Punjab ENVIS Centre

NEWSLETTER
Vol. 11, No. 4, 2013-14

INVASIVE ALIEN PLANT SPECIES

IN PUNJAB
tio

vironmen
En

l Informa
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n System
INDIA

Status of Environment & Related Issues

www.punenvis.nic.in

EDITORIAL
The World Conservation Union (IUCN) defines alien invasive species as organisms that become established in
native ecosystems or habitats, proliferate, alter, and threaten native biodiversity. These aliens come in the form
of plants, animals and microbes that have been introduced into an area from other parts of the world, and have
been able to displace indigenous species. Invasive alien species are emerging as one of the major threats to
sustainable development, on a par with global warming and the destruction of life-support systems. Increased
mobility and human interaction have been key drivers in the spread of Indigenous Alien Species.
Invasion by alien species is a global phenomenon, with threatening negative impacts to the indigenous
biological diversity as well as related negative impacts on human health and overall his well-being. Thus,
threatening the ecosystems on the earth.
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) found that trends in species introductions, as well as modelling
predictions, strongly suggest that biological invasions will continue to increase in number and impact. An
additional concern is that multiple human impacts on biodiversity and ecosystems will decrease the natural
biotic resistance to invasions and, therefore, the number of biotic communities dominated by invasive species
will increase.
India one of the 17 "megadiverse" countries and is composed of a diversity of ecological habitats like forests,
grasslands, wetlands, coastal and marine ecosystems, and desert ecosystems have been reported with 40
percent of alien flora species and 25 percent out of them invasive by National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resource.
In India, invasive plants infest extensive tracts of agricultural and forest land. Various aspects of control of alien
weeds and pests are being dealt with by a number of authorities. Insight to above views and identifying the
array of effects that invasive alien species have, the present issue of Newsletter deliberates upon the Invasive
Alien Plant Species. Based on the available databases and some regional reports, most of the invasive plants,
irrespective of their origin, belong to the family Asteraceae, while families such as Poaceae, Solanaceae and
Fabaceae also predominate. Further, invasive plants belong to a variety of life forms as herbs, shrubs, trees,
climbers/vines, grasses and aquatic plants. The most important invasive plants that have created havoc in a
number of habitats include terrestrial herbaceous weeds (e.g. Ageratum conyzoides and Parthenium
hyterophorus), shrubs (e.g. Lantana camara and Chromolaena odorata) trees (e.g. Proposis juliflora and
Leucaena leucocephala), vines (e.g. Mikania micarantha) and aquatic plants (e.g. Eichhornia crassipes).
The present article documents the four major invasive alien plant species in Punjab namely, Lantana camara,
Parthenium hyterophorus, Ageratum conyzoides and Eichhonia crassipes. It is hoped that this inventory and
assessment of alien flora will help in designing informed management and monitoring strategies against
problematic plant invasions in the state.

Published by

Editorial Team

Acknowledgment

Punjab ENVIS Centre

Punjab State Council for
Science & Technology,
Chandigarh, INDIA

Dr. Neelima Jerath

Dr. S.S. Ladhar
Mr. Gurharminder Singh
Ms. Ravleen Singh
Mr. Ajay Dewan

We are thankful to Dr. Arora and Dr. S.K.

Saxena for providing inputs for the
develop-ment of this article.

Sponsored by
Ministry of Environment & Forests,
Government of India

ENVIS Centre, PSCST as a partner in Regional Centre of Expertise (RCE) Chandigarh on Education for
Sustainable Development (ESD) endeavors to promote the prevention and control of invasive alien
plant species in the region for conservation of the Biological resources Sustainable Development.
2

Introduction
During evolution the natural bio-geographical barriers
of oceans, mountains, rivers and deserts provided the
isolation essential for unique species and ecosystems
to evolve. But, colonization of Africa and Asia by the
European powers between the 15th and 19th centuries
led to an exponential increase in the movement of
organisms both plants and animals from one part of
the world to another through trade, transport, travel
and tourism. During this period many plant species
have been either accidentally or deliberately
translocated far from their native areas (Khuroo et, al.
2007).These plant species that move from one
geographical region to the other, establish and
proliferate there and threaten native ecosystem,
habitats and species are known as invasive alien plants
(Pysek et al. 2004). The invasive plants are also known
as alien, exotic or introduced ones, which are new to a
specific area, become dominant, replacing /
substituting the native plant species. The definition of
invasive alien species, however, in the context of the
Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), is given in
Box 1. Colonial invasions have brought in a number
of invasive alien species into the India subcontinent
that has transformed native landscapes.

History of Invasion in India

listed Chromolaena odorata, Lantana camara, Mikania

micrantha and Mimosa diplotricha as the major
invasive alien plants in India.
In the recent past, Prosopis juliflora was introduced as
an alternative fuelwood tree in southern India. The
history of introduction of Prosopis juliflora into India
in about 130 years old. Lantana was introduced into
India at the East India Botanical Gardens, Calcutta in
1807 as an ornamental plant by the British. Since then,
Lantana has spread to most parts of the country, in
farmlands and forestlands, and has posed a
formidable challenge to farmers and foresters alike.

Status of Invasive Plants in India

Despite the recent recognition of the impacts caused
by invasive plants worldwide (Mooney and Hobbs,
2000), there are still many regions in the world where
basic information on naturalized plant taxa and plant
invasions is only anecdotal or completely lacking, e.g.
Asia and neighboring regions (Meyer, 2000).
Establishment of a database of naturalized species is
the first step in the development of invasion biology,
and which also serves as a stepping-stone for further
detailed studies on the biology and impact of
individual species (Wu et al, 2004).

