Healthcare System Using Succulent Parts of Plants Volume 1: For Infectious Diseases.

HEALTHCARE SYSTEM USING
SUCCULENT PARTS OF PLANTS
Volume I
[For infectious diseases]
Dr. Shibabrata Pattanayak

M.V.Sc. (Immunology, I.V.R.I.); Ph. D. (Pharmacology, W.B.U.H.S.)
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Healthcare system using
succulent parts of plants
By
By Dr. Shibabrata Pattanayak
ISBN : 978-93-5346-842-2
c Published and Copyright hold by the author.
Composed by : Ajit Kumar Bhakat
Printed at:
Calcutta Block & Print
Sikdar Bagan St.
Kolkata - 700 004
3
Dedicated to:
The devoted young generation

researchers
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PREFACE
This book is written as a research guideline for an alternative healthcare system,
which can be brought into reality by the researchers of present time. After publication
of some articles on the related topics, need of one organised book on that subject
was felt. This book is an outcome of that feeling. As the book is written for the
researchers, so the pattern of writing is like a review article, not like a text book.
Detail description of many important analytical and testing procedures is not added
in the book. These can be found in referred publications.
Ethnomedicine was not my subject at the early stage of my academic or service life,
but it gradually becomes my centre of interest. The ethno-medicinal ideas described
in this book and proposed pharmacological analysis for development of desired
medicines requires further study in detail. The book is written to initiate the journey.
Experts can comment on the proposals and the way of thinking and they are welcome
to add modifications in all the sections of the proposed alternative healthcare system,
but I am very much hopeful about widespread use of the proposed bio-medicines in
future.
I admit that some portions of this book are taken directly from my previous
publications. In many cases, these are added without alteration. For related detail
information, original article may be checked.
I will consider all my efforts as fruitful if this book can motivate researchers to think
and work on the subject.
Date: 16.01.2019
Thanking you,
Dr. Shibabrata Pattanayak
81/A, Mahatma Gandhi Road
Kolkata - 700 041
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HEALTHCARE SYSTEM USING SUCCULENT
PARTS OF PLANTS
Volume 1: For infectious diseases
Content
Section Topic Page
Chapter I Establishment of disease inside the body 10

Chapter II Development of Antimicrobial Resistance 12
(AMR)
Chapter III Modern medicine – some important limitations 14
Chapter IV Other parallel systems 16
Chapter V Herb based medicines 17
Chapter VI Succulent bio-medicines 18
Chapter VII Validation of traditional claims 20
Chapter VIII Limitations of the contemporary systems used for 23
validation of the claims
Chapter IX Steps towards development of a drug 25
Chapter X The gaps and the alternative ways 27
Chapter XI Plants reported as having power to control 29
diseases of infectious origin
Chapter XII A comprehensive research proposal 31
Chapter XIII Proposed design for production and transport 34
of succulent Bio- medicines
Chapter XIV The new horizon in treatment of untreatable
36
diseases and establishment of export-oriented
industries
Chapter XV Tables
Table 1. Nutraceuticals, spices and other
commonly used plant parts which may be used
37
directly as medicine.
` Table 2. Plants with reported effects against
diseases of infectious origin. 44
Chapter XVI Bibliography 131
Summary 145
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Chapter I
Establishment of disease inside the body
Many protective barriers are working to protect every individual from the diseases. The
skin, cilia of nose, different secretion and excretions like sweat, tear etc. are working as
the external barriers. The internal barriers include primary barriers like gastric juices,
detoxifying system of liver and excretory processes of urination and defecation etc. The
cells of the immune system and their products, the actions and interactions performed by
them are the main arms of protection of health by prevention of diseases. The endocrine
system, excretory system, respiratory system and many other body systems work together
to keep us healthy and free from any disease. Genetic make-up of individuals has a role
behind all these factors.
Due to some reasons, sometimes one or more of these protective systems fail to perform
their normal duties and we suffer from diseases. Basing on the causative factors, the diseases
may be classified under two major categories.
1. Diseases of non-infectious origin, and
2. Diseases of infectious origin
1. Diseases of non-infectious origin: Lifestyle related diseases (improper lifestyle;

improper intake of food and drinks; intake of adulterants and toxic chemicals; xenobiotic
residues in food, effect of pollutants etc.), diseases with predisposed genetic condition and
its stimulation by certain factors among individuals, diseases due to effects of different
environmental factors, auto- immune diseases, diseases related with hypersensitivity, many
cancers, diseases due to hormonal disbalance etc. can be categorised under that group.
2. Diseases of infectious origin: Diseases due to bacterial, viral, protozoan, parasitic

etc. origin are generally categorised under this group.
No clear-cut demarcation is there between these two groups and diseases of one group
may act as some predisposing factor for a disease of another group. Genetic make-up and
lifestyle are two very important related factors for both type of diseases. Overall immunity
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status is influenced by all these factors and at a low level of immunity status; a disease can
establish itself easily inside the body.
Initiation of infectious diseases

Only entry of any microorganism inside the body can not initiate any disease among
any individual. Establishment of a disease depends on many factors, among them individual
resistance is very important. The example of Tuberculosis may explain the process.
Many people living in the area of poor hygienic conditions are already infected with
Mycobacterium tuberculosis, but do not show any specific disease symptom in their lifetime.
But in some persons, the disease progress and s/he become a patient of Tuberculosis. Such
latent infection of Tuberculosis can express itself as a disease in the conditions like under
nutrition [1] and low immunity status of the body [2]. It is due to the fact that, generally at
malnourished or immuno- compromised condition of the body, that disease can actually
establish and express itself. Expression of serious symptoms of Arsenicosis is also dependent
on such nutrition factor of the individuals.
Conventional systems for prevention and treatment of diseases of infective origin

If we concise our discussion among the diseases of bacterial or viral origin, it can be
said that use of protective vaccination by killed or live attenuated microorganisms is in
practice and found effective against a few diseases. But for many other diseases of bacterial
origin, use of antibiotics and some other antimicrobial agents is considered as the only
way to kill or control the multiplication of infective microorganisms inside the body.
But due to some reasons, the ongoing system of use of antimicrobial substances to kill
infective organisms to cure disease is facing a very tough challenge. Development of
antimicrobial resistance (AMR) against these substances is the main factor working behind
this.
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Chapter II
Development of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)
Development of antibiotics – a self-limitating process

All the living entities of our planet are struggling continuously for their existence.
Starting from the minute viruses, the fungus, bacteria, protozoa, parasites, plants and animals
of various differentiated species are struggling for their existence and multiplication.
In the way of such struggle, as a part of evolution, microorganisms developed their
system to secrete some antibacterial chemicals. Some of these chemicals are identified by
the scientists and afterwards used as antibiotics [3].
Due to uncontrolled use of these chemicals to kill other microorganisms, the susceptible
organisms get ample opportunity to alter their susceptible systems and to develop some
new system to bypass the detrimental effect of those chemicals. It is called as microbial
resistance to antibiotics [3].
Development of resistance among microorganisms against antimicrobial agents and
spread of mainly plasmid based genetic materials related with such resistance to many
other new species of microorganisms continuously with accelerated speed is becoming a
threat for antimicrobial chemotherapy [4]. The spread is mainly due to indiscriminate,
unnecessary use and residual effect of antibacterial substances [4]. Transport of such
resistance power is performed by transport of related genetic materials from one
microorganism to another. Resistance in bacterial population spread from person to person
by bacteria, from bacterium to bacterium by plasmids, from plasmid to plasmid or
chromosome by transposons [5]. The power of resistance is transmissible vertically among
the same species and horizontally between other species of micro organisms [4]. That
ultimately causes some very serious problems like development of Superbugs - organisms
resistant to all available antibiotics [3]. This is perhaps becoming a dangerous threat to the
modern civilization in near future.
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Bacterial biofilm: a great danger
Not only the development of antimicrobial resistance, but some other microorganism
related factors play many important roles during establishment of disease inside the body.
Among them, bacterial biofilm formation is most important. Biofilm can be considered as
an association of micro-organisms on a living or non-living surface within a matrix of
extracellular polymeric substance produced by them [6]. Many species of bacteria can
communicate with one another through quorum -sensing, a mechanism for co-ordination
of gene expression during biofilm formation. Most of the microbial infections are associated
with bacterial biofilms. Bacteria may remain less accessible to antibiotics and immune
system of the body inside the biofilms and so that is having tremendous public health
importance [6].
Present healthcare system: the source of Nosocomial Infections

In the present healthcare system, the patients with different diseases meet at the chamber
of the Physicians, Nursing homes, Hospitals, Diagnostic centres etc. on regular basis.
During their stay, a section of them leave many pathogenic microorganisms at these places.
From the common toilets to the intensive care unit chambers, such organisms may spread.
In these places, they get ample opportunities to meet other organisms to exchange genetic
materials. This process continues and it is found that in spite of taking most modern
protective provisions, many multi -antimicrobial resistant organisms are present in many
of such places. These resistant organisms can infect any incoming patient suffering from
some simple disease or even any normal person arrives there for any other purposes. So,
people may be infected with such dangerous organisms from the area of healthcare facilities.
Such infections are termed as Nosocomial Infections. These are commonly observed among
children, aged persons, immune compromised persons and persons attended any surgery.
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Chapter III
Modern medicine – some important limitations
Drug side effects and drug interactions

Concept of use of some pharmacologically active drugs is the main pillar of therapeutic
regime of Modern Medicine. As the basic point of selection of a drug as medicine is its
positive effect to side effect ratio, so there are definitely some side effects along with the
effects for each of such medicines. It may be due to the reason that any drug act at least on
one receptor system and no receptor system is present only in one part of the body. In most
of the cases, all such receptors are working in more than one body system.
As a part of modern lifestyle, the allopathic medicines, pesticide residues in the food
items, the adulterants and added chemicals in the name of artificial colour, flavour,
stabilizing agent, emulsifying agent, chilling agent etc. as well as other toxic chemicals
enter through different ways inside the body system of modern men are definitely acting
together during causing any effect. The same detoxifying organs and excretory organs
inside our body are struggling to clear them [7].
Thus, the people of the present time are accustomed with use of many 'drugs' together
(knowingly or unknowingly) and so study on Adverse Drug Reactions, Drug-Drug
interactions and overall Pharmaco-vigilance become so important now a days.
Molecular Pathological Epidemiology (MPE)

This concept covers the effects of different exogenous and endogenous factors working
at different combinations to cause a disease in an individual [8]. Different diseases of
neoplastic origin as well as non-neoplastic diseases like cardiovascular diseases, diabetes,
obesity, adverse drug reactions, immunity related as well as diseases of infectious origin
are covered for study in MPE [9]. As per the concept, each patient has unique pathologic
processes resulting from cellular genomic, epigenomic, proteomic and metabolomic
alterations, which are influenced by pharmacological, environmental, microbial, dietary
and lifestyle factors [10]. MPE research has high relevance in disease prevention, because
such studies have shown that different risk factors can influence different subtypes of one
disease [11]. As per the theory, the transformation of population health science is integrated
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with social, behavioural, economic, environmental and ecologic sciences along with basic
biology and medicine [9].
From that point, it can be said that some aspects of MPE are controllable and another
some aspects may not be easily controllable. Among that non-controllable section, genetics
of individual is the main factor. For that section, specific therapy may be performed, if
available.
The controllable section of MPE may be categorised in two parts.

1. Following of a model lifestyle and modification of existing lifestyle to prevent or
control different diseases.
2. Prevention of diseases by ruling out the cause after taking precautionary measures
and/or minimising the harmful effects of a disease by adding minimum or no stress to the
body system.
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Chapter IV
Other parallel systems
Systems other than Modern Medicine

The contemporary medicine system, commonly called as Allopathic or Modern
Medicine, is the outcome of researches performed mainly in the laboratories of some
western countries. As per the system, almost same type of drugs is used to cure diseases of
human being and all other domestic or captive animals and birds. But before rapid
development and spread of that system, there were several running systems of medicine to
protect and cure man and animals from various ailments.
Most of those old systems are still continued among some small sections of people.
These systems are continued without any research and without any effort to update them
as per the need of the people of the changed societies. Perhaps a good portion of knowledge
base of some of these systems is lost forever due to these reasons. So, these systems are
not considered as efficient enough to compete with the Modern medicines by many people
now a days.
But disease pattern changes along with change of time. As a consequence of huge use
and dependence on the Modern medicines, which are mainly of synthetic origin, some
new kinds of ailment developed. The medicines are also losing their efficacy in many
cases. Lifestyle of the modern people is also changed in such a way that a re-thinking on
use of the forgotten old medicines, mainly of natural origin, has started.
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Chapter V
Herb based medicines
The plant resources

Plants are used as a therapeutic mean from an ancient time. Among 2,50,000 higher
plant species on earth, more than 80,000 are having medicinal value [12]. Leave, bark,
seed, seed coat, flower, root, pulps etc. of different plants are considered as reservoirs of
naturally occurring chemical compounds and of structurally diverse bioactive molecules.
Industry directly can use these molecules or can use them as lead molecules to synthesize
more potent molecules [13].
There were some alternative healthcare and treatment systems available before the
establishment of Modern medicine. Formal codified systems like Ayurveda, Siddha, Unany-
Tibb etc. are among them. Ayurveda is the most potent and famous among these. In that
system, mainly different dry parts of the medicinal plants are mixed together in some
vehicle as per Ayurvedic formulations to use them as medicine. Another system,
Homoeopathy, is also in practice from a long back. In this system, generally the alcoholic
extracts of dry parts of the medicinal plants are further diluted to use them as medicine as
per the standard formulations.
Along with these established systems, one informal system evolved over thousands of
years through experiences and carried from one generation to the next. The ethnic and
rural people use plants available in their locality for medicinal purposes. In almost all such
ethno-medicinal practices, plant parts were used as such [14].
The ‘ineffective’ medicinal plants – are they really ineffective?

In almost all studies related with validation of the traditional or reported medicinal use
of plants, different solvents (Methanol, Ethanol, Acetone etc.) are used to extract out some
‘principles’ from the dry part of the plant. These are then tested for their reported efficacy.
Then efforts are made to identify the active principles from the solvent extracted parts to
prepare them in the laboratory to market them as medicine after following standard studies
for dose, toxicity etc.
But it has been argued that the efficacy of the solvent extracted part or the separated
active principles cannot show or represent the total effect of the plant part, as many of the
principles become lost during the whole process [15]. Validation of reported medicinal
plants at their fresh, succulent form with all the available principles within them have
been proposed with study of toxicity, dose etc. before use them directly as medicine [14].
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Chapter VI
Succulent bio-medicines
Use of succulent parts of plants as medicine - a new idea

Plants are supplying food to us. They contain several nutrients like Carbohydrate, Protein,
Fat, Minerals, Vitamins etc. All of these help us in healthy living. Apart from these, they
develop various chemical compounds inside them for their own purposes. These compounds
can be used for our purposes also, if properly studied. Such studies are going on throughout
the world and some isolated compounds are used as very good medicines under the umbrella
of Modern medicine. But it is just a very minute achievement in comparison to the immense
potentiality of the plants to supply us efficient medicines.
Use of succulent parts of medicinal plants

The potential parts of the medicinal plants can be used as such just after collection. The
people residing at the rural areas are accustomed with the uses of such readily available
herbal medicines mainly at their raw, pure, fresh as well as crude form. These are used
mainly at succulent stage and at dry stage in some cases. These medicines are developed
through the gathered experience of people for generations [16].
In one recent article, a comprehensive research proposal for a study on the medicinal
plants having possible potentiality to act as an alternative to the use of synthetic antimicrobial
substances to control diseases of infective origin with a detailed guideline for production,
storage and global transport of succulent bio-medicines has been outlined [17].
Source of succulent medicines

A. Succulent nutraceuticals
Not only synthesis of the chemicals capable of acting directly as medicines, but plants
also develop many other types of phytoconstituents which can protect us indirectly from
infection of pathogenic microbes. Effective use of plant derived medicines and
nutraceuticals as well as changes in the lifestyle may influence molecular pathological
epidemiology of populations and so can deeply influence the establishment of different
diseases [17].
As the nutraceuticals are well tolerated in our body system, so chance of toxicity during
18
their medicinal use is expected to be very less. In many cases, these nutraceuticals are not
getting any chance to influence positively our body system due the factors like non-inclusion
of them in our diet or their modification during preparation of food from them. As for
example, many people of younger generations do not like to add salads or fruits in their
diet. On the other hand, due to boiling at high temperature or due to addition of some toxic
chemicals as preservatives etc. with their juices or pickles, many such items lose their
actual efficacy.
In Table 1, a list of some plants commonly available and used as nutraceuticals are
added. These can be used as some effective medicines after performing a small-scale
study.
B. Succulent Vegetables, Fruits and Spices

The fruits, vegetables, spices etc. can also be used as medicines. Some fruits are already
used as preventive medicines, knowingly or unknowingly. Many other fruits are there,
which are either considered as some vegetables or not considered as essential. But many
of these have the potentiality to act as effective preventive or curative medicines. During
processing or cooking of fruits and vegetables at high temperatures, many important
phytochemicals become lost or reduced in quantity. Many of such phytochemicals are
already known as very important to our health, and effect of many minute others are
unknown to us. These fruits and vegetables may be used as medicine after extraction of
juices from them (as such or at a concentrated form).
So, all the phytochemicals of the concerned part of the medicinal plants will be available
in the juices and cut pieces and will act after entering inside our body. The seeds and other
dry parts may be used as dry powder or may be used as such. These can be decided as per
the research reports. Some of such plants are listed in Table 1.
C. Other succulent medicines for systematic use

The fruits, nutraceuticals, spices etc. are expected to act without showing any harmful
effect inside our body. So, the possibility of toxicity is less among such medicines. But for
the other plants having report for systematic use, detail study for effectivity and toxicity is
very important.
Various plants are reported for their use against various diseases of infectious origen by
different communities of the world. These plants are listed in Table 2.
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Chapter VII
Validation of traditional claims
Contemporary systems used for validation of efficacy of medicinal plants and

trial for drug development
There are many reports and claims regarding protection and/ or cure of many diseases
by use of parts of various medicinal plants. To validate such traditional claims, contemporary
analytical systems are generally used with a target to identify active principle/s from the
reported medicinal plants.
Biologically active compounds present in plants are termed as phytochemicals.
Phytoconstituent extraction involves separation of the medicinally active principles from
plant parts using selective solvents [18]. Most of the pharmacological reports of plant/
plant extracts screen the organic soluble extracts of the dried plant parts [19]. Research for
identification of active principles from medicinal plants follows some common steps.
Validation of the reported medicinal use of plant is performed as a first and deciding step
for further research [14]. Generally, the plant parts are collected, dried and preserved.
Then methanolic, ethanolic, acetone, aqueous etc. extracts of the preserved plant parts are
made and stored at different manners. Then these are tested for their reported medicinal
use by different in vitro techniques and/or through in vivo models, either in that form or in
semi-purified or purified form or after identification of active principles [15].
Ethnomedicinal use of a plant is generally not confined only in a single purpose. As
stated earlier, effect of good immunity status and nutritional status of individuals can
greatly influence both the process of disease initiation as well as efficacy of the medicines.
Oxidative stress is thought to contribute in the way of development of many diseases
directly or indirectly [20, 21]. So, validation of traditional claims should target the study
of anti-microbial, anti-oxidant and immunostimulant activities of the plants.
Phytochemical extraction, purification, characterisation and drug development involve
many complex steps. Some common analytical systems and procedures related with
validation of traditional claims and development of plant derived drugs are stated briefly.
A. Extraction of plant materials from dry plant parts by different solvents
It is the first step of phyto-analytical study.
Solvents: Different solvents are used to extract the bioactive compounds from plant
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materials. For extraction of hydrophilic compounds, polar solvents such as methanol,
ethanol, ethyl acetate etc. are used. For extraction of lipophilic compounds, dichloromethane
or a mixture of dichloromethane and methanol in ratio of 1:1 is also used. Hexane is used
sometimes to remove chlorophyll [22].
Methods: Various methods like sonification, heating under reflux, Soxhlet extraction
etc. are commonly recommended by Pharmacopeia of different countries. Other modern
extraction techniques like solid-phase micro-extraction, supercritical-fluid extraction,
pressurized-liquid extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, surfactant-mediated
techniques etc. are also used [23].
B. Validation of traditional claims by in vitro study

The tests related with validation of claims are mostly performed on the solvent extracted
materials of dry plant parts. In some specified requirements, the purified materials are also
tested for their efficacy.
1. In vitro antimicrobial efficacy study

For in vitro validation of traditional claims of antimicrobial efficacy of any plant part,
generally the direct antimicrobial efficacy is tested following some standardized methods,
like
i) Diffusion methods (Agar disk diffusion method, Antimicrobial gradient method,
Agar well diffusion method, Agar plug diffusion method, Cross streak method etc.).
ii) Thin layer chromatography (TLC), Bio-autography (Agar diffusion, Direct bio-
autography, Agar overlay bioassay etc.).
iii) Dilution methods (Broth dilution method, Agar dilution method)
iv) Time kill test by Time kill curve
v) ATP bioluminescence assay
vi) Flow cytofluorometric method [24] etc.
Recently, spectrophotometric evaluations of direct bacteriostatic action of plant derived
materials are tried [25]. In almost all these tests, direct antimicrobial efficacy (hampering
of microbial multiplication or direct killing of microorganisms) is evaluated.
2. Anti-oxidant property study

By oxidation, free radicals are produced in the body which are detrimental to health.
Antioxidants act against that process. Antioxidants are either produced inside the body
system or achieved from food. Many fruits, vegetables and plant parts are having such
antioxidants.
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The antioxidant activity is measured by some standardized methods like
i) 2, 2-Diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay
ii) Folin-Ciocalteu method
iii) Xanthine oxidase inhibition assay
iv) Griess- Ilosvay method [26] etc.
3. Study for immune-stimulation activity

Immunostimulants can stimulate the body protective mechanisms in different ways.
The vaccines and entry of any foreign antigen inside the body can cause specific
immunostimulation. The plant materials may act as non-specific immunostimulant.
Different methods are developed for study of both cellular and humoral immunity.
i) Study of increase in anti-hemagglutinating antibody (HA) titre for study of humoral
immunity,
ii) Counting of plaque forming cells (PFC) for study of humoral immunity,
iii) Macrophage migration index (MMI) for study of cellular immunity [27]
iv) Study of in vitro phagocytosis of Candida albicans spores by neutrophils taken
from blood for phagocytosis power determination (cellular immunity) [28]
v) Assay of phagocytic activity of blood by microscopical study (cellular immunity)
vi) Nitro blue tetrazolium chloride (NBT) Assay (cellular immunity)
vii) Serum lysozyme activity study (innate immune system) [29] etc.
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Chapter VIII
Limitations of the contemporary systems used for validation

of the claims
Quinine, Digitalis, Neostigmine, Codeine, Artemisinin etc. are some of the plant derived
active principles used effectively in Modern medicine. But another huge number of
phytochemicals are identified from various plants and valued only as some research data
for their inability to pass the related procedures to establish themselves as some effective
medicines.
Many questions are raised against the conventional pattern of validation of traditional
claims of a plant part with a report of disease protective or curative property/ies. It is said
that only the solvent extracted part/s cannot represent the total effects of any medicinal
plant [15].
It was found in an experiment that the semisolid methanolic extract of a plant part fail
to produce any antimicrobial efficacy against microorganisms when diluted in water instead
of methanol, though it was effective when diluted in methanol [25]. So, even the change
of the diluent can affect the efficacy of the extracted plant materials in laboratory.
It is argued that the plant medicines may act in such a way that it cannot be detected by
the contemporary analytical system and the solvent extracted part or the separated active
principles may not show the total effect of the plant part due to loss of many of the principles
during the whole process [14]. On the other hand, one plant may act by using more than
one physiological system and so may perform a complex type of action inside the body as
reveals from the ethnomedicinal reports (Table 1 and Table 2). Some new metabolite/s of
the plant parts may also develop inside the human/animal body to cause some important
effect/s. So, the effect of use of plant parts, particularly when used internally directly as
medicine on a complex system like human body, cannot be totally evaluated easily in
artificial laboratory conditions and in animal or other model-based experiments applying
the presently available scientific knowledge and tools.
In almost all the ancient civilizations, plant parts were used as such. In many cases, the
plant parts were used at their succulent stage, just after collection from the living plant.
Generally, the ethnic and other rural people traditionally use the plants in their crude,
succulent and fresh form in most of the time [14].
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Even in the presently practiced Ayurveda system of medicine, the dry plant parts and
their different formulations are generally used. Only the solvent extracted parts or active
principles may not show the total effect of such formulated medicines.
So, it may not be a wise decision of the scientific community to consider the
contemporary system of validation of efficacy and drug development as the only and ultimate
way to get effective medicines from the plant source. A special type of technique may be
developed where validation of reported use of parts of medicinal plants at their original
useable form on animal models may be performed at first. Then validation of reported
dose and afterwards all other studies (toxicity study, identification of phytochemicals etc.)
may be performed.
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Chapter IX
Steps towards development of a drug
Identification of phytochemicals
Different analytical procedures are applied generally on the solvent extracted materials
of dry plant parts to identify the available phytochemicals. Different procedures are followed
by the researchers for that purpose. Some examples are stated below.
1. Purification
A number of chromatographic techniques such as HPLC (High Performance Liquid
Chromatography), TLC (Thin Layer Chromatography), HPTLC (High Performance Thin
Layer Chromatography), OPLC (Optimum Performance Laminar Chromatography), GC
(Gas Chromatography), PC (Paper Chromatography), CC (Column Chromatography) [13]
and non-chromatographic techniques such as immunoassay with use of monoclonal
antibodies, phytochemical screening assay, Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR)
[23] etc. are used for purification of the bioactive compounds.
Due to the fact that the plant extracts usually occur as a combination of various types of
bioactive compounds or phytochemicals with different polarities, their separation still
remains a big challenge for the process of identification and characterization of bioactive
compounds [23].
2. Structure elucidation of the purified/ semi purified compounds

This step is performed by different standardized techniques like Fourier Transform
Infra-Red spectroscopy (FTIR), Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), Mass Spectrometry
(MS) etc. [13].
3. Biochemical characterization of purified/ semi purified compounds

