Assessment of the biological values of different land cover types in ...

Supported by: 

Assessment of the biological 

values of different land cover 

types in the East Usambara 

Mountains of Tanzania 

By Charles Leonard, Moses Mwangoka, Victor Mkongewa, 

Nike Doggart and Heini Vihemäki 

Dar es Salaam 

October 2010

Cover photographs by Charles Leonard From left to right: 1. a sugarcane farmplot that was started 

to be harvested with a forest patch on the background 2.a photo-mosaic of tea field with forest 

patch and human settlements 

© Tanzania Forest Conservation Group 

Suggested citation: 

Leonard, C., M. Mwangoka, V. Mkongewa, N. Doggart, and H. Vihemäki (2010) Assessment of 

the biological values of different land cover types in the East Usambara Mountains of Tanzania. 

TFCG Technical Paper No. 23. DSM, Tz. 1 – 91 pp.

CONTENTS 

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ................................................................................ 1 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................................... 2 

1) INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 3 

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE PROJECT ................................................................................ 3 

1.2 REPORT STRUCTURE ............................................................................................... 3 

1.3 AN OVERVIEW OF THE EAST USAMBARA MOUNTAINS .................................................. 3 

2) BOTANICAL SURVEYS .......................................................................................... 5 

2.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ 5 

2.2 METHODS ............................................................................................................... 5 

2.3 RESULTS ................................................................................................................ 6 

2.4 DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................... 14 

3) TRANSECT WALKS .............................................................................................. 22 

3.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 22 

3.2 METHODS ............................................................................................................. 22 

3.3 RESULTS .............................................................................................................. 22 

3.4 DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................... 22 

4) BIRDS .................................................................................................................... 23 

4.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 23 

4.2 METHODS ............................................................................................................. 23 

4.3 SAMPLING INTENSITY ............................................................................................. 23 

4.4 RESULTS .............................................................................................................. 24 

4.5 DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................... 27 

4.5.3 HABITAT ASSOCIATION ...................................................................................... 29 

5) MAMMALS ............................................................................................................. 30 

5.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 30 

5.2 METHODS ............................................................................................................. 30 

5.3 RESULTS .............................................................................................................. 30 

5.4 DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................... 32 

6) RESOURCE USE SURVEY ................................................................................... 33 

6.1 INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................... 33 

6.2 METHODS ............................................................................................................. 33 

6.3 RESULTS .............................................................................................................. 33 

6.4 DISCUSSION .......................................................................................................... 37 

7) CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................... 38 

8) REFERENCES ....................................................................................................... 40

APPENDIX 1. HABITAT DETAILS FOR THE VEGETATION PLOTS IN THE EAST 

USAMBARAS ................................................................................................................... 41 

APPENDIX 2. LIST OF PLANTS FOUND IN THE MISALAI, SHAMBANGEDA AND 

KWATANGO VILLAGES’ LANDSCAPES. ...................................................................... 43 

APPENDIX 3. TRANSECT WALKS DATA...................................................................... 71 

APPENDIX 4. BIRD RINGING DATA. ............................................................................. 77 

APPENDIX 5. TIMED SPECIES COUNT DATA. ............................................................. 82 

APPENDIX 6. DEFINITION OF KEY LAND USE TYPES USED IN THE SURVEY ........ 91

Tanzania Forest Conservation Group 

The Tanzania Forest Conservation Group (TFCG) is a Tanzanian non-governmental organisation 

that has been promoting the conservation of Tanzania‟s forests since 1985. TFCG‟s mission is to 

conserve and restore the biodiversity of globally important forests in Tanzania for the benefit of 

present and future generations. We achieve this through capacity building, advocacy, research, 

community development and protected area management, in ways that are sustainable and foster 

participation, cooperation and partnership. 

TFCG supports field based projects promoting participatory forest management, environmental 

education, community development, advocacy and research in the Eastern Arc and Coastal 

Forests. TFCG also supports a community forest conservation network that facilitates linkages 

between communities involved in participatory forest management. To find out more about TFCG 

please visit our website www.tfcg.org 

TFCG is implementing the Integrating Livelihoods and Multiple Biodiversity Values in Landscape 

Mosaics project in the East Usambara Mountains. 

The World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) 

ICRAF is an international agroforestry centre with the vision of transforming rural livelihoods in the 

developing world by increasing the use of trees in agricultural landscapes to improve food security, 

nutrition, income, health, shelter, energy resources and environmental sustainability. 

The mission of ICRAF is to generate science-based knowledge about the diverse roles that trees 

play in agricultural landscapes and to use its research to advance policies and practices that 

benefit the poor and the environment. ICRAF‟ s goal is to become a partner of choice for a range of 

scientific and development institutions in their efforts to generate tree-based solutions to the global 

problems of rural poverty, hunger and environmental degradation. 

ICRAF and the Centre for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) jointly lead the Integrating 

Livelihoods and Multiple Biodiversity Values in Landscape Mosaics project that operates in five 

sites across the world. 

Contacts of TFCG: 

Tanzania Forest Conservation Group, PO Box 23410, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

E-mail: tfcg@tfcg.or.tz 

Tel.: +255 (0)22 2669007 

Website: www.tfcg.org

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

The East Usambara Mountains of north-east Tanzania are one of the 13 mountain blocks that 

comprise the Eastern Arc Mountains. The East Usambaras have high concentrations of endemic 

species including 7 endemic vertebrate species and 40 endemic tree species. However, most of 

the biodiversity studies in the area have concentrated on the Central Government Catchment 

Forest Reserves and the Nature Reserves. 

This survey was conducted to assess the biological values of different land cover types found in 

three village landscapes in the East Usambaras by a team of researchers from the Tanzania 

Forest Conservation Group (TFCG). The survey was conducted as a part of the „Integrating 

Livelihoods and Multiple Biodiversity Values in Landscape Mosaics‟ project, a partnership project 

between CIFOR and ICRAF, implemented by TFCG in Tanzania.The project was funded by the 

Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation. 

The survey covered plants, mammals, birds and use of the tree and forest based resources in the 

village landscapes by the communities. In addition, digital data was collected to validate previously 

produced land cover maps. Vegetation plots were used to assess plants within the three 

landscapes. Mammals were mainly assessed by camera trapping method. A combination of 

methods was used to assess the birds: mist netting and timed-species count methods. Interviews 

were used to assess resource use by the local people. 

The survey team recorded 162 plant species from 67 families across the different land use types in 

the three village landscapes. The team also recorded 10 mammal species. All the mammal species 

were recorded in the forests within the village lands. In addition, 88 bird species were recorded in 

the three village landscapes. The tree-based products that the local communities obtained from 

village landscapes included local medicines, timber, poles, fuelwoods, fruits and vegetables. A 

total of 56 species were mentioned to be used by the villagers. Most of them were obtained from 

the agroforest plots. 

The results of the survey indicate that the village landscapes in the East Usambaras support 

considerable biodiversity resources. These resources are important for conservation and 

supporting the local livelihoods. Apart from the village forest reserves, the other land use types on 

village lands, such as agroforests and fallows, support many valuable species that are also found 

in the forest reserves. Nonetheless few of the East Usambara and Eastern Arc endemic species 

that are known from the East Usambaras were recorded during the surveys. This highlights the 

importance of adopting a landscape approach to conservation including both protected areas and 

land uses such as agroforestry which provide habitat and corridors for some species.

Abbreviations and acronyms 

a.s.l above sea level 

CIFOR Centre for International Forestry Research 

DBH Diameter at Breast Height 

FBD Forestry and Beekeeping Division 

FR Forest Reserve 

ICRAF The World Agroforestry Centre 

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature 

MTSN Museo Tridentino di Scienze Naturali, Italy 

SDC Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation 

TFCG Tanzania Forest Conservation Group 

TSC Timed Species Count 

VFR Village Forest Reserve 

1

Acknowledgements 

Funding 

The survey was funded by the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation through World Agroforestry 

Centre (ICRAF) and CIFOR. 

Permission 

Permission to conduct this survey was kindly provided by the Forestry and Beekeeping Division of the Ministry 

of Natural Resources and Tourism and Muheza District Natural Resources Office. 

Survey team 

Team Leader: Nike Doggart 

Ecologist: Charles Leonard 

Botanist: Moses Mwangoka 

Ornithologist: Victor Mkongewa 

Field Asssistants: Francis and Benjamin (Shambangeda), Kanozo (Misalai), Gabriel Juma and Cosmas 

(Kwatango). 

Driver: Gerald Alphonce 

We are extremely grateful to the people of Misalai, Shambangeda and Kwatango for their co-operation in 

carrying out this survey. In particular, we would like to thank village leaders and all the villagers from Misalai, 

Shambangeda and Kwatango for sharing their local knowledge and for giving us their support. We would also 

like to thank Mr. Emmanuel Lyimo, the site coordinator of the project, for invaluable support to the work, 

including logistics. We are also grateful to Mr. Staline Kibet from East African Herbarium, National Museums of 

Kenya for checking the endemic and threatenes status of the plant species. 

Report writing and editing 

The report has been written by Charles Leonard and edited by Nike Doggart (TFCG) and Heini Vihemäki 

(ICRAF). We are also grateful to Salla Rantala from ICRAF and all those who provided advice and help when 

planning and conducting the survey. Ahsanteni sana! 

2

1) Introduction 

1.1 Background to the project 

This report documents the results of biodiversity surveys carried out in the East Usambara Mountains in 

Tanzania as a part of the Integrating Livelihoods and Multiple Biodiversity Values in Landscape Mosaics 

project, also known as Landscape Mosaics project. It is a partnership project between CIFOR and ICRAF, 

financed by Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation (SDC). In Tanzania, the project is implemented 

by the Tanzania Forest Conservation Group (TFCG) in partnership with ICRAF. The purpose of Landscape 

Mosaics project is to improve the livelihoods of the rural people and contribute to conservation of biodiversity 

values in the tropical landscape mosaics. The project is a multi-national project involving five selected CIFOR- 

ICRAF field sites in Africa and Southeast Asia. The botanical survey, transect walk and resource use survey 

methods have been standardized across the sites. 

The biodiversity surveys aimed at assessing the biodiversity of different land cover types and the value of that 

biodiversity to the local people in the three landscapes of Misalai, Shambangeda and Kwatango villages in the 

East Usambara Mountains. 

1.2 Report structure 

The report is organized in seven sections. The report begins with an executive summary followed by an 

introduction which contains the background of the project and an overview of the East Usambara Mountains. 

The next five sections provide the results of the surveys on plants, birds, and mammals, the transect walks, as 

well as the results from the resource use interviews. Each section includes introduction, methodology, results 

and discussion. The final section includes the conclusions and recommendations of the study. 

1.3 An overview of the East Usambara Mountains 

The East Usambara Mountains of north-east Tanzania are one of the 13 mountain blocks that comprise the 

Eastern Arc Mountains. The Eastern Arc is a chain of block-faulted, crystalline mountains under the climatic 

influence of the Indian Ocean (Lovett, 1985). The East Usambara Mountains extend over an area of 1,082 

km 2 in Korogwe, Muheza and Mkinga districts of Tanga region, between coordinates 4°45´ and 5°20´ S and 

between 38°26´ and 38°48´ E. The mountains are located about 40 km away from the city of Tanga. To the 

north west of the East Usambara Mountains lie the West Usambara Mountains. 

The rainfall distribution is bi-modal, peaking between March and May and between September and December. 

The dry seasons are from June to August and January to March. Rainfall is greatest at higher altitudes and in 

the south-eastern part of the mountains, increasing from 1,200 mm annually in the foothills to over 2,200 mm 

at higher altitudes. The west-facing slopes of the mountains are drier compared to the east-facing slopes due 

to climatic and topographical interactions. Due to their age, isolation and their role as condensers of the 

moisture from the Indian Ocean, the East Usambara Mountains support ancient and unique forests, rich in 

endemic species (Hamilton, 1989). 

In the East Usambaras, there are 32 forest reserves including two nature reserves, 10 Central Government 

Forest Reserves, eighteen Village Forest Reserves and two private forests with a total area of nearly 328 km 2 . 

The altitude of the East Usambara Mountains ranges from 130 m a.s.l in the lowlands to 1,506 m a.s.l in the 

highlands (Burgess et al., 2007). 

The East Usambara Mountains have the highest number of Eastern Arc endemic/near-endemic trees (40 

species) and about 35 Eastern Arc endemic and 42 near endemic vertebrates, excluding fish. In addition there 

are 7 vertebrate species that are endemic to the East Usambara Mountains (Burgess et al., 2007). An 

3

additional 35 vertebrate species found in the East Usambaras are endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains and a 

further 42 vertebrate species have ranges that also extend into the coastal forests and nearby mountain 

ranges. 

The Eastern Arc Mountain forests are the catchment area for the most of the rainfall feeding into the large 

rivers in the eastern Tanzania. The East Usambara Mountains supply water to Sigi River, a vital source of 

water for the local communities and the large city of Tanga. 

The proportion of recent forest loss in the East Usambara Mountains is quite high compared to other Eastern 

Arc Mountains of Tanzania. A recent study by Forestry and Beekeeping Division (FBD, 2006) indicates that the 

forest loss between the 1970s and the early 21 st century was 12%. The same study estimates that the 

woodlands of the East Usambara Mountains have declined from 155 km 2 to almost 60 km 2 in the 2000s. A 

parallel study carried out by Ph.D. Jaclyn Hall with support from TFCG has shown that the rate of forest loss 

may be even considerably higher. Her data shows a loss of 33 % in the forest cover between 1975 and 2006. 

A number of factors have contributed to the loss of forest habitats in the East Usambara. These include forest 

fires, clearance of forested land for agriculture, commercial fuel wood collection, pitsawing, harvesting for 

building materials, including poles and timber, and mining. 

4

2) BOTANICAL SURVEYS 

2.1 Introduction 

The botanical surveys were conducted in the landscapes of Misalai, Shambangeda and Kwatango villages. 

These areas have not been studied in-depth previously for their biodiversity value. Most surveys have 

concentrated on the Central Government Catchment Forest Reserves and the Nature Reserves, including 

intensive biodiversity surveys carried out by Frontier-Tanzania in the 1990s. The aim of the botanical surveys 

we conducted was to assess the botanical values of different land cover types in terms of plant resources 

which are important for supporting people‟s livelihoods and species which are valuable for biodiversity 

conservation. 

2.2 Methods 

Twelve 10x200 m vegetation plots were established in the village landscapes of Misalai (four plots), 

Shambangeda (three plots) and Kwatango (five plots). Within these plots, 1x40 m sub-plots were established 

for saplings with dbh less than 10 cm, 5x40 m for trees with dbh greater than 10 cm but smaller than 30 cm 

and 10x200 m for trees with dbh greater than 30 cm. Species identification was done for each individual plant, 

including trees, saplings, herbs, shrubs and climbers. Also the dbh and height of the plants were recorded. 

Specimens difficult to identify in the field were collected for further identification in the herbarium. 

Out of the twelve vegetation plots established in different land cover types (see appendix 6), three were 

located within the village forest reserves of Misalai, Shambangeda and Kwatango (one in each village forest 

reserve); three were within agroforestry sites and two within fallow lands (table 1). In addition, one plot was 

established in a mosaic of different land cover types, including fallow land, agroforest and monoculture, and 

another one in a mosaic of monoculture and mixed farming. The remaining two plots were established in an 

area of mixed farming and within a teak plantation. 

Table 1. Frequency of vegetation plots in different land cover types. 

Land Cover Type Number of plots 

Forest (within village forest reserves) 3 

Agroforestry 3 

Fallow land 2 

Mosaic of fallow land, agroforestry, mixed farming and/or monoculture 2 

Mixed farming 1 

Teak plantation 1 

Habitat details were recorded at each vegetation plot. These included details of topography, altitude, canopy 

height, shrub layer, ground layer, aspect, signs of past use and any other feature of interest. 

In this study, a herb is defined as any seed-bearing plant which does not have a woody stem. A shrub is 

defined as a woody plant with a dbh of less than 10 (excluding tree saplings), which may be accompanied with 

several mainstems arising at or near the ground. 

5

2.3 Results 

2.3.1 Number of individual plants recorded 

In total, 1,684 plants were found in the twelve vegetation plots established in the three village landscapes 

studied. Out of these, 8% were trees above 30 cm dbh, 2% were trees ranging dbh of 10-30cm, 35% were 

saplings (30 cm 

dbh 

Number of trees 

10-30 cm 

dbh 

genus Albizia were also recorded in the forest reserves. The tree species included Millettia usaramensis. 

Twelwe (12%) of the tree species were found in the mixed farming areas, of which one species; Dialium holtzii 

was also recorded in the forest reserves. In the land cover type consisting of a mosaic of fallow land, 

agroforest and monoculture, three (3%) tree species were recorded, of which none were recorded in the forest. 

Six (6%) of the tree species were recorded in the monoculture and mixed farming areas, of which none were 

recorded in the forest. In the teak plantation, twelwe (12%) tree species were recorded, of which none were 

recorded in the forest. 

Table 4. Tree species recorded in the landscapes of the East Usambara Mountains. 

Vegetation/Land cover type Number of tree Number of tree species also 

species recorded recorded in the forests 

Village forest reserves 58 - 

Agroforests 24 9 

Fallow lands 18 3 

Mixed farming plot 12 1 

Fallow land, agroforest and 

3 0 

monoculture plot 

Monoculture and mixed farming plot 6 0 

Plantation 12 0 

Out of the shrub species, six (35%) species were recorded inside the village forest reserves (table 5). Seven 

(41%) species were recorded in the agroforest plots, of which two were also recorded in the village forest 

reserves. The list includes Whitfieldia elongata and Piper capense. Five (29%) of the shrub species were 

recorded in the monoculture and mixed farming plot. Six (35%) of the shrubs were recorded in the fallow lands, 

one (6%) of the shrubs were recorded in the mosaic of fallow land, agroforest and monoculture plot and one 

(6%) of the shrub species was found in the mixed farming plot. Of these species, none were recorded in the 

village forest reserves. 

Table 5. Shrub species recorded in the landscapes of the East Usambara Mountains. 