For a major part the introductions and subsequent

naturalization (Box 2) of plant species native to other
countries into India were guided by the colonial
government policies (Kannan et al. 2012). However,
over the years, many of these introductions went on to
become Invasive. For example, Sankaran et al. in 2009

The Indian region, because of its diverse climate and

environmental conditions, is highly vulnerable to
biotic invasion. Moreover, a burgeoning population,
high rate of trade and transport, coupled with greater
movement of people favour the accidental and
intentional entry of plant species in this region. The

Box 1. Invasive alien species (IAS)

Box 2. Naturalization

In the context of the Convention on Biological

Diversity (CBD), invasive alien species means an 'alien
species whose introduction and/or spread threaten
biological diversity' (CBD 2002). CBD visualize
'biological invasion of alien species as the second
worst threat after habitat destruction'. Biological
invasions may be considered as a form of biological
pollution and significant component on humancaused global environmental change and one of the
major causes of species extinction. The opportunity of
accidental introductions will may become more with
rapidly increasing global commerce
Source: Drake et al, 1989.

Naturalization has been recognized as the first phase

of biological invasions. A naturalized species is
defined as an introduced (non-native, exotic, alien)
species, that can consistently reproduce and sustain
populations over many generations without (or
despite) direct intervention by humans.
After successful local establishment, some naturalized
species disperse and produce viable offspring in areas
distant from the sites of introduction. Such
naturalized species are called invasive.

Source: Richardson et al, 2000 & Pysek et al, 2002.

3

Major Invasive Alien Plant Species in India (Sankaran et al., 2009)

Chromolaena odorata
(Siam Weed, Christmas Bush, Devil Weed,
Camfhur Grass & Common Floss Flower)

Lantana camara
(Big Sage, Wild Sage, Red Sage,
White Sage & Tickberry)

Mikania micrantha
Bitter Vine or Climbing Hemp Vine or
American Rope & Mile-a-Minute Vine

Mimosa diplotricha
(Giant Sensitive Plant & Nila Grass)

recent fast rate of economic growth of the country is

also expected to leave its mark on loss of plant
diversity including endemic species, also reflect a high
rate of habitat degradation where opportunist
invasive species can easily established themselves.
Consequently, a number of invasive species have made
their abode in the region. The three main reasons for
the greater invisibility of this region are as under :

Excessive human populations that migrate

frequently and carry seeds or propagules of
invasive plants from one place to another.

Availability of fragmented /disturbed habitats or

species-poor regions due to habitat
fragmentation and degradation that provide
habitat for alien species; and

Favorable environmental and climatic conditions

owning to the diversity of invasive species an
opportunity to establish.

Despite several known invasive plants in India, there is

no complete listing of the status of invasive plants.
Though there are several other reports available that
provide information on the invasion flora of a
particular region/area.
Khuroo et al. (2007) reported 571 alien species
belonging to 352 genera and 104 families from the
Kashmir Himalayan, their origins traceable from
Europe, Asia and Africa. Negi and Hajra (2007)
reported 308 woody and 128 herbaceous exotic
species from the Doon Valley of north-western
Himalayan of which many are harmful invasives that
4

have created several environmental, socio-economic

and health problems. A detailed study was conducted
by C. Sudhakar Reddy during 2003 2007, to compile
a comprehensive list of invasive alien plant species in
India.
Further, in 2006 Kohli et al. also conducted a study
wherein a list of 173 species (in all kinds of systems like
forests, crop lands, waste lands, plantations, gardens
and road sides) in 117 genera and under 44 families
were documented as invasive alien plant species,
representing 1% of the Indian flora (Annexure 1).
According to this study tropical America (with 128
species) region contribute the greatest to the number
(74%) followed by tropical Africa (11%). The other
regions, which contribute minority, are Afghanistan,
Australia, Brazil, East Indies, Europe, Madagascar,
Mascarene Islands, Mediterranean, Mexico, Peru,
Temperate South America, Trop. West Asia, West

Indies and Western Europe. Further, Habit wise

analysis shows that herbs with 151 species (87.3%)
predominate followed by shrubs (14), climbers (5) and
trees (3). In this study, out of the 44 families
documented, Asteraceae is the most dominant family
with 33 species followed by Papilionaceae (15),
Convolvulaceae (10), Caesalpiniaceae (9), Solanaceae
(9), Amaranthaceae (8), Poaceae (8), Euphorbiaceae
(7), Mimosacceae (6) and Tiliaceae (5). The top ten
families contribute 110 species with proportion of
63.6%. The 17 families represent one species each, i.e.
Apocynaceae, Araceae, Arecaceae, Balsaminaceae,
Cactaceae, Liliaceae, Melastomataceae, Nyctaginaceae, Oxalida-ceae, Papaveraceae, Passifloraceae,
Piperaceae, Polygonaceae, Rubiaceae, Salviniaceae,
Typhaceae and Urticaceae. The 33 species are invaders
of wetlands, i.e. Aerva javanica, Aeschynomene
americana, Alternanthera-paronychioides,

Invasive Alien Plants Species of Wetlands (Kohli et al., 2006)

Saccharum spontaneum
()

Salvinia molesta
()

Typha angustata
()

Ipomoea Canea
()
5

Alternanthera philoxeroides, Asclepias curassavica,

Cassia alata, Corchorus trilocularis, Cyperus difformis,
Cyperus iria, Echinochloa colona, Echinochloa
crusgalli,Eclipta prostrata, Eichhornia crassipes,
Fuirena ciliaris, Gnaphalium coarctatum, Gnaphalium
pensylvanicum, Gnaphalium polycaulon, Grangea
maderaspatana, Ipomoea carnea, Ludwigia
adscendens, Ludwigia octovalvis, Ludwigia perennis,
Mecardonia procumbens, Monochoria vaginalis, Pistia
stratiotes, Portulaca quadrifida, Rorippa dubia,
Saccharum spontaneum, Salvinia molesta, Sesbania
bispinosa, Sonchus asper, Sonchus oleraceus and
Typha angustata.

