Sphaeranthus suaveolens is a weed from the family Asteraceae, it grows abundantly in wet areas and is most common in rice fields. The extracts from plants closely related to S. suaveolens have been reported to have allelopathic, insecticidal, antifeedant, repellent, and other biological activities. Currently, the use of synthetic chemicals to control weeds and insect pests raises several concerns related to the environment and human health. Extracts from plants with pesticidal properties can offer the best and an environmentally friendly alternative. Some of these extracts have been extensively tested to assess their applications as valuable natural resources in sustainable agriculture. This review article, therefore, explores the potential of S. suaveolens extracts in controlling insect pests and managing weeds by smallholder farmers.
Similar to Insights of allelopathic, insecticidal and repellent potential of an invasive plant Sphaeranthus suaveolens in pest and weed management | JBES
Similar to Insights of allelopathic, insecticidal and repellent potential of an invasive plant Sphaeranthus suaveolens in pest and weed management | JBES (20)
Call Girls Moshi Call Me 7737669865 Budget Friendly No Advance Booking
Insights of allelopathic, insecticidal and repellent potential of an invasive plant Sphaeranthus suaveolens in pest and weed management | JBES
1. J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2020
101 | Laizer et al.
REVIEW PAPER OPEN ACCESS
Insights of allelopathic, insecticidal and repellent potential of
an invasive plant Sphaeranthus suaveolens in pest and weed
management
Hudson Laizer*1,2
, Musa Chacha1
, Patrick Ndakidemi1
1
Department of Sustainable Agriculture and Biodiversity Conservation, Nelson Mandela African
Institution of Science and Technology, Arusha, Tanzania
2
Centre for Research, Agricultural Advancement, Teaching Excellence and Sustainability in Food
and Nutritional Security (CREATES), The Nelson Mandela African Institution of Science and
Technology (NM-AIST), Arusha, Tanzania
Article published on August 30, 2020
Key words: Botanical extracts, Secondary metabolites, Sustainable agriculture, Smallholder farmers, Terpene
Abstract
Sphaeranthus suaveolens is a weed from the family Asteraceae, it grows abundantly in wet areas and most
common in rice fields. The extracts from plants closely related to S. suaveolens have been reported to have
allelopathic, insecticidal, antifeedant, repellent, and other biological activities. Currently, the use of synthetic
chemicals to control weeds and insect pests raise several concerns related to environment and human health.
Extracts from plants with pesticidal properties can offer the best and an environmentally friendly alternative.
Some of these extracts have been extensively tested to assess their applications as valuable natural resources in
sustainable agriculture. This review article therefore explores the potential of S. suaveolens extracts in
controlling insect pests and managing weeds by smallholder farmers.
*Corresponding Author: Hudson Laizer laizerh@nm-aist.ac.tz
Journal of Biodiversity and Environmental Sciences (JBES)
ISSN: 2220-6663 (Print) 2222-3045 (Online)
Vol. 17, No. 2, p. 101-112, 2020
http://www.innspub.net
2. J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2020
102 | Laizer et al.
Introduction
Agricultural production in most part of the world is
affected by pests, diseases and weeds among other
factors (Nations, 2016; Singh et al., 2003). Majority
of the farmers respond to these constraints through
the use of synthetic chemicals such as herbicides and
pesticide (Kelly et al., 2003). The extensive use of
these chemicals in controlling insect pests and
managing weeds, however, have alarmed the public
on the effects they might bring to human health and
the environment at large (Khanh et al., 2005). Such
concerns are putting pressure on agricultural sector
to reduce the use of chemicals and as a result, much
attention is paid to alternative methods and
techniques for controlling and managing weeds and
insect pests, through non-chemical methods and/or
use of natural products such as botanical extracts
(Isman, 2006a; Williamson et al., 2008).
Prior to the discovery and commercialization of
synthetic pesticides, botanical extracts, among other
methods, were used by most farmers in crop
protection against insect pests, weeds and diseases
(El-Wakeil, 2013). Extracts from plants with
allelopathic or pesticidal properties were of great
importance in making natural herbicides and
pesticides (Benner, 1993; Godfrey, 1994). There is
also increasingly evidence from literatures that plant
extracts can be manipulated and used as perfect
agrochemicals in controlling insect pests and
managing weeds (Hoagland, 2001; Macías et al.,
2001; Mkenda et al., 2015; Nattudurai et al., 2012;
Ngondya et al., 2016; Singh et al., 2003; Stephen et
al., 2002; Vyvyan, 2002).
The secondary metabolites in plants are responsible
to biological activities that offer defense against
predators, fungi and bacteria, also these metabolites
may act as natural herbicides by suppressing other
plant species (Dewick, 2009; Schoonhoven et al.,
2005). These biological activities from the plants
secondary metabolites can be exploited and
manipulated for various human uses, and in this
respect Sphaeranthus suaveolens has a considerable
potential. S. suaveolens is a widespread weed in
swampy and irrigated farmlands, and usually infests
cultivated fields and reduces crop productivity
(Beentje, 2002). A heavy infestation of this weed
results in adverse effects on the growth and yield of
crops, particularly in rice fields (Fahmy, 1997).
It has been observed that S. suaveolens has an ability
to overcome and suppress crop plants in a wide range
over a short period of time (Ivens, 1989). However,
the secondary metabolites involved are largely
unknown and weather they can be applied in
managing other weeds and controlling insect pests is
yet to be determined. Understanding this could
considerably justify the practical application of
botanical-based weeds and insect pests management
techniques for most smallholder farmers in areas
where S. suaveolens is growing.
