Important Medicinal and Food Taxa (Orders and Families) in Kenya, Based on Three Quantitative Approaches
by
, , , , and
Fredrick Munyao Mutie
1,2,3,
Yuvenalis Morara Mbuni
4,
Peninah Cheptoo Rono
1,2,3,
Elijah Mbandi Mkala
1,2,3
,
John Mulinge Nzei
2,3,
Methee Phumthum
5,
Guang-Wan Hu
2,3,* and
Qing-Feng Wang
1,2,3 1
CAS Key Laboratory of Plant Germplasm and Specialty Agriculture, Wuhan Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China
2
Sino-Africa Joint Research Center, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan 430074, China
3
University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
4
East African Herbarium, Nairobi National Museums, P.O. Box 45166, Nairobi 00100, Kenya
5
Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Bangkok 10400, Thailand
*
Author to whom correspondence should be addressed.
Plants 2023, 12(5), 1145; https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12051145
Submission received: 6 January 2023
/
Revised: 25 February 2023
/
Accepted: 27 February 2023
/
Published: 2 March 2023
(This article belongs to the Section Phytochemistry)
Abstract
:Globally, food and medicinal plants have been documented, but their use patterns are poorly understood. Useful plants are non-random subsets of flora, prioritizing certain taxa. This study evaluates orders and families prioritized for medicine and food in Kenya, using three statistical models: Regression, Binomial, and Bayesian approaches. An extensive literature search was conducted to gather information on indigenous flora, medicinal and food plants. Regression residuals, obtained using LlNEST linear regression function, were used to quantify if taxa had unexpectedly high number of useful species relative to the overall proportion in the flora. Bayesian analysis, performed using BETA.INV function, was used to obtain superior and inferior 95% probability credible intervals for the whole flora and for all taxa. To test for the significance of individual taxa departure from the expected number, binomial analysis using BINOMDIST function was performed to obtain p-values for all taxa. The three models identified 14 positive outlier medicinal orders, all with significant values (p < 0.05). Fabales had the highest (66.16) regression residuals, while Sapindales had the highest (1.1605) R-value. Thirty-eight positive outlier medicinal families were identified; 34 were significant outliers (p < 0.05). Rutaceae (1.6808) had the highest R-value, while Fabaceae had the highest regression residuals (63.2). Sixteen positive outlier food orders were recovered; 13 were significant outliers (p < 0.05). Gentianales (45.27) had the highest regression residuals, while Sapindales (2.3654) had the highest R-value. Forty-two positive outlier food families were recovered by the three models; 30 were significant outliers (p < 0.05). Anacardiaceae (5.163) had the highest R-value, while Fabaceae had the highest (28.72) regression residuals. This study presents important medicinal and food taxa in Kenya, and adds useful data for global comparisons.
1. Introduction
Scientific literature documents that traditional herbs are as old as mankind and are utilized three to four times compared to modern medicines [1]. Globally, between 35,000 and 70,000 plant species, including monocots, dicots, gymnosperms, pteridophytes, and lichens, have been used for medicine in different cultures at some point in time [2]. In Africa, over 5400 species are medicinal, and about 10% have been, to some extent, developed commercially [3]. Many modern medicine prescriptions are plant-based [1], with estimates indicating that 67% of chemotherapy drugs are derived from natural products [4], whereas higher plants contribute over 25% of all drugs in clinical use [5]. Over 50,000 secondary metabolites have been discovered in the plant kingdom alone [6]. The potential for discovering more compounds is higher in the tropics since about 1% of tropical plants have been studied for pharmaceutical potential, although the tropics harbor nearly half of all flowering plants [5]. If medicinal plants were not efficacious, they would not have developed into a primary means of treatment in many societies [7]. This argument was justified when a test involving medicinal and non-medicinal plants was carried out against the measles virus: non-medicinal plants failed to decrease replication of the virus below control levels in infected U937 cells after 48–72 h, while extracts from medicinal plants had a neutralization effect [8]. Successful treatments using plant-based medicines include the use of artemisinin as an antimalarial drug [9] and the application of neem shampoo to eradicate head lice [10].
Food plants are also important resources, and globally, over 77% of rural households collect them, and this proportion is higher in Africa (88%). Wild food plants are harvested for both commercial and subsistence purposes [11]. Generally, diversity of wild food plants is higher than that of cultivated food crops [11,12]. Native flora is an important resource for many communities in Kenya [13,14,15]. Its exploitation can be a buffer against periodical famines [15,16], since it can improve the nutrition of many people through the provision of vitamins, minerals, etc. Deficiencies of vitamin A, which can be obtained from wild fruits, are among the major health concerns in many children, especially in developing countries [17]. Many wild plants eaten in Kenya have been demonstrated to contain energy, fats, proteins and other nutrients [18].
People are very selective and rely heavily on certain taxa for food and medicine [19]. The selection of medicinal plants is based on diverse reasons, i.e., a tradition passed from one generation to another, the efficacy of the plants, cross-cultural acquisition of knowledge, the abundance of plants, the symbolic resemblance of plant parts to certain body organs, and the taxonomic affiliation of plants to known medicinal taxa [20]. However, plant-based medicine is not just symbolic and placebo [21]. To find consistent patterns of plant uses, ethnobotanical studies have applied various metrics, such as informant consensus factor, the relative frequency of citation, use reports, and fidelity levels [22,23,24]. However, those indices are not independent from each other, and thus behave similarly. They are also not grounded in well-supported statistical approaches, and thus not robust enough to lead into discovery of new drugs [25,26]. Understanding plant use patterns cannot be achieved through species counts since they tend to overemphasize large families, while percentages of medicinal species overemphasize small families [27]. If medicinal plants were selected at random, the proportion of plants selected from each family would be equal [28]. Quantitative analysis based on least squares regression found that some families comprise a higher number of medicinal species than would be expected from a null model of a linear relationship between the total number of species in a family and the observed medicinal species [29]. This model was applied by Moerman [30], when analyzing patterns of plant uses by native Americans, where bias towards uses of certain taxa was identified, demonstrating that medicinal properties were not randomly distributed in plants. Plants used for the treatment of diseases portray a phylogenetic clustering [31], and this has been supported by the detection of phylogenetic signals in seed plants due to the presence of related secondary metabolites [32]. A number of studies carried out worldwide support the perspective that certain plant families are heavily relied on for medicinal uses, e.g., in North America [19], Mexico [33], South Africa, Nepal and New Zealand [34], South Africa [28], Southern Belize [35], and Thailand [29].
Linear regression, binomial, and Bayesian models have been widely applied in detecting outliers in floras [19,20,21,29,30,36,37]. Linear regression approach evaluates outliers by regressing the number of useful species against the total number of species per taxon, then interpreting the resultant least squares line as a measure of average relationship between taxa sizes and the number of useful plants. Regression residuals obtained are used to quantify the extent to which taxa have unexpectedly high or low number of useful species relative to the overall proportion of species in a flora [19,20,21,36]. However, this approach lacks tests of statistical hypotheses and prowess to measure uncertainties for estimates or control error rates associated with over- and under-use of taxa. Regression approach is also subjective in assessing what constitutes a large or a small residual [20], thus a new metric was coined to be used alongside the residuals [29]. Regression model is also biased towards large families, assumes a linear relationship between useful species and total species in taxa [37], and it is also unclear whether more outliers would result from the overall proportion in a given flora than one would expect by chance [20]. Binomial analysis was thus introduced, and was first used in highlighting outstanding medicinal taxa in Ecuadorian Shuar flora using contingency tables. This model provides tests of statistical hypotheses by assessing whether distribution of useful plants among taxa would depart significantly from a homogenous null distribution, which is analogous to analyzing overall significance of an ANOVA model, then testing for the significance of individual parameters. Binomial model relies on a test statistic with a binomial distribution, that assumes that the proportion of useful plants in taxa equals the proportion of useful plants in the whole flora, and treats each species within taxa as a random trial with a probability of being utilized or not [20]. Although binomial approach considers the stochastic process of the number of species used, it treats the proportion of useful species in the flora as a fixed number, which is in fact an estimated value with inherent uncertainties, since it is obtained from sampled data. To accommodate these uncertainties, Bayesian model treats the proportion of useful species in taxa as a random variable, with values ranging from 0–1, and with a certain probability known as prior probability. These values are assumed to be uniformly distributed prior to sampling since there is no sufficient ground to believe that some taxa would have a lower or higher probability of being selected. The prior probability is updated to posterior probability, after sampling and analyzing the total and useful species in each taxon. Since proportion of all useful species in the local flora is a random variable, it is also assigned a posterior probability. Posterior probability distributions of useful species in each taxon and in the whole flora are used to judge if certain taxa depart from the expected proportion of useful species [37]. The combination of the three approaches is thus recommended to avoid biases when dealing with small to medium-sized samples [29,37]. These approaches are important when exploring higher taxonomic groups to identify important taxa and in comparing unrelated cultures by discounting ineffective taxa [34].
If medicinal plants are selected independently more than once, their case for efficacy is stronger, and in this perspective, common patterns have been found in different ethnomedicinal floras pertaining to diverse cultures [34]. However, close cultures may undergo transmission of ethnomedicinal knowledge, thus distorting the independent cultural consensus on the use of those plants and, in turn, affecting anticipated biological activities [34]. Understanding why different plants produce different secondary metabolites is paramount for bioprospecting [28]. The high cost of research and development of novel drugs necessitates optimization of the drug bioprospecting phase to help identify ethnomedicinal taxa possessing biological activities, especially when the resource base is extensive and diverse [28,34]. One such extensive resource base is the flora of Kenya, which is distributed in seven floral regions (K1–K7) [38]. Medicinal and food plants are diverse and important resources in Kenya [39,40]. Plants found in dry areas are perceived to have better medicinal qualities [41], while wild fruits are most important to people living in arid areas [42]. This suggests that Kenya, 80% of whose landmass is under arid and semi-arid conditions, which are also some of the most botanically diverse habitats with over 5000 indigenous species [43,44], is an important region for evaluating the selection behavior of useful plants. Kenya is also endowed with culturally diverse ethnic minorities [45], who have potentially played a role in shaping her present traditional plant use patterns. Plant selection behavior pertaining to medicinal and food taxa is not well understood in Kenya. At a global scale, studies have mostly focused on unraveling relationships between total floras and ethnomedicinal floras, thus paying little attention to comparative analyses between medicinal and food floras. Based on three quantitative approaches: Regression, Bayesian, and Binomial analyses, the objective of this study was to test whether medicinal and food taxa in Kenya are selected randomly by the users, since the flora of Kenya has never been explored in this perspective.
2. Results
2.1. Medicinal Orders
The modeled linear relationship between predicted medicinal taxa and the total number of species was given as P = 0.1599T + 7.1454 (for orders) and P = 0.176T + 1.4133 (for families). The two equations explained 64.88% and 65.74% of the variation in y-values, respectively, and the total number of species in the flora was a significant predictor of medicinal species in both orders and families (p < 0.05; Figure 1). Cumulatively, the three models identified 14 important medicinal orders; only six of those orders (Fabales, Malpighiales, Malvales, Sapindales, Mrytales, and Rosales) were recovered under all models. The regression model recovered six positive outliers, while binomial and Bayesian models identified 14 and 12 orders, respectively. Fabales had the highest residuals (66.16), followed by Malpighiales (55). Under the regression model, Sapindales had the highest R-value (1.1605), followed by Rosales (0.7507). All the 14 orders identified by the three models were recovered under the binomial model with significant values (p < 0.05; Table 1).
2.2. Medicinal Families
The three models identified 38 positive outliers, whereas 31 outliers were identified by all the models. The bayesian approach identified 31 families, while the binomial approach identified all 34 positive outliers (p < 0.05). The regression approach identified 32 positive outliers, but it did not recover Canellaceae, Peraceae, Phytolaccaceae, Pittosporaceae, Salvadoraceae, and Typhaceae, which were identified by the other two models. Rutaceae (1.6808) had the highest R-value, followed by Oleaceae (1.497). Fabaceae had the highest (63.2) residuals, followed by Lamiaceae 25.74 (Table 2).
2.3. Food Orders
Under the regression model, the predicted number of food taxa was recovered under the equations: P = 0.0685T + 5.2227 (for orders) and P = 0.0734T + 1.2479 (for families). The two models explained 47.14% and 49.64% of the variation in y-values, respectively, and the number of total species in the flora was a significant predictor of food species in both orders and families (p < 0.05; Figure 2). Sixteen positive outliers were recovered by the three approaches, where seven of them were recovered by all three models. Both binomial and Bayesian models recovered 13 positive outliers each. The linear regression model recovered 11 positive outliers, where Sapindales (2.3654) had the highest R-value, followed by Rosales (1.4997). Solanales and Fabales were identified by the regression model only. Gentianales (45.27) and Sapindales (37.95) had the highest regression residuals (Table 3).
2.4. Food Families
The three models recovered 42 positive outliers; 27 families were recovered by all three models (p < 0.05). The regression model identified 35 positive outliers, where Anacardiaceae (5.163) had the highest R-value, followed by Sapotaceae (4.7522). Fabaceae had the highest regression residual (28.72), and was only recovered as an outlier under regression approach. Binomial and Bayesian models identified 30 (p < 0.05) and 34 positive outliers, respectively (Table 4).
2.5. Taxa Shared between Medicinal and Food Uses
Of the 21 orders recovered, only Celastrales, Cucurbitales, Ericales, Magnoliales, Malvales, Rosales, and Sapindales were significant outliers for both food and medicinal categories. Fabales was shared between the two categories, although it was not a significant positive outlier food taxon. In total, 59 families were recovered, with 21 common positive outliers, of which 14 (Amaranthaceae, Anacardiaceae, Annonaceae, Capparaceae, Celastraceae, Cucurbitaceae, Malvaceae, Moraceae, Olacaceae, Rhamnaceae, Rutaceae, Salicaceae, Salvadoraceae, Sapindaceae) were significant positive outliers.
3. Discussion
Malphigiales and Fabales, which contain Euphorbiaceae and Fabaceae, respectively, were recovered as positive medicinal outliers with significant values. In South Africa, Malphigiales was also recovered as a positive outlier, with Euphorbiaceae influencing its outlier status most [28]. Euphorbiaceae is an important medicinal taxon since its members contain terpenoids and derivatives, aliphatics, and alkaloids as abundant compounds and at least 1.7% of all major compounds [28]. In our study, Malphigiales comprised four significant positive outlier medicinal families (Salicaceae, Euphorbaceae, Hypericaceae, and Phyllanthaceae), and all of them were recovered with positive regression residuals in South Africa [28]. Three Sapindales families, i.e., Sapindaceae, Meliaceae, and Anacardiaceae, which were significant positive medicinal outliers, were also recovered with positive residuals in South Africa [28]. Anacardiaceae comprise flavonoids, aliphatics, and terpenoids as the major compounds [28]. Rutaceae was also a significant positive outlier in our study, and previous studies support its importance in traditional medicine, e.g., alkaloid nitidine extracted from Zanthoxylum asiaticum (L.) Appelhans, Groppo & J. Wen root bark has a high antimalarial activity and is the main chemical component in many Rutaceae species [46]. Nitidine was first isolated from Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) Zepern. & Timler, and received considerable attention as a potential anticancer drug after it was discovered to be potent against leukemia in mice [47]. To date, over 400 secondary metabolites have been discovered in Zanthoxylum species, with alkaloids and terpenoids being the major compounds [48]. In Fagaropsis, 18 main phytocompounds are known, and flavonoids, terpenoids, and alkaloids are among the compounds responsible for its medicinal properties [49]. Isolation and characterization of 21 secondary metabolites from Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook.f. ex Benth. revealed that imperatorin had the highest anti-bacterial activity. Some C. anisata extracts such as murrayamine-A, gravelliferone, and excavatin had activities against HeLa cells (LC50 = 1.14–3.26 μg/mL), with good selectivity index values (SI 38.20–231.58) and those compounds are not toxic to normal Vero cells (LC50 = 69.15–434.78 μg/mL), indicating their potential in the development of anticancer drugs [50]. Related medicinal plants portray efficacy against human diseases due to inheritable similarities in the secondary metabolites [28], endorsing the idea of phylogenetic based bioprospecting. Similar to this study, Malvales was recovered as a positive outlier medicinal taxon in South Africa. Moreover, Rosales was recovered as a positive medicinal outlier in our study, while Solanales, Asterales, and Gentianales were not recovered as significant positive outliers, unlike in South Africa [28]. Orders and families shared for both food and medicine suggest possibility of generalist taxa. Moerman [19] also found a substantial overlap between drug and food plants in North America. However, the observed differences suggest that the two categories have independent applications.
Fabaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Malvaceae and Lamiaceae, which are among the largest medicinal families in Kenya [14,51], were recovered as positive outliers, although Fabaceae was not a significant outlier, which agrees with another study in South Africa [34]. However, Fabaceae is an important medicinal family in China and Nepal [34,52]. All the medicinal families recovered as important in our study were also reported in Thailand [29]. This relationship might be due to shared traditional knowledge between the two regions or due to the presence of the same important lineages [52]. However, Euphorbiaceae, which was a significant positive outlier in our study, was not recovered as a significant outlier in South Africa [34]. This is expected because the two regions comprise different floras and cultures. Each family may also have substantially different species compositions in different regions [34], thus influencing how its species are picked. Asteraceae, the second-largest medicinal family in Kenya, was not recovered as a positive outlier by any of the three models. Based on floral studies in Kenya [53,54], Asteraceae is abundant in the highlands, where it is moist. Lowland plants, mostly found in arid areas, are perceived to have better medicinal properties [41]. A previous study supported that the accumulation of chemical compounds in plants is influenced by edaphic factors [52]. Although water stress may play an important role in increasing the quantities of secondary metabolites in many plants [55], the scale of our study is not sufficient to address this perspective. However, Asteraceae is an important medicinal family in North America and South Africa [27,28]. Rutaceae had the highest R-value, which agrees with results obtained from Thailand, where it was among the families with the highest R-values [29]. Some medicinal families recovered here as positive medicinal outliers have been reported elsewhere in the world, e.g., Rutaceae, Lamiaceae, Araliaceae, and Cucurbitaceae in Daodi pharmacopeia in China [52]; Amaranthaceae in Ecuador [20]; Anacardiaceae in South Africa [28,34]; Malvaceae and Solanaceae in Nepal, New Zealand, and South Africa [28,34]; Lamiaceae in Mexico, Nepal, New Zealand, North America, Korea and Ecuador [19,20,33,34,36]; Fabaceae in Mexico, Nepal, New Zealand, and South Africa [28,33,34]; Euphorbiaceae in Mexico, Nepal, and South Africa [28,33,34]; and Rutaceae in Nepal [34]. Acanthaceae, Cactaceae and Juncaceae were among the negative outlier medicinal families in North America [27], which agrees with the results of our study. In Southern Belize and China, Cyperaceae and Orchidaceae were also among the negative outlier medicinal families [35,52]. Orchidaceae is the largest family globally, but most orchids are rare epiphytes and thus not easily accessible for medicinal uses [35]. However, there are differences in the identification of important medicinal taxa globally. For example, in North America, Rosaceae was identified as a positive outlier, while Euphorbiaceae, Malvaceae, and Fabaceae were identified as negative outliers using regression residuals, contrary to our results [27]. This convergent uses of medicinal families in different regions by unrelated cultures strongly indicates their efficacy and further highlights their importance in different cultures suggesting the need to prioritize them in bioscreening and conservation since they present a potential for the discovery of new or overlooked medicinal species [28,34].
Since previous studies have largely focused on important medicinal taxa, Saslis–Lagoudakis et al. [34] recommended analyses of floras to identify other important taxa, such as food plants. Here, 14 positive outlier food orders and 27 positive outlier food families were recovered with significant values. In North America, Rosaceae, Fabaceae and Poaceae, which produce human foods, were avoided as medicinal sources, but Solanaceae was important in both uses since most of its members are important foods globally [19]. However, Fabaceae and Solanaceae were only recovered as positive outliers under the regression model and thus were not significantly used for food. Moerman [27] argued that since grasses do not produce significant quantities of secondary metabolites, they comprise the majority of the food plants that humans and animals depend on in North America. Though the two floras are different, our study does not support this perspective since Poaceae was a negative outlier. Cyperaceae and Scrophulariaceae, which were among the negative outlier food taxa, were also ranked among the least important food families in North America using regression residuals [19]. Polygonaceae and Rosaceae were ranked among the top food families in North America, while Rubiaceae and Malvaceae were ranked among the least. Those four families were recovered as positive outliers by all three models. Lamiaceae was only recovered as a positive outlier under the regression model, but it was not significantly used for food, unlike in North America, where most of the aromatic plants were used for tisanes [19]. Unlike in North America, Apiaceae, Cactaceae, and Liliaceae were not recovered as positive outliers in Kenya, while similar to North America, Euphorbiaceae, Asteraceae, and Campanulaceae are not important food families in Kenya.
4. Materials and Methods
4.1. Study Area
Kenyan landmass covers an area of about 582,000 km2 (Figure 3), with an altitude raising from sea level through a series of plateaus to the highest point in Mount Kenya, about 5200 m above sea level [56]. The low-lying areas receive low rainfall and are thus hotter [57]. Kenya is divided into 7 floral regions [38]. The climate of Kenya is of tropical monsoon, belonging to tropical savanna climate, where the annual temperatures are in the range of 22–26 °C, while the annual minimum temperatures are in the range of 10–14 °C [58]. The highest temperatures are experienced in northwest and northern Kenya, where night temperatures can be 29 °C and the mean annual temperatures can reach above 34 °C [56]. Rainfall patterns in Kenya vary according to different seasons throughout the year, where most regions experience high rainfall from March to June, and October to December, with the annual rainfall decreasing from 2000–250 mm from southwest to northeast Kenya [58]. Habitat types in Kenya include wooded grasslands, bushlands, grasslands, semi-deserts, afro-alpine, mangroves, inland wetlands, etc. [59,60]. There are 3 vegetation types in Kenya: forest types, grasslands, and semi-arid grasslands [60]. Most of the area in Kenya is arid to semi-arid, where the climax vegetation comprises bushland, wooded grassland and desert scrub, while the transitional zones with higher rainfall comprise woodlands [44,56]. The vegetation of many dry areas in Kenya is characterized by occasional baobab trees and low, stunted, dense thorn bushes with thick undergrowth [57], consisting of scrublands and woodlands [61]. The Kenyan coast comprises about 50% of forest-dependent plant species, which are nationally threatened, making it the most important area for conservation despite its small area [56]. Most of the arid areas in Kenya lack forests except on hills [57], where species endemism is high [56,62]. Dry forests in Kenya consist of Drypetes spp., Combretum spp., Vepris spp., Croton spp., Euphorbia spp., Dombeya spp., and Commiphora spp. [62,63].
In Kenya, most of the plants used locally for traditional medicine and food are obtained from the forests, proving the significance of biodiversity to the livelihoods of local inhabitants [51,64]. Many forests in dry environments are affected by harsh conditions and are thus deciduous, with low species diversity and a reduced canopy, and may have low tree density under extreme droughts. Many forests have been depleted over the years due to human activities; hence their species diversity is lower compared to the previous decades [63]. This destruction may escalate in the future due to difficult climate manifestation in East Africa, where warming is likely to lead to dryness in some areas and higher precipitation in others [65]. Based on these arguments, the utilization of forest resources needs to be well documented, understood, and properly managed if future generations are expected to benefit from them. Kenya comprises 42+ tribes, and some groups are composed of subtribes [45,66]. Those groups have renown traditional knowledge regarding the use of plants [51,67,68]. Since over 80% of the Kenyan land mass is under arid and semiarid conditions [44], the majority of the people live in arid areas, depending on livestock farming, and their lives may be constrained by frequent droughts [69], hence influencing their economic lifestyles; thus, some of them have commercialized useful plants [51,70].
4.2. Floral and Ethnobotanical Data Collection
An elaborate independent literature search in google scholar, web of science, semantic scholar, science direct, PubMed, Scopus, Scientific Electronic Library Online, and Google search was conducted to gather information on medicinal and food plants of Kenya. Keywords like ethnobotany, useful plants, traditional knowledge, medicinal plants, and food plants, combined with Kenya, were used to aid in the data search. Where possible, we added studies cited by already retrieved studies if the reported ethnobotanical work was carried out in Kenya. Since some ethnomedicinal materials collected data from both traditional healers/herbalists and non-specialists of traditional medicine, we merged all the materials into 1 data set. Ethnomedicinal data were obtained from 74 articles [7,14,51,64,66,67,68,71,72,73,74,75,76,77,78,79,80,81,82,83,84,85,86,87,88,89,90,91,92,93,94,95,96,97,98,99,100,101,102,103,104,105,106,107,108,109,110,111,112,113,114,115,116,117,118,119,120,121,122,123,124,125,126,127,128,129,130,131,132,133,134,135,136,137], 4 ethnobotanical reports [138,139,140,141], 3 books [142,143,144], and 11 dissertations (includes MSc. and Ph.D.) [41,145,146,147,148,149,150,151,152,153,154]. Data on food plants were obtained from 19 articles [12,13,14,16,18,100,114,134,155,156,157,158,159,160,161,162,163,164,165,166] and 2 books [142,167]. The materials obtained were published between 1966 and 2021. We traced all the use reports to their original sources to remove repeated publications. Retrieved studies were entered in Microsoft Excel and screened manually to remove those with taxonomic errors. Where possible, we verified all the scientific names to ensure that they existed in the floral regions where the studies were carried out. Although our survey may not cover all the food and medicinal plant uses in Kenya, it represents a reliable sample due to its extensive geographical coverage. Data obtained were treated as a census rather than a sample of medicinal and food uses since it is more useful in understanding human behaviors compared to analyses of sample sizes [30]. Data on the flora of Kenya were obtained from Zhou et al. [38], and updated according to Plants of The World Online (https://powo.science.kew.org/ accessed on 1 February–31 March 2021). Plant orders were obtained from the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (https://www.gbif.org/ accessed on 1–30 April 2021). Plants not determined to species level and introduced species were removed during analyses. Infraspecific taxa were merged with the parent species. Fifty orders, 188 families, and 5883 species represented the total flora of Kenya. In total, 1298 medicinal plants (Appendix A) and 664 food plants (Appendix B) were subjected to quantitative analysis.
4.3. Quantitative Methods
4.3.1. Regression Analysis
Regression analysis was carried out using Moerman’s LINEST linear regression function approach in MS Excel 2016, according to Bennett and Husby [20]. The expected numbers of medical and food species were recovered under the equation: y = bx + m; both b and m were obtained using the LINEST function. Regression residuals were used to analyze a simple plot of the number of medicinal and food species against the total number of species in each category [29]. Since this approach violates the statistical assumptions of homoscedasticity and normality when used for analyzing useful floras [20], we applied the metric ‘relative regression residual (R)’ [29]; where R is the relative difference between the observed number of medicinal/food species (O) and predicted number (P) of medicinal/food species under the model (P): R = (O − P)/P. We used the critical range of R-values to filter random noise, which could result from data sets assembled from many sources, and thereafter identified positive outliers as those with R > 0.5 [29].
4.3.2. Binomial Analysis
To test for the significance of individual taxa departure from the expected number of medicinal/food plants, we conducted a binomial analysis to obtain p-values for the positive outliers using the BINOMDIST function in MS Excel 2016 [20]. To obtain the significant values, we calculated 2 probabilities:
- (a)
- The probability that the number of medicinal and food plants in each category is equal to the expected;
- (b)
- The probability that the number of medicinal and food species in each category is equal to or more than the expected value.
The 95% interval probability that the number of medicinal/food species is higher than expected was calculated as p = (1 + a) − b [20].
4.3.3. Bayesian Analysis
We conducted a Bayesian analysis using BETA.INV function in MS Excel 2016 [37]. Here, we calculated the inferior (inf.) 95% probability credible intervals and the superior (sup.) 95% probability credible intervals. Taxa with inferior 95% probability credible intervals higher than the superior 95% probability credible intervals obtained for all species were considered important (Bayesian inferior and superior 95% probability credible interval values obtained for all categories analyzed are enclosed in brackets in the results).
5. Conclusions
Using linear regression, Binomial and Bayesian analyses, our results add information to the literature regarding outstanding medicinal and food plant taxa in Kenya. By comparing our results with those from other studies elsewhere in the world, we have contributed towards the synthesis of taxa that might prove to be important candidates for future bioscreening of useful chemical compounds. The comparison of outlier medicinal and food taxa further highlights that some taxa are more important in Kenya than previously known. In the future, we suggest a phylogenetic evaluation of orders and families identified as important for medicinal uses to clearly understand the relationships between individual taxa. We also suggest comparative analyses of plants used by different ethnic minorities in Kenya and between different regions, especially in tropical Africa, to unravel the cultural interrelationships in those regions.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, F.M.M., G.-W.H. and Q.-F.W.; methodology, F.M.M. and M.P.; software, F.M.M. and M.P.; validation, F.M.M., E.M.M. and G.-W.H.; formal analysis, F.M.M. and M.P.; investigation, F.M.M. and Y.M.M.; resources, G.-W.H.; data curation, F.M.M.; writing—original draft preparation, F.M.M. and M.P.; writing—review and editing, M.P., J.M.N. and P.C.R.; visualization, F.M.M. and J.M.N.; supervision, G.-W.H. and Q.-F.W.; project administration, G.-W.H.; funding acquisition, G.-W.H. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by the National Natural Science Foundation of China, grant number 31961143026, 31970211 and the Sino-Africa Joint Research Center, grant number CAS SAJC202101.
Data Availability Statement
The data used to support the findings of the manuscript is contained in Appendix A and Appendix B.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Appendix A
Checklist of medicinal plants of Kenya, introduced species are indicated in brackets as ‘exotic.’
| Species/Family | Habit | Parts | Diseases Treated | References |
| Acanthaceae | ||||
| Acanthus eminens C.B.Clarke | Shrub | Leaf, whole plant, roots | Chest/joint pains, fever, abdominal cramps/pains, spleen/liver problems, alimentary canal problems, hypertension, stomachache, typhoid, amoebiasis, headache, heart-problem, skin diseases, wounds, eye infections | [78,88,109,119,120,132,141,143,152] |
| Acanthus polystachyus Delile | Shrub | Leaf, root, stem | Mental disturbance, acaricide, cough, spleen/liver problems, fever | [98,120,133,144] |
| Anisotes ukambensis Lindau | Shrub | Bark | Bleeding during pregnancy | [74] |
| Asystasia mysorensis (Roth) T.Anderson | Herb | Leaf | Chira, false teeth, colds, headache, malaria, ringworms, cough, skin diseases | [76,78,99,143] |
| Barleria acanthoides Vahl | Shrub | Roots, leaves | Tonic, eye lotion | [77] |
| Barleria delamerei S.Moore | Herb | Whole plant, roots, leaf | Polio, fever, tonic, eye lotion | [72,77] |
| Barleria eranthemoides R.Br. ex C.B.Clarke | Shrub | Leaf, root, whole plant | Dyspepsia, vomiting, postpartum hemorrhage, diaphragm, foreign objects pierced into the skin, boils | [51,81,102,148] |
| Barleria grandicalyx Lindau | Herb | Leaf | Snakebites | [78] |
| Barleria quadrispina Lindau | Shrub | Roots | Wasting sickness in goats, menstrual disorders | [127,142] |
| Barleria ventricosa Hochst. ex Nees | Herb | Whole plant | Rheumatism | [106] |
| Blepharis edulis (Forssk.) Pers. | Herb | Whole plant | Lung problems, malaria, hepatitis, TB, chest pain | [72,77,92] |
| Blepharis maderaspatensis (L.) B.Heyne ex Roth | Herb | Whole plant | Sores | [140] |
| Crabbea velutina S.Moore | Herb | Root, leaf, whole plant | Scabies, prophylaxis for baby ailments, enlarged glands | [76,140,141] |
| Crossandra massaica Mildbr. | Herb | Leaf | Snakebites (humans/cattle), syphilis | [67,76] |
| Dicliptera laxata C.B.Clarke | Herb | Roots, leaf, aerial parts | Colorectal cancer, diarrhea, skin rashes, chest pain, difficult breathing, wounds, mouth ulcers in children, cough, eye/ear infection, boils, snakebites | [117,119,122,144] |
| Duosperma kilimandscharicum (Lindau) Dayton | Shrub | Leaf | Cuts, sores, wounds | [80] |
| Dyschoriste radicans Nees | Herb | leaf | Itchy skin, HIV/AIDs, fever, STIs, orchitis, skin diseases, wounds, eye infections | [78,119,143,144] |
| Dyschoriste thunbergiiflora (S.Moore) Lindau | Herb/shrub | Leaf | Skin diseases, wounds, eye infections | [78] |
| Hygrophila auriculata (Schumach.) Heine | Herb | Whole plant | Corneal ulcers | [143] |
| Hypoestes aristata (Vahl) Sol. ex Roem. & Schult. | Herb | Leaves, roots, stems | Wounds, stomachache, colds, malaria, liver problems, stomach ulcers, nausea, joint/chest pain, TB, chest complaints, pneumonia, sore throat, cough, eye diseases, abdominal pains | [67,87,109,115,131,141,152] |
| Hypoestes forskaolii (Vahl) R.Br. | Herb | Root, bark, leaves, aerial parts | Stomachache, colds, malaria, liver problems, stomach ulcers, nausea, pesticide | [91,104,132,152,168] |
| Justicia anagalloides (Nees) T.Anderson | Herb | Leaves | Edema | [144] |
| Justicia calyculata Deflers | Herb | Aerial parts | Snakebites | [126] |
| Justicia exigua S.Moore | Herb | Whole plant | Gastrointestinal problems | [79] |
| Justicia flava (Forssk.) Vahl | Herb | Leaves, roots | Postnatal pains, eyes problems, cough, boils, diarrhea, stomachache, vomiting, ulcers, pneumonia | [67,78,122,125,132] |
| Justicia odora (Forssk.) Lam. | Shrub | Aerial parts, bark | Aphrodisiac | [80] |
| Justicia striata (Klotzsch) Bullock | Herb | Leaves | Skin sores/ulcers | [141] |
| Lepidagathis scariosa Nees | Herb | Leaves | Diarrhea, wounds, edema, foot and mouth in livestock, pneumonia | [78] |
| Monechma subsessile (Oliv.) C.B.Clarke | Herb | Roots | Labor pains | [144] |
| Nicoteba betonica (L.) Lindau | Herb | Leaves, flowers, roots, whole plant, aerial parts | Malaria, cough, breast/colorectal/skin cancer, toothaches, diarrhea, stomachache, STIs, edema, orchitis | [67,78,79,101,117,119,122,143,144] |
| Ruellia patula Jacq. | Herb | Root | Joint diseases | [149] |
| Thunbergia alata Bojer ex Sims | Herb | Leaves, buds | Joint dislocation (humans, livestock), boils, toothache, body swellings, watery painful eyes, wounds, internal injury, bone fractures, stomachache, mouth ulcers, cellulitis, cough, suppurating ears, diarrhea, skin diseases, goat/sheep diseases, backache, hydrocele, joint pains, fungal diseases, tongue thrush, fetus placement in the womb, hardening of soft parts of the central part of the head in babies, gall sickness in cattle | [78,86,120,122,125,141,143,144,168] |
| Thunbergia fischeri Engl. | Herb | Whole plant | Purgative | [67] |
| Thunbergia holstii Lindau | Shrub | Leaves | Malaria | [138] |
| Achariaceae | ||||
| Grandidiera boivinii Jaub. | Shrub | Roots, leaves | Common cold, tonsils, septic swelling, poison antidote | [127] |
| Amaranthaceae | ||||
| Achyranthes aspera L. | Herb/shrub | Roots, whole plant, leaves | Skin diseases, wounds/cuts, teeth problems, back/knee aches, conjunctivitis, malaria, venereal diseases, septic swelling, urinary tract problems, constipation, STIs, back/joint/bone problems, arthritis, general body, stomachache, anthrax, toothache, cough, excess menstrual discharge, headache, gonorrhea, kidney problems, diabetes, kidney pains | [41,51,76,78,84,89,90,92,96,115,120,127,132,136,138,143,144,147,149,152,168] |
| Achyropsis fruticulosa C.B.Clarke | Shrub | Root | Malaria | [77] |
| Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss. ex Schult. | Hern/shrub | Roots, flowers | ECF in cattle, retained placenta | [67,89,139] |
| Alternanthera pungens Kunth (exotic) | Herb | Leaves, roots | Toothache, mouth sores | [106,122] |
| Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R.Br. ex DC. | Herb | Leaves | Eye infections, wounds, skin diseases | [119] |
| Amaranthus graecizans L. | Herb | Leaves, whole plant | AIDS, amoebiasis, cough, colds/flu, diabetes, energy boost, high blood pressure, immunity booster, increase blood, poor digestion, boils, rheumatism, anthelmintic, wounds, prevent abortion, cancer | [41,78,81,147] |
| Amaranthus hybridus L. | Herb | Leaves, roots, whole plant | Colic pain in infants, mineral/vitamin deficiency in pregnancy, urinary tract infection, kidney and stomach ailments, bilharzia, stomach acid, anthelmintic in human/animals, measles, malaria | [84,88,96,111,147,153,168] |
| Amaranthus spinosus L. | Herb | Roots, whole plant | Mouth infection, venom antidote, wounds, fever | [76,132,144] |
| Amaranthus tricolor L. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | Ear diseases, skin disease | [141,144] |
| Beta vulgaris L. (exotic) | Herb | Cancer | [41] | |
| Celosia anthelminthica Asch. | Herb | Whole plant | Anthelmintic | [143] |
| Celosia argentea L. | Herb | Leaves, flowers, stems | Convalescents | [67] |
| Celosia schweinfurthiana Schinz (exotic) | Herb | Whole plant | Malaria, anthelmintic | [124,143] |
| Celosia trigyna L. | Herb | Whole plant | Anthelmintic | [143] |
| Chenopodium album L. (exotic) | Herb | Whole plant | Abdominal upsets in infants, blood detoxifier in pregnancy | [88] |
| Chenopodium opulifolium Schrad. ex W.D.J.Koch & Ziz | Herb | Leaves, roots | Diarrhea, fever in babies, cough, anaplasmosis in cattle, roundworms in children, suppurating ears, urinary disorders | [119,132,168] |
| Cyathula cylindrica Moq. | Herb | Roots, bark, leaves | Malaria, stomach problems, wounds, joint pains, emetic, purgative, diarrhea, fungal infections | [67,78,104,109] |
| Cyathula polycephala Baker | Herb | Roots, leaves, bark, whole plant | Dental problems, malaria, emetic, ulcers, breast cancer, boils, urinary problems, diabetes, vomiting, diarrhea, heart problems, stomachache, anthelmintic | [41,67,84,104,115,138,144,147,168] |
| Cyathula uncinulata (Schrad.) Schinz | Herb/shrub | Roots, leaves | Malaria, wounds, induce pregnancy, skin rashes, abdominal pains, emetic | [99,141,144,152] |
| Digera muricata (L.) Mart. | Herb | Leaves | Generally medicinal | [91] |
| Dysphania ambrosioides (L.) Mosyakin & Clemants | Herb | Leaves, whole plant | Neck swelling in calves, wounds, anthelmintic, boils | [67,115,132,140] |
| Gomphrena celosioides Mart. (exotic) | Herb | Roots | Wound, burns | [77] |
| Ouret lanata (L.) Kuntze | Herb/shrub | Leaves | Sores eyes | [67] |
| Psilotrichum elliotii Baker | Shrub | Whole plant | Boils | [147] |
| Psilotrichum scleranthum Thwaites | Herb/shrub | Roots, leaves | Convulsions, aphrodisiac, smoothening skin | [127,150] |
| Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. | Herb | Whole plant, roots | Venereal diseases, induce salivation in babies | [127] |
| Sericocomopsis hildebrandtii Schinz | Shrub | Root | Malaria, stomachache, weight during pregnancy, induce bile release from the gallbladder, hepatitis, purgative | [77,92,97,105,136] |
| Sericocomopsis pallida (S.Moore) Schinz | Shrub | Root | Malaria | [72] |
| Amaryllidaceae | ||||
| Allium ampeloprasum L. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | Colds, flu, cleaning mouth, earache, cough | [84,108,147] |
| Allium cepa L. (exotic) | Herb | Roots | Cough, flu, headache, pneumonia, bloat (cows), chest problem, digestive disorders, rheumatism, wounds, colds (human/cattle) | [14,41,73,74,168] |
| Allium sativum L. (exotic) | Herb | Roots, fruits | Malaria, HIV/AIDs, toothache, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, respiratory diseases, stomachache, mosquito repellant, allergies, colds, runny nose | [14,83,85,98,108,129,137,146] |
| Ammocharis tinneana (Kotschy & Peyr.) Milne-Redh. & Schweick. | Herb | Root, exudate | Snakebites, emetic | [126,143] |
| Crinum macowanii Baker | Herb | Root, exudate | Urinary tract infections, chest pains, boils, snakebites, livestock diseases | [80,143] |
| Anacardiaceae | ||||
| Anacardium occidentale L. (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots | Toothache, child colic | [150] |
| Lannea alata (Engl.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Burns, wounds, stomach problems | [72,80] |
| Lannea fulva (Engl.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark | Gut disorders, diarrhea, chest pains, cough, stomachache, antivenom, headache, astringent, expectorant, colds | [91,99,116,132,141,142] |
| Lannea rivae (Chiov.) Sacleux | Shrub/tree | Bark | Ear problems, nose and throat problems, diarrhea | [41,77] |
| Lannea schimperi (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Engl. | Tree | Bark, roots, leaves | Aphrodisiac, gut problems, diarrhea, dysentery, acaricide, prophylaxis for baby/children’s ailments, stomachache, chest problems | [41,78,116,133,140] |
| Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots, leaves | Malaria, venereal diseases, induce labor pains, amoeba, stomachache, boils, skin rashes, cough, colds/flu, STIs, urinary system infections, pneumonia, gastrointestinal problems, pregnancy anemia, vomiting, headache, waterborne diseases, arthritis, increase blood, barrenness, boils, skin diseases, toothache, heart problem, dermatological problems, jaundice, anthrax, gynecological problems, dysentery, infertility, teeth removal, anti-acid, laxative, backache, gonorrhea | [14,41,51,75,76,79,81,100,102,104,106,108,127,132,138,142,143,145,148,150,151] |
| Lannea triphylla (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark | Diarrhea, liver diseases, dysentery, rheumatism, body swelling, malaria, colds, stomachache, chest problems, nausea in pregnancy | [14,77,80,99,139] |
| Lannea welwitschii (Hiern) Engl. | Tree | Diarrhea, hemorrhoids, infertility in women, menstrual troubles, gonorrhea, epilepsy, skin infections, ulcers | [110] | |
| Mangifera indica L. (exotic) | Tree | Roots, leaves, bark, fruits | TB, malaise, allergies, amoebiasis, back/joint/bone problems, burns, cough, colds/flu, diabetes, goiter, hypertension, injuries/cuts, wounds, kwashiorkor, malaria, pneumonia, rheumatism, typhoid, toothache, ringworms, diarrhea, gonorrhea, stomachache, ear infections, chest pains, toothache, skin/throat/breast cancer, constipation, STIs, diabetes, yellow fever, diarrhea, abdominal pains | [14,41,80,83,84,106,116,117,118,119,129,139,143,146,150,168] |
| Ozoroa insignis Delile | Shrub/tree | Bark, root, stems, leaves | Mumps, toothache, snakebites, complications in menstruation, venereal diseases, diarrhea, clean womb, liver problems, rib pain, tonic, stomachache, kidney diseases, acaricide, retained placenta in human/animals, constipation in animals, gastrointestinal problems, enlarged spleen, headache, cancer, vomiting, heart problem, pregnancy pains, astringent, dysmenorrhea, malaria | [67,77,79,86,87,91,99,105,107,111,112,127,132,133,140,141,142,143,145] |
| Ozoroa obovata (Oliv.) R.Fern. & A.Fern. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Menstrual disorders, venereal diseases, stomachache, malaria, dizziness | [127,142,150] |
| Pistacia aethiopica Kokwaro | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark | Allergies, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, diabetes, malaria, spleen pain and enlargement, dizziness, liver problems, fever, pneumonia, rheumatism | [41,84,140,168] |
| Schinus molle L. (exotic) | Tree | Roots, leaves, stems | Cough, colds/flu, malaria, rheumatism, chicken pox | [41,71,107,168] |
| Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst. | Tree | Bark, roots, fruits | Colds, flu, edema of limbs, respiratory disorders, joint pains, toothache, joint aches, backache, body aches, malaria, stomachache, constipation, dysentery, diarrhea, fever, ulcers, enlarged spleen, heartburn, dysentery, liver problems, rheumatism, diabetes, tick control, abdominal pain, spleen diseases, STI’s, cough | [14,41,64,72,90,91,99,100,104,112,127,141,142,143,147] |
| Searsia longipes (Engl.) Moffett | Shrub/tree | Fruits, roots | Amoeba, anthelmintic, backache, stomachache, headache, influenza, diarrhea | [14,99,147] |
| Searsia natalensis (Bernh. ex C.Krauss) F.A.Barkley | Shrub/tree | Leaves, bark, seeds, roots, stems, | Abdominal pains, gonorrhea, anthelmintic in human/livestock, malaria, tonic, respiratory disorders, stomachic, endometritis, foot/mouth disease, postpartum pain, stomach problems, diarrhea, teeth cleaning, stomachache, bone pains, premenstrual pains, madness, weak bone, joint pains, abdominal pains, urinary tract infection, convulsions, constipation, spinal cord problem, liver and spleen diseases, peptic ulcers, invigorant, helps in child delivery, back/bone joint problems, cough, colds, flu, ear-nose-throat problems, lack of appetite, low libido, back/joint/bone problems, arthritis, wounds, dental diseases, livestock weakness, giardia, headache, neck pain, fever, TB, vomiting, eye lotion, stomach/skin/breast cancer, influenza, back pain, anthrax, postpartum pains, toothache, tonsillitis, boils, acaricide, abdominal pain, heartburn, rashes, liver enlargement, asthma, wounds, prophylaxis for diseases various diseases, general body weakness, colic pain, pain in pregnancy, strengthen bones, vitamin supplements, bilharzia, afterbirth pains, indigestion, chest problems, pneumonia, respiratory disorders, abdominal pains, venereal diseases, sore feet, purgative | [14,41,66,68,71,72,75,76,77,78,79,81,82,84,86,88,90,98,99,100,101,104,105,106,107,108,109,112,113,115,117,119,120,123,125,127,132,133,135,136,138,140,141,142,143,144,148,152,154,168] |
| Annonaceae | ||||
| Annona senegalensis Pers. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, bark, roots | Eye problems, snakebites, stomach upsets, acaricide stomachache, poison antidote, intestinal pains, vomiting, diarrhea, constipation, sores, ulcers, boils, liver/spleen problems, headache, dizziness, colds | [95,112,126,133,134,142,143,144,150] |
| Annona squamosa L. (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, fruits | Nutrient supplement, ulcers, blood purifier, hypertension, reproductive disorders, dizziness | [110,150] |
| Asteranthe asterias (S.Moore) Engl. & Diels | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Sore throats, coughs, venereal diseases | [127] |
| Huberantha stuhlmannii (Engl.) Chaowasku | Shrub | Roots, bark | Hypertension, typhoid, obesity | [150] |
| Monanthotaxis fornicata (Baill.) Verdc. | Shrub | Roots, leaves | General body pains, prenatal care, menstruation complications | [127] |
| Monanthotaxis schweinfurthii (Engl. & Diels) Verdc. | Liana | Roots | Malaria, rheumatism | [41,129] |
| Monanthotaxis trichocarpa (Engl. & Diels) Verdc. | Liana | Leaves | Headache | [142] |
