Medicinal Plants in Australia. Volume 1, Bush Pharmacy (PDFDrive)

MEDICINAL PLANTS IN AUSTRALIA
Volume 1 Bush Pharmacy

Manna gum (Eucalyptus mannifera). (Courtesy: Daniell Langlois, Wikispecies, GFDL)
MEDICINAL PLANTS IN AUSTRALIA
Volume 1 Bush Pharmacy
Cheryll J. Williams
ROSENBERG
First published in Australia in 2010
by Rosenberg Publishing Pty Ltd
PO Box 6125, Dural Delivery Centre NSW 2158
Phone: 61 2 9654 1502 Fax: 61 2 9654 1338
Email: rosenbergpub@smartchat.net.au
Web: www.rosenbergpub.com.au
Copyright © Cheryll J. Williams 2010
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise,
without the prior permission of the publisher in writing.
National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry
Author: Williams, Cheryll.
Title: Medicinal plants in Australia, Vol. 1, bush pharmacy /

Cheryll Williams.
Print ISBN: 9781877058790 (hbk.)

Epdf ISBN: 9781925078053
Notes: Includes index.
Subjects: Medicinal plants--Australia.

Materia medica, Vegetable--Australia.
Dewey Number: 615.321
Set in Adobe Garamond Pro

Printed in China by Everbest Printing Co Limited
Contents
Foreword 7 Australian carnivorous plants 119
Introduction – A Floral Pharmacy: from the past to Bottlebrushes: a European fancy 120
the future 8 The genus Telopea 128
The genus Banksia 129
1 Plants of the Pioneers: First Impressions and Grevillea and Hakea 134
Improvisations 14
The search for food and medicines 14 6 Bush Beverages
Sources of vitamin C: citrus, sowthistles and celery 23 Bush water resources: vines and trees 136
The physician’s medicine chest: essential drugs 28 Nectars for fermentation 143
Experimental brews 145
2 Herbal Inspirations: Remedies from the Bush 36 Cider-making experiments 149
Medicinal bush tucker orchids 42 Coffee substitutes 151
The genus Geodorum 44 Kurrajong seeds as food and medicine 157
Tonic or toxin? 45 Acacia coffee 159
Australian analogues of European healing herbs 46
Insect repellents: mints and basils 48 7 Bush Tucker Bugs 161
Wound-healing herbs 53 Native ‘manna’ and sugary saps 162
The genus Pittosporum 58 The manna of the Bible 165
Sweet bush foods 166
3 Sarsaparilla and Sassafras: Old Remedies in a New Edible bugs and grubs 169
Country 62 Insects and vegetation types 170
Australian Sarsaparillas 63 Cicadas 171
Sarsaparilla 66 Witchetty grubs 174
Sarsaparilla substitutions 72 The Bogong Moth: an annual feast 179
False Sarsaparillas 74 Tasty hoppers: grasshoppers, locusts and crickets 180
The search for Sassafras Oil 77 Galls and grubs 183
Edible insects: a food crop for the future? 189
4 Xanthorrhoea: Grass-tree Medicine 88
Early botanical collections in Australia 89 8 Sweet Surprises: Medicinal and Toxic Honeys 193
Xanthorrhoea: distinctively Australian 94 ‘Sugar-bag: the search for sweets 195
Grass-tree resin: a medical resource 95 Australian native bees 199
A useful tree: food, fuel and varnish 97 Tea-tree honeys 200
Medical value of Xanthorrhoea 101 Eucalypt honeys 202
Environmental and conservation concerns 103 Flavonoids: identifying honey origins 208
Xanthorrhoea relatives: the genus Lomandra 107 Honey’s antioxidant qualities 210
An ancient medicine 210
5 Floral Emissaries 109 A modern medicine 212
A remarkable botanical collection 109 Modern medicinal honeys 215
Banks’ Florilegium 111 Honey studies 219
Naming the genus Eucalyptus 114 Jarrah honey: antifungal properties 221
6 MEDICINAL PLANTS IN AUSTRALIA Volume 1: BUSH PHARMACY
The other side of the coin: toxic honeys 222 The international Sandalwood industry 274
Medicinal uses of Australian Sandalwoods 276
9 Uniquely Australian: Flowers, Flavours and The Native Quandong: an edible fruit 280
Fragrance 226 Sandalwood’s Australian relatives 283
Fragrant medicine: native myrtles 226
Boronia: the perfume crop 233 11 The Famous Australian Gum Tree 288
Chemical constituents of essential oils 237 The genus Eucalyptus 289
Lillypillies: flowers and fruit of distinction 240 Survival strategies 289
The medicinal Malay Apple (Syzygium malaccense) Classifying eucalypts 293
255 Eucalyptus, Angophora and Corymbia 296
Pharmacological investigations of Syzygium 257 Tropical eucalypts 299
The eucalypt around the world 305
10 Sandalwood: The Aromatic Export 262 Versatile eucalypts 309
Early unsustainable harvesting 263 International acceptance of eucalypt medicines 311
Sandalwood oils: quality and constituents 266 The downside of plant exports 314
Medicinal traditions 269
The modern Australian Sandalwood industry 271 Resources 316
A parasitic habit and propagation issues 272 Index 328
Foreword
Should you have any interest in the present or future ‘tyranny of distance’ and the relative lack of resources
potential for pharmaceutical compounds from plants, in Far North Queensland.
in botany in general, or in study and research in any Snail-mail, Internet woes and more than two
adjacent area, then you cannot afford to be without metres of flooding rains in the three months of the
this magnificent set of volumes, by Cheryll Williams, Wet Season are small irritations by comparison. This
in your collection. level of dedication is extraordinarily rare, and that the
You will find a comprehensive description of the author has produced this set of volumes highlights her
plants of Australia that have been used to influence great determination, her discipline and her academic
the outcome of disease entities, their active principles, excellence. I am trying to convey the 99 per cent
and explanations of why and how they work. They perspiration, but you will have to read them to fully
are organised by groupings and taxonomy to make understand the 1 per cent inspiration that completes
reference easy. the equation. The scope and the detail are little short
My own career as a pharmacist has spanned nearly of breathtaking’ is one comment I received when
fifty years, and my original training in the United sharing an overview with a colleague.
Kingdom in the 1950s and 1960s, included the study From my knowledge of the small area of the whole
of Botany and Pharmacognosy (the study of pertinent work that I really know about, I found it accurate
drugs and their plant origins), Physiology and and extremely comprehensive. The layout is logical,
Pharmacology, which has allowed me to appreciate the specific drugs or plants are easy to find and follow, and
huge amount of information included in this work. great care has been taken with the illustrations.
I have followed the growth of the text over about I must emphasise too, that these volumes are not
a five-year period and have watched the hair-pulling guilty of the dry and dusty text of Victoriana. In fact,
frustration complete with the dogged stubbornness of they make the subject live.
the choleric, as Cheryll ploughed her way through our It has been a great privilege to peruse this opus.
Chris Shaw
7
Introduction
A FLORAL PHARMACY:
FROM THE PAST TO THE FUTURE?
Plants have been the passion of herbalists and botanic still occur. Who knows but in the antipodean scrub,
physicians for centuries – a wealth of experience that which was viewed first by the medical residents of
slid into obscurity as floral drug resources become 1788, still lies undiscovered the fungus or bacteria, the
neglected over the last century. Even with the current saponin or alkaloid which will yet bring a new cure or
resurgence of interest in the therapeutic value of benefit to the wider world.’
herbs, I have long been concerned that there has This deep interest in the medicinal aspects of the
been a diminishing appreciation of the history of Australian flora has not been a professional priority in
our country’s medicinal plants, and the tremendous this country. Even at time of writing this book, one
research efforts that have been involved in the publisher felt that it would be not quite ‘scientific
development of plant-based medicines. Certainly, this enough’ for them to sanction. This attitude has long
was the inspiration for Medicinal Plants in Australia, a confounded me. I have an extraordinary amount
project that expanded with research to fill not just one of faith in herbal medicine. Like most of us I grew
but four volumes. Bush Pharmacy is the first. up in an age where treatment was characterised by
The importance of Australia’s botanical resources antibiotics and other ‘modern’ drugs. With such a
and the remedies developed from them is a topic that has background, it took a long time (and a lot of study)
been, for the most part, left to languish unappreciated to truly appreciate the remarkable depth of healing
for some decades. Many floral discoveries have never that could be achieved by the use of herbs. Yet the
achieved public acknowledgment. This is because objections presented by ‘orthodox’ medicine, which
credit is rarely given to the natural resources on which has based so many developments on the natural
commercial and biomedical developments are based. world, simply do not make a lot of sense. It does not
Few truly appreciate the immense contribution that seem logical to disregard herbal traditions that have
our native plants have already made to our welfare – given the world some rather remarkable drugs. Nor
nor their extraordinary future potential and the need can their efficacy be doubted.
for their conservation. Medical treatment has utilised opium for centuries.
In 1987, Professor John Pearn, former Surgeon- Later there came the development of morphine
General of the Australian Defence Force and senior and, today, common drugs such as codeine. Highly
clinician at the Royal Children’s Hospital in Brisbane, influential contributions from the South American
in his paper ‘The Enchanted Herb: the work of early rainforests included the potent muscle relaxant
medical botanists in Australia’, offered the following tubocurarine, which revolutionised surgery. This was
insight into the subject: ‘The Utopian dream of a new discovered from the Curare vine (Chondrodendron
Australian botanic pharmacopoeia has persisted to this tomentosum) which had traditionally been utilised as
day. Both lay and medical persons alike experiment an arrow poison. The life-saving anti-malarial drug
with infusions and extracts of native plants, and quinine was extracted from the bark of an Amazonian
the traditions of botanic pharmacology, which was rainforest tree, while the potent painkiller cocaine
followed so enthusiastically by the First Fleet surgeons, originated from the shrub Erythroxylum coca.
8
A FLORAL PHARMACY: FROM THE PAST TO THE FUTURE? 9
Ergot (Claviceps purpurea) on Rye grass.
European medicine sourced another outstanding The Woolly or Austrian Foxglove (Digitalis lanata) contains
remedy from Ergot (Claviceps purpurea), a highly greater concentrations (three- to five-fold) of cardioactive
toxic fungal infection of Rye. This was employed as alkaloids than the original Foxglove herb (Digitalis purpurea).
an antihaemorrhagic agent that was indispensable for This discovery had obvious commercial benefits and the plant
midwifery – and later the isolation of a complex array has continued to be utilised for the production of digoxin-
based cardiovascular drugs.
of alkaloids (ergotoxine, ergotamine, ergometrine)
inspired the development of drugs for migraine, recipe for the relief of dropsy (fluid retention) was
circulatory and memory disorders. The anticancer given to him for appraisal. The herbal potion was
drugs vincristine and vinblastine come from the said to have come from an old woman in Shropshire,
pretty pink-flowered garden ornamental Madagascar England, and was reputed to have a remarkable effect
Periwinkle, Catharanthus roseus (fomerly Vinca rosea, – even when all else had failed. Much later the link
hence the derivation of the drugs’ names), which is between heart disease and oedema was established,
now an international weed. Penicillin had its origins and Digitalis leaf and tincture preparations came into
in moulds and graveyard dirt. The sources of many use in mainstream medicine for heart failure.
more modern drugs are no less diverse. Many species of Digitalis contain cardiac glycosides,
The discovery of the cardioactive action of Foxglove among them D. dubia, D. ferruginea, D. grandiflora,
(Digitalis purpurea) in the late 1700s provides an D. lutea, D. mertonensis, D. nervosa, D. subalpina and
important example of the phenomenal, and enduring, D. thapsi. Such species diversity could be extremely
benefits herbs have bequeathed to medicine. In 1785 valuable for future research. Any one of them could
a medical doctor, William Withering, wrote a book hold the key to potential chemical advantages about
entitled An Account of the Foxglove, and Some of its which we are not, as yet, aware.
Medical Uses: with Practical Remarks on Dropsy, and This subject, of course, is directly linked to the
Other Diseases. Some ten years previously, a family issue of conservation. Sadly, with the world’s wild
places dwindling dramatically, few refuges remain only compromises our herbal resources and our
for the many plants that are rare or threatened with food supplies, but is likely to irreparably damage
extinction. This is no less true in Australia. The future scientific developments. The story of the
ever-expanding urban sprawl leaves little of the drug discoveries that owe a remarkable debt to
environment undisturbed. The average household herbal medicine provide a superb illustration of the
garden does not encourage the small wild animals to valuable link between floral resources and scientific
visit, and the birds and bees watch their native flowers advancement. Environmental considerations continue
being replaced by ornamentals that are of little use to have a significant influence on our wellbeing. In a
to them. In remote areas, in out-of-the-way ‘wild planet devoid of clean water, clean air, unpolluted seas
places’, access roads offer avenues for weed invasions, and soils – not only will nature itself be challenged in
parking and camping requirements lead to drainage extremis, we will have created our own eventual doom.
works, and vast areas of tarmac and concrete – and so Australia is an ancient land with a unique floral
the destruction continues. These changes may seem heritage that excited and intrigued the early European
inevitable and, often, desirable, but they usually come explorers and scientists. Plants are essential to society
with a substantial environmental cost down the track. – indeed, they are the lifeblood of human existence.
Few realise that innumerable unique species The early colonists and Aboriginal people knew this
were probably once found on their doorstep. Many on a very personal level. They had a different, and far
are the result of a diversity of plant life designed by less one-eyed, attitude toward the use of the country’s
evolution to fit into specific environments. While it resources than is common today. In their outlook on
many not be immediately apparent, this issue directly the world, plants were not just of culinary value, they
affects human health – not only by influencing the had an integral role in the healing arts as well. For
environmental issues that have a great bearing on our centuries botanist-physicians formed the cornerstone
quality of life, but also by threatening the survival of of medical practice and, at the time that Australia was
rare, and often as-yet-undiscovered, botanical drug colonised, herbal traditions were well respected.
sources. The comment by Harold Koopowitz and More than a century ago, New South Wales
Hilary Kaye in Plant Extinction: A Global Crisis (1990) Government Botanist Joseph Maiden commented:
reinforces this perspective: ‘Perhaps there is another ‘There is no doubt that many observations of early
[Digitalis] species, still undiscovered, with abundant colonists on the medicinal properties of plants
cardiac glycosides that would cause fewer side effects. have been lost to us through their lack of botanical
If such a species exists, we can only hope that it has knowledge, or lack of facilities to have the plants
not yet fallen victim to extinction or is not among the named in which they were interested. And considering
currently endangered species that probably will die the circumstances under which many of the pioneers
out before the turn of the century.’ The trouble with of this Colony worked, it becomes a matter of surprise
extinction is that we will never ever know what we to us, not that they have recorded so little, but that
have already lost. Indeed, it is only relatively recently they have recorded so much, and in such detail, in
that there has been a re-evaluation of the importance regard to the economic properties of our indigenous
to the world of its valuable pharmacological floral flora’ (Maiden 1898).
storehouses. Here in Australia, we have barely tapped Bush Pharmacy is the story of the discovery of the
into the country’s unique floral riches. practical use of the Australian flora – and some of the
Our debt to the natural world can never be traditions and uses that evolved along the way. It tells
underestimated, despite the fairly blasé attitude of of the problems faced by the early settlers in a new land
many international economic organisations and and highlights some quite ingenious (albeit, at times
commercial enterprises. Self-interest, from a wider risky) experiments with the unfamiliar vegetation.
environmental point of view, must learn to hold Many of the plants were considered to be oddities,
conservation values dear – and herbs are on the others had wonderful potential. Occasionally, they
frontlines of such concerns. The fact that a significant could be deadly. Perseverance, and an attitude that
proportion of the planet’s flora is under threat (and encouraged experimentation, particularly with herbs
that innumerable plant species face extinction) not that ‘looked like something from back home in
England’, got results. These strategies ultimately led to available to everyone, which why the information it
the successful development of resources for food and contained became so diverse: ‘It is hoped that this
medicine, as well as the numerous products designed work will merit the support of all classes of citizens,
to satisfy the many utilitarian needs of the community. not only those engaged in the pursuits of forestry
Many of the early explorers, among them Leichhardt, and the various industries connected with timber,
Lumholz, Mitchell and Kennedy, not only helped to but all gardeners and amateurs who plant trees; also
map out the land, they also contributed huge amounts botanists, and those who are content with the less
of information about the flora and fauna that they pleasing designation of lovers of flowers and of our
experienced on their treks across the continent. Their vegetation.’ The results were truly inspirational.
exploits still make exciting reading. They were also Bush Pharmacy discusses the utilisation of the
keen observers of the use of the flora by Australian diverse native resources that were pivotal for the
Aboriginal people – as were a number of the early survival of the community. Then, as now, reliable water
settlers. supplies were an essential part of life – and there was
Inspiration for some of these discoveries lay in experimentation with some odd sources of sustenance,
the medicinal traditions of many other countries, including insects. Native plants were used for making
notably India, China, South-east Asia and the wine and coffee. Honey was a sweet feature of the diet
islands of the Pacific. Bush Pharmacy tries to show with remarkable healing properties, the appreciation
just how ‘right’ some of those uses were – with the of which has made a resurgence in medical circles.
benefit of hindsight, modern scientific analysis and Aromatic herbal remedies were among those that rated
pharmacological research. (Some other experiments highly from the beginning of colonial settlement. They
were simply disastrous.) It also highlights the included the native Sarsaparilla vines and Sassafrass
dedication of some of the early government officials, trees, as well as the native Basil, Mint, Mintbushes,
and not a few ‘enthusiastic amateurs’, who researched and the unique Lemon Myrtle. Some aromatics, such
and promoted the use of these ‘new’ plants from the as Sandalwood, were virtually exploited to extinction.
antipodean colony. In addition, unique horticultural discoveries such as
Joseph Henry Maiden (1859–1925) is one of the Callistemon, Leptospermum, and Banksia flooded the
pivotal resources for this information. He produced European market.
thousands of pages of notes, reminiscences, anecdotes Over time, numerous innovative chemists became
and drawings that are still regarded as one of the greatest intrigued with the potential of the flora. Aromatics
collections of botanical information produced in this and essential oils were among those that captured
country. He was appointed Director of the Botanic their imagination early in the establishment of the
Gardens in Sydney and Government Botanist in May colony. While an extraordinary amount of work
1896, positions he held until his retirement the year was done with regard to medicinal plants, much of
before his death. Maiden was an astute observer who this knowledge was to later take a back seat with the
was interested in all aspects of the Australian flora. development of antibiotics and other synthetic drugs.
His writing is not only eloquent and informative, it Progresses in analytical chemistry and pharmacology
provides in-depth insights into the times in which led to discoveries that were to prove highly influential
he lived – and this is what makes his work so highly in practice. Unfortunately, interest in the potential
valuable today. He was vitally interested in forestry, of herbs as sources of pharmaceutical inspiration
conservation and the economic value of the native dwindled with the rise of chemistry as a profession and
flora. the discovery of antibiotics. Many of the traditional
In The Forest Flora of New South Wales (1904), herbs and floral experiments of the early colonists
Maiden was to embark upon a particularly were fairly quickly forgotten.
ambitious project in initiating a comprehensive The world was swept into a new era of medicine
survey of the native flora. Maiden knew that that was characterised by rather dramatic innovative
exotic species would continue to be propagated if chemical advances. The following passage from
information was not readily available on native species. medical historian and social visionary Henry Sigerist’s
He wanted The Forest Flora of New South Wales to be multivolume History of Medicine (1951) clearly
reflects this attitude. Commenting on the second half have offered, but neither should we ignore the origins
of the nineteenth century, Sigerist recorded a time of many ‘tried and tested’ herbal remedies. While
when ‘a new medical science developed and progress the future may look to chemical investigations and
was achieved such as never before. The past seemed technology to solve our problems, at the same time we
dead. To the average physician the history of medicine reach back into our past to learn from the centuries-
appeared as the history of errors. Nothing could be old experience of the early physicians. Sometimes the
learned from it; to study it, to read the ancient writers, relationship between the past and the future can be
was a waste of time. Science was worshipped and uncanny, especially the intriguing links between plant
the best minds turned to the laboratory with great lore, herbal medicine traditions and modern clinical
enthusiasm’. experience. This fascinating subject is explored in the
Plant-based medicines gradually disappeared from four volumes of Medicinal Plants in Australia with
the world’s pharmacopoeias and materia medica. regard to many aspects of the Australian flora. Any
This loss of interest was reflected in a paucity of discussion of medicinal plants must also draw on
information with regard to investigations of medicinal the intriguing tales of discovery that surround them.
plants from the 1940s to the late 1980s. In some Where possible, updates are included regarding the
cases, little appears to have been done since the late current pharmacological research.
1800s – probably a reflection of the attitude that if the From these origins, the second volume discusses in
value of a plant was not immediately apparent, it was greater detail the old uses and products derived from
thenceforth ignored. This disinterest continued until some iconic Australian flora, notably the Eucalypts,
relatively recently, when concerns regarding the side- Acacias and Tea Trees, the evaluation of which
effects of many drugs arose. continues to this day. Tea Tree oil is a remarkably
In the late 1980s the subject of herbal medicine successful example. Indeed, the future of Australian
began to be taken seriously in some orthodox circles, medicinal plant products is excellent. Subsequent
with Ginseng, Echinacea and Ginkgo biloba being among volumes aim to explore the toxicology of native
the first plants to attract attention. Interest was further plants, notably those that have led to medicinal
activated with the advent of drug-resistant strains of advances. While they may not have achieved great
bacteria, fungi and viruses creating an escalating problem commercial success in Australia, native drugs from
for medicine with dramatic, and disastrous, potential. Duboisia, Nicotiana and some species of Solanum
The investigation of herbal medicines, including essential have a valid chemical basis. Some were even marketed
oils, has opened up an entirely new area of research, much on an international scale, but were dropped because
of which has tended to support many of the traditional they became uneconomic. This does not mean that
uses of these plants. A resurgence of interest today in these drugs were unsuccessful – they could even have,
aromatherapy and the antibacterial properties of essential as yet, unrevealed potential that may be unveiled by
oils have some pioneering Australian chemists to thank modern developments in chemical extraction and
for their early dedication. Would that this inspiration processing methods. The Australian rainforest is of
continues to support research into our flora for the ancient origins, and is a unique resource that remains
future … largely untapped. Considering the large number of
We tend to have forgotten the true origins of many drugs that have already originated from this type of
of our medicines. We cannot ignore the developments environment, there are excellent prospects. There is
that chemical and pharmacological investigations extraordinary future potential.
Author’s Note and Library SRIS (Science, Research & Information

Service).
Acknowledgments For plant identification: Andrew Small, Bob
Wherever possible I have tried to incorporate Jaygo, Peter Newell and Limberlost Nursery (Cairns).
original quotes with regard to the historical aspects In particular, David Warmington and the staff of the
of many of the plants discussed. This avoids the Flecker Botanical Gardens, Cairns, have provided
problem of ‘interpretation’ and usually makes enormous support for this venture.
fascinating reading. One problem that is persistent Photographic acknowledgments: Keith A.W.
in any work on plants is that of ever-changing Williams for his personal permission to use images from
botanical names. It is an extraordinarily complex his books; Kim and Forrest Starr of Hawaii, whose web
subject that, without expert advice, can drive one pages at www.hear.org/starr have hundreds of images of
to distraction. The Australian Plant Census project Australian plants that are now considered invasive on the
(APC) was an invaluable resource. I have to specially islands of Hawaii; Peter Woodard of Sydney, who has
thank Brendan Lepschii (Curator, Australian provided many wonderful images of ‘southern’ plants;
National Herbarium, Centre for Plant Biodiversity the Australian Native Plants Society, both National
Research) for helping to find answers to numerous (Brian Walters) and Tasmanian (Joy and Bob Coghlan);
questions about the renaming of species and genera. and the many other individuals and commercial bodies
With regard to the research papers and references that donated images of plants or their products. All
cited I have retained the botanical name that is used uncredited photographs are my own.
at the time, and made notes where appropriate on My personal thanks (for many reasons) go to Dr
name changes. Rita Vinten, Dr Gayle Ashby, Dr Sue Cory, Bruce
There are two people in particular without Allen, Margaret Lee, Dina and Lolli Forden and, my
whom the research required, and the writing of this mother, Joan O’Grady.
manuscript, could never have been achieved – Tony Finally I need to mention the deep and abiding
Young and Brigitta Flick. Tony’s assistance as a reader, gratitude that I feel toward botanist, naturalist and
critic, research coordinator, computer technical and photographer Keith A.W. Williams for his years
software consultant has been invaluable. The book of friendship and encouragement. Keith was truly
has been enhanced considerably by his painstaking inspirational – he self-published the initial three
efforts in tracking down the outsourced images for volumes of the Native Plants of Queensland between
the text. Brigitta’s excellent research skills and reading 1979 and 1987 when the various publishers he
capabilities have been an important source of support. approached had little faith it would sell – a herculean
Their passionate commitment to wildlife rescue and inspired task that provided invaluable reference
and rehabilitation has been equally supportive on a books at a time when few were available. (The fourth
personal level. volume was published by CopyRight Publishing in
I am very grateful to a number of individuals who 1999.) Keith also made a significant contribution
have made substantial contributions to this book: Dr of thousands of plant specimens to the Queensland
Rita Vinten, Professor Len Webb, Dermot McCabe, Herbarium and was ultimately awarded the Order
Chris Shaw, Rebecca Shaw, Dr Peter Mitchell, of Australia medal for his efforts. We corresponded
Graham Knell, Jolyon Ritchie, Rod Ritchie, Kathryn extensively, and his faith in my ability to complete
Collis – and heaps of others who read and commented these books never wavered. He once wrote: ‘I am
on the draft manuscript in either large chunks or enthusiastic about helping. If someone else can be
small sections; I must also thank Anne Savage for her successful through my meagre help, I have probably
perseverance in editing the text. made another friend. Don’t forget that we are all a long
Organisations that have made substantial time dead. It is what we can make of our lives now
contributions to this book include the Wikimedia that matters. I now seem to be part of your effort and
Commons Project as a source of information and this pleases me immensely. Keep up the good work. It
images; the National Library of Congress Pubmed will be worth it in the end.’ Sadly, Keith passed away
as a research information resource; and the British before the fruits of this labour had ripened.
Chapter 1
PLANTS OF THE PIONEERS:
FIRST IMPRESSIONS AND
IMPROVISATIONS
to supplement their meagre drug supplies. Although

many aspects of the native vegetation would have
been simply bewildering to the European-trained
immigrants, the inventiveness of some keen botanist-
physicians fairly quickly yielded practical results. The
antiscorbutic properties of the New Zealand Spinach
(Tetragonia tetragonoides), Native Currant (Leptomeria
acida) and Native Sarsaparilla (Smilax glyciphylla) were
recognised and pressed into service. In particular, the
latter was to achieve a good measure of popularity as
a general ‘tonic’.
The search for food and medicines

The harvest of local vegetables (especially ‘greens’)
on early sea voyages saved many from the rigours of
Cook’s landing at Botany Bay in 1770. Lithograph by scurvy – a debilitating condition due to a deficiency of
unknown artist, first published in the Town and Country vitamin C. Historically, scurvy has been rated as one of
Journal New South Wales, 21 December 1872. the most highly distressing of the nutritional deficiency
When the First Fleet disembarked on Australian diseases. Over the centuries of sea exploration, many
shores in 1788, the new arrivals’ main imperatives perished in the most dreadful manner from this
were securing food resources and discovering local disorder. Long voyages were commonly associated
plants of medicinal value. The debilitating effects with severe outbreaks. In 1594 Sir Richard Hawkins
of a long sea voyage with limited supplies were all observed that the condition was improved when
too apparent, and the resources of the new continent sailors incorporated citrus fruit in their rations.1 Even
almost completely unknown. Necessity provides great so, it was to be more than two centuries before the
impetus to the process of discovery, and botanical British Navy made it mandatory that limes were taken
improvisation led to some rapid innovations. The on voyages in 1804 (this eventually led to the British
nutritional deficiencies resulting from the lack of sailor’s nickname of ‘limey’).
good food provided substantial, sometimes desperate, Scurvy was characterised by great fatigue, rheumatic
motivation for finding natural resources on all the early joint pain, and a haemorrhagic tendency that often
sea voyages. Serious conditions such as scurvy and involved the muscles, leading to painful swellings.
dysentery were among the first afflictions to stimulate Other symptoms included retinal haemorrhage,
the hunt for onshore sustenance and remedies, with 1 Other good sources of vitamin C include broccoli, blackcurrants, rosehips,
medical men searching for local botanical resources strawberries, pineapple, capsicum, citrus fruits, guava and parsley.
14
Chapter 1 PLANTS OF THE PIONEERS:
FIRST IMPRESSIONS AND IMPROVISATIONS 15
sponginess of the gums (which became extremely sore

and swollen, and bled easily), and kidney dysfunction
with oedema (fluid retention and swelling). Death
could result from complications such as internal
bleeding or secondary infections such as pneumonia.
John H. Musser’s Internal Medicine: Its Theory and
Practice (1938) provides some rather graphic details
of the condition: ‘In very advanced cases the mouth
condition is truly horrible; the gums may become
so swollen as to conceal the teeth; the patient drools
bloody saliva and the fetor of the breath is nauseating.
The teeth may fall out and necrosis [tissue death]
of the jaw takes place. Sometimes haemorrhages in
other portions of the body are prominent symptoms.
Epistaxis [nose bleed] may be severe and bloody
diarrhoea may develop.’ It is easy to understand why
the condition was surrounded by an aura of dread.
Certainly, these descriptions reinforce an appreciation
of the therapeutic value of vitamin C.
Foresighted mariners wisely instituted the harvest
of local greenstuffs wherever they could – herbs that
were incorporated into salads or boiled as vegetables.
Wild Celery (Apium prostratum), Cook’s Scurvy
Grass (Lepidium oleraceum, formerly L. tetrandrum),
Sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus) and the New Zealand
or Wild Spinach (Tetragonia tetragonioides, formerly
T. cornuta) were found to be invaluable. Officers on
early sea voyages were impressed with the benefits
of these greens and their miraculous health-giving
effects. Captain Jean-Francis-Marie de Surville, on
the Saint Jean Baptiste (1769–73), found they had
an excellent reviving effect on the health of his crew.
Statue of Captain Cook, Cooktown.
Upon landing in New Zealand one of his officers,
Lieutenant L’Horne, wrote: Below: plaque beneath statue.
our sick ones especially felt the great effects derived from
the use of them. Every one of the sick ones who went
ashore and ate some of these plants not only did not
die, but got better remarkably quickly. One of the most
desperate cases, whose body was swollen all over, and
whose mouth was rotten, and who had been given up,
was only fit to go to shore twice, but the use he made of
these plants then and on board relieved him wonderfully,
and at the end of the month he started walking and
was quite well shortly after. I found the effects of these
plants so wonderful that I took some seeds of the two
first mentioned [probably Lepidium oleraceum, and a
Nasturtium or a Rorippa sp.] They grow in great profusion
in the country. I could not gather any seed from the wild
parsley [Apium australe], as it was not then seeding.
Captain James Cook2 and his colleagues found the

evaluation of the floral resources of the Australian
continent a difficult undertaking because they differed
so dramatically from European plants. Perhaps this
unfamiliarity also hampered appreciation of their
potential:
Here are several sorts of the Palm kind, Mangro[v]es

and several other sorts of small Trees and shrubs quite
unknown to me besides a great Variety of Plants hitherto
unknown, but these things are wholy [sic] out of my way
to describe … The Land naturally produces hardly any
thing fit for man to eat and the Natives know nothing
of Cultivation. There are indeed found growing wild
in the woods a few sorts of fruits (the most of them
unknown to us) which when ripe do not eat amiss, one
sort especially which we call’d Apples, being about the
size of a Crab-Apple. It is black and pulpy when ripe
and tastes like a Damson [Black Apple, Pouteria australis,
formerly Planchonella australis or Sapota australis], it hath
a large hard stone or kernel and grows on Trees or Shrubs
(Beaglehole 1968).
Tropical rainforest of the Daintree coast, northern

Queensland. This unique vegetation was to provide a rich
floral resource for study and discovery by Joseph Banks and
Daniel Solander on HMB Endeavour.
The botanical research team of

Banks and Solander, as well as the
botanical artist Sydney Parkinson,
were to make detailed records of the
unusual, and sometimes baffling,
flora and fauna they encountered.
2 Although almost invariably referred to as
Captain, when in command of the Endeavour on
this voyage Cook was still a lieutenant. He was not
raised to the rank of captain until 1771, a month
Re-enactment of Lieutenant Cook’s landing at the Endeavour River, Cooktown. after the ship’s return to England.
Cooktown Harbour. Captain Cook’s ship, HMB Endeavour, was damaged on Endeavour Reef, north-east of Cape
Tribulation. Cook struggled up the coast, seeking a refuge where they could repair the ship, eventually finding the place that
became known as Cooks’ Town, where the vessel remained for almost two months.
Re-enactment of the Aborigines’ response to Cook’s landing at the Endeavour River.

One of the first herbs to achieve

prominence as an anti-scurvy herb
was the New Zealand Spinach
(Tetragonia tetragonoides). It was
also among the first native plants
to be imported to England and
cultivated from seed by Sir Joseph
Banks. The New South Wales
Government Botanist, Joseph
Maiden, remarked that ‘in spite of
its name of New Zealand Spinach,
[it] is worthy of note as alone of the
few goods of the Aborigines which
have entered into the domestic use
of Europeans … Sir Joseph Banks
introduced it into England in
1772, where it has been grown as
a spinach, more or less, ever since’
(Maiden 1889). This herb provides
The replica of Endeavour offshore in the Endeavour River, Cooktown, close to a rather apt illustration of the great
where the original ship was beached. (Courtesy John Hill, Cooktown) potential for a plant to spread
throughout the world in a relatively
Cook’s concern for his sailors’ health short period. After its arrival in
On his voyages Cook provided his men with ‘greens’ London at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, around
at every opportunity. In his diary for Thursday 13 thirty years passed before it was accepted into general
April 1769, Cook wrote of his dietary strategies, cultivation. By the 1820s it had become widespread
which were designed to entice his men to partake of throughout England and France. It then attracted
the unfamiliar fare: interest in American culinary circles, where it became
a popular salad vegetable.
The Sour Kroutt3, the men at first would not eat it, until A certain measure of individual preference appears
I put it in practice – a method I never once knew to fail
to have been associated with reviews of its use. Maiden
with seamen – and this was to have some of it dressed
commented:
every day for the Captain’s table, and permitted all the
As a substitute for summer spinach it has been grown in
Officers, without exception, to make use of it … but
private (English) gardens for many years past, and it yields
this practice was not continued above a week before
a large produce, which in the hands of a skilful cook may
I found it necessary to put every one on board on an
be made an excellent vegetable dish, though inferior to
allowance; for such are the Tempers and disposition of
spinach. The chief objection to it as a cooked vegetable
Seamen in general that whatever you give them out of
is the abundance of mucilage, which gives it a somewhat
the common way – altho’ it be ever so much for their
slimy consistence … It is already cultivated to some
good – it will not go down, and you will hear nothing
extent in Australian gardens, but it is abundantly wild on
but murmurings against the Man who first invented
many parts of the coast … It is considered by some to be
it; but the moment they see their superiors set a value
the best of all spinaches.
upon it, it becomes the finest stuff in the world and the
inventor an honest fellow (Wharton 1893).
In addition to Tetragonia tetragonioides another native
3 Pickled sauerkraut contains a reasonable amount of ascorbic acid, species, Tetragonia implexicoma, was said to be equally
although it is reduced considerably by cooking. Cook’s prohibition of the
consumption of cooking fact scraped from the bottom of pans (a common useful. Nutritionally, Warrigal Greens (by which
practice) would have been equally influential in preventing disease. Copper name ‘wild spinach’ was also known) contain a large
cooking pots and fat react to cause toxic irritants to the gastrointestinal
system that compromise vitamin absorption (BBC History, www.bbc. concentration of vitamin A (3600iu). Surprisingly, the
co.uk). content of vitamin C (14mg) is fairly low; there are also
small amounts of the B vitamins, as well as a diverse

range of minerals (iron, sodium, phosphorus, calcium),
particularly potassium (463mg). The benefits of the
herb as a source of essential nutrients would have been
more wide-ranging than simply providing vitamin C.
However, the fresh plant contains oxalic acid (around
12%) – an irritant component that can influence the
bioavailability of both calcium and magnesium. When
cooked, oxalic acid tends to lose its irritant attributes
(Crowe 1990). Another analysis (per 100g) showed
good sodium levels (590mg), potassium (180mg),
plus a small amount of magnesium (80mg), calcium
(38mg) and traces of iron, zinc and copper. Vitamin C
levels were unavailable (Brand Miller 1993).
The use of Wild Spinach appears to be a somewhat
neglected topic, with only a few investigations into its
medicinal value. In Brazil it was not only utilised as
an antiscorbutic, but it was also taken as a cure for
lung and intestinal disorders. In New Caledonia
it was considered to have mild laxative attributes
New Zealand Spinach (Tetragonia tetragonioides).
(Quisumbing 1951; Perry & Metzger 1981). The
Japanese have recommended the decoction for treating
stomach ulcers, and studies have shown that extracts
had an ulcer-preventative activity. The compounds
responsible were identified as cerebrosides (Okuyama
& Yamazaki 1983b). This was an interesting find
because the herb has been used for treating stomach
cancer in both China and Japan. Extracts have shown
antioxidant properties due to phenylpropanoids (e.g.
caffeic acid) and anti-inflammatory activity from
polysaccharide components (Cambie & Ferguson
2003).
Hottentot Fig (Carpobrotus edulis). (Courtesy: Forest &

Kim Starr)
New Zealand Spinach or Warrigal Greens (Tetragonia Carpobrotus edulis. (Courtesy: Joaquim Alves Gaspar,
tetragonoides) in flower. Wikimedia Commons)
Aizoaceae: Ice plants

There are around twelve species of Tetragonia in
Australia. The New Zealand Spinach or Warrigal
Greens (T. tetragonoides) is one of the most
widespread, with a coastal distribution from South
Australia to New South Wales, occasionally ranging
inland. It is also found on many Pacific islands, in
Japan, and in southern South America – links that
trace its ancestry to a time when continents were
joined together in a larger landmass. The herb,
which has also been known as Botany Bay Spinach,
belongs to the Ice Plant family (Aizoaceae), which
is characterised by species that are designed to
withstand harsh environmental conditions. These
plants have a xerophytic character (i.e. use strategies Karkalla, Carpobrotus rossii is an attractive edible ‘pigface’
to prevent moisture loss) and often display a with juicy succulent leaves and fruit. Other native species
succulent habit, as well as being able to survive in include Carpobrotus aequilaterus, C. glaucescens and C.
highly saline conditions (i.e. they are halophytic). modestus. (Courtesy: J and R Coghlan, Australian Plants
The genus Carpobrotus also falls into this category. Society Tasmania)
These plants are small fleshy creeping herbs widely Australia.The Round-leaf Noon Flower (Disphyma
known by the uncomplimentary term ‘pigface’. crassifolium), which has a similar distribution to
Their saline-tolerant habit provides an explanation Karkalla, extending to southern Western Australia,
of their use by Aboriginal people as a salty was equally relished.5 Pigface flowers once made a
seasoning. The leaves of species such as Carpobrotus colourful display in the southern inland regions of the
aequilaterus were baked with meat as a flavouring continent, and the wild fruit was a welcome change
(Cribb & Cribb 1981; Low 1992; Irvine 1957). In from the restricted rations usually endured by colonial
addition to the seven native pigfaces (three of which travellers. However, like much of the Australian flora,
have not been formally named) there are a number pigfaces suffered from the introduction of cattle and
of naturalised species. They include the Sea Fig sheep farming. On an inland expedition in Victoria in
(C. chilensis) in South Australia, and the Ice Plant the 1840s, E.M. Curr sighted a large swathe of land
or Hottentot Fig (C. edulis). The latter, which is (around 50 kilometres long) that was covered with
found throughout most of the country (except the the plants: ‘As often, however, as I crossed the same
Northern Territory and the ACT), has been rated country afterwards, I never again saw the pigs’-faces
as a weedy invader in many countries around the ripe, so that I fancy they only came to maturity in
world. exceptional years. The plant is now nearly, if not quite,
extinct in that locality.’
[Possibly the first native herb collected by seafaring The culinary virtues of these plants were extolled
European explorers visiting Australia was a ‘pigface.’ by the early travellers. Joseph Maiden commented:
It is a relative of the New Zealand Spinach.4 In 1642 ‘Mesembryanthemum is spoken of gratefully by many
Abel Tasman recorded the collection of some greens explorers. Though the fruit was chiefly eaten, the
listed as a species of Mesembryanthemum – by which leaves were also consumed.’ John Eyre, during his
name some South African representatives of the journey in 1839, found the fruit a very welcome treat:
family were known. It was probably Carpobrotus rossii ‘when ripe the fruit is rich, juicy, and sweet, and about
– a species with sweet juicy fruits that were harvested the size of a gooseberry. In hot weather it was most
by Aboriginal people in Tasmania, Victoria and South grateful and refreshing. I had often tasted this fruit
4
The common name Pigface should not be confused with the small fleshy 5 There is only one species of Disphyma in Australia. Noon-flowers are so
Pigweed herbs of the Portulacca genus. There are numerous ornamental named for their habit of opening their blossoms at midday, and closing them
garden varieties of P. oleracea. later in the afternoon.
before, but never until now liked it’. Perhaps it was suggests that the Australian species could have similar
an acquired taste, or the degree of ripeness influenced properties (van der Watt & Pretorius 2001; Martins
his evaluation of the fare. Certainly there appeared to be 2005). An oil extracted from Sea Purslane (Sesuvium
an optimum time and place for the harvest of the plant. portulacastrum), which belongs to the same family
Eyre also commented: ‘It is eaten as a sort of relish with (Aizoaceae), has also shown a broad spectrum of
almost any other kind of food. That which grows upon antibacterial properties, including activity against
the elevated tablelands is preferred to that which is found various enteric pathogens (Salmonella, Clostridium,
in the valleys. It is selected when the full vigour of the Yersinia and Escherichia coli) as well as antifungal
plant begins to decline, and the tips of the leaves become actions (against Candida, Aspergillus and Penicillium).
red, and before the leaf is at all withered. The fruit is It contained a number of compounds with known
used both when first ripe and also after it has become antibacterial properties, among them are alpha-
dried up and apparently withered.’ Australian studies of pinene, camphene, beta-pinene, alpha-terpinene,
Carpobrotus modestus have shown the fruit contains good cymene, limonene, 1,8-cineole and alpha-terpinene –
amounts of sodium (around 231mg/100g), potassium as well as some other components of interest (Magwa
(207mg/100g), calcium (173mg/100g) and magnesium 2006).
(95mg/100g) – with small amounts of iron, zinc, and Recently the cellular gums of the plants of the
copper (Brand Miller 1993). Azoiaceae, specifically the genera Mesembryanthemum,
Certainly medical men were familiar with the Carpobrotus and Aptenia, have attracted interest as
therapeutic potential of Mesembryanthemum due to emulsifying, gelling, adhesive, lubrication, binding
its relatives’ reputation overseas. Maiden wrote: ‘Many or coating agents. They have diverse applications
species … from which this species scarcely differs, for food processing and packaging – as well as in
are used in South Africa. The expressed juice of the the pharmaceutical, veterinary, personal care and
succulent leaves taken internally checks dysentery, and cosmetic industries. These gums are also suited
acts as a mild diuretic, while it is also, for its antiseptic for manufacturing many products of industrial
property, used as an excellent gargle in malignant sore importance: paper, adhesives, inks, textiles, paints,
throat, violent salivation, and aphthae [mouth and ceramics, explosives, various types of cleaning
throat ulcers], or in the form of a lotion in burns and products (including detergents), fire-fighting agents,
scalds’ (Maiden 1898). An old remedy for tuberculosis agricultural chemicals (including pesticides and
mixed the leaf juice with water, honey and olive oil. fungicides) – as well as in oil and gas production.
Doubtless the Australian plants gained a similar In addition, they can be used in photographic and
therapeutic reputation. The mucilaginous leaf juice was lithographic processes (Clarke, Basic & Lane, US
popular as a healing agent. In Australia it was found to Patent 6271001, 2001).
be particularly efficacious for soothing irritable midge
bites and marine stinger injuries. The latter, which can Sea Purslane
be extremely painful, are sometimes life threatening. Sea Purslane is a small fleshy coastal herb that is
The anti-irritant properties of the plant are interesting, tolerant of saline environments such as salt-marshes
as various plants in the family (including the genus and sand dunes. It has been utilised as a salt resource
Carpobrotus) contain mesembrine. This alkaloid has – the whole plant was baked with meat or dried and
mild anaesthetic effects and is chemically related to crushed. In addition it could be blanched in boiling
cocaine (Cribb & Cribb 1981).6 water for use as a green vegetable (Cribb & Cribb
The fact that some studies have demonstrated 1985; Flecker 1948). Captain Cook mentioned that
antibacterial activity in a few species of South African it was ‘very good boiled’, upon experimenting with
Carpobrotus (C. edulis, C. muirii and C. quadrifidus) the plant at Endeavour River, where he also tried the
6 Studies of the South African herb Sceletium tortuosum have isolated Native Taro (Colocasia esculenta). The latter was one
mesembrine as one of the active components. The plant has psychotropic of the tropical vegetables he had observed during
properties and has been used for treating conditions ranging from mild
anxiety to depression. Specifically, mesembrine can inhibit the re-uptake of his Pacific travels. When Cook sampled taro leaves
serotonin and can therefore regulate the body’s use of this important brain and ‘Yamms’ on 19 June 1770, he commented:
chemical (Smith 1996).
‘The tops we found made good greens, and eat
Above & below) Sea Purslane (Sesuvium portulacastrum).

Sea Purslane (Sesuvium portulacastrum).
exceedingly well when Boil’d, but the roots were

so bad that few besides myself could eat them.’
Strangely, although the use of the tuber was familiar
to Aboriginal people, they do not appear to have
eaten the leaves. This may have been because all
parts of the plant contain calcium oxalate crystalsand
need processing (boiling, baking) before they can
be deemed edible. If eaten unprepared the calcium
oxalate content would cause a stinging sensation and
swelling of the mucous membranes of the mouth.
Sources of vitamin C: citrus,

sowthistles and celery
There is one Australian fruit that deserves particular
mention as a vitamin C resource. The Billygoat or
Kakadu Plum, Terminalia ferdinandiana (syns T.
edulis, T. latipes subsp. psilocarpa, T. prostrata),
has been specifically known as the ‘Vitamin C Tree’
Taro (Colocasia exculenta): leaves and tubers.
because the fruit can contain extremely high amounts 2330 mg (Brand 1982).
of this vitamin. The levels range from 2300mg and
2800 mg (per 100g of fruit), to the highest level of
3,150mg. Although some samples had lower levels,
e.g. 406mg, they were still much higher than oranges,
with vitamin C levels of around 50mg (Brand 1982).
By comparison the vitamin C levels in other fruits
and vegetables are:
•100mg/100g: (uncooked) broccoli, sprouts, kale,
cauliflower, parsley, nettles, green mango, and
kiwi fruit.
•Between 200–300mg/100g: blackcurrants,
guavas, capsicum peppers, various tropical fruits
and a few bush fruits.
•Interesting fruit with particularly high levels
per 100g of vitamin C include Sea Buckthorn
(Hippophae rhamnoides) 450mg; Ambla or
Emblic (Emblica officinalis) 600mg; Rosehips
(Rosa canina) 1250 mg; Dattock fruit (Detarium
senegalense) 1290mg; and the Acerola or Billygoat Plum (Terminalia ferdinandiana) (Courtesy: Anja
Barbados Cherry (Malphighia punicifolia) 1000– Toms, Top End Explorer Tours, Jabiru NT).
Limes growing in an orchard in at the base of Mount

Limes.
Sorrow, Queensland.
In the late 1700s only a few ships’ captains were aware
of the importance of citrus fruits, notably lemons
and limes, as a scurvy preventative. Captain Cook
was one of these. Mount Sorrow (pictured) overlooks
nearby Cape Tribulation – the latter being named
during Cook’s voyage up the tropical coast. At the
time he was experiencing some serious tribulations
aboard the Endeavour due to the damage the ship
had incurred on the coastal reefs and was obviously
not very happy – he also named Weary Bay, although
there was a brighter aspect to his mental state when
the Hope Islands were located. Later visitors to the
area appear to have been equally disenchanted with
the environment, as disheartened miners are thought
to have named Mount Misery, Mount Despair and
Mount Sorrow.
Sowthistles (Sonchus species), which are rich in vitamin

C, are found throughout the world. They are resilient,
weedy herbs that range widely from Europe to Asia
and the Pacific islands, and to Africa. They usually
have bright yellow flowers and can be distinguished
from other weeds by the milky sap that exudes from
the hollow stem when it is broken. Five species are
found in Australia. They include the native Sonchus
hydrophilus and S. javanicus. The latter, which has
been reclassified as Emilia sonchifolia var. javanica, is a
coastal Queensland species that ranges to the tropics,
including the Northern Territory. The Common
Sowthistle (S. oleraceus) is widespread throughout
Australia and New Zealand, which suggests that the
plant migrated here sometime in antiquity – although
it is classified by many as an introduced weed (Low
1991). It may have been brought to Australia by
Melanesian or Polynesian travellers from New Guinea
or the Pacific. It has been greatly valued as a green
vegetable and bush food wherever it has been found.
There are a couple of introduced European species
– the Prickly or Rough Sowthistle (Sonchus asper,
Sowthistle or Puwha (Sonchus species).
widespread on the east coast, Victoria and South
Australia) and the Clammy Sowthistle (S. tenerrimus,
sparsely found in South Australia and Victoria). The
latter is very similar in appearance to Sonchus oleraceus.
For culinary purposes, the Common Sowthistle is
favoured as the least bitter of these herbs. The Perennial
or Field Sowthistle (S. arvensis) is a weed only found
around Adelaide, South Australia.
The English herbalist Nicholas Culpeper (1616–
1654) was familiar with the value of the Sowthistle,
commenting that the young tops were good as a salad
with oil and vinegar, or could be scalded in water
for use as a vegetable. Thus it is unsurprising to find
that the New Zealand Sowthistle or Puwha (Sonchus
oleraceus) was quickly adopted for culinary use when
it was sighted there during Captain Cook’s second
voyage, on the Resolution. Sowthistle provided a
versatile ‘spinach’ that could be combined with garden
peas and broth, or used as a salad green.
Asian culinary traditions greatly value greens and
Indonesian dishes commonly incorporate Sonchus,
boiled or steamed with rice. The herb contains vitamin
C at levels 30–47mg/100g (Crowe 1990). In addition it
contains phenolic compounds with strong antioxidant
attributes. In New Zealand, Puwha enjoyed a wide
reputation as a medicinal herb. It was recommended
for stomach disorders and for individuals recovering possible that the incorporation of Sowthistle greens
from venereal disease. Even the water the greens were into the diet may even be linked to the fact that Maori
boiled in has been used as a blood purifier and tonic. people have a lower incidence of colorectal cancer
The herb was utilised as a detoxicant and anti-poison than other New Zealanders. Watercress (Nasturtium
remedy, and was even employed as an antidote for officinale and N. aquaticum) has been another dietary
bites from the Katipo spider Lactrodectrus katipo anti-cancer candidate (Thomson & Shaw 2002).
(which is related to the Australian Redback and North The Smooth Sowthistle or Milk-thistle (Sonchus
American Black Widow spiders). The plant was fire- oleraceus) is particularly widespread in Australia. It
heated to extract the juice, which was applied directly ranges along the entire east coast from Victoria to
to the wound. It was also used for treating injuries Cape York, through the inland regions to the West
and infections such as rose thorn pricks, boils and Australian coast. In South Africa, the herb was
carbuncles. Sowthistle latex has also been utilised in recommended as a blood purifier, for liver troubles
many countries as a remedy for wounds and warts. and jaundice. The early setters of the Cape applied its
Some other Sonchus species had a similar reputation. juice to ulcers as a cleansing and healing remedy. The
In the Andes, for instance, Sonchus asper was utilised decocted plant was incorporated into an ointment for
as an antiseptic on wounds, while in India it was treating wounds and ulcers. African healers have used
applied as a styptic for treating cuts and other injuries. the juice of the herb as antiseptic eye-drops. The leaf
It is particularly interesting that Australian Aboriginal decoction was employed for treating childhood fits
people used it for treating cancers of the stomach, and chickenpox, and for preventing habitual abortion.
skin and breast. In Italy, as long ago as the Middle In Tanganyika the root provided a vermicide that had
Ages, it was taken as a remedy for internal cancer, a particularly good reputation for being effective
and the herb paste was recommended in Germany to against roundworm. It could be eaten raw or boiled
treat breast cancer. A gum sourced from Sowthistle with banana for use. The United States Dispensatory
latex provided the Maori with chewing gum. It was noted that the juice of the plant, evaporated to make a
reputed to sweeten the breath and have antiseptic powder, had powerful cathartic effects. This was even
properties useful for mouth disorders (infections, sore suggested as a treatment for opium addiction (Watt &
gums). Some authors noted that it had a purgative Breyer-Brandwijk 1962).
effect – which was possibly the reason it was steeped In Australia the Wild Celery (both Apium australe
in water for a few days before being used. Others have and A. filiforme) and the introduced Common Celery
remarked on its extreme bitterness (Riley 1994). It is (A. graveolens) are valuable nutritional vitamin and
Sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus). Common Celery (Apium graveolens).

Common Celery (Apium graveolens). Weedy Ox-Tongue herb.
Ox-tongues or hawkweeds (Picris spp.) are weedy herbs of waste places and roadsides. There are nine Australian species,
and one import (P. squarrosa).
mineral resources. Apium australe is found along the New

South Wales coast, ranging into southern Queensland.
Apium prostratum is much more widespread, being
found along the southern coast of the continent, from
Western Australia to Victoria and Tasmania, and along
the east coast to southern Queensland.
Despite the availability of the Maori Celery, now
classified as A. prostratum subsp. prostratum var. filiforme
(Crowe 1990), in New Zealand it does not appear
to have been used by the Maori for food – it was only
after its use by early European visitors that its value was
appreciated. On his second voyage, when Captain Cook
visited Queen Charlotte Sound, he commented:
Knowing that Sellery [Apium australe and A. filiforme] Extract of Poppy and Purified Extract of Opium, from
and Scurvey grass and other vegetables were to be found Phillips’ Translation of the Pharmacopoeia Londonensis,
1841.
in this Sound and that when boiled with Wheat or Pease
and Portable Soupe [dehydrated soup cubes] makes a
very nourishing and wholesome Diet which is extremely
beneficial both in cureing and preventing Scurvey. I went
my self at day light in the Morn in search of some and
returned by breakfast with a boat load and having satisfied
my self that enough was to be [got] I gave orders that
it should be boild with Wheat or Oatmeal and Portable
Soupe for the Crew of both Sloops every morning for
breakfast and also with Pease every day for dinner.
The local species, which differed from the cultivated

celery, had a flavour more reminiscent of parsley.
The Bristly Ox-tongue (Picris echioides) and the
Hawkweed Ox-tongue (P. hieracioides)6 acquired their
names from their rough tongue-shaped leaves. The
Bristly Ox-tongue is naturalised throughout most of
Australia, although it is not found in the Northern
Territory. Despite their appearance, these plants are
quite palatable and are useful potherbs. Australian
Aboriginal people utilised them steamed in earthen
ovens.
Sir Thomas Mitchell wrote with regard to Picris
hieracioides:
Near our camp we found some recent fire-places of the
natives, from which they must have hastily escaped on our cooked, I am told, by placing the root or plant between layers
approach, for in the branches of a tree they had left their net of hot embers, until it is heated and softened. The stalks
bags containing the stalks of a vegetable that had apparently found in the bag resembled those of the potato, and they
undergone some culinary process, which gave them the could only be chewed, such food being neither nutritious
appearance of having been half-boiled. Vegetables are thus nor palatable, for it tasted only of smoke.
Picris echioides is now classified as Helminthotheca echioides. The name P.

hieracioides has often been misapplied to species in the genus Helminthotheca.
An alternative identification of this vegetable could
This species has been collected only once in Australia, and would appear not have been the yellow-flowered Daisy Yam (Microseris
to be native. The plant referred to by Thomas Mitchell would probably have
been a close relative.
lanceolata).
The physician’s medicine chest:

essential drugs
In the late 1700s and early 1800s the search for
medicinal herbs among the unfamiliar vegetation of
the Australian continent was a difficult undertaking.
There were no apothecary shops in those early days,
and few individuals had any medical experience.
The Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum).
Even for those who did, familiar herb resources were

virtually non-existent. Although the medicine chests of
the early ships’ surgeons contained a number of plant-
based medicines that were standard issue, supplies were
limited, particularly on long voyages, and essential
items were not easily replaced. Those discussed below
are based on an inventory of pharmaceutical supplies
shipped to the Moreton Bay convict settlement in the
1820s. They were regarded as essential components
of the first-aid kit (Pearn 1993). The need for many
of these drugs remained a priority for a long time,
leading to their local cultivation during the next
hundred years. Some attempts were successful, others
were not. In Joseph Maiden’s Flower Farming for
Perfumes and Medicines, a report published in 1892,
the discussion included the following medicinal herbs:
The Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum) and its seed
capsule. Liquorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra, which was in great
demand), Belladonna (Atropa belladonna), Foxglove
Extractum Digitalis, from Phillips’ Translation of the

Pharmacopoeia Londonensis, 1841.
Common Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea)
(Digitalis purpurea), Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), Opii, ‘anodyne liniment’) This alcohol-based liniment
Strammonium (Datura strammonium) and Opium contained the listed ingredients mixed with camphor and
Poppy (Papaver somniferum). The weedy habit of the rosemary oil. It was useful for pain relief in conditions
latter two species had already ensured their availability such as arthritis and rheumatism.
• Digitalis (Tinctura Digitalis) Discovered in 1785 by
in the settlement.
the apothecary-surgeon William Withering, this was still
The basic drug list included potent analgesic and
a fairly new drug in the early 1800s. It rates highly among
cardiotonic preparations: the most effective and enduring of the herbal medicines
• Opium (Opium Tincture, Tinctura Opii or Laudanum) that have been utilised over the last two centuries. It is
This was one the mainstays of medical practice. The still widely employed today for cardiac disorders, in the
alcoholic extract was used as a narcotic painkiller and form of digoxin.
sedative. It was regarded as an indispensable analgesic for
• A number of remedies for treating gastrointestinal
treating neuralgia and abdominal pain, pleurisy, gastric
ulcers, cancer, stones of the kidney and gall bladder, and
distress (dyspepsia, constipation, diarrhoea) were
the pain of childbirth. It was also used for numerous high on the required medicine list:
unrelated conditions: insomnia, excitement and delirium • Tincture of Rhubarb (Tinctura Rhei) An alcoholic
(including feverish conditions such as typhoid), diabetes, extract prepared from the rhizome of Rheum palmatum
acute peritonitis, epilepsy, eclampsia, asthma, chorea (the raw materials originated from China and Tibet). This
(involuntary jerky movements), urinary retention remedy had cathartic properties for constipation and, in
and heart failure (cardiac pain, shortness of breath). small doses, was taken as a stomach tonic for dyspepsia.
Laudanum could be prepared in different ways and its It was also used as an astringent to treat diarrhoea. The
addictive potential was substantial. rhizome continues to be valued by medicinal herbalists.
• Tincture of Soap and Opium (Tinctura Saponis e In Chinese traditions the remedy had a much wider range
of application – it was employed for the treatment of
feverish conditions, dysentery, haemorrhage (nosebleed or that followed gonorrhoea), and the oedema (dropsy)
epistaxis), traumatic injuries with bruising, inflammatory that accompanied liver and heart problems – but not for
skin disorders and ophthalmic inflammation. In addition kidney disorders.
to its laxative properties, it has antimicrobial activity and • Peppermint oil (Oleum Menthae Piperitae) This was
anticancer potential. probably the only pleasant-tasting remedy in the entire
• Castor Oil (Oil Ricini) was a rather awful-tasting medicine chest. It was recommended as a stimulant and
remedy with a mild purgative effect that was useful for carminative for gastrointestinal distress (nausea, stomach
constipation. It was also recommended as a ‘cleansing pain, intestinal colic). Externally it was utilised as mild
remedy’ and for gastrointestinal discomfort (colicky pain, anaesthetic for neuralgic pain (headaches, migraine), and
dysentery). It was taken orally or used as an enema. is still recommended for these purposes today. It was
• Compound Pill of Aloes (Pilulae Aloes Compositae) popularly employed to mitigate the effects of griping
was sourced from Aloe vera (or various substitute Aloe purgatives in the intestine and to mask the taste of
species7) in combination with extracts of Gentian and nauseous medicines such as Tincture of Rhubarb.
Caraway seeds, Ginger syrup and soap. This was taken • Spirits of Hartshorn (Liquor Volatilis Cornu)
as a stomachic (tonic for the stomach, improves digestive Although not sourced from a herb, this was a natural
function) and laxative, for liver disorders, and to alleviate product (ammonium carbonate) distilled from the horns
various menstrual problems. of the male Red Deer (Cervus elaphus). It had stimulant,
antacid, diaphoretic, antispasmodic and expectorant
• Extract of Colocyth Compound (Extract Colo Co.) attributes. In combination with Ipecacuanha it was used
was sourced from the fruit of the Bitter Apple (Citrullus as an expectorant for treating bronchitis.9 The remedy was
colocynthis), combined with extract of Barbados Aloes, also useful for nervous headache, pneumonia, dyspepsia
scammony resin8, curd soap, cardamom seeds and alcohol. and as a tonic stimulant for exhaustion and typhoid fever.
This could be a fairly vicious medicine (depending on • The drug list contained a number of fairly toxic compounds
the dose) with powerful drastic purgative potential. It that had to be utilised with care. A substantial amount
was utilised in small doses as an aperient (mild laxative), of caution with regard to the dose was advisable, and in
while larger doses were taken to relieve ‘obstinate visceral many cases the option of having less drastic alternatives
obstruction’ (which does not sound very reassuring). The would have been welcome. These compounds included:
latter was probably a recommendation best used only by • Lead acetate (Liquor Plumbi Subacet, Goulard’s
the desperate. It was toxic, even fatal, in large doses. extract) This was applied externally as an astringent
and anti-inflammatory agent that was useful for treating
sprains, bruising, and burns. In combination with
Other herb-based remedies that had an equally diverse rosewater it was employed as an astringent gargle.
range of applications were in common use: • Mercuric chloride (Mercury Hydrargyri and
Hydrargyri Oxymurias) and Mercury pills (Pilulae
• Guaiacum gum (Gum Guaiacum) This resin from the Hydrargyri, ‘blue pills’) were widely prescribed as
Lignum Vitae Tree, Guaiacum officinale (sourced from anti-syphilitic remedies. They were also widely used to
Jamaica and Hispaniola), had stimulant, diaphoretic treat chronic skin disorders, heart failure with oedema,
(induces sweating), diuretic, purgative and alterative apoplexy, gout, ‘torpid liver,’ and taken as an alterative
properties. It was utilised for treating chronic rheumatism, (general corrective). Incidents of mercury poisoning
gout, tonsillitis, menstrual disorders (dysmenorrhoea, (mercurialism), which were once relatively common,
amenorrhoea) and syphilis. had fairly drastic consequences. The condition was
• Copaiba Balsam (Balsam Copaibae), a secretion from characterised by violent gastroenteritis and diarrhoea,
the Brazilian tree Copaifera officinalis that had diuretic and stomatitis and acute nephritis. Other symptoms included
stimulant properties. It was used as a gentle purgative, for oral disorders (salivation, foetid breath, loose teeth, gum
treating haemorrhoids, and as a disinfectant expectorant swelling and ulceration), anaemia, fatigue, neurological
for respiratory disorders (bronchitis, bronchiectasis). As damage (tremors, paralysis) and behavioural changes
a diuretic it was recommended for gleet (the discharge (depression, irritability. etc.).
7 Aloes is a liquid that is drained from the cut leaves of various Aloe • Nitric acid (Acid Nitricum) This was a rather unpleasant
species. This is evaporated into a dried form that has substantial purgative and dramatic treatment for skin ulcers. It had an
properties. Barbados Aloes refers to Aloe barbadensis syn. Aloe vera; Cape or
9 Ipecacuanha or Ipecac, derived from Psychotria ipecacuanha syn. Cephaelis
Bitter Aloes to Aloe ferox; Socotrine or Zanzibar Aloes to Aloe perryi.
ipecacuanha from Brazil, has been regarded as a very valuable drug in the past.
8 Scammony refers to another drastic purgative known as Jalap, usually It has strong emetic properties. In particular, Ipecac was used therapeutically
sourced from the Mexican Scammony root, Ipomoea orizabensis, although to induce vomiting in cases where toxic substances had been ingested. It
Convolvulus scammonia from the Mediterranean was similarly utilised. continues to be listed in the official pharmacopoeias of some countries.
escharotic (caustic or corrosive) effect and was used to

chemically remove cellular debris from the site. Diluted,
the remedy could be taken as a tonic and antiseptic agent
that was said to be useful for fevers (especially typhoid),
chronic hepatitis and syphilis. Taken internally, the drug
could cause erosion of the mucous membranes. Death
could result from perforation of the stomach.
• Zinc sulphate Small doses were taken as a tonic and
astringent. Its external application was regarded as being
useful for gonorrhoea and leucorrhoea, and it was greatly
valued as an eyewash for ophthalmia (eye inflammation).
It was also recommended as an antispasmodic to treat
whooping cough, infantile diarrhoea, chorea and epilepsy.
There were numerous other useful remedies found in

the physician’s medicine bag in the early to mid-1800s
that were derived from botanical resources. Alcohol-
based extracts and tinctures were the favoured
methods of preservation. (Only the remedies marked
Deadly Nightshade (Atropa belladonna).
Belladonna Extract, from Phillips’ Translation of the

with an asterisk in the following list would have been highly valued for numerous digestive disorders (dyspepsia,
sourced from the native English flora.) gastritis, heartburn, nausea, diarrhoea).
• Gentian, compound infusion made with orange and
• Belladonna Extract (Extractum Belladonnae)* A lemon peel (Infusum Gentianae Compositum) This
mydriatic (induces dilation of the pupils) that was was a stomachic and tonic remedy that was very popular
useful for ophthalmic surgery; prepared for treating digestive problems. It was prepared from the
from the leaves of the European herb herb Yellow Gentian (Gentiana lutea).
Atropa belladonna. • Ginger (Tinctura Zingiberis) The tincture was
• Asafoetida Tincture (Tinctura Asafoetidae) This prepared from the aromatic rhizome of Zingiber
had stimulant and antispasmodic properties; prepared officinale. The stimulant and carminative properties of
from a gum found in the mature roots of the herb Ferula ginger have made it a familiar household remedy. Ginger
asafoetida. It was employed in the treatment of respiratory also possesses mild analgesic, anti-emetic, sedative and
conditions (cough, bronchitis), for nervous disorders, and antipyretic attributes. The remedy was particularly useful
as a specific remedy for flatulence. for treating gout with associated stomach problems and
• Benzoin (Tinctura Benzoini Composita, Friar’s flatulent colic. It was often taken to mitigate the effects of
Balsam) This was a compound tincture made with griping purgatives.
Storax (resin from the Sweetgum, Liquidambar orientalis),
Balsam of Tolu (resin from the tree Myroxylon balsamum) Cinchona bark
and Aloes (Aloe spp.). It was used to treat chronic catarrh The botanical sources of cinchona bark were diverse.
and asthma – primarily as an external application. It was This important consideration was largely under-
also used for ‘languid ulcers’ and wounds, although it was appreciated during the early days of collection. Over
not particularly recommended for the latter. seventy species and varieties of the Quinine Tree were
• Benzoic Acid (Acidum Benzoicum) This compound later discovered and not all had the same quinine
had antiseptic, stimulant and expectorant actions and
content. Early indiscriminate collection practices
was used topically on wounds and ulceration, or as
an inhalation in respiratory disorders (coughs, colds,
did not bother to check the botanical source of the
bronchitis). Benzoic acid was extracted from a balsamic bark, and there were few individuals who could tell
resin found in Styrax benzoin and S. paralleloneurus from the difference. As the commodity fetched high prices
Sumatra, Indonesia. on the market, adulteration was common. Reliable
• Camphor Tincture (Tinctura Camphorae) A supplies were only established under plantation
rubefacient, mild analgesic type of stimulant that was only cultivation. Cinchona succirubra (syn. Cinchona
used externally – it was particularly useful for chilblains, pubescens) was known as Red Cinchona, Peruvian
chronic rheumatism and numbness. This was a distillate or Jesuits’ Bark (also known as Cinchona Rubra).
preparation of Cinnamomum camphora wood. Cinchona calisaya and C. ledgeriana were the source
• Catechu Tincture (Tinctura Catechu) Sourced from of Yellow Cinchona (also known as Cinchona Flava).
Acacia catechu, this very useful astringent was particularly
valued for treating diarrhoeal disorders. It also had styptic
and antihaemorrhagic properties.
• Cinchona Tincture (Tinctura Cinchonae, Jesuit
Bark) A tonic and stomachic remedy from the bark of
species of Cinchona from South America. Cinchona bark
was introduced in the early 1800s for use as a febrifuge,
particularly for treating malaria. Quinine was later
extracted from specific varieties or hybrids, usually of
Cinchona succirubra.
• Cinnamon, compound tincture with cardamom,
long pepper and ginger (Tinctura Cinnamomi
Composita) A stomachic and astringent remedy
from species of Cinnamomum: Ceylon Cinnamon
(Cinnamomum verum syn. C. zeylanicum) and the Cassia
or Chinese Cinnamon (C. aromaticum). Medicinally,
Cinnamon was a useful appetite stimulant. It was also
Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger).
Hyoscyamus Extract, from Phillips’ Translation of the

Liquorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra).
• Liquorice Extract (Extractum Glycyrrhizae) A very

popular flavouring agent that was prepared from the
roots of Glycyrrhiza glabra. It was a useful demulcent,
expectorant and anti-tussive agent that was commonly
included in cough mixtures. In addition Liquorice
has anti-inflammatory and healing attributes for
gastrointestinal problems, including gastric and duodenal
ulceration.
• Senna, compound tincture with caraway, cardamom,
raisins (Tinctura Sennae Composita) A stomachic and
purgative remedy based on the herb Senna alexandrina
(syns Cassia alexandrina, C. acutifolia, C. angustifolia and
C. senna). Cassia Officinalis was the apothecary term for
Glycyrrhiza Extract, from Phillips’ Translation of the this plant.
Pharmacopoeia Londonensis, • Squill (Tinctura Scillae)* An expectorant and diuretic
• Hyoscyamus Extract (Extractum Hyoscyami)* An remedy that was prepared from the bulbs of Scilla
important anodyne and antispasmodic prepared from the maritima (syns Urginea maritima, Drimia maritima), as
leaves of Henbane (Hyoscyamus niger), the use of which well as other species in the genus. It was primarily used
did not cause the constipation that could be associated for the treatment of coughing and bronchitis. Squill also
with the use of opiate preparations. It was employed in has cardioactive properties that are similar to those of
the treatment of spasmodic digestive and urinary tract digitalis.
disorders, and was also utilised as an anti-asthmatic
smoking mixture.
Liquorice flowers (Glycyrrhiza glabra).
Other essential remedies included olive oil, acacia to the European plants, were easily evaluated – and
gum (for mixing medicines), arrowroot (a soothing, some of the fragrant native vegetation provided
demulcent and nutritive remedy from Maranta good substitutes for essential oils such as lemon and
arundinaceae), and alum (hydrated aluminium peppermint. The adhesive, astringent and demulcent
potassium sulfate that was employed as a useful styptic qualities of some resin- and gum-yielding flora were
astringent for cuts, leech bites and bleeding piles). quickly adopted once they were discovered. There
Magnesium carbonate (Magnesia carbonatis) and were a few plants with close medicinal relatives in
magnesium sulphate (Magnesia sulphatis; Epsom salts) South-east Asia and these were easily pressed into
were favoured for use as antacids – the latter also had service as home remedies. Observations of the use of
purgative attributes. some plants by the natives led to other innovations.
However, the majority of the flora was simply too
The urgent need for supplements and substitutions unusual or bewildering to the botanical experts of the
for these medicines quickly led to experimentation time to gain acceptance as medicinal plants. It was
with the native Australian flora. The qualities of to take a lot of experimentation and innovation to
aromatic herbs, particularly those with a resemblance discover their therapeutic potential.
Chapter 2
HERBAL INSPIRATIONS:
REMEDIES FROM THE BUSH
During the 1800s and early 1900s a great deal of energy

and enthusiasm was directed toward finding effective
botanical drugs. The medical profession was scouring
the globe in the search for botanical medicines, and
the potential of the floral resources on the Australian
continent was of great practical interest. The era was
characterised by some remarkable discoveries. They
included the antimalarial drug quinine from the bark
of a South American tree (Cinchona succirubra and
related species) and the cardioactive drug digitalis
from a pretty English garden flower, Foxglove
(Digitalis purpurea). The poisonous black-berried
shrub Deadly Nightshade (Atropa belladonna) was the
source of a useful mydriatic (atropine) that dilated
the pupil for eye examinations. Drugs with potent
effects on the nervous system were discovered from
the attractive flowering herbs Henbane (hyoscyamine
from Hyoscyamus niger) and Datura (scopolamine
from Datura metel and D. strammonium). The
muscle-relaxant properties of a poison (curare) from
an Amazonian vine (Chondrodendron tomentosum)
had an important influence on surgical procedures.
The anti-amoebic drug emetine from Ipecacuanha
(Psychotria ipecacuanha syn. Cephaelis ipecacuanha)
was another South American discovery, which quickly
became invaluable for treating amoebic dysentery.
Against this background, as-yet-unknown Australian
floral resources had considerable perceived potential
for the discovery of new and unique medicinals.
In colonial times, the scarcity of conventional

medicinal supplies made herbal remedies a popular
Blencoe Falls, northern Queensland. and valued resource. A number of accessible native
species were potential substitutes for traditional
36
Chapter 2 HERBAL INSPIRATIONS: REMEDIES FROM THE BUSH 37
medicinal plants and were readily accepted into another class of remedies, we find our native Senna leaves
common practice. In Queensland, physician and (Cassia australis) efficacious enough, and the same holds
naturalist Dr Joseph Lauterer had a great deal of faith good for the native Gratiola peruviana in the swamps.
in the therapeutic value of the Australian flora. He had Many of our plants are as rich in mucilage as the marsh-
mallow and could be used for the same purposes as this:
far-ranging visions of its utility, and his appreciation
for instance, the species of Sida, Plagianthus, and Hibiscus.
of the native resources was very insightful:
Acacia dealbata yields a gum as good as gum tragacanth
and gum arabic. A great variety of essential oils is yielded
Australia is much richer in astringents than any other
by our native plants (Lauterer 1892–94).
part of the world. Nearly all Myrtaceous plants give as
good an infusion as the roots and herb of Polygonum,
Potentilla, Geum, &c., still used and prescribed in the old At Moreton Bay in Queensland, the weedy euphorbia
country, and none of them is poisonous. The leaves and known as Spurge or Asthma Weed (Euphorbia hirta,
young shoots of all species of Leptospermum are at least of formerly E. pilulifera, Chamaesyce hirta), was found
the same service to the urinary organs and against gravel to provide an effective early remedy for respiratory
[kidney stones] as those of the European Uva Ursi.1 The
distress. This led to the common name ‘asthma herb’
twigs of the native cherry-tree (Exocarpos cupressiformis)
and its use become fairly widespread. The herb tea was
prove as good a bitter tonic and astringent as the South
American Rhatany (Krameria triandra).2 Passing over to highly valued for the treatment of asthma, bronchitis
and emphysema. The dried herb was prepared as a
strong decoction, the details of which were outlined
by Joseph Maiden (1889): ‘The direction usually given
by vendors is to simmer one ounce of the dried herb
in two quarts of water, and to reduce the liquid to
one quart; a wineglassful of this decoction is to be
taken three times a day. If the fame of this drug be
maintained, doubtless some enterprising pharmacists
will present it to the public in a more elegant form.’
The dried plant could also be smoked in a pipe, or
Euphorbia hirta.
1 The leaves of the northern hemisphere plant Uva-ursi or Bearberry
(Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) have long been utilised as an effective urinary tract
astringent and antiseptic remedy.
2 The South American Krameria root or Rhatany (Krameria triandra),
which contained rhataniatannic (krameriatannic) acid, had an astringent
effect similar to that of the resin known as ‘kino’. Rhatany was native to the
mountainous regions of Peru and Bolivia. Because rhataniatannic acid was
liberated slowly in the intestine, its astringent effects were more pronounced
in the lower part of the gastrointestinal tract, hence its usefulness in
diarrhoeic disorders. Sida cordifolia.
dysentery. The Queensland habitat is Peak Downs &c.

It may not be generally known that the ripe carpels of
Sida rhombifolia, the common sida weed of Queensland,
often cause the death of fowls that feed on them, by the
sharp terminal arms of the carpels irritating the inside and
causing inflammation. Roots used in India as a remedy
for rheumatism (Bailey 1880).
One of Sida cordifolia’s common names, Jelly Leaf,

alluded to the slimy, mucilaginous nature of the
leaf decoction, which was regarded as being a highly
effective anti-diarrhoeal preparation. Maiden added
that the remedy was also used in India to treat
consumption (a wasting disease, usually tuberculosis)
Sida cordifolia.
and as a diaphoretic (to promote perspiration), while
the smoke inhaled by simply burning it. Although the leaf poultice was applied to snake bites, wasp and
popular, its efficacy was not always reliable – which insect stings (Maiden 1889).
probably accounts for the later lack of proprietary
formulations that employed the herb. Variations Astringents were held in high regard from the very
in the plant’s chemistry may have been responsible. beginning of colonial settlement, particularly for the
This could be influenced by seasonal considerations, treatment of gastrointestinal disorders. For countless
harvesting strategies (time of day, plant collection centuries dysentery has been a severely disabling
processes), or storage conditions of the harvested condition and an all-too-familiar hazard for travellers.
plant. This is a crippling condition that can quickly become
life-threatening due to dehydration and metabolic
Remedies that influenced digestive and eliminatory
functions were among the most valued items in any
household medicine cabinet. The laxative senna was
traditionally obtained from species of Cassia and
Senna – of which there were numerous native species.
Lauterer’s reference to the swamp herb Gratiola
peruviana suggests similar laxative properties. In
Europe, Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) had long
been an esteemed soothing mucilaginous remedy for
the digestive tract. Some species of Sida, Plagianthus
and Hibiscus, which belong to the same family
(Malvaceae), tend to have similar soothing and healing (Courtesy: Keith AW Williams,
Grewia latifolia.
attributes. The Queensland Government Botanist Native Plants of Queensland Vol. 3.)
Frederick M. Bailey mentioned that Abutilon indicum
and Urena lobata had been utilised similarly.3 A couple imbalances. It results from infection by a number
of Sida species, Paddy’s Lucerne (S. rhombifolia, syn. of different pathogens (bacteria, protozoa, viruses,
S. retusa) and S. cordifolia, were valued antidiarrhoeal parasitic worms) and can be contracted just about
and antidysenteric agents. With regard to the latter anywhere in the world. Contamination is facilitated
Bailey commented: by unsanitary conditions, such as those that were
tolerated aboard the convict ships. The most common
This plant, like our common Sida weed, to which it is
closely allied, is met with in most tropical countries. In 3 Plagianthus has now been reclassified in the genus Lawrencia. Urena
lobata is a pretty pink-flowered introduced weed. Abutilon indicum probably
India the leaves are mixed with rice, and given to alleviate refers to A. guineense, a species that is also found in Africa.
form of the disease is amoebic dysentery, caused by all are unanimous in extolling its truly magical properties’
Entamoeba histolytica, although a more severe and (Maiden 1898).
potentially fatal form of bacillary dysentery due to
species of Shigella is not uncommon. The symptoms There are thirteen species of Grewia in Australia. The
involve varying degrees of acute or chronic intestinal two that gained a popular reputation for being effective
distress (enteritis), characterised by cramping (G. latifolia and G. retusifolia) were commonly
abdominal pain, recurrent diarrhoea, blood and known as ‘dysentery plants’ or ‘dysentery bushes’. The
mucus in the stools, vomiting and nausea. A major
hazard is that fluid loss can quickly become excessive,
resulting in collapse and death.
In the early days of the Australian settlement,

the crowded conditions of the voyage and the
accommodation problems on arrival at the makeshift
campsites provided ideal situations for the spread
of disease. The native flora was quickly surveyed in
the search for any astringent remedies that could be
of use. Acacias were among the early candidates that
were successfully employed as antidiarrhoeal agents.
The Reverend William Woolls (1887) commented: ‘I
have been assured that, in extreme cases of dysentery,
when all ordinary remedies have failed, a decoction of
wattle bark (Acacia decurrens and some allied species)
has proved successful.’
The small shrubby plants Grewia latifolia and Grewia

retusifolia became equally valued for this condition.
While Aboriginal people utilised a root decoction
to treat diarrhoea or dysentery, the colonial settlers
Grewia retusifolia and fruit.(Courtesy: Keith AW Williams,
prepared a leaf infusion for the same purpose. The Native Plants of Queensland Vol. 2.)
plant contains abundant mucilage, which would
contribute to its efficacy and have a soothing effect
on the intestine (Webb 1948, 1969a; Isaacs 1994). former is restricted to Queensland; the latter is more
Maiden, citing Grewia polygama, recorded the widespread throughout Queensland (from Brisbane
following testimony to the rapid results that were to the tropical north), the Northern Territory and
associated with the remedy: the north of Western Australia. The explorer Ludwig
Leichhart even considered that the small berries were
Mr. W.E. Armit states that on one occasion, having had palatable, despite the small amount of flesh: ‘Whilst
to treat dysentery following on fever and ague, this plant walking down by the lagoon, I found a great quantity
was pointed out to him by a native as a sure remedy. He of ripe Grewia seeds, and, on eating many of them,
collected a quantity of leaves and having made a pale it struck me, that their slightly acidulous taste, if
sherry-coloured decoction of them, he administered imparted to water, would make a very good drink;
about two tablespoonfuls for a dose. Repeating this every
I therefore gathered as many as I could, and boiled
four hours throughout the night, the sixth dose made a
complete cure. ‘Since then,’ says Mr. Armit, ‘I have tried
them for about an hour; the beverage which they
this remedy in scores of cases, and I have never known it produced was at all events the best we had tasted on
to fail in any case, however serious. I have made it a rule our expedition: and my companions were busy the
to inform the carriers and travellers I meet of the sure cure whole afternoon in gathering and boiling the seeds.’
they have always at hand, in case it may be required, and
inner bark of Grewia orientalis. In addition, mucilage

extracted from the roots has been used as a glue
and fixative for bark paintings and body decoration
(Barr 1993; Isaacs 1994; Wightman 1991). Another
remedy was prepared from the root (bark removed),
which was pounded and boiled to make a red liquid
that was utilised as an eyewash for treating sore eyes
(Wightman 1992).
Overseas, various Grewia species have been utilised

in a similar manner. Investigations have tended to
lend support to many of their traditional uses as anti-
inflammatory and antibacterial remedies. Some plants
are used virtually identically to the Australian species
– and, interestingly, they have other attributes that
suggest a greater therapeutic potential for our native
species. In India Grewia tiliaefolia and G. hirsuta
have been used as wound-healing and antidysenteric
remedies. A root paste dressing was useful for
encouraging the suppuration associated with boils.
Studies have shown that G. hirsuta possesses
antipyretic, diuretic, expectorant, central nervous
system depressant activity, and antiviral properties.
It was also employed to treat heart disorders and as
Grewia retusifolia and flowers. (Courtesy: Keith AW a sexual tonic (for spermatorrhoea or leucorrhoea).
Williams, Native Plants of Queensland Vol. 2.) In Africa the bark decoction of G. occidentalis was
valued as a wound dressing. This was one of the
The Dysentery Bush (Grewia retusifolia) has had species that was used as an oxytocic agent to facilitate
various other recommendations associated with childbirth5, as well as to enhance fertility, to treat
its use. The leaves were an effective analgesic for impotence or an inability to conceive. The Fijian G.
toothache, as was a decoction of the small roots. This crenata had a similar reputation and the leaf filtrate
was employed as a mouthwash, or a wad of material was used to aid childbirth. The leaf juice was said to be
soaked in the mixture could be applied locally. It good for healing sprains and bruises, particularly for
was equally useful as a treatment for a sore mouth, children. In Timor and eastern Malaysia, G. salutaris
although the liquid was not to be swallowed. Even so, was specifically recommended for treating traumatic
the preparation has been taken internally as a remedy injuries.6
for headache or fatigue. The roots (with the bark
removed) could be prepared as a sticky paste that was In addition to these recommendations, there are other
useful for maturing boils, after which the pus could be traditions that suggest these shrubs could have greater
drained out.4 Alternatively, a lotion of the roots was therapeutic value than has hitherto been appreciated.
applied to treat boils, infected sores and scabies. The It is possible that the analgesic and anti-inflammatory
leaves, made into a wash or pounded to a paste, had a properties of the genus could be of serious medical
similar antiseptic reputation – as did a lotion from the interest. In Arabian folk medicine Grewia populifolia
4 Preparation strategies are important for making effective medicines. In 5 Oxytocin is a natural hormone, the production of which increases to assist
the Northern Territory the root was cooked, the outer bark removed, and the processes of labour and breastfeeding. In Africa Grewia carpinifolia has
the root then placed in cold water for five minutes. The resultant jelly-like also been used to help sheep when delivering their lambs (Oliver-Bever 1986).
mucilage was then placed on a boil to draw out the infection (Wightman 6 See, e.g. Kapoor 1993; Roberts 1990; Oliver-Bever 1986; Perry & Metzger
& Smith 1989). 1981; Weiner 1978; Patel 1986.
was a useful antiarthritic. Studies have demonstrated

anti-inflammatory properties, as well as hypotensive
and cardiac depressant actions – and a depressant
effect on the nervous system (Satyavati 1976). The root
bark of the Indian species G. subinequalis was likewise
recommended as an anti-inflammatory for treating
rheumatism, and for respiratory, cardiac and blood
disorders. The demulcent bark infusion had useful
febrifugal and antidiarrhoeal attributes, while the
leaves, which have antibiotic properties, were applied
to skin eruptions. Grewia paniculata, from South-east
Asia, had a similar reputation (Morton 1986; Burkill
1935). Studies of G. bicolor (syn G. salicifolia) have
established that the flower essential oil contained the
sedative component farnesol.7 This compound also
had spasmolytic properties and could potentiate the
hypnotic effects of barbiturates (Oliver-Bever 1986).
Grewia asiatica is an Asian species that ranges from

India, to South-east Asia and the Philippines. It is
fairly widespread in the Northern Territory and may
be an introduced species that has been around for a
(Above and below) Grewia asiatica.
long time. Aboriginal people use the hard stems as fire-
sticks, while the bark was a fibre resource for making
string. Occasionally the fruit and leaves have provided
a ‘bush tea’ (Wightman & Williams 1992). In India,
the edible fruit was regarded as having astringent (mild
laxative), cooling and stomachic properties, while
the leaves could be applied locally to sores (pustular
eruptions). The root bark has also been recommended
as an antirheumatic remedy (Quisumbing 1951)
7 Farnesol has been found in other plants within the Tiliaceae family, to
which Grewia belongs.
Medicinal bush tucker orchids
Cymbidium madidum
There were a number of other antidysenteric remedies bush. It is abundant, easily collected, and of such striking
that quickly gained wide acceptance. The starchy appearance that it need not be mistaken or forgotten by
mucilaginous stems of the Buttercup or Curry Orchid any traveller. The fruit and the pseudobulbs will support
(Cymbidium madidum) appeared to be a fairly pleasant life even if chewed raw. But if the latter are grated up and
boiled, a body is produced not to be distinguished from
alternative to the more astringent potions that were
arrowroot. Delicate children have been reared on this
often employed. Its tonic and nutritive reputation
when accidents have cut off from them other supplies.
was an additional bonus. Doubtless, like many other The natives speak of this valuable plant as ‘Dampy-ampy’,
orchids, it was utilised as a food resource by Aboriginal and amongst whites it is known as native arrowroot.
people, although little appears to be known regarding
other uses of this plant. There is one vague (and
rather odd) reference to the use of the ‘seeds’ (orchid Despite these glowing reports on its edibility, the
seeds are tiny). They were said to induce sterility explorer Ludwig Leichhardt was not particularly
(an unusual therapeutic claim for an orchid) but impressed. He commented that the stem was
recent investigations have not shown any significant ‘glutinous and insipid’ (Barr 1993).
antifertility effects of leaf extracts in animals (Cambie
& Brewis 1997). Over a century ago, the botanist The Cymbidium genus, which is distributed from
Charles Hedley (1888) wrote the following accolade Australia to Asia, contains around fifty species.
to the Black Orchid (C. canaliculatum), which had a Some overseas species have a medicinal reputation
similar reputation as an antidysentery remedy: with close similarities to the use of their Australian
relatives. In Hong Kong, cymbidium orchids
This common tree [epiphytic] orchid seems to me as likely (primarily C. ensifolium and the Chinese Cymbidium,
to afford the most substantial aid to a man lost in the C. sinense) were traditionally employed for healing
Cymbidium orchid.
skin problems and traumatic injuries – the fresh herb

was simply mashed and poulticed on the area. It was
also regarded as a good respiratory tonic for lung
disorders, possessing antitussive, anti-inflammatory
and expectorant properties. A decoction of the leaves
of Cymbidium ensifolium was particularly valued for
treating bronchitis, chronic coughing and whooping
cough – as well as having an astringent effect in
haemoptysis (spitting blood) and leucorrhoea (vaginal
discharge) (Li & Lau 1993). It was also taken as a
soothing remedy for stomachache, prepared as a
rhizome and root decoction mixed with fermented
glutinous rice. The leaves had a diuretic reputation,
the infused flowers made a useful eyewash, while the
root was incorporated into a remedy for venereal
disease (Perry & Metzger 1981). The fresh herb has
also been a useful local application for traumatic
injuries, as well as having antimicrobial properties for
the treatment of boils and abscesses (Li & Lau 1993).
Cymbidium aloifolium has been used similarly, with
the pseudobulbs applied locally to treat cuts, sores and
burns. A decoction of the herb has been used to bathe
‘sickly’ children, and utilised as a remedy for menstrual
disorders (Perry & Metzger 1981). Researchers have
discovered lectins in members of the Orchidaceae
family which have antiviral actions against HIV and
cytomegalovirus. These compounds were isolated Geodorum densiflorum.
from a Cymbidium hybrid and the European Broad-
leaved Helleborine (Epipactis helleborine). They have
also been found in the Common Stinging Nettle
(Urtica dioica, family Urticaceae) (Balzarini 1992; van
Damme 1994).
Genus Geodorum
The genus Geodorum is distributed from India,
throughout South-east Asia to Australia. The Nodding
or Shepherd’s Crook Orchid (G. densiflorum) is an
Australian representative with edible bulbs. In 1888
the botanist Charles Hedley wrote: ‘The tubers of
this terrestrial orchid are eaten by the blacks around
Gladstone with whom this plant goes under the name
of Yeenga. In the Rockhampton district it receives the
name of Uine.’ In the Northern Territory the bulb
was also harvested by Aboriginal people (as well as
the local wallabies) as a bush-tucker snack. Geodorum This Shepherd’s Crook Orchid was found along the side
densiflorum dies off during the dry season and the of the road on the Noah Range, northern Queensland – a
bulbs would only have been accessible to harvesters small lovely ground plant which has managed to survive the
rigours of roadworks and regular weed-clearing practices.
familiar with the sites where they grew. The bulbs
contain a useful fixative for the ochre used in painting,

and were also fire-heated to obtain a glue used to
strengthen bark goods and spears (Levitt 1981).
Geodorum purpureum, G. citrinum and G. nutans have
been employed in Asia for similar purposes. In the
Philippines a glue extracted from G. nutans was used
in making musical instruments such as mandolins
and guitars. It also had emollient qualities useful for
making a soothing poultice that was applied locally
to ‘ripen’ boils and abscess. A liniment made from
the bulb and rice water was also employed to treat
‘phlegmatic tumours and abscesses’ (Quisumbing
1951; Perry & Metzger 1981).
Mentha australis.(Courtesy: Louisa Billeter, flickr)
Herbs that contain essential oils have long
played an important role in traditional medicine. Tonic or toxin?
They can possess substantial healing attributes, Tonic remedies have been sourced from many different
particularly anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial plants, particularly those with aromatic qualities.
activity. Aromatic herbs were a logical choice for The Reverend Woolls mentioned a number of native
use as decongestant remedies. The familiarity candidates: ‘Decoctions of Mentha australis, Mentha
of the colonists with the traditional aromatic satureoides, Gratiola peruviana, Verbena officinalis and
herbs of Europe and Asia quickly inspired the bark of Doryphora sassafras have all been used as
experimentation with closely related Australian tonics’ (Woolls 1887). A few of these species deserved
more critical evaluation than they were sometimes
species as substitutes. A few deservedly acquired
awarded, however. The bark of Doryphora sassafras was
a special place in the household medicine chest, made into a fragrant sassafras tea, although it contains
particularly as cough and cold cures. alkaloids with toxic properties. The leaves also contain
these alkaloids, as well as a safrole-rich oil. Today
Herbs with an almost instant appeal included those safrole is associated with low-grade carcinogenic
with a ‘minty’ character due to their piperitone concerns for the liver and its metabolites (particularly
component (a chemical that can be used for 1’-hydroxysafrole) have a more potent carcinogenic
the manufacture of menthol). The native herbal action than safrole itself (Abel 1997).
‘mints’ readily gained a therapeutic reputation.
The cineole-rich leaves of paperbarks, tea trees The use of Gratiola merited similar care. A decoction
of Gratiola pedunculata, which was utilised for treating
and eucalypts likewise became valued throughout
liver complaints at Braidwood in New South Wales,
the country, although some other resources with was said to give good results (Maiden 1889). This
similar potential were ignored. While mint-like recommendation must be viewed with caution as the
eucalyptus oils were known from the early days related European Hedge Hyssop (G. officinalis) has
of the colony, cineole was the mainstay of most toxic attributes. In 1880 F.M. Bailey commented:
eucalypt-sourced remedies. This compound has ‘Perhaps if properly examined our common swamp
potent antimicrobial, decongestant and anti- herb Gratiola pedunculata would be found to possess
inflammatory properties. There are a number medicinal properties. One of the genus in former
of other antibacterial components of interest in times in Europe was called Gratia Dei, on account of
essential oils from the native flora that influence its medicinal properties, which are said to be bitter,
purgative and emetic – poisonous in large doses.
their medicinal potential – notably pinene,
The European species if abundant in the pasture
eugenol and thymol.
is said to be dangerous to cattle.’ In addition to its The common Vervain, Verbena or Wild Hyssop
laxative reputation, the Austral Brooklime (Gratiola (Verbena officinalis), which has a good reputation
peruviana) was used as a bitter (appetite stimulant), as a febrifuge, is a small herb with a widespread
and for treating conditions such as dizziness. The distribution throughout the northern hemisphere.
leaves were simply chewed or they could be simmered The eminent botanist Robert Brown believed he had
to make a decoction that was taken in tablespoon doses identified it among his Australian samples as early
(Cribb & Cribb 1981). However, Maiden observed: as 1802, but it was almost certainly [[checking this
‘Dr. Thomas Bancroft of Brisbane, informs me that with Brendan, awaiting reply]] the very similar native
this genus is physiologically inert, or practically so. species Verbena macrostachya. Although V. officinalis
Nevertheless the closely-allied G. officinalis of Europe, is occasionally found here, it is generally considered
contains a bitter, poisonous glucoside, known as to be an introduction. The Reverend Woolls (1867)
Gratiolin, and an amorphous or crystalline glucoside mentioned that a decoction of Verbena (or Vervain)
… known as Gratiosolin’ (Maiden 1900b). There was taken as a stomachic and to help the early stages
are only five species of Gratiola in Australia and of consumption ‘but whether it really posses any
they are very similar in appearance, making them efficacy in such cases is not known’. It was also used
easy to confuse. Little is known about the chemistry as a healing agent for wounds and as a rubefacient to
of these native species, although the toxic effects of ease rheumatic and arthritic pain. Maiden mentioned
G. peruviana are thought to be similar to that of G. its use by Aboriginal people in New South Wales as a
officinalis (Lassak & McCarthy 1992). treatment for venereal disease (Maiden 1900b).
Australian analogues of European Vervain is a remedy with an ancient past. The

traditional claims for its therapeutic value tend to
healing herbs support its extensive medicinal use. It would certainly
Verbena officinalis.
have been a very welcome addition to the herbal Herbs with an equally enduring therapeutic
medicine chest in colonial times. In 1653, Nicholas reputation included the mints and pennyroyals from
Culpeper ascribed numerous virtues to the plant as a the genus Mentha. The aromatic Native Pennyroyal
cleansing and healing remedy: (Mentha satureioides) is very similar in appearance
to its European counterpart (M. pulegium). It
It cureth yellow jaundice, dropsy and gout; it killeth quickly gained a reputation as a tonic, cold and flu
worms, and causeth a good colour in the face and body, remedy – as well as being a useful antispasmodic for
strengtheneth and correcteth the diseases of the stomach, various aches, pains and gastrointestinal discomfort
liver and spleen; allays cough, wheezings, and shortness of
(stomach and intestinal cramps). It was prepared as
breath, and the defects of the reins [kidneys] and bladder,
expelling gravel and stone. It is held to be good against the
a strong decoction and sweetened before use. The
plague, and both tertian and quartan agues. It healeth all River or Native Mint (M. australis) was likewise
wounds both inward and outward, and fistulas in the legs valued as a remedy for coughs and colds, and the
or other parts of the body; as also those ulcers that happen stem was chewed for headache relief.8 The traditional
in the mouth; or used with lard, it allayeth swellings and reputation of Pennyroyal as an effective emmenagogue
pains of the secret parts. It is valuable for the piles; applied ensured that the native species were used by the
with some oil of roses and vinegar to the forehead and early settlers for menstrual disorders, although they
temples, it easeth the inveterate aches of the head, and is
good for those that are frantic
More than three centuries later, recommendations

for its use have remained similar. In the 1900s
Vervain continued to be utilised for treating fevers
(intermittent and autumn fevers). In addition, it
was esteemed as an antispasmodic and astringent
remedy that could stop the purging and ease the pain
associated with diarrhoea and dysentery. The herb
was valued as a useful nervine tonic and sedative for
nervous system disorders – as well as being taken
for dysmenorrhoea (painful menstruation). Vervain
was often employed as a soothing antispasmodic,
antibacterial and antitussive agent for respiratory
disorders (including pleurisy), and was said to be a
good galactagogue (induces the production of breast-
milk). The herb was applied locally as an analgesic
for painful disorders such as headache, neuralgia
and rheumatism. It was also utilised as a healing
agent for skin ulcers, ophthalmia (to ease sore and
inflamed eyes), haemorrhoids, earache, swelling of
the spleen (splenomegaly) and hard tumours (Grieve
1931). Vervain has a complex chemistry and contains
numerous components of pharmacological value
– they include ursolic acid (anti-inflammatory),
a volatile oil (antibacterial potential; contains
cineol, geraniol, limonene, verbenone), glycosides Pennyroyal (Mentha pulegium).
(cardioactive potential), tannin (astringent and anti-
8 It is interesting that studies of Mentha plant extracts with a high level of
inflammatory), mucilage (soothing attributes) and a phenolic constituents (98.1%) have shown excellent free radical scavenging
bitter principle (flavouring and stomachic). and moderate antioxidant activity. However, they only had a low level of
antibacterial activity and were inactive against yeasts (Zhao & Agboola
2007).
Insect repellents: mints and basils
11C
to
follow
?
Mentha satureioides
Aromatic herbs have been valued as potent insect

repellents wherever they were found. In Australia,
the Native Pennyroyal (Mentha satureioides), Native
Mint (M. australis) and Slender Mint (M. diemenica)
were reputed to have good activity, particularly
against fleas and bugs. For this reason, they were
often found strewn around rooms, in closets, and in
bedding (Cribb & Cribb 1981). Around the world,
many species of basil from the related genus Ocimum
Mentha diemenica. (Courtesy: Adrian Tilley) have been used similarly for their insect-repellent
properties. Some have also provided useful insecticidal
had a more acrid character than the European herb agents – particularly as essential oils. In India, the oil
(Cribb & Cribb 1981; Webb 1948). The Slender or the fresh leaves of Ocimum sanctum were crushed
Mint (Mentha diemenica) was similarly taken as an for use as a mosquito repellent, while in Africa the
antispasmodic infusion for gastrointestinal disorders leaves of numerous species were burnt as an aromatic
and dysmenorrhoea. Its diuretic and diaphoretic smoky repellent, among them Ocimum americanum,
effects were regarded as being equivalent to that of O. canum, O. sanctum, O. suave and O. viridie. Holy
the traditional peppermint tea (Lassak & McCarthy Basil (O. sanctum) and Sweet Basil (O. basilicum) also
1992; Cribb & Cribb 1981). appear to have antiparasitic properties, which would
explain the traditional use of Holy Basil as a treatment
for some types of skin disorders (Oliver-Bever 1986;
European Pennyroyal and a few other mint species
Kapoor 1990).
were reputed to have abortifacient properties, although
prepared as a tea they would not have the potency
associated with a concentrated essential oil. The use The Musk Basil (Basilicum polystachyon, syn. Moschosma
of Pennyroyal oil to induce abortion is an extremely polystachyum) is a widespread native fragrant species,
hazardous undertaking. The large doses utilised have found throughout Queensland and the Northern
resulted in fatalities due to poisoning and liver failure Territory and ranging to the West Australian coast.
(Tisserand & Balacs 1995). Mentha satureioides oil Indigenous people in northern Queensland used
contains pulegone (around 40%), menthone (20– an infusion of the plant for treating fevers (Roth
30%), menthol (12%) and menthyl acetate (8%). 1903). Overseas, Basilicum polystachyon has an
This is similar to the oil of the traditional medicinal extensive distribution, from Africa and Madagascar,
Pennyroyal (M. pulegium), which can contain high to temperate and tropical Asia and Malesia. Despite
levels of pulegone (55–95%). this availability, records of its medicinal use appear
Sacred Basil
The Holy or Sacred Basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum) of
the Old World tropics would have ranked among
the most versatile and effective of the medicinal
plants found in Australia. Ocimum tenuiflorum var.
anisodorum (formerly O. sanctum var. angustifolium)
was recommended as a general cure-all and tonic and
was taken as a fever remedy in northern Queensland
(Webb 1948). Edward Palmer (1883) commented:
‘The leaves are crushed up in water in a kooliman,
and drunk for fevers and sickness. White people
make tea of the leaves dried, called bush tea.’ These
recommendations closely follow the use of this
herb in Ayurvedic medicine in India, where it has
been utilised as a demulcent, febrifuge, stimulant,
analgesic, diaphoretic and expectorant agent. The
leaf infusion was regarded as a useful remedy for
respiratory disorders (catarrh, coughing, bronchitis),
gastric distress (dyspepsia, particularly in children),
diarrhoea and dysentery, as well as for treating liver
and bleeding disorders (including haemorrhaging).
It was also regarded as an effective antiperiodic agent
for malaria. Investigations have tended to verify many
of these claims – particularly the hypoglycaemic and
Musk basil (Basilicum polystachyon) (Courtesy: Betsy Jackes, antispasmodic properties of leaf extracts (Kapoor
Adjunct Associate Professor, School of Marine and Tropical
Biology, James Cook University, Townsville)
1990).
to be limited, which seems rather odd for such a The fresh plant had a reputation for being highly
common herb. In Java the crushed leaves were applied effective for treating skin diseases (for the relief of
externally for treating sprains. The herb has been used itching, ringworm, and eczema) and for promoting
as a sedative for a number of conditions, including wound healing, even in leprosy. Investigations have
heart palpitations, convulsions and epilepsy, and for shown the herb can facilitate tissue repair. This tends
painful disorders such as rheumatic pain and limb to support these claims for Holy Basil and the Wild
pains. It was also recommended for nervous problems Basil (Ocimum gratissimum) (Woollard 2007; Shetty
such as nervous headaches or nervousness following 2008, 2006; Orafidiya 2003). Frederick Bailey (1880)
childbirth. However, there is a note to the effect that mentioned a couple of less common recommendations:
some individuals ‘lack tolerance for internal use and
develop sores in the mouth’, and they should only use Valuable properties are ascribed by both native and
it as an external application (Perry & Metzger 1981; European doctors in India to various species of Ocimum.
Quisumbing 1951). The juice of the plant was also O. sanctum, the leaves of which in a dried and pulverised
squeezed in children’s nostrils as a headache cure in state are used by the Bengal natives as snuff in the endemic
affections of the nasal cavities [rhinitis] and are termed
India (Gold Coast) (Chopra 1956). A leaf extract has
Peenash, is said to be an effectual means of dislodging
shown antimicrobial activity against gram-positive
the larvae of flies from wounds. The Australian plant is
bacteria, but was less active against gram-negative a narrow-leaved form of this species, and has a delightful
bacteria. It also had antifungal activity against fragrance resembling anise, hence Baron von Mueller’s
Aspergillus niger. Rosmarinic acid and caffeic acid were name, O. anisodorum.
among the phenolic constituents isolated from the
extract (Chakraborty 2007).
Ocimum tenuiflorum is the correct name for Holy
Basil, as it was published before O. sanctum (although

many texts use the latter). The species epithet
tenuiflorum refers to the slender flowers. The plant has
a number of chemotypes that yield different types of
essential oils with the aroma of lemon, cloves, balsam
or anise, although cultivated basil varieties can be
very difficult to tell apart. Sweet Basil is the common
kitchen basil, Ocimum basilicum, of which there are
many different types, including ornamental forms
such as the purple basil which has become a popular
garden item. Ocimum americanum is very similar in
appearance. Lemon Basil, a hybrid species derived
from O. basilicum x O. americanum or O. basilicum
x O. citriodorum, can also have different chemotypes
and corresponding variations in essential oil (Tucker
& Debaggio 2000).
Extracts of Holy Basil have demonstrated a vast range of

additional properties of therapeutic value: antiemetic,
anti-inflammatory, analgesic, gastric ulcer healing,
hepatoprotective, cardioprotective and cholesterol
lowering (antiatherogenic) activity. Investigations
have also indicated substantial antioxidant, anticancer,
Sacred or Holy Basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum). adaptogenic and immune supportive effects – as well
as a preventive potential against development of
cataracts in the eye.9 The use of Holy Basil and the
Wild Basil (Ocimum gratissimum) as antidiabetic
remedies has also gained considerable experimental
support (Reddy 2008; Modak 2007; Egesie 2006).
There are suggestions that Holy Basil could have

nervous system benefits as a neuroprotective and
antistress agent with effects on brain function –
particularly as a cellular protective, antiamnesic and
anticonvulsant agent. Certainly this lends a great
deal of support for the herb’s traditional use as a
nervous system tonic (Samson 2006; Joshi & Parle
2006; Ravindran 2005; Yanpallewar 2004). Holy
Basil has shown interesting protective effects against
cellular damage due to chemical toxins and radiation.
In particular, the flavonoids orientin and vicenin
show protective effects against tumour development,
chromosome damage, blood disorders and bone
marrow damage at fairly low doses (Uma Devi &
Satyamitra 2004; Nayak & Devi 2005; Jagetia 2007).
9 See, e.g. Sharma 2001; Khanna & Bhatia 2003; Jaggi 2003; Halder
2003; Dharmani 2004; Dasgupta 2004; Kaul 2005; Goel 2005; Sood 2005;
Niture 2006; Kath & Gupta 2006; Manikandan 2007; Benedec 2007;
Rastogi 2007.
Basil flowers.
Leaf extracts of Ocimum gratissimum, the Wild Basil, Basil has an equally impressive therapeutic regimen,
have also demonstrated anticancer activity (Nangia- showing hypotensive, antipyretic, anti-inflammatory,
Makker 2007). Ocimum sanctum’s antibacterial effects antiarthritic, anti-ulcer, analgesic, anticoagulant and
include interesting activity against various enteric immunomodulatory properties. It has been used in
pathogens that support its use in dysentery, and combination with conventional antibacterial drugs for
also show activity against Neisseria gonorrhoeae, the the treatment of bovine mastitis (due to staphylococcal
causative agent of gonorrhoea (Geeta 2001; Rani & infection) (Singh 2007). There are several chemotypes,
Khullar 2004; Shokeen 2005). including a eugenol-rich (71%) form that contains
It is no surprise to find that the essential oil of Holy small amounts of carvacrol (3%). Studies have shown
this oil has substantial antibacterial, antifungal and
antimycotic properties (Kapoor 1990; Webb 1948).
Other chemotypes are thymol-rich or methyleugenol-
Ocimum tenuiflorum (Courtesy: Keith Williams, Native