This review article therefore highlights the
allelopathic, insecticidal and repellent potential of an
invasive plant S. suaveolens with a focus on its
application in controlling insect pests and managing
weeds by smallholder farmers.
Overview of S. suaveolens and its spatial distribution
in Tanzania
S. suaveolens is an aromatic annual spreading herb
from the family Asteraceae with broad sessile leaves
covered with glandular hairs (Osman, 2011). The lower
stem often trails along the ground and roots at the
nodes with thread-like root, flowers are purple, in
compound heads ovoid in shape and borne on solitary
glandular peduncles with toothed wings (Fayed &
Mohamed, 1991).
The head as a whole is surrounded by several rows of
bracts, of which only the tips are visible when flowers
are fully open, and propagated by seeds which takes
about 10-12 days to germinate, and the seedlings attain
the height of 5.0 - 6.0cm within 30 days in a favorable
environment (Beentje, 2002).
S. suaveolens is widespread in Africa over a range of
altitudes from Rwanda, Burundi, Sudan, Ethiopia,
3. J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2020
103 | Laizer et al.
Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Egypt, Uganda, Kenya
to Tanzania (Everard et al., 2002; Fahmy, 1997). It is
mostly found growing in wet areas and thrives well in
medium clayey soils, but also common in and around
irrigation ditches and rice fields and considered as a
major weed in most farms (Ivens, 1989). In Tanzania,
the plant was first reported in Songea (Brenan, 1960),
then Mpwapwa (Launert, 2003), Mkata and Mandela
in Wami River Ecosystem (Mligo, 2017). The spatial
distribution of S. suaveolens in Northern Tanzania
particularly Arusha and Kilimanjaro regions however,
have not been mapped despite being reported as a
weed to most agricultural fields.
Fig. 1. Distribution of S. suaveolens in Wami River Ecosystem in Tanzania.
Allelopathic effects of S. suaveolens on crops
Allelopathy is a phenomenon, whereby one plant
influences the growth of another one, including
microorganisms by the release of chemical
compounds into the environment (Keeley, 2010; Rice,
1983; Whittaker & Feeny, 1971). The allelopathic
effects are the result of chemical compounds known
as allelochemicals, which are usually plants’
secondary metabolites or byproducts of the principal
metabolic pathways in plants (Chancellor, 1987;
Dayan et al., 2009; Macías et al., 2007). In recent
years, allelopathy has become a research hotspot for
making comprehensive analysis about the mechanism
of weeds and identification of specific chemical
compounds responsible for allelopathic effects
(Azirak & Karaman, 2008; Bais et al., 2003; Einhellig
& Leather, 1988).
Most allelopathic plants have been observed to
significantly affect the growth, productivity and yield
of other crops by causing soil sickness and nutrient
imbalance (Kohli et al., 2008), as well as affecting the
microbial population (Batish et al., 2001). Several
studies have indicated that, most weeds possess
allelopathic effects which play a significant roles in
their invasion success (Macías et al., 2014; Qasem &
Foy, 2001; Zhou et al., 2013). Numerous weeds from
the Asteraceae family have been reported to possess
allelopathy and can significantly inhibit crop
productivity in agricultural land (Ilori et al., 2010;
Kong et al., 2007). The invasive weed, Sphaeranthus
indicus has been reported to inhibit seed germination
and growth of wheat (Triticum aestivum), rice (Oryza
4. J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2020
104 | Laizer et al.
sativa) and mung bean (Vigna radiata) in different
farming systems (Lodha, 2004).
Recently, Mahajan et al. (2015) reviewed the
allelopathic potential of S. indicus and found that the
germination and seedling growth of various crops
were significantly decreased with increase in
concentration of its extract.
Despite of the negative effects on cultivated crops,
allelochemicals from allelopathic plants can be
manipulated and used to control weeds of various
crops. For example, Khanh et al. (2006) noted that
the allelochemicals contained in tissues of Passiflora
edulis can significantly suppress the two noxious
paddy rice weeds (Echinochloa crusgalli and
Monochoria vaginalis). Other studies have also
reported the use of allelochemicals for weed control in
the laboratory as well as application under field
conditions (Jabran et al., 2015; Ngondya et al., 2016).
Jamil et al. (2009) described the utilization of
allelopathic water extract as an important and useful
way of exploiting the allelopathic potential to manage
wild oat and canary grass in wheat fields.
The emergence and root length of most rice weeds
was inhibited by allelochemical (Lycorine) from the
dead leaves of spider lily (Iqbal et al., 2006). The
allelopathic crops when used as cover crop, mulch,
smother crops, green manures, or grown in rotational
sequences maybe helpful in reducing noxious weeds
and plant pathogen, improve soil quality and crop
yield (Khanh et al., 2005).
Furthermore, the application of allelopathic extracts
may give an efficient alternative control over weeds
similar to that offered by synthetic herbicides (Xuan
et al., 2004). Interactions among potential
allelopathic plants, target pests and other non- target
organisms in a cropping system also need to be
considered and fully realized to avoid detrimental
effects to desired crops and non-target species
(Farooq et al., 2013).
The allelochemicals involved in weed suppression can
serve as basic templates for developing new
generation of biopesticides with low or no toxic
effects to the environment and human health
(Ferguson et al., 2009).
The allelopathic potential of S. suaveolens, therefore
need to be realized and selectively used to suppress
density of other weeds and insect pests population
particularly in small farming agricultural systems.
