Parkia biglobosa - Bioversity International

07 

Common name 

African locust bean (English) 

Néré, nété, mimosa pourpre, arbre à 

farine (French) 

■ Niéyidouba LAMIEN INERA, Centre régional 

de recherches environnementales et agricoles, 

BP 10,Koudougou, Burkina Faso 

■ Marius RM EKUÉ Laboratoire d’écologie 

appliquée, Faculté des Sciences agronomiques, 

Université d’Abomey-Calavi (LEA/FSA/UAC), 05 BP 993 

Cotonou, Bénin 

■ Moussa OUEDRAOGO Centre national de 

semences forestières (CNSF), 01 BP 2682 Ouagadougou 

01, Burkina Faso 

■ Judy LOO Bioversity International, Via dei Tre 

Denari, 472/a, 00057 Maccarese, Rome, Italy 

Conservation and Sustainable Use of Genetic Resources 

of Priority Food Tree Species in sub-Saharan Africa 

Parkia biglobosa 

African locust bean 

Leaves, flowers and pods of African locust bean 

Scientific name 

Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) 

R.Br. ex G.Don 

Synonyms 

Parkia africana R. Br.; Parkia 

clappertoniana Keay; Parkia filicoidea 

var. glauca Baker; Parkia intermedia 

Oliver; Mimosa biglobosa Jacq.; Inga 

biglobosa (Jacq.) Willd; Inga 

faeculifera Desv. 

Family 

Mimosoïdeae 

This leaflet highlights the nutritional and socio-economic potential of African 

locust bean and provides information to assist those working with the species. 

The focus is on conserving genetic diversity and promoting sustainable use of 

African locust bean. The leaflet presents a synthesis of current knowledge 

about the species. The recommendations provided should be regarded as a 

starting point, to be further developed according to local or regional conditions. 

These guidelines will be updated as new information becomes available. 

© J. CODJIA

Parkia biglobosa African locust bean Parkia biglobosa African lo 

02 

© N. LAMIEN 

Socio-cultural Vernacular 

group Country name 

Mossi 

Jula 

Bemoka 

Dagt 

Bambara 

Hausa 

Yoruba 

Ibo 

Djerma 

Kanouri 

Mina 

Fulbe 

Burkina Faso 

Burkina Faso 

Ghana 

Ghana 

Mali 

Nigeria 

Nigeria 

Nigeria 

Niger 

Niger, Nigeria 

and Chad 

Togo 

West Africa 

Geographical distribution 

The natural range of African locust bean covers a 

broad area extending from Senegal in the west to 

Uganda in the east and includesSudanian as well 

as Guineo–Congolese zones. 

Importance and use 

Zaanga 

Néré 

Du 

Dua 

Néré 

Dorawa 

Igba, 

Irugba-abata 

aridan-abata 

Dawadawa, 

nitta, nete 

Dosso 

Runo 

Woti 

Narghi 

The most important product is a fermented paste 

that is made from the dried seeds. The flowers 

and immature pods are eaten by children. The 

Soumbala from Burkina Faso, a food condiment 

obtained by fermentation of African locust bean seeds 

Distribution 

range of 

African locust 

bean 

pulp surrounding the seeds is transformed into 

pure dough or mixed with millet flour and eaten, 

especially by children on farms. The pulp and 

millet flour mixture is also used to produce other 

foods, such as couscous, porridge, a local drink, 

fritters and cakes. 

The fermented seeds are processed to make a 

black, highly aromatic, tasty paste that has high 

protein content and is used as a spice or 

condiment. The name varies depending on the 

country and local language and includes 

dawadawa (Nigeria), soumbala (Burkina Faso, 

Mali), afitin (Benin), iru (Nigeria), kinda (Sierra 

Leone) and nététou (Gambia). Dried fermented 

seeds keep for more than a year without 

Uses 

Food 

Fodder 

Fuel wood or wood 

production 

Soil protection 

Medicines 

Part of plant 

Flowers, pods, fruit pulp, seed 

Fruit, leaves 

Branches, stems 

Whole tree 

Flowers, fruits, leaves, bark, roots

ust bean Parkia biglobosa African locust bean Parkia biglobosa 

© M. EKUÉ 

Afitin from Benin 

refrigeration in traditional earthenware pots. 

