
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Appendix-1: List of plant species collected from Kafta-Sheraro National Park (T=Tree, H=Herb,
S=Shrub, T̸ S=Tree̸ Shrub, C=Climber, R=Reed, G=Grass, Ha=Habit, C.Id= Collection Id.,
FT=Fitsum Temesgen)
Scientific name
Abelmoschus esculentus (L.) Moench.
Abutilon figarianum Webb.
Acacia albida Del.***
Acacia etbaica Schweinf***
Acacia lahai Steud. & Hochst.ex Benth.***
Family name
Asteraceae
Malvaceae
Fabaceace
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Ha.
H
H
T
T
T
Local name (Tigrigna)
Wayka
**
Momona
Seraw
Lahai adi
C.Id
FT89
FT113
FT14
FT50
FT30
Scientific name
Acacia mellifera (Vahl) Benth.***
Acacia oerforta (Forssk.) Schweinf.***
Acacia polyacantha Willd.***
Acacia senegal (L.) Willd.***
Acacia seyal Del.***
Acacia sp. Mart.***
Acacia tortilis (Forssk.) Hayne.***
Acalypha crenata Hochst. ex A.Rich.
Acalypha indica (L.)
Achyranthes aspera var.aspera (L.)
Adansonia digitata (L.) ***
Aeschynomene paniculata Vogel.
Allium cepa L.
Allium sativum L.
Alternanthera pungens Kunth.
Amaranthus spinosus (L.)
Amphicarpa africana (Hook.f.)Harms
Anogeissus leiocarpus (DC.) Guill.&Perr.***
Aristida adoensis Hochst. ex A.Rich.
Artemisia abyssinica Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich.
Asparagus flagellaris (Kunth) Baker
Aspilia guineensis Hoffm & Muschl.
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del.***
Ballota nigra (L.)
Barleria prionitis (L.)
Bidens pachyloma (Oliv. & Hiern) Cufod.
Blainvillea gayana Cass.
Boscia angustifolia A.Rich.***
Boswellia papyrifera Hochst. ex A.***
Brucea antidysentrica J.F.***
Buddleja polystachya Fresen.***
Burkea africana Hook.***
Cadaba farinosa Forssk.***
Calopogonium mucunoides Desv.
Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton***
Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew.***
Capsicum annuum L.
Carica papaya (L.)***
Carissa edulis (Forssk.) Vahl.***
Casuarina equisetifolia (L.)***
Cenchrus ciliaris (L.)
Chamaecrista absus (L.)
Chamaecrista nigricans (L.) Moench
Chascanum marrubifolium Fenol ex. Walp.
Chloris virgata Sw.
Cissampelos mucronata A.Rich.
Cissus guadrangularis (L.)
Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle***
Combretum glutinosum Perr. ex DC.***
Combretum hartmannianum Schweinf.***
Combretum molle R.Br.ex G.Don***
Combretum sp. Loefl.***
Commelina communis (L.)
Commiphora boranensis K. Vollesen***
Appendix-1 continued
Family name
Ha.
