Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke - Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine History

U S E S A N D A B U S E S O F P L A N T- D E R I V E D S M O K E
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Uses and Abuses of
PLANT-DERIVED SMOKE
Its Ethnobotany as
Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine
Marcello Pennacchio / Lara Vanessa Jefferson / Kayri Havens
Illustrations by David S. Sollenberger
1 2010
3
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This book provides scientific, historical, and cultural information on natural products produced by plants.
The book is not intended as a guide to the preparation and use of these substances. The recreational and other
use of the plants and their products described in the book are often illegal, dangerous, and strongly discouraged.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Pennacchio, Marcello.
Uses and abuses of plant-derived smoke : its ethnobotany as hallucinogen,
perfume, incense, and medicine / Marcello Pennacchio, Lara Vanessa Jefferson, and Kayri Havens.
p. cm.
Includes index.
ISBN 978-0-19-537001-0
1. Ethnobotany. 2. Smoke.
I. Jefferson, Lara Vanessa. II. Havens, Kayri. III. Title.
GN476.73.P46 2010
581.6'3—dc22 2009038958
1 3 5 7 9 8 6 4 2
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
To my late nephew, Michael Gismondi,
and to my two sons, Ryan Dharius Pennacchio and
Aiden Michael Pennacchio (MP).
To my late grandmother, Winifred Florence Shirra,

and two sons, Ryan and Aiden (LVJ).
To Emma, Sophie, Ryan, Aiden, and future generations,

with the sincere hope we strike the right balance between protecting
and using plant biodiversity (KH).
FOREWORD
P
lants are essential for human life. They provide the food, shelter, medicines, and
biomass necessary for sustainable livelihoods. Virtually all of our food comes
directly or indirectly from plants. More than three-quarters of the world’s
people use plants as their primary source of medicine. Plants form the framework
and productive base of most natural communities, thus protecting watersheds and
topsoil and maintaining our atmosphere. They sequester carbon, a factor of increas-
ing importance as carbon dioxide contributes to global climate change. Plants also
enhance our daily lives through their beauty and symbolism. We achieved our pres-
ent levels of civilization following a history of millions of years among plants and
depending on them.
Aside from food, one of the earliest and often overlooked uses of plants was the
production of smoke, dating back to the time of early hominid species. Plant-derived
smoke has had an enormous socioeconomic impact throughout human history.
Plants have been burned for medicinal and recreational purposes, magico-religious
ceremonies, pest control, food preservation and flavoring, and perfumes.
Despite the negativity and health concerns associated with smoking, the use of
plant-derived smoke is an important cultural trait that should be documented. More
than 1,400 plant species have been used globally for over 2,000 reported uses. This
book is easy to read and provides a wealth of information on the uses, and users, of
smoke. It contains numerous interesting facts highlighting the importance of plant-
derived smoke to humans.
Peter H. Raven, President, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO

PREFACE
S
moking has such a tarnished image these days that it is easy to overlook the
enormous socioeconomic impact that all plant-derived smoke has had through-
out our history. For countless generations, humans and their earlier ancestors
have burned close to 1,500 species of plants specifically for the smoke they produce.
Many, like tobacco, cannabis, and jimsonweed, have a long history of use for medici-
nal or self-indulgent purposes. Others have yielded important resins that have been
burned as incense during religious and other ceremonies. Plants that produce and
carry hallucinatory substances in smoke have also found use during religious rituals,
often helping spiritual guides and shamans to communicate with the spirit world and
gods. These are among the oldest known uses for plant-derived smoke. Many other
plants were burned to drive away annoying pests and evil spirits or to preserve and
flavor foods and other items.
In the past, smokable plants and their substances have been in such high demand
that they have diverted the course of history, have given rise to powerful organiza-
tions, both legitimate and illegitimate, and have been fiercely fought over in devastat-
ing wars. Plants such as these have generated wealth beyond avarice for the people
and groups that provide them to the masses. Nowhere is this more evident than in
today’s world, where products such as tobacco are a major source of revenue to gov-
ernments and industry alike. One thousand years earlier, it was the resins of strag-
gly bushes—frankincense and myrrh trees—of southern Oman that made humans
rich and powerful. Knowledge of the use of these plants is an important culture trait
that deserves to be documented and preserved regardless of the negative stereotypes
assigned to smoke.
This is the first book of its kind and one that should appeal to botanists, ethno
scientists, pharmacologists, anthropologists, historians, theologians, and plant lovers
alike. It is unique in that it lists uses that are only possible after plant material has been
burned. To our knowledge, few of the plants listed in this book have been studied for
novel compounds that arise from the combustion of their parts. A whole new class of
compounds quite possibly awaits discovery.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
A
book such as this cannot be written without the generous help and support of
many people, all of whom we would like to sincerely thank. Deserving special
mention is Carol Line, Executive Director of Fernwood Botanical Garden and
Nature Preserve in Michigan. Thanks also to Leora Siegel, Director of the Chicago
Botanic Garden Library, and all her staff and volunteers for their assistance, and to
Christine Giannoni and her staff at the Field Museum Library, Chicago, Illinois. Susan
Otto at the Milwaukee Public Museum, Wisconsin, is thanked for assistance with
photographs of Native Americans. We thank Fred Keusenkothen and Chris Freeland
of the Missouri Botanical Gardens for helping us obtain an image of Boswellia carteri
from their rare book collection. Libraries in Illinois, Missouri Botanical Gardens, and
throughout the United States assisted greatly with interlibrary loans. The editors and
staff at Oxford University Press also deserve special mention. They made the entire
process of publishing a book a smooth and enjoyable one, always offering friendly
and useful advice.
We would also like to acknowledge the enormous contribution that Samuel J. Gold-
man, a volunteer at the Chicago Botanic Garden, has made to this project. He assisted
with research and provided us with valuable editorial advice. Bob Meyer, also a vol-
unteer at Chicago Botanic Garden, was instrumental in helping us with illustrations.
The following people are similarly thanked for reading parts or all of the manuscript:
Associate Professor Emilio L. Ghisalberti, Chemistry Department, The University
of Western Australia; Raymond Wiggers, Lake Forest College, Illinois; Dr. Connie
Locher, School of Pharmacy, Curtin University of Technology, Western Austra-
lia. Connie is also thanked for translating German texts; Domenico D’Alessandro,
President, D’Alessandro & Associates, Inc.; Andrea Kramer, Chicago Botanic Garden;
Kristen Kordecki, Chicago Botanic Garden; Mary Stupen, Chicago Botanic Garden;
Marley and Michael Sackheim, volunteers at Chicago Botanic Garden.
Thanks to Dr. Peter Babulka for providing valuable information on plant use in
Hungary and for translating Hungarian texts. We thank Mary and Andy Barr, Perth,
Western Australia, for helping with Australian ethnobotany and photographs. Dr. Erna
V. Lukina, also a volunteer at Chicago Botanic Garden, is thanked for translating Rus-
sian texts. We thank Dr. Sarah J. Moore of the London School of Hygiene and Tropical
Medicine for information on mosquito and insect repellents. Lorraine Wilcox pro-
vided us with information and references to moxibustion. Dr. Dorie Reents-Budet,
Consulting Curator for Precolumbian Art at the Mint Museums in Charlotte, North
Carolina, is thanked for confirming the identity of Tlaloc on the vase in the Balank-
anche cave and for other useful information. We thank Chris Moerhart of Northwest-
ern University, Evanston, Illinois, for help in obtaining additional references. Susanne
Masi, Chicago Botanic Garden, is thanked for providing us with the photo of Aster
novae-angliae. We would also like to acknowledge Randy Hetzel for loaning us his
books, which got us started on this project, and for some of the photographs.
The following people helped in various ways with the preparation of this book:
Dr. Katie Belisle-Iffrig; Ms. Xiu Yuxia (Lily); Judy Cashen, Manager of Volunteer Ser-
vices; Gail Kushino; Luisa Miller; Boyce Tankersley; Monica Vachlon; Lydia Kupsky;
Lori Sollenberger; and Dr. Charlotte Gyllenhaal. We thank our family and friends
for supporting us, especially Antonia (Toni), Onorina, Diodato, Danny, and Palmina
Pennacchio for helping with photographs. Juan de la Cruz and Ruperto of Ek Balam,
Mexico, are thanked for incense information and photographs. Finally, we would like
to acknowledge the wonderful and generous support of the staff and members of the
Plant Conservation Alliance, especially Ms. Margaret Peggy Olwell.
xii Acknowledgments
CONTENTS
Introduction 1
1 Fire and Smoke
3 Medicinal Uses for Plant-Derived Smoke
9 Magico-Religious and Ceremonial Uses
15 Recreational Uses
20 Pest Control
23 Perfumes, Flavoring, and Preservation
25 Veterinary Uses
26 Toxic and Obnoxious Smoke
27 Unspecified Uses
28 Seed Germination
28 List of Plants
List of Plants 31
References 179
Glossary 211
Species Index 217
Subject index 233
U S E S A N D A B U S E S O F P L A N T- D E R I V E D S M O K E
INTRODUCTION
Fire and Smoke
Where there is smoke, there is fire.—Anon
F
ire has played a dominant role in the development of this planet (Pyne 2001).
During its approximately 400-million-year reign on Earth, it has radically altered
the global landscape and affected many of the organisms that exist on it. Especially
affected are the plants that provide it with the very fuel and oxygen it needs to survive.
Where fires are a common occurrence, there have been wholesale changes to the struc-
ture of the local communities. Fire-prone ecosystems tend to be dominated by plant
types that are resistant to its effects or are dependent on it for their existence. Nowhere
is this more apparent than in grassland ecosystems, where trees rarely survive fires,
allowing the grasses that do survive to dominate the vegetation (Vogl 1974).
Equally significant is the association that humans have formed with fire. By pro-
viding us with a source of light and a means to keep warm, it has allowed us to
colonize land on every corner of the planet. This in turn may have facilitated fire’s
own spread to places where it would not have occurred naturally. Throughout the
millennia, it has enabled us to explore new foods and diets and therefore may have
played a role in our own evolution and development. In more recent times, we have
learned how to use fire to tap into the vast reservoirs of energy that are locked up in
organisms that perished long ago. The effect that this has had on our technological
advancement has been phenomenal, making it possible for us to reach for the skies
and beyond. Ironically, the abuse of fire now also threatens the very existence of
some of the life on Earth. The huge, dark plumes of smog that hang ominously over
many of our large cities are a major cause of pollution and concern. If left unad-
dressed, it will most likely continue to contribute to the decline and loss of biodiver-
sity on Earth (Wilson 1999).
Fire also possesses the ability to liberate many of the fragrant and therapeutic
chemical agents that are locked up in the plants and other organisms that it so readily
consumes. These substances, the vast majority of which are secondary metabolites,
have provided us with many economically and socially important products. These
chemicals, often lacking clearly defined roles in nature, have found their way into our
medicine cabinets, meditation rooms, and onto supermarket shelves. This has gener-
ated enormous revenues for governments and industry alike and has provided many
cultures with a variety of tools with which to survive. It is almost impossible to begin
to estimate the enormous socioeconomic impact that some of these natural products
have had on our way of life. Frankincense and myrrh, for example, once commanded
1
such high prices that their value may have at one stage exceeded that of gold. These
commodities alone probably accrued more wealth for the Arabian people in ancient
times than oil does today (Roberts 1998).
Despite what is already known about the natural products released during the com-
bustion of plant materials, it is not yet clear when humans first started burning plants
specifically for these purposes. The very nature of smoke and its uses almost entirely
preclude them from the kind of preservation necessary to determine their place in
our history. It is not unreasonable to propose, however, that the human use of plant-
derived smoke probably commenced shortly after our ancestors learned how to make
and control fire. Hominid species, such as Homo erectus, had already mastered this art
(Kempe 1988). These early humans used fire to warm their caves, provide light, cook
their food, and no doubt, to produce smoke that kept annoying insects and other pests
at bay. The use of plant-derived smoke may therefore date back 1.6 million years or
more. Since its inception, 1,460 plant taxa with 2,383 ethnobotanical uses from 125
countries have been reported and are included in this book. There are likely more.
It is not possible, in a survey of this type, to produce a complete or exhaustive list
of all the plants used by humans. The relevant information is not always readily acces-
sible. Occasionally, ethnobotanical surveys have been reported in ancient texts, as well
as in research theses, conference proceedings, and local journals. Adding to the prob-
lem, some of the information may be reported in a foreign language and has to be
translated, adding to the cost and time needed to gather it. Fortunately, the Internet
has improved and sped up the way we collect data. With its powerful search engines,
it enables researchers to sift through thousands of journals and theses that would once
have required visiting several libraries. Furthermore, a number of ancient texts have
been digitized and can now be downloaded from appropriate Web sites. Many of those
in foreign languages have been translated and can also be accessed through the Net.
Another excellent source of information is the interlibrary loan (ILL) system. The
ILL is part of the Online Computer Library Center (OCLC), in which more than
71,000 libraries in 112 countries have agreed to share their resources and make them
available to their users (see www.oclc.org/us/en/default.htm). Through it, we were
able to obtain hundreds of journal articles, books, and conference proceedings. This
can, in many cases, incur a cost, which may or may not be covered by the researchers’
libraries. The authors of this book were also able to access a number of relevant jour-
nal articles through JSTORE (for more information, see www.jstor.org) and Google
Books. Information obtained through the latter was usually tracked down using
interlibrary loans. Some books were purchased.
Furthermore, it is not always possible to verify the information reported in the
literature. In those cases, it was assumed that the information reported was correct.
For example, one of the assumptions we often made was that the plants mentioned
in the surveys were correctly identified. Plant identifications are usually conducted in
the field by ethnobotanists and other researchers and later confirmed by appropriate
authorities and taxonomists. Often, researchers will deposit a voucher specimen in a
local herbarium so that other interested parties can check it.
The competence of the people conducting the ethnobotanical surveys in the field
is also an important consideration. Did they witness the use of the plants themselves,
or was the information collected through interviews? In the latter case, did they
ask the right questions, and did they consult the right person or persons? Did the
researchers perform a long-term study, in which they may have either lived or worked
2 Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke

in the community, or did they carry out a quick survey? Furthermore, did the holders
of traditional knowledge disclose any or all the relevant information, such as part of
plant used and dose? Native Australian medical practitioners, for example, are usually
reluctant to share their knowledge until they have established a good working rap-
port with the researchers (Barr, personal communication). Even once the friendship
has been established, not all information will be provided. It is also possible, in some
cases, for the traditional practitioners to give false or misleading information just to
rid themselves of an annoying researcher. Wherever possible, the information should
be checked, but this is often an onerous and difficult task. We contacted several
authors of articles and books for additional information, especially when clarification
on some aspects of their studies or verification of their claims was required. Once the
information has been gathered, it is assumed that the researchers have performed the
correct statistical analyses and that reviewers for the publishers have checked this.
This is usually the practice of reputable journals, books, and conferences. A number
of texts are available describing how to conduct ethnobotanical surveys correctly.
Medicinal Uses for Plant-Derived Smoke

The medicinal applications for plant-derived smoke outnumber all other uses.
Humans have been using medicinal plants for tens of thousands of years, many of
which still form an integral part of the health-care systems of developing countries.
In the developed world, most of the pharmaceutical agents available today are either
directly extracted from plants or are synthetic analogues structurally derived from
natural products. These agents have prevented illness, have saved the lives of millions
of people, have been used in medical diagnoses, and have significantly increased our
life expectancies. The demand for pharmaceutical agents and herbal treatments is so
great that it has spawned multibillion-dollar industries that employ millions of people
worldwide. A significant number of medicinal products are undocumented histori-
cally and are likely to be lost when holders of traditional knowledge pass away.
Most of the information that has been recorded has appeared in pharmacopoeias,
materiae medicae, ethnobotanical texts, journal articles, and conference proceed-
ings. Where smokable plants are concerned, 1,002 medicinal uses have been reported
throughout the world for more than 737 plants (table 1). So broad is the spectrum of
use that nearly every organ or system of the human body has been medicated in one
form or another with plant-derived smoke. Fumigations were used to treat wounds,
cleanse the skin, and help with the birth and postpartum care of newborn babies and
their mothers. Native Australians were among the best-known practitioners for this
latter use (Barr 1993), but it has also been reported in India (Kaul and Atal 1983),
North America (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973), South America (Macía et al. 2005),
and Africa (Neuwinger 1994; Dlisani and Bhat 1999).
Indigenous Australians have traditionally employed plant-derived smoke to
strengthen babies and mothers during and immediately following childbirth. Typically,
a warm bed of ashes was laid on the ground on which various plants were smoldered.
All newborn babies were passed through the fragrant smoke arising from the ash bed
(figure 1). This reportedly protected them from evil and gave them spiritual strength
(Levitt 1981). Species, such as the Cooktown ironwood, Erythrophleum chlorostachys,
were routinely burned in the maternity areas of Native Australian camps. The smoke of
several other species, including acacias and eremophilas, were also inhaled to induce
lactation and to stem the flow of postpartum bleeding in some cases (Barr 1993).
Introduction 3
Table 1. Ethnobotanical and ecological uses for plant-derived smoke.
Categories of Use Uses Reported Total Plants Used
Medicinal 1,002 737

Magico-religious and ceremonial 571 399
Recreational 267 156
Pest control 184 165
Perfumes 64 61
Flavoring and preservation 178 132
Toxic or obnoxious 56 53
Veterinary 35 32
No specified use 59 46
Note: Many of the plant species have multiple uses, and so totaling the number of plants for each category of use will result
in 1,781 taxa, which is higher than the actual total of 1,460. The same applies to the number of uses. The last category, No
specified use, lists all those plants in which the use for their smoke was not described. See Unspecified Uses near the end
of the Introduction.
Figure 1. Indigenous
Australians often used
plant-derived smoke
to strengthen newborn
babies and their mothers.
“Welcoming the
Newborn” by Patricia
Marrfurra McTaggart
from the Nauiyu
Community (Daly River,
Australia). Photograph
courtesy of Mary and
Andy Barr.
Smoke treatments such as these have also found use for terminating pregnancies.
A number of polyherbal recipes with abortifacient properties were reported, with
cannabis (Cannabis sativa; Merzouki et al. 2000) and maize (Zea mays; Gémes 1987)
among the more interesting ingredients. Other recipes required the addition of poi-
son hemlock (Conium maculatum), a plant commonly known for its toxic effects.
Perhaps equally as fascinating is the burning of onion (Allium cepa) and pigeon feces
to induce abortion through vaginal fumigations, as listed in ancient Indian Ayurveda
texts (Venkataraghavan and Sundaresan 1981). In Hungary, a related bulb, garlic

(Allium sativum), was burned with pig feces to produce smoke that was used to calm
frightened children (Oláh 1987).
Although many of the medicinal uses for plant-derived smoke were external, most
were specifically for internal use. The inhalation of smoke is a rapid and effective
means to introduce secondary plant metabolites and other chemicals into the body.
The large surface area of the lungs, equivalent to that of a tennis court (140 m2), along
with its highly vascular alveoli, provides almost instant access to the blood and to the
very organs responsible for breathing in the smoke. Once absorbed into the blood-
stream, active substances in the smoke are rapidly dispersed throughout the body,
mediating their effects almost instantly in some cases. Problems with the digestive
system and muscles have all been treated with smoke, as have fevers, rheumatism,
inflammation, and other afflictions of the immune system. Several plants, when
burned, emit analgesic substances, making them ideal for use as painkillers. Smoke
remedies for earache, backache, and toothache were common. The greatest use for
smoke analgesics was, however, for the relief of headaches. Approximately 100 species
were used for this purpose alone.
Another analgesic species that has received more than its fair share of the limelight
is hemp, or Cannabis sativa. Cannabis is best known for its psychoactive proper-
ties, but it is also highly regarded as a medicinal agent. Traditionally, it was used as
a medicament for various illnesses. Approximately 100 medicinal uses were listed
in Chinese pharmacopoeias that date as far back as 5,000 years to Emperor Shên-
Nung (Russo 1998). Similar documents have revealed that the medicinal use of can-
nabis was also once common in India, Egypt, Assyria, ancient Israel, Palestine, Judea,
Greece, and Rome. Its analgesic properties are due to a variety of resins called can-
nabinoids (Meng et al. 1998). These compounds, especially D9-tetrahydrocannabinol
(D9-THC), which was first isolated in 1964 (Gaoni and Mechoulam 1964), are also
responsible for the psychoactive properties of the species. Today, cannabis leaves and
flowers are smoked recreationally throughout the world and increasingly for their
medicinal applications.
Almost one-third of the 1,002 medicinal uses for plant-derived smoke were pre-
scriptions for respiratory disorders. The respiratory system is almost always affected
by smoke. Over time, this annoyance to humans probably led to the serendipitous
discovery of many respiratory-related cures. Coughs, colds, influenza, catarrh, nasal
congestion, and tuberculosis were among the many illnesses treated with plant-
derived smoke. However, one of its more significant uses was for the relief of asthma,
a serious respiratory condition that affects millions of people from all strata of the
world’s population. The financial burden and personal hardship that this has imposed
on health-care systems, sufferers, and their families are considered greater than that of
tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS combined. Traditionally, one of the more widely smoked
plants for the relief of asthma was the jimsonweed, Datura stramonium (see page 82).
Jimsonweed has a long history of global use ranging from providing relief to suffer-
ers of asthma and other respiratory ailments to dulling the senses of people sacrificed
during ceremonial executions. Hallucinations are also common, including colored
visions and Lilliputian images, which are reported by 83% of all users (Ellenhorn
and Barceloux 1988). Medicine men and women have known about its psychoactive
properties for centuries (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973). However, it was not until
the 1960s that its popularity as an hallucinogen gained momentum in mainstream
society and that many deaths were reported after its use. Jimsonweed has traditionally
Introduction 5
also served as an essential ingredient in a variety of witchcraft recipes that induce
feelings of flight and other surreal sensations. The modern-day concept of witches
riding brooms may have derived from those feelings. According to anecdotal stories,
it could also have originated following the use of broom handles to apply vaginal
salves prepared from various Datura species.
Datura stramonium was one of the more commonly used Datura species. This
annual herb grows along roadsides and pastures and in waste areas. Its country of ori-
gin has long been the subject of debate. Notable botanical writers, such as Alphonse
de Candolle (DC.) in his Géographie Botanique of 1855, suggested that the species
was indigenous to the Old World. Thomas Nuttall (Nutt.), in contrast, suggested that
South America or Asia was its more likely center of origin. In more recent times,
Symon and Haegi (1991) have reported that jimsonweed is a New World plant that
probably originated in Mexico and has, since circa the 1700s, slowly migrated north
(Warwick 1990) into North America, where it is now a naturalized and noxious weed.
Its spread into Europe is thought to have occurred sometime around the first century
a.d., when datura-smoking Roma people introduced it there.
Also uncertain is the origins of the species epiphet, stramonium. The generic name
was derived from the Hindu word dhatura, which itself was from the Sanskrit word
for the Indian species Datura fastuosa, d’hastura. The common or vernacular name,
jimsonweed, is believed to be a corruption of the name of the small U.S. Virginia town
Jamestown. In 1676, a detachment of British troops was sent to the town to quell a
rebellion known as Bacon’s Rebellion. In 1705, a Virginian farmer, Robert Beverly,
writing about the slave society that was emerging in Virginia at the start of the eigh-
teenth century, commented that some of the soldiers sent to quell the rebellion added
jimsonweed leaves to their salad (Beverly 1705). He claimed that they went crazy for
11 days, sparing the folks at Jamestown any punishment. Several centuries earlier,
Mark Anthony’s troops may also have suffered a similar fate, falling victim to this or
a closely related species.
Datura use has been reported all over the world but was especially important
in India, where it was considered a sacred plant to the Hindu god Shiva Nataraja
(figure 2). The sculpture depicting the icon is one of India’s best-known works of art
and most recognized images (Kaimal 1999). In the sculpture, the four-armed Shiva
is performing a dance in a ring of fire. Below Shiva’s foot is the dwarf of ignorance,
Apasmara. Nestled in Shiva’s hair is the goddess Ganja, who is a personification of the
Ganges River. Also among the locks of hair are a crescent moon and a datura blos-
som. The smoking of jimsonweed and other Datura species for the relief of asthma is
believed to have originated in the East Indies and from there was spread throughout
Europe and beyond by an English army general.
Datura leaves are usually rolled into cigarettes or smoked in a pipe. Many of
the compounds produced by these species are toxic, therefore restricting their
use. Chief among these are the tropane alkaloids, hyoscyamine, hyoscine, atropine
(D, L-hyoscyamine), and scopolamine (L-hyoscine) (Ellenhorn and Barceloux
1988; Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). These have been referred to as mydriatic alka-
loids because they cause the pupils of the eyes to dilate (Leete 1959). Asthma-
relieving properties are due to atropine, which paralyzes the pulmonary branches
of the lungs, eliminating spasms produced during asthma attacks. These effects are
palliative in nature and therefore only treat symptoms of asthma without leading
to a cure.

Figure 2. Datura was
considered a sacred plant
to the Hindu people and
their god Shiva Nataraja.
The flower of a Datura
species appears in the hair
of the god, who represents
both creation and
destruction. The leaves
of the plants were rolled
into cigarettes or smoked
in pipes.
Low doses of alkaloids are usually absorbed by smoking Datura species but are
considered extremely dangerous nevertheless. The medical literature abounds with
reports of deliberate or inadvertent poisonings resulting from smoking jimsonweed
and other related species (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). Accidental poisonings have
even occurred as a result of ingesting honey made from Datura species (Ramirez
et al. 1999). Most poisonings occur, however, in teenagers who explore the mind-
altering properties of the smoke. Symptoms of poisoning include mydriasis, cyclo-
pegia, dry skin, dry mouth, urinary retention, tachycardia, delirium, and respiratory
arrest (Winchester 1990). The onset of these symptoms usually occurs within 30 to
60 minutes of smoking the plants (Gilman 1990). Effects can last from 24 to 48 hours
but have been known to persist for up to 2 weeks (Gilman 1990). The lethal nature of
these compounds has thus resulted in worldwide smoking bans for jimsonweed and
related species and is thus not recommended here.
Purification
Although many plants were smoked to treat human illnesses, others have served as
disinfectants and purifying agents to remove illnesses from human surroundings or
prevent them from becoming established there. This is an ancient practice whose ori-
gins have long since faded from human memories. Early records of ancient Egyptian
disinfectants include frankincense, myrrh, and cinnamon bark (Manniche 1989), all
of which are still used today. Several species were used in this capacity throughout
the world. However, none are historically more important and better known than the
fumigations reported from Athens circa 400 b.c.
During the 27-year period from 431 to 404 b.c., Greece’s capital was under siege
by two enemies. Sparta, Corinth, and other members of the Peloponnesian Confed-
eracy had waged war against Athens, killing many of its citizens in the bloody battles
that ensued. Those who managed to survive the war lived only to face an even greater
horror. With little or no regard for rank, sex, race, or religion, a mysterious plague
threatened Athens, exposing the entire populace to risk. Among the many it killed
was the great Greek statesman Pericles. Were it not for Athens’s medical fraternity, the
death toll may have been even higher.
Introduction 7
Despite detailed accounts of the plague by the renowned Greek historian Thucy-
dides, medical historians have yet to identify the agent responsible for the epidemic.
To this day, no known diseases fit the descriptions in Thucydides’ writings. Smallpox
and typhus have both been suggested, but there is still much debate and speculation
(Retief and Cilliers 1998). Even less certain is the identity of the individual who freed
Athens from the clutches of its epidemic. For centuries, the man most directly accred-
ited for the city’s salvation was Hippocrates of Cos (460–377 b.c.), the man many
consider the father of modern medicine. Notable historians and physicians, including
Pliny the Elder of Como (a.d. 23–79), Galen of Pergamum (a.d. 130–201), and Aetius
of Amida (a.d. 502–575), all reported that Hippocrates lit large bonfires in the streets
of Athens to purify the unhealthy air, or miasma, that existed in the city at that time
(Pinault 1986). Juniper berries (Juniperus sp.) were among several herbal ingredients
used to fuel the fires (Milliken and Bridgewater 2004). Interestingly, though, there
was no mention of Hippocrates in any of Thucydides’ works, throwing into question
his role in Athens’s salvation (Pinault 1986). Acron may have ordered the fires accord-
ing to Oribasius of Pergamum (a.d. 320–400).
At least 27 junipers were burned for the use of their smoke, making this genus one
of the most widely used for that purpose. This is not surprising given the widespread
and abundant distribution of the genus. The common juniper (J. communis), for
example, has the largest northern circumpolar distribution of any conifer, extending
further into the northern biotic zone than all others (Rousseau 1974). Smoke-related
uses for this and other junipers range from airing out sickrooms, treating colds, add-
ing flavor to food, perfuming houses and other items, driving away annoying insects,
assisting with childbirth, acting as tonics that gave people greater endurance, and
driving away evil. In parts of Italy, juniper smoke was regularly burned to keep evil
at bay (Pieroni and Giusti 2002). Evil-deterring smoke treatments such as these often
prevented or cured a variety of illnesses as well. Evil and illness are so intimately
intertwined in some cultures that there is often no clear distinction between the two.
Evil and Medicine

The concept of evil has been acknowledged in one form or another in all parts of
the world. Throughout human history, belief in the supernatural has had a profound
effect on almost every civilization, resulting in a variety of practices to avert its harm-
ful powers. Demons and other evil entities feature prominently in early and contem-
porary literature, but it is often the evil eye that is considered the most devastating
of all. Its presence is universal with no spatial or temporal boundaries. It has been
reported in Westernized and non-Westernized countries as well as in ancient cul-
tures, including Babylon, Egypt, Rome, Greece, India, China, and in parts of Africa
(Lykiardopolous 1981). Its powers are potentially so harmful that they are usually
considered outside the sphere of normal human control and may require extraordi-
nary measures to stave off or diminish its effects. Symptoms of possession or attack
include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, fever, weight loss, and insomnia, all of which have
been treated with some type of plant-derived smoke.
Regardless of its many forms or reasons for existing, we do not yet understand why
humans are so vulnerable to evil. To combat evil, we carry a variety of charms, amu-
lets, and other material objects. And of course, we burn and smoke plants. This is a
common practice, with the smoke from at least 60 plant species forming the linchpin
of treatments meant to protect humans from evil. In the Andes Mountains of South

America, for example, mothers protect their infants from the evil eye, or mal de ojo,
by using amulets and tobacco smoke (Mizrach 1994). Elsewhere, other potentially
harmful plants, like the castor-oil tree (Ricinus communis), have served in this role.
The mechanisms by which smoke is able to avert the effects of evil are as poorly
understood as are its reasons for existing. Many cultures believe that the smoke of
some plants is offensive or harmful to evil spirits. This could explain why poisonous
or potentially toxic plants like the castor-oil tree or chili plants were used, but it does
not reveal how the smoke deters these entities. Smoke’s disinfectant properties and
ability to eliminate disease-causing agents may also offer some explanation. By killing
potentially pathogenic organisms, smoke could give the impression that it has coun-
tered the effects of evil. This could explain why children, who have less developed
immune systems and who are more vulnerable to evil according to many cultures,
have often been the targets for smoke treatments. Interestingly, the Chorti Maya of
Guatemala used plant-derived smoke to drive away the evil and the illnesses it causes
from the carcasses of the animals that they hunted and ate (Wisdom 1940). Perhaps
antiseptic compounds suspended in the smoke sterilized the meat, killing the very
pathogenic organisms that made them ill in the first place.
Magico-Religious and Ceremonial Uses

In tiny communities scattered throughout the Karakoram Mountains of Pakistan,
Hanzakut shamans, called bitans, go into juniper smoke-induced trances to help
them communicate with supernatural beings. During deliberations with members
of the spirit world, they receive advice on how to heal their patients (Sidky 1994). In
preparation for these occasions, the bitans inhale the smoke of burning pencil cedars
(Juniperus macropoda) and drink the blood of freshly decapitated goat heads. These
are said to be highly effective measures. In parts of Nicaragua, native healers (sukyas),
in contrast, smoked large quantities of tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to help them com-
mune with their spirit world (Appel 1977). Once they entered into a trance or hyp-
notic state, the spirits spoke to them, prescribing several cures or treatments for the
sick. Traditional healers have for centuries relied on methods such as these to obtain
spiritual advice on how to treat their patients.
Traditional healers also have used hallucinogenic substances to help them foretell
the future, but few were as famous or adept at it as the Delphic oracles of ancient
Greece. Plants may have been burned in the oracles’ presence to produce the pneuma
enthusiastikons, or hallucinogenic vapors, that helped the priestess commune with
gods like Apollo. According to Greek mythology, Apollo, the son of Zeus and Leto,
slew a powerful she-dragon at Delphi, a site that still exists to the north of the Gulf of
Corinth on Greece’s Mt. Parnassos (Rose 1959). To placate the dragon’s spirit, Apollo
created a powerful shamanistic priestess in her stead, called Pythia, whose primary
role was to serve as the voice of the young god. Several priestesses, all of whom were
virgins born at Delphi, were on hand to petition the gods on behalf of mortals. All
of Pythia’s mantic sessions were held in a special chamber in Apollo’s temple while
seated on a tripod that was fastened to the omphalos, or “navel” stone. Below the tri-
pod was a small hole through which vapors arose, shrouding the diviner in a dense
fog of fumes. Only the priests who served the oracles were permitted entry into their
inner sanctum, or adytum. In addition to assisting the Pythia, they were responsible
for relaying the unintelligible responses of the oracle to mortal inquirers. These were
usually in a verse form known as hexameters (Rose 1959).
Introduction 9
Various researches have suggested that visions seen by the Pythia during her divi-
nations may have been caused by a variety of potentially toxic natural gases escaping
from fissures in the ground. These include light hydrocarbons, such as ethylene and
ethane, which have been used as anesthetics and known to produce similar visions to
those reported by the oracles (Spiller et al. 2002). Fumigations from several known
hallucinogenic plants have also been implicated. These may have been burned below
the mantic chamber (manteion), with the fumes vented up through the hole to the
Pythia whenever she was called on to commune with the gods. Several hallucinogenic
plants, including white henbane (Hyoscyamus albus), jimsonweed (Datura stramo-
nium), mandragora (Atropa mandragora), and hemp (Cannabis sativa), have all been
suggested as likely sources for the smoke-based hallucinogens (Stefanis et al. 1975;
Rätsch 1987). Another possible herbal source for the visions was the laurel tree (prob-
ably Laurus nobilis), apparently a favorite of Apollo. The Pythia may have fumigated
herself with its smoke or chewed its leaves prior to her divinations (Littleton 1986).
At the very least, these would have prepared her for her inquiries.
The use of plant-derived smoke for magico-religious and ceremonial uses such as
these is its second largest category of use and almost certainly one of its oldest (table
1). Its origins probably date back to when religious beliefs and fire commenced rou-
tinely coexisting with humans. To early humans, the sight of smoke slowly spiraling
toward the heavens must have given it important religious significance, especially if
it induced psychedelic hallucinations. Prayers were carried aloft to the gods on fumes
from humans’ fires, petitioning them for favors and protection. To this end, Native
Americans burned the leaves of Hierochloe odorata to summon guardian spirits that
protected members of their tribes from thunder and lightning (Foster and Hobbs
2002). In Africa, the Pokot of northern Kenya believed that the smoke of burning Mae-
rua subcordata leaves could prevent and stop earthquakes (Timberlake 1987). In South
Africa, the Zulu fanned plant-derived smoke over their plant fields, believing it was a
fertility charm that promoted better yields in the subsequent season’s crops (Hutchings
et al. 1996). The use of smoke to promote germination was observed elsewhere, includ-
ing in North America during the 1600s and in several contemporary ecosystems.
Incense
Plant materials burned for magico-religious and similar purposes are often referred
to as incense—a word meaning “to set on fire.” Incense use is an ancient practice that
is widespread throughout the world. In traditional Buddhist rituals, for example, the
burning of plant materials for their fragrant smoke is used to accompany meditations,
for heightening self-awareness, and for freeing oneself from negative states of mind. In
other cultures, it is used to accompany prayer, to worship gods, to purify and perfume
the air, and also to release negative vibrations, or “vibes.” Incense reportedly can uplift
the emotional state, ward off evil spirits, induce trances, and invoke the goodwill of
ancestors. Other religions, including the Catholic Church, routinely burn incense dur-
ing important ceremonies (figure 3). Given such an extensive repertoire of uses, most of
the plants listed in this compendium could quite easily be classified as incense materials,
and almost 400 are. These were all reported as incense in original texts and have simi-
larly been reported as such here.
In its broadest sense, incense is any material that is burned or volatilized to emit
fragrant fumes (Groom 1981). Narrower meanings refer to incense as frankincense
and myrrh, or just frankincense, but will not be used in that way here. Records of

incense use began appearing approxi-
mately 5,000 to 6,000 years ago (Gilman
and Xun 2004). Ancient cultures, such as
the Sumerians, Babylonians, Egyptians,
Assyrians, Romans, Greeks, Hebrews, Per-
sians, and Parthians (an ancient civiliza-
tion probably of northern Iran), all used
incense at one time or another throughout
their history (Groom 1981). The ancient
Romans and Greeks were especially fond
of this practice and burned vast quanti-
ties of incense materials, especially frank-
incense and myrrh. The Roman Emperor
Nero is said to have lavishly burned 1
year’s supply in just 1 day to mourn the
death of his second wife, Poppaea Sabina.
This was at considerable expense given
that the annual Roman shipment of frank-
incense alone was approximately 7,000
tons (Fiennes 1992).
In ancient Egypt, the high priests and
pharaohs presided over important cer-
emonies, offering incense to the gods
personally (Cuthbert and Atchley 1909).
According to ancient Egyptian legends, Figure 3. Incense is frequently burned during Catholic
frankincense was first brought into Egypt mass and other religious events.
in the talons of a magnificent bird that
built its nest from the twigs of the trees (Miller and Morris 1988). This myth later
transformed into the legend of the Phoenix bird, a fabulous creature that arose from
the ashes of a former life. According to Ovid’s Metamorphoses, the myrrh tree was
once the daughter of King Cinyras of Cyprus (Simpson 2003). Myrrha, who lusted
for her own father, deceived the king and incestuously bore him a son. To spare her
the wrath of Cinyras, the gods transformed Myrrha into the incense tree.
Demand for frankincense and myrrh in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Greece,
Rome, India, and China gave rise to an economically important incense trade that,
for a millennium or more, generated wealth beyond avarice for many Arabian people.
The kings of Hadramawt, where the resins were harvested, profited handsomely from
its sale, as did those who transported the cargo and taxed it en route. The farmers who
harvested the incense resins received few of the spoils (Groom 1981). Inscriptions on
Egypt’s Queen Hatchepsut’s temple in Thebes, dating back to 1490 b.c., suggest that
she sent an expedition to the fabled land of Punt (probably somewhere in Somalia) to
bring back incense trees. These were planted at her temple but did not survive the con-
ditions in Egypt (Groom 1981; Miller and Morris 1988). The Romans, also in search of
the precious materials, dispatched 10,000 soldiers in an attempt to locate the incense-
growing fields and gather the priceless resins for themselves. Disease and rumors of
winged serpents doomed the mission before the Romans found the source.
Since then, the Roman naturalist Pliny the Elder has provided us with the most
detailed descriptions of the Arabian incense trade. At its height, camel caravans num-
Introduction 11
Figure 4. The Arabian incense trail. Adapted from Langenheim (2003).
bering in the thousands of animals transported the precious cargo across Arabia to
processing plants in Alexandria, west of Gaza (figure 4). Their incredible journey
started in the south of Oman, in Dhofar, and in other nearby regions of Arabia Felix,
or Happy Arabia. Conditions there were ideal for the growth of frankincense and
myrrh trees. Once harvested, the resins were shipped on boats the short distance
from Dhofar to Qana, also in southern Oman. There they returned to land and were
loaded on “ships of the desert” (camels) bound for Alexandria. The actual route taken
may have changed several times due to bandits, sandstorms, and the imposition of
taxes in many of the towns through which the caravans passed.
In Alexandria, the incense was processed prior to being transported to Greece,
Rome, and Mesopotamia. Workers at the processing plants were stripped naked at
the end of each day and searched for stolen incense. By approximately 24 b.c., incense
and other goods were shipped aboard Arabian dhows from southern Oman to Myos
Hormos and other Egyptian ports, ending the incense trail and the long caravans that
traveled its course. Eventually, the trade itself faded into obscurity. Prior to its demise,
the demand for frankincense and myrrh made them among the most precious sub-
stances on Earth (Roberts 1998). According to the legend of the three wise men, or
Magi (Balthasar, Melchior, and Gaspar), gold, frankincense, and myrrh were so pre-
cious they were presented to the Christ child upon his birth (Matthew 2:11). The gold
represented the emblem of royalty, and frankincense symbolized divinity. Myrrh was
associated with Christ’s persecution and death (Groom 1981).
Incense-Producing Plants
Frankincense and myrrh are oleo-gum resins produced by trees of the torchwood fam-
ily, Burseraceae. There are currently 18 recognized genera in this family, with approxi-
mately 700 species in all. The torchwood family is characterized by resin ducts, of which
there are many types in various places in plants (Langenheim 2003). Frankincense, also
known as olibanum, was traditionally less valuable than myrrh but was in greater demand

(Abercrombie 1985). It is produced by several species of Boswellia. Most contemporary
sources of frankincense include Boswellia carteri, B. sacra, and B. frereana (Tucker 1986).
In ancient times, they were probably harvested from B. papyrifera. Myrrh is derived from
plants within the genus Commiphora. Most of the myrrh used today comes from Com-
miphora myrrha, but in ancient times, it may have been tapped from C. erythraea.
Both resin types are harvested from the trunk of the plants after an incision is made
in the bark. Professional harvesters allow the resins to harden on the trunk before
collecting them some 2 to 3 weeks later. This method for harvesting these resins, first
described by the Greek father of botany, Theophrastus (ca. 372–287 b.c.), and later
the Greek father of history, Herodotus (ca. 484–425 b.c.), has remained largely the
same since ancient times (Groom 1981). In parts of Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula, small
fires are lit at the base of resin-yielding trees, forcing the resins up the trunk to a point
where an incision or scrape is made. There they ooze out for harvesting. This usually
results in larger sized tears. It is not known, however, what effect this has on the trees.
According to the few remaining contemporary professional harvesters of frankincense,
the first and second scrapings do not produce useful yields (Abercrombie 1985). It is usu-
ally the third that is considered the cash crop. Other plant scientists have already described
the chemistry of the frankincense and myrrh resins (see Tucker 1986; Langenheim 2003;
Hanuš et al. 2005). In brief, most are complex mixtures of sesquiterpenes. Their pleasant
fragrances are due to small quantities of volatile oils, which may comprise up to 17% of the
total volume. The familiar odor of myrrh is due to furanosesquiterpenes.
Almost 400 species of plants were reportedly burned for incense purposes through-
out the world. In addition to the two aforementioned genera, Bursera, Canarium, and
Protium plants, also of the family Burseraceae, have yielded incense materials. It is
interesting to note that all five members of the torchwood family were independently
prized for incense resins in three different regions of the world. Frankincense and
myrrh were originally used in Arabia. Resins from the genus Canarium were burned
as incense in the Indian subcontinent and in nearby Southeast Asian countries. Ways
to harvest and use the resins may have been learned from their experience with Ara-
bian incense. Bursera and Protium species, in contrast, were burned as incense in
Central and South America. These were often referred to as copal, a name derived
from the Aztec Nahuatl word copalli.
Evidence for incense use in Mesoamerica can be found among the many ruins of
ancient Maya and Aztec civilizations (figure 5). Incense burners, called censers, and
other important archeological artifacts, for example, were discovered in Mexico’s Bal-
ankanche Cave (Gruta de Balankanche, which is Mayan for “hidden throne”). This site
is approximately 6 km north of the famous tourist destination Chichén-Itzá (figure 6).
Incense was often burned in large censers, especially during human sacrifices to the god
of rain, Tlaloc (figure 7). Many censers, dating back 800 years, were left surrounding
the Balam Throne, a large stalagmite that resembles the ceiba tree. According to the
Maya, the ceiba tree is of significant religious importance and has been referred to as
the “sacred tree inside the earth.” Visiting the Balankanche Cave involves a combination
of high temperatures, high humidity, a round trip of 1 km, and knowledge of human
sacrifices. Obviously, this is not always a pleasant excursion for all who visit the site.
There is still considerable confusion about the sources and uses of copal in Meso-
america (Stross 1997). The gums and resins of several genera were used, with Burs-
era bipinnata serving as the prototypical copal. The Maya (figure 8) obtained incense
resins from many other plants, including pine trees (Morehart et al. 2005). A variety of
Introduction 13
Figure 5. (top) Ancient Mayan ruins, like those at Ek
Balam, Mexico, were sites where incense was burned in
copious amounts.
Figure 6. (above left) Incense was burned during religious

and other ceremonies throughout Mesoamerica, including
Chichén-Itzá in Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula.
Figure 7. (above) Incense censers and other important

archeological artifacts were discovered in the Balankanche
Cave (Gruta de Balankanche), near Chichén-Itzá in Mexico’s
Yucatán Peninsula. The large vase in the foreground depicts
the god of rain, Tlaloc.
Figure 8. (left) Traditional Mayan shaman Juan del la Cruz

burns copal resin (probably from Protium copal) incense
during a traditional Mayan wedding that took place in
Ek Balam, Mexico (January 2006). Incense was burned
throughout Mesoamerica for religious and other purposes.
conifers have similarly found use as sources of incense materials in Mesoamerica and
elsewhere. These include members of the Cupressaceae (cypress) and Pinaceae (pine)
families. Many incense products were derived from strongly scented plants, such as
those of the mint family, Lamiaceae. Other genera include Agathis, Hymenaea, Jatro-
pha, and Rhus (see the List of Plants chapter; Stross 1997; Case et al. 2003; Langenheim
2003). Given their wide distribution and abundance, it comes as no surprise that the
composites (sunflower family, Asteraceae) also featured prominently in incense use. In
fact, it is the most widely used family of plants for ethnobotanical smoke purposes.
In the Far East, incense use dates back to the Shang Dynasty of 1600–1030 b.c.
and formed an essential part of many religious ceremonies. Some of the more com-
mon uses included making offerings to deceased loved ones, driving away evil spirits,
and as a symbol of honor to living loved ones. In Java, Indonesia, incense is believed
to connect one with spirits of their ancestors and god. Four types of incense are rec-
ognized, namely, conical (gunungan or mountain), powder (setangii in western Java;
ratus in central and eastern Java), amorphous (“kemenyan”), and the raw form. Sev-
eral different methods and materials are employed in the making the incense in that
country. In Japan, incense is an integral part of the famous koh-do ceremonies and is
an art form that can take years to master.
In North America, many species of plants were burned by Native American tribes
as good luck charms during hunting expeditions. In some cases, the smoke was con-
sidered useful for attracting or luring game to the hunters. Plant species, such as
Ranunculus pensylvanicus L. f. (Smith 1932) and various Rumex species were espe-
cially considered useful for this purpose. Also useful for attracting game was Thal-
ictrum dasycarpum Fisch. & Avé-Lall. The Potowatomi of North America smoked
the seeds of this plant to bring them good luck while hunting (Smith 1933) but also
mixed the seeds with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and smoked the mixture to lure lady
friends. In Bulamogi County, Uganda, men smoked various plants to rid themselves
of their wives (Tabuti et al. 2003). In other parts of Africa, a variety of plants were
smoked to help with criminal cases or to protect people from losing their jobs. A
total of 399 plants with 571 reported magico-religious and ceremonial uses from 67
countries are described in the List of Plants chapter.
Recreational Uses
Depending on whom you consult, tobacco is both a blessing and a curse. The nega-
tive publicity surrounding cigarette smoking has made it such a socially unacceptable
habit in some parts of the world that it is easy to ignore its place in our history. To
the Native Americans who discovered tobacco several thousands of years ago, it was
a sacred and important plant that had a profound effect on their lives (Brown 1989;
figure 9), both positive and negative. Prior to Christopher Columbus setting foot in
the Americas in 1492, tobacco use was already widespread and well entrenched in
Native American mythology and folklore (Asch 1994). Its use dates back to 2500 b.c.
(Pearsall 1992). Tobacco was one of only a few plant species that Native Americans
cultivated and used as bartering agents. It was an important component during many
important religious ceremonies, meetings, and hunting sessions and was often used
in peace pipes as a flag of truce (Carver 1778; Zeisberger 1779). It was also used to
drive away evil (figure 10). Moreover, tobacco was considered potent medicine.
Early American colonial almanacs reported that tobacco smoke was a useful remedy
for earache and toothache and for relieving convulsions (Wesley 1836). In Louisiana, the
Introduction 15
Figure 9. Tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) has
for millennia been important to Native
Americans. In 1941, John Mink, a member
of the Ojibwa tribe of Wisconsin, smokes
tobacco in a pipe. Photograph by Robert E.
Ritzenthaler. Courtesy of Milwaukee Public
Museum.
Figure 10. A member of

the Potawatomi tribe of
the American Midwest
blows tobacco smoke
over the grave of a family
member. Photograph by
Robert E. Ritzenthaler.
Courtesy of Milwaukee
Public Museum.
Choctaw blew its smoke over patients bitten by snakes because it was believed to alle-
viate the pain and treat the wound (Bushnell 1909). Native North American shamans
used it to drive diseases out of their patients (Seig 1999). To settle colicky babies, the
Ozarker of the Ozark Plateau in the American Midwest blew tobacco smoke through
their milk (Liebert 1987). Tobacco smoke was also widely rumored to provide protec-
tion against malaria for plantation slaves (Romans 1962). Many other uses are listed
in this book. Interestingly, it was for its medicinal uses that tobacco use was first intro-
duced into Europe and, from there, to the rest of the world (Singer 1913).
One of tobacco’s earliest European advocates was France’s minister (a form of
ambassador) to Portugal Jean Nicot. Having learned about its curative powers from
members of Christopher Columbus’s crew, Nicot immediately sent seeds and instruc-
tions on how to grow and use tobacco to his queen, Catherine de Medici. This former

matriarch of the great Italian Medici banking dynasty used tobacco for the relief of
persistent headaches. Word of its medicinal uses rapidly spread throughout Europe
and, within 200 years, to all corners of the earth. To honor the role that Nicot played in
introducing this New World plant to the rest of the world, the father of modern taxon-
omy, Carolus Linnaeus, named the genus after him. There are currently 64 recognized
species of Nicotiana. At least 15 of those have been smoked, with N. tabacum and
N. rustica being the most common. Most people now smoke tobacco for pleasure,
the bulk of which is the Virginian tobacco N. tabacum. Its main active constituent
is nicotine, a pyridine alkaloid produced in the leaves. Standard filtered cigarettes
contain between 1 and 16 mg of the substance. Other substances include nornicotine
and tobacco camphor.
Today, cigarette smoking is a multibillion-dollar industry with millions of smokers
worldwide. It is estimated that by 2050, there will be approximately 2.2 billion smok-
ers globally. Tobacco products have generated enormous revenues for tobacco com-
panies and governments. In 1999, the retail value of these was worth U.S. $47 billion
to Philip Morris alone (Mackay and Eriksen 2002). Smoking impacts our economies
in less obvious ways, too. The illnesses caused by its consumption place an enormous
burden on our public health systems. In 1999, the cost of smoking-related health care
in the United States alone accounted for 6% of its total health-care expenditures for
that year (Mackay and Eriksen 2002). These figures do not, however, take into consid-
eration the enormous personal cost to the families and loved ones of those affected by
smoke-related diseases. Each year, approximately 3 million people die from illnesses
related to its consumption (Peto et al. 1996). This figure is expected to rise to 10 mil-
lion during the next 30 to 40 years.
Many tobacco products are produced today, including bidis, kreteks, cigarillos,
cigars, cheroots, stumpens, chuttas, dhumtis, pipes, and sticks (figure 11). Their prep-
aration often requires plants that are harvested from the wild. This poses interest-
ing conservation problems for the countries where they occur. In India, where the
cigarettes of the Indian working class, called bidis, are made (Rathore 1972), tobacco
is rolled in tendu leaves (Diospyros melanoxylon). Many Indian towns and villages
rely on these leaves for their income. The ever-increasing demand for the leaves has
resulted in more plants being harvested from the wild, challenging local conserva-
tionists (Hunter 1981). The active constituent in tobacco, nicotine, is one of the most
physiologically demanding and addictive substances on Earth. Various products and
methods are currently available to help people quit smoking tobacco. Native Ameri-
cans traditionally smoked the leaves of Indian tobacco, Lobelia inflata, to help them
reduce their dependence on tobacco (Tierra 1983). This plant’s active constituent,
lobeline, has been included into tobacco smoking cessation aids in some parts of the
world (Lancaster et al. 2000). Indian tobacco was also smoked for pleasure, asthma
relief, and as a substitute for tobacco when it was scarce. At least 23 species were
smoked when tobacco was unavailable. Some, like coltsfoot (Tussilago farfara) and
great mullein (Verbascum thapsus), are known for their medicinal properties. Others
were favored for their hallucinogenic or narcotic properties, some of which have been
blamed for incredible acts of cruelty and murder.
During his travels through Persia, the famous thirteenth-century Venetian mer-
chant Marco Polo learned about a famous separatist Islamic sect, known as Nizari
Ismaili, that apparently prepared for assassinations and killing sprees by smoking
hashish (cannabis resin). This story, later retold in his book Il Milione, claimed that
Introduction 17
Figure 11. Smoking the
cigarettes of the Indian
working class, bidis.
Photograph courtesy of
Jorge Reverter.
members of the sect, a schism of the Shiite branch of Islam, had sworn to live, die,
and kill at the command of their leader, Hasan ibn-Sabah. For centuries, their name,
Hashshashins, was thought to have been the result of their alleged use of hashish.
However, Martin Booth (2003) believes that the sect got its name for other reasons
and that it was unlikely that its soldiers smoked hashish prior to engaging their
enemies. Cannabis use was widespread in the region at that time but was mostly for
medicinal and spiritual purposes. That ibn-Sabah’s famous elite fida’i foot soldiers,
whose reputation chilled the blood of even battle-hardened warriors, smoked hash-
ish when preparing to kill makes little sense. Not only was it unlikely to render them
more murderous but also probably would have clouded their judgment and dimin-
ished their abilities to fight. Regardless, their fierce reputation and name, Hashshash-
ins, later gave rise to a new word in European parlance: assassin.
Many of the plants that were smoked for their psychotropic, narcotic, or sedative
properties have similar stories that make for fascinating reading. In 1844, William
Cornwallis Harris reported that sorcerers in Abyssinia (now Ethiopia) forced youth
suspected of stealing to smoke dried jimsonweed (Datura stramonium) leaves, subdu-
ing them to the point where they were more amenable to confessing (Harris 1844).
Bedouin thieves in Egypt, in sharp contrast, used the smoke of burning Hyoscyamus
muticus leaves to dope their victims so they could steal from them with little or no
resistance (personal communication by Kassas in Osborn 1968). In parts of South
America, the leaves of Brugmansia species, a genus closely related to the daturas,
were mixed with tobacco and given to women and slaves to deaden their senses prior
to being buried alive with their dead husbands or masters (Avery 1959). All these
narcotics have reputations that are well deserved, but there is one that stands above
all others: opium.
Humans started regularly smoking opium in China approximately 300 years ago
(Booth 1996). Opium is obtained in sap form after the unripe seedpods of the opium
poppy, Papaver somniferum, are scratched. Its use, however, may date back to the
time of the Egyptian pharaohs, with one of the oldest known samples of opium dis-
covered in the Temple of Cha. Records of opium use appear in early herbals and
engravings, including the Ebers Papyrus of Egypt and in ancient Greek and Roman

texts. Discoveries in Switzerland have, however, cast serious doubt on its historicity.
Evidence for opium poppy cultivation was recently uncovered in a small Neolithic
village in Switzerland, suggesting that it may have been deliberately grown there as
early as 4000 b.c. (Booth 1996). It is not known whether or not the plant was used for
medicinal, religious, or other purposes, however.
The Arabian people were among the first to realize the economic potential of sell-
ing opium. From their growing fields in the Middle East, they transported the sub-
stance to India, China, and elsewhere (Berge 2004). Demand for the commodity grew
so rapidly in China that it soon emerged as one of the world’s largest markets for the
narcotic. The Chinese traded tea and other goods to pay for their addiction, creat-
ing a serious dilemma for the imperial ruling elite of the Manchu (Xun 2004). India
quickly established itself as one of the principal suppliers of opium, with total revenue
estimated at approximately U.S. $950 million (Booth 1996). The British East India
Company, having also realized the potential of opium trade, quickly cornered the
market and was soon shipping the narcotic to all parts of the world, especially China,
where its effects were felt the hardest.
In his chapter of the Cambridge History of China, John King Fairbank (1978), an
expert in Chinese studies, wrote that the British-dominated trade of opium in China
was one of the longest “international crimes of modern times.” He claimed that the
British had “trampled on the sovereign rights of China to enforce a shameful trade
which reduced the country to a state of opium slavery.” Many now believe that its
trade also enslaved India’s people, opium’s major producers ultimately. China’s rapidly
dwindling monetary reserves and worsening health and welfare crisis led to bans on
opium use (Moreas and Moreas 2003). Punishments for those who ignored the edicts
included floggings, and repeat offenders were exiled or beheaded (Holder 1898). Chi-
nese officials did not always rigorously enforce the bans, however, and often allowed
considerable quantities of the substance to enter the country as contraband.
In an attempt to do his part to stem the flow of opium into his country, the High
Commissioner of Canton Lin Tse-Hsü (Zexiu) in 1839 led a meticulous campaign
against its smugglers and traffickers. Ship captains were ordered to provide the com-
missioner with complete inventories of their cargo, during which time any opium
found on the ships was promptly confiscated. Lin seized and destroyed nearly 30,000
chests of the substance, translating to a monetary loss of approximately $10 million
to its traders (Holder 1898). The British government felt compelled to intervene and
formerly declared war against China on October 1, 1839, in what was to be the first
of two opium wars (1839–1842 and 1856–1860). Having underestimated the mili-
tary might of Britain, the Chinese suffered enormous losses in personnel. To save his
country, Chinese Emperor Qing was forced to sign several treaties that have since
been referred to as the “unequal treaties.” As part of those agreements, Hong Kong
was ceded to the British and converted into a free port. Five other ports were similarly
opened up for trade. In addition, China was forced to pay 21 million silver dollars for
the war effort and to reimburse British and American opium traders. For the role he
played in this chapter of China’s history, Lin was exiled and never allowed to return
to his country (Waley 1958).
The practice of smoking opium rapidly spread throughout the world, most of it fol-
lowing Chinese immigrants. Approximately 30% of Chinese workers on San Francisco’s
railroads and mines during the 1800s were addicted to the narcotic (Holder 1898). The
immigrants smoked the substance in opium dens, another of its features that spread
Introduction 19
with Chinese immigrants. Only in the quiet confines of dimly lit opium dens did smok-
ers find refuge from loud noises and bright lights, neither of which are tolerated during
a state of narcosis. They were also considered ideal meeting places, especially in China.
Brothels were quick to realize the potential of the new market and began offering opium
as part of their service (Xun 2004). Most smokers preferred to lie on a bed or mat when
they smoked the narcotic. This was not necessary but convenient because they usually
fell into a deep sleep that lasted from minutes to hours depending on how much opium
they had smoked. Many of its users claimed that their “trips” helped them transcend to
new heights of intellect and consciousness. Upon awaking, they felt calm, subdued, and
in a state of lassitude with no aftereffects, such as hangovers.
Cocaine is also well known for its use as an illicit drug. Cocaine powder, obtained
from the coca plant, Erythroxylon coca, is usually inhaled through the nose as a sul-
phate derivative. In more recent times, it has been smoked to induce its euphoric
effects. Cocaine can, however, only be smoked if it is chemically converted into freebase
cocaine. The name crack cocaine is also commonly used and may have derived from the
sound that freebase cocaine makes when it is burned (Castoldi 2004). When smoked,
the alkaloid is rapidly absorbed into the bloodstream, inducing an almost immediate
effect. The introduction of crack cocaine during the 1980s, and its subsequent popular-
ization by celebrities, has opened the door for a whole new class of cocaine users.
Alkaloids, such as cocaine from the coca plant, morphine from opium, and the
tropanes of Datura species, have a therapeutic basis to account for their properties.
However, not all compounds are pharmacologically active, even though they may
seem that way to some users. In a 1967 issue of the highly influential 1960s under-
ground newspaper, the Berkeley Barb, it was reported that smoking the charred scrap-
ings of banana peels (Musa acuminata) induced psychedelic visions. The origins of
that story are uncertain but may have been inspired by Donovan Leitch’s song “Mellow
Yellow.” The rest of the media quickly seized on the story, forcing the U.S. Food and
Drug Administration to investigate. The government agency concluded that smoking
banana peels did not induce psychedelic visions. The “effects” experienced by many
of its users were not due to chemical substances but rather to psychic suggestibility
(Bozzetti et al. 1967). Similar household items have been smoked throughout the
world for various reasons. Sun-dried plantains, a relative of bananas, were smoked
for pleasure in Nigeria (Okiy 1960). Others include mangoes, oranges, peaches, coco-
nuts, rice, cinnamon, fennel, oats, oregano, mints, rosemary, turmeric, and cashews.
A total of 156 plants from 69 countries were used for 267 recreational purposes.
Pest Control
Insects and other pests have annoyed humans personally since we first appeared on
this earth. They have tormented us with their bites, stings, and venoms and are vec-
tors for some of the deadliest diseases known. Their ability to congregate, often in
plague proportions, has also resulted in losses to agriculture totaling in the billions of
dollars. To combat these pests, humans have resorted to a variety of different pesti-
cides and pest repellents. Synthetic compounds, such as DEET, are used throughout
the world and are still effective agents after more than 50 years in use (Fradin 1998).
Others, like DDT, were just as effective but wreaked such havoc with our environ-
ment that they had to be abandoned.
Synthetic agents like these are mostly used in developed countries that can afford
to buy them. Poorer third world nations have had to rely on natural substances

derived from plants and other organisms. The use of naturally based insect repel-
lents can be traced to the time of the Ebers Papyrus of Egypt (ca. 1500 b.c.). A num-
ber of repellents are listed in the text (Bedenheimer 1928). Since then, approximately
2,400 plant species have been employed globally as pest control agents (Grainge and
Ahmed 1988). Many of these have yielded useful chemical substances or have served
as templates for the production of synthetic analogues. Products like the pyrethroids
have become standard ingredients in smoke-generating formulas.
Pyrethroids are based on the naturally occurring pyrethrins produced by the flower
heads of Chrysanthemum species (Charlwood and Jolley 1984; Lewis and Elvin-Lewis
2003). Two are listed in this book—Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium and C. rose-
um—both of which were burned to produce insect repelling smoke (Grieve 1971).
Commercially available pyrethroids are effective at low doses, and unlike DDT, they
exhibit a low level of mammalian and avian toxicity. Pyrethroids cause the voltage-
regulated sodium channels of their intended targets to remain open, eventually
resulting in paralysis first and then death as a result of it. Both of the Chrysanthemum
species listed are among more than 165 plant species that were burned to keep pests
at bay. Nowhere is this more common than in the tropics, where smoke is one of
the most widely used methods for repelling insects (Moore and Lenglet 2004). In
places like Papua New Guinea, plant-derived smoke is considered a useful tool for
providing personal protection against mosquitoes (Vernede et al. 1994). Using natu-
ral pest control agents eliminates the need to import large quantities of expensive
synthetic chemicals, many of which are beyond the financial means of most third
world nations.
Almost half of the plants that were burned for pest control were used specifically
to repel mosquitoes. Mosquitoes, like so many of their insect relatives, are vectors
for dangerous diseases, such as malaria, yellow fever, and Dengue fever. Malaria is a
major cause of disease that affects millions of people each year (World Health Orga-
nization 2005). It is a leading cause of death in children under 5 years of age, with up
to 1 million people of all ages dying from it each year. Eighty percent of victims live
in tropical Africa. Malaria, meaning “bad air,” often occurs in areas where stagnant
waters are common and where the Anopheles species of mosquito vectors that carry
the disease are found. The illness is caused by protozoan infections of Plasmodium
falciparum and other related species. These are transmitted to humans usually at dusk
by female anopheline mosquitoes in search of a blood meal. A number of remedies,
herbal and synthetic, exist for treating malaria, but emphasis is placed mostly on
avoiding the pests that cause this and other equally devastating illnesses.
One of the best-known sources of natural mosquito repellents is leaves of the
neem tree, Azadirachta indica (Forster and Moser 2000), which were burned exten-
sively in Africa (Aikins et al. 1994; Heine and Legére 1995; Pålsson and Jaenson
1999b). The active constituent is a tetranotriterpenoid called azadirachtin. Citronella
grass, Cymbopogon nardus, is also known for its use as a mosquito repellent (Chom-
chalow 1993). It produces citronella oil, which was burned traditionally in Southeast
Asia and is now common elsewhere in the world. In Bolivia, central Asia, and India,
mugwort (Artemisia vulgaris) was considered ideal for warding off disease-causing
pests (Hwang et al. 1985). Researchers showed that the main active compounds in its
leaves were predominantly monoterpenes. Other common smoke-producing insect
repelling plants include members of the mint family, Lamiaceae, with at least seven
species of Ocimum (basils) burned throughout Africa (Dalziel 1937; Kokwaro 1976).
Introduction 21
Common household items can also be burned to control pests (figure 12). In
Papua New Guinea, the smoke of burning coconut husks (Cocos nucifera) was used
to drive away two disease-causing mosquito species (Vernede et al. 1994; figure 13).
Wild mango wood and betel nut leaves were similarly considered useful. In Kenya,
rice husks were deliberately burned to repel mosquitoes (Ongore et al. 1989), and in
Ghana and Sierra Leone, orange peels were burned (Aikins et al. 1994). The smoke
of burning coffee beans tested positive for its mortality on honeybees and a species
of tracheal mite (Eischen and Vergara 2004). Its active principle, caffeine, and other
related methylxanthines are considered natural insecticides. Similarly, maize (Zea
mays) smoke was also lethal to the bees and mites (Eischen and Vergara 2004). Other
useful plants include hemp (Cannabis sativa), reported for its insect repellent proper-
ties in Hungary (Vajkai 1943), and tobacco (Nicotiana spp.). The active compound in
tobacco leaves, nicotine, is commonly used in greenhouses as a fumigant to kill soft-
bodied insects and other pests (Rechcigl and Rechcigl 1999). In rural Malawi, locals
burned green grass to repel insects (Rubardt et al. 1999).
Figure 12. Several

common household
foods were smoked for
various purposes around
the world. Included
are bananas, cashews,
chamomile, chili peppers,
cinnamon, coconuts,
coffee, garlic, mangoes,
mint, onion, oranges,
oregano, peaches, rice,
rosemary, and turmeric.
Figure 13. Smoke from

burning coconut husks
was considered useful for
deterring mosquitoes.

The use of pest repellents for keeping ectoparasites and food pests away from
stored agriculture crops also plays a major role in developing countries. Panagiota-
kopulu et al. (1995) have reviewed their use and importance in ancient times. In
addition, they reported that various methods were employed to protect Late Bronze
Age storerooms in Akrotiri, a site on the Greek island of Santorini, including airtight
compartments, oils, minerals, ash, and various natural plant and animal substances.
In more contemporary times, the treatment of grains and other stored food products
with plant-derived smoke is an effective and inexpensive means to protect them from
insect and fungal infestations. Up to 12% of Nigerian farmers, for example, currently
use smoke as a method of control. This has significantly reduced the levels of fungal
aflatoxin attack (Bankole and Adebanjo 2003). Similar results have been reported in
Benin in western Africa (Hell et al. 2000). Paasonen et al. (2003) have suggested that
smoke not only decreases microbial contamination due to endophytic species but
may also improve seed germination. A total of 165 species of plants from 41 countries
are described in this book along with 184 uses.
Perfumes, Flavoring, and Preservation

The origins of perfumes and their use are not known but were probably born in the
fires of our primitive ancestors. The word perfume is derived from the Latin words
per fumum meaning “to smoke.” Early humans would almost certainly have recog-
nized that many of the plants they burned produced fragrant smoke. This may have
influenced their choice of firewood. With time, our ancestors would have noticed that
pleasant smelling smokes could mask the odor of putrefaction and death. Its use in
this capacity was common in ancient civilizations, such as Egypt, Rome, and Greece.
The ability for odors, good or bad, to evoke powerful emotions in us and help us to
recall significant events in our lives also influences the nature of the aromas that we
surround ourselves with. Furthermore, pleasant aromas can lead us to mates, which
is one of the primary uses for most perfumes. The combination of these factors has
resulted in a multibillion-dollar perfume industry that may owe its very existence to
our forebears and the fires they lit for their survival.
Bacteria and other organisms rapidly contaminate foods that are not protected
or preserved in some way. These can be treated with a variety of chemicals, many of
which occur in plant-derived smoke. Formaldehyde, a potent preservative, may be
one of the many chemicals introduced into foods by smoke (Wilson 1991). Species,
such as white mangrove and African mahogany, have exhibited antibiotic properties
against Staphylococcus aureus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Eschirichia coli, three
bacteria known to spoil food (Asita and Campbell 1990).
Despite some of the dangers involved in preserving and flavoring foods with plant-
derived smoke, it is doubtful that these practices will cease anytime soon (figure 14).
Smoked foods are as highly sought after by food connoisseurs as wines fermented in
oak barrels are to Chardonnay enthusiasts. Kippers, once considered a luxury for soci-
ety’s elite, are typical of the type of smoked foods that are high in demand. Hundreds
of cookbooks describe how to smoke foods and beverages. They also recommend the
best woods to burn. These include hickory, mesquite, oak, maple, and various fruit
trees. With the advent of modern food storage and preserving devices, there is no
longer any real need to smoke foods except to satisfy our own culinary preferences.
The survival of humans may, however, have depended on it in earlier times. We may
never know, however, when this practice first started. Its history is as amorphous as
Introduction 23
Figure 14. Like most uses for plant-derived smoke, the preservation and flavoring of various foods,
containers, and animal hides are ancient practices. Photograph by Robert E. Ritzenthaler. Courtesy of
Milwaukee Public Museum.
the smoke that was used. Early archeological records discovered in an Irish site close
to the River Bann, where fish may have been preserved with smoke, date back to the
second millennium b.c. (Wilson 1991).
Seventy-one plant species were reportedly useful in preserving and flavoring foods.
Relatives of frankincense and myrrh trees were commonly used in Africa. Another
interesting species was kewda (Pandanus fascicularis). The male spadices, which are
often considered flowers, were important sources of income and perfumery products
in India (Dutta et al. 1987). For more than 200 years, kewda was used to make soaps,
bouquets, lotions, and hair oils. It was also used in the preparation of incense sticks
(agarbatties), for scenting clothes, and for flavoring tobacco (Nicotiana spp.), betel,
and food.
To dilute or mask the taste and effects of tobacco, a variety of plant species have
been smoked with them. Almost 100 plants were used for this purpose, many by
Native Americans who smoked the harsh wild tobacco N. rustica. The native Algon-
quin word for these mixtures and blends was kinnikinnick. This term should not be
confused with the bearberry plant, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, which was also smoked for
various reasons and referred to at times as kinnikinnick. A variety of plants, including
dogwoods (Cornus spp.) and sumacs (Rhus spp.), served as adulterants that diluted
tobacco or gave it a more refined taste. Many of today’s commercially available ciga-
rettes are flavored with Mentha species (mints), giving them a strong menthol taste.
Other flavoring agents include licorice (from Glycyrrhiza glabra), camphor (from
various sources), and the fruits of prunes and peaches (Prunus spp; Lewis and Elvin-
Lewis 2003). Indonesia’s kreteks cigarettes are flavored with the oil of cloves (Euge-
nia aromatica). Throughout their 100-year history, kreteks have been so popular that

billions of clove cigarettes are produced each year, providing employment, directly
and indirectly, to approximately 10 million people (Hanusz 2003). It is interesting
to note that before the process of rolling these uniquely Indonesian cigarettes was
mechanized, they were rolled by hand. Up to 38 billion were produced manually in
1977 alone (Hanusz 2004). Today, there are more than 500 hundred kretek manufac-
turers, most of them using machines to roll their products.
Eugenol, the major constituent of clove oil, is considered useful for respiratory
complaints, and to this day, kreteks continue to be marketed for this property. Of the
71 species, 24 were burned specifically to preserve or jerk foods, especially meats.
Plant-derived smoke was also used in the preservation and tanning of animals hides.
References to its use were reported in North America but were also common in parts
of Africa.
Veterinary Uses
In all, 32 plant species from 15 countries were reportedly burned to generate smoke
that was considered ideal for protecting domestic livestock. In some instances, smoke
was specifically generated to harm or even kill animals (see the following section on
Toxic and Obnoxious Smoke). Veterinary uses for plant-derived smoke range from
helping to heal the wounds of castrated animals, to treating specific illnesses, and to
protecting them from evil. A total of 35 uses have been reported, with most of these
occurring in North America and Africa.
In parts of Hungary, an unspecified species of willow (Salix sp.) was once consid-
ered ideal for helping to heal the wounds of cattle that had recently been castrated
(Vajkai 1943). This may have also helped with the pain since known analgesics, such
as salicyclic acid (active ingredient in aspirin), have been isolated from the bark of
Salix vulgaris. In parts of Turkey, the dwarf elderberry, Sambucus ebulus, was used for
similar purposes (Yeşilada et al. 1999), while in North America, the Ramah Navajo
used smoke from burning the leaves of coyote’s tobacco, Nicotiana attenuata, to treat
wounds of castrated horses (Vestal 1952).
Most of the veterinary uses for plant-derived smoke were for treating illnesses,
especially those of horses. These were reported for parts of North America and
Africa. In North America, almost one-third of plant-derived smoke uses were for
treating distemper in horses. Known also as strangles because of the swelling the dis-
ease causes in lymph nodes, horse distemper is a highly contagious disease caused
by the bacterium Streptococcus equi. This upper respiratory tract disease can affect
horses of any age and may hamper their ability to breathe. The disease is fatal only
in approximately 5% of all cases. In Africa, the animals most commonly treated for
illnesses with plant-derived smoke are cattle. In some cases, the smoke was consid-
ered useful in preventing animals from leaving their kraals (enclosures for cattle;
Hutchings et al. 1996).
In other cases, plant species were burned to keep evil at bay from animals or to
bless them. Perhaps one of the species better known for this purpose was the black
henbane, Hyoscyamus niger. For centuries, Europeans used to, on June 23—the eve
of St. John the Baptist’s birthday—burn this henbane in their barns to protect cattle
from evil (Schleiffer 1979). Livestock were often crucial to the survival of individuals,
families, and entire communities, especially in poorer times and areas, and so pro-
tecting them was considered important. The smoke of burning seeds was also said to
be useful in protecting children from witches, sickness, and bad luck. Considerable
Introduction 25
effort went into producing the smoke, some of which was fanned out across fields
of crops to protect them as well. Interestingly, the smoke of black henbane was used
in several parts of the world to relieve toothache and for respiratory problems. The
leaves were also smoked for recreational purposes. The lighting of fires for St. John’s
birthday has persisted since the fourth century, when it replaced the ancient summer
solstice celebrations of pagan times. Brushwood of any type is now used to make the
fires. However, neither the smoke nor its uses are considered important in the cer-
emonies of today, most of which only celebrate and recognize the saint’s birthday.
Toxic and Obnoxious Smoke

All throughout our history, hundreds of plants have inadvertently or deliberately
been used to poison humans and their animals. Poisonous plants, such as tobacco
and jimsonweed, alluded to previously, have a reputation for seriously harming and
killing people. Ironically, they have also found use as medicinal agents. This duality in
their nature is common for many poisonous plants. The fine line that exists between
their ability to cure and kill, known as the therapeutic index, is almost always depen-
dent on the dose of the extracts or substances used. Many of the drugs available today
have such a large therapeutic index that dose is not always a critical factor. Others,
such as the cardiac glycosides produced by Digitalis, oleanders, and related species,
are infinitely more dangerous when determining the correct dose. This is also true if
they are smoked.
Cardiac glycoside-producing plants, such as Nerium oleander, reportedly carry
harmful and sometimes deadly compounds in their smoke when burned (Nelson
2000). This is one of at least 52 plant species known to do so, but there are probably
countless more that have gone unreported. Related species, N. indicum and N. odo-
rum, were deliberately burned as part of an interesting polyherbal recipe that was
used during warfare according to the ancient fourth-century b.c. Sanskrit treatise
the Kautilīya of Arthaśāstra (Sensarma 1998). Many ingredients were listed in the
treatise, including well-known poisonous plants such as the castor-oil tree, Ricinus
communis, of which the chaff of its seeds was used. Castor-oil tree seeds produce a
highly poisonous protein, called ricin, which made world headlines in 1978 when
Bulgarian dissident and reporter Georgi Markov was assassinated with the sub-
stance. If a poison does in fact exist in the smoke generated by burning the chaff of
castor-oil tree seeds, it is, however, unlikely to be ricin. Like most proteins, ricin’s
chemical structure would denature during its combustion and lose its lethal effects
in the process. Other poisons must be responsible if indeed the chaff is as harmful
as claimed.
Also well known for its toxicity is poison ivy (Myths and facts about poison ivy
1998). Like so many Toxicodendron species, this plant produces an oleoresin, called
urushiol, which upon contact with skin, eyes, and hair of humans and other animals
causes dermatitis and other allergic reactions. This can occur even if the plant is
burned. If inhaled, urushiol-containing smoke can severely irritate the lining of the
respiratory tract and lungs. Hundreds of thousands of people are affected by it each
year, many due to its smoke. This figure now looks likely to increase along with rising
levels of global atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO2). Higher CO2 levels could poten-
tially increase the species’ population biomass and promote the production of a more
allergenic form of urushiol (Mohan et al. 2006). This is just one more of the many
incentives for reducing CO2 emissions.

