Flora Biodiversity Assessment in Bonga, Boginda and Mankira Forest

Flora Biodiversity Assessment in 

Bonga, Boginda and Mankira Forest, 

Kafa, Ethiopia 

Prepared by 

Sisay Nune 

July 2008 

Addis Ababa 

Submitted to PPP Project

CONTENTS 

I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ........................................................................................ 1 

1. INTRODUCTION ......................................................................................................... 5 

2. METHOD OF ASSESSMENT.................................................................................... 8 

3 RESULTS..................................................................................................................... 12 

3.1. Major land covers ............................................................................................... 12 

3.3 Floristic composition and density of flora............................................................. 17 

3.3.1 Trees, shrubs, and Lianas .......................................................................... 17 

3.3.2 Regeneration ................................................................................................ 19 

3.3.4 Herbaceous plants ....................................................................................... 26 

3.3.5 Comparison of Forest areas (Bonga, Boginda and Mankira) with 

respect to density of flora...................................................................................... 36 

4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION........................................................................ 39 

4.1 General.................................................................................................................. 39 

4.1.1. Biodiversity Conservation and Threats.................................................... 39 

4.2. Limitations............................................................................................................ 43 

4.3. Vegetation............................................................................................................ 44 

4.3.2. Stem per hectare and number of species ............................................... 46 

4.3.3 Regeneration per hectare ........................................................................... 47 

4.3.4 Saplings per hectare.................................................................................... 48 

4.3.4 Small herbaceous plants and grasses...................................................... 49 

4.3.5 Total Values of Bonga, Boginda and Mankira, Community Type......... 50 

5. PROPOSAL FOR CORE, BUFFER AND TRANSITIONAL AREAS ................. 58 

6. REFERENCE ............................................................................................................. 62 

7. ANNEXES................................................................................................................... 65 

Annex I. Definitions .................................................................................................... 65 

Annex II. Tables.......................................................................................................... 67 

Annex III. Pictures ...................................................................................................... 77 

Annex IV. CITES Annex I & II plant species .......................................................... 79 

Annex V. Transect Location ..................................................................................... 80 

List of Tables 

Table 1. Extent of major land covers in Bonga and Mankira .................................. 14 

Table 2. Estimated area of each land cover in Boginda RFPA .............................. 16 

Table 3 grass species recorded and their abundance, Bonga ............................... 30 

Table 4.grass species recorded and their abundance, Mankira............................. 31 

Table 5. Density of plants per stratum ........................................................................ 36 

Table 6. Endemic plants in the study area................................................................. 37 

Table 7. Total Plant Density per ha per Forest Area................................................ 38 

Table 8. Frequency class of tree/shrub/lianas species in the study area ............. 51 

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Table 9. Density of trees/shrubs per ha in Mankira, Bonga and Boginda............. 53 

Table 10. Common species in Mankira, Bonga and Boginda................................. 54 

Table 11. Important species in Mankira, Bonga and Boginda ................................ 55 

Table 12. Biodiversity Indices of trees/shrubs and lianas greater or equal to 10cm 

dbh.................................................................................................................................... 56 

Table 13. Criteria considered to determe core, buffer and transitional zones...... 59 

Table 14. Summary of woody species registered in Bonga, Boginda and Mankira 

........................................................................................................................................... 67 

Table 15. Ground layer vegetation including climbers ............................................. 71 

Table 16. Major grass species encountered in the forest........................................ 73 

Table 17. Common, Occasional and Rare species in Bonga, Mankira and 

Boginda............................................................................................................................ 74 

Table 18. Species found within one of the study area only.................................... 76 

List of Figures 

Figure 1. Estimated Landcover of Bonga (including Mankira)............................... 14 

Figure 2. Estimated area of each land cover in Boginda RFPA ............................. 16 

Figure 3. Regeneration in Mankira .............................................................................. 20 

Figure 4. Regeneration in Bonga................................................................................. 21 

Figure 5. Regeneration in Boginda.............................................................................. 22 

Figure 6. Saplings in Bonga ......................................................................................... 23 

Figure 7. Saplings in Boginda ...................................................................................... 24 

Figure 8. Saplings in Mankira....................................................................................... 25 

Figure 9. Herb Species of Bonga ................................................................................ 27 

Figure 10 Herb species of Boginda............................................................................. 28 

Figure 11. Herb Species of Mankira............................................................................ 29 

Figure 12. Grass speicies recorded in Bonga ........................................................... 31 

Figure 13. Grass species of Mankira .......................................................................... 31 

Figure 14. Saplings recorded in agricultural land...................................................... 33 

Figure 15 Regenerations of woody species in Agricultural Land ........................... 35 

Figure 16. Density of plants per stratum .................................................................... 37 

Figure 17. Total Plant Density per Forest Area......................................................... 38 

Figure 18 Number of saplings per hectare in Bonga, Boginda and Mankira........ 49 

Figure 19. Frequency class and number of species in each frequency class and 

forest area ....................................................................................................................... 52 

Figure 20. Distribution of Transect Lines.................................................................... 80 

List of Maps 

Map 1 The study Area (Bonga, Boginda and Mankira)............................................ 10 

Map 2 Digitally analyzed Map of Bonga and Mankira Forest ................................ 13 

Map 3. Boginda Landcover Map................................................................................. 15 

Map 4 Proposed Core, Buffer and Transitional Area in Bonga and Mankira ....... 60 

Map 5. Proposed Core, Buffer and Transitional Areas of Boginda....................... 61 

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List of Photos 

Photo 1 Impact of Agriculture (Cultivation) on forest................................................ 77 

Photo 2 .Deforested Hagenia forest for Agriculture and remnants of the species 

........................................................................................................................................... 77 

Photo 3. Forest conversion for agriculture, Boka Kebele ........................................ 78 

Photo 4. Dense Bamboo Forest .................................................................................. 78 

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Acronyms 

AAU Addis Ababa University 

CBD Convention on Biological Diversity 

CEEPA Centre for Environmental Economics and Policy for Africa 

CITES Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species 

CPPSLM Country Partnership Program for Sustainable Land Management 

EFAP Ethiopian Forestry Action Program 

EWNHS Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society 

FPA Forest Priority Area 

GEF Global Environment Facility 

RFPA Regional Forest Priority Areas 

GPS Global Positioning System 

IBC Institute of Biodiversity Conservation 

IEEM Institute of Ecological and Environmental Management 

ITC International Institute for Geo-information Science and Earth Observation 

MoARD Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development 

PFM Participatory Forest Management 

SNNP Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples 

UNCCD United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification 

UNFCCC United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 

WBISPP Woody Biomass Inventory and Strategic Planning Project 

dbh Diameter at breast height 

ETM Enhanced Thematic Mapper 

EU European Union 

UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 

GIS Geographical Information System 

ILWIS Integrated Land and Water Information System 

FAO Food and Agriculture Organization 

EN Endangered 

VU Vulnerable 

NT Near Threatened 

LC Least Concern 

IVI Important Value Index 

SRTM Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission 

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I. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

a) This report is prepared for Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society. The report 

comprises flora biodiversity of Bonga, Boginda and Mankira forests found in Kaffa 

zone of Southern Nations Nationaities and Peoples Region. Bonga forest is one of the 

Regional Forest Priority Areas (RFPA). It is estimated to cover an area of 163,000 ha. 

Mankira forest, which is estimated to cover 900 ha, is part of Bonga RFPA. 

Geographically Bonga RFPA is located 07 0 00’-07 0 25’N latitude and 35 0 55’-36 0 37’E 

longitude. Boginda forest covers 59447 ha. It is administratively located in Gewata 

wereda in Kaffa Zone. Geographically, the forest is situated between 07 0 20.000` to 07 0 

33.400N latitude and 035 0 54.580` to 036 0 14 .570`E longitude, excluding the area 

under Wushwush Tea Development Enterprise. Both Bonga and Boginda forests are 

registered as Regional Forest Priority Area (RFPA). 

b) Mainly, Enhanced Thematic Mapper (ETM) Land Sat Imagery band 1, 2 and 3 are 

used for land cover classification. Transects and quadrant method was the 

recommended survey method to assess flora species. Size of transect was 1000 meters 

long by 10 meters wide. Quadrants having different dimensions, i.e., 1m X 1m for 

ferns, herbs and grasses, 2m X 2m for trees and shrub seedlings and 5m X 5m for 

saplings were laid along the center at 50, 100, 150, …and 950 meters. Each species of 

tree, shrub and lianas greater than or equal to 10cm diameter within 50 X 10 meter 

transect were listed and counted. Numerically, 130, 60, and 40 sample plots are 

assigned for Bonga, Boginda and Mankira, respectively. Each plant species 

encountered within a transect is identified by its vernacular and scientific names and 

tallied. Most of the trees and shrubs are identified. Those species that could not be 

identified on the field were taken to the AAU National Herbarium, for identification. 

Trees and shrubs less than 10 cm diameter and higher than 1.3 meter are considered as 

saplings. Tree, shrub and lianas less than 1.3 meters high are recorded as regeneration. 

c) In Bonga, seven major land covers are identified, namely Bamboo Forest, Dense Forest, 

Disturbed Forest, Intensively Cultivated, Moderately Cultivated, Highly Disturbed Forest, and 

Wetland. Similar land covers are identified in Boginda, too. More than 70 percent of each 

RFPA is covered by natural forests of different strata (dense forest, disturbed forest and 

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highly disturbed forest). In general about 92 tree/shrub/liana species above 10 cm 

diameter are recorded in the three study sites. On site specific basis 46, 70 and 54 

tree/shrub/liana species are recorded in Mankira, Bonga and Boginda respectively. 

With respect to density of trees above 10 cm diameter Bonga forest has the highest 

(590), followed by Boginda forest (575) and Mankira forest (454). A total of 57 

species in Bonga, 36 species in Boginda and 30 species in Mankira are recorded as 

regeneration. In the current survey 61.4 percent of trees having dbh greater or equal to 

10 cm are represented as regeneration in Bonga. In Boginda 52.8 percent of 

trees/shrubs having 10 cm and above are recorded as regeneration, whereas in 

Mankira, 43.5 percent of trees greater than 10cm dbh are represented as regeneration. 

Species such as Cordia africana are not registered as regeneration in any of the three 

forest areas. This is probably because the species is an early colonizer (Friis1992). 

Croton macrostacheys too, as a pioneer species (light demanding), does not get 

adequate conditions for regeneration in a natural forest (Denich, 2006). But on road 

sides and wherever there is an opening, Croton macrostacheys is well grown and 

observed. Ficus species are also not represented in regeneration except F. palmata in 

Mankira. In total, including regeneration, saplings, herbaceous plants and grasses 

Bonga forest has the largest plant cover per ha (estimated to be more than 1,309,956). 

Mankira and Boginda have lower number of flora density, each comprising 510,120 

and 386,600, respectively. 

d) Endemic plants recorded in the current study and Schmitt C. B. (2006) are listed as 

follows: Erythrina brucei, Milletia ferruginea, Solanecio gigas, Tiliacora troupinii, 

Vepris dainelli, Aframomum corrorima, Brillantaisia grotanellii, Satureja paradoxa, 

Vernonia tewoldei, Mikaniopsis clematoides, Lippia adoensis, Clematis longicauda, 

Clematis longicauda, Pilea bambuseti ssp aethiopica, Pentas tenuis, Dorstenia 

soerensenii, Phyllanthus limmuensis and Cyrtorchis ehrythraeae. 

e) The result of this survey indicates absence of constantly present species within the 

three forest sites which leads to the conclusion that each forest has a heterogeneous 

species composition. Croton macrostachyus in Mankira, Milletia ferruginea in Bonga 

and 

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Boginda are the most prevalent species. In this study there was no single tree or shrub 

species that is constantly present in all sample plots within the three study sites. 

Most common tree/shrub species recorded in the three study sites are: Croton 

macrostachyus, Phonix reclinata, Vepris dainelli, Sapium ellepticum, Pouteria adolfifriedericii, 

Chionanthus mildbraedii, Draceaena steudneri, Schefflera volkensii, 

Milletia ferruginea, Chionanthus mildbraedii, Macaranga capensis, and Psychotria 

orophila. 

On the other hand, 9 species in Mankira, 30 species in Bonga and 18 species in 

Boginda are found to be rare species. 

f) One study, (Reusing, M., 2000), indicated that settlement and population growth are 

the main causes for 50 percent of forest degradation (decline of forest quality); and 

deforestation in South West Ethiopia. During the current survey period it is learnt that 

the major causes of deforestation in Bonga, Boginda and Mankira, like everywhere in 

Ethiopia, are clearing and burning of the natural forest for cultivation of food crops, 

planting coffee (small and/or large scale), settlement, chasing wild animals, pitsowing, 

harvesting of fuel wood, construction materials and cutting of big trees to 

harvest honey. As a result of heavy exploitation of selected trees such as Cordia 

africana, Pouteria adolfi-friederici and Prunus africana, these species are reported as 

endangered by some studies (Ensermu Kelbessa and Teshome Soromessa 2004, Girma 

Balcha et al, 2002, Schmitt C. B., 2006). The forests are also in the process of 

degradation due to a number of other factors such as coffee growing and livestock 

rearing in the forest. Although it is difficult to substantiate the cause of death of trees 

in this study, insect and pests introduced via animals and humans may attack and 

affect the vitality of the forest. In this study the number of stumps and dead trees were 

estimated and the following results are obtained: dead trees per hectare are 292 in 

Bonga, 433 in Boginda, and 359 in Mankira. The stumps were counted in order to 

evaluate level of exploitation and the results are 189 for Bonga, 27 for Boginda and 82 

for Mankira. As the figure shows Bonga forest is more affected by logging than the 

rest of the forests. Because of absence of scientific management such as silvicultural 

practices, all forests of the country, as well as those in the study area, are mostly 

affected by thick climbers that are silviculturally and economically undesirable 

3

species. As a result of this phenomena economically and silviculturally important tree 

species are crooked, bent and fluted. Regeneration status, too, might be influenced 

negatively. Trees that are dead are rotting in the forest. This might help in nutrient 

cycle but they might also harbor disease. Absence of management plan also leads to 

over exploitation where annual cut exceeds mean annual increment. In conclusion 

existing threat to the forests is associated with anthropogenic activities, that is, human 

induced pressure threatens the existing forests of Kaffa zone. The forests are in fragile 

and fragmented state. This great biodiversity coupled with the extreme threat caused 

by habitat destruction makes them part of the Eastern Afromontane biodiversity 

hotspot (Gil et al. 2004). 

g. The three study areas are among the few forest areas of the country. These forest areas 

contributed to the world one internationally and economically significant plant, coffee. 

Wetlands and forests found at different altitude harbor different fauna and flora species 

that have high biodiversity value. Rivers that start from those wetlands and forests 

have both social and economical values. Despite the fact that the study areas are so 

important to the country and the world at large, pressure exerted by anthropogenic 

factors is highly/significantly affecting them. Unless prompt measures are taken the 

invaluable resource might be lost in a very short period of time. Therefore, putting the 

three forests in a Biosphere Reserve is highly important and should be done as soon as 

possible. Establishment of a Biosphere Reserve will save the last forests whereas local 

community will be benefited through sustainable management of the resources so that 

utilization will be optimized rather than maximized. Scientific research which may be 

undertaken in the study area would generate technologies appropriate to the local and 

national settings that may improve the quality of life of the rural livelihoods. Among 

many other benefits that can be derived from a Biosphere Reserve, financial 

mechanism for forest/nature management is worth mentioning. 

