INVASIVE PLANTS - Technical Learning College

INVASIVE PLANTS 

IDENTIFICATION AND CONTROL 

PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT 

CONTINUING EDUCATION COURSE

Invasive Plant Identification and Control©1/13/2011 2 

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Abode Acrobat reader is a free computer software program and you can 

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You can complete the course by viewing the course materials on your 

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This course booklet does not have the assignment. Please visit our 

website and download the assignment also. 

Internet Link to Assignment… 

http://www.tlch2o.com/PDF/Invasive%20Assignment.pdf 

State Approval Listing Link, check to see if your State accepts or has 

pre-approved this course. Not all States are listed. Not all courses are 

listed. If the course is not accepted for CEU credit, we will give you the 

course free if you ask your State to accept/approve it for credit. Call 

your State agency to see if the course is accepted. 

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You can obtain a printed version from TLC for an additional $79.95 plus 

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Invasive Plants 11/13/2011 3 

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Desert Gold Poppy Eschscholzia glyptosperma 

United States Library of Congress Number TX 6-609-212 

ISBN 978-0-9799928-1-0 

All Rights Reserved. 


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Important Information about this Manual 

This CEU course manual has been prepared to educate pesticide applicators and operators 

in general safety awareness of dealing with the often-complex and various pesticide 

treatment devices, methods, and applications. 

This manual covers general laws, regulations, required procedures, and accepted policies 

relating to the use of pesticides. It should be noted, however, that the regulation of 

pesticides and hazardous materials is an ongoing process and subject to change over time. 

For this reason, a list of resources is provided to assist in obtaining the most up-to-date 

information on various subjects. 

This manual is not a guidance document for applicators or operators who are involved with 

pesticides. It is not designed to meet the requirements of the United States Environmental 

Protection Agency or your local State environmental protection agency or health department. 

This CEU course manual provides general pesticide safety awareness and should not be 

used as a basis for pesticide treatment method/device guidance. This document is not a 

detailed pesticide information resource or a source or remedy for poison control. 

Technical Learning College or Technical Learning Consultants, Inc. make no warranty, 

guarantee or representation as to the absolute correctness or appropriateness of the 

information in this manual and assumes no responsibility in connection with the 

implementation of this information. It cannot be assumed that this manual contains all 

measures and concepts required for specific conditions or circumstances. This document is 

to be used solely for educational purposes only and is not considered a legal document. 

Pesticides are poisonous. Always read and carefully follow all precautions and safety 

recommendations given on the container label. Store all chemicals in the original labeled 

containers in a locked cabinet or shed, away from food or feeds, and out of the reach of 

children, unauthorized persons, pets, and livestock. 

Confine chemicals to the property being treated. Avoid drift onto neighboring properties, 

especially gardens containing fruits and/or vegetables. 

Dispose of empty containers carefully. Follow label instructions for disposal. Never reuse 

containers. Make sure empty containers are not accessible to children or animals. 

Never dispose of containers where they may contaminate water supplies or natural 

waterways. 

Do not pour down sink or toilet. Consult your county agricultural commissioner for correct 

ways of disposing of excess pesticides. Never burn pesticide containers. 

Individuals who are responsible for pesticide storage, mixing, and application should obtain 

and comply with the most recent federal, state, and local regulations relevant to these sites 

and are urged to consult with the EPA and other appropriate federal, state, and local 

agencies. 


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Copyright Notice 

©2006 Technical Learning College (TLC). No part of this work may be reproduced or distributed in 

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infringements were made as soon as these issues are brought to the editor's attention. 

Every possible effort is made to ensure that all information provided in this course is accurate. All 

written, graphic, photographic, or other material is provided for information only. Therefore, 

Technical Learning College (TLC) accepts no responsibility or liability whatsoever for the application 

or misuse of any information included herein. Requests for permission to make copies should be 

made to the following address: 

TLC 

P.O. Box 420 

Payson, AZ 85547-0420 

Information in this document is subject to change without notice. TLC is not liable for errors or 

omissions appearing in this document. 


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Technical Learning College’s Scope and Function 

Technical Learning College (TLC) offers affordable continuing education for today’s 

working professionals who need to maintain licenses or certifications. TLC holds 

approximately eighty different governmental approvals for granting of continuing 

education credit. 

TLC’s delivery method of continuing education can include traditional types of classroom 

lectures and distance-based courses or independent study. Most of TLC’s distance 

based or independent study courses are also offered in a print-based format and you are 

welcome to examine this material on your computer with no obligation. Our courses are 

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also receive course materials through the mail. The CEU course or e-manual will contain 

all your lessons, activities and assignments. Most CEU courses allow students to submit 

lessons using e-mail or fax, however some courses require students to submit lessons 

by postal mail. (See the course description for more information.) Students have direct 

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At TLC, there are no scheduled online sessions you need contend with, nor are you 

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frames that work best for you. TLC's method of flexible individualized instruction is 

designed to provide each student the guidance and support needed for successful 

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We will beat any other training competitor’s price for the same CEU material or 

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TLC's online courses combine the best of online delivery and traditional university 

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online open book exams. This student-friendly course design allows you the most 

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TLC Online offers you the best of both worlds--you learn on your own terms, on your 

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our customer satisfaction is second to none. This is one reason we have taught more 

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Our administrative staff is trained to provide outstanding customer service. Part of that 

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Technical Learning College’s (TLC’s) continuing education course material development 

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Rush Grading Service 

If you need this assignment graded and the results mailed to you within a 48hour 

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This fee may not cover postage costs. If you need this service, simply write 

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Thank you… 

Please fax or e-mail the answer key to TLC 

Western Campus Fax (928) 272-0747 Back-up Fax (928) 468-0675. 


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Invasive Plant Identification and Control CEU Training Course 

Course Description 

Welcome to the world of invasive and exotic plant identification and control. The purpose of this 

course is to help you learn about the highly specialized area of terrestrial pest management. Only 

by being properly prepared can you expect to perform your duties safely and effectively. 

As a member of the plant/landscaping/weed application industry, you need to develop the 

knowledge and skills to recognize: 

- If an organism is a pest. 

- What caused the pest to become a nuisance? 

- The life cycle of the pest. 

- Which life stage of the pest is susceptible 

to your management strategies. 

- Various management techniques and 

tools, including pesticides, suitable for 

aquatic uses. 

- How nontarget organisms may react to a 

proposed management strategy. 

- The changing conditions of the aquatic 

environment in which you work. 

This course covers diverse topics relating 

to plant biology including morphology, 

anatomy, physiology, ecology, 

systematics, and the evolution of 

terrestrial plants. The course enables a 

field-oriented study of ecological concepts 

and provides an opportunity to learn 

collecting techniques, specimen handling, 

development of skills for identifying 

common terrestrial species and chemical, 

biological and mechanical control of 

plants. This course will also cover 

common herbicide usage, integrated pest 

management, and pesticide/herbicide 

regulations. 

This continuing education course was 

designed as a quick and ready reference 

of invasive/ exotic/weed control practices 

used in various landscaping/cropping 

systems or site/situations. Because chemical regulation of plant growth is complex and requires 

considerable knowledge, a large portion of the course is devoted to registered uses of herbicides, 

weed identification, and pesticide use regulation. In all cases, the authors make every effort to list 

only registered herbicides and to ensure that the information conforms to product labels and 

company recommendations. 

The California Invasive Plant Inventory categorizes non-native invasive plants that threaten the 

state's wildlands. Categorization is based on an assessment of the ecological impacts of each 

plant. The Inventory represents the best available knowledge of invasive plant experts in the 

state; hopefully the Student can learn how to properly identify and control invasive and exotic 

plants. 


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California is home to 4,200 native plant species, and is recognized internationally as a 

"biodiversity hotspot." Approximately 1,800 non-native plants also grow in the wild in the state. A 

small number of these, approximately 200, are the ones that this Inventory considers invasive 

and this course will focus upon. The course author Melissa Durbin hopes to improve an 

understanding of these impacts and to help those working to protect California's treasured 

biodiversity. 

The Invasive PIant Inventory categorizes plants as High, Moderate, or Limited, reflecting the level 

of each species' negative ecological impact in California. Other factors, such as difficulty of 

management or will identified in this course or in your assignment. It is important to note that 

even Limited species are invasive and should be of concern to land managers. Although the 

impact of each plant varies regionally, its rating represents cumulative impacts statewide. 

Therefore, a plant whose statewide impacts are categorized as Limited may have more severe 

impacts in a particular region. Conversely, a plant categorized as having a High cumulative 

impact across California may have very little impact in some regions. 

The Inventory categorizes "invasive non-native plants that threaten wildlands" according to the 

definitions below. Plants were evaluated only if they invade California wildlands with native 

habitat values. The Inventory does not include plants found solely in areas of human-caused 

disturbance such as roadsides and cultivated agricultural fields. 

Wildlands are public and private lands that support native ecosystems, including 

some working landscapes such as grazed rangeland and active timberland. 

Non-native plants are species introduced to California after European contact 

and as a direct or indirect result of human activity. 

Invasive non-native plants that threaten wildlands are plants that 1) are not native 

to, yet can spread into, wildland ecosystems, and that also 2) displace native 

species, hybridize with native species, alter biological communities, or alter 

ecosystem processes. 

This course is designed for personnel: 

That need Pesticide/Herbicide Applicator continuing education for categories such as: 

- Aquatic 

- Right-of-Way 

- General Standards (CORE) 

- Aerial 

- Ornamental and Turf 

Who are employed in plant management and need continuing education credit. 

That are responsible for terrestrial/aquatic weed control in right-of- ways, around lakes, 

golf course, along rivers, parks, and in residential developments. 

That operate and calibrate herbicide and pesticide application equipment. 

That are employed by a public agency or private company which is responsible for 

vegetation management along right-of-ways and in natural areas. 

Who use biological control techniques to suppress plant or weed growth. 

Caution! 

This handbook is not intended as a complete guide to herbicide use. Before using any chemical, 

you must read the label on the container. Before a chemical can be recommended for a specific 

use, it must be thoroughly tested. Information is supplied here with the understanding that no 

discrimination is intended and no endorsement by Technical Learning College is implied. Due to 

constantly changing laws and regulations, the authors can assume no liability for the 

recommendations. Any use of a pesticide contrary to instructions on the printed label is not legal 

or recommended. 


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Course Procedures for Registration and Support 

All of Technical Learning College’s correspondence courses have complete registration and 

support services offered. Delivery of services will include, e-mail, web site, telephone, fax and 

mail support. TLC will attempt immediate and prompt service. All students will be tracked by an 

unique number assigned to the student. 

Instructions for Written Assignments 

The Invasive Plant Identification and Control training distance learning course uses a multiple 

choice style answer key. You can write your answers in this manual or type out your own answer 

key. TLC would prefer that you type out and e-mail the examination to TLC, but it is not required. 

Please find the assignment and registration page on TLC’s website. There is also an alternative 

CEU course practicum assignment available, contact your Instructor for further instruction and 

permission. 

Feedback Mechanism (examination procedures) 

Each student will receive a feedback form as part of his or her study packet. You will be able to 

find this form in the rear of this course. 

Security and Integrity 

All students are required to do their own work. All lesson sheets and final exams are not returned 

to the student to discourage sharing of answers. Any fraud or deceit and the student will forfeit all 

fees and the appropriate agency will be notified. 

Grading Criteria 

TLC will offer the student either pass/fail or a standard letter grading assignment. If TLC is not 

notified, you will only receive a pass/fail notice. 

Required Texts 

The course will not require any other materials. This course comes complete. 

Pesticide and Herbicide Terms, Abbreviations, and Acronyms 

TLC provides a glossary that defines in non-technical language commonly used pesticide and 

herbicide terms appearing in publications and materials. It also explains abbreviations and 

acronyms used throughout the EPA and other governmental agencies. You can find the glossary 

in the rear of this manual. 

Recordkeeping and Reporting Practices 

TLC will keep all student records for a minimum of five years. It is your responsibility to give the 

completion certificate to the appropriate agencies. TLC will complete and return to you the forms 

necessary for your certificate renewal. 

ADA Compliance 

TLC will make reasonable accommodations for persons with documented disabilities. Students 

should notify TLC and their instructors of any special needs. Course content may vary from this 

outline to meet the needs of this particular group. There is also an alternative CEU course 

practicum assignment available, contact your Instructor for further instruction and permission. 

Note to students: Keep a copy of everything that you submit. If your work is lost you can 

submit your copy for grading. If you do not receive your graded assignment or quiz results within 

two or three weeks after submitting, please contact your instructor. We expect every student to 

produce his/her original, independent work. Any student whose work indicates a violation of the 

Academic Misconduct Policy (cheating, plagiarism) can expect penalties as specified in the 

Student Handbook, which is available through Student Services; contact them at (928) 468-0665. 

You will have 90 days from receipt of this manual to complete it in order to receive your 

Continuing Education Units (CEUs) or Professional Development Hours (PDHs). 


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A score of 70% or better is necessary to pass this course. If you should need any assistance, 

please email all concerns or call us. If possible e-mail the final test to info@tlch2o.com or fax 

(928) 468-0675. 

Course Objective: To provide continuing education training in invasive and exotic plant 

identification, weed control, effective, safe herbicide applications, biological, mechanical 

treatment methods and management strategies. 

Educational Mission 

The educational mission of TLC is: 

To provide TLC students with comprehensive and ongoing training in the theory and skills needed 

for the pesticide application field, 

To provide TLC students with opportunities to apply and understand the theory and skills needed 

for operator certification, 

To provide opportunities for TLC students to learn and practice environmental educational skills 

with members of the community for the purpose of sharing diverse perspectives and experience, 

To provide a forum in which students can exchange experiences and ideas related to pesticide 

education, 

To provide a forum for the collection and dissemination of current information related to pesticide 

education, and to maintain an environment that nurtures academic and personal growth. 


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TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Identification Terms 14 

Identification Section 15 

Weed Classification 17 

Common Weeds 23 

Field Bindweed 23 

Russian Knapweed 23 

Scotch Thistle 24 

Canada Thistle 24 

Toadflax 25 

Diffuse Knapweed 25 

Leafy Spurge 25 

Musk Thistle 25 

Foxtail 26 

Black Medick 26 

Yellow Alyssum 26 

Shepherd’s Purse 27 

Blue Mustard 28 

Henbit 28 

White Clover 28 

Buffalo Bur 28 

Puncture Vine 28 

Oxalis 28 

Redroot Pigweed 28 

Dandelion 30 

Curly Dock 30 

Quackgrass 30 

Broadleaf Plantain 30 

Lambsquarters 32 

Purslane 32 

Crabgrass 32 

Poison Hemlock 32 

Silverleaf Nightshade 33 

Bamboo 34 

Common Mallow 34 

Common Groundsel 34 

Redstem Filaree 35 

London Rocket 35 

Russian Thistle 36 

Milkweed 36 

Goutweed 39 

Garlic Mustard 41 

Giant Reed 43 

Musk Thistle 45 

Asiatic Sand Sedge 47 

Spotted Knapweed 51 

Canada Thistle 53 

Leafy Spurge 61 

Cogon Grass 63 

Chinese Lespedeza 65 

Purple Loosestrife 67 

Japanese Stilt Grass 69 

Eurasian Watermilfoil 71 

Burma Reed 73 

Fountain Grass 75 

Japanese Knotweed 77 

Lesser Celandine 79 

Common Mullein 81 

Five-leaf Akebia 83 

Porcelainberry 85 

Oriental Bittersweet 87 

Climbing Euonymus 89 

English Ivy 91 

Japanese Honeysuckle 93 

Mile-a-minute weed 95 

Kudzu 97 

Chinese Wisteria 99 

Japanese Wisteria 99 

Buffalo Gourd 101 

Tree-of-Heaven 103 

Silk Tree 107 

Australian Pine 109 

Carrotwood 111 

Princess Tree 113 

White Poplar 115 

Common Buckthorn 117 

Saltcedar 119 

Puerco River 121 

Siberian Elm 127 

Common Grasses 131 

Grass Identification 131 

Broadleaf Key 133 

Field Crop Weeds 141 

Federal Listed Weeds 143 

California Invasive 147 

Weed Control Terms 165 

Weed Control Section 167 

Herbicide Application 171 

Weed Control Table 1 173 

Grass Table #2 174 

Herbicide Crop Table 175 

Reducing Control Cost 183 

Management Summary 197 

Aquatic Toxicology 199 

Bioconcentration 200 

Recordkeeping 203 

Safety Precautions 206 

Common Enemies 209 

Agricutlural Section 217 

Worker Protection 221 

Label Requirements 235 

Decontamination 249 

Early Work 263 

Adjuvants 303 

Abbreviations 345 

Glossary 347 

References 381 


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Common Weed Identification Terms 

Alternate- Leaves that are arranged singly up the stem; not opposite each other. 

Annual- Plant that germinates, flowers, seeds, and dies during one growing season. 

Anther- Structure in a flower in which pollen is formed 

Auricle- Lobe-like structure at the collar of a grass leaf. 

Awn- Slender bristle at the tip of grass seed structures. 

Axil- The angle formed between a leaf and a stem. 

Basal- At the base of a plant or plant part. 

Bi-ennial- Plant that germinates in one growing season, then flowers, seeds, and dies during the 

next year. 

Bract- Leaf-like structure at the base of flowers or leaves. 

Calyx- All the flower leaves together, normally green in color. 

Clasping leaves- Leaves that appear to wrap around the stem at their base. 

Compound leaves- Leaves with 2 or more distinct leaflets. 

Cotyledons- The first leaf-like structures that appear after germination; seed leaves. 

Crown- The structure formed where leaves, stems, and roots grow together. 

Dissected- Deeply and repeatedly divided into smaller parts. 

Entire- Not toothed or otherwise cut. 

Glumes- The 2 bracts surrounding a grass spikelet. 

Head- A group of flowers borne tightly together. 

Leaflets- Leaf-like structures within a compound leaf. 

Ligule- The structure at the collar of a grass leaf between the sheath and the stem. 

Linear- Long, narrow, and slender. 

Lobed- A cut into a leaf from the edge toward the center; greater than toothed, but not quite 

compound. 

Margin- The edge of a leaf. 

Membranous- Thin and flexible, usually not green. 

Midrib- The center and usually most prominent vein on a leaf. 

Nodding- A flower that is not pointed upward, but bent downward or sidewise to the stem. 

Opposite- Leaves situated directly across the stem from each other. 

Ovate- Egg shaped in outline. 

Panicle- A much-branched inflorescence. 

Perennial- A plant that lives for more than 2 growing seasons. 

Petiole- A leaf stalk. 

Pinnate- With 2 rows of leaflets, like a feather. 

Plume- A hair-like or feather-like structure, often on a seed. 

Pubescence- The hairs on a leaf, stem or flower. 

Rhizome- A creeping, underground stem. 

Rosette- A circular, normally basal, clump of leaves. 

Sheath- The extension of leaf tissue surrounding a stem. 

Simple leaf- One with a blade in one piece; not compound. 

Spike- A narrow, non-spreading inflorescence. 

Spikelet- A single or group of floral structures in a grass. 

Spur- A hollow appendage on a flower. 

Stolon- A creeping stem along the surface of the ground. 

Succulent- Fleshy and juicy. 

Taproot- A thick, central root with minimal branching. 

Trifoliate leaf- A leaf made of 3 leaflets; clover-like. 

Whorled- 3 or more similar structured arranged as spokes on a wheel. 


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Weed Identification Section 

A weed is any plant growing in an area where it is not wanted. We try to control weeds because 

they compete with crops for light, moisture, space and nutrients. Certain weed species can harbor 

plant diseases and insect pests and can be a serious threat to the ecosystem’s health. Other 

species may be poisonous, allergenic or an irritant to humans and/or livestock. Medical and 

economic problems such as illness, death, rash, hayfever, or a reduction in quality of fur, meat 

and milk products may result. 

Weeds have many unique characteristics which make them extremely difficult to control. Most 

produce a tremendous number of seeds. The seeds of some weed species may be dormant for 

many years, with only a small percentage germinating each year. Some seeds will not germinate 

without intense heat, like from a wild fire. Weeds generally mature earlier than the crop and often 

seeds will be dropped before crop harvest and remain in the field. Weeds are generally more 

competitive than crops and can often survive under unfavorable growing conditions. 

Weeds may conveniently be divided into two classes based on the way in which they emerge 

from the seed. Monocots emerge with a single seed leaf whereas dicots emerge with two seed 

leaves. Most monocot weeds found in turfgrass are from the family Gramineae and are termed 

weedy grasses. Examples include crabgrass, annual bluegrass, tall fescue, and quackgrass. 

Dicots, on the other hand, are termed broadleaf weeds and include such plants as dandelion, 

clover, ground ivy, knotweed, and plantain. 

Weedy grasses and broadleaf weeds are further divided into groups according to the plants' 

length of life. Perennial weeds have a life of more than two years, though new seeds may be 

produced every year. Biennial weeds have a life of two years, generally storing up food reserves 

in the leaves and roots the first year and producing seed in the second year. The biennial weeds 

are often grouped with perennial weeds since control is similar. 

Annual weeds germinate from seed, grow, flower, and produce seed in less than one year. 

Summer annuals (AKA warm season annuals) germinate in the spring and mature in the fall, 

whereas winter annuals (AKA cool season annuals) germinate in fall or late winter and mature 

in late spring. 

Summer annuals complete their lifecycle from seed to maturity in less than one year. They 

germinate in the spring, mature, set seed and die in the fall. Winter annuals germinate in the fall, 

overwinter as seedlings or small rosettes and mature, set seed and die the following spring or 

early summer. Some weeds are capable of both summer and winter annual lifecycles. 

Biennials 

Biennials complete their lifecycles in less than two years. Germination and the production of an 

overwintering rosette of leaves occur the first year. The second year flowering, seed production, 

and plant death occur. Control is best obtained during the first year. 

Perennials 

Perennials live for more than two years. They reproduce vegetatively from roots, rhizomes, buds, 

or tillers, or from seed, or both. They can be especially difficult to control because of their 

persistent root systems. 

Early identification of emerged weed species is critical for choosing the best weed control 

methods. This guide will enable you to identify weeds at three growth stages. 

Effective control of weeds in turf is based on correct identification. Many books and charts are 

available to help in identifying common lawn weeds. For additional help in weed identification, 

inquire at your county extension service. 


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What is a Weed? 

Generally, the term weed is used to describe any plant that is unwanted and grows or spreads 

aggressively. Terms such as invasive, exotic or non-native are used somewhat interchangeably 

to refer to weeds that infest large areas. Free from the natural controls present in their native 

lands, these weeds grow quickly and overtake native plants. 

Noxious Weed 

Millions of acres of once healthy, productive rangelands, forestlands and riparian areas have 

been overrun by noxious or invasive weeds. They are invading recreation areas, public lands, 

National Parks, State Parks, roadsides, stream banks, Federal, state, and private lands. 

Invasive or noxious weeds: 

destroy wildlife habitat 

reduce opportunities for hunting, fishing, camping, and other recreational activities 

displace many Threatened and Endangered Species 

reduce plant and animal diversity because of weed monocultures-single plant species 

that over-run all others in an area 

disrupt waterfowl and neo-tropical migratory bird flight patterns and nesting habitats 

cost millions of dollars in treatment and loss of productivity to private land owners. 

What is a noxious weed? 

The term "weed" means different things to different people. In the broadest sense, it is any plant 

growing where it is not wanted. Weeds can be native or non-native, invasive or non-invasive, and 

noxious or not noxious. Legally, a noxious weed is any plant designated by a Federal, State or 

county government as injurious to public health, agriculture, recreation, wildlife or property. 

(Sheley, Petroff, and Borman,1999) A noxious weed is also commonly defined as a plant that 

grows out of place (i.e. a rose can be a weed in a wheat field) and is "competitive, persistent, 

and pernicious." (James, et al, 1991). 

The noxious weeds mandated for control are plants non-native to North America. Consequently, 

these plants do not have the natural checks as found in their native land, such as insects, 

diseases, and herbivores that would keep the plant population in check. Due to the competitive 

aggressive ability of these plants, coupled with no natural controls, these plants will develop 

mono-culture stands. Not only are many crops out competed by these weeds, but native 

vegetation and the wildlife associated with it will be replaced. Consequently, identifying the weeds 

when they first become established and developing an integrated weed management plan to 

control them is critical in maintaining healthy, productive land. The term noxious weed is used to 

describe a legal designation for plant species that have been determined to be especially 

undesirable or difficult to control. These weeds are subject, by law, to certain restrictions. 

Regulated by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, there are 90 federal noxious weeds. Please see 

the Federal Listing of Noxious and Alien weeds in the rear of this course for more information. 

Are invasive plants the same as noxious weeds? 

No. Invasive plants include not only noxious weeds, but also other plants that are not native to 

this country. Plants are considered invasive if they have been introduced into an environment 

where they did not evolve. As a result, they usually have no natural enemies to limit their 

reproduction and spread (Westbrooks, 1998). Some invasive plants can produce significant 

changes to vegetation, composition, structure, or ecosystem function. (Cronk and Fuller, 1995). 

What is an Invasive Species? 

An 'invasive species' is defined as a species that is 1) non-native (or alien) to the ecosystem 

under consideration and 2) whose introduction causes or is likely to cause economic or 

environmental harm or harm to human health. (Executive Order 13112). 


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Weed Classifications 

Most common weeds fit into two large general classifications: broadleaves and grasses. 

Broadleaves and grasses may be further divided into annuals and perennials. Annual and 

perennial weeds may be even further subdivided by the seasons in which they germinate and 

grow. 

(1) Annuals 

Annual plants complete their life cycle in less than one year. Normally, they are considered easy 

to control. This is true for any one crop of weeds. However, because of an abundance of dormant 

seed and fast growth, annuals are very persistent. They actually cost more to control than 

perennial weeds. Most common field weeds are annuals. There are two types; summer and 

winter annuals. 

(a) Summer Annuals 

Summer annuals germinate in the spring, make most of their growth during the summer, and the 

plants mature and die in the fall. The seeds lie dormant in the soil until next spring. 

(b) Winter Annuals 

Winter annuals geminate in the fall and winter and usually mature seed in the spring or early 

summer before the plants die. The seeds often lie dormant in the soil during the summer months. 

In this group, high soil temperatures (125°F or above) have a tendency to cause seed dormancy. 

These are most troublesome in fall and early spring in ornamental plant areas. 

(2) Biennials 

A biennial plant lives for more than 1 year but not more than 2 years. Only a few troublesome 

weeds fall in this group. There is confusion between biennials and winter annuals, because the 

winter annual group normally lives during 2 calendar years and during 2 seasons. 

(3) Perennials 

Perennials live for more than 2 years and may live almost indefinitely. Most produce by seed and 

many are able to spread vegetatively. They are classified according to their method of 

reproduction as simple and creeping. 

(a) Simple Perennials 

Simple perennials spread by seed. They have no natural means of spreading vegetatively. 

However, if injured or cut, the cut pieces may produce new plants. For example a dandelion or 

dock root cut in half longitudinally may produce two plants. The roots are usually fleshy and may 

grow very large. 

(b) Creeping Perennials 

(1) Creeping perennials reproduce by creeping roots, creeping above ground stems (stolons), or 

creeping below-ground stems (rhizomes). In addition they may reproduce by seed. 

(2) Some weeds maintain themselves and propagate by means of tubers, which are modified 

rhizomes adapted for food storage. Nutsedge (nutgrass) and Jerusalem artichoke are examples. 

(3) Once a field is infested, creeping perennials are probably the most difficult group of weeds to 

control. Cultivators and plows often drag pieces about the field. 

Continuous and repeated cultivations, repeated mowing for 1 or 2 years, or persistent herbicides 

are often necessary for control. Cultivation, in combination with herbicides, is proving effective on 

some creeping perennials. An effective eradication program also requires the killing of seedlings. 


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. Types of Weeds: 

(1) Broadleaf Weeds 

(a) Annuals 

(1) Summer Annuals (Warm Season Annuals): 

(a) Beggarticks 

(b) Chickweed 

(c) Wooly Croton 

(d) Lambsquarters 

(e) Redroot Pigweed 

(f) Rough Pigweed 

(g) Prostrate Pigweed 

(h) Tumbling Pigweed 

(i) Prickly Lettuce 

(j) Annual Morning-glory 

(k) Bedstraw 

(l) Prostrate Spurge 

(m) Spotted Spurge 

(n) Puncture vine 

(o) Purslane 

(p) Common Ragweed 

(q) Common Sunflower 

(r) Annual Sow thistle Prickly Lettuce 

(2) Winter Annuals: (Cool Season Annuals): Dicamba works well on most of these. 

(a) Bur Buttercup 

(b) Pennycress 

(c) Henbit 

(d) Kochia 

(e) Tansy Mustard 

(f) Purple Mustard 

(g) Fieldcress 

(h) Flixweed 

(i) Jim Hill Mustard 

(j) Common Mustard 

(k) Wild Mustard 

(l) Larkspurs 

(m) Wooly Locoweed 

(n) Hoary Pea (Goatsrue) 

(o) Mayweed 

(p) Field Madder 

(q) Russian Thistle 

(r) Shepherd's Purse Kochia 

(s) Tumble Mustard 

(t) Yellow Rocket (Mustard) 


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(b) Biennials: 

(1) Bur Clover 

(2) Burdock 

(3) Cocklebur 

(4) Chamomile 

(5) Wild Carrot 

(6) Spotted Knapweed 

(7) Mullein 

(8) Prickly Poppy 

(9) Bull Thistle 

(10) Musk Thistle 

(11) Common Sow Thistle 

(12) Yellow Star Thistle 

(c) Perennials 

(1) Simple Perennials: Wild Carrot 

(a) Jerusalem Artichoke 

(b) Catnip 

(c) Chickory 

(d) Yellow Clover 

(e) Dandelion 

(f) Broadleaf Dock 

(g) Curly Dock 

(h) Narrow leaf Goldenrod 

(i) Groundcherry 

(j) Gumweed 

(k) Broadleaf plantain 

(l) Mallow (Cheeseweed) 

(m) Milkweed 

(n) Texas blueweed 

(o) Prickly pear 

(2) Creeping Perennials: 

(a) Field Bindweed 

(b) Wild Buckwheat 

(c) Canada Thistle 

(d) Russian Knapweed 

(e) Mouse ear Chickweed Gumweed 

(f) Virginia Creeper 

(2) Grasses 

(a) Annuals 

(1) Summer Annuals: 

(a) Crabgrass 

(b) Foxtails 

(c) Barnyard grass 

(d) Goose grass 

(e) Sandbur 

(f) Witchgrass 

(g) Wild oats 

Goosegrass 


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(2) Winter Annuals: 

(a) Annual Bluegrass 

(b) Foxtail Barley 

(c) Fall Panicum 

(d) Rescue grass 

(e) Downy Brome 

(f) Wild Rye 

(b) Perennial Grasses 

(1) Simple Perennials: 

(a) Buffalo grass 

(b) Rice Cutgrass 

(c) Orchard Grass 

(d) Gramma Grass 

(e) Common Rush 

(f) Perennial Ryegrass 

(g) Reed Canarygrass 

(2) Creeping Perennials: 

(a) Bentgrass 

(b) Bermuda Grass Rescuegrass 

(c) Dallisgrass 

(d) Johnson grass 

(e) Bluegrass 

(f) Yellow Nutsedge 

(g) Purple Nutsedge 

(h) Quackgrass 

Additional classifications may place weeds that occur in any of the above categories special 

categories. Weeds in special categories may require special practices to control them. Special 

categories have particular distinguishing features. Such distinguishing features may include 

special toxins dangerous to humans or livestock, woody stems, or aquatic habitats. 

(1) Toxic Plants: 

(a) African rue 

(b) Woody Aster 

(c) Foxglove 

(d) Castor plant 

(e) Poison Hemlock 

(f) Hemp Dogbane 

(g) Locoweed (Stemless, Wooly, etc.) 

(h) Bitterweed 

(i) Jimson Weed 

(j) Silverleaf Nightshade 

(k) Black Nightshade 

(l) Groundcherry 

(m) Perennial Broomweed 

(n) Goldenrod 

(o) Buffalo Bur 

Toxic Plants Injurious to Humans 

(1) Poison Ivy 

(2) Poison Sumak 

(3) Poison Oak Jimson Weed 


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(4) Spurge (Bull) Nettle 

(5) Stinging Nettle 

(6) Slender Nettle 

(2) Woody plants and brush: 

(a) Elm Species 

(b) Creosote 

(c) Greasewood 

(d) Coniferous trees & shrubs: Juniper, Cedars, Pine, 

Fir, and Spruce 

(e) Maple Species 

(f) Mesquite 

(g) Oak Species 

(h) Rose Species 

(i) The Willow & Cottonwood Family Stinging Nettle 

(3) Aquatic Plants See TLC’s Aquatic Environment’s Course 

(a) Algae: 

(1) Single celled Algae 

(2) Filamentous Algae 

(3) Chara 

Submerged Seed Plants 

(1) Water Milfoil 

(2) Hornwort 

(3) Coontail 

(4) Water Weed 

(5) Pond Weed 

Floating Weeds 

(1) Water lilies (yellow & white) 

(2) Water Hyacinth 

(3)Duckweeds 

Emergent Weeds 

(1) Arrowhead 

(2) Pipewort 

(3) Cattails Spurge (Bull) Nettle 

(4) Bulrushes 

Roundup-Resistant Weeds 

Roundup-resistant weeds like horseweed and giant ragweed are forcing farmers to go 

back to more expensive techniques that they had long ago abandoned. There is a 

particularly tenacious species of glyphosate-resistant pest called Palmer amaranth, or 

pigweed, whose resistant form has begun to seriously infesting farms. Pigweed can 

grow three inches a day and reach seven feet or more, choking out crops; it is so sturdy 

that it can damage harvesting equipment. In an attempt to kill the pest before it becomes 

that big, plow fields and mixing herbicides into the soil. That threatens to reverse one of 

the agricultural advances bolstered by the Roundup revolution: minimum-till farming. By 

combining Roundup and Roundup Ready crops, farmers did not have to plow under the 

weeds to control them. That reduced erosion, the runoff of chemicals into waterways and 

the use of fuel for tractors. 


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Hops Clover Trifolium dubium 

Trifolium dubium (formerly T. minus) goes by several common names, including Least Hops 

Clover, Small Hops Clover, Lesser Trefoil, Yellow Shamrock, & Kleiner Klee. The tiny flowers are 

said to resemble h Hops Clover hops. 

It is a very common mat-forming weed which erupts on roadsides & empty lots early in spring in 

recently disturbed soil or wherever grass, including wild meadow grasses, was chopped short at 

the end of the previous year. It is only two to six inches tall, so tries to get a head start on larger 

plants, germinating its previous year's seeds in January or February. 

It can be the dominant weed or miniature wildflower in April. Though it may still be blooming May 

through July, other plants will have grown so much as to hide it, & the early-spring mats will be 

overwhelmed by larger weeds & grasses. But it will still be seen until at least early July, popping 

up in cleared gardening areas. 

It is easily mistaken for another common wildflower, Black Medick (Medicago lupulina, but Black 

Medic’s wee yellow flowers turn into a cluster of tiny kidney-shaped black seeds, & its trifoil 

leaves have pointy tips. Black Medic’s range is world-wide, & Least Hops Clover is only slightly 

less universal in its distribution. Both plants became distributed throughout the world at least a 

century ago, when sailing ships routinely picked up alfalfa bales from Eurasia & Central Asia to 

use as passing fill-in between more profitable shipments, then sold the bales to farmers in ports 

of the New World & Pacific Islands. Sundry knapweeds also spread throughout the world from 

this practice. 

Like other clovers & legume family plants generally, Hops Clover helps bind nitrogen in poor soils. 

Though some people fight it as an unwanted weed, it is in reality doing the soil a good deed. 

Though adaptable to a wide range of conditions, it tends to die out of rich soils, & does not 

compete well with big perennials. But for the most part, it cannot be gotten rid of, so it might as 

well be appreciated for the real charm of so many teensy bright yellow flowers & miniature trifoil 

leaves. While Hops Clover annoys people who want perfection in their lawns, others never even 

notice it is all over the place. It is too small to make a particularly big display. It is one of the 

smallest of clovers, though even at that, the tiny flowers are actually made up of about two-dozen 

even more wee florets. 


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Common Weeds 

Field Bindweed Convolvulus arvensis Russian Knapweed Acroptilon repens 

Field bindweed can be spread by seed, root fragments, farm implements, infested soil adhering 

to the roots of nursery stock, root growth from infested areas, and by animals. Field bindweed has 

a deep root system that competes with crop plants for water and nutrients. Vines climb on plants 

and shade crops, cause lodging of small grains, and make harvesting difficult by clogging 

machinery. Dense field bindweed infestations may reduce crop yields by 50 to 60 percent. Land 

infested with field bindweed is reduced in value. 

Field bindweed is a long-lived perennial which produces a dense ground cover. The twining 

stems vary from 1.5 to 6 feet or more in length. Leaf size and shape are variable, but generally 

the leaves are 1 to 2 inches long, smooth, and shaped like an arrowhead. Flowers are funnelshaped, 

about 1 inch diameter, and white or pink in color. The flower stalk has two small bracts 

located ½ to 2 inches below the flower. The bracts, along with leaf shape and smaller flower size, 

distinguish field bindweed from hedge bindweed. 

Russian knapweed (Acroptilon repens) is a creeping, herbaceous perennial of foreign origin that 

reproduces from seed and vegetative root buds. Shoots or stems, are erect, 18 to 36 inches tall, 

with many branches. Lower leaves are 2 to 4 inches long and deeply lobed. Upper leaves are 

smaller, generally with smooth margins, but can be slightly lobed. 

Shoots and leaves are covered with dense gray hairs. The solitary, urn-shaped flower heads 

occur on shoot tips and generally are 1/4 to 1/2 inch in diameter with smooth papery bracts. 

Flowers can be pink, lavender or white. Russian knapweed has vertical and horizontal roots that 

have a brown to black, scaly appearance, especially apparent near the crown. 

Russian knapweed emerges in early spring, bolts in May to June, and flowers through the 

summer into fall. Russian knapweed is toxic to horses. The key to Russian knapweed control is to 

stress the weed and cause it to expend nutrient stores in its root system. The best management 

plan includes cultural controls combined with mechanical and/or chemical control techniques. 


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Scotch thistle Onopordum acanthium Canada thistle Cirsium arvense 

Scotch thistle is a branched, robust biennial (or sometimes annual) that often grows 8 feet or 

more in height and 6 feet in width. Main stems may be up to 4 inches wide at the base. Stems 

have vertical rows of prominent, spiny, ribbon-like leaf material or "wings" that extend to the base 

of the flower heads. Leaves, which are armed with sharp, yellow spines, are up to 2 feet long and 

1 foot wide. Upper and lower leaf surfaces are covered with a thick mat of cotton-like or woolly 

hairs, which give the foliage a gray-green appearance. Plants flower in mid-summer. The globeshaped 

flower heads are borne in groups of 2 or 3 on branch tips. Flower heads are up to 2 

inches in diameter, with long, stiff, needle-like bracts at the base. Flowers range from dark pink to 

lavender. Seeds are smooth, slender, and plumed. 

Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) is an aggressive, creeping perennial weed that infests crops, 

pastures, rangeland, roadsides and non-crop areas. Generally, infestations start on disturbed 

ground, including ditch banks, overgrazed pastures, tilled fields or abandoned sites. Canada 

thistle reduces forage consumption in pastures and rangeland because cattle typically will not 

graze near infestations. Canada thistle is a creeping perennial that reproduces from vegetative 

buds in its root system and from seed. It is difficult to control because its extensive root system 

allows it to recover from control attempts. Combining control methods is the best form of Canada 

thistle management. Persistence is imperative so the weed is continually stressed, forcing it to 

exhaust root nutrient stores and eventually die. 

Dalmatian toadflax Linaria dalmatica Diffuse knapweed Centaurea diffusa 


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Toadflax is a menace throughout the northwest and infestations range from light to heavy, with 

some densities ranging up to 100% of the existing vegetation. This may be explained through the 

plant’s ability to inhibit other plant species from becoming established - this is known as an "El 

Nino" effect or allelopathic condition. Dalmatian very much resembles its sister species yellow 

toadflax (Linaria vulgaris); however, the Dalmatian species has wider leaves which clasp the 

stem. 

Dalmatian toadflax, a native of the Mediterranean region, was introduced to the Americas in 

1900 as an ornamental. The pioneers loved this plant because of its lavish, bright yellow flowers 

and its durability. Toadflax was easy to establish and homesteaders liberally landscaped their 

properties with this drought resistant plant, continually spreading it in their migration to the 

Western frontier. Also, burial sites were often adorned with toadflax to give everlasting beauty 

and tranquility. Their legacy has prevailed, proving to be notorious in nature. 

Diffuse knapweed is a member of the Aster family, Thistle tribe. Diffuse knapweed was 

introduced from Europe and is a biennial or short-lived perennial forb which reproduces only by 

seed. The plant usually produces a single main, much-branched stem that is 1-1/2 to 2 feet tall. It 

is known to have more than one stem produced from one rosette. A basal rosette of leaves is 

present in young plants with each leaf divided into narrow segments. When leaves are young, a 

thin nap is present. Stem leaves in the mature plant become much reduced as you ascend to the 

tip and alternate one per node. Flowers are mostly white, sometimes purple, and are located on 

each branch tip. The bracts surrounding each flower bear 4 to 5 pairs of lateral spines and one, 

long terminal spine. Diffuse knapweed can resemble spotted knapweed with the black tipped 

bracts. The difference is the sharp spine at the end of the bract that is characteristic of diffuse 

knapweed. 

Leafy spurge Euphorbia esula Musk thistle Carduus nutans 

Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula L.) is a creeping, herbaceous perennial weed of foreign origin 

that reproduces from seed and vegetative root buds. It can reduce rangeland cattle carrying 

capacity by 50 to 75 percent. About half of this loss is from decreased grass production. Cattle 

won't graze in dense leafy spurge stands and these areas are a 100% loss to producers. Leafy 

spurge is difficult to control. Its extensive root system has vast nutrient stores that let it recover 

from control attempts. Combine control methods into a system to achieve best results. See page 

55 for more detailed information. 

Musk thistle is an aggressive weed of foreign origin that occurs in pastures, rangeland, 

roadsides and non-crop areas. It is a biennial weed, although occasionally it is an annual. 

Because musk thistle reproduces solely from seed, the key for successful management is to 

prevent seed production. Musk thistle is a biennial weed that reproduces only from seed. 


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The key to successful musk thistle control is to prevent seed production. Apply herbicides such as 

Tordon, Vanquish/Clarity or 2,4-D to musk thistle rosettes in spring or fall. Apply Ally or Telar up 

to the early flower growth stage. Combine control methods into a management system for best 

results. Germination and seedling establishment are correlated with moisture and light. Thus, 

more seeds germinate and establish plants in open pastures and other degraded areas. 

Vigorously growing grass competes with musk thistle, and fewer thistles occur in pastures where 

grazing is deferred. However, musk thistle also can become a problem in pasture or rangeland 

that is in good condition. 

Foxtail Setaria glauca Black medic Medicago lupulina 

Foxtail is a summer annual grass with wider blades and a lighter green color than bluegrass. It is 

also faster growing than bluegrass. Seed heads may form despite regular mowing. Foxtail is 

much less prevalent when turfgrass has good density. Re-sod or reseed bare spots. 

Control A pre-emergent herbicide (benefin + trifluralin, dithiopyr, oxadiazon, pendimethalin or 

prodiamine) applied correctly and at the proper time should provide control. Do not use a preemergent 

herbicide on a newly-seeded or sodded lawn or when overseeding a lawn. Postemergent 

herbicides that will kill foxtail seedlings: MSMA, DSMA, MAMA or fenoxaprop. 

Black medic is an annual, biennial or short-lived perennial. A legume, it is closely related to 

alfalfa. It is most often found in lawns having low fertility. Often called Japanese clover, this plant 

has small yellow flowers and a deep taproot. It can be pulled from moist soil without difficulty. 

Keeping your lawn healthy and dense with proper watering, mowing, and fertilization will 

discourage invasion by black medic. 

Control Triclopyr + 2,4-D combination herbicides or other 2,4-D combination herbicides are more 

effective than 2,4-D alone. 

Yellow Alyssum is a member of the mustard family. An exotic imported from Europe, it threatens 

native grasses. The plants grow from 4 to 8 inches in height and branch at the base. The leaves 

are narrow, strap-like, and covered with star-shaped hairs. In spring, yellow flowers are borne in 

racemes. Seeds are formed in silicles that are round, flattened, and pointed at the top, much like 

a bellows. In summer, seeds drop out of the center of the pods, leaving a skeleton that resembles 

a pair of "spectacles." 

Control Yellow alyssum has a taproot that can be easily hand-pulled from moist soil in the 

garden. Post-emergent treatment with 2-4,D, or triclopyr is effective in controlling this weed in 

turfgrass. Yellow alyssum can be spot treated with glyphosate (Round-up, Kleen-up). 


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Yellow Alyssum Alyssum alyssoides Shepherd's Purse Capsella bursa-pastoris 

Shepherd's Purse Another member of the mustard family, Shepherd's purse can produce over 

33,000 seeds per plant. The lower leaves are petioled and deeply lobed, quite similar to that of a 

dandelion. The upper leaves are irregularly toothed and clasping. White flowers appear in 

clusters at the top of a flower stalk that can reach 6 to 18 inches in height. The flowers are only 

about 2mm across. Seeds are contained in silicles that are notched triangles and resemble the 

purses once carried by shepherds. 

Control Shepherd's purse has a slender taproot and can be easily hand-pulled or hoed from 

moist soil in flower and vegetable gardens while plants are young. In lawns, post-emergent 

herbicides provide easier control of Shepherd's purse than pre-emergents. Spot treat by spraying 

individual plants, rather than applying a weed and feed over the entire lawn. If you would rather 

not spray, the herbicide can be brushed on instead. Apply the herbicide in mid-spring and again 

in mid-autumn if a new crop of shepherd's purse emerges. These herbicides are most effective 

when temperatures are between 60-80°F. Do not spray if temperatures are projected to exceed 

85°F within the next 48 hours. Choose a time when no rain is forecast for at least 24, and 

preferably, 48 hours. To avoid herbicide drift, spray only when the air is still. Drift can harm or kill 

desirable broadleaf plants such as flowers, vegetables, trees and shrubs. Post-emergent 

herbicides should be labeled for use in turfgrass and contain a combination of 2,4-D and MCPP 

or 2,4-D, MCPP and dicamba. Do not apply any product containing dicamba underneath the 

canopy of young trees, near shrubs or close to gardens, as it can be absorbed by their roots. 

Blue Mustard Chorispora tenella Henbit Lamium amplexicaule 


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Blue mustard is a winter annual that germinates in the fall and produces a rosette with deeply 

lobed leaves, similar in appearance to a dandelion. Blue mustard bears purple or blue flowers at 

the top of the plant in March through April. Leaves on the flowering stems are coarsely toothed 

and have wavy margins. The plant may grow from 1 to 1 1/2 feet in height. Two-inch long, beanlike 

seedpods (siliques) that resemble "beaks" mature in early summer. 

Control Herbicides are most effective if applied before weeds start to bolt in the spring. In the 

spring, while it is actively growing, this weed can be controlled with an application of 2,4-D. 

Henbit is a winter annual occasionally found in lawns in early spring. The lower leaves have a 

stalk while the upper leaves clasp the stem. Stems are square, like other members of the mint 

family. All the leaves are coarsely toothed and opposite from each other. Flowers appear in May 

and are about one-half inch long, trumpet-shaped, pinkish white to purple, and form just above 

upper leaves. This weed is more often found in buffalograss than in bluegrass. Newly-seeded 

bluegrass and established bluegrass lawns with poor density may have some henbit. 

Control Henbit has a taproot and is easily pulled from moist soil. Heavy infestations can be 

controlled with triclopyr + clopyralid, 2,4-D or 2,4-D combination herbicides; at or prior to 

flowering. Fall application of a pre-emergent herbicide (dithiopyr, isoxaben, pendimethalin or 

prodiamine) will prevent henbit germination. 

White Clover is a perennial that forms creeping runners. These runners will root at nodes. Many 

people like clover in lawns, while others find white flowers and the bees they attract objectionable. 

Clover is a legume which fixes nitrogen, so it is often found in lawns having low fertility. To 

discourage it, increase turf density with proper watering, mowing and fertilization. 

Control Triclopyr + 2,4-D combination herbicides or other 2,4-D combination herbicides can be 

used. 2,4-D alone is not effective. 

Buffalo bur, sometimes called Kansas thistle and prickly nightshade, is a tap rooted annual 

weed. It bears long, yellow spines on stems, leaves, and flower heads and can grow up to 2 feet 

high. Drought resistant, its highest occurrence is in dry, exposed soil. The oblong leaves are 2-3 

inches long with deep rounded lobes and are covered with very dense, stiff, and sharp spines. 

Bright yellow flowers can be seen in summer. In the fall, berries up to 3/8 inch in diameter are 

enclosed in the dried flower parts and are filled with black, wrinkled, flat pitted seeds. Control of 

this plant is important, as it is a host for the Colorado potato beetle. When mature, the main stem 

breaks near the ground and the plant rolls like a tumbleweed, widely scattering the 8500 seeds 

that each plant produces. Buffalo bur can be pulled when the soil is moist. Be sure to wear 

gloves to avoid injury from the spines. 

Control Herbicides should be applied between late bud to early flower. Dicamba, Triclopyr and 

2,4-D can be effective in controlling Buffalo bur. Glyphosate in a 2% solution can be applied as a 

spot treatment. 

Puncture vine is a prostrate, mat-forming summer annual. It has small leaflets and small yellow 

flowers with 5 petals. Fruits containing seeds are a sharp, spiny burr that can easily puncture a 

bicycle inner tube (or gardener’s skin!). This weed is found only in thin, less vigorous turf given 

insufficient water. It will pull easily out of moist soils. Be sure to wear gloves to protect your hands 

from the burrs. You can discourage the growth of puncture vine by increasing the turf density. 

Control A 2,4-D combination herbicide will work best on younger plants. Pre-emergent herbicides 

such as trifluralin + benefin or dithiopyr applied in spring can provide some control. 

Oxalis Oxalis corniculata The leaves of oxalis, also called creeping woodsorrel, have a shamrock 

appearance and the plant is often mistaken for a clover. At night, or on cloudy days, the leaves 

may fold up. With the arrival of cooler weather in the fall, leaves turn purplish in color. 

Occasionally, some plants may have purple leaves all year round. Oxalis is a prostrate, creeping 

perennial weed with stems that will take root where they touch the ground. Flowers are small and 

yellow. When mature, fruits explode, scattering seed several feet away. This plant is more 

common in thin, less vigorous turfgrass that is given too-frequent, light irrigation. It can be 

discouraged by increasing the density of turfgrass using good cultural practices. 


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Oxalis Control 2,4-D combination herbicides applied in spring and/or fall give marginal levels of 

control. Triclopyr + clopyralid control is fair to good. Pre-emergent herbicides (pendimethalin, 

dithiopyr, isoxaben, prodiamine) applied 2-3 successive years in late March - early April can 

provide some control. 

White clover Trifolium repens Buffalo Bur Solanum rostratum 

Puncture vine Tribulus terrestris Oxalis Oxalis corniculata 

Redroot Pigweed Amaranthus retroflexus Dandelion Taraxacum officinale 


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Redroot pigweed is an annual weed commonly found in waste areas and disturbed soils. It can 

attain a 2-4 foot height. The lower stems are reddish in color. Flowers are small and green, in 

bristly terminal and axillary clusters. A prolific seed producer, pigweed will produce up to 100,000 

seeds per plant. Seedlings are easily pulled or hoed from the garden. Older plants are more 

difficult to pull out and may scatter seeds in the process. Mulch will prevent seeds already in the 

soil from germinating. 

Control When found in the lawn, pigweed can be spot-treated with herbicides containing MCPP, 

MCPA, and dicamba. In gardens, glyphosate (Round-up, Kleen-up) can be used, taking care not 

to get any of the chemical on desired plants. Pre-emergents containing oryzalin, pendimethalin, 

or trifluralin can be effective. When using a herbicide, be sure to read the label carefully and 

follow directions closely. 

Dandelion The Dandelion is a perennial with an extensive taproot. Its yellow flowers can 

develop anytime between March and November and are followed by fluffy seed heads. More 

prevalent under low turf density, dandelion growth can be inhibited by increasing the turf density. 

Dandelions can be dug out with special tools, but any part of the root that is left is capable of 

regenerating a plant. 

Control A 2,4-D or 2,4-D combination herbicide is most effective and should be used in spring 

and fall. Always read the label before applying any pesticide. 

Curly dock is a perennial weed in the buckwheat family. Fairly pleasant tasting, the leaves are 

very rich in vitamins, especially vitamins A and C, and can be eaten raw or cooked. The roasted 

seed has been used as a coffee substitute. It is also a very important food plant for the caterpillars 

of many butterflies. In the spring, basal leaves emerge from a stout taproot. These 

elongated leaves have wavy margins, thus the name "curly" dock. In summer, the plant has 

reddish, rigid stems, 2-4 feet tall. Flower stems have greenish flowers. 

This is a tenacious perennial weed that is found in lawns throughout the United States. Its large 

taproot grows deep into the soil, which enables it to thrive in times when grass may be suffering 

from heat and lack of moisture. In fall, winged fruits form on the flowering stems that are reddishbrown 

in color. Curly dock is not easily pulled because of the deep taproot, and portions of this 

root left in the ground will regenerate. 

Control Combination herbicides containing mecoprop, dicamba and 2,4-D are effective in the 

control of Curly dock. 

Quackgrass, a creeping perennial, is a very aggressive grass and is considered a noxious weed 

in most states. It spreads by seeds and invasive rhizomes (underground stems). Its rhizomes are 

yellow-white, with brown sections, and the ends are sharply pointed. 

Control A few quackgrass plants can be spot-sprayed with glyphosate, or individual blades can 

be painted with glyphosate. Note that glyphosate will kill any bluegrass it contacts. Repeat 

applications to quackgrass will likely be needed. Renovate severely infested lawn areas. Spray 

with glyphosate; repeat applications will likely be needed. When the quackgrass has been killed, 

the areas may be re-sodded or re-seeded. Always read the label before applying any pesticide. 

Broadleaf Plantain is a low growing perennial. It has broad leaves with prominent veins. The 

leaves are arranged in a rosette and may smother lawn grass. The flowering spikes normally 

grow taller than the foliage but may develop below mowing height. Vigorous, thick turfgrass is 

less susceptible to invasion. 

Control Triclopyr + 2,4-D or 2,4-D alone or 2,4-D combination herbicides should control plantain. 

Always read the label before applying any pesticide. 


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Quackgrass Elytrigia repens Curly Dock Rumex crispus 

Broadleaf Plantain Plantago major Common Lambsquarters Chenopodium album 

Purslane Portulaca oleracea Crabgrass Digitaria sanguinalis 


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Common Lambsquarters is a broadleaf summer-annual weed that can be found anyplace the 

soil has been disturbed. The growth habits of the common lambsquarters vary with its location. If 

growing along the road or in an open field, it may reach three or four feet in height. Yet those 

plants found in lawns may produce seeds when only a couple of inches tall. Lambsquarters prefer 

rich soil and are often found in vegetable gardens. The first two true leaves that appear are 

opposite and ovate with smooth edges. Later leaves are alternate, arrowhead-shaped, and with 

unevenly-toothed edges. At the top of the plant, the leaves become long and narrow. All of the 

leaves are pale green and covered with white, mealy granules that give the appearance of frost. 

Stems are erect and often have light-green or red lines. Flowers are small, inconspicuous, yellowgreen, 

and occur in clusters at the tips of branches and upper leaf axils. These flowers occur from 

July to September. Black seeds are contained in an utricle by a thin papery covering. 

Control The best methods of weed control in the home vegetable garden are mulching, hand 

pulling, rototilling, hoeing and preventing the weeds from going to seed. Because of its short, 

branched taproot, lambsquarters can be easily hand-pulled from moist soil. Prevention by use of 

good cultural habits should be the first line of defense in eliminating broadleaf weeds such as 

lambsquarters from lawns. Pre-emergent herbicides such as trifluralin (Preen) can be used to 

prevent germination of weed seeds. Post-emergent herbicides effective against broadleaf weeds 

are 2,4-D, MCPP and dicamba (sold under many brand names) and combination formulas 

(Trimec). Read labels to be sure the herbicide is effective against the weeds you want to 

eliminate and follow the directions carefully. 

Purslane is a summer annual, found only in newly seeded or thinning, non-vigorous lawns and 

sidewalk cracks. It has thick, succulent, rubbery leaves and small yellow flowers. The plant is 

sprawling and prostrate. It is easily pulled when the soil is moist. 

Control Post-emergent herbicide use is more effective when plants are young as purslane is 

difficult to kill with an herbicide when larger. Always read the label before applying any pesticide. 

Crabgrass is a summer annual grass with wider blades and a lighter green color than bluegrass. 

It is low growing, prostrate, and often has reddish-purple stems. It forms seedheads below 

mowing height. The seedheads are composed of slender, fingerlike spikes. Crabgrass is less 

prevalent when turf has good density. In particular, mowing too low promotes crabgrass seed 

germination. Maintain mowing heights of 2.5 - 3 inches. 

Control A pre-emergent herbicide (benefin + trifluralin, dithiopyr, DCPA, oxadiazon, 

pendimethalin, or prodiamine) applied correctly and at the proper time should provide control. Do 

not use a pre-emergent herbicide on a newly seeded or sodded lawn or when overseeding a 

lawn. Fenoxaprop and other post-emergent "crabgrass killer" (MSMA, DSMA, MAMA) sprays are 

not effective unless crabgrass plants are immature, young seedlings. Always read the label 

before applying any pesticide. 

Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum), also known as poison parsley or spotted parsley, is an 

erect biennial weed that can grow 6 to 10 feet tall. Originally imported from Europe as an 

ornamental plant, its spread across North America has been rampant. All parts of this plant are 

poisonous. The leaves and flowers of Poison Hemlock are similar to those of parsnips and 

carrots. In fact, many deaths have occurred as a result of people mistaking it for the edible 

species of the carrot family. The use of hemlock as a poison goes back many years in history. It 

is said that the ancient Greeks used it to poison their enemies and political prisoners. Socrates, 

condemned to die as a political prisoner in 329 B.C., drank the juice of the hemlock plant and 

committed suicide. Native Americans were known to dip their arrows in hemlock. Poison Hemlock 

is an erect plant with smooth, hollow stems that are covered with purple spots. Its shiny green 

leaves are pinnately compound, multi-stemmed and fern-like in appearance. Flowers are showy, 

white umbrella-like clusters that occur during June to July. The fruit is small, flat, grayish-green, 

and matures in August to September. 

Control The large, fleshy white taproot can be easily pulled from moist ground when plants are 

small. Several herbicides are effective in controlling Poison Hemlock. Glyphosate (Roundup) can 

be used on newly emerged sprouts. Other post-emergents that are most effective in early spring 

are 2,4-D, 2,4-DB and MCPA. 2,4-D should be combined with a wetting agent when applied. 


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Because of the large number of seeds that may have been produced, repeated herbicide 

applications may be necessary. The frequency of application varies with the herbicide. Read 

labels carefully and follow directions as given. Biological control has been effective using the 

Hemlock moth (Agonopterix alstroemericana). The larvae of this moth feed on the leaves, young 

stem tissue, flowers and seeds of Hemlock plants, causing severe defoliation and death of the 

plant. 

Silverleaf Nightshade Solanum elaeagnifolium Bamboo Phyllostachys angusta 

Common Mallow Malva neglecta Common Groundsel Senecio vulgaris 

Silverleaf Nightshade is a member of the Nightshade (or Potato) Family. It grows to 3 feet in 

height and has silvery, lance shaped leaves with wavy edges which grow to 4 inches in length. 

The plant typically grows in open areas, such as roadsides and fields, at elevations between 

1000-5500 feet. The Silverleaf Nightshade is poisonous; however, Native Americans have used 

the crushed berries of the plant to curdle milk since they contain a protein-digesting enzyme. 

Silverleaf Nightshade typically blooms between May - October and produces a bluish purple, star 


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shaped flower with yellow anthers in the middle to 1.5 inches in width. The flower is followed by a 

1/2 inch diameter yellow berry. 

Control Cobra ® may be used in combination with MSMA, Bladex ® and Karmex ® to aid in control 

of certain weeds. Consult specific product labels for recommendations and precautions. 

Bamboo - Phyllostachys: From the Greek "phyllon", leaf, and "stachys", a spike, referring to the 

leafy bloom spike (inflorescence). Subfamily: Bambusoideae A diverse genus of about 15 

species of evergreen running bamboo primarily native to temperate and subtropical China and 

Japan, Phyllostachys includes several popular bamboo of gardens as well as varieties valued 

for timber and for edible shoots. The rounded culms display distinctive grooves or compressed 

areas on the branching sides, making this genus fairly easy to recognize and distinguish from 

other bamboo. Their dense evergreen foliage, attractively marked and colored culms, and fast 

growth have made these running bamboos favorites for creating large groves, for screening and 

hedging, and for stabilizing rough slopes or streamsides. On small properties the spreading roots 

of Phyllostachys may be confined as desired by installing appropriate barriers at planting. 

Culture: Phyllostachys species thrive in sun or light shade if provided with abundant moisture 

and rich soil. Where drought may be expected or in hot interior climates, some shading would be 

beneficial for most varieties. Established plants withstand flooding. 

Control Bamboo can be controlled in a small area (a normal city yard) simply by mowing or 

stepping on the young shoots. New shoots could also be used for culinary purposes and cooked, 

much like asparagus. Keep in mind that running bamboo only puts up new shoots for a short time 

each year, and when they are "shooting", the new plants are very fragile and easy to destroy. To 

really slow the spread of the rhizomes, the grove can be root pruned at any time. (Best time 

seems to be in the fall or early winter). This is done with a sharp, narrow spade (8" wide, flat 

spade works quite well) by "trimming" the rhizomes on all sides which need to be controlled. Push 

the shovel straight down to its maximum depth so as to cut through any rhizomes encountered, 

(8-10 inches is usually sufficient). Keep moving the spade one width at a time to the right or left, 

cutting a line until all the rhizomes have been cut. Yes, you may miss a few, but you can get them 

next year. You do not have to dig up the whole root system and rhizomes. Once you have 

severed it from the mother plant and cut off any new shoots, you will have deprived it of all food 

sources and it will die off. Glyphosate (Roundup, Kleenup) Systemic type: Controls a wide range 

of annual and perennial grasses and broadleaf plants, but in many cases requires very precise 

timing to be effective. 

Common mallow is most frequently found in newly seeded lawns or lawns that are stressed and 

lack density. It can be an annual or biennial. Mallow has a deep taproot but can be easily pulled 

from moist soil. The foliage resembles that of the geranium. The flowers of common mallow are 

pinkish-white and the fruits look like small, round cheeses. 

Control Increasing turf density with proper mowing, fertilization, watering and other cultural 

practices can help in the control of this weed. Post-emergent herbicides are only marginally 

effective. Triclopyr + clopyralid or triclopyr alone are suggested. 

Common groundsel is an early season weed. A prolific seed producer, seeds are produced 

within several weeks of germination, and there are several generations within the same year. This 

weed likes moist soil and is often found in well-irrigated areas such as lawns and flower beds. 

Control A dense, healthy turf will prevent seeds from taking root in the lawn. Turf density can be 

increased with proper mowing, fertilization, watering, and other cultural practices. Good drainage 

will also help to discourage the growth of common groundsel. The plants can be easily pulled by 

hand from moist soil. Be sure to pull and dispose of them before they set seed, as seed can 

mature in opened flowers even after the plants have been killed. If there is heavy infestation, 

spot treat with a post-emergent herbicide containing glyphosate (Roundup, Kleenup). 


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Redstem Filaree Erodium cicutarium London Rocket Sisymbrium irio 

Russian Thistle Salsola iberica Milkweed Asclepias syriaca 

Redstem Filaree is a prostrate broadleaf winter annual or biennial weed. A member of the 

geranium family, it has fern-like, or feathery appearing foliage in a rosette. The stems are reddish 

and there is a large, white taproot. 

Control Appearing more frequently in newly seeded lawns or thin, stressed lawns, this minor turf 

weed can be eliminated by increasing the density of the lawn. Newly seeded lawns will develop 

more density with time and will then crowd out this weed. It is often seen in buffalograss lawns. 

The entire plant can be easily pulled out of moist ground. Post emergent herbicides such as 2,4-D 

or 2.4-D combinations are only marginally effective in controlling Redstem Filaree. 

London rocket is a European native weed belonging to the mustard family, and is one of the first 

winter weeds to appear in southern Arizona. It is abundant in irrigated land in crops such as 

alfalfa and small grains, in gardens, citrus orchards, pastures, and along roadsides. London 

rocket is a bright green fleshy winter annual. The stems branch from the base 1 to 3 feet high. It 

has a coarse taproot. Small, yellow flowers are borne on slender stalks in small clusters at the 

stem tip. 


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Russian thistle was introduced from Russia and is an annual which reproduces by seed. It is a 

round, bushy, much-branched plant, growing 1 to 3-1/2 feet high. The branches are slender, 

succulent when young, and woody when mature. Russian thistle grows on dry plains, in 

cultivated fields, roadsides, and waste places, chiefly in grain-growing areas. At maturity, the 

plant breaks off at the base and because of its round shape, becomes an excellent 

tumbleweed. Russian thistle is an annual. A single plant may produce 20,000 to 50,000 seeds. 

Seeds germinate quickly, even after brief or limited precipitation. The plants are well branched, 

round bushy that grow 1/2 to 3 feet high. The stems have reddish or purple strips. The leaves are 

alternate, long, and very thin or needle-like. Flowers are small and inconspicuous and develop in 

the upper leaf axils. Each flower has a pair of spiny bracts. Mature plants break off at ground level 

and tumble, spreading the seeds. This species is a host of sugar beet leafhopper, which transmits 

curly top of sugar beets. This weed is common in drier areas and in dry land cultivation systems. 

It is found in overgrazed rangeland, disturbed waste areas and in wheat, sugar beet, potato, and 

mint crops east of the Cascade Mountains. 

Control Control of Russian thistle is difficult. There have been numerous attempts through the years 

to import biological control agents, but none have been successful. 

Pre-emergent herbicides are applied to the soil before the weed seed germinates and are 

usually incorporated into the soil with irrigation or rainfall. The most effective pre-emergent 

herbicides are Aatrex (atrazine), Velpar (hexazinone), Devrinol (napropamide), Telar 

(chlorsulfuron), Oust (sulfometuron), Princep (simazine) and Hyvar (bromacil). Other preemergent 

herbicides that are registered but only moderately effective in controlling Russian thistle 

are Surflan (oryzalin), Treflan (trifluralin), Prowl (pendimethalin), Endurance (prodiamine), Lasso 

(alachlor), Predict (norflurazon), and Kerb (pronamide). 

Herbicide-resistant biotypes of Russian thistle have evolved in only a couple of years following 

treatment with Telar (chlorsulfuron) or Oust (sulfometuron). Avoid repeated use of a single 

herbicide or of herbicides that have the same mode of action to prevent the evolution of 

herbicide-resistant populations. 

Post-emergent herbicides are applied to plants, but timing is critical. For best results, these 

herbicides must be applied while the weed is in its early growth stages, preferably the early 

seedling stage, before it becomes hardened and starts producing its spiney branches. Do not use 

post-emergent herbicides to try to control the mature seed (either on the plant or on the ground) 

as they are not effective for this purpose. Also, the later spiney stage of Russian thistle is not 

readily controlled by any post-emergent herbicide. If rain or irrigation occurs after a postemergent 

application, additional seedlings may emerge and require future treatments. Postemergent 

herbicides that are effective when properly applied include Banvel or Vanquish 

(dicamba), Roundup (glyphosate), 2,4-D and Gramoxone (paraquat). 

Milkweed plants, members of the Asclepias family, are the only host plant for the monarch and 

queen butterflies. The adult females seek out these plants on which they lay their eggs. The 

caterpillars that hatch will remain on the plants and eat the leaves until they enter the pupal stage, 

then emerge as adult butterflies. It is a perennial herb with long-spreading rhizomes. Stems are 

stout, erect, to 2 m tall, with short downy hairs and milky juice; leaves opposite, oblong, rounded, 

1–2.6 dm long, 0.4–1.8 dm broad, with prominent veins; upper surface smooth, lower covered 

with short white hairs and strong transverse nerves. Flowers sweet-smelling, pink to white, in 

large, many-flowered, axillary and apical bell-like clusters; corolla lobes 6–9 mm long, hoods 3–4 

mm high; follicle grayish, hairy, with soft spiny projections, 1–3 mm high, slenderly ovoid, 2.5– 3.5 

cm thick. Seed brown, flat, oval, 6 mm long, 5 mm wide, with a tuft of silky white hairs apically 

(Reed, 1970) 

Control Non-Cropland -- Established stands of common milkweed can be controlled with 

herbicides. On non-cropland (i.e., roadsides, railroad rights-of-way, etc., but not idle land or 

grazing land), Amitrol-T, Roundup or Tordon would provide control. Herbicide coverage of the 

common milkweed is incomplete with this method, resulting in reduced effectiveness compared to 

a sprayer. Used over several years, however, common milkweed populations can be reduced 

with Roundup applied in a wiper applicator. Controls: Amino Trizole; Amitrol-T, Roundup, 2,4- 

D+Banvel,and Tordon 


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Invasive Plant Species 

Invasive species can be plants, animals, and other organisms (e.g., microbes). Human actions 

are the primary means of invasive species introductions. 

As defined by the Oregon Invasive Species Council 

Next to habitat lost to land development and transformation, invasive species pose the greatest 

threat to the survival of native biota in the United States, and many other areas of the world. 

Invasive species are those plants, animals, and microbes not native to a region which, when 

introduced either accidentally or intentionally, out-compete native species for available resources, 

reproduce prolifically, and dominate regions and ecosystems. Because they often arrive in new 

areas unaccompanied by their native predators, invasive species can be difficult to control. Left 

unchecked, many invasives have the potential to transform entire ecosystems, as native species 

and those that depend on them for food, shelter, and habitat disappear. 

Alien Plants 

Alien plants, also known as exotic, non-native, or non-indigenous plants, are species intentionally 

or accidentally introduced by human activity into a region in which they did not evolve. Many alien 

species are well known and economically important in agriculture and horticulture, such as wheat, 

soybeans, and tulips. Alien species, whether plant or animal, often do not become established 

outside of cultivation and, if they do, they usually have few impacts on natural communities. 

Invasive alien plants, however, escape cultivation and become agricultural pests, infest lawns as 

weeds, displace native plant species, reduce wildlife habitat, and alter ecosystem processes. 

Across the country and around the world, invasive alien plants and animals have become one of 

the most serious threats to native species, natural communities, and ecosystem processes. They 

also exact a costly toll from human economies that depend on resources and services provided 

by healthy ecosystems. Examples include destruction of vast areas of western rangelands, 

clogging of important waterways, and increased costs in maintaining open powerline rights-ofway. 

Of the 4,000 alien plant species introduced to the United States that have escaped cultivation, 

approximately 400 are serious invaders. Half this total were introduced for horticultural uses. 

Others arrived accidentally in seed mixes, packaging materials, ships ballast, and by other 

means. Invasive plants now infest more than 100 million acres. One study estimated that from 

1901 to 1991, economic losses in the U.S. caused by 15 invasive plant species (not including 

agricultural weeds) were $603 million (Office of Technology Assessment, 1993). 

Once thought to be a problem only on farms or in lawns, invasive plants are now recognized as a 

threat to natural areas, parks, forests, and other sites in a more or less natural state. Land 

managers, weed scientists, foresters, ecologists, and other conservationists are joining together 

to face this challenge in ways that help conserve native species and natural communities and 

protect environmental quality. 

Invasive alien plants typically exhibit the following characteristics: 

Rapid growth and maturity 

Prolific seed production 

Highly successful seed dispersal, germination and colonization 

Rampant vegetative spread 

Ability to out-compete native species 

High cost to remove or control 


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An invasive plant infestation is like a slow motion explosion, which, if left unchecked, may 

severely alter a site's natural, economic, aesthetic, and other cultural values. Management of 

invasive species while maintaining these values can appear to be a complicated and unending 

task. 

For this reason, planning and prioritizing are crucial. By articulating clear goals, gathering the best 

available information, and prioritizing actions based on the significance of an infestation's impacts 

and feasibility of control, land managers can identify how their time, effort, and money can most 

effectively be applied. Invasive species present a difficult challenge with no quick and easy 

solutions. Many unknowns exist regarding control methods and their efficacy, in addition to limited 

budgets for managing invasive plants. Sometimes, the best course of action may be to do 

nothing. 

Common Alien Plants which are used as Herbs 

Goutweed (Aegopodium podagraria) 

Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) 

Giant reed (Arundo donax) 

Musk thistle (Carduus nutans) 

Asiatic sand sedge (Carex kobomugi) 

Spotted knapweed (Centaurea biebersteinii) 

Yellow starthistle (Centaurea solstitialis) 

Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense) 

Leafy spurge (Euphorbia esula) 

Cogon grass (Imperata cylindrica) 

Chinese lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata) 

Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) 

Japanese stilt grass (Microstegium vimineum) 

Eurasian watermilfoil (Myriophyllum spicatum) 

Burma reed (Neyraudia reynaudiana) 

Fountain grass (Pennisetum setaceum) 

Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum) 

Lesser celandine (Ranunculus ficaria) 

Annual bastard-cabbage (Rapistrum rugosum) Annual bastard-cabbage 

Common mullein (Verbascum thapsus) 

Roundup-resistant weeds like horseweed and giant ragweed are forcing farmers to go 

back to more expensive techniques that they had long ago abandoned. There is a 

particularly tenacious species of glyphosate-resistant pest called Palmer amaranth, or 

pigweed, whose resistant form has begun to seriously infesting farms. Pigweed can 

grow three inches a day and reach seven feet or more, choking out crops; it is so sturdy 

that it can damage harvesting equipment. In an attempt to kill the pest before it becomes 

that big, plow fields and mixing herbicides into the soil. 

That threatens to reverse one of the agricultural advances bolstered by the Roundup 

revolution: minimum-till farming. By combining Roundup and Roundup Ready crops, 

farmers did not have to plow under the weeds to control them. That reduced erosion, the 

runoff of chemicals into waterways and the use of fuel for tractors. 


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Goutweed Aegopodium podagraria L. 

NATIVE RANGE: Most of Europe and northern 

Asia, to eastern Siberia 

DESCRIPTION: Goutweed, also known as 

bishop's-weed and snow-on-the-mountain, is an 

herbaceous perennial plant in the carrot family 

(Apiaceae, formerly the Umbelliferae). It is one of 

several species of Aegopodium, native to Europe 

and Asia. Most leaves are basal, with the 

leafstalk attached to an underground stem, or 

rhizome. The leaves are divided into three 

groups of three leaflets, making it "triternate." 

The leaflets are toothed and sometimes 

irregularly lobed. Foliage of the "wild" type is 

medium green in color; a commonly planted 

variegated form has bluish-green leaves with 

creamy white edges. Sometimes reversion back 

to solid green or a mixture of solid green and the 

lighter variegated pattern occurs within a patch. 

Small, white, five-petaled flowers are produced in 

mid-summer. Flowers are arranged in flat-topped 

clusters (called compound umbels) and are held 

above the ground on a leafy stem up to about 3 

feet tall. The seeds are small and elongate, 

similar in size and shape to carrot seeds, and 

ripen in late summer. In contrast to the dense 

foliage cover produced by goutweed, flowering shoots are uncommon in densely shaded areas. 

The rhizomes of goutweed are long, white, and branching, superficially resembling those of 

quackgrass (Elytrigia repens, also known as Agropyron repens). Patches of goutweed typically 

form a dense canopy and can exclude most other herbaceous vegetation. Because of this, it is 

often used as a low-maintenance ground cover. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Goutweed is an 

aggressive invasive plant that forms dense 

patches, displaces native species, and greatly 

reduces species diversity in the ground layer. 

Goutweed patches inhibit the establishment of 

conifers and other native tree species as well. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: 

Goutweed is currently known to occur in twentynine 

states in the mid-Atlantic, Northeast and 

Northwest and is reported to be invasive in natural 

areas in Connecticut, Michigan, New Jersey, 

Pennsylvania, Vermont, and Wisconsin. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Goutweed is 

an ecologically versatile species. It is found in old 

gardens and flowerbeds, around shrubs and other plantings, and in a variety of other disturbed 

habitats such as felled forests, abandoned fields, and pastures. In Eurasia, goutweed is primarily 

a species of deciduous and southern boreal forests, and it expands aggressively in similar 

habitats in North America. Goutweed appears to do best on moist soil and in light to moderate 

shade, but is highly shade-tolerant and capable of invading closed-canopy forests. 

BACKGROUND: Goutweed was apparently first brought to North America as an ornamental 

during the early stages of European settlement and was well established in the U.S. by 1863. In 

parts of Russia, the leaves are sometimes used as a salad ingredient and potherb in the spring. 


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BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Goutweed is vigorous, rhizomatous perennial that spreads mainly by 

vegetative means. Patches increase in size through extension of the rhizome system. The flowers 

are pollinated by a wide variety of insects, including beetles, bees, and especially small flies. 

The seeds have no apparent morphological features that would facilitate dispersal. Goutweed 

seeds require cold stratification to germinate. While established goutweed plants are highly 

competitive in shaded environments, seedlings generally need recently disturbed soil and rather 

bright light in order to survive. Goutweed apparently does not form a long-lived seed bank, and 

the seeds generally germinate the year after ripening. Establishment of goutweed seedlings in the 

shade is rare. The primary vector for dispersal to new areas is humans. Most goutweed colonies 

spread to neighboring natural areas from intentional plantings, or by the dumping of yard waste 

that includes discarded rhizomes. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: A variety of methods are available for controlling 

goutweed, depending on the extent of the infestation and the amount of time and labor available. 

Regardless of the control method used, the patch should be carefully monitored periodically for a 

few years. New shoots should be dug up and destroyed. Once goutweed control has been 

achieved, revegetation with native or non-invasive exotic plant materials is recommended. This is 

particularly important on sites where erosion is a concern or where other invasive species are 

likely to colonize the site if left alone. 

Biological. There are no biological control organisms currently available for Aegopodium 

podograria in North America. 

Chemical. Systemic herbicides such as glyphosate (Roundup) that are translocated to the roots 

and kill the entire plant are most effective for goutweed control. However, glyphosate is nonspecific 

and can damage or kill desirable native plants that are accidentally sprayed in the course 

of treating the goutweed. Contact herbicides are usually ineffective because goutweed readily 

leafs out again after defoliation. 

Manual. Small patches of goutweed can be eliminated by careful and persistent hand-pulling or 

digging up of entire plants along with underground stems (rhizomes). Pulled plants can be piled 

up and allowed to dry for a few days before bagging and disposing of them. Be careful to pick up 

all rhizomes which, if left behind, can re-root and sprout new plants. For large patches, a team of 

volunteers or use of herbicide is recommended. 

Mechanical. Where appropriate, frequent short mowing may control or slow the spread of 

goutweed in lawns, along roadsides, and other areas. 

Physical. Preventing goutweed from photosynthesizing in early spring (at the time of leaf-out) 

can control the plant by depleting its carbohydrate reserves. This can be accomplished by 

covering the patch with black plastic sheeting when the leaves start to emerge from the ground in 

the spring, and leaving it in place through the summer. A more effective option is to cut all plants 

once they've fully leafed out, using a mower, scythe, or weed-whacker type machine, and then 

cover the area with plastic. Covering the plants in mid- or late summer, after they have regained 

substantial starch reserves, is probably much less effective. 

USE PESTICIDES WISELY: ALWAYS READ THE ENTIRE PESTICIDE LABEL CAREFULLY, 

FOLLOW ALL MIXING AND APPLICATION INSTRUCTIONS AND WEAR ALL 

RECOMMENDED PERSONAL PROTECTIVE GEAR AND CLOTHING. CONTACT YOUR 

STATE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE FOR ANY ADDITIONAL PESTICIDE USE 

REQUIREMENTS, RESTRICTIONS OR RECOMMENDATIONS. 

NOTICE: MENTION OF PESTICIDE PRODUCTS IN THIS COURSE DOES NOT CONSTITUTE 

ENDORSEMENT OF ANY MATERIAL. 


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Garlic Mustard Alliaria petiolata [Bieb] Cavara & Grande 

NATIVE RANGE: Europe 

DESCRIPTION: Garlic mustard is a cool season 

biennial herb in the mustard family (Brassicaceae) with 

stalked, triangular to heart-shaped, coarsely toothed 

leaves that give off an odor of garlic when crushed. 

First-year plants appear as a rosette of green leaves 

close to the ground. Rosettes remain green through the 

winter and develop into mature flowering plants the 

following spring. Flowering plants of garlic mustard 

reach from 2 to 3-1/2 feet in height and produce buttonlike 

clusters of small white flowers, each with four 

petals in the shape of a cross. 

Recognition of garlic mustard is critical. Several whiteflowered 

native plants, including toothworts (Dentaria), 

sweet cicely (Osmorhiza claytonii), and early saxifrage 

(Saxifraga virginica), occur alongside garlic mustard 

and may be mistaken for it. 

Beginning in May (in the mid-Atlantic Coast Plain 

region), seeds are produced in erect, slender pods and 

become shiny black when mature. By late June, when 

most garlic mustard plants have died, they can be 

recognized only by the erect stalks of dry, pale brown 

seedpods that remain, and may hold viable seed, 

through the summer. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Garlic mustard poses a severe threat to native plants and animals in 

forest communities in much of the eastern and midwestern U.S. Many native wildflowers that 

complete their life cycles in the springtime (e.g., spring beauty, wild ginger, bloodroot, 

Dutchman's breeches, hepatica, toothworts, and trilliums) occur in the same habitat as garlic 

mustard. Once introduced to an area, garlic mustard outcompetes native plants by aggressively 

monopolizing light, moisture, nutrients, soil and space. Wildlife species that depend on these 

early plants for their foliage, pollen, nectar, fruits, seeds and roots, are deprived of these essential 

food sources when garlic mustard replaces them. Humans are also deprived of the vibrant display 

of beautiful spring wildflowers. 

Garlic mustard also poses a threat to one of our rare native insects, the West Virginia white 

butterfly (Pieris virginiensis). Several species of spring wildflowers known as "toothworts" 

(Dentaria), also in the mustard family, are the primary food source for the caterpillar stage of this 

butterfly. Invasions of garlic mustard are causing local extirpations of the toothworts, and 

chemicals in garlic mustard appear to be toxic to the eggs of the butterfly, as evidenced by their 

failure to hatch when laid on garlic mustard plants. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Garlic mustard ranges from eastern Canada, south to 

Virginia and as far west as Kansas and Nebraska. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Garlic mustard frequently occurs in moist, shaded soil of 

river floodplains, forests, roadsides, edges of woods and trails edges and forest openings. 

Disturbed areas are most susceptible to rapid invasion and dominance. Though invasive under a 

wide range of light and soil conditions, garlic mustard is associated with calcareous soils and 

does not tolerate high acidity. Growing season inundation may limit invasion of garlic mustard to 

some extent. 

BACKGROUND: Garlic mustard was first recorded in the United States about 1868, from Long 

Island, New York. It was likely introduced by settlers for food or medicinal purposes. 


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BIOLOGY & SPREAD: After spending the first half of its two-year life cycle as a rosette of 

leaves, garlic mustard plants develop rapidly the following spring into mature plants that flower, 

produce seed and die by late June. In the mid-Atlantic Coastal Plain region, seeds are produced 

in erect, slender, four-sided pods, called siliques, beginning in May. Siliques become tan and 

papery as they mature and contain shiny black seeds in a row. By late June, most of the leaves 

have faded away and garlic mustard plants can be recognized only by the dead and dying stalks 

of dry, pale brown seedpods that may remain and hold viable seed throughout the summer. A 

single plant can produce thousands of seeds, which scatter as much as several meters from the 

parent plant. Depending upon conditions, garlic mustard flowers either self-fertilize or are crosspollinated 

by a variety of insects. Self-fertilized seed is genetically identical to the parent plant, 

enhancing its ability to colonize an area. Although water may transport seeds of garlic mustard, 

they do not float well and are probably not carried far by wind. Long distance dispersal is most 

likely aided by human activities and wildlife. Additionally, because white-tailed deer prefer native 

plants to garlic mustard, large deer populations may help to expand it by removing competing 

native plants and exposing the soil and seedbed through trampling. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Because the seeds of garlic can remain viable in 

the soil for five years or more, effective management requires a long term commitment. The goal 

is to prevent seed production until the stored seed is exhausted. Hand removal of plants is 

possible for light infestations and when desirable native species co-occur. Care must be taken to 

remove the plant with its entire root system because new plants can sprout from root fragments. 

This is best achieved when the soil is moist, by grasping low and firmly on the plant and tugging 

gently until the main root loosens from the soil and the entire plant pulls out. Pulled plants should 

be removed from site if at all possible, especially if flowers are present. 

For larger infestations of garlic mustard, or when hand-pulling is not practical, flowering stems 

can be cut at ground level or within several inches of the ground, to prevent seed production. If 

stems are cut too high, the plant may produce additional flowers at leaf axils. Once seedpods are 

present, but before the seeds have matured or scattered, the stalks can be clipped, bagged and 

removed from the site to help prevent continued buildup of seed stores. This can be done through 

much of the summer. For very heavy infestations, where the risk to desirable plant species is 

minimal, application of the systemic herbicide glyphosate (e.g., Roundup) is also effective. 

Herbicide may be applied at any time of year, including winter (to kill overwintering rosettes), as 

long as the temperature is above 50°F and rain is not expected for about 8 hours. Extreme care 

must be taken not to get glyphosate on desirable plants as the product is non-selective and will 

kill almost any plant it contacts. Spray shields may be used to better direct herbicide and limit 

non-intentional drift. 

Fire has been used to control garlic mustard in some large natural settings, but because burning 

opens the understory, it can encourage germination of stored seeds and promote growth of 

emerging garlic mustard seedlings. For this reason, burns must be conducted for three to five 

consecutive years. Regardless of the control method employed, annual monitoring is necessary 

for a period of at least five years to ensure that seed stores of garlic mustard have been 

exhausted. 

Researchers are investigating potential biological control agents for garlic mustard which may 

greatly improve the control of this insidious weed. 









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Giant Reed Arundo donax L. 

NATIVE RANGE: India 

DESCRIPTION: Giant reed, also known as wild 

cane, is a tall, perennial grass that can grow to over 

20 feet in height. Its fleshy, creeping rootstocks form 

compact masses from which tough, fibrous roots 

emerge that penetrate deeply into the soil. Leaves 

are elongate, 1-2 inches wide and a foot long. The 

flowers are borne in 2-foot long, dense, plume-like 

panicles during August and September. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Giant reed chokes 

riversides and stream channels, crowds out native 

plants, interferes with flood control, increases fire 

potential, and reduces habitat for wildlife, including 

the Least Bell's vireo, a federally endangered bird. 

The long, fibrous, interconnecting root mats of giant 

reed form a framework for debris dams behind 

bridges, culverts, and other structures that lead to 

damage. It ignites easily and can create intense 

fires. 

Giant reed can float miles downstream where root and stem fragments may take root and initiate 

new infestations. Due to its rapid growth rate and vegetative reproduction, it is able to quickly 

invade new areas and form pure stands at the expense of other species. Once established, giant 

reed has the ability to outcompete and completely suppress native vegetation. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Giant reed is distributed from Arkansas and Texas to 

California, where it is found throughout the state, and in the east, from Virginia to Kentucky and 

Missouri and generally southward. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Giant reed becomes established in moist places such as 

ditches, streams, and riverbanks, growing best in well drained soils where abundant moisture is 

available. It tolerates a wide variety of conditions, including high salinity, and can flourish in many 

soil types from heavy clays to loose sands. 

BACKGROUND: Giant reed was probably first introduced into the United States in Los Angeles, 

California in the early 1800's. Since then, it has become widely dispersed into all of the 

subtropical and warm temperate areas of the world, mostly through intentional human 

introductions. Today, giant reed is widely planted throughout the warmer areas of the United 

States as an ornamental and in the Southwest, where it is used along ditches for erosion control. 

Giant reed has a variety of uses ranging from music to medicine. Primitive pipe organs were 

made from it and the reeds for woodwind instruments are still made from its culms, for which no 

satisfactory substitutes are known. It is also used in basketry, for fishing rods, livestock fodder, 

medicine, and soil erosion control. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Reproduction of giant reed is primarily vegetative, through rhizomes 

which root and sprout readily. Little is known about the importance of sexual reproduction in giant 

reed, or about its seed viability, dormancy, germination, and seedling establishment. Research on 

these topics may yield some additional improvements in the management of giant reed. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Areas infested with giant reed are best restored 

through chemical means. Mechanical control (e.g., repeated mowing) may be somewhat 

effective, but if small fragments of root are left in the soil, they may lead to reestablishment. 


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Systemic herbicides, such as glyphosate (e.g., Rodeo), may be applied to clumps of giant reed, 

after flowering, either as a cut stump treatment or as a foliar spray. When applying herbicides in 

or around water or wetlands, be sure to use products labeled for that purpose to avoid harm to 

aquatic organisms. 

Prescribed burning, either alone or combined with herbicide applications, may be effective if 

conducted after flowering. Once giant reed has been reduced sufficiently, native plants may be 

seeded or transplanted at the treated site. 









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Musk Thistle Carduus nutans L. 

NATIVE RANGE: Europe and Asia. 

DESCRIPTION: Musk, or nodding thistle, a 

member of the aster family (Asteraceae), is an 

aggressive, biennial herb with showy red-purple 

flowers and painful spiny stems and 

leaves. Mature plants range in height from 1½ to 

6 feet tall, and have multi-branched 

stems. Leaves are dark green, coarsely lobed, 

with a smooth waxy surface and a yellowish to 

white spine at the tip. The large disk-shaped 

flower heads, containing hundreds of tiny 

individual flowers, are 1½ to 3½ inches in length 

and occur at the tips of stems. Flower heads will 

droop to a 90-degree angle from the stem when 

mature, hence its alternate name, nodding 

thistle. Each plant may produce thousands of 

straw-colored seeds adorned with plume-like 

bristles. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Because musk thistle 

is unpalatable to wildlife and livestock, selective 

grazing leads to severe degradation of native 

meadows and grasslands as wildlife focus their 

foraging on native plants, giving musk thistle a 

competitive advantage. Although musk thistle is 

infrequently found in dense forests, it can 

colonize areas subjected to natural disturbances such as landslides or frequent 

flooding. Meadows, prairies, grassy balds, and other open areas are susceptible to invasion. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Musk thistle is found throughout the U.S. except for 

Maine, Vermont, Florida, Alaska and Hawaii. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Musk thistle grows from sea level to about 8,000 ft 

elevation, in neutral to acidic soils. It invades open natural areas such as meadows, prairies, and 

grassy balds. It spreads rapidly in areas subjected to frequent natural disturbance events such 

as landslides and flooding but does not grow well in excessively wet, dry, or shady conditions. 

BACKGROUND: A native of western Europe, musk thistle was introduced into the eastern United 

States in the early 1800s and has a long history as a rangeland pest in the U.S. It was first 

discovered in Davidson County, Tennessee in 1942 and has been declared a noxious weed in 

many states, including North Carolina. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Musk thistle is usually a biennial, requiring 2 years to complete a 

reproductive cycle, but may germinate and flower in a single year in warmer climates. Seedlings 

emerge in mid to late July and develop into a rosette where plants can reach 4 feet in 

diameter. Plants overwinter in the rosette stage until they begin to bolt in mid-March. During the 

bolting stage plants form multi-branched stems to a height of 6 feet. The number of seedheads 

per plant is site-dependent and ranges from about 24 to 56 on favorable sites and 1 to 18 on less 

favorable sites. Flowers emerge in early May to August and seed dissemination occurs 

approximately one month after the flowers form. A single flower head may produce 1,200 seeds 

and a single plant up to 120,000 seeds, which may be windblown for miles. Seed may remain 

viable in the soil for over ten years, making it a difficult plant to control. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Mechanical, biological and chemical methods are 

some of the effective methods available for control of musk thistle. Hand pulling is most effective 

on small populations and can be done throughout the year, but is most effective prior to the 

development of seeds. 


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Flowers and seedheads should be bagged and disposed of in a landfill to prevent or minimize 

seed dispersal. Minimizing disturbance to the soil during removal activities will help reduce the 

chance of germination of seeds stored in the soil. 

Two weevils have been introduced from Europe and released in the United States as a biological 

control for musk thistle, the thistlehead-feeding weevil (Rhinocyllus conicus) and the rosette 

weevil (Trichosirocalus horridus). These weevils have been released in a number of western 

states with some notable successes achieved. However, recent observations of unintentional 

and unanticipated impacts of the thistlehead-feeding weevil to native thistles, including some rare 

species, has raised a red flag about its continued use, atleast in the western U.S. 

Foliar spraying is effective on established populations of musk thistle. Apply a 2% solution of 

glyphosate (e.g., Roundup) or triclopyr (e.g., Garlon) and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic surfactant 

wetting all leaves and stems. Chlorpyralid (e.g. Transline) is effective at a concentration of 0.5% 

and is selective to Aster, Buckwheat, and Pea families. A low pressure and coarse spray pattern 

will limit drift and damage to non-target species. Treatments should be applied during the rosette 

stage or prior to flowering. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic (i.e., moves through the plant) 

herbicide that can kill non-target plants that are only partially contacted by spray. Triclopyr is 

selective to broadleaf species and is a better choice if native grasses are present. 

SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: Although not a popular ornamental in the U.S., suitable 

native alternatives for musk thistle in the eastern U.S. might include butterfly weed (Asclepias 

tuberosa), Joe-pye weed (Eupatorium dubium), black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia fulgida), ironweed 

(Vernonia noveboracensis), wild blue phlox (Phlox divaricata) and many others. Many plants 

native to the West are also available. Check with the native plant society in your state for more 

suggestions. 









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Asiatic Sand Sedge Carex kobomugi Ohwi 

NATIVE RANGE: Coastal areas of northeastern Asia 

DESCRIPTION: Asiatic sand sedge is a perennial member of the sedge family (Cyperaceae) 

adapted to coastal beaches and dunes and possibly the only Carex species found in upper beach 

habitat along the U.S. Atlantic Coast. The mature sedge is a coarse and stout member of the 

genus that forms extensive colonies through cord-like rhizomes that extend many feet under the 

sand and produce new shoots. Flowering and fruiting occurs April through June and individual 

plants have either male or female flowers. As with many other members of the genus Carex, the 

flowers are numerous, subtended by scales, and arranged in spikes at the end of a flowering 

stalk that is triangular in cross section. A papery sac or perigynium encloses the female flowers, 

each of which develops into a single-seeded fruit, called 

an achene. 

Because flowering culms are evident for a relatively brief 

period during the spring, and some colonies and new 

infestations may spread extensively without flowering, it 

is useful to learn to recognize the plant in its sterile form. 

Asiatic sand sedge may be confused with at least two 

colonial, rhizomatous native grass species - American 

beach grass (Ammophila breviligulata) and beach panic 

grass (Panicum amarum). Leaves of Asiatic sand sedge 

are longer tapering than those of the above grasses, 

have a yellow-green rather than bluish-green cast, and 

small teeth along the margin that are easily felt or seen with 

the help of magnification. These differences become more 

obvious when observed in the field. Several species of 

another sedge genus, Cyperus, sometimes grow on dunes 

and on wash flats and strongly resemble Carex when not in 

flower. However, these Cyperus species flower from late 

summer to fall, have leaves without serrated margins, and 

unlike Asiatic sand sedge, are weakly to non-rhizomatous. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Asiatic sand sedge invades wash 

flat habitat occupied by the federally listed plant, seabeach 

amaranth (Amaranthus pumilus), which is a poor 

competitor against it. On established, vegetated sand 

dunes, Asiatic sand sedge can out-compete native dunebinding 

grasses, like American beach grass and sea oats 

(Uniola paniculata). Dunes dominated by Asiatic sand 

sedge are also more vulnerable to wind blowouts and storm erosion. There is evidence to 

suggest that fewer native plant species, and fewer individuals, occur on dunes dominated by 

Asiatic sand sedge than on comparable dunes dominated by the native American beach grass. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Asiatic sand sedge occurs in maritime areas from 

Massachusetts to North Carolina [DE, MA, MD, NC, NJ, NY, RI, VA]. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Asiatic sand sedge grows on primary dunes and on upper 

parts of ocean beach wash flats that have recently been disturbed by ocean storms. Like 

American beach grass, it appears to create more habitat for itself by trapping wind-blown sand to 

form dunes. Sand burial appears to stimulate the growth of rhizomes. 