Another interesting source of harmful smoke agents is the chili pepper, Capsi-
cum annuum. The Jívaro of eastern Ecuador burned and administered chili pepper
fruits in a way that would generally be considered an excessive form of punishment to
children. Juvenile delinquents were often forced to stand over the fumes of chili pep-
per fires when they had misbehaved (Harner 1984). A related species, C. frutescens,
was burned in Panama because its smoke was believed to be harmful to evil spirits
(Duke 1968) and could drive away mosquitoes and other pests (McIndoo 1945; Hart-
zell 1947). These uses are understandable considering the painful, burning sensation
associated with chili’s active constituent, capsaicin. Interestingly, the ancient Maya
of Mesoamerica found a medicinal use for chili smoke, claiming that it was ideal for
relieving sore throats and whooping cough (Asprey and Thornton 1955). This remedy
might also seem excessive to some.
While many plants specifically produce toxic or obnoxious substances, every sin-
gle plant—like all organic matter—produces and releases potentially harmful com-
pounds when not completely incinerated. These substances include carbon monoxide
(CO), polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), particulate matter (PM), and vari-
ous other compounds, such as phenols and cresols. Carbon monoxide is especially
very dangerous. Its affinity for the hemoglobin in our red blood cells (erythrocytes),
which is considerably greater than that of oxygen, makes it extremely toxic in large
volumes. Carbon monoxide is a significant cause of many accidental and deliberate
deaths, including suicide. A number of other undesirable effects are also due to this
gas. In rural Guatemala, pregnant women who cook over open wood fires often pro-
duce babies with lower mean average birth weights (Boy et al. 2002). This effect is also
known to occur in pregnant women who routinely smoke tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) or
passively inhale its smoke during their pregnancies.
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) can be equally as devastating to the
health of humans. Studies by Löfroth et al. (1991) and many others have revealed
that tobacco and other herbal cigarettes, incense materials, mosquito coils, meat, and
other cooked foods all emitted PAHs, many of which tested positive in the Ames
Salmonella test. This is considered a useful short-term standard bacterial bioassay for
determining the potential mutagenecity of substances (Atta-ur-Rahman et al. 2001).
One of the more carcinogenic of the 600 or so PAHs is benzo[a]pyrene (Howard
and Fazio 1980; Bjфrseth and Ramdahl 1985). Interestingly, in a translated version of
John Gaddesden’s 1492 edition of Rosa Medicina, smoked foods are listed as a cause
of epilepsy (Eadie and Bladin 2001).
Unspecified Uses
Some of the reports we used to compile this book did not include details of where or
how the plants generating useful plant-derived smoke were used or who used them.
A total of 46 plants with 59 unspecified uses from 14 countries fall into this category.
Also listed in this book are plants whose smoke was used as a signaling device.
Despite their common association with Native American people, smoke signals
have also played an important role in Catholic traditions that date back hundreds of
years. The Catholic Church uses smoke to signal it has achieved Habemus Papam (it
has elected a new pope). This occurred as recently as April 19, 2005, when a crowd of
100,000 people gathered in St. Peter’s Square to await news on Pope John Paul II’s suc-
cessor. At 5:49 p.m. on day two of the papal conclave, a plume of white smoke slowly
billowed out of the chimney above the Sistine Chapel, where the Sacred College of
Introduction 27
Cardinals meets to cast their ballot. German Cardinal Josef Alois Ratzinger was cho-
sen by a two-thirds majority ballot to fill the vacant See of Saint Peter and become the
Vicar of Christ.
The use of smoke to announce the selection of a new Pontifex Maximus, or Holy
Roman Pontiff, is one of the most famous traditions of papal succession rites. The
ballot sheets used by the cardinal selectors are burned to generate the white smoke.
Chemicals are added to the fire for black smoke, which was traditionally produced by
burning wet straw and used to announce that no decision had been reached. Smoke
was also used in other forms of communication. Before the advent of modern com-
municating devices, smoke signals were used to communicate across vast distances
by at least two cultures. This is an age-old practice that was independently developed
by Native Americans and by the Chinese for use on the Great Wall. There were usu-
ally no standardized codes, so each group was forced to develop their own, limiting
their use.
Seed Germination
Seed germination is reportedly also affected by plant-derived smoke. Our ancestors
may have used smoke in this capacity for centuries. Only recently has the scientific
community delved into understanding the ecology of smoke as a seed dormancy-
breaking mechanism in fire-prone environments. Most research to date has focused
on, but is not limited to, the fire-prone Mediterranean environments of the western
United States, Western Australia, and South Africa. These environments are among
the richest floristic regions in the world, with 3,500 to 9,000 species, and are con-
sidered priority areas for conservation. Appropriate management of these regions
requires an understanding of the ecology of these ecosystems. Knowledge of the role
that smoke plays in breaking seed dormancy is one small but highly important com-
ponent of the multifaceted complexities of fire ecology. Not all species respond to
smoke cues, however. Some require other environmental cues or multiple cues to
germinate. The seed dormancy mechanism often determines which cue is required
to initiate germination.
On a final note, the human population has exponentially grown to approximately
6.6 billion people, with most of that growth occurring in the twentieth century. This
growth has driven humans to further exploit plant species, leading to extinction in
some cases. Without focused conservation measures, this imbalance between plant
use and plant species survival may have disastrous consequences.
Conservation biology is defined by its goal of preserving biodiversity. Whether a
plant species is exploited for smoke, medicine, food, shelter, or beautification, there
are two primary conservation issues that arise when humans use wild plant species.
The species may be overharvested and threatened with genetic erosion and ultimately
extinction, or the species may be cultivated outside its native range and become
weedy or invasive, thus threatening other species. Readers are encouraged to help
conserve plants by minimizing overharvest and by not introducing invasive species
into other countries.
Lists of Plants
Plant species are arranged in alphabetical order according to genus name and species
epithet. The binomial names listed are those reported in the original texts unless they
have since changed. When this was the case, the latest accepted name is listed, with

the original name also included. Synonyms are only given in some cases. All nomen-
clatural authorities and family names were similarly extracted from original texts and
verified using a number of Internet resources. These include the International Plant
Names Index (IPNI; www.ipni.org), the Missouri Botanical Garden’s W3TROPICOS
Nomenclatural Database (www.tropicos.org), the U.S. Department of Agriculture’s
(USDA) Plants Database (plants.usda.gov), and GRIN Taxonomy for plants (www.
ars-grin.gov). All nomenclatural authorities were abbreviated and standardized
according to those reported in Brummitt and Powell (1992).
Only one common name is given for each of the plant species. In many cases, no
English vernacular names were reported in original texts. When this was the case,
local names were used. In many cases, the locally used common names for some
plant species are also included within the text along with the geographical location
and name of the users. When no common names were found, the plant’s genus name
was given. In many cases, more than one plant has been assigned the same common
name.
Uses for plants include the country where they were reported, the names of the
groups of people who used them, and the parts of the plants used. If any special
smoking methods or paraphernalia were required to generate or inhale the smoke,
these too have been included along with all relevant references. A total of 98 plant
species include line diagrams. All of the illustrations in this book were checked by
various botanists and plant experts at the Chicago Botanic Garden and elsewhere.
Internet sites, such as GRIN taxonomy and others mentioned earlier, were also con-
sulted to check the illustrations.
Not included are recipes for modern-day incense products or information on the
many different brands currently available for purchase. Other commercially available
smoke products, such as those used to flavor beverages and foods, have similarly been
omitted unless they were specifically of ethnobotanical use.
Introduction 29
LIST OF PLANTS
Abies amabilis Dougl. ex Forbes (Pinaceae). pacific silver fir.

The Native American Ojibwa, who occupied the upper Midwest of the United
States and parts of Canada, inhaled the smoke of burning leaves to treat colds
(Smith 1932). The Nitinaht of British Columbia, Canada, burned the boughs and
inhaled the smoke to prevent sickness (Turner et al. 1983).
Abies balsamea (L.) Mill. (Pinaceae). balsam fir.
Unspecified parts of this species were burned as
incense in Iceland (Bjornnson 1475). In parts of
North America, Native Americans threw the nee-
dles on hot coals in their sweat baths and inhaled
the fumes to relieve coughs and colds (Krochmal
and Krochmal 1973). The gum from the tree was
used in churches in Paris as frankincense (Lescar-
bot 1609).
Abies grandis (Dougl. ex D. Don) Lindl. (Pinaceae). Abies balsamea
grand fir.
The Nitinaht of British Columbia, Canada, burned the boughs of this species in
their fires and inhaled the smoke to prevent general sickness (Turner et al. 1983).
Abies lasiocarpa (Hook.) Nutt. (Pinaceae). Rocky Mountain fir.
The Crow, who inhabited parts of Montana and Wyoming, burned the twigs and
leaves of this species for incense purposes (Uphof 1968) and during certain ceremo-
nies (Blankinship 1905). The Blackfoot, also of Montana and parts of Canada, inhaled
the smoke from smudges made with the needles to treat headaches, to help an uncon-
scious person recover, and to treat tuberculosis (Hellson 1974). It was also used as a
fumigant for people whose faces had swollen because of venereal diseases and to help
sick horses. The Cheyenne of Montana and Oklahoma burned the needles as incense
when people were frightened of thunder (Hart 1981). They considered the aromatic
smoke useful for chasing away bad influences. The Nez Perce of Idaho, Oregon, and
other parts of the United States burned the boughs as incense in sweathouses (Hart
1996). The Native Americans of the Rocky Mountain area of the United States burned
the twigs and leaves for smoke that was used for unspecified purposes (Usher 1974).
Abies spectabilis Spach (Pinaceae). Himalayan fir.
The dried needles were burned for their pleasing aromatic smoke in Nepal
(Manandhar 2002).
Abies spp. (Pinaceae). firs.
The Carrier of British Columbia, Canada, used the smoke from burning rotten
wood to smoke and tan animal skins (Carrier Linguistic Committee 1973). The
Abies spp. 31
resin and needles of various species of firs were used in Europe, especially Ger-
many and Switzerland, for the preparation of incense candles that were burned
during Christmas (Rätsch 2004). The resin and needles were burned as part of
shaman incense mixtures that included Hyoscyamus niger L., Juniperus communis
L., Artemisia vulgaris L., Taxus baccata L., and Thymus serpyllum L.
Abrus precatorius L. (Fabaceae). rosarypea.
According to book 4, chapter 1, topic 177 of the ancient Sanskrit treatise the
Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.), the seeds of this species, when
burned together with the leaves of Gossypium herbaceum L., the seeds of Guilan-
dino bunducella L., Jasminum L. sp., Careya arborea Roxb., cow dung, and vari-
ous salts, will produce smoke that causes blindness in one’s enemies (Sensarma
1998).
Acacia adsurgens Maiden & Blakely (Fabaceae). walpiri mulga.
Native Australians inhaled the smoke produced by burning the leaves of the wal-
piri mulga tree to help relieve diarrhea (Latz 1995).
Acacia ancistrocarpa Maiden & Blakely (Fabaceae). pirraru.
Parts of the whole plant, especially the leaves, were burned by Native Australians to
produce smoke that was considered useful for relieving diarrhea (Latz 1995).
Acacia aneura F. Muell. ex Benth. (Fabaceae). mulga.
Native Australians used unspecified parts of the mulga tree to strengthen new-
borns as well as to stem the flow of postpartum bleeding and induce lactation in
mothers (Barr 1993). In the Northern Territory of Australia, the leaves and twigs
were burned for smoke that promoted good health in babies.
Acacia dictyophleba F. Muell. (Fabaceae). pilpirrinpa.
Native Australians burned parts of the entire plant, especially the leaves, for smoke
that was considered useful for treating diarrhea (Latz 1995).
Acacia glaucophylla Steud. ex A. Rich. (Fabaceae). Acacia.
Traditional healers in Tanzania on Africa’s East Coast used this species to treat
epilepsy. Patients were covered with a blanket and encouraged to inhale the smoke
produced by burning leaves (Mushi et al. 2005).
Acacia goetzei Harms. (Fabaceae). purplepod acacia.
Borana women in southern Oromia, Ethiopia, used a variety of plants, such as this
one, to perfume their clothes and bodies (Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005). Most of the
women possessed a special saunalike cubicle in their huts consisting of a pit that
was approximately 50 cm deep and 30 cm wide. Sticks were hammered into the
ground to enclose the cubicle, to which there was a single entrance. The women
cut up pieces of their favorite plants and burned them in a special pit. The chamber
was then covered with a mattress or blanket made of cattle hide. Once ready, the
women disrobed and entered into the chamber. They sat on small stools, keeping
their heads out to avoid suffocation. This traditional cleansing method has two
advantages. First, the women sweat in the saunalike conditions, which naturally
cleanses their bodies. Second, the aromatic smell carried in the smoke of the plants
is long lasting and may have the same effect as modern perfumes. Elsewhere, the
Gabbra of Kenya burned the wood of this species for incense purposes (Heine and
Brenzinger 1988).
Acacia horrida Willd. (Fabaceae). doornboom tree.
The Rendille of Kenya’s Marsabit District fumigated their containers with the
smoke generated when burning this species (Heine and Heine 1988b).
32 Abrus precatorius L.
Acacia horrida Willd. ssp. benadinensis (Fabaceae). doornboom tree.
This plant was used for the same purpose as A. horrida Willd. (Heine and Heine
1988b).
Acacia kempeana F. Muell. (Fabaceae). witchetty bush.
The leaves and other parts of the whole plant were burned to produce smoke that
was thought to be useful in relieving diarrhea (Latz 1995). Elsewhere, in the North-
ern Territory of Australia, the leaves were burned near newborn babies so that they
could inhale the smoke to promote well-being and stem the flow of postpartum
bleeding in their mothers (Barr 1993).
Acacia ligulata A. Cunn. ex Benth. (Fabaceae). dune wattle.
The smoke generated by burning leaves and other parts of this plant was inhaled
by indigenous Australians to relieve diarrhea (Latz 1995).
Acacia lysiphloia F. Muell. (Fabaceae). turpentine bush.
The leaves and other parts of this species were mixed with dust scraped off termite
mounds and were burned by indigenous Australians so that the smoke produced
could be inhaled to treat postpartum bleeding in new mothers and to promote
general well-being in the rest of the tribe (Barr 1993).
Acacia macrothyrsa Harms (Fabaceae). large leafed acacia.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, root powder was smoked to treat epilepsy (Tabuti
et al. 2003).
Acacia mellifera Benth. (Fabaceae). black thorn.
The Mukogodo Maasai of the Laikipia District of northern Kenya burned the
wood to fumigate their milk containers and improve the milk’s flavor (Brenzinger
et al. 1994).
Acacia mellifera Benth. ssp. mellifera (Fabaceae). black thorn.
The Chamus (Heine and Heine 1988a) and Pokot (Timberlake 1987) of Kenya
burned the bark to fumigate, clean, and perfume their milk containers. The Pokot
name for the species is talamo.
Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile (Fabaceae). prickly acacia.
People of the Kharga and Dakhla Oases of Egypt smoked powdered fruits for the
relief of nasal congestion (Osborn 1968).
Acacia nilotica (L.) Delile ssp. subalata (Vatke) Brenan (Fabaceae). Egyptian
mimosa.
The Rendille of the Marsabit District of northern Kenya fumigated and cleansed
various containers by burning this plant (Heine and Heine 1988b).
Acacia nubica Benth. (Fabaceaea). pelil.
The Chamus of Kenya burned the wood of pelil to fumigate and clean their con-
tainers (Heine and Heine 1988a). This was common also with the Gabbra of Kenya’s
Marsabit District and with the Borana of Ethiopia (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Acacia pellita O. Schwartz. (Fabaceae). soapbush.
The Native Australians of Groote Eylandt forced overexcited children to inhale the
smoke of burning soapbush leaves. They claimed that it made them slow down and
stop (Levitt 1981). Note: The identity of this species, known locally as marra, was not
confirmed and may have been a closely related acacia (Levitt 1981). This species may
have been smoked for similar purposes elsewhere in Australia (Bindon 1996).
Acacia pruinocarpa Tindale (Fabaceae). black gidgee.
The leaves and other parts of this acacia were considered ideal for burning and
producing smoke that was thought to be useful in relieving diarrhea (Latz 1995).
Acacia pruinocarpa Tindale 33

Acacia salicina Lindl. (Fabaceae). Broughton wattle.
Native Australians burned the leaves and inhaled the smoke to induce deep and
lengthy sleep (Webb 1969). According to Latz (1995), Native Australians also
inhaled smoke from the leaves for other unspecified medicinal properties.
Acacia senegal Willd. (Fabaceae). gum Arabic.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, the roots were burned, and the smoke was inhaled
to treat migraines (Tabuti et al. 2003). This plant was sold as incense in the markets
of Jima, Ethiopia, where it is known as it’an (Siegenthaler 1971).
Acacia senegal Willd. ssp. keniensis (Fabaceae). gum Arabic.
The Borana of Ethiopia and the Gabbra of Kenya burned the wood of this species
as incense (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Acacia seyal Delile (Fabaceae). shittim wood.
In Nigeria, the wood of this wattle was burned for smoke that was considered an
excellent insecticide (Ainsle 1937).
Acacia tortilis Hayne (Fabaceae). umbrella thorn.
Smoke generated in saunalike chambers in their private huts was used to perfume
and cleanse Borana women in southern Oromia, Ethiopia (Gemedo-Dalle et al.
2005). For more information on this practice, see Acacia goetzei Harms.
Acalypha fruticosa Forssk. (Euphorbiaceae). copperleaf.
The villagers of Tongoni in Tanzania’s Tanga District and from the village of Kijango
in the Korogwe District burned the dried leaves of this species and inhaled the
smoke to cure various diseases of the skin (Hedberg et al. 1983).
Acalypha ornata Hochst. ex A. Rich. (Euphorbiaceae). lushete.
In parts of Tanzania, smoke generated by burning unspecified parts of this species
was inhaled twice a day to treat epilepsy (Mushi et al. 2005).
Acalypha sp. (Euphorbiaceae). copperleaf.
The Zulu of South Africa burned the twigs of an unspecified species of copperleaf to
produce smoke that was considered useful for treating headaches (Gerstner 1938).
Acalypha villicaulis Hochst. ex A. Rich. (Euphorbiaceae). Kaiso kampagna.
Men of Bulamogi County, Uganda, smoked the leaves of this plant when they wanted
to divorce their wives (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Acer negundo L. (Aceraceae). box elder.
Native North Americans burned the wood of box elder for incense purposes
(Usher 1974).
Acer saccharinum L. (Aceraceae). silver eye maple.
According to Grieve (1971), the wood of this species, when burned, can seriously
harm the eyes.
Achillea lanulosa Nutt. (Asteraceae). yarrow.
Both the Pillager Ojibwa and Forest Potawatomi of North America burned the
flowers of yarrow and inhaled the smoke to reduce fever and to revive comatose
people (Smith 1932). Moerman (1998) suggests that the species actually used may
have been Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis DC.
Achillea millefolium L. (Asteraceae). common yarrow.
The Forest Potawatomi of North America burned the florets of this species to
reduce fevers and to revive comatose patients. Other Potawatomi tribes placed the
flowers on hot coals to prepare a smudge that was believed to keep witches and evil
spirits away from people in a comalike state (Smith 1933; Vogel 1970). The Native
American Flambeau Ojibwa and Pillager Ojibwa smoked dried flowering heads
34 Acacia salicina Lindl.

for ceremonial purposes (Smith 1928; Smith 1932). The Pillager
Ojibwa also placed the florets on hot coals, inhaling the smoke to
break fevers (Smith 1928). The Colville of North America prepared
a smoke smudge that was used to keep mosquitoes away (Turner
et al. 1980). In Isthmian America, which includes all the countries
from Mexico to Colombia, the common yarrow was smoked when
tobacco was not available (Duke 1986). In Ireland, the leaves were
smoked in pipes to relieve toothache (Fargher 1969).
Achillea millefolium L. var. occidentalis DC. (Asteraceae).
western yarrow.
The Ojibwa of North America smoked the flowering heads during
certain ceremonies (Smith 1932). They added flower heads to their
kinnikinnick mixtures, which were also smoked for ceremonial
purposes. This species was reported as A. lanulosa Nutt. in original
Achillea millefolium
texts.
Achyranthes aspera L. (Amaranthaceae). devil’s horsewhip.
In Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika), parts of this plant were added to tobacco to
improve its flavor (von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Acokanthera oppositifolia (Lam.) Codd. (Apocynaceae). bushman’s poison.
According to the Vendan of South Africa, women should avoid the smoke
produced when this species is burned. It is said to cause prolonged men-
struation (Arnold and Gulumian 1984). The Vendan name of this species is
murungula.
Acokanthera schimperi Oliv. (Apocynaceae). arrow poison tree.
In Ethiopia, smoke from burning arrow poison tree wood was used to treat liver
disease (Getahun 1976). Getahun (1976) warns that the smoke from burning
arrow poison tree wood may be toxic. It was also used to kill insects.
Acokanthera spp. (Apocynaceae). bushman’s poison.
In Ethiopia, the dried roots and twigs of various species of Acokanthera were
burned to generate smoke that reportedly repelled insects (Neuwinger 1994).
Acorus calamus L. (Acoraceae). sweet flag.
This plant was considered sacred in parts of India, where it was
used as a fumigant for the relief of pain associated with piles
(hemorrhoids; Dhiman 2003). In the Bankura District of West
Bengal, India, smoke from burning rhizomes was inhaled by
people suffering from epilepsy and hysteria (Saren et al. 2000).
The Iroquois of North America smoked the roots to relieve
toothache (Herrick 1977). After inhaling the smoke, they sucked
it into the hollows of the decayed teeth. The smoke of burn-
ing roots was considered a useful remedy for colds according
to the Pawnee of North America (Gilmore 1919). Other Native
Americans smoked powdered rhizomes and roots for pleasure
(Youngken 1924).
Actiniopteris radiata Link (Actiniopteridaceae). morpankhi.
To the Bhils of the Chandipur area of Jhalawar District of India’s
Rajasthan State, fumigations of dried leaves were highly prized
for driving away the nazar, or “evil eye,” which often affects male
babies (Sharma, N. K. 2004). Acorus calamus
Actiniopteris radiata Link 35

Adansonia digitata L. (Bombacaceae). baobab.
In Ghana and Gambia, the leaves were thought to be useful, when burned, to pro-
duce a mosquito-repellent smoke (Aikins et al. 1994).
Adenocalymma alliaceum Miers (Bignoniaceae). cipo d’alho.
The leaves were burned as ritual incense in Brazil’s state of Pará, where it was
readily available for purchase in the Ver-o-Peso markets of Belém (van den Berg
1984).
Adiantum aethiopicum L. (Adiantaceae). maidenhair.
Unspecified African tribes smoked the fronds (large leaves with many divisions) of
this fern to treat colds (Cribb and Cribb 1981).
Adiantum capillus-veneris L. (Adiantaceae). southern
maidenhair.
The dried fronds of the southern maidenhair were smoked in
Lesotho, Africa, for the relief of head and chest colds (Jacot
Guillarmod 1971), a use for which it was also employed in
parts of Europe (Roberts 1990). Native Americans encouraged
mentally unstable people to burn the leaves of this species to
generate smoke that was believed to drive away bad spirits
(Foster and Hobbs 2002).
Adiantum fuliginosum Fée (Adiantaceae).
Hah-pi ah-wah-rah.
Smoke produced by burning the entire plant was inhaled in
parts of Suriname to reduce fever (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Adiantum lanulatum Burm. f. (Adiantaceae). Kane unya.
In Nepal, rhizomes were burned on fires to generate smoke that Adiantum capillus-veneris
was inhaled to treat intermittent fever (Manandhar 1991). This
species was originally reported as Adiantum philippense L.
Adiantum pedatum L. (Adiantaceae). five-finger fern.
The Cherokee of North America gathered dried fronds, powdered them, and then
smoked the powder for heart problems (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975). The com-
plete plant was powdered and smoked to relieve asthma attacks.
Adiantum tenerum Sw. (Adiantaceae). black stick maidenhair.
The leaves were sometimes smoked in parts of Africa to relieve head and chest
colds (Asprey and Thornton 1954b).
Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult. (Amaranthaceae). Aerva.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, where this species is known as lwelya, the whole
plant was burned in an earthen pot to generate smoke that was reputed to help one
overcome a criminal case (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Aeschynanthus poilanei Pellegr. (Gesneriaceae). greensleeve.
In parts of Indo-China, the smoke produced by burning this species was
inhaled as a decongestive medicine by women who had just given birth (Péte-
lot 1953).
Agastache neomexicana (Briq.) Standl. (Lamiaceae). New Mexico
giant hyssop.
The Navajo and Ramah Navajo of North America used this species in fumigations
to treat deer infections (Vestal 1952). Moerman (1988) suggests that the species
actually used may have been Agastache pallidiflora (A. Heller) Rydb. ssp. neomexi-
cana (Briq.) Lint & Epling var. neomexicana (Briq.) R. W. Sanders.
36 Adansonia digitata L.
Agastache pallidiflora (A. Heller) Rydb. ssp. neomexicana (Briq.) Lint & Epling var.
neomexicana (Briq.) R. W. Sanders. (Lamiaceae). big Williams mountain giant hyssop.
The Navajo and Ramah of North America burned this plant as a fumigant for
treating deer infections (Vestal 1952). This species was reported as Agastache
neomexicana (Briq.) Standl. in original texts.
Agathis dammara (Lamb.) Rich. (Araucariaceae). dammar pine.
The resin of this pine was burned in the Cordillera region of northern Luzon in
the Philippines to produce smoke that was inhaled to relieve bronchial asthma (Co
1989). The local name for the species is almasigia. The resins produced by the species
are sold over the Internet, frequently trading under the names gold or black copal.
Agathisanthemum bojeri ssp. bojeri Klotzsch (Rubiaceae). Agathisanthemum.
The seeds of this species were smoked for respiratory problems and asthma by the
Karanga of Zimbabwe (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Ageratina altissima R. M. King & H. Rob. var. roanensis (Small) Clewell & Woot.
(Asteraceae). white snakeroot.
The Chickasaw of North America prepared smoke smudges to revive unconscious
people (Smith 1928). This species was reported as Eupatorium urticaefolium Reich-
ard in original texts.
Ailanthus malabarica DC. (Scrophulariaceae). white bean.
The scented resin of white bean was harvested and burned for incense purposes in
parts of India (Usher 1974).
Ailanthus triphysa (Dennst.) Alston (Simaroubaceae). white sirus.
This species was used in the preparation of incense materials in parts of India
(Cribb and Cribb 1981).
Albizia amara Boivin (Fabaceae). bitter false thorn.
In southern Oromia, Ethiopia, the smoke generated in saunalike chambers in per-
sonal huts was used to perfume and cleanse Borana women (Gemedo-Dalle et al.
2005). For more information on this practice, see Acacia goetzei Harms.
Alchornea latifolia Sw. (Euphorbiaceae). loblob.
In Jamaica, loblob was smoked in a pipe as part of a treatment for toothache
(Asprey and Thornton 1954b).
Alepidea amatymbica Eckl. & Zeyh. (Apiaceae). larger tinsel flower.
The roots of this species, which is called kalmoes in Afrikaans, were smoked in
parts of Africa to cure coughs and colds in children (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk
1962). The smoke of burning roots was also inhaled as a mild sedative (Hutchings
and van Staden 1994). In Zimbabwe, the smoke was inhaled to treat headaches
(Chinemana et al. 1985).
Alhagi camelorum Fisch. (Fabaceae). Arabian manna plant.
In Concan, India, this plant was smoked along with a Datura sp., tobacco (Nicoti-
ana spp.), and the seeds of the ajwan plant—probably Trachyspermum ammi (L.)
Sprague ex Turrill—to relieve asthma (Jayaweera 1981b).
Alhagi pseudoalhagi (M. Bieb.) Desv. ex B. Keller & Shap. (Fabaceae). camelthorn
bush.
The leaves of this plant were smoked to treat asthma in Mt. Abu, Rajasthan State,
India (Sebastian and Bhandari 1984).
Allenrolfea occidentalis Kuntze (Chenopodiaceae). iodine bush.
This plant was regarded as one of the first plants created according to the Seri of Mex-
ico. They used it during a number of smoking ceremonies (Felger and Moser 1985).
Allenrolfea occidentalis Kuntze 37

Allionia nyctaginea Michx. (Nyctaginaceae). heartleaf four o’clock.
The Western Keres of North America smoked the leaves as a tobacco (Nicotiana
spp.) substitute (Swank 1932). The species actually used may have been its syn-
onym, Mirabilis nyctaginea (Michx.) MacMill. (Moerman 1998).
Allium cepa L. (Alliaceae). onion.
The smoke of burning onion bulbs was used as a fumigant for unspecified pur-
poses during childbirth in Hungary, where the name for onion is vöröshagyma
(Vajkai 1943). In India, it was used to prevent childbirth. Vaginal fumigations of
onions mixed with wild pigeon feces were said to induce abortions in pregnant
woman according to the Ayurveda (Venkataraghavan and Sundaresan 1981). In
parts of Ankara, in central Anatolia, Turkey, the red outer husks of onion bulbs, the
white outer husks of garlic bulbs (Allium sativum L.), and the seeds of Peganum
harmala L. were burned together to fumigate rashes and other skin disorders of
the extremities or chest (Sezik et al. 2001).
Allium porrum L. (Alliaceae). garden leek.
According to Avicenna, the fruits of garden leeks were smoked in Iran for the relief
of toothache (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Allium sativum L. (Alliaceae). garlic.
The bulbs of garlic were mixed with pig excrement and burned in Hungary, where the
smoke was used to calm frightened children (Oláh 1987). In parts of Ankara, in central
Anatolia, Turkey, the white outer husks of garlic bulbs, the red outer husks of garlic
bulbs (Allium cepa L.), and the seeds of Peganum harmala L. were burned together to
fumigate rashes and other skin disorders of the extremities or chest (Sezik et al. 2001).
Allium sp. (Alliaceae). onions.
The Blackfoot of North America inhaled smoke from onion smudges to treat
headaches and to fumigate patients with colds. A bulb smudge was prepared for
sinus troubles (Hellson 1974). Elsewhere, smoke from burning onions was used to
flavor foods (Bogenschtz-Godwin and Ducellier 2002).
Allophylus griseotomentosus Gilg. (Sapindaceae). qadíída.
The Borana of Ethiopia and the Gabbra of Marsabit District, Kenya, cut pieces of
dried branches, burned them, and then allowed them to fumigate the insides of
camel milk containers (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Alnus crispa Pursh (Betulaceae). sitka alder.
In parts of Canada, the Inuktitut burned the bark of this species to produce smoke that
they inhaled to treat rheumatism (Wilson 1978). The Upper Tanana of Alaska burned
the wood to smoke fish (Kari 1985). Moerman (1998) suggests that the species actually
used may have been Alnus viridis (Vill.) Lam. & DC. ssp. crispa (Ait.) Turrill.
Alnus rhombifolia Nutt. (Betulaceae). white alder.
The Karok of North America burned the wood to smoke salmon, eels, and venison
(Schenck and Gifford 1952).
Alnus rubra Bong. (Betulaceae). red alder.
In British Columbia, Canada, the Kwakiutl (Boas 1935), the Bella Coola (Turner
1973), the Kitasoo (Compton 1993), the Nitinaht (Turner et al. 1983), the Oweek-
eno, the Thompson (Compton 1993), and native tribes from throughout the United
States burned the wood of red alder to smoke and preserve salmon and other
fish species (Uphof 1968; Usher 1974). The Haisla and Hanaksiala, also of Canada,
burned the wood to smoke fish and meat (Compton 1993). The Southern Kwakiutl
of British Columbia smoked the leaves for pleasure (Gill 1983).
38 Allionia nyctaginea Michx.

Alnus viridis (Chaix) DC. ssp. crispa (Aiton) Turrill (Betulaceae). mountain alder.
The Inuktitut of Canada burned the bark and inhaled the smoke to treat rheu-
matism (Wilson 1978). The smoke was also used as an insecticide to drive away
mosquitoes and to smoke fish. The Upper Tanana of Alaska burned the wood to
smoke fish (Kari 1985). This species was reported as Alnus crispa (Ait.) Pursh in
the original texts.
Aloe cooperi Baker (Aloeaceae). grass aloe.
The Zulu of South Africa used the smoke from burning leaves to protect their cows
from poor fodder (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Alpinia spp. (Zingerberaceae). wild ginger.
The leaves of various Alpinia species were burned in Papua New Guinea because
their smoke was thought to repel mosquitoes (Vernede et al. 1994).
Alstonia boonei De Willd. (Apocynaceae). cheesewood.
Asita and Campbell (1990) reported that the wood of this species could be
burned to produce smoke that effectively inhibited two species of bacteria—
Staphylococcus aureus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae—both of which are known
to spoil food.
Alternanthera sessilis (L.) R. Br. ex DC. (Amaranthaceae). sessile joyweed.
In the western parts of Papua New Guinea, natives smoked parts of this plant as a
general medicine (Perry 1980).
Alyxia flavescens Pierre & Pit. (Apocynaceae). Alyxia.
The roots of this species were burned in South Vietnam and in Thailand to pro-
duce smoke for incense purposes (Uphof 1968).
Alyxia psilostachya DC. (Apocynaceae). Alyxia.
Unspecified Native American tribes burned the whole plant for incense purposes
(Usher 1974).
Alyxia reinwardtii Blume (Apocynaceae). pulasari.
The bark of this species was used for the preparation of incense materials in Java,
Indonesia (Sangat-Roemantyo 1990).
Amaranthus hybridus L. ssp. hybridus (Amaranthaceae). slim amaranth.
Men of Bulamogi County, Uganda, smoked the leaves of this plant in a pipe made
of banana stem when they wanted to divorce their wives (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Amaranthus spinosus L. (Amaranthaceae). edlebur.
In the small South African area of Venda, every part of this plant was burned so
that the smoke could be inhaled to prevent and stop dizziness (Arnold and Gulu-
mian 1984).
Amaranthus viridis L. (Amaranthaceae). green amaranth.
The entire plant was burned in Rayalaseema in Andhra Pradesh State, India, for its
smoke, which was inhaled during bouts of dizziness (Nagaraju and Rau 1990).
Amasonia campestris (Aubl.) Moldenke (Lamiaceae). Wah-se-wha-se.
Smoke generated by burning of the whole plant was used as a fumigant in Guyana
to treat general illness (Defillips et al. 2004). Wah-se-wha-se is its Guyanese name.
Ambrosia maritima L. (Asteraceae). Ambrosia.
In Saudi Arabia, the entire plant was crushed and then burned so that the smoke
could be inhaled to relieve breathing difficulties (Ghazanfar 1994).
Amorpha canescens Pursh (Fabaceae). leadplant.
The Oglala of North America dried the leaves, crushed them, mixed them with
buffalo fat, and then smoked the mixture for pleasure (Gilmore 1919).
Amorpha canescens Pursh 39

Amorphophallus sp. (Araceae). stinking arum.
A nineteenth-century missionary living among Native Australians noticed that
smoke produced by burning the dried leaves of this species induced an anesthetic
effect similar to ether and chloroform (Cribb and Cribb 1981).
Amorphophallus variabilis Blume (Araceae). devil’s tongue.
Indigenous Australians smoked the leaves as a substitute for tobacco (Nicotiana
spp.; Webb 1948).
Amyris balsamifera L. (Rutaceae). balsam torchwood.
Balsam torchwood was popular for burning as incense in Cuba, Jamaica, Puerto
Rico, and other northern areas of Latin America (Uphof 1968).
Amyris elemifera L. (Rutaceae). torchwood.
This species produces an aromatic resin that was harvested and used for incense
purposes and for voodoo ceremonies on the Caribbean island of Montserrat
(Brussell 1997).
Anacardium occidentale L. (Anacardiaceae). cashew nut tree.
This native of Brazil was grown for its nuts, oil, and gum. The nuts were usually
dried in the sun and were then roasted on an open fire to remove caustic oils. The
smoke that resulted from this roasting can irritate eyes, skin, and respiratory sur-
faces (Duke 1968; Nelson 2000).
Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brennan (Fabaceae). cevil.
In northwestern Argentina, the seeds have been smoked or used as snuff powder
for their hallucinogenic effects for more than 4,500 years (Schultes et al. 2001). The
hallucinogenic compounds in this species are similar to those found in the skin
secretions of certain frogs and toads.
Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan var. cebil (Griseb.) Altschul (Fabaceae). cevil.
According to Califano (1975), Argentineans smoked this species mixed with
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.). The Abipone of Paraguay inhaled the smoke for unspeci-
fied purposes (Dobrizhoffer 1822).
Anadenanthera peregrina (L.) Benth. (Fabaceae). yopo.
Many Brazilians believed that the bark, when burned with dried cow dung, could
repel insects, snakes, and other animals (Branch and Gersgoff 1990). In Guyana,
the people smoked pulverized seeds for their psychoactive effects (de Smet 1985).
Anaphalis contorta Hook. f. (Asteraceae). everlasting.
This plant was burned for incense purposes in the Manang District of Nepal (Pohle
1990).
Anaphalis javanica Sch.Bip. (Asteraceae). Javan edelweiss.
The people of Java, Indonesia, burned the leaves and branches of this species for
incense purposes (Sangat-Roemantyo 1990).
Anaphalis margaritacea (L.) Benth. & Hook. f. (Asteraceae). western pearly
everlasting.
Several Native American tribes smoked the leaves for pleasure and for curing
headaches (Kavasch 1979). The Cherokee of North America smoked the leaves
for treating colds and both the leaves and stems for the relief of bronchial coughs
(Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975). According to Gerarde (1633), the smoke and fumes
of dried herbs were inhaled for coughs, for headaches, and for cleansing “inward
parts.” The Flambeau of North America burned the flowers as incense and for
reviving patients that have suffered paralysis due to stroke (Smith 1932). The
Cheyenne, also of North America, burned the leaves as incense and to purify the
40 Amorphophallus sp.
gifts they offered to their spirits (Grinnell 1905; Hart 1981). The Forest Potawatomi
smoked dried flowers or placed them on hot coals to drive away evil spirits by irri-
tating their eyes (Smith 1933). This species was also used for smoke therapies in
Suffolk, Britain, where the leaves were smoked for treating coughs and headaches
(Jobson 1967).
Anaphalis royleana DC. (Asteraceae). dhoop.
The dried flowers of dhoop were burned for incense purposes during certain reli-
gious ceremonies in the small town of Rewalsar, India (Sood and Thakur 2004).
Anaphalis triplinervis Sims ex C. B. Clarke. (Asteraceae). pearly everlasting.
Like Anaphalis contorta Hook. f., this plant was burned for incense purposes in the
Manang District of Nepal (Pohle 1990).
Andira inermis (W. Wright) DC. (Fabaceae). cabbage bark.
The smoke of burning wood was considered toxic and harmful to the eyes accord-
ing to the Darien of Panama (Duke 1968) and others of Isthmian America (Mexico
to Colombia) (Duke 1986). In Guyana, the smoke of burning fruit was considered
a useful pest repellent (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Andrachne ovalis Müll. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae). false lightning bush.
The roots, which are considered poisonous, were burned and inhaled by the Zulu.
This was said to be ideal for treating headaches and snakebites, and it was useful as
an emetic for chest complaints (Gerstner 1941).
Anemone caffra Harv. (Ranunculaceae). Anemone.
In parts of southern Africa, smoke of smoldering roots was inhaled to treat colds
and headaches (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Anemone fanninii Harv. (Ranunculaceae). giant wild anemone.
Like Anemone caffra Harv., the smoke of smoldering roots was used for treat-
ing colds and headaches in parts of southern Africa (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk
1962).
Anemone multifida Poir. (Rananculaceae). windflower.
The ripe seed heads were burned over hot coals in parts of North America to gen-
erate smoke that was inhaled for the relief of headaches (Foster and Hobbs 2002).
Anemone obtusiloba D. Don. (Ranunculaceae). Himalayan blue buttercup.
In the Sikkim Himalayas of India, the roots, which some consider poisonous, were
burned for incense purposes (Pandey 1991).
Anemone virginiana L. (Ranunculaceae). tall anemone.
The Meskwaki of North America burned the
seeds to produce smoke to treat catarrh and
to revive unconscious people (Smith 1928;
Vogel 1970). The smoke was directed up the
nose of the patient using a special cone.
Anemone vitifolia Buch.-Ham. ex DC.
(Ranunculaceae). Scarborough anemone.
The entire plant was burned for incense purposes
in the Manang District of Nepal (Pohle 1990).
Angelica archangelica L. (Apiaceae). Angelica.
The roots of this species were mixed with
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to add flavor to it
(Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). Neither the
country nor its users were specified. Angelica archangelica
Angelica archangelica L. 41
Angelica atropurpurea L. (Apiaceae). purplestem angelica.
The Delaware and Oklahoma of North America mixed the seeds of this species
with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and smoked the mixture for pleasure and other
unspecified purposes (Tantaquidgeon 1942). The seeds were probably added for
flavor. The natives of Arkansas mixed the roots with tobacco (Lewis and Elvin-
Lewis 2003). Other Native Americans smoked the leaves for recreational purposes
(Kavasch 1979).
Angelica breweri A. Gray. (Apiaceae). brewer’s angelica.
The Shoshone, who practiced some of the most powerful medicine in North
America (Rolling Thunder quoted in Pope 1999), dried and shaved the roots of
this species and smoked them to treat headaches (Train et al. 1941). Smoke from
the roots was also used to relieve horse distemper.
Angelica sp. (Apiaceae). angelicas.
The Costanoan of California often smoked the roots of an Angelica species to
relieve headaches (Bocek 1984). The Mendocino, also of California, smoked the
roots to treat colds and catarrh (Chestnut 1902).
Angelica tomentosa S. Wats. (Apiaceae). woolly angelica.
The shamans of the Pomo and Kashaya of North America smoked root shavings
when doctoring (Goodrich et al. 1980). Smoke produced by burning the complete
plant was employed by other Native American tribes to relieve headaches (Foster
and Hobbs 2002).
Aniba canelilla Mez (Lauraceae). rosewood.
In Guyana, smoke from burning stems was inhaled to relieve diarrhea (Defilipps
et al. 2004).
Annona ambotay Aubl. (Annonaceae). karaxmia.
The Waimiri Atroari of Brazil called this species karaxmia. They burned the bark
and inhaled its smoke to cure “madness” (Milliken et al. 1992). The Alter do Chão
of Pará, Brazil, inhaled the smoke from burning wood to treat various illnesses
(Branch and Gersgoff 1990).
Annona senegalensis Pers. (Annonaceae). wild custard apple.
To help keep spirits at bay, the people of Bulamogi County, Uganda, smoked the
roots of this species (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Annona squamosa L. (Annonaceae). sugar apple.
In parts of Mizoram, India, the smoke of burning seeds was inhaled for the treat-
ment of epilepsy (Sharma et al. 2001).
Annona stenophylla Engl. & Diels. (Annonaceae). dwarf custard apple.
This species was one of four ingredients in a Namibian smoke cure for the
heart condition angina pectoris. Its roots, along with those of Lablab purpureus
(L.) Sweet ssp. uncinatus Verdc. var. rhomboideus (Schinz) Verdc., Lannea edu-
lis Engl., and Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth., were burned on glow-
ing embers to produce smoke that was inhaled to treat other heart pains (von
Koenen 2001).
Antennaria aprica Greene (Asteraceae). small-leaf pussytoes.
The Navajo of North America mixed the leaves with tobacco and smoked them for
pleasure and during medicine ceremonies (Ross 2002).
Antennaria margaritacea (L.) Sweet (Asteraceae). life everlasting.
Ross (2002) suggests that the dried leaves of this species can be smoked for plea-
sure. No other details about its use were given.
42 Angelica atropurpurea L.
Antennaria neglecta Greene (Asteraceae). field pussytoes.
Native North Americans smoked the flowers and leaves for plea-
sure (Kavasch 1979). The Potowatomi used only the leaves for that
purpose (Kavasch 1979). Other Native Americans generated the
smoke to drive away bad spirits (Foster and Hobbs 2002).
Antennaria rosea Greene (Asteraceae). rosy pussytoes.
The Okanagan-Colville of North America burned dried, powdered
roots to drive away bad spirits and to revive unconscious dancers
(Turner et al. 1980). The Blackfoot added the tiny dried leaves to
their kinnikinnick mixtures (Nickerson 1966).
Antennaria sp. (Asteraceae). pussytoes. Antennaria neglecta
The Shoshone people of North America mixed the leaves of an
unspecified species of pussytoe with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and
smoked the mixture for pleasure and other purposes (Murphey 1990).
Anthriscus nemorosa Spreng. (Apiaceae). chervil.
The smoke of this species was prized in the Ladakh region of India as a cure for
rheumatism and inflammation (Navchoo and Buth 1989).
Anthurium oxycarpum Poepp. & Endl. (Aracaceae). laceleaf.
Brazilian and Peruvian people added fresh leaves to tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to
enhance its flavor (Peckolt 1892; Lewin 1964). In other parts of tropical America,
dried leaves were used for that purpose (Uphof 1968).
Apocynum androsaemifolium L. (Apocynaceae). spreading dogbane.
Natives of North America inhaled the fumes of burning dried roots for the relief
of headaches (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973). Similarly, the Pillager Ojibwa, also
of North America, inhaled the smoke from burning roots for headaches (Smith
1932). The Chippewa of North America inhaled the fumes of powdered root to
relieve headache or for mouth twitches (Densmore 1974).
Apocynum cannabinum L. (Apocynaceae). Indian hemp.
The Pillager Obijwa of North America smoked
the roots to relieve headaches (Adams 1951).
Other Native Americans inhaled the smoke
produced by burning dried plants as a remedy
for asthma even though this species is consid-
ered poisonous (Foster and Hobbs 2002).
Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. (Thymelaeaceae).
agar.
Agarwood was burned in India and China
as incense (Willis 1894; Stuart 1911; Uphof
1959; Dutt 1961; Manning 1965) and was
used in the preparation of joss sticks in
China (Uphof 1968; Li et al. 1973). In parts Apocynum cannabinum
of Malaysia, the wood was burned during Islamic prayers (Uphof 1968).
Aquilaria beccariana Tiegh. (Thymelaeaceae). gahuru.
The people of Java, Indonesia, burned the wood of this species for incense pur-
poses (Sangat-Roemantyo 1990).
Aquilaria hirta Ridl. (Thymelaeaceae). karas.
Uphof (1968) reported that this species was used in the preparation of incense
materials. No other details were given.
Aquilaria hirta Ridl. 43

Aquilaria malaccensis Lam. (Thymelaeaceae). agarwood.
The wood of this species was burned throughout the world for incense pur-
poses (Barden et al. 2003), especially in Indonesia, where it was highly prized
by the people of Java (Sangat-Roemantyo 1990). It was also burned as incense
in India (Gastaldo 1969). The sap secreted during pathogenic attack contains
resins, which impregnate the heartwood phloem fibers of the tree (Donovan and
Puri 2004). The volume of resins in the heartwood determines the quality of
the wood, known locally as gaharu. At least 17 Aquilaria species are known to
produce the resins (Chung and Purwaningsih 1999). The better quality gaharu
is used in the perfume industry, and poorer quality material is used for prepara-
tion of incense materials. Extensive overharvest of this and other Aquilaria spe-
cies now threatens their existence, especially agarwood, an Indo-Malaysian tree
whose Chinese name literally means “wood that stinks.” The international trade
of agarwood dates back to the thirteenth century. Several species may already be
extinct in countries such as Bangladesh and Indonesia (Chakrabarty et al. 1994).
This species has also been used for thousands of years for medicinal purposes
(Barden et al. 2003).
Aquilaria moszkowskii Gilg (Thymelaeaceae). chamdan.
According to Chung and Purwaningsih (1999) and Uphof (1968), the leaves of
this and several other species of Aquilaria were used throughout the world for the
preparation of incense materials.
Aquilaria sinensis Merr. (Thymelaeaceae). Chinese agarwood.
Parts of this plant were burned for incense purposes on Hainan Island, China (von
Reis and Lipp 1982).
Aquilaria spp. (Thymelaeaceae). agarwoods.
According to Chung and Purwaningsih (1999), the leaves of several Aquilaria spe-
cies were burned throughout the world for incense purposes.
Aquilegia canadensis L. (Ranunculaceae). wild columbine.
Young Meskwaki people of North America mixed the ripe capsules of this species
with their tobacco (Nicotiana spp.). Reportedly, this gave it a more refined flavor
(Smith 1928).
Aralia racemosa L. (Araliaceae). American
spikenard.
The Malecite of New Brunswick, Canada,
smoked the roots of the American spike-
nard to relieve headaches (Mechling 1959).
Arbutus menziesii Pursh. (Ericaceae). Pacific
madrone.
The Hoh and Quileute of North America
occasionally smoked the leaves for pleasure
(Reagan 1936).
Arcangelisia flava Merr. (Menispermaceae).
yellow fruit moonseed. Aralia racemosa
Smoke from the branches of this plant was
inhaled to relieve sprue (a tropical disease
that causes diarrhea due to poor absorption of nutrients) in Indonesia and the
Philippines (Boorsma 1920).
44 Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.

Arcangelisia loureiroi Diels (Menispermaceae). mountain dragon.
Smoke from the branches of this species was inhaled to relieve sprue in Indonesia
(Perry 1980).
Arctium lappa L. (Asteraceae). greater burdock.
The shamans (dumbus) of the Shuhi, a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group that lives
exclusively in the Shuiluo Valley of southwestern China, burned the leaves of this
species to treat colds (Weckerle et al. 2006).
Arctostaphylos alpina Spreng. (Ericaceae). alpine
bearberry.
Raudot (1709) and Kalm (1770) reported that the
natives of Quebec, Canada, frequently smoked
this herb for pleasure, as did the natives of the
Hudson Bay area (Isham 1743). Native Ameri-
Arctostaphylos alpina
cans near the Great Lakes gathered dried leaves,
powdered them, and then mixed the powder
with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to dilute its effects (Carver 1778). Youngken (1924)
noted that several “aboriginal tribes” ground dried leaves with those of tobacco or
red willow (probably Cornus amomum Mill.) and smoked the mixture for pleasure.
The shamans of Parry Island, near Lake Huron, North America, smoked the leaves
during religious ceremonies that were meant to heal the sick (Jenness 1935). The
Chippewa of North America smoked the leaves for relief from headaches (Dens-
more 1928). The Chippewa reportedly also smoked the leaves to induce a state of
intoxication during certain medicine ceremonies (Reagan 1928). The Ojibwa, also
of North America, smoked the leaves specifically to cause intoxication.
Arctostaphylos glandulosa Eastw. (Ericaceae). eastwood’s manzanita.
The Cahuilla of southern California mixed the leaves of this species with those of
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and smoked them for unspecified purposes (Bean and
Saubel 1972).
Arctostaphylos glauca Lindl. (Ericaceae). big berry manzanita.
Like Arctostaphylos glandulosa Eastw., the Cahuilla mixed the leaves of this species
with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) (Bean and Saubel 1972).
Arctostaphylos nevadensis Gray (Ericaceae). pinemat manzanita.
The Klamath of Oregon, North America, mixed the dried leaves of this species with
those of tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and smoked the mixture for pleasure (Coville
1897). The Paiute of the Great Basin region of North America added roasted leaves
to their tobacco (Mahar 1953).
Arctostaphylos patula Greene (Ericaceae). greenleaf manzanita.
Both the Klamath and Paiute of North America used the leaves of this species for
the same purposes as Arctostaphylos nevadensis Gray (Coville 1897; Mahar 1953).
Arctostaphylos pungens Kunth (Ericaceae). pointleaf manzanita.
The Cahuilla of southern California mixed the leaves with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.)
and smoked the mixture for pleasure (Bean and Saubel 1972). The Ramah Navajo
of western New Mexico smoked the dried leaves with mountain tobacco. This was
believed to bring them good luck (Vestal 1952).
Arctostaphylos tomentosa (Pursh) Lindl. (Ericaceae). woollyleaf manzanita.
The Hoh and Quileute of North America occasionally smoked the leaves for recre-
ational purposes (Reagan 1936). To the south, in Mexico, the leaves were smoked
for unspecified purposes (Santamaría 1942).
Arctostaphylos tomentosa (Pursh) Lindl. 45

Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng. (Ericaceae).
bearberry.
The leaves of this species were often used to dilute
harsh tobacco (Nicotiana spp.). The Chippewa of
North America used the leaves of this species in the
same way as those of Arctostaphylos alpina Spreng.
(Krochmal and Krochmal 1973; Tierra 1983). They
also smoked the leaves in a pipe to attract game
(Densmore 1974). This species was used for a vari-
ety of purposes by many Native American tribes
(see Moerman 1998, for a list of other uses and ref- Arctostaphylos uva-ursi
erences). Native Americans also used the smoke of
the leaves to treat earache (Foster and Hobbs 2002).
Early European colonists may have mixed this species with tobacco (Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis 2003).
Areca catechu L. (Arecaceae). betel palm.
This species was used in the Malay Peninsula, where powdered leaves were smoked
to relieve ulcerated noses (Burkill 1935). The smoke from burning leaves was used
to repel mosquitoes in Papua New Guinea (Vernede et al. 1994).
Arenaria macradenia S. Wats. (Caryophyllaceae). Mojave sandwort.
The Kawaiiso of southeastern California inhaled the smoke from dried roots to
relieve headaches and to clear their sinuses (Zigmund 1981).
Argemone mexicana L. (Papaveraceae). Mexican prickly poppy.
African American magicians believed that the seeds, when smoked, benumbed
their proselytes (alien residents) (Grimé 1979). In Mexico, the smoke of burning
seeds was used as a fumigant to relieve toothache (Jayaweera 1982a). According to
the Urubama Valley people of southern Peru, foreigners, or gringos, smoked the
flowers of this species as a substitute for cannabis (Franquemont et al. 1990).
Arisaema enneaphyllum Hochst. ex A. Rich. (Araceae). Arisaema.
The Borana of Ethiopia and Gabbra of Kenya burned the wood of this species as
incense (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Aristolochia sp. (Aristilochiaceae). Dutchman’s pipe.
In Guyana, the stems of an unspecified Aristolochia species were burned to pro-
duce smoke that was inhaled for the relief of coughs and other respiratory disor-
ders (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Artemisia absinthium L. (Asteraceae). bhurse.
Members of the Kibber tribe in India’s Lahoul Valley (northwestern Himalayas)
collected all the above-ground parts of this species, dried them in the sun, and
then, when powdered, threw a pinch of the material on fires for incense purposes
(Sood et al. 2001).
Artemisia argentea L’Hér. (Asteraceae). Madeira wormwood.
This was one of many Artemisia species used for smoke therapies. In the Madeira
Archipelago, an unspecified group of people smoked the leaves of this species for
treating apoplexy (Rivera and Obón 1995).
Artemisia californica Less. (Asteraceae). coastal sagebrush.
The Native American Cahuilla of southern California mixed this species with
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and other plants and smoked the mixture to relieve colds
(Bean and Saubel 1972).
46 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng.

Artemisia douglasiana Bess. (Asteraceae). Douglas’s sagewort.
The Costanoan on North America’s West Coast burned the branches to drive bees
away from their nests (Bocek 1984). The Kashaya Pomo, also of North America’s
West Coast, dried the leaves and smoked them as a tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) sub-
stitute (Goodrich et al. 1980). Other Native Americans inhaled the
fumes of burning plants to treat influenza (Foster and Hobbs 2002).
Artemisia dracunculus L. (Asteraceae). tarragon.
The Okanagan-Colville of British Columbia, Canada, and Washing-
ton, North America (Turner et al. 1980), and the Shuswap (Palmer
1975) of British Columbia used the branches for the preparation of
smoke smudges that were used to ward off mosquitoes.
Artemisia frigida Willd. (Asteraceae). prairie sagewort.
Smoke from burning leaves and flowers was used by the Poto-
watomi of North America to revive comatose patients (Smith
1933). The smoke was produced by placing the flowers and leaves
on hot coals. It was then directed up the nostrils using a cone of
paper. The leaves were also burned to treat biliousness (Densmore
1974). The Chippewa burned dried leaves to produce smoke that
was used to disinfect the rooms of sick people.
Artemisia furcata Bieb. var. heterophylla (Bess.) Hultén
(Asteraceae). forked wormwood.
The Meskwaki of Iowa prepared a smudge of the leaves to create a Artemisia dracunculus
smoke treatment for ponies with distemper (Smith 1928).
Artemisia gmelinii Webb ex Stechm. (Asteraceae). gmelin’s
wormwood.
Unspecified parts of this plant were used in the preparation of incense in India’s
Indus Valley (Ladakh region) (Singh et al. 1996).
Artemesia indica Willd. (Asteraceae). mugwort.
The dried leaves were burned as incense in Nepal (Manandhar 2002).
Artemisia japonica Thunb. (Asteraceae). Japanese wormwood.
In Nepal, the powder of dried plant material was burned for incense purposes
(Manandhar 2002).
Artemisia judaica L. (Asteraceae). wormwood.
Unspecified parts of this plant were burned by farmers of the Nile Valley area of
Egypt to fumigate their poultry (Osborn 1968). Arab Bedouins in Egypt consid-
ered the smoke of burning wormwood leaves also ideal for promoting good health
in babies and for warding off evil spirits (Osborn 1968).
Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. (Asteraceae). white sagebrush.
The Sioux of North America smoked white sagebrush for pleasure (Smith 1932).
A smoke smudge was also used to revive unconscious people (Kindscher and
Hurlburt 1998) and as incense during purification ceremonies (Rogers 1980).
The Meskwaki of North America used a smoke smudge of the leaves to drive
off mosquitoes (Smith 1928). The Thompson of British Columbia, Canada, used
the smoke of the plant to cure animal hides and to ward off mosquitoes (Turner
et al. 1990).
Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. ssp. ludoviciana (Asteraceae). white sagebrush.
The Chippewa of North America inhaled fumes from dried flowers as an antidote
to “bad medicine.” The Cheyenne burned dried leaves on coals to purify people and
Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. ssp. ludoviciana 47

utensils and to ward off the nightmares endured by sick people (Grinnell 1923).
The Lakota burned this plant for incense (Rogers 1980).
Artemisia maritima L. var. neercha (Asteraceae). nyurcha.
Members of the Beeling tribe in India’s Lahoul Valley (northwestern Himalayas)
collected the above-ground parts of this species, dried them in the sun, and then,
when powdered, threw a pinch of this material, along with the leaves of various
Juniperus species, on fires for incense purposes (Sood et al. 2001).
Artemisia maritima L. var. seski (Asteraceae). seski.
Members of the Jahalman tribe in India’s Lahoul Valley ( northwestern Himalayas)
burned this plant for incense purposes (Sood et al. 2001).
Artemisia nilagarica Pamp. (Asteraceae). Indian wormwood.
The Kumaon of India burned aerial parts of this plant for incense (Shah and Joshi
1971).
Artemisia parviflora Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb. (Asteraceae). Himalayan wormwood.
The shoots were burned as incense in the Kullu District of the northwestern Hima-
layas, India (Singh, G. S. 2000).
Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. (Asteraceae). redstem wormwood.
In the village of Kahuta of the Rawalpindi District of Pakistan, the whole plant
was burned for smoke that was considered useful for treating burns (Quereshi and
Khan 2001).
Artemisia sieberi Bess. (Asteraceae). shih.
Bedouins of Saudi Arabia inhaled the smoke produced by burning this plant for
unspecified medicinal purposes (Mandaville 1990).
Artemisia spp. (Asteraceae). sagebrush.
According to Bhattacharyya (1991), several species of Artemisia were used in the
Ladakh region of India for incense purposes. The complete plant was burned.
Artemisia thuscula Cav. (Asteraceae). incensio.
Aerial parts of this species were burned in the Canary Islands to
produce smoke that repels insects (Darias et al. 2001).
Artemisia tridentata Nutt. (Asteraceae). big sagebrush.
The Paiute of North America inhaled smoke produced by burn-
ing this plant for headaches and head colds (Train et al. 1941). The
Okanagan-Colville of North America used it to smoke animal hides
(Turner et al. 1980). The Washoe and Zuñi, also of North America,
burned the plant after illness to purify sickrooms (Dweck 1997).
The branches were often burned as a disinfectant after childbirth.
The Cahuilla of southern California burned the leaves and stems to
purify their abodes (Bean and Saubel 1972).
Artemisia tripartita Rybd. (Asteraceae). treetip sagebrush.
The Okanagan-Colville of parts of Canada and the United States
used this species to smoke animal hides (Turner et al. 1980).
Artemisia vulgaris L. (Asteraceae). common mugwort.
This species was used in China and Japan, where the leaves were Artemisia tridentata
smoked to relieve asthma (Kariyone and Kimura 1949). In the Far
East, the leaves were smoked as a tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) substi-
tute (Usher 1974). It was also burned to produce smoke that repelled mosquitoes
48 Artemisia maritima L. var. neercha

in Bolivia, central Asia, and India (Hwang et al. 1985). Those
researchers showed that the main active compounds were pre-
dominantly monoterpenes. In the Manang District of Nepal, the
whole shrub was burned as incense (Pohle 1990). Mugwort was
often used in an age-old Chinese form of acupuncture, called
moxibustion (figure 15). A combination of heat and smoke from
burning special moxa sticks was held over specific acupuncture
meridian lines of the body, called Qi lines, to treat a variety of
illnesses. This practice first arose during the Ming Dynasty of
China (1368–1644 b.c.) (Wilcox 2005). Some of the uses for the
smoke of mugwort listed in Li Shizhen’s 52 volumes of the Great
Pharmacopoeia of 1578 (published in 1596) include treating
numbness and paralysis, eliminating worms, and treating acne
in females. It was also useful as a treatment for scab sores, shank
sores due to coldness, toothache (wind worm), dysentery, and Artemisia vulgaris
prolapse of the anus (Li 2004). Parts of mugwort were some-
times mixed with other herbs and materials, some of which may
be threatened and endangered. There is concern that
smoke from the other species may be toxic.
Artocarpus altilis (Parkinson) Fosb. (Moraceae).
breadfruit.
Known in Samoa as ulu, the smoke of burning twigs
was used as a fumigant to treat anal thrush (Whistler
2000). In Tonga, smoke from burning twigs was used
as an antihelmintic agent (Whistler 1991).
Asclepias eriocarpa Benth. (Asclepiadaceae).
woollypod milkweed.
The Costanoan of central California burned entire
plants of this species to produce smoke that was
inhaled for asthma attacks (Bocek 1984).
Asparagus adscendens Roxb. (Liliaceae). khairuva.
In Iran, the roots were smoked for the relief of tooth-
ache (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Asparagus buchananii Baker (Liliaceae). asparagus.
The leaves were burned in Venda, South Africa, for Figure 15. In an ancient form of
smoke that was inhaled for a one-off treatment of Chinese acupuncture, the leaves of
mugwort, Artemisia vulgaris, were
amenorrhea (Arnold and Gulumian 1984). burned in special moxa sticks that
Asparagus officinalis L. (Liliaceae). were used to direct heat to specific Qi
common asparagus. meridian lines on the body. Inhaling
In Tehran, Iran, the roots were burned to generate the smoke produced by the burning
smoke that was inhaled for the relief of toothache leaves was often an integral part of
the healing process.
(Hooper and Field 1937).
Asparagus racemosus Willd. (Liliaceae). wild
asparagus.
Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.), this species, when burned together
Asparagus racemosus Willd. 49

with Datura metel L., Ipomoea paniculata R. Br., Shorea surattense Burm. f., Sola-
num robusta Gaertn., as well as two unspecified insects and one unspecified fish,
can produce smoke that causes blindness in one’s enemies (recipe 1; Sensarma
1998). This species was also a key ingredient in another similar concoction that
included an unspecified reed, parts of Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. in Engl. &
Prantl, Paspalum scrobiculatum L., Ricinus communis L., Saussurea lappa (Decne.)
C. B. Clarke, Stephania hernandiflora Walp., and Tragia involucrata L. (recipe 2).
In a third polyherbal recipe, in which the smoke was used to kill animals, A. rac-
emosus was mixed with root, bark, flowers, leaves, and fruits of Saussurea lappa
(Decne.) C. B. Clarke, the juice of Semecarpus anacardium L., and unspecified
parts of Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. (recipe 3). The mixture also required parts
of several animals. This species featured prominently in another mixture of plants
that was burned to produce a lethal smoke also used to kill animals. The smoke
was said to be so deadly that it could kill animals for as far as the wind carried it
(Sensarma 1998). As part of this mixture (recipe 4), the powder of A. racemosus
was burned with unspecified parts of the following plant species: Lagenaria sicer-
aria (Mol.) Standl., Nerium indicum Mill., Paspalum scrobiculatum L., as well as the
chaff of Ricinus communis L. and seed and grains obtained from Xeromphis spinosa
(Thunb.) Keay.
Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. (Asphodelaceae). onion weed.
In the sub-Himalayan region of eastern Uttar Pradesh, India, the seeds of this spe-
cies, known locally as piazi, were burned in earthen pots to give off fumes that
were inhaled through the mouth for the relief of carious teeth (Singh, A. K. 2000).
Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.) Willd. (Asteraceae). hadaa.
The roots of this species were used in conjunction with others to treat tuber-
culosis in northern and eastern Mozambique (Verzár and Petri 1987). Plant
parts were dried and then placed with the rest of the mixture on glowing coals.
The patients were covered with a blanket and encouraged to inhale the smoke.
The other species in the mixture were Clematopsis scabiosifolia Hutch., Cleroden-
dron discolor Becc., Helichrysum kirkii Oliv. & Hiern., and Ozoroa schinzii (Engl.)
R. Fern. & A. Fern.
Asplenium trichomanes L. (Aspleniaceae). maidenhair spleenwort.
Head and chest colds were treated in Lesotho, Africa, by inhaling smoke produced
by burning the leaves of this species (Perry 1980; Duke and Wain 1981).
Asplenium septentrionale (L.) Hoffm. (Aspleniaceae). forked spleenwort.
The leaves were smoked to treat chest and head colds in Bhaderwah Hill, Jammu
Province, India (Kapur 1996a).
Aster cordifolius L. (Asteraceae). blue wood aster.
The Flambeau Ojibwa of North America considered this species ideal for making
smoke to attract deer (Smith 1932). The roots were burned.
Aster furcatus E. S. Burgess ex Britton & A. Brown (Asteraceae). forked aster.
The Potawatomi of Wisconsin used the flowers in a smoke smudge preparation
that was believed to ward off evil spirits, especially those that were hampering the
recovery of sick patients (Smith 1933).
Aster laevis L. (Asteraceae). smooth aster.
The entire plant was burned by the Meskwaki of Iowa to generate smoke that was
used in sweat baths. A smudge was used to revive unconscious people (Smith
1928).
50 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav.

Aster lateriflorus (L.) Britt. (Asteraceae). calico aster.
The blossoms of this species were smudged by the Meskwaki of Iowa to cure an
insane person (Smith 1928). The entire plant was burned for its smoke.
Aster lavandulifolius Hand.-Mazz. (Asteraceae). Aster.
The shamans, or dumbus, of a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group known as the Shuhi of
southwest China often burned fresh branches of this plant as incense (Weckerle
et al. 2006).
Aster macrophyllus L. (Asteraceae). bigleaf aster.
The Flambeau Ojibwa of North America considered the disk florets of this species
ideal for smoking as a hunting charm to attract deer (Smith 1932).
Aster multiflorus Ait. (Asteraceae). many-flowered aster.
The Meskwaki of Iowa used the smoke of burning
plants in sweat baths to revive unconscious patients
(Smith 1928).
Aster novae-angliae L. (Asteraceae).
New England aster (figure 16).
The Ojibwa of North America smoked the leaves for
medicinal purposes and when hunting deer (Kavasch
1979). The root was smoked in a pipe by the Chip-
pewa to attract game (Densmore 1974). The Mesk-
waki prepared smoke smudges to revive unconscious
people (Smith 1928). Figure 16. Like the New England
Aster praealtus Poir. var. coerulescens (DC.) aster (Aster novae-angliae), many
A. G. Jones. (Asteraceae). willowleaf aster. species of Aster were smoked by
The Ramah Navajo of North America smoked dried Native North Americans to attract
game.
leaves to attract game (Vestal 1952).
Aster puniceus L. (Asteraceae). purplestem aster.
The Chippewa of North America smoked the fine tendrils of the roots of this spe-
cies in a pipe with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to attract game (Densmore 1974).
Aster umbellatus Mill. (Asteraceae). flat topped white aster.
According to Smith (1928), the Meskwaki of Iowa inhaled the smoke produced by
burning whole plants for reviving a fainting person (Smith 1928). The Potawatomi
of Wisconsin used smoke smudges to ward off evil spirits from a sickroom
(Smith 1933).
Astragalus fasciculifolius Boiss. (Fabaceae). Anzarut.
The gum of this species was burned to produce a fumigant considered useful for
treating ear disorders (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Astrocaryum aculeatum G. Mey (Arecaceae). tucum palm.
The Xiriana (Yanomamo) of northern Brazil burned the epicarp to smoke-cure
rubber (Corrêa 1926–1975).
Astronium urundeuva Engl. (Anacardiaceae). urunday.
The Izoceño-Guaraní of Bolivia inhaled smoke from the bark of this species to
stop hemorrhaging of the nose (Bourdy et al. 2004). A decoction of the bark was
prepared into a jellylike substance, which was then placed over burning charcoal
to produce the smoke.
Atamisquea emarginata Miers (Capparaceae). palo zorrillo.
The Seri of Mexico burned the wood of the palo zorrillo during many of their
ceremonies, which they called hamcáatxi. The smoke was used to cure fussy
Atamisquea emarginata Miers 51

babies and to cure a turtle hunter’s harpoon (Felger and Moser 1985). A female
sponsor, called a hamác, passed the harpoon through the smoke during the pro-
cess.
Atractylis gummifera L. (Asteraceae). pine thistle.
Known in Morocco as addad, this species was one ingredient in a polyherbal rec-
ipe used in Morocco to induce abortions in women (Merzouki et al. 2000). A mid-
wife directed the smoke into the vagina of women who were seeking abortions.
The other ingredients were Cannabis sativa L., Conium maculatum L., Datura
stramonium L., Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich., and Withania somnifera (L.)
Dunal. Many of the species listed here are poisonous and should never be used by
untrained individuals. The pine thistle has also been reported to have insecticidal
properties (Jacobson 1958).
Atriplex canescens (Pursh) Nutt. (Chenopodiaceae). four-wing saltbush.
The Jemez of New Mexico threw leaves on fires to generate smoke that was used to
revive a badly hurt or faint person (Cook 1930).
Atriplex obovata Moq. (Chenopodiaceae). mound saltbush.
The entire plant was smoked to treat epilepsy by the Hopi of northeastern Arizona
(Colton 1974).
Atriplex sp. (Chenopodiaceae). saltbush.
The Cahuilla of southern California smoked dried leaves to relieve head colds
(Bean and Saubel 1972).
Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindl. (Solanaceae). Indian belladonna.
The leaves of this species were smoked in India for their analgesic properties
(Kapoor 2001).
Atropa baetica Wilk. (Solanaceae). tabba.
The leaf bracts of this species were used in the preparation of a traditional pipe
in Morocco, called kif, that was smoked for its narcotic effects (Merzouki et al.
2000).
Atropa belladonna L. (Solanaceae). deadly nightshade.
In parts of Ukraine, the leaves of belladonna were mixed with those of jim-
sonweed (Datura stramonium L.) and those of black henbane (Hyoscyamus
niger L.) and were smoked for the relief of asthma (Kondratyuk et al. 1967).
These are all highly poisonous plants and should never be used by untrained
individuals.
Atropa mandragora L. (Solanaceae). mandrake.
This species was one of the many whose use was implicated in inducing psychic
visions in the Delphic oracle, or Pythia, of ancient Greece (Stefanis et al. 1975).
The plant may have been burned below the Pythia’s prophetic chamber (manteion)
and vented up through the small hole in the famous omphalos stone on which the
Pythia’s tripod stool was fastened.
Atylosia lineata Wight. & Arn. (Fabacaeae). rantur.
The dried leaves of rantur were smoked in pipes in western Maharashta State,
India, for the relief of asthma (Tosh 1996).
Austrobrickellia patens (Don. ex Hook and Harm) R. M. King & H. Rob.
(Asteraceae). chorochikea.
The whole plant was burned over charcoal by the Izoceño-Guaraní of Bolivia. The
smoke from the plant was believed to reduce fevers (Bourdy et al. 2004).
52 Atractylis gummifera L.
Avena sativa L. (Poaceae). oat.
The seeds were burned for fumigants that were used in Hungary to keep insects
away from houses and animals (Vajkai 1943).
Avicennia germinans (L.) Stearn (Verbenaceae). black mangrove.
According to the Darien of Panama, the wood of this species makes an effective
smoke smudge that repels mosquitoes (Duke 1968).
Avicennia marina (Forssk.) Vierh. (Verbenaceae). gray mangrove.
The leaves of this mangrove are considered useful for repelling or killing Culex
quinquefasciatus mosquitoes according to Thangam and Kathiresan (1992). The
country of use was not specified.
Avicennia nitida Jacq. (Verbenaceae). white mangrove.
Asita and Campbell (1990) reported that the wood of the white mangrove could
be burned to produce smoke that effectively inhibited three species of bacteria—
Staphylococcus aureus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Eschirichia coli—all of which
are known to spoil food. It also may have been used to drive away mosquitoes.
Azadirachta indica A. Juss. (Meliaceae). neem.
The binomial botanical name of neem literally means “bitter tree from India.”
The vernacular name, neem, is from the Sanskrit word nimba, meaning “sprin-
kling of nectar and ambrosia” (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). Neem is used
for a variety of purposes, many of which were recognized by the Indians and
Chinese as early as 4,000 years ago. This species produces several active com-
pounds, of which the tetranotriterpenoid, azadirachtin, is an active insecticide.
In Ghana and Gambia, the leaves of the neem tree were burned to produce
smoke that repels mosquitoes (Aikins et al. 1994). This was true of other
parts of East Africa, especially where the Bantu language of Swahili was spo-
ken (Heine and Legére 1995). Smoke from burning leaves was also used in
the rural villages of the Oio region of Guinea-Bissau, in West Africa, to drive
mosquitoes away (Pålsson and Jaenson 1999b). According to Medvei (1993),
Hindus may have used vaginal fumigations of neem trees as contraceptives.
Along with 16 other plant species, this species was listed in the ancient San-
skrit treatise the Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.) as an ingredient
in a deadly concoction that, when burned, produced smoke that was lethal to
animals (Sensarma 1998). The other plants include Butea monosperma (Lam.)
Taub. in Engl. & Prantl, Careya arborea Roxb., Ferula assa-foetida L., Gossy-
pium herbaceum L., Holarrhena antidysnterica L., Hordeum vulgare L., Lufta
echinata Roxb., Moringa oleifera Lam., Ocimum sp., the broken grains of Oryza
sativa L., Paspalum scrobiculatum., Populus euphratica Oliv., Ricinus communis
L., Salvadora indica Royle., and Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay.
Baeckea frutescens L. (Myrtaceae). Baeckea.
Smoke from burning dried plants was inhaled to treat violent colic in Southeast
Asia (Pételot 1953; van Duong 1993). Patients usually reclined on a lattice bed
under which the plant was burned. They inhaled the smoke as it passed over them.
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. (Balanitaceae). desert date.
In Chad, Africa, the whole plant was burned and used as a fumigant for liver
problems (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). The Borana of Ethiopia fumi-
gated their milk containers with smoke from the burning of this plant (Heine
and Brenzinger 1988). The Ethiopian name for the species is báddan. In Ghana,
Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. 53

smoke from burning bark was used to heal circumcision wounds (Dalziel 1948;
Irvine 1961).
Balanites gillettii Cufod. (Balanitaceae). kuze.
The Samburu of Kenya fumigated and cleansed their gourds and containers with
the smoke of burning wood (Heine and König 1988a).
Balanites orbicularis Sprague. (Balanitaceae). Balanites.
In Kenya, the Turkana (Morgan 1981) and Samburu (Heine and König 1988a)
used the smoke of burning fruits to preserve their gourds. The Turkana also used
the smoke to give flavor to their milk (Morgan 1980).
Balanites rotundifolia (Tiegh.) Blatter. (Balanitaceae). hankalta.
The Samburu of Kenya used the wood to fumigate and cleanse their gourds and
containers (Heine and König 1988a).
Balanites welwitschii (Tiegh.) Exell & Mendonça (Balanitaceae). omumbamenye.
The Himba of Namibia burned the dried roots of this plant on glowing embers and
used the smoke as a fumigant to treat breast complaints in nursing mothers (von
Koenen 2001). Omumbamenye is the Himban name for the species.
Balsamodendron myrrha T. Nees (Burseraceae). murr.
According to Avicenna, smoke from burning murr resin was an external fumigant
in Iran for general diseases of the skin (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Balsamorhiza sagittata (Pursh) Nutt. (Asteraceae). balsam root.
The Crow of North America used balsam root as incense during feather headpiece
transfer ceremonies (Hellson 1974). The smoke was also used to disinfect sick-
rooms or was inhaled for general body aches (Foster and Hobbs 2002).
Bambusa vulgaris Schrad. (Poaceae). common bamboo.
Common bamboo stems were burned in Guyana to generate fumes that were con-
sidered useful for repelling mosquitoes (Defillips et al. 2004).
Banksia dentata L. f. (Proteaceae). tropical banksia.
Native Australians on the northern Australian island of Groote Eylandt burned the
cones of this species in a pit and then squatted over the smoke so that it passed in
and around their anus. This was said to relieve diarrhea (Levitt 1981). They call the
plant enindurrkwa.
Barleria waggana Rendle (Acanthaceae). Qodox tol.
Fresh aerial parts of this and other species of Barleria were burned in Somalia,
with the smoke being inhaled as a treatment for chicken pox (Samuelsson et al.
1991).
Bauhinia fassoglenis Kotschy (Fabaceae). Mutama.
Smoke from burning roots was used in parts of South Africa to treat general gyne-
cological disorders (Arnold and Giulumian 1984).
Bauhinia sp. (Fabaceae). Bauhinia.
In the Riau Province of Sumatra, Indonesia, the dried leaves of an unspecified
species of Bauhinia, known locally as katuk katuk, were crushed, rolled into a
cigarette, and smoked to treat polyps in the nasal tract (Grosvenor et al. 1995).
Becium grandiflorum (Lam.) Pic. Serm. (Lamiaceae). tebub.
In parts of Zimbabwe, the leaves of tebub were smoked for the relief of chest and
abdominal pain (Gelfand et al. 1985).
Berchemia discolor Hemsl. (Rhamnaceae). wild almond.
This species was used to treat menorrhagia in Venda, South Africa. Affected women
exposed their vulva to the smoke of burning roots (Arnold and Gulumian 1984).
54 Balanites gillettii Cufod.