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1. INTRODUCTION 

1.1 This report is prepared in Addis Ababa, by the flora expert whose name is indicated on the 

cover, on behalf of the Ethiopian Wildlife and Natural History Society (EWNHS). It 

provides information on the biodiversity of flora found in the study area. It gives 

description of existing habitat and species types. It assesses existing status and overall 

biodiversity values of the vegetation in the area. It also attempts to identify the threats to 

such vegetation. 

1.2 The study area is dominated by forests but mostly it is fragmented. This fragmentation is 

mainly due to expansion of agriculture by clearing forest land. Expansion of settlements, 

both urban and rural, and cultivation are creating “Vegetation Islands” everywhere; except 

in extreme rugged terrains such as Boginda. Towns such as Gimbo, Bonga, Decha, 

Wushwush, Kobech, and Saja are inhabited with many people. Demand for wood 

increases as these towns expand. As a result nearby forests are highly affected. 

Commercial agriculture on tea and coffee is available in the study area (about 80 in the 

zone). Recent approach on out grower scheme on tea development is being intensified so 

that farmers are growing tea and selling it to the Wushwush tea development enterprise. 

(Wushwush is located at the western part of Bonga town.) 

1.3 In addition to forest, the study area comprises agricultural fields which are currently being 

used for cereal production and perennial crops such as Teff, maize, wheat and barely and 

Enset ventricosum. Among other types of land cover observed wetlands are worth 

mentioning. 

1.3.1 The main economic activity of the local people is agriculture. Growing coffee, banana 

and Enset ventricosum around homesteads are common. Many people also have coffee 

plots in the forest where they collect coffee beans every year for household 

consumption and for sell. In addition, honey, products of Aframomum corrorima and 

Piper capense (timiz) are collected from forests. The “Menja” People who live in the 

forest collect climbers and lianas for sale. They also hunt in the forest. Grass and 

5

thatches collected from the forest become livestock feed. Livestock are observed in 

both forest land and agricultural fields. 

1.4 The survey focused mainly on forest land and partly on agricultural land with relatively 

more natural trees on it and wetlands. 

1.5 Agricultural expansion seems to be the number one reason for deforestation in the area 

(Annex III photos 1 - 3). Farmers clear the forest land and burn it or set fire in the forest in 

order to have space to plant crops. A recent phenomenon on distribution of land to youths 

is good example of this act. Kebeles that are short of land to distribute were seen giving 

forest land to the youths. Commercial agriculture has been disturbing the remnant forest. 

Tea development needs complete clearing of forest land while commercial coffee 

development is done after clearing most of the undergrowth and thinning of trees. 

Moreover, many environmentalists are concerned that different chemicals used in the 

plantations may harm the local ecosystem in general and useful insect population in 

particular. Therefore degradation and deforestation of forests as a result of agriculture and 

commercial farming may be significant. 

1.6 The study area comprises three sites, Bonga, Mankira and Boginda forests. Bonga and 

Mankira forests are part of Bonga Forest Priority Area (FPA). But for this particular study 

they will be treated separately. Management status of these three forest areas differ 

between and sometimes within the forest. In Bonga some of the forests are managed 

through participatory forest management while some are handed over to the Kebele 

administration to protect them. The forest in Boginda is partly protected under a project 

financed by the EU and the rest is left for Kebele administration. In Mankira an attempt to 

put the forest under PFM has been initiated and the agreement process is started between 

local community and FARM Africa. The three forest areas comprise different vegetation 

density namely dense, disturbed and highly disturbed forest. 

1.6.1 Highly disturbed forest land comprises areas that are highly affected by agricultural 

activities such as cash crop planting and also by settlements. Forest areas that were 

once occupied by settlement but currently abandoned are also under highly disturbed 

category. These areas are characterized by less number of trees than disturbed and 

dense forest lands. Disturbed forest has better canopy closure than highly disturbed 

6

forest. Few tall trees and better undergrowth is available in such forests. Dense forest 

can be characterized by closed canopy and quite few thorny and shrubby species 

underneath. Similar bole diameters occupy similar canopy within dense forest 

stratum. 

1.6.2 There are state owned plantations of different species, namely: Cupressus lusitanica, 

Pines patula, Pinus radiate, Eucalyptes spp.. These plantations are mostly found 

adjacent to natural forests. Privately owned trees are observed during the survey 

period. These trees are mostly planted around homesteads. Among the species 

farmers planted, eucalypts and cupresses dominate. These plantations are not 

indicated on map because of their size compared to spatial resolution of satellite 

image used. 

1.7 The study area experience one long rainy season, lasting from March /April to October. 

The mean annual rainfall ranges from 1710 mm at Bonga station to 1892 mm at 

Wushwush station. Over 85 % of the total annual rainfall, with mean monthly values in 

the range of 125 - 250 mm occurs in the 8 months long rainy season. The mean 

temperature is 19.4°C at Bonga while it is 18.1°C at Wushwush station (Taye Bekele, 

2003). Despite the fact that the data is meant for Bonga, due to absence of meteriological 

stations around Boginda, this value of Bonga can be taken for Boginda as well. 

1.8 The aims of the assessment were: 

• Take inventory of the characteristic macro flora, including endangered, rare and 

endemic tree and shrub species of Bonga, Boginda and Mankira forests, providing a 

species list as per the UNESCO Biosphere Reserve nomination form. 

• Identify and document prevailing and potential main threats to the threatened plant 

species in the aforementioned three forests and in their surroundings, 

• Identify and document prevailing and potential main threats to the three forests 

mentioned above, 

• Assess, list and describe all major habitats and bio-geographical zones (e.g. tropical 

evergreen forest, savannah, woodland, intact or core areas...) in the three forests, 

1.10. Previous Studies 

Previously conducted researches and reports are well reviewed and summerised in 

Riechmann, D. 2007. Only relevant information regarding these past works and other works 

7

had done by different authors not mentioned in Riechmann, Dennis 2007 are included in the 

current survey either in the form of comparison or complement. 

2. METHOD OF ASSESSMENT 

2.1 Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management (IEEM) Guideline on Ecological 

Impact Assessment (2006) was consulted during the study period. Calculation of 

different biodiversity indices was done based on ITC lecture notes which were prepared 

from the work of Anne E. Magurran, Princeton University Press (1988), Michael A. 

Huston, Cambridge University Press (1994) and John A. Wallwork, Academic Press, 

New York (1976). Aims and Methods of Vegetation Ecology by Mueller-Dombois and 

Ellenberg 1974 are consulted throughout the study period. 

2.2 For vegetation classification of Ethiopia in general and the study area in particular, Friis, 

1994, Chaffey, 1979, EFAP, 1994 and IBC, 2005 were used. Additional information 

related to vegetation (on the study area) is collected from Zonal Bureau of Agriculture 

and Rural Development, Zonal Bureau of Trade and Industry, Planning and Investment 

Desk. 

2.3 The two remotely sensed data are the main tools, Landsat ETM 7 123 of 2002 and ASTER 

321 RGB, used to stratify, determine transects’ position and collect data. The remotely 

sensed data were analyzed using ERDAS IMAGINE 8.4, ILWIS 3.1, ArcGIS 9.1 and 9.2 

and ArcView GIS 3.2. Digital image classification was conducted. 

2.4 For plant identification Azene Bekele-Tessema with Ann Birnie and Bo Tenagnas, 1993, 

Edward, S. et al, 1995, Welde Michael, 1987 , Hedberg, I. & Edwards, S., 1995 and 

Hedberg, I. & Edwards, S., 1989 were used. Plants species that were not identified at 

field level were taken to Addis Ababa University, national herbarium for identification. 

Desk Study Methods 

2.5 Relevant biodiversity information was gathered mainly from Federal Environmental 

Protection Authority (EPA) and Institute of Biodiversity Conservation (IBC). Other 

8

important information is collected from Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development 

(MoARD) and Southern Nations Nationalities and Peoples Bureau of Agriculture and 

Rural Development (SNNPBoARD). 

2.6 The study area was classified using remote sensing and GIS. Unsupervised classification 

was made using ERDAS IMAGINE 8.4, whereas supervised classification was done using 

ILWIS. ILWIS assists classification of vegetation (user-friendly) through its feature space. 

The two classifications were compared and by applying expert knowledge (and train the 

software by training points) collected from field seven major classes were determined. 

These seven major classes were identified latter as dense forest, bamboo forest, 

intensively cultivated land, exposed surface, moderately cultivated areas, wetland, 

disturbed forest and highly disturbed forest. In Boginda bamboo forest doesnot exist. 

2.7 Transect lines were selected by closely examining the classified map especially on 

vegetation part (forest land) (see annex V for distribution of transects). Major interest area 

for flora assessment in Bonga, Mankira and Boginda were vegetated area especially forest 

covered lands. Geographical position of transects’ starting points were identified and 

recorded into Global Positioning System (GPS). Simultaneously azimuth is determined 

and recorded in note book. 

2.8 standard data collection formats were prepared. 

The study Area 

The study area is found in Kafa Zone of Southern Nations, Nationalities and Peoples Regional 

State. 

Bonga forest is one of the Regional Forest Priority Areas (RFPA). It is estimated to cover an 

area of 163,000 ha. Mankira forest, which is estimated to cover 900 ha, is part of Bonga 

RFPA. Geographically, Bonga RFPA is located 07 0 00’-07 0 25’N latitude and 35 0 55’-36 0 37’E 

longitude. 

According to Girma Balcha et al, 2004, Boginda forest covers about 7,500ha. But in this study 

wider area is considered, 59447 ha. It is administratively located in Gewata wereda in Kafa 

Zone. Geographically, the forest is situated between 07 0 20.000` to 07 0 33.400N latitude and 

9

035 0 54.580` to 036 0 14 .570`E Longitude, excluding Wushwush tea development enterprise. 

Both Bonga and Boginda forests are registered as Regional Forest Priority Area (RFPA). 

Map 1. The study Area (Bonga, Boginda and Mankira) 

Source: WBISPP, 2004 (geodata) and SUPAK 2002. 

10

Field Survey Methods: Flora 

2.9 Transects and quadrant method was the recommended survey method to assess flora 

species. Size of transect was 1000 meter long and 10 meters wide. Quadrants having 

different dimensions, i.e., 1m X 1m for ferns, herbs and grasses, 2m X 2m for trees and 

shrub seedlings and 5m X 5m for saplings were laid along the center at 50, 100, 150, 

…and 950 meters for estimation of their relative abundance. Each species of tree, shrub 

and lianas greater than or equal to 10 cm diameter within 50 X 10 meter transect were 

listed and counted. Diameter at breast height of each tree listed is measured. Height of 

each tree is estimated. The survey period was between mid February and end of March 

and lasted for 30 days. Two teams were involved. GPS, Silva compass, diameter tape, 

plant press, used-news papers, cutters, and measuring tape were the main instruments and 

tools used during the survey. All observation was made by naked eyes. 

2.10 Due attention is given to relatively naturally vegetated areas, in particular forest areas. 

Representative area for each site was sampled. The classified (stratified) map was used 

for the whole period. In terms of size Bonga forest is the biggest. Boginda and Mankira 

cover less size, respectively. Therefore, the number of sample plots in each forest varies 

accordingly. Numerically 130, 60, and 40 plots are assigned for Bonga, Boginda and 

Mankira, respectively. Out of 130 plots in Bonga 20 plots are sampled in agricultural 

land. Sample plots are distributed proportional to the size of the area. 

2. 11 One transect line comprises 10 sample plots. The first sample plot is chosen randomly. It 

starts 50 meters from the edge of the forest to avoid “edge effect”. Along each transect 

line, the following information is collected: 

• Tree, shrub and lianas 

• Herbs and ferns 

• Grasses 

• Regeneration and saplings for trees, shrubs and lianas 

• Number of dead trees 

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2.12 An attempt was made to collect lichens, mosses, liverworts, epiphytes, and fungi. These 

plants were not encountered within 1m X 1m quadrants. However, outside the quadrant, 

on a tree bole, branches and dead woods quite large amount of such plants were 

observed. Fern species that are encountered within 1 m X 1m are recorded. 

2.13 Each plant species encountered within transect is identified by its vernacular and 

scientific names and tallied. Most of the trees and shrubs are identified. Those species 

that could not be identified on the field were taken to the AAU National Herbarium, for 

identification. Trees and shrubs less than 10 cm diameter and higher than 1.3 meter are 

considered as saplings. Tree, shrub and lianas less than 1.3 meters high are recorded as 

regeneration. 

2.14 Within each 1m X 1m quadrant small herbaceous plants, grasses, trees and shrub 

seedlings were surveyed (photo 19 & 20). Tree and shrub seedlings are recorded 

separately. 

2.15 Important observations noted as threats to forest are: 

♦ Agricultural expansion, both for subsistence and commercial purpose, (including fire)this 

phenomena is pressurizing the forests in almost all directions. 

♦ Settlement (wood for construction and fuel); settlements in the area seem to be formed 

as a competition for land with no pattern. 

♦ Free grazing in the forest. 

3 RESULTS 

In this section major land covers and their extent is analyzed based on remote sensing and 

GIS; number of individuals and species recorded within each stratum are presented. 

3.1. Major land covers 

Seven major land covers are identified, namely Bamboo Forest, Dense Forest, Disturbed 

Forest, Intensively Cultivated, Moderately Cultivated, Highly Disturbed Forest, Wetland (map 2 

& figure 1). The total size of the study area and extent of each land cover is illustrated in 

Table 1 below. 

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Map 2. Digitally analyzed Map of Bonga and Mankira Forest 

Source: Flora biodiversity assessment, 2008 

13

Figure 1. Estimated Landcover of Bonga (including Mankira) 

Table 1. Extent of major land covers in Bonga and Mankira 

BONGA-NFPA 

Area in ha Percent 

total 

Dense Forest 69361.4 42.5 

Disturbed Forest 17961.9 11.0 

Highly Disturbed Forest 30675.8 18.8 

Bamboo Forest 5421.9 3.3 

Intensively Cultivated 10494.1 6.4 

Moderately Cultivated 28858.2 17.7 

Wetland 486.6 0.3 

Total 163259.8 100.0 


From the above Table it is possible to conclude that more than 70 percent of the study area 

is covered by natural forests of different strata (dense forest, disturbed forest and highly 

disturbed forest). Moderately cultivated land, where the area is stocked with trees of 

different density, comprises 17.7 percent. Intensively cultivated land is characterized by 

less number of trees and shrubs in the area than moderately cultivated land. This land 

cover comprises about 6.4 percent. Dense forest covers more than 40 percent of the total 

14

area. Disturbed and highly disturbed forest each comprises 11 and 18.8 percent, 

respectively. Wetlands area is not much in this part of the forest when compared with 

Boginda. 

Boginda 

Similar to Bonga RFPA, seven major land covers are identified. These land covers are Dense 

Forest, Disturbed Forest, Intensively Cultivated, Moderately Cultivated, Highly Disturbed Forest, 

Wetland and Exposed Surface (map 3 & figure 2). The total size of the study area and extent of 

each land cover is illustrated in Table 2 below. 

Map 3. Boginda Landcover Map 

15

Table 2. Estimated area of each land cover in Boginda RFPA 

BOGINDA RFPA Area in hectare Percent of total 

Dense Forest 15666.3 26.4 

Disturbed Forest 7629.2 12.8 

Highly Disturbed Forest 18867.8 31.7 

Exposed surface 119.9 0.2 

Wetland 3879.9 6.5 

Intensively Cultivated 2679.9 4.5 

Moderately Cultivated 10603.9 17.8 

Total 59446.9 100.0 


Figure 2. Estimated area of each land cover in Boginda RFPA 

Over 70 percent of the study area is covered by forests of different strata, dense, disturbed and 

highly disturbed comprising 26.4, 12.8 and 31.7 percent respectively. Wetland covers 6.5 

percent of the total area. 

