Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower)
Datasheet Types: Pest, Invasive species, Host plant
Abstract
This datasheet on Commelina diffusa covers Identity, Overview, Distribution, Dispersal, Hosts/Species Affected, Diagnosis, Biology & Ecology, Environmental Requirements, Natural Enemies, Impacts, Uses, Prevention/Control, Further Information.
Identity
- Preferred Scientific Name
- Commelina diffusa Burm. f.
- Preferred Common Name
- spreading dayflower
- Other Scientific Names
- Commelina agraria Kunth
- Commelina agraria var. prostrata (Kunth) Seub.
- Commelina agraria var. repens Seub.
- Commelina aquatica J.K.Morton
- Commelina caespitosa Roxb.
- Commelina canariensis C.Sm.
- Commelina cayennensis Rich.
- Commelina diffusa subsp. aquatica (J.K.Morton) Ogwal
- Commelina diffusa subsp. diffusa
- Commelina formosa Graham
- Commelina glabra G.Mey.
- Commelina gracilis Ruiz & Pav.
- Commelina longicaulis Jacq.
- Commelina obtusifolia Vahl
- Commelina ochreata Schauer
- Commelina pacifica Vahl
- Commelina pilosa Pers.
- Commelina pilosula Rich.
- Commelina prostrata Kunth
- Commelina prostrata Poepp. ex Kunth
- Commelina sellowiana Kunth
- Commelina werneana Hassk.
- International Common Names
- EnglishdayflowerFrench weedpond grasswater grass
- Spanishbabosillacanutillotripa de pollo
- Frenchcurageherbe de l'eau
- Chinesejie jie cao
- Local Common Names
- Bahamascreeping day-flower
- Bangladeshmanaina
- Cubapitillayerba de sapo
- Indonesiabrangbangan
- JamaicaFrench weedwater grass
- Japanshimatsuyukusa
- Philippinesalibangongatilangkulasi
- Puerto Ricocohítrecohítre azulcojitre
- Thailandphak-prap
- USAhonohono (Hawaii)
Pictures
Flowers
Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower); Flowers. Baruipur, West Bengal, India. February 2021.
©Supratim Deb/via iNaturalist - CC BY 4.0
Flowering habit
Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower); Flowering habit. Baihe District, Tainan, Taiwan. April 2018.
©Fagushayata/via iNaturalist - CC BY-SA 4.0
Flowering habit
Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower); Flowering habit. Kozhikode, Kerala, India. January 2015.
©Vengolis/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Flower
Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower); Flower. East District, Hsinchu City, Taiwan. May 2020.
©chiuluan/via iNaturalist - CC BY 4.0
Flowering habit
Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower); Flowering habit. Baihe District, Tainan, Taiwan. April 2018.
©Fagushayata/via iNaturalist - CC BY-SA 4.0
Flowering habit
Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower); Flowering habit. Tungwadi, Maharashtra, India. October 2020.
©Dinesh Valke/via Flickr - CC BY-SA 2.0
Flower
Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower); Flower. Fuxing Township, Changhua County, Taiwan. July 2020.
©chiuluan/via iNaturalist - CC BY 4.0
Flower
Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower); Flower. San Cristobal de las Casas, Chiapas, Mexico. September 2021.
©Neptalí Ramírez Marcial (huracan)/via iNaturalist - CC BY 4.0
Foliage
Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower); Foliage. Fuxing Township, Changhua County, Taiwan. July 2020.
©chiuluan/via iNaturalist - CC BY 4.0
Foliage
Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower); Foliage. Yeronga, Queensland, Australia. February 2021.
©Greg Tasney/via iNaturalist - CC BY-SA 4.0
Habit
Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower); Habit. Honolua Lipoa Point, Maui, Hawaii. April 2018.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Habit
Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower); Habit. Kilauea Pt NWR, Kauai, Hawaii. March 2013.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Leaves
Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower); Leaves. Kilauea Pt NWR, Kauai, Hawaii. March 2013.
©Forest and Kim Starr/via Starr Environmental - CC BY 4.0
Flowering habit
Commelina diffusa (spreading dayflower); Flowering habit. November 2021.
©V C Balakrishnan/via Wikimedia Commons - CC BY-SA 4.0
Summary of Invasiveness
Commelina diffusa is a cosmopolitan weed of agricultural, ruderal and natural habitats. It is a common weed in open swamps, marshes, forests, thickets, riverbanks and humid open places. Because this species can reproduce both sexually and asexually, it has the potential to grow very quickly, forming a carpet that displaces native plants. Currently, this species is listed as invasive in Cuba, Hawaii, French Polynesia and on other islands in the Pacific Ocean, but it is also a serious weed impacting cultivation fields in tropical and subtropical areas of the world.