Small quantities of fermented seeds are crumbled 

into traditional soups and stews during cooking. 

Because of its savoury taste and high protein and 

fatcontents dawadawa is sometimes described 

as a meat or cheese substitute. However, it is 

usually eaten in small quantities. Dawadawa is 

also rich in vitamin B2. African locust bean 

probably contributes significantly to alleviating 

the most widespread nutritional problems in 

Africa, such as energy and protein deficiencies. 

Seeds are used as a coffee substitute. They are 

also embedded in a mealy pulp, sometimes 

called dozim that is high in energy value. 

The flowers and fruits are used as medicines. 

In addition, leaves and bark from the trunk or roots 

are used to treat various diseases and wounds. 

Fruit and leaves are also important fodder for 

livestock. 

Socio-economic value 

The African locust bean tree is highly valued and 

is commonly left standing when woodland is 

cleared. The trees are often individually owned. 

Dawadawa constitutes the main economic value 

for the species. It is widely eaten throughout West 

Africa as a diet staple, and is used in one daily 

meal for up to 90% of the year in some areas. 

Giving gifts is an important social practice and 

Flour from the pods 

Cakesfrom the pulp 

Seeds for sale 

dawadawa is one of the most appreciated 

culinary gifts in West Africa. 

The seeds and processed products are 

frequently traded in local markets. Some 200 000 

tonnes of seeds are collected every year in 

© N. LAMIEN 

© N. LAMIEN 

© N. LAMIEN 

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04 

© J. CODJIA 

northern Nigeria. The seeds commonly fetch two 

to four times as much as major staples such as 

maize, sorghum and millet on the market. 

Purchase of locust bean seed accounts for 10–20 % 

of regular weekly expenditures of most rural 

women in the Bassila region of Benin. In Burkina 

Faso seed sales account for up to 25% of 

household income. 

Ecology and biology 

Parkia biglobosa tree is deciduous with a very 

broad crown that may reach a height of 20 m. 

The species grows under a wide range of 

conditions, where annual rainfall ranges from 600 

to 1500 mm and the dry season lasts 5–7 months. 

It occurs in natural and semi-natural habitats such 

as savannahs and woodlands, sometimes on 

rockyslopes, stony ridges and sandstone hills. It 

is able to withstand drought because of its deep 

taproot. Together with the shea butter tree 

(Vittelaria paradoxa), African locust bean is one of 

the main components of agroforestry parklands in 

West Africa. 

Reproductive biology 

African locust bean flowers are hermaphroditic, 

which means that each flower is both male and 

female, but the trees are largely outcrossing. This 

implies a degree of self-incompatibility. Flowers 

African locust bean tree 

© N. LAMIEN 

© N. LAMIEN 

are orange or red and seed pods are 

pink–brown to dark brown when mature, about 

45 cm long and 2 cm wide. They may contain up 

to 30 seeds embedded in a yellow fleshy pulp. 

Seeds have hard seed coats, are large (mean 

weight of 0.26 g/seed) with large cotyledons 

forming about 70% of their weight. 

Bats and some sunbirds (Nectarinidae) are 

reported to be important pollinators of the genus 

Parkia. However, in the savannah area, where 

bats are scarce, insects, notably bees, moths and 

wasps, are the main pollinators. With the long 

history of cultivation and use of the species 

across West Africa, humans are probably the 

main seed dispersers in many areas. Primates 

and small mammals are also potential seed 

dispersers in natural ecosystems. 