Chromolaena odorata
()

Recently in 2012, K. Chandra Sekar, undertook a study

to document a comprehensive list of Invasive alien
plants of Indian Himalayan Region. A total of 190
invasive alien species under 112 genera, belonging to
47 families were recorded in this study. Among these,
the dicotyledons represent by 40 families, 95 genera
and 170 species; mono-cotyledons represent by 7
families, 17 genera and 20 species. The analysis of
invasive species reveals that 18 species have been
introduced intentionally, while the remaining species
established unintentionally through trade. In terms of
nativity, amongst 13 geographic regions, the majority
of invasive plants reported from American continent
(73%). While in life form analysis, the herbs (148
species) are dominant, followed by shrubs (19
species), Grass (11 species), Trees (4 species), sedges
and climber (3 species each). Most of the invasive
species are annual habit (63%). Apart from these, 90
species (47%) are being used by locals for medicinal
purposes.

The most important invasive plants that have created

havoc in a number of habitats include terrestrial
herbaceous weeds (e.g. Ageratum conyzoides and
Parthenium hyterophorus), shrubs (e.g. Lantana
camara and Chromolaena odorata) trees (e.g. Proposis
juliflora and Leucaena leucocephala), vines (e.g.
Mikania micarantha) and aquatic plants (e.g.
Eichhornia crassipes).

Proposis juliflora
()

Leucaena leucocephala
()

Based on the available databases and some regional

reports, Kohli et al (2004) nearly 60 invasive plants
have been identified from the Indian region, the
majority from South and tropical America and
Australia, Africa, Europe and even the Asian region.
Most the invasive plants, irrespective of their origin,
belong to the family Asteraceae, while families such as
Poaceae, Solanaceae and Fabaceae also predominate.
Furthermore, invasive plants belong to a variety of life
forms as herbs, shrubs, trees, climbers/vines, grasses
and aquatic plants.

Lantana camara is perhaps the best known example of

a serious weed having been intentionally introduced
for ornamental value. Another weed introduced in
India as an ornamental plant is Chromolaena odorata
(APFISN, 2005) and this is also included in the list of
the top 100 worst invaders (GISD, 2010). It is also one
of the most obnoxious weeds in the Western Ghats,
north-eastern parts of the country and impacts on
coconut, rubber, coffee and teak plantations (Singh,
1998). Trees such as Leucaena leucocephala and
Proposis juliflora introduced under various forestry
programmes are also now of invasive proportions.
Other important specie introduced accidentally to the
region, Parthenium hysterophorus is one of the most
harmful weeds and the best-known example (Kohli
and Rani,1994).

Mechanisms of Plant Invasion

Not every introduction results in naturalization and
only a few of those that become naturalized become
invasive. As a statistical generalization, Williamson
and Fitter (1996) proposed the Tens Rule (Box 3)
Although the percentage of plants crossing borders
and becoming invasive seems low, the few that
eventually do have radical effects on native species
population, communities, and ecosystem processes.
There is a wide array of reasons as to why invasive
plants may have rapid growth and spread in their new
environments. Disturbance may reduce competition,
allowing for the establishment of invaders invasive
plants. These plants may escape herbivores or
parasites, which keep their population low in their
native lands. The invasive plants may alter their new
environment in order to promote their own
community that can be filled by an introduced plant.
There are several plausible explanations and several
mechanisms for invasion have been proposed. The
fact that several mechanism for invasion have been
proposed in recent years and that basically no
Box 3. Tens Rule
Tens Rule suggests that 1 in 10 of the biota brought
into a region will escape and appear in the wild, 1 in 10
of those will become naturalized as a self-sustaining
population, and 1 in 10 of those population will
become invasive.
Source: Williamson and Fitter, 1996

generalization can be made about the nature of

invasive plants, indicates that research in this area is
still fairly new and needs much attention. No one has
yet explained invasion patterns across a large range of
systems and this may simply due to the fact that each
invasive species is unique and that invasions are
unpredictable (Williamson 1999; Dietz and Edwards
2006).
One hypothesis to explain invasive species success is
the novel weapons hypothesis, whereby an invading
species possesses a trait novel to the invaded
ecosystem. The invasive species can then take
advantage of this trait in its new ecosystem during
interactions with native species that are evolutionarilynave to the trait. In plants, allelopathy (Box 4) can
represent a novel weapon and can have direct plantto-plant effects, whereby allelochemicals directly
impact other species.
Alternatively, allelopathy may have indirect effects on
other plants, through changes in soil ecology or
mutualisms. Allelopathic effects may vary depending
on target species or conditions such as life stage and
nutrients (Cipollini et al, 2012).
It has recently been proposed, however, that the
conflicts in invasion theory result from the examination of different parts of the invasion process and it
Box 4. Meaning of Allelopathy
Plants synthesize a variety of chemicals as a result of
secondary metabolism, and this forms the basis of
allelopathy-a type of plant-plant interaction. Though
the historical data indicate that knowledge of plant
interactions mediated through chemicals is very old
and dates back to 300 B.C., the term allelopathy
originated only in the twenthieth century (Singh,
Batish and Kohli, 2001).
The genesis of the term allelopathy dates back to
1937, when Hans Molisch combined two Greek
words, Allelo and Pathos, literally meanings 'mutual
sufferings'. According to Molisch, all plants including
microbes, mutually interact through the release of
chemicals in the environment. Later Rice (1984)
defined allelopathy as any direct or indirect positive
or negative effect of one plant (including microbe) on
the other through the release of chemicals into the
environment.
7

Chart 1. Mechanism of Plant Invasion and Control

should be recognized that the processes enabling a

species to invade change over the course of the
invasion (Dietz and Edwards 2006).