Berlandiera lyrata Benth. (Asteraceae). lyreleaf greeneyes.
After the dried roots were burned, they were ground up. The powder was then
thrown on hot coals. The smoke was inhaled to give one courage and relieve ner-
vousness (Swank 1932).
Betula nana L. (Betulaceae). dwarf birch.
The Alaskan natives of Nelson Island, off the west coast of Alaska, burned the
entire shrub to smoke their fish (Ager and Ager 1980).
Betula papyrifera Marsh. (Betulaceae). paper birch.
The Dena’ina of Alaska used the wood to smoke their fish (Kari 1995). Dried
rotten wood was used to smoke hides by the Woodland Cree of east-central
Saskatchewan, Canada (Leighton 1985). Various other Native Americans chopped
new soft wood and mixed it with their tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) (Krochmal and
Krochmal 1973).
Betula pumila L. var. glandulifera Regel. (Betulaceae). dog birch.
The Pillager Obijwa of North America inhaled the smoke of burning cones (on hot
coals) to treat catarrh (Smith 1932).
Betula utilis D. Don. (Betulaceae). Himalayan birch.
The papery bark of this birch tree was burned in India (Singh, G. S. 2000) and
Nepal for incense and religious purposes (Manandhar 2002).
Bidens palustris Sherff. (Asteraceae). waata.
The Borana of Ethiopia burned this species as incense (Heine and Brenzinger
1988). Waata is the Borana name.
Bidens sp. (Asteraceae). beggarticks.
The Borana of Ethiopia burned an unspecified species of Bidens as incense (Heine
and Brenzinger 1988).
Bidens pilosa L. (Asteraceae). hairy beggarticks.
In parts of western Uganda, the leaves, seeds, roots, and fruits of this species were
smoked in a pipe to help induce labor during childbirth (Kamatenesi-Mugisha and
Oryem-Origa, 2006).
Bidens sp. (Asteraceae). beggarticks.
The Borana of Ethiopia burned an unspecified species of Bidens as incense (Heine
and Brenzinger 1988).
Bidens tripartita L. (Asteraceae). water agrimony.
The flower heads, when burned, give off a pleasant aromatic smoke that was used
in parts of Europe to repel insects (Cribb and Cribb 1981).
Biophytum sensitivum (L.) DC. (Oxaladaceae). life plant.
In India, the Ratan Mahal Gujarat smoked the leaves (with unspecified Nicotiana
spp.) to render a man infertile (Bedi 1978).
Blepharis sp. (Acanthaceae). ubuhlungu besigcawa.
The Sukuma tribe of Tanzania (formerly Tanganyika) in East Africa burned an
unspecified Blepharis plant and then inhaled its smoke to treat smallpox and
infected legs (von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Blumea balsamifera DC. (Asteraceae). nagi camphor.
Natives of Indo-China believed that the smoke produced by burning the
leaves of B. balsamifera was ideal for restoring normal breathing in humans
(Kariyone and Kimura 1949). In Malaysia’s Kelantan State, where it is
known as sembong, the roots were smoked for nose sores (Ong and Nordi-
ana 1999).
Blumea balsamifera DC. 55

Blumea balsamifera DC. var. balsamifera (Asteraceae). sambong.
In the Cordillera region of the Philippines (northern Luzon), the leaves of this
plant were burned on hot coals to generate smoke that was inhaled for the relief
of asthma (Co 1989). The leaves were sometimes mixed with those of Euphorbia
hirta L.
Boerhavia coccinea Mill. (Nyctaginaceae). hogweed.
In parts of Tanzania, the leaves of hogweed were ground with oil and were then
burned to produce smoke that was inhaled to treat toothache (von Reis and Lipp
1982).
Boscia angustifolia A. Rich. (Capparaceae). sehel.
Known in the Gourma District of Mali, Africa, as ajardahan and danarehi, the bark
of this species was burned to fumigate the heads of those suffering from headaches
(Diallo et al. 1999).
Boscia angustifolia A. Rich. var. angustifolia (Capparaceae). likwon.
The Pokot of northern Kenya used the smoke from burning bark as a fumigant
to treat sick cows (Timberlake 1987). The Borana of Ethiopia and the Gabbra of
Kenya used it to fumigate and cleanse their gourds (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Boscia coriacea Paz (Capparaceae). kupungur.
In Kenya, the Turkana (Morgan 1981), Rendille (Heine and Heine 1988b), and
Samburu (Heine and König 1988a) all used the smoke produced by burning this
species to preserve gourds. The Turkana also used the smoke to fumigate leather
containers, especially those in which they stored ghee (clarified butter) (Morgan
1980). They refer to this plant as erdung.
Boscia minimifolia Chiov. (Capparaceae). Boscia.
The Borana of Ethiopia and the Gabbra of Kenya burned this plant to fumigate
and cleanse their gourds (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Boscia senegalensis Lam. (Capparaceae). Senegal boscia.
The wood of this species, when burned as fuel, produces obnoxious smoke
(Wickens 2004).
Boswellia ameero Balf. f. (Burseraceae). frankincense plant.
The oleo-gum resins of this species were harvested by the people of the island of
Socotra, located approximately 547 km (340 miles) southeast of Yemen, and were
burned for incense purposes according to Huwes (1950).
Boswellia bhau-dajiana Birdw. (Burseraceae). mohr-add.
The oleo-gum resin of mohr-add was burned as incense in parts of northeastern
Africa (Huwes 1950) and has often traded as as frankincense.
Boswellia carteri Birdw. (Burseraceae). olibanum tree (figure 17).
The oleo-gum resins produced by this species, called frankincense or olibanum,
were highly prized throughout the Mediterranean (Huwes 1950), Somaliland, and
other parts of the Middle East, including Iran and Iraq (Hooper and Field 1937),
for burning as incense (Usher 1974). It has been sold for this purpose in the mar-
kets of Jima, Ethiopia, where it is known as k’eyi it’an (Siegenthaler 1971). The Jima
markets were, at one stage, a principal source of frankincense (Tucker 1986).
Boswellia dalzielii Hutch. (Burseraceae). frankincense tree.
In parts of West Africa, the smoke of burning resin was used to fumigate and per-
fume clothes (Huwes 1949).
56 Blumea balsamifera DC. var. balsamifera

Boswellia frereana Birdw. (Burseraceae).
African elemi.
This species’ oleo-gum resins were used throughout the
Mediterranean (Huwes 1950) and in tropical Africa for
incense purposes (Usher 1974).
Boswellia glabra Roxb. (Burseraceae). Kundur.
Gum resin was burned to produce smoke that was
used to fumigate the skin for general dermatological
diseases according to Avicenna (Mohagheghzadeh
et al. 2006).
Boswellia hildebrandtii Engl. (Burseraceae). elemi
frankincense.
The Pokot of northern Kenya burned the resin on their
fires because the aromatic smoke it produced repelled
Figure 17. Boswellia carteri. © 1995–
insects (Timberlake 1987). The local name for this spe- 2006 Missouri Botanical Garden.
cies is songoluwo. The Rendille of the Marsabit District
of northern Kenya considered the dead wood from
this species good incense material and therefore burned it during certain ceremo-
nies as well as in their houses (Heine and Heine 1988b). This was also a common
practice of the Turkana of northern Kenya, who called this plant ekinyate (Morgan
1980).
Boswellia microphylla Chiov. (Burseraceae). frankincense tree.
In parts of Nigeria, the resin collected from the bark of this species was burned
specifically to fumigate rooms and clothes and was often exported as frankincense
(Oliver 1960).
Boswellia neglecta S. Moore. (Burseraceae). dakkara.
This species generated income for the farmers of rural households in Liban,
Ethiopia, where the oleo-gum resins were burned for incense purposes, per-
fumery, food and beverage flavoring, and traditional medicine (Lemenih et al.
2003).
Boswellia ogadensis Voll. (Burseraceae). gended.
This species generated income for farmers in the rural households of Liban,
Ethiopia. The oleo-gum resins were burned for incense purposes (frankincense),
perfumery, food and beverage flavoring, and traditional medicine (Lemenih et al.
2003).
Boswellia papyrifera Hochst. (Burseraceae). elephant tree.
The highlanders of Ethiopia harvested the olibanum resin from the bark of this
species and burned it to produce smoke, which was inhaled to control fever.
It was also reputed to have a tranquilizer effect (Wilson and Mariam 1979).
Some Ethiopians burned it at night to ward off evil spirits (Getahun 1976).
It was used in East Africa (Usher 1974) and in northeastern Africa (Huwes
1950), where it was considered useful for burning as incense. A combination
of factors, including overgrazing, poor harvesting practices, and insect infes-
tations, are threatening populations of this species and may now require the
implementation of urgent conservation practices to save the plant (Gebrehiwot
et al. 2003).
Boswellia papyrifera Hochst. 57

Boswellia sacra Flueck. (Burseraceae). frankincense.
In parts of Oman, the smoke generated during the burning
of oleo-gum resins harvested from this species was used
to perfume clothes, hair, and houses (Ghazanfar 1994).
This species was considered the major source of Arabian
frankincense during classical times (Tucker 1986).
Boswellia serrata Roxb. (Burseraceae). Indian
frankincense.
The oleo-gum resins of this species were harvested and
burned as incense in the dry hilly areas of northern India
(Huwes 1950; Usher 1974). In the Rajasthan State of India,
smoke from burning resin was burned during magico-
religious ceremonies that were meant to hasten the recov- Boswellia sacra
ery of sick people (Singh and Pandey 1998). As part of the
ceremony, the smoke was offered to gods and goddesses in
the hope that they would drive away bad influences. In the Gwalior Forest division
of Madhya Pradesh, India, the bark was smoked through a special censer, called
chilam, to relieve gastric pain and to pass air (Anis et al. 2000). Dhiman (2003)
reported that this species was considered sacred throughout India and was burned
in houses as incense, especially during religious ceremonies.
Boswellia socotrana Balf. f. (Burseraceae). Socotran incense.
This was another of the species used on the Island of Socotra for its resin. It was
considered ideal for burning as incense (Uphof 1968).
Boswellia spp. (Burseraceae). Boswellia.
Several species of Boswellia were burned in saunalike chambers by Borana women
in southern Oromia, Ethiopia. The smoke was used to perfume and cleanse their
bodies and clothes (Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005). For more information on this prac-
tice, see Acacia goetzei Harms.
Brassica integrifolia (H. West) O. E. Schulz. (Brassicaceae). mustard.
In parts of Africa, sun-dried leaves of this plant were smoked like cannabis
(Jayaweera 1980).
Brassica juncea (L.) Czern. (Brassicaceae). Indian mustard.
In India’s Indus Valley (Ladakh region), the seeds were mixed with red peppers
and placed on hot coals. The resulting smoke was thought to ward off the evil eye
and other spirits from children and cattle (Singh et al. 1996).
Brassica rugosa Prain (Brassicaceae). cabbage-leaf mustard.
The Kumaon of India burned the seeds of this species with capsicum to produce
smoke that was used to induce lactation in domestic animals that failed to lactate
naturally (Shah and Joshi 1971).
Breynia vitis-idaea (Burm. f.) C. E. C. Fisch. (Euphorbiaceae). kattuniruri.
When the people of Rayalaseema in Andhra Pradesh, India, suffered from
sore throats, they would burn the leaves of this species under a blanket, where
they also sat, and inhaled the smoke through their mouth (Nagaraju and Rau
1990).
Bridelia cathartica Bertol. f. (Euphorbiaceae). knobbly blue sweetberry.
This species was used in Zimbabwe, where smoke from burning roots was inhaled
to treat epilepsy (Gelfand et al. 1985). Women villagers in Lumbwa in Tanzania’s
58 Boswellia sacra Flueck

Tanga District inhaled smoke of the burning wood to help with menstruation
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwicjk 1962).
Bridelia scleroneura Müll. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae). Musasila.
Men of Bulamogi County, Uganda, smoked the leaves of this plant when they
wanted to divorce their wives (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Brucea antidysenterica J. F. Mill. (Simaroubaceae). Waginos.
Smoke from burning roots was inhaled by Ethiopians for the treatment of general
gynecological disorders (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Brugmansia spp. (Solanaceae). Brugmansia.
Several species of Brugmansia were used in South America, where the leaves were
added to tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and given to women and slaves to smoke. This
deadened their senses prior to being buried alive with their dead husbands or mas-
ters (Avery 1959). The Brugmansia genus is closely related to the Datura genus.
Brugmansia suaveolens (Willd.) Bercht & C. Presl (Solanaceae). angel’s trumpet.
In the Cordillera region of northern Luzon in the Philippines, dried flowers were
chopped up and then smoked in cigarette form during the onset of asthma attacks
(Co 1989). In Cyprus, where the name for the plant is fouskes, dried leaves and pet-
als were smoked in cigarettes also for the relief of asthma (Georgiades 1987b).
Brunfelsia guianensis Benth. (Solanaceae). Impukiu.
Smoke from burning branches was smoked for its hallucinogenic properties in
parts of French Guiana (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Bryonia dioica Jacq. (Cucurbitaceae). white bryony.
According to ancient Egyptian texts, this plant was burned with another unidenti-
fied species to drive demons away (Manniche 1989).
Buddleja asiatica Lour. (Buddlejaceae). bai bei feng.
Unspecified parts of this species were burned in Pinatubo in the Philippines as a
fumigant for babies who cried for extended periods or were unable to sleep (Fox
1953).
Bulbostylis spp. (Cyperaceae). hair sedges.
The Kuanyama Ango of Angola burned several species of hair sedges and inhaled
the smoke to aid recovery following childbirth (Loeb et al. 1956).
Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb. (Zygophyllaceae). palo santo.
In northwestern Argentina, the Criollos burned wood chips of this species with
the leaves of Ruta chalepensis L. and blew the smoke into the ears of patients suf-
fering from otitis (Scarpa 2004). A mixture of parts of palo santo, yerba mate (Ilex
paraguariensis A. St-Hil.), and feathers of the flightless bird, Rhea americana, was
smoked to treat aire (Scarpa 2004). The mixture was smoked once a day for 9 days.
Bursera bipinnata Engl. (Burseraceae). copal.
The copal resin produced by this species was collected by the Huichol of Mexico’s
Jalisco and Nayarit States and was burned as incense (Bauml 1994).
Bursera glabrifolia Engl. (Burseraceae). linaloe.
Smoke from smoldering resin was considered useful as a remedy for headaches in
Mexico (Martínez 1990). Ximenez (1615) reported that the same smoke could also
treat illnesses caused by cold and humid conditions.
Bursera graveolens Triana & Planch. (Burseraceae). palo santo.
The Maya of Mexico, Belize, and Guatemala may have used the fumes of burning
palo santo (holy tree) resin to treat hemorrhoids and to help expel a dead fetus
Bursera graveolens Triana & Planch. 59

from its mother (Rätsch 2004). In the Gulf of Mexico, the Huaxtec added the resin
to their tobacco (Nicotiana spp.), giving it a pleasant smell.
Bursera gummifera L. (Burseraceae). mastic tree.
The Maya of Mesoamerica prized this species for burning as incense. The plant
parts used were not specified (Usher 1974).
Bursera microphylla A. Gray (Bursercaeae). elephant tree.
According to the Seri of Mexico, the dried wood of this species was the best plant
material for smoking out bees so that their honey could be safely collected (Felger
and Moser 1985).
Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg. (Burseraceae). palo mulatto.
The Maya of Mexico’s Yucatán Peninsula burned the resin obtained from this spe-
cies as incense during certain ceremonies (Stross 1997). On the small Caribbean
island of Montserrat, the resin of the palo mulatto was burned for smoke that was
used during voodoo practices (Brussell 1997).
Bursera spp. (Burseraceae). Bursera.
The smoke of burning resin, tapped from several Bursera species, was considered
useful for relieving headaches (Martínez 1990). The Chorti Maya of Guatemala
used the smoke to purify venison. The incense was thought to drive away the
evil in the carcass (Wisdom 1940). The amount of resin burned in the offering
was decided by the deer god, which appeared in the hunters’ dreams. Once the
right amount had been communicated to the hunter, the resin had to be burned
at midnight on the night after the hunt. The Chorti also allowed the fumes to pass
over the bodies of their people because it was considered useful for driving away
evil from humans and for cleansing them after they had been in contact with sick
people (Wisdom 1950). The smoke of burning resin was also used in connection
with hunting by the Sierra Popoluca of the isthmus of Tehuantepec (Foster 1945).
It was burned with the jawbones of the hunted animals to help return their soul
to the spirit world.
Bursera submoniliformis Engl. (Burseraceae). copal de Puebla.
Mexican shamans added the resin of this species to unspecified parts of Datura
innoxia Mill. and Tagetes lucida Cav. and burned the mixture to protect them from
black magic (Rätsch 2004). If inhaled deeply, the fumes may induce hallucinogenic
visions.
Bursera tomentosa Triana and Planch (Burseraceae). copal.
The Zinacantecos of Mexico burned the copal resins from this species (Tzotzil
pom) to make offerings to their gods (Laughlin 1975).
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. in Engl. & Prantl (Fabaceae). Bengal kino.
This species is listed in the fourth-century b.c. Sanskrit treatise the Arthaśāstra of
Kautilīya as one of several ingredients in a mixture burned to produce smoke to
blind one’s enemies (see recipe 2 under Asparagus racemosus Willd.) (Sensarma
1998). See also Nerium odorum.
Buxus hyrcana Pojark. (Buxaceae). Shemshad.
The leaves were considered useful in Iran for generating smoke that could help
with toothache (Ghorbani 2005).
Cadaba farinosa Forsk. ssp. farinosa (Capparaceae). worm bush.
The Pokot of northern Kenya believed that by burning the roots of this species the
smoke generated would prevent or stop earthquakes (Timberlake 1987).
60 Bursera gummifera L.
Cadaba ruspoli Gilg. (Capparaceae). cadaba.
The Rendille of Kenya’s Marsabit District fumigated their containers with the
smoke generated by burning this species (Heine and Heine 1988b).
Caesalpinia bonduc (L.) Roxb. (Fabaceae). yellow nicker.
The people of Santhal Pargana, India, smoked powdered yellow nicker seeds to
relieve colic pain (Varma et al. 1999).
Caesalpinia erianthera Chiov. (Fabaceae). Caesalpinia.
Dried plant powder was thrown on smoldering charcoal to produce a fragrant
smoke that was used to perfume and air-out a person’s living quarters and body in
the Dhofar region of southern Oman (Miller and Morris 1988).
Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi (Lamiaceae). lesser calamint.
The leaves of the lesser calamint were used in the preparation of smoke that was
inhaled to aid in digestion in the upper Lucca Province of Italy (Pieroni 2000).
Calea zacatechichi Schltdl. (Asteraceae). Mexican dreamherb.
This species was used by the Chontal of Mexico to treat fevers and nausea. It
was also considered useful to communicate with spirits (MacDougall 1968; Díaz
1979).
Callicarpa cana L. (Verbenaceae). garwew.
The leaves of this plant were smoked in the Philippines to relieve asthma (van
Duong 1993).
Callirhoë involucrata A. Gray. (Malvaceae). winecup.
The Dakota of North America pulverized the roots of this species, which they then
burned to produce smoke that was inhaled for treating head colds (Uphof 1968;
Usher 1974).
Callitris glaucophylla J. Thomson & L. A. S. Johnson. (Cupressaceae). white
cypress pine.
Indigenous Australians inhaled the smoke of burning twigs as aromatherapy
for babies (Latz 1995). According to Barr (1993), the smoke from the leaves and
branches was also useful in treating adult respiratory problems.
Callitris intratropica R. T. Baker & H. G. Sm. (Cupressaceae). cypress pine.
The Native Australians of Groote Eylandt used the smoke from burning cypress
pine gum with dry Pandanus sp. nuts (Pandanaceae) to repel mosquitoes (Levitt
1981). It was also used as a permanent contraceptive. A woman wishing to prevent
future pregnancies squatted over a pit in which the plant material was burning,
allowing the smoke to pass around her vagina. The local name for this species is
yimundungwa.
Calophyllum inophyllum L. (Clusiaceae). Alexandrian laurel.
In the former Tanzanian area of Tanganyika in East Africa, the leaves were
pounded, mixed with the sap of young leaves and oil, and then cooked in a fire
so that the fumes could be inhaled by people possessed by the devil (von Reis and
Lipp 1982).
Calotropis gigantea (L.) W. T. Ait. (Asclepiadaceae). crown flower.
Known in Fiji as madar, smoke from burning wood was inhaled to treat epi-
lepsy (Singh 1986). In India’s Gujarat State, smoke from burning dried roots
was inhaled for the relief of migraine headaches (Mitaliya et al. 2004). In
Malaysia, smoke from burning leaves was inhaled to treat ulcers in the nose
(van Duong 1993).
Calotropis gigantea (L.) W. T. Ait. 61

Calotropis procera (Ait.) W. T. Ait. (Asclepiadaceae).
rooster tree.
In Bodio, Mali, a psychiatric healer claimed that the fruit
pulp, when laid on glowing coals, could treat epilepsy (Coppo
1978). In Egypt, the natives of the Kharga and Dakhla Oases
smoked dried leaves for asthma (Osborn 1968). They were
also smoked in a pipe for the relief of coughs (Neuwinger
1994). Smoke from burning dried roots was inhaled for the
relief of migraine headaches in India’s Gujarat State (Mitaliya
et al. 2004). In Nepal, dried stems were smoked in cigarettes
to cure sinusitis (Bhattarai 1993). In the Awaran area between
Khuzdar and Nal in southern Pakistan, the people smoldered
powdered roots over hot coals and inhaled the smoke to
Calotropis procera
relieve headaches (Goodman and Ghafoor 1992). The Hausa
tribe of Nigeria smoked the leaves in a pipe or inhaled fumes
from burning leaves during asthma attacks (Dalziel and Burkhill 1985).
Calyptrocarya poeppigiana Kunth (Cyperaceae). Wuh-luh-puh-te-guh.
In Suriname, smoke generated by burning the complete plant was inhaled to
reduce fever (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Cananga odorata (Lam.) Hook. f. and Thomson (Annonaceae). ilang-ilang.
The people of Java, Indonesia, burned unspecified parts of this plant for incense
purposes (Sangat-Roemantyo 1990).
Canarium amboinense Hochr. (Burseraceae). galip nut.
The resin of this species was harvested by the people of Java, Indonesia, and was
often burned as incense (Uphof 1968).
Canarium commune L. (Burseraceae). Java almond.
The resin of Java almond was burned in parts of Malaysia for incense purposes
(Uphof 1968; Usher 1974).
Canarium edule Hook. f. (Burseraceae). African plum.
The people of tropical Africa burned resin harvested from the bark for incense
purposes (Uphof 1968).
Canarium harveyi Seem. (Burseraceae). canarium nut.
The oleoresin extracted from the oily kernels of this species was once prized as
lighting oil and incense in Vanuatu (Siwatibau et al. 1998) and in the Solomon
Islands (Evans 1999).
Canarium indicum L. (Burseraceae). Java almond.
In Indonesia, smoke from the resin of this species was considered a powerful fumi-
gant that was used to cleanse areas where illnesses had occurred (Heyne 1950).
Canarium indicum L. var. indicum (Burseraceae). Java almond.
The resin collected from this species was burned in traditional ceremonies and
churches in parts of Melanesia (Thomson and Evans 2004).
Canarium luzonicum Miq. (Burseraceae). pili nut.
This Old World elemi resin was burned in the Philippines as incense. It produces a
smoky flame when burned (Brown 1921).
Canarium schweinfurthii Engl. (Burseraceae). Schweinfurth’s olive.
The resin from the bark of this plant was harvested and then burned to fumigate
dwellings in unspecified countries (Langenheim 2003). The fragrant resin burns
with an odor like that of the related frankincense resins of Boswellia spp.
62 Calotropis procera (Ait.) W. T. Ait.

Canarium strictum Roxb. (Burseraceae). black dammar tree.
The resin of this species was burned to produce smoke that was considered useful
for repelling insects in Mizoram State, India (Lalramnghinglova 2003).
Canarium sylvestre Gaertn. (Burseraceae). kenari jalene.
Stem resin was burned throughout the Malayan archipelago for incense purposes
(Uphof 1968).
Canarium zeylanicum Blume (Burseraceae). kekuna.
The balsamic gum resins obtained from injured or damaged bark was burned in
Sri Lanka to fumigate and to light houses (Jayaweera 1981a).
Canella alba Murr. (Canellaceae). white cinnamon.
This species has been smoked as a substitute for Cannabis sativa L. and sometimes
has been used as incense (Rätsch 2004). The country and users were not reported.
Canella winterana Gaertn. (Canellaceae). winter cinnamon.
Chipped wood was burned to produce smoke that was inhaled to treat headaches
in several of the islands and areas of the West Indies (Ayensu 1981).
Canna indica L. (Cannaceae). Indian shot.
In parts of China, the leaves were burned for their insecticidal properties (Perry
1980).
Cannabis sativa L. (Cannabinaceae). hemp.
Cannabis has been smoked throughout the world for
centuries, and one of its first uses was for incense pur-
poses (Clarke 1998). Indian yogis at various temples
in Kathmandu, Nepal, smoked cannabis in prepara-
tion for meditation (Schultes et al. 2001). It is, however,
best known for its hallucinatory properties. Members
of the Gaddi tribe of India’s Himachal Pradesh State in
the western Himalayas, for example, smoked the resin
of female plants, called sulpha, for the hallucinations
it induced (Singh and Kumar 2000). In the Buganda
kingdom of Africa, members of the tribe smoked the
leaves and flowers of cannabis to induce a state of
euphoria (Hamill 2001). The leaves were smoked for
similar purposes by the people of Kanabad village and
allied areas in the Gilgit District of Pakistan (Gorsi and Cannabis sativa
Miraj 2002). The ancient Assyrians are thought to have
used cannabis as a fumigation to dispel sorrow or grief
(Manniche 1989). Littleton (1986) has suggested that the fumes of burning hemp
may have induced psychic visions in ancient Greece’s Delphic oracle. The leaves
may have been mixed with those of the bay laurel, Laurus nobilis L. The Tenete-
hara of Brazil smoked the flowers and the leaves for their psychoactive effects
(Wagley and Galvão 1949). The species also has a number of medicinal proper-
ties. In Africa, the Sotho smoked the leaves and other parts of the male and female
plants to relieve the pains associated with childbirth (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk
1962). In Morocco, midwives used the smoke of cannabis and other species to
induce abortions in pregnant women wishing to terminate their pregnancies (see
Atractylis gummifera L.; Merzouki et al. 2000). In the Democratic Republic of
Congo (Zaire), children with asthma were forced to inhale the smoke from burn-
ing leaves to relieve the condition (Disengomoka et al. 1983). The Zulu smoked
Cannabis sativa L. 63
the leaves of this species with those of Warburgia salutaris (Bertol. f.) Chiov. for
the relief of dry coughs (Bryant 1966). Another use for cannabis smoke was as
an insect repellent. The seeds were burned in Hungary to keep insects away from
houses and animals (Vajkai 1943).
Capparis cartilaginea Decne. (Capparaceae). caper.
In the Dhofar region of southern Oman, where the name for this plant is lúsfeh, the
smoke from smoldering leaves was used as a fumigant for relieving itchiness, water-
ing eyes, and running nose associated with allergies (Miller and Morris 1988).
Capparis speciosa Griseb. (Capparaceae). caper.
The Maka of the Paraguayan Chaco burned the branches of caper to fumigate and
heal people who talk in their sleep (Arenas 1987). The smoke was also used as a
fumigant to prevent chicken pox epidemics.
Capparis tomentosa Lam. (Capparaceae). African caper.
Known in Venda, South Africa, as Gwambazi-muoba-dali, the roots of this spe-
cies were burned to treat menorrhagia and headaches (Arnold and Gulumian
1984). The smoke was directed over an exposed female’s vulva for the former
diseases. The smoke was inhaled for the latter. The Lobedu of Africa smoked the
bark in a pipe to relieve chest pains (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). The roots
were smoked in Bulamogi County, Uganda, to help keep spirits at bay (Tabuti
et al. 2003).
Capsicum annuum L. (Solanaceae). chili pepper.
This plant was known to the Jívaro of eastern Ecuador as jímia. When they wished
to punish their children, they forced them to stand over fires into which large
quantities of jímia had been thrown (Harner 1984).
Capsicum frutescens L. (Solanaceae). red pepper.
In Benin, Africa, the smoke of this species was
used as a fumigant to relieve headaches (Neu-
winger 1994). In Aligandi, Panama, red peppers and
cacao (see Theobroma cacao L.) were burned for 7
to 9 days to produce smoke that was said to keep
evil spirits away (Duke 1968). The ancient Maya
of Mesoamerica smoked red peppers mixed with
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) for the relief of whooping
cough (Asprey and Thornton 1955). The smoke has
also been employed to repel mosquitoes (Hartzell
1947) and to protect stored grains from insects and
other pests (McIndoo 1945).
Capsicum sp. (Solanaceae). red peppers.
In the West Indies, red peppers were smoked with
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to treat whooping cough Capsicum frutescens
and sore throats (Asprey and Thornton 1953, 1954a,
1954b, 1955).
Carapa guianensis Aubl. (Meliaceae). bastard mahogany.
Oil derived from the seeds of bastard mahogany was burned to produce illumina-
tion and to drive insects away (Duke 1968).
Cardiospermum grandiflorum Sw. (Sapindaceae). showy balloon vine.
The roots were smoked by the people of Bulamogi County, Uganda, to help keep
spirits at bay (Tabuti et al. 2003).
64 Capparis cartilaginea Decne.

Cardiospermum halicacabum L. (Sapindaceae). Zulu plant.
Powdered hot leaves of this species, when burned, produced acrid smoke that
South Africans inhaled for headaches (Neuwinger 1994).
Careya arborea Roxb. (Lecythidaceae). patana oak.
This species is listed in the ancient Sanskrit treatise the Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya
(fourth century b.c.) as one of several plant ingredients in a recipe burned to pro-
duce smoke to blind one’s enemies (see Abrus precatorius L.) (Sensarma 1998). The
mixture also required certain salts and cow dung.
Carica papaya L. (Caricaceae). papaya.
Unspecified parts of this species were often used as a tobacco (Nicotiana spp.)
substitute in the French island of New Caledonia (South Pacific Ocean) (Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). In Isthmian America (Mexico to Colombia), the leaves
were also smoked in place of tobacco (Duke 1986).
Carissa edulis Vahl (Apocynaceae). Egyptian carissa.
The roots were smoked in parts of Ethiopia for mental disorders (Mohagheghza-
deh et al. 2006). In Bulamogi County, Uganda, the leaves were smoked to keep
spirits at bay (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Carissa lanceolata R. Br. (Apocynaceae). conkerberry.
Indigenous Australians inhaled the smoke of burning conkerberry leaves to give
babies and other members of their tribe strength and endurance for long trips (Webb
1969) or to fumigate sick members of tribe (Webb 1969; Lands 1987). The leaves
were also burned to repel insects (Webb 1969; Cane 1987; Lands 1987; Whitman
et al. 1991). Native Australians prized many species of plants for smoke therapies.
Carum carvi L. (Apiaceae). caraway.
This species, known as kömény in Hungary, was burned for smoke that was inhaled
to treat abdominal pains (Oláh 1987) and for babies who cried excessively after
their birth (Vajkai 1943).
Carum copticum Benth. & Hook. f. (Apiaceae). bishop’s weed.
The smoke of burning seeds was used in Iran to clean a woman’s uterus (Mohagheghza-
deh et al. 2007). In India, the seeds were sometimes smoked or taken as snuff for the
relief of migraine headache or delirium (Williamson 2002). In the latter case, the spe-
cies was referred to by its synonym, Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague ex Turrill.
Carya cordiformis C. K. Schneid. (Juglandaceae). bitternut hickory.
Smoke from the wood of the bitternut hickory was used in parts of North America
to flavor hams and bacon (Erichsen-Brown 1979).
Cassia abbreviata Oliv. (Fabaceae). sjambok pod.
This plant was burned by the Swahili-speaking people of East Africa for its smoke,
which was used as a fumigant to bewitch other people (Heine and Legére 1995).
The plant is known as mwonge in East Africa.
Cassia abbreviata Oliv. ssp. beareana (Holmes) Brenan (Fabaceae). sjambok pod.
In parts of Namibia, the smoke of smoldering branches was inhaled to treat head-
aches (von Koenen 2001).
Cassia fistula L. (Fabaceae). golden shower.
The Darien of Panama used the pulp of the fruit of this species to flavor their
tobacco (Duke 1968).
Cassia italica (Mill.) Spreng. (Fabaceae). sanna.
Inhaling smoke from burning fruit was considered useful for relieving coughs in
Egypt (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Cassia italica (Mill.) Spreng. 65

Cassia mimosoides L. (Fabaceae). artillery plant.
This species, when burned, was said to produce smoke that could attract and pro-
mote business in the Swahili-speaking areas of East Africa (Heine and Legére
1995). It is known locally as kichekanao.
Cassia occidentalis L. (Fabaceae). coffee senna.
Known locally as mnukauvundo by the Swahili-speaking people of East Africa,
this plant was burned and used as a fumigant to protect individuals from devils
and evil spirits (Heine and Legére 1995).
Cassia reticulata Willd. (Fabaceae). saragundi.
The Bora of Brillo Nuevo in Amazonian Peru once burned the leaves because they
produce a pungent smoke that kills and repels small biting insects (Flores 1984).
It is rarely used today.
Cassia sieberana DC. (Fabaceae). marga.
The wood of this species, when burned as fuel, produces obnoxious smoke (Wick-
ens 2004). No other details were given.
Cassine glauca (Rottb.) Kuntze (Celastraceae). Ceylon tea.
Smoke produced by burning this plant was used in India to calm women suffering
from hysteria (Chopra et al. 1956).
Cassiope fastigiata D. Don. (Ericaceae). Cassiope.
The branches of cassiope were burned as incense in the Manang District of Nepal
(Pohle 1990).
Casuarina oligodon L. Johnson (Casuarinaceae). sheoak.
In the highlands of Papua New Guinea, where this species is known as the naep,
the Wola actively seek its wood to burn as firewood because of the pleasant fra-
grances emitted along with its smoke (Sillitoe 1983).
Catabrosa aquatica P. Beauv. (Poaceae). water whorlgrass.
The Crow and Montana of North America burned this plant as incense (Barrett
and Gifford 1933). This species was reported as Glyceria aquatica (L.) Wahlb. in
original texts.
Catoblastus drudei Cook and Doyle. (Arecaceae). ponila.
The Bora of Amazonian Peru used the stems of this species to smoke their fish
(Vasquez 1990).
Caulerpa scalpelliformis (R. Br. ex Turner) C. Agardh. (Caluerpaceae).
strapweed.
According to Thangam and Kathiresan (1992), the smoke from burning leaves of
this seaweed killed or repelled mosquitoes (Culex quinquefasciatus) when pre-
pared as mosquito coils.
Ceanothus sanguineus Pursh. (Rhamnaceae). wild lilac.
The Paiute of North America dried and mashed the leaves and then mixed them
with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.), which they smoked for pleasure and other unspeci-
fied purposes (Mahar 1953).
Ceanothus velutinus Hook. (Rhamnaceae). snowbush.
The Shuswap of North America used the smoke of burning snowbush to kill bed-
bugs (Palmer 1975).
Cecropia obtusifolia Bert. (Cecropiaceae). guarama.
The Darien of Panama and others from Mexico to Colombia smoked the leaves
and stems of this species for recreational purposes (Duke 1968; Duke 1986).
66 Cassia mimosoides L.
Cecropia peltata L. (Cecropiaceae). trumpet tree.
In the rain forests of Belize, the leaves were dried, powdered, and then smoked for
pleasure by the chicleros and supervisors (Arvigo and Balick 1993). The Darien of
Panama and people living in Isthmian America (Mexico to Colombia) also smoked
the leaves. The latter often smoked the stems as well (Duke 1968; Duke 1986).
Cedrus deodara (Roxb. ex Lambert) G. Don (Pinaceae). deodar cedar.
According to the Ayurvedic system of India, parts of this plant were dried in the
sun and then soaked with ghee before being smoked to relieve asthma (Mishra
2003).
Cedrus libani G. Don (Pinaceae). cedar of Lebanon.
According to Avicenna, Iranians used smoke from burning branches and resin
to induce abortions (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006). Elsewhere, the pulverized
wood was mixed with the herbs and resins of plants of the Boswellia and other
genera and were burned as incense (Rätsch 2004). Other Cedrus species may
have served similar roles. No details about the country of use or its users were
given.
Celmisia spectabilis Hook. f. (Asteraceae). common mountain daisy.
The Maori of New Zealand smoked parts of this plant for the relief of asthma and
for other lung ailments (Stark 1979).
Celtis timorensis Span. (Ulmaceae). ki tondok (Indonesia).
In parts of India, smoke from burning wood was used as a general fumigant
(Chopra et al. 1956).
Cephaelis williamsii Standl. (Rubiaceae). Cephaelis.
In the Putumayo area of Colombia, the people dried the leaves of this species and
added them to tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) before it was smoked (Schultes 1985a).
Cestrum laevigatum Schlect. (Solanaceae). palqui.
In southern Chile, the Mapuche smoked dried leaves of the palqui when cannabis
was not available. It was believed to induce hallucinogenic visions (Schultes et al.
2001).
Cestrum parqui L’Her. (Solanaceae). lady of the night.
Like Cestrum laevigatum Schlect., the Mapuche smoked dried leaves of the dama
de noite (lady of the night) when cannabis was not available (Schultes et al. 2001).
Chamaecrista nigricans Greene (Fabaceae). partridge pea.
Unspecified parts of this plant were smoked by people of Bulamogi County,
Uganda, to help keep spirits at bay (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Chamaemelum nobile (L.) All. (Asteraceae). English chamomile.
The Allioni of Norfolk, Great Britain, burned whole plants to produce smoke that
was used for unspecified medicinal purposes (Bardswell 1911). The dried flower-
ing heads, which produce volatile oils, were mixed with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.)
to add flavor to it (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).
Chamaesyce hirta (L.) Millsp. (Euphorbiaceae). dove weed.
In Guyana, smoke produced by burning the entire plant was inhaled to treat respi-
ratory complaints (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Cheilanthes calomendos Sw. (Adiantaceae). mphasetje.
Approximately 30 g of root and leaf material was ground into a powder and then
burned for smoke that was used in Swaziland to treat epilepsy (Amusan et al.
2002).
Cheilanthes calomendos Sw. 67

Cheilanthes hirta Sw. (Adiantaceae). lip fern.
Smoke from this species was inhaled with Mohria caffrorum (L.) Desv. to treat rest-
less children of the Kwena and Tswana of Africa (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Chenopodium schraderanum Schult. (Chenopodiaceae). goosefoot.
The Samburu of Kenya used the smoke of burning sticks to drive bees away when
collecting their honey (Heine and König 1988a).
Chimaphila umbellata (L.) W. Bart. (Ericaceae). pipsissewa.
The dried leaves of this species were smoked for pleasure by the Montana of North
America (Hart 1996).
Chromolaena christieana (Bak.) R. M. King and H. Rob. (Asteraceae). thoroughwort.
Known in Paraguay as typychá pito, the leaves of this plant were added to tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) as a flavoring agent (Schmeda-Hirschmann and Bordas 1990).
Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium Vis (Asteraceae). Dalmatian pellitory.
The smoke of burning flowers was an effective agent for
keeping insects away according to Grieve (1971). This species
produces natural insecticidal compounds called pyrethrins
(Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The active analogues are pyre-
throids. These substances are available commercially and
are used widely because they are effective at low doses and
exhibit a low level of mammalian and avian toxicity. They are,
however, toxic to fish. The active substances resemble DDT in
their mechanism of action. They are axonic toxins that cause
voltage-regulated sodium channels of their targets to remain
open, eventually resulting in paralysis.
Chrysanthemum roseum Adam (Asteraceae). Persian pellitory.
Like C. cinerariaefolium Vis, the smoke produced by burn-
ing the flowers was considered an effective agent for keeping
insects away (Grieve 1971). This species was previously known
as Pyrethrum roseum M. Bieb.
Chrysothamnus nauseosus (Pall. ex Pursh) Britton (Asteraceae). Chrysanthemum
rabbitbrush. cinerariaefolium
The Cheyenne of North America inhaled the smoke produced
when this plant was burned to treat colds (Hart 1981).
Cichorium intybus L. (Asteraceae). chicory.
Known in Arabia as hindiba and hendiban, the leaves were often burned to pro-
duce smoke that repels insects (Ghazanfar 1994).
Cicuta maculata L. (Apiaceae). spotted water hemlock.
The Pillager Ojibwa of North America used the smoke of burning fresh roots to
help with hunting (Smith 1932). The Chippewa, also of North America, smoked
the seeds together with tobacco leaves as a charm (Densmore 1974).
Cinnamomum burmannii (Nees & T. Nees) Blume (Lauraceae). Indonesian cassia.
The bark of this species was burned for incense purposes in Java, Indonesia (San-
gat-Roemantyo 1990). The genus Cinnamomum is of economic importance to the
human race. Several species have yielded compounds that are valuable, including
cinnamon, which is produced in the bark of this and related species.
Cinnamomum camphora (L.) T. Nees & C. H. Eberm. (Lauraceae). camphor tree.
This species was often burned as incense in the Hindu temples of India (Jayaweera
1981b).
68 Cheilanthes hirta Sw.

Cinnamomum cassia Blume (Lauraceae). rough cinnamon bark.
This plant was sold as incense in the markets of Jima, Ethiopia, where it is known
as birgwed (Siegenthaler 1971).
Cinnamomum sintoc Blume (Lauraceae). sintoc.
The bark of this species was used in the preparation of incense in Java, Indonesia
(Sangat-Roemantyo 1990).
Cinnamomum sp. (Lauraceae). cinnamons.
An unspecified species of Cinnamomum was used in various Asian countries for
producing smoke that was used to guard against disease (Morozumi 1978).
Cinnamomum tamala (Buch.-Ham.) T. Nees & Eberm. (Lauraceae). Indian bark.
Unspecified parts of this species were used in the Himalayas as spice and incense
(Rätsch 2004).
Cinnamomum verum J. Presl (Lauraceae). scent of paradise.
This species has been known since ancient times as the “scent of paradise” and
was often burned alone or as a mixture of herbs and resins for incense purposes
(Rätsch 2004).
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume (Lauraceae). cinnamon.
On a wall in the ancient Egyptian tomb of Queen Nefertari of Thebes, a painting
depicts Egyptians burning cinnamon to perfume their clothes and houses (Man-
niche 1989). This species may have been one of the commodities that the ancient
Egyptians favored in addition to frankincense and myrrh. It was believed by many
scholars that when Queen Hatshepsut of the eighteenth dynasty sent out her expe-
dition to the fabled “land of Punt” for incense, they also bought back cinnamon
and other fragrant woods. Sethos I of the nineteenth dynasty also linked Punt with
cinnamon (Manniche 1989).
Cissus nymphaeifolia Planch. (Vitaceae). omungayanga.
In the northwestern corner of Namibia, in Kaokoland, the Hereo-speaking people
used the smoke of smoldering roots to reduce swelling in men’s testicles (Malan
and Owen-Smith 1974; von Koenen 2001).
Cissus quadrangularis L. (Vitaceae). veldt grape.
Smoke from the stems was inhaled in parts of India, where the plant is known as
hajora, to treat general gastrointestinal disorders (Williamson 2002).
Cissus rotundifolia Vahl. (Vitaceae). Arabian wax cissus.
The leaves of this species were smoked together with those of Hoslandia opposita
Vahl. (see below) to treat bad breath and to relieve pain in the head and chest
(Hedberg et al. 1983).
Cistus albidus L. (Cistaceae). white-leaf rockrose.
The leaves of white-leaf rockrose were dried and then smoked for recreational
purposes by the people of Almería, Spain (Martínez-Lirola et al. 1996).
Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck (Rutaceae). sweet orange.
In Ghana and Sierra Leone, the peels of oranges were burned to produce smoke
that was believed to repel mosquitoes (Aikins et al. 1994).
Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook. f. (Rutaceae). horsewood.
This species, known in Swahili as mlakikali, was used as a general fumigant in
parts of East Africa (Heine and Legére 1995). The Zulu of South Africa burned the
wood to fumigate newborn babies (Hutchings et al. 1996). In other parts of South
Africa, smoke from burning leaves was used as a fumigant to treat furunculosis,
swellings, and emaciation (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). The Xhosa, also of
Clausena anisata (Willd.) Hook. f. 69

Africa, produced smoke from smoldering leaves and made babies inhale it so that
they had clear and strong lungs (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Cleistocalyx aperculatus (Roxb.) Merr. & L. M. Perry. (Myrtaceae). water fairy.
Powdered leaves and bark were smoked to treat sinusitis and colds in Nepal
(Manandhar 2002).
Clematis brachiata Thunb. (Ranunculaceae). traveler’s joy.
Smoke from the burning of leaves was used in Botswana to treat blood problems
due to itchy sores (Gelfand et al. 1985). Fresh leaves were smoked in Venda, South
Africa, to treat headaches (Arnold and Gulumian 1984).
Clematis denticulata Vell. (Ranunculaceae). cabelo del angelo.
The Izoceño-Guaraní of Bolivia burned the aerial parts of this species over fire and
inhaled the smoke to treat malaria (Bourdy et al. 2004).
Clematis flammula L. (Ranunculaceae). fragrant clematis.
In Italy, the leaves and buds of this and other Clematis species were smoked as a
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) substitute (Leporatti and Ivancheva 2003).
Clematis recta L. (Ranunculaceae). ground virgin’s bower.
In Italy, the leaves and buds of this and other Clematis species were smoked as a
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) substitute (Leporatti and Ivancheva 2003).
Clematis simensis Fresen. (Rananculaceae). Umunkamba.
Smoke from burning leaves is reported to have analgesic properties according to
the people of Burundi (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Clematis vitalba L. (Ranunculaceae). old man’s beard.
In northwestern Anatolia, Turkey, a piece of branch was smoked like a cigarette
to relieve toothache (Yeşilada et al. 1999). Dried leaves were smoked in southern
Italy’s Cilento National Park for their mildly hallucinogenic properties (Scherrer
et al. 2005). In other parts of Italy, the leaves and buds were smoked as a tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) substitute (Leporatti and Ivancheva 2003).
Clematopsis scabiosifolia Hutch. (Ranunculaceae). shock headed Peter.
The roots of this species were burned in conjunction with others to treat tuber-
culosis in northern and eastern Mozambique (Verzár and Petri 1987). The patient
dried the plant parts and placed the mixture on glowing coals. The patient was
then covered with a blanket and forced to inhale the smoke. The other species
in the mixture were Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.) Willd., Clerodendron discolor
Becc., Helichrysum kirkii Oliv. & Hiern., and Ozoroa reticulata (Baker f.) R. Fern
& A. Fern.
Clerodendron discolor Becc. (Lamiaceae). glorybower.
The roots of this species were used in conjunction with others to treat tuberculosis
in northern and eastern Mozambique (Verzár and Petri 1987). See Clematopsis
scabiosifolia Hutch.
Clerodendrum indicum Kuntze (Lamiaceae). bharangee.
In Java, Indonesia, the people smoked the leaves for the relief of asthma (Hartwell
1982).
Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. (Lamiaceae). embrert.
The smoke of burning leaves was reported to have antimosquito properties against
Aedes aegypti (Kathiresan and Thangam 1986).
Clerodendrum myricoides R. Br. ex Vatke (Lamiaceae). blue glorybower.
The Borana of Ethiopia and Gabbra of Kenya inhaled the smoke of burning roots
to relieve headaches (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
70 Cleistocalyx aperculatus (Roxb.) Merr. & L. M. Perry.

Clusia lechleri Rusby (Clusiaceae). attorney.
The dried latex of this species was sold in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia.
Smoke from burning latex was inhaled to treat susto (“fright illness”) in babies and
to bring them good luck (Macía et al. 2005).
Clusia palmicida Rich. ex Planch. & Triana (Clusiaceae). kariyik.
Usher (1974) reported that this species was burned in South America as incense,
but no other details were given.
Clusia sp. (Clusiaceae). attorney.
The Waimiri Atroari of Brazil dried the flowers of an unspecified species of Clusia
and then smoked them to relieve pain and fever (Milliken et al. 1992).
Clutia abyssinica Jaub. & Spach (Euphorbiaceae). mhende.
Known as mhende in Tanzania, the whole plant was burned there to produce
smoke that was inhaled to treat a variety of gynecological disorders (Hedberg
et al. 1983).
Cnidium cnidifolium (Turcz.) Schischk. (Apiaceae). wild parsley.
Smoke smudges made with the leaves were used in the Ft. Yukon region of Alaska
to emit a pleasant aroma (Holloway and Alexander 1990).
Cocculus sp. (Menispermaceae). lac.
According to the Ayurveda of India, parts of lac were macerated, smeared with
ghee, and then rolled into a cigarette that was smoked to relieve asthma (Mishra
2003).
Cocos nucifera L. (Arecaceae). coconut.
Powdered coconut shells were used in the preparation of incense in Java, Indo-
nesia (Sangat-Roemantyo 1990). Coconut oil was used to make aromatic candles
that were burned as incense in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos (van Duong 1993).
In both Papua New Guinea (Vernede et al. 1994) and the Solomon Islands (Dul-
hunty et al. 2000), the smoke of burning coconut husks was used to repel mosqui-
toes. Mosquito smudges of husks were prepared in Isthmian America (Mexico to
Colombia) (Duke 1986).
Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Juss. (Euphorbiaceae). garden croton.
The Swahili-speaking people of East Africa burned this plant, known locally as ndoa-
doa, and used its smoke as a general medicinal fumigant (Heine and Legére 1995).
Coffea arabica L. (Rubiaceae). Arabian coffee.
Eischen and Vergara (2004) tested the smoke of burning coffee on the honeybee
(Apis mellifera) and tracheal mite (Acarapsis woodi). It exhibited low but statisti-
cally significant mortality.
Colophospermum mopane (J. Kirk ex Benth.) J. Léonard. (Fabaceae). mopane.
The Kwanyama Ovambo of Ovamboland in Namibia smoldered dried leaves over
hot coals to produce smoke that drove away evil spirits, especially those that caused
bad dreams in persons of nobility (Rodin 1974; Rodin 1985).
Colquhounia coccinea Wall. (Lamiaceae). sano tusare.
The leaves and flowers were burned as incense in Nepal (Manandhar 2002).
Combretum adenogonium Steud. ex. A. Rich. (Combretaceae). four-leaved
bushwillow.
Sudanese women burned this species to produce smoke to scent their bodies
(Wickens 2004).
Combretum ghasalense Engl. & Diels. (Combretaceae). dalo.
The wood was burned in the Sudan for its scented smoke (Usher 1974).
Combretum ghasalense Engl. & Diels. 71

Combretum imberbe Wawra (Combretaceae). leadwood.
The leaves of this species were smoked in southern Africa to treat colds and coughs
(Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Combretum molle R. Br. ex G. Don. (Combretaceae). velvet bushwillow.
The Borana of Ethiopia and Gabbra of Kenya burned dried branches to fumigate
and cleanse the inside of their milk containers (Heine and Brezinger 1988).
Combretum quadrangulare Kurz (Combretaceae). sangke.
In Papua New Guinea, the stems and branches produced smoke that was useful for
the postpartum treatment of mothers (Kerr 1932).
Combretum zeyheri Sond. (Combretaceae). large-fruited bushwillow.
Dried leaves were smoked to cure coughs in the Misima village located in the Han-
deni District of Tanzania (Kokowaro 1976).
Commiphora abyssinica Engl. (Burseraceae). Abyssinian myrrh.
This plant was sold as incense in the markets of Jima, Ethiopia, where it is known
as kerbe (Siegenthaler 1971).
Commiphora africana (A. Rich.) Engl. (Burseraceae). African bdellium.
Smoke from burning resin was inhaled by the villagers of Pongwe in the Tanga
District of Tanzania, where the fumes were said to be antiseptic and useful for
relieving migraine headaches (Kerharo and Adam 1974). They were also used as
insecticides. In the Gourma District of Mali, the people produced the smoke to
divert evil forces and sorcery and to treat general diseases (Diallo et al. 1999). The
resin was burned to fumigate clothes in parts of Nigeria (Oliver 1960).
Commiphora anglosomaliae Chiov. (Burseraceae). myrrh.
This genus is best known for its production of oleo-gum resins called myrrh. This
species was sometimes passed off as true myrrh because of similarities in their
aromas (Tucker 1986).
Commiphora boiviniana Engl. (Burseraceae). hagar-medow.
The Borana of Ethiopia and the Gabbra of Kenya burned the dried bark on
hot coals as incense (Heine and Brenzinger 1988). In Somalia, newborn babies
were made to inhale the smoke of burning bark to strengthen them (Neuwinger
1994).
Commiphora corrugata Gillett & Vollesen. (Burseraceae). siltaachoo.
The smoke generated in saunalike chambers was used to perfume and cleanse the
bodies and clothes of Borana women in southern Oromia, Ethiopia (Gemedo-Dalle
et al. 2005). For more information on this practice, see Acacia goetzei Harms.
Commiphora erythraea Engl. (Burseraceae). opopanax.
This species was considered the principal source of myrrh in ancient and classi-
cal times (Tucker 1986). Smoke generated in saunalike chambers in the huts of
Borana women in southern Oromia, Ethiopia, was used to perfume and cleanse
their bodies and clothes (Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005). For more information on this
practice, see Acacia goetzei Harms.
Commiphora erythraea Engl. var. glabrescens (Burseraceae). agarsuu.
This species was commonly burned in Somaliland, where the scented wood and
bark were considered useful for burning as incense (Uphof 1968; Usher 1974).
Commiphora gileadensis (L.) C. Chr. (Burseraceae). balsam of Gilead.
This species was sometimes sold as myrrh (C. myrrha [Nees] Engl.) because its
smoke has smells similar to true myrrh (Tucker 1986).
72 Combretum imberbe Wawra

Commiphora guidottii Chiov. ex Guidotti (Burseraceae). scented myrrh.
Known in Somalia as hadi, its dried bark was burned to fumigate newborn babies
to give them strength (Samuelsson et al. 1991).
Commiphora habessinica (Berg.) Engl. (Burseraceae). medigeh in Arabia.
The resin of this Commiphora species was burned in parts of Arabia for its smoke,
which was inhaled to cure breathing difficulties, chest colds, and swollen glands
(Ghazanfar 1994).
Commiphora hildebrandtii Engl. (Burseraceae). myrrh.
Commiphora kataf Engl. (Burseraceae). East Indian myrrh.
Commiphora madagascariensis Jacq. (Burseraceae). Abyssinian myrrh.
The resins from this species were once a principal source of Abyssinian myrrh and
were burned for incense purposes (Tucker 1986).
Commiphora molmol Engl. ex. Tschirch. (Burseraceae). African myrrh.
Commiphora mukul Engl. (Burseraceae). Indian bdellium.
In Iran, smoke from burning gum resin was used to purify the air (Mohagheghza-
deh et al. 2006). In India, fumes from burning resin, stems, and leaves were pre-
scribed in Ayurveda—India’s traditional healing system—for hay fever, nasal
catarrh, laryngitis, bronchitis, and phthisis (Williamson 2002). This species was
sometimes sold as myrrh (C. myrrha [Nees] Engl.) because its smoke has smells
similar to true myrrh (Tucker 1986).
Commiphora myrrha Engl. (Burseraceae). myrrh.
The resin of this species (Harobol myrrh) was burned as incense in Arabia, Somal-
iland, and Ethiopia (Uphof 1968; Usher 1974). Morton (1977) has reported that
the smoke of burning resin was inhaled for fever. This species has generated
income for farmers in rural households in Liban, Ethiopia. The oleo-gum resins
were burned for incense purposes (myrrh), perfumery, flavoring food and bever-
ages, and use in folk medicine (Lemenih et al. 2003).
Commiphora opobalsamum Engl. (Burseraceae). Mecca myrrh.
In parts of Arabia, the resin of this species was referred to as “Mecca myrrh” and
was used extensively for incense purposes (Uphof 1968).
Commiphora pedunculata Engl. (Burseraceae). myrrh.
Manniche (1989) reported that this species, which was common in eastern Sudan
and Ethiopia, may have been one of the priceless incense commodities brought
back from ancient Egyptian expeditions to the fabled land of Punt and may have
been used in various religious ceremonies.
Commiphora schimperi Engl. (Burseraceae). myrrh.
Commiphora sp. (Burseraceae). myrrh.
The oleo-gum resins of an unspecified species of Commiphora also generated
income for farmers in rural households in Liban, Ethiopia, where they were burned
Commiphora sp. 73
for incense purposes (myrrh), perfumery, food and beverage flavoring, and folk
medicines (Lemenih et al. 2003).
Commiphora truncata Engl. (Burseraceae). Commiphora.
This species has generated income for farmers in the rural areas of Liban, Ethiopia.
The oleo-gum resins were burned for incense purposes (myrrh), perfumery, food
and beverage flavoring, and medicinal purposes (Lemenih et al. 2003).
Commiphora wightii (Arn.) Bhandari. (Burseraceae). Indian bdellium tree.
In the arid plains of northern India, an exudate from this plant, probably a resin,
was burned for its smoke, which was inhaled to relieve asthma (Shah 1982). The
people of Rajasthan, India, used the fumes of burning resin to drive evil spirits
away and to please their gods (Singh and Pandey 1998). The species was consid-
ered sacred throughout India, where it was often burned as incense during holy
occasions (Dhiman 2003). The Bengali name for the plant is guggul. Near Bella in
Pakistan, the gum was burned on hot coals to produce noxious smoke that kept
snakes away (Goodman and Ghafoor 1992).
Comptonia peregrina (L.) Coult. (Myricaceae). sweet fern.
The Potawatomi of North America prepared a smoke smudge of the leaves of this
species to keep mosquitoes away (Smith 1933). This species was reported as Myrica
asplenifolia L. in original texts.
Conioselinum scopulorum Coult. and Rose (Apiaceae). Rocky Mountain hemlock
parsley.
The Kayenta Navajo of North America smoked the plant to treat catarrh (Wyman
and Harris 1951).
Conium maculatum L. (Apiaceae). poison hemlock.
In Morocco, this species was one of several ingredients used in a polyherbal recipe
that was burned to produce smoke that was considered useful for inducing abor-
tions in pregnant women (Merzouki et al. 2000). See Atractylis gummifera L. for a
list of the other species used.
Consolida regalis Gray (Ranunculaceae). forking larkspur.
Aerial parts of this species were prepared as a fumigant to treat sick people in
Hungary (Kóczián and Szabó 1990).
Conzya incana Willd. (Asteraceae). arfaj.
In Saudi Arabia, the leaves were burned to produce an insect repellent smoke
(Ghazanfar 1994).
Conzya podocephala DC. (Asteraceae). Conzya.
The Sotho of Africa burned parts of this plant as fumigants to treat a variety of
illnesses (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Conyza scabrida DC. (Asteraceae). oondbos.
This species was used for purposes similar to C. podocephala DC. by the Sotho
people of Africa (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Cordia goetzei Gürke (Boraginaceae). mpamapama.
According to the Digo on Kenya’s coast, the firewood of this species, when burned,
caused nose wounds (Pakia 2005). Mpamapama is the Kenyan name for this species.
Cordia sinensis Lam. (Boraginaceae). gundi.
The smoke from burning wood was used by the Rendille of Kenya to fumigate
and cleanse their milk containers (Heine and Heine 1988b). It was used for similar
purposes by the Borana of Ethiopia and by the Gabbra of the Marsabit District of
Kenya (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
74 Commiphora truncata Engl.

Coriandrum sativum L. (Apiaceae). Chinese parsley.
In Iran, Afghanistan, and India, the fruits of Chinese parsley were smoked to relieve
toothache (Hooper and Field 1937). In Libya, the smoke was inhaled to relieve
headaches and to add flavor to smoking tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) (Hussein 1985).
Cornus alternifolia L. f. (Cornaceae). alternate leaved dogwood.
The Menomini of North America smoked the inner bark of this species on its own
for pleasure or mixed it with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) (Smith 1923). It was usually
toasted before it was smoked. The Potawatomi, also of North America, smoked the
bark obtained from twigs (Smith 1933). The Ojibwa smoked the bark in their kin-
nikinnick mixtures (Smith 1932).
Cornus amomum Mill. (Cornaceae). silky dogwood.
The Hocak (formerly known as the Winnebago) of North America smoked the
bark of silky dogwood for recreational purposes (Kindscher and Hurlburt 1998).
The Dakota (Gilmore 1913a; Gilmore 1919), Menomini (Smith 1923), Omaha
(Gilmore 1913b), Pawnee (Gilmore 1919), and Ponca (Gilmore 1919) also smoked
the bark alone or mixed it with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.).
Cornus canadensis L. (Cornaceae). bunchberry dogwood.
The Hoh and Quileute of North America smoked dried leaves for pleasure (Rea-
gan 1936).
Cornus florida L. (Cornaceae). flowering dogwood.
Dried bark was mixed and smoked with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) by the Micmac
and Montagnais of North America (Speck 1917).
Cornus foemina Mill. (Cornaceae). stiff dogwood.
The bark of this species, which has been reported as C. stricta in original texts,
was dried and then mixed with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and smoked for pleasure
(Speck 1917).
Cornus occidentalis (Torr. & Gray) Coville (Cornaceae). western dogwood.
The Hoh and Quileute of North America smoked the plant for pleasure (Reagan
1936). Moerman (1998) has suggested that the species actually smoked was prob-
ably Cornus sericea L. ssp. occidentalis (Torr. & Gray). Fosberg.
Cornus paniculata L’Hér. (Cornaceae). gray dogwood.
The Meskwaki of North America burned the bark to produce smoke that was
inhaled for treating consumption and for reviving patients (Densmore 1974). It
was also smoked as ceremonial tobacco (Smith 1928). The Ojibwa of North Amer-
ica peeled and toasted the twig bark to mix with their tobacco (Nicotiana spp.)
(Smith 1932).
Cornus pubescens Nutt. (Cornaceae). western dogwood.
The Thompson of North America smoked this plant for pleasure (Steedman 1928).
Moerman (1998) has suggested that the species actually smoked was probably
Cornus sericea L. ssp. occidentalis (Torr. & Gray). Fosberg.
Cornus racemosa Lam. (Cornaceae). panicled dogwood.
The Hocak (Winnebago) of North America smoked the bark for recreational pur-
poses (Kindscher and Hurlburt 1998). The Ojibwa, also of North America, smoked
the leaves in their kinnikinnick mixtures (Smith 1932).
Cornus rugosa Lam. (Cornaceae). roundleaf dogwood.
The Hocak of North America smoked the bark for recreational purposes (Kind-
scher and Hurlburt 1998). The Chippewa smoked parts of the entire plant for that
purpose (Densmore 1928).
Cornus rugosa Lam. 75

Cornus sericea L. (Cornaceae). redosier dogwood.
The Cree of Hudson Bay in North America smoked scrapings from the wood with
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) in their kinnikinnick mixtures (Millspaugh 1974).
Cornus sericea L. ssp. occidentalis (Torr. and Gray). Fosberg. (Cornaceae). western
dogwood.
The Hoh and Quileute of North America smoked the plant for pleasure (Reagan
1936). It was reported as C. occidentalis (Torr. & Gray) Coville. The Thompson
used it for similar purposes (Steedman 1928) but was reported as C. pubescens
Torr. in the original texts.
Cornus sericea L. ssp. sericea (Cornaceae). wedosier dogwood.
Many North American tribes smoked the bark of this species either alone or mixed
it with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.). These include the Malecites, who also smoked the
plant to treat headaches and catarrh (Mechling 1959), Ojibwa, Abnaki, Blackfoot,
Cheyenne (Hart 1981), Cree (Beardsley 1941), Dakota (Gilmore 1919), Gosiute
(Chamberlin 1911), Great Basin tribes (Nickerson 1966), Montana (Blankinship
1905), Okanagan-Colville (Turner et al. 1980), Omaha (Gilmore 1919), Shoswap
(Palmer 1975), Thompson (Steedman 1928; Perry 1952), and Washoe (Nickerson
1966). This species was reported as Cornus stolonifera Michx. in the aforemen-
tioned references.
Cornus stolonifera Michx. (Cornaceae). red stem dogwood.
The Chippewa of North America smoked parts of this plant in a pipe for
unspecified purposes (Densmore 1974). Moerman (1998) suggests that the spe-
cies actually used was probably Cornus sericea L. ssp. occidentalis (Torr. & Gray)
Fosberg. The inner bark was also smoked with and without tobacco (Nicotiana
spp.) by various Native North American tribes (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).
Other unspecified parts were mixed with tobacco and smoked ceremonially for
smoke prayer (Grinnell 1923). See also Cornus sericea L. ssp. sericea (Moerman
1998).
Cornus stricta Lam. (Cornaceae). stiff-cornel dogwood.
The bark of this species was dried and then mixed with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.)
and smoked for pleasure (Speck 1917). Moerman (1998) suggests that the species
actually used was probably Cornus foemina Mill.
Corydalis aurea Willd. (Papaveraceae). scrambled eggs.
Native North Americans used the smoke of burning roots to revive unconscious
patients (Foster and Hobbs 2002). The Ojibwa placed the roots on hot coals and
inhaled the smoke to clear the head (Smith 1932).
Corylus avellana L. (Corylaceae). common filbert.
The leaves were smoked all over Eurasia for unspecified purposes (Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis 2003).
Corymbia citriodora (Hook.) K. D. Hill & L. Johnson (Myrtaceae). citron scent gum.
The leaves of this species, when burned, were reported to repel mosquitoes in
western Kenya, Africa (Seyoum et al. 2003).
Cotoneaster microphyllus Wall. ex. Lindl. (Rosaceae). xiao ye xun zi.
The leaves were burned for incense purposes in Nepal (Manandhar 2002).
Cotoneaster vulgaris Lindl. (Rosaceae). common cotoneaster.
In India’s Lahoul Valley, members of various tribes smoked green cotton, made by
thrashing the leaves of this species with a stick, for pleasure (Sood et al. 2001) and
as incense (Aswal and Mehrotra 1987).
76 Cornus sericea L.
Couratari multiflora (Sm.) Eyma. (Lecythidaceae). tauari.
The Palikur and Wayãpi of French Guiana used the inner bark of this species to
wrap their cigars. This was also thought to give the cigars narcotic properties
(Grenand et al. 1987).
Cousinia thomsoni C. B. Clarke (Asteraceae). cousinia.
The people of the cold desert Mooling and Losar tribes of India’s Lohoul-Spiti
area (northwestern Himalayas) smoked the cottonlike threads of the leaves of this
Cousinia species for pleasure (Sood et al. 2001).
Coutarea pterosperma Standl. (Rubiaceae). coparche.
The Tepehuana of Chihuahua, Mexico, have harvested the resins from this species
to burn as incense (Pennington 1969).
Covillea glutinosa Rydb. (Zygophyllaceae). creosote bush.
The Papago of North America used smoke from smoldering green branches to
treat sore feet (Castetter and Underhill 1935). The limbs were held above the
smoke. Moerman (1998) suggests that the species actually used may have been
Larrea tridentata Coville var. tridentata.
Crabbea velutina S. Moore (Acanthaceae). Crabbea.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, smoke generated by burning the whole plant was
inhaled to protect people from losing a job or to help overcome a criminal case
(Tabuti et al. 2003).
Crataegus oxyacantha L. (Rosaceae). hawthorn.
The young leaves of this species were sometimes smoked as a tobacco (Nicotiana spp.)
substitute (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The country of origin was not specified.
Crataegus pruinosa (Wendl.) K. Koch. (Rosaceae). frosted hawthorn.
The Flambeau Ojibwa of North America smoked the bark of the frosted hawthorn
to attract deer while hunting (Smith 1932).
Crataegus sp. (Rosaceae). hawthorn.
The Flambeau of North America used the smoke of an unidentified hawthorn to
attract deer (Smith 1932).
Crossopteryx kotschyana Fenzl. (Rubiaceae). Crossopteryx.
The seeds were burned as a fumigant to treat bark cloth in an unspecified part of
the world (Usher 1974).
Crotalaria aculeata De Wild. (Fabaceae). Kasamba ndege.
Leaves were smoked by the people of Bulamogi County, Uganda, to help keep spir-
its at bay (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Crotalaria glauca Willd. (Fabaceae). Lweto.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, smoke generated by burning the entire plant was
inhaled to protect people from losing a job (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Croton dichogamus Pax (Euphorbiaceae). rocky ground croton.
The leaves of this species were smoked in parts of tropical Africa to treat a condi-
tion known locally as satura, which is a type of malnutrition (Kokowaro 1976).
The leaves were also dried and burned to fumigate people with high fevers. The
Sakuma of tropical Africa smoked the leaves in cigarettes that were meant to treat
chest and stomach complaints. In Tanzania, the leaves were smoked to treat respi-
ratory complaints (Hedberg et al. 1983).
Croton eluteria Sw. (Euphorbiaceae). cascarilla.
The bark was burned as a fumigant that was considered useful for repelling mosqui-
toes (McIndoo and Sievers 1924) and for other unspecified purposes (Vogel 1970).
Croton eluteria Sw. 77

Croton flavens L. (Euphorbiaceae). balsam.
In the Caribbean island of Montserrat, the leaves of this species, when dried, were
smoked to relieve congestion of the lungs and as a tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) sub-
stitute (Brussell 1997).
Croton flocculosus Geisel. (Euphorbiaceae). bitter balsam.
Like C. flavens L., the dried leaves of this species were used to treat lung ailments
in Montserrat (Brussell 1997).
Croton gratissimus Burch. (Euphorbiaceae). lavender croton.
Known in some places as cascarilla, the ground leaves of this species were smoked
by the Zulu of South Africa for insomnia (Palmer and Pitman 1972). In Zimbabwe,
they were smoked for the relief of coughs (Gelfand et al. 1985).
Croton pseudopulchellus Pax. (Euphorbiaceae). mpasho.
Kokowaro (1976) reported that in certain parts of tropical Africa the leaves of
this species were burned to fumigate crops to protect them from insects. In the
Nunge and Chalinze villages of the Bagamuyo District of eastern Tanzania, dried
leaves were dipped in coconut oil and then placed on a fire. The resultant smoke
was inhaled to reduce fever (Chhabra et al. 1990). The leaves were burned as
incense in areas of East Africa, where Swahili is the main language (Heine and
Legére 1995).
Croton texensis (Klotzsch) Müll.-Arg. (Euphorbiaceae). Texas croton.
The Ramah Navajo of North America burned this plant and used the smoke to rid
their clothes of the smell of skunk (Vestal 1952).
Croton tiglium L. (Euphorbiaceae). croton oil plant.
In parts of Southeast Asia, oil obtained from this species was used for illumination,
even though its fumes are considered noxious in confined spaces (Burkill 1994).
Croton zambesicus Müll. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae). fever berry.
The So of Uganda burned the twigs of this species
near their plant fields to hasten the ripening of crops
(Heine and König 1988b).
Cryptomeria japonica D. Don. (Taxodiaceae). tsugi
pine.
The leaves of the tsugi pine were burned in Nepal for
incense purposes (Manandhar 2002; Usher 1974).
Cupressus arizonica Greene (Cupressaceae). Arizona
cypress.
Native North Americans burned the leaves for fumes
that were inhaled to aid with childbirth, for removing
afterbirth, for shrinking the womb, and for increasing
urinary flow (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973).
Cupressus lusitanica Mill. (Cupressaceae). cedar of
Goa.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, unspecified parts of
this plant were smoked to keep spirits at bay (Tabuti
et al. 2003). Cupressus arizonica
Cupressus torulosa D. Don. (Cupressaceae). Himalayan
cypress.
The leaves of this gymnosperm were burned and used as incense in Nepal
(Manandhar 2002).
78 Croton flavens L.
Curcuma domestica Valeton (Zingerberaceae). turmeric.
Known in Indonesia as kakoenji and koenjat, the tubers of this species were burned
to produce a fumigant that was said to promote mucus retention in people with
colds and runny noses (Hirschhorn 1983). In parts of Sri Lanka, dried turmeric
leaves were burned to generate smoke that was inhaled to treat catarrh and head-
aches (Jayaweera 1982b).
Curcuma longa L. (Zingerberaceae). Indian saffron.
In the Marquesas Islands, the smoke generated by this plant, when burned, was
blown into a woman’s vagina if she was experiencing prolonged menstruation
(Ross 2003).
Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. (Convolvulaceae). giant dodder.
In Nepal, smoke produced by burning the whole plant was inhaled to reduce fever
(Shrestha and Dhillion 2003).
Cycnium racemosum Benth. (Scrophulariaceae). Cycnium.
The Zulu of South Africa used smoke from the burning of the leaves of this plant
as fumigations to pass over animals to be slaughtered during ritual sacrifices (Watt
and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Cydista aequinoctialis Miers. (Bignoniaceae). garlic vine.
The people of Livingston, Izabal, in Guatemala harvested resins from the dried
bark of this species and burned them to generate smoke that was used as an insect
repellent (Pöll et al. 2005).
Cydonia oblonga Mill. (Rosaceae). quince.
The latex of this plant was burned to produce smoke that was inhaled in parts of
Iran for general gastrointestinal disorders (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Cymbopetalum brasiliense Benth. (Annonaceae). katjoesi anjali.
In parts of Suriname, where this species is known as katjoesi anjali, the leaves were
smoked to relieve stomachache (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Cymbopogon bombycinus (R. Br.) Domin. (Poaceae). silky oil grass.
In the Northern Territory of Australia, the aerial parts of this plant were mixed
with parts of termite mounds and smoked for the postnatal care of newborn
babies (Barr 1993).
Cymbopogon caesius (Hook. & Arn.) Stapf (Poaceae). broad-leaved
turpentine grass.
The Pokot of northern Kenya burned this plant to produce scented smoke that was
inhaled by girls who had recently been circumcised (Timberlake 1987).
Cymbopogon citratus Stapf (Poaceae). oil grass.
Whole plants were burned green or dry in houses in Gabon, Africa, to drive away
mosquitoes (Walker and Sillans 1961 cited in Burkill 1994).
Cymbopogon densiflorus Stapf (Poaceae). lemon grass.
In the African nation of Malawi, the flowers of lemon grass were smoked in a
pipe for the relief of bronchial illnesses (Burkill 1994). The shamans of Tanzania
smoked the flowers either alone or mixed them with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to
induce dreams that helped them foretell the future (Schultes et al. 2001).
Cymbopogon giganteus Chiov. (Poaceae). tsauri grass.
In Nigeria, smoke fumigations prepared from burning roots were inhaled for
relieving migraine headaches and for treating sick horses (Dalziel 1937). The Socé
of Senegal used fumigations from unspecified parts of the plant to treat lumbago
(Kerharo and Adam 1964b cited in Burkill 1994).
Cymbopogon giganteus Chiov. 79

Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schultes (Poaceae). iwarancusa grass.
The smoke produced by this plant was used to drive away evil in parts of Pakistan
(Gilani et al. 2003).
Cymbopogon marginatus Stapf ex Burtt Davy (Poaceae). dobo grass.
In South Africa’s Venda area, the roots of this species were burned to gener-
ate smoke that was inhaled for the relief of headaches (Arnold and Gulumian
1984).
Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle. (Poaceae). citronella grass.
The oil produced by this species, known commonly as citronella, has been burned
traditionally in Southeast Asia and elsewhere as a mosquito repellent (Chomcha-
low 1993).
Cymbopogon proximus (Hochst. ex A. Rich) Stapf (Poaceae). halfa barr.
The tufts of this plant were smoked in Algeria for the relief of colds (Mohagheghza-
deh et al. 2006).
Cymbopogon sp. (Poaceae). lemon grasses.
Herders in Niger, Africa, pounded this grass together with tobacco (Nicotiana
spp.) and burned the mixture to fumigate and treat sick cattle (Maliki 1981 cited
in Burkill 1994).
Cynoglossum boreale Fern. (Boraginaceae). hound’s tongue.
The Ojibwa of North America burned the entire plant on hot coals and
directed the smoke up the nostrils of unconscious people to revive them
(Smith 1932).
Cyprus articulatus L. (Cyperaceae). jointed flatsedge.
In parts of Africa, smoke from burning roots was used to fumigate the body dur-
ing sickness (Dalziel 1937).
Cyprus bulbosus Vahl. (Cyperaceae). galingale.
The roots and tubers of this species are very fragrant and were often burned for
incense purposes in the Maldive Islands (von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Cyprus rotundus L. (Cyperaceae). nutgrass.
The smoke produced by burning nutgrass was used in China as a fumigant to treat
deep-seated wounds (Vidal 1961).
Cyprus sp. (Cyperaceae). flatsedges.
Heine and Legére (1995) reported that an unspecified Cyprus species was used in
the preparation of incense sticks in East Africa, where its local name is muudiudi.
The plant parts used were unspecified.
Cytisus canariensis (L.) Kuntze (Fabaceae). genista.
In parts of northern Mexico, Yaqui shamans smoked the dried flowers of genista
for their psychoactive effects (Fadiman 1965).
Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link (Fabaceae). Scotsbroom.
In the Scottish highlands, tips of Scotsbroom were burned to use as fumigants for
unspecified purposes (Maloney 1972).
Dalbergia junghuhnii Benth. (Fabaceae). Dalbergia.
The heartwood of thick stems was burned as incense by an unspecified group of
people in China and India (Uphof 1968).
Dalbergia parviflora Roxb. (Fabaceae). akar laka.
The wood was burned throughout the Malay Archipelago for its scented smoke
(Uphof 1968).
80 Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schultes

Dalbergia picta (H. Karst.) Wiehler. (Fabaceae). rosewood.
The Secoya of eastern Ecuador burned the leaves of this species to produce smoke
that was used to treat boils (Schultes and Raffauf 1990). They also smoked the
leaves for unspecified recreational purposes (Vickers and Plowman 1984).
Daniella oliveri (Rolfe) Hutch. & Dalz. (Fabaceae). sanya.
Pållsson and Jaenson (1999b) have suggested that the smoke produced during the
burning of the bark of this species can reduce biting by mosquitoes by more than
70%.
Daphne bholua Buch.-Ham. ex D. Don (Thymelaeaceae). Lokta.
The bark of this species was smoked to treat respiratory tract disorders in the high-
lands of Dolakha District, Nepal (Shrestha and Dhillion 2003).
Daphniphyllum humile Maxim. ex Franch. & Sav. (Daphniphyllaceae).
Daphniphyllum.
In Japan, the Ainu smoke the leaves in place of tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) (Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis 2003).
Datura fastuosa L. (Solanaceae). devil’s trumpet.
Smoke from burning leaves was considered a useful
remedy for relieving headaches and asthma according
to the Zulu of South Africa (Gerstner 1941). This was
also a common practice in Zanzibar, Africa (Usher
1974). Tribal members of the Western Ghats in the
Kerala area of India, in contrast, burned dried flow-
ers and inhaled their smoke to relieve asthma (Push-
pangadan and Atal 1984). Both the leaves and dried
flowers were smoked during asthma attacks and for
other breathing difficulties in the Dhofar region of
southern Oman (Miller and Morris 1988). The Dho-
far Arabic name for the species is benj. In southern
Pakistan, the smoke of six to seven burning seeds was
used as a fumigant to rid oneself of parasites (Good-
man and Ghafoor 1992). In Yemen, the smoke was
Datura fastuosa
inhaled to relieve cramps, epileptic fits, and insomnia
(Miller and Morris 1988).
Datura ferox L. (Solanaceae). fierce thorn apple.
The Criollos of Chaco in northwestern Argentina smoked the dried leaves for their
antiasthmatic properties (Scarpa 2004). They also mixed dried leaves with tobacco
(Nicotiana sp.), smoked the mixture, and then blew the smoke into the ears of suf-
ferers of otitis (Scarpa 2004). To complete the cure, the ear was sealed with iguana
fat and wool from a black sheep. The leaves of this species were also smoked to treat
asthma in India (Dessanges 2001). This practice was later introduced into Europe
by an English general who was posted in Madras and was himself an asthmatic.
Datura stramonium L. was more common in Europe and was therefore smoked
instead of D. ferox.
Datura innoxia Mill. (Solanaceae). prickly burr.
The Sansi of India’s Davsa District in the state of Rajasthan (Sharma and Trivedi
2004) and natives of the sub-Himalayan region of eastern Uttar Pradesh, India
(Singh, A. K. 2000), smoked the seeds and leaves of this species to relieve asthma.
This was also common in Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos (van Duong 1993).
Datura innoxia Mill. 81

In northern India, this species, known as dhatura, was considered very sacred.
Its leaves were smoked with tobacco (Nicotiana sp.) to relieve asthma and stom-
ach troubles (Shah 1982). The Kumaon Indians smoked the seeds for the relief of
gum troubles such as pyorrhea (Shah and Joshi 1971). The seeds and leaves were
smoked with tobacco for pleasure in the Awaran area of southern Pakistan (Good-
man and Ghafoor 1992). Small doses were said to induce euphoria, but large doses
led to madness. The smoke was also used to drive away parasites.
Datura metel L. (Solanaceae). Hindu datura.
This species has been used throughout the world for a variety of purposes. In
Cyprus, where the name for the species is zornés, dried leaves were smoked for
the relief of asthma (Georgiades 1987a). They were smoked for the same purpose
by the people of the Tirunelveli District of India’s Tamil Nadu State (Thomas and
De Britto 2000) as well as in other parts of India (Pandey 1991; Lewis and Elvin-
Lewis 2003; Sharma, N. K. 2004), Fiji (Singh 1986), East Africa (Williams 1949),
and Myanmar (Mason 1850). In Nepal, both the flowers and leaves were smoked to
treat asthma (Manandhar 2002). In addition to relieving asthma, the Zulu of South
Africa smoked the plant as a remedy for headaches (Gerstner 1941). Its smoke also
found use as a cough suppressant by the people of Ratan Mahal, Guiarat, India
(Bedi 1978), where it was considered a sacred plant (Dhiman 2003), and in East
Africa (Kokowaro 1976). The Chinese smoked the flowers to prevent coughing
and for shortness of breath (Perry 1980). The stems, dried leaves, and sometimes
the flowers were smoked to relieve respiratory congestion in Tanzania and other
parts of East Africa (Weiss 1979; Chhabra et al. 1993). The seeds of this plant were
crushed, mixed, and smoked with tobacco (Nicotiana sp.) to relieve toothache in
Riau Province, Sumatra, Indonesia (Mahyar et al. 1991). The Satar tribe of Nepal
smoked the fruit for the relief of toothache (Siwakoti and Siwakoti 2000; Manand-
har 2002). Hindu datura was one of several ingredients in an ancient Sanskrit
recipe that reportedly produced smoke that caused blindness to one’s enemies (see
recipe 1 under Asparagus racemosus Willd.) (Sensarma 1998).
Datura meteloides DC. ex Dunal (Solanaceae). devil’s weed.
The Costanoan of North America burned the leaves and inhaled the smoke as a
purgative (Bocek 1984). Smoke from the seeds, when mixed with tobacco (Nico-
tiana spp.), was thought to be an aphrodisiac (Bocek 1984). Ramah Navajo hunt-
ers, also of North America, mixed the plant with pollen and smoked it to “tame”
tobacco (Vestal 1952). Other Native North Americans smoked the leaves to relieve
shortness of breath (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973).
Datura sp. (Solanaceae). thorn apple.
In the Bahamas, West Indies, the leaves and flowers of an unspecified Datura spe-
cies were smoked for the relief of asthma and influenza (Higgs 1974).
Datura stramonium L. (Solanaceae). jimsonweed.
Throughout the world, the inhalation of smoke generated by burning jimson-
weed leaves and other parts of this plant was considered an excellent treatment
for asthma. This includes the natives or tribal members of Minas Gerias, Bra-
zil (Hirschmann and Rojas de Arias 1990); Costa Rica (Santamaría 1942); Fiji
(Singh 1986); Hawaii (Hope et al. 1993); Haiti (Weniger et al. 1986); Hungary
(Kóczián 1985); Trivandum Forest division in Kerala, India (John 1984); Rewal-
sar, India (Sood and Thakur 2004); Israel (Dafni and Yaniv 1994); Salerno, Italy
(De Feo and Senatore 1993); Sardinia, Italy (Jacobs 1997); Jamaica (Asprey and
82 Datura metel L.
Thornton 1954a); Mexico (Santamaría 1942); Namibia
(von Koenen 2001); Nepal’s Central Development Area
(Joshi and Edington 1990); Peru (Ramirez et al. 1988);
Tanzania (Chhabra and Uiso 1991); Tibet (Tsarong 1986);
Turkey (Sezik et al. 1992); and Zimbabwe (Nyazema 1984;
Gelfand et al. 1985). In other unspecified parts of the world,
jimsonweed leaves were often mixed with those of black
henbane (Hyoscyamus niger L.) and belladonna (Atropa
belladonna L.) and smoked to relieve asthma (Kondratyuk
et al. 1967). The leaves were smoked by the Bakiga and
Baganda people of the Kabale District of Africa’s Buganda Datura stramonium
kingdom to treat asthma, sore throat, and stomachache
(Hamill 2001). In South Africa, the leaves were rolled up
and smoked to relieve asthma and bronchitis (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962;
Iwu 1993; Hutchings and van Staden 1994). This was also common in Norfolk,
Britain (Hatfield cited in Allen and Hatfield 2004) and in the Arrabida Natural
Park area of Portugal (Novais et al. 2004). Various Arab tribes of Saudi Arabia
also smoked the leaves for sinus infections (Abulafatih 1987) as did the Transkei
of South Africa (Hutchings et al. 1996). The Zulu of South Africa considered the
smoke of burning leaves ideal for treating headaches and asthma (Gerstner 1941).
They were also used for that purpose in Zimbabwe (Hillocks 1998). Jimsonweed
was believed to be a sacred plant in parts of India, where its leaves were smoked to
induce narcosis (Dhiman 2003) and to relieve coughs (Tierra 1983). In northern
India, where this species is known as dhatura and is also considered very sacred,
its leaves were smoked with tobacco (Nicotiana sp.) to relieve asthma and stom-
ach troubles (Shah 1982). In Turkey’s Sakarya Province, the leaves were smoked
for treating bronchitis (Uzun et al. 2004). In Hungary, the smoke of burning seeds
and stems was used to relieve toothache, diarrhea, and bleeding (Oláh 1987). That
smoke was also considered useful for ridding oneself of parasites according to the
people of southern Pakistan (Goodman and Ghafoor 1992). Six to seven seeds
were smoked for that purpose. Along with several other plant species (see Atrac-
tylis gummifera L. for a list), jimsonweed was burned to produce smoke that was
used to induce abortions in Morocco (Merzouki et al. 2000). The shamans, or
dumbus, of the Shuhi, a Tibeto-Burman ethnic group that lives exclusively in the
Shuiluo Valley of southwestern China, used the smoke of burning seeds against
toothache (Weckerle et al. 2006). The leaves were smoked for asthma and respira-
tory failure in Mizoram, India (Sharma et al. 2001). Its use as an hallucinogenic
agent was also reported. Native North Americans and many other tribes and
people smoked the leaves for these purposes (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973),
including the Cherokee of North America, the Marie Galente of the Caribbean
(Honeychurch 1986), and people of the Appalachians (Krochmal et al. 1969). Jim-
sonweed smoke was also claimed, at one stage, to have induced psychic visions
in ancient Greece’s Delphic oracle (Stefanis et al. 1975). This is a very poisonous
plant and should not be used by untrained individuals. Its use for many of the
aforementioned purposes has been banned in several countries.
Datura wrightii Regel (Solanaceae). sacred thorn apple.
The plant was mixed with pollen and smoked by the Ramah Navajo of North
America to calm deer during hunting expeditions (Vestal 1952).
Datura wrightii Regel 83

Delonix regia (Bojer) Raf. (Caselpiniaceae). flamboyant tree.
In parts of Africa, Muslims burned the bark of this species as incense when pray-
ing (Heine and Legére 1995). The smoke also masked any bad odors in rooms
where dead people lay.
Dendranthema nubigenum (Wall. ex. DC.) Kitam. ex Kitam. & Gould (Asteraceae).
ice plant.
Powdered leaves were considered useful for burning as incense in Nepal (Manand-
har 2002).
Desmodium adscendens (Sw.) DC. (Fabaceae). hardstick.
The Nyindu of the eastern part of the Democratic Republic of Congo (formerly
Zaire) burned this species, the smoke of which may have been used as a medicine
to induce sunny weather (Yamada 1999). This species has many common names,
including zarzabacoa galana.
Desmodium supinum DC. (Fabaceae). wild pinder.
In parts of Jamaica, the smoke of burning leaves was inhaled for the relief of head-
aches (Asprey and Thornton 1954a).
Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC. (Phormiaceae). common dianella.
The leaves were harvested and then burned as incense in Indonesia by the Toraja-
nese people (Widjaja 1988). In Vietnam, Cambodia, and Laos, the rhizomes were
said to have a pleasant aroma when burned and were therefore used as incense
(van Duong 1993).
Dianella nemorosa Lam. (Phormiaceae). Dianella.
Native Hawaiians burned the roots as a fumigant for unspecified purposes (Uphof
1968; Usher 1974).
Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn. (Fabaceae). aroma.
Known as umzilazembe in Swaziland, the roots and leaves of this species were
ground into a powder and then burned on a hot plate so that the smoke could
be inhaled for the relief of coughs and colds (Amusan et al. 2002). It was used for
similar purposes in Tanzania, where it is called kikuratembe (Hedberg et al. 1983),
and in Somalia, where it is known as dhiigtaar (Samuelsson et al. 1992).
Dicoma membranacea S. Moore (Asteraceae). dicoma.
Lactating mothers of the Ovambo, Namibia’s largest group, burned this plant
on glowing embers and inhaled the smoke to boost milk production (von Koenen
2001).
Dictyota dichotoma (Huds.) Lamour. (Dictyotaceae). doubling weed.
When the leaves of this seaweed were burned, they appeared to repel or kill mos-
quitoes (Culex quinquefasciatus) according to the people of the state of Tamil
Nadu, India (Thangam and Kathiresan 1992).
Didymocarpus albicalyx C. B. Clarke. (Gesneriaceae). kum kum dhup.
Dried leaves were burned in Nepal for their fragrant smoke (Manandhar
2002).
Didymocarpus cinereus D. Don. (Gesneriaceae). Didymocarpus.
Powdered root and rhizomes were burned for incense purposes in Nepal (Manand-
har 2002).
Dioclea reflexa Hook. f. (Fabaceae). sea purse.
In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the seeds of this species were burned in
a calabash from which children suffering from respiratory diseases inhaled its
smoke (Disengomoka et al. 1983).
84 Delonix regia (Bojer) Raf.