Phenology 

A link between the reproductive phase and leaf 

phenology has been observed. Leaves fall rapidly 

as increasing numbers of flowers appear and 

flushes of new foliage develop after flowering 

passes its peak. Flowering occurs near the end of 

the dry season, which lasts from December to April 

in West Africa, beginning later with increasing lati- 

Different stages of flowering 

Different stages of fruiting 

© N. LAMIEN © N. LAMIEN


tude. Spasmodic flowering sometimes occurs in 

other months. The availability of soil moisture 

seems to be a major determinant of the onset of 

flowering. Fruit is produced from January to May. 

Related species 

Parkia is a pantropical genus. Debates continue 

in the literature on the number of 

species but there are five well recognized 

species besides African locust bean: P. 

filicoidea, P. bicolor, P. roxburghii, P. 

biglandulosa and P. madagascariensis. 

Morphological traits 

and their variation 

African locust bean has a dark grey–brown, thick, 

fissured bark. Leaves are alternate, dark green 

and bipinnate (doubly compound). They are up to 

30 cm long and consist of up to 17 pairs of pinnae, 

with 13–60 pairs of leaflets on each. A high 

degree of variation has been documented in fruit 

production, fruit size and oil content. Trees in 

forests are generally taller than those in savannah 

areas but savannah trees have larger canopies. 

Genetic knowledge 

Genetic diversity is reported to be high, both 

within and among populations. On the basis of 

one study, the African locust bean appears to 

have considerably higher genetic diversity 

than most tropical tree species. Gene flow 

was estimated to be fairly low; less than two 

individuals on average moving between any two 

populations per generation. Differentiation 

between populations was substantial; 13% of the 

total diversity is estimated to be between 

populations and 87% is within, although the 

degree of differentiation between populations 

varies. Unpublished provenance trial results 

show a correlation between genetic differences 

and geographic distance. 

Gene flow between populations is facilitated 

by the tree’s reproductive biology, with high 

flowering synchronism and high level of crosspollination 

and the parkland systems in which 

the tree commonly grows. 

Local practices 

Local people in West Africa identify different 

‘types’ of African locust bean based on differences 

in morphology and fruit production. For example, 

people belonging to the Bariba ethnic group in 

north-east Benin recognize two types of African 

locust bean tree based on the fruiting period: 

trees that produce fruit early, in January, are 

known as dom sinkou while trees that produce 

fruits in March are called dom. In Burkina Faso, 

local people distinguish four types, according to 

seed size and colour: white, black, red and small 

seeds. 

Tree tenure is an important factor in determining 

who can harvest and process which tree products. 

African locust bean trees on farms, whether 

planted or naturally established, are generally 

considered to be owned by men. Women have free 

access only to trees in forests in spite of the fact 

that they play a crucial role in harvesting and processing 

pods and seeds and adding value to them. 

Threats 

Land and tree ownership and use 

The system of land and tree ownership and use 

policies and practices in West Africa may be a 

disincentive to the conservation and sustainable 

use of African locust bean. Women play the 

primary role in harvesting, processing and 

selling the most valuable product, dawadawa, 

but they do not own the trees nor can they make 

decisions about leaving trees standing during 

land clearance or conversion of parkland to other 

agricultural use. 

Climate change 

Successive droughts in recent years may have 

contributed to the observed poor regeneration of 

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the tree. Reduction in rainfall as a result of climate 

change poses a threat to the species, particularly 

to populations in more arid regions. There have 

been no studies of genetic variation in tolerance 

to drought stress, but populations in drier areas 

are likely to be the most tolerant; if there is little 

regeneration in those areas an important genetic 

resource may be lost. 

Agricultural expansion and 

livestock grazing 

African locust bean is mainly known from 

parklands rather than intact forest. The trees are 

aging in the parklands and regeneration is low 

because of a variety of factors related to human 

population pressures. The species requires fields 

to lie fallow for it to regenerate, but fields are no 

longer being left fallow. Mechanization of farming 

practices, uncontrolled bush burning and 

increased livestock grazing all reduce habitat for 

the tree. When intactforestiscleared for conversion 

to intensive agriculture, all trees are now commonly 

removed, whereas in the past the practice was to 

leave African locust bean trees standing. 

