DICOTS - Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council

DICOTS 

Like all flowering plants, dicots produce flowers and form seeds within fruits. 

The common name of this class of plants derives from the trait of producing 2 seed 

leaves (cotyledons) at germination. These plants may be herbaceous or truly woody in 

growth form; their roots may be fibrous or may include a persistent taproot. Dicot leaves 

usually have netted, or branched, venation. Their flower parts (sepals, petals, etc.) are 

usually in fours or fives, or multiples of 4 or 5. 

51

Hygrophila polysperma (Roxb.) T. Anders. 

Acanthaceae/Water-Willow Family 

Common Name: Hygro, East Indian hygrophila, Miramar weed 

Synonymy: Justicia polysperma Roxb., Hemidelphis polysperma (Roxb.) Nees 

in Wall. 

Origin: India, Malaysia 

Botanical Description: Perennial aquatic herb with squarish stems ascending to creeping, 

mostly submersed, usually rooted in substrate; also roots freely at floating nodes. 

Leaves opposite, to 8 cm (3 in) long (aerial leaves smaller) and to 2 cm (0.8 in) wide, 

usually broader toward tip; sessile, with bases joined at node by ciliated flanges of tissue, 

the cilia (hairs) easily observed, to 1.5 mm long. Flowers small, solitary in uppermost leaf 

axils, nearly hidden by leaves, calyx 5-lobed, corolla bluish white, 2-lipped; 2 fertile 

stamens. Fruit a narrow capsule, splitting lengthwise to release tiny round seeds. 

NOTE: May be confused vegetatively with small, opposite-leaved natives sometimes 

found submersed, such as Ludwigia repens and Diodia spp., but these without flanges at 

nodes (Ludwigia) or with flat-bristled flanges (Diodia). The native marsh species, 

Hygrophila lacustris (Schlecht. & Cham.) Nees is larger (aerial leaves to 15 cm long) and 

erect in habit, with larger flowers in axillary clusters along upper stems. 

Ecological Significance: Appeared in the aquarium trade in 1945 as “oriental ludwigia” 

(Innes 1947). First collected in Florida near Tampa as an escapee from cultivation in 

1965, but naturalized populations on east coast, especially one near the town of Miramar 

in Broward County, first brought to public and scientific attention in the late 1970s 

(Vandiver 1980, Les and Wunderlin 1981). Reported as an expanding problem in south 

Florida canals in 1980 (Vandiver); now replacing the well-known hydrilla as the most 

serious weed in these waterways (Sutton 1995), clogging irrigation and flood-control 

systems and interfering with navigation (Woolfe 1995). Able to compete with hydrilla 

(Vandiver 1980, Les and Wunderlin 1981); able to expand a population rapidly, in one 

case from 0.04 ha (0.1 acre) to over 0.41 ha (10 acres) in 1 year (Vandiver 1980). Difficult 

to control (Schmitz 1985). Found in a dozen public lakes and rivers by 1990 

(Schardt and Schmitz 1991), and in 18 public water bodies by 1994 (Schardt 1997). 

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52 

Stem rooting at nodes

Distribution: Native to East Indies. Naturalized in Florida from Dade and Lee counties 

north into the Panhandle (Wunderlin et al. 1995, Schardt 1997). Also naturalized in 

Texas (Angerstein and Lemke 1994), and reported for the Richmond, Virginia area 

(Reams 1953). 

Life History: Stems brittle, easily fragmenting, easily developing new stands from rooted 

nodes of even small fragments (Les and Wunderlin 1981). Able to form dense monocultural 

stands with emersed stem tips from depths as great as 3 m (10 ft) or more (Hall and 

Vandiver 1990). Able to photosynthesize in lower light than most native submersed 

species (Spencer and Bowes 1984). Tends to grow more vigorously in flowing water (Van 

Dijk et al. 1986). Flowers in fall and winter, with a high percentage of seed set in Florida 

populations (Les and Wunderlin 1981). 

KAL 

DS 

In canal, Indian River County 

Flower 

Hygro 

53

Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi 

Anacardiaceae/Cashew Family 

Common Names: Brazilian pepper, Florida holly, Christmas berry, pepper tree 

Synonymy: None 

Origin: Brazil, Argentina, Paraguay 

Botanical Description: Evergreen shrub or tree to 13 m (43 ft) tall, often with multistemmed 

trunks and branches arching and crossing, forming tangled masses. Leaves 

alternate, odd-pinnately compound with 3-11 (usually 7-9) leaflets, these elliptic-oblong, 

2.5-5 cm (1-2 in) long, with upper surfaces dark green (lateral veins obvious, lighter in 

color), lower surfaces paler, and leaflet margins often somewhat toothed. Leaves aromatic 

when crushed, smelling peppery or like turpentine. Flowers unisexual (dioecious), small, 

in short-branched clusters at leaf axils of current-season stems; 5 petals, white to 2 mm 

long. Fruit a small, bright-red spherical drupe. 

Ecological Significance: Imported as an ornamental in the 1840s (Barkley 1944). Has 

invaded a variety of areas including, but not limited to, fallow farmland, pinelands, 

hardwood hammocks, roadsides, and mangrove forests, in areas with a high degree of 

disturbance and natural areas with little disturbance (Woodall 1982, Laroche 1994a). 

Forms dense thickets of tangled woody stems that completely shade out and displace 

native vegetation. Has displaced some populations of rare listed species, such as the 

Beach Jacquemontia (Jacquemontia reclinata House, U.S. and Fla. Endangered), and 

Beach Star (Remirea maritima Aubl., Fla. Endangered) (D. F. Austin, Florida Atlantic 

University, personal observations). Produces certain allelopathic agents, which appear to 

suppress other plants’ growth (Mahendra et al. 1995). Seeds spread by consumption and 

deposition of the fruit by wildlife; spread enhanced by decorative use of branches and 

fruit (Morton 1978). Now estimated to occupy over 283,400 ha (700,000 acres) in 

central and south Florida (Ferriter 1997, Wunderlin et al. 1995). 

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54 

Flowers

Brazilian pepper 

Distribution: Naturalized in most tropical and subtropical regions, including other 

South American countries, parts of Central America, Bermuda, the Bahama islands, the 

West Indies, Guam, Mediterranean Europe, North Africa, southern Asia, and South 

Africa. In the United States, occurs in Hawaii, California, southern Arizona, and 

Florida—in Florida as far north as Levy and St. Johns counties and as far west as Santa 

Rosa County (EPPC 1996). 

Life History: Sprouts easily from the trunk and roots, even if the plant is undamaged. 

Seen in flower in every month of the year in Florida, with the most intense period of 

flowering in the fall season, September through November. Fruits profusely in southern 

and central Florida, with wildlife consumption of fruits contributing in large part to the 

spread of seeds (Ewel et al. 1982). Produces chemicals in leaves, flowers, and fruits that 

irritate human skin and respiratory passages (Ewel et al. 1982, Morton 1978). 

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JD 

In coastal strand, Sarasota County 

Compound leaves, mature fruit 

55

Schefflera actinophylla (Endl.) Harms 

Araliaceae/Aralia or Ginseng Family 

Common Names: Schefflera, Queensland umbrella tree, octopus tree 

Synonymy: Brassaia actinophylla Endl. 

Origin: Northern Australia, New Guinea, Java 

Botanical Description: Evergreen tree to12 m (40 ft) tall, with single or multistemmed 

trunks and greenish bark. Leaves alternate with petioles to 61 cm (2 ft) long; palmately 

compound with mostly 7-16 leaflets, these shiny, light green, oblanceolate, to 30 cm (12 

in) long, with margins entire (or sparsely toothed when young). Flowers 25 mm (1 in) 

across, borne in dense clusters that form a large, red, showy inflorescence at stem tips 

above foliage. Fruit a purplish black, round, fleshy drupe to 7 mm (1/4 in) in diameter. 

Ecological Significance: A common indoor plant that reaches tree size and produces 

huge numbers of seeds outdoors in central and southern Florida (Maxwell 1984). Introduced 

to Florida landscaping in 1927 and noted as escaping cultivation in southern 

Florida in the late 1970s, often growing as seedlings in the boots of cabbage palms in the 

manner of strangler figs (Morton 1976). Noted as escaping in Pinellas County in 1982 

(Wunderlin). Now naturalized and spreading in a variety of habitats, from cypress strands 

to sand pine scrub, from the full sun of beach dunes to the deep shade of hammocks 

(Thayer 1998). Invading endangered remnants of scrub habitat, where it is shading out 

listed rare plants such as the Florida-threatened scrub pinweed, Lechua cernua Sm. (D. F. 

Austin, Florida Atlantic University, and K. C. Burks, Florida Department of Environmental 

Protection, personal observations). Extremely invasive in undisturbed tropical 

hardwood hammocks of Dade County, growing on trees and rocks as well as in soil (R. 

Hammer, Miami-Dade County Natural Resources Department, 1996 personal communication). 

Difficult to control (Thayer 1998). 

AF 

56 

Flowers

Schefflera 

Distribution: Native to northern Queensland in Australia, New Guinea, and Java, 

becoming weedy where introduced in southern Queensland (Austin 1996). In Florida, 

now reported in 28 designated natural areas of Monroe, Dade, Broward, Palm Beach, 

Brevard, Collier, and Pinellas counties (EPPC 1996). Herbarium specimens collected 

from naturalized populations in Pinellas, Palm Beach, Broward, Dade, and Monroe 

counties (Wunderlin et al. 1995). 

Life History: Restricted outdoors to warmer areas with minimum temperatures above 

1.7˚C (35˚F) (Broschat and Meerow 1991). Grows on a variety of substrates. Flowers in 

summer and early fall, prolifically producing seeds. Seeds dispersed by birds, including 

crows, starlings, mockingbirds, and parrots (Austin 1996). 

AF 

KAL 

In scrub habitat, Palm Beach County 

Growing on native palm 

57

Nandina domestica Thunb. 

Berberidaceae/Barberry Family 

Common Name: Heavenly bamboo, nandina 


Origin: India to east Asia 

Botanical Description: Evergreen glabrous shrub to 1.8 m (6 ft) tall, growing in multistemmed 

clumps and perennating by rhizomes. Leaves alternate, large, 2-3 times oddpinnately 

compound, i.e., usually with 3 primary divisions from petiole, having a somewhat 

lacy appearance and turning red in cool season. Leaflets 2-6 cm (1-2 in) long, 

narrowly ovate to lanceolate, tips with long acute taper, upper surfaces dark green (in 

growing season), sublustrous. Inflorescence a large, erect, stalked panicle, to 30 cm (1 ft) 

tall, from uppermost leaf axil of season; panicle branches usually purplish-red. Flowers 

small, bisexual, with petaloid parts pinkish white and anthers yellow. Fruit a bright red, 

2-seeded globose berry, 6-12 mm in diameter. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced to the United States for ornament in 1804 (Manks 

1968). First noted as naturalized in woodlands of 3 counties in North Carolina (Radford 

et al. 1964). Noted for Florida in later works: in floodplains and secondary woods of 

Gadsden and Leon counties (Clewell 1985), in woodlands of northern Florida and 

adjacent Georgia and Alabama (Godfrey 1988). Presently reported for conservation areas 

in Jackson, Gadsden, Leon, Wakulla, and Citrus counties (EPPC 1996; E. Johnson, 

Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 1994 personal communication). 

Forms dense groves in habitats of Florida Caverns State Park, displacing native vegetation, 

including the Florida-endangered red columbine, Aquilegia canadensis L., and the 

rare (in the wild) oak-leaf hydrangea, Hydrangea quercifolia Bartr. (Ludlow 1995). Still 

available for cultivation, but newer cultivars being offered that do not produce the birddispersed 

fruit (Kellum 1997). 

Distribution: Native to central China and Japan and west to India (Chongxi and Foster 

1992). Introduced in the southeastern United States, with seedlings frequent near 

plantings and mature plants found far from areas of current cultivation (Whetstone et al. 

1997). In Florida, herbarium specimens deposited from Escambia, Gadsden, and Leon 

counties (Wunderlin et al. 1995). 

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58 

Compound leaves, fruits

Life History: Can survive temperatures throughout Panhandle and peninsular Florida 

(Broschat and Meerow 1991). Grows in full sun to shade; propagated by division of 

clumps and by seed (Hunt 1977, Bailey and Bailey 1976). Seeds may take many months 

to germinate (M. Zeller, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 1997 personal 

communication) or 2 seasons, and difficult to induce germination under artificial 

conditions (Roger Newton, Hillsborough County Cooperative Extension Service, 1998 

personal communication). Flowers in late spring; fruits in fall and winter. Fruits dispersed 

by birds, including mockingbirds, cedar waxwings, and robins (Kellum 1997) and 

cardinals (B. McCurnin, Tallahassee, 1997 personal communication); may be dispersed 

by small mammals as well, such as opossums and raccoons (Ludlow 1995). Cultivars 

Nana, Harbour Dwarf, and Firepower do not produce seed in nursery environment 

(Steve Kent, Tree of Life Nursery, 1998 personal communication). 

KCB 

In hammock, Leon County 

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Heavenly bamboo 

Flowers 

59

Macfadyena unguis-cati (L.) A. Gentry 

Bignoniaceae/Bignonia Family 

Common Name: Cat’s-claw vine 

Synonymy: Doxantha unguis-cati (L.) Rehd., Bignonia unguis-cati L., Bignonia 

tweediana Lindley 

Origin: Tropical America 

Botanical Description: High-climbing woody vine, with stems to 6 cm (2.4 in) in 

diameter and roots becoming elongate-tuberous with age. Branches and runners with 

adventitious aerial roots. Leaves opposite, compound, with 2 leaflets and a terminal 3forked 

tendril; tips of tendril forks stiffly hooked, clawlike. Leaflets mostly 3-7 cm (1-3 

in) long, oval to lance shaped, with margins entire. Flowers showy, trumpet shaped, to 7 

cm (3 in) long and 10 cm (4 in) across, solitary or in few-flowered clusters at leaf axils; 

petals joined into yellow floral tube with orange lines in the throat. Fruit a linear, flat 

capsule, to 50 cm (20 in) long, with oblong, winged seeds. 

NOTE: Distinguished from the native cross-vine, Bignonia capreolata L., by its yellow 

(rather than orange-red) floral tubes and clawlike tendril forks. From a distance, when 

flowering, may be confused with yellow trumpet-flowered native jessamines (Gelsemium 

spp.), but their leaves simple and without tendrils. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced for ornament before 1947 and noted as grown 

outdoors in the South (Bailey and Bailey 1947). Persistent around former habitations in 

south Florida (Long and Lakela 1971). Cultivated in northern Florida and naturalized 

near human habitations (Godfrey 1988, Hall 1993). Rapidly becomes an obnoxious 

weed (Dickey 1968). Considered a pest in many places (Odenwald and Turner 1980); a 

“troublesome weed” in southern Florida, “not recommended” (Nelson 1996). Increasingly 

spreading into natural areas in northern Florida (D. B. Ward, University of Florida, 

1994 personal communication). Has become dominant ground cover in undisturbed 

hammocks by Lake George; extremely difficult to control tuberous roots (L. Grant, St. 

Johns Water Management District, 1997 personal communication). Also reported as 

rapidly spreading in 4 hammock preserves in Dade County (EPPC 1996). 

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60 

Tendrils, leaflets

Distribution: Native from West Indies and Mexico to Argentina (Bailey and Bailey 

1976, Morton 1971a). Herbarium specimens now recorded for naturalized populations 

in Escambia, Leon, Alachua, Lake, Seminole, Brevard, Polk, Hillsborough, Hernando, 

Palm Beach, and Dade counties (Wunderlin et al. 1996). Also cultivated in Alabama, 

Louisiana, and South Carolina (Meyer et al. 1994). 

Life History: Thrives in full sun or partial shade and in a wide variety of soils (Morton 

1971a, Nelson 1996). Stays at seedling stage for some time, while enlarging roots into 

tuberlike storage organs; then rapidly elongates stems, forming long runners when no 

erect substrate is within reach (Godfrey 1988). Clings tenaciously to any substrate with 

adventitious roots and clawed tendrils (Godfrey 1988). Flowers in spring, with high seed 

production (Menninger 1970), but may not begin flowering until vine is well established 

(Odenwald and Turner 1980). Seeds dispersed by wind (Dickey 1968). 

KAL 

Linear capsules 

KAL 

cat’s-claw vine 

On campus grounds, Alachua County 

61

Lonicera japonica Thunb. 

Caprifoliaceae/Honeysuckle Family 

Common Name: Japanese honeysuckle 

Synonymy: Nintooa japonica (Thunb.) Sweet 

Origin: East Asia 

Botanical Description: Twining or trailing woody vine with young stems pubescent. 

Leaves evergreen, opposite, simple, mostly 4-8 cm (1.6-3.2 in), with short pubescent 

petioles. Leaf blades ovate, elliptic, or oblong, usually with at least sparse pubescence on 

midrib above and below, entire except on vigorous spring shoots which often have blades 

pinnately lobed. Flowers fragrant, white turning to creamy yellow with age, occurring 

singly or more often in pairs, in leaf axils; corolla strongly bilabiate (2-lipped). Fruit a 

black, globose berry, 5-6 mm (0.25 in) long, with 2-3 seeds per berry. 

NOTE: May be confused with the native coral honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens L.), 

but its young stems and leaves glabrous, its flowers red with yellow within. 