Control Measures
Presently the following species specific methods are
being employed for prevention and control of weeds:
Mechanical: Mechanical control involves hoes,
cultivators, harrows, rotary weeders, discs, ploughs,
scythes, mowers and manual uprooting. The weeds
are physically lifted from the soil, cut off or buried. In
most of the forestry operations the invasive such as
Lantana, Eupatorium, Mikania, etc. are uprooted
manually and either burnt or buried. In some places,
those are being used for making compost.
Chemical: This is one of the most common methods
employed for control of invasives. Most chemicals are
species specific though their use is not always
desirable due to environmental degradation and
pollution that they often cause and their effects on
other useful species.
Tillage: Tillage helps in the burial of most small annual
weeds. If all growing points are buried, most annual
weeds will be killed. Tillage also disturbs the rooting
system of most of the perennial weeds. The root
system is cut to enough depth so that the plant dies
from desiccation before it can re-establish its roots. In
moist soils or if it rains soon after tillage, the roots may
quickly re-establish themselves. In effect one may
transplant the weed with little or no injury. Mowing is

effective on tall growing plants. Tall annual weeds are

mowed or scythed to reduce competition with crop
plants and to prevent seed production.
Crop competition: Crop competition is one of the
cheapest and most useful methods farmers can use.
Often it means using the best crop production
methods so favorable to the crop that weeds are
crowded out. Actually competition makes full use of
one of the oldest laws of nature-Survival of the
fittest. Weeds compete with crop plants for light, soil
moisture, nutrients and carbon dioxide. One mustard
plant (weed) requires twice as much nitrogen and
phosphorus, four times as much potassium, and four
times as much water as well developed oat plant. Early
weed competition usually reduces crop yields far more
than late season weedy growth. Therefore, early weed
control is extremely important. Late weed growth may
not seriously reduce yields, but it makes harvesting
difficult, reduces crop quality, and reinfests the land
with seeds and harbors insects and diseases. In
planning a control programme, it is important to
know the weed's life cycle. If it is possible to interrupt
the cycle it becomes very effective control. In crop
production, this may be a shift in planting date or a
well-timed chemical spray; thus the crop gets the
upper hand or competitive advantage. Smothering
with plastics, tar, paper, straw, saw dust or any other
similar material is largely a matter of competition for
light. Most weed seedlings cannot penetrate the thick
coverings and die because of lack of light.
Crop rotation: Certain weeds are more common in
some crops than in others. Besides the annual weeds,
for the parasitic weeds, such as striga in sorghum and
orbanche in tobacco, the hosts are the crop species
grown. Rotation of crops is an efficient way to reduce
weed growth. A good rotation for weed control
usually includes strong competitive crops grown in
each part of the rotation. In growing mixed crops as in
the tropics; the weed problem is eliminated to a
greater extent in most of the irrigated crops.
Biological control: In biological weed control, a
'natural enemy' of the plant is used which is harmless
to desired plants. Insects or diseases organisms are the
usual natural enemies. Also parasitic plants, selective
grazing by livestock, and highly competitive
8

replacement plants are other forms of biological

control. The outstanding example of biological weed
control is the one on Cactus (Opuntia spp.) with a
moth borer Cactoblastic cactorum and or Lantana
camara with several kinds of caterpillars and a fly,
which damages the berries. Researchers have located
and tested numerous biological agents against
Parthenium weed. These include a gall forming moth,
leaf minor, weevil, beetles and a rust fungus.

Invasion of IAS in Punjab

The some of the important invasive alien plants which
one would notice in the state of Punjab are viz.
Lantana camara, Parthenium hystero-phorus,
Ageratum conyzoides, Ricines communis, Eupatorium
odoratum, Artemisia scoparia, Datura stramonium,
Chenopodium ambrosioides, Cassia occidentalis and
Bidens pilosa. These are highly established invasive
plant species in the shivalik hills of Punjab and

Himachal Pradesh (Dogra et al, 2009). All Ramsar sites

in the state are infested with the invasive weed
Eichhornia crassipes. However, in Punjab alien plant
like Lantana camara, Parthenium hysterophorus,
Ageratum conyzoides and Eichhornia crassipes are the
most problematic (Kohli et al. 2004). They have
established themselves not only in the plains but also
in hilly areas, particularly in the Himalayan ecosystems
(Kohli et al. 2004). Vast areas in Shivalik are infested
with these plants. Water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes) infestation in the wetlands and marshes of
Punjab is threatening to such eco-system. This article
covers these four invasive alien plant species.
Lantana camara
(Big Sage, Wild Sage, Red Sage, White Sage & Tickberry)

History : The forests of Punjab have been invaded by

several exotic plants of which Lantana camara, stands
out because of its rapid spread, intensity of

Ricinus communis

Chenopodium ambrosioides

Bidens pilosa

Cassia occidentalis

established the species forms dense and impenetrable

thickets thereby outcompeting native pastures,
blocking the movement of grazers in addition to
causing poisoning. Lantana camara has numerous
secondary impacts as it harbors serious pests such as
malarial mosquitoes and tsetse flies, resulting in grave
health issues. These alter fire regimes significantly by
providing fuel load provided. The species has been
implicated in destructive wildfire in various regions of
India (Hiremath and Sundaram, 2005).
L. camara infestation

infestation, and tenacious resistance to cutting and

burning. Lantana is a native of tropical America, and it
was introduced into India in 1809 as an ornamental
hedge in Calcutta's gardens. Since then, the species
has spread rapidly into both farm and forest lands,
and is one of the most widespread, terrestrial invasive
species in India today.
Characteristics : L. camara is a low, erect or
subscandent, vigorous shrub with 2-4 m ht. It is able to
climb to 15m with support. Lantana flowers
throughout the year having 20-40 flowers in a flower
head. It produces enormous (number ranges from
10,000 to 12,000 per plant) fruits varying in size from
3 to 6 mm in diameter and contain 12 seeds that are
dispersed to other areas through bird droppings or by
goats and sheep or accidentally by even humans (Kohli
et al 2004). These germinate quickly and form dense
impenetrable thickets that can survive even after
forest fires. Seed germination and suckering are
stimulated by burning and slashing, both roots and
shoots can coppice after cutting, browsing or
herbicidal treatment.
Infestation and Impacts : Lantana camara have many
negative impacts including potential to disrupt
succession cycle, displacing native biota resulting in
decreased biodiversity (Murali and Setty, 2001). Its
infestations alter the structural and floral composition
of native communities (Sharma and Raghubanshi,
2010). As the density of Lantana camara in forest
increases, allelopathic interactions increase and hence
there is decline in species richness (Day et al., 2003). It
is a major problem in agriculture lands in various
regions of India including Punjab because once