Vegetation/Land cover type Number of shrub species Number of shrub species 

recorded 

also recorded in the forests 





Fallow land, agroforest and 

monoculture plot 

1 0 

Monoculture and mixed 

farming plot 

5 0 


Out of the herb species, only two species (6%) were recorded in the village forest reserves. Twentytwo (71%) 

were recorded in the agroforest plots, out of which one was recorded also in the village forest reserves. Eleven 

herb species (35%) were recorded in the fallow lands, eight (26%) herb species in monoculture and mixed 

farming plot while four herb species (13%) were recorded in the mixed farming plot, as well as in the mosaic of 

fallow land, agroforest and monoculture. In the plantation, two herb species were recorded. None of the herb 

species recorded on the land uses other than agroforests was also recorded in the village forests (table 6). 

7

Table 6. Herb species recorded in the landscapes of the East Usambara Mountains. 

Vegetation/Land cover type Number of herb species Number of herb species also 

recorded 

recorded in the forests 





Fallow land, agroforest and monoculture 4 0 

plot 



In Misalai landscape, 70 plant species were recorded. The list includes valuable timber tree species Newtonia 

buchananii, found in the Misalai Village Forest Reserve (table 7). 

Table 7. List of species recorded in different land cover types in Misalai village. 

Species 

Frequency per land cover type Uses 

Forest Agroforest 

Fallow 

land 

Adenia gummifera - - 1 - 

Agelaea pentagyna 1 - - - 

Albizia gummifera 6 - - - 

Alsodeiopsis schumannii - 1 - - 

Aoranthe penduliflora - 1 - - 

8 

Monoculture & 

Mixed farming 

Artocarpus heterophyllus - - 1 - 

Asplenium sp - 37 - - Not used 

Bersama abyssinica 2 - - - 

Bidens pilosa - - 1 4 Vegetable 

Boehmeria macrophylla - 19 - 

Bridelia micrantha - - 4 1 

Cedrela odorata - - - 1 

- 

Not used 

Building poles & 

fuelwood 

Chassalia parvifolia 9 1 - - 

Cinnamonum sp - 2 - 14 Spices & fuelwood 

Rotheca myricoides - 1 - - 

Clidemia hirta - 3 5 - Not used 

Coffea Arabica - 1 - - 

Commelina benghalensis - - 1 - 

Conyza sp - - 34 1 Not used 

Costus sp - 3 - - 

Culcasia sp - - - 2 

Dasylepis integra 1 - - - 

Desmodium repandum - 2 - -

Species 



Dissotis rutondifolia - - 3 

Fallow 


Dracaena laxissima 5 - - - 

Ensete ventricosa - 1 - - 

Ficus thonningii 1 1 - - 

9 

Monoculture & 


Grevillea robusta - - 1 1 

Helichrysium 

odorattisimum - - 1 - 

Hibiscus sp - - - 6 Vegetables 

Impatiens sp - 3 - - 

Isoglosa lactea 2 1 - - 

Justicia sp - - 2 1 

Landolphia buchananii 2 - - - 

Lantana camara - - 8 36 Not used 

Lippia javanica - - - 18 Not used 

Macaranga 

kilimandscharica 4 - - - 

Maesa lanceolata 1 - - - 

Maesopsis eminii - 4 - - Fuelwood & timber 

Manihot esculanta - - - 7 

Staple food & 

vegetable 

Milicia excelsa - - 2 - 

Myrianthus holstii 8 5 - - Fruits are edible 

Newtonia buchananii 5 - - - 

Oplismenus hirtellus - 2 - - 

Panicum sp - - 1 - 

Panicum trichocladum - - - 1 

Parinari excelsa 4 - - - 

Paulinia pinnata - - 1 - 

Pavetta abyssinica var. 

usambarica 2 - - - 

Persea americana - 2 - 2 

Piper capense 9 3 - - 

Polycias fulva 1 - - - 

Pteris sp - - 17 29 Not used 

Quassia undulata 4 - - - 

Rawsonia reticulata - 2 - - 

Rothmannia urcelliformis - 2 - - 

Rubus sp - - 20 - Fruits are edible 

Shirakiopsis elliptica - 1 1 -

Species 



Fallow 


10 

Monoculture & 


Solanum terminale - 1 - - 

Sorghum sp - - 8 - Staple food 

Sorindeia 

Fruits are edible 

madagascariensis 144 6 - - 

Steganotaenia lauraceae - - - 2 

Strembosia scheffleri 1 - - - 

Saccharum offinacirum - - - 3 

Tabernaemontana 

pachysiphon 2 - - - 

Triumfetta rhomboidea - - 2 11 Vegetable 

Vernonia lasiopus - - - 15 Not used 

Vernonia myriantha - - - 5 

Whiltifieldia sp 114 51 - - 

Xymalos monospora 3 2 - - 

Leaves used to cure 

fever 

Used as withies in 

house construction 

A total of 54 plant species were recorded in the different land cover types in Shambangeda village. The list 

includes Allanblackia stuhlmannii, one of the Eastern Arc near endemic tree species. The species was 

recorded inside the Shambangeda village forest reserve. Other valuable timber tree species included Newtonia 

buchananii and Milicia excelsa (table 8). 

Table 8. List of species recorded in different land cover types in Shambangeda village. 

Species 



Agelaea pentagyna 1 - - 

Albizia gummifera 1 - - 

Allanblackia stuhlmannii 14 - - 

Ananas comosus - 1 - 

Antiaris toxicaria 5 - - 

Artocarpus heterophyllus - - 2 

Fallow land (40%) & 

Agroforest (10%) & 

Monoculture (50%) 

Asplenium sp 1 - - 

Bidens pilosa - 14 5 Vegetable 

Bridelia micrantha - - 3 

Carvalhoa campanulata 2 - - 

Celtis gomphophylla 2 - - 

Cephalosphaera usambarensis 16 - - 

Chrysophyllum gorungosanum 1 - - 

Rotheca myricoides 1 - -

Species 






Clidemia hirta - 1 - 

Conyza sp - 5 3 Not used 

Dracaena laxissima 4 - - 

Drypetes usambarica 1 - - 

Erythroxylum emarginatum 1 - - 

Galiniera saxifrage 1 - - 

Grevillia robusta - 3 1 

Ipomoea batatas - 1 - 

Landolphia buchananii 1 - - 

Lantana camara 4 - 

Leptaulus holstii 1 - - 

Macaranga kilimandscharica 3 - - 

Maesopsis eminii 9 - - 

Manihot esculenta - 6 3 

Maytenus acuminate 1 - - 

11 

Stems used as 

toothbrush. 

Staple food & 

vegetable 

Mesogyne insignis 8 - - 

Milicia excela - 5 - Timber 

Mimusops obtusifolia 1 - - 

Myrianthus holstii 2 - - 

Newtonia buchananii 2 - - 

Olyra latifolia 1 - - 

Parinari excelsa 4 - - 


usambarica 1 - - 

Polygala sp - 1 - 

Polyscias fulva 1 - - 

Pteris sp - 44 16 

Quassia undulata 3 - - 

Rinorea angustifolia 70 - - 

Rinorea ferruginea 2 - - 

Rothmannia urcelliformis 1 - - 

To make juice 

& local beer 

Saccharum officinarum - 39 37 

Synsepalum msolo 2 - - Staple food 

Sorghum sp - - 12 

- 

Sorindeia madagascariensis 12 - 

-

Species 



Stachytapheta jamaicensis - 1 - 

Tabernaemontana pachysiphon 12 - - 

Tricalysia pallens 1 - - 

Trilepisium madagascariensis 1 - - 

Vepris simplicifolia 1 - - 




Vernonia myriantha - 5 - - 

12 

Leaves used to 

cure fever 

In Kwatango, 81 plant species were recorded (table 9). The list included an endemic tree species, including 

Cynometra engleri which was found only in the forest. The valuable timber tree species included Milicia 

excelsa and Pterocarpus tinctorius. Milicia excelsa was found in the fallow land and in the areas where mixed 

farming was practiced. Pterocarpus tinctorius was found in the forest. 

Table 9. List of species recorded in different land cover types in Kwatango village. 

Species Frequency per land cover type 

Forest Agroforest Fallow 


Plantation Mixed 

farming 

Acalypha neptunica 20 - - - - 

Uses 

Acalypha volkensii - - 31 - - Not used 

Agelaea sp 1 - - - - 

Albizia adianthifolia 1 - - - - 

Albizia schimperiana - - 6 - - Timber 

Albizia sp - - - 4 1 Not used 

Alchornia hirtella 5 - - - - 

Allophylus pervillei - - - - 2 

Annona senegalensis - - - 1 - 

Annona sp - - 1 - - 

Antiaris toxicaria - - 4 - - Fuelwood 

Blighia unjugata - - 1 - - 

Bosqueiopsis gilletii 8 - - - - 

Bothriocline sp - 1 - - 8 

Bosqueopsis gilettii 1 - - - - 

Bridelia micrantha - 4 - - - 

Carpodiptera africana - - - 6 - Fuelwood 

Ceiba pertandra - - 2 - - 

Citrus sinensis - 2 - - - 

Cola clavata 10 - - - - 

Commiphora Africana - - - 2 - 

Conyza sp - 38 - - 16 Not used






Cremaspora sp 2 - - - - 

Cussonia zimmermanii - - 3 2 - 

Cynometra engleri 4 - - - - 

Cynometra sp 13 - - - - 

Deinbollia borbonica 2 1 7 - - 

Desmodium sp - - - 3 - 

Uses 

Dialium holtzii 22 - - - 6 Fuelwood 

& poles 

Dichapetalum sp - - - - 2 

Diospyros mespiliformis 10 2 - - - 

Dombeya kirkii - - - 7 - Fuelwood 

Dombeya mupangae - - - - 30 Not used 

Drypetes gerrardinoides 1 - - - - 

Elaeis guineensis - 1 - - - 

Emilia sp - 3 - - - 

Erythrococca fischeri - - 1 - - 

Ficus exasperata - 23 - - - 

Fluggea virosa - - 3 1 - 

Grewia forbesii - - - - 1 

Grewia similis - - 1 - - 

Harrissonia abyssinica - - - 2 4 Not used 

Hostundia opposite - - 2 - - 

Justicia sp - - 3 - 1 

Landolphia buchananii 1 - - - - 

Lannea stuhlmannii - - 1 3 - 

Leptactina platyphylla - 3 - - - 

Mangifera indica - - 1 - - 

Manihot esculenta - 2 - - 1 

Manilkara sulcata 4 - - - - 

Markhamia sp 1 - - - - 

Milicia excelsa - - 7 - 3 Timber 

Millettia usaramensis 1 - 1 - - 

Musa sp - 5 - - - Fruits 

Ochna tomasiana 1 - - - - 

Panicum trichocladum - 1 1 1 1 

Paulinia pinnata - - 1 - - 

Phyllanthus sp - 2 - - - 

Polysphaera lanceolata - - - 

13 

- 21 Fuelwood 

& poles




14 



Pouteria alnifolia 2 - - - - 

Premna sp - - - - 1 

Pseudobersama 

mossambicensis 

2 - - - - 

Pterocarpus tinctorius 10 - - - - 

Rinorea angustifolia 5 - -- - - 

Rothmannia engleriana 2 - -- - - 

Uses 

Rytigynia lichenoxenos - - - - 8 Fuelwood 

& poles 

Schizozygia coffaioides 9 - - - - 

Sclerochiton sp 2 - - - - 

Cassia abbreviata - - - 2 

Setaria megaphylla - - - 1 - 

Sonchus sp - 2 - - - 

Sterculia appendiculata - - - - 3 

Stereospermum kunthiomum - - - 2 - 

Strychnos mitis 1 - - - 

Tectona grandis - - - 2 - 

Thespesia garckeana - 1 - - - 

Trichilia emetica - - - 4 3 Timber & 

Fuelwood 

Trilepisium madagascariensis - 1 - - - 

Uvaria angolensis 1 - - - - 

Vernonia myriantha - - 2 - - 

Zea mays - 47 - - - Staple food 

2.3.3 Tree regeneration 

There were more saplings in the forest than in other land cover types (table 2). In Misalai village forest, most of 

the saplings recorded were Sorindeia madagascariensis. In Shambangeda, Rinorea angustifolia dominated. In 

Kwatango, Cynometra sp. and Diospyros mespiliformis were the most common ones. 

2.4 Discussion 

2.4.1 Valuable plant species for conservation 

One East Usambara endemic (Cynometra engleri) and three Eastern Arc endemic, and seven near endemic 

plant species were recorded. The Eastern Arc endemics included Alsodeiopsis schumannii, Aoranthe 

penduliflora and Drypetes gerrardinoides.The Eastern Arc near-endemics included Allanblackia stuhlmannii, 

Carvalhoa campanulata, Cephalosphaera usambarensis, Dasylepis integra, Dialium holtzii, Mesogyne insignis 

and Pouteria alnifolia. In addition, several species are endemic to the Zanzibar Inhambane Regional Mosaic 

Coastal forest (table 10).

Table 10. Checklist of all the plant species recorded in the East Usambara Mountains. 

Genus Species Author 

East 

Usambara 

Endemic 

15 

Eastern 

Arc 

endemic 

Eastern 

Arc nearendemic 

Wide 

spread Exotic 

Acalypha volkensii Pax X NES 

Acalypha sp 

NA NA NA NA NA 

Adenia gummifera (Harv.) Harms X NES 

Agelaea pentagyna (Lam.) Baill X NES 

Agelaea sp NA NA NA NA NA 

Albizia adianthifolia (Schumach.) W.Wright X NES 

Albizia gummifera (J.F.Gmel.) C.A.Sm. X NES 

Albizia schimperiana Oliv. (var.amaniensis) X NES 

Albizia sp NA NA NA NA NA 

Alchornea hirtella Benth. X NES 

Allanblackia stuhlmannii Engl. X VU 

Allophylus pervillei Blume ZI NES 

Alsodeiopsis schumannii (Engl.) Engl. X VU 

Ananas comosus L. (Mer) X X NES 

Annona senegalensis Pers. X NES 

Annona sp 

Antiaris toxicaria 


Lesch. ssp. welwitschii var. 

usambarensis X NES 

Aoranthe penduliflora (K.Schum) Somers X VU 

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam X X NES 

Asplenium sp NA NA NA NA NA 

Thespesia garckeana (F. Hoffm.) Excell & Hillcoat X NES 

Bersama abyssinica Fresen. NES 

Bidens pilosa L. X NES 

Blighia unijugata Baker X NES 

Boehmeria macrophylla Hornem. X NES 

Bosqueiopsis gilletii De Wild. & T.Durand NES 

Bothriocline sp NA NA NA NA NA 

IUCN 

Threatened 

status


East 

Usambara 

Endemic 

16 

Eastern 

Arc 

endemic 

Eastern 


Wide 

spread Exotic 

Bridelia micrantha (Hochst.) Baill. X NES 

Carvalhoa campanulata K. Schum. X NES 

Carpodiptera africana Mast. ZI NES 

Cassia abbreviata Oliv. NES 

Cedrela odorata L. X X VU 

Ceiba pentandra L. X X NES 

Celtis gomphophylla Baker NES 

Cephalosphaera usambarensis (Warb.) Warb. X VU 

Chassalia parvifolia K.Schum. X NES 

Chrysophyllum gorungosanum Engl. X NES 

Cinnamonum sp NA NA NA NA NA 

Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck X X NES 

Clidemia hirta L. D. Don NES 

Coffea arabica L. X X 

Cola clavata Mast. ZI DD 

Commelina benghalensis Wall. X 

Commiphora africana (A.Rich.) Engl. X NES 

Conyza sp NA NA NA NA NA 

Costus sp 


Cremaspora sp NA NA NA NA NA 

Culcasia sp NA NA NA NA NA 

Cussonia zimmermannii Harms ZI X LC 

Cynometra engleri Harms X VU 

Cynometra sp 


Dasylepis integra Warb. X VU 

Deinbollia borbonica Scheffler X NES 

Desmodium repandum (Vahl) DC. X NES 

Desmodium sp 


Dialium holtzii Harms X VU 

IUCN 

Threatened 

status


Dichapetalum sp 

East 

Usambara 

Endemic 

17 

Eastern 

Arc 

endemic 

Eastern 


Wide 

spread Exotic 


Diospyros mespiliformis Harms X NES 

Dissotis rotundifolia (Sm.) Triana X NES 

Dombeya kirkii Mast. X NES 

Dombeya mupangae K.Schum. X NES 

Dracaena laxissima Engl. X NES 

Drypetes usambarica (Pax) Hutch. ZI NES 

Drypetes gerrardinoides Radcl.-Sm X VU 

Elaeis guineensis Jacq. X NES 

Emilia sp 


Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman X NES 

Erythrococca fischeri Pax NES 

Erythroxylum emarginatum Thonn. X NES 

Ficus exasperata Vahl X NES 

Ficus thonningii Blume X NES 

Flueggea virosa (Willd.) Voigt X NES 

Galiniera saxifraga (Hochst.) Bridson X NES 

Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. ex R.Br. X X NES 

Grewia forbesii Harv. ex Mast. X NES 

Grewia similis K.Schum. X NES 

Harrisonia abyssinica Oliv. X NES 

Helichrysum odoratissimum (L.) Less. X NES 

Hibiscus sp 


Hoslundia opposita vahl X NES 

Impatiens sp 


Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. X X NES 

Isoglossa lactea Lindau ex Engl. X NES 

Justicia sp 


Landolphia buchananii (Hallier f.) Stapf X NES 

IUCN 

Threatened 

status


East 

Usambara 

Endemic 

18 

Eastern 

Arc 

endemic 

Eastern 


Wide 

spread Exotic 

Lannea stuhlmannii (Engl.) Engl. X NES 

Lantana camara L. X X NES 

Leptactina platyphylla (Hiern) Wernham X NES 

Leptaulus holstii (Engl.) Engl. X NES 

Lippia javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng. X NES 

Macaranga kilimandscharica Pax X NES 

Maesa lanceolata Forssk. X NES 

Maesopsis eminii Engl. X NES 

Mangifera indica L. X X DD 

Manihot esculenta L. X X NES 

Manilkara sulcata (Engl.) Dubard ZI* NES 

Markhamia sp 


Maytenus acuminata (L.f.) Loes. X NES 

Mesogyne insignis Engl. X VU 

Milicia excelsa (Welw.) C.C.Berg X LR/NT 

Millettia usaramensis Taub. X NES 

Mimusops obtusifolia Lam. NES 

Musa sp 


Myrianthus holstii Engl. 