Fabaceae
T
Fabaceae
S
Fabaceae
T
Fabaceae
T
Fabaceae
T
Fabaceae
T
Fabaceae
T
Malvaceae
H
Euphorbiaceae
H
Amaranthaceae
H
Bombacaceae
T
Fabaceae
H
Liliaceae*
H
Liliaceae*
H
Amaranthaceae
H
Lamiaceae
H
Fabaceae
C
Combretaceae
T
Poaceae
G
Asteraceae
H
Amaranthaceae
H
Asteraceae
H
Balanitaceae
T
Lamiaceae
H
Fabaceae
H
Fabaceae
H
Fabaceae
H
Capparaceae
T̸ S
Burseraceae
T
Simaroubaceae
T
Loganiaceae
S
Caesalpiniaceae
T
Capparaceae
S
Fabaceae
C
Asclepiadaceae
T
Capparaceae
T
Solanaceae*
H
Caricaceae*
T
Apocynaceae
S
Casuarinaceae
T
Poaceae
G
Lamiaceae
H
Fabaceae
H
Verbenaceae
H
Poaceae
G
Menispermaceae C
Vitaceae
C
Rutaceae*
S
Combretaceae
S
Combretaceae
T
Combretaceae
T
Combretaceae
T
Commelinaceae
H
Burseraceae
T
Local name (Tigrigna)
Ktrit
Tekelbe
Gomoro
Kenteb
Chea
Chgeno
**
**
**
**
Dima
**
Shigurti keyh
Shigurti tsaeda
**
**
**
Hanse
**
Chena barya
**
**
Mekie
**
Eshokanchwa
**
**
**
Meker
Melita
Metere
Amangul
**
**
Gindae
Malokza
**
Papaya
Agam
Shwshwit
Almet
**
**
**
**
**
Alke
Lemin
**
Tenkelba
**
**
**
**
C.Id
FT12
FT05
FT49
FT01
FT10
FT47
FT51
FT93
FT111
FT75
FT13
FT87
FT126
FT124
FT121
FT98
FT69
FT08
FT141
FT135
FT99
FT78
FT04
FT116
FT95
FT104
FT82
FT46
FT26
FT60
FT64
FT32
FT37
FT72
FT25
FT19
FT125
FT55
FT176
FT18
FT137
FT101
FT74
FT131
FT156
FT67
FT65
FT58
FT34
FT02
FT35
FT177
FT109
FT43
Scientific name
Conya canadensis (L.) Cronquist.Erigeron.c
Cordia Africana Lam. ***
Crotalaria ononoides Benth.
Cucumis prophetarum (L.)
Cucurbita Maxima Duchesne.
Cymbopogon caesius (Hook.& Arn.) Stapf.
Cynodon dactylon (L.)Pers
Cynodon plectostachyus (K. Schum.) Pilg.
Cyperus rotundus (L.)
Cyperus scariosus R.Br.
Dactyloctenium aegypticum ( L.) Willd.
Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. & Perr.***
Datura stramonium (L.)
Delonix regia (Boj. ex Hook.) Raf.***
Dichanthium annulatum var.papillosum(For.)***
Dicliptera verticillata (Forsk.) C. Chr.
Dicrostachys cinerea (L.)Wight and Arn.***
Digitaria abyssinica (Hochst. ex A.Rich.)
Digitaria velutina (Forssk.) P.Beauv.
Diheteropogon ampletcens (Hack.)
Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl) Panz.
Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern) F. White***
Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A. DC.***
Dumasia villosa DC.
Echinocloa pyramidals(Lam.)Hitchc.Chase
Eleusine coracana Gaertn.
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn.
Epilobiumcilia Raf.
Eragrostis cilianensis (All.)Vign.ex Janchen
Eragrostis tef (Zucc) Trotter.
Feretia apodanthera Delile.***
Ficus sycomorus (L.)***
Galinsoga parviflora Cav.
Grewia bicolor Juss.***
Grewia flavescens Juss.***
Grewia mollis Juss.***
Grewia villosa Willd.***
Guizotia schimperi Sch.Bip. ex Walp.
Hackelochloa granularis (L.) Kuntze
Halopyrum miicronatum L. ,Stapf.
Heteropogon contortus (L.) P.Beauv.
Hypanheuia hirta (L.) Stapf.
Hyphaene thebaica (L.) Mart.***
Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC.***
Justicia flava (Forssk.) Vahl.
Kohautia cynanchica DC.
Laggera alata (D. Don) Sch. Bip. ex Oliv.
Lannea microcarpa Engl. & K. Krause.***
Leptadenia lanceolata (Poir.) Goyder.***
Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) W.T. Aiton
Mangifera indica (L.) ***
Maytenus senegallensis Forssk.***
Melanocenchris abyssinica (R.Br. ex Fresen.
Melia azedarach (L.)***
Appendix-1 continued
Family name
Ha.