| Monodora grandidieri Baill. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Rectal problems, anthelmintic, aphrodisiac, gastrointestinal gas, reproductive disorders | [127,134,150] |
| Uvaria acuminata Oliv. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Convulsions, snakebites, dysentery, cough, stomach upsets, spleen problems, laxative, gastrointestinal gas, aphrodisiac, rectal prolapse, menstrual cramps, malaria, female reproductive disorders | [75,100,127,142,145,150] |
| Uvaria faulknerae Verdc. | Liana | Roots, leaves | Convulsions | [127] |
| Uvaria leptocladon Oliv. | Shrub/tree/liana | Root | Diuretic, abortifacient | [142] |
| Uvaria lucida Bojer ex Benth. | Shrub/liana | Roots, leaves | Convulsions, reproductive disorders, aphrodisiac | [127,150] |
| Uvaria scheffleri Diels | Tree/liana | Bark, root | Malaria, joint/chest pains, cough/colds/flu, lack of appetite, painkiller, stomach disorders, debility, pneumonia, swollen legs, stomach pain in pregnancy, retained placenta | [41,77,84,91,96,99,129,139,141,142] |
| Uvariodendron anisatum Verdc. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Allergies, amoebiasis, arthritis, cough, colds, flu, diabetes, HIV/AIDs, infertility, injuries, cuts, wounds, retained placenta in cows/human, low libido, rheumatism, STIs, ulcers, scorpion/snake bites, breast/prostate cancer, calf rejection, erectile dysfunction/impotence, malaria, labor pains, aphrodisiac | [14,41,84,146,168] |
| Uvariodendron kirkii Verdc. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Convulsions, bloody diarrhea | [127] |
| Xylopia parviflora Spruce | Tree | Roots | Aphrodisiac | [150] |
| Apiaceae | ||||
| Afroligusticum aculeolatum (Engl.) P.J.D.Winter | Herb | Roots, leaves | Cancer, purgative, colds | [129,141] |
| Alepidea peduncularis Steud. ex A.Rich. | Herb | Bark | Chest problems, bronchitis | [144] |
| Anthriscus sylvestris (L.) Hoffm. | Herb | Seeds | Colds | [67,89] |
| Centella asiatica (L.) Urb. | Herb | Leaves, roots, stems, whole plant | Loss of memory, toothache, ear infections, boils, mouth ulcers, infertility, measles, stomachache, HIV/AIDs | [119,122,143,144,154] |
| Coriandrum sativum L. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | Colds, flu, digestive disorders, nausea, dysentery | [84,168] |
| Daucus carota L. | Herb | Roots | Heartburns, stomach disorders | [41] |
| Daucus incognitus (C.Norman) Spalik, Reduron & Banasiak | Herb | Roots | Pneumonia | [120] |
| Diplolophium africanum Turcz. | Herb | Root | Ailments in children/babies | [140] |
| Ferula communis L. | Herb | Roots | General sickness in babies/children | [140] |
| Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (exotic) | Herb | Colic, Vitamin A supplement | [41] | |
| Heteromorpha trifoliata (H.L.Wendl.) Eckl. & Zeyh. | Shrub/tree | Roots, levees | Stomachache, skin infections, measles, ulcers, tonic, syphilis, poison, fever in children/babies, cough, aphrodisiac | [67,99,109,120,140,142,152,168] |
| Oenanthe palustris (Chiov.) C.Norman | Herb | Leaves | Stomach complications, poisonous to livestock | [109,168] |
| Oenanthe procumbens (H.Wolff) C.Norman | Herb | Leaves, seeds | Mouth infection in babies, cough | [67,109] |
| Steganotaenia araliacea Hochst. | Tree | Leaves, bark, aerial parts, roots, stems | Skin, partial blindness, edema, dysentery, diabetes mellitus, boils, protracted labor, retained afterbirth, malaria, acaricide, emetic, fever, pneumonia, spleen pain and enlargement, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, itchy eyes, sensitive eyes | [51,67,81,85,98,106,120,129,133,139,140,142,147] |
| Torilis arvensis (Huds.) Link | Herb | Leaves | Preventing miscarriage | [77] |
| Apocynaceae | ||||
| Acokanthera oppositifolia (Lam.) Codd | Shrub/tree | Bar, roots, fruits, leaves | Cancer, liver disease, poison | [72,88,100,142,168] |
| Acokanthera schimperi (A.DC.) Schweinf. | Shrub/tree | Roots, stems, leaves, bark | Blood pressure, HIV/AIDs, diarrhea, antivenom, syphilis, poisonous, ectoparasites (ticks, fleas, mites), malaria | [68,78,88,89,91,105,107,142,145,168] |
| Adenium obesum (Forssk.) Roem. & Schult. | shrub | Bark, root | Stomach ailments, snakebites, poisonous, ectoparasites | [68,72,77,127,134,142] |
| Buckollia volubilis (Schltr.) Venter & R.L.Verh. | Liana | Bark | Aid in child delivery, malaria | [78] |
| Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, exudates, fruits, stems | Determine unborn baby’s sex, toothache, yellow fever, anemia, malaria, camel cough, poisonous, emetic, vomiting, diarrhea, stomachache, foreign objects pierced into the body | [14,51,88,91,104,132,134,141,142,147] |
| Carissa spinarum L. | Shrub | Roots, fruits, bark, leaves, seeds | Abdominal pains, infertility in women, malaria, gonorrhea, syphilis, nose bleeding, diarrhea, typhoid fever, lactation, postpartum pain, pelvic pains, backache, skin allergies, seizures, fever, herpes zoster (shingles), amoebas, STIs, measles, joint pains, afterbirth pains, cancer, chest problems, cleans stomach, cough, colds/flu, energy boost, high blood pressure, painkiller, pneumonia, medicine antidote, rheumatism, TB, anthelmintic, chest pains, polio, arthritis, chest pains, stomachache, asthma, allergy, peptic ulcers, colic pain in infants, wounds, hypertension, diabetes, menstrual pains, ingestion and abdominal pains during pregnancy, bone pain, toothache, dizziness, headache, theileriosis, helminthiasis, salmonellosis, heart water, milk letdown, prevent first and second trimester, abortion, vomiting, infertility (sheep, goat), milk let down, mastitis, miscarriage (cow), tonic, constipation, eye infections, reduces body fat, dysentery, aphrodisiac, abdominal pains, breast cancer, acaricide, general malaise, appetizer, swelling and bruises, HIV/AIDs, strengthen bones, bloat, heartburn, cathartic, gynecological diseases, softens stool, digestion and cough (cattle), muscle pain, epilepsy | [14,41,64,68,71,72,73,74,76,77,78,79,81,82,83,86,87,88,89,90,91,93,97,98,99,101,102,103,105,106,107,108,112,113,118,119,120,123,124,129,130,132,133,135,136,137,138,140,141,142,143,146,147,150,151,154,168] |
| Carissa tetramera (Sacleux) Stapf | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Convulsions | [127] |
| Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold (exotic) | Tree | Fruit, leaf, flower, bark, roots, fruits | Wounds, skin rashes, cuts/burns, lung problems in livestock, mosquito repellant, congested nose in children, skin disease, ringworms, induce sneezing | [74,76,87,106,108,143,150] |
| Catharanthus roseus (L.) G.Don (exotic) | Herb/shrub | Leaves, whole plant, roots | Throat/stomach/esophageal cancer, pneumonia, chest pain, gastrointestinal problems, malaria | [79,104,117,122,124,143] |
| Cryptolepis oblongifolia (Meisn.) Schltr. | Shrub | Roots | General body weakness | [140] |
| Cynanchum altiscandens K.Schum. | Shrub | Tuber, aerial parts | Colds, stomachache, circumcision wounds, increase milk letdown | [144,152] |
| Cynanchum ethiopicum Liede & Khanum | Herb | Roots | Pneumonia | [109] |
| Cynanchum insipidum (E.Mey.) Liede & Khanum | Herb | Leaves, roots | Stomachache, abnormal vaginal secretion, anaplasmosis, Chira, malaria, eye problem, reproductive disorders, increase milk letdown in animals | [68,76,127,144,150] |
| Cynanchum viminale (L.) L. | Herb | Roots, bark | Syphilis, bone pain, body pains, cough | [14,67,140] |
| Desmidorchis retrospiciens Ehrenb. | Herb | Whole plant | Infertility, chest problems, congestion/wheezing | [88,91] |
| Desmidorchis speciosa (N.E.Br.) Plowes | Herb | Exudate | Emetic | [67] |
| Edithcolea grandis N.E.Br. | Herb | Exudates | Ringworms | [51] |
| Funtumia africana (Benth.) Stapf | Tree | Leaves, bark | Boils, dysentery, diarrhea | [116] |
| Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) W.T.Aiton | Shrub | Seeds, roots, whole plant, exudate | Diarrhea, diabetes, fevers, abdominal pains, wounds, toothache (never to swallowed), liver diseases, kidney problems, chest pains, headache | [83,99,136,140,141,168] |
| Gomphocarpus integer (N.E.Br.) Bullock | Herb | Roots | Amoeba | [147] |
| Gomphocarpus physocarpus E.Mey. | Shrub | Stems, fruits, roots, exudate, leaves | Stomach problems in women, toothache, aids calf delivery in cows, flu, congested nose | [67,76,109,152] |
| Gomphocarpus semilunatus A.Rich. | Shrub | Leaves, whole plant | Gum lesions, toothache, syphilis, gonorrhea, gastroenteritis, malaria,nose infection, stomach problem, headache, infertility, purgative | [104,115,122,131,143] |
| Kanahia laniflora (Forssk.) R.Br. | Shrub | Epilepsy | [142] | |
| Landolphia buchananii (Hallier f.) Stapf | Liana | Leaves, roots | Back/joint ache, venereal diseases, malaria, wounds, gonorrhea, molluscoid | [78,84,111,168] |
| Landolphia kirkii Dyer ex Hook.f. | Shrub | Roots | Stomach ailments | [127] |
| Leptadenia lanceolata (Poir.) Goyder | Liana | Leaves | General medicine | [91] |
| Marsdenia abyssinica (Hochst.) Schltr. | Liana | Bark, roots | Diarrhea, heartburn, oral thrush | [67,86,142] |
| Marsdenia angolensis N.E.Br. | Liana | Root | Anthelmintic, runny nose, poison | [14] |
| Marsdenia rubicunda (K.Schum.) N.E.Br. | Liana | Roots | Postnatal care, threatened miscarriage | [127,141] |
| Marsdenia schimperi Decne. | Liana | Root | Abdominal pain | [141] |
| Mondia whitei (Hook.f.) Skeels | Shrub | Roots, fruits, flowers, stems, | Appetizer, fatigue, mineral deficiency, aphrodisiac, respiratory problems, allergies, cough, colds/flu, dental disorders, malaria, rheumatism, stomach disorders, indigestion, heartburn, kidney ailments, asthma, gonorrhea, acaricide, anorexia, STIs, stimulant after giving birth, aphrodisiac, infertility, stomachache | [14,41,66,99,105,107,110,125,133,142,143,144,146,168] |
| Nerium oleander L. (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Leaves | Upper respiratory tract infections, gastrointestinal complications, blocked nose, chest pain | [68,122] |
| Orbea dummeri (N.E.Br.) Bruyns | Herb | Stems | Gastrointestinal ulcers, sores on lips/tongue, baby stomach problems | [139,140] |
| Pachycarpus concolor E. Mey. | Herb | Roots | Cattle sores caused by skin maggots | [67] |
| Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov. | Herb/shrub | Exudate, roots | Stomachache, rashes, dermatitis | [67,132,141] |
| Periploca linearifolia Quart.-Dill. & A.Rich. | Shrub | Roots, leaves, stems, exudate | Infertility, abdominal pains in pregnancy, ulcers, malaria, stomachache, headache, backache, diarrhea, colds, flu, cough, chest problems, bad smell of flatulence, mouth inflammation in children, anthelmintic, retained placenta, fever, joint pains, gonorrhea, teeth problems, spinal cord problem, aphrodisiac, herpes zoster, oral thrush, pneumonia, cancer, pre/postmenopausal symptoms, lumbago in women, diabetes, syphilis, pesticide, eye problems, amoeba, wounds, skin sores/ulcers, typhoid, body strength, warts | [41,78,83,84,87,88,91,99,103,104,107,109,120,128,131,132,141,152,168] |
| Plumeria alba L. (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Bark, root, leaves, exudate | Removal of thorn, wounds (cow, goat, sheep, human), STI’s | [14,73,146] |
| Plumeria rubra L. (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Exudate | Ringworms | [122] |
| Rauvolfia caffra Sond. | Shrub/tree | Bark, fruit, root | Allergies, amoebiasis, cough, colds/flu, pneumonia, rheumatism, stomach disorders, respiratory disorders, body weakness, chest diseases, bloat, ECF, anthelmintic, trachoma in cattle, arthritis, skin care, toothache | [14,41,80,100,143,146,147] |
| Rauvolfia mannii Stapf | Shrub/tree | Root, bark | Itching and pimples, arrow poison, malaria, headache, toothache, general body weakness, cough, arthralgia, anthelmintic in chicken | [14,145] |
| Rauvolfia mombasiana Stapf | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots | Malaria, poison, venereal diseases, stomach pains, skin conditions, swellings | [134,142] |
| Saba comorensis (Bojer ex A.DC.) Pichon | Liana | Roots, fruits | Prenatal care, diabetes, enlarged prostate | [41,91,127] |
| Schizozygia coffeoides Baill. | Shrub | Roots, bark | Skin diseases | [134,142] |
| Secamone punctulata Decne. | Liana | Roots | Fever, headache, chest pain, malaria, fever, stomach problems, gonorrhea, prevent abortion | [77,136,139] |
| Strophanthus kombe Oliv. | Liana | Poison | [134] | |
| Tabernaemontana pachysiphon Stapf | Tree | Root, bark, stem, leaves | Malaria, anthelmintic, typhoid, amoeba, pneumonia, livestock diseases | [74,145,147] |
| Tabernaemontana stapfiana Britten | Tree | Roots, bark, fruits | Respiratory disorders, cancer, breast cancer, headache, stomachache, cough, toothache, wounds/cuts, cattle diseases (ECF, constipation), pneumonia, chest problems, aids in delivery | [14,78,88,99,117] |
| Tabernaemontana ventricosa Hochst. ex A.DC. | Shrub/tree | Latex | Amoeba, asthma, malaria, measles, wounds | [41,142] |
| Tacazzea conferta N.E.Br. | Liana | Root | Stimulate milk letdown (human/cattle) | [142] |
| Vincetoxicum fruticulosum (Decne.) Decne. | Shrub/liana | Root | Tonic | [99] |
| Aquifoliaceae | ||||
| Ilex mitis (L.) Radlk. | Shrub/tree | Bark | Infertility, abdominal pains | [141] |
| Araceae | ||||
| Anchomanes abbreviatus Engl. | Herb | Roots | Wounds, septic swellings | [127] |
| Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott (exotic) | Herb | Roots, leaves | Colds (human, cattle, sheep), sore throat, anxiety, fast heart beat | [14,127,144] |
| Culcasia falcifolia Engl. | Herb | Leaves | Dry cough, ECF, edema, epilepsy | [78] |
| Gonatopus boivinii (Decne.) Engl. | Herb | Roots | Mumps | [127] |
| Stylochaeton salaamicus N.E.Br. | Herb | Whole plant | Induce salivation in babies | [127] |
| Zamioculcas zamiifolia (G.Lodd.) Engl. | Herb | Whole plant | Eardrops | [127] |
| Araliaceae | ||||
| Astropanax abyssinicus (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Seem. | Tree | Leaves, exudate | Bronchitis, cough, pneumonia, aphrodisiac, cleaning the womb | [131,147] |
| Astropanax volkensii (Harms) Lowry, G.M.Plunkett, Gostel & Frodin | Shrub/tree | Leaves, bark, stem, exudate | Chest pains, malaria, pneumonia, livestock diseases, fever, kidney problems, colds, sore throat, whooping cough, swollen bodies, cough, inhaled to clear blocked nose, typhoid, TB, goiter, rashes, allergies, headache, expectorant, liver problems, skin diseases (goats/sheep) | [67,91,109,120,132,141,142,152,168] |
| Cussonia arborea Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Tree | Leaves | Stomachache, childbirth, veterinary uses, constipation | [116,144] |
| Cussonia holstii Harms ex Engl. | Tree | Bark, roots | Abdominal pains, bones/joints problems, cough, colds/flu, kwashiorkor, malaria, rheumatism, clear uterus after parturition, fever, alcoholic tremors, stimulant, retained placenta, tonic, ear-nose-mouth infection, irregular menstruation, wounds (cows), backache, stomachache | [14,41,67,71,77,105,136,138,142,147,168] |
| Cussonia spicata Thunb. | Tree | Leaves, bark, roots | STI’s, fever, spinal cord problem, teething, abdominal upsets, stimulant, liver enlargement, abdominal pains, diarrhea, splenomegaly, painkiller, emetic, malaria | [77,88,109,132,141,145,152] |
| Cussonia zimmermannii Harms | Tree | Roots | Kwashiorkor | [127] |
| Polyscias fulva (Hiern) Harms | Tree | Bark | Obesity | [78] |
| Polyscias kikuyuensis Summerh. | Tree | Leaves, bark | Joint pains, arthritis, rheumatism, wounds, skin diseases | [41,88,109,168] |
| Arecaceae | ||||
| Cocos nucifera L. (exotic) | Tree | Fruits, leaves | Skin rash, asthma, kidney problems, wounds | [108,150] |
| Hyphaene compressa H.Wendl. | Tree | Bark | Anthelmintic | [14] |
| Phoenix reclinata Jacq. | Tree | Root, leaves, exudate | Stomachache, chest problems, stimulant | [14,41,80,152] |
| Aristolochiaceae | ||||
| Asarum canadense L. (exotic) | Herb | Cough, colds/flu, mental ailments, pneumonia, STI’s | [41] | |
| Aristolochia albida Duch. | Herb | Snake antidote, poison | [134] | |
| Asparagaceae | Root, leaves, exudate | |||
| Agave sisalana Perrine (exotic) | Tree | Roots, leaves, exudates | Earache, burns, eye problems, injuries, cuts/wounds, acaricide, gonorrhea, appetizer, anthelmintic, retained placenta, mosquito repellant, fed to livestock to increase milk letdown | [14,41,64,84,106,120,133,139,144,152] |
| Albuca abyssinica Jacq. | Herb | Roots | Arthritis, sores | [67,154] |
| Albuca bracteata (Thunb.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt | Herb | Roots | Bone injuries, wounds, cancer, colds, constipation/bloat (cattle) | [14,67,91,152] |
| Albuca virens (Lindl.) J.C.Manning & Goldblatt | Herb | Roots | Diabetes, back pains, tonsils, arthritis, poisonous to livestock | [83,91,115,168] |
| Asparagus africanus Lam. | Liana | Roots, leaves | Boils, mental illness, wounds, venereal diseases, cough, sore throat, skin infections, urinary tract infections, arthritis, gonorrhea, parturition | [67,89,94,123,135,154] |
| Asparagus buchananii Baker | Shrub/liana | Leaves, roots | Prevent second trimester abortion, pregnancy edema | [81] |
| Asparagus falcatus L. | Herb | Stems, roots, leaves | Stomach ailments, constipation, convulsions, teeth problem, rashes, rheumatoid arthritis | [127,132,138] |
| Asparagus flagellaris (Kunth) Baker | Shrub | Leaves, roots, fruits | Boils, abscesses, stomachache, syphilis, conjunctivitis | [94,99] |
| Asparagus racemosus Willd. | Liana | Leaves, roots | Arthritis, infertility in women, cancer, boils, stomachache, gonorrhea, immuno-booster, syphilis, malaria, labor, scrotum problems, removing thorn, rheumatism, improve sexual desire, indigestion, kidney diseases, abdominal pains, bone setting, jaundice, venereal diseases, HIV/AIDs, anthelmintic (cattle), retained placenta, lower back pain | [14,84,87,99,104,109,120,131,141,143,146,147,152,168] |
| Asparagus setaceus (Kunth) Jessop | Herb | Roots, leaves | Back pain in women, postpartum pain, STI’s, boils, toothache, abscess, diarrhea, sores, wounds, medicine for cattle, rheumatoid arthritis | [14,113,115,119,138,147] |
| Chlorophytum subpetiolatum (Baker) Kativu | Herb | Roots | Reduce madness | [99] |
| Dracaena afromontana Mildbr. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, stems | Stomach problems, swollen spleen, chest pains | [99,131] |
| Dracaena arborescens (Cornu ex Gérôme & Labroy) Byng & Christenh. | Herb | Roots, leaves | Venereal diseases, snakebites | [127] |
| Dracaena fragrans (L.) Ker Gawl. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots | labor pains, chase mosquitoes | [144] |
| Dracaena frequens (Chahin.) Byng & Christenh. | Herb | Roots | Immune booster | [14] |
| Dracaena parva (N.E.Br.) Byng & Christenh. | Herb | Leaves, exudate | Snakebites, wounds | [126,143] |
| Dracaena perrotii (O.Warburg) Byng & Christenh. | Herb | Exudates, roots | Gonorrhea, rheumatism, arthritis, snakebites, earache | [51,72,143] |
| Dracaena steudneri Engl. | Tree | Bark, leaves, roots | Cancer, toothaches, rheumatism, anthelmintic, skin cancer, diabetes, stomachache, measles, diarrhea, veterinary medicine (goat), reduce pains birth and prevent dizziness at childbirth birth | [41,83,116,144,145,154] |
| Dracaena suffruticosa (N.E.Br.) Byng & Christenh. | Herb | Bark, branches, roots, stems | Gonorrhea | [135] |
| Dracaena volkensii (Gürke) Byng & Christenh. | Herb | Exudates, stems | Eye problems, STIs, snake repellant | [91,92,95] |
| Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop | Herb | Root | Ulcers, cancer | [91] |
| Balsaminaceae | ||||
| Impatiens hochstetteri Warb. | Herb | Roots | Mouth infection in babies | [109] |
| Impatiens sodenii Engl. & Warb. | Herb | Roots | Difficult births in women, joint pain, purgative | [77,141,152] |
| Impatiens stuhlmannii Warb. | Herb | Fruits | Fever, dizziness, vitamin C | [144] |
| Impatiens tinctoria A.Rich. | Herb | Roots | Retained placenta, infertility, purgative, abdominal pains, thrush in mouth | [120,131,141] |
| Basellaceae | ||||
| Basella alba L. | Herb | Leaves, roots | Abdominal/colic pains, anemia, stomachache, joint pains, burns, child delivery, retained placenta, lumbago, blood cleanser, breathing difficulty, diarrhea, amoebiasis, irregular menstruation, constipation, anthrax, bloat in cattle, antidote, increases milk production, stomach pain/constipation after birth | [14,78,84,87,88,109,115,120,131,132,143,144,152,168] |
| Berberidaceae | ||||
| Berberis holstii Engl. | Shrub | Stem, roots, leaves, bark | Malaria, wounds, anthelmintic, stomachache, pain relief | [99,104,107,132] |
| Bignoniaceae | ||||
| Fernandoa magnifica Seem. | Tree | Roots | Chest medicine, female reproductive disorders | [142,150] |
| Jacaranda mimosifolia D.Don (exotic) | Tree | Leaves | STIs, acaricide | [41,133] |
| Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. | Tree | Bark, roots, fruits, leaves, seeds | Measles, liver diseases, edema, stomachache, anemia, arthritis, asthma, cleans digestive system, depression, aphrodisiac, rheumatism, STIs, typhoid, abortifacient, headache, malaria, purify blood, amoeba, anthelmintic (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig, human), dystocia (cow), breast/uterine/skin cancer, gut problems, gonorrhea, syphilis, kidney diseases, piles, snakebite antidote, leprosy, rashes, pneumonia, skin sores and ulcers, colds/flu, sores/wounds, promote conception and pregnancy, cholesterol control, abdominal pains, infertility in women, emaciation, skin diseases, ulcers, diabetes, purgative, diarrhea | [14,41,72,73,76,78,79,84,88,89,98,103,104,105,108,110,116,117,121,132,139,141,143,144,146,147,168] |
| Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K.Schum. | Tree | Leaves, bark, root | Eye infection (cattle/human), toothache, snakebites, arthritis, skin inflammation, myalgia, earache, malaria, cataract, amoeba, back/joint/bone/chest problems, diarrhea, family planning, injuries/cuts/wounds, measles, pancreas problems, rheumatism, STIs, stomach disorders, typhoid, arthritis, colorectal cancer, stomachache, sore throat, flu, stomachache, measles, cardiac conditions, kidney ailments, acaricide, ringworms, menstrual pains, pneumonia | [14,41,66,76,87,101,116,117,119,120,122,124,125,133,143,147,154] |
| Markhamia zanzibarica (Bojer ex DC.) K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots | Abdominal pain, bleeding and edema in pregnancy, snakebites, bleeding during childbirth | [87,127] |
| Spathodea campanulata P.Beauv. | Tree | Bark, leaves, stems, exudate | Liver disorders, headache, sore throat, stomachache, malaria, chest, backache, STI’s, arthritis, tongue infections, cervical/bone/breast/colorectal/skin cancer, abortifacients, infertility, veterinary uses, rashes in children that turn into wounds, appetizer, cut/wounds/burns, chest pain, liver complaints, livestock diseases (increase milk production, bloat, cough, fever), sore throat, headache, colds | [66,78,101,116,117,119,120,122,142,144,154] |
| Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, bark, flowers, fruits | Cough, malaria, ulcers, venereal diseases, wounds, acaricide | [66,133,144] |
| Boraginaceae | ||||
| Bourreria nemoralis (Gürke) Thulin | Shrub/tree | Roots | Stomach problems, kidney ailments, asthma | [41,127] |
| Bourreria petiolaris (Lam.) Thulin | Shrub/tree | Roots | Female reproductive disorders | [150] |
| Cordia africana Lam. | Tree | Bark, leaf, fruit, aerial parts | Vitamins, pneumonia, broken limbs, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, cancer, eye problems, family planning, heartburns, injuries/cuts, wounds, livestock diseases, labor pains, stomach disorders, typhoid, prevents abortion, malaria, eye diseases pain (cow), general weakness (cow, goat, sheep, pig), bone injuries, toothache, cough, venereal diseases | [14,41,73,84,88,104,105,119,120,144,146,147] |
| Cordia monoica Roxb. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves, fruits | Backache, diarrhea, leprosy, mental illness, ocular disorders, retained placenta, livestock diseases, fever, joint/chest pains, stomach disorder, malaria, vomiting, eye ache/infection, fractures, gonorrhea | [67,71,77,80,89,99,105,135,136,145,147] |
| Cordia sinensis Lam. | Shrub/tree | Roots, flowers, bark, exudate | Eye problems, diarrhea, malaria, chest problems, pneumonia, fractures, woman’s stomach, fevers, eye infection, stomachache | [67,68,72,77,95] |
| Cynoglossum coeruleum Hochst. ex A.DC. | Herb | Leaves | Back/joint/bone problems, skin rashes, ulcers, chest pain, wounds, parturition (man, livestock), sore throat | [41,115,122,144,168] |
| Echiochilon lithospermoides (S.Moore) I.M.Johnst. | Herb | Whole plant | Livestock medicine | [77] |
| Ehretia bakeri Britten | Shrub/tree | Bark | Gastrointestinal complications, upper respiratory tract infections, malaria, muscle ache, toothache | [68,145] |
| Ehretia cymosa Thonn. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, bark, aerial parts | Abdominal ulcers, livestock diseases, malaria, rheumatism, anaplasmosis (cow, ruminant), diarrhea/dysentery (human, cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), boils, stomachache, chest pain, boils, aphrodisiac, typhoid, muscle ache, toothache, impotency, wounds, pain killer, cough, colds, vomiting, venereal diseases, pneumonia, epilepsy, ECF, tonsils, mental problems, asthma | [14,41,73,78,84,88,91,116,122,141,144,145,147,168] |
| Euploca rariflora (Stocks) Diane & Hilger (exotic) | Herb | Root | Joint diseases | [149] |
| Heliotropium steudneri Vatke | Herb | Leaves | Fleas, arrow poison wounds | [72,147] |
| Heliotropium zeylanicum (Burm.f.) Lam. | Herb | Roots | Boils, abscesses, | [94] |
| Symphytum officinale L. (exotic) | Herb | Roots | Wounds, joints/bones, problems, inflamed muscles, ulcers, boils, dry cough | [168] |
| Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm.f.) R.Br. | Herb | Roots, leaves, whole plant | Snakebites, TB, ulcers, stomachache, colds/flu, wounds | [84,99,148] |
| Brassicaceae | ||||
| Brassica oleracea L. (exotic) | Herb | Heartburns | [41] | |
| Cardamine obliqua Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Herb | Scurvy | Scurvy | [147] |
| Lepidium bonariense L. (exotic) | Herb | Stems, leaves | Cleaning stomach after childbirth | [77] |
| Lepidium sativum L. (exotic) | Herb | Seeds | Bone/joint pains, fever, respiratory diseases, stomachache | [137] |
| Nasturtium officinale W.T.Aiton (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | Peptic ulcers, anemia, allergies, blood cleanser, respiratory diseases, cough | [88,168] |
| Spinacia oleracea L. (exotic) | Herb | Pneumonia | [41] | |
| Burseraceae | ||||
| Boswellia neglecta S.Moore | Shrub/tree | Bark, resin | Chest, headache, ribs, diarrhea, stomach disorders, swollen legs and stomach pain in pregnant women | [72,77,100,139] |
| Commiphora africana (A.Rich.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits, bark, roots, exudates | Abdominal pains, renal diseases, wounds, skin moisturizer, jiggers, eye problem, convulsions, venereal diseases, boils, skin rashes, edema, ulcers, swollen testicles, snakebite, typhoid, diarrhea, stomach problems, malaria, pneumonia, brucellosis, back/pain/joint pain, dysmenorrhea, burns, gum diseases, cough, gynecological problems | [71,72,77,79,84,87,89,92,96,98,104,105,107,108,127,138,141,143,148,150] |
| Commiphora baluensis Engl. | Tree | Bark, roots | Stomach disorders, body swellings, typhoid, malaria, diarrhea (human, poultry), swollen diaphragm | [51,77,100,139,145] |
| Commiphora edulis (Klotzsch) Engl. | Shrub | Bark, leaves | Convulsions, diarrhea, sore throat, pregnancy stomach pains, retained placenta, tapeworms, cough, chest pains | [51,100,127,139] |
| Commiphora eminii Engl. | Tree | Roots, leaves, branches, bark | After-birth pains, constipation, hard stool, rheumatism, STIs, stomach disorders, malaria, stomachache, skin rushes, colds, pneumonia, anthrax, constipation, acidity, muscle pains, stomach crumps, measles, cough (cow, goat, sheep, poultry, pig, ruminants, human), anaplasmosis (cow, ruminants), helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), diarrhea/dysentery (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), pleuritis, bloat, cuts/wounds | [14,41,133,146,147] |
| Commiphora kataf (Forssk.) Engl. | Tree | Fruits | Toothache | [64,77] |
| Commiphora kua (R.Br. ex Royle) Vollesen | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves, exudate | Body swelling, prenatal care, wounds, ringworms, toothache, acaricide (goats, cattle) | [51,94,100,127] |
| Commiphora oddurensis Chiov. | Shrub | Bark | Abdominal pains | [139] |
| Commiphora ovalifolia J.B.Gillett | Shrub/tree | Bark, exudate | Cellulitis, scabies | [80,94] |
| Commiphora rostrata Engl. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, twigs | Mild chest pains, cough | [80] |
| Commiphora schimperi (O.Berg) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Root, bark, leaves, exudate | Malaria, constipation, wounds | [97,100,111] |
| Commiphora swynnertonii Burtt | Shrub/tree | Stems, leaves | Gonorrhea | [105,107] |
| Buxaceae | ||||
| Buxus obtusifolia (Mildbr.) Hutch. | Shrub/tree | Root | Chest complaints | [142] |
| Cactaceae | ||||
| Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. (exotic) | Shrub | Fruits | Boils | [147] |
| Rhipsalis baccifera (J.S.Muell.) Stearn | shrub | Roots, branches | Gonorrhea | [99] |
| Campanulaceae | ||||
| Lobelia fervens Thunb. | Herb | Whole plant | Body swellings | [134] |
| Lobelia giberroa Hemsl. | Shrub | Stems, roots, leaves | Urinary tract infections, joint aches, malaria, ECF | [77,145,147] |
| Lobelia holstii Engl. | Herb | Roots | Cough, stomachache | [99] |
| Canellaceae | ||||
| Warburgia stuhlmannii Engl. | Tree | Bark, leaves | Toothache, rheumatism, ease pains, joint pains, cough, malaria, chest pain, heart pain, antioxidant, veterinary medicine | [134,142,150] |
| Warburgia ugandensis Sprague | Tree | Bark, stems, leaves, roots, seeds, fruits | Eye problems, stomachache, internal wounds, bloat, malaria, cough, appetizer, chest and lungs problems, diarrhea, respiratory problems, back pain in women, cleansing uterus, colds/flu, healing after delivery, chicken pox, stinking feet, gonorrhea, pneumonia, skin problems, livestock diseases, anthelmintic, headache, allergies, toothache, amoebiasis, asthma, back/bone/joints problems, diabetes, energy boost, general body pains, high blood pressure, meat appetizer, prostate cancer, rheumatism, STIs, swellings, TB, typhoid, ulcers, abdominal disorders, arthritis, constipation, general body weakness, fever, muscular pains, internal wounds, bacterial infections, heart water, ectoparasites, black quarter, emetic, trypanosomiasis, ECF, helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), pneumonia (cow, goat, sheep, poultry), general weakness/dullness (cow, goat, sheep, poultry, pig), sore throat, skin diseases, oral thrush, gastrointestinal problems, blood/mucus in stool, afterbirth stomach pains, prophylaxis for children diseases, cough (cattle), anodyne, expectorant, erectile, dysfunction/impotence, abdominal disorders, heart problems, gout, purgative, tonsils, uvala problems | [14,41,64,67,68,71,72,73,74,77,78,79,82,84,86,88,89,90,91,92,95,98,99,101,104,105,107,109,110,116,119,120,123,129,132,135,136,138,140,141,142,143,144,146,147,152,153,168] |
| Cannabaceae | ||||
| Cannabis sativa L. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves, flowers, seeds | Wounds, diarrhea/dysentery (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), pneumonia (poultry), Newcastle disease (poultry), stimulant | [73,144,146] |
| Celtis africana Burm.f. | Tree | Roots, stems | Bone problems, livestock diseases, antipruritic, stomachache | [14,152] |
| Celtis gomphophylla Baker | Tree | Roots, leaves, roots | Backache, general body illness, infertility, anthelmintic, STIs | [66,116] |
| Celtis philippensis Blanco | Shrub/tree | Roots | Diarrhea | [142] |
| Chaetachme aristata Planch. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, bark | Malaria, strength, skin, boils, infertility | [77,116,120] |
| Trema orientale (L.) Blume | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark | Afterbirth pains, bacterial infections, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, stomach disorders, anthelmintic, yellow fever, insect repellant, constipation | [41,144,148,168] |
| Capparaceae | ||||
| Boscia coriacea Graells | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, fruits, seeds | Dental problems, detoxifier, eye problems, meat appetite, pneumonia, prostate cancer, tonsillitis, stomachache, fleas/mites, gonorrhea, malaria, burns, hepatitis, livestock diseases, obesity, food poisoning, abdominal pains, partial blindness/eye injuries in cattle, anthelmintic and diarrhea (human, goats, cattle) | [14,41,51,64,67,72,77,80,91,100,132,139] |
| Boscia integrifolia J.St.-Hil. | Tree | Stems, leaves, bark | Diarrhea, gonorrhea, cattle fever, gynecological disorders, malaria, retained afterbirth, prevent first trimester abortion, vomiting, hepatitis, diarrhea, joint pains, swelling/bruises due to thorns | [71,72,77,81,89,97,103,104] |
| Boscia salicifolia Oliv. | Tree | Bark, leaves | Backache, chronic joint pains | [130,142] |
| Cadaba farinosa Forssk. | Shrub/tree | Fruits, roots, stems, leaves | Emetic, pregnancy anemia, STIs, colds, fever, snakebites | [72,100,134,135,142] |
| Cadaba glandulosa Forssk. | Shrub | Root | Purgative | [142] |
| Capparis cartilaginea Decne. | Shrub | Root, bark, leaves | Eye lotion, heartburn, peptic ulcers, skin sores/ulcers, abdominal pains,swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, retained placenta | [67,91,139,141] |
| Capparis fascicularis DC. | Liana | Roots, leaves, fruits | Venereal diseases, diarrhea, stomachache, colds, poisonous, wounds, burns, anthelmintic, false teeth, gastrointestinal problems, stomach pains | [67,72,76,79,108,127,142,143] |
| Capparis sepiaria L. | Liana | Roots, leaves | Poisonous, colds, emetic, purgative, chest pains, wounds, malaria, menstrual cramps | [74,142,150] |
| Capparis tomentosa Lam. | Liana | Roots, leaves, fruits | Respiratory problems, determine unborn baby’s sex, poisonous to camels, emetic/purgative, cough, colds/flu, back/bone joint problems, prostate cancer, wounds, burns, muscle ailment, painkiller, female infertility, menstrual problems | [41,77,88,105,136,142,145,150] |
| Capparis viminea Oliv. | Liana | Roots | Venereal diseases, infertility, septic swelling, poisonous | [127,142,168] |
| Crateva adansonii DC. | Shrub/tree | Amoebiasis | [132] | |
| Crateva kirkii (Oliv.) Christenh. & Byng | Shrub/tree | Leaves | Wounds | [142] |
| Maerua angolensis DC. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, fruits | Toothache, colds, poison, wounds | [134,136] |
| Maerua crassifolia Forssk. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, bark | Wound, stomachache | [132,142] |
| Maerua denhardtiorum Gilg | Shrub/tree | Leaves | Eye infection | [77] |
| Maerua edulis (Gilg & Gilg-Ben.) DeWolf | Shrub | Roots, bark | Sore joints, stimulant, amoeba, diabetes, stomach problems, eye problems, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy | [67,86,100,139,142,143] |
| Maerua endlichii Gilg & Gilg-Ben. | Shrub | Stems, roots, leaves | Swollen/bruised skin, purgative, wounds, snakebites/spits, swollen diaphragm | [14,51,77,80] |
| Maerua kirkii (Oliv.) F.White | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots | Constipation and stomach disorders, wounds, sore throat | [80,100] |
| Maerua subcordata (Gilg) DeWolf | Tree | Roots, leaves | Colic pain, anorexia, blood cleanser, pneumonia, mites, bone/joint pains, gland complications, stomachache, toothache, women’s health, malaria | [14,80,88,137] |
| Maerua triphylla A. Rich. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, shoots, | Wounds, aphrodisiac, headache, tonic, STIs, gonorrhea, backache, toothache, chest congestion, skin disorders, burns, boils, eye lotion, diarrhea, aphrodisiac, bone pain, pain in pregnancy, vaginal bleeding during pregnancy, eye problems, rheumatism, venereal diseases, cuts, sores, rheumatoid, arthritis, mouth blisters | [72,76,77,88,90,99,113,136,138,140,143,152,168] |
| Caricaceae | ||||
| Carica papaya L. (exotic) | Tree | Roots, leaves, stems, bark, exudate | STIs, malaria, gonorrhea, pneumonia, afterbirth pains, allergies, asthma, back/joint/bone problems, body weakness, chest problems, constipation, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, diarrhea, heartburn, injuries/cuts, wounds, chicken diseases, retained placenta, prostrate problems, rheumatism, skin diseases, anthelmintic, stomach disorders, typhoid, toothache, ulcers, syphilis, lung ailment, amoeba, respiratory, pneumonia, miscarriage,cervical/colorectal/breast, skin problems, ringworms, bronchitis, venereal diseases, gastrointestinal problems, diuretic, cattle cough, induce labor | [14,41,74,84,96,98,106,107,108,113,116,117,119,139,143,146,150] |
| Caryophyllaceae | ||||
| Drymaria cordata (L.) Willd. ex Schult. | Herb | Aerial parts | Fever | [144] |
| Pollichia campestris Aiton | Herb | Roots | Malaria, emetic | [67] |
| Stellaria media (L.) Vill. | Herb | Leaves | Heartburn, cough, sore throat, skin diseases | [168] |
| Celastraceae | ||||
| Catha edulis (Vahl) Endl. | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots, leaves, aerial parts | Skin diseases, TB, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, diarrhea, livestock flu, rheumatism, fatigue, toothache, gonorrhea, stimulant, gum, acidity, pneumonia, malaria, STI’s | [14,41,67,72,74,77,104,106,120,146,147,168] |
| Elaeodendron buchananii (Loes.) Loes. | Tree | Bark, roots, leaves | Cuts, wounds, syphilis, respiratory disorders, diarrhea, urinary tract problems, malaria, stomach problems, sores, earache, poisonous to livestock and human, kidney problems | [89,104,105,123,138,142,168] |
| Gymnosporia arbutifolia (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Loes. | Shrub/tree | Fruit, leaf, stems, bark, root | Malaria, wound, acaricide, cough, tuberculosis, general body itching | [103,119,133,140] |
| Gymnosporia buchananii Loes. | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots | Stomachache, cancer | [99,145] |
| Gymnosporia heterophylla (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Loes. | Shrub/tree | Bark, leaves, roots, fruits, stems | Headache, diabetes, gonorrhea, malaria, wounds, infertility in women, eye inflammation, prenatal care, venereal diseases, liver problems, breathing problems, STIs, gut problems, syphilis, boils, acaricide, chest pain | [71,77,99,103,104,116,120,127,133,135,136,143,144,152] |
| Gymnosporia mossambicensis (Klotzsch) Loes. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Prenatal care | [127] |
| Gymnosporia obscura (A.Rich.) Loes. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Arthritis, cancer of breast and prostate glands | [84,154] |
| Gymnosporia putterlickioides Loes. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark | Joint pains, diarrhea, toothache, ear infections, malaria, tonic, stomachache, abdominal pains | [77,80,96,104,129,138,139] |
| Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes. | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots, aerial parts, leaves, stems, fruits | Malaria, gynecological conditions, lumbago, blood cleanser, amoebiasis, back/joint/bone problems, constipation, cough, colds/flu, fever, indigestion, malaria, stomach disorders, mild stimulant, TB, stomachache, toothache, boils, arthritis, body aches, stomachache, acaricide, poison, pregnancy pain, good health of fetus, anthrax, wounds, sores, respiratory system, chest complaints, diarrhea, dysentery, gastrointestinal diseases, menstrual pain, eye infections, nausea, severe headache, aphrodisiac, kidney problems | [14,41,64,68,72,76,79,80,84,88,105,107,124,128,129,133,140,142,144,146,147,168] |
| Loeseneriella africana (Willd.) R.Wilczek | Liana | Roots, leaves | Gastrointestinal pains, diarrhea, colorectal/skin/breast cancer, aphrodisiac, male impotency | [117,127,168] |
| Maytenus acuminata (L.f.) Loes. | Shrub/tree | Tonic, stronger bones | [142,168] | |
| Maytenus undata (Thunb.) Blakelock | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, stems, leaves | Diarrhea, antiseptic, wounds, teething, diarrhea, false teeth, tonic, malaria, stomach disorders, laxative, general body wellness | [14,67,77,100,103,109,127,142,152] |
| Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes. | Shrub/tree | Bark, leaves, roots, seeds | Pneumonia, colic pain in children, stomach disorder, antiseptic, colic pain | [67,77,89,107,135] |
| Chrysobalanaceae | ||||
| Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth. | Tree | Bark | Bleedings, diarrhea, injuries, cuts, wounds, malaria | [41,104] |
| Cleomaceae | ||||
| Cleome gynandra L. | Herb | Roots, leaves, stems, whole plant | Stomachache, colic pain in infants, ear infection, blood cleanser, diarrhea, leprosy, acaricide, typhoid, stomach problems, conjunctivitis, thread worms, stomach congestion, facilitate birth, epileptic fits, malaria, retained afterbirth | [66,76,78,79,88,91,108,120,132,133,144,147] |
| Cleome strigosa (Bojer) Oliv. | Herb | Leaves | Earache | [134] |
| Cleome usambarica Pax | Herb | Roots | Eye problems, tonic | [136] |
| Clusiaceae | ||||
| Garcinia buchananii Baker | Tree | Twig, bark, root, fruit | Stomach problems, diabetes mellitus, chest pain, asthma, diarrhea, abdominal discomfort, respiratory symptoms in livestock, acaricide | [82,85,131,133] |
| Garcinia livingstonei T.Anderson | Tree | Bark, roots | Childbirth pains, stomach disorder, tonic, typhoid, stomachache, teeth problems, liver pain and enlargement | [67,77,132,140] |
| Colchicaceae | ||||
| Gloriosa superba L. | Herb | Whole plant, roots, exudate | Abortifacient, poison, abdominal pains, wounds | [89,134,141,143,144,168] |
| Combretaceae | ||||
| Combretum aculeatum Vent. | Shrub | Roots, leaves | Stomachache, constipation, wounds, sores, malaria, gonorrhea, back pains, hepatitis, dysentery, hiccup, retained placenta, abdominal pains | [14,72,77,80,139] |
| Combretum apiculatum Sond. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves | Stomach pains, eye infections, hypertension, female infertility, gonorrhea, skin diseases, bloody urine, scorpion bite, diarrhea, snakebites, cancer, ear problems | [14,80,86,91,99,119] |
| Combretum collinum Fresen. | Shrub/tree | Root, bark, leaves, exudate | Infertility in women, snakebites, amoebiasis, back/bone joints problems, cough, colds/flu, diarrhea, malaria, pneumonia, stomach disorders, TB, typhoid, acaricide, gastrointestinal problems, dysentery | [41,79,87,126,133,143] |
| Combretum exalatum Engl. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy | [139] |
| Combretum hereroense Schinz | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots | Chest pains, tuberculosis, cough | [51,127] |
| Combretum illairii Engl. | Shrub/liana | Leaves, bark, roots | Venereal diseases, cough, colds, malaria, female infertility | [75,127,150] |
| Combretum molle R.Br. ex G.Don | Shrub/tree | Leaves, bark, roots, stems, branches | STI’s, backache, respiratory problems, kidney problems, back/joint problems, cough, colds/flu, diarrhea, general body pains, malaria, medicine antidote, typhoid, warts, liver disease, sore throat, rib pain, stomachache, boils, gonorrhea, snakebites, acaricide, gastrointestinal problems, colic pain, typhoid, abortion, leprosy, fever, pain, hookworm, bone fractures, abdominal pain, constipation, anthelmintic, dysentery, headache, HIV infections | [76,77,79,80,84,90,105,107,116,118,119,133,135,138,140,145,168] |
| Combretum mossambicense (Klotzsch) Engl. | Shrub | Exudate | Earache | [80] |
| Combretum padoides Engl. & Diels | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Bloody diarrhea, wounds, conjunctivitis, malaria | [75,111] |
| Combretum paniculatum Vent. | Shrub/liana | Roots, seeds | Poisonous, STIs, joint ailments, stomachache, birth pains, fever | [142,144] |
| Combretum pentagonum M.A.Lawson | Liana | Leaves | Headache | [142] |
| Combretum schumannii Engl. | Shrub/liana | Bark | Reproductive disorder, body swellings | [150] |
| Combretum zeyheri Sond. | Tree | Stomach disorders | [41] | |
| Terminalia brownii Fresen. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves | Skin disorders emetic, fevers, colds, cholera, flu, cough, eye problems, malaria, jaundice, amoebiasis, back/bone problems, diabetes, family planning, inflammations, injuries, cuts/wounds, livestock diseases, pneumonia, rheumatism, stomach disorders, STIs, yellow fever, ulcers, clotting agent (human, cattle), joint stiffness/pains, excessive bleeding after birth, sterilize dogs, induce abortion, syphilis, gonorrhea, heartburn, jaundice, arthritis, trypanosomiasis, prevent second trimester abortion, pregnancy edema, pregnancy anemia, allergy, kidney, family planning, abdominal/colic pains, cancer, blindness, typhoid, stomachache, teeth problems, waterborne diseases, asthma, urinary tract infection, dysmenorrhea, debility, abdominal pains, allergy, abortion, ringworm, anthelmintic in (human, animals), toothache, poison for hunting, infertility, edema, chest pains, reddening of child’s anal pore, retained placenta, appetizer, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, diarrhea | [14,41,51,64,68,74,80,81,84,85,86,91,96,98,100,104,105,106,129,130,132,137,139,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,148,151] |
| Terminalia kilimandscharica Engl. | Tree | Bark | Cough, STI’s | [153] |
| Terminalia mollis M.A.Lawson | Shrub/tree | Stems, roots, bark | Gut problems, diarrhea, stomachache, acaricide | [116,133] |
| Terminalia orbicularis Engl. & Diels | Shrub/tree | Bark | Bone/joint pain | [137] |
| Terminalia prunioides M.A.Lawson | Shrub/tree | Bark, leaves | Postnatal pains, mild madness, ringworms, peptic ulcers, kidney pains, aphrodisiac | [51,80,142] |
| Terminalia spinosa Engl. | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots | Stomach ailments, jaundice, malaria, sore throat | [91,100,127,142] |
| Terminalia tetraptera (Wickens) Gere & Boatwr. | Tree | Bark | Venereal diseases, wounds, men aphrodisiac | [150] |
| Commelinaceae | ||||
| Aneilema aequinoctiale (P.Beauv.) G.Don | Herb | Whole plant, leaves, flowers | Malnutrition, colds, ocular disorders, children fever | [77,89,134] |
| Aneilema leiocaule K.Schum. | Herb | Cough in children | [136] | |
| Aneilema spekei C.B.Clarke | Herb | Whole plant, leaves | Fever, swollen organs, stomach ailments and emaciation in animals | [92,144] |
| Commelina africana L. | Herb | Leaves, exudate, whole plant | Stillbirth, fever, wounds, eyes, earache, colds, cough, sores, diseases of the ear, hemostatic when umbilical cord cut, immune booster | [14,99,105,115,136,140,141,144,145] |
| Commelina albescens Hassk. | Herb | Children’s fever | [77] | |
| Commelina benghalensis L. | Herb | Leaves, exudate | Eye problems, children’s diseases, dislocations, injuries, cuts/wounds, colds, earache, eye infections, cough | [41,67,74,95,115,127,136,168] |
| Commelina erecta L. | Herb | Spathe | Sores | [140] |
| Commelina foliacea Chiov. | Herb | Children’s fever, cough in children | [77,136] | |
| Commelina imberbis Ehrenb. ex Hassk. | Herb | Whole, flower | Children’s cough, fever | [72,99] |
| Commelina ramulosa (C.B.Clarke) H.Perrier (exotic) | Herb | Malaria | [124] | |
| Cyanotis foecunda DC. ex Hassk. | Herb | Cough in children | [136] | |
| Cyanotis lanata Benth. | Herb | Shoots, leaves | Ulcers in animals, knee problems, thinning in humans, fever, heart ailments | [144] |
| Compositae | ||||
| Acanthospermum glabratum (DC.) Wild (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | Broken limbs, boils | [66,144] |
| Acmella caulirhiza Delile | Herb | Leaves, flowers, aerial parts, whole plant, fruits, bark | Malaria, oral thrush, ulcers, nasal congestion, diarrhea, spinal cord problem, halitosis, toothache, afterbirth, oral cavity infections, diabetes, fever, cough, mouth ulcers, ringworms, wounds, ear discharge, craniotomy (surgery), gingivitis, bad smell, gum diseases, stomachache, sore throat, insect repellant, broken limps | [77,83,86,88,89,91,101,102,109,115,119,120,122,123,132,138,141,143,144,152,168] |
| Ageratum conyzoides L. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves, roots | Eye problems, mouth sores, tetanus, wounds, chest pains, rheumatism, malaria, stomachache, injury/cuts, bloody diarrhea, bronchitis, poisonous to livestock, hemostatic, stop epistaxis, sore eyes, bowel problems | [76,84,95,104,118,119,143,144,146,147,168] |
| Artemisia abyssinica Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich. (exotic) | Shrub | Leaves | Heavy menstruation (menorrhagia), livestock diseases, common colds | [86,87] |
| Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd. | Shrub | Whole plant, roots, leaves | ECF, malaria, anthelmintic, colds, influenza, fever, ear drop, abdominal pain, expectorant, cough, headache, loss of appetite | [99,104,105,120,132,141,147,168] |
| Artemisia annua L. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | Asthma, malaria, cough | [14,41,98,104] |
| Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.) Wild | Herb/shrub | Roots, leaves, whole plant | Stomachache, cough, pneumonia, yellow fever, wounds, diarrhea, poison antidote, malaria, postpartum hemorrhage, prevent first/second trimester abortion, vomiting, pregnancy edema, sore eyes/gums, ulcers (animals), bums, eye diseases, anthrax, cuts, contraceptive, retained placenta | [14,74,80,81,104,140,143,145,147,151,168] |
| Aspilia pluriseta Schweinf. ex Engl. | Herb/shrub | Leaves, roots | Wounds, drippy nose in poultry, postpartum pain, headache, cuts, snakebites, diabetes mellitus, malaria, skin diseases, liver damage, anthelmintic, coagulant, anthrax, pimples, postpartum pains, gastrointestinal problems, joint diseases, eye diseases, contraceptive, stomachache, fever, edema | [51,79,85,96,104,106,113,115,119,125,143,144,149,168] |
| Baccharoides adoensis (Sch.Bip. ex Walp.) H.Rob. | Shrub | Roots, leaves, whole plant, bark | Eye infections, malaria, TB, gastrointestinal disorders, heart/kidney diseases, stomachache, acaricide, livestock diseases, anthelmintic, gonorrhea | [79,99,119,133,142,144] |
| Baccharoides hymenolepis (A.Rich.) Isawumi, El-Ghazaly & B.Nord. | Shrub | Roots, leaves | Stomachache, abdominal pains, purgative, infantile jaundice | [99,119,141,143] |
| Baccharoides lasiopus (O.Hoffm.) H.Rob. | Shrub | Leaves, roots, whole plant, bark, stems | Malaria, stomachache, shoulder pains, backache, pneumonia, scurvy, chest pains, burns, colds, spinal cord problem, typhoid, allergies, amoeba, asthma, cancer, dental problems, diabetes, heartburn, hypertension, inflammation, tonsils in cows, loose bladder, reduces addiction, reduces menstrual flow, rheumatism, skin diseases, STIs, stomach disorders, lungs, dog poison, acidity, nausea, sexual weakness, rashes, cough, diabetes, crop pests, prevent first/second trimester abortion, vomiting, colorectal cancer, postpartum pains, skin rashes, diarrhea, sore throat, acaricide, scabies, venereal diseases, maggot in sores, human/sheep anthelmintic, suppurating ear, skin diseases, appetizer, aphrodisiac, menstrual pains, fever | [41,67,74,81,83,84,99,103,104,106,109,115,117,118,129,131,133,138,142,143,144,145,146,147,152,168] |
| Berkheya spekeana Oliv. | Herb | Roots, leaves, whole plant | Arthritis, indigestion, amoeba, sores on lips/tongue, abdominal pains | [99,132,140,141,154] |
| Bidens hildebrandtii O.Hoffm. | Herb/shrub | Roots | Stomach disorders, malaria | [77] |
| Bidens pilosa L. | Herb | Leaves, roots, shoots, whole plant, flowers, aerial parts, stems | Eye problems, snakebites, aphrodisiac, infertility, skin infections, hemorrhage, stomachache, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, dizziness, ear-nose-throat problems, eye problems, heartburns, injuries/cuts/wounds, malaria, pneumonia, rheumatism, STIs, stomach disorders, ear complications, toothache, eye inflammation, malaria, ringworms, gonorrhea, sore eyes, postpartum hemorrhage, milk letdown, first/second trimester abortion, skin/throat cancer, anthelmintic, coagulant, diarrhea, stomach upsets, acaricide, rashes, diabetes, urinary disorders, liver/kidney problems, diabetes | [14,41,74,81,84,86,88,95,104,106,108,109,113,115,117,122,126,132,133,138,143,144,145,146,147,168] |
| Blumea axillaris (Lam.) DC. | Herb | Roots | Gonorrhea | [99] |
| Bothriocline longipes (Oliv. & Hiern) N.E.Br. | Shrub | Roots, leaves | Sores, sore throat, fever, malaria, strength and hygiene on babies | [67,136] |
| Brachylaena huillensis O.Hoffm. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots | Gastrointestinal complaints | [150] |