Taxonomic Tree
Notes on Taxonomy and Nomenclature
The family Commelinaceae comprises 40 genera and about 652 species of herbs distributed in tropical and temperate regions of the world. The genus Commelina with 170 species, is the largest in the subfamily Commelinoideae (Stevens, 2012). C. diffusa is occasionally known by the synonyms C. nudiflora or C. communis, but these names have each been used by different authors for more than one taxon and are incorrect when applied to C. diffusa.
Plant Type
Annual
Perennial
Seed / spore propagated
Vegetatively propagated
Grass / sedge
Herbaceous
Description
The following description is from Flora of China Editorial Committee (2016):
Commelina diffusa is a smooth and sparsely hairy annual or perennial herb with creeping stems ascending above and branching below. Stems creeping, branched (sometimes at every node), to more than 1 m, glabrous or hispidulous throughout or in a line. Leaves subsessile; leaf sheath hispid or hispid-ciliate, with red lines; leaf blade lanceolate or proximal ones oblong, 3-12 × 0.8-3 cm, glabrous or hispid. Involucral bracts borne opposite leaves, folded, ovate-lanceolate, 1-4 cm, glabrous or hispidulous abaxially, base cordate or rounded, apex acuminate or shortly so. Cincinni dichotomously branched from base; one branch with 1.5-2 cm long peduncle and 1-4 long-exserted male flowers; other branch with much shorter peduncle and 3-5 bisexual flowers included in involucral bracts; pedicels thick and curved, 3 mm, to 5 mm in fruit. Sepals 3-4 mm, membranous. Petals blue, two longer ones 4.2-6 mm. Capsule oblong, trigonous, 5 mm, 3-valved; posterior valve with one seed, indehiscent; other two valves each with two seeds, dehiscent. Seeds black, ovoid-globose, 2 mm, reticulate.
Distribution
The native distribution range of C. diffusa is still uncertain. This species can be found wild and naturalized throughout the tropics of America, Africa, Asia and the Pacific, also in the subtropics in the southern part of the USA, South America, Australia and south Asian islands (Holm et al., 1977; Govaerts, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016).
Distribution Map
Distribution Table
Means of Movement and Dispersal
Commelina diffusa spreads by seed and vegetatively by rooting at the nodes. Seeds and stem fragments are spread by water, animals and tillage tools.
Pathway Causes
| Pathway cause | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Garden waste disposal (pathway cause) | Seeds and stem segments may be dispersed in contaminated soil | Yes | Yes | |
| Hitchhiker (pathway cause) | Seeds and stem fragments are spread by animals and tillage tools | Yes | Yes | |
| Medicinal use (pathway cause) | Used in traditional medicine | Yes |
Pathway Vectors
| Pathway vector | Notes | Long distance | Local | References |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Debris and waste associated with human activities (pathway vector) | Seeds and stems may be dispersed in contaminated soil | Yes | Yes | |
| Water (pathway vector) | Seeds and stem segments are dispersed by water | Yes | Yes |
Hosts/Species Affected
Commelina diffusa is a serious weed of bananas in Mexico and Hawaii; of beans, oranges, lemons, grapes, apricots, coffee and cotton in Mexico; of papaya in Hawaii; of sugarcane in Puerto Rico and sorghum in Thailand. It is also a weed of maize and vegetables in Mexico; bananas, papayas and pineapples in the Philippines; rice in Colombia; sugarcane in Mexico and Trinidad; taro and pastures in Hawaii and coffee in Costa Rica (Holm et al., 1977).
Commelina diffusa is also a very important weed of soyabean in several states of the USA (Smith, 1974; Lawrence and Habetz, 1976; Baker, 1977). It is reported as a troublesome weed in Japan in forest nurseries (Manabe and Ishii, 1972) and citrus orchards (Takahashi et al., 1977). It is an important weed of wheat, oat, barley and soyabean in Russia (Shcherbakova, 1974). It is difficult to control in cacao plantations in Cameroon (Paviot, 1977) though reports from Africa are scarce. C. diffusa is rated as one of the most important weeds in rice in Texas and competes vigorously for nutrients and light with that crop (Daniel, 1974).