BACKGROUND: Asiatic sand sedge was first observed in the United States, at Island Beach, 

New Jersey in 1929. Specimens were collected on the Virginia part of the Delmarva (Delaware- 

Maryland-Virginia) Peninsula as early as the 1940s. Although the circumstances of its 

introduction are unclear, sand sedge was apparently introduced intentionally for use as a sand 

binder in erosion-prone areas and may have spread accidentally as a result of its use as a 

packing material in ship cargo. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Once established, Asiatic sand sedge spreads primarily by vegetative 

means, through production of rhizomes. Sexual reproduction, which requires both male and 


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female plants to be present, is not necessary for a colony to expand locally. Expansion of a 

colony was observed at Island Beach, New Jersey, despite the absence of any seedlings. Longdistance 

dispersal of Asiatic sand sedge is uncertain but it is likely that its seeds are tolerant of 

salt water immersion and carried by ocean currents and storm surges. Plant fragments may be 

dispersed by ocean currents, and may remain viable after extended salt-water immersion, but this 

has not been confirmed. Some observation suggests that inundation by storm surges can kill 

growing plants. In newly forming colonies, sexual reproduction may be somewhat limited, since 

plants of the opposite sex may not occur nearby. Pollen may be carried long distances by the 

wind. Much research is needed to gain a better understanding of modes of dispersal and 

establishment of Asiatic sand sedge. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Various mechanical and chemical methods have 

been used successfully in managing Asiatic sand sedge. Regardless of method, it is important to 

avoid breaking underground parts and leaving them untreated, and to conduct follow-up 

monitoring and treatment if needed. Mapping infestations with a Global Positioning System (GPS) 

prior to treatment is very helpful for relocating sites, especially in sandy natural areas like 

beaches with few permanent landmarks. Cooperation and coordination among coastal area land 

managers should lead to more effective control. 

Because Asiatic sand sedge is capable of forming extensive colonies, early detection and 

treatment of infestations is critical for effective management. The potential for considerable longdistance 

dispersal of seeds necessitates routine monitoring and possible follow up treatments, 

even after it is believed to be eradicated. Because of the likelihood of leaving viable below-ground 

parts after an excavation, it is important to revisit the site in subsequent years to ensure that an 

infestation has been eradicated. 

Manual. Excavation of individual plants by digging and hand-pulling is feasible and has been 

successful when used to control small infestations (e.g., fewer than 200 shoots). This method 

may not be economically or logistically feasible on larger control projects. Excavation generally 

involves digging with a shovel under and around each individual plant shoot to expose and loosen 

the roots. Individual shoots are often connected to other shoots by cordlike rhizomes that are 

about ¼ inch thick and often of considerable length. Once shoot and roots are loose, all rhizomes 

need to be gently excavated by hand, following them through the sand to minimize breaking. 

Rhizome parts left buried are likely to grow into new plants. Because the tips of new tillers 

(shoots) can be sharp enough to puncture skin, it is important to wear thick gloves when handling 

below-ground parts. Plants should be removed from the beach and disposed of in habitat 

unsuitable for the sedge (e.g., lawns), spread out to dry, or composted in black plastic until dead. 

Chemical. Larger colonies of Asiatic sand sedge that have formed considerable dunes are 

probably most effectively controlled using chemical herbicides. A 2% glyphosate (e.g. Roundup, 

Rodeo, etc.) and water solution applied to the leaves during the growing season has provided 

effective control. One or two treatments in the same season followed by spot treatments are 

usually needed. Mid-summer (June through July in Maryland and New Jersey) treatments are just 

as effective as fall (October in Maryland) applications and allow for same season monitoring and 

re-treatment. Because rhizomes can be extensive, follow-up monitoring and treatment are 

necessary for several seasons to ensure long-term control. 

Good coverage of herbicide is needed but can be difficult because of the plant's narrow leaves. 

To help track application and to minimize misapplication and waste, a colorant can be added to 

the spray solution. Herbicide applications should be made when the chance of rain is low for at 

least six hours after application and when winds are minimal (e.g., 0-7 mph), to minimize drift of 

herbicide to non-target areas. Herbicide users should read and follow all label instructions and, 

when possible, mix chemicals where a spill containment and/or clean-up facility is available 

instead of on site. Transport of herbicide is likely to be more rapid through sand than in other 

soils, and microbial activity that can break down herbicides is likely to be low in beach sand. 

When it is necessary to mix herbicide on the beach or dunes, it is recommended to mix over a 

waterproof basin set on top of a waterproof tarp. 


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SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: Asiatic sand sedge was originally introduced as a dune 

stabilizer, although it is apparently less effective in this role than native species, such as 

American beach grass (Ammophila breviligulata), which occurs throughout the North American 

range of Asiatic sand sedge. In the southernmost part of this range, sea oats (Uniola paniculata) 

is the dominant native dune binding grass. 

Dune Restoration and Planting. Once successful control of Asiatic sand sedge has been 

achieved, establishing native vegetation is an integral part of dune restoration. Native species 

such as American beachgrass (Ammophila breviligulata) and sea oats (Uniola paniculata) should 

be planted to protect vulnerable dunes from storm damage and blowouts and to prevent recolonization 

by Asiatic sand sedge. American beachgrass establishes itself well on primary 

foredunes where shifting sands are common, and should be planted during late winter to early 

spring. In primary backdune areas and places where sands are usually more stable, 

consideration should be given to planting species such as seaside goldenrod (Solidago 

sempervirens), beach panic grass (Panicum amarum), dune panic grass (Panicum amarulum), 

and sea-rocket (Cakile edentula), in combination with American beachgrass and sea oats. 









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Invasive Weeds - Yellow Starthistle 

Centaurea solstitialis L. 

Centaurea solstitialis is a grayish-green plant with multiple rigid stems that extend in all directions 

from the base, forming a bushy-looking cluster that can reach 2 metres (6.6 ft) in height and more 

than that in diameter. It produces bright yellow flowers ringed with long, sharp spines. The plant 

grows quickly and is very competitive. It bears a taproot that can reach 1 metre (3.3 ft) deep into 

the soil, allowing it to thrive during dry, hot summers. It is versatile in its growth patterns, and can 

adapt to drought or low soil moisture content by producing smaller plants with fewer seeds during 

dry years. 

Yellow star-thistle is a plant toxic to horses, causing chewing disease (Nigropallidal 

encephalomalacia). 

Yellow starthistle originated from southern Europe, and first entered the United States shortly 

after the 1849 gold rush. It was imported as a contaminant in alfalfa hay. At that time, the only 

place California imported alfalfa from was Chile. It had been spread to Chile in the 1600’s from 

Spain. By 1958, it infested over a million acres in California. Today, there are an estimated 16 

million acres of yellow starthistle in California, and a couple of additional million acres in other 

western states. It has spread to 23 of the 48 contiguous states, as far east as New York. 


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Yellow starthistle is a winter annual that is a member of the knapweed complex in the sunflower 

family. It grows about 2-3 feet tall and has yellow flowers. Leaves extend down the edges of the 

stems, giving the stems a winged appearance. 

Inflorescences have bracts with stiff, sharp spines that are about an inch long. A single starthistle 

plant has the potential to produce up to 150,000 seeds. Germination occurs either in the fall or 

spring; the young plant has a rosette growth form. As plants mature, a flower stalk elongates from 

the center of the rosette. 

Although some studies show that some seeds can remain viable for up to 10 years (Callihan et al 

1993), studies done in California under natural conditions demonstrated that 95% of the seeds 

had either germinated or were damaged after only 2-3 years in the soil (Joley et al 1992) 

This plant has the ability to invade rangelands, pastures, croplands, and roadsides throughout the 

west, especially those with deep, loamy soils. The competitive success of yellow starthistle is 

directly related to its ability for rapid growth and capture of water, nutrients, light, and space. This 

species displaces native plant communities, reduces plant diversity, and accelerates soil erosion 

and surface runoff. It can form solid stands that drastically reduce forage production for livestock 

and wildlife. Its ability to deplete soil moisture has been compared to a loss of 15 to 25% of 

annual precipitation (Jetter et al. 2003). 

Livestock can be injured eating even small amounts of yellow starthistle if forced to feed on the 

spiny portions of the plant. Animals and humans normally avoid heavily infested sites due to the 

spiny nature of the mature plants. 

Human activities are the primary mechanisms for the long distance movement of yellow starthistle 

seed. Seed is transported in large amounts by road maintenance equipment and on the 

undercarriage of vehicles. The movement of contaminated hay and uncertified seed are also 

important long distance transportation mechanisms. Once at a new location, seed is transported 

in lesser amounts and over short to medium distances by animals and humans. 


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Malta Starthistle 

Centaurea melitensis L. 

Malta Starthistle 

Malta starthistle was introduced to the southwestern U.S. from Europe as a seed contaminant. It 

is very similar to yellow starthistle in appearance, and is often mistaken for it. Like yellow 

starthistle, leaves extend down the stems, giving the stem a winged appearance. A major 

difference between the two starthistles is length of spines on the flower bracts: those of yellow 

starthistle are usually approximately an inch in length, while Malta starthistle spines are normally 

less than 1/2 inch long. Unlike yellow starthistle also, Malta starthistle seeds appear to have 

longer longevity in the soil: Malta starthistle seed lives for over 3 years in the soil, making it 

potentially more difficult to eradicate. 

Horse Killer 

Malta starthistle has been implicated in case reports of chewing disease of horses. Ingestion of 

significant quantities can cause “chewing disease” which is characterized by fatigue, lowered 

head, an uncontrolled rapid twitching of the lower lip, tongue-flicking, involuntary chewing 

movements, and an unnatural open position of the mouth. Poisoning occurs after a horse has 

ingested 60 to 160% of its body weight over a two month period (Panter 1990, 1991). Toxicity 

effects are cumulative and irreversible. In most cases, poisoning occurs where horses had little or 

no other palatable feed available to them (Schalau 2005, UNCE undated). 


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Matla and Yellow Star Thistle, all thistles are bad news. These plants are as 

tough as nails. Communities across the southwest have set laws for controlling 

this pest. There are pest applicators that spead all day spraying and removing 

this plant. It is a nightmare, but a money maker for our industry. 


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Musk Thistle 

Seedlings normally emerge early in spring, develop into rosettes and spend the first season in 

this growth stage. Seedling emergence also can occur in fall. All seedlings grow into rosettes and 

overwinter in that stage. Rosettes are usually large and compact with a large, corky taproot that is 

hollow near the crown. Leaves have consistent shape, sometimes expressing a frosted 

appearance around the leaf margins, and often have a cream-colored midrib. 

Early in spring of the second year, overwintered rosettes resume growth. Shoots begin to 

elongate in late March through May, depending on weather and elevation. Musk thistle flowers 

and starts to produce seed 45 to 55 days after it bolts. Musk thistle has very large bracts beneath 

flowers that are armed with sharp spines and shoots beneath flowers are almost devoid of leaves. 

Musk thistle dies after it sets seed. It spends approximately 90 percent of its life cycle in a 

vegetative growth stage. Musk thistle's tolerance to most herbicides increases after it bolts. 

Musk thistle is a prolific seed producer. One plant can set up to 20,000 seeds. However, only 

one-third of the seeds are viable. Musk thistle produces many heads. The terminal, or tallest, 

shoots flower first, then lateral shoots develop in leaf axils. A robust plant may produce 100 or 

more flowering heads. 

Musk thistle flowers over a seven- to nine-week period. It egins to disseminate seed from a head 

about two weeks after it first blooms. It is common to observe musk thistle with heads in several 

stages of floral development and senescence. Thus, musk thistle sets seed over an extended 

time period. 

Most seed is dispersed within the immediate vicinity of the parent plant. This leads to a clumped 

pattern of seedling development and results in intraspecific competition and mortality. Wind and 

water are good dissemination methods and seeds are also spread by animals, farm machinery 

and other vehicles. Less than 5 percent of seed remains attached to the pappus when it breaks 

off the flowering head and floats away on wind currents. 


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Management 

Cultural control. Maintaining pastures and rangeland in good condition is a primary factor for 

musk thistle management. To favor pasture and rangeland grass growth, do not overgraze. 

Fertilize only when necessary and according to soil testing recommendations. To successfully 

manage musk thistle, prevent seed formation. 

Mechanical control. Musk thistle will not tolerate tillage and can be removed easily by severing 

its root below ground with a shovel or hoe. Mowing can effectively reduce seed output if plants 

are cut when the terminal head is in the late-flowering stage. Gather and burn mowed debris to 

destroy any seed that has developed. 

Chemical control. Several herbicides are registered in pasture, rangeland and noncrop areas to 

control musk thistle. Tordon 22K (picloram), Milestone, Transline, Banvel/Vanquish/Clarity 

(dicamba), 2,4-D, or Banvel/Vanquish/Clarity plus 2,4-D are commonly used. Apply these 

herbicides in spring or fall to musk thistle rosettes. Applications during the reproductive growth 

stages with these herbicides (bud through flowering) will not eliminate viable seed development. 

Escort (metsulfuron) or Cimarron Extra (chlorsulfuron) also can be used in pastures, rangeland, 

and non-crop areas. Research from Colorado State University and the University of Nebraska 

shows that chlorsulfuron or metsulfuron prevents or dramatically reduces viable seed formation 

when applied in spring, up to early flower growth stages. The latest time to apply these herbicides 

is when developed terminal flowers have opened up to the size of a dime. Add a good agricultural 

surfactant at 0.25 percent v/v2 to Escort or Cimarron Extra treatments or control is inadequate 

(equivalent to 1 quart of surfactant per 100 gallons of spray solution). 


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Spotted Knapweed Centaurea 

biebersteinii DC. 

NATIVE RANGE: Central Europe, east to central Russia, 

Caucasia, and western Siberia. 

DESCRIPTION: Spotted knapweed is a biennial or shortlived 

perennial member of the Sunflower (Asteraceae) family. 

Its name is derived from the spots formed by black margins 

on the flower bract tips. Spotted knapweed typically forms a 

basal rosette of leaves in its first year and flowers in 

subsequent years. Rosette leaves are approximately 8 inches 

long by 2 inches wide, borne on short stalks, and deeply 

lobed once or twice on both sides of the center vein, with 

lobes oblong and wider toward the tip. The taproot is stout 

and deep. Flowering stems are erect, 8 to 50 inches tall, 

branched above the middle, and with sparse to 

dense hair. Stem leaves alternate along the 

stem, are unstalked, and may be slightly lobed, 

or linear and unlobed. Leaf size decreases 

towards the tip of the stem. 

Flowers are purple to pink, rarely white, with 25 

to 35 flowers per head. Plants bloom from June 

to October, and flower heads usually remain on 

the plant. Flower heads are oblong or oval 

shaped, ¼ inch wide and ½ inch across, and are 

single or borne in clusters of two or three at the 

branch ends. Leaf-like bracts surrounding the 

base of the flower head are oval and yellow 

green, becoming brown near the base. The 

margins of these bracts have a soft spine-like 

fringe, with the center spine being shorter than 

the lateral spines. The brown, oval seeds are 

1/16 to 1/8 inch long, with pale longitudinal lines 

and a short fringe on one end. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Spotted knapweed 

infests a variety of natural and semi-natural 

habitats including barrens, fields, forests, 

prairies, meadows, pastures, and rangelands. It 

outcompetes native plant species, reduces native 

plant and animal biodiversity, and decreases 

forage production for livestock and wildlife. Spotted knapweed may degrade soil and water 

resources by increasing erosion, surface runoff, and stream sedimentation. It has increased at an 

estimated rate of 27% per year since 1920 and has the potential to invade about half of all the 

rangeland (35 million acres) in Montana alone. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Spotted knapweed is a widely distributed species 

reported to occur throughout Canada and in every state in the U.S. except Alaska, Georgia, 

Mississippi, Oklahoma and Texas. It has been designated as a noxious weed in Arizona, 

California, Colorado, Idaho, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, Nevada, New Mexico, North Dakota, 

Oregon, South Dakota, Utah, Washington, and Wyoming. It has been identified as invasive in 

natural areas by eighteen organizations in twenty-six states (Arizona, California, Colorado, 

Connecticut, Delaware, Kentucky, Idaho, Illinois, Massachusetts, Maryland, Michigan, Minnesota, 

Montana, North Carolina, New Jersey, New York, Oregon, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, 

Tennessee, Utah, Virginia, Washington, Wisconsin, West Virginia, and Wyoming). Fifteen 

national parks also identify spotted knapweed as an invasive plant and a threat to natural 

habitats. 


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HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Spotted knapweed is found at elevations up to and over 

10,000 feet and in precipitation zones receiving 8 to 80 inches of rain annually. Spotted 

knapweed prefers well-drained, light-textured soils that receive summer rainfall, including open 

forests dominated by ponderosa pine and Douglas fir, and prairie habitats dominated by Idaho 

fescue, bluebunch wheatgrass, and needle-and-thread grass. Disturbance allows for rapid 

establishment and spread; however, spotted knapweed is capable of invading well managed 

rangelands. Spotted knapweed does not compete well with vigorously growing grass in moist 

areas. In seasonally dry areas, spotted knapweed's taproot allows it to access water from deep in 

the soil, beyond the reach of more shallowly rooted species. 

BACKGROUND: Spotted knapweed was introduced to North America from Eurasia as a 

contaminant in alfalfa and possibly clover seed, and through discarded soil used as ship ballast. It 

was first recorded in Victoria, British Columbia in 1883 and spread further in domestic alfalfa 

seeds and hay before it was recognized as a serious problem. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Spotted knapweed plants in North America generally live 3 to 7 years but 

can live up to nine years or longer. Plants re-grow from buds on the root crown. Reproduction is 

by seed, and plants are capable of producing 500- 4,000 seeds per square foot per year. About 

90% of the seeds are viable at the time of dispersal, and they can remain viable in the soil for 5-8 

years. Most seeds are dispersed near the parent plant but can be transported by people, wildlife, 

livestock, vehicles, and in soil, crop seed, and contaminated hay. Gravel pits, soil stockpiles, 

powerlines, grain elevators, railroad and equipment yards are important seed distribution points. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: The most cost effective management strategy for 

spotted knapweed is to prevent its spread to non-infested areas. Spread by seed can be 

minimized by avoiding travel through infested areas; by cleaning footwear, clothing, backpacks, 

and other items after hiking through infested areas; by not grazing livestock when ripe seeds are 

present in the flower heads; and by using weed-free hay. 

Manual and Mechanical. Small infestations of spotted knapweed can be controlled by persistent 

hand-pulling done prior to seed set. Gloves should be worn because of the possibility of skin 

irritation. Because spotted knapweed can re-grow from the base, care must be taken to remove 

the entire crown and taproot. 

Biological control. A variety of natural enemies are used as biological control agents for large 

infestations of spotted knapweed. Most biocontrol techniques use insect larvae to damage the 

root, stem, leaf, or flower. Two species of seed head flies, Urophora affinis and U. quadrifasciata, 

are well-established on spotted knapweed. The larvae of these species reduce seed production 

by as much as 50% by feeding on spotted knapweed seed heads and causing the plant to form 

galls. Three moth species (Agapeta zoegana, Pelochrista medullana, and Pterolonche inspersa) 

and a weevil (Cyphocleonus achates) that feed on spotted knapweed roots have also been 

released. 

The collective stress on the plant caused by these insects reduces seed production and may lead 

to reduced competitiveness. Biological control agents may be more effective when combined with 

other control methods such as herbicides, grazing, and revegetation with desirable, competitive 

plants. 

Chemical. Control of spotted knapweed infestations using three chemical herbicides (2,4-D, 

clopyralid, and picloram) has been reported but is problematic. Existing plants can be killed with 

2,4-D but it needs to be reapplied yearly to control new plants germinating from seed stored in the 

soil. Picloram is a more persistent herbicide and has controlled knapweed for three to five years 

when applied at 0.25 lb/acre at any stage of plant growth; or with clopyralid (0.24 lb/acre) or 

clopyralid (0.2 lb/acre) plus 2,4-D (1 lb./acre) applied during bolt or bud growth stage. In the 

absence of desirable native grasses, longevity of control may be increased by revegetating with 

competitive grasses and forbs. Picloram may pose a risk of groundwater contamination where 

soils are permeable, particularly where the water table is shallow. 

Other methods. Long-term grazing by sheep and goats has been found to control spotted 

knapweed. Burning, cultivation, and fertilization typically are not effective on spotted knapweed 

unless combined with other methods of control. 


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Canada Thistle Cirsium arvense (L.) Scop. 

NATIVE RANGE: Temperate regions of 

Eurasia 

DESCRIPTION: Canada thistle is an 

herbaceous perennial in the aster family 

with erect stems 1½-4 feet tall, prickly 

leaves and an extensive creeping 

rootstock. Stems are branched, often 

slightly hairy, and ridged. Leaves are 

lance-shaped, irregularly lobed with spiny, 

toothed margins and are borne singly and 

alternately along the stem. Rose-purple, 

lavender, or sometimes white flower heads 

appear from June through October, 

generally, and occur in rounded, umbrellashaped 

clusters. 

The small, dry, single-seeded fruits of Canada thistle, called achenes, are 1-1½ inches long and 

have a feathery structure attached to the seed base. Many native species of thistle occur in the 

U.S., some of which are rare. Because of the possibility of confusion with native species, Canada 

thistle should be accurately identified before any control is attempted. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Natural communities that are threatened by Canada thistle include nonforested 

plant communities such as prairies, barrens, savannas, glades, sand dunes, fields and 

meadows that have been impacted by disturbance. As it establishes itself in an area, Canada 

thistle crowds out and replaces native plants, changes the structure and species composition of 

natural plant communities and reduces plant and animal diversity. This highly invasive thistle 

prevents the coexistence of other plant species through shading, competition for soil resources 

and possibly through the release of chemical toxins poisonous to other plants. 

Canada thistle is declared a "noxious weed" throughout the U.S. and has long been recognized 

as a major agricultural pest, costing tens of millions of dollars in direct crop losses annually and 

additional millions in costs for control. Only recently have the harmful impacts of Canada thistle to 

native species and natural ecosystems received notable attention. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Canada thistle is distributed throughout the northern 

U.S., from northern California to Maine and southward to Virginia. It is also found in Canada, for 

which it was named. Canada thistle has been identified as a management problem in many 

national parks and in preserves of The Nature Conservancy in the upper Midwest, Plains states, 

and the Pacific Northwest. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Canada thistle grows in barrens, glades, meadows, 

prairies, fields, pastures, and waste places. It does best in disturbed upland areas but also 

invades wet areas with fluctuating water levels such as streambank sedge meadows and wet 

prairies. 

BACKGROUND: Canada thistle was introduced to the United States, probably by accident, in the 

early 1600s and, by 1954, had been declared a noxious weed in forty three states. In Canada and 

the U.S., it is considered one of the most tenacious and economically important agricultural 

weeds, but only in recent years has it been recognized as a problem in natural areas. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Canada thistle produces an abundance of bristly-plumed seeds which are 

easily dispersed by the wind. Most of the seeds germinate within a year, but some may remain 

viable in the soil for up to twenty years or more. Vegetative reproduction in Canada thistle is 

aided by a fibrous taproot capable of sending out lateral roots as deep as 3 feet below ground, 

and from which shoots sprout up at frequent intervals. It also readily regenerates from root 

fragments less than an inch in length. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Management of Canada thistle can be achieved 

through hand-cutting, mowing, controlled burning, and chemical means, depending on the level of 

infestation and the type of area being managed. 


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Due to its perennial nature, entire plants must be killed in order to prevent regrowth from 

rootstock. Hand-cutting of individual plants or mowing of larger infestations should be conducted 

prior to seed set and must be repeated until the starch reserves in the roots are exhausted. 

Because early season burning of Canada thistle can stimulate its growth and flowering, controlled 

burns should be carried out late in the growing season for best effects. 

In natural areas where Canada thistle is interspersed with desirable native plants, targeted 

application of a systemic herbicide such as glyphosate (e.g., Roundup or Rodeo), which carries 

plant toxins to the roots, may be effective. For extensive infestations in disturbed areas with little 

desirable vegetation, broad application of this type herbicide may be the most effective method. 

Repeated applications are usually necessary due to the long life of seeds stored in the soil. 









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Leafy Spurge Euphorbia esula L. 

NATIVE RANGE: Europe and Asia 

DESCRIPTION: Leafy spurge is a 

member of the spurge family, or 

Euphorbiaceae, characterized by plants 

containing a white milky sap and flower 

parts in three's. Leafy spurge is an erect, 

branching, perennial herb 2 to 3½ feet tall, 

with smooth stems and showy yellow 

flower bracts. Stems frequently occur in 

clusters from a vertical root that can extend 

many feet underground. The leaves are 

small, oval to lance-shaped, somewhat 

frosted and slightly wavy along the margin. 

The flowers of leafy spurge are very small 

and are borne in greenish-yellow structures 

surrounded by yellow bracts. Clusters of 

these showy, yellow bracts open in late 

May or early June, while the actual flowers do not develop until mid-June. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Leafy spurge displaces native vegetation in prairie habitats and fields 

through shading and by usurping available water and nutrients and through plant toxins that 

prevent the growth of other plants underneath it. Leafy spurge is an aggressive invader and, once 

present, can completely overtake large areas of open land. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Leafy spurge occurs across much of the northern 

U.S., with the most extensive infestations reported for Montana, North Dakota, Nebraska, South 

Dakota, and Wyoming. It has been identified as a serious pest in a number of national parks and 

in preserves of The Nature Conservancy in eleven northern states. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Leafy spurge tolerates moist to dry soil conditions but is 

most aggressive under dry conditions where competition from native plants is reduced. It is 

capable of invading disturbed sites, including prairies, savannas, pastures, abandoned fields and 

roadside areas. 

BACKGROUND: Leafy spurge was transported to the U.S. possibly as a seed impurity in the 

early 1800s. First recorded in Massachusetts in 1827, leafy spurge spread quickly and reached 

North Dakota within about 80 years. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Leafy spurge reproduces readily by seeds that have a high germination 

rate and may remain viable in the soil for at least seven years, enhancing its chances of recovery 

over time. Its seed capsules open explosively, dispersing seed up to 15 feet from the parent plant 

and may be carried further by water and wildlife. Leafy spurge also spreads vegetatively at a rate 

of several feet per year. The root system is complex, can reach 15 or more feet into the ground, 

and may have numerous buds. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Because of its persistent nature and ability to 

regenerate from small pieces of root, leafy spurge is extremely difficult to eradicate. Biological 

control offers a highly promising management tactic for leafy spurge. The U.S. Department of 

Agriculture has shown success using six natural enemies of leafy spurge imported from Europe. 

These include a stem and root-boring beetle (Oberea erythrocephala), four root-mining flea 

beetles (Aphthona spp.) and a shoot-tip gall midge (Spurgia esulae). Large scale field-rearing and 

release programs are carried out cooperatively by federal and State officials in many northern 

states. The results are not as immediate as when herbicides are used, but if pesticide use is kept 

to a minimum, large numbers of these agents build up within a few years and have shown 

impressive results. 

Several systemic herbicides have been found to be effective if applied in June, when the flowers 

and seeds are developing, or in early to mid-September, when the plants are moving nutrients 

downward into the roots. 


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Preliminary research suggests that chemical treatment in the fall followed by a spring burn to 

reduce seed germination may be an effective strategy for reducing leafy spurge infestations. 

Multiple treatments are necessary every year for several years, making leafy spurge control an 

extremely expensive undertaking. If left uncontrolled for a single year, leafy spurge can re-infest 

rapidly. Prescribed burning, in conjunction with herbicides, may also be effective. 









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Cogon Grass Imperata cylindrica (L.) Palisot 

NATIVE RANGE: Southeast Asia, Philippines, 

China, and Japan 

DESCRIPTION: Cogon grass is a perennial, 

rhizomatous grass that grows from 2 to over 4 

feet in height. The leaves are about an inch 

wide, have a prominent white midrib, and end 

in a sharp point. Leaf margins are finely 

toothed and are embedded with silica crystals. 

The upper surface of the leaf blade is hairy 

near the base; the undersurface is usually 

hairless. The flowers are arranged in a silvery, 

cylindrical, branching structure, or panicle, 

about 3-11 inches long and 1½ inches wide. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Cogon grass can 

invade and overtake disturbed ecosystems, 

forming a dense mat of thatch and leaves that 

makes it nearly impossible for other plants to 

coexist. Large infestations of cogon grass can 

alter the normal fire regime of a fire-driven 

ecosystem by causing more frequent and 

intense fires that injure or destroy native 

plants. Cogon grass displaces a large variety 

of native plant species used by native animals 

(e.g., insects, mammals, and birds) as forage, 

host plants and shelter. Some ground-nesting 

species have also been known to be displaced 

due to the dense cover that cogon grass 

creates. 


Cogon grass is distributed throughout the 

south and southeastern United States as far 

west as eastern Texas. There have been reports of 

cogon grass surviving as far north as Virginia, West 

Virginia and Maryland. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Cogon grass is a 

hardy species, tolerant of shade, high salinity and 

drought. It can be found in virtually any ecosystem, 

especially those experiencing disturbance. Cogon 

grass has been found growing on sand dunes in the 

southeast, along roadsides, forests, open fields, and up 

to the edge of standing water. 

BACKGROUND: Cogon grass was introduced to the 

United States both accidentally and 

intentionally. Cogon grass was first introduced to the 

U.S. in Mobile, Alabama, via shipping crates that 

contained cogon grass as a packing material. It was also brought in and distributed by the 

U.S.D.A. for use as a forage grass and for soil erosion control. Cogon grass is also sold by the 

nursery trade as an ornamental grass, valued for its attractive foliage and hardiness. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Cogon grass reproduces both vegetatively and from seed. A single plant 

can produce several thousand very small seeds that may be carried great distances by the wind. 

Vegetative spread of cogon grass is aided by its tough and massive rhizomes that may remain 

dormant for extended periods of time before sprouting. Rhizomes of cogon grass may be 

transported to new sites in contaminated fill dirt or by equipment used in infested areas. 


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CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: An 

integrated approach to cogon grass management, 

including chemical, mechanical and cultural methods, 

is necessary to achieve successful, long lasting 

control. Effective management of cogon grass has 

been achieved by the following combined mechanicalchemical 

protocol. First, the infested area is mowed in 

late spring to remove last year’s growth and the 

accumulated thatch layer. About six to eight weeks 

later, when about eighty percent of the cogon grass 

has re-sprouted to a height of 6-12 inches, the site 

needs to be disced as deeply as possible. (Discing 

may not be possible in all areas, due to the sensitive nature of some ecosystems). When 

adequate regrowth of the cogon grass has occurred, systemic herbicides (chemicals carried 

through the plant tissues to the roots) are applied. 

The best time to apply herbicides is in the early fall before first frost. A 2% solution of glyphosate 

(e.g., Roundup) is recommended in areas that will be immediately revegetated, because 

glyphosate has no residual soil activity. In areas where immediate revegetation is not planned, 

and non-target plant damage is not a concern, application of a 1-1.5% solution of imazapyr (e.g., 

Arsenal) may be considered. 

IMPORTANT: Because imazapyr is highly active in soil, it has a high potential for leaching into 

groundwater, so should only be used when groundwater impacts can be eliminated or minimized. 

Additionally, nearby trees or other plants may be damaged by improper application of this 

herbicide. 

Revegetation may be necessary following herbicide treatment, to prevent soil erosion, and to help 

reduce re-infestation by cogon grass. For roadside areas, revegetation with Bahia grass and 

bermuda grass have been used successfully for these purposes. In natural areas, the choice of 

which species to use for revegetation becomes more difficult. For some areas, assisting the 

process of natural revegetation succession may be the best choice. Once decisions are made 

regarding the ultimate goal of the restoration project, revegetation plans should be made 

accordingly. Regardless of the goal, the area should be revegetated quickly to allow a stable 

plant community to be established. Lastly, it is important to exercise diligence, as it will be 

necessary to scout areas that have been treated for cogon grass and spot treat new plants with 

herbicides. 

It may not be possible to use all of the methods prescribed above in every situation, but most 

effective control will be gained by using as many of the steps outlined above as possible. In 

areas where burning, mowing, or discing, are not possible, spot treatment with herbicides will 

help to control cogon grass. Revisit treated areas frequently and retreat with herbicides as 

necessary. The best time to begin a control program is late spring to mid-summer when cogon 

grass is experiencing peak growth. Some control measures, such as mowing and spot spraying 

with herbicides, can be implemented year round. Burning has also been used successfully in 

controlling cogon grass. As with mowing, burning stimulates the growth and spread of cogon 

grass, making follow-up control a necessity. If you are interested in attempting this technique, 

contact management specialists listed below for more specific information. Also, be sure to obtain 

all required permits before attempting a burn, even on small infestations. 









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Chinese lespedeza Lespedeza cuneata (Dumont) G. Don 

NATIVE RANGE: Eastern Asia 

DESCRIPTION: Chinese lespedeza is a 

warm season, perennial herb in the pea 

family, or Fabaceae. It has an erect growth 

form, ranging from about 3 to 5½ feet in 

height, and leaves that alternate along the 

stem. Each leaf is divided into three smaller 

leaflets, about ½ to 1 inch long, which are 

narrowly oblong and pointed, with awlshaped 

spines. Leaflets are covered with 

densely flattened hairs, giving a grayishgreen 

or silvery appearance. Mature stems 

are somewhat woody and fibrous with sharp, 

stiff, flattened bristles. Violet to purple 

flowers emerge either singly or in clusters of 

2-4, from the axils of the upper and median 

leaves. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Chinese 

lespedeza, sometimes called sericea 

lespedeza, is primarily a threat to open areas 

such as meadows, prairies, open woodlands, 

wetland borders and fields. Once it gains a foothold, it can crowd out native plants and develop 

an extensive seed bank in the soil, ensuring its long residence at a site. Established dense 

stands of lespedeza suppress native flora and its high tannin content makes it unpalatable to 

native wildlife as well as livestock. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Chinese lespedeza is now found throughout the U.S. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Chinese lespedeza can grow in a variety of habitats 

including severely eroded sterile soils. It will invade open woodlands, fields, prairies, borders of 

ponds and swamps, meadows, and open disturbed ground, but is intolerant of shade. 

BACKGROUND: Chinese lespedeza is native to eastern Asia and was first introduced in the 

southern United States. Widespread use of lespedeza by federal and state agencies for bank 

stabilization, and soil improvement; wildlife, forage and cover; and hay facilitated its spread 

throughout the eastern United States. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Chinese lespedeza begins growth from root crown buds at the base of 

last year’s stem. The flowers begin to develop in late July and continue through October. Within 

the Lespedeza genus there are no specialized structures for seed dispersal. Dispersal is aided 

by animals consuming the fruits and passing the seeds. A study on natural populations found 

that several species of Lespedeza comprise 1.5% to 86.8% of the annual diet of bobwhite quail in 

the southeastern U.S. Autumn dispersal is aided by the haying of infested fields. 

Scarification is necessary for the germination of lespedeza seeds. Mature seeds of this genus 

remain viable for up to twenty years; one study found a germination rate of 60% after cold storage 

for 55 years. Seedlings may represent only 1% of the seeds actually available in the soil. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Mechanical and chemical methods are the most 

effective options currently available for Chinese lespedeza. Hand pulling is impractical due to 

lespedza’s extensive perennial root system. Mowing plants in the flower bud stage for two or 

three consecutive years may reduce the vigor of lespedeza stands and control further 

spread. Plants should be cut as low to the ground as possible and impact to adjacent native 

plants should be minimized as much as possible. Since root reserves increase up to the flower 

bud stage, all herbicide treatments should be completed in early to mid summer. The addition of 

a non-ionic surfactant at a concentration of 0.5% improves the effectiveness of foliar 

treatments. Triclopyr and clopyralid have been shown to be effective in controlling Chinese 

lespedeza. 


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A 2% solution Triclopyr or 0.5% solution of clopyralid thoroughly mixed with water is effective 

during the vegetative stage prior to branching or during flowering. 

Treatments should cover the leaves and stems of plants to the point of runoff. These herbicides 

are not labeled for use in wet areas or adjacent to streams. On wet sites a 2% solution of 

glyphosate is effective from last June until seed set. 









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Purple Loosestrife Lythrum salicaria L. 

NATIVE RANGE: Eurasia; throughout Great Britain, 

and across central and southern Europe to central 

Russia, Japan, Manchuria China, southeast Asia and 

northern India 

DESCRIPTION: Purple loosestrife is an erect perennial 

herb in the loosestrife family, with a square, woody 

stem and opposite or whorled leaves. Leaves are 

lance-shaped, stalkless, and heart-shaped or rounded 

at the base. Plants are usually covered by a downy 

pubescence. Loosestrife plants grow from four to ten 

feet high, depending upon conditions, and produce a 

showy display of magenta-colored flower spikes 

throughout much of the summer. Flowers have five to 

seven petals. Mature plants can have from 30 to 50 

stems arising from a single rootstock. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Purple loosestrife adapts 

readily to natural and disturbed wetlands. As it 

establishes and expands, it outcompetes and replaces 

native grasses, sedges, and other flowering plants that 

provide a higher quality source of nutrition for wildlife. The highly invasive nature of purple 

loosestrife allows it to form dense, homogeneous stands that restrict native wetland plant species, 

including some federally endangered orchids, and reduce habitat for waterfowl. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: According to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 

purple loosestrife now occurs in every state except Florida. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Purple loosestrife is capable of invading many wetland 

types, including freshwater wet meadows, tidal and non-tidal marshes, river and stream banks, 

pond edges, reservoirs, and ditches. 

BACKGROUND: Purple loosestrife was introduced to the northeastern U.S. and Canada in the 

1800s, for ornamental and medicinal uses. It is still widely sold as an ornamental, except in states 

such as Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Illinois where regulations now prohibit its sale, purchase and 

distribution. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Purple loosestrife enjoys an extended flowering season, generally from 

June to September, which allows it to produce vast quantities of seed. The flowers require 

pollination by insects, for which it supplies an abundant source of nectar. A mature plant may 

have as many as thirty flowering stems capable of producing an estimated two to three million 

minute seeds per year. 

Purple loosestrife also readily reproduces vegetatively through underground stems at a rate of 

about one foot per year. Many new stems may emerge vegetatively from a single rootstock of the 

previous year. "Guaranteed sterile" cultivars of purple loosestrife are actually highly fertile and 

able to cross freely with purple loosestrife and with other native Lythrum species. Therefore, 

outside of its native range, purple loosestrife of any form should be avoided. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Small infestations of young purple loosestrife plants 

may be pulled by hand, preferably before seed set. For older plants, spot treating with a 

glyphosate type herbicide (e.g., Rodeo for wetlands, Roundup for uplands) is recommended. 

These herbicides may be most effective when applied late in the season when plant are 

preparing for dormancy. However, it may be best to do a mid-summer and a late season 

treatment, to reduce the amount of seed produced. 

While herbicides and hand removal may be useful for controlling individual plants or small 

populations, biological control is seen as the most likely candidate for effective long term control 


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of large infestations of purple loosestrife. As of 1997, three insect species from Europe have been 

approved by the U.S. Department of Agriculture for use as biological control agents. 

These plant-eating insects include a root-mining weevil (Hylobius transversovittatus), and two 

leaf-feeding beetles (Galerucella calmariensis and Galerucella pusilla). Two flower-feeding 

beetles (Nanophyes) that feed on various parts of purple loosestrife plants are still under 

investigation. Galerucella and Hylobius have been released experimentally in natural areas in 16 

northern states, from Oregon to New York. Although these beetles have been observed 

occasionally feeding on native plant species, their potential impact to non-target species is 

considered to be low. 









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Japanese Stilt Grass Microstegium vimineum (Trin.) Camus 

NATIVE RANGE: Japan, Korea, China, Malaysia, and India 

DESCRIPTION: Japanese stilt grass, also known as Asian stilt grass, Vietnamese stilt grass, 

Nepal microstegium, and Chinese packing grass, is an annual grass (family Poaceae) with a 

sprawling habit that may grow to 3 feet in height. Its thin, pale green, lance-shaped leaves, about 

3 inches in length, alternate along a branched stalk and have a silvery stripe of reflective hairs 

down the middle of the upper leaf surface. 

Delicate spikes of flowers emerge from 

slender tips beginning in late summer and 

continuing into the fall. Seeds may persist 

through the fall. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Japanese stilt 

grass is adapted to low light conditions and 

threatens native understory vegetation in 

open to shady locations. It spreads 

opportunistically following soil disturbance 

to form dense patches, displacing native 

wetland and forest vegetation as the patch 

expands. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED 

STATES: Japanese stilt grass is currently 

established in sixteen eastern states, from 

New York to Florida. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Stilt 

grass occurs on stream banks, river bluffs, 

floodplains, emergent and forested 

wetlands, moist woodlands, early 

successional fields, uplands, thickets, 

roadside ditches, gas and power line 

corridors and home lawns and gardens. It 

readily invades and is most common in 

disturbed shaded areas like floodplains 

that are prone to natural scouring, and 

areas subject to mowing, tilling and other 

soil disturbing activities. Japanese stilt grass appears to be associated primarily with moist, acidic 

to neutral soils that are high in nitrogen. It occurs opportunistically in areas of open soil that are 

generally not already occupied by other species. 

BACKGROUND: Introduced into Tennessee around 1919, Japanese stilt grass may have 

accidentally escaped as a result of its use as a packing material for porcelain. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Japanese stilt grass is a colonial species that spreads by rooting at 

nodes along the stem. A new plant emerges from each node. It also spreads by seed and each 

plant can produce an estimated 100-1,000 seeds. Once established at a site, seed stored in the 

soil will ensure regrowth for several to many years. Studies have shown that stilt grass seed 

remains viable in the soil for at least three years and germinates readily following soil 

disturbance. Although seed dispersal of stilt grass is not fully understood, seeds are probably 

carried by water currents in streamside habitats and floods, and transported widely in hay and 

soil. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Whenever possible, prevent the introduction of 

Japanese stilt grass from invaded sites into adjacent natural plant communities by avoiding 

disturbance to vegetation and soil in these areas. Early control of new infestations will also greatly 

reduce the likelihood of its establishment. 


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Because it is shallow-rooted, stilt grass may be pulled by hand at any time, but if done early in the 

summer, disturbance to the soil may allow for germination of stored stilt grass seed. Hand pulling 

of plants will need to be repeated and continued for many seasons. A more effective mechanical 

method might be to wait until late summer (September) when the plants are in peak bloom but 

before seed is produced, and simply cut them back using a mower or "weed whacker". Being an 

annual plant, Japanese stilt grass cut late in the season will die back for the winter and not 

produce additional vegetative shoots. 

For extensive infestations, where mechanical methods are not feasible, a systemic herbicide like 

glyphosate (e.g., Roundup), an herbicidal soap that kills the plants back (e.g., Scythe) and 

herbicides specific to annual grasses may be a more effective choice. If applying glyphosate to 

stilt grass in wetland sites, use the formulation labeled for wetland areas (e.g., Rodeo). No 

biological controls are currently available for this plant. 









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Eurasian Watermilfoil Myriophyllum spicatum L. 

NATIVE RANGE: Eurasia and Africa 

DESCRIPTION: Eurasian watermilfoil, also 

called spike watermilfoil, is an emergent, 

herbaceous aquatic plant in the Water-milfoil 

family, or Haloragaceae. Stems grow to the 

water surface, usually extending 3 to 10, but 

as much as 33, feet in length and frequently 

forming dense mats. Stems of Eurasian 

milfoil are long, slender, branching, hairless, 

and become leafless toward the base. New 

plants may emerge from each node (joint) on 

a stem, and root upon contact with mud. The 

grayish-green leaves of Eurasian watermilfoil 

are finely divided and occur in whorls of three 

or four along the stem, with 12-16 pairs of 

fine, thin leaflets about 12 inches 

long. These leaflets give milfoil a feathery appearance that is a distinguishing feature of the 

plant. Eurasian watermilfoil produces small yellow, 4-parted flowers on a spike that projects 2-4 

inches above the water surface. The fruit is a hard, segmented capsule containing four seeds. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Eurasian milfoil can form large, floating mats of vegetation on the 

surface of lakes, rivers, and other water bodies, preventing light penetration for native aquatic 

plants and impeding water traffic. The plant thrives in areas that have been subjected to various 

kinds of natural and manmade disturbance. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Watermilfoil occurs in thirty-three states east of the 

Mississippi River and has recently been found in Colorado. It is abundant in the Chesapeake 

Bay, the tidal Potomac River, and several Tennessee Valley reservoirs. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Typical habitat for Eurasian watermilfoil includes fresh to 

brackish water of fish ponds, lakes, slow-moving streams, reservoirs, estuaries, and canals.. It is 

tolerant of many water pollutants. Eurasian watermilfoil tends to invade disturbed areas where 

native plants cannot adapt to the alteration. It does not spread rapidly into undisturbed areas 

where native plants are well established. By altering waterways, humans have created a new 

and unnatural niche where milfoil thrives. 

BACKGROUND: Eurasian watermilfoil was accidentally introduced from Eurasia in the 1940s. 

Two theories exist as to how it entered North America: (1) it escaped from an aquarium, or (2) it 

was brought in attached to commercial or private boats. A resort owner is thought to have 

introduced watermilfoil into the Tennessee Valley Authority reservoir system in 1953. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Most regeneration of Eurasian watermilfoil is from rhizomes, fragmented 

stems, and axillary buds that develop throughout the year. Flower spikes often remain above 

water until pollination is complete, then re-submerge. Although seeds are usually viable, they are 

not an important means of dispersal. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Large harvesting equipment can be used to 

mechanically remove milfoil in larger areas; a sturdy hand-rake can be used for smaller 

areas. Other available options include manipulation of water level, light penetration and chemical 

control. Potential impacts to existing native aquatic plant species should be evaluated carefully 

before implementing any of these techniques. For the single harvest, removal should take place 

just before peak biomass is obtained (early summer). Substantial regrowth may occur if this is 

done too early. Better results appear with multiple harvests in the same growing season. If 

multiple harvests are not possible, then sustaining annual harvests is an option. All fragments of 

milfoil plants must be removed to achieve adequate control. 

Where water levels are under manual control, raising or lowering the water level can be an 

effective way to reduce the growth of milfoil. By raising the water level, plants can be "drowned" 

by not having access to enough light. 


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By lowering the water level, plants can be dehydrated and, at the right time of the year, frozen to 

death. This type of control is best used in conjunction with herbicides and shade barriers. 

Bankside plantings, floating native plant species, light limiting dyes, or shade barriers are 

effective ways of reducing the amount of light reaching the plants, and may reduce overall growth 

rates. Barriers can be used to prevent the movement and spread of aquatic weeds in ponds and 

lakes. A barrier is usually a suspended blocking screen that hangs vertically from a cable to a 

depth of about 4 meters; the cable is suspended by drum floats. 

Fluridone (the active ingredient in Sonar AS) is a selective herbicide for milfoil and several other 

exotic aquatic weeds. There are no restrictions on swimming, fishing, or drinking after 

application, and season-long control can be achieved with one application. Fluridone is available 

in liquid or granular form, and can be used as a spot treatment or on an entire waterway. For 

best results, applications should be made before or during the early stages of active growth. 









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Burma Reed Neyraudia reynaudiana (Kunth) Keng ex A.S. 

Hitchc. 

NATIVE RANGE: Southeast Asia and 

Indomalaya (Japan, southern China, Viet 

Nam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Malaya, 

Myanmar (Burma), Bhutan, Nepal, and 

eastern India) 

DESCRIPTION: Burma reed, also known as 

silk reed, cane grass, and false reed, is a tall, 

perennial, large-plumed grass (Poaceae 

family) that grows in clumps in sunny upland 

areas. Stems, including the flower stalks, are 

from 3 to 15 feet in height, depending on soil 

and moisture conditions. The leaves are 8 to 

10 inches long and hairless, except for a 

single line of horizontal hairs at the juncture 

of the upper and lower portions of the leaf. 

Stems are approximately ½ inch in width, are 

round, solid, and have nodes (stem-leaf 

junctures) every 3 to 5 inches along the 

stem. The flower plumes, which can be up to 

3 feet long, are composed of many hundreds 

of tiny flowers and have a shimmery, silky 

appearance. Flowering occurs in April and 

October, each clump producing an average 

of forty stalks and twelve to twenty flowering 

plumes. Burma reed resembles several other 

tall grasses, including common reed 

(Phragmites communis), giant reed (Arundo 

donax), pampas grass (Cortaderia selloana) 

and sugar cane (Saccharum officinarum). 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Burma reed damages native ecosystems by crowding and shading out 

understory plant species and by creating conditions for extremely hot and destructive wildfires. In 

southern Florida (Miami-Dade County), it is a serious threat to the globally imperiled pine 

rocklands community whose pine canopy was largely destroyed in 1992 by Hurricane Andrew. 

Burma reed is a highly combustible fuel source because of its overall plant mass, its large 

feathery flower plumes, and the dense, hay-like leaf litter it produces. This hay-like litter enhances 

the fire's movement along the ground, while the flower plumes carry the flames high into the air. 

With the aid of winds, these plumes often detach and fly through the air like torches, providing the 

potential for additional spread. Photographs of its ignition during a wildfire show flames leaping 

over 30 feet high, threatening nearby tree canopies. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Burma reed is found throughout southern Florida in 

the counties of Miami-Dade, Broward, Palm Beach, Lee, and Collier, and the Florida Keys. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: In its native range, which is characterized by a warm, 

subtropical climate, Burma reed occurs in bogs, in open savannahs, on upland cliffs, and along 

forest and road edges, and thrives from sea level to altitudes of 6,500 feet. In the U.S., Burma 

reed initially colonizes the margins of roadways, fields, and forests, from which it can spread to 

undisturbed areas. The ability of Burma reed to survive at high altitudes in its native range 

indicates a tolerance to cold and the potential for it to spread further north in the U.S. 


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BACKGROUND: Burma reed was first introduced into the United States in 1916 by the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture, possibly to investigate its potential as an ornamental plant. It was 

grown in a test garden in Coconut Grove, Florida, from which it escaped and spread. By 1990, it 

had become established in the wild as far as 30 miles from Coconut Grove and along disturbed 

edges throughout Miami-Dade County. Burma reed has no known economic value and, in 

Bhutan, is reported to be poisonous to buffalo. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Burma reed reproduces by seed and through underground stems called 

rhizomes. Burma reed plants flower twice each year, producing hundreds of thousands of tiny 

seeds that are dispersed by the wind. New clumps of Burma reed emerge from rhizomes that 

may be embedded in sand, soil, or rubble. Seeds and rhizomes are also transported inadvertently 

in limestone rock from infested quarries that is carried by train from Miami-Dade County, Florida 

to concrete manufacturers throughout the southeastern United States. This unintentional 

movement of Burma reed material allows it to invade new sites in Florida and adjacent states 

near limestone distribution centers. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Restoration of sites infested with Burma reed 

requires a long term commitment to ensure effective control and to allow native vegetation to 

become established. Burma reed's deep roots make mechanical removal an extremely labor 

intensive and costly undertaking and causes extensive disturbance to the soil. A more effective 

management approach involves a combination of cutting or prescribed burning, followed by 

application of herbicides. After cutting, mowing or burning Burma reed plants down to the ground, 

a systemic herbicide like glyphosate, mixed with an acidic surfactant (trade name: ROUNDUP 

PRO) can be made to prevent new growth. Repeat treatment is likely to be necessary for a 

couple of years, until seed and rhizome stores are exhausted. 

NOTE: Burning of Burma reed vegetation requires a special permit and should not be 

undertaken without training, preparation and assistance. Because Burma reed is an 

extremely flammable plant, fires may quickly get out of hand. 

A successful burn of Burma reed reduces the plant’s massive stalks to ash, eliminating the cost of 

vegetation removal. Conveniently, because Burma reed is the first plant to resprout following a 

fire, it can be sprayed freely with little concern about non-target kills. It should be noted that 

burning, by itself, whether through prescribed or natural wildfires, may enhance the growth and 

spread of Burma reed if not followed up with chemical or mechanical control. 

In areas where Burma reed is dispersed among desirable native vegetation, individual plants can 

be cut at the base using a steel blade (e.g., Weed Wacker) and the remaining portions sprayed 

with ROUNDUP PRO to prevent new growth. Resprouts should be treated with a second 

herbicide application to the new growth. This method requires highly qualified applicators who 

can target the herbicide to avoid damage to native plants, and may not be cost effective for 

extensive infestations. 

USE PESTICIDES WISELY: READ THE ENTIRE PESTICIDE LABEL CAREFULLY, FOLLOW 

ALL MIXING AND APPLICATION INSTRUCTIONS AND WEAR ALL RECOMMENDED 

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE GEAR AND CLOTHING. CONTACT YOUR STATE DEPARTMENT 

OF AGRICULTURE FOR ANY ADDITIONAL PESTICIDE USE REQUIREMENTS, 

RESTRICTIONS OR RECOMMENDATIONS. 




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Fountain Grass Pennisetum setaceum (Forsk.) Chiov 

NATIVE RANGE: Northern Africa 

DESCRIPTION: Fountain grass is an 

attractive perennial grass with a densely 

clumped growth form and erect stems 

that grow 2 to 3 feet high. The small 

flowers of fountain grass are grouped in 

pink or purple, bristly, upright 

inflorescences 6-15 inches long. Fruits 

are small, dry achenes adorned with long 

showy bristles. 

ECOLOGICAL THREATS POSED BY 

PLANT: Fountain grass is a highly 

aggressive, fire-adapted colonizer that 

readily outcompetes native plants and 

rapidly reestablishes after burning. In 

Hawaii, where it alters the natural fire 

regime, fountain grass is a major threat 

to some critically imperiled plant species 

and natural communities. Fountain grass 

raises fuel loads, which increases the 

intensity and spread of a fire, and results in severe damage to native, dry forest species adapted 

to less extreme fire regimes. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Fountain grass is found in Arizona, California, 

Colorado, Hawaii, Florida, Louisiana, and Tennessee. In the Hawaiian islands, it is found on the 

islands of Kauai, Oahu, Lanai, and Hawaii. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: In Hawaii, fountain grass invades many types of natural 

areas, from bare lava flows to rangelands. It has a wide elevational range but is limited to areas 

with a median annual rainfall of less than 50 inches. In southern California, fountain grass 

invades grasslands, deserts, canyons and roadsides. 

BACKGROUND: First collected in Hawaii in 1914, fountain grass has been introduced to many 

parts of the world as an ornamental grass. It is a poor pasture grass and a serious weed in many 

dry habitats. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Fountain grass is a perennial plant with primarily wind-dispersed seeds 

that may remain viable in the soil for six years or longer. Its seeds may be dispersed greater 

distances by water, vehicles, livestock and humans. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: The long-lived seeds of fountain grass make its 

control extremely difficult. Small infestations may be managed by uprooting plants by hand and 

destroying the inflorescences in order to prevent seed dispersal. Removal by hand may need to 

be repeated several times per year. Extensive infestations of fountain grass are probably best 

controlled with the help of herbicides, especially those with some systemic activity. 







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Japanese knotweed Polygonum cuspidatum Sieb. & Zucc. 

NATIVE RANGE: Eastern Asia 

DESCRIPTION: Japanese knotweed, a 

member of the buckwheat family 

(Polygonaceae), is an upright, shrublike, 

herbaceous perennial that can grow to 

over 10 feet in height. As with all 

members of this family, the base of the 

stem above each joint is surrounded by a 

membranous sheath. Stems of 

Japanese knotweed are smooth, stout 

and swollen at joints where the leaf 

meets the stem. Although leaf size may 

vary, they are normally about 6 inches 

long by 3 to 4 inches wide, broadly oval 

to somewhat triangular and pointed at 

the tip. The minute greenish-white flowers occur in attractive, branched sprays in summer and 

are followed soon after by small winged fruits. Seeds are triangular, shiny, and very small, about 

1/10 inch long. 

Japanese knotweed is designated a noxious weed in most states. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Japanese knotweed spreads quickly to form dense thickets that 

exclude native vegetation and greatly alter natural ecosystems. It poses a significant threat to 

riparian areas, where it can survive severe floods and 

is able to rapidly colonize scoured shores and 

islands. Once established, populations are extremely 

persistent. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Current 

distribution of Japanese knotweed includes 36 states in 

the lower 48, from Maine to Wisconsin, south to 

Louisiana, and scattered Midwest and western 

states. It is not currently known to occur in Hawaii. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Japanese 

knotweed can tolerate a variety of adverse conditions 

including full shade, high temperatures, high salinity, and drought. It is found near water sources, 

such as along streams and rivers, in low-lying areas, waste places, utility rights-of-way, and 

around old homesites. It can quickly become an invasive pest in natural areas after escaping 

from cultivated gardens. 

BACKGROUND: Japanese knotweed was probably introduced to the U.S. in the late 

1800's. Also known as crimson beauty, Mexican bamboo, Japanese fleece flower, or Reynoutria, 

it was first introduced as an ornamental and has also been used for erosion control and for 

landscape screening. It is now found throughout the eastern U.S., in several western states, and 

Alaska, which has few exotic invasive plants to date. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Japanese knotweed spreads primarily by vegetative means with the help 

of its long, stout rhizomes. It is often transported to new sites as a contaminant in fill dirt; seeds 

are sometimes distributed by water, and carried to a lesser extent by the wind. Escapees from 

neglected gardens, and discarded cuttings are common routes of dispersal from urban areas. 


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CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Grubbing is effective for small initial populations or 

environmentally sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Using a Pulaski or similar 

digging tool, remove the entire plant including all roots and runners. Juvenile plants can be hand 

pulled depending on soil conditions and root development. Any portions of the root system not 

removed will potentially re-sprout. All plant parts (including mature fruit) should be bagged and 

disposed of in a trash dumpster to prevent re-establishment. 

Cut stem treatment: Use this method in areas where plants are established within or around 

non-target plants or where vines have grown into the canopy. This treatment remains effective at 

low temperatures as long as the ground is not frozen. Cut the stem about 2 inches above ground 

level. Immediately apply a 25% solution of glyphosate (e.g., Roundup, or use Rodeo if applying 

in or near wetland areas) or triclopyr (e.g., Garlon) and water to the cross-section of the stem. A 

subsequent foliar application of glyphosate may be required to control new seedlings and resprouts. 

Foliar spray method: Use this method to control large populations. It may be necessary to 

precede foliar applications with stump treatments to reduce the risk of damaging non-target 

species. Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate or triclopyr and water to thoroughly wet all 

foliage. Do not apply so heavily that herbicide will drip off leaves. A 0.5% non-ionic surfactant is 

recommended in order to penetrate the leaf cuticle, and ambient air temperature should be above 

65 ºF. 









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Lesser Celandine Ranunculus ficaria L. 

NATIVE RANGE: Europe 

DESCRIPTION: Lesser celandine, also known as fig 

buttercup, is an herbaceous, perennial plant in the 

buttercup family (Ranunculaceae). Plants have a 

basal rosette of dark green, shiny, stalked leaves that 

are kidney- to heart-shaped. The flowers open in 

March and April, have eight glossy, butter-yellow 

petals, and are borne singly on delicate stalks that 

rise above the leaves. Pale-colored bulblets are 

produced along the stems of the above-ground 

portions of the plant, but are not apparent until late in 

the flowering period. When in bloom, large 

infestations of lesser celandine appear as a green 

carpet with yellow dots, spreading across the forest 

floor. There are many varieties of lesser celandine 

including a double-flowered form with many crowded 

petals and dark green leaves mottled with silvery 

markings. 

NOTE: Lesser celandine closely resembles marsh 

marigold (Caltha palustris), a native wetland plant 

that occurs in the eastern United States. Marsh 

marigold is a robust plant with glossy, rounded or 

kidney-shaped leaves and flowers on stalks that are 

8 in (20.3 cm) or more in height and consist of five to nine deep yellow "petals" (actually sepals). 

Marsh marigold does not produce tubers or bulblets, nor does it form a continuous carpet of 

growth. Extreme care should be taken to correctly identify lesser celandine before undertaking 

any control measures to avoid impacts to this plant. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Lesser celandine is an exotic spring ephemeral and a vigorous growing 

groundcover that forms large, dense patches on the forest floor, displacing and preventing native 

plants from co-occurring. The ecological impact of lesser celandine is primarily on the native 

spring-flowering plant community and the various wildlife species associated with them. Spring 

ephemerals complete the reproductive part of their life cycle and most of their above-ground 

development before woody plants leaf out and shade the forest floor. Native spring ephemerals 

include bloodroot, common and cut-leaved toothwort, Dutchman's breeches, harbinger-of-spring, 

squirrel-corn, trout lily, Virginia bluebells, and many others. Because lesser celandine emerges 

well in advance of the native species, it can establish and overtake areas rapidly. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Lesser celandine is currently found in nineteen states 

in the Northeast and Pacific Northwest. It is reported to be invasive in nine states (Connecticut, 

Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Virginia, Wisconsin, West Virginia), and 

the District of Columbia. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Lesser celandine occurs in moist forested floodplains and 

in some drier upland areas, and seems to prefer sandy soils. 

BACKGROUND: Lesser celandine was introduced to the United States as an ornamental plant. It 

is still available commercially in the U.S., along with many colorful varieties. All varieties of lesser 

celandine should be assumed to be invasive. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Lesser celandine is an exotic perennial plant and spring ephemeral that 

spends much of the year (summer through early winter) underground as thickened, fingerlike 

tubers or underground stems. During the winter, leaves begin to emerge and photosynthesize in 

preparation for flowering. Flowering usually occurs from late winter through mid-spring (March 

through May), depending on conditions. Afterwards, the above-ground portions die back. Lesser 

celandine spreads primarily by vegetative means through abundant tubers and bulblets, each of 

which is ready to become a new plant once separated from the parent plant. 


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The tubers of lesser celandine are prolific and may be unearthed and scattered by the digging 

activities of some animals, including well-meaning weed pullers, and transported during flood 

events. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Lesser celandine is very difficult to control but it 

can be managed with persistence over time using methods that are site appropriate. While 

manual methods are possible for some (small) infestations, the use of systemic herbicide kills the 

entire plant tip to root and minimizes soil disturbance. 

Biological. No biological control agents are currently available for lesser celandine. 

Chemical. The window of opportunity for controlling lesser celandine is very short, due to its life 

cycle. In order to have the greatest negative impact to celandine and the least impact to desirable 

native wildflower species, herbicide should be applied in late winter-early spring (March through 

May). Apply a 1.5% rate of a 39 to 41% glyphosate isopropylamine salt (e.g., Rodeo for wetland 

areas) mixed with water and a non-ionic surfactant to foliage, avoiding application to anything but 

the celandine. Glyphosate is systemic; that is, the active ingredient is absorbed by the plant and 

translocated to the roots, eventually killing the entire plant. The full effect on the plant may take 1- 

2 weeks. Applications can be made during the winter season as long as the temperature is above 

about 50°F, and no rain is anticipated within 12 hours. Because glyphosate is non-specific, spray 

should be controlled such that it touches only lesser celandine and does not drift onto desirable 

plants. To minimize impacts to sensitive-skinned frogs and salamanders, some experts 

recommend applying herbicide in March and then switching to manual methods. 

Manual. For small infestations, lesser celandine may be pulled up by hand or dug up using a 

hand trowel or shovel. It is very important to remove all bulblets and tubers. 

Mechanical. If mechanical removal is to continue after dieback of the plants, individual plants or 

clumps will need to be marked with some sort of stakes or flagging because it will be impossible 

to relocate the plants otherwise. When conducting mechanical removal, care should be taken to 

minimize soil disturbance as much as possible. For this reason, mechanical control may be 

inappropriate for large infestations in high quality natural areas. 









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Common Mullein Verbascum thapsus L. 

NATIVE RANGE: Europe and Asia 

DESCRIPTION: Common mullein, also known 

as wooly mullein, is an erect herb in the figwort 

family, or Scrophulariaceae. First year mullein 

plants are low-growing rosettes of bluish graygreen, 

felt-like leaves that range from 4- 

12 inches in length and 1-5 inches in 

width. Mature flowering plants are produced 

the second year, and grow to 5 to 10 feet in 

height, including the conspicuous flowering 

stalk. The five-petaled yellow flowers are 

arranged in a leafy spike and bloom a few at a 

time from June-August. Leaves alternate along 

the flowering stalks and are much larger toward 

the base of the plant. The tiny seeds are pitted 

and rough with wavy ridges and deep grooves 

and can germinate after lying dormant in the 

soil for several decades. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Common mullein 

threatens natural meadows and forest 

openings, where it adapts easily to a wide 

variety of site conditions. Once established, it 

grows more vigorously than many native herbs 

and shrubs, and its growth can overtake a site 

in fairly short order. Common mullein is a 

prolific seeder and its seeds last a very long 

time in the soil. An established population of 

common mullein can be extremely difficult to 

eradicate. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Common mullein was first introduced into the U.S. in 

the mid-1700's, where it was used as a piscicide, or fish poison, in Virginia. It quickly spread 

throughout the U.S. and is well established throughout the eastern states. Records show that it 

was first described in Michigan in 1839 and on the Pacific coast in 1876, probably due to multiple 

introductions as a medicinal herb. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Common mullein can be found where mean annual 

precipitation is greater than 3-6 inches and the growing season lasts for a minimum of 140 

days. Intolerant of shade, mullein will grow in almost any open area including natural meadows 

and forest openings as well as neglected pastures, road cuts, and industrial areas. Common 

mullein prefers, but is not limited to, dry sandy soils. 

BACKGROUND: Common mullein is a monocarpic perennial (i.e., takes two or more years to 

flower and die). Brought over from Europe by settlers, it was used as a medicinal herb, as a 

remedy for coughs and diarrhea and a respiratory stimulant for the lungs when smoked. A 

methanol extract from common mullein has been used as an insecticide for mosquito larvae. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: During the first summer after germination mullein produces a tap root and 

a rosette of leaves. During this vegetative stage, the rosette increases in size during the growing 

season until low temperatures arrest growth sometime during the autumn and winter. Beginning 

the next spring, second year plants bolt into maturity, flower, produce seed during the summer, 

and then die, completing the plant’s normal life cycle. Flowers mature from the base to the tip of 

the stalk. The length of the flowering period is a function of stalk height; longer stalks can 

continue to flower into early October. 


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It is estimated that a single plant can produce 100,000-180,000 seeds which may remain viable 

for more than 100 years. The seeds are dispersed mechanically near the parent plant during the 

autumn and winter. Seeds at or near the surface are more likely to germinate. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Although common mullein can be very difficult to 

eradicate, there are a variety of management methods available, depending on the particular 

situation. Because mullein seedling emergence is dependent on the presence of bare ground, 

sowing sites with early successional native grasses or other plants may decrease seed 

germination and the chance of successful emergence of mullein seedlings. 

Mullein plants are easily hand pulled on loose soils due to relatively shallow tap roots. This is an 

extremely effective method of reducing populations and seed productivity, especially if plant is 

pulled before seed set. If blooms or seed capsules are present, reproductive structures should 

be removed, bagged, and properly disposed of in a sanitary landfill. Care should be taken, 

however, to minimize soil disturbance since loose soil will facilitate mullein seed germination. 

There are two insects that have possible biological control implications for mullein. A European 

curculionid weevil (Gymnaetron tetrum), determined by the U.S. Department of Agriculture to be 

specific to mullein, has been introduced to North America. The weevil larvae matures in the seed 

capsules and can destroy up to 50% of the seeds. Another agent, the mullein moth (Cucullia 

verbasci) has been tested in the U.S. and is considered to be a relatively safe control agent 

because of its consistent feeding and development on mullein species. Although tests showed 

limited feeding on other native species, the larvae did not survive significantly longer than those 

individuals tested in the absence of food. 

Release of biological controls into natural environments is always experimental and should be 

entered into only after full and careful consideration of potential non-target species impacts. 

Once released into nature, biological control agents are difficult, if not impossible, to control. For 

situations where hand-pulling of plants is not practical or safe--for example, on very steep slopes 

where hand pulling is dangerous or would cause significant soil disturbance--herbicidal control is 

an effective option. Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate (e.g., Roundup) or triclopyr (Garlon) and 

water plus a non-ionic surfactant, using a tank or backpack sprayer to thoroughly cover all 

leaves. Do not apply so heavily that the herbicide drips off the leaf surface. Use caution as 

glyphosate is a non-selective herbicide that may kill desirable plants even if partially contacted by 

spray. Triclopyr is selective to broadleaf plants and is a better choice if native or other desirable 

grasses are present. For some sites, applications can be made during the early spring when 

most other non-target vegetation is dormant. Refer to the pesticide manufacturers' label for 

specific information and restrictions regarding herbicide use. 

For more information on the management of Common Mullein, please contact: 

Kris Johnson, Great Smoky Mountains National Park, Gatlinburg, TN (kris_johnson@nps.gov) 

SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: Although not a popular ornamental, there are many 

excellent native plant alternatives for mullein that thrive in full sun and sandy soils. In the eastern 

U.S., common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca), butterflyweed (Asclepias tuberosa), joe-pye weed 

(Eupatorium dubium), black-eyed Susan (Rudbeckia fulgida), and Ironweed (Vernonia 

noveboracensis), are just a few of the many selections. You may wish to contact your local 

native plant society for further suggestions. 









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Vine Section Alien Plant Invaders 

Fiveleaf Akebia Akebia quinata (Houtt.) Dcne. 

NATIVE RANGE: Central China to Korea and 

Japan. 

DESCRIPTION: Akebia quinata, also known as 

chocolate vine, is a twining woody vine in the 

mostly tropical Lardizabalaceae family. It 

grows as either a twining vine or vigorous 

groundcover and has slender, rounded stems 

that are green when young and brown at 

maturity. The palmate (like a hand) leaves of 

akebia alternate along the stem and are 

divided into five, or sometimes fewer, 

approximately equal parts called leaflets, 

whose small stems meet at a central 

juncture. Leaflets are generally long oval in 

shape, 1½ to 3 inches long and emerge with a 

purplish tinge, becoming blue-green at 

maturity. Flowers are unusual, chocolatepurple 

colored, and fragrant, about 1 inch 

across, and appear in late March to early April; 

they are often concealed by new foliage. Fruits 

are purple-violet, flattened, sausage-like pods, 

2 1/4 to 4 inches in length that ripen in late September to early October. The inside of the pod 

has a whitish pulpy core with many tiny black seeds. Fiveleaf akebia is deciduous in cooler 

climates but may remain evergreen in the warmer regions, such as Louisiana. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Fiveleaf akebia grows so quickly that, if left unmanaged, it can kill off 

existing ground level vegetation, understory shrubs and trees, and even some canopy trees, by 

overtopping and smothering them. Once established, its dense growth prevents seed 

germination and seedling establishment of native plants. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Fiveleaf akebia is found in 16 states in the eastern 

U.S., from Michigan to Connecticut, south to Georgia. Although it is not listed as occurring in 

South Carolina, this is probably an oversight. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Akebia is shade and drought tolerant and can invade many 

types of habitats. Its growth appears to be restricted only by the height of the object it is 

entangling. 

BACKGROUND: Fiveleaf akebia was brought to the United States in 1845 as an ornamental and 

has since naturalized in the warmer climates. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Akebia spreads primarily by vegetative means and is capable of growing 

twenty to forty feet in a single growing season. Fruits are not always produced and the seeds of 

akebia are not known to be carried by wind or insects. While birds may play a role in seed 

dispersal, fiveleaf akebia is vectored primarily through inadvertent activities of humans. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Small infestations of fiveleaf akebia can be 

controlled mechanically. Because of its extremely rapid growth, cutting will need to be repeated 

throughout the season. At a minimum, akebia should be cut back to the ground at the end of the 

summer. Akebia vines may also be dug up, removing as much of the roots as possible. To 

ensure its complete removal, regular monitoring and repeated cutting, digging or pulling is 

necessary. 

For large infestations, use of a labeled systemic herbicide, such as glyphosate (e.g., Roundup) or 

triclopyr (e.g., Garlon), is probably the most effective method to control akebia. An herbicidal 

soap, such as pelargonic acid (e.g., Scythe), which provides a burndown of plant tissues, may 

also provide some control. 


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The latter product may also provide enhanced uptake of certain systemic herbicides, such as 

glyphosate. Be sure to avoid drift onto or direct spray of desirable plant species during herbicide 

applications. 

SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: Some native alternative vines for the eastern U.S. 

include trumpet honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens), cross vine (Bignonia capreolata), trumpet 

creeper (Campsis radicans), or Dutchman’s pipe (Aristolochia durior). Contact your local native 

plant society for other suggestions. 









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Porcelainberry Ampelopsis brevipedunculata (Maxim.) Trautv. 

NATIVE RANGE: China, Korea, Japan, Russian Far East 

DESCRIPTION: Porcelainberry is a deciduous, woody, perennial vine of the grape family, 

Vitaceae. It is related to the North American raccoon-grape and peppervine, and is sometimes 

referred to as Amur peppervine or porcelain ampelopsis. The simple, heart-shaped leaves of 

porcelainberry are dark green with coarsely toothed edges, and are shiny underneath with 

delicate hairs along the veins. The leaves vary from slightly 3-5 lobed to deeply dissected, the 

latter being distinctively recognizable. The leaves are arranged alternately on vines that grow to 

heights of 15 to 20 feet. The plant climbs by tendrils that grow opposite the leaves on the stem. 

Small, greenish-white flowers appear in clusters on porcelainberry in June, July, and August. The 

colorful berries of porcelainberry, its most distinguishing feature, appear in September-October. 

The berries, about 1/4-inch in diameter, range in color from white to yellow, to pastel shades of 

green, lilac and amethyst purple, to turquoise and 

sky blue. All colors of the berry are often found 

growing on the same plant at the same time while 

the plant is still in full foliage. There are several US 

native species of Ampelopsis that could be 

confused with this exotic. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Porcelainberry is a 

vigorous vine which is slow to establish but grows 

and spreads quickly in open areas of the urban 

landscape. The seeds of porcelainberry are similar 

in size to those of native pioneers, and like the 

native, they will germinate readily in the prepared 

soil bed left behind after natural or human 

disturbance. Once established, the vine quickly 

overwhelms and destroys native vegetation by 

shading out smaller plants and outcompeting native vegetation for water and nutrients. Urban 

parks, with extensive wooded borders neighboring landscaped residential and private property, 

are especially vulnerable to invasion by porcelainberry. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: New England to North Carolina and west to 

Michigan. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Porcelainberry 

grows well in most soils, especially in pond margins, 

streambanks, thickets, and waste places, where there 

is full sunlight to partial shade, and where it is not 

permanently wet. Like its relative the grape, 

porcelainberry appears to be less tolerant of heavily 

shaded areas, such as that found in mature forest. 

BACKGROUND: Porcelainberry was originally 

cultivated as a bedding and landscape plant. In spite 

of its aggressiveness in some areas, it is still used in 

the horticultural trade (for example, the ornamental A. 

brevipedunculata 'Elegans' is often recommended as a 

landscape plant with a cautionary note that "care must 

be taken to keep it from overtaking and shading out 

small plants"). 


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The characteristics that make porcelainberry a desirable plant for the garden -- its colorful berries, 

good ground coverage, trellis-climbing vines, pest-resistance, and tolerance of adverse conditions 

-- are also responsible for its presence in the United States as an undesirable invader. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: The colorful berries (carrying 2-4 seeds each) attract birds and other 

small animals that eat the berries and disperse the seeds in their droppings. Because the plant is 

often found growing in riparian areas downstream from established plant colonies, it is thought 

that the seeds may also be dispersed in stream water. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Since the vines can grow as long as 15 ft. in a 

single growing season, repeated applications in the same growing season and in subsequent 

years may be necessary to fully eradicate the plant. 

Manual. Because flowers are produced on the current season's growth, hand-pruning in the fall 

or spring will prevent flower buds from forming the following season. Where feasible, plants 

should be pulled up by hand before fruiting to prevent the spread of seeds. If the plants are pulled 

while in fruit, the fruits should be bagged and burned before they ripen. This method can be 

difficult in areas where the plant is well established since pulling up the plant often pulls out native 

plants with intermingled roots. Cut aboveground vines and, if possible, pull from trees to allow the 

trees to recover and re-cut repeatedly as needed. 

Chemical. The herbicides triclopyr (e.g., Garlon 3a and Garlon 4) and glyphosate (Roundup and 

Rodeo) have been used with varying success to battle infestations of porcelainberry. 

Foliar applications: Smaller infestations of porcelainberry can be controlled to some extent with 

spot applications of glyphosphate to leaves, used sparingly to avoid contact of desirable plants 

with spray. Cut vines back during the summer and allow to resprout before applying herbicide, or 

apply glyphosate to leaves in early autumn, just prior to senescence. More effective control has 

been achieved using triclopyr formulations. From summer to fall, apply a water-based solution of 

2.5% Garlon 3A (triclopyr amine) to foliage or cut first, allow to re-grow, and then apply triclopyr to 

new growth. 

Basal bark applications: Apply a mixture of 20-30% Garlon 4 (triclopyr ester) with an equal 

volume of commercially available basal oil, diesel fuel, No. 1 or 2 fuel oil, or kerosene. Other oils, 

such as horticultural oil, can be substituted if the label for the oil recommends it for basal bark 

application. Application should be during any season when temperatures are around 60°F or 

more for several days; apply around the basal portions of vines. 









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Oriental Bittersweet Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb. 

NATIVE RANGE: Eastern Asia, Korea, 

China and Japan 

DESCRIPTION: Oriental bittersweet is a 

deciduous, woody, perennial vine in the stafftree 

family (Celastraceae), which sometimes 

occurs as a trailing shrub. Also known as 

round-leaved and Asiatic bittersweet, stems 

of older plants sometimes grow to four 

inches in diameter. Leaves of oriental 

bittersweet are glossy, rounded, finely 

toothed and arranged alternately along the 

stem. Clusters of small greenish flowers 

emerge from leaf axils, allowing each plant to 

produce large numbers of seeds. At maturity, 

globular, green to yellow fruits split open to 

reveal three red-orange, fleshy arils that 

contain the seeds. These showy fruits have made oriental bittersweet very popular for use in 

floral arrangements. Since this plant is easily confused with our native climbing bittersweet vine 

(Celastrus scandens), which flowers at the tips rather than along the stems, it is imperative that 

correct identification be made before controls are attempted. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Oriental bittersweet is an aggressive invader that threatens all 

vegetation levels of forested and open areas. It grows over other vegetation, completely covering 

it, and kills other plants by preventing photosynthesis, girdling, and uprooting by force of its 

massive weight. In the northeastern U.S., exotic Oriental bittersweet appears to be displacing the 

native climbing bittersweet (Celastrus scandens), which occurs in similar habitats, through 

competition and hybridization. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Oriental bittersweet currently occurs from New York 

to North Carolina, and westward to Illinois. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Oriental bittersweet infests forest edges, woodlands, early 

successional fields, hedgerows, coastal areas and salt marsh edges, particularly those suffering 

some form of land disturbance. While often found in more open, sunny sites, its tolerance for 

shade allows oriental bittersweet to invade forested areas. 

BACKGROUND: Introduced into the U.S. in the 1860s as an ornamental plant, oriental 

bittersweet is often associated with old homesites, from which it has escaped into surrounding 

natural areas. Oriental bittersweet is still widely planted and maintained as an ornamental vine, 

further promoting its spread. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Oriental bittersweet reproduces prolifically by seed, which is readily 

dispersed to new areas by many species of birds. Its seeds germinate in late spring in partial to 

dense shade. It also expands vegetatively by stolons (above-ground stems), and rhizomes 

(underground stems), and through root suckering (the ability to send shoots up from the roots). 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Where hand labor is practical, vines can be pulled 

out by the roots and removed from the site, preferably before fruiting. If fruits are present, vines 

should be bagged and disposed of in a landfill, or left in the bags and allowed to bake in the sun 

long enough to kill the seeds. Certain systemic herbicides, such as glyphosate (e.g., Roundup) 

or triclopyr (e.g., Garlon), that are taken into the roots and kill the entire plant, have been used 

successfully in bittersweet management. This method is most effective if the stems are first cut by 

hand or mowed and herbicide is applied immediately to cut stem tissue. In areas where spring 

wildflowers or other native plants occur, application of herbicides should be conducted prior to 

their emergence, delayed until late summer or autumn, after the last killing frost occurs, or 

carefully targeted. Herbicidal contact with desirable plants should always be avoided. No 

biological controls are currently known for oriental bittersweet. 


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SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: Several attractive native vines are available that provide 

nectar, seed, and host plant material for butterflies, hummingbirds, and other wildlife. These 

include common, or climbing, bittersweet (Celastrus scandens) which is native to the eastern 

U.S., trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), passionflower vine (Passiflora lutea), pipevine or 

Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia macrophylla) and native wisteria* (Wisteria frutescens). 

*If you wish to plant wisteria, make certain that it is the native species. Two commonly planted 

ornamental wisterias; Chinese wisteria (Wisteria sinensis) and Japanese wisteria (Wisteria 

floribunda), are exotic and aggressive invaders. 









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Climbing euonymus Euonymus fortunei (Turcs.) Hand.-Mazz. 

NATIVE RANGE: China 

DESCRIPTION: Climbing euonymus, 

also known as wintercreeper, Emerald'n 

Gold, and Gaiety, is an evergreen, 

clinging vine in the staff-tree 

(Celastraceae) family. It can form a 

dense groundcover or shrub to 3 feet in 

height, or climb 40-70 foot high vertical 

surfaces with the aid of aerial 

roots. Dark green, shiny, egg-shaped 

leaves, from 1 - 2 1/2 inches long, with 

toothed margins and silvery veins, occur 

in pairs along the stems. Stems are 

narrow, minutely warty, and have 

abundant rootlets or trailing 

roots. Clusters of inconspicuous greenwhite 

flowers are produced on a long 

stalk from June to July and are followed 

in the autumn by pinkish to red capsules that split open to expose seeds adorned with a fleshy 

orange seed coat, or aril. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Traits that make climbing euonymus a desirable ornamental plant, such 

as its rapid growth, evergreen nature, and tolerance of harsh conditions, also make euonymus a 

threat to natural areas. Climbing euonymus can outcompete native vegetation by depleting soil 

moisture and nutrients, blocking sunlight, and by forming a dense vegetative mat that impedes 

the growth of seedlings of native species. Vines on trees continue climbing and can eventually 

overtop them, covering the leaves and preventing photosynthesis. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Climbing euonymus is currently scattered throughout 

the eastern U.S. in populated areas. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Climbing euonymus tolerates a variety of environmental 

conditions, including poor soils, full sun to dense shade, and a wide pH range. It does not do well 

in heavy, wet soils. Natural forest openings resulting from wind throw, insect defoliation or fire 

are vulnerable to invasion and provide conditions for satellite populations of climbing euonymus 

to get started. 

BACKGROUND: Climbing euonymus was introduced into the U.S. in 1907 as an ornamental 

ground cover. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Climbing euonymus spreads vegetatively with the help of lateral shoots 

produced along its long main branches and by new plants that emerge from rootlets also 

produced along the stem at short intervals. Vines climb rocks, trees, and other supporting 

structures. Flowers formed in the summer produce mature fruits by fall that are equipped with 

fleshy edible structures (arils) that are fed on by birds and other wildlife which disperse it. 

Climbing euonymus also escapes from neglected gardens and is carried by water to undisturbed 

forest and riparian areas. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: A variety of mechanical and chemical methods are 

available for management of climbing euonymus. Grubbing, a rather labor intensive method, is 

effective for small populations or environmentally sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be 

used. Using a Pulaski or similar digging tool, remove the entire plant, including all roots and 

runners. Juvenile plants can be hand-pulled when the soil is moist and root systems are small. 

Any portions of the root system remaining may resprout. All plant parts including stem fragments 

and mature fruits should be bagged and disposed of in a trash dumpster to prevent reestablishment. 


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Cut stem treatment, using systemic herbicides applied to freshly cut stems, is effective in areas 

where vines are well established on or around non-target plants, or where they have grown into 

tree canopies or other vertical surfaces. Cut the stem as close to the ground as possible and 

immediately apply a 25% solution of glyphosate (e.g., Roundup) or triclopyr (e.g., Garlon) and 

water to the cut stem. This procedure is effective at temperatures as low as 40°F. 

Subsequent foliar application of these herbicides may be required. Cutting without the application 

of herbicides is generally not recommended because this will lead to root sprouting. 

Foliar applications of herbicide can be used to control large populations. It may be necessary to 

precede foliar sprays with cut stem treatments to reduce the risk of damage to non-target plants. 

Apply a 2% solution of glyphosate or triclopyr and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic surfactant to 

thoroughly wet all foliage but not so heavily that it drips off leaves where it may affect desirable 

plants. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic (i.e., travels through the plant vessels) herbicide 

that may kill even partially sprayed plants. Triclopyr is selective to broad leaf species and is a 

better choice if desirable native grasses are present. Ambient air temperature should be above 

65°F. 

For more information on the management of climbing euonymus, please contact: 


SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: There are a variety of native creeping or climbing vines 

that make good alternatives for climbing euonymus. Some examples from the eastern U.S. 

include trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia macrophylla), 

crossvine (Bignonia capreolata), trumpet honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens), American 

bittersweet (Celastrus scandens), and American wisteria (Wisteria frutescens), our only native 

wisteria*. 

*NOTE: When purchasing or planting wisteria, make certain it is the native American wisteria 

(Wisteria frutescens) and not exotic Chinese wisteria (Wisteria sinensis) or Japanese wisteria 

(Wisteria floribunda), both of which are aggressive exotic invaders of natural areas and are 

difficult to control. 









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English Ivy Hedera helix L. 

NATIVE RANGE: Europe, western Asia, and northern Africa 

DESCRIPTION: English ivy is an evergreen climbing 

vine in the ginseng family (Araliaceae). Vines attach to 

the bark of trees, brickwork, and other surfaces by way 

of numerous, small rootlike structures, which exude a 

glue-like substance. Older vines are known to reach a 

foot in diameter. Leaves are dark green, waxy, 

somewhat leathery, and are arranged alternately along 

the stem. English ivy has many recognized leaf forms, 

the most common being a 3-lobed leaf with a heartshaped 

base. Leaves in full sun are often unlobed, oval 

and have wedge-shaped bases. Umbrella-like clusters 

of small, greenish-white flowers appear in the fall if 

sufficient sunlight is available. Fruits mature in Spring 

and are black with a fleshy outer covering enclosing 

one to a few hard, stone-like seeds. 

NOTE: Compounds in English ivy are somewhat 

toxic and include glycosides that cause vomiting, 

diarrhea, nervous conditions and dermatitis in 

sensitive individuals. This characteristic helps 

ensure spread of the seeds by many native 

songbirds that are attracted to the black berries 

in Spring when other food sources are limited. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: English ivy is an 

aggressive invader that threatens all vegetation 

levels of forested and open areas, growing along 

the ground as well as into the forest canopy. The 

dense growth and abundant leaves, which spring 

from the stems like small umbrellas, form a thick 

canopy just above the ground, and prevent 

sunlight from reaching other plants. Similarly, 

vines climbing up tree trunks spread out and 

surround branches and twigs, preventing most of 

the sunlight from reaching the leaves of the host 

tree. Loss of host tree vigor, evident within a few years, is followed by death a few years later. 

The added weight of vines makes infested trees susceptible to blow-over during storms. English 

ivy also serves as a reservoir for bacterial leaf scorch (Xylella fastidiosa), a plant pathogen that is 

harmful to native trees such as elms, oaks, and maples. English ivy is a popular plant, 

recommended by Cooperative Extension offices for use as a low maintenance alternative to 

lawns. It is widely used by homeowners, horticulturists, landscape contractors, parks departments 

and others desiring a fast-growing, low maintenance, evergreen groundcover. Once established 

at a site, English ivy can be expected to move beyond its intended borders into neighboring 

yards, parks and other lands, either by vegetative means or by seed. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: English ivy occurs in at least 26 states and the 

District of Columbia, where it is one of the most abundant and widespread invasive plants. 


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HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: English ivy infests woodlands, 

forest edges, fields, hedgerows, coastal areas, salt marsh edges, 

and other upland areas, especially where some soil moisture is 

present. It does not grow well in extremely wet conditions and is 

often associated with some form of land disturbance, either humancaused 

or natural. 

BACKGROUND: English ivy was probably first introduced to the US 

by European immigrants and is widely sold as an ornamental plant 

for landscapes throughout the US. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: English ivy reproduces vegetatively and by 

seed, which is dispersed to new areas primarily by birds, including 

English house sparrows, European starlings, robins, Stellar jays, 

and cedar waxwings. New plants grow easily from cuttings or from 

stems making contact with the soil. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Several effective 

methods of control are available for English ivy, including chemical 

and non-chemical, depending on the extent of the infestation, the 

amount of native vegetation on-site, and available time and labor. 

Manual and Mechanical. Vines growing as groundcover can be pulled up by hand, with some 

difficulty, and left on-site or bagged and disposed of as trash. Vines climbing up into the tree canopy 

are more difficult to manage. First, vines should be cut at a comfortable height to kill upper portions 

and relieve the tree canopy. A large screw driver or forked garden tool can be used to pry and snap 

the vines away from the tree trunks. Vines can be cut using an axe or, with more difficulty, using a 

pruning saw. Rooted portions of vines will remain alive and should be pulled and repeatedly cut. 

Because cutting will likely promote further growth from the base, vigilance is required to ensure long 

term control. 

Chemical. The systemic herbicide triclopyr (e.g., Garlon) is absorbed into plant tissues and carried to 

the roots, effectively killing the entire plant in place. 

Foliar applications: From summer to fall, apply a 2.5% mixture of triclopyr amine (Garlon 3A) in water 

to the leaves or cut first, allow to re-grow, and apply the same mix to new foliage. Herbicide will also 

be absorbed through the stem bark for additional effect. 

Basal bark applications: A higher rate (15-30%) of triclopyr ester (Garlon 4) may also be applied to 

stems of vines growing up trees but there is a possibility that the herbicide will be absorbed into the 

host tree, depending on the thickness of the host tree's bark and the penetration of English ivy 

rootlets. 

Because English ivy is an evergreen vine, and remains active during the winter, herbicide applications 

can be made to it any time of year as long as temperatures are above 55 or 60°Fahrenheit for a few 

days. Fall and winter applications will avoid or minimize impacts to many native plant species. Repeat 

herbicidal treatments are likely to be needed and follow-up monitoring should be conducted to 

evaluate the success of treatments. Herbicidal contact with desirable plants should always be avoided. 

In areas where spring wildflowers or other native plants are interspersed, application of herbicides 

should be conducted prior to their emergence, or delayed until they have died back. 

Biological control. There are no biological controls currently available for English ivy. 


FOLLOW ALL MIXING AND APPLICATION INSTRUCTIONS AND WEAR ALL RECOMMENDED 

PERSONAL PROTECTIVE GEAR AND CLOTHING. CONTACT YOUR STATE DEPARTMENT OF 

AGRICULTURE FOR ANY ADDITIONAL PESTICIDE USE REQUIREMENTS, RESTRICTIONS OR 

RECOMMENDATIONS. 




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Japanese honeysuckle Lonicera japonica Thunb. 

NATIVE RANGE: Japan and Korea 

DESCRIPTION: Japanese honeysuckle, a member 

of the honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae), is a 

perennial vine that climbs by twisting its stems 

around vertical structures, including limbs and trunks 

of shrubs and small trees. Leaves are oblong to oval, 

sometimes lobed, have short stalks, and occur in 

pairs along the stem. In southern and mid-Atlantic 

states, Japanese honeysuckle often remains 

evergreen – its leaves remain attached through the 

winter. In colder northern climates, the leaves may 

fall off after exposure to prolonged winter 

temperatures. Flowers are tubular, with five fused 

petals, white to pink, turning yellow with age; they are 

very fragrant, and occur in pairs along the stem at 

leaf junctures. Stems and leaves are sometimes 

covered with fine, soft hairs. Japanese honeysuckle 

blooms from late April through July and sometimes 

into October. Small black fruits are produced in 

autumn, each containing 2-3 oval to oblong, dark 

brown seeds about 1/4 inch across. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: In North America, 

Japanese honeysuckle has few natural enemies 

which allows it to spread widely and out-compete 

native plant species. Its evergreen to semi-evergreen nature gives it an added advantage over native 

species in many areas. Shrubs and young trees can be killed by girdling when vines twist tightly 

around stems and trunks, cutting off the flow of water through the plant. Dense growths of 

honeysuckle covering vegetation can gradually kill plants by blocking sunlight from reaching their 

leaves. Vigorous root competition also helps Japanese honeysuckle spread and displace neighboring 

native vegetation. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Japanese honeysuckle occurs across the southern U.S. 

from California to New England and the Great Lakes region. Escaped populations also occur in 

Hawaii. Severe winter temperatures and low precipitation may limit its distribution in northern latitudes 

and in the West, respectively. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: A ubiquitous invader, Japanese honeysuckle thrives in a wide 

variety of habitats including fields, forests, wetlands, barrens, and all types of disturbed lands. 

BACKGROUND: Japanese honeysuckle was introduced to the U.S. in the early to mid-1800's as an 

ornamental plant, for erosion control, and for wildlife forage and cover. Its highly fragrant flowers 

provide a tiny drop of honey-flavored nectar enjoyed by children. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Growth and spread of Japanese honeysuckle is through vegetative (plant 

growth) and sexual (seed) means. It produces long vegetative runners that develop roots where stem 

and leaf junctions (nodes) come in contact with moist soil. Underground stems (rhizomes) help to 

establish and spread the plant locally. Long distance dispersal is by birds and other wildlife that readily 

consume the fruits and defecate the seeds at various distances from the parent plant. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Several effective methods of control are available for 

Japanese honeysuckle, including chemical and non-chemical, depending on the extent of the 

infestation and available time and labor. 

Manual and mechanical. For small patches, repeated pulling of entire vines and root systems may be 

effective. Hand pull seedlings and young plants when the soil is moist, holding low on the stem to 

remove the whole plant along with its roots. 


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Monitor frequently and remove any new plants. Cut and remove twining vines to prevent them from 

girdling and killing shrubs and other plants. An effective method for removal of patches of honeysuckle 

covering the ground is to lift up and hold a portion of the vine mass with a rake and have a chain saw 

operator cut the stems low to the ground. Mowing large patches of honeysuckle may be useful if 

repeated regularly, but is most effective when combined with herbicide application (see below). Mow 

at least twice a year, first in mid-July and again in mid-September. Plants can also be grubbed out 

using a Pulaski or similar digging tool, taking care to remove all roots and runners. Burning removes 

above ground vegetation but does not kill the underground rhizomes, which will continue to sprout. In 

certain situations, tethered goats have been used to remove honeysuckle growth, but must be 

monitored to prevent their escape to the wild where they would become an added ecological threat. 

Chemical. In moderate cold climates, Japanese honeysuckle leaves continue to photosynthesize long 

after most other plants have lost their leaves. This allows for application of herbicides when many 

native species are dormant. However, for effective control with herbicides, healthy green leaves must 

be present at application time and temperatures must be sufficient for plant activity. Several systemic 

herbicides (e.g., glyphosate and triclopyr) move through the plant to the roots when applied to the 

leaves or stems and have been used effectively on Japanese honeysuckle. 

Following label guidelines, apply a 2.5% rate of glyphosate (e.g., Rodeo for wetlands; Roundup for 

uplands) mixed with water and an appropriate surfactant, to foliage from spring through fall. 

Alternatively, apply a 2% concentration of triclopyr (e.g., Garlon 3A) plus water to foliage, thoroughly 

wetting the leaves but not to the point of drip-off. A coarse, low-pressure spray should be used. 

Repeat applications may be needed. Treatment in the fall, when many non-target plants are going 

dormant, is best. Also, a 25% glyphosate or triclopyr solution mixed with water can be applied to cut 

stem surfaces any time of year as long as the ground is not frozen. 

Biological control. No biological control agents are currently available for Japanese honeysuckle. 

For more information on the management of Japanese honeysuckle, please contact: 

Lisa Jameson, National Park Service, Washington, DC (lisa_jameson@nps.gov) 

Corey Kudrna, National Park Service, Washington, DC (corey_kudrna@nps.gov) 

Vikki Nuzzo, Cornell University (vnuzzo@earthlink.net) 

Ann Rhoads, University of PA, Morris Arboretum (rhoadsaf@pobox.upenn.edu) 

Sue Salmons, National Park Service, Rock Creek Park (sue_salmons@nps.gov) 

SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: Vines that make good substitutes for Japanese honeysuckle 

include false jasmine (Gelsemium sempervirens), trumpet honeysuckle (Lonicera sempervirens), 

trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), crossvine (Bignonia capreolata), native wisteria (Wisteria 

frutescens), jackman clematis (Clematis jackmanii), and others. Check with your state native plant 

society, a reputable native plant nursery, for recommendations for plants that are appropriate for your 

area and conditions. 