(Baker) G.C.C.Gilbert & 

X NES 

Newtonia buchananii Boutique X NES 

Ochna thomasiana Engl. & Gilg ex Engl. ZI NES 

Olyra latifolia L. X NES 

Oplismenus hirtellus (L.) P.Beauv. X NES 

Panicum trichocladum K.Schum. X NES 

Panicum sp 


Parinari excelsa Sabine X NES 

Paullinia pinnata L. 

var. usambarica (Bremek) 

X NES 

Pavetta abyssinica Bridson X VU? 

IUCN 

Threatened 

status


East 

Usambara 

Endemic 

19 

Eastern 

Arc 

endemic 

Eastern 


Wide 

spread Exotic 

Persea americana Mill. X X NES 

Phyllanthus sp 


Piper capensis L.f. X NES 

Polygala sp 


Polyscias fulva (Hiern) Harms X NES 

Polysphaeria lanceolata Hiern X NES 

Pouteria alnifolia (Baker) Roberty X NES 

Premna sp 


Pseudobersama mossambicensis (Sim) Verdc. ZI X NES 

Pteris sp 


Pterocarpus tinctorius Welw. X NES 

Quassia undulata (Guill. & Perr.) D.Dietr. X NES 

Rawsonia reticulata Gilg X LR/CD 

Rinorea angustifolia (Thouars) Baill. NES 

Rinorea ferruginea Engl. 

(Hochst.) D.A. Steane & 

ZI X NES 

Rotheca myricoides Mabb. X 

Rothmannia urcelliformis (Hiern) Robyns X NES 

Rothmannia engleriana K.Schum 

Rubus sp 

Rytigynia lichenoxenos (K.Schum.) Robyns 


Saccharum officinarum L. X X NES 

Schizozygia coffaeoides Baill. NES 

Sclerochiton sp 


Setaria megaphylla (Steud.) T.Durand & Schinz X NES 

Shirakiopsis elliptica (Hochst.) Kruijt NES 

Solanum terminale Forssk. NES 

Sonchus sp 

Sorghum sp 



IUCN 

Threatened 

status


East 

Usambara 

Endemic 

20 

Eastern 

Arc 

endemic 

Eastern 


Wide 

spread Exotic 

Sorindeia madagascariensis DC. X NES 

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis L. X NES 

Steganotaenia lauraceae ? 

Sterculia appendiculata K.Schum. ex Engl. ZI NES 

Stereospermum kunthianum Cham. X NES 

Strombosia scheffleri Engl. X NES 

Strychnos mitis S.Moore X NES 

Synsepalum msolo (Engl.) Pennington X NES 

Tabernaemontana pachysiphon Stapf X NES 

Tectona grandis L. X X NES 

Tricalysia pallens Hiern X NES 

Trichilia emetica Vahl X NES 

Trilepisium madagascariensis DC. X NES 

Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq. X NES 

Uvaria angolensis Welw. ex Oliv X NES 

Vepris simplicifolia (Verdoorn) Mziray X NES 

Vernonia lasiopus O.Hoffm. X NES 

Vernonia myriantha Hook.f. X NES 

Whitfieldia elongata (Beauv.) C.B.Cl. X NES 

Xymalos monospora (Harv.) Warb. X NES 

Zea mays L. X X NES 

Key to Table 10 

NES - No Evaluation status, NA - Not Applicable, VU – Vulnerable 

NT – Near threatened, DD – Data deficient, LR/NT – Lower risk/near threatened 

LR/CD – Lower risk/conservation dependant 

X - Status applies 

ZI - Endemic to Zanzibar Inhambane Regional Mosaic Coastal forest. 

ZI* - All collections are ZI except one from Mandera region of Kenyas 

IUCN 

Threatened 

status

In addition, fourteen of the tree species were found both in the village forest reserves and in other land use 

types, incuding agroforests and fallow lands. These included Millettia usaramensis, Dialium holtzii, Ficus 

thonningii, Deinbollia borbonica, Diospyros mespiliformis and trees of the genus Albizia. 

The presence of East Usambara endemic and threatened plant species in the village forest reserves shows 

that these forests play an important role in the conservation of the region‟s unique and threatened biodiversity. 

In addition, the trees in the Village Forest Reserves are used by the local people for various purposes, e.g. for 

timber, poles, local medicines and fruits. This is discussed in detail in the Resource Use Survey in section six 

of this report. 

The study also recorded several valuable species in other land cover types than the village forest reserve. For 

instance, some important timber tree species, including Milicia excelsa, were recorded in fallow lands, 

agroforest plots and mixed farming areas. The trees are either sold outside the village or utilized by the 

villagers. Furthermore, the existence of these tree species outside the forest reserves shows that also the nonreserved 

areas in the landscapes support valuable tree resources. Hence, while planning conservation 

strategies, the management of the tree resources outside the forest reserves should be addressed. 

2.4.2 Other potential plant resources 

Food and cash crops were recorded in several land use types including agroforest, mixed farming, 

monoculture and fallow land. Plant resources which were mentioned by the respondents to be used for food 

ranged from tubers and stems to fruits and seeds. The plants used for food included cassava (Manihot 

esculenta), sugarcane (Saccharum offinacirum), maize (Zea mays) and banana (Musa sp.). Cash crops 

cultivated included cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum), cinnamon (Cinnamonum sp.), clove and sugarcane. 

Most of the food and cash crops co-existed with other plants, including timber trees growing in the agroforests 

and fallow lands. The local people also used the tree resources in these areas to get different products, such 

as firewood and timber. 

21

3) Transect walks 


The aim of conducting the transect walks was to provide data to validate the preliminary land cover maps 

produced from the interpretation of the satellite images. 

3.2 Methods 

The first task was to identify and define the key land cover types. This was done in the field through rapid 

surveys and by using the project‟s draft land cover maps. The list of land cover types identified is attached as 

Appendix 6. 

Secondly, the transects were located in the field by using the land cover maps and also through discussions 

with local informants. This was to ensure that the transects wil cover an inclusive range of different land cover 

types, such as village forests, plantations, tea estates, and agroforests. 

At each site, straight line transects of one kilometer in length and ten meters wide were conducted (table 11). 

In total, eight hectares were covered by the transects. Only two transects were conducted in Shambangeda 

and Misalai landscapes because these areas were not large enough to be surveyed by more than two 

transects. Four transects were conducted in Kwatango. After each 50 m, the land cover type was recorded 

within the quadrat of 10 m around the point. At each of these points, where possible, a GPS reading was 

taken. Photos were also taken at each point. Semi-structured interviews were conducted with local informants 

whilst walking the transects in order to understand the land cover types. In addition, local names for common 

plant species were recorded. 

Table 11. Number of transects conducted in the East Usambaras. 

Village landscape Number of transects 

Misalai 2 

Shambangeda 2 

Kwatango 4 

Total 8 

3.3 Results 

The land cover types recorded every after 50m section are presented in Appendix 3. In summary, each 

transect was characterized by having at least three land use types, including agroforests, fallow lands, tea 

fields, mixed farming sites and monoculture plots. 


Most of the fallow lands were recorded adjacent to agroforest, mixed farming sites or monoculture plots 

suggesting that the fallow lands were used for farming activities previously. The local informants mentioned 

that most villagers in the area practice shifting cultivation whereby a previously cultivated area is left fallow to 

return its fertility. 

22

4) Birds 


The East Usambara Mountains contain six out of the 19 Eastern Arc endemic bird species and 13 out of 26 

near endemic species (Burgess et al., 2007). No single-block endemic bird species have been reported in the 

East Usambara Mountains (Baker and Baker, 2002). 

Birds of the Eastern Arc Mountains are amongst the best studied taxa, as it is the case with other parts of the 

world. The East Usambara Mountains are one of the most studied mountain blocks in Tanzania. However, 

most of the studies were confined to the sites which are managed by the central government authorities. 

The village landscapes visited during this survey are part of the East Usambara Important Bird Area (Baker 

and Baker, 2002). 

4.2 Methods 

Two methods were used to assess the bird fauna of the three village landscapes: Mist netting and Timed 

Species Count (TSC). The surveys were conducted in the vicinity of the vegetation plots. 

4.2.1 Mist netting 

Ten nets (five 12 m long and five 10 m long) were placed in a continuous line in each of the three sites for 

three days. The nets were opened early in the morning, checked frequently throughout the day and closed at 

dusk. Netting sites were at the vicinity of the vegetation plots in the village forest reserves. 

Each captured bird was identified and morphometric measurements were taken including weight, bill, tarsus, 

wing and tail. Where possible, sex and age were also recorded. Each capture was marked by a marker pen on 

the bill, as this made it easy to recognise recaptures thus avoiding repeating records of the same bird. Two bird 

species were recaptured in Misalai: Olive sunbird and Little Greenbul (twice). 

4.2.2 Timed Species Count 

The field team walked quietly for a period of 60 minutes at each vegetation plot in the morning, stopping 

frequently to identify and record all birds seen or heard calling. Approximately an area of 1 km 2 was covered at 

each site. Notes were recorded in a notebook in order to compile a species list. 

4.3 Sampling intensity 

The bird survey work was carried out by Victor Mkongewa, a field ornithologist; in three village landscapes of 

Misalai, Shembangeda and Kwatango. Timed Species Counts were conducted in nine vegetation plots while 

mist netting was conducted in the vicinity of the three vegetation plots which were established in the forests. 

Timed species counts were conducted in the vegetation plots with the following coordinates in Misalai between 

15/02 – 16/02/2009: 0459964/9446401; 0459623/9444539 and 0459039/9443745 while mist netting was 

conducted at 0458902/9445582 between 3/11 – 5/11/2008 (Table 7). All sites were situated between 958 and 

1212 m a.s.l. For Shambangeda landscape, TSC was conducted between 17/02 – 18/02/2009 at 

0458710/9440288 and 0458786/9442508 while mist netting was conducted at 0459231/9440838 between 

25/10 – 28/10/2008, altitude ranged from 887 to 971 m a.s.l. In Kwatango village landscape, TSC was carried 

out at altitudinal variation of 178 to 233 m a.s.l. between 19/02 – 20/02/2009 at 0470734/9446282, 

0470745/9447458, 0471931/9443422 and 0471310/9445254 while mist netting was conducted between 30/10 

– 01/11/2008 at 0469746/9446451. 

23

A total of ten mist nets (five were 12 m long and the other five were 10 m long) were placed in the three 

landscapes for a total period of nine days giving an average of 1320 net meter hours per full day of mist 

netting in each landscape (table 12). All of the mist netting was carried out within the Village Forest Reserves 

whereas the timed species counts were made outside of the VFRs. 

Table 12. Summary for sampling intensity for bird survey. 

Village 

landscape 

Total net meter 

hours 

Number of TSC 

days 

Altitudinal range (m 

a.s.l) 

24 

Period (mist netting 

and TSC respectively) 

Misalai 3960 2 958 – 1212 3/11 – 5/11/2008 and 

15/02 – 16/02/2009 

Shambangeda 3960 2 887 – 971 25/10 – 28/10/2008 and 

17/02 – 18/02/2009 

Kwatango 3960 2 178 – 233 30/10 – 01/11/2008 and 

19/02/ - 20/02/2009 

4.4 Results 

A total of 88 bird species were recorded through mist netting and Timed Species Counts in the three village 

landscapes of Misalai, Shambangeda and Kwatango in the East Usambara Mountains. The species are listed 

in table 13. 

Table 13. Checklist of bird species from three village landscapes in the East Usambara Mountains. 

Species Common name Forest 

Dependency 

Range 

Threat Status 

(March 2009) 

Accipiter tachiro African goshawk F W LC 1 

Alethe fuelleborn White chested alethe FF W 1 

Andropadus masukuensis Shelley's greenbul FF EA N LC 1 1 

Andropadus striifaces Stripe-cheecked greenbul FF W 1 

Andropadus virens Little greenbul F W LC 1 1 1 

Anthreptes collaris Collared sunbird F W LC 1 1 1 

Anthreptes neglectus Uluguru violet backed sunbird F W LC 1 

Anthreptes pallidigaster Amani sunbird F EA N EN 1 

Anthreptes rubritorques Banded green sunbird FF EA E VU 1 1 

Apalis melanocephala Black headed apalis FF W LC 1 

Aplopelia larvata Lemon dove FF W LC 1 

Apus affinis Little swift O W LC 1 

Artisornis moreaui Long-billed tailorbird 

F EA N 

CR 1 

Batis mixta Forest batis FF EA N LC 1 

Shambangeda 

Misalai 

Kwatango


Bias musicus 

25 

Dependency 

Range 

Threat Status 

(March 2009) 

Black- and -white shrikeflycatcher 

O W LC 1 

Bradypterus lopezi Evergreen forest warbler FF W LC 1 1 

Buteo oreophilus Mountain buzzard F W LC 1 1 

Bycanistes brevis Silvery-cheeked hornbill FF W LC 1 1 1 

Bycanistes bucinator Trumpeter hornbill F W LC 1 1 

Camaroptera brachyura Grey -backed camaroptera F W LC 1 1 

Centropus superciliosus White-browed coucal O W LC 1 1 1 

Cercococcyx montanus Barred Long-tailed cuckoo F W LC 1 

Ceuthmochares aereus Yellowbill F W LC 1 

Chrysococcyx cupreus African emerald cuckoo F W LC 1 1 

Chrysococcyx klaas Klaas's cuckoo F W LC 1 1 

Circaetus fasciolatus Southern banded snake eagle F W NT 1 

Cisticola erythrops Red- faced cisticola O W LC 1 1 1 

Colius striatus Speckled mousebird O W LC 1 1 1 

Columba delegorguei Eastern bronze-naped pigeon F W LC 1 1 

Coracina caesia Grey cuckoo-shrike FF W LC 1 1 

Cossypha heuglini White-browed robin chat O W LC 1 

Cryptospiza reichenovii Red faced crimsonwing FF W LC 1 

Dicrurus adsimilis Fork tailed drongo F W LC 1 1 

Dicrurus ludwigii Square tailed drongo FF W LC 1 1 1 

Dryoscopus cubla Black-backed puffback F W LC 1 1 

Emberiza affinis Cabanis bunting O W LC 1 

Estrilda astrild Common waxbill F W LC 1 

Euplectes capensis Yellow bishop O W LC 1 

Gypohierax angolensis Pulm-nut vulture O W LC 1 

Halcyon leucocephala Grey headed kingfisher O W LC 1 1 

Hypargos margaritatus Peters' twinspot F W LC 1 

Ispidina lecontei African Pygmy Kingfisher O W LC 1 

Ispidina picta O W LC 1 

Lamprotomis corruscus Black- bellied starling F W 1 1 

Laniarius aethiopicus Tropical boubou F W LC 1 1 1 

Lanius collaris Common fiscal O W LC 1 1 

Lonchura bicolor Black-and-white mankin O W LC 1 1 

Shambangeda 

Misalai 

Kwatango


26 

Dependency 

Range 

Threat Status 

(March 2009) 

Lophaetus occipitalis Long-crested eagle O W LC 1 1 1 

Malaconotus nigrifrons Black-fronted bush-shrike FF W 1 

Nectarinia bifasciata Purple banded Sunbird O W LC 1 1 1 

Nectarinia olivacea Olive Sunbird F W LC 1 1 1 

Neocossyphus rufus Red- tailed Ant-thrush FF W LC 1 

Nicator gularis Eastern Nicator F W LC 1 1 

Numida meleagris Helmeted Guineafowl F W LC 1 

Ploceus baglafect Baglafecht Weaver O W 1 

Ploceus bicolor Dark backed Weaver F W LC 1 

Ploceus cucullatus Black headed Weaver O W LC 1 

Ploceus subaureus African Golden Weaver O W LC 1 

Ploceus xanthops Golden Weaver O W LC 1 

Oriolus chlorocephlus Green- headed Oriole O W 1 

Phyllastrephus debilis Tiny Greenbul FF W LC 1 

Phyllastrephus 

flavostriatus Yellow- streacked Greenbul FF W LC 1 1 

Platysteira peltata Black-throated Wattle-eye F W LC 1 

Ploceus bicolor Dark -backed Weaver F W LC 1 

Ploceus ocularis Spectacled Weaver O W LC 1 

Poeoptera kenricki Kenrick's Starling F EA N LC 1 

Pogonocichla stellata White-starred forest Robin FF W LC 1 

Polyboroides typus African harrier Hawk F W LC 1 1 

Prinia subflava Tawny flanked Prinia O W LC 1 1 1 

Psalidoprocne holomelas Black saw-wing O W 

Pycnonotus barbatus Common Bulbul O W LC 1 1 1 

Saxicola torquata Common Stonechat O W LC 1 

Serinus cirrinelloides African Cirtil O W 1 1 

Serinus mozambicus Yellow fronted Canary O W LC 1 1 1 

Stactolaema leucotis White-eared Barbet O W LC 1 1 1 

Stactolaema olivacea Green Barbet F EA N LC 1 1 1 

Stephanoaetus coronatus African crowned Eagle FF W LC 1 1 1 

Streptopelia semitorquata Red-eyed Dove F W LC 1 1 

Tauraco fischeri Fisher's turaco FF W NT 1 1 1 

Tchagra australis Brown-crowned Tchagra O W LC 1 

Shambangeda 

Misalai 

Kwatango


27 

Dependency 

Range 

Threat Status 

(March 2009) 

Tockus alboterminatus Crowned Hornbill F W LC 1 

Treron calva African green Pigeon O W LC 1 

Trochocercus albonotatus White- tailed Crested flycatcher FF W LC 1 

Turdoides jardineii Arrow-marked Babbler O W LC 1 

Turtur afer Blue-spotted wood Dove O W LC 1 1 

Turtur tympanistria Tambourine Dove F W LC 1 1 

Vidua macroura Pin- tailed Whydah O W LC 1 1 

Zosterops senegalensis Yellow White-eye F W LC 1 1 1 


Forest dependency 

FF = strictly confined to forest, F = mainly forest, but also found outside, O = non-forest species 

Range 

W = widespread, EAE= endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains, EAN= near endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains (also 

found in at least one other African ecoregion) 

Threatened status 

CR=Critically Endangered, EN=Endangered, NT=Near Threatened, LC=Least Concern 

In total, 256 observations were made through TSC comprising 81 species. Similarly through mist netting, 122 

birds were ringed from 17 species. Out of these, 10 species were also sighted through TSC. Mist netting data 

from the three sites is attached as Appendix 4 and TSC data in Appendix 5. 

