ASEAN Herbal and Medicinal Plants

Compiled by Rasadah Mat Ali, Zainon Abu Samah, 

Nik Musaadah Mustapha, Norhara Hussein 

Association of Southeast Asian Nations 

Natural Resources and Environment 

2010 

Forest Research Institute Malaysia

ASEAN HERBAL AND MEDICINAL PLANTS 

The Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN) was established on 8 August 1967. 

The Member States of the Association are Brunei Darussalam, Cambodia, Indonesia, Lao PDR, 

Malaysia, Myanmar, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand and Viet Nam. The ASEAN Secretariat is based 

in Jakarta, Indonesia. 

For inquiries, contact: 

The ASEAN Secretariat 

Public Outreach and Civil Society Division 

70A Jalan Sisingamangaraja 

Jakarta 12110 

Indonesia 

Phone : (62 21) 724-3372, 726-2991 

Fax : (62 21) 739-8234, 724-3504 

E-mail : public.div@asean.org 

General information on ASEAN appears on-line at the ASEAN Website: www.asean.org 

Catalogue-in-Publication Data 

ASEAN Herbal and Medicinal Plants 

Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat, July 2010 

vii, 336p; 29.7cm x 21.0cm 

615.321 

1. Herbs – Therapeutic Use 

2. Herbal – Medical Plants – ASEAN 

ISBN 978-979-3496-92-4 

The text of this publication may be quoted or reprinted with proper acknowledgment. 

Copyright ASEAN Secretariat © 2010 

All rights reserved 

Photo Credits: ASEAN Member States 

ii


FOREWORD 

I am pleased to present the first ASEAN Herbal and Medicinal Plants. This book 

marks our first attempt to produce a compilation of herbal and medicinal plants that are 

popular in the ASEAN region. 

This book is the result of hard work and collaborative efforts of the ASEAN Experts 

Group on Herbal and Medicinal Plants who has been appointed to undertake the task of 

compiling the information. The Experts Group was formed in 1997 and comprises 

representatives from the ASEAN Member States. Despite the delay, I would say that the 

outcome is worthwhile indeed. 

The book covers some 90 different medicinal plant species from ASEAN Member States 

(except Singapore) with information pertaining to their scientific names, vernacular names, 

plant description, propagation, geographical distribution, chemical constituents, medicinal 

usage by the ASEAN Member States as well as their illustrative profiles. I am sure that 

this book would serve as a valuable reference to members of the ASEAN countries who 

are involved in the research and development of herbal and medicinal plants. 

With an abundance of untapped natural resources rich in medicinal plants in the region, 

the work of the ASEAN Experts Group on Herbal and Medicinal Plants is never-ending. 

Identifying new plant species, exploring their therapeutic potential, validating new 

methodologies and establishing new standards for many untouched plant species will 

pose a challenging task. I urge the Experts Group to continue to carry out more collaborative 

work on other plant species of interest in the ASEAN region. Our biodiversity is a blessing 

and a heritage for our posterity. We should learn to benefit from it and conserve it with all 

our ability. 

I would like to congratulate the members of the ASEAN Experts Group on Herbal and 

Medicinal Plants for their excellent efforts and the Forest Research Institute of Malaysia 

for their commitment to making this book possible. 

Thank you. 