This is a multi-facet step which includes Toxicity assay, In vivo evaluation of efficacy
and multistep Clinical Study [23].
i) Toxicity study
For toxicity study of all types of chemicals, the most common practice is to follow the
guidelines set by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD).
It has five sections (Physical and chemical properties, Effects on biotic systems, Degradation
25
and accumulation, Health effects, Other test guidelines) [30]. Many other toxicity study
methods are also developed and followed according to the requirements.
ii) In vivo study
Various tests are standardized with different tissues, blood and other body fluids of
living entities for such type of study. In many cases, laboratory animals are also used. In
many in vivo studies, the laboratory animals are specially designed for use in specific
purposes. Activity of some system or organ of the selected laboratory animals is kept
temporary or permanently suppressed or stimulated purposefully with the help of surgery,
specific medication or by use of various devices. Mice, Rat, Guinea pig and Rabbit are the
commonly used animals for that purpose.
iii) Clinical trial
The final step of drug development is clinical trial. This step is rather complex and
performed phase after phase. More or less a drug has to pass a) Preclinical trial, b) Phase
O trial, c) Phase 1 trial, d) Phase II trial, e) phase III trial and f) Phase IV trial [31].
26
Chapter X
The gaps and the alternative ways
Many gaps can be identified inside the ongoing procedure of validation of traditional
claims and development of medicine from the plant sources. As an example, the
antimicrobial efficacy study can be analysed.
Validation of reported antimicrobial efficacy of plants (direct or indirect):

requirement of thorough research
As stated earlier, only after effectively crossing the protective barriers, a microbial
infection can cause a disease in any human or animal body. Apart from the direct barriers,
indirect barriers like body immunity status, nutrition status, lifestyle, living environment,
age, prevalence of other immunosuppressive disease/conditions, genetic make-up etc. play
many important roles. Perhaps due to this, in Homoeopathy system of therapy, patients are
given more importance than the disease symptoms. In Ayurveda system of medicine also,
balance of three types of ‘body fluid’ (Rasa, pitta and Kafa) are considered as main
parameters for establishment of a disease. Various internal factors are given importance in
many other systems also.
The minute micro-organisms are struggling against attack of other groups of
microorganisms and so developed some tools for their protection inside them. These tools
are identified and chemically synthesized by us to use as some weapons to kill pathogenic
micro-organisms in the name of ‘Antibiotics’. Like all other living entities of the globe,
plants are also struggling for their existence and multiplication. To protect themselves
from the infection of the soil and other environmental microorganisms, plants also
developed some ways and means [3]. Those may differ from plant to plant, but are expected.
So, like all other phytochemicals, the antimicrobial phytochemicals are also developed in
various species of plants as a part of evolutionary outcome of the struggle for their existence
[3]. The mechanism of action of such plant derived antimicrobial substances may be rather
complex and different than those of antibiotics. Some of such phytochemicals may not
have any antimicrobial efficacy, but their metabolites may have. As the system of living of
27
plants are more complex than the microbes, so it may be assumed that development of
fighting weapons against the infecting microbes are also far more diverse and complex
among plants in comparison to the antibiotic producing microorganisms. So, acting of
many antimicrobial weapons together may be the actual basis for fighting against invading
microbes in plants. All these weapons may not be available at detectable amounts in dry
plant part extracts. So, only evaluation of some solvent extracted portion and identification
of active principles from plant parts to validate traditional claims and to achieve plant
derived medicines may not be considered as a sufficient or fool proof concept. As the
living plants are actively engaged in many such operations continuously, importance of
study of plant materials just after collection from the living plants cannot be ignored.
There are some other important considerations also. Plants also develop many other
types of Phyto-constituents which can protect us indirectly from the infection of pathogenic
microbes. This point demands further study in detail.
So, desired changes in the lifestyle and effective use of plant derived medicines may
influence molecular pathological epidemiology of populations and so can deeply influence
the establishment of different diseases.
28
Chapter XI
Plants reported as having power to control diseases of

infectious origin
Identification of plants with reported use as antimicrobial and other related

purposes
The traditional use of parts of various plants in medicinal purposes was practiced
throughout the globe before development of the Modern medicine. The knowledge was
gathered perhaps through cumulative experience of trial and error, instinct or insight or by
such other practices of some specific category of people for generations. The documented
knowledge of various sources is scrutinized thoroughly and lists of such plants with possible
anti-microbial efficacy has been prepared (Table 1 and Table 2).
In Table 1, the plants and the plant parts locally available in West Bengal, India are
added with other reported uses. The plants listed in this table are used as nutraceuticals,
vegetables, fruits, spices or are used commonly in medicinal purposes.
In Table 2, name of other medicinal plants is listed with their reported use. The native
habitat or distribution of the plants is attached to get some idea about the best climate for
their cultivation. However, in most of the cases, the plants are naturalized in many other
countries and adapted in many other related climates also.
Some previous workers have enlisted the plants available and used in their localities or
countries in the purposes like skin affections [32, 33, 34], wound healing and other related
activities [35,16] etc. In some other sources, many important medicinal uses of plants are
described along with such effects [36, 37]. The list may be increased, as preparation of an
exhaustive list of plants used in such practices may require country wise involvement of
researchers.
In the tables, the plants with antimicrobial and related activities are listed for validation
of the traditional and/ or reported claims with a target to get effective bio-medicines from
them.
Traditional uses of the plant parts are described in different manners by different authors.
Moreover, the described purposes related with the use of any plant part/s are not always at
29
per with the description style of Modern medicine. Some broad areas are covered by the
used terminologies in most of the cases, instead of showing specific problem/s or disease.
A variety of diseases may be covered with such terminologies (chest affections, urinary
affections etc.).
Some plants are reported for their efficacy to excrete accumulated toxins from the body
(as Paederia foetida L.) or acting as diuretic (Tribulus alatus Delille. Terminalia catappa
L., Veronica beccabunga L. etc.). Such type of efficacy may also add some extra power to
the body system to resist many types of diseases. Some plants with previous report of
containing important nutrients, vitamins, minerals etc. without any report of medicinal
use are possibly not enlisted, though those may play many important roles in maintaining
overall immunity by influencing protective power of the body against different diseases.
It was noticed during collection of information that more than one part of a medicinal
plant is used in more than one medicinal purpose in many cases. As the present work is
related with enlisting of medicinal plants reported to have activities related with any direct
or assisting action in controlling of the diseases of infectious origin, the other uses of the
plants or plant parts are omitted. Though many parts of the reported plants are used in
many medicinal purposes and form of use are also many (succulent extract, decoction,
juice, oils, watery extract, direct cut pieces of plant parts etc.), only related reported uses
are included and procedures of preparation, doses etc. are omitted as it is not available for
many plants in the sources.
The listed plants may have some important activities as per their reported use, like
i) Direct anti-bacterial, anti-viral, anti-fungal actions etc.
ii) Overall immunostimulant and/or antioxidative actions,
iii) Power to protect and /or restore functions of a body system/s by supporting the
system/s,
iv) Stimulation of fighting efficacy of the body system/s during disease by detoxification
and excretion of toxins etc.
v) Efficacy to bring symptomatic relief/reduction of severity of any devastating disease
by direct or indirect means etc.
As the reported uses of the medicinal plant parts are broad and multi-functional, some
other means of treatment of some other non-infective diseases may also be identified and
developed as outcome of an elaborate research on them.
30
Chapter XII
A comprehensive research proposal
In addition to the contemporary pattern of research performed for validation of traditional

claims and reportings and searching of active principles for use as some effective medicine,
study of the plant parts having report of hampering establishment and/or spread of any
disease of infective origin inside the body may also be started. As most of the medicinal
plants of the list are having report for use in more than one purpose and many plants are
used in almost same purposes, a detail correlated study may be far more beneficial than
the study with a single direction.
Proposed steps to study the listed plants

1. Arrangement of total study facilities near the plant resource
i) It can be performed either by establishing laboratory and other related facilities a)
near the native place of the study plant/s with assurance of supply of sufficient materials at
succulent stage within a very stipulated time, or b) after making arrangement for cultivation
of the plant/s near the laboratory facilities in an environment (soil, climate etc.) almost
natural to its native place. Seasonal availability of study plant/s or plant parts has to be
considered during planning. It is found that in many cases, soil and climate have effects on
the quantity and quality of phytochemicals of plants and these are also variable between
cultivated and wild plants. So, standardization of quantity and/or quality of phytochemicals
in the available plant/s of the area is also very much important. Developmental stage of
the plants may have some relationship with their use in many cases. Only the cultivated
plants may be used for study purpose and the naturally growing (wild) plants may be left
to keep ecological balance intact.
The so-called vegetables, fruits, spices or other plants considered for study or production
of succulent bio-medicine should preferably be cultivated under organic farming, avoiding
chemical pesticides and fertilizers.
ii) Green house may be arranged in the areas of cooler climate for cultivation of the
plants of tarried zones. Proper shed with air cooling or conditioning facilities may be
arranged for the reverse requirement.
31
2. Collection of plant materials for study
The plant materials may be collected for study in the already standardized laboratories.
Planning for study of all the different available parts of the study plants at succulent stage
as well as solvent extracted portion of dry parts may be performed, without considering
the report of use of a particular part of the plants in traditional claims or literature sources.
3.Special study of succulent plant materials

The freshly collected succulent materials may be processed further for
i) Study of effect of storage on efficacy of plant parts/materials maintained at different
freezing conditions (at different freezing temperatures).
ii) Study of efficacy of the succulent stem, root, leaf, seed etc. as well as their juice,
latex, decoction etc. directly in vitro and in vivo systems as per logical decision for all the
related effects (direct antimicrobial, immunostimulant, anti-oxidant, local effects etc.).
iii) Air drying/shade drying of the plants as per standard methods.
iv) Extraction of plant materials from the dry plant parts by using different solvents as
per standard methods.
v) Study of efficacy of solvent extracted plant materials by in vitro studies or by other
study models as per logical decision.
vi) Study for identification of phytochemicals by Purification and Structure Elucidation
may be performed following standard methods.
vii) Biochemical characterization of all the succulent plant parts, solvent extracts of the
dry plant parts as well as the identified active principles may be arranged after logical
modification of the existing procedures of toxicity study, in vivo study and clinical trials.
viii) Study on combinational use of more than one active principle of the same plant or
other plants with logical selection may be performed.
ix) Study of use of succulent plant part of more than one plant or their juices and also
use of dry plant parts or their extracts in different logical combinations may be performed.
x) The extracted juices of succulent parts or the solvent extracts of dry parts may be
made more concentrated by using technologies like evaporation, heating or cooling or
may be diluted further for therapeutic purposes as per study reports. Study should also be
performed to detect any loss of phytochemicals during performing such procedures.
xi) The dry seeds, spices etc. may be used directly as medicine after preparing powder
and keeping in some capsules or preparing tablets or any other procedure as per the study
reports.
x) For searching of direct antimicrobial effects, antimicrobial study of all the materials
32
(juices collected from different succulent plant parts by pressure, decoctions and other
reported forms, different solvent extracts, aqueous extracts etc. of dry plant parts as well
as the active principles) may be performed primarily. It can be performed on many
microorganisms, but some model microorganisms may be selected for that purpose. From
the positive results, further studies may be performed against selected resistant bacterial
strains. Study for possible immunomodulation, antioxidant action etc. may be performed
following standard methods with logical modifications, if required.
As information about phytochemicals (active principles) of many plants is already
known, those can be listed after verification. The study reports may be matched with the
study report of at least other two laboratories working in the same manner before accepting
them.
A complete data base may be prepared for each reported medicinal plant/claim.
This data base may lead towards efficacious use of plant derived medicines in the
intended purposes.
33
Chapter XIII
Proposed design for production and transport of succulent

Bio-medicines
Preparation and transport

Many active principles or their structural analogues are already in use in Modern
medicine. The systems for their use as effective medicines are already standardised.
For the succulent bio-medicines, some low-cost techniques like dosing in small aliquots,
storing at some low temperatures (0 0C, - 10 0C, - 20 0C etc.) or freeze drying as per
requirement and research reports can be employed for that purpose [14].
As the biological materials are vulnerable to easy decomposition, maintenance of sterility
during production, storage and transport is very much important. Maintenance of proper
temperature during packaging and transport (cold chain) may play a crucial role on keeping
the quality of these bio-medicines intact. Checking of the quality is also required before
use by the patients. Different indicator chemicals are available for use on the vials or
packets, such as Vaccine Vial Monitors used during transport of thermolabile vaccines,
may also be used in that purpose also.
Packaging
These medicines may be packed in single dose disposable ampoules to use them at
liquid stage after reconstitution by increasing the temperature near the body temperature
(370C).
Another option is to use these medicines at encapsulated form. The liquid medicines
may be packed by Single-Piece gel encapsulation and the powdered medicines in Two-
Piece gel encapsulation. These can be brought to body temperature before use.
Capsular material for dosing of medicines

Single-Piece gel encapsulation (“Soft capsules”)
In Modern medicine, these soft-shelled capsules are used for oils and for active
ingredients that are dissolved or suspended in oil.
Like many Modern medicines, Soft gels can be used as an effective delivery system for
oral drugs, especially poorly soluble drugs. This is because the fill can contain liquid
ingredients that help increase solubility or permeability of the drug across the membranes
in the body.
34
Two-piece gel encapsulation (“Hard capsules”)
Hard-shelled capsules may be used to contain dry, powdered ingredients or miniature
pellets made by any medicine. The powder or spheroids inside the capsule may be some
active ingredient or any other dry/ semisolid medicine.
Capsular materials
There are many capsular materials, both from animal and vegetable origin. Carbohydrate
polymers, starch and its derivatives, cellulose and its derivatives, plant exudates and extracts,
extracts from marine origin, microbial and animal polysaccharides, gluten, milk and other
proteins, gelatine, different lipids, fatty acids and fatty alcohols, glycerides, waxes like
beeswax, carnauba wax, candelilla wax; phospholipids (liposomes), polyvinylpyrrolidone
(PVP), paraffin, shellac and different inorganic materials etc. are among them. Many
derivatives are there under each type and from these, the proper capsular material can be
selected as per requirement after safety study [38].
The most commonly used capsular materials are as follows

Animal source
Gelatine: Gelatin capsular material, informally called gel caps, are composed of gelatin
manufactured from the collagen of animal skin or bone.
Vegetable source
Commonly used capsular materials obtained from vegetable source are of two types.
Hypromellose: a polymer formulated from cellulose.
Pullulan: a polysaccharide polymer produced from tapioca starch [39].
Encapsulation process
The process of encapsulation of hard capsules can be done on manual, semi-automatic
and automatic capsule filling machines. Soft capsulation can be performed during
production of the liquid medicines or afterwards. The available technologies may be
modified to some extent to serve the specific purposes [39].
35
Chapter XIV
The new horizon in treatment of untreatable diseases and

establishment of export-oriented industries
Horizon of a new type of phytomedicine based treatment of infective diseases

During last a few decades, a huge amount of fund was regularly invested in continuous
searching of new antibiotics and other chemo therapeutic agents to fight against diseases
of infective origin. But during last a few years, it is found that the newly developed anti-
microbial drugs are becoming ineffective quickly due to rapid spread of different resistance
bearing plasmid bound genetic materials among microorganisms. Even the antimicrobials
kept as some stock for emergency use are also found ineffective in many cases. Many
organisms are already found resistant to those antibiotics without facing them anytime.
So, the investors are losing interest to invest for development of new antimicrobial drugs
for not getting expected profit.
So, continuous development of new antimicrobial agents may not solve the present
trend of losing of efficacy of the antimicrobial drugs. The plant derived antimicrobial
agents may work through different pathways than commonly used antibiotics and
chemotherapeutic agents and thus may be an additional or alternative way to combat the
problem [25]. Same type of effects may be identified among many plant-derived medicines
against the bacterial biofilms also.
Establishment of export-oriented industries

The countries having huge resources of natural plants are definitely having huge
resources of medicinally active plants. The validated succulent plant part extracts of those
medicinal plants having any action against diseases of infective origin, direct or indirect,
may be utilized for creation of many export oriented agro-medicine industries. The countries
of the torrid zone of the globe are blessed with such plant resources. After proper study,
the succulent plant part extracts, cut pieces, dry powders, green parts, latex, pasty materials
etc. having desired efficacy (at local or systemic uses) may be exported with proper
packaging for herb - based treatment throughout the globe as an effective alternative of
Modern medicine.
So, a new journey can be started with new tools for treatment of diseases of infective
origin by some alternatives along with creation of many cheap, export oriented and labor
involving industries in the countries with such plant resources.
36
Chapter XV
TABLES
Table 1. Nutraceuticals, spices and other commonly used plant parts which
may be used directly as medicine.
Name of the plant Common name Reported use Local use and
with Family observation
Vegetables, fruits and other Nutraceuticals
Aegle marmelos (L.) B: Bail Plant antibacterial [36, 40] Pulp of ripe fruit in
Corrêa H: Bel habitual constipation
Rutaceae E: Bengal quince
Cajanus indicus B: Arahar Leaf juice in jaundice, cough, Juice of succulent

Speng. H: Arahar haemorrhoids, stomatitis; leaf leaves fed in jaundice
Fabaceae E: Pigeon Pea and root juice in diabetes [41]
Centella asiatica (L.) B: Thankuni Leaf tonic and diuretic, used in Fed to weak children
Urb. H: Mandukaparni Leprosy [37]; in wounds and
Apiaceae E: Indian Pennywort acne [42]
Citrus limon (L.) B: Lebu Anti-cancer, prevent kidney As immunostimulant

Burm. H: Nebu stone, balance body acid-base during acute stage and
Rutaceae E: Lemon balance [43] after recovery from
disease
Daucus carota L. B: Gajar Root diuretic, stimulant [37]; As immunostimulant,

/Subsp. sativus H: Gajor extract in Leprosy [44] can stimulate hair
Apiaceae E: Carrot growth and wound
healing of rabbit
Emblica officinalis B: Amlaki Antiseptic [45]; Succulent fruit as

Gaertn. H: Amla immunostimulant [46]; immunostimulant and
Phyllanthaceae E: Indian gooseberry antimicrobial [40]; fruit juice during recovery from
in septic fever and leucorrhoea chronic diseases
[41]
Contd...
37
Enhydra fluctuans B: Helancha Cutaneous and nervous Extract of succulent
Lour. H: Helancha affections [37]; in inflammation, leaves and stems
Asteraceae E: Buffalo skin diseases, laxative, applied on head one
Spinach bronchitis, nervous affection, hour before bathe in
leukoderma, biliousness, in sinusitis
Small pox; as antioxidant,
hepato-protective, CNS
depressant, analgesic and
antidiarrheal [166]
Ipomoea reptans (L) B: Kalmi Leaf for protection from As immunostimulant in

Poir. H: Kalmi Shak Chicken Pox, Gonorrhoea: root herbivores
Convolvulaceae E: Water Spinach and stem paste on immature
abscess [41]
Lagenaria vulgaris B: Lau Fruit juice externally in Protection from skin

Ser. H: Lauki Pyorrhoea and different skin diseases and chronic
Cucurbitaceae E: Bottle Gourd diseases, internally in chronic digestive problems
acidity and pyrexia with
vomiting tendency [41]
Mentha longifolia B: Pudina Leaf antiseptic, stimulant, fever Succulent leaf extracts
(L.) Huds. H: Pudina [37] in chronic digestive
Lamiaceae E: Mint problems
Momordica charantia B: Uchhey Leaf juice in pin worm, joint Succulent fruit extract
L. H: Karela pain; fruit juice in anorexia for protection from
Cucurbitaceae E: Bitter gourd indigestion and allergy; root on diabetes
old wounds [41]; leaf in
Leprosy [47]
Persea americana B: Kulunashpati Fruit contain important

Mill. H: Makhanphal, nutrients, roots yields
Lauraceae E: Avocado antibacterial, used as food
preservative [37]
Syngium Cumini (L) B: Jam Bark in sore throat, bronchitis, Pulp as protective to
Skells. H: Jamun asthma, dysentery, ulcer [36]; heart and from diabetes
Myrtaceae E: Java plum leaf juice in amoebiasis, as
haemostatic; leaf extract and
stem cover dust in old ulcers;
seed in diabetes [41]
Contd...
38
Spices
Allium sativum L. B: Ek Koshi Rosun Bulb in respiratory infections, To control problems of

Amaryllidaceae H: Qua Losun Tuberculosis, duodenal ulcer, blood/ purify blood
E: Single- clove skin problems [37] and cure of chronic
Garlic digestive problem,
taken at empty
stomach for better
action.
Brassica juncea B: Rai Sorsey Anti-diabetic/ Green leaves and seeds

(L.) Czern. H: Rai antihyperglycemic, antioxidant, as gastrointestinal
Brassicaceae E: Mustard antiatherogenic antifungal protective
activity, antitumor activity [48]
Capsicum annuum L. B: Lonka Fruit antimicrobial [49] Increase body vitality

Solanaceae H: Lal mirch
E: Red Pepper
Cinnamomum verum B: Daruchioni Anti-microbial, anti-oxidant, As antioxidant and for

J.Presl H: Dalchini wound healing, hepato- restoration of body
Lauraceae E: Cinnamon protective [50] vitality
Crocus sativus L. B: Kesor Aphrodisiac, antispasmodic,

Iridaceae H: Keshor expectorant, in stomach ailments,
E: Saffron reducing stomach-ache and for
relieving tension, measles,
dysentery, jaundice, cholera;
topically on skin diseases
like acne [51]
Cuminum cyminum L. B: Jeerah Seed antiseptic [45] Watery extract of seed

Apiaceae H: Jeerah protective to liver
E: Cumin
Curcuma longa L. B: Halud Stimulant, tonic; in sprains, Succulent rhizome as

Zingiberaceae H: Haldi bruises [37]; in allergy, curative for pimple and
E: Turmeric carbuncle [41] many other skin
diseases
Contd...
39
Foeniculum vulgare B: Mouri Carminative, digestive, A digestive stimulant
Mill. H: Moti saunf galactogogue, diuretic and in
Apiaceae E: Sweet Fennel treating respiratory and
gastrointestinal disorders [52]
Mentha longifolia B: Pudina Leaf antiseptic, stimulant, fever Leaf paste is eaten
(L.) Huds. H: Pudina [37] directly as anti-flatulent
Lamiaceae E: Mentha and digestive stimulant
Pimenta dioica B: Kabab chini Antioxidant, anticancer, As immunostimulant

(L.) Merr. H: Kabab Chinni antibacterial, hypotensive, anti-
Myrtaceae E: Allspice neuralgic and analgesic
properties [53]
Piper nigrum L. B: Gol marich Cough, sinusitis, gonorrhoea, As a stress reliever and
Piperaceae H: Kala mirch sudden pain, amoebiasis [41]; stimulant
E: Black pepper seed antimicrobial [36]
Syzygium aromaticum B: Lanbanga Buds antimicrobial [54] As antioxidant and

(L.) Merrill & Perry H: Lanbang stimulant
Myrtaceae E: Clove
Trachyspermum ammi B: Jowan Fruit tonic; in bronchitis, Seed as anti-flatulent,

(L) Sprague. H: Ajwan cholera, sore throat; root antiseptic to stomach
Apiaceae E: Bishop’s weed diuretic, febrifuge, stomach and intestine
disorder; oil antiseptic,
respiratory ailments [37]; seed
in wound healing [55]
Trigonella foenum- B: Methi Seed tonic, intestinal Succulent leaves as

graecum L. H: Methi inflammation, boils and ulcers curry, dry seeds or seed
Fabaceae E: Fenugreek [37] water extract in
diabetes
Zingiber officinale B: Ada Rhizome antioxidant, stimulant Pieces of succulent

Roscoe. H: Adrak [37]; common cold, anti- rhizome taken orally
Zingiberaceae E: Ginger cholesterol [46] with salt in pharyngitis,
common cold;
considered
immunostimulant
Contd...
40
Other commonly used medicinal plants

Adhatoda vasica B: Basak Asthma, Bronchitis, germ Leaf extract as
Nees. H: Vasaka killer, protective for pox expectorant, protection
Acanthaceae E: Malabar nut infection [41] from respiratory
infection
Azadirachta indica A. B: Neem Plant antiseptic, in skin Leaf paste mixed with
Juss. H: Neem diseases [36]; immunostimulant succulent or dry
Meliaceae E: Indian lilac [46] rhizome of Curcuma
longa L. to apply on
skin for protection
from diseases. Leaf
juices with juice of
succulent Curcuma
rhizome taken orally as
immunostimulant.
Bacopa monnieri B: Bramhi Plant antimicrobial [40] For restoration and

(L.) Pennell. H: Brahmi increase of memory
Scrophulariaceae E: Thyme-leafed power; as antioxidant
gratiola
Catharanthus roseus B: Nayantara Atitumor, anti-diabetic, anti- Succulent extract of

(L.) G.Don H: Sadabahar microbial, anti-oxidant and matured leaves in
Apocynaceae E: Cayenne anti-mutagenic [56] diabetes
jasmine
Cinnamomum B: Karpur Antiseptic, anti-inflammatory, Immunostimulant

camphora (L.) J. H: Kapur stimulant [37]
Presl. E: Camphor tree
Lauraceae
Litsea glutinosa B: Piplas/Pipulti Leaves are mucilaginous and Leaf mucilage orally
(Lour) C.B. Robins. H: Maidalakdi, used as/in antispasmodic, taken for cooling of
Lauraceae E: Indian laurel. emollient, poultice, diarrhoea body system during
and dysentery, wounds, bruises summer; as
[57], curing of prickly heat, immunostimulant
summer itches and acne [16]
Contd...
41
Linum usitatissimum B: Atasi Infectious and non-infectious Seeds eaten by chewing

L. H: Alsi diarrhoea [58], can reduce bad for protection of heart,
Linaceae E: Flaxseed, cholesterol [59] immunostimulant
Linseed
Ocimum gratissimum B: Ram tulsi Tonic, diuretic, expectorant, Expectorant,