| Carduus keniensis R.E.Fr. | Herb | Roots | Spinal cord problems | [109] |
| Carduus schimperi Sch.Bip. | Herb | Whole plant | Arthritis | [154] |
| Chrysanthemum indicum L. (exotic) | Herb | Whole plant | Cough | [78] |
| Cirsium vulgare (Savi) Ten. | Herb | Leaves, twigs, whole plant | Arthritis, heartburn | [91,154] |
| Conyza newii Oliv. & Hiern | Shrub | Leaves, roots | Backache, pimples, expectorant | [77,109,141] |
| Cotula anthemoides L. | Herb | Leaves | HIV/AIDs, cough | [143] |
| Crassocephalum montuosum (S.Moore) Milne-Redh. | Herb | Roots, shoots | Infertility in women | [144] |
| Crassocephalum picridifolium (DC.) S.Moore | Herb | Roots | Stomachache | [144] |
| Crassocephalum vitellinum (Benth.) S.Moore | Herb | Flowers, leaves | Stomach complications, malaria, mouth infection in babies, remove particles from eyes, wounds/burns | [109,168] |
| Crepis carbonaria Sch.Bip. | Herb | Flowers | Assist in parturition | [67] |
| Dichrocephala chrysanthemifolia (Blume) DC. | Herb | Poisonous to cattle | [168] | |
| Dichrocephala integrifolia (L.f.) Kuntze | Herb | Fruits, leaves, seeds | Oral cavity infections, memory loss, measles, skin growths, stomach ailments, diarrhea, head rashes | [119,123,144,147,154] |
| Echinops amplexicaulis Oliv. | Herb | Roots | Arthritis, chronic cough | [140,154] |
| Echinops angustilobus S.Moore | Herb | Roots | STIs | [120] |
| Echinops hispidus Fresen. | Herb | Roots | Chest congestion | [86] |
| Emilia coccinea (Sims) G.Don | Herb | Stomach problems | [115] | |
| Emilia discifolia (Oliv.) C.Jeffrey | Herb | Roots, leaves, whole plant | Stomach ailments, constipation, nausea, amoeba, body aches, fatigue, malaria, clean womb, skin rashes, allergy, ringworm, peptic ulcers, pregnancy stomachache, aching bones, infantile diseases that causes disability, appetizer, anthelmintic, eye infection, chronic asthma, eye infection | [14,78,84,140,143,144,147] |
| Erigeron bonariensis L. (exotic) | Herb | Roots, leaves, stems | Toothache, snakebites, stomachache, back pain in women, postpartum pain, ringworms, wounds, headache, malaria, meningitis, arthritis, heartburn, oral thrush, gonorrhea, diarrhea, measles, stomach ailments, rashes, boils, itching, liver diseases, dysentery, anaplasmosis (cattle), heartburn, STIs, colds, throat/breast/squamous cell carcinoma of the gums, appetizer, tonsils, skin pimples, throat infections, backache, pimples, sore throat, postpartum pains, fever | [74,86,99,113,115,117,118,119,120,122,125,126,146,147,152,154,168] |
| Erigeron canadensis L. (exotic) | Herb | Toothache | [41] | |
| Erigeron karvinskianus DC. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | Heartburn, oral thrush, sore throat, cough | [86,144] |
| Erythrocephalum marginatum (O.Hoffm.) S.Ortiz & A.P.Cout. | Herb | Roots, leaves, whole plant | Restore penile erection and sexual vigor, liver pains, malaria | [96,106,127,129] |
| Eschenbachia subscaposa (O.Hoffm.) G.L.Nesom | Herb | Roots, leaves | Obesity, breast cancer, tonsils | [78] |
| Ethulia scheffleri S.Moore | Herb/shrub | Leaves | Malaria | [67] |
| Ethulia vernonioides (Schweinf.) M.G.Gilbert | Herb | Roots | Retained placenta | [67] |
| Euryops jacksonii S.Moore | Herb | Flowers | Assist childbirth | [67] |
| Galinsoga parviflora Cav. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves, roots | Wounds, tetanus, cough, colds, diabetes, colorectal, skin care cancer, skin sores/ulcers | [14,83,117,141,147] |
| Gutenbergia cordifolia Benth. ex Oliv. | Herb | Leaves, roots | Skin problems, oral cavity infections, stomachache, malaria, livestock diseases and hard dung, ticks, giardiasis, emetic, measles, eye ailments | [68,79,82,97,107,123,138,143,144,168] |
| Gymnanthemum amygdalinum (Delile) Sch.Bip. | Shrub/tree | Whole plant, roots, leaves | Abdominal pains, arthritis, meningitis, malaria, typhoid, epilepsy, diarrhea, stomachache, stiches, acaricide, gastrointestinal problems, typhoid, amoebiasis, teeth-problems, constipation, flatulence, menstrual problems, cuts, trematode/termite control | [64,76,79,87,101,116,132,133,144] |
| Gymnanthemum auriculiferum (Hiern) Isawumi | Shrub | Bark, roots, leaves | Stomachache, earache, chest pains, anthelmintic, menstrual pains, livestock diseases, heartburn, peptic ulcers, labor, malaria, pain in male private parts, after birth pains, amoebiasis, bilharzia, gastritis, measles, typhoid, cough, colds, mouth wounds, snakebites, eye problem, headache, influenza, kidney stones, wounds, venereal diseases, diarrhea in cattle | [41,88,103,104,119,120,132,144,147,152,168] |
| Gymnanthemum myrianthum (Hook.f.) H.Rob. | Shrub | Root, bark | Heartburn, oral thrush, impotence, anthrax, abdominal pains | [86,141] |
| Gynura scandens O.Hoffm. | Herb | Leaves | Fever | [144] |
| Gynura valeriana Oliv. | Herb | Whole plant | Fever, mouth rashes, wounds | [144] |
| Helichrysum formosissimum Sch.Bip. | Shrubs | Leaves | Sores on cattle | [67] |
| Helichrysum forskahlii (J.F.Gmel.) Hilliard & B.L.Burtt | Herb/shrub | Whole plant, roots | Nausea, vomiting, toothache, headache, stomachache | [71,99] |
| Helichrysum globosum Sch.Bip. | Herb | Roots | Expel placenta, chronic cough | [99,140] |
| Helichrysum glumaceum DC. | Herb | Roots | Pregnancy edema | [81] |
| Helichrysum luteoalbum (L.) Rchb. (exotic) | Herb | Stems, leaves | Tonic | [67] |
| Helichrysum nudifolium (L.) Less. | Herb | Leaves | Tonic, keep illness away | [67] |
| Helichrysum odoratissimum (L.) Sweet | Herb | Anthelminthic, cough, headache, wounds, repel fleas and lice | [115,168] | |
| Helichrysum schimperi (Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich.) Moeser | Shrub | Leaves, roots, stems | Stomachache, wounds, colds, malaria, stomach disorders, fever, nausea, cough, inflammation | [99,109,131,152,168] |
| Hirpicium diffusum (O.Hoffm.) Roessler | Herb | Whole plant | Eye lotion | [77] |
| Hoffmannanthus abbotianus (O.Hoffm.) H.Rob., S.C.Keeley & Skvarla | Liana | Roots, stems, bark, leaves | Pneumonia, wounds, stomachache, cough, malaria, eye infections, stomach acidity, constipation, poisoning, first/second trimester abortion, vomiting, skin rashes, emetic, typhoid, joint pain/brucellosis/ back pain, fecal impaction in babies/children, anaplasmosis | [14,67,71,72,77,81,84,91,103,104,107,131,140,141,142,144,146,147,152,168] |
| Jeffreycia hildebrandtii (Vatke) H.Rob., S.C.Keeley & Skvarla | Herb/shrub | Roots | Convulsions, stomach trouble, snakebite antidote | [127,142] |
| Jeffreycia usambarensis (O.Hoffm.) H.Rob., S.C.Keeley & Skvarla | Shrub | Flowers | Cause eyes sores | [142] |
| Kleinia petraea (R.E.Fr.) C.Jeffrey | Herb | Whole plant, leaves | Abdominal pains, sore eyes | [141,168] |
| Kleinia squarrosa Cufod. | Shrub | Stems, aerial parts, bark, leaves | Asthma, amenorrhea, syphilis, jaundice, malaria, edema, cholera, thrombosis, second trimester abortion, pregnancy edema, measles, smallpox, diarrhea in poultry | [51,81,96,102,106] |
| Lactuca inermis Forssk. | Herb | Roots, whole plant, leaves | Joint pains, cough, stomachache, rheumatism, diabetes, heartburn, gonorrhea, syphilis | [74,83,99,130,147] |
| Laggera brevipes Oliv. & Hiern | Herb | Roots, leaves | Snakebite, measles, afterbirth pains, toothache, suppurating ears, baby skin care | [14,99,126,168] |
| Laggera crispata (Vahl) Hepper & J.R.I.Wood | Herb | Leaves, roots | Hiccups, colds, measles | [99,144] |
| Laggera elatior R.E.Fr. | Herb | Roots | Liver problems, gonorrhea, afterbirth pains, toothache, suppurating ears | [152,168] |
| Launaea cornuta (Hochst. ex Oliv. & Hiern) C.Jeffrey | Herb | Leaves, exudate, whole plant, leaves, shoots | Chira, chronic joint pains, malaria, amoebiasis, diabetes, appetizer, aphrodisiac, stomach disorders, typhoid, anthelmintic, chest pain, throat cancer, ulcers, dysentery, breast/prostate cancer, stomachache, warts, toothache, liver problems, coccidiosis in poultry, measles, stop sneezing, swollen testicles, smallpox, edema | [14,41,51,83,84,86,96,106,108,111,112,129,130,139,144,168] |
| Linzia glabra Steetz | Herb | Roots, leaves, whole plant | Snakebites, boils, stomach ailments, post/partum hemorrhage, first/second trimester abortion, diarrhea, gastrointestinal problems, stomach problems, menstrual problems, oral thrush, fever | [79,81,122,126,143,144,147] |
| Lipotriche scandens (Schumach. & Thonn.) Orchard | Shrub | Leaves | Teeth infections | [144] |
| Microglossa densiflora Hook.f. | Shrub | Leaves, roots, stems | Pneumonia, wounds, stomachache, menstrual pains, backache | [99,152] |
| Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze | Shrub | Leaves, roots, whole plant | Malaria, boils, abscesses, arthritis, emetic, gum aches, eye lotion, skin rashes, measles, cough, nose bleeding, colorectal/skin/breast cancer, expel placenta, joints, wounds, toothache, acaricide, snakebites, gastrointestinal problems, promote fetal alignment or labor, colds, stomachache, anthrax, mental illness, skin infections, promote appetitepremature birth | [67,77,79,94,98,101,104,115,117,119,126,133,142,143,144,147,154,168] |
| Microglossa pyrrhopappa (Sch.Bip. ex A.Rich.) Agnew | Herb/shrub | Leaves, roots | Malaria, abdominal pains | [67,141] |
| Mikania cordata (Burm.f.) B.L.Rob. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | Measles | [144] |
| Orbivestus karaguensis (Oliv. & Hiern) H.Rob. | Herb | Anthrax | [143] | |
| Gerbera piloselloides (L.) Cass. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | Tonic | [67] |
| Pluchea dioscoridis (L.) DC. | Shrub | Leaves | Infantile ailments, pregnancy pains | [142] |
| Psiadia punctulata Vatke | Shrub | Leaves, roots, bark, flowers | Abdominal pains, STIs, ectoparasites (ticks, fleas), insecticide, wounds, burns, malaria, scabies, skin infection, diarrhea, urinary problems, cough, sore throat, colds, afterbirth pains, inflammation, brucellosis, gonorrhea, edema, aphrodisiac, infertility, vertigo, abdominal pains, sexual stimulant, female conditions, headache, afterbirth pains | [68,71,72,76,77,91,97,99,105,107,113,115,140,141,142,143,144,168] |
| Schkuhria pinnata (Lam.) Kuntze ex Thell. | Herb | Leaves, whole plant | Malaria, joint pains, diabetes, fever, meningitis, stomach disorders, stomachache, colds/flu, wounds, gastrointestinal problems, plague, gingivitis, HIV/AIDs, abdominal pains during menstruation, vomiting | [14,41,76,79,84,103,104,115,118,129,130,132,143,147,153] |
| Senecio hadiensis Forssk. | Liana | Roots, leaves, stems | Malaria, diarrhea, myalgia, kidney diseases, blood cleanser, baby tonic, colds | [72,88,109,141,152] |
| Senecio lyratus Forssk. | Herb | Roots | Fever | [77] |
| Senecio moorei R.E.Fr. | Herb/shrub | Cough | [125] | |
| Senecio syringifolius O.Hoffm. | Liana | Leaves, roots | Wounds, eye inflammation, stomachache, malaria | [111,152] |
| Solanecio angulatus (Vahl) C.Jeffrey | Herb | Roots, stems, leaves, bark | Mouth wash/teeth cleaning, livestock diseases, aphrodisiac, pneumonia, prostate cancer, STIs, whooping cough, backache, colds, gonorrhea | [41,77,107,135,147] |
| Solanecio cydoniifolius (O.Hoffm.) C.Jeffrey | Herb | Leaves | Skin rashes, joint pains | [77,119] |
| Solanecio mannii (Hook.f.) C.Jeffrey | Tree | Roots, leaves, fruits, whole plant | Snakebites, STIs, malaria, livestock, spinal cord problem, colds, chest infections, heartburn, dental problems, poison antidote, rheumatism, arthritis, sprains, boils, scurvy, wounds, stomach ailments, purgative, anaplasmosis (cow), trypanosomiasis (cow, goat), skin/breast/colorectal cancer, skin diseases, acaricide, sterility, itchy rash, abdominal pains, livestock fever, stomachache, cancer, pneumonia, cough, epilepsy, typhoid | [41,73,74,77,78,91,109,113,117,119,120,126,131,133,141,143,145,147,152,154,168] |
| Solanecio nandensis (S.Moore) C.Jeffrey | Liana | Stems, leaves | Malaria, stomachache, breast/colorectal cancer | [117,131] |
| Sonchus asper (L.) Hill | Herb | Roots, whole plant, leaves | Amoeba, diabetes, erectile dysfunction (impotence), tonsils, cough | [41,78,83,84] |
| Sonchus luxurians (R.E.Fr.) C.Jeffrey | Herb | Leaves, whole plant | Diabetes | [83] |
| Sonchus oleraceus L. | Herb | Roots, leaves | Gonorrhea, STIs, diabetes, typhoid, liver problems | [83,113,115,168] |
| Sonchus schweinfurthii Oliv. & Hiern | Herb | Leaves, roots | Gastrointestinal problems, sore throat, neck pains | [79,143,144] |
| Sphaeranthus bullatus Mattf. | Herb | Leaves, roots | Tonic, first/second trimester abortion, vomiting, pregnancy edema | [67,81] |
| Sphaeranthus confertifolius Robyns | Shrub | Fruits, leaves, roots, stems | Smoothen skin, skin conditions | [135] |
| Sphaeranthus kirkii Oliv. & Hiern | Herb | Leaves, aerial parts | Swollen legs during pregnancy, malaria, edema | [51,139] |
| Sphaeranthus steetzii Oliv. & Hiern | Herb | Leaves, whole plant | Medicine for pregnancy, diarrhea, cough, inflammation, difficulty in breathing, skin ulcers/rashes, madness | [77,122,140,144] |
| Sphaeranthus suaveolens DC. | Herb | Leaves, flowers, whole plant, shoots, fruits | Postpartum pain, nasal congestion, malaria, retained afterbirth, stomachache, rheumatism, cough, sore throat, flu, eye ailments | [67,103,104,113,144,152,168] |
| Sphaeranthus ukambensis Vatke & O.Hoffm. | Herb | Stems, roots | Food poisoning, stomachache, baby fever | [91,139] |
| Tagetes minuta L. (exotic) | Herb | Bark, leaves, whole plant, roots, flowers, shoots | Fever, infertility, polio, muscle ache, nose bleeding, malaria, meningitis, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, diabetes, headache, herbicide, injuries/cuts, wounds, skin diseases, TB, arthritis, asthma, toothache, control cockroaches/fleas, mosquito/ant repellant, ectoparasites (cow, poultry), skin diseases, stomachache, toothache, abdominal pains, ulcers | [41,66,73,76,77,78,109,113,115,118,119,120,122,129,133,141,143,144,146,147,152,154,168] |
| Tanacetum cinerariifolium (Trevis.) Sch.Bip. (exotic) | Herb | Flower, leaves, stems, aerial parts | General ectoparasites i.e., mites, lice, flea infestation (cow, poultry), tick infestation (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig) | [73,133] |
| Taraxacum sect. Taraxacum F.H.Wigg. (exotic) | Herb | Roots, shoots | Barrenness, afterbirth pains | [144] |
| Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, stems, roots, bark | General body fatigue, wounds, skin infections, asthma, cough, bronchitis, fever, constipation, gastrointestinal diseases, vitamin, nausea, headache, chest diseases | [71,99,107,109,140,152,168] |
| Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A.Gray (exotic) | Shrub | Leaves, roots, bark, whole plant, flowers, stems | Indigestion, sprains, livestock diseases, malaria, snakebites, stomachache, headache, joint pains, typhoid, amoebiasis, contagious diseases, cough, colds/flu, insecticides, chicken diseases, pesticide, pneumonia, stomach disorders, anthelmintic, herbicide, diabetes mellitus, sore throat, liver problems, livestock weakness, ectoparasites (cow), helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), tonsils, jiggers, acaricide, anaplasmosis, pimples, wounds, gastrointestinal problems, asthma, skin diseases, venereal diseases | [41,66,73,79,82,84,87,98,101,104,106,108,115,118,119,122,126,129,130,133,143,144,146,168] |
| Tridax procumbens L. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves, stems | Dental problems, injuries/cuts, wounds, malaria, stomachache, toothache | [14,41,51,67,99,147] |
| Vernonia colorata (Willd.) Drake | Shrub | Roots | Anthelmintic, cough, pneumonia, stomachache | [74] |
| Vernonia galamensis (Cass.) Less. | Herb | Leaves | Eye lotion, eye problems | [77,136] |
| Vernonia holstii O.Hoffm. | Herb/shrub | Roots | Abdominal pains, tonsils | [99,100] |
| Connaraceae | ||||
| Agelaea pentagyna (Lam.) Baill. | Shrub/liana | Roots | Impotence | [144] |
| Convolvulaceae | ||||
| Astripomoea grantii (Rendle) Verdc. | Herb | Leaves | Chronic headache | [144] |
| Astripomoea hyoscyamoides (Vatke) Verdc. | Herb | Leaves | Typhoid | [144] |
| Astripomoea malvacea (Klotzsch) A.Meeuse | Herb | Roots | Malaria, stomach dysentery, constipation | [74] |
| Cuscuta australis R.Br. | Herb | Whole plant | Typhoid, diarrhea | [119] |
| Cuscuta campestris Yunck. | Herb | Exudate | Scabies, pimples, warts, boils | [168] |
| Cuscuta kilimanjari Oliv. | Herb | Bark, whole plant | Pregnancy edema, stomach pains | [81,84] |
| Dichondra repens J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | Snakebites, skin wounds, ringworms | [118,126] |
| Evolvulus alsinoides (L.) L. | Herb | Leaves, roots | Diarrhea, wounds, oral thrush | [76,143] |
| Hewittia malabarica (L.) Suresh | Herb | Roots | Stomach swellings, constipation, pain | [144] |
| Hildebrandtia obcordata S.Moore | Shrub | Roots | Constipation | [142] |
| Hildebrandtia sepalosa Rendle | Shrub | Roots | Stomach problems, upper respiratory tract infections, gastrointestinal complications | [72,116] |
| Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves, stems, exudate | Wounds from poisoned arrows, acaricide | [133,147] |
| Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet | Herb | Leaves, roots | Breast/cervical/skin cancer, colds, measles | [117,119] |
| Ipomoea hildebrandtii Vatke | Shrub | Exudate | Fungal infections | [143] |
| Ipomoea jaegeri Pilg. | Shrub | Roots | Emetic, gonorrhea | [67,77] |
| Ipomoea kituiensis Vatke | Shrub | Leaves, roots, stems | Stomachache, typhoid, constipation, digestive disorders, cough, remove thorn from flesh, snake poison | [41,76,80,98,100,108,142] |
| Ipomoea lapidosa Vatke | Liana | Twigs, roots, leaves, stems | Ocular disorders, toothache, paresthesia, blood cleanser, STIs | [88,91] |
| Ipomoea longituba Hallier f. | Shrub | Roots | Kwashiorkor | [138] |
| Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker Gawl. | Herb | Leaves | Anthrax | [147] |
| Ipomoea spathulata Hallier f. | Shrub | Roots, exudates, leaves | Eyes problems, eye lotion, ringworms, diarrhea, tonic, infertility | [72,76,77,99,136,141] |
| Ipomoea tenuirostris Choisy | Herb | Leaves | Rheumatism | [99,141] |
| Ipomoea wightii (Wall.) Choisy | Herb | Exudate | Cuts/wounds | [152] |
| Cornaceae | ||||
| Cornus volkensii Harms | Tree | Typhoid, amoeba, stomachache, vomiting | [132] | |
| Crassulaceae | ||||
| Cotyledon barbeyi Schweinf. ex Baker | Herb | Leaves | Teeth problem, skin infections, stomach complications, spinal cord problem, painful parts of the body, fatigue pains, rheumatism | [67,109,142] |
| Crassula granvikii Mildbr. | Herb | Shoots, leaves | Rheumatism and thinning, black water, dermatitis, increase blood, swelling of stomach/legs/whole body | [144] |
| Crassula schimperi Fisch. & C.A.Mey. | Herb | Wounds | [136] | |
| Kalanchoe crenata (Andrews) Haw. | Herb | Leaves, exudate | Navel infections in children, swollen areas for muscle sprain and myalgia, stomach problems, bruises, wounds, umbilical cord problem, rashes, disinfectant | [87,89,109,132] |
| Kalanchoe densiflora Rolfe | Herb | Leaves, roots, stems | Eye problems, joint pains, stomachache, umbilical cord, wounds, muscle pains, fast heartbeat, heartburn, heartache, skin problems, rheumatism, muscular/bone dislocations, dermatitis, arthritis, dislocated joints, stiff/swollen muscles, liver problems, boils, whitlow, edema, poisonous, swollen body, abortifacient | [14,67,72,94,95,119,131,136,143,144,152,154,168] |
| Kalanchoe glaucescens Britten | Herb | Leaves | Rheumatism | [67] |
| Kalanchoe lanceolata (Forssk.) Pers. | Herb | Leaves, flowers | Splenomegaly, hepatomegaly, blood cleanser, rheumatism | [67,88] |
| Kalanchoe marmorata Baker | Herb | Leaves | Stiff muscles, liver problems, skin diseases, diarrhea and foot rot in sheep | [168] |
| Kalanchoe obtusa Engl. | Herb | Whole plant | Children’s diseases, pesticide | [127] |
| Kalanchoe prittwitzii Engl. | Herb | Leaves | Stiff joints, rheumatism | [67] |
| Cucurbitaceae | ||||
| Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai | Herb | Cleanse blood | [41] | |
| Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt | Herb | Leaves, whole plant | Diarrhea, snoring, abdominal pains | [76,91,143] |
| Cucumis aculeatus Cogn. | Herb | Leaves, fruits, exudate | Malaria, livestock diseases, anaplasmosis (cow, ruminant), helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), loss of feathers (poultry), cough, ECF, emetic, nausea, appetite | [14,67,73,101,114,115,140] |
| Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb. ex Spach | Herb | Fruits, roots, leaves | Abdominal pains, acidity, emetic, gastrointestinal problems, emetic, hasten delivery, cathartic, hemorrhoids | [79,86,91,143,147] |
| Cucumis engleri (Gilg) Ghebret. & Thulin | Herb | Roots | Malaria | [67] |
| Cucumis ficifolius A.Rich. | Herb | Leaves, roots, bark, whole plant | Malaria, stomach complications, Chira, constipation, emetic, abdominal pains, bloody stool | [14,108,109,114,119,141,168] |
| Cucumis prophetarum L. | Herb | Fruits, roots | Emetic, remove phlegm, malaria, infertility, infected ears, syphilis | [86,87,114] |
| Cucurbita ficifolia Bouché (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | Mouth ulcers | [122] |
| Cucurbita maxima Duchesne (exotic) | Herb | Fruits | Cough, AIDs, amoeba, cancer, hard stool, immunity booster, operated mother, prostrate problems, skin diseases, snakebites, stomach disorders, anthelmintic, urinary disorders, aphrodisiac | [41,96,168] |
| Cucurbita pepo L. (exotic) | Herb | Roots, seeds | Afterbirth, anthelmintic | [120] |
| Gerrardanthus lobatus (Cogn.) C.Jeffrey | Herb | Roots | Malaria | [111] |
| Kedrostis foetidissima (Jacq.) Cogn. | Herb | Roots | Smallpox, bloat in livestock, measles, boils, whitlow | [114,121,143] |
| Kedrostis gijef (Forssk. ex J.F.Gmel.) C.Jeffrey | Liana | Roots | Eye medicine, snake poison, malaria, cough, stomachache | [72,114,142] |
| Kedrostis heterophylla Zimm. | Liana | Leaves | Children’s diseases | [127] |
| Kedrostis pseudogijef (Gilg) C.Jeffrey | Liana | Leaves, bark, exudate, stems | Diarrhea, yellow fever, malaria, hepatitis, measles, cuts | [51,77] |
| Lagenaria abyssinica (Hook.f.) C.Jeffrey | Herb | Leaves, exudate | Wounds, toothache | [114,152] |
| Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. | Herb | Leaves | Cough | [87] |
| Lagenaria sphaerica (Sond.) Naudin | Herb | Flowers, roots | Scabies, candidiasis, ringworms, leprosy, retained placenta, abdominal pains | [114,131] |
| Momordica anigosantha Hook.f. | Herb | Fruits | Vomiting, emetic | [132,141] |
| Momordica boivinii Baill. | Herb | Roots | Induce menstruation | [114] |
| Momordica foetida Schumach. | Herb | Roots, whole plant, aerial parts, fruits, leaves, exudate | Trigeminal neuralgia, sinusitis, wounds, teething problems, abdominal pains, amoeba, fever, arthritis, heartburn, oral thrush, colic pain in infants, emetic, diabetes mellitus, skin rashes, fever, stomachache, malaria, anthelmintic, cough (livestock, human), breast/cervical cancer, poisonous, chest problems, headache, typhoid | [82,85,86,87,88,109,114,117,118,120,132,154] |
| Momordica friesiorum (Harms) C.Jeffrey | Herb | Stem, bark, leaves, roots, seeds | Malaria, livestock diseases, emetic, spleen, liver diseases, vomiting | [67,88,89,114,152] |
| Momordica pterocarpa Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Herb | Ear infection, malaria | [114] | |
| Momordica rostrata Zimm. | Herb | Roots, leaves, fruits, shoots | Malaria, brain stimulant, emetic, laxative, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, retained placenta, abdominal pains, fever, burns, stomachache, coccidiosis (poultry), measles, trematodes, cuts, boils of livestock | [114,131,139,144] |
| Momordica spinosa (Gilg) Chiov. | Shrub/liana | Roots, bark | Headache, hepatitis, respiratory diseases, fever, malaria | [72,137] |
| Peponium vogelii (Hook.f.) Engl. | Herb | Leaves, fruits, whole plant | Fever, dysmenorrhea, venereal diseases, headache, rash | [77,114] |
| Zehneria pallidinervia (Harms) C.Jeffrey | Herb | Leaves | Snakebites | [127] |
| Zehneria scabra (L.f.) Sond. | Herb | Stems, leaves, seeds, roots, shoots, branches | Malaria, asthma, boils, wounds, constipation, livestock diseases, skin disorders, ringworms, gonorrhea, measles, colds, flu, hypertension, eye infections, diarrhea, vomiting, abdominal pains, skin rashes, cough, cancer, recuperate patients, eye/ear problems, warts, cuts | [41,67,76,86,91,99,105,107,109,114,115,131,132,138,147,152,168] |
| Cupressaceae | ||||
| Cupressus torulosa D.Don ex Lamb. (exotic) | Tree | Leaves, bark | Colds, urinary bladder inflammation | [152] |
| Hesperocyparis lusitanica (Mill.) Bartel (exotic) | Tree | Leaves, exudate, fruit, bark, stems | Cancer, epilepsy, rheumatism, skin diseases, typhoid, toothache, anthelmintic, measles, dysentery, acaricide | [41,116,133] |
| Juniperus procera Hochst. ex Endl. (exotic) | Tree | Leaves, bark, branches, exudates, roots | Eye problems, whopping cough, stomachache, livestock diseases, cancer, wounds, breathing difficulty, amoeba, cough, colds/flu, diarrhea, gall bladder, kidney problems, knock swells, malaria, placenta removal, rheumatism, typhoid, anthelmintic, broken bones, sore throat, breast/throat/squamous carcinoma of the gum, acaricide, aphrodisiac, expectorant | [41,64,72,86,88,95,117,120,132,133,136,140,141,145,152,168] |
| Cyperaceae | ||||
| Cyperus alternifolius L. | Herb | Roots | Boils, rashes | [80] |
| Cyperus articulatus L. | Herb | Roots | Malaria, body weakness, fever, pneumonia, hiccups | [103,104,115,128,144,147] |
| Cyperus brevifolius (Rottb.) Hassk. | Herb | Fever | [136] | |
| Cyperus dichrostachyus Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Herb | Fever | [136] | |
| Cyperus elegantulus Steud. | Herb | Fever | [136] | |
| Cyperus esculentus L. | Herb | Leaves, roots | Abdominal upsets, bad breadth, stomachache, abdominal/colic pains, eye problems, typhoid, cough, blindness, backache, headache, chest problem, gingivitis, appetizer | [88,91,132] |
| Cyperus impubes Steud. | Herb | Fever | [136] | |
| Cyperus laevigatus L. | Herb | Chickenpox, malaria, stomach disorders | [41] | |
| Cyperus niveus Retz. | Herb | Fever | [136] | |
| Cyperus papyrus L. | Herb | Leaves, roots | Pneumonia, headache, malaria, hypertension, nutritional edema, HIV/AIDs | [74,143,168] |
| Cyperus rigidifolius Steud. | Herb | Fever | [136] | |
| Cyperus rotundus L. | Herb | Leaves | Heart problems | [144] |
| Dichapetalaceae | ||||
| Dichapetalum ruhlandii Engl. | Shrub/liana | Poisonous | [142] | |
| Dichapetalum zenkeri Engl. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Venereal diseases, menstrual disorders, prenatal care | [127] |
| Dilleniaceae | ||||
| Tetracera boiviniana Baill. | Shrub | Roots | Stomach ailments, venereal diseases | [127] |
| Dioscoreaceae | ||||
| Dioscorea minutiflora Engl. (exotic) | Herb | Tubers, exudate | Blood cleanser, viral diseases, rheumatism, heartburn, gonorrhea, warts | [41,84,147,168] |
| Dioscorea praehensilis Benth. | Herb | Fruits | Measles | [144] |
| Dioscorea quartiniana A.Rich. | Herb | Roots | Poisonous, fever | [77,99] |
| Ebenaceae | ||||
| Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern) F.White | Shrub/tree | Seeds, bark, roots, twigs | Diarrhea, sores, laxative, malaria, ringworms, skin rashes, internal injuries, ocular disorders in livestock, STIs, venereal diseases | [66,89,116,120,125,144] |
| Diospyros consolatae Chiov. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, back | Toothache, stomach ailments, skin diseases, respiratory problems, kidney problem, gastrointestinal gas, snakebites, arthritis, umbilical cord, hernia, veterinary medicine | [127,150] |
| Diospyros loureiroana G.Don | Shrub/tree | Snakebites | [134] | |
| Diospyros scabra (Chiov.) Cufod. | Shrub/tree | Bark | Women’s stomach troubles, fever in children | [91,142] |
| Diospyros squarrosa Klotzsch | Shrub/tree | Roots | Prenatal care, septic swelling, convulsions | [127] |
| Euclea divinorum Hiern | Shrub/tree | Stems, bark, leaves, roots, seeds, fruits | Sore throat, cathartic, malaria, constipation, excessive menstrual flow, anthelmintic, diarrhea, infertility, spinal cord problem, abdominal upsets, skin disorders, blood cleansers, invigorant, prophylaxis of cancer and respiratory disorders, stomachache, amoeba, boils, skin rashes, snakebites, dental problems, dislocation, indigestions, livestock diseases, heartburn, toothache, cough, tonic, diabetes mellitus, anthrax, rheumatism, stomach rumblings, cleans the womb, headache, appetizer, joint pains in livestock, fever, venereal diseases, protracted labor, postpartum hemorrhage, retained afterbirth, anaplasmosis (cow, ruminant), constipation (cow, goat, sheep), sore throat, pneumonia, chest pains, acaricide, problems during pregnancy, arthritis, leprosy, asthma, joint diseases, bleeding gums, loose teeth, dysentery, menstrual pains, bloat, laxative, ulcers, wounds, gonorrhea, purgative, tonic for anemia | [14,41,66,67,68,71,72,73,74,79,80,81,82,85,86,87,88,91,98,99,100,104,105,107,108,109,112,113,115,116,120,124,132,133,135,138,141,142,143,146,147,149,154,168] |
| Euclea natalensis A.DC. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Diarrhea, poisoning, snakebites, diabetes mellitus, anthelmintic, mouth infections, stomach ulcers, gonorrhea, constipation, vaginal discharge, toothache, earache | [85,99,127,150] |
| Euclea racemosa L. | Shrub/tree | Root, bark, leaves | Poisoning, diabetes mellitus, liver, anthelmintic, stomach disorders, Chira, bloody diarrhea, stomachache, constipation, purgative, colic pain, general body wellness | [14,76,77,85,127,140,142] |
| Ericaceae | ||||
| Agarista salicifolia (Lam.) G.Don | Shrub/tree | Leaves, bark | Digestion, indigestion, poisonous | [99,142] |
| Euphorbiaceae | ||||
| Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. | Shrub | Roots, leaves | Snakebites, induce labor pains, liver, wounds, scorpion/bee stings, fever in children, cerebral malaria, headache, gastrointestinal gas, gonorrhea, gastrointestinal problems | [64,77,91,100,127,142,143,150] |
| Acalypha paniculata Miq. | Herb/shrub | Roots, stems, bark | Acaricide | [133] |
| Acalypha psilostachya Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Herb | Roots | Retained placenta | [144] |
| Acalypha volkensii Pax | Shrub | Leaves, roots | Gonorrhea, sores, fatigue, dizziness | [67,144,168] |
| Croton alienus Pax | Shrub/tree | Roots | General health, rheumatism | [168] |
| Croton dichogamus Pax | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves, seeds, stems | Gonorrhea, arthritis, polio symptoms, chest pain, tonic, malaria, bone/joint pain, respiratory diseases, fever, abdominal pain, oral thrush, chest congestion, asthma, cough, colds, rheumatism, joint diseases, miscarriage, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, back pains, stomachache, edema, infertility | [14,51,67,71,72,77,84,89,91,98,105,107,129,136,137,139,142,143,149,168] |
| Croton macrostachyus Hochst. ex Delile | Tree | Roots, bark, leaves, seeds, stems, exudate | Eye problems, sore throat, flu, TB, stomachache, measles, dysentery, malaria, respiratory disorders, ear infection, allergies, ringworms, dysmenorrhea, diarrhea, fever in cows, typhoid, measles, acaricide, asthma, bites, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, general body pains, heart problems, increase body temperatures, injuries/cuts, wounds, livestock (pregnancy test in cows), measles, mumps, pneumonia, rheumatism, skin diseases, STIs, straighten muscles, thorn pricks, anthelmintic, oral cavity infections, cleansing digestive and blood circulation system, diabetes mellitus, amoeba, venereal diseases, backache, fatigue, postpartum hemorrhage, colorectal/skin/breast, sore throat, flu, dysentery, asthma, headache, rashes, purgative, aphrodisiac, cathartic, food poisoning, asthenia, warts, fever in livestock/man | [14,41,66,67,81,84,85,87,88,95,99,101,104,116,117,119,120,123,132,133,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,153,168] |
| Croton megalocarpus Hutch. | Tree | Roots, bark, leaves | Stomachache, malaria, respiratory conditions, back pain, amoeba, joint/bone problems, body weakness, chest congestions, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, general body pains, headache, injuries/cuts, wounds, livestock diseases, pneumonia, rheumatism, STIs, stomach acid, body swellings, typhoid, ulcers, anthelmintic, kidney failure, lung problems, cancer, toothache, diabetes mellitus, fever, diarrhea, anaplasmosis, diarrhea/dysentery (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), paralysis/stroke, abortifacients, purgative, acaricide, boils, pneumonia, migraine, diaphragm, throat infection, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, retained placenta, abdominal pains, constipation, liver disease in poultry, aphrodisiac | [14,41,51,64,68,72,73,74,77,85,91,92,98,99,105,106,107,113,116,121,122,133,136,139,140,145,146,151,168] |
| Croton menyharthii Pax | Shrub | Leaves, roots | Influenza, malaria, pregnancy pains, menstrual pains, muscle spasms, female reproductive disorders, vaginal discharge, ulcers, respiratory problem | [67,100,142,150] |
| Croton pseudopulchellus Pax | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Convulsions, gastric lesions, inflammation, convulsions, snakebite, rheumatism | [127,150] |
| Croton scheffleri Pax | Shrub | Roots | Fever, malaria | [77] |
| Croton somalensis Pax | Tree | Stem, bark, leaves, roots | Influenza, malaria, stomachache | [107,142] |
| Croton sylvaticus Hochst. | Shrub | Roots, bark, buds, seeds | Acaricide, malaria, stomach disorders, respiratory infections, wounds, tonsillitis, colds, stomachache | [14,133,134,142] |
| Croton talaeporos Radcl.-Sm. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | General body pains, inflammation, colds, stomach complaints, typhoid, hypertension, rheumatism | [127,142,150] |
| Erythrococca atrovirens (Pax) Prain | Shrub | Septic wounds | [125] | |
| Erythrococca bongensis Pax | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, stems | Arthritis, livestock diseases, stomachache, Chira, acaricide, livestock diseases, dizziness, insect bites, ECF in cattle, heartburn, backache, gynecological problems, HIV/AIDs, anthelmintic | [66,67,76,77,133,140,142,143,168] |
| Erythrococca fischeri Pax | Shrub/tree | Roots | Infertility, gonorrhea, chest pains | [99] |
| Euphorbia abyssinica J.F.Gmel. | Tree | Branches | Stomach pains in childbirth | [67] |
| Euphorbia bicompacta Bruyns | Shrub/tree | Leaves, exudate | Eye problems, livestock diseases, tonsils, ear complication, wounds, retained placenta in cattle, ECF in cattle, poison, muscle pull, prevent termites, bloat, edema in cattle, swollen glands in calves, asthma | [14,41,73,100,106,142,146,168] |
| Euphorbia bussei Pax | Tree | Branches | Sore throat, flu, asthma | [100] |
| Euphorbia candelabrum Trémaux ex Kotschy | Tree | Bark, roots, latex, leaves, stems | Venereal diseases, infertility, gonorrhea, flu, joint pains, STIs, eye problems, malaria, retained placenta, chest problems, bronchitis, headache, barrenness, upper respiratory tract infections, gastrointestinal complications, wounds, coenuruses, ECF in cows, stomach diseases, acaricide, poison, backache, mumps, blood pressure, menstrual cramps, rash, asthma, bronchial conditions, hernia, leprosy, lumpy skin disease in cows | [41,67,68,71,72,73,77,100,105,107,120,132,133,135,138,142,145,150,168] |
| Euphorbia crotonoides Boiss. | Herb | Exudate | Skin ulcers, warts | [51,140] |
| Euphorbia cryptospinosa P.R.O.Bally | Shrub | Exudate | Poisonous | [142] |
| Euphorbia cuneata Vahl | Shrub/tree | Roots, aerial parts, exudate | Gonorrhea, constipation, increase fertility, dust in eyes, hepatitis in calves | [77,80,105] |
| Euphorbia engleri Pax | Shrub/tree | Poisonous | [142] | |
| Euphorbia friesiorum (A.Hässl.) S.Carter | Shrub/tree | Exudate, bark | Poisonous, elephantiasis, blindness | [84,142,168] |
| Euphorbia gossypina Pax | Shrub | Stems, roots, exudate | Warts (verrucae), ringworms, poisonous, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, fever | [80,94,139,142] |
| Euphorbia heterochroma Pax | Shrub | Roots, stems, exudate, whole plant | Malaria, gonorrhea, fever, gland complications, respiratory diseases, ticks, ectoparasites, pneumonia, tuberculosis, acaricide, gonorrhea, chest problems, virus diseases in chicken, HIV/AIDs | [68,72,73,77,100,136,137,145] |
| Euphorbia heterophylla L. | Herb | Leaves | Chira, increase letdown in livestock | [108,144] |
| Euphorbia hirta L. | Herb | Leaves, roots, whole plant, exudate | Skin infections, stomach problems, chest problems, asthma, respiratory and urinary disorders, diarrhea, skin diseases, male impotency, lactating mothers/cows, rashes | [109,119,144,168] |
| Euphorbia inaequilatera Sond. | Herb | Leaves, roots, exudate, whole plant, stems | Gonorrhea, stimulant, to allay hunger, prevent sleep, wounds, burns, skin ulcers, glaucoma, snakebite, pregnancy problems | [67,77,143,144] |
| Euphorbia joyae P.R.O.Bally & S.Carter | Shrub | Roots, stems | Postpartum hemorrhage, cough | [113,142] |
| Euphorbia meridionalis P.R.O.Bally & S.Carter | Herb | Stems | Malaria, STIs, induce diarrhea as a means of cleansing the body | [92] |
| Euphorbia milii Des Moul. (exotic) | Shrub | Fruits, leaves, exudate | Skin infections, warts | [74,146] |
| Euphorbia nyikae Pax ex Engl. | Shrub/tree | Latex | Septic swelling, malaria, wounds/burns | [127,136] |
| Euphorbia pereskiifolia Houllet ex Baill. | Shrub/tree | Latex | Fish poison | [142] |
| Euphorbia quinquecostata Volkens | Tree | Insecticide in grain stores | [100] | |
| Euphorbia scheffleri Pax | Shrub | Stems, exudate, roots, fruits | Vomiting, toothache, goat medicine, poisonous, stomachache, cuts | [51,77,81,100,138] |
| Euphorbia schimperiana Scheele | Herb | Shoots, exudate, leaves, branches | Coughs, colds, poisonous,increase lactation in animals | [67,99,144,168] |
| Euphorbia systyloides Pax | Herb | Wounds | [72] | |
| Euphorbia tenuispinosa Gilli | Shrub | Stems | Poison, diarrhea in chicken/goats | [100,142] |
| Euphorbia tirucalli L. | Shrub/tree | Stems, bark, exudate, branches | Eye infection, warts (verrucae), cancer, eye problems, injuries/cuts/wounds, livestock diseases, malaria, STIs, stomach disorders, typhoid, epilepsy, toothaches, pesticide in stored grains, women’s health, acaricide, poisonous, infertility, relieves pain and prevents infection to sores, eye infection, swollen glands, poisonous to eyes, sore throat, measles, removing specks from eyes, pesticidal (aphids) | [14,41,66,86,94,100,116,127,133,137,141,142,143,145,147,168] |
| Euphorbia transvaalensis Schltr. | Herb | Latex | Warts | [77] |
| Euphorbia ugandensis Pax & K.Hoffm. | Herb/shrub | Colds, cough | [142] | |
| Euphorbia uhligiana Pax | Herb | Branches, fruits, roots, whole plant | Wounds, colds, stomach disorders, hypertension | [51,72,135] |
| Euphorbia umbellata (Pax) Bruyns | Shrub/tree | Leaves, latex | Poisonous, backache, joint swelling, sore throat, respiratory problems, fungal skin disease, boils (cattle) | [142,143] |
| Euphorbia wakefieldii N.E.Br. | Tree | Stems | Postnatal abdominal pains | [127] |
| Excoecaria madagascariensis (Baill.) Müll.Arg. | Shrub/tree | Bark, latex | Poisonous | [134,142] |
| Jatropha curcas L. (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, fruits, leaves | Burns, injuries/cuts, wounds, snakebites, stomach disorders, mouth blisters, constipation, lice/flea control, miscarriage, diarrhea, kwashiorkor | [41,74,106,138,143,146,147,150] |
| Jatropha dichtar J.F.Macbr. | Shrub | Root, bark, exudates | Stomach, chest problems, eyedrops, emetic | [72,142] |
| Jatropha ellenbeckii Pax | Shrub | Exudates | Wounds | [142] |
| Jatropha podagrica Hook. (exotic) | Shrub | Leaves | Chest problems, fever | |
| Jatropha spicata Pax | Herb/shrub | Leaves, stems | Laxative, diarrhea | [100,142] |
| Jatropha velutina Pax & K.Hoffm. | Herb | Leaves, exudates | Wounds | [100,120] |
| Macaranga capensis (Baill.) Sim | Tree | Bark | Diarrhea | [122] |
| Macaranga kilimandscharica Pax | Tree | Roots, leaves, stems | Bilharzia, cough, stomachache, cancer, acaricide | [41,99,131,133] |
| Mallotus oppositifolius (Geiseler) Müll.Arg. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Chest pains | [142] |
| Manihot esculenta Crantz (exotic) | Herb/shrub | Root, bark, stems, leaves | Foot and mouth disease, acaricide, aphrodisiac, abdominal pains | [14,96,133,139] |
| Neoboutonia macrocalyx Pax | Tree | Bark, exudate | Warts, malaria | [93,103,104,168] |
| Neoboutonia melleri (Müll.Arg.) Prain | Shrub/tree | Stems, roots | Acaricide, poisonous | [133,142] |
| Ricinus communis L. | Herb | Leaves, roots, seeds, bark | Ruminal impaction, constipation, infertility, regulate menstrual cycle, chest pains, stomachache (after-birth), constipation, livestock diseases, snakebites, septic swelling, laxative, joint pains, burns, diarrhea, vomiting, stomachache, arthritis, bites, blood cleanser, burns, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, detoxifier, family planning, hard stool, indigestion, injuries/cuts, wounds, labor pains, aphrodisiac, pimples, pneumonia, rheumatism, stomach disorders, laxative, umbilical cord infection, dry skin, ringworms, asthma, whooping, malaria, fevers, retained afterbirth, protracted labor, postpartum hemorrhage, ECF, bloat (cow), skin rushes, urinary problems, enhance appetite, abdominal pains, syphilis, ulcers, acaricide, eye ailments (cloudy eyes), STIs, emetic, poisonous, smooth skin, ease parturition, scorpion bites, earache, venereal diseases, gonorrhea, bilharzia, earache, pinworms | [14,41,51,64,67,68,73,74,77,81,86,91,94,96,99,105,106,111,113,115,118,119,120,122,127,130,132,133,134,139,141,142,143,144,145,147,151,152,168] |
| Shirakiopsis elliptica (Hochst.) Esser | Tree | Bark, leaves, seeds | Eye injury/infection in livestock, dental problems, malaria, colorectal/esophageal cancer, burns, asthma, acaricide, man/animal fattening | [41,66,116,117,119,125,133,144] |
| Spirostachys africana Sond. | Tree | Roots, bark, stems | Antiseptic, congestion, breast swelling | [100,127] |
| Spirostachys venenifera (Pax) Pax | Tree | Stems, leaves, branches | Poisonous, livestock boils | [14,142] |
| Suregada zanzibariensis Baill. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Body swelling | [127] |
| Tragia brevipes Pax | Herb | Roots, leaves | Hair loss, indigestion, ulcers, anemia, hypertension, peptic ulcers, diabetes, topical anesthetic agent, rheumatism, purgative, snakebites, delayed/protracted labor, tonic, breast cancer, leukemia, urinary problems, joint problems, rheumatism, labor pains, diarrhea, antivenom, purgative, impotency | [66,67,77,81,86,88,91,99,115,117,141,168] |
| Tragia furialis Bojer | Herb | Roots, leaves | Skin diseases, diarrhea, tonic | [77,127] |
| Tragia impedita Prain | Herb | Roots | Retained placenta | [139] |
| Flagellariaceae | ||||
| Flagellaria guineensis Schumach. | Liana | Leaves, fruits | Venereal diseases | [127,134] |
| Geraniaceae | ||||
| Monsonia angustifolia E.Mey. ex A.Rich. | Herb | Leaves, whole plant | Black quarter in cattle, liver disease | [67,77] |
| Monsonia glauca R.Knuth | Herb | Roots | Fleas on calves | [67] |
| Pelargonium alchemilloides (L.) L’Hér. | Herb | Leaves | Sore eyes, eye diseases | [99,141] |
| Pelargonium quinquelobatum Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Herb | Roots | Diarrhea | [67] |
| Hamamelidaceae | ||||
| Trichocladus ellipticus Eckl. & Zeyh. | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots, leaves | Diarrhea, teeth problems, oral candidiasis, digestion, stomach disorders, strength | [67,77,88,109,152] |
| Hernandiaceae | ||||
| Gyrocarpus americanus Jacq. | Tree | Leaves | Antiseptic | [127] |
| Hydnoraceae | ||||
| Hydnora abyssinica A.Br. | Herb | Roots, stems, whole plant | Diarrhea, amoebic dysentery, diabetes, first/second trimester abortion, stomachache, retained placenta, female conditions | [77,81,83,102,143,168] |
| Hypericaceae | ||||
| Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir. | Tree | Leaves, fruits, bark, roots | Eye infection, scabies, flu, stomachache, heavy menstruation, malaria, bloody diarrhea, arthritis, breast development in young, colorectal/skin/breast cancer, general body pains, dysentery, itchy genitals, acaricide, infertility, wounds, chest pain, jigger/thorn, headache, cough, venereal diseases | [66,74,98,101,112,116,117,119,122,133,142,143,144,154,168] |
| Hypericum peplidifolium A.Rich. | Herb | Whole plant, leaves, roots | Injured/infected eyes, dermatitis, diarrhea | [144] |
| Hypericum quartinianum A.Rich. | Shrub | Leaves, roots, branches | Rheumatism, diarrhea | [99] |
| Hypericum revolutum Vahl | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Joint pains, diarrhea, rheumatism, wounds | [99,109] |
| Psorospermum febrifugum Spach | Shrub/tree | Fruit, bark/stem/leaf | Acaricide, fattening (goats, rams) | [133,144] |
| Psorospermum orientale (Engl.) Byng & Christenh. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Tonic | [142] |
| Hypoxidaceae | ||||
| Hypoxis obtusa Burch. ex Ker Gawl. | Herb | Roots | Baby/children skin rashes, stomach medicine | [140,168] |
| Icacinaceae | ||||
| Apodytes dimidiata E.Mey. ex Arn. | Shrub/tree | Seeds, fruits, roots, bark | General body weakness, joints pains/weakness, sore throat, malaria, chest pains, tonic, stomachache, anthelmintic, diarrhea, internal injuries, blood clot in muscles, livestock diseases, spleen pain and enlargement | [67,77,140,152] |
| Pyrenacantha kaurabassana Baill. | Herb | Tubers | Jiggers, boils, rashes, aphrodisiac, fetus development, labor pains, veterinary medicine | [142,150] |
| Pyrenacantha malvifolia Engl. | Herb | Induce vomiting in pregnant women or those suspected to have malaria | [92] | |
| Iridaceae | ||||
| Gladiolus dalenii Van Geel | Herb | Roots | Meningitis, malaria, diarrhea, asthma, allergy, joint pains, rheumatism | [98,118,140] |
| Juncaceae | ||||
| Juncus oxycarpus E.Mey. ex Kunth | Herb | Flowers | Colds, chest pains | [67] |
| Lamiaceae | ||||
| Aeollanthus repens Oliv. | Herb | Leaves, whole plant | Eye diseases, mouth thrush | [141] |
| Ajuga integrifolia Buch.-Ham. ex D.Don | Herb | Leaves, aerial parts, whole plant, stems, roots | Malaria, menstrual pains, indigestion, abdominal pains, boils, chronic joint pains, amoeba, back/bone problems, bites, cough, colds/flu, headache, livestock diseases, rheumatism, typhoid, arthritis, fever, gonorrhea, toothache, epilepsy, diabetes mellitus, acidity, nausea, pneumonia, body pains, dysentery, stomachache, retained placenta, anaplasmosis, mastitis, ECF (cows), Newcastle disease (poultry), helminthiasis (cows, poultry, goats, sheep, pigs), lung diseases (cows, goats, sheep, poultry), anthelmintic, tonsils (cattle), indigestion, menstrual problems, convulsions, dermatitis, liver problems, hypertension, afterbirth pains, measles | [7,14,41,64,66,67,68,73,74,77,84,85,86,87,101,103,104,107,110,115,122,129,130,138,141,143,144,147,153,154,168] |
| Clerodendrum hildebrandtii Vatke | Shrub/tree | Roots | Chest medicine, general medicine | [134,142] |
| Clerodendrum johnstonii Oliv. | Shrub | Leaves, roots, shoots | Malaria, hypertension, heart pains, joint pains, toothache, body pains, abdominal pains, aphrodisiac, dysmenorrhea, general weakness, stomach upsets/pains | [14,88,99,101,104,141,145,147,152] |
| Clerodendrum rotundifolium Oliv. | Shrub | Leaves, roots, bark | Malaria, stomachache, fever | [104,143] |
| Clinopodium abyssinicum (Benth.) Kuntze | Herb | Leaves, whole plant | Cough, headache, indigestion, anodyne, eye diseases, abdominal pains | [7,132,141] |
| Clinopodium uhligii (Gürke) Ryding | Herb/shrub | Constipation, headache, chest congestion | [7,86] | |
| Coleus aegyptiacus (Forssk.) A.J.Paton | Herb/shrub | Stomachache, prenatal care, stomach after giving birth | [77,127] | |
| Coleus barbatus (Andrews) Benth. ex G.Don | Shrub | Leaves, roots | Abdominal pains, diarrhea, vomiting, malaria, stomachache, joint pains, constipation, headache, backache, protrusion of bowels, livestock diseases, body swellings/legs, joint pain, liver diseases, skin rashes, stomach upsets, dysentery, amoeba, arthritis, bilharzia, brucellosis, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, eczema, eye problems, hypertension HIV/AIDs, injuries/cuts, wounds, neutralizes poison, rheumatism, typhoid, anthelmintic, retained placenta, constipation, tonic, sprains, stiff neck, muscle cramp, colic pain in infants, eyes, oral thrush, measles, snakebites, skin growths, tooth/gum aches, pneumonia, biopesticide, first abortion, vomiting, pneumonia (cow), fractures, dysentery, chest problems, skin diseases, abscess, warts, acaricide, indigestion, painful teeth, mouth ulcers, tetanus, disinfectant, asthma, allergy, strength, purgative, gonorrhea, eye ailments, induce blood production, dermatitis, earache, skin damaged (cow) | [7,41,73,74,79,81,84,86,87,88,96,98,100,101,106,109,111,113,115,116,119,120,121,122,129,132,133,136,141,144,146,147,152,168] |
| Coleus caninus (B.Heyne ex Roth) Vatke | Herb | Leaves, roots | Cough, liver diseases, livestock diseases, toothache | [7,77,99] |
| Coleus cylindraceus (Hochst. ex Benth.) A.J.Paton | Herb | Whole plant, stems | Morning sickness, general body weakness, peptic ulcers, livestock diseases, prevent first abortion | [7,81,139] |
| Coleus hadiensis (Forssk.) A.J.Paton | Herb | Leaves, stems | Childbirth | [72] |
| Coleus igniarius Schweinf. | Shrub | Bark | Malaria, livestock diseases, strength | [77,104,136] |
| Coleus lactiflorus Vatke | Shrub | Aerial parts | Acaricide, stomach trouble | [133,142] |
| Coleus lasianthus Gürke | Herb | Whole plant | Kwashiorkor, edema in children | [51] |
| Coleus maculosus (Lam.) A.J.Paton | Herb | Roots | Stomachache, strength | [7,136] |
| Coleus otostegioides (Schweinf. ex Gürke) A.J.Paton | Herb/shrub | Whole plant | Kwashiorkor, edema in children | [51] |
| Coleus prostratus (Gürke) A.J.Paton | Herb | Whole plant | Skin problems | [118] |
| Coleus succulentus Pax | Herb | Leaves, stems | Abscesses | [94] |
| Coleus sylvestris (Gürke) A.J.Paton & Phillipson | Herb/shrub | Leaves | Wounds, livestock diseases, allergies, amoebiasis, diarrhea, painkiller, toothache, typhoid, constipation, strength | [7,41,136,152] |
| Coleus umbrosus Vatke | Herb | Roots, leaves, whole plant | Smallpox, tonic, livestock diseases, emetic, diarrhea, stomachache | [7,51,142,168] |
| Endostemon tereticaulis (Poir.) M.R.Ashby | Herb | Roots, shoots | Malaria, edema, diarrhea, backpains | [51] |
| Equilabium kamerunense (Gürke) Mwany. & A.J.Paton | Shrub | Whole plant | Stomachache | [7] |
| Equilabium laxiflorum (Benth.) Mwany. & A.J.Paton | Herb | Roots, leaves | Anthelmintic, sore throat, purgative, infertility, eye diseases, abortifacient | [99,141] |
| Fuerstia africana T.C.E.Fr. | Herb/shrub | Leaves, roots, whole plant, shoots | Malaria, snakebites, pneumonia, ulcers, infertility, mouth inflammation in children, respiratory disorders, ringworm, abscesses, ophthalmia, problems, skin complaints, colds, heartburn, oral thrush, livestock diseases, diabetes mellitus, stomachache, urinary infections, ulcers, gonorrhea, venereal diseases, postpartum hemorrhage, prevent first/second trimester abortion, pregnancy edema, pregnancy anemia, eyes infection, colorectal cancer, oral infections, anthelmintic, respiratory disorders, internal injury, swollen legs, wounds, bloody diarrhea, mouth ulcers, boils, STIs, cuts, toothache, tonic, infant postpartum care, sore/red eyes, ear diseasesfemale conditions, dandruffs, sore throat, chest complaints, kidney | [7,67,71,74,81,82,85,86,88,91,94,97,99,101,102,103,104,115,117,119,122,126,140,141,152,168] |
| Hoslundia opposita Vahl | Shrub | Roots, leaves, whole plant | Prenatal care, convulsions, tonic, asthma, cough, colds/flu, typhoid, snakebite, aphrodisiac, constipation, sore throat, postpartum hemorrhage, prevent first trimester abortion, vomiting, acaricide, colic pain in children, ameba, oral thrush/wounds, cuts, pimples/scabies, itches/rashes, anthelmintic, stomach pains, sores, ulcers, boils, hiccups, hemorrhoids, diabetes, blood purifier, child delivery, snakebites, edema, malaria | [7,41,51,64,75,81,84,91,111,112,127,131,133,144,145,148,150] |
| Hyssopus officinalis L. (exotic) | Herb/shrub | Cough, colds, sore throat, nose blocking, indigestion | [168] | |
| Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R.Br. | Herb | Leaves, buds, whole plant, roots, aerial parts | Malaria, wounds, heart problems, stomachache, lungs/kidneys/liver problems, cough, toothache, boils, heartburn, oral thrush, acidity, anthelmintic, vomiting, diarrhea, gonorrhea, acaricide, gastrointestinal problems, abortion, anaplasmosis in cattle, insect bites, skin diseases, colds, bleeding during pregnancy, conjunctivitis, headache and body weakness, eye treatment, fever, problems in passing urine | [7,14,67,76,79,81,86,123,124,133,136,138,142,143,144,147,152,168] |