16

3.3 Floristic composition and density of flora 

3.3.1 Trees, shrubs, and Lianas 

In this document shrubs are considered as trees. 

3.3.1.1 Floristic composition of Bonga is dominated by broadleaved tree species. One 

coniferous tree species, i.e., Podocarpus falcatus, exists, though it wasn’t recorded in 

any of the plots. This list of species includes only trees above 10 cm diameter. The 

registered broadleaved tree species are listed as follows: 

A. In Bonga 

Alangium chinense, Albizia gummifera, Allophyllus abyssinicus, Allophyllus 

macrobotrys, Apodytes dimidiate, Bersama abyssinica, Canthium oligocarpum, 

Cassipourea malosana, Celtis africana, Chionanthus mildbraedii, Clausena anisata, 

Cordia africana, Croton macrostachyus, Cyathea manniana, Dracaena afromontana, 

Dracaena fragrans, Draceaena steudneri, Ehertia cymosa, Erythrococca trichogyne, 

Fagarobsis angolensis, Ficus ovata, Ficus palmate, Ficus thonningii, Galineiera 

saxifrage, Hibiscus calyphyllus, Illex mitis, Justica schimperiana, Landolphia 

buchananii, Landolphia owerensis, Macaranga capensis, Maesa lanceolata, 

Maytenus gracilipes, Milletia ferruginea, Ocotea kenyensis, Olea welwitschii, 

Oxyanthus specious, Pittosporum viridiflorum, Polyscias fulva, Pouteria adolfifriederici, 

Prunus africana, Psychotria orophila, Rothmannia urcelliformis, Rytigynia 

neglecta, Salacia congolensis, Sapium ellepticum, Schefflera abyssinica, 

Sericostachys scandens, Stephania abyssinica, Syzygium guineense, Tiliacora 

troupinniCuf, Trilepisium madagascariense, Vepris dainelli, Vernonia amygdalina, 

Vernoia ariculifera 

B. In Mankira 

Psychotria orophila, Milletia ferruginea, Erythrococca trichogyne, Bersama 

abyssinica, Schefflera abyssinica, cachno, Ficus ovata, Albizia gummifera, Maesa 

lanceolata, Draceaena afromontana, Rothmannia uricelliformis, Galineiera 

saxifrage, Cordia africana, Clausena anisata, Cissampelos pareira, Diospyrose 

abyssinica, Landolphia owerensis, Vernonia amaygadlina, Isoglosa somalensis, 

Flacortia indica, Polyscias fulva, Pouteria adolfi-friedericii, Carex chlorosaccus, 

Vepris dainelli, Grewia ferruginea, Rytigynia neglecta, Prunus Africana, Oxyanthus 

17

specious, Macaranga capensis, Sapium ellepticum, Allophyllus abyssinicus, Cyathea 

manniana, Chionanthus mildbraedii, Ficus sur, Pittosporum viridiflorum, Ficus 

palmate, Trichilia dregeana, Celtis africana, Croton macrostachyus, Cassipourea 

malosana, Ehertia cymosa, Apodytes dimidiate, Olea welwitschii, Phonix reclinata, 

Syzygium guineense and Draceaena steudneri 

C. In Boginda 

Allophyllus abyssinicus, Allophyllus macrobotrys, Apodytes dimidiate, Canthium 

oligocarpum, assipourea malosana, Celtis africana, Chionanthus mildbraedii, Croton 

macrostachyus, Cyathea manniana, Draceaena steudneri, Fagarobsis angolensis, 

Ficus palmate, Hibiscus calyphyllus, Illex mitis, Justica schimperiana, Landolphia 

buchananii, Macaranga capensis, Maytenus gracilipes, Ocotea kenyensis, Olea 

welwitschii, Oxyanthus specious, Pittosporum viridiflorum, Polyscias fulva, Pouteria 

adolfi-friederici, Prunus Africana, Rytigynia neglecta, Salacia congolensis, Sapium 

ellepticum, Syzygium guineense, Trilepisium madagascariense and Vepris dainelli 

D. Species encountered in all the study sites (Bonga, Boginda and Mankira): 

Albizia gummifera, Draceaena afromontana, Allophyllus abyssinicus, Draceaena 

steudneri, Apodytes dimidiate. Ehertia cymosa, Bersama abyssinica, Erythrococca 

trichogyne, cachno, Carex chlorosaccus, Cassipourea malosana, Celtis africana, 

Ficus ovata, Ficus palmate, Chionanthus mildbraedii, Ficus sur, Cissampelos 

pareira, Clausena anisata, Flacortia indica, Galineiera saxifrage, Cordia africana, 

Croton macrostachyus, Grewia ferruginea, Isoglosa somalensis, Landolphia 

owerensis, Macaranga capensis, Maesa lanceolata, Milletia ferruginea, Olea 

welwitschii, Oxyanthus specious, Phonix reclinata, ittosporum viridiflorum, Polyscias 

fulva, Pouteria adolfi-friedericii, Prunus africana, Psychotria orophila, Rothmannia 

uricelliformis, Rytigynia neglecta, Sapium ellepticum, Schefflera abyssinica, 

Syzygium guineense, Trichilia dregeana , Vepris dainell and Vernonia amaygadlina 

E. Species that are encountered in Bonga and Boginda, but not in Mankira: 

Allophyllus macrobotrys, Allophyllus macrobotrys, Canthium oligocarpum, Canthium 

oligocarpum, Dracaena fragrans, Dracaena fragrance, Illex mitis, Landolphia 

buchananii, Landolphia buchanani and, Maytenus gracilipes 

18

F. Species which are encountered in Mankira and Boginda, but not in Bonga: 

Ehertia cymosa and Erythrococca trichogyne 

G. Species that is encountered in Mankira and Bonga but not in Boginda: 

Phonix reclinata 

3.3.1.2 The ten most recorded tree/shrub/liana species in the transect representing Mankira are 

Vepris dainelli (8.59%), Landolphia buchananii (7.16%), Croton macrostachyus (6.5%), 

Sapium ellipticum (5.29%), Pouteria adolfi-friederici (4.85%), Draceaena steudneri (4.63%), 

Chionanthus mildbraedii (4.41%), Ehertia cymosa (3.30%), Celtis africana (3.30%) and Milletia 

ferruginea (3.08%). 

3.3.1.3 The ten most recorded tree/shrub/liana species in the transect representing Bonga 

forest are Draceaena steudneri (12.74%), Schefflera volkensii (6.89%), Allophyllus 

macrobotrys (5.20%), Landolphia owerensis (4.24%), Phonix reclinata (3.97%), Maesa 

lanceolata (3.58%), Eugenia bukobensis (2.54), Syzygium guineense (2.5%), Galineiera 

saxifraga (2.37%) and Vepris dainelli (2.23%). 

3.3.1.4 The ten most recorded tree/shrub/liana species in the transect representing Boginda 

forest are Sericostachys scandens (8.20%), Allophyllus abyssinicus (5.65%), Dombeya 

torrida (5.56%), Ehertia cymosa (4.87%), Allophyllus macrobotrys (4.8%), Syzygium 

guineense (4.24%), Prunus africana (4.17%), Psychotria orophila (3.82%), Oncoba routledgei 

(3.82%) and Cyathea manniana (3.82%). 

In general about 92 tree/shrub/liana species above 10 cm diameter are recorded in the 

three study sites. On site specific basis 46, 70 and 54 tree/shrub/liana species are 

recorded in Mankira, Bonga and Boginda, respectively. With respect to density of trees 

above 10 cm diameter Bonga forest has the highest (590), followed by Boginda forest 

(575) and Mankira forest (454). 

3.3.2 Regeneration 

3.3.2.1 Regeneration of trees/shrubs and lianas recorded are listed as follows: 

A. Mankira (30 species): 

Erythrococca trichogyne, Psychotria orophila, Landolphia owerensis, Phonix 

reclinata, Isoglossa somalensis, Rothmannia urcelliformis , Clausena anisata, Ehertia 

cymosa, Prunus africana, Vepris dainelli, Clerdendrum myricoides, Milletia 

19

ferruginea, Phytolacacca dodecandra, Bersama abyssinica, Ficus palmate, Grewia 

ferruginea, Pittosporum viridiflorum, Pouteria adolfi-friederici, Schrebera alata, 

Allophyllus macrobotrys, Lepidotrichilia volkensii, Albizia gummifera, Allophyllus 

abyssinicus, Galineiera saxifrage and Tiliachoro troupinii 

Figure 3. Regeneration in Mankira 

B. Bonga (57 species) 

Maytenus ovatus, Justicia schimperiana, Maesa lanceolata, Trilepisum madagascariense, 

Dracaena fragnance, Sapium ellipticum, Vernonia spp, Pterolobium stellatum, Celtis 

gomphophylla, Mytenus gracilipes, Psychotria orophila, Solanecio mannii, Yushinea alpine, 

Maytenus gracilipes, Coffea arabica, Rubus apetalus, Acanthus eminens, Celtis africana, 

Galineiera saxifrage, Prunus africana, Urera hypselodendron, Ekebergia capensis, Vernonia 

amygdalina, Hibiscus berberidifolius, Pouteria adolfi-friederici, Ricinus communis, Bersama 

abyssinica, Vepris dainelli, Milletia ferruginea, Schrebera alata, Allophyllus abyssinicus, 

Chionanthus mildbraedii, Allophyllus macrobotrys, Dracaena steudneri, Phytolacacca 

dodecandra, Clausena anisata, Rytigynia neglecta, Teclea nobilis, Albizia gummifera, 

Canthium oligocarpum, Cissus petiolata, Euphorbia ammpliphylla, Euphorbia ampliphylla, 

Phonix reclanata, Pittosporum viridiflorum, Ritchiera steudneri, Cissampelos pareira, Brucea 

antidysenterica, Pteridium aquilinum, Rhamnus prinoides, Dombeya torrid, Dracaeana 

20

afromontana, Olea welwitschii, Oxyanthus speciosus, Pavetta abyssinica, Rothmannia 

urcelliformis, Tinospora caffra and Tragia sp 

Figure 4. Regeneration in Bonga 

C. Boginda (39 species): 

Landolphia buchananii, Justicia schimperiana, Dracaena fragrance, Justica schimperiana, 

Acanthus eminens, Chionanthus mildbraedii, Psychotria orophila, Coffea arabica, Prunus 

africana, Rothmannia urcelliformis, Sapium ellepticum, Celtis africana, Maesa lanceolata, 

Rytigynia neglecta, Mytenus gracilipes, Galineiera saxifrage, Vepris dainelli, Albizia 

gummifera, Marsdenia spec, Oxyanthus speciosus, Phonix reclinata, Pouteria adolfifriederici, 

Vernonia sp, Clausena anisata, Allophyllus macrobotrys, Pavetta abyssinica, 

Bersama abyssinica, Allophyllus abyssinicus, Cassipourea malosana, Dracaeana 

afromontana, Draceaena steudneri, Embelia schimperi, Erythrococca trichogyne, Macaranga 

capensis, Milletia ferruginea, Stephania abyssinica, Syzygium guineense, Trilepisium 

madagascariense and Tritemma maurtianum 

21

Figure 5. Regeneration in Boginda 

Summary: 

The highest regeneration per hectare is recorded in Bonga forest (137,546), Maytenus ovatus 

being the most abundant species, 62,500. The least recorded species in this area are 

Dracaeana afromontana, Olea welwitschii, Oxyanthus speciosus, Pavetta abyssinica, 

Rothmannia urcelliformis, Tinospora caffra and Tragia sp, each 250 per ha. Next to Bonga in 

decreasing order are Mankira and Boginda each comprising 34,417 and 55,200 seedlings per 

ha, respectively. In Boginda the highest recorded species is Justica schimperiana (4,917 per 

ha) whereas in Mankira the highest recorded seedling is Dracaena fragrance (10438 per ha). 

The least recorded (seedling) species in Boginda are Allophyllus abyssinicus, Cassipourea 

malosana, Dracaeana afromontana, Draceaena steudneri, Embelia schimperi, Erythrococca 

trichogyne, Macaranga capensis, Milletia ferruginea, Stephania abyssinica, Syzygium 

guineense, Trilepisium madagascariense, Tristemma maurtianum (each 250 seedlings per ha). 

Similarly, the following species are the least recorded in Mankira (250 seedlings per ha): 

Lepidotrichilia volkensii, Albizia gummifera, Allophyllus abyssinicus, Embelia schimperi, 

Galineiera saxifrage and Tiliachoro troupinii 

22

3.3.3 Saplings 

3.3.3.1 Regeneration of trees/shrubs and lianas recorded are listed as follows: 

A.Bonga (21 species) 

Albizia gummifera, Bersama abyssinica, Buddleja polystachya, Coffea arabica, Dracaeana 

afromontana, Dracaena afromontana, Erythrococca trichogyne, Ficus ovata, Ficus sur, 

Galineiera saxifrage, Hippocratea africana, Hypericum revoltum, Maesa lanceolata, 

Maytenus ovatus, Milletia ferruginea, Psychotria orophila, Pteridium aquilinum, Pterolobium 

stellatum, Rothmannia urcelliformis, Schefflera abyssinica and Vernonia auriculifera 

Figure 6. Saplings in Bonga 

B.Boginda (54 species) 

Acanthus eminens, Alangium chinense, Albizia gummifera, Allophyllus abyssinicus, 

Allophyllus macrobotrys, Apodytes dimidiate, Bersama abyssinica, Canthium oligocarpum, 

Cassipourea malosana,Chionanthus mildbraedii, Cissus petiolata, Clausena anisata, Coffea 

arabica, Cyphomandra betacaea, Cysthea manniana, Deinbollia kilimandscharica, 

Dracaeana afromontana, Dracaena fragrance, Draceaena steudneri, Ehertia cymosa, 

Erythrococca trichogyne, Ficus ovata, Galineiera saxifrage, Hibiscus berberidifolius, Justica 

schimperiana, Landolphia buchananii, Landolphia owerensis, Macaranga capensis, Maesa 

lanceolata, Marsdenia spec, Milletia ferruginea, Myrsine melanophloeos, Mytenus gracilipes, 

23

Olea welwitschii, Oncinotis tenuiloba, Oxyanthus speciosus, Paullinia pinnata, Pavetta 

abyssinica, Phytolacacca dodecandra, Pittosporum viridiflorum, Prunus africana, Psychotria 

orophila, Rothmannia urcelliformis , Rubus apetalus, Rytigynia neglecta, Sapium ellepticum, 

Schrebera alata, Sericostachys scandens, Solanecio gigas, Stephania abyssinica, Teclea 

nobilis, Vepris dainelli, Vernonia amygdalina and Vernonia sp 

Figure 7. Saplings in Boginda 

C.Mankira (46 species) 

Dracaena fragrance, Coffea arabica, Mytenus gracilipes, Chionanthus mildbraedii, 

Hippocratea africana, Psychotria orophila, Schefflera myriantha, Clausena anisata, 

Landolphia buchananii, Bersama abyssinica, Pavetta abyssinica, Rubus apetalus, 

Rothmannia urcelliformis, Allophyllus macrobotrys, Pittosporum viridiflorum, Albizia 

gummifera, Cysthea manniana, Dracaeana afromontana, Phonix reclinata, Vepris dainelli, 

Ficus palmate, Galineiera saxifrage, Maesa lanceolata, Oxyanthus speciosus, Rhamnus 

prinoides, Cissus petiolata, Draceaena steudneri, Ehretia cymosa, Isoglossa somalensis, 

Milletia ferruginea, Pterolobium stellatum, Rytigynia neglecta, Tiliacora troupinii, Vernonia 

amygdalina, Dregea rubicund, Canthium oligocarpum, Diospyros abyssinica, Ehertia 

cymosa, Flacortia indica, Landolphia owerensis, Celtis africana, Allophyllus abyssinicus, 

Olea welwitschii, Apodytes dimidiate, Erythrococca trichogyne and Pouteria adolfi-friederici. 