L. H: Ram tulsi styptic, antiseptic [37] immunostimulant
Lamiaceae E: Wild basil
Ocimum sanctum L. B: Tulsi Leaf stimulant, in bronchitis, Leaf extract with honey
Lamiaceae H: Tulasi skin infections; root in Malaria; as expectorant;
E: Holy Basil seed in urinary tract disorders immunostimulant; paste
[37] prepared by leaf of
succulent Piper longum
fruit applied to control
alopecia
Origanum vulgare L. B: Bontulsi Leaf oil diuretic, tonic, in As protective against

Lamiaceae H: Sathra whooping cough, bronchitis, respiratory infection
E: Oregano rheumatism, tooth and ear ache
[37]
Piper betel L. B: Pan Leaf in wounds, root with black Anti-flatulent,

Piperaceae H: Tambul pepper for women sterility, leaf Immunostimulant
E: Betel oil in respiratory catarrh,
diphtheria [37]
Piper longum L. B: Pipul Roots and fruits in diseases of Immunostimulant,

Piperaceae H: Pippali respiratory tract [37]; plant expectorant
E: Long pepper antiseptic [36]
Rosmarinus officinalis B: Rosemary Leaf antimicrobial [54]

L. H: Rosemary
Lamiaceae E: Rosemary
Swertia chirayita B: Chirata Bitter tonic, febrifuge, asthma, As protective and

(Roxb.) Buch. - H: Chirayata liver diseases, internal curative of liver
Ham. ex C.B. Clarke. E: Chirayata haemorrhage of stomach [37] ailments, chronic
Gentianaceae diseases, indigestion
Contd...
42
Tagetes patula L. B: Ganda Oil antiseptic, leaf juice applied Juices of succulent
Asteraceae H: Genda to cuts and wounds [37] leaves directly applied
E: Merigold on fresh wounds
Tamarindus indica L. B: Tentul Leaf in common cold, chronic 3-5 year’s stored pulp
Fabaceae H: Imli amoebiasis; boiled leaf in old used in chronic
E: Tamarind wound, stomatitis; fruit diseases and as
protective to arteriosclerosis, immunostimulant
seed antiaging [41]; stored fruit among patients during
pulp in liver ailments [60]; leaf recovery
and stem bark antimicrobial
[61]; laxative, abdominal pain,
diarrhoea, dysentery, peptic
ulcer, spasmolytic, cancer,
antimicrobial, antiparasitic,
antifungal, antiviral, anti-
nematodal, anti-inflammatory,
antioxidant, anti-diabetic,
wound healing agent [62]
Terminalia arjuna B: Arjun Bark styptic, febrifuge; leave in Bark watery extract fed
(Roxb.) H: Arjun ear ache [37]; bark wound to heart patients
Wight & Arn. E: White Marudah healing [35]
Combretaceae
Terminalia chebula B: Haritaki Fruit tonic, bark diuretic [37]; As immunostimulant,

Retz. H: Haritaki fruit in chronic ulcers, wounds, in chronic digestive
Combretaceae E: Black- or scalds [36] problems
chebulic
myrobalan
Tinospora cordifolia B: Gulancha Tonic, febrifuge, analgesic, Succulent stem as

(Thunb.) Miers. H: Giloy urinary diseases, jaundice, immunostimulant in
Menispermaceae E: Indian rheumatism, Leprosy [37]; herbivorous animals
Tinospora immunostimulant [46, 63]
Withania somnifera B: Aswagandha Root in cough, rheumatism, As restorative to

(L.) Dunal. H: Aswagandha female disorders, ulcers; leaf sexual power
Solanaceae E: Indian ginseng febrifuge; in lesions, sore eyes
[37]; immunostimulant [46];
antiseptic, in wound healing
[36]
43
Table 2. Plants with reported effects against diseases of infectious origin.
Plant (with Family) Plant parts used as/in Native habitat
Abrus precatorius L. In cough and colds [37]; in cuts and India
Fabaceae wounds [64]
Abutilon indicum (Link) Sweet. Febrifuge, nerve tonic, piles [37]; plant Tropical and
Malvaceae antimicrobial [40] subtropical regions
Acacia erioloba E. Mey. Wood ash wound healing [42] Southern Africa
Fabaceae
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd. Bark antimicrobial [40] India

Fabaceae
Acacia melliferaa Benth. Root poulticewound healing [42] African countries

Fabaceae
Acacianilotica (L.) Willd. ex Del. Plant antimicrobial [40]; extract of root Africa, Middle east,
Fabaceae and stem cover, leaf, fruit used as analgesic Indian subcontinent
and in stomatitis; seed in cough [41]
Acalypha indica L. Cutaneous problems [37]; leaf in ulcer Africa, Indian

Euphorbiaceae [36] subcontinent
Acalypha praemorsa Blatt. & Anti-Typhoid activity [37] Africa, Arab, Indian
Mccan. Subcontinent
Euphorbiaceae
Acanthospermum hispidum (DC) Oil antibacterial, antifungal [37]; whole Central and South
A Chev. plant in skin diseases [65] America
Asteraceae
Achillea biebersteinii Afan. Leaf and flower antimicrobial [66] Russia to Arabian
Asteraceae countries, Pakistan
Achillea membranacea (Labill.) DC. Leaf and flower antimicrobial [67] Turkey, Iraq, Lebanon,
Asteraceae Syria
Achillea millefolium L. Plant tonic, styptic, vulnerary [37]; Temperate Northern

Asteraceae flowerhead antimicrobial [54] Hemisphere
Achyranthes aspera L. Wound healing [47]; root ointment in Tropical world

Amaranthaceae boils, abscesses [68]
44 Contd...
Acokanthera schimperi Leaf in Scabies, Leprosy, wounds [69] Eastern and central
(A.DC.) Schweinf. Africa, Yemen
Apocynaceae
Aconithum heterophyllum Root as febrifuge, tonic, throat infection [37] India, Himalayan regions
Wall. Ex Royle
Ranunculaceae
Acorus calamus L. Analgesic, abdominal tumor, dysentery [37]; India, central Asia,
Acoraceae rhizome antibacterial [36] Russia, eastern Europe
Acronychia pedunculata (L.) Bark tonic, root and bark in sores and ulcers South and southeast Asia
Miq. [37]
Rutaceae
Acrostichum aureum L. Rhizome applied on boils [37] Tropical and sub-tropical

Pteridaceae areas
Actiniopteris australis Link. Antiseptic and styptic [37] Africa, Arab, India to
Pteridaceae Malaysia, Australia
Adansonia digitata L. Leaf wound healing [70] African continent

Malvaceae
Aframomum melegueta K. Seed used in infectious diseases [71] Western Africa

Schum.
Zingiberaceae
Agave americana L. Leaf in Scurvy, Syphilis, venereal sores [37] Mexico, United States
Asparagaceae
Agave cantala (Haw.) Roxb. Leaf in cuts, wounds and burns [72] South-eastern Asia
ex Salm-Dyck.
Asparagaceae
Agelanthus dodoneifolius Leaf in skin diseases [73] Western African

(DC) R.M. Polhil & D. Wiens. countries
Loranthaceae
Ageratina adenophora Cuts and wounds [74] Mexico and Central

(Spreng) King & H. Rob. America
Asteraceae
Contd...
45
Ageratum houstonianum Mill. Leaf in cuts and wounds [32] Central America,
Asteraceae Mexico
Aglaia odorata Lour. Leaf stimulant, antipyretic; flower in China to Myanmar

Meliaceae eruptive fever and venereal diseases [37]
Agrimonia pilosa Lebeb. Underground part anti-bacterial; plant used Korea, Japan, China, Siberia,
Rosaceae as tonic [37]; in wound healing [75] Eastern Europe
Albizia adianthifolia W. Wight. Bark and root in eczema and skin Western part of Africa
Fabaceae complaints [76]
Albizia julibrissin (Duraz) Seed in Leprosy [44] Southwestern and

Baker eastern Asia
Fabaceae
Albizia lebbeck (L) Benth. Root cover fed in eczema, asthma and Indomalaya to northern
Fabaceae chronic diseases [41] Australia
Alchornea cordifolia Müll. Arg. Leaf antimicrobial [77] Tropical Africa

Euphorbiaceae
Alectra parasitica A. Rich. Rhizome in Leprosy and Tuberculosis [37] Indian subcontinent
var chitrakutensis M.A. Rau
Orobanchaceae
Alisma plantago-aquatica L. Tonic, diuretic, Hydrophobia, Leukemia, Northern and

Alismataceae sores, ulcers and wounds [37] central Africa
Allium cepa L. Bulb antimicrobial [78] Worldwide as spice

Amaryllidaceae
Aloe arborescens Mill. Leaf in wounds, burns, skin ailments [79] Southern Africa
Asphodelaceae
Aloe ferox Mill. Leaf and root in bruises, burns, psoriasis, Southern Africa
Asphodelaceae eczema, skin cancer [80]
Aloe vera (L.) Burm.f Leaf in dermatitis, skin disorders [37]; Tropical countries
Asphodelaceae wound healing effect [63]
Contd...
46
Alpina galanga (L.) Antitubercular [37]; tonic, respiratory and India to Malaysia
Willd. stomach problems, disinfectant [36]
Zingiberaceae
Alpinia malaccensis Rhizome used to treat sores [37] Indonesia and Malaysia
(Burm.f.) Roscoe.
Zingiberaceae
Alstonia scholaris Latex to sores, ulcers and tumours [37]; in skin India to
(L.) R.Br. diseases [36] Malesia, Australasia
Apocynaceae
Amaranthus spinosus L. Eruptive fever, shoots in eczema [37] Tropical Americas

Amaranthaceae
Ammannia baccifera L Anti-Typhoid, anti-tubercular, ringworm [37] Tropical Asia, America

Lythraceae and Africa
Amorphophallus Dysentery and piles [37]; in Leprosy [44] Africa, South and
campanulatus (Roxb.) Southeast Asia
Blume ex Decne.
Araceae
Ampelocissus latifolia Leaf in dental problems, indolent ulcers and Indian subcontinent
(Roxb.) Planch. dysentery [37]
Vitaceae
Amygdalus persica L. Leaf in sores [81] Northwest China

Rosaceae
Anagallis arvensis L. Expectorant, stimulant, vulnerary, Leprosy, Europe, Western

Primulaceae Hydrophobia [37] Asia, North Africa
Anamirta cocculus Berry in ringworm and skin affections [37] Southeast Asia
(L.) Wight & Arn.
Menispermaceae
Anaphalis contorta (D.Don) Flower heads styptic, oil antibacterial [37] Himalayan region
Hook.f.
Compositae
Contd...
47
Anaphalis cinnamomea Leaf to cuts and wounds [37] Asia and North America
(DC.) C.B. Clarke.
Asteraceae
Anaphalis neelgerryana Fresh lef on wounds and cuts [37] Southern part of India
(DC.) DC.
Asteraceae
Anaphalis triplinervis Flower paste in wound healing [55] Himalayan region

(Sims.) C.B. Clarke
Asteraceae
Andrographis paniculata Tonic, febrifuse, Cholera, Influenza, South and south-

(Burm.f.) Nees. bronchitis, piles [37] eastern Asia
Acanthaceae
Anisomeles indica (L.) Oil in uterine affection [37]; leaf wound Eastern Asia
Kunze. healing [16]
Lamiaceae
Annona squamosa L. Leaf in cuts and wounds, animal wounds Tropical Americas and
Annonaceae [82] West Indies
Antirrhinum majus L. Leaf on tumors and ulcers [37] Mediterranean region

Plantaginaceae
Antirrhinum orontium L. Leaf on tumors and ulcers [37] Europe

Plantaginaceae
Apama siliquosa Lam. Root in dysentery and Cholera, ointment in Indian subcontinent
Aristolochiaceae sores and ulcers [37]
Apium graveolens L. Leaf stimulant, fruits intestinal antiseptic, Cultivated as vegetable

Apiaceae Rheumatoid arthritis [37] worldwide
Aporosa lindleyana (Wt.) Bail. Leaf in burns [83] Southern India, Sri
Phyllanthaceae Lanka
Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Sores in the mouth [37] Eurasia

Heynh.
Brassicaceae
Contd...
48
Arctium lappa L. Root diuretic, in gout, skin affections, seed Eurasia

Asteraceae in psoriasis, acne, prurigo [37]
Arctostaphylos uva ursi (L.) Spreng. Leaf antimicrobial [84] Circumpolar in

Ericaceae northern latitudes
Ardisia solanacea Roxb. Root and bark in cuts and wounds [85] Southeast Asia, west
Primulaceae China
Argyreia nervosa (Burm.f.) Bojer. Gonorrhea, strangury, chronic ulcers, Indian subcontinent
Convolvulaceae eczema, other skin troubles [37]
Aristea ecklonii Baker. Painful rash, blisters [86] Central and

Iridaceae southern Africa
Aristolochia bracteolata Lam. Leaf in eczema [37]; foul ulcer [36] Sub-Saharan Africa,
Aristolochaceae Arab, India
Aristolochia indica L. Root tonic, leaf in cough, principle increase India and Sri Lanka
Aristolochiaceae phagocytosis [37]; root in rash [65]
Aristolochia macroura Gomes. Stem and leaf in Rheumatism, constituent Widespread globally
Aristolochiaceae of antiseptic preparation [37]
Armoracia rusticana G. Gaertn. Root antimicrobial [87] Europe and

B. Mey. & Scherb. western Asia
Brassicaceae
Arnebia euchroma (Royle) I.M. Tooth ache, ear ache, root paste on West and central Asia,
Johnst. eruptions, showed anticancer activity [37] Himalayan region
Boraginaceae
Arnica montana L. Tonic, vulnerary, tincture in sprain and Europe

Asteraceae bruises [37]
Artemisia absinthium L. Tonic, chronic fever, inflammation of liver Temperate regions

Asteraceae [37]; leaf in swellings, wounds, dandruff [72] of Eurasia, Africa
Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd. Leaf in acne and boils [88] South Africa
Asteraceae
Contd...
49
Artemisia nilagirica (C.B. Leaf febrifuge, asthma; root tonic, antiseptic Tropical Asia
Clarke) Pamp. [37]; leaf wound healing [16]
Asteraceae
Artemisia roxburghiana Wall. Leaf in cuts and wounds [89] Slopes of Himalaya
ex Besser.
Asteraceae
Artemisia sieversiana Ehrh. ex Plant antimicrobial [37] Temperate Asia,

Willd. Himalayan regions
Asteraceae
Arum hygrophilum Boiss. Leaf antimicrobial [67] Arabian Peninsula

Araceae
Arum discoridis Sm. Leaf antimicrobial [67] East of the

Araceae Mediterranean sea
Aruncus dioicus (Walter) Fernald. Principle antibacterial [37] Temperate areas

Rosaceae
Asclepias curassavica L. Root in piles, gonorrhoea; leaf juice in American tropics

Apocynaceae cancer; latex in warts and corns [37]
Aspalathus linearis (Burm.f.) Leaf in eczema [79] South Africa

R. Dahlgren.
Fabaceae
Asparagus gonoclados Baker. Used in skin troubles [37] Indian subcontinent

Asparagaceae
Asparagus racemosus Willd. Leaf immunostimulant [46]; nerve tonic, Himalayan region,
Asparagaceae antimicrobial [45] India, Sri Lanka
Aspilia africana C.D. Adams. Leaf antimicrobial [90] Tropical Africa

Compositae
Aspilia natalensis (Sond.) Leaf in wounds and sores [87] Africa, Madagascar, Latin
Wild. America
Asteraceae
Contd...
50
Asplenium trichomanes L. Expectorant, abscesses of uterus [37] Worldwide in rocky

Aspleniaceae areas
Astragalus leucocephalus Asthma, respiratory infection [41] Himalayan region

Bunge.
Leguminosae
Aster amellus L. Root in cough, pulmonary affections, malarial European mountains,

Asteraceae fever, haemorrhage [37] western Asia
Aster bakeranus Burtt Davy Root in sores [87] South Africa

ex C. A. Sm.
Asteraceae
Astragalus multiceps Wall. Seeds in colic and Leprosy [37] Himalayan region
Fabaceae
Athrixia phylicoides DC. Sores and boils [87] Southern Africa

Asteraceae
Azanza lampas (Cav.) Alef. Root and fruit in Gonorrhoea and Syphilis, China, India to
Malvaceae floral parts in cutaneous diseases [37] Malaysia
Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss. Latex of heated branches in ear ache [16] leaf Southern Asia
Poaceae and flower for speedy delivery and evacuation
of placenta, root in strangury and oedema [41]
Baptisia australis Hort. ex Root in tooth ache [91] North America

Lehm. Fabaceae
Barleria lupulina Lindl. Leaf in wound healing [92, 35] Southeast Asia
Acanthaceae
Barleria prionitis L. Leaf in catarrhal affections, tooth ache; root India, Sri Lanka,
Acanthaceae febrifuge, boils, glandular swellings [37] Africa
Barleria rigida Willd. ex Nees. Root and leaf in wound healing [70] Sothern Africa
Acanthaceae
Basella alba L. Leaf externally on pimples and warts: leaves Tropical Asia and
Basellaceae boiled in mustard oil in ulcers; orally in cough Africa
and elephantiasis [41]
51 Contd...
Bauhinia acuminate L. Bark and leaf in Asthma, bladder stone and South-eastern Asia
Fabaceae Leprosy [37]
Bauhinia rufescens Lam. Diarrhoea and dysentery; bark and root in African countries
Fabaceae Leprosy; leaf in eye troubles [37]
Bauhinia petersiana Bolle. Leaf in wound healing [70] African countries

Fabaceae
Bauhinia vahlii Wright & Arn. Root in cuts, wounds [93] Himalayan regions
Fabaceae
Bauhinia variegata L. Root to prevent obesity, bark in cutaneous South and Southeast
Caesalpiniaceae trouble, ulcer, Leprosy [37] Asia
Begonia cucullate Willd. var. Leaf and flower antibacterial [37] Tropical countries
hookeri (A.DC.) L.B.Sm. &
B.G. Schub.
Begoniaceae
Begonia heracleifolia Cham. Leaf and flower antibacterial [37] Tropical and
& Schltdl. subtropical regions
Begoniaceae
Begonia palmata Don. Extract of succulent stalk in venereal diseases Himalayan regions
Begoniaceae [37]
Berberis aquifolium Purs. Plant extract anti-psoriasis [94] Western North

Berberidaceae America
Berberis aristata DC. Stem in intermittent fever [37]; root and stem in Temperate and sub-
Berberidaceae ulcer and sore [36]; root in Jaundice [41] tropical regions
Berberis vulgaris L. Infectious diseases, antiseptic, disinfectant [95]; Worldwide

Berberidaceae fruits in respiratory disorder, fever, cold, flu[96]
Bergenia ciliate Rhizomes in diarrhoea, spleen enlargement, Himalayan region

(Haw.) Sternb. Revis. renal and pulmonary affections [37]
Saxifragaceae
Bergia odorata Edgew. Leaf in bone fracture and sores [37] Western India to
Elatinaceae Arab and Africa
Contd...
52
Beta vulgaris L. Leaf in burns, inflammations [44, 47] Europe, north Africa to
Amaranthaceae western Asia
Betula alnoides Buch-Ham. Bark in wound healing [75] Himalayan region

Betulaceae
Betula utilis D. Don. Bark as antiseptic [37] Himalayan region

Betulaceae
Bidens bipinnata L. Expectorant, eye and ear drop; root and seed Asia and North America
Asteraceae in asthma [37]
Bidens biternata (Lour.) Leaf in cuts and wounds [32] Tropical Africa, India to
Merr. & Sherff. Malaysia
Asteraceae
Bidens pilosa L. Tonic, diuretic, febrifuge, skin troubles, fistula, America

Asteraceae Leprosy; leaf in eye and ear troubles [37]
Bidens tripartite L. Haematuria, chronic dysentery, eczema; seed Eurasia, North Africa,
Asteraceae as expectorant, diuretic, urinary stones [37] North America
Biophytum sensitivum (L.) Tonic, tumours; leaf and root styptic, leaf in Southeast Asian
DC. diabetes, asthma, Phthisis; seed on abscesses countries
Oxalidaceae [37]
Blechnum orientale L. Rhizome in urinary disorders and boils [37] East and south east
Blechnaceae Asia, Australia
Blumea lacera (Burm.f.) DC. Wound healing [92]; febrifuge, diuretic [37] Southeast Asia
Asteraceae
Boerhavia diffusa L. Root expectorant, diuretic, Asthma [37]; India, southern United
Nyctaginaceae Gonorrhoea [36]; immunostimulant [46] States
Bombax ceiba L. Bark tonic, styptic; fruit expectorant, diuretic, India, south-eastern
Malvaceae urinary calculi, ulceration [37]; antimicrobial Asia
[97]
Boophane disticha L.F. Bulb in septic wounds, boils, external sores, African countries
Amaryllidaceae rheumatism [80]
Contd...
53
Borago officinalis L. Urinary tract affections, skin diseases [37] Mediterranean region
Boraginaceae
Boschniakia himalaica Wound healing [75] Himalayan region

Hook f. & Thomson.
Orobanchaceae
Boswellia serrata Triana India and Pakistan

Bark in diarrhea, skin troubles; gum
& Planch. expectorant, diuretic, dysentery, pulmonary
Burseraceae affections [37]
Botrychium lunaria Dysentery, cuts, wounds, ruptures; root and

(L.) Sw. Worldwide
frond in breast cancer [37]
Ophioglossaceae
Botrychium Dysentery, fresh root on cuts and bruises [37] Himalayan regions, parts
virginianum (L.) Sw. of Europe, USA
Ophioglossaceae
Brassica nigra L. Leaf and flower in Leprosy [98] South Europe and south
Brassicaceae Asia
Breynia vitts–idaea Leaf on suppurative wounds, hemostatic, India to Indonesia

(Burn.f.) C.E.C. Fisher. tonsillitis; bark astringent, hemostatic [37]
Phyllanthaceae
Bridelia micrantha Baill. Bark in burns and wounds [88] African countries
Phyllanthaceae
Brucea javanica Fruit in malignant Malaria, diarrhoea, China, India to Malaysia,

(L.) Merr. dysentery; leaf in skin troubles; seed oil in Australia
Simaroubaceae papilloma [37]
Brunfelsia uniflora Roots in Rheumatism and Syphilis [37] South America

(Pohl) D. Don.
Solanaceae
Bryophyllum pinnatum Leaf in wounds, bruises, boils, sloughing ulcers Madagascar

(Lam.) Oken. [37]
Crassulaceae
Contd...
54
Buchanania Seed and leaf in skin diseases [99] China, India to Malaysia
cochinchinensis (Lour.)
M. R. Almeida.
Anacardiaceae
Buddleja globose Hope. Shout in stomach ulcers, leaf in dysentery [37] Chile and Argentina
Buddlejaceae
Buddleja Leaf in bronchitis, asthma and cough [37] Madagascar

madagascariensis Lam.
Buddlejaceae
Bulbine frutescens (L) Leaf in wounds, burns, skin rash, itchiness, Southern Africa
Willd. ringworm [100]
Asphodelaceae
Bulbine natalensis Leaf in wounds and burns [80] Southern and

Rooiwortel. southeastern Africa
Asphodelaceae
Butea monosperma Seed in herpes [37]; in ringworm [36] Southeast Asia

(Lam.) Taub.
Fabaceae
Buxus wallichiana Baill. Leaf in Rheumatism and Syphilis; bark as Himalayan region
Buxaceae febrifuge [37]
Byttneria Root in Cholera and diarrhoea [37] Peninsular India

herbacea Roxb.
Malvaceae
Calendula officinalis L. Diuretic, stimulant [37]; wound healing [101] Southern Europe
Asteraceae
Callicarpa arborea Bark in cutaneous ailments [37] China and Southeast Asia
Roxb.
Verbenaceae
Callicarpa tomentosa Bark in skin troubles, hepatic obstructions, India and Sri Lanka
(L.) L. fever; leaf in aphthae of mouth [37]
Lamiaceae
Contd...
55
Calophyllum inophyllum Seed oil in rheumatism, skin affections; bark in East Africa, India
L. orchitis, indolent ulcers [37] to Malesia, Australia
Calophyllaceae
Calotropis gigantean Cuts and wounds, Leprosy [44, 32] China, India to Malaysia,
(L.) W.T. Aiton. tropical Africa
Asclepiadaceae
Calotropis procera W.T. Root bark in Leprosy [37]; antimicrobial [40] Tropical Africa, India,
Aiton. China
Apocynaceae
Calpurnia aurea Leaf in wound, Scabies [69] African countries

(Ait.) Benth.
Fabaceae
Calycopteris floribunda Leaf tonic, astringent, in ulcers [37] Indian subcontinent

(Roxb.) Lam.
Combretaceae
Campsis radicans Seem. Root for healing of wounds [37] Eastern United States
Bignoniaceae
Cannabis sativa L. Oil used in Leprosy [44] Many countries

Cannabinaceae throughout the globe
Canscora decussata Juice in insanity, epilepsy, nervous debility Burma, India

(Roxb.) Schult. [37]; Leprosy [44]
Gentianaceae
Canthium dicoccum Used in dandruff [65]; antimicrobial [102] Southeast China to

(Gaertn) Merr. tropical Asia
Rubiaceae
Capparis sepiaria L. Tonic, febrifuge, skin problems [37] India to Malaysia, China,
Capparaceae tropical Africa
Capparis spinosa L. Bark diuretic, expectorant, tonic, liver Parts of Asia, Africa,
Capparaceae affections, rheumatism, glandular Tuberculosis [37] Australia, Europe
Capparis tomentosa Lam. Root in wounds, Leprosy [88] African countries

Capparaceae
Contd...
56
Capparis zeylanica L. Root bark in Cholera [37]; immunostimulant, in Indian subcontinent,

Capparaceae wound healing [103] China
Capsella bursa-pastoris Dysentery, diuretic, febrifuge, homeostatic; Eastern Europe, Asia

(L.) Medik. ailments of eye in Chinese medicine [37] minor
Brassicaceae
Cardiospermum Leaf in body sores [88] Tropical and subtropical

halicacabum L. Africa and Asia
Sapindaceae
Carpobrotus edulis (L.) Leaf in eczema, wounds, burns [80] South Africa
N.E.Br.
Aizoeceae
Carthamus Oil on ulcers and itches [37] Eastern Mediterranean to

oxyacantha M. Bieb. India
Asteraceae
Carthamus tinctorius L. Oil on sores and rheumatic swellings [37] Worldwide