Dr. Surin Pitsuwan 

Secretary-General of ASEAN 

iii


TABLE OF CONTENTS 

LIST OF PLANTS 

BRUNEI DARUSSALAM 

1. Abelmoschus moschatus 1 

2. Agathis borneensis 3 

3. Aloe vera 5 

4. Amaranthus spinosus 7 

5. Andrographis paniculata 9 

6. Asplenium nidus 11 

7. Blumea balsamifera 13 

8. Caesalpinia crista 15 

9. Centratherum intermedium 17 

10. Corchorus capsularis 19 

11. Coscinium fenestratum 21 

12. Curcuma longa 23 

13. Donax grandis 25 

14. Etlingera solaris 27 

15. Languas galanga 29 

16. Macaranga gigantea 31 

17. Melastoma malabathricum 33 

18. Orthosiphon aristatus 35 

19. Portulaca oleracea 37 

20. Zingiber aromaticum 39 

CAMBODIA 

1. Aegle marmelos 43 

2. Aquilaria crassna 45 

3. Caesalpinia sappan 47 

4. Cananga latifolia 49 

5. Capparis micracantha 51 

6. Cassia alata 53 

7. Combretum quadrangulare 55 

8. Coscinium usitatum 57 

9. Curcuma zedoaria 59 

10. Dracaena cambodiana 61 

11. Eurycoma longifolia 63 

12. Hopea odorata 65 

13. Hydnocarpus anthelminticus 67 

14. Melastoma sanguineum 69 

15. Melodorum fruticosum 71 

iv


16. Phyllanthus emblica 73 

17. Plumeria alba 75 

18. Syzygium jambos 77 

19. Terminalia chebula 79 

20. Terminalia triptera 81 

INDONESIA 

1. Acorus calamus85 85 

2. Aloe vera 87 

3. Arcangelisia flava 89 

4. Centella asiatica 91 

5. Curcuma mangga 93 

6. Curcuma zedoaria 95 

7. Justicia gendarusa 97 

8. Morinda citrifolia 99 

9. Orthosiphon aristatus 101 

10. Sauropus androgynus 103 

LAO PDR 

1. Aegle marmelos 107 

2. Alstonia scholaris 109 

3. Asparagus cochinchinensis 111 

4. Caesalpinia sappan 113 

5. Calotropis gigantea 115 

6. Cassia alata 117 

7. Codonopsis pilosa 119 

8. Costus speciosus 121 

9. Dioscorea persimilis 123 

10. Eclipta prostrata 125 

11. Elephantopus scaber 127 

12. Eleutherine subaphylla 129 

13. Euodia lepta 131 

14. Morinda citrifolia 133 

15. Passiflora foetida 135 

16. Polygonum multiflorum 137 

17. Rauvolfia serpentina 139 

18. Solanum procumbens 141 

19. Stephania rotunda 143 

MALAYSIA 

1. Ardisia elliptica 147 

2 Chromolaena odorata 149 

3. Curcuma xanthorhiza 152 

4. Cymbopogon citratus 155 

5. Cymbopogon nardus 159 

v


6. Elephantopus scaber 162 


8. Fibraurea tinctoria 166 

9. Gynura procumbens 168 

10. Kaempferia galanga 171 

11. Labisia pothoina 173 

12. Languas galanga 175 

13. Mitragyna speciosa 177 

14. Momordica charantia 180 

15. Ocimum bacilicum 185 

16. Phyllanthus amarus 190 

17. Rafflesia hasseltii 194 

18. Smilax myosotiflora 196 

19. Stemona tuberosa 198 

20. Zingiber officinale 200 

MYANMAR 

1. Barleria prionitis 205 

2. Dioscorea esculenta 207 

3. Elettaria cardamomum 209 

4. Gloriosa superba 211 

5. Millettia extensa 213 

6. Nervilia fordii 215 

7. Piper betle 217 

8. Rauvolfia serpentina 219 

9. Vitex negundo 221 

10. Vitis repens 223 

PHILIPPINES 

1. Aloe barbadensis 227 

2. Anacardium occidentale 229 

3. Annona reticulata 231 

4. Areca catechu 233 

5. Basella rubra 236 

6. Bixa orellana 238 

7. Caesalpinia pulcherrima 240 

8. Carmona retusa 242 

9. Cassia fistula 244 

10. Ceiba petandra 246 

11. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 248 

12. Jatropha curcas 250 

13. Mimosa pudica 252 

14. Moringa oleifera 254 

15. Premna odorata 257 

16. Streblus asper 259 

17. Tinospora crispa 261 

18. Vitex negundo 263 

vi


THAILAND 

1. Artocarpus lakoocha 267 

2. Boesenbergia rotunda 271 

3. Cassia fistula 274 

4. Cassia tora 279 

5. Clinacanthus nutans 284 

6. Curcuma longa 286 


8. Hibiscus sabdariffa 293 

9. Impatiens balsamina 296 

10. Solanum violaceum 299 

VIET NAM 

1. Abrus precatorius 303 

2. Abutilon indicum 305 

3. Acanthopanax gracilistylus 307 

4. Acanthopanax trifoliatus 309 

5. Achyranthes aspera 311 

6. Aconitum fortunei 313 

7. Acorus gramineus 315 

8. Acronychia laurifolia 317 

9. Adenosma glutinosum 318 

10. Alisma plantago-aquatica 320 

11. Aquilaria crassna 322 