Plants of Queensland Vol.2)
Wild Basil (Ocimum gratissimum).(Courtesy: Forest

Starr & Kim Starr,149 Hawea Pl., Makawao, HI
96768,USA.)
rich (65–84%), with smaller amounts of caryophyllene

(2.7–12%). Chemotypes also exist that contain a
mixture of bisabolene (13–20%), 1,8-cineole (9–33%)
and methylchavicol (2–12%). The chemotypes will
have a significant influence on the medicinal potential
of the herb. Oil components such as 1,8-cineole and
Ocimum tenuiflorum (Courtesy: Keith Williams, Native
linalool are potent antimicrobial agents. The latter has
Plants of Queensland Vol.3) narcotic properties that are associated with sedation,
as well as having insect fumigant and antifungal Wild Basil

effects. Eugenol has antibacterial, anti-inflammatory The familiar culinary species Wild Basil (Ocimum
and potent analgesic properties. Thymol and carvacrol gratissimum) has a similar medicinal reputation
have antibacterial and antifungal actions, while to Holy Basil as an antioxidant, hepatoprotective,
1,8-cineole has important antiseptic and respiratory anti-diabetic and hypotensive remedy. Extracts have
tract properties (decongestant, anti-inflammatory, shown good antifungal activity (against Candida and
antitussive, anticatarrhal). The methyleugenol- Cryptococcus yeasts) and anti-leishmanial potential
rich chemotype is of interest as this compound (Braga 2007; Interaminense 2007; Chaturvedi 2007;
has commercial importance as a flavouring agent. Egesie 2006).10 There are numerous oil chemotypes –
It is widely used in the food industry and in those of most interest have thymol, linalool or eugenol
pharmaceutical preparations. Its aromatic qualities as their main constituent. Eugenol-rich herbs tend to
have been incorporated into cosmetics and perfumery be sourced from Asia (India) and Brazil, while thymol-
items such as male colognes (Webb 2000; Fulton rich types are of African origin (e.g. Cameroon). A
2000; Kothari 2005; Kicel 2005). In addition, Holy rare gerianol-rich chemotype has been found in East
Basil seed oil has shown antioxidant and substantial Africa, while plants rich in thymol, terpinene and
cholesterol-lowering properties (Gupta 2007). p-cymene are found in Togo and Benin. There are
other chemotypes (Tisserand & Balacs 1995; Kothari
2005):
• linaool/methylchavicol
• eugenol/1,8-cineole (plus sesquiterpenes)
• methyleugenol/eugenol
• methylcinnamate
• citral
Sweet Basil
The Sweet Basil (Ocimum basilicum) has very similar
attributes to those of Holy Basil – anti-inflammatory,
analgesic, antioxidant, antimicrobial, and antifungal
activity. A few investigations have highlighted some
additional interesting properties for the plant and
its essential oil. As a culinary additive, the herb has
shown cholesterol-lowering actions that could be of
clinical importance (Suppakul 2003; Amrani 2006).
The antimicrobial properties of Sweet Basil oil (and
various active constituents such as thymol, carvacrol
and salicylaldehyde) were effective for the treatment
of ear infections (acute otitis media) (Kristinsson
2005). Sweet Basil oil has also attracted interest from
pharmaceutical investigators due to an ability to
facilitate the transport of drugs through the skin (Fang
2004). Rosmarinic acid is among the notable phenolic
Sweet Basil (Ocimum basilicum).
compounds present in this plant (Jayasinghe 2008).
It has shown antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral
10 Leishmaniasis is a protozoal parasitic disease transmitted by sandflies. and antibacterial attributes and has the potential to
It is prevalent in many regions of the world: Mexico and Central and treat diverse conditions, particularly inflammatory
South America, southern Europe, the Middle East, Africa and Asia, but it
is not found in South-east Asia, Oceania or Australia. It is characterised by and spasmodic problems such as asthma, intestinal
disfiguring skin sores, fevers, spleen and liver damage, and anaemia. disorders and allergies. Rosmarinic acid has also
been recommended for treating peptic ulcers,

atherosclerosis, ischaemic heart disease, cataract,
cancer and infertility (poor sperm motility). Ocimum
basilicum and some individual components (apigenin,
linalool and ursolic acid) have also demonstrated a
broad spectrum of antiviral activity, with ursolic acid
attracting particular interest (Chiang 2005).
There are a number of chemotypes of Sweet Basil oil,

the individual constituents of which can vary quite
dramatically. This certainly affects its therapeutic
properties. Of these, eugenol and linalool have attracted
interest as the main antimicrobial components of the
oil. The main chemotypes are (Zheljazkov 2008a):
Wound-healing herbs
Australian Bugle
Australian Bugle (Ajuga australis).
• igh linalool (19–73%) and low eugenol (5–

h
29%)
• linalool (28–66%) and eugenol (5–29%)
• methyl chavicol (20–72%), no linalool
• methyl chavicol (8-29%) and linalool (8-53%)
• methyl eugenol (31–91%) and linalool (60–15%
linalool)
• methyl cinnamate (9.7%) and linalool (31%)
• bergamotene (low linalool and low eucalyptol).
•
The treatment of parasitic disorders with drugs often
has quite undesirable side-effects and there is the risk
of the development of chemical resistance by the
parasite, and therefore the search for therapies that
are non-toxic to humans and effective as antiparasitic
drugs continues. The first two Sweet Basil oil types
have shown activity against Leishmania parasites.
This was not only linked to the main constituents of
the oil as various minor oil constituents (i.e. delta-
cadinene, 3-carene, alpha-humulene, citral, and trans-
caryophyllene) had good antileishmanial properties.
Other studies have indicated that the oil was active
Australian Bugle (Ajuga australis). against Trypanosoma cruzi11, as well as showing
11 Trypanosoma are protozoal parasites that are transmitted by the tsetse
potential against the intestinal parasite Giardia
fly and responsible for sleeping sickness in Africa and Chaga’s disease in lamblia (de Almeida 2007; Santoro 2007; Zheljazkov
Latin America. In this study clove oil (Syzygium aromaticum) was the most
effective at inhibiting parasite growth (Santoro 2007).
2008a & 2008b).
The Australian Bugle (Ajuga australis) is a wound-

healing herb with a close European medicinal
counterpart, Ajuga reptans. The native species is
widespread, ranging from Tasmania and South
Australia, along the east coast of the continent to
the tropical north. Aboriginal people used the herbal
infusion as a wash to bathe sores and boils, which is
interesting in light of the traditional European use
of Bugle (A. reptans) as an astringent wound-healing
herb. Nicholas Culpeper provides a rather fulsome
description:
The decoction of the leaves and flowers in wine dissolveth

the congealed blood in those that are bruised inwardly
by a fall or otherwise and is very effectual for any inward
wounds, thrusts or stabs in the body or bowels … It is
wonderful in curing all ulcers and sores, gangrenes and
fistulas, if the leaves, bruised and applied or their juice
The Villous Mintbush (Prostanthera densa), is one of
be used to wash and bathe the place and the same made the native aromatic shrubs that is considered to be of
into lotion and some honey and gum added, cureth the conservation concern and has a vulnerable listing. It has a
worse sores. limited distribution along the New South Wales coast and
its wild survival has suffered due to urban expansion. The
Not only could it mediate the contusions associated Singleton Mintbush (Prostanthera cineolifera) is another
with injuries, an infusion of the plant was employed species that has suffered similarly and now has only a very
restricted distribution in New South Wales. It is also listed
to stop haemorrhage, as well as coughing and spitting as a vulnerable species.
of blood (haemoptysis). It was said to have a mild
narcotic action and had a reputation for being useful P. staurophylla are among those with highly fragrant
for healing broken bones. It was also recommended in qualities.13 The Round-leaf Mintbush (P. rotundifolia),
the treatment of biliary disorders. Certainly, some of which is fairly widespread along the eastern coast
the early settlers would have been familiar with this (ranging from Queensland to Tasmania) was among
herb and doubtless it entered into many homemade the species that gained some early medicinal fame. The
kitchen remedies. volatile oil was noted to have carminative attributes
(i.e. prevented intestinal gas formation and relieved
Mintbushes flatulence). In the late 1800s a patent even proposed its
There is another interesting native genus of herbs that development as a medicinal extract (Maiden 1900b).
belong to the Lamiaceae – the family to which the
culinary herbs mint, thyme, oregano and sage belong. The crushed leaves of the Singleton Mintbush,
This is Prostanthera – of which there are around Prostanthera cineolifera, were used as an inhalant for
100 species endemic to Australia.12 Due to their colds and influenza. This is an uncommon species with
eucalyptus-minty aroma they are generally known a limited distribution around Singleton, New South
as ‘mintbushes’. The leaves of some species are fairly Wales. The central Australian Striped Mintbush (P.
rich in cineole, a chemical characteristic that would striatiflora) is an aromatic species that was employed
account for their close similarity to eucalyptus oil, and 12 A number have not yet been classified botanically.
much of their medicinal potential. Certainly, the use 13 The New England Mintbush Prostanthera staurophylla (formerly
of mintbushes as aromatic inhalants wherever they P. teretifolia) is a rare species with a very restricted distribution around
Torrington in New South Wales. In contrast to the low yield often
were found would not be unexpected. The oil yield, encountered with other Prostanthera species, the leaves have a reasonable
however, can be quite variable, being influenced by essential oil content (around 2%) – which contains good levels of limonene
(26.9%) and verbenone (8.4%), as well as a rare aromatic compound, alpha-
climatic conditions. Prostanthera sieberi, P. incisa and phellandrenol (6%) (Southwall 2005).
as an effective poison, thrown in waterholes to catch

game. With such a toxic reputation it is no surprise
to find that this herb was never taken internally.
Even so, a poultice, wash or ointment made from the
leaves has been applied locally (avoiding the eyes) to
ease the aches and pain of colds and flu, or rubbed
on the chest to relieve the congestion associated with
bronchitis. An inhalation of the decocted plant or the
branches smoked over a fire was likewise utilised as a
decongestant. The ointment had a versatile reputation
as a healing agent – it could be applied to reduce the
swelling from an injury, or to heal encrusted sores
Prosthanthera incisa. (Courtesy: Zaareo, Wikipedia, Creative such as infected scabies wounds (Roth 1903; Rennie
Commons) 1926; Barr 1988, 1993; Lassak & McCarthy 1992;
Latz 1996). This suggests that the plant has effective
antimicrobial properties and analgesic potential.
Investigations of the antiviral potential of this species
have not shown any activity against a number of
viruses (human cytomegalovirus, Ross River virus,
poliovirus) (Semple 1998).
Investigations of the pharmacological potential of

the Mintbushes began in 1912 when the Australian
chemists R.T. Baker and H.G. Smith examined
the oil of Prostanthera cineolifera and determined
that it was extremely cineole-rich. Small amounts
of thymol and carvacrol were also present. These
components have antimicrobial (bactericidal and
fungicidal) attributes. The Victorian Christmas Bush
(Prosthanthera lasianthos and the Round-leaf Mintbush
(P. rotundifolia) were apparently investigated by
Joseph Bosisto in the mid-1800s but the results of
these studies were lost. More recent investigations
Prosthanthera lasianthos. (Courtesy: Melburnian, Wikipedia have again focused on the aromatic and antibacterial
Commons Project) qualities of these two species, as well as that of the
Cut-leaf Mintbush (P. incisa), and on their potential
for commercial exploitation. They are all regarded as
safe for culinary use, with excellent aromatic qualities,
but they possess an extremely bitter character that
limits their usefulness as a flavouring agent.
The essential oils, in which the bitterness is moderated,
have a cineole content that is comparable with
eucalyptus oil. Prostanthera rotundifolia, which has
the highest level of cineole, also contains alpha and
beta-pinene. While the level for all three components
in P. incisa is less, this species contains a higher
amount of globulol – a compound with antimicrobial
Prosthanthera rotundifolia. (Courtesy: Brian Walters, properties. Prostanthera lasianthos oil, which contains
ANPS)
substantially less of all the components, showed no

antibacterial activity, while the other two were active
against gram-positive bacteria. Water-based infusions
of fresh leaves of all three species had an interesting,
if transient, bacteriostatic effect. Other constituents
with pharmacological properties were sabinene
(antibacterial, antifungal and anti-inflammatory
activity), myrcene (potent experimental peripheral
analgesic, anti-mutagenic), elemene (antineoplastic
properties, antifungal and antibacterial actions) and
germacrene (potential antibacterial, antifungal and
preservative activity). It would be of interest to find out
whether there are other distinctive species in the genus
with unique antimicrobial, antiviral or antifungal
attributes (Fulton 2000). Certainly Prostanthera
rotundifolia has shown interesting antifungal activity
(Antonov 1997; Dellar 1994). Later studies have also
established that there are two chemical variations
of P. lasianthos oils that had completely different
constituents (Pala-Paul 2006):
• 1 ,8-cineole (57.3–66.0%) and beta-pinene (9.2– (Above and below) Self-heal (Prunella vulgaris).
10.2%)
• linalool (13.8–24.6%), linalyl acetate (13.8–

19.1%) and beta-selinene (7.8–14.2%).
Investigations of the antimicrobial potential of a

number of other Prostanthera species have given
interesting results. The essential oils of Prostanthera
incisa and P. ovalifolia demonstrated a fairly broad
range of antibacterial activity, with Candida albicans
and Mycobacterium phlei being particularly
susceptible to the latter. The essential oil levels in a
number of other species (P. cuneata, P. striatifolia and
P. lasianthos) were minuscule or unobtainable, and
could not be evaluated (Naughtin 2003). Antifungal
triterpenes (aristolen-2-one and prostantherol) have
been isolated from Prostanthera aff. melissifolia and P.
rotundifolia (Dellar 1994).
The Oval-leaved or Purple Mintbush (Prostanthera

ovalifolia) is a widely cultivated species with a prolific
flowering habit that appears to have some unique Atkinson and Helen Brice found that Prostanthera
chemical constituents. Initial studies in 1955 by Nancy ovalifolia had a fair-good antibacterial effect against
14 Various beta-dihydroagarofurans are usually found in the Celastraceae Staphyloccus aureus and Mycobacterium phlei. Recently
(Staff Vine) family. They have been investigated for their cytotoxic, there has been an interesting analysis of the essential
anticancer (anti-tumour promotion), insecticidal, insect-antifeedant and
immunosuppressive attributes (Wang 2003). oil from Prostanthera sp. (with the provisional
identification of Prostanthera ovalifolia), which Cat’s Whiskers

extracted 79% kessane. The biological properties of The ornamental herb known as Cat’s Whiskers or
this triterpene, which is also found in the root oil from Java Tea (Orthosiphon stamineus syn. O. aristatus, O.
Valerian (Valeriana officinalis, 0.2–3.8%) have not, as grandiflorus) which is native to Australia’s tropical
yet, been evaluated. Kessane is also present in high
levels (88%) in the essential oil of Acacia nuperrima
subsp. cassitera. Another sample of the essential oil of
Prostanthera sp. (aff. ovalifolia) also contained a large
amount of cis-dihydroagarofuran (62%), another
compound about which little is known (Southwell
2005).14
Self-heal
Self-heal (Prunella vulgaris), a common lawn weed
with medicinal attributes, ranges along the east coast
of Australia from the Sunshine Coast in Queensland
to Tasmania. Prunella laciniata is a more uncommon
endemic herb that is found at a few sites in New South
Wales, Victoria and Tasmania. Self-heal essential oil
(which is rich in camphor, fenchone and fenchol)
has been used as an antirheumatic, expectorant,
antispasmodic and febrifugal remedy. In Australia, the
leaves, which have astringent properties, were used to
heal cuts and wounds. Traditionally, Prunella vulgaris
has been valued as a wound-healing, antibacterial
and anti-inflammatory remedy.15 The flower spike
was utilised in Chinese medicine for treating ocular (Above and right) Cat’s Whiskers (Orthosiphon stamineus).
disorders (tearing, photophobia, pain), dizziness,
respiratory problems (tuberculosis, pleuritis with
effusion), liver dysfunction (jaundice, infectious
hepatitis) and cancer. Recent investigations have
focused on the immune supportive, antiviral and
anticancer attributes of self-heal. In particular, it has
shown potential in the treatment of viral hepatitis and
conditions due to the herpes virus. The plant contains
diverse compounds of pharmacological value,
including ursolic acid, oleanolic acid, flavonoids (e.g.
rutin, hyperoside), alkaloids, carotenoids, and tannins.
In particular, the phenolic rosmarinic acid has shown
hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and
antimicrobial properties.16
15 Prunella grandiflora has been similarly utilised, as has Wood Sanicle

(Sanicla europaea), which is also known as Self-heal. The latter herb was
applied to heal wounds and treat skin disorders, as well as being a useful
astringent gargle for oral and throat disorders, and an expectorant to relieve
mucous congestion.
16 See, e.g. Grieve 1931; Yen 1992; Lassak & McCarthy 1992; Psotova
2003; Fang 2005.
regions and South-east Asia, has long been a popular hypertensive rats (Ohashi 2000; Matsubara 1999). In
diuretic folk medicine. In Malaysia, Indonesia, addition, the plant contains numerous triterpenes of
Vietnam and Hong Kong the herb was widely used for pharmacological interest – ursolic acid, oleanolic acid,
the treatment for urinary tract stones and infections, caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid and betulinic acid. Other
acute and chronic nephritis, gout and rheumatoid components include a glucoside (orthosiphonin)
arthritis. The remedy was so well regarded that it was and diterpenes (orthosiphols, neoorthosiphols and
admitted to the 4th Dutch Pharmacopoeia. However, staminols). Some of the latter compounds, as well
its use declined when it became difficult to obtain the as flavonoids (which often have strong antioxidant
herb unadulterated. Java Tea contains a high percentage activity), have demonstrated experimental anticancer
of potassium salts (0.738gm per 100g) to which the properties.17
diuretic effects of the herb have been attributed –
although this has been debated. Early German studies
The genus Pittosporum
of O. grandiflorus established that the medicine
Few aromatic rainforest shrubs have earned a medicinal
‘surpassed that of ordinary diuretics’, an opinion that
reputation. Pittosporum undulatum, an Australian
subsequent investigations confirmed (Quisumbing
species, is known as the Sweet Pittosporum due to its
1951; Burkill 1935). Clinically, the use of the herb for
perfumed flowers. Physician and naturalist Dr George
treating uric acid stones showed a significant increase
Bennett (1860) mentioned its attractive habits: ‘The
in urine alkalinity. However, it was not established
delicious fragrance of the orange-scented blossoms of
whether the resultant oxalate release could increase the
Pittosporum undulatum attracts the spring butterflies
risk of stone formation, a consideration that would
and other insects; and in winter this tree has a pretty
require monitoring (Nirdnoy & Muangman 1991).
effect when covered with its orange-coloured fruit.’ The
oil distilled from the flowers had ‘an agreeable jasmine-
Indian studies showed stem extracts of Orthosiphon like odour, but the taste is unpleasantly hot and bitter’.18
pallidus had a useful antiseptic action, and particularly (Keyes 1886). The healing reputation of the shrub was
good antibacterial properties against Salmonella typhi due to its resin content, as Lauterer (1896) commented:
and Vibrio cholerae. In Indian medicine this species ‘It remains to be mentioned that the fruits and the
was considered to be a good tonic for neurasthenia, wounded bark of this species exude a peculiarly aromatic
and was said to have aphrodisiac effects. The flowers gum-resin, which is very viscid, and which apparently
of O. stamineus have been recommended in Malaysia possesses stimulating properties, and might therefore be
and India as an antidiabetic remedy. This is supported found useful in medicine, both for external and internal
by studies that have shown extracts of the herb have application. I do know that it was applied to the wounds
demonstrated significant experimental hypoglycaemic of a dog, and that the dog soon got well, and that the
properties (Marian 1996; Kapoor 1993; Satyavati 1987). cure was attributed to the resin.’
In a screening program of Taiwanese drugs with An examination of the use of other Pittosporum species
antibacterial properties Orthosiphon aristatus had appears to indicate that at least some contain a resin
significant activity against the bacterium Streptococcus
mutans, which is responsible for tooth decay (Chen
1989). In Javanese medicine kumis kucing (O.
aristatus) was utilised as an antihypertensive remedy.
Studies have determined that methylripariochromene
A, a major constituent of the leaf decoction,
caused a continuous decrease in blood pressure in
17 See, e.g. Awale 2001; Ohashi 2000; Tezuka 2000; Stampoulis 1999;
Beaux 1999; Casadebaig-Lafon 1989; Englert & Harnischfeger 1992;
Lyckander & Malterud 1996.
18 The related New Zealand species Pittosporum eugenioides is known as
Lemon Pittosporum or Lemonwood due to its aromatic qualities. This species
and P. tenuifolium contain a fragrant resin that was used as a masticatory to
sweeten the breath. The flowers and leaves of the Lemon Pittosporum also
provided a fragrant additive to massage oil (Brooker 1987).
Pittosporum undulatum.
Pittosporum phillyraeoides. (Courtesy: Stan Shebs,

Wikimedia)
Pittosporum undulatum. of calamene (41.4%) with lesser amounts of
farnesol (10.9%) and a diterpene (10.7%), as well as
with acknowledged healing properties. The Indian spathulenol, beta-selinene, y-elemene and y-cadinene.
P. floribundum has an interesting array of medicinal Although the oil did not show antibacterial properties
uses. The oil was noted to have alterative, tonic and it did have good antithrombin activity (Medeiros
stimulant properties and was employed as a specific 2003). The roots of a tropical Queensland species,
for treating skin diseases. It was regarded as a valuable P. venulosum, also contain an essential oil. When
external application for rheumatism, chest affections crushed and inhaled the perfume was said to have an
and phthisis (tuberculosis), ophthalmia, leprosy, aphrodisiac effect (Webb 1969).
sciatica, sprains and bruises. There is also mention of
its use internally for treating skin disorders, secondary The decorative appeal of the Sweet Pittosporum
syphilis, chronic rheumatism and leprosy. The bark, (Pittosporum undulatum) has seen this shrub spread
which was noted to have bitter, aromatic attributes, was widely in cultivation. It is native to the Australian
used as a febrifuge and expectorant. It was also useful coastal regions from southern Victoria to southern
for treating bronchitis, and has been recommended as Queensland. Unfortunately, this is one of the native
an antidote to snake bite (Chopra 1956). ornamentals that quickly turned into a weedy invader
in the temperate Australian eucalypt forests. It employs
The fruit of the Sweet Pittosporum (Pittosporum highly successful pioneering strategies that can quickly
undulatum) has a tangerine-orange aroma and, in 1906, take advantage of disturbed conditions. The shrub
Frederick Belding Power and Frank Tutin published can grow more rapidly than many local species and
an account of the essential oil. They identified the this strategy allows it to ‘crowd out’ any competition
main component as limonene, with some d-pinene from young saplings. Consequently, dramatic changes
(Rennie 1926). More recent studies have evaluated to the natural forest infrastructure can result. In the
the leaf essential oil of Sweet Pittosporum that was 1920s Maiden mentioned the export of this species as
sourced from the Azores. It was primarily composed an ornamental. It thrived in southern California and
similar locations: ‘Many years ago it was introduced

into the Azores, and proved a useful tree to protect the
orange orchards from the prevailing winds. Its planting
should be encouraged in windy seaside localities.’ It is
now classified as an invasive weed .19
The Weeping Pittosporum or Native Willow

(Pittosporum phillyraeoides) is an extremely widespread
species of continental Australia that is valued
throughout the arid regions. This species had a fairly
extensive reputation as a food plant and the edible
gum was harvested as a bush snack food, although use
of the seeds varied considerably between Aboriginal
tribes. Maiden recorded: ‘The seeds are very bitter to
the taste, yet the aborigines in the interior were in the
habit of pounding them into flour for use as food’
(Tepper, cited in Maiden 1900a). In some places the
fruit, which contains saponins, had a toxic reputation,
while in others the seeds were ground to make a fine
oily mix that could be used as a liniment to relieve
bruising, sprains and muscle aches.20 Saponins, which
characteristically froth in water, have haemolytic
properties that cause blood cell destruction. However,
saponins can only be absorbed if the wound
Pittosporum ferrugineum
penetrates the skin. It is therefore unwise to use this

remedy for injuries that involve open wounds. The
fruit decoction has sometimes been taken internally
and was also applied locally to treat skin problems
(pruritus and eczema). The leaf decoction, which had
a more extensive medicinal reputation, was utilised
as a remedy for ‘many and various complaints and
afflictions’. This included its use for treating colds and
to heal saddle-sores on the backs of horses. In various
places infusions of the seeds, fruit pulp, leaves or
wood were taken for pain relief and to treat cramps.
In Western Australia the branches were made into a
decoction for use as a wash for bathing, or they could
be burnt and the smoke inhaled as a decongestant
to relieve colds and coughs. A tribe in New South
Wales utilised a compress prepared from the warmed
19 In Australia, Sweet Pittosporum is considered a nuisance weed when
found growing outside its natural range – this now includes the offshore
islands (Lord Howe, Kind and Norfolk), Tasmania, South Australia and
Western Australia. It is also classified as a weed in South Africa and some
Caribbean islands, such as Jamaica.
20 The genus Pittosporum can be rich in saponins, which is why a number of
species have been utilised as soap substitutes. The reputation of species such
as P. ferrugineum and P. javanicum as effective fish poisons was probably due
Pittosporum ferrugineum of their high saponin content.
leaves as a galactagogue – it was placed on the breasts

of a new mother to encourage the milk flow (Webb
1948; Barr 1993; Webb 1969a, 1969b). Studies of the
antiviral potential of leaf extracts of P. phylliraeoides
var. microcarpa have shown antiviral activity against
the Ross River virus. The active components may be
saponins (Semple 1998).
Pittosporum ferrugineum is a Queensland coastal species

that ranges to the Northern Territory and overseas to
South-east Asia and the Philippines. In Papua New
Guinea the root-bark has been used as an analgesic – a
scraping was pressed into a cavity to relieve toothache.
The shredded bark, which was baked and eaten with
traditional salt and green vegetables, was taken as an
emetic to induce vomiting and counteract poisoning.
Another, more unusual recommendation employed
the chewed bark mixed with salt. This was dripped
onto the nose as a treatment for stomach ache and
splenomegaly (enlarged spleen) due to chronic malaria
(Woodley 1991). In Malaysia a poultice of the leaves
and roots was utilised for treating malaria (Burkill
1935). This is interesting, as studies of Pittosporum
Pittosporum ferrugineum. The fruit has a fairly characteristic viridiflorum, a traditional anti-malarial remedy in
appearance, with the decorative yellow fruit capsule splitting Kenya, have shown potential antiplasmodial activity
to reveal numerous sticky red seeds that are easily distributed (Muthaura 2007).
by birds.
Chapter 3
SARSAPARILLA AND SASSAFRAS:

OLD REMEDIES IN A NEW COUNTRY
The medicinal reputation of some herbal remedies

has endured over the centuries – Sarsaparilla (Smilax)
is one of these. The herb has been employed as a
cleansing alterative, depurative, tonic, diaphoretic,
stimulant and an anti-syphilitic remedy. It was even,
at times, reputed to have aphrodisiac effects. The
Native Sarsaparilla (Smilax glyciphylla) was one of the
earliest medicines utilised by the colonists in Australia.
The fame of the genus overseas made it an immediate
candidate for popular use. The first surgeon-general
of the colony, Dr John White (1790) proposed that
Native Sarsaparilla could even be a useful remedy for
scurvy. The botanical characteristics of the plant were
very familiar to these early physicians:
[it is] a creeping kind of vine, running to a great extent

along the ground; the stalk is not so thick as the smallest
honeysuckle; nor is the leaf so large as the common bay
leaf, though something similar to it; and the taste is sweet,
exactly like the liquorice root of the shops. Of this the
convicts and soldiers make an infusion which is tolerably
pleasant, and serves as no bad succedaneum for tea.
Indeed, were it to be met with in greater abundance, it
would be found very beneficial to those poor creatures,
whose constant diet is salt provisions. In using it for
medical purposes, I have found it to be a good pectoral
[remedy for chest disorders], and, as I before observed,
not at all unpleasant.
Later authors have not found the taste quite as

enticing and, perhaps by today’s standards, the
herb is less palatable than it was then. Certainly,
there is now a greater availability of flavourings in
Native or Sweet Sarsaparilla (Smilax glyciphylla), showing the the diet (particularly sweeteners) in comparison
reddish tinge of the young leaves. to the restricted range of colonial times.
62
Chapter 3 SARSAPARILLA AND SASSAFRAS: OLD REMEDIES IN A NEW COUNTRY 63
Australian Sarsaparillas
Smilax is a genus of around 300 species that are
found in tropical and temperate regions across the
globe. There are seven botanically identified species
of Smilax in Australia, and another four that are
not yet classified. The best known are the Native
or Sweet Sarsaparilla (Smilax glyciphylla) and the
Austral Sarsaparilla (S. australis). Both are widespread,
ranging from the tropics, along the Queensland coast,
into New South Wales, with the distribution of latter
extending to Victoria. In 1860 Dr George Bennett
marvelled at the beauty of the foliage of the Native
Sarsaparilla: ‘The Sarsaparilla … is very common in
the vicinity of Sydney, climbing the trees, or trailing
along the ground; when growing upon a lofty tree,
it ascends, and then descends in long streaming
branches, forming a mass of green foliage, diversified
by the beautiful reddish tinge of the young leaves and
clusters of black berries. The leaves are sweet when
chewed (resembling the taste of liquorice).’
Dr T.W. Shepherd penned an extensive review of

the medicinal uses of indigenous plants, published
in the New South Wales Medical Gazette of 1871–72,
in which he described the preparation of the Native
Sarsaparilla:
For many years past poor people have been accustomed

to use infusions of the leaves as draughts to relieve colds,
and to counteract debility, and amongst them there is a
general belief that its effects are beneficial. Their mode
of preparation is to boil the leaves in water until a kind
of thin syrup is formed, which is then bottled and put Smilax glyciphylla
away for use as wanted … It is not an uncommon sight .
to see old men, old women, and sometimes young ones Dr Shepherd provided some additional details on the
too, wending their way towards the city loaded with subject of its medicinal heritage:
large bundles of the climbers for sale, and we have seen
decoctions of it hawked about in black bottles for sale Sarsaparilla has, in recent times, acquired a world wide
amongst the humbler classes. popularity as a medicine. The plant which furnishes it is
a species of Linnean genus Smilax. It is understood that
the supply from South America, its native country, is
However, the reputation of the plant as an antiscorbutic limited, and we are not aware that it has been introduced
was probably undeserved because decocting (boiling) as an industrial cultivation to any other part of the
the plant mixture would have destroyed most of the world. A very considerable quantity is imported into the
vitamin C it contained. The fresh fruit contains only Australian colonies, a great deal of which is most probably
a small amount of vitamin C (6mg per 100g) which adulterated or spurious. It is prescribed by physicians, both
would have made a very limited contribution to the in mixtures and alone, and is consumed as a beverage in
amount needed to prevent scurvy (Low 1990; Lassak various forms. It is very generally considered, by those best
& McCarthy1992). qualified to form an opinion, that genuine sarsaparilla is
a very valuable medicine, and perhaps more general in its of 30 June 1848, the following recommendation
application than almost any other of modern discovery. appeared: ‘It also appears that a considerable quantity
The demand for it throughout the civilised world must be of Smilax glycyphylla [sic], of excellent quality, has
enormous, and would probably be greatly extended were been imported from New Holland. The leaves of this
it not that, although expensive, there is little confidence
plant are known under the name of sweet tea. Various
in getting the genuine article.
Asiatic species, such as S. zeylanica, glabra, perfoliata,
Numerous species of Smilax have been utilised and leucophylla, are reported to be little different in
as ‘sarsaparilla’, although only a few have gained their qualities from the American species.’ Thus
official sanction. Plants in the genus tend to have the procurement of good quality Sarsaparilla from
a very similar appearance and can be extremely local supplies certainly appears to have been a valid
difficult to tell apart, even for botanists. proposition.
Substitution and adulteration were once a rather
common occurrence. Austral Sarsaparilla and Native (Sweet)
Sarsaparilla
The early discovery of the therapeutic value of the
native Sarsaparillas, both Smilax australis and S.
glyciphylla, was not completely unexpected. Indeed,
a tea prepared from the latter gained a reputation
as a cure-all. Despite its apparent suitability and
popularity as a household remedy, its fame was not
to last. The home-grown herbal industry did not
gain lasting support in medical circles and, almost
a century after Surgeon-General John White had
praised the plants’ usefulness, Dr Shepherd was
to bemoan a lack of interest in these native plant
species. Herbalists continued to import Sarsaparilla
(and other dried herbs) from overseas. This may have
been partly influenced by the fact that it was the leaf
of the native species was commonly prepared as an
extract or tea, while European herbal traditions were
based on the use of the root. Even so, many overseas
species had been readily utilised as substitutes and
it seems odd that Australian therapists continued to
favour the imported product – particularly as much
of these supplies had rather doubtful origins. Indeed,
in Dr Shepherd’s opinion, they were often of inferior
quality: ‘[It] is, to say the least, singular that, although
NSW possesses an indigenous sarsaparilla growing in
abundance over a wide area, and of a quality thought
to be far superior to the South American plant, yet
so little attention has been paid to it. But perhaps we
Smilax australis.
should not say singular, for it only affords another
example of the characteristic apathy of the people of
the oldest Australian colony, in all such matters.’ Austral Sarsaparilla or Barbwire Vine (Smilax australis)
and Native or Sweet Sarsaparilla (S. glyciphylla)
Strangely enough, overseas markets probably gave the have a similar distribution. Smilax australis can be
native species more credit as a useful herbal resource. distinguished by its larger heart-shaped leaves and
In the London Medical Gazette (Vol. 41, No. 1074) a prickly stem that has been used to make a tough
Smilax australis.
fibre rope and fish traps. Although it was utilised

medicinally, it does not appear to have been as highly
recommended as S. glyciphylla, probably because it
does not have the distinctive bitter-sweet flavour
Smilax australis (fruiting vine).
characteristic of the latter. Even so, a tea prepared
from S. australis has been taken for colds and chest
problems, while the decoction was utilised as a tonic
for the blood and nervous system (Webb 1948).
Aboriginal people in the Northern Territory also
utilised a plant extract as a treatment for sore eyes1,
while in northern Queensland it provided a remedy
for snakebite – the wound was cut open and a ground
root poultice applied locally (Isaacs 1994, Wightman
& Andrews 1989, Kyriazis nd).2
The fruits of various sarsaparilla species have a very

similar appearance, as do the flowers, but the leaves
can usually be used as a distinguishing feature. The
leaves, roots, fruit and stems of Smilax glyciphylla all
1 In New Britain, Papua New Guinea, a similar use has been reported. The
juice of a species of Smilax was squeezed into the eyes as a treatment for
conjunctivitis (Perry & Metzger 1981).
2 South American studies have indicated that Smilax can contain venom-
inhibitory compounds (Castro 1999).
have a bitter-sweet character due to a chemical called Sarsaparilla

glyciphyllin. The fruit could therefore be utilised in the Sarsaparilla gained a specific international reputation
same manner as the leaves and was often incorporated as a useful treatment for venereal disorders. It was
into teas or extracts. In the Northern Territory held in high esteem as an antisyphilitic agent and
Aboriginal people used the spicy-tasting fruits of the was said to be particularly useful for the treatment
Barbwire Vine (S. australis) as a snack food. Although of the secondary and tertiary stages of the condition.
they never formed a large component of the diet, they There have been many clinical reports attesting to its
were noted to have a pleasant, slightly hot ‘peppery’ successful use. Additional benefits were linked to its
flavour (Levitt 1981). Doubtless the berries of other use as an antidote for mercury – the latter substance
species were also eaten as snacks. was often utilised, along with arsenic-derived drugs,
for the treatment of syphilis. In the early 1800s there
were reports that Portuguese soldiers treated with
Sarsaparilla recovered more quickly and, importantly,
experienced fewer side-effects, when compared to
those from England who undertook conventional
treatment. Cellular damage resulting in kidney failure
and uraemia was a common side-effect of mercury-
based drugs. Sarsaparilla’s detoxicant and protective
attributes were particularly useful for promoting the
excretion of heavy metals and this appears to have
limited toxin accumulation, thereby minimising
kidney damage (Yeung 1985; Lassak & McCarthy
China Root (Smilax glabra, formerly S. china), dried 1992; Griggs 1997).
and cut root. China Root was once recognised in the
pharmacopoeias of numerous countries: Germany, Austria,
Belgium, Denmark, Finland, France, Greece, Norway, Mercury toxicity
Holland, Portugal, Rumania, Sweden, Spain, Switzerland Mercury toxicity could have drastic effects. It was
and Venezuela. characterised by violent gastroenteritis and diarrhoea,
stomatitis and acute nephritis: ‘If the nephritis is not
immediately fatal, symptoms resembling those of
phosphorus poisoning may supervene and death may
not occur for several weeks’ (British Pharmaceutical
Codex, BPC 1949). Despite its poisonous properties
mercury was used medicinally for centuries. Externally
it was employed as a potent antiseptic, antiparasitic and
fungicidal agent, although its rapid absorption through
the skin could result in toxic reactions. The symptoms
of chronic mercury poisoning (mercurialism) included
salivation, foetid breath, loose teeth, gum swelling
and ulceration, muscular tremors and paralysis.
Other side-effects included appetite loss, anaemia,
peripheral neuritis, and urinary disorders associated
with progressive kidney failure. Toxic reactions often
involved central nervous system damage and included
behavioural changes, depression, irritability, flushing,
insomnia, tremors, shaking, fatigue, drowsiness and,
occasionally, hallucinations.
In A Modern Herbal, Maude Grieve (1931) mentioned during the wet season in the farmlands of the Wet
that China Root was ‘especially valuable in weakened Tropics in northern Queensland.
and depraved conditions due to a poisoned state of
the blood. It is a useful alterative in old syphilitic Traditionally, the use of numerous herbs for
cases and in chronic rheumatism. It is also used for
treating skin disorders has been based on their
certain skin diseases. It was introduced into China in
AD 1535, when it was considered an infallible remedy cleansing activity – a detoxicant property that
for gout.3 In that country the roots are eaten as food.’ promoted the elimination of waste substances by
Additionally, the smoke from burning the root was the skin, liver, kidneys and colon. Indeed, ‘blood
thought to be an effective inhalant for the treatment purification’ (a depurative action) has long been
of asthma. During the 1800s the reputation of Smilax regarded as an essential component of effective
glyciphylla led to this herb being used in a very similar treatments for many systemic disorders. The
manner in the Australian colony. Chinese medicine therapeutic reputation of Sarsaparilla appears to
recommended China Root (Tu Fu Ling) as an have been complemented by a tonic ability that
antiseptic diuretic for infections of the urinary system, acted to enhance cellular function. Certainly, it is
specifically in nephritis and cystitis. Additionally,
clinically effective for the treatment of systemic
the herb has an effective antiparasitic action and has
been employed in the treatment of brucellosis and skin problems such as psoriasis (Thurman 1942).
leptospirosis (Hong Kong CMRI Vol. 1, 1984; Yeung The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia of 1983 listed
1985; Bensky & Gamble 1986). Smilax as having antirheumatic, antiseptic and
antipruritic (anti-itch) effects. It was specifically
Brucellosis and leptospirosis recommended for psoriasis characterised by
Brucellosis and leptospirosis are classified as irritation and heavy desquamation (flaking of the
zoonoses – they are bacterial infections that are skin). Its use for treating leprosy, in combination
transmitted to humans by some sort of association with other herbs, was also mentioned.
with animals. Brucellosis is transmitted through
contaminated meat or milk products sourced from The 1941 Martindale Extra Pharmacopoeia made
infected animals. British medical officers in Malta similar comments regarding the use of the herb: ‘The
during the Crimean War in the 1850s called the dried roots and rootlets of Smilax ornata (Liliaceae)
condition ‘Mediterranean fever’. It has been known U.S.P. includes also other species of Smilax and Smilax
by various other names as well: Bang’s disease, media. Was formerly used in chronic rheumatism, skin
Malta fever and undulant fever. Leptospirosis, affections and syphilis, but is of doubtful therapeutic
which is also known as Weil’s disease, is a fairly value. It is mainly used in the form of decoctions in
uncommon infection that originates from water so-called blood purifiers.’ Despite this negative tone,
contaminated with animal urine. It is thought to the comment that followed regarding the use of
be the disease known as ‘infectious jaundice’ that Sarsaparilla in psoriasis was more positive: ‘Sarsaparilla
Napoleon’s army suffered in the Egyptian campaign has unquestionable merits, but treatment must be
of the early 1800s. It has been encountered in the persistent, the average period of administration being
sodden battlefields of the world ever since. It was 60 days. In 19 cases, 9 were cured, and 5 improved.
responsible for substantial troop losses in the US The remaining 5 were failures. The most rapid cure
Civil War, the battles of World War I (including was obtained in a fortnight (H. Ritter Dtsch Med,
Gallipoli) and in the jungles of South-east Asia and Wschr 1936, 1629)’.
the Pacific during World War II. It is still prevalent Sarsaparilla was rarely used in isolation, however,
and its inclusion in compound formulations received
3 Investigations of Smilax macrophylla and S. glabra have demonstrated that
the herb could promote the excretion of uric acid, which may help explain official sanction. These included Decoctum Zittmanni
the use of some species in the treatment of gout (Giachetti 1988; Ji 2005). Fortius and Decoctum Zittmanni Mitius for the
The detoxicant effect of Smilax also appears to be able to influence blood
urea levels, although some species were noted to be more effective than treatment of syphilis and ‘wasting diseases’. The
others (Perry & Metzger 1981). former combined Sarsaparilla with potash alum,
calomel, cinnabar, anise, fennel, senna leaves and

liquorice root; the latter used it with lemon peel, cassia
bark, cardamom and liquorice. Another formulation,
Decoctum Sarsae Compositum, combined the herb
with sassafras root, guaiacum wood, mezereon and
liquorice. Syrupus Sarsaparillae Compositus was
prepared with liquorice, sassafras and anise oil, methyl
salicylate, alcohol and syrup.
Extract of Sarsaparilla from Phillips’ Translation of the

Pharmacopoea Londonensis, 1841.
Note that the entry for Extract of Sarsaparilla from

Phillips’ Translation of the Pharmacopoea Londonensis Smilax utilis (syn. Smilax regelii) is the source of Honduran
Sarsaparilla.
does not specify the species used for making it,
probably because there were numerous suitable Europe (S. aspera), America (S. aristolochiaefolia,
species and it could be difficult, if not impossible, to S. dominguensis, S. regelii and S. febrifuga),
accurately identify dried root samples. The official
and Asia (S. zeylanica, S. glabra). In the older
Sarsaparilla, Smilax officinalis, originates from Ecuador
and Colombia, but many species from Central and
literature species identification could be rather
South America were once listed under this name. questionable and reflected a lack of reliable
The main sources today include Mexican Sarsaparilla
from Smilax aristolochiaefolia (formerly S. medica);
Honduran Sarsaparilla from S. regelii (S. ornata, S.
grandifolia and S. utilis are synonyms for this species);
Smilax dominguensis, the Jamaican Sarsaparilla (S.
ornata also goes by this common name); S. febrifuga
has been referred to as the Ecuadorian or Peruvian
Sarsaparilla.
Although many species of Smilax have been

utilised, only a few were considered worthy
of serious attention as Sarsaparilla resources.
Mediterranean Sarsaparilla (Smilax aspera).
Official sources came from species in southern
data on the chemical constituents in the genus. (syn. S. china) has substantial anti-inflammatory,
Substantial anti-inflammatory, antimicrobial immunomodulatory, antioxidant, anticancer and
activity and antioxidant actions appear to be antimutagenic activity. Compounds with analgesic
common characteristics associated with the properties have also been isolated. These investigations
not only help to validate the antiarthritic reputation of
use of the herb. The chemical constituents are
the remedy, but also lend support to its clinical use as
extremely diverse: they include plant steroids an anticancer agent. The herb has been utilised as a
(sarsasapogenin, smilagenin, pollinastanol,
sitosterol, stigmasterol) and their saponin
glycosides (parillin, smilacin, sarsaparilloside,
sarsasaponin, smilasaponin). Almost a century
ago, in 1913, Jamaican Sarsaparilla was the first
plant from which sarsasapogenin was isolated.
This compound and smilagenin are suitable raw
materials for the production of steroids, including
cortisone (Evans 1989; Singh 2006). This has
subsequently stimulated some interest in the
therapeutic applications for the herb, including
its tonic and adaptogenic potential.
Smilax glabra (syn. S. china).
In many countries Sarsaparilla was reputed to
act as a sexual tonic and aphrodisiac for both treatment for cancer of the colon, rectum, oesophagus,
men and women. In more modern times it has stomach and nasopharyngeal region, as well as for
been used by body-builders, probably due to cervical cancer. In combination with other herbs,
its reputation as a source of natural steroidal it has also been utilised in the treatment of acute
leukaemia (Shu 2006; Jiang & Xu 2003; Lee 2001;
substances. These uses appear to be largely based
Hsu 1990; Minyi 1992).4 Bioflavonoids (astilbin) and
on conjecture. Even though testosterone can be saponins (smilagenin, gracillin, dioscin5) have been
produced chemically from the saponins in the proposed as the anticancer components. Sri Lankan
plant, the hormone itself is not present. However, studies of a herbal combination of China Root, Indian
there are other extremely interesting clinical Sarsaparilla (Hemidesmus indicus root) and Black
uses that have become linked with the remedy. Cumin (Nigella sativa seeds)6 have provided chemical
Sarsaparilla has shown potential for promoting and clinical information that support the use of this
the absorption of other drugs, an attribute that herbal treatment in liver cancer (Wang 2004; Thabrew
tends to support its common addition to herbal 2005; Iddamaldeniya 2003, 2006; Li 2007; Sa 2008).
formulations. Investigations into Honduran
Sarsaparilla (Smilax regelii) have indicated that
this herb has hepatoprotective (liver protection)
properties. The flavanone smitilbin (as well as
other compounds), which has been isolated from
Smilax glabra, can prevent experimental liver cell
4 In Chinese medicine herbs are usually prepared as compound
damage. In addition, S. glabra has hypoglycaemic formulations. It is important to note that the use of these remedies is often
based on decades, sometimes centuries, of clinical experience.
properties and has long been utilised clinically
5 Both gracillin and dioscin have shown antimutagenic properties that
as an antidiabetic agent (Chen 1999; Fukunaga support these claims (Kim 1989; Lee & Lin 1988).
1997; Evans 1989). 6 Nigella sativa has shown equally interesting cytotoxic, cell-protective,
anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and immunomodulatory potential as an
There are studies that have shown Smilax glabra anticancer and liver-protective agent.
Indian Sarsaparilla as glyciphyllin could be metabolised to phloretin,

Indian Sarsaparilla has a similar reputation to the the herb had chemopreventive potential. Previous
official species used as Sarsaparilla. The herb contains investigations have indicated that phloretin possesses
steroidal glycosides, and has immunomodulating anticancer activity.7 However, there appear to be different
and anti-inflammatory properties, as well as strong chemotypes of this species because some plant samples
antioxidant activity. The remedy has shown protective did not contain glyciphyllin (Cox 2005). Perhaps
effects against drug-induced hepatotoxicity and the presence of other active components could shed
nephrotoxicity. Some of these attributes also appear more light on this complex pharmacological picture.
to make it useful as an acne treatment and as a healing Certainly the anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory
agent for duodenal ulcers. Studies have indicated that and detoxicant properties of the genus suggest that
extracts had anticancer effects in skin cancer studies the Australian species have good therapeutic potential.
(Atal 1986; Deepak 1997; Sigler 2000, Ravishankara With regard to herbal medicines (in comparison to an
2002; Sultana 2003; Jain & Basal 2003; Anoop & isolated active principle), the natural mixture of a plant’s
Jegadeesan 2003; Mary 2003; Kotnis 2004). components can sometimes provide better clinical results
due to a synergistic (complementary) effect. Therefore,
contrary to the opinion of some chemical studies,
Astilbin has also shown immunosuppressive activity investigations that focus on a single isolated component
that could be useful for the treatment of contact will rarely provide enough information to fully explain
dermatitis (Guo 2007). Recent studies have focused the therapeutic efficacy of plant-based remedies.
on the anti-HIV, neurological and memory protective
components of the genus – particularly sarsasapogenin. Distribution of tropical Australian Smilax
The stilbene resveratrol (and derivatives), which has
anticancer properties and is a component of red wine,
species
The majority of the Australian Smilax species prefer
has also been isolated from Smilax china (Hu 2005,
a tropical climate. Of these, Smilax aculeatissima
Xia 2004, Ban 2006, Ren 2006, Barraclough 2006,
is found only on the Atherton Tablelands. Despite
Tewtrakul 2006, Chu & Ng 2006, Shao 2007, Huang
the fact that it grows in the tropical conditions of
2007).
northern Queensland, the plant is habitually exposed
The name ‘sweet tea’ was bestowed on Smilax to very cold winters. There are three species that have a
glyciphylla because it contains fairly high levels of a limited distribution on Cape York – S. macrophylla, S.
glycoside called glyciphyllin which imparts a bitter- blumei and S. kaniensis. The latter two range overseas
sweet flavour to the infusion. This is an intriguing to Papua New Guinea. Smilax blumei is also found
aromatic compound that was isolated in the late in South-east Asia. Smilax calophylla has a wider
1800s. In a classic 1926 review of Australian plant distribution, being found along the Queensland coast
chemistry, Professor E.H. Rennie mentioned the from central Queensland to Cape York. It is also found
discovery: ‘An account of the active principle of the in Malesia.8 There are four additional species yet to be
plant isolated by myself was published in 1886. By classified that are likely to be unique endemics.
suitable methods of extraction it yields a crystalline
glucoside, glycyphyllin which on hydrolysis breaks up 7 Phlorizin (syn. phloridzin), a flavonoid characteristically found in apples,
has a chemical structure closely related to glyciphyllin. It has been extracted
into phloretin and rhamnose [a sugar]. Phloretin is a from the root bark of apples, pears, cherry and plum trees. Phlorizin is
compound of similar type of well-known medicinal metabolised into phloretin. Both compounds have shown antimalarial
activity. Phloretin has even been utilised as a quinine substitute and studies
substances.’ have shown it has antioxidant and oestrogenic effects. Phlorizin has attracted
research interest due to its antidiabetic potential (Cox 2005; Rossetti 1987;
Kutner 1987).
Rennie’s observations are of interest because 8 Malesia is a defined floral and faunal region based on ancestral linkages.
recent studies of a hot water extract from Smilax Overall, it ranges from India and Malaysia to Australia, and includes
glyciphylla demonstrated antioxidant actions with Indonesia, the Philippines and Papua New Guinea. The western part of
Malesia (Sundaland) includes the Malay Peninsula, and Sumatra, Java,
potential protective effects against cellular damage Bali and Borneo. Eastern Malesia includes Papua New Guinea and the Aru
in the gastrointestinal tract. It was suggested that Islands of Indonesia, which are geologically linked to Australia by a shallow
continental shelf.
Smilax calophylla.
Smilax aculeatissima, an uncommon species from the

Atherton Tablelands.
A few tropical Australian Smilax species that extend

their distribution to New Guinea and South-east Asia
have been used medicinally. Smilax macrophylla has
been utilised as a wound dressing. Henry Burkill (1935)
mentioned the medicinal use of Smilax calophylla
in Malaysia, where the rhizome had a ‘considerable
reputation as aphrodisiac and tonic’ and was also used
as a cure for gonorrhoea. It was grated and eaten in
betel quid or taken as a decoction. This remedy was
said to be even more effective than another local
species, S. myosotiflora, which had ‘a great reputation
as an aphrodisiac among the Malays and jungle tribes
alike, and by a natural extension, it is regarded as a
cure for syphilis. It is the rhizome which is eaten as an
aphrodisiac, and the leaves and fruit which are used
internally for syphilis’ (Burkill 1935). A decoction
of S. calophylla was taken during childbirth, and the
leaves were used for general healing purposes. They
could be prepared as a poultice that was smeared with
coconut oil and heated for application on swellings
(Perry & Metzger 1981; Quisumbing 1951).
Smilax leucophylla, which has been found in northern their very wide botanical distinction it is altogether
Queensland9, is another species that has been utilised unlikely that there can be any affinity between the
medicinally in South-east Asia. In the Philippines it properties of this and the other … and judging from
was reputed to have the depurative, antisyphilitic and alliances and relationships, they are not likely to be
important, and more likely to be injurious than beneficial.
antirheumatic attributes common to the genus. It
Notwithstanding opinion, numerous instances are to be
was also utilised as a remedy for menstrual problems.
met with, in which people are convinced that they and
In Malaysia, the leaves and roots (pounded into a their friends and relations have greatly benefited from
poultice) were applied to syphilitic nose ulceration, a its use. Probably, if these people were convinced that
remedy that tends to suggest antibacterial attributes the plant they were using was quite a different vegetable
(Perry & Metzger 1981; Quisumbing 1951). Another from the valuable ‘native sarsaparilla’, they would at once
interesting reference mentioned the medicinal use of discover that it had not benefited them in the slightest
Smilax blumei in Papua New Guinea, where a mix of degree: such is the force of imagination and faith.
leaves and stem, combined with scrapings from taro [[close quote]]
root, was taken to ease stomachache. However, in
combination with a traditional form of salt, and ginger Dr Shepherd was adamant that the correct species
root (Zingiber officinale), the leaves and stem of this were essential for the preparation of effective remedies:
Sarsaparilla were chewed to induce vomiting. This was
deployed as a poison antidote. This is an intriguing Our object in calling particular attention to our native
sarsaparilla, is the desire that the true plant may be
observation because overdoses of Sarsaparilla root
sought for and used instead of the spurious, so that its
(notably S. glabra) have been reported to cause nausea
valuable properties may have the fair play denied to it as
and vomiting. The sap from S. leucophylla shoots has now, when another, and a very different plant, is made to
also been taken as a poison antidote in the Central usurp its title and position … We think the profession
Province of Papua New Guinea (Holdsworth 1987). would do well, where the proper opportunities offer, to
recommend the home-made article in preference to the
doubtful imported one; and we trust that our subscribers
Sarsaparilla substitutions and readers will lose no opportunities of setting people
The effective practice of herbal medicine relies right as to the distinction between the two plants. It is
on the integrity of the plant resources utilised. possible that the plant wrongly called sarsaparilla may
Accurate botanical identification has always been have valuable qualities, but they must, in the nature of
an important issue. When a number of native vines things, be very different to the true plant.
quite unrelated to Smilax glyciphylla began to be sold
as ‘Sarsaparilla’ in colonial New South Wales, the
matter rated some concern. These plants included
the False Sarsaparilla (Hardenbergia violacea),
Climbing Lignum (Muehlenbeckia adpressa), and Smilax and Hardenbergia belong to two different
various native peas (Kennedia spp.). The most families, the Smilacaceae and the Leguminosae,
common substitution involved Hardenbergia violacea subfamily Papilionoideae, respectively. Dr Shepherd
(previously H. monophylla or Kennedia monophylla). could not understand how they had become confused:
Dr Shepherd pointed out that this vine could clearly
How the mistake could, in the first instance, have been
be distinguished from Smilax:
made seems unaccountable. It [Hardenbergia] is a strong
growing, scandent shrub, bearing, in great profusion
Originally mistaken for sarsaparilla, it [Hardenbergia
in early spring, large racemes of purple or lilac flowers,
violacea] is now largely used under that name by many
followed by abundance of bean-like pods. The leaves
whom, it is presumed, should know better. From our
have, at first sight, a resemblance to the leaves of Smilax,
own observation we should be inclined to think that for
but on a very slight examination their structure will be
one person who uses the right plant, twenty or more use
found to be widely different … The true plant [Smilax]
the wrong one. What the medicinal properties of the
is a climber, with tendrils bearing, in the summer season,
Hardenbergia are, we are not prepared to say, but from
inconspicuous green flowers, and numerous dark purple
9 Only one botanically recognised sample of Smilax leucophylla has ever
been collected in Australia. globular berries, about the size of buck shot. Every part
of the plant is so intensely sweet to the taste the greatest

lover of ‘sweets’ would soon be satiated on partaking of its
juices, whilst the counterfeit plant offers no perceptible
sweetness to the taste; besides, the leaves of the latter
have only one prominent or conspicuous longitudinal rib
raised on the under surface, while the under surface of
the sarsaparilla leaves exhibits more than one (Shepherd
1871).
Coral Pea or False Sarsaparilla (Hardenbergia violacea).

Other false sarsaparillas from

Australia and nearby regions
Alphitonia species
White Ash or ‘Sarsaparilla’ (Alphitonia petriei)

The term ‘sarsaparilla’ has also been loosely employed

to describe several trees from the Alphitonia genus
(A. excelsa, A. incana, A. petriei and A. whitei).
Alphitonia incana, the Philippines Sarsaparilla, whose
distribution extends to Malesia, has also been known
as the Hairy Sarsaparilla Ash. The leaves and fresh
bark of some Alphitonia species possess a distinctive
scent that was reminiscent of Sarsaparilla or Oil of
Wintergreen10 (from Gaultheria procumbens). This is
particularly true of the White, Pink or Red Ash (A.
petriei), a tree of the northern Australian rainforests
that is completely different to the viney Smilax genus.
This relatively short-lived pioneer species has the habit
of quickly colonising disturbed areas and grows fairly
rapidly to reach 6–10 metres. Over time, in the right
situation, it can reach substantial heights (up to 45
metres). In the Northern Territory an ash, prepared
from the burnt branches, was made into a paste for
treating skin problems such as ringworm, sores, cuts
and boils. In northern Queensland the bark decoction
was utilised as a liniment for easing body aches and
pains. The fresh leaves could be similarly employed as
a poultice (Cribb & Cribb 1981, Webb 1959, Isaacs
1994).
Hardenbergia species
There are three species of Hardenbergia in Australia.
Hardenbergia retusa (now Vandasina retusa).
10 Wintergreen oil, which contains a high proportion of methyl-salicylate

(98%), has been used as an anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic and diuretic.
It was a popular ingredient in ointment and liniment formulations to ease
the pain of rheumatism, sprains, sciatica, nerve pain (neuralgia) and diverse
muscular aches and pains.
The most widespread is the Native Wisteria (H.

violacea), which ranges from South Australia, to
Victoria and along the eastern coast to tropical
Queensland as far north as Cooktown. This species is
also found in south-west Western Australia along with
H. comptoniana. The third species is the ‘Sarsaparilla
Vine’ (H. retusa), an attractive weedy tropical vine of
northern Queensland. The common name appears
to refer to its links to its close relative, H. violacea.
However, while the latter was a sarsparilla substitute
there do not seem to be any records of H. retusa being
used in a similar manner. There is mention of the root
being utilised as a yam – it was roasted, the skin was
removed, and the root pounded and mixed with water
(Roth 1901).
An interesting study suggests that the seeds of

Hardenbergia violacea could have potential for use
as a native crop resource, along with Crotalaria
cunninghamii, Kennedia nigricans and Hovea elliptica.
The four species were of interest because they produced
large seeds with a high lipid and protein content. Their
desirability as agricultural crops was enhanced by the
fact that, with the exception of Hovea, they were
hardy and capable of withstanding very dry climatic
conditions (Rivett 1983). Rainforest canopy.
jaborandi. These drugs have played an indispensable

role in surgical procedures and ophthalmology. The
There have been few other investigations into the
Australian rainforest has proved to be an equally
chemical constituents of Hardenbergia. Extracts of H.
interesting resource. Among the plants deserving
comptoniana have shown haemagglutinating (blood
investigation are those in the Atherospermataceae
clotting) properties that were due to lectins (Flower
or Southern Sassafras family, just sixteen species
1984). CSIRO studies of Hardenbergia comptoniana,
classified into seven genera. The majority are from
H. violacea and H. monophylla determined that
Australasia: New Zealand (1), Papua New Guinea
alkaloids were present in H. monophylla, although
(2), New Caledonia (1) and Australia (10). There are
neither this species, nor H. violacea, were active in
two species found in Chile that attest to the ancestral
investigations for antitumour activity. The native
Gondwanan links between Australia and South
Sarsaparillas, Smilax australis and S. glyciphylla, did
America. The Atherospermataceae have attracted
not show anti-tumour activity nor were they positive
interest because a number of these trees contain
in alkaloid tests (Collins 1990).
alkaloids of potential chemical and pharmacological
interest – Atherosperma moschatum, Daphnandra
Rainforest ‘Sarsaparillas’ dielsii, Daphnandra micrantha and Daphnandra
Rainforests have a well-deserved reputation as a tenuipes, Doryphora aromatica and Doryphora sassafras.
precious resource for the discovery of pharmacological The Australian species Daphnandra tenuipes and
compounds. In the Amazon the muscle-relaxant Doryphora aromatica, as well as Palmeria arfakiana
drug d-tubocurarine was sourced from the vine from Papua New Guinea, have tested positive on
Chondrodendron tomentosum, while the ophthalmic antitumour assays (Collins 1990). Several species
drug pilocarpine was derived from the shrub Pilocarpus in the closely related Monimiaceae or Pigeonwood
family (in which many of the Atherospermataceae Sassafras (Doryphora sassafras), and the Northern
were formerly classified) were examined in CSIRO Grey Sassafras (Doryphora aromatica, syn.
studies for similar potential: Daphnandra aromatica). Joseph Lauterer (1894)
• Hedycarya angustifolia and Levieria acuminata explained the value of ‘sassafras oil’ as a resource:
from Australia; and Palmeria gracilis and Levieria
montana from Papua New Guinea. There are several trees in Queensland the bark of which
• Stem-bark extracts of the latter two species have have a peculiar smell resembling oil of fennel. The farmers
shown toxic potential (Collins 1990). and timber getters take the bark to the chemists, and the
chemists say there is sassafras oil contained in the bark
and it would pay better to take out a license for a still,
The search for Sassafras oil extract the oil and sell it at a high price. The process of
distillation is not difficult … most of the commercial
Early evaluations of the Australian flora sassafras is manufactured in the interior of countries of
focused on plants with medicinal, culinary and South Carolina from the Sassafras tree (Laurus sassafras)
commercial prospects. These products included which grows in dense thickets of small shrubs on worn-out
the desire for Sassafras oil, which was once widely lands. The root is dug and washed, then chopped short,
used for its distinctive flavouring qualities. In the bruised with a hatchet and put into a wooden barrel, the
bottom of which is bored through with several holes. The
United States the oil was particularly sought after barrel is put endwise on a wooden steambox with a sheet-
as an ingredient for making root beer. iron bottom, the top of which is bored through with holes
corresponding to the holes in the bottom of the cask, and
In 1912, the Edinburgh-trained chemist with an auger-hole on the top through which water is
poured. The steam box stands over a hole in the ground
James Petrie provided an overview of the
forming a kind of oven wherein the fire is made. A tin
botanical sources of the chemical responsible pipe is inserted in the top of the barrel and bent to go
for the distinctive flavour of Sassafras: ‘Safrol through a trough of water to service a worm of the still.
is a constituent of the essential oils in typical The steam goes from the box through the roots contained
members of the following Natural Orders – in the barrel and from there through the pipe. Water and
oil swimming in it go over. A man makes a clear profit of
Monimiaceae (Doryphora), Lauraceae (Sassafras,
three dollars a day.
Cinnamomum, Beilschmiedia), Magnoliaceae
(Illicium), Aristolochiaceae (Asarum); and the The official source of Sassafras oil was Sassafras albidum
chief supply for the world’s market is made by the (syns S. officinale, S. variifolium) from eastern North
firm of Schimmel and Co., from Cinnamomum America, although other species have been known
camphora.’ These family relationships were to lead by this name or used as substitutes. They include
to the chemical examination of closely related the Brazilian Sassafras (Mespilodaphne sassafras and
plants from the Australian flora. Therefore various
native species with similar aromatic qualities
acquired ‘sassafras’ as a popular appellation. In
general, Sassafras decoctions or teas were prepared
from the bitter or fragrant bark.
They were adopted for use as ‘tonics’ and there

were a few Australian species that attracted
special interest for commercial or pharmaceutical
purposes, including the Black Sassafras
(Atherosperma moschata), the Scentless Sassafras
(Doryphora repandula), the New South Wales Sassafras albidum, commonly known as Sassafras, White
Sassafras, Red Sassafras or Silky Sassafras.
inconclusive, although the oil is definitely toxic when

ingested.11 To confuse matters further, it appears
that the level of safrole present in a cup of sassafras
tea can vary dramatically. One study estimated that
2.5g sassafras bark could yield up to 200mg safrole
(average 3mg/kg); another showed that the safrole
contents of a cup of sassafras bark tea ranged between
0.09 and 4.66 mg per cup. A study (in rats) has even
indicated that safrole could stimulate liver tissue
growth. Sassafras bark tea has been shown to induce
regeneration of liver tissue (Duke & duCellier 1993,
Carlson & Thompson 1997).
Atherosperma moschatum
In the late 1800s the bark of the Australian or Black
Sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum) was marketed in
England as ‘Victorian Sassafras’. The bark tea had
gained a medicinal reputation as a tonic and mild
laxative remedy, and had been used by both Aboriginal
people and early settlers in Australia.
In a report presented in the catalogue of the Victorian

Exhibition of 1861, Dr Ferdinand Mueller noted:
The physiological effects of this oil, in small doses, are

described as diaphoretic, diuretic, and sedative, and it
appears to exert a specific lowering influence upon the
heart’s action. As a medicine, it has been introduced into
the hospitals; and employed in cases of heart disease; the
dose being one drop administered at intervals of six or
Sassafras albidum, commonly known as Sassafras, White
eight hours. In large quantities it must be regarded as a
Sassafras, Red Sassafras or Silky Sassafras.
dangerous poison. Rubbed externally upon the skin, it
does not, like the myrtaceous oils, act as a rubefacient
Ocotea pretiosa) and the New Caledonian Sassafras
or irritant. In the preparation of this liquid the bark
(Doryphora sassafras). Sassafras oil can contain very
is reduced – if possible while it is yet green – to small
high levels (up to 80–90%) of safrole, which is a shavings or chips; 100lbs of these when dry yield 18
suspected carcinogen. ounces 6 drachms.
Later, Joseph Maiden (1888) provided further details

The aromatic similarity of some Australian flora to
of its aromatic appeal: ‘The fragrant bark of this tree
Sassafras albidum resulted in a number of species
has been used as tea in Tasmania. A decoction or
being subjected to chemical analysis. Some of the
infusion of the green or dried bark was made, and
oil samples investigated contained varying amounts
according to Mr. Gunn, it has a pleasant taste when
of safrole – as well as desirable aromatic compounds
taken with plenty of milk. Its effect is, however, slightly
including camphor and eugenol. Concerns regarding
aperient. It is also used in the form of a beer.’ In 1900
the toxicity of safrole were raised in the 1960s and the
Maiden recorded that the bark ‘contains an agreeable
use of herbs containing this compound was eventually
11 There has been a renewed interest in sassafras oil in recent years for
discontinued. However, safrole’s toxic activity does making illegal methamphetamine drugs (MDMA). Safrole is a precursor that
not appear to be a straightforward affair. The exact can be used in making certain aromatic compounds, such as vanillin, isosafrol
and piperonal. The insecticide synergist piperonyl butoxide can also be made
risk associated with the use of sassafras tea appears from safrole.
Australian trees known as ‘Sassafras’

Species Distribution Characteristics
Black Sassafras New South Wales, Victoria, Slender shrub, which can become a large
(Atherosperma moschatum) Tasmania tree of the rainforest or wetter forest
regions.
Timber is good for turning and steam
bending. Excellent durable timber for
clothes pegs.
Oliver’s Sassafras, Camphorwood New South Wales to northern Large coastal rainforest tree.
(Cinnamomum oliveri)* Queensland (Cape York Timber: yields fragrant millable logs, i.e.
Peninsula). Species of coastal hill ‘camphorwood.’ Useful general purpose
forests, near watercourses. timber that has been used for making
plywood and for joinery, but is now fairly
rare.
Yellow-wood, Socketwood, Satinwood Confined to coastal and near- Small to medium tree with peculiar ‘socket-
(Daphnandra micrantha) coastal areas, north-eastern New jointed’ limbs that are characteristic of the
South Wales genus.
Scentless Sassafras Tropical north Queensland Rainforest tree.
(Daphnandra repandula) Timber: useful general purpose timber, but
rarely grows to a size to yield millable logs.
Northern Grey sassafras, Cairns Tropical north Queensland Large rainforest tree.
Sassafras Timber: distinctive aromatic wood and
(Doryphora aromatica syn. bark, but with dull-grained character.
Daphnandra aromatica) General purpose timber with uses similar
to pine, including floorboards and ceilings.
New South Wales Sassafras Southern Queensland and New Large rainforest tree of temperate Australia.
(Doryphora sassafras) South Wales Timber: soft; yellow colour with distinctive
aromatic quality. The fine-grained timber is
useful for mouldings.
* This species is not classified in the Atherospermataceae – it belongs to the Lauraceae, the Laurel family.
bitter, of much repute as a tonic amongst sawyers. It Oil of the Australian (Black) Sassafras, which was
is called “Native Sassafras” from the odour of its bark, ‘lighter than that of the American sassafras’, was
due to an essential oil closely resembling true sassafras considered to have similar useful potential (Lauterer
in odour. [The Victorian pharmacist Joseph] Bosisto 1894). Maiden commented that it possessed an aroma
likens the smell of the inner bark to new ale, and says resembling ordinary sassafras oil with an aromatic
that a decoction from this part of the tree is a good taste ‘bitter and prickly to the tongue’. However,
substitute for yeast in raising bread’. some conflict of opinion surrounded its potential
toxicity. British authorities determined that large
The bark tincture was made from 100g of bark to doses could be taken without effect. Dr R. Stockman
550ml rectified spirit, with a dose comprising 30–60 produced a paper entitled ‘On the action of the
drops taken on a lump of sugar. There was also a report volatile oil of Atherosperma moschatum’, published
of the bark being used by Aborigines for the treatment in the Pharmaceutical Journal of 24 December 1892,
of venereal disease, a recommendation that the in which he opined: ‘It seems therefore certain that
white settlers adopted (Cribb 1981). There is also an neither the volatile oil nor any other constituent of
interesting note in the 21st edition of the Dispensatory the bark of Atherosperma moschatum is particularly
of the United States of America (1926) that mentions its active or poisonous, and, further, that the volatile
use for treating syphilis and as an antirheumatic agent. oil has a close resemblance in physiological action to
other volatile oils. Regarding its use as a diaphoretic,
expectorant, and alterative, there is little doubt that
it is simply similar to the many other essential oils or

plants containing them which are used in medicine for
similar purposes.’ Maiden concluded: ‘Dr. Stockman
is an eminent man in research of this character, and
his decision must be accepted as final, and so the
short list of supposed Australian plants must be still
further reduced’ (Maiden 1900). In the early 1900s
Bosisto reported that Atherospermum moschatum had
toxic properties. Later investigations were to shed
further light on the chemical constituents, and toxic
potential, of the oil of this species which, in addition
to safrole, contained pinene, camphor, and methyl-
eugenol (Rennie 1926).
The first reference to the medicinal properties of the

Atherosperma moschatum. (Courtesy: Peter Woodard) bark of Atherospermum moschatum was made in a
letter by the botanist Baron von Mueller, dated 5 April
1855, published in Hooker’s Journal of Botany and Kew
Gardens Miscellany. He commented that ‘on behalf of
Dr. Greever, M.L.C.’, its successful use as a remedy in
bronchitis suggested that it ‘be examined chemically
and medicinally’. In 1861, chemical investigations
were undertaken in Germany by M.N.J. Zeyer, who
worked with a brown-red precipitate that had ‘a faint
aromatic odour, [and] tastes distinctly like nutmeg and
sassafras’. The alkaloid atherospermine was identified.
This was an important event, as A. moschatum was
the first Australian plant from which an alkaloid was
isolated. Later studies determined that atherospermine
had analgesic and antispasmodic activity. The
chemically related alkaloid atherosperminine also
has pharmacological attributes of interest and can
12 Atherosperminine, which is a derivative of nuciferine, has been found in
some species of Annona (e.g. the root bark of A. muricata,) and Fissistigma
(e.g. F. glaucescens). Nuciferine, which has been isolated from extracts of
some waterlilies (e.g. Nelumbo nucifera and Nymphaea caerulea), can also
affect nervous system function, albeit differently (via blocking dopamine
receptors), and results in muscular relaxation and sleep (Bhattacharya 1978).
stimulate dopamine receptors – showing potential

for the treatment of catalepsy.12 It also has the ability
to potentiate the anticonvulsant action of some
drugs and can inhibit morphine-induced analgesia
(Bhattacharya 1978).
Later investigations which clarified the nature of

the alkaloidal constituents, identified berbamine
as the main compound. The other alkaloids were
present in lesser amounts. Since the early 1990s
berbamine has attracted substantial interest
because it possesses significant antiarrhythmic
properties and other cardioactive attributes
(anti-ischaemic, vasodilatory, antithrombic)
that can reduce heart palpitations, lower blood
pressure and support cardiovascular function.
It has demonstrated immunosuppressive and
anticancer potential, notably as an anti-leukaemic
agent. Additional studies have shown that
berbamine has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant,
anti-allergic, antipyretic and analgesic properties
(Wong 1992; Li 1994; Kupeli 2002; Dong 2004;
Guo & Fu 2005; Xu 2006; Zhao 2007). The
immunosuppressive effects of berbamine have Socketwood (Daphnandra micrantha).
been of interest due to its potential for transplant
procedures. In studies of experimental allergic the branchlets, where they join the stems completely
encephalitis berbamine showed good protective articulate, forming rounded knobs up to 2 inches in
effects, with the suggestion that it could have a diameter. As a result, one has to be careful in climbing
role in treating immune-mediated inflammatory a tree of this kind.’
disorders such as multiple sclerosis (Wong 1992;
Luo 1998; Ramgolam 2000). A berbamine Like that of Atherosperma moschatum, the bitter
bark of Socketwood (Daphnandra micrantha, syn.
derivative has indicated interesting potential for
Atherosperma micranthum) was of some repute among
use in the treatment of liver cancer (hepatoma) sawyers as a tonic (Maiden 1900). Early experiments
(Liu 2002, Fang 2004). determined that the tincture had an effect similar to
digitalis. In 1890 Dr T.L. Bancroft reported on his
investigation of the genus Daphnandra in Transactions,
Daphnandra species
Intercolonial Medical Congress. They were:
Daphnandra micrantha has a restricted distribution
in New South Wales. It is one of the socketwoods, very interesting, possessing several alkaloids of a stable
trees that have a rather distinctive appearance due to and crystalline nature. In their physiological action they
the rounded knobs that develop at junctions between resemble somewhat the Digitalis group. I have for some
the branches and stem. Maiden (1921) described this years now occasionally used a tincture of the bark of
characteristic: ‘Mr. Sid. W. Jackson, some years ago, Daphnandra micrantha in the treatment of heart cases,
when on the Dorrigo, wrote to me, drawing attention apparently with good results; my patients expressed
to the “peculiar socket-jointed limbs” … The ends of themselves as feeling much better, and the sphymograph
showed some improvement in the condition of the pulse.

Daphnandra kills frogs by its action upon the heart, and
kills warm-blooded animals by its paralysing effect upon
the spinal cord. Although I did not anticipate that any
good would result from the use of any substance having
a paralysing action upon the cord in the treatment of
tetanus, yet I tried Daphnandra in a severe case of tetanus
in a man. He derived no benefit therefrom … Should a
remedy ever be discovered for tetanus, I believe it will be
a substance having an injurious effect upon the microbes
that cause the disease, like the effect of salicine13 in
rheumatic fever, and quinine in ague.
Extracts of Daphnandra dielsii, another species from

which alkaloids have been isolated, have also shown Daphnandra repandula.
hypotensive properties in animal studies (Collins
1990).
Chemical investigations of the tree were complicated The Scentless Sassafras (Daphnandra repandula) was
by the fact that the concentration of the bark alkaloids another rainforest tree whose chemical attributes
could be quite variable. This led to studies that made attracted early interest for similar reasons. Dr T.L.
an important discovery – the variation was found to be Bancroft made an early report on the subject that
influenced by where the tree grew. In 1952 Professor highlighted its toxic potential in the Proceedings of the
Len Webb provided the following details regarding Royal Society of New South Wales, 1888 (p. 69):
this chemical inconsistency:
The bark of this tree has a transient bitter taste, and when
Nevertheless, there are several good examples of first removed from the tree it has a yellow colour on
considerable variation in alkaloid content, and the the inner surface, which changes to a metallic black on
proportion of the various alkaloids present, according exposure to the air, but this disappears again as it dries.
to the locality where local alkaloidal species grow. Infusions of the bark are of a yellow colour, and remain
One example is the bark of Daphnandra micrantha free from microscopic organisms when kept. The extract
(Monimiaceae) the so-called ‘socket wood’ or ‘canary of the bark is very poisonous, one grain being a fatal
sassafras’. In a New South Wales tree Pyman (1949) dose for a frog, and ten for warm-blooded animals. The
originally found mainly daphnandrine, accompanied alkaloids contained in the bark are colourless when pure
by smaller amounts of daphnoline and a very small and crystalline. The active one is easily separated from
amount of micranthine. Lately, several samples from the others, being soluble in water. Its poisonous action
different places in southern Queensland and northern is chiefly due to its action on the heart. To some extent
New South Wales yielded micranthine, and the other two it is antagonistic to strychnia [strychnine]. The poison
alkaloids were absent or present only in small quantities. powerfully affects fish, molluscs and infusoria. When
In at least two of these samples known to the writer, the applied topically to voluntary or involuntary muscles, it
trees involved were similar in size. Bick & Todd (1950) paralyses them rapidly. It also retards the development of
suggested ‘local botanical variation’ might occur within septic organisms, and will deodorise putrid meat. It will
the species, but the plants in the different areas have been kill some water plants.
examined without success for such variation. If the age of
tree be significant then larger trees may tend to contain The alkaloid-containing bark of the Northern or
mainly micranthine in the bark at the base of the stem, Cairns Sassafras (Doryphora aromatica, formerly
and Pyman’s sample may have been from much younger Daphnandra aromatica) had similar toxic effects. This
trees. was ‘a medium-sized tree with rather smooth bark
and stiff dark-green leaf, both of which have a strong
fragrance. Wood of a light colour, not unlike pine.
13 This is the anti-inflammatory and antipyretic active principle of aspirin,
which was naturally sourced from Willow bark (Salix alba) or Meadowsweet Employed for many of the purposes for which pine
(Filipendula ulmaria). is used’ (Maiden 1921). The oil extracted from the
bark of the Northern Sassafras was particularly rich in forest may be the only hint of the presence of this large
safrole, as well as a number of terpenes (pinene, alpha- tree hidden in the forest canopy far above. The leaf
phellandrene, cineol) (Rennie 1926). In addition, and bark extracts contain alkaloids, some of which
mention has been made of the species’ aromatic have toxic potential. Studies have demonstrated
attributes as an inhalant that was used by Aboriginal that extracts have hypotensive properties as well as
women to quell nausea associated with menstrual very mild diuretic, analgesic and anti-inflammatory
periods (Drewes 1991). activity (Collins 1990).
Doryphora sassafras. (Courtesy: macca_1985, Flickr Public

domain)
Sassafras (Doryphora aromatica).
The Sassafras (Doryphora aromatica) is typical of many

rainforest plants that produce inconspicuous flowers
– fragile white blossoms that appear en masse in the
green foliage of the forest. The fruit is a small woody
container which, when it splits, takes on a rather
distinctive appearance like a small cap with a mop
of hair underneath – an ideal structure for releasing
the wind-blown seeds within that are attached to a
feathery plume. Although this distribution strategy
is more commonly utilised by pioneer plant species,
Doryphora aromatica is a component of the mature
rainforest – a densely shaded environment where
there is intense competition for access to light. Indeed,
the brown furry fruits scattered on the ground in the (Courtesy: Keith Williams, Native Plants of Queensland Vol.2)
0.3% and fruit 0.1%), with higher concentrations

(0.63%) present in the bark (Petrie 1912, Webb 1952).
The oil was characterised by high levels of safrole
(69–75%), which suggested there could be concerns
regarding the deployment of this remedy. It also
contained eugenol and various other terpenes (Rennie
1926). An intriguing observation was that the alkaloid
content appeared to vary with its growth: ‘considerably
more alkaloids were isolated from older trees’. There
is another rainforest tree of pharmacological interest,
Galbulimima baccata, the Northern Pigeonberry Ash,
which showed a similar increase in alkaloid content
with age (Webb 1952). Tests in animals determined
that bark extracts of the New South Wales Sassafras
had toxic effects and moderate hypotensive activity
(Collins 1990).
One other native ‘Sassafras’ candidate was the

Doryphora sassafras. (Courtesy: Keith Williams, Native Plants Camphorwood or Oliver’s Sassafras (Cinnamomum
of Queensland Vol.4)
oliveri), which is an inhabitant of dense rainforest.
In the late 1800s Lauterer undertook a chemical
The New South Wales Sassafras (Doryphora sassafras) evaluation of this species and established that there
is another species that has an attractive spicy was 4.5% tannin in the bark and that the oil was
fragrance. Indeed, crushing the leaf or scratching characterised by camphor: ‘The camphor is contained
the bark will release an aroma similar to that of the in special oil ducts in the mesophyll. It is dissolved
Camphor Laurel (Cinnamomum camphora) due to there in the oil … Very likely the fabrication of
its camphor content. In 1912, the biochemist James camphor from the foliage of the Brisbane sassafras tree
Petrie recorded some details regarding its use, noting could be made payable if properly managed. A still is
that ‘Aborigines, also the country people, make a tea not wanted for it. The leaves are boiled in a large kettle,
from the bark, which they drink as a tonic. The light- the top of which is covered by an upturned unglazed
yellow wood possesses the fragrance of the bark, and earthenware vessel filled with straw. The camphor
is not attacked by insects’. In June 1907, a Mr W.H. is sublimated in the straw in the form of small pure
Walters collected samples near Fitzroy Falls, Moss grains (Lauterer 1894)’ Even so, it did not appear to
Vale, with regard to which Petrie commented: ‘The be worthy of commercial interest due to the low oil
fragrant odour of bark in its fresh state is very strong, content: ‘I found good bark to contain much less oil
and during the drying, part of the volatile oil escaped, than the Sassafras bark of North America contains
and the fragrance lessened, and finally became very … I am quite certain that it never will pay even the
faint. The air-dried material was laid aside at the time, expense to distil the essential oil out of the bark for
until a convenient opportunity could be obtained to commercial purposes. The average bark contains
begin the investigation. During the 3 years storage, a “about” 2 pro mille of the essential oil.’
considerable portion of the most volatile constituents
must have been lost, as the faint aromatic odour Lauterer mentioned that Oliver’s Sassafras was quite
persisted throughout and the air of the storeroom was different to the American Sassafras. Indeed, even the
constantly laden with the vapour’ (Petrie 1912). presence of safrol was doubtful:
The commercial Sassafras oil from North America consists

Petrie isolated a poisonous alkaloidal mixture, of Safrol … The sassafras oil is sold by Elliot Bros. at
sixpence or eightpence an ounce and one hundredweight
originally named doryphorine, from the plant (leaves
of Cinnamomum bark might yield 2 ounces of oil to a
these results. There were two oil types: the first contains
camphor, safrole and methyleugenol; while another type
was based on cinnamic aldehyde and eugenol (Lassak &
McCarthy 1992).
In 1886 Dr Joseph Bancroft mentioned his use of

Cinnamomum oliveri as a herbal remedy, with which
he was quite impressed:
The bark has a strong aromatic odour, and pleasant

astringent taste. It is frequently used by bushmen to
improve the flavour of their tea, a little bit of bark being
infused therewith. The active principles are a volatile
oil with an odour like the North American sassafras,
and a peculiar tannin. The bark has been used by me
as a convenient aromatic astringent in diarrhoea and
dysentery, having the properties of cinnamon and catechu
in combination. It is most conveniently used in the form
of a tincture, made with 2 oz. of the bruised bark in a pint
of rectified spirit (cited in Maiden 1910).
There are a couple of related native Cinnamomum

species of interest. Cinnamomum laubatii has a highly
aromatic timber that has been sold commercially as
Camphorwood or Oliver’s Sassafras (Cinnamomum oliveri). pepperwood. However, because the bark oil contains
This species has a wide distribution along the eastern safrole, it is not recommended for medicinal use.
coastline – ranging from New South Wales to Cape York in The essential oil of the leaves is rich in eugenol and
northern Queensland. The tree yields a useful timber suitable sesquiterpene components, although there appears to
for indoor use which has an attractive sassafras-like fragrance, be some chemical variation in the oil this species can
hence the common name.
yield (Lassak & McCarthy 1992). In Maiden’s Useful
good still, so that a profitable trade is quite out of the Native Plants of Australia (1889) he mentioned the
question. The essential oil of Cinnamomum Oliveri is medicinal reputation of the tree. The leaves (under the
very likely not identical with Sassafras oil. I had a small name Cinnamomum tamala, the Cassia Cinnamon14)
quantity of it under ice for 24 hours, but not a trace of were ‘used both as a condiment and as a medicine in
Safrol crystallized out of it. The smell is different too, very India; they are considered to be carminative, stimulant,
likely from the presence of camphorigenol … There is no diuretic, diaphoretic, lactagogue and deobstruent
doubt respecting the medicinal value of the bark, and the (Dymock). The bark is also used for almost similar
farmers would be wise not to touch the trees now, but
purposes’. Certainly, there are compounds in these
wait patiently until there was a good demand. They can
trees that have rated chemical investigation. CSIRO
try to sublimate the camphor out of the leaves – perhaps
it might pay well. investigations of extracts of Cinnamon laubatii showed
that it was strongly positive for alkaloids. Although
Later analysis by G.W. Hargreaves (1916) confirmed that the Pepperwood and Oliver’s Sassafras were negative
the bark oil contained camphor (18–20%) and pinene in antitumour testing, Bollywood (Cinnamomum
(12–15%), as well as a rather large amount of safrole (25– baileyanum) extracts were positive (Collins 1990).15
14 Cinnamomum laubatii was formerly classified as Cinnamomum tamala,
27%). The leaf oil had a much higher camphor content a species that is used medicinally in India. The eugenol-rich oil is the type
(60%) than the bark, as well as some pinene, possibly specifically utilised in Indian medicine.
phellandrene, and phenols (Francis 1981). Studies later 15 The fruits and flowers of Bollywood are difficult to distinguish from those
of Oliver’s Sassafras; they can be differentiated by their leaves. Another large
indicated that there were different chemical varieties rainforest tree, the Blush Walnut or Nutwood (Beilschmiedia obtusifolia), has
of the species, which would explain the discrepancy in a very similar appearance although the leaf is much broader.
1m’. The chemist R.T. Baker commented: ‘The

bark is thin, non-aromatic, and a distillation of
60 lb. gave very little oil’ (cited in Maiden 1911).
Although it became known as the Scentless
Sassafras, this name could be a misnomer,
as Williams observed: ‘The wood is fragrant
and it is from this fragrance that the common
name of Sassafras comes. I cannot correlate the
“Scentless Sassafras” common name with the
known qualities of the species.’ (Williams 1984).
It appears that there were two types of tree – one
with fragrant characteristics and the other devoid
of aromatic qualities (Williams 1987).
Maiden, who called this species the ‘Native

Cinnamomum virens. (Courtesy: Keith Williams, Native Camphor Laurel’, considered it was very similar
Plants of Queensland Vol.3) to Cinnamomum oliveri: ‘The remarks on the
timber of C. oliveri, are also applicable to this
species … Mr. G. Tingcombe says it is a very
tough timber. It is one of a very large number
of brush timbers, of whose properties we know
nothing, or next to nothing, and I only hope we
shall know more of them before they become
so scarce as to be of no commercial importance’
(Maiden 1911). It does not appear to have
become particularly well known: ‘It is reported
to be suitable for use indoors and some forms of
cabinet work. However, it does not appear to be
readily available’ (Williams 1987).
Many native rainforest timbers are now rare and

unprocurable – which may not be such a bad
Cinnamomum virens. (Courtesy: Keith Williams, Native
thing. Today, the aim of saving the rainforest
Plants of Queensland Vol.2) itself is commendable. This would seem a rather
progressive ideal, particularly when compared to
former policies that resulted in the irresponsible
Another native tree from New South Wales
harvesting suffered by many of the rainforest
and Queensland, Cinnamomum virens, has also
giants. This was a strategy that left little behind for
been known as Sassafras. In the rainforest this
future generations to appreciate. The destruction
tree could reach respectable proportions, with
that continues to be associated with rainforests
Keith Williams (1984) noting that ‘the fruit was
around the world is of concern in a medical
green and was being eaten by large flocks of King
sense because the diversity in these forests has
Parrots. The tree is reported to grow as high as
the greatest potential among the world’s plant
30m or more with a trunk diameter of about
communities for new pharmacological discoveries.
The dramatic chemical revelations associated forested lands must be associated with the loss
with past exploration hints at substantial future of potentially irreplaceable drugs, both herbal
prospects. The loss of these natural reservoirs and medical. The problem becomes even more
of medicinal plants hints at catastrophes that worrying with the consideration of another
could have dire consequences for botanical drug important fact – tropical rainforests contain the
resources. In the past, indiscriminate harvesting highest percentage of pharmacologically active
of natural resources precipitated serious crises in plants in the world. The devastation of wild
the availability of the antimalarial drug quinine resources which has attended the exploitation
and the tranquilliser reserpine. of many tropical medicinal plants once again
Rainforests are largely chemically and botanically illustrates the imperative for wise conservation of
unexplored, a fact which leaves many wondering native plants and the unique habitats in which
at the true impact of floral extinctions. Clearing they survive.
Chapter 4
XANTHORRHOEA:
GRASS-TREE MEDICINE
The early botanical exploration of Australia

was motivated not only by the novelty of floral
discovery. There were numerous practical reasons to
investigate natural products, with the identification
of construction materials, fuel, food and medicines
being of paramount importance. The flora remained
a mystery for the European settlers on many levels
– particularly those plants that could survive in
environments that ranged from the lush rainforest
to the parched desert. Much of the flora had evolved
within an ancient weathered landscape plagued by
nutritionally poor soils, scorching summers and the
hazards of fire, and many of the survival strategies these
plants employed were unfamiliar to the newcomers,
and their ecological impact often underestimated.
It was hardly surprising that the early botanical
collections from this remarkable land had unusual
appeal for Europeans.
Survival tactics for plants and people

Aboriginal people were highly experienced survivors
who appreciated the seasonal nature of their
environment. Their utilisation of the continent’s
resources was often very innovative. Joseph Maiden
mentioned that the bulbs of some Prasophyllum
Tall Leek Orchid (Prasophyllum elatum).
orchids were used as food across the continent. These
small ground orchids are difficult to find when they
production. This tactic is designed to help the plant
enter their dormant stage during the winter. In the
withstand the scorching heat and dry conditions that
spring, they emerge with leaves that have a soft,
characterise their challenging environment. It is also a
succulent character. At this time the summer heat
useful survival technique following fire. Many native
has not yet challenged the landscape and the orchid
Australian plants that have adopted this flowering
can spend some of its stored reserves on flowering. In
strategy are found unfurling their refreshing green
general, ground orchids do not produce many leaves
foliage in a barren burnt landscape and are a vitally
because their resources are concentrated on tuber
important resource for wildlife.
88
Chapter 4 XANTHORRHOEA: GRASS-TREE MEDICINE 89
Early botanical collections in Wm. Baxter the curator of the Oxford Botanic Garden
between 1818–1851.3 No plant seems to bear the name
Australia of this excellent man, the Baxteria of Robt. Brown being
In the seventeenth century the voyages of the Dutch named after [another] Wm Baxter, who was a collector of
adventurer Willem de Vlamingh and the English West Australian plants between 1823 and 1830.
mariner William Dampier heralded the start of
European botanical forays into Australian waters. The second William Baxter was an English gardener
Indeed, these explorations occurred seventy years who spent time collecting plants in Australia on behalf
before James Cook arrived in Australia with his of English nurserymen and the private individuals
scientific associates. who funded his trips.
William Dampier’s botanical samples Twenty-four specimens from Dampier’s collection,

William Dampier was a remarkable explorer who first listed in the table below, remain housed at the Oxford
visited West Australia aboard the pirate ship Cygnet in University Herbaria, Fielding-Druce Herbarium,
1688.1 The publication of the story of his travels led Oxford, England. A few other Australian specimens have
to a commission as captain of the Roebuck, in which been identified from his journals. They include Abrus
he crossed the Indian Ocean – sailing from Africa to precatorius, Acanthocarpus robustus, Canavalia rosea,
land at Hartog Island in Shark Bay, Western Australia. Crotalaria cunninghamii, Ipomoea pes-caprae, Nitraria
On this tour of ‘New Holland’ in 1699 he mapped billardierei, Ptilotus villosiflorus and Spinifex longifolius.4
a significant stretch of the western coastline and
numerous islands en route to Timor and Indonesia.
Dampier had a keen appreciation of the natural world
and was fascinated by the unusual flora he encountered.
In addition to Shark Bay, landings were made along
the coast at Dampier Archipelago and Roebuck Bay,
where valuable botanical collections were acquired.
Unfortunately, much of his documentation sank with
his ship near Ascension Island in 1701. Even so, all
was not lost as he managed to rescue his coastal charts,
some botanical specimens, and wrote an account of
the trip called A Voyage to New Holland.
In his presidential address to the Royal Society

of Queensland in July 1891, Frederick M. Bailey
mentioned Dampier’s achievements in an essay Sturt’s Desert Pea (Willdampia formosa, formerly Swainsona
entitled A Concise History of Australian Botany : formosa). This distinctive species has been found to be
sufficiently different from the rest of the Swainsona genus to
The father of the science [of botany] in Australia was warrant a separate classification. The genus name Willdampia
the celebrated buccaneer, Capt. Wm. Dampier, who in was chosen to commemorate Dampier’s botanical exploration
1688 and 1699 collected plant specimens on the west and of Western Australia.
(Courtesy: Blueday, public domain at the English Wikipedia)
north-west coasts. These specimens seem to have been
the first carried to Europe2, and it would appear that they 2 Two herbarium specimens survive from the collections made by Captain de
were left undetermined until they were worked out by Vlamingh in 1697, Acacia truncata and Synaphea spinulosa. They are housed
in the herbarium of the botanic garden at Geneva (Halliwell 2002).
1 Dampier was a colourful character who ultimately circumnavigated the 3 At Oxford, the eminent botanist William Baxter published six volumes
world three times. He split his career between privateering and serving in of a remarkable work called British Phaenogamous Botany or Figures and
the Royal Navy. In 1703 he was appointed commander of the St George and Descriptions of the Genera of British Flowering Plants (1834–1843). This
went to fight in the War of the Spanish Succession, after which he once again included 509 hand-coloured copperplate engravings.
returned to the more profitable pirating habit. His linguistic achievements 4 See Brian Walters, William Dampier – 300th Anniversary, Australian Plants
continue to be appreciated, as he made the first English record of such words Online, Society for Growing Australian Plants (now Australian Native Plants
as barbecue, chopsticks, subspecies and avocado. Society).
William Dampier Collection at the Oxford University Herbaria, Fielding-

Druce Herbarium
Species Plant family Site of collection
Acacia coriacea Mimosaceae possibly Shark Bay
Acacia ligulata Mimosaceae Shark Bay
Adriana tomentosa Euphorbiaceae probably East Lewis Island, Dampier
Archipelago
Beaufortia dampieri = Beaufortia sprengelioides Myrtaceae Shark Bay
Brachycome aff. cheiliocarpa Asteraceae Shark Bay
Calandrinia polyandra Portulacaceae Shark Bay
Conostylis stylidioides Haemodoraceae Shark Bay
Cystoseira trinodis A seaweed of the Cystoseiraceae probably Shark Bay
Diplolaena grandiflora Rutaceae Shark Bay
Dampiera incana Goodeniaceae Shark Bay
Frankenia pauciflora Frankeniaceae Shark Bay
Hannafordia quadrivalvis Sterculiaceae Shark Bay
Lotus cruentus Fabaceae Shark Bay
Melaleuca cardiophylla Myrtaceae Shark Bay
Myoporum insulare Myoporaceae locality uncertain
Olearia axillaris Asteraceae Dampier Archipelago
Paractaenum novae-hollandiae Poaceae (a grass) Shark Bay
Pittosporum phylliraeoides Pittosporaceae probably Shark Bay
Ptilotus villosiflorus Amaranthaceae Shark Bay
Solanum orbiculatum Solanaceae Shark Bay
Sida calyxhymenia Malvaceae possibly Shark Bay
Swainsona formosa (syn. Clianthus formo-sus) = Fabaceae Dampier Archipelago
Willdampia formosa (since 1999)
Thryptomene baeckeacea Myrtaceae Shark Bay
Triodia danthonioides A grass from the Poaceae Shark Bay
Trachymene elachocarpa Apiaceae probably Shark Bay
(Source: Serena Marner, Herbarium Manager, 2009)
Brachycome daisies.
William Dampier had a particular fascination with our large apple trees and about the same height; the
the blue-flowered plants he found on his Australian rind is blackish and somewhat rough. The leaves are of
travels. The native Brachycome daisies, one of which dark colour; the Gum distils out of the knots or cracks
was among his collection, provide some lovely that are in the bodies of the trees.’
examples of outstanding blue hues. The Variable
Daisy (B. ciliaris) is a widespread species that ranges The close resemblance of the kino from Dampier’s
from eastern Australia, throughout the inland regions, ‘gum-trees’ to the dragon’s blood which was in
to the west coast. The stunning blue-flowered Cut-leaf widespread use in Europe at the time, ensured its
Daisy (B. multifida), native to the bush and grasslands appeal. John Gerard elaborated on the medicinal value
of the east coast, has become a popular ornamental of the substance: ‘The Sanguis Dragonis [dragon’s
export. Today it can be found growing prolifically blood] which is thought to proceed from [the dragon]
in gardens across the southern regions of the United tree hath an astringent faculty and is with good
States, from the east coast to the west. success used in the overmuch flowing of the courses
[menstrual period], in fluxes [diarrhoea], dysenteries,
‘Dragon’s blood’: resins and gums spitting of blood, fastening loose teeth, and such other
Resin and gum-yielding flora were of particular affects which require astriction [an astringent effect].’
interest to the early explorers. Such plants could have It also provided a red colouring for items such as
high commercial value as these products were used for paint, plaster, dye and toothpaste.
diverse purposes – notably as glues, bonding agents,
ink, pharmaceutical binders, waterproofing products, In August 1770 Sir Joseph Banks, in a rather
varnish and paint. In 1688 Dampier compared the disparaging review of the Australian vegetation,
gum yielded by trees he encountered in Australia to likewise noted these resinous resources:
a familiar bright red resinous substance known by the
fanciful name ‘dragon’s blood’: ‘Most of the trees we Other usefull plants we saw none, except perhaps two
saw are dragon trees as we supposed; and these too are might be found which yield resin in abundance; the one a
the largest trees any where. They are the bigness for tree tolerably large with narrow leaves not unlike a willow
which was very plentyfull in every place into which we
went [probably Eucalyptus crebra]; this yielded a blood red
resin or rather gum-resin very nearly resembling Sanguis
draconis, indeed as Sanguis draconis is the produce of
several different plants this may perhaps be one of the
sorts. This I should suppose to be the gum mentioned
by Dampier in his voyage round the world and by him
compared with Sanguis draconis, as possibly also that
which Tasman saw upon Diemen’s Land where he says he
saw gum of the trees and gum lac of the ground.
The ‘gum lac of the ground’ was a product of the resin-

yielding native ‘Grass Tree’ (genus: Xanthorrhoea).
This unique plant provided a classic example of
the differences of the Australian flora which, when
compared to the more familiar European vegetation,
greatly puzzled the early botanical investigators.
Banks, who pondered Xanthorrhoea’s usefulness as
Eucalyptus is an Ironbark, sometimes called the Narrow- a drug resource, fancied that it was similar to the
leaved Ironbark or Narrow-leaved Red Ironbark. It has a European Bulrush (a species of Typha): ‘a small plant
wide distribution up the eastern Australian coast and ranges
a fair way inland, from New South Wales to Cape York in with long narrow grassy leaves and a spike of flowers
Queensland. (Courtesy: Ethel Aardvark, Wikimedia resembling much that kind of Bulrush which is called
Commons) in England, Cats tail: this yielded a resin of a bright
yellow colour perfectly resembling Gambouge only resembling the Pine tree, by reason it doth alwaies
that it did not stain; it has a sweet smell but what its flourish, and hath his boughes or branches of equal length
properties are the chymists may be able to determine’ and bignesse, which are bare and naked, of eight or nine
(Beaglehole 1963). Gamboge was an important resin cubits long … the ends of which do shoot out leaves
of a cubit and a halfe long, and full two inches broad,
that was sourced from various species of Garcinia
somewhat thicke, and raised up the middle, then thinner
trees in South-east Asia and India.5 In the raw state
and thinner like a two edged sword; among which comes
it was a brown-orange colour that turned yellow forth little mossie floures, of small moment, and turne
when powdered. This was an important colouring into berries, of the bignesse of Cherries of a yellowish
for paint and varnish, although the substance could colour, round, light and bitter.
have substantial skin irritant effects. Due to its drastic
purgative properties its former deployment as a drug Gerard mentioned that ‘the tree is covered with a
required great caution in its use. rough bark, very thin, and easie to be open or wounded
with any small toole or instrument, which being so
The Dragon Tree wounded in the Dog daies [midsummer], bruised or
The Dragon Tree (Dracaena draco), Sydney Botanic Gardens.
The Dragon Tree (Dracaena draco) was every bit bored, doth yeeld forth drops of a thicke red liquour,
as unique as the Australian flora to which it was which of the name of the tree are called Dragons teares’.
compared. An early botanical description by John While Dragon Tree resin was usually wild harvested in
Gerard in his Herbal or General Historie of Plants this fashion, it could also be prepared from boiling the
(1633 edition) certainly did justice to its appearance: bark and making a paste. This was then sundried to make
resin blocks for commercial sale.
This strange and admirable tree groweth very great,
5 The species utilised include Garcinia hanburyi from Cambodia and
Thailand; G. morella from India and Sri Lanka; and G. elliptica and G. Dragon’s blood has been highly valued since ancient
heterandra from Myanmar (Burma). times as a special colouring for manuscript inks, an
Berries of the Dragon Tree. Dracaena draco – fruits and the seeds within.
Dracaena draco, fruiting tree and distinctive trunk.

aromatic perfumery agent, and as incense for religious

ceremonies. Over time, the source of the resin became
shrouded in legend, and great secrecy surrounded its
origins. It was scarce, being harvested from a couple
of rare trees found only in two locations on either side
of the African continent – the rare Canary Islands
Dracaena draco in the north-west, and the equally
scarce D. cinnabari from Socotra, an island off the
Horn of Africa. The authentic resin was expensive and
had a potent reputation for acting as a protective agent
against malevolent sorcery. In other parts of the world
the fabled dragon’s blood was sourced from Asian
Daemonorops palms and the South American Croton
genus. These resources yielded a similar red exudate
with equivalent astringent properties.
Xanthorrhoea: distinctively
Australian
Grass trees are a distinctive feature of the Australian
landscape. Their impressive spiky crowns are made
from shafts of slender sword-like leaves that eventually
drop down to form a ‘grass skirt’ around a scaly
blackened trunk. This interesting habit gave them
some notoriety, even from the early days of settlement.
The native inhabitants seemed to mimic the Grass
Tree’s appearance when hunting: ‘Some of the species Xanthorrhoea macronema is a very attractive species, known
are small trees and, with their crown of leaves at the as the Bottlebrush Grass Tree as the flowers, from a distance,
top of the tree, the long flowering spike and black can have a similar appearance to those of the banksia. This
species is unusual in that it does not have a distinct trunk
and tends to flower in spikes that rise from tufts of spiky
leaves on the ground. (Courtesy: KAW Williams,
Native Plants of Queensland Vol.1)
stem, look in the distance like an aboriginal stalking
game with a spear and carrying, as was customary,
a bunch of green foliage’ (MacPhearson 1929). In
1860 naturalist Dr George Bennett recorded a similar
description: ‘The Yellow Gum-tree has been compared
to a tall native black with a spear; and to those who
have seen it, the resemblance is complete; and I have
even seen a fellow-traveller “cooeeing” to one of these
trees to make an inquiry. For this reason the trees
are often called “Black boys” and the gum “Black
boy gum”, which the aborigines use as a cement for
fastening stone heads on their tomahawks.’
Grass tree (Xanthorrea species).