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Mile-a-minute weed Polygonum perfoliatum L. 

NATIVE RANGE: India to Eastern Asia, China and the Islands from Japan to the Philippines, including 

Nepal, Burma, Manchuria, China, Korea, 

Taiwan and the Malay Peninsula 

DESCRIPTION: Mile-a-minute weed, also 

known as Devil’s tail tearthumb, is an 

herbaceous, annual, trailing vine in the 

buckwheat family, Polygonaceae. It has a 

reddish stem that is armed with downward 

pointing hooks or barbs which are also 

present on the underside of the leaf 

blades. The light green colored leaves are 

shaped like an equilateral (equal-sided) 

triangle and alternate along the narrow, 

delicate stems. Distinctive circular, cupshaped 

leafy structures, called ocreas, 

surround the stem at intervals. Flower 

buds, and later flowers and fruits, emerge 

from within the ocreas. Flowers are small, 

white and generally inconspicuous. The 

fruits are attractive, metallic blue and 

segmented, each segment containing a single glossy, black or reddish-black seed. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Mile-a-minute weed grows rapidly, scrambling over shrubs and other 

vegetation, blocking the foliage of covered plants from available light, and reducing their ability to 

photosynthesize, which stresses and weakens them. If left unchecked, the lack of photosynthesis will 

kill a plant. Large infestations of mile-a-minute weed eventually reduce native plant species in natural 

areas. Small populations of extremely rare plants may be eliminated entirely. Because it can smother 

tree seedlings, mile-a-minute weed has a negative effect on Christmas tree farms, forestry operations 

on pine plantations and reforestation of natural areas. It has the potential to be a problem to nursery 

and horticulture crops that are not regularly tilled as a cultivation practice. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Mile-a-minute weed is currently found in Pennsylvania, 

Maryland, Delaware, West Virginia, New York, Virginia, Ohio and Washington, D.C. These states and 

the District of Columbia comprise about 20 percent of the estimated possible range for this species. It 

is considered a temperate species with subtropical tendencies and therefore has the potential to 

invade those portions of the contiguous United States that have the appropriate climate to provide a 

minimal eight week cold vernalization period. A temperature of 10°C or below must be sustained for 

an eight week period to stimulate germination. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Mile-a-minute weed generally colonizes open and disturbed 

areas, along the edges of woods, wetlands, stream banks, and roadsides, and uncultivated open 

fields, resulting from both natural and human causes. Natural areas such as stream banks, parks, 

open space, road shoulders, forest edges and fence lines are all typical areas to find mile-a-minute. It 

also occurs in environments that are extremely wet with poor soil structure. Available light and soil 

moisture are both integral to the successful colonization of this species. It will tolerate shade for part 

of the day, but needs a good percentage (63-100%) of available light. The ability of mile-a-minute to 

attach to other plants with its recurved barbs and climb over the plants to reach an area of high light 

intensity is a key to its survival. It can survive in areas with relatively low soil moisture, but 

demonstrates a preference for high soil moisture. 

BACKGROUND: The first records of mile-a-minute in North America are from Portland, Oregon 

(1890) and Beltsville, Maryland (1937). Both of these sites were eliminated or did not establish 

permanent populations of the species. However, the introduction of mile-a-minute in the late 1930’s to 

a nursery site in York County, Pennsylvania did produce a successful population of this plant. It is 

speculated that the seed was spread with Rhododendron stock. The owner of the nursery was 

interested in the plant and allowed it to reproduce; unfortunately, subsequent efforts to eradicate it 

were not successful. 


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The distribution of mile-a-minute has radiated from the York County site into neighboring states. In the 

past 55 years, the range for this plant in the United States has extended as far as 300 miles in several 

directions from the York County, Pennsylvania site (Mountain, 1995) and (Okay 1997). 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Mile-a-minute weed is primarily a self-pollinating plant (supported by its 

inconspicuous, closed flowers and lack of a detectable scent), with occasional outcrossing. Fruits and 

viable seeds are produced without assistance from pollinators. Vegetative propagation from roots has 

not been successful for this plant. It is a very tender annual, withering with a slight frost, and 

reproduces successfully until the first frost. Mile-a-minute is a prolific seeder, producing many seeds 

on a single plant over a long season, from June until October in Virginia, and a slightly shorter season 

in more northern geographic areas. 

Birds are probably the primary long-distance dispersal agents of mile-a-minute seeds. Transport of 

seeds short distances by native ant species has been observed. This activity is probably encouraged 

by the presence of a tiny white food body (elaiosome) on the tip of the seed that may be attractive to 

the ants. These seed-carrying ants may play an important role in the survival and germination of the 

seeds of mile-a-minute weed. Local bird populations are important for dispersal under utility lines, bird 

feeders, fence lines and other perching locations. Other animals observed eating mile-a-minute weed 

fruits are chipmunks, squirrel and deer. 

Water is also an important mode of dispersal for mile-a-minute weed. Its fruits can remain buoyant for 

7-9 days, an important advantage for dispersing seed long distances in stream and river 

environments. The long vines frequently hang over waterways, allowing fruits that detach to be carried 

away in the water current. During storm events the potential spread of this plant is greatly increased 

throughout watersheds. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: A variety of control measures, including physical, 

mechanical, cultural and chemical, can be used for management of mile-a-minute weeds. Hand pulling 

of seedlings is best done before the recurved barbs on the stem and leaves harden. But may be done 

afterwards with the help of thick gloves. Removal of vines by hand may be conducted throughout the 

summer, if tough gloves and protective clothing (coveralls) are worn to avoid the skin shredding ability 

of the recurved hooks. The delicate vines can be reeled in fairly easily and balled up in piles that can 

be left to dehydrate for several days before disposal. The site must be rechecked at frequent intervals, 

and removal of new plants continued until the seed germination period is complete, roughly early April 

until early July in the Middle Atlantic States. Repeated mowing or trimming of mile-a-minute plants will 

prevent the plants from flowering and thus reduce or eliminate fruit and seed production. 

Cultural methods can be utilized to discourage the introduction of mile-a-minute to an area. It is 

important to maintain vegetative community stability and to avoid creating gaps or openings in existing 

vegetation. Maintaining broad vegetative buffers along streams and forest edges will help to shade out 

and prevent establishment of mile-a-minute weed. This will also help to reduce the dispersal of fruits 

by water. 

An herbicidal soap, of which there are several brands available at most garden centers, will help to 

burn back foliage of mile-a-minute. Because these products do not have the systemic (i.e., travels to 

the roots) ability of herbicides like glyphosate, they will need to be reapplied all season long to any 

regrowth. Glyphosate (e.g., Roundup for upland areas and Rodeo for wetland applications), applied at 

a low rate will probably be effective in killing mile-a-minute weed. However, because this plant is not 

currently listed on the product labels for Roundup or Rodeo, treatments with these products is 

permissible only with prior approval of the State Department of Agriculture where the application will 

take place [FIFRA 1997, Section 2(z)(ee)]. 









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Kudzu Pueraria montana var. lobata (Willd.) Maesen & S. Almeida 

NATIVE RANGE: Asia 

DESCRIPTION: Kudzu is a climbing, semi-woody, 

perennial vine in the pea family. Deciduous leaves 

are alternate and compound, with three broad 

leaflets up to 4 inches across. Leaflets may be 

entire or deeply 2-3 lobed with hairy margins. 

Individual flowers, about 1/2 inch long, are purple, 

highly fragrant and borne in long hanging clusters. 

Flowering occurs in late summer and is soon 

followed by production of brown, hairy, flattened, 

seed pods, each of which contains three to ten 

hard seeds. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Kudzu kills or degrades 

other plants by smothering them under a solid 

blanket of leaves, by girdling woody stems and tree 

trunks, and by breaking branches or uprooting 

entire trees and shrubs through the sheer force of 

its weight. Once established, Kudzu plants grow 

rapidly, extending as much as 60 feet per season 

at a rate of about one foot per day. This vigorous 

vine may extend 32-100 feet in length, with stems 

1/2 - 4 inches in diameter. Kudzu roots are fleshy, 

with massive tap roots 7 inches or more in 

diameter, 6 feet or more in length, and weighing as 

much as 400 pounds. As many as thirty vines may 

grow from a single root crown. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Kudzu is common throughout most of the southeastern 

U.S. and has been found as far north as Pennsylvania. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Kudzu grows well under a wide range of conditions and in most 

soil types. Preferred habitats are forest edges, abandoned fields, roadsides, and disturbed areas, 

where sunlight is abundant. Kudzu grows best where winters are mild, summer temperatures are 

above 80°F, and annual rainfall is 40 inches or more. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: The spread of kudzu in the U.S. is currently limited to vegetative expansion by 

runners and rhizomes and by vines that root at the nodes to form new plants. Kudzu also spreads 

somewhat through seeds, which are contained in pods, and which mature in the fall. However, only 

one or two viable seeds are produced per cluster of pods and these hard-coated seeds may not 

germinate for several years. 

BACKGROUND: Kudzu was introduced into the U.S. in 1876 at the Philadelphia Centennial 

Exposition, where it was promoted as a forage crop and an ornamental plant. From 1935 to the mid- 

1950s, farmers in the south were encouraged to plant kudzu to reduce soil erosion, and Franklin D. 

Roosevelt's Civilian Conservation Corps planted it widely for many years. Kudzu was recognized as a 

pest weed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and, in 1953, was removed from its list of permissible 

cover plants. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: For successful long term control of kudzu, the extensive 

root system must be destroyed. Any remaining root crowns can lead to reinfestation of an area. 

Mechanical methods involve cutting vines just above ground level and destroying all cut material. 

Close mowing every month for two growing seasons or repeated cultivation may be effective. Cut 


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kudzu can be fed to livestock, burned or enclosed in plastic bags and sent to a landfill. If conducted in 

the spring, cutting must be repeated as regrowth appears to exhaust the plant's stored carbohydrate 

reserves. 

Late season cutting should be followed up with immediate application of a systemic herbicide (e.g., 

glyphosate) to cut stems, to encourage transport of the herbicide into the root system. Repeated 

applications of several soil-active herbicides have been used effectively on large infestations in 

forestry situations. Efforts are being organized by the U.S. Forest Service to begin a search for 

biological control agents for kudzu. 

For more information on kudzu management, please contact: 

Stratford Kay, Aquatic and Noncropland Weed Management, Crop Science Department, Box 7620, 

North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, (919) 515-5645 

Stratford_Kay@ncsu.edu 

James H. Miller, USDA Forest Service, DeVall Drive, Auburn University, AL 36849 

Miller@forestry.Auburn.edu 

SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: Native vines such as trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), 

pipevine (Aristolochia macrophylla), passionflower (Passiflora lutea), trumpet honeysuckle (Lonicera 

sempervirens), and native bittersweet (Celastrus scandens) have attractive flowers and fruits, provide 

food for wildlife and make excellent substitutes for kudzu. These plants should be used in landscaping 

and for land restoration where they are known to occur as natives. 









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Chinese Wisteria Wisteria sinensis (Sims) DC. 

Japanese Wisteria Wisteria floribunda (Willd.) DC. 

NATIVE RANGE: China and Japan 

DESCRIPTION: Chinese and Japanese wisteria are exotic, showy, woody ornamental vines in the pea 

family, or Fabaceae. These vigorous vines can 

climb trees, apparently limited only by the height 

of the tree, and have been observed to reach 65 

feet. Unlike American wisteria (Wisteria 

frutescens), native to the southeastern U.S., 

which flowers June through August, and 

produces a non-hairy seed pod 2-4 inches long, 

both exotic wisterias flower in the springtime 

(April-May) and produce a velvety seed pod. The 

fuzzy brown seed pods are 4-6 inches long, 

narrowed toward the base, with constrictions 

between the seeds. Stems of the exotic wisterias 

can grow to 15 inches in diameter in older plants. 

White-barked Japanese wisteria vines twine 

clockwise around the host plant and Chinese 

wisteria twines counter-clockwise. The 

compound leaves, consisting of 7-13 (Chinese) 

or 13-19 (Japanese) smaller leaf units, called 

leaflets, are about 1 foot long and alternate along 

the stem. Fragrant, violet to blue-violet flowers, 

½ to 1 inch long, occur in showy, pendulous 

clusters that hang gracefully from the twining 

stems. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Exotic wisterias impair and overtake native shrubs and trees through 

strangling or shading. Climbing wisteria vines can kill sizable trees, opening the forest canopy and 

increasing sunlight to the forest floor, which in turn favors its aggressive growth. Chinese and 

Japanese wisterias are hardy and aggressive, capable of forming thickets so dense that little else 

grows. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Japanese and Chinese wisteria are found extensively 

throughout the eastern states. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: The ideal habitat for exotic wisterias is in full sun, but 

established vines will persist and reproduce in partial shade. Vines often climb surrounding vegetation 

and structures toward sunlight. Wisteria tolerates a variety of soil and moisture regimes but prefers 

loamy, deep, well drained soils. Infestations are commonly found along forest edges, roadsides, 

ditches, and rights-of-way. 

BACKGROUND: Chinese wisteria was brought to the U.S. from China in 1816 and Japanese wisteria 

was introduced from Japan around 1830. Both were brought in as ornamentals. They have been 

grown extensively in the southern U.S. as decorative additions to porches, gazebos, walls, and 

gardens. Most infestations in natural areas are a result of escapes from landscape plantings. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Exotic wisterias are long-lived, some vines surviving 50 years or 

more. Vegetative reproduction is their primary means of expansion. Numerous stolons, or aboveground 

stems, develop roots and shoots at short intervals. Abundant seeds may also be produced if 

conditions are favorable, but flower buds are susceptible to winter kill. In riparian habitats, seeds may 

be carried downstream in water for great distances. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: The only practical methods currently available for 

control of exotic wisterias are mechanical and chemical. Cut climbing or trailing vines as close to the 

root collar as possible. 


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This technique, while labor intensive, is feasible for small populations, as a pretreatment for large 

impenetrable infestations, or for areas where herbicide use is not desirable. Wisteria will continue to 

resprout after cutting until its root stores are exhausted. For this reason, cutting should begin early in 

the growing season and, if possible, sprouts cut every few weeks until autumn. Cutting will stop the 

growth of existing vines and prevent seed production. However, cut vines left coiled around trunks 

may eventually girdle trees and shrubs as they continue to grow and increase in girth. For this reason, 

the vines should be removed entirely or at least cut periodically along their length. 

Grubbing, removal of entire plants from the roots up, is appropriate for small initial populations or 

environmentally sensitive areas where herbicides cannot be used. Using a Pulaski, weed wrench or 

similar digging tool, remove the entire plant, including all roots and runners. Juvenile plants can be 

hand pulled, depending on soil conditions and root development. Any portions of the root system not 

removed may resprout. All plant parts (including mature fruit) should be bagged and disposed of in a 

trash dumpster to prevent reestablishment. 

Cut stump treatment, using a systemic herbicide, is effective in areas where vines are established 

within or around desirable native plants or where they have grown into the canopy. This treatment is 

effective as long as the ground is not frozen. Cut the stem as close to ground level as 

possible. Immediately apply a 25% solution of glyphosate (e.g., Roundup) or triclopyr (e.g., Garlon) 

and water to the cross section of the stem. Re-treatment with a foliar application of glyphosate may be 

necessary for any sprouts. 

Use foliar spray herbicide treatments to control large infestations of exotic wisterias. It may be 

necessary to precede foliar applications with stump treatments to reduce the risk of damaging nontarget 

species. Apply a 2% concentration of glyphosate (e.g. Round Up) or triclopyr (e.g. Garlon) and 

water, plus a 0.5% non-ionic surfactant to thoroughly wet all foliage. Chlorpyralid (e.g. Transline) is 

effective at a concentration of 0.5% and is selective to plants in the aster, buckwheat, and pea 

families. Caution should be taken with chlorpyralid as groundwater pollution through leaching can be 

a problem with certain soil types. Do not apply spray so heavily that herbicide drips off the 

leaves. Glyphosate is a non-selective systemic herbicide that may kill non-target plants that are only 

partially contacted by spray. Triclopyr is selective to broadleaved species and is a better choice if 

native grasses are present. Ambient air temperature should be above 65ºF for all foliar treatments. 

For more information on the management of exotic wisterias, please contact: 


SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: There are a variety of creeping or climbing vines native to 

the eastern U.S. that are good alternatives to the invasive exotic wisterias. Some examples include 

American wisteria (Wisteria frutescens), trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), trumpet honeysuckle 

(Lonicera sempervirens), Dutchman’s pipe (Aristolochia macrophylla), and crossvine (Bignonia 

capreolata). Contact your local native plant society for information on sources of these and other 

native plants. 









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Buffalo Gourd, Stinking Gourd, Calabacilla Loca, Missouri Gourd, 

Foetid Wild Pumpkin Cucurbita foetidissima Kunth in H.B.K. 

Buffalo Gourd is a perennial and can be found growing in waste places, fields, and along roadsides. It 

is a low growing vine that can reach a length of 20 feet. The large, yellow flowers open in the mornings 

and are 3 to 4 inches long and 1 to 2 inches wide. The gray-green leaves are a narrow triangle shape 

that tend to fold upward, parallel to the midvein. The fruit is a gourd that is dark green with lighter 

green stripes when immature. It is about 2 to 3 inches in diameter at maturity and turns a yellow color. 

Buffalo Gourd blooms from May to September. It is a perennial, reproducing by seed and roots. 

Taproot is yellow inside, carrotlike, very thick and fleshy, often more than 6 inches (15 cm) across, 

sometimes over 5 feet (1.5 m) long. Stems are trailing and rooting at joints, 15 to 30 feet (4.5 to 9 m) 

long, stout, angled, ridged, rough-hairy, and many-branched. Leaves are thick, simple, sharply 

toothed, 4 inches to 1 foot (10 to 30 cm) long, ovate, long-pointed, rough above, gray-hairy beneath, 

with strong, rough-hairy petioles. Flowers are bright yellow, deeply 5-lobed, 3 to 4 inches (7.5 to 10 

cm) long and nearly as broad, in the leaf axils. 

Male and female flowers are separate but on the same plant. Fruit is globular, 3 inches (7.5 cm) long, 

with yellow and green markings and a hard, smooth rind. Seeds are numerous, oval, flattened, similar 

to pumpkin seed but about half as large, and a light straw-color. This plant is found on dry, sandy soil 

in fields and waste places, and along fence rows. The entire plant has an offensive odor, especially 

when bruised. 


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Burdock 


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Trees- Alien Plant Invaders 

Tree-of-heaven Ailanthus altissima (Mill.) Swingle 

NATIVE RANGE: Central China 

DESCRIPTION: Tree-of-heaven, also known 

as ailanthus, Chinese sumac, and stinking 

sumac, is a rapidly growing, deciduous tree 

in the mostly tropical quassia family 

(Simaroubaceae). Mature trees can reach 80 

feet or more in height. Ailanthus has smooth 

stems with pale gray bark, and twigs which 

are light chestnut brown, especially in the 

dormant season. Its large compound leaves, 

1-4 feet in length, are composed of 11-25 

smaller leaflets and alternate along the 

stems. Each leaflet has one to several 

glandular teeth near the base. In late spring, 

clusters of small, yellow-green flowers 

appear near the tips of branches. Seeds are 

produced on female trees in late summer to 

early fall, in flat, twisted, papery structures 

called samaras, which may remain on the 

trees for long periods of time. The wood of 

ailanthus is soft, weak, coarse-grained, and 

creamy white to light brown in color. All parts 

of the tree, especially the flowers, have a 

strong, offensive odor, which some have 

likened to peanuts or cashews. 

NOTE: Correct identification of ailanthus is 

essential. Several native shrubs, like 

sumacs, and trees, like ash, black walnut 

and pecan, can be confused with ailanthus. 

Staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina), native to the 

eastern U.S., is distinguished from ailanthus 

by its fuzzy, reddish-brown branches and leaf 

stems, erect, red, fuzzy fruits, and leaflets 

with toothed margins. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Tree-of-heaven is 

a prolific seed producer, grows rapidly, and 

can overrun native vegetation. Once 

established, it can quickly take over a site 

and form an impenetrable thicket. Ailanthus 

trees also produce toxins that prevent the 

establishment of other plant species. The 

root system is aggressive enough to cause 

damage to sewers and foundations. 


Tree-of-heaven is widely distributed across 

the United States, occurring in forty-two states, from Maine to Florida and west to 

California. HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Tree-of-heaven is a common tree in disturbed urban 

areas, where it sprouts up just about anywhere, including alleys, sidewalks, parking lots, and streets. 

The book “A Tree Grows in Brooklyn”, by Betty Smith is based on the ailanthus tree. Away from cities, 

it is commonly seen in fields and along roadsides, fencerows, woodland edges and forest openings. 


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Nationally, ailanthus has become an agricultural pest and may 

occur as seedlings that pop up by the hundreds in recently planted 

fields, or as persistent thickets in rocky, untillible areas. 

BACKGROUND: Tree-of-heaven was first introduced to America 

by a gardener in Philadelphia, PA, in 1784, and by 1840 was 

commonly available from nurseries. The species was also brought 

into California mainly by the Chinese, who came to California 

during the gold rush in the mid-1800s. Today it is frequently found 

in abandoned mining sites there. The history of ailanthus in China 

is as old as the written language of the country. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Tree-of-heaven reproduces both sexually 

(seeds) and asexually (vegetative sprouts). Flowering occurs late 

in the spring (June in the middle Atlantic region of eastern U.S.). 

The species is dioecious, with male and female flowering on 

separate trees. Fruits are papery, somewhat twisted, winged 

structures called samaras that are tan to pink-colored. Samaras 

occur in large clusters from September to October of the same 

year, and may persist on the tree through the following winter. One 

study reports that an individual tree can produce as many as 

325,000 seeds per year. Established trees also produce numerous 

suckers from the roots and resprout vigorously from cut stumps 

and root fragments. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Elimination of 

Ailanthus requires diligence, due to its abundant seed production, 

high seed germination rate, and vegetative reproduction. Followup 

monitoring and treatment when needed should be an integral 

part of any serious ailanthus management program. Regardless of 

method selected, treated areas should be rechecked one or more 

times a year and any new suckers or seedlings treated (cut, 

sprayed or pulled) as soon as possible, especially before they are 

able to rebuild root reserves. Establishing a thick cover of trees (preferably native and non-invasive) or 

grass sod will help shade out and discourage establishment of ailanthus seedlings. Targeting large 

female trees for control will help reduce spread of ailanthus by seed. 

Young seedlings may be pulled or dug up, preferably when soil is moist. Care must be taken to 

remove the entire plant, including all roots and fragments, as these will almost certainly re-grow. Root 

suckers appear similar to seedlings, but would be connected to a pre-existing lateral root, and would 

be nearly impossible to remove effectively. 

Cutting alone is usually counter-productive because ailanthus responds by producing large numbers 

of stump sprouts and root suckers. However, for small infestations, repeated cutting of sprouts over 

time can exhaust the plants reserves and may be successful if continued for many years or where 

heavy shade exists. If possible, the initial cutting should be in early summer in order to impact the tree 

when its root reserves are lowest. Cutting large seed producing female trees would at least 

temporarily reduce spread by this method. 

The most effective method of ailanthus control seems to be through the use of herbicides, which may 

be applied as a foliar (to the leaves), basal bark, cut stump, or hack and squirt treatment. Keep in mind 

that it is relatively easy to kill the above ground portion of ailanthus trees--you need to kill or seriously 

damage the root system to prevent or limit stump sprouting and root suckering. Always be extremely 

careful with herbicide applications in the vicinity of valuable ornamental shrubs and trees. 

Foliar sprays applied when trees are in full leaf are very effective, and should be the method of choice 

where ailanthus size and distribution allows effective spray coverage of all foliage without 

unacceptable contact with nearby desirable vegetation or the applicator. Where ailanthus is in 

association with other exotic weed species, as is often the case, foliar spray allows treatment of the 


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entire area at one time. Limitations of the method are the seasonal time frame, the need to transport a 

larger, more diluted volume of spray material, and the fact that rapid growing ailanthus are often out of 

effective reach. 

The non-selective herbicide glyphosate (e.g., Roundup, Rodeo, Accord), will kill or injure almost any 

plant, herbaceous or woody, contacted by the spray. Triclopyr (e.g., Garlon 3A, Garlon 4) is selective 

for broadleaf and woody plants and will not kill grasses contacted by the spray. Both glyphosate and 

triclopyr are systemic herbicides, meaning that they are absorbed by plants and are carried to the root 

systems. These herbicides have low soil activity, so do not pose a threat to groundwater if applied 

properly and at recommended label rates. Both glyphosate and triclopyr should be mixed with water 

and a small amount (0.5%, or as per label) of a non-ionic surfactant (except for Roundup, which 

contains a surfactant) to help the spray spread over and penetrate the leaves. The mixture should be 

applied to leaves and green stems, including sprouts and suckers, until thoroughly wet but not to the 

point of runoff. With backpack sprayers, concentrations of 2% of a typical glyphosate product such as 

Roundup or Accord applied June 15 - September 15, or 1.5% of a 4 lb./gallon triclopyr product such as 

Garlon 4, or 2% of a 3 lb./gallon triclopyr product such as Garlon 3A applied June 1 - September 1 

have worked well in the Mid-Atlantic area, with slightly greater effectiveness for the triclopyr 

products. For higher volume applications such as would be applied by a truck mounted sprayer, the 

concentration for these products could be reduced by 0.5% to 1-1.5%. Other herbicides which have 

shown to be effective for foliar application of ailanthus are dicamba (e.g., Banvel, Vanquish), imazapyr 

(e.g., Arsenal, Chopper), and metsulfuron methyl (e.g., Escort). 

Basal bark application is one of the easiest methods and does not require any cutting. It works best 

during late winter/early spring and in summer. The base of the tree stem must be free of snow, ice, or 

water on the bark from recent rainfall, though precipitation following application is 

inconsequential. Late winter/early spring (February 15 -April 15, Mid-Atlantic) is generally the most 

productive time, since vegetation near the base of the trees is usually absent or leafless. Late spring 

and early summer applications (April 15 - June 1, Mid-Atlantic), when plant fluids are moving upwards 

to support new growth, are questionable. Application during the summer (June 1 - September 15, 

Mid-Atlantic) works very well as long as vegetation is not a hindrance, and allows lower concentrations 

of herbicide to be used. Fall to mid-winter applications (October - January) have given poor results. 

Mix up a solution of 20% (as low as 10% in summer depending on objectives) concentration of oilsoluble 

triclopyr product (e.g., Garlon 4) in 80% oil (fuel oil, diesel, kerosene, mineral oil, or special 

vegetable oils). With these diluents some applicators add a pine oil based additive (e.g., Cide-Kick II) 

at the rate of 10%, which helps penetrate the bark and eliminate any unpleasant odor. Some 

companies market diluents based on mineral or vegetable oils specifically designed for basal bark 

application, which should be considered for use in sensitive areas. Another option is to use a premixed, 

ready-to-use triclopyr product designed for basal bark (and cut stump) application (e.g., 

Pathfinder II). Using a handheld or backpack type sprayer, apply the mixture in a 12 inch wide band 

around the entire circumference of the tree base with no “skips”. The basal bark method is generally 

used for trees that are less than 6 inches in diameter, though slightly larger stems may also be treated 

effectively by thoroughly treating bark up to 24 inches in height. 

Follow-up foliar herbicide application (see above) to basal sprouts and root suckers may be 

necessary. Another herbicide which has been shown to be effective for basal bark control of ailanthus 

is imazapyr (e.g., Chopper, Stalker). This is sometimes used in a combination with triclopyr at a 

concentration of 15% Garlon 4 and 5% Stalker in 80% oil diluent. 

Root suckering will be an increasing problem in the fall, winter and spring. The hack-and-squirt (or 

injection) method is very effective and minimizes sprouting and suckering when applied during the 

summer. This method requires first making downward-angled cuts into the sapwood around the tree 

trunk at a comfortable height, using a hand ax. With spray bottle or wand in the other hand, squirt a 

straight (100%) concentration of a water-soluble triclopyr product (e.g., Garlon 3A) into the cuts within 

a minute or two, applying 1-2 milliliters into each cut (typically 1-2 squirts of a trigger squirt bottle) so 

that the bottom of the cut is covered, but liquid doesn't run out of it. Generally, you would make about 

1 hack cut for each inch of diameter plus one (i.e., for a 10 inch diameter tree, make about 11 cuts). 


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Space the cuts so that about 1-2 inches of uncut living tissue remains between them. A continuous 

line of cuts around the trunk would likely cause the tree to go into emergency response mode and 

react by producing basal sprouts and root suckers. For this reason, girdling or frilling (girdling followed 

by herbicide) is not highly recommended unless long term follow-up treatment is possible. 

While spaced injection works well for ailanthus, it is not as effective on some other species. This 

method can be used with trees of any size, though it is most productive with stems over 2 inches in 

diameter. This method is relatively easy for one person to do, with hatchet in one hand and spray 

bottle in the other, but should be done with a buddy nearby in case of an accident. Monitor the 

treatment area and be prepared to follow-up with a foliar application the next year to control any basal 

sprouts or root suckers that might emerge. Glyphosate products have sometimes been recommended 

for control of ailanthus using this method, but several field trials have shown consistently poor longterm 

control of basal sprouts and root suckers at any time of year. Other herbicides which have shown 

to be effective for hack-and-squirt control of ailanthus during the growing season are dicamba (e.g., 

Banvel, Vanquish), imazapyr (e.g., Arsenal A.C., Chopper), and 2,4-D + picloram (e.g., Pathway). 

Dicamba is particularly effective in October. 

The cut stump method is useful in areas where the trees need to be removed from the site and will be 

cut as part of the process. While situations exist that dictate this method over the others given above, 

felling trees is usually less effective in killing the root system, slower, more labor intensive, and more 

hazardous to personnel than other methods. This method is likely to be most successful during the 

growing season, with diminishing success through the early fall. Dormant season applications may 

prevent resprouting from the stump itself, but will do little to inhibit root suckering. However, at any 

time of year, if the tree must be cut it is better to treat the stump than not. Application of herbicide to 

the cut stumps must be conducted immediately after cutting, within 5-15 minutes of the cut with water 

soluble formulations, longer with oil mixtures, to ensure uptake of the chemical before the plant seals 

the cut area off. The mixture may be painted on with a paint brush or sprayed on using a spray bottle 

or backpack sprayer. A mixture of 20% Garlon 4 plus 80% oil diluent, as for basal bark spraying 

(above), may be used. In this case the whole stump surface and sides to the ground line would be 

sprayed. Another option is to use Garlon 3A at 100%, treating only the outer 1/3 of the stump surface. 

Be prepared to follow-up with a foliar application the next year to control any stump sprouts or root 

suckers which emerge. Other herbicides which have shown to be effective in stump treatment of 

ailanthus are the same as those listed above for hack and squirt or injection. 

A potential biological control for ailanthus may lie in several fungal pathogens, (Verticillium dahliae and 

Fusarium oxysporum) that have been isolated from dead and dying ailanthus trees in New York and in 

southern and western Virginia. 

SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: Many lovely native trees and shrubs make excellent 

substitutes for Ailanthus and are readily available. Some examples for the eastern United States 

include deciduous shrubs such as staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina), smooth sumac (Rhus glabra), box 

elder (Acer nigrum), fringetree (Chionanthus virginicus), ash (Fraxinus spp.), and black walnut 

(Juglans nigra). Because U.S. native plants can become invasive outside their natural, historical 

ranges, be sure to use plant species native to the ecological region you live in. Check with your local 

native plant society for recommendations of species and sources of native plants. 


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Silk Tree Albizia julibrissin Durz. 

NATIVE RANGE: Iran to Japan 

(according to Hortus 3rd. ed.). 

DESCRIPTION: Silk tree, also known as 

mimosa, or silky acacia, is a small to 

medium-sized tree in the pea family 

(Fabaceae) that can grow up to 20-40 

feet tall. The bark is light brown, nearly 

smooth, and generally thin with lens 

shaped areas along the stem. The 

attractive fern-like leaves of mimosa are 

finely divided, 5-8 inches long by about 

3-4 inches wide, and alternate along the 

stems. Silk tree has showy and fragrant 

pink flowers, about 1½ inches long, that 

resemble pom-poms and are arranged in 

panicles at the ends of branches. Fruits 

are flat, straw-colored pods about 6 

inches long containing light brown ovalshaped 

seeds about ½ inch in 

length. Pods ripen in August to 

September and begin to disintegrate soon after, but remain on the trees into winter. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Because silk tree can grow in a variety of soils, produce large seed crops, 

and resprout when damaged, it is a strong competitor to native trees and shrubs in open areas or 

forest edges. Dense stands of mimosa severely reduce the sunlight and nutrients available for other 

plants. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Silk tree is naturalized from New Jersey to Louisiana and 

in California. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Silk tree takes advantage of disturbed areas, often spreading by 

seed from nearby ornamentals or from contaminated fill dirt. It prefers full sun and is often seen along 

roadsides and open vacant lots in urban/suburban areas. Silk tree can tolerate partial shade but is 

seldom found in forests with full canopy cover, or at higher elevations (above 900 m or 3,000 ft), where 

cold hardiness is a limiting factor. It can, however, become a serious problem along riparian areas, 

where it becomes established along scoured shores and where its seeds are easily transported in 

water. Like many successful exotics, it is capable of growing in a wide range of soil conditions. 

BACKGROUND: Silk tree was introduced to the U.S. in 1745. Silk tree continues to be a popular 

ornamental because of its fragrant and showy flowers. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Silk tree reproduces both vegetatively and by seed. Silk tree seeds have 

impermeable seed coats that allow them to remain dormant for many years. One study showed that 

90% of the seeds were viable after five years and, for another species of mimosa, a third of its seeds 

germinated after 50 years in open storage. Seeds are mostly dispersed below or around the parent 

plant, but can be dispersed further by water. Silk trees grow rapidly under good conditions but are 

short-lived and have weak, brittle wood. If cut or top-killed, trees resprout quickly and sprouts can 

grow over three feet in a season. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Silk tree can be controlled using a variety of mechanical 

and chemical controls. Trees can be cut at ground level with power or manual saws. Cutting is most 

effective when trees have begun to flower to prevent seed production. Because mimosa spreads by 

suckering, resprouts are common after treatment. Cutting is an initial control measure and will require 

either an herbicidal control or repeated cutting for resprouts. 

Girdling is effective on large trees where the use of herbicides is impractical. Using a hatchet, make a 

cut through the bark encircling the base of the tree, approximately six inches above the ground. Be 

sure that the cut goes well below the bark. This method will kill the top of the tree but resprouts are 

common and may require a follow-up treatment with a foliar herbicide. 


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Hand pulling will effectively control young seedlings. Plants should be pulled as soon as they are 

large enough to grasp, but before they are old enough to flower. Seedlings are best pulled after a rain 

when the soil is loose. The entire root must be removed since broken fragments may resprout. 

Silk tree seedlings and small trees can be controlled by applying a 2% solution of glyphosate (e.g., 

Roundup) or triclopyr (e.g., Garlon) and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic surfactant to thoroughly wet all 

leaves. Systemic herbicides such as glyphosate and triclopyr can kill entire plants because the 

chemicals travel through a plant from the leaves and stems to the actively growing roots, where 

they prevent further cell growth. Use a low pressure and a coarse spray pattern to reduce damage 

from spray drift on non-target species. Use caution when applying these products, as glyphosate is a 

non-selective herbicide that may kill non-target plants that are only partially contacted. Triclopyr is a 

selective herbicide for many broadleaf plant species. 

Triclopyr is a selective herbicide for many broad-leaved plant species and should be considered for 

sites where native or other desirable grasses are meant to be conserved. 

The cut-stump and basal bark herbicidal methods should be considered when treating individual trees 

or where the presence of desirable species preclude foliar application. Stump treatments can be used 

as long as the ground is not frozen. Horizontally cut stems at or near ground level. And immediately 

apply a 25% solution of glyphosate or triclopyr and water to the cut stump, making sure to cover the 

outer 20% of the stump. 

Basal bark applications are effective throughout the year as long as the ground is not frozen. Apply a 

mixture of 25% triclopyr and 75% horticultural oil to the base of the tree trunk to a height of 12-15 

inches from the ground. Thorough wetting is necessary for good control; spray until run-off is 

noticeable at the ground line. 

SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: Many small to medium-sized trees make excellent 

alternatives to silk tree. A few examples include serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea), redbud (Cercis 

canadensis), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), river birch (Betula nigra), fringe tree (Chionanthus 

virginicus), American holly (Ilex opaca), and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua). Check with the 

native plant society in your state for plant recommendations for your particular area. 









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Australian pine Casuarina equisetifolia L. 

NATIVE RANGE: Malaysia, southern Asia, Oceania and Australia 

DESCRIPTION: A member of the beefwood family (Casuarinaceae), Australian pine is a deciduous 

tree with a soft, wispy, pine-like appearance that can 

grow to 100 feet or more in height. Also known as 

ironwood, beefwood, she oak and horsetail tree, it 

bears a superficial resemblance to the conifer genus 

Pinus because of its small, round, cone-like fruits 

and its branchlets of scale-like leaves that look like 

pine needles. Its flowers are tiny, brown and windpollinated. 

The fruit is a nutlet about ½ inch in 

diameter that contains winged seeds. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Australian pine is fastgrowing 

(5-10 feet per year), produces dense shade 

and a thick blanket of leaves and hard, pointed fruits 

that completely cover the ground beneath it. Dense 

thickets of Australian pine displace native dune and 

beach vegetation, including mangroves and many other resident, beach-adapted species. Because its 

roots are capable of producing nitrogen through microbial associations, Australian pine can colonize 

nutrient-poor soils. Once established, it radically alters the light, temperature, and soil chemistry 

regimes of beach habitats, as it outcompetes and displaces native plant species and destroys habitat 

for native insects and other wildlife. Chemicals in the leaves of Australian pine may inhibit the growth 

of other plants underneath it. 

The ground below Australian pine trees becomes ecologically sterile and lacking in food value for 

native wildlife. Unlike native shrubbery, the thick, shallow roots of Australian pine make it much more 

susceptible to blow-over during high wind events, leading to increased beach and dune erosion and 

interference with the nesting activities of sea turtles. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Australian pine is established in the Hawaiian islands, 

coastal Florida, Puerto Rico, the Bahamas, and many Caribbean islands. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Australian pine occurs in open, coastal strand habitat, 

characterized by sand and shell beaches, rocky coasts, sand dunes, and sand bars in subtropical 

climates. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Australian pine is capable of flowering year-round and can produce 

tremendous numbers of small, winged seeds which are dispersed by wind. 

BACKGROUND: Australian pine was introduced to Florida in the late 1800's and planted widely for 

the purposes of ditch and canal stabilization, shade and lumber. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: No biological controls are currently available for 

management of Australian pine. For new or small infestations, manual removal of Australian pine 

seedlings and saplings is recommended. For heavier infestations, application of a systemic type 

herbicide to bark, cut stumps, or foliage is likely to be the most effective management tool. Prescribed 

fire has also been used for large infestations in fire-tolerant communities. 

Raking and removal of leaf litter, cones and seeds should be done whenever possible. Impacts to 

native plants should be minimized during any control activities. Whenever possible, efforts should be 

taken to prevent the introduction or encroachment of Australian pine. For example, recently disturbed 

beach habitat may be planted with native vegetation to prevent Australian pine from invading. 









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Evening Primrose 

Bluegrass 


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Carrotwood Cupaniopsis anacardioides (A. Rich.) Radlkf. 

NATIVE RANGE: Australia, Iran Jaya 

(Indonesia) and Papua New Guinea 

DESCRIPTION: Carrotwood is a fastgrowing 

evergreen tree in the Soapberry 

family (Sapindaceae) that grows to a height 

of about 35 feet. The leaves are large and 

compound, made up of four to ten oblong 

leaflets, each 4 to 8 inches long, and 

attached by a swollen stalk. Leaflet edges 

tend to be wavy with rounded tips that are 

often indented. Leaves alternate along the 

stems. In Florida, flowering occurs in the 

winter, from January to March. Clusters of 

small, greenish-white flowers are borne on 

stalks that emerge from leaf axils. Flowers 

are unisexual, with each flower cluster 

containing both male and female flowers. 

The brightly colored fruit is a yellow, three-lobed capsule which, when ripe (May to June) splits open to 

expose three shiny black seeds encased in red or orange fleshy tissue. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: While carrotwood invades a variety of natural communities, including dunes, 

coastal strand, sand pine scrub, slash pine flatwoods, cypress swamps, freshwater marshes and river 

banks, it poses a special threat to coastal ecosystems like mangrove swamps and tropical hammocks. 

Coastal plant communities provide crucial erosion control, water quality benefits, and food and shelter 

for wildlife. Once introduced, carrotwood forms dense monocultures, crowding out and out-competing 

native plants for available light and nutrients. 

Because mangroves provide critical habitat for wading and diving birds, some of which are designated 

Species of Special Concern, and serve as nursery grounds for crabs, other crustaceans, invertebrates 

and commercial and recreational fish, the impacts of carrotwood establishment are serious and farreaching. 

Coastal hammocks and mangroves are continually losing ground to development and are 

also impacted by natural forces such as tropical storms and hurricanes. Alteration of species 

composition and competition by invasive exotic species increases stress to the remaining hammocks. 

Because carrotwood is a popular, fast-growing landscape tree that is widely planted and very 

adaptable, the impacts to mangroves and other habitats are expected to increase. Carrotwood has 

also been found growing among other aggressive, invasive exotic trees. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: As of 1996, carrotwood has been documented to occur in 

natural areas in fourteen Florida counties, from Brevard and Hillsborough counties southward. The 

current distribution of carrotwood parallels that of mangrove tree species. While naturalized 

carrotwood infestations are limited primarily to coastal areas, inland populations are beginning to 

surface. Carrotwood has also been used ornamentally in California, but there are no reports of 

naturalized populations there, perhaps due to their drier climate. Cold tolerance may limit its potential 

distribution. According to one reference, carrotwood is able to withstand temperatures to about 22 F (- 

6 C). Test specimens in northern Florida, however, have withstood winters at least that cold. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Tolerant of salt, poor soils, poor drainage, sunlight and shade, 

carrotwood can adapt to dry areas, and appears in disturbed and undisturbed sites. As a result, 

carrotwood inhabits a variety of habitats including coastal hammocks, dunes, coastal strand, sand pine 

scrub, slash pine flatwoods, mangrove swamps, cypress swamps, freshwater marshes and river 

banks. 

BACKGROUND: University of Florida Herbarium specimens document carrotwood cultivation as early 

as 1955 in eastern Florida. A separate introduction in Sarasota, Florida in 1968 resulted in large scale 

propagation and use as an ornamental tree. 

Carrotwood became a popular landscape tree throughout southern Florida in the late 1970s and early 

1980s. By 1990, wild carrotwood seedlings began to be seen in the wild in various habitats. 


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BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Carrotwood is a prolific seed producer, and the brightly colored fruits are very 

attractive to birds which disperse it widely. Bird dispersal explains isolated island populations and 

seedlings under trees and telephone poles. Seedlings have also been found along estuary rack lines. 

Clumps of seedlings suggest dispersal by small mammals. In its native range, carrotwood is pollinated 

by bees, which are the likely pollinators in Florida. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: No biological control is available at this time. Chemical 

control is the most common and effective method of control. Triclopyr (e.g., Garlon) has proved 

effective as a basal bark treatment and cut stump treatment. Glyphosate (e.g., Rodeo) is marginally 

successful, and usually requires retreatment. Care must be taken in mangrove and wetland areas to 

avoid impacts to sensitive flora and fauna by use of chemicals or heavy equipment. As a preventive 

measure, a few counties and municipalities have ordinances restricting use of carrotwood. 

SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: Many native trees make good landscape substitutes for 

carrotwood. In southern Florida, alternatives include paradise tree (Simarouba glauca), pigeon plum 

(Coccoloba diversifolia), Jamaican dogwood (Piscidia piscipula), and inkwood (Exothea paniculata). In 

northern and central Florida, there's loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus), laurel cherry (Prunus 

carolinana) and magnolias (Magnolia virginiana or M. grandiflora). Dahoon holly (Ilex casseine) has a 

broad range and colorful red fruit. 









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Princess tree 

Paulownia tomentosa 

(Thunb.) Sieb. & Zucc. ex 

Steud. 

NATIVE RANGE: China 

DESCRIPTION: Princess tree, also known 

as royal paulownia or empress tree, is a 

small to medium sized tree in the figwort 

family (Scrophulariaceae) that may reach 30- 

60 feet in height. The bark is rough, graybrown, 

and interlaced with shiny, smooth 

areas. Stems are olive-brown to dark brown, 

hairy and markedly flattened at the nodes 

(where stems and branches meet). Leaves 

are large, broadly oval to heart-shaped, or 

sometimes shallowly three-lobed, and 

noticeably hairy on the lower leaf 

surfaces. They are arranged in pairs along 

the stem. Conspicuous upright clusters of 

showy, pale violet, fragrant flowers open in 

the spring. The fruit is a dry brown capsule 

with four compartments that may contain 

several thousand tiny winged 

seeds. Capsules mature in autumn when 

they open to release the seeds and then remain attached all winter, providing a handy identification 

aid. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Princess tree is an aggressive 

ornamental tree that grows rapidly in disturbed natural 

areas, including forests, streambanks, and steep rocky 

slopes. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Princess tree is 

found in 25 states in the eastern U.S., from Maine to 

Texas. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Princess tree can be 

found along roadsides, streambanks, and forest edges. It 

tolerates infertile and acid soils and drought conditions. It 

easily adapts to disturbed habitats, including previously 

burned areas, forests defoliated by pests (such as the gypsy moth) and landslides and can colonize 

rocky cliffs and scoured riparian zones where it may compete with rare plants in these marginal 

habitats. Its ability to sprout prolifically from adventitious buds on stems and roots allows it to survive 

fire, cutting, and even bulldozing in construction areas. 

BACKGROUND: Princess tree was introduced into the U.S. as an ornamental and landscape tree 

around 1840. It was first imported to Europe in the 1830's by the Dutch East India Company and 

brought to North America a few years later. This tree has since become naturalized in the eastern U.S. 

and is also grown on the west coast. Princess tree is native to western and central China where 

historical records describe its medicinal, ornamental, and timber uses as early as the third century 

B.C. It was cultivated centuries ago in Japan where it is valued in many traditions. Recently it has 

also been grown in plantations and harvested for export to Japan where its wood is highly valued. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Princess tree can reproduce from seed or from root sprouts; the latter can 

grow more than 15 feet in a single season. The root branches are shallow and horizontal without a 

strong taproot. Seed-forming pollen is fully developed before the onset of winter and the insectpollinated 

flowers open in spring. 


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A single tree is capable of producing an estimated twenty million seeds that are easily transported long 

distances by wind and water and may germinate shortly after reaching suitable soil. Seedlings grow 

quickly and flower in 8-10 years. Mature trees are often structurally unsound and rarely live more than 

70 years. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Princess trees can be controlled using a variety of 

mechanical and chemical controls. Hand pulling may be effective for young seedlings. Plants should 

be pulled as soon as they are large enough to grasp. Seedlings are best pulled after a rain when the 

soil is loose. The entire root must be removed, since broken fragments may resprout. Trees can be 

cut at ground level with power or manual saws. Cutting is most effective when trees have begun to 

flower to prevent seed production. Because Princess tree spreads by suckering, resprouts are 

common after cutting. Cutting should be considered an initial control measure that will require either 

repeated cutting of resprouts or an herbicidal treatment. Princess tree seedlings and small trees can 

be controlled by applying a 2% solution of glyphosate (e.g., Roundup) or triclopyr (e.g., Garlon) and 

water plus a 0.5% non-ionic surfactant to thoroughly wet all leaves. Use a low pressure and coarse 

spray pattern to reduce damage from spray drift on non-target species. Glyphosate is a non-selective 

systemic herbicide that may kill non-target plants that are only partially sprayed. Triclopyr is a 

selective herbicide for broadleaf species. In areas where desirable grasses are growing, triclopyr can 

be used with minimal non-target damage. 

Girdling is effective on large trees where the use of herbicides is impractical. Using a hatchet, make a 

cut through the bark encircling the base of the tree, approximately six inches above the ground. Be 

sure that the cut goes well below the bark. This method will kill the top of the tree but resprouts are 

common and may require a follow-up treatment with a foliar herbicide. 

The cut stump method (that is, applying herbicide to freshly cut stumps), should be considered for 

individual trees or when desirable plants are nearby that might be impacted by foliar applications. 

Stump treatments can be used as long as the ground is not frozen. Begin treatments by horizontally 

cutting stems at or near ground level. Immediately apply a 50% solution of glyphosate or triclopyr and 

water to the cut stump, making sure to cover the outer 20% of the stump. Basal bark applications are 

effective throughout the year as long as the ground is not frozen. Apply a mixture of 25% triclopyr and 

75% horticultural oil to the base of the tree trunk to a height of 12-15 inches from the 

ground. Thorough wetting is necessary for good control; spray until run-off is noticeable at the ground 

line. 

SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: Many native shrubs and trees make excellent alternatives to 

Princess tree. Examples include serviceberry (Amelanchier canadensis and A. arborea), redbud 

(Cercis canadensis), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), American holly (Ilex opaca), red mulberry 

(Morus rubra), spicebush (Lindera benzoin), and sassafras (Sassafras albidum). Contact the native 

plant society in your state for additional recommendations and for information on local sources of 

native plants. 









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White poplar Populus alba L. 

NATIVE RANGE: Central and southern 

Europe to western Siberia and central Asia 

DESCRIPTION: White poplar, also known as 

silver-leaved or silverleaf poplar is a tall 

member of the willow family (Salicaceae) 

that, at maturity, may reach 70 feet or more 

in height and 2 feet in diameter. The smooth, 

greenish-white bark becomes dark and rough 

on older trees. Young green or brown twigs 

are coated with dense woolly hair, especially 

near the tip. A cross-section of the stem 

reveals a five-pointed, star-shaped pith. The 

2 to 5-inch long leaves are oval to maple-leaf 

in shape with 3-5 broad teeth or lobes, and 

are dark green above and covered with 

dense white hair below. Male and female 

flowers are borne in catkins on separate trees and appear sometime in March and April. The small 

seeds are adorned with cottony fluff that is easily blown by the wind in late spring, and is a bane to 

many landscape maintenance workers. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: White poplar outcompetes many native tree and shrub species in mostly 

sunny areas, such as forest edges and fields, and interferes with the normal progress of natural 

community succession. It is an especially strong competitor because it can grow in a variety of soils, 

produce large seed crops, and resprouts easily in response to damage. Dense stands of white poplar 

prevent other plants from coexisting by reducing the amount of sunlight, nutrients, water, and space 

available. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: White poplar is found in forty-three states throughout the 

contiguous U.S. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: White poplar seems to grow best in full sun habitats such as 

fields, forest edges, and wetland fringes. 

BACKGROUND: White poplar was first introduced to North America in 1748 and has a long history in 

cultivation. It is chiefly planted as an ornamental for its attractive leaves of contrasting color (i.e., green 

above, white below). It has escaped and spread widely from many original planting sites. Because it is 

susceptible to a wide variety of pest insects and diseases, and is easily damaged by storms and wind, 

the ornamental value of white poplar is low. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Local spread of white poplar is primarily by vegetative means, through root 

suckers. Root suckers arise from adventitious buds on the extensive lateral root system. Large 

numbers of suckers from a single tree can quickly develop into a dense colony. Suckering can occur 

naturally or as a result of damage or other disturbance to the parent plant. Mature white poplar trees 

produce thousands of wind-dispersed seeds that may be carried long distances. However, seed 

germination of white poplar appears to be very low in the U.S. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: White poplar can be controlled using a variety of 

physical and chemical controls. Removal of seedlings and young plants by hand will help prevent 

further spread or establishment. Plants should be pulled as soon as they are large enough to grasp. 

The entire root system, or as much of it as possible, should be removed to prevent resprout from 

fragments. Hand removal of plants is best achieved after a rain, when the soil is loose. 


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Trees of any size may be felled by cutting at ground level with power or manual saws. Because 

resprouts are common after cutting, this process may need to be repeated many times until the 

reserves of the tree are exhausted. Girdling, which kills the tree by severing tissues that conduct water 

and sugars, also may be effective for large trees, especially if accompanied by application of a 

systemic herbicide to the cut area. 

A hatchet or saw is used to make a cut through the bark encircling the base of the tree, approximately 

six inches above the ground and deep into the bark. Girdling will kill the parent tree but may require 

follow-up cutting or treatment of sprouts with an herbicide. 

Chemical control of white poplar seedlings and small trees has been achieved by applying a 2% 

solution of glyphosate (e.g., Roundup) or triclopyr (e.g., Garlon 3) and water plus a 0.5% non-ionic 

surfactant to the foliage until the leaves are thoroughly wet. Use of low pressure and a coarse spray 

with large droplet size will reduce spray drift and damage to non-target plants. CAUTION: Because 

glyphosate is a non-selective systemic herbicide, it may kill other grasses, broadleaf herbaceous and 

woody plants that it contacts. Triclopyr kills broadleaf (dicotyledonous) plants but causes little or no 

damage to grasses and is useful for areas where desirable grasses are to be maintained. 

The cut stump herbicidal method should be considered when treating individual trees or where the 

presence of desirable species precludes the use of foliar herbicides. Stump treatments can be made 

at any time of year as long as the ground is not frozen. After cutting the tree near ground level, a 25% 

solution of glyphosate or triclopyr and water is applied to the stump by spray bottle or brush, making 

sure to cover the outer 20% of the stump. Basal bark herbicidal treatment is also effective throughout 

the year, as long as the ground is not frozen, and does not require cutting of the tree. A mixture of 

25% triclopyr in an ester formulation (e.g., Garlon 4) and 75% horticultural oil is applied to the bark in a 

wide band around the base of the tree to a height of 12-15 inches from the ground. Thorough wetting 

is necessary for good control; spray until run-off is just noticeable at the ground line, but not running 

off-site. 

SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: Hundreds of native tree species are available that can be 

used in place of white poplar. A few examples, for parts of the eastern U.S. only, include white oak 

(Quercus alba), red maple (Acer rubrum), American holly (Ilex opaca), persimmon (Diospyros 

virginiana), and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua). Check with your local native plant society for 

further suggestions on trees native to your area and where you can purchase them. 









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Common buckthorn Rhamnus cathartica L. 

NATIVE RANGE: Eurasia 

DESCRIPTION: Common buckthorn is a shrub or small 

tree in the buckthorn family (Rhamnaceae) that can grow 

to 22 feet in height and have a trunk up to 10 inches 

wide. The crown shape of mature plants is spreading 

and irregular. The bark is gray to brown, rough textured 

when mature and may be confused with that of plum 

trees in the genus Prunus. When cut, the inner bark is 

yellow and the heartwood, pink to orange. Twigs are 

often tipped with a spine. In spring, dense clusters of 2 to 

6, yellow-green, 4-petaled flowers emerge from stems 

near the bases of leaf stalks. Male and female flowers 

are borne on separate plants. Small black fruits about 

1/4 inch in cross-section and containing 3-4 seeds, form 

in the fall. Leaves are broadly oval, rounded or pointed at 

the tip, with 3-4 pairs of up curved veins, and have 

jagged, toothed margins. The upper and lower leaf 

surfaces are without hairs. Leaves appear dark, glossy 

green on the upper surface and stay green late into fall, 

after most other deciduous leaves have fallen. 

A similar problem exotic species is Rhamnus frangula, 

glossy buckthorn. Glossy buckthorn does not have a spine at twig tips, leaves are not toothed, and the 

undersides of the leaves are hairy. 

Several native American buckthorns occur in the eastern U.S. that could be confused with the exotic 

species. If in doubt, consult with a knowledgeable botanist to get an accurate identification. Carolina 

buckthorn (Rhamnus caroliniana), is a lovely native shrub that has finely toothed leaves somewhat 

resembling those of black cherry, and are smooth on the underside; it produces attractive fruits from 

August to October. Alder buckthorn (Rhamnus alnifolia), is a low-growing shrub that may grow to a 

maximum of 3 feet in height, and has leaves with 6-7 pairs of veins. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Exotic buckthorns tend to form dense, even-aged thickets, crowding and 

shading out native shrubs and herbs, often completely obliterating them. Dense buckthorn seedlings 

prevent native tree and shrub regeneration. In fire-adapted ecosystems such as savannas and 

prairies, the lack of vegetation under buckthorn prohibits fires. Buckthorn control is also of interest to 

small grain producers; the shrub is an alternate host of the crown rust of oats, which affects oat yield 

and quality. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Common buckthorn has become naturalized from Nova 

Scotia to Saskatchewan, south to Missouri, and east to New England. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Common buckthorn prefers lightly shaded conditions. An 

invader mainly of open oak woods, deadfall openings in woodlands, and woods edges, it may also be 

found in prairies and open fields. It is tolerant of many soil types, well drained sand, clay, poorly 

drained calcareous, neutral or alkaline, wet or dry. 

BACKGROUND: Common buckthorn was introduced to North America as an ornamental shrub, for 

fence rows, and wildlife habitat. Introduction of buckthorn was based on its hardiness and ability to 

thrive in a variety of soil and light conditions. 


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BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Common buckthorn is a dioecious plant, meaning that each plant produces 

only male or female flowers and fruiting trees are always female. Most of the fruits fall directly beneath 

the shrubs, creating a dense understory of seedlings characteristic of common buckthorn stands. The 

plentiful fruit is eaten by birds and mice and is known to produce a severe laxative effect, helping 

distribute seeds through birds, often far from the parent plant. Buckthorn often establishes beneath 

trees at the edges of forests and fields. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Mechanical, physical and chemical methods are 

available for control of common buckthorn and glossy buckthorn (Rhamnus frangula), also an invasive 

exotic plant. Prescribed fire is one method proposed for controlling buckthorn seedlings in fire-adapted 

natural areas, from late March to early May, most recently by Boudreau and Wilson. In the upper 

Midwest conduct burns as soon as leaf litter is dry; resprouts will be less vigorous due to low 

carbohydrate levels. Burning every year or every other year in established stands may be required for 

5-6 years or more. Unfortunately, buckthorn seedlings often grow in low litter areas, unsuitable for 

frequent prescribed fire. In dense stands, seedlings and saplings may be cut and dropped on site, 

creating fuel for future fires. Buckthorn seedlings appear vulnerable to fire, perhaps due to their poorly 

established root structure. Fire will top kill a mature plant, but resprouting does occur. Uprooting of 1/2 

inch diameter seedlings by hand or up to 1 1/2 inch diameter using a weed wrench is effective, but 

care should be taken to avoid excessive disturbance to the soil, which can release buckthorn seeds 

stored in the soil. 

Careful application of herbicides has been found to effectively control buckthorn in Illinois. The 

McHenry County, Illinois, Conservation District (MCICD) reports excellent results using a triclopyr 

herbicide at the rate of 1:4 herbicide:water with dye on cut stumps during the growing season, from 

late May to October. The product label suggests avoiding treatment during the spring sap flow. To 

extend the work season, the use of a triclopyr herbicide was also applied to cut stumps during winter 

and was reported to be effective by MCICD and the Minnesota Region V State Parks. 

Frill application (applying herbicide into the cambial layer of fresh cuts on the tree trunk) using the 1:4 

rate of triclopyr herbicide with oil and dye was also effective. Experiments at the University of 

Wisconsin Arboretum report good results using a mixture of 1 part triclopyr herbicide to 7 parts oil on 

cut stumps, or a 1 part triclopyr herbicide to 16 parts oil mixture applied as a basal bark treatment to 

stems less than 3 inches across. For fall applications, the Minnesota Department of Natural 

Resources, Region V State Parks Resource Management has used a 1 part glyphosate herbicide to 5 

parts water mixture applied immediately to cut stumps using a hand sprayer. Initial checks indicated 

over 85 percent control at the test site. 

SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: For home landscaping and wildlife plantings many native low 

trees and shrubs are available from commercial nurseries. Examples include American elder 

(Sambucus canadensis), Black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa), and Juneberry (Amelanchier 

alnifolia). Please contact your local native plant society for recommendations of plants native to your 

particular area. 









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Saltcedar Tamarix aphylla, 

T. chinensis, T. gallica, T. 

parviflora, and T. ramosissima 

NATIVE RANGE: Eurasia and Africa 

DESCRIPTION: Most saltcedars, or tamarisks, 

are deciduous shrubs or small trees growing to 

12 -15 feet in height and forming dense thickets. 

Tamarix aphylla is an evergreen tree that can 

grow to 50 feet tall and tends to flower during the 

winter. Saltcedars are characterized by slender 

branches and gray-green foliage. The bark of 

young branches is smooth and reddish-brown. 

As the plants age, the bark becomes brownishpurple, 

ridged and furrowed. Leaves are scalelike, 

about 1/16 inch long and overlap each other 

along the stem. They are often encrusted with 

salt secretions. From March to September, large numbers of pink to white flowers appear in dense 

masses on 2-inch long spikes at branch tips. 

Common Name: saltcedar 

Scientific Names: (deciduous) Tamarix ramosissima Ledelbour 

T. pentandra Pallas 

T. chinensis Loureiro 

T. parviflora DeCandolle 

T. gallica L. 

(evergreen) T. aphylla (L.) Karsten 

Family: Tamaricaceae 

Taxonomy: Tamarix ramosissima is a Class A noxious weed in many states, and so eradication is 

required by state law. However, it is very difficult to distinguish one species of saltcedar from another 

and there is taxonomic disagreement of the deciduous species. They are difficult to distinguish and 

apparently they have the ability to hybridize. At various times, the deciduous species have been 

grouped together under T. ramosissima, T. chinensis or T. pentandra, depending on the researcher. 

The most recent school of thought has this group divided into: 

T. parviflora - flowers with 4 sepals and 4 petals 

T. ramosissima - flowers with 5 sepals and 5 petals 

Comparison of Differences between T. parviflora and T. ramosissima 

Plant Characteristics Species Species 

T. parviflora T. ramosissima 

Bark dark brown to deep purple reddish brown 

Flowering Stems 1-1.5 inch long 3-4 inches long 

Flower Parts 4 sepals and 4 petals 5 sepals and 5 petals 

Petal Size 1.9 -2.3 mm long 1-1.8 mm long 

Flower Color reddish pale pink to whitish 

Flowering Time 

early May to June - Flowers 

appear before leafing out 

May to Oct. until freeze or water 

loss - Flowers appear after leafing 

out 

Seed Production about one month all growing season 


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ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Saltcedars are fire-adapted species and have long tap roots that allow them 

to intercept deep water tables and interfere with natural aquatic systems. Saltcedar disrupts the 

structure and stability of native plant communities and degrades native wildlife habitat by outcompeting 

and replacing native plant species, monopolizing limited sources of moisture, and increasing the 

frequency, intensity and effect of fires and floods. Although it provides some shelter, the foliage and 

flowers of saltcedar provide little food value for native wildlife species that depend on nutrient-rich 

native plant resources. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Saltcedar occurs in the intermountain region of the 

western United States, throughout the Great Basin, and California and Texas. 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Saltcedar establishes in disturbed and undisturbed streams, 

waterways, bottomlands, banks and drainage washes of natural or artificial waterbodies, moist 

rangelands and pastures, and other areas where seedlings can be exposed to extended periods of 

saturated soil for establishment. Saltcedar can grow on highly saline soils containing up to 15,000 ppm 

soluble salt and can tolerate alkali conditions. 

BACKGROUND: Saltcedar was introduced to the western U.S. as an ornamental shrub in the early 

1800s. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Saltcedar spreads vegetatively, by adventitious roots or submerged stems, 

and sexually. Each flower can produce thousands of tiny (1/25-inch diameter) seeds that are 

contained in a small capsule usually adorned with a tuft of hair that aids in wind dispersal. Seeds can 

also be dispersed by water. Seedlings require extended periods of soil saturation for establishment. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: Management of saltcedar requires a long term 

commitment to maintain at low levels and prevent reinfestation. A variety of methods have been used 

in the management of saltcedar, including mechanical, chemical and biological. The most effective 

management probably involves a combination of these. Mechanical techniques include hand-pulling, 

digging, root-cutting, use of weed eaters, axes, machetes, bulldozers, fire and flooding. Removal by 

hand is generally recommended for small infestations of saplings under 1-inch diameter. Root-cutting 

and bulldozing may be effective but are costly, labor intensive, and may cause extensive damage to 

soils and lead to resprouting. Fire has been used with some success, but because saltcedars are fireadapted, 

they readily resprout after fire. Flooding can be used to control salt cedar if root crowns 

remain submerged for at least three months. 

For extensive infestations of saltcedar, chemical control has been shown to be the most effective 

method. Cautious use of herbicides aids in restoration of saltcedar infested sites by allowing 

repopulation by native plant species. 

Systemic herbicides (e.g., those that kill the plant from the root up) are recommended for saltcedar 

management and application methods include foliar sprays, cut stump treatments, basal bark 

treatments, and aerial sprays. Because tamarisk usually grows in or adjacent to streams, wetlands 

and other waterways, it is important to use products registered for aquatic application. 

Fifteen insects are being investigated as potential biological control agents for saltcedar. Two of these, 

a mealybug (Trabutina mannipara) and a leaf beetle (Diorhabda elongata), have preliminary approval 

for release. Five others are being tested within the United States and an additional eight species are 

under study overseas. Final approval for release of the mealybug and the leaf beetle is pending 

resolution of concerns regarding their potential impact to the southwestern subspecies of the willow 

flycatcher (Empidonax trailii extimus), a federally endangered bird. In parts of its range where native 

willows, its natural nest trees, have been replaced by saltcedar, the willow flycatcher now utilizes it for 

this purpose. Concern is over the possibility that, due to the environmental damage caused by 

tamarisk, native plant species may not be able to replace it if the biological control agents succeed in 

eliminating it. 







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Reclaiming the Puerco River Article 

A New Mexico conservation district works to rid the area of salt cedar 

By Vince Bossany 

Special to ESPNOutdoors.com 

When the McKinley Soil and Water Conservation 

District of Gallup, New Mexico, started exploring 

options for a comprehensive river restoration project, 

board members knew they had to start with the 

basics. 

Although the board's ambitious plans included the 

restoration of a local river, the re-introduction of 

native plant and animal habitat and the eventual 

creation of a new wetland park area near Gallup, the 

board decided to first deal with a local infestation of 

salt cedar, an invasive, non-native plant that 

threatens water supplies throughout the West. 

"All over the West, there's a fevered debate over 

water," said Larry Winn, chairperson of the McKinley 

Soil and Water Conservation District in Gallup. "A 

large portion of that debate is focused on how water 

is being wasted. Communities like ours struggle with 

saving water, getting water and living in a desert, 

while still trying to maintain the natural beauty of plants, trees, and rivers. Because of this debate, we 

realized that we needed to start with a salt cedar eradication project before we could bring back our 

river." 

Salt cedar currently infests an estimated 1.5 million acres along waterways in the western United 

States. As a wily competitor for resources, a single acre of the invasive plant can suck up more than 

2.8 million gallons of water in a single year, according to researchers from the Texas Cooperative 

Extension. Like hundreds of other communities throughout the western United States, Gallup's Rio 

Puerco river basin is heavily infested with the invasive tree. 

Restoring the Rio Puerco of the West 

Gallup's Puerco River — known as the Rio Puerco of the West — is an ephemeral stream that runs 

through the city alongside the famed Route 66 highway. Like other ephemeral streams in arid 

northwest New Mexico and northeast Arizona, the Rio Puerco of the West usually only flows after 

occasional summer rains or when mountain snows melt in the spring. In general, it runs for just a few 

days or weeks each year, and lies dusty and barren the rest of the time. 

Arsenal herbicide can provide effective salt cedar control without 

negatively affecting most grasses, forbs and legumes — which serve 

as prime wildlife forage and habitat. 

Local water conservation boards, land managers 

and governmental bodies generally rely on one of 

several different methods to control salt cedar, 

including physical removal and through the 

application of herbicides that negatively affect 

salt cedar. 


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“Today, the only place the river flows with any regularity is downstream of our water treatment 

plant, where treated effluent is released to mimic a perennial stream," Winn said. "We hope to 

change that by getting rid of salt cedar and restoring the river's natural flow using effluent from a new 

reverse-osmosis water treatment plant." 

At present, the Rio Puerco's natural streambed parallels an effluent ditch from Gallup's water 

treatment plant. The water conservation district plans to rehabilitate a two-mile section of the natural 

streambed, first by eradicating salt cedar along the stream, then by using treated effluent to mimic a 

perennial stream. The treated water will come from a state-of-the-art reverse osmosis water treatment 

plant scheduled to open in just over a year. When the entire project is complete, the board hopes to 

install a series of footbridges over the river and create a 10,000-acre nature park. 

"What we hope to do is bring the river back and reintroduce a certain interest in the proper scale of 

living in the desert," Winn said. "We want to create an appreciation for the natural world in our 

community. As we restore the river, we restore ourselves." 

Before such long-term objectives can be reached, however, the McKinley Soil and Water Conservation 

District is taking key steps to eradicate the negative effects caused by the region's salt cedar 

infestation. 

About Salt Cedar 

Salt cedar, or tamarisk, is the common name for a species of exotic, invasive trees or shrubs inflicting 

significant damage on stream banks and waterways 

throughout the United States. 

Originally imported from Eurasia to serve as a shade 

plant and erosion-prevention tool in arid regions of the 

western United States, salt cedar is today one of the 

most invasive nonnative plants in America. The species 

has invaded approximately 29,000 acres on 33 national 

wildlife refuges managed by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife 

Service. 

An exotic plant that generally grows to around 20 feet 

tall, salt cedar has long taproots that allow it to intercept 

deep water tables and interfere with natural aquatic 

systems. Salt cedar can consume twice the water of 

native plants such as willow trees. Experts estimate that 

A salt cedar infestation can destroy wildlife 

habitat by sucking millions of gallons of water 

from streams, rivers, and lakes. 

each salt cedar tree along the Pecos River in Texas uses 14,000 gallons annually — or 78 gallons per 

tree, per day. 

Like many invasive plant species, salt cedar has an exceptionally strong reproductive capability. A 

mature salt cedar plant can produce 600,000 seeds annually. After summer rains, seedlings can 

quickly colonize moist areas due to the constant availability of seeds. A mature salt cedar plant can 

also reproduce vegetatively, meaning its roots, cuttings, and branches have the ability to resprout 

when detached. 

Salt cedar trees can live 50 to 100 years and generally grow from four to 26 feet tall. A single tree can 

grow nine to 12 feet in a single season under good conditions. During a normal spring, it can grow as 

much as one foot per month. 

The weed is highly adapted to arid climates, thriving in salty, nutrient-poor soil. It is also extremely 

resistant to adverse environmental conditions such as drought or flooding. During a drought, the 

invasive weed survives by dropping its leaves and halting growth to conserve water and nutrients. 

Under flooding, it can survive immersion in water for up to 70 days. 


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Salt cedar has invaded waterside ecosystems throughout the southwestern United States. Prevalent in 

Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and Utah, salt cedar also extends north to Colorado, Indiana, Kansas, 

Massachusetts, Missouri, Nebraska and Oklahoma. Well-established stands can also be found along 

waterways in Idaho, Montana, Oregon, South Dakota and Wyoming. 

Highly Destructive Plant 

Salt cedar poses a severe threat to the structure and stability of native plant communities throughout 

the United States. The invasive plant draws salt from deep in the soil and exudes it via glands in its 

leaves. As rain washes the salt off the leaves and into the soil, the resulting increase in salinity kills 

understory plants and inhibits surrounding native plants from growing. 

From the southwestern United States up through 

Montana, stands of salt cedar have severely limited the 

number of germination sites suitable for native waterfront 

species such as willow and cottonwood. The foliage and 

flowers of salt cedar provide little food value for native 

wildlife species, which depend on nutrient-rich native 

plant species. 

Numerous studies have shown that stands of salt cedar 

can seriously degrade natural habitats. Salt cedar 

infestations can displace or replace native plant 

communities, degrade wildlife habitat and contribute 

Salt Cedar's pleasant appearance comes at a 

significantly to the decline of many native species, 

high price, as each plant can consume up to 

including several threatened or endangered species. 

200 gallons of water a day. 

Along the lower Colorado River, for example, an influx of 

salt cedar into native habitats seriously threatens nine bird species. According to a report by the 

California Department of Fish and Game, two native bird species have been completely eliminated 

from the area. Seven other species are in serious decline, including the elf owl, Bell's vireo, Gila 

woodpecker, gilded northern flicker, vermilion flycatcher, summer tanager and western yellow-billed 

cuckoo. 

Because salt cedar branches can form dense thickets many feet wide, the plant can impede wildlife 

access to water sources. In the waterways themselves, salt cedar adversely affects many fish species 

by creating narrow, homogenous stream habitats and reducing the number and variety of insects used 

as a food source. 

Cattle and other livestock usually don't prefer salt cedar as a food source because it quickly grows 

taller than they can reach. Salt cedar can actually reduce a rangeland's livestock capacity by 

displacing forage grasses, increasing soil salinity, raising the incidence of fires and using groundwater 

or irrigation water that could otherwise be available to grow forage plants. 


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Bringing a river back from the desert 

In Gallup, Winn said the idea to remove salt cedar 

came about after he saw how much affected 

ecosystems can improve after the plant is brought 

under control. Studies show that removing salt cedar 

infestations can improve both quantity and quality of 

water, help to rejuvenate underground springs, 

increase stream flow and return wetlands to their 

intended state. 

“ I think bringing back the river is a 

metaphor for bringing life back to people 

and our region. Restoring it can help 

improve the quality of life in our 

community. ” 

— Larry Winn, chairperson of the McKinley 

Soil and Water Conservation District in Gallup, 

New Mexico 

"Last year, I attended a workshop for stream health in Santa Fe, New Mexico, near the Santa Fe River 

— which is in the same situation as our Rio Puerco," Winn said. "It generally doesn't flow except for 

annual rains and the introduction of treated effluent. The city of Santa Fe got permission to restore a 

streamside riparian forest area that once existed there, and it just looked wonderful. After seeing their 

remarkable success, I came back to Gallup and started talking it up around town. People here were 

very receptive and interested." 

Because salt cedar is so well adapted to harsh conditions, controlling the plant can often be difficult 

and costly, depending on the measures used. Local water conservation boards, land managers and 

governmental bodies generally rely on one of several different methods to control salt cedar, including 

physical removal — either by hand or through mechanical means — and through the application of 

special targeted herbicides that negatively affect salt cedar. 

The McKinley Soil and Water Conservation District in Gallup opted to use a newer tactic: the 

application of a new, smart herbicide developed by BASF Corporation. Unlike most other herbicides 

on the market, Arsenal herbicide from BASF can provide effective salt cedar control without negatively 

affecting most grasses, forbs and legumes — which serve as prime wildlife forage and habitat. The 

herbicide, which is typically applied in late summer to fall for maximum effectiveness, works by 

inhibiting three key amino acids essential to plant growth. The herbicide translocates to the roots and 

shoots and inhibits a specific enzyme that causes the salt cedar to stop growing and slowly die as its 

nutrient reserves are exhausted. 

In Gallup, a recent salt cedar-eradication demonstration project used helicopters, GPS guidance and 

other tools to target herbicide delivery specifically to a two-mile stretch of salt cedar-infested riverbank 

areas. The treated areas are owned by the city of Gallup and three other landowners — all of which 

agreed to participate in the salt cedar eradication test project. The parties involved agreed to the 

project in part after learning that Arsenal herbicide breaks down quickly in the soil, allowing desirable 

grasses, forbs and legume species to germinate and repopulate a treated site. Because it is 

considered a low-volume herbicide, it provides more control with less chemical load on the 

environment, compared to other herbicides. 

Biological control efforts 

Scientists are currently investigating the use of non-native insects as potential biological control agents 

for salt cedar in the United States. Two insects, Trabutina mannipara (a mealybug from Israel) and 

Diorhabda elongate (commonly known as the Asian leaf beetle), are natural predators for salt cedar 

and have been approved for release by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

In 2001, researchers released Asian leaf beetles in field sites throughout the West. However, it will 

likely be several years before the leaf beetle's success can be seen. According to scientists, even if 

the beetle is effective, the insect only provides around 75-80 percent control of salt cedar and may 

take as much as 10 years before results are noticeable. 

Salt cedar eradication gains momentum in other communities 

And, since the insects rely on salt cedar as a food source, they are unlikely to control all salt cedar 

plants. In a best-case scenario, the Asian leaf beetle would serve as means of damaging — but not 

eradicating — stands of salt 


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Several communities in the West and Southwest have used Arsenal with significant success. In the 

1990s, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service began using BASF's Arsenal as part of an extensive, longrunning 

campaign to eradicate salt cedar in the Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge near 

Socorro, New Mexico. 

Aimed at rehabilitating salt cedar-infested floodplains and restoring diverse riparian habitats, the 

program used Arsenal in a number of different combinations to test for the most effective application 

methods. A study conducted by researchers from New Mexico State University found that a helicopter 

application of Arsenal alone provided 90 percent or greater control of salt cedar. 

Similarly, as part of a salt cedar-control program still underway in Texas, Arsenal is being applied with 

significant success in key salt cedar-infested areas along the Pecos River. Between 1999 and 2002, 

the Texas Cooperative Extension used Arsenal to treat approximately 6,341 acres of salt cedar along 

120 miles of the Pecos River. 

After just three years of treatments, salt cedar control efforts have salvaged just under 12 billion 

gallons of water — roughly enough water to serve a city the size of Lubbock, Texas, for a year. No 

significant re-invasion of salt cedar has occurred in the Arsenal herbicide-treated areas and annual 

water savings in 2003 are estimated to increase to 15.9 billion gallons. 

Hopeful for the future 

Although salt cedar continues to aggressively attack the environment by infesting millions of acres of 

land and displacing native habitat, the development of innovative solutions, such as Arsenal, are 

finally enabling landowners and managers to take firm control of the problem. The result is the ability 

to reclaim precious land and water resources — saving ecosystems, wildlife and livelihoods. 

In Gallup, the McKinley Soil and Water Conservation District hopes that its first demonstration test 

using Arsenal will encourage other communities downstream in New Mexico and Arizona to consider 

similar eradication tactics and river-restoration programs. 

"There are many communities downstream that have water treatment plans along the Rio Puerco and 

the Little Colorado," Winn said. "If we can get other states and water boards interested in salt cedar 

eradication and high-tech water treatment systems, we can create significant stretches of river that run 

year-round." 

Winn said he hopes the demonstration project will renew interest in salt cedar control and increase the 

likelihood of larger application projects. 

"If we can bring back this river one stretch at a time, we have, in effect, brought back life within 

ourselves," Winn said. "I think bringing back the river is a metaphor for bringing life back to people and 

our region. Restoring it can help improve the quality of life in our community." 

BASF is a sponsor of ESPNOutdoors.com. For more information on selective herbicides and 

forestland or wildlife management, please visit their website at www.forestryfacts.com. 




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Barnyard Grass 


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Siberian elm Ulmus pumila L. 

NATIVE RANGE: Northern China, eastern Siberia, 

Manchuria and Korea 

DESCRIPTION: Siberian elm is a fast-growing tree 

in the elm family (Ulmaceae) distinguished by small 

toothed leaves about 1-2½ in (3-7 cm) long and 

half as wide, and pointed at the tip. Unlike other 

elms, the leaf base is usually symmetrical, forming 

a nearly even "V". Leaves are smooth and dark 

green above, paler and nearly hairless beneath, 

and alternate from side to side along twigs. Mature 

trees reach a height of 50-70 ft. (16-22 m.), with a 

round crown of slender, spreading branches. The 

bark is rough, gray or brown, and shallowly 

furrowed at maturity. Twigs are nearly hairless with 

small, blunt buds. Flowering occurs in the 

springtime. The small greenish flowers lack petals 

and occur in drooping clusters of 2 to 5. After flowering, a single seed forms in the center of each 

smooth, flattened, circular, ½ in (10-15 mm) wide fruit. 

Other species of elms (Ulmus) and the close relative Zelkova, especially younger plants, look similar 

to Siberian elm. Some may even confuse it with choke-cherry (Prunus serotina) and hackberry (Celtis 

sp.). The native slippery elm and American elm typically have leaves that are greater than 3 in (7.3 

cm) long, with unequal heart-shaped leaf bases, and leaf margins with double teeth. 

ECOLOGICAL THREAT: Dry to mesic prairies and 

stream banks are vulnerable to Siberian elm invasion. 

Thickets of seedlings soon form around seed-producing 

trees, bare ground areas, animal and insect mounds, and 

other disturbed areas. Wind carries seed to distant areas 

where new colonies can form. This tough exotic survives 

under conditions not easily tolerated by other species, 

allowing it to take advantage of open ground and 

resources otherwise used by native plants. Fast growing 

seedlings of Siberian elm quickly overtake native 

vegetation, especially shade-intolerant species. This 

often leads to invasion by additional weedy species, 

compounding the problem. 

DISTRIBUTION IN THE UNITED STATES: Siberian elm is known to occur in 43 states and reported 

to be invasive in natural areas in 25 states (AZ, IA, ID, IL, IN, KS, KY, MA, MD, MI, MN, MO, NE, NM, 

NV, OH, OK, OR, PA, TX, UT, VA, WA, WI, WV). 

HABITAT IN THE UNITED STATES: Dry and mesic prairies and areas along stream banks in 

Minnesota and forested areas and high elevations in Arizona. 

BACKGROUND: Siberian elm was introduced to the U.S. in the 1860's for its hardiness and fast 

growth in a variety of moisture regimes and habitats, including droughts and cold winters. It is resistant 

to Dutch elm disease. This elm continues to be promoted, especially in the Great Plains, in spite of 

weak limbs and susceptibility to insect attack. 

BIOLOGY & SPREAD: Seeds are produced early in spring and spread by the wind. Germination rate 

is high and seedlings soon establish in the bare ground found early in the growing season. 

CURRENT MANAGEMENT APPROACHES: For long term management of Siberian elm, reduction of 

seed sources is essential. 


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Chemical. To avoid resprouts after cutting or girdling, cut stumps may be treated with systemic 

herbicides such as glyphosate (e.g., Roundup) and triclopyr (e.g., Garlon). 

After spring sap flow ceases and during the growing season, Minnesota DNR State Parks Southern 

Region Resource Management applies 4 parts water to 1 part glyphosate (based on 41% active 

ingredient glyphosate concentrate) with a hand sprayer to cut stumps. The entire stump should be 

saturated with the herbicide to achieve the most effective control. Garlon 4 (triclopyr ester formulation) 

can be applied as a cut stump or basal bark treatment. For basal bark, apply a 20-percent solution in 

horticultural oil (2.5 quarts per 3-gallon mix) with a penetrant (check with herbicide distributor) to young 

bark as a basal spray in winter (January to February) or summer-fall (June to October). Cut stems can 

be immediately treated with glyphosate herbicide as a 20-percent solution (2.5 quarts per 3-gallon mix) 

in water with a surfactant. 

Manual. During the growing season, seedlings can be hand pulled and small trees carefully removed 

by a grub hoe or weed wrench. Trees girdled in mid-May to early July will die over 1-2 years without 

sprouting if cut properly. To remove a band of bark from the wood, make two parallel cuts 3-4 inches 

apart, then knock bark off with a blunt object such as the back of an axe head or dull end of a girdling 

bar. The xylem must remain intact; if girdled too deeply the tree will respond as if cut down and will 

resprout. On sites with few seed sources, the large trees can be cut down and resprouts trimmed as 

needed. 

Other. A regular regime of prescribed burning in fire-adapted communities will kill seedlings. 

SUGGESTED ALTERNATIVE PLANTS: When planting shade trees near prairie sites, consider using 

trees native to your area, especially those that are not prolific colonizers. Some appropriate examples 

are bur oak (Quercus americana) or other oaks native to your area, and basswood (Tilia americana). 

Check with your state native plant society or the Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center's Native Plant 

Information Network for recommendations. 









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Castor Bean Ricinus communis 

Family: Euphorbiaceae (spurge family) 

Common Names: castor bean, castor oil plant, palma Christi, wonder tree 

Description 

In frost-free areas, castor bean is an evergreen herbaceous or semi woody large shrub or small tree 

that gets up to 40 ft (12 m) tall and 15ft (4.6 m) wide. In the tropics, it can have a trunk that is woody 

near the base and up to a foot in diameter. Elsewhere, castor bean plant grows as an annual that can 

get 8-15 ft (2.4-4.6 m) tall in a single growing season. This is a fast growing, suckering, and colony 

forming plant with decidedly tropical looking foliage. They tend to grow straight up at first, developing 

branches only later in the season (and in subsequent years for plants that live that long). The huge 

leaves are palmate, with 5-11 deeply incised lobes. They are glossy purplish or reddish-green and 12- 

30 in (30-76 cm) across, with long petioles (leaf stems). The stems are watery juicy and reddish or 

purplish too. 

The inflorescence is not particularly showy; small, 0.5 in (1 cm) wide greenish yellow flowers are borne 

in fat spikes 8-18" tall near the tops of the stems. Female flowers are on the top half of the spike and 

have conspicuous red stigmas (the parts that receive the pollen). The male flowers on the lower half of 

the spike have conspicuous yellow anthers (the parts that give off the pollen). The female flowers are 

followed by reddish brown egg-shaped capsules, about an inch long, thickly covered with soft flexible 

spines. Each capsule contains three seeds that look like fat swollen dog ticks and are deadly 

poisonous. 

There are several named cultivars, including some grown commercially for oil production, and this 

sampling of ornamentals: 'Carmencita' has bronzy red leaves and bright red female flowers. 'Impala' is 

small, 4-5 ft (1.2-1.5 m) tall and has red leaves that age to reddish purple. 'Sanguineus' has blood-red 

stems and leaves. 'Gibsonii Mirabilis' is dwarf, only 4' tall, and has dark red leaves and stems. 

'Zanzibarensis' is taller and has larger leaves that are green with white veins. 


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Location 

Castor bean was originally native to northeastern Africa and the Middle East. It has escaped 

cultivation and become naturalized as a weed almost everywhere in the world that has a tropical or 

subtropical climate. Castor bean grows wild on rocky hillsides, and in waste places, fallow fields, along 

road shoulders and at the edges of cultivated lands. 

The problem 

Castor oil plant spreads over sandy soil areas, creekbanks, and gullies. This can lead to a significant 

loss of prime grazing land. The seeds of castor oil contain ricin, a poison which is extremely toxic to 

livestock and humans. Leaves have a lesser amount of toxin. Symptoms of poisoning in animals 

usually do not appear for a few hours or several days. 

Seeds cause gastro-intestinal disorders; leaves tend to cause neuro-muscular disorders. Poisoning in 

livestock is rarely reported though, as castor oil plant is seldom grazed by stock when other pasture 

plants are available. Also, small amounts of the plant will induce immunity to poisoning. 

Control 

Individual plants or small infestations may be removed by cultivation or hand-pulling. Broad-scale 

infestations may require spraying with herbicides to control the plant. 


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Common Grasses and their Scientific Names 

Common Name Scientific Name 

Annual bluegrass Poa annua 

Barnyard grass Echinochloa crus-galli 

Bermuda grass Cynodon dactylon 

Crabgrass, large Digitaria sanguinalis 

Crabgrass, smooth Digitaria ischaemum 

Dallis grass Paspalum spp. 

Dayflower Commelina spp. 

Foxtail, giant Setaria faberi 

Foxtail, green Setaria viridis 

Foxtail, yellow Setaria glauca 

Goosegrass Eleusine indica 

Nimblewill Muhlenbergia schreberi 

Ryegrass, perennial Lolium perenne 

Quackgrass Elytrigia repens 

Sandbur Cenchrus longispinus 

Star-of-Bethlehem Ornithogallum umbellatum 

Wild garlic Allium vineale 

Wild onion Allium canadense 

Yellow nutsedge Cyperus esculentus 

Star-of-Bethlehem Ornithogallum umbellatum 


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Grass and Grasslike Plant Identification Key 

Leaves arise from bulb - wild onion, wild garlic or Star-of-Bethlehem 

Stems triangular - yellow nutsedge 

Leaves form sheath at stem, blue-purple flowers - dayflower 

Ligule absent - barnyardgrass 

Ligule membranous 

Blade or sheath with dense hairs 

>First leaf wide and short, decumbent growth habit - large crabgrass 

>Leaf blades distinctly twisted, winter annual - downy brome 

Blade and sheath hairless or sparsely hairy 

>Blades wide, short 

>>Sparse hairs near collar, decumbent growth habit - smooth crabgrass 

>>Prominent veins, sheath flat with whitish base - goosegrass 

>Blades narrow and erect 

>>Auricles present, smooth white rhizomes - quackgrass 

>>Auricles absent 

>>>Winter annual, forms clumps, blade tips prow-shaped - annual bluegrass 

>>>Perennial with rhizomes, seed oblong-shaped - Johnson grass 

>>>Summer annual, resembles Johnson grass but has no rhizomes, large shiny black ovate 

seed - shattercane 

Ligule hairy Blade with hair 

>Short hair on upper surface - giant foxtail 

>Long hair on upper leaf surface near base of blade - yellow foxtail 

>Blades and sheath covered with dense short hair, sheath hair at 90 degree angle to stem -witchgrass 

>Very short dense hair on blades, first leaf horizontal, blade margin often crimped, large seed - woolly 

cupgrass 

Blade with little or no hair 

>Sheath margin hairy - green foxtail 

Sheath margin usually hairless or with a few hairs 

>>Perennial, rhizomes and stolons present, roots at nodes, decumbent growth habit - 

bermudagrass 

>>Sheath round, hair on underside of first leaf, later leaves smooth, prominent white midvein - 

fall panicum 

>>Sheath flattened, usually reddish in color, large spiny seed - field sandbur 


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Common Broadleaf Weeds with some suggested remedies and classification. 

Arrowhead Sagittaria montevidensis 

Balloonvine Cardiospermum halicacabum Annual can be Perennial in some areas 

Beggarweed Desmodium spp. Perennial 

Bindweed, field (noxious) Convolvulus arvensis Perennial 

Bindweed, hedge Convolvulus sepium Perennial 

Bittercress, smallflowered Cardamine parviflora 

Black nightshade Solanum spp. Halosulfuron, Rimsulfuron Annual 

Broadleaf plantains Plantago spp. 2,4D, 2,4DP, Cloryralid, Dicamba, MCPA, Triclopyr 

Buckhorn plantain Plantago lanceolata Perennial 

Buffalobur Solanum rostratum Perennial 

Bull thistle Cirsium vulgare Biennial 2-4D 

Burcucumber Sicyos angulatus Annual Beacon , Banvel, Clarity or Marksman 

Bushy wallflower Erysimum repandum Annual Maverick 

Buttercups Ranunculus spp. Perennial 

Butterweed Senecio glabellus Annual 

Canada thistle Cirsium arvense 

Carolina geranium Geranium carolinianum 

Carpetweed Mollugo verticillata Annual 

Chicory Cichorium intybus Perennial 

Clammy groundcherry Physalis heterophylla Annual and/or Perennial 

Common burdock Arctium minus Annual 

Common chickweed Stellaria media Annual 

Common cocklebur Xanthium strumarium Annual 

Common groundsel Senecio vulgaris Annual 

Common lambsquarters Chenopodium album Annual 

Common milkweed Asclepias syriaca Perennial Amitrol, Roundup Tordon 

Common mullein Verbascum thapsus Perennial Roundup, Garlon, Triclophr 

Common pokeweed Phytolacca Americana Perennial Glyphosate for control 

Common purslane Portulaca oleracea Annual 2,4D, MCPP and banvel (Dicamba) 

Common ragweed Ambrosia artemisiifolia Annual Tenran 

Common sunflower Helianthus annuus Annual Clopyralid for control 

Common teasel Dipsacus fullonum Perennial 2,4D, MCPP and Banvel or Dicamba 

Common waterhemp Amaranthus rudis Annual Sahara (Imazapyr and Diuron) 

Common yarrow Achillea millefolium P 2,4D, 2,4DP, Clopyralid MCPP Banvel Dicamba 

Compass plant Silphium laciniatum Perennial 

Corn gromwell Lithospermum arvense Annual 

Cornflower Centaurea cyanus Annual Picloram 

Croton, tropic Croton glandulosus 

Croton, woolly Croton capitatus 

Cup plant Silphium perfoliatum Perennial Glyhospate 

Curly dock Rumex crispus Perennial 2,4D, MCPP and Banvel or Dicamba 

Cut-leaf teasel (noxious) Dipsacus laciniatus B 2,4D, 2,4DP, MCPP and Banvel or Dicamba 

Cutleaf eveningprimose Oenothera laciniata A & P Oxyfluorfen, 2,4D +Paraquat 


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Daisy fleabane Erigeron annuus Annual Sahara (Imazapyr and Diuron) 

Deadnettle, purple Lamium purpureum 

Dewberry Rubus spp. Perennial 

Eclipta Eclipta prostrate Annual and Perennial 

Field dodder Cuscuta campestris Perennial 

Field pansy Viola rafinesquii Annual 

Giant ragweed Ambrosia trifida Annual 

Goldenrod Solidago spp. Annual and Perennial 

Greenbriar Smilax spp. Perennial 

Hairy nightshade Solanum sarrachoides 

Hemp dogbane Apocynum cannabinum 

Hemp sesbania Sesbania exaltata 

Henbit Lamium amplexicaule 

Honeysuckle Lonicera spp. Perennial Sahara (Imazapyr and Diuron) 

Honeyvine milkweed Cynanchum leave Perennial Garlon 4 (Triclopyr) 

Hophornbeam copperleaf Acalypha ostryaefolia Annual Roundup 

Horsenettle Solanum carolinense A & Biennial Sahara (Imazapyr and Diuron) 

Horseweed Erigeron canadensis 

Illinois bundleflower Desmanthus illinoensis Perennial Roundup 

Ironweed Vernonia spp. Perennial Saber- Sahara (Imazapyr and Diuron) 

Japanese hedgeparsley Torilis arvensis Annual Roundup 

Japanese hops Humulus japonicus Annual Perennial Glyphospate 

Japanese knotweed Polygonum cuspidatum P Cut Stump treatment Glyphosate- Triclopyr 

Jerusalem artichoke Helianthus tuberosus 

Jimsonweed Datura stramonium Annual Perennial Bentazon for control 

Kochia Kochia scoparia Annual Dicamba 

Kudzu (noxious) Pueraria lobata Perennial Glyhospate 

Marijuana (noxious) Cannabis sativa 

Morning-glory, bigroot Ipomoea pandurata Perennial Sahara Imazapyr and Diuron 

Morning-glory, ivyleaf Ipomoea hederacea Annual Sahara Imazapyr and Diuron 

Morning-glory, tall Ipomoea purpurea Annual Sahara Imazapyr and Diuron 

Morning-glory, pitted Ipomoea lacunose Annual Sahara Imazapyr and Diuron 

Mouse ear chickweed Cerastium vulgatum Annual Dicamba 

Mousetail Myosurus minimus Annual 2-4D 

Multiflora rose (noxious) Rosa multiflora Perennial Dicamba 

Musk thistle (noxious) Carduus nutans 

Nodding spurge Euphorbia nutans Annual 2-4D Diphenylether 

Oxeye daisy Chrysanthemum leucanthemum P Sahara Imazapyr and Diuron 

Palmer amaranth Amaranthus palmeri Annual Sahara 

Partridgepea Cassia chamaecrista Annual 2-4D 

Pennycress, field Thlaspi arvense Annual 2-4D, Sahara 

Perilla mint Perilla frutescens Annual 2-4D, Sahara 

Pigweed, prostrate Amaranthus blitoides Annual Sahara (Imazapyr and Diuron) 

Pigweed, redroot Amaranthus retroflexus Annual Sahara (Imazapyr and Diuron) 


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Pigweed, tumble Amaranthus albus Annual Sahara (Imazapyr and Diuron) 

Pineapple weed Matricaria matricarioides Annual Sahara (Imazapyr and Diuron) 

Poison hemlock Conium maculatum Biennial Tebuthiuron (Spike 20P) Glean FC, Velpar 

Prickly lettuce Lactuca serriola Annual STOMP 

Prickly pear Opuntia compressa Perennial Tordon 22K Picloram 

Prickly sida Sida spinosa Annual/Perennial Sahara (Imazapyr and Diuron) 

Prostrate knotweed Polygonum aviculare 

Puncturevine Tribulus terrestris Annual Sahara (Imazapyr and Diuron) 

Purple ammannia Ammannia coccinea 

Purple loosestrife (noxious) Lythrum salicaria Pernnial Roundup or Rodeo 

Purslane speedwell Veronica peregrina 

Rattlesnake master Eryngium yuccifolium 

Redvine Brunnichia ovata 

Rosinweed Silphium integrifolium 

Scotch thistle (noxious) Onopordum acanthium A or B Piclram, dicamba + 2,4-D, Metsulfuron 

Sericea lespedeza Lespedeza cuneata Perennial Triclohr 

Shepherd's purse Capsella bursa-pastoris A 2,4-D, 2,4DP;chlorsulfuron, dicamba, MCPA 

Sicklepod Senna obtusifolia 

Smartweed, ladysthumb Polygonum persicaria 

Smartweed, pale Polygonum lapathifolium 

Smartweed, Pennsylvania Polygonum pensylvanicum 

Smartweed, swamp Polygonum coccineum Perennial 2-4D Dicamba Rodeo 

Smooth groundcherry Physalis subglabrata 

Smooth sumac Rhus glabra 

Snow-on-the-mountain Euphorbia marginata 

Spanish needles Bidens bipinnata 

Spiny amaranth Amaranthus spinosus 

Spiny sowthistle Sonchus asper 

Spurge, leafy Euphorbia esula 

Spurge, nodding Euphorbia nutans 

Spurge, prostrate Euphorbia humistrata 

Spurge, toothed Euphorbia dentata 

Spurred anoda Anoda cristata 

Tall thistle Cirsium altissimum 

Tansy mustard Descurainia pinnata 

Trumpetcreeper Campsis radicans 

Unicorn-plant Proboscidea louisianica 

Velvetleaf Abutilon theophrasti 

Venice mallow Hibiscus trionum 

Venuslookingglass Triodanis perfoliata 

Vervain, blue Verbena hastata 

Vervain, hoary Verbena stricta 

Vetch Vicia spp. 