Control : Lantana (medium sized plant) can be

controlled mechanically by stick racking, bulldozing,
ploughing and grubbing. Hand cutting is also done
but feasible for small areas. Chemical control is done
when soil has good moisture and dusty active growing
period by using chemicals namely fluoxypyr ortriclopyr
and Grozon DS with post emergence application of
glyphosate. In biological control measures it has been
reported that Teonesmia scrupulosa (Heminptera) and
sap-sucking bug are effective for controlling weed
infestation. However, the biological control has not
been effective due to extreme variability of plants. It is
recommended to use biological, mechanical, cultural
and chemical methods integrated way. The plant has
medicinal properties, used as fire wood, mulch and as
hedge. Stems after treatment can be used for
producing paper, making basket and temporary
shelters.
Parthenium hysterophorus
(Carrot weed, white top, congress grass, star weed)

History : The weed has spread throughout India after

its noticeable occurrence in Pune (Maharashtra) in
1955. During the 1980s, Parthenium weed used to be
considered a weed of fallow and wasteland but now it
has become a weed of every crop and also into the
forested land. It is an aggressive annual herbaceous
plant native to the Tropical America. It is now widely
distributed in a number of tropical and sub-tropical
countries. The weed has achieved major weed status in
India only within the last few decades. In Punjab, the
weed is very common along with the road sides,
around the agricultural fields and on waste lands.
Characteristics : Parthenium hysterophous is an
annual herb, erect up to 2m in ht. Flower heads are

10

Parthenium plant with flowers

creamy white and about 4 mm across arising from the

leaf forks. It flowers profusely, producing abundant
seeds (approx. 25,000 per plant) and forms an
enormous seed bank in soil. Seeds, small and light, are
easily disseminated by wind or water for quick
colonization in uninvaded areas.
Infestation and Impacts : Its seeds germinate
throughout the year (irrespective of photoperiod,
temperature variations, or seasons) and, if moisture is
favourable, form dense monocultural stands. It grows
luxuriantly in the rainy season and in more humid
areas and climates. Under water-stressed conditions,
it remains a rosette and bolts with the onset of the
rains or moisture. Further, it regenerates quickly from
the root stumps or parts, even petioles or midribs left
in the soil (Kohli and Rani 1994). P. hysterophorus is
considered as a noxious weed because of its prolific
seed production and fast spreading ability,
allelopathic effect on other plants, strong
competitiveness with crops and health hazard
(allergic) to human as well as animals. Thus, degrades
eco-system.
Control : Manual uprooting of Parthenium before
flowering and seed setting is the most effective
method. This is easily done when the soil is wet. It has
been reported by Food and Agriculture Organization
of the Unites States. Competitive that replacement of
Parthenium can be achieved by planting species like
Cassia sericea, Croton bonplandianus and C.
sparsiflorus, Amaranthus spinsosus, Sida acuta,
Temphrosia purpurea, Stylosanthes scabra and Cassia
auriculata, which will complete with weed and reduce

its population. In certain parts of India, crop rotation

using marigold during rainy season, instead of the
usual crop, is found effective in reducing Parthenium
infestation is cultivated areas. Burning is not a useful
control strategy for this plant. The large scale
utilization of Parthenium may be one of the effective
methods. Parthenium has been well documented for
its insecticidal, nematicidal and herbicidal properties.
It is also used for mulching and for producing biogas,
paper and compost. A large number of chemicals
have been tried. The use of glyphosate, atrazine, and
metribuzin has been promising. The timing of
chemical control is critical. Several insects and
pathogens have been tried from time to time. The leaffeeding beetle. Parthenium Zygogramma bicolorata is
now widely used in India to control it .

Ageratum conyzoides plant

Ageratum conyzoides
(Billy goat weed, Chicle weed, Goat weed, white weed)

History : This species is native to tropical America, now

pantropical in distribution. As regards the mode and
time of Ageratum entry into India, no information is
available. However, it was known to exist in India well
before 1882 as reported in 'The Flora of British India'
(Hooker 1882). Furthermore, probably it was
introduced as an ornamental plant and later it escaped
and assumed a weedy habit, though no authentic
report is available in this regard (Kohli et al 2006).
Characteristics : Annual herb up to 120 cm tall,
flowers grouped on a terminal head. The flowers are
tubular with white or blue petals. Within India, it is
found throughout upto an altitude of 2000m., and in
the Middle Andamans. It is found along plains as well
11

almost all continents.

Eichhornia crassipes plant

as the ghats, it is commonly observed in waste places,

roadsides, gardens, plantations and forest
understoreys. Commonly it is called Billi goat weed. It
is an aromatic invasive that quickly encroaches upon
any given area. Ageratum possesses a number of
ecological strategies such as fast growth rate, quick
regenerative and reproductive potential, and greater
tolerance/adaptability, helping it to form
monocultural stands in the Shivalik Ranges of the
north-western Himalayas.
Infestation and Impacts : The weed has spread
extensively in the Shivalik of both Punjab and
Himachal Pradesh occupying various habitats (forests,
plantations, agriculture fields, wastelands, grassland)
and now greatly affects the landscape (Kohli et al.,
2004).
Control : Ageratum becomes troublesome in
plantations after grasses have been suppressed. It can
be controlled mechanically when young by hand
pulling or hoeing. Seedling and young stages can be
controlled by 2, 4-D, MCPA and other growth
regulators that are used on cereal crops. However, it
has some medicinal properties and else insect
repellent also.
Eichhornia crassipes
(Water hycinath..........)