Grass Tree resin: a medical resource In 1834 Dr Henry Fish provided clinical details of
Grass Trees were among the first of the natural resources the use of the remedy in the Boston Medical and
in Australia to achieve a measure of medicinal fame. Surgical Journal. With opium it was employed in
Within seventeen days of the landing of the First ‘fluxus hepaticus’ (liver disorders with diarrhoeal
Fleet, Governor Phillip noticed that a yellow gum
complications), ‘colliquative’ (profuse) diarrhoea
was secreted around the base of a ‘dwarf palm tree’.
of phthisis (a wasting condition, often associated
Surgeon-General John White quickly recommended it
as a ‘good pectoral medicine’. Thereafter, a demulcent with tuberculosis of the lungs), and chronic
potion prepared from Grass Tree resin was given for all catarrh (mucus accumulation and congestion).
manner of chest complaints. In diarrhoea and dysentery the resin was
generally combined with a mucilage such as Gum
Tragacanth and taken several times a day. The
Botany Bay Gum
Botany Bay Gum, even though it was also called Botany
preparation was as follows: ‘I have administered
Bay Resin, should be differentiated from Botany Bay it only in the form of tincture, which is prepared
Kino. There is plenty of room for confusion here with by dissolving two ounces of the resin in a pound
the use of the terms ‘resin’ and ‘gum’. Dr Fish referred of alcohol; and of this a fluid drachm may be
to Botany Bay Gum derived from Zanthorroea [sic] taken three, four, or six times in a day, in about
hastilis, which clearly distinguishes it from the an ounce of milk. I have never given at once over
Eucalyptus-derived Botany Bay Kino, which is a resin two drachms, at this quantity did not produce
(and was also called ‘gum’). The latter was listed by nausea or any unpleasant symptoms.’
many texts as being sourced from the ‘Botany Bay
Gum-tree’, the Red Mahogany (Eucalyptus resinifera),
Gum Tragacanth
although the correct botanical source was the Ironbark
Gum Tragacanth has been a popular pharmaceutical
(Eucalyptus siderphloia).
agent since ancient times. It was traditionally harvested
[[end box]] from the trunk and branches of a thorny Asian shrub,
Astragalus gummifer. Various other species yield a
These original clinical trials were to firmly establish the similar product, among them the Turkish plants
reputation of a remedy that became known as ‘Botany Astragalus microcephalaus (the main alternative
Bay resin’. Sometimes it was even taken as a cure for species) and A. kurdicus, and the Iranian species A.
dysentery, which was rife in the new settlement. Over echidnaeformis, A. gossypinus and A. microcephalus.
time, the use of a resin tincture became quite widely Astragalus gum swells in water to form a glutinous
accepted. Dr George Bennett took particular note of mass. The mucilage made a useful covering over burn
the characteristics of the resin: injuries and was often recommended as a remedy for
gastrointestinal disorders. It was a particularly useful
The gum from this tree has a dull yellow colour externally, pharmaceutical component in preparing medicines.
but breaks with a shining bright yellow fracture, streaked Its binding properties were employed in making
internally with red … [this resin] is light, brittle and, pills or tablets and ‘suspensions’ of heavy insoluble
when burning, of delightful fragrance; it is slightly bitter, powders. It was also used to stiffen materials such as
pungent and astringent, and is said to contain benzoic crepe and calico.
and cinnamic acids; it is used in the form of a tincture,
combined with opium, in cases of diarrhoea. On breaking
the stem, the resin is collected from each layer that forms Dr Fish had great faith in the efficacy of the remedy:
the connexion between the leaves and the main trunk,
and, when first exposed to the air, it is fragrant; the gum I have used it occasionally for the last eight years, and I
also exudes from the stem in small globules (Bennet believe always with benefit. It certainly possesses much
1860). efficacy in restraining hepatic diarrhoea, and is a most
important auxiliary to opium. Alone it will restrain and
cure moderate cases, but is inadequate to the cure of those
which are severe … But in some of these cases, opium, all. It had a constipating effect and was a commonly
although the appropriate remedy, and though it be given used drug for diarrhoea and dysentery, particularly
in such doses as to produce its specific effects in some in cholera epidemics and many feverish conditions,
degree, yet fails to cure the diarrhoea. In such instances including malaria. It was exceptionally popular
I think I have found more benefit, and that too of a
as an analgesic and sedative, notably for treating
decided and palpable character, from Zanthorroea [sic],
gynaecological problems, as well as for alleviating
in conjunction with opium, than any other articles of the
materia medica which I have ever used. And this benefit haemorrhage.
has resulted generally in a prompt and effectual manner.
He was particularly impressed with the use of the

remedy in chronic, intractable cases of diarrhoea:
Many patients, who labour under a chronic functional

derangement of the liver, are habitually subject to
diarrhoea; and in some of these cases, the diarrhoea
itself becomes a chronic disease. In all case of this kind
I use the Zanthorroea, in preference to any other article,
except opium; and in many of them opium will not be
required. I have frequently had occasion to take it myself
for this kind of diarrhoea, attended with great irritation
of the bowels, and always with entire relief. If I used it
immediately on an attack, it has removed the complaint
with opium; if deferred for a short time, I have found it
necessary to join small quantities of opium with it. I have
always noticed that after its use, the stomach and bowels
were invigorated, the secretions soon becoming natural,
and that the appetite and digestive powers were increased
and the strengthened.
Other conditions in which the remedy was useful

included a case of ‘typhus syncopalis’ (typhus fever
with diarrhoea) that was not responsive to any other
treatment: ‘It soon yielded to the Zanthorroea, and
the patient recovered.’
He made another couple of more unusual Xanthorrhoea flowers.

recommendations:
The flowering of Xanthorrhoea is a fairly unpredictable
In one case of neuralgia [nerve pain] of the infra-orbitar event. When it occurred, Aboriginal people would
nerve [referring to the eye], attended with a deranged state collect the blossoms in the early morning and infuse
of the digestive organs, a few doses of this resin removed them to prepare a sweet drink. An account of its
the complaint, after opium, conium, and other narcotics preparation on Stradbroke Island mentioned that
had failed to give relief. In a few cases of that diarrhoea, large amounts of Xanthorrhoea hastilis flowers were
which attends the late stages of phthisis pulmonalis, I utilised. Gradually, the blossoms were added to water
have used Zanthorroea with much good effect; having until the fluid was completely saturated with honeyed
found it to restrain those profuse evacuations better than
dew. Although it does not appear to have been a
mucilages and astringents, or than opium.
common practice, in some places the infusion was left
At the time opium was used as something of a cure- to ferment and developed a slightly alcoholic character
(Palmer 1888).
A useful tree: food, fuel and varnish

Augustus Rudder, a forester from Booral (near
Dungog in eastern New South Wales), provided an
excellent detailed description of Grass Tree resin in the
‘Botanical Notes’ of the Agricultural Gazette of New
South Wales in 1895:
[[open quote]]
This gum, or resin, is found lodged between the laminae
formed by the flattened base of the long thin angular
leaves, but in much larger quantity in the rind or bark
of these plants, of which, in fairly good specimens, it
probably constitutes fully a third part of the whole; but
none of it seems to exist in their pithy fibrous centres. In
many cases the resin is found to exude from the plants
where wounded, also under the influence of bush-fires,
and is often found at their base, above the roots, or a little
under the surface of the ground, in an almost pure state
… With regard to my rough estimate of the percentage
of resin in the bark of this plant, it is intended as an all-
round average of those of all ages and sizes. In the case,
however, of young trees with lobes, say of about 4 to 6
feet in elevation – where they have not suffered much
from bush-fires – their bark is thicker, and its yield in
resin, I should think, fully 50 or 60 percent., and of far
superior quality to that in the old trees, which, as a rule,
have been scorched many times by bush-fires, and so
damaged. In the olden days the Aborigines used this resin,
mixed with the wax of the native bees, in the fastenings of Xanthorrhoea minor. (Courtesy: Brian Walters ANPS)
their weapons &c. I have also seen it used by boiling and
mixing with coal-tar for dressing under the lining of old
boots; but in the boiling great care is needed, owing to its
great tendency to froth over.
Forester G.R. Brown from Port Macquarie, further

north from Booral, commented in the same edition:
The Grass-tree is scattered throughout this district, and

grows to an average height of from 8 to 10 feet. It favours
sandy and stony soils … As a rule the resin from the plant
is found after bush-fires about the roots, near to the butt.
The resin is often used by the Chinese for varnishing
cheap furniture made by them in Sydney. The tree is also
split in half, and after the centre pith is cleaned out, used,
principally on the Diggings, for spouts to carry water a
distance; for this purpose it is much more suitable than
the Bangalow Palm [Archontophoenix alexandrae and A.
cunninghamiana] … The base of the inner leaves, which
has a pleasant juicy taste, was eaten by the Aboriginals.
Augustus Rudder reported similarly on their edibility:

‘The bases of the young tender leaves of this plant
are very palatable, and, as far as I have tried them, discovered that a syrup could be prepared from
wholesome, and would, no doubt, help to sustain the the starch which, when crystallised, provided a
life of a person lost in the bush.’ However, opinions form of sugar. Fortunately this practice did not
have differed in this regard, with other writers prove to be commercially viable, a fact which
describing them as relatively tasteless and more
saved the genus from even more widespread
suitable for use as emergency rations, rather than
rating as a culinary delight.
destruction.
Xanthorrhoea: fire and reproduction

In North Queensland Xanthorrhoea minor, known Grass trees are ancient masters of fire survival and
as Bulnan by the Aboriginal people of the Cairns can regenerate from underground rootstock. In a
area, was described as ‘one of the best native salad blackened and ravaged landscape, the blossoms and
foods’ (Flecker 1948). Xanthorrhoea arborea was green foliage are a welcome sign of life and sustenance
likewise valued. Similar recommendations were for the traumatised wildlife. The flowering tree
made with regard to species from other parts of produces a large amount of nectar after being burnt,
the country. In Central Australia the leaf bases of providing a much-needed source of sustenance for
X. thorntonii were eaten fresh or roasted in ashes, birds and insects. It is likely that the allure of these
while a Tasmanian species had a distinct ‘nutty nectar-laden flowers increases the plants’ chance
of pollination. Even today, many of the intricacies
taste’ (Irvine 1957).
of the habitat requirements for grass trees are not
particularly well understood. It is known that seeds
The central growing stem of the grass tree was are produced in large amounts and germinate 6–12
reputed to be more palatable than the leaf months following a fire. While their period of viability
bases, although its removal destroyed these is short, they germinate easily and appear to gain extra
slow-growing plants. In 1888 the botanist nutrition from the ash-fertilised soils. This nutrient
Charles Hedley noted with regard to the stems boost provides an impetus for the new growth, and
of Xanthorrhoea arborea from the Port Curtis is a welcome bonus for the seedlings as the plants are
district: ‘another resource of food is the heart of notoriously slow growing. In some places the seeds
the grass-tree, which, when cut out, has much have been ground to make a food paste. In North
the same appearance and flavour as has the Queensland the leaf bases of Xanthorrhoea arborea
were eaten, and a small grub living in the roots of this
heart of the better known cabbage palm tree’.6
species was a sought-after delicacy. The old rotting
In 1843 the missionary James Backhouse, who trunks, which could harbour large numbers of the
had a particular interest in botany, provided a insect, were avidly inspected by Aboriginal people in
description of its harvest: ‘The Aborigines beat the search for food (Palmer 1883).
off the heads of these singular plants by striking
them about the top of the trunk with a large Xanthorrhoea is a long-lived genus. These wonderful
plants have the potential to live for over 500 years.
stick; they then strip off the outer leaves and cut
Many tall Xanthorrhoea preissii individuals are
away the inner ones, leaving about an inch and estimated to be over 300 years old, and carbon dating
a half of the tender white portion joining the has suggested some may even be around 600 years old.
trunk: this portion they eat raw or roasted; and it The North Queensland Grass Tree (X. johnsonii), which
is far from disagreeable in flavour, having a nutty has a broad range throughout eastern Queensland,
taste, slightly balsamic.’ Occasionally the early can be equally venerable, with some specimens
settlers utilised the tree in this manner. They also estimated to be around 550 years old. While there are
no current conservation concerns regarding the North
6 Cabbage Palm refers to the Livistona genus, usually Livistona australis, Queensland Grass Tree, a considerable proportion of
although other species in the genus are also known by this name. They
include L. decipiens, L. humilis and L. marinae.
its habitat (at least one third) is rated as endangered or
Xanthorrhoea and fire. (Courtesy: Amanda Slater, flickr.com)
Xanthorrhoea johnsonii. (Keith Williams, Native Plants of Xanthorrhoea johnsonii (Keith Williams, Native Plants of
Queensland Vol. 1) Queensland Vol.1)
‘of concern’ due to clearing and urban development. E.H. Rennie from the University of Adelaide:
The plant’s ecological importance has not been fully
assessed and there is only limited information available Only one species has so far been described from Kangaroo
with regard to its biology and ecology. A 2005 report Island, Xanthorrhoea tateana, but there are two kinds of
by A.C. Barsboom included the interesting comment: resin obtainable from that locality – one yellow, the other
red, and judging from our results it seems probable that
‘A number of animals are associated with X. johnsonii,
there are really two species especially as, according to a
but further surveys are required to document all statement made by a resident on the island, not more than
animal usage. The importance of this usage to both 1% of the trees yield the yellow resin, and they are rarely
plant and animals is largely unknown, but the plant seen in flower, so that no proper botanical examination
is an important food resource for the endangered has yet been made. The product from the red resin …
mahogany glider.’ This suggests that grass trees could contains a small quantity of fragrant liquid too small for
have a far greater environmental role to play than we identification, but in addition paeonol, a substance said
are currently aware of. to be used medicinally in Japan (Rennie 1926).
Difficulties in identification
The correct identification of a resin’s source is
an important consideration for pharmaceutical
purposes. One of the early botanical names for
the grass tree was Acaroides resinifera and the gum
was then called ‘acaroid resin’ or ‘gum accroides’.
Grass tree resin (or gum) was a general term
which did not specify the species from which
it was obtained. This was an important point
because not all grass tree resins were suitable for
commercial use. The absence of correct botanical
identification simply led to confusion. Maiden
commented: ‘Under these circumstances, it is
frequently impossible to denote with certainty
the species alluded to. Still, of the species obtained
from Sydney, it may generally be said that the
light (yellow) coloured resin is the product of
Xanthorrhoea hastilis, while the darker (red) one Resin from the flowering stem of a Grass Tree.
must have been obtained from Xanthorrhoea
arborea’ (Maiden 1895). Even so, this was only
a rough guide, and any identification that was
based on resin colour was certainly not a reliable
indication of its origin.
Maiden (1895) summarised the differences between

the resins of various grass trees as shown in the table
opposite.
Resin production eventually became restricted to a few

species, although the search for eligible resources led
to some intensive harvesting operations. One South
Australian species attracted the attention of Professor
Grass tree resins

Species Origins Comment
Xanthorrhoea hastilis New South Wales, This was the ‘Yellow Resin Tree’ of Surgeon-General
Queensland White and Governor Phillip. The resin sample reviewed
was of ‘a dirty crimson colour. It readily fractures, and
it is then seen that this colour is only superficial, and
that the resin is yellow or orange-coloured, striking
[in appearance] like gamboge, and sometimes like the
artificial Burgundy pitch of the shops’. It had a pleasant
perfume when heated and was suitable for use in the
Roman Catholic churches of the colony.
Xanthorrhoea arborea New South Wales, ‘When the resin weathers it is seen to be of a liver-
Queensland colour, but it readily fractures (in a very similar manner
to gamboge), and shows a very bright fracture. The
colour is pleasing, and I can only describe it as of a
rich purplish-brown inclining to crimson. It is readily
reducible to a fairly fine powder, which is of dull burnt-
sienna brown, admixed with a few dark particles. The
powder possesses a faint aromatic odour, from which
the lump appears quite free. It tastes slightly of benzoic
acid.’
Xanthorrhoea australis Tasmania, Victoria, The resin ‘is found in masses of irregular globular shape,
New South Wales, within the body of the tree, and exuding in large tears
Queensland and drops near its roots. It is a dark-red friable substance,
(southeast) the purer homogeneous specimens exhibiting a most
brilliant ruby colour when crushed into fragments: it
fuses readily with the same deep colour, and exhales
the characteristic odour of gum benzoin and dragon’s
blood under such circumstances. In many respects it
resembles the last-named substance, but its solutions are
less intensely red, inclining to yellow, while as a varnish
it has much more body and gloss’ (Report of Indigenous
Vegetable Substances, Victorian Exhibition, 1861).
Xanthorrhoea preissii (syn. Western Australia The ‘Boro Blackboy’. This tree was reported to produce
X. Drummondi): more resin than any other Western Australian species
and was used to manufacture an ‘illuminating gas’, tar
and coke.
Medical value of Xanthorrhoea properties. There are a number of other conditions

Paeonol, the phenolic compound extracted from in which this compound could be of clinical use. It
Xanthorrhoea tateana in the 1920s, has since been has potential for the treatment of colitis, diabetes,
isolated from the essential oil of two other species, 7 Paeonol has also been isolated from plants in a number of other genera
– Paeonia moutan, Morus alba, Cynanchum paniculatum, Betula platyphylla,
X. arborea and X. reflecta.7 Fairly recently, paeonol Primula viscosa and P. auriculata. The most important of these are the Chinese
has attracted a lot of research interest because it medicinal herbs Moutan Paeony (Paeonia moutan syn. P. suffruticosa) and
mulberry (Morus alba).
has antiallergenic, anti-inflammatory and analgesic
atherosclerosis, nervous system problems and Innovative uses of Xanthorrhoea

age-related disorders. Studies have also suggested Grass trees, particularly Xanthorrhoea tateana, have
cardioprotective, neuroprotective and anticancer been used for the production of flammable substances
activity – the latter being of particular interest because such as charcoal, gas and tar. In 1860 Dr George
paeonol has shown potential synergistic effects with Bennett mentioned that: ‘The coke of the leaf has a
some conventional anticancer drugs (Min 2009; Pan bright shining appearance, and when ground with oil
& Dai 2009; Li 2009; Zhong 2008, 2009; Chae 2009; is a very good substitute for lamp-black in paint. The
Wan 2008; Ishiguo 2006; Mi 2005; Chou 2003). gas [from the resin and leaf ] has a smell somewhat
similar to coal gas –- not nearly so offensive, but
sufficiently strong to make any escape immediately
perceptible. Its illuminating power appears to be
very superior to coal gas, and its light very white.’
The tree core could be used for fuel and mixed well
with other types of timber. Diverse other compounds
were produced from the tree by distillation, among
them were methyl alcohol and acetic acid. In 1889,
G.S. Boulgar noted: ‘Xanthorrhoea arborea, R.Br.,
and X. quadrangulata, F.von Muell., the singular
Grass Gum Trees of Australia, contain abundance
of Picric acid, used as a dye and in the preparation
of the explosive potassium salt.’ The discovery that
flammable products could be sourced from the grass
tree was to have rather dramatic potential. Indeed, in
Xanthorrhea spike. Grass tree leaves or wood-shavings from 1926, Professor Rennie noted a couple of innovative
the spike provide soft, flammable tinder. The spikes were
also useful as a source of fire-sticks, which were an esteemed
applications for Xanthorrhoea resin:
fire-making resource.
[which] have come into prominence for various reasons.
In the early stages of the recent war attention was drawn
Xanthorrhoea tateana. (Courtesy: Elizabeth Johnswood)

to this material from the fact, long ago discovered by
Stenhouse, that by the action of nitric acid they can be disadvantage is that the varnished wood can darken
made to yield a considerable quantity of picric acid, at and streak, while water-marks on the surface turn
that time very important as an explosive [later replaced white and discolour the varnish.
almost entirely by TNT = trinitrotoluene] and that
quantities had been exported to Germany. What precisely
the Germans used it for before the war does not appear to
be known. It can be used for the manufacture of a varnish,
but Dr. Hargreaves informs me that from experiments
made in the South Australian Government laboratory the
product is not altogether a success.
Even today, acaroides gum continues to be in demand

for use in fireworks and pyrotechnics as a slow-burning
fuel and binding agent.
Environmental and conservation

concerns
In the 1920s, over-exploitation of Xanthorrhoea
resources caused Rennie to lament: ‘Unless however,
the resin can be obtained without the destruction
of the tree, and so far as I know the trees are being
ruthlessly destroyed in obtaining it, before very
long the species yielding useful products will
become extinct.’ Similar depressing reflections on
the unwise exploitation of environmental resources
have accompanied the commercialisation of too
many natural-product enterprises. Fortunately, in
this instance, there were measures instituted that
addressed the need for conservation strategies – which
permitted resin extraction to continue for decades
afterward. Even so, there are serious concerns today Xanthorrhoea australis. (Courtesy: Keith Williams, Native
that are linked to the sustainability of resin harvests Plants of Queensland Vol.1)
– and the catastrophic effects of clearing operations,
particularly those associated with urban development.
Dr David Bedford, former Director of the Royal In 1960 the respected Australian chemist Howard
Tasmanian Botanic Gardens, has commented that ‘the McKern, in a review of The Natural Plant Products
plants do not recover from the harvesting, so a plant Industry of Australia, devoted a section to Grass Tree
that may take 50 or 100 years to grow is killed by a resin. At the time, the resin was produced in South
single harvest. The resin has been used in paints and Australia and exported overseas (mainly to France)
varnishes, and in making gunpowder. Varnishes made for use in polishes and stains including varnish and
with the resin crackle and break in tessellated “blocks” lacquers:
so are not very long lasting’.8 These drawbacks were
accompanied by a few long-term problems. Over time Sixteen species are recognised, most of which yield a resin
Xanthorrhoea varnish acquires an extremely hard and … The trunks may reach a height of 10 to 12 feet in some
species, and are covered with the densely-packed bases of
brittle character and can peel off ‘like blistered paint’.
old leaves which have fallen off. It is amongst these leaf-
The varnish has to be completely stripped before
bases that the resin is deposited. To obtain the resin, the
any French polishing repairs can be done. Another impregnated leaf-base region of the trunk is chopped off,
8 David Bedford, personal communication, 1999.
and the resin separated from the plant tissue by sieving
and winnowing. Steaming the crude material, thus

melting the resin, has also been employed as a separation
procedure. The principal species which have been
exploited are Xanthorrhoea tateana9, in South Australia,
and Xanthorrhoea preissii in southern Western Australia.
Some limited commercial exploitation of the resin

continues, although it is mainly for the production
of small packages for the tourist market. Recent resin
extraction techniques from Xanthorrhoea semiplana
subsp. tateana appear to be more sustainable than they
were in the past because they involve milling the dead
‘yacca’ (grass tree trunks).10 On Kangaroo Island it
has been noticed that a high density of new trees have
regenerated following the harvest. The greatest threats
that the genus now faces is infection by the deadly
root rot fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi, which is
easily spread by running water, transport (vehicles,
footwear) and animals. Urban and farm clearing
operations have the potential for equally disastrous
consequences.
Ecological value of the Grass Tree

Even today only limited information is available on the
biology and ecology of grass trees. The interrelationship Grass Tree and flowering stem
of the tree with the fauna (animals and insects) associated
with it remains relatively unstudied. In 1896 Walter
W. Froggatt wrote a ground-breaking review, On the
Entomology of the Grass-trees (Xanthorrhoea), which
highlighted the diversity of insects that interacted with
the plant and the fact that the tree was an integral part of
their life cycles:
At first sight a grass-tree might not appear to be a profitable

field for investigation by the entomologist; yet whether
alive or dead it is the home of a considerable number of
interesting insects, some of which are born and die in it,
while others are only passing visitors. A grass-tree presents
three distinct parts, each with its special frequenters; first
the stout cylindrical stem or trunk, generally two or three
feet high, and consisting of a tubular sheath composed
of the basal portion of the fallen leaves matted together
into a solid ring, and thickly impregnated with the yellow
resinous gum, and in which nothing lives; this encloses
the caudex, composed of close fibrous matter, which in a
living tree contains nothing, but after death it decays very
9 Xanthorrhoea tateana is now known as X. semiplana subsp. tateana.
10 This common name is derived from the term ‘hard yakka’, which is
typically used to describe the substantial difficulty involved in manual
harvest.
Xanthorrhoea australis (Courtesy: J and R Coghlan

- Australian Native Plants Society Tasmania)
rapidly, and soon becomes the abode of much insect life,

for which the outer covering or sheath forms a protection.
Secondly, there is the coarse grass-like foliage which is the
resort of many small beetles, spiders, &c., which lurk
about the bases of the stalks; it is also eaten by several
beetles and is visited by others. Thirdly, the flower-stalk
and scape, which both alive and dead furnishes food or a
home to certain beetles, bees, and ants.
It is now known that at least 315 invertebrates and

around 100 vertebrates utilise these plants in some
manner. However, there is only limited information
with regard to the trees’ importance to animals such
as rodents, spiders and bats. Destroying these plants
during land clearing has a serious environmental
impact and may irreparably disrupt the faunal
ecological niche they support.
The pleasant balsamic fragrance of Xanthorrhoea

tateana was said to resemble that of the balsams
of Tolu and Peru, aromatic attributes that led to
the suggestion that grass tree resins had a future in
perfumery. Speculators in the early colonies became particularly useful for treating urinary and respiratory
very busy convincing the market of the great future disorders, and was widely utilised as an expectorant
of this plant. Unfortunately, in the late 1800s this and as an inhalation for laryngitis and bronchitis. A
hopeful enterprise turned into a dismal loss when wash was also applied locally as a mild stimulant and
investors found that the resin was quite outclassed by antiseptic for irritable skin conditions.
other natural products:
Around twenty-eight Australian species of
[Grass Trees were] inferior for this purpose [compared] to Xanthorrhoea have been classified. A few more in New
benzoin, storax, and the Balsams of Peru and Tolu. Some South Wales and Queensland remain undescribed.
of them [grass tree resins] which contain benzoic acid are Four species are classed as rare or endangered:
aromatic when burnt and owe their pleasant odour only
Xanthorrhoea acanthostachya, X. brevistyla, X. arenaria
or in part to that substance. Abundance of picric acid,
a very powerful yellow dye, can be obtained from grass-
and X. bracteata. Many plants found in the nursery
tree ‘gum’. But this substance can be so cheaply made trade are generically labelled Xanthorrhoea australis,
from coal-tar, that grass-tree gum is not now thought of but they can easily be a different species. Even for
for that purpose. The result is that many storekeepers in those who have botanical training the various species
the colonies, who eagerly bought up grass-tree ‘gum’ as are extremely hard to distinguish, particularly the
a speculation, with the view of exporting it to England, younger specimens. Because grass trees are extremely
have for years past had stocks on hand, and quantities slow growing they are not a profitable proposition
now sold have frequently been gathered, say, fifteen or for cultivation from seed. Unfortunately, harvest of
twenty years [ago] (Maiden 1895). mature specimens from the wild usually damages
the extremely sensitive root system – a situation
that, ethically, should limit wild collection. Many
healthy-looking plants that appear undamaged die,
although this can take years to happen. Dr Bedford
has commented that over 99 per cent of transplanted
individuals do not survive. This is an incredible waste:
‘Whole plants are excavated and sold in pots in many
states. The vast majority of these die within two to three
years of excavation as Xanthorrhoeas have a shallow
widespread root system that is mostly lost when they
are excavated. Successful transplanting requires very
large amounts of undisturbed soil around each plant.
Griffith University successfully transplanted a number
of specimens using this technique some years ago.’11
Conservation issues continue to rate serious

consideration:
I believe that most harvesting of Xanthorrhoea is

Benzoin oil. (Courtesy Esoteric oils at unsustainable. There is very little known about the
www.EssentialOils.co.za) different growth rates of species, and no long-term studies
have been conducted. There is some evidence from work
on the photosynthesis rate of Xanthorrhoea that the
The medicinal reputation of the other resins referred
plants produce more photosynthates than they require
to were far superior to that of the Australian Grass- for their immediate survival (unpublished research by
tree ‘gum’. In particular, Benzoin (a balsamic resin Tim Brodribb, University of Tasmania). If this holds
extracted from various species of Styrax) was a very true throughout the genus then there certainly would
popular medicine, used internally as a carminative
(to relieve flatulence) and as an antiseptic. It was 11 David Bedford, personal communication, 1999.
Medicinal resins, their sources and uses

Medicinal resin Botanical origin Country of origin Uses
Balsam of Peru Myroxylon balsamum var. Central America Antiseptic lotion for wounds and
pereirae ulceration. Used for treating skin
disorders.
Balsam of Tolu Myroxylon balsamum Colombia, Venezuela A very effective mild expectorant
and the West Indies that was added to children’s cough
mixtures.
Benzoin Balsamic resin extracted Sumatra Benzoin: Perfumery: a fragrance component
from various species of P l a n t a t i o n of incense, cosmetic lotions and
Styrax. cultivation in toiletry products. When heated
Sumatra Benzoin: Sumatra (Indonesia); it gave off fumes of benzoic and
formerly S. benzoin , was resin-yielding trees cinnamic acids (known as free
main resource; today S. are also found in Java balsamic acids). Benzoic acid has
paralleloneurum is main and Borneo. antibacterial properties.
species cultivated. Medicinal: antiseptic (skin,
respiratory tract, urinary tract).
Preservative: benzoin has
provided a useful additive for the
food industry, notably as a fat-
preservative agent (preventing
rancidity).
Siam Benzoin: Siam’ refers to Main use is in the perfumery

S. tonkinensis Thailand. trade. It is particularly valued for
its fixative properties.
be the potential to achieve sustainable harvesting from refuge from the pesticides and chemicals that are often
the plants. However, long-term studies would be needed used in many household gardens. Lomandra flowers
before sustainability could be confirmed.12 are pollinated by beetles that can easily negotiate the
spiky green leaves that deter many other animals from
Xanthorrhoea relatives: the genus the nectar harvest. Bees likewise find the flowers an
attractive food source, while ants harvest the seeds and
Lomandra promote their distribution. Importantly, Mat rushes
The sword grasses, mat rushes or rush lilies (genus are food plants for the larvae of numerous species of
Lomandra) have generally been placed in the same Skipper butterflies from the genus Trapezites. During
family, as the grass trees, the Xanthorrhoeaceae. Some the day the larvae hide deep in the plants’ foundations,
classifications have now placed Lomandra in a separate which form a natural refuge amid the clutter of leaf
family, the Lomandraceae, which contains around bases and dead leaves. Temporary leaf shelters are
fifty species, all of which are native to Australia. A built by some larvae, using woven silken threads. Mat
couple of them are also found in Papua New Guinea rushes were widely harvested by Aboriginal people as
and New Caledonia. Like the grass trees, these plants an important fibre resource. In North Queensland
have a valuable environmental role. They provide vital Lomandra longifolia, a grassy herb found in rainforest
habitats for insects and this, in turn, benefits birds, watercourses, was used to make twine for weaving,
frogs and other creatures that feed on them, particularly and for this reason was known as ‘basket grass’. The
in grass-verged urban areas which tend to provide a prickly masses of cream flowers were eaten as snacks,
as were the leaf bases, which have a light nutty flavour.
12 David Bedford, personal communication, 1999.
Mat rush (Lomandra longifolia)

Chapter 5
FLORAL EMISSARIES
The first collection of an Australian eucalypt was made

in 1770 by Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander. The
colonial botanist Frederick Bailey, in his presidential
address to the Royal Society of Queensland, highly
commended their botanical efforts: ‘[as] the naturalists
of Capt. Cook’s first voyage in the ship “Endeavour”
[they are] … due the honour of making the first
systematic botanic collection in Australia. Their
labours brought to our knowledge about one thousand
species of plants; before this only about three hundred
species of Australian plants were known. Banks and
Solander collected their specimens at Botany Bay,
Bustard Bay, Cape Grafton, Endeavour River, Point
Hillock and Thirsty Sound’ (Bailey 1891).
A remarkable botanical collection

Joseph Banks was a wealthy young English gentleman
with a serious interest in botanical science. He had
the fortune to be accompanied by a number of staff
(personal assistants, artists and servants) on the
Endeavour’s voyage around the world – as well as
two dogs. To be able to undertake the journey in this
style Banks made a substantial monetary contribution
toward the enterprise, probably equivalent to around
a million dollars today. He and his scientific associates,
who included the illustrative artist Sydney Parkinson,
were to make a remarkable contribution to the
botanical knowledge of the day.
Eucalypts and acacias, tropical north Queensland.
However, the casualties of the venture were high. Of Charles Green, and the botanical illustrator Sydney
Banks’ group of scientists and servants, only Banks Parkinson were among the thirty men from the
himself and Solander survived. Two servants froze Endeavour who died after contracting fevers in
to death on a collecting trip in South America. The Batavia on the return trip in 1771. Batavia, today
scientist Herman Diedrich Sporing, the astronomer known as Jakarta, was then a swampy, pestilential,
109
mosquito-ridden port. The fatal fever was probably

malaria, which was rife. Cook considered Batavia
a highly undesirable destination and if the ship had
not been in such dire need of repair he would never
have gone there. On Wednesday 26 December 1770,
his journal read: ‘the unwholesome air of Batavia …
I firmly believe is the death of more Europeans than
any other place upon the Globe of the same extent
…’ His men were healthy when they arrived, while
on their departure: ‘The number sick on board at this
time amounts to 40 upwards and the rest of the Ships
company are in a Weakly condition, having been
ev[er]y one sick except the Sail maker an old Man
about 70 or 80 Years of age, and what was still more
extraordinary in this man his being generally or more
less drunk every day.’ Even so, the Dutch captains
informed Cook he had been lucky – many ships lost
more than half their company to disease.
The White Gum
Eucalyptus platyphylla (formerly E. alba).
The original samples of the White Gum, obtained

from the Endeavour River at Cooktown, northern
Queensland, were identified as Eucalyptus alba, but
subsequently re-classified as Eucalyptus platyphylla
in Banks’ botanical collection. This magnificent
eucalypt, which can grow to 18 metres tall, is a stately
white-trunked gum found throughout northern
Australia. Well suited to tropical conditions, the tree
thrives in a monsoonal environment with a relatively
high rainfall. It has been known as the Poplar Gum
Chapter 5 FLORAL EMISSARIES 111
or Salmon Gum, in reference to its distinctive bark. Banks’ Florilegium

Normally the tree is distinguished by bark of a stark While eminent botanists freely consulted the floral
white appearance with a slightly powdery texture, specimens, the details regarding most of the plants
although when the old bark is first shed the bare never became widely circulated. Part of the problem
trunk reveals a highly attractive salmon-pink hue. The was that scientific description and classification
timber, which is moderately strong and durable, yields was to prove to be a very tricky task. Even though
a good slow-burning firewood, while the flowers are Linnaeus’ system provided a basic guide, the
filled with abundant amounts of nectar. majority of the collection simply did not fit into
any known classification. The technical resources
In the Northern Territory the bark, burnt to an ash, required were probably unavailable for such a massive
has been used as a local application to the knees or undertaking without wider consultation from a
legs to reduce swelling (Lindsay 2001). The leaves group of experienced botanists. Collaborative efforts,
were among those that were used as a decongestant however, appear to have been hampered by a number
– they were simply rubbed together or mashed, and of considerations. Firstly, and for whatever reason,
the vapour inhaled. The steam could be deployed as neither Banks nor Solander involved Linnaeus in the
an inhalant to soothe crying babies. The leaves were work to any degree. Banks became busy with other
applied locally as a body rub to ease muscular aches endeavours and Solander, who was in charge of
and pains. Eucalyptus alba oil is distinguished by a high finishing the botanical descriptions, was known to be
content of alpha-pinene (around 75%) and contains a a very poor correspondent.
good amount of limonene (11%) (Boland 1991).
There were some other obstacles that inherently
Botanically speaking, Eucalyptus alba has presented a compromised the situation. Banks had serious plans
rather tricky classification problem. This species was to publish a comprehensive work, and having the
originally described from Timor, and is quite different specimens readily available for preparing the artwork
from the collections described from northern Queensland would have been a consideration that took priority
which were later classified as Eucalyptus platyphylla. There over borrowing from the collection. The fear of loss
can be some confusion with regard to these names in or damage to the specimens would have been a very
the older literature. There is still some debate about real concern. It is almost impossible to undertake
the actual identity of the Papua New Guinea species – accurate botanical identification without seeing
which, while currently known as E. alba, could actually original samples, and thus only scientists who visited
be E. platyphylla or a new species endemic to that area. London would have had access to the material. The
The White Gum has been prized as an ornamental collection was therefore under-utilised, even if it was
throughout the Pacific region. not forgotten. Nevertheless, despite the scientific
obstacles and financial constraints, a manuscript was
During the voyage Banks and Solander collected a eventually compiled and over 700 copperplates of the
spectacular number of plant samples – around 1300 plants were commissioned. For some reason Banks
species in 110 genera. None of their kind had been omitted the name of the artist, Sydney Parkinson, on
seen before. The mere physical bulk of the specimens those plates.1 Tragically, the work was not published
and the logistics of transporting them must have been in Banks’ lifetime.
staggering. On the Endeavour’s return to England the
collection was housed in Banks’ London home with
Banks’ Florilegium proved an extraordinarily ex-
Daniel Solander as curator. The discoveries contained
pensive undertaking – prohibitively so if one tried to
therein rocked the botanical circles of the day, but this
match the level of perfection that Banks desired. He
valuable resource was never to achieve great scientific
had initially envisioned the production of 2000 plates.
recognition. Very little work of academic interest was
This was simply not possible, and of those that were
published. Unfortunately it was the extraordinary size
produced, a rather remarkable number (743) survived
of the collection that became a major stumbling block
to its evaluation. 1 Parkinson’s painstaking efforts originally produced 21 volumes of work
that contained 280 finished drawings, plus another 679 pencil sketches.
the ravages of time. The Florilegium was to remain the story might have been quite different. Joseph Banks
unpublished until 170 years after his death. Not developed other interests on his return to England –
until 1980–1990 was this remarkable work finally he became President of the Royal Society and assumed
completed – more than two centuries after the original a directorship at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,
collections were made. The engraved copper plates although he sponsored a number of other collecting
were hand-coloured and published in thirty-four parts expeditions. They included the voyage of George
in by Alecto Historical Editions in association with Vancouver to the Pacific and the north-west coast
the British Museum (Natural History). of America, the William Bligh expedition to Tahiti,
and Alan Cunningham’s Brazilian and Australian
These events were to have far greater effects than was explorations. The task of collation and identification
appreciated, particularly with regard to the perception of the original 1770 Australian collection appears to
of the scientific value of this vast new land. Australia have languished from a lack of attention.
was not to transform into a ‘land of opportunity’ for a
long time. Instead, a penal colony was established. The With this in mind, it does seem strange that
expansion of botanical knowledge that should have propagation efforts from the Australian seed collection
accompanied the other achievements of the Endeavour never achieved any great success either, for reasons
voyage was seriously compromised. Indeed, for most of unknown. Kew’s 1789 garden catalogue Hortus
the following century, the development of Australian Kewensis listed 5600 plants, but merely eight were
science was hampered by a lack of appreciation of the Australian. The 1770 voyage of the Endeavour had
economic potential of the continent’s flora. If Daniel contributed only two species: Casuarina torulosa and
Solander had not died from a stroke as early as 1782, Ponteria sericea.
The Chelsea Physic Garden
(Left) Bust of Joseph Banks, Chelsea Physic Garden,

London. (Courtesy: Rosie Atkins, Curator,Chelsea
Physic Garden) (Above) Sign at the garden.
Garden of World Medicine sign.

The Chelsea Physic Garden was founded in 1673 as 1805, Brown and Bauer finally departed Sydney
the Apothecaries’ Garden by Sir Hans Sloane, with and sailed to England. Aboard the Investigator once
the purpose of training apprentices in identifying again, they carried one of the most extraordinary
plants. In the centuries that followed it has been a floral collections of the age – around 4000 specimens.
highly respected and rather extraordinary medicinal Robert Brown identified and named close to 2000 of
plant resource in London. It was one of the gardens these, which were classified in 140 genera hitherto
involved in the early propagation of Australian seeds, unknown to the scientific world.
which were sent there by Joseph Banks. The gardens
continue to cultivate a marvellous array of herbs from The story of the publication of this work was very
around the world, some of which are extremely rare. similar to the tale of Banks’ Florilegium. Ultimately
Even today, in the Garden of World Medicine, there is the task of producing a comprehensive manuscript
a section on Aboriginal medicinal herbs. was to prove too massive to be successful. In 1810
an initial volume, the Prodromus Florae Novae
Robert Brown Hollandiae, was published. Financial constraints
The distinguished botanist Robert Brown took over led to a lack of illustrations and this, unsurprisingly,
as curator of Banks’ collection from 1810 – and compromised its popular and scientific appeal. The
inherited it in 1820 upon Banks’ death. In the early fact that it was printed on poor quality paper, and
1800s Robert Brown made his own remarkable was inadequately indexed, only compounded the
Australian collection during travels with Matthew problem. This was yet another serious setback for the
Flinders aboard the Investigator. Work by Brown study of the Australian flora. There was one bright side
and the botanical illustrator Ferdinand Bauer began to the story – the Prodromus did make information
in Western Australia in December 1801. For three fairly widely available, more so than the samples
and a half years Brown did intensive botanic research, ensconced in Banks’ home. Brown’s remarkable
collecting about 3400 species, about 2000 of which botanical achievements became widely acknowledged.
were previously unknown. Tragically, a large part of He became known as the ‘Father of Australian Botany’
this collection was lost, however, when the Porpoise and was ultimately considered the greatest botanist of
was wrecked en route to England in 1803. In May the eighteenth century. He had the reputation of being
tireless and dedicated, and achieved the remarkable three genera considered to be classified as eucalypts:
accolade of being the founder of the Department of Eucalyptus and Corymbia have an operculum, while
Botany at the Natural History Museum, London. the closely related Angophora does not. The flowers
of Corymbia are similar to those of Angophora in that
they occur in corymbs. This means that while they
Naming the genus Eucalyptus can arise from different sites on a stem, the individual
Fortunately for Australia, in 1788 the French flowers ultimately end up displayed at the same level
botanist Charles Louis L’Heritier de Brutelle took in a bunch.
the time to peruse Banks’ collection in London. The
Reverend William Woolls mentioned the botanical Other individuals found the new genus equally
repercussions of this visit: ‘The genus Eucalyptus interesting:
was founded by L’Heritier on the species Eucalyptus
obliqua, and was so called in allusion to the operculum Dr. W. Anderson (the Surgeon of Cook’s second and third
or lid which covers the flowers before their expansion’ voyages) bestowed on the genus the name Aromadendrum,
(Woolls 1882). The name eucalyptus was derived a name which Baron Mueller considered by no means
from two Greek words, eu, ‘well’, and kalypto, to inappropriate, though it must be admitted that the
‘cover’ – the latter referring to the lid (operculum) world-wide appellation Eucalyptus is in many respects
over the top of the bud that was discarded when the preferable … One of the earliest collectors of Australian
Plants was Mr. John White, Surgeon-General to the first
flower blossomed. The operculum varies in size and
Fleet which arrived in 1788, and who, during a residence
shape according the species, and some names reflect of seven years in Sydney, collected a considerable number
these differences. The woody seedpods can be equally of plants, and made drawings of others … To Mr. White,
important clues for species identification. Perhaps then, we are indebted for some of the first specimens
the most internationally famous eucalypt has been of Eucalyptus sent to Europe, and the descriptions of
the Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus), which has long these preceded the advent of the eminent Robert Brown,
been a highly valued medicinal oil resource. The fruit who in the years 1801, 1802, and 1803, accompanied
of E. globulus has a cover that resembles a globe- Flinders on the Coasts of Australia, and by his labours,
like coat button, hence the species name. There are inaugurated a new era in the history of Botanical Science
(Woolls 1882).
Eucalyptus drummondii
Eucalyptus drummondii.
Drummond’s Eucalypt (Eucalyptus drummondii) is for long afterwards, Tasmania was looked upon as part
a Western Australian species that extends for a fairly [joined to] of Australia; moreover, like other early species,
limited range north and south of Perth. Originally it was badly described, and the specimens themselves were
collected from around the Swan River, it is a mallee imperfect and not easily accessible. The result was that
it was not recognised, until the sixties, that Eucalyptus
that grows to around 8 metres high. These pictures
obliqua is the common Tasmanian Stringybark. Hooker,
clearly show the operculum, and the developing seed
in his Flora of Tasmania, was not aware of its identity, and
capsules. consequently in that classical work it is not mentioned,
but a new species, Eucalyptus gigantea, takes its place.
There appears to have been a fair amount of confusion

between these trees. In addition, the Tasmanian-
sourced Stringybark (Eucalyptus obliqua) and the Blue
Gum (E. globulus) were valuable timber resources
that could be difficult to distinguish from each other.
However, Stringybark timber had a lighter colouration
than Blue Gum timber and was more liable to contain
gum-veins, which could compromise its value.
A 1902 pamphlet entitled Tasmanian Timbers by A.O.

Green provided additional details:
In appearance Brown Stringybark [Tasmanian

Stringybark, Eucalyptus obliqua] is somewhat like oak,
and it would be a difficult matter for most people to
distinguish a picture-frame made of Stringybark from one
made of oak. The timber varies considerably, according
to the situation and soil in which the tree grows … It is
the most general timber for all sorts of constructive work
in Tasmania. It makes excellent piles, especially for fresh
water, but is not considered quite so good as Blue Gum
for salt water, being more subject to the attacks of the
Eucalyptus obliqua. (Courtesy: Forest Starr & Kim teredo.2 It is also used for shipbuilding, the construction of
Starr, 149 Hawea Pl.Makawao, HI 96768, USA) wharfs and bridges, and for railway sleepers, for the dado
[a timber wall rail], flooring, and fitting of houses, and
for furniture; it is also an excellent wheelwrights’ wood.
It seems a little odd to learn that the botanical When polished it very much resembles oak, but has a
classification of the Australian ‘gum trees’ was more sparkling grain; it has a very pretty effect when used
ultimately based on a plant collected from Tasmania for a ballroom floor, or for wainscotting [the lower part
– not on the great collections from Botany Bay in of an internal wall]. Besides being sawn for almost every
New South Wales or the Endeavour River in northern purpose, Stringybark is split into fence rails, palings, and
Queensland. The tree used for identification was shingles. It is certain that if this wood and the Blue Gum,
Eucalyptus obliqua, the Broad-leaved Messmate. properly prepared, were exported to London, a ready sale
would be found for it, for the construction of carts and
Joseph Maiden (1906) recorded the following details
vans. It would very well take the place of English oak and
regarding its important historical role:
ash used for this purpose, which are every year becoming
scarcer. In an International Exhibition a Stringybark
This is the first species of Eucalyptus known to science, it sleeper was shown, by the Tasmanian Government, that
having been originally collected by David Nelson, assistant 2 Teredo worms can do enormous amounts of damage to the pilings used
in wharf construction. This worm lives underwater, is transported around
botanist on Cook’s Third Voyage, 1776–9, and described by boats, and eats up and down timber pilings. Jarrah timber was said to be
by L’Heritier in 1788. At the time of its collection, and among the best for resisting attacks by the worm.
had been twenty-five years under traffic. The usual life Ferdinand von Mueller named the Swamp Bloodwood,
of this timber, in bridges, is from twenty to twenty-five Eucalyptus ptychocarpa (syn Corymbia ptychocarpa)
years; sleepers average about fourteen years; and none of for its distinctive fruit – ptycho means ‘deep grooves’
the Government railway buildings, some of which were and carpa refers to the ‘fruit’. This tropical species,
built twenty-seven years ago, chiefly of this timber, have
which is native to Western Australia and the Northern
yet been renewed.
Territory, has become widespread in cultivation due
to its stunning scarlet floral displays. The tree is also
Swamp Bloodwood distinguished by rather long grey-green leaves that are
among the largest produced by a eucalypt.
While the collection of Banks and Solander

languished under-appreciated in London, other
European parties took an avid interest in the flora of
‘New Holland’, particularly the French. Napoleon
Bonaparte was a great patron of the sciences and
supported investigations into the flora of the new
continent, and the Empress Josephine was an equally
staunch supporter of botanical discovery. Two French
expeditions were pivotal for the collection and
dispersal of Australian floral collections in mainland
Europe. The first, which undertook the search for the
lost ships of La Pérouse (who had been in Botany Bay
at the same time as the First Fleet), had the services of
the botanist Jacques-Julien Houtou de Labillardière.
The second was the Nicolas Thomas Baudin
expedition of 1800. The latter ventured to Australia
seeking consignments for commercial propagation in
London, as well as hoping to fill private commissions.
The popularity of the collections from Australia was

enhanced by the fact that many remarkable finds were
recorded and publicised by eminent French artists
and illustrators. Labillardière’s work was of particular
importance. He collected thousands of specimens and
Eucalyptus ptychocarpa. published the first major illustrated botanical work
on Australian plants in 1804 – Novae Hollandiae

Plantarum Specimen. Malmaison, the country home
of Bonaparte and Josephine near Paris, also achieved
fame as an outstanding living floral and faunal
gallery. Over a hundred Australian plants flourished
in the Malmaison gardens. They included grevilleas,
wattles, banksias, tea-trees, eucalypts and casuarinas.
This level of exposure would have ensured the novelty
and accessibility of the new ‘antipodean’ floral finds
(Douglas Hamilton 1998).
The Paper Daisy
‘everlastings’, paper daisies were originally classified as

Helichrysum. In 1991 they were transferred to a new
Australian classification, Bracteantha. Prior to this,
however, in 1990, the Russian botanist Nikolai Tzvelev
had already allocated them a new genus, Xerochrysum.
The latter name, which precedes Bracteantha and is
thus botanically correct, has involved a re-classification
Paper Daisy, Xerochrysum (formerly Bracteantha) of the species placed in Bracteantha.
subundulatum.
Less than a decade after the first collections of the
The Paper Daisy, in several forms, was among the Australian flora were made by Banks and Solander,
earliest Australian imports adopted into European new and unique plants had begun to appear on the
gardening culture, gaining such popularity that even London market. In 1775, Lee and Kennedy of the
Napoleon, during his incarceration at St Helena, Vineyard Nursery at Hammersmith successfully
planted them in his island garden. Due to their bright propagated Casuarina quadrivalvis (Allocasuarina
daisy-like appeal and their close resemblance to the stricta). In 1785 Banksia oblongifolia, Banksia
serrata, Fabrica laevigata (Leptospermum laevigatum),

Lambertia formosa and Melaleuca armillaris were
offered for sale. Four years later Metrosideros hispida
(Angophora hispida) was added to the list. Following
the arrival of the First Fleet in 1788, the export of
native plants to Europe began to boom. Between 1790
and 1793 Lee and Kennedy had numerous additions
for the English gardener to choose from, and Boronia
pinnatifida was added in 1796 (Halliwell 2002):
• Aster tomentosus (Olearia tomentosa)

• Bignonia australis (Tecoma australis)
• Bossiaea heterophylla
• Bossiaea scolopendrium (B. schopendria)
• Crowea saligna
• Daviesia ulicina
• Grevillea buxifolia
• Mirbelia reticulata (M. rubiifolia)
Westringia fruticosa (syn. W. rosmarinifolium) is known as
• Myoporum debile (Eremophila debilis) the Native Rosemary. It is a drought-tolerant species that
• Podolobium (Oxylobium) trilobatum can be particularly useful for revegetation projects and as a
• Sprengelia incarnata water-wise species for the garden.
• Sowerbaea juncea
• Styphelia viridiflora (S. viridis)
• Westringia rosmarinifolium Solander’s Garden
Westringia fruticosa (syn. W. rosmarinifolium). Solander’s Garden in Cooktown Botanic Gardens, north
Queensland.
A floral classification system was only in its infancy

when Banks and Solander began their Australian
botanical collections, so it is hardly surprising that
Solander’s attempt to organise the plants they found
was beset by difficulties. Nevertheless, following the
system set up by Linnaeus, and despite the largely
unknown nature of the task, he accurately identified
species within the genera Tribulus, Cynometra, Drosera
and Vitex. These species had overseas relatives and had
already been the subject of botanical assessment. The
work on genera that were new to science proved to be
much more complex and time consuming.
Australian carnivorous plants

Sundews and Bladderworts
Drosera peltata subsp. auriculata. (Courtesy: Keith Williams

Drosera indica. (Courtesy: Keith Williams, Native Plants of

Queensland, Vol.1)
Great interest surrounded the discovery of numerous

plants with a carnivorous habit in Banks and Solander’s
collections. Drosera (Sundews) and Utricularia
(Bladderworts) were among the few Australian genera
that had been assigned a botanical identity before the Drosera peltata subsp. peltata. (Courtesy: Keith Williams,
voyage of the Endeavour. In the 1700s early collectors Native Plants of Queensland Vol.2)
had identified a number of Drosera species that were the carnivorous plants found at the Endeavour River
later found to extend their distribution to Australia site, Cooktown, were the sundews Drosera banksii and
– Drosera indica (1753), D. burmanni (1794) and D. D. indica, the lovely Rainbow Plant (Byblis liniflora)
peltata (1797).3 Utricularia bifida, U. caerulea and 3 The genus contains around 120 species, with the centre of diversity being
U. gibba were named by Linnaeus in 1753. Among the south-west corner of Western Australia.
and a number of bladderworts – Utricularia caerulea, southern Queensland), with a few small populations
U. chrysantha, U. limosa and U. uliginosa. Drosera in South Australia and southern Western Australia. It
binata and Utricularia biloba were among the samples is also native to New Zealand. Like many Australian
collected earlier in the voyage at Botany Bay (the latter species, little is known of its medicinal potential,
species was collected again at the Endeavour River although it was probably used by early settlers as
site). Many other Australian species in these genera a herbal remedy similar to the European Sundew
were not properly classified until much later, in the (Drosera rotundifolia). Sundews are so named for
1800s, when considerable expansion of knowledge the sticky dew-like nectar that decorates the fronds
regarding these plants occurred. Around a dozen of these small herbs. In Central Australia the nectar
species of Australian Utricularia were identified in from the leaves of Drosera indica was eaten as a sweet
1810 by Robert Brown and many Drosera species were treat, or the whole plant was soaked in water to make
not named until the 1830s and 1840s. a drink (Latz 1996).
Although the Australian species did not have any

known medicinal uses, Drosera rotundifolia had long
been utilised in Europe as a remedy for whooping
cough and respiratory disorders. The Narrow-leaved
Sundew (D. indica), which is widespread throughout
the tropics, was also used as a folk medicine.
Macerated in alcohol, the herb was applied locally for
treating corns and calluses on the feet. Drosera peltata
also had some rather diverse medicinal uses. It was
applied externally to treat cervical node enlargement,
dysentery, headaches, rheumatic pain (in the back and
legs) and traumatic injuries (Perry & Metzger 1981;
Duke & Ayensu 1985).
Fork-leaved Sundew (Drosera binata)

The Fork-leaved Sundew (Drosera binata) is a fairly
widespread plant of the south-eastern regions of Byblis liniflora. (Courtesy: Keith Williams, Native Plants of
Australia (Tasmania, Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland Vol.3)
Byblis
Byblis is a unique, small genus that achieved a measure
of botanical fame fairly early in the floral collections
that arrived in Europe from the Pacific. Byblis liniflora
has the distinction of being mentioned in Charles
Darwin’s important work Insectivorous Plants –
although Darwin was unable to view live specimens
and worked from herbarium samples.4 In Australia,
Byblis liniflora has the most widespread distribution
in tropical Queensland; it is also found in southern
Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. It was named
in 1808 by the English botanist, Richard Anthony
Salisbury. The genus was initially classified within
4 There are seven species in total. Most are found in Western Australia,
Drosera binata. although a few range into the Northern Territory and Queensland.
the Droseraceae (Sundew) family, and more than a A unique botanical discovery of the 1800s was the
century passed before they were finally allocated a West Australian or Albany Pitcher Plant (Cephalotus
separate identity in the Byblidaceae (Rainbow Plant) follicularis). Robert Brown observed the plant
family, in 1922. Two endemic Western Australian ingesting insects in the wild, and its reputation as a
species now rate serious conservation concern: Byblis carnivorous plant was thus established. It was officially
lamellata and B. gigantea. Their wild survival has been described in 1806 by the French botanist Jacques-
seriously compromised by urban expansion and the Julien Houtou de Labillardière. As early as 1823 live
consequent draining of their wetland habitat. Byblis specimens were shipped to Kew for further study and
gigantea is now considered to be critically endangered. propagation (Barthlott 2007).
Byblis guehoi, from the Kimberley region of Western
Australia, is the most recently described species,
identified in 2008. Continuing carnivorous discoveries
West Australian Pitcher Plant
Cephalotus follicularis.
Stylidium graminifolium. (Courtesy: Mick Stanic, and
Keith Williams, Native Plants of Queensland Vol.1)
The botanical classification of many plants with a

carnivorous habit has been extremely difficult and
new species continue to be discovered. The Stylidium
genus provides a perfect example. The first species, S.
graminifolium, was discovered in 1770 at Botany Bay.
Additional samples of these unique ‘trigger plants’
were later collected by Banks and Solander at the
Endeavour River: Stylidium alsinoides, S. fissilobum,
S. pedunculatum, S. rotundifolium and S. uliginosum.
In 1810, Robert Brown identified and named at least
another twenty-nine species from his collections. Early
in the 1800s, the French botanist Charles Morren
took an interest in the plants’ intriguing anatomy and
described their use of a trigger-like device to cover
visiting insects with their pollen. By 2002, the genus
included 221 species. Since then another eighty or so
have been added – making the total around 300, with
more to be added when they are properly classified.
The greatest diversity of these plants is found in
Western Australia, and many await proper botanical
description.
Propagating new Australian species

Aside from the collections of professional botanists,
the other way to obtain new plant specimens was to Platylobium parviflorum and Platylobium formosus,
seek the involvement of the colonists in collecting and Pultenaea retusa. The origins of many other
seed, particularly those with an interest in gardening, plants that were sent overseas remain unknown, even
In the late 1700s the penal colony at Port Jackson was though they were destined to become popular English
one of these resources, with seed being harvested from ornamentals. They include the tea trees Leptospermum
the gum trees Eucalyptus resinifera and E. robusta, and a scoparium (1772) and L. lanigerum (1774), the
number of native wattles: Acacia linifolia, A. juniperina, ornamental pittosporums Pittosporum undulatum
A. myrtifolia and A. verticillata. Other herbal exports (1793) and P. revolutum (1795) and the Incense
included Goodia lotifolia, Isopogon anemonifolius, Plant, Humea elegans (Calomeria amaranthoides,
1800). Even the Norfolk Island Pine, Araucaria excelsa
(now A. heterophylla) has been grown since 1793 as
a showpiece in some larger European conservatories
(Halliwell 2002).
Bottlebrushes: a European fancy

The bottlebrushes (under the early classification of
Metrosideros5) were among the unique flora included
in the original collections of Banks and Solander. In
1770 they found the Crimson Bottlebrush, Callistemon
citrinus (formerly C. lanceolatus) at Botany Bay. By
1788 two additional Callistemon species had been
imported into England, C. salignus and C. linearis.
Their popularity was firmly established by 1800,
Norfolk Island Pine (Araucaria heterophylla). when the Crimson Bottlebrush began to grace French
Callistemon lanceolatus.(Courtesy: Subhada Nikharge)
Callistemon sp. (scarlet flower).
Callistemon citrinus. (Courtesy: John Harrison) Rainbow Lorikeet in a red-flowered bottlebrush.
gardens. Since then, this species has become cultivated There are thirty species in the genus Callistemon, all of
around the world. Indeed, in the United States it has them endemic to Australia.6 It is surprising how many
even been referred to as the ‘Californian Bottlebrush’. found their way into European horticulture by the
The Western Australian Callistemon speciosus, another early 1800s, among them Callistemon macropunctatus
early introduction to Europe, was grown in the (now C. rugulosus), C. pallidus and C. rigidus. In
Empress Josephine’s garden at Malmaison. Seed of 5 Species formerly classified as Metrosideros include Angophora hispida and
Callistemon citrinus, C. salignus, C. lophanthus and C. viminalis (Halliwell 2002).
this species would have been collected by the French
6 Four species from New Caledonia originally classified as Callistemon have
botanists Leschenault and Labillardière. recently been transferred to Melaleuca.
the early 1820s C. viridiflorus, C. pinifolius and C.

linearifolius were available, to be followed by C.
brachyandus and C. phoeniceus in 1843.
Callistemon viminalis.
Callistemons generally favour a temperate climate,

although there are a couple of tropical species. These
include the variously named Creek, Drooping, Red or
Weeping Bottlebrush (Callistemon viminalis), a coastal
species that extends from northern New South Wales
to the Cape York Peninsula. The Crimson Bottlebrush Callistemon viminalis flowers and seed pods, Copperlode
Dam, Cairns. This species can grow into a fairly large tree
(Callistemon citrinus) has a similar distribution, and around 9 metres high. It has become popular as a garden
extends further south into Victoria. While the term plant in urban areas and is a wonderful resource for wildlife.
‘bottlebrush’ generally refers to species of Callistemon,
a few other plants are also known by the name.
Banksia aemula has been known as the Wallum
Bottlebrush, and Banksia integrifolia as the White
Bottlebrush. Hakea multilineata has been called the
Pink Bottlebrush Hakea.
Callistemon: investigation and medicinal

uses
The Callistemon genus has shown some interesting
medicinal potential, with investigations demonstrating
antimicrobial and pesticidal activity for some species.
In 1949, Nancy Atkinson and colleagues, in a paper
on ‘Antibiotics in Australian Plants and Fungi’,
identified the following species with antibacterial
properties against Staphylococcus aureus. Callistemon
citrinus (leaves, flowers), C. pallidus (leaves, flowers),
C. palludosus (flowers), C. phoenicus (flowers), C.
rugulosus (fruits, leaves), C. salignus (flowers), C.

viminalis (leaves, flowers) and C. violaceae (leaves,
flowers, fruits). Other investigations have shown
that Callistemon citrinus has an anti-tubercular
(bacteriostatic) activity against Mycobacterium
tuberculosis (Frame 1998).
Flowering Callistemon viminalis and a rare Xanthostemon (cream blossoms) at Wujal Wujal Falls, Bloomfield, northern
Queensland.
Recent studies have hinted at further interesting essential oil has shown anti-candidal activity that
properties for the genus. The Weeping Bottlebrush was higher than that of the standard antibiotics
(Callistemon viminalis), another of the plants miconazole and clotrimazole (Dutta 2007). In
collected on the Endeavour’s Australian voyage, addition, Callistemon citrinus contains a natural
contains compounds called viminadiones, one of herbicide - a derivative of which (i.e. mesothrione)
which (viminadione A) showed moderate insecticidal has shown potential as a selective weed-killer in maize
activity when compared to a natural pyrethrum crops (Mitchell 2001).
extract (Khombay 1999). The essential oil contains
reasonable amounts of cineol (61.7%) as well as other Other investigations have shown that Callistemon
terpenes (e.g. alpha-pinene 24.2%, menthyl acetate citrinus had an antitubercular (bacteriostatic)
5.3%) (Srivastava 2003). The oil of the tropical activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Frame
species Callistemon lanceolatus has a similar profile. 1998). Later studies indicated a wider spectrum
Extracts have shown substantial anti-thrombin of antibacterial activity for the leaves and flowers.
properties, as well as insecticidal effects against Extracts had good activity against Bacillus (B. cereus,
mosquito larvae, insect growth-regulating properties, B. subtilis) and Pseudomonas fluorescens, although it
and molluscicidal activities (Mohsen 1990; el-Ansary was not as effective against Aeromonas hydrophilia.
2001; Chistokhodova 2002). Callistemon lanceolatus Callistemon salignus flower extracts had good activity
against Pseudomonas, while both leaf and flower

extracts were active against Bacillus. Backhousia
citriodora also showed antibacterial activity against
all four microorganisms although, overall, it was not
as active as the Callistemon extracts.7 Banksia collina
leaf extracts were also shown to have antibacterial
properties against Bacillus subtilis (Cock 2008).
Callistemon flowers in closeup.

The yield of essential oil from the Callistemon genus is
generally low (0.1–0.8%). The Willow Bottlebrush (C.
salignus) essential oil is cineole-based (22–53%), and
can have quite high levels of linalool (5–31%), with
some alpha-terpineol (6–13%) and limonene (4%).
The Tinaroo Bottlebrush (C. recurvus) has higher
cineole levels (70%) with some limonene (5%) and
alpha-terpineol (9%). In comparison, the oil of the
Gold-tipped Bottlebrush (C. polandii) is fairly high in
beta-caryophyllene (28%) and humulene (22%), with
some caryophyllene oxide (14%), although the oil
yield was negligible (0.01%). Callistemon viminalis oil
Callistemon recurvus. This marvellous gnarled specimen, is of two types depending on its geographic origin: a
found growing at a fairly high elevation on Fitzroy Island, cineole-rich form (70.3%) with some pinene (12.4%)
east of Cairns in north Queensland, provides an interesting and alpha-terpineol (11.8%) from a northern variety
tribute to the hardiness of these plants. It survives on an (Callistemon viminalis var. viminalis) and a southern
exposed hilltop, thriving despite harsh winds and salty sea
spray. form (Callistemon viminalis var. minor). The latter has
a lower cineole level (48.7%), and a higher content of
7 Callistemon salignus extracts were not active against Aeromonas hydrophilia.
pinene (18%) and alpha-terpineol (11.8%) (Brophy
Backhousia citriodora had a slightly higher level of activity against Bacillus in & Doran 1996).
comparison to Callistemon citrinus.
Callistemon salignus. (Courtesy: Robert Whyte www.sown.

com.au]
Callistemon polandii.(Courtesy: Keith A.W. Williams,

Callistemon subulatus is a red-flowering shrub from coastal

New South Wales and northern Victoria. It is a very hardy
species that can withstand waterlogged soil conditions.
Here it is pictured growing at the Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, London.
Callistemon linearis
The Lemon Bottlebrush (Callistemon pallidus) and

Callistemon linearis from New South Wales were both
early introductions to European horticulture. The latter
has a fairly wide distribution along the coast of southern
Queensland, New South Wales, Victoria and Tasmania.
Telopea
The New South Wales Waratah, Telopea Telopea speciosissima. hand coloured engraving by
speciosissima, is an outstanding plant that James Sowerby (1757-1822),
shows just how much effort could surround
the cultivation of new floral finds. Its stunning displays quickly attracted the attention of
those with gardening interests. Governor
Hunter, writing to Under Secretary King, in
June 1797, said: ‘I am concerned to say that
… we can have no prospect of getting the
Warata plant home … I have long wanted
to send some for the King’s gardens, but
the want of favourable opportunities have
constantly prevented me.’ Around this time
Sir Joseph Banks received samples of the
plant in London from Lieutenant-Governor
King who, four years later, also sent him a
box of flowers. Governor Bligh obliged by
sending seeds in 1807. Occasionally, some
Telopea speciosissima. (Courtesy: Kate’s diary, flickr.com, unusual forms of the flower were found and
pers. comm.)
Maiden mentioned a: ‘Waratah flower [that] In some places the sea floor emerged as a
was almost an albino … Such flowers are fairly hostile environment that would be a
from time to time found, always rarely. In substantial challenge for the adaptation of
all cases which have come under my notice, flowering plants. Banksia was one genus that
the finders have so concealed their plants in managed to thrive in these new lands despite
the hope of selling them for large sums, that the relatively infertile soils of a heath and
I have never had an opportunity of trying woodland habitat.
them under cultivation. Until they are tested
in the garden they will have no money value’ Banksias are woody shrubs or trees that have a
characteristic leathery, serrated leaf and a unique
(Maiden 1916). flower cone. While the majority have yellowish
cream flowers, there are other colourations – tones
Telopea is a unique Australian genus in the of orange and brown, or hues that extend to red,
ancient Proteaceae family. It has a special place in purple or mauve-pink. Some have a thickened
the history of our native flora. The New South rough bark that once provided a useful fuel
resource. The timber, although most often small
Wales Waratah, Telopea speciosissima, is the
in diameter, is suitable for ornamental carpentry
state’s floral emblem. Maiden mentioned that work.
‘Warratau’ was one of the very earliest spellings of
the name: ‘We have sometimes heard it said that
it was the presence of Waratahs in abundance
that caused Botany Bay to receive the name it
now bears. That, however, has no foundation on
fact. The name is probably a translation of Coste
des herbaiges (the coast of plants or pastures), a
name given in an old 16th century chart to part
of Eastern Australia.’
Banksia
One of the most intriguing floral finds on the
Australian continent was another endemic
genus, dedicated to Sir Joseph Banks by
Carolus Linnaeus the Younger in 1782, and
named Banksia. This unique genus of shrubs,
like Telopea, belongs to the Proteaceae family,
which has ancient links to the Gondwanan
flora of South Africa, South-east Asia,
Central and South America. Gondwana
was the ancient supercontinent that broke
into separate land masses over the aeons –
during which time Australia’s environmental
changes were to initiate the evolution of The lovely, and distinctive, Banksia serrata is the floral
many truly remarkable plant adaptations. emblem of Botany Bay.
Banksia robur: new leaves.
Banksia robur: flower detail. (Courtest: Cas Liber, Wikipedia

Public Domain)
Banksia serrata, B. robur and B. ericifolia were the

first of the genus to be collected at Botany Bay in
1770. The genus was named in the early 1780s,
although the Swamp Banksia (B. robur) was not
to receive its full botanical appellation until 1800,
thirty years after its original collection. The Swamp
Banksia had a number of practical attributes that
were valued by Aboriginal people. When lit, the
spike of the young inflorescence smouldered for a
long time and could be used to carry fire. The inner
core spike was worn as a pierced-nose ornament,
Banksia robur shrub in flower. (Courtesy: Cas Liber,
Wikipedia Public Domain) while the old flower spike made a useful hairbrush
(Brock 1993; Yunupinu 1995). The shrub has also
been utilised for treating leprosy sores, which were
cauterised with the heated axis of the inflorescence.
In the Northern Territory it was occasionally
employed as a treatment for diarrhoea; the afflicted

person squatted over the smoke produced by cones
smouldering in a small sandy hole (Brock 1993).
The tropical Swamp Banksia (Banksia dentata) is a

nectar-yielding species of northern Australia, ranging
from Western Australia and the Northern Territory, to
Queensland. It can be found in a wide range of habitats –
open forest and woodlands, wetland sites, and the margins
of freshwater swamps.
Red banksia flowers.

Banksia is a very old genus that evolved before the

desert regions of Central Australia were formed,
and thus Banksias are found on both sides of the
continent. It was previously thought there were
around eighty species in total. A mere eighteen are
from the east coast, the remainder being found in
Western Australia. There is only one true tropical
species, the Swamp Banksia (B. dentata), which ranges
overseas to Papua New Guinea and the Aru Islands.
However, the classification has recently changed, with
the larger genus Dryandra now included in Banksia.
This has made a huge difference. Now there are some
175 species in Banksia, with a massive proportion
(157) being of Western Australian origin. Dryandra,
found in the south-western corner of the state, was
found to be so closely related to Banksia that it could
no longer be considered a different genus. Studies
showed that Dryandra was actually a branch of the
Banksia evolutionary tree that developed in isolation,
which accounted for the unique appearance of these
plants.
Walter Roth (1901) mentioned the harvest of the The foliage of the Heath-leaved Banksia (Banksia ericifolia)
Swamp Banksia in northern Queensland: ‘The Cape is unlike the serrated form characteristic of many banksias.
Bedford blacks break off the blossoms which are full This was one of the first Australian species to be propagated
of honey, put them in water, and drink it. The liquid in the gardens of Europe in the early 1770s. It achieved
particular value as a decorative plant on the international
is not left to ferment.’ The nectar was shaken from
market and has recently been grown in Hawaii for use in the
the flowers into a waterproof coolamon in the early cut-flower trade.
morning when it was most prolific, before even the
birds had a chance to visit the blossoms. Tom Petrie was used in its manufacture. The flower of the larger kind
(1904) commented that this was a popular time for [Banksia latifolia], was also used, but not so much.
collection of ‘honeysuckle’ nectar:
In the Northern Territory, the flowering of Banksia
Early in the morning, when the dew was on the grass, dentata was a seasonal signal that the hives of the
and the air sweet with perfumes, the old men and women native bees contained good quantities of honey
would go forth, each carrying a ‘pikki’ full of water, while (Yunupinu 1995).
the younger people went to hunt. Wending their way,
some to the ridges where the grass-trees [Xanthorrhoea]
grew, others to the low flat where the small honeysuckle The most widespread Banksia of the east Australian
would be found, they went from flower to flower coast is the White Honeysuckle (Banksia integrifolia),
despoiling them all of their sweetness by dipping them which was discovered at the Cooktown site, later in
up and down in the ‘pikki’ of water till the latter became the Endeavour’s voyage. This species can be found
sweet. Then they turned campwards, and, arriving there, in diverse habitats that range from the beach and
would gather in groups to enjoy themselves – all, old and the rainforest fringes, to mountainous sites or rocky
young alike, having their turn with the rag [from which coastal areas. Banksia was among the timbers that
the liquid was sucked]. A drink might be taken from the never achieved any great market, although a couple of
‘pikki’, but this used up the precious fluid too quickly. It
species have been useful for minor carpentry work. Of
was greatly relished, and was called ‘minti’ after the small
the White Honeysuckle, Maiden commented:
species of honeysuckle [Banksia aemula], whose flower
We have two principal species of honeysuckle, but
Banksia robur is distinguished by a flush of new reddish

leaf growth that is covered by a dense felt-like covering of
hairs. This nectar-rich species has a very wide distribution
along the eastern coast and is one of the few banksias that
will tolerate wet conditions. It ranges from Cooktown in
northern Queensland to the Illawarra region of New South
Wales. The shrub has been utilised as an Australian Bush
Flower healing remedy for individuals who feel lethargic,
disheartened or dispirited.
although the wood of both is esteemed locally for various
purposes, neither appears to be much in demand outside
Australia. White Honeysuckle is a pinkish timber,
showing a neat grain. It is, however, but little used as an
ornamental timber, being chiefly employed for ribs and
knees in boat-building, bullock yokes, &c. Minor uses are
wood screws, bow-saw frames, walking-sticks, and clean
turnery generally. Red honeysuckle (B. serrata Linn. f.) is
a coarser redder timber. It is largely used for boat knees.
It is a much inferior timber to the preceding (Maiden
1904).
(Next column: Banksia integrifolia, the Coast Banksia, is

one of a dozen species native to the east coast of Australia.
It ranges from the Central Queensland coast (Mackay) to
Victoria. The shrub usually presents as a large bush around
15 m tall, although it can occasionally reach heights of 25
or 30 m. The plant has been useful for coastal revegetation
projects around dunes as its extensive root system helps to
stabilise the soil and trap phosphorus.
Banksia conservation concerns The Hinchinbrook or Blue Banksia (Banksia

plagiocarpa) is a relatively rare tropical species,
also known as Dallachy’s Banksia. It is found
only on Hinchinbrook Island and sites on the
nearby mainland coast. The shrub was thought
to be extinct until it was rediscovered in the
early 1980s and is no longer listed as a species
of conservation concern. However, numerous
other species face serious environmental
threats. They include the Feather-leaved
Banksia (B. brownii) and the Granite Banksia
(B. verticillata) which are known only from
restricted locations in Western Australia.
Other species rating conservation concern are
the Matchstick Banksia (B. cuneata), Good’s
Banksia (B. goodii), the Wagin Banksia (B.
oligantha), and the Pine Banksia (B. tricuspis).
Grevillea and Hakea

Other remarkable Australian examples of the
Proteaceae include the genera Grevillea and Hakea,
flowering shrubs that were among the early floral
exports. Hakeas cultivated in England in the 1790s
included Hakea dactyloides, H. sericea, H. gibbosa and
H. salicifolia.
Hinchinbrook or Blue Banksia(Banksia plagiocarpa).
Grevilleas have likewise flourished overseas, notably
in the warmer regions of the United States (Hawaii,
Florida and California). In particular, Grevillea robusta,
known as the Silky or Silver Oak, is a remarkably useful
Australian native that was introduced into horticulture
during the early nineteenth century. It is the largest
growing species in the genus and was widely planted in
the subtropical and tropical highland regions of India,
Sri Lanka, Central and South America and numerous
African countries. It was valued as a shade tree in tea
and coffee plantations, for which purpose it continues
to be utilised today. The tree also protects the crop
from frost damage and is relatively long lived, reaching
40–50 years before it needs to be replaced. In some
places (Rwanda and Kenya) its popularity has waned
due to problems with a root fungus (Armillaria) that
can spread from dead trees to the tea plantation crop
(Harwood 1998).
Armillaria fungi and root-rot There is the added benefit that Silky Oak is an
Around the world there are around ten different esteemed cabinet-making timber that has been used
species of Armillaria, which are soil-borne fungi that for many practical purposes – packing cases, flooring,
cause root rot in plants. They were once classified panelling, plywood and small wooden items such as
simply as the Honey Fungus, Armillaria mellea. pencils. The timber poles have been equally useful for
Precise identification is important because the various making scaffolding or rafters, and as a construction
species can have different levels of impact on the timber. In addition, the branches and twigs, as well as
vegetation, with some being less destructive than timber off-cuts can be used as firewood or for making
others. In Australia, the native species Armillaria charcoal. In 1902 Maiden mentioned: ‘We have just
luteobubalina is of particular concern as it can affect heard from a mid-Dimbula planter of Grevillea leaves
a wide variety of native and introduced ornamental being used as a substitute for paddy straw, as a bedding
plants. The fungus is a problem because it spreads for cattle, sheep, pigs, and even for horses. The trees
from infected vegetation (living or dead) using are lopped up, the branches carried to the store, where
rhizomorphs (root-like extensions) that can spread the leaves speedily drop off and are used for bedding
around a metre per year. The floral losses, which may for cattle, etc., with satisfactory results, especially in an
be severe, can have a widespread and devastating effect economical point of view.’
on native ecosystems, forest plantations, fruit crops
and ornamental gardens. The desire to exploit useful native plants with
ornamental value was an obvious impetus to their
cultivation and distribution around the world. While
It is intriguing to discover that as early as 1902
the timber industry was of paramount importance
grevilleas were being grown on the tea plantations of
for building projects, many of these trees, shrubs
Ceylon. The Tropical Agriculturist reported:
and herbs also had interesting culinary potential.
certainly for beauty of foliage, for tenacity of vitality it Experimentation with edible fruits, seeds and greens
scarcely ever fails in planting, for fair rapidity of growth usually gave fairly obvious results, and tasting sessions
and value of timber at a comparatively early age, it is one quickly set aside those that were unappetising. Then
of the most valuable gifts which Australia has bestowed there was always the inclination to try a good cup of
on Ceylon. It flourishes from sea level to 6,000 feet, and coffee or mug of tea and this was equally motivational
we do not wonder at its popularity and wide diffusion for experiments with the flora. Supplies of beer, wine
… The faith felt in the beneficial influence of Grevilleas and cider were often unprocurable. It was the quest
planted along with tea especially, continues to gather for a good drink (of whatever type) that led many
strength among Ceylon planters. These trees afford shelter explorers and early settlers to try some interesting
from the wind, supply an ample litter with fallen leaves,
and adventurous concoctions employing local plants.
and the roots penetrate and open up what is often a hard
subsoil.
Sometimes they were successful – and there were times
when they were not.
Chapter 6
BUSH BEVERAGES
In colonial Australia, where daily survival was

frequently a labour-intensive exercise, the floral
resources of the continent were to provide diverse
opportunities for the discovery of food products.
The sweetness of flower nectars provided welcome
flavourings for drinks, and there were experiments
with some unusual coffee- and tea-making efforts
with the native vegetation. ‘Cider’-making and
beer-brewing were among the first experiments with
fermentation undertaken.
Bush water sources: vines and trees

Nonetheless, the successful procurement of water
was an imperative that tapped into the most basic
survival skills needed in many parts of the country. In
outback areas, water was a truly precious commodity.
Indigenous Australians, who were exceptionally
adept in the bushcraft involved in the search, had
many ingenious solutions to the problem – which
Water is a precious commodity. ranged from digging up eucalypt roots in the desert,
136
Chapter 6 BUSH BEVERAGES 137
to harvesting rainforest vines in the tropics. Early of obtaining a palatable supply from young “gum”
colonial writers mention that a diverse range of native [Eucalyptus] saplings, by lopping off their tops by
trees and shrubs were hidden water sources that could a sharp oblique cut and then reversing them; also a
prove invaluable to the traveller. practice of the blacks in the south of treating the roots
of Mallee Scrub, after cutting them into lengths, in a
The Water Vines somewhat similar manner.’
John C. Bidwill (appointed Director of the Sydney
Botanic Gardens in 1847), who became lost in the
bush near Moreton Bay in Queensland, attributed
his survival to obtaining water from the vine Vitis
hypoglauca (now Cissus hypoglauca), which led its
acquiring the name ‘water vine’ (Bennett 1860).
In 1884 observations regarding ‘An example of an
unexpected source of water in the bush’ was posted
in the ‘Notes’ of the Proceedings of the Royal Society
of Queensland. This mentioned a similar use of the
vine at Spicer’s Creek, near Warwick in Queensland.
Samples were shown at a Society exhibition by Mr H.
The Five-leaf Water Vine (Cissus hypoglauca) produces
Herwitz: ‘The plants from which they were derived, generous bunches of fruit that resemble grapes. They
yielded on being tapped, a supply of pure water for ripen from green into a rich blue-black colour. Despite the
two days. The Hon. A.C. Gregory, in reference to attractive presentation, the fruit has a rather sour taste and
other vegetable sources of water, alluded to a method is not particularly juicy.
Lawyer vines
The rainforest Lawyer Vines (species of Calamus)
have long been utilised as a water resource. The
water, which is clear and pure, can be obtained in
substantial amounts from the cut vines by travellers
in the jungle. The fruit , which are edible, contain a
fair amount of water (57.5–70.3mg/100g), and can
make a good snack food. They contain a fair amount
of carbohydrate (around 26mg/100g), potassium
(349mg), a little sodium (49mg) and calcium (72mg)
(Brand Miller 1993).
The Australian vine genera Cissus, Ampellocissus and Cayratia

– often known as ‘Native Grapes’ – belong in the Vitaceae
(Grapevine family). Cissus hypoglauca was among a number
of species originally classified in the genus Vitis until more
defined Australian botanical classifications evolved. The
vine is widespread along the eastern coast, ranging from
eastern Victoria to tropical north Queensland. It prefers
moist rainforests and adjacent eucalypt forest habitats and
can grow to massive proportions on disturbed sites. Lawyer Vine.
Eucalypts: sources of food and water

Across the continent, eucalypts have been recognised as
trusted landmarks and spiritual totems. For Aborigines
and colonial settlers alike, they were among the most
valued of the country’s floral resources, providing
many types of bush-food snacks – honey, seeds,
nectar-laden flowers, edible grubs, and ‘lerp’ insects.
For the traveller, they were an essential source of
firewood and shelter to camp beneath. Another vitally
important attribute was their use as a water source.
Indeed, Maiden commented: ‘We are indebted to the
aboriginals for a method of obtaining water, and that
from a source in which we should perhaps least look
for it. This simple method ... is now given [and] no
adult in Australia should be ignorant of it. There is
no doubt that knowledge of this method of obtaining
water would have been the means of saving the lives
of many people who have suffered one of the most
terrible of all deaths – death from thirst’ (Maiden
1888).
In 1883, K.H. Bennett presented a paper on the

subject, making particular reference to the eucalypt
as a water resource, ‘for Nature as if to make amends
for the scarcity of water above ground has in this
Lawyer Vine.
inhospitable region provided a perennial supply in the
roots of several species of trees, which for the most
part are unknown, on the country nearer the rivers.
On these roots – the natives in former times as a rule
– used to depend for their supply of water four or five
months of every year (and in times of drought for the
whole of the year)’.
Water-retentive species included Eucalyptus dumosa,

E. gracilis, E. incrassa, E. oleosa, E. paniculata, E.
populnea, E. transcontinentalis and E. uncinata. In
Central Australia, long lengths of root of the Coolibah
(E. microtheca) or the Bloodwood (E. opaca, formerly
E. terminalis) were carried back to tribal camps, both
ends plugged with clay to prevent leakage. Maiden
also mentioned that: ‘The Wandoo of Western
Australia (Eucalyptus redunca Schauer, var. elata) gives
out a watery liquid from the prominent tumours so
common in this tree, when they are tapped by means
of an axe’ (Maiden 1920a).
Roots of the White Eucalypt (probably Eucalyptus Weir, Bull or Water Mallee (Eucalyptus dumosa).
platyphylla). The roots of many native trees and shrubs, (Courtesy: Hellomojo, Wikipedia, GNU)
among which the eucalypts figure prominently, have been
an essential water resource in the Australian bush. root into lengths of three or four feet and, stripping off
the bark from the lower end of each piece, he reared them
Eucalyptus dumosa, a Mallee, is widely distributed against the tree, leaving their liquid contents to drop into
across the continent, from western New South Wales, a pannikin. On holding a piece of root horizontally no
water is to be seen, but the moment it is placed in an
extending into Victoria and across to South Australia,
upright position a moisture comes over the peeled part,
to the Nullarbor Plain of Western Australia. This tree, until the pores fill with water, which drops rapidly. The
which had an ancient tradition of use, came to the natives, when travelling in search of water, on finding the
notice of the traveller John Cairns. He described in tree, usually cut off a large piece of the bark to serve as a
some detail the process of extracting water from the dish, which they place at the foot of the tree, leaving the
roots: broken roots to drain into it whilst they smoke a pipe or
light a fire. The root, on being broken, presents to view
Our black immediately proceeded to cut a yam stick about innumerable minute pores, through which the water
five or six feet long, which he pointed with his tomahawk, exudes most copiously; from a pint to a quart of pure
and then, tracing the root by a slight crack discernible on water is procurable from a root of twenty to thirty feet
the surface of the ground, he dug beneath it and then long. Some roots which we carried with us to the home
prized it up as far as he could. Going further from the tree station gave out a little moisture the next morning, but,
he repeated the operation, until he had, perhaps, fifteen the weather being excessively warm, rapid evaporation
or twenty feet of the root laid bare. He now broke up the had no doubt taken place (cited in MacPherson 1939).
and mallee. The first named was the most preferred, as

yielding the greatest quantity, and as the method was the
same in all cases, this one will serve for a description of the
modus operandi. This tree, which somewhat resembles
the red gum in appearance – the leaves being narrow and
of a silvery colour – grows chiefly on sandy or light loamy
soil, and throws out numerous lateral roots at a depth of
from 6 to 12 inches from the surface of the ground. The
native, having ascertained the position of one or more
of these roots by repeatedly jabbing the point of a spear
or sharpened stick into the soft earth, and at a distance
of some 6 or 8 feet from the trunk of the tree, quickly
removes the super-incumbent soil with his wooden shovel
for 20 or 30 feet, and cutting the root off at each end, lifts
it out of the trench, and cuts it up into lengths of about
18 inches to 2 feet, knocks off the bark, and stands the
severed portions on end in some receptacle to contain the
water (in former times a water-bag made of the entire skin
of a male wallaby). As soon as these pieces are placed on
end, the water commences to drip, and when the whole of
the root or roots are cut up and placed on end, the native
beginning at the first placed, puts the end in his mouth
and by a vigorous puff expels the remaining water. The
roots chosen are – with the bark on – about the size of
a man’s wrist; the larger ones being more woody and less
porous contain little or no water. The water is beautifully
clear, cool, and free from any unpleasant taste or smell.
Spotted Gum (Eucalyptus [Corymbia] maculata). The Desert Oak