| Leonotis ocymifolia (Burm.f.) Iwarsson | Shrub | Bark, roots, leaves, whole plant | Wounds, teething, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, diarrhea, indigestion, appetizer, malaria, rheumatism, ulcers, anthelmintic (human/animals), antiseptic, skin rashes, blood purifier, dysentery, chest congestion, diabetes, gall sickness, stomach pains, diarrhea, urinary problems, sore lips and tongue, anaplasmosis (cattle), insect bites, skin diseases, venereal diseases, fever, edema, problems in passing urine | [7,41,67,84,86,89,99,109,115,129,138,140,142,144,152,168] |
| Leucas calostachys Oliv. | Shrub | Roots, bark, leaves | Colds, cough, diarrhea, malaria, respiratory problems, headache, tonic, pneumonia, sprains, heartburn, peptic ulcers, abdominal distension, colic pain in infants, amoeba, hypertension, renal disorders, skin disorders, cancer, arthritis, acaricide, stomachache, gastrointestinal problems, expectorant, dysmenorrhea, abdominal pains, hernia, cuts, wounds, livestock (diarrhea, chest problems) | [7,79,86,87,101,105,120,125,133,141,142,143,144] |
| Leucas deflexa Hook.f. | Herb | Eye infection in livestock | [125] | |
| Leucas glabrata (Vahl) Sm. | Herb | Root | Child’s tonic | [142] |
| Leucas grandis Vatke | Herb/shrub | Leaves, roots, whole plant | Wounds, tonic, colds, persistent skin disease, anthelmintic, ear infection, abdominal pains, ringworms, stomachache, diarrhea, anaplasmosis in cattle, anti-acid, earache, thrush (in children) and sores | [7,14,74,84,120,141,144,168] |
| Leucas jamesii Baker | Shrub | Leaves | Cholera, stomachache | [92] |
| Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R.Br. | Herb | Leaves | Eye problems, wounds, liver problems, gastrointestinal troubles, constipation, stomachache, black tongue, eye ailments, edema, fever, snakebite | [7,95,109,144] |
| Leucas tomentosa Gürke | Shrub | Roots | Dysentery, stomachache, purgative | [142] |
| Mesosphaerum pectinatum (L.) Kuntze | Herb/shrub | Leaves, roots | Molluscoid, stomachache, diarrhea, skin problems, gastrointestinal problems, oral thrush, fever in animals | [7,119,122,143,144] |
| Mesosphaerum suaveolens (L.) Kuntze | Herb | Leaves | Skin wounds, fungal infections | [118] |
| Micromeria imbricata (Forssk.) C.Chr. | Herb/shrub | Roots, stems, leaves, whole plant | Chest pains, pimples, mouth inflammation, livestock diseases, teeth problem, pneumonia, stomachache, gastroenteritis, cough, colds | [7,109,131,152,168] |
| Nepeta azurea R.Br. ex Benth. | Herb | Leaves | Backache, livestock diseases | [7] |
| Ocimum americanum L. | Herb | Leaves, whole plant | Malaria, delayed/protracted labor, postpartum hemorrhage, prevent first/second trimester abortion, vomiting, pregnancy edema, stomach complaints, mosquito repellant | [81,100,104,134] |
| Ocimum basilicum L. | Herb | Leaves, roots, whole plant | Headache, morning sickness, allergies, bites, cough, colds/flu, anthelmintic, nasal/bronchial catarrh, stomachache, constipation, vermifuge, diabetes mellitus, malaria, eye ailments, gastrointestinal problems, headaches, itching skin/rashes, repel insects (termites, fleas, mites, weevils, mosquitoes), abdominal pains, pain relief, rectal problems, pregnancy and child birth problems | [7,14,41,64,77,79,84,85,91,102,111,112,115,129,141,143,147] |
| Ocimum gratissimum L. | Herb/shrub | Leaves, roots, bark | Headache, diarrhea, toothache, swelling of the body, chronic joint pains, chest pains, cough, colds/flu, fever, ear/nose/throat problems, general body weakness, malaria, rheumatism, anthelmintic, skin infection, stomachache, insecticide, body rash, pesticide of stored grains, pneumonia, mosquito repellent, colorectal cancer, bronchitis, stomach ulcers, throat infections, constipation, abdominal pain, sore eyes, hiccups, hemorrhoids, control termites, runny nose, ulcers | [7,14,41,64,74,76,84,90,99,111,115,117,119,122,127,129,130,141,142,145,146,147,168] |
| Ocimum kilimandscharicum Gürke | Herb | Leaves, roots, stems, shoots | Nasal congestion, colds, flu, insect bites, general pains, malaria, diarrhea, dysentery, constipation, cough, eye problems, congested chest, measles, stomachache, repel insects, diabetes, sore eyes, acaricide, wounds, respiratory problems, fevers, abdominal pains | [7,86,96,101,106,122,125,133,139,142,147,168] |
| Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. ex Benth. | Herb | Leaves | Respiratory disorders and common ailments, stomachache | [14,168] |
| Ocimum spectabile (Gürke) A.J.Paton | Shrub | Leaves | Asthma, cough, colds/flu, eye lotion | [41,77] |
| Orthosiphon thymiflorus (Roth) Sleesen | Herb | Leaves | Stomach and oral cavity infections | [123] |
| Platostoma africanum P.Beauv. | Herb | Shoots | Mouth thrush, sore throat | [144] |
| Platostoma hildebrandtii (Vatke) A.J.Paton & Hedge | Herb/shrub | Leaves | Colds, wounds | [7] |
| Premna chrysoclada (Bojer) Gürke | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Diarrhea, prenatal care, convulsions, induce conception, dysentery, kidney trouble, purgative, fevers, female reproductive disorder, malaria | [75,127,134,142,150] |
| Premna hildebrandtii Gürke | Shrub/liana | Leaves, roots | Convulsions, diarrhea, stomachache | [127,142] |
| Premna oligotricha Baker | Shrub | Roots | Joint/bone pain | [77] |
| Premna resinosa (Hochst.) Schauer | Shrub | Roots, leaves | Fever, venereal diseases, fever, malaria, mosquito repellant, joint pains | [77,80,127,129] |
| Premna serratifolia L. | Shrub/tree | Leaves | Headache | [142] |
| Rotheca microphylla (Blume) Callm. & Phillipson | Shrub | Rots, leaves | Convulsions, headache, vomiting, gastrointestinal gas, cerebral malaria, postnatal problems | [127,142,150] |
| Rotheca myricoides (Hochst.) Steane & Mabb. | Shrub | Roots, bark, leaves, shoots | Sore throat, ear infections, malaria, gonorrhea, syphilis, aphrodisiac, STIs, venereal diseases, diarrhea, polio, joint pains, abscesses, back/bone pains, burns, cough, colds/flu, tonsilitis, arthritis, typhoid, rheumatism, emetic, gonorrhea, heartburn, oral thrush, cancer, throat cancer, diabetes mellitus, polio, abortions, headache, clean the womb, diabetes, gland complications, respiratory diseases, stomachache, gastrointestinal disorders, lumbago, venereal diseases, pneumonia, sore throat, ear problems, flu, dysentery, diarrhea, headache, eye infections, chest pains, bronchitis, indigestion, infertility, amoebic dysentery, anthelmintic, rheumatism, acaricide, venereal diseases, typhoid, asthma, strength, splenic pain and enlargement, enema against extreme body weakness due to chronic diseases, abdominal pains, threatened miscarriage, joint diseases, stimulate spasms during childbirth, menstrual pains, tonic, mental illness, abdominal pains during menses, HIV/AIDs, retained placenta, rabies, measles, TB, colic, eye disease, swellings, wounds, asthma, aphrodisiac, labor pains, poultry fever, ECF in livestock, toothache, purgative | [14,41,66,67,68,72,77,79,83,84,85,86,91,94,97,98,99,101,103,105,107,113,116,119,120,123,124,129,130,132,133,135,136,137,138,139,140,141,142,143,144,146,147,149,154,168] |
| Salvia coccinea Buc’hoz ex Etl. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | Menstrual overflow, ulcers, bad eye, breast/esophageal/colorectal cancer | [117,147] |
| Salvia leucantha Cav. (exotic) | Shrub | Shoots, leaves | Burns, edema | [144] |
| Salvia rosmarinus Spenn. (exotic) | Shrub | Leaves, stems | Chest problems, cough, colds/flu, pneumonia, retarded memory, rheumatism, stomachache, stress, inappetence, smelly body/feet | [41,74,119,147] |
| Tetradenia urticifolia (Baker) Phillipson | Shrub | Stems, leaves, roots, | Malaria, inappetence, amoeba, catalyzes vomiting, dental problems, general body pains, heartburns, livestock diseases, malaria, pneumonia, rheumatism, stomach disorders, cough, colds, flu, bronchitis, stomach upsets, flatulence, mouth ulcers, diarrhea, fevers, boils, mumps, stomach ailments, constipation, body pains, burns/scalds, anaplasmosis (cow, ruminants), trypanosomiasis (cow, goat), miscarriage (cow), cataract, abdominal pains, cough in cattle and goats, vomiting, asthma, edema, anthelmintic | [7,14,41,73,105,121,141,142,144,146,147] |
| Tinnea aethiopica Kotschy ex Hook.f. | Shrub | Whole plant, roots, leaves, fruits | Abdominal pains, constipation, eye lotion, Chira, acaricide, stomach upsets, gastrointestinal complaints in children, measles | [76,77,127,133,143,145,150] |
| Vitex doniana Sweet | Tree | Leaves, fruits, bark | Diarrhea, vomiting, whooping cough, acaricide, allergies, colds, cancer of breast and prostate glands, vitamin supplements, wounds | [84,98,120,133,144,147] |
| Vitex ferruginea Schumach. & Thonn. | Shrub/tree | Fruits, roots | Appetite, gastrointestinal complaints | [150] |
| Vitex fischeri Gürke | Tree | Leaves, bark | Livestock diseases, acaricide, anti-acid, fever, infectionstomachache | [14,41,133,144] |
| Vitex payos (Lour.) Merr. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Venereal diseases, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, chest problems, dental problems, diarrhea, increase blood, typhoid | [41,127] |
| Volkameria eriophylla (Gürke) Mabb. & Y.W.Yuan | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots | Swollen testicles, otitis, earache, anthelmintic, amoeba, stomachache, snake bites, malaria, edema | [51,74,103,104,142] |
| Lauraceae | ||||
| Kuloa usambarensis (Engl.) Trofimov & Rohwer | Tree | Bark, leaf, roots | Back pain, asthma, cancer, cardiac disorders, cough, colds/flu, dizziness, hypertension, joints, malaria, pneumonia, rheumatism, typhoid, anthelmintic, chest pains, appetizer, whooping cough, body ache, swelling, tumors, measles, muscular contractions, disturbed breathing, stomachache, antidote, aphrodisiac, clearing throat, relaxation | [14,41,103,104,113,145,146,147,168] |
| Persea americana Mill. (exotic) | Tree | Bark, seeds, roots, leaves, fruits | Toothache, anemia, invigorant, amoeba, blood purifier, cancer, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, ear-nose-throat problems, energy boost, headache, immune booster, increase blood, malaria, prostate cancer, rheumatism, skin diseases, stomach disorders, diabetes, colorectal/skin/breast cancer, skin, gut problems, STIs, toothache, cholesterol control | [14,41,83,88,116,117,119,152] |
| Lecythidaceae | ||||
| Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng. | Tree | Bark | Fish poison | [142] |
| Fabaceae | ||||
| Abrus fruticulosus Wall. ex Wight & Arn. | Shrub | Roots | Pneumonia | [84] |
| Abrus precatorius L. | Shrub | Leaves, roots, seeds, whole plant | Eye problems, asthma, septic swelling, gynecological pains, venereal diseases, colds, cough, stomachache, diabetes mellitus, febrifuge, fever, throat, skin cancer, gonorrhea, emetic, inflamed breasts during breast-feeding, family planning, emetic, poison, asthma, epilepsy, heart pain, snakebites, venereal diseases, malaise | [75,76,85,95,100,108,117,119,127,134,142,143,150] |
| Acacia mearnsii De Wild. (exotic) | Tree | Leaves, stems, bark, roots | Typhoid, chronic joint pains, chickenpox, dental problems, measles, skin diseases, smallpox, toothaches, wounds from poisoned arrows, cough (cows, goats, sheep, poultry, pig, ruminants) | [41,73,130,146,147,152] |
| Aeschynomene abyssinica (A.Rich.) Vatke | Herb/shrub | Leaves, bark, roots | Heartburn, chest pain, cough, uterine/skin/squamous cell carcinoma of the gums | [117,120,140] |
| Afzelia quanzensis Welw. | Tree | Roots, bark | Chest pains, stomachache, postnatal care, chest pain, snakebites, excessive menstruation | [127,150] |
| Albizia amara (Roxb.) B.Boivin | Tree | Bark, branches, fruits, roots, stem | Muscle and bodybuilding, indigestion, smooth baby skin and softens baby faces, back/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, chest problems, joints, malaria, peptic ulcers, hypertension, female infertility, stomachache, emetic, wounds, joint diseases, typhoid, piles, diarrhea, gonorrhea, ulcers, dandruff, cancer | [14,41,64,84,86,103,104,107,128,135,142,149] |
| Albizia anthelmintica (A.Rich.) Brongn. | Tree | Bark, roots, leaves, aerial parts | Malaria, stomachache, backache, emetic, induce bile release from the gall bladder, purgative, tonic, helminthiasis, diarrhea, convulsions, allergies, amoeba, joint/bone pain, general body pains, gonorrhea, headache, women’s health, wounds, syphilis, arthritis, flu/cold, pneumonia, brucellosis, anthelmintic (human, animals), runny nose, cough, skin diseases, asthma, snakebite, aphrodisiac, venereal diseases, edema, eye problems, retained placenta, abdominal pains, tonic, fever, liver diseases (poultry), cattle diseases (eye injuries, cough, bloat) | [14,41,51,64,67,68,72,80,84,90,92,96,100,102,105,107,110,121,127,128,132,134,135,137,138,139,141,142,150,168] |
| Albizia coriaria Welw. ex Oliv. | Tree | Roots, bark, stems, leaves | TB, genital thrush, gonorrhea, malaria, STIs, venereal diseases, pneumonia, menorrhagia, postpartum hemorrhage, sore eyes, livestock respiratory diseases, breast/uterine/skin cancer, diarrhea, stomachache, eye problems, boils, flu, colic pains, abdominal discomfort, constipation, infertility, anthelmintic, joints/backbone, cardiac conditions, kidney ailments, acaricide, gastrointestinal conditions, threatened abortion, whooping cough, anthrax, jaundice | [66,76,79,82,104,116,117,118,124,133,143,144] |
| Albizia glaberrima (Schumach. & Thonn.) Benth. | Shrub/tree | Leaves | Headache, stomachache | [120] |
| Albizia grandibracteata Taub. | Tree | Roots, bark, leaves | Gonorrhea, headache, stomachache, acaricide | [120,125,133] |
| Albizia gummifera (J.F.Gmel.) C.A.Sm. | Tree | Bark, roots, fruits, leaves, gum | Oral thrush, postpartum bleeding, STIs, stomachache, malaria, liver diseases, abdominal ulcers, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, chest problems, pneumonia, rheumatism, TB, typhoid, skin disorders, throat/skin cancer, gut problems, cough, flu, anthelmintic, ringworms, HIV/AIDs, dental care, acaricide, immune booster | [14,41,67,74,84,87,88,89,101,103,104,116,117,119,125,129,141,142,145,168] |
| Albizia versicolor Welw. ex Oliv. | Tree | Roots, leaves | Convulsions, chest pains, venereal diseases | [127] |
| Albizia zygia (DC.) J.F.Macbr. | Tree | Bark | Pneumonia | [98] |
| Astragalus atropilosulus (Hochst.) Bunge | Herb | Uterine pains after childbirth | [67] | |
| Bauhinia taitensis Taub. | Shrub | Roots | Joint problems, malaria, pneumonia, rheumatism, sores, wounds | [41,80] |
| Bauhinia tomentosa L. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark | Retained placenta, cough, malaria | [14,80,146] |
| Bauhinia variegata L. (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Leaves | Meat allergy, allergy rash | [144] |
| Biancaea decapetala (Roth) O.Deg. | Shrub | Roots | Skin infections, urinary tract infections, gum aches, poisonous, toothache, stomachache | [14,123,142,144,147] |
| Cadia purpurea (G.Piccioli) Aiton | Shrub | Bark | Poison, flees and parasites | [77,136] |
| Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth | Shrub | Leaves, roots, branches, seeds | Allergies, joint pains, amoeba, bites, malaria, snakebites, stomach disorders, flu, constipation, weight loss, stomachache, tonsils, eye/ear problems, infertility, nausea in pregnant women | [41,84,105,130,139,146,150,151] |
| Calpurnia aurea (Aiton) Benth. | Shrub/tree | Poisonous | [142] | |
| Canavalia ensiformis (L.) DC. | Liana | Root | Urinary problem, passing blood in urine | [144] |
| Cassia abbreviata Oliv. | Tree | Aerial parts, bark, roots, leaves, pods | Malaria, diabetes mellitus, chest pain, muscular pain, fever, ulcers, goat medicine, hypertension, hemostatic, yellow fever, typhoid fever. fatigue, body aches, inflammatory skin diseases, painful joints, menstrual cramps, aphrodisiac, venereal disease, stomachache, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, retained placenta, toothache, cough, gonorrhea, kidney pains, colds, pain in joints | [51,85,100,128,139,142,145,148,150,151] |
| Chamaecrista hildebrandtii (Vatke) Lock | Herb | Roots, leaves | Gastrointestinal problems, body pain including bones and joints, stomachache | [79,140,143] |
| Chamaecrista kirkii (Oliv.) Standl. | Herb | Leaves, shoots | Wounds, meat allergy, skin rashes, men infertility, livestock black water | [144] |
| Chamaecrista nigricans (Vahl) Greene | Herb | Roots, leaves | Stomachache, anthelmintic | [76] |
| Craibia brevicaudata (Vatke) Dunn | Shrub/tree | Roots | Hypertension | [127] |
| Craibia brownii Dunn | Tree | Roots | Cough | [80] |
| Craibia zimmermannii (Harms) Dunn | Tree | Bark, leaves, stems | high blood pressure, fever, anthelmintic, animals (constipation) | [145] |
| Crotalaria agatiflora Schweinf. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots | Wounds, backache, colds, dirty body system, skin infections, STIs, gonorrhea, urinary infections, gastrointestinal problems | [109,115,142,143,152,168] |
| Crotalaria axillaris Aiton | Herb/shrub | Leaves | Sore eyes, fever, stomach upsets | [100,142,145] |
| Crotalaria brevidens Benth. | Herb | Stomachache, body swellings, gastrointestinal conditions, conjunctivitis in children | [79,95,99,143] | |
| Crotalaria incana L. | Herb | Leaves, roots, whole plant | Stomach upsets (constipation, dyspepsia), cough, anemia, strength, chest pains, purgative, proper placement of baby in womb, sore throat, mouth rushes, wounds | [72,88,91,136,141,144] |
| Crotalaria keniensis Baker f. | Shrub | Roots | Fever | [109] |
| Crotalaria laburnifolia L. | Herb | Roots | Helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig) | [73] |
| Crotalaria lachnocarpoides Engl. | Herb/shrub | Root | Sore throat | [140] |
| Crotalaria mauensis Baker f. | Herb/shrub | Roots, leaves | Mouth infection in babies, asthma, urinary infections | [109,147,168] |
| Crotalaria natalitia Meisn. | Herb/shrub | Strength, cough, chest pain | [136] | |
| Crotalaria pallida Aiton | Herb | Roots | Oral infections | [119] |
| Crotalaria polysperma Kotschy | Herb | Vomiting, diarrhea | [132] | |
| Cynometra webberi Baker f. | Tree | Leaves | Children’s diseases | [127] |
| Dalbergia boehmii Taub. | Shrub/tree | Roots | General body pains, diarrhea, induce labor pains | [127] |
| Dalbergia lactea Vatke | Shrub/liana | Roots, leaves | STIs, diabetes, managing pain and inflammation, back pains, liver pains, gonorrhea | [113,115,154,168] |
| Dalbergia melanoxylon Guill. & Perr. | Tree | Bark, roots, leaves | Gastrointestinal pains, prenatal care, tonsils, venereal diseases, artery problems, back/joint/bone pains, chest problems, cough/colds/flu, dental problems, malaria, pneumonia, rheumatism, typhoid, tonic, liver problems | [41,84,100,127,129,134] |
| Dalbergia microphylla Chiov. | Shrub | Leaves | Mouth ulcers | [142] |
| Delonix elata (L.) Gamble (exotic) | Tree | Bark | Livestock diseases, wounds | [14,51,80] |
| Delonix regia (Bojer ex Hook.) Raf. | Tree | Bark | STIs, stomachache | [144] |
| Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves, branches | Diarrhea, prenatal care, cough, convulsions, anesthesia, ulcers, gonorrhea, malaria, poisonous, scorpion stings, snakebites, bones, injuries to reduce swelling, colds, asthma, toothache, gastrointestinal problems, constipation, amoebic dysentery, body pains | [51,89,104,111,112,127,134,142,143,150] |
| Dolichos compressus R.Wilczek | Herb | Roots | Infertility | [120] |
| Dolichos kilimandscharicus Taub. | Herb | Roots, stems, leaves | Acaricide | [133] |
| Dolichos oliveri Schweinf. | Herb/shrub | Roots | Poisonous, dementia, epilepsy; fever in livestock | [77,142,143] |
| Entada abyssinica Steud. ex A.Rich. | Tree | Bark, leaves, roots | Scabies, flu, infertility, cough, anthelmintic, body aches, dysentery, stomachache, edema, diarrhea, STIs, TB, childbirth, joint/backbones, cardiac conditions, kidney ailments, cancer, veterinary uses, acaricide, sprained muscles/limbs, body swelling, heart ailments | [66,87,88,116,118,120,125,133,143,144] |
| Entada leptostachya Harms | Liana | Roots, bark, leaves, exudate | Tuberculosis, cough, boils, abscesses, cuts/wounds, amoeba, eye problems, knee problems, STIs, stomachache, snakebites/spits, arrow poison, polio, back pain, anthelmintic (human, animals), malaria, anemia, hemorrhage, high fever, madness, gastroenteritis, epilepsy, helps increase milk letdown, edema, snake repellent, swollen legs, body pains and hemorrhage in pregnant women, retained placenta, abdominal pains, eye injury, food poisoning, internal injury | [14,41,51,72,80,84,94,96,100,139,142,151,153] |
| Eriosema glomeratum (Guill. & Perr.) Hook.f. | Herb | Roots | Fever | [144] |
| Eriosema robustum Baker | Shrub | Roots | Cough | [144] |
| Erythrina abyssinica Lam. | Tree | Stems, roots, bark | Swollen lymph glands, abdominal/colic pain in children, chickenpox, infertility, malaria, urinary tract infections, cancerous wounds, stomach pains, postpartum pain, mouth, laxative, internal injuries, pneumonia, STIs, abscesses, allergies, amoeba, antidote, back/joint/bone problems, bilharzia, cancer, cholera, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, diarrhea, ear-nose-throat problems, general body pains, increase blood, injuries/cuts/wounds, livestock diseases, male paralysis, measles, medicine antidote, prostrate problems, rheumatism, RVF, stomach disorders, typhoid, ulcers, uterus problems, vomiting, whooping cough, anthelmintic, arthritis, toothache, chest pains, peptic ulcers, hypertension, mumps, gonorrhea, snakebites, amoeba, diarrhea, pregnancy anemia, pregnancy edema, anaplasmosis (cow, ruminant), helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), skin diseases, stomachache, mumps, body swellings, chest problems, blood cleanser, evacuation of bowels, anemia, fever, liver inflammation, acaricide, eye infection, syphilis, abdominal pains, tonic, skin sores/ulcers and swellings, allergy, gonorrhea, diabetes, gout, liver disorder, epilepsy, swelling of legs, anthrax, cattle cough and bloat, elephantiasis, kidney problems, menstrual problems | [14,41,66,67,73,74,81,84,86,87,91,94,99,101,102,105,110,113,116,119,120,123,129,133,135,138,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,151,153,154,168] |
| Erythrina excelsa Baker | Tree | Bark, roots, exudate | Snakebites, STIs, loose stool | [118,126,143] |
| Erythrina melanacantha Taub. ex Harms | Tree | Bark | Stomachache, venereal diseases, eradicate mites from chicken/cattle, chest pain, colds, cough, snakebites | [14,80,146] |
| Erythrophleum suaveolens (Guill. & Perr.) Brenan | Tree | Bark, seeds | Poisonous | [142] |
| Faidherbia albida (Delile) A.Chev. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | Cancer, liver enlargement | [91,132] |
| Gelrebia trothaei (Harms) Gagnon & G.P.Lewis | Shrub | Fruits | Poisonous | [142] |
| Grona adscendens (Sw.) H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi | Herb/shrub | Stomachache | [125] | |
| Grona barbata (L.) H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi | Herb | Leaves | Edema | [144] |
| Grona setigera (E.Mey.) H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi | Herb | Leaves, roots | Strengthen sunken part of baby head and scalp and bring head to normal shape | [144] |
| Guilandina bonduc L. | Liana | Seeds, leaves, roots | Asthma, complications during menstruation, miscarriage, internal blood clots in eyes | [127] |
| Guilandina volkensii (Harms) G.P.Lewis | Liana | Leaves, roots, bark, seeds | Eye problems, back pain in women, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, malaria, pneumonia, rheumatism, STIs, typhoid, anthelmintic, acidity, headache, general body pains, fevers, venereal diseases, stomach ulcers, sore throat, chest pain, stomachache | [14,41,84,95,103,104,107,113,119,129,138,142,143,146,147,168] |
| Hylodesmum repandum (Vahl) H.Ohashi & R.R.Mill | Herb | Stomach upsets | [125] | |
| Indigofera ambelacensis Schweinf. | Herb | Roots | Heart disease | [99] |
| Indigofera arrecta Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Herb | Leaves, roots | Toothache, abdominal cramps/pains, malaria, abortion, pain in urination, arthritis, chest pains, cough, colds, asthma, diarrhea, skin rashes, stomachache, anthelmintic, cancer, skin sores and ulcers, anthrax, congested chest, sore throat, aphrodisiac, retained placenta, hear problem, kidney ailment, fever, edema | [14,86,88,91,99,105,115,119,120,132,138,139,141,142,143,144,146,147,152,154,168] |
| Indigofera atriceps Hook.f. | Herb | Teeth problems | [132] | |
| Indigofera bogdanii J.B.Gillett | Shrub | Roots | Joint pain, bone pain | [77] |
| Indigofera circinella Baker f. | Herb | Leaves, roots | Snakebites, cough, stomach problems, sore throat, stomachache | [67,126,143,144] |
| Indigofera colutea (Burm.f.) Merr. | Herb | Shoots | Kill mites, snakebites wounds | [144] |
| Indigofera conjugata Baker | Herb | Leaves | Chest problems | [144] |
| Indigofera dendroides Jacq. | Herb | Leaves | Fungal diseases | [118] |
| Indigofera emarginella Steud. ex A.Rich. | Herb/shrub | Roots, stems | Acaricide | [133] |
| Indigofera garckeana Vatke | Shrub | Roots | Gonorrhea, joint pain | [77] |
| Indigofera lupatana Baker f. | Herb/shrub | Roots | Cough, colds/flu, epiglottis hair, anthelmintic, malaria, pneumonia, backache, diarrhea, constipation | [14,41,51,74,80,96] |
| Indigofera spicata Forssk. | Herb | Roots, whole plant, stems, leaves | Cough, wounds, burns, diarrhea, sore throat | [67,77,122,143] |
| Indigofera spinosa Forssk. | Herb/shrub | Roots | Strength | [77] |
| Indigofera swaziensis Bolus | Shrub | Roots, whole plant | Malaria, anthelmintic, body aches, weaknesses, rheumatism, bone pain | [77,147] |
| Indigofera tanganyikensis Baker f. | Herb | Roots | Baby diseases | [140] |
| Indigofera trita L.f. | Herb/shrub | Leaves | Headache, stomachache | [99,142] |
| Kotschya africana Endl. | Shrub | Various parts | Acaricide | [133] |
| Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet | Herb | Seeds, roots | Lung disease in sheep, poisonous | [168] |
| Millettia dura Dunn | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots | Allergies, cough, colds/flu, malaria, typhoid, anthelmintic, ECF in cattle, pneumonia, diarrhea, amoeba, madness | [14,41,74,146] |
| Millettia usaramensis Taub. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Coughs, chest pains | [127] |
| Mucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC. | Liana | Leaves | Cough | [120] |
| Mucuna poggei Taub. | Liana | Bark, root, aerial parts | Acaricide | [133] |
| Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A.Chev. | Shrub/tree | Bark, leaves | Fish poison, jiggers | [142,150] |
| Neonotonia wightii (Wight & Arn.) J.A.Lackey | Herb | Leaves | Breast cancer, edema, excess bleeding after miscarriage | [117,144] |
| Neorautanenia mitis (A.Rich.) Verdc. | Herb | Roots | Abortifacients | [141] |
| Newtonia buchananii (Baker) G.C.C.Gilbert & Boutique | Tree | Bark, root | Malaria, anthelmintic, chest pains, gonorrhea, blood pressure, anemia, immune booster, fatigue, runny nose (cattle), colds, cough | [14,41,146] |
| Newtonia hildebrandtii (Vatke) Torre | Tree | Bark | Chest problems, dysentery, asthma and other respiratory disorders, malaria, stomach disorders | [41,72,77,80,129] |
| Ormocarpum keniense J.B.Gillett | Shrub | Leaves | Anthelmintic | [80] |
| Ormocarpum kirkii S.Moore | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots, leaf | Postpartum bleeding, threatened abortion, cuts, wounds, septic swelling, diabetes mellitus, headache, swollen breasts, stomachache, livestock stomach cleansing, diarrhea, dislocations, joint swellings, malaria, colds | [14,85,90,100,105,127,142,143,145] |
| Ormocarpum sennoides (Willd.) DC. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Convulsions, prenatal care, gynecological pains, burns, children’s diseases | [127] |
| Ormocarpum trachycarpum (Taub.) Harms | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, stems, bark | Diarrhea, whooping cough, miscarriage, sunken fontanelle, swellings, cough, tuberculosis | [67,76,107,140] |
| Ormocarpum trichocarpum (Taub.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Ringworm, stomachache, ulcers, maintain pregnancy, pregnancy cramps, gastrointestinal disorders, bleeding after miscarriage, diarrhea, stomach problems, dislocations, joint swellings | [67,71,77,79,94,96,106,142,143] |
| Parkinsonia aculeata L. (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Roots | Prevent miscarriage | [144] |
| Philenoptera bussei (Harms) Schrire | Tree | Leaves | Convulsions, venereal diseases, prenatal care | [127] |
| Philenoptera eriocalyx (Harms) Schrire | Tree | Leaves, bark, roots | Back/joint/bone problems, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, aphrodisiac, malaria, pneumonia, eye infections, wounds, ulcers, diabetes, blood pressure, stomachache, waterborne diseases, gonorrhea, rheumatism, digestion, chest pains | [14,41,80,84,100,104,129,132,142,148] |
| Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. | Tree | Bark, leaves, roots | Livestock medicine, asthma, TB, chronic joint pains, amoeba, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, malaria, typhoid, dysentery, fever, respiratory ailments, snakebites, hookworm, skin infections, livestock respiratory symptoms, prolonged menstruation, gonorrhea and other venereal diseases, ear, stomachache, childbirth, fractures, colic pains, acaricide, venereal diseases, chest pains, bronchitis, diarrhea, blood pressure, cattle medicine, wounds/ulcers, diuretic | [14,41,66,74,80,82,84,107,112,116,120,130,133,142,143] |
| Platycelyphium voense (Engl.) Wild | Herb | Bark | Bone/joint pain, yellow fever, snake repellant | [100,137] |
| Polhillides velutina (Willd.) H.Ohashi & K.Ohashi | Herb/shrub | Leaves | Sore eyes | [112] |
| Pseudarthria hookeri Wight & Arn. | Herb/shrub | Roots | Abdominal pains, diarrhea | [87] |
| Pterolobium stellatum (Forssk.) Brenan | Liana | Roots, leaves | Colds, cough (asthma), splenomegaly, stomachache, TB, chest pains, joint pains, backache | [67,87,99,107,109,113,138,142,168] |
| Rhynchosia elegans A.Rich. | Herb | Roots | Cough, mental illness | [98,143] |
| Rhynchosia hirta (Andrews) Meikle & Verdc. | Herb/shrub | Ease child delivery, retained placenta | [143] | |
| Rhynchosia resinosa (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Baker | Shrub | Leaf, stems, roots, bark | Acaricide | [133] |
| Senegalia adenocalyx (Brenan & Exell) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Septic swelling | [127] |
| Senegalia ataxacantha (DC.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub | Roots, bark | Cough, pneumonia, malaria, eyes, boils, back/joint ache, gonorrhea | [14,77,80,84,129] |
| Senegalia brevispica (Harms) Seigler & Ebinger | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, aerial parts | Wounds, ringworm, headache/fontanelle, back/bone joints problems, giddiness, cough, livestock diseases, malaria, stomachache, diarrhea, itchy skin, rashes, removal of ganglion, colic pain after meals, infertility, swollen reproductive organs in men, anthelmintic, jaundice in infants, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, edema | [41,51,67,76,77,80,91,94,96,100,106,137,138,139,140,141,143,168] |
| Senegalia hamulosa (Benth.) Boatwr. | Shrub | Bark | Diarrhea | [77] |
| Senegalia mellifera (Benth.) Seigler & Ebinger | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots, leaves | Appetizer, tonic, indigestion, postpartum tonic, sore throat, ECF, convulsions, snakebites, joint pains, cholera, asthma, gonorrhea, back/bone problems, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, general body pains, malaria, wounds, STIs, stomachache, infertility, pneumonia, syphilis, rheumatism, back/joint ache, swollen legs, diarrhea, purgative | [41,51,80,84,90,91,92,96,97,100,104,106,107,110,127,129,130,138,139,141,142,147,168] |
| Senegalia montigena (Brenan & Exell) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub | Roots | Anthelmintic | [142] |
| Senegalia persiciflora (Pax) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Tree | Bark | Colic pain | [140] |
| Senegalia polyacantha (Willd.) Seigler & Ebinger | Tree | Leaves | Sores | [168] |
| Senegalia senegal (L.) Britton | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark | Indigestion, stomachache, purgative, constipation, gonorrhea, diarrhea, abdominal disorders, abortion, malaria, skin rashes, eye medicine | [67,72,77,89,92,104,107,115,136,142,148] |
| Senna bicapsularis (L.) Roxb. | Shrub | Leaves | Diarrhea, relax infant’s body | [76] |
| Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby | Shrub/tree | Leaves, leaves, bark, stems, aerial parts | Cathartic, malaria, back pain in women, STIs, joint pain, eye infection, constipation, Chira, fever, typhoid, allergies, amoeba, bone problems, chest congestion, chickenpox, diarrhea, gall bladder, general body pains, hard stool, heartburn, measles, meat allergy, rheumatism, skin diseases, stomach disorders, swellings, urinary system infections, oral cavity infections, cancer, breast pain, skin swellings, emetic, purgative, diabetes mellitus, anthrax, boils, scurvy, mosquito/bee repellant, anaplasmosis (cow), helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), hepatitis, colorectal cancer, back pains, pimples, pneumonia (cattle, human), skin rashes, tonsils, headache, acaricide, ringworms, antihemorrhagic, hypertension, gastrointestinal disorders, pain/swelling of liver, anthelmintic (human, animals), poisonous, stomachache, enhance childbirth, constipation in cattle, skin care, abdominal and menstruation pains, mental problems, insecticide, asthma, gonorrhea, excess bile | [14,41,67,73,76,77,78,79,84,85,86,87,91,99,101,103,104,108,109,113,115,117,119,120,123,129,131,133,134,135,138,140,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,152,153,154,168] |
| Senna longiracemosa (Vatke) Lock | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, stems | Stomachache, cough, malaria, headache, fever, painkiller, abortifacient, vomiting, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, abdominal pains | [14,72,77,80,139,142,145] |
| Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby | Herb | Leaves, seeds, roots | Children’s medicine, abortifacient | [91,142] |
| Senna occidentalis (L.) Link | Shrub | Leaves, roots | Malaria, stomachache, diarrhea, typhoid, fever, backache, cough, chest pain, gastrointestinal problems, gastric complaints, cathartic, abdominal menstruation pains, fever and dizziness (people, livestock), snakebites, kidney problems, ECF, swollen testicles | [14,51,76,79,80,101,108,111,118,119,122,124,143,144,147,150] |
| Senna septemtrionalis (Viv.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby (exotic) | Shrub | Leaves, roots, seeds | Inhalant, anaplasmosis (cow), helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), retained placenta, purgative, constipation, afterbirth pains, stomachache | [66,73,99,168] |
| Senna siamea (Lam.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby (exotic) | Tree | Roots, stems, leaves | Snakebites, allergies, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, headache, injuries/cuts, wounds, malaria, TB, ulcers, gonorrhea, acaricide, stomachache | [41,106,126,133,143,147] |
| Senna singueana (Delile) Lock | Shrub/tree | Leaves, bark, roots | Prenatal care, general body pains, venereal diseases, anthrax, chickenpox, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, indigestions, diabetes mellitus, malaria, fevers, diarrhea, stomach disorders, sore throat, anthelmintic, acaricide, anthrax, elephantiasis | [14,41,68,77,84,85,127,129,133,142,145,147] |
| Senna spectabilis (DC.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby (exotic) | Tree | Bark, roots, leaves | Chronic joint pains, cramping, backbone, STIs, venereal diseases, joint ailment | [106,116,130,144] |
| Sesbania macrantha Welw. ex E.Phillips & Hutch. | Shrub | Leaves, stems | Acaricide | [133] |
| Sesbania sesban (L.) Merr. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, stems, roots, whole plant, bark, seeds | Stomach ailments, ulcers, tonic, throat/uterine/skin cancer, Chira, flu, childbirth, poultry, genital infections, constipation, acaricide, hunchback, jaundice, livestock blindness, afterbirth pains, retained placenta | [66,76,77,116,117,119,133,143,144] |
| Sophora tomentosa L. | Shrub | Fish poison | [142] | |
| Stylosanthes fruticosa (Retz.) Alston | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, whole plant | Malaria, first trimester abortion, pregnancy edema | [81,96] |
| Tamarindus indica L. | Tree | Roots, fruits, bark, leaves | Nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, malaria, stomachache, headache, dizziness, snake spits/bites, allergies, pimples, joint pains, amoeba, back/bone problems, chickenpox, cough, colds/flu, eye problems, appetizer, measles, ringworms, arthritis, gonorrhea, cancer, diabetes mellitus, rheumatism, earache, dysentery, fevers, asthma, leprosy, ulcers, liver disease, acaricide, sores, ulcers, boils, rashes, amenorrhea, throat infections, anthelmintic, livestock diseases, laxative, tuberculosis, typhoid, general body malaise, leech, pneumonia, anemia, retained placenta, abdominal pain, tonsillitis, smallpox, edema | [14,41,51,66,76,77,80,85,88,96,98,99,106,110,111,112,121,124,127,132,133,134,137,139,141,142,143,144,145,146,147,150,151] |
| Tephrosia emeroides A.Rich. | Herb | Roots | Cough | [140] |
| Tephrosia interrupta Hochst. & Steud. ex Engl. | Shrub | Leaves | Poultry for fever, induce lactation (cows), sore throat | [144] |
| Tephrosia noctiflora Bojer ex Baker | Herb/shrub | Roots | Fever | [77] |
| Tephrosia polyphylla (Chiov.) J.B.Gillett | Herb | Roots | Fever | [77] |
| Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. | Herb | Roots | Malaria | [74] |
| Tephrosia uniflora Pers. | Herb/shrub | Roots | Fever | [77] |
| Tephrosia villosa (L.) Pers. | Herb | Roots | Prenatal care, cough, fever, malaria | [51,127] |
| Tephrosia vogelii Hook.f. | Herb | Roots, leaves, fruits, bark, seeds | Diseases, constipation, control of rodents ectoparasites, crop pests, general ectoparasites (cow, poultry), acaricide, fish poison | [73,74,133,142] |
| Teramnus labialis (L.f.) Spreng. | Herb | Roots | Chira | [76] |
| Trifolium baccarinii Chiov. | Herb | Leaves | Infected gums | [144] |
| Trifolium rueppellianum Fresen. | Herb | Shoots | Fever in animals, measles, anthelmintic | [144] |
| Tylosema fassoglense (Kotschy ex Schweinf.) Torre & Hillc. | Herb/shrub | Roots, leaves, whole plant | Epilepsy, infertility in women, renal disease, cancer, epilepsy, constipation (huma, livestock), gastrointestinal complications e.g., stomachache, anemia, fever, jaundice, pneumonia, hypertension, fever/joint pains in livestock, acaricide, flu, asthma, diabetes, obesity, venereal diseases | [79,82,86,87,98,133,143,144] |
| Vachellia abyssinica (Hochst. ex Benth.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Tree | Bark, roots, leaves | Spinal cord problem, body weakness, arthritis, gastrointestinal distress, lumbago, wounds, colds/flu, skin problems | [68,84,109,116,143,154] |
| Vachellia amythethophylla (Steud. ex A.Rich.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Tree | Leaves, roots, bark | Acaricide | [133] |
| Vachellia ancistroclada (Brenan) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark | Indigestion, appetizer, tonic, malaria | [92,138] |
| Vachellia drepanolobium (Harms ex Y.Sjöstedt) P.J.H.Hurter | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, branches | Cleaning women after giving birth, postpartum pain, infertility, tonic, uterine cleaning, TB, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, diarrhea, rheumatism, sore throat, diuretic, retained placenta in (human, cows), babesiosis, gastrointestinal problems, malaria, livestock diseases, sore throat, stomachache | [41,67,68,73,77,90,92,105,121,129,135,138,142,143,168] |
| Vachellia elatior (Brenan) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Tree | Bark | Diarrhea, stomach disorder, cough | [67,77,142] |
| Vachellia etbaica (Schweinf.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Tree | Bark, stems, roots | Stomachache, colds, venereal diseases, respiratory disorders, chest pains | [77,88,100,127,136] |
| Vachellia gerrardii (Benth.) P.J.H.Hurter | Shrub/tree | Stems, bark, roots, seeds | Retained placenta, prostrate problems, arthritis, wounds from poisoned arrows, bone pain, joint pain, backache, livestock diseases, digestion, stomachache, after-delivery tonic | [41,71,77,121,123,135,147,154] |
| Vachellia hockii (De Wild.) Seigler & Ebinger | Shrub/tree | Bark, leaves, roots | Cancer, STIs, childbirth, diarrhea, malaria, labor cramps, stomachache, boils, swelling, gynecological problems, abdominal/colic pains, fecal impaction, astringent, colds/flu, gastrointestinal problems, cough, abscess, whitlow, venereal diseases, joint ailments | [72,76,77,84,88,91,97,99,118,136,140,141,143,144] |
| Vachellia horrida (L.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub | Bark | Stomach disorders | [77] |
| Vachellia kirkii (Oliv.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Tree | Bark | Abdominal pains | [139] |
| Vachellia lahai (Steud. & Hochst. ex Benth.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Tree | Bark, roots, leaves, gum | Skin eruptions, astringent, stomachache, toxemias of pregnancy and bowels | [88,91,120,132,141,142,143] |
| Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb. | Tree | Bark, roots, stems, seeds | Indigestion, tonic, painful joints/arthritis, stomachache, wounds, body aches, stomachic, stamina, stimulant, gonorrhea, chest pain, upper respiratory diseases, stomachache, joint pains, colds/flu, cough, amoeba, arthritis, back/bone problems, heartburn, burns, malaria, medicine antidote, anthelmintic (human, cattle), eye infection, diabetes, gastrointestinal complications, babesiosis, pregnancy edema, women after giving a birth, aphrodisiac, acaricide, diarrhea, dysentery, leprosy, ulcers, cancers/tumors, abdominal/colic pains, headache, tuberculosis, constipation, venereal diseases, sores, rashes, sore eyes, eyelids, liver enlargement, chest pains, firms stool, typhoid, stomach upsets/ulcers, spleen problems, kidney problems, fever, asthma, fibroids, infertility, throat cleaning and bloat in cattle, retained placenta, bleeding gums, sore throat, tonsils, kwashiorkor | [14,41,51,67,68,71,72,77,80,81,83,89,90,91,92,93,96,99,100,102,105,106,107,110,112,123,127,129,130,132,133,135,138,139,141,142,147,148,149,150,151,168] |
| Vachellia oerfota (Forssk.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub | Stems, bark, roots, leaves, seeds | Retained placenta, STIs, postpartum tonic, facilitate lactation, rejuvenation, diarrhea, women’s stomach pain, hepatitis, fever, gonorrhea, bone disease, gonorrhea, malaria, rheumatism, typhoid, amoeba, joint diseases, facilitate lactation, purgative, mouth blisters | [72,77,90,92,107,132,138,142,149] |
| Vachellia paolii (Chiov.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub | Bark | Skin diseases | [142] |
| Vachellia reficiens (Wawra & Peyr.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots | Strengthener, appetizer, tonic/adaptogen, laxative, stomach disorders, stomachache, aphrodisiac | [77,90,99] |
| Vachellia robusta (Burch.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Tree | Roots, bark | Retained placenta, livestock diseases, chest pains, colds, cough, bronchial obstruction, malaria | [90,92,98,100,127,135] |
| Vachellia seyal (Delile) P.J.H.Hurter | Tree | Roots, bark, leaves | Diarrhea, cough, colds, blood cleanser, chronic joint pains, amoeba, stomachache, livestock diseases, headache, abdominal pains, induce perspiration, appetizer, gastrointestinal problems, malaria | [41,64,88,111,127,130,132,135,141,142,143,168] |
| Vachellia sieberiana (DC.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Tree | Bark, branches, fruits, roots, stems | Given to women after delivery to help in healing, acaricide | [133,135] |
| Vachellia stuhlmannii (Taub.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, bark | Cholera, pneumonia, cough, sores, ulcers, boils | [112,127] |
| Vachellia tortilis (Forssk.) Galasso & Banfi | Tree | Bark, roots, fruits | Gonorrhea, malaria, stomachache, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, pancreatic diseases, pains, pneumonia, wounds, fever, polio, protracted labor, bone disease/strength, indigestion, clean kidneys, cancer, diarrhea, chest pains, swollen legs, retained placenta, abdominal pains/swelling, mouth diseases/ulcers | [41,51,72,77,80,81,91,92,97,100,104,106,129,138,139,142,148] |
| Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) Banfi & Galasso | Tree | Bark, roots | Pneumonia, appetizer, skin disorders, fatigue, typhoid, diarrhea, stomach disorders, peptic ulcers, amoeba, hypertension, renal disorders, female infertility, mumps, cancer, arthritis, sore throat (human), cough (livestock, human), malaria, foot and mouth (ruminants, poultry, cows), indigestion, constipation, colds, receding gums, sore throat | [41,73,82,86,92,104,105,138,142,152,168] |
| Vachellia zanzibarica (S.Moore) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Stomachache, diarrhea, cough, asthma, septic swelling, snakebites | [127] |
| Vigna schimperi Baker | Herb | Leaves | Tonsils | [144] |
| Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc. | Herb | Leaves, seeds | Nutritional supplement | [66] |
| Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. | Herb | Roots, leaves, seeds | Boils, conjunctivitis, poisonous | [94,143,168] |
| Linaceae | ||||
| Hugonia castaneifolia Engl. | Shrub/liana | Roots | Snakebites, convulsions, colds | [127,142] |
| Linderniaceae | ||||
| Craterostigma plantagineum Hochst. | Herb | Toothache | [143] | |
| Loganiaceae | ||||
| Strychnos henningsii Gilg | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, branches, bark | Arthritis, stomachache, malaria, body/joint/bone pain, epilepsy, diabetes, back pain in women, postpartum pain, amoeba, cough, colds/flu, headache, stomach disorders, swellings, typhoid, anthelmintic, mosquito repellant, delayed labor, prevent first/second trimester abortion, vomiting, pregnancy edema, pregnancy anemia, postpartum hemorrhage, fever, induce abortion, make arrow poison, rheumatism, chest pain, strengthen bones, dysmenorrhea, impotence, ulcers, muscular pains/swellings, diarrhea, general body weakness, pneumonia, alcohol hangover, swollen legs and body pains in pregnancy, wounds, gastrointestinal complaints, snakebites, constipation, kidney pains | [14,41,51,64,77,81,84,85,93,96,99,100,102,103,104,105,107,113,129,130,135,138,139,140,142,146,147,149,151,168] |
| Strychnos innocua Delile | Shrub/tree | Leaves, seeds | Acaricide | [133] |
| Strychnos madagascariensis Poir. | Shrub/tree | Roots, fruits | Enhances conception and pregnancy, jiggers | [127,150] |
| Strychnos spinosa Lam. | Shrub/tree | Roots, seeds, leaves, bark | Stomach ailments, pneumonia, asthma, induce labor pains, colds, flu, acaricide, jiggers, abortifacient, poisonous | [106,112,127,133,142] |
| Loranthaceae | ||||
| Agelanthus oehleri (Engl.) Polhill & Wiens | Shrub | Shoots, whole plant | Prevent miscarriage, enhance conception in sterile women | [77,144] |
| Agelanthus pennatulus (Sprague) Polhill & Wiens | Shrub | Leaves, roots | Chest problems, malaria, fever, pneumonia, colds, joint pain, stomach complications | [109] |
| Agelanthus sansibarensis (Engl.) Polhill & Wiens | Shrub | Leaves, branches | Headache | [99] |
| Emelianthe panganensis (Engl.) Danser | Whole plant | Prevent miscarriage | [77] | |
| Englerina woodfordioides (Schweinf.) Balle ex M.G. Gilbert | Shrub | Whole plant, bark, twigs | Pneumonia, liver/spleen diseases, pneumonia, liver enlargement, heartburn | [67,99,132,141] |
| Erianthemum dregei (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Tiegh. | Bark | Snake bite wounds | [99] | |
| Oliverella hildebrandtii (Engl.) Tiegh. | Shrub | Whole plant | Prevent miscarriage | [77] |
| Oncocalyx fischeri (Engl.) M.G.Gilbert | Shrub | Whole plant, bark, twigs | Pain, retained afterbirth, wounds, prevent miscarriage | [67,68,77] |
| Phragmanthera usuiensis (Oliv.) M.G.Gilbert | Shrub | Whole branch, branches, bark, leaves, roots | Clean umbilical cord wound, paralysis, stroke, gout, stomach cancer, arthritis, pneumonia, pain, colds, stroke, gout, liver diseases | [67,99,120,135,141,154] |
| Plicosepalus curviflorus (Benth. ex Oliv.) Tiegh. | Shrub | Twigs | Pneumonia | [67] |
| Tapinanthus buvumae (Rendle) Danser | Shrub | Heartburn | [132] | |
| Lythraceae | ||||
| Lawsonia inermis L. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Emetic, stomach problems, dysentery/severe diarrhea, women’s stomach disorder after birth | [72,77,142] |
| Punica granatum L. (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Fruits, seeds, roots | Amoeba, infertility, malaria, meat appetite, STIs, stomachache, tonsilitis, pneumonia, wounds, erectile dysfunction/impotence, gonorrhea, diarrhea, anthelmintic, aphrodisiac | [14,41,84,146,168] |
| Rotala tenella (Guill. & Perr.) Hiern | Herb | Whole plant | Blood cleanser, lumbago, peripheral neuropathy, muscle cramps, joint pains, pre/post-menopausal syndromes, obesity, cardiovascular disorders, cerebrovascular disorders, hyperlipidemia | [88] |
| Malpighiaceae | ||||
| Caucanthus auriculatus (Radlk.) Nied. | Liana | Roots | Bone pain, rheumatism, backache, malaria | [77] |
| Triaspis mozambica A. Juss. | Liana | Leaves | Stomach medicine | [142] |
| Malvaceae | ||||
| Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet | Herb/shrub | Retained placenta | [136] | |
| Abutilon longicuspe Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Shrub | Retained placenta | [136] | |
| Abutilon mauritianum (Jacq.) Medik. | Herb/shrub | Seeds, roots, leaves | Dysentery, retained placenta, expectorant, aphrodisiac | [136,141,142,168] |
| Adansonia digitata L. | Tree | Leaves, bark, fruits, roots | Dizziness, nausea, headache, hypertension, children’s diseases, skin infections, malaria, fly repellant, fumigant, arrow poison antidote, erectile dysfunction/impotence,epilepsy, body swellings, kidney stones, measles, appetizer, backache, stomachache, anthelmintic, abdominal pains, tie umbilical cord | [14,80,84,100,111,127,129,134,139,145,150] |
| Ceiba pentandra (L.) Gaertn. (exotic) | Tree | Bark | General body pains | [116] |
| Ceiba speciosa (A.St.-Hil., A.Juss. & Cambess.) Ravenna (exotic) | Tree | Bark | Wounds | [116] |
| Corchorus olitorius L. | Herb | Leaves | Wounds, infant’s mouth, growth, teething in babies | [108,120] |
| Corchorus trilocularis L. | Herb | Leaves | Snakebites, applied to gums to treat plastic teeth in infants, sore throat, vomiting | [126,143,144] |
| Dombeya burgessiae Gerrard ex Harv. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots | Cough, stomach ulcers, retained placenta, pneumonia, hiccups, wounds, stomach upsets | [84,142,144] |
| Dombeya kirkii Mast. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Strength, yaws | [77,143] |
| Dombeya rotundifolia (Hochst.) Planch. | Tree | Bark, roots, stems, leaves | Dysentery, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, malaria, wounds, rheumatism, diarrhea, meningitis, typhoid, joint pains, stomachache | [41,77,84,99,105,129,141,168] |
| Dombeya taylorii Baker f. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Stomach ailments | [127] |
| Dombeya torrida (J.F.Gmel.) Bamps | Tree | Roots, leaves, bark | Diarrhea, stomachache, backache, typhoid fever, livestock diseases, malaria, anthelmintic, chest problems, pre/post-menopausal syndrome, allergies, joint pains, STI’s, sustain pregnancy, joints, rheumatism, indigestion, allergies, vomiting, goiter, abdominal pains, liver diseases, vertigo,chest pains, colds, cough, retained placenta | [14,41,67,88,99,109,120,127,131,132,141,168] |
| Grewia arborea (Forssk.) Lam. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, bark | Chronic joint pains | [130] |
| Grewia forbesii Harv. ex Mast. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Convulsions | [127] |
| Grewia holstii Burret | Shrub | Roots | Stomach ailments, asthma | [127] |
| Grewia kakothamnos K.Schum. | Shrub | Roots, bark | Skull fissures, cough, injuries, cuts, wounds, malaria, gonorrhea, stomach problems | [41,84,92,139,142] |
| Grewia lilacina K.Schum. | Herb | Roots | Strength | [77] |
| Grewia micrantha Bojer | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Dysentery, pneumonia | [142] |