Virginia copperleaf Acalypha virginica 


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Virginia creeper Parthenocissus quinquefolia 

Virginia pepperweed Lepidium virginicum 

Water hemlock Cicuta maculata 

Western salsify Tragopogon dubuis 

White heath aster Aster pilosus 

White snakeroot Eupatorium rugosum 

Wild buckwheat Polygonum convolvulus 

Wild carrot Daucus carota 

Wild indigo Baptisia spp. 

Wild lettuce Lactuca serriola 

Wild mustard Brassica kaber 

Yellow rocket Barbarea vulgaris 

Author’s Note: There are several weed databases that you can utilize for weed identification. 

Here are a couple of great websites: Plants.USDA.Gov/WeedsofCalifornia and 

PSU.Missouri.Edu. 

I would like to mention that scientific names of weeds and plants do change over time. If there 

is any doubt on your assignment, utilize the federally listed name or the name that is used in 

this manual. 

Johnson grass, Sorghum halapense (L.) Pers. - non-native 

A monocot in the Poaceae family. It is said to have been brought here in the early 1900's from Europe 

as a feed grain for stock. It was grown in great quantities until it was determined it had very little 

nutritional value. By then it had naturalized and was out of control. It can grow to the height of 7-8 feet. 

It propagates itself by heavy seeding and by underground rhizomes (thick root sections like iris bulbs). 


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Winter and Early Spring Broadleaf Plant Identification Key 

I. Plants with spines 

Spines on midveins - prickly lettuce 

Short spines on stems - catchweed bedstraw 

II. Plants with an ocrea 

Twining growth habit - wild buckwheat 

Plant forms dense mats - prostrate knotweed 

Plant forms a rosette 

>Leaves have wavy margin - curly dock 

>Leaves are wide and lobed at base - broadleaf dock 

III. Plants with square stems 

Shorts spines on stems - catchweed bedstraw 

Stems without spines, pink to purple flowers, upright growth habit - henbit or purple deadnettle 

Stems without spines, pink to purple flowers, sprawling growth habit forming dense mats - ground 

ivy 

IV. Plants with milky sap 

Spines on midvein - prickly lettuce 

No spines - dandelion, western salsify or venuslookingglass 

V. Plants with finely dissected leaves 

Fernlike appearance - tansy mustard 

Sweet aroma - pineapple weed 

VI. Plants covered with hair 

Long, loose, white hair - cornflower 

Hairy, reddish, highly branched stems - cutleaf eveningprimrose 

Hairy, notched leaves opposite on upper parts of plant - corn speedwell 

More of less hairy with erect growth habit - horseweed or corn gromwell 

VII. Dense, short, fuzzy hair 

>Young seedling plants form a basal rosette - kochia 

>Large gray-green leaves form a rosette, flannel-like feel - common mullein 

>Small leaves, plant forms a mat - mouseear chickweed 

>Leaves clasp around the stem - daisy fleabane 

VIII. Plants form dense mats 

Plant has an ocrea - prostrate knotweed 

Plant without an ocrea 

>Small, opposite pubescent leaves - mouseear chickweed 

>Small, opposite smooth leaves; upper leaves lack petioles - common chickweed 

>Hairy, notched leaves opposite on upper parts of plant - corn speedwell 

>Alternate leaves lack petioles; hairy on both surfaces - corn gromwell 

X. Plants with a basal rosette 

Leaves deeply cut or toothed - buttercups, Carolina geranium, dandelion, prickly lettuce, 

shepherd's-purse, small flowered bittercress, tansy mustard, Virginia pepperweed, wild mustard or 

pineapple weed 

Leaves irregularly cut or toothed - daisy fleabane, purslane speedwell, shepherd's-purse, wild 

mustard, curly dock, broadleaf dock, cutleaf eveningprimrose, butterweed or field pansy 

Leaves not cut - kochia, common mullein, broadleaf plantains, buckhorn plantain or 

venuslookingglass 

Leaves may or may not be cut - bushy wallflower, field pennycress or yellow rocket 


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Summer Broadleaf Plant Identification Key 

I. Cotyledons lanceolate or linear 

First true leaves alternate 

Ocrea present where petiole joins stem 

>>Leaves heart-shaped - wild buckwheat 

>>Leaves not heart-shaped - Pennsylvania smartweed, pale smartweed, ladysthumb 

smartweed, swamp smartweed, prostrate knotweed or Japanese knotweed 

No ocrea present 

>>Linear cotyledons with prominent midvein, foul odor when crushed - jimsonweed 

>>No foul odor, first leaves have notch in tips 

>>>Leaves and stems lack hair, erect growth habit 

>>>>Plant has stiff spines - spiny amaranth 

>>>>Plant lacks spines - common waterhemp or Palmer amaranth 

>>>Leaves and stems lack hair, prostrate growth habit - prostrate pigweed 

>>>Upper stems hairy, erect growth habit, flower spikes compact and thick - redroot 

pigweed 

>>>Stems and leaves with sharp spines - buffalobur 

First true leaves opposite, subsequent leaves alternate 

Cotyledons are thick and fleshy, hypocotyls are reddish in color and leaves have coarse 

texture with 3 prominent veins - common cocklebur 

Cotyledons are small and linear 

>>Stems and leaves lack hair; leaves appear "frosted" - common lambsquarters 

>>Stems and leaves lack hair; leaves thick and succulent, some opposite – common purslane 

II. Cotyledons ovate 

Leaf surfaces hairy 

>Leaf hairs very sticky - hairy nightshade 

>Leaf hairs not sticky, stems very hairy - 

>>Compact growth habit - clammy groundcherry 

>>Erect, columnar growth habit - horseweed 

Leaf surfaces nearly lacking or lacking hair 

>Plant rhizomatous perennial - smooth groundcherry 

>Plant annual - black nightshade 

III. Cotyledons round to heart-shaped 

Heart-shaped leaves covered with dense, fuzzy pubescence, margins entire - velvetleaf 

Leaves with hair on both surfaces, irregularly lobed, purple veins - spurred anoda 

Leaves with 3 - 7 coarsely toothed lobes, smooth on upper surface, hairy on lower surface - Venice 

mallow 

Leaves are finely serrated along margins 

>Fleshy spine projections in leaf axils, leaves - prickly sida 

>Leaves ovate in shape with heart-shaped base and terminal tips - hophornbeam copperleaf 

Leaves lack hair, compound with 4 - 6 leaflets - sicklepod 

Leaves are rounded and have toothed margins - common mallow 

First leaves are opposite, subsequent leaves alternate with sparse hair - Virginia copperleaf 

IV. Cotyledons spatulate or oval 

First leaves alternate 

>Compound leaves with many small leaflets - hemp sesbania 

>Large 5-sided leaves with 3 primary lobes, vining growth habit - burcucumber 

>Whorled leaves; plant roots at nodes - carpetweed 


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First leaves opposite, later leaves may be alternate 

>Small cotyledons, leaves finely divided - common ragweed 

>Large cotyledons, first leaves simple, subsequent leaves have 3 major lobes - giant ragweed 

>Leaves glandular hairy with foul odor - unicorn plant 

>Stems have milky sap - prostrate spurge, nodding spurge or toothed spurge 

>Leaf surfaces rough textured with 3 prominent veins 

>>Plant annual - common sunflower 

>>Plant perennial from underground tubers, petioles are winged - Jerusalem artichoke 

First and subsequent leaves opposite 

>Leaf margins with irregular teeth, lack petioles, succulent reddish-brown stems - eclipta 

V. Cotyledons butterfly-shaped 

Cotyledons with pointed tips cut at approximately 90 degrees - pitted morningglory 

Cotyledons with rounded tips cut less than 90 degrees 

>Ivy-shaped leaves - ivyleaf morningglory 

>Heart-shaped leaves 

>>Plant annual - tall morningglory 

>>Plant perennial from tuberous root - bigroot morningglory 

VI. Cotyledons kidney-shaped 

Leaves hairy with wavy, uneven margins - wild mustard 

Leaves arrowhead-shaped, plant perennial, vining habit 

>Leaf bases have sharp lobes that point outward - hedge bindweed 

>Leaf bases have rounded lobes - field bindweed 

Wild Mustard 


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Common Weeds of Field Crops and Pastures 

Common Name Scientific Name 

Barley, little Hordeum pusillium 

Barnyardgrass Echinochloa crus-galli 

Bermudagrass Cynodon dactylon 

Bluegrass, annual Poa annua 

Broadleaf signalgrass Brachiaria platyphylla 

Brome, downy Bromus tectorum 

Cheat Bromus secalinus 

Crabgrass, large Digitaria sanguinalis 

Crabgrass, smooth Digitaria ischaemum 

Dallisgrass Paspalum spp. 

Dayflower Commelina spp. 

Fall panicum Panicum dichotomiflorum 

Field horsetail Equisetum spp. 

Foxtail barley Hordeum jubatum 

Foxtail, Carolina Alopecurus carolinianus 

Foxtail, giant Setaria faberi 

Foxtail, green Setaria viridis 

Foxtail, yellow Setaria glauca 

Goosegrass Eleusine indica 

Johnsongrass Sorghum halepense 

Orchardgrass Dactylis glomerata 

Quackgrass Elytrigia repens 

Rush Juncus spp. 

Ryegrass, perennial Lolium perenne 

Sandbur Cenchrus longispinus 

Shattercane Sorghum bicolor 

Star-of-Bethlehem Ornithogalum umbellatum 

Wild garlic Allium vineale 

Wild onion Allium canadense 

Witchgrass Panicum capillare 

Woolly cupgrass Eriochloa villosa 


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Coneflower Buckwheat 

Jimsonweed Datura stramonium 


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Barnyard Grass 

Musk Thistle 


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Federal Weed Rule 7 CFR 360.100 Definitions. 

(a) As used in this part, words in the singular form shall be deemed to import the plural and vice versa, as 

the case may require. 

(b) As used in this part, the terms as defined in section 3 of the Act (7 U.S.C. 2802) shall apply with equal 

force and effect. In addition and except as may be provided otherwise in this part the following words shall 

be construed, respectively, to mean: 

Department. The U.S. Department of Agriculture. 

Deputy Administrator. The Deputy Administrator of the Plant Protection and Quarantine Programs of the 

Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service of the Department, or any other officer or employee of the 

Plant Protection and Quarantine Programs to whom authority has heretofore been delegated or may 

hereafter be delegated to act in his stead. 

Plant Protection and Quarantine Programs. The Plant Protection and Quarantine Programs, Animal and 

Plant Health Inspection Service of the Department. [41 FR 49988, Nov. 12, 1976] 

360.200 Designation of noxious weeds. 

{1} One or more common names of weeds are given in parentheses after most scientific names to help 

identify the weeds represented by such scientific names; however, a scientific name is intended to include 

all weeds within the genus or species represented by the scientific name, regardless of whether the common 

name or names are as comprehensive in scope as the scientific name. 

Pursuant to the provisions of section 10 of the Federal Noxious Weed Act of 1974 (7 U.S.C. 2809) the 

Secretary of Agriculture, after publication of the required notice of proposal and after public hearing on the 

proposal when requested by any interested person, has determined based upon the information received at 

any such hearing and other information available to the Secretary, that the following plants are within the 

definition of a ``noxious weed'' in section 3(c) of the Act (7 U.S.C. 2802(c)) and that their dissemination in 

the United States may reasonably be expected to have, to a serious degree, an effect specified in said 

section 3(c) of the Act: 

(a) Aquatic weeds 

Azolla pinnata R. Brown (mosquito fern, water velvet) 

Eichornia azurea (Swartz) Kunth (anchored waterhyacinth, rooted waterhyacinth) 

Hydrilla verticillata (Linnaeus f.) Royle (hydrilla) 

Hygrophila polysperma T. Anderson (Miramar weed) 

Ipomoea aquatica Forsskal (water-spinach, swamp morning-glory) 

Lagarosiphon major (Ridley) Moss 

Limnophila sessiliflora (Vahl) Blume (ambulia) 

Melaleuca quenquinervia (Cav.) Blake (broadleaf paper bark tree). 

Monochoria hastata (Linnaeus) Solms-Laubach 

Monochoria vaginalis (Burman f.) C. Presl 

+Ottelia alismoides (L.) Pers. 

Sagittaria sagittifolia Linnaeus (arrowhead) 

Salvinia auriculata Aublet (giant salvinia) 

Salvinia biloba Raddi (giant salvinia) 

Salvinia herzogii de la Sota (giant salvinia) 

Salvinia molesta D.S. Mitchell (giant salvinia) 

Sparganium erectum Linnaeus (exotic bur-reed) 


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(b) Parasitic weeds: 

Aeginetia spp. 

Alectra spp. 

Cuscuta spp. (dodders), other than following species: 

Cuscuta americana Linnaeus 

Cuscuta applanata Engelmann 

Cuscuta approximata Babington 

Cuscuta attenuata Waterfall 

Cuscuta boldinghii Urban 

Cuscuta brachycalyx (Yuncker) Yuncker 

Cuscuta californica Hooker & Arnott 

Cuscuta campestris Yuncker 

Cuscuta cassytoides Nees ex Engelmann 

Cuscuta ceanothii Behr 

Cuscuta cephalanthii Engelmann 

Cuscuta compacta Jussieu 

Cuscuta corylii Engelmann 

Cuscuta cuspidata Engelmann 

Cuscuta decipiens Yuncker 

Cuscuta dentatasquamata Yuncker 

Cuscuta denticulata Engelmann 

Cuscuta epilinum Weihe 

Cuscuta epithymum (Linnaeus) Linnaeus 

Cuscuta erosa Yuncker 

Cuscuta europaea Linnaeus 

Cuscuta exalta Engelmann Field Dodder 

Cuscuta fasciculata Yuncker Parasitizing red clover. The plant has a 

Cuscuta glabrior (Engelmann) Yuncker yellowish coloration and a spaghetti-string 

appearance. 

Cuscuta globulosa Bentham 

Cuscuta glomerata Choisy 

Cuscuta gronovii Willdenow 

Cuscuta harperi Small 

Cuscuta howelliana Rubtzoff 

Cuscuta indecora Choisy 

Cuscuta jepsonii Yuncker 

Cuscuta leptantha Engelmann 

Cuscuta mitriformis Engelmann 

Cuscuta nevadensis I. M. Johnston 

Cuscuta obtusiflora Humboldt, Bonpland, & Kunth 

Cuscuta occidentalis Millspaugh ex Mill & Nuttall 

Cuscuta odontolepis Engelmann 

Cuscuta pentagona Engelmann 

Cuscuta planiflora Tenore 

Cuscuta plattensis A. Nelson 

Cuscuta polygonorum Engelmann 

Cuscuta rostrata Shuttleworth ex Engelmann 

Cuscuta runyonii Yuncker 

Cuscuta salina Engelmann Field Dodder 

Cuscuta sandwichiana Choisy Parasitizing field bindweed. 

Cuscuta squamata Engelmann 

Cuscuta suaveolens Seringe 

Cuscuta suksdorfii Yuncker 

Cuscuta tuberculata Brandegee 

Cuscuta umbellata Humboldt, Bonpland, & Kunth 

Cuscuta umbrosa Beyrich ex Hooker 


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Cuscuta vetchii Brandegee 

Cuscuta warneri Yuncker 

Orobanche spp. (broomrapes), other than the following species: 

Orobanche bulbosa (Gray) G. Beck 

Orobanche californica Schlechtendal & Chamisso 

Orobanche cooperi (Gray) Heller 

Orobanche corymbosa (Rydberg) Ferris 

Orobanche dugesii (S. Watson) Munz 

Orobanche fasciculata Nuttall 

Orobanche ludoviciana Nuttall 

Orobanche multicaulis Brandegee 

Orobanche parishii (Jepson) Heckard 

Orobanche pinorum Geyer ex Hooker 

Orobanche uniflora Linnaeus 

Orobanche valida Jepson 

Orobanche vallicola (Jepson) Heckard 

Striga spp. (witchweeds) 

(c) Terrestrial weeds: 

Ageratina adenophora (Sprengel) King & Robinson (crofton weed) 

Alternanthera sessilis (Linnaeus) R. Brown ex de Candolle (sessile joyweed) 

Asphodelus fistulosus Linnaeus (onionweed) 

Avena sterilis Linnaeus (including Avena ludoviciana Durieu) (animated oat, wild oat) 

Borreria alata (Aublet) de Candolle 

Carthamus oxyacantha M. Bieberstein (wild safflower) 

Chrysopogon aciculatus (Retzius) Trinius (pilipiliula) 

Commelina benghalensis Linnaeus (Benghal dayflower) 

Crupina vulgaris Cassini (common crupina) 

Digitaria scalarum (Schweinfurth) Chiovenda (African couchgrass, fingergrass) 

Digitaria velutina (Forsskal) Palisot de Beauvois (velvet fingergrass, annual conchgrass) 

Drymaria arenarioides Humboldt & Bonpland ex Roemer & Schultes (lightning weed) 

Emex australis Steinheil (three-cornered jack) 

Emex spinosa (Linnaeus) Campdera (devil's thorn) 

Galega officinalis Linnaeus (goatsrue) 

Heracleum mantegazzianum Sommier & Levier (giant hogweed) 

Imperata brasiliensis Trinius (Brazilian satintail) 

Imperata cylindrica (Linnaeus) Raeuschel (cogongrass) 

Ipomoea triloba Linnaeus (little bell, aiea morning-glory) 

Ischaemum rugosum Salisbury (murainograss) 

Leptochloa chinensis (Linnaeus) Nees (Asian sprangletop) 

Lycium ferocissimum Miers (African boxthorn) 

Melastoma malabathricum Linnaeus 

Mikania cordata (Burman f.) B. L. Robinson (mile-a-minute) 

Mikania micrantha Humboldt, Bonpland, & Kunth 

Mimosa invisa Martius (giant sensitive plant) 

Mimosa pigra Linneaus var. pigra (catclaw mimosa) 

Nassella trichotoma (Nees) Hackel ex Arechavaleta (serrated tussock) 

Opuntia aurantiaca Lindley (jointed prickly pear) 

Oryza longistaminata A. Chevalier & Roehrich (red rice) 

Oryza punctata Kotschy ex Steudel (red rice) 

Oryza rufipogon Griffith (red rice) 

Paspalum scrobiculatum Linnaeus (Kodo-millet) 

Pennisetum clandestinum Hochstetter ex Chiovenda (kikuyugrass) 

Pennisetum macrourum Trinius (African feathergrass) 


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Pennisetum pedicellatum Trinius (kyasumagrass) 

Pennisetum polystachion (Linnaeus) Schultes (missiongrass, thin napiergrass) 

Prosopis alpataco R. A. Philippi 

Prosopis argentina Burkart 

Prosopis articulata S. Watson 

Prosopis burkartii Munoz 

Prosopis caldenia Burkart 

Prosopis calingastana Burkart 

Prosopis campestris Griseback 

Prosopis castellanosii Burkart 

Prosopis denudans Bentham 

Prosopis elata (Burkart) Burkart 

Prosopis farcta (Solander ex Russell) Macbride 

Prosopis ferox Grisebach 

Prosopis fiebrigii Harms 

Prosopis hassleri Harms 

Prosopis humilis Gillies ex Hooker & Arnott 

Prosopis kuntzei Harms 

Prosopis pallida (Humboldt & Bonpland ex Willdenow) Humboldt, Bonpland, & Kunth 

Prosopis palmeri S. Watson 

Prosopis reptans Bentham var. reptans 

Prosopis rojasiana Burkart 

Prosopis ruizlealii Burkart 

Prosopis ruscifolia Grisebach 

Prosopis sericantha Gillies ex Hooker & Arnott 

Prosopis strombulifera (Lamarck) Bentham 

Prosopis torquata (Cavanilles ex Lagasca y Segura) de Candolle 

Rottboellia exaltata Linnaeus f. (itchgrass, raoulgrass) 

Rubus fruticosus Linnaeus (complex) (wild blackberry) 

Rubus moluccanus Linnaeus (wild raspberry) 

Saccharum spontaneum Linnaeus (wild sugarcane) 

Salsola vermiculata Linnaeus (wormleaf salsola) 

Setaria pallide-fusca (Schumacher) Stapf & Hubbard (cattail grass) 

Solanum torvum Swartz (turkeyberry) 

+Solanum viarum Dunal (tropical soda apple) 

Tridax procumbens Linnaeus (coat buttons) 

Urochloa panicoides Beauvois (liverseed grass) 


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California Invasive Plant Section 

Invasive plants are one of the most serious environmental issues facing California. They disrupt 

ecosystems by altering physical processes, displacing native plants, and degrading wildlife 

habitat. The California Invasive Plant Inventory is a vital resource for those working to protect the 

state’s natural areas. The Inventory summarizes the impacts, potential for spread, and distribution 

of more than 200 non-native plants that invade wildlands in California. The Inventory represents 

the best available knowledge of the state’s invasive plant experts. It is designed to prioritize 

plants for control at the state and local levels, to provide key information to those working in 

habitat restoration, to show areas where research is needed, to aid those preparing or 

commenting on environmental planning documents, and to educate public policy makers. 

Detailed assessments for each plant, with documented sources, are available online at www.calipc.org. 

California Invasive Plant Council 

Protecting California’s wildlands from invasive plants through research, restoration, and 

education. www.cal-ipc.org 

The California Invasive Plant Council (Cal-IPC) formed as a non-profit organization in 1992 to 

address the growing ecological and economic impacts caused by invasive plants in California’s 

wildlands. They promote research, restoration, and education in pursuit of this goal. Formerly 

known as the California Exotic Pest Plant Council, Cal-IPC is a member-driven organization with 

land managers, researchers, policy makers, and concerned citizens working together to protect 

the state’s natural areas from invasive plants. For more information, visit their website 

at www.cal-ipc.org. It may also be part of your assignment. 

Providing Input for Future Revisions 

If you have additional information to add to a plant assessment, please submit it to info@calipc.org. 

The Inventory Review Committee will meet periodically to consider additions and 

modifications to the Inventory. 

Invasive plants damage ecosystems around the world. They displace native species, change 

plant community structure, and reduce the value of habitat for wildlife. 

Invasive plants may disrupt physical ecosystem processes, such as fire regimes, sedimentation 

and erosion, light availability, and nutrient cycling. In aquatic ecosystems, invasive plants clog 

lakes, streams, and waterways, reducing oxygen levels for fish and degrading habitat for 

waterbirds. The impact is especially severe in California, with its rich diversity of natural 

resources. The California Invasive Plant Inventory categorizes non-native invasive plants that 

threaten the state’s wildlands. Categorization is based on an assessment of the ecological 

impacts of each plant. 

The Inventory represents the best available knowledge of invasive plant experts in the state. 

However, it has no regulatory authority, and should be used with full understanding of the 

limitations described later in this Introduction. California is home to 4,200 native plant species, 

and is recognized internationally as a “biodiversity hotspot.” Approximately 1,800 non-native 

plants also grow in the wild in the state. A small number of these, approximately 200, are the 

ones that this Inventory considers invasive. Improved understanding of their impacts will help 

those working to protect California’s treasured biodiversity. 

The Inventory 

The Inventory categorizes plants as High, Moderate, or Limited, reflecting the level of each 

species’ negative ecological impact in California. Other factors, such as economic impact or 

difficulty of management, are not included in this assessment. It is important to note that every 

species listed in Table 1 is invasive, regardless of its overall rating, and should be of concern to 


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land managers. Although the impact of each plant varies regionally, its rating represents 

cumulative impacts statewide. Therefore, a plant whose statewide impacts are categorized as 

Limited may have more severe impacts in a particular region. Conversely, a plant categorized as 

having a High cumulative impact across California may have very little impact in some regions. 

Members of the Inventory Review Committee, Cal-IPC staff, and volunteers drafted assessments 

for each plant based on the formal criteria system described below. The committee solicited 

information from land managers across the state to complement the available literature. 

Assessments were released for public review before the committee finalized them. All plant 

assessments that form the basis for this summary document are available at www.cal-ipc.org. 

The final list includes 39 High species, 65 Moderate species, and 89 Limited species. 

Additional information, including updated observations, will be added to the Cal-IPC website 

periodically, with revisions tracked and dated. 

Definitions 

The Inventory categorizes “invasive non-native plants that threaten wildlands” according to the 

definitions below. Plants were evaluated only if they invade California wildlands with native 



• Wildlands are public and private lands that support native ecosystems, including some working 

landscapes such as grazed rangeland and active timberland. 

• Non-native plants are species introduced to California after European contact and as a direct 

or indirect result of human activity. 

• Invasive non-native plants that threaten wildlands are plants that 1) are not native to, yet 

can spread into, wildland ecosystems, and that also 2) displace native species, hybridize with 

native species, alter biological communities, or alter ecosystem processes. 


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Exotic Pest Plants of Greatest Ecological Concern in California 

The following Inventory categorizes "invasive non-native plants that threaten wildlands" according 

to the definitions below. Plants were evaluated only if they invade California wildlands with native 



Wildlands are public and private lands that support native ecosystems, including 

some working landscapes such as grazed rangeland and active timberland. 

Non-native plants are species introduced to California after European contact 

and as a direct or indirect result of human activity. 

Invasive non-native plants that threaten wildlands are plants that 1) are not native 

to, yet can spread into, wildland ecosystems, and that also 2) displace native 

species, hybridize with native species, alter biological communities, or alter 

ecosystem processes. 

Each plant on the list received an overall rating of High, Moderate or Limited based on evaluation 

using the criteria system. The meaning of these overall ratings is described below. In addition to 

the overall ratings, specific combinations of section scores that indicate significant potential for 

invading new ecosystems triggers an Alert designation so that land managers may watch for 

range expansions. Some plants were categorized as Evaluated But Not Listed because either we 

lack sufficient information to assign a rating or the available information indicates that the species 

does not have significant impacts at the present time. 

High – These species have severe ecological impacts on physical processes, 

plant and animal communities, and vegetation structure. Their reproductive 

biology and other attributes are conducive to moderate to high rates of dispersal 

and establishment. Most are widely distributed ecologically. 

Moderate – These species have substantial and apparent—but generally not 

severe—ecological impacts on physical processes, plant and animal 

communities, and vegetation structure. Their reproductive biology and other 

attributes are conducive to moderate to high rates of dispersal, though 

establishment is generally dependent upon ecological disturbance. Ecological 

amplitude and distribution may range from limited to widespread. 

Limited – These species are invasive but their ecological impacts are minor on a 

statewide level or there was not enough information to justify a higher score. 

Their reproductive biology and other attributes result in low to moderate rates of 

invasiveness. Ecological amplitude and distribution are generally limited, but 

these species may be locally persistent and problematic. 

The designated purposes of this valuable list: 

• Informing the public 

• Targeting species for control efforts 

• Alerting restorationists to potential problem species 

• Aiding those who comment on environmental documents 

• Soliciting additional information on exotic plants with unknown or 

changing status 

The CalEPPC list is based on information submitted by their highly trained members and by land 

managers, botanists and researchers throughout the State of California, and on published 

sources. The list highlights non-native plants that are serious problems in wildlands (natural 

areas that support native ecosystems, including national, state and local parks, ecological 

reserves, wildlife areas, national forests, BLM lands, etc.). 


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List Categories Include: 

List A: Most Invasive Wildland Pest Plants; documented as aggressive invaders that displace 

natives and disrupt natural habitats. Includes two sub-lists; List A-1: Widespread pests that are 

invasive in more than 3 Jepson regions and List A-2: Regional pests invasive in 3 or fewer 

Jepson regions. 

List B: Wildland Pest Plants of Lesser Invasiveness; invasive pest plants that spread less rapidly 

and cause a lesser degree of habitat disruption; may be widespread or regional. 

Red Alert: Pest plants with potential to spread explosively; infestations are currently small or 

localized. If found, alert CalEPPC, County Agricultural Commissioner or California Department of 

Food and Agriculture. 

Need More Information: Plants for which current information does not adequately describe the 

nature of threat to wildlands, distribution or invasiveness. Further information is requested from 

knowledgeable observers. 

Annual Grasses: New in this edition; a preliminary list of annual grasses, abundant and 

widespread in California that pose significant threats to wildlands. Information is requested to 

support further definition of this category in next List edition. 

Considered But Not Listed: Plants that, after review of status, do not appear to pose a 

significant threat to wildlands. 

Plants that fall into the following categories are not included in the List: 

• Plants found mainly or solely in disturbed areas, such as roadsides and 

agricultural fields. 

• Plants that are established only sparingly, with minimal impact on natural 

habitats. 

The CalEPPC list is updated regularly. Please use the form provided on their website to send 

comments, suggestions or new information to: 

Peter W Warner , 

555 Magnolia Avenue, 

Petaluma, CA, 94952-2080, 

or via email at peterjwar peterjwarner@ner@earthlink.net 


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CalEPPC Inventory List 

The California Exotic Pest Plant Council Plant Inventory List 

Legend 

F: Federal Noxious Weed, as designated by the USDA; targeted for federally-funded prevention, 

eradication or containment efforts. 

A: CA Dept. of Food & Agriculture, on .A. list of Noxious Weeds; agency policies call for 

eradication, containment or entry refusal. 

B: CA Dept. of Food & Agriculture, on .B. list of Noxious Weeds; includes species that are more 

widespread, and therefore more difficult to 

contain; agency allows county Agricultural Commissioners to decide if local eradication or 

containment is warranted. 

C: CA Dept. of Food & Agriculture, on .C. list of Noxious Weeds; includes weeds that are so 

widespread that the agency does not endorse 

state or county-funded eradication or containment efforts except in nurseries or seed lots. 

Q: CA Dept. of Food & Agricultures designation for temporary .A. rating pending determination of 

a permanent rating. 

For most species nomenclature follows The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California 

(Hickman, J., Ed., 1993). 

Distribution Regions - Distribution by geographic subdivisions per the Jepson Manual 

CA=California 

CA-FP=California Floristic 

Province 

CaR=Cascade Ranges 

CaRF=Cascade Range 

Foothills 

CCo=Central Coast 

ChI=Channel Islands 

CW=Central Western CA 

D=Deserts 

DMoj=Mojave Desert 

DSon=Sonoran Desert 

GB=Great Basin 

GV=Great Valley 

KR=Klamath Ranges 

MP=Modoc Plateau 

NCo=North Coast 

NCoRI=Inner NCo Ranges 

NCoRO=Outer NCo 

Ranges 

NW=Northwestern CA 

PR=Peninsular Ranges 

SCo=South Coast 

SCoRI=Inner SCo Ranges 

SCoRO=Outer SCo 

Ranges 

ScV=Sacramento Valley 

SnJV=San Joaquin Valley 

SN=Sierra Nevada 

SNE=East of SN 

SNF=SN Foothills 

SNH=High SN 

SnFrB=San Francisco Bay 

Area 

SnGb=San Gabriel Mtns 

SW=Southwestern CA 

Teh=Tehachapi Mtns 

WTR=Western Transverse 

Ranges 


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Russian Knapweed 


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List A-1: Most Invasive Wildland Pest Plants; Widespread 

Latin Name Common Name Habitats of Concern Distribution 

and Other Comments 

Ammophila arenaria European beach grass Coastal dunes SCo,CCo,NCo 

Arundo donax giant reed, arundo Riparian areas cSNF,CCo,SCo, 

SnGb,D,GV 

Bromus tectorum cheat grass, Sagebrush, pinyon-juniper, GB,D 

downy brome other desert communities; 

increases fire frequency 

Carpobrotus edulis iceplant, sea fig Many coastal communities, SCo, CCo, 

esp. dunes NCo, SnFrB 

Centaurea solstitialis C yellow starthistle Grasslands CA-FP (uncommon 

in SoCal) 

Cortaderia jubata Andean pampas grass Horticultural; many coastal NCo,NCoRO 

habitats, esp. disturbed or SnFrB, CCo, 

jubatagrass exposed sites WTR,SCo 

incl. logged areas 

Cortaderia selloana pampas grass Horticultural; coastal dunes, SnFrB,SCo, 

coastal scrub, Monterey pine CCo,ScV 

forest, riparian, grasslands; 

wetlands in ScV; also on serpentine 

Cynara cardunculus B artichoke thistle Coastal grasslands CA-FP, esp. 

CCo,SCo 

Cytisus scoparius C 

Scotch broom Horticultural; coastal scrub, NW,CaRF,SNF, 

oak woodlands, Sierra foothills GV, SCo,CW 

Eucalyptus globulus Tasmanian blue gum Riparian areas, grasslands, NCoRO,GV,SnFrB, 

moist slopes - CCo,SCoRO,SCo, 

nChI 

Foeniculum vulgare wild fennel Grasslands; esp. SoCal, CA-FP 

Channel Is.; the cultivated 

garden herb is not invasive 

Genista monspessulana C French broom Horticultural; coastal scrub, NCoRO,NCoRI, 

oak woodlands, grasslands SnFrB,CCo, 

SCoRO,sChI,WTR, 

PR 

Lepidium latifolium B 

perennial pepperweed, tall whitetop grasslands – CA (except KR,D) 

Coastal, inland marshes, 

riparian areas, wetlands, 

potential to invade montane 

wetlands 

Myriophyllum spicatum Eurasian watermilfoil Horticultural; lakes, ponds, SnFrB,SnJV, 

streams, aquaculture SNH(?); prob. CA 

Pennisetum setaceum fountain grass Horticultural; grasslands, dunes, Deltaic GV,CCo, 

desert canyons; roadsides SCo, SnFrB 

Rubus discolor Himalayan blackberry Riparian areas, marshes, CA-FP 

oak woodlands 


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Senecio mikanioides Cape ivy, German ivy Coastal, riparian areas, SCo,CCo, 

also SoCal (south side San NCo,SnFrB,SW 

Gabriel Mtns.) (=Delairea odorata) 

Taeniatherum caput- medusa-head Grasslands, particularly alkaline NCoR,CaR, 

medusae C and poorly drained areas SNF,GV,SCo 

Tamarix chinensis, T. tamarisk, salt cedar Desert washes, riparian SCo,D,SnFrB,GV, 

gallica, T. parviflora & areas, seeps and springs sNCoR, sSNF, 

T. ramosissima Teh,SCoRI,SNE, 

WTR 

Ulex europaeus B gorse North, central coastal scrub, NCo,NCoRO,CaRF, 

grasslands n&cSNF,SnFrB, CCo 

Legend 

F: Federal Noxious Weed, as designated by the USDA; targeted for federally-funded prevention, eradication or 

containment efforts. 

A: CA Dept. of Food & Agriculture, on .A. list of Noxious Weeds; agency policies call for eradication, containment 

or entry refusal. 

B: CA Dept. of Food & Agriculture, on .B. list of Noxious Weeds; includes species that are more widespread, and 

therefore more difficult to 

contain; agency allows county Agricultural Commissioners to decide if local eradication or containment is 

warranted. 

C: CA Dept. of Food & Agriculture, on .C. list of Noxious Weeds; includes weeds that are so widespread that the 

agency does not endorse 


Q: CA Dept. of Food & Agricultures designation for temporary .A. rating pending determination of a permanent 

rating. 

For most species nomenclature follows The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California (Hickman, J., Ed., 1993). 


CA=California 


Province 



Foothills 




D=Deserts 









NCoRO=Outer NCo Ranges 





SCoRO=Outer SCo Ranges 






SNH=High SN 


Area 





Ranges 


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List A-2 Most Invasive Wildland Pest Plants; Regional 



Ailanthus altissima tree of heaven Riparian areas, grasslands, esp. GV, SCo CA- 

oak woodlands, FP 

Atriplex semibaccata Australian saltbush SoCal, coastal grasslands, CA (except 

scrub, high marsh. of coastal CaR,c&sSN) 

salt marshes 

Brassica tournefortii Moroccan or African Washes, alkaline flats, SW,D 

Mustard disturbed areas in Sonoran 

Desert 

Bromus madritensis red brome Widespread; contributing to CA 

ssp. rubens SoCal scrub, desert scrub 

type conversions; increases 

fire frequency 

Cardaria draba B white-top, hoary cress Riparian areas, marshes of Problem only 

central coast; also ag. lands, in CCo 

disturbed areas 

Conicosia pugioniformis narrow-leaved iceplant, Coastal dunes, sandy soils CCo 

roundleaf iceplant - near coast; best documented 

in San Luis Obispo and Santa 

Barbara cos. 

Cotoneaster pannosus, cotoneaster Horticultural; many coastal CCo,SnFrB,NW 

C. lacteus communities; North Coast, Big Sur; 

related species also invasive 

Cytisus striatus striated broom Often confused with C. scoparius; SnFrB,CCo, 

coastal scrub, grassland SCo,PR 

Egeria densa Brazilian waterweed Streams, ponds, sloughs, lakes; n&sSNF,SnJV, 

Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta SnFrB,SnJt,SNE 

Ehrharta calycina veldt grass Sandy soils, esp. dunes; rapidly CCo,SCoRO,WTR 

spreading on central coast 

Eichhornia crassipes water hyacinth Horticultural; established in natural GV,SnFrB,SCo,PR 

waterways, esp. troublesome in 

Sacramento-San Joaquin Delta - 

Elaeagnus angustifolia Russian olive Horticultural; interior riparian areas SnJV,SnFrB, SNE, 

DMoj 

Euphorbia esula A leafy spurge Rangelands in far no. CA, also eKR, NCo, CaR, 

reported from Los Angeles Co.- MP,SCo 

Ficus carica edible fig Horticultural; Central Valley, foot- nSNF,GV,SnFrB, 

hill, South Coast and Channel Is. SCo 

riparian woodlands- 

Lupinus arboreus bush lupine Native to SCo, CCo; invasive only SCo,CCo,NCo 

in North Coast dunes - 

Mentha pulegium pennyroyal Santa Rosa Plain (Sonoma Co.) NW,GV,CW,SCo 

and Central Valley vernal pools; 

wetlands elsewhere - 


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Myoporum laetum myoporum Horticultural; coastal riparian areas SCo,CCo 

in SCo 

Saponaria officinalis bouncing bet Horticultural; meadows, riparian NW,CaRH,nSNF, 

habitat in SNE, esp. Mono Basin SnFrB, SCoRO,SCo, 

PR,MP,SNE, GV 

Spartina alterniflora Atlantic or smooth S.F. Bay salt marshes; populations CCo(shores of S.F. 

cordgrass - in Humboldt Bay believed Bay) 

extirpated 

Legend 

F: Federal Noxious Weed, as designated by the USDA; targeted for federally-funded prevention, eradication or 

containment efforts. 

A: CA Dept. of Food & Agriculture, on .A. list of Noxious Weeds; agency policies call for eradication, containment 

or entry refusal. 

B: CA Dept. of Food & Agriculture, on .B. list of Noxious Weeds; includes species that are more widespread, and 

therefore more difficult to 

contain; agency allows county Agricultural Commissioners to decide if local eradication or containment is 

warranted. 

C: CA Dept. of Food & Agriculture, on .C. list of Noxious Weeds; includes weeds that are so widespread that the 

agency does not endorse 


Q: CA Dept. of Food & Agricultures designation for temporary .A. rating pending determination of a permanent 

rating. 

For most species nomenclature follows The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California (Hickman, J., Ed., 1993). 


CA=California 


Province 



Foothills 




D=Deserts 









NCoRO=Outer NCo Ranges 





SCoRO=Outer SCo Ranges 






SNH=High SN 


Area 





Ranges 


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List B: Wildland Pest Plants of Lesser Invasiveness 



Ageratina adenophora F eupatory Horticultural; coastal canyons, CCo,SnFrB,SCo, 

coastal scrub, slopes, Marin to SCoRO 

San Diego Co; San Gabriel Mtns. 

Bassia hyssopifolia bassia Alkaline habitats CA (except NW,SNH) 

Bellardia trixago bellardia Grasslands, on serpentine, where NCoRO, CCo, SnFrB 

a threat to rare natives- 

Brassica nigra black mustard Coastal communities, esp. fog- CA-FP 

belt grasslands; disturbed areas 

Cardaria chalepensis B lens-podded white-top Wetlands of Central Valley CA 

Carduus pycnocephalus C Italian thistle Grasslands, shrublands, oak sNCo,sNCoR, SNF, 

woodlands CW, SCo,ScV 

Centaurea calcitrapa B purple starthistle Grasslands NW,sCaRF,SNF, 

GV,CW,SW 

Centaurea melitensis tocalote, Malta starthistle Widespread; sometimes mis- CA-FP,D 

identified as C. solstitialis; 

perhaps a more serious invader 

than currently recognized 

Cirsium arvense B Canada thistle Especially troublesome in riparian CA-FP 

areas 

Cirsium vulgare bull thistle Riparian areas, marshes, meadows CA-FP,GB 

Conium maculatum poison hemlock Mainly disturbed areas but may CA-FP 

invade wildlands; known to poison 

wildlife; early expanding stage in many 

areas, esp. San Diego Co. riparian, 

oak understory - 

Crataegus monogyna hawthorn Horticultural; recent invader, SnFrB,CCo,NCo, 

colonizing healthy native forest NCoR 

around Crystal Springs reservoir on 

S.F. peninsula 

Ehrharta erecta veldt grass Wetlands, moist wildlands; SnFrB,CCo,SCo 

common in urban areas; potential 

to spread rapidly in coastal, riparian, 

grassland habitats 

Erechtites glomerata, Australian fireweed Coastal woodlands, scrub, NCo,NCoRO, 

E. minima NW forests, esp. redwoods CCo,SnFrB, SCoRO 

Festuca arundinacea tall fescue Horticultural (turf grass); coastal CA-FP 

scrub, grasslands in NCo, CCo 

Hedera helix English ivy Horticultural; invasive in coastal CA-FP 

forests, riparian areas 

Holcus lanatus velvet grass Coastal grasslands, wetlands in CA exc. DSon 

No. CA 


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Hypericum perforatum C Klamathweed, St. John’s Redwood forests, meadows, NW,CaRH,n&cSN, 

wort - woodlands; invasion may occur ScV, CCo,SnFrB,PR 

due to lag in control by established 

biocontrol agents 

Ilex aquifolium English holly Horticultural; coastal forests, NCoRO,SnFrB, 

riparian areas CCo 

Iris pseudacorus yellow water iris, Horticultural; riparian, wetland SnFrB,CCo,sSnJV, 

yellow flag- areas, esp. San Diego, Los SCo 

Angeles cos. 

Leucanthemum vulgare ox-eye daisy Horticultural; invades grassland, KR, NCoRO, n&cSNH, 

coastal scrub SnFrB, WTR, PR 

Mesembryanthemum crystalline iceplant Coastal bluffs, dunes, scrub, NCo, CCo, SCo, ChI 

crystallinum grasslands; concentrates salt in soil 

Myriophyllum aquaticum parrot’s feather Horticultural; streams, lakes, ponds NCo,CaRF,CW, SCo 

Olea europaea olive Horticultural and agricultural; NCoR,NCoRO,CCo, 

reported as invasive in riparian SnFrB,SCoRO,SCo 

habitats in Santa Barbara, San Diego 

Phalaris aquatica Harding grass Coastal sites, esp. moist soils NW,cSNF,CCo,SCo 

Potamogeton crispus curlyleaf pondweed Scattered distribution in ponds, NCoR,GV,CCo,SnFrB, 

lakes, streams SCo,ChI,SnGb, 

SnBr,DMoj 

Ricinus communis castor bean SoCal coastal riparian habitats GV,SCo,CCo 

Robinia pseudoacacia black locust Horticultural; riparian areas, CA-FP,GB 

canyons; native to eastern U.S. 

Schinus molle Peruvian pepper tree Horticultural; invasive in riparian SNF,GV,CW,SW,Teh 

habitats in San Diego, Santa Cruz Is. 

Schinus terebinthifolius Brazilian pepper Horticultural; riparian areas sSCo 

Senecio jacobaea B 

tansy ragwort Grasslands; biocontrol agents NCo,wKR, s&wCaR, 

established nSNF, nScV,SW 

Spartium junceum Spanish broom Coastal scrub, grassland, wet- NCoRO,ScV,SnFrB, 

lands, oak woodland, NW forests, SCoRO,SCo,sChI, 

esp. redwoods; also roadcuts WTR 

Verbascum thapsus woolly or common mullein SNE meadows, sagebrush, CA 

pinyon-juniper woodlands; shores 

of Boggs Lake (Lake Co.) 

Vinca major periwinkle Horticultural; riparian, oak wood- NCoRO,SnFrB, CCo, 

land, other coastal habitats - sSCoRO,SCo 


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Red Alert: Species with potential to spread explosively; infestations 

currently restricted 

Latin Name 1 Common Name Habitats of Concern Distribution 2 


Alhagi pseudalhagi A camel thorn Noxious weed of arid areas; most GV,sSNE,D 

infestations in California have 

been eradicated - 

Arctotheca calendula A Capeweed Seed-producing types are the NCo,SnFrB,CCo 

problem; most are vegetative only 

Centaurea maculosa A spotted knapweed Riparian, grassland, wet meadows, CaR,SN,nScV,nCW, 

forest habitats; contact CA Food & MP,nSNE,sPR,NW 

Ag if new occurrences found 

Crupina vulgaris F,A 

Co.),MP 

bearded creeper, Aggressively moving into NCoR (Sonoma 

common crupina - wildlands, esp. grassland habitats 

Halogeton glomeratus A halogeton Noxious weed of Great Basin GB 

rangelands; report locations to CA 

Food & Ag; goal is exclusion from CA- 

Helichrysum petiolare licorice plant North coastal scrub; one pop- Not in Jepson 

ulation on Mt. Tamalpais, w. Marin Co.- 

Hydrilla verticillata F,A hydrilla Noxious water weed; report NCoRI,n&cSNF, 

locations to CA Food & Ag; ScV,SCo,D 

eradication program in place; 

found in Clear Lake(Lake Co.) in 1994 

Lythrum salicaria B purple loosestrife Horticultural; noxious weed of sNCo,NCoRO,nSNF, 

wetlands, riparian areas ScV, SnFrB,nwMP 

Ononis alopecuroides Q foxtail restharrow Eradication efforts underway in not in Jepson 

San Luis Obispo Co.; to be CCo; 

looked for elsewhere in CA 

Retama monosperma bridal broom First noted at Fallbrook Naval not in Jepson 

Weapons Station, San Diego Co; 

San Diego Co.; could rival other 

invasive brooms - 

Salvinia molesta F giant waterfern Ponds, lakes, reservoirs, canals – not in Jepson 

Napa, Sonoma cos., lower 

Colorado River 

Sapium sebiferum Chinese tallow tree Horticultural; riparian, wetland ScV,SnFrB; 

habitats, open areas and not in Jepson 

understory 

Sesbania punicea scarlet wisteria tree Horticultural; riparian areas; ScV,SnJV; not in 

Jepson 

American River Parkway, 

Sacramento Co., Suisun Marsh, 

San Joaquin River Parkway 

Spartina anglica cord grass Scattered in S.F. Bay Not in Jepson 

Spartina densiflora dense-flowered cord grass Scattered in S.F. Bay, Humboldt CCo,NCo 

Bay salt marshes - 


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Spartina patens salt-meadow cord grass One site in S.F. Bay, also Siuslaw CCo 

Estuary, OR and Puget Sound, WA 

Hemlock 

Dandelion 


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Need More Information Section 



Acacia dealbata silver wattle Aggressive in natural areas? SnFRB,SCoRO, 

SCoRI,CCo 

Acacia decurrens green wattle Sometimes confused with A. Unknown 

dealbata; aggressive in natural 

areas? - 

Acacia melanoxylon blackwood acacia Reported from S.F. Bay area, SnFrB,SCoRO, 

central coast, Santa Cruz Is.; SCo,CCo 

spreads slowly; other areas? 

Aeschynomene rudis B rough jointvetch Princeton area, Colusa Co.; ScV 

pest of rice crops; potential threat 

to riparian, wetland habitats? - 

Agrostis avenacea Pacific bentgrass Invading vernal pools in San Diego sNCo,sNCoR,SNF, 

area; attempts at manual GV,CW,nSCo 

eradication unsuccessful so far; 

problem in other areas? 

Aptenia cordifolia red apple Habitats where invasive? CCo,SCo,sChI 

Asphodelus fistulosus asphodel Common in SCo highway rights- sSnJV,SCo 

of-way, other disturbed sites; 

threats to wildlands? 

Carduus acanthoides A giant plumeless thistle Threatens wildlands? NCoRI,nSN,SnFrB, 

nSCoRO,MP 

Cistus ladanifer gum cistus Horticultural; invades coastal sage sCCo,SnGb 

scrub, chaparral; areas where 

problematic? - 

Cordyline australis New Zealand cabbage Infestation at Salt Point State Not in Jepson 

Park; bird-dispersed; other problem 

areas? 

Cotoneaster spp. Cotoneaster Horticultural; bird-distributed; Unknown 

(exc. C. pannosus, which species are problems 

C. lacteus) in wildlands? 

Cupressus macrocarpa Monterey cypress Native only to Monterey Peninsula; CCo 

planted and naturalized CCo, NCo; 

threat to wildlands? - 

Descurainia Sophia flixweed, tansy mustard Entering Mojave wildlands through CA 

washes; threat to wildlands? - 

Dimorphotheca sinuate African daisy, Cape Horticultural; reported as invasive SnJV,SCoRO,SCo 

marigold - in w. Riverside Co., Ventura Co.; PR 

problem elsewhere? 

Echium candicans, pride of Madeira, Horticultural; riparian, grassland, CCo,SnFrB,SCo,sNCo 

E. pininana - pride of Teneriffe - coastal scrub communities; spreads 

by seed - 

Ehrharta longiflora veldt grass Reported from San Diego Not in Jepson 

Erica lusitanica heath Threat to wildlands? NCo (Humboldt Co.) 

Euphorbia lathyris caper spurge, Invades coastal scrub, marshes, NCo,CCo,GV,SCo 

gopher plant dunes; Sonoma, Marin cos.; 

threat to wildlands? 

Gazania linearis gazania Horticultural; invades grassland in CCo,SCo 

S.F., coastal scrub? - 

Glyceria declinata Although reported from Central Valley vernal pools, genetic research is needed to 

confirm identity; plants that have been called G. declinata key in Jepson to native G. occidentalis - Uncertain; not 

in Jepson 


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Hedera canariensis Algerian ivy Horticultural; invasive in riparian Not in Jepson 

areas in SoCal? - 

Hirschfeldia incana Mediterranean or short- Increasing in western, southern NCo,SNF,GV,CW, 

pod mustard Mojave; threat to wildlands? SCo, DMoj 

Hypericum canariense Canary Island hypericum Reported in San Diego area, SCo 

coastal sage scrub, grassland; 


Hypochaeris radicata rough cat’s-ear Widespread in coastal grasslands, NW,CaRF,nSNF, 

wetlands; threat to wildlands? ScV, CW,SCo 

Isatis tinctoria B dyers’ woad Well-known invader in Utah; KR,CaR,nSNH, MP 


Ligustrum lucidum glossy privet Horticultural; spreading rapidly NCo; not in Jepson 

on Mendocino coast; problem in 

other areas? 

Limonium ramosissimum sea lavender Reported spreading in Carpinteria Not in Jepson 

ssp. provinciale Salt Marsh; problem in other areas? 

Ludwigia uruguayensis water primrose Invasive in aquatic habitats; NCo,sNCoRO,CCo, 

(= L. hexapetala) non-native status questioned? SnFrB,SCo 

Malephora crocea ice plant Invades margins of wetlands, CCo,SCo,sChI 

bluffs along SCo 

Maytenus boaria mayten Horticultural; scattered in riparian ScV; east SnFrB ScV, 

forests, SnFrB 

Mesembryanthemum slender-leaved iceplant Abundant on Channel Islands; SnFrB,SCo,ChI 

nodiflorum invades wetlands; habitats where 

problematic? - 

Nicotiana glauca tree tobacco Disturbed places; not very NCoRI,c&sSNF,GV, 

competitive with natives in CW,SW,D 

coastal scrub, chaparral; spreading 

along Putah Creek (Yolo Co.); problems elsewhere? - 

Oxalis pes-caprae Bermuda buttercup Invades disturbed sites; invasive NCo,NCoRO,CCo, 

in undisturbed habitats? SnFrB,SCoRO,SCo 

Parentucellia viscose Threat to NCo (Humboldt Co.) NCo,NCoRO,CCo,SCo 

dune swales? - 

Passiflora caerulea Horticultural; reported from SoCal; SCo; not in Jepson 

threat to wildlands? - 

Pennisetum Kikuyu grass Disturbed sites, roadsides; NCo,CCo,SnFrB,SCo, 

clandestinum F,C - - threat to wildlands? - Santa Cruz Is. 

Phyla nodiflora mat lippia Most varieties in CA are native; NW(except 

KR,NCoRH), 

taxonomy unclear; status of GV,CCo,SnFrB,SCo, 

plants in vernal pools, wetlands? PR,DSon 

Pinus radiata cultivars Monterey pine Cultivars invading native Monterey, CCo 

Cambria forests, where spread of 

pine pitch canker is a concern - 


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Piptatherum miliaceum smilo grass Aggressive in SoCal creeks, NCo,GV,CW,SCo 

canyons; threats to wildlands? 

Pistacia chinensis Chinese pistache Horticultural; invades riparian ScV 

areas and woodlands in ScV - 

Prunus cerasifera cherry plum Oak woodland, riparian areas; SnFrB,CCo 

esp. Marin, Sonoma cos.; bird- 

distributed; problems elsewhere? 

Pyracantha angustifolia pyracantha Horticultural; spreads from seed in sNCoRO,CCo,SnFrB, 

S.F. Bay area; bird-distributed; SCo 

problem elsewhere? - 

Salsola soda glasswort Threat to salt marshes? nCCo,SnFrB 

Salsola tragus C Russian thistle, Abundant in dry open areas CA 

tumbleweed - in w. Mojave Desert, Great Basin; 

not limited to disturbed sites; threats? - 

Salvia aethiopis B Mediterranean sage Creates monocultures in E. MP 

Oregon grasslands; threat to 

CA wildlands?- 

Stipa capensis Distribution and threats? Not in Jepson 

Tamarix aphylla athel Spreading in Salton Sea area; nSnJV,nSCo,D 

threats to wildlands? - 

Tanacetum vulgare common tansy Jepson reports as uncommon, SCoRO, NCo, 

escape from cultivation in NCoRO,CaRH 

urban areas; problem in wildlands? 

Verbena bonariensis, tall vervain Horticultural; invades riparian ScV,nSnJV, 

V. litoralis - - forests,wetlands; extensive along nSnFrB,CCo 

ScV riparian corridors; roadsides 

(Yuba Co.); elsewhere? - 

Annual Grasses 



Aegilops triuncialis B barbed goatgrass Serpentine soils, grasslands sNCoR,CaRF, 

n&cSNF, 

ScV,nCW 

Avena barbata slender wild oat Lower elev. in SoCal; coastal CA-FP,MP,DMoj 

slopes, coastal sage scrub, 

disturbed sites - 

Avena fatua wild oat Lower elev. in SoCal; coastal CA-FP,MP,DMoj 

slopes, coastal sage scrub on 

deeper soil, disturbed sites - 

Brachypodium false brome Expanding in SoCal; common sNCoR,sCaRF, SNF, 

distachyon - - in Orange Co. - GV,CW,SCo,sChI 

Bromus diandrus ripgut brome Coastal dunes, coastal sage CA 

scrub, grasslands - 

Lolium multiflorum Italian ryegrass Wetland areas, esp. vernal pools CA-FP 


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in San Diego Co.; common in 

disturbed sites - 

Schismus arabicus Mediterranean grass Threat to Mojave and Colorado SnJV,CW,sChI,D 

desert shrublands? - 

Schismus barbatus Mediterranean grass Threat to Mojave and Colorado SnJV,SW,D 

desert shrublands? - 

Considered Plants, but not yet listed. 

Latin Name 1 Common Name Habitats of Concern 


Albizia lophantha plume acacia Not invasive 

Anthoxanthum odoratum sweet vernal grass Disturbed sites on coast; Marin, Sonoma, Mendocino cos. 

Carpobrotus chilensis sea fig Native status in question; not a threat to wildlands 

Centranthus ruber red valerian Horticultural; roadcuts in Marin Co.; not a threat to 

wildlands 

Convolvulus arvensis C field bindweed Disturbed sites; ag lands 

Coprosma repens mirror plant No evidence of wildland threat 

Crocosmia x Crocosmiiflo Generally in disturbed coastal, urban areas, roadsides 

Digitalis purpurea foxglove Horticultural; scattered in prairies, meadows, disturbed 

sites; not a major wildland threat 

Dipsacus sativus, 

D. fullonum - wild teasel, Fuller.s teasel Roadsides, disturbed sites 

Fumaria officinalis, 

F. parviflora fumitory S.F. Bay area, Monterey Bay salt marshes, sandy 

disturbed sites 

Medicago polymorpha California bur clover Grasslands, moist sites; mainly restricted to disturbed sites 

Melilotus officinalis yellow sweet clover Restricted to disturbed sites in CA 

Nerium oleander oleander Horticultural; not invasive, although reported from riparian 

areas in Central Valley, San Bernardino Mtns. 

Picris echioides bristly ox-tongue Disturbed areas 

Silybum marianum milk thistle Disturbed areas, especially overgrazed moist pasturelands; 

may interfere with restoration 

Xanthium spinosum spiny cocklebur Identified as native in The Jepson Manual (Hickman, 1993) 

and A California Flora (Munz and Keck, 1968); restricted to 

disturbed areas 

Zantedeschia aethiopica calla lily Horticultural; mainly a garden escape in wet coastal areas 

Zoysia cultivars Amazoy and others Horticultural; no evidence of wildland threat 


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Weed Control Terms 

The terms listed below are used in this course to describe herbicide applications: 

Active ingredient (ai) – The chemical in a herbicide formulation primarily responsible for its 

phytotoxicity and which is identified as the active ingredient on the product label. 

Acid equivalent (ae) – Expresses the rate or quantity as the herbicidally active parent acid. For 

example, 2,4-D acid is formulated with either sodium, an amine, or an ester to make the active 

ingredient salt sold as a formulated product. The active acid equivalent per gallon of a widely used 

ester formulation is 3.8 lb ae/gal while the active ingredient is 6.0 lb ai/gal. 

Band application – Herbicide applied to a narrow strip centered over the crop row. 

Broadcast application – Herbicide applied over entire area. 

Directed spray application – Herbicide applied to a band along the row that includes the base of 

crop plants and the weeds in the row. Spray is directed across the row from nozzles positioned near 

ground level on each side of the row. This type of application allows use of chemicals that will injure 

the crop plant if more than a small part of the plant is contacted by spray. Special units that guide from 

the ground or mount on cultivators must be used. 

Drop-nozzle application – Herbicide applied by means of nozzles mounted on extensions below the 

spray boom to avoid spraying upper parts of the crop plant. 

Formulation – Refers to the form in which a herbicide is purchased. Common forms are liquids, 

granules, and wettable powders which contain added ingredients to improve storage, mixing, or 

application characteristics of the herbicides. 

Post-emergence application – Herbicide applied to the crop and weeds after they emerge. 

Pre-emergence application – Herbicide applied after a crop is planted but before it or weeds emerge. 

Pre-planting application – Herbicide applied before the crop is planted. 

Rate – The amount of active ingredient or acid equivalent of an herbicide applied to the area treated, 

that is, on a broadcast basis. 

Soil incorporation – Mechanical mixing of the herbicide with the soil. Chemicals may be incorporated 

2 to 4 inches with a disk or rotary tiller, 1 to 2 inches with a harrow or rotary hoe, or slightly covered 

with planter attachments. The desired depth of incorporation depends on characteristics of the 

chemical being used. 


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Camphor Weed Heterotheca latifolia 

Just break a leaf and you can easily recognize the smell of camphor. 


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Weed Control Section 

Effective weed control usually results from a combination of cultural, mechanical, and chemical 

practices. The ideal combination for each field will depend on a number of considerations 

including: 1) the crop being grown, 2) the kinds of weeds, 3) the seriousness of the weed 

infestation, 4) the soil type, 5) the cropping system, and 6) the availability of time and labor. 

Preventive weed control is the least expensive and the only foolproof method to stop invasions of 

weeds. If we don’t have it now, let’s not plant it. When purchasing plants or seeds make sure you 

know what you’re buying. This is extremely important when purchasing plants or seeds by mail 

order or through the Internet. Be particularly wary of seed mixtures--completely read the product 

label and make sure you are familiar with all the species in the mix. Go native to make sure you 

aren’t introducing current or potential noxious weeds. Reputable nurseries will be able to assist 

you in selecting native species of plants for your lawn, landscape, or garden. Master Gardeners 

are another source of information on the best species of plants to select for landscape or garden. 

It is also important to prevent the accidental introduction of new invasive species. Make sure 

that compost, mulch, sod, fill soil, or any other amendment you use is free of weeds. Use a local 

source for these products. 

Feed your livestock weed-free feed. Sometimes this is not possible during animal transport or for 

other reasons. Be certain to allow time for the animals to "clean out" the weed infested feed 

before putting them out on pasture or rangeland. The same is true of newly added cattle, horses, 

or other animals. Make sure you compost manure and bedding from the period during and just 

after feeding suspect feed. Check boats and off-road vehicles before leaving the area where you 

have used them. Weeds can be carried easily in water or mud so wash the vehicles as soon as 

possible following use. 

Even if preventative steps are taken, infestations can still occur. Be constantly on the watch for 

areas where you suddenly notice a new flush of vegetation. Early detection is critical to complete 

eradication of the weed. 

Control efforts can easily be intensified and eradication a realistic goal. Weeds can be spread by 

animals or birds, but new infestations are most commonly due to human activities. Look for new 

species of weeds in areas where human activity is most common or along waterways. 

What do you do once the infestation has been identified? 

Mark the perimeter of the area to delineate the infestation and determine if the infestation 

is increasing or decreasing once control measures are applied. 

Limit activity to and from the area to make sure seeds, roots, and other parts aren’t 

spread. 

Try to determine how the weed was introduced. If it appears due to logging, construction, 

or other activities, scout similar sites in the area. 

Check horse or recreational vehicle trails in the area to determine spread. 

Check upstream and downstream if the infestation occurs along water ways. 

Select the appropriate control measures and apply them aggressively. 

Monitor the area constantly to determine the effectiveness of the control measure. Seeds 

can lay dormant in the soil for 10 years or longer, continue monitoring for years after 

you’ve seen the last plant in the area. 


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Weed Prevention Steps 

Key- Avoid weed establishment; eliminate individual survivors. 

Identify and map weed infestations; keep records over years. 

Recognize and eliminate new weeds before they multiply and establish. 

Employ sanitary procedures; prevent weed spread. 

Clean equipment between sites or infestations. 

Examine nursery plants, seed, and imported soil or media. 

Screen irrigation water where weed seed contaminates surface water transported in 

canals and rivers or stored in lakes or ponds. 

Control weeds and seed sources around the field or site. 

Establish county and state weed laws and noxious weed control programs. 

When applying control measures, start with the most basic mechanical control. Dig out the plants 

if possible. Burn or compost the removed vegetation on site to prevent spreading them. Mowing 

can be effective, but mowing promotes low growth and low seed height which can’t be prevented 

by mowing a second time. Also, equipment must be completely cleaned of vegetation and seed 

before removing from the site to prevent spreading the infestation. Mechanical control is 

expensive, but most effective and won’t interfere with reestablishing desired vegetation on the 

site. 

Mechanical Control 

A combination of mechanical and chemical controls can be very effective on woody invaders like 

trees or shrubs. The woody plant can be cut with hand ax or saw and the stump wiped with 2,4-D, 

Roundup, or some other herbicide. It is important to apply the herbicide to the stump 

immediately after cutting. A delay of even a few minutes will reduce efficacy of the herbicide. 

Normally, biological control of newly invasive species is not practical and should not be 

considered. Identifying and developing biological controls can take years, and small infestations 

often can’t sustain on the few plants present during the initial infestation. Thus, biological control, 

while effective on widespread infestation, is not a consideration in eradicating a species during 

the initial phases of an infestation. 

Cultural Control is necessary following mechanical or chemical control. Digging and chopping 

cause soil disturbance and desired plants need to be reestablished before the invader can get a 

foothold. The same is true of chemical control, the desired vegetation must be 

reestablished. Moreover, you must remember that the invader was able to gain a toehold under 

the management regime that had been in place on that land. Consider plant species, 

fertilization, and other cultural aspects of weed control. 

Mechanical Summary 

Weed debris turned under; annual weeds controlled; perennial weeds suppressed if this practice 

is repeated every 10 to 14 days. 

Cultural Practices 

Cultural practices that are optimum for crop growth should be followed. These practices include: 

adequate fertility, optimum stands and row width, and proper seeding date. Tillage operations, if 

used, should be timed to destroy weeds. Tilling the soil immediately before planting will kill weeds 

that have germinated, thus giving the crop a competitive advantage and often improving weed 

control from chemicals that do not control weeds that have germinated. 

Early cultivations when weeds are small are most effective. Use a rotary hoe, harrow, or cultivator 

as soon as weeds begin emerging and are in the "white stage," even if herbicides have been 

applied. Set cultivators for shallow operation to avoid crop root pruning and to reduce the number 

of weed seeds brought to the surface. Throw enough soil into the row to cover small weeds. 

Shallow cultivation should be repeated as necessary to control newly germinated weeds. 


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Mowing is an effective weed control practice in perennial forage crops and non-cropland areas. 

To be effective, mowing must be done before seeds are formed which means you must mow by 

the time weeds are in the bud stage or just beginning to bloom. Earlier mowing will reduce weed 

competition and improve crop yield more than later cutting. 

Cultural Summary Integrate numerous components to minimize impact of weeds. 

1. Select manageable fields (identify weeds and choose crop according to feasibility of weed 

management strategies; e.g., avoid planting onions into perennial weeds). 

2. Rotate crops (disrupt weed life cycles or suppress weeds in competitive crop followed by 

planting a noncompetitive crop). 

3. Plant winter cover or competitive fallow crops in rotation to improve soils and crop 

management (specific cultivars are being evaluated). 

4. Consider legumes to supplement nitrogen requirements. 

5. Consider specific varieties of cereals with natural plant toxins (allelopathy); vegetation must 

remain uniform on soil surface; either perennial or large-seeded crops can be planted through 

undisturbed mulch. 

6. Consider crops or cultivars that winter kill after vigorous growth during fall to avoid springtime 

controls. 

7. Alter planting dates (plant for maximum growth or delay planting to control first weed flush). 

8. Transplant slow-growing crops. 

9. Band or spot fertilizer beside plant or seed (reduces availability to surface-germinating weeds). 

10. Time additional side-dressings for maximum crop growth or to minimize weeds. 

11. Develop crop canopy that shades weeds, suppresses weed germination. 

12. Select crops or varieties that form canopy quickly. 

13. Space plants in equidistant (triangular) arrangements and vary density depending on crop 

management constraints or harvest requirements (e.g., product quality). 

14. Interplant crops in space and time (consider mechanical limitations in commercial plantings). 

15. Combine broadleaf and taller, narrowleaf crops (corn or beans with pumpkins). 

16. Relay plantings or harvest short-duration crops within longer maturing crops (bush beans 

with corn; cucumbers with peppers; tree crops with vegetables). 

17. Manage appropriate living mulch (grass or legume) between perennial crop rows. 

Improve pasture management by reseeding and/or fertilizing with or without control measures to 

reduce weed infestation (weeds often are a symptom of poor management). 

Apply Mulch, Black Plastic or Geo-textiles 

Organic materials: Straw (may reduce available N when decomposing; often infested with weed 

seed). Sawdust (avoid vertebrate pests by maintaining mulch-free circle around tree; perennial 

weeds become a serious problem). 

Bark mulch: Newspapers (during emergence, rhizomes of some perennial weeds become 

disoriented when penetrating 6 to 16 layers of overlapped newspaper). 

Plastic: Black excludes light, controls most annual weeds. 

Clear plastic acts like greenhouse; poor weed control. New wavelength-selective plastics for pest 

management (research is progressing). 

Geo-textiles (available at ag and garden supply stores): Spunbonded fabrics (nonwoven): 

lightweight, extruded polypropylene fibers; requires mulch cover due to moderate UV light 

sensitivity; weed roots and rhizomes can penetrate fabric unless removed before establishment; 

cheapest option. 

Woven fabrics: moderate-weight polypropylene fibers woven into a mat; can be used without 

mulch cover due to UV light stability; weed roots and rhizomes can penetrate fabric although 

tightness of weave can prevent some weeds; moderate cost. 

Laminates: highly porous, dense poly film bonded to capillary fibers with a pressed, nonwoven 

bottom layer. Surface is slick and causes rapid wetting and drying to prevent weed establishment 

except for perennial rhizomes which can penetrate the laminate; most expensive geo-fabric. 

Solarization: Thin plastic secured tightly over loose, moist soil for 10 to 12 weeks will suppress 

weed infestations and other pests during hot season. 


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Postemergence herbicides are used to kill weeds after the weed plants are up and 

growing. To be effective, most postemergence herbicides must be absorbed through the 

leaves; consequently, liquid sprays generally work better than dry, granular materials. 

However, granular formulations may be the most practical way for homeowners to apply 

these materials. 


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Herbicide Application Section 

Herbicide applications can be effective, but little information is usually known about the selectivity 

of a particular herbicide on newly invasive species. If the weed is a broadleaf, start with a 

phenoxy herbicide, such as 2,4-D, and closely monitor effectiveness. These herbicides are 

effective in controlling most broadleaf weeds and allow grasses to continue growing. However, 

before selecting a particular herbicide, determine the effect it might have on the desired 

vegetation. Typically, it is not possible to selectively kill the invader without killing a few desired 

plants. Moreover, you’ll want to reestablish desired vegetation and many herbicides can persist 

in the soil and prevent successful reestablishment. If patches are small it might be worthwhile to 

use Tordon or other residual herbicides to completely kill the infestation and then closely 

monitor vegetative reestablishment. 

Nonselective herbicides will kill all vegetation and require a reestablishment of desired vegetation. 

Glyphosate, sold as Roundup and other products, will kill all existing vegetation, but will not 

persist to cause problems with vegetative reestablishment. 

Selecting Chemicals 

Selection of an appropriate chemical or combination of chemicals should be based on 

consideration of the following factors: 

Label approval for use 

Ground and surface water pollution concerns 

Use of the crop 

Crop and variety tolerance 

Potential for soil residues that may affect following crops 

Kinds of weeds 

Soil texture 

pH of soil 

Amount of organic matter in the soil 

Formulation of the chemical 

Application equipment available 

Potential for drift problems 

Tillage practices 

Herbicide performance 

Herbicide cost 

Herbicide resistant crop 

The information in this publication and on product labels will help you select and use chemicals 

properly according to the above factors. Proper application of chemicals is essential for obtaining 

satisfactory results. Follow the suggested rates on labels for specific soil and weed situations 

carefully. Apply herbicides at the times specified. Delayed applications usually result in poorer 

weed control and may injure the crop. 

Weather conditions will affect herbicide performance. Weed control from soil-applied herbicides 

may be poor if there is insufficient rain soon after treatment, which will make timely cultivation 

necessary to control emerging weeds. If rainfall is very heavy, some herbicides may be moved 

downward in the soil, resulting in poor weed control and/or crop injury. Temperature and moisture 

conditions affect the weed control and crop injury resulting from herbicides applied 

postemergence. Observe label precautions regarding weather conditions and crop and weed size 

when applying herbicides. 

Liquid and granular formulations of herbicides can be equally effective if they are used properly. 

Neither should be applied if rain is expected within 24 hours of application. For best results, the 

turf should NOT be mowed or watered for at least 24 hours following application of either granular 

or liquid products. 


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Granular herbicides will be most effective if applied to grass that is moist (from morning dew, 

rainfall, or irrigation) because the granules will adhere to the wet surfaces of the weeds. 

Care should always be exercised when applying herbicides near trees, shrubs, flowerbeds, and 

vegetable gardens. Drift from spray applications or misdirected application of granular products 

can result in damage or death of these plants. It is important that dicamba NOT be applied within 

the dripline of trees or shrubs. Dicamba can be root absorbed by these plants, possibly resulting 

in damage. 

Postemergence Herbicides 

Postemergence herbicides are used to kill weeds after the weed plants are up and growing. To 

be effective, most postemergence herbicides must be absorbed through the leaves; 

consequently, liquid sprays generally work better than dry, granular materials. However, granular 

formulations may be the most practical way for homeowners to apply these materials. 

Postemergence herbicides are most effectively applied when weeds are young and growing 

vigorously. 

Selective postemergence herbicides are usually used to control annual, biennial, and perennial 

broad-leaved weeds because they will kill many broadleaf plants without damaging grass plants. 

These herbicides can severely damage or kill trees, shrubs, and flowers; thus, they should be 

used with great care near these plants. 

Postemergence herbicides may be applied any time the weeds are actively growing, the air 

temperature is 60–80°F, there are no winds, and there is no rain in the forecast for 48 hours. 

Most effective control of perennial broadleaf weeds is obtained when applied in early fall (August 

15–October 15) or in spring (May 1–June 1). For some weeds, repeated application at 20–30 day 

intervals may be required for control. 

Nonselective postemergence herbicides kill all plants, both desirable and undesirable. These 

herbicides can be used to spot treat perennial grassy weeds that are not affected by selective 

herbicides. To spot treat an area, thoroughly wet the weed foliage with herbicide solution. 

Pre-emergence or selective pre-emergence granular materials may be applied with a fertilizer 

spreader. The spreader must set or be calibrated to apply recommended rates. The preferred 

method of application is to apply one-half the recommended rate in one direction and one-half at 

a right angle to that direction. 

Compressed air sprayers or sprayers attached to a garden hose are effective for liquid 

applications. Remember that the higher the pressure and the finer the mist, the more likely it is 

that the herbicide will drift and injure shrubs, trees, flowers, and vegetables. 

Sprinkler cans can be used on small areas, but once any applicator has been used to apply 

herbicides, it should not be used to spray other pesticides on ornamental or garden plants. You 

should use a separate sprayer for killing weeds. Be sure to clean the sprayer thoroughly after 

each use. 


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Weed Control Table #1 

Weed Control Life Cycle(1) 

Bindweed P 

Recommended 

Chemical(2) 

2,4-D ester or 

dicamba(4) 

Time of 

Application 

Degree of 

Control 

early summer good 

Black medic A dicamba(4) early spring good 

Chickweed, 

common 

A MCPP or dicamba(4) spring or fall good 

Chickweed, 

mouse-ear 

P MCPP or dicamba(4) fall or spring good 

Chickory P 2,4-D spring good 

Cinquefoil P 2,4-D fall or spring good 

Dandelion P 2,4-D or dicamba(4) fall or spring good 

Dock, curly B 2,4-D or dicamba(4) fall or spring good 

Garlic or onion P 2,4-D ester 

late fall, early 

spring 

fair 

Ground ivy P dicamba(4,6) 

summer, fall or 

spring 

fair-good 

Heal-all P 2,4-D spring good 

Henbit A dicamba(4) spring good 

Knotweed A dicamba(4,6) 

spring to midsummer 

good 

Mallow roundleaf A dicamba(4) spring fair 

Pigweed A 2,4-D or MCPP summer good 

Plantain, buckhorn P 2,4-D or MCPP fall or spring fair 

Plantain, common P 2,4-D or MCPP fall or spring good 

Poison ivy P 

Amitrol-T or 

Roundup(5) 

spring or summer good 

Purslane A dicamba(4) spring or fall good 

Red sorrel P dicamba(4) 

spring, summer or 

fall 

good 

Speedwell, 

creeping 

P 

2,4-D, MCPP or 

Dicamba 

fall or spring good 

Speedwell, annual A dacthal spring or fall fair 

Spurge, spotted A 

dicamba(4,6) or 

MCPP 

summer fair-good 

Sow thistle A 2,4-D or dicamba(4) fall good 

Thistle(3) P dicamba(4) spring fair-good 

Wild violet P 

dicamba(4,6) or 

triclopyr 

spring or fall fair-good 

White clover P 

spring, summer or 

MCPP or dicamba(4) 

fall 

good 

Wild carrot B 2,4-D or dicamba(4) fall or spring good 

Wood sorrel 

(Oxalis) 

A 

2,4-D ester, MCPP or 

dicamba(4,6) 

early summer fair-good 

Yarrow P dicamba(4) spring fair 

(1) A = Annual, B = Biennial, P = Perennial. 


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(2) Do not use 2,4-D on golf course greens and use with caution on other bentgrass turf. 

(3) Three or more applications may be necessary to eradicate thistle. 

(4) Dicamba may accumulate in the soil with frequent or extensive use which may result in 

damage to trees, shrubs, or other ornamentals. 

(5) Nonselective herbicides. Spot treat only. 

(6) 2,4-D plus dichlorprop (Weedone formulations) 2,4-D plus triclopyr (Turflon formulations) and 

triclopyr plus clopyralid (Confront) are effective combinations for many broadleaf weeds, including 

hard-to-control species such as ground ivy, wood sorrel (oxalis), spotted spurge and wild violets. 

Annual bluegrass (A, P) 

Barnyardgrass (A) 

Crabgrass (A) 

Foxtail (A) 

Goosegrass (A) 

Bromegrass (P) 

Quackgrass (P) 

Tall Fescue (P) 

Creeping bentgrass (P) 

A = Annual 

P = Perennial 

WA = Winter annual 

Grass Weeds Table #2 

Herbicidal Summary 

Requires precision calculations, equipment, and application. 

Use pre-emergence herbicides. Apply two to 

three weeks prior to expected germination of 

weed seeds. Some of these herbicides may 

injure fine fescues or bentgrasses. Most preemergent 

herbicides will harm newly seeded 

grasses except siduron (Tupersan). 

These weeds can be controlled only with 

nonselective herbicides. Spot treat only 

because herbicide will also kill desirable grass 

plants. Apply when weeds are actively growing. 

Selectivity 

Crop naturally tolerates herbicide (internal selectivity). 

Placement of herbicide prevents crop exposure. 

Timing of application to avoid susceptible stage of growth. 

Labeling requires extensive testing. 

Toxicology includes acute, subacute, and chronic toxicity; teratology (fetus); reproduction, 

mutagenicity (cancer); neurotoxicity (nerves); and metabolism studies along with worker 

exposure. 

Environmental fate includes breakdown, groundwater, ecological effects on plants and 

animals. 

Tolerance assessment considers normal application procedures and preharvest intervals 

for assessing residues within food products. 


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Crop Herbicide Table # 3 

S. 

No. 

Family 

or natural 

order 

1. Acanthaceae 

(acanthus 

family) 

2. Amaranthaceae 

(pigweed 

family) 

3. Asclepiadaceae 

(milk-weed 

family) 

Descriptive 

features of the 

family 

Habit and habitat 

of weeds 

Herbicide 

recommendations 

(1) (2) (3) (4) 

Herbs or shrubs. 

Leaves, opposite, 

ex-stipulate. 

Flowers, bisexual, 

irregular. Calyx 4-5 

partite. Corolla, 

two-lipped and fivelobed. 

Stamens, 

four or two, 

epipetalous. Fruit, a 

capsule. 

Justicia 

quinqangularis, an 

annual Kharif 

season weed, 

occurring in crops, 

like rice, maize, 

sugarcane and 

cotton. 

In the case of rice, MCPA or 

MCPB @ 5kg ha+urea 3% in 

700 liters of water 3-4 weeks 

after direct seeding or 

transplanting. In the case of 

cotton, CMU pre-emergence 

@ 0.5- 1.0 kg/ha in 900 liters 

0f water. In the case of 

maize and sugarcane, 

Atrazine or Simazine preemergence 

@ 1 kg/ha in 900 

liters of water. 

Leaves, alternate; Amaranthus In the case of rice, MCPA or 

flowers, small, spinosus(kataili MCPB @0.5 kg/ha + urea 

without petals, chulai) Annual a. 2%. In the case of cotton, 

subtended by small viridis Annual CMU pre-emergence @ 0.5bristly 

bracts. Fruit, Reported to grow 1.0 kg/ha 2-3 weeks after 

one seeded, the in sugarcane, transplanting.(Other details 

thin pericarp maize, rice and given above) 

releases the lens- onion A. 

shaped, shiny black polygamous 

seeds 

(Csiru kearai) 

Celosia argentea, 

cock's comb 

(sufaid murga); 

Annual. Digera 

arvensis(tendala) 

Annual, a kharif 

season weed 

occurring in 

millets, maize, 

sugarcane and 

cotton; 

Achyranthes 

aspera;(chirchiri) 

in wasteland 

Herbs or shrubs with Calotropis Suspectable to 2,4-D amine 

milky juice. gigantea. A large 1-2 l/ha in 900 liters of water 

Leaves,opposite ex- shrub.Mostly seen before flowering. 

stipulate. 

on waste and 

Flowers,regular,bisex 

submarginal land. 

ual and in umbellatem 

clusters. Calyx,5lobed; 

corolla, 

gamopetalous. 

Stamens,five and 

filaments and 

united.Fruit consists 

of two follicles. 


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4. Boraginaceae 

5. Cannabinaceae 

or Urti 

caceae 

(nettle 

family) 

6. Chenopo 

diaceae 

(goosefoot 

family) 

7. Compositae 

(sunflower 

family) 

Leaves, alternate, 

exstipulate; flower, 

regular; corolla, 

gamopetalous; 

stamens, 5, 

attached to the 

corolla tube. Fruit, a 

drupe, or breaks 

into 2-4 nutlets. 

Plants annual. 

Leaves, palmately 

compound in 

Cannabis Flowers, 

greenish; male 

flowers, borne in 

long drooping 

panicles and 

female flowers 

borne in short 

axillary spikes. 

Heliotropium In the case of sugarcane and 

eichwaldi Annual maize, Atrazine or Simazine 

H. indicum Annual @ 1 kg/ha. For other details 

Reported to occur refer to No.1. 

in sugarcane, 

maize and cotton. 

Cannabis sativa 

Annual, (bhang) 

dioecious in 

nature. Occurs on 

wasteland, bunds 

and water 

channels. 

Susceptible to 2,4-D ester or 

a mixture of 2,4-D+2,4,5-T 

@ 1.0-2.0/ha during 

flowering or earlier. 

Leaves, alternate; Chenopodium In the case of monocot 

flowers small, album (lamb's- crops, 2,4-D amine @0.5 

without petals, no quarters) (bathua) kg/ha+urea 3 percent in 700 

bristly bracts. Fruit, C. murale (khar liters of water, 3-4 weeks 

one-seeded and bathua) Annual after sowing. In the case of 

the pericarp is rabi-season peas and linseed, MCPB @ 

adherent to the 

seed. 

weeds, dominant 

in rabi cereals, 

0.84 l/ha in 700 liters of 

water 6 weeks after sowing. 

peas, potato, In the case of potato and 

linseed and carrot. carrot, Linuron @ 0.5 kg/ha 

pre-emergence. In the case 

of sugar-beet, a preemergence 

soil application of 

Pyrazon at 2-3 kg/ha in 

1,000 liters of water is very 

effective against 

Chenopodium spp. and other 

annual dicot weed. 

Flowers aggregated Carthamus In the case of monocot 

in heads 

oxyacantha crops(Refer item No. 6). In 

comprising outerray Annual (wild the case of potato and peas 

flowers and inner safflower or pohli) Linuron @ 0.5 kg/ha pre- 

tubular or disc 

flowers. 

Sonchus emergence in 900 liters of 

oleraceus Annual water. In the case of linseed 

(The common MCPB (Refer item No. 6). In 

sowthistle or the case of non-cropped 

doodhli) Ageratum areas, a spraying with any 

conyzoides one of 2, 4-D, aminotriazole, 

(mahakama) Paraquate Banvel D and 

Annual Cnicus MSMA at 2-4 liters/ha before 

arvensis (kantaili) flowering will kill the weed 

Annuala rabi and prevent its flowering and 

crops such as seed production. For Canada 

wheat, potato, thistle; 2,4-D low volatile 

linseed and peas. ester 1.5 l/ha in 900 liters of 


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8. Convolvulaceae 

(morning-glory 

family) 

9. Cruciferae 

(mustard 

family) 

Plants, viny, trailing 

or twining, Leaves, 

alternate, entire, 

with a pair of basal 

lobes. Flowers, 

large, 

gamopetalous, with 

a basal tube and a 

spreading limb. 

Fruit, a 2chambered 

capsule, with 2-5 

seeds in each 

chamber. 

Leaves, alternate. 

Flowers cruciform 

(cross-like), with 4 

sepals, 4 petals 

and 6 stamens. 

Fruit, a siliqua, 

podlike, or short 

and flattened, with 

two chambers 

separated by a 

Parthenium water at the early bloom 

hysterophorus stage or aminotriazole at 2 

Annual (congress kg l/ha+ a wetting agent (6fl. 

ghas, safed topi, oz) spray at the flowering 

chamakta stage. 

chandni). Prolificseeder, 

extensively spread 

because of light 

seed, armed with 

pappus that 

facilitates its 

dispersal through 

natural agencies, 

such as wind, 

water, air and 

animals including 

man. 

Cirsiumarvense, 

Perennial 

(Canada thistle) 

Plushea 

lanceolata, 

Perennial (baisuri 

or kadjal). 

Reproduction 

through 

underground 

rhizomes. Mostly 

found in noncropped 

areas. 

Convolvulus 

arvensis, 

Perennial (field 

bindweed or 

hirankuri) 

Ipomoea reptans 

Aquatic weed, 

Evolvulus 

alsinoides (Vishnu 

krantha) Dodders 

ao Cuscuta spp. 

Flowering 

parasites. 

Brassica sinensis 

(wild mustard or 

jungli sarson), 

Sisymbrium irio, 

Nasturtium 

indicum. 

For field bindweed and 

ipomoea reptans: In noncropped 

land and monocot 

crops, 2,4-D amine 1.0 

liter/ha + urea 3 percent in 

900 liters of water before 

flowering of the weed. For 

dodder 2kg/ha granulated 

CIPC. 

In the case of peas and 

potato. Linuron (Ref. No. 

7).In wheat, 2,4-D + urea 

(Ref. No. 6). In the case of 

linseed, MCPB (Ref. No. 6) 


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10. Cyperaceae 

(sedge family) 

11. Euphor 

biaceae 

(Spurge 

family) 

12. Grami 

neae 

(grass 

family) 

central partition 

bearing two to 

several seeds, 

usually dehiscent. 

Stems, solid and 3angled. 

Leaves, 

similar to those of 

grasses, with a 

linear blade and 

basal sheath; leaf 

sheath forming a 

closed tube around 

the stem. Flowers, 

without petals, 

variously arranged 

often in spikes, 

enclosed by a 

single bract. Fruit, a 

flattened or 3angled 

achene, 

with a thick hard 

pericarp. 

Plants, diverse as 

to vegetative 

characters. 

Common species, 

with milky juice. 

Flowers, much 

reduced, without 

petals, in some 

species with 

colored bracts 

which resemble 

petals. Fruit, 

usually a 3-lobed, 

3-chambered 

capsule, with one 

seed in each 

chamber. 

Plants wth hollow 

round or flat stems 

(culms). Leaves, 

arranged in two 

rows on the 

opposite sides of 

Cyperus rotundus 

(Nutgrass or 

purple nutsedge 

or motha C. 

esculentus 

(Yellow nutsedge 

present in the 

USA) C. iria 

An effective method of 

controlling nutsedge in 

arable land consists in giving 

2-4 ploughings during may 

and June; immediately after 

each ploughing spray on the 

soil a mixture of 2,4-D + 

Dalapon 2 kg/ha of each in 

Perennial. Present 900 liters of water, sowing of 

in both cropped hybrid maize in the last week 

and non-cropped of June, using atrazine pre- 

land all over the emergence @ 1 kg/ha in the 

world. 

case of maize, and after 

Reproduction maize, raise a wheat crop in 

through vegetative the rabi season. 

means. 

Euphorbia 

prostrata 

Annual (milkweed 

E.hirta(dudhi),, 

E.racunculoaies,, 

Reported to occur 

in wheat, gram, 

millet and maize 

Phyllanthus niru.i 

Reported to occur 

in rice. 

Except in the case of gram, 

2,4-D,or MCPA or MCPB at 

1 Kg/ha in 700 liters of water 

will kill these weeds. 

Echinochloa In case of rice, propanil 2 

crusgalli liters/ha in 700 liters of water 

13. Labiatae 

(mint 

family) 

14. Legumin 

osae(legume 

family) 

of unequal bracts, 

one on each side, 

the larger is the 

lemma and the 

smaller is the 

palea. The unit 

consisting of the 

flower, lemma and 

the palea is the 

floret. The florets 

are arranged in 

spikelets each of 

which consists of 

central axis, a pair 

of bracts (glumes) 

at the base, and 

one to several 

florets above. Fruit, 

a grain or 

caryopsis, 1seeded, 

the fruit 

coat permanently 

adherent about the 

seed. 

kans) Perennial, 

reported to occur 

in sugarcane, 

cotton and millets. 

Sorghum 

halepense(Johnso 

n grass or baru) 

Perennial, 

reported to occur 

in sugarcane, 

maize and cotton. 

Avena fatua (wild 

oats or Jungli jai) 

A. ludoviciana 

Annual, reported 

to occur in wheat, 

peas, potato, 

gram and linseed. 

Phalaris spp. 

Annual Reported 

to occur in rabi 

crops. 

Plants, with square Leucas aspera 

stems and aromatic Annual 

odor. Leaves, Ocimum canum 

simple, exstipulate, Annual 

opposite toothed or 

lobed. Flowers, 

gamopetalous, 

irregular, 2-lipped. 

The fruit, consists 

of usually 4, dry 

single-seeded 

nutlets. 

Leaves, alternate, 

compound, with 

three leaflets. 

Flowers irregular 

with a larger 

petal(standard), 2side 

petals (wings), 

and two inner 

petals which are 

fused(keel) and 

enclosed the pistil 

and stamens. 

Fruits, a pod, 1celled.Severalseeded 

and 

dehiscent, e.g. 

bean pod or oneseeded 

and 

indehiscent(sweet 

Melilotus (white 

sweet clover). 

Annual, in rabi 

crops. M. 

indica(senji) 

Annual in rabi 

crops. Vicia sativa 

(common vetch) 

Annual in rabi 

crops. Tephrosia 

purpurea. A 

perennial undershrub 

in arid 

tracts. Prosopis 

juliflora(mesquite) 

A perennial small 

tree in noncropped 

land. 

Alhagi camelorum 

(Barban) @0.5 i/ha at the 2 

leaf-stage of the weed as a 

very low-volume spraying or 

preplant Avadex(trillate) at 2 

l/ha. Phalaris sp. in wheat is 

controlled effectively by a 

pre-emergence application of 

Tribunil at 2 kg/ha in 900 

liters of water. A single 

application of this chemical, 

in addition to killing this 

annual grass weed, is also 

lethal to all annual dicot 

weed. 

Suceptible to 2, 4-D amine 1 

kg/ha in 900 liters of water. 

2, 4-D in cereals at 1 kg/ha 

kills the annual legumes. For 

perennials, a mixture of 2, 4- 

D and 2, 4, 5-T at 1-2 l/ha 

before flowering. 


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15. Orbanch 

aceae 

(broomrape 

family) 

16. Papaver 

aceae 

(poppy 

family) 

17. Ponteder 

iaceae 

(water 

hyacinth 

family) 

clover) (Camelthorn or 

javasa). A thorny 

perennial in fallow 

land. Mimosa 

pudica (touch-menot 

or lajjavanti). A 

thorny perennial. 

Brown or yellowish 

herbs, without 

green leaves and 

parasitic on the 

roots of other 

plants. Stem, 

simple with a few 

scales and ends in 

a spike of flowers, 

irregular and 

bisexual, calyx, 2-4lobed; 

corolla, 

gamopetalous, 

stamens 4, 

didynamous and 

epipetalous, 

numerous seeds. 

Annuals, with 

prickly stems and 

leaves. Juice, 

yellow-orange. 

Sepals, 2 or 3, 

falling off when the 

flower opens. 

Petals, 4,stamens, 

many. Fruit, a 

capsule, many 

seeds, with oily 

endosperm 

The family consists 

of erect or floating 

fresh water and 

marsh herbs. 

Flowers, bisexual 

more or less 

irregular usually in 

a recemose 

inflorescence from 

a spathe like bract. 

Perianth, tubular 

consisting of six 

Orobanche cernua 

(broomrape) 

O. indica An 

annual root 

parasite on 

tobacco, mustard, 

etc. 

Argemone 

nexicana (prickly 

poppy or 

bharbhand or 

satyanasi ). 

Annual, spread all 

over India, in all 

crops, especially 

wheat and 

mustard 

Eichhornia 

crassipes (water 

hyacinth). A freefloating 

or surface 

perennial, one of 

the worst aquatic 

weed, occurring 

all over the globe. 

Eradication with chemicals 

without affecting the host 

plants is difficult the removal 

of immature plants as they 

emerge from the soil and 

before they form seeds 

prevents its spread. Heavy 

infested areas can be 

reclaimed by growing a trap 

crop and spraying with 1-2 

i/ha of amine 2, 4-D. 2, 4- 

DES at 6 kg/ha in 1,000 liters 

of water applied at 4-6 week 

intervals or in split 

applications at 3 kg/ha each 

time 2 and 6 weeks after 

transplanting tobacco; 

reduce the population of 

broomrape plants 

considerably. Sprays with 

amyl alcohol (0.1-0.2 per 

cent) are reported to be 

effective against broomrape 

in tobacco. 

In the case of monocot 

crops, 2, 4-D amine+urea 

(Ref. No. 6). In mustard, 

nitrofen pre-emergence 1-2 

l/ha in 900 liters of water. 

2, 4-Dester of low volatiolity 

@ 1-2 kg in 700 liters of 

water during the active 

growing season; Amitrole-T 

2 i/ha in 00 liters of water at 

peak growth; repeat the 

application of Paraquat 2 

i/ha. The addition of urea 3 

percent to low doses of any 

of the post-emergence 

herbicides at lower dosage 

levels(1 kg or l/ha) improves 


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18. Scrophulariaceae 

(figwort family) 

19. Solanaceae 

(potato family) 

petal like parts in 

two whorls. 

Stamens, 6, 

unequal, attached, 

to the perianth 

tube. 

Herbs, sometimes 

semiparasitic, or 

shrubs. Leaves, 

exstipulate. 

Flowers, bisexual 

and usually 

irregular. Calyx, 4-5 

lobed and 2-lipped. 

Stamens, usually 4, 

epipetalous and 

didynamous. Fruit, 

a capsule, with 

many seeds. 

Leaves, alternate. 

Calyx, five-lobed; 

flowers, 

gamopetalous, 

regular, tubular or 

with tube and 

expanded limb. 