The veteran explorer William Tietkens, of Ooldea
In 1902 the botanist R.H. Cambage mentioned that
Water, South Australia, recorded that the Desert
near Milton (on the south coast of New South Wales)
Oak (Allocasuarina decaisneana, formerly Casuarina
there were two particular Spotted Gums (Eucalyptus
decaisneana) was also valued as a water source:
maculata) ‘which grow on the roadside a few miles
to the southward, and are known to residents and Travelling once with a small native boy of about 10
regular travellers as the “Water trees” owing to the fact years of age, and towards the close of a dreadful day, the
that they have small hollows in the base of the trunks waterbag long since emptied and the boy gasping for
which hold water nearly all the year round. One in water, and myself no better (the boy was riding a very
particular has been the means of quenching many a unusually tall camel, we still had 15 miles more to travel),
thirst on this particularly dry piece of road’ (cited in all at once a cry broke from him, and with one bound
Maiden 1920b). he was off that camel and running towards an oak-tree
[the Desert Oak], well 4 chains distant at least. I stopped
the camels and went up to him. He was clawing away at
Substantial details on the subject were also provided the hot sandy soil, and at last – snap. A root one and a
by Bennett, in his Notes on the Method of Obtaining half inches thick was broken, a hard pull, and about 8
Water from Eucalyptus Roots as practised by the Natives feet of root was exposed, lifting the soil as it was raised.
of the Country between the Lachlan and Darling Rivers: About 2 feet length was broken off and upended into the
1 Maiden (1913) commented: ‘I believe the trees referred to are Eucalyptus
rostrata Schlecht. [E. camaldulensis], the Red Gum, E. microtheca F.v.M., the
There are several kinds of trees from which water was Coolabah, and E. incrassata Labill. var. dumosa F.v.M., one of the Mallees, and
obtained, including three species of Eucalyptus, a species I would suggest to dwellers in the West that they should definitely ascertain
what Eucalypts are so used before those blacks and whites who used the
of Hakea and Currajong.1 The Eucalypti consisted of method pass away.’ The other plants were Hakea leucoptera and the Kurrajong
a gum (the largest of the back country trees), a box, (Brachychiton populneus).
mouth, and a cold drink the result. But not sufficient; perhaps just beyond the man’s reach or higher. The blacks
another and another length was broken off till we had take a coarse straw of grass or spinifex and suck the water
sufficient. We did not take any more than one root, and I up; these and other methods known to them will perhaps
think there were eight or ten more such roots – enough in account for the fact that blacks are seen in the most arid
abundance for a dozen men … The water so obtained was and desolate parts of the desert in the heat of summer.
cool, quite cool, colour-less, and refreshing; but I have So they move from one little water to another in small
noticed that upon exposure to the air for a few hours it groups or families, and from what has been seen of them
becomes a pale brown colour, such as would be noticed in in their native habitat it appears they are never reduced
water into which a piece of bark has been dropped (cited to want except perhaps from their own indolence. Upon
in Maiden 1913). another occasion I have known water sufficient for five
men to be obtained from Oak and plenty to spare, but
have never heard of a white man who knew the secret,
This valuable tree had important mythological
and have never known it to be found in the Desert Oak.
associations for Central Australian tribes. It also had a I imagine this tree must send its roots deep down, for it is
number of practical uses: the strong, hard wood could a handsome shapely tree with very thick rugged bark that
be made into clubs and spears, while the wood ash protects the tree from the fires made by the blacks when
provided an alkaline admixture for the narcotic drug burning spinifex (cited in Maiden 1913).
pituri (Duboisia hopwoodii). The fruit (a cone) when
nearing maturity yielded a sweet exudate and was
Kurrajongs and Bottle Trees
soaked in water to make a sugary drink (Latz 1996)
Queensland Bottle Tree (Brachychiton rupestris) at the

Sydney Botanic Gardens. In a review of Brachychiton
discolor, Maiden (1921) drew attention to the cultivation
of these trees at the botanic gardens: ‘The Bottle-tree
(Sterculia rupestris) is a Queensland species closely allied to
the Lace-bark tree [Brachychiton discolor], and, because of
Desert Oak (Allocasuarina decaisneana). (Courtesy:
the lemonade-bottle shape of its trunk, it is widely known as
B.Steinfeldt, Wikimedia Commons)
the Bottle-tree. Wherever it is seen it excites interest because
of its grotesque appearance, and there are some healthy
Tietkens also noted: specimens of it in the Botanic Gardens, Sydney.’
The Common Oak will yield water in another way: in a

fork of the tree there will be a cavity that will give a full
All but one of the Kurrajongs and Bottle Trees (genus:
drink for two or three people, some more, some less – such Brachychiton) are deciduous and this is an unusual
trees are perhaps as well known as are the small rock cups characteristic for an Australian plant. Many have
and as frequently visited; this cavity may be anywhere, been useful bush water resources. Maiden mentioned
the particular value of the Queensland Bottle Tree in Maiden 1921). While the roots of other species
(Brachychiton delabechii, now B. rupestris): ‘[Anthelme] were not so palatable they could be used, in times of
Thozet speaks of the natives cutting holes in the soft hardship, after removal of the stringy root bark.
trunk where the water lodges and rots the trunk to its
centre.2 These trunks are so many artificial reservoirs Other sources of bush tucker from this genus included
of water. When a tree has been cut its resources are not a sweet gum from both Brachychiton megaphyllus and
exhausted. The tired hunter, when he sees a tree that B. diversifolius. Gum from the latter, which has useful
has been tapped, cuts a hole somewhat lower than the fixative properties, was mixed with ochre to make an
old cuts, and obtains an abundant supply of the sweet adhesive body paint (Barr 1993; Marrfurra 1995).
mucilaginous juice afforded by the tree. This is the Maiden considered that the gum was very similar
tree from which the notorious M. Rougemont speaks to Tragacanth, being ‘wholesome and nutritious’. A
of having obtained water for a considerable period3’ clear jelly could also be obtained by pouring boiling
(cited in Maiden 1920b). water over the wood chips. Mr Edward M. Bowman
of Taroom in Queensland mentioned another
Various Brachychiton species have a water-retentive interesting practical use: ‘You will also find that bottle
taproot, and the roots from young trees are edible. tree boiled in a little water makes the most beautiful
Some said that, when cooked, the vegetable resembled starch procurable. In fact, a young lady told me she
boiled turnips, albeit sweeter in flavour. According to never did up a dress so well as with starch produced
Maiden, in the Bega district Brachychiton populneus in this way.’
was:
well known as ‘Yam-tree,’ on account of the large yam-

Bat’s-wing Coral Tree
like root the tree possesses, at all events in the young state,
which root is locally called yam, and it is stated that these
were formerly much sought after by the aborigines for
food. In the case of some small trees, less than 1 inch
in diameter, which were dug up for planting, they had
yams from 8 to 12 inches long, and 2 or 3 in diameter,
weighing several pounds. A correspondent tells me they
have been got 8 to 10 lb in weight, and are not despised
by Europeans. The outside skin or bark of these yams can
be easily removed, and looks like the skin of a radish. The
inside is beautifully white, a little sweetish in taste, but
otherwise rather insipid (Maiden 1920b).
With reference to the edibility of Brachychiton

delabechii (Brachychiton rupestris) the following
comment has also been made: ‘It is said that the soft
juicy tissue of the stem can be eaten, and that many
a wanderer in the bush has staved off hunger by its
means. The young shoots and roots of young trees are
agreeable and refreshing. The nuts also are eaten’ (cited
2 Thozet was a botanical collector who became director of the Rockhampton
Botanical Gardens in 1861.
3 Henri Louis Grin was an early literary rogue who, under a pseudonym, Bat’s-wing Coral Tree (Erythrina vespertilio). The distinctive leaf,
wrote a book called The Adventures of Louis de Rougemont, as Told by which resembles a small flying bat, and the elegant slipper-like,
Himself in 1899. It was a highly fanciful tale of a resourceful castaway. The orange-red flowers, are features that make this tree a particularly
author gained quite a bit of notoriety for his adventures, which resulted in
quite a lot of controversy. The subject matter involved his many wonderful
decorative native of the Australian tropics. The brown pods
exploits and life among the native Aboriginal people in the north-west and contain bright red or orange seeds that, despite their toxic
central regions of Australia. potential have been used as decorative beads.
Nectars for fermentation

Since antiquity fermented drinks have been popular in
most cultures, and Australia was no exception. More
than a century ago, Robert Brough Smyth, in the
Aborigines of Victoria (1878), mentioned:
The natives used also compound liquors – perhaps after

a slight fermentation to some extent intoxicating – from
various flowers, from honey, from gums, and from a kind
of manna. The liquor was usually prepared in the large
wooden bowls (tarnucks) which were to be seen at every
encampment. In the flowers of dwarf species of Banksia
[B. ornata] there is a good deal of honey, and this was got
out of the flowers by immersing them in water. The water
thus sweetened was greedily swallowed by the natives.
The drink was named Beal by the natives of the west of
Victoria and was much esteemed.
The explorer Sir Thomas Mitchell also mentioned

that the flowers of an ‘Ironbark’ near Port Phillip,
Melbourne, were gathered and soaked overnight in
water to make a sweet drink named Bool.
Bat’s-wing Coral Tree (Erythrina vespertilio).
The water-retentive root system of this straggling,
thorny tree has been a useful resource for northern
Aboriginal tribes. During very dry seasons, even the
burrowing frogs that lived among the roots were
squeezed to extract water (one has to have some
sympathy for the poor frogs). The freshly harvested
roots, stripped of their outer bark, were edible,
although the bark itself was poisonous. The soft timber
of the Bat’s-wing Coral Tree was useful for making
shields and water carriers. Medicinally, the decocted
leaves utilised as a wash that was regarded as having
‘strengthening’ effects and could prevent contracting
colds and influenza (Isaacs 1994; Hiddins 2001).
Erythrina toxins
Many Erythrina species contain compounds similar to
that of the arrow poison curare that affects the central
nervous system. This type of toxin, however, is only
active when injected. The seeds are noted to be toxic
raw, but not when cooked – but caution should be
applied to this statement. The bark is also said to be
very poisonous. This toxicity could vary considerably
between species. Some species have been used as fish
poisons due to their saponin content (Jackes 1992;
Burkill 1935; Hiddins 2001). Banksia flowers. (Credit: Derek Sykes)
Native ‘Honeysuckles’
‘Honeysuckle’ is a descriptive term that was quickly
adopted by the early settlers for many species of
Banksia. Equally attractive honey-laden flowers were
characteristic of the genera Grevillea, Hakea and
Callistemon. In full bloom they yielded a wonderfully
sweet honey-like liquid. The yield of some species could
be prolific, particularly after dewy nights. In Smith’s
Dictionary of Useful Plants the author commented: ‘It
is so abundant in B. ericifolia and B. collina that when
in flower the ground underneath large cultivated
plants is said to be in a complete state of puddle; bees
and wasps become intoxicated, and may lose their
lives in it.’ Maiden thought this description was a trifle
optimistic: ‘[It] may possibly be true of a particular
Banksia cultivated under exceptional conditions. But
certainly it does not apply, except in a very modified
degree, to the case of any Banksia I have noticed; and
since I observed the above statement I have taken the
trouble to look at hundreds of individuals of various
species with the view of testing its accuracy.’ William
Bauerlen, a botanical collector at the Technological
Museum in Sydney, agreed with Maiden: ‘I have
never heard from anyone having observed the liquid
exuding so abundantly as mentioned by Smith. I have
often found the flowers pretty rich in the honey-like
liquid, and when travelling over dry, waterless areas I
have sometimes sucked the liquid from the flowers to
quench my thirst, but always endeavour not to do so,
as it invariably gives me a headache, and a feeling of
nausea afterwards’ (cited in Maiden 1888). Bauerlen
may have experienced a sensitivity to the nectars he
Banksia flowers. (Courtesy: Derek Sykes)
sampled – or perhaps not all sources of nectar were
suitable for human consumption.
Other species were equally useful nectar resources. In

a paper on The Aborigines of Stradbroke Island, Colliver
and Woolston (1975) noted: “Meston … tells that the
honey was obtained in considerable quantities from
the flowers of the honeysuckle and gives two native
names: mintee for a small form, probably Banksia
integrifolia, and banberra for a large form, most likely
B. aemula the Wallum Oak or B. serrata.’ The latter
two, which can be difficult to tell apart, are both known
as ‘Old Man Banksia’. Indeed, the term aemula, which
is derived from aemulus, means ‘like’ and refers to this
similarity. Of the two, Banksia serrata has a wider
Banksia serrata. (Courtesy: Peter Greenwell, Wikipedia
GNU) distribution, ranging from southern Queensland to
Victoria and Tasmania. ‘Wallum’, the Aboriginal

name for the shrub, has acquired a broader meaning
that is descriptive of the heath plant communities
in which the Banksia is characteristic. The Wallum
is a floristically rich environment, housing a range
of Australian plants that have developed interesting
survival strategies in response to the fairly poor soils
of their habitat. They include numerous species of
Banksia, eucalypts, wattles (Acacia) and the attractive
shrubs Boronia, as well as various reeds and sedges.
Many of these sites now rate conservation concern
and some have an endangered listing. Many of the
coastal regions of southern Queensland and New
South Wales that host Wallum plant communities
have been compromised by human impact. Dune
sites and hinterland areas have suffered from urban
expansion or unwise recreational exploitation that has Leptospermum scoparium. (Courtesy: Forest Starr & Kim
resulted in substantial damage to the natural integrity Starr, 149 Hawea Pl.Makawao, HI 96768, USA)
of the environment.
Beer has been one of the most popular beverages
through the ages, notably in northern European
Experiments in brewing countries, where it was often safer to drink than water.
Captain Cook, in New Zealand on his second voyage,
was pleased with his early efforts at brewing. It would
be easy to imagine the crew’s delight when a remedy
for scurvy was found to be compatible with English
brewery traditions.4 In May 1773 Cook recorded the
success of the enterprise, with justifiable pride:
Our people, who were daily exposed to the rain, felt no

ill effects from it; on the contrary, such as were sick and
ailing when we came in, recovered daily, and the whole
crew soon became strong and vigorous; which can only
be attributed to the healthiness of the place, and the fresh
provisions it afforded. The beer certainly contributed
not a little. As I have already observed, we at first made
it of a decoction of spruce leaves; but finding that this
alone made the beer too astringent, we afterwards mixed
it with an equal quantity of the tea plant [Leptospermum
scoparium] (a name obtained in my former voyage from
our using it as tea then, as we also did now) which partly
destroyed the astringency of the other, and made the
beer exceedingly palatable, and esteemed by everyone on
board.
Spruce beer became a very popular part of the

provisions. On the return voyage of the Resolution,
stocks of the local ingredients were seen as an essential
Leptospermum scoparium.
addition to the ships’ supplies. On Cook’s third trip
to New Zealand, the crew quickly began production

of the brew.
The fame of the improvised brew quickly spread

among seafarers. In 1791, when Captain George
Vancouver visited Dusky Sound (south-west New
Zealand) aboard the Chatham, he commented: ‘Our
Spruce Beer, which was made under the directions
made by Captain Cook, prov’d excellent, and was
served to the Ship’s Company in lieu of Spirits’ (cited
in McLauchlan 1994).
Cook’s recipe was simple:

First, make a strong decoction of the small branches
The bark of the Rimu (Dacrydium cupressinum) has a high

content of tannin, the astringent properties of which would
have imparted substantial bitterness to the brew. In New
Zealand the tree was valued in native medicinal traditions as
a healing agent. The inner bark and the gum were used for
treating a wide array of injuries, ranging from minor cuts or
scratches, to ulcers and serious wounds (Brooker, Cambie &
Cooper 1993).
of the spruce [Dacrydium cupressinum] and Tea plants
[Leptospermum scoparium], by boiling them three or
four hours, or until the bark will strip with ease from
the branches; then take them out of the copper, and put
in the proper quantity of molasses; ten gallons of which
is sufficient to make a ton or two hundred and forty
gallons of beer; let this mixture just boil; then put it in
the casks; and, to it, add an equal quantity of cold water,
more or less according to the strength of the decoction, or
Dacrydium cupressinum.
your taste; when the whole is milk-warm, put in a little
4 Among the provisions on Cooks’ first voyage aboard the Endeavour were grounds of beer, or yeast if you have it, or anything else
a number of dietary items that were thought to be useful supplements –
with particular emphasis on preventing the rigours of scurvy. They included that will cause fermentation, and in a few days the beer
dried soup cubes, an orange and lemon extract (a ‘rob’), raisins, mustard will be fit to drink (Beaglehole 1961).
seeds, and considerable amounts of sauerkraut (7,800 pounds) and malt (40
bushels). Flour (which was habitually weevil-infested) and salted meat were
the mainstays of the diet. However, to truly appreciate the British sailor’s
love of a good drink it is worth noting that 1200 gallons of beer and 1600
gallons of spirits were listed among the essential provisions.
Vitamin C and the Canadian ‘Spruce’

The origins of the discovery of the antiscorbutic effects
of Spruce beer lie in records telling of a virtual ‘miracle
cure’ used by the Frenchman Jacques Cartier in 1535–
36. It was in Canada that he heard of a local remedy
called ‘annedda’ prepared from an evergreen tree. The
account reads like a miracle story:
The Captain [Cartier] seeing … dom Agaya healthy and

deliberate, was joyous, hoping to learn from him, how he
was cured, so that his [Cartier’s] men could be given aid
and help. So when they arrived near the fort, the Captain
asked him how he was cured of his sickness [scurvy].
Dom Agaya replied that it was with the juice of the leaves
of a tree and the water the leaves were boiled in, that he
was cured and this was the special remedy for the sickness
… Agaya sent two women with our captain, to cure him,
they brought nine or ten branches; and showed us how the
bark must be pulled off and the leaves of these branches,
and all put into water to boil; then the water drunk once
in two days; and the juice of the leaves and bark pressed
out and the water put on the swollen and sick limbs; and
he said that the tree will cure all sickness. They call the said
tree in their language, annedda. Immediately afterwards,
the captain had the drink made, so the sick could drink,
of these however no one wanted to try it, only one or two,
who decided to try it. As soon as they had drunk they felt
better, which they found a true and evident miracle; for
of all the sickness they had suffered from, after having Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis).
drunk two or three times, they recovered their health and
were cured, so that some of the company who had had Spruce beer was reasonably popular in northern
syphilis for more than five or six years before getting this European countries. When it was found useful for
sickness [scurvy], by this medicine were completely cured. scurvy its reputation was enhanced considerably.
After having seen this, there was such a demand for this The twigs and cones of a Spruce were usually boiled
medicine that a tree, as large and as tall as I have ever with a mixture of molasses and yeast or, in North
seen was used in less than eight days, which made such America, in maple syrup. It was a highly innovative
a cure that if all the doctors of Louvain and Montpellier development when Cook used a New Zealand plant
had tried, with all the drugs of Alexandria, they could that resembled the Spruce as a substitute in the beer-
not have done as much in one year as this tree did in
making process. It may be a surprise to learn that, in
eight days; For it profited us so much, that all those who
wanted to try it, recovered health and were cured, by the
more recent times, the validity of these anti-scurvy
Grace of God (cited in Erichsen-Brown 1979). claims have been substantiated, with the discovery
of high levels of vitamin C in pine-needles (e.g. from
The tree was either the Eastern Hemlock (Tsuga Picea excelsa).5 Laboratory animals with scurvy have
canadensis), the White Spruce (Picea glauca, syns responded extremely well to treatment with pine-
Pinus canadensis, Pinus alba) or the Black Spruce needle concentrates. The clinical use of pine-needle
(Picea mariana, syns Pinus nigra, Abies nigra). Later concentrate in a study of fifty-two scurvy cases resulted
voyagers who heard rumours of this remarkable cure in the subjects’ being effectively cured. The treatment,
were, sadly, unaware of its botanical identity. which was taken for up to twenty days, was found to
be devoid of side effects (Corrigan 1993).
5 Vitamins A and E can also be extracted from pine needles.
Black spruce (Pinus nigra).

Australian attempts at brewing involved some
innovative substitution strategies to obtain the
required ingredients. A shortage of hops, a fairly
important ingredient in the process, was one of the
problems. After some trial and error, local strategies
were inspired by the resemblance of the native Hop
Bush (Dodonaea viscosa) to the European Hops
(Humulus lupulus). Although these plants are not
botanically related, it was found that the winged fruit
of the former could be used to impart a desirable bitter
characteristic to the beer.
Dodonaea viscosa has a widespread distribution

overseas, ranging from Australia and New Zealand to
tropical and temperate Asia, and to the Americas. It is
a species that has been popularly used in many places
as an antipyretic for feverish conditions. It has also
been valued as an analgesic and anti-inflammatory
remedy for treating arthritic pain, and as a wound-
Hop Bush (Dodonaea viscosa). healing agent. Aboriginal people chewed Hop Bush
leaves for the relief of toothache (without swallowing in an article by Sir William Hooker who, in 1843,
the juice), and crushed leaves were applied locally for mentioned a ‘Cyder tree’ native to the mountains of
the relief of stonefish and stingray injuries. A root Van Diemen’s Land: ‘[It] yields a liquor resembling
decoction of Dodonaea viscosa var. laurina was utilised black beer, by boring into its trunk.’ In 1842, the
similarly for toothache and to promote the healing of Superintendent of Convict Prisons, Ronald Campbell
wounds (Lassak & McCarthy 1992). In the Northern Gunn, an enthusiastic amateur botanist who collected
Territory the branches have also been used as a many specimens for Hooker, described the harvesting
smoking medicine for the relief of colds and influenza process:
(Latz 1996). The foliage infusion of the Narrow-leaf
Hop Bush, Dodonaea attenuata, has also been used as a The shepherds and stockmen cut with an axe into the tree
bodywash for the relief of fevers. Interestingly, in Peru about 5 or 6 inches, inclining the cut downwards so as to
the alkaloid-containing leaves of Dodonaea viscosa hold about a pint. The sap flows into this hole from above
were chewed as a stimulant. They have also been used and below, and when first made fills at least once a day,
as an adulterant of cocaine, a drug sourced from the but later in the season yields less, and ceases altogether.
The sap is drunk as it comes from the tree. Some trees
shrub Erythroxylon cocoa (Cribb & Cribb 1981).
yield sap of a very thin consistency and slightly acid.
Others again yield a sweeter, and as thick as syrup. The
Experiments in making cider effect at first to many who drink it is slightly aperient, but
The search for other alcoholic beverages that could it ceases afterwards.
be sourced from native resources was no less intense.
Certainly there was a lot of experimentation with the In Australasiatic Reminiscences of Twenty-Three Years’
native flora during the early days of the Australian Wanderings (1857), botanist Daniel Bunce wrote:
colonies. Among these initial experiments were
Of the trees also belonging to this order, were many of the
attempts at creating a substitute for the familiar apple-
Eucalyptus resinifera [Gunnii is meant. J.H. Maiden] or
based form of cider. The term ‘cider’ was, at times, used
cider tree of the lakes. This tree, at certain seasons, yields a
fairly indiscriminately. In 1891 Maiden commented quantity of slightly saccharine liquor, resembling treacle,
that Angophora intermedia kino was: ‘[a] watery, which the stock-keepers were in the habit of extracting,
slightly astringent liquid when the trunk (particularly and using as a kind of drink. The natives had also a
at swellings) is tapped … It is sometimes known as method, at the proper season, of grinding holes in the
“cider”, and is worthy of note that some people call all tree, from which the sweet juice flowed plentifully, and
liquids obtained from our native trees “cider”, whether was collected in a hole at the bottom, near the root of
they are drinkable or not.’ In a discussion of the the tree. These holes were kept covered over with a flat
watery fluids from eucalypt trees, Maiden mentioned stone, apparently for the purpose of preventing birds and
that from Eucalyptus raveretiana ‘an acidulous, almost animals coming to drink it. When allowed to remain any
length of time, it ferments and settles into a coarse sort of
colourless, liquid exudes in considerable quantity,
wine or cider, rather intoxicating if drunk to excess (cited
in which respect the species resembles E. gunnii …
in Maiden 1920a).
Other Eucalypts exude a watery liquid, not always
drinkable. I saw a tree of Orange Gum (Eucalyptus
Some of these cider-brewing enterprises were
Bancroftii Maiden) felled near Port Macquarie, and a
rumoured to result in some rather licentious parties,
large quantity of a sour, rusty-coloured liquid squirted
as John MacPherson (1939) commented: ‘In the early
out with considerable force.’
days of settlement, this cider was in great demand in
Tasmania both by the blacks and the white stockmen.
One particular tree had a reputation for yielding a very
At Christmas time, in 1826, the Lake Arthur blacks
acceptable form of ‘cider’ – enough so that it quickly
indulged in a great eucalyptus cider orgy.’
acquired the name Cider Gum (Eucalyptus gunnii).
The treacle-like sap, which has a high sugar content,
soon became popular as Tasmanian ‘cider’ – more so
when it was found to have alcoholic potential. The
first botanical reference to the Cider Gum was made
The Tasmanian Cider Gum (Eucalyptus gunnii) is distinguished by its ability to withstand extreme cold – an adaptation that
has made it a popular addition to the garden in colder overseas conditions. The tree comes from an environment characterised
by chilling frosts and freezing snowfalls in winter. Investigations of the tolerance of its leaves to freezing temperatures have
shown that sugars within the cells are involved in its cryoprotection strategies (Leborgne 1995).
Coffee substitutes
The search for potential coffee-making products was
characterised by great inventiveness – and an element
of risk-taking with the unfamiliar. During Leichhardt’s
expedition in northern Australia, members of the party
experimented with the seeds of Acacia, Brachychiton,
the Sacred Lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) and the
Mackenzie Bean (Canavalia papuana). While all were
said to make an acceptable form of ‘coffee’, various
obstacles had to be overcome, either in the collection
of the product or in the preparation process.
Mackenzie Bean The Beach Bean (Canavalia rosea) is a pretty legume found
The Mackenzie Bean, with which Aboriginal people along the Australian coast, ranging from New South Wales
were familiar, was one example of the difficulties to the tropics of Queensland, the Northern Territory and
the Leichhardt party encountered. The beans from Western Australia. It has an extensive root system that
various Canavalia species have long been known to is useful for stabilising dunes and has been used in many
environmental rehabilitation projects. Samples of Canavalia
be toxic when raw. There are five native Australian
rosea were added to the collections of Banks and Solander on
species: Canavalia rosea, C. papuana, C. cathartica, C. the 1770 voyage of the Endeavour. This species has also been
ensiformis and C. sericea. identified from William Dampier’s journal.
Experiments by the early explorers suggested that

Canavalia beans would be easily detoxified by
cooking. Captain Cook’s party had collected pods
from the Beach Bean vine (Canavalia rosea) and boiled
them for use as a vegetable at the Endeavour River.
Opinions as to their edibility varied. While Cook
considered them an acceptable form of fare, Banks
found them quite unappetising. Overseas, the Jack
Bean (C. ensiformis), the Beach Bean (C. maritima)
and C. cathartica have been similarly utilised as a
vegetable. Their protein, fibre, ash and energy values
rate higher than those of wheat, although the protein

value is less than that of soybeans. Canavalia beans are
carbohydrate-rich. While not very rich in minerals,
they contain fair amounts of sodium, calcium,
potassium and phosphorus (as well as some zinc, iron,
copper and manganese). In addition, the raw beans
have a good polyunsaturated fatty acid content, higher
than that of wheat. However, the need for processing
(soaking in water and then cooking) to remove the
toxic components compromises their nutritional value
(Seena & Sridhar 2006).
Leichhardt recorded finding the Beach Bean: Sacred Lotus: source of food and ‘coffee’
In the bed of the [Mackenzie] river which was here broad
and sandy, a bean was gathered, bearing racemes of pink
blossoms, and spreading its long slender stem over the
ground, or twining it round shrubs and trees: its pods
were from three to five inches long, and about half an
inch broad, containing from four to six seeds, very similar
to the horse-bean.6 This plant was afterwards found
growing in the sandy beds, or along the beds of almost
all the broad rivers, and was always a welcome sight; for
the seeds, after roasting and pounding them, afforded us
a very agreeable substitute for coffee (Leichhardt 1847).
However, when the roasted beans from a virtually

identical vine were used on the Mackenzie River
in Queensland, the results were not quite what
they expected. The botanist on Leichhardt’s second
expedition, Daniel Bunce, reported ‘one dose of this
beverage was sufficient, as it created violent vomiting
and diarrhoea’. It appears that they had harvested the
Wild Jackbean (Canavalia papuana) – a species that
would have been very difficult to distinguish from
the coastal Beach Bean (C. rosea). Merely cooking
the Wild Jackbean was not enough to remove the
poisonous components, they required addition
soaking and washing to leach out the toxin.
Pastoralist Tom Petrie mentioned the processing Lotus swamp, lotus flowers.
methods employed to remove this poison:
A large bean (‘Yugam’) Canavalia obtusifolia7, which grew

in the scrub on vines was pulled before it was ripe while
soft, and the beans taken from the pods and soaked in
water. These were then pounded up and made into cakes,
and roasted. If not prepared so they were poisonous. The
natives declared that the soaking and roasting took all
badness away. For soaking beans, roots or nuts, netted
billies were used. This prevented them getting lost, and
yet allowed the water to get at them. After white people
came the blacks soaked corn in the same way to soften it
(Petrie 1837).
6 Horse Bean refers to Vicia fava, the edible Broad Bean, Fava or Butter
Bean.
7 Canavalia obtusifolia and C. maritima now refer to C. rosea. This species
has also been known as the Coastal Jack Bean. Canavalia papuana is a separate
species, as is the Sword Bean (C. gladiata). The latter, however, is not native
to Australia.
Lotus fruit.
Physician and naturalist Dr George Bennett (1860)

eloquently described the Sacred Lotus, one of the
most stunning flowering plants native to the tropics
of Australia and Asia:
The beautiful pink lotus (Nelumbium) [now Nymphaea

lotus] is indigenous to Australia, and is found growing in
the lagoons, of the interior … The leaf and flower-stems
rise to the height of 3 or 4 feet above the surface of the
water. The leaf is almost circular, and is attached to the
stalk by its centre, resembling in form the Egyptian Lotus.
The largest leaf measures 26 inches in diameter, and when
the outer edge begins to droop, it presents the appearance
of a gigantic mushroom: the under part of the leaf has a
reddish tinge, which deepened to a reddish-brown when
fading. The flower is large, of a beautiful rose-colour, about
6 inches in diameter, and with a slight, agreeable perfume.
The seed-pod is of the form usual in the Nelumbium, and
grows to a large size; the seeds are eaten by the natives,
who roast them when they are ripe, but prefer them in
Lotus seed head. the unripe state, when they resemble an acorn without its
cup. The root is eaten by the blacks, and is very palatable that hampered harvesting activities (Lindsay 2001).
when cooked; it extends about 3 feet under the ground, Lotus seeds (per 100g) are a fairly good source of
and has a very thin outer skin, covering a pithy edible carbohydrate and fibre, as well as potassium (440mg)
substance. The leaves of this plant, and many or all of the and iron (8mg) with traces of other minerals –
same tribe, here and in India, have the power of repelling
sodium, magnesium, calcium, zinc, copper (Brand
water from the surface, as if from glass.
Miller 1993).
Leichhardt observed with interest as the local In traditional Chinese medicine the fruits of the
Aboriginal people gathered Lotus seeds. The plant Sacred Lotus have long been valued therapeutically.
produces large seed vessels that become quite heavy The seed was utilised as an astringent antidiarrhoeal
when they mature and tend to sink to the bottom of remedy that had tonic effects on the spleen and
their watery habitat. Their harvest from the muddy kidney. It was also useful for treating male disorders
bottom of these lagoons can therefore be quite a labour (excessive seminal emission) and female leucorrhoea
intensive, and sometimes arduous, undertaking: (vaginal discharge). In addition, the remedy was
reputed to have sedative properties that were useful
The natives had consequently to dive for the ripe seed-
for the treatment of irritability, restlessness, insomnia
vessels; and we observed them constantly disappearing
and palpitations (Yeung 1985).
and reappearing on the surface of the water. They did not
see us until we were close to them, when they hurried
out of the water, snatched up some weapons and ran off Water lilies
leaving their harvest of Nymphaea seeds behind. Brown
had visited another lagoon, where he had seen an old man
and two gins; the former endeavoured to frighten him by
setting the grass on fire, but, when he saw that Brown still
approached, he retired into the forest. We took a net full of
seeds, and I left them a large piece of iron as payment. On
returning to the camp, we boiled the seeds, after removing
the capsule, but as some of the numerous partitions had
remained, the water was rendered slightly bitter. This
experiment having failed, the boiled seeds were then fried
with a little fat, which rendered them very palatable and
remarkably satisfying. The best way of cooking them was
that adopted by the natives, who roast the whole seed-
vessel. I then made another trial to obtain the starch from
the bitter potatoes [roots], in which I succeeded; but the
soup for eight people, made with the starch of sixteen
potatoes, was rather thin (Leichhardt 1847).
After these experiments Leichhardt decided to roast

and pound the seeds, ultimately producing a beverage
he considered was an excellent coffee substitute.
While Aboriginal people usually ate them raw or

cooked, the hard seeds could be stored for up to six
months. Preparation involved removal of the seed
shell and the seeds were then soaked in water until
they softened enough to eat. These supplies were
particularly useful during times when food was in
short supply – such as early in the year, during the
‘wet’ season, when the land was inundated by floods Nymphaea gigantea.
time. They produced not only a good beverage with an

agreeable flavour, but ate well, and appeared to be very
nourishing. They contained a great quantity of oil.’
The fact that the grounds were edible was certainly a
bonus.
The botanical identification of the tree Leichhardt

referred to was debatable, as Maiden later commented:
With regard to the identity of this tree I do not know what

Sterculia or Brachychiton was used; it may have been B.
populneum [B. populneus]. The seeds of some species, and
especially that of the African Cola-nut (Cola or Sterculia
acuminata8) contain thein or caffein [the active principles
of tea and coffee respectively] in large quantity, as has been
known for a very long period. The seeds of the Australian
species of Brachychiton or Sterculia have been but little
examined. Mr. W.M. Hamlet, at the instigation of Mr.
F. Turner, found a small percentage of Caffein in those of
the Kurrajong, and the late Dr. J. Lauterer, of Brisbane,
did not find any in B. trichosiphon and quadrifida.9 But,
without raising great expectations in the matter, the seeds
of the Australian species should be all carefully analysed.
Aboriginal people always roasted Kurrajong seeds before

use, a habit that tends to support the identification of
the tree Leichhardt used as the source of his coffee as a
In a number of countries the roasted seeds of various Kurrajong.
water lilies in the genus Nymphaea have been used
as a coffee substitute. Analysis of a number of species The Australian Peanut Tree
has shown they can be equally as useful as those of The peanut-like seeds of the Australian Peanut Tree
the Sacred Lotus. The lovely water lily Nymphaea (Sterculia quadrifida) have been a popular native food.
gigantea is one of these. The seeds were fairly high in They are fairly nutritious (per 100g: fat 13.8–25.9mg;
potassium (301–880mg) and contained reasonable protein 9.9–17.2mg, carbohydrate17.8–46.2mg) and
levels of phosphorus (28–190mg), magnesium (24– can contain worthwhile amounts of various minerals
90mg), calcium (27–51mg) – as well as some iron – potassium (100–980mg), calcium (79–242mg),
(1.5–2.1mg), and traces of zinc and copper. The iron zinc (4.9–10mg) and magnesium (32–228mg. They
levels in some samples were as high as 22.2mg/100g do not contain very much vitamin C – although the
(Brand Miller 1993). levels of iron (2.6mg) and zinc (6.5mg) can also be
fairly good (Brand Miller 1993). The leaves were used
Kurrajong ‘coffee’ as a first aid remedy by Aboriginal people – they were
Coffee-making experiments were extended to the use simply crushed and applied to insect bites, sores and
of lightly roasted Kurrajong seeds – as Leichhardt wounds, including stingray or stonefish injuries. The
commented: ‘I succeeded here [near the south coast 8 Maiden also mentioned the use of the roasted and ground seeds of Sterculia
of the Gulf of Carpentaria, opposite the Sir Edward urens for making coffee. This Indian species is the source of Karaya gum – a
mucilaginous substance that forms a colloidal type of gel when mixed with
Pellew Group] in cooking the seeds of Sterculia which water. It has been used for pharmaceutical and food processing purposes.
had recently been gathered; first by separating them 9 The genera Brachychiton and Sterculia are fairly closely related and belong
from their prickly husks, and then roasting them to the Sterculiaceae family. Brachychiton trichosiphon, which has also been
known as Sterculia trichosiphon, is now classified as Brachychiton australis.
slightly, and pounding and boiling them for a short Brachychiton quadrifida refers to Sterculia quadrifida.
bark of the tree, made into a decoction (sometimes

with breast-milk added), was used as a wash for eye
infections. The juice from the inner bark could also
be applied directly as eye drops (Lassak & McCarthy
1992; Brock 1993; Wightman & Andrews 1998).
Edible witchetty grubs and large beetles can also be
harvested from the tree (Marrfurra 1995).
Sterculia quadrifida.
Tulip Sterculia The seeds of just about all the Kurrajong are
edible, among them various species from the
tropics collectively known as Northern Kurrajong
(Brachychiton diversifolius and B. spectabilis) and a
number of other species collectively referred to as
Red-flowering Kurrajong: Brachychiton multicaulis, B.
paradoxus, B. megaphyllus and B. viscidulus (Wightman
1991, 1992; Barr 1993; Smith 1993; Isaacs 1994;
Yunupinu 1995; Marrfurra 1995; Lindsay 2001).
The beauty of the Flame Tree
Sterculia shillinglawii
Seeds of the tropical Tulip Sterculia or Lacewood

(Sterculia shillinglawii), which has been known as
the Northern or Cape York Peanut Tree, lie within a
distinctive orange fruit pod. The tree is a close relative
of the Australian Peanut Tree (Sterculia quadrifida).
The seeds of the Tulip Sterculia make a tasty bush
snack – the black seed coat is removed (or spat out)
and the peanut-tasting seeds eaten. The unripe pods of
the Tulip Sterculia and the Australian Peanut Tree can
contain substantial amounts of an edible mucilaginous
substance, but as yet there does not appear to have
been any investigation of its culinary or commercial
potential.
Kurrajong seeds as food and

medicine
Kurrajong (Brachychiton) seeds were a valued
traditional Aboriginal food. In recent times, the
seeds of several species have been ground and milled
to prepare a flour useful for making dampers and
pastries. Traditionally, substantial effort was involved
in the preparation of the seeds. It was essential that
the pods were fire-roasted before use. Roasting singes
off the hairy seed-covering and the seeds acquire a
pleasant nutty character in the process. Contact with
the irritant hairs within the pods can be a serious
hazard, particularly for those with sensitive skin. Even
wind-blown hairs accidentally landing on the face can
cause extreme discomfort. It is also important that eye
contact and inhalation are carefully avoided during
the harvest and preparation process.
Brachychiton acerifolium: seeds.
Brachychiton acerifolium: plant and flowers.
Listing it under Brachychiton acerifolius, Joseph

Maiden provided the following wonderful description
of the Flame Tree:
A large Flame-tree in full bloom is a noble and gorgeous
sight, and is calculated to impress the most phlegmatic
person with the beauty of our flora. In its native habitats
it is best looked upon from an eminence, and the contrast
between the flame-looking mass of a comparatively large
tree and the more or less, sombre foliage of all other trees
never fails to arrest attention. It is a brush tree, and in
the bush it always has fairly good conditions, including
plenty of shelter. Under cultivation. it is very often
the case that it lacks one of the essentials of good soil,
moisture or shelter, and hence instead of being in flower
in one mass, before a single leaf unfolds, it may flower in
patches, with more or less foliage, giving the tree a bizarre,

and not so fully ornamental an appearance as when the
whole shapely tree is ablaze, to be succeeded by the pale
green, also beautiful foliage (Maiden 1918).
Brachychiton seeds can be quite a valuable addition to

the diet. Their oil content is fairly good in comparison
with conventional oil-yielding seed resources:
Brachychiton discolor 29.3%, B. diversifolius 32.1%
and B. acerifolius 30.5%. Brachychiton populnefolium
seeds have a high fat content (24.7%), with good
levels of protein (18.1%) and carbohydrate (14.6%)
(Jones 1981). Some species can have high levels of
potassium, magnesium and a fair amount of calcium
(per/100gm), with smaller amounts of sodium, iron,
zinc, copper (Brand Miller 1993):
• Brachychiton acerifolium seed (729–1150mg Brachychiton diversifolius. (Courtesy: Keith A.W. Williams,
potassium, 237mg magnesium, calcium132– Native Plants of Queensland Vol.1)
190mg). diversifolius) a general purpose medicine. It had a
• Brachychiton australis nut (1010mg potassium, reputation as a tonic and was said to be very good for
300mg magnesium; 210mg calcium) plus facilitating recovery after sickness or feverish disorders.
phosphorus (630mg). An infusion of the leaves of a young plant (pounded
• Brachychiton diversifolium seed (120mg and soaked in water for an hour) was employed as a
potassium, 180mg magnesium, 260mg calcium). body wash and a little of the liquid placed in each
• Brachychiton macrophylla seed (860mg potassium, ear. In addition, the remedy was useful for treating
230mg magnesium, 200mg calcium). infected skin lesions. The flexible bark, stripped from
• Brachychiton gregorii seed (960mg potassium, the tree, also provided a handy bandage. The gum,
230mg magnesium, 230mg calcium).10 which was very viscid in character when fresh, had
• Brachychiton paradoxum seed (245–2530mg antibacterial properties and was applied locally to
potassium, 230–588mg magnesium, 250mg facilitate healing of sores, injuries or ulceration. There
calcium), plus reasonable levels of iron (6.3– is also a report of eye-drops being made from the bark
15.0mg). of the young branches (Wightman & Smith 1989;
• Brachychiton populneum (567mg potassium, Barr 1993; Smith 1993). There is also a report of the
288 magnesium, 110mg calcium) (Brand Miller use of a local species in Western Australia, at Fitzroy
1993). Analysis of this species has also suggested Crossing. A decoction prepared from the wood was
that it could be a useful source of dietary zinc used as a wash to treat ringworm and sores (Reid &
(7.9mg/100gm), along with Sterculia quadrifida Betts 1979).
(6.5mg), Portulacca oleracea intraterranea (65.mg)
and Acacia coriacea (5.8mg). Zinc is one of the
minerals particularly important for promoting
Beverages from Acacia
Recently, the bush food market has rediscovered the
wound healing and healthy immune system
allure of Acacia-based beverages. Experimentation with
function (Leemon & Samman 1999).
Wattle coffee began in early days of settlement using
the Colony or Sandplain Wattle (Acacia murrayana).
The medicinal reputation of the genus has been based The weedy Prickly Moses or Mimosa Bush (Acacia
on the use of the Northern Kurrajong (Brachychiton farnesiana) is the species usually employed today. The
10 Brachychiton gregorii root (275mg potassium, 47mg magnesium, 175mg coffee, which has a chocolate-hazelnut character, has
calcium).
however, for warm beverage, which had been increased

by a whole day’s travelling, induced him to swallow a pint
of it, which made him very sick, and produced violent
vomiting and purging during the whole afternoon and
night. The little I had tasted acted on me as a lenient
purgative, but Mr. Calvert, who had taken rather more
than I did, felt very sick.
However, they found that the tree yielded a slightly

‘acid’ gum that was ‘very harmless’: ‘This little tree
gave us a good supply of a light amber-coloured
wholesome gum, which we sometimes ate in its
Wattle seed from Acacia farnesiana. (Courtesy: Steve Hurst natural state, or after it had been dissolved by
@ USDA-NRCS PLANTS Database)
boiling.’
become popular for making a form of cappuccino
called ‘wattleccino’. The seeds are oven-roasted or dry In addition to the floral resources used for making
fried until they acquire a brittle character and crumble coffee, teas, beer and cider, the search for edible
easily, when they can be ground to a fine powder (Low foodstuffs reflected an insatiable desire for sweets.
1992). However, not all types of the native Acacia These substances, which motivated many bush food
are suitable for coffee, as some of the early explorers forages, were not only sourced from flower nectars.
found out, somewhat to their dismay. Leichhardt An unusual native ‘manna gum’ was discovered quite
recorded some interesting, if somewhat unsuccessful, early after the settlement of the colony, as well as a
experiments: sugary insect known by the rather intriguing name of
‘lerp’. Following the example of the Aboriginal people,
The Acacia of Expedition Range [probably Acacia there were also some innovative experiments with
bidwillii; see Fensham 2006] was plentiful in the large eating insects – a resource that could be of great value
flat and at the wells of the natives, and formed a fine tree: across the continent, particularly in the arid lands
its seeds, however, were shed and had been roasted by the
of Central Australia. The records of these food trials
late bush fire. Mr. Phillips (who was always desirous of
discovering substitutes for coffee, and to whom we owed
make interesting reading, particularly as some of these
the use of the river-bean of the Mackenzie) collected these bugs and grubs are still eaten today. The value of such
seeds, and pounded and boiled them, and gave me the resources in maintaining a healthy diet has probably
fluid to taste, which I found so peculiarly bitter that I not been fully appreciated and their nutritional value
cautioned him against drinking it; his natural desire, is often underestimated.
Chapter 7
BUSH TUCKER BUGS
Australia has a remarkable diversity of native butterflies and

moths. Over 20,800 species are known to exist although
over half this number are, as yet, undescribed. The total may
ultimately reach 30,000. Most butterflies are included in the
10,000 that have been scientifically described; the majority
that remain unclassified are moths. The Four O’Clock Moth
(Dysphania fenestrata) is one of the outstanding tropical
species, named for its afternoon flying habit. It is one of the
most beautiful of the rainforest moths. The black-spotted
yellow caterpillars are quite distinctive due to their upright
twig-like posture.
The thought of eating insects is probably distasteful

to many. However, it can become an acquired taste
with nutritional benefits, particularly if normal food
supplies are difficult to obtain. Insects can make an
important contribution to the diet. Many contain
good levels of protein and fat, as well as minerals and
vitamins, including the fat-soluble vitamins A and E
(DeFoliart 1991, 1992; Banjo 2006). Many insects
also have valuable environmental roles. There is an
unfortunate tendency to see them as pests that need to
be eradicated, rather than appreciating that they too,
can be an important part of the intricate ecosystem
in which we live. They are particularly valuable as
pollinators of flora, and as food for wildlife.
161
Insects need to be in fairly good supply to make resources – flower nectars and native honeys – there
the effort of collection worthwhile, and this are also honey-ants, sweet gums, manna sap and lerp
means the harvest is often seasonal in nature. insects. The majority of these are, in some way, closely
Indeed, snacking on the odd grub in the bush is associated with the Eucalypt forest – gums and saps
of various degrees of palatability exude naturally from
probably not a particularly good idea unless you
numerous tree species and honey is hoarded in the
know what you are doing. Some of them are toxic. native bees’ nests in tree hollows. At certain times of
There is also the consideration that many of our the year sweet lerp insects can be found clinging to
most wonderful and attractive species of moths tree branches and, in Central Australia, the delicious
and butterflies are becoming increasingly scarce honey-ants of the genus Melophorus are relished.
due to environmental disruption. Weed invasions
compromise the food resources of native insects, A sweet sap known as ‘manna’ was a sought-after treat in
the early days of the colony. On certain Eucalypt species
as does the planting of non-edible ornamental manna was particularly abundant. In the late 1800s the
species. An interest in cultivating insects for bush entomologist Walter Wilson Froggatt recorded that ‘old
tucker could well place a different emphasis on residents of the Wimmera [western Victoria], where it
[manna] was very plentiful before the Mallee scrub was
the environment and its custodianship, so that cleared off, have informed me that 2–3 lb. was quite as much
all may benefit. as anyone could obtain in a day; and that the blacks used to
gather it for food in winter, rolling it up in bark and hiding it
in the trees; when they wanted to eat it they first moistened
In Australia insects have generally been an under- it with water.’ Referring to Eucalyptus terminalis in the
appreciated wild food and medicine resource. region of the Flinders and Mitchell rivers, North ensland,
Nonetheless, Indigenous people found them Edward Palmer (1883) noted: ‘Manna is procured
valuable and relished them as an addition to from the leaves and small branches by being gathered
their normal diet. George Heavens mentioned and laid on pieces of bark, when the particles of sugar
their harvest in a note in the 1979 Newsletter of or gum fall off, or are scraped off with mussel-shells
the Royal Australian Historical Society: ‘The old into a kooliman [bowl] or the leaves when covered
time Aborigine consumed a surprising variety of with the white exudation are pounded together with a
stone, and roasted in the ashes. Sometimes the sugary
food-stuffs, not only from choice but also from
particles are gathered as they fall from the trees. After
the difficulty of obtaining a permanent and the rainy season this food is said to be abundant.’
regular supply of any one article of food – they
were not food-procurers but food-gatherers, so In the early days the term ‘Manna Gum’ usually
the availability of food materials formed both a referred to Eucalyptus viminalis, although the Brittle
pattern of hunting and of wandering … Some
of the large-bodied insects, especially those that
could be obtained in good supply, provided a
welcome change of diet. Most insects appeared
in a district for a comparatively short time each
season, so that the appearance of a coveted species
was very welcome.’
Native ‘manna’ and sugary saps

The wild harvest from insects includes a few naturally
sweet foods. Aboriginal people were particularly fond
of sugary ‘sweets’, which are not particularly prolific in Eucalyptus rubida. (Courtesy: Alex Watt, of Burra Creek,
the Australian bush. In addition to the more obvious NSW)
Chapter 7 BUSH TUCKER BUGS 163
Gum (Eucalyptus mannifera) was another source of the In 1808 one of the earliest (if not the first) records of
substance. The identity of these gums was subject to Australian manna appeared in a letter from Colonel
a fair amount of botanical confusion, however. Joseph Paterson, sent from Port Dalrymple (Launceston,
Maiden provided clarification of the situation in his Tasmania), to Sir Joseph Banks in London:
discussion of Eucalyptus rubida (the Candlebark,
Ribbon or White Gum): an insect … produces very fine manna, which has been
given as that medicine, and proves equally good. It is
It was until recent years believed that E. viminalis was only found on the narrow-leaved Eucalyptus [probably
the only species that produced manna in quantity, and E. viminalis] where thousands of these insects resort to
hence it is most usually, in books, referred to as ‘Manna about the beginning of November, and continue until
Gum.’ But I have no hesitation in saying that the present January in the winged state, when they deposit their eggs
species yields it over a far larger area, and perhaps more in the earth and die. I have them now in two stages –
abundantly. A good deal of manna referred to E. viminalis one without wings, and the other in maturity. I now only
in the past belongs to E. rubida, because, until the wait to get the larva, when I shall send you the whole
[botanical] description of the latter, it was usually looked tolerably complete, with specimens of the tree, &c. The
upon as a form of E. viminalis. At all events, these two saccharine substance can be gathered in large quantities;
species are the two principal Manna Gums, so far as we I am certain upwards of 20 lb. might be procured from
know at present (Maiden 1920a). one tree. By a former conveyance I sent Governor Bligh
a specimen of it, which I have no doubt he will take to
In addition to Eucalyptus mannifera, a number of England (Historical Records of N.S.W., vi, 768).
other species have been known as ‘Manna Gum’ Some years later, Professor Thomas Thomson of the
– E. nobilis and E. olida, as well as E. prioriana, the University of Glasgow mentioned a similar harvest
Gippsland Manna Gum. Manna Wattle refers to in New South Wales in an essay in his Chemistry of
Acacia microbotrya. Organic Bodies: Vegetables: ‘About the year 1815
specimens of a sweet substance were obtained from
Botany Bay. They were snow-white, in the form of
tears, and had obviously dropped in a liquid state
from some vegetable … Some bushels of it might have
been collected (cited in Maiden 1920b).
In the early 1830s Lieutenant-Colonel Mundy wrote
Eucalyptusviminalis. (Courtesy: Keith A.W.

Eucalyptus viminalis. (Courtesy: Hellomojo, Wikipedia I) Williams, Native Plants of Queensland Vol 4)
in Our Antipodes of the popularity that manna had

acquired among the settlers in New South Wales.
Collecting excursions in the bush were a regular event:
In the lowlands here [Brucedale, Bathurst] as at

Coombing [near Carcoar], the Eucalyptus mannifera, or
Flooded Gum, grows in great profusion and to a majestic
size. It sounds strange to English ears, a party of ladies
and gentlemen strolling out in a summer’s afternoon to
gather manna in the wilderness; yet more than once I was
so employed in Australia. This substance is found in small
pieces on the ground under the trees at certain seasons, or
in hardened drops on the surface of the leaves. It is snowy
white when fresh, but turns brown when kept like the
chemist’s drug so called, sweeter than the sweetest sugar,
and softer than Gunter’s ice-cream.1 The manna is seldom
plentiful, for birds, beasts, and human beings devour it,
and the slightest rain, or even dew, dissolves it[s] delicate
components. Theories have been hazarded and essays
published as to the origin of this singular substance; but
whether it be formed by the puncture and deposit of
an insect, or is the natural product of the tree, no one,
I believe, can venture to assert. Nor was there wanting
hereabouts another special article of the heaven-sent food
of the wandering tribes of Israel; for hundreds of quails
were to be found within a few paces of the manna-fields Manna gum (Eucalyptus mannifera). (Courtesy: Daniell
(cited in Maiden 1920b). Langlois, Wikispecies, GFDL)
manna has not in the slightest degree, it was not probable;
In his Wanderings of a Naturalist in New South Wales others again supposed it to proceed from the nectaries of
(1834), Dr George Bennett highlighted the prolific the flowers, which are white, growing in clusters, and
yield of manna in some seasons: give to the tree a beautiful appearance when in bloom,
attracting multitudes of parroquets … On examining
The elegant drooping manna-trees [Eucalyptus mannifera] the tree to ascertain positively from what part of it the
were numerous, and at this season secreted the peculiar manna was secreted, I found in several that the manna
saccharine mucilaginous substance called manna, which, exuded in a liquid form in minute drops from the bark,
in greater or less quantities, was lying upon the ground and then concreted; on some it had oozed out and had
beneath them, or upon their leaves, trunks, and branches, concreted upon the trunk in large thin flakes; it exuded
in small white flakes, resembling bits of starch. The taste about the consistence of syrup, and in taste was sweet;
of this secretion is sweet and mucilaginous, having a when secreted from the branches it falls from those above,
greater or less aperient effect on different individuals; it upon the leaves, &c., of others beneath, and upon the
is quite a sweetmeat, and seems to consist of mucilage, ground, where, during a plentiful season, a large quantity
sugar, and probably some magnesia; although it readily may be collected.
acts as an aperient on some persons, upon others it
produces no effect; it does not dissolve in the sun, but, Maiden also mentioned a prolific yield:
on the contrary, becomes dryer and of harder consistence, Throughout the late long and painful season of drought
by exposure; rain dissolves it, but more secretion of it [in New South Wales] to the agriculturist, the exudation
takes place after wet than during a continuance of dry from this tree [Eucalyptus mannifera] has been very
weather. Many of the colonists supposed the manna was considerable, so that so long as the atmosphere continued
secreted from the leaves of the tree, but from the foliage very dry and not charged with moisture it might be
having a strong camphorated taste and odour, which the gathered from the ground beneath the tree in a quantity
1 Gunter’s Tea Shop in London’s Berkeley Square was famous for its sorbets, sufficient in a few minutes to fill a pint pot. The Manna,
ices and sweet pastries. as it is called by our ultramontane settlers, thus produced,
is frequently collected for medicinal purposes, is of a rapidly during nights with a heavy dew. This soft jelly-
pleasant sweet taste, and not in the least affected by the like substance evaporated and disappeared with the
essential oil with which every part of the plant abounds. morning heat. Maude Grieve, in A Modern Herbal
It dissolves immediately in water, so that it disappears at (1931), commented on the subject:
once from beneath the trees on the falling of the slightest
shower of rain. It is frequently taken by persons at Bathurst The only substance which in all respects seems to agree
as a pleasant purgative, so gentle in its operation that it with the Manna of the Israelites is that described a few
may be administered to the tenderest infant – the dose for years ago by Mr. A.J. Swann, in his book on Fighting the
a healthy adult being from 2½ to 3 tablespoonsfull. The Slave Driver in Central Africa. The Manna which he saw
timber of the tree is considered useless for the purposes of on the plateaux between the lakes Tanganyika and Nyasa
rural economy, and is in consequence only used as fuel (A. occupied by the Ananbwi tribe, Mr. Swann describes as
Cunningham) … Like the manna of Europe, it is reported possessing all the characters of the Manna which is said to
to contain a saccharine and a mucous ingredient, both of have fallen for the benefit of the Israelites. In appearance
which are easily soluble in water, and partially so likewise it resembled coriander seed, was white in colour like
in the atmosphere when moist. It obviously arises from a hoar-frost and sweet to taste, melted in the sun, and
rupture in the cortical vessels of the tree, produced not by if kept overnight was full of worms in the morning. It
the puncture of insects, but by atmospheric action, as it is required to be baked to keep it any length of time. A cake
produced only in the dry season, and the quantity varies of this Manna was baked and sent to England, but no
with the degree and duration of the drought (Maiden one seemed able to identify it, though there can be little
1920b). doubt that it is a small fungus. The baking process would,
The main sugar of the Australian Eucalyptus manna of course, destroy its structure … It does not appear to
has been identified as mannitol – a compound that be regular in its occurrence, as travellers have reported its
has a mild laxative effect.2 In 1827 Peter Miller appearance only at long intervals.
Cunningham, a surgeon working in the new colony,
commented on its medicinal properties: ‘Manna is one Manna from heaven
of the safest, and almost the only pleasant purgative The Bible tells that manna fell from the skies for the
we possess, and it is only its scarcity and high price first time in the wilderness of Sin (Exodus 16). This
that have prevented its coming into more general occurred six weeks after the departure of the Israelites
use. Instead of surfeiting yourself with nauseous salts, from Egypt and seemed to answer their prayers for
jalap, and so forth, you have only to sweeten your tea food in the desert. After this it fell daily, except on
in the morning with manna, or take a paper of it by the Sabbath, until they arrived at Galgal in the plain
way of barley-sugar in your pocket, and turn thus the of Jericho. The journey took forty years. Manna
doctor’s hitherto nauseous posset into an agreeable collection was limited to an omer (6–7 pints) per
bonne-bouche.’ person, although on the eve of the Sabbath a double
portion was permitted. The manna was ground and
The manna of the Bible cooked to make cakes.
Of course, the Australian manna is not the same as the
manna of biblical fame – which was a miraculous food Other natural products traditionally marketed as
that ‘fell from heaven’ and ‘when the sun waxed hot, ‘manna’, with which the Australian product would
it melted’. The identity of the latter was for decades have been compared, include a sweet liquid from the
surrounded by debate and controversy. Among the Tamarisk (Tamarix mannifera, syn. T. gallica) that
most eligible candidates were a lichen and an alga. exuded during the night and accumulated on the
In particular, the lichen Lecanora esculenta fitted the twigs of the shrub. It was a fairly transient seasonal
description because it could be made into a ‘bread’. In product and, like the fluid of the Lecanora lichen, it
1854, when there was a devastating famine in Persia, 2 The Manna Ash (Fraxinus ornus) of Sicily produced a similar pleasant
aromatic manna with mild laxative attributes. Incisions into the trunk of
wind-blown lichen plants travelled great distances ten year-old trees encouraged a sugary exudate. When dried this was known
and appeared to literally ‘fall from the sky’. Certainly, as ‘flake manna’; it acquired its sweet character from its sugar components,
notably mannitol (Evans 1989). Other trees that yield a similar type of
such an event could have been taken for a miracle. sugary manna include the Desert Ash (Fraxinus rotundifolia), the Camel’s
Another potential manna source was an alga that grew Thorn (Alhaqi camelorum) and Cotoneaster nummularia, all from the
Mediterranean region and the Middle East.
quickly evaporated in the morning. Grieve provided sap-sucking Red Lerp (Austrochardia acaciae) that is
some interesting details regarding the early discovery found on Mulga and Witchetty bushes. While the
of its origins: insects themselves are not edible, they encourage the
A report issued in 1927 by an expedition of entomologists excretion of a tasty honey-like sap from the twigs of
from the Hebrew University of Jerusalem declares that the plants. The honeydew-soaked bark could also be
Manna is not an exudation from the Tamarisk tree, as stripped from the tree and infused to make a sweet
is popularly supposed, but an excretion from the bodies drink (Latz 1996; Turner 1994; Low 1992b).
of the coccid insects [Coccus manniparus] themselves.
Clear, syrup-like drops (the report states) come from the
abdomen of the insects and fall to the ground, where they Sweet bush foods
form grains of sugar, ranging from the size of a pinhead The role of native insects in stimulating the production
to that of a pea. The amount varies with the abundance of sweet substances similar to ‘manna’ was a subject
or scarcity of the winter rains, and the Bedouins assert of some conjecture for the early scientific community
in Australia. The study of the source of a sweet bush
food known by the wonderful term ‘lerp’ (derived
from the Aboriginal name larp) provided an excellent
opportunity for the identification of local insect
species. The settlers discovered this unusual sugary
treat in the very early days of the colony – and the
community was certainly intrigued by the nature
of the product. The following description by a Mr
Cay refers to the harvest from the Mallee Eucalyptus
dumosa: ‘Lerp is very sweet, and is formed by all insect
on the leaves of gumtrees; in size and appearance like a
flake of snow, it feels like matted wool, and tastes like
the ice on a wedding-cake’ (cited in Maiden 1920b).
In the 1840s, while searching for a route from Sydney

to the Gulf of Carpentaria, the Thomas Mitchell
expedition procured some samples that they described
as ‘a very remarkable whiteness [that] appeared on
Tamarisk (Tamarix mannifera, syn. T. gallica) in an Egyptian the leaves of the Eucalyptus populifolius, which, on
swamp. very close examination, appeared to be the work of
an insect’. Specimens were duly added to the team’s
that during a good season a man can collect nearly 3½ collection, which was sent to England for more detailed
lb. in a day. The expedition, which was led by Dr. Fritz evaluation. Unfortunately, because the insect residents
Bodenheimer of the Zionist experimental agricultural
had escaped, the specimens were not complete, which
station, observed manna deposits throughout the long
stretch of country which was covered by its journey. The
made accurate appraisal difficult. A letter from a Mr
report goes on to state that ‘modern science’, it seems, was Westwood to a Dr Lindley provided a very accurate
equally ignorant of the true nature of manna till now, and description of the nature of the substance:
it has been revealed by descendants of those wanderers in
the wilderness (Grieve 1931). I am sorry that the state of the specimens from Sir
The Tamarisk manna was known to the Arabs as Thomas Mitchell (or rather, I should say, the time when
they were gathered) does not allow me to say much about
mann-es-sama, a ‘gift of heaven’ or ‘heavenly manna’.
the insect by which they are formed. It is an extremely
However, this sugar-based product would not have beautiful production, quite unlike any thing I have yet
been suitable for making nourishing bread-like cakes seen, and is, I have no doubt, the scale of a coccus. It is
for the Israelites.3 In Central Australia a very similar 3 Manna from Tamarix mannifera does not contain mannitol and would
not have been used as a medicinal laxative (Lassak & McCarthy 1992).
form of honeydew resulted from the activity of the
production in a state sufficient to determine what it really

is, as I only found one or two exceedingly minute atoms
of shrivelled up insects. It is extremely brittle, and looks
more like dried, white, frothed sugar than anything else
(Mitchell 1848).
Psyllids
Lerp is produced by small scale insects from the
Psyllidae, the Psyllid family. They feed on tree saps,
which contain proteins essential for their growth.
These ‘leaf-manna’ or lerp insects make exceptionally
clever use of the leftover sugars they secrete. These are
ingeniously forged into a protective shield over the
little animal, as Maiden explained: ‘[the] habit that
Lerps on Eucalyptus leaf. (Courtesy: Elaine Shallue,
many of them have in the larval stage of protecting
Sustainable Gardening Australia) themselves with a scale-like covering, composed of
their surplus food, attached to the leaf by a hinge,
under which they feed until ready to change into the
perfect insect, which is very like a cicada in miniature,
but furnished with hopping hind legs, with which they
can spring to a considerable distance when disturbed’
(Maiden 1921).
For a long time the exact identification of the insects

responsible for the manna exudate was a matter of
conjecture. It was not until 1900 that a comprehensive
account was published by entomologist Walter
Froggatt.4 His essay also provided greater detail of the
process by which lerp was formed: ‘All the lerp-scales
are fabricated by the larvae and pupae from the excess
of sap or juice sucked up through their sharp bills from
the food plant. This is ejected in small globules from
the anus, but it is quite different from the excrement.
It is another form of honey-dew, which, when drawn
out into fine threads by the feet and spun into the
net-like sugar lerps, solidified and hardens in the sun.’
Aphids
Only twenty species of the scale insects known
as aphids are endemic to Australia. Over 143
of a very peculiar form, resembling a very delicate, broad, species have been imported, many of which have
and flattened valve of a bi-valve shell, such as the genus
already become serious pests. Aphis nerii, one of
Iridina, the part where the hinge is being a little produced
and raised, and forming the cover of the coccus which the introduced species, tends to attack introduced
secretes the beautiful material just in the same unexplained plants, while many others have found a haven
way as the scale insects form the slender attenuated scale in farmers’ crops and ornamental gardens. In
beneath which they were born. I could not discover any contrast, the native scale insects are part of the
insect beneath the specimens of Sir Thomas Mitchell’s
ecology of the forest. They are often found with that includes coccids (scale insects) and lerps.5
an accompanying ant-army which is ready to Although some psyllids are ‘free living’, lerps are
defend the precious hoard of honeydew carried not, which is why they need to make their protective
by the aphids. The little insects tend to stay honeydew cover for their immature nymphal stage.
The honeydew, which hardens on exposure to the air,
close to their protectors, avoiding other insects.
makes a perfect defensive shield. Lerps are a fairly rare
Froggatt’s report on the lerp insects mentioned form of insect that lead a relatively inconspicuous life.
these ant guardians: ‘Others [lerps] again hide The colonies are often composed of a mixture of species
under loose bark on the trunk or branchlets that are present in different growth stages. There are
of a tree, enveloping themselves in a mass of four common colony elements: Cardiaspina spp.
flocculent matter, which exudes and forms white (white, ovoid or fan-shaped, lacy patterned), Glycapsis
spots, dotting the trunk all over. These species are spp. (round, conical), Spondyliaspis plicatuloides
so diligently looked after by several kinds of ants, (dark brown, shell-like and domed), and Lasiopsylla
which sometimes form galleries over them, that it rotundipennis (white, large, round, fat). The latter is
found on a wide range of Eucalypts, while Cardiaspina
is difficult to collect specimens’ (Froggatt 1900).
species favour only a few – Eucalyptus camaldulensis,
Psyllids are classified as sap-sucking insects, a category
E. blakelyi, E. fasciculosa, E. diversifolia, E. odorata, E.
botroides and E. robusta. Occasionally environmental
conditions conspire to cause an unexpected upsurge
in population numbers – a surge which would
normally be naturally controlled by predators such as
Oleander Aphid (Aphis nerii).
4 Since then the classification has become rather extensive. In the insect
world, those responsible for the production of galls, manna and honeydew
belong to the Order Hemiptera (suborder Sternorrhyncha). In total there
are twenty-three families, in which a remarkable variety of insects are
classified: gall insects, scale insects, lac insects, cochineal insects, mealy Scale insects on tree trunk.
bugs, aphids, whiteflies, psyllids and lerp insects.
birds, spiders, mites, lizards and a few wasps. These be, in general, better sources of protein than some meats
infestations can simply disappear as suddenly as they (beef, chicken, pork or lamb). They also have excellent
appear. potential as an agricultural crop that can provide a
replenishable protein-rich food. Overall, insects tend
toward a low amino acid content although levels of
Psyllid insects may have a preference for certain tree lysine and threonine can be good6; on the other hand,
species. Glycapsis and Spondyliaspis can both be found they are often deficient in cysteine, methionine and
on Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E. globulus and E. nitans. tryptophan. This can be easily rectified by the addition
Forestry plantations are more likely to be infested by of plant-derived protein to the diet. However, there is
Cardiaspina and Glycaspis, which may cause a loss of a small problem associated with processing strategies
vigour in the trees. Sometimes infestations develop to – because simply chewing a bug does not make it very
the stage where there is massive defoliation and this digestible. Their skeletons are largely composed of
can result in dieback. Although this rarely kills the chitin, a carbohydrate polymer that is derived from
tree, the damage can be severe, and may predispose glucose. The answer to the low levels of amino acids,
it to another disease (such as fungal or bacterial cysteine, methionine and tryptophan is fairly simple:
infection) or to other insect infestations.
Edible bugs and grubs

While they may not be particularly familiar to the
European palate, many cultures have utilised a vast
array of insects as culinary items, particularly in South-
east Asia, Japan, China, South America and Africa.
Aboriginal people have been equally resourceful in
obtaining provender, and have experimented with just
about all of the native resources that could be utilised
as food. There were many different types of insects
whose edible value could not be ignored. Queensland
pastoralist Thomas Archer, in Recollections of a
Rambling Life, provides an illustration of early food
gathering experiences in the bush: ‘Our way lay for
several days through the trackless bush; we were
sometimes pretty hard up for food, and to Dusky Bob
belongs the honour of first initiating me into a proper
appreciation of the luscious and delicate tree grub,
which he cut with his tomahawk, out of the stems of
the forest oaks as we wandered along. When roasted
in the ashes these grubs make a dish fit for gods and
men, and even when raw they are not to be sneezed at,
if one is only hungry enough’ (quoted in Petrie 1904).
Nutritionally, eating insects (entomophagy) is not Insect-damaged leaves.

as undesirable a habit as it may appear. Studies have
5 Many orchard and indoor plant pests are scale insects. They are small
shown they can have calorific values higher than beef, (usually 2–3 mm long) and feed on the sap in the plant tissues, thereby
fish, corn, lentils, beans and wheat – with variations in compromising the host plant’s food supply. Heavy scale-insect infestations
may produce large amounts of sticky honeydew that can grow sooty moulds.
the analysis dependant upon the type of insect that is This reduces the plant’s ability to photosynthesise and thereby compromise
eaten (DeFoliart 1991, 1992). Evaluations of termites, its growth capabilities, leading to defoliation and fatalities. Glycapsis psyllids
likewise feed on honeydew and may cause a sooty mould.
grasshoppers and caterpillars have shown that they can
evaluation of the essential fatty acid composition of

insects, which has become a topic of serious research
in recent years. The wide array of health benefits
associated with the right type of essential fatty acid
in the diet include anti-inflammatory, antioxidant
and radioprotective activity, benefits for liver function
and skin integrity, support for brain development and
the prevention of neurological damage. Many insects
contain levels of polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic
and linolenic acids) that are higher than poultry or
fish. Beetles (Order Coeloptera) tend to be high in
linoleic fatty acids, while moths and butterflies (Order
Lepidoptera) favour linolenic acid (DeFoliart 1991,
1992).
Insects and vegetation types

The Aboriginal harvest of native insects differed
according to the type of vegetation that harboured
them. Grass Trees (Xanthorrhoea), Mulga (Acacia),
Eucalypts and Tea Trees (Melaleuca) were a few of
these resources. Tom Petrie provided some details
regarding the nature of these harvests:
The inlanders got grubs in trees. Large white ones were

found principally in dead hickory trees in the scrubs;
they were cut out with tomahawks. The bluegum saplings
often contained grubs. The natives knew when they did
by noticing dust on the ground, so, climbing the sapling
to where the dust came out, they would knock the bark
off at the hole, shove a small hooked twig up this till the
grub was felt, and, with a twist, pull it out. These grubs
were sometimes roasted, sometimes eaten raw. Other
grubs were found in the grass tree, or Xanthorrhoea
Eucalypt tree canopy.
(‘dakkabin’), at its base, and always a native knew of their
the dried insects are milled and, with a grain additive, presence by the dead leaves in the centre. Kicking the tree
with his foot, it would break off at the bottom and four or
they can make a very nutritious flour base (DeFoliart
five grubs were sometimes found. These latter were always
1991, 1992; Banjo 2006; Due 2007; Teffo 2007). eaten raw (Petrie 1904).
[[footnote 6]] Petrie’s daughter Constance Campbell Petrie
commented:
Greater awareness of the benefits of a healthy diet has My father says he has often eaten this grub [from
involved an emphasis on the avoidance of saturated Xanthorrhoea] in days gone past, and, what is more
fats that raise cholesterol (in particular, limiting animal declares he liked it. Once, when a boy, he was out in the
fats), and an appreciation of the value of unsaturated scrub where Toowong is now, with a couple of natives,
fatty acids. The growing interest in the anti-oxidant, and the latter came across some grubs and took them
anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, and cardioprotective to where several sawyers were at work, to roast them. A
effects of fish oil has promoted a greater awareness man named Jack was awfully disgusted, and said he felt
of the role of dietary fats. This has also led to an 6 Important grain resources such as wheat, rice, cassava and maize are low in
these amino acids (DeFoliart 1992).
ill at the mere though of eating such things! However, recommendations. The remedy has shown
when the white boy took one, he followed suit after potent sedative, anticonvulsive and hypothermic
some persuasion, and liked the morsel so well that he ate (temperature-reducing) activity. Experimentally it
more. In the end that man grew so fond of grubs that he was effective against spasms due to tetanus toxin,
would give the blackfellows tobacco to find him some. Of
strychnine, cocaine and nicotine. Clinically, it has
course, there were different varieties – some more eatable
been effectively used in treatments for tetanus,
than others (Petrie 1904).
when combined with supportive therapies. The
Numerous trees can be the source of edible grubs.
antispasmodic effects of cicada nymph skin have
The most commonly utilised are the Grass Tree
also found clinical acceptance in obstetrics, being
(Xanthorrhoea species), the Red River Gum (Eucalyptus
employed in cases of difficult labour (Hsieh 1991;
camaldulensis), Prickly Wattle (Acacia victoriae),
Bensky & Gamble 1986). In addition, Periostracum
Ironwood trees (Acacia estrophloiata), Whitewood
Cicadae (cicada slough), which has long been used
(Atalaya hemiglauca), Coolibah (various Eucalyptus
as an ingredient in Chinese anticancer remedies, has
species), and Emu Bush (Eremophila freelingii).
shown experimental antitumour activity. For instance,
Caterpillars have also been harvested from the Tar
a combination mixture with scorpion, centipede and
Vine (species of Boerhavia). Usually the innards were
magnetitum (magnetic iron ore) has been used to treat
squeezed out, which would avoid any toxins that the
meningioma (a type of spinal cancer). The ingredients
grub had ingested, and they could be eaten raw or
were ground into a powder and the concoction taken
cooked (Turner 1994). Some of our native caterpillars,
as a tea. Cicada slough has also been incorporated
however, are creatures of such beauty or rarity that one
into potions for treating acute granulocytic leukaemia
would be hard put to consider eating them.
There are numerous genera of Australian cicada

insects (superfamily Cicadoidea; containing around
250 species), a number of which were harvested
by Aboriginal people. Unwary cicadas were easily
caught near their burrows as they lay outside sunning
themselves – as were those emerging from their shells
when they moulted. Cicadas were easy to cook as they
were simply thrown into the fire before being eaten
(Turner 1994).
It is of interest to find that cicada shells (moult from

Cryptotympana atrata7) have been valued medicinally
in China as a febrifugal agent. It was used as a remedy
for numerous types of childhood fevers, to ease the
pain of a swollen and sore throat, as well as for treating
feverish night terrors. It was taken to promote the
appearance of a rash in measles, thereby improving
the recovery time. The drug also had a reputation
for being an effective anticonvulsant. In addition it
was used for treating visual problems (red, painful,
swollen eyes, blurred vision) – for which purpose it
was often combined with Chrysanthemum flowers
(Chrysanthemum morifolium) and White Mulberry
leaves (Morus alba).
Recent studies of cicada extracts support these Xanthorrhoea in bush.

Tropical caterpillars from the rainforest: the colourful one is

Eudocima fullonia, the other is one of the Sphingidae. The
commonest is Psilogramma casuarinae.
Cicada on a log. (Courtesy: Rose Williams)
Caption lost???
Cicadas: more than a food
and thyroid
Cicada emergingcancer.
from itsThe latter remedy
shell.(Courtesy: Rose included
Williams) a Cicada shells (moult) on tree.
number of other insect drugs (centipede, scorpion, The larvae were usually collected in baskets and so taken
batryticated silkworm) and, among other ingredients, to the camp. The Australian does not as a rule eat raw
Pangolin scales (Manis pentadactyla) and cinnabar (a animal food; the only exception I know of being these
red mineral: mercuric sulphide, magnesium oxide and coleoptera larvae.
ferric oxide) (Minyi 1992). The resulting feast was not as unsavoury as Lumholtz
possibly expected:
The early explorers certainly appreciated the skills
The large fire crackled lustily in the cave while we sat
that Aboriginal people had in procuring bush
round preparing the larvae. We simply placed them in
tucker – which was often undertaken under difficult the red-hot ashes, where they at once became brown
conditions. Ludwig Leichhardt commented: ‘They and crisp, and the fat fairly bubbled in them while they
seem to have tasted everything, from the highest top were being thus prepared. After being turned once or
of the bunya tree and the seaforthia and cabbage palm, twice they were thrown out from the ashes with a stick
to the grub which lies in the rotten tree of the bush, or and were ready to be eaten. Strange to say, these larvae
feeds on the lower stem or root of the Xanthorrhoea. were the best food the natives were able to offer me, and
By the bye, I tasted this grub, and it tastes very well, the only kind which I really enjoyed. If such a larva is
particularly in chewing the skin, which contains broken in two, it will be found to consist of a yellow and
much fat. It has a very nutty taste, which is impaired, tolerably compact mass rather like an omelette. In taste it
resembles an egg, but it seemed to me that the best kind,
however, by that of the rotten wood upon which the
namely the acacia larva, which has the flavour of nuts,
animal lives’ (Leichhardt 1847).
tasted even better than a European omelette. The natives
always consumed the entire larva, while I usually bit off
George Bennett made a very similar comment in the head, and threw aside the skin, but my men always
1860: consumed my leavings with great gusto. They also ate the
beetles as greedily as the larvae, simply removing the hard
The Acacias, at this season of the year, were profusely wings before roasting them. The natives are also fond of
in bloom: the Green Wattle (Acacia decurrens) was eating the larger species of wood-beetles. Some crawfish,
abundant; this is very frequently destroyed by the larva of moreover, were roasted, and had as fine a flavour as those
a Lepidopterous insect, much sought after, and considered in Europe; unfortunately there were not many of them.
a delicacy, by the blacks; and similar larvae are also found
in the Grass trees, or Yellow Gum-tree (Xanthorrhoea).
In the Wattle-trees the pink grub is found, which is the A number of studies have shown that beetle larvae are
larva of a moth of the genus Charagia; it is eaten by the nutritious. In some parts of Africa the larvae of the
natives, and Europeans who have tasted it say it is not
Palm Weevil (Rhynchophorus palmatrum) is considered
disagreeable. It is seldom that more than one or two are
found in the same tree; they are eaten either roasted or
a delicacy (here the name ‘weevil’ should not be
uncooked. confused with the insect classification Weevil). The
‘weevil’ grubs are so named for their burrowing habit
The naturalist Carl Lumholtz recorded details of his in different types of trees. They are, nonetheless, beetle
experiences with these food resources in the late 1800s: grubs. They have been stewed, oil-fried with salt and
pepper, or grilled over coals, and are said to have a
My blacks had found in a large fallen tree some larvae good flavour due to their oil content. The unsaturated
of beetles (Coleoptera)8 on which we feasted. There are fatty acid component was found to be similar to palm
several varieties of these edible larvae, and all have a oil9, with the most abundant fatty acids identified as
different taste. The best one is glittering white, of the palmitic10, linoleic and oleic acids (although there
thickness of a finger, and is found in the acacia-trees. The were some differences in oil composition between
others live in the scrubs, and are smaller, and not equal to the skin oil, and the skin and digestive fat). In
the former in flavour. The blacks are so fond of them that addition, saturated fatty acids were present – myristic,
they even eat them alive while they pick them out of the
myristoleic and stearic (Due 2007).11
decayed trunk of a tree – a not very attractive spectacle.
7 A number of species of cicada are regarded as being suitable for medicinal The Raphia Weevil (Oryctes owariensis) from
use: Cryptotympana pustulata, C. flammata and C. takasagona (Namba 1988).
Cameroon likewise contains good levels of

polyunsaturated fatty acids (linoleic, palmitoleic
and linolenic) (Womeni 2009). Nigerian
evaluations of larvae from the Palm Weevil
(Rhynchophorus phoenicis) and Rhinoceros Beetle
(Oryctes monoceros) demonstrated the influence
that species selection and cooking process has
on their value. Both were found to be a good
source of nutrients, with raw larvae having higher
mineral levels than smoke-dried samples. Fried Grub (caterpillar) of the Australian Rhinoceros beetle
grubs had a much higher cholesterol component (Xylotrupes ulysses subsp. australasicus, Order Coeloptera).
There are close to 200 different Rhinoceros Beetle species
than those that were smoke-dried. While the in the Scarab Beetle family (Scarabaeidae) that are native
carbohydrate value of Oryctes was higher than to Australia. The grubs, which are very similar to those of
Rhynchophorus, lipid levels in the latter were Rhinoceros beetles that are eaten overseas (they are often
called ‘weevils’), are likewise edible. Xylotrupes ulysses is found
substantially higher, as was the cholesterol level throughout South-east Asia and the Indonesian islands,
(indicating a higher essential fatty acid content). ranging to the Solomon Islands and Australia (Rhinoceros
Overall, the process of smoking them was found Beetle, Fact Sheet, Queensland Museum).
to be the desired cooking method. If you were
worried about cholesterol levels, Oryctes rather
than Rhynchophorus would be the better choice
(Edijala 2009). The vitamin and mineral content
of these beetles was another point of interest (see
table on page XXX).
Witchetty grubs
Many Aboriginal people, particularly in outback
areas, continue to harvest edible insects. The renewed
interest in the potential of insect foods and the
demonstration of their nutritional value lends support
to the practice of these customary foraging habits.
Traditional harvesting and preparation techniques are
fairly reliable guides to the edibility of the different
insect species. Perhaps the best known of the edible
native grubs is the famous ‘witchetty grub’, the larva
of a large grey moth (genera: Xyleutes and Endoxyla,
Family: Cossidae12). These insects favour the Acacia
genus and usually reside in tree roots or the heartwood.
8 Beetles and weevils belong to the Order Coleoptera, within which there
are four suborders: the oldest surviving beetles (Archostemata), minute shiny
beetles (Myxophaga), diving beetles and ground beetles etc. (Adephaga). The
largest suborder is Polyphaga, within which there are sixteen superfamilies.
9 Palm oil was the rather notorious ingredient used in making napalm (in
combination with naphthanic acid), and more recently has been developed
for use as a biofuel. oil (from the African Oil Palm, Elaeis guineensis) has been popular for cooking
purposes. It has also been incorporated into processed foods (especially
10 Palmitic acid is of interest because, while it has been suggested to have margarine) and is used in soap products (hard soap, washing powders,
cholesterol-raising properties, recent research has found this debatable. Palm toiletries, etc.).
Indeed, Acacia kempeana is known as the Witchetty

Bush from its close association with the witchetty
grub Endoxyla leucomochla.13 The roots are fairly
shallow and the grubs live in the extensive root system
as insignificant small swellings. In the desert regions
they provide a highly regarded treat said to resemble
‘egg yolk-and-almonds’ in flavour. The moths could
also be collected for food when they matured after the
heavy rains of the ‘wet season’. At the same time of
year, Processionary Caterpillars, the larval stage of the
Bag-shelter Moth (Ochrogaster lunifer) lose their hairy
covering and burrow into the ground beneath the
Witchetty Bush. They are then considered to qualify
as a type of witchetty grub.
Witchetty grubs have good nutritional qualities.

They have a fairly high fat content (around 20%)
that contains a high proportion of unsaturated
fatty acids (saturates 32.5%, monounsaturates
67.1%), although the level of polyunsaturated
fatty acids is low (0.4%) (Naughtin 1986). The
They belong the same family as the Scarab Beetle (the
grubs are rich in protein (13–15%) and contain Scarabaeidae) and there are some very large tropical
a considerable level of water (60–62%) and some species, known as Goliath Beetles, that can grow up
carbohydrate (4.61%). Minerals include calcium, to 70mm long (plus horns). Most Rhinoceros Beetles
phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, sodium. are an impressive glossy black or brown and tend
to deploy wrestling tactics to win the attention of a
The levels of zinc can be good, and those of iron desirable female. The winner, reminiscent of some
may be quite high (Brand Miller 1993). See table romantic movies, ultimately picks her up in his horns,
carrying her away for mating.
on page XXX for details.
Lepidoptera) have been used as food throughout the
The caterpillars of moths and butterflies (Order world. Lepidopterous larvae (caterpillars) contain
appreciable amounts of polyunsaturated fatty acids.
Australian Rhinoceros Beetle (Xylotrupes ulysses subsp.

australasicus), also known as the Elephant Beetle.
Rhinoceros (or Atlas) Beetles are so named due to
their armour-plated appearance and horned headpiece.
11 Stearic fatty acid, although classified as a saturated fat, does not raise Acacia kempeana. (Courtesy: Don Herbison-
cholesterol. Evans)
which there are around 300–330 native species. These

beetles deploy an irritant defensive fluid that makes
them highly unattractive to predators. Although
this would appear to be a deterrent to their culinary
use, an ingenious solution to the problem has been
Hairy caterpillars
Witchetty grubs. (Courtesy: Sputnikcccp, Wikimedia

Commons)
A 100g portion of dried caterpillars contains protein
(53g), fat (15g) and carbohydrate (17g). They can also
be a fairly good mineral resource (potassium, calcium,
magnesium, zinc, phosphorus, and iron), and contain
some vitamins (depending on the insect analysed).
In some countries there is a sizeable market for dried
caterpillars, although wild harvests can be a matter
of concern. Poor collection practices have resulted
in over-harvesting and irresponsible damage to the
insects’ food source. Another important consideration
is the fact that some species feed on poisonous plants
and can concentrate the toxic components in their
body. Processing methods such as de-gutting the
insect, boiling, or repeated washing in water (or a
combination approach) are often used to solve the
problem (FAO Newsroom 2004; Fromme 2005).
In an attempt to dissuade predators from eating them, moth
Stink bugs larvae (caterpillars) can be very hairy. Some can deliberately
deploy stinging hairs for defence. Although generally the
The classification shield bug (Pentatomidae) contains pain of the sting does not last very long, the irritant hairs
insects known by the descriptive term ‘stink bugs’, of can be quite hazardous for sensitive individuals. Aboriginal
12 The Cossidae family also contains Goat Moths and Wood Moths. The
people used the caterpillar itself as an antidote when an
caterpillars can be borers in trees (Wood Moths) and some have an unpleasant allergic reaction occurred. The caterpillar was crushed and
fragrance (Goat Moths). put on the area to relieve the pain – this was regarded as a
13 The Desert Mulga (Acacia aneura) has also been known as the Witchetty quick and effective treatment (Levitt 1981).
Bush.
developed in South Africa. The preparation process African Mopane caterpillar (Gonimbrasis belina, syn.
provides a good illustration of the care that needs Imbrasia belina) and two Emperor Moths (Cirina
to be taken when processing some insects. Live bugs forda and Bunaea alcinoe) of Nigeria. The Mopane
are repeatedly washed in warm water to get them caterpillar, whose nutritional value is higher than
to discharge the secretion, then blanched in boiling beef, chicken and cows’ milk, contains high levels of
water and sun-dried before being eaten. Dead bugs the amino acids lysine, tryptophan and methionine
are treated differently – they are beheaded and the (Agbidye 2009a, 2009b; Illgner & Nel 2000).
offending gland removed before being sun-dried. The larva of the Emperor Moth Cirina forda is an
There are always a few insects that are missed in the excellent mineral resource. It is high in phosphorus
sorting process. These retain the intact stink gland and and potassium, with good amounts of zinc and iron,
have been recommended as a hangover cure – which and low sodium levels. This combination is of interest
may not be a particularly pleasant remedy (Teffo medicinally because potassium may help lower blood
2007). Despite the fact that we have plenty of stink pressure. Many diets today contain excessive amounts
bugs in Australia, they probably won’t be found on a of sodium, which is a suspected hypertensive agent,
native foods menu anytime soon. and the moderating influence of a high-potassium
Popular African grub harvests include the South dietary component could have serious benefits. The
moth also contains good levels of polyunsaturated
fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic acids). There is the
added consideration that the saturated fatty acid
content (palmitic, stearic and myristic acids), which
is considered to have an atherogenic influence in
the diet, includes a high proportion of stearic acid,
which does not raise cholesterol levels (Akinnawo &
Ketiku 2000). Once again, these insects rate interest
as a polyunsaturated fat resource that can assist in
reducing or preventing cardiovascular disorders.
Around fourteen species of Emperor Moths (Family:
Saturniidae) are found throughout Australia. It
Geometrid moth caterpillars have an interesting mode of

locomotion that has led to them being called ‘loopers’ as
they move forward with a looping action. The moths, which
have intricate patterns on their wings for camouflage, are Edible stink bugs (Encosternum delegorguei) (Courtesy: Cathy
nocturnal in habit. Dzerefos)
is possible that the large, often brightly coloured,

caterpillars of some species such as Syntherata janetta
and the Emperor Gum Moth (Opodiphthera eucalypti)
could have a similar nutritional profile.
Silkworms in space?
Dried silkworms (Bombyx mori) have long been
used medicinally in China for treating infection and
inflammatory disorders (mastitis, erysipelas, skin
sores and inflammation, urticaria), throat problems
(inflammation, tonsillitis, loss of voice), headache and Emperor Gum Moth (Opodiphthera eucalypti). (Courtesy:
dizziness. It has also been a useful anticonvulsive agent Donald Hobern)
for cases of stroke and epilepsy (Yen 1992; Yeung
1985). The discovery of the medicinal properties of an
enzyme (serrapeptase or serratia peptidase) from the
Silkworm gut has added support to these traditional
uses. It has shown highly effective anti-inflammatory,
pain-modifying and anti-oedema attributes, and
combines well with antibiotics to facilitate healing and
deal with infections. Serrapeptase has been employed
for the treatment of the respiratory tract (ear, nose
and throat disorders, particularly sinusitis and rhinitis,
bronchitis) and diverse inflammatory disorders –
including fibrocystic breast disease, joint and soft
tissue inflammatory disorders (arthritis, carpal tunnel Medicinal quality dried silkworms (Bombyx mori).
syndrome) and to promote healing postoperatively
following knee surgery. There is also the suggestion century with imported Bombyx mori, sourced from
that it may have anti-plaque properties useful for Japan. There are also a couple of Australian Silkmoth
preventing cholesterol build up in the cardiovascular genera in the same family (Bombycidae) –Gastrodiota
system (Panagariya & Sharma 1999; Mazzone 1990; adoxima and Elachyophthalma (various species).
Aso 1981).
There have been some interesting medicinal uses
In addition to their therapeutic reputation, Silkworms associated with the Witchetty grub. Crushed and
are a popular food product that have even been proposed made into a paste, it has been a popular treatment
as a protein-rich supplement for astronauts in space. A for serious burns, wounds and injuries, even in cases
single Silkworm pupa, which contains eighteen amino that had incurred significant tissue damage. The paste
acids (including eight of the essential amino acids), is was spread over the area and the injury bandaged.
a richer protein resource than pork, eggs or milk. The This covering acted to protect the site from irritation
incorporation of Silkworm powder into the diet can and prevent fluid loss. It also facilitated the healing
lower blood glucose and support the immune system. process.
Silkworm silk-fibre, which can be made into a jelly-
like supplement, is an equally useful protein source. Many Aboriginal stories tell of the efficacy of the
It can promote the absorption of minerals (zinc, treatment. One relates the tale of a spear fight between
iron, magnesium, calcium), as well as having blood- two brothers in which one was killed and the other
cholesterol lowering (anti-hypercholesterolaemic) severely wounded: ‘A large area of flesh had been
attributes (Yang 2009). Attempts at Silkworm gouged out and the people packed the wound with
cultivation in Australia began in the mid-nineteenth crushed witchetty grubs, put on a bark bandage and
changed the dressing every few days. The son of the service), a high-rise building in the 1970s (causing the
survivor introduced me to his father and showed me lifts to fail) and Parliament House in 1988 (inspiring
the wound. It was completely healed with minimal a redesign of the air-intake system) (www.csiro.au/
scarring and indeed the only evidence was a concave resources/BogongMoths).
area on the shoulder’ (information from A. Barr). In
1955 Harry Kitchings, a retired patrol officer, reported
an incident near Utopia Station in Central Australia George Heavens (1979) provided details of their
(240 kilometres north-east of Alice Springs). After a collection and cooking:
baby accidentally rolled into a campfire, dressings of
crushed witchetty grubs were quickly applied to the The Aboriginal collected them by means of a
badly burnt arm. Even though the baby was later blanket or sheet of bark placed below one of
the numerous fissures in the rocks wherein
hospitalised, ‘the healing’, in Kitchings’ opinion, ‘was the moths lived. Small fires were lit to smoke
quite dramatic’. The paste has been an equally useful them out, and they were scooped into bags
treatment for sore eyes (Barr 1988). At Warrabri in in great quantities. A small area of sandy soil
the Northern Territory, the fatty part of the witchetty was selected and then cleared; a shallow hole
grub was also squeezed into the ear to treat soreness was scraped in the soil, and in this a fire was
(possibly an infection) (Warrabri Health Workers built and kept burning until the sand had been
leaflet). thoroughly heated. The embers of the fire were
then drawn aside – and great care had to be
taken in doing this, for should the bodies of
The Bogong Moth: annual feast the insects be scorched it was believed that a
The Bogong Moth (Agrostis infusa) is another well- violent storm would arise. The moths were
known Aboriginal food insect. In early summer, large
numbers of the moths were collected from the peaks
surrounding the Bogong High Plains in the Snowy
Mountains in Victoria. They migrate here in the
spring, sheltering in caves and crevices in an effort to
escape the summer heat of the lowlands. The moth
is a nectar-feeder and, at this time of the year, builds
up fat reserves (which can make up 60% of the body
mass) for a period of dormancy when they aestivate
(sleep and conserve energy).
Sometimes a nuisance
Bogong moths belong to the moth and butterfly
classification Lepidoptera (family Noctuidae). They
are not major crop pests, although occasionally there
can be population outbreaks. Sometimes they are
unpopular with gardeners as the grubs, which are
known as ‘cutworms,’ have a foraging habit that severs
the plant off at the ground.
There are times when the moths seem to get lost on

their migration route. They can be a nuisance when
they are attracted to the bright lights of suburbia,
particularly tall well-lit buildings. Large numbers have Bogong Moth (Agrostis infusa).(Courtesy: Donald
been known to invade a church in 1865 (cancelling the Hobern)
poured from the bags onto the heated ground Another edible moth
and stirred around in the hot ashes until the In 1962, E.J. Smith recorded culinary details regarding
wings and scales were removed from the bodies, the Giant Wood Moth, whose larvae can be classified
after which the bodies were placed on a sheet as witchetty grubs. These Wood Moths belong to the
of bark and allowed to cool – and the feasting Cossidae family which contains more than 90 species
then began.
– placed primarily in the genera Endoxyla and Xyleutes.
Having read favourable comments by explorers and

The cooked insects were quite small when the bushmen on the food value of the Giant wood moth
wings and heads were sifted from the bodies, and (Xyleutes boisduvali), I decided to cook the abdomen of a
large numbers were needed to make the harvest female for my breakfast. I killed the moth by squeezing the
worthwhile. The moths were regarded as being a thorax, then cut off the abdomen, brushed the scales from it,
highly desirable addition to the diet, with a flavour and fried it in very little fat. When cooked, it was cut open
that resembled walnuts. They contain good levels of and the contents extracted. These had the appearance of a
protein (21.6–16.8g), fat (19.8–20.6g) and water scrambled egg, but the taste was richer owing to some oil in
(49g). The vitamin and mineral component (which their composition. In my opinion, when eaten with toast this
can vary) contains reasonable amounts of sodium, was a superior dish to scrambled eggs.
potassium, phosphorus, magnesium, calcium, and
zinc. Iron levels can be particularly high (Brand Miller
1993). See table. Tasty hoppers: grasshoppers, locusts
and crickets
Recently, concerns have been raised with regard to a The classification of crickets, grasshoppers, locusts
contaminant in Bogong Moths. Arsenic is present in and katydids is a complex affair. There are over
low levels in the soils of their autumn–winter habitat, 2800 species of grasshoppers within the superfamily
possibly as a residual from an earlier time when arsenic Acridoidea in Australia, of which at least 90% are
sprays were used as agricultural pesticides – although endemic. They are divided into two groups: the short-
the exact source is still under investigation. As the horned (locust) and long-horned types. Locusts have
grubs develop in the tree roots, they may store some of the ability to swarm (breed in huge numbers), which
the toxic chemical in their bodies. This may not seem can make them serious pests, particularly when they
to be much of a problem. However, over the years, as reach plague proportions. Four species have achieved
large numbers of adult moths died in their mountain economic pest status in Queensland. With favourable
hideaways, their decomposition resulted in a gradual wind conditions locusts can move over large distances
build-up of arsenic in the soil. When storms washed (300–500 kilometres a night) – which means they can
through the caves it was noticed that the vegetation migrate over vast distances in a very short time.
outside died. This led to an analysis of the soil and the
discovery of arsenic as the culprit. Therefore the wild It may come as a surprise to learn that grasshoppers
harvest of Bogong Moths may no longer be such a and locusts are among the most commonly eaten of all
good idea. Preliminary studies of the scats (droppings) the insects. In many parts of the world, since ancient
of a number of animals that ate the moth revealed times, these voracious crop predators have provided a
that their scats contained arsenic. This suggests that prolific, and easily harvested, flying snack. The culinary
native predators, including the Mountain Pygmy use of grasshoppers has been remarkably inventive.
Possum, Bush Rats and the Dusky Antechinus, as Usually the insect (legs and wings removed) was
well as numerous birds (Australian Kestrel, Little simply roasted and eaten, although in the fifth century
Raven, Pied Currawong) could be at risk if they BC Herodotus mentioned eating sun-dried locusts
dined on the moths exclusively – although the level of with milk. Their use has been associated with some
contamination remains a matter of conjecture. Feral ingenious recipes: locust relish (Zambia, Zimbabwe),
foxes also hunt these moths as a major part of their a side dish (Chile), a convenient snack food (Japan),
diet (Kingsley 2001). gourmet items (Indonesia), flour (Native American)
and bread (Chile). They offer the benefits of being
large (for an insect), tasty, and readily available. In

ancient Ethiopia, fires were lit around the countryside
and swarms of flying grasshoppers (locusts) were
‘smoked’ out of the sky. They were collected in great
masses from the ground after the smoke overcame
them, then seasoned with salt and stored. Over two
thousand years later, Ethiopians continue to eat
grasshoppers prepared in the traditional manner.
Similar locust plagues have long been considered an
adversary of the Australian farmer. In the early 1890s
the New South Wales Government Entomologist,
Arthur Sidney Olliff, wrote: ‘The vast swarms of locusts
or grasshoppers which have made their appearance,
during the present season in the western and north-
western portion of the Colony, have committed
terrible havoc in the field and garden. Unfortunately,
in the absence of a satisfactory knowledge of the life-
story and breeding seasons of the insect, it is not
possible to devise any certain means of preventing
their ravages; nor, indeed, are we in a position to give
sound advice in regard to remedial measures’ (Olliff
1891).
George F. Scott, Police Magistrate of Deniliquin,

recorded the devastation incurred by these flying
creatures:
replaced with mosquito net soaked in kerosene oil, but
We are now suffering from a great plague of grasshoppers, this, instead of acting as a deterrent, was in turn devoured
lately hatched from the eggs deposited last March in the by them! Mr. Woolridge, a stock and station agent, who
hard red clay of the plains. The young ones are not yet has a place outside the town, has lost by their ravages a ton
able to fly, but are hopping along, in countless thousands, of grapes, besides quantities of other fruit; and this year
devouring everything in their way. Nothing seems to come they have attacked the figs, which he never knew them
amiss; they even eat the window blinds of the houses, and to do before. In some parts of the district, the ground
a surveyor here, Mr. John Broughton, being anxious to is perfectly black with them, and the Edward River and
save some of his plants from their attacks, covered them creeks are covered with their bodies, emitting a fearful
with wooden boxes with the bottoms knocked out and stench (quoted in Olliff 1891).
Not all were quite so intimidated by these flying

pests. When the swarms appeared Aboriginal
people quickly added them to their culinary
resources. In 1889 in tropical Queensland, Carl
Lumholtz described a grasshopper plague: ‘The
heat was intense; the ground was gray, the grass
withered and scorched by the sun … Large
swarms of grasshoppers filled the air, greedily
attacking the few green shoots to be found at the
Garden pests or snacks? Crickets and grasshoppers. bottom of the dry grass. They produced a peculiar
buzzing sound when in dense swarms they flew of amino acids; the Mormon Cricket (Anabrus
up from the ground, and as I stood among them simplex) was equivalent to soy protein – although
I could not help thinking of a snowstorm.’ He the chitin component of their skeleton can
mentioned their use as food by Aboriginal people compromise their digestibility. Chitin, though,
at Herbert Vale: ‘Black lads amused themselves by has many uses, and dechitinising an insect harvest
running round and frightening the grasshoppers. could create by-products of commercial interest,
The women gathered large quantities of them in particularly for the food technology industry. For
their baskets. In one place a number of natives instance, chitin has been used in Japan as a source
sat round a fire eating them. First, the contents of fibre and calcium in cereals. Medicinally, chitin
of the baskets are thrown into the fire in order has been used to make a biodegradable thread
to burn off the wings and legs, whereupon each for sutures that concurrently helps to promote
grasshopper is roasted separately; they taste like healing – although some individuals can have
nuts, but there is of course very little to eat on a sensitivity to the substance. Ventures such as
them.’ these could just be profitable enough to interest
commercial producers.
The food value of crickets and locusts has rated
them as a fairly good protein resource that is very There have been some interesting proposals
similar to many other insects. Grasshoppers can with regard to growing insects as a crop. It has
make a diverse contribution to dietary vitamin been estimated that the value (food conversion
and mineral levels. For instance, Sphenarium efficiency) of the Brown Locust (Locustana
grasshoppers are a rich source of niacin (vitamin pardalina) is more than five times that of beef.
B3) (DeFoliart 1992). An evaluation of the The fact that some edible insects are already crop
Australian Plague Locust (Chortiocetes terminifera) pests could make them a useful side harvest,
established the following on analysis (per 100g) of particularly where there is an established demand
the whole insect: protein (25g), water (67.2g), fat for these foods. The success of silkworms and
(2g), fibre (10.4g) and carbohydrate (0.1g). The crickets as snack foods throughout South-east
mineral content included sodium, potassium, Asia is confirmation of the marketability of
magnesium, iron and zinc (Brand Miller 1993; these products. There is also a growing trade in
see table). speciality items. In Japan the Inago Grasshopper
(Oxya velox), which is preserved by boiling in soy
The essential fatty acid component of crickets sauce, is considered a delicacy (DeFoliart 1992).
is another topic of dietary interest. A Nigerian
study has shown that the large African cricket
While we know little with regard to the medicinal
Brachytrupes membranaceus, which is regarded as
use of these insects in Australia, European and Asian
being a defoliating pest, had a higher fat content traditions tend to confirm their therapeutic value.
than Emperor Moth larvae and termites, although Since ancient times, there have been some intriguing
their crude protein value was less (Agbidye therapeutic uses of the locust. Pliny employed them
2009a). Studies in Cameroon of the cricket for treating leprosy and ‘stone’ (urinary gravel).
Homorocoryphus nitidulus established that it had Dioscorides valued their use in many eye conditions
high unsaturated fatty acid levels (palmitoleic (including conjunctivitis), for strangury (difficult
acid, linoleic and linolenic acid) (Womeni 2009). urination) and for easing the stings of scorpions, bees
However, not all crickets have the same protein or hornets. In the case of scorpion stings, they were
value. The House Cricket (Acheta domesticus) was deployed by two other famous ancient physicians,
Avicenna and Galen. The Egyptian Ebers Papyrus (c.
considered to be superior to soy protein as a source
1550 BC) mentions their use in plasters for treating species’) were noted to be more common upon
bone diseases. In Arab medicine, the locust was Acacias and other scrub trees than upon Eucalypts.
employed as a febrifuge in treatments for malaria, They ‘swarm in such numbers on the under surface of
phthisis (consumption, tuberculosis) and other types the leaves or over the young branchlets, as at first sight
of fevers (Read 1941). In Chinese medical traditions, to be easily mistaken for aphides [sic].’
mashed Field Crickets were applied locally to remove
bamboo-splinters from wounds, while the locust was
used for treating tetanus, frostbite, skin eruptions Gall deformities are produced by a great variety of
and convulsions (Namba 1988; Reid 1941). The insects; among them are wasps, flies, beetles, psyllids,
Chinese also used roasted Mole Crickets (wings and coccids, moths, nematodes and mites.15 They can
legs removed) as a poison antidote, for removing toxic range in size from small bubbles in the leaves or bark,
swellings (boils, abscesses, infected splinters) and as to large, grotesque and misshapen deformities. The
a diuretic. One recommendation combined ‘one old shape and colour of the gall depends on the insect
and twenty new crickets’. This was used to treat ‘all responsible for the infection, although their sheer
kinds of oedema, ascites, as a nasal insufflation [a diversity makes identification the province of the
form of breathing therapy] to reduce facial oedema, to expert. Indeed, over a hundred species of minute flies
bring down unexpelled placenta, used as a moxa14 on can cause eucalypt galls that appear as pimple-like leaf,
the infant umbilicus when inflamed and suppurating, bed or stem galls. There are nematodes (small thread-
for toothache, for painful cracked lips, for deafness’ – like worms) that can form an association with tiny
a truly versatile remedy (Read 1941). flies, resulting in a symbiotic relationship within the
fly gall. Wasp galls are often distinguished by a bright
colourful growth (red or green) of diverse shapes
Galls and grubs and sizes. Beetle galls (weevils and jewel beetles) are
There is another insect classification that is of equally varied. The bubble-like growths of psyllid galls
particular interest for medicinal, commercial and vary greatly (large, small, spongy or hard) depending
culinary purposes – galls. These insect ‘homes,’ which on the type of psyllid involved. There are also mites,
come in an extraordinary variety of form and shape, which are tiny sap-sucking animals (not insects), and
develop from the activity of insects that lay their eggs blister mites cause blister-galls in eucalypt leaves.
in the plant tissue. When they hatch, the growing
larvae have an irritant effect, and this causes the plant
With regard to psyllids, Froggatt commented:
to encapsulate the source of the annoyance. The sheer
diversity and unknown quality of the native insects A number of Psylla larvae produce galls, chiefly on the
that produce galls is a topic that, even today, remains foliage, of the Eucalypts. These are sometimes hard,
largely unexplored. Overall, few details are available woody galls, covering and often aborting the leaf attacked
with regard to the chemistry and mechanics of the into a wrinkled woody mass, with the opening on the
formation of many types of galls. Even today, the under surface of the leaf generally plugged up with a bit
insects responsible for moth galls have remained a bit of waxy secretion to keep out intruders. Another forms
of a mystery, with the empty pupal cases often being thin, bladder-like galls upon the leaves, when the walls
the only hint of the former resident. of the galls are as thin as the leaf, and in which the larva
can move about. Sometimes these galls are brightly tinted
In 1898 Froggatt provided an interesting comment with reds and yellows, but their general colour is that of
their leaf (Froggatt 1898).
on the remarkable diversity of insect galls: ‘Many
species form regular galls and blisters upon leaves, It was important, as far as bush tucker goes, to know
chiefly those of Eucalypts. These first appear as little what types of galls were useful. Edible insect galls
pits, which swell into either bubble-like excrescences were utilised by Aboriginal people and bushmen.
14 Moxa, which is harvested from a weedy Mugwort herb (Artemisia vulgaris
or thickened rounded masses enclosing the larva. This and A. argyi), is a rather unusual substance. It burns with an even heat and
emerges from an opening either on the upper or under is used as a stimulant. There are many forms of moxa employed in Chinese
medicine. It is usually burnt on the end of acupuncture needles or can be
surface of the leaf.’ The species without galls (‘naked placed onto specific points on the body.
Those found on Eucalypt trees had a woody-coconut All galls contain tannin in varying amounts. This
flavour and, both the grub within the gall and the highly astringent and styptic substance has been
inner lining of the woody cocoon, could be eaten. of value medicinally since ancient times. The 1899
For this reason Cystococcus pomiformis galls found on Squire’s Companion to the British Pharmacopoeia listed
the Bloodwood (Eucalyptus opaca) are known as ‘Bush the following with regard to Galla (Galls): ‘Astringent.
Coconuts’ (they are also called ‘Bloodwood Apples’). Chiefly used locally in form of lotion or injection to
Analysis has shown that (per 100g) they contain some suppress haemorrhage from the gums, nose &c; to
protein (9.4g), water (77g), a little fat (1.1g), and lessen the discharge from mucous membranes, as in
can have a particularly high thiamine value (455mg) gleet, leucorrhoea, &c.; both Ointments are useful
(Low 1992a). The vitamins and minerals of the gall in painful haemorrhoids.’ There was an officially
lining include potassium (which can be quite high), recognised ointment preparation (Unguentum
magnesium, calcium and iron (Brand Miller 1993); Gallae), as well as a combination with opium (Gall
see table on page XXX. Wasp larvae on the Mulga and Opium ointment: Unguentum Gallae cum Opio).
Acacia aneura can also produce edible galls (small
marble-sized swellings) with a flavour that resembles
dried apple (Low 1992a).
Coccid, or scale insect cases (galls) on leaves
Blister-like leaf galls.