Dioscorea dumetorum (Kunth) Pax (Dioscoreaceae). bitter yam.
This species was burned in the Democratic Republic of Congo to treat a variety of
respiratory diseases in children. The leaves were burned in a calabash to produce
the smoke (Disengomoka et al. 1983).
Diospyros argentea Griff. (Ebenaceae). silver diospyros.
Fumigants made with the leaves of this species have been used to repel mosquitoes
(Jacobson 1975). The country of use was not specified
Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb. (Ebenaceae). East Indian ebony.
In India’s Orissa State, where this species is known as kendhu, the leaves were
smoked for pleasure (Sarkar et al. 2000). The dried leaves of this species, also known
as tendu leaves, were used to wrap tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) (Seth 2003). The
leaves are of enormous socioeconomic importance to India and may be of concern
to conservation scientists (Boaz and Boaz 2003).
Diospyros undabunda Hiern ex Greves (Ebenaceae). Diospyros.
In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the seeds of this species were burned in a
calabash so that the smoke could be inhaled by children with respiratory diseases
(Disengomoka et al. 1983).
Dipteryx odorata Willd. (Fabaceae). tonka bean.
This species was used in the Amazon as a general fumigant (Duke and Vasquez
1994). Elsewhere, fermented tonka seeds were used to flavor cigarettes (Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis 2003). The seeds are a source of coumarin.
Dipteryx panamensis (Pitt.) Record & Mell. (Fabaceae). mountain almond.
In Isthmian America, the seeds of the tonka bean were used to flavor tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) (Duke 1986).
Dobera glabra Juss. ex Pior. (Salvadoraceae). karsatta.
The leaves were often burned for smoke that the Pokot of northern Kenya used when
they went into battle, when they needed protection from wild animals, and during
certain ceremonies. Young girls inhaled the smoke after being circumcised in the
punyon ceremony (Timberlake 1987). The Pokot called this species korosion.
Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. (Sapindaceae). Florida hopbush.
In Australia’s Northern Territory, the leaves and branches were burned because the
smoke was said to be useful for the care of newborn babies (Barr 1993). Similarly,
in Oaxaca, Mexico, smoke from burning leaves was inhaled for postpartum recov-
ery, menorrhagia, menstrual hemorrhage, infertility, and miscarriage prevention
(Browner 1985). The dried leaves were burned in a water pipe by the people of the
Turbat area of southern Pakistan, who inhaled the smoke produced in the pipe to
relieve sore throats caused by excessive tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) smoke (Good-
man and Ghafoor 1992).
Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. ssp. mucronata J. G. West (Sapindaceae). hopbush.
Native Australians burned the branches of hopbush and inhaled the smoke for
internal pains (Latz 1995).
Dorema ammoniacum D. Don. (Apiaceae). ammoniac.
In Iran, smoke from the gum resin of this species was directed over the skin to
treat general dermatological disorders (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Dorstenia contrayerba L (Moraceae). contrayerba.
Duke (1968) reported that the Bayano Cuna of Panama used the roots to flavor
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.). Contrayerba was also used for the same purpose by vari-
ous other groups of Isthmian America (Duke 1986).
Dorstenia contrayerba L 85
Dorstenia sp. cf. barniniana Schweinf. (Moraceae). Dorstenia.
In Ethiopia, Borana women used the smoke from burning tubers to perfume their
hair, their clothes, and their animal hides (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Dracunculus vulgaris Schott (Araceae). dragon arum.
The dragon arum was burned to generate smoke that repelled blowflies and other
livestock pests in unspecified parts of the world (McIndoo 1945).
Drimys winteri Forst. (Winteraceae). winter’s bark.
In south-central Chile, the Mapuche burned the plant as a fumigant to treat boils
and ulcers (Houghton and Manby 1985).
Drymaria cordata (L.) Roem & Schult. (Caryophyllaceae). whitesnow.
The whole plant was burned in unspecified parts of Africa to produce smoke for
treating headaches (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Duboisia hopwoodii (F. Muell.) F. Muell. (Solanaceae). pituri.
Native Australians prized this species for its stimulatory and narcotic effects
(Johnston and Cleland 1933; Cleland and Johnston 1933). The leaves were dried
and then either chewed with ash to help liberate the active alkaloids, or they were
smoked like tobacco. The latter required that the leaves be damp, mixed with the
potash of other plants, and then rolled up into a cigar (Maiden 1889b).
Dyerophytum indicum Kuntze (Plumbaginaceae). mellāh.
In Oman’s southern region of Dhofar, dried stems were sliced into thin pieces and
then smoked with tobacco (Nicotiana sp.) to relieve chest complaints and breath-
ing difficulties (Miller and Morris 1988). Mellāh is the Dhofari Arabic name for
the species.
Dyschoriste radicans Nees (Acanthaceae). Busonga songa.
Leaf powder was smoked by people of Bulamogi County, Uganda, to keep spirits at
bay (Tabuti et al. 2003). Busonga songa is the Bulamogi name for this plant.
Ecballium elaterium (L.) A. Rich. (Cucurbitaceae). squirting cucumber.
This was one of several plants used in a Moroccan polyherbal recipe burned
to produce a fumigant that induced abortions in pregnant women (Merzouki
et al. 2000). Refer to Atractylis gummifera L. for a complete list of all the species
used.
Ecbolium revolutum C. B. Clarke (Acanthaceae). Ecbolium.
In the Marsabit District of Kenya, the Gabbra burned this species to fumigate their
gourds because of the pleasant smelling smoke it produced (Heine and Brenzinger
1988).
Echinacea angustifolia DC. (Asteraceae). blacksamson echinacea.
Many Echinacea species are known for their medicinal uses in North America. The
western Indians burned parts of this plant, also known as the coneflower, to pro-
duce smoke that was inhaled for treating headaches (Gilmore 1919). This included
the Omaha (Gilmore 1919). The Ponca and Hocak used the smoke of this plant to
treat distemper in horses (Gilmore 1919).
Echinacea pallida (Nutt.) Nutt. (Asteraceae). pale purple coneflower.
The Sioux of North America used smoke from the plant to treat distemper in
horses (Hart 1996). Elsewhere, Native Americans smoked it as a treatment for
headaches (Libster 2002).
Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench. (Asteraceae). eastern purple coneflower.
Native Americans smoked parts of this plant for the relief of headaches (Libster
2002).
86 Dorstenia sp. cf. barniniana Schweinf.

Elaeis guineensis Jacq. (Arecaceae). African oil palm.
In the rural villages of the Oio region of Guinea-Bissau, West Africa, people burned
the infructescenses of this species to generate smoke that drove mosquitoes away
(Pålsson and Jaenson 1999b).
Elettaria cardamomum Maton (Zingiberaceae). cardamon.
According to the Ayurveda of India, parts of this plant were macerated, smeared
with ghee, and then rolled into cigarettes that were smoked to relieve asthma
(Mishra 2003).
Eleusine indica (L.) Gaertn. (Poaceae). Indian goosegrass.
The Pinatubo of the Philippines burned whole plants to prevent a relapse of any
illness (Fox 1953).
Elsholtzia blanda Benth. (Lamiaceae). bantulsi.
In the Manang District of Nepal, the leaves were often used as a substitute for
tobacco (Pohle 1990).
Elsholtzia eriostachya Benth. (Lamiaceae). dwarf mint bush.
The smoke of burning dried and crushed plants was used to revive a fainted or
unconscious person in the Manang District of Nepal (Pohle 1990).
Elsholtzia fruticosa Rehder (Lamiaceae). ji gu chai.
Manandhar (2002) reported that this species, when powdered, was burned as
incense in Nepal.
Encelia farinosa A. Gray ex Torr. (Asteraceae). brittlebush.
The resin was harvested in North America by an unspecified group of people, who
burned it as incense (Uphof 1968).
Endostemon tereticaulis (Poir.) M. Ashby. (Lamiaceae). Endostemon.
The Pokot of northern Kenya burned the leaves for its aromatic smoke (Timber-
lake 1987).
Englerophytum magalismontanum (Sonder) T. D. Penn. (Sapotaceae). Transvaal
milkplum.
The Rozi, who were scattered throughout Africa, burned the roots and used the
smoke to treat rheumatism (Hutchings et al. 1996).
Entada abyssinica Steud. (Fabaceae). Umusange.
The branches were burned for their smoke in Burundi, where it was inhaled for its
analgesic properties (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Entada leptostachya Harms. (Fabaceae). Entada.
Borana women in southern Oromia, Ethiopia, used this species to produce scented
smoke that they used to perfume and cleanse themselves (Gemedo-Dalle et al.
2005). For more information on this practice, see Acacia goetzei Harms. The Gab-
bra of Kenya burned the root and bark as incense (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Ephedra nevadensis S. Wats. (Ephedraceae). Nevada joint fir.
Parts of this plant were smoked to relieve headaches (Heffern 1974). There were no
details about the country of use.
Ephedra trifurca Torr. (Ephedraceae). longleaf joint fir.
A wood smudge was prepared by the Cocopa of northwestern Mexico to treat
venereal diseases (Elmore 1944). The wood was mixed with charcoal, buffalo hair,
wood rat hair, and bat hair.
Epilobium angustifolium L. (Onagraceae). fireweed.
The Upper Tanana of North America used smoke from burning shoots as a mos-
quito repellant and to smoke their fish (Kari 1985).
Epilobium angustifolium L. 87
Epipremnum giganteum Schott. (Araceae). Rengot.
Smoke from burning roots was inhaled twice a week to
treat nose ulcers by people of the Machang District of
Malaysia’s Kelantan State (Ong and Nordiana 1999).
Eremophila latrobei F. Muell. (Myoporaceae). native
fuchsia.
Native Australians forced their babies to inhale the
smoke of smoldering leaves to enhance their chances of
survival (Meggitt 1962; Latz 1995).
Eremophila longifolia F. Muell. (Myoporaceae). berrigan
bush.
The smoke from the leaves of this species was used
to strengthen newborns and to stem the flow of post-
partum bleeding (Cleland and Johnston 1933, 1937;
Barr 1993; Latz 1995). Epilobium angustifolium
Eremophila mitchellii Benth. (Myoporaceae). false
sandalwood.
Native Australians inhaled the smoke of burning twigs for general ailments (Low
1990).
Eremophila neglecta J. Black (Myoporaceae). tar bush.
According to Native Australians, smoke from the leaves was used for unspecified
medicinal properties (Latz 1995).
Eremophila sturtii R. Br. (Myoporaceae). turpentine.
The Pitjantjatjara of Australia inhaled smoke from smoldering branches to relieve
backache (Latz 1995). The Arrernte burned green branches to produce fumes that
were believed to dispel clouds (Latz 1995). In the Northern Territory, the smoke
was used as a fumigant for sore eyes (Barr 1993).
Eremostachys loasifolia Benth. (Lamiaceae). dannân shân.
Villagers living between the Khuzdar and Nal areas of southern Pakistan smol-
dered the seeds of this species over hot coals and inhaled the smoke to remove
worms that had burrowed into their gums (Goodman and Ghafoor
1992).
Eriodictyon californicum Greene (Hydrophyllaceae). California yerba
santa.
The Costanoan of California smoked the leaves for relief from
asthma attacks (Bocek 1984). The Miwok, also of California, smoked
the leaves for colds (Barrett and Gifford 1933).
Erigeron canadensis L. (Asteraceae). horseweed.
Native Americans smoked the flowers and leaves for pleasure (Kav-
asch 1979). According to Smith (1932), the Pillager Ojibwa inhaled
the smoke of burning flowers to relieve head colds. They also used it
in their kinnikinnick smoking mixtures. According to Smith (1932),
the disk florets of this species were smoked as hunting charms. Other
Native Americans sprinkled the tops of leaves on hot coals and inhaled
the smoke in their sweat lodges (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973).
Erigeron philadelphicus L. (Asteraceae). Philadelphia fleabane.
Smoke from burning the flowers was used by the Ojibwa of North
America to relieve head colds (Smith 1932). Other tribes burned com- Erigeron canadensis
88 Epipremnum giganteum Schott.

plete plants to relieve head colds (Speck 1941). The Ojibwa also smoked the disk
florets as part of their kinnikinnick mixture and to attract buck deer (Smith 1932).
Eriogonum divaricatum Hook. (Polygonaceae). divergent buckwheat.
The Kayenta Navajo of North America smoked the plant to treat snakebite (Wyman
and Harris 1951).
Eriogonum inflatum Torr. (Polygonaceae). desert trumpet.
The Yavapai of Arizona smoked the dried leaves with their tobacco (Nicotiana
spp.) (Gifford 1936).
Ervatamia coronaria (Jacq.) Stapf (Apocynaceae). grape jasmine.
The wood of this species was highly prized in both East India and Malaysia for
burning as incense (Uphof 1968).
Eryngium foetidum L. (Apiaceae). cilantro.
The Chami of the Amazon braised the dried fruits of cilantro and then burned
them to produce smoke that their children inhaled to treat diarrhea (Duke and
Vasquez 1994).
Eryngium planum L. (Apiaceae). blue eryngo.
Aerial parts of this species were burned at night in Hungary so that children who
were frightened or crying could inhale the fumes and be calmed down (Péntek
and Szabó 1985).
Erysimum repandum L. (Brassicaceae). spreading wallflower.
In Iran, smoke from burning fruits was considered useful for treating eye ailments
Erythrina abyssinica Lam. (Fabaceae). Abyssinian erythrina.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, where this plant is known as mpirigiti, the roots
were burned and smoked to keep spirits at bay (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Erythrina subumbrans Merr. (Fabaceae). Erythrina.
In the Philippines, the green limbs of this species were burned in house fires
because the smoke reportedly kept insects away (von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Erythrophleum chlorostachys Baill. (Fabaceae). Cooktown ironwood.
The Yolngu of Arnhem Land, Australia, burned the outer bark of the Cooktown
ironwood to produce smoke that was considered useful for preventing future
pregnancies (Scarlett et al. 1982). The smoke from the wood and leaves was also
inhaled to treat constipation. In the Northern Territory of Australia, smoke from
burning root bark was inhaled to end lactation (Barr 1993). Further to the north,
in Groote Eylandt, the Native Australians passed their babies through the smoke
of burning leaves to drive evil spirits away (Levitt 1981). The smoke from burning
roots is considered toxic and should be avoided. On Groote Eylandt, this species
is called mardarra.
Erythrophleum suaveolens (Gill. and Perr.) Brenan. (Fabaceae). red water tree.
In West Africa, smoke from burning bark was inhaled to relieve internal pains
(Dalziel 1948; Irvine 1961).
Erythroxylum coca Lam. (Erythroxylaceae). coca.
This is a New World plant that was chewed for centuries by the aboriginals of the
Andes of South America (Castoldi 2004). It helped these people endure long hours
of hunger and work. Today, it is snorted and smoked because it induces eupho-
ria and makes one feel more confident. The active constituent, an alkaloid called
cocaine, is usually prepared as a hydrochloride salt or as free-base cocaine (crack),
which is smoked. Crack cocaine is made by removing the hydrochloride salt with
Erythroxylum coca Lam. 89

either ammonia or baking soda (sodium bicar-
bonate). The resultant substance is unstable at
temperatures above 98°C and rapidly melts,
allowing it to be smoked. The name crack may
have been derived from the sound that it makes
when it is burned (Castoldi 2004). When cocaine
is smoked, the alkaloid is rapidly absorbed into
the bloodstream, inducing an almost immediate
effect. The introduction of crack cocaine during
the 1980s, and its subsequent popularization by
celebrities, has opened the door for a whole new
Erythroxylum coca
class of cocaine users, many of them in mar-
ginal ethnic groups in Western countries. The
coca plant was used by the rural women of southern Bolivia, who burned its leaves
along with other unspecified plants, llama fat, colored paper, yarn, and other items
to produce smoke that was offered to their gods. This was said to help them recover
from various illnesses (Sikkink 2000).
Ethulia conyzoides L. f. (Asteraceae). abu elafein.
This species was burned and used as a fumigant for unspecified purposes in parts
of East Africa (Heine and Legére 1995).
Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh. (Myrtaceae). red gum.
In Australia’s Northern Territory, young leaves were gathered and smoked for gen-
eral sickness, colds, flus, and fevers (Barr 1993).
Eucalyptus cinerea F. Muell ex Benth. (Myrtaceae). stringybark.
In Australia, the leaves of stringybark were added to smoking tobacco (Nicotiana
sp.) to enhance its flavor (Cribb and Cribb 1981).
Eucalyptus citriodora Hook (Myrtaceae). lemon-scented gum.
The leaves of this species have been added to smoking tobacco (Nicotiana sp.) in
Australia to enhance its flavor (Cribb and Cribb 1981).
Eucalyptus dives Schauer (Myrtaceae). broadleaf peppermint.
Australia’s indigenous people inhaled the smoke of burning leaves to treat a variety
of illnesses (Webb 1969). It was considered useful as a fumigant to reduce fever
(Webb 1969). The leaves were also added to smoking tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to
enhance its flavor (Cribb and Cribb 1981).
Eucalyptus globulus Labill. (Myrtaceae). Tasmanian blue gum.
Dried leaves were smoked for the treatment of asthma and other respiratory
problems in North Africa (Ayensu 1979) and
in parts of Southeast Asia (van Duong 1993).
Villagers in the Santhal area of West Bengal,
India, used the smoke from burning leaves to
repel mosquitoes (Banerjee 2000).
Eucalyptus papuana F. Muell. (Myrtaceae).
ghost gum.
The Bardi of Australia burned the bark of the
ghost gum, which they called yinubarringinja,
and then mixed the ash with other unspeci-
fied substances and smoked the mixture for
pleasure (Levitt 1981). Eucalyptus globulus
90 Ethulia conyzoides L. f.
Eucalyptus spp. (Myrtaceae). gum trees.
The smoking of gum tree leaves for the relief of asthma and bronchitis was pre-
scribed in the latter part of nineteenth-century Australia by colonial doctors, but
it did not endure long as a treatment for these respiratory conditions (Cribb and
Cribb 1981). In the rural villages of the Oio region of Guinea-Bissau, West Africa,
people burned the leaves of an unidentified Eucalyptus species to generate smoke
that drove mosquitoes away (Pålsson and Jaenson 1999b). These researchers
reported that the smoke was significantly more effective than the negative controls
that were used in their comparative study.
Eucarya spicata (R. Br.) Sprague & Summerh. (Santalaceae). Eucarya.
Parts of this plant were burned for incense purposes in an unspecified country
(Uphof 1968).
Euclea natalensis DC. (Ebenaceae). Natal guarri.
In Venda, South Africa, the smoke of burning roots was inhaled to relieve head-
aches (Arnold and Gulumian 1984).
Euclea schimperi (DC.) Dandy (Ebenaceae). bush guarri.
The wood, when burned, produces a thick, black smoke that was considered ideal
for repelling insects and other pests in Oman’s southern region of Dhofar (Miller
and Morris 1988). The Dhofari Arabic name for the plant is kilit.
Eugenia aromatica Baill. (Mytaceae). clove tree.
Ground cloves were mixed with tobacco (Nicotiana sp.) to produce the famous
Indonesian cigarettes kreteks (Hanusz 2003). These are still produced to this day,
with more than 500 manufacturers of the cigarettes.
Eulalia aurea Kunth (Poaceae). silky browntop.
The indigenous people of the Australia’s Northern Territory burned this plant with
parts of termite mounds to encourage lactation in mothers and to promote health
in their new babies (Barr 1993).
Eupatorium maculatum L. (Asteraceae). Joe-pye weed.
The leaves were used by the Hocak (Winnebago) of North America for the prepa-
ration of smoke smudges that were used to treat a variety of illnesses (Kindscher
and Hurlburt 1998).
Eupatorium urticaefolium Reichard (Asteraceae). white snakeroot.
The Chickasaw of North America prepared smoke smudges to revive unconscious
people (Smith 1928). Moerman (1998) suggests that the actual species used may
have been Ageratina altissima (L.) King & H. E. Robins var. roanensis (Small)
Clewell & Woot.
Euphorbia cuneata Vahl. ssp. spinescens (Pax) S. Carter. (Euphorbiaceae).
ormamen.
In southern Oromia, Ethiopia, the smoke generated in saunalike chambers
was used to perfume and cleanse the bodies and clothes of women pastoralists
(Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005).
Euphorbia hirta L. (Euphorbiaceae). asthma plant.
Parts of this plant were smoked in a pipe by some Native Australian tribes to
relieve asthma attacks (Maiden 1889a; Cribb and Cribb 1981). It was also used for
that purpose in Nepal (Manandhar 2002). In the Cordillera region of northern
Luzon in the Philippines, the leaves were mixed in equal parts with the flowers of
Brugmansia suaveolens (Willd.) Brecht & C. Presl and smoked to relieve asthma
(Jayaweera 1980; Co 1989). The Philippine name for the species was gatus-gatus.
Euphorbia hirta L. 91
Euphorbia ingens E. Mey. (Euphorbiaceae). candelabra tree.
In Zimbabwe, the latex of this species was burned to produce
smoke that was inhaled for the treatment of asthma and bron-
chitis (Gelfand et al. 1985).
Euphrasia himalayica Wettst. (Scrophuliaraceae). Euphrasia.
The whole plant was burned as incense in the Manang District
of Nepal (Pohle 1990).
Evodia amboinensis Merr. (Rutaceae). Evodia.
The dried bark of E. amboinensis was burned for incense pur-
poses in parts of Indonesia (Uphof 1968).
Evolvulus alsinoides L. (Convulvulaceae). slender dwarf morning
glory.
The leaves of this species were smoked throughout the Indian
subcontinent to treat bronchitis, asthma, and other respira-
tory ailments. The main centers of use were India (Uphof 1968; Euphorbia ingens
Usher 1974), including the Garasia tribe of Rajasthan State
(Singh and Pandey 1998) and people of the Tirunelveli District
in Tamil Nadu State (Thomas and De Britto 2000), Nepal (Manandhar 2002), and
along the India–Nepal border (Ranjan 2000). It was also smoked in Sri Lanka
(Jayaweera 1980).
Excoecaria agallocha L. (Euphorbiaceae). milky mangrove.
Native Fijians burned the wood to inhale its smoke for curing ulcers (Cribb
and Cribb 1981) and for treating leprosy (Jayaweera 1980). This was also
common in India, where the smoke from burning the wood was used (Ban-
daranayake 1998). The wood was burned in unspecified areas of Southeast
Asia as incense (Uphof 1968; Usher 1974). The smoke has also been shown
to repel and kill mosquitoes (Thangam and Kathierson 1992; Thangam and
Kathierson 1993).
Exocarpus latifolius R. Br. (Santalaceae). broad-leafed native cherry.
In the Northern Territory of Australia, smoke from burning the leafy branches was
believed to make babies thrive (Barr 1993).
Fabiana bryoides Phil. (Solanaceae). Fabiana.
The pre-Altiplanic people of Chile burned the stems of this species as incense
(Aldunate et al. 1983).
Fagara chalybea Engl. (Rutaceae). ngwevna.
In parts of Botswana, the roots were burned for smoke that was reportedly used as
a remedy for snakebite (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006). Ngwevna is its Botswanan
name.
Fagus grandiflora Ehrh. (Fagaceae). American beech.
German soldiers smoked the leaves of this beech species as a substitute for tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) (Grieve 1931).
Faramea guianensis (Aubl.) Bremek. (Rubiaceae). Ipeca.
In parts of French Guiana, the entire plant was burned to fumigate wounds while
they were being dressed (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Fatsia horrida Benth & Hook. f. (Araliaceae). devil’s club.
The Crow of North America mixed the roots with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and
smoked them to relieve headaches (Blankinship 1905). Moerman (1998) suggests
that the species actually used may have been Oplopanax horridus Miq.
92 Euphorbia ingens E. Mey.

Ferula assa-foetida L. (Apiaceae). haltîda.
This species found use in Yemen, where the resin was burned to produce smoke
that was passed over a female’s vagina after she gave birth (Ghazanfar 1994). The
smoke was believed to help the vagina contract.
Ferula communis L. (Apiaceae). giant fennel.
In the Italian city of Bivona in Sicily’s province of Agrigento, unspecified parts
of giant fennel were smoked as a medication to bring up mucus (expectorant)
(Catanzaro 1970).
Ferula foetida Regel (Apiaceae). devil’s dung.
The smoke of this species was used as a remedy for colic in children of the urban
African American communities of Detroit, Michigan (Smitherman et al. 2005).
This species is sometimes known as devil’s dung because of its foul smell and
taste.
Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke (Apiaceae). the caper bush.
Smoke from burning gum resins was inhaled in Tibet to relieve asthma (Tsarong
1986).
Ferula sumbul Hook f. (Apiaceae). muskroot.
Usher (1974) reported that this plant was burned as incense in central Asia. The
plant parts used were not specified.
Ficus carica L. (Moraceae). edible fig.
The leaves of this fig were chopped and then smoked for recreational purposes in
Spain’s Almería Province (Martínez-Lirola et al. 1996). Elsewhere, the leaves were
smoked in a pipe for the relief of sinus or bad chest pains (Crellin 1990).
Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.). Merr. (Flacourtiaceae). governor’s plum.
This species was used in parts of East Africa to treat the houses of people who
were affected by bad or evil charms (Heine and Legére 1995), which were removed
during special ceremonies of which fumigations with this species were an integral
part. The Swahili name for this plant is mao.
Flueggea virosa (Willd.) Voigt (Euphorbiaceae). common bushweed.
The roots of common bushweed were smoked to keep spirits at bay in Bulamogi
County, Uganda (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Foeniculum officinalis All. (Apiaceae). fennel.
The Hopi of North America used fennel as a substitute for tobacco (Nicotiana spp.)
(Whiting 1939). Moerman (1998) suggests that the species actually used was prob-
ably Foeniculum vulgare Mill. Ross (2002) reported that the seeds can be sprinkled
on smoke mixes, giving them a sweet aroma.
Foeniculum vulgare Mill. (Apiaceae). fennel.
See Foeniculum officinalis All.
Frankenia palmeri S. Wats. (Frankeniaceae). saladito.
This plant was one of the first plants created according to the Seri of Mexico
(Felger and Moser 1985). They used it during a number of their smoking
ceremonies.
Fraxinus excelsior L. (Oleaceae). European ash.
In Ireland, the Antrim inhaled the smoke of smoldering twigs as a form of worm
treatment (Vickery 1995).
Fraxinus nigra Marsh. (Oleaceae). black ash.
The Parry Island Ojibwa of North America used the berrylike tips of this ash as a
tobacco substitute when tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) was scarce (Jenness 1935).
Fraxinus nigra Marsh. 93

Fuchsia excorticata L. f. (Onagraceae). tree fuchsia.
Early settlers in New Zealand smoked strips of bark from this species as a tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) substitute (Stark 1979).
Fumaria sp. (Fumariaceae). fumitory.
The Cavan of Ireland believed that smoke from an unspecified species of the
Fumaria genus was an excellent cure for stomach troubles (Spence 1914).
Gardenia latifolia Schlecht. ex Hook. f. (Rubiaceae). Ceylon boxwood.
In parts of Sri Lanka, the resin of the Ceylon boxwood was burned to produce
smoke that was useful for fumigating and treating sores (Jayaweera 1982b).
Gardenia spatulifolia Stapf & Hutch. (Rubiaceae). common gardenia.
The Kwanyama Ovambo of Ovamboland, Namibia, burned the wood of this spe-
cies and inhaled the smoke for the relief of head colds (Rodin 1974; Rodin 1985).
Gardenia volkensii K. Schum. ssp. spatulifolia (Stapf & Hutch.) Verdc. (Rubiaceae).
Gardenia.
In Namibia, the smoke from burning wood was used to treat head colds (Rodin
1985).
Gaura parviflora Dougl. ex Lehm. (Onagraceae). smallflower gaura.
The Kayenta of North America used this plant as a fumigant for unspecified pur-
poses (Wyman and Harris 1951).
Gaylussacia baccata K. Koch. (Ericaceae). black huckleberry.
The Iroquois of North America considered this species an important food
and also valued, to some degree, the leaves, which were smoked for pleasure
(Bye 1970).
Geigera ornativa O. Hoffm. ssp. ornativa (Asteraceae). speikraut.
The Himba of Namibia trampled the leaves before burning them on red-hot coals
and then using the smoke as a fumigant to treat swollen legs and feet (von Koenen
2001).
Geijera parviflora Lindl. (Rutaceae). Australian willow.
Native Australians baked and powdered the leaves of the Australian willow and
then smoked them with other narcotic plants to induce drowsiness during certain
ceremonies (Webb 1969).
Gerbera piloselloides Cass. (Asteraceae). yellow gerbera.
This plant was prized by the Sotho of Africa for its use as a disinfecting fumigant
for huts where people with colds lived (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Geum triflorum Pursh. (Rosaceae). old man’s whiskers.
The Blackfoot of North America added the roots of this species to tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) and smoked the mixture to clear the head (Hellson 1974).
Gilia leptomeria A. Gray. (Polemoniaceae). sand gilia.
The Kayenta Navajo of North America smoked this plant as a tonic (Wyman and
Harris 1951).
Gilia multiflora Nutt. (Polemoniaceae). many-flower ipomopsis.
The Zuñi of North America smoked this plant in cigarettes rolled in corn husks to
relieve strangulation (Stevenson 1909). The Zuñi name for the plant is ha’sililiwe
li’anna, meaning “blue leaves in delicate motion.” This species has since been reclas-
sified as Ipomopsis multiflora (Nutt.) V. Grant.
Gladiolus dalenii van Geel. (Iridaceae). yellow gladiolus.
The Sotho of Africa inhaled smoke from burning corms as a remedy for colds
94 Fuchsia excorticata L. f.
Gloriosa superba L. (Colchicaceae). flame lily.
When cattle belonging to the Borana of Ethiopia and Gabbra of Kenya were bitten
by snakes, they were treated with fumigations of this species (Heine and Brenz-
inger 1988).
Glyceria aquatica (L.) Wahlb. (Poaceae). reed
manna-grass.
The Crow and Montana of North America burned this
plant for incense purposes (Barrett and Gifford 1933).
Moerman (1998) suggests that the species actually
used may have been Catabrosa aquatica P. Beauv.
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. (Fabaceae). licorice.
The root has been added to some tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) products in Egypt to add flavor
(Manniche 1989).
Gnaphalium japonicum Thunb. (Asteraceae).
Japanese cudweed.
When children in Lesotho, Africa, had high fever,
their huts were fumigated and cleansed with the
smoke produced during the burning of this plant
(Perry 1980).
Glycyrrhiza glabra
Gnaphalium margaritaceum L. (Asteraceae).
cudweed.
This species was smoked as a tobacco (Nicotiana
spp.) substitute in North America (Rafinesque 1828).
Gnaphalium polycephalum Michx. (Asteraceae). Indian posy.
Native Americans burned the leaves of Indian posy, inhaling its smoke to relieve
headaches (Kavasch 1979). It was also smoked for recreational purposes. This species
was used separately or with the galls obtained from a beaver’s body to make a smoke
smudge meant to revive fainted or unconscious people (Smith 1923). The smoke was
blown into the person’s nostrils. The smudge was also believed to drive away ghosts.
The Meskwaki of North America also used the smudge to revive
unconscious people (Smith 1928).
Gnaphalium obtusifolium L. (Asteraceae). sweet everlasting.
The Cherokee (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975) and Rappahannock
(Speck et al. 1942) of North America smoked unspecified parts
of this plant for the relief of asthma.
Gnetum nodiflorum Brongn. (Gnetaceae). gnetum.
This species was often burned as incense in Venezuela (von Reis
and Lipp 1982).
Gnetum sp. (Gnetaceae). joint firs.
Hunters in northern Thailand’s Akha area threw small pieces of
wood broken off from an unspecified species of joint fir into
their campfires because it was believed to keep evil spirits away
(Anderson 1993).
Gnidia burchellii Gilg. (Thymelaeaceae). Burchell’s gnidia.
In Africa, the Sotho burned whole plants and inhaled the smoke
to prevent nightmares and fevers (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk
1962). Gnaphalium obtusifolium
Gnidia burchellii Gilg. 95

Gnidia capitata L. f. (Thymelaeaceae). kerrieblom.
In South Africa, the leaves were ground and then smoked to treat stomachache,
earache, and toothache (Gelfand et al. 1985; Hutchings and van Staden 1994).
Kerrieblom is its Africaans name.
Gnidia gymnostachya Gilg. (Thymelaeaceae). Gnidia.
Like G. capitata L. f., the leaves were ground and smoked to treat stomachache,
earache, and toothache in South Africa (Gelfand et al. 1985; Hutchings and van
Staden 1994).
Gnidia sp. (Thymelaeaceae). Gnidia.
In Africa, the roots of an unspecified species of Gnidia were burned to produce
smoke that was inhaled for the relief of coughs, general pain, and headaches (Watt
and Breyer-Brandwijk 1933; Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Goniothalamus macrophyllus Hook. f. & Thoms. (Annonaceae). selayak hitam.
The twigs were burned in parts of Asia to produce smoke that was reported to
repel mosquitoes (Salek 1989; Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). Selayak hitam is the
Malaysian name for this plant.
Goniothalamus malayanus Hook. f. & Thoms. (Annonaceae). Goniothalamus.
The smoke from burning leaves was considered an effective mosquito repellent in
Malaysia (Salek 1989).
Gonystylus bancanus (Miq.) Kurz. (Thymelaeaceae). aloe wood.
This species was burned both in Java, Indonesia, and in parts of Malaysia for incense
purposes. The Javanese burned the wood (Sangat-Roemantyo 1990), whereas the
Malaysians burned the oil derived from the wood (Usher 1974).
Gonystylus macrophyllus (Miq.) Airy Shaw (Thymelaeaceae). bidaru.
In India, the wood was smoked for the relief of asthma (Chopra et al. 1969).
Gonystylus miquelianus Teijsm. & Binn. (Thymelaeaceae). ramin.
The wood of this species was burned as incense in Malaysia, and the wood
oil was burned to generate smoke that was inhaled for the relief of asthma
(Uphof 1959).
Gossypium arboreum L. (Malvaceae). tree cotton.
Smoke from burning seeds was used as a fumigant for unspecified purposes in
both the Lesser and Greater Antilles and Mauritius (Hartwell 1970).
Gossypium herbaceum L. (Malvaceae). levant cotton.
Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.), the leaves of this species, when
burned with other plant and animal ingredients, produce smoke that causes blind-
ness in one’s enemies (see Abrus precatorius L.) (Sensarma 1998).
Grevillea stenobotrya F. Muell. (Proteaceae). rattlepod grevillea.
Native Australians burned the leaves and inhaled the smoke for unspecified
medicinal purposes (Latz 1995).
Grewia bicolor Juss. (Tiliaceae). bastard brandybush.
The shamans of the Pokot of northern Kenya, known as the liokin, burned the
leaves of this species to fumigate sick cattle (Timberlake 1987). The species is
known locally as sitat.
Grewia microcus L. (Tiliaceae). Grewia.
The leaves were used to make Burmese cheroots, which were smoked by people of
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands, India (Dagar and Dagar 1999).
96 Gnidia capitata L. f.
Guaiacum spp. (Zygophyllaceae). lignum vitae.
The Aztec of Mexico burned the resins of various Guaiacum species as incense to
treat colds and for their aphrodisiacal properties (Rätsch 2004).
Guiera senegalensis J. F. Gmel. (Combretaceae). tiger bush.
In Dogonland, Mali, West Africa, the smoke from burning tiger bush stems and
leaves was inhaled to treat the wounds caused by Satan (Inngjerdingen et al. 2004).
This species is known locally as toniburu.
Guilandina bonducella L. (Fabaceae). gray nicker.
The leaves of this species, according to the fourth-century b.c. Sanskrit treatise the
Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya, were burned with other plant and animal ingredients to
produce smoke that causes blindness in one’s enemies (see Abrus precatorius L.)
(Sensarma 1998).
Gutierrezia furfuracea Greene (Asteraceae). broom snakeweed.
See Gutierrezia sarothrae (Pursh) Britt. & Rusby.
Gutierrezia sarothrae (Pursh) Britt. & Rusby (Asteraceae). broom snakeweed.
According to Foster and Hobbs (2002), smoke from this plant was burned as a
fumigant to help newborn babies and their mothers. It was also used for women
who were experiencing powerful contractions. Moerman (1998) suggests that it
was this species that the Hopi used for killing bees and not G. furfuracea Greene as
reported in the original texts.
Gutierrezia sp. (Asteraceae). snakeweed.
The Hopi of North America burned a unknown species of snakeweed over a slow
fire to generate smoke that was said to destroy and kill bees (Cook 1930).
Gymnosporia royleana M. Laws. (Celastraceae). jaliddar.
In India’s Udhampur District of Jammu Province, the seeds of this species were
smoked to relieve toothache (Kapur and Singh 1996).
Hagenia abyssinica J. F. Gmel. (Rosaceae). musuzi.
In parts of Ethiopia and Kenya, the roots and wood of this species were burned to
tan and smoke cowhides. The smoke was also used to perfume clothes and other
items (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Hanghomia marseillei Gagnep. and Thénint. (Apocynaceae). hanghomia.
The roots of this species were burned as incense in the local pagodas of Laos
Haplocoelum foliolosum (Hiern) Bullock (Sapindaceae). northern gala plum.
The Borana of Ethiopia and the Gabbra of Kenya used this species to fumigate and
cleanse their containers (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. (Simaroubaceae). pedu.
In Ghana, the Nyamwezi “swallowed” the smoke of burning roots to treat ancylo-
stomiasis (Watt and Breyer-Brandwicjk 1962). The smoke was said to traverse the
intestine to mediate the disease’s effects.
Hedychium spicatum Sm. (Zingiberaceae). perfume ginger.
This plant was sold and burned as incense in the markets of Jima, Ethiopia, where
it is known as afer kocher (Siegenthaler 1971).
Helenium cusickii A. Gray. (Asteraceae). cusick’s sunflower.
The Shasta of northwestern California often burned this species to fumigate their
houses, especially when they were inhabited by a patient who had suffered a long,
slow illness with fevers and chills (Holt 1946).
Helenium cusickii A. Gray. 97

Helenium microcephalum DC. (Asteraceae). smallhead sneezeweed.
The Comanche of North America inhaled the smoke of this plant to help eliminate
afterbirth (Carlson and Jones 1939).
Helianthus spp. (Asteraceae). sunflower.
Native North Americans smoked the leaves of several unspecified sunflower spe-
cies as substitutes for tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) (Kavasch 1979).
Helichrysum aureonitens Sch. Bip. (Asteraceae). golden everlasting.
The Zulu of South Africa burned the leaves and stems of the golden everlasting for
incense purposes (Hutchings et al. 1996). Zulu diviners, called inzagomas, smoked
the leaves and stems to induce trancelike states prior to their mantic sessions.
Helichrysum cymosum D. Don. (Asteraceae). baby kooigoed.
Midwives in Transkei, South Africa, burned leaves of this species for smoke that
was used to fumigate newborn babies and to chase away evil spirits (Dlisani and
Bhat 1999).
Helichrysum decorum Krauss ex Harv. & Sond. (Asteraceae). decorative
everlasting.
African Zulu inzagomas (diviners) smoked unspecified parts of this plant to induce
trances, during which they were able to divine cures and perform other services
for members of the tribe (Hutchings et al. 1996).
Helichrysum epapposum Bolus ex J. M. Wood. (Asteraceae). strawflower
everlasting.
The leaves and stems of this species were burned as incense by the Zulu of South
Africa (Hutchings et al. 1996).
Helichrysum foetidum Moench. (Asteraceae). strawflower.
This herb was dried and then smoked for its hallucinogenic effects by the shamans
of Zululand, Africa (Schultes et al. 2001).
Helichrysum gymnocomum DC. (Asteraceae). Helichrysum.
Leaves and stems were burned by the Zulu of Africa to generate smoke that was
used to invoke the goodwill of their ancestors (Hutchings et al. 1996).
Helichrysum herbaceum Sweet (Asteraceae). monkey-tail everlasting.
In South Africa, the Zulu burned the leaves and stems to produce smoke that was
believed to invoke the goodwill of their ancestors (Hutchings et al. 1996).
Helichrysum italicum (Roth) G. Don. (Asteraceae). curry plant.
The smoke of burning branches, which were lit on Christmas Eve in Tuscany and
elsewhere in Italy, was used as a fumigant to ward off the evil eye (Pieroni and
Giusti 2002). In the upper Lucca Province of Italy, the aerial parts of this plant were
burned in the preparation of fumigants for treating colds, as a bechic agent (cough
suppressor), and as a good omen (Pieroni 2000).
Helichrysum kirkii Oliv. & Hiern. (Asteraceae). Kirk’s everlasting.
The roots of this species were used in conjunction with others to treat tuberculosis
in northern and eastern Mozambique (Verzár and Petri 1987). Patients dried the
plant parts and placed the mixture on glowing coals. They then covered them-
selves with a blanket and inhaled the smoke. The other species in the mixture were
Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.), Clematopsis scabiosifolia Hutch., Clerodendron dis-
color Becc., and Ozoroa schinzii (Engl.) R. Fern. & A. Fern. It was also used in
Mbeere, Kenya, where the whole plant was burned to make smoke that drove bees
away as well as beehive predators (Riley and Brokensha 1988). The Kenyan name
for the species is taa.
98 Helenium microcephalum DC.

Helichrysum litoreum Guss. (Asteraceae). tabbaccazzu.
Sun-dried inflorescences, known as tabbaccazzu in Italy, were smoked in that
country for the relief of bronchial asthma (Ruberto et al. 2002). The smoke is con-
sidered a powerful disinfectant and has also found use for this purpose.
Helichrysum natalitium DC. (Asteraceae). Natal everlasting.
The Zulu of South Africa burned the leaves and stems of this everlasting as incense
(Cunningham 1988). This was said to invoke the goodwill of their ancestors.
Helichrysum nudifolium Less. (Asteraceae). Hottentot’s tea.
Like H. natalitium DC., the leaves and stems of this species were burned as incense
that was used to invoke the goodwill of ancestors. The Zulu also considered the
smoke from the leaves, when inhaled, useful for relieving headaches (Hutchings
et al. 1996).
Helichrysum odoratissimum Sweet (Asteraceae). imphepho.
Leaves and stems were burned for incense purposes by the Zulu of Africa. This was
said to invoke the goodwill of ancestors. They also inhaled the smoke of burning
leaves to alleviate coughs and colds (Hutchings and Johnson 1986). The Lesotho
of southern Africa burned the complete plant to fumigate sickrooms (Jacot Guil-
larmod 1971).
Helichrysum spp. (Asteraceae). everlastings.
In South Africa, the smoke of burning leaves of many Helichrysum species was
inhaled for the relief of pain (Hutchings and van Staden 1994; Hutchings et al.
1996; Schwegler 2003).
Helichrysum stenopterum DC. (Asteraceae). strawflower.
Like H. foetidum, this herb was dried and then smoked by the shamans of Zulu-
land, Africa, for its hallucinogenic effects (Schultes et al. 2001).
Helosis cayennensis Spreng. (Balanophoraceae). Kamarassana.
The entire plant was burned in Suriname to produce smoke that was considered
useful as a snakebite remedy (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Hemizygia bracteosa Briq. (Lamiaceae). purple top.
In Namibia, this plant was burned beside huts to drive away mosquitoes (von
Keonen 2001).
Heracleum lanatum Michx. (Apiaceae). hogweed.
The Menomini (Smith 1923), Weskwaki (Smith 1928), and Pillager Ojibwa
(Smith 1932) of North America all burned this species because its smoke was
thought to drive away the evil spirit Sokênau, who could steal one’s hunting luck.
Unspecified parts of the plant were thrown on a fire for its smoke, the odor
of which permeated the air for great distances. This prevented Sokênau from
approaching. The Gitskan, also of North America, mixed this plant with red elder
bark and juniper boughs to prepare a smudge that kept evil witchcraft at bay
(Comptom 1993). Moerman (1998) suggests that the species actually used was
probably H. maximum Bartr.
Heracleum maximum Bartr. (Apiaceae). pushkie.
Smoke from burning flower tops and roots was used by Native North American
tribes to revive a fainted or unconscious person and for treating head colds, respec-
tively (Foster and Hobbs 2002). See also H. lanatum Michx.
Hernandia beninensis Welw. ex Henriq. (Hernandiaceae). bungá.
The people of Gabon burned the bark of this species to prepare fumigations used
as enemas that were believed to cure madness (Watt 1967).
Hernandia beninensis Welw. ex Henriq. 99

Hertia intermedia Kuntze. (Asteraceae). môngûlî.
The smoke generated by burning the entire plant was used as an insect
repellent in parts of the Kalat area of southern Pakistan (Goodman and
Ghafoor 1992).
Heteromeles arbutifolia (Lindl.) M. Roem. (Rosaceae). toyon.
The Chumash of California burned the wood of toyon to produce smoke used to
flavor and preserve their fish (Timbrook 1990).
Heteromorpha arborescens Cham & Schltdl. (Apiaceae). parsley tree.
The smoke of burning parsley tree plants was inhaled in South Africa to treat
headaches (Hutchings et al. 1996).
Heteromorpha trifoliata Eckl. & Zeyh. (Apiaceae). parsnip tree.
The Sotho of South Africa prized the smoke produced by burning this plant for
curing headaches (Jacot Guillarmod 1971).
Hierochloe odorata (L.) Beauv. (Poaceae). sweet grass.
The Kiowa of New Mexico burned previously buried foliage of this species to
produce smoke that was considered ideal for incense purposes (Uphof 1968).
The Cheyenne of North America burned the plant as incense during ceremo-
nies for purification. They also burned the species in their homes to ward off
evil (Hart 1981). The Blackfoot and Sioux, also of North America, burned the
grass and used the smoke to purify sundancers. The Blackfoot smoked the
leaves with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) for pleasure (Hart 1996). The Flathead
of North America burned the plant to repel insects (Hart 1996). The Mon-
tana tribes of North America used the smoke for
spiritual protection and purification (Hart 1996).
According to Foster and Hobbs (2002), other
Native Americans burned the leaves to summon
guardian spirits that protected members of the
tribes from thunder and lightning. The smoke
was also used as an insect repellent and was
inhaled to treat colds.
Hildebrandtia obcordata S. Moore. (Convulvulaceae).
Hildebrandtia.
Smoke generated in saunalike chambers was used
to perfume and cleanse Borana women in southern
Oromia, Ethiopia (Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005). For
more information on this practice, refer to Acacia
goetzei Harms.
Hildebrandtia somalensis Engl. (Convulvulaceae).
Somali hildebrandtia.
Borana women of Oromia, Ethiopia, burned this
species to perfume and cleanse their bodies and
clothes (Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005). For more
information on this practice, refer to Acacia goetzei Hierochloe odorata
Harms.
Hipposelinum sp. (Apiaceae). lovages.
According to John Keogh’s ancient Botanalogia Universalis Hibernica of 1735, the
seeds of a species of Hipposelinum (unclear from text) were mixed with tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) and smoked in a pipe to relieve toothache (Scott 1986).
100 Hertia intermedia Kuntze.

Holarrhena antidysenterica (L.) Wall (Apocynaceae). tellicherry bark.
According to the Indian Yunani system of medicine, the bark of this species was
considered useful as a fumigant for piles (Kaul and Atal 1983). The leaves were also
burned to fumigate a mother and her child after childbirth.
Homalanthus alpinus Elmer (Euphorbiaceae). Alpine bleeding heart.
The green smoke generated by burning this plant can irritate the eyes and make them
weep according to local people of the Philippine islands (von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Homalomena aromatica Schott. (Araceae). anchiri.
At the extreme end of the Himalayan ranges in the Mizoram State of India, the
rhizomes of this species were collected, dried, and then burned to produce smoke
that repelled mosquitoes (Lalramnghinglova 2003). Anchiri is its local name.
Hoslundia opposita Vahl. (Lamiaceae). orange bird lantern.
This species was used in several villages in the Tanga District of Tanzania. The
leaves were burned, after which the smoke was inhaled to drive away the devil
(Hedberg et al. 1983). This required a few other ingredients. In other practices, the
leaves were mixed with the leaves of Cissus rotundifolia Vahl., which were dried,
powdered, and then smoked in a pipe to treat bad breath. The smoke was inhaled
through the mouth and blown out through the nostrils.
Houstonia wrightii A. Gray. (Rubiaceae). pygmy bluet.
The Ramah Navajo of North America burned this plant as a fumigant to treat deer
infection (Vestal 1952).
Hura crepitans L. (Euphorbiaceae). sandbox tree.
In parts of Costa Rica, the smoke generated by burning the wood of the sandbox
tree was used to repel insects (Duke 1968).
Hydnocarpus kurzii Warb. (Flacourtiaceae). chaulmoogra.
In India’s Mizoram State, where this species is known as khawitur, the smoke of
burning bark was used to subdue honeybees when collecting their honey (Lal-
ramnghinglova 2003).
Hygrophila gracillima Burkill. (Acanthaceae). Hygrophila.
The Kuanyama Ango women of Angola burned this grass and inhaled the smoke
after childbirth (Loeb et al. 1956).
Hymenaea courbaril L. (Fabaceae). stinking toe.
This was a species favored in St. Bartholomew of the West Indies. Smoke from the
burning of rosin (a type of resin) was inhaled for treating headaches and rheuma-
tism (Questel 1941). In other parts of the Caribbean, the resin, which often accu-
mulates at the base of the tree or in the soil (fossil gum), was made into cakes and
burned in churches as incense (Longwood 1971). The local name for the resin is
South American copal, and the local trade name for the species is courbaril.
Hymenaea davisii Sandwith (Fabaceae). locust bean.
In some parts of the Caribbean, resin from the bark of this species was harvested
to burn as incense in churches (Longwood 1971).
Hymenaea oblongifolia Huber (Fabaceae). locust.
The Yukuna of the Amazon harvested the resin of this species and burned it as
incense (Schultes and Raffauf 1990).
Hymenaea verrucosa Gaertn. (Fabaceae). palo jiote tree.
The Quiche of Guatemala used the pine resin of the palo jiote tree during some of
their incense ceremonies (Tedlock 1985). There is some debate as to whether this
species is in fact one of the Bursera species (Stross 1997).
Hymenaea verrucosa Gaertn. 101

Hymenocardia acida Tul. (Hymenocardiaceae). kampalaga.
To keep spirits at bay, the people of Bulamogi County, Uganda, smoked the roots
of this species (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Hymenophyllum polyanthus Sw. (Hymenocardiaceae). Sho-roi-sho-roi-ah-wuh-mu.
Smoke from burning wood was inhaled in Suriname to treat mental disorders
(Defilipps et al. 2004). Sho-roi-sho-roi-ah-wuh-mu is its
Surinamese name.
Hyoscyamus albus L. (Solanaceae). white henbane.
Henbane is considered by some authorities to be one of the
most important hallucinogenic plants in Europe (Schultes
et al. 2001). Its leaves were commonly used by oracles, and
it was ritually burned for its smoke in ancient Greece. It
has even been suggested that the priestesses in the Temple
of Apollo, Greece’s oracles of Delphi, uttered their proph-
ecies after they had smoked the seeds of white henbane
(Stefanis et al. 1975). In Cyprus, where the name for the
plant is dontochorton, dried leaves were mixed with those
of tobacco (Nicotiana sp.) and were smoked as a cigarette
for the relief of asthma (Georgiades 1987b). In Morocco,
the species was burned along with other plants for smoke
that induced abortions (see Atractylis gummifera L.; Mer-
zouki et al. 2000). Hyoscyamus albus
Hyoscyamus boveanus Asch. ex Schweinf. (Solanaceae).
Egyptian henbane.
The Bischarin Bedouins of the Egyptian eastern desert occasionally mixed the
flowers of this species with tobacco (Nicotiana sp.) and smoked the mixture
for its intoxicating effects (Goodman and Hobbs 1988). A closely related group,
the Khushmaan Bedouins, also smoked the leaves for their mind-altering
effects. The Arabic name for this plant is saykaran, which means “to become
intoxicated.”
Hyoscyamus muticus L. (Solanaceae). henbane.
Bedouin thieves in Egypt used the smoke of burning leaves to induce a state of
narcosis in their victims (Kassas personal communication in Osborn 1968). They
also smoked the leaves to help relieve asthma (Boulos 1966).
Hyoscyamus niger L. (Solanaceae). black henbane.
For centuries, on the eve of St. John the Baptist’s birthday, June 23, Europeans have
burned henbane in their barns to protect their cattle from evil (Schleiffer 1979).
The smoke from burning seeds was also said to be useful in protecting children
from witches, sickness, and bad luck. A considerable effort went into producing
the smoke, some of which was fanned out across fields of crops to protect them
as well. The lighting of fires for St John’s birthday has persisted since the fourth
century, when it replaced the ancient summer solstice celebrations of pagan
times. Brushwood of any type is now used to make the fires. Like H. albus L.,
this species is often listed as an ingredient in witches’ brews and was smoked for
its hallucinogenic properties (Schultes et al. 2001). In the southern parts of the
Kashmir Himalayas, the local people smoked the leaves with tobacco (Nicotiana
sp.) specifically for that purpose (Shah 1982). The seeds were, for the most part,
102 Hymenocardia acida Tul.

preferred to other plant parts of this species. In Hungary,
where the people refer to this species as bulondító belindek,
both the seeds and leaves were smoked to treat toothache
(Oláh 1987; Rab 1991). The Shashin of the Lahoul Valley
of India (northwestern Himalayas) have used the seeds for
that same purpose (Sood et al. 2001). Typically, the smoke
was blown into cavities through a wheat stem. The fruits
of the species were smoked to treat toothache in Nepal’s
Manang District (Pohle 1990). The use of henbane smoke
to treat toothache and other odontological conditions is an
ancient practice. Its ability to remove worms from the teeth
was recorded as early as 1597 in Gerard’s Herbal, where it
was reported that “the seed is used by Mountibank tooth-
drawers which run about the country, to cause worms come
forth of the teeth, by burning it in a chafing dish of coles,
the party holding his mouth over the fume thereof ” (Wood- Hyoscyamus niger
ward 1994). The leaves were burned for incense purposes
in Punjab, India. The inhabitants of Sardinia, Italy, smoked
the leaves in cigarette form to relieve asthma attacks (Jacobs 1997). In parts of
Ukraine, where this species is known as berlena chernaya, the leaves were used
in blends of plant parts that were smoked as a remedy for asthma (Kondratyuk et
al. 1967). In Turkey, the fruits and leaves were burned to generate smoke that was
inhaled for respiratory disorders (Sezik et al. 1991; Yeşilada et al. 1999). Black
henbane is a poisonous plant and should never be used in any way whatsoever
by untrained individuals.
Hyoscyamus reticulatus L. (Solanaceae). Egyptian henbane.
The fruits of this species were smoked in parts of Iran as a toothache remedy
Hyphaene coriacea Gaertn. (Arecaceae). doum palm.
In the southern half of the Marsabit District of northern Kenya, the Rendille
burned the seeds to give a pleasant aroma in their houses (Heine and Heine
1988b).
Hyptis pectinata Poit. (Lamiaceae). comb bushmint.
The resin of this species was burned for incense purposes in parts of Africa (Uphof
1968; Usher 1974).
Hyptis spicigera Lam. (Lamiaceae). marubio.
Fumigations produced by burning the aerial parts of this plant have been
reported to repel mosquitoes and termites in parts of West Africa and else-
where (Dalziel 1937; Jacobson 1975) and to repel stored grain pests (McIndoo
1945).
Hyptis spp. (Lamiaceae). bushmints.
Several species of Hyptis were traditionally burned in the Brazilian Amazon for
their smoke, which was used to repel mosquitoes (Sears 1996).
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. (Lamiaceae). wild spikenard.
The hilltop Totos of the Jalpaiguri District of India’s West Bengal State burned
the dried aromatic leaves of this plant in their cattle sheds to repel flies and
mosquitoes (Mudgal et al. 1999). The Totopara name for the plant is dompaishing.
Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit. 103

In West Africa, smoke from burning the aerial parts of this species
was also said to repel mosquitoes (Pållsson and Jaenson 1999a).
Elsewhere, fresh whole pig nut was placed on glowing charcoal to
produce smoke to repel mosquitoes (Curtis 1999). The country
and users were not specified. In the Tanga District of Tanzania,
villagers in Mpirani and Kiomani used this species, known locally
as kifumbasi, as part of a treatment for mental diseases (Hedburg
et al. 1982). The plant was mixed with elephant dung and chicken
feathers, all of which were then burned before the smoke was
inhaled.
Ichnanthus panicoides P. Beauv. (Poaceae).
ku-pe-te-ah.
In parts of Suriname, the entire plant was burned for smoke
that was inhaled as a remedy for stomachache (Defilipps et al.
2004).
Ilex paraguariensis A. St-Hil. (Aquifoliaceae). yerba mate. Hyptis suaveolens
A mixture of unspecified parts of yerba mate, Bulnesia sarmien-
toi Lorentz ex. Griseb., and feathers of the flightless bird, Rhea
americana, were used in fumigations by the Criollos of
Chaco, northwestern Argentina, to treat aire (Scarpa 2004).
The smoke was inhaled once a day for 9 days.
Imperata cylindrica (L.) P. Baeuv. (Poaceae).
blady grass.
The roots of this species were burned in Mizoram, India, to
generate smoke that was inhaled as an emollient for piles
(hemorrhoids) (Mahanti 1994). In Cambodia, the rhizomes
were burned for this same purpose (Menaut 1929). The
natives of Groote Eylandt, an island to Australia’s north,
were fumigated with this species to cure “madness” (Levitt
1981). The plant was placed on a fire while patients were
dipped in water. They were then covered with paper bark
and made to stand next to the fire. They were “smoked”
until they became quiet. Children were treated with the
smoke in their mother’s arms.
Indigofera schimperi Jaub. & Spach (Fabaceae). indigo.
The roots or leaves of this species, when burned, gener- Imperata cylindrica
ate smoke that was considered useful as a fumigant for
reducing sudden fevers in natives of East Africa (Heine
and Legére 1995). The Swahili name for the plant is mwino (ink plant).
Indigofera sp. (Fabaceae). indigo.
In Madagascar, all parts of an unspecified species of Indigofera were burned
to produce smoke that was inhaled to relieve pain (Mohagheghzadeh et al.
2006).
Inula conyza DC. (Asteraceae). plowman’s spikenard.
In ancient Egypt, the stems of this species were burned and used as a fumigation
to drive insects away (Manniche 1989).
104 Ichnanthus panicoides P. Beauv.

Inula dysenterica L. (Asteraceae). middle fleabane.
According to Grieve (1971), the smoke produced by burning this plant was consid-
ered useful in unspecified parts of the world to drive away fleas and other insects,
hence its common name, fleabane.
Inula graveolens Desf. (Asteraceae). cape khakiweed.
The stems of this species were burned in ancient Egypt to produce a fumigant that
was used to drive insects away (Manniche 1989).
Inula helenium L. (Asteraceae). elf dock.
Dried leaves were burned in unspecified parts of the world for their smoke, which
drove insects away, killed aerobic and airborne parasites, and served as an external
antiseptic (Schneider 2002).
Inula racemosa Hook. f. (Asteraceae). showy elecampane.
The roots were burned as incense in India’s Lahoul Valley (northwestern Himala-
yas) (Sood et al. 2001). The Indian name for the species is manurucha.
Inula viscosa (L.) Ait. (Asteraceae). sticky fleabane.
Unspecified parts of this plant have been reported to repel mosquitoes by the
smoke it generates when burned (McIndoo 1924).
Ipomoea crassipes Hook. (Convolvulaceae). morning glory.
The Zulu of South Africa used the smoke of burning roots as protective or fertility
charms for their fields (Gerstner 1939).
Ipomoea hildebrandtii Vatke ssp. grantii (Bak.) Verdc. (Convolvulaceae).
Mwase.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, the roots were smoked to keep spirits at bay (Tabuti
et al. 2003).
Ipomoea kituensis Vatke. (Convulvulaceae). Ipomoea.
Smoke generated in saunalike chambers was used to perfume and cleanse Borana
women in southern Oromia, Ethiopia (Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005). For more infor-
mation on this practice, see Acacia goetzei Harms.
Ipomoea leptophylla Torr. (Convolvulaceae). bush morning glory.
The roots of this species were burned to produce smoke that the Pawnee of North
America used to stop nervousness and bad dreams (Gilmore 1919).
Ipomoea paniculata (L.) R. Br. (Convolvulaceae). giant potato.
Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.), this species was one of several ingre-
dients that was burned to produce smoke to cause blindness to one’s enemies (see
recipe 1 under Asparagus racemosus Willd.) (Sensarma 1998).
Ipomoea pellita Hallier. f. (Convolvulaceae). ground morning glory.
The Zulu of South Africa used the smoke of burning roots as a protective or fertil-
ity charm for their fields (Gerstner 1939).
Ipomoea purpurea (L.) Roth. (Convolvulaceae). common morning glory.
Like I. pellita Hallier. f., the Zulu burned the roots to protect their fields (Gerstner
1939).
Ipomopsis multiflora (Nutt.) V. Grant. (Polemoniaceae). many-flower ipomopsis.
The Zuñi of North America smoked this plant in cigarettes rolled in corn husks to
relieve strangulation (Stevenson 1909). The Zuñi name for the plant is ha’sililiwe
li’anna, meaning “blue leaves in delicate motion.”
Ipomopsis multiflora (Nutt.) V. Grant. 105

Iris missouriensis Nutt. (Iridaceae). Rocky
Mountain iris.
The shamans of the Klamath of North Amer-
ica sometimes mixed the dried roots of this
species with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and
poison camas (probably Camassia spp.) and
gave it to their patients to smoke and make
them feel nauseous. This often prompted the Ipomoea purpurea
patients to request and pay the shamans for
additional services (Coville 1897).
Iris versicolor L. (Iridaceae). harlequin blueflag.
According to Smith (1932), Native Americans from all over the United States
fumigated their clothes with this species to help them avoid snakebites during
snake dances. The belief was that snakes would not strike them if their clothes
were treated with the smoke of this species.
Irvingia malayana Oliv. (Irvingiaceae). dika nut.
This species was traditionally used in Malaysia and Indonesia, where the fat
of the seeds was considered useful for the preparation of scented candles
(Uphof 1968).
Isotoma petraea F. Muell. (Campanulaceae). rock isotome.
The leaves of this species were used in the Northern Territory of Australia to pro-
duce smoke that was considered useful for treating respiratory illnesses in adults
(Barr 1993).
Jacaranda copaia D. Don (Bignoniaceae). Jacaranda.
The Wayápi of French Guiana used the smoke produced by burning the leaves to
repel flies (Grenand et al. 1987).
Jacaranda copaia D. Don ssp. spectabilis (DC.) A. Gentry. (Bignoniaceae).
Jacaranda.
In parts of Brazil, it was believed that the leaves and bark of this subspecies of the
jacaranda could be burned to produce smoke that kept illness and mosquitoes
away (Rutter 1990).
Jasminum floribundum R. Br. ex Fresen. (Oleaceae). jasmine.
In Ethiopia, wood was burned to generate smoke considered useful to treat skin
diseases and as an antihelmintic agent (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Jasminum sp. (Oleaceae). jasmine.
In an ancient Sanskrit treatise called the Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (fourth century
b.c.), an unspecified species of jasmine was listed as one of several ingredients
in a concoction burned to produce smoke that was used to blind one’s enemies
(Sensarma 1998).
Jatropha curcas L. (Euphorbiaceae). physic nut.
In Guam, the seeds were burned to produce smoke that was used to treat the eye
condition mydriasis (Ross 2003). The Darien of Panama and others of Isthmian
America used the smoke as a fumigant to repel bedbugs (Duke 1968; Duke 1986).
Jatropha gossypifolia L. (Euphorbiaceae). bellyache bush.
The smoke produced by burning the leaves of the bellyache bush was used as a
house disinfectant in Curaçao (Morton 1968).
106 Iris missouriensis Nutt.

Jaubertia aucheri Guill. (Rubiaceae). khurman.
Near the southern Pakistan region of Kharan, the people burned the leaves of
khurman and inhaled its smoke to relieve sore throats and to treat scurvy (Good-
man and Ghafoor 1992).
Jouvea pilosa Scribn. (Poaceae). cocásjc.
The Seri of Mexico and some parts of the United States considered this one of the
best plant species for producing smoke signals (Felger and Moser 1985).
Julbernardia globiflora (Benth.) Troupin (Fabaceae). muwa.
The Sukuma tribe of Tanzania, Africa, pounded the stems of this species and then
smoked them in a pipe to treat leprosy (von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Juniperus communis L. (Cupressaceae). common juniper.
Hippocrates of Cos, Greece, recommended that the smoke of burning juniper
berries, along with other plants, be used as a fumigant (Allen and Hatfield 2004),
which was said to have liberated Athens from the plague
of 430 b.c. (see Introduction for more details; Pinault
1992; Schneider 2002; Thompson 2003). In Britain, from
Devon to Colonsay, the Inner Hebrides burned green
branches and berries to produce smoke that was used
to purify and air-out sickrooms (McNeil 1910; Lafont
1984). In the Ubage Valley of France, the people inhaled
the smoke of burning juniper berries to treat rheumatism
and used the smoke produced by burning boughs as a
disinfectant (Novaretti and Lemordant 1990). The smoke Juniperus communis
from burning branches, which were lit on Christmas Eve
in Tuscany and elsewhere in Italy, was used to ward off
the evil eye (Pieroni and Giusti 2002). The Woodland Cree of North America
smoked the blue berries in a pipe to treat asthma (Leighton 1985). The Dena’ina
of Alaska burned the leaves as incense and inhaled it to treat colds (Kari 1995).
According to Avicenna, the wood was burned to produce an abortifacient smoke
(Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Juniperus communis L. ssp. nana (Cupressaceae). common juniper.
In the Poonch District of India, where the name for this plant is bitru, the leaves
were burned as incense (Kirn et al. 2000).
Juniperus communis L. var. depressa Pursh. (Cupressaceae). common juniper.
This species was burned to fumigate and air-out sickrooms (Trousseau and Pidoux
1841). No details about the users or their country were given.
Juniperus communis L. var. montana Ait. (Cupressaceae). common juniper.
The Ramah Navajo of North America dried the fruits and then added them to
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to enhance its flavor (Vestal 1952). The species reported
in original texts was Juniperus sibirica Burgsd. (see Moerman 1998).
Juniperus drupacea Labill. (Cupressaceae). juniper.
The ancient Egyptians often used the branches of this juniper to grill their food
because the smoke it produced gave the food a pleasant aroma (Manniche 1989).
The branches were also used as general fumigants.
Juniperus excelsa Willd. (Cupressaceae). Greek juniper.
The leaves were burned as incense in Khorasan, Iran (Hooper and Field 1937).
Juniperus excelsa Willd. 107

Juniperus horizontalis Moench
(Cupressaceae). creeping juniper.
According to Wassanaer (1625), the wood
was burned in the New Netherlands for its
pleasant odor. The whole house was per-
fumed with it. Smoke from burning twigs
Juniperus horizontalis
was inhaled by the Plains tribes of North
America for treating head colds (Youngken
1924). The smoke of this species was also used to repel mosquitoes (McIndoo 1945).
In North America, the Cheyenne burned the leaves as incense during ceremonies that
were meant to drive away thunder (Hart 1981). Smoke from the leaves was also used
to help with childbirth by promoting delivery. The Crow produced smoke from the
species during certain incantations (Blankinship 1905).
Juniperus indica Bertol. (Cupressaceae). Indian juniper.
This was another of the long list of species whose leaves were burned as incense in
Nepal (Pohle 1990; Manandhar 2002).
Juniperus macropoda Boiss. (Cupressaceae). pencil cedar.
High in the Karakoram Mountains of northern Pakistan live a mountain people
called the Hanzakut. In their tiny communities, the shamans, called bitans, prac-
tice a unique ritual to commune with supernatural beings. The bitan inhales smoke
from burning juniper bushes, dances to local music, and drinks the blood of a
freshly decapitated goat head (Sidky 1994). The ecstatic, trancelike state induced
during the ritual is almost certainly caused by hallucinogenic compounds in the
smoke. The whole plant is used as incense throughout the Ladakh region of India
according to Bhattacharyya (1991). In India’s Lahoul Valley (northwestern Hima-
layas), religious healers of the Yurnat tribe threw a pinch of pulverized leaves into
fires to drive away evil spirits from the bodies of their patients (Sood et al. 2001).
This practice was usually accompanied by the chanting of mantras by the “Lamas.”
The whole plant was considered sacred in parts of India, where the leaves and
twigs were often burned as a type of incense known as dhup (Dhiman 2003).
Juniperus monosperma (Engelm.) Sarg. (Cupressaceae). one-seed juniper.
The Ramah Navajo of North America smoked various parts of this plant to help
with difficulties during childbirth (Vestal 1952). The Shoshone, also of North
America, inhaled the smoke from burning branches for treating colds (Train et al.
1941). The Western Keres used wood smoke to fumigate the properties of deceased
tribal members (Swank 1932).
Juniperus occidentalis Hook.
(Cupressaceae). western juniper.
The Paiute of North America burned the
twigs of this species and inhaled the fumes
to treat headaches and colds (Train et al.
1941). The fumes from burning branches
were used to fumigate dwellings after illness.
Horses that had eaten poison camas (prob-
ably Camassia spp.) were treated by having
Juniperus occidentalis
them to inhale the fumes (Mahar 1953).
The Washoe of North America inhaled the
fumes from burning twigs for headache relief (Train et al. 1941).
108 Juniperus horizontalis Moench

Juniperus osteosperma (Torr.) Little (Cupressaceae). Utah juniper.
The Paiute of North America inhaled the smoke of burning twigs for the relief of
headaches and smoke from burning the branches to treat colds (Train et al. 1941).
The species reported in the original texts was J. utahensis (Engelm.) Lemmon (see
Moerman 1998). The Northern Paiute burned the leaves and inhaled the smoke to
cure colds (Fowler 1989) and burned the branches to fumigate houses after illness
had occurred there (Train et al. 1941). The Yavapai, also of North America, used
the smoke of smoldering leaves to fumigate a woman immediately after she had
given birth (Peattie and Landacre 1991).
Juniperus phoenicia L. (Cupressaceae). Phoenician juniper.
The ancient Egyptians often used the branches to grill their food because the
smoke gave it a pleasant aroma (Manniche 1989). The branches were also used as
general fumigants.
Juniperus pinchotti Sudw. (Cupressaceae). Pinchot’s juniper.
The Comanche of North America sprinkled dried leaves on their coal fires and
inhaled the smoke to get relief from headaches, ghost sickness, and vertigo (Jones
1968).
Juniperus procera Hochst. &Endl. (Cupressaceae). African juniper.
The Chamus of Kenya burned the bark during ceremonies to create a pleasant
aroma in the air (Heine and Heine 1988a). The Marakwet, also of Kenya, inhaled
the smoke produced by burning unspecified parts of this plant to help expel
mucous membrane secretions (expectorant) (Lindsay 1978).
Juniperus recurva Buch.-Ham. ex. D. Don. (Cupressaceae). Himalayan juniper.
In India (Chopra et al. 1956; Kirn et al. 2000) and Tibet (Tsarong 1986), smoke
from burning green wood was inhaled to induce vomiting. The stems were burned
as incense by members of India’s Gabbi tribe of the Himachal Pradesh State of
the western Himalayas (Singh and Kumar 2000). Both the leaves and wood were
harvested for similar use in Nepal (Manandhar 2002). In the Sikkim Himalayas of
India, the smoke from burning leaves and twigs was used to drive mosquitoes and
other insects away (Pandey 1991).
Juniperus scopulorum Sarg. (Cupressaceae). Rocky Mountain juniper.
The leaves of this species were burned by the Cheyenne of North America as
incense (Hart 1981). The smoke was believed to protect them from thunder and
lightning. They also used the smoke to promote delivery during childbirth. The
Flathead of North America used the smoke to purify the air, ward off illness,
and cure sick horses (Hart 1996). The Kutenai inhaled the smoke to treat colds
(Hart 1996), and the Montana Indians burned the twigs during their ceremonies
(Blankinship 1905). The Thompson (Turner et al. 1990) and Okanagan-Colville
(Turner et al. 1980) used the species to fumigate their houses after sickness and
death.
Juniperus sibirica Burgsd. (Cupressaceae). Siberian juniper.
The Ramah Navajo of North America dried the fruits and added them to tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) to enhance its flavor (Vestal 1952). Moerman (1998) suggests that
the species used was probably Juniperus communis L. var. montana Ait.
Juniperus silicicola (Small). L. H. Bailey (Cupressaceae). southern red cedar.
The Seminole of North America burned the leaves to fumigate their bodies for
eagle sickness, fawn sickness, and ghost sickness (Sturtevant 1955). Smoke from
the entire plant was used to fumigate the body to treat insanity. The actual species
Juniperus silicicola (Small). L. H. Bailey 109

used was probably Juniperus virginiana L. var. silicicola (Small) J. Silba according
to Moerman (1998).
Juniperus spp. (Cupressaceae). juniper.
The Comanche of North America burned the leaves of an unspecified species of
juniper, inhaling the smoke for its purifying effects (Carlson and Jones 1939). The
Dakota, Omaha, and Pawnee, also of North America, inhaled smoke from burning
juniper twigs to treat colds (Gilmore 1919). The latter also inhaled the smoke to
calm their nerves and to stop bad dreams. Other Native American tribes reported
uses for junipers. The Salish burned entire plants for unspecified fumigation pur-
poses (Teit 1930). The Kiowa burned the needles as incense during prayers (Vestal
and Schultes 1939). In Denmark’s Faeroe Islands, the wood of junipers was used to
smoke meat (Milliken and Bridgewater 2004). On the Isle of Colonsay in north-
western Scotland, junipers were once burned to fumigate houses and stables to
cleanse them of pests, diseases, and evil spirits. They were burned in Nepal for
smoke that was used in the puja ceremony, which was often held before attempts
were made to climb Mt. Everest.
Juniperus squamata Buch.-Ham. (Cupressaceae). flaky juniper.
The leaves were considered useful for burning as incense in Nepal (Manandhar
2002).
Juniperus utahensis (Engelm.) Lemmon (Cupressaceae). Utah juniper.
The Paiute of North America inhaled the smoke of burning twigs for relieving
headaches and smoke from the branches to treat colds (Train et al. 1941). Moer-
man (1998) suggests that the species actually used was probably Juniperus osteo-
sperma (Torr.) Little.
Juniperus virginiana L. (Cupressaceae). eastern red cedar.
The smoke of red cedar was often used by an unspecified group of people
for incense purposes according to Usher (1974). The Dakota, Omaha, Ponca, and
Pawnee of North America burned the twigs of
this species to generate smoke that was inhaled
to relieve head colds (Gilmore 1919). The smoke
from burning twigs was inhaled elsewhere to
eliminate nervousness and bad dreams (Lewis
and Elvin-Lewis 2003). The Comanche of
North America used the smoke from burning
leaves as a purifying agent (Carlson and Jones
1939), and the Creek of North America used it
for relieving cramps in neck muscles (Swanton
1927). Many Native American tribes used the
Juniperus virginiana
species for incense purposes, especially during
purification ceremonies and rituals (Kindscher
1992). In other places, the smoke from burning oil and wood was used to repel a
variety of insects (Huddle 1936; Sievers and Higbee 1942; McIndoo 1945; Jacob-
son 1958). The Native Ozarker of America’s Midwest burned cedar sprigs as
incense and as an inhalant during purifying baths that were meant for the relief
of bronchial problems (Liebert 1987). The smoke is, apparently, also useful as a
fumigant that can relieve the itchiness caused by contact with poison ivy (prob-
ably a species of Toxicodendron) (Liebert 1987).
110 Juniperus spp.