Stamens, 5, 

attached to the 

corolla tube. Fruit, a 

berry or a capsule 

with many seeds. 

Striga asiatica 

(witch weed) 

S.lutea 

S.euphrasioides 

Annual root; 

parasites reported 

to occur in bajra, 

sorghum, 

sugarcane and 

rice. 

Solanum 

Xanthocarpum(kat 

eli) 

A perennial spiny 

herb. Solanum 

elaeagnifolium 

(white horse 

nettle) Perennial, 

reported to be 

very prevalent in 

southern India. 

20. Typhaceae Typhas are Cattails and tules 

gregarious, robust, (Typha sp.) 

grass-like herbs, Aquatic emersed 

attaining a height of perennials 

even 3m and 

flourishing under 

water-logged 

conditions. Flowers 

are small in long 

dense cylindric, 

terminal spikes. 

21. Verbenaceae 

(vervain 

family). 

Herbs, shrubs or Lantana camara 

trees, exstipulate perennial(tantani) 

leaves; calyx 4-5 or shrub. 

more-lobed and 

sometimes colored. 

Corolla, tube has a 

2-lipped or 4-5lobed 

limb. 

the weed killing effect. 

In the case of monocot 

crops, 2,4-Damine @ l/ha in 

900 liters of water soon after 

the germination of the 

parasite; fence @ 3 kg/ha in 

700 liters of water as preplanting 

soil incorporation, 

especially in the case of 

sugarcane. 

2,4,5-T @ 1 kg/ha in 1,000 

liters of water at the young 

stage before leaves become 

tough. For Solanum 

elasagnifolium, 2,4-D amine 

foliar spray during the period 

of active growth at 2 liters/ha 

in 900 liters of water effects 

remarkable reduction in the 

regeneration of the weed 

control. After this chemical 

treatment, if the land is 

cropped to sorghum, the 

further spread of this 

perennial weed control is 

prevented. 

Dalapon @ 5kg+ wetting 

agent 0.5 kg to be sprayed 

during the active growth of 

Aminotriazole 1 kg+a wetting 

agent or 2,4-D as an ester of 

low volatility @ 1 kg+diesel 

oil in 4.5 liters in 500 liters of 

water. 

A mixture of 2, 4-D+ 2, 4, 5T 

(Brush killer) at 1-2 kg in 

1,000 liters of water at the 

pre-bloom stage 


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§ 156.208 Restricted-entry statements. 

(a) Requirement. Each product with a restricted-entry interval shall bear the following statement: "Do not 

enter or allow worker entry into treated areas during the restricted-entry interval (REI)." This statement shall 

be under the heading AGRICULTURAL USE REQUIREMENTS in the labeling. 

(b) Location of specific restricted-entry interval statements. (1) If a product has one specific restricted-entry 

interval applicable to all registered uses of the product on agricultural plants, the restricted-entry interval for 

the product shall appear as a continuation of the statement required in paragraph (a) of this section and 

shall appear as follows: "of X hours" or "of X days" or "until the acceptable exposure level of X ppm or 

mg/m3 is reached." 

(2) If different restricted-entry intervals have been established for some crops or some uses of a product, the 

restricted-entry statement in paragraph (b)(1) of this section shall be associated on the labeling of the 

product with the directions for use for each crop each use to which it applies, immediately preceded or 

immediately followed by the words "Restricted-entry interval" (or the letters "REI"). 

(c) Restricted-entry interval based on toxicity of active ingredient--(1) Determination of toxicity category. A 

restricted-entry interval shall be established based on the acute toxicity of the active ingredients in the 

product. For the purpose of setting the restricted-entry interval, the toxicity category of each active ingredient 

in the product shall be determined by comparing the obtainable data on the acute dermal toxicity, eye 

irritation effects, and skin irritation effects of the ingredient to the criteria of § 156.10(h)(1). The most toxic of 

the applicable toxicity categories that are obtainable for each active ingredient shall be used to determine 

the restricted-entry interval for that product. If no acute dermal toxicity data are obtainable, data on acute 

oral toxicity also shall be considered in this comparison. If no applicable acute toxicity data are obtainable on 

the active ingredient, the toxicity category corresponding to the signal word of any registered manufacturinguse 

product that is the source of the active ingredient in the end-use product shall be used. If no acute 

toxicity data are obtainable on the active ingredients and no toxicity category of a registered manufacturinguse 

product is obtainable, the toxicity category of the end-use product (corresponding to the signal word on 

its labeling) shall be used. 


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Reducing Weed Control Costs 

There are many possibilities for reducing weed control costs while still attaining good weed 

control. Wise selection of weed control practices and herbicides to fit specific field situations is the 

key. Identify your weeds and develop an effective, low cost control program that is suitable for the 

crop you plan to grow. Using band applications of herbicides in row crops, supplemented with 

cultivation, may save you money. 

Reducing herbicide rates below those recommended increases the possibility of costly weed 

control failure. On the other hand, applying herbicides at greater than recommended rates adds 

unnecessarily to your weed control costs and may result in crop injury or herbicide carryover. 

Applying herbicides at the proper time and rate with a carefully calibrated applicator provides the 

best return on your herbicide investment. 

Herbicide Mixtures 

Herbicide mixtures are used to overcome limitations of single chemicals. Certain mixtures may: 

(1) control more kinds of weeds, 

(2) give more consistent performance with variable soils and weather conditions, 

(3) lessen soil residue problems, 

(4) increase persistence enough to give full-season weed control, or 

(5) reduce crop injury. 

Only those mixtures that have been field tested under local conditions should be used. Use of 

some mixtures may result in poor weed control or crop injury. Growers or applicators may be 

responsible for chemical residues in crops, crop injury or lack of weed control resulting from use 

of unlabeled mixtures. 

Safety Precautions 

Always follow the precautions and use restrictions on the label carefully to help protect the 

operator, avoid crop injury, and prevent harmful residues in food and feed crops. Use herbicides 

only on crops specified on the label. Use only the recommended amount of herbicide; applying 

too much of a herbicide may damage the crop, may be unwise if the crop is to be used for food or 

feed, and is costly. Apply herbicides only at times specified on the label; observe the 

recommended intervals between treatments and pasturing or harvesting of crops. Wear goggles, 

rubber gloves, and other protective clothing as recommended on the label. Prevent drift onto 

nearby susceptible plants. Return larger quantities of unused herbicides in unopened containers 

to the manufacturer or store them properly until used. Dispose of empty containers in a safe 

manner: 

Triple rinse container thoroughly with water and use the rinse water in the sprayer. 

Bury small and decomposable containers in approved and supervised sanitary landfills. 

Send empty metal pesticide containers of 15 gallon capacity or more back to the 

manufacturer or to professional drum reconditioners. 

Observe special label instructions relating to disposal. 

Groundwater and Surface Water Contamination 

The potential for ground and surface water pollution with pesticides is a growing concern. Good 

land stewardship dictates that herbicide characteristics must be assessed in relation to their 

ground or surface water pollution potential, in addition to choosing the most effective and 

economical weed control. Growing public concern and increasing frequency of detections of 

minute levels of pesticides in groundwater will result in regulatory action if corrective measures 

are not taken. Atrazine is the most commonly detected herbicide in well monitoring studies. Sinkholes 

and shallow soil over porous, fractured limestone bedrock poses a real problem for 

managing certain herbicides such as atrazine in the karst area. The same situation also exists 

where permeable sands over shallow water tables occur. 


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Alternatives to atrazine should be considered in these areas to reduce pollution concerns. 

Also, other herbicides have ground or surface water advisory statements on their labels. Use 

these compounds in sensitive areas only after assessing site specific pollution potential. 

The levels of pesticides being detected in groundwater are generally in the parts per billion (ppb) 

range and are below current health advisory levels considered safe for drinking water. These 

levels often represent less than 1/1000th of the amount applied to the field, alluding to the 

difficulty in managing pesticide pollution. Point source concerns are often suspect if levels in a 

well over a few ppb are detected. Point source problems are those directly attributable to a 

confined area, event, or site such as mixing or manufacturing sites. Point source contamination 

may be responsible for a large portion of pesticide detections in wells in some areas of the state. 

They are relatively easy to correct. Point source problems can be reduced by the following: 

Mix chemicals in the field using a 'water only' nurse tank thereby keeping pesticides away 

from wells and water sources. 

If chemicals must be mixed at the well site, use hoses to maintain at least a 150 ft. buffer 

from the well to the spray tank, 100 ft. buffer with safeguards, or 50 ft. with safeguards 

and a roof present. 

Keep filling hoses out of the spray tank, use check valves, and Do Not leave tanks 

unattended while filling to avoid backsiphoning or overflow. 

Never dump rinsate or concentrated product in a localized area. Dispose of rinsate by 

applying to a labeled crop site. 

Triple rinse herbicide containers before disposal or return. 

Properly construct, grout, and case new well construction. Properly cap and seal 

abandoned wells. 

Sphaeralcea ambigua 

The desert mallow, globe mallow, "sore eye poppy," Sphaeralcea ambigua. The sore-eye name 

arose because the hairs on the plants are irritating to the eyes. They are also irritating to the skin 

of susceptible persons. This species is probably the most common mallow in the foothills area. 

However, there are many species of mallow which can be recognized by their flowers. Cotton is 

the most notable member of the mallow family. Okra is an edible mallow. Hibiscus and hollyhock 

are well known garden mallows. The sphaeralcea species are generally perennials, more or less 

woody at the base forming small bushes. The hairs of the leaves and stems are stellate or having 

radiating arms like a star. Both the shape of the leaves and the color of the flowers are variable. 

The flowers are most often grenadine to peach-red but may be mauve or almost white. They have 

five petals that are not quite symmetric. The numerous stamens and divided pistil are reddish, 

forming an attractive center for the blossom. The stamens are all united at their bases into a tube 

surrounding the pistil. This structure is characteristic of all mallows. 


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Common Herbicide Information Section 

Diquat dibromide 

Trade and Other Names: Trade names include Aquacide, Aquakill, Dextrone, Diquat, Reglone, 

Reglox, Reward, Tag, Torpedo, Vegetrole, and Weedtrine-D. 

Regulatory Status: Diquat dibromide is a moderately toxic compound in EPA toxicity class II 

[1,2]. It is a General Use Pesticide (GUP). Labels for products containing diquat dibromide must 

bear the Signal Word 

WARNING. 

Chemical Class: desiccant 

Introduction: Diquat dibromide is a nonselective, quick-acting herbicide and plant growth 

regulator, causing injury only to the parts of the plant to which it is applied. Diquat dibromide is 

referred to as a desiccant because it causes a leaf or an entire plant to dry out quickly. It is used 

to desiccate potato vines and seed crops, to control flowering of sugarcane, and for industrial and 

aquatic weed control. It is not residual; that is, it does not leave any trace of herbicide on or in 

plants, soil, or water. 

Formulation: Not Available 

Toxicological Effects: 

Acute toxicity: Diquat dibromide is moderately toxic via ingestion, with reported oral 

LD50 values of 120 mg/kg in rats, 233 mg/kg in mice, 188 mg/kg in rabbits, and 187 

mg/kg in guinea pigs and dogs [1,87]. Cows appear to be particularly sensitive to this 

herbicide, with an oral LD50 of 30 to 56 mg/kg [17]. The acute dermal LD50 for diquat 

dibromide is approximately 400 to 500 mg/kg in rabbits, indicating moderate toxicity by 

this route as well [58,87]. A single dose of diquat dibromide was not irritating to the skin 

of rabbits, but repeated dermal dosing did cause mild redness, thickening, and scabbing 

[58]. Moderate to severe eye membrane irritation occurred when diquat dibromide was 

administered to rabbits [88]. Ingestion of sufficient doses may cause severe irritation of 

the mouth, throat, esophagus, and stomach, followed by nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, 

severe dehydration, and alterations in body fluid balances, gastrointestinal discomfort, 

chest pain, diarrhea, kidney failure, and toxic liver damage [87]. Skin absorption of high 

doses may cause symptoms similar to those that occur following ingestion [89]. Very 

large doses of the herbicide can result in convulsions and tremors [88]. Test animals 

(rats, mice, guinea pigs, rabbits, dogs, cows, and hens) given lethal doses of diquat 

dibromide showed a delayed pattern of illness, with onset approximately 24 hours 

following dosing, subsequent lethargy, pupil dilation, respiratory distress, weight loss, 

weakness and finally death over the course of 2 to 14 days after dosing [58,87,89]. There 

have been reports of workers who have had softening and color changes in one or more 

fingernails after contact with concentrated diquat dibromide solutions [87]. In some 

instances, the nail was shed, and did not grow in again [87]. Several cases of severe eye 

injury in humans have occurred after accidental splashings [87]. In each case, initial 

irritation was mild, but after several days, serious burns and sometimes scarring of the 

cornea developed. Direct or excessive inhalation of diquat dibromide spray mist or dust 

may result in oral or nasal irritation, nosebleeds, headache, sore throat, coughing, and 

symptoms similar to those from ingestion of diquat [87]. 

Chronic toxicity: Chronic effects of diquat dibromide are similar to those of paraquat 

[87]. Cataracts, a clouding of the eyes which interferes with light entering the eye, 

occurred in rats and dogs given 2.5 mg/kg/day and 5 mg/kg/day of diquat dibromide, 

respectively [87]. Cataracts increased in proportion to the dose given in test animals (cats 

and dogs) [17,88]. Chronic exposure is necessary to produce these effects [87]. Other 

effects on the eye (hemorrhage, retinal detachment) may occur at higher dosages [87]. 


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Rats fed dietary doses of 2.5 mg/kg/day over 2 years did not exhibit signs of toxicity other 

than reduced food intake and decreased growth [17]. In another study using rats, oral 

doses of 4 mg/kg/day over 2 years produced no behavioral or other changes in general 

condition [87]. At this dose level no evidence of change in the kidneys, liver, or 

myocardium (heart muscle) were seen. This dosage (but not 2 mg/kg/day) caused 

changes in lung tissues [87]. Repeated or prolonged dermal contact may cause 

inflammation of the skin, and, at high doses, systemic effects in other parts of the body. 

These may include damage to the kidneys [58]. Chronic exposure may damage skin, 

which may increase the permeability of the skin to foreign compounds [88]. 

Reproductive effects: Diquat dibromide generally did not reduce fertility when tested in 

experimental animals [89]. Rats receiving 1.25 mg/kg/day decreased their food intake 

and showed slowed growth, but had unchanged reproduction [89]. Fertility was reduced 

in male mice given diquat dibromide during different stages of sperm formation [87]. 

Neither fertility nor reproduction was affected in a three-generation study in rats given 

dietary doses of 12.5 or 25 mg/kg/day of diquat dibromide, although some growth 

retardation was seen at the 25 mg/kg/day dose [87]. Based on this evidence it is unlikely 

that diquat dibromide will cause reproductive effects in humans under normal 

circumstances. 

Teratogenic effects: Offspring of pregnant rats given a fatal injected dose of 14 mg/kg of 

diquat dibromide showed evidence of skeletal defects of the collar bone, as well as little 

or no ear bone formation upon examination [58,87]. No deformities were found in the 

unborn offspring of pregnant rats that were injected intraperitoneally with 0.5 mg/kg/day 

of diquat daily during organogenesis, the stage of fetal development in which organs are 

formed [26]. Growth retardation was seen in test animals given extremely high doses of 

diquat. While no actual teratogenesis occurred in rats given single abdominal injections 

during days 7 to 14 of pregnancy, many rats did not have normal weight gain and bone 

formation in the unborn was decreased [23]. It is unlikely that diquat dibromide will cause 

teratogenic effects in humans under normal circumstances. 

Mutagenic effects: There is no evidence that diquat dibromide causes permanent 

changes in genetic material [87]. For example, no mutagenic effects were seen in mice 

given oral doses of 10 mg/kg/day for 5 days [23]. 

Carcinogenic effects: An 80-week feeding study showed that dietary doses of 15 

mg/kg/day of diquat did not cause tumors in rats [90]. Likewise, dietary levels of 36 

mg/kg/day for 2 years did not induce tumors in rats [87]. Based on the evidence, it 

appears that diquat dibromide is not carcinogenic. 

Organ toxicity: In animals, diquat dibromide may affect the gastrointestinal tract, eyes, 

kidneys or liver, and the lungs. 

Fate in humans and animals: Absorption of diquat dibromide from the gut into the 

bloodstream is low [87]. Oral doses are mainly metabolized within the intestines, with 

metabolites being excreted in the feces [87,30]. Rat studies showed only a small 

percentage of the applied oral dose (6%) was absorbed into the bloodstream and then 

excreted in the urine [87]. Dermal, inhalation, or intravenous exposure results in little 

processing and rapid elimination in the urine [87]. Following subcutaneous injection in 

rats, excretion of about 90% of the dose occurred in the urine on the first day and almost 

all of the remainder on the next day [87]. Complete elimination of the herbicide was seen 

in urine and feces of rats within 4 days of administration of single oral doses of 5 to 10 

mg/kg of diquat dibromide [87]. 

Ecological Effects: 

Effects on birds: Diquat dibromide ranges from slightly to moderately toxic to birds [91]. 

The reported acute oral LD50 in young male mallards is 564 mg/kg [8]. The oral LD50 for 

diquat dibromide is 200 to 400 mg/kg in hens [8]. The 5-day dietary LC50 is about 1300 

ppm in Japanese quail [36]. 

Effects on aquatic organisms: Diquat dibromide is moderately to practically nontoxic to 

fish and aquatic invertebrates. The 8-hour LC50 for diquat dibromide is 12.3 mg/L in 


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ainbow trout and 28.5 mg/L in Chinook salmon [28]. The 96-hour LC50 is 16 mg/L in 

northern pike, 20.4 mg/L in fingerling trout, 245 mg/L in bluegill, 60 mg/L in yellow perch, 

and 170 mg/L in black bullhead [37,92]. Research indicates that yellow perch suffer 

significant respiratory stress when herbicide concentrations in the water are similar to 

those normally present during aquatic vegetation control programs [93]. There is little or 

no bioconcentration of diquat dibromide in fish [8]. 

Effects on other organisms: Diquat dibromide is not toxic to honey bees [1]. Since 

diquat dibromide is a nonselective herbicide, it may present a danger to non-target plant 

species [91]. Cows are particularly sensitive to the toxic effects of this material [17]. 

Environmental Fate: 

Breakdown in soil and groundwater: Diquat dibromide is highly persistent, with 

reported field half-lives of greater than 1000 days [11]. It is very well sorbed by soil 

organic matter and clay [11]. Although it is water soluble [11], its capacity for strong 

adsorption to soil particles suggest that it will not easily leach through the soil, be taken 

up by plants or soil microbes, or broken down by sunlight (photochemical degradation). 

Field and laboratory tests show that diquat usually remains in the top inch of soil for long 

periods of time after it is applied [94]. 

Breakdown in water: Studies on the erosion of diquat-treated soils near bodies of water 

indicate that diquat dibromide stays bound to soil particles, remaining biologically inactive 

in surface waters, such as lakes, rivers, and ponds [95]. When diquat dibromide is 

applied to open water, it disappears rapidly because it binds to suspended particles in the 

water [95]. Diquat dibromide's half-life is less than 48 hours in the water column, and may 

be on the order of 160 days in sediments due to its low bioavailability [94,95]. Microbial 

degradation and sunlight play roles in the breakdown of the compound [95]. At 22 days 

after a weed infested artificial lake was treated, only 1% of the applied diquat dibromide 

remained in the water and 19% was adsorbed to sediments [9]. 

Breakdown in vegetation: Diquat dibromide is rapidly absorbed into the leaves of 

plants, but usually kills the plant tissues necessary for translocation too quickly to allow 

movement to other parts of the plant. The herbicide interferes with cell respiration, the 

process by which plants produce energy. Diquat dibromide is broken down on the plant 

surface by photochemical degradation [58]. It is rapidly absorbed by aquatic weeds from 

the surrounding water and concentrated in the plant tissue [8]. Thus, even low 

concentrations of the herbicide can control aquatic weeds [8]. 

Physical Properties: 

Appearance: Technical diquat dibromide, which is greater than 95% pure, forms white to 

yellow crystals [1]. 

Chemical Name: 1,1'-ethylene-2,2'-bipyridyldiylium dibromide salt [1] 

CAS Number: 85-00-7 

Molecular Weight: 344.06 

Water Solubility: 700,000 mg/L @ 20 C; v.s. [1] 

Solubility in Other Solvents: i.s. in nonpolar solvents such as chloroform, diethyl ether, 

and petroleum ether [1]; s.s in alcohol and hydroxylic solvents [1] 

Melting Point: Decomposes above 300 C [1] 

Vapor Pressure: Negligible @ 20 C [1] 

Partition Coefficient: -4.6021 [1] 

Adsorption Coefficient: 1,000,000 (estimated) [11] 

Exposure Guidelines: 

ADI: 0.002 mg/kg/day [12] 

MCL: 0.02 mg/L [65] 

RfD: 0.0022 mg/kg/day [13] 

PEL: Not Available 

HA: Not Available 

TLV: 0.1 mg/m3 (8-hour) (respirable fraction) [17] 

Basic Manufacturer: 


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Zeneca Ag Products 

1800 Concord Pike 

Wilmington, DE 19897 

Phone: 800-759-4500 

Emergency: 800-759-2500 

DISCLAIMER: The information in this profile does not in any way replace or supersede the 

information on the pesticide product labeling or other regulatory requirements. Please refer to the 

pesticide product labeling. 


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Glyphosate 

Trade and Other Names: Trade names for products containing glyphosate include Gallup, 

Landmaster, Pondmaster, Ranger, Roundup, Rodeo, and Touchdown. It may be used in 

formulations with other herbicides. 

Regulatory Status: Glyphosate acid and its salts are moderately toxic compounds in EPA 

toxicity class II. Labels for products containing these compounds must bear the Signal Word 

WARNING. Glyphosate is a General Use Pesticide (GUP). 

Chemical Class: Not Available 

Introduction: Glyphosate is a broad-spectrum, nonselective systemic herbicide used for control 

of annual and perennial plants including grasses, sedges, broad-leaved weeds, and woody 

plants. It can be used on non-cropland as well as on a great variety of crops. Glyphosate itself is 

an acid, but it is commonly used in salt form, most commonly the isopropylamine salt. It may also 

be available in acidic or trimethylsulfonium salt forms. It is generally distributed as water-soluble 

concentrates and powders. The information presented here refers to the technical grade of the 

acid form of glyphosate, unless otherwise noted. 

Formulation: Glyphosate itself is an acid, but it is commonly used in salt form, most commonly 

the isopropylamine salt. It may also be available in acidic or trimethylsulfonium salt forms. It is 

generally distributed as water-soluble concentrates and powders. 


Acute toxicity: Glyphosate is practically nontoxic by ingestion, with a reported acute oral 

LD50 of 5600 mg/kg in the rat. The toxicities of the technical acid (glyphosate) and the 

formulated product (Roundup) are nearly the same [58,96]. The oral LD50 for the 

trimethylsulfonium salt is reported to be approximately 750 mg/kg in rats, which indicates 

moderate toxicity [58]. Formulations may show moderate toxicity as well (LD50 values 

between 1000 mg/kg and 5000 mg/kg) [58]. Oral LD50 values for glyphosate are greater 

than 10,000 mg/kg in mice, rabbits, and goats [8,96]. It is practically nontoxic by skin 

exposure, with reported dermal LD50 values of greater than 5000 mg/kg for the acid and 

isopropylamine salt. The trimethylsulfonium salt has a reported dermal LD50 of greater 

than 2000 mg/kg. It is reportedly not irritating to the skin of rabbits, and does not induce 

skin sensitization in guinea pigs [58]. It does cause eye irritation in rabbits [58]. Some 

formulations may cause much more extreme irritation of the skin or eyes [58]. In a 

number of human volunteers, patch tests produced no visible skin changes or 

sensitization [58]. The reported 4-hour rat inhalation LC50 values for the technical acid 

and salts were 5 to 12 mg/L [58], indicating moderate toxicity via this route. Some 

formulations may show high acute inhalation toxicity [58]. While it does contain a 

phosphatyl functional group, it is not structurally similar to organophosphate pesticides 

which contain organophosphate esters, and it does not significantly inhibit cholinesterase 

activity [1,58]. 

Chronic toxicity: Studies of glyphosate lasting up to 2 years, have been conducted with 

rats, dogs, mice, and rabbits, and with few exceptions no effects were observed [96]. For 

example, in a chronic feeding study with rats, no toxic effects were observed in rats given 

doses as high as 400 mg/kg/day [58]. Also, no toxic effects were observed in a chronic 

feeding study with dogs fed up to 500 mg/kg/day, the highest dose tested [58,97]. 

Reproductive effects: Laboratory studies show that glyphosate produces reproductive 

changes in test animals very rarely and then only at very high doses (over 150 

mg/kg/day) [58,96]. It is unlikely that the compound would produce reproductive effects in 

humans. 

Teratogenic effects: In a teratology study with rabbits, no developmental toxicity was 

observed in the fetuses at the highest dose tested (350 mg/kg/day) [97]. Rats given 


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doses up to 175 mg/kg/day on days 6 to 19 of pregnancy had offspring with no 

teratogenic effects, but other toxic effects were observed in both the mothers and the 

fetuses. No toxic effects to the fetuses occurred at 50 mg/kg/day [97]. Glyphosate does 

not appear to be teratogenic. 

Mutagenic effects: Glyphosate mutagenicity and genotoxicity assays have been 

negative [58]. These included the Ames test, other bacterial assays, and the Chinese 

Hamster Ovary (CHO) cell culture, rat bone marrow cell culture, and mouse dominant 

lethal assays [58]. It appears that glyphosate is not mutagenic. 

Carcinogenic effects: Rats given oral doses of up to 400 mg/kg/day did not show any 

signs of cancer, nor did dogs given oral doses of up to 500 mg/kg/day or mice fed 

glyphosate at doses of up to 4500 mg/kg/day [58]. It appears that glyphosate is not 

carcinogenic [97]. 

Organ toxicity: Some microscopic liver and kidney changes, but no observable 

differences in function or toxic effects, have been seen after lifetime administration of 

glyphosate to test animals [97]. 

Fate in humans and animals: Glyphosate is poorly absorbed from the digestive tract 

and is largely excreted unchanged by mammals. At 10 days after treatment, there were 

only minute amounts in the tissues of rats fed glyphosate for 3 weeks [98]. Cows, 

chickens, and pigs fed small amounts of glyphosate had undetectable levels (less than 

0.05 ppm) in muscle tissue and fat. Levels in milk and eggs were also undetectable (less 

than 0.025 ppm). Glyphosate has no significant potential to accumulate in animal tissue 

[99]. 


Effects on birds: Glyphosate is slightly toxic to wild birds. The dietary LC50 in both 

mallards and bobwhite quail is greater than 4500 ppm [1]. 

Effects on aquatic organisms: Technical glyphosate acid is practically nontoxic to fish 

and may be slightly toxic to aquatic invertebrates. The 96-hour LC50 is 120 mg/L in 

bluegill sunfish, 168 mg/L in harlequin, and 86 mg/L in rainbow trout [58]. The reported 

96-hour LC50 values for other aquatic species include greater than 10 mg/L in Atlantic 

oysters, 934 mg/L in fiddler crab, and 281 mg/L in shrimp [58]. The 48-hour LC50 for 

glyphosate in Daphnia (water flea), an important food source for freshwater fish, is 780 

mg/L [58]. Some formulations may be more toxic to fish and aquatic species due to 

differences in toxicity between the salts and the parent acid or to surfactants used in the 

formulation [58,96]. There is a very low potential for the compound to build up in the 

tissues of aquatic invertebrates or other aquatic organisms [96]. 

Effects on other organisms: Glyphosate is nontoxic to honeybees [1,58]. Its oral and 

dermal LD50 is greater than 0.1 mg/ bee [98]. The reported contact LC50 values for 

earthworms in soil are greater than 5000 ppm for both the glyphosate trimethylsulfonium 

salt and Roundup [58]. 


Breakdown in soil and groundwater: Glyphosate is moderately persistent in soil, with 

an estimated average half-life of 47 days [58,11]. Reported field half-lives range from 1 to 

174 days [11]. It is strongly adsorbed to most soils, even those with lower organic and 

clay content [11,58]. Thus, even though it is highly soluble in water, field and laboratory 

studies show it does not leach appreciably, and has low potential for runoff (except as 

adsorbed to colloidal matter) [3,11]. One estimate indicated that less than 2% of the 

applied chemical is lost to runoff [99]. Microbes are primarily responsible for the 

breakdown of the product, and volatilization or photodegradation losses will be negligible 

[58]. 

Breakdown in water: In water, glyphosate is strongly adsorbed to suspended organic 

and mineral matter and is broken down primarily by microorganisms [6]. Its half-life in 

pond water ranges from 12 days to 10 weeks [97]. 


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Breakdown in vegetation: Glyphosate may be translocated throughout the plant, 

including to the roots. It is extensively metabolized by some plants, while remaining intact 

in others [1]. 


Appearance: Glyphosate is a colorless crystal at room temperature [1]. 

Chemical Name: N-(phosphonomethyl) glycine [1] 



Water Solubility: 12,000 mg/L @ 25 C [1] 

Solubility in Other Solvents: i.s. in common organics (e.g., acetone, ethanol, and 

xylene) [1] 

Melting Point: 200 C [1] 

Vapor Pressure: negligible [1] 

Partition Coefficient: -3.2218 - -2.7696 [58] 

Adsorption Coefficient: 24,000 (estimated) [11] 


ADI: 0.3 mg/kg/day [12] 

MCL: Not Available 

RfD: 0.1 mg/kg/day [13] 

PEL: Not Available 

HA: 0.7 mg/L (lifetime) [98] 

TLV: Not Available 


Monsanto Company 

800 N. Lindbergh Blvd. 

St. Louis, MO 63167 

Phone: 314-694-6640 

Emergency: 314-694-4000 





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Agricultural plant means any plant grown or maintained for commercial, research, or 

other purposes. Included in this definition are food, feed and fiber plants, trees, turf 

grass, flowers, shrubs, ornamentals, and seedlings (40 CFR). 

Farm means any operation, other than a nursery or forest, engaged in the outdoor 

production of agricultural plants (40 CFR, Section 170.3). 


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2,4-D 

Trade and Other Names: 2,4-D is used in many commercial products. Commercial names for 

products containing 2,4-D include Aqua-Kleen, Barrage, Lawn-Keep, Malerbane, Planotox, 

Plantgard, Savage, Salvo, Weedone, and Weedtrine-II. 

Regulatory Status: 2,4-D is a General Use Pesticide (GUP) in the U.S. The diethylamine salt is 

toxicity class III- slightly toxic orally, but toxicity class I- highly toxic by eye exposure. It bears the 

Signal Word DANGER - POISON because 2,4-D has produced serious eye and skin irritation 

among agricultural workers. 

Chemical Class: phenoxy compound 

Introduction: There are many forms or derivatives of 2,4-D including esters, amines, and salts. 

Unless otherwise specified, this document will refer to the acid form of 2,4-D. 2,4-D, a chlorinated 

phenoxy compound, functions as a systemic herbicide and is used to control many types of 

broadleaf weeds. It is used in cultivated agriculture, in pasture and rangeland applications, forest 

management, home, garden, and to control aquatic vegetation. It may be found in emulsion form, 

in aqueous solutions (salts), and as a dry compound. 

The product Agent Orange, used extensively throughout Vietnam, was about 50% 2,4-D. 

However, the controversies associated with the use of Agent Orange were associated with a 

contaminant (dioxin) in the 2,4,5-T component of the defoliant. 

Formulation: It may be found in emulsion form, in aqueous solutions (salts), and as a dry 

compound. 


Acute toxicity: The acid form is of slight to moderate toxicity. The oral LD50 of 2,4-D 

ranges from 375 to 666 mg/kg in the rat, 370 mg/kg in mice, and from less than 320 to 

1000 mg/kg in guinea pigs. The dermal LD50 values are 1500 mg/kg in rats and 1400 

mg/kg in rabbits, respectively [1,5,7]. In humans, prolonged breathing of 2,4-D causes 

coughing, burning, dizziness, and temporary loss of muscle coordination [1]. Other 

symptoms of poisoning can be fatigue and weakness with possible nausea. On rare 

occasions following high levels of exposure, there can be inflammation of the nerve 

endings with muscular effects [25]. 

Chronic toxicity: Rats given high amounts, 50 mg/kg/day, of 2,4-D in the diet for 2 years 

showed no adverse effects. Dogs fed lower amounts in their food for 2 years died, 

probably because dogs do not excrete organic acids efficiently. A human given a total of 

16.3 g in 32 days therapeutically, lapsed into a stupor and showed signs of 

incoordination, weak reflexes, and loss of bladder control [1,5,7]. 

Reproductive effects: High levels of 2,4-D (about 50 mg/kg/day) administered orally to 

pregnant rats did not cause any adverse effects on birth weights or litter size. Higher 

doses (188 mg/kg/day) resulted in fetuses with abdominal cavity bleeding and increased 

mortality [1,5,7]. DNA synthesis in the testes was significantly inhibited when mice were 

fed large amounts (200 mg/kg/day) of 2,4-D [7]. The evidence suggests that if 2,4-D 

causes reproductive effects in animals, this only occurs at very high doses. Thus 

reproductive problems associated with 2,4-D are unlikely in humans under normal 


Teratogenic effects: 2,4-D may cause birth defects at high doses. Rats fed 150 

mg/kg/day on days 6 to 15 of pregnancy had offspring with increased skeletal 

abnormalities, such as delayed bone development and wavy ribs [7]. This suggests that 

2,4-D exposure is unlikely to be teratogenic in humans at expected exposure levels. 

Mutagenic effects: 2,4-D has been very extensively tested and was found to be nonmutagenic 

in most systems. 2,4-D did not damage DNA in human lung cells. However, in 

one study, significant effects occurred in chromosomes in cultured human cells at low 


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exposure levels [26]. The data suggest that 2,4-D is not mutagenic or has low mutagenic 

potential. 

Carcinogenic effects: 2,4-D fed to rats for 2 years caused an increase in malignant 

tumors [7]. Female mice given a single injection of 2,4-D developed cancer (reticulum-cell 

sarcomas) [7]. Another study in rodents shows a low incidence of brain tumors at 

moderate exposure levels (45 mg/kg/day) over a lifetime [1,7]. However, a number of 

questions have been raised about the validity of this evidence and thus about the 

carcinogenic potential of 2,4-D. In humans, a variety of studies give conflicting results. 

Several studies suggest an association of 2,4-D exposure with cancer. An increased 

occurrence of non-Hodgkin's lymphoma was found among a Kansas and Nebraska farm 

population associated with the spraying of 2,4-D [25,27]. Other studies done in New 

Zealand, Washington, New York, Australia, and on Vietnam veterans from the U.S. were 

all negative. There remains considerable controversy about the methods used in the 

various studies and their results [28]. Thus, the carcinogenic status of 2,4-D is not clear. 

Organ toxicity: Most symptoms of 2,4-D exposure disappear within a few days, but 

there is a report of liver dysfunction from long-term exposure [1,25]. 

Fate in humans and animals: The absorption of 2,4-D is almost complete in mammals 

after ingestion and nearly all of the dose is excreted in the urine. The compound is readily 

absorbed through the skin and lungs. Men given 5 mg/kg excreted about 82% of the dose 

as unchanged 2,4-D. The half-life is between 10 and 20 hours in living organisms. There 

is no evidence that 2,4-D accumulates to significant level in mammals or in other 

organisms [20]. Between 6 and 8 hours after doses of 1 mg/kg, peak concentrations of 

2,4-D were found in the blood, liver, kidney, lungs, and spleen of rats. There were lower 

levels in muscle and brain. After 24 hours, there were no detectable tissue residues. Only 

traces of the compound have been found in the milk of lactating animals for 6 days 

following exposure. 2,4-D passes through the placenta in pigs and rats. In rats, about 

20% was detected in the uterus, placenta, fetus, and amniotic fluid [27]. Chickens given 

moderate amounts of 2,4-D in drinking water from birth to maturity had very low levels of 

the compound in eggs [7]. 


Effects on birds: 2,4-D is slightly toxic to wildfowl and slightly to moderately toxic to 

birds. The LD50 is 1000 mg/kg in mallards, 272 mg/kg in pheasants, and 668 mg/kg in 

quail and pigeons [5-7]. 

Effects on aquatic organisms: Some formulations of 2,4-D are highly toxic to fish while 

others are less so. For example, the LC50 ranges between 1.0 and 100 mg/L in cutthroat 

trout, depending on the formulation used. Channel catfish had less than 10% mortality 

when exposed to 10 mg/L for 48 hours [1,9]. Green sunfish, when exposed to 110 mg/L 

for 41 hours, showed no effect on swimming response. Limited studies indicate a half-life 

of less than 2 days in fish and oysters [24]. Concentrations of 10 mg/L for 85 days did not 

adversely affect the survival of adult Dungeness crabs. For immature crabs, the 96-hour 

LC50 is greater than 10 mg/L, indicating that 2,4-D is only slightly toxic. Brown shrimp 

showed a small increase in mortality at exposures of 2 mg/L for 48 hours [7,20]. 

Effects on other organisms: Moderate doses of 2,4-D severely impaired honeybees 

brood production. At lower levels of exposure, exposed bees lived significantly longer 

than the controls. The honeybee LD50 is 0.0115 mg/bee [6,7]. 


Breakdown in soil and groundwater: 2,4-D has low soil persistence. The half-life in soil 

is less than 7 days [21]. Soil microbes are primarily responsible for its disappearance 

[20]. Despite its short half-life in soil and in aquatic environments, the compound has 

been detected in groundwater supplies in at least five States and in Canada [20]. Very 

low concentrations have also been detected in surface waters throughout the U.S. [23]. 

Breakdown in water: In aquatic environments, microorganisms readily degrade 2,4-D. 

Rates of breakdown increase with increased nutrients, sediment load, and dissolved 


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organic carbon. Under oxygenated conditions the half-life is 1 week to several weeks 

[20]. 

Breakdown in vegetation: 2,4-D interferes with normal plant growth processes. Uptake 

of the compound is through leaves, stems, and roots. Breakdown in plants is by a variety 

of biological and chemical pathways [10]. 2,4-D is toxic to most broad leaf crops, 

especially cotton, tomatoes, beets, and fruit trees [7]. 


Appearance: 2,4-D is a white powder [6]. 

Chemical Name: (2,4-dichlorophenoxy)acetic acid [6] 



Water Solubility: 900 mg/L @ 25 C (acid) [5] 

Solubility in Other Solvents: ethanol v.s.; diethyl ether v.s.; toluene s.; xylene s. [6] 

Melting Point: 140.5 C [6] 

Vapor Pressure: 0.02 mPa @ 25 C (acid) [5] 

Partition Coefficient: 2.81 [20] 

Adsorption Coefficient: 20 (acid) [21] 


ADI: 0.3 mg/kg/day [29] 

MCL: 0.07 mg/L [30] 

RfD: 0.01 mg/kg/day [31] 

PEL: 10 mg/m3 (8-hour) [32] 

HA: Not Available 

TLV: Not Available 


Rhone-Poulenc Ag. Co. 

P.O. Box 12014 

2 T.W. Alexander Dr. 

Research Triangle Park, NC 27709 

Phone: 919-549-2000 

Emergency: 800-334-7577 




Triclopyr - (Trade name Renovate3®). 

There are two formulations of triclopyr. It is the TEA formation of triclopyr that is registered for use 

in aquatic or riparian environments. Triclopyr, applied as a liquid, is a relatively fast-acting, 

systemic, selective herbicide used for the control of Eurasian watermilfoil and other broad-leaved 

species such as purple loosestrife. Triclopyr can be effective for spot treatment of Eurasian 

watermilfoil and is relatively selective to Eurasian watermilfoil when used at the labeled rate. 

Many native aquatic species are unaffected by triclopyr. Triclopyr is very useful for purple 

loosestrife control since native grasses and sedges are unaffected by this herbicide. When 

applied directly to water, Ecology has imposed a 12-hour swimming restriction to minimize eye 

irritation. 





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Imazapyr (Trade name Habitat®). 

This systemic broad spectrum herbicide, applied as a liquid, is used to control emergent plants 

like spartina, reed canarygrass, and phragmites and floating-leaved plants like water lilies. 

Imazapyr does not work on underwater plants such as Eurasian watermilfoil. Although imazapyr 

is a broad spectrum, non-selective herbicide, a good applicator can somewhat selectively remove 

targeted plants by focusing the spray only on the plants to be removed. 

Fluridone 

Trade names for fluridone products include: Sonar® and Avast!®). Fluridone is a slow-acting 

systemic herbicide used to control Eurasian watermilfoil and other underwater plants. It may be 

applied as a pellet or as a liquid. Fluridone can show good control of submersed plants where 

there is little water movement and an extended time for the treatment. Its use is most applicable 

to whole-lake or isolated bay treatments where dilution can be minimized. It is not effective for 

spot treatments of areas less than five acres. It is slow-acting and may take six to twelve weeks 

before the dying plants fall to the sediment and decompose. 

When used to manage Eurasian watermilfoil, fluridone is applied several times during the 

spring/summer to maintain a low, but consistent, concentration in the water. Although fluridone is 

considered to be a broad spectrum herbicide, when used at very low concentrations, it can be 

used to selectively remove Eurasian watermilfoil. Some native aquatic plants, especially 

pondweeds, are minimally affected by low concentrations of fluridone. 





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Year-Round Weed Management Strategies: A Summary 

Prevention 

Employ sanitary practices; prevent new weed infestations. Prevent weed shifts resulting from 

repeated: 

• Cultivation (enhances perennial weeds). 

• Mowing (enhances prostrate weeds). 

• Herbicides (enhance tolerant weeds, new weed biotypes, new microorganisms that render 

herbicide inactive). 

Identify and Map 

• Use reference books to help identify annual and perennial weeds. 

• Map and record infestations (weed abundance). 

• Keep yearly records. 

Prioritize Weeds (develop thresholds) 

• Highly competitive weeds (control). 

• Moderately competitive weeds (suppress). 

• Low growing or noncompetitive weeds (don't worry). 

List Controls 

• Your experience. 

• Local experts. 

• Published information. 

• Learn strengths and weaknesses of each control method. 

Design Weed Management Program 

• Select fields or garden area with manageable weed species. 

• Consider environmental aspects: Erosion potential, surrounding water, high-value vegetation, or 

urban and/or recreational areas. 

• Consider costs, equipment, skills, precision timing, and other factors needed to achieve results. 

• Develop year-round weed management strategies involving combinations of weed control 

practices. 

Evaluate Results 

• Evaluate weed management programs. 

• Continue mapping weeds for future reference. 

• Modify practices as weeds shift because of repeated practices. 


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Streams and wetlands must be protected in the event of an accidental spill of any size. 

Even diluted chemicals pose a threat to natural habitats when released in large 

amounts. Extra precautions must be taken when drawing water from streams or ponds. 

Antisiphoning devices must be used and be in good working order. Tank mixes should 

be prepared at least ¼ mile from water resources. If this is not possible, make sure the 

ground at the mixing site does not slope toward the water, or construct an earthen dike 

to prevent pesticides from flowing into bodies of water or drains. 


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Aquatic Toxicology 

Aquatic toxicology is the study of the effects of environmental contaminants on aquatic 

organisms, such as the effect of pesticides on the health of fish or other aquatic organisms. A 

pesticide's capacity to harm fish and aquatic animals is largely a function of its (1) toxicity, (2) 

exposure time, (3) dose rate, and (4) persistence in the environment. 

Toxicity of the pesticide refers to how poisonous it is. Some pesticides are extremely toxic, 

whereas others are relatively nontoxic. Exposure refers to the length of time the animal is in 

contact with the pesticide. A brief exposure to some chemicals may have little effect on fish, 

whereas longer exposure may cause harm. 

The dose rate refers to the quantity of pesticide to which an animal is subjected (orally, dermally, 

or through inhalation). A small dose of a more toxic chemical may be more damaging than a large 

dose of a less toxic chemical. Dosages can be measured as the weight of toxicant per unit 

(kilogram) of body weight (expressed as mg pesticide/kg of body weight) or as the concentration 

of toxicant in the water or food supply (usually expressed as parts per million, ppm or parts per 

billion, ppb). 

A lethal dose is the amount of pesticide necessary to cause death. Because not all animals of a 

species die at the same dose (some are more tolerant than others), a standard toxicity dose 

measurement, called a Lethal Concentration 50 (LC50), is used. This is the concentration of a 

pesticide that kills 50% of a test population of animals within a set period of time, usually 24 to 96 

hours. 

Hazard ratings ranging from minimal to super toxic and LC50s for commonly used insecticides, 

herbicides, and fungicides are presented in Tables 3, 4 and 5. For example, the 24-hour LC50 of 

the insecticide permethrin to rainbow trout is 12.5 ppb. This means that one-half of the trout 

exposed to 12.5 ppb of permethrin died within 24 hours, indicating super toxicity of this pesticide 

to trout. 

Hazard Ratings 

Toxicity LC50(mg/l) 

Minimal >100 

Slight 10 - 100 

Moderate 1 - 10 

High 0.1 - 1.0 

Extreme 0.01 - 0.1 

Super < 0,01 

Exposure of fish and other aquatic animals to a pesticide depends on its biological availability 

(bio-availability), bio-concentration, bio-magnification, and persistence in the environment. 

Bioavailability refers to the amount of pesticide in the environment available to fish and wildlife. 

Some pesticides rapidly break down after application. Some bind tightly to soil particles 

suspended in the water column or to stream bottoms, thereby reducing their availability. Some 

are quickly diluted in water or rapidly volatize into the air and are less available to aquatic life. 


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Bioconcentration is the accumulation of pesticides in animal tissue at levels greater than those 

in the water or soil to which they were applied. Some fish may concentrate certain pesticides in 

their body tissues and organs (especially fats) at levels 10 million times greater than in the water. 

Bio-magnification is the accumulation of pesticides at each successive level of the food chain. 

Some pesticides bio-accumulate (buildup) in the food chain. For example, if a pesticide is present 

in small amounts in water, it can be absorbed by water plants which are, in turn, eaten by insects 

and minnows. These also become contaminated. At each step in the food chain the concentration 

of pesticide increases. When sport fish such as bass or trout repeatedly consume contaminated 

animals, they bio-concentrate high levels in their body fat. Fish can pass these poisons on to 

humans. 

Persistence of Pesticides 

Persistence refers to the length of time a pesticide remains in the environment. This depends on 

how quickly it breaks down (degrades), which is largely a function of its chemical composition and 

the environmental conditions. Persistence is usually expressed as the "half life" (T1/2) of a 

pesticide. Half-life is the amount of time required for half of the pesticide to disappear (the other 

half remains). Half-life of pesticides can range from hours or days, to years for more persistent 

ones. 

Pesticides can be degraded by sunlight (photodecomposition), high air or water temperatures 

(thermal degradation), moisture conditions, biological action (microbial decay), and soil conditions 

(pH). Persistent (long-lasting) pesticides break down slowly and may be more available to aquatic 

animals. 

Pesticide Formulations 

The active ingredient (pesticide) is combined with other inert ingredients (carriers, solvents, 

propellants) to comprise the formulated pesticide product. In some cases the inert ingredients 

may cause concern for aquatic life. Pesticides may be purchased in solid (granules, powders, 

dusts) or liquid (water, oil sprays) form. A major concern in using either solid or liquid forms of 

pesticides is their misapplication. 

Sub-lethal Effects 

Not all pesticide poisonings result in the immediate death of an animal. Small "sub-lethal" doses 

of some pesticides can lead to changes in behavior, weight loss, impaired reproduction, inability 

to avoid predators, and lowered tolerance to extreme temperatures. 

Fish in streams flowing through croplands and orchards are likely to receive repeated low doses 

of pesticides if continuous pesticide applications run-off fields. Repeated exposure to certain 

pesticides can result in reduced fish egg production and hatching, nest and brood abandonment, 

lower resistance to disease, decreased body weight, hormonal changes, and reduced avoidance 

of predators. The overall consequences of sub-lethal doses of pesticides can be reduced adult 

survival and lowered population abundance. 

Sub-lethal Effects include: 

Weight Loss 

Low Diseases Resistance 

Sterility 

Reduced Egg Production 

Loss of Attention 

Low Predator Avoidance 


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Habitat Alteration 

Pesticides can reduce the availability of plants and insects that serve as habitat and food for fish 

and other aquatic animals. Insect-eating fish can lose a portion of their food supply when 

pesticides are applied. A sudden, inadequate supply of insects can force fish to range farther in 

search of food, where they may risk greater exposure to predation. 

How Fish are Exposed 

Spraying herbicides can also reduce reproductive success of fish and aquatic animals. The 

shallow, weedy nursery areas for many fish species provide abundant food and shelter for young 

fish. Spraying herbicides near weedy nurseries can reduce the amount of cover and shelter that 

young fish need in order to hide from predators and to feed. Most young fish depend on aquatic 

plants as refuge in their nursery areas. 

Aquatic plants provide as much as 80% of the dissolved oxygen necessary for aquatic life in 

ponds and lakes. Spraying herbicides to kill all aquatic plants can result in severely low oxygen 

levels and the suffocation of fish. Using herbicides to completely "clean up" a pond will 

significantly reduce fish habitat, food supply, dissolved oxygen, and fish productivity. 

The landowner who sprays a weedy fence line with herbicides may unintentionally kill the trumpet 

vine on which hummingbirds feed and the honeysuckle that nourish deer and quail. Similarly, the 

landowner who unnecessarily sprays his water plants kills the plants that feed the insects that 

feed the fish that feed the farmer. Casual use of herbicides for lake or farm pond "beautification" 

may reduce fish populations. 

Fish and aquatic animals are exposed to pesticides in three primary ways (1) dermally, direct 

absorption through the skin by swimming in pesticide-contaminated waters, (2) breathing, by 

direct uptake of pesticides through the gills during respiration, and (3) orally, by drinking 

pesticide-contaminated water or feeding on pesticide-contaminated prey. Poisoning by 

consuming another animal that has been poisoned by a pesticide is termed "secondary 

poisoning." For example, fish feeding on dying insects poisoned by insecticides may themselves 

be killed if the insects they consume contain large quantities of pesticides or their toxic 

byproducts. 

Reducing the Risk: Prior to using a pesticide, consider the following: 

1. Use a Pesticide Only When Necessary 

o Is the problem bad enough to justify the use of a toxic chemical? Are there 

alternative ways of treating the problem? Landowners should consider the costs 

and consequences of pesticide treatment relative to the problem. 

2. Use Less Toxic Pesticides 

o One way to reduce the effects of pesticides on aquatic systems is to use those 

chemicals that are least poisonous to aquatic life. The tables presented at the 

end of this booklet give information about the relative toxicity of many of the 

agricultural pesticides. Select the least toxic material. 

3. Use Safe/Sensible Application Methods 

o The first rule of responsible pesticide use is to read and then reread the pesticide 

label and follow the directions precisely. Label instructions sometimes can be 

confusing. If you don't understand the instructions, contact your Extension Agent, 

your supplier, or the pesticide company for more information. 

o Pay particular attention to warning statements about environmental hazards on 

the label. Look for: "This product is toxic to fish." If you see such a warning, 

consider another pesticide or an alternative control method. 

o Ensure that your application equipment is in good working condition. Check for 

leaks, replace worn parts, and carefully calibrate your equipment. 

o When preparing the pesticides for application, be certain that you are mixing 

them correctly. 


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o Never wash spray equipment in lakes, ponds, or rivers. If you use water from 

natural ponds, lakes, or streams, use an antisiphon device to prevent backflow. 

o If you are applying pesticides near water, check the label to find the 

recommended buffer zone. Buffer strip widths between the water and the 

treatment areas vary. Leave a wide buffer zone to avoid contaminating fish and 

aquatic animals. 

o Store and dispose of unused chemicals and their containers according to the 

label instructions. 

o Avoid pesticide drift into non-target areas, or applications during wet, windy 

weather that might promote runoff to non-target streams, ponds, or lakes. Spray 

on calm days, or early in the morning or evening when it is less windy. 

o Pesticide applicators are liable for downstream fish kills and pesticide 

contamination. 

Southern Watergrass 

Buttonbush 


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Federal Pesticide Recordkeeping Requirements 

Questions and Answers 

Final regulations to implement requirements in section 1491 of the Food, Agriculture, 

Conservation, and Trade (FACT) Act of 1990, commonly referred to as the 1990 Farm Bill, went 

into effect May 10, 1993. On February 10, 1995 amendments to the regulations were published, 

which became effective on May 11, 1995. The regulations are administered by the U.S. 

Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS). 

Why are there regulations for restricted use pesticide recordkeeping for certified private 

applicators? The FACT Act of 1990, subtitle H, section 1491, states that the Secretary of 

Agriculture, in consultation with the Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 

"shall require certified applicators of restricted use pesticides..... to maintain records 

comparable to records maintained by commercial applicators of pesticides in each State." 

Certified applicators include both commercial and private applicators. 

The EPA currently requires certified commercial applicators to keep records under regulations 

implementing the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA). The EPA is 

prohibited from requiring certified private applicators to maintain records. However, some 

individual States require certified private applicators to maintain records. 

Do the regulations apply to all pesticide applications? No. The regulations only require 

recordkeeping for applications of federally-restricted use pesticides. Pesticides are classified as 

restricted use, general use, or for both uses. 

Is a Federal form required for maintaining the record(s)? No. The regulations do not require 

the use of a standardized form. This allows applicators the flexibility to fit the recordkeeping 

requirements into their current recordkeeping scheme. 

What information is a certified private applicator required to maintain on a restricted use 

pesticide application? The recordkeeping requirements are: 

1. The brand or product name, and the EPA registration number of the restricted use 

pesticide that was applied; 

2. The total amount of the restricted use pesticide applied; 

3. The location of the application, the size of area treated, and the crop, commodity, stored 

product, or site to which a restricted use pesticide was applied; 

4. The month, day, and year when the restricted use pesticide application occurred; and 

5. The name and certification number (if applicable) of the certified applicator who applied 

or who supervised the application of the restricted use pesticide. 

When does the pesticide application information have to be recorded? The information 

required shall be recorded within 14 days following the pesticide application. 

How long are records required to be kept? Restricted use pesticide records must be retained 

by the applicator for 2 years from the date of application and made available to individuals who 

are authorized to have access to the record information. Certified applicators have no reporting 

requirements under the regulations. 

Who has authorization to obtain record information from the certified applicator? 

Individuals representing the Secretary of Agriculture or the State designated agency, which is 

most commonly the State Department of Agriculture. Also the attending licensed health care 

professional, or an individual acting under the direction of the attending licensed health care 

professional, is authorized access to record information when it is determined the information is 

needed to provide medical treatment or first aid to an individual who may have been exposed to 

the restricted use pesticide for which the record is maintained. 


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Are there any penalties for violation of the Federal pesticide recordkeeping requirements? 

Yes. Any certified applicator who violates the requirements shall be subject to a civil penalty of 

not more than $500 in the case of the first offense, and shall be subject to a civil penalty of not 

less than $1000 for each violation for subsequent offenses, except that the civil penalty shall be 

less than $1000 if the Administrator determines that the certified applicator made a good faith 

effort to comply. 

AMENDMENTS TO THE REGULATIONS - EFFECTIVE MAY 11, 1995 

1. Change in the way the location of a "spot application" is recorded. 

A” spot application" is an application(s) of a restricted use pesticide made on the same 

day in a total area of less than one-tenth of an acre. This provision still does not apply to 

records maintained for greenhouse and nursery applications. 

The regulations were amended to require a more detailed description of the location of a 

"spot application." Spot applications must be recorded with the following information: 

Brand or product name and EPA registration number; total amount applied; location must 

be designated as "spot application," followed by a concise description of the location 

(Examples: Spot application, noxious weeds were spot sprayed throughout field number 

5 and 6. Spot application, sprayed for weeds next to the silo); and month, day, and year 

of application. 

2. Shortened the time period to make a record of the restricted use pesticide 

application. 

The time period was reduced from 30 days to 14 days for the required information to be 

legibly recorded following the restricted use pesticide application. 

However, whether or not the written record has been completed, the certified applicator 

shall provide the record information for medical treatment or first aid. 

3. Change in the definition of a medical emergency. 

A medical emergency is defined as a situation that requires immediate medical treatment 

or first aid to treat possible symptoms of pesticide poisoning or exposure. 

4. Change in the definition of a licensed health care professional. 

A licensed health care professional is defined as a physician, nurse, emergency medical 

technician, or other qualified individual, licensed or certified by a State to provide medical 

treatment. 

5. Change in accessing records to facilitate medical treatment. 

When the attending licensed health care professional, or an individual acting under the 

direction of the attending licensed health care professional, determines that any record of 

the application of any restricted use pesticide required to be maintained is necessary to 

provide medical treatment or first aid to an individual who may have been exposed to the 

restricted use pesticide for which the record is or will be maintained, the certified 

applicator required to maintain the record shall promptly provide the record information 

and any available label information. If it is determined by the attending licensed health 

care professional, or an individual acting under the direction of the attending licensed 

health care professional, to be a medical emergency, the record information of the 

restricted use pesticide, relating to the medical emergency, shall be provided 

immediately. 


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6. Change in provisions for the release of record information obtained for purposes 

of medical treatment. 

(1) The attending licensed health care professional, or an individual acting under the 

direction of the attending licensed health care professional, may utilize and release the 

record or record information when necessary to provide medical treatment or first aid to 

an individual who may have been exposed to the ' restricted use pesticide for which the 

record is or will be maintained; 

(2) the attending licensed health care professional may release the record or record 

information to appropriate Federal or State agencies that deal with pesticide use or any 

health issue related to the use of pesticides when necessary to prevent further injury or 

illness; and 

(3) a licensed health care professional may release the record or record information to 

submit pesticide poisoning incident reports to the appropriate State or Federal agencies. 

7. Clarification that the Administrator of AMS, has flexibility in assessing civil 

penalties. 

The amended regulations provide the Administrator of AMS, or the Administrator's 

designee, with flexibility in assessing civil penalties. 

Always wear PPE, respirator, rubber shoes, rubber gloves, Tyvek suit when 

cleaning your spray equipment. 


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Insecticide Safety Precautions 

The Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act of 1972 in part prohibits the application of any 

pesticide in a manner inconsistent with its labeling. This means that a pesticide cannot be used 

unless it is registered for the specific pest. Consequently, some chemicals formerly used by 

homeowners and pesticide applicators can no longer be used legally. 

Insecticide labels are subject to change, and changes may have occurred since this publication 

was printed. County Extension agents and Extension entomologists are notified as these changes 

occur. 

The pesticide APPLICATOR is always responsible for the effects of pesticide residues as well as 

problems caused by residues that drift from the application site to other property. Always read 

and carefully follow instructions on the product label. 

When using pesticides, always avoid prolonged chemical contact with skin. Wash exposed skin 

areas with generous amounts of soap and water. Launder clothing worn during application in hot 

water using a phosphate detergent. Do not contaminate food, dishes, utensils or food preparation 

areas with insecticide. Any contaminated food should be discarded, and dishes and utensils 

should be thoroughly washed. 

Safety Notes 

READ, UNDERSTAND and FOLLOW all insecticide label directions and precautions. 

Some product labels may require that pilot lights should be off on stove, furnace and 

water heater. 

Keep insecticides in original containers with the label intact. Do not contaminate food, 

water, dishes or utensils. 

Keep insecticides out of reach of children and do not allow children or pets near treated 

surfaces until dry. 

Purple Loosestrife 


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Common Natural Enemies, Pesticide Alternatives 

Biological control uses natural enemies to keep pests 

in check. Natural enemies are called "beneficial" 

because they assist us in controlling pests. 

Identification of beneficial insects is the first step of 

biological control. Natural enemies are placed in three 

major groups: Predators, Parasitoids and Pathogens. 

A predator attacks, kills and eats its prey. Some 

predators are host-specific and some eat a wide 

variety of pests. A lady beetle is a common example of 

a predator that eats aphids. Praying mantis, spined 

soldier bugs, lacewings, flower bugs, and spiders are 

also predators. 

Parasitoids lay eggs in or on a host. When the eggs 

hatch, they kill the host by consuming its organs or 

body fluids. A common example is the parasitic wasp, 

which lays its eggs on pest larva. Most parasitoids 

come from the fly and wasp family. 

Pathogens are bacteria, fungi or viruses that invade pests, causing disease. The disease 

often weakens the pest and kills it. 

Beneficial insects are important to you as a homeowner. Distinguishing pests from 

beneficials can prevent the killing of a beneficial (pest controlling insect). 

Avoid the use of broad-spectrum pesticides because they will kill both pests and 

beneficial insects. There are catalogs available which list suppliers of beneficial 

organisms in the United States. 


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Here are some ways to help your 

natural helpers: 

Plant nectar-producing flowers to further increase the 

food supply. Plants in the cabbage, carrot and 

sunflower family are especially attractive to beneficial 

insects. 

Control ants, which may prevent predators from 

controlling pests. 

Don't use persistent, broad-spectrum, contact 

insecticides. These provide only temporary pest 

control and are likely to kill more of the natural 

enemies than the pests. When their enemies are gone, 

pest populations may soar and become more of a 

problem than before they were sprayed. 

Some plants that attract 

beneficial insects: 

(Adapted from Organic Ag 

Advisors, Colfax, CA.) 

angelica 

bee balm 

buckwheat 

calendula 

candytuft 

ceanothus 

chervil 

cilantro 

clover 

daisy 

dill 

erigeron 

evening primrose 

fennel 

goldenrod 

gypsophila 

lovage 

parsley 

Queen Anne's lace 

rue 

snowberry 

sunflower 

sweet alyssum 

sweet cicely 

thyme 

valerian 

yarrow 


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LADY BEETLES 

Convergent lady beetles are the most 

popular natural enemies sold, although 

their value is doubtful: they have a 

natural tendency to disperse when freed. 

To keep them around, try wetting plants 

first, and releasing beetles on the ground 

and under plants in the late evening (the 

beetles don't fly at night). Lady beetles 

feed on aphids, mealybugs, scale 

insects, or spider mites. One lady beetle 

female may eat 2,400 aphids during her 

life span. 

GREEN LACEWINGS 

Lacewing larvae are voracious feeders 

upon aphids and other small insects, 

insect eggs, and spider mites. Attract 

them by planting pollen and nectar 

producing flowers. 

Lacewing eggs or larvae may be 

purchased, but success may require 

practice. Holding eggs at room 

temperature until the larvae begin 

hatching, then sprinkling them on plants 

(about one to five per square foot of 

garden space), may be most effective. 

PARASITIC WASPS 

Too small to be noticeable, these miniwasps 

don't bother people or pets. These 

parasites reproduce by laying their eggs 

in a pest host (adult or egg). The 

immature wasp feeds inside and kills its 

host, causing the insect or egg to turn 

dark. A round hole can be often seen 

where the adult parasite has chewed its 

way out. 

Different species may attack aphids, 

whiteflies, and butterflies or moths, such 

as cabbage loopers and hornworms. 

Many are available for sale to home 

gardeners. 


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SYRPHID FLIES 

Syrphid fly larvae prey on aphids, 

mealybugs, and other small insects. The 

adults, called "hover flies" because they 

fly like helicopters, have bodies with 

black and yellow stripes. While they look 

like bees or wasps, they don't sting. 

Adults must feed on pollen nectar before 

they reproduce, so are good pollinators. 

Both adults and larvae are about one-half 

inch long. 

MEALYBUG DESTROYERS 

Both the larvae and adults of this lady 

beetle feed on mealybugs. They may 

also feed on aphids and immature scale 

insects. Each adult female lays hundreds 

of eggs in mealybug egg masses. When 

the beetle larvae hatch, they feed on 

immature mealybugs. 

Mealybug destroyers need warm 

temperatures and high humidity, so are 

better suited for greenhouses. If you 

purchase them, they are shipped as 

adults and should be released as soon 

as possible. 

GROUND BEETLES 

These very common garden insects feed 

on many soil-inhabiting pests such as 

cutworms and root maggots. Some types 

eat slugs and snails. 

While shapes and colors may vary 

widely, they are usually shiny. Black is a 

common color, sometimes with a metallic 

sheen of another color on their wing 

covers. Most ground beetles feed at night 

and hide in the soil or under debris 

during the day. 


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ASSASSIN BUG 

This aptly-named, vicious-looking bug is 

a voracious predator of many garden 

pests including flies, mosquitoes, beetles 

and large caterpillars. Adults measure ½ 

to one inch long and have a cone-shaped 

head and wide curving beak. They can 

cause a painful bite to a human if 

captured. Some species are known to 

squeak if caught. 

Females lay single eggs in cracks, under 

rocks or in other sheltered spots in 

summer, and new adults emerge around 

the following June. There is only one 

generation per year. 

BALD FACED HORNET 

These insects resemble a yellowjacket 

but are larger, up to 3/4 inch in length. 

They have large heads with black and 

white markings and long wings that 

extend to the end of their abdomen. 

These "insect hawks" are fascinating to 

watch as they pounce upon many pests 

including crane flies and other flies. Bald 

faced hornets may also act as pollinators 

of some plants. 

These insects build large paper nests 

that can measure up to 14 inches in 

diameter and 24 inches long! If disturbed 

these hornets will sting humans. 

BUMBLE BEE 

Large and lumbering, black and yellow 

bumble bee adults are important 

pollinators of a variety of plants. 

Measuring up to one inch in length, these 

fuzzy insects make a loud droning buzz 

as they fly somewhat awkwardly from 

flower to flower. 

Bumble bees nest in soil or leaf litter 

where a single queen lays 8 to 12 eggs 

in spring. Emerging workers are able to 

fly in very cool weather, making them a 

very valuable pollinator. 


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CENTIPEDE 

This long (1/2 to three inches) manylegged 

creature is light brown to black in 

color and moves quickly. Centipedes 

have only one leg per segment. 

Millipedes, on the other hand, have two 

per segment. Centipedes prey on pests 

and insects in the soil including slugs, 

worms and fly pupae. They prefer moist 

areas in the garden and compost piles. 

HONEY BEE 

Adults measure ¾-inch long and are 

fuzzy, with gold and black stripes and 

transparent wings. Honey bees can often 

be identified by the balls of yellow pollen 

they carry on the backs of their legs. 

Honey bees are an important pollinator of 

many plants. 

MASON BEE 

Smaller than a honeybee, mason bees resemble 

house flies more than honey bees. They are deep 

blue-black in color and have no stripes. Mason bees 

are native to North America. They are active 

pollinators between cherry blossom and apple 

blossom season, then die out by summer. 

Attract mason bees by providing them a home. Drill 

holes exactly 5/16-inch in diameter into wooden blocks 

and mount the blocks by cherry blossom season 

facing morning sun. 

MINUTE PIRATE BUG 

So small (1/4-inch) they are often unnoticed but these 

little black-and-white checkered insects are fastmoving 

and prey upon thrips, spider mites and small 

caterpillars. 

Grow goldenrod, daisies, yarrow and alfalfa to attract 

minute pirate bugs to your garden. 


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PREDATORY MITES 

Adult mites are tiny, about half a millimeter in length, 

and are beige to reddish tan. They resemble pest 

mites but are faster moving and have fewer hairs. 

Predatory mites are valuable predators of pest mites 

such as spider and citrus mites, and are sold 

commercially for use on house plants, in greenhouses 

and on orchards and farms. 

ROVE BEETLES 

These fascinating insects may resemble a tiny 

scorpion when they hold the tip of their abdomen up in 

the air. They are fast moving and measure 1/10 to one 

inch long. Depending upon species, rove beetles prey 

upon aphids, springtails, mites, nematodes, slugs, 

snails, fly eggs and maggots. They also eat and help 

break down decaying organic material. 

SOLDIER BEETLE 

Approximately 1/3 to 1/2 inch in length, the adult 

soldier beetle has a narrow, black abdomen and bright 

red head or thorax. It is a commonly seen beneficial 

insect that preys upon aphids, caterpillars, 

grasshopper eggs and beetle larvae, among other 

insects around the garden and farm. 

TACHNID FLY 

Resembling house flies, tachnid flies are 1/3 to 1/2 

inch in length and may be brown, gray or black in 

color. There are many species, many of which are 

predators of pest caterpillars including cutworms, 

codling moths, tent caterpillars, cabbage loopers and 

gypsy moth larvae. 

Attract these valuable flies by planting flowers, and 

herbs in the Umbelliferae family such as dill, parsley 

and Queen Anne's Lace. 


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YELLOW JACKET 

Adult wasps are ½ to 3/4 inch long, with characteristic 

yellow and black stripes and transparent wings. Yellow 

jackets are often feared for their sting, which is a 

hazard to people who are allergic. However, they are 

beneficial as predators of caterpillars, flies and beetle 

grubs. Nests need not be removed if they are not 

interfering with the lives of people in the area. 


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Agricultural Pesticide Section 

All agricultural employers whose workers perform hand labor operations in fields, 

forests, nurseries, and greenhouses treated with pesticides, and handle pesticides in 

these locations are covered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's worker 

protection standard revised 2005. 

Agricultural employers must be in full compliance with this regulation before April 15, 

1994. Additionally, owners, operators, and their immediate family members must comply 

with some of the provisions of this standard. This supplement to “A Summary of Federal 

Laws and Regulations Affecting Agricultural Employers,” summarizes this regulation. 

Agricultural employers must be in full compliance with the U.S. Environmental Protection 

Agency's (EPA) 2005 worker protection standard. This standard, which became 

effective on October 20, 1992, revises EPA's 1974 worker protection standard. Precise 

estimates of the number of workers and handlers who will be covered by the WPS are 

unknown, but the EPA estimates that nearly 4 million owners, operators, family 

members, hired workers and handlers could be affected. 

The WPS covers every agricultural employer, including livestock producers, who have 

employees that perform hand labor operations in fields, forests, nurseries, and 

greenhouses treated with pesticides. 

Unlike other laws and regulations affecting agricultural labor, the WPS does not exempt 

any employment in commercial agriculture involving hand labor in fields, but owners or 

operators and immediate family members are specifically exempt from some provisions. 

The WPS expands coverage to include more employees and expands employers' 

requirements for training employees who handle pesticides, protecting employees from 

pesticide exposure, and providing emergency assistance to exposed employees. 

Although many laws affecting agricultural employment exempt farming enterprises that 

employ small numbers of hired farmworkers, the new standard has no exemptions 

based on the number of employees. 

Employers covered by the WPS must: 

Reduce overall exposure to pesticides by prohibiting handlers from exposing workers 

during pesticide application, excluding workers from areas being treated and areas 

under a restricted entry interval, and notifying workers about treated areas. Some 

activities are allowed during restricted entry intervals if workers are properly trained and 

protected. 

Mitigate exposures by requiring decontamination supplies be present and emergency 

assistance be available. 

Inform workers about pesticide hazards by requiring safety training (workers and 

handlers), safety posters, access to labeling information, and access to specific 

information (listing of treated areas on the establishment). 

WPS provisions are very complicated and are likely to affect a large number of 

employers and their workers. 


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States may also issue worker protection standards that are stricter than the WPS. 

Therefore, employers should contact their State agency that regulates the Federal 

Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act in cooperation with the EPA to determine 

whether they must comply with the WPS and local regulations. Nothing in this report 

replaces technical and professional legal advice. 

Background 

The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA) of 1947, as amended, 

sets an overall risk/benefit standard for pesticide registration, requiring that all pesticides 

perform their intended function, when used according to labeling directions, without 

imposing unreasonable risks of adverse effects on human health or the environment 

(Runyan, 1992). 

During the congressional discussion of FIFRA amendments in 1972, the Senate 

Committee on Agriculture and Forestry (Committee) "found protection of man and the 

environment to be a broad term encompassing farmers, farmworkers, and others who 

come into contact with pesticides..." (57 FR 38102). 

The Committee further found "that the bill [The Federal Environmental Pesticide Control 

Act of 1972 (FEPCA)] requires the Administrator to require that the labeling and 

classification of pesticides be such as to protect farmers, farmworkers, and others 

coming in contact with pesticides or pesticide residues" (57 FR 38102). 

Given the above mandate, the EPA issued regulations in 1974 dealing with pesticiderelated 

occupational safety and health of workers performing hand labor operations in 

fields during and after application of pesticides (40 CFR). 

Four Basic Requirements 

These regulations contained four basic requirements: 

(1) workers are not to be sprayed with pesticides; 

(2) there are specific restricted entry intervals (REI) for 12 pesticides, interim restrictive 

entry levels for certain pesticides, and a general re-entry interval for all other agricultural 

pesticides prohibiting re-entry into treated areas until sprays have dried, dusts have 

settled, and vapors have dispersed; 

(3) protective clothing is required for any worker entering a treated area before the 

specific re-entry period has expired; and 

(4) "appropriate and timely" warnings are required for re-entry. These warnings may be 

given orally in appropriate language, placed on the pesticide notice board, or posted in 

the field. 

1974 Regulations 

The EPA determined that the 1974 regulations did not adequately protect agricultural 

workers and pesticide handlers who were occupationally exposed to pesticides. In order 

to correct these inadequacies, the EPA issued new regulations designed to reduce 

exposure to pesticides, mitigate exposure, and inform workers about pesticides. 

Reducing overall exposure to pesticides will be accomplished by prohibiting handlers 

from exposing workers during application, excluding workers from areas being treated 

and areas under a REI (some activities are allowed during a REI if workers are properly 

trained and protected), and notifying workers about treated areas. 


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Mitigating Exposures 

Mitigating exposures will be accomplished by requiring decontamination supplies and 

emergency assistance. Workers will be informed about pesticide hazards through 

required safety training (workers and handlers), safety posters, access to labeling 

information, and access to specific information (listing of treated areas on the 

establishment). 

Worker Protection Standard for Agricultural Pesticides 

Provisions of the WPS apply to: 

Owners or managers of farms, forests, nurseries, 

or greenhouses where pesticides are used in the 

production of agricultural plants. 

Those who hire or contract for services of 

agricultural workers to do tasks related to the 

production of agricultural plants on a farm, forest, 

nursery, or greenhouse. 

General Duties of WPS 

The general duties of the WPS require an agricultural employer or a pesticide handleremployer 

to: 

Assure that each worker and handler subject to the standard receives the 

required protections. 

Assure that any pesticide subject to the standard is used in a manner consistent 

with the labeling of the pesticide, including the requirements in the standard. 

Provide sufficient information and directions to each person who supervises any 

worker or handler to assure that each worker or handler receives the required 

protection. The information and directions must specify which persons are 

responsible for actions required to comply with the standard. 

Require each person who supervises any worker or handler to assure 

compliance by the worker or handler with the provisions of this standard and to 

assure that the worker or handler receives the required protection (40 CFR). 

The general duties also prohibit agricultural and handler employers from taking 

any retaliatory actions against workers attempting to comply with this standard, 

or from taking any action that prevents or discourages any worker or handler 

from complying or attempting to comply with the WPS. 

Labeling 

Requires everyone applying pesticides to obey instructions printed on the pesticide 

container's label. 


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Worker Protection Standard Section 

Summary of WPS Requirements 

Protection during applications -- Applicators are prohibited from applying a 

pesticide in a way that will expose workers or other persons. Workers are 

excluded from areas while pesticides are being applied. 

Restricted-entry intervals -- Restricted-entry intervals must be specified on all 

agricultural plant pesticide product labels. Workers are excluded from entering a 

pesticide-treated area during the restricted-entry interval, with only narrow 

exceptions. 

Personal protective equipment -- Personal protective equipment must be 

provided and maintained for handlers and early-entry workers. 

Notification to workers -- Workers must be notified about treated areas so they 

may avoid inadvertent exposures. 

Decontamination supplies -- Handlers and workers must have an ample supply 

of water, soap, and towels for routine washing and emergency decontamination. 

Emergency assistance -- Transportation must be made available to a medical 

care facility if a worker or handler may have been poisoned or injured. 

Information must be provided about the pesticide to which the person may have 

been exposed. 

Pesticide safety training and safety posters -- Training is required for all 

workers and handlers, and a pesticide safety poster must be displayed. 

Access to labeling and site-specific information -- Handlers and workers 

must be informed of pesticide label requirements. Central posting of recent 

pesticide applications is required. 


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“Agricultural Use Requirements - Use this 

product only in accordance with its labeling 

and with the Worker Protection Standard, 

40 CFR Part 170. This standard contains 

requirements for the protection of 

agricultural workers on farms, forests, 

nurseries, and greenhouses, and handlers 

of agricultural pesticides. It contains 

requirements for training, decontamination, 

notification, and emergency assistance. It 

also contains specific instructions and 

exceptions pertaining to the statements on 

this label about personal protective 

equipment, notification of workers, and 

restricted entry intervals.” 

Pesticides used on sod farms are covered 

by WPS. 

Some pesticide uses are not covered by 

WPS, even when the Agricultural Use Requirements section is on the labeling. For 

example, if the pesticide labeling bears an Agricultural Use Requirements section, but 

the product also can be applied to rights-of-way, the rights-of-way use is not covered by 

WPS. 

WPS Requires Restricted Entry to Treated Areas 

Restricted-entry interval (REI) is the time immediately after a pesticide application when 

entry into the treated area is prohibited or very limited. REIs are established for all 

pesticides used in the production of agricultural plants depending on toxicity. The REI is 

listed on the pesticide labeling under the heading “Agricultural Use Requirements” in the 

“Directions for Use” section of the pesticide labeling or next to the crop or application 

method to which it applies. 

REIs must be specified on all 

agricultural plant pesticide product 

labels. Workers are excluded from 

entering a pesticide treated area 

during the REI, with few narrow 

exceptions. The duration of REIs 

ranges from 4 hours to several days. 

Some pesticides have one REI, such 

as 12 hours, for all crops and uses. 

Other products have different REIs, 

depending on the crop or method of 

application. When two or more 

pesticides are applied at the same 

time and have different REIs, the 

longer interval must be followed. 

There is a no-entry period for 4 hours for all products with WPS labeling; this means no 

early entry. 


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WPS Requires Notification of Applications 

Employers must notify workers about pesticide applications on the agricultural 

establishment if they will be on or within a quarter (1/4) mile of the treated area. In most 

cases, employers may choose between oral warnings or posted warning signs, but they 

must tell workers which warning method is in effect. All applications must be additionally 

recorded and displayed at the central location. 

Most products allow worker notification either orally or by posting a field warning sign, 

one or the other is acceptable as long as workers are informed of which method is being 

used. However, you must provide double notification if the pesticide label has this 

statement in the “Directions for Use” section under the heading “Agricultural Use 

Requirements”: 

“Notify workers of the application by warning them orally AND by posting warning 

signs at entrances to treated areas.” 

If double notification is specified on the pesticide label workers must be orally notified 

about REIs and treated fields must be physically posted with warning signs during the 

REI. It is the agricultural establishment’s responsibility to post warning signs in the field if 

it is required. Farms employing ONLY immediate family members are not required to 

post the field. 

Signs must have the words “Danger-Peligro” and “Pesticides-Pesticidas” at the top 

and “Keep Out-No Entre” at the bottom. Signs must be at least 14” x 16”, with a 

minimum letter height of one inch. The Spanish portion of the sign may be replaced with 

a substitute language read by the majority of non-English speaking workers. In 

greenhouses and nurseries, smaller signs (4.5” x 5”) are acceptable. 

Warning signs must be: 

Posted 24 hours or less before application 

Removed within three (3) days after the end of the REI 

Posted so they can be seen at all normal entrances to treated areas, including 

borders adjacent to labor camps 

If no employees were involved with treatment, 

or the employees do not come within a 

quarter (1/4) mile, no posting is required 

Oral warnings must be delivered in a manner 

understood by workers, using an interpreter if 

necessary. Oral warnings must contain the following 

information: 

Location and description of the treated area 

The length of the REI 

Specific directions not to enter during the REI 

WPS Requires That Specific Information 

Regarding Applications and Safety Be Posted at a 

Central Location 

The WPS requirement that information be posted 

(displayed) at a central location is cited by the EPA 

as one of the most commonly violated provisions. 


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Spanish warning statements. If the product is classified as toxicity category I or 

toxicity category II according to the criteria in § 156.10(h)(1), the signal word shall 

appear in Spanish in addition to English followed by the statement, "Si Usted no 

entiende la etiqueta, busque a alguien para que se la explique a Usted en detalle. (If you 

do not understand the label, find someone to explain it to you in detail.)" The Spanish 

signal word "PELIGRO" shall be used for products in toxicity category I, and the Spanish 

signal word "AVISO" shall be used for products in toxicity category II. These statements 

shall appear on the label close to the English signal word. 


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WHAT IS THE WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD? 

The Worker Protection Standard (WPS) is a regulation issued by the U.S. Environmental 

Protection Agency. It covers pesticides that are used in the production of agricultural 

plants on farms, forests, nurseries, and greenhouses. The WPS requires you to take 

steps to reduce the risk of pesticide-related illness and injury if you (1) use such 

pesticides, or 

(2) employ workers or pesticide handlers who are exposed to such pesticides. 

If you are an agricultural pesticide user and/or an employer of agricultural workers or 

pesticide handlers, the WPS requires you to provide to your employees and, in some 

cases, to yourself and to others: 

• information about exposure to pesticides, 

• protections against exposures to pesticides, and 

• ways to mitigate exposures to pesticides. 

INFORMATION 

To ensure that employees will be informed about exposure to pesticides, the WPS 

requires: 

• Pesticide safety training — for workers and handlers, 

• Pesticide safety poster — to be displayed for workers and handlers, 

• Access to labeling information — for pesticide handlers and early-entry 

workers, and 

• Access to specific information — centrally located application information of 

pesticide treatments on the establishment. 

PROTECTION 

To ensure that employees will be 

protected from exposures to pesticides, 

the WPS requires employers to: 

• prohibit handlers from applying a 

pesticide in a way that will expose 

workers or other persons, 

• exclude workers from areas being 

treated with pesticides, 

• exclude workers from areas that 

remain under a restricted-entry 

interval 

(REI), with narrow exceptions. 

• protect early-entry workers who are 

doing permitted tasks in treated areas 

during an REI, including special 

instructions and duties related to correct 

use of 

PPE, 

• notify workers about treated areas 

so they can avoid inadvertent 

exposures, and 

• protect handlers during handling tasks, including monitoring while handling 

highly toxic pesticides, and duties related to correct use of PPE. 


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These key terms have very specific meanings in the WPS. Note that these definitions 

may be different from definitions found in other state and federal laws and regulations. 

MITIGATION 

To mitigate pesticide exposures that employees receive, the WPS requires: 

• Decontamination supplies — providing handlers and workers an ample supply of 

water, soap, and towels for routine washing and emergency decontamination. 

• Emergency assistance — making transportation available to a medical care facility if 

an agricultural worker or handler may have been poisoned or injured by a pesticide, and 

providing information about the pesticide(s) to which the person may have been 

exposed. 

These key terms have very specific meanings in the WPS. Note that these definitions 

may be different from definitions found in other state and federal laws and regulations. 

Terms You Need to Know 

These definitions will help you determine whether you are affected by the Worker 

Protection Standard. These key terms have very specific meanings in the WPS. Note 

that these definitions may be different from definitions found in other state and federal 

laws and regulations. 

Agricultural plants: Plants grown or maintained for commercial or research purposes. 

Examples: food, feed, and fiber plants, trees, turfgrass, flowers, shrubs, ornamentals, 

and seedlings. 

Farms: Operations, other than nurseries or forests, that produce agricultural 

plants outdoors. 

Forests: Operations that produce agricultural plants outdoors for wood fiber or 

timber products. 

Greenhouses: Operations that produce agricultural plants indoors in an area that is 

enclosed with nonporous covering and that is large enough to allow a person to enter. 

Examples: polyhouses, mushroom houses and caves, and rhubarb houses, as well as 

traditional greenhouses. Malls, atriums, conservatories, arboretums, and office buildings 

that grow or maintain plants primarily for decorative or environmental benefits are not 

included. 

Nurseries: Operations that produce agricultural plants outdoors for: 

• transplants to another location, or 

• flower or fern cuttings. 

Examples: flowering and foliage plants or trees; tree seedlings; live Christmas trees; 

vegetable, fruit, and ornamental transplants; and turfgrass produced for sod. 


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DOES THE WORKER PROTECTION STANDARD APPLY TO 

YOU? 

You need the information in this section if: 

• You own or manage a farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse where pesticides 

are used in the production of agricultural plants. 

Even if you are the owner of the farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse and you or 

members of your family do all the work there, you are a “WPS employer.” You must 

comply with some of the requirements described in this manual, such as restricted-entry 

intervals and personal protective equipment, and all the specific requirements listed in 

the pesticide labeling. See Agricultural Owner Exemptions, for more information. 

• You hire or contract for the services of agricultural workers to do tasks related to 

the production of agricultural plants on a farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse. This 

includes labor contractors and others who contract with growers to supply agricultural 

laborers. 

• You operate a business in which you (or people you employ) apply pesticides 

that are used for the production of agricultural plants on any farm, forest, nursery, or 

greenhouse. 

Commercial pesticide handlers and their employees are included with respect to such 

pesticides even if the pesticide handling task (mixing, loading, disposal, etc.) takes place 

somewhere other than the farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse — at the commercial 

handling establishment or an airport hangar, for example. 

• You operate a business in which you (or people you employ) perform tasks as a 

crop advisor on any farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse. 

“Crop advisor” means any person who is assessing pest numbers or damage, pesticide 

distribution, or the status, condition, or requirements of agricultural plants. Examples 

include crop consultants and scouts. 

If you are in any of these categories, you must comply with the Environmental 

Protection Agency’s Worker Protection Standard (40 CFR, part 170) including all 

revisions through 2004. 

Under the WPS, you may be both a worker and an employer of workers. 

Under the WPS, you may be both a handler and an employer of handlers. 


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WHO DOES THE WPS PROTECT? 

The WPS requires employers to take steps to protect two types of agricultural 

employees: workers and pesticide handlers. The terms “worker” and “pesticide 

handler” are defined very specifically in the WPS, and employers of persons who meet 

these definitions must comply with the WPS. Depending on the tasks being performed, 

you may need to provide the same employee with worker protections on some 

occasions and pesticide handler protections on other occasions. 

Owners of agricultural establishments and members of their immediate family are 

exempt from many WPS requirements. 

WORKERS 

A worker is anyone who: (1) is employed (including self-employed) for any type of 

compensation and (2) is doing tasks, such as harvesting, weeding, or watering, relating 

to the production of agricultural plants on a farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse. This 

term does not include persons who are employed by a commercial establishment to 

perform tasks as crop advisors. 

PESTICIDE HANDLERS 

A pesticide handler is anyone who: (1) is employed (including self-employed) for any 

type of compensation by an agricultural establishment or a commercial pesticide 

handling establishment that uses pesticides in the production of agricultural plants on a 

farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse, and (2) is doing any of the following tasks: 

• mixing, loading, transferring, or applying pesticides, 

• handling opened containers of pesticides, 

• acting as a flagger, 

• cleaning, handling, adjusting, or repairing the parts of mixing, loading, or application 

equipment that may contain pesticide residues, 

• assisting with the application of pesticides, including incorporating the pesticide into 

the soil after the application has occurred, 

• entering a greenhouse or other enclosed area after application and before the 

inhalation exposure level listed on the product labeling has been reached or one of the 

WPS ventilation criteria have been met to: – operate ventilation equipment, – adjust or 

remove coverings, such as tarps, used in fumigation, or – check air concentration levels, 

• entering a treated area outdoors after application of any soil fumigant to adjust or 

remove soil coverings, such as tarpaulins, 

• performing tasks as a crop advisor: – during any pesticide application, – before any 

inhalation exposure level or ventilation criteria listed in the labeling has been reached or 

one of the WPS ventilation criteria has been met, – during any restricted-entry interval, 

• disposing of pesticides or pesticide containers. 

NOT A HANDLER 


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A person is not a handler if he or she only handles pesticide containers that have been 

emptied or cleaned according to instructions on pesticide product labeling or, if the 

labeling has no such instructions, have been triple-rinsed or cleaned by an equivalent 

method, such as pressure rinsing. 

A person is not a handler if he or she (1) is only handling pesticide containers that are 

unopened and (2) is not, at the same time, also doing any handling task (such as mixing 

or loading). 

• You are not a handler if you: 

– purchase pesticides and transport them unopened to an establishment. 

– carry unopened containers into a pesticide storage facility. 

– transport unopened containers to the site where they are to be mixed, loaded, or 

applied. 

You are a handler if you are loading unopened water-soluble packets into a mixing tank 

(because you are mixing and loading the pesticide). 


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Four Basic Requirements of WPS 

These regulations contain four basic requirements: 

(1) workers are not to be sprayed with pesticides; 

(2) there are specific restricted entry intervals (REI) for 12 pesticides, interim restrictive 

entry levels for certain pesticides, and a general re-entry interval for all other agricultural 

pesticides prohibiting re-entry into treated areas until sprays have dried, dusts have 

settled, and vapors have dispersed; 

(3) protective clothing is required for any worker entering a treated area before the 

specific re-entry period has expired; and 

(4) "appropriate and timely" warnings are required for re-entry. These warnings may 

be given orally in appropriate language, placed on the pesticide notice board, or posted 

in the field. 

§ 156.208 Restricted-Entry Statements. 

(a) Requirement. Each product with a restricted-entry interval shall bear the following 

statement: "Do not enter or allow worker entry into treated areas during the restrictedentry 

interval (REI)." This statement shall be under the heading AGRICULTURAL USE 

REQUIREMENTS in the labeling. 

(b) Location of specific restricted-entry interval statements. (1) If a product has one 

specific restricted-entry interval applicable to all registered uses of the product on 

agricultural plants, the restricted-entry interval for the product shall appear as a 

continuation of the statement required in paragraph (a) of this section and shall appear 

as follows: "of X hours" or "of X days" or "until the acceptable exposure level of X ppm or 

mg/m3 is reached." 

(2) If different restricted-entry intervals have been established for some crops or some 

uses of a product, the restricted-entry statement in paragraph (b)(1) of this section shall 

be associated on the labeling of the product with the directions for use for each crop 

each use to which it applies, immediately preceded or immediately followed by the words 

"Restricted-entry interval" (or the letters "REI"). 

(c) Restricted-entry interval based on toxicity of active ingredient--(1) Determination of 

toxicity category. A restricted-entry interval shall be established based on the acute 

toxicity of the active ingredients in the product. For the purpose of setting the restrictedentry 

interval, the toxicity category of each active ingredient in the product shall be 

determined by comparing the obtainable data on the acute dermal toxicity, eye irritation 

effects, and skin irritation effects of the ingredient to the criteria of § 156.10(h)(1). The 

most toxic of the applicable toxicity categories that are obtainable for each active 

ingredient shall be used to determine the restricted-entry interval for that product. If no 

acute dermal toxicity data are obtainable, data on acute oral toxicity also shall be 

considered in this comparison. If no applicable acute toxicity data are obtainable on the 

active ingredient, the toxicity category corresponding to the signal word of any registered 

manufacturing-use product that is the source of the active ingredient in the end-use 

product shall be used. If no acute toxicity data are obtainable on the active ingredients 

and no toxicity category of a registered manufacturing-use product is obtainable, the 

toxicity category of the end-use product (corresponding to the signal word on its labeling) 

shall be used. 


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How To Comply With the Worker Protection Standard For 

Agricultural Pesticides 

What Employers Need To Know 

Revised September 2005 Reprinted June 2006 

THE IMPORTANCE OF THIS SECTION 

Regulatory agencies will enforce the requirements of the federal Worker Protection 

Standard (Code of Federal Regulations, Title 40, Part 170) when you use a pesticide 

product with labeling that refers to the Worker Protection Standard. If you do not comply 

with the Worker Protection Standard requirements, you will be in violation of federal law, 

since it is illegal to use a pesticide product in a manner inconsistent with its labeling. This 

manual provides information to help you comply with the requirements of the federal 

Worker Protection Standard (WPS) for agricultural pesticides, 40 CFR part 170, as 

published in 1992 and as amended in 1995, 1996, and 2004. EPA may issue additional 

guidance about the Worker Protection Standard and the Worker Protection Standard 

may be amended in the future. Check with your state or tribal agency responsible for 

pesticides for further information and updates. 

This 2005 updated Worker Protection Standard for Agricultural Pesticides — How To 

Comply Manual, EPA 735-B-05-002 supersedes the 1993 version, EPA 735-B-93-001. 

Changes to the Worker Protection Standard have made the 1993 version obsolete and 

its continued use may lead an employer to be out of compliance with this regulation. 

Additional Worker Protection Requirements in Your Area 

Some states, tribes, or local governments with jurisdiction over pesticide enforcement 

may have additional worker protection requirements beyond the requirements described 

in the federal manual. Check with these agencies to obtain the information you need to 

comply with all applicable state, tribal, or local requirements. 

Material Appended to the Manual 

States, tribes, or local governments with jurisdiction over pesticide enforcement may 

elect to append additional worker protection requirements to the federal manual. These 

additions may only be appended at the end of the federal manual, after the index. Any 

additional material should be clearly identified as state, tribal, or local requirements. 

WHO NEEDS TO READ THIS SECTION? 

You probably need to comply with the WPS if you are a: 

• Manager or owner of a farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse, or 

• Labor contractor for a farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse, or 

• Custom (for-hire) pesticide applicator or independent crop consultant hired by a 

farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse operator. Most WPS provisions are protections that 

you as an employer must provide to your own employees and, in some instances, to 

yourself. The WPS covers two types of employers, which it defines according to the 

type of work their employees do: 


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Worker employer — If you hire or contract for people to do agricultural worker tasks, or 

if you do them yourself, the WPS considers you a worker employer. In general, 

agricultural workers are persons who 

(1) do hand labor tasks, such as weeding, planting, cultivating, and harvesting, or 

(2) do other tasks involved in the production of agricultural plants, such as moving or 

operating irrigation equipment. This manual will also describe the WPS protections you 

must provide to the agricultural workers you employ. 

Handler employer — If you hire people to do pesticide handling tasks, or if you do them 

yourself, the WPS considers you a handler employer. In general, pesticide handlers are 

persons who mix, load, apply, or do other tasks that bring them into direct contact with 

pesticides. You must provide WPS protections to all your pesticide handler employees, 

whether or not they are certified as applicators of restricted-use pesticides. This manual 

will also describe the WPS protections you must provide to the pesticide handlers you 

employ. 

• The same employee may be a worker at some times and a handler at other times, 

depending on the type of task being performed. 

• You may be both a handler employer and a worker employer, depending on the tasks 

that you and your employees do. 

• Both general-use pesticides and restricted-use pesticides are covered by the WPS. 

1. Only appropriately trained and equipped workers are allowed in the area during 

pesticide application. 

2. Workers may enter a treated area before the REI has expired only if the worker will 

have no contact with pesticide residue or is entering for a short term, emergency, or 

specifically accepted tasks. 

3. Workers must be provided with protective equipment in proper working order. Workers 

must be notified of pesticide applications, treated areas must be posted, and/or oral 

warnings must be given to workers as directed by labeling. 

4. A Pesticide safety poster must be on display in a central location. 

5. A Decontamination site must be provided and maintained if workers are required to 

enter treated area during REI and the ensuing 30 days. 

6. Emergency assistance must be provided to any worker when there is reason to 

believe the worker was poisoned or injured by pesticide. 

Workers in several occupations may be exposed to pesticides by: 

Preparing pesticides for use, such as by mixing a concentrate with water or loading the 

pesticide into application equipment. 

Applying pesticides, such as in an agricultural or commercial setting. 

Entering an area where pesticides have been applied to perform allowed tasks, such as 

picking crops. 


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The WPS does not apply when pesticides are applied on an agricultural 

establishment in the following circumstances: 

For mosquito abatement, Mediterranean fruit fly eradication, or similar wide-area public 

pest control programs sponsored by governmental entities. The WPS does apply to 

cooperative programs in which the growers themselves make or arrange for pesticide 

applications. 

On livestock or other animals, or in or about animal premises. 

On plants grown for other than commercial or research purposes, which may include 

plants in habitations, home fruit and vegetable gardens, and home greenhouses. 

On plants that are in ornamental gardens, parks, and public or private lawns and 

grounds that are intended only for aesthetic purposes or climatic modification. 

By injection directly into agricultural plants. Direct injection does not include "hack and 

squirt," "frill and spray," chemigation, soil-incorporation, or soil-injection. 

In a manner not directly related to the production of agricultural plants, such as structural 

pest control, control of vegetation along rights-of-way and in other non-crop areas, and 

pasture and rangeland use. 

For control of vertebrate pests. 

As attractants or repellents in traps. 

On the harvested portions of agricultural plants or on harvested timber. 

For research uses of unregistered pesticides. 