Olive sunbird, little Greenbul, Shelly‟s greenbul, yellow-streaked greenbul dominated the catch during mist 

netting. This is a usual case for understorey birds. 

As the mist netting was conducted in October – February 2008 no birds with moult were observed. The 

breeding season usually starts from August to February. Forest birds would be expected to moult towards the 

end of, or immediately after the breeding season. One olive sunbird was found with a brood patch in 

Shambangeda and two African golden weavers and a spectacled weaver were recorded with breeding 

plumage in Kwatango. Bird nests were also found: Sharpe‟s akalat, Little greenbul, African broadbill 

(Shambangeda), Purple-banded sunbird with two chicks and Forest batis (Kwatango). 


4.5.1 Species status and endemism 

The banded green sunbird Anthreptes rubritorques is the only Eastern Arc endemic bird species that was 

recorded during the surveys. The bird was recorded in Misalai and Shambangeda village landscapes. Six bird 

species that are near-endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains were recorded during the survey including 

Shambangeda 

Misalai 

Kwatango

Andropadus masukuensis, Anthreptes pallidigaster, Batis mixta, Poeptera kenricki, Stactolaema olivacea and 

Artisornis moreaui (table 14). The restricted range species recorded in the three landscapes of Misalai, 

Shambangeda and Kwatango have populations in other Eastern Arc Mountains and other sites including the 

coastal forests, Southern Rift and Kilimanjaro, Meru and Kenya Higlands. 

Table 14. Eastern Arc endemic and near endemics found in the three village landscapes of Misalai, Shambangeda and 

Kwatango and their ranges. 

Species Common name Village landscape in 

which was recorded 

Andropadus 

masukuensis 

Anthreptes 

pallidigaster 

Anthreptes 

rubritorques 

Artisornis moreaui 

Shelley's greenbul 

Shambangeda and 

Misalai 

Amani sunbird Shambangeda 

Banded green sunbird 

Long-billed tailorbird 


Misalai 

Misalai 

Batis mixta Forest batis Shambangeda 

Poeoptera kenricki Kenrick's starling Kwatango 

Stactolaema 

olivacea 

Green barbet 

Misalai, 


Kwatango 

28 

Range (Based on Burgess et 

al. 2007) 

South Pare, West Usambara, 

Nguu, Nguru, Uluguru, Ukaguru, 

Rubeho, Mahenge, Udzungwa 

and the Southern Rift 

Udzungwa and coastal forests 

from Kenya to Mozambique 

West Usambara, Nguu, Nguru, 

Uluguru and Udzungwa 

East Usambara, Njesi Plateau in 

Northern Mozambique 

North Pare, South Pare, West 

Usambara, Nguu, Nguru, 

Udzungwa, Uluguru, Ukaguru, 

Rubeho, coastal forests from 

Kenya to Mozambique, 

Kilimanjaro, Meru and/or Kenya 

Highlands 

South Pare, West Usambara, 

Nguu, Nguru, Uluguru, Rubeho, 

Udzungwa, Kilimanjaro, Meru 

and/or Kenya Highlands and the 

Southern Rift 

West Usambara, Nguu, Nguru, 

Uluguru, Ukaguru, Rubeho, 

Udzungwa, coastal forests from 

Kenya to Mozambique and the 

Southern Rift 

In terms of degree of endemism, Shambangeda is particularly important as it has five out of seven of the 

Eastern Arc endemic/near-endemic bird species recorded whilst Misalai and Kwatango have four and two 

Eastern Arc endemic/near-endemic bird species respectively. 

The long-billed tailor bird Artisornis moreaui, a critically endangered bird species (IUCN 2008) was only 

recorded in the agroforest plot in Misalai village landscape. The bird species was previously known to occur in 

the Nilo Nature Reserve and the Amani Plateau in Tanzania and in the Njezi plateau of northern Mozambique. 

Other threatened bird species recorded include the Amani sunbird Anthreptes pallidigaster, banded green 

sunbird Anthreptes rubritorques, southern banded snake eagle Circaetus fasciolatus and Fischer‟s turaco 

Tauraco fischeri (table 15).

Table 15. Threatened/near-threatened bird species recorded in the three village landscapes of the East Usambara 

Mountains. 

Species Common name Village landscape IUCN 2008 Threat 

Status 

Artisornis moreaui Long-billed tailorbird Misalai Critically Endangered 

Anthreptes pallidigaster Amani sunbird Shambangeda Endangered 

Anthreptes rubritorques Banded green sunbird Misalai and 

Shambangeda 

Vulnerable 

Circaetus fasciolatus Southern banded snake eagle Shambangeda Near Threatened 

Tauraco fischeri Fischer‟s turaco Misalai, 


Kwatango 

Near Threatened 

4.5.2 Species richness 

In terms of number of bird species, Misalai appears to be the richest with 57 species recorded, followed by 

Kwatango and lastly Shambangeda (table 16). Thus whilst species richness is lower in Shembangeda, the 

number of restricted range species is highest. 

Table 16. Number of bird species recorded in each village landscape. 

Village landscape Number of 

species 

Misalai 57 

Kwatango 51 

Shambangeda 42 

4.5.3 Habitat association 

Of the one Eastern Arc endemic and six Eastern Arc near-endemic bird species, all were found in agforest, 

fallow or plantation whilst only two, Batis mixta and Andropadus masukuensis were also found in the village 

forest reserves. Similarly all threatened bird species were found in agroforest, fallow or plantation. To some 

extent this result reflects the difference in sampling intensity whereby the village forest reserves were only 

sampled using mist netting whilst the land outside of the village forest reserves was only sampled using timed 

species counts. Nonetheless, this does suggest that the agricultural mosaic is providing habitat for a significant 

number of threatened and restricted range bird species. 

29

5) Mammals 


The Mammal survey was conducted in the three landscapes of Misalai, Shambangeda and Kwatango through 

camera trapping. Camera trapping method is normally used for surveying cryptic animal species. Camera traps 

can be grouped according to the type of sensor. In this study, we used heat in motion sensitive cameras. 

In Misalai, the camera traps were set in Misalai VFR while in Shambangeda, the camera traps were set in the 

Derema forest. In Kwatango, the cameras were set in Kwemazaghati Village Forest Reserve. Within 

Shambangeda it was not possible to find an appropriate place to put the camera traps, as such the traps were 

placed on Shembangeda village land within the Derema forest. 

5.2 Methods 

The aim of camera trapping was to detect the presence of cryptic mammal species in the forested areas of the 

three landscapes of Misalai, Shambangeda and Kwatango. 

Camera traps (Deercam DC 300) were set to take photos 24- hours per day and were mounted with 36 

exposures Kodak 200 ISO films. Sites for camera-trapping were selected by inspecting suitable landscape 

floors for wild animals‟ trails and other signs. The minimum delay between consecutive photos was set at one 

minute. The camera traps were retrieved after a month. For each camera-trapped species, the number of 

events (independent photos) was computed as the number of photos, not considering photos of the same 

species or individual taken within the same hour. 

5.3 Results 

A total of ten species were camera-trapped out of 98 events (independent photos), see table 17 below for 

details. 

Table 17. Summary of camera-trapping effort and results obtained. 

Site Number of events Number of species 

Misalai 25 5 

Shambangeda 34 7 

Kwatango 39 9 

Total 98 21 

The list of the species trapped and number of events for each landscape are presented in tables 18-20 below. 

The combined results are presented in table 21. Details of the trap sites are presented in the Appendices. 

In Misalai, three cameras were used out of which one did not work. The two operational cameras recorded 25 

events of five mammal species. 

Table 18. Camera-trapping results for Misalai. 

Species Number of events 

Black and rufous sengi (Rhychoncyon petersi) 2 

Squirrel (Paraxerus sp) 1 

Blotched genet (Genetta tigrina) 2 

Suni (Neotragus moschatus) 4 

Giant-pouched rat (Cricetomys gambianus) 16 

Total 25 

30

In Shambangeda, four cameras were used out of which one did not work. The three cameras recorded 34 

events of five mammal species. The cameras also recorded two bird species: Hadada ibis and lemon dove. 

Table 19. Camera-trapping results for Shambangeda. 


Blotched genet (Genetta tigrina) 8 



Bushy-tailed mongoose (Bdeogale crassicauda) 13 

Banded mongoose (Mungos mungo) 1 

Total 28 

In Kwatango, seven cameras were used out of which one did not work. The remaining six cameras recorded 

39 events of nine species (table 20). 

Table 20. Camera-trapping results for Kwatango. 


Black and rufous sengi (Rhychoncyon petersi) 9 


Squirrel (Paraxerus sp) 1 


Bushy-tailed mongoose (Bdeogale crassicauda) 2 


Baboon (Papio cynocephalus) 5 

Four-toed sengi (Petrodromus tetradactylus) 7 

African civet (Civettictis civetta) 1 

Total 39 

Table 21. Combined camera-trapping results for the three landscapes and degree of endemism. 

Species Number of Endemism IUCN Threat 

events 

Status 

Black and rufous sengi (Rhychoncyon petersi) 11 N VU 

Suni (Neotragus moschatus) 18 W LR/cd 

Blotched genet (Genetta tigrina) 10 W LC 

Squirrel (Paraxerus sp) 2 ? ? 

Giant-pouched rat (Cricetomys gambianus) 21 W LC 

Bushy-tailed mongoose (Bdeogale crassicauda) 15 W LC 


Baboon (Papio cynocephalus) 5 W LC 

Four-toed sengi (Petrodromus tetradactylus) 7 W LC 

African civet (Civettictis civetta) 1 W LC 

Total 92 


Endemism 

N = near-endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains 

W = Widespread 

? = animal identified to genus only 

IUCN Threat Status 

VU = Vulnerable 

LR = Lower Risk 

LC = Least Concern 

31


5.4.1 Species richness and abundance 

An assumption is made that the frequency with which an animal species is photo-trapped reflects their 

abundance. With 10 species of mammals (Table 21), the species richness in the three forest landscapes of 

Misalai, Shambangeda and Kwatango are relatively low when compared with other forests in the East 

Usambaras and in the Eastern Arc. By using the same method and comparable sampling efforts, TFCG/Trento 

Museum of Natural History, Italy surveys recorded 16 mammal species in the four forests of the Rubeho 

Mountains (Rovero 2008, unpbl.). In addition to the difference in the size of the forests; the variation is also 

likely to be due to hunting and habitat degradation that has reduced the mammal species diversity and 

abundance. 

The most common mammal species recorded were Suni and Giant pouched rat. No East Usambara or Eastern 

Arc endemic mammal species were recored from the landscapes surveyed. Most of the mammal species that 

were recorded are widespread. 

5.4.2 Threatened status 

Black and rufous sengi is the only species that was recorded during the surveys which is categorized as being 

vulnerable according to IUCN categories (IUCN, 2008). It is also near-endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains 

(Burgess et al., 2007). 

32

6) Resource use survey 


Most local communities in rural Tanzania depend on natural resources to support their livelihoods. In the East 

Usambara Mountains, the forest resources used most frequently by the local people include fuelwood, timber, 

poles, medicinal plants and food plants. The forests also provide valuable ecological services, such as 

reducing soil erosion. 

Resource use surveys were conducted by the survey team in the three study villages: Misalai, Shambangeda 

and Kwatango. The aim of the surveys was to gather information on uses of tree-based forest products by the 

local communities in the landscape. Observations during the field work and discussions with local people imply 

that most people in the study villages belong to Wasambaa tribe. Most of the villagers are subsistence farmers. 

The size of farm plots they own ranges from two to four acres. Most people cultivate one or more cash crop, 

such as cardamom, cinnamon, sugarcane and tea, and subsistence crops, such as maize, beans, bananas 

and cassava. 

6.2 Methods 

Interviews were conducted with selected groups of local villagers. The groups included men and women. At the 

start of the interview, the researcher explained the purpose of the interview, which was to collect information on 

the resources that they commonly use in the landscape. Then questions on various resource uses were asked, 

which were intended to identify what the most important tree-based products and services that they commonly 

use are. 

6.3 Results 

6.3.1 Tree-based products and services used by the local communities in Misalai 

In Misalai village, the respondents mentioned 46 wild species of plant that they use within their landscape 

including medicinal plants, fuelwood, timber, poles and wild fruits (table 22). Respondents also mentioned that 

they obtain wild vegetables from the landscape. They explained that they obtain most of the medicinal plants 

from their agroforestry plots, old fallows and nearby forests. In terms of the medicinal plants it is generally the 

leaves, bark or roots of the plant that are used. The particular part of the plant can either be boiled alone or 

mixed with some other ingredients to get the medicine. 

Timber was obtained from the village lands, including agroforest plots. Poles were commonly obtained from the 

agroforest areas. Fruits were collected from the agroforest areas and the village forests. Wild vegetables were 

mainly obtained from the forests, including the village forest reserve and the agroforest plots. 

Table 22. List of plant species used by local communities in the Misalai landscape. 

Local name Scientific /English name Land use type Use 

Mwaka Annickia kummeriae Agroforest,old Leaves used to treat soles / ulcers; 

fallows 

roots used to treat gonorrhea 

Muuka Helichrysium sp VFR and 

Leaves used to treat human foot fungi 

Agroforest 

and convulsions 

Mkwanga Tetrapleura tetraptera Agroforest, old Leaves used as soap and roots used 

fallows and mixed 

farming plots 

to treat flu 

Mweyewana, Cajanus cajan (Pigeon peas) Agroforest, old Roots used to treat convulsions 

33


Mbalazi fallows and mixed 

farming plont 

For treating ear problems 

Eza Solanecio sp VFR Leaves mixed with oyster nuts to treat 

intestinal worms 

Mzughwa Trilepisium madagascariensis Agroforest Leaves used to treat malaria and fever 

Mhasha Vernonia myriantha Agroforest Leaves used to cure fever 

Mzumbasha Ocimum suaveolens Agroforest Leaves and roots used to treat chest 

diseases and intestinal worms 

Khozandogohyi Spectranthus sp Agroforest Leaves were mentioned to treat 

Fwiza Unknown sp Agroforest 

intestinal worms and convulsions 

Leaves and roots used to treat 

scabies 

Ulenge Unknown sp Agroforest Leaves and roots used treats scabies 

Mkweme Telfairia pedata (oyster nut) VFR and 

The nuts are used to treat intestinal 


worms and oil is used by delivering 

mothers. Leaves are also used as 

vegetables. 

Longe Fern VFR For treating intestinal worms 

Mulungu Zanthoxylum usambarense Agroforest Bark is used to treat intestinal worms 

and back aches 

Mtura Solanum incanum Agroforest and old 

fallows 

For treating ear problems 

Mpapata Pandanus sp (Pineaple tree) Agroforest For treating ear problems 

Mkulo Ocotea usambarensis (Camphor) Agroforest Timber 

Mvule Milicia excels Agroforest Timber 

Mnyasa Newtonia buchananii Agroforest Timber 

Mkabela Grevillea robusta Agroforest Timber 

Mkaratusi Eucalyptus sp Agroforest Timber 

Mfimbo Beilschmiedia kweo Agroforest Timber 

Mhesi Maesopsis eminii Agroforest Timber 

Mwiza Bridelia micrantha Agroforest Timber 

Msambu Allanblackia stuhlmannii Agroforest Timber 

Mshai Albizia gummifera Agroforest Timber, Poles 

Mtambaa Cephalosphaera usambarensis Agroforest Timber 

Sedelea Cederela odorata Agroforest Timber 

Mlangalanga, 

Mparachichi 

Persea americana Agroforest Timber, Poles 

Mfenesi Artocarpus heterophyllus Agroforest Poles 

Mkungwira Sorindea 

Madagascariensis 

VFR Fruits 

Msambia Synsepalum msolo VFR and mixed 


Fruits 

Samaka Afromomum sp VFR Fruits 

Mshaa Unknown sp. VFR and mixed 


Fruits 

Machuchu Unknown sp. Agroforest Fruits 

Mstaferi Annona muricata Agroforest Fruits 

Mnavu Solanum nigrum VFR and 


Vegetables 

Msangani Unknown sp. Agroforest Vegetables 

Ndelema Basella alba Agroforest Vegetables 

34


Mchunga Sonchos sp Agroforest Vegetables 

Mbwembwe Bidens pilosa Agroforest Vegetables 

6.3.2 Most important income generating tree-based products and services in Misalai 

According to the respondents, seven non-timber forest products that provide them with the most income 

included Allanblackia, cinnamon, cardamom, cloves, coffee, oyster nuts and taro tubers. The plant products 

that earn the greatest incomes are listed in table 23. Respondents also mentioned bananas, beans and sugar 

cane as being important traded products. 

Table 23. List of non-timber and timber forest products that bring the most income in Misalai Landscape and their prices. 

Local name Scientific/English name Land use type Price (Tshs) 

Masambu Seeds of Allanblackia stuhlmannii VFR and Agroforest 250 per kg of seeds 

Dalasini Cinnamomum zeylanicum Agroforest 

Iliki Cardamon Monoculture and Agroforest 3,000 per kg 

Karafuu Cloves Agroforest 4,000 per kg 

Kahawa Coffea arabica Agroforest 1,500 per kg 

Makweme Oyster nuts (Telfairia pedata) VFR and Agroforest 5,000 per basket 

Mbao Timber Forest and Agroforest 1,500 – 5,000 per piece 

depending on size 

Magimbi Taro tubers (Colocasia sp) Agroforest 11,000 – 13,000 per 50 kg 

bag 

6.3.3 Tree-based products and services used by the local communities in Shambangeda 

In Shembangeda, the villagers stated that wild plant products that they harvest within their village landscape 

include: fuelwood, local medicines, mushrooms, Allanblackia fruits, timber and poles (table 24). According to 

he respondents, they mainly collected timber and poles from the agroforest areas after seeking a permit from 

the village government. Allanblackia, local medicines, mushrooms and fuelwood are obtained within the forests 

in their areas including the VFR as well as the agroforest plots. 