15 Some galls also result from fungal or bacterial infection.
Other commonly used forms of the drug included
Woody gall on plant stem.
Gall formed on leaf causing convoluted deformity.

haemorrhage, gastrointestinal upsets, throat and gum
problems (as a gargle), to stop sweating, and for skin
disorders such as psoriasis. In India galls were similarly
utilised. They were also regarded as having a febrifugal
effect in feverish disorders, and were employed as a
tonic following childbirth and for gynaecological
problems (leucorrhoea, bleeding) (Stuart 1911;
Kapoor 1993; Yen 1992).
Gall cluster on eucalypt twig.
The activity of the gall preparations was based on their
tannic acid component. Gallic acid also had a medicinal
role, albeit a less active astringent and styptic. The
16f???Caption??
decoctions, suppositories and tinctures. In China, Large galls on Eucalypt tree.
galls have been used in a comparable manner – to treat
medicinal use of Acidum Gallicum, which was prepared

using tannic acid and diluted sulphuric acid, was
associated with an effective styptic action.16 The Textbook
of Materia Medica, Pharmacology and Therapeutics by
A.S. Blumgarten (1939) considered gallic acid to have
a milder action than tannic acid, although it was more
readily ‘absorbed into the blood’. It was employed for
hyperhidrosis (excessive sweating), copious bronchial
mucous secretions, and to stop bleeding from the lung
or kidneys – although the following comment does not
inspire confidence: ‘but it is not very effective.’ Squire’s
recommendations for its use were similar: ‘Given to stop
haemorrhage in cases where the bleeding vessels must be
reached through the circulation; but some authorities
state it is useless in internal haemorrhage. It is given to
diminish the night sweats of phthisis, checks chronic
Large galls on Eucalypt tree. discharges and excessive secretions as in diarrhoea and
dysentery’ (Squire 1899).
While we know little about the therapeutic value
of Australian galls, studies have suggested they
Longicorn Beetle (subfamily Cerambycinae). Like many

other beetle larvae, those of Longicorn beetles are edible and
are said to taste something like scrambled eggs. Longicorn
beetles are gall-forming insects. They lay their eggs on a tree
and, when the larvae hatch, they burrow inside. This leaves
behind a wound that heals, forming scar tissue which often
appears as a deformity on the tree.
Enlarged gall deformity on a Eucalypt.
Coccid gall clusters are usually hard and woody – and,

when the winged males leave, the females remain within to
form large deformities in which they live throughout their
lives. Sometimes the process can become confused – such
as when the insect that emerges from the gall is not the
original resident. This occurs when a parasitic wasp lays its
eggs in the gall. The larvae feed on the insect within when
they hatch.
16 In the British Pharmacopoeia of 1867 the preparation of gallic acid

Gall tincture and gall ointment preparation from Phillips’ involved the fermentation of galls for six weeks, but by 1899 the use of
Translation of the Pharmacopoeia Londonensis, 1841. diluted sulphuric acid had shortened the process to around thirty minutes.
could have definite pharmacological merit. Extracts

prepared from the crown galls on Eucalyptus globulus
have shown anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial
(anticandidal and antibacterial) attributes. In addition,
there was a cytotoxic activity that ranged from weak
to moderate – as well as antitumour-promoting effects
and strong antioxidant properties (Brantner 2003).
Galls of the Dyer’s Oak (Quercus infectoria) have also
shown substantial anti-inflammatory and antioxidant
activity (Kaur 2004, 2008). Chinese galls (grown on
Wisteria floribunda) are of interest because the remedy Chinese medicinal galls, or Wu Bei Zi.
has been used clinically as an antitumour treatment.
Studies demonstrated positive anticancer activity
in melanoma cells (Heo 2005). The inhibition of
melanin biosynthesis by gall extracts led to suggestions
for its use in skin-whitening products. The effect was
attributed to the gallotannin component of the galls
(Chen 2009).17
Medicinal and commercial gall resources

Commercial grade galls are usually those produced
by the insect genus Cynips. In Europe, medicinal
galls were sourced from the gall wasp Adleria (Cynips)
gallae-tinctoria on the Dyer’s Oak (Quercus infectoria).
This small shrubby tree from the Middle East was so
named due to its traditional importance as a tannin
resource for dye and leatherwork. The best quality
galls, known as Turkish ‘Aleppo galls’, are ideally
picked before the insect inside escapes. They are
classed in three grades: blue, green and white. Unlike
the blue and green insect-carrying galls, the lower
quality galls are called ‘white’ galls due to their light
yellow-brown colour. Aleppo galls contain high levels
of gallotannic acid (50–70%). Gallic acid is present
in much lower amounts (2–4%), plus diverse other
components (ellagic acid, sitosterol, mucilage, sugar,
resin, and an insoluble substance, mainly lignin). Even
though white galls have been considered inferior, they
have a comparable tannin content (Evans 1992).
Hungarian galls, produced by Cynips lignicola
on Quercus robur in Yugoslavia, are very similar.
However, the galls formed by Adleria kollari on the
English Oak (Quercus robur) were not as valuable
because they contained significantly less gallotannic
17 In addition to tannin-based compounds, other components of
pharmacological interest include saponins from the galls of Sapindus mukrossi,
which have shown cytotoxic and antiviral activity. Studies also showed strong
anti-platelet aggregation (antithrombotic) properties for some components
that was, in some cases, greater than that of aspirin (Huang 2007, 2008).
acid (15–20%) and therefore had a less astringent

effect (Evans 1992). Medicinal galls have also been
sourced from species of Rhus in China, Japan and
India, among them Rhus succedanea and R. chinensis
(syn. R. javanica) (Yen 1992; Kapoor 1990). The
insect responsible is an aphis, Schlectendalia chinensis.
Medicinal quality Chinese and Japanese galls contain
similar tannin levels (around 57–77%) to that of the
Dyer’s Oak. Tannic acid (gallotannic acid) is extracted
by fermenting the galls and extraction with water-
saturated ether (Evans 1992).
Edible insects: a food crop for the

future? Acacia aneura.
The use of insects as a food resource could have excellent
prospects for future conservation programs. It would,
however, require a change of thinking with regard to the
management of local ecosystems. Revegetation of areas
with native species that support an array of insects is
not a common crop strategy, even though it can have
important consequences for the environment. The fact
that some of these insects are considered to be pests
will present a challenge to traditional agriculturalists
and farmers, although there is plenty of scope for local
revegetation programs in outback areas. Indeed, contrary
to normal expectations, the fact that many of these
bugs tend to defoliate trees would be one of the more
unusual indicators of success for the farming strategy.
Communities in difficult circumstances could quite easily Acacia aneura flowers. (Courtesy: Forrest & Kim Starr,
benefit from insect ‘farming’. Such ventures could reach Hawaii)
beyond one’s expectations, and present some unexpected
The Desert Mulga (Acacia aneura), which is also
opportunities for all concerned – humans, insects and the
known as the Witchetty Bush, provides a perfect
local ecosystem (Yen 2008; Romos-Elorduy 2006; Kato
example of a multipurpose native food resource.
& Kopi 2008; FAO Newsroom 2004; Fromme 2005).
Not only does the tree harbour edible grubs, but
honey ants (Melophorus bagoti and Camponotus spp.)
An improved appreciation of the value of the role
reside in the ground beneath it – and it is a source
of insects in the environment is desperately needed.
of ‘mulga apples’ (wasp galls), flower nectar and gum
Urban settlements have a great prejudice against
exudates. Prolific amounts of honeydew can form
insects, yet most native species have an important
on the branches due to a lerp scale (Austrotachardia
role to play in maintaining the diversity of flora on
acaciae). It also yields large crops of seeds which,
the continent. For instance, beetles are pollinators
when roasted, can be made into a peanut butter-like
of many unique species that have developed from
paste for damper-bread. The hard timber is useful
prehistoric Gondwanan flora, particularly in the
for carving tools and implements, old trees provide
rainforest. Some very rare and endangered shrubs and
firewood, and a glue-like resin can be harvested from
trees with ancient lineages rely on specific beetles for
the leaves for making spears (Goddard 1988; Turner
their propagation.
1994; Latz 1996). In addition, an alkaline ash can be
sourced from the tree. When mixed with some plants
such as the narcotic Pituri (Duboisia hopwoodii) or and pollen resource – products that have a substantial
the herb Isotoma petraea, it facilitates the release of medicinal reputation. In addition to the European
the component alkaloids. The latter remedy has been Honey Bee (Apis mellifera) there are numerous native
used as a painkiller and for treating colds (Barr 1993; species in Australia, a few of which are hive-bees that
Lassak & McCarthy 1992). yield a unique form of honey. Australia’s native bees
are becoming ever more scarce due to loss of habitat,
In considering the value of insects, we should while Honey Bee hives are facing extermination from a
remember one that often plays an unacknowledged destructive killer mite aptly named Varroa destructor.18
role in our lives. It is the humble Bee, whose remarkable At the moment Australia is the only country in the
achievements are taken for granted in just about every world that remains free of this pest, but the future
house in the country, in some way, every day. Bees does not look bright. The loss of these extraordinary
make an extraordinarily important contribution to the pollinators would have disastrous consequences. The
economy of the entire world. They are essential crop disruption caused has the potential to change the very
pollinators, the loss of which would be catastrophic origins of our food crops – upon which so much of the
on an international scale. Bee-hives are a rich honey world’s economy depends.
18 The mite has infected other species of honey bees. They include the
Russian Honey Bee (Apis koschevnikovi) which, fortunately, has shown a
higher level of resistance to the mite than Apis mellifera. The Asian Honey
Bee (Apis cerana) has developed grooming techniques to rid themselves of
the pest, thereby limiting the infection in their hives. Pesticide control of
commercial bee hives has been undertaken but it is expensive – with concerns
being raised about the chemical contamination of the bee products.
Nutritional components from edible insects

Insect and country of Nutritional information Author
origin (mg/100g, except vitamin A µg/100g)
Scarab (Oryctes boas) Low levels: vitamin A (8.58mg); vitamin B2 (very low); vitamin C Banjo 2006
Nigeria (7.59mg) & magnesium (6.62mg)
Higher levels: calcium 45.68mg & phosphorus 130.2mg
Snout [African Palm Low levels: vitamin A (11.3mg); vitamin B2 (2.2mg), vitamin C Banjo 2006
Weevil] (4.3mg) & magnesium (7.5mg)
(Rhynchophorus Higher levels: calcium (39.6 mg) & phosphorus (126.4mg)
phoenicis)
Nigeria Very good levels of iron (12.2mg)
Rhinoceros [Beetle] Low levels: vitamin A (12.5mg); vitamin B2 (2.6mg), vitamin C Banjo 2006
(Analeptes trifasciata) (5.4mg) & magnesium (6.1mg)
Nigeria Higher levels: calcium (61.2mg) & phosphorus (136.4mg)
Very good levels of iron (18.2mg)
Stink Bug Very low levels of the vitamins A, B1, B2 and E (no vitamin C) Teffo 2007
(Encosternum A good range of minerals: calcium (91mg), potassium (275mg),
delegorguei) magnesium (109mg), phosphorus (575mg), sodium (55.3mg),
South Africa
(Limpopo province) copper (4.4mg)
High levels of iron (20.2mg) & zinc (46mg)
Very low levels of selenium & manganese
Witchetty grubs Good range of minerals, the levels of which can be quite variable: Brand-Miller
(Cossidae sp.) potassium (118–414mg), magnesium (13–61mg), calcium (7– 1993
Australia 294mg), sodium (1–123mg), copper (0.1–2.6mg)
Low-high levels of iron (2–34mg), zinc (0.2–7.3mg) & phosphorus
(165mg)
Low levels of lead or cadmium may be present
Emperor Moth Good mineral resource: Akinnawo &
(Cirina forda) larvae Very high in phosphorus (1090mg) & potassium (2130mg) Ketiku 2000
Nigeria Extraordinarily high levels of iron (64.0mg)
Good amounts of zinc (8.6mg)
Moderate sodium levels (210mg)
Fairly low levels of manganese (7mg), magnesium (32.4mg) &
calcium (7mg)
Caterpillars A variety of vitamins & minerals, albeit at low levels: vitamins Banjo 2006
(various Anaphe A, B2, C and magnesium, plus some calcium (8.56–10.52mg),
species) phosphorus (100.5–111.3mg) & iron (1.56–2.24mg)
Nigeria
Caterpillar Rich source of iron, copper, zinc, thiamin (B1) & riboflavin (B2) Oliveira
(Usta terpsichore) 1976, cited in
Angola DeFoliart 1992
Bogong Moth A good range of vitamins and minerals: sodium (22–24mg), Brand Miller
(Agrostis infusa) potassium (281–428mg), magnesium (80–186mg), calcium (32– 1993
Australia 289mg), copper (0.7–1.3mg) & phosphorus (380mg)
Good levels of zinc (2.2–7mg)
Iron levels can be quite high (5.4–16mg)
Very low cadmium and lead
Insect and country of Nutritional information Author

origin (mg/100g, except vitamin A µg/100g)
Short-horned Fairly good amounts of potassium (100–131mg) with minor Banjo 2006
Grasshoppers amounts of other vitamins and minerals
(Cytacanthacris
naeruginosus unicolor) and
Crickets
(Brachytrypes spp.)
Nigeria
Grasshopper Fairly reasonable amounts of potassium (131.2mg) & calcium Banjo 2006
(Zonocerus variegatus) (42.16mg)
Nigeria Low levels of vitamin A (6.82mg/100g), vitamin C (8.64mg) &
magnesium (8.21mg)
Fair levels of iron (1.96mg)
Australian Plague A number of minerals: sodium (101mg), potassium (239mg), Brand Miller
Locust magnesium (37mg) 1993
(Chortiocetes Good levels of iron (4mg) & zinc (9.2mg)
terminifera)
Some copper (0.22mg)
Bush Coconuts or Gall lining: thiamin (0.27–0.46mg), riboflavin (3.01mg), vitamin Brand Miller
Bloodwood Apples C (2–7mg), sodium (2–120mg), potassium (348–760mg), 1993
Cystococcus pomiformis magnesium (41–55mg), calcium (8–29mg), iron (2.2–6.8mg), zinc
galls found on the
Bloodwood (Eucalyptus (1–2.9mg)
opaca) Low levels of copper (0.3–1.2mg) & possibly lead (0.1mg)
Some galls contain quite high potassium levels. Analysis of a gall
apple (lining) sourced from Eucalyptus terminalis: potassium
886mg/100g, with fair amounts of magnesium (54mg) & calcium
(77mg).
Another analysis of the lining of the ‘Walji’ gall (the common name
of this gall) gave even higher potassium levels (1554mg), with
reasonable levels of sodium (61mg) & calcium (132mg)
Chapter 8
SWEET SURPRISES:
MEDICINAL AND TOXIC HONEYS
Sweet aromatic honey has always held allure for

people, animals and insects. Robbing beehives is an
ancient practice that is attested to by cave paintings
from Spain, dated around 9000 years ago. As long
ago as 2400 BC in ancient Egypt, honey bees were
depicted in temple and tomb art. Over time the
desire for a regular supply of honey led to an intimate
coexistence between bees and people, as beekeepers
began to deliberately provide for the hive. There
are many bee species, but only a few settled into
Honeybee (Apis mellifera) honeycomb. (Courtesy: Tan W,
permanent relationships with man. This led to the art
Wikimedia Commons)
of apiculture, which refers to the practice of keeping
the honeybees Apis mellifera and Apis cerana, while
meliponiculture refers to the less common practice of
keeping stingless bees, from the family Meloponinae.
Greek tales mention the art of beekeeping and, as early
Honey bee on Melaleuca flower. (Courtesy: P Davies, Owl, cat and honeybee on a stone obelisk at Luxor in Egypt.
Heathmont Honey) (ackno to come)
193
Date???
Two honeybees on the underside of a stone plinth at Luxor in Egypt.DATE???
as 325 BC, Aristotle provided the first description of This little insect (called Wirotheree in the Wellington
a bee disease – an observation that substantiates their district [New South Wales]), the invasion of whose
importance at the time. Traditions regarding bees and hoards so frequently added to the store of the travellers,
honey have entered into the lore of every culture. and no doubt assisted largely in maintaining their health,
is very different from the European bee, being in size and
Bees have been credited with supernatural powers.
appearance like the common house-fly. It deposits its
The relationship between the hive and its owner was
honey in trees and logs, without any regular comb, as in
even believed to have a spiritual dimension. Indeed, the case of the former. These deposits are familiarly known
the reverence accorded bees, and thereby their sweet as ‘sugar bags,’ (sugar bag meaning, in aborigine, anything
produce, could permeate all aspects of life. Honey sweet), and requires some experience and proficiency to
has been revered in the Bible, the Talmud and the detect and secure the aperture by which the bees enter the
Koran, and in the sacred texts of India, China, Persia trees, being undistinguishable to an unpractised eye. The
and Egypt. The praise accorded honey in the writings quantity of honey is sometimes very large, amounting
of St Ambrose (340–397 AD) confirms its ancient to several quarts. Enough was found on one occasion to
medicinal use: ‘The fruit of the Bees is desired of all, more than satisfy the whole party. Its flavour differs from
and is equally sweet to Kings and Beggars, and it is not that of European honey almost as much as the bee does in
appearance, being more aromatic than the latter: it is also
only pleasing but profitable and healthful, it sweetens
less crystalline. As the celebrated ‘Nabonne honey’ derives
their mouthes, cures their wounds and convaies
its excellence from the bees feeding on the wild thyme of
remedies to inward Ulcers’. the south of France, so does the Australian honey derive
its superior flavour from the aromatic flowers and shrubs
Australia’s native bees are quite different from their on which the Wirotheree feeds, and which makes it
European counterparts. The journal of the Jardine preferred by many to the European (Byerley 1867).
brothers, who explored the Cape York region in
1864–65, described them in some detail: There are some 1600 native bee species, of which only
Chapter 8 SWEET SURPRISES: MEDICINAL AND TOXIC HONEYS 195
fourteen are stingless. Fortuitously, these are the social nest was at the top of a large blue gum tree, about three
species that store honey and pollen in a hive. The feet in diameter, and sending up a smooth column for
other species tend to be solitary. fifty feet without a branch or twig (Petrie 1904).
Lumholtz mentioned an incident where a cache of

‘Sugar-bag’: the search for sweets honey was sighted in old tree:
Bush honey was high on the list of sweet treats in
Australia, and native beehives were a valued resource, The only result of our march was a considerable amount
although their contents were of variable quality. of honey, which we found near the top of a high tree,
Aboriginal people and the early explorers made every which from its character the natives believed to be hollow
effort to obtain this prize, as the writings of Carl all the way down to the root. The honey would in that
Lumholtz, Thomas Mitchell and Ludwig Leichhardt case have fallen to the bottom and been wasted if they
attest. In the late 1800s Lumholtz provided a detailed had attempted to gather it in the usual way – by cutting a
hole in the trunk. They therefore borrowed my axe to fell
and interesting account of its harvest in northern
the large tree, which was more than three feet in diameter,
Queensland:
and until it fell … They were well rewarded for their
trouble. The great amount of honey found in this tree
On the way home to Herbert Vale we passed astonished me, and it had a fine flavour and in spite of the
the forests of gum-trees which clothe the base excessive heat, was solid and cool.’
of the mountain range. Here is the favourite
resort of the bees, and my blacks at once began
to look for their hives, for honey is a highly Petrie likewise recorded the care with which the honey
valued food of the natives, and is eaten in harvest was undertaken:
great quantities. Strange to say, they refuse
the larvae, however hungry they may be. The In seeking for honey, if a dull day, tiny particles of dirt the
wax is used as a glue in the making of various bees dropped were looked for at the roots of trees. These
implements, and also serves as a pomade for particles were very minute, and the aborigines would go
dressing the hair for their dances and festivals. on their knees looking for them, blowing leaves, etc.,
The Australian bee is not so large as our house- gently aside in their search. If found, the tree would be
fly, and deposits its honey in hollow trees, the ascended and the honey taken. On a bright summer’s day
hives sometimes being high up. While passing the bees themselves were looked for; the natives would
through the woods the blacks, whose eyes are shade their eyes with their hands, and gaze up the tree,
very keen, can discover the little bees in the and bees, if there, were seen flying round the hole. If the
clear air as the latter are flying thirty yards high nest were found too late in the day to admit of its being
to and from the little hole which leads to their robbed, the finder would put a cut in the tree with his
storehouse (Lumholtz 1889). tomahawk, or print a footmark in the soil at the base, or
probably just a stick would be stuck up against the trunk.
This showed the nest had been discovered, and no one
There were times when obtaining ‘sugar-bag’ (native
else would touch it. The man would either send some one
honey) involved some troublesome endeavour. Not
next day or come himself (Petrie 1904).
only did the honey-hunters need keen eyes, they also
had some rather intriguing strategies for finding the
native bees’ hives. Queensland pastoralist Tom Petrie The useful Whip Vine
recorded one technique: In the rainforest, vines provided readymade ropes for
climbing trees to rob hives located high in the canopy.
The way the trooper [Aboriginal policeman] performed Petrie mentioned the skilful use of a common vine,
this feat was not a little ingenious. Having noticed several the Whip Vine (Flagellaria indica):
bees about, he caught one, and with a little gum, attached
to it a piece of down from a large owl that somebody had A length was cut about twelve feet long, and after the
shot. Releasing the insect, it flew directly towards its nest, outer bark was peeled off with the teeth it would become
the unaccustomed burden with which it was laden serving quite supple, and a loop was made at one end. When
not only to make it easily visible, but also impeding its about to climb, this vine was put round the tree, the
flight sufficiently to admit of the boy following it. The loop end would be held in the left hand, and the other
Rainforest lianas are often surprisingly well anchored in the trees and are strong enough to provide climbing ropes.
in the right, then with his right foot places
Flagellaria against the
indica.
trunk, and his body thrown backwards, the native would
commence to ascend by a succession of springs. At every
spring the vine was jerked upwards, and so with wonderful
rapidity the ascent was accomplished. This helper in the
way of climbing was called ‘yurol’, after the vine it was
principally cut from, and each native was very careful of
his after finishing with it for the day; he would soak it in
water and so keep it supple and unlikely to break (Petrie
1904).
Occasionally notches or steps could be cut into the
tree to help the ascent.
The Whip Vine is a widespread tropical species that

ranges throughout Australia’s northern regions. Its
distribution extends to Africa, India, South-east Asia,
Melanesia and Polynesia. It is a flexible whip-like
rainforest vine that uses ingeniously designed curled
leaf tips to climb high into the canopy. It has a tough yet
supple character that made it particularly well suited
for use as a rope. It has also been the source of a twine-
like string used for weaving bracelets and ceremonial
arm bands, or for ‘sewing’ together fish traps and
prawn nets (Marrfurra 1995). Medicinally, the plant Flagellaria indica.
was employed for the treatment of fevers (including

influenza), muscular aches and pains, eye problems,
toothaches, throat soreness and chest pain (Wightman
& Andrews 1989). These recommendations appear to
suggest that the remedy had good anti-inflammatory
and analgesic properties.
[
Honey was such a precious commodity that, in order
to minimise waste, Aboriginal collectors soaked the
leftovers up with a ‘braggain’, a ‘rag’ made from the
bark fibre of the Stinging Tree (Dendrocnide moroides).
This is a pioneer species of the forest that gained its
name from the fine stinging hairs that cover it. There
is no effective antidote – although many cures have
been tried. Some say that covering the area with plastic
skin helps mediate the sensory pain and prevents the
stimulation (particularly cold or water exposure) that
triggers agonising reactions. After careful preparation,
the bark was chewed to make the ‘braggain’, which
was always carried on honey-hunting expeditions.1 Although its juicy berries are quite edible, the hairs of the
Stinging Tree (Dendrocnide moroides) are recognised as one
of the more unpleasant hazards of the rainforest.
Petrie wrote in some detail about harvesting the native
honey: ‘Coming to the bees’ nest, he [the hunter]
would cut the honey-comb out and let it fall to those
below, who deftly caught it. If after eating what they
wanted there was some over, it was put into a “pikki”
ready to carry away. The man on the tree also ate
some, then, when all had been taken, he wiped out
the hollow limb with the “braggain”, which soaked up
all the remaining honey, and afterwards this rag was
carefully placed back in his dilly [bag] ready for future
use.’ Back at the camp the braggain was soaked in a
pikki full of water to make an infusion. The braggain
itself was then passed around and chewed or sucked by
the participants – a process that was repeated until all
the sweet fluid was gone.
Honeybees and Honeypot ants

Native honey is a good energy source and can contain
a range of minerals. Analysis of various samples of
sugar-bag honey have identified the following mineral
content (per 100g): sodium (1–24mg), potassium
(172–512mg), magnesium (12–82mg), calcium (19–
114mg/), and iron (8–38mg). Traces of zinc, copper,
lead and cadmium, as well as vitamin C and B vitamins
1 The root bark could also be useful for making string.
(thiamin, riboflavin) were present in some samples. In Petrie mentioned that there were two distinct types
Central Australia, where Honeypot ants (Melophorus of native honey: ‘kabbai’, which was pure white and
species) have been a favourite snack, they too made very sweet, and ‘ku-ta’, a dark honey with a somewhat
a nutritional contribution to the diet (analysis is per sour flavour. The former was not as plentiful as the
100g) – mainly sodium (14mg), potassium (120mg), dark honey, and was only found in small dead, hollow
magnesium (47mg), and low levels of calcium, iron trees. He commented: ‘Of course when the English
and zinc (Brand Miller 1993). These ants have a bees came their honey was taken too, and it was
highly distended abdomen full of honey and act as a remarkable how, though they were used to their own
dispensary for the colony in their underground nests. harmless bees, the natives did not seem to mind being
Honeypot ants (Myrmecocystus species) are also found stung, but would unconcernedly pull out the sting.
in North America. They had then also the Englishman’s tomahawks.
These saved them trouble, for their own took a long
time to prepare.’
European Honeybees, which were imported into Australia

in the early days of the colony, are important pollinators of
many flowers and fruit trees.
Native Basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum var. anisodorum).
The Native Basil (Ocimum tenuiflorum var. anisodorum)

is a delightfully fragrant herb that was used as an
aromatic febrifuge and for making a ‘bush tea’. It is a
native variety of the Holy Basil (Ocimum sanctum, syn.
O. tenuiflorum), which has been held in high esteem as
a medicinal herb, particularly in India and South-east
Asia. Leichhardt specifically mentioned the appealing
qualities of the native herb as a honey resource: ‘In the
vicinities of several of the camps, Charley [my guide]

found many nests of the native bee, full of the sweetest
and most aromatic honey we had ever tasted. The
wild Marjoram [Ocimum tenuiflorum], which grows
abundantly here, and imparts its fragrance even to the
air, seemed to be the principal source from which the
bee obtained its honey. We collected a considerable
quantity of the marjoram, and added it to our tea,
with the double intention of improving its flavour,
and of saving our stock; we also used it frequently as a
condiment in our soup.’
[[end box]]
Australian bees
Beehive rescue: re-housing native bees. (Courtesy:
torrelliana) seeds embedded in the resin that native bees

were collecting for nest-building purposes. The bees
actively tried to remove the seeds from their bodies;
if a seed got carried into the hive, it was manually
removed and relocated outside (Wallace & Trueman
1995).2 Native bees have been an under-appreciated
part of the environment and they have been having
a hard time surviving in the modern world, with
clearing and urban development taking its toll on
their existence. Fortunately native bee-keeping has
become increasingly popular, with Trigona carbonaria,
Native beehive entrance in a tree.
Trigona hockingsi and Austroplebia australis taking the
lead species role. A native bee rescue service has even
The native Australian bees do not rival their European been formed, with volunteers collecting whole hives
counterparts for honey production. The average hive from development sites to re-establish them in safer
of the latter produces around 75 kilograms annually, locations (Pyper 2001).
in comparison to a mere 1 kilogram from a native 2 Unfortunately this has become a problem in areas where Cadagai has
become an introduced weed. The quantity of seeds collected can cause
beehive. However, native bees fulfil an important serious problems for the hive.
role as pollinators for the indigenous flora. They may
also be an influential agent of seed dispersal for some
trees. Researchers have found Cadagai (Eucalyptus Explorer Thomas Mitchell (1848) mentioned that
his guide was quite intrigued by the appearance of Tea-tree honeys

one species of bee they came across: ‘The bees were
also new to Yuranigh, who drew my attention to
their extreme smallness; not much exceeding in size
a gnat or mosquito. Nevertheless, he could cut out
their honey from hollow-trees, and thus occasionally
procure for us a pleasant lunch, of a waxy compound,
found with the honey, which, in appearance and taste
much resembled fine ginger-bread. The honey itself
was slightly rancid, but clear and fine flavoured.’
The bread-like substance to which Mitchell referred

is ‘bee bread’, which is made from pollen; bee larvae
are known as ‘bee brood’. Aboriginal people in the
Northern Territory used bee brood as an antiseptic for
eye problems. The larva was squeezed until a milky
fluid ran out. This was dripped into the eye, or onto
sores, including fungal (tinea) skin infections (Levitt
1979, 1981). Historically, honey has long been utilised
as soothing antiseptic eye-drops, a use that seems to
be substantiated by modern investigations, which
have demonstrated that honey can have substantial
antimicrobial properties and this is likely to be
shared by other bee products such as bee-brood and
bee-bread. There do not appear to have been many
investigations into the properties of bee-brood (pupae
and larvae), although a nutritional analysis of Apis
mellifera bee-brood has established that it is a good Tea-tree swamp (Melaleuca leucadendra). Tea-trees belong to
a genus that favours swampy sites or areas liable to flooding.
source of carbohydrate, protein (amino acid profile Aboriginal people found various Melaleuca species, such
is good), and fat (primarily the fatty acids oleic and as M. leucadendra in Queensland, were favoured sites for
palmitic, with lower amounts of stearic fatty acid). It native beehives. In the Northern Territory other valued
contains vitamin C, most of the B-vitamins (except species included Melaleuca acacioides, M. lasiandra, M.
folic acid and vitamin B12), and quite high levels of minutifolia, M. nervosa and M. viridiflora, and the closely
related Asteromyrtus symphyocarpa (Smith 1993; Wightman
some minerals (potassium, phosphorus, iron, zinc). 1994; Marrfurra 1995; Yunupinu 1995).
Chloride and magnesium were also present, as well as
the trace elements copper and selenium. Bee-brood, Tea-trees or Paperbarks are prolific producers of nectar-
however, was low in calcium, sodium and manganese laden flowers that are very attractive to native bees.
- and was devoid of iodine and the fat soluble vitamins At the particular times of the year that their flowers
A, D and E (Finke 2005). Bee-bread is likely to have are produced in great profusion, the small native bees
similar nutritional and therapeutic possibilities. An swarming round the trees give the appearance of a mass
investigation of the antioxidant properties of bee- of hovering flies. The early explorers, who learned of
bread has confirmed this activity in phenolic extracts the harvest of these blossoms from Aboriginal people,
and, although the level of activity could vary quite were highly impressed with the resultant honey-like
markedly, it was higher in bee-bread when compared drink. However the collection of large amounts of
to honey samples. Bee-bread has also been examined flowers, and their preparation, was a laborious and
for antibacterial activity (Baltrušaitytė 2007a, 2007b). time-consuming process.
Ludwig Leichhardt mentioned the collection of

Tea-tree flowers: ‘We gathered some blossoms of
the drooping tea-tree [Melaleuca saligna], which
were full of honey, and, when soaked, imparted a
very agreeable sweetness to the water. We frequently
observed great quantities of washed blossoms of this
tree in the deserted camps of the natives; showing
that they were as fond of the honey in the blossoms of
the tea-tree, as the natives of the east coast are of that
of the several species of Banksia’ (Leichhardt 1847).
On one occasion Leichhardt ‘purchased’ a draught of
honey water from an Aboriginal camp, leaving ‘a brass
button for payment’.
The Broad-leaf or White Tea-tree (Melaleuca

leucadendra), which is widespread along the Australian
coast, is an impressive example of the genus. In a
1918 review of Australian honeys, forester and well-
known authority on native honeys Mr A. Shallard
commented:
[Melaleuca leucadendra] yields (usually well) a dark

strong-flavoured honey. The odour from the newly Melaleuca leucadendra flowers.
gathered honey is nauseating, and can be smelt half a mile
to leeward. This, however, largely disappears after storing
for a while. It is a peculiar tree, and has three distinct
times of blooming, and it also yields honey while in
bloom in sort of cycles. For instance, the bees will go at it
with a regular roar for three or four days, and then they
will steady up and do comparatively nothing for a couple
of days, although the bloom is still on. The third period
of bloom usually lasts well into June, and my northern
apiaries have several times been extracted in June. There
is one peculiarity about Ti-tree [Tea-tree]3 honey and that
is the fiendish bad temper it always creates in (at other
times) peaceful bees. As soon as the flow stops, every hive
will mount three or four hundred guards, and, they are all
looking for fight. If a hive is opened they are at it to rob
it out at once, and extracting at this time is a work of art,
and not likely to be tackled by anyone who does not know
the Alpha and Omega of robbing preventives (quoted in
Maiden 1920).
3 Maiden clarified the identity of these trees with the following note: ‘Again
let me remind my readers that “Ti-tree”, which is the Cordyline of New
Zealand and the Islands, is a totally different tree. The name “Tea-tree” was
given by Captain Cook to a species allied to Melaleuca simply because his
men made “tea” of the leaves. Polynesian islanders made “whiskey” out of
the roots of the Cordyline, but that is another story.’
Eucalypt honeys
The prolific nectar production of Eucalypt flowers is a familiar and valued resource – both in Australia and overseas.
Eucalypts can flower in great profusion and numerous species, such as Eucalyptus amygdalina, E. regnans, E. angustifolia and
E. linearis, flower all year round. Others, like E. sideroxylon and E. polyanthema, produce their blossoms on a seasonal basis.
selected as to give a constant crop of flowers, or flowers at
In many countries the Eucalypt has been a subject of such times as those are absent in other plants …
interest for honey harvests for more than a century. In
1895 in the United States, real estate developer and In 1902, US horticulturist A.J. McClatchie referred to
Eucalypt enthusiast Abbot Kinney published his work Kinney’s work, commenting:
Eucalyptus, commenting:
Since Mr. Kinney wrote the above, bee-keepers have
Taking the sixty species and marked varieties of this become more interested in the Eucalyptus as a source
genus in Southern California4, I have never seen a day of nectar. William Shutt, foreman of the Santa Monica
that flowers could not be found on some of them … Forestry Station, informs the writer that he receives many
When we consider the free production of nectar by the inquiries concerning the merits of certain species for bee
Eucalyptus at seasons when there is little or no other pasture. In a subsequent portion of this publication will
resource for bees, and also the claimed medicinal value be found a list of the species useful for this purpose. In
of honey from Eucalyptus flowers for relieving irritation planting trees for forest cover, wind-breaks, shade, timber
from the mucous membrane, and as a nerve sedative, or fuel, it would be well, wherever the bee industry
the presumption is strongly in its favour. Bee men will is important, to select varieties recognised as flower
doubtless find it to their interest to study the species,
4 Today, it has been estimated that probably more than one hundred different
and plant in waste places such sorts as will furnish the species of Eucalyptus are found in California – a truly remarkable diversity.
best kinds of nectar during the most difficult season for The most popular is Eucalyptus globulus, although many other familiar species
the bees … I believe that by some study of this subject, are found, notably Eucalyptus amygdalina, E. camaldulensis, E. citriodora, E.
dalrympleana, E. resinfera, E. robusta, E. sideroxylon, E. tereticornis and E.
species of Eucalyptus with plenty of nectar could be so viminalis.
producers. Several species valuable for the purposes

mentioned above – notably the Sugar Gum (Eucalyptus
corygtocalyx), the Red Gum (Eucalyptus rostrata) [E.
camaldulensis], the Red Ironbark (Eucalyptus sideroxylon),
Eucalyptus hemiphloia, and Eucalyptus polyanthema – are
profuse bloomers, and are thronged with bees during
the blooming season, which with some species is quite
protracted (quoted in Maiden 1920).
Four species have been known as the ‘Salmon Gum’

– Eucalyptus alba and E. salmonophloia, the Northern
Salmon Gum (E. bigalerita), and the White Salmon
Gum (E. lanepoolei).
In a newspaper from Western Australia called the

Western Mail of 19 January 1917, T.K. O’Dwyer wrote
of a nectar oozing from the Salmon Gum (Eucalyptus
salmonophloia):
Some six years back I was passing under some large

Salmon Gum trees that were left for shade near the house.
I noticed under one tree several patches of what appeared
Salmon Gum (Eucalyptus salmonophloia). (Courtesy:

Wendy Richards, Flickr)
Northern Salmon Gum (Eucalyptus bigalerita). (Courtesy: J Brock via Peter Brocklehurst ,Northern Territory Herbarium)
to be something like honey. As there seemed to be a

considerable quantity I started to investigate, and found
that the honey-like fluid was coming from the large limbs
of the Salmon Gum. I put a plate under the largest drip,
and in the morning was surprised to see the plate half full
of what my taste and smell could not distinguish from
honey. Inspector White came along the same day, and I
asked him if he could explain Salmon Gums giving [a]
honey-like substance in such large quantities. Mr. White
was as much puzzled as I was, and could not give any
explanation. The matter passed out of memory until last
year, when several of the Salmon Gums dripped off a very
large quantity of the same honey-like substance after an
interval of five years. I took a dessert-spoonful, but as I In Tasmania, Leatherwood honey (Eucryphia lucida)
did not know what medicinal or other properties it might has long been considered a delicacy. (Courtesy: J and R
possess I refrained from making any further experiments Coghlan - Australian Plants Society Tasmania, Personal
on my digestive organs. What I took seemed to have the communication)
same effect in cleansing the mouth and throat as any other honey resources, and there are many species of the
honey. If you have no recorded instances on the subject, latter. They include the Blue-leaved Stringybark (E.
some of the old pioneers in the Salmon Gum districts agglomerata), Brown Stringybark (E. baxteri), Mealy
might have similar experience, or some of your numerous Stringybark (E. cephalocarpa), Thin-leaved Stringybark
readers in the country districts may throw some light on (E. eugenoides), White Stringybark (E. globoidea),
the matter of Salmon Gums giving a large quantity of
Brown Stringybark (E. laevopinea), Red Stringybark
honey-like substance in certain years (quoted in Maiden
(E. macrorhyncha) and Messmate Stringybark (E.
1920).
obliqua). Yellow Stringybark can refer to three species:
E. acmenoides, E. muelleriana and E. umbra. The
In the same issue, the editor of the ‘Mutual Help
Ironbarks include E. crebra (Narrow-leaved Ironbark),
Column’ commented:
E. fibrosa (Red Ironbark), E. melanophloia (Silver-
In my boyhood days it was no uncommon thing to find leaved Ironbark), E. paniculata (Gray Ironbark) and
gum tree blossoms so full of nectar that it ran out and E. sideroxylon (the Red or Mugga Ironbark). With
dripped to the ground. We used to gather dry leaves sticky over 700 different Eucalypts, various species yield
with this honey and lick it off them. Often we would get equally unique honey resources in different parts of
curved leaves with as much honey as would fill a salt- the continent.
spoon. Possibly the phenomenon described is similar, but
Mr. O’Dwyer does not state that the trees were in bloom. In a review of Eucalypt-derived honey, Maiden (1920)
I remember also having seen the leaves of small gum trees provided a great deal of detail on the different species
wet with ‘honey dew’ as the result of the excretions of
resources, in particular quoting Shallard (1918). The
numerous colonies of coccus, scale, or similar insects.
matter of correct identification of the honey-yielding
Such trees were usually the happy hunting-ground of
thousands of ants, but I have known the secretion to be species was, as always, a matter of some debate. As
plentiful enough to drip. Possibly this may account for an example, Shallard mentioned that the Grey
the ‘honey’ (quoted in Maiden 1920). Ironbark (Eucalyptus paniculata) was often confused
[[close quote]] with E. siderophloia, and continued: ‘There are several
Ironbarks, and until we know which species the
The term ‘monofloral’ is used to describe honey that is reporters had in their minds, we do not know how to
collected from a specific floral source. In Australia the fit in the following reports: – “Not considered a good
best sources of monofloral Eucalypt honey have been honey plant on account of the dark colour and strong
Yellow Box (Eucalyptus melliodora), Blue Gum (E. flavour of honey” (Forester Rotton, Picton). “Yields
globulus), and the River Red Gum (E. camaldulensis). honey harsh to taste” (Forester Martin, Gosford).
Numerous Ironbarks and Stringybarks are excellent “Bees are very fond of this tree” (Forester Cobcroft,
Singleton). “Valuable as a honey plant” (Forester
McGee, Narrabri).’ Shallard himself made an equally

ambiguous comment:
This is the end of August and the Ironbarks and clover

are just coming into bloom. These two produce beautiful
honey, and the former are of the very greatest value to
the apiarist; their blooms come in very early and help
brood rearing, and the different kinds continue in bloom
nearly up to Christmas. They usually yield well, although
all flora are subject to climatic conditions, which help
or hinder honey secretion, and which produce for the
apiarist a good or bad season. I have at times seen the
bush literally white with bloom, but no honey in it, and
no bees flying at all (quoted in Maiden 1920).
Maiden’s detailed assessment was a valuable

information resource. The few Eucalypt honeys listed
below illustrate the great diversity of opinion that
surrounded them:
The Red Bloodwood (Corymbia gummifera). (Above courtesy

Jacqui Hickson, below courtesy R. Stephens)
Eucalyptus corymbosa (Bloodwood) (now Corymbia

gummifera, the Red Bloodwood): Foresters seemed
generally to agree that this species yielded a profuse
The Red Bloodwood (Corymbia gummifera). Formerly amount of good quality honey. ‘On another occasion I
Eucalyptus corymbosa, syn. E. gummifera, the Red Bloodwood saw the Tea-tree and Bloodwood blossoms full of honey,
is one of the Eucalypts that has been placed in the genus so much that a shower of nectar could be got by shaking
Corymbia. (Courtesy: Edward Minchen) the blossoms, and yet an apiary right in among it was
doing nothing. For some reason the bees did not like • looded Gum (Eucalyptus grandis): ‘On the
F
the nectar and would not gather it. Early in March the North Coast the Flooded Gum will be in bloom
Bloodwood comes into bloom, and generally it is a good in September. This is usually (depends upon the
yielder of a dark amber honey of rather strong flavour. season) a good yielder of beautiful light-amber
I would like to say here that taste in honey is, I think,
honey’ (Shallard).
governed by early impression. I find that where people
have been used to a strong honey in infancy that taste
endures through life, and vice versa’ (Shallard). The Rose Gum
• Eucalyptus hemiphloia (Grey or White Box):
This tree usually yielded a highly prized honey.
‘Most foresters speak well of it as a honey-plant,
though others are not enthusiastic about it’
(Maiden).
• Eucalyptus maculata (Spotted Gum): ‘As a
honey plant I think Spotted Gum comes first’
(Forester Rudder, Booral). Most foresters speak
very highly of it … It blooms after Christmas,
and yields a good light honey with, however, a
cloudy appearance. It yields better around the
Hunter River valley than it does on the North
Coast. Very heavy crops are taken from it at times
at the former place’ (Shallard).
• Eucalyptus radiata (as Eucalyptus amygdalina)
(a Peppermint): ‘Very good, honey excellent in
flavour, and of good colour’ (Forester Rotton,
Picton).
• Eucalyptus robusta (Swamp Mahogany): The
honey ‘comes after Spotted Gum and Bloodwood’
(Forester Rudder, Booral).
• Eucalyptus rostrata (Murray Red Gum): ‘Most
foresters speak of the great value of this tree to bee-
keepers, though one or two speak less favourably
than the others’ (Maiden).
• Eucalyptus sideroxylon (Mugga or Red
Ironbark): ‘This is the next valuable to Yellow
Eucalyptus grandis, the Rose Gum or Flooded Gum.
Box (Eucalyptus melliodora) for honey’ (Forester
Postlethwaite, Grenfell).
• Eucalyptus sieberiana (a Mountain Ash): ‘A The Rose Gum has been cultivated for its high-quality
good honey-plant, as it flowers abundantly, and timber, for wood-chipping operations, and as a honey
is a favourite with bees’ (Forester Allan, Milton). source in countries ranging from Africa to South-
‘Very good honey, nice and clear, of good flavour, east Asia and India, to the United States and South
but rather thin’ (Forester Rotton, Picton). America. It is also a good essential oil resource that
• Eucalyptus tessellaris (Carbeen): ‘Valuable as a contains alpha-pinene and beta-pinene as its major
honey plant’ (Forester McGee, Narrabri). components. Studies from the Essential Oil Research
• Eucalyptus viminalis (Ribbony Gum): ‘Flowers Centre (EORC), Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, gave the
profusely, honey excellent in flavour and of following analysis: alpha-pinene (31.8%); beta-pinene
good colour. It is a great help to the bees, as the (46.6%); 1,8-cineole (4.8%); and alpha-terpineol
other principal honey-producing plants are then (5.4%).
without flowers’ (Forester Benson, Bega).
Eucalyptus grandis, the Rose Gum or Flooded Gum, at Copperlode Dam, Cairns, North Queensland.
(Left and below) Swamp Bloodwood flowers (Eucalyptus

ptychocarpa). This distinctive red-flowering species restricted
to the tropical regions of northern Australia. The tree, which
favours a riverside habitat, is a spectacular sight when in
bloom, and is sought after by bees, nectar-feeding birds and
flying foxes. Bushmen and Aboriginal people used the leaves
(chewed and made into a poultice) as an emergency dressing
for injuries and as a wound-healing remedy.
Flavonoids: Identifying a honey’s rich in phenolic components. In contrast, Leatherwood

(Eucryphia lucida) honey was substantially richer in
source phenolic acids and volatile components, but did not
Today, chemical investigations can determine the
contain many flavonoids (D’Arcy 2005).
floral source of a honey with accuracy. This can
then be used to authenticate the product’s origin. In
particular, the flavonoids found in Eucalyptus honey
can be very specific. Tricetin5, quercetin and luteolin
Traditional European honey resources
The most familiar of the European herbal honeys
are characteristic, regardless of where the tree is grown.
include Sage (Salvia officinalis), Lavender (Lavandula
Myricetin and kaempferol are also common.
officinalis), Thyme (Thymus vulgaris and T. serphyllum),
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis), Heather (Calluna
Interestingly, although these basic Eucalypt honey
vulgaris), Linden (Tilia species) and Hawthorn
flavonoids remain the same (primarily myricetin,
(Crataegus officinalis). Cherry (Prunus cerasifolia) and
tricetin and luteolin), there are some characteristics
Apple (Malus species) blossom honeys are likewise
of Eucalypt honey from European sources that
valued. The European ‘Acacia honey’ is actually
differ. Propolis and propolis-derived flavonoids
sourced from an American tree known as the False
(pinobanksin, pinocembrin and chrysin), which are
Acacia or Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). These
associated with the European Poplar (Populus species),
honeys have ‘marker’ components (similar to Eucalypt
are characteristic of honey from European origins,
honey) that are unique to the floral resources from
and may also be found in locally sourced Eucalypt
which they were derived. For instance, Heather honey
honey. These propolis flavonoids are rarely found in
sourced from Portugal was characterised by ellagic
Australian-grown Eucalypt honey – or, in general,
and abscisic acids, as well as myricetin-3’-methyl ether
from honey that is sourced from native plants.
(quercetin). These compounds have not been found
in other monofloral honeys. Kaempferol derivatives
In addition, analyses of Eucalypt honeys have indicated
appear to be a significant marker in Rosemary honey.
there can be distinctive species differences. Honey
Thyme honey is characterised by rosmarinic acid,
from the River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis)
while Lavender honey contains luteolin, naringenin
contained tricetin as the main flavonoid marker,
and gallic acid (D’Arcy 2005). Studies have shown
while luteolin predominated in Mallee honey from
that Rosemary and Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia)
E. pilligaensis. Bloodwood honey from E. intermedia
honey have good antibacterial activity. Of six types
contained myricetin and tricetin as the main flavonoid
of Lavender honey investigated, Bulgarian Lavender
components. However, myricetin was not found in
honey was found to be particularly effective against
honey from the Yapunyah (E. ochrophloia), Narrow-
leaved Ironbark (E. crebra), or the Black Box (E.
largiflorens). The latter three species contained tricetin,
quercetin and/or luteolin as their major flavonoids
(Yao 2004; Martos 2000a, 2000b).
There can be other differences in the chemical

constituents found in honey. In addition to the
flavonoids tricetin, quercetin and luteolin, Yapunyah
honey contained pinobanksin, quercetin 3-methyl
ether and 8-methoxy kaempferol. However, the total
flavonoid concentration was fairly low and it was not
5 Tricetin has been previously found, admittedly in

very minor amounts, in some Heather-derived honey
from Portugal. It was later confirmed that these
samples had been contaminated by Eucalypt honey,
providing further evidence that tricetin was useful in Sage.
establishing the identity of Eucalypt-derived honey.
Lavender. Heather.
Rosemary. Hawthorn.
Thyme. Linden.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a common contaminant of Antioxidants are popularly used by the meat
wounds (Wilkinson & Cavanagh 2005). This suggests industry to prevent discolouration and off-
that there can be variations in the level of activity, even flavours – thereby preventing deterioration and
within honey sourced from the same species. These extending shelf-life (particularly for packaged
differences could depend on growing conditions
goods). The use of naturally-sourced antioxidants
(climate, soil chemistry), collection time (time of day,
or the season of collection), or the chemotype of the
has gained a lot of favour in the last decade,
plant source. supporting calls for the replacement of synthetic
antioxidants. The latter may have side-effects,
[ particularly in chemically sensitive individuals.
Honey’s antioxidant qualities Honey is among the substances investigated
Honey’s chemical differences have the potential to for use as alternatives to chemical preservatives
exert a significant influence on its medicinal attributes such as the sulphites that are used to prevent the
as well as on its nutritional value. In general, a dark enzymatic browning that can accompany food
coloured honey is thought to have greater antioxidant processing. Practically, honey can be very useful
value. Pigments, and secondary plant metabolites
for preserving apple slices and grape juice. Honey’s
such as phenolic compounds, appear to be the
important constituents. Good antioxidant potential
phenolic constituents, such as cinnamic acid
has been shown for honey sourced from the flowers and coumaric acid, appear to make a substantial
of Soy (Glycine max), Sunflower (Helianthus annuus), contribution to its activity. In addition, hydrogen
Clover (Trifolium species), the Hawaiian Christmas peroxide and honey flavonoids have antibacterial
Berry (Schinus terebinthifolius), Tupelo (Nyssa species) properties. Adding honey to foods may not only
and Lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha). The dark, full- enhance the flavour and cater for a sweet tooth,
flavoured honey of Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum) it can also act to prevent bacterial degradation,
has shown particularly strong activity. It even had thereby preventing food spoilage and helping
potential for use as an antioxidant in food processing to maintain nutritive value (D’Arcy 2005;
to inhibit lipid peroxidation (rancid fats).
McKibben & Engeseth 2002; Chen 2000).6
An ancient medicine
Buckwheat (Fagopyrum esculentum). Studies of Buckwheat

honey have shown some interesting medicinal potential. It
has effective wound-healing, antioxidant and antibacterial
properties (van den Berg 2008; Cooper 2009). Polish
researchers found that it was active against Staphylococcus
aureus (Rybak-Chmielewska & Szczesna (1995). In Dead bee in sand.
addition, studies of food spoilage bacteria have shown that
6 There are two types of antibcterial activity associated with honey – that
Buckwheat honey was effective against a number of bacteria which is due to hydrogen peroxide and that which is not (non-hydrogen
(National Honey Board, www.honey.com). peroxide activity). This has been the subject of many recent studies.
Honey was especially valued as a medicinal agent by (if it was still intact). However, harvesting dead
the ancient physicians. In Roman times Galen (129– insects could be associated with contamination
c. 217 AD) combined honey with sea-tortoise gall to risks, and it would possibly be unwise to try these
make eye-drops that were used to improve eyesight. recipes today. Outbreaks of a Varroa mite have
Honey mixed with ashes from the ‘heads of bees’ recently decimated bee-keeping enterprises in
was said to make ‘the eyes very clear’. Although this several countries, and bees are also subject to fungal
may seem to be a rather odd recommendation, some and bacterial infections.
research has shown that an alkaline extract of adult
honeybees (heads only, not the thorax or abdomen)
was purple, probably due to the visual pigment in
their eyes (Ryan 1983). Among the ancient types of
honey, that sourced from Attica was famous – and
was in particular demand for treating eye disorders.
The Egyptians excelled in treating ophthalmic
problems such as conjunctivitis and blepharitis,
and there is evidence that honey may also have
been used for the treatment of cataracts, ‘dry eye’
problems and corneal ulceration. In particular,
honey that contained dead bees was recommended
to aid eyesight. The Roman scientist and historian
Pliny the Elder (23–79 CE) mentioned the use of
honey containing dead bees to improve the hearing,
while Galen used it to facilitate hair growth: ‘Take
Bees dead in combs, and when they are through Oxymel recipe from Phillips’ Translation of the
dry make them into powder, mingle them with the Pharmacopoeia Londonensis, 1841.
honey in which they died and anoint the parts of the
head that are bald and thin-haired, and you shall see There were a few other honey-based remedies
them grow again.’ A recipe from the 5th century of ancient origins that continued to be listed
AD Syriac Book of Medicines combined a handful in official materia medicas until fairly recently.
of bees roasted in oil to blacken grey hair. Pliny Oxymel was a vinegar-based remedy that was
likewise rated honey mixed with the ashes of bees mentioned in Pliny the Elder’s Natural History,
as a medicine: ‘Powdered bees with milk, wine or
written in the first century AD:
honey will surely cure dropsy, dissolve gravel and
stones, will open all passages of urine and cure the In a cauldron they used to put ten minæ of honey, five
stopping of the bladder [strangury]. Bees pounded heminæ of old vinegar, a pound and a quarter of sea-salt,
with honey cure griping of the belly.’ There may and five sextarii of rain-water; the mixture was then boiled
have been some truth in these recommendations together till it had simmered some ten times, after which
because bees contain a diverse range of nutrients7 – it was poured off, and put by for keeping. Asclepiades,
although cooking the bees first was probably wise. however, condemned this preparation8, and put an end
Adult honeybee venom is very stable and can persist to the use of it, though before his time it used to be given
in fevers even. Still, however, it is generally admitted
even after cooking. Therefore pounding the cooked
that it was useful for the cure of stings inflicted by the
bees would probably have powdered the sting itself [mythical] serpent known as the ‘seps,’ and that it acted
as an antidote to opium and mistletoe.9 It was usefully
7 Bees can have a good nutritional profile. They have a high protein
content, contain good levels of vitamin A (12.44mg/100g), phosphorus
employed also, warm, as a gargle for quinsy and maladies
(125mg/100g) and are high in iron (25.2mg/100g). Small amounts of the
vitamins C and B2, calcium and magnesium are also present (Banjo 2006). 8 It was probably a fairly vile concoction and difficult to take anyway.
Other reports have disagreed with regard to vitamins A, D and E (low levels). 9 Mistletoe is a plant of legendary fame that, despite this reference, does not
The sodium content was also low, although the level of magnesium and some have toxic properties. It has long been utilised as a hypotensive agent and as a
other minerals was moderate. The potassium level is high. Copper, selenium sedative remedy for the nervous system and heart. It was also reputed to have
and zinc are also present, sometimes in fairly good quantities (Finke 2005). anticancer properties.
of the ears, and for affections of the mouth and throat; for alcohol (90%) to 100ml. Set aside for 7 days and
all these purposes, however, at the present day, oxymel is
filter. Use purified talc or kaolin if needed.’
employed, the best kind of which is made with salt and
fresh vinegar.
Honey also has excellent preservative properties –
in fact, it was even used for embalming the dead.
An official medical text, the British Pharmacuetical
In 323 BC, Alexander the Great was said to have
Codex (BPC) of 1934.listed a vinegar-based Oxymel
been entombed in a coffin filled with honey. The
that combined equal parts of acetic acid with water
explanation lies in the fact that honey normally has
(15ml each) and purified honey to make 100ml.
a low moisture content (15–21%) and high sugar
concentration (84%, mainly fructose and glucose).
Another remedy known as Hydromel was a special
These natural antimicrobial defences generally prevent
preparation of honey and pure rain water. Pliny
contamination by bacteria or yeasts. Indeed, honey
recommended it for treating cough, and:
(via osmotic lysis and hydrogen peroxide formation)
taken warm, it promotes vomiting. With the addition of can actually kill invading bacteria. Very few microbes
oil it counteracts the poison of white lead; of henbane can survive in honey. The exception is the genus
[Hyoscyamus niger], also, and of the halicacabum Clostridium (Class Clostridia), which causes such
[Cardiospermum halicacabum, Balloon Vine] … if illnesses as gangrene, tetanus, botulism and a form
taken in milk, asses’ milk in particular. It is used as an of food poisoning. These bacteria are not normally
injection for diseases of the ears, and in cases of fistula of problematic when they are ingested by adults because
the generative organs. With crumb of bread it is applied they are destroyed upon reaching the acidic conditions
as a poultice to the uterus, as also to tumours suddenly of the stomach. However, the non-acidic nature of the
formed, sprains, and all affections which require soothing
infant digestive system does not have these defences,
applications. The more recent writers have condemned
so that honey, and some other natural sweeteners
the use of fermented hydro-mel, as being not so harmless
as water, and less strengthening than wine. After it has (including corn syrup), can be responsible for infant
been kept a considerable time, it becomes transformed botulism – fortunately it is a fairly rare occurrence.
into a wine [a form of mead]10, which, it is universally
agreed, is extremely prejudicial to the stomach, and
injurious to the nerves … [It was] prescribed for patients
A modern medicine
Up to the mid-twentieth century, honey remained a
who were anxious for wine, as being a more harmless
drink. For these many years past, however, it has been popular household medicine.] The American book
condemned, as having in reality all the inconveniences of Honey and Your Health (1938) summarised the diverse
wine, without the advantages. recommendations with regard to its use:
Its main employment was as a helpful remedy for gastric

The following official listing for ‘Honey Water’ and intestinal disorders, especially as a pleasant laxative.
Respiratory troubles were next in order. The sedative
from the BPC (1934) is intriguing as it contains a and soporific power of honey is often emphasized. The
diverse range of essential oils which tend to have diuretic effect of honey was well known and it was a
a higher antibacterial activity than many simple favoured remedy for all kinds of inflammation of the
herbal remedies: ‘Aqua Melis is of particular kidneys, for gravel and for stones. The antiseptic property
interest for the large component of antibacterial of honey made it a desirable gargle, expectorant and
valuable adjunct in mouth hygiene. In inflammation
herbs. Purified honey (500mg), Bergamot oil of the eyes and eyelids honey was extensively used. In
(0.78ml), Clove oil (0.26ml), Lavender oil surgical dressings and skin diseases it was a remedy for
(0.26ml), Sandalwood oil (0.05ml), Grain first choice. The smallpox patients were anointed with
musk (75mg), Saffron (38mg), triple Rose water honey. It was also employed as a vehicle for nauseous or
(15ml), triple Orange flower water (15ml) and bitter medicines (Beck & Smedley 1938).
10 The use of honey to make fermented beverages is an ancient pastime; It is surprising to find that these recommendations are
mead has even been found in an Iron Age tomb in Scotland. very similar to those of the ancient physicians.
At much the same time the British Pharmaceutical Hippocrates, the famous Greek physician of the
Codex of 1934 indicates that the attitude of the fifth century BC, often incorporated honey into
orthodox medical profession toward using honey his prescriptions. He recommended: ‘The strongest
(Mel Depuratum) as a healing agent was far more vinegar of a white colour, honey, Egyptian alum, the
limited: ‘Purified honey is used as a demulcent and finest natron [a naturally occurring salt compound];
sweetening agent. It is employed in cough mixtures having toasted these things gently, pour in a little gall;
with expectorants and sedatives, and is a convenient this cleanses fungous ulcers, renders them hollow, and
vehicle for the application of borax to the mouth in is not pungent’. Another recipe recommended honey
aphthous ulcers.’ The fact that most pharmaceutical with a special white grape potion, myrrh, natron,
preparations of honey were purified (subjected to heat) copper and sweet wine: ‘When you have mixed these
would have seriously compromised their antibacterial things, boil for not less than three days, on a gentle
potential. fire made with fuel of the fig-tree or with coals, lest
it catch fire. The applications should all be free from
Despite its continued use as a household remedy, moisture, and the sores should not be wetted when
many decades of official neglect followed where the this medicine is applied in the form of liniment. This
healing properties of honey were simply ignored. That medicine is to be used for old ulcers, and also for
was, until relatively recently. In the 1980s honey once recent wounds of the glans penis, and ulcers on the
again sparked interest in medical circles. An editorial head and ears.’
in the Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine took a
new look at the practical value of honey, particularly Wound healing
as a wound dressing: ‘The therapeutic potential of Honey’s efficacy is due to its sterilising effect.
uncontaminated, pure honey is grossly underutilized. Hydrogen peroxide, which is present only
It is widely available in most communities and although
in negligible amounts in normal honey,
the mechanism of action of several of its properties
remains obscure and needs further investigation, the
has been identified as one of honey’s more
time has now come for conventional medicine to lift important antibacterial components. It is
the blinds on this “traditional remedy” and give it its formed enzymatically when honey is diluted
due recognition’ (Zumla & Lulat 1989). – for instance, when it is applied to injuries or
ulceration the body fluids gradually seep into
In the two decades that followed scientific advances the wound and hydrogen peroxide is formed.11
were made that were to prove these words almost Heating honey inactivates the enzyme (glucose
prophetic. Today, the main area of research into the use oxidase) that is responsible for the process.
of honey is for the treatment of ulceration – diabetic Therefore, rather than boil honey for sterilisation
ulcers, tropical ulcers, decubitus ulcers (bedsores),
purposes (as was once recommended), the
sickle cell ulcers – and cancrum oris (gangrenous
stomatitis of the mouth), infected surgical wounds,
sterilisation of medicinal grade honey today
and a diverse range of injuries (Molan 1998). In is achieved by exposure to gamma-radiation,
particular, medicinal grade honey (taken internally which will not compromise its antibacterial
during treatment) has been found useful for cancer attributes. The acidity of honey (pH 3.2–4.5)
patients suffering from mucositis, an extremely is another significant factor in the inhibition of
unpleasant side-effect of chemotherapy in which the pathogen growth – although as dilution occurs,
entire gastrointestinal tract (from the oral cavity to this changes the pH and reduces the inhibitory
the anus) is subject to ulceration and infection. Those
11 The natural formation of hydrogen peroxide in honey is at a very low level
being treated for cancer of the head and neck may (1mmol/litre), and should not be confused with the industrial and medicinal
suffer quite badly from the condition (Simon 2009). use of higher concentrations. The low level (around 3%) solutions used as
hospital grade disinfectants are considered to be a safe, but can be toxic if
ingested. These disinfectants can have rather harsh, but effective, antiseptic
Some of the recommendations of the ancients were properties. They can cause tissue damage when used directly on the skin,
although they are very useful as a styptic to stop bleeding from wounds.
for fairly similar conditions. In his treatise On Ulcers,
activity. Other components (notably flavonoids, The effective antibacterial properties of honey
phenolic acids and lysozyme) also contribute to includes activity against Staphylococcus aureus.
the antibacterial effects of different honeys. The This is of particular note because ‘golden staph’
nutrients in honey, of which there can be a wide is a major cause of wound infections, notably
variety, are another component that would be those found in hospitals that are associated with
expected to influence the healing process (D’Arcy surgical procedures and indwelling catheters.
2005; Weston 2000; Molan 1998). Many antibiotics have become ineffective against
‘golden staph’ which has developed resistance to
Honey also promotes tissue granulation, numerous drugs (antibiotics). There are various
which facilitates the wound healing process. other bacteria against which honey is effective,
This, combined with its antibacterial activity, including important pathogens responsible for
significantly reduces the incidence of infection wound contamination and intestinal infections
and the likelihood of scarring. Overall, honey- such as Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis,
treated wounds tend to heal rapidly, and with Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Salmonella typhimurium,
few complications. Many reports have indicated Serratia marcescens and Streptococcus pyogens.
that wound healing can be facilitated in difficult (Willix 1992; Molan 1992).12 The finding
cases, including wounds have not responded to that Australian honeys were effective against
other therapies. As mentioned, the osmotic effect drug-resistant bacterial strains (as well as drug-
of honey when applied to a wound draws fluid sensitive strains) has highlighted the significant
out of the injury site, resulting in the gradual potential of home-grown honey. In some cases,
formation of hydrogen peroxide. This acts to investigations of honey have shown that it has
cleanse the wound. In some instances, the results better potential than conventional drugs –
have been described as simply ‘remarkable’. particularly in a preventive antibacterial role.
Honey’s cleansing and deodorant effects are There is also substantial interest in the use
particularly useful for wounds that develop of honey for infections of the mouth such as
an offensive smell. It has long been valued as a periodontitis (inflammation of the supportive
wound dressing in war zones. tissue surrounding the teeth) and gingivitis (gum
inflammation), and as a prophylactic against
Studies have shown that the use of honey can bacterial infection following dental work. At
facilitate tissue healing following radical surgery the moment the routine use of antibiotics in
in some rather serious conditions – including dentistry is associated with a serious risk for the
radical vulvectomy due to female genital cancer, development of drug-resistant forms of bacteria.
and abdominal wounds following caesarean In addition to Medihoney and Manuka, honey
sections. It was also found useful for treating from Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata), Lucerne
Fournier’s gangrene (gangrene of the scrotum) [Alfalfa] (Medicago sativa) and Blueweed (Echium
in combination with antibiotic therapy. In burns vulgare) have shown excellent potential (Carter
cases, honey can reduce the necessity for grafting 2010).
and, in cases where tissue grafting is required, the
wound healed faster, with a reduced incidence Diverse studies have also established the activity of
of graft rejection and infection. Honey has also honey against a number of other bacteria responsible
been reported to reduce oedema and possess for gastroenteritis (species of Salmonella and Shigella,
a soothing anti-inflammatory and analgesic Vibrio cholerae, Yersinia enterocolitica), as well as
12 Honey has also been found to be active against a number of bacteria
properties (Molan 1998; TGA 1998). that cause mastitis in dairy animals (cows and goats).]]
against dermatophytes, or skin fungi (species of

Epidermophyton, Microsporum and Trichophyton). The
traditional use of honey in the treatment of gastric
disorders is undoubtedly based on these antibacterial
properties. Honey has also been shown to be active
against Helicobacter pylori, which can be associated
with the development of dyspepsia and peptic ulcers.
Therefore, the use of honey in oral rehydration
solutions, which are widely recommended for treating
acute diarrhoea (particularly in infants and young
children), could have substantial additional benefits
when compared to normal solutions (Molan 1992,
1998; Willix 1992).
There is another aspect to the therapeutic value of

honey that has the potential to open up an entirely
new arena for its clinical use. Recently, honey has
shown probiotic activity, which can support the effect
Metrosideros polymorpha.
of beneficial flora (probiotics such as lactobacillus and
bifidobacteria) in the gastrointestinal system. This
type of treatment has been utilised to re-establish and
normalise the natural colonic flora following diarrhoeal
disorders and antibiotic therapy. It has also shown a
regulatory effect on bowel function and can assist with
the relief of irritable bowel syndrome. Studies have
also shown anti-inflammatory, immune-supportive
and anticancer activity, as well as benefits for lipid
metabolism and mineral absorption. However, it
would appear that some honeys are better than others.
In this study, those that stimulated probiotic activity
the best were Banksia, Grey Ironbark and Mugga
Ironbark honey from New South Wales; Leatherwood
honey from Tasmania; Bees Creek [Darwin]
Woollybutt from the Northern Territory; and Yellow
Stringybark from Victoria (Conway 2010).
Metrosideros excelsa variegata.

Modern medicinal honeys
As studies continue to provide greater insights into scoparium, Kamahi honey from Weinmannia racemosa,
honey’s therapeutic value, they tend to support many Rewarewa honey from Knightia excelsa, Tawari honey
of the medicinal traditions associated with its use. from Ixerba brexioides, and Rata honey, sourced from
Increasing the scope of treatment appears to have three Metrosideros species – M. robusta, M. umbellata
extremely good prospects. and M. excelsa. The rare Hawaiian Lehua is honey
is sourced from the related Ohia tree (Metrosideros
The New Zealand honey industry provides a good polymorpha). Rewarewa honey has shown very good
illustration of a market based on the successful use antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, but not
of diverse monofloral honey resources – the famed Pseudomonas aeruginosa (Wilkinson & Cavanagh
Manuka honey from the shrub Leptospermum 2005).
The effective antibacterial activity in New Zealand

Manuka honey from Leptospermum scoparium has
attracted substantial scientific interest. Surprisingly,
Australian samples of honey from this species did not
show equivalent activity, although the closely related
Leptospermum polygalifolium yielded a honey with a
high level of antibacterial activity. Doubtless, there are
other floral resources that can contribute substantially
to a potent, and fairly stable, antimicrobial honey,
although the species can be hard to find. For instance,
an analysis of around 340 samples of Australian
honey from seventy-eight different floral sources was
needed to determine that the Jellybush (Leptospermum
polygalifolium) had an activity equivalent to that of
Manuka (Molan 2001). Australian Medihoney, which
is a mixture of honey from these two Leptospermum
Manuka (Leptospermum scoparium) and Manuka honey species, has achieved a similar reputation.
lozenges.(Courtesy: Prof. P Molan, University of Waikato,
NZ) The search for other Australian floral sources of
medicinal grade honey has taken a significant step
forward with a recent investigation of 477 honey
samples. The study was designed to evaluate the
antibacterial potential based on peroxide-derived
and ‘non-peroxide’ activity. Only 14% of the honey
examined for the latter had therapeutic potential
(a massive 83% were inactive), indicating that this
type of activity is not very common. However, the
incidence of peroxide-based activity was much higher
(57%, of which 17% had a high total activity). The
Leptospermum genus rated highly as a medicinal
honey resource – with honeys sourced from the
coastal areas of northern New South Wales (Northern
Rivers region), and southern Queensland (south-
east coast) being particularly notable. In contrast
to many of the other honey samples, the activity
of Leptospermum-derived honey usually tended to
be of a non-peroxide character (55%), while non-
peroxide activity was low (15%) and 30% had no
activity. In particular, honey from the Olive Tea Tree
(Leptospermum liversidgei) consistently presented with
a good level of activity. Other honey samples that
had similar activity (albeit not as potent) were from
Spotted Gum (Eucalyptus maculata), Forest Red Gum
(Eucalyptus tereticornis), Brush Box (Lophostemon
confertus) and Melaleuca, as well as orchard and clover
resources. Some Marri (Eucalyptus calophylla) and
Jarrah honey samples (but not all of them) exhibited a
high level of peroxide-dependent activity, which may
have been dependent on their site of collection (or,

possibly, climatic conditions). Banksia and Melaleuca
sourced honeys were quite variable in activity. Other
native honeys of interest included the Lemon-scented
Tea-tree (Leptospermum petersonii), Red Stringybark
(Eucalyptus macrorhyncha), Messmate (Eucalyptus sp.)
and Stringybark (Eucalyptus sp.) (Clark 2010). All of
which suggests there is a lot of work yet to be done
and the scope for finding truly active antibacterial
honey-yielding species could be enormous. In
addition, it raises the point that the investigation of
the antibacterial activity of flower extracts could be
A hive of the Australian stingless bee. (Courtesy:
another neglected avenue of research warranting
Russell & Janine Zabel)
attention.
Propolis, which has medicinal value in its own right,
is manufactured from balsamic plant resins13, and
has diverse pharmacological attributes – antibacterial
(primarily against gram-positive bacteria), anti-
inflammatory, antiviral, antiprotozoal (against
Toxoplasma gondii and Trichomonas vaginalis),
anaesthetic, healing, vasoprotective, antioxidant, anti-
tumour, anti-ulcer and liver-protective properties
(Grange & Davey 1990; De Vecchi & Drago 2007;
Temaru 2007). Storing honey in propolis-impregnated
cells would undoubtedly influence the quality of
the end product. There can, however, be substantial
differences in the potency of stingless bee honey,
depending on its source. Individual evaluation of the
species and its product is needed (Temaru 2007).
Honeybee with Manuka flowers. (Courtesy: Clarity
Henderson, Comvita New Zealand Limited)
Brazilian studies of Meliponinae (stingless bee)
propolis established a number of chemical types
Stingless bee honey and propolis that were characterised by different compounds such
The honey produced by stingless bees may have similar as gallic acid, diterpenes and triterpenes. This can
therapeutic potential. Investigations have shown this influence the level of activity of the resultant honey. For
type of honey had an antibacterial activity that was, instance, propolis characterised by diterpenes tended
in some cases, comparable to Manuka honey. Stingless to have significant activity against Staphylococcus
bees are not only found in Australia, but are native aureus, as well as a high cytotoxic activity (Velikova
to many tropical regions around the globe, with a 2000). High levels of flavonoids and caffeic acid
few species being found in subtropical climates. The derivatives in propolis can also influence its activity
honey of stingless bees is produced and stored in a (Grange & Davey 1990). Other evaluations that have
different manner to conventional honey. Honeybees compared stingless bee and honeybee propolis and/
store honey in brood-combs built of pure wax, while or honey likewise illustrate substantial differences in
stingless bees build storage pots made of a combination antibacterial activity (Farnesi 2009; Miorin 2003).
of cerumen, a wax secreted from the abdomens of
worker bees, and propolis (Temaru 2007).
13 The activity of propolis, like that of honey, can be influenced by its floral
origins.
[[Cheryll, Trigona carbonaria or Austroplebeia sp.

The Zebels sell both – have sent enquiry]]
Reviews of the honey sourced from the Australian

native Trigona carbonaria have established that
the product was very similar to that of other
stingless bees. The honey (from an evaluation
of twenty-two samples) has shown a high level
of non-peroxide antibacterial activity that was
of substantial interest for consideration as a
therapeutic agent (Carter 2010). It also has
some distinctive characteristics when compared
to Apis mellifera honey. The antioxidant activity
of stingless bee honey was considered to be
an important added value and worth further
evaluation (Oddo 2008). The antioxidant activity
of honey appears to result from a combination
of a range of components (phenolics, peptides,
organic acids, enzymes). The effect will,
doubtless, vary according to the chemical
composition of the honey. In particular, phenolic
constituents such as gallic acid are known to
have substantial antioxidant properties (Kim &
Lee 2004; Gheldorf 2002; Perez 2007). Many
other components in honey and propolis, such as
amino acids and minerals, influence its nutritive
and medicinal value. This tends to support the Nodding Thistle (Carduus nutans).
Aboriginal belief that sugar-bag was an extremely
healthy addition to the diet. The eggs, larvae
and pupae are all edible and Aboriginal honey
harvests included the complete contents of the
hive – honey, wax, pollen and dead bees. Honey,
in addition to its medicinal value, has been an
important part of the social interaction in many
tribes. The ingestion of large amounts of honey
or pollen, which was mixed with water, was said
to have a marked cleansing effect (Isaacs 1994).
Weedy honey resources

A few weedy imports into Australia and New Zealand
also yield conventional monofloral honey resources.
They include the Nodding Thistle (Carduus nutans),
Heather (Calluna vulgare) and Clover (Trifolium
species).14 Viper’s Bugloss or Blueweed (Echium
vulgare) is another valued honey resource, as is the
14 The term ‘clover’ is commonly applied to various commercial forms of
mixed honey. Monofloral honey from Clover, which is rare, is produced in Viper’s Bugloss (Echium vulgare).
Canada and New Zealand.
related Paterson’s Curse or Salvation Jane (Echium

plantagineum), a troublesome introduced weed that
has, at times, reached plague proportions in Australia.
It is, however, a favourite with bees. Paterson’s
Curse honey has shown interesting antibacterial
activity. It rated well against Escherichia coli at a low
concentration, compared to a number of other honeys
that were significantly less active at this dose (2.5%)
– Rosemary, Red Stringybark, Manuka and various
types of Lavender honey. The latter types of honey,
however, were active at higher doses (5–10%). The
result is of interest because Escherichia coli is a common
wound contaminant, as is Pseudomonas aeruginosa –
against which the honey was also tested, but gave less
impressive results (Wilkinson & Cavanagh 2005).
Another study has shown that Paterson’s Curse honey
was active against Mycobacterium phlei, but not as
active as Manuka honey or Medihoney against a range
of other pathogens (Lusby 2005).
Studies have shown that there can be a hundred-fold

Viper’s Bugloss (Echium vulgare). difference in the potency of various types of honey,
which is obviously influenced by their constituents.
Manuka honey contains flavonoids (pinobanksin,
pinocembrin, chrysin, galangin) that are different
to those in European honey. Among the diverse
phenolic constituents of Manuka honey are syringic
acid and methyl syringate – the latter compound
has shown significant experimental antibacterial
activity against Staphylococcus aureus. Interestingly, the
honey’s antibacterial effect appeared to be due to the
complementary or synergistic effect of its constituents
and not just a single chemical component (D’Arcy
2005). However, fairly recently a compound called
methylglyoxal has been identified as the dominant
antibacterial constituent in Manuka honey.15
However, the content can vary considerably. In six
samples of Manuka honey, methylglyoxal levels ranged
from 38–761mg/kg (Mavric 2008). Although this
compound should make the identification of Manuka
honeys with good antibacterial properties much
easier in the future, the level of antibacterial activity
is not consistent. The complex interactions of other
components in honey have a significant influence and
are the subject of further study (Carter 2010).
Red Clover (Trifolium pratense).
15 Dihyroxyacetone is the parent compound in Manuka nectar from which
methylglyoxal is formed (Adams 2009).
Determining the most suitable type of honey and,

importantly, the best technique of application for
treating a particular condition, has wide clinical
potential.16 The results with Manuka honey and
Medihoney have so far been impressive. Honey
continues to attract research interest as an alternative
to drug therapy for antibiotic-resistant bacteria –
particularly for wound treatments and respiratory
tract disorders, such as sinusitis and rhinitis (Blair
2009; Alandejani 2009). Surgical procedures are often
associated with an increased risk of wound infections,
a problematic area where medicinal grade honeys are
being focused on as a potential and much-needed
treatment alternative (Johnson 2009).
There are interesting reports of the successful use

of Medihoney for treating genital herpes, chronic
eye disorders, and for promoting wound healing in
infants. The clinical use of honey dressings for treating
Medihoney – antibacterial wound dressings (gel sheets)
and eczema cream. (Courtesy: Clarity Henderson, Comvita other difficult conditions such as venous ulceration,
New Zealand Limited) and the lesions of pyoderma gangrenosum (a rare
inflammatory and necrotic skin condition), have
been similarly associated with an accelerated rate of
healing (Simon 2007; Gethin & Cowman 2009; Alese
& Irabor 2008). Once again, these investigations
seem to confirm that the ancients knew what they
were talking about. If a physician combined honey
with antibacterial herbs, as the ‘Father of Medicine’
Hippocrates (c. 460 BC–c. 370 BC) recommended,
the prescription would have had an excellent chance
of being effective. Aristotle (384–322 BC) mentioned
that pale honey was ‘good as a salve for sore eyes and
wounds’, while Dioscorides (c. 50 AD) recommended
the pale yellow honey from Attica as a treatment for
‘all rotten and hollow ulcers’.
Stringybark: a potent antibacterial

The honey of Red Stringybark (Eucalyptus macrorhyncha)
has shown antibacterial activity comparable to Manuka
honey and Medihoney against a fairly diverse range of
bacteria (Lusby 2005; Wilkinson & Cavanagh 2005).
These findings should stimulate interest in establishing
the therapeutic potential of honey sourced from other
Australian plants.
16 It is important to use sterilised, medicinal-grade honey to prevent wound
contamination. In addition, although it does not appear to be common, there
are individuals who can be sensitive to honey and pollen sourced from certain
plants. Bee-sting allergy is a well-known problem, and those who suffer from
it may also have to be cautious when using honey (Simon 2007).
Red Stringybark (Eucalyptus macrorhyncha).

(Courtesy: Hello Mojo, Wikimedia Commons)
Jarrah honey: Antifungal properties

Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) yields a quality Flowering Jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) is a famous timber
monofloral honey with both antibacterial and Eucalypt and honey resource from the south-west forests of
antifungal properties. The Jarrah forests of south- Western Australia. (Courtesy: Eduard Planken, Wescobee
Ltd)
west Western Australia are quite famous. They form
a unique ecosystem that has been over-exploited since
the discovery of the remarkably useful termite-proof
and water-resistant properties of Jarrah timber. This
was highly valued for structural purposes (bridges, The other side of the coin: Toxic
wharves, ship building) – and for projects where
extremely durable timbers were essential, such as
honeys
There is another aspect of the story of honey that
telegraph poles or railway sleepers. It has also been
deserves consideration. The potential for toxic
used for making musical instruments, particularly
plants to yield a hazardous form of honey has been
percussion instruments and guitar inlays. The timber
documented since antiquity. Certainly, this type of
was once known as ‘Swan River Mahogany’, and few
toxic harvest was familiar to Aboriginal people. They
ancient trees remained after the old forests were cut
were well aware that some rather ‘odd’ side-effects
out. Today the region faces new threats from weedy
were associated with harvests from the Red Mangrove
invaders, predatory feral animals, and the ravages of
(Rhizophora mucronata). The fact that sugar-bag was
the deadly fungus Phytophthora cinnamomi. The latter
among their most prized harvests ensured that any
has become a serious problem that has decimated
tree that harboured a hive was fairly swiftly exploited.
some ecosystems.
An unattended hive would have been a very rare
occurrence. In the late 1800s, the botanist Charles
Jarrah honey has shown activity against Staphylococcus Hedley cited an interesting case of two colonists who
aureus, the bacteria responsible for the ‘golden staph’ went searching for sugar-bag. At one site, where the
infections that are so difficult to treat. In addition, bees were particularly numerous, they found that the
Jarrah honey has demonstrated antifungal activity nests had been left untouched. Although surprised,
against three different species of the Candida yeast the men regarded it as a fortunate oversight – even
(C. albicans, C. glabrata and C. dublinensis). This was though it was unlikely that Aboriginal people in the
of serious interest because the effect against all yeast area would have missed such an opportunity. The
species was shown to be superior to Manuka honey intrepid honey-gatherers were later to find, to their
and Medihoney. In particular, Jarrah was active great dismay, the painful reason why the nests had
against Candida glabrata – a species that is not very been left undisturbed:
responsive to conventional antifungal agents. Fungal
Having eaten a quantity of the honey, they shortly
infections are notoriously difficult to eradicate, and afterwards returned to their camp, when they each soon
the evolution of drug-resistant strains of Candida experienced severe internal pains, attended by considerable
can seriously complicate clinical treatment*.17 Jarrah distension of the stomach. One man procured relief
honey’s antimicrobial activity is based on hydrogen from these distressing symptoms by the use of brandy
peroxide, which would be responsible for its antifungal … Meanwhile, his companion grew worse, was rolling
action. The incorporation of antifungal honey into in agony on the ground and had concluded that he was
lozenges or vaginal pessaries, or applied locally to about to die, and was only relieved by a repetition of the
prevent wound infections following surgery (such same treatment. These men were afterwards informed by
as around catheter sites) has excellent therapeutic the blacks that it was their custom to refrain from cutting
potential (Irish 2006; Carter 2010). It appears that not out those bees’ nests which occurred in the vicinity of
Rhizophora swamps (Hedley 1888).
all types of honey have this effect. Studies of various
other honeys, including Lavender, Paterson’s Curse,
Red Stringybark, Manuka, Rewarewa and Medihoney, Incidents involving a form of ‘mad honey’ have been
have not shown good anti-yeast activity (Lusby 2005). occasionally reported in the classical literature. Over
the centuries some rather dramatic reports surfaced
in Europe. Sometimes these inadvertent experiments
had rather drastic consequences. In 401 BC the Greek
general Xenophon wrote of soldiers who had eaten
17 Treatment is made more difficult by the fact that the use of antifungal
triazole drugs increases the risk of infection with Candida species that are
‘mad honey’ sourced from wild Rhododendrons at
less responsive to the treatment and result in chronic debility. Candida Colchis near the Black Sea. The army, which was
albicans is the most common species. Candida dublinensis is often associated
with oral infections, while C. glabrata has been associated with blood stream
composed of 10,000 soldiers returning from Persia,
infection (candidaemia) and vaginal candidiasis (Irish 2006). was halted in its tracks. The effects were dramatic,
some of the men behaving ‘like intoxicated madmen’.