Insecticidal and repellent activities of S. suaveolens
to insect pests
Insecticides, weather natural or synthetic are
developed to either kill, repel, or interfere with the
damaging behavior of insect pests (EPA, 2009). Due
to intensity of plant-insect interactions, plants have
well developed defense mechanisms against insect
pests by producing natural compounds which acts as
natural pesticides (Després et al., 2007). The most
exciting concept is to isolate and identify such
compounds and use them as candidates in making
safer pesticides (Maia & Moore, 2011). Plant extracts
with pesticidal properties can be active against
specific target insects, biodegradable, have low to
non-toxic effects, cheap and easy to prepare (Kim et
al., 2003; Mkindi et al., 2017). Due to this facts, these
plant extracts could lead to the development of new
classes of safer pesticides (Céspedes et al., 2014;
Tembo et al., 2018).
The Asteraceae family in which S. suaveolens belongs,
have been reported to contain plants with insecticidal
activities (Dhale, 2013; Green et al., 2017; Sosa et al.,
2018). These insecticidal activities are mostly linked
to presence of secondary metabolites such as
terpenes, which can act as larvicides, insect growth
regulators and feeding and oviposition deterrents
(Miresmailli & Isman, 2014). Terpene is among the
most diverse class of plant secondary metabolites
found in essential oils of most plants, S. suaveolens
included (Ahmed et al., 2017; Pagare et al., 2015).
This secondary metabolite has been reported to play
an important role in plant protection against
pathogens (Neerman, 2003), insects (Wu et al., 2016)
and toxic to mammals as well (Gurib-Fakim, 2006).
Recently, Sosa et al. (2018) reported insecticidal
activities of the terpene isolated from Vernonanthura
nebularum against fall army warm (Spodoptera
5. J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2020
105 | Laizer et al.
frugiperda) and fruit fly (Ceratitis capitate).
Moreover, two other terpenes from Inula helenium
were examined by Kaur et al. (2017) and reported to
significantly inhibit the growth of tobacco leafworm
(Spodoptera litura).
Other techniques such as use of water extracts from S.
indicus was also reported to demonstrated toxic
effects against insect pests such as rice weevil (Patole
et al., 2008), cowpea weevil (Singh & Shrivastava,
2012) and red flour beetle (Pugazhvendan et al.,
2012). Furthermore, the extracts from S. indicus have
been showing larvicidal activities and repellent
activities to most of the insect pests (Arivoli et al.,
2016; Baby, 1994; Singh & Shrivastava, 2012).
The presence of secondary metabolites with pesticidal
properties such as terpene in the essential oil of S.
suaveolens may give positive insecticidal and
repellent activities to most insect pests, hence used
for as protective agents against insect pests, but this
needs further scientific investigation.
Key allelochemicals from the leaf, stem and root
extracts of S. suaveolens
Allelochemicals are secondary metabolites produced
by living organisms such as plants that have
stimulatory or inhibitory effects upon the growth,
health, behavior and distribution of neighboring
organisms being another plants, insects or microbes
(Haig, 2008). The role played by secondary
metabolites is mostly ecological, linked to plant
defense against other plants, pests, or diseases
(Ramakrishna & Ravishankar, 2011). Allelochemicals
undoubtedly pose problems in agriculture, but if well
manipulated they can be beneficial and offer great
opportunities such as insect pests and weeds control
(Einhellig, 1987). Despite the efforts in allelopathic
researches, little is known on the potential to exploit
the key allelochemicals in agricultural systems and
use them as templates in making safer and affordable
herbicides and/or pesticides (Kremer & Ben-
Hammouda, 2009). Much of the work to date has
focused on weather extracts from S. suaveolens show
biological activities such as antimicrobial, immune
stimulating, anticancer, antitumor, anthelmintic,
repellency, insecticidal and allelopathy (Ahmed &
Mahmoud, 1997; Kleinowski et al., 2016). However,
very few literatures have reported the identified
compounds found in S. suaveolens extracts, none of it
has a list of allelochemicals found in S. suaveolens
despite being the weed of economic importance in
many rice and common bean farms in Africa.
Allelochemicals belong to various chemical groups,
and can be classified based on their structures and
properties into: water-soluble organic acids, straight-
chain alcohols, aliphatic aldehydes, and ketones,
lactones, long-chain fatty acids and polyacetylenes,
quinines (benzoquinone, anthraquinone and complex
quinines), phenolics, cinnamic acid and its
derivatives, coumarins, flavonoids, tannins, steroids
and terpenoids (Li et al., 2010).
Most of these biochemicals are synthesized during the
shikimate pathway (Hussain & Reigosa, 2011) or, in
the case of essential oils, from the isoprenoid pathway
(Rehman et al., 2016). The extract of the aerial parts
of S. suavealens was reported by Jakupovic et al.
(1990) to contain eight eudesman-12. 6 β abides,
carvotacetone derivatives and a thymohydroquinone
glucopyranoside. Later on, Pooter et al. (1991)
reported extract of the same plant comprise of
thymohydroquinone dimethylether, a diacetylene
thiophene, inositol and myoinositol esters, and
several carvotanacetone derivatives, he went further to
examine the essential oil of S. suaveolens and noted
methyl chavicol, α-ionon,e, dcadinene and p-
methoxycinnamadehyde as major constituents, and a-
terpinene, citral, geraniol, geranyl acetate, βionone,
shaerene, indicusene and sphaeranthol as minor
constituents. Ahmed and Mahmoud (1997) examine
the extract of aerial parts of S. suaveolens and reported
three carvotacetone derivatives, together with four
monoteroene compounds. Later on, Hassanali et al.