Ecological Significance: Occurs most densely in open woodlands, prairies, thickets, 

fence rows, and old fields, but also invades mature forests (dry and moist), thriving in 

tree gaps created by natural or artificial disturbance and persisting in partially shaded 

areas. Interrupts plant succession in once-forested areas by overtopping and smothering 

young trees, preventing their recruitment to the overstory (Myster and Pickett 1992). 

Can disrupt understory structure in mature forests by eliminating smaller tree species 

important to birds (Sather 1987). Deemed in 1971 by the U.S. Department of Agriculture 

to be one of the worst nonagricultural weeds in the Southeast, able to colonize 

various habitats and eliminate native flora (Sasek and Strain 1991). More recently also 

found to serve as temporary host for a spider mite pest of corn and peanuts (Margolies 

and Kennedy 1985) and for the tobacco budworm and corn earworm in Georgia and 

Florida (Pair 1994). Introduced in 1806 for ornament and later for erosion control; by 

1919 naturalized from the Gulf of Mexico to Massachusetts (Sather 1987). Reported by 

Florida land managers for conservation areas in 7 counties from Okaloosa to Marion 

County (EPPC 1996). Also reported elsewhere in the eastern U.S. as an important pest 

in managed forests (Dillenburg et al. 1993) and natural areas (e.g., Thomas 1980). Still 

available in the Southeast as an ornamental, and sometimes promoted as deer forage 

(Dyess et al. 1994). 

KCB 

62 

Flowers

Distribution: In Florida, found commonly in most Panhandle and northern counties, 

and south on the peninsula to Orange, Hillsborough, Sarasota, and Dade counties 

(Wunderlin et al. 1995). Now one of the most common vine species in the Southeast, 

and presently ranges in the U.S. from southern New England to Florida, west to Texas, 

Kansas, and Missouri, and north to Indiana, Illinois, and Michigan (Godfrey 1988). 

Life History: With evergreen leaves, able to photosynthesize at a relatively high rate yearround, 

compared to woody deciduous natives (Schierenbeck and Marshall 1993). Twining 

stems able to climb small-diameter tree trunks, and with numerous lateral runners, 

can form dense overtopping mats of vegetation (Sather 1987). Provides strong belowground 

root competition as well (Dillenburg et al. 1993). Flowers and fruits from spring 

to fall. Fruits eaten by deer, rabbits, turkeys, quail (Dyess et al. 1994), with seed dispersed 

primarily by birds (Sather 1987). 

KAL KAL 

Japanese honeysuckle 

Hairy young stems 

Habit, over shrubs 

63

Casuarina equisetifolia L. 

Casuarinaceae/Beefwood Family 

Common Names: Australian-pine, beefwood, ironwood, she-oak, horsetail tree 

Synonymy: Casuarina littorea L. ex Fosberg & Sachet, C. litorea Rumpheus ex 

Stickman 

Origin: Australia, south Pacific Islands, Southeast Asia 

Botanical Description: Evergreen tree to 46 m (150 ft) tall, usually with single trunk 

and open, irregular crown. Bark reddish brown to gray, rough, brittle, peeling. Branchlets 

pine-needle-like, grayish green, jointed, thin (< 1 mm wide), 10-20 cm (4-8 in) long, 

minutely ridged, hairy in furrows. Leaves reduced to tiny scales, 6-8 in whorls encircling 

joints of branchlets. Flowers unisexual (monoecious), inconspicuous, female in small 

axillary clusters, male in small terminal spikes. Fruit a tiny, 1-seeded, winged nutlet 

(samara), formed in woody cone-like clusters (fruiting heads), these brown, to 2 cm (3/4 

in) long and 1.3 cm (1/2 in) wide. 

NOTE: May be confused with the related exotics, C. glauca, which has 10-17 leaf scales 

per whorl (see following pages), and C. cunninghamiana Miquel, which has 8-10 scales 

per whorl. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced to Florida in the late 1800s (Morton 1980). Naturalized 

since the early 1900s along coastal dunes (Small 1927). Planted extensively in the 

southern half of the state as windbreaks and shade trees (Morton 1980). Seeds freely 

throughout the area and has spread rapidly (Long and Lakela 1971). Salt tolerant, growing 

even in front-line dunes (Watkins 1970). With rapid growth, dense shade, dense 

litter accumulation, and other competitive advantages, displacing and extremely destructive 

to native vegetation (Nelson 1994). Can encourage beach erosion by displacing 

deep-rooted native vegetation (Klukas 1969). Interferes with nesting of endangered sea 

turtles and the American crocodile (Klukas 1969). 

TP 

64 

Coastal-strand monoculture

Australian-pine 

Distribution: Occurs throughout south Florida, from Orlando south, on sandy shores 

and in pinelands. Frequently colonizes disturbed sites, such as filled wetlands, road 

shoulders, cleared land, and undeveloped lots (Maxwell 1984). Occurs as far north as 

Dixie County on the west coast and Volusia County on the east (Wunderlin et al. 1995). 

Naturalized also in West Indies, Mexico, and elsewhere in tropical America (Long and 

Lakela 1971). 

Life History: Not freeze tolerant; sensitive to fire (Morton 1980). Loses branches easily 

and topples easily in high winds (Morton 1980). Produces allelopathic compounds that 

inhibit growth of other vegetation (Morton 1980). Can colonize nutrient-poor soils 

easily by nitrogen-fixing microbial associations (Wilson 1997). Reproduces prolifically by 

seed, as many as 300,000 to the pound, with seeds dispersed by birds (especially exotic 

parrots and parakeets), water, and wind (Morton 1980). Fruiting heads float (Maxwell 

1984). 

KAL 

KAL 

Fruiting heads 

KAL 

Branchlets 

Scale-like leaves at node 

65

Casuarina glauca Sieber ex Spreng. 

Casuarinaceae/Beefwood Family 

Common Names: Suckering Australian-pine, swamp she-oak, Brazilian beefwood 

Synonymy: Casuarina lepidophloia F. Muell. and C. cristata Miq. misapplied 

Origin: Australia 

Botanical Description: Evergreen tree to 20 m (70 ft) tall, with a dense, pyramidal 

shape. Bark gray-brown, finely fissured, scaly. Branchlets pine-needle-like, green, occasionally 

waxy, jointed, thin (< 1mm wide), 20-26 cm (8-10 in) long, minutely ridged, 

glabrous. Leaves reduced to tiny scales, in whorls of 10-17 at joints of branchlets. Flowers 

unisexual (dioecious), inconspicuous, female in small axillary clusters, male in small 

terminal spikes; female plants rare in Florida. Fruit a tiny, 1-seeded, winged nutlet 

(samara), formed in woody cone-like clusters (fruiting heads), these brown, to 1.8 cm (2/ 

3 in) long and 0.9 cm (1/3 in) wide. 

NOTE: Differs from C. equisetifolia (preceding pages) in having 10-17 leaf scales per 

whorl, glabrous branchlets, and separate male and female plants. C. cunninghamiana also 

dioecious, but with 8-10 leaf scales per whorl. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced to Florida before 1924, and planted widely in 

southern Florida as windbreaks, roadside trees, and hedges (Morton 1980). Suckers 

aggressively from widely spreading roots, especially when pruned, creating “local jungles” 

of dense casuarina branches, excluding other vegetation (Long and Lakela 1971, Morton 

1980). Displacing and extremely destructive to native plant communities, tending to 

completely take over areas it invades (Nelson 1994). Along with C. equisetifolia, has had 

devastating effect on native plant communities of barrier islands along southwest coast, 

such as Sanibel and Captiva (Morton 1980). 

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66 

Scale-like leaves at nodes

Suckering Australian-pine 

Distribution: Herbarium specimens collected from naturalized populations in Seminole, 

Orange, Brevard, Polk, Hillsborough, Pinellas, Manatee, Desoto, Highlands, Indian 

River, Martin, Charlotte, Collier, Broward, Dade, and Monroe counties (Wunderlin et al. 

1995). Recorded from natural areas in Dade, Lee, Martin, and Palm Beach counties 

(EPPC 1996). 

Life History: Can colonize nutrient-poor soils easily by nitrogen-fixing microbial associations 

(Wilson 1997). Reproduces prolifically by root suckers; reported until recently as 

not producing fruit in Florida (Long and Lakela 1971, Morton 1980). Fruiting heads 

observed in Homestead area (R. Hammer, Miami-Dade Parks Department, 1995 personal 

communication) and in Fakahatchee Strand State Preserve (D. F. Austin, Florida 

Atlantic University, 1997 personal communication). Hybrids known to form in the wild 

in Florida among the 3 species of Casuarina mentioned above, which may bear cones 

(Bailey and Bailey 1976, Morton 1980, Wilson 1997). 

KAL 

Monoculture, Indian River County 

67

Calophyllum antillanum Britt. 

Clusiaceae (Guttiferae)/Pitch-Apple Family 

Common Names: Beauty leaf, Santa-maria 

Synonymy: Calophyllum brasiliense Camb. var. antillanum (Britt.) Standl., C. 

calaba Jacq., non L., C. jacquinii Fawc. & Rendle 

Origin: Caribbean, Cuba to Grenada 

Botanical Description: Straight-trunked tree typically 12 m (40 ft) tall. Young stems 

green, 4-angled, minutely hairy, becoming gray with age. Leaves opposite, simple, petioled, 

elliptic, 10-15 cm (4-6 in) long; blades very shiny, with numerous parallel veins at 

right angles to midvein; margins entire; blade tips rounded to minutely notched. Flowers 

small, in few-flowered racemes at leaf axils, white, fragrant, with many yellow stamens. 

Fruit a 1-seeded, hard-shelled drupe, brown, globose, about 2.5 cm (1 in) wide. 

NOTE: May be confused with mast-wood, C. inophyllum L., the Asian exotic also 

cultivated in south Florida and reported as naturalized (Wunderlin et al. 1996), but its 

trees often taller, its leaves larger, to 20 cm (8 in) long and 10 cm (4 in) wide, not as 

shiny; its flower clusters larger, showier; and its fruits to 4 cm (1.5 in) wide. 

Ecological Significance: Noted as introduced in southern Florida in 1964 (Little and 

Wadsworth 1964). Widely planted in southern Florida as a landscape subject. Invades 

mangrove forests and other coastal areas (M. McMahon, Biological and Environmental 

Consulting, and R. Hammer, Miami-Dade County Parks Department, 1996 personal 

communications). Dense stands of seedlings and saplings observed along the fringes of 

coastal mangrove and buttonwood forests and occasionally in inland hardwood forests as 

well. Abundant in and around Matheson Hammock Park in south Dade County, and 

observed in other mangrove areas in Dade County, where it is a target of eradication by 

Miami-Dade County Parks and Recreation Department. Also reported from parks in 

Broward County (EPPC 1996). Listed as an invasive species in Hawaii (Wester 1992). 

KAL 

68 

In Matheson Hammock, Miami-Dade County

eauty leaf 

Distribution: Locally naturalized in coastal regions of Dade, Broward, Palm Beach, and 

Martin counties (R. Hammer, Miami-Dade County Parks Department, and D. F. Austin, 

Florida Atlantic University, personal observations). Also naturalized in Bermuda (Little 

and Wadsworth 1964). 

Life History: Limited to southernmost Florida where minimum temperatures are 4.4- 

1.7˚C (40-35˚F) (Broschat and Meerow 1991). Can withstand inundation and is resistant 

to brackish conditions (Stresau 1986). Flowers in summer. Fruits prolifically in 

southern Florida, and is spread by seed (R. Hammer, Miami-Dade County Parks Department, 

1996 personal communication). Spontaneous seed germination common beneath 

mature landscape trees. Fruits inedible for humans, those of related C. inophyllum known 

to be poisonous (Morton 1971b). 

KAL 

Leaf with numerous lateral veins Flowers 

DFA 

69

Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal 

Convolvulaceae/Morning-Glory Family 

Common Names: Water-spinach, Chinese water-spinach or morning-glory, water 

bindweed 

Synonymy: Ipomoea repens Roth, I. reptans Poiret, Convolvulus repens Vahl 

Origin: Central to south China 

Botanical Description: Herbaceous trailing vine with milky sap. Stems hollow, to 3 m 

(9 ft) long or more, rooting at nodes, floating in aquatic situations. Leaves alternate, 

simple, with glabrous petioles 3-14 cm (1-6 in) long; leaf blades generally arrowhead 

shaped but variable, glabrous or rarely pilose, to 17 cm (7 in) long, with tips pointed; 

blades held above water when stems floating. Flowers showy, funnelform like morningglory 

blooms, solitary or in few-flowered clusters at leaf axils; petals white or pink-lilac. 

Fruit an oval or spherical capsule, woody at maturity, about 1 cm (1/2 in) wide, holding 

1-4 grayish seeds, these often short-hairy. 

NOTE: Two basic forms (with many cultivars of each) recognized worldwide for this 

species: “red,” with red-purple tinged stems and pale pink to lilac flowers; and “green,” 

with fully green stems and white flowers—all “races” observed in Florida exhibiting the 

same growth habit. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced repeatedly to Florida waters since 1979, despite its 

state and federal listing as a prohibited plant and noxious weed (R. Kipker, Florida 

Department of Environmental Protection, unpublished data). Popular among some 

recent immigrants as a common potherb from the homeland (T. Q. Ngo, Vietnamese 

Community of Florida, Pinellas Park, 1995 personal communication), and has been 

studied in Florida as a vegetable crop (e.g., Bruemmer and Roe 1979, Snyder et al. 

1981). Recognized early as a threat to natural areas in Florida (Ochse 1951, Gilbert 

1984). Has been found naturalized in Florida primarily in canals and ditches, but also 

invading shallows of more than a dozen natural lakes (R. Kipker, Florida Department of 

Environmental Protection, unpublished data). Forms dense floating mats of intertwined 

stems over water surfaces, shading out native submersed plants and competing with 

native emergents (K. C. Burks, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, personal 

observations). Under good conditions, can produce 190,000 kg fresh weight 

biomass per ha (84 tons per acre) in 9 months (Massal and Barrau 1956). Considered the 

second greatest problem plant in the Philippines, where it tends to overgrow freshwater 

marginal areas (Gangstadt 1976). A common to serious weed, or present as a weed in 

many areas of the tropics (Holm et al. 1979). 

70

Distribution: Native to China, but widely cultivated and naturalized in Asia, Africa, 

Australia, Pacific Islands, and South America (Staples 1996). In Florida, naturalized 

populations found in scattered locations from Bay County in the Panhandle to Dade 

County in south Florida, with eradication attempts always made but not always successful 

(R. Kipker, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 1997 personal communication). 

Herbarium specimens documented so far only from the Tampa Bay area 

(Wunderlin et al. 1995), where it may now be found cultivated under specially permitted 

quarantine conditions for out-of-state sale. 

Life History: May root at every node, producing new plants when segmented (Edie and 

Ho 1969). Grows well in moist soil or in still to flowing waters (Payne 1956). Flowers in 

warm months (Dressler et al. 1987). Produces 175-245 seeds per plant during peak 

season (Patnaik 1976). 

GJ 

GJ 

Flowers 

Covering pond, Brevard County 

Water-spinach 

71

Bischofia javanica Blume 

Euphorbiaceae/Spurge Family 

Common Names: Bishopwood, javawood, toog 

Synonymy: Bischofia trifoliata (Roxb.) Hook. 

Origin: Tropical Asia, Pacific Islands 

Botanical Description: Evergreen tree commonly 12-18 m (35-60 ft) in height, with 

dense, rounded head, smooth branches, and milky sap. Leaves alternate, long-petioled, 

trifoliolate (3 leaflets); leaflets shiny, bronze-toned, oval-elliptic, 15-20 cm (6-8 in) long, 

with margins small toothed. Flowers tiny, without petals, greenish-yellow, in manyflowered 

clusters (racemes) at leaf axils; male and female flowers on separate plants 

(dioecious). Fruit pea-sized, berrylike, fleshy, to 9 mm (0.33 in) in diameter, brown or 

reddish or blue-black, 3-celled. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced to Florida for ornament earlier this century by a 

west coast nursery-grower (Morton 1976). Noted as sometimes planted in south Florida 

in 1947 (Bailey and Bailey). Reported as naturalized in Dade County near Homestead in 

1971 (Long and Lakela), as becoming a “weed tree” in south Florida in 1974 (Morton), 

and as invading hammocks (Morton 1976). Now common in old fields and disturbed 

wetland sites, and invading intact cypress domes and tropical hardwood hammocks, 

where it displaces native vegetation and alters the structure of the plant community 

(personal observations of several veteran land managers in southeast counties). Used 

extensively in street landscaping throughout south Florida for many years. Its landscape 

use now discouraged by some horticulturists (Broschat and Meerow 1991). 

Distribution: Naturalized populations in Florida documented by herbarium specimens 

from Dade, Broward, and Pinellas counties (Wunderlin et al. 1995). Reported for 21 

natural areas in Lee, Collier, Palm Beach, Broward, and Dade counties (EPPC 1996). 

Cultivated near coasts from Sarasota to Cape Canaveral (Stresau 1986). Apparently not 

naturalized elsewhere in the Neotropics, but widespread in its native range of tropical 

Asia. 