Asteraceae
H
Boraginaceae*
T
Fabaceae
H
Cucurbitaceae
C
Cucurbitaceae
C
Poaceae
G
Poaceae
G
Poaceae
G
Cyperaceae
R
Cyperaceae
R
Poaceae
G
Fabaceae
T
Asteraceae
H
Fabaceae
T
Poaceae
G
Acanthaceae
H
Fabaceae
T
Poaceae
G
Poaceae
G
Poaceae
G
Poaceae
G
Ebenaceae
T
Ebenaceae
T
Fabaceae
C
Poaceae
G
Poaceae*
G
Poaceae
G
Solanaceae
H
Poaceae
G
Poaceae*
G
Rubiaceae
S
Moraceae
T
Asteraceae
H
Tiliaceae
T̸ S
Tiliaceae
T̸ S
Tiliaceae
T
Tiliaceae
S
Fabaceae
H
Poaceae
G
Poaceae
G
Poaceae
G
Poaceae
G
Arecaceae
T
Oleaceae
S
Acanthaceae
H
Malvaceae
H
Asteraceae
H
Anacardiaceae
T
Asclepiadaceae
S
Lamiaceae
H
Anacardiaceae
T*
Celastraceae
T
Poaceae
G
Meliaceae
T
Local name (Tigrigna)
**
Aki
**
**
**
Tbrara
**
**
**
Seti
**
Zibe
Mezerbae
**
**
**
Gonok
**
**
**
Chwchwit
**
Aye
**
**
Dagusha
**
**
**
**
Rowe
Sagla
**
**
Betremushe
**
hable
**
**
**
**
**
Laka
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
Mango
**
**
Nim
C.Id
FT128
FT181
FT102
FT73
FT68
FT148
FT161
FT171
FT166
FT159
FT147
FT03
FT106
FT172
FT182
FT115
FT06
FT155
FT173
FT140
FT154
FT59
FT31
FT70
FT163
FT180
FT160
FT108
FT145
FT169
FT23
FT33
FT118
FT07
FT28
FT41
FT20
FT88
FT143
FT149
FT162
FT139
FT24
FT15
FT96
FT90
FT122
FT42
FT38
FT119
FT56
FT11
FT144
FT54
Scientific name
Meriandra dianthcra (Roth ex Roem.&Schult.
Moringa stenopetala (Baker f.) Cufod.***
Musa species (L.)
Nerium oleander (L.)***
Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaertn.
Nicotiana tabaccum L.
Ocimum gratissimum (L.)
Olyra latifolia (L.)
Otostegia ellenbeckii Gürke.***
Oxytenanthera abyssinica (A.Rich.) Munro
Panicum coloratum (L.)
Parkinsonia aculeata (L.)***
Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R.Br.
Pennisetum typhoideum Stapf & Hubb.
Pentatropis nivalis J.F. Gmel.
Phragmites australis (Cav.) Trin. ex Steud.
Phyllanthus maderaspatensis (L.)
Physalis angulata (L.)
Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims.
Plectranthus fruticosus L'Her.
Plumbago zeylanica (L.)***
Poa annua L.
Polygala abyssinica ex. Fresen.
Polypogon monspeliensis (L.)Desf.
Rhamnus prinoides L'Her. ***
Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC.
Ricinus communis (L.)***
Rottboellia cochinchinensis (Lour.) Clayton
Salvadora persica (L.)***
Sauromatum venosum Dry land.ex.Aiton.
Sclerocarya birrea (A. Rich.) Hochst.***
Scorpiurus muricatus (L.)
Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby.
Senna occidentalis (L.)
Senna sinqueana (Delile) Lock.***
Sesamum indicum (L.)
Sida acuta Burm.f.
Solanum incanum (L.)***
Solanum lycopersicum L.
Solanum tuberosum L.
Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench
Spermacoce pusilla Wall.
Sterculia africana Del.***
Stereospermum kunthianum Cham.***
Stipa borysthenica Klokov ex Prokud.Wulf.
Stipa tenuissima Trin.
Streblochaete longiarista (A.Rich) Pilg.
Striga latericea Vatke.
Tamarindus indica (L.)***
Tephrosia pentaphylla (Roxb.)G.Don.