Table 24. List of plant species used by local communities in the Shambangeda landscape. 

Local name Scient/Engl name Land use type Use 

Muuka Helichrysium sp Forest and agroforest Leaves are used to treat intestinal worms 

Mkwanga Tetrapleura tetraptera Forest and agroforet Leaves are used to treat Kambaku” 

Mwaka Annickia kummeriae Forest and agroforest Leaves are used to treat sores/ulcers 

Mzughwa Trilepisium madascariensis Forest and agroforest For treating malaria 

Mhesi Maesopsis eminii Forest and agroforest Fuelwood 

The respondents in Shambangeda village mentioned medicinal plants and fuelwood to be the most important 

tree based products that they are obtaining within their landscape. The third one was water including rains 

which they linked with their efforts to conserve their landscapes well, including the forest. Allanblackia fruits, 

mushroom and timber were also mentioned to be important. 

6.3.4 Most important income generating tree-based products and services in Shambangeda 

Timber, fuelwood, Allanblackia fruits, cardamon, cinnamon, cloves, sugar cane and black pepper were 

mentioned as the tree–based products which are most traded in the area. Most of the products are sold 

35

outside the village, although timber is mostly traded within the village. Most of the fuelwood is sold to tea 

factories whilst most of the sugarcane is sold to Dar es Salaam and Tanga cities. Timber was obtained from 

the agroforest areas, for which a permit had to be applied first from the village government. Mhesi (Maesopsis 

eminii) was among the most preferred tree species for fuelwood. 

Table 25. List of plant species that bring the most income in Shembangeda landscape and their prices. 

Local name Scient/English name Land use type Price(Tshs) 

Mbao Timber Agroforest 2,500-3000 per piece 

Kuni Fuelwood VRF and Agroforest 1,500 per 3ft 

Masambu Seeds of Allanblackia stuhlmannii VFR and Agroforest 200 per kg 

Miwa Sugarcane Monoculture sites 80-100 per piece 

Iliki Cardamon Agroforest and 

monoculture sites 

2,500-3000 per kg 

Mdalasini Cinnamomum zeylanicum Forest and Agroforest 700 per kg 

Karafuu Clove Agroforest 

Pilipili manga Black pepper Agroforest 

6.3.5 Tree-based products and services used by the local communities in Kwatango 

In Kwatango village, respondents mentioned timber, poles, fuelwood, fruits and local medicines as tree – 

based products which they obtain in their areas (table 26). They mentioned to get timber and poles from the 

forests within their areas as well as in other areas such as old fallow lands and agroforests. The respondents 

mentioned to obtain medicinal plants from the forests and also in areas within the village land including 

agroforest plots and valleys. Mjavikazi was the only plant mentioned as being found only in forests around the 

area including the Village Forest Reserve. The tree was mentioned to treat men‟s sexual hormone problems. 

36

Table 26. List plant species used by local communities in the Kwatango landscape. 

Local name Scientific/Englis name Land use type Use 

Mbambakofi Afzelia quanzensis Forest and Agroforest Timber 

Mkenge Albizia versicolor Forest and Agroforest Timber and local medicines – treat 

chest problems and “kambaku” 

Mninga Pterocarpus tinctorius Forest and Agroforest Timber and Poles 

Mvule Milicia excelsa Forest and Agroforest Timber 

Mitiki Tectona grandis, teak Plantation and Agroforest Timber and Poles 

Mgude Sterculia appendiculata Forest and Agroforest Timber 

Mpopote Unknown sp. Forest and Agroforest Timber 

Khozandoghoi Spectranthus sp Old fallow lands Roots used to treat intestinal worms 

Mzughwa Trilepisium 

Agroforest For treating malaria 

madagascariensis 

Mtura Solanum incanum Agroforest For treating stomach problems 

Mhasha Vernonia myriantha Agroforest For treating chest problems. 

Mwengee Unknown sp. ? For treating sores/ulcers 

Mjavikazi Unknown sp. Forest reserve Roots used to treat men‟s sexual 

hormonal problems 

Mfleta and Albizia anthelmintica Agroforest For treating body tiredness 

Msaji Senna siamea Agroforest For treating body tiredness 

Mwarobaini Azadirachta indica Agroforest For treating malaria and pesticide 

6.3.6 Most impotant income generating tree-based products and services in Kwatango 

Timber, poles and fuelwood were the most frequently traded products within the village and outside (table 26). 

According to the respondents, mitiki (Tectona grandis), mkenge (Albizia vescolar), mvule (Milicia excelsa), 

mningamaji (Pterocarpus tinctorius), mbambakofi (Afzelia quanzensis), mpopote and mgule (Sterculia 

appendiculata) were among the species traded in their area. 

The price for timber was reported to vary depending on the type and size of the timber. Generally, they stated 

the price to range from Tshs 2,000 to Tshs 3,000 per 10 ft piece. For poles, the price ranged from Tshs 1,000 

to Tshs 2,000. The price for fuelwood was reported to vary from 3,000 – 3,500 per cubic metre. 


The communities in the three village landscapes of Misalai, Shambangeda and Kwatango depend on many 

tree-based products and services. The tree-based products obtained from village landscapes include local 

medicines, timber, poles, fuelwoods, fruits and vegetables. A total of 56 species were mentioned by 

respondents from the three villages. Of these only one species, Trilepsium madagascariensis was mentioned 

as being used in all three villages and 13 species were mentioned by respondents in two villages. 

Most species are collected from agforest plots. This includes patches of natural vegetation within the mosaic of 

agricultural land as well as areas where trees have been planted. Thirty species were mentioned as being 

used from forests of which five species were only collected from forests whilst the rest were also found in 

„agroforest‟ areas. Of those species that are only sourced from the village forest reserve, three are used as 

medicines and two provide fruits. The results highlight the importance of the remaining natural vegetation 

within the agricultural mosaic as a source of timber and non-timber forest products including medicinal plants 

and food. 

37

7) Conclusions and recommendations 

This study recorded a total of 162 plant species (excluding plants recorded in the resource use survey) in the 

different land cover types in the village landscapes of Misalai, Shambangeda and Kwatango (table 27). The list 

includes 102 tree species, 31 herb species, 17 shrub species and ten climbers. 

Table 27. Plant species recorded in the three village landscapes of the East Usambaras. 

Vegetation/land cover type Number of plant species 

recorded 

38 

Number of plant species 

recorded also in the 

forests 

Village Forest Reserves 69 - 




A mosaic of fallow land, agroforest and monoculture plot 9 1 



Overall, this shows that the village forest reserves support a higher number of plant species compared to other 

non-reserved land cover types. Yet, a considerable number of plant species are also found in the agroforests, 

fallow lands, mixed farming plot as well as in the monoculture and mixed farming plot. In addition, some of the 

plant species found in the agroforest and fallow lands are also in the forest reserves (Table 27). 

Many of the plant species are used by local people for various purposes, e.g. for timber, poles, fuelwood, as 

source of cash, and most importantly for medicine. The majority of the species used by villagers were found in 

the agroforests, forest reserves, fallow lands and mixed farming plots. This shows that a considerable number 

of plant species that are vital for supporting the local livelihoods are found outside the formally protected areas. 

The survey recorded one East Usambara endemic plant species, Cynometra engleri. It was recorded in the 

Kwatango village forest reserve. In addition, three Eastern Arc endemic plants were recorded: Alsodeiopsis 

schumannii (in agroforests), Aoranthe penduliflora (in agroforests) and Drypetes gerrardinoides (in village 

forest reserve).The Eastern Arc near-endemics include Allanblackia stuhlmannii (in village forest reserves and 

agroforests), Carvalhoa campanulata (in village forest reserve), Cephalosphaera usambarensis (in village 

forest reserves), Dasylepis integra (in village forest reserve), Dialium holtzii (in village forest reserve and mixed 

farming), Mesogyne insignis (in village forest reserve) and Pouteria alnifolia (in village forest reserve). 

Threatened plant species, classified as vulnerable in the most recent IUCN Red List (2010), included the East 

Usamabra endemic species. In addition, they included Allanblackia stuhlmannii (in village forest reserves and 

agroforests), Alsodeiopsis schumannii (in agroforests), Aoranthe penduliflora (in agroforests), Cephalosphaera 

usambarensis (in village forest reserves), Dasylepis integra (in village forest reserves) Dialium holtzii (in village 

forest reserve and mixed farming), Drypetes gerrardinoides (village forest reserve), Mesogyne insignis (in 

village forest reserve) and possibly Pavetta abyssinica var. usambarica (village forest reserve). 

In terms of bird diversity, the village landscapes appeared to support a high number of species: 88 species 

were recorded, including the critically endangered Long-billed tailorbird Artisonis moreaui, recorded in the 

agroforest. Other threatened bird species included Amani sunbird (Anthreptes pallidigaster), recorded in a 

mosaic of fallow land, agroforest and monoculture, banded green sunbird (Anthreptes rubritorques) in the 

agroforest, Southern banded snake eagle (Circaetus fasciolatus) in a mosaic of fallow land, agroforest and

monoculture and Fischer‟s turaco (Tauraco fischeri), recorded in agroforest, fallow land and mixed farming 

plots. 

The banded green sunbird Anthreptes rubritorques was the only bird species recorded that is endemic to the 

Eastern Arc Mountains. The bird was recorded in the agroforest sites of Misalai and Shambangeda village 

landscapes. Eastern Arc near-endemic bird species recorded included Andropadus masukuensis, Anthreptes 

pallidigaster, Batis mixta, Poeoptera kenricki, Stactolaema olivacea and Artisornis moreaui. 

In terms of rare mammal species, the vulnerable species - black and rufous sengi (Rhynchocyon petersi) - was 

recorded inside the forest reserves. This species is also near-endemic to the Eastern Arc Mountains. 

In conclusion, the results of the study indicate that the village landscapes in the East Usambaras support 

considerable biodiversity resources. These resources are important for conservation and for supporting the 

livelihoods of local people. Apart from the village forest reserves, the other land use types, such as agroforests 

and fallow land, support many valuable species. 

The results also suggest that many of the plant and vertebrate species endemic to the East Usambara may be 

restricted to the Government Forest and Nature Reserves thereby emphasizing the importance of investing in 

the conservation of the existing protected areas. 

The results highlight the importance of taking a landscape approach to conservation whereby conservation 

values should be recognized and enhanced across all land uses. Whilst protected areas, including village 

forest reserves, will continue to harbor the vast majority of species in an area such as the East Usambaras, 

areas of agroforestry can play an important role in providing habitat and corridors for some species. 

39

8) References 

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Society of Tanzania. Dar es Salaam. Tanzania. 

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Lovett J.C., Mbilnyi B, Menegon M., Moyer D.C., Nashanda E., Perkin A., Rovero F., Stanley W.T. & 

Stuart S.N. (2007) The biological importance of the Eastern Arc Mountains of Tanzania and Kenya. 

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Forestry & Beekeeping Division (2006) Forest area baseline for the Eastern Arc Mountains. Compiled by 

Mbilinyi, B. P., Malimbwi, R.E., Shemwetta, D.T.K., Songorwa, E., Zahabu, E., Katani, J.Z. & Kashaigili, 

J. for Conservation and Management of the Eastern Arc Mountain Forests, Forestry and Beekeeping 

Division, Morogoro. 60 pp. 

Hamilton, A.C. (1989) The place and the problem. a survey of forest types on the East Usambaras using the 

variable-area tree plot method. In A.C. Hamilton & R. Bensted-Smith (eds.). Forest conservation in the 

East Usambara Mountains Tanzania. IUCN, Gland. Pp 213-226. 

ICRAF (2008) Integrating Livelihoods and Multiple Biodiversity Values in Landscape Mosaics: field methods. 

86 pp. 

IUCN (2010) 2010 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Available at: www.iucnredlist.org. Downloaded on 

May 2010. 

Lovett, J.C. (1985) An overview of the moist forests of Tanzania. Research Monographs of the Tanzania 

National Scientific Research Council, Dar es Salaam. 

Rovero, F., (2010). Mammals. In: Doggart, N., C. Leonard, A. Perkin, M. Menegon and F. Rovero (2010). 

Report on a survey of the vertebrate biodiversity and forest status of the Rubeho Mountains. TFCG Technical 

Paper No 19. DSM, Tz. 1 - 79 p 

40

Appendix 1. Habitat details for the vegetation plots in the East Usambaras 

Village 

Veg 

Plot# 

Vegetation/L 

and Use 

Type Altitude Coordinates 

Misalai M1 Forest 1212 0458951/9445932 

Misalai M2 Agroforestry 

1125 - 

1139 

Misalai M3 Fallow land 958 - 964 

Misalai M4 

Monoculture+ 

Mixed farming 982 -1026 

Shambangeda S1 Forest 971 0459231/9440838 

0459964/9446401; 

0460167/9446433 VF, GLS 

SUS with 

>50% 

0459623/9444539; small 

0459751/9444688 valley >50% 

0459039/9443745, 

0458889/9443869 SMS >50% 

0469746/9446451, 

0469745/9446645 GUS 

41 

Topogra 

phy 

Ridge 

GL SL CC Aspect 

topo/SUS >50% >50% >50% N-S 

GUS+SU 

S 

Shambangeda S2 Agroforestry 

Fallow land, 

Agroforestry 

887-937 

0458710/9440288, 

0458552/9440183 GMS >50% >50% 

Shambangeda S3 &Monoculture 968 0458786/9442508 SMS >50% >50% 

Kwatango K1 Agroforestry 179-211 

Kwatango K2 Forest 203-233 

0470734/9446282, 

0470744/9446087 GLS/Flat >50% >50% 

10 - 

50% >50% E-W 

10 - 

50% 0 E-W 

10 - 

50% 0 SE-NW 

10 - 

50% >50% >50% NW-SE 

10- 

50% >50% >50% N-S 

Signs of 

past use 

Shrub 

clearance 

Previously 

cultivated 

area 

The village 

forest is 

encroached 

in the 

northwestern 

part of the 

forest 

Features of 

interest 

10- 

50% SW-NE 

Timber 

Close to river 

10- 

harvesting 

50% N-S (occassional) 

Pitsawing of 

10- 

Milicia 

50% N-S excelsa 

The eastern 

and nothern 

forest 

boundaries 

are closer to 

rubber 

plantation

Village 

Kwatango K3 

Veg 

Plot# 

Kwatango K4 Mixed farming 178-198 

Kwatango K5 

Key: 

GL = Ground layer 

SL = Shrub layer 

CC = Canopy cover 

SUS = Steep uppper slope 

VF = Valley forest 

GLS = Gentle lower 

slope 

SMS = Steep mid slope 

GUS = Gentle upper slope 

GMS = Gentle mid slope 

N-S = North-South 

E-W = East-West 

SE-NW = South-east North-west 

NW-SE = North-west South-east 

SW-NE = South-west North-east 

Vegetation/L 

and Use 

Topogra 

Type Altitude Coordinates phy GL SL CC Aspect 

Fallow land 

10- 

(old) 243 0470745/9447458 GLS >50% >50% 50% E-W 

0471931/9443422, 

0471735/9443403 GUS >50% >50% 

Teak 

plantation 186 0471310/9445254 GUS >50% >50% 

42 

10- 

50% E-W 

10- 

50% E-W 

Signs of 

past use 

Pole cutting 

especially on 

the road 

periphery 

Features of 

interest

Appendix 2. List of plants found in the Misalai, Shambangeda and Kwatango villages’ landscapes. 