RH 

72 

Leaflets

Bishopwood 

Life History: Fast-growing from seed or cuttings, thriving best in moist soil (Morton 

1974). Leaves deciduous in times of drought. Also root suckers. Limited to areas with 

average minimum temperatures of 1.6 to -1.1˚C (35-30˚F) (Broschat and Meerow 

1991). Flowers in spring. Fruits copiously in Florida, with seeds dispersed by birds 

(Morton 1976). Seedlings can grow in sun or shade and adapt quickly if light conditions 

change (Kamaluddin and Grace 1992a, 1992b). 

TP 

In MacArthur Beach State Park 

KAL 

Mature fruits 

73

Sapium sebiferum (L.) Roxb. 

Euphorbiaceae/Spurge Family 

Common Names: Chinese tallow tree, popcorn tree 

Synonymy: Croton sebiferus L., Stillingia sebifera Michx., Triadica sebifera (L.) 

Small 

Origin: Eastern Asia 

Botanical Description: Deciduous tree to 16 m (52 ft), commonly to 10 m (33 ft). Sap 

milky. Leaves simple, alternate; blades entire, broadly ovate, 3-6 cm (1-2.5 in) wide, with 

broadly rounded bases and abruptly acuminate (tapering to a slender point) tips; petioles 

slender, 2-5 cm (1-2 in) long. Flowers small, yellow, borne on spikes to 20 cm (8 in) 

long, with 2-3 sepals (petals absent), 2-3 stamens or 3 styles (plants monoecious). Fruit a 

3-lobed capsule, 1 cm (0.5 in) wide, turning brown and splitting open at maturity to 

reveal 3 dull white seeds, which remain attached for a time. 

Ecological Significance: Considered a common agricultural weed in Taiwan, requiring 

constant effort and expense to hold at bay (Holm et al. 1979). Introduced repeatedly to 

the United States as an ornamental and potential oil crop species (Jones and McLeod 

1989). Considered an invasive pest plant in the Carolinas since the 1970s. Has expanded 

its range on the United States Gulf Coast in low-lying areas, becoming dominant and 

spreading along roadside ditches and into areas where the soil stays wet (Cameron and 

LaPoint 1978). Also thrives in upland, well-drained areas near human habitation and in 

undisturbed areas such as closed canopy forests, in bottomland hardwood forests, shores 

of waterbodies, and sometimes on floating islands (Godfrey 1988). Survives in both 

poorly drained freshwater and saline soils as well (Scheld and Cowles 1981). Tends to 

take over large areas (Bonner 1974). 

KAL 

74 

Flowers

chinese tallow tree 

Distribution: Naturalized in outer coastal plain of South Carolina and adjacent North 

Carolina, also in Richmond County, North Carolina (Radford et al. 1968), south 

through Florida, and west to eastern Texas (Godfrey 1988). Found throughout Florida 

south to Manatee County on the Gulf coast and St. Lucie County on the Atlantic coast 

(Jubinsky 1993). Has potential range through southern Florida to the upper Florida Keys 

(Broschat and Meerow 1991). Recently found naturalized in Dade County (Wunderlin et 

al. 1995), and by 1996 (Jubinsky and Anderson), recorded as naturalized in 57% of 

Florida’s counties. 

Life History: Early growth rate very rapid with flowering and fruiting from the time the 

tree is about 1 m (3.3 ft) tall. Also suckers from stumps. Flowers in spring (Broschat and 

Meerow 1991), with fruit ripening August to November. Seeds primarily dispersed by 

birds and water (Jubinsky 1993). 

KAL 

KAL 

Persisting white seeds 

In Lake Jessup conservation area 

75

Abrus precatorius L. 

Fabaceae (Leguminosae)/Pea Family 

Common Names: Rosary pea, crab’s eyes, precatory pea, licorice vine 

Synonymy: Abrus abrus (L.) W. F. Wight 

Origin: India, and perhaps other parts of tropical Asia 

Botanical Description: High-climbing, twining, or trailing woody vine with slender 

herbaceous branches. Leaves alternate, petioled, 5-13 cm (2-5 in) long, even-pinnately 

compound with 5-15 pairs of leaflets, these oval to oblong, to 1.8 cm (< 1 in) long, with 

margins entire. Flowers shaped like pea flowers, white to pink or reddish, small, in shortstalked 

dense clusters at leaf axils. Fruit a short, oblong pod, splitting before falling to 

reveal 3-8 shiny hard seeds, 6-7 mm (< 1 in) long, scarlet with black bases. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced to Florida for ornament before 1932 (Morton 

1976). Noted as abundantly naturalized by Small (1933), Lakela and Craighead (1965), 

Long and Lakela (1971), Morton (1976), Austin (1978), Wunderlin (1982), and Isely 

(1990). Described by an early Florida horticulturist as quickly “taking full possession” of 

a young forest and impossible to remove after several years’ effort (Morton 1976). Has 

invaded undisturbed pinelands and hammocks, including the globally imperiled pine 

rocklands of Dade County (M. McMahon, Biological and Environmental Consulting, 

personal observation). Classified as an invasive weed in India, the Caribbean Islands, 

Belize, west Polynesia, and Hawaii (Holm et al. 1979, Wester 1992). Widely introduced 

and “has run wild in most warm climates” (Morton 1971b). Seeds used as beads in many 

countries (Isely 1990). Seeds extremely poisonous for humans, cattle, and horses—one 

ingested seed may prove fatal (Morton 1971b, Isely 1990). 

Distribution: Now pantropical (Isely 1990). Common across central and south Florida; 

herbarium specimens of naturalized populations collected from 27 counties, from 

Hernando, Marion, Lake, and Volusia counties south to the Keys (Wunderlin et al. 

1995). Reported from over 40 natural areas in Dade, Broward, Palm Beach, Martin, 

Indian River, Highlands, Collier, Lee, Sarasota, Manatee, Hillsborough, and Lake counties 

(EPPC 1996). 

TP 

76 

Compound leaves

osary pea 

Life History: Roots deeply and tenaciously, difficult to eradicate (R. Moyroud, Mesozoic 

Landscapes, 1995 personal communication). Increases in population size following fire 

(Maithani et al. 1986). Flowers in summer, fruiting prolifically. Seeds dispersed by birds 

(Austin 1998). Has been investigated for various types of usable extracts, such as for 

insecticides (e.g., Khanna et al. 1989), antifertility drugs (e.g., Sinha 1990), other medicines 

(e.g., Wambebe and Amosun 1984), and sweetening agents (Jakinovich et al. 

1990). 

KAL 

KAL 

Covering native scrub plants, 

Palm Beach County 

KAL 

Immature pods 

Seeds 

77

Acacia auriculiformis A. Cunn. ex Benth. 


Common Name: Earleaf acacia 


Origin: Australia, Papua New Guinea, and Indonesia 

Botanical Description: Evergreen, unarmed tree to 15 m (50 ft) tall, with compact 

spread, often multi-stemmed; young growth glaucous. Leaves alternate, simple, reduced 

to phyllodes (flattened leaf stalks), these blade-like, slightly curved, 11-20 cm (5-8 in) 

long, with 3-7 main parallel veins and a marginal gland near the base; surfaces dark 

green. Flowers in loose, yellow-orange spikes at leaf axils or in clusters of spikes at stem 

tips; flowers mimosa-like, with numerous free stamens. Fruit a flat, oblong pod, twisted 

at maturity, splitting to reveal flat black seeds attached by orange, string like arils. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced to Florida for ornament before 1932 (Gordon and 

Thomas 1997). Used extensively in street landscaping in southern Florida for many 

years. Noted as escaping cultivation by Morton (1976, 1985), Austin (1978), and Isely 

(1990). Now common in disturbed areas, but also has invaded pinelands, scrub, and 

hammocks in south Florida, with significant populations in many of the globally imperiled 

pine rocklands of Dade County (M. McMahon, Biological and Environmental 

Consulting, personal observations). Displacing native vegetation and threatening to 

shade out rare plants, such as the listed scrub pinweed, Lechea cernua Sm., in remnant 

scrub areas (K. C. Burks, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, personal 

observations). Adapted to nutrient-poor soils in humid tropics, including areas subject to 

periodic fires (Shukor 1993, Moran et al. 1989, Bowman et al. 1990), a description that 

fits many of Florida’s natural habitats. 

Distribution: Planted widely in the Old World for pulp and fuelwood, particularly in 

India and Southeast Asia; undergoing forestry trials in Africa and Central and South 

America (Pinyopusarerk 1990, Boland et al. 1991). In Florida, now reported from over 

24 natural areas in Dade, Broward, Palm Beach, Martin, Collier, and Lee counties (EPPC 

1996). Naturalized populations documented by herbarium specimens from Monroe, 

Dade, Palm Beach, Martin, and Collier counties (Wunderlin et al. 1995). 

RH 

78 

Mature pods, leaves

Life History: Grows in zones with average minimum temperatures of -1.2 to -6.6˚C (30 

to 20˚F) and above (Broschat and Meerow 1991). Particularly drought resistant, but also 

tolerates seasonally waterlogged soils; grows in a wide range of soil types and soil pH; and 

able to withstand competition from cogon grass (see Imperata cylindrica) (Boland et al. 

1991). Aided in drought resistance and low-nutrient tolerance by mycorrhizal and 

nitrogen-fixing bacterial associations of the roots (Osonubi et al. 1991, MacDicken and 

Brewbaker 1989). Found in its native range from dune ridges to river banks (Boland et 

al. 1991). Flowers in Florida from spring through fall, fruiting prolifically. Seeds dispersed 

by several bird species, including the introduced European starling (D. F. Austin, 

Florida Atlantic University, 1997 personal communication). Seed germination hastened 

by placing seeds in hot ashes (Bailey and Bailey 1947). 

AF 

Flowers 

MB 

Earleaf acacia 

Sapling in scrub preserve, 


79

Albizia lebbeck (L.) Bentham 


Common Names: Woman’s tongue, Tibet lebbeck, singer-tree, shack-shack 

Synonymy: Mimosa lebbeck L., M. speciosa (Jacq.) Willd. 

Origin: Tropical Asia, northern Australia 

Botanical Description: Deciduous, unarmed tree to 20 m (65 ft) tall, with a rounded, 

spreading crown and pale bark. Leaves alternate, twice compound, with 2-5 pairs of 

pinnae, each pinna with 3-10 pairs of leaflets (even-pinnate); leaflets elliptic-oblong, 2-4 

cm (1-2 in) long, usually asymmetrical at base, dull green above, paler green below; 

petiole with a sessile, elliptic gland near the base above. Flowers mimosa-like, in showy, 

rounded clusters near stem tips, 5-6 cm (2-2.5 in) across, cream or yellowish-white, each 

flower with numerous long stamens. Fruit a flat, linear pod, to 30 cm (1 ft) long, with 

many seeds; dried pods persistent after leaf-fall, often heard rattling in the wind. 

NOTE: In Florida, distinguished from other unarmed leguminous trees with twicecompound 

leaves by its number of leaflets (usually 20+) and the leaflets’ larger size 

(usually > 2 cm long). 

Ecological Significance: Introduced to Florida for ornament in 1880s (Gordon and 

Thomas 1997). By 1933 (Small 1933), recognized as invading tropical hammocks in the 

Florida Keys. Known by 1990 (Isely 1990) as a fast-growing colonizer of disturbed areas, 

becoming common in central and south Florida through the Keys (Nelson 1994). 

Seedlings now occurring in great numbers throughout Big Cypress National Preserve (T. 

Pernas, National Park Service, 1996 personal communication). Invading somewhat 

disturbed pinelands of Everglades National Park (D. Jones, National Park Service, 1996 

personal communication). Invading pine rocklands and canopy gaps in rockland hammocks 

in Dade County (R. Hammer, Miami-Dade Parks Department, 1996 personal 

communication). Also naturalized on moist and dry coastal hillsides in Puerto Rico, in 

pastures in the U.S. Virgin Islands, and elsewhere in the Caribbean and Central and 

South America (Little and Wadsworth 1964, Watkins 1970). 

KAL 

80 

Flower heads

Distribution: Presently pantropical in occurrence, widely planted and naturalized (Little 

and Wadsworth 1964). In Florida, now reported from more than 20 natural areas in 

Monroe, Dade, Collier, Palm Beach, Martin, and Lee counties (EPPC 1996). Naturalized 

populations documented by herbarium specimens from Broward, Collier, Dade, 

Indian River, Lee, Marion, Polk, and St. Lucie counties (Wunderlin et al. 1996). 

Life History: Fast-growing from seed (Morton 1971a). Will not tolerate freezing temperatures, 

but naturally grows in the Himalayas to altitudes of 1,600 m (5,200 ft) above 

MSL (Lowry et al. 1994). Grows well with average annual rainfalls of 400-2,500 mm 

(16-98 in), and in soils that are saline or alkaline, but not waterlogged soils (Lowry et al. 

1994). A nitrogen-fixing, mycorrhizal-associating legume (Osonubi et al. 1991). Tolerates 

coastal salt spray, with some protection (Menninger 1964, Little and Wadsworth 

1964). Flowers from April to September, but primarily in spring (or onset of rainy 

season), with pods held nearly throughout the year (Little and Wadsworth 1964, 

Wunderlin 1982, Barneby and Grimes 1996). Produces massive quantities of seeds, with 

seedlings appearing in great numbers (Watkins 1970). Crows and squirrels observed 

feeding on seeds in India (Natarajan et al. 1994). 

KAL 

In Everglades National Park 

KAL 

woman’s tongue 

Pods, compound leaf 

81

Bauhinia variegata L. 


Common Names: Orchid-tree, poor-man’s orchid, mountain-ebony, Buddhist 

bauhinia 

Synonymy: Phanera variegata (L.) Benth. 

Origin: Eastern Asia (India, China) 

Botanical Description: Semideciduous tree to 15 m (50 ft) tall, with a spreading crown. 

Leaves alternate, long petioled (to 3 cm [1.25 in] long), thin-leathery, simple but deeply 

cleft at apex, forming 2 large rounded lobes; lower surfaces downy, especially at top of 

petiole; blades with 11-13 veins extending from heart-shaped or rounded base. Flowers 

showy, fragrant, in few-flowered clusters near stem tips, appearing during leaf fall (early 

spring); 5 petals, clawed, overlapping, pale magenta to indigo (occasionally white), with 

dark red and yellow also on upper petal; 5 stamens (rarely 6). Fruit a flat, oblong pod, to 

30 cm (1 ft) long, 10-15-seeded. 

NOTE: May be confused with another naturalized exotic Bauhinia purpurea L., which 

flowers in the fall with leaves on the tree, and has many-flowered clusters, 3 (rarely 4) 

stamens, and petals not overlapping. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced into Florida before 1900 (Ledin 1956). Noted as a 

common escape, abundantly invading disturbed areas in particular (Morton 1976). 

Noted as occasional across south Florida (Lakela and Wunderlin 1980, Tomlinson 1980, 

Wunderlin 1982). Naturalized in the Caribbean and elsewhere in the Neotropics as well 

(Morton 1976, Correll and Correll 1982, Little et al. 1974). Spreading from sites where 

previously planted in Big Cypress National Preserve (T. Pernas, National Park Service, 

1996 personal communication). Found in 10 conservation areas in Dade County; 

displacing native vegetation in hammock margins and occasionally in globally imperiled 

pine rocklands (R. Hammer, Miami-Dade Parks Department, 1996 personal communication). 

Reported now from natural areas in four counties: Pinellas, Lee, Dade, and Palm 

Beach, including the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge and Everglades National 

Park (EPPC 1996). 

Distribution: Widely planted in the tropics and warm regions of the world, including 

the southern margin of the United States from Florida to California; probably also 

naturalized in Louisiana and perhaps Texas (Isely 1990). In Florida, herbarium specimens 

deposited from Brevard, Polk, Lee, and Dade counties (Wunderlin et al. 1996). 

Life History: Grows best in full sun or partial shade; propagates easily from seed and by 

air layering (Hunt 1977). Tolerates a wide range of well-drained soils (Watkins 1970), 

but prefers acidic soils (Hunt 1977). Not salt tolerant (Watkins 1970), or mildly so 

(Hunt 1977). May be eliminated from a site by controlled burning (Maithani et al. 

1986). Flowers in January and February (early spring). A fast-growing tree with seeds 

that remain viable for more than a year (Morton 1971a). 

82

EJ 

KAL 

Flowers 

Seedling 

Orchid-tree 

83

Mimosa pigra L. 

Common Names: Catclaw mimosa, giant sensitive-plant, shamebush 


Origin: Central America 

Botanical Description: Sprawling, often thicket-forming shrub to 6 m (20 ft) tall, with 

hairy stems bearing numerous recurved prickles to 7 mm (0.3 in) long. Leaves alternate, 

twice compound, sensitive to touch; leaf petiole and rachis to 20 cm (8 in) long, with 

prickles at junctions with 5-12 pairs of pinnae; each pinna with 24-31 pairs of leaflets, 

these to 8 mm (0.3 in) long, often with threadlike hairs on margins. Flowers small, 

mauve to pink, in stalked, dense, spherical heads, about 1 cm (0.5 in) across, with about 

100 flowers per head; 8 stamens. Fruit a brown-bristly, segmented, flat pod to 8 cm (3 

in) long and 1.4 cm (0.5 in) wide, with the 9-24 segments breaking free individually, 

each containing a seed; pods in clusters, or “hands” of usually 7, at stem tips. 