24

Figure 8. Saplings in Mankira 

Summary: 

The highest saplings per hectare are recorded in Mankira forests (12,796), Dracaena 

fragrance being the most abundant species, 2,780. The second highest saplings per hectare 

recorded are Coffea arabica, 840. The least recorded species in Mankira are Apodytes 

dimidiate, Erythrococca trichogyne, Pouteria adolfi-friederici, each 40 per ha. Next to 

Mankira in decreasing order are Boginda and Bonga each comprising 11,156 and 4,332 

saplings per ha respectively. In Boginda the highest recorded species is shrub, Justica 

schimperiana (1507 per ha) whereas in Bonga the highest recorded sapling is Coffea arabica 

(989 per ha). The least recorded (saplings) species in Boginda are Alangium chinense, 

Allophyllus macrobotrys, Cassipourea malosana, Cyphomandra betacaea, Draceaena 

steudneri, Ehertia cymosa, Ficus ovata, Hibiscus berberidifolius, Oxyanthus 

speciosus,Phytolacacca dodecandra, Pittosporum viridiflorum, Schrebera alata, Solanecio 

gigas, Teclea nobilis (each 40 saplings per ha). Similarly the following species are the least 

recorded in Bonga (40 seedlings per ha): Albizia gummifera, Erythrococca trichogyne, Ficus 

ovata, Ficus sur, Pteridium aquilinum and Schefflera abyssinica 

25

3.3.4 Herbaceous plants 

A. Bonga forest (50 species) 

3.3.4.1 Herbaceous plants recorded in all transects in Bonga forest are Isoglossa 

puncata, Centalla asiatica, Hypoestes forskaolii, Impatiens tinctoria, 

Malaxis weberbaueriana, Crassocephalum macropappum, Hydrocotyle 

mannii, Triumfetta brachyceras, Achyranthes aspera, Brillantaisia 

grotanellii, Dichrocephala integrifolia, Ocimum urticifolium, Galinsoga 

parviflora, Isoglossa somalensis, Dichondra repens, Momordica foetida, 

Nervilia bicarinata, Persicaria glabra, Aframomum corrorima, Dicliptera 

laxata, Habenaria petitiana, Satureja paradoxa, Dorstenia brownie, Lantana 

trifolia, Pavonia spp, Peperomia abyssinica, Salacia congolensis, Mictactis 

bojeri, Peperomia molleri, Sida rhombifolia, Datura stromonium, Euphorbia 

schimperiana, Pavonia urens, Vernonia hochstetteri, Carduus leptacanthus, 

Cynoglossum amplifolium, Rumex nepalnsis, Piper capense, Elatostema 

monticola, Gloriosa superb, Ipomoea cairica, Vernonia tewoldei, Rungia 

grandis, Ocimum sp, Cyperus sp, Laggera pterodonta, Pilea johnstonii, 

Hydrocotyle manii and Pentas lanceolata 

3.3.4.2 The most abundant herb species recorded in Bonga forest is Isoglossa puncata (20.57 

percent) (Figure 9). Next come in descending order Centalla asiatica, Hypoestes forskaolii, 

Impatiens tinctoria, Malaxis weberbaueriana, Crassocephalum macropappum, Hydrocotyle 

mannii, comprising 9.87, 7.35, 4.75, 4.11, 3.96, 3.74 percent, respectively. The least recorded 

Cyperus sp, Laggera pterodonta, Pilea johnstonii, Hydrocotyle manii, Pentas lanceolata. 

Aframomum corrorima and Piper capense, the two economically important herb species, 

comprise 9781 and 3447 per ha, respectively. 

26

Figure 9. Herb Species of Bonga 

B. Boginda (16 species) 

3.3.4.1 Herbaceous plants recorded in all transects in Boginda forest are 

Isoglossa puncata, Cyclosorus dentatus, Impatiens tinctoria, Achyranthes aspera, Hypoestes 

forskaolii, Stephania abyssinica, Dicliptera laxata, Aframomum corrorima, Piper capensis, 

Salacia congolensis, Vernonia hochstetteri, Carduus leptacanthus, Dorstenia brownie, 

Pavonia schimperiana and Sida rhombifolia. 

27

Figure 10 Herb species of Boginda 

3.3.4.2 The highest herbaceous plants per hectare recorded in Boginda forest is 

Isoglossa puncata (more than 95500) (figure 10). Sida rhombifolia has been 

the least recorded species, 80 per ha. Economically important herb species such 

as Aframomum corrorima and Piper capensis comprise 2500 and 2000 per ha, 

respectively. 

C. Mankira Forest (11 species) 

3.3.4.1 Herbaceous plants recorded in all transects in Mankira forest are 

Isoglossa puncata, Achyranthes aspera, Hypoestes forskaolii, Tiliacora 

troupinii, Dregea rubicund, Pavonia schimperiana, Aframomum corrorima, 

Panicum spp, Paullina pinnata, Piper capensis and Aframomum sanguineum 

3.3.4.1 The highest herbaceous plants per hectare recorded in Mankira forest is 

Isoglossa puncata (more than 160000). Aframomum sanguineum is the least 

recorded, 1000 per ha. Economically important herb species such as 

Aframomum corrorima and Piper capensis comprise 3000 and 1370 per ha, 

respectively. 

28

Figure 11. Herb Species of Mankira 

Herbaceous and Wood Climbers 

Bonga 

Herbaceous climbers recorded within Bonga forest are Microglossa pyrifolia, 

Peponium vogelii, Stephania abyssinica and Zehneria scabra that comprise 11, 

22, 30.5 and 36.6, respectively. 

Similarly woody Climbers recorded are: Landolphia buchananii, Embelia 

schimperi, Jasminum abyssinicum, Paullinia pinnata, Rubus steudnerii, 

Tiliacora troupinii, Clematis hirsute, Hippocratea goetzei. The highest 

recorded woody climber in Bonga is Landolphia buchananii (14804 per h or 

24.9 percent). The next highest species recorded is Paullinia pinnata (11333 

per ha or 25.95 percent). The least recorded is Embelia schimperi and has a 

density of 2917 per ha (4.9 percent). 

Boginda 

During survey period climbers were recorded and their density per ha has been: 

Clematis spp, 4000; Embelia schimperi, 250; Landolphia buchananii, 12583. 

29

Mankira 

Recorded climbers in Mankira are Landolphia buchanani, Peponium vogelii, 

and Embelia schimperi. Their density (per ha) is 11833, 36000 and 250, 

respectively. As it is indicated Peponium vogelii is the highest recorded and 

Embelia schimperi is the least. However, Peponium vogelii is herbaceous 

climber; the other two are woody climbers. 

Summary 

The highest number of herbs per hectare is recorded in Bonga forests (668700). The second 

highest number of herbs recorded is in Mankira (273620). In Boginda about 202465 herbs per 

hectare are recorded. Isoglossa puncata is the highest number recorded in the three study 

areas: Bonga (137545), Boginda (95500) and over 169000 per hectare in Mankira. 

3.3.6 Grasses 

A. Bonga 

3.3.6.1 Twelve major grass species are recorded, namely: Tectaria cf. gemmifera, 

Setaria megaphylla, Oplismenus undulatifolius, Carex chlorosaccus, Cyperus 

rotundus, Poecilostachys oplismenoides, Leptaspis zeylanica, Panicum spp, 

Pseudechinolaena polystachya, Olyra latifolia and Oplismenus hirtellus. 

Table 3. Grass species recorded and their abundance, Bonga 

Scientific Name Number/ha Percent 

Tectaria cf. gemmifera 281000 56.3 

Setaria megaphylla 49667 10.0 

Oplismenus undulatifolius 49500 9.9 

Carex chlorosaccus 41500 8.3 

Cyperus rotundus 38000 7.6 

Poecilostachys oplismenoides 12000 2.4 

Leptaspis zeylanica 10000 2.0 

Panicum spp 

Pseudechinolaena 

5500 1.1 

polystachya 4000 0.8 

Olyra latifolia 3625 0.7 

Oplismenus hirtellus 3000 0.6 

Total 

497792 

30

B. Mankira 

3.3.6.2 Four major grass species are recorded, namely: Oplismenus undulatifolius, 

Olyra latifolia, Cynodon spp. and Carex chlorosaccus (Table 4). 

Figure 12. Grass speicies recorded in Bonga 

Table 4. Grass species recorded and their abundance, Mankira 

Scientific Name Number/ha Percent 

Oplismenus undulatifolius 137000 81.5 

Olyra latifolia 18000 10.7 

Cynodon spp 10000 6.0 

Carex chlorosaccus 3000 1.8 

Total 168000 

Figure 13. Grass species of Mankira 

31

C. Boginda 

Olyra latifolia, Poecilostachys oplismenoides and Oplismenus undulatifoliu are the only three 

grass species recorded in this study site. 

The highest recorded grass species is Oplismenus undulatifolius; 120,000. 

Summary 

The highest grass species per hectare is recorded in Bonga (nearly 500,000). Within this forest 

area, Tectaria cf. gemmifera is the most abundant species, 281,000. The least recorded species 

is Oplismenus hirtellus, 3000 (figure 12). On the Mankira forest less amounts of grass is 

recorded, nearly 170,000. In this forest Oplismenus undulatifolius is the highest number 

recorded (137,000) and accounts for more than 80 percent of the density (figure 12). Carex 

chlorosaccus is the least recorded species in Mankira forest. 

3.3.7 Agricultural Land 

A. Trees/shrubs (Bonga only) = 20 plots 

3.3.7.1 Trees and shrubs recorded in agricultural land include the following: 

Eucalyptes spp, Milletia ferruginea, Cordia africana, Croton macrostachyus, Albizia 

gummifera, Papaya carica, Vepris dainelli, Coffea arabica, Sapium ellipticum, 

Draceana steudneri, Erythrina brucei, Ficus ovata, Ficus sur, Maesa lanceolata, 

Landolphia owerensis, Euporbia abyssinica, Celtis africana, Ehertia cymosa, 

Schefflera abyssinica, Syzygium guineense, Clausena anisata, Enset ventricosa, 

Vernonia amygdalina, Flacortia indica, Polyscias fulva, Erythrina abyssinica, Ficus 

ovata, Ficus palmate, Trichilia dregeana, Olea welwitschii, Phonix reclinata 

3.3.7.2 More than 90 trees per ha are estimated, the highest recorded being 

Eucalyptes species (12.5%). Most of this species are planted around homesteads and 

sometimes along the roads. Next to Eucalyptes, Milletia ferruginea, Cordia africana, 

Croton macrostachyus and Albizia gummifera are kept in farmland for the different 

uses they give to the households. These species comprise 11.5, 9.4, 9.4 and 6.3 

percent of the total recorded trees. The least recorded trees (tree per ha) are Schefflera 

abyssinica, Syzygium guineense, Clausena anisata, Enset ventricosa, Vernonia 

32

amygdalina, Flacortia indica, Polyscias fulva, Erythrina abyssinica, Ficus ovata, 

Ficus palmate, Trichilia dregeana, Olea welwitschii and Phonix reclinata. 

B. Saplings and Regeneration 

Saplings 

3.3.7.3 Species recorded as sapling are Maytenus gracilipes, Justica schimperiana, 

Maesa lanceolata, Hypericum revoltum, Psychotria orophila, Coffea arabica, Vepris 

dainelli, Chionanthus mildbraedii, Clausena anisata, Rubus apetalus, Ficus ovata, 

Psychotria orophila, Bersama abyssinica, Dracaena fragrance, Vernonia adoensis 

and Pavetta abyssinica. 

3.3.7.4 Maytenus gracilipes is the highest recorded species (520 per ha or 28.3 

percent). The following species comprise more than 6 percent of the total registered: 

Justica schimperiana (10.9), Maesa lanceolata (6.5), Hypericum revoltum (6.5), 

Psychotria orophila (6.5 Coffea arabica (6.5) and Vepris dainelli (6.5). 

Figure 14. Saplings recorded in agricultural land 

Regeneration 

3.3.7.5 Species recorded as regeneration are Maytenus gracilipes, Justica 

schimperiana, Sapium ellepticum, Landolphia buchanani, Psychotria orophila, Shobo, 

Clausena anisata, Coffea arabica, Ocimum sp, Clausena anisata, Psidium guajava, 

33

Albizia gummifera, Dracaena fragrance, Trilepisium madagascariense, Chionanthus 

mildbraedii and Phonix reclinata. 

3.3.7.6 Similar to saplings, Maytenus gracilipes has the highest number of all 

regeneration recorded (5250 per ha or 31.8 percent of all recorded). Justica 

schimperiana, Sapium ellepticum (wC) are the next abundant plants recorded. The 

least recorded species is Phonix reclinata. Inaddition to economically important 

species, coffee, fruit tree species such as Psidium guajava is observed and recorded. 

34

Figure 15. Regenerations of woody species in Agricultural Land 

Herbaceous plants 

Herbaceous plants recorded in agricultural lands are: 

Hypoestes forskaolii, Asplenium sp, cynoglssum coeruleum, Achyranthes aspera, 

Hypoestes forskaolii, Landolphia buchanan and, Vigna unguiculata. 

The highest number of species recorded in the study period is Hypoestes forskaolii 

(17000 or 38.6 percent). 

35

3.3.5 Comparison of Forest areas (Bonga, Boginda and Mankira) with 

respect to density of flora 

a. Forest 

All flora recorded (grass, herb, regeneration, saplings of woody plant, shrubs, and trees) 

per ha are combined and their density per ha is presented in the Table below (Table 5 & 

figure 16 consecutively). Accordingly Bonga forest 1 has the largest plant cover per ha 

(estimated to be more than1,309,956). Mankira and Boginda have lower number of floral 

density, each comprising 510,120 and 386,600, respectively. The reason for such big 

variation could be that average slope inclination of sample plots in Bonga forest fell in 

slopes less than 30 percent. Boginda has the steepest gradient and average slope of all 

sample plots is estimated as 53 percent. Mankira on the other hand has 36 percent 

average gradient of sample plots. 

When an area is steep, undergrowth condition might not be as flourishing as gentle slope 

or flat area because soil might be washed to gorges and downslopes during rainy season. 

Other factor could be that most of the areas are occupied by forest coffee either 

intensively or extensively managed or not managed at all. Presence of management of 

coffee influences undergrowth condition as most of the undergrowth is cleared to reduce 

competition and allow access to human movement. 

Table 5. Density of plants per stratum 

Forest area 

Number of plants per 

hectare 

Bonga 1309956 

Boginda 386600 

Mankira 510120 

Source: Flora Biodiversity Assessment, 2008 

1 See annex I for definitions of forest, shrubs and tree 

36

Figure 16. Density of plants per stratum 

Source: Flor Biodiversity Assessment, 2008 

Endemic plants recorded in the study area are shown in Table 6 below. 