(1998) reported cis-pinocamphone as the major
constituents (63.5%) of the leaf oil of S. sauveolens.
The details of these identified compounds are stated
6. J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2020
106 | Laizer et al.
in Table 1, however, identifying alone isn’t sufficient
enough, rather gaining an understanding on which
among these compounds are allelochemicals and how
to use them in improving crop production though
managing weeds and controlling insect pests in
sustainable agriculture will be a big advantage.
Table 1. Identified compounds from leaf oil of S.
suaveolens.
Compound Ip on RSL-150 Content
α- Thujene
α- Pinene
Camphene
Sabinene
Oct-1-en-3-ol
Myrcene
α- Phellandrene
α- Terpinene
p- Cymene
1,8- Cineole
γ- Terpinene
trans- Pinene hydrate (?)
Pinocamphone
Isopinocamphone
Terpinen-4-ol
p- Cymen-8-ol
α-Terpineol
Methyl thymol ether (?)
Cuminaldehyde
Thymol
Carvacrol
α- Terpinyl acetate
Eugenol
α- Ylangene
β- Elemene
Thymohydroquinone
dimethylether
β- Caryophyllene
α- Humulene
β-Farnesene
allo- Aromadendrene
δ- Cadinene
Nerolidol
Spathulenol
Caryophyllene oxide
921
931
941
964
967
981
995
1007
1011
1019
1049
1131
1139
1155
1164
1170
1173
1222
1228
1267
1274
1329
1330
1369
1382
1400
1418
1447
1449
1461
1515
1547
1564
1570
0.1
10.6
0.1
1.5
0.3
0.6
4.1
tr
6.3
6.6
1.1
0.3
1.0
33.5
0.7
0.4
0.6
0.1
tr
0.2
0.3
1.2
tr
tr
tr
16.1
0.9
0.1
0.1
tr
1.2
0.1
0.7
0.4
tr = trace (<0.05%); (?) = identification based on the
MS and RT
Source: Pooter et al. (1991)
Farmers knowledge and perception towards use of S.
suaveolens in insect pests and weeds management
The diversity of insect pests and weeds in most
agricultural lands need a multi-control strategies to
produce satisfactory results in a sustainable manner
(Parker et al., 2013). The goals and values of long-
term sustainability must be reflected in combinations
of practices and methods consistent with an
individual farmer's resources, including knowledge
and farming practices (Ikerd, 1993). Unfortunately,
most smallholder farmers in developing countries
have limited knowledge and are resource-
constrained. This limits their capacity to manage
weeds and insect pests (Whitbread et al., 2010).
Pest management practices by most smallholder
farmers are mainly based on use of chemical
pesticides, though this alone does not give the desired
results (Toda & Morishita, 2009). Few of these
farmers have combined such method with some
cultural practices such as intercropping and crop
rotation (Ajeigbe et al., 2010; Ngowi et al., 2007).
Other studies reported that limited technical
knowledge among small holder famers and shortage
of extension services are among the limiting factors
that hinder the adoption of suitable pest management
practices (Midega et al., 2012; Mkenda et al., 2020).
Most farmers still relying on past experience and
farming practices despite the fact that they have not
attained fruitful results over the years (Khan &
Damalas, 2015). Integrating different pest
management practices has long been proposed as the
long term solution and future for sustainable
agriculture (Pretty & Bharucha, 2015).
For any pest management approach to work and
eventually adopted by farmers, their knowledge,
perceptions and practices has to be fully realized
(Chitere & Omolo, 2008; Hashemi & Damalas, 2010;
Huis, 2014). Khan et al. reported that some farmers are
aware of the role played by companion crops with
repellent or toxic characteristics in pests control, as well
as harboring natural enemies and in this regard, S.
suaveolens may have considerable potential (Khan et al.,
2010). Isman and Grieneisen (2014) pointed out several
plant species from the Asteraceae and other families
with pesticidal properties that may be used to control
and manage insect pests and weeds, however, very few
of these plants are known and used by smallholder
farmers despite the increasingly focus in research on
plant species with pesticidal potential in Africa.
Conclusion
7. J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2020
107 | Laizer et al.
S. suaveolens is a weed which possesses diverse group
of biological activities both in medicine as well as in
agriculture.
However, the importance of such activities on the
later have been ignored despite its potential in
managing insect pests in the field, storage and
suppressing other weeds. The wide geographical
distribution of S. suaveolens give an added advantage
and opportunities to small holder farmers as a cheap
alternative in managing weeds and controlling pests
since they cannot afford the synthetic pesticide.
Additionally, the combination of small dosage of
synthetic pesticides with botanical extracts may be more
effective and environmental friendly compared with
standard dose of synthetic pesticides (Isman, 2006b;
Joseph et al., 2008). The allelochemicals from the plant
extracts may be isolated and identified and eventually
serves as templates for developing new generation of
pesticides with less toxic effect to environment and
human health. Extension services and trainings are very
important in enhancing the performance and promoting
adoption of new strategies and practices to smallholder
farmers such as use of botanical extracts particularly
from invasive weeds in managing and controlling pests,
other weeds and diseases.
References
Ahmed AA, Mahmoud AA. 1997. Carvotacetone
derivatives from the Egyptian plant Sphaeranthus
suaveolens. Phytochemistry 45(3), 533-535.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0031-9422(96)00840-0
Ahmed E, Arshad M, Zakriyya Khan M, Shoaib
Amjad M, Mehreen Sadaf H, Riaz I, Sidra Sabir
P, Ahmad N. 2017. Secondary metabolites and their
multidimensional prospective in plant life. Journal of
Pharmacognosy and Phytochemistry 6(2), 205-214.