Host Plants and Other Plants Affected
| Host | Family | Host status | References |
|---|---|---|---|
| Ananas comosus (pineapple) | Bromeliaceae | Main | |
| Avena sativa (oats) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Carica papaya (pawpaw) | Caricaceae | Main | |
| Citrus limon (lemon) | Rutaceae | Main | |
| Citrus sinensis (sweet orange) | Rutaceae | Main | |
| Coffea (coffee) | Rubiaceae | Main | |
| Colocasia esculenta (taro) | Araceae | Main | |
| Glycine max (soyabean) | Fabaceae | Main | |
| Gossypium (cotton) | Malvaceae | Main | |
| Hordeum vulgare (barley) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Musa (banana) | Musaceae | Main | |
| Oryza sativa (rice) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Phaseolus (beans) | Fabaceae | Main | |
| Prunus armeniaca (apricot) | Rosaceae | Main | |
| Saccharum officinarum (sugarcane) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Solanum lycopersicum (tomato) | Solanaceae | Unknown | |
| Solanum tuberosum (potato) | Solanaceae | Main | |
| Sorghum bicolor (sorghum) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Theobroma cacao (cocoa) | Malvaceae | Other | |
| Triticum (wheat) | Poaceae | Main | |
| Vitis vinifera (grapevine) | Vitaceae | Main | |
| Zea mays (maize) | Poaceae | Main |
Growth Stages
Fruiting stage
Flowering stage
Seedling stage
Vegetative growing stage
Similarities to Other Species/Conditions
Confusion can occur with a number of other weedy species of Commelina, but the following combination of characters may be used to separate C. diffusa from most of them: all three petals blue, leaves narrowly elliptical (length 3-4 times width), spathe elongated, open, seeds shallowly reticulated, no stolons.
Another common species, C. benghalensis, has the spathe sealed along two edges to form a triangular pocket; it also has broader leaves (length 2-3 times width), stolons with underground flowers, and leaf sheaths with reddish-brown-tipped hairs.
Commelina forskaeli [Commelina forskaolii] has stolons, rough seeds, sealed spathe and wavy-edged leaves (Ivens, 1967; Holm et al., 1977; Drummond, 1984).
Two other species occurring commonly in South Asia, C. sikkimensis and C. caroliniana (=C. hasskarlii) are closely similar to C. diffusa, differing mainly in the seeds: those of C. sikkimensis being deeply pitted and those of C. caroliniana quite smooth (Noltie, 1994).
Commelina communis, widespread in North America and some other areas, and C. latifolia, common in Ethiopia, each have the lower petal white or very pale, not blue.
Habitat
Commelina diffusa is a cosmopolitan weed usually found in damp shady, moist habitats near water, including rice paddies, but also found in open swamps and marshes and sometimes found floating in mats (Cook, 1996). This species occurs as a weed in cultivated fields, forests, thickets, riverbanks, humid open places, field borders, wet pasture lands, roadsides and gardens. In Hawaii, it often grows in mesic valleys, wet forests and other disturbed sites (Wagner et al., 1999). In Fiji, it can be found from near sea level to 600 m in wet places in forests and in open sites, along trails, in cleared areas and in damp pastures, and along roadsides (Smith, 1979). In Papua New Guinea, it grows on poorly-drained soil in open sunny situations (PIER, 2016).
Habitat List
| Category | Sub category | Habitat | Presence | Status |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Terrestrial | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) | |
| Terrestrial | Cultivated / agricultural land | Present, no further details | Natural | |
| Terrestrial | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Natural | |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Disturbed areas | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial – Managed | Rail / roadsides | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural forests | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Natural grasslands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Riverbanks | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Harmful (pest or invasive) |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Natural |
| Terrestrial | Terrestrial ‑ Natural / Semi-natural | Wetlands | Present, no further details | Productive/non-natural |
Biology and Ecology
Genetics
The chromosome number reported for C. diffusa is 2n = 30 (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2016).
Reproductive Biology
Commelina diffusa reproduces by seed and vegetatively by stem fragments rooting at the nodes.
Physiology and Phenology
Commelina species are andromonoecious with hermaphrodite and staminate flowers on the same plant (Faden, 2000). Pollination is mainly through autogamy and by insects, principally hymenopterans (Oziegbe et al., 2013). In China, C. diffusa has been recorded flowering from May to November (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016). In North America, it flowers during spring-autumn (Flora of North America Editorial Committee, 2016).
Longevity
Commelina diffusa is a perennial weed in tropical and subtropical lowlands and an annual weed in temperate countries (Holm et al., 1977).
Activity Patterns
When growing in rice and other lowland crops, C. diffusa may be almost subaquatic. Seeds that have been buried in the soil and removed at different periods showed cyclic changes in dormancy in Japan (Watanabe and Hirokawa, 1975). Seedlings began to emerge at temperatures below 10°C and reached peak emergence at 10°-15°C (Nakayama, 1977). The rate of growth and sprawling leads to rapid establishment of the weed when it infests crops. Generally, the species is very persistent.