Table 6. Endemic plants in the study area 

No. Scientific Name Family Habit Remark Status 

1 Erythrina brucei Papilionoideae T E 

2 Milletia ferruginea Fabaceae T E LC 

3 Solanecio gigas Asteraceae s E LC 

4 Tiliacora troupinii Menispermaceae wC E VU 

5 Vepris dainelli Rutaceae sT E LC 

6 Aframomum corrorima Zingiberaceae H E VU 

7 Brillantaisia grotanellii Acanthaceae H E VU 

8 Satureja paradoxa Lamiaceae H E 

9 Vernonia tewoldei Asteraceae H E EN 

10 Mikaniopsis clematoides* Asteraceae hC E LC 

11 Lippia adoensis* Verbenaceae s E LC 

12 Clematis longicauda* Ranunculaceae wC E 

13 Pilea bambuseti ssp aethiopica* Urticaceae H E 

14 Pentas tenuis* Rubiaceae s E R 

15 Dorstenia soerensenii* Moraceae H E VU 

16 Phyllanthus limmuensis* Euphorbiaceae s E VU 

17 Cyrtorchis ehrythraeae* Orchidaceae H-epi E 

Source: Flor Biodiversity Assessment, 2008 

* taken from Schmitt C. B. (2006). T=Tree; s=shrub; wC=woody climber; sT=small tree; H=herb; hC= 

herb climber; LC= least concerned; VU=Vulnarable, EN= Endangered, R=Rare, epi= epiphytic. 

37

Within each study area the total plant cover is estimated and shown in the following 

Table (Table 7) and figure 17. 

Table 7. Total Plant Density per ha per Forest Area 

Forest 

Name Grass Herb Saplings Regeneration Trees/shrubs 

Bonga 498792 668700 4332.33 137546 586 

Boginda 138000 202465 11156 34417 562 

Mankira 168000 273620 12796 55250 454 

Source: Flora Biodiversity Assessment, 2008 

Figure 17. Total Plant Density per Forest Area 

38

4. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION 

4.1 General 

4.1.1. Biodiversity Conservation and Threats 

Biodiversity Conservation 

Forests of the world harbor over 50% of the world’s biodiversity (Anonymous, 1999). 

Forests hold most of the world’s estimated three to ten million-possibly as many as 30 to 

50 million- plant and animal species (Woods-Schank, 1990). The same study cautions ‘If 

the destruction of biotopes continues at its current rate, a quarter of all plant families and 

associated fauna will have become extinct in the next century. The extinction of one 

species endangers or drives into extinction several other animal and plant species.’ 

Ethiopia has diverse agro-ecological zones (about 32 are identified so far) and in each 

zone different soil types, rainfall intensity and pattern, evapo-transpiration and vegetation 

are believed to be found. This diversity, among others, created favorable habitat for 

different flora and fauna. The severe reduction in forest cover, however, poses a serious 

threat to this biodiversity (EFAP, 1994a). 

Flora of Ethiopia is estimated in the range of 6,500 to 7,000 species of which 12 percent 

are endemic (EFAP, 1994), 10-12 percent endemic. 

According to Tesfaye Awas 2007, vegetation of Ethiopia is physiogonomically divided 

into nine vegetation types 2 , and has four phytogeographical areas, namely; Afromontane, 

Sudanian, Somali-Masai and Sahelian. Afromontane vegetation dominates the mountain 

massifs either side of the rift valley (White, F.1983 cited in EFAP, 1994). Montane 

evergreen forest found in Afromonatne vegetation zones includes mainly dry evergreen 

Juniperus, Olea, and Podocarpus forests. There is also mixed evergreen and moist 

evergreen forest. The Afromonatne flora overall is 75 percent endemic. The Somali- 

Masai and Sudanian areas contain flora and fauna which probably have fewer country- 

2 Desert and semi-desert scrubland; Lowland (semi-) evergreen forest; Acacia-Commiphora small-leaved 

deciduous woodland and savanna; Evergreen scrub; Moist evergreen montane forest/Afromontane rain 

forest; Dry evergreen and montane forest and grassland; Afroalpine and sub-afroalpine zone; 

Riparian/riverine and swamp vegetation. 

39

specific endemics than the Afromontane. These categories contain one-third endemic 

species whereas Afromonatne comprises approximately half of endemic species (EFAP, 

1994). The Afromonatane have conservation priorities which are peculiarly Ethiopian 

(EFAP, 1994, synopsis report) 

Ethiopia faces biodiversity losses that are associated both commercial and subsistence 

cultivation. Annually, more than 150,000 hectares of forest land is cleared (EFAP, 2004). 

“The forest resources are seriously threatened by deforestation, habitat destruction and 

subsequent decline in regeneration, forest fire and vegetation clearance for 

farm/settlement establishment” (IBC 2005). 

Cognizant of the problems associated with biodiversity loss in the country different 

policies and strategies are in place among which Environmental Policy of Ethiopia, 

National Policy on Biodiversity Conservation and Research, Forest Policy and Forest 

Proclamation No.542/2007 (a proclamation to provide for the Development conservation 

and utilization of forests) are worth mentioning. Environmental policy was issued on 

April 2 nd , 1997, by Environmental Protection Authority in collaboration with the Ministry 

of Economic Development and Cooperation. The policy has 10 sectoral policies, among 

which genetic species and ecosystems biodiversity is one of them. 

Ethiopia is signatory to most of the key environmental conventions such as the 

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the Convention to Combat Desertification 

(UNCCD), the Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and the Convention on 

International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES). Acknowledging such important 

conventions and owning them as the law of the country shows the government’s 

commitment to protect the environment. These conventions help in assisting forest cover 

increase through financial mechanisms. For example Global Environment Facility (GEF) 

is a medium sized grant (Anonymous, 2007) that provides opportunity for different 

environment related pilot activities such as Country Partnership on Sustainable Land 

Management (CPPSLM). 

Ethiopia’s high forests were designated as National Forest Priority Areas (NFPA) in the 

1980s for their impact on watershed management and their biodiversity significance. 

40

These high forests constitute only 3.56 percent of the total land mass of the country 

(WBISPP, 2004). Ca 300 or more tree species are believed to be found in these forests, of 

which 25 are regarded as commercial species and 30 are regarded as potentially usable 

for the mechanical wood industry (EFAP, 1994). 

Later in mid 1990s NFPAs were put under the management of Regional States and 

became Regional Forest Priority Areas (RFPA). Bonga Forest Priority Area is under one 

of Southern Nations Nationalities and People’s Regional Forest Priority Areas. Mankira 

is part of this RFPA. Boginda forest was not delineated or demarcated as a forest priority 

area until 2002. In 2002 in collaboration with Ministry of Agriculture and Bureau of 

Agriculture of SNNP the forest area was demarcated. Since then this forest is registered 

as RFPA (Personal communication, Tsegaye Fikadu). 

Threat 

Reusing, M., 2000 analysed satalite images of forest regions of Ethiopia between 1973 

and 1976 and proved that the high forest cover was above 4.5 percent during that period. 

Currently, as mentioned above, the forest cover is estimated as 3.56 percent (WBISPP, 

2004). Every year above 160,000 ha of natural forests are deforested (Reusing, M., 

2000), Around 1900 almost the entire Southwestern Ethiopian highlands were covered by 

montane rainforest and between 1971 and 1997 about 7.8 percent of total highforests or 

23, 5400 ha was deforested (Reusing, M.,2000). The author indicated that settlement and 

population growth are the two main causes for 50 percent of forest degradation (decline 

of forest quality); and deforestation in South West. 

The major causes of deforestation in Bonga, Boginda and Mankira, like everywhere in 

Ethiopia, are clearing and burning of the natural forest for cultivation of food crops, 

planting coffee (small or large scale), settlement, chasing wild animals, pit-sowing, 

harvesting of fuel wood, construction materials and cutting of big trees to harvest honey. 

As a result of heavy exploitation on selected trees such as Cordia Africana, Pouteria 

adolfi-friederici and Prunus africana , these species are reported as endangered by some 

studies(Ensermu Kelbessa and Teshome Soromessa 2004, Girma Balcha et al, 2002, 

Schmitt C. B. , 2006). 

41

The forests are also in the process of degradation due to a number of other factors such as 

coffee growing in the forest, livestock rearing, and harvesting of fuelwood and 

construction material. During clearing of the forest floor for coffee plantation everything 

is cleared or slashed down. Hence seedlings and sometimes saplings of important tree 

species are cleared together. In order to allow sun light some canopy trees are also cut 

down. Livestock are seen in almost all forest areas and unless they are controlled they can 

affect plant growth through trampling, browsing, breaking young saplings and trees. 

Although it is difficult to substantiate the cause of death of trees in this study, insect and 

pests introduced via animal and human may attack and affect the vitality of the forest. 

Any scar created on a tree as result of animal or human contact may cause disease later 

on it could kill the tree. In this study the number of stumps and dead trees were estimated 

and the following results are obtained: dead trees per hectare are 292 in Bonga, 433 in 

Boginda, and 359 in Mankira. The stumps were counted inorder to evaluate level of 

exploitation and the results are 189 for Bonga, 27 for Boginda and 82 for Mankira. As the 

figure shows Bonga forest is more affected by logging than the rest of the forests. 

Because of absence of scientific management such as silvicultural practices, all forests of 

the country, as well as those in the study area, are mostly affected by thick climbers that 

are silviculturally and economically undesirable species. As a result of this phenomena 

economically and silviculturally important tree species are crooked, bend and fluted. 

Regeneration status too might be influenced negatively. Trees that are dead are rotting in 

the forest. This might help in nutrient cycle but they might also harbor disease. Absence 

of management plan also leads to over exploitation where annual cut exceeds mean 

annual increment. 

In conclusion existing threat to the forests is associated with anthropogenic activities. 

Schmitt C. B. 2006, referring Gil et al., 2004 has emphasized how important Ethiopian 

forests are in terms of gene pool and number of endemic species. However, the author 

witnessed that human induced pressure threatened the existing forests of Kaffa zone. The 

forests are in fragile and fragmented state. This great biodiversity coupled with the 

42

extreme threat caused by habitat destruction makes them part of the Eastern Afromontane 

biodiversity hotspot (Gil et al., 2004). 

4.2. Limitations 

Unlike western countries such as the UK, Ethiopia does not have guidelines or directives 

on habitat evaluation, habitat action plans, valuing species and so on. However, the 

government of Ethiopia noticed the presence of high pressure on few species such as 

Podocarpus falcatus, Cordia africana, Juniperus excelsa, Hagenia abyssinica and 

Prusnus africana and legislated on the limited utilization of such species. But nationally a 

law regarding as to which species are to be protected is not yet in place. It is expected 

that the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development will announce the list of 

protected species in the near future. 

Among Annex I list of species in CITES, a few plant species are found in Ethiopia. These 

species are shown in annex 6.3. However except Prunus africana no species under 

Annex I is recorded in the study area. 

For land cover land use mapping mainly Landsat image was used. The result found is 

small scale map. ASTER image was received at a latter stage but it doesnot cover the 

whole study area (the three sites). If the full range is received, final mapping will be done 

using ASTER. 

43

4.3. Vegetation 

According to A. Aalbaek &T.Kide, 1993, the vegetation in the study area is found within 

three seed zones: Western Lower Broadleaved Afromontane Rainforest, Central wet 

Bradleaved Afromonatne rainforest and Eastern Higher broadleved Afromontane 

Rainforest. Friis, 1992 classified the study area as “Afromontane Rain Forest”. This 

Afromontane rain forest is found on altitudes between 1500 and 2500 masl, with average 

annual temperature 18-20 0 c and rainfall between 1500 mm and greater than 2000 mm. 

The rainy season is between April and October (Friis, 1992). 

According to Taye Bekele, 2003, there are three types of vegetation, namely: Upland 

Rain forest Vegetation, Upland Humid Forest Vegetation and Arindunaria/Bamboo 

thicket. The author described this zonation based on altitudinal variation. The upland rain 

forest vegetation, upland humid forest vegetation and arindunaria thicket are located at 

altitudinal range between 1500- 2200, 2450-2800 and 2400-3050 masl, respectively. The 

current survey is conducted within the three zones. Vegetation listed in Taye Bekele, 

2003 is in agreement with findings of the current survey. 

In this phytogeography, Friis, 1992 listed 23 tree species as medium sized canopy tree 

which can attain 10-30 meter high. These species area: 

Albizia gummifera, A. schimperiana, A. grandibracteata, Blighia unijugata, Cassipourea 

malosana, Celtis africana, Croton macrostacheyus, Ekebergia capensis, Euphorbia 

ampliphylla, Ficus sur, Ficus ovata, Ficus thonningii, Ocotea kenyensis,Ilex mitis, Olea 

welwitschii, Polycias fulva, Prunus africana, sapium ellipticum, syzygium guineense and 

Schefflera abyssinica. Friis reported that Pouteria adolfi-friederici is the only emergent 

species from a 20-30 meter high canopy. On the other hand, Chaffey, 1979, reported that 

in addition to Pouteria adolfi-friederici, Ficus species and Syzygium guineense are in the 

canopy. Schmitt C. B., 2006 agrees that the top canopy is occupied by Pouteria adolfifriederici 

that can attain a height of above 40 meters. Other trees that can grow up to 40 

meters, according to the same author, are Olea welwitschii and Trilepisium 

madagascariense. 

44

Combining the findings of the three authors may give full picture of what the upper 

canopy of the forest look like. The results given by the individual researchers may have 

varied due to difference in the material and methods each used. Hence, it can be 

concluded that upper canopy of this forest is occupied by Pouteria adolfi-friederici, Ficus 

species, Syzygium guineense, Olea welwitschii and Trilepisium madagascariense. In the 

current study at higher altitude at about 2500 masl, Schefflera volkensii and Hagenia 

abyssinica are found at the upper canopy. At about the same altitude pure bamboo stand 

is also mapped. 

With regard to lower canopy of trees and shrubs, both Friis and Chaffey listed more or 

less similar species, namely: Allophyllus abyssinicus, Bersama abyssinica, Cassipourea 

malosana, Dracana afromontana, Draceana steudneri, Ehretia cymosa, Lepidotrichilia 

volkensii, Linociera giordanii, Maesa lanceolata, Maytenus species and Strychos mitis. 

Other smaller trees that are recorded by both authors and also in the current survey 

include; Blighia unjugata, Bridelia micrantha, Dombeya torrid, Elaeodendron 

buchananii, Flacurtia indica, Nuxia congesta, Octea kenyensis, Rothmannia 

uricelliformis, Ritchiea albersii, Schrebera alata, Teclea nobilis and Vepris dianellii. 

Among smaller trees listed by Friis but not by Chaffey, the following are recorded in the 

current survey: Apodytes dimidiate, Brucea antidysenterica, Coffea arabica, Clausena 

anisata, Erythrina bruci, Galineiera saxifrage, Milletia ferruginea, Oxyanthus specious, 

Phonix reclinata, Pittosporum viridiflorum, Psychotria orophila, Rothmannia 

uricelliformis, Solanecio mannii, Oncoba routledgei, Enset ventricosa and Chionanthus 

mildbraedii. 

Chaffey and Friis covered quite an extensive forest region of south-west Ethiopia. The 

current study and the work of Schmitt C. B., 2006 are limited to a certain area. This could 

bring variation in the results. Chaffey has made, probably, the first national inventory in 

the country and his sample covered quite a large area compared with that of Friis and the 

current survey. 