Asteraceae
Cassia auriculata L. Bark astringent, seed in eye troubles, diabetes, India and Sri Lanka
Fabaceae chylous urine; root in skin troubles [37]
Cassia sophera L. Root extract in asthma, root cover in old Tropical countries
Fabaceae wounds, ringworm and psoriasis [41]
Cassine transvaalensis Bark in skin rashes, infections, inflammation Southern Africa

(Burtt Davy) Codd. [70]
Celastraceae
Cassytha filiformis L. Bilious affections, urethritis, chronic dysentery, Pantropical

Lauraceae eye and skin infections [37]
Cayratia carnosa (Lam.) Root with pepper on boils; leaf on yoke sore of India to Malaysia, China,
Gagnep. bullocks [37] Australia
Vitaceae
Cedrela toona Roxb. ex Bark in chronic dysentery, ulcers [37] Southern Asia, Australia
Rottle.
Meliaceae
Contd...
57
Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) G. Oil in ulcer and skin diseases [37] Himalayan region
Don.
Pinaceae
Celosia argentea L. Seeds in diarrhoea, eye troubles, sore mouth Tropical countries
Amaranthaceae [37]
Celosia trigyna L. Leaf in boils and skin complaints [80] Tropical Africa
Amaranthaceae
Centranthera indica (L.) Febrifuge, eye sore [37] Himalayan regions,

Gamble. Australia, Sri Lanka
Orobanchaceae
Centratherum Seed stimulant, antiseptic [36] Indian subcontinent

anthelminticum Kuntze.
Asteraceae
Ceriops tagal Bark in malignant ulcers, haemorrhages Africa, China, India to

(Pers.) C.B.Rob. [37] Malaysia
Rhizophoraceae
Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach. Tonic, chronic catarrh, bronchitis [37] Mountainous Northern
Parmeliaceae Hemisphere
Champereia griffithii Planch. Leaf and root on ulcers [37] China to Malaysia
ex Kurz.
Opiliaceae
Chenopodium album L. Leaf in skin diseases [47,72]; in wound Worldwide

Amaranthaceae healing [75]
Chenopodium ambrosioides Eczema [88] Parts of Africa and

Bert. ex Steud. America
Amaranthaceae
Chenopodium Leaf antimicrobial [66] India, South Africa,

schraderianum Schult. Americas, Australia
Amaranthaceae
Contd...
58
Chironia baccifera L. Leprosy, boils, acne, sores [88] African countries

Gentianaceae
Chlorophytum Root antimicrobial [40] Indian peninsula

borivilianum Santapau &
R.R. Fern.
Asparagaceae
Chlorophytum laxum Tuber and leaf antimicrobial [40] Africa, Asia, Australia
R.Br.
Asparagaceae
Chlorophytum tuberosum Root antimicrobial [40] Parts of Africa, India

(Roxb.) Baker.
Asparagaceae
Chloroxylon swietenia Leaf in cuts, cattle wounds [104] India, Sri

DC. Lanka, Madagascar
Rutaceae
Chondrus crispus Stackh. Stimulant, cough, bronchitis, problems of Atlantic coast of

Gigartinaceae blooder, kidney, skin [37] Europe, North America
Chrysocoma ciliata L. In wounds [70] Africa, Australia

Asteraceae
Cichorium intybus L. Viral hepatitis in Unani medicine [46] Europe, North America
Asteraceae
Cinchona ledgeriana Bark febrifuge, tonic [37]; antimicrobial [36] India, Java, Colombia,
Moens ex Tremen. Bolivia
Rubiaceae
Cinnamomum Bark cardiotonic, antiseptic [37] China, Indian

pauciflorum Nees. subcontinent
Lauraceae
Cipadessa baccifera Leaf in wounds [65] India, Sri Lanka

(Roth) Miq.
Meliaceae
Contd...
59
Cirsium sinense C.B. Clarke. Root in ulcers, abscesses [37] China, Japan
Compositae
Cirsium verutum (D. Don.) Leaf in wound healing [75] Himalayan region
Spreng
Asteraceae
Cissampelos capensis L.f. Boils, sores, ulcers, Syphilis, snakebite African countries
Menispermaceae wounds [79]
Cissampelos pareira L. Diuretic, dyspepsia, urinary troubles [37]; India, China, some
Menispermaceae Leprosy [105] African countries
Cissus adnate Roxb. Tuber diuretic, in cuts, fractures [37] Asia, Australia
Vitaceae
Cissus quadrangularis L. Juice in scurvy, root in fracture [37]; Indian subcontinent

Vitaceae shoot in wound healing [106]
Citrullus colocynthis Root in jaundice, rheumatism, urinary Mediterranean

(L.) Schrad. troubles [37]; Leprosy [98] basin, Asia
Cucurbitaceae
Citrusparadise Macfad. Build up resistance [37]; seed anti- Barbados

Rutaceae microbial [107]
Cladonia alpestris (L.) Rabenh. Tuberculosis [37] America, Europe

Cladoniaceae
Clausena pentaphylla (Roxb.) Bark in wounds and sprains of animals Sub-Himalayan India
DC. [37]
Rutaceae
Clematis gouriana Roxb. Leaf in cuts, wounds, burns [108] China, Indian
ex DC. subcontinent, Malaysia
Ranunculaceae
Clematis triloba Heyne ex Roth. Leprosy [37] Part of Northern

Ranunculaceae Hemisphere
Contd...
60
Cleome chelidonii L. f. Gingivitis, skin troubles [37] India, Myanmar,

Cleomaceae Thailand, Indonesia
Cleome ramosissima Aerial parts antimicrobial [66] Arabian countries

Webb ex Parl.
Cleomaceae
Cleome viscose L. Leaf in cuts and wounds [109] Tropics with good
Cleomaceae rainfall
Clerodendrum indicum Root in asthma, cough, Tuberculosis like China, India to Malaysia
(L.) Kuntze. infections [37]
Lamiaceae
Clerodendrum phlomidis Root in Gonorrhea [37] India and Sri Lanka

L.f.
Lamiaceae
Cnicus benedictus L. Wounds, ulcers [79] Mediterranean region

Asteraceae
Clitoria ternatea L. Goiter, hysteria, edema, laryngitis, cough, Thailand to Malaysia,

Fabaceae throat infection, skin infection [41] introduced elsewhere
Coccinia grandis (L.) Leaf in carbuncle, scabies, ulcer, abscess [16] Africa to Asia
Voigt.
Cucurbitaceae
Cocculus hirsutus (L.) Leaf in cuts, wounds, boils, Gonorrhoea, India, Pakistan, tropical
Diels. urinary troubles, eczema [110]; liver protection Africa
Menispermaceae [60]
Cocos nucifera L. Root in prostate enlargement, irregular period Tropical countries

Arecaceae of ladies, dry fruit in tape worm infection [41];
oil anti-microbial [111]
Codonopsis ovata Benth. Root and leaf in ulcers and wounds [37] Western Himalayan
Campanulaceae region
Coelogyne cristata Lindl. Pseudobulb in wound healing [112] Eastern Himalayas and
Orchidaceae Vietnam
Contd...
61
Coix lacryma-jobi L. Affections of respiratory and urinary tract [37] Southeast Asia
Poaceae
Colebrookea Leaf on wound and bruises, root in epilepsy Himalayan region

oppositifolia Sm. [37]
Lamiaceae
Coleus amboinicus Lour. Leaf in chronic cough, asthma, urinary diseases Southern and Eastern
Lamiaceae [37] Africa
Combretum kraussii Root in wound dressing [113] African countries

Hochst.
Combretaceae
Combretum molle R.Br. Leaf in wound dressing [88] African countries

ex G. Don.
Combretaceae
Commelina benghalensis Leprosy [37]; leaf in wounds [32] Tropical Asia and
L. Africa
Commelinaceae
Commelina nudiflora L. Leaf in sores, boils, itches and burns [37] India, Bangladesh
Commelinaceae
Commicarpus Plant antimicrobial [66] Northern Africa, Arab

grandiflorus (A. Rich.)
Standl.
Nyctaginaceae
Commicarpus Leaf antimicrobial [66] Tropical Africa to

lumbagineus (Cav.) southern Spain
Standl.
Nyctaginaceae
Commiphora Diuretic, expectorant, uterine stimulant, Northern

mukul (Stocks) Hook. rheumatism, antiseptic [37] Africa to central Asia,
Burseraceae India
Commiphora myrrha Resin anti-microbial [114] Arabian Peninsula

(Nees) Eng.
Burseraceae
Contd...
62
Connarus monocarpus L. Fruit in eye troubles, root oil on swelling, bark India and Sri Lanka
Connaraceae in ulcers [37]
Conyza aegyptiaca (L.) Leaf in skin diseases [115] Tropical and warm
Aiton. temperate regions
Asteraceae
Cordia dichotoma Fruit in diseases of chest and urinary passage India to Malaysia,
G.Forst. [37] Australia
Boraginaceae
Cordia wallichii G. Don. Fruit in bronchial affections [37] Peninsular India

Boraginaceae
Coriandrum sativum L. Oil in wound healing [35] Hot part of Europe,

Apiaceae Africa and Asia
Cordyceps sinensis Boost cellular immunity, asthma, Tuberculosis, Nepal, Tibet, Sikkim of
(Berk.) Sacc. bronchitis, kidney troubles [116] India
Ophiocordycipitaceae
Corydalis govaniana Root tonic, diuretic; in syphilitic, scrofulous, Himalayan region

Wall. cutaneous affections [37]
Papaveraceae
Coscinium fenestratum Febrifuge, dressing of wounds and ulcers [37]; South and Southeast
(Goetgh.) Colebr. stem and root antiseptic [36] Asia
Menispermaceae
Costus speciosus (J. Rhizome in skin diseases [36] Southeast Asia

Konig) C. Specht.
Costaceae
Cotyledon orbiculata L. Leaf in corns, warts, boils [80] Southern Africa

Crassulaceae
Crateva nurvala Buch. - Bark stimulate liver, in calculus and other China, India, southeast
Ham. urinary affections [37]; kidney stone [46] Asia
Capparaceae
Crinum defixum Ker Gawl. Bulb in burns, whitlow, carbuncles [37] Indian peninsula
Amaryllidaceae
Contd...
63
Crinum macowanii Bulb and leaf in sores, boils and acne [42] Africa
Baker.
Amaryllidaceae
Croton bonplandianum Leaf in wound healing [117], haemostasis [118] South America, Asia
Baill.
Euphorbiaceae
Croton lechleri Müll.Arg. Resin antimicrobial [119] South America

Euphorbiaceae
Cryptolepis Root in hepatitis, urinary tract infections, Some African countries

sanguinolenta (Lindl.) stomach ache, tonic [120]
Schltr.
Asclepiadaceae
Cucumis melo L. Seeds diuretic, pulp in chronic eczema [37]; Iran, Anatolia, Caucasus
Cucurbitaceae used in urinary obstruction and tract infection [41] area
Cucumis myriocarpus E. Fruits in boils, abscesses [88] Tropical and southern

Mey. ex Naud. Africa
Cucurbitaceae
Cucurbita maxima Duch. Seed as tonic, diuretic; fruit pulp on boils, Worldwide
Cucurbitaceae burns, inflammation [37]
Cullen corylifolium (L.) Fruit diuretic, leukoderma, Leprosy, Psoriasis, China, India to Malaysia
Medik. diseases of skin [37]; antibacterial [36]
Fabaceae
Curculigo orchioides Tuberous root diuretic, tonic; in piles, China, Japan, Indian
Gaertn. diarrhoea, jaundice, asthma, skin troubles [37] subcontinent
Hypoxidaceae
Curcuma amada Roxb. Rhizome wound healing [35] South and southeast
Zingiberaceae Asia
Cyathula prostrata (L.) Root in dysentery, skin complaints [37] Widespread in tropics
Blume
Amaranthaceae
Contd...
64
Cymbopogon flexuosus Stomachic, anti-microbial [45] India, Sri Lanka, Burma,

(Nees ex Steud.) W. Thailand
Watson.
Poaceae
Cymbopogon jwarancusa Cough, rheumatism, dyspepsia, gout, Cholera South east Asia
(Jones) Schult. [37]
Poaceae
Cynodon dactylon (L.) Leaf diuretic; rhizome in genito-urinary Warm climates

Pers. troubles [37]; wound healing [92] worldwide
Poaceae
Cynometra ramiflora L. Seed oil in Leprosy and skin diseases [37] India to Myanmar
Leguminosae
Cyperus rotundus L. Amoebiasis, epilepsy, wound, mastitis, Africa, Asia, Europe

Cyperaceae Pyorrhoea [41]
Dactylorhiza hatagirea Tuber in cuts and wounds [121] Himalayan region

(D.Don) Soo.
Orchidaceae
Dalbergia Bark paste on pimples [37] Western Ghats, India

sympathetica Nimmo ex
Grah.
Fabaceae
Daphne oleoides Bark and leaf in skin troubles [37] Southern Europe, Africa,
Schreber. Asia Minor
Thymelaeaceae
Datura metel L. Seed and flower in Psoriasis [122] Warmer parts of the
Solanaceae world
Datura stramonium L. Leaf in boils, abscesses, wounds [80] North America

Solanaceae
Deeringia amaranthoides Leaf on sores [37] China, India to Malaysia,

(Lam.) Merr. Australia
Amaranthaceae
Contd...
65
Delphinium denudatum Root stimulant, tonic; in tooth ache [37] Western Himalayas
Wall.
Ranunculaceae
Delphinium elatum L. Seed in skin diseases, flower in eye troubles Europe to north and
Ranunculaceae [37] central Asia
Dendrobium crumenatum Leaf on boils, pimples; herb in nervous India to Malaysia

Sw. affections [37]
Orchidaceae
Dendrophthoe pentandra (L.) Leaf on sores, ulcers [37] China, India to Malaysia
Miq.
Loranthaceae
Dentella repens (L.) J.R. Leaf in sores [37] India to Malaysia

Forst. & G. Forst.
Rubiaceae
Desmodium velutinum Leaf in skin diseases [32] Madagascar, China,

(Willd.) DC. Indian to Malaysia
Fabaceae
Desmostachya bipinnata Dysmenorrhea, gallstone (with Tribulus Tropical Asia and Africa
(L) Stapf. terrestris and Crataeva religiosa), piles,
Poaceae wounds [41]
Dichrostachys cinerea Bark in abscesses and other skin affections Africa, Indian
(L.) Wight & Arn. [88] subcontinent, Australia
Fabaceae
Dicoma anomala Sond. Wounds, ulcers, ringworm, head sores [88] Southern Africa
Asteraceae
Dicoma tomentosa Cass. Febrifuge, in putrescent wounds [37] Africa, Indian

Asteraceae subcontinent
Dictamnus albus L. Root bark in nervous diseases, plant in scabies, Warm part of Europe,
Rutaceae skin affections [37] Africa, Asia
Digitalis purpurea L. Leaf in wound, burn [36] Temperate Europe

Plantaginaceae
Contd...
66
Dillenia pentagyna Bark in cuts and burns [123] Southern Asia, Australia
Roxb.
Dilleniaceae
Dioscorea alata L. Tuber in Leprosy and piles [37] Tropical Asia

Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea bulbifera L. Tuber in ulcers, piles, dysentery [37] Africa, southern Asia
Dioscoreaceae
Dioscorea dregeana Tuber in cuts and sores [80] South Africa

T. Durand & Schinz.
Dioscoreaceae
Diospyros malabarica Bark in dysentery, febrifuge; fruit as gargle in Indian subcontinent,

(Desr.) Kostel. aphthae, sore throat [37] south east Asia
Ebenaceae
Diospyros melanoxylon Leaf diuretic, styptic; flowers in urinary and India, Sri Lanka
Roxb. skin troubles [37]
Ebenaceae
Diospyros mespiliformis Root, leaf in skin rash, bruises, wounds, Savannas of Africa
Hochst. ex A. DC. ringworm [70]
Ebenaceae
Diospyros Fruits on burns [37] Indian peninsula

paniculata Dalzell.
Ebenaceae
Diospyros racemosa Gum from cut trees in tooth ache [37] India, Sri Lanka
Roxb.
Ebenaceae
Diploclisia glaucescens Leaf in Syphilis, Gonorrhea [37] Indo-Malesia, China

(BI.) Diels
Menispermaceae
Dipteracanthus Root in renal affections [37] India

suffruticosus (Roxb.)
Voigt.
Acanthaceae
Contd...
67
Dipterocarpus Oleoresin on ulcers in Burma [37] Bangladesh to Vietnam

tuberculatus Roxb.
Dipterocarpaceae
Dipterocarpus turbinatus Oleoresin to ulcers, ringworm and other India and south
C.F. Gaertn. cutaneous diseases [37] east Asia
Dipterocarpaceae
Dipterygium glaucum Leaf antimicrobial [66] Egypt to Pakistan

Decne.
Capparaceae
Dodonaea angustifolia Leaf and twig antipruritic, boils, skin diseases Africa to Arabia,
L.f. of the head and face [80] Australia, New Zealand.
Sapindaceae
Dodonaea viscose Jacq. Leaf febrifuge, in burns and wounds [37] Parts of Africa,
Sapindaceae America, Asia, Australia
Dolichandrone Seed antiseptic, in spasmodic affections [37] Southern India, Sri

spathacea (L.f.) Seem. Lanka
Bignoniaceae
Dolichos trilobus L. Seed in rheumatism, root in ophthalmia, skin Tropical Africa, Arabia
Fabaceae diseases [37] to south Asia
Dregea volubilis (L. f.) Leaf in boils and abscesses [37] India
Benth. ex Hook. f.
Apocynaceae
Drymaria cordata (L) Juice febrifuge [37]; leaf in cuts, burns, wounds Africa, America, India
Willd. [32]
Caryophyllaceae
Drynaria quercifolia (L.) Rhizome antibacterial [37] India to Malaysia,

J. Sm. Australia
Polypodiaceae
Dysoxylum Wood oil in ear and eye diseases [37] India

malabaricum Bedd. ex
Hiern.
Meliaceae
Contd...
68
Ecbalium elaterium (L) Fruit antimicrobial [67] Europe, northern Africa,

A. Rich. temperate Asia
Cucurbitaceae
Ecbolium viride Root in jaundice, rheumatism, leaf in stricture India, Sri Lanka,
(Forssk.) Alston. [37]; leaf and flower antimicrobial [66] Bangladesh
Acanthaceae
Echinacea purpurea (L) Plant is antimicrobial [124] North America, Canada

Moench.
Asteraceae
Echinacea angustifolia Plant is antimicrobial [124] North America, Canada

DC.
Asteraceae
Echinacea pallida Plant is antimicrobial [124] North America, Canada

(Nutt.) Nutt.
Asteraceae
Echium arabicum R. Leaf antimicrobial [66] Arabian countries

Mill.
Boraginaceae
Eclipta prostrate (L.) L. Leaf tonic, hepatic and spleen enlargement, hair Widespread
Asteraceae treatment, skin troubles, wound of animals [37]
Ekebergia capensis Bark in abscesses, boils and acne [125] African countries
Sparrm.
Meliaceae
Elaeocarpus glandulosus Fruits in rheumatism, pneumonia, Leprosy, Southern part of India

Wall. ex Merr. dropsy [37]
Elaeocarpaceae
Elaeocarpus Fruits in Typhoid, rheumatism, epilepsy [37] India to Malaysia

tuberculatus Roxb.
Elaeocarpaceae
Elephantopus scaber L. Root and leaf in diarrhoea, dysentery; root in Tropical Africa, part of
Asteraceae tooth ache; leaf in eczema, ulcers [37] Asia, Australia
Contd...
69
Elephantorrhiza Root and rhizome in acne, wounds, burns and Southern Africa
elephantina (Burch.) other skin diseases [126]
Skeels.
Fabaceae
Elettaria cardamomum Seed antimicrobial [127] Southern India

(L) Maton
Zingiberaceae
Elytraria acaulis (L. fil.) Cough of infants, leaf in venereal diseases [37] Africa and India
Lindau.
Acanthaceae
Embelia ruminata (E. Tender leaf in open wounds, Leprosy [126] African countries
Mey. ex A.Dc.) Mez.
Myrsinaceae
Embelia ribes Burm.f. Fruits as tonic, anthelmintic, in chest and skin Indian subcontinent
Primulaceae troubles [37]
Embelia tsjeriam-cottam Antibacterial and anti-tubercular [36] India and Myanmar

(Roem. & Schult.) A. DC
Primulaceae
Emilia sonchifolia Febrifuge, leaf in eye sores and night blindness Tropical world
(L.) DC. ex Wight [37]
Asteraceae
Eminium spiculatum Antimicrobial [67] Lebanon and

(Blume) Schott. surrounding area
Araceae
Entada rheedei Spreng. Stem in Scabies [65] Tropics and subtropics

Fabaceae
Enteromorpha Tuberculosis [37] Many parts of the sea

intestinalis (Lin.) Nees.
Ulvaceae
Ephedra gerardiana Asthma, berries in respiratory troubles [37] Himalayan regions

Wallich ex C. A. Meyer
Ephedraceae
Contd...
70
Equisetum arvense L. Renal affections [37] Arctic and temperate

Equisetaceae Northern Hemisphere
Equisetum debile Roxb. Gonorrhea [37] South east Asia

ex Vaucher
Equisetaceae
Erigeron Canadensis Stimulant, haemostatic; in diarrhoea, dysentery, North and central

(L.) Cronquist renal affections, ringworm, eczema [37] America
Asteraceae
Eriolaena Root in wounds [37] India

quinquelocularis
(Wight & Arn.) Wight.
Malvaceae
Eriospermum Leaf in wounds, ulcers, abscesses, boils [70] Africa

abyssinicum Baker.
Eriospermaceae
Erycibe paniculata Roxb. Bark in Cholera [37] India, Himalayas,

Convolvulaceae Andaman Islands
Erythrina lysistemon Bark in sores, abscesses, open wounds [88] South Africa
Hutch.
Fabaceae
Erythrina stricta Roxb. Bark in rheumatism, Asthma, itch, Leprosy and China, India to Vietnam
Fabaceae epilepsy [37]
Erythrina variegata L. Leaf in burns, wounds [128]; stiffness of joints, Tropical and
Fabaceae pyrexia, bloody amoebiasis [41] subtropical regions
Ethulia conyzoides L.f. Stomach troubles; leaf on wounds, sprains, Asia, Africa
Asteraceae fractures [37]
Eucalyptus Oil in dysentery, diarrhoea, throat relax, Australia

camaldulensis Dehnh. dentistry [37]; bark in pimples [88]
Myrtaceae
Eucalyptus globulesLabill. Oil of leaf antiseptic, expectorant, febrifuge, Australia

Myrtaceae respiratory diseases [37]
Contd...
71
Euclea divinorum Hiern. Root and leaf in skin rash, bleeding wounds [42] Africa, Comoro islands,
Ebenaceae Arabia
Eugenia uniflora L. Leaf in skin infections, other microbial East coast of south
Myrtaceae infections [129] America
Eulophia campestris Wall. Rhizome as tonic, aphrodisiac; in heart troubles, Indian subcontinent,
Orchidaceae stomatitis, purulent cough [37] Africa
Eulophia nuda Lindl. Tubers in tumours, glandular Tuberculosis, India to Malaysia

Orchidaceae bronchitis [37]
Eupatorium odoratum L. Leprosy, haemostatic, cuts, wounds [72, 98] North America
Asteraceae
Euphorbia antiquorum L. Nervine troubles, dropsy, warts, cutaneous Mexico

Euphorbiaceae affections [37]
Euphorbia barnhartii Leaf poultice on boils [36] Central Africa

Croizat.
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia helioscopia L. Seed in Cholera, juice in rheumatism, neuralgia, Many parts of Europe,
Euphorbiaceae warts [37] Africa, Asia
Euphorbia hirta L. Cough, asthma, dysentery, genito-urinary India

Euphorbiaceae diseases; latex in warts [37]; antibacterial [36]
Euphorbia nivulia Wounds of animal [36] India to Myanmar

Buch. -Ham
Euphorbiaceae
Euphorbia pilosa L. Juice in fistular sores [37]; latex wound healing Central Asia, Himalayan
Euphorbiaceae [75] region
Euphorbia thymifolia L. Leaf stimulant; plant in ringworm [37] Tropical and subtropical
Euphorbiaceae America
Euphorbia trigona Mill. Leaf poultice on boils [37] Central Africa

Euphorbiaceae
Contd...
72
Excoecaria agallocha L. Rheumatism, paralysis, Leprosy; leaf and latex Bangladesh, India,
Euphorbiaceae on obstinate ulcers [37] Australia
Fagus sylvatica L. Yielded creosote analgesic and antiseptic [37] Many part of Europe
Fabaceae
Ferula jaeschkeana Latex in wounds and bruises [37] Himalayan region

Vatke
Apiaceae
Ficus arnottiana Leaf and bark in cutaneous affections [37] India, Sri Lanka
(Miq.) Miq.
Moraceae
Ficus benjamina L. Leaf in oil on ulcers [37] Asia and Australia

Moraceae
Ficus benghalensis L. Vaginal infections, nasal bleeding, obesity, Indian subcontinent

Moraceae dysmenorrhoea, spot on skin, tooth ache [41]
Ficus dalhousiae Leaf, bark in liver and skin complaints [37] Western Ghats of India
(Miq.) Miq.
Moraceae
Ficus natalensis Hochst. Leaf in Wounds, boils, warts and growths [88] African countries
Moraceae
Ficus palmate Forssk. Fruit in lungs and blooder diseases [37] Nepal to Egypt via
Moraceae Arabian countries
Ficus racemosa L. Cuts and wounds [130] South and south east
Moraceae Asia, Australia
Ficus religiosa L. Bark in ulcers and skin troubles [37]; burn Indian subcontinent,
Moraceae wound, ear and vaginal infection [41] China
Ficus retusa L. Adventitious root on painful tooth, root bark Malaysia