Juniperus virginiana L. var. silicicola (Small) Silba (Cupressaceae).
southern red cedar.
The Seminole of North America burned the leaves to fumigate their body for eagle
sickness, fawn sickness, and ghost sickness (Sturtevant 1955). Smoke from the
entire plant was used to fumigate the body to treat insanity. The species reported
by Sturtevant (1955) was probably Juniperus silicicola (Small). L. H. Bailey (see
Moerman 1998).
Juniperus virginiana L. var. virginiana (Cupressaceae). eastern red cedar.
The Kiowa of North America burned the needles of this species for incense pur-
poses during the prayer sessions of peyote meetings (Vestal and Schultes 1939).
The species originally reported was Sabina virginiana Antoine.
Juniperus wallichiana Hook. f. ex Parl. (Cupressaceae). hapushe.
The twigs were used as incense and to repel evil spirits in Hawan, India (Kapur
1996a).
Jurinea dolomiaea Boiss. (Asteraceae). dhoop.
Members of the Gaddi tribe of India’s Himachal Pradesh State in the western Hima-
layas collected the roots for the preparation and use of incense materials (Singh and
Kumar 2000). The plant was considered sacred in other parts of India and was often
used as incense in shrines and religious ceremonies (Dhiman 2003). In Nepal, an
unspecified group of people burned the whole plant as incense (Manandhar 2002).
Jurinea macrocephala DC. (Asteraceae). gogol dhoop.
In the Himachal Hills of India, the leaves were burned as incense during religious
ceremonies (Sharma and Rana 2000).
Justicia adhatoda L. (Acanthaceae). malabar nut.
Members of the Jatapus and Savaras tribes of India’s Eastern Ghats area in the
Andhra Pradesh State inhaled the smoke of burning dried inflorescences for the
treatment of asthma (Rama Rao and Henry 1996). In Sri Lanka, dried malabar nut
leaves were rolled into cigarettes and smoked to relieve asthma (Jayaweera 1981a).
This species was reported as Adhatoda vasica Nees. by Jayaweera (1981a).
Justicia exigua S. Moore (Acanthaceae). Justicia.
The Samburu of Kenya fumigated and cleansed their containers with the smoke
produced by burning this plant (Heine and König 1988a).
Justicia zeylanica T. Anderson (Acanthaceae). kawldai.
The leaves were dried and then smoked to relieve asthma in India’s Mizoram State
(Lalramnghinglova 2003).
Khaya sp. (Meliaceae). African mahogany.
Asita and Campbell (1990) reported that the wood of an unspecified mahogany
could be burned to produce smoke that effectively inhibited three species of bac-
teria—Staphylococcus aureus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, and Eschirichia coli—all of
which are known to spoil food.
Klainedoxa gabonensis Pierre (Irvingaceae). eveuss.
Along the banks of the Ubangi River of central Africa, patients suffering from
lumbago treated the condition by fumigating the affected area with smoke from
the burning bark of this species (Vergiat 1970).
Kleinia spp. (Asteraceae). Kleinia.
The wood of this species was used as firewood in Ethiopia but only if more desired
species were unavailable. This species was avoided because its smoke can irritate
Kleinia spp. 111

the eyes, causing considerable damage over long periods of use (Getahun 1976).
This species is known in Ethiopia as kinchive.
Knowltonia anemonoides H. Rasm. (Ranunculaceae). brandblaar.
In parts of South Africa, smoke from burning leaves was inhaled for the relief of
toothache (Schwegler 2003).
Knowltonia anemonoides H. Rasm. ssp. anemonoides (Ranunculaceae).
brandblaar.
The Zulu of South Africa burned the leaves of this species and inhaled the smoke
to relieve headaches (Hutchings et al. 1996).
Knowltonia vesicatoria Sims (Ranunculaceae). brandblaar.
In South Africa, this species, known commonly as brandblaar in Afrikaans, was
burned for smoke that was used to treat headaches (Hutchings et al. 1996).
Koeberlinia spinosa Zucc. (Capparaceae).
crucifixion thorn.
The Seri of Mexico burned the wood to
produce smoke to disinfect their houses
and to drive away disease during epidemics,
probably measles (Felger and Moser 1974).
The smoke is thick, black, and oily and is
thought to be toxic.
Kyllinga monocephala Rottb. (Cyperaceae).
bandarphool.
In parts of China, the plant was burned to
keep insects away (Bliss 1973).
Lablab purpureus (L.) Sweet ssp. uncinatus
Verdc. var. rhomboideus (Schinz) Verdc. Koeberlinia spinosa
(Fabaceae). lablab bean.
The roots of this species, along with those of
other species, were used in Namibia to treat angina pectoris and other heart condi-
tions (see Annona stenophylla Engl. & Diels.; von Koenen 2001).
Lagenaria siceraria (Mol.) Standl. (Cucurbitaceae). bottle gourd.
The Seminole of North America smoked the seeds for treating insanity (Sturtevant
1955). This species also featured prominently in the ancient Sanskrit treatise the
Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.), where it was reportedly burned as
part of a mixture that produced a deadly smoke used to kill animals (Sensarma
1998). Unspecified parts of this plant were mixed with those of other plants and
animals (see recipe 4 under Asparagus racemosus Willd.).
Lagerstroemia speciosa (L.) Pers. (Lythraceae). pride of India.
The seeds were often smoked with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) in Mizoram, India, for
their narcotic properties (Sharma et al. 2001).
Lampaya medicinalis Phil. (Verbenaceae). lampaya.
Chile’s pre-Altiplanic community burned the leaves and stems because they
were believed to have anesthetic and sedative properties (Aldunate et al.
1983).
Lancea tibetica Hook. f. & Thomson (Scrophuliaraceae). Chinese milkwort.
Powdered leaves of the Chinese milkwort were mixed with ghee and burned to
make incense in India’s Indus Valley (Ladakh region) (Singh et al. 1996).
112 Knowltonia anemonoides H. Rasm.

Lannea edulis Engl. (Anacardiaceae). wild grape.
The roots of this species, along with other unspecified species, were used in
Namibia to treat angina pectoris and other heart conditions (see Annona steno-
phylla Engl. & Diels.; von Koenen 2001).
Lannea stuhlmannii Engl. (Anacardiaceae). false maroela.
In Tanzania, the soft root hairs of this plant were smoked like cigarettes to treat
ulcers in the nose (von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Lansium domesticum Corr. (Meliaceae). langsat.
The peels or rinds of the fruits were considered useful for burning as incense by
the Javanese of Indonesia (Uphof 1968; Sangat-Roemantyo 1990). In the Philip-
pines, the smoke of burning fruits and fruiting bodies was used as a fumigant to
repel mosquitoes (Grainge and Ahmed 1988).
Lantana camara L. (Verbenaceae). common lantana
(figure 18).
The dried leaves of this toxic plant were smoked to
relieve headaches in East Africa (Heine and Legére
1995). This is not surprising given that the leaves of
this species produce a phenylethanoid glycoside, di-
methyl verbascoside, which has been shown to signifi-
cantly affect activity in rat hearts (Pennacchio 1997;
Syah et al. 1998).
Lantana rhodesiensis Moldenke (Verbenaceae).
Rhodesian lantana.
In Kenya, up to 16% of the people surveyed by Ongore Figure 18. Lantana camara. The
et al. (1989) used the smoke from the burning leaves of leaves of this highly toxic species
this species to repel mosquitoes. were smoked to treat headaches.
Lantana trifolia L. (Verbenaceae). treeleaf shrub Many useful medicinal plants are
toxic when taken in high doses.
verbena.
In the southern half of the Narok District of Kenya, the
Loita Maasai, a group that still clings to the more traditional Maasai lifestyle, placed
leaves of this species on fires to produce smoke that gives off aromatic smells. The
smoke was generated within their animal enclosures to cleanse and bless livestock
(Maundu et al. 2001). Also in Kenya, the Gabbra of the Marsabit District burned
the species to fumigate and cleanse their gourds (Heine and Brenzinger 1988). This
was also a common practice of the Borana of Ethiopia.
Lantana viburnoides Vahl. (Verbenaceae). Lantana.
This species was used in several Tanzanian villages, including Mpirani, Tongoni,
and Maranzara in Tanga District, and in the Sindeni village of Handeni District.
The leaves were dried and powdered, after which they were burned. The smoke was
inhaled to drive out the devil (Hedberg et al. 1983).
Larix laricina (Du Roi) K. Koch. (Pinaceae). tamarack.
The Cherokee of North America burned the rotten wood of this species to smoke
hides and to give them a yellow tint (Leighton 1985). The Flambeau Ojibwa, also of
North America, burned the leaves and inhaled the fumes to treat various respira-
tory ailments (Smith 1932).
Larix occidentalis Nutt. (Pinaceae). western larch.
The Kutenai of North America used the smoke generated from burning rotten
wood to tan buckskins (Hart 1996).
Larix occidentalis Nutt. 113

Larrea divaricata Cav. subsp. tridentata (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Felger
(Zygophyllaceae). creosote bush.
The Seri of Mexico smoked insect galls among the foliage twigs of this species for
pleasure (Felger and Moser 1985). The galls are produced by the creosote bush gall
midge (Asphondylia sp).
Larrea tridentata Coville. (Zygophyllaceae). creosote bush.
Eischen and Vergara (2004) tested the natural products in the smoke of this spe-
cies on mortality of the honeybee (Apis mellifera) and tracheal mite (Acarapsis
woodi). It exhibited significant mortality. The Pima of North America inhaled
smoke from burning creosote bush to cure weakness and laziness (Curtin
1984).
Larrea tridentata Coville var. tridentata (Zygophyllaceae). creosote bush.
The North American Papago used smoke from smoldering green branches to treat
sore feet (Castetter and Underhill 1935). The limbs were held above the smoke. The
species reported in original texts was Covillea glutinosa Rydb.
Lasiosiphon anthylloides Meisn. (Thymelaeaceae). Lasiosiphon.
In Africa, smoke produced by burning this plant was inhaled to reduce fever and
eliminate bad dreams (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Lasiosiphon capitatus Burtt Davy (Thymelaeaceae). Lasiosiphon.
The smoke of burning leaves was considered useful in Africa for the relief of
headaches (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Lasiosiphon linifolius Decne (Thymelaeaceae). Lasiosiphon.
Like L. capitatus, the smoke of burning leaves was considered useful in Africa for
the relief of headaches (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1933).
Laurelia sempervirens (Ruiz & Pav.) Tul. (Monimiaceae). Chilean laurel.
In south-central Chile, the Mapuche burned the bark of this species and inhaled
the resultant smoke for the relief of convulsions (Houghton and Manby 1985).
Laurus azorica (Seub.) Franco. (Lauraceae). canary laurel.
The leaves of this species were used in the Madeira archipelago to treat apoplexy
(Rivera and Obón 1995).
Laurus nobilis L. (Lauraceae). bay laurel.
Smoke from burning bay laurel leaves may have been
inhaled by ancient Greece’s oracle at Delphi to induce a
trancelike state during her divinations (Littleton 1986).
The leaves may have been laced with Cannabis sativa
L.
Lavandula angustifolia Mill. (Lamiaceae). common
lavender.
The smoke of this species, when burned, was used in
the Madeira archipelago to treat apoplexy (Rivera and
Obón 1995).
Lavandula latifolia Medik. (Lamiaceae). spike lavender.
Smoke from burning inflorescences was inhaled to
treat aire in La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia (Macía et al.
2005). It was also used to ease the pains of childbirth
and for uterus ailments. In the latter two cases, smoke
from the burning inflorescences was blown directly
into the vagina. Lavandula latifolia
114 Larrea divaricata Cav. subsp. tridentata (Sessé & Moc. ex DC.) Felger
Lavandula pedunculata (Mill.) Cav. (Lamiaceae). Spanish lavender.
The leaves of this species were smoked in the Madeira archipelago for apoplexy
(Rivera and Obón 1995).
Lawsonia inermis L. (Lythraceae). henna.
Smoldering wood was used to fumigate and flavor the insides of milk gourds
according to the Pokot of northern Kenya (Timberlake 1987). The local name for
the species is kaparamenion.
Ledum groenlandicum Oeder (Ericaceae). Labrador tea.
The Parry Island Ojibwa near Lake Huron in North America smoked the leaves of
this species when tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) was scarce (Jeaness 1935).
Ledum palustre L. (Ericaceae). crystal tea.
In eastern Kazakhstan, Russia, Siberia, and Ukraine, the leaves of this plant were
sometimes burned as a fumigant to drive away insects (Minaeva 1991).
Leonotis leonurus (L.) R. Br. (Lamiaceae). lion’s tail.
In 1925, Dornan reported that the Kalahari Bush-
men of South Africa were addicted to smoking this
species, which they called dacha. The Nama of South
Africa were also reported to have smoked the leaves
for recreational purposes (Smith 1966). The Hot-
tentots of South Africa smoked the buds and leaves
for their narcotic effects (Schultes et al. 2001). The
resin produced by the plant was sometimes mixed
and smoked with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.). The plant
was smoked for the relief of epilepsy in other parts of
South Africa (Schwegler 2003).
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R. Br. (Lamiaceae). Christmas
candlestick.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, the leaves were smoked
in banana stem pipes to help men divorce their wives
(Tabuti et al. 2003). Leonotis leonurus
Leonotis sibericus L. (Lamiaceae). Siberian
motherwort.
This species was mentioned in the Chinese Book of Songs, Shih Ching, but it
was smoked in Central and South America (Schultes et al. 2001). Dried leaves
were harvested from flowering plants and were then smoked as a cannabis
substitute.
Lepidium ruderale L. (Brassicaceae). wild peppergrass.
The whole plant, when burned, produces smoke that was considered useful for
repelling a variety of insects, including aphids, beetles, and mites (McIndoo
1945).
Lepidium sativum L. (Brassicaceae). garden cress pepperweed.
According to Avicenna, the fumes of burning fruits were used in Iran as pest repel-
lents (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Leptodermis lanceolata Wall. (Rubiaceae). Leptodermis.
The leaves and flowers were burned as incense in Nepal (Manandhar 2002).
Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R. Br. (Lamiaceae). wild tree bush.
Unspecified parts of this species were burned so that the smoke generated could be
employed as a fumigant that repelled mosquitoes (Jacobson 1975).
Leucas martinicensis (Jacq.) R. Br. 115

Leucas pechuelii Baker (Lamiaceae). erombora.
Known in Namibia by the Himba as erombora, the leaves were often burned on
embers in the preparation of smoke baths that were used for treating dizziness and
fainting spells (von Koenen 2001). In the Omuhonga Mountains of Namibia, the
leaves were burned in combination with the leaves of Mundulea sericea (Willd.)
A. Chev. to produce smoke that was inhaled to treat furuncules (von Koenen 2001).
Ligusticum canadense Britt. (Apiaceae). Canadian licorice root.
The Cherokee of North America smoked the roots to treat various disorders of the
stomach (Sturtevant 1955).
Ligusticum canbyi Coult. & Rose (Apiaceae). canby’s licorice root.
The Flathead of North America smoked the roots to stop seizures (Hart 1996).
The Okanagan-Coville used the smoke of the roots to revive a singer during a
ceremonial trance (Turner et al. 1980). It was also used to revive a person affected
by the “blue jay spirit.” The Crow sprinkled shavings of the roots on live coals for
incense purposes. They also mixed the shavings with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) for
their kinnikinnick. The Okanagan-Coville mixed the roots with tobacco to give it
a menthol taste.
Lindera fragrans Oliv. (Lauraceae). bamboo-leaf spicebush.
In China, the leaves were burned with the roots of Thuja orientalis L. as incense
(Henry 1893).
Lindera sp. (Lauraceae). spicebush.
The leaves were burned as incense in China (von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Linum lewisii Pursh (Linaceae). prairie flax.
The Kayenta Navajo of North America used the plant’s smoke as a fumigant for
unspecified purposes (Wyman and Harris 1951).
Liparis vexillifera (Llave & Lex.) Cogn. (Orchidaceae). tropical widelip orchid.
The Huichol of Mexico’s Jalisco and Nayarit States often added the flowers of this
orchid to their tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and smoked the mixture during the Peyote
Pilgrimage ceremony (Bauml 1994).
Lippia alba (Mill.) N.E.Br. ex Britton & P. Wilson (Verbenaceae). juanilana.
The Carib of Guatemala inhaled the smoke of burning leaves to relieve nausea and
vomiting (Gíron et al. 1991). In Livingston, Izabal, and Guatemala, parts of the
trunk were burned for incense purposes (Pöll et al. 2005).
Lippia asperifolia Rich. (Verbenaceae). Lippia.
In parts of East Africa, where the Bantu language of Swahili is com-
mon, the leaves of this species were burned as incense (Heine and
Legére 1995). The local name for this plant is mpambd mke.
Lippia javanica Sprenq. (Verbenaceae). common lippia.
The leaves were burned in Zimbabwe for their smoke, which was con-
sidered useful for repelling mosquitoes (Lukwa et al. 1999).
Lippia multiflora Mold. (Verbenaceae). multiflowered lippia.
This herb was burned in Gambia, where the smoke was used to fume
beehives. This attracted the bees (Dalziel 1937).
Lippia nodiflora (L.) Michx. (Verbenaceae). fog fruit.
In Libya, the plant was compressed between two red-hot bricks to
produce smoke that was used to fumigate and treat inflamed and
bleeding piles (Hussein 1985).
Lippia alba
116 Leucas pechuelii Baker

Lippia sp. (Verbenaceae). Lippia.
An unspecified species of lippia was burned in Gambia, Africa, where its smoke
was used to repel mosquitoes (Aikins et al. 1994).
Liquidambar orientalis Mill. (Hamamelidaceae). Oriental sweetgum.
The semisolid gum (levant storax) produced by this species was burned in western
Asia and Asia Minor as a fumigant for unspecified purposes (Uphof 1968; Usher
1974).
Liquidambar styraciflua L. (Hamamelidaceae). sweetgum.
In Cyprus, both the bark and the wood of this plant played an important role in
the orthodox liturgy during which it was burned as
incense (Georgiades 1987b). Its importance to this
religious Cypriote rite can be inferred from the local
name for the species, xylon tau Aphenti, or “wood
of the Lord.” Resin from the trunk of this plant was
burned in Central and North America as a fumigant
for unspecified purposes (Uphof 1968; Usher 1974).
The resin, known as American storax, was also a
highly prized forestry product of the Aztec of Mexico.
They burned it as incense and often mixed it with their
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) (Alcorn 1984). It is believed
to have been of such importance to the Aztecs that
when Spanish conquistador Hernando Cortés met
with Aztec Emperor Montezuma II in 1519, the latter
inhaled smoke from a tobacco and sweetgum mixture Liquidambar styraciflua
(Díaz del Castillo 1956). American storax was used by
the U.S. tobacco industry to flavor its cigarettes (Tyler et al. 1988).
Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Rob. (Lauraceae). Indian laurel.
In the Northern Territory of Australia, smoke from burning crushed leaves was
inhaled by indigenous Australians for nausea (Barr 1993).
Lobelia cardinalis L. (Campanulaceae). red lobelia.
Ross (2002) suggests that the dried leaves and flowers can
be mixed with other herbs and smoked for pleasure. Only
a pinch of plant material is recommended.
Lobelia excelsa Bonpl. (Campanulaceae). Lobelia.
The leaves were smoked for unspecified purposes in India
(Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).
Lobelia inflata L. (Campanulaceae). Indian tobacco.
Prior to the arrival of European colonizers, the leaves were
smoked during Hocak (Winnebago) ceremonies and on a
daily basis for recreational purposes (Kindscher and Hurl-
burt 1998). The smoke from burning leaves was inhaled by
Native North Americans to treat asthma, as a stimulant and
expectorant (Kavasch 1979). Tierra (1983) reported that the
leaves were also smoked to help stop smoking tobacco (Nico-
tiana spp.). This was certainly the case with the Cherokee of
North America (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975). They also used
it to smoke out gnats.
Lobelia inflata
Lobelia inflata L. 117

Lobelia tupa L. (Campanulaceae). devil’s tobacco.
The leaves, which were known to be toxic by its users, were smoked for their psy-
choactive effects by the Mapuche of southern Chile (Schultes et al. 2001).
Lolium temulentum L. (Poaceae). darnel rye grass.
In parts of Iran, the whole plant was burned to produce smoke that, according to
Avicenna, was inhaled to treat general gynecological disorders (Mohagheghzadeh
et al. 2006).
Lomatia silaifolia (Sm.) R. Br. (Proteaceae). wild parsley.
The flowers of the wild parsley, when burned, produce smoke that has been
reported to repel flies (McIndoo 1945).
Lomatium dissectum (Nutt.ex Torr. & A. Gray) Mathias & Constance. (Apiaceae).
fernleaf bisquitroot.
The Nez Perce of North America mixed the roots with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.)
and smoked them to treat sinus troubles (Hart 1996). The Northern Paiute, also of
North America, mixed the roots with tobacco and smoked the mixture to relieve
headaches and colds (Fowler 1989). Other Native Americans inhaled the smoke
of burning roots to treat influenza, sinus, sore throats, congestion in the nose and
lungs, hay fever, bronchitis, asthma, pneumonia, headaches, dizziness, and tuber-
culosis (Foster and Hobbs 2002).
Lomatium dissectum (Nutt.ex Torr. & A. Gray) Mathias & Constance. var.
multiflorum (Apiaceae). carrot-leaf bisquitroot.
The Blackfoot, Ute, and Gosiute of North America burned the roots of this spe-
cies and let their horses inhale the smoke to treat distemper (Chamberlin 1909).
The Great Basin people, also of North America, burned dried roots on hot coals,
inhaling the smoke for asthma and bronchitis, and the Paiute of North America
inhaled smoke from burning pulverized roots for colds, asthma, and tuberculosis
(Train et al. 1941). Moerman (1998) suggests another plant species may have been
used in these practices.
Lomatium macrocarpum (Nutt. ex Torr. & Gray) Coult. & Rose (Apiaceae). big-seed
bisquitroot.
The Blackfoot of North America burned the roots and used the smoke to treat
distemper in their horses (Hart 1996). The Crow, also of North America, threw
shavings of the roots on hot coals for incense purposes that were meant to purify
and scent the air.
Lomatium nudicaule Coult. & Rose (Apiaceae). bare-stem bisquitroot.
The Saanich, Songish, and Cowichan of Canada burned the seeds to fumigate and
thus drive evil spirits from their houses (Turner and Bell 1971).
Lonchocarpus capassa Rolfe (Fabaceae). lance tree.
Traditional healers in Tanzania used this species to treat epilepsy. Patients were
covered with a blanket and made to inhale the smoke produced by burning leaves
(Mushi et al. 2005).
Lonchocarpus nelsii (Schinz) Schinz ex Heering & Grimme ssp. nelsii (Fabaceae).
apple leaf.
The smoke produced by burning the roots on glowing coals was inhaled in parts
of Namibia to treat colds (von Koenen 2001).
Lonicera floribunda Boiss. & Buhse. (Caprifoliaceae). Euch-ghad.
The leaves of this species were burned in Iran for a fumigant that could relieve
pain, especially from toothache (Ghorbani 2005).
118 Lobelia tupa L.

Lupinus sp. (Fabaceae). lupine.
The Blackfoot of North America burned an unspecified species of lupine for
incense purposes during the Ghost Dance (Hellson 1974).
Lycopodium clavatum L. (Lycopodiaceae). club moss.
The Sotho of South Africa mixed whole plants with Selaginella caf-
frorum (Milde) Hieron., and sometimes with Selaginella wightii
Hieron. and smoked the mixture to treat headaches (Jacot Guil-
larmod 1971).
Lycopodium sp. (Lycopodiaceae). club mosses.
The Iroquois of North America sprinkled the spores of an unspeci-
fied species of club moss on fires to stop nosebleeds (Herrick
1977).
Lysichiton americanus Hultén & St. John. (Araceae). American
skunk cabbage.
The smoke of burning roots was inhaled by Native North Ameri- Lycopodium clavatum
cans to treat influenza and rheumatism and to promote pleasant
dreams (Smith 1929; Foster and Hobbs 2002). This species was
reported as L. kamtschatcense Scott. (Moerman 1998).
Lysichiton kamtschatcense Schott. (Araceae). skunk cabbage.
The roots of this member of the arum family were burned by the Bella Coola and
neighboring tribes of British Columbia, Canada, to produce smoke, which was inhaled
for bad dreams, influenza, and rheumatism (Smith 1929). The roots are considered
poisonous. See Lysichiton americanus Hultén & St. John.
Lysimachia vulgaris L. (Primulaceae). garden yellow loosestrife.
According to Grieve (1971), this species, which is not related to purple loosestrife,
was burned in houses in an unspecified country to drive away gnats.
Macromeria viridiflora DC. (Boraginaceae). giant trumpets.
The Hopi of North America used the smoke of burning giant trumpets to treat
insane people (Whiting 1939). The species reported in original texts was its syn-
onym, Onosmodium thurberi A. Gray.
Macropiper excelsum (G. Forst.) Miq. (Piperaceae). New Zealand pepper tree.
The Maori of New Zealand tossed the leaves of this plant, known locally as
kawakawa, into their campfires because it produces an acrid smoke that kept mos-
quitoes and sand flies away (Stark 1979).
Madhuca latifolia J. F. Macbr. (Sapotaceae). Indian butter tree.
Several parts of this plant have been burned to repel a variety of insects and other
pests (McIndoo 1945).
Madia glomerata Hook (Asteraceae). mountain tarweed.
The Crow of North America burned dried herbs for incense purposes during cer-
tain ceremonies (Blankinship 1905).
Maerua caffra Pax. (Capparaceae). bush cherry.
South African Vendan women suffering from menorrhagia exposed their vulva
to smoke from burning roots. The smoke was also inhaled to relieve headaches
(Arnold and Gulumian 1984).
Maerua crassifolia Forssk. (Capparaceae). Maerua.
In Kenya, the Chamus (Heine and Heine 1988a), Rendille (Heine and Heine
1988b), Gabbra (Heine and Brenzinger 1988), and the Borana of Ethiopia (Heine
and Brenzinger 1988) burned the sticks of this species to fumigate their contain-
Maerua crassifolia Forssk. 119

ers to give them a pleasant aroma. Wickens (2004) reported that the smoke was
obnoxious.
Maerua kaessneri Gilg and Benedict (Capparaceae). Maerua.
Gourds were fumigated and cleansed with the smoke of this species by the Borana
of Ethiopia and by the Gabbra of Kenya (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Maerua subcordata (Gilg.) DeWolf. (Capparaceae). chepuluswo.
The Pokot of northern Kenya believed that the smoke of burning leaves could stop
earthquakes (Timberlake 1987). Chepuluswo is the local name for this species.
Maianthemum canadense Desf. (Convallariaceae). Canadian mayflower.
The Flambeau Ojibwa of North America used parts of this plant to produce smoke
that was inhaled for unspecified purposes (Smith 1932).
Maianthemum racemosum (L.) Link ssp. amplexicaule (Nutt.) LaFrankie (Liliaceae).
feathery false lily of the valley.
Native North Americans burned the roots to produce smoke to revive an uncon-
scious person (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973). This species was reported as
Smilacina amplexicaulis (Nutt.) S. Wats. in the original texts.
Maianthemum racemosum (L.) Link. ssp. racemosum (Convallariaceae). Father
Solomon’s seal.
This species, which was reported as Smilacina racemosa (L.) in original ethnobo-
tanical texts (see Moerman 1998), was burned by the Chippewa of North America
to produce smoke that was considered useful for relieving headaches and other
pain (Gilmore 1933). The Potawatomi, also of North America, prepared a smudge
of the roots to revive comatose patients (Smith 1933).
Malva sylvestris L. (Malvaceae). common mallow.
The flowers and the leaves, when burned, produced smoke that was used in the
Ubage Valley of France as an antiseptic (Novaretti and Lemordant 1990).
Mangifera indica L. (Anacardiaceae).
mango.
Smoke from burning leaves was con-
sidered useful in China for treating
hiccups, asthma, and throat ailments
(Jiangsu New Medical College 1979). In
parts of India, the leaves of the mango
were burned to generate smoke used
for skin ailments (Mohagheghzadeh
et al. 2006). The smoke from burning
leaves was used in Papua New Guinea
as a mosquito repellent (Vernede et al.
1994).
Manihot esculenta Crantz (Euphorbiaceae).
cassava. Mangifera indica
The leaves were smoked in parts of the
central African Congo to treat disorders of
the respiratory tract (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Manilkara inundata (Ducke) Ducke ex Monach. (Sapotaceae). Manilkara.
Smoke from burning wood was used to cure rubber in parts of Colombia (von
Reis and Lipp 1982).
120 Maerua kaessneri Gilg and Benedict

Mansoa standleyi (Steyerm.) A. H. Gentry (Bignoniaceae). Mansoa.
The Quichua of Ecuador burned the plant near where their chickens roosted.
This was said to cure a variety of illnesses common to the animals (Alarcón
1988).
Markhamia lutea (Benth.) K. Schum. (Bignoniaceae). siala.
The leaves were smoked in Bulamogi County, Uganda, to treat mental disorders
Mastixia arborea C. B. Clarke (Cornaceae). kunthirikkam.
The hill tribes of south India’s Shola forests in Kerala State burned the resin
obtained from this species to repel flies and mosquitoes (Kumar
et al. 2000). Kunthirikkam is the species’ local name.
Matricaria chamomilla L. (Asteraceae). chamomile.
In Libya, the flower heads of chamomile were added to smoking
tobacco (Nicotiana sp.) to enhance its flavor (Hussein 1985). The
essential oils from this plant were used for this purpose in unspeci-
fied parts of Europe (Uphof 1968).
Maytenus undatus (Thunb.) Blakelock. (Celastraceae). Maytenus.
The Samburu of Kenya burned the small branches to fumigate and
cleanse their gourds (Heine and König 1988a).
Maytenus vitis-idaea Griseb (Celastraceae). yaguareté nimbi.
The Maka of the Paraguayan Chaco burned the branches and used
the smoke as a fumigant for helping to make more efficient and
deadly weapons and to propitiate game to be plentiful and fat (Are- Matricaria
nas 1987). chamomilla
Melaleuca cajuputi Powell (Myrtaceae). cajeput.
The leaves were crushed and smoked by the people of Australia’s
Northern Territory to relieve nasal and bronchial congestion (Barr 1993).
Melaleuca glomerata F. Muell. (Myrtaceae). inland tea tree.
The Pitjantjatjara of Australia burned the branches and inhaled the smoke for
unspecified medicinal properties (Latz 1995).
Melaleuca leucadendra (L.) L. (Myrtaceae). broad leaved paperbark.
In Australia’s Northern Territory, smoke from young leaves was inhaled for colds,
pain, fever, and general malaise (Barr 1993).
Melaleuca symphyocarpa F. Muell. (Myrtaceae). Australian liniment tree.
Colds and influenza were treated by inhaling the smoke of crushed and burning
young leaves (Barr 1993).
Melanthera scandens (Schumach. & Thonn.) Brenan (Asteraceae). Melanthera.
In Mbeere, Kenya, this species was used to make fumigation torches that aired out
stuffy huts and sickrooms (Riley and Brokensha 1988).
Melilotus officinalis (L.) Lam. (Fabaceae). yellow sweet clover.
In Siberia (Minaeva 1991), Ukraine, and other parts of the former Soviet Union
(USSR), the top leaves and flowers of yellow sweet clover were often mixed with
poor-quality tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to enhance its flavor (Kondratyuk et al.
1967). The Ukrainian name for the plant is burkun likarskii; its Siberian name is
donnik lekarstvennyi.
Meliosma buchananiifolia Merr. (Sabiaceae). Meliosma.
The bark was burned in southern China as incense (Uphof 1968).
Meliosma buchananiifolia Merr. 121

Mentha aquatica L. (Lamiaceae). water mint.
Along with several other species, the dried leaves of this mint were smoked twice a
day in Venda, South Africa, to treat certain mental illnesses (Arnold and Gulumian
1984). In Libya, oil extracted from the leaves was used to produce menthol
cigarettes (Hussein 1985).
Mentha arvensis L. (Lamiaceae). wild mint.
The smoke of this species was used in the tropics to repel mosquitoes (Lee et al.
2001). It has been used to flavor cigarettes in other parts of the world (Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis 2003).
Mentha pulegium L. (Lamiaceae). pennyroyal.
The smoke of burning pennyroyal leaves was used as an insecticide (McIndoo 1924).
Mentha spicata L. (Lamiaceae). spearmint.
Known as mnanaha in East Africa, the leaves of this species were rolled into
cigarettes and smoked to relieve asthma, tuberculosis, and other respiratory
ailments (Heine and Legére 1995).
Mentha spp. (Lamiaceae). mints.
The leaves of several species of mints were smoked by Native Americans as sooth-
ing agents (Kavasch 1979).
Mentha sylvestris L. ssp. viridis (Lamiaceae). horse mint.
The smoke produced by burning the entire plant was used as a fumigant to treat
oxytocic in the Ubage Valley of France (Novaretti and Lemordant 1990).
Mentha viridis (L.) L. (Lamiaceae). garden mint.
In the Swahili-speaking areas of East Africa, the leaves of this species were smoked
for the relief of tuberculosis, asthma, and other respiratory illnesses (Heine and
Legére 1995).
Mentzelia affinis Greene (Loasaceae). yellowcomet.
The Hopi of North America smoked parts of this plant when
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) was not available (Colton 1974).
Mentzelia multiflora (Nutt.) A. Gray var. multiflora (Loasaceae).
Adonis blazingstar.
The Kayenta Navajo of North America burned this plant for
incense purposes during the collared lizard ceremony (Wyman
and Harris 1951).
Mentzelia pumila Torr. & A. Gray. (Loasaceae). dwarf mentzelia.
The Hopi of North America smoked this plant when tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) was unavailable (Whiting 1939).
Michelia champaca L. (Magnoliaceae). golden champa.
Tribal members of Nilgiris in India’s southernmost state, Tamil
Nadu, burned the dried flowers at night to repel mosquitoes
(Rajendran and Aswal 2000). The local name for the species is
shebahapoo.
Micromeria biflora Benth. (Lamiaceae). lemon scented thyme. Mentzelia multiflora
In Nepal, the whole plant was considered useful for burning as
incense (Manandhar 2002).
Mikania sagittifera B. L Rob. (Asteraceae). oruhona.
This species was highly sought after by the women of the Herero-speaking peoples
of Kaokoland, northwestern Namibia (Malan and Owen-Smith 1974). The runners
122 Mentha aquatica L.

and the leaves, which grew on reeds only along the banks of the Kunene River,
were burned in ovens to produce smoke that was considered ideal for perfuming
clothes and bedding. The women went to great lengths to procure these plants.
Millingtonia hortensis L. f. (Bignoniaceae). cork tree.
The Thai name for this plant is peep. The flowers were rolled into a cigarette and
smoked for pleasure (Pongs-Boonrod 1950; Boonyarattanakornkit and Supawita
1977; Mueanwongyaat 1981).
Mimosa pudica L. (Mimosaceae). twelve o’clock.
In the rain forests of Belize, people smoked dried leaves to alleviate muscle spasms,
irritability, and backache (Arvigo and Balick 1993). The same smoke was used to
remove toothworms from the mouths of the people of India’s Mizoram State,
where this species is known as hlonuar (Lalramnghiglova 2003). The leaves were
smoked like cigarettes.
Mirabilis nyctaginea (Michx.) MacMill. (Nyctaginaceae). heartleaf four o’clock.
The Western Keres of North America smoked the leaves as a tobacco (Nicotiana
spp.) substitute (Swank 1932). This species was reported as its synonym, Allionia
nyctaginea Michx., in original texts.
Mitchella repens L. (Rubiaceae). partridge berry.
The Ojibwa of North America burned the leaves for incense purposes during cer-
emonies (Reagan 1928).
Mitragyna ciliata Aubrév. & Pellegr. (Rubiaceae).
abura.
Asita and Campbell (1990) reported that the wood
of abura could be burned to produce smoke that
effectively inhibited three species of bacteria—
Staphylococcus aureus, Saccharomyces cerevisiae,
and Eschirichia coli—all of which are known to
spoil food.
Mitragyna speciosa Korth. (Rubiaceae). kartom.
The effects of the dried leaves, when smoked,
were said to be similar to the combined effects Mitchella repens
of cocaine and morphine (Schultes et al. 2001).
The species was used in Southeast Asia, especially
Thailand, where it was often used as an opium substitute. One of the main alka-
loids discovered in the species, mitragy-
nine, exhibits very little toxicity even in
large doses.
Mollugo pentaphylla L. (Molluginaceae).
Mollugo.
This plant was smudged in the Solomon
Islands to repel mosquitoes (Perry 1980).
Momordica balsamina L. (Cucurbitaceae).
balsam apple.
In Africa, syphilis and rheumatism were
cured with smoke baths in which the
roots of the balsam apple were roasted
(Neuwinger 1994). Mitragyna speciosa
Momordica balsamina L. 123

Momordica charantia L. (Cucurbitaceae). balsam pear.
Like M. balsamina L., syphilis and rheumatism were treated with the smoke of
burning balsam pear roots (Neuwinger 1994).
Monanthotaxis caffra (Sond.) Verdc. (Annonaceae). dwaba berry.
The Zulu tribes of South Africa smoked the roots to cure hysteria and bad dreams
(Gerstner 1941).
Monanthotaxis fornicata (Baill.) Verdc. (Annonaceae). hairy mgweni.
In the Tongoni village of the Tanga District of Tanzania, the outer root bark was burned
and the resultant smoke inhaled to treat mental diseases (Hedburg et al. 1982).
Morina coulteriana Royle (Morinaceae). Morina.
In the Ladakh region of northern India, the roots of this species were burned in
the monasteries (gumpas) as incense (Shah 1982). The smoke was also prized for
curing abscesses. In India’s Lahoul Valley (northwestern Himalayas), the people of
the Kinang tribe burned the flowers as incense (Sood et al. 2001).
Morina longifolia Wall. ex. DC. (Morinaceae). whorlflower.
The entire plant was burned in Nepal for incense purposes (Manandhar 2002). It
was also prized in the Ladakh region of northern India, where it was burned in the
monasteries (Shah 1982).
Mucuna pruriens (L.) DC. (Fabaceae). cowhage.
Smoke from burning fruits was inhaled in parts of India to relieve toothache pain
(Williamson 2002).
Mundulea sericea (Willd.) A. Chev. (Fabaceae). fishbean.
In Namibia, the leaves of this species were burned alone or in combination with
the leaves of Leucas pechuelii Baker for the treatment of furunculosis. The species
is known locally as omukeka (von Koenen 2001).
Murraya koenigii Spreng. (Rutaceae). curry leaf.
The Swahili-speaking people of eastern Africa burned the leaves of this plant,
known locally as mvuje, to keep devils away from sick children (Williams 1949).
Musa acuminata Colla (Musaceae). edible banana.
During the 1960s, the charred inner scrapings of banana rinds were smoked in
the United States and elsewhere in the belief that they induced an hallucinogenic
effect. Bozzetti et al. (1967) reported that the effects were due solely to the psychic
suggestibility of its users.
Musa x paradisiacal L. var. paradisiacal (Musaceae). plantain.
In Nigeria, unspecified parts of this relative of the banana were often dried in the
sun and then smoked for pleasure (Okiy
1960).
Myoporum acuminatum R. Br.
(Myoporaceae). water bush.
The Arrernte of Australia burned the
branches of the water bush, also known as
western boobialla, to produce smoke that was
inhaled for general ailments (Latz 1995).
Myriactis nepalensis Less. (Asteraceae).
Nepalese myriactis.
The leaves were dried and smoked for
pleasure in India’s Bhaderwah Hills (Kapur
Myoporum acuminatum
124 Momordica charantia L.

and Nanda 1996) and Udhampur District (Jammu Province) (Kapur and Srivas-
tava 1996).
Myrica asplenifolia L. (Myricaceae). sweet fern.
The Potawatomi of North America burned the leaves of this species to generate
smoke that kept mosquitoes away (Smith 1933). Moerman (1998) suggests that the
species actually used may have been Comptonia peregrina (L.) Coult.
Myrica gale L. (Myricaceae). sweetgale.
The Potawatomi of North America burned this species as a smoke smudge that
repelled mosquitoes (Smith 1933).
Myrica pensylvanica Mirb. (Myricaceae). northern bayberry.
The berries produce a thick, gluey substance, which, when mixed with beeswax,
was used in North America to make candles that gave off a pleasant scent (Carver
1778).
Myricaria germanica (L.) Desv. ssp. alopecuroides (Schrenk.) Kitam
(Tamaricaceae). false tamarisk.
In India’s Lahoul-Spiti areas of the northwestern Himalayas, the Jispa and Kaza
tribes burned powdered leaves and flowers from this species as incense (Sood
et al. 2001).
Myristica fragrans Houtt. (Myristicaceae). nutmeg.
This species has been used to give flavor to cigars (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). It
produces aromatic oils.
Myristica sp. (Myristicaceae). Myristica.
The people of Java, Indonesia, burned the wood of a Myristica species to perfume
their clothing (Uphof 1968).
Myrothamnus flabellifolius Welw. (Myrothamnaceae). resurrection plant.
In South Africa, the Pedi of Transvaal State inhaled smoke generated by burning
this plant to relieve chest pain (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). In Namibia,
the leaves were smoked together with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to treat bronchial
conditions, and the branches and roots were burned on red-hot coals to give
off smoke that was inhaled for the relief of
chest pain and lung congestion (von Koenen
2001). In South Africa, the leaves were
smoked to treat asthma (Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk 1962; Hutchings et al. 1996). The
Topnaar of Namibia inhaled the smoke of
burning leaves to relieve asthma and chest
pains and to ease epilepsy (van den Eynden
et al. 1992).
Myroxylon balsamum Harms. (Fabaceae).
balsam of Peru.
In the Amazon, an unspecified group of
people burned powdered bark of balsam of
Peru as incense (Soukup 1970). In the mar-
kets of La Paz and El Alto in Bolivia, its seeds
were sold as a cure for earache. The smoke of
burning seeds was blown into the affected ear
(Macía et al. 2005).
Myroxylon balsamum
Myroxylon balsamum Harms. 125

Myroxylon peruiferum L. f. (Fabaceae). Brazilian balsam.
In Bolivia, highland settlers near the village of Muyupampa burned the fragrant
resin obtained from this species and inhaled its smoke to treat susto (“fright ill-
ness”; Willian 1989).
Myrtus communis L. (Myrtaceae). myrtle.
Italians living in the Monte Vesole and Ascea areas of the Cilento National Park in
southern Italy burned the leaves and branches of this species in their bread ovens
to give their bread a pleasant aroma (Scherrer et al. 2005). In ancient Egypt, the
plant was used for unspecified fumigation purposes (Manniche 1989).
Nardostachys grandiflora DC. (Valerianaceae). spikenard.
This species was used in Nepal, where the dried leaves were burned as incense
(Manandhar 2002).
Nardostachys jatamansi (Jones) DC. (Valerianaceae). muskroot.
According to the Ayurvedic system of India, parts of this plant were dried in the
sun and then soaked with ghee before being smoked like a cigarette to relieve
asthma (Mishra 2003). In the Sikkim Himalayas of India, the roots were burned as
incense to drive away evil spirits (Pandey 1991). In the Manang District of Nepal,
muskroot was highly esteemed as incense because it did not grow near human
habitations and therefore was not contaminated in any way (Pohle 1990). Else-
where, in the Kumoan area of India, the rhizome and root portion were burned for
incense purposes (Shah 1982).
Nauclea latifolia Sm. (Rubiaceae). pin cushion tree.
In the Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire), children with respiratory diseases
were encouraged to inhale the smoke of burning seeds, which were burned in a
calabash (Disengomoka et al. 1983).
Neea sp. (Nyctaginaceae). saltwood.
The Waimiri Atroari of Brazil burned the wood of an unspecified species of
Neea, which they called sasyma lepy, to smoke their fish and meat (Milliken
et al. 1992).
Neocarya macrophylla (Sabine) Prance ex F. White
(Chysobalanaceae). gingerbread plum.
In parts of Senegal, where the species is known as ba, branches
of the gingerbread plum were burned, and the smoke was
inhaled as a remedy for snakebite (Mohagheghzadeh et al.
2006).
Nepeta cataria L. (Lamiaceae). catnip.
According to Krochmal and Krochmal (1973), Native Amer-
icans living in the Appalachians smoked the dried leaves and
stalks of this species to relieve respiratory problems. The
Shinnecock of Long Island, New York, smoked dried catnip
leaves in a pipe to treat rheumatism (Carr and Westey 1945).
Nepeta leucophylla Benth (Lamiaceae). catmint. Nepeta cataria
In the Manang District of Nepal, people collected the flowers of
this species, dried and crushed them, and then burned them in a receptacle. The smoke
was used to fumigate and revive a fainted or unconscious person (Pohle 1990).
Nerium indicum Mill. (Apocynaceae). south-sea rose.
The ancient Sanskrit treatise the Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.) lists
this species as one of several whose smoke, when burned as part of a concoction
126 Myroxylon peruiferum L. f.

with other plants (recipe 4 under Asparagus racemosus Willd.), was used in India
to kill animals (Sensarma 1998).
Nerium odorum L. (Apocynaceae). sweet scented oleander.
This is another species mentioned in the ancient Sanskrit treatise the Arthaśāstra
of Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.). When mixed with an unspecified species of crab,
parts of an unspecified plant gourd, the chaff and grain of an unspecified plant,
chaff from castor oil (Ricinus communis), unspecified parts of Paspalum scrobicu-
latum, and unspecified parts of Butea monosperma, it was used in parts of India
to generate smoke that, reportedly, killed animals for as far as the wind carried it
(Shamastry 1960).
Nerium oleander L. (Apocynaceae). oleander (figure 19).
This and other related species of Nerium are known to
produce poisonous cardiac glycosides similar to those
found in the foxglove, Digitalis purpurea L. The smoke
generated while burning oleanders is therefore haz-
ardous and has been known to harm and kill people
(Nelson 2000).
Nicotiana alata Link and Otto (Solanaceae). jasmine
tobacco (figure 20).
The leaves were smoked in South America for unspeci- Figure 19. Nerium oleander. Many
fied purposes (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). species of plants like this oleander
Nicotiana attenuata Torr. ex S. Wats (Solanaceae). produce toxic agents that are
coyote’s tobacco. suspended in smoke when burned.
This species synthesizes cardiac
This species was used extensively for a variety of pur- glycosides that can cause serious
poses by several Native North and South American heart problems in high doses.
tribes. The following tribes smoked the leaves for plea-
sure or related purposes: Blackfoot (Johnston 1987),
Coahuilla (Barrows 1900), Gosiute (Chamberlain 1911), Havasupai (Weber and
Seaman 1985), Hopi (Castetter and Bell 1942), Kawaiisu (Zigmond 1981), Kla-
math (Coville 1897), Mewuk (Hart 1966), Ramah Navajo (Vestal 1952), Okana-
gan-Coville (Turner et al. 1980), Paiute (Mahar 1953),
Papago (Castetter and Bell 1942), Tewa (Robbins et al.
1916), Thompson (Perry 1952), and Yavapai (Gifford 1936).
It was smoked for ceremonial purposes, including for med-
icine ceremonies, by the White Mountain Apache (Reagan
1929), Hopi (Fewkes 1896), Ramah Navajo (Vestal 1952),
Tewa (Robbins et al. 1916), and Zuñi (Stevenson 1909). The
Ramah Navajo smoked the leaves wrapped in corn husks to
treat nosebleeds and coughs and to help heal the wounds
of castrated horses (Vestal 1952). The Paiute smoked the
leaves for coughs and asthma (Train et al. 1941). They also
smoked the leaves for tuberculosis (Train et al. 1941), a
purpose for which the Shoshone also smoked the leaves.
Nicotiana bigelovii S. Wats. (Solanaceae). Bigelow’s
tobacco.
The Costanoan burned the complete plant and blew the
smoke it produced into the ear to treat earache (Bocek
1984). This species was used for a variety of ceremonial Nicotiana attenuata
Nicotiana bigelovii S. Wats. 127

and medicinal purposes by several North and South
American tribes. See Nicotiana quadrivalvis Pursh var.
bigelovii (Torr.) DeWolf for a list. Moerman (1998)
suggests that it was this variety of N. quadrivalvis that
was probably used.
Nicotiana bigelovii S. Wats. var. exaltata (Solanaceae).
native tobacco.
This species was used for a variety of purposes
by several North and South American tribes for
ceremonial and medicinal purposes. See Nico-
tiana quadrivalvis Pursh var. bigelovii (Torr.)
DeWolf for a list. Moerman (1998) suggests that Figure 20. At least 15 of the 64
N. quadrivalvis var. bigelovii was probably the species recognized Nicotiana species
(tobacco plants) were smoked for
actually used. various purposes, including pleasure,
Nicotiana clevelandii A. Gray (Solanaceae). Cleveland’s medicine, and to keep evil spirits
tobacco. away. The species shown here is a
The Seri of Mexico smoked the leaves in pipes made variety of N. alata.
of clay or from pipes fashioned from reed grass (Fel-
ger and Moser 1985). They smoked this species when N. trigonophylla Dunal. was
unavailable. The leaves were smoked by the Cahuilla of southern California during
hunting ceremonies (Bean and Saubel 1972). They also blew the smoke into the
ears of sufferers of earache. Smoke from burning leaves was said to offer people
protection during their travels.
Nicotiana glauca Graham (Solanaceae). tree tobacco.
Native Americans blew the smoke generated by burning the leaves of this spe-
cies into the ears of those suffering from earache (Foster and Hobbs 2002). The
leaves were smoked by the Cahuilla of southern California during hunting cer-
emonies (Bean and Saubel 1972). They also blew the smoke into the ears of suf-
ferers of earache. Smoke from burning leaves was said to offer people protection
during their travels. Hawaiians used smoke to treat cuts (Akana 1922).
Nicotiana multivalvis Lindl. (Solanaceae). Indian tobacco.
This species was smoked for unspecified purposes by the following Native American
tribes: Mandan, Pawnee, Hocak (Winnebago), Crow, Gros Ventre, Northern Pai-
ute, Pomo, and Yokuts (Seig 1999).
Nicotiana plumbaginifolia Viv. (Solanaceae). Tex-Mex tobacco.
The Neeshenam of North America smoked sun-dried leaves for pleasure (Powers
1874). This species was also smoked for pleasure in the Sikkim Himalaya area of
India (Pandey 1991).
Nicotiana quadrivalvis Pursh (Solanaceae). Indian bigelovii tobacco.
The Blackfoot of North America regarded this species very highly and used it in
a number of their ceremonies (Hellson 1974). The Dakota, Pawnee, Ponca, Hocak
(Gilmore 1919), and Omaha (Gilmore 1913b), all of North America, smoked the
plant for pleasure.
Nicotiana quadrivalvis Pursh var. bigelovii (Torr.) DeWolf (Solanaceae). Bigelow’s
tobacco.
Native North Americans blew smoke that they produced by burning this plant
to treat earache (Foster and Hobbs 2002). This species was used by a number of
128 Nicotiana bigelovii S. Wats. var. exaltata

different tribes in North and South America for a variety of purposes. These include
being smoked for ritual and ceremonial purposes by the Costanoan (Bocek 1984).
Moerman (1998) reports that the species actually used may have been N. bigelovii
(Torr.) S. Wats. The Kawaiisu of California burned the leaves with lime for protec-
tion against evil spirits (Zigmond 1981). Moerman (1998) reports that the species
used may have been N. bigelovii (Torr.) S. Wats. var. exaltata. The Mendocino of
California smoked the plant for pleasure (Chestnut 1902), as did the Mewuks and
the Midoos of California (Hart 1966), the Kashaya Pomo of northern California
(Goodrich et al. 1980), and Tolowa of California (Baker 1981). Moerman (1998)
suggests that the actual species used for these latter five tribes may have been
N. bigelovii (Torr.) S. Wats.
Nicotiana rustica L. (Solanaceae). wild tobacco.
One of the more popular tobacco species in the Americas was N. rustica. This species
is thought to have originated in South America and later spread into North America.
It was so popular that it was once cultivated almost everywhere in the Americas.
To improve the size of future crops, some Native American
tribes may have burned their tobacco fields at the end of
each harvest. It is tempting to speculate that the combined
effects of the heat and smoke generated in those fires may
have acted as cues to the germination of more seeds than
may have occurred naturally. This has already been demon-
strated for N. attenuata Torr. ex S. Wats (Preston and Bald-
win 1999). According to many Native Americans, one of the
major drawbacks of smoking N. rustica was that it produced
harsh smoke. It was therefore often mixed with several other
species to dilute or flavor it. The Native American Algon-
quin word for these mixtures and blends was kinnikinnick,
which should not be mistaken for the bearberry plant, Arc-
tostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng., which was also smoked.
Tobacco smoke was not, however, always diluted. The Chip-
pewa reportedly smoked the leaves undiluted to deliberately Nicotiana rustica
induce a state of intoxication during certain ceremonies
(Reagan 1928). The leaves of Lobelia inflata L. were smoked by Native North Ameri-
cans to help them quit smoking tobacco (Tierra 1983). This species was cultivated
and sold by some tribes. The Tarahumara of Mexico considered N. rustica an impor-
tant element of many night ceremonies (Lumholtz 1902). They often smoked the
leaves along with Tagetes lucida Cav. to produce a narcotic effect (Siegel et al. 1977).
It was smoked for pleasure by the Apalachee (Hamel and Chiltoskey 1975), who
also smoked it as part of a preballgame ritual (Hann 1986). The Iroquois (Rousseau
1945) and Pima (Castetter and Bell 1942) of North America smoked the species for
pleasure. The former also used the smoke to predict future rain (Waugh 1916). This
species was considered a sacred herb by the Huichol of the Jalisco and Nayarit States
of Mexico. It was often smoked by their shamans (Bauml 1994).
Nicotiana spp. (Solanaceae). tobacco.
At least 15 species of tobacco were smoked for various purposes by the people
of the Americas, where its use was first reported. North American shamans used
tobacco smoke to drive diseases out of the bodies of their patients (Seig 1999).
Nicotiana spp. 129

The leaves were often rolled into cigars for this purpose (Cooper 1949). Other
tribes blew tobacco smoke down the throat of the bears they had killed (Brooks
1952). This was said to placate their ghosts. Other uses for tobacco include emetics,
poultices, incense, and a variety of recreational and ceremonial purposes. Native
Americans also smoked the leaves as a calmative (Kavasch 1979). To the north, the
branch of the Iroquois that lived in Montreal, Canada, smoked the leaves to ensure
good health (Brooks 1938). To the south, shamans, or curanderos, of the Valley of
Puebla in Mexico added the fly agaric mushroom (Amanita muscaria [L. ex Fr.]
Pers [Amanitaceae]) to tobacco and smoked the mixture to perform ritual medici-
nal diagnoses (Díaz 1979). In Brazil, the Tapirape smoked the leaves for muscle
ache (Wagley 1943). Smoking the leaves was considered ideal for helping Haitians
speak with their gods to help cure their sick (Brooks 1938). The smoke of tobacco
was used as an insect repellent for a variety of pests (see Grainge and Ahmed 1988
for a review).
Nicotiana tabacum L. (Solanaceae). cultivated tobacco.
This species of tobacco is one of the most widely
smoked plants on earth. Although it is predomi-
nantly smoked for pleasure, or addiction, it has a
number of medicinal and ritual uses, many of which
date back thousands of years. So important was this
plant that it was cultivated by Native Americans and
formed an important bartering agent. Few plants
were more important to them, especially in South
America (Schultes and Raffauf 1992). In the Ama-
zon area, several tribes blew tobacco smoke over
sick people either as a treatment or prelude to other
treatments. In the Caribbean island of Montser-
rat, the leaves were smoked for their antispasmodic
and sedative properties (Brussell 1997). In the rural Nicotiana tabacum
parts of Honduras, midwives passed all newborn
babies through the smoke of tobacco leaves (Ticktin
and Dalle 2005). This gave them strength and protected them from illness. It
was used for the same purposes by midwives in the commonwealth island of
Dominica (Hodge and Taylor 1957). The smoke may have served as a pediatric
medicine in Detroit, Michigan, where urban African American communities
used it as a remedy for colic (Smitherman et al. 2005). Also in North America,
the Cherokee smoked it for pleasure and as a remedy for toothache (Hamel and
Chiltoskey 1975). Hawaiians blew smoke over cuts and sores (Akana 1922),
and the Mohegan used it for earaches, as did the Rappanhoek and Shinnecock
(Carr and Westey 1945). It was smoked or used for various other medicinal
and ceremonial purposes by the Haisla-Hanaksiala (Compton 1993), Hequi-
ats (Turner and Efrat 1982), Iroquois (Rousseau 1945), Navajo (Elmore 1944),
Oweekeno (Cook 1930), Papago (Castetter and Underhill 1935), and Pima
(Castetter and Bell 1942).
The plant was considered an excellent agent for driving away evil. Accord-
ing to Huastac Mayan mythology, tobacco was once used to trap and injure
an evil being (Alcorn 1984). In northeastern Peru, shamans used tobacco to
draw illnesses out of their patients and to protect them against evil people and
130 Nicotiana tabacum L.

bad spirits (Luna 1984). In parts of the Amazon, tobacco was smoked during
witchcraft, healing, and cleansing rituals (Duke and Vasquez 1994). The Shuar
of eastern Ecuador smoked tobacco when they had bad visions of the devil
(Bennett et al. 2002). Elsewhere in eastern Ecuador, tobacco was an impor-
tant aspect of many Quichua and Secoya-Siona rituals to ward off evil (Vick-
ers and Plowman 1984). The Quichua and Secoya-Siona shamans “cleaned”
their patients with the smoke of tobacco (Vickers and Plowman 1984). The
shaman blew tobacco smoke over patients in whom parasitic larvae had bur-
rowed into the skin. The smoke reportedly killed the parasites. The Mapuche
of south-central Chile smoked the leaves to induce an ecstatic or stupefied
state (Houghton and Manby 1985). In Colombia, the leaves were heated until
they were soft. They were then pounded with a mortar and shaped into round
cakes, and then they were dried in front of a fire. The tobacco cakes were rolled
up in “wild banana” leaves and were smoked in cigars for pleasure (Schultes
1985b). The Huastac Maya smoked the leaves of tobacco for recreation as well
as to scare away snakes and during a variety of rituals and offerings (Alcorn
1984). In the Andes, many peasants smoked tobacco because they believed it
warmed them (Bastien 1987).
With the spread of tobacco to the rest of the world, it rapidly found use for
medicinal and other purposes. In Hungary, where the name for tobacco is dohány,
the leaves were smoked to relieve toothache and earache (Antalné Tanko 2003).
The leaves were smoked for the relief of asthma and nervous excitement in Rew-
alsar, India (Sood and Thakur 2004). It was smoked for pleasure by the Wola of
the highlands of Papua New Guinea (Sillitoe 1983). The leaves were smoked for
cultural purposes in Papua New Guinea by Nakopo villagers in the Madang and
Morobe Provinces (Schmid 1991).
Nicotiana thyrsiflora Goodsp. (Solanaceae). tobacco.
In parts of Peru, the leaves were smoked for pleasure (von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Nicotiana tomentosa Ruiz and Pav. (Solanaceae). tobacco.
It was believed in Peru that smoking the leaves of this species gave the smoker a
headache (von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Nicotiana trigonophylla Dunal. (Solanaceae). desert tobacco.
The Cahuilla of California used the smoke as a remedy for earache (Bean and
Saubel 1972). They also smoked the plant for several ceremonial and recreational
purposes and believed that the smoke could offer them protection during their
travels (Bean and Saubel 1972). Other Native American tribes, including the
Havasupai (Spier 1928), Hopi (Whiting 1939), Hualapai (Watahomigie 1982),
Mohave (Castetter and Bell 1951), Papago (Castetter and Underhill 1935), Pima
(Castetter and Bell 1937), and Yuma (Castetter and Bell 1951), smoked the plant
for ceremonial purposes or for pleasure. Desert tobacco was smoked for a vari-
ety of unspecified purposes by the Zuñi and Papago tribes of North America
(Seig 1999).
Nigella sativa L. (Ranunculaceae). black cumin.
According to Avicenna, the fumes of burning leaves were used in Iran as pest
repellents (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Notholaena eckloniana Kuntze (Adiantaceae). cloak fern.
The leaves were smoked in India to relieve both chest and head colds (Singh, H. B.,
2000).
Notholaena eckloniana Kuntze 131

Obetia pinnatifida Baker (Urticaceae). stinging nettle tree.
Unspecified parts of this plant were burned by the Rendille of northern Kenya to
fumigate and cleanse their containers (Heine and Heine 1988b).
Ochna pulchra Hook. (Ochnaceae). peeling bark ochna.
In Namibia, the inner bark of the species was thrown on glowing embers to pro-
duce smoke that drove away the evil entities that occurred during bad dreams (von
Koenen 2001).
Ocimum americanum Mill. (Lamiaceae). American basil.
In Swahili-speaking areas of East Africa, the entire plant was burned inside huts at
night to keep mosquitoes away (Greenway 1937). The Swahili name for the plant
is kinuka. In Tanzania, the smoke was used to repel insects and to treat sore eyes
(von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Ocimum basilicum L. (Lamiaceae). common basil.
Known locally as chesekom, the Pokot of northern Kenya often burned common
basil for its aromatic smoke (Timberlake 1987).
Ocimum canum Sims (Lamiaceae). hoary basil.
In the rural villages of the Oio region of Guinea-Bissau, West Africa, villagers
burned the whole plant, when collected fresh, to generate smoke that drove away
mosquitoes (Pålsson and Jaenson 1999b). The Okavango of Africa burned the
plant because they believed that the smoke could clear bad smells and excoriate,
or abrade, babies’ bottoms (von Koenen 2001). The Sotho of South Africa claimed
that the smoke stopped nosebleeds, and in Zimbabwe, it was used to stop convul-
sions (van den Eynden et al. 1992).
Ocimum kilimandscharicum Gürke (Lamiaceae). camphor basil.
The smoke from burning leaves was reported to repel mosquitoes
in western Kenya (Seyoum et al. 2003).
Ocimum lamiifolium Hochst. (Lamiaceae). Kakuba nsili.
Leaves were smoked by people of Bulamogi County, Uganda, to
help keep spirits at bay (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Ocimum sanctum L. (Lamiaceae). holy basil.
Smoke from the whole plant was used as a fumigant to treat fever
and sunstroke in parts of Indo-China (Foucard 1954). An oil extract
of the seed husks was burned to repel mosquitoes in Sri Lanka
(Silva 1991), and other parts of the plant were burned to repel and
kill a variety of agricultural pests (see Grainge and Ahmed 1988
for a review).
Ocimum spp. (Lamiaceae). basils.
Known in Tanzania as kivumbasi, freshly collected basil plants were
burned to repel mosquitoes (Stephens et al. 1995).
Ocimum suave Willd. (Lamiaceae). basil. Ocimum
kilimandscharicum
The leaves of this species, when burned, were reported to be useful
in repelling mosquitoes in western Kenya (Seyoum et al. 2003). In
Uganda, the So burned the entire plant and used its smoke to perfume their bodies
and clothes (Heine and König 1988b).
Ocimum viride Willd. (Lamiaceae) mosquito plant.
The leaves of this plant, as the common name suggests, were burned to generate
smoke that was considered ideal for repelling mosquitoes (McIndoo 1945).
132 Obetia pinnatifida Baker

Ocotea bullata E. Mey. ex. Meisn. (Lauraceae). black stinkwood.
The Zulu of South Africa burned the bark and inhaled the smoke to relieve head-
aches (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Hutchings and van Staden 1994; Hutch-
ings et al. 1996).
Oenothera albicaulis Pursh (Onagraceae). whitest evening primrose.
The Hopi of North America smoked parts of this species for pleasure while using
an unspecified related species to ward off the common cold (Dunmire and Tierney
1997).
Oenothera cespitosa ssp. marginata (Nutt. ex Hook. & Arn.) Munz. (Onagraceae).
tufted evening primrose.
The Hopi of North America smoked this plant as a substitute for tobacco (Nicoti-
ana spp.) (Colton 1974). The Ramah Navajo, also of North America, mixed dried
leaves with their tobacco to add flavor to it (Vestal 1952).
Oenothera villosa ssp. strigosa (Rybd.) W. Dietr. & Raven. (Onagraceae). hairy
evening primrose.
The Ramah Navajo of North America mixed dried leaves to tobacco (Nicotiana
spp.) to bring them good luck during hunting (Vestal 1952). This species was
reported as O. procera Wooton & Standl. in the original texts.
Olea africana Mill (Oleaceae). African olive.
The Chamus (Heine and Heine 1988a), Rendille (Heine and Heine 1988b), and
Gabbra (Heine and Brenzinger 1988) of Kenya burned the sticks of this species
to fumigate and cleanse their containers (Heine and Heine 1988a). This was also a
common practice of the Borana of Ethiopia (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Olea europea L. (Oleaceae). olive.
The Borana of Ethiopia and the Gabbra of Kenya burned the dry branches of olive
trees to fumigate and cleanse their containers (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Olea europea L. ssp africana (Mill). P. Green. (Oleaceae). wild olive.
The Loita Maasai of Narok District, Kenya, burned the leaves of the wild olive,
which was used in many ceremonies, to emit smoke that was used to bless the vil-
lage as well as young boys when they were circumcised (Maundu et al. 2001). This
species is referred to locally as olasar. The Chamus, also of Kenya, burned the plant
to fumigate and cleanse their gourds (Heine and Heine 1988a).
Onoseris albicans (D. Don.) Ferreyra (Astercaeae). Onoseris.
The Chinchero, a small Andean community of southern Peru, burned unspecified
parts of this plant inside sheep corrals because the smoke was believed to prevent
their sheep from running away (Franquemont et al. 1990).
Onosmodium thurberi A. Gray. (Boraginaceae). giant trumpets.
The Hopi of North America used the smoke of burning giant trumpets to treat
insane people (Whiting 1939). Moerman (1998) suggests that the species actually
used may have been its synonym, Macromeria viridiflora DC.
Oplismenus compositus (L.) P. Beauv. (Poaceae). running mountaingrass.
On the Nicobar Islands of India, green plants were added to fire to produce smoke
that was used as a fumigant to relieve the pain of snakebites (Dagar and Dagar
1999).
Oplopanax horridus Miq. (Araliaceae). devil’s club.
The Crow of North America mixed the roots with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to
treat headache (Blankinship 1905). The species reported in the original texts
Oplopanax horridus Miq. 133

was Fatsia horrida Benth & Hook. f. In British Columbia, Canada, the smoke
of burning plants was used traditionally to drive away disease-causing spirits
(Turner 1998).
Orbignya martiana Barb. Rodr. (Aracaceae). babassu palm.
In parts of South America, the smoke of unspecified parts of this plant, when
burned, was used to coagulate rubber (Usher 1974).
Origanum heracleoticum L. (Lamiaceae). Greek oregano.
In the mountainous area of southern Italy’s Central Lucania, smoke from burning
flowers was inhaled to relieve the pain of toothache (Pieroni et al. 2004).
Origanum vulgare L. (Lamiaceae). oregano.
In Nepal, the dried leaves were burned to produce fragrant smoke (Manandhar
2002).
Ormocarpum trichocarpum (Taub.) Harms (Fabaceae). Osmocarpum.
This species, when burned, produced smoke that was used by the Samburu of
Kenya to fumigate and cleanse their containers and to drive bees away from their
hives so that their honey could be collected (Heine and König 1988a).
Oryza sativa L. (Poaceae). rice.
The Lahu villagers of northern Thailand burned unspecified parts of the rice plant
for smoke that kept evil spirits away (Anderson 1993).
Osmorhiza occidentalis Torr. (Apiaceae). sweet cicely.
In the western parts of North America, the smoke of burning roots was inhaled to
treat colds (Usher 1974).
Osmoxylon umbelliferum Merr. (Araliaceae). Osmoxylon.
The reddish scented wood of this species was burned in Indonesia as incense
Osteophloeum platyspermum (Spruce ex DC.) Warb. (Myristicaceae). ucuuba-
amarela.
Laborers of Reserva Ducke in the Amazon inhaled the smoke of burning leaves to
relieve asthma (Schultes and Raffauf 1990). Ucuuba-amarela is a common name
used in Portugal.
Osyris abyssinica Hochst. & A. Rich. (Santalaceae). Transvaal sumach.
The Samburu of Kenya used smoke from smoldering wood to treat swollen breasts
in women. The smoke was passed over the breasts while goat’s fat was rubbed on
them (Heine and König 1988a).
Osyris compressa DC. (Santalaceae). coastal sumach.
This species was used for the same purposes as O. abyssinica Hochst. & A. Rich.
(Heine and König 1988a).
Osyris lanceolata Hochst. & Steudal (Santalaceae). mpeta.
In Venda, South Africa, the roots, when burned, produce smoke that was used to
treat menorrhagia. Affected women exposed their vulva to the smoke (Arnold and
Gulumian 1984).
Osyris quadripartita Salzm. ex Decne. (Santalaceae). rock tannin bush.
Smoke generated in saunalike chambers was used to perfume and cleanse Borana
women in southern Oromia, Ethiopia (Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005). For more infor-
mation on this practice, see Acacia goetzei Harms. The branches of this root hemi-
parasite were also routinely burned by the Shuhi of southwest China as incense
(Weckerle et al. 2006).
134 Orbignya martiana Barb. Rodr.

Otholobium polystictum (Benth. ex Harv.) C. H. Stirt. (Fabaceae). hookleaf pea.
The Sotho of South Africa smoked the roots as a cold remedy (Watt and Breyer-
Brandwijk 1962).
Otostegia integrifolia (R. Br.) Benth. (Lamiaceae). tinjute.
This species was used by the highlander tribes of Ethiopia, where the branches and
leaves were smoked for the ritual cleansing of postpartum mothers (Wilson and
Mariam 1979). It is known in Ethiopia as tinjute. Its smoke was also used to flavor
and sterilize utensils and to treat clothes (Getahun 1976).
Ozoroa reticulata (Baker f.) R. Fern & A. Fern (Anacardiaceae). currant resin tree.
The roots of this species were used in conjunction with others to treat tubercu-
losis in northern and eastern Mozambique (Verzár and Petri 1987). The patient
dried the plant parts and placed the mixture on glowing coals. The patient
was then covered with a blanket and made to inhale the smoke. The other
species in the mixture were Aspilia mossambicensis (Oliv.) Willd., Clematopsis
scabiosifolia Hutch., Clerodendron discolor Becc., and Helichrysum kirkii Oliv.
& Hiern.
Ozoroa schinzii (Engl.) R. Fern. and A. Fern. (Anacardiaceae). Ozoroa.
In Namibia, the roots of this species were thrown on glowing embers to produce
smoke that fumigated swollen or painful parts of the body (von Koenen 2001).
Paeonia officinalis L. (Paeoniaceae). common peony.
In Iran, the fruit of the common peony was burned to produce smoke that was
thought to possess anticonvulsive properties according to Avicenna (Mohagheghza-
deh et al. 2006).
Palisota ambigua C. B. Clarke (Commelinaceae). Palisota.
In the Democratic Republic of Congo (Zaire), children suffering from asthma
were made to inhale the smoke of burning seeds (Disengomoka et al. 1983). As
part of the treatment, members of the family were expected to dance to the sound
of a wooden bell.
Palisota hirsuta K. Schum. ex C. B. Clarke
(Commelinaceae). yoruba.
The smoke of burning dried leaves was inhaled in
West Africa for toothache (Dalziel 1948). In Nige-
ria, the leaves were smoked to treat headaches
(Neuwinger 1994).
Panax quinquefolius L. (Araliaceae). American
ginseng.
The Iroquois of North America smoked dried
roots for every ailment (panacea) and for reviving
fainted people (Herrick 1977).
Pandanus fascicularis Lam. (Pandanaceae). kewda.
The male spadices were important sources of
perfumery products in India (Dutta et al. 1987).
Known locally as kewda, these products were
mostly used for making soaps, bouquets, lotions,
and hair oils. They were also used in the prepara-
tion of incense sticks (agarbatties), for scenting
clothes, and for flavoring both betel (Pan masala) Pandanus fascicularis
Pandanus fascicularis Lam. 135

and food. Its most important use was, however, to flavor tobacco (Nicotiana sp.).
The majority of India’s production of kewda occurred in the Ganjam District of
Orissa State and is thought to be a practice that is more than 200 years old.
Pandanus leram Jones ex Voigt (Pandanaceae). Nicobar breadfruit.
The leaves were smoked for pleasure on the Nicobar Islands of India (Dagar and
Dagar 1999).
Panicum antidotale Retz. (Poaceae). blue panic grass.
The whole plant was burned for smoke that was considered useful for disinfect-
ing smallpox-induced wounds in India (Chopra et al. 1956) and in Sri Lanka
(Jayaweera 1981b).
Papaver somniferum L. (Papaveraceae). opium poppy.
Opium latex tapped from unripened seedpods was harvested
and smoked all over the world for its narcotic effects (Booth
1996) (see Introduction). The milky sap is usually collected 2
weeks after the petals have dropped. Experienced opium farm-
ers know that the pods are ready once the points of the crown
are erect and curving upward. Steel or glass blades are used to
cut an incision 1 to 1.5 mm deep into the pods. The white sap
that exudes from the pods oxidizes on contact with the air and
changes color. The dark brown sticky substance that remains
is scraped off and collected. It is later dried in the sun to
remove most of the water. The paste is further dried on shelves
wrapped in various materials. It can remain in the hardened
state for extended periods. Its value increases as more water is
evaporated from the mass. Opium has to be cooked and pro-
cessed before it can be smoked. During the cooking process,
the raw material is boiled in water, where it rapidly dissolves.
Impurities or unwanted additions float to the surface or sink Papaver somniferum
to the bottom. The liquid is usually filtered and then boiled
again. After the second boiling, it is left to simmer until a thick,
brown paste remains. It is then molded and dried in the sun again until it hardens.
At that point, it is ready for use. In northern Thailand, the Akha smoked the dried
latex from the plant for its analgesic properties (Anderson 1986).
Pappea capensis Eckl. & Zeyh. (Sapindaceae). jacket plum.
The Borana of Ethiopia and the Gabbra of Kenya burned this species as incense
(Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Parastrephia lepidophylla (Wedd.) Cab. (Asteraceae). tola tola.
In northwestern Argentina’s Zenta River Basin, dried, crumpled tola tola plants
were burned on hot coals to produce smoke that was used externally to speed up
childbirth (Hilgert 2001). The smoke was fanned toward the inner thigh and lum-
bar regions of the body.
Parina sp. (Poaceae). ku-mu.
Smoke produced by burning an unspecified species of Parina was considered use-
ful in Suriname for the relief of pain (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Parinari curatellifolia Planch. ex Benth. (Chrysobalanaceae). mabola plum.
The roots of this species, along with those of other species, were used in Namibia to
treat angina pectoris and other heart conditions (see Annona stenophylla Engl. &
Diels.; von Koenen 2001).
136 Pandanus leram Jones ex Voigt

Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R. Br. ex G. Don. (Fabaceae). Africa locust bean.
In the rural villages of the Oio region of Guinea-Bissau, West Africa, people burned
the seed capsules of this species to generate smoke that was used to drive away
mosquitoes (Pålsson and Jaenson 1999b).
Paspalum scrobiculatum L. (Poaceae). ricegrass paspalum.
This species was a key ingredient in a concoction of plants and animals that, when
burned to produce smoke, was reported to cause blindness in one’s enemies (Sen-
sarma 1998). This was according to book 4, chapter 1, topic 177 of the ancient
Sanskrit treatise the Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.). Included in the
mixture were parts of an unidentified reed as well as unspecified parts of Asparagus
racemosus Willd., Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. in Engl. & Prantl, Ricinus com-
munis L., Saussurea lappa (Decne.) C. B. Clarke, Stehania hernandiflora Walp., and
Tragia involucrata L. This species was also part of another mixture used to kill ani-
mals (see recipe 4 under Asparagus racemosus Willd.). See
also Nerium odorum.
Passiflora incarnata L. (Passifloraceae). purple
passionflower.
The leaves and flowers were dried, crushed, and then
smoked as a sedative (Ross 2002).
Pavonia zeylanica (L.) Cav. (Malvaceae). chitta mutti.
The Gabbra of Kenya’s Marsabit District burned this spe-
cies and used it as a fumigant to treat bewitched cows that
gave blood instead of milk (Stiles and Kassam 1986).
Pechuel-loeschea leubnitziae O. Hoffm. (Asteraceae).
stinkbush.
The Kwanyama of Namibia inhaled smoke arising from
smoldering stinkbush to treat colds (von Koenen 2001).
Peganum harmala L. (Zygophyllaceae). African rue.
The leaves of this species were burned as incense in the
Ladakh region of India (Bhattacharyya 1991). The seeds Passiflora incarnata
were smoked in the Indus Valley of India’s Ladakh region
to induce a feeling of exaltation (Singh et al. 1996). In
Punjab, India, the smoke of seeds was used to purify areas where
weddings took place. In the state of Rajasthan, India, smoke from
burning seeds and leaves was used as an antiseptic fumigant for
wounds (Shah 1982). In both India and Pakistan, smoke from the
seeds was used as a house disinfectant after babies were born (Has-
san 1967). In central Asia, the seeds were burned as a traditional
intoxicant and as a sexual stimulant (van Wyk and Wink 2004). In
Iran and Iraq, the seeds were thrown on burning coals during wed-
ding ceremonies. The smoke was believed to drive away the evil eye
and keep epidemics at bay (Hooper and Field 1937). In Uzbekistan,
the seeds were burned on hot embers to produce smoke that was
inhaled to treat colds. The entire herb was sometimes burned as
incense for colds (Sezik et al. 2004). In Sinai and the Negev, Bedou-
ins smoked the seeds (with goat fat) to relieve aches in joints, limbs,
and the back (Bailey and Danin 1981). The smoke from the leaves
was used to keep mosquitoes away in Kanabad village and allied Peganum harmala
Peganum harmala L. 137

areas of the Gilgit District of Pakistan (Gorsi and Miraj 2002). Secoy and Smith
(1983) reported that the smoke of burning roots carries with it an alkaloid that
is toxic to lice and mosquitoes. In Balochistan, Pakistan, the seeds were routinely
burned over hot coals to generate smoke that was said to exorcize evil spirits from
people (Burkill 1909; Goodman and Ghafoor 1992). The smoke was also used to
cure infertility in women. The smoke, which was introduced into the vagina by a
special pipe, was believed to kill the germs that attack sperm. Abdominal pains in
pregnant women were also treated by this method. Blatter et al. (1919) reported
that the smoke was inhaled for any sickness.
Peganum harmala L. var. stenophyllum Boiss. (Zygophyllaceae). harmala.
Members of the Garisia tribe in India’s Rajasthan State inhaled the smoke pro-
duced by burning dry plants for the relief of toothache (Singh and Pandey
1998).
Pellaea calomelanos Link (Adiantaceae). hard fern.
The fronds of this fern were smoked in India for the relief of asthma and colds
(Singh G. S. 2000). The Xhosa and Sotho of South Africa smoked the leaves for
asthma and head colds (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Hutchings and van Sta-
den 1994; Hutchings et al. 1996). The Zulu, also of South Africa, inhaled the smoke
of burning leaves for the relief of headaches (Roberts 1990).
Pentaclethra macrophylla Benth. (Fabaceae). oilbean tree.
Smoke from burning branches was considered useful in Nigeria for treating mood
swings (Oliver-bever 1983).
Peperomia emarginella C. DC. (Piperaceae). Guadeloupe peperomia.
In Trinidad, West Indies (Wong 1976), and in the Lesser and Greater Antilles (Ste-
hlé 1962), the smoke produced by burning whole plants was inhaled to relieve
asthma.
Perideridia gairdneri (Hook. and Arn.) Mathias. (Apiaceae). Gairdner’s yampah.
The Blackfoot of North America smudged the roots for relief from bad coughs
(Hellson 1974).
Persea americana P. Mill. (Lauraceae). avocado.
In Oaxaca, Mexico, the smoke of burning leaves was inhaled for treating wounds
and bruises (Browner 1985). The leaves were burned under the cradles of Pueblan
children as a remedy for fright (Martinez Alfaro 1984).
Persea borbonia Spreng. (Lauraceae). red bay.
The Seminole of North America burned the leaves to generate smoke that was
inhaled by babies to treat diarrhea (Sturtevant 1955).
Petalidium sp. (Acanthaceae). Petalidium.
A variety of species of this genus were considered useful to the Kuanyama Ango of
Angola. They used smoke generated by burning strips of palm leaf to treat aching
legs (Loeb et al. 1956).
Peteria scoparia A. Gray. (Fabaceae). rush peteria.
The Ramah Navajo of North America burned the dried tops of this plant for vet-
erinary purposes (Vestal 1952). Shepherds forced their sheep to inhale the smoke
for unspecified purposes.
Petiveria alliacea L. (Phytolaccaceae). guinea henweed.
Known in Guatemala as apacín and amurru, the leaves of the guinea henweed
were burned for smoke that was reported to have insecticidal properties (Gíron
et al. 1991).
138 Peganum harmala L. var. stenophyllum Boiss.