45

Chaffey reported that in Kaffa province (which used to cover a larger area than now) 

there were six sawmills among which Jimma Plywood Factory was one. 90 percent of the 

raw material input for this plywood factory was reported to be Pouteria adolfi-friederici. 

Kaffa forests used to supply an amount of 28,000m 3 round timbers every year (Chaffey, 

1979). Major species logged during the period include (Chaffey, 1979): Pouteria adolfifriederici, 

Apodytes dimidiate, Cordia africana, Croton macrostachyus, Ekebergia 

capensis, Hagenia abyssinica, Prunus africana, Olea aricana, Olea welwitschii, 

Polyscias fulva, Olea capensis and Syzygium guineense. 

Upper storey species recorded by Getachew Berhane and Yoseph Assefa in IBC 2002 in 

Boginda forest are: Pouteria adolfi-friederici, Prunus africana, Syzygium guineense, 

Polyscias fulva, Croton macrostachyus, Bersama abyssinica, Schefflera abyssinica, 

Macaranga capensis and Bersama abyssinica. 

Understorey tree species that can attain up to 30 cm dbh, but typically smaller according 

to Chaffey, are recorded. These include Allophyllus macrobotrys, Psychotria orophila, 

Vernonia sp and Rytigynia neglecta .They are similar to the species identified in the 

work of Chaffey. Coffea arabica occurs naturally as an understory shrub at elevation 

between about 1000 and 1800 masl (Chaffey, 1979). 

Friis, 1992 recorded 25 species of lianas, and numerous species reported as epiphytes 

including ferns, lycopods, orchids, Peperomia (Piperae.), and Scadoxus nutants 

(Amarylliadac.). He indicated how the undergrowth is very rich where he claimed to 

record more than 110 species. 

4.3.2. Stem per hectare and number of species 

On average within the three strata the number of stems per hectare recorded in this study 

is 586 for Bonga, 562 for Boginda and 454 for Mankira, whereas, Chaffey has estimated 

stems per ha for all species having diameter greater than 30 cm and found out 125. 

Lamprecht, 1989, quoting Veillon, 1976 has reported stem per ha having diameter 10 cm 

and above for Venezuelan cloud forest (montane) as 745. Getachew Berhane and Yoseph 

46

Assefa in IBC, 2002 made an assessment of Boginda forest (Kaffa). In their assessment, 

they came up with 479 stems per hectare (dbh 10 cm and above). 

Ensermu Kelbessa and Teshome Soromessa, 2004 recorded 57 woody species for Bonga 

forest. In moist tropical undisturbed forest (excluding herbs and grasses) about 746 trees 

per ha and 65 tree species were recorded (Bokor, 1979 cited in Lamprecht, 1989). In 

Bonga, Boginda and Mankira the number of species recorded in the current survey, 

including regeneration and saplings are 89, 74 and 66, respectively. 

In the current survey the density of woody species (including regeneration and sapling) in 

Bonga, Boginda and Mankira is 142464, 46135 and 68500, respectively. The highest 

woody species in Bonga is Maytenus ovatus (62500). Whereas in Boginda and Mankira 

Justica schimperiana and Dracaena fragrance are the highest woody species recorded. 

Coffea arabica in Bonga is the 5 th highest recorded (3316). In Boginda it is the 6 th 

abundant species (2220). However, in Mankira it is the 2 nd highest recorded woody 

species (6340). 

It is possible to conclude that the result of the current study is comparable with 

aforementioned studies. However, there are few variations e.g., between Ensermu 

Kelbessa and Teshome Soromessa, 2004 versus the current findings on the number of 

species; and density of trees estimated by Lamprecht, 1989 versus the current study. In 

the current study wider area is accounted especially in terms of altitudinal range and more 

sample plots are taken than Ensermu Kelbessa and Teshome Soromessa, 2004. As it is 

mentioned under section 4.3 above logging practice has been conducted within Kaffa 

forest. It might be the reason for the current lower number of stems per ha than the 

estimate made by Lamprecht,1989. 

4.3.3 Regeneration per hectare 

Lamprecht, 1989 referring Bokor, 1979 indicated that on average 72,000 seedlings per ha 

(maximum 124,000) between 0.3 and 1.3 meter in height are recorded in tropical moist 

forest. In Bonga, Boginda and Mankira on average 137,546, 34,417 and 55,250 

regenerations are estimated, respectively. Getachew Berhane and Yoseph Assefa in IBC, 

47

2002 recorded very low number of seedlings, 5888, which is almost 10 times less than 

the current survey. 

A total of 30 species in Mankira, 36 species in Boginda and 57 species in Bonga are 

recorded as regeneration. Getachew Berhane and Yoseph Assefa in IBC, 2002 recorded 

27 species for Boginda forest. The result is quite comparable. Ensermu Kelbessa and 

Teshome Soromessa, 2004 reported that 25 species were not represented as regeneration 

in Bonga forest (out of 57). In the current survey 61.4 percent of trees having dbh greater 

or equal to 10 cm are represented as regeneration in Bonga. In Boginda 52.8 percent of 

trees/shrubs having 10 cm and above are recorded as regeneration, whereas in Mankira, 

43.5 percent of trees greater than 10 cm dbh are represented as regeneration. 

Species such as Cordia africana are not registered as regeneration within the three forest 

areas. Probably this is because the species is an early colonizer (Friis, 1992). Croton 

macrostacheys too, as pioneer species (light demanding), does not encounter adequate 

conditions for regeneration in a natural forest (Denich, 2006). But on road sides and 

wherever there is an opening, Croton is well grown and observed in many places. Ficus 

species are also not represented in regeneration except F. palmata in Mankira. 

From the upper canopy species (Pouteria adolfi-friederici, Ficus species, Syzygium 

guineense, Olea welwitschii, Trilepisium madagascariense, Schefflera volkensii and 

Hagenia abyssinica), Pouteria adolfi-friederici is represented as regeneration within the 

three study sites. Trilepisium madagascariense is represented as regeneration within two 

of the study sites, in Bonga and Boginda. Syzygium guineense and Olea welwitschii are 

represented as regeneration in one study site only, in Boginda and Bonga, respectively. 

4.3.4 Saplings per hectare 

Density of saplings recorded are 4332 in Bonga, 11156 in Boginda and 12796 in 

Mankira. Density of saplings in Boginda and Mankira are comparable but lesser number 

of tree saplings is recorded in Bonga. The reason could be that since Bonga forest is in 

general denser than the other two forests (refer section 4.3.2), competition might limit 

emergence/performance of saplings. But with regard to number of trees above 10 cm dbh 

48

the opposite is true, i.e. less number of trees is recorded in Mankira preceded by Boginda 

and Bonga. 

Figure 18 Number of saplings per hectare in Bonga, Boginda and Mankira 

4.3.4 Small herbaceous plants and grasses 

Ensermu and Teshome, 2004 listed herbs and grasses found in Bonga forest but did not 

report their density and distribution. Getachew Berhane and Yoseph Assefa in Girma 

Balcha et al. (eds.-2004) did not indicate any ground flora except woody plants for 

Boginda. In this study the result is shown in section 3.3.4 & 3.3.6 above. But, Schmitt C. 

B., 2006 reported presence and distribution of herbs and grass species. In their report 

Herbs, grasses, ferns and fern-allies were recorded with presence-absence data. They 

recorded 75 and 12 species of herbs and grasses. In the current survey 55 species of herbs 

and 13 species of grasses are recorded in Bonga and Mankira. In Boginda 15 herb species 

and 3 grass species are recorded. All records under discussion (indicated in the current 

survey) are records made in the forest and in the sample plot. 

49

4.3.5 Total Values of Bonga, Boginda and Mankira, Community Type 

a. Menale and Sisay (2007) made a study on valuation of Ethiopian forest and its 

contribution to national economy. The study is submitted to the sponsor, the 

Center for Environmental Economics and Policy for Africa (CEEPA), housed in 

University of Pretoria. The authors developed an excel model to analyze the 

accounting. By employing the model the value of forest of Bonga, Boginda and 

Mankira was estimated. Based on the study an attempt to valuate part of service 

value of the forest and timber asset within these three forests is made. Among 

service functions, in addition to timber, Carbon sequestration, Biodiversity value, 

watershed value is estimated. Value of four years’ average forest coffee sold in 

domestic and international market is included 3 . Other values such as grazing, 

thatch, source of pollen for agriculture could be estimated but there is no reliable 

socio-economic data in this regard. Accordingly, for timber, Carbon 

sequestration 4 , water shade protection 5 , and biodiversity (medicinal) value 6 

564477035, 892530493, 19993967 and 913600 USD; and 378854.3 USD 7 from 

coffee (in total 1,478,293,949USD) is estimated, respectively. 

b. Local communities are dependent on the existing forest for a number of products 

and services that include collection of fire wood, construction material, grasses 

and thatch, medicinal plants, coffee, coffee shade, and other many non-timber 

forest products. In addition the ecosystem service is always taken for granted. 

Cropping is taking place every year (there is no irrigation scheme; cropping is n 

rainfed). Forests are the main vegetation types that are maintaining such 

ecosystem services in balance. Therefore, affecting the forest area means 

indirectly affecting the local people. Thus a mechanism must be devised to let the 

local communities participate in deciding on any development program planned to 

3 Kaffa Forest Coffee Farmers Cooperation Union. 

4 Cost of Carbon offset 16.13 USD/t 

5 ETB 25.52 per ha 

6 1.8 USD per ha 

7 Approximately 1USD is taken as equivalent to 8.6 birr 

50

e undertaken in the area, so that appropriate (i.e. socially accepted and 

environmentally sound) measures may be taken. The existing PFM program 

needs to be strengthened. 

C. Five frequency classes are recognized and shown in the following Table. 

Lamprecht, 1989 has indicated as it is customary practice to assign the various 

species to five classes based on their absolute 8 frequencies and depicted as follows 

(Table 8): 

Table 8. Frequency class of tree/shrub/lianas species in the study area 

Class Absolute Frequency Presence 9 

A=I 1-20 Rare 

B=II 21-40 Seldom Present 

C=III 41-60 Often present 

D=IV 61-80 Mostly present 

E=V 81-100 Constantly Present 

Accordingly, all the species registered in the three forests are grouped in this 

category to see whether each forest is heterogeneous or homogeneous. Lamprecht, 

1989 indicated that diagrams with high values in D/E and low values in A/B indicate 

constant or similar tree species composition (homogeneous). A high degree of 

floristic heterogeneity is found when the situation is reversed i.e. when the values of 

D/E are low and the values of A/B are high. 

The following Table and figure are the result of the current survey. High values in the 

three forests are in A/B. Hence it can be concluded that the forests’ floristic 

composition with regard to trees/shrubs and lianas greater than 10 cm are 

heterogeneous. Getachew Berhane and Yoseph Assefa in IBC, 2002 got similar result 

for Boginda forest. 

8 Expressed as percentage 

9 Based on Lecture note on “General Ecology”, Wondogenet College of Forestry. 

51

Class Bonga Boginda Mankira 

A=I 65 40 33 

B=II 2 7 11 

C=III 0 5 1 

D=IV 0 1 1 

E=V 0 0 0 

Figure 19. Frequency class and number of species in each frequency class and forest area 

The result of this current survey indicates absence of constantly present species 

within the three forest sites which leads to the conclusion that the forests have a 

heterogeneous species composition (figure 19). Croton macrostachyus in Mankira, 

Milletia ferruginea in Bonga and Boginda are the most present species. In this study 

there was no single tree or shrub species that is constantly present within the three 

study sites. This is probably due to favorability of the environment to accommodate 

different species. Hence except for few individual species there was not much 

predominance everywhere. With regard to density, the most populous trees above 10 

cm diameter in Mankira, Bonga and Boginda are summarized in the following Table 

(Table 9). 

52

Table 9. Density of trees/shrubs per ha in Mankira, Bonga and Boginda 

Scientific Name Mankira Bonga Boginda 

Vepris dainelli 39 

Phonix reclinata 33 

Croton macrostachyus 30 

Sapium ellepticum 24 

Pouteria adolfi-friedericii 22 

Draceaena steudneri 21 

Chionanthus mildbraedii 20 


Schefflera volkensii 41 

Allophyllus macrobotrys 31 

Landolphia owerensis 25 

Phonix reclinata 23 

Maesa lanceolata 21 

Eugenia bukobensis 15 

Milletia ferruginea 47 

Cyathea manniana 33 

Sapium ellepticum 32 

Macaranga capensis 28 


Oxyanthus specious 24 

Psychotria orophila 22 

The following species are recorded in more than 50 percent of the surveyed sample plots: 

Bonga: none. Number of sample plots in Bonga is very much higher than that of Boginda 

and Mankira. That could be one of the reasons. 

Boginda: Vepris dainelli, Chionanthus mildbraedii, Milletia ferruginea. 

Mankira: Croton macrostachyus 

Using the sum of relative frequency and relative abundance of species Distribution Index 

(DI) was estimated (Schmitt C. B., 2006). Accordingly, the following results have been 

found concerning common species and are shown in Table below (Table 10). Occasional 

and rare species are listed in annex II, Table 16. In total 9 species in Mankira, 30 species 

in Bonga and 18 species in Boginda are found to be rare species. 

53

Table 10. Common species in Mankira, Bonga and Boginda 

Mankira Bonga Boginda 

Croton macrostachyus Draceaena steudneri Milletia ferruginea 

Phonix reclinata Schefflera volkensii Chionanthus mildbraedii 

Vepris dainelli 

Macaranga capensis 

Sapium ellepticum 

Pouteria adolfi-friedericii 

Chionanthus mildbraedii 

Vepris dainelli 

Psychotria orophila 

Common = DI greater than 9; Occasional=DI greater than 2; Rare=DI

most important species (>=10cm dbh) in each forest area which have IVI greater than 10 

are presented in the following Table (Table 11). 

Table 11. Important species in Mankira, Bonga and Boginda 

Mankira Bonga Boginda 

Croton macrostachyus (26) Draceaena steudneri (17) Chionanthus mildbraedii (17) 

Phonix reclinata (21) Schefflera volkensii (15) Milletia ferruginea (17) 

Sapium ellepticum (21) Schefflera abyssinica (14) Prunus Africana (15) 

Celtis africana (13) Milletia ferruginea (10) Olea welwitschii (14) 

Vepris dainelli (13) Olea welwitschii (10) Macaranga capensis (13) 

Cordia africana (12) Schefflera abyssinica (12) 

Cachno (10) Landolphia owerensis (12) 

Diospyrose abyssinica (10) Syzygium guineense (12) 

Milletia ferruginea (10) Vepris dainelli (10) 

Chionanthus mildbraedii (10) Allophyllus abyssinicus (10) 

Sapium ellepticum (10) 

Pouteria adolfi-friederici (10) 

Surprisingly, except for Dracaena afromontana, D. steudneri and Bersama abyssinica, 

all species indicated in the Table 10 are expressed as important species by Getachew 

Berhane and Yoseph Assefa in IBC, 2002. Species that are not characterized as important 

but found to be important in this study are Syzygium guineense, Allophyllus abyssinicus, 

Sapium ellepticum, Landolphia owerensis and Olea welwitschii. 

In general, with regard to forest in the study area, it is hardly possible to separate or to 

map distinctively different communities as most of the tree species are overlapping. 