Moraceae and leaf boiled in oil on wounds [37]
Ficus sur Forssk. Bark in boils [88] African countries

Moraceae
Contd...
73
Ficus talbotii King. Bark in ulcers, venereal diseases, diarrhoea, India, Sri Lanka, China
Moraceae Leprosy [37]
Fleurya interrupta (L.) Root diuretic, leaf on carbuncles [37] China, India to Malaysia
Gaudich.
Urticaceae
Floscopa scandens Lour. Fractured bone; stem juice in eye sore [37] India to Malaysia
Commelinaceae
Fluggea leucopyrus Leaf on sores [65] Widespread in

Willd. Asia, Africa
Euphorbiaceae
Forsythia suspensa Fruit, bud antimicrobial [131] Asia

(Thunb.) Vahl.
Oleaceae
Fritillaria cirrhosa Corns in asthma, bronchitis, Tuberculosis [37] China, Indian

D.Don. subcontinent, Myanmar
Liliaceae
Fumaria officinalis L. Leprosy, wound healing, antiseptic, disinfectant Western and Central
Papaveraceae [132] Europe
Fumaria vaillantii Diuretic, in scrofulous skin affections [37] Almost global

Loisel. distribution in hilly areas
Papaveraceae
Galenia africana L. Plant in wounds [80] South-western part of

Aizoaceae Africa
Galeopsis tetrahit L. Infusion in pulmonary troubles [37] Europe and north-

Lamiaceae western Asia
Galium verum L. Urinary diseases, juice in epilepsy, cutaneous Europe, north Africa,
Rubiaceae troubles [37] temperate Asia
Garcinia mangostana L. Diarrhoea, dysentery, cutaneous affections [37] Indonesia

Clusiaceae
Contd...
74
Garcinia morella Gum-resin in dropsical affections [37]; wound India, Sri Lanka,
(Gaertn.) Desr. healing [46] Philippines
Clusiaceae
Gardenia resinifera Roth. Plant antiseptic, hepatoprotective, Tropical Africa, Asia, Pacific
Rubiaceae antirheumatic [45] islands
Gardenia turgida Roxb. Fruits in affections of mammary gland [37] India to Myanmar,
Rubiaceae China
Gaultheria Oil stimulant, rheumatism, neuralgia, antiseptic China, India to Malaysia

fragrantissima Wall. [37]
Ericaceae
Gaultheria procumbens Oil is antirheumatic, antiseptic [37] North-eastern North

L. America
Ericaceae
Gentiana kurroo Royle. Tonic, febrifuge, urinary troubles [37] Terrestrial

Gentianaceae
Geranium Renal diseases [37] Asia

nepalense Sweet.
Geraniaceae
Geranium robertianum Malaria like fever, urinary stone, jaundice, Europe, Asia, North
L. diarrhoea, haemorrhage [37] America, Africa
Geraniaceae
Geranium wallichianum Tooth ache and eye troubles [37] Himalayan region
Oliv.
Geraniaceae
Glinus oppositifolius Antiseptic, juice in skin troubles [37] Pantropical

(L.) Aug. DC.
Molluginaceae
Globba marantina L. Root tuber in Leukoderma [65] South and southeast Asia
Zingiberaceae
Gloriosa superba L. Tuber tonic, to promote labour pain, in Part of Africa, Asia
Colchicaceae neuralgic pain, skin troubles [37]
Contd...
75
Glycosmis pentaphylla Leaf in fever, liver complaints, eczema and Southeast Asia, northern
(Retz.) DC. other skin troubles [37] Australia
Rutaceae
Glycyrrhiza glabra L. Rhizomes and roots tonic, catarrhal affections, Southern Europe, parts
Fabaceae urinary problems [37]; antiseptic [36] of Asia
Glycyrrhiza uralensis Root antimicrobial [133] Asia

Fisch. ex DC.
Fabaceae
Gmelina asiatica L. Root in rheumatism, catarrh of the bladder; South and southeast Asia
Verbenaceae wood and stem in fevers [37]
Gnidia kraussiana Meisn. Root in burns, Small pox, boils [80, 88] African countries
Thymelaeaceae
Gomphostemma Root in pneumonia [37] India, Laos, Myanmar to

lucidum Wallich ex Vietnam
Bentham.
Lamiaceae
Gouania tiliaefolia Lam. Pulp in skin complaints [37] China, India to Malaysia
Rhamnaceae
Graderia scabra Benth. Root on sores on the face [88] African countries
Orobanchaceae
Graptophyllum pictum Cuts and skin complaints, leaf on swelling and Australasia - New
(L.) Griff. ulcers [37] Guinea
Acanthaceae
Grewia occidentalis L. Bark to dress wounds [80,88] Southern Africa

Malvaceae
Grewia tenax Frosk. Wound healing [101] Dry Africa, Arabia to

Malvaceae India
Guettarda speciose L. Bark in chronic dysentery, wounds and Eastern Africa, tropical
Rubiaceae abscesses [37] Asia, Australia
Contd...
76
Guiera senegalensis J.F. Gmel Stem bark and leaf in skin diseases [73] Savanna zone of Africa
Combretaceae
Gunnera perpensa L. Root in dressing of wounds; psoriasis Eastern Africa

Gunneraceae [88]
Gundelia tournefortii L. Leaf and root antimicrobial [67] Eastern Mediterranean,

Asteraceae Middle East
Gymnema acuminatum Wall. Leaf on sores [37] South east Asian

Apocynaceae countries
Gymnopetalum Leaf as anti-tetanus after miscarriage, in China, India to Malaysia

cochinchinense (Lour.) Kurz. ophthalmia [37]
Cucurbitaceae
Gymnostachyum febrifugum Root febrifuge, on blisters and sores on Western Ghats of India
Benth. the tongue [37]
Acanthaceae
Gynocardia odorata R.Br. Bark febrifuge, seeds in skin ailments Mountain valley forest
Achariaceae [37] of South Asia
Gynura aurantiaca (Blume) DC. Leaf in ringworm [37] Southeast Asia

Asteraceae
Gynura pseudochina (L.) DC. Root in parturient women, leaf on China, India to Myanmar,
Asteraceae pimples, herb in erysipelas, breast tropical Africa
tumours [37]
Haemanthus coccineus L. Leaf antiseptic for wounds and ulcers Southern Africa
Amaryllidaceae [70]
Haemanthus multiflorus Martyn. Plant on wounds and ulcers [37] Sub-Saharan Africa
Amaryllidaceae to Arab
Haldinia cordifolia (Roxb.) Leaf on wounds and boils [134] Southern Asia
Ridsdale.
Rubiaceae
Contd...
77
Halleria lucida L. Plant in skin complaints [88] Southern Africa

Stilbaceae
Harpagophytum procumbens Root on sores, ulcers, boils [80] Southern Africa

DC. ex Meisn.
Pedaliaceae
Harpephyllum caffrum Bernh. Bark in acne and eczema [79] Southern Africa
ex Krauss
Anacardiaceae
Hedyotis auricularia L. Diarrhoea, dysentery, colitis, Cholera; South east Asia,

Rubiaceae leaf on wounds [37] Australia
Hedyotis diffusa Willd. Tonic, fever, Gonorrhoea; mouthwash in China, Japan, Nepal
Rubiaceae tooth ache [37]
Hedyotis glabra R.Br. ex Wall. With ginger and salt on incipient ulcers Tropical Asia, Pacific
Rubiaceae [37] islands
Hedyotis umbellata (L.) Lam. Leaf and root in asthma, bronchitis [37] Peninsular India, Sri
Rubiaceae Lanka
Helichrysum foetidum Moench. Leaf on septic sores [80,88] Some African countries
Asteraceae
Heliotropium curassavicum L. Root on sores and wounds [37] America

Boraginaceae
Heliotropium eichwaldii Steud. Leaf on ulcers and warts [37] Russia to India
Boraginaceae
Heliotropium indicum L. Diuretic, ulcers, sores, wounds, gum Asia

Boraginaceae boils, skin affections [37]
Heliotropium ovalifolium Forssk. Syphilitic ulcers [37] India to Myanmar,

Boraginaceae Africa, Australia
Contd...
78
Heliotropium strigosum Diuretic, sore eyes, boils, wounds and ulcers Tropical Africa, Arabia,
Willd. [37] Asia, Australia
Boraginaceae
Heliotropium Gonorrhea, eye trouble of camels [37] Africa

tuberculosum (Boiss.)
Boiss.
Boraginaceae
Helminthostachys Rhizomes in dysentery, whooping cough, China, India to

zeylanica (L.) Hook. catarrah, Phthisis [37] Malaysia, Australia
Ophioglossaceae
Hemidesmus indicus Root in rheumatism, urinary diseases, skin South Asia

(L.) R.Br. problems [37]
Apocynaceae
Hemionitis Frond juice on burns [37] Tropical Asia

arifolia (Burm. f.) T.
Moore
Pteridaceae
Herniaria glabra L. Diuretic, catarrhal affections of the bladder North America and
Caryophyllaceae [37] Europe
Herniaria hirsute L. Diuretic, sore throat [37] Eurasia, north Africa

Caryophyllaceae
Hesperethusa crenulata Fruit in malignant and persistent fever [37] China, south
(Roxb.) M. Roem. and southeast Asia
Rutaceae
Heterophragma Wood tar in cutaneous diseases [37] Peninsular India

quadriloculare
(Roxb.) K. Schum.
Bignoniaceae
Heynea trijuga Roxb. Leaf decoction in Cholera [37] China, India to

Meliaceae Indonesia
Hibiscus mutabilis L. Leaf in cough, menorrhagia, dysuria, burn China, Japan

Malvaceae wounds, scalds [37]
Contd...
79
Hibiscus surattensis L. Leaf and stalk in Inflammation, sores, skin Africa and Asia
Malvaceae irritation [37]
Hibiscus trionum L. Flowers diuretic, in skin troubles [37] Tropical and subtropical
Malvaceae regions
Hiptage benghalensis Vine in chronic rheumatism and asthma, leaf in India, southeast Asia,
(L.) Kurz. cutaneous diseases [37] Philippines
Malpighiaceae
Hoffmannseggia Root in wounds [70] Southern Africa

burchellii (DC.) Oliv.
Fabaceae
Holarrhena Bark in amoebic dysentery, tonic, febrifuge, Tropical Asian countries

antidysenterica (Linn.) Tuberculosis [36]
Wall.
Apocynaceae
Holoptelea integrifolia Bark and leaf antimicrobial [40] East Asia

(Roxb.) Planch.
Ulmaceae
Hornstedtia costata (Roxb.) Seed in stomach ailments, debility, Asthma, Southeast Asia,
K. Schum. pulmonary affections [37] Himalayan region
Zingiberaceae
Houttuynia cordata Leaf in Measles, dysentery, Gonorrhoea, eye Japan, Korea, China,
Thunb. and skin troubles [37] southeast Asia
Saururaceae
Humboldtia Bark in epilepsy, Leprosy, ulcers [37] Western Ghats, India

vahliana Wight
Fabaceae
Humulus lupulus L. Antiseptic [44]; hop substance anti-bacterial Europe, western Asia,
Cannabinaceae [37] North America
Hunteria zeylanica Leaf in wounds and cuts [37] Parts of Africa, China,
(Retz.) Gardner ex India to Malaysia
Thwaites.
Apocynaceae
Contd...
80
Hura crepitans L. Latex, bark and seeds in Leprosy [37] Tropical Americas
Euphorbiaceae
Hybanthus Tonic; root in urinary affections [37] India, China, Africa,

enneaspermus (L.) Australia
F. Muell.
Violaceae
Hydnocarpus castanea Bark in cutaneous diseases [37] Thailand, Malaysia,

Hook.f. & Thomson. Indonesia
Achariaceae
Hydnocarpus kurzii Seed oil on Leprosy [37]; antiseptic [36] India to Myanmar
(King) Warb.
Achariaceae
Hydnocarpus laurifolia Seed oil in Leprosy, Tuberculosis, chronic skin South east Asia
(Den) Sleummer infections, ophthalmia, wounds, ulcers [37]
Achariaceae
Hydrastis Canadensis L. Root antimicrobial [135] South-eastern Canada,

Ranunculaceae eastern USA
Hydrocotyle javanica Tonic, diuretic, dysentery, cutaneous diseases Tropical Asia

Thunb. [37]
Apiaceae
Hydrocotyle Rheumatism, diuretic, pulmonary, cutaneous South-eastern Asia

sibthorpioides Lam. troubles; root in liver complaints; leaf on boils
Araliaceae [37]
Hydrolea zeylanica Leaf antiseptic, applied on ulcers [37] Pantropical

(L.) Vahl.
Hydroleaceae
Hygrophila auriculata Jaundice, rheumatism, uro-genital diseases; Tropical Asia, Africa

(Schumach.) Heine. seed in venereal diseases [36]; anemia, edema,
Acanthaceae insomnia, gall stone, Herpes, hemostasis [41]
Hygrophila quadrivalvis Leaf in wounds and tooth ache [37] South and south east Asia
(Buch Ham.) Nees.
Acanthaceae
Contd...
81
Hypericum calycinum L. Bacterial disease [136] Mediterranean area

Hypericaceae
Hypericum hookerianum Leaf and stem for wound healing [137] Himalayan region
Wight & Arn.
Hypericaceae
Hypericum humifusum L. Flower in olive oil or alcohol in old ulcers Western Europe
Hypericaceae and eczema [37]
Hypericum perforatum L. Expectorant, pulmonary, urinary troubles; Parts of Europe and Asia
Hypericaceae flowers in olive oil on wounds, sores, ulcers
[37]
Hypericum sampsonii Hance. For wound healing [37] China, Japan, India
Hypericaceae
Hypochaeris glabra L. Root tonic, diuretic; fresh herb wound Europe, North Africa,
Asteraceae healing [37] Middle East
Hyptis brevipes Poit. Decoction after parturition, leaf for healing of Pantropical
Lamiaceae naval cord [37]
Hyptis capitata Jacq. Tonic, root in amenorrhoea, leaf wound America, West Indies
Lamiaceae healing [37]
Hyptis suaveolens Stimulant, galactagogue, catarrhal conditions, Pantropical

(L.) Poit. uterus affections [37]
Lamiaceae
Hyssopus officinalis L. Stimulant, nervous disorders; pulmonary, Mediterranean regions

Lamiaceae urinary and uterine troubles; vulnerary [37]
Ichnocarpus frutescens (L) Rheumatism, Asthma, Cholera, fever [138] India, China, southeast
W.T. Aiton. Asia, Australia
Apocynaceae
Ilex mitis (L.) Radlk. Bark in skin rash, sores on the face [37] Southern Africa
Aquifoliaceae
Impatiens chinensis L. Gonorrhoea; in burns [37] India, Myanmar to

Balsaminaceae Vietnam
Contd...
82
Indigofera aspalathoides DC. Aerial parts in cutaneous affections, Leprosy South India, Sri Lanka
Fabaceae [37]
Indigofera enneaphylla L. Juice diuretic, chronic venereal diseases [37] India to Malesia,
Fabaceae Australia, Africa
Indigofera suffruticosa Febrifuge; in Syphilis, epilepsy; root and seed Subtropical and tropical
Mill. in urinary diseases and ulcers [37] Americas
Fabaceae
Indigofera tinctoria L. Gonorrhoea, urinary complaints, hepatitis, Asia, parts of Africa

Fabaceae sores, old ulcers, piles [37]
Inula racemosa Hook.f. General infectious diseases, antiseptic, Himalayan region

Asteraceae disinfectant [95]
Ipomoea crassipes Hook. Whole plant in sores [88] Southern Africa

Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br. Plant boiled in oil in rheumatism, epilepsy, Tropical Africa
Convolvulaceae Leprosy, ulcers [37]
Ipomoea obscura (L.) Ker Toasted plant boiled in ghee in aphthous Parts of Africa, Asia,
Gawl. affections [37] Pacific islands
Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea pes-tigridis L. Leaf on boils, sores, pimples, carbuncles [37] Africa, southern and
Convolvulaceae eastern Asia
Ipomoea purpurea Used as anti-syphilitic [37] New world tropics

(L.) Roth.
Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea quamoclit L. Leaf on haemorrhoids, carbuncles [37] New world tropics

Convolvulaceae
Ipomoea tuberculata Ker Seed as antidote of hydrophobia [37] Africa and Asia
Gawl.
Convolvulaceae
Iris versicolor L. Root and rhizome antimicrobial [139] North America, eastern
Iridaceae Canada
Contd...
83
Isatis tinctorial L. Plant in ulcers [37] Caucasus to Siberia and

Brassicaceae western Asia
Ixora chinensis Lam. Flower in Tuberculosis, haemorrhages; plant in Myanmar, Thailand,

Rubiaceae urinary troubles, root fed after parturition [37] Vietnam, Malaysia
Ixora coccinea L. Root astringent, antiseptic; diarrhoea, Southern India, Sri

Rubiaceae dysentery, sores, chronic ulcers; flower in Lanka
dysentery, catarrhal bronchitis, eye troubles, as
vulnerary [37]
Jacaranda acutifolia Bark and leaf in Syphilis, Gonorrhoea; leaf Part of South America
Humb. & Bonpl. vulnerary, pectoral [37]
Bignoniaceae
Jasminum fluminense Leaf and young shoot in ulcers and boils [70] Some African countries
Vell.
Oleaceae
Jasminum grandiflorum L. Leaf antimicrobial [66] South Asia, Arab, China

Oleaceae
Jasminum humile L. Root dye in ringworm, bark juice in sinuses Himalayan regions
Oleaceae and fistulae [37]
Jasminum multiflorum Leaf in indolent ulcers [37] India to Vietnam

(Burm. f.) Andrew.
Oleaceae
Jateorhiza palmate Root in sores [37] East Africa

(Lam.) Miers.
Menispermaceae
Jatropha curcas L. Eczema and ringworm [37]; wounds and boils Tropical Americas
Euphorbiaceae [88]
Jatropha gossypifolia L. Leaf febrifuge; root in Leprosy; latex in ulcers Mexico, South America,
Euphorbiaceae [37] India
Jatropha multifida L. Leaf in Scabies; seed in fever, venereal Trinidad, Cuba, Southern
Euphorbiaceae diseases [37] USA, Mexico
Contd...
84
Jatropha zeyheri Sond. Rhizomes or juice in wounds, boils, sores, Some African countries
Euphorbiaceae burns [80, 88]
Juniperus communis L. Fruits and essential oil stimulant, diuretic; Temperate Northern
Cupressaceae diseases of uro-genital tract, skin [37] Hemisphere
Jussiaea repens L. Constituent of ointment for ulcers and skin Asia, Australia, Africa
Onagraceae problems [37]
Jussiaea tenella Burm.f. Root in Syphilis, plant in pimples [37] Tropical Africa, tropical
Onagraceae America
Justicia tranquebariensis L.f. Leaf juice to children in Smallpox; contusions Peninsular India
Acanthaceae [37]
Kaempferia galangal L. Rhizomes stimulant, expectorant, diuretic; in China, India to Myanmar

Zingiberaceae cough and pectoral affections [37]
Kaempferia rotunda L. Rhizome to remove clots and pus, tuber in China, Indian
Zingiberaceae tumours and wounds [37] subcontinent
Kalanchoe laciniata Leaf styptic, antiseptic; diarrhoea, dysentery, Africa, through Arab to
(L.) DC. lithiasis, Phthisis [37] east Asia
Crassulaceae
Kalanchoe petitiana Leaf in eye diseases [140] Madagascar and tropical

A. Rich. Africa
Crassulaceae
Kigelia africana (Lam.) Fruit in syphilitic sores; bark in rheumatism, Tropical Africa
Benth. dysentery, venereal diseases [37]
Bignoniaceae
Krameria triandra Astringent, tonic, diarrhea, hemorrhage, South America

Ruiz & Pav. menstrual and urinary complaints, sore throat
Krameriaceae [37]
Lagerstroemia indica Bark stimulant, febrifuge; fruit in aphthae of China, Korea, Japan, Indian
(L.) Pers. mouth [37] subcontinent
Lythraceae
Lannea edulis Engl. Bark in boils and abscesses [80, 88] Some African countries
Anacardiaceae
Contd...
85
Lantana aculeata L. Plant vulnerary; in fistula, pustules, tumours, Central and South
Verbenaceae Tetanus [37] America
Lantana rugosa Thunb. Leaf, stem and ripe fruits in festering sores, Some African countries
Verbenaceae cuts [88]
Larrea tridentate Leaf in skin infections [141] Mexico, parts of USA

(DC.) Coville.
Zygophyllaceae
Lavandula angustifolia Flower oil antimicrobial [142] Mediterranean regions

Mill.
Lamiaceae
Lavandula pubescens Essential oil antimicrobial [143] Arabian Peninsula

Decne.
Lamiaceae
Lawsonia inermis L. Leaf in boil, burn, skin diseases, sore throat Parts of Africa,
Lythraceae [36] Australasia
Leea aequata L. Anti-tubercular activity [37] India to Malaysia

Vitaceae
Leea macrophylla Roxb. Tubers in wounds, sores and ringworm [37] South and south east
ex Hornem. Asia
Vitaceae
Lemna minor L. Plant in cutaneous disorders [144] Worldwide

Lemnaceae
Leonotis leonurus (L.) Leaves and stems in boils, eczema, itching and Southern Africa
R.Br. other skin diseases [37]
Lamiaceae
Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) Plant in skin affections; flower ash on burns Tropical Africa,
R.Br. and scalds; leaf in rheumatism [37] southern India
Lamiaceae
Leontonyx angustifolius Plant in ulcers [80] Mediterranean region

DC.
Lamiaceae
Contd...
86
Leonurus sibiricus L. Tonic, vulnerary, menstrual disorders; leaf and China, Japan, Korea,
Lamiaceae root febrifuge [37] Siberia
Lepidium iberis L. Seed in bronchitis [37] Himalayan region,

Brassicaceae southern Europe
Lepidium latifolium L. Hepatic and renal troubles, skin affections [37] Europe, north Africa,
Brassicaceae west Asia
Lepidium sativum L. Leaf diuretic, hepatic complaints; seed diuretic, England, France,
Brassicaceae tonic, in sprains; roots in Syphilis [37] Netherlands, Scandinavia
Leptadenia reticulata Stimulant; leaf and root in skin affections, India to Malaysia
(Retz.) Wight. habitual abortion [37]
Asclepiadaceae
Leucas aspera (Willd.) Antipyretic, Psoriasis, chronic skin eruptions; India and the Philippines
Link. flowers in coughs and colds [37]
Lamiaceae
Leucas lavandulaefolia Fresh leaf to old sores and dermatosis [37] Indian subcontinent
Willd.
Lamiaceae
Leucas zeylanica (L) Antipyretic, in skin troubles; decoction in ulcer Tropical

R. Br. of nose [37] Asia and Malaysia
Lamiaceae
Licuala spinose Roxb. Bark in treatment of Tuberculosis [37] China to Malaysia

Arecaceae
Lilium candidum L. Bulb in tumours, ulcers and skin inflammations Balkans and Middle East
Liliaceae [37]
Lilium giganteum Leaf in wounds and bruises [37] Himalayan region

Wallich.
Liliaceae
Limnophila aromatica Antiseptic, febrifuge, given to nursing mothers Tropical and subtropical
(Lam.) Merr. [37] Asia
Plantaginaceae
Contd...
87
Limnophila indica Antiseptic, leaf in dyspepsia and dysentery [37] Pantropical

(L.) Druce.
Plantaginaceae
Lindenbergia indica Chronic bronchitis, skin eruptions [37] India to west Asia
(L.) Vatke.
Orobanchaceae
Lindernia crustacea Dysentery, boils, sores, itch and ringworm [37] Tropical and subtropical
(L.) F. Muell. areas
Linderniaceae
Lindernia pyxidaria L. Gonorrhoea [37] Terrestrial

Linderniaceae
Lippia adoensis Leaf in various skin diseases [145] Africa, South and
Hochst. ex Walp. Central America
Verbenaceae
Lippia javanica Spreng. Leaf and root in skin diseases [88] Many parts of Africa
Verbenaceae
Liquidambar orientalis Stimulant, expectorant, antiseptic [37] Western Asia

Mill.
Hamamelidaceae
Lithospermum officinale Root in Smallpox, Measles, itches; seed Europe, Iran, the
L. diuretic, blooder diseases [37] Caucasus
Boraginaceae
Litsea lancifolia Hook.f. Bark in sprains and bruises [37] Bhutan, India to Vietnam
Lauraceae
Lobaria pulmonaria Plant in eczema [37] Europe, Asia, North

L. (Hoffm.) America, Africa
Lobariaceae
Lobelia inflates L. Asthma and bronchitis [37] Eastern North America

Campanulaceae
Lobelia nicotianifolia L. Used as antiseptic [37] India and Sri Lanka.