Ecological Significance: Emerged as a serious weed of wetlands in the 1970s in Australia 

and Thailand (Londsdale 1992). By the late 1980s in Australia, had formed dense thickets 

covering some 800 km 2 (over 300 mi 2 ) in floodplains and swamp forests, with infestations 

doubling in size each year (Braithewaite et al. 1989). Introduced into Florida before 

1953; first collected that year in Palm Beach and Okeechobee counties as apparent 

escapees from cultivation; possibly brought to Florida as a botanical curiosity or as an 

accidental contaminant in imported nursery stock (R. Kipker, Florida Department of 

Environmental Protection, 1997 personal communication). Large infestations in Florida 

first noted in 1985 (Nall et al. 1986). Infested natural areas now totaling nearly 400 ha 

(1,000 acres) in Broward, Palm Beach, Martin, St. Lucie, and Highlands counties, 

including shoreline of the Loxahatchee River (Sutton et al. 1994). In Australia, has 

formed dense understories in swamps, shading out native tree seedlings and altering bird, 

reptile, and vegetation communities (Braithewaite et al. 1989, Londsdale 1992). Similar 

stands found among south Florida cypress (R. Kipker, Florida Department of Environmental 

Protection, personal observations). 

DS 

84 

Touch-sensitive leaves

Catclaw mimosa 

Distribution: Widespread throughout the tropics (Londsdale 1992). In Florida, so far 

eradicated just in 2 small sites, both disturbed urbanized areas (R. Kipker, Florida Department 

of Environmental Protection, 1997 personal communication). 

Life History: Forms dense, impenetrable thickets in wet areas, but will also grow in drier 

habitats (Miller and Tjitrosoedirdjo 1992). Flowers all year in Florida, with seed set 

within 5 weeks from flowering (Sutton and Langeland 1993). Spread primarily by seed 

floating away on water (Londsdale 1992); observed to sink within 10 days in Florida 

(Sutton and Langeland 1993). Germinates best on damp, not dry or saturated soil; will 

germinate under water but remains slow in its growth until emersed. Germinates yearround 

(Sutton and Langeland 1993), with a small percentage (6.8% in Florida studies) of 

seed crop not germinating but remaining viable as a long-term seed bank (Londsdale 

1992, Sutton and Langeland 1992). 

DS 

DS 

Pod cluster (“hand”) 

DS 

Flower head, young leaves 

Leaves, prickles 

85


Pueraria montana (Lour.) Merr. var. lobata 

(Willd.) Maesen and Almeida 

Common Names: Kudzu vine, foot-a-night vine, vine-that-ate-the-South, Ko-hemp 

Synonymy: Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi, P. thunbergiana (Sieb. & Zucc.) 

Benth. 

Origin: Eastern Asia 

Botanical Description: High-climbing, trailing, twining deciduous woody vine, with 

tuberous roots and rope-like, dark brown stems to 20 m (65 ft) long; herbaceous stems 

markedly hairy. Leaves alternate, long petioled, with 3 leaflets (trifoliolate); leaflets dark 

green, hairy on both surfaces, to 15 cm (5.4 in) long; lateral leaflets unequal at base, 1- or 

2-lobed; terminal leaflet usually equal at base and 3-lobed. Flowers pea-like, reddishpurple, 

fragrant, 2-2.5 cm (0.7-0.9 in) across, in short-stalked, elongate clusters at leaf 

axils, to 20 cm (7.3 in) long. Fruit a dark brown pod, flat but bulging over seeds, densely 

covered in long golden-brown hairs, to 8 cm (3 in) long and 0.8 cm (0.3 in) wide. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced in 1876 at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia 

as an ornamental (Bell and Wilson 1989, Shores 1997). Developed for use as a 

forage in the 1920s, in Florida; promoted in the 1930s by the U.S. Soil Conservation 

Service for erosion control (Bell and Wilson 1989). From early 1950s, no longer advocated 

by U.S. Department of Agriculture, and declared a weed in 1972 (Shores 1997). 

Forms large impenetrable masses, growing over woody vegetation and able to completely 

engulf unwooded areas (Godfrey 1988). Can completely envelop a tree, killing it by 

shutting out all light (Bell and Wilson 1989). A serious or widespread invader of 

seminatural or natural habitat (Cronk and Fuller 1995). Reported from Florida natural 

areas in Alachua, Putnam, and Dade counties (EPPC 1996), and from Everglades conservation 

areas in Broward County (Bodle 1994). 

Distribution: Widely naturalized in the United States, throughout the Southeast, north 

to Illinois and Massachusetts and west to Texas and Oklahoma; estimated to cover 

810,000 ha (2,000,000 acres) of forest land in the South (Bell and Wilson 1989). Documented 

by herbarium specimens from 14 Florida counties, from Escambia to Dade 

(Wunderlin et al. 1995). Has also invaded South Africa, Malaysia, and western Pacific 

Islands (Cronk and Fuller 1995). 

Life History: Drought tolerant; only aboveground portions damaged by frost (Cronk 

and Fuller 1995). Forms new perennial root crowns from stem nodes touching the 

ground, with thick storage roots growing as deep as 1 m (3 ft); can take 3-10 years of 

repeated herbicide treatment to deplete root reserves (Moorhead and Johnson 1996). 

Flowers in late summer and early fall, with high production of seeds, which are dispersed 

by mammals and birds (Cronk and Fuller 1995). 

86

RH AMF 

Compound leaf 

Flowers 

kudzu vine 

87

Senna pendula (Willd.) Irwin & Barn. var. glabrata 


(Vogel) Irwin & Barn. 

Common Names: Climbing cassia, Christmas cassia, Christmas senna, cassia shrub 

Synonymy: Cassia coluteoides Coll.; C. bicapsularis L. and C. surattensis 

Burm. f. misapplied 

Origin: South America 

Botanical Description: Sprawling evergreen shrub to 4 m (13 ft) tall (or wide), with 

somewhat zigzag, sparsely hairy stems. Leaves alternate, stalked, even-pinnately compound, 

with 3-6 pairs of leaflets, larger ones at leaf tip; leaflets to 4 cm (1.6 in) long, 

oblong with rounded tips; petioles with gland above, between lowermost leaflets (and 

occasionally between others). Flowers yellow or yellow-green, 3-4 cm (1.2-1.6 in) across, 

in 3- to 12-flowered racemes near stem tips; stamens with prominent, curved filaments. 

Fruit a brown slender pod, cylindric, glabrous, 7-12 cm (3-5 in) long. 

Ecological Significance: Briefly noted by Small (1933) as seen in south Florida. Commonly 

cultivated for ornament in Florida at least since the 1940s (Bailey and Bailey 

1947). Described as fast and rank in its growth (Maxwell and Maxwell 1961). Observed 

in the wild in south Florida since the early 1970s (D. F. Austin, Florida Atlantic University, 

1995 personal communication). Noted as naturalized in south Florida, and becoming 

weedy in the Bahamas and disturbed areas in South America (Irwin and Barneby 

1982) and as moderately established outside cultivation in Florida by 1990 (Isely). 

Displaces native vegetation in disturbed and undisturbed areas of Florida’s tropical 

hammocks, coastal strands, and canal banks (M. Renda, The Nature Conservancy, 1996 

personal communication). Often becomes established in sunny openings and then 

clambers over adjacent canopy (Austin 1998). Reported from scrub and forest natural 

areas in Palm Beach County and from the edge of Lake Okeechobee in Hendry County 

(EPPC 1996). 

Distribution: Native to Brazil, Peru, through Bolivia and south to Paraguay and Argentina; 

naturalized in the Bahamas and Florida, and probably also in southern Alabama, 

Louisiana, and Mississippi (Isely 1990). Cultivated in all regions of Florida (Hunt 1977, 

Nelson 1996). Often sold as C. bicapsularis (Isely 1990). Documented by herbarium 

records from peninsular Florida, from Hillsborough and Brevard south to Dade and 

Collier counties (Wunderlin et al. 1995). 

KAL 

88 

In Lake Jessup conservation area

Climbing cassia 

Life History: Hardy north of the frost line; will come back if tops killed by freezing 

(Maxwell and Maxwell 1961). Grows easily once established (Nelson 1996). Quite salt 

tolerant; does well in sandy soil; needs pruning regularly to contain sprawl (Maxwell and 

Maxwell 1961). Flowers in late fall to early winter, producing numerous seeds in each 

pod (Isely 1990). 

KAL 

JMH 

Immature pod 

KAL 

In Blowing Rocks Preserve 

Flower 

89

Scaevola sericea Vahl 

Goodeniaceae/Goodenia Family 

Common Names: Beach naupaka, Hawaiian half-flower, hailstones 

Synonymy: Scaevola frutescens Krause, S. taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb. 

Origin: East Africa to India, Southeast Asia, Australia, Pacific Islands 

Botanical Description: Large, bushy shrub to 5 m (16 ft) tall, often forming dense 

hemispherical mounds. Leaves simple, closely alternate, crowded at stem tips; blades 

thick, shiny green, wider near tips, to 21 cm (8.3 in) long, glabrous to hairy on both 

sides, margins revolute, light green becoming yellow with age; leaf axils with tufts of pale 

hairs. Flowers white to pale lilac, several in short clusters at leaf axils; 5 petals, partially 

fused, split to base on upper side so that petal lobes spread fanlike into a lower lip. Fruit a 

fleshy, subspherical drupe, green then white, 8-12 mm (0.3-0.5 in) long, with sepal lobes 

persistent at tip. 

NOTE: Often confused with the threatened Florida native half-flower, or inkberry, 

Scaevola plumieri (L.) Vahl, but its leaves shorter (to 10 cm, or 4 in, long), more succulent, 

with margins entire—and its mature fruit black, not white. 

Ecological Significance: Apparently a recent introduction (Thieret and Brandenburg 

1986), probably from Hawaii. Not mentioned in earlier works on Florida, but noted by 

Bailey and Bailey (1976) as occasionally planted in south Florida. Reported as escaped 

from cultivation in Lee County in 1982 (Wunderlin). Promoted in the early 1980s for 

use in beach stabilization projects—now discouraged (P. Flood, Florida Department of 

Environmental Protection, 1995 personal communication). Has escaped and become 

established on many south Florida beach dunes, coastal berms, coastal rock barrens, 

coastal strands, along saline shores, and in coastal hammocks (Nelson 1996). Appears to 

be supplanting native coastal vegetation in some Florida areas (Nellis 1994). Has begun 

to displace rare native beach plants, such as the inkberry, S. plumieri, and the Floridaendangered 

sea lavender, Tournefortia gnaphalodes (L.) R. Br. Ex Roem. & Schult., (J. 

Duquesnel, Florida Park Service, 1995 personal communication). Reported from parks 

and preserves in Monroe, Dade, Palm Beach, Martin, Collier, Lee, and Sarasota counties 

(EPPC 1996). 

AF 

90 

Flower

Distribution: Native to coasts around the Indian and western Pacific oceans; common 

on seashores, sandy sites behind the shore, and on rocky shoreside cliffs, often forming 

dense thickets (Brizicky 1966, Whistler 1992, Wong 1995). Naturalized in Florida, the 

Bahamas, and perhaps elsewhere in tropical America (Thieret and Brandenburg 1986). 

In Florida, occurs on coasts from Sarasota and Martin counties south through the Keys 

to the Dry Tortugas. 

Life History: Salt and wind tolerant on coasts, easy to grow, but sensitive to frost (Bar- 

Zvi 1996). Forms adventitious roots where stems contact soil. Sensitive to fire (Smith 

and Tunison 1992) and heavy shade (Herbst and Wagner 1992). Flowers and fruits 

year-round, but mostly from late spring to early fall. Fruits buoyant, with a corky outer 

layer, adapted to dispersal by ocean currents (Thieret and Brandenburg 1986). Fruits 

also eaten by pigeons and sea birds (Whistler 1992), and moved by ghost crabs and 

raccoons (R. Hammer, Miami-Dade County Natural Resources Department, 1998 

personal communication). Seeds long viable in sea water, up to a year or more (Brizicky 

1966), but will germinate only with fresh water, such as when washed ashore on a rainy 

day (Lesko and Walker 1969). 

RH JD 

In Bahia Honda State Park 

Leaves, flowers 

beach Naupaka 

91

Cinnamomum camphora (L.) J. Presl 

Lauraceae/Laurel Family 

Common Name: Camphor tree 

Synonymy: Cinnamomum camphora (L.) Nees & Eberm., Camphora 

camphora (L.) H. Karst. 

Origin: Eastern Asia (China, Taiwan, Korea) 

Botanical Description: Evergreen tree potentially to 20 m (65 ft). Twigs green or reddish 

green; all vegetative parts glabrous; cut stems and bruised leaves giving off a strong 

aroma of camphor. Leaves simple, alternate; blades entire but may have wavy margins, 

mostly ovate, 4-10 cm (1.5-4 in) long and 2-5 cm (0.8-2 in) broad, glossy green above, 

duller green below, with impressed glands below at major veins. Flowers small, greenishwhite 

to cream, in loose panicles on branchlets of season; 6 petaloid parts; 12 stamen 

parts, usually 5-9 fertile stamens plus smaller sterile staminodes. Fruits small, subglobose 

drupes, black, seated on persistent floral tubes. 

Ecological Significance: Occurs primarily in drier disturbed areas such as roadsides and 

fencerows, but has invaded natural areas such as mesic hammocks, upland pine woods, 

and scrubland (e.g., taking over space in Polk County scrub inhabited by the federally 

endangered native plant, Ziziphus celata, or Florida jujube). Reported by natural-area 

managers as infesting particular parks in 14 counties (EPPC 1996). Introduced to 

Florida in 1875 and later established in plantations to promote camphor production, but 

the venture proved unprofitable (Lakela and Wunderlin 1980). Still sold as a shade tree 

and for windbreaks. 

Distribution: Most commonly naturalized in north and central Florida, but also escapes 

cultivation in southern peninsula (Godfrey 1988, Long and Lakela 1971, Wunderlin 

1982). Naturalized also in Georgia and west to Texas (Small 1933). Cultivated as well in 

other southern states: Alabama, Mississippi, Georgia, and the Carolinas (Meyer et al. 

1994), and in southern California (Bailey and Bailey 1976). By 1997, documented as 

locally common in the flora from Texas to the Carolinas (van der Werff 1997). 

KAL 

92 

Leaf, mature fruit

camphor tree 

Life History: Main trunk often stout with several secondary trunks arising from it, all 

supporting a dense evergreen canopy. National co-champion trees found in Florida (in 

cultivation), in Hardee and Pasco counties, with heights of 22 m (72 ft) and main trunk 

circumferences of about 9 m (31 ft) (NRBT 1994). Fruits normally abundant on mature 

trees, with birds often seen to “frolic and feast” on them particularly during late winter 

(Kurz and Godfrey 1962). For extraction of camphor (an ethereal oil), young shoots 

distilled; old trees felled, chipped, and the wood steam-distilled (Willis 1973). Wood also 

used for cabinetwork (Bailey and Bailey 1976). 

KAL 

LCA 

In hammock, Lake Jessup conservation area 

Flowers 

93

Thespesia populnea (L.) Sol. ex Correa 

Malvaceae/Mallow Family 

Common Names: Seaside mahoe, portia tree 


Origin: Old World tropics 

Botanical Description: Evergreen shrubby tree, commonly to 13 m (40 ft) tall, with 

young branches minutely brown-scaly. Leaves alternate, simple, with petioles 5-10 cm (2- 

4 in) long; blades entire, heart shaped (poplar-like), shiny dark green above, 5-20 cm (2- 

8 in) long, with usually 5 main veins from base. Flowers showy, hibiscus-like, single at 

upper leaf axils, to 8 cm (3 in) across; corolla yellow with a red center, turning maroon by 

nightfall; stamens united into a column shorter than petals. Fruit a leathery, flattenedglobose, 

5-parted capsule, 4 cm (1.5 in) wide, yellow turning black, persisting unopened 

for a time and bearing several brown hairy seeds. 

NOTE: May be confused with another naturalized exotic, sea hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus 

L.), but its leaves wider, with dense star-shaped hairs on lower surfaces; and with the 

endangered Florida native, wild cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.), but its leaves opposite. 

Other mallow family members in Florida rarely reach tree stature (Nelson 1994). 

Ecological Significance: Introduced for ornament in or before 1928, when importation 

by U.S. Department of Agriculture was noted at Miami (Gordon and Thomas 1997). 

Naturalized in Florida shore hammocks and sand dunes by 1933 (Small 1933), with 

spreading lower branches making “almost impenetrable thickets” and large fruit crops 

continuously increasing its dense growth. Noted as commonly naturalized in coastal areas 

of south Florida and the Keys (Watkins 1970, Nelson 1994). Now a common constituent 

of mangrove communities and low wave-action beaches (D. F. Austin, Florida Atlantic 

University, 1995 personal communication). Sometimes forms forests of seedlings at 

the high-tide line (Nellis 1994). Reported from natural areas, including Everglades 

National Park, in Monroe, Dade, Collier, Lee, Palm Beach, and Martin counties (EPPC 

1996). Also weedy in cultivated landscapes (Broschat and Meerow 1991). 

KAL 

94 

Immature fruits

Distribution: Originating in India (Nelson 1996), but a common plant of coastal 

strands across Old World tropics (Willis 1973). Naturalized in Florida and West Indies; 

also cultivated occasionally in Central and South America and probably naturalized 

(Little and Wadsworth 1964). Has taken over beaches used by nesting sea turtles on St. 

