Samira Izidine* & Salomão O. Bandeira† - SABONET

MOZAMBIQUE 

Introduction 

Samira Izidine * & Salomão O. Bandeira † 

Mozambique is located on the southeast 

coast of southern Africa (between 10°27’S 

and 26°52’S, and 30°52’E, 30°12’E and 

41°51’E). The country occupies an area of 

approximately 800,000 km 2 . It shares common 

borders with Tanzania in the north, 

Malawi, Zambia, and Zimbabwe in the 

west, and South Africa in the south. The 

Indian Ocean coastline of Mozambique is 

over 2,700 km in length. 

The flora of Mozambique is characterised 

by miombo and mopane woodlands, 

grasslands, mangroves, and coastal mosaics 

(Wild & Barbosa 1967, White 1983). 

With 5,692 species of higher plants currently 

recorded for Mozambique, it is believed 

that some of these species are under 

pressure from human activity and natural 

causes. At total of 2,676 km 2 lies within protected 

areas, representing 11% of the country 

(Bandeira et al. 1994). 

Two main centres of endemism occur in 

Mozambique: Maputaland in the south— 

which includes areas in South Africa and 

Swaziland—and Chimanimani that is 

shared between Zimbabwe and central 

Mozambique (Hatton & Munguambe 

1998). Consequently, some plant species 

that occur in these centres of endemism 

and are listed as endemic, could well be 

near-endemic (and vice versa). Endemic 

species whose distribution ranges are dubious 

include Hexalobus mossambicensis 

and Xylopia torrei; examples of those sceptically 

considered near-endemic include 

Pseudosbeckia swynnertonii and Anthospermum 

ammannioides. Most of the botanical 

inventories undertaken in Mozambique 

have been conducted mainly in the south 

of the country; the centre and north have 

been less well documented. 

High population densities in towns, however, 

in conjunction with poverty-stricken 

conditions, stimulate forest and savanna 

depletion for fuelwood requirements; this 

has been the major cause of forest and savanna 

degradation in Mozambique. Deforestation 

rates reach up to 147,077 ha per 

year. Mangroves, one of main vegetation 

types in coastal Mozambique, are being 

subjected to deforestation at a rate of 

1,821 ha per year (Barbosa et al. 2001); 

mangrove degradation is particularly high 

in the rapidly expanding cities of Maputo 

and Beira. Other causes for the loss of species 

are traditional agricultural practices, 

monoculture systems, and unsustainable 

development. 

A Red Data List for Mozambique is therefore 

a necessity to identify species at risk of 

extinction, and can assist in defining priorities, 

strategies, and actions towards their 

conservation. 

Table 1. Number of taxa in each RDL category in Mozambique. 

RDL status Number of taxa 

Extinct (EX)1 

Critically Endangered (CR)6 

Endangered (EN)6 

Vulnerable (VU)109 

Lower-Risk near threatened (LR-nt)16 

Lower-Risk least concern (LR-lc)23 

Data Deficient (DD)139 

Total 300 

*National Institute of Agronomic Research, LMA Herbarium, Maputo, Mozambique 

†Eduardo Mondlane University, Botany Department, LMU Herbarium, Maputo, Mozambique 

Capital: Maputo, largest city and 

port 

Area: 801,590 km 2 

Languages: Portuguese (official), 

Macua, Ndau, Tsonga, Maconde, 

Swahili 

Currency: Meticais (MT) 

Total plant species: 5,692 

Total plant endemics: 177 

Total RDL plants: 300 

Focal RDL institutions: LMA, LMU 

Number of Protected Areas: four 

National Parks, five Game Reserves, 

Coutadas (“Official Hunting Areas”), 

one Transfrontier Park (Mozambique–South 

Africa–Zimbabwe), and 

several other proposed protected 

areas (including Transfrontier Parks) 

Population: 17,299,000 Growth 

Rate: 1.9% Density: 21.2 people/ 

km 2 

Phytogeography: Predominantly 

Zambezian, with Afromontane elements 

at higher altitudes. There is 

a broad belt of Zanzibar–Inhambane 

Regional Mosaic along the entire 

coastline and interior river valleys 

in the north except for a small area 

of Tonga–Pondoland Regional Mosaic 

in the extreme south. 

Flora: Mainly miombo woodland, 

with mopane woodland in the Zambezi 

and Limpopo Valleys. Montane 

forests and grasslands found at 

higher elevations. Mosaic of coastal 

woodlands, as well as forest/mangrove 

patches. 

Sources: Anonymous 2000, 

Bandeira, Hatton, Munisse & Izidine 

1994, Stuart & Adams 1990, White 

1983 

43 

MOZAMBIQUE

MOZAMBIQUE 

Table 2. Families containing the 

highest numbers of RDL species. 

Family Number of species 

Rubiaceae 26 

Fabaceae 20 

Euphorbiaceae 15 

Zamiaceae 13 

Table 3. Endemism on the RDL for 

Mozambique. 