Campanulaceae
Contd...
88
Lobelia cardinalis L. Root and flower antimicrobial [146] Americas

Campanulaceae
Lobostemon fruticosus Leaf and twig in wounds, skin diseases [80] Some African countries
H. Buek.
Boraginaceae
Lonicera glauca Hook. Leaf and flower in venereal diseases [37] Southwest Asia, Iran to
Fil. & Thomson Kashmir valley
Caprifoliaceae
Luffa acutangular Leaf in haemorrhoids, Leprosy, spleenitis, Asia

(L.) Roxb. conjunctivitis, uraemia, amenorrhoea [37]
Cucurbitaceae
Luffa acutangular (L.) Diuretic, in asthma, skin troubles, splenic India

var amara (Roxb.) enlargement; seed expectorant, fruit in jaundice
Cucurbitaceae [37]
Luffa cylindrica Aerial part in Leprosy [44, 98] South and Southeast
M. Roem. Asia
Cucurbitaceae
Luffa echinata Roxb. Fruits in dropsy, nephritis, chronic bronchitis, Indian subcontinent,
Cucurbitaceae lung complaints [37] Africa
Lupinus varius L. Seed and flower antimicrobial [67] Part of Africa, Europe
Fabaceae
Luisia tenuifolia Blume. Boils, abscesses, tumours [37] Tropical Asia

Orchidaceae
Lumnitzera racemose Stem juice in itches and Herpes [37] East Africa, east Asia
Willd.
Combretaceae
Lychnis coronaria (L.) Root in liver and lung complaints, infraction of Asia and Europe
Desr. mesenteric lymph glands [37]
Caryophyllaceae
Lycopodium clavatum L. Problems of skin, liver, kidney, urinary tract, Pantropic

Lycopodiaceae general infections, gout [96]
Contd...
89
Lycoris aurea Herb. Bulbs in burns in Chinese medicine [37] China, Japan
Amaryllidaceae
Lygodium flexulosum Root as expectorant, rheumatism, sprains, China, India to Malaysia,

(L.) Sw. eczema, wounds, carbuncles [37] Australia
Lygodiaceae
Lygodium microphyllum Leaf in dysentery, skin diseases [37] Tropical Africa, South
(Cav.) R.Br. East Asia, Australia
Lygodiaceae
Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Leaf and buds in cutaneous troubles [37] China, Nepal to Malaysia
Drude.
Ericaceae
Macaranga peltata Veneral sores, leaf and bark vulnerary [37] Thailand, Sri Lanka,
Roxb. Muell. India
Euphorbiaceae
Macaranga pustulata Bark and leaf in cuts, wounds [72] China, India to Malaysia
King ex Hook.f.
Euphorbiaceae
Machilus macrantha Bark in asthma, rheumatism; leaf to ulcers [37] Western

Nees. Ghats of India, Sri Lanka
Lauraceae
Madhuca longifolia Oil in skin affections [37]; antiseptic, used in India, Sri Lanka, Nepal,
(J. König.) J.F. Macbr. skin diseases [36] Myanmar
Sapotaceae
Maerua crassifolia Leaf antimicrobial [66] Africa, tropical

Forssk. Arabia, Israel
Capparaceae
Maesa ramentacea (Roxb.) Leaf in itches, skin affections [37] India to Malaysia
A. DC.
Primulaceae
Mallotus philippensis Fruit in skin diseases like ringworm, scabies South east Asia,
(Lam.) Muell. Arg. [36] Australia
Euphorbiaceae
Contd...
90
Malva parviflora L. Seed in cough, ulcer of the bladder [37]; septic Northern Africa,
Malvaceae wounds, inflammation [80] Europe, Asia
Malva sylvestris L. Pulmonary and urinary affections, Western Europe, North

Malvaceae inflammations, abscesses; flowers as gargle [37] Africa, Asia
Mandragora autumnalis Fruit antimicrobial [67] Mediterranean region

Bertol.
Solanaceae
Mangifera indica L. Bark, leaf, unripe food antimicrobial [40]; Indian subcontinent
Anacardiaceae Internal part of seed of immature fruit in
alopecia and early ripening of hair, dust of new
leaves in diabetes and leaves burned in covered
condition on burn wounds [41]
Marrubium vulgare L. Leaf, flowering tops in cough, cold, pulmonary Europe, northern Africa,
Lamiaceae affections [37] part of Asia
Marsilea minuta L. Leaf juice in Asthma, dementia, insomnia, high Tropical and subtropical
Marsileaceae blood pressure, epilepsy etc. [41] countries
Martynia annua L. Leaf in glandular Tuberculosis, gargle in sore Tropical America, Indian
Martyniaceae throat, fruit in inflammation [37] subcontinent
Matricaria chamomilla L. Expectorant, diuretic, neuralgia, debility, Europe, temperate Asia

Asteraceae intermittent fever, eczema, bruises, sores, piles
[37]
Melaleuca leucadendron Oil expectorant, chronic laryngitis, bronchitis Northern Australia, southeast
L. [37] Asia
Myrtaceae
Melastoma malabathricum Bark and leaves in skin troubles [37] Japan, India to Malaysia
L.
Melastomataceae
Melia azedarach L. Leaf, flower, bark, root in eczema and various India to Malaysia,
Meliaceae skin diseases [80,88] Australia
Melianthus comosus Vahl. Leaf and stem in slow healing wounds, leaf in Southern Africa
Melianthaceae sores and bruises [37]
Contd...
91
Melianthus major L. Leaf in foul ulcers, gargle in sore throat, gum South Africa
Melianthaceae troubles [37]
Melissa officinalis L. Leaf antimicrobial [54] Part of Europe, Asia,

Lamiaceae Mediterranean Basin
Melissa parviflora Benth. Antitubercular, antipyretic; fruit as brain tonic Bhutan, Nepal, India to
Lamiaceae [37] Vietnam
Melothria indica Lour. Leaf in thrush and eye troubles [37] China, India to Malaysia
Cucurbitaceae
Menyanthes trifoliata L. Tonic, febrifuge, skin affections [37] Asia, Europe, North
Menyanthacea America
Meriandra bengalensis Tonic, antiseptic; sore throat, aphthae [37] Ethiopia, Saudi Arabia,
(J. Koenig ex Roxb.) India
Benth.
Lamiaceae
Meriandra strobilifera Leaf in ulcers and skin abrasions [37] Western Himalayas of
Benth. India
Lamiaceae
Merremia mammosa Tuber in diabetes, affection of throat and Southeast Asia

(Lour.) Hallier f. respiratory organs [37]
Convolvulaceae
Merremia umbellate (L.) Fistula, pustule, tumours, burns, scalds, sores; Tropical and subtropical
Hallier f. seed in cutaneous diseases [37] Africa, Asia
Convolvulaceae
Microglossa pyrifolia Root in cataract; leaf in yellow fever, Malaria, India to Malaysia, Africa
(Lam.) Kuntze. dropsy, eye sores, ringworm of scalp [37]
Asteraceae
Micromelum integerrimum Bark of stem and root in Tuberculosis [37] Nepal, India to Myanmar
(Buch. -Ham.) ex Roem.
Asteraceae
Micromelum pubescens Leaf in cuts and wounds [32] East Africa

(Burm.f.) B.L. Rob.
Asteraceae
Contd...
92
Mikania cordata (Burm.f.) Leaf in wounds [37] East Africa, tropical East
B.L.Rob. Asia
Asteraceae
Mikania scandens (L.) Leaf in wound healing [16, 147] Part of United States,
Willd. southern Asia
Asteraceae
Mimosa pudica L. Root in urinary complaints, leaf in sinus, South and central
Fabaceae sores and piles [37] America
Mirabilis jalapa L. Leaf as tonic in China; boils, abscesses, Tropical south America
Nyctaginaceae wounds and bruises [37]
Moghania macrophylla Root in medicine of ulcers and swellings [37] Asia

(Willd.) Kuntze.
Fabaceae
Mollugo cerviana (L.) Ser. Plant antiseptic, flowers and tender shoots Part of Europe, Africa,
Molluginaceae febrifuge [37] Asia, Australia
Mollugo pentaphylla L. Antiseptic, in sore legs [37] Pantropical

Molluginaceae
Momordica balsamina L. Fruit and seed in burns [88] Tropical Africa

Cucurbitaceae
Momordica cochinchinensis Seed in ulcers; fruit and leaf in fracture and China, India, Malaysia
(Lour.) Spreng. ulcers [37]
Cucurbitaceae
Momordica dioica Root in piles, bowel affections, urinary Pakistan, India, Sri
Roxb. ex Willd. complaints [37] Lanka
Cucurbitaceae
Moringa oleifera Lam. Seed and leaf in Leprosy, cuts, wounds, South Asia
Moringaceae snake and dog bite wounds [44, 32]; old leaf
in high blood pressure, root cover in fungal
infection [41]
Contd...
93
Morus alba L. Leaf in wound healing, antiseptic and Northern China

Moraceae disinfectant [47]
Morus laevigata Wall. ex Juice of the plant on sores [37] Tibet, Himalayas,
Brandi. Indochina
Moraceae
Mucuna monosperma Seed in asthma, coughs and tongue infections India to Malaysia
Wight. [37]
Fabaceae
Mucuna pruriens (L) Dc. Frozen shoulder, atrophy of muscle, sex Africa and tropical Asia
Fabaceae stimulant, bleeding from natural orifices [41]
Murraya paniculate (L.) Leaf in diarrhea, dysentery, wounds; leaf and China, Indian sub-
Jack. root bark in cough, rheumatism, hysteria [37] continent, Australia
Rutaceae
Mussaenda frondosa L. Shoot in children for cough; root in white India to Malaysia
Rubiaceae Leprosy, eye troubles [37]
Mussaenda glabra Vahl. Leaf, root in cough; flower diuretic; in asthma, Tropical Africa, Asia,
Rubiaceae recurrent fevers [37] Malaysia
Myrica esculenta Buch. - Bark antiseptic, diuretic; in asthma, diarrhea, Bhutan, India, Myanmar
Ham. ex D.Don fevers, lung affections, putrid sores [37] to Vietnam
Myricaceae
Myristica malabarica Seed in indolent ulcers [37] India

Lam.
Myristicaceae
Myrothamnus Leaves and twigs in burns and wounds [70,79] Southern Africa
flabellifolius Welw.
Myrothamnaceae
Myroxylon balsamum Oil antiseptic, stimulant, expectorant [37] Americas

(L.) Harms.
Fabaceae
Myroxylon pereirae Antiseptic, in wounds, indolent ulcers; Central and south

Klotzsch. expectorant, ringworm, haemorrhoids [37] America
Fabaceae
Contd...
94
Myrsine africanab L. Part of ointment for ringworm and other skin Macaronesia
Primulaceae affections [37] Africa, South Asia
Myrtus communis L. Leaf, berries, oil antiseptic; in diseases of Mediterranean region in

Myrtaceae respiratory, bladder, stomach, liver; aphthae, southern Europe
internal ulceration [37]
Nardostachys jatamansi Rhizome tonic, stimulant, in Leprosy [37] Eastern Himalayas

(D.Don) DC.
Caprifoliaceae
Naregamia alata Root in chronic bronchitis [37] Peninsular India

Wight & Arn.
Meliaceae
Nasturtium officinale Polypus of nose, diuretic, Asthma, Tuberculosis Parts of Europe and Asia
W.T. Aiton. [37]
Brassicaceae
Nauclea missionis Bark in rheumatism, skin troubles [37] India

Wall. ex G. Don.
Rubiaceae
Nauclea orientalis Bark tonic, antipyretic, vulnerary [37] Southeast Asia, Australia
(L.) L.
Rubiaceae
Nelumbo nucifera Tender leaf in prolapse, flower in angina; seed Widespread

Gaertn. in repeated abortion; root in irregular
Nelumbonaceae menstruation [41]
Neolitsea umbrosa (Nees) Oil of fruit on skin affections [37] South east Asia
Gamble.
Lauraceae
Nepenthes khasiana Liquid of the pitcher used in for urinary and India
Hook.f. eye troubles [37]
Nepenthaceae
Nepeta ciliaris Benth. Leaf and seed in coughs, fevers [37] India
Lamiaceae
Contd...
95
Neptunia oleracea Lour. Stem in ear ache, root in Syphilis [37] South America
Fabaceae
Nigella sativa L. Seed as stimulant, diuretic, galactagogue; in South and

Ranunculaceae skin affections [37] southwest Asia
Nopalea cochenillifera Fruit in rheumatism, scalds, burns, skin Mexico

(L.) Salm-Dyck. diseases, ear ache and tooth ache [37]
Cactaceae
Nyctanthes arbor-tristis L. Leaf expectorant, diuretic, fever, rheumatism; South and southeast
Oleaceae bark expectorant; seed in scalp affections [37] Asia
Nymphaea nouchali Rhizome in dysentery, flower as cardiotonic, Southern and eastern

Burm. f. seed in cutaneous diseases [37] parts of Asia
Nymphaeaceae
Nymania capensis Root in wounds [70] South Africa

(Thunb.) Lindb.
Meliaceae
Nymphaea caerulea Sav. Leaf and stem in skin rash and inflamed East Africa, Indian
Nymphaeaceae wounds [70] subcontinent
Nypa fruticans Wurmb. Leaf in ulcers, young shoots in herpes [37] Coastlines of Indian and
Arecaceae Pacific Oceans
Ochna pumila Buch. - Root in epilepsy; leaf on sores [37] Tropical Asia
Ham. ex D. Don.
Ochnaceae
Ochna serrulata Root in gangrenous wounds [88] South Africa

(Hochst.) Walp.
Ochnaceae
Ochradenus baccatus Fruit antimicrobial [66] India, Pakistan, Syria,

Delile. Egypt, Libya
Resedaceae
Ocimum basilicum L. Stimulant, antipyretic, expectorant, antifungal; India

Lamiaceae seeds diuretic, piles, sores, sinuses [37]
Contd...
96
Olea europaea L. Leaf extract and oil antimicrobial [148] Mediterranean regions,
Oleaceae Africa, Himalayas
Olinia rochetiana A. Juss. Eczema, acne and scabies [149] Some African countries
Penaeaceae
Ophioglossum vulgatum L. Styptic, antiseptic, vulnerary; rhizome on Throughout temperate

Ophioglossaceae boils [37] regions
Ophiorrhiza mungos L. Root tonic, used in cancer treatment; leaf in India, Myanmar, Sri
Rubiaceae ulcers [37] Lanka
Opopanax chironium W.D.J. Gum resin from root stimulant and antiseptic Warm climatic areas
Koch. [37]
Apiaceae
Opuntia ficus-indica (L.) Skin rash, ulcers, furuncles, fresh wounds Probably Mexico
Mill. and warts [42,70]
Cactaceae
Oxalis corniculata L. Cough, respiratory infection, joint pain, skin Cosmopolitan

Oxalidaceae problems [41]
Oroxylum indicum Root bark tonic, in diarrhoea, dysentery, Himalayan foothills

(L.) Benth. ex Kurz. otorrhoea; plant antiseptic [37]; wound
Bignoniaceae healing [55]
Orthosiphon glabratus Benth. Diarrhea, piles; leaves febrifuge, in cuts and India to Malaysia
Lamiaceae wounds [37]
Osbeckia chinensis L. Diarrhea, wounds; root expectorant [37] China, Japan, India to
Melastomataceae Malaysia, Australia
Osmitopsis asteriscoides L. Leaf in inflammation and cuts [79] African countries

Asteraceae
Osmunda regalis L. Roots tonic, styptic, antibacterial; in Parts of Europe, Africa,

Osmundaceae dysentery, rickets, muscular debility [37] Asia
Contd...
97
Oxystelma esculentum Herb antiseptic, galactagogue, as gargle; fresh West Asia to Malesia
(L. fil.) R. Br. root at jaundice, latex vulnerary [37]
Apocynaceae
Ozoroa engleri R. Fern. Bark, root and leaf in skin infection [150] South Africa
& A. Fern.
Anacardiaceae
Paederia foetida L. Leaf in Herpes, diuretic; root in piles, pain of Asia

Rubiaceae visceral organs, elimination of collected
poisons from the body [37]
Pandanus odorifer Leaf in Leprosy, diseases of heart and brain; Polynesia, Australia,
(Forssk.) Kuntze. anthers in diseases of the blood [37] south Asia
Pandanaceae
Pandanus utilis Bory. Root in venereal diseases [37] Madagascar, Mauritius,

Pandanaceae Seychelles
Panicum antidotale Affection of the throat, antidote in Himalaya and upper

Retz. Hydrophobia [37] Gangetic plain, India
Poaceae
Parameria barbata (Bl.) Bark for shrinking of uterus, dysentery, wounds India to Malaysia
K. Schumann. [37]
Apocynaceae
Parkia roxburghii G. Don. Bark and leaf in sores and skin affections [37] Thailand, Malaysia,
Fabaceae Myanmar, India
Paronychia argentea Aerial parts antimicrobial [67] Around

Lam. the Mediterranean Sea
Caryophyllaceae
Passiflora incarnate L. Plant sedative, in ulcers and haemorrhoids [37] America

Passifloraceae
Pavetta indica L. Root tonic, in jaundice, urinary diseases; leaf in India, Sri Lanka
Rubiaceae ulcerated nose and haemorrhoids [37]
Pavonia odorata Willd. Root antipyretic, in dysentery and intestinal India, Pakistan, Burma,
Malvaceae haemorrhage [37] Srilanka, Africa
Contd...
98
Pedalium murex L. Dysuria, Gonorrhoea, diseases of the genito- Tropical Africa, Indian
Pedaliaceae urinary system [37] subcontinent
Pedilanthus tithymaloides Latex in venereal diseases, warts and Tropical and central
Poit. Leukoderma patches [37] America
Euphorbiaceae
Peganum harmala L. Seed in asthma, gallstone, fever, jaundice; India and Pakistan
Nitrariaceae antimicrobial [36]
Pelargonium alchemilloides Leaf in wounds and abscesses [80,88] Africa, Arabian

(L.) L’Hér. Peninsula
Geraniaceae
Pellaea calomelanos Leaf and rhizome in boils and abscesses Eastern and southern
(Sw.) Link. [80,88] Africa, Madagascar
Pteridaceae
Peltophorum pterocarpum Bark in dysentery, part of gargles, tooth Tropical south-

(DC.) K.Heyne. powder, lotion; eye troubles, sores [37] eastern Asia
Fabaceae
Pentanema indicum L. Plant in skin diseases [65] Africa, China, Indian

Asteraceae subcontinent
Pentanisia prunelloides Root in burns and swellings [79] Southern Africa

(Klotzsch) Walp.
Rubiaceae
Pergularia daemia Uterine, menstrual troubles; root and leaf in Tropical Africa, Asia
(Forssk.) Chiov. asthma, diarrhoea; leaf in carbuncles [37]
Asclepiadaceae
Pentatropis spiralis (Forssk.) Root in Gonorrhoea [37] Parts of Africa, Pakistan,

Decne. India
Asclepiadaceae
Peristrophe bicalyculata Essential oil anti-tubercular [37] India, Afghanistan,

(Retz.) Nees. Africa
Acanthaceae
Contd...
99
Peristrophe bivalvis (L.) Leaf in cough, dysentery, diarrhoea and South-eastern Asia
Merr. bronchitis in Chinese medicine [151]
Acanthaceae
Phaulopsis dorsiflora (Retz.) Fresh juice in sores, plant in dressing of wounds India to Vietnam
Santapau. [37]
Acanthaceae
Phoenix dactylifer L. Fruits in respiratory diseases and fever [37] Lands around Iraq
Arecaceae
Phyla nodiflora (L.) Diuretic, febrifuge; in boils, swollen glands, Tropical and subtropical
Greene. erysipelas, indolent ulcers [37] part of the world
Verbenaceae
Phylanthus distichus Leaf juice protective and curative to diseases Tropical and sub-tropical
Muell-Arg. like Measles, Pox [41] regions
Phyllanthaceae
Phyllanthus fraternus Diuretic, febrifuge, in diarrhoea, dysentery, Pantropical

G.L. Webster diseases of the uro-genital system; fresh root in
Phyllanthaceae jaundice, as galactagogue; latex to sores [37]
Phyllanthus reticulatus Leaf in sores, burns and skin irritations [80,88] Asia
Poir.
Phyllanthaceae
Phyllanthus simplex Retz. Antiseptic; leaf in Gonorrhea, eye troubles; root China, India to Malaysia
Phyllanthaceae preparation in mammary abscess [37]
Phyllanthus urinaria L. Diuretic, febrifuge, diseases of the uro-genital Tropical world

Phyllanthaceae system; root in jaundice, latex to sores [37]
Phytolacca americana L. Leaf in wounds and swellings [88] Eastern United States,
Phytolaccaceae Canada
Phytolacca octandra L. Leaf in septic wounds [88] Mexico, central America

Phytolaccaceae
Phytolacca dodecandra Fruit in eczema [149] Tropical and southern

L. Her. Africa
Phytolaccaceae
Contd...
100
Picrasma javanica Bark febrifuge, leaf in sores [37] Northeast India to Indochina
Blume. and Malaysia
Simaroubaceae
Picrorhiza kurrooa Royle Rhizome in gastric problems, Leprosy [36] Himalayan region
ex Benth.
Plantaginaceae
Picrorhiza scrophulariiflora Root in wound healing [55] India to

Pennel southwestern China
Plantaginaceae
Pilea microphylla Gastric and intestinal troubles, diuretic, leaf on South America
(L.) Liebm. sores and bruises [37]
Urticaceae
Pimpinella tirupatiensis Root and tuber in abscess [65] Southeast India

N. Balakr. & Subram.
Apiaceae
Pinus roxburghii Sarg. Oil disinfectant, in chronic bronchitis, gangrene Himalayan region
Pinaceae of lungs [37]
Piper cubeba L.f. Dysentery, diuretic, Gonorrhoea, bronchial Southeast Asia to

Piperaceae troubles [37] Indonesia
Piper peepuloides Roxb. Stems and roots in Leprosy [37] Himalayan region
Piperaceae
Pipturus incanus Leaf in boils, burns, herpes, gurgle in thrush Peninsular Malaysia,
(Blume) Wedd. [37] Australia
Urticaceae
Pistacia integerrima ex Leaf gall in dysentery, asthma, Phthisis and Himalayan region
Brandis. other respiratory diseases [37]
Anacardiaceae
Pistia stratiotes L. Leaf juice boiled in coconut oil to chronic skin Pantropical
Araceae diseases [37]
Pithecellobium clypearia Leaf on pox pustules, leaf ash in coconut oil on India, Sri Lanka
(Jack) Benth. skin affections [37]
Fabaceae
Contd...
101
Pithecolobium dulce Bark, pulp and seed antimicrobial [37] Pacific coast of
(Roxb.) Benth. Americas
Fabaceae
Pittosporum dasycaulon Bark anti-bacterial and antifungal [37] Western Ghats, India
Miq.
Pittosporaceae
Pittosporum floribundum Bark febrifuge, in chronic bronchitis and leprous Some African countries
Wight & Arn. affections [37]
Pittosporaceae
Plantago afra L. Leaves and seed in suppurating wounds, Mediterranean region,

Plantaginaceae pustules, eczema, furuncles and itching [88] western Asia
Plantago amplexicaulis Seed in intermittent fever, pulmonary affections, Southern Europe to

Cav. ophthalmia [37] western Asia
Plantaginaceae
Plantago asiatica L. Seed in haematuria, diseases of gastro-intestinal East Asia

Plantaginaceae and genito-urinary tracts [37]
Plantago himalaica Leaf in wounds [37] Pakistan to Nepal

Pilger.
Plantaginaceae
Plantago lanceolata L. Leaf and root vulnerary, in pulmonary diseases; Eurasia

Plantaginaceae leaf antibacterial; seed diuretic, haemostatic [37]
Plantago major L. Leaf febrifuge, diuretic, vulnerary, diarrhoea, Europe, northern and
Plantaginaceae piles, eye wash; root febrifuge, diuretic, tonic [37] central Asia
Plantago ovata Frossk. Seed febrifuge, in affections of kidney, bladder Western and southern
Plantaginaceae and urethra [37] Asia
Plantanus orientalis L. Bark antirheumatic, in diarrhoea and dysentery Southeast Europe to west
Plantanaceae [37]; plant in Leprosy [98] Asia
Platycodon grandifloras Root tonic, expectorant, in throat ailment [37] East Asia
(Jacq.) A.DC.
Campanulaceae
Contd...
102
Plectranthus asirensis J.R.I. Essential oil antimicrobial [66] Sub-Saharan Africa,

Wood. Madagascar, India
Lamiaceae
Plectranthus amboinicus Antiseptic, antimicrobial, diuretic, tonic Southern and Eastern

(Lour.) Spreng. [152] Africa
Lamiaceae
Plectranthus macranthus Hook.f. Used in sores [37] India, Myanmar, Vietnam

Lamiaceae
Pleopeltis lanceolata Kaulf. Cold, sore throat [37] South America

Polypodiaceae
Pluchea indica (L.) Less. Leaf in atonic and gangrenous ulcers [37] Parts of Asia and
Asteraceae Australia
Plumbago auriculata Lam. Black water fever, root in glandular South Africa
Plumbaginaceae Tuberculosis [37]
Plumbago coccinea (Lour.) Root in Leukoderma, Syphilis and Leprosy Southeast Asia
Salisb. [37]
Plumbaginaceae
Plumbago zeylanica L. Root diuretic, in piles, diarrhoea, skin Pantropical

Plumbaginaceae diseases, influenza, black water fever [37]
Plumeria acuminata W.T. Bark stimulant, febrifuge; in venereal Mexico, central America
Aiton. affections, anti-herpetic [37]
Apocynaceae
Plumeria alba L. Latex in ulcers, herpes; seed haemostatic; Central America and
Apocynaceae bark stimulant, febrifuge; in venereal the Caribbean
affections [37]
Podophyllum hexandrum Resin with anti-cancer activity [37]; rhizome Himalayan region
Royle. in skin diseases [36]
Berberidaceae
Pogostemon benghalensis Shoot and whole plant in wounds [153] Indian subcontinent
(Burm.f.) Kuntze.
Lamiaceae
Contd...
103
Polygala chinensis L. Leaf in asthma, chronic bronchitis and India to Malaysia and
Polygalaceae catarrhal affections [37] China
Polygala senega L. Chronic bronchitis and asthma [37] North America

Polygalaceae
Polygala sibirica L. Root in colds, coughs, chronic chest troubles, East Europe to east Asia
Polygalaceae diarrhoea, inflammation of urinary bladder;
externally in mammary abscess and carbuncles
[37]
Polygonatum cirrhifolium Used as tonic and vulnerary [37] Native to China

(Wall.) Royle.
Asparagaceae
Polygonatum multiflorum Rhizome tonic, in bruises, piles, tumours, scar Europe and temperate
(L.) All. discoloration of skin [37] Asia
Asparagaceae
Polygonum aviculare L. Tonic, antipyretic, diuretic, haemostatic, in Eurasia and North

Polygalaceae diabetes, rheumatism, ulcer, diarrhoea [37] America
Polygonum bistorta (L.) Febrifuge, diuretic, expectorant, haemostatic Europe, north and west
Samp. [37]; infectious diseases, antiseptic, Asia
Polygalaceae disinfectant [95]
Polygonum chinense L. Herb tonic and vulnerary [37] China, Japan, India to
Polygalaceae Malaysia
Polygonum hydropiper L. Contraceptive, uterine disorder, tonic, diuretic, Almost pantropical