Petunia violacea Lindl. (Solanaceae). shanin petunia.
The natives of Ecuador smoked the dried herb to induce visions of flight (Schultes
et al. 2001).
Peucedanum officinale L. (Apiaceae). hog’s fennel.
This was one of the species that ancient Egyptians burned for smoke that kept
insects away from their houses (Manniche 1989). This species was also used for
incense purposes according to the Bible (Exodus 30:34; Manniche 1989).
Peucedanum sp. (Apiaceae). silver wort.
According to ancient Egyptian texts, parts of a species of Peucedanum were thrown
into fires inside their houses because the smoke was believed to drive away insects
(Manniche 1989). This species was also used for incense purposes according to the
Bible (Exodus 30:34; Manniche 1989).
Pharus latifolius L. (Poaceae). broad stalkgrass.
The smoke generated by burning the whole plant was inhaled for its sedative prop-
erties in Suriname (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Philonoptera violacea (Klutzsch) Schrire. (Fabaceae). apple leaf.
In South Africa, the smoke produced by burning wood of this species was
believed to produce disharmony in families and so was avoided (Shackleton
et al. 2005).
Philoxerus vermicularis (L.) P. Beauv. (Amaranthaceae). silverhead.
In parts of Oceania, this plant was burned to smoke fish, giving it color and flavor
(Banadaranayake 1998).
Phlomis purpurea L. ssp. almeriensis (Pau) Losa and Rivas Goday ex Rivas Mart.
(Lamiaceae). Phlomis.
The leaves were dried and then smoked for recreational purposes by the people of
Almería, Spain (Martínez-Lirola et al. 1996).
Phoenix dactylifera L. (Arecaceae). date palm.
In India, the fruit was burned so that the smoke it produced could be directed over
the skin for general dermatological complaints (Caius 1998).
Phragmanthera usuiensis (Oliv.) M. Gilbert (Loranthaceae). Mugulukila gwo
muvule.
The complete plant was smoked by the people of Bulamogi County, Uganda, to
help keep spirits at bay (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Phyllanthus maderaspatensis L. (Euphorbiaceae). canoe weed.
The smoke generated by burning this plant was used in Kenya to keep caterpillars
away from maize cobs (Burkill 1994).
Physalis minima L. (Solanaceae). pygmy groundcherry.
The Nepalese of Assam rolled dried fruits into cigars and smoked them for the
relief of headaches (Sharma, U. K. 2000). The local name for the plant is jangali
phakphakay.
Physalis pubescens L. (Solanaceae). husk tomato.
When the wood of this species was burned, it reportedly generated smoke that
was considered ideal for treating skin diseases by the people of Guyana (Defilipps
et al. 2004).
Physochlaina praealta Miers (Solanaceae). dhandhura.
In the Lahoul Valley of India, smoke from burning seeds was used as a fumigant
for the relief of toothache (Sood et al. 2001). The smoke was blown through a
`barley straw directly into the cavities.
Physochlaina praealta Miers 139

Physostigma venenosum Balf. (Fabaceae). calabar bean.
Smoke from seeds burned in a calabash was considered useful for treating
asthma in the children of the Democratic Republic of Congo (Disengomoka et
al. 1983).
Phytolacca dodecandra L’Her. (Phytolaccaceae). endod.
Smoke from burning wood was inhaled in Ethiopia to decrease the sexual ability
of males (Esser et al. 2003).
Picea abies (L.) H. Karst. (Pinaceae). Norway spruce.
The resins of this species were often burned as incense during Nordic Christmas
celebrations, often in combination with Artemisia vulgaris L., Juniperus communis
L., and Taxus baccata L. (Rätsch 2004). The resins were also smoked by Siberian
shamans.
Picea canadensis Link (Pinaceae). Canadian white spruce.
The Flambeau Ojibwa of North America inhaled the smoke of burning leaves for
the relief of a variety of respiratory illnesses
(Smith 1932).
Picea glauca (Moench.) Voss. (Pinaceae).
white spruce.
Spruce cones and rotten vegetation were
burned in the Ft. Yukon region of Alaska to
smoke moose hides (Holloway and Alexan-
der 1990).
Picea rubens Sarg. (Pinaceae). red spruce.
Icelandic people burned the spruce cones
on coals and then inhaled the smoke to
“make a man happy” and to help moisten
the body. It was also considered good for ill-
Picea glauca
nesses of the blood (Bjornnson 1475). Resin
obtained from the bark was collected in the
winter for use as incense.
Piliostigma thonningii (Schumach.) Milne-Redh. (Fabaceae). camel foot.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, where this plant is known as mulama, smoke from
burning roots was inhaled to treat insanity (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Pimenta dioica (L.) Merr. (Myrtaceae). allspice.
Many Jamaican flavored jerked foods were smoked with pimenta wood (Bogen-
schtz-Godwin and Ducellier 2002).
Pimpinella anisum L. (Apiaceae). anise burnet saxifrage.
According to Avicenna, smoke from burning fruits was inhaled to treat pain and as
a remedy for vertigo in Iran (Mohagheghza-
deh et al. 2006).
Pinus banksiana Lamb. (Pinaceae). jack pine.
The Potawatomi of North America burned
the leaves and inhaled the smoke to clear out
the lungs and to revive comatose patients
(Smith 1933). The Woodland Cree, also of
North America, burned dry and open cones
along with rotten white spruce wood to
smoke animal hides (Leighton 1985). Pinus banksiana
140 Physostigma venenosum Balf.

Pinus cembroides Zucc. (Pinaceae). Mexican pinyon.
Mexican pinyon smoke was screened for its ability to affect the mortality of hon-
eybees (Apis mellifera) and tracheal mites (Acarapsis woodi) (Eischen and Vergara
2004). It exhibited a low but statistically valid effect.
Pinus edulis Engelm. (Pinaceae). pinyon pine.
Native Americans inhaled smoke from burning branches for coughs, colds, and
rheumatism (Duke 2000). Fumes from burning pitch were inhaled for head colds,
coughs, and earaches. North American
Mescalero Apaches inhaled smoke from
burning needles for colds (Basehart 1974),
and the Hualapai burned fresh white pitch
for smoke that was used to purify the air
(Watahomigie 1982). The Ramah Navajo
of North America. inhaled the fumes of
burning resin for head colds (Vestal 1952).
The Hopi and Tewa, also of North Amer-
ica, placed gum obtained from the species Pinus edulis
on hot coals to fumigate their clothes and
themselves after a funeral (Colton 1974).
The gum was often burned along with different birds by the Navajo as incense for
ceremonial purposes (Hocking 1956). The Ute Mountain Ute of Colorado burned
this pine to smoke animal hides for use as bags and tepee coverings (Dunmire and
Tierney 1997).
Pinus flexilis E. James (Pinaceae). limber pine.
The Ramah Navajo of North America smoked the plant to bring them good luck
during hunting expeditions (Vestal 1952).
Pinus monophylla Torr. & Frém. (Pinaceae). single leaf pinyon.
The Shoshone of North America inhaled the smoke of burning pitch compound
to treat colds (Train et al. 1941). The smoke was also used for veterinary purposes.
Horses with distemper were made to inhale it as a remedial treatment. The Cahu-
illa of California burned the wood for the pleasant odors it emitted (Bean and
Saubel 1972).
Pinus nigra Ait. (Pinaceae). Austrian pine.
The resin was burned in Iran and Turkey for smoke that was used to treat eye com-
plaints according to Avicenna (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Pinus ponderosa Douglas ex P. Lawson & C. Lawson (Pinaceae). ponderosa pine.
The Okanagan-Coville of North America burned rotten ponderosa pine wood to
smoke deer hides (Turner et al. 1980). The Shuswap of North America smoked
buckskin hides with the wood (Palmer 1975). The
Upper and Lower Thompson of North America
also used the wood to smoke skins (Steedman
1928).
Pinus pseudostrobus Lindl. (Pinaceae). smooth-
bark Mexican pine.
The northern Lacandon Maya of the lowland
Chiapes of southern Mexico burned resin
obtained from the trunk for incense purposes
(McGee 1990). Young boys were sent to harvest Pinus ponderosa
Pinus pseudostrobus Lindl. 141

the sap from this species. They made diagonal cuts along the trunk and allowed
the sap to flow into a leaf base, where it was collected. The sap was later pounded
into a thick paste and stored in large gourds in the “God House.” According to
the Lacandon, the incense they burned turned into tortillas, which their god con-
sumed as food. The resin of this species was considered the source of pom copal
and was burned ritually as incense by the Momostenango of Guatemala. The resin
was typically wrapped in two pieces of pumpkin skin. Elsewhere, it was wrapped
in corn husks and burned for smoke that was used to disinfect huts during certain
ceremonies (de Jongh Osborne 1975).
Pinus resinosa Ait. (Pinaceae). red pine.
The Potawatomi of North America burned the leaves as a fumigant to stimulate
the revival of a comatose person (Smith 1933).
Pinus rigida Mill. (Pinaceae). pitch pine.
Members of New England tribes of North America burned the bark of the pitch
pine to preserve their cakes (Hussey 1974). The Cherokee of North America used
the smoke to repel fleas (Herrick 1977).
Pinus spp. (Pinaceae). pines.
The Ojibwa of North America burned the needles and inhaled the smoke to relieve
headache and backache (Hoffman 1891). The Iroquois used dried roots to roll into
cigars to smoke for pleasure (Rousseau 1945). The Aztec of Mexico burned pine
resin as incense and to treat insanity (Rätsch 2004). It was also used by a variety
of shamans, often in a mixture with other herbs, especially to protect homes and
other property. When mixed with Nicotiana rustica L., it may induce hallucino-
genic visions.
Pinus strobus L. (Pinaceae). eastern white pine.
The smoke of the bark of this species was used by the
New England people of North America to preserve
their cakes (Hussey 1974). Gerarde (1633) reported
that smoke produced by the burning of rosin (resin)
was used as “medicines that beautifie the eie lids [eye
lids].” It was also reported that the smoke could cure
sores at the corners of the eyes as well as watering of
the eyes. The Iroquois of North America burned the
needles during the spring and fall, using the smoke to
fill the house to prevent all illnesses (Herrick 1977).
The smoke was also used to fumigate and protect
people who had seen a dead person.
Pinus succinifera (Goeppert) Conwentz (Pinaceae).
amber gum. Pinus strobus
Fossilized resin, or amber, from this prehistoric and
extinct pine tree, which existed along the Baltic region
of northern Europe during the Oligocene epoch (50 million years ago), was burned
in ancient times as incense to treat respiratory tract complaints (Rätsch 2004).
Pinus yunnanensis Franch. (Pinaceae). Yunnan pine.
The Shuhi of southwestern China burned fresh branches of this pine as incense
(Weckerle et al. 2006). Interestingly, it was not used as firewood because it report-
edly produced too much smoke.
142 Pinus resinosa Ait.

Piptadenia peregrina (L.) Benth. (Fabaceae). cohoba.
The bark of cohoba was burned for ritual incense use in Brazil’s state of Pará, where
it was readily available for purchase under the local name of paricá in the Ver-o-
Peso markets of Belém (van den Berg 1984).
Pistachia khinjuk Stocks (Anacardiaceae). gwân.
In the Khuzdar bazaar area of southern Pakistan, a pea-sized ball of exuded gum
was mixed with grain flour and sugar and then smoldered over hot coals so that
the people could inhale the smoke to relieve coughs (Goodman and Ghafoor
1992). The smoke was also considered useful for treating open sores. Those using
the smoke had to do so with their eyes closed and were required to inhale as much
of it as possible.
Pistacia lentiscus L. (Anacardiaceae). chios mastic tree.
In Cyprus (Georgiades 1987a) and in Sardinia, Italy
(Bogenschtz-Godwin and Ducellier 2002), meats were
flavored with wood smoke produced by burning this
species. It was often burned as incense in Vietnam
(van Duong 1993). The Cypriot name for the plant is
schinia.
Pistacia terebinthus L. (Anacardiaceae). terebinth.
According to Avicenna, smoke from burning fruits was
used as a treatment for sore eyes in Iran (Mohagheghza-
deh et al. 2006).
Planchonella obovata (R. Br.) Pierre. (Sapotaceae).
black ash.
The wood of black ash was burned in India’s Nicoba-
rese birth houses (Dagar and Dagar 2000).
Plectranthus igniarius (Schweinf.) Agnew (Lamiaceae).
Pistacia lentiscus
Plectranthus.
Smoke generated in saunalike chambers was used to
perfume and cleanse Borana women in southern Oro-
mia, Ethiopia (Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005). For more information on this practice,
see Acacia goetzei Harms.
Pleurospermum brunonis Benth. ex C. B. Clarke (Apiaceae). Pleurospermum.
This species was burned for incense purposes in India (von Reis and Lipp
1982).
Pluchea leubnitziae N. E. Br. (Asteraceae). bitteros.
The Kuanyama Ango of Angola considered the smoke generated by burning the
complete plant an ideal cold remedy (Loeb et al. 1956).
Podocarpus falcatus (Thunb.) Mirb. (Podocarpaceae). outeniqua yellowwood.
The bark was burned in Zulu cattle kraals of South Africa as a charm to prevent
cattle from straying (Hutchings et al. 1996).
Podocarpus totara G. Benn. ex D. Don. (Podocarpaceae). totara.
The Maori of New Zealand burned the wood and used the smoke to treat skin
complaints, piles, and venereal diseases (Brooker and Cooper 1962).
Pogostemon hortensis Back. ex Adelb. (Lamiaceae). patchouli.
The leaves and branches of this species were used for the preparation of incense
materials in Java, Indonesia (Sangat-Roemantyo 1990).
Pogostemon hortensis Back. ex Adelb. 143

Polyalthia jenkinsii (Hook. f. & Thomas) Hook. f. & Thomas (Annonaceae). Polyalthia.
On the Nicobar Islands of India, natives warmed and fumigated the bodies of their
infants over the smoke of fires made with the leaves of this species. This was said to
help them grow quickly (Dagar and Dagar 1999).
Polygonatum biflorum Elliott (Convallariaceae). King Solomon’s seal.
The Meswaki of North America heated the
roots over hot coals and used the fumes to
revive unconscious people (Smith 1923). The
Chippewa, also of North America, burned the
roots for their fragrant smoke to promote sleep
(Gilmore 1933).
Polygonatum biflorum Elliott var. commutatum
Morong (Convallariaceae). smooth Solomon’s Polygonatum biflorum
seal.
The roots of this species, which was reported as
Polygonatum commutatum A. Dietr. in original texts, were burned by the Chip-
pewa of North America for their pleasant fragrances (Gilmore 1933).
Polygonatum pubescens Pursh. (Convallariaceae). hairy Solomon’s seal.
After the roots were dried and pulverized, they were mixed with the leaves and
twigs of cedar trees and then burned as a smudge, the smoke of which was blown
into the nostrils of a dying person. The Menomini of North America believed that
the smoke could bring dying people back to life (Smith 1923).
Polygonum muhlenbergii S. Wats. (Polygonaceae). swamp persicaria.
The Flambeau Ojibwa of North America smoked this and other species as a hunt-
ing medicine to attract deer (Smith 1932).
Polyporus guaraniticum Speg. (Polyporaceae). Polyporus.
The fruits of this species were burned to prepare fumigants that were said to wean
children in the Maka society of the Paraguayan Chaco (Arenas 1987).
Polyscias fruticosa Harms. (Araliaceae). ming aralia.
In Indo-China, smoke from burning leaves was considered a useful sudorific and
antivertiginous treatment (Menaut 1929).
Populus angustifolia James (Salicaceae). narrowleaf cottonwood.
The Montana of North America used the inner bark of this species in their kin-
nikinnick mixtures (Blankinship 1905).
Populus balsamifera L. (Salicaceae). balsam poplar.
The Inuktitut Eskimo of North America burned the bark to generate smoke
for its mosquito-repelling qualities (Wilson 1978). Leaf galls were smoked
for pleasure with and without tobacco (Nicotiana spp.). For the Dena’ina of
Alaska, this was one of their favorite woods for smoking fish (Kari 1995). The
Montana used the inner bark of this species in their kinnikinnick mixtures
(Blankinship 1905). They burned the wood to smoke and preserve their fish,
and the wood ash was mixed with tobacco to be smoked for pleasure (Blankin-
ship 1905).
Populus balsamifera L. ssp. balsamifera (Salicaceae). balsam poplar.
In Alaska’s Ft. Yukon region, the wood smoke of this species was used to preserve
fish (Holloway and Alexander 1990). Dry, rotten wood was also used to smoke
animal skins.
144 Polyalthia jenkinsii (Hook. f. & Thomas) Hook. f. & Thomas

Populus balsamifera L. ssp. trichocarpa
(Torr. & A. Gray ex. Hook.) Brayshaw
(Salicaceae). black cottonwood.
The Shuswap of North America burned
the wood to smoke buckskins (Palmer
1975). The Montana used the inner bark
of this species in their kinnikinnick mix-
tures (Blankinship 1905). The species
mentioned in the original text was Populus
trichocarpa Torr. & A. Gray.
Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa
Populus tremuloides Michx. (Salicaceae).
American aspen.
The Upper Tanana of Alaska used smoke from burning wood to preserve their fish
(Kari 1985). The Woodland Cree of North America, in contrast, smoked the plant
during ceremonies (Whiting 1939). They used the inner bark in their kinnikin-
nick mixtures (Blankinship 1905). The species mentioned in the original text was
Populus aurea Tidestr.
Pothos scandens L. (Araceae). devil’s ivy.
Das et al. (1983) reported that the stems of this species were burned in an unspec-
ified country with camphor to produce smoke that was inhaled to treat asthma.
Pourouma ovata Trécul (Cecropiaceae). Pourouma.
The Waimiri Atroari of Brazil claimed that the smoke generated by burning the
wood of this species irritates the lungs (Milliken et al. 1992).
Premna oligotricha Baker (Verbenaceae). Premna.
This species was used to fumigate and cleanse gourds both in Ethiopia and
Kenya’s Marsabit District because its smoke produces a pleasant smell (Heine and
Brenzinger 1988).
Prosopis glandulosa Torr. (Fabaceae). honey mesquite.
The smoke of honey mesquite was tested for its effects on the mortality of honey-
bees and tracheal mites (Eischen and Vergara 2004). It exhibited low yet significant
mortality.
Prostanthera sp. (Lamiaceae). mint bush.
In Australia’s Northern Territory, leafy branches of a species of mint bush were
placed on hot coals to produce smoke that was inhaled for nasal congestion
(Barr 1993).
Protasparagus laricinus (Burch.) Oberm. (Asparagaceae). wild asparagus.
The Tswana and Kwena of Africa inhaled the smoke generated by burning whole
plants for “diseases of women” (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Protium altsonii Sandwith (Burseraceae). Protium.
The dried latex of this species was sold in the markets of La Paz and El Alto, Bolivia.
The smoke from burning latex was inhaled to treat aire (Macía et al. 2005).
Protium attenuatum Urb. (Burseraceae). encens.
This is yet another genus within the family Burseraceae known for its production
of oleo-gum resins that were burned for incense. This species produces a resin that
was considered ideal for incense by the natives of Santo Domingo in the Domini-
can Republic and St. Lucia in the West Indies (Uphof 1968; Longwood 1971;
Usher 1974).
Protium attenuatum Urb. 145

Protium carana March. (Burseraceae). carana.
The aromatic resins of this species were used in parts of Colombia, where shamans
added it to tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) or coca (Erythroxylum coca Lam.) leaves and
burned the mixture as incense during certain ceremonies (Rätsch 2004).
Protium chapelieri Guillaumin (Burseraceae). Protium.
Resin harvested from this species, known as remy, was burned as incense in Mada-
gascar (Uphof 1968; Usher 1974).
Protium copal (Schlect. and Cham.). Engl. (Burseraceae). copal.
The ancient Maya of Central America prized
the resin for burning as incense (Uphof
1968). The resin was specifically burned as
incense by the Huastec Maya during ritual
offerings (Stross 1997) and other important
ceremonies, such as funerals, Catholic mass,
and when attempting to communicate with
gods (Alcorn 1984). The smoke was also
used to treat stomach pain, fright, and dizzi-
ness and to stop heavy rain. This is one of the
most sacred trees of the ancient Maya. The
San Andréas of Petén, Guatemala, in contrast,
burned the resin to fumigate the bodies of
sick people. The smoke was said to expel the
sickness (Comerford 1996). South American
chicleros (people who harvested the latex of
the chicle tree) burned the resin to ward off
Protium copal
evil spirits (Arvigo and Balick 1993).
Protium crassipetalium Webbia. (Burseraceae).
Protium.
This species was much sought after by the Kuripakos of the Amazon who burned
its resin for unspecified purposes (Schultes and Raffauf 1990).
Protium crenatum Sandwith (Burseraceae). kurokai.
The oleo-gum resins harvested from the bark of this species were burned as incense
in churches in the Caribbean (Longwood 1971).
Protium decandrum March. (Burseraceae). copal caspi.
The Galibis of French Guiana often burned the yellow, transparent resin harvested
from the bark of this tree as incense in churches (Plotkin et al. 1991). The resin is
usually collected from the bark as a resinous and balsamic liquid that changes in
color from white to yellow when it is dried. The resin was also burned as incense
in Caribbean churches (Longwood 1971).
Protium guianense March. (Burseraceae). haiawa.
The people of Cayenne, French Guiana, split the bark of this species and col-
lected the resinous balsamic sap, which they then dried and burned in churches as
incense (Plotkin et al. 1991). It was also burned elsewhere in tropical America as
incense (Usher 1974).
Protium heptaphyllum March. (Burseraceae). breu blanco.
This was another of the species used in tropical America for its resin (elmira resin)
(Uphof 1968; Usher 1974). The Tanimuka of the Amazon burned the resin to pro-
duce smoke to scent coca (Schultes and Raffauf 1990). The resin was sold for ritual
146 Protium carana March.

incense use at the Amazonian markets of Ver-o-Peso in Belem in the state of Pará,
Brazil (van den Berg 1984). The Galibis of French Guiana burned the whitish resin
to perfume their houses (Plotkin et al. 1991).
Protium icicariba March. (Burseraceae). breu.
This is the most important commercial species of Protium. Its resin is fragrant and
burned in Brazil for incense purposes (Mors and Rizzini 1966). The Tembé and
Ka’apor of eastern Amazonia also burned breu as incense (Balée 1994).
Protium rhynchophyllum Rusby. (Burseraceae). Protium.
The Tacana of northwestern Bolivia burned the wood of this species of Protium to
smoke cure their rubber (De Walt et al. 1999).
Protium sagotianum March. (Burseraceae). balsamo.
In parts of French Guiana (Fanshawe 1948) and the Caribbean (Longwood 1971),
the resin of this species was collected and used for incense purposes.
Protium schomburgkianum Engl. (Burseraceae). kurokai.
Resins obtained from the bark of this species were sometimes burned as incense in
churches in the Caribbean (Longwood 1971).
Protium spruceanum Engl. (Burseraceae). Protium.
The Alter do Chão of Pará, Brazil, inhaled the smoke of burning resin to relieve
headaches (Branch and Gersgoff 1990). The Ka’apor of Brazil used the resin to add
flavor to their tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) (Balée and Daly 1990).
Prunus dulcis (Mill.) D. A. Webb var. amara (De Candolle) H. E.Moore (Rosaceae).
sweet almond.
In Iran, the fruits were burned to produce smoke that was used to purify the air
(Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006). This species was originally reported as its synonym,
Amygdalus communis L. var. amara (DC.) Fock (Rosaceae).
Prunus mume Siebold and Zucc. (Rosaceae). Japanese apricot.
In China, this plant, when smoked, was believed to be an antispasmodic, a feb-
rifuge (Jiangsu New Medical College 1979), and a carminative agent (Bliss 1973;
Keys 1976; Perry 1980).
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch (Rosaceae). peach.
Villagers in northern Thailand’s Lahu area
believed that fumigations of unspecified parts
of this species kept evil spirits away (Anderson
1993).
Prunus spp. (Rosaceae). plums.
Essences of fruits, such as prunes and peaches,
have been used to flavor cigarettes in vari-
ous parts of the world (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis
2003).
Pseudima frutescens Radlk. (Sapindaceae).
Savonier.
In parts of French Guiana, smoke from burning
leaves was used as an external fumigant to treat Prunus persica
general gynecological disorders (Defilipps et al.
2004).
Pseudocedrela kotschyi Harms (Meliaceae). Mubumbu.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, the roots and leaves of this species were smoked to
keep evil spirits at bay (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Pseudocedrela kotschyi Harms 147

Pseudognaphalium obtusifolium (L.) Hilliard & Burtt. (Asteraceae). rabbit tobacco.
Seriously ill Hocak (Winnebago) of North America were fumigated with this spe-
cies, when burned, to revive them (Kindscher and Hurlburt 1998).
Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia Pax. var. maprouneifolia (Euphorbiaceae).
kudu berry.
In Namibia, smoke from smoldering roots was inhaled to treat pneumonia (von
Koenen 2001).
Pseudotsuga menziesii (Mirb.) Franco (Pinaceae). Douglas fir.
The Thompson of British Columbia, Canada, gathered the rotten wood of this spe-
cies and burned it to smoke cure their animal hides (Turner et al. 1990).
Psoralidium tenuiflorum (Pursh) Rydb. (Fabaceae). slimflower scurfpea.
The Lakota of the Dakotas in the United States used this plant in the prepara-
tion of smoke smudges that repelled mosquitoes (Rogers 1980). The Ramah
Navajo of western New Mexico smoked the leaves for the treatment of influenza
(Vestal 1952).
Psorospermum senegalense Spach (Hypericaceae). hùndà túkúnyá.
The Fula of Guinea-Bissau fumigated themselves with the smoke of burning bark
to confer protection against evil spirits (Kerharo and Adam 1964a cited in Burkill
1994).
Psychotria cf. zevallosi (Standl.) C. M. Taylor (Rubiaceae). wild coffee.
The Shuar of eastern Ecuador mixed the leaves with their tobacco (Nicotiana spp.)
and smoked the mixture for pleasure (Schultes and Raffauf 1990).
Pteris aquilina L. (Pteridaceae). bracken fern.
According to Culpeper (1998), the smoke generated by burning unspecified parts
of this fern was useful in driving away snakes, gnats, and noisy creatures. Gerarde
(1633) suggests that fumigating an aching thigh (sciatic) would reduce pain in that
area. The Flambeau Ojibwa of North America placed dried leaves on live coals and
inhaled the smoke they produced to relieve headaches (Smith 1932).
Pterocarpus santalinus L. f. (Fabacaeae). red sandalwood.
This species was added to incense materials to give their smoke beautiful colors
(Rätsch 2004).
Pterocaulon globuliflorus W.Fitzg. Niveum Cabrera and Ragonese (Asteraceae).
Pterocaulon.
The native people of Australia’s Northern Territory burned the entire plant and
inhaled the smoke to treat respiratory problems (Barr 1993).
Pterospora andromedea Nutt. (Monotropaceae). woodland pinedrops.
The Jemez of Albuquerque, New Mexico, smoked the leaves in their kivas (special
ceremonial chambers) for ceremonial purposes (Cook 1930).
Pterygota alata (Roxb.) R. Br. (Sterculiaceae). Buddha’s coconut.
In Pakistan, the seeds of this species were often smoked as an opium substitute
(Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).
Pycnocarpus sanguineus (L.) Murril. (Polyporaceae). Pycnocarpus.
The fruits were used to prepare fumigants that were said to wean children in the
Maka society of the Paraguayan Chaco (Arenas 1987).
Pyrostria phyllantheoidea (Baill.) Brids. (Rubiaceae). Pyrostria.
In southern Oromia, Ethiopia, the smoke generated by burning unspecified parts
of this species was used to perfume and cleanse Borana women (Gemedo-Dalle
et al. 2005). For more information on this practice, see Acacia goetzei Harms.
148 Pseudognaphalium obtusifolium (L.) Hilliard & Burtt.

Quararibea funebris (Llave) Vischer (Bombacaceae). funeral tree.
In Mexico, the ancient Aztec added the flowers of the cacauaxochitl plant to their
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and smoked the mixture for its psychoactive properties
(De Sahagún 1961).
Quercus bicolor Willd. (Fagaceae). swamp white oak.
A compound of the leaves was smoked and
exhaled through the nose by the Iroquois of
North America to treat catarrh (Herrick 1977).
Quercus guajavifolia H. Lév. (Fagaceae). Mao
dou li.
The shamans, or dumbus, of a Tibeto-Burman
ethnic group known as the Shuhi of southwest
China often burned the branches of this oak as
incense (Weckerle et al. 2006). Mao dou li is the
Chinese name for this plant.
Quercus robur L. (Fagaceae). English oak.
According to Avicenna, Persians inhaled
smoke from burning wood to relieve diarrhea
and to reduce pain (Mohagheghzadeh et al. Quercus bicolor
2006).
Ranunculus affinis R. Br. (Ranunculaceae).
northern buttercup.
The flowers of the northern buttercup were burned for incense purposes in China
(von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Ranunculus multifidus Forssk. (Ranunculaceae). wild buttercup.
The Sotho of South Africa inhaled the smoke produced by burning the entire plant
to treat headaches (Jacot Guillarmod 1971).
Ranunculus pensylvanicus L. f. (Ranunculaceae). Pennsylvania buttercup.
Smoke from burning seeds was used by the Flambeau Ojibwa of North America as
a hunting aid to lure buck deer to within arrow range (Smith 1932).
Rhamnus crocea ssp. ilicifolia (Kellogg) C. B. Wolf
(Rhamnaceae). hollyleaf buckthorn.
This plant was specifically burned for smoke that
was inhaled to treat headaches and rheumatism by
the Kawaiisu of southeastern California (Zigmund
1981). The species reported in original texts was
Rhamnus ilicifolia Kellogg.
Rhazya stricta Decne. (Apocynaceae). harmal.
In the Dhofar region of southern Oman, smoke
from smoldering plants was inhaled to relieve head-
aches and constriction of the chest as well as vari-
ous respiratory ailments (Miller and Morris 1988).
The leaves also were thrown on campfires at night to
protect sleepers from evil. The smoke from burning
stems was considered a useful fumigant for reliev-
ing itchiness. Harmal is a Dhofari Arabic name that
should not be confused with African rue, Peganum
harmala L. Rhamnus crocea ssp. ilicifolia
Rhazya stricta Decne. 149

Rheum moorcroftianum Royle (Polygonaceae). archa.
In parts of Nepal, the dried leaves of this species were smoked in a pipe to treat
sinusitis (Manandhar 2002).
Rhizophora apiculata Blume (Rhizophoraceae). mangrove.
Smoke generated from mosquito coils prepared with the leaves and still roots
of this mangrove species was used to repel or kill mosquitoes (Thangam and
Kathiresan 1992).
Rhizophora mangle L. (Rhizophoraceae). red mangrove.
In Panama, the fruits, when dried, were smoked for pleasure in pipes or as cigars
(Duke 1968).
Rhizophora racemosa G. Mey. (Rhizophoraceae). American mangrove.
In parts of Oceania, this plant was burned to smoke fish (Banadaranayake 1998),
giving it color and flavor. Asita and Campbell (1990) reported that the wood of this
mangrove could be burned to produce smoke that effectively inhibited two species
of bacteria—Staphylococcus aureus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae—both of which
are known to spoil food.
Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don (Ericaceae). anthopogon oil.
The dried leaves of this species, when burned, produce smoke that was considered
ideal for incense use in Nepal (Pohle 1990; Manandhar 2002). In the Sikkim Hima-
layas of India, the whole plant was burned as incense (Pandey 1991). Elsewhere
in the Himalayas, smoke from unspecified parts of this plant was inhaled to treat
various diseases and to induce sneezing (Tsarong 1986).
Rhododendron anthopogon D. Don ssp. hypenanthum (Balf. f.) H. Hara (Ericaceae).
anthopogon oil.
In India’s Lahoul Valley (northwestern Himalayas), the Shashin tribe burned pow-
dered roots of this species for incense purposes (Sood et al. 2001). The local name
for this plant is koont.
Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don (Ericaceae). Rhododendron.
The leaves of this rhododendron, which is a Greek word for rose tree, were smoked
in Nepal to treat colds and hemicrania (Tsarong 1986).
Rhododendron lepidotum Wall. ex. G. Don. (Ericaceae). red flowered rhododendron.
This species was burned for incense purposes in Nepal (Manand-
har 2002).
Rhododendron trichostomum Franch. (Ericaceae). sigae.
The Shuhi of southwestern China burned the branches and
leaves of this plant as incense (Weckerle et al. 2006). The quality
of the smoke was important, especially when communicating
with deities. White smoke was considered ideal.
Rhus aromatica Ait. (Anacardiaceae). fragrant sumac.
Red leaves were gathered by the Michaelma of North America
to mix with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to give it a pleasant aroma
(Carver 1778; Zeisberger 1779). The leaves were mixed in equal
proportions with tobacco leaves and were commonly used in
peace pipes, which was similar to the European flag of truce.
The Creek, Chocktaw, and other southern tribes diluted their
tobacco with the leaves of this species (Campbell 1951). The
Lakota of North America mixed the leaves with tobacco (Rogers
Rhus aromatica
150 Rheum moorcroftianum Royle

1980). The Oklahoma Delaware of North America mixed both the leaves and roots
with tobacco and smoked the mixture during various ceremonies (Tantaquidgeon
1942).
Rhus coriaria L. (Anacardiaceae). Sicilian sumac.
The smoke generated by burning the leaves of the Sicilian sumac was used to kill
insects (McIndoo 1945).
Rhus glabra L. (Anacardiaceae). smooth
sumac.
Like so many North American tribes, the
Iroquois mixed the leaves of this spe-
cies with those of tobacco (Nicotiana
spp.) and smoked them for pleasure (Bye
1970; Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). Other
Native Americans mixed the berries,
leaves, and roots with tobacco (Kavasch
1979). The Delaware mixed the leaves with
tobacco for flavor, relaxation, and plea- Rhus glabra
sure (Weslager 1973). In the Appalachians,
other Native American tribes smoked the
leaves to relieve asthma (Krochmal et al. 1969; Krochmal and Krochmal 1973).
The Comanche (Campbell 1951), Chippewa (Gilmore 1933), Gosiute (Chamberlin
1911), Kiowa (Vestal and Schultes 1939), Lakota (Rogers 1980), and Plains people
(Hart 1996) all mixed the leaves with tobacco and smoked the mixture. The Dakota
gathered the scarlet leaves in the fall and smoked them after they were dried
(Gilmore 1913a). They also collected the red leaves to mix them with tobacco, as
did the Pawnee, Ponca, and Hocak (Gilmore 1919). The Okanagan-Coville dried
red leaves, deveined them, and broke them up into fine pieces and smoked them in
the absence of kinnikinnick (Gilmore 1913b).
Rhus leptodictya Diels (Anacardiaceae). mountain karree.
In Venda, South Africa, the smoke of the roots and bark of this plant were inhaled
under a blanket to treat headaches (Arnold and Gulumian 1984).
Rhus parviflora Roxb. (Anacardiaceae). sati bayar.
In Nepal, where this species is known as sati bayar, the leaves were added to tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) to give it a better flavor (Manandhar 2002).
Rhus potaninii Sieb. & Zucc. (Anacardiaceae). Potanini’s lacquer tree.
Although there is no evidence to suggest that the smoke of this species can irri-
tate skin and respiratory surfaces, it is likely that it will because the species is
known to produce harmful substances that may be carried along with smoke
particulates.
Rhus sempervirens Scheele (Anacardiaceae). evergreen sumac.
Native Americans of Texas smoked the leaves for recreational purposes and used
them to flavor tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) (Uphof 1968; Usher 1974; Lewis and Elvin-
Lewis 2003). The Kickapoo of North America also mixed the leaves with tobacco
for flavor (Latorre and Latorre 1977).
Rhus tenuinervis Engl. (Anacardiacese). Kalahari currant.
The Kwanyama of Namibia used the smoke from burning branches to drive bees
away from their hives (von Koenen 2001).
Rhus tenuinervis Engl. 151

Rhus trilobata Nutt. ex Torr. & A. Gray
(Anacardiaceae). skunkbush sumac.
Various Native Americans smoked the leaves
of this species with those of tobacco (Nicoti-
ana spp.) (Uphof 1968; Lewis and Elvin-Lewis
2003). These included the Keresan (White
1945) and the Kiowa (Vestal and Schultes
1939). See also Schmaltzia bakeri Greene.
Rhus trilobata Nutt. ex Torr. & A. Gray var.
trilobata (Anacardiaceae). skunkbush sumac.
The Kiowa of North America mixed the
leaves of this species with their tobacco Rhus trilobata
(Nicotiana spp.) (Vestal and Schultes 1939).
See also Schmaltzia bakeri Greene.
Rhus typhina L. (Anacardiaceae). staghorn sumac.
The Forest Potawatomi of North America added the leaves of this species to
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) to make it “smoke pleasantly” (Smith 1933).
Rhus virens Lindh. ex A. Gray (Anacardiaceae). tobacco sumac.
In parts of the United States and Mexico, Native Americans smoked the leaves of
the tobacco sumac for pleasure and also mixed them with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.)
(Uphof 1968; Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).
Ricinus communis L. (Euphorbiaceae). castor-oil tree.
According to the Ayurveda of India, parts of this
plant were macerated, then smeared with ghee, and
finally rolled into a cigarette that was smoked to
relieve asthma (Mishra 2003). In the northern parts
of Nigeria, smoke from burning stems was used as
a fumigant for unspecified purposes (Dalziel 1948).
In Yemen, the smoke from burning dried leaves was
used to cure bad breath (Ghazanfar 1994). In ancient
Egypt, fumigations prepared with this species were
used to expel diseases caused by demons (Manniche
1989). This species was also a key ingredient in a con-
coction of plants and animals that, when burned to
produce smoke, was reported to cause blindness in
one’s enemies. This was according to the fourth-cen- Ricinus communis
tury b.c. Sanskrit treatise the Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya
(recipe 2 under Asparagus racemosus Willd.) (Sen-
sarma 1998). Recipe 4 under A. racemosus reveals that this species was used in
another polyherbal recipe that was burned to produce lethal smoke to animals. See
also Nerium odorum.
Rinorea ilicifolia Kuntze (Violaceae). mlimba.
Pregnant women in parts of East Africa used the leaves of this species, known locally
as mlimba, as incense during unspecified medicinal practices (Heine and Legére
1995).
Roldana sessifolia (Hook. & Arn.) H. E. Robins & Brett. (Asteraceae). groundsel.
Smoke from burning roots was inhaled to cure headaches and nosebleeds in cen-
tral Mexico (Linares and Bye 1987).
152 Rhus trilobata Nutt. ex Torr. & A. Gray

Rosa arkansana Porter var. suffulta Cockerell (Rosaceae). prairie rose.
North American natives, including the Dakota, the Pawnee, Ponca, and Omaha,
smoked the inner bark of this species with or without tobacco (Gilmore 1919). The
species reported in original texts was Rosa pratincola Greene.
Rosa damascena Mill. (Rosaceae). Damask rose.
According to Avicenna, the fumes of burning flowers were used in Iran as pest
repellents (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Rosa gymnocarpa Nutt. (Rosaceae). dwarf rose.
The Okanagan-Coville and Thompson of British Columbia mixed the leaves of
this species with those of other plants and smoked the mixture (Perry 1952).
Rosa woodsii Lindl. (Rosaceae). wood’s rose.
The Ute Mountain Ute of Colorado were reported to have made pipe stems from
rosewood and smoked the inner bark of this species for pleasure (Dunmire and
Tierney 1997).
Rosmarinus officinalis L. (Lamiaceae). rosemary.
In Ecuador, the entire plant was burned for incense purposes (Joyal
1987). In Belize, rosemary was burned with copal resin (probably
from Protium copal [Schlect. & Cham.]. Engl. but could have been
from other sources) to ward off evil spirits and envy (Arvigo 1994).
According to Usher (1974), the smoke from burning dried leaves
produces smoke that can disinfect houses. It was also inhaled to
treat asthma and bronchitis.
Rothmannia capensis Thunb. (Rubiaceae). cape gardenia.
The Rozi, who were scattered throughout Africa, burned the roots
of cape gardenia and inhaled the smoke to treat wounds and burns
Ruellia californica (Rose) I. M. Johnst. (Acanthaceae). Ruellia.
The Seri of Mexico smoked unspecified parts of this plant to induce Rosmarinus officinalis
hallucinations or to “make one crazy” (Felger and Moser 1985).
There was some ambiguity regarding which part of the plant was
used, however. Some informants claimed that it was the leaves, but others sug-
gested it was the flowers.
Rumex crispus L. (Polygonaceae). curled dock.
According to Smith (1932), the Flambeau Ojibwa of North America
mixed this species with other unspecified species and smoked the
mixture to lure game.
Rumex orbiculatus A. Gray. (Polygonaceae). great water dock.
The Flambeau Ojibwa of North America smoked dried seeds of this
dock to lure game (Smith 1932).
Ruta chalepensis L. (Rutaceae). fringed rue.
The Criollos of northwestern Argentina inhaled the smoke of burn-
ing leaves with chips of Bulnesia sarmientoi Lorentz ex Griseb and
exhaled into the ears of otitis sufferers (Scarpa 2004). In the Madeira
archipelago, the leaves were smoked to treat apoplexy (Rivera and
Obón 1995).
Ruta graveolens L. (Rutaceae). common rue.
In North America, this species was mixed with tobacco (Nicotiana
spp.) and smoked as a sedative to treat neuralgia (Krochmal and Ruta graveolens
Ruta graveolens L. 153

Krochmal 1973). The Spanish immigrants of New Mexico inhaled the smoke of
burning oil and tobacco leaves as both an emmenagogue and abortifacient (Curtin
1965).
Ruta spp. (Rutaceae). rue.
In Morocco, rue was often mixed with unspecified incense materials or rosemary
and was burned to produce smoke that countered the effects of the evil eye. It
reportedly could also cure the bewitched (Blazquez Miguel 1985; Villar Pérez et al.
1987; Navarro López 1994).
Ryania mansoana Eichler (Flacoourtiaceae). silent killer.
In parts of Brazil, the smoke was considered fatal if inhaled, hence the local name
for the plant, mata calado (“silent killer”) (von Reis and Lipp 1982).
Saccharum munja Roxb. (Poaceae). munj sweetcane.
The roots of this species were burned in parts of India to fumigate women after
childbirth (Chopra et al. 1956). The smoke was also considered useful for treating
scalds and burns.
Sacoglottis ceratocarpa Ducke (Humiriaceae). Sacoglottis.
Smoke from burning bark was inhaled for the relief of asthma by the Makunas of
the Amazon (Schultes 1979; Schultes and Raffauf 1990).
Salix humilis Muhl. (Salicaceae). upland willow.
The Penobscot of North America smoked the bark to relieve asthma (Speck 1917).
The Montagnais and other northern tribes smoked it as a substitute for tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) (Speck 1917). The Parry Island Ojibwa also smoked the bark
when tobacco was scarce (Jenness 1935).
Salix lucida Muhl. (Salicaceae). shining willow.
Various parts of this plant were smoked by Native Americans.
The Penobscot of North America smoked the bark to relieve
asthma (Speck 1917), the Montagnais smoked the bark as a
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) substitute (Speck 1917), and the
Ojibwa toasted flaked bark and added it to their kinnikinnick
smoking mixtures (Smith 1932).
Salix scouleriana Barratt in Hook. (Salicaceae). scouler’s
willow.
The wood was burned by the Shuswap of North America who
used the smoke to preserve salmon (Palmer 1975).
Salix sp. (Salicaceae). willow.
The Hungarian name for willows is fuzfa. The bark of an
unspecified species was burned and used as a fumigant to help
heal the wounds of castrated calves (Vajkai 1943).
Salix suberrata Willd. (Salicaceae). willow.
According to ancient Egyptian texts, this species was burned
with other unspecified ingredients to produce smoke that was Salix lucida
inhaled for toothache relief (Manniche 1989).
Salvadora angustifolia Turrill (Salvadoraceae). mundamuka.
The smoke of burning leaves was inhaled to stop nosebleeds in Venda, South Africa
(Arnold and Gulumian 1984).
Salvadora australis Schweik (Salvadoraceae). narrow leaved mustard tree.
The Venda of South Africa burned the leaves and inhaled the smoke to stop nose-
bleeds (Arnold and Gulumian 1984).
154 Ruta spp.

Salvadora persica L. (Salvadoraceae). mustard tree.
Smoke from burning this species was used for two purposes in northern India
(Shah 1982). The leaves were dried, powdered, and then smoked with tobacco
(Nicotiana sp.) to treat asthma and coughs. The wood was burned to generate
smoke that repelled mosquitoes.
Salvia apiana Jeps. (Lamiaceae). white sage.
This species was often used in traditional Chumash healing practices, which date
back at least 13,000 years in California (Adams and Garcia 2005). In more recent
times, healers prepared smudges, at which time all those who were present had to
pray. The smoke from the smudge was said to bring the prayers to God, inviting
Him to participate in the healing process. Traditional Chumash healers started
their treatments with different preparations of white sage. Elsewhere in Califor-
nia, the leaves were burned in the sweat baths of the
Cahuilla, who inhaled the smoke for treating colds
(Bean and Saubel 1972). The nearby Diegueno, also of
California, burned the leaves and used the smoke as a
fumigant for a sick person’s house (Romero 1954).
Salvia divinorum Epling & Játiva (Lamiaceae). sage of
the diviners.
This member of the mint family was extensively used
as an entheogen (psychoactive substance that causes
one to be in god) by the shamans of the Mazatec of
the Sierra Mazateca in Oaxaca, Mexico (Marushia et al.
2002). The shamans smoked the dried leaves in a pipe.
Since its introduction to the scientific community in
the 1950s, this species has been researched extensively.
Its psychoactive properties are due to a neoclerodane
diterpene called Salvorin A. This is one of the most hal-
lucinogenic natural products known. It has been sug-
gested that young Mexican and Swiss people may be Salvia divinorum
smoking the plant recreationally as a marijuana (Can-
nabis sativa L.) substitute (Giroud et al. 2000).
Salvia officinalis L. (Lamiaceae). sage.
Dried leaves were smoked in Nepal to relieve asthma (Manand-
har 2002).
Sambucus ebulus L. (Caprifoliaceae). dwarf elderberry.
In northwestern Anatolia, Turkey, the leaves were burned on hot
embers, and the smoke was used to fumigate the wounded areas
of bulls that had been castrated (Yeşilada et al. 1999).
Sambucus nigra L. (Caprifoliaceae). European black elderberry.
Smoke from several parts of this plant was employed as a fumi-
gant to treat a variety of illnesses in the Catalonia Districts (Ibe-
rian Peninsula) of Pallars Jussà and Pallars Sobirà (Pyrenees)
and in the Montseny Massif (Vallès et al. 2004). In the Ubage
Valley of France, the flowers of this species, when burned, pro-
duced smoke that was used as a fumigant to treat ophthalmia
(Novaretti and Lemordant 1990). Aberëshë Albanians living
in Italy’s northern Basilicata region, collected the stems, dried Salvia officinalis
Sambucus nigra L. 155

them, and then smoked them to treat toothache (Pieroni et al. 2002). The Aberëshë
name for the species is shtog. These people believed that inhaling the smoke of
burning wood could also cause migraines. According to Celtic folklore, the same
smoke was said to draw evil and brought bad luck with it (Asala 1998).
Sanchezia spp. (Actinidiaceae). Sanchezia.
The leaves of several species of Sanchezia, many of which were reported to be
hallucinogenic, were smoked by the Yarina Cocha of Peru (Maxwell 1961).
Santalum album L. (Santalaceae). sandalwood.
Sandalwood was and still is highly prized in
India, Egypt, Greece, and Italy for incense
and perfume purposes. The sawdust of
this species was also burned by the people
of Java, Indonesia, and by various groups
in eastern India as incense. In China, the
wood was burned for this purpose, too
(Uphof 1968; Sangat-Roemantyo 1990).
There is no doubt that it may have been
used as incense by various other groups.
Santalum lanceolatum R. Br. (Santalaceae). Santalum album
plumbush.
Some Native Australian tribes fumigated themselves with the smoke of burning
leaves to give them strength and endurance during long trips (Webb 1969). In
the Northern Territory of Australia, other Native Australian tribes produced the
smoke for babies to inhale because it was said to strengthen and calm them (Barr
1993). The smoke was also considered useful for driving away mosquitoes (Cribb
and Cribb 1981).
Sapium biloculare (S. Wats.) Pax (Euphorbiaceae). jumpingbean tree.
The smoke of the wood, when burned, is an irritant that will cause sore or red eyes
and swollen eyelids (Peattie and Landacre 1991).
Saprosma foetens K. Schum. (Rubiaceae). peenari.
Members of the hill tribes of southern India’s Kerala State burned the wood of
this species, known locally as peenari, to give off fumes that were inhaled to cure
vomiting and diarrhea in children (Kumar et al. 2000).
Sarcobatus vermiculatus (Hook.) Torr. In Emory (Chenopodiaceae). greasewood.
Until more recent times, the Ute Mountain Ute of Colorado burned this species to
perform a final smoking of animal hides that were used for making clothes, bags,
and tepee covers (Dunmire and Tierney 1997). The smoke usually changed the
color of the hide.
Sarcocephalus latifolius (Sm.) Bruce (Rubiaceae). country fig.
In Bulamogi County, Uganda, dried leaves were smoked to keep spirits at bay
Sarcostemma australe R.Br. (Asclepiadaceae). caustic vine.
Smoke from burning the white sap produced by S. australe was used by the Pitjant-
jatjara of Australia for general medicinal purposes (Latz 1995).
Sauropus quadrangularis Müll. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae). Sauropus.
The smoke of burning dried leaves was inhaled in India (Chopra et al. 1956) and
Nepal (Manandhar 2002) as a remedy for tonsillitis. This treatment was also rec-
ommended by Indian Ayurvedic medicine (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).
156 Sanchezia spp.

Saussurea lappa (Decne.) C. B. Clarke (Asteraceae). costus root.
This species was sometimes smoked as an opium substitute in Tibet (Tsarong
1986). In India’s Lahoul Valley (northwestern Himalayas), powdered root mate-
rial was burned as incense (Koerlz 1979). This species was also a key ingredient in
two concoctions of plants and animals that, when burned to produce smoke, were
reported to cause blindness in one’s enemies or killed animals. Th is was according
to book 4, chapter 1, topic 177, of the ancient fourth-century b.c. Sanskrit treatise
the Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (Sensarma 1998) (see recipes 2 and 3 under Asparagus
racemosus Willd.).
Saxifraga stolonifera Meerb. (Saxifragraceae). creeping saxifrage.
In China, smoke from burning dried plant material was used as a fumigant to treat
hemorrhoids (Bliss 1973; Perry 1980).
Scaevola spinescens R. Br. (Goodeniaceae). prickly fanflower.
Native Australians burned the complete plant to produce fumes that were inhaled
to treat colds (Reid and Betts 1977).
Sceletium expansum L. Bolus (Aizoaceae). kanna.
Dutch explorers reported that the Hottentot of South Africa, especially in the hin-
terlands, smoked the roots and leaves of this species for their psychoactive proper-
ties (Schultes et al. 2001). The practice remained in use until at least 2001.
Sceletium tortuosum N. E. Br. (Aizoaceae). kanna.
This closely related species of Sceletium expansum L. Bolus was also reportedly smoked
for its psychoactive properties by the Hottentot of South Africa (Schultes et al. 2001).
Schima wallichii Choisy (Theaceae). Chinese guger tree.
The Lahu villagers of northern Thailand burned this species because its smoke was
said to be offensive to the eyes of the evil weretiger, keeping it at bay (Anderson 1993).
Schinopsis cornuta Loesn. (Anacardiaceae). Schinopsis.
The Izoceño-Guaraní of Bolivia burned the leaves of this species over hot charcoal
and inhaled the smoke to stop hemorrhaging of the nose (Bourdy et al. 2004).
Schinus latifolius Engl. (Anacardiaceae). mulle.
A mixture of tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) and unspecified parts of this species was
smoked for pleasure by the Mapuche of south-central Chile (Houghton and
Manby 1985).
Schmaltzia bakeri Greene (Anacardiaceae). three-leaved sumac.
Various Native Americans smoked the leaves of this species with those of tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) (Uphof 1968; Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). These included the
Keresan (White 1945) and the Kiowa (Vestal and Schultes 1939). Moerman (1998)
notes that the species actually used by the Keresan may have been Rhus trilobata
Nutt. ex Torr. & A. Gray, and the Kiowa may have used Rhus trilobata Nutt. ex Torr.
& A. Gray var. trilobata.
Schotia brachypetala Sond. (Fabaceae). weeping boer bean.
In Zimbabwe, the smoke of burning leaves of weeping boer bean was inhaled to
stop nosebleeds (Gelfand et al. 1985).
Schwenkia americana L. (Solanaceae). Kamugobe.
The leaves of this plant were smoked by the people of Bulamogi County, Uganda,
to help keep spirits at bay (Tabuti et al. 2003).
Scoparia dulcis L. (Scrophulariaceae). licorice weed.
The leaves of licorice weed were smoked in Guyana to treat respiratory disorders
(Defilipps et al. 2004).
Scoparia dulcis L. 157

Scopolia carniolica Jacq. (Solanaceae). nightshade.
This species was used as an aphrodisiac and psychoactive love potion in both Lat-
via and Lithuania. The plant, when dried, was smoked alone or mixed with other
herbs (Schultes et al. 2001).
Scopolia stramonifolia (Roxb.) N. P. Balakr. (Solanaceae). scopolia.
In Nepal, the smoke generated by burning the seeds of scopolia was inhaled
through the nose to treat wounds inside the nasal cavity (Manandhar 2002).
Securidaca longepedunculata Fresen. (Polygalaceae). amhara.
In Mali, West Africa, the roots of this species were mixed with the roots and stems
of Guieria senegalensis J. F. Gmel. and burned to produce smoke that was inhaled
to heal wounds caused by Satan (Inngjerdingen et al. 2004). In South Africa, the
smoke of burning roots was inhaled to treat flatulence (Neuwinger 1994).
Selaginella caffrorum (Milde) Hieron. (Selaginellaceae). spikemoss.
The Sotho of South Africa mixed parts of this plant with whole Lycopodium
clavatum L. and smoked the mixture to treat headaches (Jacot Guillarmod 1971).
Selaginella scandens (P. Beauv.) Spring (Selaginellaceae). climbing spikemoss.
The leaves of this plant were burned to produce smoke that was used as a fumigant
to repel ticks (Secoy and Smith 1983).
Selaginella wightii Hieron. (Selaginellaceae). Wight’s spikemoss.
In parts of Africa, unspecified parts of this moss were sometimes smoked with
parts of Lycopodium clavatum L. to treat headaches (Jayaweera 1982b).
Selinum candolli DC. (Apiaceae). mathosal.
Members of India’s Gabbi tribe (Himachal Pradesh State) burned the roots of
mathosal to fumigate their dwellings to kill and repel insects and to purify the air
(Singh and Kumar 2000). The roots of this species were also burned as incense by
the Gabbi tribe (Singh and Kumar 2000) and by the people of Nepal (Manandhar
2002).
Selinum tenuifolium Wall. (Apiaceae). Cambridge milk parsley.
The leaves of this plant were burned as incense during the religious ceremonies of
the Himachal Hill people of India (Sharma and Rana 2000).
Selinum wallichianum (DC.) Raiz. & Saxena (Apiaceae). cow parsley.
The Kumaon of India used powdered roots of cow parsley to prepare incense sticks
(Shah and Joshi 1971). The natives of the Sikkim Himalayas, also of India, burned
the roots for smoke that reportedly drove away evil spirits (Pandey 1991).
Semecarpus anacardium L. f. (Anacardiaceae). marking nut tree.
Juice obtained from unspecified parts of this species was burned along with
unspecified parts of Asparagus racemosus Willd.; the roots, bark, leaves, flow-
ers, and fruits of Saussurea lappa (Decne.) C. B. Clarke; and unspecified parts of
Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. to produce smoke that was used to deliberately kill
animals according to the ancient Sanskrit treatise the Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya
(fourth century b.c.) (Sensarma 1998). The mixture also required parts of several
animal species.
Semecarpus australiensis Engl. (Anacardiaceae). tar tree.
Members of some Native Australian tribes burned the nuts of this species and
used the fumes to help slough rectal piles (Maiden 1889a).
Senecio graveolens Wedd. (Asteraceae). strong-scented groundsel.
The leaves and stems were burned as incense by the pre-Altiplanic people of Chile
(Aldunate et al. 1983).
158 Scopolia carniolica Jacq.

Senecio sp. (Asteraceae). groundsel.
The Navajo living near the Canyon de Chelly in Arizona smoked groundsel during
several of their ceremonies (Dunmire and Tierney 1997).
Senna artemisioides (DC.) Randell ssp. filifolia Randell. (Fabaceae). punty bush.
Australia’s Warlpiri used the leaves for a smoke treatment for babies (Latz 1995).
Senna occidentalis (L.) Link (Fabaceae). septic weed.
In the rural villages of the Oio region of
Guinea-Bissau, West Africa, the villagers
burned freshly collected plants to produce
smoke that was used to drive away mosqui-
toes (Pålsson and Jaenson 1999b).
Senna singueana (Delile) Lock (Fabaceae).
wild cassia.
To help keep spirits at bay, the people of
Bulamogi County, Uganda, smoked the
roots of this species (Tabuti et al. 2003).
People who had become lost smoked the
leaves to help find their way home.
Senra incana Cav. (Malvaceae). Senra.
In the Dhofar region of southern Oman,
shavings from the stem of this Senra species
were smoked for pleasure and relaxation,
especially when tobacco (Nicotiana spp.)
was not available (Miller and Morris 1988). Senna occidentalis
Sesamothamnus busseanus Engl.
(Pedaliaceae). lallaafto kôrm f.
This species was used as a milk container fumigant and cleanser by the Borana of
Ethiopia and the Gabbra of Marsabit District, Kenya (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Setaria poiretiana (Schult.) Kunth (Poaceae). brittlegrass.
In the Kabale District of the Buganda kingdom of Africa, members of the Bakiga
tribe smoked unspecified parts of this plant in cigarettes that were considered
useful for the relief of asthma (Hamill 2001).
Shorea leprosula Miq. (Dipterocarpaceae). meranti.
The sawdust of this species was used for the preparation of incense in Java, Indo-
nesia (Sangat-Roemantyo 1990).
Shorea robusta Gaertn. (Dipterocarpaceae). saul tree.
Resin obtained from this species was burned as a fumigant to repel insects in
Sidhi District of Madhya Pradesh, India (Saini 2004), and in the Santhal villages of
Birbhum, West Bengal, India (Banerjee 2000). Members of the Jatapus and Savaras
tribes of India’s Eastern Ghats area (Andhra Pradesh State) inhaled the smoke of
burning resin for the treatment of chicken pox (Rama Rao and Henry 1996). The
aromatic resin, known sometimes as dammar, was burned as incense both in the
Indian Himalayas and in Pakistan (Uphof 1968; Usher 1974). It was also used in
parts of India to fumigate sickrooms (Dhiman 2003). According to the ancient
Sanskrit treatise the Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.), the resin was
one of several ingredients in a concoction that was burned to produce smoke that
was believed to cause blindness to one’s enemies (recipe 1 under Asparagus rac-
emosus Willd.) (Sensarma 1998). The Indian name for this species is sara.
Shorea robusta Gaertn. 159

Sida acuta Burm. f. (Malvaceae). axocatzin.
Along the coastal Gulf regions of Mexico, this species was smoked as a stimulant
and cannabis substitute (Schultes et al. 2001).
Sida cordifolia L. (Malvaceae). country mallow.
According to the Ayurveda of India, parts of this plant were dried in the sun and
then soaked with ghee before being smoked to relieve asthma (Mishra 2003).
Sida rhombifolia L (Malvaceae). common sida.
Like Sida acuta Burm. f., this species was smoked as a stimulant and cannabis
substitute along the coastal Gulf regions of Mexico (Schultes et al. 2001), where it
is known as escobilla.
Silene conoidea L. (Caryophyllaceae). catch fly.
In India, this species was used as a fumigant for unspecified purposes (Kapur
1996b; Sood and Thakur 2004).
Silene inflata Sm. (Caryophyllaceae). maiden’s tears.
This species was used as a general fumigant in India’s Bhaderwah Hills (Jammu
Province) (Kapur 1996b).
Silene italica (L.) Pers. (Caryophyllaceae). Italian catchfly.
Italian catchfly was used in central Italy, where the seeds were burned to produce
smoke that was considered useful as a mouth disinfectant (Leporatti and Pavesi
1990). Patients would put their mouth over the smoke to inhale it.
Silvaea pachyphylla Phil. (Portulacaceae). Silvaea.
The leaves were considered useful for burning as incense by the pre-Altiplanic
community of Chile (Aldunate et al. 1983).
Sinapsis alba L. (Brassicaceae). mustard.
In Hungary, where this plant is known as mustár, the seeds were burned to gener-
ate smoke that was inhaled to relieve earache (Babulka and Pataki 1997).
Sium suave Walt. (Apiaceae). water parsnip.
The seeds of this species were smoked by the Flambeau Ojibwa of North America.
They believed that it could drive away and blind the evil spirit Sokênau, who it was
claimed could steal one’s hunting luck (Smith 1932).
Skimmia laureola (DC.) Decne. (Rutaceae). neera.
In the Ayuba National Park District of Abbottabad, Pakistan, smoke from burn-
ing leaves was inhaled to clear nasal passages, treat colds, and relieve headaches
(Gilani et al. 2001). In other parts of Pakistan, the smoke was used to drive away
evil ghosts (Khan et al. 2003) and possibly to treat smallpox (Saeed et al. 2004).
The Kumaon of India crushed dried leaves as part of the preparation of incense
materials (Shah and Joshi 1971).
Smilacina trifolia (L.) Desf. (Liliaceae). threeleaf false lily of the valley.
The roots were burned on a red-hot stone to produce fumes that were inhaled
by the Ojibwa of North America to relieve headache (Hoffman 1891). The
Menonmini, also of North America, soaked the roots after they were ground
and then placed them on a hot stove. The fumes were inhaled for relieving
catarrh (Smith 1923). The Meskwaki used the smudge to calm crying children
or to treat severe illness (Smith 1928). The roots were burned and smudged for
treating insanity. The Potawatomi used the root smudge for reviving comatose
people (Smith 1933). They fanned the fumes and then directed them up the
patient’s nostrils. This species may have recently been renamed Maianthemum
trifolium (L.) Sloboda.
160 Sida acuta Burm. f.

Smilax glyciphylla Sm. (Smilacaceae). native sarsaparilla.
This species may have been smoked in the West Indies for the relief of asthma
(Cribb and Cribb 1981).
Smilax ornata Lem. (Smilacaceae). Jamaican sarsaparilla.
In Europe, the smoke of burning Jamaican sarsaparilla was recommended for the
relief of asthma (Grieve 1971).
Socratea exorrhiza (Mart.) H. Wendl. (Arecaceae). huacrapona.
Smoke from burning fruit was used to treat venereal diseases and for urinary tract
disorders by the people of Guyana (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Solanecio angulatus (Vahl) C. Jeffrey (Asteraceae). Izimya,
The leaves were smoked to keep spirits at bay in Bulamogi County, Uganda (Tabuti
et al. 2003).
Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. (Solanaceae). apple of Sodom.
The Tamang tribe of Nepal fried the fruits of this species and then smoked them
to relieve headache (Anonymous 1948–1976). Elsewhere in Nepal, the fruits were
smoked for toothache (Manandhar 1991).
Solanum anguivi Lam. (Solanaceae). Madagascar potato.
In the Dungarpur District of India’s Rajasthan State, where this species is known as
bhui-ringna, the seeds were thrown into fires to generate smoke that was inhaled to
cure infected teeth (Singh and Pandey 1998). The Tamang tribe of Nepal smoked
the ripe fruits for the relief of toothache (Watt 1893).
Solanum ciliatum Lam. (Solanaceae). fringed-hair nightshade.
In unspecified parts of India, smoke generated by burning parts of this plant was
inhaled to treat ulcers inside the nose (Singh et al. 1983).
Solanum inaequilaterale Merr. (Solanaceae). Solanum.
The leaves of this species of Solanum were smoked in the Philippines for unspeci-
fied purposes (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).
Solanum incanum L. (Solanaceae). batâg.
In the town of Turbat, east of Baluchistan Province, Pakistan, dry ripe seeds were
smoldered over hot coals by the people, who inhaled the smoke to cure worm
infections of the gums (Goodman and Ghafoor
1992).
Solanum indicum L. (Solanaceae). Indian
sunplant.
Several Malaysian groups inhaled the smoke of
roasting roots for the treatment of toothache
(van Duong 1993).
Solanum khasianum C. B. Clarke var.
chatterjeeanum Sen Gupta (Solanaceae).
athlo.
At the far northeastern end of the Himala-
yan ranges in India’s Mizoram State, the dried
fruits and seeds of this species were burned
to generate smoke that was inhaled through
a bamboo or papaya leafstalk to eliminate
toothworms in the mouth (Lalramnghin-
glova 2003). Athlo is the local name for this
species. Solanum incanum
Solanum khasianum C. B. Clarke var. chatterjeeanum Sen Gupta 161

Solanum melongena L. (Solanaceae). eggplant.
In Iran, the smoke of burning eggplant fruits, known locally as bademjam, was
used as an external fumigant to treat hemorrhoids (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Solanum myriacanthum Dunal. (Solanaceae). Himalayan nightshade.
Seed smoke was used as a fumigant to kill germs in the mouth of people in India’s
northeastern state of Assam (Sharma, U. K. 2004).
Solanum nigrum L. (Solanaceae). black nightshade.
Powdered fruit material was smoked to cure pharyngeal infection and tonsil swellings in
the Narayanpatna Hills of Koraput District, Orissa State, India (Dash and Misra 2000).
The Costanoan of North America smoked the leaves for toothache (Bocek 1984).
Solanum renschii Vatke (Solanaceae). mutongatongu.
The Borana of Ethiopia and the Gabbra of Kenya fumigated and cleansed their
containers using smoke produced by burning this species (Heine and Brenzinger
1988). Mutongatongu is the eastern Kenyan name for the species.
Solanum surattense Burm. f. (Solanaceae). Surattense nightshade.
In the tribal dominated Mewar region of Rajasthan State, India, this plant was
used to treat piles (Katewa et al. 2004). The affected part was fumigated. According
to book 4, chapter 1, topic 177 of the ancient Sanskrit treatise the Arthaśāstra of
Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.), this species, when burned together with Asparagus
racemosus Willd., Datura metel L., Ipomoea paniculata R. Br., Shorea robusta Burm.
f., as well as two unspecified insects and one unspecified fish, can produce smoke
that causes blindness in one’s enemies (Sensarma 1998). In Nepal, the dried, pow-
dered fruit was smoked to relieve toothache (Manandhar 2002).
Solanum trilobatum L. (Solanaceae). nightshade sparrow’s brinjal.
In India, dried leaves and flowers were burned as incense to cure colds (Madhaven
and Balu 2000).
Solanum viarum Dunal. (Solanaceae). tropical soda apple.
The Tharus of the Keri District of India’s Uttar Pradesh State smoked the dried
fruits of this species for the relief of toothache (Maheshwari et al. 1981).
Solanum violaceum Ortega (Solanaceae). Asian nightshade.
Approximately 100 g of the seeds were fried with 50 ml of mustard
oil and then smoked to relieve toothache by people of the Jajpur
District of India’s Orissa State (Satapathy and Brahmam 2000).
Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl. var. jacquini Thw.
(Solanaceae). yellow-berried nightshade.
The fumes of burning seeds were considered useful in Sri Lanka
for relieving toothache (Jayaweera 1982b). The species has many
local common names, including katuwel-batu and kandangattari.
Solidago graminifolia (L.) Salisb. (Asteraceae). fragrant goldenrod.
The Flambeau Ojibwa of North America used the flowers in mix-
tures of plants that were smoked to simulate the odor of deer
hooves (Smith 1932). Known as blue lizard tobacco by the Navajo,
also of North America, the flowers were dried and smoked for
pleasure (Ross 2002).
Solidago odora Ait. (Asteraceae). anise-scented goldenrod.
The Ojibwa of North America mixed the flowers of this species
to their hunting medicine, which they smoked to attract deer.
Reportedly, it simulated the odor of deer hooves (Smith 1932). Solidago odora
162 Solanum melongena L.

Solidago spp. (Asteraceae). goldenrods.
The flowers and leaves of plants of this commonly occurring North American
genus frequently were gathered and burned by the Ojibwa of North America to
produce smoke that was inhaled for medicinal purposes and for help with hunting
deer (Kavasch 1979).
Solidago ulmifolia Muhl. ex Willd. (Asteraceae). elmleaf goldenrod.
The Meskwaki of North America considered the smoke of this plant useful for
reviving an unconscious person (Smith 1928).
Sorbus aucuparia L. (Rosaceae). European mountain ash.
In Limerick, Ireland, animals were forced to inhale the smoke of burning wood for
unspecified veterinary purposes (Allen and Hatfield 2004).
Sorghum sp. (Poaceae). sorghum.
In parts of East Africa, where the Bantu language of Swahili is common and
where plants of this genus are known as kipepe, the fresh leaves of an unspeci-
fied species of Sorghum was used as a general fumigant (Heine and Legére
1995).
Spartium junceum L. (Fabaceae). Spanish broom.
The smoke of burning branches, which was tradi-
tionally produced on Christmas Eve in Tuscany and
elsewhere in Italy, was used to drive away the evil eye
(Pieroni and Giusti 2002). In Ecuador, dried flowers
were smoked to relieve asthma (Joyal 1987).
Spathiphyllum candicans Poepp. and Endl. (Araceae).
peace lily.
Peruvian natives used the leaves to flavor tobacco (Nico-
tiana spp.) (Uphof 1968).
Spathiphyllum cannifolium Schott. (Araceae). peace lily.
Dried leaves were used in tropical South America to
flavor tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) (Uphof 1968).
Sphaeralcea sp. (Malvaceae). globemallow.
The Navajo of North America smoked the leaves of
this species like tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) (Dunmire
and Tierney 1997).
Spiranthes aurantiaca (Llave & Lex.) Hemsl.
(Orchidaceae). ladies’ tresses. Figure 21. One of the more
In the Mexican states of Jalisco and Nayarit, the Huichol common European uses for Spartium
would often add the flowers of this plant to tobacco junceum was as brooms for sweeping.
(Nicotiana spp.) and smoked the mixture during the In parts of the world, the bright
Peyote Pilgrimage (Bauml 1994). yellow flowers of the species were
smoked for their psychotropic effects.
Spirospermum penduliflorum DC. (Menispermaceae).
lavaravina.
In Madagascar, the leaves were smoked in cigarette form to stop vomiting blood
(Boiteau and Allorge-Boiteau 2000). Lavaravina is the Madagascan name for this
species.
Spirostachys africana Sond. (Euphorbiaceae). tamboti.
Known as muonze in Venda, South Africa, the bark from the wood of this species
was burned, and the smoke was inhaled to treat headaches, nose and gum bleed-
ing, colds, coughs, flu, and fever (Arnold and Gulumian 1984).
Spirostachys africana Sond. 163

Spondius mombin L. (Anacardiaceae). hog plum.
In the Caribbean island of Dominica, the kernels of the fruits, often known as
monben, were burned to produce fumes that were considered ideal for curing
swollen or inflamed joints (Hodge and Taylor 1957).
Stachys annua L. (Lamiaceae). hedge nettle.
This species is known as tarlóvirág and tisztesfu in Hungary, where smoke from
burning aerial parts was used as a fumigant to treat mastitis in a variety of different
animals (Kóczián and Szabó 1990).
Stachytarpheta cayennensis (Rich.) Vahl. (Verbenaceae). vervain.
This plant was considered a sacred herb by the ancient Maya, who used it to ward
off evil influences (Arvigo and Balick 1993). The leaves are still burned as incense
for this purpose in Belize.
Stemona tuberosa Lour. (Stemonaceae). bch bé.
This plant was employed as a fumigant to repel insects in Vietnam, Cambodia, and
Laos (van Duong 1993). Bch bé is the Vietnamese name for the plant.
Stenocereus thurberi (Engelm.) Buxb. (Cactaceae). organ pipe.
The Seri of Mexico and parts of Arizona considered dried organ pipe wood ideal
for smoking out bees (Felger and Moser 1985). The dried stems, when burned, pro-
duce a thick, black smoke that the Seri used for smoke signals (Quinn and Quinn
1965; Sheldon 1979).
Stephania hernandiflora Walp. (Menispermaceae). Stephania.
This species is listed in the fourth-century b.c. Sanskrit treatise the Arthaśāstra of
Kautilīya as one of several plant ingredients in a mixture burned to produce smoke
to blind one’s enemies (see recipe 2 under Asparagus racemosus Willd.) (Sensarma
1998).
Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. (Bignoniaceae). pink jacaranda.
Around the Tenkodogo area of Burkina Faso, people considered the smoke of this
species poisonous, making them feel faint when they inhaled it (Kéré 1998). In
the Sudan, the smoke was believed to be useful for treating leprosy (Brown and
Massey 1929). There are many common local names for this species, including
sansami. It is also sometimes referred to as the “tulip tree.”
Streblus asper Lour. (Moraceae). toothbrush tree.
The wood of this species was cut into small pieces and then added to tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) to make Burmese cheroots, which were smoked for pleasure by
the people of Andaman Islands, India (Dagar and Dagar 1999).
Streblus taxoides Kurz. (Moraceae). Streblus.
The bark of this streblus was smoked to treat head colds in India (Chopra et al.
1969).
Streptoglossa odora (F.Muell.) Dunlop (Asteraceae). stinkweed.
Indigenous Australians of the Northern Territory inhaled the smoke of burning
leaves to treat respiratory infections (Barr 1993).
Streptogyna americana C. E. Hubb. (Poaceae). ki-kweweh-nah-ru.
The whole plant was burned for smoke that reportedly was useful as a pediatric aid
in Suriname (Defilipps et al. 2004).
Striga gesnerioides Vatke ex Engl. (Scrophulariaceae). purple witchweed.
In Namibia, people pounded the roots and then threw them on glowing embers to
give off smoke that was used as a fumigant to relieve pain all over the body (von
Koenen 2001).
164 Spondius mombin L.