Ajeigbe HA, Singh B, Adeosun J. 2010. On-farm
evaluation of improved cowpea-cereals cropping
systems for crop-livestock farmers : Cereals- cowpea
systems in Sudan savanna zone of Nigeria. African
Journal of Agricultural Research 5(17), 2297-2304.
Arivoli S, Tennyson S, Raveen R, Senthilkumar B,
Govindarajan M. 2016. Larvicidal activity of fractions
of Sphaeranthus indicus Linnaeus ( Asteraceae ) ethyl
acetate whole plant extract against Aedes aegypti
Linnaeus 1762 , Anopheles stephensi Liston 1901 and
Culex quinquefasciatus Say 1823 ( Diptera : Culicidae ).
International Journal of Mosquito Research 3(2), 18-30.
Azirak S, Karaman S. 2008. Allelopathic effect of
some essential oils and components on germination
of weed species. Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica
Section B: Soil and Plant Science 58(1), 88-92.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09064710701228353
Baby JK. 1994. Reppelent and phagodeterrent
activity of Sphaeranthus indicus extract against
Callosobruchus chinensis. Proceedings of the 6th
International Working Conference on Stored-Product
Protection 746-748.
Bais HP, Vepachedu R, Gilroy S, Callaway R.,
Vivanco JM. 2003. Allelopathy and exotic plant
invasion: From molecules and genes to species
interactions. Science 301(5638), 1377–1380.
https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1083245
Batish DR, Singh HP, Kaur S. 2001. Crop
Allelopathy and Its Role in Ecological Agriculture.
Journal of Crop Protection 4(2), 121-161. https://doi.
org/10.1300/J144v04n02
Benner JP. 1993. Pesticidal compounds from higher
plants. Pesticide Science 39(5), 95-102. https://doi.
org/10.1002/ps.2780390202
Brenan JPM. 1960. Flora of Tropical East Africa.
Nature 188, 1142.
Céspedes CL, Salazar JR, Ariza-Castolo A,
Yamaguchi L, Ávila JG, Aqueveque P, Kubo I,
Alarcón J. 2014. Biopesticides from plants:
Calceolaria integrifolia s.l. Environmental Research
132, 391-406. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2014.
Chancellor R. 1987. The Science of allelopathy
Edited by A. R. Putnam and C. S. Tand. Wiley and
Sons, New York, 1986, 317. Phytochemistry 26(5),
1554. https://doi.org/citeulike-article-id:5727856
8. J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2020
108 | Laizer et al.
Chitere PO, Omolo BA. 2008. Farmers’
indigenous knowledge of crop pests and their damage
in western Kenya. International Journal of Pest
Management 39(2), 126-132.
Dayan FE, Cantrell CL, Duke SO. 2009. Natural
products in crop protection. Bioorganic and
Medicinal Chemistry 17(12), 4022–4034.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bmc.2009.01.046
De Pooter HL, De Buyck LF, Schamp NM,
Harraz FM, El‐Shami IM. 1991. The essential oil of
Sphaeranthus suaveolens DC. Flavour and Fragrance
Journal 6(2), 157-159. https://doi.org/10.1002/
ffj.2730060213
Després L, David JP, Gallet C. 2007. The
evolutionary ecology of insect resistance to plant
chemicals. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 22(6),
298-307. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tree.2007.02.010
Dewick PM. 2009. Medicinal Natural Products A
Biosynthetic Approach (3rd Edition). John Wiley &
Sons, Ltd.
Dhale D. 2013. Ph ton plants used for insect and pest
control in North Maharashtra , India. The Journal of
Ethnobiology and Traditional Medicine 118(4), 379-388.
Einhellig FA. 1987. Interaction among
allelochemicals and othe rstress factors of the plants
environment. Allelochemicals: Role in Agriculture
and Forestry 343-357.
Einhellig, Frank A, Leather GR. 1988. Potentials
for exploiting allelopathy to enhance crop production.
Journal of Chemical Ecology 14(10), 1829-1844.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01013480
El-Wakeil NE. 2013. Botanical Pesticides and Their
Mode of Action. Gesunde Pflanzen 65(4), 125-149.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s10343-013-0308-3
Everard M, Kuria A, Macharia M, Vale JA,
Harper DM. 2002. Aspects of the biodiversity of the
rivers in the Lake Naivasha catchment. Hydrobiologia
488, 43-55.
Fahmy AGE. 1997. Evaluation of the weed flora of
Egypt from Predynastic to Graeco-Roman times.
Springer 6(4), 241-247.
Farooq M, Bajwa AA, Cheema SA, Cheema ZA.
2013. Application of allelopathy in crop production.
International Journal of Agriculture and Biology
15(6), 1367-1378. https://doi.org/10.1002/ps.2091
Fayed A, Mohamed M. 1991. Systematic revision of
Compositae in Egypt 5 Tribe Inuleae : Pulicaria and
related genera. Wildenowia 20, 81-89.
Ferguson J, Rathinasabapathi B, Chase C.
2009. Allelopathy: How plants suppress other plants.
UF/IFAS Extension. University of Florida 1-4.