Polygalaceae in skin affections [37]
Polygonum orientale L. Tonic and vulnerary; nut in Tuberculosis [37] China to the Himalayas
Polygalaceae
Polygonum persicaria L. Styptic, vulnerary, lithotriptic, in colds, fever, Eurasia

Polygalaceae asthma, gargle of pharynx [37]
Polygonum plebeium R.Br. Bowel complaints, pneumonia [37] South Asia including
Polygalaceae India
Contd...
104
Polygonum viviparum L. Tonic, diarrhoea, dysentery, haemoptysis, gargle Almost pantropical

Polygalaceae and lotion of ulcers [37]
Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Leaf and root diuretic, in dysuria, stones and South-eastern Asia
Harms. gravels; leaf vulnerary [37]
Araliaceae
Pometia pinnata Bark in festering sores [37] India, Malaysia to

J.R.Forst. & G.Forst. Pacific islands
Sapindaceae
Pongamia pinnata (L.) Seed oil in herpes, leukoderma, skin diseases; Asia
Pierre. leaf in ulcers, sores, Leprosy and Gonorrhoea
Fabaceae [37]
Portulaca oleracea L. Vulnerary, diuretic; diseases of liver, spleen, Old World countries
Portulacaceae kidney, bladder, mouth ulcer, burns and scalds [37]
Portulaca pilosa L. Asthma, cough, urinary problems, ulcers, Southern United

Portulacaceae haemorrhoids, Erysipelas [37] States to Brazil
Portulaca tuberosa Roxb. Plant in dysuria, leaf in Erysipelas [37] India, Pakistan, Srilanka
Portulacaceae
Potentilla anserine L. Tonic, vulnerary, diarrhoea, leucorrhoea, kidney Temperate Northern

Rosaceae stones, arthritis, cramps [37] hemisphere
Pothos scandens L. Leaf in Smallpox, root boiled in oil for abscess India to Malaysia and
Araceae [37] Madagascar
Pouzolzia zeylanica Leaf galactagogue, vulnerary, in gangrenous Tropical Asia

(L.) Benn. & R. Br. ulcers; herb in sores and boils [37]
Urticaceae
Premna herbacea Roxb. Leaf in fever, cough, rheumatism, boils [37] China to tropical Asia
Lamiaceae
Premna integrifolia L. Leaf diuretic, leaf and root in jaundice, root in Tropical sea coast
Lamiaceae obesity, stem cover in high cholesterol [41]
Premna tomentosa Willd. Leaf diuretic, vulnerary, in dropsy, after Peninsular India and Sri
Lamiaceae parturition; bark in diarrhoea; root in stomach Lanka
ache [37]
Contd...
105
Prinsepia utilis Royle. Leaf in cuts, wounds, burns [72] Himalayas from
Rosaceae Pakistan to China
Prismatomeris tetrandra (Roxb.) Leaf in stomach ache, wounds [37] Cambodia, India,
K. Schum. Thailand, Vietnam
Rubiaceae
Priva cordifolia (L.f.) Druce. Seed in sores and wounds [88] Indian subcontinent,
Verbenaceae Africa
Prunus amygdalus Batsch. Kernel lithotrophic, diuretic, peptic ulcer, Middle East, Indian
Rosaceae irritable sores, skin eruptions [37] subcontinent, Africa
Prunus persica (L.) Batsch. Leaf or bark in whooping cough [37] Northwest China
Rosaceae
Prunus serotina Ehrh. Bark in phthisis, bronchitis [37] North and south
Rosaceae America
Pseuderanthemum bicolor Root, stem and leaf in aphthae and wound India to Malaysia,
(Schrank) Radlk. [37] Philippines Cuba etc.
Acanthaceae
Psidium guajava L. Leaf in boils, ulcers and wounds [80,88] Caribbean, Central
Myrtaceae and South America
Psychotria montana Blume. Root in preparation for ulcer; lotion for India to Malaysia
Rubiaceae enlarged spleen, as febrifuge [37]
Psychotria sarmentosa Leaf on sores [37] India to Malaysia

Blume.
Rubiaceae
Psychotria viridiflora Leaf, bark and stem in skin affections [37] India to Malaysia
Reinw. ex Blume.
Rubiaceae
Pteris multifida Poiret. Rhizome and frond in dysentery; toasted Japan, Korea, China,
Pteridaceae paste on cutaneous affections [37] Vietnam
Contd...
106
Pterocarpus indicus Dropsy, bladder stone, diarrhoea, thrush; Kino China, Japan, Myanmar
Willd. of bark on sores [37] to Malaysia
Fabaceae
Pterocarpus marsupium Resin in fever, toothache; leaf in boil, sore, skin India, Nepal, Sri Lanka
Roxb. diseases [36]
Fabaceae
Pterocarpus santalinus Pyrexia, bloody urine, bleeding from nose and Southern India
Lin.f ear, ringworm and skin diseases, ulcer [41]
Fabaceae
Pterospermum Flower in inflammations, ulcers, tumours, Southeast Asia

acerifolium (L.) Willd. Leprosy [37]
Sterculiaceae
Pueraria tuberosa Root in wound healing [99] India, Pakistan, Nepal

(Willd.) DC.
Fabaceae
Pulicaria crispa (Forssk.) Febrifuge, vulnerary; in bruises and sores of Dry parts of Asia and
Oliv. bullocks [37] Africa
Asteraceae
Pulicaria guestii Rech.f. Aerial parts antimicrobial [66] Arabian Peninsula

& Rawi.
Asteraceae
Punica granatum L. Flower buds in bronchitis [37]; pericarp Iran and

Lythraceae antimicrobial [54] northeast Turkey
Pupalia lappacea Fruit with palm oil to boils; in cough and fever; Peninsular India, Sri
(L.) Juss. ashes used in Leprosy [37] Lanka, East Africa
Amaranthaceae
Pyrola rotundifolia L. Antilithic; in excessive menstrual, bloody Europe, Japan, Myanmar,

Ericaceae stools, hemorrhages, ulcers in the urinary tract [37] Russia
Quassia indica (Gaertn.) Wood infusion as tonic; bark febrifuge, in skin India, Myanmar, Sri
Nooteboom. affections [37] Lanka
Simaroubaceae
Contd...
107
Quercus infectoria Oliv. Bark and acorns used in intertrigo, impetigo, Greece, Asia Minor
Fagaceae eczema [37]
Quisqualis indica L. Seed in fever, diarrhoea, ricket, skin diseases [37] Asia
Combretaceae
Radermachera xylocarpus Wood resin in skin troubles [37] India

(Roxb.) K. Schum.
Bignoniaceae
Randia fasciculata (Roxb.) Leaf on sores [37] China, India to Malaysia

DC.
Rubiaceae
Ranunculus arvensis L. Gout, asthma, intermittent fevers; having Western Asia, Europe
Ranunculaceae antibacterial activity [37]
Ranunculus sceleratus L. Asthma, rheumatism, cutaneous disorder; seed Temperate North

Ranunculaceae tonic, in kidney troubles [37] America and Eurasia
Rauvolfia caffra Sond. Bark in Measles, urticaria and other skin rashes South Africa to tropical
Apocynaceae [88] Africa
Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. Herb extract in castor oil to skin ailments [37] Mexico, central and
Apocynaceae south America
Reissantia grahamii Root to control infection of respiratory tract [37] India to Malaysia
(Wight) Ding Hou.
Celastraceae
Reissantia indica Sap febrifuge; root bark in infection of India to Malaysia

(Willd.) N. Hallé. respiratory tract [37]
Celastraceae
Rhamnus nepalensis Fruit mixed with vinegar and used in Herpes [37] China to the Himalayas
(Wall.) Lawson.
Rhamnaceae
Rheum emodi L. Root in cuts and wounds [154] Sub-alpine and alpine
Polygonaceae Himalayas
Contd...
108
Rhinacanthus nasutus Fresh root and leaf with lime in eczema, India, Sri Lanka, Java,
(L.) Kurz. ringworm; leaf in cancer, root antiseptic [37] Madagascar
Acanthaceae
Rhododendron Leaf in chronic rheumatism, Syphilis and Himalayas from Kashmir

campanulatum D.Don. sciatica [37] to Bhutan
Ericaceae
Rhus succedanea L. Galls of the branch expectorant, tonic, in Asia, Australia, New
Anacardiaceae diarrhoea, dysentery [37] Zealand
Rhynchosia beddomei Leaf in skin diseases [65] India and some other
Baker. Asian countries
Leguminosae
Ricinus communis L. Wounds, sores, boils [80,88]; eczema, Mediterranean basin,

Euphorbiaceae dermatitis [36] eastern Africa, India
Rosa banksiae Root tonic, anthelmintic; leaf vulnerary [37] China

W.T.Aiton.
Rosaceae
Rosa chinensis Jacq. Hips in wounds, sprains and ulcers [37] Southwest China
Rosaceae
Rosa multiflora Thunb. Fruits in foul ulcers [37] Eastern Asia

Rosaceae
Rosa multiflora Thunb. Flower in wounds, injuries [44] Eastern Asia

Rosaceae
Rothmannia capensis Fruit in burns and wounds [88] African countries

Thunb.
Rubiaceae
Rotula aquatica Lour. Root diuretic; in piles, bladder stone, venereal India
Boraginaceae diseases [37]
Rourea minor Leenh. Roots and twigs tonic, febrifuge; in pulmonary India, Sri Lanka,
Connaraceae complaints, diabetes, ulcer, skin troubles [37] Bangladesh, Malaysia
Rubia cordifolia L. Roots tonic, antidysentery, antiseptic [37] Asia, Africa, Europe
Rubiaceae
Contd...
109
Rubia tinctorum L. Roots tonic, diuretic, lithonotropic; diseases of Europe

Rubiaceae liver, spleen, arthritis, bed sores [37]
Rubus fruticosus L. Wound healing, antiseptic, disinfectant [47, Europe, part of Africa,
Rosaceae 132] Asia, Americas
Rubus moluccanus L. Root juice in fistula [37] Himalayas, India to

Rosaceae Malaysia, Australia
Rumex acetosa L. Bronchial diseases, diuretic, cutaneous tumour, Europe, Northwest

Polygonaceae skin troubles, diarrhoea [37] Africa, part of Asia
Rumex dentatus L. Skin diseases [72] Parts of Eurasia, north

Polygonaceae Africa
Rumex lanceolatus Leaf in abscesses, boils, bruises, tumors Southern Africa

Thunb. [80,88]
Polygonaceae
Rumex nepalensis Leaf infusion in Syphilis [37] Part of Europe, Asia,

Spreng. Africa
Polygonaceae
Rumex nervosus Vahl. Aerial part antimicrobial [66] Part of Africa, Asia,
Polygonaceae Europe
Rungia parviflora Nees. Root febrifuge, leaf on contusion [37]; in Peninsular India
Acanthaceae Leprosy, Small pox [72,98]
Rungia repens (L.) Nees. Cough, fever, diuretic; mixed with castor oil for India, Sri Lanka
Acanthaceae fungal infection of scalp [37]
Ruppia maritima L. Depurant and vulnerary [37] Mediterranean region,

Ruppiaceae Africa, Europe
Ruta chalepensis L. Aerial part antimicrobial [67] Eurasia, North Africa

Rutaceae
Sagittaria sagittifolia L. Tuber in cutaneous troubles, leaf in sore throat, Most of Europe,
Alismataceae breast inflammation [37] temperate Asia, USA
Salacia chinensis L. Root in diabetes, amenorrhoea, India to Malaysia

Celastraceae dysmenorrhoea, venereal diseases [37]
Contd...
110
Salacia macrophylla Root given after parturition; leaf in eczema and India to Malaysia
Blume. abdominal pain [37]
Celastraceae
Salacia oblonga Wall. Root bark in rheumatism, gonorrhoea, asthma, India, Sri Lanka
Celastraceae and ear troubles [37]
Salacia reticulate Wight. Root bark in Gonorrhoea, itch, swelling [37] Sri Lanka
Celastraceae
Salix tetrasperma Roxb. Leaf in rheumatism, venereal diseases, bladder India to Malaysia,
Salicaceae stone, piles; bark as febrifuge [37] South China
Salvadora oleoides Decne. Leaf expectorant, fruit in splenomegaly, low India, Pakistan,
Salvadoraceae fever, rheumatism [37] southern Iran
Salvia coccinea Buc’hoz ex In renal troubles and Tuberculosis [37] Central and south
Etl. America
Lamiaceae
Salvia moorcroftiana Leaf expectorant, in boils, wounds, skin Himalayan region

Wall. Ex Benth. affections; seed in dysentery, haemorrhoids
Lamiaceae [37]
Salvia officinalis L. General infectious diseases, antiseptic, Mediterranean region

Lamiaceae disinfectant [95]
Sambucus nigra L. Expectorant, diuretic, depurative, febrifuge, Europe and North

Adoxaceae rheumatism, cold, inflamed throat, neuralgia[37] America
Sanicula europaea L. Pulmonary diseases, diarrhea, dysentery, Europe

Apiaceae menorrhagia, bleeding piles, in ulcer ointment [37]
Sansevieria trifasciata Root tonic, leaf on sores [37] Tropical west Africa
Prain.
Asparagaceae
Santalum album L. Oil in Cystitis, Gonorrhoea, cough, India, Indonesia,

Santalaceae Tuberculosis [36] Malaysia
Santolina chamaecyparissus Stimulant, analgesic, vermifuge, vulnerary [37] Western and central
L. Mediterranean
Asteraceae
Contd...
111
Sapindus trifoliatus L. Fruit tonic, asthma, diarrhoea, Cholera, South Asia

Sapindaceae Tuberculosis, paralysis; root and bark
expectorant [37]
Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb. Oil vulnerary, in skin troubles [37] Eastern Asia
Euphorbiaceae
Saponaria officinalis L. Expectorant, diuretic, Tuberculosis, hepatic Europe, Asia to

Caryophyllaceae problems, venereal ulcers, skin troubles [37] western Siberia
Saraca asoca (Roxb.) Willd. Uterine tonic, uterine affections, fibroid, Indian subcontinent
Fabaceae haemorrhoids, haemorrhagic dysentery [37]
Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Root given after rabid dog bite [37] India, Myanmar,
Voigt. Thailand, Vietnam
Apocynaceae
Sarcostigma Bark in rheumatism, Leprosy, hysteria [37] India to Malaysia

kleinii Wight & Arn.
Icacinaceae
Sarcostemma viminale (L.) L. Latex in skin lesions, cuts, ulcers, septic West Africa
Apocynaceae wounds [70]
Sassafras albidum Root stimulant, diuretic, rheumatism, gout, Eastern North America
(Nutt.) Nees. scurvy, eye lotion, cutaneous troubles [37]
Lauraceae
Satureja hortensis L. Oil for anti-bacterial and anti-fungal South-eastern Europe

Lamiaceae properties [37] to western Asia
Saussurea heteromalla Leaf on wounds [37] Himalayan region

(D. Don) Hand.- Mazz.
Compositae
Saussurea hypoleuca Spreng. Leaf in Syphilis [37] Himalayan region,

Ex DC. western China
Asteraceae
Saussurea costus (Falc.) Root tonic, in asthma, cough, rheumatism, South Asia
Lipsch. chronic skin diseases [37]
Asteraceae
Contd...
112
Saussurea obvallata Root used in preparation for wounds and cuts Himalayan region
(DC.) Edgew. [37]
Asteraceae
Scabiosa columbaria L. Leaf and root in wounds [70,79] Europe

Dipsacaceae
Scadoxus puniceus (L.) Bulb and root in wounds, ulcers, sores, Some African countries
Friis & Nordal. allergies [80,88]
Amaryllidaceae
Schima wallichii Leaf, bark and fruit in cuts and wounds Himalayan region
(DC.) Korth. [7,123]
Theaceae
Schinus molle L. Fruit stomachic, diuretic, in bronchial and Western south America
Anacardiaceae urinary affections [37]
Schizaea dichotoma (L.) Rhizome in respiratory problems, given after Pleotropic

Smith. parturition [37]
Schizaeaceae
Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Seed oil used in skin troubles, bark in ulcers India to Malaysia
Merr. [37]
Sapindaceae
Schrebera swietenioides Leaf in splenomegaly, root in Leprosy, bark in India and Myanmar
Roxb. boils and burns, fruits in hydrocele [37]
Oleaceae
Scilla natalensis Planch. Bulb in boils and sores [88] Southern Africa
Hyacinthaceae
Scoparia dulcis L. Fever, cough, bronchitis, toothache, gravel Tropical and subtropical
Plantaginaceae and other renal troubles, diabetes [37] world
Securidaca longepedunculata Leaf and bark in wounds and sores [88] Tropical and subtropical
Fresen. Africa
Polygalaceae
Sedum crassipes Wall. Plant is vulnerary [37] Himalayan region

Crassulaceae
Contd...
113
Sedum multicaule Plant is vulnerary [37] Himalayan region

Wallich ex Lindley.
Crassulaceae
Semecarpus anacardium Exudate in Leprosy, nervous debility; fruit in India

Lf. ascites, asthma, psoriasis, warts, tumours [37]
Anacardiaceae
Senecio concolor DC. Leaf in cuts and wounds [81] Some African countries
Compositae
Senecio latifolius DC. Leaf in burns and wounds [81] Some African countries
Compositae
Senecio serratuloides Leaf and stem in cuts, swelling, burns and sores Some African countries
DC. [88]
Compositae
Senecio tenuifolius Leaf vulnerary [37] India and Indonesia

Burm.f.
Asteraceae
Senna alata (L.) Roxb. Leaf juice in skin troubles [37]; wound healing, Mexico
Caesalpinioideae antibacterial [45]
Senna italica Mill. Root in wounds, burns, furuncles [88] African countries
Fabaceae
Senna sophera (L.) Leaf bark and seeds cathartic; leaf juice in Most tropical countries
Roxb. ringworm [37]
Fabaceae
Senna tora (L.) Roxb. Leaf purgative, in ringworm and other skin Probably south Asia
Fabaceae diseases [37]
Serissa foetida Leaf in carbuncles, cancer [37] Southeast Asia

(L.f.) Lam.
Rubiaceae
Sesamum indicum L. Seed plaster in burns, scalds; fresh leaf in Pantropic

Pedaliaceae urinary, eye and skin affections [37]
Contd...
114
Sesbania grandiflora Expectorant, febrifuge, scabies, tonic, diuretic, Malaysia to North

(L.) Poiret. ulceration of the tongue and alimentary canal Australia
Fabaceae [37]
Sesbania sesban (L) Pox, pyrexia, diabetes, leukoderma, as Tropical countries

Merr. antifertility of females [41]
Fabaceae
Sida acuta Burm.f. Haemorrhoids, impotency, tonic, antipyretic, Central America

Malvaceae urinary disorders [37]
Sida veronicaefolia Lam. Tonic, febrifuge, urinary complaints, Southern China, Nepal
Malvaceae Gonorrhoea, cuts and bruises [37]
Sida cordifolia L. Seed as sex tonic and in Gonorrhoea, root in India

Malvaceae fever, female diseases, wound healing [36]
Sida dregei Burtt Davy. Leaf in sores [80,88] Some African countries
Malvaceae
Sida rhombifolia L. Diuretic, febrifuge, rheumatism, skin troubles, New World tropics and
Malvaceae Tuberculosis [37] subtropics
Sida spinosa L. Debility, fever, Gonorrhoea [37] Pantropical

Malvaceae
Sigesbeckia orientalis L. Ringworm, gangrenous ulcers and sores [37] Africa, Asia
Asteraceae
Silybum marianum (L.) Jaundice, calculi of gall bladder, intermittent Southern Europe
Gaertn. fever, dropsy, uterine troubles, cancer [37]
Asteraceae
Smilax china L. Tubers in venereal diseases, rheumatism, China, Korea,

Smilacaceae chronic skin infections [37] Japan, Myanmar to India
Smilax glabra Roxb. Root in sores and venereal diseases [37] China, the Himalayas and
Smilacaceae Indochina
Smilax ovalifolia Root in venereal diseases, rheumatism, Himalayan region

Roxb. ex D. Don. dysentery, urinary problems [37]
Smilacaceae
Contd...
115
Smilax zeylanica L. Root in venereal diseases, sores, swelling, India to Malaysia

Smilacaceae abscesses [37]
Solanum aculeatissimum Fruit in skin complaints, root in tooth ache, seed Africa, South America
Jacq. smoke in ulcerated nose [37]
Solanaceae
Solanum aviculare G. Sores and ulcers [37] Australia

Forst.
Solanaceae
Solanum dulcamara L. Tumours, warts, rheumatism and skin affections Europe and Asia
Solanaceae [37]
Solanum erianthum Root in urinary troubles, vaginal discharge, Americas

D.Don. glanders of horse [37]
Solanaceae
Solanum ferox L. Antipyretic, sore throat, cough, asthma, Indonesia, Thailand, Philippines
Solanaceae rheumatism, dropsy [37]
Solanum giganteum Jacq. Leaf in festering sores [80,88] Africa, southern India,
Solanaceae Srilanka
Solanum hermannii Fruit, leaf and root in wounds, boils and non- South Africa
Dunal. specific skin infections [80,88]
Solanaceae
Solanum incanum L. Leaf and root in wounds, furuncles, ringworm Sub-Saharan Africa,
Solanaceae [88] Middle East, India
Solanum indicum L. Root in cough, catarrhal affections, nasal ulcers Indian subcontinent
Solanaceae [37]
Solanum melongena L. Stimulant, in otitis, ulcer of nose, bronchitis, Worldwide

Solanaceae asthma [37]
Solanum nigrum L. Wounds, ulcers, septic pimples, furuncles, Eurasia

Solanaceae ringworm [36,70]
Solanum panduriforme Plant sap in non-specific skin infections [88] Some African countries
E. Mey.
Solanaceae
Contd...
116
Solanum tomentosum L. Fruit in non-specific skin infections [88] Some African

Solanaceae countries
Solanum tuberosum L. Leaf in cough, tuber paste in burns [37] Andes mountain region
Solanaceae
Solanum virginianum L. Asthma, cough, vesicular eruptions, sore India to Malaysia,

Solanaceae throat, rheumatism [37] Australia
Solena heterophylla Lour. Leaf juice wound healing [155] Himalayan region,
Cucurbitaceae Australia
Solidago virgaurea L. Asthma, whooping cough, internal lesions, Part of Europe, Africa,
Asteraceae chronic eczema, nephritis, old ulcers [37] Asia
Sonchus arvensis L. Roots in cough, bronchitis; latex in eye Northern parts of

Asteraceae troubles [37] Europe
Sonchus asper (L.) Hill. Wounds and bruises [37] Europe, north Africa,
Asteraceae western Asia
Sonchus oleraceus L. Wounds and ulcers [80] Europe and western

Asteraceae Asia
Sorbus aucuparia L. Diuretic, hemorrhoids, cough, bronchitis, Most of Europe, Asia,

Rosaceae leucorrhoea, diarrhea [37] northern Africa
Sparganium stoloniferum Fruit hemostatic, decoction vulnerary [37] Southwest Asia, North
(Buch. -Ham.) Ex America
Juzepczuk.
Typhaceae
Spathodea campanulate Skin diseases, dysentery, renal troubles, Tropical Africa

P.Beauv. urethral inflammations, gastro intestinal
Bignoniaceae troubles [37]
Spergula arvensis L. Diuretic; in pulmonary Tuberculosis [37] Worldwide

Caryophyllaceae
Spergularia rubra (L.) C. Cystitis, urethral pain [37] Worldwide

Pres.
Caryophyllaceae
Contd...
117
Spermacoce natalensis Root in rash with fever [88] Some African

Hochst. countries
Rubiaceae
Sphaeranthus indicus L. Styptic, tonic, hepatic and gastric disorders, chest India
Asteraceae troubles, Tuberculosis [37]; skin diseases [65]
Spinacia oleracea L. Diuretic; in fever, bowel inflammation, having Central and western
Amaranthaceae antibacterial action [37] Asia
Spondias mombin L. Expectorant, diuretic, febrifuge, eye troubles, Tropical Americas

Anacardiaceae vulnerary [37]
Spondias pinnata (L. f.) Diarrhea, dysentery, rheumatism, irregular Malaysia, Philippines,
Kurz. menstruation, Tuberculosis [37] Indochina
Anacardiaceae
Stachys schimperi Vatke. Aerial part antimicrobial [66] Arab, Africa

Lamiaceae
Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Venereal diseases, ulcers, erysipelas, dropsy, Caribbean islands

(L.) Vahl. stomach ailments, ulceration of nose [37]
Verbenaceae
Stemona tuberose Lour. Tuberous root bacteriostatic, used in Pthysis and China, India, southeast
Stemonaceae cough [37] Asia, New Guinea
Stephania glabra Pulmonary Tuberculosis, asthma, intestinal Global distribution

(Roxb.) Miers. complaints [37]
Menispermaceae
Stephania abyssinica Root in boils [80,88] Some African

(Quart. -Dill. & A. Rich.) countries
Walp.
Menispermaceae
Stephania japonica Root in fever, diarrhoea, dyspepsia, urinary USA, southeast Asia,
(Thunb.) Miers. diseases [37] Pacific region
Menispermaceae
Sterculia setigera Del. Stem bark and seed in skin diseases [73] Indian subcontinent
Sterculiaceae
Contd...
118
Sterculia urens Roxb. Bark to heal foot cracks [99] India, Burma
Sterculiaceae
Stereospermum suaveolens Tonic, intermittent and puerperal fevers, South Asia

(Roxb.) DC. chest and brain affections [37]
Bignoniaceae
Streblus asper Lour. Ulcers, sinuses, boils, dysentery, fever, sore India to Malaysia
Moraceae heals, piles, leukoderma [37]
Strychnos cinnamomifolia Root in ulcers, rheumatism, fever, epilepsy Indo Myanmar, China
Thwaites. [37]
Loganiaceae
Strychnos ignatia Lindl. Seed in Cholera, asthma, dropsy, Philippines, parts