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This “How To Comply” section of the course will: 

• Help you determine whether you are covered by the WPS, 

• Give you detailed information on how to comply with the WPS requirements, 

including exceptions, restrictions, exemptions, options, and examples, and 

• Provide you with a “Quick Reference Guide” — a simplified route to compliance that 

focuses on maximum requirements. Important definitions and other special explanations 

are enclosed in shaded boxes. Reading them will help you better understand the WPS 

requirements and how they apply to you. 

LABELING OVERRIDES WPS 

If the pesticide product labeling contains specific instructions or requirements that 

conflict with the requirements of the Worker Protection Standard, follow the 

instructions or requirements on the labeling. For example, some pesticide labeling 

may: 

• Prohibit any early-entry activity, including short-term and emergency tasks. 

• Allow an early-entry activity that the WPS does not allow. 

• Require the use of personal protective equipment even if closed systems are used 

for mixing and loading. 

EXCEPTIONS TO LABELING STATEMENTS 

The WPS allows certain exceptions to three specific pesticide labeling requirements: 

personal protective equipment, restricted-entry intervals, and double notification 

(the requirement on some labeling for both oral warnings and posting treated areas). 

The WPS statements in the Agricultural Use Requirements box on the product labeling 

will tell you that the WPS contains these exceptions. 

Entry during a restricted-entry interval is permitted only in a few strictly limited 

circumstances; see Early Entry. 


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Knowledge of Labeling Information 

A handler employer must assure that handlers understand all of the labeling 

requirements related to safe use of pesticides before any handling activity takes place. 

The handler must also have access to the product labeling information during handling 

activities. 

Safe Operation of Equipment 

A handler employer must assure that handlers are instructed in the safe operation of all 

equipment they will be using. It is the handler-employer's responsibility to assure that 

the equipment is working properly and to inform employees, when appropriate, that the 

equipment may be contaminated with pesticides and to explain the correct way to handle 

such equipment. 

Personal Protective Equipment 

Any person handling a pesticide must use the clothing and PPE specified on the label for 

product use. Characteristics of protective clothing and PPE are specified in the 

standard, as are exceptions to PPE specified on product labeling. The handler employer 

must take appropriate measures to prevent heat-related illnesses. 

Decontamination 

A handler employer must provide a decontamination site (as specified in the standard) 

for washing off pesticides and pesticide residues during any handling activity. 

Emergency Assistance 

A handler employer must provide the same emergency assistance to handlers as 

discussed for workers. 

Implementation 

The requirements of WPS was phased into effect back in 1992 and again in 2005. First, 

labeling requirements went into effect on April 21, 1993. Before that date, the EPA did 

not allow the statements required by the WPS to be on labels. The period back in 

October 22, 1992-April 21, 1993 allowed the EPA to inform registrants how to correctly 

revise their labels and to inform end-users about the label-specific requirements by 

which they must abide. The following label-specific requirements must appear on 

pesticide labels: 

PPE (must be worn, but the employer is not required to provide, clean, or 

maintain until after April 15, 1994) (EPA, 1993a), 

the REI, and, 

on some pesticide labels, a requirement to provide both oral warnings (location 

and description of treated area, REI, and not to enter during REI) and a treated 

area posting (at entrance to treated area) (EPA, 1992b and EPA, 1993a). 


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Label Requirements 

When these requirements appear on pesticide labels, all end-users must meet them 

unless exempt. Exempt end-users should voluntarily obey the requirements because of 

the dangers of pesticide exposure. 

Second, beginning April 15, 1994, the generic requirements will be enforced. Generic 

requirements are intended to eliminate exposure to pesticides and to inform employees 

about the occupational hazards of pesticides. These require employers to make sure 

that employees are provided with: 

A display of information at a central location (WPS safety poster, the location of 

emergency medical facilities, and a list of recent pesticide applications). 

A decontamination facility. 

Pesticide safety training. 

Details of information exchanges between employers of agricultural workers and 

employers of commercial (for-hire) pesticide applicators. 

Notice about pesticide applications and information about pesticides used. 

Monitoring of handlers who are using highly toxic pesticides. 

Instruction on equipment safety, including inspection and maintenance. 

Instruction on the cleaning, inspection, and maintenance of PPE. 

Special instructions for handlers, including labeling information and safe 

operation of application equipment. 

Special application restrictions in nurseries and greenhouses. 

Emergency assistance when required (EPA, 1992a and EPA, 1993b). 

Enforcement 

States have primary enforcement responsibility for pesticide use violations if the 

Administrator of the EPA determines the State: 

(1) has adopted adequate pesticide use laws and regulations; 

(2) has adopted or is implementing adequate procedures for the enforcement of its laws 

and regulations; and 

(3) has kept records and made reports showing compliance with (1) and (2) above, as 

the Administrator may require by regulation. 

The Administrator of the EPA may also enter into cooperative agreements with States 

and Indian tribes to delegate the authority to cooperate in the enforcement of FIFRA. 

Violations of the WPS carry both civil and criminal penalties. 


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Exceptions 

Exceptions to the WPS are for pesticide application on an agricultural establishment in 

the following circumstances (40 CFR): 

For mosquito abatement, Mediterranean fruit fly eradication, or similar wide-area public 

pest control programs sponsored by governmental entities. 

On livestock or other animals, or in or about animal premises. 

On plants grown for other than commercial or research purposes, which may include 

plants in habitations, home fruit and vegetable gardens, and home greenhouses. 

On plants that are in ornamental gardens, parks, and public and private lawns and 

grounds that are only intended for aesthetic purposes or climatic modification. 

By injection directly into agricultural plants. Direct injection does not include "hack and 

squirt," "frill and spray," chemigation, soil-incorporation, or soil injection. 

In a manner not directly related to the production of agricultural plants, including, but not 

limited to, structural pest control, control of vegetation along rights-of-way and in noncrop 

areas, and pastures and rangeland use. 

For control of vertebrate pests. 

As attractants or repellents in traps. 

On the harvested portions of agricultural plants or on harvested timber. 

For research uses of unregistered pesticides. 

Exemptions 

Exemptions from specific sections of the WPS apply only to owners of agricultural 

establishments and members of their immediate family while they are performing tasks 

related to the production of agricultural plants on their own agricultural establishments 

(40 CFR). These exemptions apply to the sections of the WPS covering the following: 

Entry during a REI for short-term activities. 

Entry during a REI for an agricultural emergency. 

Entry during a REI for an EPA-granted exception. 

Notice of application. Providing specific information about applications. 

Pesticide safety training. 

Posted pesticide safety information. 

Decontamination and Emergency assistance. 


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Arrowhead (Sagittaria Spp.) 


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WHICH PESTICIDE USES ARE COVERED? 

Most pesticide uses involved in the production of agricultural plants on a farm, forest, 

nursery, or greenhouse are covered by the WPS. This includes pesticides used on 

plants, and pesticides used on the soil or planting medium the plants are (or will be) 

grown in. Both general-use and restricted-use pesticides are covered by the WPS. You 

will know that the product is covered by the WPS if you see the following statement in 

the Directions for Use section of the pesticide labeling: 

“AGRICULTURAL USE REQUIREMENTS 

Use this product only in accordance with its labeling and with the Worker Protection 

Standard, 40 CFR 170. This standard contains requirements for the protection of 

agricultural workers on farms, forests, nurseries, and greenhouses, and handlers of 

agricultural pesticides. It contains requirements for training, decontamination, 

notification, and emergency assistance. It also contains specific instructions and 

exceptions pertaining to the statements on this label about personal protective 

equipment, notification of workers, and restricted-entry intervals.” 

If you are using a pesticide product with labeling that refers to the Worker Protection 

Standard, you must comply with the WPS. Otherwise, you will be in violation of federal 

law, since it is illegal to use a pesticide product in a manner inconsistent with its labeling. 

WHICH PESTICIDE USES ARE NOT COVERED? 

Some pesticide uses are not covered by the WPS, even when the “Agricultural Use 

Requirements” section is on the labeling. For example, if the pesticide labeling bears an 

“Agricultural Use Requirements” section, but the product also can be applied to rights-ofway, 

the rights-of-way use is not covered by the WPS. The WPS does not cover pesticides 

applied: 

• on pastures or rangelands, 

• for control of vertebrate pests such as rodents, 

• as attractants or repellents in traps, 

• on the portions of agricultural plants that have been harvested, such as in WPS 

• packing houses or on cut timber, 

• for mosquito abatement, Mediterranean fruit fly eradication, or similar governmentsponsored 

wide-area public pest control programs, 

• on livestock or other animals, or in or around animal premises, 

• on plants grown for other than commercial or research purposes, which may include 

plants in habitations, home fruit and vegetable gardens, and home greenhouses, 

•on plants that are in ornamental gardens, parks, golf courses, and public or private 

lawns and grounds and that are intended only for decorative or environmental benefit, 

• in a manner not directly related to the production of agricultural plants, including, for 

example, control of vegetation along rights of way and in other non-crop areas and 

structural pest control, such as termite control and wood preservation, 

•for research uses of unregistered pesticides. 


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The WPS does not cover workers who are working in an area where a pesticide has 

been injected directly into the plants. However, people who handle pesticides that are to 

be Direct injection does not applied by direct injection are covered by the WPS and must 

receive handler protections. 

Compensation includes pay or wages, payment through services or goods, or barter of 

services or goods. If only one person receives payment for the joint work of several 

people, all are considered to be compensated, and are employees under the WPS. For 

example, under a piece-rate payment system for harvesting crops, even if payment is 

issued to the head of the family only, all of the family members who harvest crops are 

considered employees under the WPS. 


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WHO MUST PROTECT WORKERS AND HANDLERS? 

Employers are responsible for making sure that workers and handlers receive the 

protections required by the pesticide labeling and the WPS. The term “employer” has a 

special meaning in the WPS — you are an employer even though you are self-employed 

or use only members of your own family to do the work on your establishment. 

The WPS has very specific definitions for two types of employers. WPS requirements 

apply only to employers who meet those definitions. 

WPS EMPLOYER DEFINITIONS 

Worker Employers: 

Worker employers are people who: 

• employ or contract for the services of workers (including themselves and members 

of their family) for any type of compensation to perform tasks related to the production of 

agricultural plants, or 

•own or operate an agricultural establishment that uses such workers. (See definition of 

“owner,”.) (See definition of “worker,”.) 

If you are a worker employer, you are responsible for providing your agricultural worker 

employees with the protections that the WPS requires for workers. (In the WPS itself, 

“worker employers” are called “agricultural employers.”) 

Handler Employers: 

Handler employers are people who: 

• employ pesticide handlers (including members of their family), for any type of 

compensation, or 

• are self-employed as pesticide handlers. 

(See definition of “pesticide handler,”.) 

If you are a handler employer, you are responsible for providing the pesticide handlers 

you employ with the protections that the WPS requires for handlers. 

If You Employ Supervisors 

You must: 

• require them to make sure the workers 

and handlers they supervise comply with 

the WPS and receive its protections, 

• give them enough information and 

directions about the WPS requirements to 

make sure that the workers and handlers 

they supervise receive the protections 

required by the WPS, and 

• tell them who is responsible for all 

actions necessary for compliance with the 

WPS. Even if you assign an employee to 

carry out the duties required by the WPS, 

you are responsible for making sure that all those duties are performed. 


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Retaliation Prohibited 

You and your supervisors must not prevent or discourage any worker or handler from 

complying or attempting to comply with the WPS, and you must not fire or otherwise 

retaliate against any worker or handler who attempts to comply. 

Penalties for Noncompliance 

Agricultural and handler employers can be subject to civil and criminal penalties if found 

not complying with the federal Worker Protection Standard including all revisions through 

2004. Failure to comply is a pesticide misuse violation — also known as use of a 

pesticide in a manner inconsistent with its labeling. Failure to comply with distinct acts of 

the WPS may result in independently assessable charges, even if the violative acts 

occurred during one pesticide application. 

Currently, a federal civil penalty of up to $1,100 per violation may be assessed against 

private applicators (owners/operators of agricultural establishments) and other persons, 

and up to $6,500 per violation against commercial applicators (owners/operators of 

pesticide handling establishments) and other persons. Since Congress passed the Civil 

Monetary Penalty Inflation Adjustment Rule under the Debt Collection Improvement Act 

of 1996, civil penalties have been increased due to inflation and Congress’ intent on 

creating a deterrence to noncompliance. The next civil penalty adjustment is expected to 

occur in 2009. 

Criminal penalties can also be assessed if the WPS is knowingly violated. Federal fines 

include up to $1,000 per offense and 30 days in jail for private applicators, and up to 

$25,000 and 1 year in jail for commercial applicators. 

Labeling Overrides WPS 

If the pesticide product labeling contains specific instructions or requirements that 

conflict with the requirements of the Worker Protection Standard, follow the 

instructions or requirements on the labeling. For example, some pesticide labeling 

may: 

• prohibit any early-entry activity, including short-term and emergency tasks, 

• allow an early-entry activity that the WPS does not allow, 

• require the use of personal protective equipment even if closed systems are used for 

mixing and loading. 

Exceptions to Labeling Statements 

The WPS allows certain exceptions to three specific pesticide labeling requirements: 

personal protective equipment , restricted-entry intervals, and double notification 

(the requirement on some labeling for both oral warnings and posting treated areas). 

The WPS statements in the Agricultural Use Requirements box on the product labeling 

will tell you that the WPS contains these exceptions. 

Most states and tribes enforce under their own laws and regulations and have their own 

penalties, which may differ from federal penalties. Pesticide-related ordinances and 

associated penalties may also be imposed by local governments. 


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WHAT EMPLOYERS MUST DO FOR BOTH WORKERS AND 

HANDLERS 

Some WPS protections that employers must provide are nearly the same whether the 

employees are workers or handlers. This unit describes those requirements. The 

following unit describes additional requirements that employers must provide to their 

employees who are workers. The next unit describes additional requirements that 

employers must provide to their employees who are handlers. If you employ both 

workers and handlers, you will need to read all three of these units. 

INFORMATION AT A CENTRAL LOCATION 

BASIC RESPONSIBILITIES 

(See Also Specific Duties Section Below) 

Worker employers must make sure that certain information, described below, is 

displayed at a central location whenever (1) any worker whom they employ is on their 

agricultural establishment, and 

(2) a pesticide is about to be applied or has been recently applied. 

When agricultural establishments employ their own handlers, handler employers of 

such establishments must make sure that certain information, described below, is 

displayed at a central location whenever (1) any handler whom they employ is on their 

agricultural establishment, and (2) a pesticide has been recently applied. However, this 

information does not need to be displayed if only commercial (custom) pesticide 

handlers will be on the agricultural establishment. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES 

What Information Must Be Displayed? 

The following three types of information must be displayed at a central location before a 

pesticide is applied: 

1. Pesticide-specific application information, which must include: the location and 

description of the area to be treated, product name, EPA registration number, and active 

ingredient(s) of the pesticide, time and date the pesticide is scheduled to be applied, and 

restricted-entry interval for the pesticide. 

2. Emergency information, which must include the name, telephone number and 

address of the nearest emergency medical facility. 

3. A pesticide safety poster, which must be either the WPS safety poster developed by 

EPA or an equivalent poster that contains the concepts listed in Criteria for Pesticide 

Safety Poster. 

Where Must the Information Be Displayed? 

Display the required information together in a central location on your agricultural 

establishment where it is readily accessible and can be easily seen and read by workers 

and handlers. 

Exception 

If the workplace is a forest, you may display the information near the forest. It must be in 

a location where workers and handlers can easily see and read it and where they are 

likely to gather or pass by. For example, you might display the information with the 

decontamination supplies or at an equipment storage site. 


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When Must the Information Be Displayed? 

Display the information whenever any worker or handler you employ is on your 

agricultural establishment and, in the past 30 days, a pesticide has been applied or a 

restricted-entry interval has been in effect. The information may be displayed 

continuously. 

Commercial pesticide handler employers do not need to display this information on 

the commercial pesticide handling establishment. If the pesticide is not applied as 

scheduled, you must display the corrected time and date before the application takes 

place. If you are unable to make the correction before the application takes place, make 

it as soon as possible thereafter. 

Earlier display: If you post WPS warning signs at treated areas, you must display 

pesticide-specific information at the central location no later than the time when the 

warning signs are posted. 

Timing of Displaying Application Information 

1. If workers or handlers are on your establishment at the start of an application, display 

the required pesticide-specific information before the application takes place. 

2. If workers or handlers are not on your establishment at the start of an application, 

display pesticide-specific information no later than the beginning of their first work 

period. 

3. Continue to display pesticide-specific information when workers or handlers are on 

your establishment until: 

• at least 30 days after the restricted-entry interval expires, or 

• at least 30 days after the end of the application, if there is no restricted-entry interval for 

the pesticide. 

Other Responsibilities 

1. Inform workers and handlers where the information is located. 

2. Allow workers and handlers free, 

unhampered access to the information. 

3. Be sure that the poster, emergency 

information, and application information remain 

legible during the time they are posted. 

4. Promptly inform workers if there is any 

change in the information on emergency 

medical facilities and update the emergency 

information listed with the poster. 


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How To Comply With the Worker Protection Standard For 

Agricultural Pesticides 

Restrictions During Applications 

1. In areas being treated with pesticides, allow entry only to appropriately trained and 

equipped handlers. 

2. Keep nursery workers at least 100 feet away from nursery areas being treated. 

3. Allow only handlers to be in a greenhouse during a pesticide application, until 

labeling-listed air concentration level is met or, if no such level, until after 2 hours of 

ventilation with fans. (Also see nursery restrictions and greenhouse restrictions) 

Restricted-Entry Intervals (REIs) During any REI, do not allow workers to enter a 

treated area and contact anything treated with the pesticide to which the REI applies. 

(Also see early entry by workers) 

Notice About Applications 

1. Orally warn workers and post 

treated areas if the pesticide labeling 

requires. 

2. Otherwise, either orally warn 

workers or post entrances to treated 

areas. Tell workers which method is in 

effect. 

3. Post all greenhouse applications. 

Posted Warning Signs 

1. Post legible 14" x 16" WPS-design 

signs just before application; keep 

posted during REI; remove before workers enter and within 3 days after the end of the 

REI. 

2. Post signs so they can be seen at all entrances to treated areas, including entrances 

from labor camps. 

Oral Warnings 

1. Before each application, tell workers who are on the establishment (in a manner they 

can understand): location and description of treated area, REI, and not to enter during 

REI. 

2. Workers who enter the establishment after application starts must receive the same 

warning at the start of their work period. 


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WHAT EMPLOYERS MUST DO FOR BOTH WORKERS AND 

HANDLERS PESTICIDE SAFETY TRAINING 



Handler employers must make sure that handlers are trained, as described below, 

about general pesticide safety and about correct ways to handle pesticides. 

Worker employers must make sure that workers have been trained, as described 

below, about general pesticide safety. This includes workers who enter treated areas on 

the farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse during a restricted-entry interval to perform 

WPS-permitted tasks. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES Providing Basic Pesticide Safety Information to Untrained 

Workers 

You must provide basic pesticide safety information to untrained workers before they 

enter treated areas on your establishment where, within the past 30 days, a pesticide 

has been applied or a restricted-entry interval has been in effect. You must: 

• provide the basic pesticide safety information in a manner that the untrained workers 

can understand, such as through written materials, oral communication, or other means, 

• be able to verify that you provided the workers with the required basic pesticide safety 

information, 

• provide the workers with at least the following information: – Pesticides may be on or in 

plants, soil, irrigation water, or drifting from 

nearby applications. 

To prevent pesticides from entering your body: 

• Follow directions and/or signs about keeping out of treated or restricted areas, 

• Wash before eating, drinking, using chewing gum or tobacco, or using the toilet, 

• Wear work clothing that protects your body from pesticide residues, 

• Wash/shower with soap and water, shampoo hair, and put on clean clothes after work, 

• Wash work clothes separately from other clothes before wearing them again, 

• Wash immediately in the nearest clean water if pesticides are spilled or sprayed on 

your body and then —as soon as possible — shower, shampoo, and change into clean 

clothes. 

• You will receive more training within 5 days (or at least before your sixth day of work in 

pesticide-treated areas on this establishment). 

Who Must Be Trained? 

Each worker and handler must be trained. This requirement is met if the worker or 

handler: 

1. has been trained within the last 5 years as a WPS handler or WPS worker, even if he 

or she has changed employers, or 

2. is currently a certified applicator of restricted-use pesticides, or 

3. is currently trained (as specified in EPA’s certification and training regulations) as a 

handler who works under the supervision of a certified pesticide applicator. 

Entry during a restricted-entry interval is permitted only in a few strictly limited 



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Under the WPS, you may be both a handler and an employer of handlers. 

How Soon Must They Be Trained? 

1. Handlers must be trained before they do any handling task. 

2. Early-entry workers who will contact anything that has been treated with the 

pesticide which caused the restricted-entry interval must be trained before they do any 

early-entry task on your establishment. 

3. Other agricultural workers, including early-entry workers who will not contact 

anything that has been treated with the pesticide which caused the restricted-entry 

interval must be trained before they accumulate more than 5 separate days of entry into 

treated areas on your establishment where, within the past 30 days, a pesticide has 

been applied or a restricted-entry interval has been in effect. These 5 days of entry need 

not be consecutive and are not limited to a growing season or calendar year. 

Note: You must provide untrained workers with basic pesticide safety information 

before they enter into treated areas on your establishment where, within the past 30 

days, a pesticide has been applied or a restricted-entry interval has been in effect. 

How Often Must Handlers and Workers Be Trained? 

Handlers and workers must be trained at least once every 5 years, counting from the 

end of the month in which the previous training was completed. 

Who Can Conduct Training? 

1. The person who conducts handler training must: 

• currently be a certified applicator of restricted-use pesticides (in any category of 

certification), 

or 

• currently be designated as a trainer of certified pesticide applicators or pesticide 

handlers by a state, federal, or tribal agency having jurisdiction, 

or 

• have completed a pesticide safety train-the-trainer program approved by a state, 

federal, or tribal agency having jurisdiction. 

2. The person who conducts worker training must: 

• currently be qualified to present handler training, as described immediately above, 

or 

• currently be trained as a WPS handler, 

or 

• have completed a pesticide safety train-the-trainer program approved by a state, 

federal, or tribal agency having jurisdiction. 

How To Conduct Training 

1. Anyone who conducts worker or handler training must: 

• use written and/or audiovisual materials, 

• present the training orally or audiovisually, 

• present the information in a manner that the trainees can understand, using a 

translator, if necessary, 

• respond to trainees’ questions. 

2. Anyone who conducts worker training must use non-technical terms. 


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Content of Training 

The pesticide safety training materials for workers and handlers must be either: 

• WPS training materials developed by EPA, 

or 

• equivalent material that contains at least the concepts listed in Criteria for Worker and 

Handler Training. 

Verification of Training 

If you make sure that a handler has an EPA-approved WPS handler training card or that 

a worker has an EPA-approved WPS worker or handler training card, the person does 

not have to be retrained unless you are aware, or have reason to know, that the card is 

invalid. 

A WPS training card is invalid if you, the employer: 

• are aware, or have reason to know, that the card was not issued according to the 

criteria in the WPS. For example, you know that the person who gave the training was 

not qualified to conduct WPS training, or that the content of the training did not meet the 

WPS criteria, or the trainee could not understand the training when it was given. 

or 

• are aware, or have reason to know, that the card was not issued to the person who has 

the card. 

or 

• know that the training for which the card was issued took place more than 5 years 

before the beginning of the current month (the card has expired). 

Avoiding Discrimination in Hiring 

Even if you do not normally provide training in the particular language of a job applicant, 

or if a translator is not readily available, you are not exempted from your training 

responsibilities under the WPS. 

Refusing to hire an applicant who cannot understand the language or languages in 

which you usually provide training may constitute discrimination on the basis of national 

origin. Such discrimination is actionable under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 or 

the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA). If you want information about 

your responsibilities under Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, contact the U.S. Equal 

Employment Opportunity Commission. For details about IRCA anti-discrimination 

provisions, contact the Special Counsel for Immigration-Related Unfair Employment 

Practices, U.S. Department of Justice. 

Handlers who are currently certified as applicators of restricted-use pesticides must be 

given all of the WPS handler protections, except that they need not receive WPS 

training. 

The WPS requires that decontamination supplies be provided regardless of the number 

of employees. There is no exemption for employers with only a few employees. 

Note: For early-entry workers who will contact anything that has been treated with 

the pesticide, the decontamination supply requirements are different. 

Decontamination and emergency eyeflush water must, at all times when it is 

available to workers or handlers, be of a quality and temperature that will not cause 

illness or injury when it contacts the skin or eyes or if it is swallowed. 


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DECONTAMINATION SUPPLIES 



Handler employers must make sure that decontamination supplies (described below) 

for washing off pesticides and pesticide residues are provided to handlers while they 

are doing handling tasks. Worker employers must make sure that decontamination 

supplies (described below) for washing off pesticide residues are provided to workers 

who are working in a pesticide-treated area and are doing tasks that involve contact with 

anything that has been treated with the pesticide, including soil, water, or surfaces of 

plants. 


When Must the Supplies Be Provided? 

For handlers, for the duration of the handling task. 

For workers, until 30 days after the end of any restricted-entry interval for that area. If 

there is no restricted-entry interval, until 30 days after the end of any application in that 

area. 

Exception 

When the only pesticides used in the treated area are products with a restricted-entry 

interval of 4 hours or less, the decontamination supplies must be provided until 7 days 

after the end of the restricted-entry interval. Note: When products have no restrictedentry 

interval listed on the label, the decontamination supplies must be provided until 30 

days after the end of any application in that area. 

For early-entry workers who will contact anything that has been treated with the 

pesticide, the decontamination supply requirements are different. 

Supplies 

Provide workers and handlers with: 

1. Water — enough for: 

• routine washing, and 

• emergency eyeflushing. 

If the water is stored in a tank, the water must not be used for mixing pesticides, unless 

the tank is equipped with correctly functioning anti-backsiphoning or check valves or 

other mechanisms (such as air gaps) that prevent pesticides from moving into the tank. 

2. Soap and single use towels — enough for workers’ or handlers’ needs. 

3. For handlers, also provide: 

• enough water for washing the entire body in case of emergency, and 

• clean change of clothes, such as one-size-fits-all coveralls, to put on if the handlers’ 

garments are contaminated and need to be removed right away. 

Recommendation: How Much Water Should Be Provided? 

Obviously, running water meets the requirement. However, if it is not available, 

use the following guidelines. 

• Workers: At least 1 gallon of water is recommended for each worker using the 

supplies. If you find that 1 gallon per worker is inadequate to last for the entire work 

period, provide more water or replenish the water as needed during the work period. 


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•Handlers: At least 3 gallons of water is recommended for each handler using the 

supplies. If you find that 3 gallons per handler is inadequate to last for the entire work 

period, provide more water or replenish the water as needed during the work period. 

Location 

1. All decontamination supplies for workers must be located together and all 

decontamination supplies for handlers must be located together. Decontamination 

supplies must be reasonably accessible to the workers and handlers. Handlers mixing 

pesticides must have decontamination supplies at the mixing area. 

Exceptions: 

• For a pilot who is applying pesticides aerially, the decontamination supplies must be at 

the aircraft’s loading site or in the aircraft. 

• For tasks performed more than 1/4 mile from the nearest point reachable by vehicles 

(cars, trucks, or tractors), the decontamination supplies may be at the access point. In 

this circumstance, clean water from springs, streams, lakes, or other sources may be 

used for decontamination if such water is more readily available than the water at the 

access point. 

Worker decontamination supplies must not be in an area being treated with pesticides 

or in an area under a restricted-entry interval. 

Handler decontamination supplies may be located in an area being treated with 

pesticides (or an area that has a restricted-entry interval in effect), only if: 

• They are in the area where the handler is doing handling tasks, 

and 

• The soap, single-use towels, and clean change of clothing are in closed containers, 

and 

• The water is running tap water or is in a closed container. 

Emergency Eyeflushing 

Provide each handler with at least 1 pint of emergency eyeflush water when the 

pesticide labeling requires protective eyewear for the handling task being performed. 

The emergency eyeflush water must be immediately accessible. For example, it could 

be carried by the handler or be on a vehicle the handler is using. The water that is 

supplied for general decontamination may also be used as eyeflush water, if it is 

immediately accessible. 

Decontamination After Handling Tasks 

At the site where handlers remove their personal protective equipment (PPE), provide: 

• soap, 

• clean towels, and 

• enough water to allow handlers to wash thoroughly after removing PPE. 

If the pesticide is not applied as scheduled, you must display the corrected time and date 

before the application takes place. If you are unable to make the correction before 

the application takes place, make it as soon as possible thereafter. 


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Employers of commercial pesticide handlers 

must make sure that their customer — the operator of the farm, forest, nursery, or 

greenhouse — knows certain information, described below, about the pesticide before it 

is applied on the establishment. Operators of farms, forests, nurseries, and 

greenhouses (agricultural employers) must make sure that, whenever a commercial 

handler will be doing pesticide handling tasks (including tasks as a crop advisor) on 

their establishment, the commercial handler’s employer knows specific information, 

described below, concerning treated areas on the agricultural establishment. 


Information for 

Establishment Operators 

Commercial handler 

employers must inform their 

customer — the operator of 

the farm, forest, nursery, or 

greenhouse — about: 

• the specific location and 

description of the area(s) on 

the agricultural 

establishment that are to be 

treated with a pesticide, 

• time and date the pesticide 

is scheduled to be applied, 

• product name, EPA 

registration number, and 

active ingredient(s), 

• restricted-entry interval for 

the pesticide, 

• whether the pesticide 

labeling requires both 

treated-area posting and 

oral notification, and 

• any other specific 

requirements on the pesticide labeling concerning protection of workers and other 

persons during or after application. Operators of agricultural establishments must have 

this information to protect their employees. 

Information for Commercial Handler Employers 

Operators of agricultural establishments must provide the following information to the 

commercial pesticide handler employer that they hire: 

• Specific location and description of any areas on the agricultural establishment: – that 

may be treated with a pesticide or be under a restricted-entry interval while the 

commercial handler will be there, and – that the commercial handlers may be in (or walk 

within 1/4 mile of). 

• Restrictions on entering those areas. Operators of commercial pesticide handling 

establishments must have this information to protect their employees. 


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EMERGENCY ASSISTANCE 



Worker employers must provide emergency assistance, described below, to anyone 

who is or has been employed as a worker on their farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse 

if there is reason to believe that the worker has been poisoned or injured by a pesticide 

used on the agricultural establishment — for example, through application, spills, 

splashes, drift, or contact with pesticide residues. Pesticide handler employers must 

provide emergency assistance, described below, to anyone who is or has been 

employed as a handler on their farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse or on their 

commercial pesticide handling establishment, if there is reason to believe that the 

handler has been poisoned or injured by a pesticide as a result of that employment — 

for example, through application, spills, splashes, drift, handling tasks, or contact with 

pesticide residues. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES Emergency Transportation 

1. Promptly make emergency transportation available to take the worker to an 

emergency medical facility able to provide treatment: 

• from the agricultural establishment, or Employers can “make transportation taking the 

employee to the emergency medical facility, or calling an such as an ambulance, or 

making sure the employee has a ride to the medical and facility with someone else. 

• from a labor camp located on the establishment. 

2. Promptly make emergency transportation available to take the handler to an 

available” by: emergency medical facility able to provide treatment: 

• from the agricultural establishment, or 

• from another handling site, such as a commercial handling establishment or an airport 

hangar. 

Emergency Information 

Provide to the worker or handler or to treating medical personnel, promptly upon 

emergency vehicle, request, any obtainable information on: 

• product name, EPA registration number, and active ingredients for any product(s) to 

which the person may have been exposed, 

• antidote, first aid, statement of practical treatment and other medical or emergency 

information from the product labeling, 

• description of the way the pesticide was being used, 

• circumstances of the worker’s or handler’s exposure to the pesticide. 


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Emergency Assistance 

If there is reason to believe that a worker has been poisoned or injured by pesticides, the 

employer must make prompt transportation to a medical facility available to the worker. 

On request the employer must provide, to either the worker or medical personnel 

providing treatment, information about the product including the EPA registration 

number, active ingredients in any product the worker might have been exposed to in the 

past 30 days, antidote and other first aid information from the product labeling, and 

information about the application and the exposure of workers to the pesticide. 

Requirements for Handlers 

The general applicability, exceptions and exemptions in the requirements for handlers 

and workers are the same. However, the requirements for handlers have specific 

differences. 

Restrictions During Application 

The handler employer must assure that: 

No pesticide is applied so as to contact any worker (directly or through drift) other 

than an appropriately trained and equipped handler. 

Workers handling highly toxic pesticides are monitored visually or by voice 

communication at least every 2 hours. 

Any worker who handles a fumigant in a greenhouse, including a handler 

entering before acceptable safe entry criteria have been met, maintains 

continuous visual or voice contact with another handler who has immediate 

access to the required PPE if rescuing the handler in the greenhouse becomes 

necessary. 

Notice of Application to Agricultural Employers 

Prior to applying any pesticide on an agricultural establishment, a handler employer 

must provide the following information to an agricultural employer or be assured that the 

agricultural employer is aware of the specific time, date, location, and description of the 

pesticide-treated area, labeling requirements relating to protection of workers during or 

after application, product name, the EPA registration number, active ingredients, REI, 

and notification requirements. 

Pesticide Safety Training 

A handler employer must assure that each 

handler is properly trained in pesticide safety 

by a qualified trainer. The minimum pesticide 

training required, as well as the criteria for 

qualified trainers, is specified in the standard. 

Certified handlers and handlers who have 

been trained under 40 Code of Federal 

Regulations, Part 171 are exempt from this 

requirement. 


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New WPS Glove Requirements for Workers, Handlers, and Pilots 

On September 1, 2004, EPA posted the final rule amending the Worker Protection 

Standard (WPS) for glove requirements. The final rule amended the WPS for agricultural 

pesticides in the following two ways: (1) All agricultural pesticide handlers and earlyentry 

workers covered by the Worker Protection Standard are now permitted to wear 

separate glove liners beneath chemical-resistant gloves and (2) Agricultural pilots do not 

have to wear chemical-resistant gloves when entering or exiting aircraft. Handlers and 

early entry workers may choose whether to wear the liners. The liners may not be longer 

than the chemical-resistant glove, and they may not extend outside the glove. The liners 

must be disposed of after 10 hours of use, or whenever the liners become contaminated. 

Lined or flocked gloves, where the lining is attached to the inside of the chemicalresistant 

outer glove, remain unacceptable. Regulatory action was taken to reduce the 

discomfort of unlined chemical resistant gloves, especially during hot or cold periods. 

Additionally, chemically resistant gloves do not add any appreciable protection against 

minimal pesticide residues found around the cockpit of an aircraft. 

Avoiding Heat Stress 

The WPS requires employers to take any necessary steps to prevent heat illness (too 

much heat stress) while personal protective equipment is being worn. Employers can 

take many precautions against heat stress. Some of them are summarized here: 

Training -- Train workers and supervisors how to control heat stress and how to 

recognize symptoms of heat illness. 

Monitoring and adjusting workloads -- Take into account the weather, workload, and 

condition of the workers, and adjust work practices accordingly. Higher temperatures, 

high humidity, direct sun, heavy workloads, older workers, and workers unaccustomed to 

heat are more likely to become ill from heat. Here are things to do: 

-- Monitor temperature, humidity, and workers' responses at least hourly in hot 

environments 

-- Schedule heavy work and PPE-related tasks for the cooler hours of the day 

-- Acclimatize workers gradually to hot temperatures 

-- Shorten the length of work periods and increase the length of rest periods 

-- Give workers shade or cooling during breaks 

-- Halt work altogether under extreme conditions. 

Drinking -- Make sure employees drink at least the minimum required amounts of water 

to replace body fluid lost through sweating. Thirst does not give a good indication of how 

much water a person needs to drink. 

More details on all these measures are included in EPA's "A Guide to Heat Stress in 

Agriculture," May 1993, available from farm supply companies and from the U.S. 

Government Printing Office using document number 055-000-00474-9. Issued jointly by 

EPA and the Occupational Safety and Health Administration, the guide offers practical, 

step-by-step guidance for nontechnical managers on how to set up and operate a heat 

stress control program. 


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FURTHER REQUIREMENTS FOR EMPLOYERS OF WORKERS 

NOTICE ABOUT APPLICATIONS 



Under most circumstances, worker employers must make sure that workers are 

notified about areas where pesticide applications are taking place or where restrictedentry 

intervals are in effect. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES Both Oral Warnings and Posted Signs 

Some pesticide labels require you to notify workers both orally and with signs posted at 

entrances to the treated area. If both types of notification are required, the following 

statement will be in the “Directions for Use” section of the pesticide labeling under the 

heading “Agricultural Use Requirements”: 

“Notify workers of the application by warning them orally and by 

posting warning signs at entrances to treated areas.” 

Notification on Farms, Forests, and Nurseries 

Unless the pesticide labeling requires both types of notification, notify workers either 

orally or by the posting of warning signs at entrances to treated areas. You must inform 

workers which method of notification is being used. 

Notification in Greenhouses 

In greenhouses, you must post all treated areas, except as described below. If the 

pesticide labeling requires both types of notification, you must also notify workers orally. 

Exceptions to Worker Notification 

1. Oral warnings need not be given to: 

• any worker on your farm, forest, or nursery who will not be in the treated area, or walk 

within 1/4 mile of a treated area, during the pesticide application or while the restrictedentry 

interval is in effect, 

• any worker who will not be in your greenhouse during a pesticide application or while a 

restricted-entry interval is in effect there, or 

• any worker who applied (or supervised the application of) the pesticide and is aware of 

all of the information required to be given in the oral warning. 

2. Treated area posting is not required if: 

• no workers on your farm, forest, or nursery will be in the treated area, or walk within 

1/4 mile of the treated area, during the pesticide application or while the restricted-entry 

interval is in effect, 

• no workers will be in the greenhouse during the pesticide application or while the 

restricted-entry interval is in effect there, or 

• the only workers for whom you need to post applied (or supervised the application of) 

the pesticide and are aware of all of the information required to be given in the oral 

warning. 


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Posted Warning Signs Signs meeting these Use WPS-design signs when you post 

warnings at entrances to treated areas. For a requirements should be detailed 

description, see Requirements for Warning Signs. 

1. Location: 

• On farms, forests, and nurseries, post the signs so they can be seen from all points 

where workers usually enter the treated area, including at least: – each access road, – 

each border with any labor camp adjacent to the treated area, and – each established 

walking route that enters the treated area. 

When there are no usual points of worker entry, post the signs in the corners of the 

treated area or in places where they will be most easily seen. 

• In greenhouses, post the signs so they can be seen from all points where workers 

usually enter the treated area, including doorways, aisles, and other walking routes. 

When there are no usual points of worker entry to the treated area, post the signs in the 

corners of the treated area or in places where they will be easily seen. 

2. Timing and Visibility of Warning Signs: 

• Post signs 24 hours or less before the scheduled application of the pesticide. 

• Keep signs posted during application and throughout the restricted-entry interval (if 

any), 

• Remove the signs within 3 days after the end of the restricted-entry interval. If there is 

no restricted-entry interval for that application, remove the signs within 3 days after the 

end of the application. 

• Keep workers out during the entire time the signs are posted, (except for trained and 

equipped early-entry workers entering as permitted under WPS). 

• Keep signs visible and legible while they are posted. 

3. Posting Adjoining Areas When several adjoining areas are to be treated with 

pesticides on a rotating or sequential Requirements for Warning Signs, you may post 

the entire area at the same time. Worker entry, except for early entry description, see 

permitted by the WPS, is prohibited for the entire area while the signs are posted. 

4. Design and Size 

• Each warning sign must look like this: 

Exception: 

As an option, you may use warning signs that replace the Spanish words with the same 

words in Red another language (other than English) that is read by the largest number of 

your workers who do not read English. The replacement sign must meet all other 

requirements for the WPS warning sign. 

• You may put additional information on the warning sign, such as the name of the 

pesticide or the date of application, if it does not lessen the impact of the sign or change 

the meaning of the required information. If you add the required information in other 

languages, the words must be translated correctly. 

• The signs must be at least 14 inches by 16 inches, and the letters must be at least 1 

inch high. 

Exception: 

On farms and forests, you may use smaller signs if the treated area is too small to 

accommodate 14- by 16-inch signs. For example, when a single plant needs to be 

posted, a smaller sign would be appropriate. In nurseries and greenhouses, you may, at 

any time, use a sign smaller than the standard size. 


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Whenever a small sign is used, there are specific posting distances depending on the 

size of the lettering and symbol on the sign (see table below). 

Sign Size 

Signs with the words “DANGER” and “PELIGRO” in letters less than 7/16 inch in height 

or with any words in letters less than 1/4 inch in height or with the circle graphic 

containing an upraised hand and a stern face less than 1½ inches in diameter do not 

meet WPS sign requirements. 

* This distance requirement is for places where multiple signs are used to post a single 

treated area, such as a field or a greenhouse section. It does not apply where individual 

signs are used for separate small treatment areas (such as single potted plants in a 

greenhouse). 

Oral Warnings to Workers 

1. Content: 

Oral warnings must include: 

• the location and description of the treated area, 

• the time during which entry is restricted, and 

• instructions not to enter the treated area until the restricted-entry interval has expired. 

2. Communication: 

Provide oral warnings to workers in a manner that they can understand. 

3. Timing: 

• Workers who are on your establishment at the start of an application must be orally 

warned before the application takes place. 

• Workers who are not on your establishment at the start of an application must be orally 

warned at the beginning of their first work period if (1) the application is still taking 

place or (2) the restricted-entry interval for the pesticide is in effect. 

Entering either enclosed or outdoor fumigated areas to ventilate, remove tarps or other 

coverings used in the fumigation, or to measure air concentration levels are handling 

tasks, not early entry. Only appropriately trained and equipped handlers can do these 

tasks. 

RESTRICTIONS DURING AND AFTER APPLICATIONS 


Worker employers must take actions, described below, to protect workers and other 

persons during pesticide applications on agricultural establishments. Worker 

employers also must take actions, described below, to protect workers during 

restricted-entry intervals. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES During Applications 

1. Keep everyone except appropriately trained and equipped handlers out of areas being 

treated with pesticides. 

2. In nurseries and greenhouses, during some applications, also keep workers and other 

persons out of the area immediately around the area being treated. The size of this 

“keep-out zone” depends on the pesticide used and the application method. In some 

greenhouse situations, the greenhouse must be adequately ventilated before workers 

are allowed to enter. 


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During Restricted-Entry Intervals 

In general, keep workers out of a treated area during the restricted-entry interval. This 

restriction has only two types of exceptions: (1) early entry with no contact, described 

below, and (2) early entry with contact for short-term, emergency, or specially excepted 

tasks. Note, however, that entry into treated areas during a restricted-entry interval is 

also allowed to perform handling (including crop advisor) tasks as long as the persons 

entering such areas are trained and equipped as pesticide handlers and receive all other 

applicable WPS handler protections. 

RESTRICTED-ENTRY INTERVAL (REI) 

The restricted-entry interval is the time immediately after a pesticide application when 

entry into the treated area is limited. Some pesticides have one REI, such as 12 hours, 

for all crops and uses. Other products have different REIs depending on the crop or 

method of application. When two (or more) pesticides are applied at the same time, and 

have different REIs, you must follow the longer interval. 

Location of REIs on Labeling 

The restricted-entry interval is listed on the pesticide labeling: 

•under the heading “Agricultural Use Requirements” in the “Directions for Use” section of 

the pesticide labeling, or 

•next to the crop or application method to which it applies. 

Arid Area REIs 

Some pesticide labeling require a different REI for arid areas. Labeling might say, for 

example, “72 hours in outdoor areas where average annual rainfall is less than 25 

inches a year.” You can get information on average annual rainfall for your area from 

any nearby weather bureau, such as one located at a local airport or one affiliated with 

the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. 

NO-CONTACT EARLY ENTRY 

If workers will have no contact with anything that has been treated with the 

pesticide to which the restricted-entry interval applies, you may permit them to enter 

pesticide-treated areas when the application is finished. 

1. After any inhalation exposure level listed on the product labeling has been 

reached or any WPS ventilation criteria have been met, you may permit workers 

into a treated area 

Avoiding contact by during an REI if they will not touch or be touched by any pesticide 

residues, including: using personal protective equipment does not qualify as no contact 

early entry. 

• on plants, including both agricultural plants and weeds, • on or in soil or planting 

medium, 

• in water, such as irrigation water or water standing in drainage ditches or puddles, 

• in air, if pesticide remains suspended after application, such as after fumigation or after 

a smoke, mist, fog, or aerosol application. 


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Employers must provide current and specific information about the pesticides being 

applied for the benefit of their employees (handlers and workers). Employees must be 

informed of the central location and allowed access. 

Employers (owner/operator of agricultural establishments) must post the following 

information just prior to applications and for 30 days after the REI has expired whenever 

pesticide handlers or workers are on the agricultural establishment: 

an approved EPA safety poster or an equivalent 

emergency medical information, including the name, address and telephone 

number of the nearest emergency medical care facility 

a list of dates and times that pesticides have been applied within the last 30 

days, including a description of each treated area, and the product name, EPA 

registration number, active ingredient(s) and REI for each pesticide on that list 

The information at the central location must be easily seen and read. Workers and 

handlers must be informed where it is and given access. By “access,” the EPA wants the 

workers to be able to view the information without having to ask anyone to let them see 

it. Some examples of a central location include: field or forest entrance; parking area; 

common areas; break areas; port-a-pots. The central location cannot be in a treated 

area. The EPA safety poster or an equivalent needs to show how to keep pesticides 

from getting on or entering the body and information about how to clean up if an 

individual comes in contact with pesticides. 

If the emergency medical information changes, update the posted information in the 

central location and ensure that it remains legible. Pesticide applications must remain on 

the list from before each application begins and remain posted through 30 days after the 

REI has expired. The list must remain accessible by the workers for the entire required 

posting period at the designated central location. 

Handlers and workers must be informed of pesticide label requirements and information. 

A grower must have all the material safety data sheets (MSDS) of the labeled pesticides 

he/she is using on file and available upon request. 


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WPS Requires Providing Decontamination Sites 

Employers must establish a decontamination site for all workers and handlers for 

washing off pesticides and pesticide residues. A decontamination site must be within a 

quarter (1/4) mile of the employees’ work site. 

Employers must provide a site where workers and handlers can wash pesticide residue 

from their hands and body. A decontamination site should supply: 

Enough water for routine and emergency whole body washing and for eye 

flushing. 

Plenty of soap and single use towels. 

Employers also must provide water that is safe and cool enough for washing, eye 

flushing, and drinking. Employers may not use tank stored water that also is used 

for mixing or diluting pesticides. 

Specific requirements differ depending whether employees are doing worker or handler 

tasks. Worker decontamination site requirements: 

Decontamination sites must be provided for workers from application to 30 days 

after expiration of the REI. 

Worker decontamination sites may not be in areas being treated or under an REI. 


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No-contact early-entry workers do not have to be provided the special protections 

required in Early Entry. However, they must be provided the following protections offered 

to other agricultural workers: information at a central location, pesticide safety training for 

workers, notification, restrictions during applications and during restricted-entry intervals, 

and emergency assistance. Decontamination supplies, however, need not be provided 

to no- contact early-entry workers. 

2. The following are examples of situations where a worker would not be expected to 

contact pesticide residues in a treated area after sprays, dusts, and vapors have settled 

out of the air: 

• The worker is wearing footwear and is walking in aisles or on roads, footpaths, or other 

pathways through the treated area where the plants or other treated surfaces cannot 

brush against the worker and cannot drop or drip pesticides onto the worker. 

• The worker is in an open-cab vehicle in a treated area where the plants cannot brush 

against the worker and cannot drop or drip pesticide onto the worker. 

• After a pesticide application that is incorporated or injected into the soil, the worker is 

doing tasks that do not involve touching or disrupting the soil subsurface. 

• The worker is in an enclosed cab on a truck, tractor, or other vehicle. 


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Daisy Fleabane 


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EARLY-ENTRY WORK SITUATIONS 



Worker employers must not allow their workers to enter treated areas where they will 

contact treated surfaces, except in a few very limited work situations. 

Worker employers must provide special protections to any of their workers who do 

early-entry tasks involving contact with anything that has been treated with a pesticide, 

including soil, water, air, and surfaces of plants. 


Early entry involving contact with treated surfaces is permitted in only four work 

situations: 

• short-term tasks that last less than 1 hour and do not involve hand labor, 

• limited-contact tasks that could not have been foreseen, cannot be delayed, and do 

not involve hand labor, 

• emergency tasks that take place because of an agricultural emergency, and 

• specific tasks approved by EPA through a formal exception process. 

Short-term Tasks With No Hand Labor 

Workers may enter treated areas before the restricted-entry interval is over to do 

short-term jobs that do not involve hand labor, if provided with the protections and 

PPE required for early entry. 

Each worker must: 

• Wait at least 4 hours after the pesticide application is completed before entering the 

treated area, and 

• Wait at least until any inhalation exposure level listed on the product labeling has been 

reached or any WPS ventilation criteria have been met, and 

• Spend no more than 1 hour in a 24-hour period on short-term early-entry tasks. 

Hand Labor 

Any agricultural activity performed by hand, or with hand tools, that might cause a 

worker to have substantial contact with surfaces (such as plants, plant parts, or soil) that 

may contain pesticide residues. 

Examples of hand labor tasks include: harvesting, detasseling, thinning, weeding, 

topping, planting, girdling, caning, sucker removal, pruning, disbudding, roguing, and 

packing produce into containers in the field. 

Limited-Contact Tasks 

Tasks where early-entry workers’ only contact with treated surfaces — including soil, 

water, surfaces of plants, crops, and irrigation equipment — is minimal and is limited to 

their feet, lower legs, hands, and forearms. Hand labor tasks are not limited-contact 

tasks. 

Examples of limited-contact tasks include operating, moving, or repairing irrigation or 

watering equipment; operating or repairing weather monitoring and frost protection 

equipment; repairing greenhouse heating, air conditioning, and ventilation equipment; 

repairing non-application field equipment; maintaining and moving beehives. 


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Only appropriately trained and equipped pesticide handlers may operate, move, or repair 

the parts of chemigation equipment that may contain pesticide residues. Chemigation 

equipment is equipment used to apply pesticides with irrigation water. 

Employers should make every effort to schedule pesticide applications and worker tasks 

in a way that will avoid the necessity of early entry of workers into treated areas. 

Could not have been foreseen means that when you made the pesticide application, 

you could not have anticipated the circumstances that led to the need to perform limitedcontact 

tasks. For example, you do not qualify if you knew that you would need to enter 

the treated area to perform routine watering during the restricted-entry interval. 

Limited-Contact Tasks That Could Not Have Been Foreseen, Cannot Be Delayed, 

and Involve No Hand Labor 

Early-entry workers may enter treated areas to do limited-contact tasks before the 

restricted-entry interval is over, provided all the following conditions are met: 

• the early-entry tasks do not involve hand labor, and 

• the early-entry tasks will not cause workers to have more than minimal contact with 

treated surfaces, and 

• contact with treated surfaces will be limited to the workers’ feet, lower legs, hands, and 

forearms, and 

• the need for the early-entry could not have been foreseen, and 

• if the early-entry tasks are delayed, the delay would cause significant economic loss, 

and there are no alternative practices that would prevent the loss, and 

• the pesticide product’s Agricultural Use Requirement box does not contain the 

following “double notification” statement: “Notify workers of the application by warning 

them orally and by posting warning signs at entrances to treated area,” 

and 

• the pesticide product does not contain a restriction prohibiting any person, other than 

an appropriately trained and equipped handler, from entering during the restricted-entry 

interval. 

You must provide each limited-contact early-entry worker with: 

• either the personal protective equipment required on the pesticide labeling for early 

entry into treated areas or a standard set of PPE consisting of coveralls, chemicalresistant 

gloves, chemical-resistant footwear, and protective eyewear (and make sure 

the worker wears socks). 

Note: You may eliminate the protective eyewear from the standard set of PPE in any 

treated area where the pesticide label does not require it for early entry. 

• all the protections required for early-entry workers, and 

• oral or written notification, in a language that the workers can understand, that: 

– the establishment is relying on this exception to allow workers to enter treated areas to 

complete limited-contact tasks, 

– no entry is allowed for the first 4 hours after an application, and until applicable 

ventilation criteria have been met, and until any label-specified inhalation exposure level 

has been reached, 

– the time the worker spends in any treated area where a restricted-entry interval is in 

effect cannot exceed 8 hours in any 24-hour period. You must make sure that each 

limited-contact early-entry worker: 

• waits at least 4 hours after the pesticide application is completed before entering the 



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• waits at least until any inhalation exposure level listed on the product labeling has been 


• spends no more than 8 hours in a 24-hour period on limited-contact early-entry tasks. 

FURTHER REQUIREMENTS FOR EMPLOYERS OF WORKERS 

Tasks During An Agricultural Emergency 

Early-entry workers may enter treated areas before the restricted-entry interval is over to 

do tasks that are necessary because of an agricultural emergency, if provided with the 

protections and PPE required for early entry. 

Each worker must: 

• do only those tasks relating to mitigating the emergency, and 

• wait at least 4 hours after the pesticide application is completed before entering 

the treated area, and 

• wait at least until any inhalation exposure level listed on the product labeling has 

been reached or any WPS ventilation criteria have been met. 

1. Declaring a Potential Agricultural Emergency 

A state, tribal, or federal agency having jurisdiction must declare that circumstances 

exist, have occurred, or are forecast that might cause an agricultural emergency where 

your establishment is located. Such circumstances may include, for example, flooding, 

hail, high winds, hurricane, tornado, freeze, or frost. 

2. Agricultural Emergency on Your Establishment 

Once such an agency has declared that circumstances might cause (or might already 

have caused) an agricultural emergency in your area, you must decide if an agricultural 

emergency actually exists for any treated areas on your establishment that remain under 

a restricted-entry interval. All of the following conditions must be met before you may 

let workers go into a treated area where a restricted-entry interval is in effect: 

• You could not have anticipated the circumstances that led to the emergency when 

you made the pesticide application. For example, you do not qualify if weather forecasts 

before the application warned you that the emergency was imminent. 

• You had no control over the circumstances that led to the emergency. For example, 

you do not qualify if you forgot to heat your greenhouse or over- watered with an 

irrigation system. 

• Early entry is the only practice that will prevent or reduce a substantial economic loss 

involving the crop in that treated area. For example, you do not qualify if you have 

access to mechanical harvesting equipment that could harvest your crop in lieu of handharvesting. 

• If early entry does not occur, the loss of profit will be greater than the loss that would be 

expected on the basis of experience and the variation in crop yields in previous years. 

The contribution of mismanagement cannot be considered in determining the loss. 

EPA-Approved Exceptions 

EPA has established a formal regulatory process for considering additional exceptions to 

the restrictions on entering treated areas during an REI. If any such exceptions are 

approved, EPA will publish them in the Federal Register and intends to inform state and 

tribal pesticide agencies, the Cooperative Extension Service, affected commodity, 

industry, and worker associations, and other interested parties. Check with them or the 

EPA office in your region for an updated list of approved exceptions and for information 

about the requirements and limitations of those exceptions. 


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Respirator Storage 

Respirators are to be stored as follows: 

All respirators shall be stored to protect them from damage, contamination, dust, 

sunlight, extreme temperatures, excessive moisture, and damaging chemicals, and 

they shall be packed or stored to prevent deformation of the face piece and 

exhalation valve. 

Emergency Respirators shall be: 

Kept accessible to the work area; 

Stored in compartments or in covers that are clearly marked as containing 

emergency respirators; and 

Stored in accordance with any applicable manufacturer instructions. 

We will cover more in detail on respirators later 


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GENERAL PROTECTIONS FOR EARLY-ENTRY WORKERS 

BASIC RESPONSIBILITIES (See Also Specific Duties Section Below) 

Worker employers must provide several types of protections, described below, to their 

early-entry workers who contact anything that has been treated with a pesticide, 

including soil, water, air, and surfaces of plants. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES Protections Required By the Pesticide Labeling 

Provide any protections required by the pesticide labeling for early-entry tasks. 

Required Protections That Are the Same As For Other Workers 

Provide protections that are required for all agricultural workers: 

• Information at a central location, 

• Emergency assistance, 

• Restrictions during applications, and 

• Notice about applications. 

Special Protections For Early-entry Workers 

A few WPS requirements for early-entry workers differ from those for other agricultural 

workers. Provide special protections to early-entry workers in the following areas: 

• Training and instructions, 

• Decontamination supplies, and 

• Personal protective equipment. 

TRAINING AND INSTRUCTIONS FOR EARLY-ENTRY WORKERS 


Worker employers must make sure that each of their early-entry workers is currently 

trained as a WPS worker and, in addition, receives specific information and instructions, 

described below. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES Training 

Make sure that each early-entry worker is currently trained as a WPS worker before 

entering a treated area on the agricultural establishment during a restricted-entry 

interval. 

The 5-day grace period for training that applies to other agricultural workers 

does not apply to early-entry workers. 

Instructions Related to Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) 

Instruct early-entry workers, in a manner they can understand: 

• how to put on, use, and take off early-entry PPE correctly, 

• about the importance of washing thoroughly after removing PPE, and 

• how to prevent, recognize, and give correct first aid for heat illness (too much 

heat stress). 

Labeling Information and Instructions 

Inform early-entry workers, in a manner they can understand, about the safety 

information and instructions on the labeling of the pesticide(s) to which the REI applies, 

workers who will do including: 

• human hazard statements and precautions, 


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• first aid, themselves, 

• signs and symptoms of poisoning, 

• PPE required for early entry, and 

• any other precautions or instructions related to safe use or early entry. 

Option: You may allow early-entry tasks to read the labeling if they are able to read and 

understand it. 

Decontamination and emergency eyeflush water must, at all times when it is 

available to early-entry workers, be of a quality and temperature that will not cause 

illness or injury when it contacts the skin or eyes or if it is swallowed. 


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DECONTAMINATION SUPPLIES FOR EARLY-ENTRY WORKERS 



Worker employers must provide their early-entry workers with decontamination 

supplies for washing off pesticides and pesticide residues. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES Supplies 

Provide early-entry workers with: 

1. Water — enough for: 

• routine washing, and 

• emergency eyeflushing. If the water is stored in a tank, the water must not be used for 

mixing pesticides, unless the tank is equipped with correctly functioning 

antibacksiphoning or check valves or other mechanisms (such as air gaps) that prevent 

pesticides from moving into the tank. 

2. Soap and single use towels — enough for the needs of early-entry workers. 

Recommendation: How Much Water Should Be Provided? 

Obviously, running water meets the requirement. However, if it is not available, use the 

following guidelines. 

• Early-Entry Workers: At least 1 gallon of water is recommended for each early-entry 

worker using the supplies. If you find that 1 gallon per early-entry worker is inadequate to 

last for the entire work period, provide more water or replenish the water as needed 

during the work period. 

Location 

Make sure: 

1. The decontamination supplies are not in an area being treated with pesticides. 

2. The decontamination supplies are not in an area under a restricted-entry interval, 

unless that location is necessary for the supplies to be reasonably accessible to earlyentry 

workers. 

3. The decontamination supplies are reasonably accessible to and not more than 1/4 

mile from early-entry workers. 

Exception 

For tasks performed more than 1/4 mile from the nearest point reachable by vehicle (car, 

truck, or tractor), the decontamination supplies may be at the access point. In this 

circumstance, clean water from springs, streams, lakes, or other sources may be used 

for decontamination if such water is more readily available than the water at the access 

point. 

Emergency Eyeflushing 

Provide each early-entry worker with at least 1 pint of emergency eyeflush water when 

the pesticide labeling requires protective eyewear for early entry. The emergency 

eyeflush water must be immediately accessible. For example, it could be carried by the 

handler or be on a vehicle the early-entry worker is using. The water that is supplied for 

general decontamination may also be used as eyeflush water, if it is immediately 

accessible. 


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Decontamination at the End of Exposure Period 

At the site where early-entry workers take off their PPE, provide : 

• soap, 

• clean towels, and 

• enough water to allow early-entry workers to wash thoroughly after removing their PPE. 

PPE for early-entry activities is listed on the pesticide label in the “Directions for Use” 

section under the heading “Agricultural Use Requirements.” 


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PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT FOR EARLY-ENTRY 

WORKERS 


Worker employers must provide their early-entry workers with the early-entry PPE 

required by the pesticide labeling, make sure they wear the PPE, and make sure they 

use the PPE correctly. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES Duties Related to Personal Protective Equipment 

1. Provide the appropriate PPE in clean and operating condition to each early-entry 

worker. 

2. Make sure early-entry workers wear PPE correctly for its intended purpose and use it 

according to the manufacturer’s instructions. 

3. Inspect all PPE before each day of use for leaks, holes, tears, or worn places. Repair 

or discard any damaged equipment. 

4. Provide early-entry workers clean places away from pesticide storage and pesticide 

use areas to: 

• store personal clothing not in use, 

• put on PPE at the start of any exposure period, and 

• take off PPE at the end of any exposure period. 

5. Take necessary steps to prevent heat illness (too much heat stress) while PPE is 

being worn. 

6. Do not allow early-entry workers to wear home or take home PPE contaminated with 

pesticides. 

Cleaning and Maintaining PPE 

1. Keep pesticide-contaminated PPE separate from other clothing or laundry, and wash 

it separately. 

2. If PPE will be reused, clean it before each day of reuse according to the instructions 

from the PPE manufacturer, unless the pesticide labeling specifies different 

requirements. If there are no such instructions or requirements, wash the PPE 

thoroughly in detergent and hot water. 

3. Thoroughly dry the clean PPE before it is stored, or put it in a well-ventilated place to 

dry. 

4. Store clean PPE separately from personal clothing and away from pesticidecontaminated 

areas. 

Disposal of PPE 

Comply with any applicable federal, state, tribal, and local regulations when you dispose 

of PPE that cannot be cleaned correctly. 

Instructions for Persons Who Clean PPE 

Inform anyone who cleans or launders PPE: 

• that PPE may be contaminated with pesticides, 

• of the potentially harmful effects of pesticides, 

• how to protect themselves when handling contaminated PPE, and 

• how to clean PPE correctly. For more information about laundering pesticidecontaminated 

clothing, please visit the Worker Protection Standard topic page on the Ag 

Center’s Web site. 


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FURTHER REQUIREMENTS FOR EMPLOYERS OF HANDLERS 

RESTRICTIONS DURING APPLICATIONS AND MONITORING 

HANDLERS 


Handler employers must make sure that: 

• pesticides do not touch people, other than appropriately trained and equipped 

handlers, during pesticide applications, and 

• pesticide handlers are monitored, as described below, when handling certain types of 

pesticides. Pesticide handlers must make sure that pesticides do not touch people, 

other than appropriately trained and equipped handlers, during pesticide applications. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES Restrictions During Applications 

Both handler employers and pesticide handlers must make sure that each pesticide is 

applied so that it does not contact, either directly or through drift, anyone except 

appropriately trained and equipped handlers. 

Monitoring Handlers 

1. Pesticides with skull and crossbones 

At least once every 2 hours, someone must check on — by sight or by voice 

communication — any handler who is handling a pesticide that has a skull and 

crossbones symbol on its label. (For monitoring the handling of fumigants in 

greenhouses, see immediately below.) 

2. Fumigants handled in greenhouses 

Someone must maintain constant visual or voice contact with any handler who is 

applying or otherwise handling a fumigant in a greenhouse. This includes handlers who 

enter the greenhouse during fumigation to operate ventilation systems, adjust tarps or 

other coverings used in the fumigation, or check air concentration levels. The person 

monitoring the fumigant handler must: 

• be trained as a pesticide handler, and 

• have immediate access to the PPE that the fumigant labeling requires for applicators. 

Fumigant 

Any pesticide product that is a vapor or gas, or forms a vapor or gas on 

application, and whose method of pesticidal action is through the gaseous state. 

Option: You may allow handlers to read the labeling themselves, if they are able to read 

and understand it. 

Operators of agricultural establishments are required to make sure that commercial 

handler employers have this information. 


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SPECIFIC INSTRUCTIONS FOR HANDLERS 

BASIC RESPONSIBILITIES (See Also Specific Duties Section 

Below) 

Handler employers must make sure that, before handlers do any handling task, the 

handlers: 

• are given information from the pesticide labeling and have access to the labeling 

itself, and 

• are instructed in the safe operation of the equipment they will be using. Commercial 

(custom) handler employers must make sure that, whenever one of their handlers will 

be doing pesticide handling tasks (including tasks as a crop advisor) on an agricultural 

establishment, he or she is aware of specific information, described below, concerning 

pesticide-treated areas on the agricultural establishment. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES Labeling Access and Information 

1. Inform handlers, in a manner they can understand, about all labeling requirements 

related to safe use of the pesticide, including at least: 

• the signal word, 

• human hazard statements and precautions, 

• personal protective equipment requirements, 

• first aid instructions, 

• environmental precautions, and 

• any additional precautions about the handling task to be performed. 

2. Provide handlers access to the pesticide labeling information during handling tasks. 

Safe Operation of Equipment 

Make sure that handlers know how to safely and correctly use all equipment they are 

assigned to use for handling pesticides, including, if applicable, how to avoid drift and 

how to use chemigation equipment safely. 

Instructions for Commercial Pesticide Handlers 

Commercial (custom) pesticide handler employers must make sure that their handler 

employees are informed about: 

1. Specific location and description of any areas on the agricultural establishment: 

• that may be treated with a pesticide or be under a restricted-entry interval while the 

commercial handler will be there, and 

• that the commercial handler may be in (or walk within 1/4 mile of). 

2. Restrictions on entering those areas. 

For example, if custom applicators are scheduled to use ground equipment to apply a 

pesticide on a farm, they need to be informed of any nearby areas on the farm that they 

should stay out of because the area has an REI in effect. Or if commercial crop advisors 

are scheduled to scout in an area on a farm that remains under an REI, they need to be 

told what personal protective equipment they must wear while in that area. 


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EQUIPMENT SAFETY 



Handler employers must make sure that equipment used for mixing, loading, 

transferring, or applying pesticides (pesticide handling equipment) is inspected and 

repaired and that persons repairing, cleaning, or adjusting such equipment are 

protected or informed, as described below. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES Equipment Inspection 

Inspect pesticide handling equipment before each day of use for leaks, clogging, and 

worn or damaged parts. Repair or replace any damaged equipment. 

Protections for Persons Maintaining Equipment 

Remove pesticide residues from pesticide handling equipment before anyone other than 

an appropriately trained and equipped handler is allowed to repair, clean, or adjust it. 

Exception 

If it is not feasible to remove 

pesticide residues from 

pesticide handling equipment, 

and the people who will be 

repairing, cleaning, or adjusting 

the equipment are not 

your employees (and, therefore, 

are not handlers for whom you 

are responsible under 

the WPS), you must inform 

them: 

• that the equipment may be 

contaminated with pesticides, 

• of the potentially harmful effects of exposure to pesticides, and 

• how to correctly handle such equipment. 

In the pesticide labeling, PPE for handling activities is listed in the “Hazards to Humans” 

section. 


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Why Rinse Pesticide Containers? 

Proper rinsing of pesticide containers is easy to do, saves money, and helps protect 

people and the environment. It also helps prevent potential problems with un-rinsed 

containers, rinsate storage, and pesticide wastes. Even during a busy season the few 

extra minutes it takes to properly rinse empty pesticide containers is time well spent. 

Rinsate from the containers, when added directly into the sprayer tank, efficiently 

and economically uses all pesticide in the container. This eliminates the need to 

store and later dispose of the rinsate. 

Unless rinsed from the container immediately, some pesticides will solidify and 

become difficult to remove. 

Rinsing containers removes a potential source of pesticide exposure to people, 

animals, and wildlife. 

Proper rinsing is required by federal and state regulations and is a good, sound 

agricultural and environmental practice. 

Rinsing Helps Protect the Environment 

Proper rinsing of pesticide containers reduces a potential source of contamination of soil, 

surface, and ground water. When contamination occurs, plants and animals may be 

harmed and water supplies affected. Prevention of environmental contamination is 

always better than cleanup. Rinsing also helps in reducing the problem of handling 

pesticide wastes. 

No matter how an empty pesticide container is disposed of, it must be properly rinsed 

and triple punched. 

Both federal and state laws require rinsing. Landfill operators and recyclers can only 

accept properly rinsed containers. Pesticide containers should only be offered to 

recycling projects designed for pesticide containers and not general plastic and metal 

recycling programs. Pesticide container recycling project personnel will inspect 

containers to determine if they have been properly rinsed. 


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Rinsing is Effective 

Pesticide residues measured in selected containers that passed visual inspection in the 

test project show rinsing at the time of use is effective: 

Percent of pesticide residue removed with proper rinsing 

Pesticide Container % Removal 

2, 4-D 2.5 gallon plastic 99.9999 

pendimethalin 2.5 gallon plastic 99.9969 

alachlor 5.0 gallon metal 99.9998 

glyphosate 1.0 gallon plastic 99.9989 

metolachlor 2.5 gallon plastic 99.9999 

carbofuran 2.5 gallon plastic 99.9993 

Types of Pesticide Containers 

Currently the most common agricultural pesticide container is a 2.5 gallon plastic jug. 

Agricultural, animal, household, and other pesticide products also come packaged in 

glass, paper, metal and aerosol cans. Many liquid agricultural pesticides are also sold in 

returnable bulk containers and mini-bulk containers. Only plastic, glass and unpressurized 

metal containers can be rinsed. Ease of handling and proper disposal 

should be considered when purchasing pesticides. 

How to Properly Rinse 

Two different procedures are effective for proper rinsing of pesticide containers: 

pressure-rinsing and triple-rinsing. 

Pressure-Rinsing 

A special nozzle is attached to the end of a hose to force the remaining pesticide from 

the container. Pressure-rinsing, which may be faster and easier than triple-rinsing, can 

be used with plastic and non-pressurized metal pesticide containers. 

How to Pressure-Rinse 

1. Remove cover from container. Check cover and container threads for pesticide. 

Rinse covers separately in a bucket of water for more than one minute and pour 

this rinse water into the spray tank. 

2. Empty pesticide into the spray tank and let container drain for 30 seconds. 

3. Insert pressure-nozzle by puncturing through the lower side of 

the pesticide container. 

4. Hold the container upside down over the sprayer tank opening 

so rinsate will run into the sprayer tank. 

5. Rinse for length of time recommended by the manufacturer 

(generally 30 seconds or more). Wiggle nozzle to rinse all 

inside surfaces. Be sure hollow handles are well rinsed. 

6. Let container dry and then put cover back on container. 

Triple-Rinsing 

It means rinsing the container three times. Triple-rinsing can be used with plastic, nonpressurized 

metal, and glass containers. 


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How to Triple-Rinse 

1. Remove cover from the container. 

2. Empty the pesticide into the sprayer tank and let the container drain for 30 

seconds. 

3. Fill the container 10% to 20% full of water or rinse solution. 

4. Secure the cover on the container. 

5. Swirl the container to rinse all inside surfaces. 

6. Remove cover from the container. Add the rinsate from the container to sprayer 

tank and let drain for 30 seconds or more. 

7. Repeat steps 2 through 5 two more times. 

8. Let container dry and then put cover back on container. Triple punch the bottom. 

Remember 

To read and to follow all label instructions. 

To wear appropriate protective gear when working with pesticides. 

Never reuse a pesticide container for any purpose. 

To dispose of all pesticide containers properly. 

When not using a water nurse tank, always use a back-flow prevention device 

when filling sprayer tanks or rinsing pesticide containers. 

Mixing and loading sites should be at least 150 feet away from all wells. 

Bibliography 

Cochran, Dale. Program for the Handling and Disposal of Used Pesticide Containers. 

Iowa 

Department of Agriculture and Land Stewardship, 1988. 

Code of Federal Regulations 40 Parts 190 to 399. Revised July 1, 1984. 

Minnesota Department of Agriculture, Agronomy Services Division, Pesticide Container 

Collection and Recycling Project Report , December 1991. 

Minnesota Department of Agriculture, Agronomy Services Division. Minnesota Empty 

Pesticide Container Disposal Report. March 1988. 

Minnesota Documents Division. Department of Agriculture Pesticide Law Chapter 18B. 

Extracted from the 1989 Minnesota Statutes, 1989. 

Minnesota Extension Service, University of Minnesota. Private Pesticide Applicator's 

Training Manual . 1992. 

Dean Herzfeld is assistant extension agriculturist, Pesticide Applicator Training Program; 

Thomas R. Halbach is assistant extension specialist, Water Quality and Waste 

Management, both with the Minnesota Extension Service, University of Minnesota. Rick 

Hansen is supervisor, Information and Certification Unit; and Larry Palmer is Supervisor, 

Waste Pesticide/Container Disposal Unit; both with the Agronomy Services Division, 

Minnesota Department of Agriculture. 


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Always wear your bee suit even while inspecting the hive. Most applicators are 

stung during their inspection. Numerous insecticides are approved for use on 

bees. These chemicals are very effective when used properly. Soapy water 

doesn't work effectively on a colony because honeycomb prevents adequate 

coverage. Bee colonies may be removed physically by hand or by vacuuming 

with special types of vacuums. Once collected, the bees can be placed in a hive, 

released at a different location, or killed with insecticide. The bulb seems to be 

the best at killing bees and wasps, but beware, they will go after you and it takes 

a couple of years to get over the fear of the entire hive attacking you. 


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PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE) 



Handler employers must make sure that pesticide handlers: 

• are provided with the PPE the pesticide labeling requires for the task, 

• wear the PPE for the entire handling task, and 

• use the PPE correctly. Each pesticide handler is responsible for wearing the required 

personal protective equipment during the entire handling task. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES Duties Related to Personal Protective Equipment 

Employers must: 

1. Provide handlers with the appropriate PPE in clean and operating condition. 

2. Make sure the handlers wear the PPE correctly and use it according to the 

manufacturer’s instructions. If a handler wears a respirator, make sure that it fits the 

wearer correctly. 

3. Inspect all PPE before each day of use for leaks, holes, tears, or worn places, and 

repair or discard any damaged equipment. 

4. Provide handlers with clean places away from pesticide storage and pesticide use 

areas to: 

• store personal clothing not in use, 

• put on PPE at the start of any exposure period, 

• take off PPE at the end of any exposure period. 

5. Take any necessary steps to prevent heat illness (too much heat stress) while PPE is 

being worn. 

6. Do not allow any handler to wear home or take home PPE contaminated with 

pesticides. 

Cleaning and Maintaining PPE 

Employers must do the following: 

1. Keep pesticide-contaminated PPE away from other clothing or laundry, and wash it 

separately. 

2. If PPE will be reused, clean it before each day of reuse according to the instructions 

from the PPE manufacturer unless the pesticide labeling specifies other requirements. If 

there are no such instructions or requirements, wash PPE thoroughly in detergent and 

hot water. 

3. Thoroughly dry the clean PPE before it is stored, or put it in a well-ventilated place to 

dry. 

4. Store clean PPE separately from personal clothing and away from pesticidecontaminated 

areas. 


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Replacing Respirator Filters, Cartridges, or Canisters 


1. Replace dust/mist respirator filters: 

• when breathing resistance becomes excessive, 

• if the filter is damaged or torn, 

• whenever the respirator manufacturer or pesticide labeling says to replace them (if the 

instructions differ, change the filter at the shorter interval), 

• at the end of each day’s work period, if no other instructions or indications of service 

life are available. 

2. Replace gas- and vapor-removing respirator cartridges or canisters: 

• at the first indication of odor, taste, or irritation, 

• when the respirator manufacturer or pesticide labeling says to replace them (if 

instructions differ, change the cartridge or canisters at the shorter interval), 

• at the end of each day’s work period, if no other instruction or indications of service life 

are available. 

Disposal of PPE 


1. Discard coveralls or other absorbent materials that have been drenched or heavily 

contaminated with an undiluted pesticide that has the signal word “DANGER” or 

“WARNING” on the labeling. They must not be reused. 

2. Comply with any applicable Federal, State, Tribal, and local regulations when 

disposing of PPE that cannot be cleaned correctly. 

Instructions for Persons Who Clean PPE 

Employers must inform people who clean or launder PPE: 

• that the PPE may be contaminated with pesticides, 

• of the potentially harmful effects of exposure to pesticides, 

• how to protect themselves when handling contaminated PPE, and 

• how to clean PPE correctly. For more information about laundering pesticidecontaminated 

clothing, please visit the Worker Protection Standard topic page on the 

Ag Center’s Web site. 


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Personal Protective Equipment (PPE) Definitions 

Personal Protective Equipment: 

Apparel and devices worn to protect the body from contact with pesticides or pesticide 

residues, including: coveralls, chemical-resistant suits, gloves, footwear, aprons, and 

headgear, protective eyewear, and respirators. While the following attire is not defined 

as PPE, the labeling may require pesticide handlers or early-entry workers to wear it for 

some tasks: long- and short-sleeved shirts, long and short pants, shoes and socks, other 

items of regular work clothing. If such non-PPE attire is required, the employer must 

make sure that it is worn. 

Chemical-resistant: 

Allows no measurable amount of the pesticide being used to move through the material 

during use. 

Waterproof: 

Allows no measurable movement of water (or water-based solutions) through the 

material during use. 

Chemical-resistant footwear: 

Chemical-resistant shoes; chemical-resistant boots; or chemical-resistant shoe 

coverings worn over shoes or boots. Substitution: Leather boots may be worn in rough 

terrain, if chemical-resistant footwear with sufficient durability and a tread appropriate for 

wear in such terrain is not obtainable. 

Protective eyewear: 

Goggles, a face shield, or safety glasses with front, brow, and temple protection. 

Substitution: A full-face respirator may be worn instead of protective eyewear. 

Chemical-resistant suit: 

A loose-fitting, one- or two-piece, chemical-resistant garment that covers, at a minimum, 

the entire body except head, hands, and feet. 

Coverall: 

A loose-fitting one- or two-piece garment that covers, at a minimum, the entire body 

except head, hands, and feet. Coveralls are made of fabric such as cotton or a cottonpolyester 

blend, and are not chemical-resistant. The pesticide labeling may specify that 

the coveralls be worn over a layer of clothing. 

Substitution: A chemical-resistant suit may be worn instead of coveralls and any required 

inner layer of clothing. 

Chemical-resistant apron: 

An apron that is made of chemical-resistant material and that covers the front of the 

body from mid-chest to the knees. Substitution: If a chemical-resistant suit is worn, no 

apron is required. 


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Respirator: 

A device that protects the respiratory system. It must be the type listed on the pesticide 

label (or one that is more protective) and must be appropriate for the pesticide product 

being used and for the activity being performed. Substitutions: A respirator with a 

canister approved for pesticides or with an organic-vapor cartridge equipped with a 

pesticide prefilter may be worn instead of a dust/mist filtering respirator. 

Chemical-resistant headgear: 

A chemical-resistant hood or a chemical-resistant hat with a wide brim. 

Gloves: 

Hand-coverings that are the type listed on the pesticide label. 

• Gloves made of leather, cotton, or other absorbent materials must not be worn for 

handling or early-entry activities unless these materials are listed on the pesticide 

labeling as acceptable for such use. 

• Chemical-resistant gloves with non-separable absorbent lining materials must not be 

worn for handling or early-entry activities. 

• Substitution: Leather gloves may be worn over chemical-resistant liners, if chemicalresistant 

gloves with sufficient durability and suppleness are not obtainable. However, 

after leather gloves have been worn for protection from pesticide exposure, they may 

only be worn with chemical-resistant liners and may not be worn for any other use. 

Separable glove liners: 

Separable glove liners are separate glove-like hand coverings, made of lightweight 

material, with or without fingers. 

• Work gloves made from lightweight cotton or poly-type material are considered to be 

glove liners, if worn beneath chemical-resistant gloves. 

• Unless the pesticide product labeling specifically prohibits their use, separable glove 

liners may be worn beneath chemical-resistant gloves, provided the liners do not extend 

outside the chemical-resistant gloves that are worn over them. 

• Once used for handling or early-entry activities, separable glove liners must be 

discarded immediately after a total of 10 hours of use or within 24 hours of first use, 

whichever occurs first. The liners must be replaced immediately if they come into 

direct contact with pesticides. Pesticide- contaminated liners must be disposed of in 

accordance with any federal, state, or local regulations. 

These exceptions to PPE are allowed unless expressly prohibited by product labeling. 

Even when reduced PPE is permitted to be worn during a task, handlers must be 

provided all PPE required by the pesticide labeling for that task and have it immediately 

available for use in an emergency. 


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EXCEPTIONS TO PPE REQUIREMENTS 



Handler employers may allow handlers to omit some of the PPE listed on the pesticide 

labeling for a handling task if the handlers are: 

• using a closed system, or 

• in an enclosed cab, or 

• in a cockpit. 

SPECIFIC DUTIES Closed Systems 

Closed systems are systems designed by the manufacturer to enclose the pesticide to 

prevent it from contacting handlers or other people while it is being handled. Such 

systems must function properly and be used and maintained in accordance with the 

manufacturer’s written operating instructions. 

1. When using a closed system to mix or load pesticides with the signal word “DANGER” 

or “WARNING,” handlers need not wear all the PPE listed on the pesticide labeling, but 

must wear at least: 

• long-sleeved shirt and long pants, 

• shoes and socks, 

• a chemical-resistant apron, and 

• protective gloves specified on the pesticide labeling for mixing, loading, and other 

handling tasks. 

2. When using a closed system to mix or load pesticides with the signal word 

“CAUTION,” handlers need not wear all the PPE listed on the pesticide labeling, but 


• long-sleeved shirt and long pants, and 

• shoes and socks. 

3. When using a closed system to do handling tasks other than mixing and loading with 

any pesticide, handlers need not wear all of the PPE listed on the pesticide labeling, but 




Such closed systems might include closed application systems designed to incorporate 

pesticides into soil, but only if the system does not allow any pesticide contact with the 

air throughout the entire application process. 

4. When using a closed system that operates under pressure, handlers may wear the 

reduced PPE specified above, but must add protective eyewear. 


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Enclosed Cabs 

Enclosed cabs must have a nonporous barrier that totally surrounds the occupants and 

prevents contact with pesticides outside of the cab. Enclosed cabs that provide 

respiratory protection must have a properly functioning ventilation system that is used 

and maintained according to the manufacturer’s written operating instructions. The cab 

must be declared in writing by the manufacturer or by a governmental agency to provide 

at least as much respiratory protection as the type of respirator listed on the pesticide 

labeling. 

Examples: 

Some enclosed-cab systems provide respiratory protection equivalent to a dust/mist 

filtering respirator and could, therefore, be used as a substitute when that type of 

respirator is specified on the product labeling. Other enclosed-cab systems are 

equipped to remove organic vapors as well as dusts and mists and could be used as a 

substitute when either the dust/mist filtering respirator or an organic-vapor-removing 

respirator is specified on the product labeling. 

1. Enclosed cabs that do not provide respiratory protection — In an enclosed cab 

that does not provide respiratory protection, handlers need not wear all the PPE listed on 

the pesticide labeling, but must wear at least: 

• long-sleeved shirt and long pants, 

• shoes and socks, and 

• any respirator required for the handling task. 

2. Enclosed cabs that provide respiratory protection — In an enclosed cab that 

provides respiratory protection equal to the labeling-required respirator, handlers need 

not wear all the PPE listed on the pesticide labeling, but must wear at least: 



3. In any enclosed cab where reduced PPE is worn — Handlers must: 

• keep immediately available all PPE listed on the labeling for the type of task being 

performed, 

• store the PPE in a chemical resistant container (such as a plastic bag), 

• wear the PPE if it is necessary to leave the cab and contact pesticide-treated surfaces 

in the treated area, and take off PPE that was worn in the treated area before reentering 

the cab in order to prevent contamination of the inside of the cab. 

Note: If the PPE that was worn in the treated area needs to be stored inside the 

enclosed cab, it must be stored in such a way that will prevent contaminating the inside 

of the cab. One way to achieve this would be to store the contaminated PPE in a 

chemical-resistant container, such as a plastic bag. 

Cockpits 

1. Gloves when entering or leaving an aircraft — Handlers have the option of whether 

to wear chemical-resistant gloves when entering or leaving an aircraft used to apply 

pesticides, unless the pesticide product labeling requires chemical-resistant gloves to be 

worn for these activities. If gloves are worn for such a use, then if they are brought inside 

the cockpit, handlers must store the used gloves in a enclosed container, such as a 

plastic bag, to prevent contamination of the inside of the cockpit. 

2. Open cockpits — In an open cockpit, handlers must wear any gloves, respirator, and 

body protection listed on the pesticide labeling for application tasks. However, they may 

wear: 

• shoes and socks instead of chemical-resistant footwear, 

• a helmet instead of a chemical-resistant hat or hood, and 

• a visor instead of protective eyewear. 


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3. Enclosed cockpits — In an enclosed cockpit, handlers need not wear all the PPE 

listed on the pesticide labeling, but must wear at least: 



OWNER EXEMPTIONS AND CROP ADVISORS 

The WPS exempts owners of agricultural establishments from many WPS requirements, 

and it contains specific protections for crop advisors. This unit describes these owner 

exemptions and crop advisor provisions. 


AGRICULTURAL OWNER EXEMPTIONS 

Owners of agricultural establishments and members of their immediate family are 

exempt from many WPS requirements. However, EPA encourages owners to provide 

themselves and their families with all WPS protections. 

Owner: Any person who has a present possessory interest (fee, leasehold, rental, or 

other) in an agricultural establishment covered by the WPS. A person who has both 

leased such agricultural establishment to another person and granted that same person 

the right and full authority to manage and govern the use of such agricultural 

establishment is not an owner under the WPS. 

Examples: Immediate family includes only spouse, children, stepchildren, parents, 

brothers, and sisters. 

You do not qualify for the agricultural owner exemptions if: 

1. you have rented out or leased out your farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse foster 

children, parents, to another person and you have no part in the management or 

profit/loss from stepparents, foster it. The person to whom you have rented or leased 

your property is the “owner” for the purposes of the WPS. 

2. you are hired to operate a farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse, but the person who 

owns the property makes some of the decisions as to the management of it or shares in 

the profit/loss from it. 

The WPS does not allow any exemptions for owners of commercial pesticide handling 

establishments or for persons who operate or manage, but do not own, an agricultural 

establishment. 

Agricultural owners must provide all protections required by the WPS to persons who are 

not members of their immediate family. These persons include: 

• workers or handlers who are their employees, and 

• persons who clean PPE or repair, clean, or maintain contaminated pesticide 

handling equipment. 

REQUIREMENTS AGRICULTURAL OWNERS MUST COMPLY WITH 

The following requirements and provisions do apply to owners of agricultural 

establishments and to members of their immediate family: 

1. Employer information exchange. 

2. Restrictions during handling tasks: 

• Use the personal protective equipment and other work attire listed on the 

pesticide labeling for the task being performed. 

• Exceptions to personal protective equipment. 

3. Restrictions during applications: 


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• Make sure that each pesticide is applied so that it does not contact, either directly or 

through drift, anyone (including you and members of your immediate family), except 

appropriately trained and equipped handlers. 

• Make sure that you, your family members, and all other persons, except correctly 

trained and equipped handlers, are kept out of areas being treated with pesticides. 

• Make sure that you, your family members, and all other persons, except correctly 

trained and equipped handlers, are kept out of areas immediately around the area being 

treated during certain pesticide applications in nurseries and greenhouses. 

4.Restrictions during restricted-entry intervals: 

• When two (or more) pesticides are applied at the same time, and have different REIs, 

make sure that you and your family members follow the longer restricted-entry interval. 

• No-contact early entry. 

• Short-term, limited-contact, agricultural emergency, or specially excepted early entry 

(see explanation below). 

If agricultural owners or members of their immediate family enter a treated area and 

contact treated surfaces during a restricted-entry interval, they must: 

• Wait at least 4 hours after the pesticide application is completed before entering the 


• Wait at least until any inhalation exposure level listed on the product labeling has been 


• Obey the time limitation of 1 hour in 24 hours, if short-term (non-hand labor) 

early-entry tasks are being performed or 8 hours in 24 hours, if limited-contact earlyentry 

tasks are being performed, and 

• Wear the personal protective equipment specified on the pesticide labeling for earlyentry 

tasks, and 

• Follow any other restrictions specified in any special exception under which the early 

entry takes place, and 

• Follow any other restrictions specified in the pesticide labeling for early entry. 


EXEMPTIONS FOR AGRICULTURAL OWNERS 

Agricultural owners are not required to provide themselves or members of their 

immediate family with the following protections of the WPS: 

1. Information at a central location 

2. Pesticide safety training 

3. Decontamination supplies 

4. Emergency assistance 

5. Notice about applications 

6. Monitoring handlers 

7. Specific handling instructions 

8. Equipment safety 

9. All the specific duties related to the care of PPE and management of its use. 

10. The following duties related to early entry: 

• Training and instructions, 

• Decontamination supplies, 

• Specific duties related to the care of PPE and management of its use. 


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EPA Chemical Resistance Category Chart 

For use when PPE section on the pesticide label lists a chemical resistance 

category. 

The Worker Protection Standard requires that labels of pesticides used on farms, and in 

forests, nurseries and greenhouses list the type of personal protective equipment (PPE) 

that must be worn with each product. Labels will refer to chemical resistance categories 

(A-H) for PPE. Items in these categories are made of materials that the pesticide cannot 

pass through during the times indicated below the chart. Choose the category of 

resistance which best matches the handling task duration. The categories are based on 

the solvents used in the pesticides, NOT the pesticides themselves. Therefore, there will 

be instances where the same pesticide with two different formulations (wettable powder- 

WP and emulsifiable concentrate-EC, for example) will require PPE from two different 

chemical resistance categories. 

Selection 

Category 

Listed on 

Pesticide 

Label 

Barrier 

Laminate 

Butyl 

Rubber 

> 14 mils 

Types of Personal Protective Material 

Nitrile 

Rubber 

> 14 mils 

Neoprene 

Rubber 

> 14 mils 

Natural 

Rubber 

> 14 mils 

Polyethelene 

Polyvinyl 

Chloride 

(PVC) 

> 14 mils 

Viton 

> 14 mils 

A( a dry 

and waterbased 

formulation) 

high high high high high high high high 

B high high slight slight none slight slight slight 

C high high high high moderate moderate high high 

D high high moderate moderate none none none slight 

E high slight high high slight none moderate high 

F high high high moderate slight none slight high 

G high slight slight slight none none none high 

H high slight slight slight none none none high 

HIGH: Highly chemical-resistant. Clean or replace PPE at end of each day's work period. 

Rinse off pesticides at rest breaks. 

MODERATE: Moderately chemical-resistant. Clean or replace PPE within an hour or two 

of contact. 

SLIGHT: Slightly chemical-resistant. Clean or replace PPE within ten minutes of contact. 

NONE: No chemical-resistance. Do not wear this type of material as PPE when contact 

is possible. 


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Entry-Restricted Areas in Nurseries During Pesticide Applications 

During Application of a Pesticide Workers and other persons 

are Prohibited In: 

(1)(a) Applied: aerially, in an upward direction, or using a spray 

pressure greater than 150 psi (pounds per square inch), or 

(b) Applied as a: fumigant, smoke, mist, fog, or aerosol 

(2)(a) Applied downward using: a height of greater than 12 inches 

from the planting medium, a fine spray, or a spray pressure 

greater than 40 psi and less than 150 psi. 

(b) Not as in 1 or 2(a) above, but for which a respiratory 

protection device is required for application by the product 

labeling 

Pesticide treated area plus 

100 feet in all directions on 

the nursery 

Treated area plus 25 feet in 

all directions on the nursery 

(3) Applied otherwise Pesticide treated area 


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Interpreting PPE Statements on Pesticide Labels 

Label Statement Acceptable PPE 

Long-sleeved shirt and Long-sleeved shirt and long pants long pants, or 

Woven or nonwoven coverall 

Plastic- or other barrier-coated coverall, or Rubber or plastic 

suit 

Coverall worn over 

short-sleeved shirt 

and short pants 

Coverall worn over 

long-sleeved shirt and 

long pants 

Chemical-resistant apron 

worn over coverall or over 

long-sleeved shirt and long 

pants 

Waterproof suit or 

liquidproof suit 

Coverall worn over short-sleeved shirt and short pants, or 

Coverall worn over long-sleeved shirt and long pants, or 

Coverall worn over another coverall, or 

Plastic-or other barrier-coated coverall, or Rubber or plastic 

suit 

Coverall worn over long-sleeved shirt and long pants, or 

Coverall worn over another coverall, or 

Plastic- or other barrier-coated coverall, or Rubber or plastic 

suit 

no substitute 

no substitute 

Waterproof gloves Any rubber or plastic gloves sturdy enough to remain intact 

throughout the task being preformed 

Chemical-resistant 

gloves 

Chemical-resistance gloves 

such as butyl or nitrile 

Barrier-laminate gloves, or 

Other gloves that glove selection charts or guidance 

indicate are 

chemical-resistant to the pesticide for the period of time 

required to perform the task 

Butyl gloves, or 

nitrile gloves, or 

Other gloves that glove selection charts or guidance 

indicate are chemical-resistant to the pesticide for 

the period of time required to perform the task 

Shoes Leather, canvas, or fabric shoes 

chemical-resistant shoes, or 

chemical-resistant boots, or 

chemical-resistant shoe coverings (booties) 

Chemical-resistant footwear Chemical-resistant shoes, or 

Chemical-resistant boots, or 

Chemical-resistant shoe coverings (booties) 

Chemical resistant boots Chemical-resistant boots 

Chemical-resistant hood 

or wide-brimmed hat 

Rubber- or plastic-coated safari-style hat or firefighter 

hat, or 

plastic- or other barrier-coated hood, or rubber or 

plastic hood 

Full hood or helmet that is part of some respirators. 


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The fate of pesticides released into the environment is unknown. Releases may 

be followed by a very complex series of events which can transport the pesticide 

through the air or water, into the ground or even into living organisms. The 

medium for movement (air, water, soil, organisms) and the degree of movement 

(local or long distance distribution) will be different for each pesticide. 


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PROTECTIONS FOR CROP ADVISORS 


The WPS requires employers to provide certain protections to their employees who are 

working as crop advisors. 

Crop advisor 

Any person who is assessing pest numbers or damage, pesticide distribution, or the 

status, condition, or requirements of agricultural plants. The term does not include any 

person who is performing hand labor tasks, such as weeding, planting, cultivating, or 

harvesting. Examples of crop advisors are crop consultants, scouts, and integrated pest 

management monitors. 

Independent or commercial crop advisor 

Any person who is working as a crop advisor and is employed (including self-employed) 

by anyone other than the agricultural establishment on which the work is being done. 

Such a person may be either certified/licensed or uncertified/unlicensed. 

Noncommercial crop advisor 

Any person who is working as a crop advisor and is employed directly by the agricultural 

establishment on which the work is being done. Such a person may be either 

certified/licensed or uncertified/unlicensed. 

Certified or licensed crop advisor 

Any person who is certified or licensed as a crop advisor by a program acknowledged, in 

writing, as appropriate by EPA or a state or tribal lead agency for pesticide enforcement. 

The certification or licensing program must require pesticide safety training that includes 

at least all the information specified for WPS pesticide handler training. 

Direct supervision 

A person is considered to be under a certified/licensed crop advisor’s direct supervision 

(and therefore eligible for crop advisor exceptions) only when the crop advisor has 

informed the person about all of the following: 

• the appropriate personal protective equipment, 

• the appropriate decontamination supplies, 

• how to conduct the crop advising tasks safely, 

• the pesticide products and active ingredient(s) applied, 

• the method of application, 

• the time of application, 

• the restricted-entry interval, 

• which crop advisor tasks to undertake, and 

• how to contact the certified/licensed crop advisor. Direct supervision does not require 

that the crop advisor be physically present at all times, but the crop advisor must be 

readily accessible to the employees at all times. 


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DUTIES FOR UNCERTIFIED/UNLICENSED CROP ADVISORS 

Exemption 

Certified/licensed crop advisors and persons performing crop advising tasks under their 

direct supervision are exempt from certain WPS duties and requirements when specific 

conditions are met. 

Required Protections During or Soon After a Pesticide Application 

1. Same Protections as Pesticide Handlers 

Employers must provide their crop advisors with the WPS protections required for 

pesticide handlers if the crop advisor enters an area on an agricultural establishment: 

• while a pesticide is being applied, 

• before any inhalation exposure level listed in the pesticide labeling has been 

reached or before one of the ventilation criteria in the WPS or in the pesticide 

labeling has been reached, 

• while a restricted-entry interval is in effect. 