Harvesting fruit and other products 

Excessive harvesting of fruit may be one reason 

for the lackof regeneration observed in parklands. 

Girdling is often used to increase fruit production 

and it may have a detrimental effect on tree 

survival and vigour. 

Conservation status 

African locust bean is still fairly common, 

especially in the semi-natural and multi-cropped 

agroforestry parkland systems in sub-Saharan 

Africa. However, according to reports, the species 

is declining and conservation is urgently needed. 

The seeds are orthodox, which means that 

they can be kept in long-term storage at 0-5°Cwith 

5% moisture content. Proper seed handling is 

very important, however, as seeds lose viability if 

the moisture content is allowed to increase above 

about 5%. Several seedbanks in sub-Saharan 

Collecting and transporting African locust bean 

pods in Burkina Faso 

Africa have ex situ collections of the species, 

including tree seed centres in Burkina Faso, 

Senegal and Togo. 

It is not known how many populations are 

protected in situ in existing parks or other 

protected areas. 

Some national institutions have established 

provenance trials. For example, the agricultural 

research institute (INERA) and the seed centre 

(CNSF) of Burkina Faso have trials established 

since 1984. Two international provenances with 

15 provenances from 11 African countries 

established by CNSF in 1995 still exist and 

represent unique resources, both for gene 

conservation and for comparative studies. 

Management 

and improvement 

African locust bean trees are rarely planted but are 

a significant component of parkland agroforestry 

systems because farmers preserve valuable trees 

when they clear new fields. The selected trees 

benefit from the farm husbandry and consequently 

grow better and produce more fruit than trees in 

naturalconditions. Farmers also practice girdling 

and branch pruning to stimulate fruit production or 

to reduce the negative influence of big trees on 

annual crops growing under their canopies. 

© N. LAMIEN


Propagation from seed 

Seeds can be kept for short periods in polyethylene 

bags at ambient temperature. The seed has a hard 

coat and should be soaked in concentrated 

sulphuric acid (98%) for three minutes, then 

thoroughly washed in water to increase 

germination. Alternatively, it should be dipped in 

boiling water for four seconds to soften the shell 

and then soaked overnight. Longer periods of 

treatment will damage the seeds. 

Vegetative propagation 

African locust tree can also be propagated vegetatively 

from rooting cuttings, air layering and 

tissue culture. This is an attractive option 

because it allows farmers to capitalise on trees 

with good traits and it may speed up fruit 

production. 

Guidelines for 

conservation and use 

African locust tree may be conserved through 

sustainable use, while ensuring that standard ex 

situ conservation measures are taken as a backup 

and in situ protection is afforded to unmanaged 

populations to allow them to continue to evolve 

under relatively natural conditions. Ex situ 

conservation efforts should focus on target 

populations in arid regions that have little or no 

natural regeneration. Other populations of 

importance are those that have been shown to 

have high genetic diversity or are known to have 

valuable characteristics for production. Data from 

the field trials in Burkina Faso and elsewhere 

should be used to guide collection of the most 

useful sources. Seed should be collected from at 

least 15 well-spaced trees in each population. 

Sampled populations should be distributed 

across a range of environments to capture 

potential adaptive variation. Enough seed should 

be collected to use in field studies in addition to 

quantities for long-term storage. 

Populations conserved in situ in protected 

areas may be used and conserved at the same 

time, depending on the regulations associated 

with the particular protected area. 

Irrespective of the regulations, sufficient fruit 

must be left on site to allow natural 

evolutionary processes to occur and trees 

must not be removed or girdled. 

It is important to ensure that women have a 

voice in land management to promote 

sustainable use and conservation. Farmers may 

be interested in participating in conservation 

projects if the revenues they derive from 

dawadawa and other products are considerably 

improved. Markets need to be developed to 

ensure long-term conservation and sustainable 

use of the species. The challenge for the 

establishment and maintenance of these 

conservation stands is how to financially support 

their existence for the long term. Regional and 

international partnership studies is indispensable 

to maintain such a programme. 