Community type may be classified based on three systems viz. physiognomic, floristic 

and dynamic system 10 . Despite the fact that we talk about one community type, as Friis 

(1994) categorized it - Afromontane Rain Forest- for this particular site floristic 

classification is chosen and “association” where naming is made based on the basis of 

common dominant species in several stands (Mankira, Bonga and Boginda in this case). 

Accordingly, in Bonga forest Draceaena steudneri and Schefflera volkensii; in Mankira 

forest Croton macrostachyus, Phonix reclinata and Vepris dainelli; and in Boginda 

Milletia ferruginea, Chionanthus mildbraedii and Macaranga capensis are found to be 

10 Based on Lecture note on “General Ecology”, Wondogenet College of Forestry 

55

common and dominant species. The associated trees are overlapping especially between 

in Bonga and Boginda forest. The overlapping of species in Bonga, Mankira and Boginda 

forest is expressed in Jaccard’s index and Sørensen's Index (Table 12). 

Table 12. Biodiversity Indices of trees/shrubs and lianas greater or equal to 10cm dbh 

Biodiversity Indices Bonga Mankira Boginda 

Margalef 8.34 7.36 10.82 

Menhinick’s 2.25 2.16 2.88 

Shannon 3.13 3.06 3.27 

Evenness 0.79 0.80 0.77 

Simpson 0.03 0.04 0.04 

Berger-Parker 0.08 0.09 0.13 

Jaccard's index (site Boginda and Bonga forest) 52.33 

Jaccard's index (site Boginda and Mankira) 57.14 

Jaccard's index (site Bonga and Mankira forest) 40.24 

Sørensen's Index (site Boginda and Bonga forest) 73 

Sørensen's Index (site Boginda and Mankira) 72 

Sørensen's Index (site Bonga and Mankira forest) 57 

From the above Table it is possible to observe Shannon index between the three forests is 

comparable, 3.13, 3.06 and 3.27, consecutively. 

Index of Similarity according to Jaccard is a very simple mathematical expression for the 

similarity of plant communities and is expressed by Community coefficient of Jaccard 

(Mueller-Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). It is based on the presence-absence relation 

between the number of species common to two areas (or communities). Accordingly, 

similarity of the three forests is estimated and the result is shown in Table 12 above. In 

general, the similarity between the three forests is not that much strong. But Sørensen's 

Index indicates stronger similarity than Jaccard’s Index. According to Mueller-Dombois 

and Ellenberg, 1974 Sørensen's Index is mathematically more satisfactory as it includes a 

statistically probability term and also it gives greater weight than Jaccard’s to the species 

that recur in the two test areas than to those that are unique to either area (see the formula 

below). 

IS J 

C 

= * 100 

Jaccard (=J) Based on presence of species only. 

a + b + C 

56

IS s 

2c 

= * 100 

Sørensen (=S) Based on presence of species only. 

A + B 

Where: 

ISJ=Jacard’s Index 

ISs= Sørensen’s Index 

a = unique species in one of the forest area (x) 

b = unique species in the other forest area (y) 

c = common species for both forest area 

A = all species in forest x 

B = all species in forestry 

57

5. PROPOSAL FOR CORE, BUFFER AND TRANSITIONAL AREAS 

Understanding concepts of core, buffer and transition as described by UNESCO 2006 11 

vis-a-vis the existing management system in those three study areas was necessary before 

mapping the area into these three functional zones. The procedure used to map this out is 

the following: 

• The flora in general is under high pressure mainly as a result of anthropogeneic 

reasons. The current survey and other studies conducted before revealed that 

biodiversity in the forest are higher than those on other landcover. Therefore 

maintaining the existing forest cover is taken as the first criteria for categorizing 

the land in one of the three mentioned functions. 

• Steep sloped areas are more prone to landslide and soil erosion than gentle slopes. 

In the study area many places that are threatened by erosion and landslide are 

observed. Especially in the absence of good vegetation cover this problem affects 

wide areas as the natural topography of Bonga is highly slopping ranging from 10 

% to over 60 % (TAM Agribusiness 2004 cited in Riechmann D., 2007). Thereore 

from SRTM database slope percent was calculated and classified into two classes 

namely slope class I and slope class II. Slope class I comprises slopes less than or 

equal to 30 percent and slope class II comprises areas that are greater than 30 

percent. 

• Altitude was taken as one criterion for this zonation. But this altitude variation 

does not apply for “Dense Forest” stratum. Similar to slope classifiction altitude 

above sea level of the study area is divided into two: areas greater than 1900 masl 

and, areas less than 1900 masl. This division is considered because of the 

distribution of Coffea arabica. According to Kaffa zone Agriculture and Rural 

Development Bureau, the altitudinal range of coffee does not exceed upper limit 

of 1900 though Schmitt C. B., 2006 reported that wild coffee grows throughout 

the forest until 2,050 masl except for extremely shaded and humid sites. 

11 See annex I for definition 

58

• River systems in the study area, like elsewhere in Ethiopia, are not protected or 

there is no law regarding their conservation or protection. River systems have 

high ecological and environmental importance. Most of all, rural people use these 

rivers as source of water for drinking and washing. In the study area this 

phenomen is well observed. Social services derived from the rivers in the study 

area include, among others, washing, drinking water for animals and human, 

artisan fishing. Therefore the river system needs to be protected. Another reason 

for considering rivers in the biosphere criteria is that they can serve as a wildlife 

corridor between different habitats along the rivers, i.e., rivers flow from higher 

altitudes to lower altitudes. Therefore seasonal movement of wildlife might be 

present and such movement can be facilitated by those corridors. 

Therefore the three zones are classified based on the following able and the resulting 

zones are depicted in map 4 and 5. 

Table 13. Criteria considered to determe core, buffer and transitional zones 

No. Land Cover/use 

Slope class percent Altitude in meter 

Less than or 

equal to 30 

Greater than 

30 

Less than 

1900 

1 Dense Forest Core Core Core Core 

2 Disturbed Forest Buffer Core Core Buffer 

3 Highly Disturbed Forest Buffer Buffer Buffer Buffer 

Greater than or 

equal to 1900 

4 Intensively Cultivated Transitional Transitiona Transitional Transitional 

5 Moderately Cutivated Transitional Transitional Transitional Transitional 

6 Wetland Buffer Buffer Buffer Buffer 

7 Bamboo Forest Core Core Core Core 

8 River system (width of 200m) Core Core Core Core 

The result, as it is depicted on Map 4 and 5 below, is larger in size than the area 

proposed by Schmitt C. B., 2006 and Taestensen, F. et al., 2007. However, this zonation 

59

is made entirely based on landcover, slope, river and altitude dtata. Therefore it is 

possible to refine the zonation later if socio-economic and fauna data are included. 

Map 4 Proposed Core, Buffer and Transitional Area in Bonga and Mankira 

60

Map 5. Proposed Core, Buffer and Transitional Areas of Boginda 

61

6. REFERENCE 

Anonymous, (1999). Forest Functions, Management Principles and Information 

Requirements. User Requirements Study, Technical Document 3. ITC, The 

Netherlands 

Anonymous, (2007). Intergovernmental Authority on Development Environment and 

Natural Resources Strategy, Djibouti. 

Anonymous, (nd). Manual of Dendrology for the South, South-East and South-West 

of Ethiopia. Canada Consortium PTI-KSH WBISP Project Ethiopia. 

Azene Bekele-T, Birnie, A., Tengnas, B.(1993). Useful Trees and Shrubs for 

Ethiopia, Identification, Propagation and Management for Agricultural and 

Pastoral Communities, Regional Soil Conservation Units/SIDD ISBN 9966- 

896-15-5 

Chaffey DR. (1982). A Reconnaissance Inventory of Forest in Southwest Ethiopia, 

Project Report 31, Land Resources Development Center, UK 

Edwards, S., Mesfin Tadesse and Hedberg, I.(eds.) (1995). Flora of Ethiopia and 

Eritrea, Volume 2, Part 2, Cancellaceae to Euphorbiaceae, Addis Ababa, 

Ethiopia 

Ensermu Kelbessa & Teshome Soromessa (2004). Biodiversity, Ecological and 

Regeneration Studies in Bonga, Borena and Chilimo Forests, Technical 

Report Prepared for FARM-Africa, SOS-Sahel, Addis Ababa 

Environmental Protection Authority, EPA, (1997). Environmental Policy of Ethiopia. 

Ethiopian Forestry Action Program, EFAP, (1994). The Challenge for Development, 

Volume II., Ministry of Natural Resources Development and Environmental 

protection, Addis Ababa. 

Ethiopian Forestry Action Program, EFAP, (1994a).Synopsis Report, Ministry of 

Natural Resources Development and Environmental protection, Addis Ababa 

62

FAO (2002). Trees Outside Forest, Towards Better Awarness, Conservation Guide 

35, Rome. 

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia (2002). Environmental Impact Assessment 

Friis, (1992).Forest and Forest Trees of Northeast Tropical Africa, Their Natural 

Habitats and Distribution Patterns in Ethiopia, Djibouti and Somalia. Kew 

Bull.Add.Ser.15:1-396 

Gil P.R., Mittermeier R.A., Hoffmann M., Pilgrim J., Goettsch-Mittermeier C., 

Lamoreux J.and Da Fonseca G.A. (eds) 2004. Hotspots revisited. CEMEX, 

Mexico City. 

Grima Balcha, Kumelachew Yeshitela and Taye Bekele (eds) (2004). Proceedings of 

a National Conference on Forest Resources of Ethiopia: Status, Challenges 

and Opportunities, 27-29 November 2002, Addis Ababa 

Hedberg, I. & Edwards,S. (eds.) Flora of Ethiopia, Volume 1, Poaceae (Gramineae) 

Hedberg, I. & Edwards,S. (eds.).(1989). Flora of Ethiopia, Volume 3, Pittosporaceae 

to Araliaceae, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 

Institute of Biodiversity Conservation, IBC (2005). National Biodiversity Strategy 

and Action Plan. Addis Ababa 

Institute of Ecology and Environmental Management, IEEM, (2006). Guideline for 

Ecological Impact Assessment in the United Kingdom. Downloaded 

Lamprecht, H.(1989). Silviculture in the Tropics-Tropical Forest Ecosystems and 

their Tree Species-Possibilities and Methods for their Long term Utilization, 

GTZ,Eschborn 

Menal Kassie and Sisay Nune (2007). Construction Of Forest Resources Accounts In 

Ethiopia, Second Draft, Research in press, Addis Ababa. 

Mueller-Dombois, D., Ellenberg, H. (1974). Aims and Methods of Vegetation 

Ecology, Wiley international Edition, New York. 

Reusing M. 1998. Monitoring of forest resources in Ethiopia. Government of the 

Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, Ministry of Agriculture, Natural 

63

Resources Management & Regulatory Department & German Agency for 

Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Addis Ababa. 

Riechmann, D. (2007). Literature Survey on biological data and research carried out 

in Bonga area, Kafa, Ethiopia, NABU. 

Schmitt C. B. (2006). Montane rainforest with wild Coffea arabicain the Bonga 

region (SW Ethiopia): plant diversity,wild coffee management and 

implications for conservation, Ecology and Development Series No. 47, 2006, 

Cuvillier Verlag Göttingen. 

SUPAKS (2002). Land cover mapping for Kaffa Zone, SPNNR. s.l., SUPAKS. 

Taestensen, F. Denich, M., Kleyer, M. (2007). Conservation areas for wild coffee in 

Ethiopia: an exemplary planning consets based on land use. 

Tesfaye Awas (2007). Plant Diversity in Western Ethiopia: Ecology, Ethnobotany 

and Conservation, Faculity of Mathimatics and Natuarl Science, University of 

Oslo, Norway. 

Taye Bekele (2003). The potential of Bonga forest for certification - A case study. 

http://www.pfmp-farmsos.org/Docs/bongaforest_certification.pdf. 

Transitional Government of Ethiopia (1998). Negarit Gazeta, Proclamation No. 

52/1998, A Proclamation to Promote the Development of Mineral Resources, 

Addis Ababa 

UNESCO (2006). UNESCO's Man and the Biosphere Programme (MAB). 

http://www.unesco.org/mab/mabProg.shtml; verified 08.05.2008. 

Woldemichael Kelecha (1987). A Glossary of Ethiopian Plant Names, Fourth edition, 

Revised & Enlarged, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia 

Woods-Schank, G. (1990). Protecting the Tropical Forests: a high Priority 

International Task.2 nd Report of the Enquete Commission “Preventive 

Measures to Protect the Earth’s Atmosphere” of the 11 th German Bundestag. 

Bonn 

64

7. ANNEXES 

Annex I. Definitions 

Forest 

“Forest is land with tree crown cover (or equivalent stocking level) of more than 10 

percent and area of more than 0.5 hectares (ha). The trees should be able to reach 

a minimum height of 5 meter at maturity in situ”, (FAO, 2002). 

Tree 

“Tree is a woody perennial with a single main stem, or in the case of coppicing with 

several stems, having a more or less definite crown. Includes: Bamboo, palms, 

and other woody plants meeting the above criterion”, (FAO, 2002). 

Shrubs 

“Shrubs refers to vegetation types where the dominant woody elements are shurubs, 

i.e., woody perennial plants, generally of more than 0.5 meter and less than 5 

meter in height on maturity and without a definit crown”, (FAO, 2002). 

Core 

Buffer 

“The core area needs to be legally established and give long-term protection to the 

landscape, ecosystem and species it contains. It should be sufficiently large to meet 

these conservation objectives. As nature is rarely uniform and because of historical 

land-use constraints, there may be several core areas in a single biosphere reserve to 

ensure a representative coverage of the mosaic of ecological systems. Normally, the 

core area is not subject to human activity, except for research and monitoring and, as 

the case may be, for traditional extractive uses by local communities”, (UNESCO, 

2006). 

“The buffer zone (or zones) is clearly delineated and surrounds or is contiguous to 

the core area. Activities are organized here so that they do not hinder the 

conservation objectives of the core area but rather help to protect it, hence the idea 

of "buffering". It can be an area for experimental research, for example to discover 

ways to manage natural vegetation, croplands, forests, fisheries; to enhance high 

quality production while conserving natural processes and biodiversity, including 

65

soil resources, to the maximum extent possible. In a similar manner, experiments 

can be carried out in the buffer zone to explore how to rehabilitate degraded areas. It 

may accommodate education, training, tourism and recreation facilities”, (UNESCO 

2006) 

Transition 

“An outer transition area or area of co-operation extends outwards, which may 

contain a variety of agricultural activities, human settlements and other uses. It is 

here that the local communities, conservation agencies, scientists, civil associations, 

cultural groups, private enterprises and other stakeholders must agree to work 

together to manage and sustainably develop the area's resources for the benefit of the 

people who live there. Given the role that biosphere reserves should play in 

promoting the sustainable management of the natural resources of the region in 

which they lie, the transition area is of great economic and social significance for 

regional development,” (UNESCO 2006) 

66

Annex II. Tables 

Table 14. Summary of woody species registered in Bonga, Boginda and Mankira 

Scientific Name Family Habit 

Acanthus eminens Acanthaceae s 

Alangium chinense Alangiaceae T 

Albizia gummifera Fabaceae. T 

Allophyllus abyssinicus Sapindaceae T 

Allophyllus macrobotrys Sapindaceae s 

Apodytes dimidiata Icacinaceae T 

Bersama abyssinica Melianthaceae T 

Brucea antidysenterica Simaroubaceae sT 

Buddleja polystachya Loganiaceae T 

Canthium oligocarpum Rubiaceae T 

Cassipourea malosana Rhizophoraceae T 

Celtis africana Ulmaceae T 

Celtis gomphophylla Ulmaceae T 

Chionanthus mildbraedii Oleaceae sT 

Cissampelos pareira Menispermaceae wC 

Cissus petiolata Vitaceae wC 

Clausena anisata Rutaceae sT 

Clematis hirsuta Ranunculac wC 

Clerdendrum myricoides Lamiaceae s 

Coffea arabica Rubiaceae sT 

Cordia africana Boraginiaceae T 

Croton macrostachyus Euphorbiaceae T 

Cyathea manniana Cyathaceae sT 

Cyphomandra betacaea Solanaceae s 

Dalbergia lactea Fabaceae wC 

Deinbollia kilimandscharica Taub. Sapindaceae sT 

67


Diospyros abyssinica (Hiern) F. 