John, U.S. Virgin Islands (Austin 1993). In Florida, documented by herbarium specimens 

from southernmost counties and from Brevard County on the central east coast 

(Wunderlin et al. 1995). 

Life History: Cold-sensitive, restricted to areas with minimum temperatures above 

1.7˚C (35˚F) (Broschat and Meerow 1991). Resists salt spray and wind action (Rao et al. 

1983). Grows “luxuriantly on shores of bays and inlets” (Small 1933); able to thrive in 

low silty land and coral and sand berms (Nellis 1994). Shifts into the more efficient C 4 - 

type of photosynthesis under saline conditions (Kotmire and Bhosale 1985). Flowers and 

fruits nearly year-round. Fruits and seeds buoyant, adapted to long-distance dispersal by 

tides and ocean currents (Nellis 1994). 

KAL 

JD 

In Matheson Hammock, 

Miami-Dade County 

Leaves 

KAL 

seaside mahoe 

Flower 

95

Melia azederach L. 

Meliacae/Mahogany Family 

Common Names: Chinaberry, pride-of-India 

Synonymy: M. australis Sweet; M. japonica G. Don; M. sempervirens Sw. 

Origin: Asia 

Botanical Description: Deciduous tree to 15 m (50 ft) tall. Twigs stout with purplish 

bark, dotted with buff-colored lenticels. Leaves alternate, large, long-petioled, 2 or 3 

times compound (odd-pinnate), up to 0.5 m (1.5 ft) long; leaflets pungent when 

crushed, dark green above, often with sparse pubescence along veins; lighter green below, 

generally glabrous; margins serrate; blade bases often oblique. Inflorescences showy, loose, 

stalked panicles from leaf axils. Flowers small, fragrant, with 5 lilac petals; stalks of 

stamens united into dark purple tube. Fruit a stalked, thinly fleshy, subglobose, singleseeded 

drupe, yellow or yellowish green at maturity. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced around 1830 as an ornamental in South Carolina 

and Georgia (Gordon and Thomas 1997) and widely planted in southern states. Occurs 

primarily in disturbed areas such as road right-of-ways and fencerows, but has also 

invaded floodplain hammocks and marshes and upland woods, particularly in north 

Florida (Clewell 1985, Godfrey 1988). Reported by land managers as infesting parks in 

23 counties (EPPC 1996). 

Distribution: Most abundantly naturalized in north and west Florida, but often escaping 

cultivation in peninsular counties, south to the Keys (Nelson 1994, Wunderlin 1982). 

Naturalized also in tropical America and planted in temperate and subtemperate areas 

around the world (Bailey and Bailey 1976). Reported as a prominent roadside and 

shoreline weed in Cape Province, South Africa (Henderson 1991). In the U.S., naturalized 

from eastern Virginia, southward to south Florida, and westward to eastern half of 

Texas and Oklahoma (Godfrey 1988). 

LCA 

96 

Flowers

chinaberry 

Life History: Often shrubby and root-suckering, forming thickets. Frequently flowers 

and fruits at shrub size. Produces flowers in spring, usually March and April; its fruits 

long-maturing, prolific, and commonly persistent after leaf fall. Fruits poisonous to 

humans and some other mammals, but seeds dispersed by a variety of songbirds, who 

relish the drupes and sometimes gorge themselves to the point of temporary intoxication 

(Nelson 1994). 

KAL 

Compound leaf 

KAL 

Fruits 

97

Ficus microcarpa L. f. 

Moraceae/Fig Family 

Common Names: Laurel fig, Indian laurel, laurel rubber 

Synonymy: Ficus nitida Thunb. and F. retusa L. misapplied 

Origin: India, Malaysia 

Botanical Description: Evergreen tree to 15 m (50 ft) or more in height, with a rounded 

dense crown, smooth gray bark, milky sap, and long, thin, dangling aerial roots. Leaves 

alternate, simple, leathery, deep glossy green, oval-elliptic to diamond-shaped, to 13 cm 

(5 in) long, with short pointed, ridged tips. Flowers tiny, unisexual, numerous, hidden 

within the “fig,” a fleshy, specialized receptacle that develops into a multiple fruit (syconium), 

this green turning to yellow or dark red when ripe, sessile, in pairs at leaf axils, 

small, to 1 cm (0.5 in) in diameter. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced for ornament before 1912 (Fairchild 1938), and 

popular as a street tree in south Florida for decades. Began spreading by seed in the 

1970s, following apparently accidental introduction of species-specific pollinating wasps 

(McKey 1991, Nadel et al. 1992), probably via importation of plants from Hawaii, 

where wasps were successfully introduced in 1921 (Stange and Knight 1987). By 1980s, 

seedlings seen naturalized on both the west and east coasts of south Florida (Nadel et al. 

1992). Found in Big Cypress National Preserve as seedlings on palm tree trunks, limestone 

rocks, and in building crevices (T. Pernas, National Park Service, 1995 personal 

communication). Also found in various tropical hammocks (S. V. Wells, Miami-Dade 

Parks Department, 1995 personal communication). Now reported from about 18 natural 

areas in Monroe, Dade, Collier, Palm Beach, and Martin counties, including 

Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge (EPPC 1996). 

TP 

98 

Related leaf shapes 

TP 

Growing on limestone

Laurel fig 

Distribution: Native to Asia but widely planted in the tropics (Little and Wadsworth 

1964). Perhaps naturalized in Bermuda, where the pollinating wasp has also been found 

(Stange and Knight 1987). Found on Florida’s west coast also in Lee County (Nadel et al. 

1992), and found naturalized as far north as Hillsborough County (Wunderlin et al. 

1996). May presently be naturalized throughout its cultivated range in Florida (Nadel et 

al. 1992). 

Life History: Fast-growing, able to survive in little or no soil when young; seedlings and 

saplings found in rain gutters, building crevices, sidewalk cracks, and on rocks, as well as 

in “boots” of sabal palm trunks. Found on high-rise buildings in Singapore (Wee 1992). 

Has a complex mode of sexual reproduction requiring pollination by specific tiny wasps 

that in turn use the shelter and food of the specific fig to carry out their life cycle (a 

mutualistic relationship). Seeds dispersed primarily by birds and other vertebrates, with 

evidence of further dispersal by ants (Kaufmann et al. 1991). Unlikely to naturalize and 

persist above the frost line in Florida (H. Gramling, Tampa Bay Wholesale Growers, 

1998 personal communication). 

TP 

Mature tree, Monroe Station 

TP 

Growing on native palm 

99

Ardisia crenata Sims 

Myrsinaceae/Myrsine Family 

Common Name: Coral ardisia, coral berry, spice berry 

Synonymy: Ardisia crenulata Vent. 

Origin: Japan to northern India 

Botanical Description: Evergreen subshrub to 1.8 m (6 ft) tall (more commonly 0.5-1 

m in height), growing in multi-stemmed clumps. Leaves alternate, to 21 cm (8.3 in) 

long, dark green above, waxy, glabrous, with crenate (scalloped) margins and calluses in 

the margin notches. Flowers white to pink in stalked axillary clusters, usually drooping 

below the foliage. Flowers small, bisexual, with petaloid parts pinkish white and anthers 

yellow. Fruit a bright red, globose, 1-seeded drupe, to 8 mm in diameter. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced into Florida for ornament near the beginning of 

this century (Royal Palm Nurseries 1900). Noted as escaping into moist woods in 1982 

(Wunderlin). Seen naturalized in hardwood hammocks across USDA Plant Hardiness 

Zone 9, including several areas in northern Florida (H. Dozier, University of Florida, 

personal observations). Recently reported as new to Texas flora, dominating understories 

in portions of two reserves (Singhurst et al. 1997). May reach densities of greater than 

100 plants per m 2 (H. Dozier, University of Florida, unpublished data). Native plant 

species richness substantially lower in its presence, regardless of its density or the site 

history; also reduces the already dim light of forest understories by an additional 70%, 

potentially shading out native seedlings (H. Dozier, University of Florida, unpublished 

data). Mature naturalized plants usually surrounded by a carpet of seedlings, displacing 

small native ground cover such as violets, Viola spp., and wakerobins, Trillium spp., (M. 

Zeller and K. C. Burks, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, personal 

observations). 

KCB 

100 

In park floodplain, Leon County

coral ardisia 

Distribution: Most widely distributed Ardisia worldwide (Watkins and Wolfe 1956, 

Watkins 1969). Naturalized on 2 islands in Hawaii (C. Smith, University of Hawaii, 

1995 personal communication), and noted as an escapee in wet forest remnants in 

Mauritius over 60 years ago (Lorence and Sussman 1986; Vaughan and Wiehe 1937, 

1941). Reported from Florida natural areas in Alachua, Flagler, Gadsden, Highlands, 

Hillsborough, Leon, Liberty, Marion, Martin, and Orange counties (EPPC 1996). 

Recorded by herbarium specimens from Alachua, Citrus, Franklin, Gadsden, Hernando, 

Highlands, Leon, Marion, Orange, and Pasco counties (Wunderlin et al. 1996). 

Life History: Prefers moist soil (Chabot 1952, Odenwald and Turner 1980), but may 

succumb to fungal rot in flooded soil (J. Tea, University of Florida, 1996 personal communication). 

Resprouts vigorously after cutting; propagated by cuttings for compact 

growth (Chabot 1952). Does not carry fire well through its thick foliage and resprouts 

following fire (F. E. Putz, University of Florida, 1996 personal communication). Produces 

fruit within 2 years from seed (Odenwald and Turner 1980). Fruit crop usually 

heavy, with viable seed retained year-round on plants (H. Dozier, University of Florida, 

personal observations). Seeds dispersed by birds, including mockingbirds and cedar 

waxwings (K. Brady, Birdsong Nature Center, 1997 personal communication) and by 

raccoons (H. Dozier, University of Florida, personal observations). Seeds able to germinate 

in a range of soil pH, from pH 4 (acid) to pH 10 (alkaline), with germination rates 

of 84 to 98% within 40 days (M. Zeller, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 

unpublished data). 

KAL 

KAL 

Leaves Mature fruits 

101

Ardisia elliptica Thunb. 

Myrsinaceae/Myrsine Family 

Common Names: Shoebutton ardisia 

Synonymy: Ardisia polycephala Wall., A. solanacea Roxb., A. humilis Vahl. 

Origin: India, China, Southeast Asia 

Botanical Description: Evergreen, glabrous shrub or small tree to 5 m (17 ft) tall, with 

smooth stems and new foliage often reddish. Leaves alternate, to 20 cm (8 in) long, 

oblong to oval, fleshy, leathery, gland-dotted below, with margins entire. Flowers in 

axillary clusters, star shaped, 13 mm (0.5 in) wide, with mauve-colored petals. Fruit a 

rounded drupe, 6 mm (< 1 in) wide, red turning to black when ripe, with white juicy 

flesh. 

NOTE: Differs from the native marlberry, Ardisia escallonioides Schlecht. & Cham., and 

native myrsine, Rapanea punctata (Lam.) Lundell (Myrsine floridana A. DC.), by its larger 

growth habit and conspicuous axillary clusters of mauve flowers. 

Ecological Significance: Classified as a common weed in Hawaii (Holm et al. 1979). 

Naturalized in Jamaica, forming secondary thickets in moderately wet places (Adams 

1972). Introduced to Florida for ornament by 1900 (Gordon and Thomas 1997). Noted 

as escaping cultivation in south Florida (Small 1933, Morton 1976, Austin 1978). In 

Miami-Dade County, now abundant in hammocks, old fields, disturbed wetlands, and 

tree islands in marshes, forming dense single-species stands in forest understories and 

crowding out native plants (R. Hammer, Miami-Dade County Natural Resources Department, 

1996 personal communication). Also invading cypress and mangrove areas 

along the New River in Broward County (e.g., Secret Woods preserve). Has become a 

target of eradication by natural resource managers for Miami-Dade and Broward County 

Parks and Everglades National Park (M. McMahon, Biological and Environmental 

Consulting, 1996 personal communication). 

RH 

102 

Young flower clusters

shoebutton ardisia 

Distribution: Common in East Indies, naturalized in Hawaii, the Caribbean, and 

Florida. Reported only for Dade County in 1965 (Lakela and Craighead 1965). Herbarium 

specimens now recorded for naturalized populations in Dade, Monroe, and St. 

Lucie counties (Wunderlin et al. 1995). Reported as sight records from a dozen parks in 

Dade, Palm Beach, and Broward counties (EPPC 1996). 

Life History: Flowers and fruits all year (Long and Lakela 1971). Seed dispersal aided by 

bird consumption of fruits (R. Hammer, Miami-Dade County Parks, 1996 personal 

communication). Berries edible (Morton 1974). 

KAL 

KAL 

Fruits 

KAL 

Thicket in Everglades National Park 

Young leaves 

103

Eugenia uniflora L. 

Myrtaceae/Myrtle family 

Common Names: Surinam cherry, cayenne cherry 

Synonymy: Eugenia michelii Lam. 

Origin: Brazil 

Botanical Description: Evergreen, multibranched shrub or small tree to 10 m (30 ft) 

tall, usually shrub size in Florida; young stems often with red hairs and dark red new 

foliage. Leaves opposite, simple, short petioled, oval to lance shaped, 2.5-8 cm (1-3 in) 

long, shiny dark green above, paler below; margins entire. Flowers white, fragrant, about 

13 mm (0.5 in) across, with many stamens; occurring solitary or in clusters of 2 or 3 at 

leaf axils. Fruit a fleshy, juicy, orange-red berry to 4 cm (1.5 in) wide, depressed-globose, 

conspicuously 8-ribbed, with 1-3 seeds. 

NOTE: Differs from native Eugenia spp. (stoppers) by having relatively larger fruit and at 

least some flowers solitary at the leaf axils. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced for ornament and edible fruit before 1931 (Stennis 

1931, Gordon and Thomas 1997). Widely planted in central and south Florida, especially 

for hedges (Maxwell and Maxwell 1961, Watkins 1970). Noted as escaping cultivation 

and invading hammocks in south-central and south Florida (Long and Lakela 1971, 

Tomlinson 1980, Wunderlin 1982). Has invaded Dade and Broward County hammocks 

in high numbers, becoming a target of eradication by park managers (M. McMahon, 

Biological and Environmental Consulting, 1995 personal communication). Forms 

thickets in hammocks in the Bahamas (Correll and Correll 1982). Also listed as invasive 

in Hawaii (Wester 1992). Considered weedy in cultivated landscapes (Broschat and 

Meerow 1991), not recommended (Nelson 1996). Now reported from over 20 Florida 

natural areas, including national wildlife refuges and rare scrub habitat, in Dade, 

Broward, Palm Beach, Martin, Highlands, Lee, Sarasota, Hillsborough, and Pinellas 

counties (EPPC 1996). 

KAL 

104 

Leaves

Distribution: Widely grown in tropical regions (Bailey and Bailey 1976). Escaped from 

cultivation also in U.S. Virgin Islands (Little and Wadsworth 1964). Commonly naturalized 

in Dade County (Lakela and Craighead 1965). Herbarium specimens of Florida 

naturalized populations collected from as far north as St. Lucie and Brevard counties on 

the east coast, Polk County on the central ridge, and Pinellas County on the west coast 

(Wunderlin et al. 1995). 

Life History: Hardy into central Florida and adaptable to all soil conditions not subject 

to flooding (Sturrock 1959). Freezes at about -1˚C (30˚F); grows moderately fast; can be 

easily pruned; has “fair” salt tolerance (Maxwell and Maxwell 1961). Flowers and fruits 

primarily in spring, with sometimes a second crop in the fall. Fruits eaten fresh or used in 

preserves (Stennis 1931). Plants visited daily by birds during the fruiting season (Stresau 

1986). Fruits probably also eaten by small mammals. Propagated for cultivation by seed 

(Broschat and Meerow 1991). Also known as a general host for the Mediterranean fruit 

fly (Weems 1981). 

EJ 

EJ 

Fruits 

Flowers 

surinam cherry 

105

Melaleuca quinquenervia (Cav.) Blake 

Myrtaceae/Myrtle family 

Common Names: Melaleuca, paper-bark, cajeput, punk tree, white bottlebrush tree 

Synonymy: Melaleuca leucadendron (L.) L. misapplied 

Origin: Australia, New Guinea, and Solomon Islands 

Botanical Description: Evergreen tree to 33 m (100 ft) tall, with a slender crown and 

soft, whitish, many-layered, peeling bark. Leaves alternate, simple, grayish green, narrowly 

lance shaped, to 10 cm (4 in) long and 2 cm (3/4 in) wide, with a smell of camphor 

when crushed. Flowers in creamy white “bottle brush” spikes to 16 cm (6 in) long. 

Fruit a round, woody capsule, about 3 mm (3/8 in) wide, in clusters surrounding young 

stems, each capsule holding 200-300 tiny seeds. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced to Florida for ornament in 1906 (Laroche 1994b). 

Scattered aerially over the Everglades in the 1930s to create forests (Austin 1978). Widely 

planted, and recommended as late as 1970 as “one of Florida’s best landscape trees” 

(Watkins 1970). Now recognized internationally as a threat to the Florida Everglades, a 

World Heritage Site and International Biosphere Reserve (D. C. Schmitz, 1994 Congressional 

testimony). Grows extremely fast, producing dense stands that displace native 

plants, diminish animal habitat, and provide little food for wildlife (Laroche 1994b). Has 

become abundant in pine flatwoods, sawgrass marshes, and cypress swamps of south 

Florida (Nelson 1994). By 1994, estimated to infest nearly 200,000 ha (490,000 acres) in 

south Florida, with extensive stands in the Everglades, Big Cypress, and Loxahatchee 

Slough (Laroche 1994b). Infested acreage since reduced by an estimated 40,470 ha 

(100,000 acres) through regional control efforts (F. Laroche, South Florida Water Management 

District, 1998 personal communication). First insect biological control agent 

released in Everglades by U.S. Department of Agriculture in 1997 (Cox News Service). 