| Grewia microcarpa K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Diarrhea | [108] |
| Grewia plagiophylla K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, bark, roots | Diarrhea, pre/post-natal care, kidney trouble, fever, blood clotting, excess menstrual bleeding, paralysis, yellow fever, malaria, obesity, skin diseases, epilepsy | [75,100,127,142,150] |
| Grewia similis K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, stems | Stomachache, constipation, wounds, bleeding gums, diabetes, impotency, sores, malaria, menstrual problems | [83,106,138,147,168] |
| Grewia tembensis Fresen. | Shrub | Bark | Reduced appetite, swollen diaphragm | [51] |
| Grewia tephrodermis K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Stem, bark, leaves, roots, seeds | Eye infections, malaria, chest pains, snakebites, cough, colds/flu, diarrhea, respiratory disorders, boils, sores, gonorrhea, infertility, retained placenta, livestock disease, soreness after birth, acaricide, stomach upsets, wounds, backache, cuts, respiratory disorders, aphrodisiac, edema, skin rashes | [14,41,51,72,80,89,92,94,100,107,124,133,135,139,143] |
| Grewia trichocarpa Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Skin, malaria, diarrhea, acaricide | [76,111,120,133] |
| Grewia truncata Mast. | Shrub | Roots, bark | Chest pains, convulsions, diarrhea | [100,127] |
| Grewia villosa Willd. | Shrub | Bark, twigs, leaves, roots, stems, fruits | Appetizer, galactagogue, tonic, stomachache, diarrhea, rheumatism, malaria, facial swellings, sore/swollen eyes, spleen diseases, cancer of breast and prostate glands,body swellings, excessive menstrual flow, remove thorns pierced into the skin, retained placenta | [14,41,51,77,84,90,92,100,134,139,141,142,145] |
| Heritiera littoralis Aiton | Tree | Roots | Anthelmintic, stomachache, mouth infection, toothache | [76] |
| Hibiscus aethiopicus L. | Herb | Roots | Spleen pain | [140] |
| Hibiscus aponeurus Sprague & Hutch. | Herb | Roots, leaves | Burns, rashes, boil, abdominal pains, fever, anemia, HIV/AIDs, dysentery, diarrhea, dermatitis, stomachache, fever | [67,77,141,143,147] |
| Hibiscus calyphyllus Cav. | Shrub | Roots, leaves, aerial parts, stems | Acaricide, abdominal pains | [133,139] |
| Hibiscus diversifolius Jacq. | Shrub | Bark | Malaria, appetizer, vomiting, diarrhea, colds, pneumonia | [100,109,168] |
| Hibiscus faulknerae Vollesen | Shrub | Roots, leaves | Convulsions, toothache | [127] |
| Hibiscus flavifolius Ulbr. | Herb | Leaves, roots | Burns | [67] |
| Hibiscus fuscus Garcke | Herb | Roots, bark, seeds, leaves | Cough, colds/flu, swollen feet, rheumatism, stroke, chest problems, wounds, aphrodisiac, chest pain, induce spasms during childbirth, sprained muscles/limbs | [41,99,115,119,143,144,147,168] |
| Hibiscus greenwayi Baker f. | Shrub | Bark | Colds | [72] |
| Hibiscus kabuyeanus Mwachala | Herb | Leaves | Boils | [100] |
| Hibiscus ludwigii Eckl. & Zeyh. | Herb/shrub | Wounds | [136] | |
| Hibiscus micranthus L.f. | Herb | Roots, leaves | Eye infections, boils, Chira, stomach ulcers, mental disorders, cuts, fever, anemia, HIV/AIDs, chicken diarrhea | [14,76,77,80,84,100,143] |
| Hibiscus vitifolius L. | Herb | Roots | Inflammations, wounds, eyes problems | [14,80,136] |
| Kosteletzkya adoensis (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Mast. | Herb/shrub | Shoots | Menstrual fever | [144] |
| Malva parviflora L. | Herb | Roots | Boils | [152] |
| Malva verticillata L. | Herb | Exudate, roots | Wounds, boils, toothache | [168] |
| Melhania muricata Balf.f. | Shrub | Roots | Arthritis, pneumonia, lung problems | [92] |
| Melhania ovata (Cav.) Spreng. | Herb/shrub | Leaves | Wounds, burns | [72] |
| Melochia corchorifolia L. | Herb/shrub | Roots, leaves | Chest blockage, sore throat, reduce fetal movements, typhoid, flu, waterborne diseases, headache, mumps, retained placenta | [89,109,120,132,144] |
| Pavonia arabica Hochst. & Steud. ex Boiss. | Herb | Whole plant | Fever | [77] |
| Pavonia burchellii (DC.) R.A.Dyer | Herb | Roots | Eye problems (chalazion, conjunctivitis, proptosis tumors, retina blastoma), diarrhea | [95,147] |
| Pavonia urens Cav. | Herb/shrub | Roots | Rheumatism, barrenness | [41,138] |
| Rhodognaphalon mossambicense (A.Robyns) A.Robyns | Tree | Roots | Asthma, coughs, diarrhea | [127] |
| Sida cordifolia L. | Herb | Roots, leaves | Skin cancer, family planning | [117,119] |
| Sida javensis Cav. | Herb | Leaves, whole plant | Internal injury, bleeding, back pain | [122] |
| Sida massaica Vollesen | Shrub | Leaves, roots | Excess gas in stomach, sprains | [146,152] |
| Sida ovata Forssk. | Herb/shrub | Remove retained placenta (cows), wounds, kwashiorkor | [80,138] | |
| Sida rhombifolia L. | Herb | Leaves | Uterine/skin/squamous cell carcinoma of the gums, diarrhea, stomachache, sunken fontanelle | [76,117] |
| Sida schimperiana Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Shrub | Roots, whole plant | Colic pain, anthelmintic | [140,144] |
| Sida tenuicarpa Vollesen | Shrub | Roots, leaves, whole plants, aerial parts | Respiratory disorders, peptic ulcers, rheumatism, diarrhea, protracted labor, pregnancy edema, boils, wounds, pregnancy complications, chest complication, appetizer, chest pains, kidney problemssore throat, kwashiorkor | [41,81,88,119,122,138,143,147,168] |
| Sterculia africana (Lour.) Fiori | Tree | Bark, aerial parts, seeds, roots | Malaria, erectile dysfunction, stomach upsets, diarrhea, heart problem, dysentery, rectal prolapse, asthma | [51,72,91,100,129,150] |
| Sterculia appendiculata K.Schum. | Tree | Roots | Stomach ailments, hypertension | [127] |
| Sterculia rhynchocarpa K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots | Induce labor pains, venereal diseases | [127] |
| Sterculia stenocarpa H.J.P.Winkl. | Herb/shrub | Roots, bark | Back/joint/bone problems, indigestion, malaria, anthelmintic, stomachache | [14,41,77] |
| Thespesia danis Oliv. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Infertility in women, convulsions, septic swelling, gonorrhea, fibroids, female sexual problems | [127,142,150] |
| Thespesia garckeana F.Hoffm. | Shrub/tree | Fruits, bark | Amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, malaria, typhoid, stomach disorders, acidity, epigastric distress, heartburn, abdominal pain | [41,140,147] |
| Triumfetta brachyceras K.Schum. | Shrub | Boils, leaves | Boils, retained placenta, boils, malignant cells | [99,143,144] |
| Triumfetta cordifolia A.Rich. | Shrub | Leaves | Hepatic diseases | [99] |
| Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. | Herb/shrub | Leaves, roots | Colorectal/uterine/squamous cell carcinoma of the gums, labor pain, reduce blood flow after birth, whooping cough | [76,117,119,144] |
| Waltheria indica L. | Shrub | Leaves | Skin/uterine/breast cancer | [117] |
| Marantaceae | ||||
| Maranta arundinacea L. (exotic) | Herb | Tonsilitis | [41] | |
| Melastomataceae | ||||
| Antherotoma naudinii Hook.f. | Herb | Increase milk letdown in livestock | [144] | |
| Antherotoma senegambiensis (Guill. & Perr.) Jacq.-Fél. | Herb | Leaves | Falling person diseases | [143] |
| Dissotis speciosa Taub. | Herb/shrub | Leaves | Diarrhea, cough | [99,125] |
| Dupineta brazzae (Cogn.) Ver.-Lib. & G.Kadereit | Herb | Leaves | Cough | [144] |
| Heterotis rotundifolia (Sm.) Jacq.-Fél. | Herb | Leaves | Cough | [134] |
| Memecylon teitense Wickens | Shrub/tree | Leaves | Malaria, fever | [145] |
| Tristemma mauritianum J.F.Gmel. | Herb | Leaves | Allergies, heart ailment, labor pains, proper fetus positioning | [119,144] |
| Warneckea amaniensis Gilg | Shrub/tree | Roots | Bronchial trouble | [142] |
| Meliaceae | ||||
| Azadirachta indica A.Juss. (exotic) | Tree | Bark, leaves, roots, fruits | Eye/ear infections, typhoid, ringworms, genital thrush, herpes, malaria, fever, body pains, insect bites, pest control, skin rashes, HIV/AIDs, Chira, cholera, amoeba, back/joint/bone pains, blood purifier, brucellosis, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, diabetes, hypertension, injuries/cuts, wounds, appetizer, numbness, pimples, pneumonia, rheumatism, skin diseases, STIs, stomach disorders, anthelmintic, helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), weakness/dullness (cow, goat, sheep, poultry, pig), acaricide, boils, pimples, hepatitis, leprosy, ulcers, abdominal pains, infertility, edema, continuous menstruation, contraceptive, gonorrhea, diarrhea, gout, yellow fever, arthritis, fatigue, antiseptic, insect repellant (moth/mosquito) skin care, arthralgia, asthenia, measles | [14,41,64,66,68,73,75,84,85,93,96,98,105,106,107,108,110,111,125,129,133,138,144,145,146,147,150,151,168] |
| Ekebergia capensis Sparrm. | Tree | Bark, roots, flowers, fruits, stems, leaves | Diarrhea, stomach problems, difficult delivery in women, chest problems, pneumonia, earache, infertility in women, menstrual disorders, joint pains, kidney problem, spinal cord problem, fever, typhoid, dysentery, skin allergies, backache, chest problems, diarrhea (cow), fever, body swellings, arthritis, malaria, anthelmintic, heartburn, emetic, cough, colds, headache, gastritis, skin rashes, fungal infections, acne, abscesses, livestock diseases (respiratory symptoms, anthelmintic), tonic, skin/throat/breast cancer, skin cancer, TB, expectorant, acaricide, purgative, abdominal pains | [14,41,82,88,91,97,99,104,109,117,120,131,133,141,145,147,152,154,168] |
| Lepidotrichilia volkensii (Gürke) J.-F.Leroy | Tree | Leaves | Scalp in babies | [144] |
| Melia azedarach L. | Leaves, bark, roots | Abdominal pains, STIs, malaria, measles, immunity booster, typhoid, colorectal/esophageal cancer, stomachache, diarrhea, gut diseases, dysentery, kidney ailments, blood cleanser, skin diseases, headache, acaricide, colds/flu, fever | [41,76,79,87,101,104,108,116,117,119,120,124,133,143,150] | |
| Melia volkensii Gürke | Tree | Roots, leaves, fruits, bark | Cholera, constipation, malaria, boils, amoeba, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, pneumonia, stomach disorders, insecticide, gum/tooth ache, ear problems, swollen legs, abdominal pains, edema | [14,41,51,77,80,96,139,147] |
| Trichilia dregeana Sond. | Tree | Bark | Stomach ailments, poisoning | [144] |
| Trichilia emetica Vahl | Tree | Bark, leaves, twigs, root | Flu, general body weakness, fever, stomachache, STIs, malaria, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, epilepsy, pancreas diseases, rheumatism, anthelmintic, moisturizer, poisoned arrow wounds, body aches, pneumonia, inappetence, breast/skin/colorectal cancer, scabies, boils, chest problems, whooping cough, TB, gut, constipation, prenatal care, abortifacients, infertility, measles, dysentery, diarrhea, cardiac conditions, veterinary, emetic, poisonous, cuts/bruises, purgative, abdominal pains, kidney problems, skin diseases, immune booster, jiggers, body swellings, venereal diseases, induce labor pains, stomach ailments in livestock, insecticide (cockroaches, bedbugs) | [14,41,66,74,80,84,101,104,112,116,117,125,134,141,142,144,145,147,168] |
| Turraea abyssinica Hochst. | Shrub/tree | Stem, bark, leaves, roots | Tonic, anthelmintic | [107,135] |
| Turraea floribunda Hochst. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Cough | [142] |
| Turraea holstii Gürke | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, bark | Acaricide, painkiller, nerval disorder, laxative, menstrual cycle, anthelmintic in cattle, measles, diarrhea, stomach congestion | [133,144,145,168] |
| Turraea mombassana Hiern ex C.DC. | Shrub | Fruits, roots, stems, bark | Emetic, malaria, dizziness, body pains, joint diseases, excess bile, fever | [67,104,105,107,135,140,149] |
| Turraea robusta Gürke | Tree | Roots, bark, whole plant | STIs, anthelmintic, malaria, acaricide | [104,118,133,147] |
| Turraea wakefieldii Oliv. | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots, leaves | Measles, chest pain, chickenpox, cough | [150] |
| Melianthaceae | ||||
| Bersama abyssinica Fresen. | Tree | Roots, bark, leaves | Urinary tract infections, STIs, enlarged prostate gland, eye inflammation, colds, stomach complications, fever, livestock diseases, birth difficulty, bleeding, stomachache, pneumonia, TB, malaria, amoebiasis, diabetes mellitus, joints/backbone, aphrodisiac, poisonous to livestock, cancer, chest problems, infertility, syphilis | [66,85,86,108,109,113,116,120,131,138,141,142,144,152,168] |
| Menispermaceae | ||||
| Chasmanthera dependens Hochst. | Liana | Stems | Stomachache, diarrhea | [51,139] |
| Cissampelos mucronata A.Rich. | Liana | Roots, leaves, stems | Malaria, hypertension, abortifacient, stomach ailments, constipation, abdominal pain, whooping cough, burns, snakebite antidote | [101,120,143,144,147] |
| Cissampelos pareira L. | Liana | Roots, bark, leaves | Wounds, snakebites, amoeba, asthma, diarrhea, typhoid, vomiting, anthelmintic, malaria, abdominal severe pains in women, stomachache, hypertension, cough, sore throat, colds, gastric complaints, urinary disorders, venereal diseases | [14,41,51,86,99,103,104,127,128,129,150,168] |
| Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.Theob. | Liana | Leaves | Stomachache | [142] |
| Cocculus pendulus (J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.) Diels | Liana | Wood | Emetic | [142] |
| Jateorhiza palmata (Lam.) Miers | Liana | Roots | Stomach medicine | [142] |
| Stephania abyssinica (Quart.-Dill. & A.Rich.) Walp. | Liana | Roots, leaves, bark | Liver problems, colic in infants, stomachache, malaria, diarrhea/dysentery (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), heart problems, gonorrhea, impotency | [73,74,104,119,152,168] |
| Molluginaceae | ||||
| Paramollugo nudicaulis (Lam.) Thulin | Herb | Leaves, whole plant | Flu, madness, cough, mental illness/madness | [76,98,143] |
| Monimiaceae | ||||
| Xymalos monospora (Harv.) Baill. | Tree | Bark, roots | General body relief, anthelmintic, stomachache | [14] |
| Moraceae | ||||
| Antiaris toxicaria (J.F.Gmel.) Lesch. | Tree | Leaves, bark, roots | Fontanel gap, abdominal pains, STIs, kidney ailments, ringworms | [116,122] |
| Ficus amadiensis De Wild. | Tree | Fruits, bark, roots, latex | Acaricide | [133] |
| Ficus asperifolia Miq. | Shrub | Latex | Skin swellings in human/livestock | [142] |
| Ficus benjamina L. (exotic) | Tree | Chest problems, diarrhea, headache, livestock diseases, stomach disorders | [41] | |
| Ficus bussei Warb. ex Mildbr. & Burret | Tree | Roots, leaves | Malaria | [111] |
| Ficus cordata Thunb. | Tree | Bark, roots, stems | Boost immunity, improve general health | [135] |
| Ficus glumosa Delile | Shrub/tree | Root, bark, fruit, latex | Stomachache, diarrhea, acaricide | [77,99,133] |
| Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Diarrhea | [142] |
| Ficus lutea Vahl | Tree | Leaves, roots, bark | Sore throat, asthma, heavy menstruation, general illness, veterinary uses | [116] |
| Ficus natalensis Hochst. | Tree | Fruits, bark, roots, latex, stems, leaves | Toothache, skin infections, teeth problems, diabetes mellitus, arthritis | [66,85,109,116,132] |
| Ficus populifolia Vahl | Shrub/tree | Latex | Sore eyes | [142] |
| Ficus scassellatii Pamp. | Tree | Stomach problems, malaria | [136] | |
| Ficus sur Forssk. | Tree | Bark, roots, fruits, latex | Diarrhea, vomiting, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, pneumonia, malaria, pregnancy edema, toothache, acaricide, stomachache | [41,67,77,81,104,116,120,133,142] |
| Ficus sycomorus L. | Tree | Leaves, bark, latex, fruits | Diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, uterine cleaning, excess menstrual flow/inconsistency, clean uterus after birth, afterbirth bleeding, toothache, stomachache, joint pains, allergies, amoeba, dental problems, clean kidney, malaria, meat allergy, pneumonia, body swellings, typhoid, abortifacient, constipation, colic pains, gut problems, abdominal discomfort, acaricide, scrofula, cough, chest diseases, dysentery, snakebites, laxative, anthelmintic, liver troubles, stomachache and hemorrhage in pregnancy | [14,41,51,66,77,89,100,105,108,110,113,116,127,130,133,135,139,143,145,146,168] |
| Ficus thonningii Blume | Tree | Bark, latex, roots | Malaria, respiratory problems, excess menstrual flow/pains, joint pains, toothache, livestock diseases, arthritis, liver diseases, edema, dental problems, diarrhea, STIs, typhoid, uterine problems, cancer, toxicity, prevent abortion, diarrhea/dysentery (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), chest problems, stomachache, acaricide, sore throat, wounds, constipation, nose bleeding, mouth sores, venereal diseases, fever | [41,73,81,86,88,100,101,105,113,116,132,133,143,144,145,146,147,152,168] |
| Ficus vasta Forssk. | Tree | Bark, roots, fruits, buds, latex | Liver disease, edema, acaricide, astringent | [88,133,141] |
| Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg | Tree | Allergies, bites, cancer, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, family planning, hypertension, malaria, stomach disorders, STIs, typhoid | [41] | |
| Morus alba L. (exotic) | Tree | Leaves, fruits | Cough, colds/flu, dental problems, rheumatism, stomach disorders, blindness, anthelmintic, blood recharge | [41,74,106] |
| Morus mesozygia Stapf | Tree | Stems, bark | Urinary tract infections, veterinary | [116] |
| Morus nigra L. (exotic) | Tree | Leaves | Arthritis | [154] |
| Trilepisium madagascariense DC. | Tree | Bark | Joint/backbone problems | [116] |
| Moringaceae | ||||
| Moringa borziana Mattei | Herb/shrub | Roots | Swollen legs/pains in pregnancy, retained placenta, abdominal pains, increase milk letdown, edema, malaria, gonorrhea | [51,139] |
| Moringa oleifera Lam. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, seeds, flowers | Back pain, HIV/AIDs, amoeba, asthma, clean blood, cancer, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, detoxifier, fibroids, immune booster, malaria, protein source, rheumatism, stomach disorders/acid, typhoid, hypertension, toothache, ulcers, whiten teeth, diabetes, fungal infection, herpes zoster, genital thrush, herpes simplex, syphilis, anemia, arthritis, malaise, vitamin/iron source, hysteria, conjunctivitis, reproductive disorder, diabetes | [14,41,83,96,98,106,110,145,150] |
| Moringa stenopetala (Baker f.) Cufod. | Tree | Roots | Fever | [77] |
| Musaceae | ||||
| Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman | Tree | Roots, exudate, fruits, stems | Infertility, snakebite, measles, runny eyes, rumbling stomach, tapeworms, livestock diseases, rheumatism, dental problems, dislocations, injuries/cuts/wounds, STIs, arthritis, heartburn, liver diseases/enlargement, medicine for cows, eye infection, earache/infection, stomachache | [41,87,91,100,116,120,126,132,141,144,145,152,154,168] |
| Musa × paradisiaca L. (exotic) | Tree | Roots, bark, exudate | Ear infections, asthma, cough, gonorrhea, family planning, wounds, female infertility, ant repellent | [14,66,113,116,146,150] |
| Musa acuminata Colla (exotic) | Tree | Bark | Blood pressure | [105] |
| Myricaceae | ||||
| Myrica salicifolia Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Shrub/tree | Bark, stems, leaves, roots | Urinary tract problems, tonic, tonsillitis, cough, chest congestion, goiter, malaria, livestock diseases, anodyne, abdominal pains, asthma, stomach upsets, analgesic, respiratory diseases, colds, anti-acid, intoxicating property, throat infections | [14,67,72,86,93,103,104,107,120,121,141,145,168] |
| Myrothamnaceae | ||||
| Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw. | Shrub | Leaves | Chest pain | [77] |
| Myrtaceae | ||||
| Corymbia citriodora (Hook.) K.D.Hill & L.A.S.Johnson (exotic) | Tree | Bark, leaves | Fever, flu, cough | [143] |
| Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. (exotic) | Tree | Leaves | Colds | [98] |
| Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (exotic) | Tree | Leaves | Allergies, back/joint/bone problems, chest problems, chickenpox, cough, colds/flu, fever, headache, injuries, cuts/wounds, livestock diseases, malaria, measles, pneumonia, rheumatism, skin diseases, slow urine passing, smallpox, stomach disorders, measles, pimples | [41,84,115,116] |
| Eucalyptus grandis W.Hill ex Maiden (exotic) | Tree | Bark, leaves, roots | Fever, colds, headache | [150] |
| Eucalyptus regnans F.Muell. (exotic) | Tree | Leaves | Chickenpox, livestock diseases | [152] |
| Eucalyptus robusta Sm. (exotic) | Tree | Leaves | Skin infections, chickenpox, measles, asthma | [109] |
| Eucalyptus saligna Sm. (exotic) | Tree | Back pain in women, cough, colds/flu, injuries/cuts, wounds, malaria, skin diseases, chicken diseases, fever, toothache, measles, stomach ailments, allergy, poison emetic, chickenpox, bloat in cattle | [14,41,74,84,136,145,146,147] | |
| Eucalyptus tereticornis Sm. (exotic) | Tree | Leaves | Smallpox | [106] |
| Psidium guajava L. (exotic) | Tree | Leaves, bark, fruits, roots | Constipation, malaria, allergies, amoeba, jaundice, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, chest problems, goiter, painkiller, rheumatism, skin diseases, typhoid, stomachache, cancer, STIs, nausea, diarrhea, colic pains, anthelmintic (human, animals), typhoid, dysentery, inflammatory, ringworms, ulcers, diabetes fever, hypertension, toothache, reproductive disorders, wounds, boils, runny nose | [14,41,76,84,88,96,99,106,108,116,119,143,145,146,150,168] |
| Syzygium cordatum Hochst. ex Krauss | Tree | Leaves, bark, fruits, stems, roots | Colds, diarrhea, afterbirth stomachache, stomachache, malaria, typhoid, strength/tonic, gastrointestinal complications, acaricide, abdominal pains, cleaning blood | [14,41,67,68,72,87,120,133,136,141,142,143,152,168] |
| Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels | Tree | Fruits, leaves, bark, roots | Dysentery, dysentery, gut problems, acaricide, boils, stomach complications, emetic, cough, hypertension | [66,98,116,122,133,145] |
| Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC. | Tree | Bark, roots, fruits | Infertility, typhoid, wounds, paresthesia, cancer, invigorant, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, diarrhea, HIV/AIDs, malaria, tonic, rheumatism, stomachache, skin cancer, kidney ailments, veterinary uses, menstrual pains, acaricide, eye problem, heartburn, fever, indigestion, aphrodisiac | [41,66,67,77,88,109,116,117,119,132,133,140,144,145,168] |
| Nyctaginaceae | ||||
| Boerhavia erecta L. | Herb | Leaves | Diarrhea, ringworm | [76] |
| Commicarpus helenae (Roem. & Schult.) Meikle | Herb | Tonic, malaria, earache, wounds | [136] | |
| Commicarpus plumbagineus (Cav.) Standl. | Herb | Leaves, roots | Malaria, earache, headache, cuts, removing ganglion | [72,91,99] |
| Nymphaeaceae | ||||
| Nymphaea nouchali Burm.f. | Herb | Stems, leaves | Stomach ailments, chest conditions | [134] |
| Ochnaceae | ||||
| Ochna holstii Engl. | Tree | Stomachache, emetic when poison ingested | [145] | |
| Ochna insculpta Sleumer | Shrub/tree | Roots, seeds, leaves | Strength, chest pain, diarrhea in children, boils, children fever | [14,77,140] |
| Ochna mossambicensis Klotzsch | Shrub/tree | Roots | Stomachache | [142] |
| Ochna ovata F. Hoffm. | Shrub/tree | Leaves | Sore/inflamed skin, stomachache, poison emetic | [80,145] |
| Ochna thomasiana Engl. & Gilg | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Menstrual disorders, leprosy, miscarriage | [127] |
| Olacaceae | ||||
| Strombosia scheffleri Engl. | Tree | Leaves, bark | Stomachache, tonic, insecticide | [77,84] |
| Ximenia americana L. | Shrub/tree | Stem, bark, leaves, roots, fruits | Malaria, stomachache, constipation, uterine bleeding, tonic, venereal diseases, toothache, boils, skin rashes, abscesses, back/bone problems, dental problems, rheumatism, skin diseases, stomach acid, thorn pricks, joint pains, pneumonia, gum pains, diarrhea, acaricide, wounds, tonsillitis, mouth sores, fever, cough, anemia, menstrual pains (dysmenorrhea), gonorrhea, respiratory problems, vomiting, constipation, gynecological problems, pleuritis, HIV, rheumatoid arthritis | [14,41,71,77,79,84,90,91,94,98,100,104,105,106,107,108,112,124,127,133,135,138,140,143,146,147,150] |
| Ximenia caffra Sond. | Shrub/tree | Roots, fruits, bark, leaves | Ulcers, wounds, asthma, livestock diseases, anthelmintic, diarrhea, toothache, painkiller, malaria, fevers, acute upper respiratory tract infections, dermatitis, ulcers, toothache, mouth infection, stomachache, abdominal pains | [14,68,72,74,76,77,80,118,138,141] |
| Oleaceae | ||||
| Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC. | Liana | Roots, leaves, bark | Diarrhea, oral thrush, chest pains, weak joints, malaria, spinal cord aches, cough, aphrodisiac, wounds | [132,152] |
| Jasminum dichotomum Vahl | Liana | Leaves | Menstrual pains, epilepsy | [143] |
| Jasminum fluminense Vell. | Shrub/liana | Roots, leaves | Heartburn, headache, Wuoyo, snakebites, cough, chest/joint pains, insecticide, wounds, menstrual pains, leprosy | [71,76,77,86,99,142,143,168] |
| Jasminum grandiflorum L. | Liana | Leaves, roots, whole plant | Malaria, laxative, stomachache, diarrhea, anthelmintic, cough, chest pains, liver diseases, HIV/AIDs | [67,109,120,140,141,142,143] |
| Jasminum streptopus E.Mey. | Shrub/liana | Roots | Headache, snakebites | [77] |
| Noronhia battiscombei (Hutch.) Hong-Wa & Besnard | Shrub/tree | Bark | Malaria, back pains, anthelmintic | [77] |
| Noronhia nilotica (Oliv.) Hong-Wa & Besnard | Shrub/tree | Bark | Stomach disorders | [77] |
| Olea capensis L. | Tree | Bark, leaves, fruits, roots | Scabies, constipation, urinary infections, stomachache, peptic ulcers, tonic, colds, fever, livestock diseases, backache, diabetes, chest pains, mouth inflammation in children, malaria, pneumonia, general body weakness/fatigue/pains, amoeba, joint pains, anthelmintic, blood cleanser, cough, TB, difficulty in breathing, amoeba, arthritis, injuries/cuts/wounds, aphrodisiac, prostrate problems, rheumatism, skin cancer, acaricide, wounds | [14,41,66,72,88,90,99,103,104,117,120,125,131,133,136,138,146,147,152,168] |
| Olea europaea L. | Shrub/tree | Stems, bark, leaves, roots | Malaria, pneumonia, anthelmintic, retained afterbirth, respiratory problems, anaplasmosis, eye inflammation, stomachache, joint pains, chest pains, umbilical cord, livestock diseases, diarrhea, mouth infection in babies, fever, eye infections, seizures, ringworms, stomach rumbles, amoeba, back/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, dislocation, body pains, headache, boost immunity, injuries/cuts, wounds, internal injuries, appetizer, muscle fatigue, rheumatism, body swellings, typhoid, urinary diseases, liver disease, polio, gonorrhea, enlarged prostate, arthritis, skin disorders e.g., allergy, cancer, mellitus, itchy rashes, Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia in livestock, asthma, lumbago, helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), bone fractures, acaricide, eye ailments, heartburn, sore throat, kidney problems, hypertension | [41,68,71,72,73,77,82,83,84,85,86,88,89,91,92,97,99,103,104,105,107,109,110,120,129,130,131,132,133,135,136,138,140,141,142,145,147,149,152,168] |
| Olea welwitschii (Knobl.) Gilg & G.Schellenb. | Tree | Bark, root, twigs | Scabies, chest problems, flu, gut problems, constipation, stomachache, childbirth, prenatal care, infertility, joint/backbone problems, STIs, dysentery, diarrhea, cancer, urinary tract infections | [116] |
| Schrebera alata (Hochst.) Welw. | Tree | Bark, twigs, leaves, roots | Malaria, chest problems, sore throat, toothache, diabetes mellitus, candidiasis, anesthesia, stomach pains, bloody stool, diarrhea, pregnancy pains, meat allergy, painkiller, poison antidote, headache, cuts | [41,67,68,71,77,85,136,140,142,145,152,168] |
| Onagraceae | ||||
| Epilobium hirsutum L. | Herb | Roots | Stomach pains | [84] |
| Opiliaceae | ||||
| Opilia amentacea Roxb. | Liana | Roots, bark, branches | Malaria, diarrhea, fever | [41,92,138,142] |
| Pentarhopalopilia umbellulata (Baill.) Hiepko | Shrub/liana | Roots | Venereal diseases, children’s diseases | [127] |
| Orchidaceae | ||||
| Aerangis kirkii (Rchb.f.) Schltr. | Herb | Leaves | Convulsions | [127] |
| Angraecum sacciferum Lindl. | Herb | Leaves | Pneumonia | [109] |
| Ansellia africana Lindl. | Herb | Branches | Eardrops | [99,127] |
| Bonatea steudneri (Rchb.f.) T.Durand & Schinz | Herb | Roots | Sores | [67] |
| Eulophia petersii (Rchb.f.) Rchb.f. | Herb | Roots | Prevent first trimester abortion | [81] |
| Habenaria cirrhata (Lindl.) Rchb.f. | Herb | Roots | Abdominal pains | [141] |
| Microcoelia exilis Lindl. | Herb | Leaves | Convulsions | [127] |
| Solenangis wakefieldii (Rolfe) P.J.Cribb & J.Stewart | Herb | Leaves | Convulsions | [127] |
| Vanilla roscheri Rchb.f. | Herb | Stomach pains, prenatal care | [127] | |
| Ypsilopus amaniensis (Kraenzl.) D’haijère & Stévart | Herb | Root | Chest pain | [77] |
| Orobanchaceae | ||||
| Asepalum eriantherum (Vatke) Marais | Shrub | Whole plant | Backache | [142] |
| Cistanche tubulosa (Schenk) Wight ex Hook.f. | Herb | Childbirth problems | [72] | |
| Striga hermonthica (Delile) Benth. | Herb | Leaves | Thrush | [143] |
| Oxalidaceae | ||||
| Averrhoa bilimbi L. (exotic) | Tree | Fruits | Aphrodisiac, appetizer | [150] |
| Biophytum abyssinicum Steud. ex A.Rich. | Herb | Rashes, smallpox | [132] | |
| Biophytum umbraculum Welw. | Herb | Whole plant, leaves | Arthritis, dizziness, stomachache | [144,154] |
| Oxalis corniculata L. | Herb | Leaves | Skin infections, memory loss, mouth ulcers/sores, diseases of the eye | [122,123,141,154] |
| Passifloraceae | ||||
| Adenia cissampeloides (Planch. ex Hook.) Harms | Liana | Leaves, branches | Wounds | [99] |
| Adenia ellenbeckii Harms | Herb/shrub | Roots | Swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy | [139] |
| Adenia gummifera (Harv.) Harms | Liana | Stems, roots | Cough, gonorrhea, headache, miscarriage, aphrodisiac, STIs, female reproductive disorder, boost immunity, diarrhea, colds, dysmenorrhea | [14,77,100,127,142,150] |
| Adenia kirkii (Mast.) Engl. | Herb | Stems, roots | Complications in menstruation | [127] |
| Adenia venenata Forssk. | Liana | Roots | Cattle diarrhea | [14] |
| Adenia volkensii Harms | Herb/shrub | Fruits, roots | Poisonous | [77] |
| Passiflora edulis Sims (exotic) | Liana | Stems, leaves | Amoeba, cough, colds/flu, epilepsy, heart problems, insomnia, nervous system problems, poisoning, stomachache, rheumatism | [41,144,147,150] |
| Passiflora quadrangularis L. (exotic) | Liana | Amoeba | [41] | |
| Passiflora subpeltata Ortega (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | Diabetes mellitus | [85] |
| Pedaliaceae | ||||
| Sesamothamnus busseanus Engl. | Shrub/tree | Whole plant | Bleeding | [142] |
| Sesamum angolense Welw. | Herb | Leaves | Measles | [99] |
| Sesamum calycinum Welw. | Herb | Leaves, roots, seeds | Sore eyes, hair relaxer, prevent first/second trimester abortion, vomiting, pregnancy edema, pregnancy anemia, stomachache, ringworm, constipation | [81,99,115,143,147] |
| Oliniaceae | ||||
| Olinia rochetiana A.Juss. | Shrub/tree | Bark, leaves, stems, roots | Respiratory, STIs, pneumonia, colds, cough, oral candidiasis, urinary tract infections, chest problems, TB, rheumatism, malaria, fever, bronchitis, indigestion, tapeworms, anodyne, expectorant, dysmenorrhea, abdominal pains | [67,77,88,99,105,113,120,131,135,140,141,142,147] |
| Peraceae | ||||
| Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach | Shrub | Bark, leaves, roots | Menstrual cramps, spinal cord problem, joint pains, appetizer, arthritis, colds, rheumatism, liver pains, colic pain in infants, malaria, eye lotion, headache, stomachache, influenza, indigestion, liver pains, acaricide, erectile dysfunction, teeth problems, prophylaxis, pain in pregnancy, aphrodisiac, infertility, purgative, abdominal pains, diarrhea, kwashiorkor | [67,77,86,89,91,99,103,104,109,132,133,138,140,141,142,154,168] |
| Clutia kilimandscharica Engl. | Shrub | Roots, leaves, aerial parts, bark | Joints pains, diarrhea, typhoid, menstrual problems, colds, appetizer, general body weakness, anthelmintic, gonorrhea, constipation, stomachache, malaria, aphrodisiac, tonic, indigestion, rheumatism, acaricide, wounds | [67,104,120,131,133,142,152] |
| Phyllanthaceae | ||||
| Antidesma venosum E.Mey. ex Tul. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, twigs, sap | Amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, blood purifier, cough, colds/flu, diabetes, immune booster, low libido, malaria, pneumonia, rheumatism, stomach disorders, tonsilitis, liver complaints, livestock diseases, abdominal pain, poisonous | [41,64,112,142,143,168] |
| Bischofia javanica Blume (exotic) | Tree | Roots | Stomach infections | [123] |
| Bridelia cathartica Bertol. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots | Convulsions, prenatal care | [127] |
| Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill. | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots, leaves | Boils, stomachache, STIs, dysentery, diarrhea, HIV/AIDs, back/joint/bone problems, blood purifier, brucellosis, cancer, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, cleans uterus, dizziness, hypertension, increase blood, malaria, pneumonia, rheumatism, skin diseases, typhoid, clean digestive system, tonic, livestock diseases, acidity, earache, cervical/breast/skin/colorectal cancer, dysentery, allergy, acaricide, epigastric distress, immune booster | [14,41,66,67,74,111,113,116,117,119,120,133,140,142,144,146,147,168] |
| Bridelia scleroneura Müll.Arg. | Shrub/tree | Stems, roots, bark | Acaricide | [133] |
| Bridelia taitensis Vatke & Pax | Shrub/tree | Leaves, stems, whole plant, bark | Cough, colds/flu, diarrhea, livestock diseases, earache, stomachache, laxativeabdominal pains, wounds | [14,51,80,139] |
| Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle | Shrub | Leaves, roots, fruits, aerial parts | Malaria, venereal diseases, convulsions, stomachache, kidney pains, childbirth problems, amoeba, bilharzia, dental problems, meat allergy, prostate cancer, typhoid, irritated/itchy skin, cough, joint aches, chest pains, vomiting, headache, acaricide, boils, diarrhea, back pain, insect repellant, breast cancer, kidney problems, female reproductive disorders, aphrodisiac, HIV/AIDs, anthelmintic, fatigue, chickenpox, retained placenta | [14,41,75,77,80,81,84,101,112,119,122,127,133,139,142,143,146,147,150,168] |
| Hymenocardia acida Tul. | Shrub/tree | Bark, leaves | Acaricide | [133] |
| Margaritaria discoidea (Baill.) G.L.Webster | Shrub/tree | Bark | Acaricide, pregnancy pain | [133,140] |
| Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. | Herb | Roots | Arthritis | [154] |
| Phyllanthus fischeri Pax | Shrub | Leaves, fruits, stems, bark | Breast/skin/colorectal, skin diseases, roundworms, HIV/AIDs, gynecological diseases | [117,119,142,143] |
| Phyllanthus kaessneri Hutch. | Shrub/tree | Cough | [142] | |
| Phyllanthus muellerianus (Kuntze) Exell | Shrub/tree | Leaves | Acaricide | [133] |
| Phyllanthus nummulariifolius Poir. | Shrub | Fruits | Roundworms, anthelmintic | [67,144] |
| Phyllanthus odontadenius Müll.Arg. | Herb | Roots | Stomach pains | [144]o |
| Phyllanthus ovalifolius Forssk. | Shrub/tree | Aerial parts | Acaricide, corneal ulcers | [133,143] |
| Phyllanthus physocarpus Müll.Arg. | Shrub/tree | Roots | STIs | [142] |
| Phyllanthus reticulatus Poir. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Convulsions, snakebites | [127] |
| Phyllanthus sepialis Müll.Arg. | Shrub | Leaves, roots | Malaria, constipation, general illness, toothache | [74,84,101] |
| Phyllanthus somalensis Hutch. | Shrub | Roots | Poisonous to livestock | [142] |
| Phyllanthus welwitschianus Müll.Arg. | Herb/shrub | Roots | Fertility potions, aphrodisiac | [134] |
| Thecacoris spathulifolia (Pax) Leandri | Shrub | Roots | Stomachache, diarrhea, induce salivation in children | [127] |
| Phytolaccaceae | ||||
| Hilleria latifolia (Lam.) H.Walter | Herb | Whole plant | Dermatitis | [144] |
| Phytolacca dodecandra L’Hér. (exotic) | Shrub | Leaves, roots, fruits | Fracture, antivenom, poisonous (human, livestock), breast cancer, body pains, stomach problems, childbirth, emetic, purgative, roundworms, tapeworms, syphilis, skin rashes, enlarged glands, abortifacient, barrenness | [72,77,86,99,120,138,141,142,143,154,168] |
| Phytolacca octandra L. | Shrub | Roots | Pneumonia | [152] |
| Picrodendraceae | ||||
| Oldfieldia somalensis (Chiov.) Milne-Redh. | Tree | Roots, bark | Pneumonia, arthritis, fatigue, cough, tuberculosis | [142,150] |
| Pinaceae | ||||
| Pinus patula Schiede ex Schltdl. & Cham. (exotic) | Tree | Leaves | Flu, respiratory | [116] |
| Piperaceae | ||||
| Piper capense L.f. | Herb/shrub | Leaves, roots, stems | Cough, colds, kidney problems, malaria, depression, anthelmintic, diarrhea, sore throat, enlarged uvula, increase milk letdown, arthritis, laxative, anthrax (cattle) | [14,97,99,125,147,168] |
| Piper guineense Schumach. & Thonn. | Shrub | Roots | Sore throat, fever, toothache | [142,144] |
| Piper umbellatum L. | Shrub | Roots, roots | Headache, fever, bronchitis, inflammation, rashes, eye inflammation, anthelmintic | [122,125,131,144] |
| Pittosporaceae | ||||
| Pittosporum abyssinicum Delile | Tree | Bark | Emetic, malaria, nausea, purgative, stomach problems | [131,142,168] |
| Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves | Boils, STIs, malaria, diarrhea, stomachache, urinary tract, emetic, fever, purgative, tonic, measles, oral infections, fever, chest pains, amoeba, appetizer, constipation, acaricide, headache, vomiting, bronchitis, asthma, liver diseases, nose bleeding, rectum infection, infertility in goats, mosquito repellant | [66,67,77,99,101,103,104,109,116,119,120,132,133,140,141,142,144,152,168] |
| Plantaginaceae | ||||
| Plantago palmata Hook.f. | Herb | Roots | Tonsils, pneumonia, eye problems, venereal diseases, typhoid, diarrhea | [78] |
| Plumbaginaceae | ||||
| Plumbago dawei Rolfe | Herb/shrub | Bark | Diarrhea, malaria, stomach problems | [136] |
| Plumbago zeylanica L. | Herb/shrub | Root, aerial parts, roots, leaves | Boils, abscesses, burns, malaria, infertility, aphrodisiac, anthelmintic, remove pseudo teeth in children, skin blisters, swollen legs, stomachache, liver, anthrax, measles, sprained limps, skin diseases, fever, eye infection, gonorrhea, eye injury (cattle), lung/liver diseases (poultry) | [51,72,74,77,94,107,138,143,144,147] |
| Poaceae | ||||
| Cenchrus americanus (L.) Morrone | Herb | Bark, seeds | Chronic joint pains, malaria, vomiting, asthenia, swelling on the body | [14,130] |
| Cenchrus clandestinus (Hochst. ex Chiov.) Morrone | Herb | Leaves, roots | Skin infections, ringworms, heartburns, diarrhea, anthelmintic, jaundice, tonsils, urinary problems, venereal diseases, liver troubles | [41,88,109,115,168] |
| Cenchrus hohenackeri (Hochst. ex Steud.) Morrone | Herb | Bark, branches, roots | Malaria | [135] |
| Cenchrus purpureus (Schumach.) Morrone | Herb | Leaves | Allergies, dermatological infections | [41,143] |
| Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | Headache, purify blood, clean pores, flu/colds, diarrhea | [108,119,143] |
| Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle | Herb | Cough, colds/flu, fever, malaria, stomach disorders | [41] | |
| Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers. | Herb | Whole plant, leaves, stems | Kidney stones, stomachache, prevent second trimester abortion, vomiting | [81,96,106] |
| Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. | Herb | Leaves | Heartburn | [91] |
| Digitaria abyssinica (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Stapf | Herb | Leaves | Ringworms, pain inside umbilical cord of adults, backache, urinary disorders | [147,152,168] |
| Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. (exotic) | Herb | Seeds | Ringworm, cough, colds/flu, measles, chickenpox, itchy rash, kidney problems, diabetes | [41,94,138,143,146] |
| Eleusine jaegeri Pilg. | Herb | Leaves | Wounds, skin infections | [109] |
| Elymus repens (L.) Gould (exotic) | Herb | STIs, back/bone joints problems, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, gouts, malaria | [41] | |
| Enteropogon macrostachyus (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Munro ex Benth. | Herb | Whole plant | Trypanosomiasis | [68] |
| Hyparrhenia diplandra (Hack.) Stapf | Herb | Leaves | Insect repellant for safari ants | [144] |
| Oldeania alpina (K.Schum.) Stapleton | Tree | Fruits, shoots, stems | Balding, edema, blood cleanser, cough, colds/flu, mental ailments, pneumonia, rheumatism, STIs, malaria, diarrhea, aphrodisiac, impotency, retained placenta (cattle, human), menstruation problems | [14,41,88,132,147,152,168] |
| Oryza sativa L. (exotic) | Herb | Roots | Colds | [14] |
| Saccharum officinarum L. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves, roots, exudate | Acaricide, malaria, baby stomach problems | [14,133,139] |
| Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (exotic) | Herb | Seeds | Measles, energy boost, acaricide, gastrointestinal problems, diarrhea, colds | [14,41,88,133,143] |
| Sporobolus pyramidalis P.Beauv. | Herb | Roots | Gonorrhea, stomach ailments | [113,147] |
| Triticum aestivum L. (exotic) | Herb | Cancer | [41] | |
| Zea mays L. (exotic) | Herb | Cobs, flowers | Cough, heartburn, abdominal ulcers, retained placenta (cows, human), acaricide, urinary disorders in men | [73,88,133,139,152,168] |
| Podocarpaceae | ||||
| Afrocarpus falcatus (Thunb.) C.N.Page (exotic) | Tree | Bark, roots, leaves, twigs | General body health, fever, malaria, liver and spleen diseases, peptic ulcers, stomachache, measles, acaricide, hypertension, arthritis, anodyne, itchy skin rash, chest troubles | [14,67,68,88,91,109,118,132,133,135,141,168] |
| Podocarpus latifolius (Thunb.) R.Br. ex Mirb. (exotic) | Tree | Bark, leaves, roots | Malaria, stomachache, dysmenorrhea, cleanse womb, afterbirth, asthma, gall bladder, indigestion, acaricide, chest troubles | [41,67,88,97,120,133,142,152,168] |
| Polygalaceae | ||||
| Carpolobia goetzei Gürke | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Aphrodisiac | [127] |
| Polygala erioptera DC. | Herb | Cough, whitlow, skin rashes | [141] | |
| Polygala persicariifolia DC. | Herb | Leaves | Eye and ear diseases | [141] |
| Polygala sphenoptera Fresen. | Herb | Leaves, stem, roots | Infertility in women, eye inflammation, stomachache, cough, aphrodisiac | [99,152,168] |
| Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves | Body swellings, chest pains, amoeba, asthma, back/bone problems, cough (human, cattle), colds/flu, general body pains, malaria, mental disorders, tonsilitis, anthelmintic, acidity, stomach ailments, delayed delivery, purgative, dizziness, headache, acaricide, vaginal discharge, menstrual cramps, infertility, aphrodisiac, joint pains, sores, toothache, retained placenta, abdominal pains | [14,41,74,111,118,129,133,139,142,146,147,150,168] |
| Polygonaceae | ||||
| Oxygonum sinuatum (Hochst. & Steud. ex Meisn.) Dammer | Herb | Roots, leaves, whole plant | Tonsillitis, conjunctivitis, boils, cellulitis, toothache, diabetes mellitus, rashes, dandruffs, burns, skin/throat cancer, body swellings, wounds, skin infection, stomachache, urinary problems, gonorrhea, typhoid, venereal diseases, joint pains, eye diseases, enlarged uvula | [76,84,85,90,94,106,115,117,118,143,147,168] |
| Persicaria setosula (A.Rich.) K.L.Wilson | Herb | Leaves | Revive the dying | [67] |
| Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. | Herb | Leaves, roots | Malaria, menstrual problems, stomachache, conjunctivitis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), eye infections, general wellbeing, scabies, anthelmintic | [41,67,73,101,119,168] |
| Rumex acetosella L. | Herb | Roots | Abdominal pains, hypertension, diabetes | [86,91] |
| Rumex hypogaeus T.M.Schust. & Reveal | Herb | Roots | Venereal diseases | [168] |
| Rumex nepalensis Spreng. | Herb | Leaves, roots | Malaria, stomachache, fever, snakebites paralysis, sore throat, livestock diseases (infection/stomach) | [101,144,152] |
| Rumex usambarensis (Engl.) Dammer | Shrub | Leaves, roots | Anthelmintic, constipation, joint pains, vomiting, urinary tract infections, cough, chest pain, difficulty in breathing | [81,105,119,122,130] |
| Portulacaceae | ||||
| Portulaca foliosa Ker Gawl. | Herb | Whole plant | Wounds, burns, swollen’ belly in children | [77,140] |
| Portulaca oleracea L. | Herb | Whole plant | Wounds, burns, typhoid, cancer, diarrhea, urinary disorders, liver/kidney problems | [77,91,115,168] |
| Portulaca quadrifida L. | Herb | Whole plant | Wound, burns | [77,91] |
| Primulaceae | ||||
| Embelia schimperi Vatke | Shrub/liana | Stem, bark, leaves, roots, seeds | Joint pains, chest pain, malaria, colds, anthelmintic, wounds, stomach problems, fever, rheumatic fever, tuberculosis, pneumonia, brucellosis, diarrhea | [107,109,131,142,168] |
| Lysimachia volkensii Engl. | Herb | Wounds | [136] | |
| Maesa lanceolata Forssk. | Shrub/tree | Roots, fruits, bark, seeds, leaves | Flu, anthelminthic, appetizer, stomachache, STIs, malaria, backache, arthritis, snakebites, skin allergies, heartburn, chest pain, boils, colic pains, headache, abdominal pains, pregnancy, kidney diseases, acaricide, cough, fontanel inflammation or wounds, veterinary use as poison antidote, astringent, purgative, dysmenorrhea, itchy skin rashes, enlarged glands, abortifacients, fever (humans, animals), sore throat, heart problems, gonorrhea, healing umbilical scar, dysentery | [77,79,88,91,92,99,101,116,120,122,126,133,141,142,144,145,146,168] |
| Myrsine africana L. | Shrub/tree | Bark, fruits, leaves, seeds | Gonorrhea, constipation, headache, malaria, respiratory disorders, anthelmintic (human, livestock), heartburn, tuberculosis, diabetes, bone/joint pain, kidney diseases, helminthiasis, wounds, tonic, tranquillizer, fever, typhoid, tuberculosis, stomach problems, dysentery, chest pain, abdominal disorders, backache, dysmenorrhea, internal boils due to injuries or inflammatory diseases, purgative, copious perspiration, relaxation, appetite, measles, stomachache | [67,68,72,77,83,88,89,105,132,135,136,137,138,140,141,147,149,168] |
| Myrsine melanophloeos (L.) R.Br. ex Sweet | Tree | Fruits, seeds, bark | Anthelmintic, gonorrhea, heartburn, weak bones, chest pains, joint pains, diarrhea, malaria, general body weakness, pneumonia, stomachache, colds, rumbling stomach, hypertension, livestock diseases, purgative, dysmenorrhea, afterbirth pains, amoeba, back/bone pains, blood purifier, constipation, injuries/cuts, wounds, kidney disorders, appetizer, prostate cancer, rheumatism, skin diseases, typhoid, headache, purgative, arthralgia, body pain, fever | [14,41,67,68,88,99,105,107,109,120,131,132,141,142,145,146,147,152] |
| Proteaceae | ||||
| Faurea rochetiana (A.Rich.) Chiov. ex Pic.Serm. | Tree | Bark | Chronic cough | [140] |
| Faurea saligna Harv. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark | Stomach upsets/ulcers, urinary tract infections, indigestion, tonic, asthma, back/joint/bone problems, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, general body pains, stomach disorders, diarrhea, menstrual pains, stomachache, headache, itchy skin rash, abdominal pain | [41,67,77,91,99,105,131,132,135,141,142,168] |
| Grevillea robusta A.Cunn. ex R.Br. (exotic) | Tree | Bark, roots | Back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, anthelmintic, sore throat, ear, chest problems, toothache, immune booster, antidote | [14,41,116] |
| Macadamia tetraphylla L.A.S.Johnson (exotic) | Tree | Bark | Allergies, skin cancer | [41,117] |
| Putranjivaceae | ||||
| Drypetes gerrardii Hutch. | Tree | Leaves, roots | Wounds, acaricide | [133,147] |
| Ranunculaceae | ||||
| Clematis brachiata Thunb. | Liana | Roots, leaves, flowers, stems | Mouth inflammation, stomachache, chest pains, colds, headache, backache, syphilis, gonorrhea, fever, arthritis, cough, malaria, amoeba, stomach ailments, constipation, depression, flu, bleeding gums, toothache, body swellings, nasal congestion, snuff | [77,97,103,104,122,131,140,142,143,146,147,152,154,168] |
| Clematis hirsuta Guill. & Perr. | Liana | Roots, leaves, bark | Headache, colds, malaria, fever, ear problem, chest problem, diabetes, anthelmintic, antidote | [14,67,83,98,104,109,146] |
| Clematis simensis Fresen. | Liana | Roots, stems, leaves, exudate, flowers | Sinusitis, allergy, colds, cough, wheezing, chest pain, blocked nose, headache, wounds, mouth inflammation, stomachache, chest pains, malaria, purgative, rashes, meningitis, anodyne, abdominal pains, oral thrush, bleeding gums | [67,86,87,132,141,142,152,168] |
| Clematis villosa DC. | Herb | Stuffy nose and associated respiratory problems | [125] | |
| Hydrastis canadensis L. (exotic) | Herb | Painkiller | [41] | |
| Nigella sativa L. (exotic) | Herb | Seeds | Headache, hypertension, stomachache | [137] |
| Ranunculus multifidus Forssk. | Herb | Roots, seeds, leaves | Pneumonia, malaria, oral thrush, purgative, expectorant | [67,141] |
| Thalictrum rhynchocarpum Quart.-Dill. & A.Rich. | Herb | Roots | Purgative, expectorant | [141] |
| Resedaceae | ||||
| Caylusea abyssinica (Fresen.) Fisch. & C.A.Mey. | Herb | Roots, whole plant | Abdominal pains, anthelmintic, cough, abdominal pains | [99,140,141] |
| Rhamnaceae | ||||
| Berchemia discolor (Klotzsch) Hemsl. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark | Diarrhea, men infertility, stomach disorder, liver ailments, erectile dysfunction, typhoid, fever | [14,77,80,86,91,142] |
| Helinus integrifolius (Lam.) Kuntze | Liana | Bark | Arthritis, paralysis | [68] |
| Helinus mystacinus (Aiton) E.Mey. ex Steud. | Liana | Leaves, bark, roots, shoots | Respiratory disorders, snakebites, stomachache, animal fever, anthrax, rinderpest, headache | [77,88,139,144] |
| Maesopsis eminii Engl. | Tree | Bark | Cough | [122] |
| Rhamnus prinoides L’Hér. | Shrub/tree | Roots, seeds, bark, leaves | Splenomegaly, infertility, cancer, syphilis, gonorrhea, arthritis, stomachache, pneumonia, brucellosis, indigestion, tonic, backache, arthritis, prostate, malaria, postpartum weakness, dizziness, dirty circulatory system, headache, waist pains, constipation, weak joints, body weakness, fever, diarrhea, appetizer, amoeba dysentery, abdominal cramps, joint pains, allergies, amoeba, bone problems, blood cleanser, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, rheumatism, typhoid, anthelmintic, colic pain in infants, renal disorders, skin disorders, snakebites, neck stiffness, diabetes, abortifacient, chest problems, pleuritis, purgative, epilepsy, mouth diseases | [14,41,67,72,77,83,86,87,88,89,90,92,97,99,103,104,105,107,109,110,113,131,132,135,136,138,141,142,146,147,149,152,154,168] |
| Rhamnus staddo A.Rich. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves, stems | Tonic, STIs, flu/colds, diabetes, endometritis, diarrhea, chest pains, heartburn, stomachache, toothache, cough, malaria, gonorrhea, syphilis, diabetes, chest pain, backache, fever, pneumonia, bone problems, dental problems, headache, rheumatism, arthritis, venereal diseases, polio, body aches, fever, hepatitis, menstrual problems, livestock diseases, anaplasmosis, typhoid, male’s libido, vomiting in babies, epilepsy/tetanus, infertility, hypertension, joint diseases, rheumatic pains, kidney problems | [41,67,68,71,72,77,92,97,99,103,104,105,107,109,110,118,121,135,136,138,140,141,142,147,149,152,154,168] |
| Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kurz | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves, fruits | Boosting immunity, stomachache, anthelmintic, joint pains, prenatal care, tonic, pneumonia, respiratory disorders, joint ache, retained afterbirth, allergies, anemia, pregnancy pains, measles, infertility, epilepsy, dizziness, fever, ringworm, menstrual problems | [68,71,77,88,127,130,131,132,135,138,140,141,143,147,151,152] |
| Ziziphus abyssinica Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves, aerial parts | Burns, kidney, asthma, pneumonia, Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia in livestock, malaria, stomach disorders, acaricide | [77,82,104,120,133,153] |
| Ziziphus jujuba Mill. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, bark | Tuberculosis, indigestion, diarrhea, indigestion, cough, abdominal pains, colic pains, stomachache, dysentery, catarrhs, amoeba, rheumatism, retained placenta | [86,99,112,132,139,141,142] |