Thousands of soldiers collapsed. They were seized
with fits of vomiting, became weak and disoriented.
Although ‘a great despondency prevailed’, these men
were lucky – they recovered and were able to continue
their journey home. In 67 BC, around three and a
half centuries later, the geographer Strabo mentioned
an incident that involved the Roman general Pompey.
Locals in the Trebizond region on the Black Sea
coast were not particularly happy about his army
raiding through their territory. Unfortunately for the
soldiers, the locals were allies of Mithridates, the King
of Pontus, against whom Pompey was campaigning. Common Rhododendron (Rhododendron ponticum).
They deliberately seeded the army’s route with (Courtesy: First Light, Wikimedia Commons)
toxic honeycombs – and then massacred Pompey’s poisoning (hypotension, bradycardia). There can also
troops. Pliny rightly thought that certain species of be neurological involvement (tingling in the fingers and
Rhododendron, Azalea and Oleander were implicated. toes, numbness, loss of coordination, inability to stand).
The famous Greek physician Dioscorides was likewise Occasionally convulsions have been reported. These effects
familiar with toxic honey from the Black Sea region. have been confirmed in animal studies, with cardiac and
respiratory distress being linked to central nervous system
Fortunately, incidents of this type of poisoning are toxicity (Cooper & Johnson 1988).
relatively rare. Honeybees do not usually source much
nectar from Rhododendron flowers, but certain Turkish In other parts of the world there are plants whose
species of the genus have been consistently linked to honeys have similar toxic potential. In 1802, Benjamin
toxic incidents. Most appear to be related to honey Smith Barton in the United States described a range
collected from Rhododendron ponticum (syn. Azalea of symptoms that closely matched those recorded
pontica) and Rhododendron luteum, whose nectar and by the European ancients – vomiting, dizziness,
pollen (like nearly all species in the genus) contain disorientation, gastrointestinal pain and excessive
grayanotoxins, which are potent neurotoxins. Local perspiration. Other cases with similar symptoms,
inhabitants were very familiar with the honey’s effects. which occurred in southern American states, were
In the Caucasus region of Turkey toxic honey, known mentioned in an 1875 article in the magazine
as deli bal, was sometimes added to alcoholic drinks as Gleanings in Bee Culture by a retired Confederate
a sort of recreational drug. It even became a substantial surgeon named J. Grammer. The Mountain Laurel or
export in the eighteenth century. In Europe, where Calico Bush (Kalmia latifolia) and the Sheep Laurel
it was called miel fou, tavern-keepers added it to drinks (Kalmia angustifolia) were specifically implicated.18
to provide a little extra kick. Varying the dose could
lead to its use as a mind-enhancing drug or, by the However, a chemical explanation was not forthcoming
unscrupulous, as a potent poison. until investigations by the German pharmacist P.C.
Plugge in 1891 isolated a toxic component from
More recent reports have demonstrated that even Trebizond honey that he identified as andromedotoxin
minor contact with the nectar from Rhododendron and (acetylandromedol). This form of grayanotoxin was
Azalea shrubs can be dangerous. An incident recorded eventually identified as the toxic principle of the
in Scotland in the 1980s is illustrative of how potent Mediterranean Oleanders and various other members
grayanotoxins can be – a man who merely licked nectar of the Ericaceae, including Kalmia. It was notable
off his fingers subsequently experienced neurological that some species had higher levels of the toxin, while
problems. In addition to gastrointestinal distress other species were relatively innocuous.
(nausea, vomiting) and respiratory difficulties, cardiac 18 In the spring, both the leaves and flowers of these plants contain
rhythm disturbances are the primary symptoms of grayanotoxins and have been associated with animal poisoning.
Grayanotoxins, via their neurological effects, adversely In the past, beverages (fruit juice, beer and wine),
influence respiratory function and have hypnotic berry pies and jellies were made from Tutu fruit; if the
properties. They can induce hallucinations such as seeds were accidentally included, fatalities resulted.
visions of whirling lights. While vomiting and nausea Many people have been poisoned in this way, although
are common, the cardiovascular effects can vary the last recorded death occurred in the 1890s (Crowe
according to the dose ingested. The effects become 1990).
substantially more serious with higher doses, resulting
in the loss of muscular control (speech impediment,
lack of muscular coordination, paralysis) and nervous
system dysfunction (tingling, numbness). Other
symptoms involve breathing problems, cyanosis
and loss of consciousness. Fortunately, fatalities are
rare because the toxin is metabolised very quickly.
However, there is the fact that a higher incidence of
unexplained cardiac emergencies (acute myocardial
infarction) has been recorded in some American states,
and in Turkey. This has led to hospital emergency
staff being advised to consider the possibility of toxic
honey exposure as a differential diagnosis. There is
another worrying aspect to this story. Grayanotoxin-I
has shown experimental potential for causing liver
and kidney damage, which could result from long-
term exposure (Ascioglu 2000; Ozhan 2004).
There are a few other forms of toxic honey that can

result in serious poisoning. In various parts of the
world incidents have been associated with nectar
collection from atropine-containing plants such as
Belladonna, Datura and Hyoscyamus (Ramirez 1999;
Marciniak & Sikorski 1972). In New Zealand,
poisoning has been associated with honeydew nectar
harvests from the Tutu (Coriaria arborea).19 The soft
succulent ‘petals’ of the fruit and the dark purple juice
are edible, but all other parts of the tree are highly
toxic. A leaf-hopper (Scolypopa sp.) feeding on the Coriaria ruscifolia. There are around thirty species in the
genus Coriaria, the only genus in the family Coriariaceae.
plant was found to transform the chemical tutin into Coriaria ruscifolia subsp. microphylla is a South American
a toxin in the honeydew. This was, in turn, utilised species that yields a black ink or dye from the leaves or the
by the bees to make honey (Ott 1998). In 1974, tannin-rich bark. The seeds of this species are also listed as
thirteen individuals were poisoned and another nine having poisonous properties, although in Chile and Peru the
cases have been reported since. The risk has been fruit has been used for making wine. It is interesting to find
a somewhat unexpected medicinal use of Coriaria ruscifolia
minimised by an increased awareness of the problem as a homoeopathic remedy for dizziness and vertigo.
and the subsequent limitation of honey collections. In
particular, the Tutu is avoided during late December,
and from early January to mid-April (NZFSA 2003). The ever-present and rather obvious diversity of
products sourced from familiar native plants such as
19 The name Tutu has also been used for other New Zealand Coriaria
species.
Eucalypts, Paperbarks (Tea Trees) and Acacias did not
limit the search for the unique and unusual among
the Australian flora. New flavourings, spices and
medicines were constantly sought after, and samples interest followed. This led to some rather unique
of all forms of bush resources were tried and tested. discoveries that involved highly perfumed flowers for
Initially, this usually involved the culinary evaluation the fragrance industry, and distinctive essential oils –
of many native plants. The wonderful Australian although not all were to achieve immediate success.
Lillypillies were among the first to be set upon the Like the developments in honey research that took
colonists’ table – made into jams, jellies and even so long to establish the validity of its antibacterial
wine. The fare was certainly much safer than the New properties, it took substantial advances in chemical
Zealand Tutu. Later chemical evaluation of Australian analysis to unlock the unique aspects of the essential
flora that proved of aromatic or pharmacological oils from a number of native plants.
Chapter 9
UNIQUELY AUSTRALIAN:
FLOWERS, FLAVOURS AND
FRAGRANCES
In Australia, where the Myrtaceae (Myrtle family) medicinal and aromatic potential of the Australian
forms the dominant feature of the landscape, the flora (see Table 9.2, page XXX).
vegetation is often characterised by its essential
oil content. The Tea Trees (genera: Melaleuca and
Leptospermum), the Eucalypts (genera: Eucalyptus,
Corymbia and Angophora) and the Lillypillies (genera: Fragrant medicine: the Lemon and
Eugenia, Syzygium and Acmena) are among the Aniseed Myrtles
outstanding floral features of the continent. To the
medical men among the new settlers, the fact that
some native species resembled plants with a medicinal
reputation in South-east Asia led to their adoption
as substitutes, and valuable inspiration came from
the traditional pharmacopoeias of China and India.
The Lillypillies provide a very good example of these
relationships. Some discoveries were made by pure
luck, others resulted from the careful observation of
the native use of the flora. In particular, the practical
use of the Eucalypts by the local Aboriginal people was
diverse and innovative.
Eventually, it was determined that the potential of

many native plants was linked to their essential oil
components. The outstanding aromatic qualities of
some herbs or trees were unmistakable. This included
the peppermint and lemon characters of some
Eucalyptus oils that are linked to their piperitone and
citronellal contents respectively. A number of other
chemical components in Australian herbs are linked to
some interesting aromatic characteristics, such as that
of the Lemon Myrtle (citral) and the Anise Myrtle
(anethole). Methyl chavicol, which can be found
in appreciable amounts in only a few native plants,
is another aromatic and flavouring compound that
could have commercial importance. An appreciation
of these constituents is essential for understanding the Lemon Myrtle (Backhousia citriodora).
226
Chapter 9 UNIQUELY AUSTRALIAN: FLOWERS, FLAVOURS AND FRAGRANCES 227
The discovery of trees in a review of Australia’s native products, Professor

such as the Lemon Myrtle Howard McKern noted: ‘At this point it may be as
(Backhousia citriodora)1 and well to ask the question how far the Australian oils,
the Anise Myrtle (B. anisatum) other than those of Santalum and Boronia, are of any
quickly led to their use as commercial importance, and it must be confessed
valuable spicy flavourings. that up to the present time not much use has been
Of the nine native species made of them. In some cases, however, as pointed
in the Backhousia genus, out by Penfold there is now a commercial value
however, the majority favour attaching to such oils as that of Backhousia citriodora
a rainforest environment, with 97% citral and citronellal …’ (McKern 1960).
which can make access to The respected chemist Arthur Penfold was Curator
some of them difficult. of the Technological Museum2, Sydney from 1927,
until he was appointed Director of the Museum in
The Lemon Myrtle, which 1948. During this time he instituted an extraordinary
ranges along the Queensland amount of research into the essential oils of Australian
coast from Brisbane to plants.
Cairns, would be the most
Lemon Myrtle Oil.
familiar of the genus as it has In a review of Essential Oils from Queensland Flora
(Courtesy: Barry Daley,
Rainforest Remedies) become widely used as a bush (Swain 1928), Mr G. Hooper, also Curator of the
tucker flavouring. The tree Technological Museum at one time, was quoted on
is fairly uncommon throughout its range: ‘Lemon- the subject: ‘The quality of the citral obtainable from
scented Ironwood is a comparatively rare tree. It is this plant is considered to be the finest and superior to
a shelter-seeker of the mixed jungles of the coastal that from any other source, and Continental essential
watershed of the Gympie and Mary Valley districts oil firms and perfume manufacturers will readily pay a
of Queensland, a denizen of the creek sides within a little more for the citral from Backhousia citriodora …
rainfall region of continuity above 150 points average There is a good future for this oil provided a regular
for the driest month of the year, the main temperature supply can be guaranteed, which can only be done by
of the coldest month for its range being 60 deg. F. plantations.’ His words were almost prophetic.
The tree is found too rarely in its natural surroundings
to enable the commercial cropping of the leaves for The quality of the oil was remarkably good and the
oil distillation, but it is readily cultivable in sheltered, lemon fragrance was more pronounced than that
loamy soils’ (Swain 1928). The largest numbers of extracted from citrus, which contains only 3–10%
these trees were located near Amamoor and Imbill in citral. Chemist John K. Blogg (1920) mentioned
southern Queensland. The first specimens collected for the subject in The Journal of Science and Industry
botanical identification were harvested from the latter (December 1920): ‘The most valuable essential oil
site. They were formally described by the German firm that Australia can produce without special cultivation
Schimmel & Co. in 1888 (Hayes & Markovic 2002). is that of the Backhousia citriodora … This oil is the
most prolific [in content] of citral of any known
The essential oil, which contains an extraordinarily variety and, indeed, it consists almost entirely of
high level of citral (90–98%), is thought to have citral. It is practically free from terpenes. Citral is the
been first distilled around 1890. A German doctor at element of flavour contained in essential oil of lemon,
Eumundi sent oil samples back to his home country though to the extent of only 5 per cent or, perhaps, a
for evaluation, an enterprise that was disrupted by little more - yet for the sake of this small quantity of
World War I (Webb 2000). The tree had attracted a flavouring matter, large quantities of oil of lemon are
limited amount of interest within Australia. In 1926, produced in Italy and other places.’ (cited in Swain
1 Backhousia citriodora, which was formerly called the Lemon or Lemon- 1928).
scented Ironwood by foresters, should be differentiated from the Lemon 2 In 1950 the Museum was renamed the Museum of Applied Arts and
Ironbark (Eucalyptus staigeriana). The oil of the latter also contains citral Sciences. Today the accumulated collections of these institutions are housed
(albeit at a much lower level, around 27%) and limonene. in the Powerhouse Museum, Sydney.
The Lemon-scented Ironbark over thirty different compounds, of which citral could
contribute a substantial amount (up to 30%). Fairly
good levels of various other components could be
present ie. geranyl acetate (4–14%), beta-phellandrene
(12–34%), limonene (1–14%), geraniol (9–18%),
neral (alpha-citral: 8–12%), and methyl geranate
(11–18%). The pleasant lemony scent was able to
mask unpleasant odours and the oil has been widely
utilised in toiletries. It also possesses decongestant
properties (Webb 2000). Lemon Ironbark oil has
a strong antibacterial effect against Escherichia coli
and Salmonella typhimurium – although it must be
recognised that a high concentration was utilised in
the investigations (Wilkinson 2005). In addition, leaf
extracts of Eucalyptus staigeriana that contained good
The Lemon or Lemon-scented Ironbark (Eucalyptus levels of phenolic constituents (60.3%) have shown
staigeriana). (Courtesy: John Moss, Wikipedia)
antioxidant and free-radical scavenging activity.
However, in comparison to the oil, the antibacterial
The Lemon-scented Ironbark is a tropical oil-yielding properties of leaf extracts were not particularly evident,
species of northern Queensland with attractive nor was there any activity against food spoilage moulds
aromatic properties that led to its use as a perfume and (Zhao & Agboola 2007). In 1984, the worldwide
flavouring. The chemical evaluation of the essential oil production of citral-based Eucalyptus staigeriana oil
was undertaken in the late 1800s, as Frederick Bailey was around 70 tons (Brophy & Southwell 2002).
(1880) recorded:
The flavouring and fragrance qualities of Lemon
Although the order Myrtaceae to which we are now come Myrtle (Backhousia citriodora) assured its popularity
furnishes us with much valuable timber, it contains but on the local market. An interesting comment
few species from which medicinal drugs were obtained regarding the essential oils of Queensland forest plants
by Medical men of the old school. Of late attention has was made by the Director of Queensland’s Forest
been turned to our Eucalypts, and from some valuable
Service, E.H.F. Swain: ‘Citral … is largely used by
medicines have been obtained. An essence, with all the
distillers of inferior oil of lemon to raise the citral
fragrance of the best Lisbon lemons was obtained some
time back by KT Staiger Esq., the Government analytical content of their product. The terpenes that are a by-
chemist, from the foliage of a species found on the Palmer product in the manufacture of tepeneless oil of lemon
River of which no flower specimens have as yet been sent are again used for the manufacture of fictitious oil of
down, therefore its affinity cannot be determined and lemon, citral being added to supply the deficiency’
it remains botanically unknown. From another species (Swain 1928). However, the natural lemony character
E. citriodora [Lemon-scented Gum, Lemon-scented of the native Lemon Myrtle made it attractive in
Ironbark], the same gentleman has also obtained an its own right. During World War II, restrictions
essence which partakes of the flavour of the citron. This on supplies and transport affected most imported
latter tree is plentiful at Rockhampton. products and Lemon Myrtle oil could be used as a
[ local alternative to Lemongrass oil. Unfortunately, the
The results of Karl Staiger’s investigation were species’ exploitation as a soft-drink flavouring led to
published in the Pharmaceutical Journal of March reckless harvesting of the raw materials. The damage
1906: ‘The occurrence of laevo-limonene in large inflicted on the limited forest reserves near Gympie
quantities is here recorded. The aldehyde was Citral, was associated with the destruction of large areas of its
and Geraniol and Geranyl-acetate were also present’ habitat. Fortunately, the pressure on local populations
(cited in Maiden 1921). Later investigations clarified was to ease when normal trade routes were re-
the analysis. It was established that the oil contained established. More accessible and cheaper resources
such as Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus) and Cubebs 2000). However, it is possible that high levels
(Litsea cubeba) quickly regained domination of the of citral could cause sensitisation reactions in
market.3 some individuals. This can be prevented by the
Lemon Myrtle returned to obscurity, experiencing a addition of terpenes such as alpha-pinene and
level of disinterest and neglect that it certainly did not d-limonene to citral in the ratio 1:4. There are
deserve. It was not until the 1980s that a resurgence
suggestions for the use of combination products
of interest in native plant products, particularly those
with aromatic qualities, led to further investigations.
that have an interesting appeal. For instance, it is
There are at least two chemical forms of essential oil likely that the antibacterial properties of Tea Tree
found in Backhousia citriodora which are based on oil (Melaleuca alternifolia) and Lemon Myrtle oil
citral or citronellal as the main component. Citral has (blended in a ratio of 1:4) would be enhanced in
a number of interesting pharmacological properties. combination. This would modify the sensitising
Its sweet lemony flavouring and fragrance qualities potential of citral (Hayes & Markovic 2002).
ensured the importance of the Lemon Myrtle as a
raw material with many commercial applications. The
second chemical form, based on L-citronellal4, is rare.
This chemotype was first reported in 1950 and was
subsequently thought to be lost until its rediscovery in
1996 (Doran 2001; Webb 2000).
Lemon Myrtle (prepared as a tincture from the

leaves) has gained a good therapeutic reputation.
This has been attributed to citral, which has
antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, carminative,
and mild sedative properties (Webb 2000;
Pengelly 1991). The infusion or tincture has
useful decongestant activity. In a review of its
medicinal applications, the Australian herbalist
Andrew Pengelly concluded: ‘I have found the
addition of Backhousia citriodora to both teas
and extract/tincture compounds not only vastly Backhousia citriodora flowers. (Courtesy: Keith A.W.
improves the flavour but also provides anti- Williams, Native Plants of Queensland Vol.2]
microbial and possible immunostimulating
benefits, so helpful during the winter months’.
The antimicrobial properties of Lemon Myrtle were
The herb has become increasingly popular as established as early as 1955. An investigation by
a pleasing fragrant remedy for the treatment Nancy Atkinson and colleagues of the antibacterial
of influenza, colds, respiratory problems (e.g. substances produced by flowering plants demonstrated
bronchitis), and gastrointestinal disorders (e.g. that Backhousia was among the most potent of the
indigestion, irritable bowel problems) (Webb aromatic plants tested: ‘The best overall activity was
3 Citral is the main compound of interest in these plants. It comes in
shown by oils from Backhousia angustifolia, Backhousia
two chemical forms that are naturally present as a mixture in essential oils: citriodora, Leptospermum citratum and Leptospermum
neral refers to alpha-citral and geranial to beta-citral. The citral content of liversidgei’(Atkinson 1955). All these plants showed
Lemongrass oil is 85%, while that of Cubebs is 75%. The Lemon Balm
(Melissa officinalis), which has similar qualities, contains citral at a lower level particularly good activity against Mycobacterium
(35–55%), as well as citronellal (4–39%). phlei. Lemon Myrtle oil also had a variable level of
4 Citronellal has been widely used in production of perfumes and insect
repellents and this form of the oil, in a chemical sense, very closely resembles
activity (ranging from fair to good) against Salmonella
that of Eucalyptus citriodora. typhi and Staphylococcus aureus. Jenny Wilkinson and
colleagues have recently undertaken more serious Some other species of Backhousia have fragrance,
evaluations of its potential in the marketplace. The flavouring or medicinal potential. The most distinctive
leaf paste displayed a broad spectrum of antimicrobial is the Aniseed Myrtle (B. anisata)5, a rainforest tree
activity, while a commercial tea and a hydrosol with a restricted distribution around Bellingen in
(aqueous distillate) showed little or no effect. New South Wales.
The leaf paste was of particular interest due to its
activity against Clostridium perfringens, Pseudomonas While the Aniseed Myrtle has shown antimicrobial
aeruginosa and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus potential against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia
aureus (MRSA). The essential oil was similarly coli, not all samples were effective against the latter.
effective as an antibacterial and antifungal agent. This could be due to the fact that two chemotypes
Interestingly, some variation in the oil samples was of the plant have been identified, which is likely to
apparent that was not associated with citral content. influence the activity of extracts (Wilkinson 2005).
Indeed, the antimicrobial activity of the oil was found In the first chemotype, the familiar aromatic aniseed-
to be greater than that of citral alone, which suggests liquorice qualities of Aniseed Myrtle leaves are due to
that some other components could have a synergistic their high anethole (trans-anethole) content (around
effect (Wilkinson 2003). 90%). Anethole is a characteristic component of
some familiar herbs and spices, among them Fennel
Further investigations have added support to these (Foeniculum vulgare, 50–90%), Aniseed (Pimpinella
results. The oil has shown significant antimicrobial anisum, 84–93%) and Star Anise (Illicium verum,
potential against Escherichia coli, Candida albicans, 86–93%) (Pengelly 1991; Webb 2000).
Aspergillus niger, Klebsiella pneumoniae and
Propionibacterium acnes. The range and level of The oil of the second chemotype contains lesser
effectiveness of Lemon Myrtle oil was rated as being amounts of anethole (22–42%), although it was found
substantially more active than Tea Tree (Melaleuca to be particularly rich in methyl chavicol (60–75%).
alternifolia) and Eucalyptus oils. It is important to This is the aromatic oil component characteristic
note that Lemon Myrtle oil should not be used at of culinary herbs such as Basil (Ocimum basilicum,
full strength and a 0.5–1% dilution is recommended. some chemotypes contain as much as 85%) and
Topical applications can be useful for treating Tarragon (Artemisia dracunculus, 80%) (Webb 2000).
bacterial and viral skin problems, including Herpes It is worth noting that methyl chavicol is the major
simplex. One interesting clinical study has shown constituent of the oil extracted from another native
that the oil was effective for promoting the healing shrub known as the Straggly Baeckea (Ochrosperma
of lesions that result from a problematic viral skin lineare). The plant contains particularly high levels of
condition, molluscum contagiosum (Webb 2000; methyl chavicol (81.6%), as well as small amounts of
Hayes & Markovic 2002; Burke 2004). This is a pinene (alpha-pinene 1.1%, beta-pinene 8.3%) and
highly contagious disorder that is often very difficult bicyclogermacrene (3.6%) (Southwell 2003). Concern
to treat effectively. The lesions, which usually appear has been expressed with regard to the toxicity and
as white skin patches on the face (but also on other carcinogenic potential of methyl chavicol (based on
body areas), are a distressing symptom, particularly animal experiments), although the risk would appear
for children. Current treatments, which are similar to be minimal as its use as a flavouring entails only
to those used for removing warts, are often invasive small amounts that are easily detoxified in the body.
(i.e. freezing, scraping, cutting out of the lesion). They
can have disfiguring results. Further clinical studies Another area that has attracted serious research interest
are likely to reveal other equally valuable applications has been the use of essential oils in the food processing
for the oil. Certainly it has shown excellent potential industry as natural preservatives and antimicrobial
for treating irritant skin disorders such as psoriasis, agents. Many herbs with flavour and fragrance
rashes, itching (pruritis), folliculitis, neurodermatitis, qualities have shown excellent potential – including
and tinea, as well as other types of fungal infection 5 Backhousia anisata was classified in a new genus, Anetholea, in 2000 and
(Wilkinson 2003). some papers were written that referred to this botanical name. It has since
been re-classified as Syzygium anisatum.
the Lemon Myrtle, which has become a popular

flavouring for many food items, among them green
tea. Investigations of Lemon Myrtle (leaf extract)
with a high phenolic content (88.1%) demonstrated
antioxidant and anti-yeast activity, although it was
not active against food spoilage moulds. In contrast,
Aniseed Myrtle (leaf extract) had selective activity
against a couple of specific food-spoilage bacteria
– Lactobacillus plantarum and Bacillus subtilis. In
addition, extracts with a good phenolic content
(45.7%) had a fair to moderate antioxidant effect
and free radical scavenging activity (Zhao & Agboola
2007). The use of leaf extracts in scientific studies
is unlikely to be accompanied by the same level of
antimicrobial activity that would be exhibited by an
essential oil.
Ironwood or Grey Myrtle (Backhousia myrtifolia).
Ironwood or Grey Myrtle (Backhousia myrtifolia).
Ironwood or Grey Myrtle (Backhousia myrtifolia).(Courtesy:

Keith A.W. Williams, Native Plants of Queensland Vol.1)
is a compound that has attracted interest due to its

diverse pharmacological properties. They include
anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic, expectorant,
sedative, muscle relaxant, anticancer, antifungal and
antibacterial attributes (Webb 2000).
The Curry Myrtle (Backhousia angustifolia) has a fairly wide

distribution in Queensland, being found from around the
Sunshine Coast as far north as Cooktown. (Courtesy: Keith
A.W. Williams, Native Plants of Queensland Vols.2 and 3)
The Ironwood or Shatterwood (Backhousia sciadophora)
is found along the New South Wales coast, ranging to
the Queensland Sunshine Coast. It is also known as the
Boomerang Tree.
Investigations of some other species of Backhousia

have yielded equally interesting essential oils. A rare
species of the tropical rainforest, B. enata, contained
a pinene-based oil (oc-pinene 14–17%, alpha-pinene
36–42%), with lesser amounts of terpinen-4-ol (5–
8%), p-cymene (2–5%) and spathulenol (3–5%).
This species is fairly closely allied to the Ironwood or
Grey Myrtle (Backhousia myrtifolia) (Brophy 2007).
The latter, which has a pleasant spicy fragrance,
has three (possibly four) distinct chemical types –
methyleugenol, methyl-isoeugenol and elemicin.6
Medicinally, the leaf infusion has been utilised as a
carminative remedy. The oil of Backhousia sciadophora
also contains significant amounts of pinene (oc-pinene
44–55% and beta-pinene 2–8%), as well as limonene
The Curry Myrtle (Backhousia angustifolia) is an
(6–13%) (Brophy 2007; Webb 2000). Limonene
aromatic species that yields an essential oil with
6 An isoelemicin chemotype, identified in 1922 by Arthur Penfold, was
not confirmed in studies by Joseph Brophy in 1995. antibacterial properties similar to those of the Lemon
Myrtle. However, there are three distinct chemotypes even a microscopic portion of it will fill a
of this tree which one would expect to affect the large room with its perfume. The demand
composition of the essential oil. Ketones (angustione, for ionone under various fancy names has
dehydroangustione, angustifolenone) and a chromone increased so enormously that the oil of lemon
(angustifolionol) have been identified in the oil, which grass produced is now insufficient for the
appears to differ considerably from that of the Lemon world’s requirements. Manufacturers have had
Myrtle. The twigs and leaves also contain triterpenes,
to pay constantly increased prices, though the
area of the cultivation of the plant has been
among them ursolic acid, oleanolic acid and much enlarged. Any other essential oil that
crataegolic (maslinic) acid, with interesting biological would yield a high percentage of citral should
activities (Potts & Roy 1965, Pengelly 1991). These be able to command a very fair return to the
compounds have all shown antioxidant, anticancer distiller. The present price of citral is 35s. per
and antiviral (anti-HIV) activity. Investigators have lb. in London. In Backhousia citriodora we have
been examining the potential of crataegolic acid for an indigenous source of citral, with the world
the development of drugs for the treatment of HIV, waiting for it: Can it be that this source of
and for parasitic infections of the gastrointestinal citral is neglected through ignorance of it? The
tract due to Cryptosporidium. Crataegolic acid, which Germans are not ignorant of it; and, but for the
is also present in Hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha), war, a German firm that had sent a scientific
Guava (Psidium guajava) and olive skins, may even
observer to spy out Australian products of
value, had made arrangements to distil this
have dietary health benefits. Although more research very oil in Australia, and export it to Germany.
is needed to determine the level of crataegolic acid in Ionone is a most difficult synthetic perfume to
olive skins and its bioavailability as an antiviral agent produce (Swain 1928).
in the body, it has been proposed that the use of olive
oil could slow HIV infection in clinical situations
(University of Granada 2007). Boronia: the perfume crop
Table 9.1 Comparison of essential
oils from Backhousia
Species Essential components
Backhousia enata oc-pinene: 14–17%
alpha-pinene: 36–42%
terpinen-4-ol: 5–8%
p-cymene: 2–5%
spathulenol: 3–5%
Backhousia sciadophora oc-pinene 44–55%
beta-pinene 2–8%
limonene 6–13%
Boronia heterophylla.
In the fragrance industry, citral is one of the chemicals
that can be used to produce ionone. This is the unique The genus Boronia, which belongs to the Rutaceae
fragrant component of violets that is very hard to family, contains around 95 species – of which all but
synthesise. Therefore native species such as the Lemon one are endemic to Australia. Among the first to be
Myrtle could be of serious interest for perfumery discovered were Boronia parviflora and B. pinnata,
purposes (Webb 2000). In a review of Essential which were illustrated by Sydney Parkinson from
Oils from Queensland Forest Plants, Edward Swain the Botany Bay collections made by Joseph Banks
commented: and Daniel Solander. Boronia alulata, a tropical
Ionone possesses an intense odour of violets; coastal species from the eastern side of the Cape York
Peninsula (and nearby islands), was later collected at cosmetics and perfumes. This native of south-west
the Endeavour River site in northern Queensland. Western Australia and Victoria has been cultivated
Boronia heterophylla, the species favoured by the cut as a commercial crop in Tasmania and New Zealand.
flower trade, rates in the top twelve of Australian However, essential oil production is a very expensive
flower exports. While, in the past, most of the harvest undertaking. Professor E.H. Rennie (1926) explained
has come from wild flowering shrubs, there has been some of the reasons for this: ‘The flowers are gathered
a move toward commercialisation of this species as a in enormous quantities by a specially contrived
crop. Research has been successfully undertaken that apparatus which does not injure the plant: the extract
identified plants suitable for cultivation and grafting from the flowers on evaporation yields a green waxy
strategies, with a view to producing a reliable supply material which is of intense odour and is apparently
of an early-flowering form for propagation (Lulfitz used in its crude state for perfumery. This waxy residue
2004). decomposes if heated with steam, but almost certainly
contains volatile oils to which the perfume is due. The
material however, owing to the cost of collecting the
flowers and the small yield is very expensive.’ Sadly,
in many places wild colonies of Brown Boronia have
been wiped out due to urban development. The plant
is not easily cultivated. Its very specific requirements
include well-drained soils that remain continuously
moist, ensuring that the roots do not dry out. A great
deal of research has been undertaken to establish the
best environmental conditions suitable for farming
operations.
Professor Howard McKern (1960) provided further

interesting information about the production process:
‘Extraction with petroleum ether with subsequent
removal of the solvent results in what the perfumer calls
a “concrete”, a semi-solid greenish mass containing
the volatile substances responsible for the odour of
the plant. This “concrete” is obtained on 0.4 to 0.8%
yield. About 60% of the concrete is the “absolute”,
or volatile oil, which owes its delicate odour chiefly
to the presence of beta-ionone, together with a lesser
amount of alpha-ionone.’ Although Boronia absolute
Boronia rosmarinifolius has particularly attractive foliage also has culinary applications – because it can enhance
that resembles the herb Rosemary, hence the botanical fruit flavours such as raspberry, strawberry, and
name. (Courtesy: Keith A.W. Williams, Native Plants of peach – it would be a very expensive additive because
Queensland Vol.1) it is worth from $4,000 to $10,000 per kilogram
(depending on the quality of the product). The unique
flavour and aromatic qualities of the Brown Boronia
Shrubs from the genus Boronia have similar potential are not due to ionone alone – carotenoids7, linalool
in the perfumery industry as some Backhousia (and derivatives) and methyl jasmonate also make a
species. One particularly outstanding species, Boronia contribution. Other constituents include dodecyl
megastigma, known by the unassuming common name acetate and the monoterpenes alpha-pinene and beta-
Brown Boronia, has achieved a measure of frame as
7 Carotenoid profiles of flower extracts of Boronia megastigma have identified
a fragrance. The flowers of Boronia megastigma have a number of carotenoids (beta-carotene, zeaxanthin, lutein, enoxanthin) that
become an important aromatic resource for use in are being investigated for their influence on the perfumery qualities of this
shrub (Cooper 2009).
petals, the other with a red lining. The oil from the
yellow form has more desirable characteristics, being
devoid of beta-pinene, containing lower amounts of
limonene, and with the bonus of yielding higher levels
of beta-ionone and dodecyl acetate (Plummer 1996;
Webb 2000; Cooper 2003).
A many-scented genus
Brown Boronia (Boronia megastigma). (Courtesy: Essential

Oils of Tasmania Pty Ltd)
Boronia rivularis. Courtesy:Keith A.W. Williams, Native
Plants of Queensland Vol.1)
pinene. Monoterpenes are not desirable for perfumery

purposes. The discovery of different chemotypes that
can influence the proportion of these components
in the oil has had important implications for the
cultivation of Brown Boronia. There are two forms Boronia safrolifera. (Courtesy:Keith A.W. Williams, Native
of the shrub, one with a bright yellow lining to the Plants of Queensland Vol.1)
Many Boronia species have distinctive fragrances is an endemic Northern Territory species with a
that vary according to their chemical constituents. medicinal reputation. The crushed leaves (which
Boronia thujona has been described as having an are very pungent) were inhaled as a decongestant
aroma reminiscent of ‘blackcurrant’ or Tansy and remedy. Aboriginal people also prepared an
contains thujone. The crushed foliage of B. rivularis
aromatic hot infusion from the leaves for use as a
has a sarsaparilla fragrance, while the two forms of
B. safrolifera contain safrole (sassafras scent) and
body wash. This mixture (or the crushed leaves)
isosafrole (aniseed scent) respectively. The lemony was applied locally for the treatment of aches and
fragrance of B. citriodora foliage is citronellal based pains, including the body ache that is associated
(Rennie 1926). The latter has been known as the with the flu. The hot water infusion was likewise
Lemon-scented Boronia, as has B. tetrandra, which rubbed on the chest to ease a cold or poured over
has fragrant yellow flower-balls. The foliage of B. the head to relieve headache (Brock 1993; Levitt
citrata also has a pungent lemon character. 1981).
Further chemical analysis of the essential oils from

this genus may prove very interesting, particularly
with regard to their medicinal or culinary potential. A
couple of fragrant species with commercial potential
deserve particular mention. The essential oil from
Boronia latipinna is a good source of bornyl-acetate
(61%), which has been utilised by the flavouring
and fragrance industries (Southwell 2005). This
compound has a balsamic aroma that is described as
being woody and herbal, with spice, pine and cedar
influences. Its complex flavouring qualities have a
similar woody appeal, with additional camphoraceous,
mentholic, berry, seedy and soapy-woody nuances
(www.thegoodscentscompany.com). Boronia pinnata
is characterised by a camphoraceous perfume, while
B. anemonifolia var. variabilis has a strong turpentine
aroma. The latter can be somewhat overpowering and
can result in a headache in some individuals.
Little appears to be known about the

pharmacology of the Boronia genus, with only
a couple of species having recorded medicinal
uses. Joseph Maiden (1904) commented: ‘Mr.
Bäuerlen informed me that the twigs of this tree Boronia bipinnata. (Courtesy: Keith A.W. Williams, Native
[Callitris calcarata] are used in northern Victoria Plants of Queensland Vol.1)
and southern New South Wales for mixing with
fodder, to expel worms in horses. There is no A few investigations have suggested that some species
reason to suppose that any merit there may be in possess antimicrobial potential. There is a report of an
this remedy is not shared by all the other species. antibacterial compound known as episesamin, which
Boronia rhomboidea is also put to a similar use.’ was isolated from Boronia bowmanii, a species from
The latter is a Tasmanian species that ranges into Western Australia and Queensland (Ahsan 1997).
southern New South Wales. The pretty pink-and- Alkaloids have been identified in a number of species
white flowered Star Boronia (Boronia languinosa) – B. alulata, B. pinnata, B. bowmanii, B. lanceolata
and B. ternata var. elongata. Flavonoids have been high levels of a specific compound (these are noted
isolated from B. coerulescens and B. ramosa. While as ‘chemotype’ in Table 9.2). However, there can be
some of the alkaloids demonstrated moderate more than one chemotype. For instance, in addition
antibacterial properties, the flavonoids were much to the nerolidol-rich chemotype listed in the table, the
more active, with a wider spectrum of activity and New England Peppermint (Eucalyptus nova-anglica)
greater potency (Agier 2007; Nazrul Islam 2002). has chemotypes that are rich in alpha- and beta-
Boropinic acid, which was isolated from Boronia eudesmol (chemotype I) and globulol (chemotype
pinnata, has shown antibacterial activity against III). Only those that are of interest for the purposes
Helicobacter pylori – an infection that has been of this discussion are listed. It should also be noted
implicated in gastric ulcers, gastritis, and cancer. that some species have chemotypes with a complex
Investigations have suggested that other constituents chemical character that do not rely on a single
(phenylpropanoids) in this species could have dominant component.
anticancer (chemopreventive) properties (Ito 1999,
2000; Epifano 2006). Another examination of In addition, some essential oil components have
extracts from Boronia bipinnata (a species distinct demonstrated oestrogenic (citral, geraniol) and anti-
from B. pinnata) for new antimalarial compounds oestrogenic (eugenol, high concentrations) activity
isolated components named bipinnatones that were in vitro that has not been confirmed by in vivo
active in the study (Carroll 2008). studies. Terpinen-4-ol, alpha-terpineol and eucalyptol
(1,8-cineole) did not have a confirmed oestrogenic
effect in topically applied Tea Tree oil or Eucalyptus
Chemical constituents of essential oils oil (Nielsen 2008).
Many plant species have chemotypes that contain
Table 9.2 Chemical constituents of essential oils

Compound Activity Plants: Australian and
commercial resources
Anethole Mild antibacterial and antiseptic activity, Anise myrtle (Backhousia anisata)
with substantial synergistic potential [chemotype]
Antifungal
Carminative Anise (Pimpinella anisum)
Expectorant Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare)
Flavouring (liquorice-like, anise) Star Anise (Illicium verum)
Fragrance
1,8-cineole Antiseptic and antibacterial Numerous Eucalyptus and Melaleuca
Anti-inflammatory species
Decongestant: antitussive and expectorant Notably:
CNS stimulant Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus)
Pharmaceutical: increases skin penetration Broad-leaved Peppermint (Eucalyptus
of drugs dives) [cineole chemotype]
NOTE: Cineol has long been considered Narrow-leaved Peppermint (Eucalyptus
to be irritant to mucous membranes and radiata)
skin, although this has not been confirmed Eucalyptus polybracteata
by recent studies (Carson 2006). Round-leaf Mintbush (Prostanthera
rotundifolia)
Mintbush (Prostanthera cineolifera)

Citronellal Antimicrobial (antiseptic, antibacterial, Lemon Gum (Eucalyptus citriodora)
antifungal)
Antiviral Citronella grass (Cymbopogon nardus)
Analgesic
Expectorant
Insecticidal, insect repellent
CAUTION: skin sensitisation reactions
have occurred in some people
Elemicin Antibacterial Cinnamon Myrtle (Backhousia myrtifolia)
Anti-inflammatory [chemotype]
Narcotic potential Sandfly Bush (Zieria smithii)
Nutmeg (Myristica fragrans)

Clove (Syzygium aromaticum)
Eugenol Antimicrobial Sacred basil (Ocimum sanctum var.
Dental antiseptic angustifolium) [native]
Analgesic Cinnamomum oliveri [chemotype]
Anti-inflammatory Cinnamomum laubatii
Vasorelaxant
Geranial (beta- Antimicrobial (antiseptic, antibacterial, Lemon Myrtle (Backhousia citriodora)
citral) antifungal) Lemon-scented Ironbark (Eucalyptus
Anticancer staigeriana)
Fragrance (citrus: strong lemon)
Pharmaceutical: used in the synthesis of Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus)
vitamin A Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis)
CAUTION: skin sensitisation reactions Cubebs (Litsea cubeba)
have occurred in some people
Isoelemicin Narcotic potential Cinnamon Myrtle (Backhousia myrtifolia)
Aromatic fragrance [unconfirmed chemotype]

Linalool Antimicrobial (antiseptic, antibacterial, Melaleuca species
antifungal)
Antiviral Many aromatic species of the Lamaiceae:
Anticancer Mints (Mentha species)
Antispasmodic and sedative Basil (Ocimum basilicum)
Aromatic fragrance Coriander (Coriandrum sativum)
Pharmaceutical: used in the production Lavender (Lavandula species)
of vitamin E
Methyl eugenol Antibacterial (antiseptic, antibacterial, Cinnamon Myrtle (Backhousia myrtifolia)
antifungal) [chemotype]
Analgesic and local anaesthetic Sandfly Bush (Zieria smithii)
Nervous system activity (sedative, Eremophila longifolia
narcotic, anticonvulsant) Cinnamomum oliveri [chemotype]
Muscle relaxant Note * There are two chemotypes of Cinnamomum oliveri:
(a) camphor, safrole and methyleugenol, and (b) cinnamic
CAUTION: methyleugenol is aldehyde and eugenol (Lassak & McCarthy 1992).
carcinogenic in rodents and has shown Source: Lassak & McCarthy (1992); Tisserand & Balacs
genotoxic activity (1995); Webb (2000).

Methyl chavicol Antimicrobial (antifungal) Anise Myrtle (Backhousia anisata)
Nervous system activity (anticonvulsant, [chemotype]
anaesthetic, antispasmodic) stabilises Ochrosperma lineare (Southwell 2003)
sympathetic nervous system Basil (Ocimum basilicum)
Anticancer
Carminative
Muscle relaxant
Flavouring: can be used to impart Basil
type flavour
Methyl isoeugenol Antihistaminic Cinnamon Myrtle (Backhousia myrtifolia)
Local anaesthetic [chemotype]
Antispasmodic (spasmolytic)
Expectorant
Antimicrobial (antibacterial, anti-
Candida)
Cancer-preventive
Pharmaceutical: isoeugenol is used for
the manufacture of vanillin (aromatic and
flavouring)
Myristicin CNS effects: sedative, psychotropic The Myristica genus; possibly found in
CAUTION: hallucinogenic in high doses, Australian species
potentially neurotoxic
Nutmeg (Myristica aromatica)
Black Pepper (Piper nigrum, leaves)
Japanese Star Anise (Illicium anisatum)
Neral (alpha citral) Antimicrobial (antiseptic, antibacterial, Lemon Myrtle (Backhousia citriodora)
antifungal) Lemon-scented Ironbark (Eucalyptus
Aromatic (perfumery: sweet rose aroma) staigeriana)
Lemongrass (Cymbopogon citratus)

Lemon Balm (Melissa officinalis)
Cubebs (Litsea cubeba)
Nerolidol Aromatic (perfumery: woody scent) New England Peppermint (Eucalyptus
Anticancer activity nova-anglica) [chemotype II]
Pharmaceutical: promotes skin absorption Melaleuca species
of other drugs
Piperitone Nervous system stimulant Broad-leaved Peppermint (Eucalyptus
Anti-asthmatic dives) [piperitone chemotype]
Pharmaceutical: used in manufacture of River Peppermint Gum (Eucalyptus elata)
menthol (migraine relief ) and thymol [piperitone chemotype]
(powerful fungicide) Sydney Peppermint (Eucalyptus piperita)

Safrole Flavouring Sandfly Bush (Zieria smithii)
Weak carcinogen Eeremophila longifolia
Black Sassafras (Atherosperma moschatum,
Pharmaceutical: used in manufacture of bark oil)
antithrombotic and anti-inflammatory Cinnamomum laubatii and Cinnamomum
agents oliveri (bark oil)*
Sassafras: Doryphora aromatica and
Doryphora sassafras
Cinnamon leaf (Cinnamomum

micranthum)
Brown Camphor (Cinnamomum
camphora)
Sassafras (Sassafras albidum)
Pepper vines: Various Piper species
Terpinen-4-ol Anti-inflammatory Eucalyptus species
Anti-allergic Melaleuca species
Anti-asthmatic
Antimicrobial (antiseptic, antibacterial,
antifungal)
Antitussive, expectorant
Lillypillies: flowers and fruit of distinction

The Lillypillies (genera: Acmena, Eugenia and
Syzygium)8 are among the most distinctive of the
flowering trees in the Myrtaceae. In Australia, the
most dominant of these is the genus Syzygium,
with around sixty-five species. The majority have
a tropical habit, with around fifty being found on
the Cape York Peninsula. Many of these are unique
endemics. Acmena (Syzygium) smithii, one of the more
widespread species, was among the first native plants
to be propagated in Europe. Maiden noted: ‘Eugenias
are either trees or shrubs, and are found chiefly in the
West Indies and tropical America, India, and eastern
Australia. Many species are to be found in the hot-
(Left) In addition to their decorative and edible fruits,
the beauty of the Syzygium flowers makes this genus one
of the most outstanding of the native ornamentals. The
filamentous style of blossom, which is readily accessible to
many insects and bats, facilitates pollination.
8 The native Lillypillies were originally classed within the genera Acmena or
Eugenia. Today the majority have been reclassified in Syzygium, although a
few belong to Acmena and Gossia. A number of species formerly classified as
Austromyrtus have also been placed in the latter genus.
houses and conservatories of Europe, including some minerals, containing only small amounts of sodium,
of the Australian species, of which E. smithii, the potassium, magnesium and calcium, and traces of
Lillypilly (as it is called by the aborigines [?]), was the iron, zinc and copper. It also has a fairly high water
first to be sent, it having been cultivated since the year content (Brand Miller 1993).
1790’ (Maiden 1921).
Acmena smithii ranges from tropical Cape York

in northern Queensland, along the entire east
coast of the continent to the temperate climate of
Victoria. Maiden mentioned: ‘The fruits are eaten
by the aborigines and small boys. They are formed
in profusion, are acidulous and wholesome. They
Magenta Lillypilly (Syzygium paniculatum).
Acmena smithii: its hardiness and attractive flowers and fruit

make it probably the best-known Lillypilly in cultivation. The fruit of the South-east Asian Jambul or Jamosa
(Eugenia jambolana) was among those that were
collected on early seafaring expeditions. The
close resemblance of the fruit of the Australian
Syzygium genus ensured that they were initially
classified as another type of Jambul. Even the
earliest floral surveys of the continent mentioned
them. The species referred to by Joseph Banks
when he tried a native fruit at Botany Bay was
probably the Magenta Lillypilly (Syzygium
paniculatum).9 James Cook and Daniel Solander
had found ‘several trees of the Jambosa kind,
much in colour and shape resembling cherries; of
are white with a purplish tint, and up to 1 inch in these they eat plentifully and brought home also
diameter. When they are ripe, one frequently notices abundance, which we eat with much pleasure
that a large proportion of them have been pecked by tho they had little to recommend them but a
birds, and no doubt they also provide sustenance to light acid’. Surprisingly, it does not appear that
flying foxes and other native animals’ (Maiden 1921). 9 Benson & Eldershaw 2007; Low 1992. Acmena smithii (Syzygium smithii)
Although it tastes good, the fruit is not very rich in is another possible identification (Douglas Hamilton 1998).
they obtained botanical specimens. Later, at the Expedition (1873): ‘At Dunk Island, the Calophyllum
Endeavour River, Eugenia banksii (now Syzygium surpasses all other trees for shade, but here [Maria
banksii) was collected. Inlet] the Eugenia takes the lead … it bears a fruit
which is often used as a relish. In the study and
practice of my profession I have visited the Royal
Edible Lillypillies Parks, and the most celebrated of those belonging to
the nobility and landed gentry of the mother country;
but the natural groves of Maria Inlet, to my taste,
produced a far more pleasing effect than any work of
the landscape gardener’s art which I have seen.’
Cassowary Gum (Acmena hemilampra).
There are some species of Syzygium that can grow to massive

proportions. Some very impressive specimens can be found
growing in riverside locations.
Many Lillypillies produce edible fruits that are suitable

for making chutneys and jams. Almost a century
after Banks and Solander’s botanical forays, George
Elphinstone Dalrymple observed some magnificent
specimens on his Queensland North East Coast
The Cassowary Gum is a tropical riverine Lillypilly

that yields an edible crisp white fruit with a sweet-
sour character, although it is not particularly
nutritious (Hiddins 2001). The fruit has a high water
content and contains only a few minerals, mainly
potassium (139mg/100g) and small amounts of
sodium, magnesium, iron and zinc (Brand Miller
1993).
Since the Australian Lillypillies were clearly related to

species with commercial value on the international
market, there was early, substantial interest in what, if
any, useful features the native fruit possessed. Maiden
summarised the main species that were of interest:
Eugenia fruits are useful chiefly on account of the aromatic

unripe fruits of some or of the luscious ripe of others. The
best known is Eugenia pimenta, of the West Indies, which
yields ‘allspice’, so called because the flavour appears to
be that of a combination of spices. E. acris is the Bay-
berry tree of the United States, its unripe fruits being used
in the preparation of the bay rum of the United States
Pharmacopoeia, employed in the preparation of hair-wash
and for other purposes. The rose-apples, useful for dessert,
Cassowary Gum (Acmena hemilampra). and much appreciated in the East, where rose perfumes
are far more in vogue than with us, are the produce of
at least two species of Eugenia, viz., E. malaccensis and
E. jambos, the latter being the smaller. E. jambos, when
cultivated in Sydney in warm situations, ripens its fruit.
It is 2 or 3 inches long, with flesh emitting a dainty rose-
like odour, hence the name. In fact, most of the Eugenias
yield edible fruit when fully ripe (to which rule the Lilly
pilly is no exception), and there can be no doubt that
some of them can be highly improved in this respect by
cultivation. All Eugenia trees are more or less ornamental
when in full fruit, and some of our Australian species, of
which the common brush cherry (E. myrtifolia) is a good
example, are lovely garden objects at that season (Maiden
1921).
The latter comment remains true today. Lillypillies rate

among the most attractive of the native ornamentals.
The lone Eugenia Only one species remains classified in genus Eugenia
in Australia. This is the Cedar Bay Cherry (Eugenia
reinwardtiana), a shrub of the eastern coast. The sweet
succulent red berry is a useful bush tucker snack that
contains (per 100g) a fairly high amount of water
(70.8mg) as well as some protein (16.6mg) and fibre
(9.4mg). The potassium level is good (350mg/100gm),
with some sodium (14mg), magnesium (23mg),
calcium (50mg), iron (1.1mg) and zinc (1.1mg)
(Brand Miller 1993). The genus name has a rather
interesting history, as Maiden mentioned (1921):
The name Eugenia perpetuates that of Prince Eugene

of Savoy, the celebrated military commander who co-
operated with the famous Duke of Marlborough in the
fierce Continental wars in which the British troops were
so incessantly involved during the early years of the last
[nineteenth] century. It will be remembered that these
two great captains led the British army and their allies
to victory at the battle of Blenheim, and the pugnacious
Briton loves to recall this ‘glorious’ event, of which
Cedar Bay Cherry (Eugenia reinwardtiana). however, Southey sings: ‘With fire and sword, the country
round, Was wasted far and wide’. Prince Eugene was also
fond of the peaceful occupation of gardening, and when
the records of his fighting exploits have all faded away in
the dim past, he will be remembered as long as the world
lasts by the beautiful and useful trees belonging to the
genus named by [Italian botanist Pier Antonio] Micheli
(and subsequently adopted by Linnaeus) in his honour.
Lillypilly fruit and flower displays can be stunning

and all their fruits are edible to a varying degree.
Despite their luscious appearance, the majority have
a rather insipid quality, while others have an outright
sour character. Although fleshy, many fruits tend
toward a high water content and taste a bit starchy
– or they can have a fairly nondescript flavour. Only
a limited number gained a measure of acceptance in
culinary circles. Joseph Maiden commented: ‘The
[Jambul] fruit10 is much eaten by the natives of India;
in appearance it resembles a damson, has a harsh but
sweetish flavour, somewhat astringent and acid. It is
much eaten by birds and is a favourite food of the
large bat or flying fox’ (Maiden 1921). Possibly some
10 It can be quite easy for some confusion to occur in the naming of various
Syzygium species. The names Jambul, Jamun or Java Plum refer to Syzygium
cumini (syn. Eugenia cumini), while Syzygium jambolana (syns Eugenia
jambos, Jambosa jambos) refers to the Rose Apple. Confusion can arise because
Jambul has also been known as the Jambulan Plum and by the botanical
names Eugenia jambolana and Syzygium jambolanum. Both species have been
referred to as the Malabar Plum. The term Rose Apple has also been used for
Syzygium malaccense. Syzygium samaragense is the Java Rose Apple.
species were only truly appreciated by the wildlife.

Certainly there are a number of rainforest Lillypilly
fruits that contain large seeds, discolour quickly, and
suffer from insect attack, which tends to compromise
their desirability as a food. For example, the Kuranda
Quandong (Syzygium kuranda) has very little flesh
and a large seed. This does not make it particularly
attractive for humans – although the native White-
tailed Rat and the Cassowary are not deterred.
Bumpy Satinash (Syzygium cormiflorum).
Lady Apple (Syzygium suborbiculare).
Red-bud Satinash (Syzygium erythrocalyx).
Overall, only a few have been recommended for

making jellies and jams, which can be quite tasty.
These include the Creek Lillypilly (Syzygium australe),
the Cherry Alder (S. luehmanii) and the Blue Lillypilly
(S. oleosum), which are among the more widespread
species found along the east coast. In the tropics
Syzygium fibrosum, S. suborbiculare and S. wilsonii
were likewise favoured:
It is probable that every Australian Eugenia yields, or has

yielded, food to the hungry blackfellow but the following
species undoubtedly have done so:- E. cormiflora, whose
fruit is called ‘Murro’ by some Queensland blacks; E.

eucalyptoides, the ‘Endeavour River Pear’ of Queensland,
which has a pear-shaped fruit of about 1½ inches in
length, and of a pinkish colour. It is a beautiful object
and of an agreeable flavour. E. myrtifolia is the well-
known ‘Native Myrtle’ or ‘Brush Cherry’ often to be
seen in gardens, where it forms a beautiful object when
in fruit, which fruit can be eaten by a hungry white man.
The Queensland E. tierneyana also produces fruit in large
quantities, and it is sometimes made into jam (Maiden
1921).
Syzygium fibrosum.
Kuranda Quandong (Syzygium kuranda).

Syzygium wilsonii, a rainforest shrub endemic to northern

Queensland, has become a popular tropical ornamental. It
produces wonderful powder-puff flower displays that vary in
colour from rich crimson to a light vibrant pink. The white
fruit have been used for making jams and jellies.
The Water Cherry (Syzygium tierneyanum) is a tropical

Australian species with edible fruit. Aboriginal people used
poultices from the young leaves to treat skin problems and
boils (Covacevich 1988).
Nutritionally, Lillypilly fruits are not particularly

exciting fare. While they contain a fair amount
of carbohydrate, there are only a few minerals
present. An analysis of the Bush Apple (Syzygium
eucalyptoides subsp. eucalyptoides) has provided
the following details (per 100gm): sodium
(70mg), potassium (90mg), calcium (30mg) and
magnesium (90mg). The content of Syzygium
johnstonii was similar, although the sodium levels
were lower (26mg). Syzygium luehmannii had
more interesting potential, with higher levels
of potassium (250mg) and calcium (100mg),
as well as a fair amount of magnesium (48mg)
and sodium (11mg). The content of Syzygium
suborbiculare was very similar, although samples
had variable amounts of potassium (25–230mg)
and low sodium levels (30–92mg). Overall, the
level of vitamin C was also fairly low (Brand
Miller 1993).
The aromatic qualities of some of the Lillypilly

fruits have certainly enhanced their appeal.
Syzygium moorei was among the native species
that acquired the name ‘Rose Apple’ in tribute to
the fragrant Asian species.11 Despite this, Maiden
was not overly convinced of the appropriateness
of the title: ‘I do not say that the name is a good
one, for I cannot say that the scent of rose in
eating the fruit is marked; I believe I have smelt
it when eating sparingly of that of the Sydney
Botanic Gardens tree. Certainly its perfume is
very much less than that of E. jambolana.’ The
reputation of various other species was not as
lacklustre. In particular, the Riberry (Syzygium
luehmannii) has a spicy fruit with a ‘cinnamon-
like’ flavour. It resembles a mixture of cloves and
spice and has acquired some popularity as a bush
food.
Lillypilly wines
Their aromatic properties ensured that some Lillypillies
have been the subject of serious experimentation
for making wine. The early colonists utilised the
The Cherry Satinash, Cherry Alder or Cherry Lillypilly

(Syzygium luehmannii) has a restricted distribution in
northern Queensland (between Tully and Cooktown). It
has a rather odd distribution as it is also found along parts
of the south-east Queensland coast, ranging to northern
New South Wales – but not along the remainder of the
Queensland coast. This attractive tree, which can reach up
to 30 metres in a rainforest habitat, has been harvested for
its timber, known as Cherry Satinash. In the building trade
it has been employed in diverse ways for general purpose Creek Lillypilly (Syzygium australe).
work.
11 Syzygium moorei acquired its botanical name in honour of Mr Charles 12 In the Philippines, Java Apple wine (made from Syzygium cumini) has had
Moore who, from 1848 to 1896, was Director of the Botanic Gardens, a medicinal reputation for use as a stomachic and carminative remedy, as well
Sydney. as having diuretic properties (Padua 1977–78).
Creek Lillypilly (Syzygium australe) for this purpose.

Overseas, the fragrant dessert fruits known as ‘Rose
Apples’ (S. malaccense and S. jambos) have long been
used for winemaking. The fruit of the Jambolan or
Jambul (Syzygium cumini, syn. Eugenia cumini)
probably had the most extensive reputation. It was
easily made into a fermented drink (and vinegar), and
had wide appeal as a resource for the production of
rose-coloured light wines, a fortified port-like wine, a
distilled liquor called jambava, and a type of brandy
(Morton 1986).12
Of the Brush Cherry (Eugenia myrtifolia), Maiden

noted: ‘The red juice of the fruit of this tree is similar in
its properties to that of red grapes … By fermentation
it yields wine possessing a bouquet. The colouring
matter, which is soluble in alcohol and ether-alcohol,
but not in pure ether, is precipitated by lead acetate,
decolourised by reducing agents, and recovers its red
colour on exposure to the air, just like litmus and the
red colour of wine’ (Maiden 1900). Many of the native
species that were used for culinary purposes have
winemaking potential, for example, Syzygium aqueum,
Creek Lillypilly (Syzygium australe).
S. forte, S. oleosum and S. tierneyanum. Some Lillypilly
wines may even have beneficial properties similar
to traditional red wines since many tropical fruits,
including Syzygium cumini, are rich in anthocyanins
(de Brito 2007). It is likely that the fruits of native
species contain similar phenolic components.
The Water Apple (Syzygium aqueum).

Lillypilly as a bush food

The writings of the early explorers tell of their
experiments with Lillypilly fruits. On his travels in
1844–45, Ludwig Leichhardt was more than delighted
to come across the Native Apple (probably Syzygium
eucalyptoides subsp. eucalyptoides: Fensham 2006): ‘I
appeased my craving hunger, which had been well tried
for twenty-four hours, on the small fruit of a species of
Acmena which grew near the rocks that bounded the
sandy flats, until my companions brought my share of
stewed green hide’. (It must be said that his normal
fare does not sound in the least appetising.) This
species was also a useful bush medicine for Aboriginal
people. An infusion was prepared from the reddish-
coloured inner bark (mashed and soaked in water)
which was used as a body wash for relieving ‘general
sickness’ (Hiddins 2001).
The Water Apple (Syzygium aqueum) is an interesting

species found on the Cape York Peninsula whose range
extends overseas. It has been cultivated throughout India,
Indonesia and Southeast Asia as a fruit tree and is also valued
medicinally. The leaf tea has been taken for gastrointestinal
disorders: to ease a stomach ache or to treat acute dysentery.
An astringent decoction prepared from the bark was also
applied locally for the treatment of thrush (Holdsworth &
Lacanienta 1981; Morton 1986).
Lady Apple (Syzygium suborbiculare).
Leichhardt mentioned finding another closely related

‘Native Apple’, Syzygium suborbiculare, which is today
commonly known as the Lady Apple (or Red Bush
Apple):
Brown found a Eugenia with large white blossoms and

large coriaceous [leathery] oblong lanceolate shining
leaves; it was a tree of thirty or forty feet high, with grey
bark, and a good hard wood. It was growing at the upper
part of the creek on which we were encamped last night.

Its fruit was two inches in diameter, with longitudinal
ribs, scarlet red, and very eatable when dropt from the
tree, but when gathered on the tree, it had an aromatic
pungency. This tree was very common along the well
watered creeks of Arnheim’s Land [sic]; particularly along
the South Alligator River and at Raffles Bay (Leichhardt
1847).
The Jardine brothers on their expedition to Cape

York in 1867 encountered a similarly distinctive
Lillypilly that they thought was the same species. It
was described as:
a kind of pomegranate, which was quite new to the

Brothers. The trees grow large with soft white bark and
large round leaves. The fruit as large as an hen’s egg, in
shape like the common pomegranate. Unripe it is of a
transparent white, but when mature, has a dark pink
colour and slightly acid taste. It is probably the Eugenia
mentioned by Leichhardt. They were much annoyed by
the green tree ant, all the trees and shrubs being covered
with them, in riding along they got about their persons,
and down their backs, where they stuck like ticks. They
Lady Apple (Syzygium suborbiculare). are of a transparent green, nearly half-an-inch long, soft
and sticky (Byerley 1867).
The behaviour of the green tree ants will sound very

familiar to those who have tried to harvest the fruit.
Green tree ants defending Lillypilly flowers and fruit.

The Lady Apple (Syzygium suborbiculare) is one

of the distinctive fruits of northern Queensland.
This tree has long been harvested from the
rainforest by Aboriginal people, and in many
places old campsites can be located within or near
stands of this species. It was regarded as being a
very useful medicinal tree that was particularly
effective for respiratory problems. The juice,
extracted from the fruit (roasted or boiled), was
taken to clear chest congestion or as a cough
remedy. The pulp of the cooked fruit could be
used to treat sore ear problems. The fire-heated
leaves were an extremely useful for wounds.
They were applied locally to facilitate healing
and prevent swelling in injuries, including the
wounds due to circumcision (initiation) rites
and spear fights. This treatment was said to be so
effective that, once the bleeding had ceased, the
wound remained sealed and did not even require
a bandage. An infusion of the leaves (sometimes
with the bark added) provided a wash for sores
Bumpy Satinash (Syzygium cormiflorum).
– and could also be taken to relieve diarrhoea
or stomach pain. A remedy for mouth sores and
toothache simply used the chewed fruit or seed;
the seed fragments were sometimes put into the
tooth cavity (Levitt 1981; Wightman & Smith
1989; Barr 1993; Isaacs1994).
Trees of cauliflorous habit

The trunk of the Bumpy Satinash (Syzygium

cormiflorum) is covered with unusual knobby growths,
from which the flowers blossom. This cauliflorous habit
results in a wonderful display of fruit that develop in
bunches along the trunk.13 The crunchy white fruit,
which become quite large, have been called ‘white
apples’, despite having a rather watery character.14
John MacGillivray, the naturalist aboard HMS
Rattlesnake, which cruised up the coast in conjunction
with Edmund Kennedy’s fateful expedition on Cape
York in 1848, described the tree in some detail:
I also found a beautiful tree belonging to the natural order

Myrtaceae, producing on the trunk and large branches
only an abundance of white, sweet-scented flowers, larger
than those of the common rose-apple (Jambosa vulgaris)
… the fruit four to six inches in circumference, consisting
of a white fleshy, slightly acid substance, with one large
round seed (perhaps sometimes more), the foot-stalk
about one inch long. This is a most beautiful and curious
tree. Some specimens which I saw measured five feet
in circumference, and were sixty feet high, the straight
trunks rising twenty or thirty feet from the ground to the
branches, being covered with blossoms, with which not
Red-bud Satinash (Syzygium erythrocalyx).
a leaf mingled. There were ripe and unripe fruit mingled
with the blossoms, the scent of the latter being delightful,
spreading perfume over a great distance around; I had
frequently noticed the fragrance of these blossoms while
passing through the scrub, but could not before make
out from whence it arose. It resembles the scent of a
ripe pineapple, but is much more powerful. There are
not many of these trees to be found and those only in
the scrub, in a stiff loamy soil. The small animals eat the
fruit, and I tasted some, but it was not so good as the
rose-apple; we called it the white-apple. It is a species of
Eugenia (MacGillivray 1852).
A number of tropical Syzygium species produce similar

fruits, although they do not have a cauliflorous habit.
They include the Red Bush Apple (S. suborbiculare),
Joseph’s Satinash (S. banksii) and the Bush Apple (S.
eucalyptoides).
13 Cauliflory is a specific botanical term that refers to the habit of flowering

or fruiting from the branches or trunk of a tree.
14 The name White Apple usually refers to Syzygium cormiflorum and
Syzygium forte (subsp. forte and subsp. potamophilum). It has also been
applied to Endiandra globosa and Endiandra virens.
trunk, but along the branches and twigs. These

flowers are favoured by most of the rainforest
animals and insects, particularly blossom-
feeding bats, nectar-loving birds, butterflies
and moths. This is another of the northern
Queensland species with a cauliflorous habit
that yields a large white fruit.
The medicinal Malay Apple

(Syzygium malaccense)
Red-bud Satinash (Syzygium erythrocalyx). The Malay Apple (Syzygium malaccense)
has had a substantial medicinal reputation
throughout the Pacific Islands and South-east
Asia. The tree was widely valued as a potent
astringent due to its tannin content. Bark and
leaf preparations have often been recommended
for skin problems, diarrhoeal disorders, and
mucous congestion. In particular, the bark or leaf
infusion gained repute as a remedy for thrush,
sore throat and mouth sores, as well as being
used as an antiseptic healing agent for ulcers
and wounds.15 Treatments have utilised diverse
parts of the tree in remedies for dysentery
(root bark), diarrhoea (leaf sap, bark infusion),
coughing problems (leaf sap), vomiting (bark
infusion), stomach ache (bark infusion), sore
eyes (leaf sap), itching skin (root preparation),
cracks in the tongue (powdered leaves),
constipation (bark tea), and as a diuretic for
fluid retention (tree root). In Tahiti and Hawaii
the bark infusion provided a respected remedy
for bronchitis, tuberculosis and digestive tract
disorders (Whistler 1992a, 1992b; Woodley
1991; Weiner 1985; Morton 1986). In Brazil,
the tree’s reputation appears to be remarkably
Syzygium erythrocalyx, which has been known similar. It was used as a treatment for cough,
by a number of common names (among them pulmonary catarrh, headache and constipation
Johnstone River, Daintree and Scarlet Satinash), (Morton 1986). In Papua New Guinea a
is probably best described as the Red-bud closely related indigenous species, Syzygium
Satinash. The flowers of this tree have a largesproniodes, was utilised in the same
distinctive red cap, which make it a particularly 15 It is worth mentioning that Cloves (Syzygium aromaticum, syn. S.
caryophyllata) and Clove oil have shown good antifungal activity, particularly
attractive sight when in bloom. It produces against Candida infections (Chaieb 2007; Braga 2007; Park 2007; Fu 2007;
Taguchi 2005). Eugenol, one of the main active constituents of the oil, has
wonderful masses of flowers not only on the shown antiseptic and anti-inflammatory properties.
The Malay Apple (Syzygium malaccense). This tropical

tree is native to Australia and South-east Asia (Indonesia,
peninsular Malaysia, Papua New Guinea), although long ago
it became widely cultivated, spreading to India, Sri Lanka
and the Philippines, Africa, Central and South America. It
became distributed throughout the Pacific Islands on the
voyages of the Polynesian explorers. The skin of the fruit has
a distinctive blood-red colour and the crisp white flesh within
The Malay Apple (Syzygium malaccense).
has a mild pear-like flavour. When in flower, the entire tree
appears to instantaneously burst into a flurry of crimson. The
lovely filamentous blossoms attract an equally vibrant throng manner – the bark was chewed with traditional
of visiting insects, blossom bats, and birds. salt to relieve coughing or tuberculosis (Balun
& Holdsworth 1988).
The use of Malay Apple leaves for wound healing

and antiseptic purposes has been a well-known
remedy wherever the tree was found. Many
parts of the tree (fruit, seeds, bark and leaves)
have antibiotic activity. There is, however, one
particularly intriguing entry in Akana’s Hawaiian
Herbs of Medicinal Value (1922) that mentions
a rather dramatic treatment for deep cuts or
wounds. A special preparation used the juice
extracted from the bark of the tree and pounded
with salt. This was strained through coconut
husk fibre and the liquid poured into the wound:
‘The patient must exercise absolute self control as
the liquid burns its way into the flesh and nerves’
(cited in Morton 1986). An equally intriguing
reference to a related species that was used in
Fijian medicine mentions a liquid extracted from
the leaves of Syzygium neurocalyx and utilised as a microbes that are responsible for enteric disorders,
treatment for ‘leprosy-like holes in the skin’ and including dysentery. For instance, Eugenia jambolana
‘swellings all over the body’ (Weiner 1985). was active against various species of Shigella (Maiti
1985). However, the level of activity can vary. An
evaluation of leaf and stem extracts from Syzygium
Pharmacological investigations of andamanicum, S. cumini and S. samarangense showed
only weak activity in samples from the Andaman
Syzygium Islands. The activity was compared to the conventional
Studies have shown that the genus contains a number antibiotic ampicillin (Chattopadhyay1999). It is
of species with antibacterial properties, which would possible that the variation could be due to extraction
tend to indicate excellent potential for the Australian and preparation techniques, chemotypes of the plant,
species. The genus Syzygium was listed among the harvesting procedures or growing conditions.
plants included in early studies of the antimicrobial
potential of the Australian flora. In 1947, Talcott
and Webb evaluated over 158 native species from Little has been done with regard to investigations of
fifty families, and found that some species deserved Australian Syzygium species and the only way to gain
serious research interest: ‘This is apparently the first some idea of their pharmacological potential is to
record of Australian plants with antibacterial activity review overseas studies. It is lamentable to see such
(Staphylococcus aureus) belonging to the families a diverse native genus languish pharmacologically.
Labiateae, Leguminoseae and Rubiaceae, and from the The best example of the therapeutic potential of these
genus Eugenia.’ Four species were particularly effective: plants can be illustrated by the herb Jambul (Syzygium
Eugenia (Syzygium) smithii (leaves, mature fruits), cumini, syn. Eugenia jambolana).17 This plant has
Molucella laevis (leaves, stems), Canthium oleifolium long held a medicinal reputation that is very similar
(leaves) and Crotalaria incana (leaves) (Talcott & to that of the Malay Apple, having been popularly
Webb 1947). Staphylococcus aureus is a pathogen of
particular importance because it commonly infects
wounds and serious infections can result in toxic shock
and septicaemia. In addition, problematic antibiotic-
resistant strains have become prevalent in hospitals,
stimulating interest in natural products that may be
useful in clinical settings. More recent investigations
of Syzygium australe leaf extracts showed they had a
moderate antibacterial activity against Aeromonas
hydophilia, Bacillus cereus and Bacillus subtilis (Cock
2008).
Related species with antimicrobial potential include

Syzygium cumini – the leaf oil of which had fairly
good antibacterial properties (Shafi 2002). Extracts
of Syzygium jambos bark showed particularly
good activity against Yersinia enterocolitica16 and
Staphylococcus aureus, and against other Staphylococcus
bacteria. The activity was linked to the high level Fruit of the Jambul (Syzygium cumini).
of tannin constituents in the extracts (Djipa 2000).
Other species have shown efficacy against the 17 This species should not be confused with the Rose Apple (Syzygium jambos,
syns Eugenia jambos, Caryophyllus jambos), although both have been used
16 The diarrhoeal disease that results from infection with this zoonotic in a similar therapeutic manner. Syzygium jambos has been employed as an
organism is called yersiniosis. Yersinia bacteria are of interest because they can antidiabetic remedy in Central and South America, although the reputation
survive very low temperatures (refrigeration) and are also highly resistant to of Jambul has been far more substantial. Brazilian and Fijian treatments for
exposure to heat. Yersinia pestis is the organism responsible for the bubonic diabetes have also utilised the Malay Apple (Syzgyium malaccense) (Morton
plague. 1986)
reputation for being clinically effective in the

latter condition. Eduardo Quisumbing (1951)
provided additional details: ‘The ripe fruit is
astringent and is considered an efficient remedy
for diabetes mellitus. In season, a diabetic may
eat the ripe fruit at leisure; but at other times
he must drink the fruit-juice, which must first
have been pasteurized and then placed in sealed
bottles. A decoction of the leaves or bark may be
given, but the ripe fruit is considered best … The
dried seeds, pulverized, are an efficacious remedy
in diabetes.’
Jambul’s preparation also included leaf or seed

tinctures (macerated in alcohol) and the fruit
decoction. Studies of the antidiabetic attributes
of Syzygium cumini (seeds, bark) have tended to
support its clinical use (Nair 1986; Singh 1990,
1991; Srivastava 1983; Villaseñor & Lamadrid
2006). Indian investigations have established a
significant hypoglycaemic effect in animal studies.
Fruit extracts stimulated insulin release from the
pancreas, as well as having a direct hypoglycaemic
effect. Importantly, the effect of seed extracts was
Flowers of the Jambul (Syzygium cumini).
long lasting, even after withdrawal of the drug
used as an astringent antidiarrhoeal, stomachic and (Sharma 2003, 2005; Singh & Gupta 2007).
diuretic remedy. The fruit (infusion or decoction) was One study has suggested that the gummy fibre
listed in the British Herbal Pharmacopoea of 1983 as a from Syzygium cumini seeds had substantial
specific for treating diarrhoea with griping. Jambul’s hypoglycaemic activity (Pandey & Khan 2002).
antimicrobial (antifungal, antibiotic) attributes have
made it particularly useful for both internal use Despite the antidiabetic reputation of Jambul,
(dysentery) and external application (wounds, ulcers,
there has been debate about the efficacy of the
mouth ulcers, ringworm) (Morton 1986).
remedy. Quisumbing (1951) summarised the
situation: ‘Dey states that the seed, or stone, has
Maiden (1921) mentioned the medicinal acquired some reputation as a remedy for diabetes,
reputation of Eugenia jambolana: ‘A vinegar and is believed to check the diastatic conversion
prepared from the juice of the ripe fruit is an of starch into sugar in that form of the disease
agreeable stomachic and carminative; it is also which depends on an increased production of
used as a diuretic in India. The bark is a useful glucose; but although many favourable reports as
astringent. The expressed juice of the leaves to its use have been published, it does not appear
enters into Indian medicine in various ways. to have justified the high claims originally made
The seeds are said to be a powerful remedy in for it.’ This reservation appears to be supported
diabetes, but their true value has not yet been by substantial Brazilian investigations that failed
assigned’. Certainly, the tree has an established to demonstrate any hypoglycaemic properties
for either Jambul or the Rose Apple (Syzygium Other Syzygium species have shown experimental
jambos). Some of the studies were comparable hypoglycaemic effects. They include Syzygium
to those performed in India. This would suggest samarangense (the Caribbean), S. cordatum (South
that there is a different chemical race or variety of Africa) and S. alternifolium (India). Flavonoids
with anti-diabetic and immunomodulatory activity
the plant, which may account for the efficacy of
have been isolated from the Syzygium samaragense
the Indian-grown material (Pepato 2005; Teixeira (Resurreccion-Magno 2005; Musabayane 2005; Kuo
2000, 2004, 2006; Olivera 2005). The subject is 2004; Rao & Rao 2001).18 Compounds in Clove
by no means resolved. (Eugenia aromaticum) have also shown an insulin-like
activity that could be beneficial for diabetics (Prasad
2005).
The use of Eugenia jambolana could confer other

therapeutic benefits, including tissue-protective effects
that may prevent some of the side effects of diabetes.
Extracts have shown antioxidant and cholesterol-
lowering activity, as well as a protective effect on
pancreatic, brain, liver and kidney cellular function.
A study of Momordica charantia (Bitter Melon) and
Eugenia jambolana showed that they prevented the
development of diabetic cataracts19, as well as having
a protective effect on diabetic neuropathy (nerve
damage) and gastric damage in animals. In addition,
Jambul seed extracts have shown anti-ulcer potential
due to antioxidant and mucosal protective effects.
Tannins from bark extracts have also demonstrated
gastroprotective activity (Chaturvedi 2007; Ravi
2004, 2005; Stanely Mainzen Prince 2003; Ramirez
& Roa 2003; Rathi 2002; Grover 2001, 2002). There
is another interesting aspect of the genus that is worthy
of serious investigation. In animal studies, Syzygium
cumini seed extracts had radioprotective effects with
potential to reduce damage to the gastrointestinal
tract and bone marrow (Jagetia & Baliga 2002, 2003;
Jagetia 2005, 2007).
Syzygium samarangense. (Courtesy: Allen Timothy
Chang, Wikipedia)
From this it seems clear that the pharmacological
potential of the genus should not be ignored. Even
though the active components of plant-based remedies
may not be completely understood, they still have valid
effects. Because the search for ‘active components’
in a plant extract is basically driven by the chemical
18 Flavonoids from this species have shown active antispasmodic and calcium
antagonist actions that would explain its efficacy as an antidiarrhoeal remedy
(Amor 2005; Ghayur 2006).
19 Studies of the inhibitory effects of Syzygium malaccense extracts on xanthine
oxidase have also suggested this species had potential for the prevention of
diabetic cataracts (Guerrero & Guzman 1998).
industry, establishing the validity of these medicines Betulinic acid and friedelolactone were identified as
has too often merited little attention from those who the antifungal compounds in Syzygium jambos extracts
fund research. Usually, support for research into the which were active against skin fungi (dermatophytes)
properties of a herb is incidental to the ongoing search (Kuiate 2007).
for a chemical with a marketable future. The drive is to
find a new commercial drug – not to discover whether
a plant extract (which cannot hold a patent) is a valid The fact that a number of Syzygium species have been
therapeutic agent. With the advent of new processing utilised for treating fevers and painful conditions
methods and the application of patents to specialised suggests that these remedies could possess anti-
herbal extract processes, however, this attitude is inflammatory, antipyretic and immunological
changing. The desire for medicines with a lack of properties. In Cambodia a decoction of the fruit,
side-effects has begun to lend substantial support to leaves or seeds of the Malay Apple (Syzygium
herbal-based medicine, although this remains minor malaccense) was utilised as a febrifuge, while in Java a
in comparison to the money spent on pharmaceutical sweetened flower infusion of the Rose Apple (Syzygium
drug research. jambos) was taken. The juice of macerated leaves has
been used similarly, and the powdered leaves were
dusted on the body for smallpox as a cooling agent
Among the other useful insights that have been (Quisumbing 1951). Investigations have identified
gained from research into the Syzygium genus, some flavan-3-ols (including catechin, gallocatechin) with
interesting information has surfaced with regard to anti-inflammatory actions in Syzygium malaccense
the antiviral and antimicrobial properties of certain and S. corynocarpum (Noreen 1998). Studies of
species. Eugenia (Syzygium) malaccensis bark extracts Syzygium cumini (seed, bark and leaf extracts) have
had antiviral properties against Herpes simplex virus, also shown substantial anti-inflammatory properties.
vesicular stomatitis virus and HIV-1, along with In addition, leaf extracts that contained hydrolysable
antimicrobial activity against Staphylococcus aureus and tannins and flavonoids showed anti-allergic (anti-
Streptococcus pyogens. Some extracts also demonstrated oedema) properties. Seed extracts also demonstrated
immunological effects and minor antifungal attributes an antipyretic activity, as well as neurological (central
(Locher 1995, 1996). Additional species with antiviral nervous system sedative) effects (Chakraborty
attributes include the Clove tree (Syzygium aromaticum 1986; Nag Chaudhuri 1990; Mahapatra 1986;
syn. S. caryophyllata), Eugenia (Syzygium) jambolana Muruganandan 2001, 2002; Brito 2007).
and Syzygium claviflorum.20 Interestingly, Clove
extracts were found to combine well with conventional A few additional attributes of the Malay Apple merit
antiviral drugs such as acyclovir (animal studies). This investigation, particularly with regard to claims that
type of discovery could reveal new opportunities for it can affect fertility. In some countries, root bark
drug therapies. Eugeniin was identified as the active and leaf infusions of Syzygium malaccense were used
antiviral component, although other compounds may as an abortifacient and emmenagogue (Morton
also be involved (Kurokawa 1995, 1998; Yukawa 1996; 1986). In Hawaii, a leaf and bark infusion was
Shiraki 1998; Hussein 2000; Tragoolpua & Jatisatienr taken post-delivery by the mother to help expel the
2007; Bhanuprakash 2008). Eugenol21 and Syzygium afterbirth.22 Even in cases where an abortion had
claviflorum (leaves) have shown anti-HIV replication occurred naturally, the tea was taken by the mother
properties. The latter contains oleanolic acid, platanic as a cleansing remedy (Kepler 1983). There are other
acid and betulinic acid (and derivatives) as the active species with similar uses. In Fiji, a liquid pressed from
antiviral agents (Kashiwada 1998; Fujioka1994). the bark of S. neurocalyx was used to procure abortion.
Another remedy using this species was taken as a tonic
20 Herbs of interest with similar antiviral potential included Rhus javanica, to treat ‘relapse after giving birth’ and for treating
Geum japonicum and Terminalia chebula. The latter two species were also
active against cytomegalovirus (Kurokawa 1995; Yukawa 1996; Shiraki ‘sickness in the bones’. Syzygium malaccense (stem
1998).
21 Clove bud oil contains large amounts of eugenol (88.6%), as well as 22 It was specified that the bark was collected from mature trees, and tender
eugenyl acetate (5.6%) and beta-caryophyllene (1.4%) (Braga 2007). leaves were harvested from saplings.
liquid) has been likewise recommended as a tonic and family Zingiberaceae). Unfortunately, overall,
for ‘pain deep in the bones’, while a filtrate of the bark they did not compete well with traditional
was employed to treat a swollen stomach following spices as the native material tended to have a
childbirth, weakness after childbirth, ‘relapsing illness’ considerably less pungent character.
and venereal disease (gonorrhoea). Syzygium gracilipes
(liquid extracted from the bark) has been used to
increase fertility (Weiner 1985). Studies of Syzygium
Therefore the early exploitation of the Australian
cumini (seeds) and oleanolic acid from Eugenia flora was linked to a search for fragrant
jambolana (flowers) have indicated anti-fertility (male components. Those involved in the search
contraceptive) properties, while Clove extracts have for exploitable native plants, perhaps with a
shown aphrodisiac potential (Sinha 1986; Rajasekaran fair measure of excitement, would have been
1988; Tajuddin 2003). delighted to discover one of the most famous of
all aromatic plants in Australia – the Sandalwood.
The beauty and decorative appeal of Australia’s The True Sandalwood (Santalum album), which
great diversity of Lillypillies was one of the was found in the northern tropics, was a bit of
distinguishing features of the native Myrtaceae. a disappointment as it was not present in large,
The fame of the family was also firmly established harvestable quantities. However, a couple of other
by medicinal essential oils from the Eucalypts. native ‘Sandalwoods’ were fairly widespread.
Later discoveries involved the extraction of The Desert Quandong (Santalum acuminatum)
some distinctive oils from the genus – that is, and the Wild Plum or Plumbush (Santalum
the Lemon Ironbark (Eucalyptus staigeriana), lanceolatum) were interesting fruit resources with
the Lemon-scented Gum (Eucalyptus citriodora, a wide distribution throughout the continent.
now Corymbia citriodora) and the Lemon Myrtle The Wild Plum also had respected medicinal
(Backhousia citriodora). In addition, there was qualities and mildly aromatic sandalwood-like
the culinary attraction of the native Sassafras timber. However, the highly aromatic West
and Cinnamon trees – characteristics that were Australian Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum)
quite obviously associated with a number of the became particularly favoured as an essential oil
Laurels (family Lauraceae). Other native herbal and perfumed timber resource. Their fame was
spices that rated some attention were sourced ultimately to lead to the downfall of some these
from different families. These included a number plants on a spectacular scale. The harvest of the
of rainforest species: the Native or Queensland Native Sandalwoods was to be accompanied by
Nutmeg (Myristica insipida, Myristicaceae), the tales of exploitation, greed and incredible waste.
Native Pepper Vine (Piper novae-hollandiae, It is a story that truly highlights the need for wise
Piperaceae), and Native Ginger (Alpinia coerulea, management of Australia’s natural resources.
Chapter 10
SANDALWOOD:
THE AROMATIC EXPORT
been responsible for mapping new trade routes across

the world, and has been the motivation behind
inordinate acts that were linked to some basic human
vices: avarice, deception, extortion, and unethical
exploitation – some of which ended in slavery, murder
and outright war. The following comment eloquently
sums up the exploitative, almost addictive, aspects
of the Sandalwood business quite well: ‘The trade
in this fragrant wood has been going on since the
dawn of history and will probably not cease until the
connection between the sandal trees and the idolators
existing from time immemorial, shall have been
broken up, by one or another becoming extinct as a
race as the Archaeopteryx or the Dodo’ (Sawyer 1892,
cited in Applegate 1990).1
Sandalwood is important in Indian traditions as a

sign of purity that is integral to many aspects of the
culture, most notably customs relating to marriage
and death. The oil, as it evaporates, is said to take the
soul to Heaven – which is why a remarkable amount
of timber, much of it (around 4 tonnes) Santalum
lanceolatum sourced from Australia, was used on Rajiv
Native Sandalwood (Santalum spicatum) Gandhi’s funeral pyre in 1948 (Burfield & Wildwood
2004).2 In China, Santalum album was known as T’an
The Sandalwoods (Santalum species; family Hsiang – a name that refers to ‘trueness’ and ‘sincerity’
Santalaceae) have achieved near-legendary fame as (T’an) – and the wood (powdered) was used as an
a perfumery resource. From as long ago as 3,000 incense for worship. The famous nineteenth century
B.C. Sandalwood was traded from Kerala in India to French chemist perfumier Septimus Piesse made a very
the Mediterranean and northern Africa. In ancient pertinent observation in 1855, when he commented:
times, the Egyptians, Phoenicians, King Solomon 1 Archaeopteryx (meaning ‘ancient wing’) is the oldest known bird, with
of Israel, and the Romans prized the tree. Over the fossils dating from the Jurassic Period, 150 million years ago. The Dodo
(Raphus culcullatus) from the island of Mauritius, was hunted to extinction
centuries this highly perfumed timber, and the oil somewhat more recently, in the middle of the seventeenth century.
extracted from it, has reached into every aspect of 2 Sandalwood timber was first exported from Australia in 1846, when 4 tons
human existence. It has inspired religious traditions, were sent overseas for oil extraction (Applegate 1990).
262
Chapter 10 SANDALWOOD: THE AROMATIC EXPORT 263
‘continuous offerings to the Buddhas have almost Early, unsustainable harvests

exterminated the plant from the Celestial Empire and The Australian Sandalwoods have been hunted for
such is the demand that it is about to be cultivated their aromatic wood since their discovery in the early
in West Australia in the expectation of profitable 1800s. Commercially, the first exports were made
return, which we doubt will be realised’. Sandalwood from Western Australia in the mid-1840s, after which
is difficult to grow – it has a semi-parasitic habit the industry went Australia-wide. Around 3,000-
that involves an intimate relationship with specific 4,000 tons were exported annually from Western
host trees, it grows very slowly, and takes at least two Australia until the end of the century. In Queensland
decades to reach a reasonable size for harvest. The best exports began in 1865 from Cape York, and gradually
quality takes much longer. moved around the state to harvest natural stands of
the trees from areas such as Normanton (1917), near
More than a century ago, the Reverend G.A. Stuart the Mitchell River (1923), and western Queensland
MD mentioned the tree’s propagation under the (around Hughenden in the 1920s-1930s) (Applegate
British in Mysore, India and gave details of the harvest: 1990). Sandalwood was also procured from South
Australia in massive amounts – operations began in
The wood originally came from the countries of the 1925. However, it fairly quickly became obvious that
Buddhists and Mohammedans, but it is now grown in the venture was becoming unsustainable. Government
Lingnan [China] … The sandal-wood tree grows under
regulations and the institution of a co-operative
the protection of the British government in Mysore,
Sandalwood Merchants Association in 1928 began to
and in some cases is allowed to attain to the height of
twenty-five feet. The trees are usually cut down when control the problem with the establishment of a quota
twenty years old, and the wood is chopped into billets system for the different states (Statham 1990).
for sale. The roots and heartwood yield a fine, yellow,
clear oil, which is imported into China … and is much Even so, less than six decades after the initial
valued for its fragrance. Other woods used in the carving exports, Joseph Maiden was to observe: ‘In my
of fans and like articles are given a coating of this oil to
make them appear to be genuine sandalwood (Stuart
recent visit to Western Australia I noticed that
1911). It is important to note that the entire tree
Sandalwood is collected by pulling up the whole
was utilised, including the roots – which were shrub or small tree by a horse and chain. The
ripped out of the ground. It is the heartwood trunk is then cut off and the branches are left on
the ground’ (Maiden 1903). This type of harvest
and old roots that are most valued for oil
extraction. This meant that for the industry did not leave the roots behind for regrowth.
Eventually, every tree within 250 kilometres
to survive, some manner of conservation and
propagation strategy was essential. around Perth was hunted down and dragged
from the soil.
The classic source of Sandalwood timber and
oil, Santalum album, originates from eastern Maiden provided details of the commercial value
Indonesia, northern Australia and tropical areas of of these early harvests: ‘In 1849, 1,204 tons of
the Indian Peninsula. Over time, the importance sandalwood, valued at £10,711, were shipped
of the trade in Sandalwood saw the tree become from Western Australia. The merchants bought
more widely distributed in cultivation and it it for shipment at £6 to £6 10s. per ton. In
spread to Sri Lanka, China, Hawaii, and the 1876, 7,000 tons were exported, of the estimated
Philippines.There are, in total, around sixteen value of £70,000. The amount exported in 1879
species in the genus, of which five are endemic (chiefly to China and Singapore) was 4,700
to Australia. In addition to Santalum album, tons, valued at £47,000. The amount exported
they are Santalum acuminatum, S. lanceolatum, in 1884 was valued at £29,960, of which this
S. murrayanum, S. obtusifolium and S. spicatum. wood formed a considerable portion. China is
the chief market for it. Some of it is used for from shortsighted exploitation that led to massive
burning in joss-houses.’ He noted that Schimmel oversupply problems. It was not until the late 1880s
& Co.’s report of October 1890 included the that the next major boom occurred, in association with
statement: ‘The considerable quantity of 4,470 the exploration of the Western Australian goldfields.3
The miners found unharvested Sandalwood trees in
tons, worth £33,525, of the resinous-smelling
the remote areas in which they were prospecting, and
Australian sandalwood, from the Swan River used these wild stocks as a way of supplementing their
(quite unsuitable to European requirements), income. The consequent environmental disruption
was exported in 1899 to Singapore and China’ was significant and quite irreparable. This devastation
(Maiden 1903). The material that was not suitable was later compounded by the wholesale clearing
for oil extraction could easily be powdered and operations that were used to establish farms for wheat
used for making the Chinese ‘joss stick’ incense. crops, practices that denuded the countryside of its
remaining natural floral attributes. It must have
been quite obvious that conservation measures were
In 1926 Professor E.H. Rennie, in his presidential needed because the Department of Woods and Forests
address to the Australasian Association for the made attempts at reforestation programs – aiming to
Advancement of Science, made the following plea for conserve and extend the area of Sandalwood forest.
conservation: They were not successful because, while host plants
were provided, seedlings were attacked by pests and
Before concluding I should like to plead for a more grazing animals decimated replanting operations.
vigorous policy of afforestation everywhere in Australia. There was even one incident where a successful
A school of forestry is to be established in Canberra, but revegetation venture, fenced off from seedling
unless and until the various Governments are prepared to
predators, was thriving – until a local managed to get
enter upon a vigorous campaign of actual afforestation
upon a large scale, the future of the supply, not only of
permission from the Government to graze his camels
timber but of many products such as I have referred to on the much-prized site. Objections were lodged
is, to say of it, very uncertain. In this connection it is and, as so often happens, were ignored. The seedlings
satisfactory to learn that steps are being taken to regenerate became camel fodder (Stratham 1990). The entire
the sandalwood forests in West Australia, but is it too episode left Western Australia with an environmental
much to ask that in any scheme of afforestation regard legacy that has become critically problematic.
may be had, not only to the supply of timber, but also to
the study of the conditions under which other products The Australian Sandalwood supplies were only one
may be conserved? Though it is quite possible that, with avenue that was exploited. Prior to the boom in the
the progress of organic chemistry, such a substance as native timber exports, Sydney held sway as a trading
santalol, for example, may be manufactured from cheap
port for Sandalwood supplies that were traded and
materials more cheaply than it can be obtained from
sandalwood, yet that does not appear to be a probability
pillaged from the Pacific Islands. Very early in the
in the near future and every precaution should be taken to 1800s, not long after the initial settlement of Sydney,
provide against a complete extinction of this valuable tree. Sandalwood became linked with the colonists’ (and
convicts’) desire for tea supplies from China. The
It took a long time for Rennie’s words to be heeded. Chinese were not particularly interested in anything
the Colony could supply and this led to Sandalwood
Many stands of Sandalwood were only saved for later becoming the currency used in the bartering process.
exploitation because of low prices in China during However, the precious timber was not found along
3 Trade was fairly moderate between 1868 and 1880 when 56,656 tons
the 1820s and 1830s. Huge stockpiles of timber were exported overall. Some later harvests were massive. The figure in 1882
logs could be found at the Launceston port (7,000 reached a record 9,605 tons – and export remained substantial until the
early 1900s (Stratham 1990). In the nine years between 1892 and 1901
tons waited on the wharf in June 1830 alone). The over 50,000 tons were exported from Western Australia (Jones 2001). A
Chinese Opium Wars of 1842–43 saw demand for the decade later, in 1919–20 the all-time high level of 14,355 tons was reached.
However, the market slumped again and, in 1929–30 only 943 tons
Australian product collapse completely. Although the were shipped out, in comparison to 5,000 tons in the five previous years
market recovered a few years later it was only to suffer (Stratham 1990).
had an extraordinarily cruel and bloody history. The

harvest was not only characterised by indiscriminate
exploitation of the timber and a heartless profit-
making ethic – it had tragic consequences that changed
the very structure of village life. The conscription
of the islanders by their chiefs, who literally worked
them to death, left a shameful legacy. Men, women
and children were used as ‘beasts of burden’ to haul
the trees from their mountainous habitats. Indeed,
every piece of Sandalwood exported from these islands
was said to be ‘stained with blood’. The extensive
conscription meant that village crops were neglected
and, when famines resulted, starvation compounded
Sandalwood piled on a Freemantle (Western Australia) wharf the massive social disruption.
being loaded onto a small steamship in 1905. From the
Passey Collection at the State Library of Western Australia.
(Courtesy: Passey collection, via Wikimedia Commons)
the eastern coastline – it was a tree of drier, more arid

regions in northern Queensland, and these areas were
largely inaccessible at the time. Whaling and sealing
ships only worked seasonally and, for part of the year,
many turned into traders that travelled throughout
the Pacific, charting the seas and the islands as they
went – bartering for scrimshaw (whales’ teeth used for
carving) and Sandalwood.4
The trade became characterised by bloody

confrontations between many of the merchant-
captains and Pacific Island inhabitants – particularly
in the Fijian Islands, New Guinea, New Caledonia,
New Hebrides, the Loyalty Islands and, later, Hawaii. Santalum haleakalae (Iliahi, Haleakala Sandalwood) fruit,
By 1860 much of the Pacific stocks were gone and Crater Road, Maui. (Courtesy: Forest & Kim Starr, Hawaii)
thousands of the islanders had been slaughtered
(Statham 1990; Applegate 1990). Indeed, the
destruction was so complete that it was thought
that most of these endemic Santalum species had
disappeared from the wild. This was probably just as
well because it saved those few trees that did manage
to survive.
The tales that are told of the exploitation of the

native Hawaiian Sandalwoods (Santalum ellipticum,
S. freycinetianum, S. haleakalae and S. paniculatum)
probably recount some of the most catastrophic of
these occurrences. The Sandalwood industry in Hawaii
4 At the time the British East India Company controlled all trade in the
region, notably with China and India, as well as other South-east Asian
Santalum haleakalae (Iliahi, Haleakala Sandalwood) flowers,
countries. Sydney traders turned to American whalers for procuring Polipoli, Maui. (Courtesy: Forest & Kim Starr, Hawaii)
Sandalwood supplies (Statham 1990).
a highly restricted distribution on the mountains of

Maui, has been compromised by predation of the
seeds and saplings by introduced rats. There are only
600 trees left (Merlin 2006; Burfield 2008).
Other species of Sandalwood across the

Pacific region are suitable for oil extraction,
although today most stands of the trees have
been virtually hunted to extinction, just as in
Hawaii.
Sandalwood oils: quality and

Santalum haleakalae (Iliahi, Haleakala Sandalwood) tree,
Polipoli, Maui. (Courtesy: Forest & Kim Starr, Hawaii)
Sandalwood oil and Australian Sandalwood oil specifications;

from the 1932 British Pharmacopoeia.
Santalum haleakalae (Iliahi, Haleakala Sandalwood) trunk,

Polipoli, Maui. (Courtesy: Forest & Kim Starr, Hawaii)
Conservation laws enacted in the 1830s came too

late for much of the native flora of the islands, and
for a large section of the population. Unsurprisingly,
the Hawaiian Sandalwoods remain a rarity, facing
equally tragic environmental changes. Santalum
freycinetianum var. lanaiense faces extinction from
habitat disruption due to introduced hoofed animals.
The viability of Santalum haleakalae, a species with
in 1932, the year in which Australian Sandalwood oil

was accepted into the British Pharmacopoeia. Even so,
controversy always surrounded its quality. Not only
were there problems with harvesting and processing
the raw material, the product’s image in the eyes of the
public suffered from substantial commercial infighting
and marketing blunders. Unlike many other essential
oils, oil from Santalum spicatum could not be readily
extracted by steam distillation, for the wood required
crushing and powdering to facilitate extraction. The
harvest, as happened with most Santalum species, was
Additional Sandalwood oil preparations; from Textbook a destructive venture that hastened the demise of the
of Materia Medica, Pharmacology and Therapeutics, A.S.
Blumgarten, 1939. species in the wild. As Joseph Maiden and Professor
Rennie had foreseen, it would be only a matter of time
Sandalwood oils have some before the entire enterprise would no longer be viable.
unique qualities that have
long intrigued chemists.
Investigations of the Australian In 1926, Rennie explained the chemical differences
species began in the late between the species:
1800s with oil from Santalum
spicatum being extracted in I have left to the last, so far as the oils are concerned,
Germany by Schimmel & that one which is most important in West Australia, viz.
oil of sandalwood. This is distilled chiefly from the wood
Co. of Leipzig. Chemical
of Santalum cygnorum [= Fusanus spicatus, now Santalum
differences between this
spicatum] and its importance may be gathered from the
Western Australian product fact that up to the end of 1924 17,000 lbs were exported.
and the ‘true’ Sandalwood oil The wood of a closely allied species, Santalum album, has
were readily apparent: ‘West been used for ages past in the East for incense, and the oil
Australian Sandalwood oil … as a drug. The wood and oil of the West Australia species
has very different properties has been used for similar purposes. The oil is valuable
from those of the East Indian for 2 reasons: it is used in perfumery, not so much for
oil [from S. album], and its somewhat pleasant smell, but as a fixative for other
perfumes, the latter being retained by the oil.5 It serves
Sandalwood oil distilled cannot be used as a substitute
this purpose, for instance, in the perfumery of soap, but
from Santalum spicatum. for the latter. The oil was
(Courtesy: J & P Day, distilled as early as 1875 by more important is its use in medicine. The medicinal
The Paperbark Co.) properties are due to the large quantity of santalol (a
Schimmel & Co. Recently the
sesquiterpene alcohol) which it contains. There has been
distillation of the oil has been some controversy as to its exact chemical composition,
taken up in Fremantle’ (Maiden 1903). but this has partly arisen from the fact … that the oil,
before exportation from West Australia began, was derived
Nevertheless, a market for the Australian product entirely from S. album, and it was this latter material
was quickly established. In 1890 the Sydney Morning which had been chiefly examined and reported on. It
Herald of 11 September published a telegram from a differs in some respects, chiefly in physical properties,
Perth correspondent: ‘The newly-established Distillery from the West Australian oil. Apparently santalol exists
Company, a short distance from Albany, shipped the in at least two isomeric forms in the oil from S. album,
first instalment of twenty cases of sandalwood oil but these have not been definitely isolated from the West
Australian product. Be that as it may, there seems to be
to England’, but it was not until 1921 that reliable
abundant medical evidence that the local oil is at least
supplies were established. The oil subsequently gained
great popularity as an antibacterial agent. Production 5 A fixative is important because it acts to stabilise and ‘fix’ the aromatic
components of a perfume so they do not volatilise. Over time, therefore, the
increased from 1.5 tonnes in 1920, to around 54 tonnes perfume will retain its character and not lose its fragrance.
equal, if not superior, to the East Indian product, although

it does not quite answer to the official requirements of
the British Pharmacopoeia. The other species of Santalum
(S. lanceolatum) found in West Australia yields an oil
differing physically (notably in specific rotation) from
that of S. cygnorum, but which is stated to be equally
efficient for medical purposes.
Santalum lanceolatum.(Courtesy: Keith A.W.