Loganiaceae rheumatism, piles [37] of China
Strychnos nux-vomica L. Leaf on wound and ulcer, fresh wood juice India, southeast Asia
Loganiaceae in dysentery, fever, Cholera, dyspepsia [37]
Strychnos potatorum L.f. Tonic, diarrhoea, diabetes, Gonorrhoea, eye India and Myanmar
Loganiaceae troubles [37]
Strychnos spinosa Lam. Leaf in dermatitis, loss of fur, skin diseases Tropical and
Loganiaceae [73] subtropical Africa
Styrax benzoin Dryand. Expectorant, diuretic; in indolent sores and Sumatra, Indonesia
Styracaceae ulcers of animals [37]
Sutherlandia frutescens Leaf in problems of stomach, intestine, South Africa

(L.) R.Br. uterus, liver; in influenza, rheumatism,
Fabaceae haemorrhoid, dropsy, eye trouble
[37]
Symplocos racemosa Roxb. Bark in eye infection, ulcer, wounds, China, south Asia
Symplocaceae elephantiasis, fat in urine [36]
Symplocos paniculata Miq. Bark tonic, in ulcer, wounds [36] India, Japan, South
Symplocaceae Korea
Contd...
119
Syzygium alternifolium Fruit in wounds [65] India

Walp.
Myrtaceae
Symplocos laurina (Retz.) Bark in haemorrhage, diarrhoea, Gonorrhoea, India to Malesia, China
Wall. ex G. Don. eye diseases [37]
Symplocaceae
Symplocos racemosa Bark in diarrhoea, liver complaints, dropsy, China, south Asia
Roxb. uterine disorder, ophthalmia, gum bleeding
Symplocaceae [37]
Syzygium cerasoides Bark in dysentery, bronchitis; fruit in China, Indian to

(Roxb.) Raizada. rheumatism, joint pain [37] Malaysia, Australia
Myrtaceae
Tabebuia impetiginosa Inner bark antioxidant [156] South America

(Mart. ex DC.) Mattos.
Bignoniaceae
Tacca integrifolia Ker Tubers in haemorrhagic diathesis, cachexia, Tropical and subtropical
Gawl. Leprosy [37] central Asia
Dioscoreaceae
Tagetes erecta L. Rheumatism, cold, bronchitis, renal troubles, Mexico

Asteraceae boils, carbuncles, eye troubles [37]
Tagetes minuta L. Wound healing, antiseptic, disinfectant [132] South America

Asteraceae
Tamarix troupii Hole. Diarrhea, dysentery, foul and sloughing ulcers, Afghanistan to Myanmar,
Tamaricaceae sore throat, piles [37] Sri Lanka
Tarenna asiatica (L.) Wound healing [157] Indian subcontinent

Kuntze ex K. Schum.
Rubiaceae
Tanacetum vulgare L. Oil in rheumatism, bruises, chronic ulcers; leaf Temperate Europe and Asia
Asteraceae tonic, in hepatic troubles [37]
Taverniera cuneifolia Leaf on sloughing wounds [37] Pakistan, India

(Roth) Arnott.
Papilionaceae
Contd...
120
Taxodium distichum (L.) Rich. Resin of cones diuretic, vulnerary [37] USA
Cupressaceae
Taxodium mucronatum Ten. Diarrhea, bronchial troubles; resin on Mexico, United States
Cupressaceae wounds and ulcers [37]
Tectona grandis L.f. Flower in urinary problems, bronchitis; India, Indonesia,

Lamiaceae seed diuretic; bark in bronchitis [37] Myanmar, Thailand
Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers. Diuretic, bronchitis, boils, pimples, Pantropical

Fabaceae bleeding piles; seed oil in eczema [37];
antimicrobial [36]
Tephrosia uniflora Pers. Diuretic, bronchitis, boils, Syphilis [37] Africa

Fabaceae
Teramnus labialis (L.f.) Rheumatism, Tuberculosis, nervous Tropical world

Spreng. affections, haemoptysis, catarrh, febrifuge
Fabaceae [37]
Terminalia bellirica (Gaertn.) Fruit brain tonic; in piles, dropsy, fever, Southeast Asia
Roxb. Leprosy [36]
Combretaceae
Terminalia catappa L. Bark diuretic; in dysentery, leaf in Tropical Asia, Africa,

Combretaceae ointment of skin affection [37]; bark in Australia
Leprosy [47]
Terminalia pallida Brandis. Bark diuretic [37]; fruit antimicrobial Indian subcontinent
Combretaceae [158]
Terminalia sericea Burch. ex Root sap and bark antiseptic; wounds, Southern Africa
DC. Leprosy, snakebites [80,88]
Combretaceae
Tetracera indica (Christm. & Shoots in pulmonary hemorrhage, gargle in Myanmar, Thailand,
Panz.) Merr. aphthae; leaf and shoot in itches [37] Malaysia, Indonesia
Dilleniaceae
Tetracera scandens (L.) Merr. Burns and boils [37] China to Malaysia,
Dilleniaceae Indonesia, Philippines
Contd...
121
Tetragonia tetragonioides Pulmonary and intestinal affections, stomach Far East, parts of
(Pallas) Kuntze. cancer [37] Australia, New Zealand
Aizoaceae
Teucrium scordium L. Stimulant, antiseptic, Phthisis, cough, piles, Euro Siberian area
Lamiaceae lupus, actinomycosis [37]
Thecostele alata (Roxb.) Pseudobulbs in ulcers [37] Tropical Asia

C.S.P. Parish & Rchb.f.
Orchidaceae
Thespesia acutiloba Bark in skin ailments [80] Some African countries

(Baker f.) Exell &
Mendonca.
Malvaceae
Thespesia populnea (L.) Cutaneous affections, dysentery, hemorrhoids Pantropical distribution

Sol. ex Corrêa. [37]
Malvaceae
Thevetia nerifolia Juss. Bark febrifuge, root in tumours, seed in Mexico and Central
Apocynaceae rheumatism, dropsy [37]; leaf, bark America
antibacterial [40]
Thymus serpyllum L. Essential oil antimicrobial [159] Europe and north

Lamiaceae Africa
Thymus vulgaris L. Oil antiseptic; in gargles, whooping cough, Southern Europe

Lamiaceae bronchitis [37]; leaf and flower antimicrobial [54]
Tinospora crispa (L.) Tonic, febrifuge, analgesic, urinary diseases, China, India to
Hook.f. & Thomson. jaundice, rheumatism, Leprosy [37] Malaysia
Menispermaceae
Tinospora sinensis Tonic, febrifuge, analgesic, urinary diseases, India, China

(Lour.) Merr. jaundice, rheumatism, Leprosy [37]
Menispermaceae
Tithonia diversifolia Flower heads in wounds and bruises [37] Mexico and Central
(Hemsl.) A.Gray. America
Asteraceae
Contd...
122
Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam. Root bark tonic, antipyretic, antimalarial, Africa and Asia
Rutaceae diarrhoea, pain of bowel [37]
Torenia polygonoides Benth. Sores, ulcers and dropsy [37] Indonesia to Malaysia,
Linderniaceae Oceania
Torenia travancorica Gamble. Leaf in Gonorrhoea [37] Peninsular India, Sri

Linderniaceae Lanka
Tovara virginiana (L.) Raf. Tonic, diuretic, vulnerary [37] Eastern North America
Polygonaceae
Trachylobium verrucosum Resin diuretic; in ointment for wounds [37] Tropical East Africa
(Gaertn.) Oliv.
Fabaceae
Tribulus alatus Delile. Diuretic, tonic, genito - urinary disorders, Worldwide

Zygophyllaceae used to ensure fecundity of women [37]
Tribulus terrestris L. Fruit tonic, diuretic, painful micturition, Worldwide

Zygophyllaceae calculous affections [37]; in Leprosy [44]
Trichilia emetica Vahl. Leaf and fruit in bruises, eczema and Tropical and south
Meliaceae wounds [125] Africa
Tricholepis glaberrima DC. Antiseptic, skin troubles, nervine tonic, India

Asteraceae urinary troubles, cough, seminal debility
[37]
Trichosanthes bracteata Fruit in sores, root in carbuncles and lung India to Malaysia
(Lam.) Voigt. inflammation of animals [37]
Cucurbitaceae
Trichosanthes cordata Wall. Root tonic, in enlargement of liver, spleen; India to Malaysia
Cucurbitaceae visceral organ disorder, Leprosy [37]
Trichosanthes cucumerina L. Root in bronchitis, leaf in baldness, to assist South and Southeast
Cucurbitaceae liver, seed febrifuge [37] Asia
Contd...
123
Trichosanthes dioica Leaf in haemoptysis, oedema; root as purgative, Tropical Asia

Roxb. excretion of accumulated toxins [41]
Cucurbitaceae
Tridax procumbens L. Leaf in bronchial catarrh, dysentery, diarrhoea, Tropical Americas

Asteraceae haemorrhage [37]; wound healing [160]
Trifolium pretense L. Flower in corns, cancerous ulcers; herb in sore Europe, west Asia
Fabaceae eyes, burn [37]; potential antioxidant [161]
Triumfetta rhomboidea Root in dysentery, intestinal ulcers, quickening Tropical regions of

Jacq. delivery; leaf and flower in Leprosy [37] world
Malvaceae
Tropaeolum majus L. Infection of urinary and respiratory organs, Andes from Bolivia
Tropaeolaceae sores, itches [37] north to Colombia
Tropaeolum minus L. Infection of urinary and respiratory organs, South America

Tropaeolaceae sores, itches [37]
Turbina oblongata (E. Leaf in sores and abscesses [88] African countries
Mey. ex Choisy) A.
Meeuse.
Convolvulaceae
Turraea villosa Benn. Roots in fistula and Leprosy [37] India to Malaysia
Meliaceae
Tussilago farfara L. Styptic; leave diuretic, in cough, cold, asthma, Europe, parts of western
Asteraceae rheumatism; flower in eye troubles [37] and central Asia
Tylophora fasciculata Leaf on ulcers and wounds; root febrifuge [37] India, Sri Lanka
Thwaite.
Asclepiadaceae
Tylophora indica (Burm. Root stimulant; in asthma, bronchitis, whooping India to Malaysia
f.) Merr. cough, dysentery, diarrhoea, gouty pains [37]
Apocynaceae
Typha elephantina Roxb. Rhizome diuretic, in dysentery, measles [37]; in North Africa, west and
Typhaceae Leprosy, wounds [44] south east Asia
Contd...
124
Uraria crinita (L.) Desv. Diarrhoea, dysentery, enlargement of liver, China, India to Malaysia,
ex DC. spleen, pustules, tumours, fistula [37] Australia
Fabaceae
Uraria picta (Jacq.) Root in cough, fever; root and pod in anal Africa, south and
Desv. ex DC. prolapse of children, pod in sore mouth [37] southeast Asia, Australia
Fabaceae
Urena lobate L. Flower expectorant; in aphthae, sore throat [37] Tropics of both
Malvaceae hemispheres
Urena sinuata L. Leaf in inflammation of intestine and bladder, Tropical and subtropical
Malvaceae flower in bronchitis [37] areas
Urginea indica Bulbs stimulant, expectorant, diuretic, dropsy, South Asia to south
(Roxb.) Kunth. rheumatism, skin troubles, warts, corns [37] Africa
Asparagaceae
Urginea maritima (L.) Expectorant, in dermatitis [45] Parts of Europe, Asia and
Baker. America
Asparagaceae
Urtica dioica L. Uterine haemorrhage, epistaxis, rheumatism, Part of Europe, Asia,

Urticaceae hepatitis, cholangitis, diuretic, diarrhoea [37] Africa, America
Urtica pilulifera L. Leaf antimicrobial [67] Europe

Urticaceae
Usnea intermedia (A. Aerial part antimicrobial [162] North America

Massal.) Jatta.
Parmeliaceae
Usnea filipendula Stirt. Aerial part antimicrobial [162] North America

Parmeliaceae
Usnea fulvoreagens Aerial part antimicrobial [162] North America

(Rasanen) Rasanen.
Parmeliaceae
Usnea longissimi Ach. Expectorant and in ulcers in China [37] Coastal Europe, Asia,
Parmeliaceae North America
Contd...
125
Usnea sikkimensis Biswas. Lung troubles, hemorrhages, asthma [37] Sikkim, India
Parmeliaceae
Utricularia caerulea L. Dressing of wounds [37] Tropical Africa, Asia,

Lentibulariaceae Australia
Uvaria narum Wall. Root bark in rheumatism, bowel complaints, South India, Sri Lanka
Annonaceae eczema; leaf in jaundice, fever [37]
Vaccinium oxycoccos L. Fruit antimicrobial [163] Cool temperate northern

Ericaceae hemisphere
Vaccinium macrocarpon Fruit antimicrobial [163] North America

Aiton.
Ericaceae
Vallaris solanacea Latex on wounds and sores [37] India, Myanmar, Sri
(Roth) Kuntze. Lanka
Apocynaceae
Vanda parviflora Lindl. Leaves on cuts, wounds, ear ache [37] India, Myanmar, Sri
Orchidaceae Lanka
Vanda tessellata (Roxb.) Leaf juice in otitis, root bronchitis, Indian subcontinent to
Hook. ex G. Don. rheumatism, fever [37] Indochina
Orchidaceae
Vateria indica L. Resin tonic; in bronchitis, throat troubles, piles, India

Dipterocarpaceae diarrhea, rheumatism, Tuberculosis, boils [37]
Vepris bilocularis (Wight & Wood oil in rheumatism, asthma, Leprosy; root Southern Western
Arn.) Engl. in liver problems [37] Ghats, India
Rutaceae
Verbascumcoromandelianum Febrifuge, in skin eruption; leaf in diarrhoea, Afghanistan to Thailand

(Vahl.) Kuntze. dysentery [37]
Scrophulariaceae
Verbascum sinaiticum Leaf in fungal infections and wounds [69,149] Northern Africa, Iran to
Benth. Afghanistan
Scrophulariaceae
Contd...
126
Verbascum thapsus L. Leaf and fruit in diarrhea, pulmonary diseases Europe, Africa, Asia,
Scrophulariaceae of animals; root febrifuge, oil in frost bite, Americas, Australia
piles, ring worm [37]; antimicrobial [164]
Verbena officinalis L. Liver complains, eczema, cold, fever, Europe

Verbenaceae bronchitis; leaf in rheumatism, wounds [37]
Vernonia adoensis Sch. Flower in Scabies and other skin diseases [88] Some African countries
Bip. ex Walp.
Asteraceae
Vernonia cinerea Root in diarrhea, stomach ache, cough, colic; Pantropic

(L.) Less. flower in fever, rheumatism, conjunctivitis;
Asteraceae seed in cough, colic, leukoderma, psoriasis and
other skin diseases [37]
Vernonia schimperii DC. Leaf antimicrobial [66] Ethiopia, Yemen, Saudi

Asteraceae Arabia
Vernonia teres Wall. Ulcers, wounds, dropsy, dysmenorrhea [37] Tropical Himalayas,
Compositae India
Veronica beccabunga L. Diuretic, urinary troubles, scurvy, scrofulous Europe, Africa, north
Plantaginaceae and other skin affections [37] and western Asia
Viburnum colebrookianum Leaf on old sores [37] Eastern Himalayan

Wall. ex DC. region
Caprifoliaceae
Venidium arctotoides Leaf in wounds [81] South Africa

(L.f.) Less.
Asteraceae
Vigna unguiculate Seed, root and leaf in wound healing [92] Semi-arid regions
(L.) Walp.
Fabaceae
Vinca minor L. Leaf in diarrhoea, dysentery, Tuberculosis [37] Central and southern
Apocynaceae Europe
Viola patrinii DC. Ulcers, foul sores, Syphilis; in cancer in Chinese Japan, Korea, Mongolia,
Violaceae medicine; flower in coughs and colds [37] Russia
Contd...
127
Viola tricolor L. Stimulant, diuretic, diseases of blood, skin, Himalayan regions,

Violaceae rheumatism, expectorant, asthma [37] Europe, North America
Viscum articulatum Febrifuge, paste on cuts [37] India to Malaysia

Burm. f.
Santalaceae
Viscum capense L.f. Warts and other skin complaints [88] South Africa
Santalaceae
Vitex altissima L.f. Stem bark in wound [65] India to Malaysia

Lamiaceae
Vitex lucens Kirk. Leaf in sprains, ulcers, sore throat [37] New Zealand
Lamiaceae
Vitex negundo L. Root tonic, febrifuge, diuretic, in rheumatism, South and Southeast
Lamiaceae dysentery, piles; flowers in diarrhoea, fever, Asia
liver complaints [37]; in skin diseases [63]
Vitex peduncularis Leaf and bark in Malaria and black water India to Malaysia
Wall. ex Schauer. fever; leave antibacterial [37]
Lamiaceae
Vitex pinnata L. Leaf on wounds [37] South and Southeast

Lamiaceae Asia
Vitex trifolia L. Leaf in Tuberculosis, leaf and root febrifuge Coastlines of tropical
Lamiaceae [37] east Africa
Vitis vinifera L. Sap in skin affections [37] Mediterranean region,

Vitaceae southwestern Asia
Voacanga foetida Latex in fistulae, tumours, pustules, stomach Indonesia, Malaysia,

(Blume) Rolfe. and intestinal troubles [37] Philippines
Apocynaceae
Wagatea spicata Root in pneumonia, bark in skin troubles [37] India

(Dalzell) Wight.
Fabaceae
Contd...
128
Wahlenbergia marginata Herb in skin troubles, root in pulmonary Asia, Australia, New
(Thunb.) A. DC. infections [37] Zealand
Campanulaceae
Waltheria indica L. Root in internal hemorrhages, thrush [37]; used Central and South
Malvaceae in wounds [70] America
Warburgia salutaris Bark in skin complaints [88] Southern Africa

(Bertol.f.) Chiov.
Canellacea
Wedelia biflora (L.) DC. Leaf diuretic, on cuts, ulcers, sores, varicose Tropical belt of
Asteraceae veins [37] the Indo-Pacific region
Wedelia chinensis Aerial part in skin diseases [63] South east Asian
(Osbeck) Merr. countries
Compositae
Wedelia wallichii Less. Herb poultice on wounds [37] India

Asteraceae
Woodfordia fruticosa Flower, leaf and fruit gum antimicrobial [40] India
(L.) Kurz.
Lythraceae
Wrightia tinctoria Bark in diarrhoea, piles, ringworm and skin India, southeast Asia,
(Roxb.) R. Br. diseases, fever; seed anthelminthic, astringent Australia
Apocynaceae [41]
Xanthium spinosum L. In Hydrophobia and intermittent fevers [37] Worldwide distribution

Asteraceae
Xanthium strumarium L. Chronic Malaria, leucorrhoea, urinary North America

Asteraceae diseases; leaf diuretic, anti-syphilitic, in
herpes; root tonic, in cancer, ulcers, boils,
abscesses [37]
Ximenia caffra Sond. Root in wound difficult to heal, septic sores Eastern and southern
Olacaceae [70, 125] Africa
Ximenia americana L. Root febrifuge; in venereal diseases, jaundice, Pantropical

Olacaceae diarrhea, bark in sores [37]
Contd...
129
Xylia xylocarpa Roxb. Taub. Bark in Gonorrhea and diarrhea [37] South and southeast
Fabaceae Asia
Xyris complanata R.Br. Herb antiseptic, in itches, ring worm, Leprosy China, India to
Xyridaceae [37] Malaysia, Australia
Xyris indica L. Itch, ringworm, Leprosy [37] India to Malaysia

Xyridaceae
Xysmalobium undulatum (L.) Root in sores, wounds and abscesses [80,88] Africa
W.T. Aiton.
Apocynaceae
Yucca gloriosa L. Rheumatism, sores, ulcers, dysentery, Phthisis, South-eastern United

Asparagaceae bronchitis, Hemorrhagic septicemia [37] States
Zanonia indica L. Fruit antiseptic, in cough, asthma [37] South and southeast
Cucurbitaceae Asia
Zantedeschia aethiopica (L.) Leaf in wounds, boils, sores [79,80] Southern Africa
Spreng.
Araceae
Zanthoxylum capense Leaf in sores [88] Eastern regions of

(Thunb.) Harv. Rutaceae southern Africa
Zanthoxylum armatum DC. Fruit oil antiseptic, used in dental preparations China, India to
Rutaceae [37] Malaysia
Zanthoxylum limonella Fruit in asthma, bronchitis, rheumatism, tooth India to Malaysia

(Dennst.) Alston. ache; oil antiseptic; in Cholera, dermatosis [37]
Rutaceae
Zingiber zerumbet (L.) Rhizome in cough, asthma, Leprosy, skin India

Roscoe ex Sm. diseases [37]
Zingiberaceae
Ziziphus mucronata Willd. Leaf, root and bark in boils, sores, swellings Southern Africa
Rhamnaceae [80,88]
Ziziphus mauritiana Fruit antimicrobial [165]; in heart problems, Pleotropic

Lam. seed in dysmenorrhea, stem cover in bloody
Rhamnaceae amoebiasis [41]
130
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SUMMARY
Modification of lifestyle at the directed way and use of herb-based medicines may be the
two branches of prevention of diseases. Identification of active principle/s from solvent
extracted parts of medicinal plants is the contemporary way followed for development of
drugs for use them in modern medicine. Chemical synthesis of active principles in the
laboratory and marketing of these medicines is the target in that type of research. It is followed
in the western countries, as they are not having the plant resources like the countries of the
torrid zone of the globe. Various components are developed in various species of plants as a
part of the evolutionary outcome of the struggle for their existence. Leave, bark, seed, seed
coat, flower, root, pulps etc. of different plants are considered as reservoirs of naturally
occurring chemical compounds and of structurally diverse bioactive molecules. As the plants
are engaged in various physiological functioning at living state, so availability of number
and quantity of such components in the freshly collected succulent plant parts should be far
more than the dried and stored one.
Reported efficacy of the medicinal plants may be validated also through the extracts of
the succulent parts like the dry parts. For getting medicines to fight against the diseases of
infectious origin, study of antimicrobial, anti-oxidant, immune-modulation and other systemic
and local effects may be performed on the succulent extracts also. The same procedures of
identification of phyto-chemicals, purification, structure elucidation and biochemical
characterization of purified/ semi-purified compounds by toxicity study, in vivo study, clinical
trials of different phases used before marketing of any synthetic drug may be modified for
these succulent bio-medicines also.
A total of 48 plants are listed for easy development of proposed succulent bio-medicines
from them as these are used as nutraceuticals, spices or used by many people. Another 1143
plants are listed for their possible effect against the diseases of infective origin, as per available
reports.
The cut pieces of the plant parts may be used as medicines of different herbivorous animals.
The juices may be used as a new type of medicine for human being as well as for animals.
These juices may be concentrated/ diluted as per requirement.
For storage and transportation, use of any chemical preservative may be avoided.
Uncontaminated collection and different modern techniques may be adopted to make and
keep these medicines germ free. Different nontoxic capsular materials may be used to contain
individual doses. Cold chain-based transportation to various countries up to the patient level
may be adopted for global commercialization of these medicines.
India can take the leading role of production of such bio – medicines through mass
cultivation, extraction, packaging and supply to all parts of the globe. This can also create
a good number of small-scale industries in India.
145

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HEALTHCARE SYSTEM USING

SUCCULENT PARTS OF PLANTS

Dr. Shibabrata Pattanayak

c Published and Copyright hold by the author.

Composed by : Ajit Kumar Bhakat

The devoted young generation

Chapter I Establishment of disease inside the body 10

Establishment of disease inside the body

1. Diseases of non-infectious origin: Lifestyle related diseases (improper lifestyle;

2. Diseases of infectious origin: Diseases due to bacterial, viral, protozoan, parasitic

Initiation of infectious diseases

Conventional systems for prevention and treatment of diseases of infective origin

Development of Antimicrobial Resistance (AMR)

Development of antibiotics – a self-limitating process

Present healthcare system: the source of Nosocomial Infections

Modern medicine – some important limitations

Drug side effects and drug interactions

Molecular Pathological Epidemiology (MPE)

The controllable section of MPE may be categorised in two parts.

Other parallel systems

Systems other than Modern Medicine

Herb based medicines

The plant resources

The ‘ineffective’ medicinal plants – are they really ineffective?

Use of succulent parts of plants as medicine - a new idea

Use of succulent parts of medicinal plants

Source of succulent medicines

B. Succulent Vegetables, Fruits and Spices

C. Other succulent medicines for systematic use

Validation of traditional claims

Contemporary systems used for validation of efficacy of medicinal plants and

B. Validation of traditional claims by in vitro study

1. In vitro antimicrobial efficacy study

2. Anti-oxidant property study

3. Study for immune-stimulation activity

Limitations of the contemporary systems used for validation

Steps towards development of a drug

2. Structure elucidation of the purified/ semi purified compounds

3. Biochemical characterization of purified/ semi purified compounds

The gaps and the alternative ways

Validation of reported antimicrobial efficacy of plants (direct or indirect):

Plants reported as having power to control diseases of

Identification of plants with reported use as antimicrobial and other related

A comprehensive research proposal

In addition to the contemporary pattern of research performed for validation of traditional

Proposed steps to study the listed plants

3.Special study of succulent plant materials

Proposed design for production and transport of succulent

Preparation and transport

Capsular material for dosing of medicines

The most commonly used capsular materials are as follows

The new horizon in treatment of untreatable diseases and

Horizon of a new type of phytomedicine based treatment of infective diseases

Establishment of export-oriented industries

Cajanus indicus B: Arahar Leaf juice in jaundice, cough, Juice of succulent

Citrus limon (L.) B: Lebu Anti-cancer, prevent kidney As immunostimulant

Daucus carota L. B: Gajar Root diuretic, stimulant [37]; As immunostimulant,

Emblica officinalis B: Amlaki Antiseptic [45]; Succulent fruit as

Ipomoea reptans (L) B: Kalmi Leaf for protection from As immunostimulant in

Lagenaria vulgaris B: Lau Fruit juice externally in Protection from skin

Persea americana B: Kulunashpati Fruit contain important

Allium sativum L. B: Ek Koshi Rosun Bulb in respiratory infections, To control problems of

Brassica juncea B: Rai Sorsey Anti-diabetic/ Green leaves and seeds

Capsicum annuum L. B: Lonka Fruit antimicrobial [49] Increase body vitality