White Ebenaceae T 

Dombeya torrida Sterculiaceae s 

Dracaena afromontana Agavaceae sT 

Dracaena fragrans Agavaceae sT 

Dracaena steudneri Agavaceae sT 

Ehertia cymosa Boraginiaceae sT 

Ekebergia capensis Meliaceae T 

Embelia schimperi Myrsinac wC 

Erythrina brucei Papilionoideae T 

Erythrococca trichogyne Euphorbiaceae s 

Eugenia bukobensis Myrtaceae T 

Euphorbia ampliphylla Euphorbiaceae T 

Fagaropsis angolensis Rutaceae T 

Ficus ovata Moraceae T 

Ficus palmata Moraceae T 

Ficus sur Moraceae T 

Ficus thonningii Moraceae sT 

Flacortia indica Flacourtiac T 

Galineiera saxifraga Rubiaceae sT 

Grewia ferruginea Tiliaceae s 

Hagenia abyssinica Rosaceae T 

Hallea rubrostipulata Rubiaceae T 

Hibiscus berberidifolius Malvaceae s 

Hibiscus calyphyllus Malvaceae s 

Hippocratea africana Celastraceae wC 

Hypericum revoltum Hypericaceae s/T 

Illex mitis Aquifoliaceae T 

Justicia schimperiana Acanthaceae s 

Landolphia buchananii Apocynaceae wC 

Landolphia owerensis Apocynaceae T 

68


Lepidotrichilia volkensii Meliaceae sT 

Macaranga capensis Euphorbiaceae T 

Maesa lanceolata Myrsinaceae sT 

Marsdenia spec Asclepiadaceae wC 

Maytenus gracilipes Celastraceae s 

Maytenus ovatus Celastraceae T 

Milletia ferruginea Fabaceae T 

Mimusops kummel Sapotaceae T 

Myrsine melanophloeos/africana Myrsinaceae s 

Ocotea kenyensis Lauraceae T 

Olea welwitschii Oleaceae T 

Oncinotis tenuiloba Apocynaceae wC 

Oncoba routledgei Sprague Flacourtiaceae T 

Oxyanthus speciosus Rubiaceae sT 

Paullinia pinnata Sapindaceae wC 

Pavetta abyssinica Rubiaceae s 

Phonix reclinata Arecaceae T 

Phytolacacca dodecandra Phytolaccac ? 

Pittosporum viridiflorum Pittosporaceae sT 

Polyscias fulva Araliaceae T 

Pouteria adolfi-friederici Sapotaceae T 

Prunus africana Rosaceae T 

Psychotria orophila Rubiaceae sT 

Pterolobium stellatum Fabaceae wC 

Rhamnus prinoides Rhamnaceae s 

Ricinus communis Euphorbiaceae s 

Ritchiera steudneri Gilg Capparidaceae ? 

Rothmannia urcelliformis Rubiaceae sT 

Rubus apetalus Rosaceae s 

Rytigynia neglecta Rubiaceae s 

69


Salacia congolensis Celastraceae L/s 

Sapium ellipticum Euphorbiaceae T 

Schefflera abyssinica Araliaceae T 

Schefflera myriantha Araliaceae wC 

Schefflera volkensii Araliaceae T 

Schrebera alata Oleaceae sT 

Sericostachys scandens Amaranthac wC 

Solanecio gigas Asteraceae s 

Solanecio mannii Asteraceae s 

Syzygium guineense Myrtaceae T 

Teclea nobilis Rutaceae sT 

Tiliacora troupinii Menispermaceae wC 

Tinospora caffra Menispermaceae wC 

Trichilia dregeana Meliaceae T 

Trilepisium madagascariense Moraceae T 

Urera hypselodendron Urticaceae wC 

Vepris dainelli Rutaceae sT 

Vernonia amygdalina Asteraceae s 

Vernonia auriculifera Asteraceae s 

Vernonia sp Asteraceae s 

Yushania alpina K. Schum Bambusaceae G (T) 

70

Table 15. Ground layer vegetation including climbers 

No. Scientific name Family Habit 

1 Achyranthes aspera Amaranthaceae H 

2 Aframomum corrorima Zingiberaceae H 

3 Aframomum sanguineum Zingiberaceae H 

4 Asplenium sp Aspleniaceae Fern 

5 Brillantaisia grotanellii Acanthaceae H 

6 Carduus leptacanthus Asteraceae H 

7 Centalla asiatica Apiaceae H 

8 Clematis spp Ranunculaceae Wc 

9 Crassocephalum macropappum Asteraceae H 

10 Cyclosorus dentatus Thelypteridaceae Fern 

11 Cynoglossum amplifolium Boraginiaceae H 

12 Cyperus sp Cyperaceae H 

13 Datura stromonium Solanaceae H 

14 Dichondra repens Convolvulaceae H 

15 Dichrocephala integrifolia Asteraceae H 

16 Dicliptera laxata Acanthaceae H 

17 Didymochlaena truncatula Aspidiaceae Fern 

18 Dorstenia brownie Moraceae H 

19 Dregea rubicund Asclepiadaceae H 

20 Elatostema monticola Ulmaceae H 

21 Euphorbia schimperiana Euphorbiaceae H 

22 Galinsoga parviflora Asteraceae H 

23 Gloriosa superba Colchicaceae H 

24 Habenaria petitiana Orchidaceae H 

25 Hydrocotyle mannii Apiaceae H 

26 Hypoestes forskaolii Acanthaceae H 

27 Impatiens tinctoria Balsaminaceae H 

28 Ipomoea cairica Convolvulaceae H 

29 Isoglossa puncata Acanthaceae H 

71


30 Isoglossa somalensis Acanthaceae H 

31 Laggera pterodonta Asteraceae H 

32 Lantana trifolia Lamiaceae H 

33 Malaxis weberbaueriana Orchidaceae H 

34 Microglossa pyrifolia Asteraceae hC 

35 Mictactis bojeri Asteraceae H 

36 Momordica foetida Cucurbitaceae H 

37 Nervilia bicarinata Orchidaceae H 

38 Ocimum sp Lamiaceae H 

39 Ocimum urticifolium Lamiaceae H 

40 Paullina pinnata Sapindaceae wC 

41 Pavonia schimperiana Malvaceae H 

42 Pavonia spp Malvaceae H 

43 Pavonia urens Malvaceae H 

44 Pentas lanceolata Rubiaceae H 

45 Peperomia abyssinica Piperaceae H 

46 Peperomia molleri Piperaceae H 

47 Peponium vogelii Cucurbitaceae hC 

48 Persicaria glabra Polygonaceae H 

49 Pilea johnstonii Ulmaceae H 

50 Piper capense Piperaceae H 

51 Pteridium aquilinum Dennstaedtiaceae F 

52 Pteris cretica Pteridaceae Fern 

53 Rumex nepalnsis Polygonaceae H 

54 Rungia grandis Acanthaceae H 

55 Salacia congolensis Celastraceae H 

56 Satureja paradoxa Lamiaceae H 

57 Sida rhombifolia Malvaceae H 

58 Solanecio/ Hydrocotyle manii Rubiaceae H 

59 Stephania abyssinica Menispermaceae hC 

72


60 Tiliacora troupinii Menispermaceae wC 

61 Tristemma maurtianum J.F. Gmel Melastomataceae H 

62 Triumfetta brachyceras Tiliaceae H 

63 Vernonia hochstetteri Asteraceae H 

64 Vernonia tewoldei Asteraceae H 

65 Zehneria scabra Cucurbitaceae hC 

Table 16. Major grass species encountered in the forest 

No. Scientific Name Family 

1 Oplismenus undulatifolius Poaceae 

2 Olyra latifolia Poaceae 

3 Cynodon spp Poaceae 

4 Carex chlorosaccus Cyperaceae 

5 Poecilostachys oplismenoides Poaceae 

6 Tectaria cf. gemmifera Poaceae 

7 Setaria megaphylla Poaceae 

8 Cyperus rotundus Cyperaceae 

9 Leptaspis zeylanica Poaceae 

10 Panicum spp Poaceae 

11 Pseudechinolaena polystachya Poaceae 

12 Oplismenus hirtellus Poaceae 

73

Table 17. Common, Occasional and Rare species in Bonga, Mankira and Boginda 

74

Bonga Mankira Boginda selected species (Schmitt C. B. 2006) 

Common Draceaena steudneri Croton macrostachyus Milletia ferruginea Common species 

Schefflera volkensii Phonix reclinata Chionanthus mildbraedii Elaeodendron buchananii 

Vepris dainelli Macaranga capensis Bersama abyssinica 

Sapium ellepticum Vepris dainelli Milletia ferruginea 

Pouteria adolfi-friedericii Psychotria orophila Albizia gummifera 

Chionanthus mildbraedii Phoenix reclinata 

Trilepisium madagascariense 

Occasional Allophyllus macrobotrys Draceaena steudneri Cyathea manniana Canthium oligocarpum 

Milletia ferruginea Milletia ferruginea Allophyllus abyssinicus Allophylus abyssinicus 

Maesa lanceolata Landolphia owerensis Draceaena steudneri Syzygium guineense 

Phonix reclinata Maesa lanceolata Syzygium guineense Ocotea kenyensis 

Allophyllus abyssinicus Celtis africana Sapium ellepticum Olea welwitschii length 

Syzygium guineense Ehertia cymosa Croton macrostachyus Occasional species 

Ficus ovata Cordia africana Landolphia owerensis Pouteria adolfi-friederici 

Landolphia owerensis Trichilia dregeana Rothmannia urcelliformis Schefflera abyssinica 

Vepris dainelli Olea welwitschii Dracaena afromontana Apodytes dimidiata 

Galineiera saxifraga Ficus ovata Galineiera saxifraga Flacourtia indica 

Schefflera abyssinica Cachno Ehertia cymosa Macaranga capensis 

Rothmannia uricelliformis Diospyrose abyssinica Oxyanthus specious Trichilia dregeana 

Sapium ellipticum Albizia gummifera Allophyllus macrobotrys Sapium ellipticum 

Olea welwitschii Prunus africana Pouteria adolfi-friederici Albizia schimperiana 

Macaranga capensis Psychotria orophila Justica schimperiana Ekebergia capensis 

Croton macrostachyus Allophyllus abyssinicus Olea welwitschii Polyscias fulva 

Albizia gummifera Schefflera abyssinica Ficus palmata Ilex mitis 

Polyscias fulva Isoglosa somalensis Dracaena fragrans Ficus sur tiny high 

Dracaeana afromontana Macaranga capensis Ficus ovata Prunus africana 

Apodytes dimidiata Apodytes dimidiata Polyscias fulva Euphorbia ampliphylla 

Bersama abyssinica Pittosporum viridiflorum Salacia congolensis Fagaropsis angolensis 

Teclea nobilis Cissampelos pareira Stephania abyssinica Rare species 

Illex mitis Galineiera saxifraga Albizia gummifera Alangium chinense 

Psychotria orophila Vernonia amaygadlina Cassipourea malosana Cassipourea malosana 

Vernonia amygdalina Polyscias fulva Bersama abyssinica Celtis africana 

Eugenia bukobensis Flacortia indica Schefflera abyssinica Croton macrostachys 

Cordia africana Rothmannia uricelliformis Prunus africana Cordia africana present 

Chionanthus mildbraedii Bersama abyssinica Sericostachys scandens Ficus ovata tiny 

Hagenia abyssinica Cyathea manniana Maytenus gracilipes Hallea rubrostipulata 

Rytigynia neglecta Syzygium guineense Erythrococca trichogyne Albizia grandibracteata 

Pouteria adolfi-friederici Cassipourea malosana Ficus vasta tiny 

Erythrina abyssinica Vangueria apiculata 

Myrsine melanophloeos 

Dracaena fragrance 

Albizia gummifera 

Canthium oligocarpum 

Cassipourea malosana 

Pterolobium stellatum 

75

Table 18. Species found within one of the study area only 

Mankira Boginda Bonga 

Cissampelos pareira Alangium chinense Brucea antidysenterica 

Diospyrose abyssinica Fagarobsis angolensis Celtis gomphophylla 

Ficus sur Ficus thonningii Coffea arabica 

Flacortia indica Hibiscus calyphyllus Dalbergia lactea 

Grewia ferruginea Justica schimperiana Deinbollia kilimandscharica 

Isoglosa somalensis Ocotea kenyensis Dombeya torrida 

Trichilia dregeana Salacia congolensis Ekebergia capensis 

Sericostachys scandens Erythrina abyssinica 

Stephania abyssinica Eugenia bukobensis 

Tiliacora troupinnicuf Euphorbia ampliphylla 

Trilepisium madagascariense Hagenia abyssinica 

Hallea rubrostipulata 

Hibiscus berberidifolius 

Hypericum revoltum 

Mimusops kummel 

Myrsine melanophloeos 

Oncoba routledgei 

Paullinia pinnata 

Pavetta abyssinica 

Pterolobium stellatum 

Schefflera volkensii 

Schrebera alata 

Teclea nobilis 

Tinospora caffra 

Vernonia sp 

Weramo 

Yushania alpina 

76

Annex III. Pictures 

Photo 1 Impact of Agriculture (Cultivation) on forest 

Photo: Sisay Nune, 2008 

Photo 2 .Deforested Hagenia forest for Agriculture and remnants of the species 

Photo: Sisay Nune, 2008 

77

Photo 3. Forest conversion for agriculture, Boka Kebele 

Photo by Sisay Nune, 2008. 

Photo 4. Dense Bamboo Forest 

Photo by Sisay Nune, 2008. 

78

Annex IV. CITES Annex I & II plant species 

Species Name Family 

Rhipsalis baccifera (J.S.Mueller) Stearn ssp. mauritiana (De 

Candolle) Barthlott 

CACTACEAE 

Alsophila manniana (Hook.) R.M.Tryon 

CYATHEACEAE 

Cyathea dregei Kunze 1834 var. dregei 

CYATHEACEAE 

Cyathea manniana Hook. 1865 

CYATHEACEAE 

Disperis anthoceros Reichb.f. var. anthoceros 

ORCHIDACEAE 

Habenaria armatissima Reichb.f. 

ORCHIDACEAE 

Habenaria cirrhata (Lindley) Reichb. f. ORCHIDACEAE 

Habenaria keayi Summerh. 

Holothrix tridentata (Hook.f.) Reichb.f. 

ORCHIDACEAE 

ORCHIDACEAE 

Microcoelia guyoniana (Reichb.f.) Summerh. ORCHIDACEAE 

Prunus africana (Hook. f.) Kalkm. 

ROSACEAE 

79

Annex V. Transect Location 

Figure 20. Distribution of Transect Lines 

80

Flora Biodiversity Assessment in Bonga, Boginda and Mankira Forest

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