History : It is a native of Brazil and Equador region. It

has spread to more than 50 countries on five
continents. The plant originated in the Amazon Basin
and was introduced into many parts of the world as an
ornamental plant due to its beautiful flowers. It has
invaded many areas and could now be found on

Characteristics : Eichhornia crassipes grows in all

types of freshwaters. It is particularly suited to tropical
and subtropical climates and has become a problem
plant. The stems and leaves contain air-filled tissue
which give the plant its considerable buoyancy. They
vary in size from a few inches to over three feet tall.
They have showy lavender flowers. Their leaves are
rounded and leathery, attached to spongy and
sometimes inflated stalks. The plant has dark feathery
roots. The plant tolerates extremes in water level
fluctuations, seasonal variations in flow velocity,
nutrient availability, pH, temperature and toxic
substances (Gopal, 1987).
Infestation and Impacts : Water hyacinth (Eichhornia
crassipes) is an aquatic plant which can live and

Weevils on Water Hyacinth

reproduce floating freely on the surface of fresh

waters. Its rate of proliferation under certain
circumstances is extremely fast and it can spread to
cause infestations over large areas of water causing a
variety of problems. It grows in mats up to 2 metres
thick which can reduce light and oxygen, change
water chemistry, affect flora and fauna and cause
significant increase in water loss due to
evapotranspiration. It also causes practical problems
for fishing and at intakes for hydro power and
irrigation schemes. Therefore, it is now being
considered as a serious threat to biodiversity.
Singh et al. (1984) reported that the daily average
productivity of water hyacinth was 0.26 ton of dry
biomass per hectare in all seasons. It also grows from
seed which can remain viable for 20 years or longer.
12

Control : There are several popular control

mechanisms for controlling the spread of, or
eradication of, water hyacinth. The 3 main
mechanisms used are biological, chemical and
physical control. Each has its benefits and drawbacks.
Chemical control is the least favoured due the
unknown long-term effects on the environment.
Biological control involves release of weevils
(Eichornia) which eat the plant stem and controls its
growth. but it is effective only in stagnant waters.

Management of Invansive Alien Plant

species in Punjab : Initiatives & Suggestions
Use of Lantana Biomass:
Lantana is a biomass Resource abundantly available in
Punjab , especially in Shivalik area.This can be used in
Biomass power generation units. Deptt. of Forests &
PEDA , with technical help of TERI are in process of
installation of a unit based on Lantana for power
generation as well as preparation of charcoal through
pyrolysis. Lantana can also be used in biogas
production. In addition, Lantana is being used for
manufacture of furniture items by ATREE, Bangalore.
Biological Control of water hyacinth:
Water hyacinth invasion has been reported from all
the wetlands of the state. At Harike, a large portion of
the wetland is covered by water hyacinth which grows
in standing water. Nearly 43.1 sq. km under marsh and

Cleared Harike Wetland

swamps can be put into this class (PRSC, 1999).

Remote sensing studies for both Ropar and Kanjli
Wetland show vast presence of this invasive plant.
Irrigation & Power Research Institute, Amritsar is
releasing weevils to control its population. About 5
Acre ponded area has been cleared through use of
weevils at Harike, Punjab.
Ever since these weeds became a menace in India,
efforts are being made to manage these weeds by
different methods. But so far, no single method has
been proved satisfactory, as each method suffers from
one or more limitations such as high cost,
impracticability, environmental safety, temporary
relief etc.
The precise management measures adopted for any
plant invasion will depend upon factors such as the
terrain, the cost and availability of labour, the severity
of the infestation and the presence of other invasive
species.
The best form of invasive species management is
prevention. If prevention is no longer possible, it is
best to treat the weed infestations when they are
small to prevent them from establishing (early
detection and rapid response). Controlling the weed
before it seeds will reduce future problems. Control is
generally best applied to the least infested areas
before dense infestations are tackled. Consistent
follow-up work is required for sustainable
management.

13

Annexure 1: Prominent Invasive Alien Plants

Sl. No.

Species

Family

Habit

Nativity

Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.

Mimosacceae

Tree

Trop. South America

Acacia mearnsii De Wild.

Mimosacceae

Tree

South east Australia

Acanthospermum hispidum DC.

Asteraceae

Herb

Brazil

Aerva javanica (Burm.f.) Juss.ex Schult.

Amaranthaceae

Herb

Trop. America

Aeschynomene americana L.

Papilionaceae

Herb

Trop. America

Ageratina adenophora (Spreng.)

King & Robinson

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

Ageratum conyzoides L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

Ageratum houstonianum Mill.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

Alternanthera paronychioides A. St. Hil

Amaranthaceae

Herb

Trop. America

10

Alternanthera philoxeroides (Mart.) Griseb.

Amaranthaceae

Herb

Trop. America

11

Alternanthera pungens Kunth

Amaranthaceae

Herb

Trop. America

12

Alternanthera tenella Colla

Amaranthaceae

Herb

Trop. America

13

Antigonon leptopus Hook. & Arn.

Polygonaceae

Climber

Trop. America

14

Argemone mexicana L.

Papaveraceae

Herb

Trop. Central &

South America

15

Asclepias curassavica L.

Asclepiadaceae

Herb

Trop. America

16

Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav.

Liliaceae

Herb

Trop. America

17

Bidens pilosa L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

18

Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

19

Blumea erianthaDC.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

20

Blumea lacera (Burm. f.) DC.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

21

Blumea obliqua (L.) Druce

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

22

Borassus flabellifer L.

Asteraceae

Tree

Trop. Africa

23

Calotropis gigantea (L.) R.Br.

Asclepiadaceae

Shrub

Trop. Africa

24

Calotropis procera (Ait.) R. Br.

Asclepiadaceae

Shrub

Trop. Africa

25

Cardamine hirsuta L.

Brassicaceae

Herb

Trop. America

26

Cardamine trichocarpa Hochst. ex A. Rich.

Brassicaceae

Herb

Trop. America

27

Cassia absus L.

Caesalpiniaceae

Herb

Trop. America

28

Cassia alata L.

Caesalpiniaceae

Shrub

West Indies

29

Cassia hirsuta L.

Caesalpiniaceae

Herb

Trop. America

30

Cassia obtusifolia L.

Caesalpiniaceae

Herb

Trop. America

31

Cassia occidentalis L.