2. No Time Limits 

Crop advisors may enter an area during a pesticide application or during a restrictedentry 

interval as long as they are trained as pesticide handlers, are given other pesticidehandler 

protections (listed below), and are wearing the appropriate personal protective 

equipment. The restrictions on entry, such as waiting for 4 hours after application is 

completed or limiting the time spent in the entry-restricted area to 1 hour or any other 

period, do not apply to crop advisors. 

3. Required Protections 

• Information at a central location. 

Exception 

Employers of independent (commercial) crop advisors do not have to provide their crop 

advisors with information at a central location. 

• Pesticide safety training for handlers. 

• Decontamination supplies. 

• Emergency assistance. 

• Monitoring handlers. 

Note: After the application is complete, crop advisors entering a treated area during a 

restricted-entry interval need not be monitored. 

• Special instructions for handlers. 

• Duties related to PPE. 

4. Personal Protective Equipment During REIs Early-Entry PPE for Early Entry 

“With Contact”: Crop advisors who enter a treated area during a restricted-entry 

interval, and whose crop advisor activities involve contact with anything that has been 

treated with a pesticide, including soil, water, and surfaces of plants, may wear the PPE 

listed on the pesticide labeling for early-entry tasks (instead of the PPE listed for 

handling tasks), if: 

• Application has been completed for at least 4 hours, and 

• Any inhalation exposure level listed in the labeling has been reached or any 

ventilation requirements established by the WPS or pesticide labeling have been 

met. 

Crop advisors may enter treated areas during an application or during a restricted-entry 

interval if they receive handler-type protections. 


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No PPE for “No Contact” Early Entry: Crop advisors who enter a treated area during a 

restricted-entry interval and whose crop advisor activities do not involve contact with 

anything that has been treated with the pesticide to which the restricted-entry interval 

applies are not required to wear personal protective equipment. 

Required Protections After the REI 

1. Independent (Commercial) Crop Advisors 

When independent (commercial) crop advisors enter any area on an agricultural 

establishment where no application is underway and no restricted-entry interval is in 

effect, their employers need not provide them with any WPS protections. 

2. Noncommercial Crop Advisors 

When noncommercial crop advisors (employees of the farm, forest, nursery, or 

greenhouse) enter any area on the agricultural establishment where no application is 

underway and no restricted-entry interval is in effect, their employer must provide them 

with the WPS protections required for agricultural workers. For specific information 

about each of these protections, see the pages referenced below. The protections 

include: 

• Information at a central location. 

– certain information (pesticide safety poster, application information, location of 

emergency facility) must be displayed at a central location whenever (1) the crop advisor 

is on the agricultural establishment, and (2) a pesticide has recently been applied. 

• Pesticide safety training for workers. 

– crop advisors must be trained about general pesticide safety before they accumulate 5 

days of entry into treated areas on the establishment where, within the past 30 days, a 

pesticide has been applied or a restricted-entry interval has been in effect. 

• Decontamination supplies 

– decontamination supplies for washing off pesticide residues must be provided to any 

crop advisor who is working an area where a pesticide has recently been applied and 

who is doing tasks that involve contact with anything that has been treated with the 

pesticide, including soil, water, or surfaces of plants. 

• Emergency assistance 

– Emergency assistance must be provided to the crop advisor if there is reason to 

believe that the employee has been poisoned or injured by a pesticide used on the 

agricultural establishment — for example, through application, spills, splashes, drift, or 

contact with pesticide residues. 

• Notice about applications 

– with a few exceptions, the crop advisor must be notified about areas on the agricultural 

establishment where pesticide applications are taking place or where restricted-entry 


• Restrictions during and after applications 

– the crop advisor must be protected during pesticide applications and during restrictedentry 

intervals on the agricultural establishment. 


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DUTIES FOR CERTIFIED/LICENSED CROP ADVISORS: CROP 

ADVISOR EXEMPTION 

Certified/licensed crop advisors and persons performing crop advising tasks under their 

direct supervision are exempt from certain WPS duties and requirements, provided the 

certified/licensed crop advisors: 

• do not enter, or allow persons under their supervision to enter, treated areas until after 

application is completed, and 

• perform, and make sure that persons under their supervision perform, crop advisor 

tasks only, including assessing pest numbers or damage, checking pesticide distribution, 

or determining the status, condition, or requirements of agricultural plants, and 

• specifically determine the appropriate personal protective equipment, and the 

appropriate decontamination supplies and how to conduct the crop advising tasks safely, 

and inform each person under their direct supervision – in a language that the person 

can understand — about the appropriate personal protective equipment, the appropriate 

decontamination supplies, and how to conduct the crop advising tasks safely, and 

• using an established practice of communication, inform each person under their direct 

supervision about all the following: 

– the pesticide product(s) and active ingredient(s) applied, 

– the method of application, 

– the time of application, 

– the restricted entry interval, 

– which crop advisor tasks to undertake, 

– how to contact the certified/licensed crop advisor. 

Requirements for Entry During an Application 

The certified/licensed crop advisor exemption does not apply when crop advisors or 

persons under their direct supervision enter an area before application is completed. 

Required Protections for Entry During an REI 

When crop advisors enter into treated areas while a restricted-entry interval is in effect, 

they are defined in the WPS as pesticide handlers. When all the conditions of the 

certified/licensed crop advisor exemption are met, certified/licensed crop advisors 

and persons under their direct supervision are exempt from the following WPS 

handler requirements: 


• Emergency assistance 

• Special instructions for handlers 

Note: Despite this exemption, the WPS does require that any agricultural establishment 

owner or operator who hires a commercial crop advisor must inform the employer of that 

advisor about the specific location and description of any areas on the agricultural 

establishment (1) that may be treated with a pesticide or be under a restricted-entry 

interval while the commercial crop advisor will be there, and (2) that the commercial crop 

advisor may be in (or walk within 1/4 mile of). The operator must also provide 

information about restrictions on entering those areas. 

• Duties related to PPE 


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However, while a restricted-entry interval is in effect, employers must provide the 

following WPS protections to certified/licensed crop advisors and persons under 

such crop advisors’ direct supervision: 

• Information at a central location 


emergency facility) must be displayed at a central location whenever 

(1) the crop advisor is on the agricultural establishment, and (2) a pesticide has recently 

been applied. 

Exception 

The requirement above applies only to noncommercial certified/licensed crop advisors 

(employees of the establishment where they are working). Employers who hire 

independent (commercial) crop advisors do not have to provide those crop advisors with 

information at a central location. 

• Pesticide handler training 

Exception 

As a requirement of any approved certification or licensing program, certified/ licensed 

crop advisors have received pesticide safety training equivalent to WPS pesticide 

handler training. Employers do not need to retrain either commercial or noncommercial 

certified/licensed crop advisors. However, WPS pesticide handler training IS required for 

any unlicensed/uncertified crop advisors working under the direct supervision of 

certified/licensed crop advisors, and they must be retrained at least once every 5 years. 

REQUIRED PROTECTIONS AFTER THE REI 

1. Independent (Commercial) Crop Advisors 

When certified/licensed independent (commercial) crop advisors enter any area on an 

agricultural establishment where no application is underway and no restricted-entry 

interval is in effect, their employers need not provide them with any WPS protections. 

2. Noncommercial Crop Advisors 

When noncommercial crop advisors (employees of the farm, forest, nursery, or 

greenhouse) enter any area on the agricultural establishment where no application is 

underway and no restricted-entry interval is in effect, they are defined in the WPS as 

agricultural workers. When all the conditions of the certified/licensed crop advisor 

exemption are met, certified/licensed crop advisors or persons under their direct 

supervision are exempt from the following WPS agricultural worker requirements: 


• Emergency assistance. However, agricultural employers must provide the following 

WPS protections to their employees who are certified/licensed crop advisors, or who are 

persons under such crop advisors’ direct supervision, when the employees enter treated 

areas on the agricultural establishment where no application is underway and when no 

restricted-entry interval is in effect: 

• Information at a central location 


emergency facility) must be displayed at a central location whenever 

(1) the crop advisor is on the agricultural establishment, and (2) a pesticide has recently 

been applied. 


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• Pesticide safety training and safety information for workers 

Exception 

As a requirement of any approved certification or licensing program, certified/ licensed 

crop advisors have received pesticide safety training equivalent to WPS pesticide 

handler training. They need not be retrained. However, uncertified/ unlicensed crop 

advisors working under the direct supervision of a certified/ licensed crop advisor must 

receive pesticide safety training and safety information for workers and must be 

retrained within 5 years. 

• Notice about applications. 

– with a few exceptions, the crop advisor must be notified about areas on the agricultural 

establishment where pesticide applications are taking place or where restricted-entry 


• Restrictions during and after applications 

– the crop advisor must be protected during pesticide applications and during restrictedentry 

intervals on the agricultural establishment. 


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APPENDIX A CRITERIA FOR WPS MATERIALS 

CRITERIA FOR PESTICIDE SAFETY POSTER 

Each WPS safety poster must convey to workers and handlers: 

1. That there are federal rules to protect them, including a requirement for safety 

training. 

2. How to help keep pesticides from getting on or into their bodies. The poster must 

include the following instructions: 

• Avoid getting on your skin or into your body any pesticides that may be on plants and 

soil, in irrigation water, or drifting from nearby applications. 

• Wash before eating, drinking, chewing gum, using tobacco, or using the toilet. 

• Wear work clothing that protects your body from pesticide residues, such as longsleeved 

shirts, long pants, shoes, socks, and hats or scarves. 

• Wash or shower with soap and water, shampoo your hair, and put on clean clothes 

after work. 

• Wash work clothes separately from other clothes before wearing them again. 

• Wash immediately in the nearest clean water if pesticides are spilled or sprayed on 

your body. As soon as possible, shower, shampoo, and change into clean clothes. 

• Follow directions about keeping out of treated or restricted areas. 

APPENDIX ACRITERIA FOR WPS MATERIALS 

REQUIREMENTS FOR WARNING SIGNS 

1. Required Words: 

• The words “DANGER — PELIGRO” and “PESTICIDES — PESTICIDAS” must be 

located at the top of the sign and “KEEP OUT—NO ENTRE” at the bottom. 

Exception 

As an option, you may use warning signs that replace the Spanish words with the same 

words in another language (other than English) that is read by the largest number of 

your workers who do not read English. The replacement sign must meet all of the other 

requirements for the WPS warning sign. 

• The words must be clearly legible. 

2. Required Design: 

• A circle containing an upraised hand on the left and a stern face on the right must be 

near the center of the sign. 

• The background outside the circle must contrast with the inside of the circle. 

• The hand and a large portion of the face must contrast with the inside of the circle. 

• The remainder of the inside of the circle must be red. 

• The length of the hand must be at least twice the height of the smallest letters. 

• The length of the face must be only slightly smaller than the hand. 

3. Additional Information: 

You may put additional information on the warning sign, such as the name of the 

pesticide and the date of application, if it does not detract from the appearance of the 

sign or change the meaning of the required information. 

4. Size: 

The signs must be at least 14 inches by 16 inches, and the letters must be at least 1 

inch high. 


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Exception 

On farms and in forests, you may use smaller signs if the treated area is too small to 

accommodate 14- by 16-inch signs. For example, when a single plant needs to be 

posted, a smaller sign would be appropriate. In nurseries and greenhouses, you may 

use a sign smaller than the standard size. Whenever a small sign is used, there are 

specific posting distances depending on the size of the lettering and symbol on the sign. 

Signs with the words “DANGER” and “PELIGRO” in letters less than 7/16 inch in height 

or with any words in letters less than 1/4 inch in height or with the circle graphic 

containing an upraised hand and a stern face less than 1½ inches in diameter do not 

meet. 

WPS sign requirements. * This distance requirement is for places where multiple signs 

are used to post a single treated area, such as a nursery or a greenhouse section. It 

does not apply where individual signs are used for separate small treatment areas (such 

as single potted plants in a greenhouse). 


CRITERIA FOR WORKER TRAINING 

1. WPS training for workers must include at least the following information: 

• Where and in what form pesticides may be encountered during work activities. 

• Hazards of pesticides resulting from toxicity and exposure, including acute effects, 

chronic effects, delayed effects, and sensitization. 

• Routes through which pesticides can enter the body. 

• Signs and symptoms of common types of pesticide poisoning. 

• Emergency first aid for pesticide injuries or poisonings. 

• How to obtain emergency medical care. 

• Routine and emergency decontamination procedures, including emergency eyeflushing 

techniques. 

• Hazards from chemigation and drift. 

• Hazards from pesticide residues on clothing. 

• Warnings about taking pesticides or pesticide containers home. 

• An explanation of the WPS requirements designed to protect workers, including 

application and entry restrictions, design of the warning sign, posting of warning signs, 

oral warnings, availability of specific information about applications, and protection 

against retaliatory acts. 

2. WPS worker training materials must use terms that the worker can understand. 


CRITERIA FOR HANDLER TRAINING 

WPS training for handlers must include at least the following information: 

• Format and meaning of information on pesticide labels and in labeling, including safety 

information such as precautionary statements about human health hazards. 

• Hazards of pesticides resulting from toxicity and exposure, including acute effects, 

chronic effects, delayed effects, and sensitization. 

• Routes through which pesticides can enter the body. 

• Signs and symptoms of common types of pesticide poisoning. 

• Emergency first aid for pesticide injuries or poisonings. 

• How to obtain emergency medical care. 

• Routine and emergency decontamination procedures, including emergency eyeflushing 

techniques. 


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• Need for and appropriate use of personal protective equipment. 

• Prevention, recognition, and first aid treatment of heat-related illness. 

• Safety requirements for handling, transporting, storing, and disposing of 

pesticides, including general procedures for spill cleanup. 

• Environmental concerns such as drift, runoff, and wildlife hazards. 

• Warnings about taking pesticides or pesticide containers home. 

• An explanation of WPS requirements that handler employers must follow for the 

protection of handlers and others, including the prohibition against applying pesticides in 

a manner that will cause contact with workers or other persons, the requirement to use 

personal protective equipment, the provisions for training and decontamination, and the 

protection against retaliatory acts. 

Restricted Use Products (RUP) Report 

The Restricted Use Products Report is a compilation of both active and cancelled 

pesticide products classified as "Restricted Use". The "Restricted Use" classification 

restricts a product, or its uses, to use by a certified pesticide applicator or under the 

direct supervision of a certified applicator. (For detailed information on the "Restricted 

Use" Classification, consult 40 CFR Subpart I, 152.160) 

In the RUP Report, the criteria on which the restricted use classification is based, uses, 

formulations, EPA Registration Numbers, product names, product status and revision 

date are organized by pesticide active ingredient (AI). The Product Manager (PM) 

Number is also provided for each AI. 

Pesticide 

Though often misunderstood to refer only to insecticides, the term pesticide also applies 

to herbicides, fungicides, and various other substances used to control pests. Under 

United States law, a pesticide is also any substance or mixture of substances intended 

for use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant. 


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Pigroot 


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Definition Section 

The definitions and explanations presented here are limited to key terms to show the 

standard's range of coverage. Readers seeking more detailed information should 

contact their State agency that regulates pesticides or their regional EPA office and 

consult Title 40 Code of Federal Regulations, Part 170, and Title 7 United States Code. 

Agricultural establishment means any farm, forest, nursery, or greenhouse (40 CFR). 

Agricultural employer means any person who hires or contracts for the services of 

workers, for any type of compensation, to perform activities related to the production of 

agricultural plants, or any person who is an owner of or is responsible for the 

management or condition of an agricultural establishment that uses such workers (40 

CFR). 

Agricultural emergency means a sudden occurrence or set of circumstances that the 

agricultural employer could not have anticipated and over which the agricultural 

employer has no control, requiring entry into a treated area when no alternative practices 

would prevent or mitigate a substantial economic loss (a loss in profitability greater than 

that which is expected based on the experience and fluctuations of crop yields in 

previous years). 

The State, tribal, or Federal agency having jurisdiction must declare the existence of 

circumstances that could cause an agricultural emergency on that agricultural 

establishment (40 CFR). 






Forest means any operation engaged in the outdoor production of any agricultural plant 

to produce wood fiber or timber products (40 CFR). 

Greenhouse means any operation engaged in the production of agricultural plants 

inside any structure or space that is enclosed with a nonporous covering and is of 

sufficient size to permit worker entry. 

Polyhouses, mushroom houses, rhubarb houses, and similar structures are included, but 

not malls, atriums, conservatories, arboretums, or office buildings where agricultural 

plants are present primarily for aesthetic or climatic modification (40 CFR). 

Hand labor means any agricultural activity performed by hand or with hand tools that 

causes a worker to have substantial contact with surfaces that may contain pesticide 

residues. Most hand labor activities, other than operating, moving or repairing irrigation 

or watering equipment, or scouting, are included (40 CFR). 


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Handler means any person employed for any type of compensation who: (1) mixes, 

loads, transfers, applies, disposes of, or transports open containers of pesticides; (2) 

acts as a flagger; (3) cleans, adjusts, or repairs the parts of mixing, loading, or 

application equipment that may contain pesticide residues; (4) must enter an area being 

treated with pesticides to assist in the application of pesticides; (5) must enter a 

greenhouse or other enclosed area after the application of a fumigant, smoke, mist, fog, 

or aerosol product to operate ventilation equipment or to monitor air levels before the 

exposure level listed in the labeling or one of the ventilation criteria has been met; (6) 

must enter a treated area to move chemigation equipment (used to apply pesticides with 

irrigation water) before a REI has expired; or (7) must enter a treated area outdoors after 

application of any soil fumigant to adjust or remove soil covers such as tarpaulins (40 

CFR). 

Immediate family includes only spouse, children, stepchildren, foster children, parents, 

stepparents, foster parents, brothers, and sisters (40 CFR). 

Nursery means any operation engaged in the outdoor production of any agricultural 

plant to produce cut flowers and ferns or plants that will be used in their entirety in 

another location. Such plants include, but are not limited to: flowering and foliage plants 

or trees; tree seedlings; live Christmas trees; vegetable, fruit, and ornamental 

transplants; and turf grass produced for sod (40 CFR). 

Owner means any person who has a present possessory interest (fee, leasehold, rental, 

or other) in an agricultural establishment covered by this part, unless that person has 

both leased such agricultural establishment to another person and granted that same 

person the right and full authority to manage and govern the use of such agricultural 

establishment (40 CFR). 

Pesticide means "any substance or mixture of substances intended for preventing, 

destroying, repelling, or mitigating any pest, and (2) any substance or mixture of 

substances intended for use as a plant regulator, defoliant, or desiccant..." (EPA, 1988). 

Restricted entry interval means the time after the end of a pesticide application during 

which entry into the treated area is restricted (40 CFR). 

Treated area means any area to which a pesticide is being directed or has been 

directed (40 CFR). 

Worker means any person, including a self-employed person, who is employed for any 

type of compensation to perform activities relating to the production of agricultural plants 

on a farm or in a greenhouse, nursery, or forest. 

These activities include hand labor tasks (weeding, planting, cultivating, and harvesting) 

and other tasks in the production of agricultural plants (such as operating or moving 

irrigation equipment). 

While workers are performing pesticide handling activities, they are considered to be 

handlers subject to the requirements for handlers in the WPS. 


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Adjuvants 

Activity of Adjuvants 

Adjuvants, or additive compounds, aid in the mixing, application or effectiveness of 

pesticides. One class of adjuvants, compatibility agents, allow uniform mixing of 

compounds that would normally separate. Other types of adjuvants include spreaders, 

stickers, and synergists. There are nearly as many adjuvants as there are pesticides, 

and they provide a choice for every need. Some adjuvants are added during pesticide 

manufacture and are, thus, part of the formulation. Other adjuvants are added just 

before application. To decide when to use an adjuvant, READ THE LABEL. It will state 

when a particular adjuvant is needed, whether or not one should be added or when one 

is already present. 

Adjuvants assist application or pesticide activity without being directly toxic to pests. 

However, many of these chemicals can present hazards to the applicators. The EPA has 

not required manufacturers to perform the same type of research and reporting on 

adjuvants that is required for pesticide registration. However, regulations are continually 

updated to protect the health of applicators and review and registration of adjuvants may 

be required in the future. Meanwhile, it is a good practice to use the same care in 

handling adjuvants as is used with pesticides. 

Many, but not all, adjuvants function as surfactants, or surface active agents. 

Surfactants improve the retention and absorption of herbicides. The benefit that they 

provide is offset, to a degree, by the increased drift hazard they cause. Reducing the 

surface tension of the spray solution permits it to break up into finer droplets, which are 

more likely to drift off target. 

Drift control agents are adjuvants that help reduce the risk of drift. Pesticide drift is offtarget 

spray deposit and off-target damage. 

Spray thickeners reduce drift by increasing droplet size and by reducing bounce or 

runoff during application. Use of these adjuvants helps to comply with drift regulations, 

which is especially important in areas adjacent to residential areas. Lo-Drift, Nalco-Trol 

and Drift Proof are examples of drift control agents. 

Penetrating agents dissolve the waxy layer that protects the surface of leaves. This 

speeds up absorption with foliar treatments. Lower application rates used with these 

adjuvants may provide the same control as higher rates made without them; more 

chemical enters the plant before breaking down or washing off. Examples of penetrating 

agents include Arborchem and kerosene. 

Proper Handling of Pesticides 

Using pesticides involves many responsibilities beyond the immediate needs of pest 

control. Greenhouse growers, like all agricultural producers, are expected to handle 

hazardous materials in a manner that reduces the exposure risk to other persons and 

limits contamination of the environment. 

Numerous federal and state regulations exist to help growers handle, store and apply 

pesticides properly. 


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In addition to FIFRA, the EPA has further authority over pesticide use under the 

Superfund Amendment and Reauthorization Act (SARA) and the Resource 

Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA). These federal regulations cover all materials 

classified as hazardous and, therefore, apply to pesticides. Pesticide handling and 

storage are also regulated by the Transportation Safety Act and the Occupational Safety 

and Health Act (OSHA). 

Moving Pesticides 

Interstate transport of pesticides is regulated by the Federal Department of 

Transportation (DOT). Their guidelines for safe movement are common sense rules for 

any transport of chemicals. All pesticides should be in the original DOT approved 

containers and correctly labeled. All containers should be secured against movement 

that could result in breaking or spilling. Never transport pesticides in a vehicle that also 

carries food or feed products. 

Never transport pesticides in the cab of vehicles. Paper or cardboard containers should 

be protected from moisture. Never leave an open-bed truck containing pesticides 

unattended. Following these procedures is necessary when moving concentrated 

chemicals and is good practice for diluted mixtures. 

Persons transporting chemicals must have proper protective clothing available for the 

safe handling of the containers. The protective gear should be in or on the vehicle for 

immediate access in case a spill occurs. Protection of the person managing or cleaning 

up a spill is the primary concern. 

Spill Cleanup and Reporting 

What to do when a spill occurs 

When a minor spill occurs, make sure the proper protective equipment is available, and 

wear it. If pesticide has spilled on anyone, wash it off immediately, before taking any 

other action. Confine the spill with a dike of sand or soil. Use absorbent materials to 

soak up the spill. Shovel all contaminated material into a leakproof container and 

dispose of it in the same manner as excess pesticides. Do not hose down the area; this 

spreads the chemical. Always work carefully to avoid making mistakes. 

Streams and wetlands must be protected in the event of an accidental spill of any size. 

Even diluted chemicals pose a threat to natural habitats when released in large 

amounts. Extra precautions must be taken when drawing water from streams or ponds. 

Antisiphoning devices must be used and be in good working order. Tank mixes should 

be prepared at least ¼ mile from water resources. If this is not possible, make sure the 

ground at the mixing site does not slope toward the water, or construct an earthen dike 

to prevent pesticides from flowing into bodies of water or drains. 

Major spills of concentrates or large quantities of spray solution are difficult to handle 

without assistance. Provide any first aid that is needed and confine the spill, then notify 

the proper authorities. Contact the local fire department using the 911 system, if 

available. Other phone numbers for fire departments, state and local authorities should 

be carried in the vehicles and by the applicators. 

Regardless of the size of the spill, keep people away from the chemicals. Rope off the 

area and flag it to warn others. Do not leave the site unless responsible help, such as 

emergency or enforcement personnel, is there to warn others. 


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Significant pesticide spills must be reported to your state pesticide lead agency. 

Applicators, or their employers, are responsible for telephoning a spray incident report to 

the State Agency as soon as practical after emergency health care and efforts to contain 

the spill have started. 

The state agencies decide if it is necessary to call CHEMTREC (Chemical 

Transportation Emergency Center), a public service of the Manufacturing Chemicals 

Association located in Washington, DC CHEMTREC provides immediate advice for 

those at the scene of an emergency. This service is available 24 hours a day (1-800- 

424-9300) for emergencies only. 

Decontamination 

(1) Decontamination solutions can be used for decontaminating surfaces and materials 

where spills of dust, granular, wettable powders, or liquid pesticides have occurred. The 

bulk of the spilled pesticide should be cleaned up or removed prior to applying any 

decontaminant. 

(2) Several materials may be used to decontaminate pesticides. Due to the many 

different pesticides available and the necessity to use the correct decontamination 

material, all decontamination activities must be carried out only after appropriate 

decontamination methods have been determined by the Environmental Coordinator 

and/or Spill Response Team. Many pesticides, especially the organophosphates, 

decompose when treated with lye or lime. Fewer pesticides are decomposed by bleach. 

Other pesticides cannot be effectively decontaminated and should only be treated with 

detergent and water to assist in removal. The following table is a guide for 

decontaminating certain pesticides: 

Use Lye or Use Chlorine Do not use any decontamination 

Lime for: Bleach for: Chemicals for these Pesticides: 

acephate calcium cyanide alachlor 

atrazine chlorpyrifos chloramben 

captan fonophos chlorinated hydrocarbons 

carbaryl diuron 

dalapon methoxychlor 

diazinon pentachlorophenol 

dichlorvos picloram 

dimethoate 2,4-D 

malathion bromacil 

naled glyphosate 

propoxur simazine 

WARNING: There is a slight potential for creating toxic by-products when using these 

procedures. In critical situations, samples of affected soil, sediment, water, etc. should 

be sent to a laboratory for analysis to determine if decontamination was successful. 

Pesticides amenable to treatment using lye or lime may be decontaminated when mixed 

with an excess quantity of either of these materials. Lye or lime can be used in either 

the dry form or as a 10% solution in water. Caution: caustic soda (lye) can cause 

severe eye damage to personnel not properly protected. 


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Protect against contact by wearing unventilated goggles, long-sleeved work clothes with 

coveralls, neoprene gloves, and a chemical-resistant apron. An approved respirator 

should also be worn. Do not use lye on aluminum surfaces. 

Bleach 

For pesticides that can be degraded by treatment with bleach, in general use one gallon 

of household bleach (which contains approximately 5% sodium hypochlorite) per pound 

or gallon of pesticide spilled. If bleaching powder is used, first mix it with water (one 

gallon of water per pound of bleach) and add a small amount of liquid detergent. For 

safety reasons, a preliminary test must be run using small amounts of bleach and the 

spilled pesticide. The reaction resulting from this test must be observed to make sure 

the reaction is not too vigorous. Do not store in close proximity to, or mix chlorine bleach 

with, amine-containing pesticides. Mingling of these materials can cause a violent 

reaction resulting in fire. Calcium hypochlorite is not recommended as a 

decontaminating agent because of the fire hazard. Spilled granular/bait materials need 

only to be swept up. When there is doubt concerning which decontaminant is 

appropriate, only water and detergent should be used. 

Nonporous surfaces should be washed with detergent and water. The decontamination 

solution determined to be correct should be thoroughly worked into the surface. The 

decontamination solution should then be soaked up using absorbent material. The 

spent absorbent material is then placed into a labeled leakproof container for disposal. 

Porous materials such as wood may not be adequately decontaminated. If 

contamination is great enough to warrant, these materials should be replaced. Tools, 

vehicles, aircraft, equipment and any contaminated metal or other nonporous objects 

can be readily decontaminated using detergent and the appropriate decontamination 

solution. 

Disposal 

All contaminated materials that cannot be effectively decontaminated as described 

above must be placed in properly labeled, sealed, leakproof containers. Disposal of 

these containers shall be in accordance with instructions determined by the U.S. 

Environmental Protection Agency/State Pesticide Agency and the Spill Response Team. 

Common and unnecessary sight at several aerial applicators in the U.S. several 

empty pesticide cans. 


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APPENDIX B 

SAMPLE FORMS, FACT SHEETS, AND CHECKLISTS 

Appendix B includes a sample Pesticide Application Information form with space for the 

pesticide application information the WPS 

requires to be listed at a central location on each 

agricultural establishment. The WPS does not 

specify a format for presenting the information — 

you may copy this form or design another that 

meets your needs. Appendix B also includes 

several fact sheets to help you comply with 

sections of the WPS that require you to provide 

information to others. Although the WPS does 

not require you to provide this information in 

written form, you may find that using photocopies 

of these fact sheets is a convenient way to make 

sure you convey the necessary information. 

Finally, Appendix B includes some checklists and charts you can use as reminders of 

your WPS duties. 

AGRICULTURAL ESTABLISHMENT OWNERS AND OPERATORS: 

The use of this form is optional, but if the information about an application is entered, it 

will help you comply with the federal Worker Protection Standard including all revisions 

through 2004 for information that must be displayed at a central place to inform workers 

and handlers about specific pesticide applications. For complete information, see the 

EPA manual “The Worker Protection Standard for Agricultural Pesticides: How To 

Comply.” 

Application #1 Application #2 

Area Treated: Location & Description 

Product Name 

EPA Registration Number 

Active Ingredient: Common or Chemical Name 

Application: Month/Day/Time 

Restricted-Entry Interval 

Do Not Enter Until: Month/Day/Time 

Similar data is required by the Federal Recordkeeping Requirements for Certified 

Applicators of Federally Restricted Use Pesticides (RUP). For more information on the 

RUP recordkeeping requirements, contact Agricultural Marketing Service, USDA, 8609 

Sudley Road, Suite 203, Manassas, VA 20110, (703) 330-7826. Please consult the 

“USDA Recordkeeping Manual” Web site for a complete list of all USDA record keeping 

requirements. 

Some states, tribes, or local governments with jurisdiction over pesticide enforcement 

may have additional worker protection requirements beyond these requirements. Check 

with these agencies to obtain the information you need to comply with all applicable 

state, tribal, or local requirements. 


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Worker Protection: Check to See if You Are in Compliance 

This checklist serves only as a brief overview of basic WPS requirements. For complete 

details of your responsibilities, refer to the "How to Comply Manual" or contact your 

nearest EPA office. 

Central Location: 

All information should be legible, up-to-date, and accessible to employees The EPA 

approved Safety Poster is posted and complete Display emergency medical information. 

The following records are displayed and available for at least 30 days following 

expiration of the restricted re-entry interval (REI): location of treated area, pesticide 

product name, active ingredient, EPA registration number, start date and time of the 

application, and REI. 

Pesticide Safety Training: Complete WPS Training has been given to: 

Workers prior to the 6th day of entering any treated areas and every 5 years thereafter 

Handlers prior to performing any handler tasks and every 5 years thereafter "Basic 

Pesticide Safety Information" is provided to workers as necessary EPA developed or 

equivalent training materials are used in training. Training is presented in a language the 

trainees can understand Trainers are properly qualified. 

Decontamination Sites: Handler decontamination sites have/are: 

At least 3 gallons of water per handler, soap, single-use towels, and coveralls Located at 

mixing/loading sites, within 1/4 mile of the application site and where PPE is removed 

Supplied with at least 1 pint of immediately available clean water for eye flushing when 

the label specifies the use of protective eyewear. 

Worker decontamination sites have/are: 

At least 1 gallon of water per handler, soap, and single-use towels Located within 1/4 

mile of the work site. Provided for 30 days following the end of the REI (7 days with REIs 

of 4 hours or less). 

Applicator Notification: 

Oral and/or posted warnings given according to label requirements. 

Appropriate warning signs are used and posted at all usual entry points to treated areas. 

Warning signs are posted not more than 24 hours prior to treatment and removed within 

3 days following the end of the REI. 

Oral warnings are given in a language workers can understand. 

Personal Protective Equipment (PPE): 

Label required PPE is provided for handlers and early entry workers PPE is kept clean 

and well maintained. A clean place for PPE storage is provided. 

Employer Information Exchange: Custom applicator supplies information for Central 

Location. Posting prior to applications Information is supplied to custom applicators 

about REIs in effect on the property which they are exposed to. 

Monitoring Handlers: 

Sight or voice contact made at least every 2 hours with handlers using Skull & 

Crossbones pesticides. Constant voice or visual contact is maintained with handlers 

using fumigants indoors. 


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INFORMATION ABOUT CLEANING PPE 

PROTECT YOURSELF FROM PESTICIDES 

1. The clothing and protective equipment items you will be cleaning may have pesticides 

on them. 

2. Although you may not be able to see or smell the pesticides, they can rub off on you 

when you touch the clothing and equipment. 

3. If pesticides get on you, they can hurt you. They can: 

• cause skin rashes or burns, 

• go through your skin and into your body and make you ill, 

• burn your eyes, 

• make you ill if you breathe them or get them in your mouth. 

4. To avoid harm from the pesticide, you should: 

• Pour the clothes from their container into the washer without touching them. 

• Handle only the inner surfaces, such as the inside of boots, aprons, or coveralls. 

• Do not breathe the steam from the washer and dryer. 

5. Pesticides should not be allowed to stay on your hands: 

• When you wash clothing or equipment by hand, use plenty of water and rinse your 

hands often. 

• Wash your hands before eating, drinking, chewing gum, using tobacco, or using the 

toilet. 

• Wash your hands as soon as you finish handling the clothing or equipment. 

6. You should not allow clothing and equipment with pesticides on them to be washed 

with regular laundry. The pesticides can rub off on other items. 

Cleaning Eyewear and Respirators 

Hand-wash reusable respirator facepieces, goggles, face shields, and shielded safety 

glasses, following manufacturer’s instructions. In general, use mild detergent and warm 

water to wash the items thoroughly. Rinse well. Wipe dry, or hang in a clean area to air 

dry. 

Cleaning Other PPE 

1. Follow the manufacturer’s cleaning instructions. If the instructions say only to wash 

the item, or if there are no cleaning instructions, follow the procedure below. 

2. Recommended procedure for washing most PPE: 

a. Rinse in a washing machine or by hand. 

b. Wash in a washing machine, using a heavy-duty detergent and hot water for the 

wash cycle. 

c. Wash only a few items at a time to allow plenty of agitation and water for dilution. 

Use the highest water-level setting. 

d. Rinse twice using two rinse cycles and warm water. 

e. Use two entire machine cycles to wash items that are moderately to heavily 

contaminated. 

f. Run the washer through at least one more entire cycle without clothing, using 

detergent and hot water, to clean the machine. 


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3. Some plastic or rubber items that are not flat, such as gloves, footwear, and coveralls, 

must be washed twice — once to clean the outside and a second time after turning the 

item inside out. 

4. Some items, such as heavy-duty boots and rigid hats or helmets, should be washed 

by hand using hot water and heavy-duty detergent. 

5. Hang the items to dry, if possible. Let them hang for at least 24 hours in an area with 

plenty of fresh air — preferably outdoors. Do not hang items in enclosed living areas. 

6. You may use a clothes dryer for fabric items if it is not possible to hang them to dry. 

But after repeated use, the dryer may become contaminated with pesticides. 

Note to Employers: 

This fact sheet will help you comply with the section of the WPS that requires you to 

provide information to people (other than your own handlers) who clean or maintain you 

pesticide equipment. You are not required to give them this information in written form, 

but you may find that photocopying this fact sheet is an easy way to pass along the 

necessary information. 

WORKING SAFELY WITH PESTICIDE EQUIPMENT 

1. The equipment you will be cleaning, adjusting, or repairing may have pesticides on it. 

Although you may not be able to see or smell the pesticides, they can rub off on you 

when you touch the equipment. 

2. If pesticides get on you, they can hurt you. They can: 

• cause skin rashes or burns, 

• go through your skin and into your body and make you ill, 

• burn your eyes, 

• make you ill if you get them in your mouth. 

3. You should wear work clothing that protects your body from pesticide residues, such 

as long-sleeved shirts, long pants, shoes, and socks. If possible, avoid touching the 

parts of the equipment where the pesticide is most likely to be. Or, if practical for the job 

that you will be doing, consider wearing rubber or plastic gloves and an apron. 

4. You should not let pesticides stay on your hands: 

• Wash your hands as soon as you finish handling the equipment. 

• Wash your hands before eating, drinking, chewing gum, using tobacco, or using the 

toilet. 

• Wash or shower with soap and water, shampoo your hair, and put on clean clothes 

after work. 

• Wash work clothes that may have pesticides on them separately from other clothes 

before wearing them again. 


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Pesticide Application Record Example 

Farm: Fertilization: 

Field/Site: Date Harvested: 

Soil Type: Yield: 

Crop Last Year: Notes: 

The first eight items are required to be kept for two years by United States Department of 

Agriculture for all restricted use pesticide applications under the Food Agriculture 

Conservation and Trade (FACT) Act of 1990. 

1. NAME AND CERTIFICATION NUMBER OF APPLICATOR: 


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MAKE A RECORD OF EACH APPLICATION OF EACH PESTICIDE 

1. Name App. # 1 App. # 2 App # 3 App. # 4 App. # 5 

2. Field or Site Location/ID 

3. Date (Mo., Day, Year) 

4. Size of Area Treated 

5. Pesticide Used (Brand Name) 

6. EPA Registration Number 

7. Total Amount Applied 

8. Crop/Commodity or Site 

9. Formulation 

10. Additives 

11. Method of Application 

12. Stage of Crop Growth 

13. Purpose of Application 

14. Stage of Development of Pest 

15. Soil Conditions 

16. Temperature 

17. Time of Day 

18. Wind 

19. Cloud Cover 

20. Effectiveness 


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Instructions 

This form can be used for recording pesticide applications for weed, insect, or disease 

control to a particular field or part of a field during a growing season. Farmers may find 

the record useful for evaluating results and planning future chemical treatments. 

The United States Department of Agriculture now requires all applicators of Restricted 

Use Pesticides (RUP) to record certain information within 14 days of every RUP 

application. These records are required to be kept for two full years. An "*" is placed next 

to the USDA required RUP information. 

1. *Name and certification number of applicator. 

2. *Field or Site Location/ID—give name or location of the field or site (or the part of 

field) treated. See map section below. 

3. *Date—fill in the month, day, and year of the application. 

4. *Area treated—in acres, square feet, etc. If banding pesticides give total size of 

the field, not just the area actually treated in the band. 

5. *Pesticide used—give product, trade, or brand name. Listing common names of 

active ingredients in the product is also often helpful. 

6. *EPA registration number—from the pesticide label. 

7. *Total amount applied—list total amount of formulated product (pounds, ounces, 

quarts, gallons, etc.) used on the total area treated given in 3 above. 

8. *Crop or site—give the crop, commodity, stored product or site to which the 

pesticide was applied. 

9. Formulation—use liquid (L), emulsifiable concentrate (EC), wettable powder 

(WP), granules (G), dust (D), soluble powder (SP), dry flowables (DF), or pellets 

(P).Additives—indicate type and amount of any additives such as oils, spreaders, 

stickers, surfactants, wetting agents, detergents, or other adjuvants. 

10. Method of application—broadcast, band, pre-plant, pre-emergence, postemergence, 

directed, aerial, airblast, and method of incorporation (if any), and 

implement used. 

11. Stage of crop growth—use height in inches, number of leaves or other generally 

used description (tasseling, flowering, heading, etc.). 

12. Purpose of application—give specific names of target weeds, insects, diseases, 

or other reason. 

13. Stage of development of pest—for weeds, diseases and insects. List height of 

weeds, number of leaves; adult, larva, or nymph stage of insect; degree of 

infestation or percentage of plants infected. 


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14. Soil conditions—at time of treatment. 

15. Temperature—self-explanatory. 

16. Time of day—self-explanatory. 

17. Wind—self-explanatory. 

18. Cloud cover—self-explanatory. 

19. Effectiveness—indicate good, fair, or poor. It is advisable to sometimes leave 

untreated check strips. 

Follow the Keys to Pesticide Safety 

READ THE LABEL ON EACH PESTICIDE CONTAINER BEFORE EACH USE. 

Follow all instructions, heed all precautions, and use protective clothing and 

equipment as required. 

APPLY PESTICIDES ONLY AS DIRECTED. Follow label directions for time, 

rate, method and crop or site of application. 

RINSE PESTICIDE CONTAINERS AT THE TIME OF USE. Follow required 

triple-rinse or pressure-rinse procedures. 

STORE PESTICIDES IN THEIR ORIGINAL, LABELED CONTAINERS. Keep 

them out of the reach of children and irresponsible people. 

Field or site Location and ID 

NORTH 


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Master List 

Pesticide Spill Kit 

The pesticide spill kit shall contain the following: 

1 - 55-gallon open-head drum 

1 - 50-pound bag of absorbent material 

3 - 1-gallon jugs of household bleach 

1 - 1-gallon jug of liquid detergent 

1 - 24-inch pushbroom 

1 - square point "D" handle shovel 

1 - shop brush (dust pan brush) 

1 - dust pan 

12 - polyethylene bags w/ties 

Whenever any of the above items are used, they shall be cleaned and/or 

replaced. 


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Streams and wetlands must be protected in the event of an accidental spill of any 

size. Even diluted chemicals pose a threat to natural habitats when released in 

large amounts. Extra precautions must be taken when drawing water from 

streams or ponds. Antisiphoning devices must be used and be in good working 

order. Tank mixes should be prepared at least ¼ mile from water resources. If 

this is not possible, make sure the ground at the mixing site does not slope 

toward the water, or construct an earthen dike to prevent pesticides from flowing 

into bodies of water or drains. 


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Personal Protective Equipment Section 

Pesticides are necessary for agricultural production but potential hazards to users are 

not adequately emphasized. Accidents involving pesticides are usually due to improper 

handling, mixing, application of pesticides, or failure to use proper personal protective 

equipment and clothing. 

General Guidelines 

The minimum protection when working with pesticides is long sleeves, long pants, shoes 

and socks, rubber gloves, and splash-proof eye protection, regardless of the toxicity 

level of the pesticide. Rubber boots and a respirator are necessary when working with 

moderately or highly toxic pesticides. The EPA's recommendations include wearing a 

double layer of clothing. This can be accomplished by wearing coveralls over the long 

pants and longsleeve shirt, and rubber boots over the shoes and socks. 

Gloves 

The use of gloves is mandatory when working with highly toxic pesticides. It is 

recommended that only unlined rubber or neoprene (nitrile, etc.) gloves be used when 

handling or using all pesticides. Unlined gloves should be thoroughly washed (inside and 

outside) after each use. 

Gloves should be at least 12 inches 

long to provide adequate protection 

for wrists and the cuffs should be 

inside sleeves for most work. This 

will keep runoff pesticide from 

getting into the gloves. However 

when working overhead put the 

cuffs of gloves outside sleeves. 

Check rubber type gloves for leaks 

each time they are washed. Do this 

by filling gloves with water and fold 

the cuff over to put pressure on the 

water in the glove. If there are holes 

water will leak out. Discard gloves 

with leaks. 

NEVER USE CLOTH OR LEATHER GLOVES WHEN WORKING WITH PESTICIDES 

unless specified on the label. 

Goggles and Face Shields 

It is necessary to wear splash-proof goggles when working with pesticides. Not only can 

the pesticide be absorbed through the eyes but the acidity of a pesticide can cause 

permanent eye injuries also. Use goggles meeting or exceeding ANSI standard Z87.1, 

1968 estimate. When pouring or mixing concentrates it is preferable to use a full-face 

shield to protect the face from splashes. Always wash the goggles or face shield with 

soap and water after use. 


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Boots 

Unlined rubber or neoprene (nitrile, etc.) boots should be worn over work shoes or in 

place of work shoes when mixing or applying pesticides. Pull the legs of trousers over 

the tops of boots to help prevent spilled pesticide from getting inside boots. Wash boots 

with soap and water after each use. 

NEVER WEAR CLOTH OR LEATHER BOOTS WHEN MIXING, OR APPLYING 

PESTICIDES. Cloth or leather boots will absorb pesticides and allow the pesticide to 

contact the skin of the leg or foot and will be a source of residues causing chronic 

exposure. 

Headwear 

A waterproof hat should be worn when mixing or applying pesticides because pesticides 

can be readily absorbed through the scalp. The hat should have a brim to keep drift or 

splashes off ears and neck. Plastic safety hats are ideal for use with pesticides and 

should be washed in soap and water after each use. Cloth hats may absorb pesticides 

and contaminate the wearer. DO NOT USE CLOTH HATS. 

Respirators 

Respirators are designed to prevent inhaling toxic fumes and mists. They should be 

used when mixing or applying pesticides if the label specifies the need. Choose the 

correct cartridge for the type of pesticide being used. The manufacturer or supplier can 

provide guidance on selecting correct cartridges. 

Replace cartridges when the odor of the pesticide becomes noticeable or when 

breathing becomes difficult during use. The life of cartridges will vary with the 

concentration of pesticide in the air around the respirator breathing rate of the user 

temperature humidity and composition of the cartridge. 

Respirators SHOULD NOT be used in low oxygen atmospheres (below 19.5 percent 

oxygen). Respirators WILL NOT provide adequate protection for a person having a 

beard. Choose the model and make of respirator that provides a good seal between the 

face piece and the face to prevent pesticides from leaking into the respirator and being 

breathed. 

Always wash the face piece and straps in soap and water after each use. After drying 

place the respirator and cartridges in a clean plastic bag until they are needed again. 

Select respirators having the approval of NIOSH or MESA. 


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Personal Protective Equipment Policy Example 

Scope 

This section applies to all pesticide workers and handlers. 

Purpose 

To assure employees are protected from chemical, physical and biological hazards by 

the use of personal protective equipment (PPE). PPE is designed and selected to 

protect the body from absorption, inhalation, physical contact and extreme temperature 

hazards. 

Personal protective equipment includes, but is not limited to safety glasses, goggles, 

face shields, hard hats, gloves, safety-toe boots, respirators and earplugs/muffs. 

Supervisor's Responsibilities 

Supervisors assess workplaces to identify hazards that their employees are potentially 

exposed to during the course of their work. Hazard assessments are performed by 

observing work practices, interviewing employees and reviewing chemical material 

safety data sheets and tool/equipment manufacturer's instructions. 

Supervisors select PPE based on the types of hazards identified during the 

assessments, level of protection needed, fit and comfort. 

Supervisors are to ensure employees are provided with, and wear, PPE. 

Hazard assessments are to be conducted whenever new equipment, processes or 

chemicals are introduced or an injury or illness indicates the need for PPE. 

NOTE: Safety Officer or Supervisor conducts noise and respiratory protection hazard 

assessments. 

Training 

Supervisors ensure employees are trained in the proper use of PPE. Employees are to 

receive information and training about why and when PPE is needed; how to put on, 

remove and adjust PPE; the use and limits of PPE, and how to care for and inspect 

PPE. 

NOTE: Safety Officer or Supervisor conducts noise and respiratory protection training. 

Recordkeeping Requirements 

Supervisors document that hazard assessments have been conducted using copies of 

the certification form found following this section. 

Supervisors document training using copies of the certification form following this 

section. 

NOTE: Safety Officer or Supervisor documents noise and respiratory protection hazard 

assessments and training. 


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Personal Protective Equipment Training Certification 

________________________ 

Employee's name 

has been assigned and trained to use the following 

personal protective equipment when working in areas 

and/or tasks identified below: 

Area/Task PPE Required _ X Applicable Lines 

__ Eye/Face Protection 

__ Head Protection 

__ Hand Protection 

__ Hearing Protection 

__ Respiratory Protection 

__ Other:__________________ 

Area/Task PPE Required _ X Applicable Lines 

PPE Selected 

(Make and Model) 

PPE Selected 

(Make and Model) 

__ Eye/Face Protection 

__ Head Protection 

__ Hand Protection 

__ Hearing Protection 

__ Respiratory Protection 

__ Other:__________________ 

have received and understood the training on the PPE 

listed above. This training included the areas, tasks and 

I, 

hazards requiring PPE; how to properly put on, wear, and 

_________________________, take off the PPE; PPE selection criteria, and the proper 

care, inspection, maintenance, useful life and disposal of 

the PPE. 

Supervisor: Date(s) of Training: 


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Respiratory Protection Section 

General 

In the Respiratory Protection program, hazard assessment and selection of proper 

respiratory PPE is conducted in the same manner as for other types of PPE. In the 

control of those occupational diseases caused by breathing air contaminated with 

harmful dusts, fogs, fumes, mists, gases, smokes, sprays, or vapors, the primary 

objective shall be to prevent atmospheric contamination. 

This shall be accomplished as far as feasible by accepted engineering control measures 

(for example, enclosure or confinement of the operation, general and local ventilation, 

and substitution of less toxic materials). When effective engineering controls are not 

feasible, or while they are being instituted, appropriate respirators shall be used. 

References: OSHA Standards Respiratory Protection (29 CFR 1910.134) 

Why Respirators Are Needed 

Respirators protect against the inhalation of dangerous substances (vapors, fumes, dust, 

gases). They can also provide a separate air supply in a very hazardous situation. 

Some of the health hazards that respirators prevent include: 

• Lung damage 

• Respiratory diseases 

• Cancer and other illnesses. 

Respiratory Protection 

Responsibilities: 

The employer is responsible for, 

• Providing training in the 

use and care of respirators 

• Ensuring that equipment 

is adequate, sanitary, and 

reliable 

• Allowing employees to 

leave area if ill, for breaks, and 

to obtain parts 

• Fit testing 

• Providing annual medical evaluation 

• Providing a powered air-purifying respirator (PAPR) if an employee cannot wear 

a tight-fitting respirator 


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The employee is responsible for: 

• Properly using respirators 

• Maintaining respirator properly 

• Reporting malfunctions 

• Reporting medical changes 

Selection of Respiratory Protection 

When choosing the correct respiratory 

protection for your work environment, it is 

important to consider: 

• Identification of the substance or 

substances for which respiratory 

protection is necessary 

• A substance's material safety data sheet 

(MSDS) (it will state which type of 

respirator is most effective for the 

substance) 

• Activities of the workers 

• Hazards of each substance and its 

properties 

• Maximum levels of air contamination 

expected 

• Probability of oxygen deficiency 

• Period of time workers will need to use the respiratory protection devices 

• Capabilities and physical limitations of the device used 

Basic Types of Respirators 

Air-purifying or filtering respirators. Such respirators are used when there is enough 

oxygen (at least 19.5 percent) and contaminants are present below IDLH level. The 

respirator filters out or chemically "scrubs" contaminants, usually with a replaceable 

filter. Use color-coded filter cartridges or canisters for different types of contaminants. 

It's important to select the right filter for the situation. 

Air-supplying respirators. These respirators are required when air-purifying respirators 

aren't effective. Air-purifying respirators are not sufficient in the following settings: 

• When there is not enough oxygen 

• Confined spaces 

• When contaminants cannot be filtered out 

• When contaminants are at or above IDLH level. 


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Different kinds of Air-Supplying Respirators include 

• Those connected by hose to stationary air supply (air line) 

• Portable tank self-contained breathing apparatus (SCBA). 

The Importance of Correct Fit 

Even a tiny gap between the respirator and the face can allow contaminants to enter. 

Respirators should be comfortable and properly fitted. Proper fit includes: 

• Secure but not too tight 

• No slipping or pinching 

• Allowance for head movement and speech 

An OSHA-accepted qualitative fit test or quantitative fit test must be performed prior to 

an employee using any tight-fitting respirator. 

Tight-fitting respirators must be seal checked before each use by using positive- or 

negative-pressure check procedures or the manufacturer's instructions. 

Respirator Filters/Cartridges 

For protection against gases and vapors, the cartridges used for air-purifying respirators 

must be either equipped with an end-of-service-life indicator (ESLI), certified by NIOSH 

for the contaminant, or a cartridge change schedule has to be established. 

For protection against particulates, there are nine classes of filters (three levels of filter 

efficiency, each with three categories of resistance to filter efficiency degradation). 

Levels of filter efficiency are 95 percent, 99 percent, and 99.97 percent. Categories of 

resistance to filter efficiency degradation are labeled N, R, and P. 

Protection Factors 

The protection factor of a respirator is an expression of performance based on the ratio 

of two concentrations: The contaminant concentration outside the respirator to the 

contaminant concentration inside the respirator. 

Each class of respirator is also given an assigned protection factor (APF). The APF is a 

measure of the minimum anticipated level of respiratory protection that a properly 

functioning respirator or class of respirators would provide to a percentage of properly 

fitted and trained users. 

When a contaminant concentration is known, the APF can be used to estimate the 

concentration inside a particular type of respirator worn by a user. 


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Who Cannot Wear a Respirator? 

Respirator fit is essential. Employees must have a medical checkup to make sure they can 

wear respirators safely. Generally, respirators cannot be worn when a person: 

• Wears glasses or personal protective equipment that interferes with the seal of the 

face piece to the face of the user 

• Has facial hair that comes between the sealing surface of the face piece and the face 

or interferes with valve function 

• Has a breathing problem, such as asthma 

• Has a heart condition 

• Is heat sensitive 

Sometimes a person's facial features will not permit a good fit. Check with the supervisor or 

medical department if the fit is a problem. 

Checking for Damage 

Before each use, make sure there are no holes, tears, etc., in the respirator. Rubber parts 

can wear out and should be checked very carefully every time a respirator is used. Replace 

worn and damaged parts when necessary. Make sure air and oxygen cylinders are fully 

charged. 

Staying Prepared for Respirator Use 

Respirators are bulky and awkward, so getting used to them takes practice. Possible 

problems with wearing respirators may include heat exhaustion or heat stroke. Be alert for 

symptoms, use the "buddy system," and wear a lifeline or harness when necessary. Drink 

plenty of fluids and take frequent breaks. 

Poor maneuverability. Practice with respirators in narrow passages, on ladders, etc., if your 

use of respirators may be in these types of conditions. 

Using up the air supply. When a SCBA is in use, keep checking the gauges and listening for 

alarms; be ready to leave the area immediately if there is a problem. 

Panic. Remember the importance of staying calm in a hot, stressful, or awkward situation. 

Cleaning Respirators 

Respirators should be cleaned and disinfected after every use. Check the respirator for 

damage before putting it away; look for holes, cracks, deterioration, dented cartridges, etc. If 

any damage is found, it should be reported to a supervisor. Respirators stored for 

emergency use must be inspected monthly when not in use, as well as after each use. 

Respirators should be stored away from light, heat, cold, chemicals, and dust. Store 

respirators in a "normal" (natural, undistorted) position to hold their shape. Do not allow 

respirators to get crushed, folded, or twisted. 


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Overview 

OSHA requires that supervisors consult with employees and encourage their participation in 

the process safety management plan. In fact, managers must have a written plan of action 

for employee participation in process safety management. Employee participation is critical 

because; 

• Employees know a lot about the process they work on. 

• They play key roles in making sure that process operation is conducted safely. 

Operating Procedures 

Managers must furnish written operating procedures that clearly explain how to perform each 

covered process safely. The procedures must be accurate and must be written in language 

that employees can understand. Avoid technical jargon and, if necessary, supply 

translations. 

Operating procedures must include at least the following: 

• Operating steps for initial startup, normal and temporary operations, emergency 

shutdown (including when it's called for and who does it), emergency operations, 

normal shutdown, and startup after a turnaround or an emergency shutdown. 

• Operating limits, including what happens if workers don't conform to operating limits 

and how to avoid or correct such problems. 

• Safety and health considerations, such as chemical or other hazards, precautions to 

prevent exposure, quality and inventory control for chemicals, and what to do if an 

employee is exposed to a hazardous substance. 

• Safety systems and their functions, including up-to-date operating procedures and 

safe work practices. 


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Contractor Employees 

Process safety training and safety programs are also required for contractors who work onsite. 

Managers must check out the safety performance and programs of any contractors 

being considered for maintenance, repair, turnaround, major renovation, or specialty work on 

or around a process covered by the regulation. 

When a contractor is hired, the manager must provide the contractor with information on the 

hazards of the process the contractor will work on. To further ensure contractor safety, 

managers must also: 

• Provide the contractor with information on safe work practices for the process they're 

involved with and tell them what to do in an emergency. 

• Keep a log of contractor employees' injuries or illnesses related to their work in 

process areas. 

• Evaluate the contractor's performance to make sure they're living up to their safety 

obligations under the standard. 

The contractor has responsibilities, too. 

• Document that employees are trained to recognize hazards and to follow safe work 

practices on the job. 

• Make sure that the contractor's employees understand potential job-related hazards, 

are trained to work safely, and follow the safety rules of the facility in which they're 

working. 


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Respiratory Protection Program 

This paragraph requires the employer to develop and implement a written respiratory 

protection program with required worksite-specific procedures and elements for required 

respirator use. The program must be administered by a suitably trained program 

administrator. In addition, certain program elements may be required for voluntary use to 

prevent potential hazards associated with the use of the respirator. 

The Small Entity Compliance Guide contains criteria for the selection of a program 

administrator and a sample program that meets the requirements of this paragraph. Copies 

of the Small Entity Compliance Guide is available from the Occupational Safety and Health 

Administration's Office of Publications, Room N 3101, 200 Constitution Avenue, NW, 

Washington, DC, 20210 (202-219-4667). 

(c)(1) In any workplace where respirators are necessary to protect the health of the 

employee or whenever respirators are required by the employer, the employer shall establish 

and implement a written respiratory protection program with worksite-specific procedures. 

The program shall be updated as necessary to reflect those changes in workplace conditions 

that affect respirator use. The employer shall include in the program the following provisions 

of this section, as applicable: 

(c)(1)(i) Procedures for selecting respirators for use in the workplace; 

(c)(1)(ii) Medical evaluations of employees required to use respirators; 

(c)(1)(iii) Fit testing procedures for tight-fitting respirators; 

(c)(1)(iv) Procedures for proper use of 

respirators in routine and reasonably 

foreseeable emergency situations; 

(c)(1)(v) Procedures and schedules 

for cleaning, disinfecting, storing, 

inspecting, repairing, discarding, and 

otherwise maintaining respirators; 

(c)(1)(vi) Procedures to ensure 

adequate air quality, quantity, and flow 

of breathing air for atmospheresupplying 

respirators; 

(c)(1)(vii) Training of employees in the 

respiratory hazards to which they are 

potentially exposed during routine and 

emergency situations; 


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Example of Responsibilities 

All Employees shall follow the requirements of the Respiratory Protection Program. 

Management 

implement the requirements of this program 

provide a selection of respirators as required 

enforce all provisions of this program 

appoint a Specific Designated individual to conduct the respiratory protection program 

Administrative Department 

Review sanitation/storage procedures. 

ensure respirators are properly, stored, inspected and maintained. 

monitor compliance for this program. 

provide training for affected Employees. 

review compliance and ensure monthly inspection of all respirators. 

provide respirator fit testing. 

Designated Occupational Health Care Provider 

conducts medical aspects of program. 

Program Administrator 

Each Department will designate a program administrator who is qualified by appropriate 

training or experience that is commensurate with the complexity of the program to administer 

or oversee the respiratory protection program and conduct the required evaluations of 

program effectiveness. 

Voluntary Use of Respirators is Prohibited 

OSHA requires that voluntary use of respirators, when not required by the Employer, must be 

controlled as strictly as under required circumstances. To prevent violations of the 

Respiratory Protection Standard, Employees are not allowed voluntary use of their own or 

Employer supplied respirators of any type. 

Exception: Employees whose only use of respirators involves the voluntary use of filtering 

(non-sealing) face pieces (dust masks). 

See appendix D. 


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Program Evaluation 

Evaluations of the workplace are necessary to ensure that the written respiratory protection 

program is being properly implemented; this includes consulting with employees to ensure 

that they are using the respirators properly. Evaluations shall be conducted as necessary to 

ensure that the provisions of the current written program are being effectively implemented 

and that it continues to be effective. 

Program evaluation will include discussions with employees required to use respirators to 

assess the employees' views on program effectiveness and to identify any problems. 

Any problems that are identified during this assessment shall be corrected. Factors to be 

assessed include, but are not limited to: 

Respirator fit (including the ability to use the respirator without interfering with effective 

workplace performance); 

Appropriate respirator selection for the hazards to which the employee is exposed; 

Proper respirator use under the workplace conditions the employee encounters; and 

Proper respirator maintenance. 


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Recordkeeping 

The Employer will retain written information regarding medical evaluations, fit testing, and the 

respirator program. 

This information will facilitate employee involvement in the respirator program, assist the 

Employer in auditing the adequacy of the program, and provide a record for compliance 

determinations by OSHA. 

Training and Information 

Effective training for employees who are required to use respirators is essential. The training 

must be comprehensive, understandable, and recur annually and more often if necessary. 

Training will be provided prior to requiring the employee to use a respirator in the workplace. 

The training shall ensure that each employee can demonstrate knowledge of at least the 

following: 

Why the respirator is necessary and how improper fit, usage, or maintenance can 

compromise the protective effect of the respirator 

Limitations and capabilities of the respirator 

How to use the respirator effectively in emergency situations, including situations in which 

the respirator malfunctions 

How to inspect, put on and remove, use, and check the seals of the respirator 

What the procedures are for maintenance and storage of the respirator 

How to recognize medical signs and symptoms that may limit or prevent the effective use 

of respirators 

The general requirements of this program 

Retraining shall be conducted annually and when: 

changes in the workplace or the type of respirator render previous training obsolete 

inadequacies in the employee's knowledge or use of the respirator indicate that the 

employee has not retained the requisite understanding or skill 

other situations arise in which retraining appears necessary to ensure safe respirator use 

Training is divided into the following sections: 

Classroom Instruction 

1. Overview of the Employer’s Respiratory Protection Program & OSHA Standard 

2. Respiratory Protection Safety Procedures 

3. Respirator Selection 

4. Respirator Operation and Use 

5. Why the respirator is necessary 

6. How improper fit, usage, or maintenance can compromise the protective effect. 

7. Limitations and capabilities of the respirator. 

8. How to use the respirator effectively in emergency situations, including respirator 

malfunctions 

9. How to inspect, put on and remove, use, and check the seals of the respirator. 

10. What the procedures are for maintenance and storage of the respirator. 

11. How to recognize medical signs and symptoms that may limit or prevent the effective use 

of respirators. 

12. Change out schedule and procedure for air purifying respirators. 


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Fit Testing- Hands-on Respirator Training (see appendix A for more 

information) 

1. Respirator Inspection 

2. Respirator cleaning and sanitizing 

3. Record Keeping 

4. Respirator Storage 

5. Respirator Fit Check 

6. Emergencies 

Basic Respiratory Protection Safety Procedures 

1. Only authorized and trained Employees may use Respirators. Those Employees may use 

only the Respirator that they have been trained on and properly fitted to use. 

2. Only Physically Qualified Employees may be trained and authorized to use Respirators. A 

pre-authorization and annual certification by a qualified physician will be required and 

maintained. Any changes in an Employees health or physical characteristics will be reported 

to the Occupational Health Department and will be evaluated by a qualified physician. 

3. Only the proper prescribed respirator or SCBA may be used for the job or work 

environment. Air cleansing respirators may be worn in work environments when oxygen 

levels are between 19.5 percent to 23.5 percent and when the appropriate air cleansing 

canister, as determined by the Manufacturer and approved by NIOSH or MESA, for the 

known hazardous substance is used. SCBAs will be worn in oxygen deficient and oxygen 

rich environments (below 19.5 percent or above 23.5 percent oxygen). 

4. Employees working in environments where a sudden release of a hazardous substance is 

likely will wear an appropriate respirator for that hazardous substance (example: Employees 

working in an ammonia compressor room will have an ammonia APR respirator on their 

person.). 

5. Only SCBAs will be used in oxygen deficient environments, environments with an 

unknown hazardous substance or unknown quantity of a known hazardous substance or any 

environment that is determined "Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health" (IDLH). 

6. Employees with respirators loaned on "permanent check out" will be responsible for the 

sanitation, proper storage and security. Respirators damaged by normal wear will be 

repaired or replaced by the Employer when returned. 

7. The last Employee using a respirator and/or SCBA that are available for general use will 

be responsible for proper storage and sanitation. Monthly and after each use, all respirators 

will be inspected with documentation to assure its availability for use. 

8. All respirators will be located in a clean, convenient and sanitary location. 

9. In the event that Employees must enter a confined space, work in environments with 

hazardous substances that would be dangerous to life or health should an RPE fail (a SCBA 

is required in this environment), and/or conduct a HAZMAT entry, a "buddy system" detail 

will be used with a Safety Watchman with constant voice, visual or signal line 

communication. Employees will follow the established Emergency Response Program and/or 

Confined Space Entry Program when applicable. 

10. Management will establish and maintain surveillance of jobs and work place conditions 

and degree of Employee exposure or stress to maintain the proper procedures and to 

provide the necessary RPE. 

11. Management will establish and maintain safe operation procedures for the safe use of 

RPE with strict enforcement and disciplinary action for failure to follow all general and 

specific safety rules. Standard Operation Procedures for General RPE use will be maintained 

as an attachment to the Respiratory Protection Program and Standard Operation Procedures 

for RPE use under emergency response situations will be maintained as an attachment to 

the Emergency Response Program. 


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Selection of Respirators 

The Employer is responsible for and needs to have evaluated the respiratory hazard(s) in 

each workplace, identified relevant workplace and user factors and has based respirator 

selection on these factors. Also included are estimates of employee exposures to respiratory 

hazard(s) and an identification of the contaminant's chemical state and physical form. 

This selection has included appropriate protective respirators for use in IDLH atmospheres, 

and has limited the selection and use of air-purifying respirators. All selected respirators are 

NIOSH-certified. 

Filter Classifications - These classifications are marked on the filter or filter package 

N-Series: Not Oil Resistant 

Approved for non-oil particulate contaminants 

Examples: dust, fumes, mists not containing oil 

R-Series: Oil Resistant 

Approved for all particulate contaminants, 

including those containing oil 

Examples: dusts, mists, fumes 

Time restriction of 8 hours when oils are present 

P-Series: Oil Proof 

Approved for all particulate contaminants including those containing oil 

Examples: dust, fumes, mists 

See Manufacturer's time use restrictions on packaging 

Respirators for IDLH atmospheres. 

The following respirators will be used in IDLH atmospheres: 

A full face piece pressure demand SCBA certified by NIOSH for a minimum service life of 

thirty minutes, or 

A combination full face piece pressure demand supplied-air respirator (SAR) with 

auxiliary self-contained air supply. 

Respirators provided only for escape from IDLH atmospheres shall be NIOSH-certified 

for escape from the atmosphere in which they will be used. 

Respirators for atmospheres that are not IDLH. 

The respirators selected shall be adequate to protect the health of the employee and 

ensure compliance with all other OSHA statutory and regulatory requirements, under 

routine and reasonably foreseeable emergency situations. The respirator selected 

shall be appropriate for the chemical state and physical form of the contaminant. 

Identification of Filters & Cartridges 

All filters and cartridges shall be labeled and color coded with the NIOSH approval label and 

the label must not be removed and remain legible. A change out schedule for filters and 

canisters has been developed to ensure these elements of the respirators remain effective. 


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Respirator Filter & Canister Replacement 

An important part of the Respiratory Protection Program includes identifying the useful life of 

canisters and filters used on air-purifying respirators. Each filter and canister shall be 

equipped with an end-of-service-life indicator (ESLI) certified by NIOSH for the contaminant; 

or 

If there is no ESLI appropriate for conditions, a change schedule for canisters and cartridges 

that is based on objective information or data that will ensure that canisters and cartridges 

are changed before the end of their service life. 

Unacceptable maintenance and storage. (OSHA Violation) 

Filter & Cartridge Change Schedule 

Stock of spare filters and cartridges shall be maintained to allow immediate change when 

required or desired by the employee. 

Cartridges shall be changed based on the most limiting factor below: 

Prior to expiration date 

Manufacturers recommendations for the specific use and environment 

After each use 

When requested by employee 

When contaminate odor is detected 

When restriction to air flow has occurred as evidenced by increase effort by user to 

breathe normally 

Cartridges shall remain in their original sealed packages until needed for immediate use 

Filters shall be changed on the most limiting factor below: 

Prior to expiration date 

Manufacturers recommendations for the specific use and environment 

When requested by employee 

When contaminate odor is detected 

When restriction to air flow has occurred as evidenced by increase effort by user to 

breathe normally 

When discoloring of the filter media is evident 

Filters shall remain in their original sealed package until needed for immediate use. 


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Respiratory Protection Schedule by Job and Working Condition 

The Employer needs to maintain a Respiratory Protection Schedule by Job and Working 

Condition. This schedule is provided to each authorized and trained 

Employee. The Schedule provides the following information: 

1. Job/Working Conditions 

2. Work Location 

3. Hazards Present 

4. Type of Respirator or SCBA Required 

5. Type of Filter/Canister Required 

6. Location of Respirator or SCBA 

7. Filter/Cartridge change out schedule 

The schedule will be reviewed and updated at least annually and 

whenever any changes are made in the work environments, machinery, 

equipment, or processes or if different respirator models are introduced or existing models 

are removed. 

Permanent respirator schedule assignments are: 

Each person who engages in welding will have their own Employer provided dust-mist-fume 

filter APR. This respirator will be worn during all welding operations. 

Physical and Medical Qualifications 

Records of medical evaluations must be retained and made available in accordance with 29 

CFR 1910.1020. 

Medical evaluation required 

Using a respirator may place a physiological burden on employees that varies with the type 

of respirator worn, the job and workplace conditions in which the respirator is used, and the 

medical status of the employee. The Employer is required to provide a medical evaluation to 

determine the employee's ability to use a respirator before the employee is fit tested or 

required to use the respirator in the workplace. 

Medical evaluation procedures 

The employee will be provided a medical questionnaire by the designated Occupational 

Health Care Provider 


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Follow-up Medical Examination 

The Employer shall ensure that a follow-up medical examination is provided for an employee 

who gives a positive response to any question among questions in Part B of the 

questionnaire or whose initial medical examination demonstrates the need for a follow-up 

medical examination. The follow-up medical examination shall include any medical tests, 

consultations, or diagnostic procedures that the Physician deems necessary to make a final 

determination. 

Administration of the medical questionnaire and examinations 

The medical questionnaire and examinations shall be administered confidentially during the 

employee's normal working hours or at a time and place convenient to the employee. The 

medical questionnaire shall be administered in a manner that ensures that the employee 

understands its content. The Employer shall provide the employee with an opportunity to 

discuss the questionnaire and examination results with the Physician. 

Supplemental information for the Physician. 

The following information must be provided to the Physician before the Physician makes a 

recommendation concerning an employee's ability to use a respirator 

The type and weight of the respirator to be used by the employee 

The duration and frequency of respirator use (including use for rescue and escape) 

The expected physical work effort 

Additional protective clothing and equipment to be worn 

Temperature and humidity extremes that may be encountered 

Any supplemental information provided previously to the Physician regarding an 

employee need not be provided for a subsequent medical evaluation if the information 

and the Physician remain the same 

The Employer has provided the Physician with a copy of the written respiratory protection 

program and a copy of the OSHA Standard 1910.134 


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Medical Determination 

In determining the employee's ability to use a respirator, the Employer shall: 

Obtain a written recommendation regarding the employee's ability to use the respirator 

from the Physician. The recommendation shall provide only the following information. 

Any limitations on respirator use related to the medical condition of the employee, or 

relating to the workplace conditions in which the respirator will be used, including whether 

or not the employee is medically able to use the respirator. 

The need, if any, for follow-up medical evaluations. 

A statement that the Physician has provided the employee with a copy of the Physician's 

written recommendation. 

If the respirator is a negative pressure respirator and the Physician finds a medical 

condition that may place the employee's health at increased risk if the respirator is used, 

the Employer shall provide an APR if the Physician's medical evaluation finds that the 

employee can use such a respirator; if a subsequent medical evaluation finds that the 

employee is medically able to use a negative pressure respirator, then the Employer is no 

longer required to provide an APR. 

Additional Medical Evaluations 

At a minimum, the Employer shall provide additional medical evaluations that comply with the 

requirements of this section if: 

An employee reports medical signs or symptoms that are related to ability to use a 

respirator. 

A Physician, supervisor, or the respirator program administrator informs the Employer 

that an employee needs to be reevaluated. 

Information from the respiratory protection program, including observations made during 

fit testing and program evaluation, indicates a need for employee reevaluation. 

A change occurs in workplace conditions (e.g., physical work effort, protective clothing, 

and temperature) that may result in a substantial increase in the physiological burden 

placed on an employee. 

Respirator Fit Testing (see Appendix A for more information) 

Before an employee is required to use any respirator with a negative or positive pressure 

tight-fitting face piece, the employee must be fit tested with the same make, model, style, and 

size of respirator that will be used. The Employer shall ensure that an employee using a 

tight-fitting face piece respirator is fit tested prior to initial use of the respirator, whenever a 

different respirator face piece (size, style, model or make) is used, and at least annually 

thereafter. 

The Employer has established a record of the qualitative and quantitative fit tests 

administered to employees including: 

The name or identification of the employee tested 

Type of fit test performed 

Specific make, model, style, and size of respirator tested 

Date of test 

The pass/fail results for QLFTs or the fit factor and strip chart recording or other recording 

of the test results for QNFTs 

Additional fit tests will be conducted whenever the employee reports, or the Employer, 

Physician, supervisor, or program administrator makes visual observations of, changes in the 

employee's physical condition that could affect respirator fit. Such conditions include, but are 


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not limited to, facial scarring, dental changes, cosmetic surgery, or an obvious change in 

body weight. If after passing a QLFT or QNFT, the employee notifies the Employer’s 

program administrator, supervisor, or Physician that the fit of the respirator is unacceptable, 

the employee shall be given a reasonable opportunity to select a different respirator face 

piece and to be retested. 

Types of Fit Tests 

The fit test shall be administered using an OSHA-accepted QLFT or QNFT protocol. The 

OSHA-accepted QLFT and QNFT protocols and procedures are contained in Appendix A of 

OSHA Standard 1910.134. 

QLFT may only be used to fit test negative pressure air-purifying respirators that must 

achieve a fit factor of 100 or less. 

If the fit factor, as determined through an OSHA-accepted QNFT protocol, is equal to or 

greater than 100 for tight-fitting half face pieces, or equal to or greater than 500 for tightfitting 

full face pieces, the QNFT has been passed with that respirator. 

Fit testing of tight-fitting atmosphere-supplying respirators and tight-fitting powered airpurifying 

respirators shall be accomplished by performing quantitative or qualitative fit 

testing in the negative pressure mode, regardless of the mode of operation (negative or 

positive pressure) that is used for respiratory protection. 

Qualitative fit testing of these respirators shall be accomplished by temporarily converting 

the respirator user's actual face piece into a negative pressure respirator with appropriate 

filters, or by using an identical negative pressure air-purifying respirator face piece with 

the same sealing surfaces as a surrogate for the atmosphere-supplying or powered airpurifying 

respirator face piece. 

Quantitative fit testing of these respirators shall be accomplished by modifying the face 

piece to allow sampling inside the face piece in the breathing zone of the user, midway 

between the nose and mouth. This requirement shall be accomplished by installing a 

permanent sampling probe onto a surrogate face piece, or by using a sampling adapter 

designed to temporarily provide a means of sampling air from inside the face piece. 

Any modifications to the respirator face piece for fit testing shall be completely removed, 

and the face piece restored to NIOSH approved configuration, before that face piece can 

be used in the workplace. 

Fit test records shall be retained for respirator users until the next fit test is administered. 

Written materials required to be retained shall be made available upon request to affected 

employees. 

Respirator Operation and Use 

Respirators will only be used following the respiratory protection safety procedures 

established in this program. The Operations and Use Manuals for each type of respirator will 

be maintained by the Program Administrator and be available to all qualified users. 

Surveillance by the direct supervisor shall be maintained of work area conditions and degree 

of employee exposure or stress. When there is a change in work area conditions or degree 

of employee exposure or stress that may affect respirator effectiveness, the Employer shall 

reevaluate the continued effectiveness of the respirator. 


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For continued protection of respirator users, the following general use rules apply: 

Users shall not remove respirators while in a hazardous environment. 

Respirators are to be stored in sealed containers out of harmful atmospheres. 

Store respirators away from heat and moisture. 

Store respirators such that the sealing area does not become distorted or warped. 

Store respirator such that the face piece is protected. 

Face piece seal protection. 

The Employer does not permit respirators with tight-fitting face pieces to be worn by 

employees who have: 

Facial hair that comes between the sealing surface of the face piece and the face or that 

interferes with valve function; or 

Any condition that interferes with the face-to-face piece seal or valve function. 

If an employee wears corrective glasses or goggles or other personal protective equipment, 

the Employer shall ensure that such equipment is worn in a manner that does not interfere 

with the seal of the face piece to the face of the user. 

Continuing Effectiveness of Respirators 

The Employer shall ensure the following that employees leave the respirator use area: 

To wash their faces and respirator face pieces as necessary to prevent eye or skin 

irritation associated with respirator use 

If they detect vapor or gas breakthrough, changes in breathing resistance, or leakage of 

the face piece 

To replace the respirator or the filter, cartridge, or canister elements. 

If the employee detects vapor or gas breakthrough, changes in breathing resistance, or 

leakage of the face piece, the Employer will replace or repair the respirator before allowing 

the employee to return to the work area. 

Procedures for IDLH Atmospheres 

For all IDLH atmospheres, the Employer shall ensure that: 

One employee or, when needed, more than one employee is located outside the IDLH 

atmosphere 

Visual, voice, or signal line communication is maintained between the employee(s) in the 

IDLH atmosphere and the employee(s) located outside the IDLH atmosphere 

The employee(s) located outside the IDLH atmosphere are trained and equipped to 

provide effective emergency rescue 

The Employer or designee is notified before the employee(s) located outside the IDLH 

atmosphere enter the IDLH atmosphere to provide emergency rescue 

The Employer or designee authorized to do so by the Employer, once notified, provides 

necessary assistance appropriate to the situation 

Employee(s) located outside the IDLH atmospheres will be equipped with: 

Pressure demand or other positive pressure SCBAs, or a pressure demand or other 

positive pressure supplied-air respirator with auxiliary SCBA; and either 

Appropriate retrieval equipment for removing the employee(s) who enter(s) these 

hazardous atmospheres where retrieval equipment would contribute to the rescue of the 

employee(s) and would not increase the overall risk resulting from entry; or 

Equivalent means for rescue where retrieval equipment is not required. 


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Cleaning and Disinfecting (See Appendix B for more information) 

The Employer shall provide each respirator user with a respirator that is clean, sanitary, and 

in good working order. The Employer shall ensure that respirators are cleaned and 

disinfected using the Standard Operating Procedure SOP: Cleaning and Disinfecting. 

The respirators shall be cleaned and disinfected when: 

Respirators issued for the exclusive use of an employee shall be cleaned and disinfected 

as often as necessary to be maintained in a sanitary condition. 

Respirators issued to more than one employee shall be cleaned and disinfected before 

being worn by different individuals. 

Respirators maintained for emergency use shall be cleaned and disinfected after each 

use. 

Respirators used in fit testing and training shall be cleaned and disinfected after each 

use. 

Cleaning and Storage of respirators assigned to specific employees is the responsibility of 

that Employee. 

Respirator Inspection 

All respirators/SCBAs, both available for "General 

Use" and those on "Permanent Check-out", will be 

inspected after each use and at least monthly. Should 

any defects be noted, the respirator/SCBA will be taken 

to the program Administrator. Damaged Respirators 

will be either repaired or replaced. The inspection of 

respirators loaned on "Permanent Check-out" is the 

responsibility of that trained Employee. 

Respirators shall be inspected as follows: 

All respirators used in routine situations shall be 

inspected before each use and during cleaning. 

All respirators maintained for use in emergency 

situations shall be inspected at least monthly and in 

accordance with the manufacturer's 

recommendations, and shall be checked for proper 

function before and after each use. 

Emergency escape-only respirators shall be 

inspected before being carried into the workplace 

for use. 

Respirator inspections include the following: 

A check of respirator function, tightness of connections, and the condition of the various 

parts including, but not limited to, the face piece, head straps, valves, connecting tube, 

and cartridges, canisters or filters. 

Check of elastomeric parts for pliability and signs of deterioration. 

Self-contained breathing apparatus shall be inspected monthly. Air and oxygen cylinders 

shall be maintained in a fully charged state and shall be recharged when the pressure 

falls to 90% of the manufacturer's recommended pressure level. The Employer shall 

determine that the regulator and warning devices function properly. 


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For Emergency Use Respirators the additional requirements apply: 

Certify the respirator by documenting the date the inspection was performed, the name 

(or signature) of the person who made the inspection, the findings, required remedial 

action, and a serial number or other means of identifying the inspected respirator. 

Provide this information on a tag or label that is attached to the storage compartment for 

the respirator, is kept with the respirator, or is included in inspection reports stored as 

paper or electronic files. This information shall be maintained until replaced following a 

subsequent certification. 

Respirator Storage 

Respirators are to be stored as follows: 

All respirators shall be stored to protect them from damage, contamination, dust, sunlight, 

extreme temperatures, excessive moisture, and damaging chemicals, and they shall be 

packed or stored to prevent deformation of the face piece and exhalation valve. 

Emergency Respirators shall be: 

Kept accessible to the work area; 

Stored in compartments or in covers that are clearly marked as containing emergency 

respirators; and 

Stored in accordance with any applicable manufacturer instructions. 

Repair of Respirators 

Respirators that fail an inspection or are otherwise found to be defective will be removed 

from service to be discarded, repaired or adjusted in accordance with the following 

procedures: 

Repairs or adjustments to respirators are to be made only by persons appropriately 

trained to perform such operations and shall use only the respirator manufacturer's 

NIOSH-approved parts designed for the respirator; 

Repairs shall be made according to the manufacturer's recommendations and 

specifications for the type and extent of repairs to be performed; and 

Reducing and admission valves, regulators, and alarms shall be adjusted or repaired only 

by the manufacturer or a technician trained by the manufacturer. 

Breathing Air Quality and Use 

The Employer shall ensure that compressed air, compressed oxygen, liquid air, and liquid 

oxygen used for respiration accords with the following specifications: 

Compressed and liquid oxygen shall meet the United States Pharmacopoeia 

requirements for medical or breathing oxygen; and 

Compressed breathing air shall meet at least the requirements for Grade D breathing air 

described in ANSI/Compressed Gas Association Commodity Specification for Air, G-7.1- 

1989, to include: 

Oxygen content (v/v) of 19.5-23.5%; 

Hydrocarbon (condensed) content of 5 milligrams per cubic meter of air or less; 

Carbon monoxide (CO) content of 10 ppm or less; 

Carbon dioxide content of 1,000 ppm or less; and 

Lack of noticeable odor. 

Compressed oxygen will not be used in atmosphere-supplying respirators that have 

previously used compressed air. 

Oxygen concentrations greater than 23.5% are used only in equipment designed for 

oxygen service or distribution. 


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Cylinders used to supply breathing air to respirators meet the following requirements. 

Cylinders are tested and maintained as prescribed in the Shipping Container 

Specification Regulations of the Department of Transportation (49 CFR part 173 and part 

178). 

Cylinders of purchased breathing air have a certificate of analysis from the supplier that 

the breathing air meets the requirements for Grade D breathing air. 

Moisture content in breathing air cylinders does not exceed a dew point of -50 deg. F (- 

45.6 deg. C) at 1 atmosphere pressure. 

Breathing air couplings are incompatible with outlets for nonrespirable worksite air or 

other gas systems. No asphyxiating substance shall be introduced into breathing air 

lines. 

Breathing gas containers shall be marked in accordance with the NIOSH respirator 

certification standard, 42 CFR part 84. 

Summary 

Following this training session, employees should: 

• Wear the respirator assigned to him or her. 

• Always check for fit before wearing. 

• Always check for damage and deterioration before wearing. 

• Know when to replace canisters and cartridges. 

• Practice maneuvering with a respirator. 

• Store carefully in the proper location. 


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(i) Personal protective equipment (PPE) means devices and apparel that are worn to protect 

the body from contact with pesticides or pesticide residues, including, but not limited to, 

coveralls, chemical- resistant suits, chemical-resistant gloves, chemical-resistant footwear, 

respiratory protection devices, chemical-resistant aprons, chemical-resistant headgear, and 

protective eyewear. 

(ii) Long-sleeved shirts, short-sleeved shirts, long pants, short pants, shoes, socks, and other 

items of work clothing are not considered personal protective equipment for the purposes of 

this section and are not subject to the requirements of this section, although pesticide 

labeling may require that such work clothing be worn during some activities. 

(iii) When "chemical-resistant" personal protective equipment is specified by the product 

labeling, it shall be made of material that allows no measurable movement of the pesticide 

being used through the material during use. 

(iv) When "waterproof" personal protective equipment is specified by the product labeling, it 

shall be made of material that allows no measurable movement of water or aqueous 

solutions through the material during use. 

(v) When a "chemical-resistant suit" is specified by the product labeling, it shall be a loosefitting, 

one- or two-piece, chemical-resistant garment that covers, at a minimum, the entire 

body except head, hands, and feet. 

(vi) When "coveralls" are specified by the product labeling, they shall be a loose-fitting, one- 

or two-piece garment, such as a cotton or cotton and polyester coverall, that covers, at a 

minimum, the entire body except head, hands, and feet. The pesticide product labeling may 

specify that the coveralls be worn over a layer of clothing. If a chemical-resistant suit is 

substituted for coveralls, it need not be worn over a layer of clothing. 


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Information Centers 

The OPPTS Chemical Library supports programs under the Toxic Substances Control Act 

(TSCA) and the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA). The 

Library's special collections include works on specialty subjects such as pollution prevention, 

biotechnology, and risk assessment. 

A list of other libraries in the EPA National Library Network 

OPP's Freedom of Information Act site provides information on FOIA and procedures for 

requesting a document from the EPA through the Act. 

The OPP Public Regulatory Docket provides the public with access to pesticide related 

information produced by the EPA. Three individual dockets--Federal Register, Special 

Review, and Special Programs dockets--house regulatory notices, background documents 

and public comments on OPP activities. 

The National Service Center for Environmental Publications (NSCEP) is a central repository 

for all EPA documents with over 5500 titles in paper and/or electronic format, available for 

distribution. You can browse and search the National Publications Catalog and order EPA 

Publications online or by telephone at 1-800/490-9198. 

Resources 

Government Agencies 

CDC, Center for Disease Control & Epidemiology http://www.cdc.gov/ 

CPSC, Consumer Product Safety Commission http://www.cpsc.gov/ 

EPA-OAR, EPA Office of Air & Radiation http://www.epa.gov/oar/ 

EPA-OPP, EPA Office of Pesticide Programs http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/ 

FDA, Food and Drug Administration http://www.fda.gov 

NCID, National Center for Infectious Disease http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/ncid.htm 

NCSICP, North Carolina Statewide Infection Control Program 

http://www.unc.edu/depts/sicp/ 

NIH, National Institutes of Health http://www.nih.gov/index.html 

NTP, National Toxicology Program http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov/default.html/ 

OSHA, Occupational Safety and Health Administration http://www.osha.gov 

USDA, United States Department of Agriculture, http://www.usda.gov 

Educational/Research Groups 

ChemFinder, Cambridge Software http://chemfinder.cambridgesoft.com/ 

EXTOXNET, Extension Toxicology Network http://ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet/ 

NPIC, National Pesticide Information Center http://ace.orst.edu/info/nptn/ 

Chemicals 

Emergency Care Information (*Alcohols): http://www.embbs.com/cr/alc/alc.html 

Ethylene Oxide: http://ntp-server.niehs.nih.gov/htdocs/ARC/ARC_RAC/Ethyleneoxide.html 

Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Ethylene Oxide: http://ntpserver.niehs.nih.gov/htdocs/LT-studies/tr326.html 

Formaldehyde: http://www.pp.okstate.edu/ehs/training/oshafhyd.htm 

TR-490 Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Glutaraldehyde: http://ntpserver.niehs.nih.gov/htdocs/LT-studies/tr490.html 


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(*Hypochlorites & Chlorine) Use of Bleach in Prevention of Transmission of HIV in 

Health Care Settings: http://www.cdc.gov/od/ohs/biosfty/bleachiv.htm 

Chemical Searches 

Chemfinder Webserver: http://chemfinder.camsoft.com/ 

EXTOXNET http://ace.ace.orst.edu/info/extoxnet 

Various Factsheets http://www.state.nj.us/health/eoh/rtkweb/rtkhsfs.htm 

Bloodborne Pathogen Standard 

OSHA Occupational Safety and Health Standards 1910: http://www.oshaslc.gov/OshStd_toc/OSHA_Std_toc_1910.html 

OSHA Bloodborne Pathogen Standard 1910.1030: http://www.oshaslc.gov/OshStd_data/1910_1030.html 

Interpretation-Compliance Letter, Bleach Solutions: 

http://www.osha.gov/OshDoc/Interp_data/I19920728A.html 

Bloodborne Pathogens and Acute Care Facilities (Many regional contacts): 

http://www.osha-slc.gov/Publications/OSHA3128/osha3128.html 

Disinfection MSDS: 

http://www.pp.okstate.edu/ehs/modules/msds.htm 

Pathogens 

All the Virology on the WWW: http://www.tulane.edu/~dmsander/garryfavweb.html 

The Bad Bug Book: http://vm.cfsan.fda.gov/~mow/intro.html 


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Plant / Animal Abbreviations 

A - adjective 

alt. - alternative name (synonym) 

AS. - Anglo-Saxon 

Comb. Form. - Combining form 

Dan. - Danish 

Dim. - diminutive 

E. - English 

esp. - especially 

Fr. - French 

fr. - from 

G. - German 

Gael. - Gaelic 

Goth. - gothic 

Gr. - Greek 

Icel. - Icelandic 

i.e. - for example 

Ir. - Irish 

It. - Italian 

L. - Latin 

LL. - Low Latin, Late Latin 

MD. - Middle Dutch 

ME. - Middle English 

n. - noun 

NL. - New Latin 

OE. - Old English 

O.Fr. - Old French 

OHG. - Old High German 

ON. - Old Norse 

perh. - perhaps 

pl. - plural 

pp. - past participle 

prob. - probably 

pres. part. - present participle 

Scand. - Scandinavian 

Skt. - Sanskrit 

Sp. - Spanish 

specif. - specifically 

Sw. - Swedish 

vt. - verb transitive 

W. - Welsh 


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Prickly Pear Cactus 

Prickly pear cactus represents about a dozen species of the Opuntia genus (Family 

Cactaceae) in the North American deserts. All have flat, fleshy pads that look like large leaves. 

The pads are actually modified branches or stems that serve several functions -- water storage, 

photosynthesis and flower production. Chollas are also members of the Opuntia genus but have 

cylindrical, jointed stems rather than flat pads. 

Like other cactus, most prickly pears and chollas have large spines -- actually modified leaves -- 

growing from tubercles -- small, wart-like projections -- on their stems. But members of the 

Opuntia genus are unique because of their clusters of fine, tiny, barbed spines called glochids. 

Found just above the cluster of regular spines, glochids are yellow or red in color and detach 

easily from the pads. Glochids are often difficult to see and more difficult to remove, once lodged 

in the skin. 

Prickly pear cactus are found in all of the deserts of the American 

Southwest, with different species having adapted to different locale 

and elevation ranges. Most require coarse, well-drained soil in dry, 

rocky flats or slopes. But some prefer mountain pinyon/juniper 

forests, while others require steep, rocky slopes in mountain foothills. 

Description 

Most prickly pear cactus have yellow, red or purple flowers, even 

among the same species. They vary in height from less than a foot 

(Plains, Hedgehog, Tuberous) to 6 or 7 feet (Texas, Santa Rita, 

Pancake). Pads can vary in width, length, shape and color. The 

Beavertail, Santa Rita and Blind Pear are regarded as spineless, but 

all have glochids. 

In addition to the North American native prickly pear cactus, there 

are many varieties, non-native imports and hybrids, so identification 

can often be difficult. 


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Weed and Plant Glossary 

Abaxial – a. (L. ab, from; axis, axle) that surface of any structure which is remote or turned away 

from the axis, such as the lower surface of a leaf. 

Absorption - The process by which a filter media traps unwanted molecules. 

Acaulescent - a. (Gr. a, without; kaulos, stalk) having no stem or seemingly without a stem. 

Accessory flower parts - Sepal and petal organs found on flowers. The sepals and petals are 

not essential for pollination, but may aid in attracting insects or other organisms. 

Achene - n. (Gr. a, not; chainein, to gape) any small, dry fruit with one seed whose outer 

covering (pericarp) does not burst when ripe. 

Acicular - a. (L. acicula, a small needle) slender and pointed; needle-like with a sharp point. 

Acidic - Water with a pH of less than 7. 

Acropetal - a. (Gr. akros, summit; L. petere, to seek) developing upward from the base toward 

the apex. 

Acrylic - A plastic material used to construct fish tanks, filters and accessories. 

Actinomorphic - a. (Gr. aktis, ray; morphe, form) descriptive of a flower or set of flower parts 

which can be cut through the center into equal and similar parts along two or more planes; having 

radial symmetry. 

Aculeus - n. (L. aculeus, prickle) a prickle growing from bark. pl. aculei. 

Acumen - n. (L. acumen, a point, a sting) the point of an acuminate leaf. 

Acuminate - a. drawn out into a long point; tapering point. 

Acute - a. (L. acutus, sharpened) sharp at the end; ending in a sharp point. 

Adaxial - a. (L. ad, to; axis, axle) pertaining to the side of an organ toward the axis, such as the 

upper surface of a leaf. 

Adipose Fin - A small fin located behind the dorsal fin and in front of the caudal fin. 

Adnate - a. (L. adnatus, to be born, to grow to) fusion of unlike structures or parts. 

Adsorption - The process by which filter media attracts unwanted molecules to its surface via a 

chemical charge. 

Adventitious - a. (L. adventitius, extraneous) plant structures or tissue occurring in an abnormal 

position. 

Adventitious plant - Able to exist either on land or in the water. 

Adventitious root - Root which develops from the node of a stem or similar organ, such as a 

Rhizome, Stolan or runner. 

Adventive - a. (L. advenire, to arrive) a plant that is not native to the environment. 

Aerenchyma - n. (Gr. aer, air; enchyma, an infusion) parenchyma tissue with large and abundant 

intercellular air spaces; air-storing tissue; resembles the tissue of cork. 

Aerobic - An organism that needs oxygen to survive. 

Aggregate - a. (L. ad, to; gregare, to collect into a flock) crowded into a cluster; a number of 

separate fruits from a single flower aggregated together; an aggregate flower is formed by a 

cluster of carples. 

Airstone - A device that attaches to the air pump to create various bubble effects. 

Alimentary canal - The tube of the digestive system through which food passes; where digestion 

takes place. 

Alkaline - Water with a pH between 7 and 14. Also known as Basic. 

Allele - n. (Gr. allelon, one another) one of a pair or more of alternative hereditary characters; a 

gene which can occupy the same locus as another gene in a particular chromosome. 

Allelochemicals - compounds that have an allelopathic effect. 

Allelopathy - n. (Gr. allelon, one another; pathos, suffering) the influence or effect of one living 

plant upon another; refers to biochemical interaction between all types of plants and its effect 

depends on a chemical compound being added to the environment. 

Alternate - a. (L. alteratus, one after another) said of leaves occurring one at a node; said also of 

members of adjacent whorls in the flower when any member of one whorl is in front of or behind 

the junction of two adjacent members of the succeeding whorl. 

Alternation of generations - the occurrence in one life history of two or more different forms 

differently produced, usually an alternation of a sexual with an asexual form. 


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Alveola - n. (L. alveolus, small cavity) a pit on the surface of an organ. 

Alveolate - a. (L. alveolatus, pitted) deeply pitted so as to resemble a honeycomb, as are the 

surfaces of some seeds or achenes. 

Ammonia (NH3) - A dissolved gas that even in low concentrations is toxic to fish. It is produced 

by the breakdown of organic waste products. 

Anaerobic - A term used to describe an organism that lives in an environment with little or no 

oxygen. 

Anaerobiosis - n. (L. Gr. an, without; aer, air; biosis, manner of life) life in the absence of air or 

free oxygen; anaerobic respiration, respiration occurring in the absence of oxygen. 

Anal fin - Single fin mounted vertically below the fish. 

Anastomosis - n. (Gr. ana, up to; stoma, mouth) connecting by cross-veins and forming a 

network. 