Godfrey, C. R. A. 1994. Agrochemicals from
Natural Products 17, 424. https://doi.org/10.1016/
0167-8809(95)90095-0
Green PWC, Belmain SR, Ndakidemi PA,
Farrell IW, Stevenson PC. 2017. Insecticidal
activity of Tithonia diversifolia and Vernonia
amygdalina. Industrial Crops and Products 110(3),
15-21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2017.08.021
Gurib-Fakim A. 2006. Medicinal plants: Traditions
of yesterday and drugs of tomorrow. Molecular
Aspects of Medicine 27(1), 1-93. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.mam.2005.07.008
Haig T. 2008. Allelochemicals in plants. In
Allelopathy in Sustainable Agriculture and Forestry
(pp. 63-104). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-77
Hashemi SM, Damalas CA. 2010. Farmers ’
Perceptions of Pesticide Efficacy : Reflections on the
Importance of Pest Management Practices Adoption.
Journal of Sustainable Agriculture 35(1), 69-85.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10440046.2011.530511
Hassanali H, Mwangi JW, Achola KJ, Lwande
W. 1998. Aromatic plants of Kenya : volatile
constituents of leaf oils of Sphaeranthus suaveolens (
9. J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2020
109 | Laizer et al.
Forsk ) D . C . and S . bullatus Mattf. East and Central
African Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 1(1).
Hoagland RE. 2001. Microbial Allelochemicals and
Pathogens as Bioherbicidal Agents. Weed Technology
15(4), 835-857.
Huis, Van A. 2014. Can we make IPM work for
resource-poor farmers in sub-Saharan Africa ? Can
we make IPM work for resource-poor farmers in sub-
Saharan Africa ? International Journal of Pest
Management 43(4), 313-320. https://doi.org/10.
1080/096708797228636
Hussain MI, Reigosa MJ. 2011. Allelochemical
stress inhibits growth, leaf water relations, PSII
photochemistry, non-photochemical fluorescence
quenching, and heat energy dissipation in three C3
perennial species. Journal of Experimental Botany
62(13), 4533-4545. https://doi.org/10.1093/jxb/err1
Ikerd JE. 1993. The need for a systems approach to
sustainable agriculture 46, 147-160.
Ilori OJ, Otusanya OO, Adelusi AA, Sanni RO.
2010. Allelopathic activities of some weeds in the
asteraceae family. In International Journal of Botany
6(12), pp. 161-163). https://doi.org/10.3923/ijb.201
Iqbal Z, Nasir H, Hiradate S, Fujii Y. 2006.
Plant growth inhibitory activity of Lycoris radiata
Herb. and the possible involvement of lycorine as an
allelochemical. Weed Biology and Management 6(4),
221-227. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1445-6664.2006.
Isman MB. 2006a. Botanical Insecticides,
Deterrents, and Repellents in Modern Agriculture and
an Increasingly Regulated World. Annual Review of
Entomology 51(1), 45-66.
Isman MB. 2006b. Botanical insecticides,
deterrents amd repellents in modern agriculture and
an increasingly regulated world. Annual Review of
Entomology 51, 45-66. https://doi.org/10.1146/annu
Isman MB, Grieneisen ML. 2014. Botanical
insecticide research : many publications , limited
useful data. Trends in Plant Science 19(3), 140-145.
Jabran K, Mahajan G, Sardana V, Chauhan
BS. 2015. Allelopathy for weed control in agricultural
systems. Crop Protection 72, 57-65.
Jakupovic J, Grenz M, Bohlmann F, Mungai
GM. 1990. Carvotacetone derivatives and eudesman-
12,6/β-olides from sphaeranthus species.
Phytochemistry 29(4), 1213-1217.
Jamil M, Cheema ZA, Mushtaq MN, Farooq M,
Cheema MA, Cheema MA. 2009. Alternative
control of wild oat and canary grass in wheat fields by
allelopathic plant water extracts. Agronomy for
Sustainable Development 29(3), 475-482. https://
doi.org/10.1051/agro/2009007
Joseph B, Dar MA, Kumar V. 2008. Bioefficacy of
Plant Extracts to Control Fusarium solani F . Sp .
Melongenae incitant of Brinjal Wilt. Global Journal
of Biotechnology and Biochemistry 3(2), 56-59.
Kaur M, Kumar R, Upendrabhai DP, Singh IP,
Kaur S. 2017. Impact of sesquiterpenes from Inula
racemosa (Asteraceae) on growth, development and
nutrition of Spodoptera litura (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)
Mandeep. Pest Management Science 73, 1031-1038.
Kelly V, Adesina AA, Gordon A. 2003.
Expanding access to agricultural inputs in Africa: A
review of recent market development experience.
Food Policy 28(4), 379-404. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.foodpol.2003.08.006
Khan M, Damalas CA. 2015. Farmers’ knowledge
about common pests and pesticide safety in
conventional cotton production in Pakistan. Crop
Protection 77, 45-51. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.
cropro.2015.07.014
Khan ZR, Midega CAO, Bruce TJA, Hooper
AM, Pickett JA. 2010. Exploiting phytochemicals
for developing a‘ push – pull ’ crop protection strategy
for cereal farmers in Africa. Journal of Experimental
10. J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2020
110 | Laizer et al.
Botany 61(15), 4185-4196. https://doi.org/10.1093
Khanh TD, Chung IM, Tawata S, Xuan TD. 2006.
Weed suppression by Passiflora edulis and its potential
allelochemicals. Weed Research 46(4), 296-303.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-3180.2006.00512.x
Khanh TD, Chung MI, Xuan TD, Tawata S. 2005.
Cropping and Forage Systems / Crop Ecology / Organic
Farming The Exploitation of Crop Allelopathy in
Sustainable Agricultural Production. Journal of
Agronomy and Crop Science 191(10), 172-184.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-037X.2005.00172.x
Kim SIl, Roh JY, Kim DH, Lee HS, Ahn YJ.