12. Artocarpus tonkinensis 324 

13. Illicium verum 325 

14. Litsea cubeba 327 

15. Schefflera octophylla 329 

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 333 

INDEX 335 

vii


1.0 Scientific Name : Abelmoschus moschatus Medik. 

Family : Malvaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Bason-bason, langamit (Brunei Darussalam) 

3.0 Plant Description 

A semi-woody plant, up to about 2 m tall with few branches. Young stems pubescent. Leaves 

spirally arranged with stalks, up to 5 cm long; petiole hairy and bears stipules; blades deeply 

lobed to near palmate, about 6 cm across, pubescent on both surfaces and with toothed margins. 

Flower, singly from the leaf axil with a pair of stipules at the base; stalk, up to 6 cm long, 

pubescent; epicalyx with 10 separate sepals; calyx joined with 5 teeth; petals 5, bright yellowcoloured 

with deep maroon-crimson base; stigma 5-lobed, maroon-coloured and is on top of the 

staminal column which is made up of numerous stamens closely joined together. Capsule, up to 

6 cm long, hairy on the outside, 5-ridged with 5 cells containing many seeds. 

4.0 Propagation : Seed 

5.0 Geographical Distribution/Ecology 

The plant grows well on both clay and loam soils in full sunlight. 

6.0 Chemical Constituents 

Distillation of the seed yields the volatile oil, farnesal. The seed coat contains palmitin which 

emits a musky scent and is used in perfumery. No information is available on the contents of the 

roots. 

1


7.0 Reports on Medicinal Usage 

7.1 Uses supported by experimental/clinical data: 

Not available 

7.2 Uses in traditional medicine: 

The roots are boiled and consumed orally as remedy for asthma, breathlessness and 

general chest discomfort. 

8.0 Contraindications 

Not available 

9.0 Bibliography 

Brunei Darussalam Agricultural Research Centre, Kilanas. 2000. Medicinal Plants of Brunei 

Darussalam. Revised edition. Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Industry and Primary 

Resources. 

2


1.0 Scientific Name : Agathis borneensis Warb. 

Family : Araucariaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Tolong, kayu raja, entolong (Brunei Darussalam) 


A big tree, up to 50 m tall and girth, up to as large as 5 m. Crown is normally conical. Bark 

lenticellate, scaly and grey-brown, inner bark whitish with white resin. Leaves opposite, oblongelliptic 

with blunt tips, up to 12 cm x 5 cm, glabrous, leathery and have parallel veins and short 

petioles. Pollen cones, axillary, sessile, cylindrical and each contains 10–12 pollen sacs on their 

undersurface. Ovulate cones at stem terminal, erect with many scales, each contains one ovule 

on the upper axil. Matured cones, ellipsoidal, 10 cm across, seed solitary on the scales in the 

middle section of the cone, ovoid with 2 unequal lateral wings. 



The plant prefers drained clay soil and requires some shade when young. 


The trunk of this plant produces resin which is used in the manufacture of spirit varnishes in 

lacquers and linoleum. It is probably this resin that is responsible for the alleged therapeutic 

property. The chemical contents of the roots are not known. 

3




Not available 


The outer, rough layer of the bark is peeled and the smoothened branch is used to rub 

onto the affected area to relieve itchy skin condition. Infusion of the young roots is 

consumed to treat diabetes and high blood pressure. 


Not available 



Darussalam - Revised. Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources. 

4


1.0 Scientific Name : Aloe vera (L.) Burmann 

Family : Liliaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Lidah buaya (Indonesia, Malaysia) 


A rosette, perennial herb with several short branches forming a dense crown. Leaves narrowlanceolate, 

up to 40 cm long, fleshly with toothed margins. Inflorescence an elongated raceme, 

arises from the stem terminal; flowers tubular, up to 2.6 cm long, drooping and yellow-coloured. 