Willliams Native Plants of Queensland Vol. 2)
Officially, the santalol levels present in true
Sandalwood oil (Santalum album) are alpha-santalol
41–55% and beta-santalol 16–24%, with minor
amounts of other components (santalene, bergamotol,
nuciferols, lanceol). The old texts give extremely high
santalol levels (90–97%), although this analysis was
made without the benefit of the chemical refinements
capable with modern technology, specifically high
performance capillary gas chromatography (Burfield
2008). The oil of Santalum spicatum also contains
alpha-santalol (10–25%) and beta-santalol (10–
Santalum album; illustration from Köhler’s Medicinal Plants, 30%) in fairly good quantities. Other constituents
Germany, 1887. include variable amounts of bergamotol (2–10%),
farnesol (2.5–15%), curcumenol (5–15%), and
lanceol (2–10%) (Australian Sandalwood Company,
Sandal Wood Oil Specification, September 2007).
However, it appears there can be variation in the oil
components according to the part of the plant the
oil is sourced from (i.e. the trunkwood or buttwood)
and the extraction process utilised (steam distillation
or solvent extraction). Santalols are present in higher
amounts in the buttwood, while the levels of bisabolol
(epi-alpha-bisabolol) increase higher up in the tree.
There is also significant variation in the santalol
component according to the geographic locality in
which it was grown. Doubtless there would also be
higher yielding chemotypes with desirable oil profiles
Leaf of Santalum sp., India. (Courtesy:Pratheep,Wikimedia that would be more suitable for cultivation purposes
Commons) (Burfield & Wildwood 2004).
The alpha-bisabolol content of some forms of level of activity against Staphylococcus aureus (Jirovetz
Sandalwood oil have attracted some interest because 2006).8 In addition to the santalols, it seems that other
this compound has substantial anti-inflammatory, components are present with synergistic effects that
anti-oedema (antiphlogistic), antispasmodic, may influence the antimicrobial activity. Interestingly,
antibacterial and anti-mycotic properties – as well another study of the antibacterial properties of a leaf
as anti-anaphylactic activity and beneficial effects on extract of Santalum lanceolatum showed no activity
gastric function. It has shown significant protective against a range of bacteria, with one exception – a low
activity against chemically-induced and stress-induced inhibition level against Bacillus cereus (Palombo &
stomach damage in rats, experimental evidence that Semple 2001). Australian studies have examined the
tends to support traditional recommendations for the antiviral potential of extracts from Santalum spicatum
bisabolol-containing herb Chamomile (Matricaria (bark) and Santalum lanceolatum (bark, stems,
recutita) for treating gastrointestinal damage.6 These leaves) and found no activity against polio virus,
activities also appear to have practical potential for use cytomegalovirus or Ross River virus (Semple 1998).
in the prevention of the side-effects associated with
some common drugs, such as aspirin and NSAID
(non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug) induced Medicinal traditions
ulceration (Torrado 1995; Weiss 1988; Habersang India
1979; Jakovlev 1979; Isaac 1975, 1979). However, In Indian Ayurvedic traditions the medicinal value
it should be noted that a herbal treatment relies on of Sandalwood9 has been linked to astringent and
the activity of a complexity of components, and it disinfectant properties that were particularly well
is the history of the clinical use of the remedy that suited to treatments for genitourinary and respiratory
is important in assessing its potential medicinal use. tract disorders. Sandalwood’s antiseptic and diuretic
A single component, while it may be a guide to the effects made it a popular remedy for gonorrhoea,
medicinal properties of a plant, is often not the sole cystitis, glee (an unhealthy discharge associated with
reason for its activity. The same applies to Sandalwood gonorrhoea), and urethral haemorrhage, while its
oil evaluations. stimulant and expectorant actions were useful for the
The antibacterial properties of Sandalwood oil would relief of bronchial catarrh. The bitter wood, which has
appear to be linked to the santalol component. An sedative and astringent characteristics, was ground
interesting comparison of Sandalwood essential into a powder and made into an emulsion or paste,
oils from the West Indian Sandalwood (Amyris which was applied locally as a cooling dressing for
balsamifera)7, Santalum album and Santalum spicatum inflammatory or eruptive skin diseases, including
showed that extracts with good activity against erysipelas, eczema and prickly heat rashes. This also
Staphylococcus aureus had a moderate to high santalol gained a reputation as a diaphoretic and aphrodisiac.
content. The Santalum extracts also had activity (albeit The powdered wood was used in a combination with
at a lower level of inhibition) against the bacteria honey, sugar and rice water for treating irritable
Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella gastric disorders (including dysentery) or for the relief
pneumonia, as well as against the yeast Candida of conditions characterised by thirst and heat, for
albicans. Alpha- and beta-santalols (46.4–52.5% and example, fevers and heat stroke. For treating ‘morbid
16.5–17.7% respectively) were confirmed as the main thirst’ the powder was mixed with coconut water and
constituents of the active Santalum album oils. Two
samples of Santalum spicatum oil also had a very high 8 In these samples the santalol levels could vary substantially: alpha-santolol
16.1–19% and beta-santalol 7.2–13.5%. The combined santalol levels in
6 German Chamomile oil can contain up to 50% of alpha-bisabolol (Isaac Santalum album are significantly higher. It seems a bit of a contradiction to
1979). A Brazilian tree, Vanillosmopsis erythropappa, which belongs to the find that one sample of Santalum spicatum oil with a low level of activity
same family as Chamomile (the Asteraceae) and has a high concentration contained alpha-santalol at a reasonable level (26.5%), along with beta-
of alpha-bisabolol, has been used as an adulterant of Chamomile oil (Carle santalol (5.9%) and farnesol (14.4%) (Jirovetz 2006).
1990). 9 Indian Sandalwood must be distinguished from ‘Red Sandalwood’ (or Red
7 The santalol level in Amyris balsamifera (West Indian Sandalwood; family Sanders), which refers to the unrelated species Pterocarpus santalinus (family
Rutaceae) is characteristically low (0.2%). The oil, which is predominantly Fabaceae) which has not been utilised as an oil resource. Red Sandalwood is
elemol (31.2%) and guaiol (22%), also contains some eudesmols. The oil a resin-yielding tree that was valued as a source of dye. Pharmaceutically, the
was reasonably active against Staphylococcus aureus and showed moderate dye was employed as a colouring for tinctures. The kino is also noted to have
antifungal activity against Candida albicans (Jirovetz 2006). astringent and tonic attributes.
taken. Used externally, the oil was highly valued as a of sandal wood oil, santalol, has been prepared for use
remedy for scabies (Kapoor 2000). in gonorrhoea under the names Arhéol, Gonal, and
Gonoral. Santalol salicylate has been described under
the name Santyl; it is free from the persistent taste of the
In 1911, the Reverend G.A. Stuart MD, author oil, is said not to irritate the stomach or kidneys, and is
of the Chinese Materia Medica: Vegetable Kingdom resolved in the intestine into santalol and salicylic acid.
(substantially revised from earlier works by F. Porter
Smith, 1871) mentioned some similar medicinal uses The Australian product sourced from the wood of
of Sandalwood in China: ‘Medicinally, it is regarded Santalum spicatum, despite its chemical differences,
as carminative and corrective, and is used in hiccough, gained a similar medicinal reputation. The trade
vomiting, and choleraic difficulties. It is mixed with magazine Chemist and Druggist (28 March 1891)
mucilage and applied to acne of the face and to aching reported:
parts … This oil is [also] mentioned in the Appendix
We have had the opportunity of examining a small
to the Pentsao as a carminative remedy; but modern
sample of this oil, and have carefully compared it with
Chinese doctors have learned to use it in gonorrhoea
a sample of the genuine Madras oil. The Australian oil
also.’ is of much more fragrant odour than the Madras kind.
It rather resembles the Fiji oil [distilled from Santalum
yasi] in this respect, and also in colour, which is a pale
Great Britain straw … the Australian oil might be looked upon with
The listing for Sandalwood oil in the British suspicion, especially as it is not so soluble as East Indian
Pharmaceutical Codex of 1911 noted, with regard to oil in a mixture of one part of proof spirit and three parts
its administration: of rectified spirit; the latter dissolves in its own volume,
while 1 volume of Australian oil requires at least 1¼
On account of its persistent taste the oil is usually volume of the spirit. Both differences are, we have assured
administered in capsules, often in combination with ourselves, due to the oil containing a larger proportion of
other volatile oils or with formamine. Mixtures may be lower boiling constituents, and to admixture of cedarwood
prepared by emulsifying the oil with one-half its weight of oil. So far as the physical characteristics indicate, the oil
powdered gum acacia in the usual manner, or the sandal may be regarded as equal to official sandalwood oil, but it
wood oil may be suspended with one-fourth its weight would be advantageous to have a hospital trial made of it.
of tragacanth or half its volume of tincture of quillaia.
Spiritus Santali Compositus is a favourite method of A reply was posted on 4 April 1891: ‘I beg to assure you
administration with some practitioners, and various that it has been thoroughly tested, both in hospitals and
compound liquors of oil of sandal wood with copaiba, by private medical men, in the Australian Colonies.
cubebs, buchu, etc., are prepared. The purified alcohol The oil passed through its experimental stages, and
was highly approved of years ago, or it would not have
been introduced here. I enclose testimonials from Mr.
Joseph Bosisto, Melbourne (1st October, 1885); the
Industrial and Technological Museum, Melbourne;
and others, bearing out this assertion’ (cited in Maiden
1903). As with many natural products, the advent of
effective antibiotics in the 1940s saw the medicinal
use of Australian Sandalwood oil decline. It was not
listed in the British Pharmacopoeia of 1948.
Australian Sandalwood oil in preparation. (Courtesy of New

Mountain Sandalwood)
The modern Australian Sandalwood

industry
As recently as the early 1990s the future for Australian
Sandalwood products appeared extremely bleak,
Lassak and McCarthy commenting in 1992 that ‘oil
production has ceased and it is quite unlikely that
it will ever restart on any commercial scale’. Their
prediction was unduly pessimistic, for in the 1980s
research had begun into the cultivation of Sandalwood
in Western Australia. True, there were a number of
obstacles to the propagation process that had to be
resolved before any commercial enterprises could be
established. Sandalwoods have a very slow growth
habit and few native plants were left in the wild from
which viable crops could be established.
A Sandalwood plantation. (Courtesy: WA Sandalwood
The Western Australian Sandalwood oil industry is
Plantations)
only in its infancy with around 12 tons a year being
produced. The harvest of the raw material, around (particularly rainfall). The minimum time to harvest
2000 tons per year, has been strictly controlled for is usually around twenty years. This requires a major
decades. Debate has continued to surround the long-term vision for the industry, and substantial
quality and processing of the Australian Sandalwood government support. In comparison, Indian sources
oil (see Burfield & Wildwood 2004, Burfield 2008). note that trees around 30–35 years old are preferred
Although it cannot be considered to be equivalent for harvesting, although the highest quality Santalum
to that of the Indian Sandalwood, it can certainly be album oil was once sourced from trees 50–80 years
an attractive ‘sandalwood’ in its own right. Oil from old (Mayar 1988; Burfield & Wildwood 2004). Few,
Santalum spicatum has established its own market. The if any, trees would reach this age today.
use of the timber to make incense sticks as an aromatic
repellent alternative to mosquito coils (which often
contain irritant substances) has become popular and
they are now stocked in supermarkets throughout the
country. The market has massive potential. High grade
Australian raw material sells at around $10,000 per
tonne, with an average of $5–7,000 for average grades,
while the oil sells for $350–$600 per kilogram (Jones
2004). The wild sources of Santalum album in the
Northern Territory are limited to small and scattered
populations - and past commercial enterprises have
failed due to limited supplies (Whitehead 2006).
However, Western Australian Santalum album
plantations aim to be producing good quality oil, in
fairly substantial quantities, by 2020 (Clark 2006). Mosquito-repellent Sandalwood sticks. Courtesy New
The enterprise appears to have an excellent future. The Mountain Sandalwoods WA)
main problem lies in the fact that Sandalwood trees take
10 The oil yield of the different species can differ dramatically. There is
a long time to mature to a size where the heartwood substantial variation between the heartwood oil content of Santalum album
is suitable for harvesting – and this is influenced, and S. yasi (5–7%), S. austrocaledonicum (3–6%, depending on source),
while that of S. spicatum can be quite low (around 2%). Because the latter is
not only by species selection10, but also by growing considered unsuitable for profitable oil distillation, the wood is only used for
conditions such as soil quality and climatic variations making incense (McKinnell 1990)
is notorious, and the key to the problem of cultivation

probably lies in the fact that its roots are parasitic on
the roots of other plants. The notes I give show that the
matter is engaging the attention of Indian botanists and
others, and it is of especial importance to them because
of the magnitude of the Sandalwood industry in that
country. We in Australia should also give attention to the
subject. We have not only species of Sandalwood, but
ornamental trees, such as the Native Cherry (Exocarpus
cupressiformis), which we know from experience is very
difficult to transplant … The sandal-tree, most probably,
takes up a large proportion of those mineral substances
which it requires, not directly from the soil, but through
its haustoria [specialised absorptive structures] from the
roots of those plants with which it lives. It is well known
that plants do not take up indiscriminately all substances
which are offered to their roots in a soluble state; they
have the power of selecting those substances which suit
them best … Doubtless therefore, there are only certain
species which are capable of furnishing those mineral salts
which sandalwood requires. But we have seen that these
species are very numerous, and that they belong to a large
number of different natural families (Maiden 1903).
Research into determining the appropriate host species

is a topic that has substantially improved the selection
process with regard to compatible companion plants.
Santalum spicatum on the New Mountain Sandalwood It is important to avoid host species that could have
plantation. (Courtesy New Mountain Sandalwoods)
a weedy or invasive potential if cultivated in the
wrong situation. For instance, at one stage Australian
plantations used Ebony as a host for Sandalwood
A parasitic habit and propagation crops. However, African Ebony can become a serious
issues pest. It grows into thorny tickets and Australia does
An inherent difficulty associated with propagation not have the animals that would naturally prune the
ventures has been the parasitic nature of the Santalum tree. The potential for disaster in a plantation situation
genus. This means that the tree is dependent on was considerable and it was removed (Wright 2001).
establishing a cooperative relationship with a host This has not only been important for Santalum album
plant – a fairly specialised interaction that requires and S. spicatum propagation in Australia. The wise
specific plant species. In the case of Santalum album, selection of nutritionally supportive host species
in Australia at least, three successive hosts are required is equally influential for conservation work and
for plantation-grown crops during its lifetime. regeneration projects with endemic Santalum species
in the Pacific Islands. Consideration must be given to
The parasitic requirements of the Santalaceae were an overall appreciation of the environmental impact
an early botanical discovery. However, it took a long of the partnership that is being fostered.
time to truly realise the significance of this habit with
regard to their survival and potential for cultivation. Research has established that Sandalwood could use a
Maiden provided an interesting early discussion on leguminous ground creeper such as Alternanthera nana
the subject: (Hairy Joyweed) for its initial host, while intermediate
hosts were planted nearby. These had to be fast-growing
The difficulty which attends the cultivation of
legumes that could also fix nitrogen and provide the
Sandalwood trees which, of course, are very valuable,
necessary nutrients for the seedling, and included

resilient species of Acacia and the White Dragon
Tree (Sesbania formosa). At the same time suitable
long-term hosts were established on site (Wright
2001). The native dry rainforest tree, Cathormium
umbellatum, another legume, is currently preferred,
while further research is aimed at discovering an
ultimate host species with commercial value (Wrigley
2003). There have been a few other considerations,
such as weed and pest control, both complicated by
Sandalwoods’ intolerance of herbicides (particularly
glycophosphates) and pesticides.
The Creeping Boobialla (Myoporum parvifolium) belongs to

a native genus that yields edible fruits of variable quality.
This is a fast-growing creeping plant that quickly produces
a good groundcover. (Courtesy: Stickpen, Wikimedia
Commons)
Wheatbelt region, while Acacia aneura was more

appropriate for the Goldfields region. There are
other considerations that play an important role
in the selection process. Recently it has also been
established that Sandalwoods can be quite specific
in their choice of hosts. One South Australian study
of Acacia hosts showed that only certain dryland
species such as Acacia calamifolia, A. hemiteles and
Seedling Santalum spicatum. (Courtesy: WA Sandalwood A. argyrophylla were suitable, while others such as
Plantations) A. victoriae were not (Watling & Lethbridge 2007).
The discovery that there could be other benefits
from the host-parasite relationship has opened
some new doors for research incentives. Australian
Establishing viable plantations was to take a fairly studies of the Quandong (Santalum acuminatum)
long time, but in the late 1990s plans began to come found growing near the Creeping Boobialla
to fruition. As the crops started to gain a measure of (Myoporum parvifolium) and White Cedar (Melia
success, the scope of the enterprise widened when it azedarach) found that the Quandong benefited
was realised that the native Sandalwood had excellent significantly from these relationships. Indeed, it
potential for fulfilling a viable environmental role. even acquired insecticidal compounds from White
This was particularly true for the Western Australian Cedar that reduced predation of the tree by the
Wheatbelt region, which has been progressively Quandong Moth (Loveys 2001).
degraded by prolonged poor weather conditions and
salinisation.
Regeneration projects have found that selection of

appropriate Acacia hosts for Sandalwood can differ
according to the environmental conditions at a
particular site. For example, in Western Australia,
Acacia acuminata was more suitable for use in the
The international Sandalwood Australian plantations, whole trees have not yet
industry been harvested and extracted to truly evaluate
On the international scene, Sandalwood oil production the oil. In 1950 true Sandalwood oil production
has declined dramatically. The lack of plantation was 150 tons (sourced from 4000 tons of raw
expertise, the need for mature trees around 30 to 50 material), while in 1970 it was 100 tons (from
years old, and a history of avaricious and heedless 2500 tons raw material). Recent estimates still
harvesting of Sandalwood supplies throughout the consider around 120–150 tons of Sandalwood oil
Pacific, India and South-east Asia decimated wild is produced annually in India, of which 80 tons
populations. While the destructive nature of the is used by domestic market (Gowda 2008). This
enterprise has been responsible for much of the
leaves aside little for international trade. There
problem, in India some efforts were made to maintain
stocks. Trees under twenty years old were usually
is also the consideration that a thriving illegal
left to produce seed crops and permit regeneration, market exists and this would make one wary
a strategy that has been compromised by the spread of the source of some of the products (Burfield
of a serious fatal disease (Spike disease) caused by 2008).
infection with a Mycoplasma bacterium which has
decimated wild stocks. The trees’ survival has been Plenty of substituted Sandalwood oil products
additionally complicated by the depredations of illegal appear to be on the world market every year
harvesting, fire outbreaks, weed infestations and poor – as well as many adulterated products.11 The
animal grazing practices. A lack of appreciation of the
East African Sandalwood (Osyris tenuifolia)
importance of the host tree’s role in the health of the
Sandalwood tree is a particularly serious drawback,
from Tanzania and Kenya, and the West Indian
as the host trees are often harvested for firewood. Sandalwood (Amyris balsamifera) are the primary
In addition, Indonesian authorities have permitted substitute sources. Their supply has also rated
indiscriminate harvesting which has obliterated some concern, as the wild resources of both species
the crop wherever it was found in that country. have suffered depletion due to over-harvesting
Unfortunately, the wholesale harvest of Sandalwood and habitat destruction. The African product
trees on most Pacific islands in the past ensured that contains santalols (up to 32%) and santalyl acetate
the wild regeneration of these stocks will probably (around 35%), that give it a similarity to the true
never again be possible throughout the region. Indian Sandalwood oil, but it is not identical.
In contrast, West Indian Amyris oil, albeit
It is no surprise to learn that high grade Sandalwood
not highly valued as a Sandalwood fragrance,
oil has become extraordinarily rare. It is almost
has been used as an additive to toiletries and
impossible to obtain quality oil equivalent to
soap products (Burfield 2008). Other aromatic
the traditional East Indian Sandalwood oil, even
adulterants of Sandalwood include Araucaria,
from Santalum album grown in different regions
Cedarwood, coconut oil, castor oil and Copaiba.
of the world. Tony Burfield of Cropwatch (2008)
comments: ‘It remains a fact that Santalum album
oil from Indonesian sources is (or should we say The Pacific Islands Sandalwoods
was) a pale shadow of the olfactorily superior East A number of Pacific Island Santalum species were
Indian oil, in spite of their analytic similarities, among the wild resources indiscriminately harvested
and a thorough examination of Australian during the 1800s. They included Santalum macgregorii
plantation-produced Santalum album oil remains from Papua New Guinea, S. yasi from Fiji, Tonga and
an important factor in acceptability.’ Although Samoa, S. austrocaledonicum from Vanuatu and New
core and chip samples of a small number of 11 ‘Sandalwood oil’ has also been found diluted with polyethylene glycols,
glyceryl acetate and benzyl benzoate. In addition there are a number of
trees have produced a ‘good quality oil’ from synthetic Sandalwood aromatics on the market.
Caledonia, and S. insulare from French Polynesia. much of the traditional knowledge was lost. There
Even though the extracted oil was not exactly the same is one record of the use of a decoction of Santalum
as Santalum album from a perfumery point of view, yasi, in combination with the leaves of Homalanthus
these species were used as substitutes (or adulterants). populneus (a member of the Euphorbiaceae), in Samoa,
These oils possess unique aromatic qualities in their as a remedy for elephantiasis and filariasis, which
own right and this has the potential to enhance their suggests potential antibacterial and/or antiparasitic
marketable value. Some would appear to have good attributes. An analysis of the kernel oil from Fijian
commercial prospects considering the rarity of true Sandalwood fruit (yield 30.4%) identified ximenynic
Sandalwood oil, which has inspired some attempts at acid as a major component (Cambie 1986; Cambie
cultivation projects. & Ash 1994). In Polynesian traditions the powdered
wood of Santalum insulare was a popular additive to
The oil of the Fijian Sandalwood (Santalum yasi) coconut oil for use in massage therapy; it could also
contains a particularly high proportion of santalol be inhaled, or massaged into the head, for the relief
(60–70%) (Thompson 2006). The early Sandalwood of earache and headaches. Sometimes it was applied
traders initiated the exploration of Fiji in the search for locally to treat skin infections (Whistler 1992).
this species, which is now found only in inaccessible
sites, although once common along some stretches of
the coastline. The coastal trees were rapidly harvested
over a short period between1800 and 1805, and
subsequently there was never enough available to
achieve any great importance as an oil resource. As
with most of the Sandalwood trees, illegal trading of
the timber of the Fijian Sandalwood (whatever may
be left) continues to be a matter of some concern.
Opinions differ substantially about its value as a
‘sandalwood’ oil. While some authors have mentioned
its use as a sandalwood substitute, others have been
less than impressed with the quality. As with most
types of Sandalwood oil, the quality of the end
product depends upon the selection of an appropriate
chemotype, the collection techniques employed, the
age of the trees harvested, and the type of oil extraction
process utilised. Recent samples of the oil were noted
to be of poor quality, possibly because they were
harvested from immature trees (Burfield 2008). Even
so, this species has the potential to produce marketable
grades of oil – but only if farming enterprises are wisely
planned and managed, and those involved look to the
future of the industry, without holding unachievable
short-term aspirations. It is a crop that needs to be
viewed as part of the heritage and future of the Island
people who are lucky enough to still have plant genetic
resources left to enable propagation ventures.
The local use of the New Caledonian Sandalwood (Santalum
austrocaledonicum) as an antidysenteric remedy is suggestive
We know little of the Fijian medicinal uses of this of antibacterial and astringent properties. The stem-bark
extract was taken for the relief of dysenteric symptoms of
plant. One assumes that when the timber became ciguatera fish poisoning (Bourdy 1992). (Courtesy Denis
extraordinarily valuable and was quickly exploited, Prévôt, Wikimedia Commons)
A few other Pacific Island species deserve mention. to UV (ultraviolet) radiation and chemical
The New Caledonian Santalum austrocaledonicum damage and continues to be the subject of serious
var. austrocaledonicum has become a minor oil investigation (Arasada 2008; Bommareddy
resource with similarities to Indian Sandalwood oil. 2007; Dwivedi 2003, 2005, 2006; Kaur 2005;
The essential oil contains santalol (40–48% alpha-
Dwivedi & Abu-Ghazaleh 1997; Banerjee 1993).
santalol, 20–22% beta-santalol), as well as bisabolol (a
perfumery component with a pleasant floral character),
These studies suggest that the incorporation of
bergamotol and laceol. The last-named compound alpha-santalol into skin creams as a preventative
is not found in Santalum album. In addition, there for skin cancer could be of practical interest.
is a chemotype with lower levels of santalol that is Investigations have also shown that the aromatic
rich in nuciferol (7–25%) and/or lanceol (15–41%). qualities of Sandalwood can affect brain function
The French Polynesian Santalum insulare (which has and mood. This tends to support its traditional
nine varieties) also yields santalol chemotypes with use as a relaxant and antipsychotic remedy that
levels (around 60%) similar to that of the Indian can also stimulate mental function. Alpha-
Sandalwood. Other constituents of interest in this santolol has shown activity similar to that of
species include bisabolol and nuciferol. Oils from
chlorpromazine, although its effect was less
some varieties have potential as unique fragrances, and
among them is a rare nuciferol-rich (17%) chemotype
potent (Heuberger 2006; Hongratanaworakit
from the Marquesas Islands (Butaud 2003; Braun 2004; Okugawa 2000). In addition, alpha- and
2005; Thompson 2006). beta-santalols have shown activity against the
bacterium Helicobacter pylori (Ochi 2005).
Medicinal uses of Australian Beauty, food and medicine in one:
Sandalwoods Clausena lansium
Over the last decade some interesting research
has been undertaken with regard to the medicinal
potential of Sandalwood. Because of the scarcity
of the product, however, its practical value will
probably lie in the development of applications
that utilise synthesised chemical constituents.
Investigations of the antiviral properties of
Sandalwood oil have shown positive activity
against Herpes simplex virus (HSV-1 and HSV-
2), but the potent activity of Chamomile oil held
more promise for the treatment of Herpes genitalis
(Koch 2008; Schnitzler 2007; Benencia 1999).
More promising is the chemopreventive potential

of Sandalwood against skin cancer, a line of
investigation inspired by the traditional use of
the emulsion, paste or essential oil in Ayurvedic
medicine for the treatment of skin disorders. Fruit of the Wampee. (Courtesy: Wing K. Lee, Wikimedia
Commons)
Studies have established that alpha-santolol
was the major component with anticancer The Wampee (Clausena lansium), in the family
(apoptosis-inducing) activity. It was shown to Rutaceae, is a common backyard fruit tree throughout
be useful for the prevention of skin cancer due South-east Asia, India and China. This attractive tree
(7.5%). Other essential oil constituents in the leaves

included ledol (6.5%) and sinensal (5.6%). The latter
was also found in the flowers (4.1%) and sarcocarps
(4%), along with 9-octadecenamide (17.2%) in the
flowers, and farnesol (5.2%) in the sarcocarps (Zhao
2004).
In Chinese traditional medicine the leaf decoction of

Wampee was a valued antipyretic and was employed
as a preventative for influenza, colds and other
feverish conditions. This is very similar to the use of
some Australian Sandalwood species (see Santalum
lanceolatum in table below). In addition, there is an
intriguing reference to Wampee being specifically
utilised for treating epidemic meningoencephalitis
and malaria. The seeds and roots were also regarded
as having analgesic, stomachic and anti-oedema
attributes, and were used as a remedy for stomachache,
epigastric pain, hernia pain, dysmenorrhoea
(menstrual pain) and rheumatic bone pain. The sweet
and sour fruits could also be taken to improve the
digestive processes and as a cough remedy (Hong
Kong CMRI 1984).
Flowers of the Wampee.
is of interest because the essential oils of various parts

were found to contain a fairly good levels of beta-
santalol: 50.6% in the flowers; 35.2% in the leaves (plus
methyl santalol 6.9%); and 52% in the sarcocarps, the
fleshy part of the grape-like fruit (plus alpha-santalol
15.5%). The essential oil of the seeds was found to
have a completely different character: phellandrene
(54.8%), limonene (23.6%) and p-menth-1-en-4-ol
Table 10.1
Medicinal uses of Australian Sandalwoods and details of their oil analysis
Species and distribution Medicinal uses Chemical notes
Santalum acuminatum (syns Latz (1996): This species is not suitable for essential
Fusanus acuminatus, Santalum Paste made from ground seeds is considered a oil production.
preissianum, Santalum cognatum, powerful medicine. Used as a type of liniment and
Eucarya acuminata) is rubbed into the body for general ailments. Jones 1995:
Fragrant Sandalwood, Sweet Edible oil-rich seed kernels (65% oil)
Quandong, Native Peach Barr (1993) & Goddard (1988): are rich in santalbic acid* (46% of
Oily kernels ground to paste, mixed with a small total fatty acids) which has antifungal
Distribution: amount of water/saliva to make smooth semi-solid and antibacterial (anti-Staphylococcus)
Continental Australia - widespread. paste: liniment rubbed into affected part to relieve activity. Smaller amounts of sterolic
Found from Great Dividing Range pain of swelling, bruises, sprains, backache acid also present.
(but does not reach the east coast) to
the west coast. Does not extend to the Butaud 2008:
northern regions & the tropics. Studies have shown lower levels of
santalbic (ximenynic) acid: 32.2–
46.2%, with higher levels of oleic acid:
43.8–57.7%.
Possingham 1986:
Also contains methyl benzoate†, the
levels of which could vary substantially:
32–1294mcg/kernel.
Isaacs 1994:
Extracted oil useful for cosmetic
purposes.
Santalum album Whitehead (2006): Oil (distilled from heartwood) has

Sandalwood Fruit used in Northern Territory for treatment of extensive use in perfumery.
skin disorders.
Distribution: Fragrant timber is a popular incense
Northern Territory (northern coast) Perry & Metzger (1981): resource.
Overseas: China: freshly ground power warms the interior and
India, Southeast Asia (Malay stops pain, used to relieve nausea, abdominal pain Wood: rich in santalol
Archipelago, Timor, Indonesia), and hiccups. Used as a carminative and administered
the Philippines and (rarely) some for vomiting and choleric disorders. Clark 2006:
Oceanic Islands. Modern use of oil as specific to treat gonorrhoea. Official international (ISO) standards:
Introduced: China, Sri Lanka & Paste from the wood smeared on face and head as alpha-santolol: 41–55%
Taiwan cooling agent. Used for headaches due to heat. beta-santalol: 16–24%
Powdered wood: applied locally to treat skin plus epi-beta-santalol and bergamotol.
complaints or taken internally as a diuretic and
antifebrile remedy. Clark 2006:
Infusion or decoction taken as an astringent for 14 year old plantation trees:
diarrhoea and dysentery. alpha-santalol: 44.7–46.7%
beta-santalol: 20.8–22.2%
Indonesia: combined with the leaves of Mimusops Other constituents: curcumenol,
elengi in cigarettes to treat asthma. bisabolol, helifolenol, sesquicineol.
Butaud 2008:
Studies have shown high levels of
ximenynic acid* in fruit kernel: 75–
82.8%, with lower levels of oleic acid:
12.3–18%.

Santalum lanceolatum (syn. S. Maiden (1903): This is an aromatic species that has
oblongatum) The leaves were used by the blacks for boils, sores, been used for essential oil production;
Wild Plum, Plumbush and gonorrhoea (RJ Dalton, Tinapagee, Wanaaring). not as rich a resource as S. album or S.
spicatum.
Distribution: Webb (1969):
Widespread throughout all of Decoction of scraped outer wood drunk for ‘sickness Fergeus 2000:
continental Australia. in the chest’ (Arukun Mission, Cape York). Sample analysis: 43% lanceol, 25%
Overseas: extends to Papua New Decoction of leaves and bark drunk as purgative nuciferol, 2% alpha-santalol.
Guinea (Hopevale Mission, Cooktown).
Infusion of roots applied to rheumatic pain Burfield 2008:
(Broome, WA). Oil has been used as additive to
Infusion of roots applied to body for refreshment Australian Sandalwood oil to ensure
when hot and tired from hunting, used ‘something compliance with essential oil standards .
like witch hazel’; the leaves are burnt to drive
mosquitoes away and people ‘smoke’ themselves and Hegarty 2001:
babies to get strength for a long trip (Broome, WA). The roots, sweet flesh of fruit, and seed
Infusion of roots said to relieve itching (Broome, kernels are edible. The latter contain the
WA). antimicrobial agent santalbic acid.*.
Latz (1996): Butaud 2008:

The Pitjantjatjara make a paste from ground kernels: Fruit kernels: ximenynic acid (45.5%)
used as a medicinal liniment. and oleic acid (26%).
Barr (1993):
Wash: leaf decoction used as body wash for colds,
malaise, general aches and pains.
Smoke therapy: smoke from leafy branches on hot
coals is wafted over newborn baby to make them
strong and placid.
Decoction: inner bark shavings boiled for 1–2 hours
and a little liquid taken for general pains, colds, sore
throat, venereal disease, dysuria (difficult urination),
diabetes.
Isaacs (1994):
Seed paste: rubbed on sore areas.
Root infusion: as application to body when hot and
tired; also to treat rheumatism.
Leaf and bark decoction: purgative.
Infusion: bark shavings soaked to make a wash
applied to itchy skin problems
Santalum murrayanum Low (1992): This species is not used as a source
Bitter Quandong Aborigines reported to eat seeds and roasted root of essential oil. The name ‘Bitter
bark. Quandong’ refers to the very bitter
Distribution: The root and bark were noted to have been used to character of the fruit.
West Australia (south-east) prepare a stupefying drink.
South Australia (coastal) ranging Butaud 2008:
inland. Ximenynic acid in fruit kernels (36.5–
Victoria & New South Wales 45%), and oleic acid (54.8%).
Santalum obtusifolium Webb (1969): Butaud 2008:
Decoction of wood drunk for constipation High levels of ximenynic acid* (71.5%)
Distribution: (Numbulwar Mission, NT). and oleic acid (14.3%) in fruit kernels.
New South Wales (mainly coastal, Decoction of wood drunk for aches and pains
also ranges inland) (Numbulwar Mission, NT).
Queensland (south-east only)
Notes
* Santalbic acid = ximenynic acid, a fairly rare fatty acid that was originally
† Methyl benzoate is an interesting aromatic substance reminiscent of
identified from comparison of Santalum seed oils with those of the Ximenia
Pineapple Guava or Feijoa fruit (Feijoa sellowiana). High levels, such as those
genus (Olacaceae family). The essential fatty acid profile of the Polynesian
that are sometimes encountered in Santalum fruits, can be unattractive.
Sandalwood (Santalum insulare) shows a high level of ximenyic acid
The compound has solvent, pesticidal and insect-attractant attributes
(74.5%), similar to that of S. album and S. obtusifolium. (1.8%) (Butaud
(particularly for male orchid bees for the manufacture of pheromones). The
2008). In addition, Exocarpos cupressiformis seeds were noted to contain
most recent claim to fame for methylbenzoate is that drug-sniffing dogs are
substantial amounts of santalbic acid (Jones 1981).
being trained to detect it as an indicator for the presence of cocaine.

Santalum spicatum (syns Santalum Webb (1969): Source of Western Australian or Swan
cygnorum, Fusanus spicatus, Eucarya Cough medicine: inner bark used as for Acacia River Sandalwood oil.
spicata) ligulata (Cosmo Newbery Mission, WA).
Fragrant Sandalwood, Australian Inside of nuts: used as ‘rubbing medicine for colds Australian Sandalwood Company
Sandalwood and stiffness’ (Cosmo Newbery Mission, WA). specifications 2007:
Oil analysis:
Distribution: Reid & Betts (1979): alpha-santalol (10-25%)
South Australia & West Australia Inner (?root) bark infusion used for coughs (soaked/ beta-santalol (10-30%)
(does not extend to northern WA or boiled in water until it turns red). Other constituents: bergamotol,
to Central Australia) Seeds: ground and heated to make a paste which was farnesol, curcumenol and lanceol.
used as a rubefacient and as an inhalation .
Hegarty 2001:
Fruit is potential marketable bush food
that is devoid of methyl benzoate.†
Liu & Longmore 1997:

Seed oil contains ximenyic acid (30–
35% of total fatty acids), which was
shown to be metabolised to oleic acid in
animal experiments.
Butaud 2008:
Fruit kernel: ximenynic acid (27.9–
40.3%), oleic acid (49.1–58.7%).
The Native Quandong: an edible fruit A few Australian species of Sandalwood produce an
edible fruit known as a ‘quandong’.12 They include
the Wild Plum or Plumbush (Santalum lanceolatum),
and the Desert Quandong (Santalum acuminatum)13,
of which Dr George Bennett (1860) provided a
comprehensive description:
The Quandong, or Native Peach (Fusanus acuminatus)

[now Santalum acuminatum] grows to the height of
20 to 30 feet, and has a wide range over the colony,
extending to the northern districts – though a doubt
has arisen as to whether the species is not distinct
from that found in the southern districts, the fruit of
the former being large; but this may be owing to the
nature of the land, the southern species growing in
poor soil, and the northern in one more favourable for
its development. The fruit is of a dark-red or scarlet
colour and astringent taste; it makes an excellent
preserve for tarts, and is used by the settlers for that
purpose; it grows in clusters … about the size of a
12 The term ‘quandong’ has also been applied to a number of rainforest
trees such as the Blue or Silver Quandong (Elaeocarpus angustifolius), the
Kuranda Quandong (Elaeocarpus bancroftii and E. johnsonii), and the Buff
Quandong (Peripentadenia mearsii). There are many more, with which none
of the quandongs of the Santalum genus should be confused.
13 Professor Rennie commented that the wood of the Quandong Tree
Lithograph by Lilian Flockton of Santalum acuminatum (Fusanus acuminatus, syn. Santalum acuminatum) of South Australia yielded
A.DC. Plate 16 from Forest Flora of New South Wales, J.H. ‘a viscid red oil of agreeable balsamic odour’; this species has not so far been
utilised as an oil resource.
Maiden (1859–1925).
Santalum acuminatum. (Courtesy: Keith A.W. Willliams

Native Plants of Queensland Vol. 4)
Illustration of Santalum acuminatum by Olive Pink (1884–

1975), Australian artist, anthropologist and Aboriginal
rights activist.
small peach, and when ripe is of a crimson colour.

The stone is round and dotted. The seed contains a
white kernel, tasting like the kernel of the peach, and
is agreeable to eat … The flowers are small, of white
colour and agreeable scent – compared by some to
that of ‘Lily of the Valley’.
Santalum acuminatum. (Courtesy: Keith A.W. Willliams
Native Plants of Queensland Vol. 1)
Maiden (1900) confirmed Bennett’s remarks: ‘The

fleshy pericarp which envelops the seed known as the
Quandong makes an excellent sub-acid preserve and
jelly. It is somewhat of the same flavour as the black
guava. By simply extracting the stones and drying the
fruit in the sun, it may be used when convenient, just
like preserved apples. The kernel is also edible, being
Edible seed, Quandong, of Santalum acuminatum. very palatable. It is quite spherical.’ In 1903 Maiden
(Courtesy Sean McClean, Wikimedia Commons)
noted:
Miss M. A. Clements has been good enough to send me

a parcel of this dried fruit, and she also favoured me with
the following directions:- ‘They require to be soaked in
water for a few hours, and then gently stewed with a good
deal of sugar, as they are very acid, when they may be put
in a tart or eaten with cream.’ When treated in this way
they form a very pleasant dish of good colour, but not
equal to our garden fruits. It would be interesting to see
what cultivation could do for this pleasant native fruit.
It is a favourite food of emus. The nuts (Quandongs) are
used for necklaces, bracelets, and other ornaments. The
kernels of the nuts are not only palatable and nutritious,
but they are so full of oil that if speared on a stick or reed
they will burn entirely away with a clear light, much in
the same way as candle-nuts (Aleurites triloba) do.
Santalum acuminatum has attracted a lot of interest as

a commercial crop with potential in the bush tucker
market.
Santalum lanceolatum. (Courtesy: Keith A.W.
Willliams Native Plants of Queensland Vol. 3)
The Wild Plum (Santalum lanceolatum) can be
found throughout the Australian continent and its
widespread availability has made it one of the more
familiar native fruit trees. The early explorers readily
sampled the fruit, with Leichhardt commenting they
had ‘very agreeable taste’. Samples of this tree were
even among those originally collected by Banks and
Solander at the Endeavour River.14 Maiden (1903)
mentioned a report by Max Koeb of its early use:
‘Blacks eat the fruits in South Australia. A friend of
mine asserts that on a hot summer’s day, accompanied
by a black boy, he was driving a flock of sheep and met
a tree loaded with ripe fruit. Both ate a large quantity
of it and fell asleep. Awaking, they drove the sheep
farther on, and met with another tree, ate some more
fruit, with the same result. My friend is of the opinion
that the berries contain narcotic properties.’ This
tree had an extensive range of medicinal uses. This
is somewhat unexpected, as few Sandalwood species The botanist Richard H. Cambage (1900) noted:
(other than Santalum album) appear to have achieved ‘This is a tree with light brown bark and very pale
any great medicinal reputation, let alone retain that wood, often called “The Blacks’ Medicine Tree”, from
reputation today. the fact that the bark soaked in water was formerly
used by the aborigines for medicinal purposes’ (cited
in Maiden 1903). The species continues to be utilised
14 Another tropical species of the Santalaceae, Anthobolus filifolius (syn. by Aboriginal people in the Northern Territory in
Anthobolus triqueter), whose distribution extends to the Northern Territory, preference to more conventional drug treatments. The
was collected at this site and illustrated by Sydney Parkinson. There are two
other Australian species in the genus, A. foveolatus and A. leptomerioides, leaf decoction has been applied as a general-purpose
both native to Western Australia, with A. leptomerioides having a wider wash for treating blood and skin problems, including
inland distribution ranging to the Northern Territory, Queensland and
South Australia. boils and blisters. A decoction of the inner bark has
had a more extensive therapeutic repertoire, although

it is considered a very strong medicine that is to be
used sparingly. A small amount was taken for general
pain relief, as well as for respiratory tract problems
(sore throat, chest colds, head colds) and genitourinary
disorders (venereal disease, urethral pain). In addition,
treatments for the latter applied the wash externally.
This preparation has also been utilised as eye-drops
(Wightman 1991, 1992).
Sandalwood’s Australian relatives

Native Cherries: genus Exocarpos
Exocarpos cupressiformis. (Courtesy of J and R Coghlan -

Australian Plants Society Tasmania)
Exocarpos, like the Sandalwoods, is a root parasite and

is classified within the same family, the Santalaceae.
There are eleven Australian species in this genus, with
a number of other species found in New Zealand,
Oceania (New Caledonia, Hawaii) and South-east
Asia. The Australian native Exocarpos latifolius is also
found in Malesia and the Philippines. The genus
gained some notoriety in the early days of the colony
for the unusual appearance of the fruit, which inspired
the name ‘Native Cherry’. Like the Cashew, the seed
is attached to a swollen fleshy base (the peduncle) that
is edible – this ‘fruit’ was said to resemble a cherry,
except that the seed was on the outside. Unripe they
can be bitter and astringent, although upon ripening
(when they are ready to fall from the tree) they acquire
a sweet juicy character.15
Exocarpos cupressiformis. (Courtesy of J and R Coghlan -
Australian Plants Society Tasmania) In general, the foliage of the ‘Native Cherries’
resembles that of Casuarina. The leaves are slender
and scaly – although the scales fall away to leave
the plant reliant on its stems for photosynthesis.
They blossom with tiny yellow flowers. The Native
Cherry (Exocarpos cupressiformis), which is the most
15 Nutritional studies have shown that Exocarpos latifolus is a good water

resource. It contains a number of minerals – per 100g: sodium (66mg),
potassium (490mg), magnesium (30mg), calcium (23mg), iron (1.4mg), zinc
Exocarpos mixed fruits. (Courtesy of J and R Coghlan - (0.6mg) and copper (1.2mg) (Brand Miller 1993).
Australian Plants Society Tasmania)
widespread, has a yellowish foliage with a drooping

habit. There is one exception, about which Ludwig
Leichhardt observed: ‘Exocarpus [sic] latifolius is so
different from E. cupressiformis, in its foliage and
aspect, that I did not suspect their near relation, until
I found blossom and fruit: the ripe kernel as well as its
yellow succulent leaf-stalk have a very agreeable taste’
(Leichhardt 1847). Both species were collected by
Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander in 1770.
Exocarpos latifolius, which has also been called the

Mistletoe Tree for its parasitic habit, has been well
regarded by Aboriginal people as a medicinal plant.
It has been widely used as a remedy for cuts and
sores, while burning the wood and foliage provided
an extremely useful mosquito and sandfly repellent
(Brock 1993). The leafy branches were valued as a
smoking medicine for babies, which was said to help
them thrive. In the Northern Territory a decoction of
Exocarpos latifolius. the inner bark has been applied as a body wash for
treating colds and influenza, with a little amount
of liquid being taken at the same time (Barr 1993;
Smith 1993). In northern Queensland, where the
tree is known as the Black Sandalwood, a poultice
was made from the rough bark and roots (scraped,
crushed and mixed with water) for application to
blind boils (Kyriazis nd). The timber was also strong
enough for making woomeras and yam sticks.
On Groote Eyelandt, in the Northern Territory,
Exocarpos latifolius has had a powerful reputation as
a contraceptive. Women who did not want any more
children took an infusion made from the inner bark
of the tree, sometimes with the crushed seeds added.
This was said to ensure they would never give birth
again (Levitt 1981).
The Exocarpos genus has had only a few other medicinal

uses. Joseph Lauterer (1892–94) noted: ‘The twigs
of the native cherry-tree (Exocarpos cupressiformis)
prove as good a bitter tonic and astringent as the
South American Rhatany (Krameria triandra).’
The stems and old branches contain a number of
active components (a triglyceride of exocarpic acid,
flavonoid glycosides, oleanolic acid and its saponin),
as well as the sweet substance mannitol. The stem
bark has a high tannin content (22%) which would
impart an astringent effect to the extract (Lassak &
McCarthy 1993). Exocarpic acid has antibacterial marks. The

activity against gram-positive (but not gram-negative) fruit is edible,
bacteria, as well as a selective activity against the although
tuberculosis bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) somewhat tart
(Koch 2009). Investigations of the twigs and leaves in flavour – a
have also identified a pyrrolizidine alkaloid. However, characteristic
antitumour studies were negative for this species and that has been
a number of others (Exocarpos aphylla, E. latifolius, responsible for
E. sparteus, E. strictus) (Collins 1990). Other studies the name ‘Sea
of antiviral and antibacterial attributes of the genus Lemon’ where
have indicated fairly unremarkable activity (Palombo the plant is
2001; Semple 1998). The Leafless Ballart (Exocarpos found along
aphylla) was made into a decoction by the Bogan tribe the coast. It has
in New South Wales. This was used for treating sores Ximenia americana, fruit and foliage; Ximenia oil.
and colds, and could occasionally be poulticed on the Chilkur, near Hyderabad, India. (Courtesy
chest for ‘wasting diseases’ (Webb 1969). It has also (Courtesy: J.M.Garg, Wikipedia)/ Esoteric oils)
been incorporated into anticancer herbal treatments
(Keilczynski 1997).
The Yellow Plum: genus Ximenia

The genus Ximenia belongs to the same family as the
Sandalwoods. There is only one species in Australia,
the Yellow Plum (Ximenia americana). It is wrongly
listed as the Sea Lemon (Ximenia citriodora) in some
bush food texts, but it is the same species. The Yellow
Plum is a fragrant shrub with a parasitic habit similar
to Sandalwood that is found throughout the world’s
tropics. The scented timber does not have the same
quality as Sandalwood, although in India it has been Flowers of Ximenia americana. (Courtesy: Keith A.W.
Willliams Native Plants of Queensland Vol. 4]
used as a substitute in making the powder used for caste
An illustration of Ximenia americana from A Engler & K Prantl, Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien (Liepzig 1894)
often been known as the ‘Wild Apricot’ when found traditions. In Africa, where the pounded bark was
inland, where the shrub ranges into vine thickets applied to skin sores in veterinary medicine, it also
and scrublands along the northern Australian coast. had a reputation for keeping insects away. The
Maiden (1900) mentioned its use: ‘This plant bears bark contains around 17% tannin (Burkill 1935).
round orange coloured fruits, of which the natives
In Nigeria the roots were utilised as a remedy for
of the South Sea Islands are very fond, though they
are rather tart … Before they are ripe they possess
fevers and diarrhoea. In addition, it was employed
a powerful odour of essential oil of almonds.’ This for jaundice, stomatitis (inflammation of the
distinctive aroma is due to benzylaldehyde. The general gums) and toothache. In Senegal it was even said
consensus of opinion is that the fruit tastes something to be useful for impotence (Gronhaug 2008).
like ‘sour apples.’ They have been used as a substitute Sudanese studies have shown that extracts of the
for lemon with fish, as well as for making a type of root had good antibacterial activity, particularly
beer in Transvaal (Africa). The leaves have provided against Staphylococcus aureus, which would tend
flavouring in Indonesian cooking and contain large to support its traditional use as an antiseptic
amounts of calcium, as well as good levels of selenium following childbirth (Omer 1998). There are
and phosphorus (Freiberger 1998).
other studies that support the medicinal use of
this remedy. The antibacterial properties of the
Analysis of the fruit indicates a good level of
plant have been confirmed, as well as analgesic
potassium (570mg/100g), with small amounts
activity and antiviral action against HIV-1 and
of sodium, magnesium, calcium, iron, zinc and
HIV-2. Fruit extracts with antioxidant attributes
copper (Brand Miller 1993). Henry Burkill
were found to contain a high level of phenolic
(1935) provided an early review of the oil
and flavonoid components (Soro 2009; Lamien-
component of the fruit: ‘They contain a large
Meda 2008; Kone 2004; Omer & Elnima
oily seed. The oil in it amounts to 65 per cent.
2003; Asres 2001). This lends support to the
And more; when the seed is crushed it is turbid
traditional use of the powdered bark in Africa
and difficult to clarify, but if extracted by solvents
for treating skin disorders including ulcers,
it could be used in industry.’ The quality of the
wounds, ringworm, insect stings, skin sores and
oil resembles that of Sandalwood due to its
even leprosy. The powdered bark decoction (with
essential fatty acid content – particularly with
salt added) has been recommended as a wash
regard to its unusual ximenynic (santalbic) acid
for infected foot problems. The root bark was
component. Oils of this type have been suggested
employed for treating fevers and the plant has
for use in cosmetic preparations due to their skin
been used as a remedy for schistosomiasis and
moisturising and trophic (nutrient) properties
for treating guinea-worm infections (Gronhaug
(Rovesti 1979). Burkill also mentioned that: ‘The
2008). In the Pacific Islands, the bark of Ximenia
nuts are eaten, but only a few can be taken at
americana has been used as a remedy for ciguatera
a time; many cause deleterious effects. They are
fish poisoning (Bourdy 1992). Investigations of
rich in proteins. It was claimed long ago that they
the latter have shown experimental confirmation
produce hydrocyanic acid, but an examination at
of its activity (nitric oxide inhibition) and tend to
the Imperial Institute did not confirm this. They
support this use (Kumar-Roine 2009). The use of
are, however, injurious in another way as they are
the Yellow Plum (powdered plant) as a treatment
purgative.’ The root, pounded in water, has been
for cancer in Africa has also led to an evaluation
taken as a remedy for colic (Burkill 1935).
of its anticancer potential. Riproximin, which
was identified as the active component, has been
The plants’ wide distribution across the tropics
suggested for commercial development as an
has seen it adopted into a number of medical
anticancer agent (Voss 2006a, 2006b).
Finding the legendary Sandalwood on the last and they reverted back to Santalum. However,
Australian continent caused a great deal there was another discovery that would ultimately
of excitement in the scientific and trade be the rival of Sandalwood – and indeed, over the
communities. It was, quite probably, seen as an last two centuries, it has even surpassed the latter
unexpected familiar floral bonus when faced with as far as medicinal and practical applications are
the uniqueness of the native vegetation. Certainly, concerned. This occurred in association with a
some botanists could not believe that the genus plant that most Australians now take for granted.
was native to this continent – and there must have In the end, the Eucalypt was to prove the most
been a lot of debate on the subject because the important and vital discovery that turned up on
local plants were even re-named and put into a the international stage.
new genus, Fusanus. This classification was not to
Chapter 11
THE FAMOUS
AUSTRALIAN GUM TREE
Kookaburra sitting in a gum tree – an iconic image of the

Australian bush.
In the nineteenth century, the exotic origins of

Australia’s antipodean flora made it a novelty in
European botanical circles. Cold-tolerant Eucalypts
were to achieve particular fame as prized garden
subjects – although it would take most of the next
century to truly appreciate the diversity of the genus.
Captain James Cook, in his original evaluations of
the continent, certainly underestimated the variety of
plant life. His evaluation of the ‘Gum Tree’ was not
entirely complimentary although, in many respects, Eucalyptus trees are a majestic part of the Australian
landscape. They provide food, shade and shelter for wildlife,
quite understandable: and are excellent timber and fuelwood resources.
The Woods do not produce any great variety of Trees, no where in perfection but in Botany Bay, this wood as
there are only 2 or 3 sorts that can be call’d Timber; the I have before observed is some thing of the same nature
largest is the Gum Tree which growes all over the Country, as America[n] Live Oak; in short most of the large Trees
the Wood of this Tree is too hard and ponderous for most in this Country are of a hard and ponderous nature and
common uses. The Tree which resembles our Pines, I saw could not be applied to many purposes.
288
Chapter 11 THE FAMOUS AUSTRALIAN GUM TREE 289
The genus Eucalyptus

The task of distinguishing the different species of
Eucalyptus has puzzled botanists from the beginning
of settlement of the continent. Joseph Maiden,
Government Botanist and Director of the Sydney
Botanic Gardens from the late 1890s until the 1920s,
clearly portrays the confusion that surrounded the
genus:
Eucalyptus is a name very loosely used by many people,

who forget that it comprises … no less than 134 species,
while a fresh one is occasionally discovered, and some
of these have varieties so well marked as to be classed as
distinct species by some authors. It should not be lost
sight of that in this vast genus the properties of different
species are frequently very different, so that to describe a
product as simply ‘Eucalyptus’ is but a bald description,
and one likely to lead to great confusion. There is some
excuse for this, however, as Eucalyptus products have only
been brought under notice during the past quarter of a
century, and some allowance must be made to outsiders
in respect to their references to a genus so imperfectly
known to Australians themselves (Maiden 1889).
Although our knowledge of these trees has expanded,

it remains imperfect. Today it is thought that there are
somewhere between 700 and 800 different species. The
total number remains uncertain. It is also extremely
disturbing that around 150 species are now listed as
rare, threatened or insufficiently identified. Table 11.1
lists species that now rate conservation concern.
Survival strategies Inland Eucalypt forest, Undara, Northern Queensland.

The Eucalypts have made ingenious use of their
evolutionary challenges, developing unique survival their structural integrity. Eucalypts also employ
strategies in response to climatic stresses that killed off unique nutrient relocation systems – for example,
less well-adapted plants. This led to a great diversity phosphorus may be extracted from dying leaves and
of species that have colonised almost every type of redirected to other tissues. The germ plasm of wild
environment across the entire continent. Because species can interbreed easily and this can yield varieties
Australian soils are very old and weathered, they tend that are suited to specialised environments, some of
to be nutritionally impoverished, and characteristically which have potential to be used today in revegetation
lack nitrogen – as well as a number of trace elements or remedial projects. Many species that are tolerant of
such as zinc, copper and molybdenum. Not to specific conditions, such as high saline soils, can be
mention the paucity of year-round reliable water useful for conservation strategies.
supplies. For these reasons Eucalypts have made some
clever adaptations, affording the genus the flexibility In addition to the Eucalypts’ value as an antiseptic and
to survive under extraordinary conditions. Their leaves medicinal oil resource, the practical and commercial
are designed to withstand wilting without damaging value of the genus is quite remarkable. Throughout
Table 11.1: List of vulnerable, endangered, critically endangered and

extinct Angophora, Corymbia and Eucalyptus species
(as published by the Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Unit of the Australian
Government, September 2009).
Scientific Name Common Name EPBC Act
Status
Angophora inopina Vulnerable
Angophora robur Vulnerable
Corymbia clandesina Vulnerable
Corymbia leptoloma Vulnerable
Corymbia rhodops Vulnerable
Corymbia xanthope Vulnerable
Eucalyptus absita Badgingarra Box Endangered
Eucalyptus acaciiformis var. linearis = Eucalyptus nicholii Vulnerable
Eucalyptus alligatrix subsp. limaensis Lima Stringybark Vulnerable
Eucalyptus alligatrix subsp. miscella stringybark Vulnerable
Eucalyptus aquatica Mountain Swamp Gum, Broad-leaved Sallee, Vulnerable
Broad-leaved Sally
Eucalyptus argophloia Queensland White Gum, Queensland Western Vulnerable
White Gum, Lapunyah, Scrub Gum, White Gum
Eucalyptus argutifolia Yanchep Mallee, Wabling Hill Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus articulata Ponton Creek Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus balanites Cadda Road Mallee, Cadda Mallee Endangered
Eucalyptus beaniana Vulnerable
Eucalyptus beardiana Beard’s Mallee Endangered
Eucalyptus benthamii Camden White Gum, Nepean River Gum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus benthamii var. benthamii = Eucalyptus benthamii Nepean River Gum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus blaxellii Howatharra Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus brevipes Mukinbudin Mallee Endangered
Eucalyptus burdettiana Burdett Gum Endangered
Eucalyptus cadens Warby Range Swamp Gum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus caleyi subsp. ovendenii Ovenden’s Ironbark Vulnerable
Eucalyptus camfieldii Camfield’s Stringybark Vulnerable
Eucalyptus cannonii = Eucalyptus macrorhyncha subsp. cannonii Cannon’s Stringybark Vulnerable
Eucalyptus canobolensis Vulnerable
Eucalyptus ceracea Seppelt Range Gum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus cerasiformis Cherry-fruited Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus clandestine = Corymbia clandestina Vulnerable
Eucalyptus conglomerata Swamp Stringybark Endangered
Eucalyptus copulans Endangered
Eucalyptus coronata Crowned Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus crenulata Silver Gum, Buxton Gum Endangered
Eucalyptus crispata Yandanooka Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus crucis subsp. crucis Silver Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus crucis subsp. praecipua Paynes Find Mallee Endangered
Eucalyptus cuprea Mallee Box Endangered
Eucalyptus divaricata = Eucalyptus gunnii subsp. divaricata Endangered
Eucalyptus dolorosa Dandaragan Mallee Endangered
Eucalyptus glaucina Slaty Red Gum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus gunnii subsp. divaricata Miena Cider Gum Endangered
Eucalyptus gunnii var. divaricata = Eucalyptus gunnii subsp. divaricata Miena Cider Gum Endangered
Eucalyptus hallii Goodwood Gum Vulnerable
Scientific Name Common Name EPBC Act

Status
Eucalyptus imlayensis Imlay Mallee Endangered
Eucalyptus impensa Eneabba Mallee Endangered
Eucalyptus infera Vulnerable
Eucalyptus insularis Twin Peak Island Mallee Endangered
Eucalyptus johnsoniana Johnson’s Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus kabiana Mount Beerwah Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus kartzoffiana Araluen Gum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus langleyi Albatross Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus lateritica Laterite Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus leprophloia Scaly Butt Mallee, Scaly-butt Mallee Endangered
Eucalyptus leptoloma = Corymbia leptoloma Vulnerable
Eucalyptus macrorhyncha subsp. cannonii Cannon’s Stringybark Vulnerable
Eucalyptus macrorrhyncha cannonii = Eucalyptus macrorhyncha subsp. Vulnerable
cannonii
Eucalyptus mckieana McKie’s Stringybark Vulnerable
Eucalyptus merrickiae Goblet Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus mitrata = Eucalyptus coronata Vulnerable
Eucalyptus mooreana Mountain White Gum, Moores Gum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus morrisbyi Morrisbys Gum Endangered
Eucalyptus nicholii Narrow-leaved Peppermint, Narrow-leaved Black Vulnerable
Peppermint
Eucalyptus olivacea Brooker & Hopper ms. Granite Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus pachycalyx subsp. banyabba Endangered
Eucalyptus paedoglauca Vulnerable
Eucalyptus paludicola Mount Compass Swamp Gum Endangered
Eucalyptus parramattensis subsp. decadens Earp’s Gum, Earp’s Dirty Gum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus parvifolia = Eucalyptus parvula Kybean Gum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus parvula Small-leaved Gum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus phylacis Meelup Mallee Endangered
Eucalyptus platydisca Jimberlana Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus pruiniramis Midlands Gum, Jingymia Gum Endangered
Eucalyptus pulverulenta Silver-leaved Mountain Gum, Silver-leaved Gum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus pulvigera = Eucalyptus pulverulenta Vulnerable
Eucalyptus pumila Pokolbin Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus raveretiana Black Ironbox Vulnerable
Eucalyptus recta Endangered
Eucalyptus recurva Mongarlowe Mallee Endangered
Eucalyptus rhodantha var. rhodantha Rose Mallee, Rose Gum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus rhodops = Corymbia rhodops Vulnerable
Eucalyptus robertsonii subsp. hemisphaerica Vulnerable
Eucalyptus rubida subsp. barbigerorum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus rubida subsp. canobolensis = Eucalyptus canobolensis Vulnerable
Eucalyptus scoparia Wallangarra White Gum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus sp. Howes Swamp Creek (M.Doherty) Endangered
Eucalyptus sp. I = Eucalyptus blaxellii Vulnerable
Eucalyptus steedmanii Steedmans Gum Vulnerable
Eucalyptus strzeleckii Vulnerable
Eucalyptus suberea Cork Mallee, Mount Lesueur Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus synandra Jingymia Mallee Vulnerable
Eucalyptus tereticornis var. glaucina = Eucalyptus glaucina Vulnerable
Eucalyptus tetrapleura Square-fruited Ironbark Vulnerable
Eucalyptus virens Vulnerable
Eucalyptus xanthope = Corymbia xanthope Vulnerable
the world Eucalypt plantations provide cellulose to ‘giant matchsticks’ that are loaded with highly
for rayon fabrics, pulpwood for paper industries, combustible fuel.
structural timber and other building materials, and
fuel for industrial heating or domestic households. Thus, while Eucalypts are uniquely suited to survival,
Eucalypt forests are not well adapted to urban
Surviving bushfires expansion into bushland. During bushfires, the
flammability of the situation is compounded by winds
that tend to fling flaming bark sparks into the sky,
while ignited tree crowns facilitate the fire’s progress
through the canopy. Bushfires have become a dreaded
part of the summer season – tragedies that are often
fuelled by human carelessness.
Eucalyptus ptychocarpa gum nuts (seed pods).
Propagation
The seed production system for Eucalypts is a
specialised process that is ultimately designed to take
advantage of disturbed environmental conditions. The
gum nut is a fruit that contains small seeds and the
amount produced depends on the hardiness of the
Gum tree stump regenerating following fire. tree. Mature trees are aged somewhere between twenty
and forty before they become productive. However,
Naturally occurring fires benefit most Eucalypts the propagation process is subject to a number of
because it acts to reduce floral competitors and allow considerations. While there are numerous seeds
seed germination. Eucalypts do not die from fire within a capsule, only a few will be fertile. The seeds
exposure (or, at the opposite end of the scale, during germinate only with sun exposure and not under the
cold winters) because they have a persistent root system canopy – hence storms or fires benefit their natural
from which they can easily regenerate. Some of their propagation by thinning dense thickets. The seeds of
habits are even designed to promote the likelihood of many different species are virtually indistinguishable,
fire. The low temperatures of a cold winter cause the which can make wild seed collection for botanical
trees to die back and dead branches fall to the ground. purposes a difficult undertaking, particularly when
During the hot summers naturally discarded leaves there is any uncertainty regarding the identification
and bark are added to this pile of litter. Over time the of the parent tree.
oil-impregnated foliage forms a mass of tinder on the
forest floor. The trees themselves have been compared
• Apple: Early settlers thought that these trees had a

similar appearance to the European Apple tree. They
often referred to the Angophora genus, although a
few Eucalyptus have been known by this term.
• Ash: The timber of these trees was regarded as
being similar to the European Ash, which was
sourced primarily from the Fraxinus genus. Fraxinus
ornus is the European Manna Ash, while Eucalyptus
viminalis is the Manna Ash (or Manna Gum) of
Australia.
Yellow Box (Eucalyptus melliodora). (Courtesy: P Davies,
Heathmont Honey)
• Blackbutt: The lower part of the trunk has a
persistent bark that was usually blackened due to
fire damage.
Eucalypt seeds are edible and Australian Aboriginal • Bloodwood: A characteristic dark red gum (kino)
people pulped them into a paste which was baked is found in pockets within the wood. It can often
to make a kind of damper. In 1900 Maiden be found ‘bleeding’ from injuries to the tree trunk.
recounted a description of the harvest from an • Box: The bark is formed in short-fibred plates that
1879 article by Patrick O’Shanesy, ‘Contributions to give the tree a distinctive appearance when they
the Flora of Queensland’: flake off the trunk as the tree ages.
• Ironbark: The tree has a tough, deeply furrowed
In the wet season … the blacks derive a good deal of
bark that is retained on the trunk. The timber is
their support from the seeds of a Myrtaceous tree, which
I believe to be a species of Eucalyptus, and known there characteristically extremely tough and hard.
by the name of ‘Yellow box’. When the fruit is nearly ripe • Mallee: These are usually fairly small trees that are
a small patch is cleared round the tree and confined by distinguished from the single-trunked Eucalypts by
branches to prevent the fruit from escaping when thrown their multi-stemmed, shrubby appearance.
on the ground; when a sufficient quantity has been cut • Peppermint: The leaf oil of these Eucalyptus species
down they are allowed to remain on the ground till the is reminiscent of ‘peppermint’ oil.
capsule bursts and discharges the small seed, which is • Ribbon Gum: The bark is shed in straggly strips
then collected into the ‘cogie’ [coolamon] and afterwards and does not detach easily. It is therefore usually
manufactured like Nardoo [Marsilea drummondii, a fern- found hanging in long ribbons from the branches.
like waterplant] (quoted in Maiden 1900).
• Scribbly Gum: The bark peels off this tree to reveal
a smooth trunk that is marked with a mass of
Classifying Eucalypts distinctive ‘scribbles’ due to the insect larvae that
There have been various attempts at a practical system have lived underneath.
of Eucalypt classification, although perhaps the most • Stringybark: The bark, which has a fibrous quality,
useful has been of a descriptive nature. Botanist Baron detaches in long ‘strings’.
von Mueller originally developed a system that was
based on distinctive characteristics of the bark. For Even so, the matter was not so easily resolved. Some
instance, a fibrous interlaced bark was characteristic of common names became a combination of these
the ‘Box’ or Peppermint Eucalypts, while Stringybarks descriptions, such as the Peppermint Box (Eucalyptus
had a fibrous, thick, coarse bark that did not shed odorata) and the Mallee Ash (E. approximans). The
from the tree. There were also the kino-containing same name could also refer to different species. ‘Apple
Bloodwoods, and the Ironbarks with their distinctive Box’ was used to describe both Eucalyptus bridgesiana
grey-black furrowed bark. Over time a fairly broad and Angophora floribunda (syn. Angophora intermedia).
classification evolved based on various distinguishing ‘Mallee Box’ could refer to Eucalyptus cuprea, E.
characteristics: incrassata, E. odorata, E. pilligaensis and E. porosa.
‘Apple Gum’ was usually applied to Angophora costata
(syn. Angophora lanceolata), although Eucalyptus
bridgesiana and Eucalyptus clavigera were both known moth larvae, and not beetles”’ (Maiden 1920). The
by this name as well. Scribbly Gum Moth is Ogmograptis scribula – although
there may be other species involved that have not been
The Snappy Gum identified as yet. The tree is also a food plant for the
Sawfly Phylacteophaga eucalypti (family Pergidae). The
kino, which was high in tannin (60%), was formerly
utilised as an astringent for treating diarrhoea (Lassak
& McCarthy 1992).
Blue Gums
The ‘Blue Gum’ is probably the most familiar of all
the Australian Eucalypts. The term usually refers to
The Snappy Gum (Eucalyptus racemosa). Sydney Blue Gum (Eucalyptus saligna). (Courtesy:: Peter
Woodard)
Eucalyptus racemosa (the Snappy Gum or Scribbly

Gum), native to the coastal regions of New South Eucalyptus globulus – although there have been times
Wales around Sydney and Newcastle, is one of the when clarification was required. Maiden’s comments
Scribbly Gums, ‘so called because of the scribbles to on the subject are interesting:
be seen on the smooth surface.1 These scribbles were
originally formed under the flakes of deciduous bark to The term Blue Gum is locally given to a large number
of trees which have a bluish cast of the trunk, or of the
be seen on every Gum. Mr. Froggatt tells me “we have
foliage, or both. Sometimes the term is a comparative one.
never been able to satisfactorily define what insect or One tree may give a man an idea of greater blueness than
insects cause them. I believe that though there may be 1 Other Scribbly Gums include Eucalyptus coriacea, E. haemastoma (and E.
several ‘scribblers’, most of them are caused by small haemastoma var. micrantha), E. rossii, E. sclerophylla and E. signata.
another. The application is sometimes puzzling, because

some Blue Gums may, at certain seasons of the year, have
no noticeable bluish cast at all. If I were to make a list
of the Blue Gums, so called, the list would be a very big
one, but I will only confine myself to the principal ones.
The tree to which the name of Blue Gum was originally
given is E. saligna Sm. This is the Blue Gum of Sydney,
and I need scarcely say that Sydney was the first settled
part of Australia. It gave its name to numerous Blue Gum
flats at the head of the Parramatta River and Hawkesbury
River district. Subsequently, the name spread further
north. E. saligna’s blueness (not very marked) chiefly
applies to the trunk. Later on, the name Blue Gum was
applied to E. globulus Labill., which is the Tasmanian
and Victorian Blue Gum, although there is some of it in
cold New South Wales localities a considerable distance
from Sydney. The blueness (glaucousness) of E. globulus is
greater than in the case of E. saligna, and as the tree will
stand very much more cold than E. saligna, and is very
ornamental, the seed was largely exported to Europe, and
also to the United States, chiefly through the influence
of the late Baron von Mueller, who was the Government
Botanist of Victoria, in which State the tree attains
remarkable development. The Blue Gum of Queensland
is E. tereticornis Sm., which is the Forest Red Gum of New
South Wales. Now, instead of going north, let us turn
west. E. leucoxylon is the Blue Gum of South Australia,
while Western Australia has one principal Blue Gum, viz.,
E. rudis Endl. Australia is a continent of three millions
of square miles. Politically we are all united, and people
of the various States are like brothers, but as regards the
naming of trees, every State, and, indeed, every district,
clings with greater or less tenacity to its own vernacular
names (Maiden 1921).
Eucalyptus globules: Golden Gate Park, San Francisco.

Just to confuse things, Eucalyptus globulus has a (Courtesy: Eric in SF, Flickr)
number of subspecies or varieties:
The term ‘Blue Gum’ has also been used to
• Eucalyptus globulus subsp. globulus (Eucalyptus
describe:
globulus var. globulus)
• Gippsland Blue Gum: Eucalyptus globulus subsp.
pseudoglobulus (Eucalyptus pseudoglobulus) • Mountain Blue Gum: Eucalyptus cypellocarpa and
• There was also Eucalyptus globulus var. stjohnii Eucalyptus deanei
(Eucalyptus stjohnii) – which now refers to Eucalyptus • Round-leaved Blue Gum: Eucalyptus deanei
globulus subsp. pseudoglobulus • Hyden Blue Gum: Eucalyptus georgei
• Southern Blue Gum: Eucalyptus globulus subsp. • Blue Gum: Eucalyptus tereticornis and Eucalyptus
bicostata (Eucalyptus globulus var. bicostata) camaldulensis
• Spotted Blue Gum: Eucalyptus globulus subsp. • The Inland, South Australian or Large-fruited Blue
maidenii (Eucalyptus maidenii) Gum: Eucalyptus leucoxylon
• Sydney Blue Gum: Eucalyptus saligna
• Swamp Blue Gum: Eucalyptus seeana
Eucalyptus, Angophora and was to come under scrutiny! Such changes can cause
confusion, particularly when trying to do research
Corymbia using old information. Therefore, for the purposes of
At this point a little detail regarding the modern
this tome, sticking with the beloved term Eucalyptus
classification of the Eucalypt is probably in order. The
seems to be in order as most of the literature reviewed
genus Eucalyptus is very closely related to Angophora,
use these names. Where applicable, notes regarding the
and the term ‘Eucalypt’ encompasses both genera.
re-classification of species in Corymbia are included.
These genera are quite old: Eucalyptus was named
[[take in table 11.2 from end of chapter]]
in 1789, and Angophora was established in 1797. In
1995 a controversial addition to the classification was
proposed when botanical studies established that a The history of this name change goes back to 1867,
specific Eucalyptus subgroup, commonly known as when the botanist George Bentham recognised that
Bloodwoods, was closely related to the Angophora Bloodwoods were a distinct group.2 Nevertheless,
classification. Thirty-three species were transferred to he included them within Eucalyptus. The new
the new genus Corymbia, which now contains around classification Corymbia includes not only the
113 species. See Table 11.2. Bloodwoods but also the Ghost Gum Eucalypts. See
Table 11.3 on page 297.
The reclassification became a matter of great
contention in botanical circles. A decision like this Most of the Eucalypts classified as Corymbia reside in
involves a lot more than a mere name change. There Australia’s northern regions and there are some quite
has to be significant botanical justification for the famous species among them. They include the Red
reclassification, and this led to substantial debate Bloodwood, formerly Eucalyptus gummifera (known
regarding the validity of the species names. In the as Metrosideros gummifera in the old literature), now
process, the entire system of classifying Eucalypts classified as Corymbia gummifera. This is the tree from
which Joseph Banks and Daniel Solander collected
specimens when visiting Botany Bay in 1770. The
Central Australian Ghost Gum, formerly Eucalyptus
papuana var. aparrerinja, has now been classified
as Corymbia aparrerinja, and Eucalyptus papuana is
considered to be restricted to Papua New Guinea.
The Aboriginal artist Albert Namatjira immortalised
this Ghost Gum (as Eucalyptus papuana) on the
international stage in his marvellous works.
Eucalypts occurring naturally outside

Australia
A few Eucalypt species have managed to escape the
confines of the Australian continent. Just fifteen
species occur naturally outside Australia, and only
nine of those are not found in Australia. Those
that migrated across the Torres Strait to Papua
New Guinea include Eucalyptus pellita, a rainforest
* The South American Bloodwood refers to Brosimum
rubescens. It is a hard tough wood with a rich
strawberry red colour (sometimes with golden yellow
Rough-leaved Bloodwood (Corymbia setosa). This inland stripes) that has been used for decorative inlays and
Queensland species is one of the Bloodwoods, so named for cabinetmaking. The South African tree Pterocarpus
their tendency to contain fairly good amounts of kino.
erinaceus has also been known as ‘Bloodwood’ due to
a thick red juice that it contains. It yields a distinctive
fine grade red timber.
Table 11.2: List of species now classified as Corymbia

Corymbia abbreviata Scraggy Bloodwood Corymbia dunlopiana Corymbia oocarpa
Corymbia abergiana Range Bloodwood, Corymbia ellipsoidea Corymbia pachycarpa
Rockingham Bay Bloodwood Corymbia eremaea Corymbia papillosa
Corymbia aparrerinja Corymbia erythrophloia Corymbia papuana
Corymbia arafurica Corymbia eximia Yellow Bloodwood Corymbia paractia
Corymbia arenaria Corymbia grandifolia subsp. longa Corymbia pauciseta
Corymbia arnhemensis Corymbia greeniana Corymbia peltata
Corymbia aspera Corymbia gummifera Red Bloodwood Corymbia petalophylla
Corymbia aureola Corymbia haematoxylon Corymbia plena
Corymbia bella Corymbia hamersleyana Corymbia pocillum
Corymbia blakei Corymbia hendersonii Corymbia polycarpa Long-fruited
Corymbia bleeseri Corymbia henryi Bloodwood
Corymbia bloxsomei Corymbia hylandii Corymbia polysciada
Corymbia brachycarpa Corymbia intermedia Pink Bloodwood Corymbia porrecta
Corymbia bunites Corymbia jacobsiana Corymbia ptychocarpa subsp. aptycha
Corymbia cadophora subsp. cadophora Corymbia kombolgiensis Corymbia ptychocarpa subsp. ptychocarpa
Corymbia cadophora subsp. pliantha Corymbia lamprophylla Corymbia rhodops
Corymbia calophylla Marri Corymbia latifolia Corymbia scabrida
Corymbia candida Corymbia ferriticola Corymbia serendipita
Corymbia chartacea Corymbia ferruginea subsp. ferruginea Corymbia setosa
Corymbia chippendalei Corymbia ferruginea subsp. stypophylla Corymbia sphaerica
Corymbia citriodora Corymbia ficifolia Corymbia stockeri subsp. peninsularis
Corymbia clandestina Corymbia flavescens Corymbia stockeri subsp. stockeri
Corymbia clarksoniana Corymbia foelscheana Corymbia terminalis
Corymbia clavigera Corymbia gilbertensis Corymbia tessellaris
Corymbia cliftoniana Corymbia grandifolia subsp. grandifolia Corymbia torelliana
Corymbia collina Corymbia grandifolia subsp. lamprocardia Corymbia torta
Corymbia confertiflora Corymbia leichhardtii Corymbia trachyphloia
Corymbia dallachiana Corymbia lenziana Corymbia umbonata
Corymbia dendromerinx Corymbia leptoloma Corymbia watsoniana subsp. capillata
Corymbia deserticola subsp. deserticola Corymbia ligans Corymbia watsoniana subsp. watsoniana
Corymbia deserticola subsp. mesogeotica Corymbia maculata Spotted Gum Corymbia xanthope
Corymbia dichromophloia Corymbia nesophila Corymbia zygophylla
Corymbia disjuncta Corymbia novoguinensis
An old stump of Eucalyptus pellita in the rainforest. The beautiful Rainbow Eucalypt (Eucalyptus deglupta):
colourful trunk.
Table 11.3: List of species commonly known by the name ‘Bloodwood’

Because different names are used in many local regions this list is not exclusive and may not include all the species known as ‘Bloodwood’.
Baloghia inophylla (syn. Baloghia lucida) Brush Bloodwood; Scrub Bloodwood
Eucalyptus abbreviata (Corymbia abbreviata) Scraggy Bloodwood
Eucalyptus abergiana (Corymbia abergiana) Range Bloodwood; Rockingham Bay Bloodwood
Eucalyptus arenaria (Corymbia arenaria) Gum-topped Bloodwood
Eucalyptus aspera (Corymbia aspera) Desert Bloodwood
Eucalyptus bleeseri (Corymbia bleeseri) Smooth-leaved Bloodwood; Smooth-stemmed Bloodwood
Eucalyptus centralis (Corymbia terminalis) Sandhill Bloodwood
Eucalyptus chippendalei (Corymbia chippendalei) Sand dune Bloodwood; Sandhill Bloodwood
Eucalyptus cliftoniana (Corymbia cliftoniana) Desert Bloodwood; Fitzroy River Bloodwood
Eucalyptus collina (Corymbia collina) Frosted Bloodwood; Pale Bloodwood; Silver leaved Bloodwood
Eucalyptus desertorum (Corymbia deserticolia) Desert Bloodwood
Eucalyptus dichromophloia* (Corymbia dichromophloia) Bloodwood; Gum-topped Bloodwood; Mount Cooper Bloodwood; Red-topped
Bloodwood; Variable-barked Bloodwood
Eucalyptus dolichocarpa (Corymbia clarksoniana) Long-fruited Bloodwood
Eucalyptus eremaea (Corymbia eremaea) Hills Bloodwood; Mallee Bloodwood
Eucalyptus erythrophloia (Corymbia erythrophloia) Gum-topped Bloodwood; Red-barked Bloodwood; Red Bloodwood; Variable-barked
Bloodwood
Eucalyptus eximia (Corymbia eximia) Yellow Bloodwood
Eucalyptus exserta She Bloodwood
Eucalyptus ferruginea`(Corymbia ferruginea) Rusty Bloodwood
Eucalyptus foelscheana (Corymbia foelcheana) Fan-leaved Bloodwood; Smooth-barked Bloodwood
Eucalyptus gilbertensis (Corymbia gilbertensis) Gilbert River Bloodwood
Eucalyptus grandifolia (Corymbia grandifolia) Bastard Bloodwood
Corymbia gummifera (Eucalyptus gummifera) Bloodwood; Pale Bloodwood; Red Bloodwood
Eucalyptus intermedia (Corymbia intermedia) Bloodwood; Pink Bloodwood; Red Bloodwood
Eucalyptus jacobsiana (Corymbia jacobsiana) Stringy-barked Bloodwood
Eucalyptus kombolgiensis (Corymbia kombolgiensis) Kombolgie Bloodwood
Eucalyptus lamprocalyx (Eucalyptus lamprocarpa) Twin-leaved Bloodwood
Eucalyptus latifolia (Corymbia latifolia) Round-leaved Bloodwood
Eucalyptus lenziana (Corymbia lenziana) Narrow-leaved Bloodwood
Eucalyptus nesophila (Corymbia nesophila) Island Bloodwood; Melville Island Bloodwood
Eucalyptus niphophloia (Euycalyptus pauciflora subsp. niphophila; Corymbia dichromophila) Gum-topped Bloodwood
Eucalyptus opaca (Corymbia terminalis) Bloodwood; Inland Bloodwood; Long-fruited Bloodwood; Pale Bloodwood
Eucalyptus perfoliata (Corymbia cadophora) Twin-leaved Bloodwood
Eucalyptus polycarpa (Corymbia polycarpa) Long-fruited Bloodwood; Mallee Bloodwood; Pale Bloodwood; Red Bloodwood; Small-
flowered Bloodwood
Eucalyptus porrecta (Corymbia porrecta) Grey Bloodwood
Eucalyptus ptychocarpa (Corymbia ptychocarpa) Red Bloodwood; Spring Bloodwood; Swamp Bloodwood
Eucalyptus pyrophora (Corymbia terminalis) Desert Bloodwood
Eucalyptus setosa (Corymbia setosa) Desert Bloodwood; Rough-leaved Bloodwood
Eucalyptus terminalis (Corymbia terminalis) Bloodwood; Inland Bloodwood; Long-fruited Bloodwood; Pale Bloodwood
Eucalyptus tessellaris (Corymbia tessellaris) Carbeen Bloodwood
Eucalyptus trachyphloia (Corymbia trachyphloia) Bloodwood; Brown Bloodwood; White Bloodwood; Yellow Bloodwood
Eucalyptus umbonata (Corymbia umbonata) Red-barked Bloodwood
Eucalyptus watsoniana (Corymbia watsoniana) Brown Bloodwood; Large-fruited Bloodwood; Watson’s Bloodwood; Watson’s Yellow
Bloodwood
Eucalyptus zygophylla (Corymbia zygophylla) Broome Bloodwood
* Corymbia dichromophloia is a very variable tree that has been listed under a number of
different species names, some of which may still prove to be separate species.
The beautiful Rainbow Eucalypt (Eucalyptus deglupta): the

leaves.
species that can be found in western Irian Jaya. The
White Gum (Eucalyptus alba) migrated to Java. Not
occurring naturally in Australia, Eucalyptus deglupta,
the New Guinea Gum, is native to Sulawesi (formerly
known as the Celebes) as well as the Philippines. This Tropical rainforest, Barron Gorge, Cairns, Queensland.
tree, also known as Kamarere, Rainbow Gum (for the resources have been grown in forestry plantations:
beautiful colours of its bark), Amamanit, Mindanao Kamarere (Eucalyptus deglupta) and Cadagai (E.
Gum and Aren, has the distinction of being one of the torelliana). Investigations of their essential oils revealed
world’s fastest growing trees. that they had an unusual composition in comparison
to other Eucalypt species – a chemical variation that
Tropical Eucalypts appeared to be due to environmental conditions.
The Eucalypt has naturally thrived in environments The oil extracted from Kamarere Gums originating
that range from snowy mountain habitats and in Lae (Papua New Guinea) was markedly different
desert sites, to the humid rainforest. While there are from that of plantation trees grown at Gadgarra
numerous tropical Eucalypt species, those that are (North Queensland). Both places are in the tropics,
found in the rainforest are limited. In this situation but Lae is a humid coastal site while Gadgarra has a
they cannot prosper unless the forest cover has been cooler tableland climate. Kamerere has attracted some
disturbed, and so they tend to favour the forest interest as a potential source of the valuable perfumery
margins. Two species of particular interest as timber material, nerolidol (Sutherland 1960). Another
tropical timber tree of interest, Eucalyptus pellita, yields
an oil that is distinguished by a reasonable 1,8-cineole

content (66%), as well as alpha-pinene and globulol
(Boland 1991). Eucalyptus pellita is related to the
famous Red Mahogany (E. resinifera) and has a very
similar appearance, although the Red Mahogany has a
wider range, extending from the central coast of New
South Wales to Maryborough in Queensland. Both
yield a strong and durable timber that is extremely
useful for carpentry and cabinetmaking.3
Cadagai
Cadagi
Eucalyptus torelliana, the Cadagai, was named in 1877

after the Italian Count de Torelli, an early advocate
of draining the Pontine Marshes of Italy in attempts
to control malarial outbreaks. This tall rainforest
species has a naturally restricted distribution in the
wet tropics. It is only found in a relatively small area
of North Queensland – around 80 kilometres north
of Cairns, extending south about 250 kilometres. The
tree is distinguished by a smooth upper trunk, which
provides a distinct contrast to the scaly dark-grey
bark that covers the lower tree trunk (up to 5 metres
high). The bark of the upper section, when shed, peels
off in large strips to reveal an attractive light green
undersurface.
Cadagai at Copperlode Dam, Cairns, Queensland. The Moreton Bay Ash or Carbeen is a familiar
sight along the Queensland coast. Although it has
3 Other red-coloured hardwoods have been sourced from the Grey
Gum (Eucalyptus propinqua), the Murray Red Gum (E. rostrata, now E. a preference for the tropics, its distribution extends
camaldulensis), the Forest Red Gum (E. tereticornis), the Sydney Blue Gum along the entire length of the state, into northern
(E. saligna), Woollybutt (E. longifolia), and the Bloodwood (E. corymbosa,
now Corymbia corymbosa) (Maiden 1896).
New South Wales. This tree is of interest for botanical
account for this is by supposing that the warmer climate

is its proper habitat. I have seen this tree in nearly all the
open lands of north-east Australia, but more prevalent
about Moreton Bay and Maryborough than anywhere
(Tenison-Woods 1882).
Carbeen (Corymbia tessellaris, syn. Eucalyptus tessellaris).
reasons because its appearance can change rather

dramatically, depending on its environment, from
fairly stunted specimens to around 12 metres in
height. Late in the 1800s the Reverend Tenison-
Woods eloquently described the tree, mentioning The Large-fruited Mahogany (Eucalyptus pellita),
some distinguishing characteristics:
To look at the species it is certainly a graceful ornament to

the forest scenery. It grows tall and straight with graceful, The Large-fruited Mahogany, Eucalyptus pellita,
pendulous, bright green leaves. The stem for about half- is distinguished by the fact that it is the only
way up the trunk has a rough scaly bark, which splits into Eucalypt found consistently in the northern tropical
small squares like tessellated or mosaic work. Above this rainforest. It also has a rather unusual distribution.
the tree is smooth with a grey or green bark. The half- The original botanical description was based on
barked character is very constant and peculiar, by it the sightings in northern Queensland. The tree is not
trees can always be known. It grows in open forest and found throughout the southern parts of the state –
swampy land; around Moreton Bay, Gympie &c., the but reappears near Wyong on the central New South
wood is not valued for any purpose whatever; about Wales coast.
Rockhampton, Mr. O’Shannessy says that the heart-
wood is good enough, but the sap-wood soon decays;
about Townsville, Charters Towers, the timber is highly
esteemed and used for all useful purposes. The only way to
Darwin Stringybark (Eucalyptus tetrodonta).
The Large-fruited Mahogany (Eucalyptus pellita),
Darwin Stringybark (Eucalyptus tetrodonta); kino is clearly

visible on the trunk (right).
The Darwin Stringybark (Eucalyptus tetrodonta) An infusion prepared from the new leaves was used
provides an excellent example of the many and as a wash for treating sores, particularly those due
varied uses of the Eucalypts and their value to both to scabies in children. The inner bark infusion was
Aboriginal people and the early explorers. This tropical employed as a mouthwash to treat mouth sores and a
species is a dominant feature of the open forest in the sore, red tongue (Wightman & Smith 1989; Yunupinu
Northern Territory, where it can grow to impressive 1995). Other species that were utilised similarly in
heights (around 30 metres). Its prevalence in the the Northern Territory included the Bloodwoods
outback was commented on by the early explorers Eucalyptus polycarpa and E. dichromophloia. The gum
and it was one of the Eucalypts referred to by Ludwig (sap) was decocted to make a wash for sores and
Leichhart in his notes on his overland expedition other skin problems – as were bark decoctions of
to Port Essington. It is covered with a rough, grey the Coolibah (E. microtheca) and the Snappy Gum
fibrous bark that Leichhardt mentioned was useful for (E. leucophloia). The liquid prepared from Eucalyptus
making waterproof utensils and bark paintings. He leucophloia was even regarded as being suitable for use
also observed that boats were made from ‘the inner on babies with skin problems (Wightman 1991).
layer of the bark of the Stringybark tree’. It was a
versatile building material that was extensively utilised In general, Bloodwood gum could be applied directly
by Aboriginal people: ‘John Murphy [the youngest to the site of an injury for healing purposes, as could
member of the expedition] reported that he had seen the kino from Eucalyptus terminalis – both could be
a hut of the natives constructed of shoots of stringy- also be prepared as an antiseptic wash. These remedies
bark, and spacious enough to receive our whole party; have been highly valued for healing sores and tribal
the huts which I had observed were also very spacious, markings. Small amounts could be taken to ease
but covered with tea-tree bark.’ Stringybark was coughs and colds, as well as for headache relief. The
particularly useful as a water-resistant material: native Lemongrass (Cymbopogon bombycinus) was
sometimes added to increase the efficacy of the remedy.
We saw a very interesting camping place of the natives, The bark of the Silver Box or Smoke Tree (Eucalyptus
containing several two-storied gunyas, which were pruinosa), which was made into a decoction, had a
constructed in the following manner: four large forked sticks more extensive reputation as a treatment for colds
were rammed into the ground, supporting cross poles placed
and influenza. It was also reputed to be useful for
in their forks, over which bark was spread sufficiently strong
and spacious for a man to lie upon; other sheets of stringy-
treating general sickness, and was a valued analgesic
bark were bent over the platform, and formed an arched for the relief of aches, pains and muscular soreness
roof, which would keep out any wet. At one side of these (Wightman 1991, 1994; Smith 1993).
constructions, the remains of a large fire were observed, with
many mussel-shells scattered about. All along the Lynd we
The ‘Waltzing Matilda’ tree
had found the gunyas of the natives made of large sheets of
stringy-bark, not however supported by forked poles, but
bent, and both ends of the sheet stuck into the ground; Mr.
Gilbert thought the two-storied gunyas were burial places;
but we met with them so frequently afterwards, during our
journey round the gulf, and it was frequently so evident that
they had been recently inhabited, that no doubt remained
to their being habitations of the living, and constructed
to avoid sleeping on the ground during the wet season
(Leichhart 1847).
However, although the water-resistant properties of

the bark were valued, the timber was not particularly
durable.
Darwin Stringybark has a medicinal reputation that Coolibah or Flooded Box (Eucalyptus microtheca). (Courtesy:
relates to its antibacterial and antifungal attributes. Stan Shebs, Creative Commons, Wikipedia)
‘Coolibah’ (or ‘Coolabah’) is the Aboriginal name for resource. The establishment of the Eucalypts even
this Eucalypt. The species epithet microtheca means had a profound environmental effect in some places,
‘small case or container’, and refers to the small fruiting limiting the spread of malaria in Europe and Asia.
capsules. This was the tree made famous by the Banjo
Paterson poem ‘Waltzing Matilda’ – an Australian Versatile survival strategies allowed the spread of the
campfire yarn that became immortalised in song. genus under diverse conditions, although their natural
The shady Eucalypt bordering a billabong (seasonal adaptive skills also turned a number of species into
waterhole) became a popular image of the Australian weedy nuisances. The truly amazing versatility of
outback and bush campsites. The Coolibah, which some species enabled them to colonise sites where
is tolerant of dry conditions, is found in the arid little else will grow. They are found growing in the
regions of inland Australia. It is a rather remarkable impoverished soils of Zimbabwe and the Sahara
survivor in this harsh landscape, with a good tolerance Desert of Africa – as well as surviving freezing winters
of challenging conditions (drought, frost and flood) in the Andes Mountains of South America. In Brazil,
and tends to favour sites that are seasonally inundated, Eucalypts are planted to stabilise the soil to rectify
such as watercourses or lagoons. Older trees in these serious erosion problems. In the Peruvian Andes the
situations can acquire a picturesque gnarled, spreading Blue Gum, which was planted on steep mountain
appearance. In contrast, those growing on clay-based slopes to prevent avalanches, became a highly valued
soils have a thin, straight character. The hard wood, fuel resource. Equally unexpected is that a visit to the
though small in diameter, can be used for fencing, or pyramids in Egypt will find the Australian Eucalypt
as a fuel. In the past this durable timber was useful for growing alongside groves of date palms. The genus
making wheels and their shafts. The essential oil can has been used in Israel, Italy and France for draining
be of two types. The first contains alpha-pinene and marshland, and extensive reforestation schemes in
alpha-phellandrene (plus other sesquiterpenes), and China rely on their cultivation.
the second is composed of 1,8-cineole, p-cymene and
globulol (Brophy & Southwell 2002). Pest Eucalypts in Australia
The Eucalypt around the world

The Australian Eucalypt has had numerous claims to
fame, many of which seem to be better appreciated
overseas than in its native homeland. It is only a mere
two centuries since the Eucalypt was discovered, yet it
has become surprisingly well travelled. Interest in the
botanical and ornamental aspects of the genus quickly
saw seed and seedlings shipped across the globe. The
Eucalypt migrated to far-flung territories – the United
States, the Mediterranean region, southern Europe,
Africa, Russia, China and South America. In most
places the genus has prospered.
Today Eucalypts are a common addition to the

landscape in more than sixty countries. This
international expansion was to have far-reaching
consequences. They have become the most widely
planted hardwood in the world. Many species are of
international acclaim as an economic crop for cabinet
timbers, woodchipping, fuel and papermaking
pulp. Species that can regenerate quickly have
been particularly popular as a replenishable timber Cadagai: bark.
Cadagai (Eucalyptus torelliana) is one of the species

that has been considered to be a weedy pest outside
its native habitat. Numerous other Eucalypts have
achieved a similar weedy status within Australia.
In New South Wales and Victoria they include the
Bangalay (E. botryoides), Argyle Apple (E. cinerea),
White Stringybark (E. globoidea), Blue Gum (E.
globulus) and the Yellow Gum (E. leucoxylon). The latter
has also been regarded as a pest in South Australia, as
has the Sugar Gum (E. cladocalyx) and the Black Box
(E. largiflorens). Black Box and the Spotted Gum (E.
maculata) have the dubious distinction of extending
their unwelcome presence along the entire eastern
coastline of the continent. In addition to the Spotted
Gum, undesirable species of Western Australian
origins include Eucalyptus conferruminata, the Tuart
(E. gomphocephala) and the Bushy Yate or Lehmann’s
Gum (E. lehmannii). The Coolibah (E. microtheca)
has been listed as undesirable in Queensland, the
Northern Territory, and Western Australia (Lazarides
1997).
In the early 1900s, one particular environmental

challenge facilitated the rapid distribution of the
Eucalypt throughout Europe and South-east Asia.
Recurrent devastating malarial ‘plagues’ in the
Cadagai: flowers, leaves, and new growth. swampy region of Tre Fontane in Italy were remedied
with plantings of Eucalyptus globulus. The excitement
that accompanied the seemingly ‘miraculous’ effects
of its cultivation was understandable, and this was to
change the way the entire world regarded the Gum
tree. In 1911 a classic letter from ‘Sperator’, published
in the Ceylon Tropical Agriculturist, offered an insight
into the remarkable changes (for whatever reasons)
that growing imported Eucalypts had engineered:
I can quote a striking instance of its efficacy. The Roman

Campagna was formerly the richest and most populous
countryside in the world; it is now almost a desert solely
on account of malaria and the malaria-propagating
mosquito. The monastery of Tre Fontane, 3 miles from
Rome, used to constantly send for a fresh supply of
Trappist monks from healthier monasteries, and it is
said that no one survived three years in the monastery.
Eucalyptus trees were introduced and planted in avenues
near the monastery, and now the monastery is quite
healthy. Anyone who cares to visit the monastery can not
only see the place where St. Paul suffered martyrdom,
but can also obtain a glass of excellent eucalyptus liqueur
[Eucalittino, made from eucalypt honey] from the monks or its effects on the subsoil water; its influence is more
no longer facing imminent death. To experiment by satisfactorily explained by the simultaneous levelling of
forbidding all cultivation and gardening has not been the surface soil effected with the planting of trees, this
successful, nor has it to be wondered at, considering the doing away with the breeding places of mosquitoes in
fact that some of the driest districts are the most subject the area under cultivation. Well-regulated cultivation of
to the acutest malaria. I would humbly suggest that the the soil is always healthy, but the beneficial influences (as
experiment should be made of planting all the avenues of a regards malaria) following the planting of trees have been
cantonment with eucalyptus. There are many kinds of the extolled beyond their intrinsic merits.
tree, some of which can be grown in India. They are not
unsightly and yield excellent timber, and the cost would
The author was decidedly antagonistic to the proposed
be little greater than that of ordinary avenue plantation.
To judge by the parallel of Italy, a country whose malarial
enterprise, concluding: ‘Whilst anti-malarial
problem is closely similar to ours, I suggest that no better sanitarians in India are anxious to avail themselves of
expedient (apart from quinine prophylaxis) can be found. every known measure of proved value and practical
applicability in the prevention of malaria, it is
The Eucalypt-based liqueur is still made today; no probable they would consider that any available funds
doubt the monks deserved to profit from the fruits for anti-malarial measures might be more profitably
of their labour. It is obvious that a posting to the employed in other directions than in the cultivation
Tre Fontane monastery had not previously been of eucalyptus.’ Despite the opposition, the Eucalypt
considered a wise, or sought-after, career move – an was imported and became established in numerous
attitude that changed radically due to a providential regions of the country.
environmental experiment.
Medicinal use of the Eucalypt accompanied its
In India, proposals for the import of Eucalyptus trees, cultivation wherever it was planted. Its international
primarily for the purpose of malaria control, became reputation quickly included its use as a remedy
a controversial issue. Not all shared the enthusiastic for feverish conditions, including the treatment of
optimism for widespread Eucalypt cultivation. A malaria – although it could not be regarded as a true
correspondent (signed P.H.) had an entirely different, antimalarial agent. A high regard for the remedy was
and somewhat more prosaic, view of the subject: evident from the writings of various European and
American practitioners. In the United States the
Eclectic physician Harvey Wickes Felter commented
The planting of Eucalyptus globulus in the Tre Fontana
[sic] was started when the dominating theory regarding on the benefits of its febrifugal, analgesic and antiseptic
malaria was that it arose from miasmata from the soil. properties:
One of the beneficial effects of the blue gum tree was
supposed to be due to certain balsamic exhalations The antimalarial properties of eucalyptus are taken
destroying this miasmata. I have personally seen certain advantage of in cases of malarial infection that do not
species of culicine mosquitoes in swarms around young respond to quinine or in which the quinine has an
blue gum trees up the Huon River in Tasmania, when the otherwise undesired effect. The more chronic the cases –
whole air was pervaded with the smell of these trees and without distinct cycles – the better the drug seems to act.
the attacks of the mosquitoes named amounted almost It is also naturally used for many of the complications or
to a pestilence. With a view to drying the subsoil, certain results of chronic malarial cachexia, as periodic headache
trees have been planted on account of the great activity of and neuralgia. It is only in occasional cases of malarial
the transpiratory function shown by growing vegetation fever that it does a great deal of good, especially acting
and the consequent absorption of excessive moisture from best if there are exhaustive discharges, but it is never
the soil. The number of trees planted being in proportion without some beneficial power. It is not to be compared to
to the need and dimensions of the locality. The improved cinchona medication in the ordinary run of malarial fevers.
relationship between anopheline mosquitoes and malaria Used according to indications as given above, eucalyptus
now points to the fact that any beneficial effects that arise is a very satisfactory and pleasant medicine. It is best given
for arboriculture are due to the interference with the in syrup or glycerine (Felter 1922).
multiplication of mosquitoes. Any virtue the blue gum tree
may possess is probably unassociated with its exhalations,
Eclectic medicine characteristic, particularly those that are also suitable

In America, in the mid to late 1800s, a number of for coppicing purposes, are the best selection for crops
medical doctors banded together who favoured aimed at producing firewood.
the use of traditional herbal remedies and physical
therapies such as steam baths, etc. These physicians In 2001–2005 trials were undertaken in Kent,
became known as practitioners of ‘Eclectic medicine’, England, aimed at establishing the Eucalypt species
embracing a philosophy of healing that was in harmony that would best suit the local climate. Rapid-growth
with nature – as opposed to the orthodox principles species such as Eucalyptus nitens, E. pauciflora, E.
of the day that relied heavily on chemical purges, globulus and E. delegatensis were evaluated. Within
the use of toxic drugs such as mercury and arsenic, four years of planting, Eucalyptus nitens demonstrated
and bleeding therapies. While the Eclectics did not the greatest growth rate and the highest yield, which
ignore medical advances, they were firmly convinced made it the best candidate for commercial exploitation
of the use of herbal medicine in their practice. They (www.primabio.co.uk).
were ultimately forced to conform to the conventional
pharmaceutical approach to medicine by the need for
accreditation with the American Medical Association.
The last Eclectic medicine school closed in 1939.
Another influential aspect leading to the rapid

adoption of the Eucalypt on a global scale was the
need for reliable fuel resources. This was a powerful
impetus to the establishment of Eucalypt plantations
in many countries – a need as valid today as it was
over a century ago. The tree became so important that
entire cities have relied on it for their survival. Until
the end of the nineteenth century the location of the
capital of Ethiopia tended to change with changing Delivering Eucalypt fuelwood to campsites in Somerset,
dynasties, or when the local wood supplies ran out – England.
that is, until 1896, when the Eucalypt was introduced
and began to provide a renewable fuel source. Addis
Pulp for papermaking is another important
Ababa, established in 1886, has remained the capital
international market. Since the mid-1990s the frost-
ever since. Eucalypt wood, which has been regarded as
tolerant Eucalyptus nitens has been cultivated for
equalling Oak-sourced firewood, burns brightly and
papermaking in Spain, as well as being grown as a crop
is not smoky. As a bonus, the oil imparts a pleasant
for pulpwood in Chile, South Africa and Tasmania.
fragrance.
The timber, which is of good quality, is useful for
making veneers, fibre composites, and various types of
Eucalyptus globulus has been the main species utilised
cardboard or reconstituted board products. The tree
around the world as a fuel resource – although other
can also have a useful environmental role. In Australia
species are equally suitable. Trees usually need to be
it has been used in revegetation projects for riparian
around ten years old before they can be harvested,
buffer zones. Eucalyptus nitens can also be used in
which has led to recent investigations that have
plantings around farm boundaries to create a wildlife-
focused on determining whether other species could
friendly habitat that has potential for providing an
be used more economically. Freshly cut timber
income-earning crop of sawn logs.
contains around 50% moisture, a level that needs to
be reduced to 10–25% before use. Obviously, a lower
initial moisture content would make the wood more
suitable for use as a fuel. Fast-growing species with this
Shining Gum (Eucalyptus nitens). Studies of the leaf oils of Tasmanian-grown E. nitens determined that they were
characterised by high levels of 1,8-cineole and alpha-pinene. Interestingly, the oil yield from juvenile leaves was significantly
higher than that from mature leaves. Additional components of the oil include limonene, p-cymene, alpha-terpineol and
ocimene. Another cold climate species, E. denticulata, contained an interesting oil type with high levels of p-cymene (30%)
and gamma-terpinene (22%), and low levels of 1,8-cineole and alpha-terpineol (Li 1994; Brophy & Southwell 2002).
The substantial environmental benefits provided by from damaging the vegetation underneath, and they
tree crops are often under-appreciated. Trees provide are ‘wind-firm’ with a strong root anchorage and a
shade, shelter, and food resources that are essential flexible trunk. The Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus)
for wildlife survival. Among the benefits that accrue and the Red Gum (E. camaldulensis) are both drought-
are the control of soil erosion, maintenance of water and frost-tolerant – characteristics that have favoured
quality and a measure of local climate control. Not their cultivation in many difficult situations. Other
only do roots bind the soil to stop runoff, planting trees frost-tolerant species that have attracted interest as
as windbreaks reduces dust dispersal. Importantly, potential crops include the Peppermint (Eucalyptus
they have a temperature-regulating effect that can amygdalina), the Manna Gum (E. viminalis), the Gray
moderate hot, cold or windy conditions. They provide Gum (E. tereticornis), the Sugar Gum (E. corynocalyx),
canopy cover, shade and shelter for farming ventures and the Lemon-scented Gum (E. citriodora). A few
such as citrus orchards, vineyards, and vegetable and other species can withstand freezing cold. They tend
grain crops. They have even been used as a strategy for to come from mountainous regions in the southern
concealing marijuana crops in Central America – and half of Australia, particularly Tasmania, and include
Australia. the various ‘Snow Gums’ – for example, Eucalyptus
perriniana, E. pauciflora and E. niphophila, the
Blue Gums make excellent windbreaks. They grow Mountain Gum (E. dalrympleana) and the Cider
tall, with a generous crown that deflects wind flow Gum (E. gunnii).
antibacterial activity, while farnesol is a perfumery

agent with antispasmodic and anticancer potential.
The Red-flowering Gum is also one of the Eucalypts

that has been utilised as a dye resource. In an article on
Eucalypts as dye plants, Don Renfro mentions the use
of both Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus) and E. ficifolia
in the United States: ‘In California, it is difficult not
to come across E. globulus. They dot the landscape as
far as the eye can see. So it was little wonder that the
“Gum” was one of the first to find its way into the
dye pot.’ As dye sources he valued both trees highly:
‘few plants have performed more beautifully. The dye
colours … are breath-taking’ (Renfro 1980). Other
species have equally interesting potential. In the
Northern Territory, an ash prepared from Eucalyptus
papuana was soaked to water to produce a green dye
used for decorating dilly bags, while E. confertifolia
The ornamental Red-flowering Gum.
Versatile Eucalypts
The adaptable Red-flowering Gum
The Red-flowering Gum (Eucalyptus ficifolia, now Swamp Mallet (Eucalyptus spathulata subsp. spathulata).
Corymbia ficifolia) has been cultivated throughout the
world as an ornamental, a remarkable distinction for
a small tree whose distribution is naturally restricted bark ash provided a mordant which would give darker
to a limited area on the southern coast of Western dye colouring (Wightman & Smith 1989; Smith &
Australia. Coming from a habitat that is characterised Wightman 1990).
by nutritionally poor, sandy or gravelly soil, this species
is very adaptable to different soil types. The seed The Swamp Mallet (sometimes incorrectly called the
capsules formerly gained a measure of practical fame Swamp Mallee) is native to the south-west corner of
because they provided the ‘woggles’ that were used by Western Australia. Its common name is derived from
the Boy Scouts to secure their scarves. The essential the character of its foliage – ‘mallett’ being a local term
oil has a couple of forms. One contains high levels that describes a small tree with a dense crown. The tree
of alpha-pinene (66%), with lesser amounts of beta- favours inundated sites such as lakes and waterways,
pinene (6%), gamma-terpinene (14%) and p-cymene and has been valued for poorly drained sites. It
(8%). The other is characterised by bicyclogermacrene is also suitable for use in revegetation projects as it
(43%), alpha-pinene (36%) as well as some farnesol will tolerate mild saline soils and has a rapid growth
(17%) (Brophy & Southwell 2000). Most of these habit. It has been widely planted in urban areas – in
components have antimicrobial properties. Pinene parklands, as a street tree, for highway screening, and
has good anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic and as a windbreak.
The Snow Gum or Spinning Gum (Eucalyptus perriniana).
In some regions of Tasmania, the Snow Gum or