Endemism Number 

of taxa 

Confirmed endemic 166 

Suspected endemic 11 

Confirmed near-endemic 60 

Suspected near-endemic 17 

Total 254 

Methods 

Information Synthesis 

During the first phase of RDL compilation, 

information regarding threatened plant 

species or those potentially at risk of extinction 

was synthesised. Data were gleaned 

from lists by Bandeira et al. (1994), Van 

Wyk (1996), Hatton & Munguambe 

(1998), Oldfield et al. (1998), and Walter & 

Gillett (1998). These lists tended to concentrate 

on endemic, medicinal, and woody 

species. 

After the compilation of the draft list, a Red 

Data List workshop was held in Maputo 

from 23 to 27 October 2000. Participants 

were trained in the use of the IUCN criteria 

and categories (IUCN 1994). Flora de 

Moçambique and Flora Zambeziaca were 

used to refine the preliminary list of species 

that merited Red List status. Additional 

information on some of the better known 

plant species from southern Mozambique 

was obtained from field observations by 

botanists. Herbarium specimen information 

from LMA and LMU was used to identify 

additional species localities, but was 

subsequently found to be of extremely limited 

value. Vegetation maps were used to 

determine the distribution of habitats in 

which the Red Listed species occur and 

were also used to estimate threats. 

We attempted to estimate distribution 

ranges (Extent of Occurrence and Area of 

Occupancy) but data were so unreliable 

(taxonomically), sparse, and outdated, and 

revealed so little about the threats in the 

habitats of many species, that it became 

extremely difficult to make assumptions 

and inferences. 

44 

Red List evaluations were done for species 

falling into the following categories: 

• Species endemic or near-endemic to 

Mozambique 

• Species restricted to small areas or limited 

habitats 

• Utilised taxa (timber, medicinal, and 

ornamental purposes) 

• Taxa in close proximity to high impact 

areas (settlement areas, agricultural and 

industrial developments) 

Application of the Red Data List 

Categories 

The IUCN (1994) Red List categories and 

criteria were applied, based on evidence 

concerning numbers, trends in disappearance, 

and the distribution of taxa. Factors 

such as population pressure on a species, 

proximity to human settlements, and agricultural 

and industrial activities were taken 

into consideration. For example, if a species 

occurs near human settlements or agricultural 

and industrial activities, then it 

is more likely to be lost. 

The Vulnerable D2 category was applied 

judiciously in cases where species were 

found only in type localities, the distribution 

range was likely to be narrow, and if 

threats were known. The Data Deficient category 

was applied in cases where species 

were known only from the type collection 

or from a single locality and where no information 

regarding threats was available. 

The threatened categories (Critically Endangered, 

Endangered and Vulnerable) were 

applied when the risk of extinction was 

certain and known to be high. Only in a 

few exceptional cases—for example, Raphia 

australis and the 13 Encephalartos species 

recorded for Mozambique—was complete 

information available, that is, throughout 

the entire distribution range for the species 

concerned. 

Results and Discussion 

Red Data List 

Some species found in the RDL presented 

here occur in previous, very prominent 

publications; the World List of Threatened 

Trees (Oldfield et al. 1998) listed 78 species 

and the 1997 IUCN Red List of Threatened 

Plants (Walter & Gillett 1998) listed 89 vascular 

plants (including trees) for Mozambique. 

In addition, several near-endemic 

species that occur in Mozambique were 

listed in Hilton-Taylor (1996) in the RDLs 

for Swaziland (Lebombo Mountains) and 

South Africa (Maputaland). 

Some 300 species, by contrast, are listed in 

the list presented here. Of these, 122 are 

listed as Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered 

(EN), and Vulnerable (VU). Many 

species (139) have, however, been categorised 

as Data Deficient (DD). Virtually all 

of the DD species are known from only one 

or a few herbarium collections, with very 

sparse and irrelevant information on the 

specimen labels. Many species, moreover, 

are not properly identified or possess uncertain 

taxonomic identification. 

In addition, the fact that few inventories 

were compiled for the interior and north 

of Mozambique, led to a far higher representation 

of southerly distributed plants on 

the Red Data List. 

Certain plant species like Dombeya cymosa, 

Carpodiptera africana, Corchorus junodii, 

and Grewia glandulosa, which were represented 

in previous Red Data Lists, have 

been excluded from this List. This is partially 

because the IUCN (1994) categories 

take into account quantitative data and exclude 

these species as candidates for a Red Data 

List owing to their abundance in the wild. 