Plot Sub-plot size (m) Land cover type 

Village number 

Family (Habit) Species DBH (cm) Height (m) 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Acanthaceae (H) Isoglosa lactea 0.2 0.6 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Acanthaceae (H) Isoglosa lactea 1.1 1 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Acanthaceae (H) Isoglosa lactea 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Acanthaceae (H) Justicia sp 0.2 0.3 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Acanthaceae (H) Justicia sp 0.2 1 



Misalai M4 1X40 

Monoculture&Mixed 

farming Acanthaceae (H) Justicia sp 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Acanthaceae (H) Justicia sp (2) 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Acanthaceae (S) Sclerochiton sp 0.4 1.5 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Acanthaceae (S) Sclerochiton sp 1.2 2 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Acanthaceae (S) Whitfieldia elongate 0.3 0.5 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Acanthaceae (S) Whitfieldia elongate 0.4 1 




Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Acanthaceae (S) Whitfieldia elongate 1 0.6 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Acanthaceae (S) Whitfieldia elongate 1 1 





Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Acanthaceae (S) Whitfieldia elongata 0.2 1 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Acanthaceae (S) Whitfieldia elongata 0.1 0.3 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Acanthaceae (S) Whitfieldia elongata (50) 0.2 1.5 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Acanthaceae (S) Whitfieldia elongata (51) 0.3 1 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Acanthaceae (S) Whitfieldia elongata (51) 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Adiantaceae (F) Pteris sp (17) 

43

Village 

Plot 

number 

Sub-plot size (m) Land cover type 






Agroforest (10%) 

Adiantaceae (F) Pteris sp (29) 

Shambangeda S3 1X40 

&Monoculture (50%) Adiantaceae (F) Pteris sp(16) 

Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Adiantaceae (F) Pteris sp(44) 

Kwatango K5 10X200 Plantation Alariaceae Cussonia zimmermanii 30.7 12 

Kwatango K5 10X200 Plantation Alariaceae Cussonia zimmermanii 44 21 

Misalai M1 10X200 Forest Alariaceae Polycias fulva 120 50 

Shambangeda S1 10X200 Forest Alariaceae Polyscias fulva 31 15 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Anacardiaceae Lannea stuhlmannii 0.2 1 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Anacardiaceae Lannea stuhlmannii 0.2 1.25 

Kwatango K5 10X200 Plantation Anacardiaceae Lannea stuhlmannii 30 18 

Kwatango K5 10X200 Plantation Anacardiaceae Lannea stuhlmannii 35 20 

Kwatango K3 10X200 Fallow land Anacardiaceae Mangifera indica 74.5 30 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis 0.1 0.5 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis 0.1 0.6 


Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis 0.2 1 



Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis 0.3 1 












44

















Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis 1.5 1.25 











Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis 2 1 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis 2 2 



Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis 2 3.5 





45







Misalai M2 10X200 Agroforest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis 36.7 28 



Misalai M2 10X200 Agroforest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis 39.5 18 


Misalai M2 10X200 Agroforest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis 40 20 




Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis (2) 0.2 0.3 




Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis (2) 0.4 1 





Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis (2) 1 0.3 


Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis (2) 1 2 










46









Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis (3) 






Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Anacardiaceae Sorindeia madagascariensis (9) 1 1 


Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Annonaceae Annona senegalensis 3.3 2.5 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Annonaceae Annona sp 2.1 3.5 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Annonaceae Uvaria angolensis 1.3 1 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Apocyanaceae Tabernaemontana pachysiphon 0.3 2 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Apocyanaceae Tabernaemontana pachysiphon 4 4 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Apocyanaceae Tabernaemontana pachysiphon 4.3 5 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana pachysiphon 0.1 0.3 




Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana pachysiphon 0.6 1 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana pachysiphon 1 0.75 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana pachysiphon 6.6 4 

Shambangeda S1 5X40 Forest Apocynaceae Tabernaemontana pachysiphon 

Tabernaemontana pachysiphon 

11.5 10 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Apocynaceae (2) 0.4 2 


Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Apocynaceae ( C) Landolphia buchananii 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Apocynaceae ( C) Landolphia buchananii 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Apocynaceae ( C) Landolphia buchananii (2) 0.1 0.3 

47




Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Apocynaceae (S) Carvalhoa campanulata 0.1 0.5 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Apocynaceae (S) Carvalhoa campanulata 1.6 1.5 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Apocynaceae (S) Schizozygia coffaioides 0.4 1.5 


Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Apocynaceae (S) Schizozygia coffaioides 


Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Apocynaceae (S) Schizozygia coffaioides (2) 0.6 1.5 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Apocynaceae (S) Schizozygia coffaioides (3) 0.3 0.6 


Monoculture & mixed 

farming Araceae (C) Culcasia sp (2) 

Kwatango K3 5X40 Fallow land Araliaceae Cussonia zimmermanii 12 8 

Kwatango K3 5X40 Fallow land Araliaceae Cussonia zimmermanii 18 

Collected 

10 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Aspleniaceae (F) Asplenium sp 

5877 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Aspleniaceae (F) Asplenium sp 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Aspleniaceae (F) Asplenium sp (36) 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Asteraceae (H) Bidens pilosa 

Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Asteraceae (H) Bidens pilosa (14) 



farming Asteraceae (H) Bidens pilosa (4) 




&Monoculture (50%) Asteraceae (H) Bidens pilosa (5) 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Asteraceae (H) Bothriocline sp 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Asteraceae (H) Bothriocline sp 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Asteraceae (H) Bothriocline sp (3) 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming 


Asteraceae (H) Bothriocline sp (4) 


farming Asteraceae (H) Conyza sp 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Asteraceae (H) Conyza sp (12) 




&Monoculture (50%) Asteraceae (H) Conyza sp (3) 

48




Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Asteraceae (H) Conyza sp (34) 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Asteraceae (H) Conyza sp (38) 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Asteraceae (H) Conyza sp (4) 

Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Asteraceae (H) Conyza sp (5) 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Asteraceae (H) Emilia sp (3) 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Asteraceae (H) Helichrysium odoratissimum 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Asteraceae (H) Sonchus sp (2) 













Asteraceae (S) Vernonia lasiopus 0.1 1 

farming Asteraceae (S) Vernonia lasiopus 0.2 1 






Asteraceae (S) Vernonia lasiopus 1.3 2.5 



farming Asteraceae (S) Vernonia lasiopus 1.4 2.5 




Asteraceae (S) Vernonia lasiopus 

farming Asteraceae (S) Vernonia lasiopus (2) 0.3 2 


farming Asteraceae (S) Vernonia lasiopus (3) 0.3 0.7 



farming Asteraceae (S) Vernonia lasiopus (3) 

Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Asteraceae (S) Vernonia myriantha 0.1 0.3 





farming Asteraceae (S) Vernonia myriantha 0.1 1 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Asteraceae (S) Vernonia myriantha 0.1 2 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Asteraceae (S) 

49 

Vernonia myriantha 0.2 0.3

Village 

Plot 

number 





farming Asteraceae (S) Vernonia myriantha 0.2 1 



farming Asteraceae (S) Vernonia myriantha 0.2 1.5 




farming Asteraceae (S) Vernonia myriantha 0.6 1.5 



farming Asteraceae (S) Vernonia myriantha 2 1.5 

Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Asteraceare (S) Vernonia myriantha 0.2 0.3 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Basalminaceae (H) Impatiens sp (3) 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Bignoniaceae Markhamia sp 2.5 3 

Kwatango K3 10X200 Fallow land Bombacaceae Ceiba pentandra 60 50 

Kwatango K3 10X200 Fallow land Bombacaceae Ceiba pentandra 71 45 

Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Bromeliaceae (H) Ananas comosus 

Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Bromeliaceae (H) Ananas comosus 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Bursaraceae Commiphora africana 2.4 2.5 

Kwatango K5 10X200 Plantation Bursaraceae Commiphora africana 35 12 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Caesalpiniaceae Cynometra engleri 0.2 1 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Caesalpiniaceae Cynometra engleri 2 4 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Caesalpiniaceae Cynometra engleri 2.8 5 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Caesalpiniaceae Cynometra engleri 4 7 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Caesalpiniaceae Cynometra longipedicellata 0.1 0.6 


Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Caesalpiniaceae Cynometra longipedicellata 0.2 1 






Kwatango K2 10X200 Forest Caesalpiniaceae Cynometra longipedicellata 30 25 



50





Kwatango K2 10X200 Forest Caesalpiniaceae Cynometra sp 130 45 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Caesalpiniaceae Dialium holtzii 0.1 0.3 





Kwatango K2 5X40 Forest Caesalpiniaceae Dialium holtzii 21.4 20 

Kwatango K2 10X200 Forest Caesalpiniaceae Dialium holtzii 30 20 















Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Caesalpiniaceae Dialium holtzii 0.1 0.3 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Caesalpiniaceae Dialium holtzii (2) 0.2 0.3 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Caesalpiniaceae Dialium holtzii (3) 0.2 0.5 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Caesalpiniaceae Cassia abbreviata (2) 0.3 1 

Kwatango K2 10X200 Forest Cecropiaceae Dialium holtzii 87 45 

Misalai M2 5X40 Agroforest Cecropiaceae Myrianthus holstii 10 6 

Misalai M1 5X40 Forest Cecropiaceae Myrianthus holstii 11.3 10 

Misalai M2 5X40 Agroforest Cecropiaceae Myrianthus holstii 11.7 6 



51




Misalai M1 5X40 Forest Cecropiaceae Myrianthus holstii 17 20 



Shambangeda S1 10X200 Forest Cecropiaceae Myrianthus holstii 31.3 15 

Shambangeda S1 10X200 Forest Cecropiaceae Myrianthus holstii 38 25 

Misalai M2 10X200 Agroforest Cecropiaceae Myrianthus holstii 41.9 20 





Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Celastraceae 

Commelinaceae 

Maytenus acuminata 0.5 1 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land 

(H) Commelina benghalensis 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Connaraceae ( C) Agelaea sp 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Connaraceae ( C) Agelaea pentagyna 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Connaraceae ( C) Agelaea pentagyna 1 1.5 

Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Convulvaceae (H) Ipomoea batatas 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Crysobalanaceae Parinari excelsa 1.5 2 


Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Crysobalanaceae Parinari excelsa 2 2 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Crysobalanaceae Parinari excelsa 2.4 1 


Shambangeda S1 5X40 Forest Crysobalanaceae Parinari excelsa 17.7 10 

Shambangeda S1 10X200 Forest Crysobalanaceae Parinari excelsa 110 50 

Shambangeda S1 10X200 Forest Crysobalanaceae 

Dichapetalaceae 

Parinari excelsa 125 60 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming (C) Dichapetalum sp (2) 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Dracaenacea (S) Dracaena laxissima 1.6 2 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Dracaenacea (S) Dracaena laxissima 1.5 2.5 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Dracaenaceae (S) Dracaena laxissima 0.1 0.6 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Dracaenaceae (S) Dracaena laxissima 0.2 1 



Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Dracaenaceae (S) 

52 

Dracaena laxissima 1.1 2




Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Dracaenaceae (S) Dracaena laxissima (2) 1 2 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Ebenaceae Diospyros mespiliformis 0.1 0.3 


Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Ebenaceae Diospyros mespiliformis 0.2 1 



Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Ebenaceae Diospyros mespiliformis 1.2 0.3 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Ebenaceae Diospyros mespiliformis 1.3 0.6 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Ebenaceae Diospyros mespiliformis 2 3.5 





Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Erythroxylaceae Erythroxylum emarginatum 0.1 0.3 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Euphorbiaceae Acalypha volkensii 0.1 2 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Euphorbiaceae Acalypha volkensii 0.2 1.5 



Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Euphorbiaceae Acalypha volkensii 1.2 2.5 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Euphorbiaceae Acalypha volkensii 


Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Euphorbiaceae Acalypha volkensii (2) 0.1 6 






Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Euphorbiaceae Alchornea hirtellus 0.2 1.5 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Euphorbiaceae Alchornea hirtellus 0.3 2 




Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Euphorbiaceae Bridelia micrantha 0.1 0.5 

53









&Monoculture (50%) Euphorbiaceae Bridelia micrantha 0.1 1 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest 



Euphorbiaceae Bridelia micrantha 0.3 0.6 





Euphorbiaceae Bridelia micrantha 0.3 1 


Monoculture (50%) Euphorbiaceae Bridelia micrantha 0.3 1.25 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Euphorbiaceae Bridelia micrantha 0.4 2 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Euphorbiaceae Bridelia micrantha 


Monoculture & Mixed 

farming Euphorbiaceae Bridelia micrantha 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Euphorbiaceae Bridelia micrantha (2) 2 2 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Euphorbiaceae Drypetes gerrardinoides 0.2 1 

Shambangeda S1 10X200 Forest Euphorbiaceae Drypetes usambarica 37.9 15 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Euphorbiaceae Fluggea virosa 0.1 0.5 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Euphorbiaceae Fluggea virosa 2.1 2 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Euphorbiaceae Fluggea virosa 2.1 2 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Euphorbiaceae Fluggea virosa 3.1 5 

Shambangeda S1 5X40 Forest Euphorbiaceae Macaranga kilimandscharica 17.7 25 

Misalai M1 10X200 Forest Euphorbiaceae Macaranga kilimandscharica 32.3 25 

Shambangeda S1 10X200 Forest Euphorbiaceae Macaranga kilimandscharica 38 32 




Shambangeda S1 10X200 Forest Euphorbiaceae Macaranga kilimandscharica 59 30 

Misalai M3 10X200 Fallow land Euphorbiaceae Shirakiopsis elliptica 32 10 

Misalai M2 10X200 Agroforest Euphorbiaceae Shirakiopsis elliptica 104 45 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Euphorbiaceae (H) Phyllanthus sp 0.1 0.3 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Euphorbiaceae (H) Phyllanthus sp 0.1 0.4 

54




Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Euphorbiaceae (S) Acalypha sp 0.2 0.6 



Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Euphorbiaceae (S) Acalypha sp 0.3 1 











Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Euphorbiaceae (S) Acalypha sp 2 1 




Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Euphorbiaceae (S) Acalypha sp (2) 1 1 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land 



Euphorbiaceae (S) Erythrococca fischeri 0.2 1 





Euphorbiaceae (S) Manihot esculenta 0.1 0.3 


Monoculture (50%) Euphorbiaceae (S) Manihot esculenta 0.2 0.3 




Monoculture (50%) Euphorbiaceae (S) Manihot esculenta 0.3 0.3 

Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Euphorbiaceae (S) Manihot esculenta 0.6 0.3 



Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Euphorbiaceae (S) Manihot esculenta 0.8 1 

55








farming Euphorbiaceae (S) Manihot esculenta 1 2 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Euphorbiaceae (S) Manihot esculenta 1.2 0.1 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Euphorbiaceae (S) Manihot esculenta 1.3 0.4 






farming Euphorbiaceae (S) Manihot esculenta 1.5 2 









farming Euphorbiaceae (S) Manihot esculenta (2) 0.4 1 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Flacourtiacea Dasylepis integra 0.8 0.5 

Misalai M2 10X200 Agroforest Flacourtiacea Rawsonia reticulata 77 40 

Misalai M2 10X200 Agroforest Flacourtiacea Rawsonia reticulata 200 55 



farming Graminae (H) Saccharum officinarum 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Guttiferae Allanblackia stuhlmannii 0.1 0.5 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Guttiferae Allanblackia stuhlmannii 0.1 1 











56






Misalai M2 10X200 Agroforest Incacinaceae Alsodeiopsis schumannii 30 6 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Incacinaceae Leptaulus holstii 0.2 1 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Lamiaceae Rotheca myricoides 0.1 1 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Lamiaceae (S) Hoslundia opposita 0.3 2 

Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Lamiaceae (H) Stachytapheta jamaicensis 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Lamiaceae (S) Hoslundia opposita 0.2 2 



farming Lauaraceae Persea americana 0.3 0.3 



farming Lauaraceae Persea americana 2.2 1.5 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Lauraceae Persea americana 1.5 1 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Lauraceae Persea americana 

Kwatango K2 10X200 Forest Loganiaceae Strychnos mitis 30 25 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Malvaceae Thespesia garckeana 0.1 0.3 



farming Malvaceae (H) Hibiscus sp (6) 



farming Melastomataceae 

Melastomataceae 

Dissotis rutondifolia 

Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest 

(H) 


Clidemia hirta 0.1 0.4 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest 

(H) 


Clidemia hirta (3) 


(H) 


Clidemia hirta (5) 


(H) Dissotis rutondifolia (3) 



farming Meliaceae Cedrela odorata 

Pseudobersama 

2.9 1.5 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Meliaceae 

mossambicensis 

Pseudobersama 

3 3.5 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Meliaceae 

mossambicensis 4.2 6 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Meliaceae 

57 

Trichilia emetica 0.2 0.4




Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Meliaceae Trichilia emetica 0.3 0.6 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Meliaceae Trichilia emetica 0.4 0.6 

Kwatango K5 10X200 Plantation Meliaceae Trichilia emetica 31 20 



Kwatango K5 10X200 Plantation Meliaceae Trichilia emetica 42.6 30 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Melianthaceae Bersama abyssinica 0.8 0.5 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Melianthaceae Bersama abyssinica 1.5 1.2 

Kwatango K3 10X200 Fallow land Mimosaceae Albizia adianthifolia 45.5 35 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Mimosaceae Albizia gummifera 0.9 2 



Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Mimosaceae Albizia gummifera 6 3 



Misalai M1 10X200 Forest Mimosaceae Albizia gummifera 86 50 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Mimosaceae Albizia schimperiana 0.3 2.5 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Mimosaceae Albizia schimperiana 2.1 2 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Mimosaceae Albizia schimperiana 2.5 3 

Kwatango K3 10X200 Fallow land Mimosaceae Albizia schimperiana 32 15 



Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Mimosaceae Albizia sp 4.1 4 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Mimosaceae Albizia sp 9 7 

Kwatango K5 10X200 Plantation Meliaceae Albizia sp 40 12 

Kwatango K5 5X40 Plantation Mimosaceae Albizia sp 11 8 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Mimosaceae Albizia sp 

Kwatango K3 10X200 Fallow land Mimosaceae Cussonia zimmermanii 73 25 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Mimosaceae Newtonia buchananii 0.1 0.3 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Mimosaceae Newtonia buchananii 1 3 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Mimosaceae Newtonia buchananii 1.2 1 


Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Mimosaceae Newtonia buchananii 3 5 

58




Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Mimosaceae Newtonia buchananii 5 5 


Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Monimiaceae Xymalos monospora 0.7 0.5 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Monimiaceae Xymalos monospora 0.7 1 

Misalai M1 5X40 Forest Monimiaceae Xymalos monospora 12.2 10 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Monimiaceae Xymalos monospora (2) 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Moraceae Antiaris toxicaria 0.1 0.3 


Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Moraceae Antiaris toxicaria 0.2 1 


Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Moraceae Antiaris toxicaria 0.3 1.3 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Moraceae Antiaris toxicaria 1 1.5 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Moraceae Antiaris toxicaria 3.3 5 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Moraceae Antiaris toxicaria 5.4 1 

Shambangeda S1 10X200 Forest 



Moraceae Antiaris toxicaria 49 40 





Moraceae Artocarpus heterophyllus 25 12 


Monoculture (50%) Moraceae Artocarpus heterophyllus 27.5 12 

Misalai M3 10X200 Fallow land Moraceae Artocarpus heterophyllus 81.2 15 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Moraceae Bosqueiopsis gilletii 0.1 1 



Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Moraceae Bosqueiopsis gilletii 0.7 2.5 





Kwatango K2 5X40 Forest Moraceae Bosqueiopsis gilletii 10 10 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Moraceae Ficus exasperata 0.2 1 


Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Moraceae 

59 

Ficus exasperata 0.2 1









Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Moraceae Ficus exasperata 1.5 1.5 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Moraceae Ficus exasperata (2) 0.1 0.3 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Moraceae Ficus exasperata (2) 1.1 1 




Misalai M2 10X200 Agroforest Moraceae Ficus thonningii 36.8 22 

Misalai M1 10X200 Forest Moraceae Ficus thonningii 50 25 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Moraceae Mesogyne insignis 0.1 0.3 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Moraceae Mesogyne insignis 0.1 0.3 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Moraceae Mesogyne insignis 0.3 1 






Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Moraceae Milicia excelsa 0.1 0.3 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Moraceae Milicia excelsa 2.5 2 




Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Moraceae Milicia excelsa 12.5 1 