Distribution: Found naturalized in Florida as far north as Hernando, Lake, and Brevard 

counties (Wunderlin et al. 1995, Mason 1997). Reported from natural areas in 16 central 

and south Florida counties (EPPC 1996). 

RB 

106 

Old capsules

melaleuca 

Life History: Prefers seasonally wet sites, but also flourishes in standing water and welldrained 

uplands (Laroche 1994b). Saplings often killed by fire, but not mature trees. Can 

survive severe frost damage (Woodall 1981). Grows 1-2 m (3-6 ft) per year; resprouts 

easily from stumps and roots; capable of flowering within 2 years from seed (Laroche 

1994b). Flowers and fruits all year, producing up to 20 million windborne seeds per year 

per tree, and able to hold viable seed for massive all-at-once release when stressed 

(Woodall 1983). Releases volatile oils into air, especially when blooming, that cause 

respiratory irritation, asthma attacks, headaches, and/or rashes in some people (Morton 

1971b). 

JRS 

TP 

In Big Cypress National Preserve 

Flowers, leaves 

107

Psidium cattleianum Sabine 

Myrtaceae/Myrtle Family 

Common Names: Strawberry guava, Cattley guava 

Synonymy: Psidium littorale Raddi var. longipes (O. Berg) Fosb. 

Origin: Brazil 

Botanical Description: Evergreen shrub or small tree to 8 m (25 ft) tall, with gray to 

reddish-brown peeling bark and young branches round, pubescent. Leaves opposite, 

simple, entire, glabrous, elliptic to oblong, to 8 cm (3 in) long. Flowers to 2.5 cm (1.2 

in) wide, borne singly at leaf axils, with white petals and a mass of white and yellow 

stamens. Fruit a globose berry, 3-6 cm (1.2-2.4 in) long, purple-red, with whitish flesh 

usually sweet-tasting when ripe; seeds numerous. 

NOTE: May be confused with the common guava (P. guajava, on following pages), 

which has 4-angled branches and larger leaves with the veins prominently raised below. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced to Florida in the 1880s for ornament and as a fruit 

crop (Gordon and Thomas 1997), and since planted extensively (Watkins 1970, Broschat 

and Meerow 1991). Noted as “often growing wild” by 1950s (Barrett 1956). Forms 

thickets and shades out native vegetation in forests and open woodlands (Cronk and 

Fuller 1995). Has had catastrophic effect on native habitats of Mauritius, and considered 

the worst pest plant in Hawaii, where it has invaded a variety of natural areas (Cronk and 

Fuller 1995). Has become dominant in some native forests of Hawaii, including in 2 

national parks, where its clonal spread is enhanced by activities of feral pigs (Huenneke 

and Vitousek 1990). Reported from Florida parks and preserves in Pinellas, 

Hillsborough, Martin, and Palm Beach counties (EPPC 1996). Along with the common 

guava and the Surinam cherry, also serves as a major host for the naturalized Caribbean 

fruit fly, Anastrepha suspensa (Loew), which occasionally spreads to commercial citrus 

crops (Nguyen et al. 1993). 

KAL 

108 

Young stem

strawberry guava 

Distribution: Native to Brazil, naturalized in Florida, Hawaii, tropical Polynesia, Norfolk 

Island, and Mauritius (Cronk and Fuller 1995). Naturalized across peninsular 

Florida, with herbarium specimens documented from Seminole, Orange, Osceola, 

Pinellas, Hillsborough, Indian River, St. Lucie, Martin, Highlands, Glades, Hardee, and 

DeSoto counties (Wunderlin et al. 1995). 

Life History: Grows rapidly, tolerates shade, and produces root suckers (Cronk and 

Fuller 1995). Root-suckering ability important to its dominance in natural habitats 

(Huenneke and Vitousek 1990). Has good salt tolerance (Maxwell and Maxwell 1961). 

Flowers and fruits all year (Wunderlin 1982). Has high seed production, early seed 

maturity, and seed dispersal by both birds and mammals (Cronk and Fuller 1995). 

KAL AF 

Bark 

Immature fruits 

109

Psidium guajava L. 


Common Names: Common guava, apple guava 



Botanical Description: Evergreen shrub or small tree to 9 m (30 ft) tall, with scaly 

greenish-brown bark and young branches 4-angled, pubescent. Leaves opposite, simple, 

short stalked, entire, oval to oblong-elliptic, to 15 cm (6 in) long, pubescent below, with 

veins impressed above and conspicuously raised below. Flowers white, fragrant, to 4 cm 

(1.6 in) wide, borne singly or a few together at leaf axils; many stamens. Fruit an oval or 

pear-shaped berry, 3-10 cm (1-4 in) long, yellow at maturity, with yellow or dark pink 

flesh somewhat dull in taste; seeds numerous. 

NOTE: May be confused with the strawberry guava (see preceding pages). 

Ecological Significance: Introduced early to Florida, naturalized by 1765 (DeBrahm 

1773). Planted extensively for edible fruit and ornament; weedy in landscaping (Broschat 

and Meerow 1991); spreading into hammocks and pinelands (Long and Lakela 1971, 

Morton 1976). Has become dominant in the understory of some cypress strands (D. F. 

Austin, Florida Atlantic University, 1997 personal communication). Forms thickets and 

has a serious impact in native forests and open woodlands (Cronk and Fuller 1995). 

Present as a weed in 27 countries; a common to serious pest in 9 of these (Holm et al. 

1979). Now a common element of coastal moist forests in Puerto Rico (Little and 

Wadsworth 1964). Reported from Florida parks and preserves in Broward, Collier, Dade, 

Highlands, Lee, Martin, Osceola, Palm Beach, and Sarasota counties (EPPC 1996). 

Along with the strawberry guava and the Surinam cherry, also serves as a major host for 

the naturalized Caribbean fruit fly, Anastrepha suspensa (Loew), which occasionally 

spreads to commercial citrus crops (Nguyen et al. 1993). 

KAL 

110 

Along roadside, 

Indian River County 

KAL 

Leaves

common guava 

Distribution: Native to tropical America, probably from southern Mexico south to 

South America, but its distribution greatly extended through cultivation (Little and 

Wadsworth 1964). Frequently naturalized (Bailey and Bailey 1976). Naturalized in Old 

World tropics, in Florida and the West Indies (Cronk and Fuller 1995). Found in Florida 

from Pinellas and Brevard counties south to the Keys (Nelson 1994). 

Life History: Forms dense thickets (Scurlock 1987). Grows rapidly and tolerates shade 

(Cronk and Fuller 1995). Young plants more tolerant of cold, to -7˚C (20˚F), if water 

stressed (Utsunomiya 1988). Flowers and fruits all year (Wunderlin 1982). Has high seed 

production, early seed maturity, and seed dispersal by both birds and mammals (Cronk 

and Fuller 1995). 

KAL 

Bark 

KAL 

Young stem 

111

Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Ait.) Hassk. 


Common Names: Downy rose myrtle, downy myrtle, hill gooseberry, hill guava 

Synonymy: Rhodomyrtus tomentosa (Ait.) Wight, R. parviflora Alston 

Origin: Tropical Asia 

Botanical Description: Evergreen shrub to 2 m (6 ft) tall, with dense, short, soft hairs 

on young stems. Leaves opposite, simple, entire, elliptic-oval, to 7 cm (3 in) long, glossy 

green above, densely soft-hairy below (tomentose), with 3 main veins from blade base. 

Flowers rose-pink, to 2.5 cm (1 in) across, in one- to few-flowered clusters at leaf axils; 5 

sepals, hairy; 5 petals; many stamens, with pink filaments. Fruit a globose, few-seeded 

berry to 1.3 cm (0.5 in) across, dark purple, with sweet, aromatic flesh. 

Ecological Significance: A principal weed in Hawaii and Malaysia, and a common weed 

in Thailand (Holm et al. 1979). Introduced to Hawaii around 1920 (Degener 1963), 

where it formed impenetrable thickets on Kauai and Hilo by the 1950s (Hosaka and 

Thistle 1954). Introduced to Florida before 1924 for ornament and edible fruit (Gordon 

and Thomas 1997). An early escapee from cultivation, forming extensive thickets near 

Orlando, Bradenton, Oneco, Bonita Springs, Naples, and Estero (Morton 1976). Readily 

invades pinelands, displacing native vegetation with dense one-species thickets in the 

understory (T. Pernas, National Park Service, and D. F. Austin, Florida Atlantic University, 

1995 personal communications). Threatens to become worse than Brazilian pepper 

in central Florida (J. Layne, Archbold Biological Station, 1996 personal communication 

to D. F. Austin). Reported now from natural areas in Sarasota, Lee, Collier, Highlands, 

Palm Beach, and Martin counties (EPPC 1996). 

Distribution: Found in Florida as far north as Pasco County on the west coast; documented 

by herbarium specimens from the counties already mentioned plus Hillsborough, 

Manatee, Charlotte, and DeSoto counties (Wunderlin et al. 1995). Native from India to 

China, south to the Phillippines (Bailey and Bailey 1976). By 1950s, widespread in 

tropics and subtropics to 2,400 m (8,000 ft) elevations (Hosaka and Thistle 1954). 

RER 

112 

Fruit, leaves

Downy rose myrtle 

Life History: Will withstand several degrees of frost; is not particular as to soil (Bailey 

and Bailey 1976). Thrives in moist soil when young (Morton 1971a). Will tolerate salt of 

coastal soils, but sensitive to heavy salt spray and overwash (Menninger 1964). Blooms 

profusely, abundantly in spring (Morton 1971a, Menninger 1964). Fruits likened to 

huckleberries, but with thicker, richer juice, good for jelly (Stennis 1931). Seeds probably 

dispersed by birds and mammals. 

RER 

KAL 

Flowers 

In pineland, Charlotte County 

113

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels 


Common Names: Java plum, jambolan, jamun, duhat 

Synonymy: Syzygium jambolana (Lam.) DC., Eugenia cumini (L.) Druce, E. 

jambolana Lam. 

Origin: Southeast Asia, India 

Botanical Description: Evergreen tree to 25 m (80 ft) tall, with young stems grayish 

white and lower bark coarse and discolored. Leaves opposite, simple, entire, elliptic to 

broadly oblong, smooth, glossy, somewhat leathery, 5-10 cm (2-5 in) long, short pointed 

at tips; petioles to 3 cm (1.2 in) long; leaf midrib prominent, yellowish; blades with 

many lateral veins closely parallel. Flowers white to pinkish, about 1 cm (0.5 in) across, 

in branched clusters at stem tips; calyx cuplike; 4 petals, fused into a cap; many stamens. 

Fruit an ovoid, 1-seeded berry to 2 cm (0.8 in) long, dark purplish red, shiny, with white 

to lavender flesh. 

NOTE: May be confused with another naturalized non-native, the rose apple, Syzygium 

jambos Alston, but its habit smaller, to 15 m (50 ft) in height; its leaves longer, to 25 cm 

(10 in) long; its petals free, not fused into a cap; and its fruits cream-yellow. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced into Florida for ornament and edible fruit by the 

U.S. Department of Agriculture, with seeds from the Philippines in 1911 and 1920, and 

from Java and Zanzibar in 1912 (Popenoe 1939). Long recommended as a shade tree but 

considered messy (Broschat and Meerow 1991). Noted as naturalized in southern Florida 

by 1982 (Wunderlin). Now one of the more rapidly spreading non-native species, forming 

dense canopies that shade out young native trees in wet pinelands, hammocks, and 

well drained uplands (Duever et al. 1986). Reported from 17 natural areas in Pinellas, 

Lee, Collier, Dade, Palm Beach, and Martin counties (EPPC 1996). Naturalized on all 

islands of Hawaii, where it excludes native as well as introduced plants, such as Schinus 

terebinthifolius (Wagner et al. 1990). 

AF 

114 

Leaves

Distribution: Found in peninsular Florida, mostly in southernmost counties; documented 

by herbarium specimens from Palm Beach, Collier, and Lee counties (Wunderlin 

et al. 1995). Native from India to Myanmar and East Indies, but widely cultivated in 

tropics (Bailey and Bailey 1976). Naturalized in Hawaii (Wagner et al. 1990), Australia 

(Oommachan 1977, Morton 1987), the Philippines, Zanzibar, Pemba, Mombassa, and 

Kenya (Morton 1987). 

Life History: Restricted to areas with minimum temperatures above 1.7˚C (35˚F) 

(Broschat and Meerow 1991). Thrives in low wet areas as well as higher well-drained 

land, including loam, sand, or oolitic limestone (Morton 1987). Observed most often in 

Big Cypress National Preserve on damp pineland sites but also on regularly inundated 

but relatively high spots in cypress strands and sawgrass marshes (Duever et al. 1986). 

Does well in its native range in areas with as much as 1,000 cm (400 in) of annual 

rainfall and withstands prolonged flooding (Morton 1987). Common in the dry zone of 

its native range, in all forms of forest but especially along margins of streams and ponds 

(Dassanayke and Forsberg 1981). Resistant to coastal high winds, but not to heavy salt 

spray and overwash (Menninger 1964). Does not do well in highly saline, or sodic, soils 

(Gill and Abrol 1991). Produces fruit in 5-6 years when grown from seeds (Burkill 

1935). Flowers year-round (Wunderlin 1982), but mostly in the spring. Seeds dispersed 

by birds and mammals, including raccoons and wild hogs. Dispersed in Hawaii primarily 

by myna birds (Morton 1987). Used in fruit preserves, but fruit considered “rarely worth 

eating” by some (Menninger 1964). Closely related to S. aromaticum (L.) Merr., the 

dried flower buds of which form the spice known as “cloves” (Willis 1973). 

EJ 

EJ 

Fruits Flowers, fruits, and leaves 

Java plum 

115

Jasminum dichotomum Vahl 

Oleaceae/Olive Family 

Common Name: Gold Coast jasmine 


Origin: Tropical west Africa 

Botanical Description: Scrambling shrub or woody climber, evergreen, to 8 m (26 ft) 

tall, with climbing stems longer; stems glabrous. Leaves opposite, appearing simple 

(unifoliolate), oval to roundish oblong, glossy, leathery, 5-7 cm (2-4 in) long, with shortpointed 

tips. Flowers white (pink in bud), quite fragrant, opening at night, in clusters at 

leaf axils; petals fused into a narrow tube to 2.5 cm (1 in) long, with 5-9 terminal lobes 

about 1.3 cm (0.5 in) long, spreading in star-shaped fashion. Fruit a small, fleshy, roundish, 

black, 2-lobed berry. 

NOTE: Without flowers or fruits present, may be confused with the native snowberry, 

Chiococca alba (L.) A. Hitchc., but its opposite leaves joined at the nodes by a stipular 

line scar. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced into Florida for ornament in the late 1920s (Hammer 

1996). As an ornamental, considered “promising in South Florida” in 1947 (Bailey 

and Bailey 1947). More recently considered weedy in cultivated landscapes (Broschat and 

Meerow 1991) and not recommended (Nelson 1996). Recognized as spreading from 

cultivation not only in disturbed areas but in hammocks by 1970s (Long and Lakela 

1971, Morton 1976, Austin 1978). Vigorously invades intact, undisturbed hardwood 

forests; can climb high into the tree canopy of mature forests, completely enshrouding 

native vegetation and reducing native plant diversity (Hammer 1996). Reported from 7 

natural areas in Dade County (EPPC 1996). Difficult to control (Nelson 1996). 

Distribution: One of 7 species of non-native jasmines naturalized in Florida. Naturalized 

populations of J. dichotomum documented by herbarium specimens from Dade, Monroe, 

Collier, and Highlands counties (Wunderlin et al. 1996). 

KAL 

116 

Opposite leaves

Gold coast jasmine 

Life History: Restricted to areas with average minimum temperatures above 1.7˚C 

(35˚F) (Broschat and Meerow 1991). Easy to grow; propagated in cultivation from 

cuttings; may not tolerate soggy root zones (Chabot 1952). Will grow near coasts where 

protected from salt spray (Menninger 1964). Flowers all year, most abundantly in spring; 

ripe fruit found from early summer into early winter (Hammer 1996). Seeds dispersed by 

birds and raccoons, with dense plots of seedlings often seen arising from raccoon droppings 

(Hammer 1996). 

RH 

Habit 

KAL 

Climbing in Greynolds Park, 

Miami-Dade County 

117

Jasminum fluminense Vell. 