Caesalpiniaceae

Herb

Trop. South America

32

Cassia pumila Lam.

Caesalpiniaceae

Herb

Trop. America

33

Cassia rotundifolia Pers.

Caesalpiniaceae

Herb

Trop. South America

34

Cassia tora L.

Caesalpiniaceae

Herb

Trop. South America

35

Cassia uniflora Mill.

Caesalpiniaceae

Herb

Trop. South America

36

Catharanthus pusillus (Murray) Don

Apocynaceae

Herb

Trop. America

37

Celosia argentea L.

Amaranthaceae

Herb

Trop. Africa

38

Chamaesyce hirta (L.) Millsp.

Euphorbiaceae

Herb

Trop. America

39

Chamaesyce indica (Lam.) Croizat

Euphorbiaceae

Herb

Trop. South America

40

Chloris barbata Sw.

Poaceae

Herb

Trop. America

41

Chromolaena odorata (L.) King & Robinson

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

42

Chrozophora rottleri (Geis.) Spreng.

Euphorbiaceae

Herb

Trop. Africa

14

Sl. No.

Species

Family

Habit

Nativity

43

Cleome gynandra L.

Cleomaceae

Herb

Trop. America

44

Cleome monophylla L.

Cleomaceae

Herb

Trop. Africa

45

Cleome rutidosperma DC.

Cleomaceae

Herb

Trop. America

46

Cleome viscosa L.

Cleomaceae

Herb

Trop. America

47

Clidemia hirta (L.) D. Don

Melastomataceae

Herb

Trop. America

48

Conyza bipinnatifida Wall.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

49

Corchorus aestuans L.

Tiliaceae

Herb

Trop. America

50

Corchorus fascicularis Lam.

Tiliaceae

Herb

Trop. America

51

Corchorus tridens L.

Tiliaceae

Herb

Trop. Africa

52

Corchorus trilocularis L.

Tiliaceae

Herb

Trop. Africa

53

Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth) Moore

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

54

Crotalaria pallida Dryand

Papilionaceae

Herb

Trop. America

55

Crotalaria retusa L.

Papilionaceae

Herb

Trop. America

56

Croton bonplandianum Boil.

Euphorbiaceae

Herb

Temperate
South America

57

Cryptostegia grandiflora R.Br.

Asclepiadaceae

Herb

Madagascar

58

Cuscuta chinensis Lam.

Cuscutaceae

Herb

Mediterranean

59

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.

Cuscutaceae

Herb

Mediterranean

60

Cyperus difformis L.

Cyperaceae

Herb

Trop. America

61

Cyperus iria L.

Cyperaceae

Herb

Trop. America

62

Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link

Papilionaceae

Herb

Europe

63

Datura innoxia Mill.

Solanaceae

Shrub

Trop. America

64

Datura metel L.

Solanaceae

Shrub

Trop. America

65

Dicoma tomentosa Cass.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. Africa

66

Digera muricata (L.) Mart.

Amaranthaceae

Herb

SW Asia

67

Dinebra retroflexa (Vahl) Panz.

Poaceae

Herb

Trop. America

68

Echinochloa colona (L.) Link

Poaceae

Herb

Trop. South America

69

Echinochloa crusgalli (L.) Beauv.

Poaceae

Herb

Trop. South America

70

Echinops echinatus Roxb.

Asteraceae

Herb

Afghanistan

71

Eclipta prostrata (L.) Mant.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

72

Eichhornia crassipes (C. Martius)

Solms-Loub.

Pontederiaceae

Herb

Trop. America

73

Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

74

Euphorbia cyathophora Murray

Euphorbiaceae

Herb

Trop. America

75

Euphorbia heterophylla L.

Convolvulaceae

Herb

Trop. America

76

Evolvulus nummularius (L.) L.

Convolvulaceae

Herb

Trop. America

77

Flaveria trinervia (Spreng.) C. Mohr.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. Central America

78

Fuirena ciliaris (L.) Roxb.

Cyperaceae

Herb

Trop. America

79

Galinosoga parviflora Cav.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

80

Glossocardia bosvallea (L.f.) DC.

Asteraceae

Herb

East Indies

81

Gnaphalium coarctatum Willd.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

82

Gnaphalium pensylvanicum Willd.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

83

Gnaphalium polycaulon Pers.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

84

Gomphrena serrata L.

Amaranthaceae

Herb

Trop. America

85

Grangea maderaspatana (L.) Poir.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. South America

15

Sl. No.

Species

Family

Habit

Nativity

86

Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Trop. America

87

Impatiens balsamina L.

Balsaminaceae

Herb

Trop. America

88

Imperata cylindrica (L.) Raensch.

Poaceae

Herb

Trop. America

89

Indigofera astragalina DC.

Papilionaceae

Herb

Trop. America

90

Indigofera glandulosa Roxb. ex Willd.

Papilionaceae

Herb

Trop. America

91

Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz.

Papilionaceae

Herb

Trop. South America

92

Indigofera linnaei Ali

Papilionaceae

Herb

Trop. Africa

93

Indigofera trita L.f.

Papilionaceae

Shrub

Trop. Africa

94

Ipomoea carnea Jacq.

Convolvulaceae

Shrub

Trop. America

95

Ipomoea eriocarpa R.Br.

Convolvulaceae

Herb

Trop. Africa

96

Ipomoea hederifolia L.

Convolvulaceae

Herb

Trop. America

97

Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker.-Gawl.

Convolvulaceae

Herb

Trop. Africa

98

Ipomoea pes-tigridis L.

Convolvulaceae

Herb

Trop. East Africa

99

Ipomoea quamoclit L.

Convolvulaceae

Herb

Trop. America

100

Ipomoea staphylina Roem. & Schult.

Convolvulaceae

Herb

Trop. Africa

101

Lagascea mollis Cav.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. Central America

102

Lantana camara L.