| Ziziphus mucronata Willd. | Shrub/tree | Abdominal pains, prenatal care, body inflammation, snakebite, arthritis, stomachache, diarrhea, acaricide, wounds, bleeding in miscarriage, fecal impaction in babies/children, heartburn, pain in pregnancy, rheumatism, joint diseases | [67,71,77,80,87,89,99,127,133,140,141,148,149] | |
| Rhizophoraceae | ||||
| Cassipourea celastroides Alston | Tree | Leaves | Body wellness | [139] |
| Cassipourea euryoides Alston | Shrub/tree | Bark | Aphrodisiac, rheumatism | [150] |
| Cassipourea malosana (Baker) Alston | Shrub/tree | Roots | Malaria, pneumonia, cancer, fibroids, wounds | [41,152] |
| Rosaceae | ||||
| Alchemilla abyssinica Fresen. | Herb | Leaves | Backache, spinal cord problems, eye infection, bruises, malaria | [109] |
| Hagenia abyssinica (Bruce) J.F.Gmel. | Tree | Flowers, bark, aerial parts | Infertility in women, livestock diseases, amoeba, cough, colds, flu, headache, rheumatism, typhoid, stomachache, diarrhea, anthelmintic, allergy, gout, abdominal pains | [41,67,109,132,141,142,152,168] |
| Prunus africana (Hook.f.) Kalkman | Tree | Bark, roots, fruits, leaves, stems | Eye problems, joint pains, prostate cancer, stomachache, urinary tract infections, back pain in women, HIV/AIDs, washing newborns to shed off dead skin, appetizer, fever, malaria, vomiting, diarrhea, postmenopausal syndrome, allergies, arthritis, amoeba, back/bone problems, blood cancer, blood cleanser, brucellosis, cancer, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, diabetes, epilepsy, family planning, fibroids, injuries, cuts/wounds, heart problems, increase blood, indigestion, meat allergy, pneumonia, rheumatism, tonsilitis, tumors, typhoid, ulcers, anthelmintic, chest pains, general body weakness, peptic ulcers, hypertension, rheumatism, brain fatigue, congested chest, anthrax, body ache, joint ache, cough (cow, goats, sheep, poultry, pig, ruminants), tonic, colorectal/breast/skin/prostate cancer, STIs, acaricide, purgative, aphrodisiac, abdominal pains, astringent, gonorrhea, breast cancer, liver diseases, indigestion, meat allergy, anaplasmosis in cattle, toothache, arthritis | [14,41,66,67,73,74,77,83,84,86,88,89,91,95,103,104,105,107,109,113,116,117,120,125,131,132,133,135,136,141,142,145,146,147,152,168] |
| Rhaphiolepis bibas (Lour.) Galasso & Banfi (exotic) | Shrub | Roots, fruits, bark | Kwashiorkor, marasmus, diabetes, stomachache, toothache, earache | [41,119,144] |
| Rubus apetalus Poir. | Shrub | Roots, leaves, fruits | Blood cleanser, malnutrition, prophylaxis of cancer, cough, colds, STIs, joint ailment, stomachache | [88,144,147] |
| Rubus keniensis Standl. | Shrub | Roots | Stomachache, STIs, afterbirth problems | [120,131] |
| Rubus pinnatus Willd. | Tree | Roots, leaves | Malaria, diarrhea, stomachache, amoeba, gonorrhea | [41,101,146,152] |
| Rubus steudneri Schweinf. | Shrub | Roots | Cough, abdominal pains, stomachache | [99,132] |
| Rubus volkensii Engl. | Shrub | Fruits | Cough, colds, acidity, general body health | [147] |
| Rubiaceae | ||||
| Afrocanthium keniense (Bullock) Lantz | Shrub/tree | Bark | Liver problems | [168] |
| Afrocanthium lactescens (Hiern) Lantz | Tree | Roots, bark | Backache, purgative | [140,141] |
| Agathisanthemum bojeri Klotzsch | Herb/shrub | Roots, leaves | Prenatal care, convulsions, skin infections, colds, stomachache, sore eyes, ears, anthelmintic | [75,112,127] |
| Agathisanthemum globosum (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Klotzsch | Herb | Roots | Malaria | [111] |
| Breonadia salicina (Vahl) Hepper & J.R.I.Wood | Tree | Roots, bark | Malaria, headache | [74] |
| Canthium glaucum Hiern | Shrub | Fruits | Malaria | [111] |
| Catunaregam nilotica (Stapf) Tirveng. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Constipation, stomach ailments | [112,127] |
| Coffea arabica L. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Back pain in women, allergies, appetizer, low libido, pneumonia, pregnancy problems, rheumatism, sleeping sickness, flu | [41,113,146] |
| Coffea eugenioides S.Moore | Tree | Leaves | Eye problems in livestock, heavy menstruation | [116,125] |
| Conostomium quadrangulare (Rendle) Cufod. | Herb | Leaves, roots | Purgative, lice infestation | [141] |
| Coptosperma graveolens (S.Moore) Degreef | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots, stems, leaves | Malaria, aphrodisiac, erectile dysfunction, eyedrops, ulcers, sores, smallpox lesions, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy | [104,119,134,139,142] |
| Craterispermum schweinfurthii Hiern | Shrub/liana | Bark | Aphrodisiac, diarrhea, malaria, veterinary | [116] |
| Dirichletia glaucescens Hiern | Shrub | Leaves | Insecticide e.g., termites | [84] |
| Dolichopentas longiflora (Oliv.) Kårehed & B.Bremer | Herb | Bark, roots, leaves | Laxative, skin, malaria, purgative, back pains, lice infestation, warts | [67,91,115,120,141,168] |
| Galium aparinoides Forssk. | Herb | Roots, whole plant | Stomach ulcers, urinary infections, throat cancer in cattle, anaplasmosis in cattle, nervous and urinary disorders | [89,105,168] |
| Galium simense Fresen. | Herb | Leaves | Cancer, general body rashes | [131] |
| Galium spurium L. | Herb | Roots, leaves | Stomach disorders, false teeth | [109] |
| Gardenia posoquerioides S.Moore | Shrub/tree | Syphilis | [142] | |
| Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn. | Shrub/tree | Roots, fruits, bark | Malaria, purgative, acaricide, emetic, eyes, amoeba, vomiting, cough, pneumonia, epigastric pain, appetizer, heartburn, chest pain, mental illness | [67,71,72,98,132,133,140,142,143,148] |
| Gardenia transvenulosa Verdc. | Shrub/tee | Roots | Stomach ailments | [142] |
| Gardenia volkensii K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Roots, fruits, bark | Emetic, back/joint/bone problems, burns, malaria, STIs, snakebite, breast/uterine/skin cancer, purgative, colds, sores, cough, stomachache, anthelmintic | [14,41,86,87,117,142] |
| Hymenodictyon parvifolium Oliv. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Constipation, diarrhea, snakebites, livestock diseases, ears sores, sooth red eyes, ulcer pains, aid conception, edema | [51,64,96,100,105] |
| Keetia gueinzii (Sond.) Bridson | Shrub/liana | Bark, roots | Asthma, pneumonia, cough, allergy, joint pains, appetizer, fatigue, diarrhea | [98,144] |
| Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus Hiern | Shrub/tree | Roots | Diarrhea | [127] |
| Lasianthus kilimandscharicus K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Malaria, colds | [14] |
| Meyna tetraphylla (Schweinf. ex Hiern) Robyns | Shrub/tree | Roots | Alleviate pain in pregnant women | [142] |
| Mussaenda arcuata Poir. | Shrub | Leaves, bark | Joint pains, venereal diseases | [144] |
| Oxyanthus speciosus DC. | Shrub/tree | Bark | Sore throat | [72] |
| Pavetta abyssinica Fresen. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, bark | Colorectal/skin/breast cancer, purgative, abdominal pains | [91,117,141] |
| Pavetta crassipes K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Chronic joint pains, asthma, acaricide | [118,130,133] |
| Pavetta oliveriana Hiern | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots | Acaricide, aphrodisiac, abdominal pains, meningitis | [133,141] |
| Pavetta subcana Hiern | Shrub | Roots, whole plant | Gonorrhea, cough (cows), fleas (cattle) | [67,89,142] |
| Pavetta teitana K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots | Pneumonia | [74] |
| Pentanisia ouranogyne S.Moore | Herb | Roots | Tonic, appetizer in babies/children, malaria | [67,111,140] |
| Pentas lanceolata (Forssk.) Deflers | Herb/shrub | Roots, bark | Joint aches, malaria, kidney problems, scurvy, depression, arthritis, venereal disease | [97,104,147] |
| Pentas pubiflora S.Moore | Herb/shrub | Roots | Purgative | [99,141] |
| Pentas zanzibarica (Klotzsch) Vatke | Herb/shrub | Roots, leaves | Malaria, tonic | [41,67,84] |
| Pentodon pentandrus (Schumach. & Thonn.) Vatke | Herb | Roots | Anthelmintic, pneumonia, cough | [74] |
| Polysphaeria multiflora Hiern | Shrub/tree | Leaves | Sore muscles, wounds | [142] |
| Psychotria amboniana K.Schum. | Shrub | Leaves, roots | Convulsions, headache | [127,142] |
| Psychotria faucicola K.Schum. | Shrub | Roots | Diarrhea | [142] |
| Psychotria holtzii (K.Schum.) E.M.A.Petit | Shrub | Leaves | Colds | [142] |
| Psychotria kirkii Hiern | Shrub | Roots | Malaria, meat allergy | [136,140] |
| Psychotria lauracea (K.Schum.) E.M.A.Petit | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Childbirth, given to women after birth | Glover et al. 1966[14,67,142] |
| Psychotria orophila E.M.A.Petit | Shrub/tree | Malaria | [136] | |
| Psydrax parviflorus (Afzel.) Bridson | Shrub/tree | Back/joint/bone problems, diarrhea | [41] | |
| Psydrax schimperianus (A.Rich.) Bridson | Shrub/tree | Shoots, roots, bark | Breast cancer, diarrhea, wounds, strengthen bones, general body weakness, abdominal pains, backache, joint pains | [117,132,140,141,144,168] |
| Pyrostria phyllanthoidea (Baill.) Bridson | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark | Dizziness, weak bones, bad breadth, retained placenta | [139,140] |
| Rhodopentas bussei (K.Krause) Kårehed & B.Bremer | Herb/shrub | Roots | Venereal diseases | [142] |
| Rhodopentas parvifolia (Hiern) Kårehed & B.Bremer | Shrub | Roots, bark | Vomiting, malaria, constipation in children | [81,129,140] |
| Rubia cordifolia L. | Herb | Roots, leaves, whole plant | Mouth inflammation, gonorrhea, diarrhea, vomiting, pneumonia, cough, whooping cough, skin infection, heartburn, oral thrush, livestock diseases, malaria, upper respiratory tract infections, ringworms, oral infections, anthelmintic, stomachache, hypertension, chest pain, dysentery, urinary disorders | [68,77,86,99,104,109,115,119,120,123,138,140,141,143,152,168] |
| Rytigynia acuminatissima (K.Schum.) Robyns | Shrub/tree | Bark | Arthritis | [154] |
| Spermacoce princeae (K.Schum.) Verdc. | Herb | Roots, leaves | Breast/colorectal/skin cancer, boils | [117,119] |
| Tarenna pavettoides (Harv.) Sim | Shrub/tree | Leaves | Correct fetus during parturition | [144] |
| Tennantia sennii (Chiov.) Verdc. & Bridson | Shrub | Roots | Diarrhea, malaria, impotence and infertility | [51] |
| Uncaria africana G.Don | Shrub/liana | Roots, bark | Stomach disorder, strength | [77] |
| Vangueria apiculata K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, twigs | Prolonged menstruation, arthritis, veterinary uses, body swellings, warts, tuberculosis | [66,116,144,154] |
| Vangueria infausta Burch. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, fruits | Snakebites, prenatal care, cough, colds, body pains, anthelmintic, pneumonia (cow, goat, sheep, poultry), stop menses, fever, eye problems | [14,73,74,105,112,116,127,147] |
| Vangueria madagascariensis J.F.Gmel. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, bark, shoots | Mouth infection in babies, stomach complications, brucellosis, cholera, heartburn, loin pains, medicine antidote, pancreatic diseases, prostrate problems, rheumatism, typhoid, arthritis, men infertility, malaria, colic pain, anthelmintic (human, animals) | [41,67,84,86,103,104,109,140,146,154] |
| Vangueria volkensii K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Malaria, amoeba | [41,124] | |
| Rutaceae | ||||
| Calodendrum capense (L.f.) Thunb. | Tree | Bark | Stomach upsets, emetic, fever, bleeding wounds (human, sheep) | [105,109,145] |
| Citrus × aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle | Shrub/tree | Leaves, fruits | Replacement milk for nursing mothers, colds, flu | [108] |
| Citrus × aurantium L. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, fruits, bark | Cough, colds/flu, arthritis, cancer, low libido, nose bleeding, rheumatism, eye ache | [41,146,150] |
| Citrus × limon (L.) Osbeck | Shrub/tree | Fruits, leaves | Malaria, stomachache, flu, colds, ringworm, asthma, back/joint/bone problems, blood cleanser, chest congestions/pains, ear-nose-threat infections, appetizer, rheumatism, typhoid, skin rashes, pneumonia, prostate cancer, infertility, anthelmintic | [14,41,74,94,106,108,143,146,150] |
| Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook.f. ex Benth. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, bark | Malaria, anthelmintic, stomach problems, prostate, convulsions, cough, colds, mouth infection in babies, emetic, blood cleanser, stroke, whooping cough, body pains, constipation, poisoning, diarrhea, pneumonia, teeth cleansing, protracted labor, retained placenta, postpartum hemorrhage, headache, fever, indigestion, toothache, kidney/heart diseases, livestock diseases, vertigo, abdominal pains, typhoid, chest pain, respiratory problems, measles, chest diseases, tonsillitis, afterbirth pains, menstrual problems | [14,74,81,84,88,99,101,103,104,105,109,111,120,121,127,138,141,142,143,144,146,147,150,168] |
| Fagaropsis angolensis (Engl.) H.M.Gardner | Tree | Leaves, roots, bark | Chest problems, gut problems, induces menopause, amoeba, bone problems, cough, colds, flu, diarrhea, dysentery, livestock diseases, malaria, rheumatism, stomach disorders, typhoid, anthelmintic, joint pains, stomachache, headache, chest problems, STIs, expectorant, abdominal pains, backache | [41,66,74,84,93,103,104,111,116,141,146,147] |
| Fagaropsis hildebrandtii (Engl.) Milne-Redh. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves | Morning sickness, women’s infertility, malaria, asthma, ulcers, chronic joint pains, abscesses, arthritis, cough, colds/flu, postpartum hemorrhage, milk letdown, prevent first/second trimester abortion, vomiting, pregnancy anemia, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy | [41,81,94,102,129,130,139] |
| Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. | Shub/tree | Bark, leaves, roots | Gonorrhea, syphilis, malaria, arthritis, STIs, stomach pains, body pains, diarrhea, stomachache, pneumonia, infertility, eye ointment, ringworms, blood purifier, cough, chest congestion, helminthiasis, amoeba, abscess, ECF, lumbago, rheumatism, retained placenta, inducing abortion, acaricide, headache, pregnancy problems, typhoid, chest problems, asthma, abdominal pains, back ache/joint ache, wounds, swollen breasts and testicles, boils, pregnancy problems, bubonic plague, anthelmintic, kidney problems, diabetes, menstrual problems | [14,41,66,68,72,74,76,77,79,80,84,90,93,98,100,102,103,105,108,111,112,118,124,127,129,132,133,138,141,142,143,146,147,153] |
| Toddalia simplicifolia Engl. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves | Pneumonia, allergy, gonorrhea, diarrhea, malaria, stomachache, weak bones, rib bones, eye problem, colds, flu, joint pains, skin rashes, chest troubles, poisoning, diabetes, cerebral malaria, fevers, hepatitis, fever, oral trash, wounds, typhoid, firm stool, stomach acid, tonic, blood pressure, joint diseases, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, edema | [51,67,68,71,77,83,84,96,99,100,103,104,105,111,128,129,136,139,147,149,152] |
| Vepris eugeniifolia (Engl.) I.Verd. | Shrub | Bark leaves | Hepatitis, sore throat, malaria, body pains | [72,77] |
| Vepris glomerata (F.Hoffm.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Colds, snakebites | [127] |
| Vepris nobilis (Delile) Mziray | Shrub/tree | Bark, roots, leaves | Toothbrush, brucellosis, aphrodisiac, livestock diseases, malaria, headache, joint pains, colds, pneumonia, anthelmintic, chest pain, arthritis, backache, blood cleanser, invigorant, stimulate immunity, stomachache, labor, back/bone problems, nausea, rheumatism, amoeba, acaricide, asthma, tonic, dizziness, cough, expectorant, abdominal pains, internal body pains/weakness, anthrax | [41,67,84,86,88,89,98,104,109,119,120,133,135,136,140,141,143,145,152] |
| Vepris samburuensis Kokwaro | Shrub/tree | Liver problems | [136] | |
| Vepris sansibarensis (Engl.) Mziray | Shrub/tree | Roots | Snakebites, body inflammation, reproductive disorder | [127,150] |
| Zanthoxylum asiaticum (L.) Appelhans, Groppo & J.Wen | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, bark, stems, fruits | Abdominal pains, gynecological disorders including infertility, cough, colds, cancer, renal disorders, anthelmintic in cattle, malaria, backpain in women, mouth inflammation, joint pain, boils, chest pains, general body weakness, headache, fever, mouth infection in babies, pneumonia, stomachache, sore throat, tonic, respiratory disorders, TB, urinary tract problems, arthritis, cancer, throat cancer, joint aches, food poisoning, rheumatism, asthma, irregular menstruation, back pains, indigestion, kidney problems, typhoid, amoeba, aphrodisiac, firms stool, abdominal pains, emesis in livestock | [14,67,71,72,79,82,86,87,88,89,98,99,103,107,109,115,118,119,120,123,124,125,129,131,132,134,135,136,140,141,143,144,147,150,152,154,168] |
| Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves, seeds, fruits | STIs, flu/cold, indigestion, throat infection, pain in fallopian tubes, asthma, pneumonia, malaria, ulcers, fever, general body pains, gastric lesions and pain, urinary tract infections, venereal diseases, bleeding gums, chest pains, stomach problems, anthrax, measles, epilepsy, psychotic disorders, oral thrush, emetic, sore throat, livestock diseases, joint pains, cholera, allergies, back/bone problems, constipation, cough, dental problems, gouts, headache, injuries, cuts/wounds, rheumatism, ringworms, TB, ulcers, sores, diabetes mellitus, chest congestion, mouth sores/ulcers, freshens the mouth, anthelmintic, toothache, delayed labor, first trimester abortion, vomiting, pregnancy edema, snakebite, keep gums hard and healthy, amoeba, mouth ulcers, headache, typhoid, stomachache, waterborne diseases, body pains, boils, muscular pains, diarrhea, abdominal pains, epilepsy, peptic ulcers, obesity, reproductive disorders, anthrax, immune booster, cattle cough, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, retained placenta, kidney problems, edema | [14,41,51,64,72,74,76,77,79,80,81,84,85,86,88,91,92,96,98,99,100,102,103,106,109,111,112,127,128,129,130,131,132,134,138,139,141,142,143,146,147,148,150,151] |
| Zanthoxylum gilletii (De Wild.) P.G.Waterman | Tree | Bark, leaves, seeds, roots | Asthma, bronchitis, sore throat, colic pain, constipation, hepatomegaly, severe body inflammation, tongue, anthrax, cough, colds, chest problems, malaria, rheumatism, joint aches, skin cancer, scabies, gut problems, buccal/oral problems, headache, cardiac conditions, gout, veterinary uses, asthma, pneumonia, body malaise, fevers, anaplasmosis in cattle, toothache, bleeding gums, snakebites, headache, prostate cancer, dental problems, arthralgia, joint pains, fever, venereal diseases, stomachache, scratches on body, wounds | [14,66,87,98,101,116,117,125,142,143,144,147,168] |
| Zanthoxylum holtzianum (Engl.) P.G.Waterman | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, bark | Ulcer, cough | [145] |
| Zanthoxylum rubescens Planch. ex Hook. | Shrub/tree | Bark, leaves | Breast/colorectal/skin/esophageal cancer | [117] |
| Zanthoxylum usambarense (Engl.) Kokwaro | Tree | Bark, leaves, fruits, seeds, roots, stems | Malaria, diarrhea, postpartum weakness, backache, joint pains, emetic, amoeba, arthritis, bone problems, body weakness, brucellosis, cough, colds, flu, headache, rheumatism, STIs, stomach disorders, tonsilitis, typhoid, ulcers, throat infections, respiratory tract infections, malignant catarrhal fever, fever, chest pain, sore throat, livestock medicine, chest pain, pneumonia, toothache, bleeding gums, bad breath, purgative | [41,67,68,77,93,103,104,105,107,113,135,137,138,140,142,168] |
| Salicaceae | ||||
| Casearia battiscombei R.E.Fr. | Tree | Bark, roots | Joint problems, abdominal pains, infertility, stomachache | [88,120] |
| Dovyalis abyssinica (A.Rich.) Warb. | Shrub/tree | Roots, stems, leaves, fruit, bark | Splenomegaly, arthritis, infertility, indigestion, postpartum weakness, diarrhea, malaria, afterbirth weakness, joint pain, STIs, backache, anthelmintic, stomachache, general body weakness, pneumonia, dirty circulatory system, stomach ulcers, boost immunity, seizures/epilepsy, muscle pains, invigorant, blood cleanser, skin rashes, venereal diseases, bone problems, cough, colds, flu, appetizer, rheumatism, gonorrhea, toothache, chest pains, colic pain in infants, headache, eyes problems, wounds, body pains, boils, heartburn, acidity, stomach ailments, chiggers, aphrodisiac, abdominal pains, typhoid, kidney problems, diabetes | [14,41,84,87,88,89,105,113,131,132,135,138,141,142,146,147,152,168] |
| Dovyalis caffra (Hook.f. & Harv.) Warb. (exotic) | Shrub | Fruits | Lack of appetite, malaria, rheumatism, cough (cow, goat, sheep, poultry, pig, ruminant) | [41,73] |
| Dovyalis macrocalyx (Oliv.) Warb. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, whole plant, fruits | Constipation, peptic ulcers, headache, colds, joint pain, fever, malaria, breast problem, stomach complications, body weakness, seizures/epilepsy, skin rashes, boils, acaricide | [88,109,125,133,144,146] |
| Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, leaves | Measles, chickenpox, dysmenorrhea, STIs, back/joint/bone problems, malaria, pneumonia, anthelmintic, arthritis, hypertension, stomachache, indigestion, asthma, indigestion, diarrhea, gonorrhea, infertility, anti-venom, abdominal pains | [41,74,86,87,99,111,120,132,141,154] |
| Ludia mauritiana J.F.Gmel. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Malaria | [14] |
| Oncoba routledgei Sprague | Shrub/tree | Fruits, flowers | Jiggers, biopesticide | [74] |
| Oncoba spinosa Forssk. | Shrub/tree | Leaves | Skin diseases | [144] |
| Scolopia theifolia Gilg | Shrub/tree | Roots | STIs | [142] |
| Scolopia zeyheri (Nees) Szyszyl. | Shrub/tree | Bark | Gonorrhea | [152] |
| Trimeria grandifolia (Hochst.) Warb. | Shrub/tree | Stem, bark, roots, fruits, leaves | Malaria, brucellosis, postpartum weakness, cough, backache, weak bones, colds, heartburn, STIs, arthritis, gonorrhea, heartburn, toothache, renal disorders, cancer, arthritis, rheumatism, fever, chest pain, joint pains, dysmenorrhea | [67,77,86,104,105,107,113,120,124,135,136,138,140,141,142,145,147,152,154,168] |
| Salvadoraceae | ||||
| Azima tetracantha Lam. | Shrub | Roots | Stomach disorders | [142] |
| Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. Ex Poir. | Shrub/tree | Roots, branches | Eye problem, amoebiasis, anemia, rheumatism, gouts | [100,132,150] |
| Salvadora persica L. | Shrub/tree | Stems, bark, roots, twigs, leaves | Malaria, flu/cold, colds, stomachache, internal wounds, induce bile release from the gall bladder, eye infections, anthelmintic, constipation, tonic, respiratory infections, pneumonia, abdominal pain, colic pain, joint pains, abscesses, typhoid, blocked nose, fever, abortion, childbirth, retained placenta (cattle, human), ulcers, seizures, mange, trypanosomiasis, brucellosis, anthrax, cleaning the stomach after birth, emetic, purgative, dental caries, toothache, gum diseases, livestock diseases, backache, chest problems, chest pains, ulcers, aphrodisiac, labor pain, obesity, hernia, whitening teeth, rib pain, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy, eye infections | [14,41,64,68,72,77,80,88,90,91,92,94,96,100,105,107,110,121,130,136,138,139,149,150] |
| Santalaceae | ||||
| Osyridicarpos schimperianus (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) A.DC. | Shrub | Malaria, swollen breasts | [136] | |
| Osyris lanceolata Hochst. & Steud. | Shrub/tree | Stems, bark, leaves, roots, seeds | Ringworms, impotence, fatigue, boost immunity, back/joint/bone problems, cough/colds/flu, AIDS, allergies, back/joint/bone problems, blood purifier, chest problems, general body pains, fever, malaria, pneumonia, prostate cancer, rheumatism, stomach disorders, anthelmintic, abdominal pains in children, diarrhea, gonorrhea, pregnancy problems, swollen breasts, indigestion, excessive bleeding after birth, mosquito repellant, dysentery, typhoid, fever, tonic, swollen udder in cows, purgative, insecticide, cow fever, typhoid in livestock | [14,41,72,77,84,89,99,100,105,107,129,135,136,140,141,142,145,147,168] |
| Viscum bagshawei Rendle | Shrub | Leaves, stems | Enhance sexual performance | [143] |
| Viscum fischeri Engl. | Shrub | Whole plant, branches, twigs | Pneumonia, emetic, purgative, retained afterbirth, chest pains, hypertension, diarrhea, respiratory problems | [67,77,99,168] |
| Viscum tuberculatum A.Rich. | Shrub | Branches, bark | Pneumonia, retained afterbirth, hypertension, diarrhea, respiratory problems | [67,68,99,168] |
| Sapindaceae | ||||
| Allophylus abyssinicus (Hochst.) Radlk. | Tree | Leaves, roots, bark, fruits | Boils, hunchback, rickets, colds, skin problems, fatigue, boost immunity, headache, heartache, chest pains, childbirth problems, STIs, crooked limps, irregular menstruation, fever, weight loss, edema, toothache | [14,66,88,116,120,144,146,152,168] |
| Allophylus pervillei Blume | Shrub/tree | Roots, stem bark, leaves | Headache, prenatal care, colds, wounds, fibroids, female reproductive disorders | [75,127,150] |
| Allophylus rubifolius (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Headache, prenatal care | [127] |
| Aporrhiza paniculata Radlk. | Tree | Bark | Tuberculosis | [142] |
| Blighia unijugata Baker | Tree | Stems, roots, bark | Veterinary uses, headache, fever | [112,116,144] |
| Cardiospermum corindum L. | Herb | Bark, roots | Anthelmintic, amoeba, joint pains, malaria, polio, snakebites, stomachache, STI’s | [14,72,77,84,146] |
| Cardiospermum halicacabum L. | Herb | Seeds, roots, leaves | Snakebite, malaria, polio, antidote for arrow poison, eye medicine, rashes, boils, sprained muscles | [136,143,168] |
| Deinbollia borbonica Scheff. | Shrub/tree | Roots | Septic swelling, stomachache, aphrodisiac, diabetes, gastrointestinal complaints | [127,150] |
| Deinbollia kilimandscharica Taub. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | Poisonous | [168] |
| Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. | Shrub/tree | Bark, twigs, leaves, roots | Excessive menstruation, respiratory disorders, back/bone joints problems, diarrhea, stomach disorders, malaria, ECF, chest pain, pneumonia, stimulates milk after birth, respiratory disorders, rheumatic, dysmenorrhea, colds, tonsills in cattle | [14,41,73,77,88,99,104,113,115,132,141,168] |
| Haplocoelum foliolosum (Hiern) Bullock | Shrub/tree | Leaves | Eye lotion | [77] |
| Lepisanthes senegalensis (Poir.) Leenh. | Tree | Fruits, leaves | Poisonous | [142] |
| Pappea capensis Eckl. & Zeyh. | Shrub/tree | Stem, bark, leaves, roots, seeds | Backache, tonic, appetizer, indigestion, infertility, gout, stomachache, stamina, aphrodisiac, typhoid fever, amoebic dysentery, abdominal pain, excessive menstruation, body/muscle building, tuberculosis, rib/joint pains, AIDs, arthritis, bone problems, chest problems, cough, colds, flu, diarrhea, malaria, diabetes, body aches, invigorator, rheumatism, body weakness, postpartum hemorrhage, emetic, cancer, rheumatoid arthritis | [41,67,77,81,84,89,90,91,92,97,102,105,107,113,129,130,135,138,142,147,148,149,154,168] |
| Paullinia pinnata L. | Liana | Leaves, roots | Hiccoughs, acaricide, poisonous, diarrhea, snakebite | [125,133,142,144] |
| Zanha africana (Radlk.) Exell | Tree | Leaves, roots, bark | Miscarriage (bleeding), typhoid fever, abscesses, malaria, pregnancy edema, dog poison, pneumonia, toothache, flu, kidney ailments, allergies | [41,81,84,94,102,129,151] |
| Sapotaceae | ||||
| Aningeria adolfi-friederici (Engl.) Robyns & Gilbert | Tree | Latex, bark | Backache, stomachache, poisonous | [77,99,120,168] |
| Englerophytum oblanceolatum (S.Moore) T.D.Penn. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | Ulcers in digestive track, boils around belly, scabies | [116,125] |
| Manilkara discolor (Sond.) J.H.Hemsl. | Tree | Bark | Stomach disorders | [77] |
| Manilkara mochisia (Baker) Dubard | Tree | Roots, bark | Cough, colds, snakebites, fever | [100,127,142] |
| Manilkara sansibarensis (Engl.) Dubard | Tree | Bark | Pneumonia, rheumatism, cough | [112,142,150] |
| Manilkara sulcata (Engl.) Dubard | Shrub/tree | Roots | Cough, chest pains, snakebites, stings,diarrhea, ulcers/stomach upsets, foot and mouth disease in cattle | [100,127,134] |
| Sideroxylon inerme L. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark | Chest pains, cough, disorders in menstruation | [127] |
| Synsepalum cerasiferum (Welw.) T.D.Penn. | Tree | Latex, bark | Colorectal/esophageal cancer, wounds | [117,142] |
| Vitellariopsis kirkii (Baker) Dubard | Shrub/tree | Roots | Stomach ailments | [127] |
| Scrophulariaceae | ||||
| Buddleja polystachya Fresen. | Shrub | Roots, leaves | Infertility, eye diseases | [99,120,141] |
| Simaroubaceae | ||||
| Brucea antidysenterica J.F.Mill. | Shrub/tree | Arrow poison, malaria | [136] | |
| Smilacaceae | ||||
| Smilax anceps Willd. | Liana | Shoots | STIs | [144] |
| Solanaceae | ||||
| Capsicum annuum L. (exotic) | Herb/shrub | Fruits, leaves, stems | Eye problems, cellulitis, diarrhea/dysentery (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), dullness (poultry), Newcastle disease, coccidiosis (poultry), weakness/dullness (cow, goat, sheep, poultry, pig), throat/breast/squamous cell carcinoma, joint problems, acaricide, tumors, constipation, abdominal pains | [73,94,95,117,119,133,139,143,144,150,168] |
| Datura metel L. (exotic) | Herb | Stems, leaves, flowers | Poison, respiratory congestion | [134] |
| Datura stramonium L. (exotic) | Herb | Seeds, leaves, roots, fruits | Colds, mouth inflammation, toothache, asthma, ectoparasites i.e., mites, lice, flea infestation (cow, poultry), tick infestation (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), coccidiosis and Newcastle (poultry), foot rot (cow, goat, sheep, ruminant, pig), body swellings, tonsils, earache, wounds, boils, asthma, fever, poisonous, madness, epilepsy | [73,88,115,138,144,152,168] |
| Lycium europaeum L. | Shrub | Root, leaves, stem | Malaria, rheumatism, breast swelling, headache, backache, respiratory diseases, rib pain, backpain, joint pain, cough | [72,77,137,142] |
| Nicotiana tabacum L. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves, fruits | Eye problems, malnutrition, insecticide, wounds, colds, constipation, pesticide of stored grains, stomach infections, babesiosis, gastroenteritis, chronic cough, gingivitis, candidiasis, glossitis, ectoparasites i.e., mites, lice and fleas’ infestation (cow, poultry), acaricide, expectorant, leech | [68,73,88,96,109,120,133,137,141,146,147,168] |
| Physalis lagascae Roem. & Schult. | Herb | Leaves, whole plant | Stomachache, boils, malaria, facilitate childbirth | [76,119,144] |
| Physalis peruviana L. | Herb | Roots, leaves, fruits | Malaria, postpartum pain, diarrhea, cholera, joint pains, stiff joints, skin allergies, respiratory disorders, tonsillitis, arthritis, anthelmintic, cough, colds, anemia, acidity, chest problems, typhoid, acaricide, mouth ulcers, ear discharge, stomachache, indigestion, constipation, diuretic, asthma, abdominal ailments, headache, hiccups, bloat in cattle/humans | [14,88,89,101,110,113,115,119,122,133,143,146,147,152,154,168] |
| Solanum aculeastrum Dunal | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, fruits | Pneumonia, liver diseases, boils at teething, chest problems, malaria, joint pains, infertility in women, diarrhea, gonorrhea, livestock diseases, eye problems, fever, spinal cord problem, colds, toothache, nausea fever, osteomyelitis, backache, rheumatism, pesticide of stored grains, warts, bleeding gums, respiratory symptoms and contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (livestock), skin/breast/cervical cancer, tonsils, wounds, bronchitis, venom, expectorant, dysmenorrhea, immune booster | [14,67,82,87,99,109,113,115,117,131,132,141,142,146,147,152,168] |
| Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. | Herb/shrub | Roots, leaves | Asthma, cough, colds, eye problem, fever, spinal cord problem, throat problems, wounds | [87,109,136] |
| Solanum americanum Mill. | Herb | Leaves, fruits, roots | STIs, general body problems, chest pains, joint pains, backache, stomachache, diarrhea, gonorrhea, headache, mouth inflammation, toothache, sprains, colic pain in infants, vitamin/mineral deficiency in pregnancy, amoeba, tonsils, anthelmintic, stomach crumps, acidity, indigestion, diabetes, earache, toothache, constipation, typhoid fever, teeth problems, stomachache, fever, throat, wounds, erectile dysfunction (impotence), malaria prevention, respiratory disorders, burns, scalds | [41,76,79,83,84,88,106,115,132,136,143,144,145,147,152,168] |
| Solanum anguivi Lam. | Shrub | Fruits, roots | Skin problems, ringworms, infertility in women, stomachache, poultry (skin rashes, loss of feather) | [73,152] |
| Solanum arundo Mattei | Shrub/tree | Roots | Fever, sore throat, wounds | [77,89] |
| Solanum goetzei Dammer | Herb/shrub | Leaves | Abscesses | [142] |
| Solanum hastifolium Hochst. ex Dunal | Shrub | Roots, leaves | Eye lotion, livestock diseases (anthrax, black quarter), diarrhea, smallpox | [77,121,142] |
| Solanum incanum L. | Herb/shrub | Roots, bark, fruits, leaves | Ear infection/ache, constipation, throat infection, stomachache, malaria, oral hygiene, tonic, sore throat, oral wounds/thrush, diarrhea, respiratory disorders, toothache, ringworms, joint pains/swelling, anthelmintic, amoeba, asthma, back/bone joints problems, brucellosis, chest problems, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, family planning, gastritis, poison/sting/snake/spider bite antidote, pesticide, pimples, prostate cancer, rheumatism, ringworms, skin diseases, TB, fever, chest pain, wounds, skin disorders, respiratory disorders in sheep, arthritis, headache, sprains, rabies, whitlow, emetic, diabetes mellitus, polio, jiggers, warts, fever, ingestion, ectoparasites/acaricide, delayed labor, prevent abortion, vomiting, helminthiasis (cow, poultry, goat, sheep, pig), lumpy skin disease (cow), foot rot (cow, goat, sheep, ruminants, pig), infection of umbilical cord, erectile dysfunction, abdominal/colic pains, backache, liver enlargement, scabies, expectorant, boils, kidney problem, hasten child delivery, typhoid, edema, leprosy, chickenpox, pneumonia, HIV, swollen legs in pregnancy, retained placenta, measles, sheep (colds) | [14,41,51,66,67,68,72,73,76,77,79,81,82,84,85,88,89,90,91,92,96,99,100,101,103,105,106,111,115,119,120,125,128,129,130,132,133,135,136,138,139,141,142,143,144,146,147,148,150,152,154,168] |
| Solanum mauense Bitter | Shrub | Roots, fruits | Anthelmintic, purgative, chest ailments, pneumonia, anthrax (man/animals), malaria, chest pains, teeth problems, flu, stomachache, fever, throat, wounds | [67,89,131,132,136,142,168] |
| Solanum mauritianum Scop. (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Fruits, bark, roots | Pneumonia, cough, asthma, malaria, splenomegaly, colorectal cancer, skin rashes, STIs, poisonous | [87,115,117,144] |
| Solanum nakurense C.H.Wright | Herb/shrub | Fruits | Pneumonia, otitis media | [131,152] |
| Solanum nigriviolaceum Bitter | Shrub | Fruits, roots | Teeth problems, ringworms, rashes, colds, skin infections, joint pain, wounds, chest pain, fever, ear problem, cough, livestock diseases | [67,87,99,109,143] |
| Solanum runsoriense C.H. Wright | Liana | Fever, throat, wounds | [136] | |
| Solanum schumannianum Dammer | Shrub | Fever, throat, wounds | [136] | |
| Solanum taitense Vatke | Shrub | Roots, leaves, stems | Arthritis, malaria, typhoid, stomachache, respiratory | [92,105] |
| Solanum terminale Forssk. | Shrub/liana | Fruits, roots | Arthritis, toothache, chest congestion, rashes, fever, throat, wounds | [86,132,136,154] |
| Solanum tettense Klotzsch | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves | Boils, abscesses, diabetes mellitus, fever, typhoid, throat, wounds, threatened miscarriage, stomach pains, retained placenta, abdominal pains, diarrhea | [51,72,77,85,94,123,136,139,141,142] |
| Solanum tuberosum L. (exotic) | Herb | Bites, wounds | [41] | |
| Solanum zanzibarense Vatke | Shrub | Roots | Toothache | [142] |
| Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal | Herb/shrub | Roots, bark, whole plant, fruits, stems, leaves | Tonic, backache, joint pains, galactagogue, appetite, livestock diseases, gonorrhea, excessive menstrual flow, postpartum pain, meningitis, cerebral malaria, anthrax, detoxify meat from infected animal, urinary tract, rectal problems, STIs, diarrhea, toothache, joint pains, bone problems, cough/colds/flu, malaria, arthritis, pneumonia, painkiller, stomach upsets, burns, wounds, headache, rheumatism, boils, allergic conditions, retained afterbirth, eye diseases, coagulant, acaricide, amoeba, cancer, purgative, anodyne, anthrax, skin sores/ulcers, gum diseases, abdominal pains, aphrodisiac, gynecological problems, jaundice, hepatitis, stomachache, diabetes, blood pressure | [14,41,67,72,74,77,81,84,85,88,90,91,93,103,104,105,113,115,120,130,132,133,141,142,143,146,147,154,168] |
| Stilbaceae | ||||
| Nuxia congesta R.Br. ex Fresen. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, roots, bark | Backache, stomachache, joint pains, body weakness, respiratory disorders, indigestion, menstrual pains, astringent, abdominal/colic pains, flu, malaria, typhoid, smallpox, pneumonia, rashes, varicose veins, vomiting, mumps, tonsils, edema, dysmenorrhea, expectorant, colds, cough | [14,88,91,99,109,132,141,145,152] |
| Talinaceae | ||||
| Talinum caffrum (Thunb.) Eckl. & Zeyh. | Herb | Roots | Prevent abortion, fever | [139] |
| Talinum portulacifolium (Forssk.) Asch. ex Schweinf. | Herb | Leaves, roots | Arthritis, backache, STIs e.g., gonorrhea, wounds, boils | [77,92] |
| Theaceae | ||||
| Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Leaves | Eye problems, stomach disorders, STIs | [14,41,95] |
| Thymelaeaceae | ||||
| Englerodaphne subcordata (Meisn.) Engl. | Shrub | Roots | Constipation in children, allergy after eating meat, poisonous | [140] |
| Gnidia involucrata Steud. ex A.Rich. | Herb/shrub | Stalks | Expectorant | [141] |
| Lasiosiphon glaucus Fresen. | Shrub/tree | Roots, bark, twigs, leaves | Fibers are said to be poisonous, arrow poison, abdominal pains, back pains, joint ache, insecticide, irregular menstruation | [84,136,141,142,168] |
| Lasiosiphon latifolius (Oliv.) Brenan | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, bark | Poisonous, ulcers, evacuation of bowels, toxic to cows, pesticide, snakebites, pesticide for maize storage | [96,99,100,142,145] |
| Struthiola thomsonii Oliv. | Herb/shrub | Roots | Cough, stomachache | [67,99,142] |
| Synaptolepis kirkii Oliv. | Shrub | Fruits, leaves, roots | Anthelmintic, convulsions, wounds, snakebite, female infertility, hydrocele | [127,142,150] |
| Typhaceae | ||||
| Typha domingensis Pers. | Herb | Roots | Diabetes, diarrhea, impotency, female conditions | [83,168] |
| Typha latifolia L. | Herb | Roots | Diarrhea, impotency, female conditions | [168] |
| Urticaceae | ||||
| Girardinia diversifolia (Link) Friis | Herb | Roots | Tonic | [77] |
| Laportea alatipes Hook.f. | Herb | Leaves | Vitamin supplement | [14] |
| Laportea ovalifolia (Schumach. & Thonn.) Chew | Herb | Roots, leaves | Excessive menstrual bleeding, retained placenta, diarrhea, stomach problems, gastrointestinal infections, blood booster | [99,144] |
| Myrianthus holstii Engl. | Tree | Leaves, bark, roots | Stomachache | [14] |
| Obetia radula (Baker) Baker ex B.D.Jacks. | Tree | Roots | Barrenness | [142] |
| Pouzolzia parasitica (Forssk.) Schweinf. | Herb | Stems, roots | Burn, livestock diseases | [77] |
| Urena lobata L. | Shrub | Roots | Afterbirth, ease delivery | [120] |
| Urera hypselodendron (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Wedd. | Liana | Roots, leaves | Stomachache after birth, spider bites, antidote, livestock diseases, pregnancy problems, tonic | [67,142,152] |
| Urera sansibarica Engl. | Liana | Leaves | Leprosy | [127] |
| Urtica dioica L. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves, roots | Diabetes, ulcers, boils, anthelmintic, skin, stomach infections | [105,120,123] |
| Urtica massaica Mildbr. | Herb | Roots, leaves, whole plant | Abdominal pains, stomachache, aphrodisiac, irregular menstruation, poison antidote, infertility, malaria, sprains, headache, typhoid, dirty circulatory system, joint pains, chest pains, mouth inflammation, muscle pains, body weakness, livestock diseases, kidney problem, bruises, arthritis, bone problems, cough, colds, flu, diabetes, tonic, injuries/cuts, wounds, heartburn, hypertension, leg swellings, appetizer, pneumonia, rheumatism, stomach acid, arthritis, adds blood in the body, cancer, diabetes, anemia, skin/uterine/breast cancer, pimples, urinary problems, ulcers, vomiting, leukemia, skin roughness, problems of passing urine, fractures, venereal diseases | [41,83,85,87,90,99,104,107,109,113,115,117,128,132,146,147,152,154,168] |
| Velloziaceae | ||||
| Xerophyta spekei Baker | Shrub | Whole plant, stems | Burns, dog bites, diabetes, snakebites | [84,94] |
| Verbenaceae | ||||
| Lantana camara L. (exotic) | Shrub | Leaves, roots, whole plant | Diarrhea, measles, joint pains, amoeba, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, dental problems, headache, injuries/cuts/wounds, malaria, wounds, change the sex of expected kids, toxicity, pneumonia (cow, sheep), cough (cow, goat, sheep, poultry, pig, ruminant), sore throat, nose bleeding, breathing problems, acaricide, poison, anthelmintic, hepatitis, rheumatism, toothache, anticoagulant, liver problems, retained placenta, conjunctivitis/eye problems, toothache, runny nose | [14,41,73,76,80,84,86,104,106,108,111,115,119,127,130,133,142,143,145,146,147,150] |
| Lantana trifolia L. | Shrub | Roots, leaves, aerial parts. twigs | Stomachache, malaria, diarrhea in livestock, back/joint/bone problems, cough, colds/flu, fever, pneumonia, hypertension, heartburn, oral thrush, hepatic diseases, glandular disorders, rheumatism, sore throat, livestock joint problems, constipation, hiccups, chest problems, eye injury, anemia, ringworms, boil, mouth ulcers, abdominal/colic pains, enhance milk letdown, abdominal enlargement, general body weakness, astringent, anodyne, expectorant, meningitis, anthelmintic, hepatitis, toothache, anticoagulant, liver problems, sore throat, conjunctivitis, eye problems, kidney problems, urinary tract problems | [41,74,82,86,91,92,99,101,109,115,119,120,122,125,138,140,141,143,145,146,154] |
| Lantana ukambensis (Vatke) Verdc. | Herb | Roots, leaves, whole plant stems | Measles, malaria, smallpox, strength, colds, headache, cough, asthma, medicine for pregnant woman, children skin rashes, runny nose | [14,72,77,147] |
| Lantana viburnoides (Forssk.) Vahl | Shrub | Leaves, whole plant | Aphrodisiac, medicine for a pregnant woman | [77,80] |
| Lippia abyssinica (Otto & A.Dietr.) Cufod. | Shrub | Leaves, roots, stems | Acaricide, conjunctivitis, painful eyes | [122,133] |
| Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng. | Shrub | Leaves, roots, twigs, stems | Wounds, headache, chest congestion, malaria, migraines, measles, postpartum hemorrhage, children skin rashes, colds/flu, anaplasmosis, amoeba, body weakness, cough, anthrax, abdominal pains, tapeworms, chest complaints, toothache, stomachache, bloody diarrhea, afterbirth pains, insect repellant | [68,77,81,86,91,102,104,115,131,140,141,143,144,168] |
| Lippia kituiensis Vatke | Herb/shrub | Leaves, roots | Respiratory problems, measles, livestock diseases, chronic joint pains, cough, colds, flu, malaria, stomachache, emetic | [14,41,90,105] |
| Priva curtisiae Kobuski | Herb | Leaves | Ophthalmia | [67] |
| Verbena bonariensis L. | Herb | Leaves | Mouth infection in babies | [109] |
| Viburnaceae | ||||
| Sambucus africana Standl. | Herb | Flowers | Colds | [168] |
| Violaceae | ||||
| Rinorea ilicifolia (Welw. ex Oliv.) Kuntze | Shrub/tree | Roots | Snakebite antidote | [134] |
| Vitaceae | ||||
| Ampelocissus africana (Lour.) Merr. | Shrub/liana | Roots | Threatened miscarriage | [141] |
| Cayratia ibuensis (Hook.f.) Suess. | Herb | Leaves | Leprosy | [144] |
| Cissus aphyllantha Gilg | Shrub/liana | Roots | Diarrhea, wounds, burns, boils, swollen legs, body pains and pregnancy, hemorrhage, retained placenta, headache, pneumonia | [51,77,96,139] |
| Cissus phymatocarpa Masinde & L.E.Newton | Herb | Stems | Septic swelling, eardrops | [127] |
| Cissus quadrangularis L. | Herb | Leaves, stems, sap, roots | Cuts, wounds, diarrhea, septic swelling, ear drops, respiratory disorders in cattle, colds, malaria, stomach problems, gastric ulcers, schistosomiasis, neurosis, ECF, rheumatism, epilepsy, TB, asthma, colibacillosis, rib pain, livestock hepatitis, skin disorders, earache, chest pain, pesticide, poisonous, fly infestation, viral, joint diseases, eye infections, skin problems, diarrhea/fever/virus in poultry | [51,67,68,72,76,77,89,100,105,121,127,142,143,149,168] |
| Cissus rotundifolia Vahl | Liana | Leaves, roots, stems, whole plant | Stomachache, septic swelling, ear drops, allergies, swollen joints, spleen problems, bee stings, throat infection, pneumonia, cough, tonic, boils, skin diseases, body pains, cuts, skin inflammation, retained placenta, abdominal pains, septic wounds, poultry diseases (diarrhea, fever, sneezing) | [51,67,71,77,84,88,98,100,127,139,142,143] |
| Cissus sylvicola Masinde & L.E.Newton | Liana | Stems | Septic swelling, ear drops | [127] |
| Cyphostemma adenocaule (Steud. ex A.Rich.) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. | Liana | Roots, leaves, bark, whole plant | Stomachache, swollen abdomen, tuberculosis, arthritis, malaria, jiggers, colorectal/breast/skin cancer, syphilis, anthelmintic, pneumonia, acaricide, weight loss | [14,72,76,99,108,117,133,144] |
| Cyphostemma bambuseti (Gilg & M.Brandt) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. | Liana | Back/joint problems, cough, colds/flu, HIV/AIDs, malaria, rheumatism, sore throat, STIs, stomach disorders, bone pain, tuberculosis, aphrodisiac | [41,136] | |
| Cyphostemma cyphopetalum (Fresen.) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. | Herb | Leaves, roots, whole plant | STIs, tonic, galactagogue, stomachache, malaria, dermatitis, eye problems, enlarged glands, pesticide, teeth problems, gonorrhea, retained placenta, itchy skin rash, chickenpox, swollen legs and body pains during pregnancy | [90,91,94,96,99,132,139,141,152] |
| Cyphostemma heterotrichum (Gilg & R.E.Fr.) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. | Shrub | Whole plant | Acaricide | [133] |
| Cyphostemma kilimandscharicum (Gilg) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. | Herb | Bone pain, tuberculosis | [136] | |
| Cyphostemma maranguense (Gilg) Desc. | Herb | Stems | Anaplasmosis, malaria | [115,168] |
| Cyphostemma serpens (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Desc. | Herb | Leaves, stems, roots, whole plant | Tonic, cervical/skin/breast cancer, acaricide, abortifacient, abscess, boils, gynecological diseases, polio, dermatological problems | [67,91,117,133,143] |
| Cyphostemma ukerewense (Gilg) Desc. | Herb | Leaves | Tonsils | [119] |
| Rhoicissus revoilii Planch. | Liana | Roots, stems, whole plant | Stomachache, cuts, sores, burns, livestock diseases, stomach disorders, strength, acaricide, antiseptic, gastrointestinal problems, general body malaise, malaria, facilitate conception/pregnancy, venereal diseases, leprosy | [67,77,79,98,100,127,133,142,143] |
| Rhoicissus tridentata (L.f.) Wild & R.B.Drumm. | Shrub/liana | Roots, stems, bark, exudate | Wounds, malaria, cuts, sores, snakebites, constipation, stomachache, diarrhea, bilharzia, ear drops, oral cavity infections, arthritis, livestock diseases, heartburn, peptic ulcers, renal disorders, anemia, cleans blood, respiratory infections, fever, menstrual pains, fever, acaricide, anthelmintic, prevent miscarriage, prophylaxis for children/babies diseases, abdominal pains, skin diseases, hydrocele, tapeworms, red/painful eyes, infertility, kidney and bladder complaints, dysmenorrhea, livestock fever | [67,68,86,87,99,101,105,107,123,127,133,140,141,142,144,147,150,154,168] |
| Asphodelaceae | ||||
| Aloe ballyi Reynolds | Tree | Leaves | Pneumonia, malaria | [84] |
| Aloe dawei A.Berger | Shrub | Leaves, roots | Cathartic, gastrointestinal problems, hoof wounds, mouth diseases, anthraxdermatitis, kidney ailment | [143,144] |
| Aloe deserti A.Berger | Shrub | Leaves | Malaria | [111] |
| Aloe elgonica Bullock | Shrub | Leaves, roots | Malaria, ulcers, urinary tract, acaricide | [120,133] |
| Aloe kedongensis Reynolds | Shrub | Roots, leaves | Abdominal pains in infants, rashes/ringworms, colds, infertility in women, malaria, headache, appetizer, livestock diseases, asthma, pneumonia, gonorrhea, laxative, fever, wounds, anaplasmosis in cattle, chicken diseases, typhoid, skin diseases, ear problems, coccidiosis | [78,84,86,87,98,135,168] |
| Aloe kilifiensis Christian | Herb | Latex | Headache | [127] |
| Aloe lateritia Engl. | Herb | Leaves, juice | Typhoid, laxative, wounds, constipation, malarial skin conditions | [84,168] |
| Aloe macrosiphon Baker | Shrub | Leaves | Malaria | [111] |
| Aloe secundiflora Engl. | Shrub | Inflorescence, roots, leaves, exudate, whole plant | Tonic, ECF, headache, diarrhea, typhoid, edema, HIV/AIDs, STIs, blood cleanser, infertility, respiratory disorders, allergies, obesity, joint pains, abscesses, cellulitis, cholera, ulcers, filariasis, fatigue, scorpion stings, arthritis, rheumatism, eyes, tuberculosis, aching ears, diabetes, malaria, chest pains, conjunctivitis, wounds, ectoparasites, retained afterbirth, prevent abortion, vomiting, pneumonia, chest pains, amoeba, rashes, anthelmintic, stomachache, acne, laxative, constipation, colds, cuts, cough, body weakness, abdominal pains, purgative, indigestion, skin conditions, antiseptic, peptic ulcers, diaphragm swelling, diarrhea in poultry | [14,51,64,68,72,74,80,81,88,90,94,96,99,102,103,104,105,106,111,113,129,130,132,139,146,147,151,152,153,168] |
| Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves, exudate | Malaria, wounds, swelling, boils, laxative, constipation, malarian skin conditions | [74,76,111,168] |
| Aloe volkensii Engl. | Shrub | Leaves, roots, bark | Headache, anthelmintic (livestock), wounds, malaria, colorectal/esophageal/prostate cancer, whooping cough, pneumonia, chest pain, cough, joint pains/swellings, fever, stomachache, diarrhea, skin diseases, hypertension, eye problems, veterinary medicine, sore feet, jiggers | [71,92,99,109,117,127,144,150] |
| Zamiaceae | ||||
| Encephalartos hildebrandtii A.Braun & C.D.Bouché (exotic) | Tree | Stems | Septic swelling | [127] |
| Zingiberaceae | ||||
| Aframomum angustifolium (Sonn.) K.Schum. | Herb | Seeds | Anthelmintic | [147] |
| Aframomum mala (K.Schum.) K.Schum. | Herb | Seeds | Anthelmintic | [143] |
| Aframomum melegueta K.Schum. (exotic) | Herb | Seeds | Amoeba | [146] |
| Aframomum zambesiacum (Baker) K.Schum. | Herb | Leaves | Colds | [14] |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe (exotic) | Herb | Roots | Malaria, sore throat, respiratory diseases, throat infections, internal body pains, flu, colds, fever, indigestion, circulatory stimulant | [108,137,143,168] |
| Zygophyllaceae | ||||
| Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile | Tree | Roots, bark, fruits, resin | Stomachache, respiratory disorders, itch, bone problem, bilharzia, constipation, cough, colds/flu, headache, kwashiorkor, burns, eyes, malaria, purgative, diarrhea, Chira, body/chest/rib pain, rheumatism, blood cleanser, respiratory disorders, edema, heartburn, bilharzia, epigastric pain, expectorant, dysmenorrhea, skin irritation, measles, aphrodisiac, retained placenta, abdominal pains | [41,51,67,71,72,76,77,80,88,91,96,97,99,100,104,106,108,110,138,139,141,142,143,147,148] |
| Balanites glabra Mildbr. & Schltr. | Shrub/tree | Roots, branches, fruits, bark | Induce vomiting during pregnancy or if one has malaria, induce bile release, pneumonia, cowpox, stomach upsets, emetic to clean the stomach, chronic joint pains | [92,105,130,135] |
| Balanites pedicellaris Mildbr. & Schltr. | Roots | Emetic, skin irritations | [100,142] | |
| Balanites rotundifolia (Tiegh.) Blatt. | Shrub/tree | Roots, leaves, fruits | Urinary tract infections, gastrointestinal complications (emetic), eye infection, eye lotion, wounds, pesticide | [68,77,91,123,142] |
| Balanites wilsoniana Dawe & Sprague | Tree | Bark, leaves, roots | General body pains, muscle injuries, insomnia, amnesia | [127,150] |
| Tribulus terrestris L. | Herb | Whole plant | Erectile dysfunction, arthritis | [91,132] |
Appendix B
Checklist of food plants in Kenya; introduced species are indicated in brackets as ‘exotic.’