2003. Insecticidal activities of aromatic plant extracts
and essential oils against Sitophilus oryzae and
Callosobruchus chinensis. Journal of Stored Products
Research 39(3), 293-303. https://doi.org/10.1016/
S0022-474X(02)00017-6
Kleinowski AM, Ribeieo GA, Milech C, Braga
EJB. 2016. Potential allelopathic and antibacterial
activity from Alternanthera philoxeroides. Hoehnea
43(4), 533-540.
Kohli R, Singh HP, Batish DR. 2008. Allelopathic
potential in rice germplasm against ducksalad, redstem
and barnyard grass. Journal of Crop Protection 4(2),
287-301. https://doi.org/10.1300/J144v04n02
Kong CH, Wang P, Xu XH. 2007. Allelopathic
interference of Ambrosia trifida with wheat (Triticum
aestivum). Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment
119(3-4), 416-420. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agee.2006
Kremer RJ, Ben-Hammouda M. 2009.
Allelopathic plants. 19. Barley (Hordeum vulgare L).
Allelopathy Journal 24(2), 225-242.
Li ZH, Wang Q, Ruan X, Pan C De, Jiang DA.
2010. Phenolics and plant allelopathy. Molecules
15(12), 8933-8952. https://doi.org/10.3390/molecul
Lodha V. 2004. Germination and seedling vigour of
some major crop plants as influenced by allelopathy
of Sphaeranthus indicus. Indian Journal Plant
Physiology 9(2), 195-198.
Macías FA, Molinillo JMG, Galindo JCG,
Varela RM, Simonet AM, Castellano D. 2001.
The use of Allelopathic Studies in the Search for
Natural Herbicides. Journal of Crop Production 4(2),
237-255. https://doi.org/10.1300/J144v04n02_08
Macías FA, Molinillo JMG, Varela RM, Galindo
JC. 2007. Allelopathy – A natural alternative for weed
control. Pest Management Science 63(4), 327-348.
Macías FA, Oliveros-Bastidas A, Marín D,
Chinchilla N, Castellano D, Molinillo JMG.
2014. Evidence for an allelopathic interaction
between rye and wild oats. Journal of Agricultural
and Food Chemistry 62(39), 9450-9457. https://doi.
org/10.1021/jf503840d
Mahajan NG, Chopda MZ, Mahajan RT. 2015. A
Review on Sphaeranthus indicus Linn: Multipotential
Medicinal Plant. International Journal of Pharmaceutical
Research and Allied Sciences 4(3), 48-74.
Maia MF, Moore S. 2011. Plant-based insect
repellents: a review of their efficacy, development and
testing. Malaria Journal 10(1). https://doi.org/
10.1186/1475-2875-10-S1-S11
Midega CAO, Nyang’au IM, Pittchar J, Birkett
MA, Pickett JA, Borges M, Khan ZR. 2012.
Farmers’ perceptions of cotton pests and their
management in western Kenya. Crop Protection 42,
193-201. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2012.07.0
Miresmailli S, Isman MB. 2014. Botanical
insecticides inspired by plant – herbivore chemical
interactions. Trends in Plant Science 19(1), 29-35.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tplants.2013.10.002
Mkenda PA, Ndakidemi PA, Stevenson PC,
Sarah EJ, Darbyshire I, Belmain SR, Priebe J,
Johnson AC, Gurr GM, Tumbo J. 2020.
Knowledge gaps among smallholder farmers hinder
adoption of conservation biological control.
Biocontrol Science and Technology 0(0), 1-22.
11. J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2020
111 | Laizer et al.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09583157.2019.1707169
Mkenda P, Mwanauta R, Stevenson PC,
Ndakidemi P. 2015. Extracts from Field Margin
Weeds Provide Economically Viable and
Environmentally Benign Pest Control Compared to
Synthetic Pesticides. PLoS ONE 10(11).
Mkindi A, Mpumi N, Tembo Y, Stevenson PC,
Ndakidemi PA, Mtei K, Machunda R, Belmain
SR. 2017. Invasive weeds with pesticidal properties
as potential new crops. Industrial Crops and Products
110(3), 113-122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.
Mligo C. 2017. Diversity and distribution pattern of
riparian plant species in the Wami River system,
Tanzania. Journal of Plant Ecology 10(2), 259-270.
https://doi.org/10.1093/jpe/rtw021
Food and Agriculture Organization of the
United Nations. 2016. The State of Food and
Agriculture 2016 (SOFA): Climate change, agriculture
and food security. In Livestock in the Balance.
https://doi.org/ISBN: 978-92-5-107671-2 I
Nattudurai G, Paulraj MG, Ignacimuthu S. 2012.
Fumigant toxicity of volatile synthetic compounds and
natural oils against red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum
(Herbst) (Coleopetera: Tenebrionidae). Journal of King
Saud University - Science 24(2), 153-159. https://doi.
org/10.1016/j .jksus.2010.11.002
Neerman MF. 2003. Sesquiterpene lactones: A diverse
class of compounds found in essential oils possessing
antibacterial and antifungal properties. International
Journal of Aromatherapy 13(2-3), 114-120.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0962-4562(03)00078-X
Ngondya IB, Munishi L, Treydte AC,
Ndakidemi PA. 2016. Demonstrative effects of
crude extracts of Desmodium spp . to fi ght against
the invasive weed species Tagetes minuta. Acta
Ecologica Sinica 36(2), 113-118. https://doi.org/10.