Kwatango K3 10X200 Fallow land Moraceae Milicia excelsa 30 30 




Kwatango K4 10X200 Mixed farming Moraceae Milicia excelsa 39 23 

Kwatango K3 10X200 Fallow land Moraceae Milicia excelsa 45 20 

60






Misalai M3 10X200 Fallow land Moraceae Milicia excelsa 74.7 35 


Misalai M3 10X200 Fallow land Moraceae Milicia excelsa 94.8 25 

Kwatango K1 10X200 Agroforest Moraceae Trilepisium madagascariensis 33.5 20 

Shambangeda S1 10X200 Forest Moraceae Trilepisium madagascariensis 51.9 40 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Musaceae (H) Ensete ventricosa 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Musaceae (H) Musa sp (5) 

Misalai M1 10X200 Forest Myrisinaceae Maesa lanceolata 33.9 20 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Myrsticaceae Cephalosphaera usambarensis 0.1 0.3 





Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Myrsticaceae Cephalosphaera usambarensis 0.2 1 










Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Myrsticaceae Cephalosphaera usambarensis 7 6 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Ochnaceae Ochna thomasiana 2 3 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Olacaceae Strembosia scheffleri 0.8 1 

Kwatango K1 10X200 Agroforest Palmae Elaeis guineensis 49 7 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Papilionaceae Millettia usaramensis 0.2 1.5 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Papilionaceae Millettia usaramensis 2.2 2.5 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Papilionaceae Pterocarpus tinctorius 1.3 2 


61







Kwatango K2 10X200 Forest Papilionaceae Pterocarpus tinctorius 31 25 





Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Papilionaceae (H) Desmodium repandum (2) 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Papilionaceae (S) Desmodium sp 0.1 0.75 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Papilionaceae (S) Desmodium sp (2) 0.1 0.5 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Passifloraceae (C ) Adenia gummifera 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Piperaceae (S) Piper capense 0.8 0.6 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Piperaceae (S) Piper capense 1.2 2 




Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Piperaceae (S) Piper capense 2 2.5 




Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Piperaceae (S) Piper capense (3) 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Poaceae (H) Olyra latifolia 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Poaceae (H) Oplismenus hirtellus (2) 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Poaceae (H) Panicum sp 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Poaceae (H) Panicum trichocladum 



farming Poaceae (H) Panicum trichocladum 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Poaceae (H) Panicum trichocladum 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Poaceae (H) Panicum trichocladum 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Poaceae (H) Panicum trichocladum 

62







Monoculture (50%) Poaceae (H) Saccharum officinarum (37) 

Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Poaceae (H) Saccharum officinarum (39) 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation 



Poaceae (H) Setaria megaphylla 


Monoculture (50%) Poaceae (H) Sorghum sp. (12) 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Poaceae (H) Sorghum sp. (8) 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Poaceae (H) Zea mays (47) 

Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Polygalaceae (H) Polygala sp 

Shambangeda S2 5X40 Agroforest Protaceae Grevellia robusta 14 10 

Shambangeda S2 5X40 Agroforest 



Protaceae Grevellia robusta 18 15 


Monoculture (50%) Protaceae Grevellia robusta 28.3 15 

Shambangeda S2 10X200 Agroforest Protaceae Grevellia robusta 30 15 



farming Protaceae Grevillea robusta 23 20 

Misalai M3 10X200 Fallow land Protaceae Grevillea robusta 30 12 

Misalai M2 10X200 Agroforest Rhamnaceae Maesopsis eminii 30 30 

Shambangeda S1 10X200 Forest Rhamnaceae Maesopsis eminii 31 35 




Misalai M2 10X200 Agroforest Rhamnaceae Maesopsis eminii 36 40 

Shambangeda S1 10X200 Forest Rhamnaceae Maesopsis eminii 37.2 55 


Misalai M2 10X200 Agroforest Rhamnaceae Maesopsis eminii 38.1 45 




Misalai M2 5X40 Agroforest Rhamnaceae Maesopsis eminii 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Rosaceae ( C) Rubus sp. (20) 

63




Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Rubiaceae Aoranthe penduliflora 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Rubiaceae Chassalia parvifolia 0.2 1 


Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Rubiaceae Chassalia parvifolia 0.4 0.5 



Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Rubiaceae Chassalia parvifolia 1 0.75 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Rubiaceae Chassalia parvifolia 1 0.75 



Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Rubiaceae Chassalia parvifolia 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Rubiaceae Coffea arabica 4.1 2.5 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Rubiaceae Cremaspora sp 0.3 0.5 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Rubiaceae Cremaspora sp 1 0.5 

Shambangeda S1 5X40 Forest Rubiaceae Galiniera saxifraga 15.5 20 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Rubiaceae Leptactina platyphylla 0.1 0.3 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Rubiaceae Leptactina platyphylla 0.1 0.4 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Rubiaceae Leptactina platyphylla 


0.3 0.5 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Rubiaceae 

usambarica 


0.1 0.3 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Rubiaceae 

usambarica 


0.4 1 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Rubiaceae 

usambarica 0.6 1.2 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Rubiaceae Polysphaera lanceolata 0.1 0.3 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Rubiaceae Polysphaera lanceolata 0.2 0.5 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Rubiaceae Polysphaera lanceolata (3) 0.3 0.4 




Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Rubiaceae Rothmannia engleriana 0.3 2 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Rubiaceae Rothmannia engleriana 1.9 3 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Rubiaceae Rothmannia urcelliformis 0.1 0.75 

Misalai M2 5X40 Agroforest Rubiaceae Rothmannia urcelliformis 10 5 

64




Misalai M2 5X40 Agroforest Rubiaceae Rothmannia urcelliformis 13.6 5 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Rubiaceae Rytigynia lichenoxenos 0.1 0.6 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Rubiaceae Rytigynia lichenoxenos 0.2 1 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Rubiaceae Rytigynia lichenoxenos (3) 0.1 0.6 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Rubiaceae Rytigynia lichenoxenos (3) 0.2 1 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Rubiaceae Tricalysia pallens 0.5 2 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Rutaceae Citrus sinensis 1.7 1.5 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Rutaceae Citrus sinensis 2.2 1 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Rutaceae Vepris simplicifolia 0.6 1.5 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Sapindaceae Allophylus pervillei 0.2 0.6 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Sapindaceae Allophylus pervillei 0.3 1 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Sapindaceae Bligia unijugata 1.9 2.5 

Kwatango K1 1X40 Agroforest Sapindaceae Deinbollia borbonica 0.2 0.3 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Sapindaceae Deinbollia borbonica 0.2 1 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Sapindaceae Deinbollia borbonica 0.3 0.6 


Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Sapindaceae Deinbollia borbonica 1.2 1 


Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Sapindaceae Deinbollia borbonica 2.2 1 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Sapindaceae Deinbollia borbonica 2.3 1 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Sapindaceae Deinbollia borbonica (2) 0.3 1 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Sapindaceae ( C) Paulinia pinnata 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Sapindaceae (C ) Paulinia pinnata 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Sapotaceae Chrysophyllum gorungosanum 0.1 0.3 

Kwatango K2 10X200 Forest Sapotaceae Manilkara sulcata 45 40 



Kwatango K2 10X200 Forest Sapotaceae Manilkara sulcata 59.9 40 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Sapotaceae Mimusops obtusifolia 2.3 4 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Sapotaceae Pouteria alnifolia 0.1 1 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Sapotaceae Pouteria alnifolia 0.2 0.6 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Sapotaceae Sensypelum msolo 0.2 0.5 

Shambangeda S1 10X200 Forest Sapotaceae Sensypelum msolo 120 30 

65




Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Simaroubaceae Harrisonia abyssinica 0.2 1.5 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Simaroubaceae Harrisonia abyssinica 3.5 2 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Simaroubaceae Harrisonia abyssinica (2) 0.1 0.3 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Simaroubaceae Harrissonia abyssinica 0.1 0.5 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Simaroubaceae Harrissonia abyssinica 0.2 1.5 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Simaroubaceae Quassia undulata 0.1 0.3 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Simaroubaceae Quassia undulata 0.2 1 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Simaroubaceae Quassia undulata 0.5 0.6 

Misalai M1 1X40 Forest Simaroubaceae Quassia undulata 0.5 0.6 

Misalai M1 10X200 Forest Simaroubaceae Quassia undulata 30 32 

Shambangeda S1 10X200 Forest Simaroubaceae Quassia undulata 39 45 

Misalai M1 10X200 Forest Simaroubaceae Quassia undulata 54 50 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Solanaceae ( C) Solanum terminale 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Sterculiaceae Cola clavata 0.1 0.3 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Sterculiaceae Cola clavata 0.7 2 



Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Sterculiaceae Cola clavata (6) 0.1 0.3 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Sterculiaceae Dombeya kirkii 2.5 3 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Sterculiaceae Dombeya kirkii 5 3 






Kwatango K4 10X200 Mixed farming Sterculiaceae Sterculia appendiculata 36 20 



Kwatango K5 5X40 Plantation Sterculiaceae Stereospermum kunthianum 24.1 12 

Kwatango K5 5X40 Plantation Sterculiaceae Stereospermum kunthianum 26 15 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Sterculiaceae (S) Dombeya mupangae 0.7 1.5 


Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Sterculiaceae (S) Dombeya mupangae 0.2 1 

66











Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Sterculiaceae (S) Dombeya mupangae (2) 0.3 0.75 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Sterculiaceae (S) Dombeya mupangae (3) 0.2 1 


Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Sterculiaceae (S) Dombeya mupangae (5) 0.5 1.5 


Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Sterculiaceae (S) Polysphaera lanceolata 0.1 0.3 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Tiliaceae Carpodiptera africana 0.3 1.5 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Tiliaceae Carpodiptera africana 0.3 2 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Tiliaceae Carpodiptera africana 0.4 2 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Tiliaceae Carpodiptera africana 3 4 

Kwatango K5 1X40 Plantation Tiliaceae Carpodiptera africana (2) 2.2 3 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Tiliaceae Grewia forbesii 0.2 0.6 

Kwatango K3 1X40 Fallow land Tiliaceae Grewia similis 0.1 0.4 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Tiliaceae (H) Triumfetta rhomboidea 

Misalai M3 1X40 Fallow land Tiliaceae (H) Triumfetta rhomboidea 



farming Tiliaceae (H) Triumfetta rhomboidea (11) 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Ulmaceae Celtis gomphophylla 7.7 10 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Ulmaceae Celtis gomphophylla 9 10 



farming Umbeliferae Steganotaenia lauraceae 1.9 1 



farming Umbeliferae Steganotaenia lauraceae 2 3 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Urticaceae (S) Boehmeria macrophylla (19) 

Kwatango K4 1X40 Mixed farming Verbanaceae Premna sp 0.7 1.5 

Kwatango K5 5X40 Plantation Verbanaceae Tectona grandis 6 9 

67




Kwatango K5 5X40 Plantation Verbanaceae Tectona grandis 9 7 

Shambangeda S2 1X40 Agroforest Verbanaceae (S) Lantana camara 0.1 0.3 













farming Verbanaceae (S) Lantana camara 0.1 1.5 






farming Verbanaceae (S) Lantana camara 2 1.5 


farming Verbanaceae (S) Lantana camara (2) 0.2 1 


farming Verbaneceae (S) Lantana camara (2) 0.1 1 


farming Verbaneceae (S) Lantana camara (2) 0.2 1.5 


farming Verbaneceae (S) Lantana camara (22) 



farming Verbaneceae (S) Lantana camara (4) 0.3 1.5 



Verbaneceae (S) Lantana camara (8) 


farming Verbanaceae (S) Lippia javanica 2 1.5 



farming Verbanaceae (S) Lippia javanica (2) 0.2 2 





Verbanaceae (S) Lippia javanica (3) 0.1 1 


farming Verbanaceae (S) Lippia javanica (4) 0.2 1 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Verbaneceae (S) Rotheca myricoides 

68

Village 

Plot 

number 





farming Verbaneceae (S) Lippia javanica (3) 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Violaceae Rinorea angustifolia 0.1 0.4 




Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Violaceae Rinorea angustifolia 0.2 1 














Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Violaceae Rinorea angustifolia 2 2 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Violaceae Rinorea angustifolia 2.2 2.5 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Violaceae Rinorea angustifolia 2.2 3 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Violaceae Rinorea angustifolia 3.9 4 

Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Violaceae Rinorea angustifolia (16) 0.1 0.3 

Kwatango K2 1X40 Forest Violaceae Rinorea angustifolia (2) 0.2 0.3 


Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Violaceae Rinorea angustifolia (2) 0.4 2 






69






Shambangeda S1 1X40 Forest Violaceae Rinorea ferruginea (2) 0.5 1.5 



farming Zingeberaceae (H) Cinnamom sp (14) 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Zingeberaceae (H) Cinnamomum sp (2) 

Misalai M2 1X40 Agroforest Zingeberaceae (H) Costus sp. (3) 

Key for the abbreviations: H= herb, S=shrub, C =climber and F=fern. 

70

Appendix 3. Transect walks data. 

Village Transect Number Distance along transect Coordinates Land cover 

Misalai MT2 0 0460072/9446405 Agroforest 



Misalai MT2 150 0460179/9446317 Old fallow 






Misalai MT2 450 0460357/9446089 Mixed farming 


Misalai MT2 550 0460427/9446065 Monoculture 







Misalai MT2 900 0460717/9445763 Tea field 



Misalai MT3 0 Monoculture 

Misalai MT3 50 Fallow 




Misalai MT3 250 0459787/9444364 Bushland 

Misalai MT3 300 0459837/9444328 Bushland 




71






Misalai MT3 700 0460097/944048 Bushland/Tea field 


Misalai MT3 800 0460202/9443948 Tea/road 


Misalai MT3 900 0460304/9443854 Human settlement 

Misalai MT3 950 0460356/9443821 Human settlement 

Misalai MT3 1000 0460453/9443777 Tea/eucalyptus plantation 

Shambangeda S1 0 Agroforest 

Shambangeda S1 50 Monoculture 



Shambangeda S1 200 0459387/9440985 Agroforest 


Shambangeda S1 300 0459444/9441080 Old fallow 


Shambangeda S1 400 0459540/9441153 Monoculture 










Shambangeda S1 900 0459905/9441455 Forest 





72









Shambangeda S2 450 0458196/9440536 Mixed farming 


Shambangeda S2 550 0458140/9440534 Fallow 










Kwatango K1 0 0469314/9447640 Bushland 


Kwatango K1 100 0469725/9446834 Forest 

Kwatango K1 150 0469724/9446881 Monoculture 







Kwatango K1 500 0469714/9447228 Fallow 





73








Kwatango K2 0 0470948/9447456 Old fallow 






Kwatango K2 300 Mixed farming 















Kwatango K3 0 0471735/9443403 Mixed farming 







74














Kwatango K3 950 Monoculture 






















75



76

Appendix 4. Bird ringing data. 

Weight Wing Bill Tarsur Tail 

Date Village Time Species Age Sex (g) (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) Remarks 

25.10.2008 shambangeda 810 Olive sunbird 9.5 55 30 17 55 

25.10.2008 shambangeda 913 Olive sunbird juv 8 57 22 16 42 

25.10.2008 shambangeda 1007 Little greenbul 26 83 17 25 80 

25.10.2008 shambangeda 748 Yellow streaked greenbul 30 98 22 23 100 

25.10.2008 shambangeda 1040 Olive sunbird 10 60 23 19 48 


25.10.2008 shambangeda 1050 Little greenbul 22 76 12 20 




25.10.2008 shambangeda 1248 Shelley's greenbul 26 80 15 14 78 



25.10.2008 shambangeda 249 Olive sunbird 8.5 51 26 15 46 Blood patch 

With down 

25.10.2008 shambangeda 250 Little greenbul 24 73 12 18 72 feathers 


25.10.2008 shambangeda 302 Forest batis 12 55 15 18 30 


77 

With yellow 

gap 




25.10.2008 shambangeda 432 Shelley's greenbul Escaped 



27.10.2008 shambangeda 830 Lttle greenbul 25.5 85 13 19 75 

27.10.2008 shambangeda 920 Lttle greenbul 25 86 13 19 77 

27.10.2008 shambangeda 1001 Shelley's greenbul 22.5 84 12 19 76 

27.10.2008 shambangeda 1220 little greenbul 23 86 14 20 77



27.10.2008 shambangeda 1304 Shelley's greenbul 26.5 82 13 19 76 

27.10.2008 shambangeda 1408 Forest batis 11.5 61 12 19 31 




27.10.2008 shambangeda 1704 little greenbul 22.5 76 10 20 71 


27.10.2008 shambangeda 1722 white stated forest robin 15.5 77 11 23 57 

27.10.2008 shambangeda 1728 white stated forest robin 14.5 75 11 23 55 


27.10.2008 shambangeda 1810 Stripe ckecked greenbul Escaped 

28.10.2008 shambangeda 900 white stared forest robin 16 76 12 24 54 

28.10.2008 shambangeda 915 yellow seaked greenbul 25 85 17 22 86 

28.10.2008 shambangeda 945 yellow seaked greenbul 25.5 87 16 22 87 

28.10.2008 shambangeda 1206 white browed robin chat 32 58 15 28 81 


28.10.2008 shambangeda 1210 white browed robin chat 40 96 17 33 82 


28.10.2008 shambangeda 259 shelley's greenbul 26 82 13 20 78 


28.10.2008 shambangeda 420 olive sunbird 8.5 55 22 14 45 

28.10.2008 shambangeda 522 peter's twinsport 16 50 14 19 54 

28.10.2008 shambangeda 530 Red faced crimsonwing 16 55 15 24 53 








28.10.2008 shambangeda 642 olive sunbird 10 62 22 17 53 

78



With yellow 

30.10.2008 Kwatango 1130 yellow streaked greenbul juv 34.5 100 25 23 97 gop on the bill 

With yellow 

30.10.2008 Kwatango 1232 yellow streaked greenbul juv 32 82 22 22 90 gop on the bill 

30.10.2008 Kwatango 133 Black headed weaver m 40 84 22 23 53 

30.10.2008 Kwatango 228 peter's twinsport m 9 40 10 12 40 

30.10.2008 Kwatango 229 Golden weaver f 25 73 15 20 43 

30.10.2008 Kwatango 237 Golden weaver f 24.5 69 16 12 44 

30.10.2008 Kwatango 320 Red faced cisticola 14 48 14 23 44 


With breeding 

30.10.2008 Kwatango 346 African golden weaver m 25 70 15 23 45 plumage. 


30.10.2008 Kwatango 348 spectacled weaver f 25 63 17 20 55 plumage 

30.10.2008 Kwatango 350 African golden weaver 24 75 23 22 45 


30.10.2008 Kwatango 409 peter's twinsport m 15 50 14 19 54 



30.10.2008 Kwatango 522 peter's twinsport m 9.5 40 12 11 44 


30.10.2008 Kwatango 523 African golden weaver m 26 70 15 23 45 plumage 

30.10.2008 Kwatango 523 spectacled weaver f 25 63 17 22 56 



31.10.2008 Kwatango 930 Little greenbul 24 76 13 18 76 

31.10.2008 Kwatango 936 white browed robin chat 39 96 17 33 84 

31.10.2008 Kwatango 1208 Shelley's greenbul 25 82 14 20 79 


31.10.2008 Kwatango 130 yellow streked greenbul 35 101 25 23 99 

31.10.2008 Kwatango 330 yellow streked greenbul 32.5 86 23 22 98 

31.10.2008 Kwatango 408 white starred forest robin 16 73 11 24 56 

31.10.2008 Kwatango 520 Olive sunbird 8.5 55 22 18 42 

79

Date Village Time Species Age Sex 

31.10.2008 Kwatango 530 African gowshak 

80 

Weight 

(g) 

Wing 

(mm) 

Bill 

(mm) 

Tarsur 

(mm) 

Tail 

(mm) Remarks 

Escaped from 

the net. 