| Family/Species | Habit | Part Eaten | References |
| Acanthaceae | |||
| Asystasia gangetica (L.) T.Anderson | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [134,158,159,160,161,166,167] |
| Asystasia mysorensis (Roth) T.Anderson | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160,166,167,169] |
| Crabbea velutina S.Moore | Herb | General | [163] |
| Crossandra mucronata Lindau | Herb | Flowers | [13,163] |
| Crossandra nilotica Oliv. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Dyschoriste radicans Nees | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160,169] |
| Justicia anagalloides (Nees) T.Anderson | Herb | General | [162] |
| Justicia caerulea Forssk. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Justicia calyculata Deflers | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160,163] |
| Justicia ladanoides Lam. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,163] |
| Justicia matammensis (Schweinf.) Oliv. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,169] |
| Justicia odora (Forssk.) Lam. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Achariaceae | |||
| Rawsonia lucida Harv. & Sond. | Tree | Fruits | [13,142] |
| Sesuvium portulacastrum (L.) L. | Shrub/subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [134] |
| Alismataceae | |||
| Burnatia enneandra Micheli | Herb | Tubers | [156] |
| Amaranthaceae | |||
| Achyranthes aspera L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160,169] |
| Amaranthus blitum L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [12,134,159,160,166,167] |
| Amaranthus caudatus L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [134] |
| Amaranthus graecizans L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [12,13,18,157,159,160,162,163,165,166,167] |
| Amaranthus hybridus L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [12,16,18,134,159,160,162,166,167,169] |
| Amaranthus sparganiocephalus Thell. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [166,167] |
| Amaranthus spinosus L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [134,159,160,166,167] |
| Amaranthus thunbergii Moq. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Amaranthus tortuosus Hornem. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [165,166] |
| Caroxylon dendroides (Pall.) Tzvelev (exotic) | Shrub/subshrub | Leaves | [13] |
| Celosia argentea L. | Herb | Stems, leaves (vegetable) | [18,134] |
| Celosia schweinfurthiana Schinz | Subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [16] |
| Celosia trigyna L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [169] |
| Chenopodium opulifolium Schrad. ex W.D.J.Koch & Ziz | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [13,16,159,160,169] |
| Cyathula orthacantha (Hochst. ex Asch.) Schinz | Herb | General | [163] |
| Digera muricata (L.) Mart. | Herb | Leaves, flowers (vegetable) | [18,163,166,167] |
| Ouret lanata (L.) Kuntze | Subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [166,167] |
| Psilotrichum sericeum (J.Koenig ex Roxb.) Dalzell | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [161] |
| Pupalia lappacea (L.) Juss. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Sericocomopsis hildebrandtii Schinz | Subshrub/shrub | General | [163] |
| Amaryllidaceae | |||
| Scadoxus multiflorus (Martyn) Raf. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Anacardiaceae | |||
| Anacardium occidentale L. (exotic) | Tree | Fruits | [158] |
| Lannea alata (Engl.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100,142,167] |
| Lannea edulis (Sond.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [167] |
| Lannea fulva (Engl.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | |
| Lannea rivae (Chiov.) Sacleux | Shrub/tree | Fruits, bark, tubers | [13,100,142,163,165,167] |
| Lannea schimperi (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [167] |
| Lannea schweinfurthii (Engl.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits; bark (tea) | [14,100,142,163,167] |
| Lannea triphylla (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits, roots; bark (tea) | [13,18,142,156,163,167] |
| Ozoroa insignis Delile | Shrub/tree | Gum | [13,163] |
| Pistacia aethiopica Kokwaro | Tree | Roots (tea) | [142] |
| Sclerocarya birrea (A.Rich.) Hochst. | Tree | Seeds, fruits | [100,134,142,161,163,165,167] |
| Sclerocarya gillettii Kokwaro | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Searsia crenulata (A.Rich.) Moffett | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100] |
| Searsia longipes (Engl.) Moffett | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100,167] |
| Searsia natalensis (Bernh. ex C.Krauss) F.A.Barkley | Shrub/tree | Fruits; leaves (chewed); leaves, bark (tea) | [14,16,142,162,163,166,167] |
| Searsia pyroides (Burch.) Moffett | Shrub/tree | Fruits; leaves (tea) | [14,16,142,167] |
| Searsia quartiniana (A.Rich.) A.J.Mill. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [167] |
| Searsia ruspolii (Engl.) Moffett | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [167] |
| Searsia tenuinervis (Engl.) Moffett | Shrub/tree | Fruits; leaves (chewed, vegetable) | [142,166,167] |
| Sorindeia madagascariensis (Spreng.) DC. | Tree | Fruits | [100,142] |
| Annonaceae | |||
| Annona senegalensis Pers. | Shrub/tree | Fruits; bark (chewed) | [16,142,167] |
| Annona squamosa L. (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [158] |
| Monodora myristica (Gaertn.) Dunal | Tree | Seeds | [142] |
| Uvaria acuminata Oliv. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100,142,167] |
| Uvaria denhardtiana Engl. & Diels | Shrub | Fruits | [142] |
| Uvaria kirkii Oliv. ex Hook.f. | Shrub | Fruits | [142] |
| Uvaria lucida Bojer ex Benth. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [161] |
| Uvaria scheffleri Diels | Shrub/liana/tree | Fruits | [13,142,163,165,167] |
| Uvariodendron anisatum Verdc. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [14] |
| Apiaceae | |||
| Afroligusticum linderi (C.Norman) P.J.D.Winter | Herb | Roots | [13] |
| Apocynaceae | |||
| Acokanthera oppositifolia (Lam.) Codd | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,155] |
| Acokanthera schimperi (A.DC.) Schweinf. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,155,167] |
| Ancylobothrys petersiana (Klotzsch) Pierre | Shrub | Fruits | [100,142,155,161] |
| Ancylobothrys tayloris (Stapf) Pichon | Liana | Fruits | [142] |
| Baseonema gregorii Schltr. & Rendle | Herb | Tubers | [13] |
| Calotropis procera (Aiton) W.T.Aiton | Shrub/tree | Seeds | [18] |
| Caralluma arachnoidea (P.R.O.Bally) M.G.Gilbert | Herb | General | [164] |
| Carissa bispinosa (L.) Desf. ex Brenan | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Carissa spinarum L. | Shrub/tree | Fruits, flowers; roots (vegetable) | [13,14,16,18,100,142,155,156,163,165,167] |
| Carissa tetramera (Sacleux) Stapf | Shrub | Fruits, roots | [100,155,158,161] |
| Ceropegia ballyana Bullock | Herb | General | [164] |
| Ceropegia johnstonii (N.E.Br.) Bruyns | Herb | Tubers | [18,156,162] |
| Ceropegia stenantha K.Schum. | Herb | Tubers | [13] |
| Ceropegia stenoloba Hochst. ex Chiov. | Herb | Tubers | [13] |
| Ceropegia woodii Schltr. | Herb | Tubers | [156,163] |
| Cynanchum hastifolium K.Schum. | Herb | Fruits | [13,163] |
| Cynanchum insipidum (E.Mey.) Liede & Khanum | Herb | Fruits; leaves (vegetable) | [13,156,159,160,166] |
| Cynanchum viminale (L.) L. | Herb | Raw stems edible; roots (vegetable) | [156,163,167] |
| Desmidorchis retrospiciens Ehrenb. | Herb | General | [163,164] |
| Dictyophleba lucida (K.Schum.) Pierre | Liana | Fruits | [142,155] |
| Echidnopsis dammanniana E.Dammann & Sprenger | Herb | General | [163] |
| Gomphocarpus fruticosus (L.) W.T.Aiton | Subshrub/shrub | General | [163] |
| Hunteria zeylanica (Retz.) Gardner ex Thwaites | Tree | Leaves (vegetable) | [158] |
| Landolphia buchananii (Hallier f.) Stapf | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,155,167] |
| Landolphia kirkii Dyer ex Hook.f. | Liana | Fruits; leaves (vegetable) | [142,155,158,167] |
| Leptadenia lanceolata (Poir.) Goyder | Liana | Leaves (vegetable) | [18,162,166,167] |
| Marsdenia schimperi Decne. | Liana | General | [162] |
| Mondia whitei (Hook.f.) Skeels | Liana | Roots | [155,167] |
| Monolluma socotrana (Balf.f.) Meve & Liede | Herb | Stems | [13,163] |
| Orbea dummeri (N.E.Br.) Bruyns | Herb | General | [163] |
| Orbea tubiformis (E.A.Bruce & P.R.O.Bally) Bruyns | Herb | General | [163] |
| Pergularia daemia (Forssk.) Chiov. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Rauvolfia caffra Sond. | Tree | Stems (ferment beer) | [155] |
| Saba comorensis (Bojer ex A.DC.) Pichon | Liana | Fruits; plant used to make sour milk | [16,142,155,158,161,165,167] |
| Schlechterella africana (Schltr.) K.Schum. | Herb | Tubers | [156] |
| Stathmostelma pedunculatum (Decne.) K.Schum. | Herb | Roots | [156] |
| Stathmostelma propinquum (N.E.Br.) Schltr. | Herb | Tubers | [167] |
| Strophanthus mirabilis Gilg | Shrub | Roots | [142,155] |
| Tabernaemontana elegans Stapf | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [155] |
| Vincetoxicum diplostigma Meve & Liede | Subshrub | General | [163] |
| Vincetoxicum fruticulosum (Decne.) Decne. | Shrub/subshrub | General | [163] |
| Aquifoliaceae | |||
| Ilex mitis (L.) Radlk. | Shrub/tree | Roots (vegetable) | [156] |
| Araceae | |||
| Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott (exotic) | Herb | Tubers; leaves (vegetable) | [14,159,160] |
| Gonatopus boivinii (Decne.) Engl. | Herb | Famine food | [161] |
| Stylochaeton borumense N.E.Br. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Arecaceae | |||
| Areca catechu L. (exotic) | Tree | Nuts | [163] |
| Borassus aethiopum Mart. | Tree | Fruit | [134,142,167] |
| Cocos nucifera L. (exotic) | Tree | Fruits | [16,158] |
| Elaeis guineensis Jacq. | Tree | Make wine | [142] |
| Hyphaene compressa H.Wendl. | Tree | Germinating seeds; fruit juice drunk; wine tapped stem | [18,161,162,163,165,167] |
| Hyphaene coriacea Gaertn. (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [18,167] |
| Hyphaene petersiana Klotzsch ex Mart. | Tree | Fruit | [157] |
| Phoenix reclinata Jacq. | Tree | Fruit | [142,167] |
| Aristolochiaceae | |||
| Hydnora abyssinica A.Br. | Herb | Tubers, fruits, buds | [16,18,100,162,163,166,167] |
| Asparagaceae | |||
| Asparagus buchananii Baker | Shrub | General | [163] |
| Asparagus falcatus L. | Shrub | General | [164] |
| Chlorophytum blepharophyllum Schweinf. ex Baker | Herb | Tubers | [156] |
| Chlorophytum macrophyllum (A.Rich.) Asch. | Herb | Tubers | [156] |
| Dracaena ellenbeckiana Engl. | Shrub/tree | General | [163] |
| Drimia indica (Roxb.) Jessop | Herb | Tubers | [156,157,163] |
| Ornithogalum gracillimum R.E.Fr. | Herb | Tubers | [156] |
| Asphodelaceae | |||
| Aloe deserti A.Berger | Shrub/subshrub | Ferment beer | [167] |
| Aloe kedongensis Reynolds | Shrub | Ferment beer | [167] |
| Aloe ngongensis Christian | Shrub | Ferment beer | [167] |
| Aloe secundiflora Engl. | Herb | Ferment beer; nectar, inflorescence | [167] |
| Aloe turkanensis Christian | Shrub | Roots used to flavor beer | [157,163] |
| Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | [18] |
| Asteraceae | |||
| Aspilia kotschyi (Sch.Bip. ex Hochst.) Oliv. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160] |
| Aspilia pluriseta Schweinf. ex Engl. | Shrub | General | [164] |
| Bidens pilosa L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [79,159,160,161,163,167,169] |
| Cyanthillium cinereum (L.) H.Rob. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [134,166,167] |
| Dicoma tomentosa Cass. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Emilia discifolia (Oliv.) C.Jeffrey | Herb | General | [163] |
| Erigeron bonariensis L. (exotic) | Herb | General | [163] |
| Ethulia conyzoides L.f. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [134] |
| Galinsoga parviflora Cav. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [167] |
| Gymnanthemum amygdalinum (Delile) Sch.Bip. | Shrub/tree | Leaves (vegetable) | [167] |
| Kleinia squarrosa Cufod. | Shrub | General | [164] |
| Lagascea mollis Cav. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160] |
| Launaea cornuta (Hochst. ex Oliv. & Hiern) C.Jeffrey | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [14,158,159,160,165,166,167] |
| Solanecio angulatus (Vahl) C.Jeffrey | Herb | Fruits | [158] |
| Sonchus oleraceus L. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [134,167] |
| Sonchus schweinfurthii Oliv. & Hiern | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,169] |
| Vernonia popeana C.Jeffrey | Herb | General | [163] |
| Basellaceae | |||
| Basella alba L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [12,16,159,160,166,167,169] |
| Bignoniaceae | |||
| Kigelia africana (Lam.) Benth. | Tree | Fruit (ferment beer) | [14,16,134,142,157,163,165,167] |
| Boraginaceae | |||
| Cordia africana Lam. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13,142] |
| Cordia crenata Delile | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,157,163] |
| Cordia monoica Roxb. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,163,164,167] |
| Cordia quercifolia Klotzsch | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [164] |
| Cordia sinensis Lam. | Shrub/tree | Fruits; fruits (make beer) | [18,100,142,156,157,162,163,164,167] |
| Cordia somaliensis Baker | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Ehretia janjalle Verdc. | Shrub | Fruits | [142] |
| Euploca ovalifolia (Forssk.) Diane & Hilger | Herb/subshrub | General | [163] |
| Heliotropium longiflorum (A.DC.) Jaub. & Spach | Subshrub | General | [163] |
| Heliotropium zeylanicum (Burm.f.) Lam. | Subshrub | General | [163] |
| Trichodesma zeylanicum (Burm.f.) R.Br. | Herb/subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160] |
| Brassicaceae | |||
| Brassica carinata A.Braun (exotic) | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [166] |
| Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [160] |
| Erucastrum arabicum Fisch. & C.A.Mey. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160,166,167] |
| Burseraceae | |||
| Boswellia neglecta S.Moore | Shrub/tree | Gum/resin, fruits; bark (tea) | [13,100,157,163,164,167] |
| Commiphora africana (A.Rich.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Shoots, bark, roots, gum | [13,18,100,156,163,164,167] |
| Commiphora baluensis Engl. | Tree | Fruits, shoots | [13] |
| Commiphora edulis subsp. boiviniana (Engl.) J.B.Gillett | Shrub/tree | Fruits, shoots | [13,163,164] |
| Commiphora eminii subsp. zimmermannii (Engl.) J.B.Gillett | Tree | Fruits edible | [14] |
| Commiphora hildebrandtii Engl. | Shrub/tree | Roots chewed when thirsty | [156] |
| Commiphora kataf (Forssk.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits, shoots | [13] |
| Commiphora kua (R.Br. ex Royle) Vollesen | Shrub/tree | Stems, roots (chewed when thirsty) | [156,157,164] |
| Commiphora mollis (Oliv.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits, shoots, gum | [13] |
| Commiphora myrrha (T.Nees) Engl. | Shrub/tree | General | [163] |
| Commiphora rostrata Engl. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, bark, seeds; leaves (vegetables); bark (tea) | [18,142,157,166] |
| Commiphora samharensis Schweinf. | Shrub/tree | General | [163] |
| Commiphora sarandensis subsp. moyaleensis J.B.Gillett | Shrub | Root swellings chewed when thirsty | [142] |
| Commiphora schimperi (O.Berg) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Shoots, roots, gum; bark (tea) | [13,18,156,157,163,167] |
| Cactaceae | |||
| Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Mill. (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [165] |
| Opuntia humifusa (Raf.) Raf. (exotic) | Subshrub | Fruits | [161] |
| Campanulaceae | |||
| Cyphia glandulifera Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Herb | Tubers; leaves (vegetable) | [13,166,167] |
| Lobelia fervens Thunb. | Herb | Whole plant (vegetable) | [134] |
| Canellaceae | |||
| Warburgia ugandensis Sprague | Tree | Bark, fruits | [18,142] |
| Cannabaceae | |||
| Celtis africana Burm.f. | Tree | Fruits | [13] |
| Trema orientale (L.) Blume | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Capparaceae | |||
| Boscia coriacea Graells | Shrub/tree | Fruits, cotyledons; twigs (flavor milk) | [18,100,142,157,162,163,164,167] |
| Boscia integrifolia J.St.-Hil. | Shrub/tree | Bark (tea; roots) eaten like potatoes. | [100,157,163] |
| Boscia mazzocchii (Chiov.) Fici & Kers | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Cadaba farinosa Forssk. | Shrub/tree | General | [163,164] |
| Capparis erythrocarpos Isert | Shrub | Fruits | [16] |
| Capparis fascicularis DC. | Shrub/tree | General | [163] |
| Capparis tomentosa Lam. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100,163] |
| Crateva adansonii DC. | Shrub/tree | Seeds | [142] |
| Elaeodendron schlechterianum (Loes.) Loes. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100] |
| Elaeodendron schweinfurthianum (Loes.) Loes. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100,142] |
| Gymnosporia heterophylla (Eckl. & Zeyh.) Loes. | Shrub | Fruits; roots (vegetable) | [100,142] |
| Gymnosporia mossambicensis (Klotzsch) Loes. | Shrub | Fruits | [100] |
| Maerua angolensis DC. | Shrub/tree | General | [164] |
| Maerua denhardtiorum Gilg | Fruits/nuts | [13,142] | |
| Maerua edulis (Gilg & Gilg-Ben.) DeWolf | Herb | Fruits; roots used in soup/porridge; seeds, roots (water sweetener) | [13,16,18,100,142,162,164,165,167] |
| Maerua kirkii (Oliv.) F.White | Shrub/tree | Nuts | [13] |
| Maerua subcordata (Gilg) DeWolf | Shrub | Roots (chewed to quench thirst, boiled in broth, food); fruits | [156,157,163] |
| Maerua triphylla A.Rich. | Shrub/tree | Roots (porridge); fruits | [100] |
| Maytenus acuminata (L.f.) Loes. | Shrub/tree | Roots used in soup | [142] |
| Maytenus undata (Thunb.) Blakelock | Shrub/tree | Bark (tonic) | [142] |
| Mystroxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes. | Tree | Fruits | [16,100,142] |
| Salacia stuhlmanniana Loes. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100] |
| Thilachium africanum Lour. | Shrub/tree | Fruits, roots (porridge) | [13,100,134,142,156,161] |
| Thilachium thomasii Gilg | Shrub/tree | Fruits, roots (porridge) | [100,167] |
| Caricaceae | |||
| Carica papaya L. (exotic) | Tree | Leaves (vegetable) | [160] |
| Caryophyllaceae | |||
| Pollichia campestris Aiton | Subshrub | Fruits | [13] |
| Celastraceae | |||
| Catha edulis (Vahl) Endl. | Shrub/tree | Leaves, shoots (stimulants) | [142,167] |
| Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes. | Shrub/tree | Fruits, leaves, roots (vegetable) | [18,100,156] |
| Salacia elegans Welw. ex Oliv. | Liana | Seed/fruit | [134,142] |
| Salacia erecta (G.Don) Walp. | Liana | Fruit | [167] |
| Salacia madagascariensis (Lam.) DC. | Liana | Fruits | [142,167] |
| Chrysobalanaceae | |||
| Hirtella zanzibarica Oliv. | Tree | Seed/fruit | [134,142] |
| Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth. | Tree | Fruits | [134,142,167] |
| Cleomaceae | |||
| Cleome allamanii Chiov. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Cleome angustifolia Forssk. | Herb | General | [163,164] |
| Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC. | Herb | General | [164] |
| Cleome gynandra L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [12,16,18,159,160,163,166,167,169] |
| Cleome hirta (Klotzsch) Oliv. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160,166] |
| Cleome monophylla L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [166] |
| Cleome strigosa (Bojer) Oliv. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [134] |
| Clusiaceae | |||
| Garcinia buchananii Baker | Shrub/tree | Fruit | [142] |
| Garcinia livingstonei T.Anderson | Tree | Seed/fruit | [127,134,142,167] |
| Colchicaceae | |||
| Colchicum melanthioides (Willd.) J.C.Manning & Vinn. (exotic) | Herb | Corms | [156] |
| Combretaceae | |||
| Combretum aculeatum Vent. | Shrub/tree | Seeds, leaves, fruits | [18,100,157,163,165] |
| Combretum constrictum (Benth.) M.A.Lawson | Shrub | General | [164] |
| Combretum molle R.Br. ex G.Don | Shrub/tree | General | [163] |
| Terminalia brownii Fresen. | Tree | Fruits | [142,163] |
| Terminalia catappa L. | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Terminalia spinosa Engl. | Tree | Bark (tea) | [157,163] |
| Commelinaceae | |||
| Commelina africana L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,159,160,166,167] |
| Commelina benghalensis L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,159,160,165,166,167] |
| Commelina forskaolii Vahl | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [163,166] |
| Commelina imberbis Ehrenb. ex Hassk. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [166] |
| Connaraceae | |||
| Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Alston | Shrub/liana | Seed aril | [142] |
| Convolvulaceae | |||
| Ipomoea aquatica Forssk. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [166,167] |
| Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [160] |
| Ipomoea biflora (L.) Pers. | Herb | Tubers; leaves (vegetable) | [156,159,160,163] |
| Ipomoea donaldsonii Rendle | Shrub | General | [164] |
| Ipomoea elythrocephala Hallier f. | Herb | Roots | [13] |
| Ipomoea hildebrandtii Vatke | Shrub/subshrub | General | [163] |
| Ipomoea kituiensis Vatke | Shrub | General | [164] |
| Ipomoea lapathifolia Hallier f. | Herb | Tubers | [167] |
| Ipomoea longituba Hallier f. | Shrub | Tubers | [13,156,167] |
| Ipomoea mombassana Vatke | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [18,162,165,166,167] |
| Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker Gawl. | Herb | General | [164] |
| Ipomoea oenotherae (Vatke) Hallier f. | Herb | Tubers | [13,16,156,167] |
| Ipomoea pes-caprae (L.) R.Br. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [134] |
| Ipomoea spathulata Hallier f. | Shrub | Roots used in soup | [142,163,164] |
| Jacquemontia tamnifolia (L.) Griseb. | Subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [134] |
| Seddera latifolia Hochst. & Steud. | Subshrub | General | [163] |
| Crassulaceae | |||
| Kalanchoe lanceolata (Forssk.) Pers. | Herb | General | [164] |
| Cucurbitaceae | |||
| Citrullus lanatus (Thunb.) Matsum. & Nakai | Herb | Fruit, leaves, seeds | [158,162,167] |
| Coccinia adoensis (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Cogn. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,114,169] |
| Coccinia grandiflora Cogn. | Herb | Roots | [13] |
| Coccinia grandis (L.) Voigt | Herb | Fruits; leaves (vegetable) | [18,157,159,160,162,163,166,167] |
| Coccinia trilobata (Cogn.) C.Jeffrey | Herb | Fruits edible, leafy vegetable | [114,167] |
| Cucumis aculeatus Cogn. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [114,163] |
| Cucumis dipsaceus Ehrenb. ex Spach | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [18,114,157,162,163,164,166,167] |
| Cucumis engleri (Gilg) Ghebret. & Thulin | Herb | General | [163] |
| Cucumis ficifolius A.Rich. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [166] |
| Cucumis melo L. (exotic) | Herb | Fruits (vegetable) | [16,134] |
| Cucumis prophetarum L. | Herb | Fruits | [114] |
| Cucumis pustulatus Naudin ex Hook.f. | Herb | General | [162,163,164] |
| Cucurbita maxima Duchesne (exotic) | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [160] |
| Diplocyclos palmatus (L.) C.Jeffrey | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [114] |
| Kedrostis foetidissima (Jacq.) Cogn. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [114,163] |
| Kedrostis gijef (Forssk. ex J.F.Gmel.) C.Jeffrey | Liana | Leaves (vegetable) | [114,162,166] |
| Kedrostis pseudogijef (Gilg) C.Jeffrey | Liana | Fruits; leaves (vegetable) | [166,167] |
| Lagenaria siceraria (Molina) Standl. | Herb | Fruits, seeds; leaves (vegetable) | [134,166,167] |
| Lagenaria sphaerica (Sond.) Naudin | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [114] |
| Momordica calantha Gilg | Herb | Fruits | [114] |
| Momordica charantia L. | Herb | Fruits; leaves (vegetable) | [134] |
| Momordica foetida Schumach. | Herb | Fruits | [114] |
| Momordica friesiorum (Harms) C.Jeffrey | Herb | General | [163] |
| Momordica rostrata Zimm. | Herb | Fruits; leaves (vegetable, tea) | [114,163,167] |
| Momordica spinosa (Gilg) Chiov. | Shrub | Fruits | [142] |
| Momordica trifoliolata Hook.f. | Herb | Fruits | [157,163] |
| Peponium vogelii (Hook.f.) Engl. | Herb | Fruits | [13,114] |
| Zehneria anomala C.Jeffrey | Herb | Fruits | [13] |
| Cyperaceae | |||
| Cyperus alatus subsp. albus (Nees) Lye | Herb | Bulbs | [13] |
| Cyperus amauropus Steud. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Cyperus blysmoides Hochst. ex C.B.Clarke | Herb | Roots/bulbs | [156,165,167] |
| Cyperus comosipes Mattf. & Kük. (exotic) | Herb | Roots | [13] |
| Cyperus rotundus L. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Cyperus rubicundus Vahl | Herb | General | [163] |
| Dichapetalaceae | |||
| Dichapetalum zenkeri Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [127] |
| Didiereaceae | |||
| Calyptrotheca somalensis Gilg | Shrub | Root juice (quench thirst) | [142] |
| Dilleniaceae | |||
| Tetracera litoralis Gilg | Shrub/liana | Fruits | [158] |
| Dioscoreaceae | |||
| Dioscorea bulbifera L. (exotic) | Herb | Roots/tubers | [167] |
| Dioscorea cayenensis subsp. rotundata (Poir.) J.Miège (exotic) | Herb | Roots/tubers | [14] |
| Dioscorea dumetorum (Kunth) Pax | Herb | Tubers; leaves (vegetable) | [127,134,158,167] |
| Dioscorea minutiflora Engl. (exotic) | Herb | Tubers | [167] |
| Dioscorea schimperiana Hochst. ex Kunth | Herb | Bulbs | [156] |
| Ebenaceae | |||
| Diospyros bussei Gürke | Tree | Fruits | [127] |
| Diospyros consolatae Chiov. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100] |
| Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.DC. | Tree | Fruits/seeds | [165,167] |
| Diospyros natalensis (Harv.) Brenan | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [127] |
| Diospyros squarrosa Klotzsch | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [127] |
| Diospyros wajirensis F.White | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Euclea divinorum Hiern | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100,167] |
| Euclea racemosa L. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100] |
| Euphorbiaceae | |||
| Acalypha indica L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [157] |
| Acalypha volkensii Pax | Shrub/subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,169] |
| Croton dichogamus Pax | Shrub/tree | Roots used in soup | [142,156] |
| Croton pseudopulchellus Pax | Shrub/tree | Stem smoke (flavor milk) | [127] |
| Erythrococca bongensis Pax | Shrub/tree | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,159,160,169] |
| Erythrococca fischeri Pax | Shrub/tree | General | [163] |
| Erythrococca kirkii (Müll.Arg.) Prain | Shrub/tree | Leaves (vegetable) | [142] |
| Euphorbia bussei Pax | Tree | Roasted roots | [100] |
| Euphorbia candelabrum Welw. | Tree | Roasted roots | [100] |
| Euphorbia scheffleri Pax | Shrub/tree | Meat tenderizer | [142] |
| Givotia gosai Radcl.-Sm. | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Manihot esculenta Crantz (exotic) | Shrub/tree | Leaves (vegetable) | [160] |
| Suregada zanzibariensis Baill. | Shrub | Fruits | [158] |
| Tragia impedita Prain | Shrub | Fruits | [165] |
| Fabaceae | |||
| Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach.) W.Wight | Tree | Leaves (vegetable) | [158] |
| Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin | Tree | Gum; stems used in soup | [163,167] |
| Albizia anthelmintica (A.Rich.) Brongn. | Shrub/tree | Leaves (vegetable) | [158] |
| Astragalus atropilosulus (Hochst.) Bunge | Subshrub | Roots chewed | [156] |
| Cajanus cajan (L.) Huth | Shrub | Seeds, fruits, leaves | [16,158,167] |
| Clitoria ternatea L. | Subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [165] |
| Craibia brownii Dunn | Tree | Seeds | [142] |
| Craibia laurentii (De Wild.) De Wild. | Shrub/tree | Bean | [13] |
| Crotalaria brevidens Benth. | Herb/subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,160,166,167,169] |
| Crotalaria lanceolata E.Mey. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159] |
| Crotalaria ochroleuca G.Don | Herb/subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160,166,167] |
| Crotalaria polysperma Kotschy | Herb | General | [163] |
| Crotalaria pycnostachya Benth. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159] |
| Delonix elata (L.) Gamble | Shrub/tree | General | [163,164] |
| Dialium holtzii Harms | Tree | Fruits | [167] |
| Dialium orientale Baker f. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,158,167] |
| Entada leptostachya Harms | Liana | Stem water drunk | [100] |
| Eriosema shirense Baker f. | Herb | Tubers | [167] |
| Erythrina abyssinica Lam. | Tree | Roots (tea) | [142] |
| Faidherbia albida (Delile) A.Chev. | Shrub/tree | General | [163] |
| Indigofera lupatana Baker f. | Shrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [165] |
| Indigofera schimperi Jaub. & Spach | Shrub | Tubers | [18] |
| Indigofera spinosa Forssk. | Shrub/subshrub | General | [164] |
| Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet | Herb | Leaves (vegetable); beans | [13,166,167] |
| Macrotyloma maranguense (Taub.) Verdc. | Herb | Roots | [156] |
| Mucuna gigantea (Willd.) DC. | Shrub | Bean | [13,142] |
| Ormocarpum kirkii S.Moore | Shrub/tree | Leaves (vegetable) | [158,164] |
| Ormocarpum trachycarpum (Taub.) Harms | Shrub/tree | General | [164] |
| Parkia filicoidea Welw. ex Oliv. | Tree | Fruit | [142] |
| Phaseolus vulgaris L. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [160] |
| Philenoptera eriocalyx (Harms) Schrire | Shrub/tree | [163] | |
| Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. | Shrub/tree | General | [134,165,167] |
| Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC. (exotic) | Shrub/tree | General | [162] |
| Senegalia mellifera (Benth.) Seigler & Ebinger | Shrub/tree | Gum | [142,157,162,163] |
| Senegalia polyacantha (Willd.) Seigler & Ebinger | Tree | Gum | [142] |
| Senegalia senegal (L.) Britton | Shrub/tree | Gum, fruits | [13,18,142,157,162,163,164,165,167] |
| Senna bicapsularis (L.) Roxb. (exotic) | Shrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [16] |
| Senna didymobotrya (Fresen.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby | Shrub/tree | Leaves (vegetable) | [165] |
| Senna italica Mill. | Herb/subshrub | General | [163] |
| Senna obtusifolia (L.) H.S.Irwin & Barneby | Herb/subshrub | General | [163] |
| Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (exotic) | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,158,159,160,163,169] |
| Senna singueana (Delile) Lock | Shrub/tree | Fruit | [142] |
| Tamarindus indica L. | Tree | Fruit, leaves, seeds; fruit (food spice, vinegar substitute) | [14,16,18,134,142,158,161,162,163,165,166,167] |
| Tephrosia nubica (Boiss.) Baker | Subshrub | General | [163] |
| Tephrosia pumila (Lam.) Pers. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [16] |
| Tephrosia villosa subsp. ehrenbergiana (Schweinf.) Brummitt | Herb | General | [163] |
| Tylosema fassoglense (Kotschy ex Schweinf.) Torre & Hillc. | Herb | Fruit/seeds | [167] |
| Vachellia bussei (Harms ex Y.Sjöstedt) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Tree | Bark (tea) | [100] |
| Vachellia drepanolobium (Harms ex Y.Sjöstedt) P.J.H.Hurter | Shrub/tree | Galls, fruits, inner bark | [13,142,167] |
| Vachellia elatior (Brenan) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Tree | Bark (tea) | [18,157,163] |
| Vachellia etbaica (Schweinf.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub/tree | Gum | [157,163] |
| Vachellia gerrardii (Benth.) P.J.H.Hurter | Shrub/tree | Bark used in soup | [142] |
| Vachellia hockii (De Wild.) Seigler & Ebinger | Shrub/tree | Bark | [142,167] |
| Vachellia horrida (L.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub/tree | Galls | [13] |
| Vachellia kirkii (Oliv.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub/tree | Bark (tea) | [142] |
| Vachellia nilotica (L.) P.J.H.Hurter & Mabb. | Shrub/tree | Pods; pod, bark (used in tea) | [100,163,167] |
| Vachellia oerfota (Forssk.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | General | [162] | |
| Vachellia paolii (Chiov.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub | Gum | [142] |
| Vachellia reficiens (Wawra & Peyr.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Shrub/tree | Bark/gum | [13,18,142,162,164] |
| Vachellia seyal (Delile) P.J.H.Hurter | Shrub/tree | Gum; bark (tea) | [142,162,163,167] |
| Vachellia sieberiana (DC.) Kyal. & Boatwr. | Tree | Gum | [142] |
| Vachellia tortilis (Forssk.) Galasso & Banfi | Shrub/tree | Fruits/seeds, gum | [13,18,142,157,162,163,164,167] |
| Vachellia xanthophloea (Benth.) Banfi & Galasso | Tree | Gum | [142] |
| Vatovaea pseudolablab (Harms) J.B.Gillett | Herb | Fruits, flowers leaves (vegetables); tubers | [13,18,142,156,157,162,163,166,167] |
| Vigna friesiorum Harms | Herb | Tubers | [167] |
| Vigna frutescens A.Rich. | Herb | Roots | [13,156] |
| Vigna luteola (Jacq.) Benth. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160] |
| Vigna membranacea A.Rich. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable); roots | [13,156,163,165,166,167] |
| Vigna radiata (L.) R.Wilczek | Herb | General | [163] |
| Vigna schimperi Baker | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159] |
| Vigna subterranea (L.) Verdc. | Herb | Seeds edible | [167] |
| Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable); seeds | [16,158,159,160,163,166,167,169] |
| Vigna vexillata (L.) A.Rich. | Herb | Tubers chewed when thirsty | [156] |
| Wajira grahamiana (Wight & Arn.) Thulin & Lavin | Herb | Roots | [156] |
| Wajira praecox (Verdc.) Thulin & Lavin | Herb | Roots | [13] |
| Geraniaceae | |||
| Pelargonium quinquelobatum Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [13] |
| Hydrocharitaceae | |||
| Ottelia ulvifolia (Planch.) Walp. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,169] |
| Hypericaceae | |||
| Harungana madagascariensis Lam. ex Poir. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [14,134] |
| Hypoxidaceae | |||
| Hypoxis angustifolia Lam. | Herb | Corms | [156] |
| Hypoxis urceolata Nel | Herb | Corms | [156] |
| Icacinaceae | |||
| Pyrenacantha kaurabassana Baill. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [165] |
| Kirkiaceae | |||
| Kirkia tenuifolia Engl. | Shrub/tree | Bark chewed when thirsty | [142] |
| Lamiaceae | |||
| Hoslundia opposita Vahl | Shrub | Fruits, leaves (tea) | [13,16,100,142,161,163,167] |
| Leucas glabrata (Vahl) Sm. | Subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [158,163,164] |
| Leucas jamesii Baker | shrub | General | [164] |
| Leucas urticifolia (Vahl) Sm. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Mesosphaerum pectinatum (L.) Kuntze | Herb/subshrub | General | [163] |
| Ocimum americanum L. | Herb/subshrub | Seeds/leaves | [134] |
| Ocimum basilicum L. | Herb/subshrub | Leaves (flavor tea) | [167] |
| Ocimum gratissimum L. | Subshrub | Leaves (flavor tea) | [167] |
| Ocimum kilimandscharicum Gürke | Shrub | Leaves (flavor tea) | [142,167] |
| Premna chrysoclada (Bojer) Gürke | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [134,142] |
| Premna oligotricha Baker | Shrub | Fruits | [13] |
| Premna resinosa (Hochst.) Schauer | Shrub | Fruits/seeds | [13,134,142,163] |
| Vitex doniana Sweet | Tree | Fruits | [142,163,167] |
| Vitex ferruginea Schumach. & Thonn. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,167] |
| Vitex fischeri Gürke | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Vitex mombassae Vatke | Shrub/tree | Fruits/seeds | [134,142,161,167] |
| Vitex payos (Lour.) Merr. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [14,142,161,165,167] |
| Vitex strickeri Vatke & Hildebrandt | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Limeaceae | |||
| Limeum viscosum var. kenyense Friedrich | Herb | General | [163] |
| Loganiaceae | |||
| Strychnos bredemeyeri (Schult.) Sprague & Sandwith | Liana | Tubers | [167] |
| Strychnos decussata (Pappe) Gilg | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100,142] |
| Strychnos henningsii Gilg | Shrub/tree | Fruits (ferment beer) | [167] |
| Strychnos innocua Delile | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,167] |
| Strychnos madagascariensis Poir. | Tree | Fruits | [142,158,165,167] |
| Strychnos spinosa Lam. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [167] |
| Loranthaceae | |||
| Oncocalyx fischeri (Engl.) M.G.Gilbert | Shrub | General | [163] |
| Oncocalyx ugogensis (Engl.) Wiens & Polhill | Shrub | General | [163] |
| Lythraceae | |||
| Sonneratia alba Sm. | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Lawsonia inermis L. | Shrub/tree | General | [163] |
| Malpighiaceae | |||
| Acridocarpus zanzibaricus A.Juss. | Shrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [158] |
| Malvaceae | |||
| Abutilon fruticosum Guill. & Perr. | Herb/subshrub | General | [163] |
| Abutilon hirtum (Lam.) Sweet | Herb/subshrub | General | [163] |
| Abutilon mauritianum (Jacq.) Medik. | Shrub | General | [163] |
| Adansonia digitata L. | Tree | Seeds; leaves, shoots, root tips, germinating seeds (vegetables); seed pulp (curdle milk, flavor food) | [14,100,134,142,156,161,165,166,167] |
| Corchorus olitorius L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,18,158,159,160,161,166,167] |
| Corchorus tridens L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [158,166] |
| Corchorus trilocularis L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,162,166,167,169] |
| Grewia arborea (Forssk.) Lam. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Grewia capitellata Bojer | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Grewia forbesii Harv. ex Mast. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100] |
| Grewia kakothamnos K.Schum. | Shrub | Fruits | [13] |
| Grewia lilacina K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13,142,164] |
| Grewia mollis Juss. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [18,142,162] |
| Grewia nematopus K.Schum. | Shrub | Fruits | [100] |
| Grewia penicillata Chiov. | Shrub | Fruits | [142] |
| Grewia plagiophylla K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100,161] |
| Grewia similis K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13,16,100,142,165] |
| Grewia tembensis Fresen. | Shrub | Fruits | [13,142,163,167] |
| Grewia tenax (Forssk.) Fiori | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13,18,142,157,162,163,164,167] |
| Grewia tephrodermis K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13,100,142,157,163,164,165,167] |
| Grewia trichocarpa Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13,16,163] |
| Grewia truncata Mast. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100] |
| Grewia villosa Willd. | Shrub | Fruits | [13,14,18,100,134,157,162,163,165,167] |
| Hibiscus calyphyllus Cav. | Shrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [159] |
| Hibiscus greenwayi Baker f. | Shrub/tree | Stems | [13] |
| Hibiscus micranthus L.f. | Shrub | General | [163] |
| Hibiscus palmatus Forssk. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Hibiscus vitifolius L. | Herb/shrub | General | [163] |
| Melhania ovata (Cav.) Spreng. | Herb/subshrub | General | [163] |
| Sida acuta Burm.f. | Herb/subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,159,160] |
| Sida rhombifolia L. | Herb/subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160] |
| Sterculia africana (Lour.) Fiori | Tree | Fruits | [18,100,162,164,165] |
| Sterculia rhynchocarpa K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [157,163] |
| Sterculia stenocarpa H.J.P.Winkl. | Tree | Fruits, leaves | [13,14,142,163] |
| Thespesia danis Oliv. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [134,158,161] |
| Thespesia garckeana F.Hoffm. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [14,142,165,167] |
| Triumfetta annua L. | Herb/subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [134] |
| Meliaceae | |||
| Trichilia emetica Vahl | Tree | Fruits | [157,163] |
| Menispermaceae | |||
| Chasmanthera dependens Hochst. | Liana | Roots, stems | [13,142,156,163] |
| Cissampelos mucronata A.Rich. | Liana | General | [163] |
| Cocculus hirsutus (L.) W.Theob. | Liana | General | [162] |
| Hyalosepalum caffrum (Miers) Troupin | Liana | Stems | [13] |
| Moraceae | |||
| Dorstenia hildebrandtii var. schlechteri (Engl.) Hijman | Herb | Tubers | [13] |
| Ficus amadiensis De Wild. | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Ficus capreifolia Delile | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Ficus glumosa Delile | Tree | Fruits | [13,142] |
| Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. | Tree | Fruits | [100] |
| Ficus lutea Vahl | Tree | General | [163] |
| Ficus natalensis Hochst. | Tree | Fruits | [13,167] |
| Ficus populifolia Vahl | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Ficus salicifolia Vahl | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Ficus sur Forssk. | Tree | Fruits | [13,16,100,142,163,165,167] |
| Ficus sycomorus L. | Tree | Fruits | [13,14,18,100,142,157,162,164,166,167] |
| Ficus thonningii Blume | Tree | Fruits | [14,100,142,163,166] |
| Ficus vallis-choudae Delile | Tree | Fruits | [167] |
| Ficus vasta Forssk. | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Moringaceae | |||
| Moringa oleifera Lam. | Tree | Root powder (flavor); seeds, leaves (vegetable) | [134,142,158,166,167] |
| Moringa stenopetala (Baker f.) Cufod. | Tree | Leaf/seeds (vegetable); seeds (purify water) | [167] |
| Myrtaceae | |||
| Psidium guajava L. (exotic) | Tree | Fruits | [18] |
| Syzygium cordatum Hochst. ex Krauss | Shrub/tree | Leaves (tea); fruits | [14,142,167] |
| Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels | Tree | Fruits | [16] |
| Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC. | Tree | Fruits | [14,167] |
| Nyctaginaceae | |||
| Boerhavia diffusa L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160] |
| Nymphaeaceae | |||
| Nymphaea lotus L. | Herb | Tubers | [156,157,163] |
| Nymphaea nouchali var. caerulea (Savigny) Verdc. | Herb | Roots, fruits, seeds, flowers | [134,156,167] |
| Ochnaceae | |||
| Ochna atropurpurea DC. | Shrub/tree | Seeds/fruit | [134,161] |
| Ochna inermis (Forssk.) Schweinf. | Shrub/tree | General | [163] |
| Olacaceae | |||
| Strombosia scheffleri Engl. | Tree | Seeds | [142] |
| Ximenia americana L. | Shrub/tree | Fruits/seeds | [13,14,16,18,100,134,161,162,163,165,167] |
| Ximenia caffra Sond. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13,14,142,163] |
| Oleaceae | |||
| Jasminum abyssinicum Hochst. ex DC. | Liana | Roots used in soup | [156] |
| Olea capensis subsp. macrocarpa (C.H.Wright) I.Verd. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Olea europaea L. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Olea welwitschii (Knobl.) Gilg & G.Schellenb. | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Onagraceae | |||
| Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H.Hara | Subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,159,160,169] |
| Opiliaceae | |||
| Opilia amentacea Roxb. | Liana | Fruits | [100,142] |
| Opilia campestris Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13,142] |
| Pentarhopalopilia umbellulata (Baill.) Hiepko | Shrub | Fruits | [142] |
| Orobanchaceae | |||
| Ghikaea speciosa (Rendle) Diels | Herb | General | [163] |
| Pseudosopubia hildebrandtii (Vatke) Engl. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Oxalidaceae | |||
| Oxalis latifolia Kunth | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160] |
| Pandanaceae | |||
| Pandanus rabaiensis Rendle. | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Passifloraceae | |||
| Adenia ellenbeckii Harms | Herb | General | [163] |
| Adenia venenata Forssk. | Shrub | Fruits | [142] |
| Adenia volkensii Harms | Herb/shrub | Fruit, seeds, leaves | [18,157,162,163] |
| Basananthe hanningtoniana (Mast.) J.J.de Wilde | Herb | General | [163] |
| Pedaliaceae | |||
| Sesamum angustifolium (Oliv.) Engl. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [16,160,166,169] |
| Sesamum calycinum Welw. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,167] |
| Sesamum indicum L. | Herb | Seeds; leaves (vegetable) | [158,159,160,167] |
| Peraceae | |||
| Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach | Shrub/tree | Roots used in soup | [156] |
| Phyllanthaceae | |||
| Antidesma venosum E.Mey. ex Tul. | Shrub/tree | Fruits/seeds | [134,142,167] |
| Bridelia cathartica Bertol. | Shrub/tree | Fruits; leaves (vegetable) | [142,158,161] |
| Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill. | Tree | Fruits | [16,100] |
| Bridelia scleroneura Müll.Arg. | Shrub/tree | Fruit | [142] |
| Bridelia taitensis Vatke & Pax | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [14,100,142,165,167] |
| Flueggea virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Royle | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13,16,134,142,157,163,165,167] |
| Piperaceae | |||
| Piper capense L.f. | Shrub/tree | Roots (vegetable) | [156] |
| Pittosporaceae | |||
| Pittosporum viridiflorum Sims | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Poaceae | |||
| Cenchrus americanus (L.) Morrone (exotic) | Herb | Seeds | [18,167] |
| Cymbopogon citratus (DC.) Stapf (exotic) | Herb | Leaves | [16] |
| Cymbopogon giganteus Chiov. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Dactyloctenium aegyptium (L.) Willd. | Herb | Grain | [163,167] |
| Dactyloctenium geminatum Hack. | Herb | Rhizomes | [40,156] |
| Dactyloctenium giganteum B.S.Fisher & Schweick. | Herb | Grain | [167] |
| Echinochloa haploclada (Stapf) Stapf | Herb | General | [163] |
| Eleusine coracana (L.) Gaertn. (exotic) | Herb | Grain | [163,167] |
| Eragrostis cilianensis (All.) Vignolo ex Janch. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Eragrostis tef (Zuccagni) Trotter | Herb | Grain | [167] |
| Hyparrhenia cymbaria (L.) Stapf | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [16] |
| Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench (exotic) | Herb | Tubers, grains | [18,163,167] |
| Sporobolus macranthelus Chiov. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Urochloa deflexa (Schumach.) H.Scholz | Herb | General | [163] |
| Polygalaceae | |||
| Carpolobia goetzei Gürke | Shrub/tree | Seed/fruit | [134,142] |
| Polygonaceae | |||
| Oxygonum salicifolium Dammer | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [166,167] |
| Oxygonum sinuatum (Hochst. & Steud. ex Meisn.) Dammer | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [13,16,159,160,163,165,166,167,169] |
| Persicaria senegalensis (Meisn.) Soják | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160] |
| Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [167] |
| Rumex nepalensis Spreng. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [12,166] |
| Rumex usambarensis (Engl.) Dammer | Shrub/subshrub | Leaves (vegetable); stems, leaves (chewed) | [12,142,166,167] |
| Portulacaceae | |||
| Portulaca oleracea L. | Herb | Vegetable, salad; grain (flour) | [162,166,167] |
| Portulaca quadrifida L. | Herb | Vegetable, salad; grain (flour) | [16,159,160,163,166,167,169] |
| Primulaceae | |||
| Maesa lanceolata Forssk. | Tree | Fruit | [142] |
| Myrsine africana L. | Shrub/tree | Bark, seeds | [18] |
| Putranjivaceae | |||
| Drypetes gerrardii Hutch. | Tree | Fruits | [13] |
| Rhamnaceae | |||
| Phyllogeiton discolor (Klotzsch) Herzog | Shrub/tree | Fruits, gum | [13,14,18,100,142,157,162,163,165,167] |
| Rhamnus prinoides L’Hér. | Shrub/tree | Roots boiled in soup | [156] |
| Scutia myrtina (Burm.f.) Kurz | Shrub/tree | Fruits; roots boiled in soup | [16,142,167] |
| Ziziphus abyssinica Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100,142,167]. |
| Ziziphus jujuba Mill. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [18] |
| Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. | Tree | Fruits/seeds | [134,142,157,158,162,163,167] |
| Ziziphus mucronata Willd. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13,14,100,142,163,164,165,167] |
| Ziziphus pubescens Oliv. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,161] |
| Rosaceae | |||
| Rubus apetalus Poir. | Shrub | Fruits | [142,167] |
| Rubus niveus Thunb. | Shrub | Fruits | [167] |
| Rubus pinnatus Willd. | Liana | Fruits | [14,142,167] |
| Rubus rigidus Sm. | Shrub | Fruits | [13] |
| Rubus scheffleri Engl. | Shrub | Fruits | [167] |
| Rubus steudneri Schweinf. | Shrub/liana | Fruits | [142] |
| Rubus volkensii Engl. | Shrub | Fruits | [167] |
| Rubiaceae | |||
| Afrocanthium keniense (Bullock) Lantz | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Afrocanthium kilifiense (Bridson) Lantz | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Afrocanthium lactescens (Hiern) Lantz | Tree | Fruits | [142,163,167] |
| Afrocanthium pseudoverticillatum (S.Moore) Lantz | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Bullockia dyscritos (Bullock) Razafim., Lantz & B.Bremer | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Bullockia fadenii (Bridson) Razafim., Lantz & B.Bremer | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Bullockia mombazensis (Baill.) Razafim., Lantz & B.Bremer | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100,142] |
| Bullockia pseudosetiflora (Bridson) Razafim., Lantz & B.Bremer | Shrub | Fruits | [18,142] |
| Bullockia setiflora (Hiern) Razafim., Lantz & B.Bremer | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13,142,163] |
| Canthium glaucum Hiern | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,167] |
| Canthium oligocarpum Hiern | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Coffea arabica L. | Shrub/tree | Seeds (coffee) | [14,167] |
| Conostomium quadrangulare (Rendle) Cufod. | Herb | Nectar | [157,163] |
| Coptosperma graveolens (S.Moore) Degreef | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [134] |
| Coptosperma littorale (Hiern) Degreef | Shrub/tree | Seed/fruit | [134] |
| Cremaspora triflora (Thonn.) K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Eumachia parviflora (R.D.Good) Razafim. & C.M.Taylor (exotic) | Shrub | Fruits | [142] |
| Gardenia ternifolia Schumach. & Thonn. | Shrub/tree | General | [163] |
| Heinsia crinita (Wennberg) G.Taylor | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,158,161] |
| Keetia gueinzii (Sond.) Bridson | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [16,142] |
| Keetia zanzibarica (Klotzsch) Bridson | Shrub | Fruits | [142] |
| Lamprothamnus zanguebaricus Hiern | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,161] |
| Meyna tetraphylla (Schweinf. ex Hiern) Robyns | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [14,100,162,163,165,167] |
| Mussaenda arcuata Poir. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Pavetta crassipes K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Pavetta gardeniifolia Hochst. ex A.Rich. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13] |
| Pentanisia schweinfurthii Hiern | Herb | General | [163] |
| Polysphaeria multiflora Hiern | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Polysphaeria parvifolia Hiern | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [161] |
| Pyrostria bibracteata (Baker) Cavaco | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Pyrostria phyllanthoidea (Baill.) Bridson | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100,142] |
| Rothmannia fischeri (K.Schum.) Bullock ex Oberm. | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Rytigynia uhligii (K.Schum. & K.Krause) Verdc. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Tennantia sennii (Chiov.) Verdc. & Bridson | Shrub | Fruits | [100,142,165] |
| Uncaria africana G.Don | Liana | Fruits | [13] |
| Vangueria apiculata K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,167] |
| Vangueria infausta Burch. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,161,167] |
| Vangueria loranthifolia K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13] |
| Vangueria madagascariensis J.F.Gmel. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13,14,100,142,158,163,165,167] |
| Vangueria schumanniana (Robyns) Lantz | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [167] |
| Vangueria volkensii K.Schum. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,167] |
| Rutaceae | |||
| Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. | Shrub/tree | Fruits, roots | [100,142,163] |
| Vepris glomerata (F.Hoffm.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Vepris nobilis (Delile) Mziray | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Vepris uguenensis Engl. | Shrub | General | [163] |
| Zanthoxylum asiaticum (L.) Appelhans, Groppo & J.Wen | Shrub/tree | Fruits (food flavor) | [134] |
| Zanthoxylum chalybeum Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits; leaves, bark, seeds (flavor tea, soup) | [18,100,134,161,163,167] |
| Zanthoxylum holtzianum (Engl.) P.G.Waterman | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [158] |
| Zanthoxylum usambarense (Engl.) Kokwaro | Tree | Leaves/bark (flavor tea/soup) | [167] |
| Salicaceae | |||
| Dovyalis abyssinica (A.Rich.) Warb. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13,16,142,167] |
| Dovyalis macrocalyx (Oliv.) Warb. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [167] |
| Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merr. | Shrub/tree | Seed/fruits | [18,134,142,161,163,167] |
| Oncoba spinosa Forssk. | Shrub/tree | Fruit | [142] |
| Scolopia zeyheri (Nees) Szyszyl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Salvadoraceae | |||
| Dobera glabra (Forssk.) Juss. ex Poir. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [18,100,142,157,162,163,167] |
| Dobera loranthifolia (Warb.) Harms | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Salvadora persica L. | Shrub/tree | Fruits/roots | [13,18,142,157,162,163,164,167] |
| Santalaceae | |||
| Osyris lanceolata Hochst. & Steud. | Shrub | Fruits | [142] |
| Sapindaceae | |||
| Allophylus africanus var. griseotomentosus (Gilg) Verdc. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13] |
| Allophylus ferrugineus Taub. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Allophylus rubifolius (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100] |
| Chytranthus obliquinervis Radlk. ex Engl. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,158] |
| Deinbollia borbonica Scheff. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [134,142,161] |
| Deinbollia kilimandscharica Taub. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,165] |
| Haplocoelum foliolosum (Hiern) Bullock | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [13,142] |
| Haplocoelum inoploeum Radlk. | Shrub/tree | Fruits; leaves (vegetable) | [142,158] |
| Lecaniodiscus fraxinifolius Baker | Tree | Fruits | [100,161] |
| Lepisanthes senegalensis (Poir.) Leenh. | Tree | Fruits | [16] |
| Pappea capensis Eckl. & Zeyh. | Tree | Fruits/seeds; bark (tea) | [16,100,142,163,167] |
| Sapotaceae | |||
| Aningeria adolfi-friederici (Engl.) Robyns & Gilbert | Tree | Seed oil | [142] |
| Englerophytum natalense (Sond.) T.D.Penn. | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Englerophytum oblanceolatum (S.Moore) T.D.Penn. | Tree | Fruit | [142] |
| Gambeya albida (G.Don) Aubrév. & Pellegr. | Tree | Fruit | [142] |
| Inhambanella henriquesii (Engl. & Warb.) Dubard | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Malacantha alnifolia (Baker) Pierre | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Manilkara butugi Chiov. | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Manilkara discolor (Sond.) J.H.Hemsl. | Tree | Fruits | [13,142] |
| Manilkara mochisia (Baker) Dubard | Tree | Fruits | [100,142,158,161,163,167] |
| Manilkara sansibarensis (Engl.) Dubard | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,167] |
| Manilkara sulcata (Engl.) Dubard | Tree | Fruits | [100,142,161,167] |
| Mimusops bagshawei S.Moore | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Mimusops kummel Bruce ex A.DC. | Tree | Fruits | [16,142,163,167] |
| Mimusops obtusifolia Lam. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [100,142,161,167] |
| Mimusops somalensis Chiov. | Tree | Fruits | [161,167] |
| Sideroxylon inerme L. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Synsepalum brevipes (Baker) T.D.Penn. | Tree | Fruits | [142,167] |
| Synsepalum cerasiferum (Welw.) T.D.Penn. | Tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Synsepalum msolo (Engl.) T.D.Penn. | Tree | Fruits | [142,167] |
| Solanaceae | |||
| Capsicum frutescens L. (exotic) | Shrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [160] |
| Lycium shawii Roem. & Schult. | Shrub/tree | General | [162,163] |
| Nicandra physalodes (L.) Gaertn. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [161] |
| Physalis angulata L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [169] |
| Physalis lagascae Roem. & Schult. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159] |
| Physalis peruviana L. | Herb | Fruits | [16] |
| Solanum aculeastrum Dunal | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142] |
| Solanum nigrum L | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [12,13,16,157,158,159,160,161,163,166,169] |
| Solanum coagulans Forssk. | Subshrub | Seeds (coagulate milk) | [157,163,164] |
| Solanum incanum L. | Shrub/subshrub | General | [164] |
| Solanum lycopersicum L. (exotic) | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [160] |
| Solanum villosum Mill. | Herb/shrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [162] |
| Talinaceae | |||
| Talinum caffrum (Thunb.) Eckl. & Zeyh. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [161] |
| Talinum portulacifolium (Forssk.) Asch. ex Schweinf. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [13,16,134,159,160,161,164,169] |
| Urticaceae | |||
| Forsskaolea viridis Ehrenb. ex Webb | Subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [157] |
| Laportea alatipes Hook.f. | Herb | Leaves | [14] |
| Myrianthus holstii Engl. | Tree | Fruits | [14,142,167] |
| Pilea johnstonii Oliv. | Subshrub | Leaves (vegetable) | [12] |
| Urtica massaica Mildbr. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [12,166,167] |
| Verbenaceae | |||
| Lantana camara L. (exotic) | Shrub | Fruits | [16,161,165,167] |
| Lantana trifolia L. | Shrub | Fruits; leaves (vegetable) | [16,142,165,167] |
| Lantana ukambensis (Vatke) Verdc. | Shrub | Fruits | [142,163,167] |
| Lantana viburnoides (Forssk.) Vahl | Subshrub/shrub | Fruits | [167] |
| Lippia carviodora Meikle | Shrub | Leaves (tea) | [142,164,167] |
| Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng. | Shrub | Fruits edible; leaves used in tea | [167] |
| Lippia kituiensis Vatke | Shrub | Fruits edible; leaves used in tea | [14,142,167] |
| Vitaceae | |||
| Cayratia ibuensis (Hook.f.) Suess. | Herb | Roots | [156] |
| Cissus aphyllantha Gilg | Shrub | Fruits | [142] |
| Cissus quadrangularis L. | Liana | General | [164] |
| Cissus rotundifolia Vahl | Shrub | Fruits; roots used in soup | [16,142,156,162,163] |
| Cyphostemma adenocaule (Steud. ex A.Rich.) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. | Herb | Fruits; leaves (vegetable) | [158,163,165] |
| Cyphostemma bambuseti (Gilg & M.Brandt) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. | Herb | General | [163] |
| Cyphostemma cyphopetalum (Fresen.) Desc. ex Wild & R.B.Drumm. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [157,159,160,163,169] |
| Cyphostemma serpens (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) Desc. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [13,16,169] |
| Zingiberaceae | |||
| Aframomum angustifolium (Sonn.) K.Schum. | Herb | Seed/fruits | [134] |
| Aframomum mala (K.Schum.) K.Schum. | Herb | Fruits | [16] |
| Zingiber officinale Roscoe (exotic) | Herb | Root | [16] |
| Zygophyllaceae | |||
| Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Delile | Tree | Fruit, seed oil, gum; leaf/shoots (vegetable) | [14,16,18,100,142,162,163,165,166,167] |
| Balanites glabra Mildbr. & Schltr. | Shrub/tree | Fruits | [142,164] |
| Balanites pedicellaris Mildbr. & Schltr. | Tree | Fruits, cotyledons | [18,100,142,162,163,164,167] |
| Balanites rotundifolia (Tiegh.) Blatt. | Shrub/tree | Fruits, cotyledons; fruit (flavor milk) | [13,18,142,157,162,163,167] |
| Tribulus cistoides L. | Herb | Leaves | [18,162] |
| Tribulus terrestris L. | Herb | Leaves (vegetable) | [159,160] |
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Figure 1.
Linear regression model showing the relationship between the number of medicinal species and the total number of species for orders and families.
Figure 1.
Linear regression model showing the relationship between the number of medicinal species and the total number of species for orders and families.
Figure 2.
Linear regression model showing the relationship between the number of food species and the total number of species for orders and families.
Figure 2.
Linear regression model showing the relationship between the number of food species and the total number of species for orders and families.
Figure 3.
Map of Kenya (study area) (K1–K7 represents the seven floral regions of Kenya).
Table 1.
Quantitative analysis of medicinal species in orders. T—total number of species in the flora; M—medicinal species; ↑/↓—positive/negative outliers based on residuals; Pa—predicted medicinal species under regression model; Res.—regression residuals; Pb—predicted medicinal species under binomial model; inf.—Bayesian inferior 95% probability credible intervals; sup.—Bayesian superior 95% probability credible intervals; *—positive outliers.
Table 1.
Quantitative analysis of medicinal species in orders. T—total number of species in the flora; M—medicinal species; ↑/↓—positive/negative outliers based on residuals; Pa—predicted medicinal species under regression model; Res.—regression residuals; Pb—predicted medicinal species under binomial model; inf.—Bayesian inferior 95% probability credible intervals; sup.—Bayesian superior 95% probability credible intervals; *—positive outliers.
| Regression Analysis | Binomial Analysis | Bayesian Analysis | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Order | T | M | Pa | Res. | R-Value | Pb | p-Value | inf. (0.2102) | sup. (0.2314) |
| Fabales | 592 | 168 ↑ | 101.84 | 66.16 | 0.6497 * | 130.59 | 0.0002 * | 0.249 * | 0.3214 |
| Malpighiales | 418 | 129 ↑ | 74 | 55 | 0.7433 * | 92.21 | 0 * | 0.2663 * | 0.3545 |
| Sapindales | 158 | 70 ↑ | 32.4 | 37.6 | 1.1605 * | 34.85 | 0 * | 0.3678 * | 0.5211 |
| Malvales | 236 | 72 ↑ | 44.88 | 27.12 | 0.6043 * | 52.06 | 0.0016 * | 0.2499 * | 0.3667 |
| Rosales | 134 | 50 ↑ | 28.56 | 21.44 | 0.7507 * | 29.56 | 0 * | 0.2958 * | 0.4577 |
| Asterales | 440 | 96 ↑ | 77.52 | 18.48 | 0.2384 | 97.06 | 0.5672 | 0.1822 | 0.2592 |
| Gentianales | 533 | 109 ↑ | 92.4 | 16.6 | 0.1797 | 117.58 | 0.8283 | 0.1725 | 0.2408 |
| Lamiales | 676 | 131 ↑ | 115.28 | 15.72 | 0.1364 | 149.12 | 0.9596 | 0.1658 | 0.2253 |
| Myrtales | 100 | 35 ↑ | 23.12 | 11.88 | 0.5139 * | 22.06 | 0.0021 * | 0.2636 * | 0.4477 |
| Caryophyllales | 182 | 47 ↑ | 36.24 | 10.76 | 0.2969 | 40.15 | 0.129 | 0.2002 | 0.3265 |
| Solanales | 166 | 42 ↑ | 33.68 | 8.32 | 0.2471 | 36.62 | 0.1796 | 0.193 | 0.3244 |
| Brassicales | 116 | 32 ↑ | 25.68 | 6.32 | 0.2461 | 25.59 | 0.0951 | 0.2028 | 0.3636 |
| Apiales | 55 | 22 ↑ | 15.92 | 6.08 | 0.382 | 12.13 | 0.0021 * | 0.281 * | 0.5325 |
| Ericales | 94 | 28 ↑ | 22.16 | 5.84 | 0.2636 | 20.74 | 0.0498 * | 0.2149 | 0.3971 |
| Cucurbitales | 76 | 25 ↑ | 19.28 | 5.72 | 0.2967 | 16.77 | 0.0194 * | 0.2338 * | 0.441 |
| Magnoliales | 32 | 15 ↑ | 12.24 | 2.76 | 0.2256 | 7.06 | 0.0016 * | 0.308 * | 0.6365 |
| Ranunculales | 34 | 14 ↑ | 12.56 | 1.44 | 0.1147 | 7.5 | 0.0096 * | 0.2632 * | 0.5789 |
| Vitales | 55 | 17 ↑ | 15.92 | 1.08 | 0.0679 | 12.13 | 0.0814 | 0.2029 | 0.441 |
| Santalales | 81 | 21 ↑ | 20.08 | 0.92 | 0.0459 | 17.87 | 0.2365 | 0.1764 | 0.3644 |
| Celastrales | 37 | 13 ↓ | 13.04 | −0.04 | −0.003 | 8.16 | 0.0479 * | 0.2181 | 0.5135 |
| Saxifragales | 37 | 11 ↓ | 13.04 | −2.04 | −0.1564 | 8.16 | 0.1753 | 0.175 | 0.459 |
| Zygophyllales | 16 | 6 ↓ | 9.68 | −3.68 | −0.3801 | 3.53 | 0.1201 | 0.1844 | 0.6167 |
| Boraginales | 61 | 13 ↓ | 16.88 | −3.88 | −0.2298 | 13.46 | 0.6057 | 0.1293 | 0.3318 |
| Zingiberales | 9 | 4 ↓ | 8.56 | −4.56 | −0.5327 | 1.99 | 0.1153 | 0.1871 | 0.7376 |
| Icacinales | 3 | 3 ↓ | 7.6 | −4.6 | −0.6052 | 0.66 | 0.0107 * | 0.3976 * | 0.9937 |
| Geraniales | 16 | 5 ↓ | 9.68 | −4.68 | −0.4834 | 3.53 | 0.2672 | 0.1421 | 0.5596 |
| Piperales | 17 | 5 ↓ | 9.84 | −4.84 | −0.4918 | 3.75 | 0.315 | 0.1334 | 0.5348 |
| Oxalidales | 12 | 4 ↓ | 9.04 | −5.04 | −0.5575 | 2.65 | 0.2627 | 0.1386 | 0.6143 |
| Laurales | 8 | 3 ↓ | 8.4 | −5.4 | −0.6428 | 1.76 | 0.25 | 0.137 | 0.7007 |
| Canellales | 2 | 2 ↓ | 7.44 | −5.44 | −0.7312 | 0.44 | 0.0487 * | 0.2924 * | 0.9916 |
| Arecales | 7 | 2 ↓ | 8.24 | −6.24 | −0.7573 | 1.54 | 0.4791 | 0.0852 | 0.6509 |
| Proteales | 7 | 2 ↓ | 8.24 | −6.24 | −0.7573 | 1.54 | 0.4791 | 0.0852 | 0.6509 |
| Aquifoliales | 1 | 1 ↓ | 7.28 | −6.28 | −0.8626 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Buxales | 1 | 1 ↓ | 7.28 | −6.28 | −0.8626 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Liliales | 8 | 2 ↓ | 8.4 | −6.4 | −0.7619 | 1.76 | 0.5555 | 0.0749 | 0.6001 |
| Dilleniales | 2 | 1 ↓ | 7.44 | −6.44 | −0.8656 | 0.44 | 0.3925 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Gunnerales | 2 | 1 ↓ | 7.44 | −6.44 | −0.8656 | 0.44 | 0.3925 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Nymphaeales | 3 | 1 ↓ | 7.6 | −6.6 | −0.8684 | 0.66 | 0.5265 | 0.0676 | 0.8059 |
| Dioscoreales | 10 | 2 ↓ | 8.72 | −6.72 | −0.7706 | 2.21 | 0.6832 | 0.0602 | 0.5178 |
| Fagales | 4 | 1 ↓ | 7.76 | −6.76 | −0.8711 | 0.88 | 0.631 | 0.0527 | 0.7164 |
| Cornales | 5 | 1 ↓ | 7.92 | −6.92 | −0.8737 | 1.1 | 0.7124 | 0.0433 | 0.6412 |
| Pandanales | 5 | 1 ↓ | 7.92 | −6.92 | −0.8737 | 1.1 | 0.7124 | 0.0433 | 0.6412 |
| Metteniusales | 1 | 0 ↓ | 7.28 | −7.28 | −1 | 0.22 | 0.7794 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Ceratophyllales | 2 | 0 ↓ | 7.44 | −7.44 | −1 | 0.44 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Vahliales | 3 | 0 ↓ | 7.6 | −7.6 | −1 | 0.66 | 1 | 0.0063 | 0.6024 |
| Dipsacales | 10 | 1 ↓ | 8.72 | −7.72 | −0.8853 | 2.21 | 0.9173 | 0.0228 | 0.4128 |
| Commelinales | 73 | 11 ↓ | 18.8 | −7.8 | −0.4149 | 16.1 | 0.9486 | 0.0867 | 0.2504 |
| Alismatales | 58 | 5 ↓ | 16.4 | −11.4 | −0.6951 | 12.79 | 0.9981 | 0.0382 | 0.1868 |
| Asparagales | 447 | 44 ↓ | 78.64 | −34.64 | −0.4405 | 98.61 | 1 | 0.0742 | 0.1296 |
| Poales | 838 | 29 ↓ | 141.2 | −112.2 | −0.7946 | 184.86 | 1 | 0.0243 | 0.0493 |
Table 2.
Quantitative analysis of medicinal species in families. T—total number of species in the flora; M—medicinal species; Pa—predicted medicinal species under the regression model; ↑/↓—positive/negative outliers based on residuals; Res.—regression residuals; Pb—predicted medicinal species under binomial model; inf.—Bayesian inferior 95% probability credible intervals; sup.—Bayesian superior 95% probability credible intervals; *—positive outliers.
Table 2.