4.0 Propagation : Seedling 


Commonly planted as an ornamental plant all over the world. 


Leaf contains barbaloin, which has the properties of an aperient. A polysaccharide obtained 

from the juice has been used for treating skin wounds, ulcers, insect bites and arthritis. An 

extract of the leaves is used as a cosmetic base for decreasing wrinkles and smoothing skin. 



The juice has antimicrobial properties against Pseudomonas aeruginose, Proteus 

vulgaris, Esherichin coli, Streptococcus faecalis and Bacillus subtilis. It also has an 

antifungal activity. 

5



The inner fleshy part of the leaves blended in water is used to make hair healthy and 

shiny. For burns or sunburn, the mucilage of the leaves is applied directly to the affected 

skin. The fresh mucilage is also used for poultice wounds and as a skin conditioner. 


Not available 


Brunei Darussalam Agriculture Research Centre, Kilanas. 2000. Medicinal Plants of Brunei 


Resources. 

6


1.0 Scientific Name : Amaranthus spinosus L. 

Family : Amaranthaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Bayam berduri (Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia) 


A tender upright herb, up to 80 cm tall, with light green cylindrical stem and several branches. 

Leaves alternate, ovate, glabrous, size variable, normally to 7 cm x 4 cm with retuse tips; petioles, 

up to 7 cm long with two 1 cm long sharp thorns at each base. Inflorescence from both leafaxils 

and stem terminals, in dense spikes of 8 cm long; bracts greenish; sepals 5 and green; 

stamens 5. Fruits capsular with round, shiny black seeds. 



Tropical region. The plant thrives in the open, on rich, friable sandy loam soil. 


The roots contain potash. The above-ground parts and the roots contain saponin. 



The roots contain potash which is the element responsible for their diuretic property. The 

above-ground parts and the roots contain saponin which is used as an emollient for bruises, 

inflammations and boils. It also acts as an expectorant for bronchitis and breathing 

problems. 

7



lt is traditionally used widely in many countries. Decoction of the roots boiled with Allium 

cepa (onion) bulbs and seeds of Nigella sativa (fennel flower, black cummin) is used to 

cure urinary problem of excessive salt in the urine (locally termed “kencing masin”). 


Not available 



Darussalam. Part I. Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources. 

8


1.0 Scientific Name : Andrographis paniculata Nees 

Family : Acanthaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Daun pahit (Brunei Darussalam); hempedu bumi, akar cerita 

(Malaysia) 


A small tender herb, up to 70 cm tall with many branches. Stems squarish and generally light 

green. Leaves opposite, up to 5 cm x 1.5 cm, simple, elliptic with acuminate tips. Inflorescences 

axillary and stem terminal in panicles with upright flowers; bracts, up to 2 mm long; sepals 5; up 

to 4 mm long, with white hairs; corolla tube, up to 6 mm long, white-coloured with 2 lips; lower 

lip, 2-lobes; upper lip, 3-lobes, white with purple stripes; stamens 2. Pods up to 1.7 cm long, 2- 

celled, containing 12 seeds. 



Tropical and subtropical areas. The plant prefers rich loamy soil with some shade. 


Andrographolide, andrographidine, 5-hydroxy-7,8,3’,3’-tetramethoxyflavone, andrographine, 

apigenin-4,6-dimethyl ether, â-sitosterol, 5-hydroxy-2’,3’,7,8-tetrametoxyflavone, andrographinin 



The whole plant has an antiinfectious property and can promote phagocytosis. Intensive 

research in Thailand shows that the plant is effective against sore throat. Toxic test on 

9


mice treated orally with 15 g/kg of the extract (LD 50 of the extract on mice was > 15 g/ 

kg when treated orally, subcutaneously and 14.98 g/kg when administered intraperitoneally) 

has shown no detrimental effect. 

Andrographolide is an interesting pharmacophore with anticancer and immunomodulatory 

activities. 


A decoction of the leaves is often taken orally to cure diabetes and to reduce high blood 

pressure. A leaf poultice is applied topically to relieve skin irritation and insect bites. 