Strychnos phaeotricha Gilg. (Loganiaceae). Strychnos.
In the Democratic Republic of Congo, the seeds of this species were burned in a
calabash to produce smoke that children with respiratory diseases were forced to
inhale (Disengomoka et al. 1983).
Styrax argentum Presl. (Styracaceae). silver styrax.
This species was used in Mexico, where gum tapped from the trunks was burned
for its aromatic smoke (Usher 1974).
Styrax benzoin Dryand. (Styracaceae). styrax.
The people of Java, Indonesia, burned the latex or the sap for incense purposes
(Sangat-Roemantyo 1990).
Styrax camporum Pohl. (Styracaceae). styrax.
The resin from the trunk of styrax trees was burned as incense in an unspecified
part of the world (Usher 1974).
Styrax ferrugineum Nees & Mart. (Styracaceae). styrax.
The stems and branches of this species were harvested in Brazil and in Paraguay
for the preparation of incense materials (Uphof 1968).
Styrax officinalis L. (Styracaceae). styrax.
The stem and branches were burned as incense in Cyprus, where the plant is
known as steratzia (Georgiades 1987b).
Styrax ovatus (Ruiz & Pav.) DC. (Styracaceae). styrax.
The resins were traditionally burned in the Americas as incense (Rätsch 2004).
Styrax tessmannii Perkins (Styracaceae). styrax.
The resins were traditionally burned in the Americas as incense (Rätsch 2004). The
fumes may be psychoactive.
Styrax tonkinensis Craib ex Hartwich (Styracaceae). Siam benzoin.
This species was considered useful in Malaysia, where the stem resin was burned
as incense (Uphof 1968; Usher 1974).
Styrax weberbaueri Perkins (Styracaceae). styrax.
The resins were traditionally burned in the Americas as incense (Rätsch 2004).
Suaeda vermiculata Forssk. ex. J. F. Gmel. (Chenopodiaceae). suwwâd.
The green parts of this plant were burned in Kuwait for smoke that was inhaled to
treat asthma (Al-Kalifa and Sharkas 1984). The stems were smoked for the same
purpose elsewhere in the Arab world (Ghazanfar 1994).
Sutera sp. (Scrophulariaceae). bacopa.
The Sotho of South Africa burned unspecified parts of this plant to produce smoke
for treating mental patients (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Swertia chirata C. B. Clarke. (Gentianaceae). Kirata-tikta.
In Iran, the stems were, according to Avicenna, smoked to relieve coughs
(Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Symphoricarpos sp. (Caprifoliaceae). snowberry.
The Southern Paiute of the United States once smoked the leaves of a snowberry
species for unspecified purposes (Dunmire and Tierney 1997).
Symphyotrichum lanceolatum (Willd.) Nesom ssp. hesperium (Gray) Nesom var.
hesperium.
The Zuñi of New Mexico crushed the plant in their hands, rolled it into cigarettes
bound by corn husks, and smoked it to stop nosebleeds (Stevenson 1909). The
local name for the plant was kw’minně lo kĭana, or “gray root.” This species was
reported as Aster hesperius A. Gray in original texts.
Symphyotrichum lanceolatum (Willd.) Nesom ssp. hesperium 165

Syzygium guineense DC. (Myrtaceae). woodland waterberry.
The Gabbra of Kenya burned the bark, wood, and root as incense (Heine and
Brenzinger 1988).
Tabernaemontana divaricata (L.) R. Br. ex Roem. & J. A. Schult. (Apocynaceae).
pinwheel flower.
The wood of the pinwheel flower was burned in various parts of India for incense
purposes (Watt 1893). This species was considered sacred there (Dhiman 2003).
Tabernaemontana elegans Stapf (Apocynaceae). toad tree.
This species was used to treat menorrhagia in Venda, South Africa. The vulva
of affected women was exposed to smoke of burning roots. The smoke was also
inhaled under a blanket for the relief of headaches (Arnold and Gulumian 1984).
Taenidia integerrima Drude. (Apiaceae). yellow pimpernel.
The Flambeau Ojibwa of North America believed that smoking the seeds in a pipe
brought them good luck when hunting (Smith 1932).
Tagetes lucida Cav. (Asteraceae). sweet marigold.
The ancient Aztec of Mexico used unspecified parts of this plant
to produce smoke that dulled their prisoners prior to execution
(Neher 1968). The Aztecs also used it during religious ceremonies
(Gates 1939). Among the Huichol of Mexico, this plant was mixed
with Nicotiana rustica L. and smoked to produce hallucinogenic
effects (Siegel et al. 1977). The mixture was often smoked while
drinking a fermented beer made from maize. This was said to
induce clearer visions (Schultes et al. 2001). It was also burned in
houses as a disinfectant (Martínez 1969). In northwestern parts
of the Amazon, this species was mixed with the leaves of Nico-
tiana rustica L. and smoked for unspecified purposes (Schultes
1979).
Tagetes minuta L. (Asteraceae). wild marigold.
Plant material from the entire plant was burned in many Zim-
babwean communities for its smoke, which was considered use- Tagetes lucida
ful for repelling mosquitoes (Lukwa et al. 1999). The leaves were
mixed with those of several other species and burned for smoke
that was inhaled to stop dizziness and to relieve headaches in
Venda, South Africa (Arnold and Gulumian 1984). The smoke was considered use-
ful for treating certain mental illnesses. For this purpose, the smoke was inhaled
twice a day. The Mukogodo Maasai of Laikipia District of northern Kenya burned
the twigs to ward off fleas and other pests (Brenzinger et al. 1994).
Tagetes patula L. (Asteraceae). French marigold.
Known as bársonyvirág in Hungary, the aerial parts of this plant were burned to
generate smoke that was inhaled to treat wounds of the nose (Kóczián and Szabó
1990).
Tamarix gallica L. (Tamaricaceae). French tamarisk.
According to Avicenna, smoke from burning fruit was used in Iran as a fumigant
to treat general dermatological disorders (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Tamarix stricta Boiss. (Tamaricaceae). gaz.
Domestic animals belonging to the people of the Tarbat area in southern Pakistan
were forced to inhale the smoke produced by burning the old portion of bark that
166 Syzygium guineense DC.

had been peeled off the lower trunk of this tree (Goodman and Ghafoor 1992).
This was said to treat châllô, a weakness and pain occurring in limb joints. Tender
shoots were also burned for this purpose but were not considered as effective.
Tanacetum vulgare L. (Asteraceae). common tansy.
Smith (1932) reported that the Flambeau Ojibwa of North America mixed this
species with other plants and smoked them to attract deer during hunting expedi-
tions.
Tapinanthus sp. (Loranthaceae). showy mistletoes.
The stems and shoots of this species were mixed with other plants and burned for
smoke that was considered useful in treating a variety of respiratory illnesses in
children in the Democratic Republic of Congo (Disengomoka et al. 1983).
Tarchonanthus camphoratus L. (Asteraceae). wild camphor bush.
Green branches produce smoke that the Sotho of Africa inhaled to relieve head-
aches (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). In other parts of Africa, the leaves were
smoked for the treatment of asthma and other respiratory illnesses (Watt and
Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). Elsewhere in South Africa, the plant was smoked to treat
headaches and rheumatism (Hedberg and Staugård 1989; Hutchings and van Sta-
den 1994). The Hottentot of Africa smoked the leaves, which taste like camphor,
for recreational purposes (Usher 1974).
Tarenna graveolens (S. Moore) Bremek. var graveolens (Rubiaceae). near marere.
This tree was prized for its use as a general fumigant by the Borana of Ethiopia
and by the Gabbra and Samburu of Kenya (Heine and Brezinger 1988; Heine and
König 1988a).
Tauschia parishii J. F. Macbr. (Apiaceae). Parish’s umbrellawort.
The roots were smoked by the Kawaiisu of North America for the relief of pain,
colds, and sore eyes (Zigmond 1981).
Taxus baccata L. (Taxaceae). English yew.
In Europe, unspecified parts of this plant were burned as part of shaman incense
mixtures that included Abies Mill. spp., Hyoscyamus niger L., Juniperus communis
L., Artemisia vulgaris L., Taxus baccata L., and Thymus serpyllum L. (Rätsch 2004).
They were also used as part of a mixture burned during Nordic Christmas cer-
emonies.
Teclea nobilis Delile (Rutaceae). small fruited teclea.
The leaves were smoked in parts of Kenya to reduce fever (Mohagheghzadeh et al.
2006).
Teclea simplicifolia (Engl.) Engl. (Rutaceae). Teclea.
This plant is used for beekeeping practices in northern Kenya (Brenzinger
et al. 1994). The Mukogodo Maasai burned the whole plant to attract bees to new
hives.
Tectona grandis L. f. (Verbenaceae). teak.
Members of the Bhil tribe of India’s Rajasthan State fumigated people suffering
from guinea worm with the smoke of burning leaves (Singh and Pandey 1998).
The sawdust of this species was used for the preparation of incense in Java, Indo-
nesia (Sangat-Roemantyo 1990).
Tephrosia hamiltonii J. R. Drumm. (Fabaceae). indigo rouge.
The Gujarat of Ratan Mahal in India smoked the leaves, mixed with those of
tobacco (Nicotiana spp.), for its antitussive properties (Bedi 1978).
Tephrosia hamiltonii J. R. Drumm. 167

Tephrosia pumila Pers. (Fabaceae). indigo sauvage.
In India’s Amravati Tahsil District in Maharashtra State, the roots of indigo sau-
vage were smoked to stop coughs (Deshmukh et al. 2000).
Terminalia avicennioides Guill. and Perr. (Combretaceae). Avicenna’s almond.
In tropical Africa, resin from the trunk of this species was burned and used for
incense purposes (Uphof 1968; Usher 1974).
Terminalia brownii Fresen. (Combretaceae). darot.
Smoke generated in saunalike chambers in huts was used to perfume and cleanse
Borana women in southern Oromia, Ethiopia (Gemedo-Dalle et al. 2005). For
more information on this practice, see Acacia goetzei Harms. They also burned
the bark and stems as incense, as did the Gabbra of Kenya (Heine and Brenzinger
1988). West African women burned sachets of rhizomes and tubers of this species
to scent their bodies (Wickens 2004).
Terminalia chebula Retz. (Combretaceae). myrobalan.
In Tibet, unspecified parts of this plant were smoked to relieve asthma (Tsarong
1986).
Terminalia ivorensis Chev. (Combretaceae). black atara.
Asita and Campbell (1990) reported that the wood of black atara could be burned
to produce smoke that effectively inhibited two species of bacteria—Staphylo-
coccus aureus and Saccharomyces cerevisiae—both of which are known to spoil
food.
Terminalia orbicularis Engl. & Diels. (Combretaceae). bísikh.
The Rendille of Kenya (Heine and Heine 1988b), the Gabbra of Kenya (Heine
and Brenzinger 1988), the Samburu of Kenya (Heine and König 1988a), and
the Borana of Ethiopia (Heine and Brenzinger 1988) all burned this plant
to fumigate and cleanse their containers. Bísikh is the Kenyan name for this
species.
Tessaria absinthioides DC. (Asteraceae). suncho rosado.
The pre-Altiplanic community of Chile prized the stems and roots of this species
for incense purposes (Aldunate et al. 1983).
Tetradenia riparia (Hochst.) Codd. (Lamiaceae). ginger bush.
In Ethiopia, wood was burned for smoke that was reportedly useful for relieving
colds (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Teucrium polium L. (Lamiaceae). kalpoureh.
According to Avicenna, the fumes of burning leaves were used in parts of Iran as
pest repellents (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Thalictrum dasycarpum Fisch. & Avé-Lall. (Ranunculaceae). purple meadow rue.
The Potowatomi of North America dried the seeds of this plant and then smoked
them to bring good luck while hunting (Smith 1933). The seeds were also mixed
and smoked with tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) by young men wishing to call on lady
friends.
Thalictrum fendleri Engelm. ex. A. Gray (Ranunculaceae). Fendler’s meadowrue.
The Native Americans of New Mexico smoked the whole plant for pleasure and
to relieve headaches (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973). Other Native Americans
inhaled the smoke to treat colds (Foster and Hobbs 2002).
Thamnosma africana Engl. (Rutaceae). flea bush.
The Topnaar of Namibia smoked unspecified parts of this plant to relieve chest
pains (van den Eynden et al. 1992).
168 Tephrosia pumila Pers.

Thaumatococcus daniellii (Benn.) Benth. (Marantaceae). African
serendipity berry.
In Nigeria, two sweet proteins were discovered from the fruit aril, which have
been used to flavor tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) (Higginbotham et al. 1981).
Theobroma cacao L. (Sterculiaceae).
chocolate plant.
During Cuna female puberty rites in Pan-
ama, two burning cacao beans were placed
on the ground, and everyone participating
in the rite inhaled the smoke (Duke 1968).
When burned with red peppers, the Cuna
claimed that the smoke could treat malaria
(Duke 1975). In Aligandi, Panama, the
smoke from unspecified parts of the plant
was reported useful in driving away evil
spirits (Duke 1968).
Thermopsis rhombifolia (Nutt. ex Pursh)
Richards. (Fabaceae). prairie thermopsis. Theobroma cacao
The Plains tribes of North America
burned the flowers with human hair to
generate smoke used to treat rheumatism
(Gilmore 1919).
Thuja occidentalis L. (Cupressaceae).
arborvitae. (figure 22)
The Cree of Hudson Bay, Canada, used the leaves or
fibers of this plant to produce smoke for its pleasing
fragrance (Wilson 1857). The Flambeau and Pillager
Ojibwa of North America (Smith 1932) and Forest
Potawatomi (Smith 1933) burned the leaves and used
the smoke as a purifying agent. This was especially Figure 22. Thuja occidentalis and
common during certain ceremonies, when the partici- other Thuja species were often
pants and sacred objects were fumigated. burned for their fragrant smoke and
Thuja orientalis L. (Cupressaceae). Oriental to disinfect houses.
arborvitae.
This species was used both in China and in the United
States. In China, the roots were burned together with those
of Lindera fragrans Oliv. for incense purposes (Henry
1893). The Flambeau Ojibwa of North America burned the
leaves for the same purpose (Smith 1932), and the Pillager
Ojibwa used it as incense in sweat baths (Verrill 1943). The
Flambeau Ojibwa used it as perfume during purification
rites (Verrill 1943). The Menominee of North America
produced the smoke for reviving an unconscious person
(Vogel 1970). The Forest Potawatomi used it to exorcise
evil spirits (Brinton 1876).
Thymus linearis Benth. (Lamiaceae). satar farsi.
This species was burned for incense purposes in Nepal
(Manandhar 2002). Thuja orientalis
Thymus linearis Benth. 169

Thymus integer Griseb. (Lamiaceae). wild thyme.
The whole plant was burned in Cyprus to produce smoke that was considered an excel-
lent disinfectant (Georgiades 1987b). The Cypriot name for the plant is livanitis.
Thymus schimperi Ronniger (Lamiaceae). garden thyme.
This herb was used as a condiment in Ethiopia but has also found use as a treat-
ment for gonorrhea and for cough and liver disease. It was mostly drunk as an
infusion for these purposes but was also smoked (Getahun 1976). Its Ethiopian
name is tossigne.
Thymus serphyllum L. (Lamiaceae). thyme.
People in the Ubage Valley of France burned the
complete plant to produce smoke that was used as an
antiseptic and emollient and to treat foot-and-mouth
disease (Novaretti and Lemordant 1990).
Tilia americana L (Tiliaceae). American basswood.
The Meskwaki of North America used the smoke of
burning fibers, which they called wikup, to dry and
preserve meats (Smith 1928).
Tilia cordata Mill. (Tiliaceae). little leaf linden.
The leaves were often used as a tobacco (Nicotiana
spp.) adulterant (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003). No
other details were given.
Tinospora sinensis (Lour.) Merr. (Menispermeaceae). Thymus serphyllum
Chinese tinospora.
In Vietnam, this plant was employed as an anal fumigant meant to treat piles and
ulcerated wounds (van Duong 1993).
Tournefortia argentea L. f. (Boraginaceae). velvet soldier bush.
The leaves were smoked for unspecified purposes in the Seychelles (Lewis and
Elvin-Lewis 2003).
Toxicodendron diversilobium (Torr. & Gray) Greene. (Anacardiaceae). Pacific
poison oak.
This plant produces an oleoresin in its sap that can cause serious allergic reactions
on contact. This potent allergen, called urushiol, can be carried along with smoke
and dust particles when the plant is burned (Diggs et al. 1999). The resins in the
smoke can deposit on skin, eyes, and other surfaces causing dermatitis, or they can
be inhaled causing severe airway irritation. The effects of this plant are probably
similar for all of the species of Toxicodendron. The most poisonous or toxic spe-
cies is T. radicans (L.) Kuntze. Members of this genus are often
included in the Rhus genus.
Toxicodendron orientale Greene (Anacardiaceae). Asian poison ivy.
This species also produces urushiol and can be carried in smoke
when the plant is burned (Diggs et al. 1999).
Toxicodendron pubescens Mill. (Anacardiaceae). Atlantic poison
oak.
Although there is no clear evidence to suggest that the smoke of
this species can irritate skin and respiratory surfaces, it is likely
that it will because the species is known to produce harmful sub-
stances that may be carried along with smoke particulates. Toxicodendron orientale
170 Thymus integer Griseb.

Toxicodendron radicans (L.) Kuntze. (Anacardiaceae). western poison ivy.
This plant also produces the oleoresin urushiol in its sap. It is produced in
all parts of the plant and can be carried along with smoke and dust particles
when the plant is burned (Myths and facts about poison ivy 1998). The res-
ins can deposit on skin and cause dermatitis
or can be inhaled and cause severe airway
irritation.
Toxicodendron rydbergii (Small)
Greene. (Anacardiaceae). Rydberg’s
poison ivy.
Although there is no conclusive evidence
to suggest that the smoke of this species
can irritate skin and respiratory surfaces,
it is likely that it will because the species is
known to produce harmful substances that
may be carried along with smoke particu-
lates.
Toxicodendron succedaneum (L.) Kuntze.
(Anacardiaceae). Japanese waxtree. Toxicodendron radicans
The smoke of this species, when burned, can
irritate skin and respiratory surfaces.
Toxicodendron vernicifluum (Stokes) F. A. Barkley. (Anacardiaceae). Japanese
lacquer tree.
This species, which occurs in East Asia, China, and Japan, also produces
urushiol and can be carried in smoke when the plant is burned (Diggs et al.
1999).
Toxicodendron vernix Kuntze. (Anacardiaceae). poison oak.
When the leaves are burned, tiny droplets of resin can ride on particles of ash and
smoke and can cause severe reactions (Erichsen-Brown 1979). The common name
of this species is poison sumac.
Trachylobium homemannianum Hayne. (Fabaceae). sanodrus.
According to Avicenna, smoke from burning resin was used in parts of Iran
as a fumigant to dress wounds and to relieve coughs (Mohagheghzadeh et al.
2006).
Tragia involucrata L. (Euphorbiaceae). Indian stinging nettle.
This species was an important ingredient in a concoction of plants and animals
that, when burned to produce smoke, was reported to cause blindness in one’s
enemies according to book 4, chapter 1, topic 177 of the ancient Sanskrit treatise
the Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya (fourth century b.c.) (Sensarma 1998). Included in the
mixture were parts of an unidentified reed as well as unspecified parts of Aspara-
gus racemosus Willd., Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. in Engl. & Prantl, Paspalum
scrobiculatum L., Ricinus communis L., Saussurea lappa (Decne.) C. B. Clarke, and
Stephania hernandiflora Walp.
Trema orientalis (L.) Blume (Ulmaceae). pigeon wood.
In the Ivory Coast, the bark, leaves, stems, and twigs were all burned to produce
smoke that was inhaled to treat asthma, bronchitis, cough, and sore throat (Kerharo
and Bouquet 1950; Irvine 1961).
Trema orientalis (L.) Blume 171

Trichilia havanensis Jacq. (Meliaceae). bastard lime.
The people of Teenek Tsabaal in the Mexican states of Veracruz and San Luis Potosi
burned the wood of this species and then fumigated their chickens with its smoke
to rid them of lice (Alcorn 1984).
Trichilia micrantha Benth. (Meliaceae). tu-mour-reng-yik.
The Barsana of Colombia smoked the leaves of this plant for pulmonary ailments
(Schultes and Raffauf 1990). Tu-mour-reng-yik is the name given to this plant in
the Guianas (Guyana, Suriname, and French Guiana).
Trichocereus pachanoi Britton & Rose (Cactaceae). San Pedro cactus.
Archeological digs in Las Aldas, Peru, have revealed the remains of cigars that may
have been smoked by the local people for their psychoactive properties (Sharon
and Donnan 1977).
Trichocline auriculata Hieron. var. auriculata (Asteraceae). pampaballa.
In northwestern Argentina, the people smoked the roots and rhizomes in a ciga-
rette to treat earache and deafness (Giberti 1983).
Trichomanes javanicum Blume (Hymenophyllaceae). aqua fern.
In India, unspecified parts of this plant were smoked to relieve headaches (Singh
G. S. 2000).
Trichosanthes palmata Roxb. (Cucurbitaceae). thowan.
Some Native Australian tribes smoked the leaves for relief from asthma attacks
(Webb 1948).
Trichosanthes tricuspidata Lour. (Cucurbitaceae). bracted snake gourd.
The dried leaves were smoked to relieve asthma and coughs in India’s Mizoram
State (Lalramnghinglova 2003). Vankhaum is its local name.
Trientalis americana Pursh. (Primulaceae). American starflower.
The Flambeau Ojibwa of North America mixed the roots with other species and
smoked the mixture to attract deer during hunting sessions (Smith 1932).
Trientalis borealis Raf. (Primulaceae). starflower.
The Ojibwa of North America reportedly mixed the roots of this species with
other plants to produce scented smoke that was used to attract deer to hunters
(Smith 1932).
Trifolium pretense L. (Fabaceae). red clover.
In the Appalachians of North America, parts of this plant were burned to produce
smoke that was inhaled to treat asthma (Krochmal et al. 1969).
Trilisa odoratissima (J. F. Gmel.) Cass. (Asteraceae). vanilla trilisa.
Native North Americans of the southeastern United States smoked the leaves,
which contain coumarin, as a cigarette and cigar flavoring agent (Uphof 1968;
Krochmal and Krochmal 1973; Lewis and Elvin-Lewis 2003).
Triticum dicoccum Schrank (Poaceae). emmer.
According to ancient Egyptian texts, emmer seeds were burned for fumigations
that were used for contraceptive purposes (Manniche 1989). The smoke was
believed to prevent penetration but only after drinking a concoction made of cel-
ery and other plants.
Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. (Tiliaceae). diamond burrbark.
Excessive smoking of the leaves, when mixed with those of tobacco (Nicotiana
spp.), rendered men impotent and therefore was considered useful for birth
control in the Dahanu Forest division of Maharastra State, India (Shah et al.
1983).
172 Trichilia havanensis Jacq.

Trixis californica Kell. var californica (Asteraceae). rattlesnake’s foreskin.
The Seri of Mexico smoked the leaves for pleasure (Felger and Moser 1985).
Tsuga dumosa Eichl. (Pinaceae). Himalayan hemlock.
The leaves were harvested and burned as incense in Nepal (Manandhar 2002).
Tsuga heterophylla Sarg. (Pinaceae). western hemlock.
In British Columbia, Canada, the Thompson and Lillooet used the smoke of this
species to preserve hides (Turner 1988).
Tuinaea aethiopica Hook. f. (Lamiaceae). Tuinaea.
The Borana of Ethiopia and the Gabbra of Kenya used this species to fumigate and
cleanse their containers. Dried branches were cut, set alight, and then placed inside
the container (Heine and Brenzinger 1988).
Turnera diffusa Willd. ex Schult. (Turneraceae). damiana.
The dried leaves were smoked as a gentle nervine or relaxant with a pleasant aroma
(Ross 2002).
Tussilago farfara L. (Asteraceae). coltsfoot.
The leaves of coltsfoot were smoked to relieve asthma in
parts of Greece (Sfikas 1981), Ireland (Logan 1972), Italy
(Chiappini 1981), and Scotland (Milliken and Bridgewa-
ter 2004). Native North Americans inhaled the smoke
from burning leaves to treat a sore throat (Kavasch 1979)
and to dry out a cough (Brill 1994). In parts of Russia,
Ukraine, Belarus, the Caucasus, and central Asia, it was
smoked two to three times daily as a remedy for spastic
cough (Turova 1967). The leaves of the species were also
smoked as a substitute for tobacco (Nicotiana spp.) in
Asia, Europe, and North America (Uphof 1968; Kavasch Tussilago farfara
1979).
Uapaca bojeri Baill. (Euphorbiaceae). tapia.
In Madagascar, the leaves of this species were fermented, dried, and then smoked
to treat pulmonary infections (Boiteau and Allorge-Boiteau 2000). Tapia is the
Madagascan name for this species.
Umbellularia californica (Hook & Arn.) Nutt. (Lauraceae). California bay laurel.
Native Americans used the smoke of burning leaves as a flea repellent (Foster and
Hobbs 2002).
Utricularia inflexa Forssk. (Lentibulariaceae). star bladderwort.
A variety of children’s respiratory diseases were
treated in the Democratic Republic of Congo with
the smoke of burning star bladderwort leaves (Dis-
engomoka et al. 1983).
Valeriana hardwickii Wall. (Valerianaceae). Indian
valerian.
The leaves were burned as incense by the Himachal
Hills people of India (Sharma and Rana 2000).
Valeriana jatamansi Jones (Valerianaceae).
mushkbala.
The Kumoan and Garhwarl of northern India
burned dried roots for incense purposes and for
magico-religious rituals (Shah and Joshi 1971; Shah Umbellularia californica
Valeriana jatamansi Jones 173

1982). It was considered a sacred plant in India (Dhiman 2003), where it was
sometimes known as samyo. In Nepal’s Manang District, the roots were burned as
incense because of their intense aroma (Pohle 1990).
Valeriana wallichii DC. (Valerianaceae). valerian.
The roots were burned as incense by the Himachal Hills people of India (Sharma
and Rana 2000).
Vateria indica L. (Dipterocarpaceae). piney varnish tree.
The oleoresins produced by this species were collected in parts of India and burned
as incense (Groyer and Rao 1981).
Verbascum blattaria L. (Scrophulariaceae). moth mullein.
According to North American folklore, the leaves were smoked to relieve asthma
(Brendle and Unger 1935).
Verbascum thapsus L. (Scrophuliaraceae). great mullein.
The flowers and seeds of this species were commonly smoked for the symp-
tomatic relief of asthma and other pulmonary illnesses (Lewis and Elvin-Lewis
2003). Native North Americans inhaled the smoke of burning leaves to treat
sore throats, asthma, and coughs (Kavasch 1979). It was also considered useful
for relieving congestion and inflammation of the lungs (Tierra 1983). Accord-
ing to Speck (1917), the Penobscot inhaled the smoke of burning leaves to
treat asthma, as did the Forest Potawatomi (Smith 1933), the
Mohegan (Krochmal and Krochmal 1973), and other North
American tribes (Brendle and Unger 1935) as well as the Span-
ish people of New Mexico (Krochmal et al. 1969). They also
used the smoke to relieve sore throats and prepared smoke
smudges to treat catarrh and to revive unconscious people
(Tantaquidgeon 1928). The Flambeau Ojibwa of North Amer-
ica smoked the leaves to relieve asthma and bronchitis (Smith
1932). The Ozarker people of the U.S. Midwest smoked dried
leaves for the treatment of asthma and coughs (Liebert 1987).
The Menominee inhaled smoke from burning roots to treat a
variety of pulmonary diseases (Smith 1933). The Ktunaxa of
British Columbia, Canada, and other North American areas
made their horses inhale the smoke to clear their nostrils,
especially if they were plugged due to colds (Turner 1997).
Dried leaves were smoked as an alternative to tobacco (Nico-
tiana spp.) in the remote tribal areas of the Almora District of Verbascum thapsus
India (Arya and Prakash 2000). In other parts of India, dried
leaves were smoked for the treatment of asthma and sporadic
cough (Kirtikar and Basu 1935). It was used for similar purposes in central and
southern Europe and western Asia (Usher 1974). In the upper Lucca Province
of Italy, the leaves of this species were often smoked with tobacco for recre-
ational purposes (Pieroni 2000). In the Kala Chitta Hills of the Attock District
of Pakistan, smoke from the leaves was inhaled to treat chest complaints and to
relieve asthma (Mahmood et al. 2004). The leaves were smoked for unspecified
purposes in Tibet (Tsarong 1986) and were smoked to treat lung congestion,
urinary tract infections, and diarrhea in many unspecified countries (Saeed
et al. 2004).
174 Valeriana wallichii DC.

Vernonia anthelmintica Willd. (Asteraceae). ironweed.
In the fourth-century b.c. Sanskrit treatise the Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya, unspecified
parts of this species were listed as one of several ingredients in a mixture burned
to produce smoke used to deliberately kill animals (see recipe 3 under Asparagus
racemosus Willd.) (Sensarma 1998). The smoke was considered so deadly that it
was said to kill for as far as the wind would carry it.
Vernonia natalensis Sch. Bip. ex Walp. (Asteraceae). silver vernonia.
The Swazi of Africa inhaled the smoke from burning silver vernonia plants for
relief from headaches (Gelfand et al. 1985). In Zimbabwe, smoke from burning
leaves was inhaled to drive away evil spirits (Gelfand et al. 1985).
Vetiveria zizanioides Nash (Poaceae). vetivergrass.
In Java, Indonesia, the roots of this species were burned for incense purposes (San-
gat-Roemantyo 1990).
Viburnum pubescens Pursch. (Caprifoliaceae). black haw.
The Pillager Ojibwa of North America used the bark in their kinnikinnick smok-
ing mixtures, which they smoked for various reasons (Smith 1932).
Vicia faba Pers. (Fabaceae). horse bean.
In the L’Alt Empordà and Les Guilleries regions of Catalonia in the Iberian Penin-
sula, the fruits of this plant were burned to produce smoke, which was inhaled as
a tonic (Bonet et al. 1999).
Viola epipsila Ledeb (Violaceae). dwarf marsh violet.
The Dena’ina of Alaska burned the roots of this species on top of wood stoves as
incense and used the smoke to keep illness away (Kari 1995).
Virola sebifera Aublet (Myristicaceae). cuajo negro.
The shamans of Venezuela once prescribed the smoke of burning inner bark to
cure fevers (Schultes and Hofmann 1991).
Virola spp. (Myristicaceae). Virola.
The inner bark of an indeterminate Virola species was smoked in parts of South
America because it induced hallucinations (Schultes and Holmstedt 1971). Brazilian
shamans smoked parts of an unspecified virola for its psychedelic properties
(McKenna et al. 1984).
Vitex agnus-castus L. (Verbenaceae). hemp tree.
The entire plant was used as a fumigant to induce men-
struation in women in the Arab world (Ross 2001).
Vitex negundo L. (Verbenaceae). Indian privet.
In Maharashtra State, India, the leaves were burned at
night to produce smoke that was believed to protect
tribal members from mosquito bites (Parrotta 2001)
and to repel insects in Rewalsar, India (Sood and Thakur
2004). The smoke produced by burning dried leaves
was inhaled as a headache remedy in Nepal (Manand-
har 2002) and in parts of India’s Rajasthan State, where
this species is known as nirgundi (Singh and Pandey
1998). The people of Rayalaseema in Andhra Pradesh,
India, burned the leaves of this species under a blanket,
where they sat and inhaled the smoke to relieve coughs
(Nagaraju and Rau 1990). Vitex negundo
Vitex negundo L. 175

Vitex trifolia L. (Verbenaceae). simple leaf chase tree.
In Samoa (Whistler 2000) and in parts of Malaysia (van Duong 1993), this plant
was once burned to repel mosquitoes. The Samoans now use commercially avail-
able mosquito coils. When neither is available, they resort to burning coconut
husks (Cocos nucifera L.).
Vochysia laxiflora Stafleu (Vochysiaceae). Vochysia.
Members of the Amazon tribes of Rio Apaporis, Colombia, burned the bark of this
plant and inhaled its smoke to relieve asthma (Schultes and Raffauf 1990).
Waldheimia tomentosa Regel (Asteraceae). makungla.
In the desert region of Ladahk, India, this plant was dried and then burned as
a fumigant to repel insects, especially around sheep and goats (Chaurasia et al.
2000). Makungla is the local name for this species.
Waltheria indica L. (Sterculiaceae). uhaloa.
The Sukuma of Tanzania smoked root flour for the relief of sore throat (von Reis
and Lipp 1982).
Warburgia salutaris (Bertol. f.) Chiov. (Canellaceae). pepper bark tree.
In Africa, the Zulu smoked the leaves of this species with those of Cannabis sativa
L. for the relief of dry coughs (Bryant 1966).
Warburgia ugandensis Sprague (Canellaceae). pepper bark.
The So of Uganda burned the wood in their fires because the smoke’s aroma
was believed to keep leopards away (Heine and König 1988b). The smoke from
burning powdered bark was inhaled elsewhere (unspecified) as a remedy for chest
complaints (Iwu 1993).
Watsonia densiflora Baker (Iridaceae). bugle lily.
The Zulu of South Africa used the flower stalks for unspecified smoking purposes
(Hulme 1954).
Widdringtonia whytei Rendle. (Cupressaceae). mlanje-cedar.
No details were given except that the wood was burned in central Africa as incense
(Usher 1974).
Withania somnifera (L.) Dunal. (Solanaceae). winter cherry.
This species was used to fumigate and cleanse containers by the Borana of Ethiopia
and by the Gabbra of Kenya (Heine and Brenzinger 1988). In Morocco, midwives
burned this and other species to produce fumes that were used to induce abortions
(Merzouki et al. 2000). See Atractylis gummifera L. for a list of the other species
used in this polyherbal recipe.
Xanthorrhoea latifolia (A. T. Lee) D. J. Bedford (Xanthorrhoeaceae). mudigan.
In Australia’s east coast town of Byron Bay, the Arakwa burned this grass tree in
their fires because it produces pleasant aromatic smoke that repels mosquitoes
(Byron Bay Arakwal Elders 2003).
Xanthorrhoea preissii Endl. (Xanthorrhoeaceae). balga.
Campers all throughout Western Australia have burned grass trees in their camp-
fires because the smoke generated is fragrant and pleasing (personal observation,
Pennacchio).
Xanthorrhoea resinosa Pers. (Xanthorrhoeaceae). grass tree.
In early colonial Australia, the smoke of burning grass tree resin was considered
pleasantly aromatic and was prescribed as a “good pectoral medicine” by the then
Surgeon General John White (Cribb and Cribb 1981). Its use did not endure for
long, however.
176 Vitex trifolia L.

Xeromphis spinosa (Thunb.) Keay (Rubiaceae). thorny bone
apple.
The chaff of the seeds of this species is listed in the fourth-
century b.c. Sanskrit treatise the Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya as
one of several ingredients in a mixture burned to produce
smoke to blind one’s enemies (mix 2 under Asparagus race-
mosus Willd.) (Sensarma 1998). It was also used in a mixture
of plants that, when burned, produced deadly smoke that was
used to kill animals (recipe 4 under Asparagus racemosus
Willd.).
Xerophyta equisetoides Baker (Velloziaceae). Xerophyta.
In Zimbabwe, smoke from the whole plant was inhaled to stop
nosebleeds (Gelfand et al. 1985).
Xerophyta equisetoides Baker var. equisetoides (Velloziaceae).
Xerophyta. Xanthorrhoea preissii
In Tanzania, dried roots were burned, and the smoke
was inhaled to treat asthma (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk
1962).
Xerophyta retinervis Baker (Velloziaceae). black stick lily.
The roots of this species were smoked in South Africa to relieve asthma and
to stop nosebleeds (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962; Iwu 1993; Hutchings
et al. 1996).
Xerophyta spp. (Velloziaceae). Xerophyta.
In Swaziland, the dried roots of several species within this genus were smoked for
the relief of asthma (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
Ximenia caffra Sond. (Olacaceae). large sourplum.
The Vhavenda of Tanzania burned powdered root to produce smoke that was
inhaled to stop nosebleeds (Mabogo 1990).
Xylocarpus granatum Koen. (Meliaceae). cedar mangrove.
The smoke generated by mosquito coils made with the roots of this plant has been
shown to repel or kill mosquitoes (Culex quinquefasciatus) according to Thangam
and Kathiresan (1992).
Xylopia aethiopica A. Rich. (Annonaceae). Ethiopian pepper plant.
In West Africa, the fruit of this species was pounded and then smoked with tobacco
(Nicotiana spp.) for respiratory complaints (Dalziel 1948; Irvine 1961).
Yucca glauca Nutt. (Liliaceae). soapweed yucca.
In western parts of the United States, Native Americans burned the roots for
unspecified smoke purposes (Uphof 1968).
Zanthoxylum capense Harv. (Rutaceae). knobwood.
In Swaziland, approximately 50 g of the whole plant was burned to produce smoke
that was inhaled for 2 days to treat dizziness (Amusan et al. 2002).
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) B. Zepernick & F. K. Timler (Rutaceae).
candlewood.
Smoking the roots was considered a useful treatment for ascariasis according
to the people of the Baganda of the Kamapala District of Africa’s kingdom of
Buganda (Hamill 2001). In other parts of West Africa, the bark was burned and
used as a fumigant for unspecified purposes (Kerharo and Bouquet 1950; Irvine
1961).
Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides (Lam.) B. Zepernick & F. K. Timler 177

Zea mays L. (Poaceae). maize.
According to Lewis and Elvin-Lewis (2003), the dried
silks of corn were traditionally smoked by an unspec-
ified group of people as a tobacco (Nicotiana spp.)
substitute. The Chickasaw of North America burned
old corncobs and used the smoke to treat itching skin
(Sahagún 1963). Eischen and Vergara (2004) tested
the smoke for its ability to repel or kill honeybees
(Apis mellifera) and tracheal mites (Acarapsis woodi).
They reported that it exhibited low mortality. In Hun-
gary, the smoke from burning several parts of the
plant was considered useful for medicinal purposes.
Smoke from the seeds and fruits, when burned, was
used to treat horses with “heavy breath” and colds and
flu (Oláh 1987). Smoke from burning red seeds was
Zea mays
used as an abortifacient (Gémes 1987). Flour made
from the seeds was burned by an unspecified group
of people for smoke used to treat colds and flu (Vasas
1985). In India’s Rajasthan State, where this species is known as makki, male flow-
ers were often smoked for the relief of asthma (Singh and Pandey 1998).
Zehneria scabra Sond. (Cucurbitaceae). hareg ressa.
The leaves of hareg ressa were smoked in Ethiopia for the treatment of general
gynecological disorders (Mohagheghzadeh et al. 2006).
Zinnia grandiflora Nutt. (Asteraceae). wild zinnia.
Native Americans used the smoke generated by burning this plant to control fever
(Foster and Hobbs 2002).
Ziziphus mauritiana Lam. (Rhamnaceae). Indian jujube.
Somali women used this species to fumigate and perfume their hair (Getahun
1976).
Ziziphus mucronata ssp. mucronata Willd. (Rhamnaceae). buffalo thorn.
The Okavango of Africa burned pounded roots on glowing embers and inhaled
the smoke that arose to treat open and swollen wounds (von Koenen 2001).
Ziziphus nummularia (Burm. f.) Wight & Arn. (Rhamnaceae). jujube.
Smoke from burning leaves was inhaled by native Qataris to treat colds and nasal
discharges (Rizk and El-Ghazaly 1995). The Arabic name for the plant is kanar.
Zornia glochidiata Rchb. ex DC. (Fabaceae). Kastilia.
To keep spirits at bay, the people of Bulamogi County, Uganda, smoked the leaves
of this species (Tabuti et al. 2003).
178 Zea mays L.

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G L O S S A R Y O F T E R M S A N D A B B R E V I AT I O N S
abortifacient: A substance that induces or causes an abortion in pregnant females.

abscess: An inflamed area of the skin, where pus has formed.
a.d.: Anno Domini. A period of time since the start of the Christian era.
adytum: A religious sanctuary or inner sanctum usually open only to priests and priestesses.
aire: An illness that may or may not be caused by supernatural beings. In traditional Hispanic
communities of the southwestern United States, the illness, which manifests itself in many
ways, can be onset by a sudden change in temperature.
a.k.a.: Abbreviation for “also known as.”
alkaloid: A basic nitrogenous compound produced naturally by plants, many of which are
pharmacologically active (e.g., nicotine and atropine).
allergen: A substance or agent that causes an allergy.
amenorrhea: An abnormal disruption or ceasing of menstrual flow.
analgesic: A medicine or substance that alleviates pain without loss of consciousness.
ancylostomiasis: A disease caused by an infection of hookworms.
angina pectoris: A heart condition characterized by chest pains caused by a lack of oxygen
to heart tissue.
angiosperm: A seed-bearing plant in which the ovule is encased within an ovary (e.g., mag-
nolias and other flowering plants).
ANS: Autonomic nervous system. The ANS is part of the nervous system of all vertebrates
and is responsible for involuntary actions through its sympathetic and parasympathetic
systems.
antiasthmatic: A substance or agent that relieves asthma or its symptoms.
anticatarrhal: An anti-inflammatory agent that prevents inflammation in the mucous mem-
branes of air passages.
antidermatosic: A substance or agent that prevents diseases of the skin.
antiecchymotic: A substance or agent that prevents blood from escaping into tissues from
ruptured blood vessels.
antiseptic: A substance or agent that prevents the growth of microorganisms.
antispasmodic: A substance or agent that relieves or calms nervous and muscular spasms.
antivertiginous: A substance or agent that counters dizziness.
aphrodisiac: Any substance or agent that arouses sexual desire; named after the Greek god-
dess of love, Aphrodite.
apoplexy: A stroke during which there is loss of consciousness and loss of muscular control.
These are usually caused by blood clots in the blood vessels of the brain.
aromatic: A substance or agent with a fragrant or spicy odor.
ascariasis: An infection caused by a parasitic roundworm.
asthma: A respiratory condition often associated with allergic reactions that result in labored
breathing, wheezing, coughing, and a feeling of constriction of the chest.
Avicenna: Ibn Sīnā is regarded by many as the father of modern medicine and pharmacology.
He was born ca. 980 in what is now Uzbekistan and died in 1037 in modern Iran.
211
axonic: Of or relating to the axons, or individual nerve cells, of the nervous system.
Ayurvedic medicine: An indigenous Indian medical system based on Hindu scriptures, or
Vedas. Ayurveda is an ancient Sanskrit word meaning “the science of life.”
b.c: Before Christ. A period of time prior to the Christian era.
bechic agent: A substance or agent that relieves coughs.
biliousness: A liver disease or condition often characterized by excessive bile production.
biodiversity: The totality of genes, species, and ecosystems of a geographical region.
biosynthesis: The buildup of chemical compound using simpler “building blocks” (e.g., amino
acids, simple sugars), which is usually catalyzed by an enzyme.
bronchitis: An inflammation of one or more bronchi of the lungs.
ca.: Circa; approximately.
Camas: Any plant of the Camassia genus of the lily family, Liliaceae.
carcinogen: Any substance or agent that causes cancer.
carminative: Any substance or agent that helps expel gas from the stomach or intestine.
catarrh: A condition whereby there is inflammation of the mucous membranes of human
nasal and air passages.
cathartic: A substance or agent that induces bowel movements.
censer: An incense burner.
chaparral: A biome in the western United States characterized by hot, dry summers and cool,
moist winters. It is usually dominated by a dense growth of mostly small-leaved evergreen
shrubs rich in highly flammable resins, which aid the frequent wildfires.
chiclero: A Spanish word that describes a gatherer of latex, especially from the Sapodilla tree
(known as chicle). This formed the base for commercial chewing gum until synthetic gums
replaced it in the 1930s.
CNS: Central nervous system. The CNS forms part of the nervous systems of vertebrates and
consists of the brain and spinal cord, through which all motor impulses are relayed to the
muscles and all sensory input is received. The CNS coordinates the entire nervous system.
CO: Carbon monoxide gas.
CO2: Carbon dioxide gas.
colic: A medical condition related to acute abdominal pain caused by spasms, obstruction, and
twisting of hollow and other organs.
congeneric: Belonging to the same genus.
copal: Plant resins used in Mesoamerica for incense and other purposes. The word was derived
from the Aztec Nahuatl word copalli.
cotyledon: The leaves of an embryonic plant. These usually emerge shortly after the plant has
sprouted. Monocotyledons produce one leaf, and dicotyledons produce two.
coumarin: A natural white crystal lactone often used as a flavoring agent in soaps, perfumes,
and other items (C9H6O2).
crack cocaine: Free-base cocaine in which the hydrochloride salt is removed by processing the
alkaloid with ammonia or baking soda so that it can be smoked for its euphoric effects.
cyclopegia: Loss of accommodation in the eye and therefore the ability to adjust vision over
different distances.
DDT: Dichlor-diphenyltrichlor. A colorless, odorless insecticide that tends to accumulate in
ecosystems and has toxic effects on many vertebrate species.
DEET: N, N-diethyl-3-methylybenzamide. DEET is a synthetic insect repellent that was devel-
oped by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and patented by the U.S. Army in 1946 (Fradin
1998). It remains one of the most effective insect repellents on the market.
delirium: A frenzied mental state characterized by confusion, hysteria, slurred speech, or hal-
lucinations.
demographic stochasticity: Random fluctuations in birth and/or death rates.
dermatitis: A skin condition caused by allergens and other agents and often associated with
inflammation.
212 Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations

distemper: A highly contagious bacterial infection in animals that results in a fever and swol-
len throat glands. The animal usually loses appetite but rarely dies.
divination: The art of foretelling or foreseeing the future, usually while communing with gods
or the spirit world.
dormancy: A seed that does not have the capacity to germinate in a specified period of time
under any combination of normal physical environmental factors, which are otherwise
favorable for its germination (Baskin and Baskin 2004).
ectoparasite: Any parasite that lives on the exterior of its host.
emetic: A substance or agent that induces vomiting.
emmenagogue: An agent that regulates or induces menstruation by acting directly on the
reproductive system or by alleviating the condition through a secondary mechanism.
emollient: A substance that soothes, softens, or makes skin and other surfaces (e.g., mucous
membranes) less harsh.
emphysema: A condition of the lungs in which there is significant and harmful enlargement
of the air vesicles. The condition is often associated with tobacco smokers.endemic: Native
to a limited region or area.
endogenous: Substances that originate from within an organism, tissue, or cell.
endophytic: Of or relating to organisms that live within plants.
entheogen: This term is often used in a broad sense to refer to the use of psychoactive sub-
stances to alter perceptions or consciousness in humans. It is derived from two ancient
Greek words, entheos and genesthal, which literally translate to “that which causes one to
be in god.”
epidemic: A substance or agent that affects a large proportion of a population (e.g., the
Bubonic plague).
epilepsy: A chronic nervous disorder in which there is disturbed electrical activity in the cen-
tral nervous system leading to convulsions, partial loss of consciousness, and sometimes
death.
erythrocytes: Red blood cells.
euphoria: A state of elation or well-being.
eviscerated: When the viscera, or internal organs, of an animal have been removed. This usu-
ally pertains to animals that humans consume, such as fish.
ex situ: Not in its natural habitat.
exaltation: A heightened sense of importance or well-being.
excoriate: To abrade the skin.
exogenous: A substance or agent that originates from outside an organism, tissue, or cell.
expectorant: A substance or agent that promotes the expulsion of mucous membrane secre-
tions.
febrifuge: A substance or agent that reduces fever.
frond: A large leaf with many divisions that is usually of the type seen in palms and ferns.
fumigate: To apply smoke to.
furuncles: Boils of the body that result from infections of hair follicles. The condition is
referred to as furunculosis.
galactagogue: A substance or agent that induces or increases the secretion of milk.
germination: The process during which seeds begin to grow.
ghee: A semifluid-like clarified butter commonly made and used in India.
gringo: A Spanish alteration of the Greek word griego, meaning “foreigner” or “stranger.”
gumpas: Monasteries in northern India.
gymnosperms: Plants that do not possess ovules encased within an ovary (e.g., pine trees).
hallucinogen: A substance that induces visions or other distorted sensory illusions.
hemicrania: Pain or headache that affects only one side of the head.
hemp: Of or relating to the plant Cannabis sativa.
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations 213

hexameter: A line of verse often possessing six metrical measures. Priests relaying the divined
responses of the Delphic oracle, the Pythia, usually used it in ancient Greece.
impermeable: Does not permit water to pass through it.
incantations: Spells or verbal charms sung or spoken as part of magico-religious rituals.
in situ: In a natural habitat.
nsecticide: An agent used to kill insects.
invasive plant: A plant that grows outside its native range and tends to outcompete native
flora.
inzagomas: Zulu diviners of South Africa.
Isthmian America: The region of the Americas that includes all the countries from Mexico
to Colombia.
IUCN: International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources.
kif: A traditional pipe used in Morocco.
kinnikinnick: An Algonquin (Native American) word for tobacco blends and sometimes used
to refer to Arctostaphylos species.
kippers: Herring or salmon that has been split from head to tail, eviscerated, salted, and
smoked.
kiva: A subterranean or partially submerged chamber used for various ceremonies or councils
by the Jevez of New Mexico, United States.
kraals: An Afrikaans word meaning enclosure for cattle.
leprosy: A progressively deteriorating condition of the skin caused by the bacterium Myco-
bacterium leprae.
Lilliputian: An adjective meaning small or puny and often used to refer to hallucinogenic
images of insects and other small animals. The term entered common use after the Lillipu-
tian people, a small fictional race of people living on the island of Lilliput, appeared in the
widely acclaimed Jonathan Swift novel Gulliver’s Travels.
lumbago: Lower back pain.
malaria: A disease in which human red blood cells are infected with a protozoan parasite of
the genus Plasmodium.
manteion: A mantic or prophetic chamber, such as the one used by ancient Greece’s oracle of
Delphi.
mantic: Of or relating to religious or other divination.
mastitis: An inflammation of the breast or udder that usually is caused by infection.
mg: Milligram. One-thousandth of a gram.
miasma: A vapor or exhalation believed to corrupt the atmosphere.
morphine: An analgesic and narcotic alkaloid produced by the opium poppy, Papaver som-
niferum. The alkaloid was named after Morpheus—the Greek god for dreams or sleep.
moxa: Any combustible material, usually of plant origin, that is burned and used as part of
traditional Chinese acupuncture (see Artemisia vulgaris in chapter 2).
mutagen: Any agent that increases the likelihood of mutations in an organism.
mydriasis: A prolonged or excessive dilation of the pupil of the eye.
narcotic: This term is derived from the Greek work narkoyn and refers to any substance capa-
ble of inducing sleep or drowsiness or diminishes pain (e.g., morphine).
neuralgia: Nerve pain.
nymph: A beautiful maiden often associated with mythology.
O2: Oxygen gas.
oleoresin: A natural plant product that combines essential oils with resins.
omphalos: The so-called navel stone on which the oracle at Delphi’s tripod stool was fas-
tened and under which gases from a small hole were vented to the oracle, inducing psychic
visions.
ophthalmia: An inflammation of the conjunctiva or eyeball.
opiates: Drugs or compounds derived from opium.

oracle: A priestess of ancient Greece through whom gods could communicate with mortals.
otitis: An inflammation of the ear, which may include pain, fever, and other abnormalities.
oxytocic: A substance that hastens childbirth by inducing contractions of the uterus.
PAHs: Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. These ubiquitous and often harmful chemical com-
pounds are produced during the incomplete combustion of organic matter.
palliative: The relief or soothing of the symptoms of a disease without leading to a cure.
panacea: A cure-all.
pharmacopeia: A published compendium of medicines and drugs and their uses (also phar-
macopoeia).
piles: Also known as hemorrhoids, this is a condition in which veins at the lower end of the
anus become swollen, causing irritation, blood loss, and pain.
plague: An epidemic or disease that causes high rates of mortality.
pom: A tree gum or resin considered one of the darkest of the copals. It is commonly derived
from the pitch pine Pinus pseudostrobus.
poultice: A soft substance or composition applied to sores or inflammations of the body.
prophylactic: A preventive measure or substance to guard against disease or illness.
propitiate: To reconcile with or appease a third party or gods.
proselyte: An alien resident.
psychosomatic: Of or relating to bodily symptoms caused by mental or emotional distur-
bance.
pyrethrins: A group of chemical substances used for their insecticidal properties.
pyrethroids: A group of synthetic chemical substances based on naturally occurring pyre-
thrins.
Pythia: The name that the Greek god Apollo gave to the Delphic oracle after he had created
her by slaying the she-dragon at Delphi, Greece.
resin: Any semisolid or solid amorphous and flammable organic substance found in the secre-
tions of certain plants.
rethrins: A group of chemical substances used for their insecticidal properties, such as the
pyrethrins derived from Chrysanthemum species.
rheumatism: A condition or illness characterized by inflammation of the muscles, joints, or
fibrous tissue.
salve: Usually an adhesive or other substance applied to sores or other wounds.
scurvy: A disease caused by a lack of vitamin C (ascorbic acid). Symptoms include bleeding of
the gums and other body parts and loosening of the teeth.
sedative: Any substance or agent used to relieve tension or anxiety.
shaman: A priest or priestess who uses magico-religious treatments or divinations to cure the
sick or dying.
smallpox: An acute and contagious illness caused by a poxvirus of the genus Orthopoxvirus.
The virus causes skin eruptions with pustules and fever and may kill its victims in some
cases.
smudge: A process during which plant material is set alight and then extinguished so that it
smolders and produces smoke.
Solanaceous plants: Plants belonging to the family Solanaceae.
spadices: Fleshy or succulent flower spikes that are usually encased within a spathe or floral
sheath.
sprue: A disease of tropical regions usually associated with diarrhea and poor absorption of
nutrients.
sudorific: A substance or agent that causes or induces sweat.
susto: An illness widespread throughout Latin America. It literally means “fright illness” and is
often associated with the fear of losing one’s soul.
tachycardia: Rapid heartbeat.
taxon: A taxonomic category into which related organisms are classified. The plural is taxa.
Glossary of Terms and Abbreviations 215

tuberculosis: A serious pulmonary or lung infection caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium
tuberculosis.
typhus: A bacterial disease (from Rickettsia species) that is transmitted by body lice and
induces high fevers, delirium, and intense headaches.
Unani medicine: A traditional Islamic medical system developed by Avicenna.
vascular: Of or relating to a channel or system of vessels for the conveyance of body fluids,
such as blood.
vernacular: Common name.
weed: A plant that grows outside its native range and tends to outcompete native flora.
WHO: World Health Organization. A specialized agency of the United Nations for health that
was established on April 7, 1948.

SPECIES INDEX
Abies amabilis, 31 Achyranthes aspera, 35

Abies balsamea, 31 Acokanthera oppositifolia, 35
Abies grandis, 31 Acokanthera schimperi, 35
Abies lasiocarpa, 31 Acokanthera spp., 35
Abies spectabilis, 31 Acorus calamus, 35
Abies spp., 31 Actiniopteris radiata, 35
Abrus precatorius, 32 Adansonia digitata, 36
Acacia adsurgens, 32 Adenocalymma alliaceum, 36
Acacia ancistrocarpa, 32 Adhatoda vasica, 111
Acacia aneura, 32 Adiantum aethiopicum, 36
Acacia dictyophleba, 32 Adiantum capillus-veneris, 36
Acacia glaucophylla, 32 Adiantum fuliginosum, 36
Acacia goetzei, 32 Adiantum lanulatum, 36
Acacia horrida, 32 Adiantum pedatum, 36
Acacia horrida ssp. benadinensis, 33 Adiantum tenerum, 36
Acacia kempeana, 33 Aerva lanata, 36
Acacia ligulata, 33 Aeschynanthus poilanei, 36
Acacia lysiphloia, 33 Agastache neomexicana, 36, 37
Acacia macrothyrsa, 33 Agastache pallidiflora ssp. neomexicana, 36, 37
Acacia mellifera, 33 Agathis dammara, 37
Acacia mellifera ssp. mellifera, 33 Agathisanthemum bojeri ssp. bojeri, 37
Acacia nilotica, 33 Ageratina altissima var. roanensis, 37, 91
Acacia nilotica ssp. subalata, 33 Ailanthus malabarica, 37
Acacia nubica, 33 Ailanthus triphysa, 37
Acacia pellita, 33 Albizia amara, 37
Acacia pruinocarpa, 33 Alchornea latifolia, 37
Acacia salicina, 34 Alepidea amatymbica, 37
Acacia senegal, 34 Alhagi camelorum, 37
Acacia senegal ssp. keniensis, 34 Alhagi pseudoalhagi, 37
Acacia seyal, 34 Allenrolfea occidentalis, 37
Acacia tortilis, 34 Allionia nyctaginea, 38, 122
Acalypha fruticosa, 34 Allium cepa, 4, 38
Acalypha ornata, 34 Allium porrum, 38
Acalypha sp., 34 Allium sativum, 5, 38
Acalypha villicaulis, 34 Allium sp., 38
Acer negundo, 34 Allophylus griseotomentosus, 38
Acer saccharinum, 34 Alnus crispa, 38, 39
Achillea lanulosa, 34, 35 Alnus rhombifolia, 38
Achillea millefolium, 34, 35 Alnus rubra, 38
Achillea millefolium var. occidentalis, 34, 35 Alnus viridis ssp. crispa, 38, 39
217
Aloe cooperi, 39 Apocynum cannabinum, 43
Alpinia spp., 39 Aquilaria agallocha, 43
Alstonia boonei, 39 Aquilaria beccariana, 43
Alternanthera sessilis, 39 Aquilaria hirta, 43
Alyxia flavescens, 39 Aquilaria malaccensis, 44
Alyxia psilostachya, 39 Aquilaria moszkowskii, 44
Alyxia reinwardtii, 39 Aquilaria sinensis, 44
Amaranthus hybridus ssp. hybridus, 39 Aquilaria spp., 44
Amaranthus spinosus, 39 Aquilegia canadensis, 44
Amaranthus viridis, 39 Aralia racemosa, 44
Amasonia campestris, 39 Arbutus menziesii, 44
Ambrosia maritima, 39 Arcangelisia flava, 44
Amorpha canescens, 39 Arcangelisia loureiroi, 45
Amorphophallus sp., 40 Arctium lappa, 45
Amorphophallus variabilis, 40 Arctostaphylos alpina, 45
Amyris balsamifera, 40 Arctostaphylos glandulosa, 45
Amyris elemifera, 40 Arctostaphylos glauca, 45
Anacardium occidentale, 40 Arctostaphylos nevadensis, 45
Anadenanthera colubrina, 40 Arctostaphylos patula, 45
Anadenanthera colubrina var. cebil, 40 Arctostaphylos pungens, 45
Anadenanthera peregrina, 40 Arctostaphylos tomentosa, 45
Anaphalis contorta, 40, 41 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, 24, 46
Anaphalis javanica, 40 Areca catechu, 46
Anaphalis margaritacea, 40, 41 Arenaria macradenia, 46
Anaphalis royleana, 41 Argemone mexicana, 46
Anaphalis triplinervis, 41 Arisaema enneaphyllum, 46
Andira inermis, 41 Aristolochia sp., 46
Andrachne ovalis, 41 Artemesia indica, 46
Anemone caffra, 41 Artemisia absinthium, 46
Anemone fanninii, 41 Artemisia argentea, 46
Anemone multifida, 41 Artemisia californica, 46
Anemone obtusiloba, 41 Artemisia douglasiana, 47
Anemone virginiana, 41 Artemisia dracunculus, 47
Anemone vitifolia, 41 Artemisia frigida, 47
Angelica archangelica, 41 Artemisia furcata var. heterophylla, 47
Angelica atropurpurea, 42 Artemisia gmelinii, 47
Angelica breweri, 42 Artemisia japonica, 47
Angelica sp., 42 Artemisia judaica, 47
Angelica tomentosa, 42 Artemisia ludoviciana, 47
Aniba canelilla, 42 Artemisia ludoviciana ssp. ludoviciana, 47, 48
Annona ambotay, 42 Artemisia maritima var. neercha, 48
Annona senegalensis, 42 Artemisia maritima var. seski, 48
Annona squamosa, 42 Artemisia nilagarica, 48
Annona stenophylla, 42 Artemisia parviflora, 48
Antennaria aprica, 42 Artemisia scoparia, 48
Antennaria margaritacea, 42 Artemisia sieberi, 48
Antennaria neglecta, 43 Artemisia spp., 48
Antennaria rosea, 43 Artemisia thuscula, 48
Antennaria sp, 43 Artemisia tridentata, 48
Anthriscus nemorosa, 43 Artemisia tripartita, 48
Anthurium oxycarpum, 43 Artemisia vulgaris, 21, 32, 48, 49, 140
Apocynum androsaemifolium, 43 Artocarpus altilis, 49
218 Species Index

Asclepias eriocarpa, 49 Bauhinia sp., 54
Asparagus adscendens, 49 Becium grandiflorum, 54
Asparagus buchananii, 49 Berchemia discolor, 54
Asparagus officinalis, 49 Berlandiera lyrata, 55
Asparagus racemosus, 49, 50 Betula nana, 55
Asphodelus tenuifolius, 50 Betula papyrifera, 55
Aspilia mossambicensis, 50, 70, 98 Betula pumila var glandulifera, 55
Asplenium septentrionale, 50 Betula utilis, 55
Asplenium trichomanes, 50 Bidens palustris, 55
Aster cordifolius, 50 Bidens pilosa, 55
Aster furcatus, 50 Bidens sp., 55
Aster hesperius, 50 Bidens tripartita, 55
Aster laevis, 50 Biophytum sensitivum, 55
Aster lateriflorus, 51 Blepharis sp., 55
Aster lavandulifolius, 51 Blumea balsamifera, 55
Aster macrophyllus, 51 Blumea balsamifera var. balsamifera, 56
Aster multiflorus, 51 Boerhavia coccinea, 56
Aster novae-angliae, 51 Boscia angustifolia, 56
Aster praealtus var. coerulescens, 51 Boscia angustifolia var. angustifolia, 56
Aster puniceus, 51 Boscia coriacea, 56
Aster umbellatus, 51 Boscia minimifolia, 56
Astragalus fasciculifolius, 51 Boscia senegalensis, 56
Astrocaryum aculeatum, 51 Boswellia ameero, 56
Astronium urundeuva, 51 Boswellia bhau-dajiana, 56
Atamisquea emarginata, 51, 52 Boswellia carteri, 12, 56
Atractylis gummifera, 52 Boswellia frereana, 12, 57
Atriplex canescens, 52 Boswellia glabra, 57
Atriplex obovata, 52 Boswellia hildebrandtii, 57
Atriplex sp., 52 Boswellia microphylla, 57
Atropa acuminata, 52 Boswellia neglecta, 57
Atropa baetica, 52 Boswellia ogadensis, 57
Atropa belladonna, 52, 83 Boswellia papyrifera, 12, 57, 58
Atropa mandragora, 10, 52 Boswellia sacra, 12, 58
Atylosia lineata, 52 Boswellia serrata, 58
Austrobrickellia patens, 52 Boswellia socotrana, 58
Avena sativa, 53 Boswellia spp., 12, 58, 67
Avicennia germinans, 53 Brassica integrifolia, 58
Avicennia marina, 53 Brassica juncea, 58
Avicennia nitida, 53 Brassica rugosa, 58
Azadirachta indica, 21, 53 Breynia vitis-idaea 58
Baeckea frutescens, 53 Bridelia cathartica, 58, 59
Balanites aegyptiaca, 53 Bridelia scleroneura, 59
Balanites gillettii, 54 Brucea antidysenterica, 59
Balanites orbicularis, 54 Brugmansia spp., 18, 59
Balanites rotundifolia, 54 Brugmansia suaveolens, 59, 91
Balanites welwitschii, 54 Brunfelsia guianensis, 59
Balsamodendron myrrha, 54 Bryonia dioica, 59
Balsamorhiza sagittata, 54 Buddleja asiatica, 59
Bambusa vulgaris, 54 Bulbostylis spp., 59
Banksia dentata, 54 Bulnesia sarmientoi, 59, 104
Barleria waggana, 54 Bursera bipinnata, 13, 59
Bauhinia fassoglenis, 54 Bursera glabrifolia, 59
Species Index 219

Bursera graveolens, 59 Carissa lanceolata, 65
Bursera gummifera, 60 Carum carvi, 65
Bursera microphylla, 60 Carum copticum, 65
Bursera simaruba, 60 Carya cordiformis, 65
Bursera spp., 13, 60 Cassia abbreviata, 65
Bursera submoniliformis, 60 Cassia abbreviata ssp. beareana, 65
Bursera tomentosa, 60 Cassia fistula, 65
Butea monosperma, 50, 53, 60, 127 Cassia italica, 65
Buxus hyrcana, 60 Cassia mimosoides, 66
Cadaba farinosa ssp farinosa, 60 Cassia occidentalis, 66
Cadaba ruspoli, 61 Cassia reticulata, 66
Caesalpinia bonduc, 61 Cassia sieberana, 66
Caesalpinia erianthera, 61 Cassine glauca, 66
Calamintha nepeta, 61 Cassiope fastigiata, 66
Calea zacatechichi, 61 Casuarina oligodon, 66
Callicarpa cana, 61 Catabrosa aquatica, 66
Callirhoë involucrata, 61 Catoblastus drudei, 66
Callitris glaucophylla, 61 Caulerpa scalpelliformis, 66
Callitris intratropica, 61 Ceanothus sanguineus, 66
Calophyllum inophyllum, 61 Ceanothus velutinus, 66
Calotropis gigantea, 61 Cecropia obtusifolia, 66
Calotropis procera, 62 Cecropia peltata, 67
Calyptrocarya poeppigiana, 62 Cedrus deodara, 67
Cananga odorata, 62 Cedrus libani, 67
Canarium amboinense, 62 Celmisia spectabilis, 67
Canarium commune, 62 Celtis timorensis, 67
Canarium edule, 62 Cephaelis williamsii, 67
Canarium harveyi, 62 Cestrum laevigatum, 67
Canarium indicum, 62 Cestrum parqui, 67
Canarium indicum var. indicum, 62 Chamaecrista nigricans, 67
Canarium luzonicum, 62 Chamaemelum nobile, 67
Canarium schweinfurthii, 62 Chamaesyce hirta, 67
Canarium strictum, 63 Cheilanthes calomendos, 67
Canarium sylvestre, 63 Cheilanthes hirta, 68
Canarium zeylanicum, 63 Chenopodium schraderanum, 68
Canella alba, 63 Chimaphila umbellata, 68
Canella winterana, 63 Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium, 21, 68
Canna indica, 63 Chrysanthemum roseum, 21, 68
Cannabis sativa, 4, 5, 10, 22, 51, 62, 63, 112, Chrysothamnus nauseosus, 68
155, 176, 213 Cichorium intybus, 68
Capparis cartilaginea, 64 Cicuta maculata, 68
Capparis speciosa, 64 Cinnamomum burmannii, 68
Capparis tomentosa, 64 Cinnamomum camphora, 68
Capsicum annuum, 27, 64 Cinnamomum cassia, 69
Capsicum frutescens, 27, 64 Cinnamomum sintoc, 69
Capsicum sp., 58, 64 Cinnamomum sp., 69
Carapa guianensis, 64 Cinnamomum tamala, 69
Cardiospermum grandiflorum, 64 Cinnamomum verum, 69
Cardiospermum halicacabum, 65 Cinnamomum zeylanicum, 69
Careya arborea, 32, 53, 65 Cissus nymphaeifolia, 69
Carica papaya, 65 Cissus quadrangularis, 69
Carissa edulis, 65 Cissus rotundifolia, 69, 101
220 Species Index

Cistus albidus, 69 Commiphora wightii, 74
Citrus sinensis, 69 Comptonia peregrina, 74, 125
Clausena anisata, 69 Conioselinum scopulorum, 74
Cleistocalyx aperculatus, 70 Conium maculatum, 4, 52, 74
Clematis brachiata, 70 Consolida regalis, 74
Clematis denticulata, 70 Conyza scabrida, 74
Clematis flammula, 70 Conzya incana, 74
Clematis recta, 70 Conzya podocephala, 74
Clematis vitalba, 70 Cordia goetzei, 74
Clematopsis scabiosifolia, 50, 70, 98 Cordia sinensis, 74
Clerodendron discolor, 50, 70, 98 Coriandrum sativum, 75
Clerodendrum indicum, 70 Cornus alternifolia, 75
Clerodendrum inerme, 70 Cornus amomum, 45, 75
Clerodendrum myricoides, 70 Cornus canadensis, 75
Clusia lechleri, 71 Cornus florida, 75
Clusia palmicida, 71 Cornus foemina, 75
Clusia sp., 71 Cornus occidentalis, 75
Clutia abyssinica, 71 Cornus paniculata, 75
Cnidium cnidifolium, 71 Cornus pubescens, 75
Cocculus sp., 71 Cornus racemosa, 75
Cocos nucifera, 22, 71, 176 Cornus rugosa, 75
Codiaeum variegatum, 71 Cornus sericea, 76
Coffea arabica, 71 Cornus sericea ssp. occidentalis, 76
Colophospermum mopane, 71 Cornus sericea ssp. sericea, 76
Colquhounia coccinea, 71 Cornus stolonifera, 76
Combretum adenogonium, 71 Cornus stricta, 76
Combretum ghasalense, 71 Corydalis aurea, 76
Combretum imberbe, 72 Corylus avellana, 76
Combretum molle, 72 Corymbia citriodora, 76
Combretum quadrangulare, 72 Cotoneaster microphyllus, 76
Combretum zeyheri, 72 Cotoneaster vulgaris, 76
Commiphora abyssinica, 72 Couratari multiflora, 77
Commiphora africana, 72 Cousinia thomsoni, 77
Commiphora anglosomaliae, 72 Coutarea pterosperma, 77
Commiphora boiviniana, 72 Covillea glutinosa, 77, 114
Commiphora corrugata, 72 Crabbea velutina, 77
Commiphora erythraea, 13, 72 Crataegus oxyacantha, 77
Commiphora erythraea var glabrescens, 72 Crataegus pruinosa, 77
Commiphora gileadensis, 72 Crataegus sp., 77
Commiphora guidottii, 73 Crossopteryx kotschyana, 77
Commiphora habessinica, 73 Crotalaria aculeata, 77
Commiphora hildebrandtii, 73 Crotalaria glauca, 77
Commiphora kataf, 73 Croton dichogamus, 77
Commiphora madagascariensis, 73 Croton eluteria, 77
Commiphora molmol, 73 Croton flavens, 78
Commiphora mukul, 73 Croton flocculosus, 78
Commiphora myrrha, 13, 73 Croton gratissimus, 78
Commiphora opobalsamum, 73 Croton pseudopulchellus, 78
Commiphora pedunculata, 73 Croton texensis, 78
Commiphora schimperi, 73 Croton tiglium, 78
Commiphora sp., 13, 73 Croton zambesicus, 78
Commiphora truncata, 74 Cryptomeria japonica, 78
Species Index 221

Cupressus arizonica, 78 Dioclea reflexa, 84
Cupressus lusitanica, 78 Dioscorea dumetorum, 85
Cupressus torulosa, 78 Diospyros argentea, 85
Curcuma domestica, 79 Diospyros melanoxylon, 17, 85
Curcuma longa, 79 Diospyros undabunda, 85
Cuscuta reflexa, 79 Dipteryx odorata, 85
Cycnium racemosum, 79 Dipteryx panamensis, 85
Cydista aequinoctialis, 79 Dobera glabra, 85
Cydonia oblonga, 79 Dodonaea viscosa, 85
Cymbopetalum brasiliense, 79 Dodonaea viscosa ssp. mucronata, 85
Cymbopogon bombycinus, 79 Dorema ammoniacum, 85
Cymbopogon caesius, 79 Dorstenia contrayerba, 85
Cymbopogon citratus, 79 Dorstenia sp. cf. barniniana, 86
Cymbopogon densiflorus, 79 Drimys winteri, 86
Cymbopogon giganteus, 79 Drymaria cordata, 86
Cymbopogon jwarancusa, 80 Duboisia hopwoodii, 86
Cymbopogon marginatus, 80 Dyerophytum indicum, 86
Cymbopogon nardus, 21, 80 Dyschoriste radicans, 86
Cymbopogon proximus, 80 Ecballium elaterium, 52, 86
Cymbopogon sp., 80 Ecbolium revolutum, 86
Cynoglossum boreale, 80 Echinacea angustifolia, 86
Cyprus articulatus, 80 Echinacea pallida, 86
Cyprus bulbosus, 80 Echinacea purpurea, 86
Cyprus rotundus, 80 Elaeis guineensis, 87
Cyprus sp., 80 Elettaria cardamomum, 87
Cytisus canariensis, 80 Eleusine indica, 87
Cytisus scoparius, 80 Elsholtzia blanda, 87
Dalbergia junghuhnii, 80 Elsholtzia eriostachya, 87
Dalbergia parviflora, 80 Elsholtzia fruticosa, 87
Dalbergia picta, 81 Encelia farinosa, 87
Daniella oliveri, 81 Endostemon tereticaulis, 87
Daphne bholua, 81 Englerophytum magalismontanum, 87
Daphniphyllum humile, 81 Entada abyssinica, 87
Datura fastuosa, 6, 81 Entada leptostachya, 87
Datura ferox, 81 Ephedra nevadensis, 87
Datura innoxia, 60, 81 Ephedra trifurca, 87
Datura metel, 50, 82, 62 Epilobium angustifolium, 87
Datura meteloides, 82 Epipremnum giganteum, 88
Datura sp., 5, 6, 7, 18, 20, 37, 59, 82 Eremophila latrobei, 88
Datura stramonium, 5, 6, 10, 18, 52, 81, 82, 83 Eremophila longifolia, 88
Datura wrightii, 83 Eremophila mitchellii, 88
Delonix regia, 84 Eremophila neglecta, 88
Dendranthema nubigenum, 84 Eremophila sturtii, 88
Desmodium adscendens, 84 Eremostachys loasifolia, 88
Desmodium supinum, 84 Erigeron canadensis, 88
Dianella ensifolia, 84 Erigeron philadelphicus, 88
Dianella nemorosa, 84 Eriodictyon californicum, 89
Dichrostachys cinerea, 84 Eriogonum divaricatum, 89
Dicoma membranacea, 84 Eriogonum inflatum, 89
Dictyota dichotoma, 84 Ervatamia coronaria, 89
Didymocarpus albicalyx, 84 Eryngium foetidum, 89
Didymocarpus cinereus, 84 Eryngium planum, 89
222 Species Index

Erysimum repandum, 89 Gaura parviflora, 94
Erythrina abyssinica, 89 Gaylussacia baccata, 94
Erythrina subumbrans, 89 Geigera ornativa ssp ornativa, 94
Erythrophleum chlorostachys, 3, 89 Geijera parviflora, 94
Erythrophleum suaveolens, 89 Gerbera piloselloides, 94
Erythroxylum coca, 20, 89, 90, 146 Geum triflorum, 94
Ethulia conyzoides, 90 Gilia leptomeria, 94
Eucalyptus camaldulensis, 90 Gilia multiflora, 94
Eucalyptus cinerea, 90 Gladiolus dalenii, 94
Eucalyptus citriodora, 90 Gloriosa superba, 95
Eucalyptus dives, 90 Glyceria aquatica, 66, 95
Eucalyptus globulus, 90 Glycyrrhiza glabra, 24, 95
Eucalyptus papuana, 90 Gnaphalium japonicum, 95
Eucalyptus spp., 91 Gnaphalium margaritaceum, 95
Eucarya spicata, 91 Gnaphalium obtusifolium, 95
Euclea natalensis, 91 Gnaphalium polycephalum, 95
Euclea schimperi, 91 Gnetum nodiflorum, 95
Eugenia aromatica, 24, 91 Gnetum sp., 95
Eulalia aurea, 91 Gnidia burchellii, 95
Eupatorium maculatum, 91 Gnidia capitata, 96
Eupatorium urticaefolium, 37, 91 Gnidia gymnostachya, 96
Euphorbia cuneata ssp. spinescens, 91 Gnidia sp., 96
Euphorbia hirta, 56, 91 Goniothalamus macrophyllus, 96
Euphorbia ingens, 92 Goniothalamus malayanus, 96
Euphrasia himalayica, 92 Gonystylus bancanus, 96
Evodia amboinensis, 92 Gonystylus macrophyllus, 96
Evolvulus alsinoides, 92 Gonystylus miquelianus, 96
Excoecaria agallocha, 92 Gossypium arboreum, 96
Exocarpus latifolius, 92 Gossypium herbaceum, 32, 53, 96
Fabiana bryoides, 92 Grevillea stenobotrya, 96
Fagara chalybea, 92 Grewia bicolor, 96
Fagus grandiflora, 92 Grewia microcus, 96
Faramea guianensis, 92 Guaiacum spp., 97
Fatsia horrida, 92 Guiera senegalensis, 97
Ferula assa-foetida, 53, 93 Guilandina bonducella, 32, 97
Ferula communis, 93 Gutierrezia furfuracea, 97
Ferula foetida, 93 Gutierrezia sarothrae, 97
Ferula jaeschkeana, 93 Gutierrezia sp., 97
Ferula sumbul, 93 Gymnosporia royleana, 97
Ficus carica, 93 Hagenia abyssinica, 97
Flacourtia indica, 93 Hanghomia marseillei, 97
Flueggea virosa, 93 Haplocoelum foliolosum, 97
Foeniculum officinalis, 93 Harrisonia abyssinica, 97
Foeniculum vulgare, 93 Hedychium spicatum, 97
Frankenia palmeri, 93 Helenium cusickii, 97
Fraxinus excelsior, 93 Helenium microcephalum, 98
Fraxinus nigra, 93 Helianthus spp., 98
Fuchsia excorticata, 94 Helichrysum aureonitens, 98
Fumaria sp., 94 Helichrysum cymosum, 98
Gardenia latifolia, 94 Helichrysum decorum, 98
Gardenia spatulifolia, 94 Helichrysum epapposum, 98
Gardenia volkensii ssp spatulifolia, 94 Helichrysum foetidum, 98
Species Index 223

Helichrysum gymnocomum, 98 Inula conyza, 104
Helichrysum herbaceum, 98 Inula dysenterica, 105
Helichrysum italicum, 98 Inula graveolens, 105
Helichrysum kirkii, 50, 70, 98 Inula helenium, 105
Helichrysum litoreum, 99 Inula racemosa, 105
Helichrysum natalitium, 99 Inula viscosa, 105
Helichrysum nudifolium, 99 Ipomoea crassipes, 105
Helichrysum odoratissimum, 99 Ipomoea hildebrandtii ssp. grantii, 105
Helichrysum spp., 99 Ipomoea kituensis, 105
Helichrysum stenopterum, 99 Ipomoea leptophylla, 105
Helosis cayennensis, 99 Ipomoea paniculata, 50, 105
Hemizygia bracteosa, 99 Ipomoea pellita, 105
Heracleum lanatum, 99 Ipomoea purpurea, 105
Heracleum maximum, 99 Ipomopsis multiflora, 94, 105
Hernandia beninensis, 99 Iris missouriensis, 106
Hertia intermedia, 100 Iris versicolor, 106
Heteromeles arbutifolia, 100 Irvingia malayana, 106
Heteromorpha arborescens, 100 Isotoma petraea, 106
Heteromorpha trifoliata, 100 Jacaranda copaia, 106
Hierochloe odorata, 10, 100 Jacaranda copaia ssp spectabilis, 106
Hildebrandtia obcordata, 100 Jasminum floribundum, 106
Hildebrandtia somalensis, 100 Jasminum sp., 32, 106
Hipposelinum sp., 100 Jatropha curcas, 106
Holarrhena antidysenterica, 53, 101 Jatropha gossypifolia , 106
Homalanthus alpinus, 101 Jaubertia aucheri, 107
Homalomena aromatica, 101 Jouvea pilosa, 107
Hoslundia opposita, 69, 101 Julbernardia globiflora, 107
Houstonia wrightii, 101 Juniperus communis, 32, 107, 109, 140, 167
Hura crepitans, 101 Juniperus communis ssp nana, 107
Hydnocarpus kurzii, 101 Juniperus communis var. depressa, 107
Hygrophila gracillima, 101 Juniperus communis var. montana, 107
Hymenaea courbaril, 101 Juniperus drupacea, 107
Hymenaea davisii, 101 Juniperus excelsa, 107
Hymenaea oblongifolia, 101 Juniperus horizontalis, 108
Hymenaea verrucosa, 101 Juniperus indica, 108
Hymenocardia acida, 102 Juniperus macropoda, 9, 108
Hymenophyllum polyanthus, 102 Juniperus monosperma, 108
Hyoscyamus albus, 10, 102 Juniperus occidentalis, 108
Hyoscyamus boveanus, 102 Juniperus osteosperma, 109, 110
Hyoscyamus muticus, 18, 102 Juniperus phoenicia, 109
Hyoscyamus niger, 24, 32, 52, 83, 102 Juniperus pinchotti, 109
Hyoscyamus reticulatus, 103, 167 Juniperus procera, 109
Hyphaene coriacea, 103 Juniperus recurva, 109
Hyptis pectinata, 103 Juniperus scopulorum, 109
Hyptis spicigera, 103 Juniperus sibirica, 107, 109
Hyptis spp., 103 Juniperus silicicola, 109, 111
Hyptis suaveolens, 103 Juniperus spp., 8, 48, 110
Ichnanthus panicoides, 104 Juniperus squamata, 110
Ilex paraguariensis, 104 Juniperus utahensis, 110
Imperata cylindrica, 104 Juniperus virginiana, 110
Indigofera schimperi, 104 Juniperus virginiana var. silicicola, 110, 111
Indigofera sp., 104 Juniperus virginiana var. virginiana, 111
224 Species Index