With regard to plant families on the Red 

Data List, the Rubiaceae, Fabaceae 

(Leguminosae), and Euphorbiaceae are 

well-represented compared to other families 

(Table 2); this was an expected result, 

as these families are well-studied. The 

Orchidaceae of Mozambique, on the other 

hand, have been relatively poorly studied 

and are poorly represented because of a lack 

of field information. For example, Eulophia 

biloba is known only from a single specimen 

that was collected in 1895 near Beira, 

which today is a large coastal town. There 

are several similar examples from the 

Orchidaceae: Eulophia bissacata, Disperis 

mozambicense, Habenaria mossambicensis, 

and Liparis hemipiloides. Similarly, little is 

understood about the Poaceae of Mozambique, 

as many species are known only 

from a specific location; this may be an artefact 

resulting from the general unpopularity 

of collecting grasses. Furthermore, 

many grasses particularly from the coastal 

areas, may have been introduced from 

other countries—the Mozambique coastline 

has hundreds of years of trade history 

with neighbouring countries on the African 

mainland and the surrounding islands. 

Some 177 endemic species appear on the 

List (Table 3)—these endemics are found 

mainly in the Maputaland zone and the 

Chimanimanis. Some taxa have been listed 

as near-endemic (77 species), as they are

also found in South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, 

and Zimbabwe. It is, however, suspected 

that Mozambique possesses many 

more range-restricted species, especially in 

the north of the country. More inventories 

and field explorations are recommended 

in the northern countryside, as many species 

are likely to be shared across the 

Rovuma River and other political boundaries 

with Tanzania, presenting opportunities 

for collaborative field research. 

Useful and Threatened Species 

As in most other southern African countries, 

timber, medicinal, edible, and ornamental 

species are the most important 

groups of plant used in Mozambique. Close 

to 70% of the Mozambican population uses 

medicinal plants for basic healthcare 

(World Conservation Monitoring Centre 

1992); urban markets in Maputo and Beira 

sell medicinal plants derived from many 

parts of the country. 

In general, all utilised plants should be 

monitored, as they may be eligible for Red 

Lists, and their depletion will undoubtedly 

have serious socio-economic consequences. 

Timber species that were included 

in this List, such as Milicia excelsa (LR-nt) 

and Afzelia quanzensis (LR-nt), should be 

monitored. Medicinal plants such as 

Warburgia salutaris (VU A2cd), used for 

alleviating throat complaints (Bandeira et 

al., in press), should also be monitored. 

Species of Encephalartos are believed to be 

illegally exported for use as ornamental 

plants, mainly to neighbouring countries. 

The major threats to plant species in Mozambique 

are related to uses of a non-sustainable 

nature and include: 

• Heavy exploitation of natural resources 

for fuelwood 

• Industrial development 

• Traditional agricultural practices 

• Human settlements and urbanisation 

The most sensitive ecosystem zones include 

coastal areas and the areas surrounding 

main towns, owing to high population densities. 

In poverty-stricken areas, the main 

threat is deforestation for fuelwood and 

charcoal. Commercial deforestation takes 

place mainly in south-central Mozambique 

and in mangrove areas where there is a high 

abundance of woody tree species whereas 

industrial development and urbanisation 

are very high in Maputo and Sofala Provinces. 

In addition, destructive agricultural 

practices take place on a large scale, mainly 

in rural areas. 

Inhamitanga Forest in pristine condition. (Photo: J. Burrows) 

Inhamitanga Forest—the trail of destruction. (Photo: J. Burrows) 

Conclusions and 

Recommendations 

While compiling this List, several constraints 

were encountered: these range from 

a lack of information to the lack of a national 

checklist and incomplete and outdated 

information. We found that herbarium 

specimen information is an inadequate 

basis for determining Red Data List 

status for the plant species of Mozambique. 

Our knowledge of the flora of Mozambique 

is mostly restricted to southern Mozambique 

and field exploration in northern and 

central Mozambique is needed to update 

scientific information, as well as to increase 

the numbers of herbarium collections. 

Gathering information on endemics and 

near-endemics is especially important. 

Collaboration with neighbouring countries 

(Malawi, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, 

and Zimbabwe) and sharing of expertise 

are important elements that can assist 

in the compilation of botanical inventories. 

These inventories will form a basis for directly 

assisting in national conservation 

planning, sustainable resource utilisation 

strategies, and further research priorities. 

Acknowledgements We would like to express 

our sincere gratitude to the Red Data List National 

Working Group: Filomena Barbosa, 

Angelina Martins, Ana Bela Amude, Carla 

Ruas, Eduardo Massingue, Felisbela Gaspar, 

Silva Mulhovo, Köeti Seródio, Catarina 

Chidiamassamba, Maria da Luz Dai, and 

Agostinho Lisboa. Our thanks are extended 

to Janice Golding and Peter Phillipson who 

compiled and edited the Red Data List assessments. 

Marta Monjane and Paul Dutton, 

staff of Kew Herbarium (K), and anyone who 

directly or indirectly contributed to this work 

are also thanked. 

45 

MOZAMBIQUE

Samira Izidine* & Salomão O. Bandeira† - SABONET

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