Verbenaceae

Herb

Trop. America

103

Leonotis nepetiifolia (L.) R.Br.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Trop. Africa

104

Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit

Mimosacceae

Herb

Trop. America

105

Ludwigia adscendens (L.) Hara

Onagraceae

Herb

Trop. America

106

Ludwigia octovalvis (Jacq.) Raven

Onagraceae

Herb

Trop. Africa

107

Ludwigia perennis L.

Onagraceae

Herb

Trop. Africa

108

Macroptilium atropupureum (DC.) Urban

Papilionaceae

Climber

Trop. America

109

Macroptilium lathyroides (L.) Urban

Papilionaceae

Climber

Trop. Central America

110

Malachra capitata (L.) L.

Malvaceae

Herb

Trop. America

111

Malvastrum coromandelianum (L.) Garcke

Malvaceae

Herb

Trop. America

112

Martynia annua (Houstoun in Martyn) L.

Pedaliaceae

Herb

Trop. America

113

Mecardonia procumbens (Mill.) Small

Scrophulariaceae

Herb

Trop. North America

114

Melilotus alba Desv.

Papilionaceae

Herb

Europe

115

Melochia corchorifolia L.

Sterculiaceae

Herb

Trop. America

116

Merremia aegyptia (L.) Urban.

Convolvulaceae

Herb

Trop. America

117

Mikania micrantha Kunth

Asteraceae

Climber

Trop. America

118

Mimosa pigra L.

Mimosacceae

Shrub

Trop. North America

119

Mimosa pudica L.

Mimosacceae

Herb

Brazil

120

Mirabilis jalapa L.

Nyctaginaceae

Herb

Peru

121

Monochoria vaginalis (Burm.f.) C. Presl.

Pontederiaceae

Herb

Trop. America

122

Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv.

Solanaceae

Herb

Trop. America

123

Ocimum americanum L.

Lamiaceae

Herb

Trop. America

124

Opuntia stricta (Haw.) Haw.

Cactaceae

Herb

Trop. America

125

Oxalis corniculata L.

Oxalidaceae

Herb

Europe

126

Parthenium hysterophorus L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. North America

127

Passiflora foetida L.

Passifloraceae

Herb

Trop. South America

128

Pedalium murex L.

Pedaliaceae

Herb

Trop. America

129

Pennisetum purpureum Schum.

Poaceae

Herb

Trop. America

16

Sl. No.

Species

Family

Habit

Nativity

130

Peperomia pellucida (L.) Kunth

Piperaceae

Herb

Trop. South America

131

Peristrophe paniculata (Forssk.) Brummitt

Acanthaceae

Herb

Trop. America

132

Phyllanthus tenellus Roxb.

Euphorbiaceae

Herb

Mascarene Islands

133

Physalis angulata L.

Solanaceae

Herb

Trop. America

134

Physalis pruinosa L.

Solanaceae

Herb

Trop. America

135

Pilea microphylla (L.) Liebm.

Urticaceae

Herb

Trop. South America

136

Pistia stratiotes L.

Araceae

Herb

Trop. America

137

Portulaca oleracea L.

Portulacaceae

Herb

Trop. South America

138

Portulaca quadrifida L.

Portulacaceae

Herb

Trop. America

139

Prosopis juliflora (Sw.) DC.

Mimosacceae

Shrub

Mexico

140

Rhynchelytrum repens (Willd.) C.E. Hubb.

Poaceae

Herb

Trop. America

141

Rorippa dubia (Pers.) Hara

Brassicaceae

Herb

Trop. America

142

Ruellia tuberosa L.

Acanthaceae

Herb

Trop. America

143

Saccharum spontaneum L.

Poaceae

Herb

Trop. West Asia

144

Salvinia molesta D. S. Mitch.

Salviniaceae

Herb

Brazil

145

Scoparia dulcis L.

Scrophulariaceae

Herb

Trop. America

146

Sesbania bispinosa (Jacq.) Wight

Papilionaceae

Shrub

Trop. America

147

Sida acuta Burm.f.

Malvaceae

Herb

Trop. America

148

Solanum americanum Mill.

Solanaceae

Herb

Trop. America

149

Solanum seaforthianum Andrews

Solanaceae

Climber

Brazil

150

Solanum torvum Sw.

Solanaceae

Shrub

West Indies

151

Solanum viarum Dunal

Solanaceae

Herb

Trop. America

152

Sonchus asper Hill

Asteraceae

Herb

Mediterranean

153

Sonchus oleraceus L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Mediterranean

154

Spermacoce hispida L.

Rubiaceae

Herb

Trop. America

155

Spilanthes radicans Jacq.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. South America

156

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis (L.) Vahl

Verbenaceae

Herb

Trop. America

157

Stachytarpheta urticaefolia (Salisb.)Sims

Verbenaceae

Herb

Trop. America

158

Stylosanthes hamata (L.) Taub.

Papilionaceae

Herb

Trop. America

159

Synadenium grantii Hook. f.

Euphorbiaceae

Shrub

Trop. America

160

Synedrella nodiflora (L.) Gaertn.

Asteraceae

Herb

West Indies

161

Torenia fournieri Linden ex E. Fournier

Scrophulariaceae

Herb

Australia

162

Tribulus lanuginosus L.

Zygophyllaceae

Herb

Trop. America

163

Tribulus terrestris L.

Zygophyllaceae

Herb

Trop. America

164

Tridax procumbens L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. Central America

165

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.

Tiliaceae

Herb

Trop. America

166

Turnera subulata J.E. Smith

Turneraceae

Herb

Trop. America

167

Turnera ulmifolia L.

Turneraceae

Herb

Trop. America

168

Typha angustata Bory. & Choub.

Typhaceae

Herb

Trop. America

169

Ulex europaeus L.

Papilionaceae

Shrub

Western Europe

170

Urena lobata L.

Malvaceae

Shrub

Trop. Africa

171

Waltheria indica L.

Sterculiaceae

Herb

Trop. America

172

Xanthium strumarium L.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. America

173

Youngia japonica (L.) DC.

Asteraceae

Herb

Trop. South America

17

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