Oleaceae/Olive family 

Common Name: Brazilian jasmine, Azores jasmine 

Synonymy: Jasminum bahiense DC.; J. azoricum L. misapplied 

Origin: Tropical west Africa 

Botanical Description: Evergreen, climbing, woody vine, with young stems densely 

hairy and mature stems glabrous. Leaves opposite, trifoliolate, leaf and leaflets stalked; 

terminal leaflet larger, to 7 cm (4 in) long, with a stalk to 5 cm (2 in) long; leaflets 

broadly ovate, pubescent above and below, with pointed tips. Flowers white, quite 

fragrant, opening at night, in broad, branched clusters at leaf axils; petals fused into a 

narrow, slightly curved tube to 2.5 cm (1 in) long, with 5-7 terminal lobes shorter than 

the tube, spreading in star-shaped fashion. Fruit a small, fleshy, roundish, black, 2-lobed 

berry. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced into Florida for ornament in the early 1920s; first 

described from Brazil, but actually introduced there from Africa by Portuguese explorers 

(Hammer 1996). Commonly escaped and weedy by 1960s (Lakela and Craighead 1965, 

Long and Lakela 1971, Morton 1974). Abounds on fences, power poles, hedges, and 

other disturbed sites (Morton 1976). Has spread extensively and become a major pest, in 

Florida and in Puerto Rico (Morton 1974). Self-sowing and weedy in cultivated landscapes 

(Broschat and Meerow 1991). An aggressive, troublesome, difficult-to-control 

weed (Nelson 1996). Has vigorously invaded intact, undisturbed hardwood forests in 

south Florida; can climb high into the tree canopy of mature forests, completely enshrouding 

native vegetation and reducing native plant diversity (Hammer 1996). Reported 

from 11 natural areas, including rare scrub habitat, in Dade and Palm Beach 

counties (EPPC 1996). 

KAL 

118 

Flowers

Brazilian Jasmine 

Distribution: One of 7 species of non-native jasmines naturalized in Florida. Naturalized 

populations of J. fluminense documented by herbarium specimens from Dade, Monroe, 

St. Lucie, and Highlands counties (Wunderlin et al. 1996). Listed as a common weed in 

Puerto Rico and as a weed in the Dominican Republic (Holm et al. 1979). Noted as 

locally common in Jamaica (Adams 1972). Naturalized in the Bahamas as well, and 

elsewhere in the New World tropics and subtropics (Correll and Correll 1982). 

Life History: Restricted to areas with average minimum temperatures above 1.7˚C (35˚F) 

(Broschat and Meerow 1991). Easy to grow; propagated in cultivation from cuttings; 

may not tolerate soggy root zones (Chabot 1952). Will grow near coasts where protected 

from salt spray (Menninger 1964). Flowers all year, most abundantly in spring; ripe fruit 

found from early summer into early winter (Hammer 1996). Seeds dispersed by birds 

and raccoons, with dense plots of seedlings often seen arising from raccoon droppings 

(Hammer 1996). 

KAL 

KAL 

Compound leaves 

Along roadside near Homestead 

119

Ligustrum sinense Lour. 

Oleaceae/Olive Family 

Common Names: Chinese ligustrum, Chinese privet, variegated ligustrum (in 

cultivation) 

Synonymy: None, but includes cultivars labeled stauntonii, nanum, pendulum 

Origin: China 

Botanical Description: Semideciduous shrub or small tree to 4 m (12 ft) tall or more; 

twigs densely pubescent. Leaves opposite, simple (on long twigs, at first glance, may 

appear compound), all green (in cultivation usually variegated, cream-white and green); 

leaf blades to 4 cm (1.5 in) long and 2 cm (0.75 in) wide, elliptic to elliptic-oblong, with 

tips blunt, margins entire, and pubescence persistent on midvein below; petioles short, 

pubescent. Flowers many, white, small, somewhat unpleasantly fragrant, on slender 

pubescent stalks in narrow, conical panicles, terminal on branchlets. Fruits dark blue or 

bluish-black drupes, ellipsoid to subglobose, mostly 4-5 mm (0.2 in) long. 

NOTE: May be confused with native privets (Foresteria spp.), but their leaves with small 

marginal teeth or their leaves without petioles; and the native Walter’s viburnum 

(Viburnam obovatum Walt.), but its young stem tips covered with rust-colored scales. 

Ecological Significance: Occurs most densely in open disturbed areas, especially low wet 

places, but also invades less disturbed upland hammocks and pinelands, river and stream 

floodplains, lake shores, and edges of swamps and marshes, often becoming locally 

abundant even in deep shade. Has moved into undisturbed relict slope hammock, 

threatening to displace the globally endangered Miccosukee gooseberry, Ribes echinellum 

(K. C. Burks, Fl. Department of Environmental Protection, personal observations). 

Considered a “troublesome exotic” or “noxious weed” in much of the Southeast (Dirr 

1983, Nelson 1996). Often unrecognized, however, because naturalized populations 

revert to all-green leaf color following sexual reproduction and seed dispersal by birds, 

while vegetatively propagated cultivars generally sold with variegated leaves (Dirr 1983). 

Difficult to control once established in wetlands such as floodplains (Nelson 1996). Also 

a natural-area weed in bushlands of Australia (Burrows and Kohen 1986) and relict 

subtropical forests of Argentina (Montaldo 1993). Introduced in the South as an ornamental 

in 1852 (Dirr 1983) and noted as naturalized as early as 1933 (Small 1933); 

noted as widely spread in later floristic works (Radford et al. 1968, Godfrey and Wooten 

1981, Clewell 1985). Still cultivated in 10 southern states (Meyer et al. 1994). 

KAL 

120 

Young fruits

Distribution: In Florida, most abundantly naturalized in Panhandle and northern 

counties, but also documented by herbarium specimens south on the peninsula in 

Hernando, Hillsborough, and Dade counties (Wunderlin et al. 1995). Reported by 

managers for Florida conservation areas in 9 counties from Santa Rosa to Citrus counties 

(EPPC 1996). Also widely naturalized elsewhere in the South, from the Carolinas to 

Texas, and north to Kentucky and Tennessee (Radford et al. 1968, Correll and Johnston 

1970). 

Life History: Readily escapes cultivation (Nelson 1996). Can form impenetrable thickets 

and thrive in sunny concrete crevices as well as in fully shaded floodplains—“found 

about everywhere that birds fly” (Dirr 1983). Dispersal by birds important to new 

colonizations (Montaldo 1993) and higher seed germination (Burrows and Kohen 1986). 

Flowers and fruits prolifically in late spring, an average square meter of canopy producing 

about 1,300 fruits (Burrows and Kohen 1986). Pure variegated form not known to 

produce viable seed (H. Gramling, Tampa Bay Wholesale Growers, 1998 personal 

communication). Can handle frequent pruning (Yeager and Ingram 1986). Occasionally 

susceptible in cultivation to infestation by whiteflies (Dickey and Mowry 1969). 

KAL 

KAL 

Chinese ligustrum 

Leaves, hairy twigs Mixed leaf colors in cultivation 

121

Colubrina asiatica (L.) Brongn. 

Rhamnaceae/Buckthorn Family 

Common Names: Latherleaf, Asiatic or common colubrina, hoop withe, Asian 

snakeroot 


Origin: Old World 

Botanical Description: Glabrous, evergreen, scrambling shrub with diffuse, slender 

branches to 5 m (16 ft) long; in older plants, stems to 15 m (49 ft) long. Leaves alternate, 

with slender petioles to 2 cm (3/4 in) long; blades oval, shiny dark green above, 4-9 cm 

(1.6-3.5 in) long and 2.5-5 cm (1-2 in) wide, with toothed margins and producing a thin 

lather when crushed and rubbed in water. Flowers small, greenish white, in short 

branched, few-flowered clusters at leaf axils; each with a nectar disc, 5 sepals, 5 hooded 

petals, and 5 stamens. Fruit a globose capsule, green and fleshy at first and turning brown 

upon drying, about 8 mm (1/3 in) wide, with 3 grayish seeds. 

NOTE: Distinguished from the native colubrinas by its sprawling habit, glabrous stems, 

dull gray seeds, leaf blades with serrate margins, and 3 main veins from blade bases. 

Ecological Significance: Thought to have been brought to Jamaica in 1850s by East 

Asian immigrants for traditional use as medicine, food, fish poison, and soap substitute 

(Burkill 1935, Perry 1980). Noted as naturalized in the Florida Keys and Everglades by 

Small (1933), and as aggressively spreading along these coasts by Morton (1976) and 

Austin (1978). Invades marly coastal ridges just above the mean high tide line (Russell et 

al. 1982), in tropical hammocks, buttonwood and mangrove forests, and tidal marshes 

(Schultz 1992). Also forms thickets on disturbed coastal roadsides. Can invade disturbed 

and undisturbed forest sites (Olmsted et al. 1981, Jones 1996). Forms a thick mat of 

entangled stems up to several feet deep, growing over and shading out native vegetation, 

including trees (Langeland 1990, Jones 1996). Of particular concern in Florida’s coastal 

hammocks, where it threatens a number of rare, listed native plant species, such as 

mahogany, thatch palm, wild cinnamon, manchineel, cacti, bromeliads, and orchids 

(Jones 1996). Also found now in every park in the Keys, where it threatens rare natives 

such as bay cedar and beach star, and covers several acres in Blowing Rocks Preserve on 

Jupiter Island in Martin County (J. Duquesnel, Florida Park Service, 1994 personal 

communication). 

JD 

122 

Flowers

Latherleaf 

Distribution: Found naturally from eastern Africa to India, Southeast Asia, tropical 

Australia, and the Pacific Islands, including Hawaii, where it typically occurs as scattered 

plants on sandy and rock seashores (Brizicky 1964, Johnston 1971, Tomlinson 1980). 

From Jamaica, has spread in New World to other Caribbean islands, Mexico, and 

Florida, with the aid of ocean currents and storm tides (Russell et al. 1982). In Florida, 

now naturalized in coastal areas from Key West north to Hutchinson Island in St. Lucie 

County (Schultz 1992) and in Everglades National Park, including the Ten Thousand 

Islands northwest into Collier County (EPPC 1996). 

Life History: Requires considerable light, with seedling growth rate increasing where 

shade removed; stems may grow 10 m (32 ft) in a single year (Schultz 1992). Forms 

adventitious roots where branches touch the ground. Vigorously resprouts from cut or 

injured stems. May reach seed-producing maturity within a year (Russell et al. 1982, 

Schultz 1992). Flowers in Florida most often in July, with fruits mature in September 

(Jones 1996), but reported as flowering year-round (Long and Lakela 1971, Wunderlin 

1982). For germination, loose soil usually required, with seeds able to retain viability in 

soil for at least several years (Russell et al. 1982). Long-distance dispersal aided primarily 

by storms and extreme tides, which allow ocean currents to carry away the buoyant, salttolerant 

fruits and seeds (Carlquist 1966). 

JD DJ 

Thickets (darker green) in coastal ridge, Everglades National Park (aerial view) 

Leaves, flowers, fruit 

123

Paederia foetida L. 

Rubiaceae/Madder Family 

Common Names: Skunk vine, Chinese fever vine 

Synonymy: Paederia scandens Lour., P. chinensis Hance, P. tomentosa Blume 

Origin: Eastern and southern Asia 

Botanical Description: Perennial twining vine from woody rootstock; stems to 7 m (23 

ft) or more, climbing, or prostrate and rooting at the nodes. Leaves opposite (rarely in 

whorls of 3), with conspicuous stipules; petioles commonly to 6 cm (2.4 in) long; blades 

entire, oval to linear-lanceolate, 2-11 cm (1-4.3 in) long, hairy or glabrous, often lobed at 

base; leaves and stems with disagreeable odor, especially when crushed. Flowers small, 

grayish pink or lilac, in broad or long, “leafy,” curving clusters, terminal or at leaf axils; 

corolla densely hairy, tubular with 5 (usually) spreading lobes. Fruit a shiny brown, 

nearly globose capsule, to 0.7 cm (0.3 in) wide, with 2 black, roundish seeds, these often 

dotted with white raphides. 

NOTE: May be confused with the closely related, also naturalized, sewer vine, P. 

cruddasiana Prain, but its fruits oval, flattened, with distinctly winged seeds. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced by the U.S. Department of Agriculture before 1897 

as a potential fiber plant; by 1916 already “a troublesome weed” around the Brooksville 

Field Station (Morton 1976). Noted as escaping to thickets and fence rows in peninsular 

Florida by Small (1933). Considered an economically important weed by 1977 (Reed 

1977). Occurs most often in tree gaps and other disturbed areas in its native range (Puff 

1991). In Florida, invades various native plant communities, including sandhill, floodplain, 

and upland mixed forest. Can create dense canopies leading to damage or death of 

native vegetation (Gann and Gordon 1998). In Orange County, found in relatively wet 

areas, growing on wetland natives such as dahoon holly (Ilex cassine L.). Has smothered 

out portions of one of the few remaining populations of the endemic, federally endangered 

Cooley’s water willow (Justicia cooleyi Monachino & Leonard) (S. Bowman, Native 

Plant Society, and D. Martin, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1995 personal communications). 

Reported from nearly 20 natural areas in Hillsborough, Hernando, Pasco, Citrus, 

Marion, Sumter, Lake, Orange, and Polk counties (EPPC 1996). 

KAL 

124 

Flowers, leaves

Distribution: Occurs most commonly in west central Florida, but also documented 

northward to Suwannee and Gadsden counties by herbarium specimens (Wunderlin et al. 

1996) and by sight records for Duval County (Martin 1995) and Franklin County (W. 

Miley, Apalachicola National Estuarine Reserve, 1996 personal communication). Also 

naturalized in Louisiana and South Carolina, although perhaps not persisting there 

(Gann-Matzen 1994). A principal or common weed in Hawaii, present as a weed in 

Brazil; in its native range, a serious weed in New Guinea (Holm et al. 1979). 

Life History: Fast-growing; shows wide-ranging adaptability to different light, soil, and 

salt conditions (Puff 1991). Able to establish and grow above the frost line, though some 

leaves may turn yellow-red or drop following a freeze (G. Greger, City of Winter Park, 

and K. C. Burks, Florida Department of Environmental Protection, personal observations). 

Sensitive to fire (Gann and Gordon 1998). Flowers and fruits mostly in summer 

and fall; seeds may be dispersed by birds (Gann-Matzen 1994). May also be spread by 

accidental transport of rooted fragments. 

KAL 

Mature fruits 

KAL 

Skunk vine 

Growing over native vegetation, 

Pasco County 

125

cupaniopsis anacardioides (A. rich.) Redkf. 

Sapindaceae/Soapberry Family 

Common Names: Carrotwood, tuckeroo tree 

Synonymy: Cupania anacardioides A. Rich. 

Origin: Australia 

Botanical Description: Slender evergreen tree, usually single trunked, to 10 m (33 ft) 

tall, with dark gray outer bark and often orange inner bark (hence the common name). 

Leaves alternate, once compound (usually even-pinnate), with petioles swollen at the 

base; 4-12 leaflets, stalked, oblong, leathery, shiny yellowish green, to 20 cm (8 in) long 

and 7.5 cm (3 in) wide, with margins entire and tips rounded or slightly indented. 

Flowers numerous, white to greenish yellow, up to 0.8 cm (0.4 in) wide, in branched 

clusters to 35 cm (14 in) long, at leaf axils; 5 petals; 6-8 stamens. Fruit a short-stalked, 

woody capsule, to 2.2 cm (0.9 in) across, with 3 distinctly ridged segments, yelloworange 

when ripe, drying to brown and splitting open to expose 3 shiny oval black seeds 

covered by a yellow-red crust (aril). 

Ecological Significance: Introduced for landscaping in the 1960s, quickly becoming 

popular in southern Florida for its fast growth, ease of propagation, and adaptability to 

coastal conditions (Lockhart et al. 1997). Even earliest plantings noted as freely seeding 

(Menninger 1964). By 1990, seedlings found established in various habitats, disturbed 

and undisturbed, on both coasts (Oliver 1992). Invades spoil islands, beach dunes, 

marshes, tropical hammocks, pinelands, mangrove and cypress swamps, scrub habitats, 

and coastal strands (Lockhart et al. 1997). Now found in natural areas of 14 coastal 

counties in central and south Florida, with reproducing wild populations established 

already in Brevard, Martin, and Sarasota counties (EPPC 1996, Lockhart et al. 1997). 

Appears able to compete well with even other aggressive non-native plants such as Brazilian 

pepper (Lockhart et al. 1997). Greatest densities of seedlings and saplings, to 24 

stems per m 2 , found so far in mangrove forests, where they greatly alter the understory 

habitat (Lockhart et al. 1997). In recent years, ornamental use of carrotwood discouraged 

or restricted by local ordinance in several counties and 1 municipality (G. Jubinsky, 

Florida Department of Environmental Protection, 1997 personal communication). 

KAL 

126 

Fruits, seeds

Carrotwood 

Distribution: Occurs naturally along north and east coasts of Australia on rocky beaches, 

sand dunes, and in hilly scrub and riverine and monsoon forests (Reynolds 1985). 

Cultivated in various subtropical areas, including California (Oliver 1992). In Florida, 

naturalized in coastal counties from Brevard and Hillsborough south to Dade and Collier 

(EPPC 1996). 

Life History: Tolerant of salt, full sun, full shade, poor soils, poor drainage, and dry areas 

(Oliver 1992). Older trees able to withstand cold to about -6˚C (22˚F) (Stresau 1986). 

Flowers in Florida in late winter/early spring, January and February, with fruits maturing 

in April and May (Lockhart et al. 1997). Seeds dispersed by birds, including mockingbirds 

and fish-eating crows (Austin 1996). 

KAL 

CL 

Bird dispersal of seeds 

Flowers 

AF 

Sapling in mangrove community, 


127

Cestrum diurnum L. 