Environmental Requirements
Commelina diffusa prefers to grow in moist and wet areas at elevations from near sea level to 1000 m. It can withstand saturated conditions and flooding and readily infests cultivated lands, roadsides, pastures and wastelands (Wagner et al., 1999).
Climate
| Climate type | Description | Preferred or tolerated | Remarks |
|---|---|---|---|
| Af - Tropical rainforest climate | > 60mm precipitation per month | Preferred | |
| Am - Tropical monsoon climate | Tropical monsoon climate ( < 60mm precipitation driest month but > (100 - [total annual precipitation(mm}/25])) | Preferred | |
| As - Tropical savanna climate with dry summer | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in summer) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| Aw - Tropical wet and dry savanna climate | < 60mm precipitation driest month (in winter) and < (100 - [total annual precipitation{mm}/25]) | Preferred | |
| BS - Steppe climate | > 430mm and < 860mm annual precipitation | Tolerated | |
| BW - Desert climate | < 430mm annual precipitation | Tolerated |
Soil Tolerances
Soil texture > Light
Soil texture > Medium
Soil reaction > Acid
Soil reaction > Neutral
Soil drainage > Free
Soil drainage > Seasonally waterlogged
List of Pests
Notes on Natural Enemies
The leaf miner Liriomyza commelinae has been reported to attack C. diffusa (Steigmaier, 1966). Uromyces commelinae and Kordyana celebensis have been observed on C. diffusa (Barreto and Evans, 1988; Gruezo, 1990; Buriticá Céspedes et al., 2014). Phakopsora tecta was identified as being responsible for rust on C. diffusa in Hawaii, USA (Gardner, 1981). Brome mosaic virus was isolated from C. diffusa in a lawn in Fayetteville (Arkansas, USA) (Valverde, 1983).
Following the passage of Hurricane Hugo over Puerto Rico in 1989, larvae of Spodoptera eridania were recorded on C. diffusa in the Luquillo mountains, causing moderate defoliation (Torres, 1992).
Natural enemies
| Natural enemy | Type | Life stages | Specificity | References | Biological control in | Biological control on |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Brome mosaic virus | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
| Kordyana celebensis | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific | Barreto and Evans (1988), Gruezo (1990) | ||
| Liriomyza commelinae | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
| Phakopsora tecta | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
| Spodoptera eridania (southern armyworm) | Herbivore | Plants|Leaves | not specific | |||
| Uromyces commelinae | Pathogen | Plants|Leaves | not specific |
Impact Summary
| Category | Impact |
|---|---|
| Economic/livelihood | Positive and negative |
| Environment (generally) | Positive and negative |
| Human health | Positive and negative |
Impact
C. diffusa is reported as a principal weed of bananas in Mexico and Hawaii; of beans, oranges, lemons, grapes, apricots, coffee and cotton in Mexico; of papaya in Hawaii; of sugarcane in Puerto Rico and sorghum in Thailand. It is also a weed in maize and vegetables in Mexico; bananas, papayas, and pineapples in the Philippines; rice in Colombia; sugarcane in Mexico and Trinidad; taro and pastures in Hawaii and coffee in Costa Rica (Holm et al., 1977). C. diffusa is also a very important weed of soyabeans in several states of the USA (Smith, 1974; Lawrence and Habetz, 1976; Baker, 1977). C. benghalensis is also present in maize in Central America (Aleman and Nieto, 1971), rice in Mexico (Alvarado and Nieto, 1971) and Costa Rica (Sancho et al., 1971) and in wheat and potatoes in Guatemala (Castillo et al., 1971a, b). C. diffusa is reported as a troublesome weed in Japan in forest nurseries (Manabe and Ishii, 1972) and citrus orchards (Takahashi et al., 1977). It is an important weed of wheat, oats, barley and soyabeans in Russia (Shcherbakova, 1974). It is difficult to control in cocoa plantations in Cameroon (Paviot, 1977) though reports from Africa are few.C. diffusa is rated as one of the most important weeds in rice in Texas and competes vigorously for nutrients and light with that crop (Daniel, 1974). It was found to be infesting 55% of the rice area in Texas (Palmer, 1972) and increasing at a rate of 10% annually.It is an alternative host of Cuscuta filiformis and C. sandwichiana (Raabe, 1965) and of the root-knot nematode Meloidogyne incognita (Valdez, 1968). Dhingra and Silva (1978) found a correlation between C. diffusa development and four species of fungi in Brazil.