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers.
Tephrosia virginiana (L.)Pers.
Teramnus labialis var. abyssinicus (L.f.) Spr.
Terminalia brownii Fresen.***
Appendix-1 continued
Family name
Ha.
Acanthaceae
H
Moringaceae
T
Musaceae*
H
Apocynaceae
S
Solanaceae
H
Solanaceae
H
Fabaceae
H
Poaceae
G
Lamiaceae
S
Poaceae
G
Poaceae
G
Fabaceae
T
Poaceae
G
Poaceae
G
Poaceae
G
Asclepiadaceae
C
Euphorbiaceae
H
Solanaceae
H
Pittosporaceae
T
Asparagaceae
H
Plumbaginace
S
Poaceae
G
Asteraceae
H
Poaceae
G
Rhamnaceae*
S
Fabaceae
C
Euphorbiaceae
S
Poaceae
G
Salvadoraceae
S
Araceae
H
Anacardiaceae
T
Fabaceae
H
Euphorbiaceae
H
Fabaceae
H
Fabaceae
S
Pedaliaceae*
H
Malvaceae
H
Solanaceae
S
Solanaceae*
H
Solanaceae*
H
Poaceae*
G
Fabaceae
H
Sterculiaceae
T
Bignoniaceae
T̸ S
Poaceae
G
Poaceae
G
Poaceae
G
Scrophulariaceae H
Fabaceae
T
Fabaceae
H
Fabaceae
H
Fabaceae
H
Fabaceae
C
Combretaceae
T
Local name (Tigrigna)
Sesegzbi
Shiferaw
Benana
**
Absho
**
**
Saeri harmaz
Chendog
Shambeko
**
Tetem
**
**
Zeri seytan
**
**
**
**
**
Aftuh
**
**
**
**
**
Guli
**
Shebelsha
**
**
**
Abake harmaz
**
Hambhambo
**
**
Engule
**
**
**
**
Darle
**
**
Choba
**
Metselem
Humer
**
**
**
**
Weyba
C.Id
FT97
FT29
FT136
FT36
FT112
FT133
FT107
FT157
FT62
FT164
FT170
FT52
FT167
FT165
FT150
FT174
FT77
FT110
FT45
FT100
FT61
FT142
FT83
FT153
FT179
FT175
FT53
FT151
FT21
FT134
FT57
FT132
FT94
FT117
FT63
FT120
FT80
FT40
FT123
FT127
FT168
FT85
FT09
FT44
FT152
FT146
FT138
FT79
FT17
FT76
FT81
FT105
FT71
FT27
Scientific name
Terminalia laxiflora Engl. & Diels.***
Terminalia sp. L.***
Tetrapogon villosus Desf.
Tribulus cistoides (L.)
Trigonella species L.
Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.
Vigna radiata subsp.sublobata (L.) R.Wilczek
Wissadula amplissima (L.) R.E. Fries
Xanthium spinosum L.
Xanthium strumarium (L.)
Zehneria anomala C. Jeffrey
Ziziphus mucronata Willd***
Ziziphus spina-christi (L.)Desf.***
Zornia glochidiata Rchb. ex DC.
Ζiziphus mauritiana Willd.***
Appendix-1 continued
Family name
Ha.
Combretaceae
T
Combretaceae
T
Poaceae
G
Ζygophyllaceae
H
Polygalaceae
H
Rubiaceae
H
Fabaceae
H
Tiliaceae
H
Asteraceae
H
Asteraceae
H
Cucurbitaceae
C
Rhamnaceae
T̸S
Rhamnaceae
T
Rubiaceae
H
Rhamnaceae
T/S
Local name (Tigrigna)
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
**
Hafaflo
Geba adgi
Geba
**
Andel
Note: (* =Plant species recorded outside quadrat area; ** common name is unknown)
and *** ( Source: Fitsum and Bikila, 2020)
C.Id
FT39
FT178
FT158
FT114
FT84
FT91
FT103
FT92
FT129
FT130
FT66
FT48
FT16
FT86
FT22
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