1016/j.chnaes.2016.03.001
Ngowi AVF, Mbise TJ, Ijani ASM, London L,
Ajayi OC. 2007. Smallholder vegetable farmers in
Northern Tanzania: Pesticides use practices,
perceptions, cost and health effects. Crop Protection
26(11), 1617-1624. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.
Osman AK. 2011. Numerical taxonomic study of some
tribes of compositae (subfamily Asteroideae) from
Egypt. Pakistan Journal of Botany 43(1), 171-180.
Pagare S, Bhatia M, Tripathi N, Pagare S,
Bansal YK. 2015. Secondary metabolites of plants
and their role: Overview. Current Trends in
Biotechnology and Pharmacy 9(3), 293-304.
Parker JE, Snyder WE, Hamilton GC, Saona CR.
2013. Companion Planting and Insect Pest Control 1-30.
Patole SS, Chopda MZ, Mahajan RT. 2008.
Biocidal activities of a common weed, Sphaeranthus
indicus Linn. Journal of Zoology 28(1), 67-72.
Pretty J, Bharucha ZP. 2015. Integrated Pest
Management for Sustainable Intensification of
Agriculture in Asia and Africa. Insects 6, 152-182.
https://doi.org/10.3390/insects6010152
Pugazhvendan SR, Ross PR, Elumalai K. 2012.
Insecticidal and repellant activities of plants oil
against stored grain pest, Tribolium castaneum
(Herbst) (Coleoptera: Tenebrionidae). Asian Pacific
Journal of Tropical Disease 2(1), 1-5. https://doi.org/
10.1016/S2222-1808(12)60193-5
Qasem JR, Foy CL. 2001. Weed Allelopathy, Its
Ecological Impacts and Future Prospects. Journal of
Crop Production 4(2), 43-119. https://doi.org/10.
1300/J144v04n02_02
Ramakrishna A, Ravishankar GA. 2011.
Influence of abiotic stress signals on secondary
metabolites in plants. Plant Signaling and Behavior
6(11), 1720-1731. https://doi.org/10.4161/psb.6.11.
Rehman R, Hanif MA, Mushtaq Z, Al-Sadi AM.
2016. Biosynthesis of essential oils in aromatic plants:
A review. Food Reviews International 32(2), 117-160.
12. J. Bio. & Env. Sci. 2020
112 | Laizer et al.
Schoonhoven LM, Van Loon JJA, Dick M.
2005. Insect-Plant Biology. Journal of Chemical
Information and Modeling 441.
Singh HP, Batish DR, Kohli RK. 2003.
Allelopathic interactions and allelochemicals: New
possibilities for sustainable weed management.
Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences 22(3-4), 239-311.
Singh P, Shrivastava R. 2012. Insecticidal activity
of acetone crude extract of Sphaeranthus indicus Lin.
(Family- Asteraceae) Callosobruches maculatus.
International Journal of Pharmaceutical Research
and Development 3(11), 126-128.
Sosa A, Diaz M, Salvatore A, Bardon A,
Borkosky S, Vera N. 2018. Insecticidal effects of
Vernonanthura nebularum against two economically
important pest insects. Saudi Journal of Biological
Sciences. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sjbs.2018.01.005
Stephen OD, Dayan FE, Rimando AM,
Schrader KK, Aliotta G, Oliva A, Romagni JG.
2002. Chemicals from Nature for Weed Management.
Weed Science 50(2), 138-151.
Tembo Y, Mkindi AG, Mkenda PA, Mpumi N,
Mwanauta R, Stevenson PC, Ndakidemi PA,
Belmain SR. 2018. Pesticidal Plant Extracts
Improve Yield and Reduce Insect Pests on Legume
Crops Without Harming Beneficial Arthropods.
Frontiers in Plant Science 9(1425).
Toda S, Morishita M. 2009. Identification of Three
Point Mutations on the Sodium Channel Gene in
Pyrethroid-Resistant Thrips tabaci (Thysanoptera :
Thripidae) Identification of Three Point Mutations on
the Sodium Channel Gene in Pyrethroid-Resistant
Thrips tabaci : Journal of Economic Entomology
102(6), 2296-2300.
Vyvyan JR. 2002. Allelochemicals as leads for new
herbicides and agrochemicals. Tetrahedron 58(9),
1631-1646. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0040-4020(02)
Whitbread AM, Robertson MJ, Carberry PS,
Dimes JP. 2010. How farming systems simulation
can aid the development of more sustainable
smallholder farming systems in southern Africa.
European Journal of Agronomy 32(1), 51-58.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.eja.2009.05.004
Whittaker RH, Feeny PP. 1971. Allelochemics:
Chemi Interactionsbetween Species. 171(3973).
Williamson SBall A, Pretty J. 2008. Trends in
pesticide use and drivers for safer pest management
in four African countries. Crop Protection 27(10),
1327-1334. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cropro.2008.04.
Wu H, bo Wu H, bin Wang W, shu Liu T, ting
Qi M, ge Feng J, chao Li X, yuan & Liu Y. 2016.
Insecticidal activity of sesquiterpene lactones and
monoterpenoid from the fruits of Carpesium
abrotanoides. Industrial Crops and Products 92, 77-
83. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.indcrop.2016.07.046
Xuan TD, Eiji T, Shinkichi T, Khanh TD. 2004.
Methods to determine allelopathic potential of crop plants
for weed control. Allelopathy Journal 13(2), 149-164.
Zhou B, Kong CH, Li YH, Wang P, Xu XH. 2013.
Crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis) allelochemicals that
interfere with crop growth and the soil microbial
community. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry
61(22), 5310-5317. https://doi.org/10.1021/jf401605g