Juniperus wallichiana, 111 Ligusticum canadense, 116
Jurinea dolomiaea, 111 Ligusticum canbyi, 116
Jurinea macrocephala, 111 Lindera fragrans, 116, 169
Justicia adhatoda, 111 Lindera sp., 116
Justicia exigua, 111 Linum lewisii, 116
Justicia zeylanica, 111 Liparis vexillifera, 116
Khaya sp., 111 Lippia alba, 116
Klainedoxa gabonensis, 111 Lippia asperifolia, 116
Kleinia spp., 111 Lippia javanica, 116
Knowltonia anemenoides ssp anemenoides, 112 Lippia multiflora, 116
Knowltonia anemonoides, 112 Lippia nodiflora, 116
Knowltonia vesicatoria, 112 Lippia sp., 117
Koeberlinia spinosa, 112 Liquidambar orientalis, 117
Kyllinga monocephala, 112 Liquidambar styraciflua, 117
Lablab purpureus ssp. uncinatus var. Litsea glutinosa, 117
rhomboideus, 42, 112 Lobelia cardinalis, 117
Lagenaria siceraria, 50, 112 Lobelia excelsa, 117
Lagerstroemia speciosa, 112 Lobelia inflata, 17, 117, 129
Lampaya medicinalis, 112 Lobelia tupa, 118
Lancea tibetica, 112 Lolium temulentum, 118
Lannea edulis, 113 Lomatia silaifolia, 118
Lannea stuhlmannii, 113 Lomatium dissectum var. multiflorum, 118
Lansium domesticum, 113 Lomatium macrocarpum, 118
Lantana camara, 113 Lomatium nudicaule, 118
Lantana rhodesiensis, 113 Lonchocarpus capassa, 118
Lantana trifolia, 113 Lonchocarpus nelsii, 118
Lantana viburnoides, 113 Lonicera floribunda, 118
Larix laricina, 113 Lupinus sp., 119
Larix occidentalis, 113 Lycopodium clavatum, 119
Larrea divaricata ssp. tridentata, 77, 144 Lycopodium sp., 119
Larrea tridentata, 114 Lysichiton americanus, 119
Larrea tridentata var. tridentata, 114 Lysichiton kamtschatcense, 119
Lasiosiphon anthylloides, 114 Lysimachia vulgaris, 119
Lasiosiphon capitatus, 114 Macromeria viridiflora, 119
Lasiosiphon linifolius, 114 Macropiper excelsum, 119
Laurelia sempervirens, 114 Madhuca latifolia, 119
Laurus azorica, 114 Madia glomerata, 119
Laurus nobilis, 10, 63, 114 Maerua caffra, 119
Lavandula angustifolia, 114 Maerua crassifolia, 119
Lavandula latifolia, 114 Maerua kaessneri, 120
Lavandula pedunculata, 115 Maerua subcordata, 10, 120
Lawsonia inermis, 115 Maianthemum canadense, 120
Ledum groenlandicum, 115 Maianthemum racemosum ssp. amplexicaule,
Ledum palustre, 115 120
Leonotis leonurus, 115 Maianthemum racemosum ssp. racemosum, 120
Leonotis nepetifolia, 115 Maianthemum trifolium, 120
Leonotis sibericus, 115 Malva sylvestris, 120
Lepidium ruderale, 115 Mangifera indica, 120
Lepidium sativum, 115 Manihot esculenta, 120
Leptodermis lanceolata, 115 Manilkara inundata, 120
Leucas martinicensis, 115 Mansoa standleyi, 121
Leucas pechuelii, 116, 124 Markhamia lutea, 121
Species Index 225

Mastixia arborea, 121 Myroxylon peruiferum, 126
Matricaria chamomilla, 121 Myrtus communis, 126
Maytenus undatus, 121 Nardostachys grandiflora, 126
Maytenus vitis-idaea, 121 Nardostachys jatamansi, 126
Melaleuca cajuputi, 121 Nauclea latifolia, 126
Melaleuca glomerata, 121 Neea sp., 126
Melaleuca leucadendra, 121 Neocarya macrophylla, 126
Melaleuca symphyocarpa, 121 Nepeta cataria, 126
Melanthera scandens, 121 Nepeta leucophylla, 126
Melilotus officinalis, 121 Nerium indicum, 50, 126
Meliosma buchananiifolia, 121 Nerium odorum, 60, 127, 137, 152
Mentha aquatica, 122 Nerium oleander, 26, 127
Mentha arvensis, 122 Nicotiana alata, 127
Mentha pulegium, 122 Nicotiana attenuata, 25, 127
Mentha spicata, 122 Nicotiana bigelovii, 127
Mentha spp., 122 Nicotiana bigelovii var. exaltata, 128
Mentha sylvestris ssp. viridis, 122 Nicotiana clevelandii, 128
Mentha viridis, 122 Nicotiana glauca, 128
Mentzelia affinis, 122 Nicotiana multivalvis, 128
Mentzelia multiflora var. multiflora, 122 Nicotiana plumbaginifolia, 128
Mentzelia pumila, 122 Nicotiana quadrivalvis, 128
Michelia champaca, 122 Nicotiana quadrivalvis var. bigelovii, 128
Micromeria biflora, 122 Nicotiana rustica, 129
Mikania sagittifera, 122 Nicotiana spp., 9, 15, 16, 17, 22, 23, 27, 37, 38,
Millingtonia hortensis, 123 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 51, 54, 55,
Mimosa pudica, 123 59, 60, 64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 70, 75, 76, 77, 78,
Mirabilis nyctaginea, 38, 123 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 85, 86, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93,
Mitchella repens, 123 94, 95, 98, 100, 102, 106, 107, 109, 112, 115,
Mitragyna ciliata, 123 116, 117, 118, 121, 122, 123, 125, 128, 129,
Mitragyna speciosa, 123 133, 136, 142, 144, 146, 147, 148, 149, 150,
Mollugo pentaphylla, 123 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 157, 159, 163, 164,
Momordica balsamina, 123 166, 168, 169, 170, 172, 173, 174, 177, 178
Momordica charantia, 124 Nicotiana tabacum, 130
Monanthotaxis caffra, 124 Nicotiana thyrsiflora, 131
Monanthotaxis fornicata, 124 Nicotiana tomentosa, 131
Morina coulteriana, 124 Nicotiana trigonophylla, 131
Morina longifolia, 124 Nigella sativa, 131
Mucuna pruriens, 124 Notholaena eckloniana, 131
Mundulea sericea, 116, 124 Obetia pinnatifida, 132
Murraya koenigii, 124 Ochna pulchra, 132
Musa acuminata, 20, 124 Ocimum americanum, 132
Musa x paradisiacal var. paradisiacal, 124 Ocimum basilicum, 132
Myoporum acuminatum, 124 Ocimum canum, 132
Myriactis nepalensis, 124 Ocimum kilimandscharicum, 132
Myrica asplenifolia, 74, 125 Ocimum lamiifolium, 132
Myrica gale, 125 Ocimum sanctum, 132
Myrica pensylvanica, 125 Ocimum spp., 21, 53, 132
Myricaria germanica ssp. alopecuroides, 125 Ocimum suave, 132
Myristica fragrans, 125 Ocimum viride, 132
Myristica sp., 125 Ocotea bullata, 133
Myrothamnus flabellifolius, 125 Oenothera albicaulis, 133
Myroxylon balsamum, 125 Oenothera cespitosa ssp. marginata, 133
226 Species Index

Oenothera villosa ssp. strigosa, 133 Petiveria alliacea, 138
Olea africana, 133 Petunia violacea, 139
Olea europea, 133 Peucedanum officinale, 139
Olea europea ssp africana, 133 Peucedanum sp., 139
Onoseris albicans, 133 Pharus latifolius, 139
Onosmodium thurberi, 133 Philonoptera violacea, 139
Oplismenus compositus, 133 Philoxerus vermicularis, 139
Oplopanax horridus, 92, 133 Phlomis purpurea ssp. almeriensis, 139
Orbignya martiana, 134, Phoenix dactylifera, 139
Origanum heracleoticum, 134 Phragmanthera usuiensis, 139
Origanum vulgare, 134 Phyllanthus maderaspatensis, 139
Ormocarpum trichocarpum, 134 Physalis minima, 139
Oryza sativa, 53, 134 Physalis pubescens, 139
Osmorhiza occidentalis, 134 Physochlaina praealta, 139
Osmoxylon umbelliferum, 134 Physostigma venenosum, 140
Osteophloeum platyspermum, 134 Phytolacca dodecandra, 140
Ostostegia integrifolia, 134 Picea abies, 140
Osyris abyssinica, 134 Picea canadensis, 140
Osyris compressa, 134 Picea glauca, 140
Osyris lanceolata, 134 Picea rubens, 140
Osyris quadripartita, 134 Piliostigma thonningii, 140
Otholobium polystictum, 135 Pimenta dioica, 140
Otostegia integrifolia, 135 Pimpinella anisum, 140
Ozoroa reticulata, 70, 135 Pinus banksiana, 140
Ozoroa schinzii, 50, 98, 135 Pinus cembroides, 141
Paeonia officinalis, 135 Pinus edulis, 141
Palisota ambigua, 135 Pinus flexilis, 141
Palisota hirsuta, 135 Pinus monophylla, 141
Panax quinquefolius, 135 Pinus nigra, 141
Pandanus fascicularis, 24, 135 Pinus ponderosa, 141
Pandanus leram, 136 Pinus pseudostrobus, 141
Panicum antidotale, 136 Pinus resinosa, 142
Papaver somniferum, 18, 136, 214 Pinus rigida, 142
Pappea capensis, 136 Pinus spp., 142
Parastrephia lepidophylla, 136 Pinus strobus, 142
Parina sp., 136 Pinus succinifera, 142
Parinari curatellifolia, 136 Pinus yunnanensis, 142
Parkia biglobosa, 137 Piptadenia peregrina, 143
Paspalum scrobiculatum, 50, 53, 127, 137 Pistachia khinjuk, 143
Passiflora incarnata, 137 Pistacia lentiscus, 143
Pavonia zeylanica, 137 Pistacia terebinthus, 143
Pechuel-loeschea leubnitziae, 137 Planchonella obovata, 143
Peganum harmala, 38, 137 Plectranthus igniarius, 143
Peganum harmala var. stenophyllum, 138 Pleurospermum brunonis, 143
Pellaea calomelanos, 138 Pluchea leubnitziae, 143
Pentaclethra macrophylla, 138 Podocarpus falcatus, 143
Peperomia emarginella, 138 Podocarpus totara, 143
Perideridia gairdneri, 138 Pogostemon hortensis, 143
Persea americana, 138 Polyalthia jenkinsii, 144
Persea borbonia, 138 Polygonatum biflorum, 144
Petalidium sp., 138 Polygonatum biflorum var. commutatum, 144
Peteria scoparia, 138 Polygonatum pubescens, 144
Species Index 227

Polygonum muhlenbergii, 144 Quercus bicolor, 149
Polyporus guaraniticum, 144 Quercus guajavifolia, 149
Polyscias fruticosa, 144 Quercus robur, 149
Populus angustifolia, 144 Ranunculus affinis, 149
Populus aurea, 144 Ranunculus multifidus, 149
Populus balsamifera, 144 Ranunculus pensylvanicus, 15, 149
Populus balsamifera ssp. balsamifera, 144 Rhamnus crocea ssp. ilicifolia, 149
Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa, 145 Rhamnus ilicifolia, 149
Populus tremuloides, 145 Rhazya stricta, 149
Populus trichocarpa, 145 Rheum moorcroftianum, 150
Pothos scandens, 145 Rhizophora apiculata, 150
Pourouma ovata, 145 Rhizophora mangle, 150
Premna oligotricha, 145 Rhizophora racemosa, 150
Prosopis glandulosa, 145 Rhododendron anthopogon, 150
Prostanthera sp., 145 Rhododendron anthopogon ssp.
Protasparagus laricinus, 145 hypenanthum, 150
Protium altsonii, 145 Rhododendron campanulatum, 150
Protium attenuatum, 145 Rhododendron lepidotum, 150
Protium carana, 146 Rhododendron trichostomum, 150
Protium chapelieri, 146 Rhus aromatica, 150
Protium copal, 14, 146 Rhus coriaria, 151
Protium crassipetalium, 146 Rhus glabra, 151
Protium crenatum, 146 Rhus leptodictya, 151
Protium decandrum, 146 Rhus parviflora, 151
Protium guianense, 146 Rhus potaninii, 151
Protium heptaphyllum, 146 Rhus sempervirens, 151
Protium icicariba, 147 Rhus tenuinervis, 151
Protium rhynchophyllum, 147 Rhus trilobata, 152
Protium sagotianum, 147 Rhus trilobata var. trilobata, 152
Protium schomburgkianum, 147 Rhus typhina, 152
Protium spruceanum, 147 Rhus virens, 152
Prunus dulcis var. amara, 147 Ricinus communis, 9, 26, 50, 53, 127, 137, 152,
Prunus mume, 147 171
Prunus persica, 147 Rinorea ilicifolia, 152
Prunus spp., 147 Roldana sessifolia, 152
Pseudima frutescens, 147 Rosa arkansana var. suffulta, 153
Pseudocedrela kotschyi, 147 Rosa damascena, 153
Pseudognaphalium obtusifolium, 148 Rosa gymnocarpa, 153
Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia var. Rosa pratincola, 153
maprouneifolia, 148 Rosa woodsii, 153
Pseudotsuga menziesii, 148 Rosmarinus officinalis, 153
Psoralidium tenuiflorum, 148 Rothmannia capensis, 153
Psorospermum senegalense, 148 Ruellia californica, 153
Psychotria cf. zevallosi, 148 Rumex crispus, 153
Pteris aquilina, 148 Rumex orbiculatus, 153
Pterocarpus santalinus, 148 Ruta chalepensis, 153
Pterocaulon globuliflorus, 148 Ruta graveolens, 153
Pterospora andromedea, 148 Ruta spp., 154
Pterygota alata, 148 Ryania mansoana, 154
Pycnocarpus sanguineus, 148 Sabina virginiana, 154
Pyrostria phyllantheoidea, 148 Saccharum munja, 154
Quararibea funebris, 149 Sacoglottis ceratocarpa, 154
228 Species Index

Salix humilis, 154 Setaria poiretiana, 159
Salix lucida, 154 Shorea leprosula, 159
Salix scouleriana, 154 Shorea robusta, 159, 162
Salix sp., 25, 154 Sida acuta, 160
Salix suberrata, 154 Sida cordifolia, 160
Salvadora angustifolia, 154 Sida rhombifolia, 160
Salvadora australis, 154 Silene conoidea, 160
Salvadora persica, 155 Silene inflata, 160
Salvia apiana, 155 Silene italica, 160
Salvia divinorum, 155 Silvaea pachyphylla, 160
Salvia officinalis, 155 Sinapsis alba, 160
Sambucus ebulus, 25, 155 Sium suave, 160
Sambucus nigra, 155 Skimmia laureola, 160
Sanchezia spp., 156 Smilacina amplexicaulis, 120, 160
Santalum album, 156 Smilacina racemosa, 160
Santalum lanceolatum, 156 Smilacina trifolia, 160
Sapium biloculare, 156 Smilax glyciphylla, 161
Saprosma foetens, 156 Smilax ornata, 161
Sarcobatus vermiculatus, 156 Socratea exorrhiza, 161
Sarcocephalus latifolius, 156 Solanecio angulatus, 161
Sarcostemma australe, 156 Solanum aculeatissimum, 161
Sauropus quadrangularis, 156 Solanum anguivi, 161
Saussurea lappa, 50, 157 Solanum ciliatum, 161
Saxifraga stolonifera, 157 Solanum inaequilaterale, 161
Scaevola spinescens, 157 Solanum incanum, 161
Sceletium expansum, 157 Solanum indicum, 161
Sceletium tortuosum, 157 Solanum khasianum var. chatterjeeanum, 161
Schima wallichii, 157 Solanum melongena, 162
Schinopsis cornuta, 157 Solanum myriacanthum, 162
Schinus latifolius, 157 Solanum nigrum, 162
Schmaltzia bakeri, 152, 157 Solanum renschii, 162
Schotia brachypetala, 157 Solanum surattense, 162
Schwenkia americana, 157 Solanum trilobatum, 162
Scoparia dulcis, 157 Solanum viarum, 162
Scopolia carniolica, 158 Solanum violaceum, 162
Scopolia stramonifolia, 158 Solanum xanthocarpum var. jacquini, 162
Securidaca longepedunculata, 158 Solidago graminifolia, 162
Selaginella caffrorum, 119, 158 Solidago odora, 162
Selaginella scandens, 158 Solidago spp., 163
Selaginella wightii, 119, 158 Solidago ulmifolia, 163
Selinum candolli, 158 Sorbus aucuparia, 163
Selinum tenuifolium, 158 Sorghum sp., 163
Selinum wallichianum, 158 Spartium junceum, 163
Semecarpus anacardium, 50, 158 Spathiphyllum candicans, 163
Semecarpus australiensis, 158 Spathiphyllum cannifolium, 163
Senecio graveolens, 158 Sphaeralcea sp., 163
Senecio sp., 159 Spiranthes aurantiaca, 163
Senna artemisioides ssp. filifolia, 159 Spirospermum penduliflorum, 163
Senna occidentalis, 159 Spirostachys africana, 163
Senna singueana, 159 Spondius mombin, 164
Senra incana, 159 Stachys annua, 164
Sesamothamnus busseanus, 159 Stachytarpheta cayennensis, 164
Species Index 229

Stemona tuberosa, 164 Teucrium polium, 168
Stenocereus thurberi, 164 Thalictrum dasycarpum, 15, 168
Stephania hernandiflora, 50, 164 Thalictrum fendleri, 168
Stereospermum kunthianum, 164 Thamnosma africana, 168
Streblus asper, 164 Thaumatococcus daniellii, 169
Streblus taxoides, 164 Theobroma cacao, 64, 169
Streptoglossa odora, 164 Thermopsis rhombifolia, 169
Streptogyna americana, 164 Thuja occidentalis, 169
Striga gesnerioides, 164 Thuja orientalis, 116, 169
Strychnos phaeotricha, 165 Thymus integer, 169
Styrax argentum, 165 Thymus linearis, 169
Styrax benzoin, 165 Thymus schimperi, 170
Styrax camporum, 165 Thymus serphyllum, 32, 167, 170
Styrax ferrugineum, 165 Tilia americana, 170
Styrax officinalis, 165 Tilia cordata, 170
Styrax ovatus, 165 Tinospora sinensis, 170
Styrax tessmannii, 165 Tournefortia argentea, 170
Styrax tonkinensis, 165 Toxicodendron diversilobium, 170
Styrax weberbaueri, 165 Toxicodendron orientale, 170
Suaeda vermiculata, 165 Toxicodendron pubescens, 170
Sutera sp., 165 Toxicodendron radicans, 171
Swertia chirata, 165 Toxicodendron rydbergii, 171
Symphoricarpos sp., 165 Toxicodendron succedaneum, 171
Symphyotrichum lanceolatum ssp. hesperium Toxicodendron vernicifluum, 171
var. hesperium, 165 Toxicodendron vernix, 171
Syzygium guineense, 166 Trachylobium homemannianum, 171
Tabernaemontana divaricata, 166 Tragia involucrata, 50, 171
Tabernaemontana elegans, 166 Trema orientalis, 171
Taenidia integerrima, 166 Trichilia havanensis, 172
Tagetes lucida, 60, 129, 166 Trichilia micrantha, 172
Tagetes minuta, 166 Trichocereus pachanoi, 172
Tagetes patula, 166 Trichocline auriculata var. auriculata, 172
Tamarix gallica, 166 Trichomanes javanicum, 172
Tamarix stricta, 166 Trichosanthes palmata, 172
Tanacetum vulgare, 167 Trichosanthes tricuspidata, 172
Tapinanthus sp., 167 Trientalis americana, 172
Tarchonanthus camphoratus, 167 Trientalis borealis, 172
Tarenna graveolens var graveolens, 167 Trifolium pretense, 172
Tauschia parishii, 167 Trilisa odoratissima, 172
Taxus baccata, 32, 140, 167 Triticum dicoccum, 172
Teclea nobilis, 167 Triumfetta rhomboidea, 172
Teclea simplicifolia, 167 Trixis californica var californica, 173
Tectona grandis, 167 Tsuga dumosa, 173
Tephrosia hamiltonii, 167 Tsuga heterophylla, 173
Tephrosia pumila, 167 Tuinaea aethiopica, 173
Terminalia avicennioides, 168 Turnera diffusa, 173
Terminalia brownii, 168 Tussilago farfara, 17, 173
Terminalia chebula, 168 Uapaca bojeri, 173
Terminalia ivorensis, 168 Umbellularia californica, 173
Terminalia orbicularis, 168 Utricularia inflexa, 173
Tessaria absinthioides, 168 Valeriana hardwickii, 173
Tetradenia riparia, 168 Valeriana jatamansi, 173
230 Species Index

Valeriana wallichii, 174 Withania somnifera, 52, 176
Vateria indica, 174 Xanthorrhoea latifolia, 176
Verbascum blattaria, 174 Xanthorrhoea preissii, 178
Verbascum thapsus, 17, 174 Xanthorrhoea resinosa, 176
Vernonia anthelmintica, 50, 175 Xeromphis spinosa, 50, 53, 177
Vernonia natalensis, 175 Xerophyta equisetoides, 177
Vetiveria zizanioides, 175 Xerophyta equisetoides var. equisetoides, 177
Viburnum pubescens, 175 Xerophyta retinervis, 177
Vicia faba, 175 Xerophyta spp., 177
Viola epipsila, 175 Ximenia caffra, 177
Virola sebifera, 175 Xylocarpus granatum, 177
Virola spp., 175 Xylopia aethiopica, 177
Vitex agnus-castus, 175 Yucca glauca, 177
Vitex negundo, 175 Zanthoxylum capense, 177
Vitex trifolia, 176 Zanthoxylum zanthoxyloides, 177
Vochysia laxiflora, 176 Zea mays, 4, 22, 178
Waldheimia tomentosa, 176 Zehneria scabra, 178
Waltheria indica, 176 Zinnia grandiflora, 178
Warburgia salutaris, 64, 176 Ziziphus mauritiana, 178
Warburgia ugandensis, 176 Ziziphus mucronata ssp. mucronata, 178
Watsonia densiflora, 176 Ziziphus nummularia, 178
Widdringtonia whytei, 176 Zornia glochidiata, 178
Species Index 231

SUBJECT INDEX
Abdominal pains, 54, 65, 138, 212 Amazon, 85, 89, 101, 103, 125, 130, 131, 134,
Aberëshë Albanians, 155, 156 146, 154, 166, 176
Abipone people, 40 Amravati Tahsil, India, 167
Abortifacients, 4, 107, 154, 178–179 Amulets, 89
Abortions, 4, 38, 52, 63, 67, 74, 83, 86, 102, Analgesic properties. See analgesics
176, 179 Analgesic substances. See analgesics
Abscesses, 124, 178 Analgesics, 5, 25, 52, 70, 87, 136
Abyssinia. See Ethiopia Anatolia, Turkey, 38, 70, 155
Acacias, 3 Ancestors, 2, 10, 15, 23, 28, 98–99
Aches, 54, 137 Andaman Island, India, 96, 164
Aching legs, 138 Andes Mountains, 8, 89, 131
Acron, 8 Andhra Pradesh, India, 39, 58, 111, 159, 175
Acupuncture, 49, 214 Anesthetics, 10, 40, 112
Addiction, 19, 130 Angina pectoris, 42, 112–113, 136, 211
Addictive substances, 17 Angola, 59, 101, 138, 143
Aetius, 8 Animal hides, 24–25, 47–48, 86, 140–141,
Africa, 3, 8, 10, 15, 21, 23–25, 36, 37, 41, 148, 156
53, 56–58, 61–74, 76–84, 89–91, 92, Animals, 9, 12, 23, 25, 26, 40, 50, 53, 58, 60,
93–100, 103, 104, 107, 111, 113–117, 119, 64, 79, 85, 96–97, 112–113, 121, 127, 137,
120, 122–124, 132–135, 145, 152, 153, 152, 157, 158, 163, 164, 166, 171, 175, 177
157–159, 162, 167, 168, 175–178 Ankara, Turkey, 38
African American magicians, 46 Anopheles. See anopheline mosquitoes
African Congo (Zaire), 63, 84–85, 120, 126, Anopheline mosquitoes, 21
135, 140, 165, 167, 173 Anticonvulsives, 156
Afrikaans, 37, 111 Antilles, 96, 138
Aire, 59, 104, 114, 145 Antiseptics, 9, 72, 105, 120, 137, 170, 211
Airway irritation, 170 Antispasmodics, 130, 147, 211
Akha people, 95, 136 Antitussives, 167
Alaska, 38, 39, 55, 71, 107, 140, 144–145, 175 Anus, 49, 54
Albuquerque, 148 Apasmara, 6
Alexandria, Egypt, 12 Aphids, 115
Algonquin people, 24, 129 Apollo, 9, 10, 102, 215
Aligandi, Panama, 64, 169 Apoplexy, 46, 114, 115, 153, 211
Alkaloids, 6–7, 17, 20, 86, 89, 90, 123, 138, Appalachians, 83, 126, 151, 172
179 Arabia, 12–13, 68, 73
Allergic reactions, 26, 170 Arabia Felix, 12
Almería, Spain, 69, 93, 139 Arabian people, 2, 11, 19
Alphonse de Candolle, 6 Arakwa people, 176
Alter do Chão people, 42, 147 Argentina, 40, 59, 81, 104, 136, 153, 172
Alveoli, 5 Arizona, 52, 89, 159, 164
233
Arkansas, 42 Bangladesh, 44
Arrernte people, 88, 124 Bantu people, 53, 116, 163
Arthaśāstra of Kautilīya, 26, 32, 49, 53, 60, 65, Barsana people, 172
96, 97, 105, 106, 112, 126, 127, 137, 152, Basilicata region, Italy, 155
157–159, 162, 164, 171, 175, 177 Bears, 130
Ascariasis, 177 Bedouins, 18, 47, 48, 102, 137
Ascea, Italy, 126 Beeling Tribe, 48
Asia, 6, 13, 21, 49, 53, 69, 78, 80, 90, 92–93, Bees, 22, 47, 60, 68, 97, 98, 101, 116, 134,
96, 117, 123, 137, 171, 173–174 141, 145, 151, 164, 167, 178
Asia Minor, 117 Beeswax, 125
Assam, Nepal, 139, 162 Beetles, 115
Assassins, 18 Belize, 59, 67, 123, 153, 164
Assassinations, 17 Bella Coola people, 38, 119
Assyria, 5 Bellorussia, 173
Assyrians, 11, 63 Berkeley Barb, 20
Asthma, 5, 6, 17, 36, 37, 43, 48, 49, 52, 56, 59, Betel nut, 22
61–63, 67, 70, 71, 74, 81–83, 87–88, 90–93, Bhaderwah Hills, India, 50, 124, 160
95, 96, 98, 102, 103, 107, 111, 117, 118, Bhil tribe, 167
120, 122, 125–127, 131, 134–135, 138, 140, Bhils people, 35
145, 151–155, 159–161, 163, 165, 167, 168, Bible, 139
171–174, 176–178 Bidis, 17–18
Athens, Greece, 7–8, 107 Biliousness, 47, 212
Atropine, 6 Birth, 3, 12, 27, 36, 65, 93, 109, 143, 172
Australia, 4, 28, 32, 33, 79, 85, 88–92, 104, Bitans. See Hanzakut shamans
106, 117, 121, 124, 145, 148, 156, 159, Bites, 20, 41, 105, 133, 175
176 Black copal, 37
Avicenna, 38, 54, 57, 67, 107, 115, 118, 131, Blackfoot people, 31, 38, 43, 76, 94, 100,
135, 140–141, 143, 149, 153, 165, 166, 168, 118–119, 127–128, 138
171, 211 Blindness, 32, 50, 82, 96, 97, 105, 152, 156,
Ayuba National Park, Pakistan, 160 159, 162, 171
Ayurveda, 4, 38, 71, 73, 87, 152, 160 Bluejay spirit, 116
Azadirachtin, 21, 53 Bolivia, 21, 49, 51–52, 70–71, 90, 114,
Aztecs, 117, 166 125–126, 145, 147, 157
Bora people, 65–66
Babies, 3–4, 16, 27, 32–33, 35, 47, 52, 59, 61, Borana people, 32–34, 37, 38, 46, 53, 56, 58,
65, 69–73, 79, 85, 88–89, 91, 92, 97, 98, 70, 72, 74, 86, 87, 94, 97, 100, 105, 113,
130, 132, 137–138, 156, 159 119, 120, 133–134, 136, 143, 159, 162,
Babylonians, 11 167, 168, 173, 176
Backache, 5, 88, 123, 142 Brazil, 36, 40, 42–43, 51, 63, 71, 82, 106, 126,
Bacon’s Rebellion, 6 130, 143, 145, 147, 154, 165
Bacteria, 23, 27, 39, 53, 111, 123, 150, 168 Bread, 126
Bad dreams, 71, 105, 110, 114, 119, 124, 132 Breasts, 54, 134
Bad luck, 25, 102, 156 British, 6, 19
Baganda Tribesmen, 83, 177 British Columbia, 31, 38, 47, 119, 148, 153,
Bakiga Tribe, 83, 159 173, 174
Balam Throne, Mexico, 13 British East India Company, 19
Balankanche Cave, Mexico, 13, 14 British Government, 19
Balochistan, Pakistan, 138 Bronchial conditions, 125
Balthasar, 12 Bronchial congestion, 121
Baltic region, 142 Bronchial coughs, 40
Baluchistan province, Pakistan, 161 Bronchitis, 73, 83, 91, 92, 118, 153, 171, 174
Bananas, 20, 22, 39, 115, 124, 131 Buckskins, tanning, 113, 145
234 Subject Index

Buddhist rituals, 10 Cherokee people, 36, 40, 83, 95, 113, 116, 117,
Bulamogi County, Uganda, 15, 33–34, 36, 130, 142
39, 42, 59, 64–65, 67, 77–78, 86, 89, 93, Cheroots, 17, 96, 164
102, 105, 115, 121, 132, 139, 140, 147, Chest complaints, 17, 96, 164
156–157, 159, 161, 178 Cheyenne people, 31, 40, 47, 68, 76, 99,
Burkina Faso, 164 107, 109
Byron Bay, Australia, 176 Chiapes, Mexico, 141
Chichén-Itzá, Mexico, 13–14
Cahuilla people, 45–46, 48, 52, 128, 131, Chickasaw people, 37, 91, 177
141, 155 Chicken-pox, 54, 64, 159
Calabash, 84–85, 126, 140, 164 Childbirth, 3, 8, 38, 48, 55, 59, 63, 78, 101,
California, 41–42, 45–46, 48, 49, 52, 88, 97, 107–109, 114, 136, 154
100, 128–129, 131, 141, 149, 155 Children, 5, 9, 21, 25, 27, 33, 37, 38, 58, 63,
Calmative agents, 129 64, 68, 85, 89, 93, 95, 102, 104, 124, 126,
Cambodia, 71, 81, 84, 104, 164 135, 138, 140, 144, 148, 156, 160, 165,
Camel, 11, 12, 38 167, 173
Camphor, 16, 24, 145, 167 Chile, 67, 86, 92, 112, 114, 118, 131, 157, 158,
Canada, 31, 38–39, 44–45, 47, 48, 55, 118, 160, 168
130, 134, 147, 169, 173–174 Chili, 9, 22, 27, 64
Canary Islands, 48 China, 8, 11, 18–19, 20, 43–45, 48, 49, 51, 55,
Cannabinoids, 5 63, 80, 83, 112, 116, 120, 132, 134, 142,
Cannabis, 4–5, 10, 17–18, 22, 46, 52, 58, 147, 149–150, 156–157, 169, 171
63–64, 67, 114–115, 155, 160, 176 Chinchero people, 133
Canyon de Chelly, 159 Chinese Book of Songs, 115
Carbon monoxide, 26–27, 212 Chinese Emperor, 19
Cardiac glycoside, 26, 127 Chinese immigrants, 19, 20
Carib people, 116 Chippewa people, 43, 45–47, 51, 68, 75–6,
Caribbean, 40, 60, 78, 83, 101, 130, 146–147, 120, 129, 144, 151
164 Choctaw people, 15
Carminative agents, 147, 212 Chorti Maya people, 9, 60
Carolus Linnaeus, 17 Christ, 12, 28
Carrier people, 31 Christmas, 31, 98, 107, 140, 163, 167
Castor-oil, 9, 26, 127, 152 Christopher Columbus, 15–16
Castrated animals, 25, 127, 154–155 Chuttas, 17
Catalonia, Spain, 155, 175 Cigarette, 6, 7, 15, 17–18, 24–25, 27, 54, 59,
Catarrh, 5, 41, 42, 55, 73, 74, 76, 79, 149, 160, 62, 70, 71, 77, 85, 87, 91, 94, 102, 103,
174, 212 105, 111, 113, 117, 122–123, 126, 147,
Catherine de Medici, 16 152, 159, 163, 165, 172
Catholic Church, 10, 27 Cigarillos, 17
Cattle, 25, 32, 58, 80, 95, 96, 102, 103, 143 Cigars, 17, 77, 125, 130–131, 139, 142,
Caucasuses, 173 150, 171
Caves, 2, 13–14 Cilento National Park, Italy, 70, 126
Cayenne, French Guiana, 146 Cinnamon, 7, 20, 22, 68–69
Ceiba tree, 13 Cinyras of Cyprus, 11
Celtic folklore, 156 Circumcision, 54
Censers, 13–14, 58, 212 Citronella grass, 21, 80
Central America, 146 Clothes, 24, 32, 56–58, 69, 72, 78, 85, 91, 97,
Chaco, Paraguay, 64, 81, 104, 121, 144, 148 100, 106, 123, 132, 135, 141, 156
Chad, 53 Carbon dioxide, 26
Chamus people, 33, 109, 119, 133 Coca plant, 20, 90
Chandipur, 35 Cocaine, 20, 89–90, 123
Charms, 8, 10, 15, 51, 68, 88, 93, 105, 143 Coconut husks, 20, 22, 71, 78, 176
Subject Index 235

Coffee, 22, 71 Dahanu Forest, India, 172
Colds, 5, 8, 31, 35–38, 40–42, 45–46, 48, 50, Dakhla Oases, Egypt, 33, 62
52, 61, 68, 70, 72–73, 79, 80, 84, 89–90, Dakota people, 61, 75, 76, 110, 128, 151, 153
94, 97–100, 107–110, 118, 121, 131, 134, Darien people, 41, 53, 65–67, 106
137–138, 141, 150, 155, 157, 160, DDT, 20–21, 68
162–164, 167, 174 Dead fetus, expelling, 59
Colic, 16, 53, 61, 93, 130 Dead people, 18, 59, 84, 142
College of Cardinals, 27–28 Deadly weapons, 26, 50, 53, 112, 121, 175,
Coltsfoot, 17, 173 177
Colville people, 35, 43, 47–48, 76, 109 Deer infections, 36–37
Comanche people, 98, 109–110, 151 Deer meat, 36–37, 50, 51, 77, 83, 89, 101,
Comatose people, 34, 47, 120, 140, 142, 160 144, 149, 162–163, 172
Como, 8 DEET, 20
Concan, India, 37 Delaware people, 42, 151
Conifers, 8, 13 Delirium, 7, 65
Conservation biology, 17, 28, 57 Delphian oracles, 9, 52, 63, 83, 102, 114
Conservationists, 85 Demons, 8, 59, 152
Containers, 24, 32–33, 38, 53–56, 61, 72, 74, Dena’ina people, 55, 107, 144, 175
97, 111, 132–134, 159, 162, 168, 173, 176 Dengue fever, 21
Convulsions, 15, 114, 132 Dermatitis, 26, 170–171
Cordillera region, Philippines, 37, 56, 59, 91 Dermatological complaints, 139
Corinth, 7, 9 Devils, 61, 66, 101, 113, 124, 130
Cos, Greece, 8 Dhofar, Oman, 12, 61, 64, 81, 86, 91, 149
Costanoan people, 42, 47, 49, 82, 88, 127, Dhows, 12
129, 162 Dhumtis, 17
Coughs, 5, 27, 31, 37, 40–41, 46, 62, 64, 65, Diarrhea, 8, 32–33, 42, 44, 54, 83, 89, 138,
72, 78, 82–84, 96, 98–99, 127, 138, 141, 149, 156, 174
132, 155, 163, 168, 170–176 Diegueno people, 155
Coumarin, 85, 172 Digestive system, 5, 61
Courage, 55 Di-methyl verbascoside, 113
Cowichan people, 118 Diseases of women, 145
Cows. See cattle Disinfectants, 7, 9, 48, 99, 106–107, 137, 160,
Crack cocaine, 20, 89–90 166, 170
Cramps, 81, 110 Distemper, 25, 42, 47, 86, 118, 141
Crazy people, 6, 153 Divinations, 10, 114
Cree people, 55, 76, 107, 140, 145, 169 Divorce, 34, 39, 59, 115
Creek people, 110, 150 Dizziness, 39, 116, 118, 146, 166, 177
Cresols, 27 Doctoring, 42
Criollos people, 59, 81, 104, 153 Dogwoods, 24
Crops, 10, 23, 26, 78, 102, 129 Dominca, 145
Crow people, 31, 54, 66, 92, 95, 108, 116, Dry mouth, 7
118–119, 128, 133 Dry skin, 7
Cuba, 40 Dumbus, 45, 51, 83, 149
Culex quinquefasciatus, 53, 66, 84, 177
Culpeper, 148 Eagle sickness, 109, 111
Cuna people, 85, 169 Earache, 5, 15, 46, 96, 125, 127–128,
Curanderos, 130 130–131, 141, 160, 172
Cuts, 128, 130, 142 Earthquakes, 10, 60, 120
Cyclopegia, 7 East Indies, 6
Cypress, 15, 61 Eastern Ghats area, 111, 159
Cypriote rites, 117 Eastern Uttar Pradesh, India, 50, 81
Cyprus, 11, 59, 82, 102, 117, 143, 165, 170 Ebers Papyrus, 18, 21
236 Subject Index

Ectoparasites, 23 Fida’i foot soldiers, 18
Ecuador, 27, 64, 81, 121, 131, 139, 148, 153, Fire, 1, 132
163 Fish, 23, 144
Eels, 38 Flags of truce, 15, 150
Egypt, 5, 8, 11–12, 18, 21, 23, 33, 47, 62, 65, Flambeau Ojibwa people,
95, 102, 104–105, 126, 152, 156 Flambeau people, 34, 40, 50–51, 77, 113, 120,
Egyptian disinfectants, 7 140, 144, 148–149, 153, 160, 162, 166–67,
Egyptian texts, 59, 139, 154, 172 169
Egyptians, 11–12, 18, 69, 73, 107, 109, 139, Flathead people, 100, 109, 116
154 Flu. See influenza
El Alto, Bolivia, 71, 114, 125, 145 Fly agaric mushroom, 129
Emmenagogues, 154 Food storage, 23
Emollients, 104, 170 Foot-and-mouth disease, 170
Entheogens, 155 Forest Potawatomi people, 34, 41, 152, 169,
Epilepsy, 27, 32–35, 42, 52, 58, 61–62, 67, 174
115, 118, 125 Formaldehyde, 23
Erythrocytes, 27 Fort Yukon, Alaska, 71, 140, 144
Eschirichia coli, 23, 53, 111, 123 France, Ubage Valley, 107, 120, 122, 155, 170
Ethiopia, 18, 32, 33–35, 37, 38, 46, 53, 55–58, Frankincense, 1, 7, 10–13, 24, 31, 56–58,
68, 70, 72, 73, 74, 86, 87, 91, 95, 97, 100, 62, 69
105–106, 111–113, 119, 120, 133, 134, Freebase cocaine. See cocaine
135, 136, 140, 143, 145, 148, 159, 162, French Guiana, 59, 77, 92, 106, 146, 147, 172
167–168, 170, 173, 176, 178 Fright illness, 71, 126
Ethiopians, 57, 59, 170 Frightened children, 5, 38
Ethnobotanical texts, 3, 120 Frogs, 40
Eugenol, 25 Fula people, 148
Europe, 5–6, 16, 17, 32, 36, 46, 55, 81, 102, Fumigations, 3–4, 7, 10, 35, 36, 38, 53, 63, 79,
121, 142, 161, 167, 173–174 93, 95, 99, 103, 104, 110, 121, 126, 147,
European colonizers, 117 152, 172
Evil, 3, 8–10, 15, 25, 27, 34, 41, 47, 50–51, Funerals, 141, 146
57, 58, 60, 64, 66, 71–72, 74, 80, 89, 93, Furanosesquiterpenes, 13
95, 98–100, 102, 107–08, 110–111, 118, Furuncules. See furunculosis
126, 128–132, 134, 137–138, 146–149, Furunculosis, 69, 115, 124
153–158, 160, 163–164, 169, 175
Evil eye. See evil Gabbi tribe, 109, 158
Evil spirits. See evil Gabbra people, 32–34, 38, 46, 56, 70, 72,
Exorcizing, 138, 169 74, 86, 87, 95, 97, 113, 119, 120, 133,
Expectorant, 93, 109, 117 136–137, 159, 162, 167–168, 173, 176
Extremities, 38 Gaharu, 44
Eyes, 6, 26, 34, 40–41, 64, 88–89, 98, 101, Galen, 8
106, 112, 132, 137, 141–143, 156, 157, Galibis people, 146–147
167, 170 Gambia, 36, 53, 116–117
Game, 15, 46, 51, 121, 129, 153
Faeroe Islands, Denmark, 110 Ganges River, 6
Fainting, 51, 86, 95, 99, 116, 126, 135 Ganjam District, India, 135
Far East, 15, 48 Garhwarl people, 173
Fawn sickness, 109, 111 Garisia tribe, 138
Febrifuges, 147 Garlic, 4, 22, 38
Feet, 77, 94, 114, 170 Gaspar, 12
Fever, 5, 8, 21, 34–36, 52, 57, 61–62, 71, 73, Gaza, 12
77–79, 90, 95, 97, 104, 114, 118, 121, 132, General ailments, 88, 124
163, 167, 175, 178 Georgi Markov, 26
Subject Index 237

Germany, 32 Happy Arabia. See Arabia Felix
Ghana, 22, 36, 53, 69, 97 Hasan ibn-Sabah, 18
Ghost dance, 119 Hashish, 17–18
Ghost sickness, 109, 111 Hashshashins, 18
Gilgit District, Pakistan, 63, 138 Havasupai people, 127, 131
Gnats, 117, 119, 159 Hawaiin people, 82, 84, 128, 130
God, 6–7, 9, 10–11, 13–15, 58, 60, 74, 90, Hay fever, 73, 118
130, 142, 146, 155 Headaches, 5, 17, 31, 34, 37–46, 48, 56,
God of Rain. See Tlaloc 59–65, 70, 72, 75–76, 80–84, 86–87,
Gold, 2, 12, 37 91–92, 95–96, 99–101, 108–110, 112–114,
Gonorrhea, 170 118–120, 131, 133, 135, 138–139, 142,
Good luck, 15, 45, 71, 133, 141, 166, 168 147–149, 151–152, 158, 160–161, 163,
Gosiute People, 76, 118, 127, 151 165–168, 172, 175
Gourds, 54–56, 86, 113, 115, 120–121, 133, Headpiece transfer ceremonies, 54
142, 145 Healing and cleansing rituals, 131
Gourma District, Mali, 56, 72 Health care, 3, 5, 17
Great Andamanese people, 95, 164 Heart pains, 36, 42, 112–113, 127, 136
Great Basin, 45, 76, 118 Hemorrhaging, 3, 32–33, 51, 83, 85, 88, 16,
Great Wall, China, 28 157, 163
Greece, 5, 7–9, 11–12, 23, 52, 63, 83, 102, Hemorrhoids, 35, 59, 101, 104, 117, 143,
107, 114, 156, 173 157–158, 161–162, 170
Greek mythology, 9 Herbal treatments, 3
Greeks, 7, 8, 11, 13, 18, 23 Herero-speaking people, 122
Groote Eylandt, Australia, 23, 54, 61, 89, 104 Hernando Cortes, 117
Gros Ventre people, 128 Herodotus, 13
Gruta de Balankanche. See Balankanche Hickory, 23
Cave High Commissioner of Canton, 19
Guatemala, 9, 27, 59, 60, 79, 101, 116, 138, Himachal Hills, India, 111, 158, 173–174
142, 146 Himachal Pradesh State, India, 63, 109, 111,
Guinea-Bissau, 53, 87, 91, 132, 137, 146, 159 158
Gujarat people, 55, 61–62, 167 Himba people, 54, 94, 116
Gulf of Mexico, 60 Hindu god, 6
Gumpas, 124 Hippocrates of Cos, 8, 107
Gums, 13, 31, 34, 40, 51, 56–58, 61–62, HIV/AIDS, 5
72–74, 82, 85, 88, 93, 101, 117, 141, 143, Hocak people, 75, 86, 91, 117, 128,
145–146, 161, 163, 165 148, 151
Gunungan, 15 Hoh people, 44–45, 75–76
Guyana, 39–42, 46, 54, 67, 139, 157, 161, 172 Holy Roman Pontiff, 27–28
Gynecological disorders, 54, 59, 71, 118, 147, Hominid species, 2
178 Homo erectus, 2
Honeybees. See bees
Hadramawt, Oman, 11 Hong Kong, 19
Hainan Island, China, 44 Hopi people, 51, 93, 97, 119, 122, 127, 131,
Haisla people, 38, 130 133, 141
Hallucinations, 5, 10, 63, 153, 175 Horse distemper, 27, 42, 47, 86, 118,
Hallucinogens, 5, 9–10, 17, 40, 59–60, 67, 70, 141, 213
83, 98–99, 102, 108, 124, 142, 155–156, Horses, 25, 31, 79, 108–109, 127, 174, 178
166 Hottentot people, 115, 157, 167
Hamác, 52 Hualapai people, 131, 141
Hanaksiala people, 38, 130 Huastec Maya people, 146
Handeni District, Tanzania, 71, 113 Huaxtec people, 60
Hanzakut shamans, 9, 108 Hudson Bay, Canada, 45, 76, 169
238 Subject Index

Huichol people, 59, 116, 129, 163, 166 Insects, 66, 68, 74, 78–79, 89, 81, 100–101,
Human sacrifices, 13 104–105, 109–110, 112, 114–115, 199,
Hungary, 4, 22, 25, 38, 53, 64–65, 74, 82–83, 122, 129, 132, 139, 150, 158–159, 162, 164,
89, 103, 131, 160, 164, 166, 178 175–176
Hunting, 9, 15, 60, 68, 77, 82–83, 88, 95, 99, Insomnia, 8, 78, 81
128, 133, 141, 144, 149, 160, 162–163, Intoxication, 45, 102, 129
166–168, 172 Inuktitut people, 38–39, 144
Hyoscine, 6 Iran, 10, 38, 49, 54, 56, 60, 65, 67, 73–74, 79,
Hyoscyamine, 6 85, 89, 103, 107, 113, 115, 132, 135, 137,
Hypnotic state. See trance 140–141, 143, 147, 153, 162, 165–166,
Hysteria, 35, 66, 124 168, 171
Iraq, 56, 137
Iberian peninsula, 155, 175 Ireland, 35, 93–94, 163, 173
Icelandic people, 31, 140 Iroquois people, 35, 94, 119, 129–130, 135,
Idaho, 31 142, 149, 151
Il Milione, 17 Irritability, 123
Immune system, 5, 9 Islam, 17–18, 43
Incense, 7, 10–15, 24, 27, 29, 31–32, 34, 36, Isle of Colonsay, Scotland, 109
37, 39–41, 43–44, 46–49, 51, 54, 55–58, Israel, 5, 82
60, 62–63, 66–69, 71–74, 76–78, 80, 84, Isthmian America, 35, 41, 65, 67, 71, 85, 106
87, 91–93, 95–101, 103, 105, 107–113, Italy, 8, 61, 70, 82, 98–99, 103, 107, 126, 134,
115–119, 121–126, 130, 134–137, 139, 143, 155–156, 160, 163, 173–174
141–147, 149–150, 152–160, 162, 169, Itchiness, 64, 70, 110, 149, 178
173–176 Ivory Coast, 171
India, 3–6, 8, 11, 13, 17–19, 21, 24, 35, Izoceño-Guaraní people, 51–52, 70, 157
37–44, 46–50, 52–53, 55, 58, 61–63,
65–69, 71–77, 80–87, 89–90, 95–97, Jahalman tribe, 48
101, 103–105, 107–109, 111–112, 117, Jajpur District, India, 162
120–128, 131, 133, 135–139, 143–144, Jalisco State, Mexico, 59, 116, 129, 163
150, 152, 154–162, 164, 166–168, Jamaica, 37, 40, 82, 84, 140, 160
172–176, 178 Jamestown, 6
Indian tobacco, 17, 117, 128 Jammu province, India, 50, 97, 125, 160
Indigenous Australians. See Native Japan, 15, 48, 81, 171
Australians Jatapus Tribe, 111, 159
Indo-China, 36, 55, 132, 144 Java, Indonesia, 15, 39–40, 43, 62, 68–71, 96,
Indonesia, 15, 24–25, 39, 40, 43–45, 54, 62, 113, 125, 143, 156, 159, 165, 167, 175
68–71, 79, 82, 84, 91–92, 96, 106, 113, Jean Nicot, 16
125, 134, 143, 156, 159, 165, 167, 175 Jemez people, 52, 148
Indonesian cigarettes. See kreteks Jhalawar District, India, 35
Indus Valley, 47, 58, 112, 137 Jima, Ethiopia, 34, 56, 69, 72, 97
Infants, 9, 144 Jimsonweed. See Datura stramonium
Infected legs, 55 Jispa tribe, India, 125
Infections, 21, 36–37, 55, 83, 161, 164, Jívaro people, 27, 64
173–174 John the Baptist, 25, 102
Infertility, 55, 85, 138 Joss sticks, 43
Inflamed joints, 163 Judea, 5
Inflammation, 4, 43, 163 Junipers, 8–9, 99, 107–111
Influenza, 5, 47, 82, 118–119, 121, 148
Insanity, 51, 109, 111–112, 119, 133, 139, Ka’apor people, 147
142, 160 Kabale District, Buganda Kingdom, 83, 159
Insecticides, 21, 34, 39, 52–53, 63, 68, 72, Kalahari Bushmen, 114
122, 138 Kamapala, Buganda Kingdom, 177
Subject Index 239

Kaokoland, Namibia, 69, 122 Lahu village, Thailand, 134, 147, 157
Karakoram Mountains, Pakistan, 9, 108 Laikipia District, Kenya, 33, 166
Karanga people, 37 Lakota people, 48, 148, 150–151
Karok people, 38 L’Alt Empordà, Spain, 175
Kashaya people, 42, 47, 129 Lamas, 108
Kawaiisu people, 127, 129, 149, 167 Laos, 71, 81, 84, 97, 164
Kaza Tribe, 125 Las Aldas, Peru, 172
Kelantan State, Malaysia, 55, 88 Latvia, 158
Kemenyan, 15 Laurel, 10, 61, 63, 114, 117, 173
Kenya, 10, 22, 32–34, 38, 46, 54, 56–57, Leitch, Donovan, 20
60–61, 68, 70, 72, 74, 76, 79, 85–87, Les Guilleries, Spain, 175
95–98, 103, 109, 111, 113, 115, 119–121, Lesotho, 36, 50, 95, 99
132–134, 136–137, 139, 145, 159, 162, Leto, 9
166–168, 173, 176 Liban, Ethiopia, 57, 73–74
Kerala State, India, 81–82, 121, 156 Libya, 75, 116, 121–122
Keresan people, 152, 157 Lice, 138, 172
Keri District, India, 162 Lightning, 10, 100, 109
Kewda, 24, 135–136 Lilliputian images, 5
Kharga, Egypt, 33, 62 Limbs, 77, 114, 137, 167
Khuzdar Bazaar, Pakistan, 62, 88, 142 Limerick, Ireland, 163
Kibber tribe, 46 Lin Tse-Hsü, 19
Kickapoo people, 151 Lithuania, 158
Kifs, 52 Liver disease, 35, 53, 170
Kijango, 34 Livestock, 25, 86, 113
Kinang tribe, 124 Livingston, Guatemala, 79, 116
Kinnikinnick, 24, 35, 43, 75–76, 88–89, 116, Lobeline, 17
129, 144–145, 151, 154, 175 Loita Maasai, 113, 133
Kiowa people, 100, 110–111, 151–152, 157 Long Island, New York, 126
Kippers, 23 Louisiana, 15
Kitasoo people, 38 Lucania, Italy, 134
Klamath, 45, 106, 127 Lucca, Italy, 61, 98, 174
Koh-do ceremonies, 15 Lumbwa, Tanzania, 58
Koraput District, India, 162 Lungs, 5–6, 26, 67, 70, 78, 118, 125, 140, 145,
Korogwe District, 34 172–174
Kraals, 25, 143 Luzon, Philippines, 37, 56, 59, 91
Kreteks, 17, 24–25, 91
Kuanyama Ango people, 59, 101, 138, 143 Madagascar, 104, 146, 163, 173
Kumaon people, 48, 58, 82, 158, 160 Madang, Papua New Guinea, 131
Kunene River, Africa, 123 Madeira Archipelago, 46, 114–115, 153
Kuripakos people, 146 Madhya Pradesh, India, 58, 159
Kutenai people, 109, 113 Madness, 42, 82, 99, 104
Kuwait, 165 Magi, 12
Kwakiutl people, 38 Magico-religious ceremonies, 4, 9–10, 15, 173
Kwanyama people, 71, 94, 137, 151 Maharashta State, India, 52
Kwena people, 68, 145 Maize, 4, 22, 139, 166, 178
Maka people, 64, 121, 144, 148
La Paz, Bolivia, 71, 114, 125, 145 Makunas people, 154
Lactation, 3, 32, 58, 84, 89, 91 Mal de ojo. See evil
Ladakh Region, India, 43, 47–48, 58, 108, Malaria, 16, 21, 70, 169
112, 124, 137 Malay Peninsula, 46, 63, 80
Lahoul Valley, India, 43, 47–48, 58, 108, 112, Malaysia, 43–44, 55, 61–62, 88–89, 96, 106,
124, 137 165, 176
240 Subject Index

Malecite people, 44, 76 Mizoram, India, 42, 62, 83, 101, 104,
Mali, 56, 62, 97 111–112, 123, 161, 172
Manang District, Nepal, 40–41, 49, 66, 87, Mohave people, 132
92, 103, 126, 174 Mohegan people, 130, 174
Mandan people, 128 Monasteries, 124
Manteion, 10, 52 Montagnais people, 75, 154
Maori people, 67, 119, 143 Montana, 31
Maples, 23 Montana Indian people, 66, 68, 76, 95, 100,
Mapuche people, 67, 86, 114, 118, 131, 158 109, 144–145
Marakwet people, 109 Monte Vesole, Italy, 126
Marco Polo, 17 Montezuma II, 117
Mark Anthony, 6 Montreal, Canada, 130
Marsabit District, Kenya, 32–33, 38, 57, 61, Montseny Massif, 155
74, 86, 103, 113, 137, 145, 159 Montserrat, 40, 60, 78, 130
Mastitis, 164 Morobe Province, Papua New Guinea,
Materiae medicae, 3 131
Maya, 9, 13–14, 27, 59, 60, 64, 130–131, 141, Morocco, 52, 63, 74, 83, 102, 154, 176
146, 164 Morphine, 20, 123
Mazatec people, 155 Mosquito repellent, 21, 36, 80, 96, 120
Mbeere, Kenya, 98, 121 Mosquito vectors, 21
Meat, 9, 25, 27, 38, 110, 126, 143, 170 Mosquitoes, 21–22, 27, 35–36, 39, 46–48,
Medicine ceremonies, 42, 45, 127 53–54, 61, 64, 66, 69–71, 74, 76–77,
Medicine men, 5 79, 81, 84–85, 87, 90–92, 96, 99, 101,
Mediterranean, 28, 56–57 103–106, 108–109, 113, 115–117,
Melchior, 12 119–123, 125, 132, 137–138, 144, 148,
Mellow Yellow, 20 150, 155–156, 159, 166, 175–177
Mendocino people, 42, 129 Mountain tobacco, 45
Menomini people, 75, 99, 144 Mouth disinfectants, 160
Menorrhagia, 54, 64, 85, 119, 134, 166 Mouth twitches, 43
Mental diseases, 36, 65, 102, 104, 121–122, Moxibustion, 49
124, 165–166 Mozambique, 50, 70, 98, 135
Menthol cigarettes, 24, 116, 122 Mt. Everest, 110
Meskwaki people, 41, 44, 47, 50–51, 75, 95, Mt. Parnassos, Greece, 9
160, 163, 170 Mukogodo Maasai people, 33, 166–167
Mesoamerica, 13–14, 27, 60, 64 Murder, 17–18
Mesopotamia, 11–12 Muyupampa village, Bolivia, 126
Mesquite, 23, 145 Mydriasis, 7, 106
Mewar region, India, 162 Myos Hormos, 12
Mewuk people, 127, 129 Myrrh, 1, 7, 10–13, 24, 69, 72–74
Mexico, 6, 13–14, 35, 37, 41, 45–46, 51, Myrrha, 11
59–61, 65–67, 71, 77, 80, 83, 85, 87, 93,
97, 107, 112, 114, 116–117, 128–130, Nakopo people, 131
138, 141–142, 149, 152–153, 155, 160, Nama people, 115
164–166, 173 Namibia, 42, 54, 65, 69, 71, 83–84, 94, 99,
Michaelma people, 150 112–113, 116, 118, 122, 124–125, 132,
Middle East, 19, 56 135–137, 148, 151, 164, 168
Midwest, 16, 31, 110, 174 Narayanpatna Hills, India, 162
Migraines, 34, 61–62, 65, 72, 79, 156 Narcosis, 20, 83, 102
Milk, 16, 33, 38, 53–54, 72, 74, 84, 115, Narcotics, 17–20, 52, 77, 86, 94, 112, 115,
137, 159 129, 136
Mites, 22, 71, 114–115, 141, 145, 178 Narok District, Kenya, 113, 133
Mitragynine, 123 Nasal congestion, 5, 33, 145
Subject Index 241

Native Americans, 10, 15–17, 24, 28, 31, Obnoxious smoke, 25–26, 56, 66, 120
35–36, 42–43, 45–47, 55, 86, 88, 95, Oceania, 139, 150
100, 106, 117, 122, 126, 128–130, 141, Offerings, 11, 15, 60, 146
151–152, 154, 157, 168, 173, 177–178 Oglala people, 39
Native Australians, 3, 32–34, 40, 54, 61, 65, Oio region, Ginnea-Bissau, 53, 87, 91, 132,
85–86, 88–89, 94, 96, 157 137, 159
Nausea, 8, 61, 116–117 Ojibwa people, 31, 34–35, 43, 45, 50–51, 68,
Navajo people, 25, 36–37, 42, 45, 51, 74, 78, 75–77, 80, 88–89, 93, 99, 113, 115, 120,
82–83, 89, 94, 101, 107–109, 116, 122, 123, 140, 142, 144, 148–149, 153–154,
127, 130, 133, 138, 141, 148, 159, 162–163 160, 162–163, 166–167, 169, 172,
Nayarit State, Mexico, 59, 116, 129, 163 174–175
Nazar, 35 Okanagan-Colville people, 43, 47–48, 76,
Neem tree, 21, 53 109, 116, 127, 141, 151, 153
Negev, Israel, 137 Oklahoma, 31
Nelson Island, 55 Oklahoma people, 42, 151
Nepal, 31, 36, 40–41, 47, 49, 55, 62–63, 66, Oleanders, 26, 127
70–71, 76, 78–79, 81–84, 87, 91–92, 103, Oleo-gum resins, 12, 56–58, 72–74,
108–111, 115, 122, 124, 126, 133, 139, 145–146
150–151, 155–156, 158, 161–162, 169, Oleoresins, 26, 62, 170–171, 174
173–175 Olibanum, 12, 56–57
Nero, 11 Omaha people, 75–76, 86, 110, 128, 153
Nervines, 173 Oman, 12, 58, 61, 64, 81, 86, 91, 149, 159
Nervous excitement, 131 Omphalos stone, 9, 52
Nervousness, 55, 105, 110 Onion, 4, 22, 38
New Brunswick, Canada, 44 Ophthalmia, 155
New England people, 142 Opium, 18–20, 123, 136, 148, 157
New Mexico, 45, 52, 100, 148, 154, 165, 168, 174 Oracles, 9–10, 52, 63, 83, 102, 114
New World, 6, 17, 89 Orange peels, 22
New Zealand, 67, 94, 119, 143 Oregon, 31, 45
Nez Perce people, 31, 118 Oribasius, 8
Nicaragua, 9 Orissa State, India, 85, 136, 162
Nicobar Islands, India, 96, 133, 136, 143–144 Oromia, 32, 34, 37, 58, 72, 87, 91, 100, 105,
Nicotine, 17, 22 134, 143, 148, 168
Nigeria, 20, 23, 34, 57, 62, 72, 79, 124, 135, Otitis, 59, 81, 153
138, 152, 169 Ovid, 11
Nigerian farmers, 23 Oweekeno people, 38, 130
Night ceremonies, 129 Ozark Plateau, 16
Nightmares, 48, 95 Ozarker people, 16, 110, 174
Nile valley, Egypt, 47
Nilgiris people, 122 Pain, 5, 16, 25, 27, 35, 42, 54, 58, 60, 63–65,
Nitinaht people, 31, 38 69, 71, 85, 89, 93, 99, 104, 114, 118,
Nizari Ismaili, 17 120–121, 124–125, 133–136, 138–140,
Nornicotine, 17 146, 148–149, 164, 167–168
Northern Territory, Australia, 32–33, 79, 85, Paiute people, 45, 48, 66, 108–110, 117–118,
88–92, 106, 117, 121, 145, 148, 156, 164 127–128, 165
Nose, 20, 41, 46, 51, 55, 61, 64, 74, 79, 88, Pakistan, 9, 48, 62–63, 74, 80–83, 85, 88–89,
113, 118, 149, 157–158, 161, 163, 166 99, 107–108, 137–138, 143, 148, 159–161,
Nosebleeds, 119, 127, 132, 152, 154, 157, 166, 174
165, 176–177 Palestine, 5
Pallars Jussà, 155
Oak, 23, 148–149 Pallars Sobirà, 155
Oaxaca, Mexico, 85, 138, 155 Panaceas, 135
242 Subject Index

Panama, 27, 41, 53, 64–67, 85, 106, 150, 169 Pipes, 6–7, 15–17, 35, 37, 39, 46, 51–52, 55,
Papago people, 77, 114, 127, 130–131 62, 64, 76, 79, 85, 91, 93, 100–101, 107,
Papal conclave, 27 115, 126, 128, 138, 150, 153, 155, 164, 166
Papua New Guinea, 21–22, 39, 46, 66, 71–72, Pitjantjatjara people, 88, 121, 156
120, 131 Plains tribes, 108, 151, 169
Pará, Brazil, 36, 42, 143, 147 Plasmodium falciparum, 21
Paraguay, 40, 63, 67, 121, 144, 148, 165 Pleasant dreams, 119
Paralysis, 21, 40, 49, 68 Pliny the Elder, 8, 11
Paris, France, 31 Pneumonia, 118, 148
Parry Island Ojibwa people, 45, 93, 115, 154 Poison ivy, 26, 110, 170–171
Parthians, 11 Poisonings, 7
Particulate matter, 27 Pokot people, 10, 33, 56–57, 60, 79, 85, 87,
Pathogenic organisms, 9 96, 115, 120, 132
Pawnee people, 35, 75, 105, 110, 128, Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 27
151–152 Pomo people, 42, 47, 128–129
Pedi people, South Africa, 125 Ponca people, 75, 86, 110, 128, 151–152
Pediatric aids, 130, 164 Poor fodder, 39
Peloponnesian Confederacy, 7 Portugal, 16, 83, 134
Penobscot people, 154, 174 Postpartum care, 3, 32–33, 72, 85, 88, 135
Perfumes, 4, 10, 23–24, 32–34, 44, 56–58, 61, Potawatomi people, 16, 34, 41, 50–51, 74–75,
69, 72–74, 86–87, 91, 97, 100, 105, 108, 120, 125, 140, 142, 152, 160, 169, 174
125, 132, 134,-135, 143, 147–148, 156, Pre-Altiplanic Community, Chile, 92, 112,
168–169, 178 158, 160, 168
Pergamum, 8 Priestesses, 9, 102
Pericles, 7 Proselytes, 146
Persia, 11, 17, 149 Psychedelic visions, 20
Peru, 46, 66, 83, 125, 130–131, 133, 156, 172 Psychic suggestibility, 20, 124
Peruvian people, 43, 163 Psychic visions, 52, 63, 83
Pest control, 4, 20–21 Psychoactive effects, 40, 63, 80, 118
Pest repellents, 20, 23, 115, 131, 153, 168 Psychoactive properties, 5, 149, 155, 157, 172
Pests, 2, 4, 20–23, 27, 41, 64, 86, 91, 103, 110, Psychotropic, 18, 163
115, 119, 130–132, 153, 166, 168 Puerto Rico, 40
Petén, Guatemala, 146 Puja ceremony, 110
Peyote meetings, 111 Pulmonary branches, 6
Peyote Pilgrimage ceremony, 116, 163 Punjab, India, 103, 137
Pharaohs, 11, 18 Punt, Land of, 11, 69, 73
Pharmaceutical agents, 3 Pupils. See eyes
Pharmacopoeias, 3, 5, 49 Purification ceremonies, 47, 110
Pharyngeal infection, 162 Purifying agents, 7, 110, 169
Phenols, 27 Pyrenees, Iberian Peninsula, 155
Phenylethanoid glycoside, 113 Pyrethrins, 21, 68
Philip Morris, 17 Pyrethroids, 21, 68
Philippines, 37, 45, 56, 59, 61–62, 87, 89, 91, Pyridine alkaloid, 17
101, 113, 161 Pythia, 9, 10, 52
Phoenix bird, 11
Pig feces, 5 Qana, Oman, 12
Pigeon feces, 4, 38 Qatarian people, 178
Piles, rectal. See hemorrhoids Qi lines, 49
Pillager Obijwa people, Qing, 19
Pima people, 14, 129–131 Queen Hatchepsut, 11
Pinatubo, Philippines, 59, 87 Quichua people, 121, 131
Pine, 13, 15, 37, 101, 141–142 Quileute people, 44–45, 75–76
Subject Index 243

Rain, 13–14, 129, 146 Scopolamine, 6
Rajasthan State, India, 35, 37, 58, 74, 81, 92, Scotland, 110, 173
137–138, 161, 167, 175, 178 Secondary metabolites, 1
Ramah Navajo people, 25, 36–37, 45, 51, 78, Secoya-Siona people, 131
82–83, 101, 107–109, 127, 133, 138, 141, Sedatives, 18, 37, 112, 130, 137, 139, 153
148 Seed germination, 23, 28
Rappanhoek people, 130 Seizures, 116
Rashes, 38 Seminole people, 109, 111–112, 138
Ratan Mahal, India, 55, 82, 167 Seri people, 37, 51, 60, 93, 107, 112, 114, 128,
Rawalpindi District, Pakistan, 48 153, 164, 173
Rayalaseema, India, 39, 58, 175 Serpents, 11
Remy, 146 Sesquiterpenes, 13
Rendille people, 32–33, 56–57, 60, 74, 103, Setangii, 15
119, 133, 168 Seychelles, 170
Resins, 5, 11–14, 17, 26, 32, 37, 40–41, 54, Shamans, 9, 14, 16, 32, 42, 45, 51, 60, 79–80,
56–60, 62–63, 67, 69, 72–74, 77, 79, 85, 83, 96, 98–99, 106, 108, 129–131, 140,
93–94, 97, 101, 103, 115, 117, 121, 126, 142, 146, 149, 155, 167, 175
140–142, 145–147, 152, 159, 165, 168, Shang Dynasty, 15
170–171, 174, 176 Sheep, 81, 133, 138, 176
Respiratory arrest, 7 Shên-Nung, 5
Respiratory disorders, 5, 46, 103, 157 Shiite, 18
Rewalsar, India, 41, 82, 131, 175 Shinnecock people, 126, 130
Rheumatism, 5, 38–39, 43, 87, 101, 107, 119, Shiva Nataraja, 6–7
123–124, 126, 141, 149, 167, 169 Shola forests, India, 121
Ricin, 26 Shoshoni people, 42–43, 108, 127, 141
Rio Apaporis, Columbia, 176 Shrines, 111
River Bann, 24 Shuar people, 131, 148
Robert Beverly, 6 Shuhi people, 45, 51, 83, 134, 142, 149–150
Romans, 11, 16, 18 Shuiluo Valley, China, 45, 83
Rome, 5, 8, 11–12, 23 Shuswap people, 47, 66, 141, 145, 154
Rosin, 101, 142 Siberia, Russia, 115, 121, 140
Rozi people, 87, 153 Sierra Leone, 22, 69
Rubber, 51, 120, 134, 147 Sierra Mazateca, Mexico, 155
Russia, 115, 173 Sikkim Himalayas, India, 41, 109, 126, 128,
150, 158
Saanich people, 118 Sinai, 137
Saccharomyces cerevisiae, 23, 39, 53, 111, Sindeni village, Tanzania, 113
123, 150, 168 Sinus troubles, 38, 118
Salmon, 38, 154 Sioux people, 47, 86, 100
Samburu people, 54, 56, 68, 111, 121, 134, Sistine Chapel, 27
167–168 Skin, 5 3, 7, 31, 34, 38, 40, 54, 57, 85,
Samoa, 49, 176 106, 120, 131, 139, 141, 143, 151,
San Andréas people, 146 170–171, 178
San Luis Potosi, Mexico, 172 Slaves, 6, 16, 18–19, 59
Sanskrit treatise, 6, 26, 32, 49, 53, 60, 65, 82, Sleep, 20, 34, 59, 64, 144, 149
96–97, 105–106, 112, 126–127, 137, 152, Smallpox, 8, 55, 136, 160
157–159, 162, 164, 171, 175, 177 Smog, 1
Saskatchewan, Canada, 55 Smoked fish, 144
Satan, 97, 158 Smoke signals, 27–28, 107, 164
Saudi Arabia, 39, 48, 74, 83 Smoke treatments, 4, 8–9
Savaras tribe, 111, 159 Smokers, 17, 20
244 Subject Index

Smudges, 31, 34–35, 37–38, 47, 50–51, 53, Sumacs, 24, 150–152, 157, 171
71, 74, 87, 91, 95, 99, 120, 123, 125, 138, Sumerians, 11
144, 148, 155, 160, 174 Supernatural, 8–9, 108
Snakebites, 41, 89, 92, 99, 106, 126, 133 Surinam, 36, 62, 79, 99, 102, 104, 136, 139,
Snakes, 15, 40, 74, 95, 106, 131, 148 164, 172
So people, 78, 132, 176 Susto, 71, 126
Socotra, 56, 58 Swahili, 53, 65–66, 69, 71, 78, 93, 104, 116,
Solomon Islands, 62, 71, 123 122, 124, 132, 163
Somali women, 178 Swazi people, 175
Somalia, 11, 54, 72–73, 84 Swaziland, 67, 84, 177
Somaliland, 56, 72–73 Sweat baths, 31, 50–51, 155, 169
Songish people, 118 Sweathouses, 31
Soothing agents, 122 Swelling, 25, 69, 162
Sotho people, 63, 74, 94–95, 100, 119, 132, Swiss people, 155
135, 138, 149, 158, 165, 167 Switzerland, 19, 32
South Africa, 10, 28, 34–35, 39, 49, 54, Syphilis, 123–124
64–65, 69–70, 78–83, 91, 96, 98–100,
105, 112, 115, 119, 122–124, 132–135, Tacana people, 147
138–139, 143, 149, 151, 154, 157–158, Tachycardia, 7
163, 165–167, 176–177 Tamang tribe, 161
South America, 3, 6, 13, 18, 59, 71, 89, 101, Tanga District, Tanzania, 34, 59, 72, 101, 104,
115, 127–30, 146, 163, 175 113, 124
Soviet Union, 121 Tanganyika. See Tanzania
Spain, 69, 93, 139 Tanning, 25
Sparta, 7 Tanzania, 32, 34–35, 55–56, 58, 61, 71–72,
Spasms, 6, 123, 130, 147 77–79, 82, 84, 101, 104, 107, 113, 118,
Spastic cough. See coughs 124, 132, 176–177
Sperm, 138 Tapirape People, 130
Spirit world, 9, 60 Tarahumara people, 129
Spirits, 9–10, 15, 18, 27, 34, 36, 41–43, 47, Tea, 19
50–51, 57–58, 60–61, 64–67, 71, 74, Teenek Tsabaal people, 172
77–78, 86, 89, 93, 95, 98–100, 102, 105, Teeth, 35, 50, 103, 161
108, 110–111, 116, 118, 126, 128–129, Tehran, Iran, 49
131–132, 134, 138–139, 146–148, 153, Tembé people, 147
156–161, 169, 175, 178 Temple of Cha, 18
Sprue, 44–45 Tendu leaves, 17, 85
Sri Lanka, 63, 79, 92, 94, 111, 132, 136, 162 Tenkodogo, Burkina Faso, 164
St. Peter’s Square, 27 Tetrahydrocannabinol, 5
Staphylococcus aureus, 23, 39, 53, 111, 123, Tewa people, 127, 141
150, 168 Thailand, 39, 95, 123, 134, 136, 147, 157
Stings, 20 Tharus people, 162
Stomach, 77, 79, 82–83, 94, 96, 104, 116, 164 THC. See tetrahydrocannibinol
Strangles, 25 Thebes, Egypt, 11, 69
Streptococcus equi, 25 Theophrastus, 13
Stroke, 40 Thomas Nuttall, 6
Stumpens, 17 Thompson people, 38, 47, 75–76, 107, 109,
Sudan, 71, 73, 164 127, 141, 147, 153, 173
Sudorifics, 144 Thucydides, 8
Suffolk, Britain, 41 Tibet, 45, 51, 83, 93, 109, 112, 149, 157,
Sukuma tribe, 55, 107, 176 168, 174
Sukyas, 9 Ticks, 158
Subject Index 245

Tlaloc, 13–14 Ute people, 118, 141, 153, 156
Toads, 40 Uttar Pradesh State, India, 50, 81, 162
Tobacco, 9, 15–18, 22, 24–27, 35, 37–38, Uzbekistan, 137
40–48, 51, 55, 59–68, 70, 75–83, 85–87,
89–95, 98, 100, 102, 106–107, 109, Vaginal fumigations, 4, 6, 38, 53
112, 115–118, 121–123, 125–131, 133, Venda, South Africa, 35, 39, 49, 54, 64, 70,
136, 144, 146–155, 157, 159, 162–164, 80, 91, 119, 122, 134, 151, 154, 163, 166
167–170, 172–174, 177–178 Venereal diseases, 31, 87, 123–124, 143, 161,
Tolowa people, 129 170
Tongoni village, Tanzania, 34, 113, 124 Venezuela, 95, 175
Tonsillitis, 156 Venoms, 20
Toothache, 5, 15, 26, 35, 37–38, 46, 49, 56, Veracruz, Mexico, 172
60, 70, 75, 82–83, 96–97, 100, 102–103, Ver-o-Peso markets of Belém, 36, 143, 147
112, 118, 124, 130–131, 134–135, Vertigo, 109, 140
138–139, 154, 156, 161–162 Veterinary, 4, 25, 138, 141, 163
Toothworms, 122, 161 Vhavenda people, 177
Topnaar people, 125, 168 Vietnam, 39, 71, 81, 84, 143, 164, 170
Torchwood, 12–13, 40 Virginia, 6
Tracheal mite, 27, 71, 114, 140, 145, 178 Virginian tobacco. See tobacco
Traditional knowledge, 3 volatile oils, 13, 67
Trance, 9–10, 98, 108, 114, 116 Vomiting, 8, 109, 116, 156, 163
Tranquilizers, 57 Vulva, 54, 64, 119, 134, 166
Transvaal, South Africa, 125
Trinidad, 138 Waimiri Atroari people, 42, 71, 126, 145
Tropane alkaloids, 6, 20 Warlpiri people, 159
Tropical America, 43, 146 Washington, 47
Tswana people, 68, 145 Washoe people, 48, 76, 108
Tuberculosis, 5, 31, 50, 70, 98, 118, 122, Wedding ceremonies, 14, 137
127, 135 Weight loss, 8
Turbat, Pakistan, 85, 161 West Africa, 53, 56, 87, 89, 91, 97, 103–104,
Turkana people, 54, 56–57 132, 135, 137, 158–159, 168, 177–178
Turkey, 25, 38, 70, 83, 103, 141, 155 West Bengal, India, 35, 90, 103, 159
Tuscany, Italy, 98, 107, 163 West Indies, 63–64, 82, 101, 138, 145, 161
Typhus, 8 Western Australia, 28, 176
Western Keres people, 38, 108, 127
Udhampur District, India, 97, 125 White Mountain Apache people, 127
Ubangi River, Central Africa, 111 William Cornwallis Harris, 18
Uganda, 15, 33–34, 36, 39, 42, 55, 64–65, Winnebago people. See Hocak people
67, 77–78, 86, 89, 93, 101, 105, 115, 121, Wisconsin, 16, 50–51
132, 139–140, 147, 156–157, 159, 161, Wise men. See Magi
176–178 Witchcraft, 6, 99, 131
Ukraine, 52, 103, 115, 121, 173 Witches, 6, 25, 34, 102
Ulcerated noses, 46 Wola people, 66, 131
Unconscious people, 37, 41, 47, 50–51, 80, Woodland Cree people, 55, 107, 140, 145
91, 95, 144, 174 Wounds, 3, 16, 25, 54, 74, 80, 92, 97, 127,
Upper Tanana people, 38–39 136–138, 153–154, 158, 166, 170–171,
Urinary retention, 7 178
Urinary tract, 78, 161, 174 Wyoming, 31
Urubama Valley people, 46
Urushiol, 26, 170–171 Yavapai people, 89, 109, 127
USSR, 121 Yemen, 56, 81, 93, 152
246 Subject Index

Yucatan Peninsula, 13–14, 60 Zimbabwe, 37, 54, 58, 78, 83, 92, 116, 132,
Yuma people, 131 157, 166, 175, 177
Zulu, 10, 34, 39, 41, 63, 69, 78–79,
Zaire, 63, 84, 126, 135 81–83, 98–99, 105, 111, 124, 133, 138,
Zenta River basin, Argentina, 136 143, 176
Zeus, 9 Zuñi people, 48, 94, 105, 127, 131, 165
Subject Index 247

Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke - Its Ethnobotany As Hallucinogen, Perfume, Incense, and Medicine History

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U S E S A N D A B U S E S O F P L A N T- D E R I V E D S M O K E

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Marcello Pennacchio / Lara Vanessa Jeﬀerson / Kayri Havens

Illustrations by David S. Sollenberger

Copyright © 2010 by Oxford University Press, Inc.

Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

To my late grandmother, Winifred Florence Shirra,

To Emma, Sophie, Ryan, Aiden, and future generations,

Peter H. Raven, President, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, MO

Fire and Smoke

Where there is smoke, there is ﬁre.—Anon

2 Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke

Medicinal Uses for Plant-Derived Smoke

Medicinal 1,002 737

4 Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke

6 Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke

Evil and Medicine

8 Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke

Magico-Religious and Ceremonial Uses

10 Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke

12 Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke

Figure 6. (above left) Incense was burned during religious

Figure 7. (above) Incense censers and other important

Figure 8. (left) Traditional Mayan shaman Juan del la Cruz

Figure 10. A member of

16 Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke

18 Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke

20 Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke

Figure 12. Several

Figure 13. Smoke from

22 Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke

Perfumes, Flavoring, and Preservation

24 Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke

Toxic and Obnoxious Smoke

26 Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke

28 Uses and Abuses of Plant-Derived Smoke

Abies amabilis Dougl. ex Forbes (Pinaceae). paciﬁc silver ﬁr.

Acacia pruinocarpa Tindale 33

34 Acacia salicina Lindl.

Actiniopteris radiata Link 35

Allenrolfea occidentalis Kuntze 37

38 Allionia nyctaginea Michx.

Amorpha canescens Pursh 39

Aquilaria hirta Ridl. 43

44 Aquilaria malaccensis Lam.

Arctostaphylos tomentosa (Pursh) Lindl. 45

46 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (L.) Spreng.

Artemisia ludoviciana Nutt. ssp. ludoviciana 47

48 Artemisia maritima L. var. neercha

Asparagus racemosus Willd. 49

50 Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav.

Atamisquea emarginata Miers 51

Balanites aegyptiaca (L.) Del. 53

54 Balanites gillettii Cufod.

Blumea balsamifera DC. 55

56 Blumea balsamifera DC. var. balsamifera

Boswellia papyrifera Hochst. 57

58 Boswellia sacra Flueck

Bursera graveolens Triana & Planch. 59

Calotropis gigantea (L.) W. T. Ait. 61

62 Calotropis procera (Ait.) W. T. Ait.

64 Capparis cartilaginea Decne.