Spinning Gum (Eucalyptus perriniana) inhabits
an important ecological niche. It can be found
in association with fragile Sphagnum peatland
ecosystems that have become a matter of serious
conservation interest. Snow Gum leaves contain an
essential oil that is characterised by 1-8 cineole (66–
86%) and alpha-pinene, as well as lesser amounts of
alpha-terpineol and limonene (Brophy & Southwell
2002). This hardy Eucalypt can cope with climatic

extremes as it is tolerant of both frost and fire.
Occasional fire exposure acts to clear away competing
weeds and stimulate seed germination. This is one of
the species that can withstand long periods at very low
temperatures, although it does not respond well to
acute exposure during cold snaps. Overseas, this Snow
Gum has been planted as a fuelwood crop that has the
advantage of being amenable to coppicing harvesting
strategies.
Medicinal worth of the Eucalypts

When the ‘new age’ of chemical discovery dawned
in the 1900s, the advances in pharmacological drugs
that followed saw herbal medicine fall from favour in
both medical circles and popular culture – but the
popularity of Eucalypt-based remedies never lapsed.
They became wholeheartedly integrated into the herbal
pharmacopoeias of many countries, from Europe and
the Mediterranean region, to Africa and the Americas,
and the Asian subcontinent. This enthusiastic
adoption was an extraordinary achievement at a time
when synthetic drugs were overwhelming the health
care system in many countries.
Eventually, the use of Eucalypt-based remedies

became so popular that many preparations were Eucalypt globulus growing among ruins in Spain
incorporated into local herbal traditions that continue
to be used today. A preparation called ‘Eucalypto’ major producers of Eucalyptus oil, has a sizeable
has been employed by Kamsa medicine men in the level of domestic consumption, as well as selling
Amazon – the leaves decocted to make a thick, syrupy to the European market. The locally produced
cough medicine that is not unlike those prepared by oil is widely valued as a household remedy for its
Aboriginal people in Australia. In Sicily, a tea from the antiseptic, antifungal and antibacterial properties. It
leaves of ‘Calipsi’ has been widely used as a remedy is popularly applied to wounds, or used as an inhalant
for fevers and rheumatism. It was also taken to treat for respiratory problems (bronchitis, sinusitis, cough,
dental problems such as gum inflammation and colds).
toothache, while poultices were applied to injuries
to promote healing and resolve bruising. A Sardinian Eucalypts can withstand the desolate environments
remedy known as ‘Eucalittu’, utilised a decoction of that are found in parts of Spain and northern Africa
Eucalyptus leaves. This was recommended for treating – which has allowed these trees to be farmed as a crop
a remarkable variety of disorders: fevers, stomatitis, in marginal areas. In many places the damage done by
intestinal pains, allergy, constipation, lung disorders, man has set the scene, providing these resilient trees
and as a sedative for coughing problems (Ballero with a perfect opportunity to thrive. This immigrant,
2001; Schultes & Raffauf 1990). which gradually became part of the landscape over the
last century (or more), is now accepted as a naturalised
The Blue Gum (Eucalyptus globulus subsp. globulus) species.
has been extensively cultivated throughout the
Mediterranean. Spain, which has been one of the
The Rose Gum (Eucalyptus grandis) is a familiar

species of northern New South Wales and southern
Queensland. It is also found on the tropical highlands
in northern Queensland, where it can achieve
impressive proportions. In some places massive Rose
Gums can be found towering over the rainforest
canopy, magnificent specimens up to 60 metres high
and over 2 metres in diameter. The tree was once
harvested for its timber. A review of Queensland trees
in 1878 by the surveyor William Pettigrew mentioned
the following: ‘It has a white bark which peels off right
down to the ground. It grows to a great height, and is
the lightest of all the gums hereabout, floating in water
soon after being cut. It is easily cut by saw, but shrinks
very much in drying. It is used for weatherboards, and
sometimes for making parts of drays and carts. Also
used for masts, spars, and planks of vessels.’
The Rose Gum has migrated around the world. It can

be found from Oceania (including Hawaii) to South-
east Asia (Nepal, Hong Kong, Singapore, Malaysia)
and some parts of South America (Peru). In the early
The Rose Gum or Flooded Gum (Eucalyptus grandis), 1800s it was among the Eucalypt species that were
Copperlode Dam, Cairns, North Queensland: ‘On the imported to Africa. Here it became widely cultivated
North Coast the Flooded Gum will be in bloom in – along with Eucalyptus globulus, E. tereticornis and E.
September. This is usually (depends upon the season) a good
yielder of beautiful light-amber honey’ (Shallard 1918). camaldulensis. It should be noted, however, that the
Rose Gum (E. grandis) and the Sydney Blue Gum
(E. saligna) have a similar appearance and are easily treating tuberculosis. The identification of significant
confused. Many overseas plantings supposedly of the anti-tubercular activity in the compound citriodoral
Blue Gum were later correctly identified as the Rose by Indian investigations lends some support to this
Gum. Today, the Rose Gum continues to be a popular use – although the compound is not found in all types
plantation subject due to its phenomenal growth rate. of Eucalyptus oil (Satyavati 1976).5
In Angola, Abyssinia, Uganda and Nigeria it has been
widely planted as a household fuel source. The tree The Eclectic physician and herbalist Harvey Wicks
yields a pinene-rich essential oil. Studies from the Felter (1922) was effusive in his praise of the use of
Essential Oil Research Centre (EORC), Addis Ababa, the Eucalypt as a household remedy – particularly for
Ethiopia, gave the following analysis: alpha-pinene respiratory problems and as an antibacterial agent.
(31.8%); beta-pinene (46.6%); 1,8-cineole (4.8%); Eucalyptus oil was recommended for all types of
and alpha-terpineol (5.4%). Australian studies catarrhal disorders of the lungs, as well as chronic
likewise found that the oil had low cineole levels (6%), bronchitis, and bronchorrhoea (excessive bronchial
moderate levels of pinene (25%), as well as flavesone secretions). These remedies echo the use of the
(12%) and good quantities of the antibacterial agent
Eucalypt by Australian Aboriginal people – providing
leptospermone (26%) (Brophy & Southwell 2002).4
effective traditional potions for many centuries before
Pinene has good anti-inflammatory, anti-spasmodic
their export overseas.
and antiseptic properties. This species has probably
been used medicinally wherever it grows. For instance,
The diverse uses of the Australian Gum Tree in African
there is a rather unusual medicinal recommendation
native medicine are well acknowledged, although
from the Congo that employs a decoction of the
the extent of its deployment has probably been
ground leaf tips taken for the treatment of constipation
under-appreciated. The resin-yielding Manna Gum
(Chifundera 2001).
(Eucalyptus viminalis) acquired a local reputation with
some quite practical uses: ‘[the gum] exudes freely
Sometimes the environmental and medicinal benefits from spontaneous cracks in the bark and is eagerly
of a plant can be discovered in rather odd ways. After eaten by South African boys and used for making
the Blue Gum was imported into India, in many areas bird lime and adhesives’ (Watt & Breyer-Brandwijk
it was to become an indispensable part of village life. 1962). A concentrated decoction was used by settlers
Not only has it provided fuel and building materials, it in the Cape region of South Africa as a bathing
has been a reliable source of good quality medicinal oil. remedy for rheumatic pain. Interestingly, the method
Indian medicine readily adopted the ‘Australian Gum of preparation (the lengthy boiling of the leafy twigs)
Tree’, with herbal texts listing its use in an extensive would have evaporated much of the oil content. In
array of treatments, particularly for skin disorders, Transvaal the leaf poultice provided a useful ‘drawing’
respiratory tract infections and chronic lung disease. It agent for an abscess. The finely powdered bark was
has been incorporated into antirheumatic preparations, employed as a skin dusting powder, and the root was
burn ointments and insect repellents (Kapoor 1990). recommended by some herbalists as a purgative. It was
In the Philippines, numerous applications closely even thought that the leaf worn inside a hat or strewn
correspond to those of India – particularly its use about the house was prophylactic against influenza. In
as an antiseptic and decongestant for allergies, sinus Central Africa the leaf has been utilised as a remedy
and respiratory disorders (including bronchitis and for fevers (a febrifuge) and for treating leprosy (Watt
asthma). Eucalyptus oil has been widely incorporated & Breyer-Brandjwijk 1962). Alpha-pinene and
into anaesthetic and antiseptic lotions (Quisumbing 1,8-cineole predominate in the oil of the Manna
1951; Kapoor 1993). Traditional practitioners in the Gum, with smaller amounts of a number of other
Philippines have recommended Eucalyptus oil for constituents such as alpha-phellandrene, globulol
4 Flavesone and leptospermone are among the antibacterial components
and/or limonene (Brophy & Southwell 2002).
found in New Zealand-sourced Manuka oil. This topic is discussed further
in the section on the Tea Trees, Melaleuca and Leptospermum, in Volume II of 5 Citriodoral is characteristic of the essential oil of the Lemon-scented
Medicinal Plants in Australia: Gums, Resins, Tannin and Essential Oils. Gum (Eucalyptus citriodora).
status. Over a century ago the similar climate

of South Africa welcomed those that wanted to
become naturalised – until their weedy habit
began to take over. Those that are now considered
to be invasive include Eucalyptus camaldulensis, E.
cladocalyx, E. diversicolor, E. grandis, E. lehmannii,
E. paniculata and E. sideroxylon. In addition to the
Eucalypts there are quite a few Australian exports
that have achieved a pestilential reputation
overseas. They include several species of Acacia
such as A. farnesiana in southern Europe and A.
auriculiformis in southern Florida. The Broad-
leaved Paperbark, Melaleuca quinquenervia, has
become a serious problem as an invading weed in
Eucalypt trees, Johannesburg, South Africa. the Everglades of Florida.
The downside of exporting plant The River Red Gum has become popular throughout
species the world as an impressive landscape tree. However, in
The export of several iconic Australian plant genera many countries the tree has escaped cultivation and
has had invasive results in some countries. Numerous become naturalised – in places as diverse as mainland
species of Eucalyptus have achieved a listed weed America, Hawaii, Ecuador, the Galapagos Islands, the
River Red Gum (Eucalyptus camaldulensis, formerly E. rostrata) Nile River, Luxor, Egypt.
Canary Islands, Bangladesh, India, and numerous evidence that we can no longer continue ignorantly to
Mediterranean countries. In South Africa it is now loot our natural resources, lest we, in destroying forever
considered an invasive environmental weed. some potent living tissue, throw away a pearl richer than
our common wealth.
Over the last two centuries the medicinal use of the

Australian flora has not only involved Aboriginal With the rapid urban development in many parts of
people. New traditions have evolved that have been the country wiping out our native flora and fauna,
based on extensive chemical and pharmaceutical these words could almost be considered prophetic.
investigations. They have opened up unique avenues of They are as true today as when they were first penned
enquiry into the pharmacology and efficacy of native over six decades ago. Chemical and pharmacological
plant remedies. In 1969 Professor Len Webb wrote, in advances have seen the markets in native essential oils
words that few could surpass, of the remarkable value expand dramatically. In particular, the acceptance of
of the Australian flora: natural products based on Tea Tree, Eucalyptus oils,
and medicinal grade honey have carved out markets
that were barely considered viable a few decades ago.
The glimpse of the beauty, practical uses, scientific
interest, and cultural implications of Australian native
With developments like this, herbal medicine is finally
plants … must surely cause us to challenge the ruling managing to shrug off much of the undeserved slurs
philosophy that native vegetation is simply an obstacle to on its reputation – and standards that ensure the
‘development’. Exploitation of the rich genetic material safety and efficacy of many remedies have bolstered
evolved on this ancient continent, the last of lands, consumer confidence. Professor Webb’s faith in the
has already influenced social attitudes and scientific potential of the incredible flora of this country has
progress throughout the world. Chemical research on the been vindicated, yet there is much more that remains
Australian flora is just one of the many streams of real to be discovered.
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INDEX
α ρ-cymene 43, 101, 104, 462 linolic 164 Agave 447, 482

α-aescin 125 ρ-cymol 142, 149 madasiatic 142 amaniensis 447
α-bisabolol 67–70 ρ-methoxyphenylacetone 42 madecassic 142, 143 americana 448
α-cadinol 82 nicotinic 415 cantala 482
α-calacorene 82 A oleanolic 56, 80, 338 rigida 447
α-cedrene 328 Abrus precatorius 184 polygalacic 50 sisalana 447, 448
α-chaconine 455 Acacia 149, 391 rosmarinic 102, 104, 144, 145 spp. 451
α-copaene 97, 104 ancistrocarpum 256 taraxinic 76 aglycone 455
α-cubebene 70 aneura 269, 392, 407, 426 terminolic 143 Agrimonia pilosa 475
α-humulene 101, 142, 462 aulacocarpa 133 thankunic 143 Agrobacterium tumefaciens 55
α-linolenic acid 34, 119 auriculiformis 324 ursolic 144, 398 Agrostis stolonifera 330
α-muurolene 82 bivenosa 324 Ackama muelleri 393 Ailanthus
α-phellandrene 177, 316, 462 complanta 133 Acmella altissima 184
α-pinene 33, 43, 56, 95, 101, 104, cuthbertsonii 377 brasiliensis 54–57 glandulosa 184
177, 300, 315, 316 hakeoides 373, 392 calva 56, 57 integrifolia 184
α-solamargine 455 kempeana 324 grandiflora 52, 61 triphysa 184
α-solanine 455, 465 leiophylla 308 grandiflora var. brachyglossa 52 Ajuga australis 133
α-solasonine 455 ligulata 182, 324, 392 grandiflora var. discoidea 52 Alchemilla speciosa 129
α-terpineol 44, 101, 320 nilotica 83 grandiflora var. grandiflora 52 aldrin 237
α-terpinolene 95, 104, 462 pendula 299 oleracea 51, 52, 56 Aleurites moluccana 156
α-terpinyl acetate 95 salicina 375, 391 paniculata 52 Allium
α-terthienyl 85, 86, 87 spp. 394 uliginosa 52 bakeri 65
α-thujene 104 stenophylla 392 Acmena smithii 91 sativa 158
α-tocopherol 31, 119, 140 Acanthamoeba Aconite 10, 47, 212 sativum 174
α-tomatine 455 castellanii 97 Aconitum napellus 10, 212 Allocasuarina littoralis 133
α-zingiberene 104 polyphaga 97 Acorus calamus 151, 152 Allolobophora caliginosa
β Acanthocheilonema vitae 282 Actinomadura madurae 200 trapezoides 288
β-aescin 125, 128 Acanthospermum australe 97 Actinomyces antibioticus 200 allopurinol 130
β-bisabolene 44 acetaminophen 54 actinomycin 200, 205 Aloe vera 121, 481
β-bourbonene 104 acetyl salicylic acid 54 Adansonia gregorii 133 Alpinia
β-carotene 31, 32, 33, 117, 119, 142 acetylcholine 261, 361, 364, 365, adonidin 25 arctiflora 184
β-caryophyllene 97, 104, 142, 366, 368, 396, 469 adonilide 26 arundelliana 184
319, 462 acetylcholinesterase 102, 103, 261, adonin 26 caerulea 184
β-chaconine 485 363, 366 Adonis 24, 25, 26 galanga 184
β-cryptoxanthin 33 acetyleugenol 43 Amur 26 hylandii 184
β-eudesmol 313, 318 Achillea millefolium 158 amurensis 26 modesta 184
β-farnesene 104 Achyranthes microcarpa 24, 25 racemigera 184
β-ionine 82 arborescens 184 Summer 25 Alstonia 393
β-lactamase 321 aspera 184 vernalis 25, 26 actinophylla 316, 393
β-phellandrene 44, 104 margaretarum 184 adonitoxin 25 constricta 392, 394
β-pinene 33, 95, 104, 315, 316, 462 acid adrenaline 12, 325 scholaris 393
β-selinene 101 acetyl salicylic 54 adriamycin 201 Alternaria
β-sesquiphellandrene 44 asiatic 142 Adriana glabrata 420 alternata 103
β-sitosterol 150, 171, 435, 445, 477, benzoic 20 Adrucil 35 solani 335
479, 481 betulinic 150 Aedes Amanita
β-soladulcine 455 brahmic 143 aegypti 87 muscaria 123, 367
γ caffeic 57, 108 fluviatilis 64 phalloides 368
γ-cadinene 82 carnosic 144 Aegiceras corniculatum 182, 183 Amaranthus chlorostachys 82
γ-elemene 88, 315, 318 centellic 143 aegicerin 182 Amegilla cingulata 308
γ-muurolene 82, 319 chaulmoogric 164 Aeromonas hydrophila 148 American Nightshade 451, 464–6,
γ-terpinene 43, 101, 104, 316 chicoric 73 aescin 124–9 482–4
δ chlorogenic 73, 108, 356, 454 aesculin 73, 124, 125, 130 aminoglycoside 483
δ-cadinene 82 dicaffeoyltartaric 73 Aesculus Amitermes
κ gallic 104 hippocastanum 124–6 laurentis 302
κ-strophanthoside 485 hydnocarpic 165 indica 126 meridionalis 302
ρ isobrahmic 143 affinin 57 Amla 151
ρ-amino salicylic acid 174 kaurenoic 54, 56, 57, 66 African Marigold 84, 85 Amorphophallus
541
542 MEDICINAL PLANTS IN AUSTRALIA Volume 4 An Antipodean Apothecary
campanulatus 184 Apple of Sodom 475 floribunda 150 Black Lily 446

galbra 184 Applebush 96, 182 monnieri 137, 150, 152, 158, 428 Black Nightshade 451, 455, 462–6,
paeoniifolius 184 Ara chloropterus 223 procumbens 150 468–74, 483
amphotericin 483 Arabidopsis thaliana 469 bacosine 150 Black Orchid 419
Amulla 294 Araucaria bidwillii 133 Bacteroides vulgatus 36 Black Pepper 417
Amur Adonis 26 Areca catechu 372 Bai-ji 174 Blackbean 2, 131, 418
Amyema quandong 133 Armoracia rusticana 378 Baileyoxylon lanceolatum 166, 167 Blainvillea
anabasine 396, 398, 406, 407, 412, armyworm, Asian 164 Balanops australiana 133 dubia 52
415, 416 Arnebia euchroma 475 Bandicoot, Southern Brown 285 gayana 52
anagyrine 415 Arnica 47, 59, 79 Banksia collina 133 bleomycin 201
Ancylostoma Arnica montana 58 Baptisia alba 415 Bletilla striata 174
caninum 276 aromadendrene 300, 318, 327 Barbat Skullcap 474, 475 Blue Coleus 103
duodenale 274, 276 arsenic 230, 231 Barmah Forest virus 203 Blue Gum 149, 190
Andrographis paniculata 64 Artemisia Basil 98, 179 Blue Lobelia 423
androstenedione 434 annua 97, 98 Bastard Sandalwood oil 131 Blueberry Tree 293
anethole 42, 44 capillaris 129 Bat Plant 446 Boerhaavia diffusa 39
Anethum sowa 39 montana 129 Baylisascaris procyonis 275 Bombyx mori 284
Angel’s Trumpet 354, 350, 395 scoparia 129 Beach Sunflower 53, 56, 59, 60, Bontia daphnoides 297
Angelica sinensis 69, 475 artemisinin 97 61, 156 Boobialla
Anise oil 20, 42 asbestos 226, 236, 237, 476 Bean Common 293
Aniseed 42 Ascaris Calabar 362 Creeping 293
anisodamine 359, 360 lumbricoides 165, 275, 279, 280 Mescal 416 Pointed 380
anisodine 359, 360 suum 280 Ordeal 361 Southern 293
ankaflavin 441, 443, 444 trichuris 275 Soya 480 Western 294
Annona ascorbic acid 32, 33, 119, 445 beauvericin 435 Boophilus decoloratus 454
cherimolia 54 asiatic acid 140, 142–4, 148, 149 BEC 476 Borage, Indian 100
glabra 54 6-β-hydroxy-asiatic acid 143 Bee Bordetella
senegalensis 54 asiaticoside 140, 142–4, 146, 148, Blue Banded 308 bronchiseptica 334
squamosa x A. cherimolia 55 149, 155 Cuckoo 308 pertussis 281
anonaine 177 asimilobine 177 Belladonna 18, 349, 383–8 borneol 43, 44, 70, 95, 316, 320
Anopheles Aspalathus linearis 172 belladonnine 355 bornyl acetate 70, 320
stephensi 101, 116, 149 Asparagus racemosus 151 Belleric Myrobalans 151 Boronia 32
subpictus 87, 149 Aspergillus 55, 56, 69, 194, 199, 482 Bellis perennis 48, 49, 50 Boronia megastigma 32
anthecotulide 68 flavus 55, 56, 217, 335, 462 Benamanrka-gunara 266 spp. 133
anthelminthicin 170 niger 50, 55, 56, 121, 133, 135, bentonite 217, 221, 226–8, 234, 238, Boswellia carterii 75
Anthemis 148, 335 240, 253, 254, 256, 271, 273, 275 Botrytis cinerea 54,135
arvensis 66, 67 parasiticus 55 benzocaine 371 Bottlebrush 182
cotula 68 aspirin 54, 57, 130, 149, 192 benzoic acid 20 Bougainvillea spectabilis 129
nobilis 66, 68 Asteromyrtus benzoin 46, 437 Brachychiton acerifolius 133
Antheum graveolens 43 shepherdii 133 benztropine 359 Brahmi 137, 150, 151, 158, 428
Anthocercis symphyocarpa 133 berberine 97, 112, 171 Brahmia indica 150
aromaticus 398 Astragalus membranaceus 64 Berberis aristata 39 Brahmic acid 143
fasciculata 398 Astrotricha longifolia 133 Bergamot oil 105 brahminoside 143
frondosa 398 Atalaya Bergsmia javanica 167 brahmoside 143
genistoides 398 hemiglauca 306 Berrigan 316, 320 Brazilian Cress 53
ilicifolia 398 variifolia 307 Berry, Turkey 458 Brazilian Nightshade 451
littorea 398 Atemoya 54, 55 Beta vulgaris 344 Brazilian Pennywort 139
viscosa 398, 399 Athanasia crithmifolia 328 betalain 122 Brazilian Potato Tree 451
anthocyanidin 19, 130 Atropa belladonna 341, 342, 353, 355, betaxanthin 122 Brown Plum 370, 371
Anthotroche 357, 359, 384, 394, 463 Betel Nut 116, 372, 373, 392 Brucea javanica 172, 184
myoporoides 398 atropine 220, 227, 341, 344–6, 349, betulinic acid 35, 143, 150, 171 bruceantin 172
pannosa 398 353–60, 362, 364, 366, 368, 384–90, Beyeria lechenaultii 133 bruceine 172
walcottii 398, 399 394–6, 401, 415, 463, 472, 488 bicyclogermacrene 142 bruceoside 184
antimony 209, 210 Attar of Roses 30, 31 Bidens Brugia malayi 280
anymol 327 aureomycin 198 bipinnata 184 Brugmansia
apigenin 66, 67, 69, 120, 171, 172, Australian Buckthorn 123 pilosa 184 arborea 395
179, 429 Australian Corkwood 387 subalternans 184 knightii 395
apigenin 7-glycoside 70 Australian Paralysis Tick 412 tripartita 184 sanguinea 354, 355, 356
Apis 47 Australian Sneezewort 50 biflorin 316, 318, 319, 328 suaveolens 395
Apis mellifera 307 Australian Tobacco 404 Bilberry 385, 386 x candida 395
apoatropine 355, 358, 396, 398 Azadirachta indica 39, 164, 184 Bilharzia 280, 282 Buckinghamia celsissima 133
Apocynum 212 Aztec Marigold 83, 84, 87 Biomphalaria peregrina 54, 57 Buddleia cordata 179
Apodemus sylvaticus 281 azulene 67 bisabolene 315, 327 Buddleja
aporphine 177 B bisabolol 67, 69, 70, 80 davidii 179
aposcopolamine 396, 398 Bacillus bisphenol A 123 globosa 326
Apple cereus 36, 54, 132, 148, 335 Bitter Apple 454 Bufo marinus 341
Bitter 454 dysenteriae 109 Bitter Jessie 440 bufotenin 341
Custard 55 megaterium 148 Bitter Yam 438, 439 Bulbine frutescens 140, 141
Devil’s 477 subtilis 29, 55, 56, 80, 98, 103, 109, Bitterbark 394 Bulrush 220
Kangaroo 454, 456 121, 133, 148, 244, 334, 459 Bittersweet 189, 455, 462–4, 470, Bunya Nut 133
Mountain Kangaroo 454 typhi 109 471, 472 Burn Jelly Plant 141
Winter 294 Backhousia citriodora 131, 133 Black Garlic 175 Bursaria
Wolf 478 Bacopa Black Hellebore 486, 487 calciocola 124
INDEX 543
incana 123 salignus 133 sp. (Mission Beach) 133 chaulmoogra oil 161–4, 166, 169,
longisepala 124 Caloncoba echinata 163 Cassia occidentalis 53, 158 170, 171, 173
occidentalis 123, 124 Calotropis gigantea 170 Cassia bark 43 chaulmoogric acid 164, 165,170
reevesii 124 Camel Poison 378 Cassowary 168 chavicol methyl ether 42
spinosa 123, 125 Camellia sinensis 58 Castanospermum australe 2, 131, Chebulic Myrobalans 151
tenuifolia. 123 campesterol 435, 445, 479, 480 133, 418 Chenopodium album 82
Buruli ulcer 175, 202, 203, 286 camphene 44 casuarictin 36 Cherimolia 54
Buscopan 401 camphor 20, 43, 178, 185 Casuarina Cherokee Rose 33, 38
Bush camphora 47 cristata 185 Cherry, Jerusalem 478
Cattle 420 camphorene 327 cunninghamiana 185 Chestnut Rose 29, 33
Coca 370 Campylobacter jejuni 81 equisetifolia 185 Chicoric acid 73
Crimson Fuchsia 315 Candida glauca 185 Chicory 48, 73, 129
Desert Fuchsia 315 albicans 35, 55, 56, 81, 103, 113, obesa 185 China Rose 29
Drummond’s Poverty 324 121, 133, 148, 172, 205, 298, pauper 185 Chinese
Ellangowan Poison 294, 311 330, 334, 335, 436, 459, 462, 482 catalpol 317 Black Nightshade 466
Flannel 452 dubliniensis 81 catechin 128, 142, 445 Dandelion 74, 75, 76
Harlequin Fuchsia 314, 321 glabrata 81 Catha edulis 373 Goldthread 171
Kerosene 318 guilliermondii 81 Catharanthus roseus 10, 185 Hawthorn 29
Narrow-leaf Fuchsia 313 krusei 81, 139 Cattle Bush 420 Holly 475
Pituri 380 maltosa 334 Cauliflower, Pink 95 Lobelia 428, 430
Purple Fuchsia 315 parapsilosus 81 Caulinia nigricans 202 Sage 146
Red Poverty 314 tropicalis 56, 81 Cedrus deodara 39 Tea Rose 38
Rock Fuchsia 315 Cane Toad 341 Celery seed oil 105 Wedelia 63, 65
Smelly 88 Canine hookworm 276 Centella chitinase E 436
Spotted Fuchsia 317 Canine roundworm 276 asiatica 137, 138, 140, 141, 144, Chlamydia
Spotted Poverty 323 Canine whipworm 276 147–50, 152, 155, 156, 169, 428 pneumoniae 172, 178
Tar 297 Canna indica 83 cordifolia 144 trachomatis 208, 278
Turkey 315 cannabichromene 192 centellasaponins 143 Chlamydophila pneumoniae 178
Turpentine 314, 318, 321 cannabidiol 191, 192 centellic acid 143 chloramphenicol 197, 445, 460
Warty Fuchsia 311 cannabidiolic acid 191 centelloside 143 Chlorocebus pygerythrus 263
C cannabigerol 191, 192 Centipeda chlorogenic acid 73, 108, 356, 454
Cabbage Rose 38 cannabigerolic acid 191 borealis 105 chloromycetin 197, 198
Cacalia cannabinol 192 crateriformis 106 chloroquine 201, 220, 460
ainsliaeflora 329 Cannabis sativa 185, 191, 347 cunninghamii 50, 105, 108, 133 chlortetracycline 198
decomposita 329 Canscora minima 105, 108, 109 choline 70
delphinifolia 329 decussata 185 minima subsp. macrocephala 105 Chondrodendron tomentosum 362
pilgeriana 329 diffusa 185 minima subsp. minima 105 Chromobacterium violaceum 29
cacalohastin 330 cantalasaponin-3 482 nidiformis 106 Chrysanthemum, Florist’s 180
cacalol 325, 330 Canthium oleifolium 91 orbicularis 105 Chrysanthemum
cacalone 329 Cape York Lily 159 pleiocephala 106 leucanthemum 48
Cachexia Africana 273 Capparis spinosa 158 racemosa 106 morifolium 180
cactinomycin 200 Capraria thespidioides 105, 106 segetum 180
cadinane 327 biflora 319, 320 Ceratanthus longicornis 133 sinense 180
cadinene 70, 82 lanceolata 319 cerubidin 201 chrysoeriol 171
cadmium 233 Capsella bursa-pastoris 185 Cestrum chrysoplenetin 97, 98
Caesalpinia capsicastrine 477 diurnum 488, 489 chrysosplenol 96, 97, 98
bonduc 185 capsimine 477 dumetorum 489 cichoriin 73
crista 185 Caraway 43 elegans 487, 488 Cichorium intybus 73, 129, 158
digyna 185 Caraway oil 43 fasciculatum 487 Cinchona 377, 388, 394
erythrocarpa 185 carbon-tetrachloride 57 Green 488, 489 cineole 43–5, 95, 190, 314, 327
hymenocarpa 185 Cardamomum 39, 43 laevigatum 489 1,8-cineole 95, 327
major 185 Cardinal Flower 425, 429 nocturnum 488 cinnabarite 213
nitens 185 cardiogenin 37 Orange 488 cinnamic acid 70
pulcherrima 185 Carduus marianus 158 parqui 488, 489 cinnamic aldehyde 43
robusta 185 Carica papaya 185 Red 487 Cinnamomum
sappan 185 Carissa lanceolata 133 cevadine 485 baileyanum 185
subtropica 185 carnosic acid 144 chaconine 455, 460, 481 camphora 43, 178, 185
traceyi 185 carnosol 144 chacotriose 460 iners 185
caffeic acid 57, 70, 104, 108, 119, carotene 40, 142 Chagas disease 57 laubatii 185
144 carpesterol 459, 477, 482 Chamaemelum nobile 66, 67 oliveri 185
Calabar Bean 362 Carpotroche brasiliensis 163, chamazulene 67, 69, 70 propinquum 185
calamenene 327 165, 173 Chamelaucium uncinatum 94, 95 virens 185
Calamphoreus inflatus 297 Carum carvi 43 Chamomile zeylanicum 43, 178, 185
calcalone 330 carvacrol 101, 104 Corn 66, 67, 180 Cinnamon 29, 43, 67, 178, 211
Caldcluvia paniculosa 393, 394 carvacrol acetate 104 German 66, 67, 81 ciprofloxacin 75
Calendula carveol 43 Lawn 68 cis-chrysanthenol 108
alata 82 carvone 43, 45 Roman 66–68, 81 cis-chrysanthenyl acetate 108
arvensis 67, 81 caryophyllene 43, 88, 101, 104, 142, True 66 cisplatin 120, 128
officinalis 77–9, 81, 141 149, 462 Yellow 67 Cissampelos pareira 185
Calendula oil 80 caryophyllene oxide 104, 462 Chamomilla recutita 66 Cistuscreticus 19
calenduloside B 81 Casearia chard 86, 344 cis-β-farnesene 70
Callistemon grayi 133 Chatham Island Pratia 430 citral 44, 87
citrinus 133, 182 multinervosa 133 Chaulmoogra 161, 164 citrinin 443
citronellal 44, 87, 95 Coleus 99 Crenidium spinescens 398 daunorubicin 201

citronellol 29–31, 33 amboinicus 101 Cress Day Jessamine 488
Citrullus aromaticus 101 Brazilian 53 DDS 160
colocynthis 185 barbatus 101 Daisy 48, 52, 61 DDT 58
lanatus 185 coerulescens 101 crocidolite 236 Deadly Nightshade 342, 353, 355,
vulgaris 185 kilimandschari 101 Crotalaria incana 92 357, 383, 463
Citrus vettiveroides 102 Cryptocarya corrugata 134 dehydrongaione 313, 314, 328
aurantium 42, 44 Colocasia esculenta 439, 441 Cryptococcus neoformans 96, 482 dehydrotomatine 455
aurantium subsp. bergamia 44 colupulone 333 Cucumis melo 197 dehydroxyserrulatic acid 328
limon 44 Comfrey 48, 50, 51, 120 Cucurbita delphinidin 477
reticulata 75 Commiphora myrrha 75 maxima 186 deltonin 445
Cladanthus multicaulis 67 Common pepo 186 deltonine 435, 436
Clausena Broom 416, 417 Culex quinquefasciatus 58 deltoside 436
brevistyla 185 Brushtail Possum 176 Curaderm 476, 477 dendrolasin 327, 328
excavata 185 Daisy 48 curare 362–4, 382 Dendrolasius fuliginosus 328
smyrelliana 185 Thornapple 350 Curcuma deptropine 359
sp. Tipperary 185 coniine 415 amada 159 Desert Poplar 376, 377
Claviceps purpurea 341 Conospermum australasica 159, 186 Desert Sneezeweed 105
Clavija procera 182, 183 brachyphyllum 134 domestica 158, 186 Desert Thornapple 349
Clematis incurvum 134 longa 64, 158, 159, 186, 475 desmethylwedelolactone 64
aristata 110 convallamarin 27 curcumene 44 Devil’s Apple 477
brachiata 111, 113 Convallaria majalis 26, 27 curcumin 159 Devil’s Fig 458, 459, 460, 483
chinensis 114 convallarin 27 Curvularia lunata 103 D-galactosamine 57
cirrhosa 111, 113 convallatoxin 26, 27 cuscohygrine 359 D-germacrene 104
dioica 113 Convolvulus Custard Apple 55 D-glucoside 459
Erect 112 angustissimus 185 cyanide 243, 244 DHEA 434
flammula 114 arvensis 185 cyanidin 119 Di Long 287, 288
glycinoides 110 clementii 185 Cylas formicarius elegantulus 319 diamino-diphenyl-sulfone 160
hirsuta 111, 113 crispifolius 185 cymarin 25, 26 Diamondback moth 116, 300
ligusticifolia 112, 113 erubescens 185 Cymbidium canaliculatum 419 Dianella
microphylla 110 eyreanus 185 Cymbopogon ambiguus 134, 315 callicarpa 134
montana 113 graminetinus 185 Cyphanthera longifolia var. grandis 134
oweniae 111, 113 microcephalus 185 anthocercidea 398 revoluta var. revoluta 134
papuasica 111, 113 pluricaulis 152 odgersii 398 dicaffeoyltartaric acid 73
pickeringii 133 recurvatus 185 tasmanica 398, 399 2,4-dichlorophenol 123
recta 111, 113 remotus 185 cytisine 415, 416, 417, 418 Dictamnus dasycarpus 446
sinensis 113 tedmoorei 185 Cytisus scoparius 416, 417 Didymotheca cupressiformis 378
Small 110 wimmerensis 185 D dieldrin 237
virgiana 112 Conyza dactinomycin 200 Digitalis 25–8, 370, 488
vitalba 110, 111 aegyptiaca 186 daidzein 443 purpurea 10, 24, 449
Western 113 canadensis 469 Daintree ulcer 203 digoxin 225, 227, 449
Cleome sumatrensis 186 Daisy 10, 46, 55 dihydrocarveol 43
droserifolia 115, 117 Copi 267 Alpine 58 dihydrocarvone 43
gynandra 115, 116, 117 Coptis chinensis 171 Common 48 Dill 43
hassleriana 116 Coptotermes Singapore 60, 62, 138 dillapiole 43
rutidosperma 118 acinaciformis 301 Sunflower 59, 61 dimaturin 329
viscosa 114–6, 118 formosanus 300 Daisy Cress 48, 52, 61 dimerumic acid 441
cleomin 115 coramsine 476 Damask Rose 29, 30, 35 dimethylnitrosamine 454
Clerodendron traceyi 134 Cordyceps sinensis 474 Dandelion 46, 48, 64, 70–7, 82, Diocirea
Clerodendrum floribundum 133 Cordyline terminalis 294 158, 189 microphylla 297
clinoptilolite 240, 242 Coriander 43 Chinese 74–6 ternata 297
clofazimine 160 coriandrol 43 Japanese 75 diosbulbin 437, 445
Clonorchis spp. 280 Coriandrum sativum 43 Russian 70, 77 dioscin 435, 438, 440, 445–77
Clostridium Cork Oak 393 dapsone 160, 170 dioscorans 438
difficile 207 Cork-tree 393 dasyscyphin-C 65 Dioscorea
perfringens 199, 321 Corkwood 379 Datura 341, 350, 356 alata 434, 436, 441
tetani 199 Duboisia 381–3, 393, 395–8, 417 Purple 346 alata var. purpurea 441
Clove 36, 43, 67, 319 Australian 387 White 346 batatas 438–41, 444
Clove oil 43 Laurel 394 Datura birmanica 446
cocaine 46, 341, 370 Leichhardt 380, 393, 397 alba 347 bulbifera 436–8, 442, 444, 445
Coccidioides immitis 199 Corn Chamomile 66, 67 arborea 395 bulbifera var. sativa 437
cochlearin 378 Corynebacterium diphtheriae 55, fastuosa 354, 356 cayenensis 436, 439
Cocky Apple 180, 181 56, 75 ferox 346, 350, 351, 356 cirrhosa 441
codeine 22, 23, 38, 121, 341 Corynocarpus laevigatus 295 inoxia 345, 346, 351, 356 collettii 435, 445
Codonocarpus Costus speciosus 449 leichhardtii 349, 350 collettii var. hypoglauca 445
attenuatus 376, 377 Cotula tinctoria 67 metel 345–7, 350, 351, 356 composita 433, 435
australis 378 coumarin 67, 70, 80, 84, 129, 185, metel var. fastuosa 346, 347 deltoidea 433, 435
cotinifolius 376–8 429 stramonium 346, 349–54, 357, deltoidea var. orbiculata 445
pyramidalis 376 Crataegus 384 dumetorum 438, 439
Coelospermum paniculata var. cuneata 29 stramonium var. tatula 354 elephantipes 433
syncarpum 187 oxyacantha 28 wrightii 350 esculenta 441, 446
colchicine 130 pinnatifida var. major 29 daturamine 359 floribunda 433, 435
coleon A 99, 101 Creeping Bentgrass 330 daunomycin 201 futschauensis 445
INDEX 545
hispida 437, 438, 446 E duttonii 314, 321 Eucalyptus

hypoglauca 437 earthworm 286, 287 elderi 314 baileyana 136
macrostachya 432, 433 Giant Gippsland 289 fraseri 314, 321 botryoides 190
membranacea 446 Common 288, 289 freelingii 315, 323 camaldulensis 190, 392, 422
mexicana 435 ecdysteroids 435 gibbifolia 292 camaldulensis subsp. obtusa 190
nipponica 440, 446 Echinacea gilesii 315 citriodora 190
opposita 436–8, 441, 442 angustifolia 158 glabra 297 coolabah subsp. arida 392
panthaica 440 purpurea 158, 159 hygrophana 293 deglupta 190
polygonoides 439, 440 eclalbasaponin I 65 latrobei 292, 311, 316, 318 globulus 36, 149, 190
prazeri 433, 435 Eclipta latrobei subsp. glabra 316 grandis 190
pseudojaponica 434, 442 alatocarpa 186 linearis 321 maculata 190
septemloba 437, 440 alba 56, 63, 64, 65, 186 longifolia 183, 292, 312, 316, major 136
spongiosa 440 platyglossa 186 320, 325 nitens 36
spp. 439, 441–2 prostrata 63, 64, 186 maculata 292, 296, 309–12, pellita 301
sylvatica 435 EDDS 469 317, 324 populifolia 299
tokoro 435, 437, 438 EDTA 82, 469 maculata ‘Aurea’ 310 tectifica 268
transversa 444 Eggplant 451, 452, 455, 473, 476, mitchellii 131, 292, 294, 297–9, tereticornis 190
villosa 439 477, 485, 489 317 Eucalyptus oil 44, 46, 89, 90
zingiberensis 435, 441 Ethiopian 473 neglecta 318, 324 Eucommia ulmoides 325
dioscorealide 446 Eglantine 29 nivea 291 eudesmane 327
dioscoretine 438, 439 Eisenia fetida 289 oldfieldii 292 eudesmol 327
dioscorin 441 Elecampane 180 paisleyi 318 Eugenia 91, 189
diosgenin 432–5, 437–42, 445–50, elemene 142 racemosa 312 brasiliensis 186
452, 454, 461, 479 elemicin 44 saligna 380 reinwardtiana 186
dipentene 44 elemol 313, 314, 328 scoparia 296 eugeniin 36
dipyrone 54 Elephantopus Showy 312 eugenol 43, 44, 104
Dirofilaria immitis 149 mollis 186 Silky 291 Euphorbia
dl-hyoscyamine 341 scaber 186 spp. 327 australis 132, 134
Dodonaea spicatus 186 sturtii 318 drummondii 132, 134
angustissima 332 Elettaria subteretifolia 291 hirta 132
boroniifolia 331 cardamomum 39 virens 324 obovalifolia 454
falcata 331 cardamomum var. misicula 43 eremophiladienone 300 peplus 131, 132, 186
filifolia 331 ellagic acid 128 eremophilane 300, 325, 327, 329, Evodia, Pink-flowered 393
microzyga 332 Ellangowan Poison Bush 294, 311 330 Evolvulus alsinoides 151
physocarpa 337 Embelia schimperi 182 eremophilone 298, 299, 300, 317, Excoecaria agallocha 131, 134
spp. 334–7 Emblic officinalis 151 327 F
triquetra 332 Emu-bush 315, 323 ergosterol 479 Fagopyrum cymosum 475
uncinata 338 Coccid 292 ergotamine 370 faradiol 81
viscosa 178, 269, 330–3, 339 Silver 296 Erwinia carotovora 29 farnesene 44, 70, 104, 142, 149
viscosa subsp. angustifolia 333 Weeping 316 Erythrina farnesol 70, 142
viscosa subsp. angustissima 332 Encosternum delegorguei 337 indica 186 Fasciola hepatica 483
viscosa subsp. burmanniana 331 Endiandra sieberi 393, 394 variegata var. orientalis 186 Fasciolopsis spp. 280
viscosa var. angustifolia 178, 337 Entamoeba histolytica 57, 109, vespertilio 134, 186, 315 fenchol 320
Dog Rose 32 149, 155 erythromycin 199, 483 fenchone 44, 313, 327
dopamine 122, 325, 428 Enterobacter aerogenes 471 Erythroxylum Fennel 44, 313
Doryphora sassafras 134 Enterococcus faecalis 321, 337 australe 370 Fenugreek 448, 450
Doughwood 393 Ephedra coca 370 Ferula communis 178
Downy Thornapple 350 distachya 12 coca var. ipadu 370 Fever-bark tree 394
doxorubicin 148, 200, 201, 478 equisetina 12 coca var. truxillense 370 Ficus
Drimia maritima 27 intermedia 12 ecarinatum 370, 371 brachypoda 454
Drymaria cordata 186 major subsp. procera 12 ellipticum 370 racemosa 134
Dryopteris crassirhizoma 319 sinica 12 monogynum 371 Field Poppy 19, 20
Drypetes lasiogyna 134 ephedrine 12, 341, 363 ESBL 202 Field Rose 32
DTO 23 epi-ɑ-muurol 82 Escherichia Fierce Thornapple 350
d-tubocurarine 362 epicacalone 329, 330 coli 29, 36, 54–6, 80, 98, 121, Fig, Devil’s 459, 460
Duboisia Epidermophyton 54 126, 132, 148, 150, 179, 181, Flammula Jovis 111
arenitensis 380, 398 epingaione 295, 328 199, 202, 203, 205, 298, 305, Flannel Bush 452
campbellii 380 epipinoresinol 312, 317, 325 321, 337, 435, 471 flatworm 279, 280
hopwoodii 106, 372, 375, 376, epoxycembranediol 328 coli IAM1264 244 flavone 70, 314, 485
379–83, 389, 391, 392, 398, epsomite 240 esculetin 84, 126–30 fluorouracil 35, 70, 128
402–4 eremolactone 315, 328 esculoside 128 fluke 280
leichhardtii 379, 380, 389, 393, Eremophila 16, 131, 134, 297, E-sesquilavandulyl 97 intestinal 280
397, 398 315, 318 Essence de Bigarde 44 liver 280
myoporoides 358, 379–81, 383, abietina 323 Essence de Portugal 44 lung 280
387, 389, 393–8, 401 alternifolia 183, 313, 325 estradiol 434 Schistosoma 109, 274, 280, 282,
duboisine 341, 386–90, 392 beckeri 297 estrone 434 283, 453, 483
Duchesnea indica 474, 475 bignoniiflora 292, 313, 325 ethambutol 176 sheep 149
Dudo 163 cuneifolia 313 Ethiopian Eggplant 473 Fly Agaric 123, 367
Dudoa 163, 165 dalyana 314 ethyl cyclohexane 177 Foambark Tree 332
Dugong dugon 285 debilis 292 ethyl-chaulmoograte 170 Foeniculum vulgare 44
duingira 266 decipiens 329 ethylene diamine tetra acetic Foetid Hellebore 486
dulcamarine 471 deserti 294, 311 acid 82, 469 Forest Red Gum 190
drummondii 324 etioline 477 forskolin 102, 103
Foxglove 10, 19, 24, 28, 449 Canada 180 Green 486 asiatica 137

Frankincense 75 Gonococcus vaginalis 39 White 486, 487 bonariensis 138, 139
fraxinol 429 Goodenia helleborein 486 cordifolia 137
Fraxinus bellidifolia 422 helleborin 486 leucocephala 139
bungeana 129 glauca 422 Helleborus sibthorpioides 139
excelsior 129 Hairy 422 foetidus 486 hydrocyanic acid 168
rhynchophylla 129 Hop 422 niger 486, 487 hydrocyanide 169, 311
freelingyne 315, 327 lunata 392, 422 hellebrin 486 hydrotalcite 238, 240
French Marigold 82, 83, 84 ovata 421, 422 helminths 14, 275, 278, 279, 290 hydroxycalamenene 327
Frogmouth, Tawny 285 scaevolina 422 Helopeltis theivora 58 hygrine 398
Fruit-salad Plant 96 Gorilla beringei beringei 262 Hemlock 146 Hymenolepis
frusemide 53 gorlic acid 165 Henbane 346, 358, 384, 394, 463 diminuta 281
Fuchsia Gotu Kola 81, 137, 138, 140–4, Black 341, 342, 348 nana 57
Native 309, 310, 315, 316, 317, 325 146–9, 151, 155, 158, 428 White 348 hyoscine 341, 349, 351, 356, 358,
Rock 315, 323 gout 129, 130, 442 heneicosane 30 370, 389, 394–8, 400, 402
fucosterol 479 gracillin 435, 445 Henna 39, 69 hyoscyamine 18, 341, 344, 346, 349,
furans 316, 327 Grammosolen dixonii 398 herniarin 67, 80 352, 355–9, 366, 384, 387, 389,
furfural 70, 328 Granadilla 421 heroin 22 390, 394–400, 463
Fusarium 235, 482 Great Blue Lobelia 426 Herpes Hyoscyamus
moniliformis 55 Green Cestrum 488, 489 genitalis 69 albus 348
oxysporum 55, 56, 103 Green Hellebore 486 simplex 36, 76, 81, 97, 100, 145, niger 341, 342, 348, 353, 358,
G Green Poisonberry 488 191, 484, 485 384, 463
Gag-root 429 Green-berry Nightshade 465 Herpestris monniera 150 Hypericum 81, 186
Galangal 184 Grevillea Heterodera zeae 87 gramineum 186
Galanthus woronowii 364 juncifolia 134 Heterometrus indicus 65 japonicum 186
gallic acid 29, 35,104, 306 pteridifolia 134, 201 Hevea brasiliensis 77 perfoliatum 81, 428
Gan Cao 75 robusta 134 hexatriacontane 30 pusillum 186
garlic 81, 107, 158, 174, 175, 231, 443 stenobotrya 392 Hibiscus hyperoside 28, 338
gazaniaxanthin 33 striata 134, 392 rosa-sinensis 83 hypoxanthine 130
geebung 94 g-strophanthin 488 tiliaceus 186 I
Gelsemium elegans 147 Guaiacum officinale 178 trionum 186 ibotenic acid 368
gemcitabine 128 guaiazulene 69, 70 vitifolius 186 Ilecis 475
geniposidic acid 313, 325, 327 Guayule 77 Hippobroma longiflora 427 Ilex cornuta 475
genistein 443 Guduchi 151 Holly, Chinese 475 Ilicis cornutae 475
gentamicin 121, 179 Gum Homalanthus nutans 131 Illicium verum 42
Gentiana lutea 487 Blue 190 honey ants 268 illite 202, 203, 221, 263
gentisic acid 306 Forest Red 190 hookworm 14, 266, 271, 274–6, 280 Ilpara 392
geophagy 246, 261, 264, 265, 270, River Red 190 Hop Goodenia 422 Indian Borage 100
273–5 Gynandropsis gynandra 117 Horsechestnut 124–8, 137 Indian Horsechestnut 126
Geraldton Wax 94, 95 gynocardase 168 Horseradish 378 Indian Lobelia 424
geraniol 29, 30, 31, 70, 95 Gynocardia odorata 164 Horseweed 469 Indian Snakeroot 10
geranyl acetate 44, 327 gynocardin 165, 167, 168 Hop-bush indioside D 461
germacrene 97, 104, 142 gypsum 229 Brilliant 332 indole-3-carboxylaldehyde 66
germacrene D 97, 104 Gyrocarpus Common 332 indomethacin 54, 57, 74, 81, 481
German Chamomile 66, 67, 81 americanus 382 Large-leaf 332 Intal 151
German Chamomile oil 67 jacquini 382 Slender 332 Inula helenium 180
Geum 36 Gyrostemon Thread-leaf 331 inulin 74, 77
japonicum 36, 37 australasicus 378 Huang Lian 171 Ipomoea
talbotianum 37 ramulosus 378 Humulus lupulus 178, 320, 332 batatas 327
urbanum 37 tepperi 378 huntite 248, 249 digitata 151
Giardia intestinalis 109 H hydnocarpic acid 165 purga 178
gibberellic acid 397 Haemodorum simplex 134 hydnocarpin 170, 171, 172 isobrahmic acid 143
gidyea 373, 374 Hairy Goodenia 422 Hydnocarpus isoelemicin 44
Ginger 44, 46, 443, 449 Hairy Thornapple 350 alcalae 163, 165 isoeugenol 44
6-gingerol 443 halloysite 227 alpina 164 isohydnocarpin 171
gitogenin 447 Hansen’s disease 157 annamensis 170 isolobelanine 428
Glebionis segetum 180 harman 412 anthelmintica 163–5, 170, 171 isolobinine 425
globulol 300 Hawthorn 28, 29, 130 castanea 163 isomenthone 45, 316, 320
Glomus head lice 57, 412 ilifolia 164 isomyodesmone 328
claroideum 469 Headache Vine 110 kunstlerii 163 isoniazid 174, 176
intraradices 469 Hechtia texensis 448 kursii 163 Isoodon obesulus 285
Glossocarya calcicola 134 hecogenin 447 kurzii 164, 165 isoquercitrin 73
glucocapparin 115, 116 Heicoverpa armigera 337 laurifolia 163, 165 isosolafloridine 454
glucocleomin 116 helenalin 59 macrocarpa 163 isothakuniside 143
Glycine max 448, 480 Helichrysum umbraculigerum 191 octandra 164 Isothankunic acid 143
glycitein 443 Helicobacter pylori 55, 69, 151, odorata 164 Isotoma
Glycocystis beckeri 297 172, 474 pentandra 161, 163, 170 anethifolia 425
Glycyrrhiza uralensis 75, 346 Heligmosomoides polygyrus 80, 281 venenata 163, 164 axillaris 425
Godi 163 Heliopsis longipes 57 wightiana 163–5, 170, 171 hypocrateriformis 427
Golden Marguerite 67 heliotropin 43 Hydnocarpus oil 169, 170 longiflora 427
Golden Seal 171 Hellebore 486, 487 hydnowightin 170, 171 petraea 134, 424, 426
Goldenrod Black 486, 487 Hydrastis canadensis 171 Isotome, Rock 424, 426, 427
Atlantic 180 Foetid 486 Hydrocotyle Ixodes holocyclus 412
INDEX 547
J Lemon 40, 44, 131 Lophomyrtus bullata 178 indica 148, 187

Jacksonia scoparia 134 Lemon Balm 145, 178 Lophophora williamsii 416 odorata 187
Jagera pseudorhus 332 Lepidosperma viscidum 134, 324 lovastatin 441, 443 mangiferin 148, 185
Jalap 178 Leptospermum petersonii 134 Lucilia sericata 87 Mango Ginger 159
Jambul 178 Leptospira 277 Luffa Mangrove
Japanese Dandelion 75 Leucojum aestivum 364 aegyptiaca 186 Black 182
Japanese Peppermint oil 45 levartenol 121 cylindrica 186 River 182
Japanese Scopolia 360 lice 322, 435 graveolens 186 Mangrove worm 267
Japanese Yam 435, 437 head 57, 412 lumbricin I 288 mannitol 313, 314, 328
Jatamansi 151 lichen 39, 258 Lumbricus maokinine 13
Javan Ash 166 lidocaine 371 rubellus 288 Mapania microcephala 202
Jerusalem Cherry 478 lignocaine 371 terrestris 289 Marigold 78, 80, 81, 83, 85, 141
Jessamine 146, 487, 488 Ligularia macrophylla 300 lumbrokinase 288 African 84, 85
American Yellow 147 Ligustrum lucidum 64 lunasin 473 Aztec 83, 84, 87
Day 488 Lillypilly 91, 420 lupanine 220, 417 Corn 180
jetrorrhizine 112 Lily-of-the-Valley 19, 26, 27, 28 lupeol 76, 171, 338, 481 French 82–4
Jimson Weed 349, 352 limonene 43–5, 85, 87, 95, 313, 314, lupinine 417 Marsilea drummondii 372
Juniper, Native 293 316, 320, 327 Lupins 415 maslinic acid 37
Juniperus linalol 44 lutein 85, 86, 142 Masto 301–3
communis 178 linalool 30, 33, 43, 95 luteolin 54, 56, 62, 65–7, 69, 70, Mastotermes darwiniensis 301–3
excelsa 178 linalyl acetate 44 73, 76, 120, 171–3, 312, 325, Matai 295
procera 178 linarin 179 326, 429 Matricaria
sabina 105 linoleic acid 34, 37, 118, 328 luteolin 7-glucoside 76 chamomilla 66
K linolenic acid 34, 37, 118, 485 luteolin 7-O-glucoside 65 recutita 66–8
kaempferol 40, 119, 120, 142, 334, linolic acid 164 Lycopersicon esculentum 455, 489 matricarin 70
356, 471 Lippia chevalieri 53 Lygodium matricine 69
kakadumycin 201 Liquorice 44, 75, 346 flexuosum 186 mekocyanin 19
Kalaw 163 Listeria monocytogenes 104, 321 japonicum 186 Melaleuca
Kallstroemia pubescens 448 lithospermic acid 146 microphyllum 186 leucadendra 187, 190
Kangaroo, Grey 285 Lithospermum erythrorhizon 146 reticulatum 186 leucadendron 187
Kangaroo Apple 452, 454, 456 Litomosoides sigmodontis 281 lysine 415, 417 Melanthera
kaolin 214–6, 220, 221, 226, 227, littorine 390, 398 M biflora 60
236, 247, 255, 263, 266, 272, 273 Liv-52 158 Ma Huang 12 integrifolia 60
kaopectate 215, 216 L-lysine 418 Macaca mulatta 224 Melia azedarach 184
karahanaenone 316, 320 lobelaine 428 Macadamia integrifolia 135 Melicope elleryana 393
Karaka 295 lobelanidine 427, 428 Macrophomina 482 Melipona quadrifasciata
kaurenoic acid 54, 55, 56, 57, 61, lobelanine 418, 428 Macropus anthidioides 55
62, 66 Lobelia agilis 285 Melissa officinalis 145, 178
Kemiri nut 156 American Torch 423 fuliginosus 285 Mentha
Kennedia nigricans 134, 201, 202 Blue 423 giganteus 285 arvensis 178, 179
Kerosene Wood 370 Chinese 428, 430 rufogriseus 285 canadensis var. piperascens 45
Khaki Bush 86 Edging 423 Madagascar Periwinkle 10, 185 spicata 145, 178
Klebsiella pneumoniae 81, 103, Great Blue 426 Madar 170 x piperita 45, 145, 173. 178
132, 330 Indian 424 madasiatic acid 142 menthofuran 45
kohl 208, 209, 232 Mexican 423 madecassic acid 140, 142, 143 menthol 45, 46
Kohoho 457 Pale-spike 426 madecassol 142, 149, 155 menthone 45, 320
Kohuhu 178 Poison 429 madecassoside 140, 142–4, 148, 149 menthyl acetate 45
Kombe 26 Lobelia Magic Ophthalmia cure 107 Mescal Bean 416
L angulata 430 Makulu 163 mescaline 417
Laburnum anagyroides 416 arenaria 430 malachite 205, 206, 207 Mesquite 222
Lactobacillus plantarum 37 arnhemiaca 423 Malaria 33, 57, 58, 87, 101, 102, metahalloysite 215
Lactuca virosa 470 cardinalis 425 109, 111, 116, 134, 149, 153, metanicotine 396
lactucarium 469, 470 chinensis 428, 429, 469 172, 185, 189, 201, 277, 287, meteloidine 351, 356, 370, 398
Ladanum 19 concolor 429 288, 336, 460–2 methicillin 207
Lampito mauritii 288 darlingensis 429 malic acid 32, 85 methoxyeugenol 44
Large-leaf Pennywort 138 erinus 423 Mallotus methoxyhydnocarpin 171
Laudanum 19, 20, 23 excelsa 424 mollissimus 187 methyl
Laurelia inflata 418, 424–8, 431 philippensis 183 anthranilate 44
novae-zelandiae 176, 177 laxiflora 423, 429 philippinensis 187 bromide 116, 234
sempervirens 177 macrodon 430 spp. 187 chavicol 84
Laureliopsis philippiana 177 membranacea 423 Mamane 416 eugenol 328
laurionite 209, 210 nicotianifolia 424, 425 Mandarin Orange 75 halide 234
Lavender 29, 81, 145 nummularia 430 Mandragora thymol 104
Lawn Marsh Pennywort 139 pedunculata 430 autumnalis 344 methyleugenol 44, 316, 320
Lawsonia inermis 39 pratioides 429 caulescens 344 methylglucosinolate 115
lead poisoning 231 purpurascens 429, 431 chinghaiensis 344 mevinolins 443
ledene 82 siphilitica 425, 426 officinarum 342, 343, 359 Mexican
leech 106, 107 spicata 426 turcomanica 344 Lobelia 423
Leichhardt Corkwood 380, 393, 397 tupa 423 Mandrake 342–6, 353, 358 Tarragon 84
Leishmania 54, 101, 274, 483 lobelidine 425 Himalayan 344 Thyme 100
amazonensis 101, 120, 139 lobeline 418, 424, 425, 428 True 359 Yam 432, 433
braziliensis 57 Lobster Flower 103 Turkmenian 344 Micrococcus
donovani 172 Long Yam 444, 445 Mangifera flavus 334
luteus 205, 334 avium 285 nematode 80, 87, 281 Woolly 465

tetragenus 98 avium paratuberculosis 175,199 neohydnocarpin 170, 171 Nipple Fruit 460
Microcyclus ulei 77 bovis 175, 176, 281, 285, 286 Neolitsea dealbata 135 Nippostrongylus brasiliensis 281
Microsporum 50, 56, 97 fortuitum 181, 183, 318, 324 neomycin 198 Nocardia
canis 103 indicus pranii 286 neoxanthin 142 asteroides 200
gypseum 56, 97, 103, 335 leprae 153, 155–8, 165, 170, nepetin 313 mediterranea 200
Miliusa balanse 97 175, 278 nepetoidin A 104 nonadecane 30, 31
Milk Thistle 117, 129, 368 lepromatosis 175, 278 Nerium oleander 26, 212 noradrenaline 121, 325
Milkweed 131 marinum 202 nerol 29, 30, 31 noraporphine 177
Milkwood 316 microti 175 nerolidol 44, 70 noratropine 389
Milky Mangrove 131 phlei 92 Ngaio 178, 295, 309, 312 norcoridine 177
Milky Plum 93, 94 smegmatis 56, 176, 181, 183, ngaione 311, 312, 316, 327 norepinephrine 12, 121
Mimosa 202, 324, 334 niacin 130, 274 norharman 412
diplotricha 187 tuberculosis 55, 75, 104, 155, Nicotiana norhyoscyamine 389, 396, 398
invisa 187 159, 170, 174–6, 178, 182, 191, alata var. persica 411 nor-lobelaine 428
pigra 187 201, 205, 334 amplexicaulis 407 nornicotine 391, 395, 396, 398, 406,
pudica 187 ulcerans 175, 202–4, 286 benthamiana 405–7 407, 412, 415, 416
Mint, Variegated 99 myodesmone 311, 328 bigelovii 410, 412 nor-wedelolactone 64
miraxanthin V 122 myoporone 300, 311, 316, 317, 328 burbidgeae 407 noscapine 22, 23
Mirbelia oxylobiodes 135 Myoporum cavicola 406, 407 novocaine 371
mitchellene 317 acuminatum 294, 327, 380 debneyi 407 Numbat 303
mite bontioides 295, 300 excelsior 403, 405, 407 Nut, Betel 116, 372, 373, 392
honeybee 58 crassifolium 296 fruticosa 410 Nutmeg 44
house dust 280 debile 292, 294 glauca 405, 407, 409, 489 Nux Vomica 47
red spider 99, 116 deserti 294, 300, 311, 321 goodspeedii 405, 407 O
scabies 322 floribundum 294 gossei 405, 407 Oak, Cork 393
mitomycin 201 insulare 292, 293 heterantha 407 Oak-leaf Thornapple 349
Mock Strawberry 474, 475 laetum 178, 295, 296, 309, 312 maritima 407 ocimene 85, 87
Moluccella laevis 91 montanum 294 megalosiphon 406, 407 (Z)-β-ocimene 104
Momordica parvifolium 293 megalosiphon subsp. Ocimum
balsamina 187 petiolatum 294 megalosiphon 406 sanctum 64, 178
charantia 178, 187 platycarpum 308, 313 occidentalis 406, 407 scutellarioide 99
cochinchinensis 187 pubescens 296 persica 410, 411 1-octen-3-ol 104
monacolin K 440, 441, 443, 444 sandwicense 294, 295 quadrivalvis 410 Odontotermes formosanus 268
monascin 441, 443 Slender 294 repanda 410 oestradiol 123
monascorubrin 444 tenuifolium 295, 296 rosulata 408 oestrogen 434, 441
Monascus viscosum 294 rosulata subsp. ingulba 406 Oil
pilosus 443 myrcene 142, 313 rotundifolia 409 Anise 42
purpureus 441, 442 Myriogyne minuta 105, 107, 108 rustica 406, 410–2 Bastard Sandalwood 131
Monkshood 10, 212 Myristica fragrans 44 simulans 409 Bergamot 105
monoamine oxidase 56 myristicin 43, 44 spp. 405 Bitter Orange 44
montera 375 Myrmecobius fasciatus 303 suaveolens 376, 389, 403, 404, Bitter Orange Flower 44
montmorillonite 212, 221, 225–7, Myrrh 75 409 Calendula 80
271 myrtenal 108 sylvestris 409 Camphor 43
Morinda myrtenol 108 tabacum 403, 405, 406, 409, 410, Cardamomum 43
citrifolia 135, 187, 467 myrtenyl acetate 108 412, 422 Celery Seed 105
spp. 187 myrtine 398 tomentosa 411 Chaulmoogra 161, 162, 163, 164,
umbellata 187 N truncata 409 169, 170, 173
morphine 19, 21–3, 70, 149, 151, N,N-dimethyltryptamine 417 umbratica 409 Cinnamon 43
152, 177, 192, 335, 341, 388, N-alkylamides 57 velutina 404, 405, 409 Clove 43
394, 395 narcotine 23 wuttkei 409 Coriander 43
Mosqueta Rose 34 Nardoo 372 nicotine 227, 361, 366, 388, 389, Dill 43
Moth, Diamondback 116, 300 Nardostachys jatamansi 151 391, 395, 396, 398, 403, 404, Eucalyptus 44, 46, 89, 90
Mountain Kangaroo Apple 454 Nasturtium 86 406, 407, 409, 410, 412, 414–6, Fennel 44
Mountain Pratia 430 Nasutitermes 422, 425, 428 German Chamomile 67
MRSA 36, 104, 134, 148, 155, 172, corniger 305 nicotinic acid 415 Ginger 44
179, 181, 192, 201, 202, 207, graveolus 302 Nierembergia veitchii 489 Hydnocarpus 169
321, 324, 334 triodiae 302 Nigella sativa 320 Japanese Peppermint 45
Mud wasp 268 Native Nightshade Lemon 44
Mulga 426 Box 123 American 451, 464–6, 482–4 Nutmeg 44
multiflorin A 40 Currant 464 Black 451, 455, 464–6, 464–74, Orange 41, 44
mumie 260 Olive 123 483 Oregano 105
munumbicin 134, 201 Pepper 454 Brazilian 451 Peppermint 45
muscaflavin 123 Ragwort 420 Chinese Black 466 Rose 29, 30, 31
muscapurpurin 123 Thornapple 349, 350 Felty 457 Savin 105
muscarubrin 123 Tobacco 372, 379, 402–4, 431 Green-berry 465 Spanish Sage 105
muscovite 236 Necator americanus 274, 276, 280, Silver-leaf 452 Sweet Orange 44
Mushroom 281 Spiny 452 Old Man Weed 105, 108
Death Cap 368 Neem 39, 164 Sticky 453, 470 Oldenlandia diffusa 475
Oyster 443 Neisseria Stinking 463 Oleander, Climbing 25, 449
Termite 305 gonorrhoeae 113, 172, 472 Velvet 461 oleandrin 337
Mycobacterium meningitidis 75 White 474, 483 oleanene 338
africanum 175 Nelumbo nucifera 39 Woody 470, 472 oleanolic acid 56, 80, 338
INDEX 549
oleic acid 34, 118, 165, 328 chrysogenum 195, 196, 197 Pituri 106, 318, 369, 370, 372–6, Populeon 348
Olibanum 75 glaucum 196 378, 381, 383, 388, 391, 392, Poroporo 457
Oligoceros haemorrhages 328 janczewskii 199 395, 396, 398, 402–4, 406, 418, Portulaca
Onchocerca volvulus 454 notatum 195, 196 420, 426, 431 bicolor 119
Oncoba echinata 163 roqueforti 198 Rock 405, 407 grandiflora 119, 122
Oncomelania hupensis 109 Pennywort Sandhill 406, 408 oleracea 122, 123, 188
Onion, Sea 26 Brazilian 139 Planchonia careya 135, 180, 181 pilosa 119, 120
opium 18–23, 109, 362, 370, 373, Large-leaf 138 Plantago ovata 480 spp. 188
388, 469, 470 Lawn Marsh 139 plantolin 108 quadrifida 122
Oplopanax Whorled 139 Plasmodium tuberosa 123
horridus 178 Pentacoelium bontioides 297 falciparum 87, 97, 102, 109, 116, Potato 220, 221, 319, 455, 458
japonicus 328 pentacosane 30 134, 172, 201 Potato Rose 32
oplopanone 328 pepino 483 vivax 460 Potato Tree 461
Orange 40, 42, 44, 488 Pepper, Black 417 Platycodon grandiflorum 474 Pratia
Orange Cestrum 488 Pepper Vine 112, 113 Plectonema boryanum 244 angulata 430
Orange oil 41, 44 Peppermint 45, 145, 173, 178 Plectranthus arenaria 430
Ordeal Bean 361 Perionyx excavatus 288 amboinicus 100, 101, 103, 104, Chatham Island 430
Oregano, Cuban 100 Periploca 156 macrodon 430
Oregano oil 105 graeca 449 apreptus 100 Mountain 430
Oreganum vulgare subsp. nigrescens 449 argentatus 100 nummularia 430
vulgare 105 Periwinkle, Madagascar 10, 185 aromaticus 101 pedunculata 430
ornithine 415 Persian Rose 35 barbatus 100–4 Poison 429
ouabain 25, 488 Persian Tobacco 410 coleoides 103–5 Purple 429
oxacillin 36 Persoonia congestus 99 White Star 430
oxytocin 116, 435 falcata 92, 93, 94 cylindraceus 103, 104 Pratylenchus pratensis 87
P juniperina 92 diversus 135 Premna serratifolia 135
Pacific Yew 10 pinifolia 92, 93 ecklonii 104 Presbytis rubicunda 262
paclitaxel 447 salicina 92 elegans 104 Prezwalskia tangutica 359
Pademelon, Tasmanian 285 Peyote 416 foetidus 100 Prickly Fanflower 377
Paecilomyces varioti 335 phellandrene 43 forskohlii 101 procaine 371
palmatine 112 Phellodendron amurense 474 fruticosus 103–5 progesterone 432, 433
palmitic acid 34, 37, 118, 165, 328 phenyl ethyl alcohol 29 grandidentatus 104 Propionibacterium acnes 29, 205,
paludolactone 56 phillyrin 312 grandis 101, 104 322
palygorskite 215, 225, 228, 240 Pholidia scoparia 296 graveolens 100 Propolis 55, 81
Pan troglodytes 262 phosgenite 209, 210 habrophyllus 135 propyl gallate 128
Panax Phyllanthus heretoensis 104 proscillaridin 26
ginseng 444 fraternus 64 incanus 104 Prosopis
notoginseng 474 niuri 64 laxiflorus 156 juliflora 222
Pandanus aquaticus 373 phyllygenin 312 madagascariensis 99 pallida 222
Pangium edule 168, 169 phyoxolin 108 melissoides 104 Prostanthera rotundifolia 135
Papaver Physalis neochilus 103, 104 prostigmin 363
aculeatum 20, 21 angulata 187 ornatus 103, 104 prostratin 131, 134
argemone 20 spp. 187 parviflorus 100 Proteus vulgaris 56, 121
dubium 20 Physostigma venenosum 361 saccatus 99 protocatachuic acid 306
horridum 21 physostigmine 359, 361–6, 368, scutellarioides 99 protodioscin 440, 477
hybridum 20 386, 449, 472 vetiveroides 102, 156 protoneodioscin 445
rhoeas 19, 20 phytic acid 270 Pleuranthodium racemigerum 184 protoneogracillin 445
somniferum 19, 20 Phytolacca dodecandra 223 Pleurotus ostreatus 443 Provence Rose 38
somniferum subsp. setigerum 20 Phytophthora 482 Plum, Brown 370, 371 Prumnopitys taxifolia 295
somniferum subsp. somniferum 20 piceine 317 Plum-tree, Native 316 prunasin 311, 312, 317, 328
papaverine 22, 69 Pigweed 118 Plutella xylostella 133, 300 Prunella vulgaris 145, 446
paracetamol 57, 115, 227, 228 Pimelea prostrata 131 Podargus strigoides 285 Prunus sargentii 36
Paragonimus sp. 280 Pimpinella anisum 42 Podocarpus grayae 135 Psacalium
Paramphistomum cervi 149 pinene 43, 44, 314, 327 Pohutukawa 178 compositum 329
paraquat 240 Pink Brownii 95 Poison Lobelia 429 decompositum 329
paregoric 20 Pink Cauliflower 95 Poison Pratia 429 radulifolium 330
parillin 450 Pink-flowered Evodia 393 poliumoside 315 sinuatum 329
Parmelia perlata 39 pinoresinol 312, 325 Polyalthia Pseudocanthotermes spiniger 305
Parthenium argentatum 77 pinworm 280 australis 202 Pseudocheirus peregrinus 204
parvifloron 104 Piper michaelii 202 Pseudomona fluorescens 98
Pascalia glauca 61 betle 372 nitidissima 202 Pseudomonas
Passiflora nigrum 417 patinata 202 aeruginosa 29, 56, 75, 80, 121,
foetida 187 piperidine 415, 417 polygalacic acid 50 132, 148, 199, 202, 205, 206,
quadrangularis 421 piperine 417 Polygonum bistorta 446 298, 321, 334, 337, 435
spp. 187 piperitenone 85, 87 Polysaccum olivaceum 250 aureus 56
patuletin 67, 78 Pitcherry 372 Poporo 457 maltophilia IAM 1554 244
Pediculus humanus 57 Pitchiri 372 Poppy pyocyanea 92
pelletierine 398, 417, 418 Pithera 391 Bristle 20 Pseudopanax crassifolium 178
penicillin 11, 91, 191, 194–9, 202, Pittosporum Field 19, 20 pseudopelletierine 418
321 hirtellus 135 Long-headed 20 psi-taraxasterol 81
penicillinase 321 phylliraeoides var. Opium 19, 20, 21 psilocin 341
Penicillium 193, 194, 196, 198 microcarpa 135 Pale 20 Psilocybe mexicana 341
camemberti 198 tenuiflorum 178 Rough 20 Psoralea 374
Psoroptes cuniculi 87 arvensis 32 safrole 42–4, 177, 316, 320, 328 Scopolia
Psydrax oleifolia 91 canina 32–7 Sage 98, 145, 178 carniolica 359, 360
Psyllium 480 centifolia 29, 35, 36, 38, 39 Chinese 146 Japanese 360
Pterigeron odorus 88 chinensis 29, 38 oil, Spanish 105 japonica 359, 389
Pterocaulon damascena 29, 30, 33–6, 38 Saguinus mystax 262 lurida 359, 360
alopecuroides 96, 97 davurica 33, 35 sakuranetin 338 podolica 360
balansae 96 dumalis 33 Salacca zalacca 262 tangutica 359
glandulosum 96 eglanteria 29, 34, 36 Salak 262 scopolin 356
globuliflorus 88 gallica 29, 30 salbutamol 482 Scute 287
globulus 96 laevigata 33, 36, 38 Salmonella Scutellaria
nivens 96 micrantha 32–5 enterica serovar. baicalensis 287
polystachyum 96, 97 mollis 32 typhimurium 202 barbata 475
redolens 96 multiflora 29, 33, 35, 39, 40 group C 56 Sea Onion 26
serrulatum 88, 96, 420 pisiformis 33, 34 paratyphi 56, 148 Sea Purslane 120
sphacelatum 88, 96, 97, 135, 182, pulverulenta 33, 34 typhi 35, 36, 55, 56, 121, 148, Senecio
324, 420 roxburghii 29, 33 334, 465 aegyptius var. discoideus 330
spheranthoides 96 rubiginosa 33, 34 typhimurium 35, 36, 132, 148, nemorensis. 330
verbascifolium 96 rugosa 32, 35–8 298 spp. 330
Pukatea 176, 177 sempervirens 33, 36 salvanolic acid 146 sepiolite 225, 228, 271
pukateine 177 villosa 33, 34 Salvia sesquithuriferone 300
Pukeweed 424 rosamultin 36 chinensis 474, 475 Sesuvium portulacastrum 120
pulegone 45 Rose lavandulifolia 105 Shan Yao 436, 441
Punica granatum 418 Cabbage 38 miltiorrhiza 146, 475 Shepherd’s Purse 19, 185
Purple Pratia 429 Cherokee 33, 38 officinalis 145, 178 Shigella 56, 75
Purslane 118–23 Chestnut 29, 33 Sambucus williamsii 325 boydii 56, 148
Pygmaeopremna herbacea 446 China 29 Sandalwood dysenteriae 56, 121, 148
pyrazinamide 176 Damask 29, 30, 35 Bastard 131, 294, 297–9, 306, flexnerii 148
pyrethrin 300 Dog 32 317 sonnei 56
pyrogallol-5–carboxaldehyde 37 English Tea 33 Red 298, 308 shilajit 260, 261
pyromorphite 232, 272 Field 32 Sandhill Pituri 406, 408 Sida cordifolia 188
pyrrolidine 415 Mosqueta 34 Sanguinaria canadensis 178 silibinin 368
Pythium ultimum 56, 201 Multiflora 33, 35, 39 Sanguisorba officinalis 178 Silkworm 284
Q Persian 35 santalcamphor 298, 300 Silver-leaf Nightshade 452
Quaker Laudanum 20 Potato 32 Santalum Silybum marianum 117, 368
quassinoid 172, 184 Provence 38 acuminatum 299 Singapore Daisy 60, 62, 138
quercetin 35, 67, 69, 70, 97, 119, Rose absolute 31 cygnorum 298 Sisal 433, 447
120, 142, 313, 338, 356, 429 Rose oil 29, 30, 31 lanceolatum 135 sitosterol 65, 142, 459, 480, 483
Quercus suber 393 Rose Otto 31 obtusifolium 393 Skullcap
quinine 220, 224, 341, 377, 388, Rose water 31 Santolina chamaecyparissus 180 Barbat 474, 475
394, 460 Rosehips 32, 33, 34 sapogenin 432, 433, 435, 439, Chinese 287
R Rosemary 144, 145 440, 447 smectite 202, 203, 215, 217, 221,
rabdosiin 146 rosmarinic acid 51, 102, 104, 143–6, Sapucainha 163, 173 224, 227, 253, 263, 272, 273
radioiodine 240 179 Sarcina lutea 148 Smelly Bush 88
Radium Weed 131 Rosmarinus officinalis 144 Sarcoptes scabiei 323 smilagenin 450
Radula marginata 191 Ross River fever 203 sarmentogenin 449 Smilax 482
radulifolin 330 roundworm 14, 165, 279, 337 Sarsaparilla 482 aristolochiaefolia 450
Raillietina echinobothrida 149 American Racoon 275 sarsapogenin 448 corbularia 446
Ramarama 178 Canine 276 sarsasapogenin 449, 450 glabra 446
Rauvolfia serpentina 10 Giant Intestinal 280 Savin oil 105 regelii 482
Red Cestrum 487 rubidomycin 201 SC-1, SC-2 482 Smyrnium olusatrum 71
Red Mold Dioscorea 441 rubixanthin 33 scabies mite 322, 458 Snakegourd 75
Red Root Gromwell 146 rubropunctatin 444 Scaevola spinescens 135, 377 Snakeroot, Indian 10
Red Yeast Rice 440–4 Rubus spp. 188 Schinopsis balansae 220 Sneezeweed 105–8, 110, 420
Rescue Remedy 48, 111 rufocromomycin 201 Schinus molle 58 Desert 105
Rhamnus cathartica 178 Russian Dandelion 70, 77 Schistosoma 109, 274, 283, 453 Sneezewort, Australian 50
Rheum officinale 178 rutin 28, 128, 142, 330, 338 haematobium 280, 282 Snowdrop, Caucasian 364
Rhizoctonia solani 56, 335 Ryparosa intercalatum 282 sobatum 479
Rhodotorula rubra 56 amplifolia 167 japonicum 282 sodium aescinate 126
Rhoeadine 19 anterides 167 mansoni 281–3, 483 solacallinidine 454
Rhus javanica 36, 184 javanica 166, 167 mekongi 282 sola-dunalinidine 454
Rice, Red Yeast 440, 442, 443 kurrangii 166, 167, 168 schistosomiasis 278, 282 solamargine 435, 453–5, 459, 460,
Ricinus communis 188 kurzii 167 schizanthines 390 462, 465, 473, 476–8, 482–5
rifampicin 160, 176 maculata 167 Schizanthus grahamii 391 Solandra
rifamycin 200 maycockii 167 Scilla maritima 26, 27 grandifolia 390
ringworm 102, 160, 187, 322, 347, milleri 167 scillaren 26 longifolia 389, 390
356, 382, 407, 459, 465 sp. Daintree 167 scillarin A 27 maxima 390
scalp 415 wrayi 167 Scolopia braunii 135 solanidine 455, 465
River Red Gum 190 S scoparone 84, 429 solanine 220, 341, 455, 460, 462,
Rock Isotome 424, 426, 427 sabinene 44, 316, 320 scopolamine 341, 346, 349, 352, 463, 471, 472, 473, 479, 481, 489
Rock Pituri 405, 407 sabinyl acetate 104, 105 354–6, 358, 359, 366, 370, 387, solanogantine 485
Roman Chamomile 66, 67, 68, 81 Saccharomyces 389, 390, 395, 398–401, 463 Solanum
Rooibos tea 172 cerevaceae 148 scopolamine butylbromide 353 aethiopicum 473
Rosa cerevisiae 195, 334 scopoletin 345, 356, 359, 483 americanum 451, 464–6, 482–4
INDEX 551
atriplicifolium 472 489 Stinking Roger 86, 87, 88, 189 Tagetes

aviculare 452–7, 482 solasonine 454, 455, 459, 462, 465, Stramonium 19, 340, 349, 351–3, erecta 39, 83–87
callium 454 473, 476, 478, 482–4 357, 358, 384 filifolia 83, 87
capsiciforme 454 solatriose 460 Strawberry, Mock 474, 475 glandulifera 87
chrysotrichum 482, 484 Solenostemon scutellarioides 99 Streptococcus lucida 83, 84, 87
crinitum 478 Solidago aureus 75, 205 minuta 83–7, 189
densevestitum 457 arguta 180 faecalis 459 patula 82–7, 141
dulcamara 189, 455, 463, 464, canadensis 180 haemolyticus 56 rupestris 87
470–3 Sonchus arvensis 446 mutans 54, 104, 205 subulata 87
echinatum 490 Sophora pneumoniae 75, 174, 321, 322 tagetone 85, 87
eleagnifolium 452 chrysophylla 416 pyogenes 322, 334, 471 Tai-fung-tze 163
ellipticum 420 japonica 128 sanguinis 205, 282 Tamarillo 452
erianthum 461, 462 secundiflora 416 sobrinus 104 Tamarix gallica 158
fendleri 220 tonkinensis 446 Streptoglossa Tanacetum ligulatum 320
frutescens 472 Sparassis crispa 474 bubakii 88 Tangerine 75
giganteum 485 sparteine 220, 417 decurrens 88 tapeworm 29, 183, 280, 281
glaucophyllum 489 spathulenol 70, 300, 313, 318, 328 odora 88 Taraktogeno kurzii 163, 165
hispidum 482 Spearmint 145, 178 streptokinase 288 Taraxacum
incanum 452, 454, 472, 477, 482, Sphagneticola trilobata 57, 60, 62 Streptomyces albidum 75
483 Spiderflower 117 aureofaciens 198 aristum 70
indicum 452 Yellow 114 caespitosus 201 coreanum 75, 76
jamesii 220 Spilanthes chrysomallus 200 cygnorum 70
khasianum 452 acmella 52, 53, 55–8 coerulorubidus 201 formosanum 75
laciniatum 452, 453, 456 acmella var. oleracea 56 erythreus 199 hepaticolor 70
lasiocarpum 452 alba 56 griseus 198 japonicum 75, 76
lasiophyllum 452 americana 56 mediterranei 200 khatoonae 70
linnaeanum 475, 476 calva 56–8 nodosus 200 kok-saghyz 70, 77
lycocarpum 453, 478, 483 ciliata 57 parvullus 200 mongolicum 70, 74, 75, 76
lyratum 473–5, 483 grandiflora 52 peucetius 201 officinale 64, 70, 74, 76, 158, 189
macrocarpum 459 mauritiana 52, 55, 56, 58 rufocromogenes 201 platycarpum 70, 74, 76
malacoxylon 489 ocymifolia 56 venezuelae 197 sinicum 74
mammosum 452, 460, 461 oleracea 52, 53, 55–7 verticillus 201 squamulosum 70
marginatum 452, 486 paniculata 53, 56, 58 streptomycin 174, 185, 198, 445, taraxasterol 76
mauritianum 420, 421, 456 uliginosa 55 460, 471 taraxerol 76
melongena 451, 455, 472, 473, 476, spilanthol 52, 53, 56–8 strophanthin 25, 449 taraxinic acid 76
477, 489 Spinach 86, 122, 241, 344, 464 Strophanthus Tarragon, Mexican 84
muricatum 477 Spinacia oleracea 344 gratus 25, 449 Tasmannia lanceolata 135
niger 482 Spinifex kombe 26, 485 Taxus
nigrescens 482, 484 Hard 269 Strychnos toxifera 362 baccata 10
nigrum 158, 341, 451, 453, 455, Lobed 269 Succory 73 brevifolia 447
462–6, 468, 469, 472–5, 482, 483 Soft 269 Sugarwood 308, 309 canadensis 178
nigrum var. americanum 467, 472 Spinifex triodia 268 sulphur 47 tellimagrandin I 36
nigrum var. humile 464 spiroethers 69 Summer Adonis 25 teloidine 398
nigrum var. villosum 453 Spodoptera Sunflower, Beach 53, 56, 59–61, 156 Tephroli 64
nodiflorum 472 littoralis 99 Sunflower Daisy 59, 61 Tephrosia purpurea 64
nudum 460 litura 164 Swainsona 418 Teredo novalis 267
opacum 463, 465 spongolite 253 swainsonine 418 teriloside 300
paludosum 452, 470 Squill 26, 27 Sweet Flag 151 termilone 38
paniculatum 466, 485 St Anthony’s fire 73 Sweetbriar 29 Terminalia
photeinocarpum 466 St John’s Wort 186 Sweetweed 319 arjuna 158
platanifolium 452 St Mary’s Thistle 158 Symonanthus aromaticus 398 belerica 151
pseudocapsicum 478 Staphyloccoccus Symphytum 51 chebula 37, 64, 151
quadriloculatum 452 aureus 29, 36, 54–75, 80, 91, 97, 101, officinale 120 ferdinandiana 135
racemosum 472 103, 109, 121, 124, 148, 155, 171, officinalis 51 terminolic acid 143
rostratum 451, 452 172, 179, 191, 192, 194, 202, 204–7, Syncerus caffer caffer 262 termite 244, 262, 265–9, 275,
scabrum 468 298, 321, 322, 334, 337, 471 Syzygium 189, 420 300–5, 328, 339
scolentum 472 aureus haemolyticus 191 aromaticum 36, 37, 43, 319 Cathedral 302
seaforthianum 451 epidermidis 56, 471, 321 australe 135 Harvester 304
sisymbriifolium 453, 472, 477 Star Anise 42 jambos 178 Magnetic 302, 304
sodomaeum 478 stearic acid 34, 118 luehmannii 135 Termitomyces
surattense 483 Stellaria spp. 189 smithii 91 albuminosus 305
torvum 458, 459, 460, 470, 474, Stemodia T clypeatus 306
483, 485 grossa 135 tabacine 412 eurirrhizus 306
trilobatum 452, 478, 479 lythrifolia 420 tabacinine 412 heimii 306
tuberosum 189, 220, 342, 455 viscosa 88 Tacca microcarpus 306
valdiviense 472 Stemphylium solani 103 chantrieri 446 mummiformis 306
variabile 466 Stenochilus glaber 297 cheancer 446 reticulatus 305
villosum 465 Stephania tetrandra 148 leontopetaloides 446 terpineol 43
virginianum 472 Sticky Nightshade 453, 470 plantaginea 446 4-terpineol 320
wrightii 451 stigmasterol 56, 65, 142, 150, 435, 443, subflaellaea 446 terpinolene 85, 320
xanthocarpum 481, 482, 483 445, 448, 479, 480 Taenia terpinyl acetate 43, 316
solasodine 447, 452–6, 459–62, 465, Stink Bug 337 saginata 280 Terra Sigillata 211, 212, 213, 253,
470, 471, 473, 476, 479, 481, 482, Stinking Nightshade 463 solium 280 254, 255, 286
testosterone 102, 434 Treponema Verbascum thapsus 81 Winter Adonis 19, 25, 26
tetracycline 36, 195, 198, 227, pallidum pallidum 472 verbenone 327 Witchetty Grub 257
228, 238 pallidum pertenue 472 vermiculite 205 Withania somnifera 151, 158
tetramethylputrescine 398 Trichilia Vernonia kotschyana 474 Wolf Apple 478
tetrandrine 148 roka 113 Verticordia Wolfsbane 10, 212
Tetranychus urticae 99, 135 rubescens 223 brownii 95 Wollastonia biflora 60
tetraphyllin 165 Trichinella spiralis 281 plumosa 95 Wombat, Common 285
Teucrium Trichodesma zeylanicum 420 verticordina 95 Woodbridge Poison 427
argutum 100 Trichophyton V-Gel 39 Woodland Tobacco 409
chamaedrys 178 mentagrophytes 55, 56, 97 Viannia braziliensis 54 Woody Nightshade 470, 472
thalictrine 112 rubrum 56, 97, 103, 335 Vibrio Woolly Nightshade 465
Thalictrum foliolosum 112 Trichosanthes kirilowii 75 cholera 217 Woolly Rattlepod 92
thankunic acid 143 Trichosurus vulpecula 176, 204 cholerae 84, 148 worm
thankuniside 143 Trichuris mimicus 56, 148 American boll 337
THC 191, 192 suis 280, 281 parahaemolyticus 56, 148 Asian armyworm 164
thebaine 22 trichiura 280 Vigna spp. 189 Canine hookworm 276
thiamin 274 vulpis 276 vincristine 10, 149, 171, 341 Canine roundworm 276
Thornapple tricosane 30 violaxanthin 142 Canine whipworm 276
Common 350 Trigonella foenum-graecum 448, Virgin’s Bower 112 Egyptian cotton leafworm 99
Desert 349 450 viridiflorene 300 filarial 53, 153, 280, 282, 454,
Downy 350 trihydroxybenzaldehyde (TBA) 37 viridiflorol 45, 82, 300 477
Fierce 350 Trillium spp. 448 virus, Ross River 203 flatworm 279, 280
Hairy 350 Triodia Vitex giant intestinal roundworm 280
Native 349, 350 basedowii 269 agnus-castus 297 hookworm 14, 275, 276
Oak-leaf 349 pungens 268, 269 negundo 39, 98 human hookworm 280
Thottea grandiflora 202 Triphala 151 negundo var. cannabinifolia 98 human whipworm 280, 281
Thyme 29, 67, 144, 145, 150, 173 Trisetum flavescens 489 trifoliata 98 meadow eelworm 87
Mexican 100 triterpene 81, 318, 398 vitexin 28 pig whipworm 280
thymol 101, 104, 108, 109 tropisetron 359 voleon U 101 pinworm 280
Thymus vulgaris 145 troxerutin 128 Vombatus ursinus 285 rat tapeworm 87, 281
Tick, Australian Paralysis 412 Trypanosoma Vomit-wort 429 roundworm 14, 165, 275, 279,
Tickweed 114, 115, 116, 117 brucei 282, 382 W 337
tigloidine 396, 398 cruzi 54, 57, 483 Wallaby scalp ringworm 415
tigogenin 447, 449 tubocurarine 362 Agile 285 silkworm 284
Tinea capitis 415 Turkey Berry 458 Bennett’s 285 tapeworm 280
Tinospora Turmeric 156, 158, 159, 443 Wasp, mud 268 threadworm 280
cordifolia 151 Turpentine Tree 370 Waterbush 294, 380 whipworm 271, 280
smilacina 135 Tuvaraka 163 wattle 373 Wuchereria bancrofti 280
tiotropium bromide 360 U Wattle 256 X
Tobacco 381, 405, 407, 409, 410, ulcer Umbrella 182 xanthine 130
412–6, 418–20, 423, 456, 489 Bairnsdale 203 Wedelia xanthine oxidase 130
Australian 404 Buruli 203 asperrima 59, 61, 66 Xie Bai 174
Latakia 411 Daintree 203 biflora 53, 56, 58, 60, 156 Xylosma terrae-reginae 135
Native 372, 379, 402–4, 431 umbelliferone 67, 69 calendulacea 57, 63, 64 Y
Persian 410 undecanal 101 chinensis 56, 57, 58, 63, 65, 66 Ya Dan Zi 172
Shiraz 411 Upright Virgin’s Bower 111 glauca 58, 61 Yam
Turkish 84, 410, 411 Urginea longipes 59 Air-Potato 436, 444, 445
Velvet 409 maritima 26 paludosa 54–57 Bitter 438, 439
Wild 106, 403, 406, 411, 420, scilla 27 parviceps 57 Japanese 435, 437
425–7 urokinase 288 spilanthoides 59, 60 Long 444, 445
Woodland 409 ursolic acid 35, 37, 144, 190, 398, stirlingii 60 Mexican 432, 433
tocopherol 31, 32 422 subvaginata 57 Wild 432–4
tokorogenin 435 Urtica 47 trilobata 54–7, 60, 62 yamogenin 448, 454
tomatidenol 455 V urticifolia 60 Yellow Jessamine 147
tomatidine 454, 455, 461, 479 Vaccinium myrtillus 385 verbesinoides 60 Yew, Pacific 447
Tomato 86, 116, 221, 291, 455, 485 Valeriana wedelolactone 63–66 yonogenin 435
Toredo navalis 419 officinalis 179 wedeloside 61, 66 Yucca brevifolia 449
tormentic acid 35 wallichii 151 wedelosin 57 Z
Torreya nucifera 328 valtropine 390 Weevil, Cotton Boll 58 zeaxanthin 33, 85
Toxocara vancomycin 321, 324, 445 whipworm 271 zeolite 205, 238–40, 242, 253
canis 275, 276 vanillin 43 Canine 276 Zi Cao 146
cati 275 Vanillosmopsis erythropappa 67 Human 280, 281 Zingiber officinale 44
Toxoplasma gondii 283, 284 Varanus gouldii flavirufus 256 pig 280 zingiberene 44
trans,trans-arnesol 70 Varroa destructor 58 White Hellebore 486, 487 zingiberol 44
trans-anethole 44 Velvet Nightshade 461 White Nightshade 474, 483 zizaene 327
trans-caryophyllene 104 Velvet Tobacco 409 White Star Pratia 430 zucchini 86
trans-humulone 333 veratridine 485 Whiteroot 429, 430, 431
trans-nerolidol 44 veratrine 485 Whitewood, Desert 306, 307
trans-tiliroside 38 Veratrum 485, 486, 487 Wild Tobacco 106, 403–6, 411, 420,
trans-β-farnesene 142 album 486, 487 425, 426, 457
Traveller’s Joy 110, 111 nigrum 486 Wild Tomato 420
trematodes 280, 282 verbascoside 313, 315, 325, 326, Wild Yam 432–4
tremolite 226, 236 328 wilgi 267

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MEDICINAL PLANTS IN AUSTRALIA

Volume 1 Bush Pharmacy

National Library of Australia Cataloguing-in-Publication entry

Author: Williams, Cheryll.

Title: Medicinal plants in Australia, Vol. 1, bush pharmacy /

Print ISBN: 9781877058790 (hbk.)

Notes: Includes index.

Subjects: Medicinal plants--Australia.

Dewey Number: 615.321

Set in Adobe Garamond Pro

FROM THE PAST TO THE FUTURE?

Ergot (Claviceps purpurea) on Rye grass.

Author’s Note and Library SRIS (Science, Research & Information

to supplement their meagre drug supplies. Although

The search for food and medicines

sponginess of the gums (which became extremely sore

Captain James Cook2 and his colleagues found the

Here are several sorts of the Palm kind, Mangro[v]es

Tropical rainforest of the Daintree coast, northern

The botanical research team of

Re-enactment of the Aborigines’ response to Cook’s landing at the Endeavour River.

One of the first herbs to achieve

small amounts of the B vitamins, as well as a diverse

Hottentot Fig (Carpobrotus edulis). (Courtesy: Forest &

Aizoaceae: Ice plants

Above & below) Sea Purslane (Sesuvium portulacastrum).

exceedingly well when Boil’d, but the roots were

Sources of vitamin C: citrus,

Taro (Colocasia exculenta): leaves and tubers.

Limes growing in an orchard in at the base of Mount

Sowthistles (Sonchus species), which are rich in vitamin

Sowthistle (Sonchus oleraceus). Common Celery (Apium graveolens).

Common Celery (Apium graveolens). Weedy Ox-Tongue herb.

mineral resources. Apium australe is found along the New

The local species, which differed from the cultivated

Picris echioides is now classified as Helminthotheca echioides. The name P.

The physician’s medicine chest:

The Opium Poppy (Papaver somniferum).

Even for those who did, familiar herb resources were

Extractum Digitalis, from Phillips’ Translation of the

Common Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea)

escharotic (caustic or corrosive) effect and was used to

There were numerous other useful remedies found in

Deadly Nightshade (Atropa belladonna).

Belladonna Extract, from Phillips’ Translation of the

Hyoscyamus Extract, from Phillips’ Translation of the

Liquorice root (Glycyrrhiza glabra).

• Liquorice Extract (Extractum Glycyrrhizae) A very

Liquorice flowers (Glycyrrhiza glabra).

During the 1800s and early 1900s a great deal of energy

In colonial times, the scarcity of conventional

dysentery. The Queensland habitat is Peak Downs &c.

One of Sida cordifolia’s common names, Jelly Leaf,

In the early days of the Australian settlement,

The small shrubby plants Grewia latifolia and Grewia

inner bark of Grewia orientalis. In addition, mucilage

Overseas, various Grewia species have been utilised

was a useful antiarthritic. Studies have demonstrated

Grewia asiatica is an Asian species that ranges from

Medicinal bush tucker orchids

skin problems and traumatic injuries – the fresh herb

contain a useful fixative for the ochre used in painting,

Australian analogues of European Vervain is a remedy with an ancient past. The

• igh linalool (19–73%) and low eugenol (5–