Not available 




Cheung, S. C., et al. 1978. Chinese Medicinal Herbs of Hong Kong, Vol. 1–5. Hong Kong. 

Rajagopal, S. et al. 2003. Andrographolide, a potential cancer therapeutic agent isolated from 

Andrographis paniculata. J. of Exp. Ther. Anco. 3(3):147–158. 

10


1.0 Scientific Name : Asplenium nidus L. 

Family : Aspleniaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Lukut, selimbar (Brunei Darussalam); paku lansuyar (Malaysia) 


A radical fern with a thick mass of rhizomes and roots. Fronds simple, linear, up to 95 cm x 20 

cm; midrib mostly black in colour, supports the lamina at an angle of about 20 degrees. Sori 

indusiate, brown-coloured, developed along two-third of all veins on the apical half of the lower 

surface of the frond. 

4.0 Propagation : Spores 


Growing on trunk of trees in the shade or open of tropical forest. 


The plant contains acetylornthine, N-acetylornithine and L(+)-ornithine. 



Not available 


A decoction or warm infusion of the frond is used to relieve pain associated with the 

appearance of blood in the stool. Three sq. cm of the leaf lamina is normally sufficient 

for each preparation, to be taken once a day. Macerated leaves can also be applied to 

wounds to stop bleeding. 

11



Not available 




12


1.0 Scientific Name : Blumea balsamifera DC. 

Family : Asteraceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Nath luang (Lao PDR); sambung (Philippines, Brunei 

Darussalam), sembung, capa, telinga kerbau (Malaysia) 


A subshrub perennial herb, up to 3 m tall, with hairy stem. Leaves alternate, lanceolateoblanceolate. 

Margin serrate, base usually rounded to tapering, petiole sessile or short, exstipulate, 

22 cm x 6 cm, hairy. Inflorescence branched with many reduced leaves, flower heads, 

up to 7 mm x 3 mm, bracts narrow and numerous, florets yellow; appus white with some brown 

tips. 



From India to Southeast Asia 


Essential oil is about 0.1–0.4% camphor and borneol, alcohol, cineol, limonene, phenolphloroacetophenone 

dimethyl ether and alkaloid 



Not available 

13



A decoction of the whole plant mixed with other herbs is popularly used in bath after 

childbirth for general health. The decoction mixed with allium cepa (onion) and Nigella 

sativa (fennel flower, black cumin) is consumed for aching joints and coughs. The decoction 

of the leaves is antiarrythmic, expectorant, antispasmodic, astringent, antigastralgic and 

antihelmintic. 


Not available 




Burkill I. H. 1966. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. Ministry 

of Agriculture and Co-operative, Kuala Lumpur, Vol. I & II. 

14


1.0 Scientific Name : Caesalpinia crista L. 

Family : Leguminosae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Matahiang, padihiang (Brunei Darussalam) 

3.0 Description: 

A woody vine with long thorny stems. Leaves alternate, bipinnate with sharp thorns on the 

undersides of the ribs; leaflets elliptic, up to 6 cm x 3 cm and glabrous. Inflorescence in the form 

of racemes with many strongly scented flowers; sepals 5, brown-coloured; petals 5, yellow with 

red stripes on the standard; stamens numerous; ovaries superior and hairy. Fruit pods, up to 10 

cm x 5 cm, thorny with 2–4 smooth and hard seeds. 



It was introduced from tropical America. A native of Madagascar, it is widely distributed in 

tropical region. 


Bonducin in seed, bark and leaves, 17% fat 



Not available 

15



Kernel of the matured seeds, root or leaves is eaten fresh or pounded, mixed with a little 

cooking oil and rubbed onto the abdomen to treat spleen and liver diseases manifested by 

uncontrollable shivering symptom. The seeds are used in cosmetic preparation in India. 


Not available 




Resources. 