Quantitative analysis of medicinal species in families. T—total number of species in the flora; M—medicinal species; Pa—predicted medicinal species under the regression model; ↑/↓—positive/negative outliers based on residuals; Res.—regression residuals; Pb—predicted medicinal species under binomial model; inf.—Bayesian inferior 95% probability credible intervals; sup.—Bayesian superior 95% probability credible intervals; *—positive outliers.
| Regression Analysis | Binomial Analysis | Bayesian Analysis | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Family | T | M | Pa | Res. | R-Value | Pb | p-Value | inf. (0.2102) | sup. (0.2314) |
| Fabaceae | 559 | 163 ↑ | 99.8 | 63.2 | 0.6333 * | 123.34 | 0.0001 * | 0.2555 * | 0.3306 |
| Lamiaceae | 198 | 62 ↑ | 36.26 | 25.74 | 0.7098 * | 43.69 | 0.0016 * | 0.2526 * | 0.3809 |
| Malvaceae | 221 | 66 ↑ | 40.31 | 25.69 | 0.6373 * | 48.76 | 0.0042 * | 0.2422 * | 0.3621 |
| Euphorbiaceae | 217 | 64 ↑ | 39.61 | 24.39 | 0.6159 * | 47.88 | 0.0065 * | 0.2383 * | 0.3589 |
| Asteraceae | 398 | 93 ↑ | 71.46 | 21.54 | 0.3014 | 87.81 | 0.2829 | 0.1948 | 0.2777 |
| Rubiaceae | 254 | 60 ↑ | 46.12 | 13.88 | 0.301 | 56.04 | 0.2969 | 0.1882 | 0.2922 |
| Combretaceae | 38 | 20 ↑ | 8.1 | 11.9 | 1.4687 * | 8.38 | 0 * | 0.3718 * | 0.6758 |
| Cucurbitaceae | 70 | 25 ↑ | 13.73 | 11.27 | 0.8204 * | 15.44 | 0.0064 * | 0.255 * | 0.4746 |
| Rutaceae | 28 | 17 ↑ | 6.34 | 10.66 | 1.6808 * | 6.18 | 0 * | 0.4226 * | 0.7648 |
| Phyllanthaceae | 51 | 21 ↑ | 10.39 | 10.61 | 1.0213 * | 11.25 | 0.0017 * | 0.2873 * | 0.549 |
| Solanaceae | 51 | 21 ↑ | 10.39 | 10.61 | 1.0213 * | 11.25 | 0.0017 * | 0.2873 * | 0.549 |
| Capparaceae | 48 | 20 ↑ | 9.86 | 10.14 | 1.0281 * | 10.59 | 0.0018 * | 0.2882 * | 0.5579 |
| Amaranthaceae | 64 | 22 ↑ | 12.68 | 9.32 | 0.7354 * | 14.12 | 0.0162 * | 0.2392 * | 0.4665 |
| Annonaceae | 30 | 15 ↑ | 6.69 | 8.31 | 1.241 * | 6.62 | 0.0007 * | 0.3306 * | 0.6694 |
| Sapindaceae | 36 | 15 ↑ | 7.75 | 7.25 | 0.9357 * | 7.94 | 0.0066 * | 0.271 * | 0.579 |
| Anacardiaceae | 25 | 13 ↑ | 5.81 | 7.19 | 1.2363 * | 5.52 | 0.001 * | 0.3337 * | 0.7007 |
| Moraceae | 55 | 18 ↑ | 11.09 | 6.91 | 0.6226 * | 12.13 | 0.045 * | 0.2181 | 0.4596 |
| Oleaceae | 17 | 11 ↑ | 4.41 | 6.59 | 1.497 * | 3.75 | 0.0002 * | 0.4099 * | 0.827 |
| Meliaceae | 23 | 12 ↑ | 5.46 | 6.54 | 1.1973 * | 5.07 | 0.0015 * | 0.3282 * | 0.7088 |
| Vitaceae | 55 | 17 ↑ | 11.09 | 5.91 | 0.5325 * | 12.13 | 0.0815 | 0.2029 | 0.441 |
| Rhamnaceae | 18 | 10 ↑ | 4.58 | 5.42 | 1.1828 * | 3.97 | 0.002 * | 0.335 * | 0.7555 |
| Salicaceae | 18 | 10 ↑ | 4.58 | 5.42 | 1.1828 * | 3.97 | 0.002 * | 0.335 * | 0.7555 |
| Celastraceae | 37 | 13 ↑ | 7.93 | 5.07 | 0.6403 * | 8.16 | 0.048 * | 0.2181 | 0.5135 |
| Araliaceae | 12 | 8 ↑ | 3.53 | 4.47 | 1.2693 * | 2.65 | 0.0012 * | 0.3857 * | 0.8614 |
| Melastomataceae | 15 | 8 ↑ | 4.05 | 3.95 | 0.9737 * | 3.31 | 0.008 * | 0.2988 * | 0.7535 |
| Bignoniaceae | 6 | 6 ↑ | 2.47 | 3.53 | 1.4298 * | 1.32 | 0.0001 * | 0.5904 * | 0.9964 |
| Apiaceae | 41 | 12 ↑ | 8.63 | 3.37 | 0.3906 | 9.05 | 0.1761 | 0.1762 | 0.4458 |
| Burseraceae | 42 | 12 ↑ | 8.81 | 3.19 | 0.3628 | 9.27 | 0.1998 | 0.1718 | 0.4367 |
| Ebenaceae | 20 | 8 ↑ | 4.93 | 3.07 | 0.6216 * | 4.41 | 0.0545 | 0.2182 | 0.6156 |
| Menispermaceae | 16 | 7 ↑ | 4.23 | 2.77 | 0.6551 * | 3.53 | 0.0438 * | 0.2298 | 0.6708 |
| Verbenaceae | 22 | 8 ↑ | 5.29 | 2.71 | 0.5136 * | 4.85 | 0.0914 | 0.1971 | 0.5727 |
| Sapotaceae | 28 | 9 ↑ | 6.34 | 2.66 | 0.4193 | 6.18 | 0.1453 | 0.1794 | 0.5083 |
| Crassulaceae | 34 | 10 ↑ | 7.4 | 2.6 | 0.3518 | 7.5 | 0.2007 | 0.1685 | 0.463 |
| Cannabaceae | 6 | 5 ↑ | 2.47 | 2.53 | 1.0249 * | 1.32 | 0.0026 * | 0.4213 * | 0.9633 |
| Urticaceae | 29 | 9 ↑ | 6.52 | 2.48 | 0.3809 | 6.4 | 0.1716 | 0.1729 | 0.494 |
| Hypericaceae | 12 | 6 ↑ | 3.53 | 2.47 | 0.702 * | 2.65 | 0.0309 * | 0.2513 * | 0.7487 |
| Apocynaceae | 235 | 45 ↑ | 42.77 | 2.23 | 0.0521 | 51.85 | 0.8773 | 0.1464 | 0.2467 |
| Thymelaeaceae | 14 | 6 ↑ | 3.88 | 2.12 | 0.5475 * | 3.09 | 0.067 | 0.2127 | 0.6771 |
| Polygonaceae | 20 | 7 ↑ | 4.93 | 2.07 | 0.4189 | 4.41 | 0.1317 | 0.1811 | 0.5697 |
| Rosaceae | 26 | 8 ↑ | 5.99 | 2.01 | 0.3357 | 5.74 | 0.1981 | 0.1652 | 0.5018 |
| Ranunculaceae | 16 | 6 ↑ | 4.23 | 1.77 | 0.4187 | 3.53 | 0.1202 | 0.1844 | 0.6167 |
| Zygophyllaceae | 16 | 6 ↑ | 4.23 | 1.77 | 0.4187 | 3.53 | 0.1202 | 0.1844 | 0.6167 |
| Icacinaceae | 3 | 3 ↑ | 1.94 | 1.06 | 0.5454 * | 0.66 | 0.0107 * | 0.3976 * | 0.9937 |
| Olacaceae | 3 | 3 ↑ | 1.94 | 1.06 | 0.5454 * | 0.66 | 0.0107 * | 0.3976 * | 0.9937 |
| Salvadoraceae | 4 | 3 ↑ | 2.12 | 0.88 | 0.4169 | 0.88 | 0.0359 * | 0.2836 * | 0.9473 |
| Boraginaceae | 61 | 13 ↑ | 12.15 | 0.85 | 0.07 | 13.46 | 0.606 | 0.1293 | 0.3318 |
| Loranthaceae | 50 | 11 ↑ | 10.21 | 0.79 | 0.077 | 11.03 | 0.5595 | 0.1279 | 0.3532 |
| Primulaceae | 17 | 5 ↑ | 4.41 | 0.59 | 0.135 | 3.75 | 0.3151 | 0.1334 | 0.5348 |
| Moringaceae | 6 | 3 ↑ | 2.47 | 0.53 | 0.2149 | 1.32 | 0.1258 | 0.1841 | 0.8159 |
| Oxalidaceae | 6 | 3 ↑ | 2.47 | 0.53 | 0.2149 | 1.32 | 0.1258 | 0.1841 | 0.8159 |
| Asparagaceae | 103 | 20 ↑ | 19.54 | 0.46 | 0.0235 | 22.73 | 0.7755 | 0.1296 | 0.2813 |
| Ochnaceae | 18 | 5 ↑ | 4.58 | 0.42 | 0.0914 | 3.97 | 0.3638 | 0.1258 | 0.512 |
| Loganiaceae | 13 | 4 ↑ | 3.7 | 0.3 | 0.0807 | 2.87 | 0.3182 | 0.1276 | 0.581 |
| Canellaceae | 2 | 2 ↑ | 1.77 | 0.23 | 0.133 | 0.44 | 0.0487 * | 0.2924 * | 0.9916 |
| Peraceae | 2 | 2 ↑ | 1.77 | 0.23 | 0.133 | 0.44 | 0.0487 * | 0.2924 * | 0.9916 |
| Phytolaccaceae | 2 | 2 ↑ | 1.77 | 0.23 | 0.133 | 0.44 | 0.0487 * | 0.2924 * | 0.9916 |
| Pittosporaceae | 2 | 2 ↑ | 1.77 | 0.23 | 0.133 | 0.44 | 0.0487 * | 0.2924 * | 0.9916 |
| Typhaceae | 2 | 2 ↑ | 1.77 | 0.23 | 0.133 | 0.44 | 0.0487 * | 0.2924 * | 0.9916 |
| Zingiberaceae | 8 | 3 ↑ | 2.82 | 0.18 | 0.0633 | 1.77 | 0.2501 | 0.137 | 0.7007 |
| Clusiaceae | 3 | 2 ↑ | 1.94 | 0.06 | 0.0302 | 0.66 | 0.1246 | 0.1941 | 0.9324 |
| Opiliaceae | 3 | 2 ↑ | 1.94 | 0.06 | 0.0302 | 0.66 | 0.1246 | 0.1941 | 0.9324 |
| Myrtaceae | 9 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0.0009 | 1.99 | 0.3175 | 0.1216 | 0.6525 |
| Rhizophoraceae | 9 | 3 | 3 | 0 | 0.0009 | 1.99 | 0.3175 | 0.1216 | 0.6525 |
| Geraniaceae | 15 | 4 ↓ | 4.05 | −0.05 | −0.0131 | 3.31 | 0.4298 | 0.1102 | 0.5238 |
| Talinaceae | 4 | 2 ↓ | 2.12 | −0.12 | −0.0554 | 0.88 | 0.2133 | 0.1466 | 0.8534 |
| Aristolochiaceae | 5 | 2 ↓ | 2.29 | −0.29 | −0.1279 | 1.1 | 0.3054 | 0.1181 | 0.7772 |
| Santalaceae | 23 | 5 ↓ | 5.46 | −0.46 | −0.0845 | 5.07 | 0.596 | 0.0977 | 0.4215 |
| Plumbaginaceae | 6 | 2 ↓ | 2.47 | −0.47 | −0.1901 | 1.32 | 0.3952 | 0.099 | 0.7096 |
| Convolvulaceae | 114 | 21 ↓ | 21.48 | −0.48 | −0.0222 | 25.15 | 0.854 | 0.1239 | 0.2655 |
| Nyctaginaceae | 12 | 3 ↓ | 3.53 | −0.53 | −0.149 | 2.65 | 0.5135 | 0.0909 | 0.5381 |
| Piperaceae | 12 | 3 ↓ | 3.53 | −0.53 | −0.149 | 2.65 | 0.5135 | 0.0909 | 0.5381 |
| Adoxaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.59 | −0.59 | −0.3708 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Aquifoliaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.59 | −0.59 | −0.3708 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Berberidaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.59 | −0.59 | −0.3708 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Buxaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.59 | −0.59 | −0.3708 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Cactaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.59 | −0.59 | −0.3708 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Flagellariaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.59 | −0.59 | −0.3708 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Francoaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.59 | −0.59 | −0.3708 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Hamamelidaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.59 | −0.59 | −0.3708 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Lecythidaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.59 | −0.59 | −0.3708 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Liliaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.59 | −0.59 | −0.3708 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Monimiaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.59 | −0.59 | −0.3708 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Musaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.59 | −0.59 | −0.3708 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Myrothamnaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.59 | −0.59 | −0.3708 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Penaeaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.59 | −0.59 | −0.3708 | 0.22 | 0.2206 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Arecaceae | 7 | 2 ↓ | 2.65 | −0.65 | −0.2439 | 1.54 | 0.4792 | 0.0852 | 0.6509 |
| Proteaceae | 7 | 2 ↓ | 2.65 | −0.65 | −0.2439 | 1.54 | 0.4792 | 0.0852 | 0.6509 |
| Passifloraceae | 30 | 6 ↓ | 6.69 | −0.69 | −0.1036 | 6.62 | 0.6769 | 0.0959 | 0.3747 |
| Pedaliaceae | 13 | 3 ↓ | 3.7 | −0.7 | −0.1895 | 2.87 | 0.5721 | 0.0839 | 0.508 |
| Basellaceae | 2 | 1 ↓ | 1.77 | −0.77 | −0.4335 | 0.44 | 0.3926 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Chrysobalanaceae | 2 | 1 ↓ | 1.77 | −0.77 | −0.4335 | 0.44 | 0.3926 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Dilleniaceae | 2 | 1 ↓ | 1.77 | −0.77 | −0.4335 | 0.44 | 0.3926 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Nymphaeaceae | 2 | 1 ↓ | 1.77 | −0.77 | −0.4335 | 0.44 | 0.3926 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Picrodendraceae | 2 | 1 ↓ | 1.77 | −0.77 | −0.4335 | 0.44 | 0.3926 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Smilacaceae | 2 | 1 ↓ | 1.77 | −0.77 | −0.4335 | 0.44 | 0.3926 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Velloziaceae | 2 | 1 ↓ | 1.77 | −0.77 | −0.4335 | 0.44 | 0.3926 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Cornaceae | 3 | 1 ↓ | 1.94 | −0.94 | −0.4849 | 0.66 | 0.5266 | 0.0676 | 0.8059 |
| Lauraceae | 3 | 1 ↓ | 1.94 | −0.94 | −0.4849 | 0.66 | 0.5266 | 0.0676 | 0.8059 |
| Myricaceae | 3 | 1 ↓ | 1.94 | −0.94 | −0.4849 | 0.66 | 0.5266 | 0.0676 | 0.8059 |
| Simaroubaceae | 3 | 1 ↓ | 1.94 | −0.94 | −0.4849 | 0.66 | 0.5266 | 0.0676 | 0.8059 |
| Araceae | 26 | 5 ↓ | 5.99 | −0.99 | −0.1652 | 5.74 | 0.7098 | 0.0862 | 0.3808 |
| Dichapetalaceae | 9 | 2 ↓ | 3 | −1 | −0.3327 | 1.99 | 0.6236 | 0.0667 | 0.5561 |
| Dioscoreaceae | 9 | 2 ↓ | 3 | −1 | −0.3327 | 1.99 | 0.6236 | 0.0667 | 0.5561 |
| Cleomaceae | 15 | 3 ↓ | 4.05 | −1.05 | −0.2599 | 3.31 | 0.6752 | 0.0727 | 0.4565 |
| Balsaminaceae | 21 | 4 ↓ | 5.11 | −1.11 | −0.2171 | 4.63 | 0.7126 | 0.0782 | 0.4028 |
| Hernandiaceae | 4 | 1 ↓ | 2.12 | −1.12 | −0.5277 | 0.88 | 0.6311 | 0.0527 | 0.7164 |
| Resedaceae | 4 | 1 ↓ | 2.12 | −1.12 | −0.5277 | 0.88 | 0.6311 | 0.0527 | 0.7164 |
| Malpighiaceae | 10 | 2 ↓ | 3.17 | −1.17 | −0.3697 | 2.21 | 0.6833 | 0.0602 | 0.5178 |
| Achariaceae | 5 | 1 ↓ | 2.29 | −1.29 | −0.5639 | 1.1 | 0.7125 | 0.0433 | 0.6412 |
| Colchicaceae | 5 | 1 ↓ | 2.29 | −1.29 | −0.5639 | 1.1 | 0.7125 | 0.0433 | 0.6412 |
| Putranjivaceae | 5 | 1 ↓ | 2.29 | −1.29 | −0.5639 | 1.1 | 0.7125 | 0.0433 | 0.6412 |
| Stilbaceae | 5 | 1 ↓ | 2.29 | −1.29 | −0.5639 | 1.1 | 0.7125 | 0.0433 | 0.6412 |
| Asphodelaceae | 57 | 10 ↓ | 11.45 | −1.45 | −0.1263 | 12.58 | 0.8371 | 0.0987 | 0.2943 |
| Connaraceae | 6 | 1 ↓ | 2.47 | −1.47 | −0.595 | 1.32 | 0.7759 | 0.0367 | 0.5787 |
| Molluginaceae | 6 | 1 ↓ | 2.47 | −1.47 | −0.595 | 1.32 | 0.7759 | 0.0367 | 0.5787 |
| Alismataceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Alismataceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Ancistrocladaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Aphloiaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Bixaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Burmanniaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Cabombaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Caricaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Casuarinaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Gunneraceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Kirkiaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Lophiocarpaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Metteniusaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Montiaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Montiniaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Myristicaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Papaveraceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Petiveriaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Zosteraceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.59 | −1.59 | −1 | 0.22 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Ericaceae | 7 | 1 ↓ | 2.65 | −1.65 | −0.622 | 1.54 | 0.8253 | 0.0319 | 0.5265 |
| Juncaceae | 7 | 1 ↓ | 2.65 | −1.65 | −0.622 | 1.54 | 0.8253 | 0.0319 | 0.5265 |
| Portulacaceae | 19 | 3 ↓ | 4.76 | −1.76 | −0.3694 | 4.19 | 0.8238 | 0.0573 | 0.3789 |
| Balanophoraceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.77 | −1.77 | −1 | 0.44 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Ceratophyllaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.77 | −1.77 | −1 | 0.44 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Costaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.77 | −1.77 | −1 | 0.44 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Droseraceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.77 | −1.77 | −1 | 0.44 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Gisekiaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.77 | −1.77 | −1 | 0.44 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Goodeniaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.77 | −1.77 | −1 | 0.44 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Haloragaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.77 | −1.77 | −1 | 0.44 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Limeaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.77 | −1.77 | −1 | 0.44 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Menyanthaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.77 | −1.77 | −1 | 0.44 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Phrymaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.77 | −1.77 | −1 | 0.44 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Pontederiaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.77 | −1.77 | −1 | 0.44 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Tamaricaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.77 | −1.77 | −1 | 0.44 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Amaryllidaceae | 14 | 2 ↓ | 3.88 | −1.88 | −0.4842 | 3.09 | 0.8486 | 0.0433 | 0.4046 |
| Didiereaceae | 3 | 0 ↓ | 1.94 | −1.94 | −1 | 0.66 | 1 | 0.0063 | 0.6024 |
| Gelsemiaceae | 3 | 0 ↓ | 1.94 | −1.94 | −1 | 0.66 | 1 | 0.0063 | 0.6024 |
| Pandanaceae | 3 | 0 ↓ | 1.94 | −1.94 | −1 | 0.66 | 1 | 0.0063 | 0.6024 |
| Podostemaceae | 3 | 0 ↓ | 1.94 | −1.94 | −1 | 0.66 | 1 | 0.0063 | 0.6024 |
| Vahliaceae | 3 | 0 ↓ | 1.94 | −1.94 | −1 | 0.66 | 1 | 0.0063 | 0.6024 |
| Onagraceae | 9 | 1 ↓ | 3 | −2 | −0.6664 | 1.99 | 0.8939 | 0.0252 | 0.445 |
| Caryophyllaceae | 21 | 3 ↓ | 5.11 | −2.11 | −0.4128 | 4.63 | 0.8733 | 0.0519 | 0.3491 |
| Erythroxylaceae | 4 | 0 ↓ | 2.12 | −2.12 | −1 | 0.88 | 1 | 0.0051 | 0.5218 |
| Hypoxidaceae | 10 | 1 ↓ | 3.17 | −2.17 | −0.6849 | 2.21 | 0.9173 | 0.0228 | 0.4128 |
| Polygalaceae | 33 | 5 ↓ | 7.22 | −2.22 | −0.3076 | 7.28 | 0.8825 | 0.0676 | 0.3106 |
| Linaceae | 5 | 0 ↓ | 2.29 | −2.29 | −1 | 1.1 | 1 | 0.0042 | 0.4593 |
| Aponogetonaceae | 6 | 0 ↓ | 2.47 | −2.47 | −1 | 1.32 | 1 | 0.0036 | 0.4096 |
| Begoniaceae | 6 | 0 ↓ | 2.47 | −2.47 | −1 | 1.32 | 1 | 0.0036 | 0.4096 |
| Potamogetonaceae | 6 | 0 ↓ | 2.47 | −2.47 | −1 | 1.32 | 1 | 0.0036 | 0.4096 |
| Xyridaceae | 6 | 0 ↓ | 2.47 | −2.47 | −1 | 1.32 | 1 | 0.0036 | 0.4096 |
| Eriocaulaceae | 7 | 0 ↓ | 2.65 | −2.65 | −1 | 1.54 | 1 | 0.0032 | 0.3694 |
| Violaceae | 13 | 1 ↓ | 3.7 | −2.7 | −0.7298 | 2.87 | 0.9609 | 0.0178 | 0.3387 |
| Gesneriaceae | 8 | 0 ↓ | 2.82 | −2.82 | −1 | 1.77 | 1 | 0.0028 | 0.3363 |
| Commelinaceae | 71 | 11 ↓ | 13.91 | −2.91 | −0.2092 | 15.67 | 0.9355 | 0.0892 | 0.2569 |
| Caprifoliaceae | 9 | 0 ↓ | 3 | −3 | −1 | 1.99 | 1 | 0.0025 | 0.3085 |
| Aizoaceae | 10 | 0 ↓ | 3.17 | −3.17 | −1 | 2.21 | 1 | 0.0023 | 0.2849 |
| Lentibulariaceae | 11 | 0 ↓ | 3.35 | −3.35 | −1 | 2.43 | 1 | 0.0021 | 0.2646 |
| Scrophulariaceae | 17 | 1 ↓ | 4.41 | −3.41 | −0.773 | 3.75 | 0.9856 | 0.0138 | 0.2729 |
| Lythraceae | 28 | 2 ↓ | 6.34 | −4.34 | −0.6846 | 6.18 | 0.9917 | 0.0219 | 0.2277 |
| Hydrocharitaceae | 17 | 0 ↓ | 4.41 | −4.41 | −1 | 3.75 | 1 | 0.0014 | 0.1853 |
| Iridaceae | 23 | 1 ↓ | 5.46 | −4.46 | −0.8169 | 5.07 | 0.9968 | 0.0103 | 0.2112 |
| Plantaginaceae | 23 | 1 ↓ | 5.46 | −4.46 | −0.8169 | 5.07 | 0.9968 | 0.0103 | 0.2112 |
| Campanulaceae | 38 | 3 ↓ | 8.1 | −5.1 | −0.6297 | 8.38 | 0.9948 | 0.0287 | 0.2087 |
| Linderniaceae | 28 | 1 ↓ | 6.34 | −5.34 | −0.8423 | 6.18 | 0.9991 | 0.0085 | 0.1776 |
| Brassicaceae | 38 | 2 ↓ | 8.1 | −6.1 | −0.7531 | 8.38 | 0.9991 | 0.0162 | 0.1732 |
| Gentianaceae | 28 | 0 ↓ | 6.34 | −6.34 | −1 | 6.18 | 1 | 0.0009 | 0.1194 |
| Orobanchaceae | 55 | 3 ↓ | 11.09 | −8.09 | −0.7296 | 12.13 | 0.9998 | 0.0198 | 0.1487 |
| Acanthaceae | 271 | 34 ↓ | 49.11 | −15.11 | −0.3077 | 59.79 | 1 | 0.0913 | 0.1703 |
| Orchidaceae | 240 | 10 ↓ | 43.65 | −33.65 | −0.7709 | 52.95 | 1 | 0.023 | 0.075 |
| Cyperaceae | 269 | 12 ↓ | 48.76 | −36.76 | −0.7539 | 59.35 | 1 | 0.0259 | 0.0763 |
| Poaceae | 546 | 13 ↓ | 97.51 | −84.51 | −0.8667 | 120.47 | 1 | 0.0141 | 0.0403 |
Table 3.
Quantitative analysis of food orders. T—total number of species in the flora; F—food species; ↑/↓—positive/negative outliers based on residuals; Pa—predicted food species under regression model; Res.—regression residuals; Pb—predicted food species under binomial model; inf.—Bayesian inferior 95% probability credible intervals; sup.—Bayesian superior 95% probability credible intervals; *—positive outliers.
Table 3.
Quantitative analysis of food orders. T—total number of species in the flora; F—food species; ↑/↓—positive/negative outliers based on residuals; Pa—predicted food species under regression model; Res.—regression residuals; Pb—predicted food species under binomial model; inf.—Bayesian inferior 95% probability credible intervals; sup.—Bayesian superior 95% probability credible intervals; *—positive outliers.
| Regression Analysis | Binomial Analysis | Bayesian Analysis | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Orders | T | F | Pa | Res. | R-Value | Pb | p-Value | inf. (0.1050) | sup. (0.1212) |
| Gentianales | 533 | 87 ↑ | 41.73 | 45.27 | 1.0847 * | 60.16 | 0.0003 * | 0.1343 * | 0.197 |
| Sapindales | 158 | 54 ↑ | 16.05 | 37.95 | 2.3654 * | 17.83 | 0 * | 0.2723 * | 0.4189 |
| Fabales | 592 | 72 ↑ | 45.77 | 26.23 | 0.5729 * | 66.82 | 0.2681 | 0.0977 | 0.1504 |
| Rosales | 134 | 36 ↑ | 14.4 | 21.6 | 1.4997 * | 15.12 | 0 * | 0.2009 * | 0.3496 |
| Ericales | 94 | 29 ↑ | 11.66 | 17.34 | 1.4868 * | 10.61 | 0 * | 0.2242 * | 0.4082 |
| Brassicales | 116 | 30 ↑ | 13.17 | 16.83 | 1.2781 * | 13.09 | 0 * | 0.1877 * | 0.3454 |
| Caryophyllales | 182 | 34 ↑ | 17.69 | 16.31 | 0.922 * | 20.54 | 0.0022 * | 0.137 * | 0.2498 |
| Malvales | 236 | 37 ↑ | 21.39 | 15.61 | 0.7299 * | 26.64 | 0.025 * | 0.116 | 0.2087 |
| Cucurbitales | 76 | 26 ↑ | 10.43 | 15.57 | 1.4931 * | 8.58 | 0 * | 0.2453 * | 0.4545 |
| Solanales | 166 | 25 ↑ | 16.59 | 8.41 | 0.5066 * | 18.74 | 0.0826 | 0.1043 | 0.213 |
| Malpighiales | 418 | 40 ↑ | 33.86 | 6.14 | 0.1815 | 47.18 | 0.8842 | 0.0711 | 0.1277 |
| Celastrales | 37 | 13 ↑ | 7.76 | 5.24 | 0.6759 * | 4.18 | 0.0001 * | 0.2181 * | 0.5135 |
| Boraginales | 61 | 11 ↑ | 9.4 | 1.6 | 0.1701 | 6.88 | 0.078 | 0.1042 | 0.2953 |
| Magnoliales | 32 | 8 ↑ | 7.41 | 0.59 | 0.0789 | 3.61 | 0.023 * | 0.133 * | 0.4226 |
| Myrtales | 100 | 12 ↓ | 12.07 | −0.07 | −0.006 | 11.29 | 0.4569 | 0.0704 | 0.1983 |
| Zygophyllales | 16 | 6 ↓ | 6.32 | −0.32 | −0.0504 | 1.81 | 0.0061 * | 0.1844 * | 0.6167 |
| Arecales | 7 | 5 ↓ | 5.7 | −0.7 | −0.1231 | 0.79 | 0.0003 * | 0.3491 * | 0.9148 |
| Vitales | 55 | 8 ↓ | 8.99 | −0.99 | −0.1101 | 6.21 | 0.278 | 0.0762 | 0.2622 |
| Santalales | 81 | 9 ↓ | 10.77 | −1.77 | −0.1644 | 9.14 | 0.5719 | 0.0601 | 0.1982 |
| Nymphaeales | 3 | 2 ↓ | 5.43 | −3.43 | −0.6316 | 0.34 | 0.0353 * | 0.1941 * | 0.9324 |
| Ranunculales | 34 | 4 ↓ | 7.55 | −3.55 | −0.4703 | 3.84 | 0.5444 | 0.0481 | 0.2674 |
| Zingiberales | 9 | 2 ↓ | 5.84 | −3.84 | −0.6575 | 1.02 | 0.27 | 0.0667 | 0.5561 |
| Dioscoreales | 10 | 2 ↓ | 5.91 | −3.91 | −0.6615 | 1.13 | 0.314 | 0.0602 | 0.5178 |
| Oxalidales | 12 | 2 ↓ | 6.04 | −4.04 | −0.6691 | 1.35 | 0.3996 | 0.0504 | 0.4545 |
| Aquifoliales | 1 | 1 ↓ | 5.29 | −4.29 | −0.811 | 0.11 | 0.1129 | 0.1581 | 0.9874 |
| Canellales | 2 | 1 ↓ | 5.36 | −4.36 | −0.8134 | 0.23 | 0.213 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Dilleniales | 2 | 1 ↓ | 5.36 | −4.36 | −0.8134 | 0.23 | 0.213 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Piperales | 17 | 2 ↓ | 6.39 | −4.39 | −0.6869 | 1.92 | 0.5871 | 0.0358 | 0.3471 |
| Icacinales | 3 | 1 ↓ | 5.43 | −4.43 | −0.8158 | 0.34 | 0.3018 | 0.0676 | 0.8059 |
| Pandanales | 5 | 1 ↓ | 5.57 | −4.57 | −0.8203 | 0.56 | 0.4505 | 0.0433 | 0.6412 |
| Alismatales | 58 | 4 ↓ | 9.2 | −5.2 | −0.565 | 6.55 | 0.905 | 0.0281 | 0.1646 |
| Buxales | 1 | 0 ↓ | 5.29 | −5.29 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Metteniusales | 1 | 0 ↓ | 5.29 | −5.29 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Geraniales | 16 | 1 ↓ | 6.32 | −5.32 | −0.8417 | 1.81 | 0.8528 | 0.0146 | 0.2869 |
| Ceratophyllales | 2 | 0 ↓ | 5.36 | −5.36 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Gunnerales | 2 | 0 ↓ | 5.36 | −5.36 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Vahliales | 3 | 0 ↓ | 5.43 | −5.43 | −1 | 0.34 | 1 | 0.0063 | 0.6024 |
| Fagales | 4 | 0 ↓ | 5.5 | −5.5 | −1 | 0.45 | 1 | 0.0051 | 0.5218 |
| Lamiales | 676 | 46 ↓ | 51.53 | −5.53 | −0.1073 | 76.3 | 1 | 0.0515 | 0.0896 |
| Cornales | 5 | 0 ↓ | 5.57 | −5.57 | −1 | 0.56 | 1 | 0.0042 | 0.4593 |
| Proteales | 7 | 0 ↓ | 5.7 | −5.7 | −1 | 0.79 | 1 | 0.0032 | 0.3694 |
| Laurales | 8 | 0 ↓ | 5.77 | −5.77 | −1 | 0.9 | 1 | 0.0028 | 0.3363 |
| Liliales | 8 | 0 ↓ | 5.77 | −5.77 | −1 | 0.9 | 1 | 0.0028 | 0.3363 |
| Dipsacales | 10 | 0 ↓ | 5.91 | −5.91 | −1 | 1.13 | 1 | 0.0023 | 0.2849 |
| Commelinales | 73 | 4 ↓ | 10.22 | −6.22 | −0.6087 | 8.24 | 0.9711 | 0.0223 | 0.1327 |
| Saxifragales | 37 | 1 ↓ | 7.76 | −6.76 | −0.8711 | 4.18 | 0.9881 | 0.0064 | 0.1381 |
| Apiales | 55 | 2 ↓ | 8.99 | −6.99 | −0.7775 | 6.21 | 0.989 | 0.0112 | 0.1231 |
| Asterales | 440 | 15 ↓ | 35.36 | −20.36 | −0.5758 | 49.66 | 1 | 0.0209 | 0.0555 |
| Asparagales | 447 | 15 ↓ | 35.84 | −20.84 | −0.5815 | 50.45 | 1 | 0.0205 | 0.0546 |
| Poales | 838 | 15 ↓ | 62.63 | −47.63 | −0.7605 | 94.58 | 1 | 0.0109 | 0.0293 |
Table 4.
Quantitative analysis of food families. T—total number of species in the flora; F—food species; ↑/↓—positive/negative outliers based on residuals; Pa—predicted food species under regression model; Pb—predicted food species under binomial model; inf.—Bayesian inferior 95% probability credible intervals; sup.—Bayesian superior 95% probability credible intervals; *—positive outlier.
Table 4.
Quantitative analysis of food families. T—total number of species in the flora; F—food species; ↑/↓—positive/negative outliers based on residuals; Pa—predicted food species under regression model; Pb—predicted food species under binomial model; inf.—Bayesian inferior 95% probability credible intervals; sup.—Bayesian superior 95% probability credible intervals; *—positive outlier.
| Regression Analysis | Binomial Analysis | Bayesian Analysis | |||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Family | T | F | Pa | Res | R-Value | Pb | p-Value | inf. (0.1050) | sup. (0.1212) |
| Fabaceae | 559 | 71 ↑ | 42.28 | 28.72 | 0.6793 * | 63.09 | 0.1609 | 0.102 | 0.1572 |
| Apocynaceae | 235 | 41 ↑ | 18.5 | 22.5 | 1.2166 * | 26.52 | 0.0032 * | 0.1314 * | 0.2282 |
| Rubiaceae | 254 | 40 ↑ | 19.89 | 20.11 | 1.0109 * | 28.67 | 0.0192 * | 0.1179 | 0.2074 |
| Cucurbitaceae | 70 | 26 ↑ | 6.39 | 19.61 | 3.0715 * | 7.9 | 0 * | 0.2676 * | 0.489 |
| Malvaceae | 221 | 37 ↑ | 17.47 | 19.53 | 1.118 * | 24.94 | 0.0096 * | 0.1241 * | 0.2223 |
| Anacardiaceae | 25 | 19 ↑ | 3.08 | 15.92 | 5.163 * | 2.82 | 0 * | 0.5635 * | 0.8843 |
| Sapotaceae | 28 | 19 ↑ | 3.3 | 15.7 | 4.7522 * | 3.16 | 0 * | 0.4917 * | 0.8206 |
| Amaranthaceae | 64 | 18 ↑ | 5.95 | 12.05 | 2.0275 * | 7.22 | 0.0002 * | 0.186 * | 0.4019 |
| Capparaceae | 48 | 16 ↑ | 4.77 | 11.23 | 2.3535 * | 5.42 | 0 * | 0.2167 * | 0.4754 |
| Burseraceae | 42 | 14 ↑ | 4.33 | 9.67 | 2.2327 * | 4.74 | 0.0001 * | 0.2101 * | 0.4854 |
| Celastraceae | 37 | 13 ↑ | 3.96 | 9.04 | 2.2798 * | 4.18 | 0.0001 * | 0.2181 * | 0.5135 |
| Moraceae | 55 | 14 ↑ | 5.28 | 8.72 | 1.6491 * | 6.21 | 0.0026 * | 0.1583 * | 0.3837 |
| Sapindaceae | 36 | 11 ↑ | 3.89 | 7.11 | 1.8275 * | 4.06 | 0.0015 * | 0.1801 * | 0.4698 |
| Rhamnaceae | 18 | 8 ↑ | 2.57 | 5.43 | 2.1139 * | 2.03 | 0.0004 * | 0.2445 * | 0.665 |
| Convolvulaceae | 114 | 15 ↑ | 9.62 | 5.38 | 0.56 * | 12.87 | 0.3042 | 0.0817 | 0.206 |
| Ebenaceae | 20 | 8 ↑ | 2.72 | 5.28 | 1.9456 * | 2.26 | 0.0009 * | 0.2182 * | 0.6156 |
| Boraginaceae | 61 | 11 ↑ | 5.73 | 5.27 | 0.9213 * | 6.88 | 0.078 | 0.1042 | 0.2953 |
| Solanaceae | 51 | 10 ↑ | 4.99 | 5.01 | 1.0035 * | 5.76 | 0.0566 | 0.1106 | 0.3253 |
| Rutaceae | 28 | 8 ↑ | 3.3 | 4.7 | 1.422 * | 3.16 | 0.0102 * | 0.1528 * | 0.4724 |
| Cleomaceae | 15 | 7 ↑ | 2.35 | 4.65 | 1.9801 * | 1.69 | 0.0007 * | 0.2465 * | 0.7012 |
| Annonaceae | 30 | 8 ↑ | 3.45 | 4.55 | 1.3189 * | 3.39 | 0.0157 * | 0.1422 * | 0.4461 |
| Rosaceae | 26 | 7 ↑ | 3.16 | 3.84 | 1.2178 * | 2.93 | 0.0221 * | 0.1375 * | 0.4628 |
| Loganiaceae | 13 | 6 ↑ | 2.2 | 3.8 | 1.7247 * | 1.47 | 0.0017 * | 0.2304 * | 0.7114 |
| Zygophyllaceae | 16 | 6 ↑ | 2.42 | 3.58 | 1.477 * | 1.81 | 0.0061 * | 0.1844 * | 0.6167 |
| Polygonaceae | 20 | 6 ↑ | 2.72 | 3.28 | 1.2092 * | 2.26 | 0.0197 * | 0.1459 * | 0.5218 |
| Arecaceae | 7 | 5 ↑ | 1.76 | 3.24 | 1.8382 * | 0.79 | 0.0003 * | 0.3491 * | 0.9148 |
| Verbenaceae | 22 | 6 ↑ | 2.86 | 3.14 | 1.0959 * | 2.48 | 0.0312 * | 0.1321 * | 0.4841 |
| Vitaceae | 55 | 8 ↑ | 5.28 | 2.72 | 0.5137 * | 6.21 | 0.278 | 0.0762 | 0.2622 |
| Salicaceae | 18 | 5 ↑ | 2.57 | 2.43 | 0.9462 * | 2.03 | 0.0446 * | 0.1258 * | 0.512 |
| Lamiaceae | 198 | 18 ↑ | 15.78 | 2.22 | 0.1406 | 22.35 | 0.8635 | 0.0585 | 0.1392 |
| Combretaceae | 38 | 6 ↑ | 4.04 | 1.96 | 0.4862 | 4.29 | 0.254 | 0.0754 | 0.3053 |
| Urticaceae | 29 | 5 ↑ | 3.38 | 1.62 | 0.4808 | 3.27 | 0.2242 | 0.0771 | 0.3472 |
| Menispermaceae | 16 | 4 ↑ | 2.42 | 1.58 | 0.6513 * | 1.81 | 0.0977 | 0.1031 | 0.499 |
| Olacaceae | 3 | 3 ↑ | 1.47 | 1.53 | 1.0435 * | 0.34 | 0.0014 * | 0.3976 * | 0.9937 |
| Opiliaceae | 3 | 3 ↑ | 1.47 | 1.53 | 1.0435 * | 0.34 | 0.0014 * | 0.3976 * | 0.9937 |
| Oleaceae | 17 | 4 ↑ | 2.5 | 1.5 | 0.6028 * | 1.92 | 0.1168 | 0.0969 | 0.4764 |
| Salvadoraceae | 4 | 3 ↑ | 1.54 | 1.46 | 0.9462 * | 0.45 | 0.0053 * | 0.2836 * | 0.9473 |
| Myrtaceae | 9 | 3 ↑ | 1.91 | 1.09 | 0.5719 * | 1.02 | 0.0717 | 0.1216 * | 0.6525 |
| Phyllanthaceae | 51 | 6 ↑ | 4.99 | 1.01 | 0.2021 | 5.76 | 0.522 | 0.0559 | 0.2344 |
| Pedaliaceae | 13 | 3 ↑ | 2.2 | 0.8 | 0.3623 | 1.47 | 0.1744 | 0.0839 | 0.508 |
| Chrysobalanaceae | 2 | 2 ↑ | 1.39 | 0.61 | 0.434 | 0.23 | 0.0127 * | 0.2924 * | 0.9916 |
| Nymphaeaceae | 2 | 2 ↑ | 1.39 | 0.61 | 0.434 | 0.23 | 0.0127 * | 0.2924 * | 0.9916 |
| Passifloraceae | 30 | 4 ↑ | 3.45 | 0.55 | 0.1595 | 3.39 | 0.4436 | 0.0545 | 0.2983 |
| Clusiaceae | 3 | 2 ↑ | 1.47 | 0.53 | 0.3623 | 0.34 | 0.0353 * | 0.1941 * | 0.9324 |
| Talinaceae | 4 | 2 ↑ | 1.54 | 0.46 | 0.2974 | 0.45 | 0.0654 | 0.1466 * | 0.8534 |
| Cannabaceae | 6 | 2 ↑ | 1.69 | 0.31 | 0.1846 | 0.68 | 0.1404 | 0.099 | 0.7096 |
| Moringaceae | 6 | 2 ↑ | 1.69 | 0.31 | 0.1846 | 0.68 | 0.1404 | 0.099 | 0.7096 |
| Zingiberaceae | 8 | 2 ↑ | 1.84 | 0.16 | 0.0899 | 0.9 | 0.2259 | 0.0749 | 0.6001 |
| Dioscoreaceae | 9 | 2 ↑ | 1.91 | 0.09 | 0.0479 | 1.02 | 0.27 | 0.0667 | 0.5561 |
| Hypoxidaceae | 10 | 2 ↑ | 1.98 | 0.02 | 0.0091 | 1.13 | 0.314 | 0.0602 | 0.5178 |
| Alismataceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.32 | −0.32 | −0.2432 | 0.11 | 0.1129 | 0.1581 * | 0.9874 |
| Aquifoliaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.32 | −0.32 | −0.2432 | 0.11 | 0.1129 | 0.1581 * | 0.9874 |
| Kirkiaceae | 1 | 1 ↓ | 1.32 | −0.32 | −0.2432 | 0.11 | 0.1129 | 0.1581 * | 0.9874 |
| Basellaceae | 2 | 1 ↓ | 1.39 | −0.39 | −0.283 | 0.23 | 0.213 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Canellaceae | 2 | 1 ↓ | 1.39 | −0.39 | −0.283 | 0.23 | 0.213 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Dilleniaceae | 2 | 1 ↓ | 1.39 | −0.39 | −0.283 | 0.23 | 0.213 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Limeaceae | 2 | 1 ↓ | 1.39 | −0.39 | −0.283 | 0.23 | 0.213 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Peraceae | 2 | 1 ↓ | 1.39 | −0.39 | −0.283 | 0.23 | 0.213 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Pittosporaceae | 2 | 1 ↓ | 1.39 | −0.39 | −0.283 | 0.23 | 0.213 | 0.0943 | 0.9057 |
| Asphodelaceae | 57 | 5 ↓ | 5.43 | −0.43 | −0.0795 | 6.43 | 0.7854 | 0.0389 | 0.1898 |
| Didiereaceae | 3 | 1 ↓ | 1.47 | −0.47 | −0.3188 | 0.34 | 0.3018 | 0.0676 | 0.8059 |
| Icacinaceae | 3 | 1 ↓ | 1.47 | −0.47 | −0.3188 | 0.34 | 0.3018 | 0.0676 | 0.8059 |
| Pandanaceae | 3 | 1 ↓ | 1.47 | −0.47 | −0.3188 | 0.34 | 0.3018 | 0.0676 | 0.8059 |
| Primulaceae | 17 | 2 ↓ | 2.5 | −0.5 | −0.1986 | 1.92 | 0.5871 | 0.0358 | 0.3471 |
| Ochnaceae | 18 | 2 ↓ | 2.57 | −0.57 | −0.2215 | 2.03 | 0.6189 | 0.0338 | 0.3314 |
| Achariaceae | 5 | 1 ↓ | 1.61 | −0.61 | −0.3808 | 0.56 | 0.4505 | 0.0433 | 0.6412 |
| Aristolochiaceae | 5 | 1 ↓ | 1.61 | −0.61 | −0.3808 | 0.56 | 0.4505 | 0.0433 | 0.6412 |
| Putranjivaceae | 5 | 1 ↓ | 1.61 | −0.61 | −0.3808 | 0.56 | 0.4505 | 0.0433 | 0.6412 |
| Portulacaceae | 19 | 2 ↓ | 2.64 | −0.64 | −0.2431 | 2.14 | 0.6489 | 0.0321 | 0.317 |
| Bignoniaceae | 6 | 1 ↓ | 1.69 | −0.69 | −0.4077 | 0.68 | 0.5125 | 0.0367 | 0.5787 |
| Connaraceae | 6 | 1 ↓ | 1.69 | −0.69 | −0.4077 | 0.68 | 0.5125 | 0.0367 | 0.5787 |
| Oxalidaceae | 6 | 1 ↓ | 1.69 | −0.69 | −0.4077 | 0.68 | 0.5125 | 0.0367 | 0.5787 |
| Dichapetalaceae | 9 | 1 ↓ | 1.91 | −0.91 | −0.476 | 1.02 | 0.6597 | 0.0252 | 0.445 |
| Onagraceae | 9 | 1 ↓ | 1.91 | −0.91 | −0.476 | 1.02 | 0.6597 | 0.0252 | 0.445 |
| Aizoaceae | 10 | 1 ↓ | 1.98 | −0.98 | −0.4954 | 1.13 | 0.6981 | 0.0228 | 0.4128 |
| Malpighiaceae | 10 | 1 ↓ | 1.98 | −0.98 | −0.4954 | 1.13 | 0.6981 | 0.0228 | 0.4128 |
| Hypericaceae | 12 | 1 ↓ | 2.13 | −1.13 | −0.5302 | 1.35 | 0.7624 | 0.0192 | 0.3603 |
| Nyctaginaceae | 12 | 1 ↓ | 2.13 | −1.13 | −0.5302 | 1.35 | 0.7624 | 0.0192 | 0.3603 |
| Piperaceae | 12 | 1 ↓ | 2.13 | −1.13 | −0.5302 | 1.35 | 0.7624 | 0.0192 | 0.3603 |
| Araceae | 26 | 2 ↓ | 3.16 | −1.16 | −0.3663 | 2.93 | 0.8086 | 0.0235 | 0.2429 |
| Amaryllidaceae | 14 | 1 ↓ | 2.28 | −1.28 | −0.5605 | 1.58 | 0.813 | 0.0166 | 0.3195 |
| Lythraceae | 28 | 2 ↓ | 3.3 | −1.3 | −0.3945 | 3.16 | 0.8405 | 0.0219 | 0.2277 |
| Adoxaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Alismataceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Ancistrocladaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Aphloiaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Berberidaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Bixaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Burmanniaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Buxaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Cabombaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Cactaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Caricaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Casuarinaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Flagellariaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Francoaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Gunneraceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Hamamelidaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Lecythidaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Liliaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Lophiocarpaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Metteniusaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Monimiaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Montiaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Montiniaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Musaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Myristicaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Myrothamnaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Papaveraceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Penaeaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Petiveriaceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Zosteraceae | 1 | 0 ↓ | 1.32 | −1.32 | −1 | 0.11 | 1 | 0.0126 | 0.8419 |
| Geraniaceae | 15 | 1 ↓ | 2.35 | −1.35 | −0.5743 | 1.69 | 0.8341 | 0.0155 | 0.3023 |
| Balanophoraceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Ceratophyllaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Costaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Droseraceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Gisekiaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Goodeniaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Haloragaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Menyanthaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Phrymaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Phytolaccaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Picrodendraceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Pontederiaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Smilacaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Tamaricaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Typhaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Velloziaceae | 2 | 0 ↓ | 1.39 | −1.39 | −1 | 0.23 | 1 | 0.0084 | 0.7076 |
| Cornaceae | 3 | 0 ↓ | 1.47 | −1.47 | −1 | 0.34 | 1 | 0.0063 | 0.6024 |
| Gelsemiaceae | 3 | 0 ↓ | 1.47 | −1.47 | −1 | 0.34 | 1 | 0.0063 | 0.6024 |
| Lauraceae | 3 | 0 ↓ | 1.47 | −1.47 | −1 | 0.34 | 1 | 0.0063 | 0.6024 |
| Myricaceae | 3 | 0 ↓ | 1.47 | −1.47 | −1 | 0.34 | 1 | 0.0063 | 0.6024 |
| Podostemaceae | 3 | 0 ↓ | 1.47 | −1.47 | −1 | 0.34 | 1 | 0.0063 | 0.6024 |
| Simaroubaceae | 3 | 0 ↓ | 1.47 | −1.47 | −1 | 0.34 | 1 | 0.0063 | 0.6024 |
| Vahliaceae | 3 | 0 ↓ | 1.47 | −1.47 | −1 | 0.34 | 1 | 0.0063 | 0.6024 |
| Hydrocharitaceae | 17 | 1 ↓ | 2.5 | −1.5 | −0.5993 | 1.92 | 0.8694 | 0.0138 | 0.2729 |
| Erythroxylaceae | 4 | 0 ↓ | 1.54 | −1.54 | −1 | 0.45 | 1 | 0.0051 | 0.5218 |
| Hernandiaceae | 4 | 0 ↓ | 1.54 | −1.54 | −1 | 0.45 | 1 | 0.0051 | 0.5218 |
| Resedaceae | 4 | 0 ↓ | 1.54 | −1.54 | −1 | 0.45 | 1 | 0.0051 | 0.5218 |
| Colchicaceae | 5 | 0 ↓ | 1.61 | −1.61 | −1 | 0.56 | 1 | 0.0042 | 0.4593 |
| Linaceae | 5 | 0 ↓ | 1.61 | −1.61 | −1 | 0.56 | 1 | 0.0042 | 0.4593 |
| Stilbaceae | 5 | 0 ↓ | 1.61 | −1.61 | −1 | 0.56 | 1 | 0.0042 | 0.4593 |
| Aponogetonaceae | 6 | 0 ↓ | 1.69 | −1.69 | −1 | 0.68 | 1 | 0.0036 | 0.4096 |
| Begoniaceae | 6 | 0 ↓ | 1.69 | −1.69 | −1 | 0.68 | 1 | 0.0036 | 0.4096 |
| Molluginaceae | 6 | 0 ↓ | 1.69 | −1.69 | −1 | 0.68 | 1 | 0.0036 | 0.4096 |
| Plumbaginaceae | 6 | 0 ↓ | 1.69 | −1.69 | −1 | 0.68 | 1 | 0.0036 | 0.4096 |
| Potamogetonaceae | 6 | 0 ↓ | 1.69 | −1.69 | −1 | 0.68 | 1 | 0.0036 | 0.4096 |
| Xyridaceae | 6 | 0 ↓ | 1.69 | −1.69 | −1 | 0.68 | 1 | 0.0036 | 0.4096 |
| Ericaceae | 7 | 0 ↓ | 1.76 | −1.76 | −1 | 0.79 | 1 | 0.0032 | 0.3694 |
| Eriocaulaceae | 7 | 0 ↓ | 1.76 | −1.76 | −1 | 0.79 | 1 | 0.0032 | 0.3694 |
| Juncaceae | 7 | 0 ↓ | 1.76 | −1.76 | −1 | 0.79 | 1 | 0.0032 | 0.3694 |
| Proteaceae | 7 | 0 ↓ | 1.76 | −1.76 | −1 | 0.79 | 1 | 0.0032 | 0.3694 |
| Caryophyllaceae | 21 | 1 ↓ | 2.79 | −1.79 | −0.6415 | 2.37 | 0.9191 | 0.0112 | 0.2284 |
| Asparagaceae | 103 | 7 ↓ | 8.81 | −1.81 | −0.2053 | 11.63 | 0.9534 | 0.0338 | 0.1338 |
| Gesneriaceae | 8 | 0 ↓ | 1.84 | −1.84 | −1 | 0.9 | 1 | 0.0028 | 0.3363 |
| Caprifoliaceae | 9 | 0 ↓ | 1.91 | −1.91 | −1 | 1.02 | 1 | 0.0025 | 0.3085 |
| Rhizophoraceae | 9 | 0 ↓ | 1.91 | −1.91 | −1 | 1.02 | 1 | 0.0025 | 0.3085 |
| Meliaceae | 23 | 1 ↓ | 2.94 | −1.94 | −0.6594 | 2.6 | 0.9364 | 0.0103 | 0.2112 |
| Santalaceae | 23 | 1 ↓ | 2.94 | −1.94 | −0.6594 | 2.6 | 0.9364 | 0.0103 | 0.2112 |
| Brassicaceae | 38 | 2 ↓ | 4.04 | −2.04 | −0.5046 | 4.29 | 0.9384 | 0.0162 | 0.1732 |
| Campanulaceae | 38 | 2 ↓ | 4.04 | −2.04 | −0.5046 | 4.29 | 0.9384 | 0.0162 | 0.1732 |
| Lentibulariaceae | 11 | 0 ↓ | 2.06 | −2.06 | −1 | 1.24 | 1 | 0.0021 | 0.2646 |
| Araliaceae | 12 | 0 ↓ | 2.13 | −2.13 | −1 | 1.35 | 1 | 0.0019 | 0.2471 |
| Violaceae | 13 | 0 ↓ | 2.2 | −2.2 | −1 | 1.47 | 1 | 0.0018 | 0.2316 |
| Thymelaeaceae | 14 | 0 ↓ | 2.28 | −2.28 | −1 | 1.58 | 1 | 0.0017 | 0.218 |
| Melastomataceae | 15 | 0 ↓ | 2.35 | −2.35 | −1 | 1.69 | 1 | 0.0016 | 0.2059 |
| Ranunculaceae | 16 | 0 ↓ | 2.42 | −2.42 | −1 | 1.81 | 1 | 0.0015 | 0.1951 |
| Commelinaceae | 71 | 4 ↓ | 6.46 | −2.46 | −0.3807 | 8.01 | 0.9659 | 0.0229 | 0.1362 |
| Scrophulariaceae | 17 | 0 ↓ | 2.5 | −2.5 | −1 | 1.92 | 1 | 0.0014 | 0.1853 |
| Polygalaceae | 33 | 1 ↓ | 3.67 | −2.67 | −0.7275 | 3.72 | 0.9808 | 0.0072 | 0.1533 |
| Crassulaceae | 34 | 1 ↓ | 3.74 | −2.74 | −0.7329 | 3.84 | 0.983 | 0.007 | 0.1492 |
| Balsaminaceae | 21 | 0 ↓ | 2.79 | −2.79 | −1 | 2.37 | 1 | 0.0012 | 0.1544 |
| Loranthaceae | 50 | 2 ↓ | 4.92 | −2.92 | −0.5933 | 5.64 | 0.9815 | 0.0123 | 0.1346 |
| Iridaceae | 23 | 0 ↓ | 2.94 | −2.94 | −1 | 2.6 | 1 | 0.0011 | 0.1425 |
| Plantaginaceae | 23 | 0 ↓ | 2.94 | −2.94 | −1 | 2.6 | 1 | 0.0011 | 0.1425 |
| Apiaceae | 41 | 1 ↓ | 4.26 | −3.26 | −0.7651 | 4.63 | 0.9926 | 0.0058 | 0.1257 |
| Orobanchaceae | 55 | 2 ↓ | 5.28 | −3.28 | −0.6216 | 6.21 | 0.989 | 0.0112 | 0.1231 |
| Gentianaceae | 28 | 0 ↓ | 3.3 | −3.3 | −1 | 3.16 | 1 | 0.0009 | 0.1194 |
| Linderniaceae | 28 | 0 ↓ | 3.3 | −3.3 | −1 | 3.16 | 1 | 0.0009 | 0.1194 |
| Euphorbiaceae | 217 | 13 ↓ | 17.18 | −4.18 | −0.2431 | 24.49 | 0.9973 | 0.0356 | 0.0998 |
| Acanthaceae | 271 | 12 ↓ | 21.14 | −9.14 | −0.4323 | 30.59 | 1 | 0.0257 | 0.0758 |
| Cyperaceae | 269 | 5 ↓ | 20.99 | −15.99 | −0.7618 | 30.36 | 1 | 0.0082 | 0.0427 |
| Asteraceae | 398 | 13 ↓ | 30.46 | −17.46 | −0.5732 | 44.92 | 1 | 0.0193 | 0.0551 |
| Orchidaceae | 240 | 0 ↓ | 18.86 | −18.86 | −1 | 27.09 | 1 | 0.0001 | 0.0152 |
| Poaceae | 546 | 10 ↓ | 41.32 | −31.32 | −0.758 | 61.63 | 1 | 0.0101 | 0.0334 |
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MDPI and ACS Style
Mutie, F.M.; Mbuni, Y.M.; Rono, P.C.; Mkala, E.M.; Nzei, J.M.; Phumthum, M.; Hu, G.-W.; Wang, Q.-F. Important Medicinal and Food Taxa (Orders and Families) in Kenya, Based on Three Quantitative Approaches. Plants 2023, 12, 1145. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12051145
AMA Style
Mutie FM, Mbuni YM, Rono PC, Mkala EM, Nzei JM, Phumthum M, Hu G-W, Wang Q-F. Important Medicinal and Food Taxa (Orders and Families) in Kenya, Based on Three Quantitative Approaches. Plants. 2023; 12(5):1145. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12051145
Chicago/Turabian StyleMutie, Fredrick Munyao, Yuvenalis Morara Mbuni, Peninah Cheptoo Rono, Elijah Mbandi Mkala, John Mulinge Nzei, Methee Phumthum, Guang-Wan Hu, and Qing-Feng Wang. 2023. "Important Medicinal and Food Taxa (Orders and Families) in Kenya, Based on Three Quantitative Approaches" Plants 12, no. 5: 1145. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants12051145
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