1.11.2008 Kwatango 900 Forest batis f 12 62 11 21 32 

1.11.2008 Kwatango 932 Forest batis m 10.5 60 13 18 34 

1.11.2008 Kwatango 1220 African broadbill Escaped 

1.11.2008 Kwatango 1240 Yellow streaked greenbul 35 10 25 24 97 

1.11.2008 Kwatango 430 Yellow streaked greenbul 33 83 22 22 90 

1.11.2008 Kwatango 433 Olive sunbird 8.5 55 22 14 45 

1.11.2008 Kwatango 439 Olive sunbird 9 54 23 15 

1.11.2008 Kwatango 445 Red faced crimsonwing f 12 56 10 18 43 


3.11.2008 Misalai 1020 Olive sunbird 9.5 50 27 17 45 


3.11.2008 Misalai 1130 Shelley's greenbul 27 80 13 19 81 

3.11.2008 Misalai 511 Red faced crimsonwing m 12 58 11 19 45 

3.11.2008 Misalai 512 Olive sunbird 9 54 24 16 51 

3.11.2008 Misalai 515 Yellow streaked greenbul 34 85 24 21 92 

3.11.2008 Misalai 530 white starred forest robin 18 75 12 25 57 

4.11.2008 Misalai 830 Little greenbul 25.5 86 14 19 76 

4.11.2008 Misalai 843 Little greenbul Recaptured 

4.11.2008 Misalai 920 Shelley's greenbul 25.5 81 11 24 79 

4.11.2008 Misalai 1230 Shelley's greenbul 26.5 84 13 24 80 


4.11.2008 Misalai 320 Olive sunbird Recaptured 

4.11.2008 Misalai 333 Little greenbul Recaptured 

4.11.2008 Misalai 340 Red faced cisticola 14 54 16 22 52 

4.11.2008 Misalai 508 Red faced cisticola 16 56 17 24 51 

4.11.2008 Misalai 517 Peter's twinsport m 15 50 14 20 55 

4.11.2008 Misalai 520 Yellow streaked greenbul 35 86 25 22 92 

4.11.2008 Misalai 521 Little greenbul 27 89 15 20 75



5.11.2008 Misalai 830 White browed robin chat 33 86 16 29 52 

5.11.2008 Misalai 847 Little greenbul 27 87 12 20 81 


5.11.2008 Misalai 1015 Shelley's greenbul 26 80 13 19 79 

5.11.2008 Misalai 1130 Olive sunbird 8 53 23 13 39 


81

Appendix 5. Timed species count data. 

Date Site Land use /vegetation cover type Species Scientific name 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Common bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest African citril Turtur tympanistria 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Tambourine dove Stactolaema leucotis 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest White- eared barbet Stactolaema leucotis 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Silvery-cheeked hornbill Bycanistes brevis 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Long-billed Tailobird Apalis moreaui 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Red faced cisticola Cisticola erythrops 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Tawny flanked prinia Prinia subflava 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Green barbet Stactolaema olivacea 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Evergreen forest warbler Bradypterus lopezi 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest White-browed coucal Centropus superciliosus 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Tropical boubou Laniarius aethiopicus 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Olive sunbird Nectarinia olivacea 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Common stone chat Saxicola torquata 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Banded green sunbird Anthreptes rubritorques 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Black-fronted bush-shrike Malaconotus nigrifrons 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Black headed apalis Apalis melanocephala 

Camaroptera 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Grey-backed camaroptera brachyuran 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Grey cuckoo-shrike Coracina caesia 


15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Yellow-streaked greenbul flavostriatus 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Eastern Nicator Nicator gularis 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Blue-spotted wood dove 

Eastern bronze-naped 

Turtur afer 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest 

pigeon Columba delegorguei 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Klaas's cuckoo Chrysococcyx klaas 

Andropadus 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Shelley's greenbul 

masukuensis 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Long-crested eagle Lophaetus occipitalis 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Pin tailed whydah Vidua macroura 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Fisher's turaco Tauraco fischeri 

82


15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Speckled mousebird Colius striatus 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Yellow white-eye 

Uluguru violet-backed 

Zosterops senegalensis 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest 

sunbird Anthreptes neglectus 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Spectacled weaver Ploceus ocularis 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Trampeter hornbill Bycanistes bucinator 

15.2.2009 Misalai Agroforest Cabanis bunting. Emberiza cabanisi 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Common bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Purple banded sunbid Nectarinia bifasciata 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land White-browed robin-chat Cossypha heuglini 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Collared sunbird Anthreptes collaris 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Tropical boubou Laniarius aethiopicus 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Blue-spotted wood dove Turtur afer 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Fisher's turaco Tauraco fischeri 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Red faced cisticola Cisticola erythrops 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Tawny flanked prinia Prinia subflava 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land African citril Serinus citrinelloides 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Yellow fronted canary serinus mozambicus 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Banded green sunbird Estrilda astrild 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Common waxbill Colius striatus 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Black and white mankin Lonchura bicolor 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Cabanis bunting Emberiza cabanisi 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Augur bazzard buteo oreophilus 

stephanoaetus 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land African crowed eagle coronatus 

streptopelia 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Red eyed dove 

semitorquata 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Long creasted eagle 


Lophaetus occipitalis 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land 


15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Trampeter hornibill Bycanistes bucinator 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land African green pigeon 

Black and white shrike 

Treron calva 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land 

flaycatcher Bias musicus 

15.2.2009 Misalai Fallow land Fork tailed drongo Dcruru adsimilis 

83


16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Common bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Squire tailed drongo Dicrurus ludwigii 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming African citril Turtur tympanistria 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Tambourine dove Stactolaema leucotis 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Tropical boubou Laniarius aethiopicus 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Speckled mousebird Colius striatus 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Common waxbill Colius striatus 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Fisher's turaco Tauraco fischeri 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Banded green sunbird Anthreptes rubritorques 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Yellow fronted canary serinus mozambicus 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Olive sunbird Nectarinia olivacea 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Grey headed kingfisher Halcyon leucocephala 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Barred Long-tailed cuckoo Cercococcyx montanus 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming African emerald cuckoo Chrysococcyx cupreus 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Eastern nicator Nicator gularis 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Common fiscal 

Uluguru violet backed 

Lanius collaris 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming 

sunbird Anthreptes neglectus 

Andropadus 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Shelley's greenbul 

masukuensis 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Little greenbul Andropadus virens 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Arrow-marked babbler Turdoides jardineii 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Brown-crowned tchagra Tchagra australis 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Blue-spotted wood dove Turtur afer 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming White browed robin chat Cossypha heuglini 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Purple banded sunbid Nectarinia bifasciata 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming Long-crested eagle Lophaetus occipitalis 

16.2.2009 Misalai Monoculture&mixed farming African goshawk Accpiter tachiro 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Collared sunbird Anthreptes collaris 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Olive sunbird Nectarinia olivacea 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Red faced cisticola Cisticola erythrops 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Common waxbill Colius striatus 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Little greenbul Andropadus virens 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest African citril Turtur tympanistria 

84


17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Common bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Tawny flanked prinia Prinia subflava 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Yellow fronted canary serinus mozambicus 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Black-backed puffback Dryoscopus cubla 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest White-browed coucal Centropus superciliosus 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest African Pygmy kingfisher Ispidina picta 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Long-crested eagle Lophaetus occipitalis 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Fisher's turaco Tauraco fischeri 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Green barbet Stactolaema olivacea 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Silvery-cheeked hornbill Bycanistes brevis 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Trampeter hornbill Bycanistes bucinator 

Camaroptera 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Grey backed camaroptera brachyuran 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Dark backed weaver Ploceus bicolor 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Puple banded sunbird Nectarinia bifasciata 

17.2.2009 Shambangeda Agroforest Squire tailed drongo Dicrurus ludwigii 

Shambangeda Agroforest 

Fallow land (40%) & Agroforest (10%) &Monoculture 

Yellow white eye Zosterops senegalensis 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Tambourine dove Stactolaema leucotis 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Tropical boubou Laniarius aethiopicus 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


White-browed coucal Centropus superciliosus 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Tiny greenbul Phyllastrephus debilis 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


White eared barbet Stactolaema leucotis 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) Blue-spotted wood dove Turtur afer 


Andropadus 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Shelley's greenbul 

masukuensis 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Banded green sunbird Anthreptes rubritorques 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Evergreen forest warbler Bradypterus lopezi 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 

85 

Fisher's turaco Tauraco fischeri

Date Site Land use /vegetation cover type 


Species Scientific name 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) Grey cuckoo-shrike Coracina caesia 



18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Yellow-streaked greenbul flavostriatus 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Green-headed oriole Oriolus chlorocephalus 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Little greenbul Andropadus virens 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Olive sunbird Nectarinia olivacea 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Common bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


White-chested alethe Alethe fuellerborni 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) Yellow white eye Zosterops senegalensis 


stephanoaetus 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


African crowed eagle coronatus 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Green barbet Stactolaema olivacea 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Speckled mousebird Colius striatus 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Purple banded sunbid Nectarinia bifasciata 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) Black-bellied starling Lamprotornis corruscus 

Fallow land (40%) & Agroforest (10%) &Monoculture Southern banded snake 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


eagle Circaetus fasciolatus 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Long-crested eagle Lophaetus occipitalis 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


African harrier -hawk polyboroides typus 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Little sparrow hawak Andropadus virens 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Black-throated wattle-eye Platysteira peltata 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) Forest batis Batis mixta 

86

Date Site Land use /vegetation cover type 


Species Scientific name 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) 


Lemon dove Aplopelia larvata 

18.2.2009 Shambangeda (50%) Amani sunbird Anthreptes pallidigaster 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Common bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Little greenbul Andropadus virens 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Olive sunbird Nectarinia olivacea 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land African harrier -hawk polyboroides typus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Tawny flanked prinia Prinia subflava 

streptopelia 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Red eyed dove 


semitorquata 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land 


19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Black headed weaver Ploceus cucullatus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Crowned hornbill Tockus alboterminatus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Palm -nut vulture Gypohierax angolensis 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Red-tailed ant thrush Neocossyphus rufus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Black-bellied starling Lamprotornis corruscus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Dark backed weaver Ploceus bicolor 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land White-browed coucal Centropus superciliosus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Kenrick's starling Poeoptera kenricki 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Collared sunbird Anthreptes collaris 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Folk tailed drongo Dcruru adsimilis 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Tropical boubou Laniarius aethiopicus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Speckled mousebird Colius striatus 

Camaroptera 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Grey backed camaroptera brachyuran 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Red faced cisticola Cisticola erythrops 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Yellow bishop Euplectes capensis 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Yellowbill Ceuthmochares aereus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land African citril Turtur tympanistria 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land African pygmy kingfisher Ispidina lecontei 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Long-crested eagle Lophaetus occipitalis 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Brown -hooded kingfisher Halcyon leucocephala 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Pin tailed whydah Vidua macroura 

87


19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Black-backed puffback Dryoscopus cubla 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Green barbet Stactolaema olivacea 

stephanoaetus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land African crowned eagle coronatus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Yellow fronted canary serinus mozambicus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Fisher's turaco Tauraco fischeri 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Fallow land Baglafecht weaver Ploceus baglafect 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Tawny flanked prinia Prinia subflava 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Red faced cisticola Cisticola erythrops 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Folk tailed drongo Dcruru adsimilis 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Black headed weaver Ploceus cucullatus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Long-crested eagle Lophaetus occipitalis 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Common bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Square-tailed drongo Dicrurus ludwigii 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Purple banded sunbid 


Nectarinia bifasciata 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest 


19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Augur bazzard buteo oreophilus 

streptopelia 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Red eyed dove 

semitorquata 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest White-browed coucal Centropus superciliosus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Dark-backed weaver 

African golden weaver 

Ploceus bicolor 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest 

(yellow weaver) Ploceus subaureus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest White eared barbet Stactolaema leucotis 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest African pygmy kingfisher Ispidina lecontei 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Black-bellied starling Lamprotornis corruscus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Spectacled weaver Ploceus ocularis 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Crowned hornbill Tockus alboterminatus 

Camaroptera 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Grey backed camaroptera brachyuran 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Tropical boubou Laniarius aethiopicus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest African citril Turtur tympanistria 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Yellowbill Ceuthmochares aereus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Yellow white eye Zosterops senegalensis 

88


19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Black and white mankin Lonchura bicolor 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Tambourine dove Stactolaema leucotis 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Olive sunbird Nectarinia olivacea 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Kenrick's starling Poeoptera kenricki 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest African emerald cuckoo Chrysococcyx cupreus 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Pin tailed whydah Vidua macroura 

19.2.2009 Kwatango Agroforest Silvery-cheeked hornbill Bycanistes brevis 

streptopelia 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Red eyed dove 

semitorquata 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Red faced cisticola Cisticola erythrops 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Tawny flanked prinia Prinia subflava 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Common bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Crowned hornbill Tockus alboterminatus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Black bellied starling Lamprotornis corruscus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming White-browed coucal Centropus superciliosus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Pin tailed whydah Vidua macroura 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Black-backed puffback Dryoscopus cubla 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Collared sunbird Nectarinia olivacea 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Green barbet Stactolaema olivacea 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Tropical boubou Laniarius aethiopicus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Speckled mousebird Colius striatus 

Camaroptera 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Grey backed camaroptera brachyuran 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming African Pygmy kingfisher Ispidina lecontei 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Long-crested eagle Lophaetus occipitalis 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Palm -nut vulture Gypohierax angolensis 

stephanoaetus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming African crowed eagle coronatus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming African citril Turtur tympanistria 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Yellow fronted canary serinus mozambicus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Red-tailed ant thrush Neocossyphus rufus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Fisher's turaco. Tauraco fischeri 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Spectacled Weaver Ploceus ocularis 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Yellow Bishop Euplectes capensis 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Helmeted Guineafowl Numida meleagris 

89


20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Common Waxbill Colius striatus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Green Wood hoope Lamprotornis corruscus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Mixed farming Common Fiscal Lanius collaris 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Tropical boubou Laniarius aethiopicus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Speckled mousebird Colius striatus 

Camaroptera 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Grey backed camaroptera brachyuran 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation African Pygmy kingfisher Ispidina lecontei 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Long-crested eagle Lophaetus occipitalis 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Palm -nut vulture Gypohierax angolensis 

stephanoaetus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation African crowed eagle coronatus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Pin tailed whydah Vidua macroura 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Black-backed puffback Dryoscopus cubla 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Collared sunbird Nectarinia olivacea 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Green barbet Stactolaema olivacea 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Spectacled Weaver Ploceus ocularis 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Yellow Bishop Euplectes capensis 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Helmeted Guineafowl Numida meleagris 

streptopelia 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Red eyed dove 

semitorquata 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Red faced cisticola Cisticola erythrops 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Tawny flanked prinia Prinia subflava 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Common bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Common bulbul Pycnonotus barbatus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Common Fiscal Lanius collaris 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Red-tailed ant thrush Neocossyphus rufus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Klaas's cuckoo Chrysococcyx klaas 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Eastern nicator Nicator gularis 

White-tailed crested 

Trochocercus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation 

flycatcher 

albonotatus 

20.2.2009 Kwatango Plantation Little swift Apus affinis 

90

Appendix 6. Definition of key land use types used in the survey 

Agroforest – land which is having mixed crops (subsistence crops (such as maize, oranges etc) 

and/or cash crops such as cardamom, cinnamon etc) plus timber tree species. 

Bushland – an area of predominantly indigenous herbs, shrubs and saplings, less than 2 m in height. 

Eucalyptus – commercial plantation of Eucalyptus trees. 

Fallow – land which was previously cultivated and is currently left unattended/without crops for up to 3 

years. 

Forest – land which has been dominated by indigenous trees and the land should be set aside 

purposely for certain activities such as protection or production purposes. 

Human settlement – an area predominantly covered in houses, roads, shops including the cleared 

area around them. 

Mixed farming – land which is occupied by two or more crops such as maize, cocoyam and 

sugarcane. 

Monoculture (Single crop field) – land which is dominated by one type of crop such as cassava, 

sugarcane, cocoyams etc 

Old fallow – as above but for more than 4 years. 

Plantation – land dominated by planted timber tree species such as teaks, Eucalyptus, Pines etc 

Tea estates – land which is mostly dominated by tea fields with scattered forest/tree patches. 

Tea field – monoculture of tea plants. 

Where two land cover types are listed it indicates that the plot includes a proportion of both land 

covers. 

91

Assessment of the biological values of different land cover types in ...

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