Anatomy - n. (LL. anatomia, dissection) the branch of morphology that deals with the structure of 

plants, esp. the internal structure as revealed by the microscope. 

Androecium - n. (Gr. andros, man; oikos, house) male reproductive organs of a plant; a 

collective term applied to all structures of the stamen whorl or whorls. 

Androgynal - a. (Gr. andros, man; gonos, woman) bearing staminate and pistillate flowers on the 

same parent stem. 

Androgynous - staminate flowers above the pistillate flowers in the same inflorescence. 

Androphore - n. (Gr. aner, man; phoros, carrying) a support or column, formed by fusion of 

filaments, on which the stamens are borne. 

Anemophily - n. (Gr. anemos, wind; philein, to love) pollination by wind. 

Angiospermae - n. (Gr. anggeion, vessel; sperma, seed) a major division of the plant kingdom, 

commonly called flowering plants (as their reproductive organs are in flowers,) having seeds 

which develop in a closed ovary made of carpels, a very reduced gametophyte, and endosperm 

develop from a triple fusion nucleus. pl. Angiosperms. 

Annual - a. (L. annualis, yearly, from annus, year) a plant which completes its life history within a 

year. 

Anoxia - n. (L. an, not; and oxygen) lack of oxygen or not enough oxygen. 

Anther - n. (Gr. antheros, flowery, from anthein, to bloom) the top of the stamen, usually elevated 

by means of a filament, which contains the pollen. 

Anthesis - n. (Gr. anthesis, bloom, from anthein, to bloom) stage or period during which the 

flower bud is fully open; flowering. 

Antrorse - a. (L. ante, before; vertere, to turn) forward or upward. 

Apetalous - a. (Gr. a, without; petalon, leaf) having flowers without petals; having no corolla. 

Apical - a. (L. apex, the tip or top of a thing) at the tip or summit. 

Apical bud - The principal growing point of the stem. 

Apiculate - a. (LL. apiculatus, point) terminated abruptly by a small, distinct point, an apiculus or 

apicule. 

Apocarpous - a. (Gr. apo, away; karpos, fruit) having separate carpels. 

Apomixis - n. (Gr. apo, away; mixis, a mixing) in general, reproducing without sexual 

reproduction; often used to denote seed production without a sexual process having been 

involved. 

Appressed - a., adv. (L. ad, to; pressare, to press) lying flat or close against something. Often 

used for hairs. 

Aquatic plants - plants that must grow in water whether rooted in the mud or floating without 

anchorage; plants that must complete part or all of their life cycle in or near the water. 

Aquatic vascular plants - aquatic plants containing the conductive vascular tissue, phloem and 

xylem. 

Arachnoid - a. (Gr. arachme, spider, cobweb; eidos) like a cobweb; covered with or consisting of 

soft fibers or hairs so entangled as to give a cobwebby appearance. 

Arcuate - a. (L. arcuatus, pp. of arcuare, to arch, bend like a bow, from arcus, a bow) bent or 

curved in the form of a bow. 

Aril - n. (Fr. arrile, Sp. arillo, L. arilli, dried grapes, from aridus, dry) an additional covering that 

forms on some seeds after fertilization, and developing from the stalk of the ovule. 

Aristate - a. (L. arista, awn) awned; having an awn. 


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Articulate - a. (L. articulatus, jointed, pp. of articulare, to join) having joints; jointed; provided with 

places where separation may take place. 

Ascending - v. (Fr. scandere, to climb) rising or curving upward. 

Asepalous - a. (Gr. a, without; L. pelatum, petal) without sepals. 

Asexual reproduction - Any form of reproduction that does not require the union of male and 

female reproductive material. 

Attenuate - a. (L. attenuare, to thin) gradually narrowed to a long point at apex or base. 

Auricle - n. (L. auricle, small ear) any ear-like lobed appendages. 

Aut- or auto- - comb. form. (Gr. from autos) a combining form meaning self. 

Autogamous - adj., relating to, or reproducing by autogamy. 

Autogamy - n. (aut- + -gamy, Gr. -gamia, fr, gamos, marriage) self-fertilization, pollination of a 

flower by its own pollen. 

Auxins - growth promoting hormones that cause cell elongation, and are responsible for many 

developmental responses including phototropism. 

Awn - n. (Icel. ogen, chaff) a stiff, bristlelike appendage, usually at the end of a structure. 

Axil - n. (L. axilla, armpit) the angle found between any two organs or structures. The junction of 

the leaf or petiole and the stem. 

Axillary - a. (L. axilla, armpit) in an axil, growing in an axil, as buds. Arising from the above 

junction. 

Axillary bud - A bud, capable of developing into a lateral shoot, present in the angle between the 

stem and a leaf. 

Ballast - A transformer which changes the voltage from your house outlet to the voltage needed 

to power different types of lighting. 

Barbel - Whisker-like growths around the mouth, used for finding food and communication; a 

sensory organ. 

Barbellate - a. (L. barba, beard) provided, usually laterally, with fine, short points or barbs. 

Bark - n. (ME. barke; AS. bare, bark or rind) the outermost covering of trees and some plants. 

This is composed of the cuticle or epidermis, the outer bark or cortex, and the inner bark or fiber. 

Bases - Compounds that make water Alkaline. If water contains more acids than bases it's acidic. 

If it has more bases than acids it's alkaline. 

Bay - n. (Fr. baia; LL. baia, bay) a part of a sea or lake indenting the shore line; the word is often 

applied to very large tracts of water around which the land forms a curve, as Hudson's Bay. 

Bayou - n. (Fr. boyau, a gut, long narrow passage) a marshy inlet or outlet of a lake, river, etc.; 

also a backwater. 

Berry - n. (AS. berie, berry) any fleshy simple fruit with one or more seeds and a skin, as a 

tomato, cranberry, banana, grape, etc.; a several-sided indehiscent fruit with a fleshy pericarp 

and without a stony layer surrounding the seeds. 

Biennial - a. (L. biennialis, from biennis; bis, twice, and annus, year) a plant requiring two years 

in which to complete its life cycle, the first year growing only vegetatively, the second flowering, 

fruiting, then dying. 

Bifid - a. (L. bifudus, forked; from bis, twice and findere, to cleave, divide) forked; divided by a 

cleft. 

Bilabiate - adj., having two lips, as a bilabiate corolla of a flower. 

Bilateral - a. (L. bilateralis; bi, two, and latus, a side) having two sides. 

Bilaterally symmetrical - said of corolla or calyx (or flower) when divisible into equal halves in 

one plane only; zygomorphic. 

Bilocular - adj., divided into two cells or compartments. 

Bio-balls - A filter media used for the colonization of bacteria. 

Biogenic decalcification - When there is a carbon dioxide deficiency in the water, plants can 

derive CO2 from the hardening constituents of the carbonate hardness. First they split the 

hydrogen carbonates into CO2 and carbonates. This causes the pH to rise about one step and 

the largely insoluble carbonates precipitate and form rough deposits on the leaves and substrate. 

Some plants such as Vallisneria can even destroy the carbonates and obtain CO2 from them. 

This raises the pH again by another step. Biogenic decalcification thus causes the water to be 10 

to 100 times more alkaline than it was previously. In the dark, the process reverses and the pH 

drops considerably. 


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Biomass - n. (Gr. bios, life; massein, to squeeze) weight of all living material in a unit area at an 

instantaneous time. May be expressed as g/m 2 , mt/ha, or other similar expressions. 

Biotope - Natural environment of an organism. 

Bipinnate -Leaf formed of several leaflets set on either side of the petiole. 

Bisexual - a. (L. bis, twice; sexus, sex) having both female and male reproductive organs present 

and functional in the same flower; hermaphrodite; amphisporangiate; said of a plant having all 

bisexual flowers. 

Black Water - Water that has a dark cola-like color caused by Humic acids, it has a very low pH 

and is very soft, common in the Amazon river basin. 

Blade - n. (AS. blaed, leaf) the leaf of a plant, especially grass; the flat or expanded portion of a 

leaf; lamina. 

Bloom - n. (ME. blome, a blossom) a blossom; the flower of a plant; an expanded bud; the 

opening of flowers in general, leaves, flowers, or fruits. 

Blossom - n. (ME. blossome, a flower) a flower or bloom, esp. of a fruit bearing plant. A state or 

time of flowering, literally, and figuratively. 

Bog - n. (Ir. bogach, a bog, from Gael. bog, soft moist) a quagmire covered with grass or other 

plants; wet, spongy ground; a small marsh; plant community on wet, very acid peat. 

Bottomland - n., lowlands along streams and rivers, usually on alluvial floodplains that are 

periodically flooded. 

Brackish - a. mixed with salt; briny. 

Bract - n. (L. bractea, a thin metal plate) a modified leaf, growing at the base or on the stalk of a 

flower. It usually differs from other leaves in shape or color. Specialized scale-like leaf found at 

the base of a flower. 

Bracteolate - adj., furnished with bracteoles. 

Bracteole - n. (NL. bracteola, from L. a thin gold leaf) a small bract; especially one on a floral 

axis. pl. bracteoles. 

Branch - n. (LL. branca, paw) a natural division of a plant stem. 

Branchlet - n., a small, usually terminal, branch. 

Breeding tank - An aquarium set up for the breeding of fish. 

Bristle - n. (AS. bristl, byrst, a bristle) stiff, strong but slender hair or trichome. 

Bud - n. (ME. budde; AS. budda, beetle) a small swelling or projection on a plant, from which a 

shoot, cluster of leaves, or flowers develops; a rudimentary, undeveloped shoot, leaf, or flower; 

gemma. 

Buffer - A substance added to the water to help maintain the pH value. 

Bulb - n. (Fr. bulbe; L. bulbus; Gr. bolbos, a bulbous root) a specialized underground bud that 

sends down roots and consists of a very short stem covered with leafy scales or layers which 

store water and nutrients, the whole enclosing next year's bud. Tightly packed fleshy leaves used 

as a storage organ. Onions and tulips both have bulbs. 

Bullate - Blistered, bubbled or puckered in appearance. 

Caducous - a. (L. caducus, falling, from cadere, to fall) said of a plant part, such as a sepal, 

petal, or leaf, that falls off quickly or early. 

Calcium - A necessary element used by salt water corals and other organisms for their calcium 

carbonate skeleton or shell. 

Callus - n. (L. callus, callum, hard skin) a hard protuberance or callosity; new tissue covering a 

wound. 

Calyx - n (Gr. kalyx, a calyx, cup) the outer covering of a flower external to the corolla, which it 

encloses, consisting of a whorl of leaves, or sepals, usually of a green color and less delicate in 

texture than the corolla. 

Calyx tube - tube formed by wholly or partially fused sepals. Not the floral tube of an epigynous 

or perigynous flower. 

Cambium - n. (L. cambiare, to exchange, more at change) the layer of tissue between the bark 

and wood in woody plants, from which new wood and bark develops. 

Campanulate - a. (Dim. of LL. campana, a bell) bell-shaped, usually applied to calyx and corolla. 

Cancellate - a. (L. cancellatus, pp., of cancellare, to make like a lattice) latticed, or resembling a 

latticed construction, usually said of a surface such as that of an achene or seed. 


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Capillary - a. (L. capillaris, from capillus, hair, from caput, head) resembling hair in the manner of 

growth; very slender, threadlike. 

Capitate - a. (L. caput, head) enlarged or swollen at tip, gathered into a mass at apex, as 

compound stigma; a knoblike stigma terminating a style. 

Capitulum - n. (L. capitulum, small head) an inflorescence forming a head of sessile flowers or 

florets crowned together on a receptacle and usually surrounded by an involucre. 

Capsule - n. (L. capsula, a little chest) a case, pod, or fruit, containing seeds, spores, or carpels; 

it usually bursts when ripe. 

Carbonate Hardness - The part of the total hardness that is formed by the ions of 

carbonates(Co3) and hydrogen carbonate(HCo3). It is symbolized by dCH. It is important to know 

the dCH of your water, as it affects both the pH and Carbon Dioxide amounts in your water. It is 

also commonly called "buffering capability". A dCH of 4 to 8 is fine for most fish. 

Carinate - a. (L. carinatus, from carina, a keel) shaped like the keel of a ship; having a 

longitudinal prominence on the back, like a keel; applied to a calyx, corolla or leaf. 

Carpel - n. (Gr. karpos, fruit) a simple pistil, regarded as a modified leaf; also, any of the two or 

more carpels that unite to form a compound pistil; the unit of structure of the female portion of a 

flower. 

Carpels - Female sex organs. They contain the Ovules which become seeds when mature. 

Carpophore - n. (Gr. karpophorus, bearing fruit; karpos, fruit, and pherein, to bear) generally the 

organ that supports the carpels; specifically, a very much elongated axis to which the carpels are 

attached. 

Caryopsis - n. (Gr. karyon, a nut, and opsis, an appearance) a small one-seeded, dry, 

indehiscent fruit, in which the seed adheres to the thin pericarp, so that the fruit and seed are 

incorporated into one body, as in wheat and other kinds of grain. 

Castanea - n. (L., a chestnut, from Gr. kastanon) a genus of trees typified by the common 

chestnut. 

Castaneous - a., relating to or having the color of a chestnut. 

Cataphyll - n. (L. from cata, and -phyll) any rudimentary leaf, as a bud scale, preceding the true 

foliage leaves. 

Cataphyllary leaves - rudimentary or scale-like leaves which act as a covering of buds. 

Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) - Quantifies the ability of media to provide a nutrient reserve 

for plant uptake. It is the sum of exchangeable cations, or positively charged ions, that media can 

adsorb per unit weight or volume. It is usually measured in milligram equivalents per 100 g or 100 

cm 3 (meq/100 g or meq/100 cm 3 , respectively). A high CEC value characterizes media with a 

high nutrient-holding capacity that can retain nutrients for plant uptake between applications of 

fertilizer. Media characterized by a high CEC retains nutrients from leaching. In addition, a high 

CEC provides a buffer from abrupt fluctuations in media salinity and pH. Important cations in the 

cation exchange complex in order of adsorption strength include calcium (Ca2+) > magnesium 

(Mg2+) > potassium (K+) > ammonium (NH4+), and sodium (Na+). Micronutrients which also are 

adsorbed to media particles include iron (Fe2+ and Fe3+), manganese (Mn2+), zinc (Zn2+), and 

copper (Cu2+). The cations bind loosely to negatively charged sites on media particles until they 

are released into the liquid phase of the media. Once they are released into the media solution, 

cations are absorbed by plant roots or exchanged for other cations held on the media particles. 

Anion exchange capacity Some media retains small quantities of anions, (negatively charged 

ions, in addition to cations). However, anion exchange capacities are usually negligible, allowing 

anions such as nitrate (NO3-), chloride (Cl-), sulfate (SO4-), and phosphate (H2PO4-) to leach 

from the media. 

Catkin - n. (L. a dim. of cat, from its resemblance to a cat's tail) a scaly spike, the flowers of 

which are unisexual and petalless. 

Caudal fin - Single fin at the back of a fish; the tail fin. 

Caudex - n. (L. caudex, stem of a tree) the base of a perennial plant; the axis or stem of a woody 

plant, especially of a palm or tree fern. 

Caulescent - a. (L. caulis, a stem and -escent) having a well-developed stem above ground level. 

Cauline - a. (L. caulis, stalk or stem) stem. 


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Cellulose - n. (Fr. from L. cellula, dim. of cella, a small room) the chief substance composing the 

cell walls or woody part of plants; a carbohydrate of unknown molecular structure but having the 

composition represented by the empirical formula (C6H10O5)x. 

Centrum - n. (L. from Gr. kentron, center) central portion. 

Cespitose - a., growing in tufts or clumps; matted. 

Chaff - n. (AS. ceaf, chaff) dry scales or bracts, as those on the receptacle subtending the 

flowers in the heads of certain Compositae. 

Channeled - having a deep longitudinal groove. 

Chartaceous - a. (L. chartaceus, from charta, a leaf of paper) having the texture of thin but stiff 

paper. 

Chasmogamy - n. (Gr. chasma, an opening, chasm, and gamos, marriage) the opening of the 

perianth of a flower for the purpose of fertilization; contrast with cleistogamous. 

Chelators - Synthetic organic acids that bind with various trace elements to keep them available 

in a form that is usable by the plants. 

Chlorophyll - The pigment that makes plants green. One of the pigments necessary for 

photosynthesis. 

Chlorophyll Absorption - Process of Photosynthesis, occurs between 420-550 nm. and at 670 

nm. Values for different type bulbs. 

Chlorosis - Loss of chlorophyll, often a sign of insufficient amounts of iron. n. (Gr. chloros, pallid) 

An abnormal condition characterized by absence of green pigments in plants. 

Choripetalous - a. (Gr. choris, apart, and petalon, leaf) polypetalous; having unconnected or 

separate petals. 

Ciliata - a. (L. cilium, eyelid) with marginal hairs that form a fringe. 

Circumscissile - a. (L. circum, around; scindere, to cut) opening splitting by a transverse fissure 

around the circumference, leaving an upper and lower half; said of certain seed pods or capsules. 

Clavata - a. (L. clava, a club) club-shaped; having the form of a club; growing gradually thicker 

toward the top, as certain parts of a plant. 

Claw - n. (AS. clawu, a claw, hoof) the narrowed, stalk-like base of some sepals or petals. 

Cleft - a. (AS. cleofan, to cut) divided halfway down to the midrib or further, or generally, any 

deep lobe or cut. 

Cleistogamy - n. (Gr. kleistos, closed; gamos, marriage) the condition of having flowers which 

never open and self-pollination occurs; the flowers are often small and inconspicuous. 

Clone - n. (Gr. klon, a twig) a group of plants, all of whose members are directly descended from 

a single individual. 

Coagulant - A chemical compound used in water clarifiers. It causes fine particles to stick 

together to be more easily removed by the filter. 

Coherent - a. (L. cohaerere, to stick together) having parts united. 

Collar - n. (L. collare, a band or chain for the neck) region of junction between blade and leaf 

sheath of grasses. 

Collenchyma - n. (L. from Gr. killa, glue, and enchyma, an infusion) living, supportive tissue with 

chloroplasts generally just beneath the surface consisting or more or less elongated cells usually 

thickened unevenly in a manner somewhat variable in different groups of plants. 

Colonial - a. (Fr. colonial, from L. colonia, a colony) usually used to describe cloning by 

vegetative reproduction, the seemingly separate plants having arisen from rhizomes, stolons, or 

roots of a single or of neighboring "parent" plants. 

Colony - n., a stand, group, or population of neighboring plants of one species, the origin having 

been colonial, from seeds, or both. 

Colpate - adj. (Gr. kolpos + E-ate, of pollen grains) having longitudinal germinal furrows in the 

exine. 

Coma - n. (L. coma; Gr. kome, hair) a tuft of soft hairs, as at the apices or bases of seeds; a 

bunch of branches; a terminal cluster of bracts on a flowering stem, as in pineapples. 

Commissure - n. (L. commissura, a joining together) a place of joining or meeting, as where one 

carpel joins another in the Umbelliferae. 

Communities - Different species of fish kept in the same aquarium. 

Comose - a. (L. comosus, hairy, from coma, hair) having a tuft of hair. 


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Competition - n. (L. competitio, an agreement, rivalry) involves the removal or reduction of some 

factor from the environment by a plant or group of plants that is sharing the same habitat. 

Competition can be by an individual or groups of plants of the same or different species. Factors 

that may be reduced include water, minerals, food, and light. 

Compound leaf - A leaf that is divided into several distinct leaflets. 

Concretion - n. (L. concretion, concretio, to grow together) the act or process of making or 

becoming solid. 

Connate - adj. (LL. connatus, past part) congenitally united. 

Connivent - a. (L. connivere, to close the eyes) approximate but not organically united; 

converging; arching over so as to meet. 

Contraction - The shedding of the leaves at the onset of the dormant period. 

Convexity - Having the property of curving outward, like the outside of a ball. 

Convolute - a. (L. cum, together; volvere, to wind) said of parts rolled or twisted together when in 

an undeveloped stage, as in some corollas in the bud stage. 

Cordate - a. (L. cor, cordis, a heart) with a sinus and rounded lobes at the base, the overall 

outline usually ovate; often restricted to the base rather than to the outline of the entire organ; 

heart-shaped. 

Coriaceous - a. (L. coriaceus, from corium, leather) leathery; tough. 

Corm - n. (L. cormus; Gr. kormus, the trunk of a tree with the boughs lopped off) an enlarged 

solid subterranean stem, often rounded in shape but of no distinct characteristic shape or size in 

some species, filled with nutrients, composed of two or more internodes and covered externally 

by a few thin membranous scales or cataphyllary leaves. 

Cormophyta - n. (Gr. kormus, the trunk of a tree with the boughs lopped off; phyton, plant) in 

older classifications, a division comprising all plants that have a stem and root. 

Cormophyte - n., a plant of the division Cormophyta. 

Corolla - n. (L. corolla, a little crown) the inner, usually colored or otherwise differentiated, whorl 

or whorls of the perianth; the petals of a flower as a whole. 

Corymb - n. (Gr. korys, a helmet) a racemose type of inflorescence in which the lower pedicels 

are successively elongated, forming a more or less flat-topped inflorescence, the outer flowers 

opening before the inner. 

Cosmopolitan - Found worldwide. 

Cotyledon - n. (Gr. kotyle, a hollow or cavity) the first leaf or leaves of a seed plant, found in the 

embryo of the seed which may form the first photosynthetic leaves or may remain below ground. 

Creek - n. (ME. creke, crike, from ON. -kriki, bend, concavity; akin to ON. krikr, bend, bay) a 

natural stream of water normally smaller than, and often tributary to, a river. 

Crenate - a. (L. crena, a notch) having a notched, indented, or scalloped edge, as certain leaves. 

Crenate - Edged with rounded teeth. 

CRI: color rendering index - A number used for rating light bulbs on a scale up to 100, where 100 

is equal to sunlight. 

Crispate - With wave margins. 

Crown - n. (L. corona, a crown, wreath) that part of a stem at or just below the surface of the 

ground; an inner appendage of a petal or the throat of a corolla; an appendage or extrusion 

standing between the corolla and stamens, or on the corolla; an outgrowth of the staminal part or 

circle as in milkweeds. 

Crushed coral - A Calcareous substrate material with pH buffering abilities, for marine aquaria. 

Culm - n. (L. culmus, a stalk, stem) the stalk or stem for such plants as grasses and sedges, 

usually jointed and hollow. 

Cultivar - A man-made (cultivated) variety. 

Cuneate - a (L. cuneatus, wedge-shaped, from cuneus, a wedge) narrowly triangular with the 

acute angle toward the base; wedge-shaped; tapering toward the point of attachment. 

Cusp - n. (L. cuspis, a point) rigid, sharp point, especially on a leaf. 

Cuspidate - a. (L. cuspidare, to make pointed) tipped with a short, rigid point. 

Cuticle - n. (L. cutis, skin) a continuous layer of fatty substances covering over the outer surfaces 

of the epidermis of plants; it contains cutin and protects against water and gases. The thin skin of 

the plant. This is thicker and waxy to maintain moisture in emersed growth. 


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Cutin - n., a waxy substance which, together with cellulose, forms the outer layer of the skin of 

many plants. 

Cutting - A fragment of plant material that is capable of growing to become another complete, 

individual plant. 

Cuttings - Detached parts of stem plants: they take root after planting and become new plants. 

Cyathium - n. (Gr. kyathos, cup) a type of inflorescence characteristic of some members of 

Euphorbiaceae; consisting of a cuplike involucre bearing unisexual flowers; staminate on its inner 

face, pistillate from the base. 

Cyme - n. (Gr. kyein, to swell) a cluster of flowers in which each main and secondary stem bears 

a single flower, the bud on the main stem blooming first; determinate inflorescence in which each 

growing point ends in a flower. 

Cymose - a., bearing a cyme or cymes. 

Cystolith - n. (Gr. kystis, bladder; lithos, stone) a mass of calcium carbonate concretion, 

occasionally silica, formed on ingrowths of modified epidermal cell walls in some plants, esp. of 

the Acanthaceae family. 

Day neutral plants - plants that flower regardless of day length. 

Deciduous - a. (L. deciduus, that which falls down) falling after completion of the normal function. 

Decimeter - (dm), 3.973 inches, 10 cm, or 0.1 m. 

Decumbent - a. (L. decumbere, to lie down) trailing on the ground and rising at the tip, as some 

stems. 

Decurrent - a. (L. decurrere, to run down) extending downward, applied usually to leaves in 

which the blade is apparently prolonged downward as two wings along the petiole or along the 

stem. 

Decussate - Opposite pairs of shoots set at right angles to the pairs above and below. 

Dehiscence - n. (L. dehiscere, to gape) opening and shedding contents; said of stamens and 

fruits. 

Dehisces - vt., to burst or split open, as the seed capsules of plants. 

Deltoid - a. (Gr. delta, and eidos, form) shaped like the Greek letter delta; triangular in outline. 

Denitrification - Breakdown of nitrates by anaerobic bacteria into other forms. 

Dentate - a. (L. dens, a tooth) toothed, with large saw-like teeth on the margin pointing outward, 

not forward. 

Denticle - n. (L. denticulus, little tooth) a small tooth or toothlike projecting point. 

Denticulate - a., having small teeth; finely dentate. Serrated, edged with small teeth. 

Detritus - Organic waste matter that collects on the bottom of fish tanks. 

Diadelphous - a. (from di-, twice, and Gr. adelphos, brother; -ous) in two sets as applied to 

stamens when in two, usually unequal, sets. 

Dichotomous - a. (Gr. dichotous, a cutting in two) having or consisting of a pair or pairs; paired. 

Dividing into two equal branches. 

Digitate - a. (L. digitus, finger) having fingerlike divisions, as some leaves. 

Dimorphic - a. (Gr. dimorphos, having two forms) having two forms. 

Dioecious - a. (Gr. di, two; oikos, house) said of a kind of plant having unisexual flowers, the 

male and female flowers on different individual plants. 

Dioecious - Having male or female flowers on separate plants. 

Diploid - a. (Gr. diploos, double; eidos, form) having twice the number of chromosomes normally 

occurring in a germ cell. 

Disc flowers - the radically symmetrical flowers of the head in Compositae, as distinguished from 

the ligulate ray flowers. 

Discoid - a. (Gr. diskos, a disk) having the form of a disk; discoid flower; a compound flower not 

radiated, but with tubular florets. 

Distal - a. (L. distare, to stand apart) farthest away from the point of attachment or origin. 

Distichous - a. (Gr. distichos, having two rows) two-ranked; in the case of plants with alternate 

leaves, the arrangement is such that 1st is directly below the 3rd. 

Distichous - Leaves arranged in two rows on either side of the stem. 

Divaricate - vt. (L. divaricare, to spread apart) to branch or spread widely apart. 

Divergent - a. (L. divergere, to bend away) separated from one another, having tips further apart 

than the bases 


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Diverticulate - a. (L. divertere, to turn aside) having short offshoots approximately at right angles 

to axis. 

Divided - a. (L. dividere, to divide) referring to the blade of an appendage when it is cut into 

distinct divisions to, or almost to, the midvein. 

Division - A method of propagation in which the rhizome or vegetative cone is cut into pieces, 

each of which is capable of becoming a complete new plant. Division of the vegetative point of 

Rosette plants into two or more parts for propagation. 

DKH - Abbreviation for Degrees of Carbonate Hardness. 

Dolomite - A limestone gravel with a small pH buffering ability. 

Dormant period - Interruption of growth in an effort to adjust to seasonal periods of stress. 

Dorsal - a. (L. dorsum, the back) pertaining to the back; the surface turned away from the axis. 

Dorsal fin - Single fin mounted on top of the fish. Some species have two, one behind the other. 

Down - n. (ME. down, downe, down; probably of Scandinavian origin) fine, soft feathers; soft, fine 

hair. 

Downy - a., covered with short, fine hairs. 

Drupe - n. (Gr. dryppa, an overripe olive) a fleshy or pulpy fruit with the inner portion of the 

pericarp hard or stony and enclosing the seed; usually 1-locular and 1-seeded, sometimes more 

than 1-locular and more than 1-seeded. 

Echinate - a. (L. echinus, a hedgehog) set with prickles; prickly, like a hedgehog; having sharp 

points. 

Ecology - n. (Gr. oikos, house; and -logy Gr. -logia, from legein, to speak) branch of science 

concerned with the interrelationships of organisms and their environments esp. as manifested by 

natural cycles and rhythms, community development and structure, interaction between different 

kinds of organisms, geographic distributions and population alteration. 

Edaphic - a., relating to, or determined by, conditions of the soil. 

Elliptic - a. (Gr. elleipsis, a falling short, defect, ellipse) an outline that is oval, narrowed to 

rounded at the ends and widest at about the middle (as the outline of a football); ellipsoid, a solid 

with an elliptical outline. 

Emarginate - vt. (L. emarginare, to deprive of the edge) said of leaves, sepals, or petals, and 

other structures that are notched at the apex. 

Emerge - vt. (L. emergere, to rise up, rise out) to rise out of a fluid or other covering. 

Emergent - n., (ME. Fr. L. emergent-, emergens, pres. part. of emergere, to emerge - more at 

emerge) any of various plants (as a cattail) rooted in shallow water and having most of the 

vegetative growth above the water. 

Emersed - Grown so that the roots and bottom portion of the plant are underwater, and the rest 

of the plant grows above the water. adj., Standing out of or rising above a surface as an aquatic 

plant with flower stalk emersed. 

Emersed plants - plants growing with their roots and a portion of the shoot below the water and 

the remainder of the shoot above the surface of the water. 

Enation - n. (L. enasci, to spring up) an abnormal growth of an organ or of an excresence upon 

any part of a plant. 

Endcap - A water resistant socket for fluorescent lamps. 

Endemic - a. (Gr. endemos, native, belonging to a people) a plant that is native to a particular 

country or region; not introduced or naturalized. A species found only in one specific location. 

Endocarp - n. (Gr. endo, within; karpos, fruit) the inter layer of the wall of a matured ovary; when 

its texture differs from the outer wall, it may be hard and stony, membranous, or fleshy. 

Ensiform - adj. (F. ensiforme, Fr. L. ensis sword + F. forme, form) having sharp edges and 

tapering to a slender point; having a shape suggesting a sword. 

Entire - a. (L. integer, whole, untouched, undiminished) having a margin devoid of any 

indentations, teeth, or lobes. 

Entomophilous - a. (Gr. entomon, insect; philein, to love) pollination by insects. 

Ephemeral - n. (Gr. ephemeros, lasting for a day) referring to an organ living a very short time, 

usually a day or less; lasting a very short time. 

Epigynous - a. (Gr. epi, upon; gyne, woman) growing upon the top of the ovary or seeming to do 

so, as petals, sepals, and stamens. 

Epigyny - n., the condition of being epigynous. 


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Epipetalous - a. (Gr. epi, upon; petalon, leaf) having stamens inserted on petals. 

Epiphytic - A plant that grows on another plant but is not parasitic. 

Equitant - a. (L. equitare, to ride) overlapping; said of leaves whose bases overlap the leaves 

within or above them, as in the Iris. 

Erose - a. (L. erodere, to wear away) having small irregular notches in the margin, as if gnawed. 

Essential flower parts - the stamen and pistil organs of the flower that are required for 

pollination. 

Estuary - n. (L. aestuarium, part of the seacoast over which the tide ebbs and flows, from aestus, 

the tide) an inlet or arm of the sea; especially the wide mouth of a river, where the tide meets the 

current. pl. estuaries. 

Etiolation - The formation of weak, spindly foliage deficient in Chlorophyll, usually occurs in light 

of too low intensity. 

Eutrophic - a. (Gr. ew, well; trophe, nourishment) the gradual increase in nutrients in a body of 

water. Natural eutrophication is a gradual process, but human activities may greatly accelerate 

the process. Rich in dissolved nutrients, often caused by pollution. 

Eutrophication - a., the process of becoming eutrophic. 

Even-pinnate - said of compound leaves having an even number of leaflets, this is usually easily 

determined because there is a pair terminally. 

Excrescence - n. (L. excrescere, to grow out; ex, out; crescere, to grow) a normal outgrowth; a 

disfiguring addition. 

Excurrent - a. (L. excurrere, to run out, project) projecting beyond the tip, as the midrib of a leaf 

or bract. 

Exfoliate - vt. (L. ex, out; folium, leaf) peeling off in thin layers, shreds, or plates, as the bark of 

some trees. 

Exine - n. (L. ex, out of, out) the outer of two layers forming the wall of certain spores (as pollen 

grains) - called also exosporium. 

Exocarp - n. (Gr. exo, without; karpos, fruit) the outer layer of the wall of a matured ovary. 

Exsert - vt. (L. exserere, to stretch out) to put forth; to thrust out; to protrude. 

Exserted - a., sticking out; extending beyond (some enclosing part). 

Exstipulate - a. (L. ex, private; stipula, a stalk, stem) having no stem. 

Falcate - a. (L. falx, a sickle) curved like a sickle. 

Family - A term used in the classification of organisms. A family is made up of related Genera. 

Farinaceous - a. (L. farina, meal) containing flour; starchy; mealy. 

Farinose - a., full of meal; mealy; covered with a white, powdery substance. 

Fascicle - n. (L. fasciculus, small bundle) a small bundle or tuft, as of fibers, leaves, etc. 

Fastigiate - a. (L. fastigare, to slope up) branches erect and close to stem. 

Fen - n. (ME. fen, fenne; AS. fen, fenn, a marsh, bog, fen) low land covered wholly or partially 

with water but producing sedge, coarse grasses, or other aquatic plants; boggy land; a moor or 

marsh; plant community on alkaline, neutral, or slightly acid peat. 

Fenestrated - a. (L. fenstra, window) a type of leaf anatomy with small perforation or transparent 

spots. Confined to a few tropical monocotyledons which grow on the island of Madagascar. 

Filament - n. (L. filum, thread) the stalk bearing the anther. 

Filiform - a. (L. filum, thread; forma, shape) thread-like, long and very slender. Thread like. 

Filtration - Method of cleaning aquarium water. There are 3 basic types: "Mechanical" removes 

particulate material. “Chemical" is removal of dissolved substances by passing through a type of 

media, like carbon. "Biological" is the process of changing from a harmful substance to a less 

harmful one, by bacteria. 

Fimbriate - n. (L. fimbriatus, fringed) cut into regular segments and appearing fringed at the 

margins. 

Fistula - n. (L. fistula, pipe) pathological or artificial pipe-like opening; water-conducting vessel - 

alt. trachea. 

Fistulose - a. same as fistulous. 

Fistulous - a, having the form or nature of a fistula. 

Flabellate - a. (L. flabellare, to fan) fan-shaped. 

Flaccid - a. (L. flaccidus, flabby) weak, limp, soft, or flabby; leaves that do not have enough water 

and are about to wilt or are wilting. 


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Floccose - a. (L. floccus, a lock of wool) said of pubescence which gives the impression of 

irregular tufts of cotton or wool. 

Florescence - n. (L. florescence, to begin to flower) bursting into bloom, alt. anthesis. 

Floret - n. (L. flos, flower) one of the small individual flowers of a crowded inflorescence such as 

capitulum; flower with lemma and palea, of grasses; alt. floscule. 

Floricane - n., the stem at flowering and fruiting stage (of a bramble, Rubus). 

Floscule - n. (L. flosculus, little flower) a small flower; a floret. 

Flower - n. (ME, flowre, flour, flur; OFr., flor, flur, flour, from L. flos, floris, a flower) the part of a 

plant containing or consisting of the organs of reproduction, either together in a monoclinous 

flower or separate in male and female flowers. 

Foliaceous - a. (L. folium, leaf) having the form or texture of a foliage leaf; thin and leaf-like; 

bearing leaves. 

Follicle - n. (L. folliculus, small sac) a dry dehiscent fruit formed of one carpel, and dehiscing 

along one side. 

Fresh weight - same as wet weight. Generally not a useful measurement for aquatic plants. 

Frond - n. (L. frons, a leafy branch) a leaf, especially of fern or palm; a leaf-like expansion. 

Frond - The "leaf" of a fern. 

Fruit - n. (Fr. fruit, from L. fructus, fruit) the developed ovary of the flower containing ripe seeds, 

whether fleshy or dry, often used to include other associated parts such as a fleshy receptacle, 

then called a false fruit. 

Frutescent - a. (L. frutex, a shrub) shrubby or becoming shrubby. 

Funicle - n. (NL. funiculus) funiculus. 

Funiculus - n. (NL. from L. funis, a small rope) the stalk of an ovule. pl. funiculi. 

Fusiform - a. (L. fusus, a spindle; forma, form) shaped like a spindle; thick, tapering at both ends. 

Gametophyte - n. (Gr. gamete, a wife; phyton, plant) the gamete-forming haploid phase in the 

alternation of plant generations. 

Gamopetalous - a. (Gr. gamos, marriage; phyllon, a leaf) having the petals united so as to form 

a tubelike corolla. Same as sympetalous. 

Gamosepalous - a. (Gr. gamos, marriage; sepalous) having the sepals united. 

Gemma - n. (L. gemma, a swelling, bud, gem) a bud or outgrowth of a plant which develops into 

a new organism. A leaf bud rather than a flower bud. 

Gemmates - a. (L. gemmare, to put forth buds) buds or outgrowths of a plant which develop into 

a new individual. 

Gemmiparous - a. (L. gemma, a bud; parere, to bear) to produce gemmates. 

General or Total hardness - the sum of carbonate hardness and non-carbonate hardness. 

Usually expressed in degrees of dH. 

Geniculate - a. (L. geniculatus, having knee joints, joints) bent like a knee; bent abruptly at the 

nodes. 

Genotype - n. (Gr. genos, race; type) the genetic constitution of an individual. 

Genus - n. (L. genus, race) a taxonomic group consisting of closely related species, genera being 

grouped into families; plural - genera; a. - generic. 

Geophyte - n. (Gr. ge, earth; phyton, plant) plants with an underground dormant part such as a 

tuber, bulb, rhizome, etc. to help the plant survive adverse conditions. 

Gibberellins - n. (Gibberella, a fungal genus) growth hormones that accelerate shoot growth. 

First discovered in the fungus Gibberella fujikuroi, and later in other plants. 

Gibbous - a. (L. gibbus, hump) a distended, rounded swelling on one side, as on a calyx or 

corolla tube or segment. 

Glabrate - a. (L. glaber, smooth) becoming glabrous with age. 

Glabrous - a., with a smooth, even surface; without hairs. 

Glade - n. (prob. Scand. golead, a lighting, illumination, fr. goleu, light, clear, AS. glaed, bright) 

open space surrounded by woods or a forest; a marshy and usually low-lying area; a periodically 

inundated grassy marsh often running between adjacent slopes; a marshy area bounding or 

forming the headwaters of a stream. 

Gland - n. (L. glands, acorn) a secreting part or appendage. 

Glandular - a. (L. glandula, small acorn) having or bearing secreting organs, glands, or 

trichomes. 


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Glandular-pubescent - hairs or trichomes capitate and secretory. 

Glaucous - a. (L. glaucus, sea-green) bluish green; covered with a pale green bloom. 

Globose - a. (L. globosus, rounded as a ball) rounded; almost spherical; globular. 

Glomerate - vt. (L. glomus, a ball of yarn) to gather or wind into a ball; growing, collected or 

arranged in a rounded mass, as glands, flowers, etc.; clustered. 

Glomerule - n., a condensed cyme of almost sessile flowers; a compact cluster as of spores. 

Glume - n. (L. gluma, husk) a chaffy or membranous bract, a bract at the base of a grass 

inflorescence or spikelet. 

Glutinous - a. (L. gluten, glue) having a sticky, moist surface; a gluey or sticky exudation. 

Guttation - n. (L. gutta, drop) formation of drops of water on plants from moisture in air; the 

process of water being exuded from hydathodes at the enlarged terminations of veins around the 

margins of the leaves. 

Gymnospermae - n. (Gr. gymnos, uncovered, naked; sperma, seed) an important division of the 

plant kingdom, being woody plants with alternation of generations, having the gametophyte 

retained on the sporophyte and seeds produced on the surface of the sporophylls and not 

enclosed in an ovary. 

Gynaecium - n. (Gr. gynaikeie, woman's part of a house) the female organs of the flower, 

consisting of one or more carpels forming one or several ovaries with their stigmas and styles. 

Gynecandrous - a., having staminate and pistillate flowers in the same spike or spikelet, the 

latter above the former. 

Gynoecium - n. (Gr. gyne, woman; oikos, house) the pistil or pistils of a flower, taken collectively; 

gynaecium. 

Gynophore - n. (Gr. gyne, woman; pherein, to carry) a stalk supporting the ovary. 

Gynostegium - n. (Gr. gyne, woman; stege, roof) a protective covering for a gynaecium, 

especially as formed by the union of stamens and style. 

Habit - n. (L. habitus, condition, appearance, dress) the external appearance or way of growth of 

a plant, e.g. climbing, erect, bushy, etc.; the tendency of a plant to grow in a certain way. 

Habitat - n. (L. habitare, to inhabit) the locality or external environment in which a plant lives. 

Halophyte - n. (Gr. hals, salt; phyton, plant) any species capable of tolerating 0.5% or more 

NaCl. 

Haplophyte - n. (Gr. haploos, simple; eidos, form) having the number of chromosomes 

characteristic of the gametes for the organism. 

Hapteron - n. (Gr. haptein, to fasten) holdfast, specialized root-like projections that function to 

anchor a plant. 

Hard water - Water with a high concentration of dissolved salts. 

Hastate - a. (L. hasta, spear) spear shaped, more or less triangular with the two basal lobes 

divergent. With two out-turned lobes at the base. 

Hemicryptophyte - n. (Gr. hemi, half; kryptos, hidden; phyton, plant) a perennial plant having its 

overwintering buds located at the soil surface. 

Herb - n. (L. herba, green crop) any seed plant whose stem withers away to the ground after 

each season's growth; a seed plant with a green, non-woody stem. 

Herbage - n. (Fr. herbe, an herb) herbs collectively; the green foliage and juicy stems of herbs. 

Herbivore - Plant eater. 

Heterophyllous - Having leaves of different shapes on the same plant. a. (Gr. heteros, other; 

phyllon, leaf) the presence on a single individual of two or more distinct leaf shapes. These 

leaves may differ markedly in shape, yet have similar gross anatomical organization. 

Heterostylic - Having flowers which differ in the relative length of their styles and stamens, such 

that any one flower is very rarely, if ever, self pollinated. 

Heterozygote - n. (Gr. heteros, other; zygon, yoke) an organism or cell having two different 

alleles at corresponding loci on homologous chromosomes. 

Hibernaculum - n. (L. hibernare, winter residence) a plant organ such as a bud, rhizome, turion, 

etc. which allows a plant to live through adverse conditions 

Hilum - n. (L. hilum, a little thing, a trifle) the scar on a seed marking the place where it was 

attached to the seed stalk. 

Hirsute - a. (L. hirsutus, bristly) set with bristles; hairy; shaggy. 

Hispid - a. (L. hispidus, rough) having stiff hairs, spines, or bristles. 


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Hyaline - a. (Gr. hyalos, glass) of thin, membranous, transparent or translucent texture. 

Hybrid - n. (L. hibrida, cross) any cross-bred plant; heterozygote. The offspring of two parents of 

different species or varieties. 

Hydathodes - n. (Gr. hydatos, of water; hodos, way) an epidermal structure specialized for 

secretion, or for exudation, of water. 

Hydric - a. (Gr. hydor, water) characterized by an abundant supply of water. 

Hydrometer - A device used to measure salinity of water. 

Hydrophilous pollination - The transference of pollen from the Anthers of the Stamens to the 

Stigmas on the surface of the water or under water. 

Hydrophily - n. (Gr. hydor, water; philein, to love) water pollination. 

Hydrophyte - n. (Gr. hydor, water; phyton, plant) an aquatic plant living on or in water. 

Hydropote - n. (Gr. hydropotes, water drinker) a cell or cell group found on the lower epidermis 

of some species such as Nymphaea. These cells are thought to function in the uptake of ions 

from the water. 

Hypanthium - n. (Gr. hypo, under; anthodes, like flowers) an expansion of the receptacle of a 

flower that forms a saucer-shaped, cup-shaped, or tubular structure (often simulating a calyx 

tube) bearing the perianth and stamens at or near its rim; it may be free from or united to the 

ovary. 

Hypertrophy - n. (Gr. hyper, above; trophe, nourishment) excessive growth due to increase in 

cell size. 

Hypocotyl - The part of the Stem of a seedling below the cotyledons. 

Hypogynous - a. (Gr. hypo, under; gyne, female) inserted below the gynoecium, and not 

adherent; immediately below oogonium; the ovary thus said to be superior. n. hypogyny. 

I.D.- An abbreviation for inside diameter, used when measuring tubing dimensions. 

IAA - Indole-acetic acid, a natural growth hormone found in plants. 

Ich - A very common parasitic disease characterized by white salt-like specks all over the fish. 

Idioblasts - n. (Gr. idios, one's own; blastos, a bud, offshoot) plant cells containing oil, gum, 

calcium, or other products, and appearing to help provide mechanical support. 

Imbricate - a. (L. imbricare, to tile) having parts overlapping each other like roof tiles. 

Immersed - a. (L. in, into; mergere, to dip, plunge) growing under water. 

Imperfect flower - a flower containing stamen and pistil organs required for pollination but 

lacking sepals or petals or both of these organs. 

Incised - a. (L. in, into; caedere, to cut) with sharp angles between the lobes; having deeply cleft 

margins. 

Included - a. (L. in, in; claudere, to shut, close) not projecting beyond an enclosing part. 

Incrassate - vt. (L. in, in; crassus, thick) becoming thick or thicker, especially toward a tip or 

margin. 

Indehiscent - a (L. in, not; dehiscens, gaping) fruits which do not open to release seeds, but 

whole fruit is shed from the plant; not opening to release spores. 

Indigenous - a. (L. in, within; gignere, to bear, produce) native; originating or occurring naturally 

in the place specified. 

Inflorence - Flower cluster. 

Inflorescence - n. (L. inflorescere, to begin to blossom) a flower or putting forth blossoms; the 

mode of development and arrangement of flowers on an axis; a flowering branch. 

Infructescence - n. (L. in, into; fructus, fruit) the inflorescence in a fruiting stage; collective fruits. 

Inter- - (ME. enter-, inter-; OFr. entre-, inter-; L. inter- from inter, prep. between, among, during) a 

prefix meaning between, among - as intercellular. 

Intercellular - adj. lying between cells, as intercellular space in plant tissue. 

Interference - n. (L. inter, between; ferire, to strike) the overall influence of one plant or groups of 

plants on another, and encompasses allelopathy or competition, or both of these processes. 

Internode - n. (L. inter, between; nodus, knot) the portion of a stem between nodes. The area 

between two nodes on a plant stem. 

Interspecific competition - competition between species for nutrients, space, light, etc. 

Intra- - (L., from intra, within, inside) a combining form meaning within, inside of, as intracellular. 

Intracellular - adj., being or occurring within a body cell or within the body cells. 


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Intraspecific competition - a type of competition whereby an individual plant competes with one 

or more members of the same species for nutrients, space, light, etc. 

Invertebrate - An animal with no backbone. 

Involucel - n. (L. involucrum, covering) a secondary involucre, as the bracts subtending the 

secondary umbels in the Umbelliferae. 

Involucre - n., a group of closely placed bracts that subtend or enclose an inflorescence. 

Involute - a. (L. involutus, rolled up) leaves having the edges rolled inwards at each side, toward 

the adaxial side. 

Involution - n. (L. involutus, rolled up) a rolling inwards of leaves. 

Iron - The most important trace element for plants. Iron deficiency causes Chlorosis; a disease 

that makes the plant leaves Yellow. 

Kelvin - A temperature reading used to rate the color of light bulbs. 5500 degrees K is equal to 

sunlight. 

Labiate - a. (L. labium, lip) lipped, as in a calyx or corolla. 

Lacerate - a. (L. lacer, mangled, lacerated) said of a margin torn irregularly. 

Laciniate - a. (L. lacinia, a hem) cut into narrow, jagged lobes or segments. 

Lacunate - a. (L. lacuna, cavity) with air spaces or chambers in the midst of tissue. 

Lagoon - n. (It. And Sp. laguna, fr. L. lacuna, a ditch, pool, fr. lacus, lake) a shallow lake or pond, 

especially one connected with a larger body of water; an area of shallow salt water separated 

from the sea by sand dunes; the area of water surrounded by an atoll, or circular coral reef. 

Lake - n. (ME. lake, lak; AS. lacu, a lake, pool; L. lacus, a hollow, a basin, tub, pool, lake) an 

inland body of water, usually fresh water, formed by glaciers, river drainage, etc., larger than a 

pool or pond. 

Lamellate - a., made up of thin plates or lamina. 

Lamina - n. (L. lamina, a thin piece of metal or wood) the expanded blade part of a foliar leaf, 

petal, etc. 

The part of a leaf which is flattened, to a greater or lesser degree; as the Leaf Blade. 

Laminae - Broad part of the leaf usually attached to the stalk by the petiole; also called the blade. 

Lanate - a. (L. lana, wool) wooly, with long intertwined, curled hairs. 

Lanceolate - a. (L. lancea, a lance) shaped like a lance; broadest toward the base and narrowed 

to the apex, several times longer than wide. 

Lanceolate - Spear shaped. 

Lateral line - A line of sensory scales along the sides of fish that enables them to detect 

vibrations and electrical impulses from other fish. 

Laterite - An iron-bearing red soil found in tropical areas. Formed by centuries of heat and rain. 

Substance used in fresh water plant tanks to supply nutrients, either a powder placed under the 

gravel or chunks mixed in the gravel bed. 

Leaf - n. (ME. leef fr. OE. leaf, akin to OHG. loub, leaf, foliage) a lateral outgrowth from a stem 

that constitutes part of the foliage of a plant and functions primarily in food manufacture by 

photosynthesis. 

Leaflet - One part of a compound leaf. 

Legume - n. (L. legere, to gather) a 1-locular fruit, usually dehiscent along two sutures, bearing 

seeds along the ventral suture; a leguminous plant. 

Lemma - n. (Gr. lemma, husk) the lower (abaxial), and larger, of two membranous bracts 

enclosing the flower in grass. 

Lenticel - n. (L. lens, lentis, lentil) corky spots on young bark, arising in relation to epidermal 

stomates. 

Lenticular - a. (L. lenticula, a lentil) shaped like a double-convex lens. 

Lignify - vt., to convert into wood or woody tissue; to become wood or woody by chemical and 

physical changes in the cell walls that convert some or all of the constituents into lignin or 

lignocellulose. 

Lignin - n. (L. lignum, wood) organic substances which act as binders for the cellulose fibers in 

wood and certain plants, and adds strength and stiffness to the cell walls. Chemical structure of 

lignin is composed of a polymer of high carbon content but distinct from the carbonates. Consists 

of C6,C3 units. 

Ligulate - a. (L. ligula, little tongue) having or pertaining to ligules. 


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Ligule - n., hyaline extension of the leaf sheath on the adaxial side of the leaf. 

Limb - n. (AS. lim, limb) the spreading part of a synsepalous calyx or sympetalous corolla, 

usually referring only to the calyx or corolla lobes, sometimes to their lips. 

Limnology - n., the scientific study of physical, chemical, meteorological, and biological 

conditions in fresh waters. 

Linear - a. (L. linea, line) long and slender with parallel or nearly parallel sides. Long, narrow, 

grass-like or strap-like leaf. 

Lip - n. (AS. lippa, lippe, lip) the upper or lower part of a bilabiate calyx or corolla. 

Lobulate - a. (Gr. lobos, lobe) divided into small lobes. 

Locular - a. (L. loculus, a cell, box) having the nature of, or consisting of cells. 

Locule - n. (L. loculus, a cell, box) a compartment of an anther or an ovary. 

Loculicidal - a. (L. loculus, a cell, box; caedere, to cut) dehiscent dorsally down middle of 

carpels. 

Lodicule - n. (L. lodicula, coverlet) a scale at base of an ovary in grasses, supposed to represent 

part of a perianth. 

Loment - n. (L. lomentum, bean meal) a fruit of some legumes, contracted between the seeds, 

the 1-seeded segments separating at fruit maturity. 

Long-day plant - a plant that requires more than 12 hours of daylight before flowering will occur. 

Lumens - A measurement of light intensity. (1 lumen=10.76 lux). 

Lunate - a. (L. luna, moon; -ate) crescent-shaped. 

Lux - The standard for measuring light. 

Macronutrients - Nutrients used by plants in relatively large amounts. They are nitrogen (N), 

phosphorus (P), sulfur (S), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and potassium (K). 

Macrophyte - n. (Gr. makros, large; phyton, plant) a member of the macroscopic plant life 

especially of a body of water; large aquatic plant; the term 'aquatic macrophyte' has no taxonomic 

significance. 

Macroscopic - a. (Gr. makros, large; skopein, to view) items large enough to be observed by the 

naked eye. 

Marcescent - a. (L. marcescere, to wither) withering but remaining persistent. 

Marsh - n. (ME. mersh, meadowland) a tract of wet land principally inhabitated by emergent 

herbaceous vegetation. 

Membranous - a. (L. membrana, membrane) having a thin, soft, pliable texture. 

Mericarp - one of the two carpels that resembles achenes and forms the schizocarp of an 

umbelliferous plant. 

Mesic - a. (Gr. mesos, middle) conditioned by temperate moist climate; neither xerix nor hydric; 

pertaining to conditions of medium moisture supply. 

Micronutrients - Nutrients used by plants in small amounts. They are iron (Fe), manganese 

(Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), molybdenum (Mo), cobalt (Co), and boron (B). 

Microphyllidious - small, leaf-shaped. 

Mire - n. - synonymous with any peat-accumulating wetland. 

Moniliform - a. (L. monile, necklace; forma, shape) constricted laterally and appearing beadlike. 

Monoclinous - a. (Gr. monos, single, alone; kline, bed) having both stamens and pistils in the 

same flower. 

Monocotyledons - n. (Gr. monos, single; kotyledon, cup-shaped hollow) a class of angiosperms 

having an embryo with only one cotyledon, part of the flower usually in threes, leaves with parallel 

veins, and scattered vascular bundles. 

Monoculture - A large group of a single species of plant. 

Monoecious - a. (Gr. monos, single; oikos, house) a plant having unisexual male and female 

flowers on the same individual; said of a plant having unisexual flowers. 

Monotypic - a. (Gr. monos, only; typos, type) a plant of only one type. 

Moor - n. (ME. mor, fr. OE mor; akin MD. moer, mire, swamp) chiefly British: an extensive area of 

open rolling infertile land consisting of sand, rock, or peat usually covered with heather, bracken, 

coarse grass and sphagnum moss; a boggy area of wasteland usually dominated by grasses and 

sedges growing in a thick layer of peat. 

Morphology - n. (G. morphologie, fr. Gr. morph - (fr. morphe, form) + G. -logie, -logy, more at 

form) a branch of biology that deals with the form and structure of animals and plants, a study of 


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the forms, relationships, metamorphoses, and phylogenetic development of organs apart from 

their functions. 

Mucro - n. (L. mucro, sharp point) a stiff or sharp point abruptly terminating an organ; a small 

awn. 

Multipinnate - Leaf divided into several sub-groups of leaflets. 

Muricate - a. (L. muricatus, having sharp points) having a rough surface texture owing to small, 

sharp projections. 

Naturalize - vt. (Fr. naturel, natural) to adapt to an environment not native; of foreign origin, but 

established and reproducing as though native. 

Nectar - n. (L. nectar, nectar; Gr. nektar, the drink of the gods, from base of necros, dead, dead 

body, and tar-, who overcomes; hence, death overcoming; so named because the drink was held 

to confer immortality) the sweetish liquid in many flowers used by bees for the making of honey. 

Nectary - n. (Gr. nektar, nectar) a part of a flower that secretes nectar. pl. nectaries 

Neomorphosis - n. (Gr. neos, new; morphosis, change) regeneration in cases where the new 

part is unlike anything in the body. 

Neoteny - n. (Gr. neos, young; teinein, to extend, stretch) the retention of juvenile characteristics 

in the adult individual. 

Neotropical - From the tropical areas of the new world (South or Central America). 

Neutral flower - said of a sterile flower composed of a perianth without any sexual organs. 

Node - n. (L. nodus, knob) a knob or joint of a stem from which leaves, roots, shoots, or flowers 

may arise. A node will contain one or more buds. The point on a plant stem from which the leaves 

and/or roots appear. 

Nodose - a., nodular, knotty. 

Nomenclature - n. (L. nomen, name; calare, to call) the making and giving distinguishing names 

to all groups of plants. 

Nut - n. (ME. nute, note, fr. OE hnute; akin to OHG nuz, hnuz, nut) a hard-shelled dry fruit or 

seed having a more or less distinct separatable rind or shell and interior kernel or meat; a dry 

indehiscent one-seeded fruit with a woody pericarp developing from an inferior syncarpous ovary. 

Nutlet - a small nut. 

Oblanceolate - a. (L. ob, reversely; lancea, spear) shaped like a lance point reversed, that is, 

having the tapering point next to the leafstalk. 

Oblique - a. (L. obliquus, slanting) slanting; unequal-sided. 

Oblong - a. (L. oblongus, rather long) elliptical and from two to four times as long as broad. 

Obovate - a. (L. ob, against; ovum, egg) inversely ovate; having the shape of the longitudinal 

section of an egg, with the broad end at the top, as some leaves. 

Obovoid - a. (L. ob, against; ovum, egg; Gr. eidos, shape) inversely ovoid; roughly egg-shaped, 

with narrow end downwards; said of some fruits. 

Obsolete - a. (L. obsolescere, to go out of use) rudimentary or not evident; applied to a structure 

that is almost suppressed; vestigial. 

Obtuse - a. (L. obtusus, blunt) with blunt or rounded end. 

Ocean - n. (ME. ocean; L. oceanus, fr. Gr. okeanos, the ocean) the great body of salt water that 

covers mores than two thirds of the surface of the earth; any of its five principal geographical 

divisions, the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian, Arctic, and Antarctic. 

Ocrea - n. (L. acrea, greave or legging) - a tubelike covering around some stems, especially of 

plants of the Polygonaceae. 

Odd-pinnate - said of compound leaves having an odd number of leaflets, this is usually easily 

determined because there is a single terminal leaflet. 

Offset - Young plant growing along a stolon from the parent plant. 

Oligotrophic - Deficient in nutrients needed for plant growth. 

Opposite - a. (L. opponere, to oppose) said of leaves or bracts occurring two at a node on 

opposite sides of the stem. Said of flower parts when one part occurs in front of another. 

Orbicular - a. (L. orbis, circle) round or shield-shaped with petiole attached to center. 

Ovary - n. (L. ovum, an egg) the enlarged hollow part of a pistil in angiosperms in which ovules 

are formed. 

Ovate - a. (L. ovum, an egg) having the shape of a longitudinal section of an egg; egg-shaped 

and attached by the broader end. Egg-shaped. 


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Oviparous - a. (L. ovum, an egg; parere, to produce) egg-laying; producing eggs which hatch 

after leaving the body of the female; germinating while still attached to the parent plant; for 

example, mangrove. 

Ovoid - a. (L. ovum, an egg) egg-shaped. 

Ovule - n. (L. ovum, an egg) a structure in seed plants which contains the megasporangium 

(nucellus), megaspore (embryo sac), a food store, and a coat, and develops into a seed after 

fertilization. 

Palea - n. (L. palea, chaff) the upper, and usually shorter and thinner, of two membranous bracts 

enclosing the flower in grasses. 

Palmate - a. (L. palma, palm) leaves divided into lobes arising from a common center. 

Paludal - From a marshy or swampy environment. 

Pandurate - a. (L. pandura, a bandore) shaped somewhat like a violin, as some leaves. 

Panicle - n. (L. panicula, a tuft of plants) a branched racemose inflorescence often applied more 

widely to any branched inflorescence. 

Paniculate - a., panicled; arranged or growing in panicles. 

Papilla - n. (L. papilla, nipple) a glandular hair with one secreting cell above the epidermis level. 

Papillose - a. (L. papilla, nipple) descriptive of a surface beset with short, blunt, rounded, or 

cylindrical projections. 

Parenchyma - n. (Gr. para, besides; enchyma, infusion) plant tissue, generally soft and of thinwalled, 

relatively undifferentiated cells which may vary in structure and function. 

Parietal - a. (L. paries, wall) when the placenta is attached to the wall of the ovary. 

Peat - n. (ME. pete, fr. ML. peta, perh. of Celt. origin; akin to W. peth, thing - more at piece) a 

piece of turf cut for use as a fuel; a mass of partially carbonized plant tissue formed by partial 

decomposition in water of various plants and esp. of mosses of the genus Sphagnum, widely 

found in many parts of the world, varying in consistency from a turf to a slime used as a fertilizer, 

as stable litter, as a fuel, and for making charcoal. 

Pectinate - a. (L. pecten, comb) comb-like. 

Pedicel - n. (L. pedicellus, foot) the stalk of a flower in an inflorescence. The stem of an individual 

flower. 

Peduncle - n. (LL. pedunculus, small foot) the stalk of a flower borne singly or the stalk of an 

inflorescence. 

Peltate - a. (Gr. pelta, target) shield-shaped; leaves that are shaped like a shield and attached to 

the stem at the center or by some point distinctly within the margin, and having the petiole 

inserted into the undersurface of the lamina not far from the center. 

Penicullate - a. (L. penicillus, a pencil or small brush) having the form of a pencil. 

Perennation - n. (L. perennis, perennial) survival of a plant for a number of years. To live over 

from season to season. 

Perennial - a. (L. perennis, through; annus, a year) a plant that grows for 3 or more years and 

usually flowers each year. 

Perfect flower - a flower with both essential and accessory organs. 

Perfoliate - a. (L. per, through; folium, a leaf) said of opposite or whorled leaves or bracts that are 

united into a collar-like structure around the stem that bears them. 

Perianth - n. (Gr. peri, around; anthos, flower) the outer whorl of floral leaves of a flower, when 

not clearly divided into calyx and corolla; collectively, the calyx and corolla, or either one if one is 

absent. 

Pericarp - n. (Gr. peri, around; karpos, fruit) the fruit wall which has developed from the ovary 

wall; sometimes used for any fruit covering. 

Perigynium - n. (Gr. peri, around; gyne, female) fruit investing utricle of the sedges, Carex. 

Perigynous - a. (Gr. peri, around; gyne, female) growing in a ring around the pistil, as the 

stamens; having stamens, etc. growing in this way, said of a flower. 

Persistent - a. (L. persistere, to persist) remaining attached after the normal function has been 

completed. 

Petal - n. (Gr. petalon, leaf) any of the component parts, or leaves, of a corolla; the unit of 

structure of the corolla. 

Petaloid - a. (Gr. petalon, leaf; eidos, form) like a petal. 

Petiolate - a. (L. petiolus, small foot) growing on, or provided with, a petiole. 


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Petiole - a. (L. petiolus, small foot) the slender stalk or stem of a leaf, also called a leaf stalk. The 

"stalk" attaching the leaf to the stem. 

Phenotype - n. (Gr. phainein, to appear; typos, image) the characters of an organism due to the 

interaction of genotype and environment, a group of individuals exhibiting the same phenotypic 

characters. The detectable expression of the interaction of genotype and environment constituting 

the visible characters of an organism. 

Phenotypic - a., a set of characters arising from reaction to environmental stimulus. 

Phloem - n. (Gr. phloios, inner bark) the tissue involved in the transport of carbohydrates and 

food materials in a vascular plant, being composed of sieve elements, parenchyma cells and 

sometimes also of fibers and sclereids. 

Photosynthesis - The conversion of light energy into chemical energy: carbohydrates, (sugar 

and starch), are produced from carbon dioxide and water through the action of light on the 

chlorophyll of green plants. Oxygen is released in the process. 

Phyllode - n. (Gr. phyllon, leaf; eidos, form) a winged petiole with flattened surfaces placed 

laterally to the stem and functioning as a leaf. 

Phyllotaxy - n. (L. phyllo-, and Gr. taxis, arrangement) the arrangement of the leaves on the 

stem. The three common positions are: alternate, opposite, and verticillate. 

Phylogeny - n. (Gr. phyle, tribe; E. genesis) the racial history or evolutionary development of any 

plant or animal species. 

Pileus - n. (L. pileus, cap) umbrella-shaped structure of mushrooms or toadstools. 

Pilose - a. (L. pilosus, hairy) hairy; pubescence comprised of scattered long, slender, soft hairs. 

Pinna - n. (L. pinna, feather) a leaflet or a primary division of a compound leaf. pl. pinnas or 

pinnae. 

Pinnate - a. (L. pinnatus, feathered) divided in a feathery manner; with lateral processes of a 

compound leaf, having leaflets on each side of an axis or midrib. 

Pinnate - Divided. 

Pinnule (also pinule) - n. (NL. pinnula, fr. L., small feather, small fin) a secondary pinna, one of 

the ultimate divisions of a bipinnate or twice-pinnate leaf. 

Pistil - n. (L. pistillum, pestle) the unit of female function of a flower, may be comprised of a single 

carpel or two or more carpels united. 

Pistillate - n., said of a flower bearing a pistil or pistils but not stamens, may refer also to a plant 

having only pistillate flowers. 

Pith - n. (AS. pitha, pith) the soft, spongy tissue, consisting of cellular tissue, in the center of 

certain plant stems. 

Placenta - a. (L. placenta, flat cake) the part of the ovary from which the ovules arise. It generally 

occupies the whole or a portion of an angle of a cell. 

Placentation - n., the manner in which the placenta is arranged in the ovary. 

Plano-convex - flat on one side and convex on the other. 

Plant - n. (L. planta, plant) any of a kingdom (Plantae) of living beings typically lacking locomotive 

movement or obvious sensory organs, generally making its own food, possessing cell walls, and 

unlimited growth. 

Plantlet - n., a little plant. Plantlets that develop asexually from a parent plant: a rooted plantlet 

forming on a part of the mother plant. 

Plicate - a. (L. plicatus, to fold) folded into plaits, usually lengthwise; arranged in pleats, as a fan. 

Plumiform - Feather shaped. 

Plumose - a. (L. plumosus, feather) with hairlike branches, feathery. 

Pollen - n. (L. pollen, pollis, fine flour) the male or fertilizing element of seed plants, consisting of 

fine yellowish powder formed within the anther of the stamen. 

Pollinium - n., a mass of coherent pollen characteristic of orchids and milkweeds. 

Polygamo-dioecious - polygamous but chiefly dioecious. 

Polygamo-monoecious - polygamous but chiefly monoecious. 

Polygamous - a. (Gr. polys, much or many; gamos, marriage) having bisexual, pistillate, and 

staminate flowers on the same individual plant. 

Polymorphic - a. (Gr. polys, many; morphe, shape) having, assuming, or occurring in various 

forms, characters, or styles. 

Polymorphous - Having multiple shapes. 


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Polypetalous - a. (Gr. polys, many; petalon, a petal) with many separate petals. 

Pond - n. (form of pound, enclosure) a body of standing water smaller than a lake, often 

artificially formed. 

Pocosin - n. (Algonquian) a bog that has formed in a shallow, undrained depression, the 

surrounding land being somewhat elevated, the vegetation predominantly evergreen shrubs or 

small trees. Pocosins vary greatly in size. 

Prickle - n. (ME. prikle, prikel, fr. OE. prickle, pricel; a kin to MD. prikel, prickle) a sharp pointed 

emergence arising from the epidermis or bark of a plant. 

Primary production - the quantity of new organic matter created by photosynthesis. 

Procumbent - a. (L. pro, forward; cubare, to lie down) trailing or lying flat but not rooting. 

Production - n. (L. producere, to produce) the weight of new organic material formed over a 

period of time, plus any losses during that time period. Losses may be due to respiration, 

excretion, secretion, injury, death, or grazing. 

Productivity - n., amount of production over a given period of time. Expressed as a rate such as 

g/m 2 per day, kg/ha per year, etc. 

Proliferous - a. (L. proles, prolis, offspring; ferre, to bear) bearing supplementary structures such 

as buds or flowers, either in an abnormal manner or in a manner that is normal but from 

adventitious tissue. 

Propagulum or propagule - n. (L. propages, layer of a plant) a runner or sucker used in the 

asexual propagation of plants. pl. propagula or propagules. 

Prostrate - a. (L. prostratus, pp. of prosternere, to lay flat) growing on the ground, trailing. 

Protogyny - n. (Gr. proteros, fore; gyne, female) development of the female organs before the 

appearance of the corresponding male products - thus inhibiting self-fertilization. 

Pseudolamina - n. (Gr. pseudes, false; L. lamina, plate) the extended apical portion of a 

phyllode. 

Pseudovivipary - n. (Gr. pseudes, false; L. vivus, alive; parere, to produce) a condition where 

vegetative propagules replace some or all of the normal sexual flowers in the inflorescence. 

Pteridophyte - n. (Gr. pteris, fern; phyton, plant) a major division of the plant kingdom, having 

clear alternation of generations with a dominant vascular sporophyte initially dependent upon the 

gametophyte which is very reduced. 

Puberulent - a. (L. pubes, adult) covered with fine, short, and nearly imperceptible down; 

minutely pubescent, the hairs soft, straight, erect, but scarcely visible to the unaided eye. 

Pubescent - a. (L. pubescere, to become mature) a general term for hairiness; covered with soft 

hair or down. 

Punctate - a. (L. puntcum, point) dotted; with depressed dots scattered over the surface. 

Pustulate hair - a. (L. pustulare, to blister) hair with an enlarged base. 

Pyriform - a. (L. pyrum or pirum, a pear) pear-shaped. 

Raceme - A group of flowers similar to a spike, but with each individual flower on its own stem. 

Raceme - n. (L. racemus, bunch) inflorescence having a common axis and stalked flowers in 

acropetel succession. 

Racemose - a., an inflorescence whose growing points continue to add to the inflorescence and 

in which there are no terminal flowers, and the branching is monopodial, as racemes, or spikes. 

Rachilla - n. (Gr. rhachis, spine) the zigzag center upon which the florets are arranged in the 

spikelet of grasses or in some sedges. 

Rachis - n., the central prolongation of the stalk (peduncle), the axis through an inflorescence, or 

of a leaf stalk (petiole), the axis through a compound leaf. 

Radially - a. (L. radius, a ray, a rod, a spoke) arranged, or having parts arranged, like rays; 

developing uniformly around a central axis. 

Radially symmetrical - said of a flower or set of flower parts which can be cut through the center 

into equal and similar parts along two or more planes; actinomorphic. 

Ramet - n. (L. ramus, branch) an individual member of a clone. 

Receptacle - n. (L. recipere, to receive) the more or less expanded apex of a floral axis which 

bears the floral parts. 

Remote - a. (L. remotus, to remove) separated from one another; separated by intervals or 

spaces greater than the ordinary. 

Reniform - a. (L. ren, kidney; forma, shape) having the form or shape of a kidney. 


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Repent - a. (L. repens, crawling) said of a stem that is prostrate and rooting at the nodes. 

Reticulate - a. (L. reticulatus, latticed) like network. 

Retinaculum - n. (NL. fr. L. that which holds or binds, band, fr. retinere, to hold back, retain) the 

hook-like funicle of a seed of a plant of the family Acanthaceae; a band or band-like structure that 

holds an organ in place. pl. retinacula. 

Retrorse - a. (L. retrorsum, backward) having hairs or other processes turned toward the base. 

Retuse - a. (L. retuses, blunted) with a shallow, rounded notch at the apex. 

Revolute - a. (L. revolvere, to roll back) said of margins that are rolled backward (toward the 

abaxial side). 

Rhizomatous tuber - same as a corm. 

Rhizome - n. (Gr. rhiza, a root) a subterranean horizontal root-like stem sending out leaves and 

shoots from its upper surface and roots from its lower surface. 

Rhombus - n. (Gr. rhombos, object that can be turned) an outline like a rhomboid, a 

parallelogram with equal sides, having two oblique angles and two acute angles. 

Root - n. (AS. wyrt, root) the part of a plant, usually below the ground, that holds the plant in 

position, draws water and nutrients from the soil, stores food, and is typically non-green. 

Root pressure - pressure in the roots which, when the shoot is cut off, will cause liquid to secrete 

from the root stump; the mechanisms and tissues involved in this process are not clearly 

understood. 

Root tuber - swollen food-storing roots. 

Rootlet - n., a radicel; a little root or small branch of a root. 

Rootstock - same as a rhizome. 

Roseate - a. (L. roseus, rosy) rose-colored; rosy. 

Rosette - A plant that rises from a distinct crown. A group of organs, such as leaves, clustered 

and crowned around a common point of attachment. 

Rotate - a. (L. rota, wheel) shaped like a wheel; radially spreading in one plane. 

Rugose - a. (L. ruga, a wrinkle) having or full of wrinkles; corrugated; ridged. 

Rugulose - a., same as rugose. 

Runcinate - a. (L. runcina, a plane) pinnatified, with the lobes convex before and straight behind, 

pointing backward, like the teeth of a saw, as in the dandelion leaf. 

Runner - n. (AS. rinnan, to run) a specialized stolon consisting of a prostrate stem rooting at the 

node and forming a new plant which eventually becomes detached from the parent plant as in a 

strawberry plant. 

Saccate - a. (L. saccus, bag) having the form of a sac; pouchlike. 

Sagittate - a. (L. sagitta, arrow) shaped like the head of an arrow with the basal lobes pointing 

downward. 

Salverform - a. (L. salvus, safe; forma, shape, figure, image) said of a corolla in which the tube is 

essentially cylindrical, the lobes abruptly spreading; a gamopetalous corolla. 

Sarmentose - adj. (L. sarmentosus, fr. sarmentum, twig; plus, -osus, -ose) producing slender 

prostrate branches or runners. 

Scabrid - a. (L. scabridus, rough) slightly roughened. 

Scabrous - a. (L. scabrosus, rough) with small points or knobs, like a file; scaly, scabby, rough. 

Scandent - adj. (L. scandent-, scandens, pres. part. of scandere, to climb - more at scan) 

climbing plant of a creeping or scandent nature. 

Scape - n. (L. scapus, the shaft of a pillar, the stalk of a plant) a stem growing from the crown of 

the root, bearing the blossom without leaves. 

Scapose - a. scape-bearing; scapigerous; consisting of a scape. 

Scarious - a. (LL. scariousus, rough) tough, thin, dry, and semitransparent. 

Schizocarp - n. (Gr. schizein, to cleave; karpos, fruit) a dry fruit, as in the maple, that splits at 

maturity into two or more one seeded carpels which remain closed. 

Sclerenchyma - n. (Gr. skleros, hard; enchyma, an infusion) tissue of uniformly thick-walled, 

dead cells in the stem whose principal function is mechanical. The cells are usually grouped into 

fibers. 

Scorpioid - a. (Gr. skorpois, scorpion; eidon, form) resembling a scorpion; said of a circinnately 

coiled determinate inflorescence in which the flowers are two-ranked and borne alternately at the 

right and left. 


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Secund - a. (L. secundus, following) arranged or growing on one side only, as flowers or leaves 

on a stem. 

Seed - n. (AS. saed, seed) the part of a flowering plant that contains the embryo and will develop 

into a new plant if sown; a fertilized and mature ovule. 

Sepal - n. (Fr. sepale; L. separatus, separate; pelatum, petal) any of the leaf divisions of the 

calyx. When a calyx consists of but one part, it is said to be monosepalous; when of two parts, it 

is said to be disepalous; when of a variable and indefinite number of parts, it is said to be 

polysepalous; and when the parts are more or less united, it is said to be gamosepalous. 

Septate - n. (L. septatus, surrounded by a fence) having or divided by a septum or septa. 

Septicidal - a. (L. septum, division; caedere, to cut or divide) dividing through middle of ovary 

septa; dehiscing or breaking open at a natural dividing line. 

Septum - n. (L. septum, a partition) a partition separating two cavities or masses of tissue, as in 

fruits. pl. septa. 

Serrate - a. (L. serrare, to saw) notched on edge like a saw; having sharp notches along the edge 

pointing toward the apex; as a serrate leaf. When a serrate leaf has small serratures upon the 

large ones, it is said to be double serrate, as in the elm. A serrate-ciliate leaf is one having fine 

hairs, like eyelashes, on the serratures. A serrate-dentate leaf has the serratures toothed. 

Sessile - a. (L. sedere, to sit) sitting directly on base without support, stalk, pedicel, or peduncle; 

attached or stationary as opposed to free living or motile. A leaf that is directly attached to the 

plant stem with no petiole. 

Seta - n. (L. seta, bristle) a bristle-like structure. 

Setaceous - a. (L. seta, a bristle) bristly; set with bristles; consisting or having bristles. 

Shaft - Flower-bearing stalk. 

Sheath - n. (AS. sceth, shell or pod) a protective covering; lower part of leaf enveloping stem or 

culm. 

Shoot - n. (ME. schoten, to shoot, dart) a young branch which shoots out from the main stock. 

Short-day plant - a plant requiring less than 12 hours of daylight in order for flowering to occur. 

Silique - n. (L. siliqua, a pod) the long, narrow pod of plants of the mustard family, Cruciferae, 

with valves which fall away from a frame bearing the seeds. 

Sinuate - a. (L. sinuare, to bend) having a wavy margin, as some leaves. 

Sinus - n. (L. a bent surface, a curve, a fold or hollow, bosom, a bay) the rounded depression 

between two consecutive lobes. as of a leaf. pl. sinuses, sinus. 

Slough - n. (AS. sloh, a slough) a wet place of deep mud or mire; a sluggish channel; a swamp, 

bog, or marsh, especially one that is part of an inlet or backwater. 

Spadix - n. (L. spadix, a palm branch) a racemose inflorescence with elongated axis, sessile 

flowers, and an enveloping spathe; a succulent spike; a fleshy spike of flowers, usually enclosed 

in a spathe. 

Spathaceous - a., having a spathe, or having the nature of a spathe. 

Spathe - Modified leaf surrounding the flower . 

Spathe - n. (Gr. spathe, flat blade) a large leaflike part or pair of such enclosing a flower cluster 

(especially a spadix). 

Spatulate - a., shaped like a spatula or spoon, gradually widening distally and with a rounded tip, 

as some leaves. 

Species - n. (L. species, particular kind) a group of interbreeding individuals, not interbreeding 

with another such group, being a taxonomic unit including two names in binomial nomenclature, 

the generic name and specific epithet, similar and related species being grouped into a genus. 

Spermatophyta - n. (Gr. sperma, seed; phyton, plant) a major division of the plant kingdom, 

characterized by reproducing by seed and subdivided into the Gymnospermae and 

Angiospermae. 

Spicate - a. (L. spicatus, pp. of spicare, to furnish with spikes) having the form of a spike. 

Spicule - n. (L. spicula, a small spike) a small, slender, sharp-pointed piece, usually on a surface; 

a small spike of flowers. 

Spike - n. (L. spica, spike, ear of corn) a long flower cluster attached directly to the stalk. A group 

of flowers arranged closely at the end of a shaft, and attached directly to the shaft. 

Spikelet - n., a small spike of a large one; a subdivision of a spike; as the spikelets of grasses. 


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Spine - n. (ME, thorn, spinal column, fr. L. spinsa, thorn, spine, spinal column) a stiff sharppointed 

plant process as a modified leaf, leaf part, petiole, or stipule. 

Sporangium - The reproductive organ of primitive plants like ferns and mosses. 

Spore - n. (Gr. sporos, seed) any of various small reproductive bodies, often consisting of a 

single cell, produced by mosses, ferns, etc. asexually (asexual spore) or by the union of gametes 

(sexual spores); they are highly resistant and are capable of giving rise to a new adult individual, 

either immediately or after an interval of dormancy. 

Sporophyte - n. (Gr. sporo, a seed; phyton, plant) the diploid spore-producing phase in plants 

with alternation of generations. 

Spur - n. (AS. spura, spora, a spur) a slender, tubelike structure formed by an extension of one or 

more petals or sepals; also refers to a very short branch with closely spaced leaves. 

Stalk - n. (probably from Dan. stilk; Sw. stjelk; Icel. stilker, a stalk) the stem or main axis of a 

plant, which supports the leaves, flowers, and fruit. Any lengthened support on which an organ 

grows, as the petiole of a leaf or the peduncle of a flower. 

Stamen - n. (L. stare, to stand) the male reproductive organs in flowers; it is situated immediately 

within the petals, and is composed, in most cases, of two parts, the filament, and the anther, 

which is filled with pollen. 

Staminate - a., producing or consisting of stamens; flowers with stamens but not pistils. 

Staminodium - n. (L. stamen, a thread, and Gr. eidos, form) a sterile stamen or an organ 

resembling one. 

Standing crop - weight or organic material that can be sampled or harvested at any one time 

from a given area, but may not necessarily include the entire plant. Usually refers to normal 

harvesting procedures, unless specified, for the particular plant under consideration. 

Stellate - a. (L. stella, star) starlike; said of hairs that branch in such a manner as to radiate from 

a central point. 

Stem - n. (AS. stemm, tree stem) main axis of a plant typically above the soil surface, having 

leaves or scales, and a characteristic arrangement of the vascular tissue. 

Stem tuber - swollen structures produced by stolons and runners which remain dormant during 

adverse conditions and later grow into new plants when the conditions become favorable for 

growth. 

Stigma - n. (Gr. stizein to prick) the upper tip or part of the pistil of a flower receiving the pollen. It 

is generally situated at the upper extremity of the style. 

Stipe - n. (L. stipes, stalk) the stalk-like basal part of an ovary, or of a fruit such as an achene; the 

stem bearing pileus in mushrooms and toadstools. 

Stipel - n., a small secondary stipule at the base of a leaflet. 

Stipule - n. (L. stipula, a stalk, a straw) one of two foliaceous or membranaceous processes 

developed at base of a leaf petiole, sometimes in tendril or spine form, sometimes fused. 

Stolon - n. (L. stole, stolonis, a twig, shoot) a stem which grows from a stem above the ground, 

taking root at the tip, and ultimately developing a new plant. 

Stoma - n. (NL. fr. Gr. mouth - more at stomach) one of the minute openings in the epidermis of 

leaves, stems, and other plant organs through which gaseous interchange between the 

atmosphere and the intercellular spaces within these structures occur; the opening together with 

its associated guard cells and accessory cells. pl. stomata. 

Stramineus - a. (L. stramen, straw) of or like straw; straw-colored. 

Striated - a. (L. striatus, grooved) marked by narrow lines or grooves, usually parallel. 

Strigose - a. (L. striga, a furrow) covered with stiff hairs; ridged; marked by small furrows; surface 

clothed with stiff, often appressed hairs, these usually pointing in one direction. 

Style - n. (Gr. stylos, pillar; L. stylus, pricker) slender upper part of pistil, supporting stigma. 

Stylopodium - n. (Gr. stylos, pillar; pous, foot) the fleshy support at the base of the style in 

flowers of the carrot family, Umbelliferae. 

Submerge - vt. (L. submergere, to dip or plunge under) to sink or plunge beneath the surface of 

water. 

Submersed - Growing completely underwater. 

Submersed plants - plants growing with their root, stems, and leaves completely under the 

surface of the water. 

Suborbicular - adj. (L. sub, under, below; orbis, circle) approximately circular. 


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Subulate - a. (L. subula, an awl) awl-shaped; slender and tapering gradually to a fine point. 

Succulent - n. (L. succus, juice) juicy; full of juice or sap. 

Suffruticulose - a. (L. sub, under, below; frutex, a shrub) moderately frutescent; obscurely 

shrubby; usually woody only basally. 

Sulcate - a. (L. sulcus, a furrow) furrowed, grooved; scored with deep, parallel furrows or 

grooves. 

Suture - n. (L. suere, to sew) a seam formed when two parts unite; a seam or line or groove; 

usually applied to the line along which a fruit dehisces; any lengthwise groove that forms a 

junction between two parts. 

Swale - n. (Sw. sval, cool) a hollow or depression, especially one in wet, marshy ground. 

Swamp - n. (Sw. svampig, swampy) spongy land; low ground filled with water; a wooded area 

having surface water much of the time. 

Sympodial - a. (Gr. syn, with; pous, foot) branching, growth of axillary shoots when apical 

budding has ceased. 

Syncarp - n. (Gr. syn, together; karpos, fruit) a multiple or aggregate fruit derived from numerous 

separate ovaries of a single flower; a collective unit, as a blackberry. 

Syntepalous - flowers in which the sepals are fused. 

Taenia - n. (Gr. tainia, a ribbon or tape) formation of ribbon-like structure with little or no 

differentiation between the leaf blade and stem. 

Tannins - n. (L. tannum, oak bark) complex aromatic compounds some of which are glucosides, 

possibly giving protection or concerned with pigment formation. 

Taxon - n. (Gr. taxis, arrangement) a taxonomic category or unit, as a species or genus. 

Taxonomy - n. (Gr. taxis, arrangement; nomos, law) a science that includes identification, 

nomenclature, and classification of objects, and is usually restricted to objects of biological origin; 

orderly classification of plants according to their presumed natural relationships forming a basic 

biological discipline involving during its Linnean period the firm establishment of binomial 

nomenclature and acceptance of the static concept of fixity of the species, during its Darwinian 

period the dynamic concept of speciation by natural selection, and during its modern Mendelian 

epoch an expansion to include study of the mechanisms underlying speciation and related 

processes. 

Tendril - n. (O.Fr. tendrillon, tender sprig) a slender twining or clasping process, modified stem, 

leaf, or part of a leaf, by which some plants climb. 

Tepal - n. (Fr. tepale, from petale) denoting a unit of the perianth when the sepals and petals are 

essentially alike and not readily differentiated. 

Terete - a. (L. teres, round, smooth) nearly cylindrical in cross-section, as stems. 

Ternate - a. (L. terni, three each) growing in groups of threes, as some leaves. 

Testa - n. (L. testa, shell) the hard outer covering or integument of seed. 

Thalloid - a., of or resembling a thallus. 

Thallophyta - n. pl. (Gr. thallos, a young shoot; phyton, a plant) a primary division of plants 

including all forms consisting of one cell and cell aggregates not clearly differentiated into root, 

stem, and leaf, including bacteria, algae, fungi, and lichens. 

Thallus - n. (Gr. thallos, a young shoot) a plant body that lacks differentiation into distinct forms 

of stems, leaves, roots, and does not grow from an apical point. 

Therophytes - n. (Gr. theros, summer; phyton, a plant) an annual plant that overwinters as a 

seed. 

Thorn - n. (ME., fr. OE.; akin to OHG. dorn, thorn, ON. thorn, Goth. thaurnus, thorn, Skt. trna, 

grass, blade of grass) a sharp rigid process on a plant; specif., a short, indurated, sharp-pointed, 

and leafless branch developed from a bud in a manner typical to a leafy branch. 

Throat - n. (Gr. drossel, the gullet) term applied to an expanded part of a corolla tube just below 

the lobes. 

Thyrseus - n. (Gr. thyrsos, wand) a panicle-like inflorescence consisting of a slender 

indeterminate main axis with lateral axes determinate, i.e., cymose. 

Tiller - n. (OE. telgor, telgra, branch, twig, shoot) sprout, stalk, especially one from the base of a 

plant or from the axils of its lower leaves. 


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Tissue culture - The production of new plants from small amounts of plant tissue under carefully 

controlled laboratory conditions. The use of specialized methods to mass produce plants starting 

with small amounts of plant tissue. 

Tomentose - a. (L. tomentum, down) densely covered with short, matted hair. 

Tracheophyta - n. (LL. trachia, windpipe; and Gr. phyton, plant) a division of plants comprising 

green plants with a vascular system that contains tracheids or tracheary elements, being the 

Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta, commonly called vascular plants. 

Trichome - n. (Gr. trichoma, a growth of hair) an outgrowth of the plant epidermis, either hairs or 

scales; a hair tuft; any hairlike outgrowth of the epidermis. 

Trigonal - a. (Gr. trigonos, triangular) triangular in cross-section as applied to stems. 

Trigonous - a., trigonal; having three prominent longitudinal angles, as a style or ovary. 

Trimerous - a. (Gr. tria, three; meros, part) composed of three or multiples of three. 

Triploid - n. (Gr. triplus, triple) having or being a chromosome number three times the monoploid 

number. 

Triquetrous - a. (L. triquetrus, three-cornered) triangular; having a triangular cross section. 

Tristichous - a. (Gr. tria, three; stichos, row) arranged in three vertical rows. 

Truncate - a. (L. truncatus, cut off) terminating abruptly, as if tapering end were cut off; cut 

squarely across, either at the base or apex of an organ. 

Trunk - n. (OFr. trone; fr. L. truncus, a trunk, stock, stem) the main stem or body of a tree, 

considered apart from its roots and branches. 

Tuber - n. (L. tuber, a swelling or knob on plants) the short, thickened fleshy food-storing portion 

of an underground stem with many surface buds, generally shaped like a rounded protuberance. 

A swelling of root or underground stalk that functions as a storage organ as in a potato. 

Tubercle - n. (L. tuberculum, a swelling) a small rounded protuberance; root swelling or nodule; 

bubil; a surficial nodule; a thickened, solid, spongy crown or cap, as on an achene; a small tuber 

or tuberlike growth. 

Turbinate - a. (L. turbinatus, whirl, rotation) inversely conical; shaped like a cone resting on its 

apex. 

Turion - n. (L. turio, shoot) young scaly shoot budded off from underground stems, detachable 

winter bud used for perennation in many aquatic plants. 

Twig - n. (AS. twigge, twig) a small shoot or branch of a tree or other plant. 

Umbel - n. (L. umbella, dim. of umbra shadel) an arrangement of flowers springing from a 

common center and forming a flat or rounded cluster. 

Umbellate - a., bearing umbels; consisting of umbels; forming an umbel or umbels. 

Unisexual - a. (L. unus, one; sexus, sex) of one or other sex, staminate or pistillate only, but not 

both. 

Urceolate - a. (L. urceolus, a pitcher) shaped like a pitcher or urn. 

Utricle - n. (L. utriculus, a little bag or bottle) an air bladder of aquatic plants; membranous 

indehiscent 1-celled fruit. 

Valvate - adj. (NL. valvatus, fr. L., having folding doors) meeting at the edges without 

overlapping; opening as if by doors or valves. 

Variety - n. (L. varietas, variety) a taxonomic group below the species used in different senses by 

different specialists, including a race, stock, strain, breed, subspecies, geographical race, or 

mutant. 

Vascular bundle - a group of specialized cells consisting of xylem and phloem, sometimes 

separated by a strip of cambium and arranged in different patterns. 

Vascular cambium - lateral meristem that forms the secondary tissue and is located between the 

xylem and phloem. 

Vegetative cone - Growing tip of the plant. On a stem plant, it is the tip of the stem. On a rosette 

plant, it arises from the very center of the rosette. 

Vegetative reproduction - Reproduction via means other than sexual. Unless a mutation occurs, 

each generation of new plants is identical to the parent plant genetically. 

Velamen - n. (L. velamen, covering) a membrane; water-storing tissue in the outer layer of some 

roots. 

Vernal - a. (L. vernalis, of the spring) belonging to the spring; appearing or occurring in spring; of 

the spring season. 


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Verrucose - a (L. verrucosus, full of warts, warty) warty; having little warts or wartlike growth on 

the surface. 

Versatile - a. (L. versatillis, turning around) turning freely on its support, as an anther attached 

near the middle and capable of swinging freely on the filament. 

Verticil - n. (L. verticillus, whorl) an arrangement of leaves, flowers, inflorescences, or other 

structures which surround the stem in a circle upon the same plane about the same point on the 

axis. 

Verticillate - a. (L. verticillus, whorl) growing in a whorl or arranged on the same plane around an 

axis, as flowers, leaves, branches, etc.; arranged in verticils, whorled. 

Vesicle - a. (L. vesicula, bladder) any small bladderlike structure, cavity, sac, or cyst; a small 

bladderlike sac filled with air. 

Vestiture - n. (L. vestitus, grament) that which covers a surface, as hairs, scales, etc. 

Villous - n. (L. villosus, hairy) pubescent; shaggy; covered with fine long hairs, but the hairs not 

matted. 

Viscid - a. (L. viscum, bird lime) thick, syrupy, and sticky; viscous; covered with a viscid 

substance as of leaves. 

Viviparous - a. (L. vivus, alive; parere, to produce) producing young alive rather than in eggs, as 

in most mammals; multiplying by vegetative means such as buds or bulbils in the position of 

flowers. 

Wet weight - same as fresh weight; weight of plants after the outer surface covering of water has 

been removed. Wet weight is not a reliable measurement since methods to prepare plants prior to 

weighing vary considerably. 

Wet woodland - a wooded area having surface water some of the time, for intermittent short 

periods. 

Whorl - n. (AS. hweorfan, to turn) circle of flowers, parts of a flower, or leaves arising from one 

point; verticil. 

Whorled - a., when three or more leaves are arranged at the same level on a stem, typical of 

such plants as hydrilla. 

Woody - a. (ME. woddy, wody, fr. wode, wood + -y) of or containing wood or wood fibers; 

consisting mainly of hard lignified tissues. 

Xeric - a. (Gr. xeros, dry) characterized by a scanty supply of moisture, tolerating, or adapted to, 

arid conditions. 

Xylem - n. (Gr. xylon, wood) woody tissue that is part of the water-transporting system in plants, 

consisting of lignified tracheids or vessels, and which also acts as a supporting tissue. 

Yield - n. (AS. glidan, to pay, restore, give up) standing crop expressed as a rate, i.e., g dry 

weight per meter square per day. 

Zygomorphic - a. (Gr. zygon, yoke; morphe, shape) said of the corolla or calyx when divisible 

into equal halves in one plane only bilaterally symmetrical, with only one plane of symmetry. 


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The term "weed" means different things to different people. In the broadest 

sense, it is any plant growing where it is not wanted. Weeds can be native or 

non-native, invasive or non-invasive, and noxious or not noxious. Legally, a 

noxious weed is any plant designated by a federal, state or county government 

as injurious to public health, agriculture, recreation, wildlife or property. A noxious 

weed is also commonly defined as a plant that grows out of place (i.e. a rose 

can be a weed in a wheat field) and is "competitive, persistent, and pernicious." 

The noxious weeds mandated for control are plants non-native to North America. 

Consequently, these plants do not have the natural checks as found in their 

native land, such as insects, diseases, and herbivores that would keep the plant 

population in check. Due to the competitive aggressive ability of these plants 

coupled with no natural controls, these plants will develop mono-culture stands. 

Not only are many crops out competed by these weeds but native vegetation and 

the wildlife associated with it will be replaced. Consequently, identifying the 

weeds when they first become established and developing an integrated weed 

management plan to control them is critical in maintaining healthy, productive 

land. The term noxious weed is used to describe a legal designation for plant 

species that have been determined to be especially undesirable or difficult to 

control. 


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References 

40 Code of Federal Regulations (40 CFR). 7 Code of Federal Regulations (7 CFR) 

Oliveira, Victor J. (Oliveira, 1991). Hired and Contract Labor in U.S. Agriculture, 1987. AER-648. 

U.S. Dept. Agr., Econ. Res. Serv., May 1991. 

Runyan, Jack L. (Runyan, 1992). A Summary of Federal Laws and Regulations Affecting 

Agricultural Employers, 1992. AIB-652. U.S. Dept. Agr., Econ. Res. Serv., August 1992. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA, 1988). The Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and 

Rodenticide Act as Amended. 1988. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Pesticide Programs (EPA, 1992a). Regulatory 

Impact Analysis of Worker Protection Standard for Agricultural Pesticides. August 1992. 

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Office of Prevention, Pesticides, and Toxic Substances 

(EPA, 1992b). Questions and Answers, Worker Protection Standards. August 1992. 


(EPA, 1993a). The Worker Protection Standard for Agricultural Pesticides, How Soon Do You 

Need to Comply? March 1993. 


(EPA, 1993b). Worker Protection Standard Implementation. April 1993. 

Appendix: Exceptions and Exemptions to the Worker Protection Standard for Agricultural 

Pesticides 

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Invasive Plants 

1. Bossard, C. C., J. M. Randall, and M. C. Hoshovsky. 2000. Invasive Plants of California’s 

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Johnson, J. M. Randall, C. L. Roye, and A. E. Stanton. 2003. Criteria for Categorizing Invasive 

Non-native Plants that Threaten Wildlands. California Exotic Pest Plant Council and Southwest 

Vegetation Management Association. Available: www.cal-ipc.org. 

4. Hickman, J. C. (ed.) 1993. The Jepson Manual: Higher Plants of California. University of 

California Press: Berkeley, CA. 

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6. Holland, R. F. 1986. Preliminary Descriptions of the Terrestrial Natural Communities of 

California. Unpublished report. California Department of Fish and Game: Sacramento, CA. 


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