Impact: Economic
Commelina diffusa is a serious weed of several crops and vegetables in many countries ((Smith, 1974; Lawrence and Habetz, 1976; Baker, 1977; Holm et al., 1977). It is reported as a troublesome weed in Japan in forest nurseries (Manabe and Ishii, 1972). It is difficult to control in cacoa plantations in Cameroon (Paviot, 1977) though reports from Africa are scarce. One of the most important weeds in rice in Texas, C. diffusa competes vigorously for nutrients and light with that crop (Daniel, 1974); it was reported infesting 55% of the rice area in Texas (Palmer, 1972), increasing at an annual rate of 10%.
Commelina diffusa is an alternative host of the nematodes Radopholus similis (Quénéhervé et al., 2006), Rotylenchulus reniformis, Pratylenchus goodeyi (Robinson et al., 1997) and Meloidogyne exigua (Aragon et al., 1978). Outbreaks of cucumber mosaic virus have been correlated with high densities of C. diffusa serving as a reservoir of virus and aphid vectors (Richard et al., 2009).
In Brazil, C. diffusa has been reported to reduce the number of leaves, chlorophyll content, and nitrogen, phosphorus and iron content of grains when allowed to compete with bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) (Gomes et al., 2017). In the USA, C. diffusa allowed to grow at a density of 22 plants/m2 reduced rice yield of drill-seeded paddy rice by 18% (Smith, 1984).
Impact: Environmental
Commelina diffusa is an agricultural and environmental weed. It grows forming a carpet in pastures and natural areas, displacing grasses in pastures and native plants in humid forests and wetlands (Motooka et al., 2003).
Risk and Impact Factors
Invasiveness
Invasive in its native range
Proved invasive outside its native range
Has a broad native range
Abundant in its native range
Highly adaptable to different environments
Is a habitat generalist
Tolerates, or benefits from, cultivation, browsing pressure, mutilation, fire etc
Pioneering in disturbed areas
Highly mobile locally
Long lived
Fast growing
Gregarious
Reproduces asexually
Impact outcomes
Ecosystem change/ habitat alteration
Modification of successional patterns
Monoculture formation
Negatively impacts agriculture
Reduced native biodiversity
Threat to/ loss of native species
Impact mechanisms
Competition - monopolizing resources
Competition - smothering
Rapid growth
Rooting
Likelihood of entry/control
Highly likely to be transported internationally deliberately
Uses
Commelina diffusa is used in traditional Asian medicine. Its juice is used to cure wounds, treat inflamed eyes, as part of an external remedy for bone fracture and as a digestive aid (Smith, 1979). In China, it is used as a medicinal herb with febrifugal and diuretic properties. The stems and leaves are edible as a cooked vegetable (Tucker, 1989). A dye is also obtained from the juice of the petals for use in painting (Flora of China Editorial Committee, 2016; USDA-ARS, 2016).
Uses List
Environmental > Host of pest
Materials > Dyestuffs
Medicinal, pharmaceutical > Traditional/folklore
Human food and beverage > Vegetable
Prevention and Control
Due to the variable regulations around (de)registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control. Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label.
Control
Cultural Control
Commelina diffusa is very difficult to control manually as stolons cut into small pieces easily regenerate. The weed should be removed from the field and then desiccated for more than 2 weeks. Most of the smallholder farmers in Asia and Africa use hand hoeing, hand pulling and animal-drawn cultivators.
Chemical Control
Control using herbicides is variable depending on the herbicide, accuracy of leaf coverage and environmental conditions. As reviewed by Wilson (1981), many standard herbicides have relatively low activity on species of Commelina: these include 2,4-D, propanil, butachlor, trifluralin and pendimethalin. Herbicides with good activity on C. diffusa in rice include bentazone, molinate, oxyfluorfen and bifenox. Propanil alone gives poor control but combinations with the first three and others such as 2,4-D, thiobencarb, oxadiazon and pendimethalin have given good results. In soyabean, bentazone and metribuzin can both be effective. In plantation crops, paraquat is not always effective, but a mixture with diuron is often advocated. Glyphosate is effective, but additives or mixtures may be needed for good results at moderate doses. Best results are always likely to be achieved when the weed is small. Prodiamine has been effective in ornamental fern beds (Stamps, 1993).
Biological Control
There have not been any attempts to use biological control against Commelina spp. and the possibilities have not been explored. However, Waterhouse (1994) notes that although Commelina spp. are believed to be of Old World origin, it is curious that there are no records of agromyzid leaf miners, except from the Americas, and therefore tropical and subtropical areas of the Americas may be promising sources of candidate biological control agents.
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