Solanaceae/Nightshade Family 

Common Name: Day jessamine 

Synonymy: Cestrum diurnum var. venenatum (Mill.) O. E. Schultz 


Botanical Description: Evergreen shrub to 2 m (6.5 ft) tall, with multiple trunks, often 

densely branched and branches arching. Leaves alternate, simple, short petioled (to 1.2 

cm, or 0.5 in); blades smooth, leathery, entire, shiny green, oval to oblong, 5-11 cm (2-4 

in) long, 2-4.5 cm (0.8-1.8 in) wide. Flowers fragrant in daytime, creamy white, trumpet-shaped, 

in several-flowered, stalked clusters at upper leaf axils; corolla tube to 1.8 cm 

(0.7 in) long, with tiny petal lobes curled back. Fruit an oval berry, to 7 mm (0.3 in) 

long, green ripening through violet to shiny blue-black, with 4-14 seeds. 

NOTE: May be confused with the native marlberry, Ardisia escallonioides Schlecht. & 

Cham., but its leaves larger, 10-15 cm (4-6 in) long, and its flower clusters terminal. 

Ecological Significance: Introduced to Florida before the 1930s, when Small recognized 

it as naturalized in hammocks and disturbed areas of the Florida Keys (Small 1933). 

Perhaps a natural introduction (R. D’Arcy, Missouri Botanical Garden, 1997 personal 

communication), but long cultivated for its fragrant flowers (e.g., Chabot 1952), widely 

cultivated outdoors in warm regions (Menninger 1964, Watkins and Sheehan 1975), and 

escaped from cultivation (Long and Lakela 1971, Tomlinson 1980, Morton 1982, 

Wunderlin 1982, Nelson 1996). Frequently planted in the far South (Bailey and Bailey 

1947, Kingsbury 1964); also naturalized as an escapee from cultivation in south Texas 

(Small 1933, Kingsbury 1964, Correll and Johnston 1970) and Hawaii (Morton 1982). 

“Abounds as a weed in the wild areas of Florida and Hawaii” (Morton 1982). Abundant 

in hammocks and open disturbed areas; considered a “serious threat” to natural areas in 

south Florida (Morton 1976). Established in natural areas of Broward and Palm Beach 

counties by 1978 (Austin). Invades coastal strand hammocks; can form dense thickets at 

the margins (L. Carter, Florida Park Service, 1997 personal communication). 

KAL 

128 

Mature fruits

Day jessamine 

Distribution: Reported from 4 preserves, including Biscayne National Park, and in 

Dade, Broward, and Hillsborough counties (EPPC 1966). Naturalized populations 

documented by herbarium specimens from Hillsborough, DeSoto, Glades, Palm Beach, 

Broward, Dade, and Monroe counties (Wunderlin et al. 1995). Probably introduced to 

Florida from the West Indies. Commonly naturalized on 3 islands of the Bahamas 

(Correll and Correll 1982). 

Life History: Found most often in dry soils (Long and Lakela 1971). Can tolerate shade 

and dense allelopathic litter under Australian pines (J. Duquesnel, Florida Park Service, 

1997 personal communication). Salt tolerant (Morton 1982, Watkins and Sheehan 

1975) if protected from heavy salt spray and overwash of storms (Menninger 1964). 

Flowers and fruits year-round (Morton 1982, Wunderlin 1982). Seeds dispersed by birds 

(Morton 1982). Fruits poisonous to humans and other mammals, affecting the nervous 

system (Kingsbury 1964, Krook et al. 1975, Morton 1982). 

Flowers, immature fruits, leaves 

129

Solanum tampicense dunal 


Common Name: Wetland nightshade, aquatic soda apple 

Synonymy: Solanum houstonii Martyn, S. quercifolium Miller 

Origin: Mexico, West Indies, Belize 

Botanical Description: Straggly and sprawling prickly shrub, woody below, herbaceous 

above, with prickly green stems to 5 m (16 ft) long and 1.5 cm (0.5 in) in diameter; 

branches often interlocking; stem prickles white to tan, recurved, broad-based, to 0.5 cm 

(0.2 in) long; stems also sparsely hairy with star-shaped (stellate) hairs. Leaves alternate, 

simple, with petioles to 3 cm (1.5 in) long; blades longer than wide, to 25 cm (10 in) 

long and 7 cm (3 in) wide, with deeply round-indented (sinuate) margins, recurved or 

straight prickles on veins, and stellate hairs. Flowers small, 3-11 in stalked, branched 

clusters at leaf axils; petals white, mostly free (fused only at base), spreading or often 

recurved; stamens with yellow anthers held closely and erect in center of flower. Fruit a 

small, spherical, tomato-like berry to 1 cm (0.4 in) wide, shiny solid green turning 

orange then bright red at maturity, with 10-60 yellowish, flat-round seeds. 

NOTE: Distinguished from other prickly Solanum spp. in Florida, native and exotic, by 

its clusters of up to 11 pea-sized red berries (with no dark markings when green); its 

petioled, longer-than-wide, deeply sinuate leaves; its pubescence of stellate hairs only (no 

straight or glandular hairs); and its clambering, almost vinelike habit. 

Ecological Significance: Not known from cultivation; apparently a recent accidental or 

natural introduction to Florida. Most species of the genus known to be bird-dispersed 

(D’Arcy 1974). First recorded for Florida in 1974 in the Dry Tortugas, where it has filled 

available wet habitat (confined by brick walls) (D. Jones, National Park Service, and 

others, personal observations to 1997). First noted on the mainland in 1983 in a small 

hammock in south Charlotte County (A. Shuey, Florida Department of Environmental 

Protection, specimen at University of South Florida Herbarium). Found through various 

surveys of the 1990s in 3 other areas in southwest Florida: the Peace River, Fisheating 

Creek, and Six-Mile Slough basins. Occurs in relatively undisturbed wetlands, typically 

cypress swamps or along river margins; capable of forming large, tangled, monocultural 

stands of many acres by invading sparsely vegetated areas or clambering over native 

vegetation; can dominate the understory of cypress heads, growing over and covering 

even large plants such as fire flag (Thalia geniculata L.) and pickerelweed (Pontederia 

cordata L.) (A. Fox, University of Florida, personal observations). 

AMF 

130 

Fruits

Wetland nightshade 

Distribution: Native to West Indies and Central America. Occurs in Florida along at 

least 40 km (25 mi) of Fisheating Creek (Highlands and Glades counties); along at least 

40 km (25 mi) of the Peace River (DeSoto County), including 2 tributaries; and in the 

Six-Mile Slough natural area (Lee County). In Charlotte County, found in open marsh 

near original hammock location (K. C. Burks, A. Nielsen, Florida Department of Environmental 

Protection, personal observations). 

Life History: Grows in full shade to full sun. New green stems produced annually from 

woody base. Can form adventitious roots at leaf axils. Sheds leaves at high water, producing 

new ones when flooding recedes; apparently not tolerant of permanent flooding. 

Susceptible to frost, but may regrow from crowns. Flowers and fruits in May (in sun), or 

early fall (in shade), prolifically in the sun (247 recorded on 1 stem) and far less in the 

shade (10% as many). Seeds tolerant of freezing and drying, viable for at least 12 

months; fresh seeds showing over 90% germination. Dispersal of seeds and stem fragments 

possible, especially downstream (Fox and Wigginton 1996). 

AMF 

AMF 

Flowers 

AMF 

Thicket along Peace River 

Prickles, leaves 

131

Solanum torvum Sw. 


Common Names: Turkey berry, susumber, gully-bean, Thai eggplant, devil’s fig 

Synonymy: Solanum ferrugineum Jacq., S. ficifolium Ort. 


Botanical Description: Evergreen, widely branched, prickly shrub or small tree, to 5 m 

(16 ft) tall; twigs stellate tomentose; stems armed with stout, flattened prickles, straight 

(usually) or slightly curved. Leaves alternate, simple, clearly petioled; blades oval to 

elliptic, unlobed to strongly lobed, to 25 cm (10 in) long; bases unequal, tips pointed; 

surfaces densely stellate hairy below, less dense above, with usually a few long prickles on 

midveins (especially above). Flowers many, in large branched clusters, with simple, 

mostly glandular hairs on axes; corolla bright white, to 2.5 cm (1 in) across, lobed about 

1/3 of its length; lobes not recurved; stamens with prominent anthers. Fruit an erect, 

subglobose berry, to 1.5 cm (0.6 in) wide, yellow when ripe. 

NOTE: Distinguished in Florida from other prickly Solanum spp., and other prickly 

shrubs, by its treelike habit, stout prickles, clearly petioled leaves with dense stellate hairs 

below, numerous bright white flowers followed by yellow grape-sized berries, and glandular 

hairs on flower stalks. 

Ecological Significance: Cultivated in the tropics for its sharp-tasting immature fruits 

(Morton 1981). Has been found cultivated in Florida, though it is a federally listed 

noxious weed (Coile 1993). Considered a weed in 32 countries, a serious or principal 

weed in 7 of these (Holm et al. 1979). Noted as naturalized in peninsular Florida by 

Small (1933), in disturbed uplands and in swamps. Collected “only a few times” in south 

Florida by 1974 (D’Arcy 1974). Has been documented now by herbarium specimens in 

6 south Florida counties plus Hillsborough and Columbia counties (Wunderlin et al. 

1996). Reported so far from 3 natural areas in Broward and Collier counties (EPPC 

1996; D. F. Austin, Fl. Atlantic University, 1998 personal communication). 

NC 

132 

Immature fruits

turkey berry 

Distribution: A pantropical weed (D’Arcy 1974). Very common and weedy in the 

Pacific lowlands of Guatemala and other parts of the country (Gentry and Standley 

1974). Considered weedy elsewhere in its native range as well (Holm et al. 1979, Correll 

and Correll 1982). Native from Mexico to Peru and Venezuela, and in West Indies and 

Bermuda (Morton 1981). Brought to Florida at least once before 1900 for cultivation 

trials (Westbrooks and Eplee 1989). 

Life History: Sprouts from roots, forming thickets (N. Coile, Florida Department of 

Agriculture and Consumer Services, 1997 personal communication). In its native range, 

grows in wet thickets, dry brushy plains, woodland clearings, and rocky hillsides 

(Standley 1938, Adams 1972, Gentry and Standley 1974). Flowers and fruits all year 

(Adams 1972). As with most species of the genus, seeds probably dispersed by birds 

(D’Arcy 1974). 

NC 

MB 

Flowers, leaves 

Habit (light green shrub) 

133

Solanum viarum Dunal 


Common Names: Tropical soda apple, Sodom apple 

Synonymy: Solanum khasianum var. chatterjeeanum Sen Gupta 

Origin: Brazil, Paraguay, Argentina 

Botanical Description: Bushy, prickly herbaceous perennial, to 2 m (6 ft) tall, more 

commonly 1 m (3 ft) tall; stems armed with broad-based, straight or downward-pointing 

prickles and clothed in a mixture of stellate and simple glandular or nonglandular hairs 

(viscid-pubescent). Leaves alternate, simple, clearly petioled (these also prickly); blades 

oval-triangular, nearly as broad as long, to 20 cm (8 in) long and 15 cm (6 in) wide, 

angular-lobed; surfaces dense with fine soft hairs giving blades a velvety sheen (hairs a 

mix of types as on stems); veins prickly. Flowers white, in small terminal clusters; 5 petals 

white, recurved; stamens with prominent cream-colored anthers. Fruit a globose berry, 2- 

3 cm (0.8-1.2 in) wide, green with dark veining, like a tiny watermelon, when immature, 

dull medium yellow when ripe; seeds about 400 per berry. 

NOTE: Distinguished in Florida from other prickly Solanum spp. by its straight prickles, 

mixture of stellate and simple hairs with and without glands, clearly petioled leaves with 

a velvety sheen, terminal flower clusters, and yellow berries that are dark-veined when 

young. 

Ecological Significance: A recent accidental introduction, exact means unknown; first 

collected in Florida in 1988; found in pastures and other open disturbed sites of Glades, 

Okeechobee, and Polk counties (Wunderlin et al. 1993). From 1990 to 1996, Florida’s 

infestation estimated to have increased from 10,000 ha (25,000 acres) to 200,000 ha 

(500,000 acres), becoming a major concern of agriculture and a serious threat to Florida 

natural areas (J. Mullahey, University of Florida, 1997 personal communication). Reported 

from over 20 natural areas, including local, state, and federal preserves, from as far 

north as Alachua County (EPPC 1996). Outcompetes native plants, crowding or shading 

them out (observations of several natural-area managers). 

JM 

134 

Flower

Distribution: Has spread north in Florida to the Panhandle, with herbarium specimens 

recorded for 17 counties (Wunderlin et al. 1995). Now a common weed in fields and 

groves, a frequent one along roadsides, and turning up more often at pineland and 

hammock edges. Also present now in adjoining states (Mullahey et al. 1996). Naturalized 

also in the West Indies, Mexico, Africa, and India (Wunderlin et al. 1993). 

Life History: Reaches maturity from seed within 105 days (Mullahey and Cornell 1994). 

Green stems persist in mild winter temperatures (Coile 1993). Less productive or may 

die in summer when standing in water (Mullahey and Colvin 1993). Can regenerate 

shoots from extensive root system; difficult to eradicate (Akanda et al. 1996). Flowers 

and fruits primarily from September through May, with few fruits produced in summer. 

Produces 40,000 to 50,000 seeds per plant, with a tested germination rate of 30-100% 

(Mullahey et al. 1993). Seeds dispersed by birds and other animals, including cattle, deer, 

feral pigs, and raccoons (Akanda et al. 1996). Also spread by seed-contaminated hay, sod, 

and machinery. 

JM 

JM 

Fruits 

tropical soda apple 

In rangeland Leaves 

JM 

135

Lantana camara L. 

Verbenaceae/Vervain Family 

Common Names: Lantana, shrub verbena 

Synonymy: Lantana aculeata L. 

Origin: West Indies 

Botanical Description: Rank-growing, multistemmed, deciduous shrub, to 2 m (6 ft) or 

more, with stems square, covered with bristly hairs when green, often armed as well with 

scattered small prickles. Leaves opposite, simple, with petioles to 2 cm (0.8 in) long; 

blades oval, rough hairy, to 15 cm (6 in) long and 6 cm (2.4 in) wide, with margins 

blunt-toothed and blade bases broad, squared off (truncate); leaves strongly aromatic. 

Flowers small, multicolored, in stalked, dense, flat-topped clusters to 4 cm (1.5 in) 

across; corolla a narrow tube with 4 short spreading lobes; flowers in a single cluster may 

be white to pink or lavender, yellow to orange or red, changing color over time. Fruit a 

round, fleshy, 2-seeded drupe, about 5 mm (0.2 in) wide, green turning purple then 

blue-black. 

NOTE: May be confused with the endangered endemic native, Florida lantana (Lantana 

depressa Small), with which it has extensively hybridized, but bases of the native’s leaf 

blades are tapered (cuneate), not truncate. Blade bases of the more common native, wild 

sage (L. involucrata L.), also cuneate, its flowers yellow-centered white, its leaves rounder. 

Ecological Significance: A serious to common weed in 25 countries and present as a 

weed in another 22 countries (Holm et al. 1979). A serious, worldwide invader that in 

some areas has altered habitats and threatens to eliminate populations of native plants 

and animals (Cronk and Fuller 1995). Can become the dominant understory in open 

forests (Holm et al. 1977). In Florida, often forms thickets in sunny open areas; commonly 

invades disturbed sites such as roadsides, spoil islands, pastures, citrus groves, and 

cultivated woodlands. Also frequent in well-drained undisturbed habitats such as native 

pinelands, hammocks, and beach dunes. Reported from over 40 natural areas from Dade 

County to Okaloosa County (EPPC 1996). Widely promoted for ornamental cultivation 

since the early 1800s (Mack 1991), with wild plants in Florida representing tetraploid 

cultivars (Hammer 1997). Has extensively hybridized with all 3 distinct varieties of L. 

depressa (Sanders 1987), contaminating the endemic gene pool. 

KAL 

136 

Immature and mature fruits

Lantana 

Distribution: Naturalized in tropical and warm regions worldwide (Sanders 1987). 

Found on the southern Atlantic Coastal Plain from Florida and Georgia to Texas (Small 

1933), and in California and Hawaii as a serious pest (Holm et al. 1979, Kingsbury 

1964). Common throughout Florida, including the Keys. Widely cultivated in Florida, 

with over 100 forms, cultivars, and hybrids available; some of the newer ones considered 

sterile (Hammer 1997). 

Life History: Long recognized as highly toxic to grazing animals; has caused death in 

children when a quantity of unripe berries was eaten (Morton 1971b). Produces allelopathic 

substances in the roots and shoots, increasing its competitive ability (Smith 1985, 

Sahid and Sugau 1993). Strongly resists herbivory, contributing to its pest-plant status 

outside its natural range (Janzen et al. 1983). Can tolerate fire by regenerating from basal 

shoots (Smith 1985). Flowers year-round (or May to December in northernmost 

Florida). Seed dispersed by songbirds (Janzen et al. 1983). ‘Gold Mound’, ‘New Gold’, 

‘Alba’, and ‘Patriot’ cultivars not known to produce viable seed in nursery or landscape 

plantings (S. Kent, Tree of Life Nursery, 1998 personal communication). 

KAL 

KAL 

In Lake Jessup conservation area 

Fruits and multicolored flowers 

137

DICOTS - Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council

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