Research needs 

— Determine the number of viable populations in 

protected natural areas such as national parks 

— Determine genetic variation in drought 

tolerance and identify location of important 

sources of variability 

— Determine genetic variation in tree growth and 

fruit production parameters 

— Identify pollinator species, investigate effective 

pollen flow and determine threats to pollinator 

species 

— Investigate effectiveness of seed dispersal and 

degree of dependence on fauna that are rare or 

threatened 

— Determine effective population sizes in seminatural 

farmland populations and minimum 

viable populations for conservation and longterm 

sustainable use 

— Develop best practicesfor nursery propagation 

— Carry out reproductive phenology studies in 

different conditions. ■ 

07

This leaflet was produced by 

members of the SAFORGEN Food Tree 

Species Working Group. The 

objective of the working group is to 

encourage collaboration among 

experts and researchers in order to 

promote sustainable use and 

conservation of the valuable food 

tree species of sub-Saharan Africa. 

Coordination committee: 

Dolores Agúndez (INIA, Spain) 

Oscar Eyog-Matig (Bioversity International) 

Niéyidouba Lamien (INERA, Burkina Faso) 

Lolona Ramamonjisoa (SNGF, Madagascar) 

Citation: 

Lamien N, Ekué M, Ouedraogo M and Loo J. 

2011.Parkia biglobosa, African locustbean. 

Conservation and Sustainable Use of 

Genetic Resources of Priority Food Tree 

Species in sub-Saharan Africa. 

Bioversity International (Rome, Italy). 

ISBN: 978-84-694-3166-5 

Parkia biglobosa African locust bean 

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Hall JB, Tomlinson HF, Oni PI, Buche M and Aebischer DP. 1997. Parkia biglobosa: a 

monograph. School of Agricultural and Forest Sciences, University of Wales, 

Bangor, UK. 107 pp. 

Hopkins HC. 1983. The taxonomy, reproductive biology and economic potential of 

Parkia (Leguminosae: Mimosoideae) in Africa and Madagascar. Botanical Journalofthe 

Linnean Society 87: 135–167. 

ICRAF. n.d. Agroforestree database [online]. Available at: http://www.worldagro 

forestrycentre.org/sites/treedbs/aft.asp. Accessed 17 December 2009. 

Lamien N and Vognan G. 2001. Importance of non-wood forest products as source 

of rural women’s income in western Burkina Faso. In: Pasternak D and Schlissel 

A, editors. Combating desertification with plants. Kluwer, Dordrecht, The 

Netherlands. pp. 69–79. 

Ouédraogo AS. 1995. Parkia biglobosa (Leguminosae) en Afrique de l’ouest: biosystématique 

et amélioration. Institut for Forestry and Nature Research, Wageningen, 

The Netherlands. 205 pp. 

Sacande M and Clethero C. 2007. Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) G. Don. Seed leaflet no. 

124. Forest & Landscape Denmark, Hørsholm, Denmark. 

Schreckenberg K. 1996. Forests, fields and markets: A study of indigenous tree 

products in the woody savannas of the Bassila region, Benin. PhD thesis. University 

of London, UK. 326 pp. 

Sina S. 2006. Reproduction et diversité génétique chez Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) 

G.Don. PhD thesis. Wagenigen University, Wageningen, The Netherlands. 102 

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Sina S and Traoré SA. 2002. Parkia biglobosa (Jacq.) R.Br. ex G.Don. [online]. Record 

from Protabase. Oyen LPA and Lemmens RHMJ (editors). PROTA (Plant Resources 

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Teklehaimanot Z, Lanek J and Tomlinson HF. 1998. Provenance variation in morphology 

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tolerance. Trees 13: 96–102. 

www.bioversityinternational.org www.inia.es www.cita-aragon.es 

EN

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