16


1.0 Scientific Name : Centratherum intermedium L. 


2.0 Vernacular Name : Bunga ungu (Brunei Darussalam) 


A much-branched, slightly woody herb, about 60–70 cm tall, with ascending to upright scabrous 

stems. Leaves spiral; lamina to 6.5 cm x 3.5 cm, broadly elliptic and tapered towards the base of 

the petiole; margins double-serrated. Inflorescence, at stem terminal; flower head, about 1.5– 

1.8 cm across and supported at the base by a whorl of smaller leaves; bracts narrow, in 4–6 

whorls; florets purple-coloured, up to 1.2 cm long with 5 lobes and pappus of short fine bristles. 



Brunei Darussalam 


No information on its contents has been cited. However, the herb gives off a strong acrid smell 

when crushed and a slight irritation may be felt when applied. 



Not available 

17



The crushed or pounded leaf is gently applied to the skin and over wounds to treat skin 

allergy, shingles, herpes and skin eczema. The treatment should be carried out twice a 

day in 2–3 weeks for effectiveness. 


Not available 




Resources. 

18


1.0 Scientific Name : Corchorus capsularis L. 

Family : Tiliaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Penawar upas (Brunei Darussalam); kancing baju (Malaysia) 


An annual undershrub, up to 1.7 m tall, with a few slender branches. Stems glabrous, reddish 

brown and easily peeled. Leaves simple, alternate; petioles, up to 1.2 cm long, with 2 fine, 7 mm 

long stipules at the node; lamina lanceolate, up to 10.5 cm x 3 cm, with serrate margins and base 

pair of teeth forming fine bristles. Flowers, 2 from each node with 4 yellow, separated sepals 

and numerous stamens; ovary superior. Capsules round, flat at the top and split into 5 parts to 

release the angular seeds. 



It thrives on most soils in direct sunlight. 


Corosin, b-sitosterol, capsularin, glucoside, corchorin, oleic acid, linolic acid, arachidic acid, palmitic 

acid, stearic acid and strophanthidine, cerotic acid, lignoceric acid, behenic acid, raffinose, 

corchsularose and glycosides 



Not available 

19



An infusion of the roots is taken orally to neutralize poison (from upas tree) usually 

applied to the dart of a blowpipe, as well as agrichemical poisons. Besides orally consumed, 

it is applied topically onto the wound. A decoction of the leaves is taken orally to reduce 

hypertension. 


Not available 




Resources. 

20


1.0 Scientific name : Coscinium fenestratum Colebr. 

Family : Menispermaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Ambok segubang, perawan, akar penawar (Brunei 

Darussalam); akar mengkunyit (Malaysia) 


A perennial, moderate twining liana. Roots, 5–7, tuberous and attached closely to the base, each 

up to 10 cm long and 2 cm in diameter with bright yellow inner bark. Stem, up to 4 m long and 2 

mm in diameter, green-coloured. Leaves alternate; petiole, up to 8 cm long, pubescent with 

swollen base and bent; blade cordate with broadly acuminated rip, up to 10 cm x 11 cm, upper 

surface glabrous with 5 sunken main veins, underneath hairy along prominent veins. Inflorescence, 

in tomentose panicle of 8 cm long and 4 cm across; outer sepals short, inner sepals oblong and 

longer. Fruit, a drupe, to 2 cm in diameter. 

4.0 Propagation : Stem cutting 

5.0 Geographical Distribution 

It thrives on sandy or clay loam under shade. 


Saponins could be present in the roots. 



Not available 

21



The root is chewed and swallowed in order to alleviate the effect of food and other 

chemical poisonings. The root is sliced, soaked in clean water and the infusion consumed 

as a follow-up antidote. A patient who is unconscious may be force-fed with a strong 

infusion of the tubers. For blowpipe poisoning, the mashed tuber is immediately applied to 

the wound directly. The infusion is also traditionally drunk to treat dizziness of the head 

and dazed sight. This plant is quite well known as an antidote for poisons, but evaluation 

is required to ascertain this claim. 


Not available 




Resources. 

22


1.0 Scientific Name : Curcuma longa L. 

Family : Zingiberaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Kunyit biasa, tamu kunyit (Indonesia, Malaysia) 

3.0 Plant description 

A clumped herb with ellipsoidal, 6 cm x 2.7 cm primary tubers and many, 4–7 cm long, 1.5 cm 

thick rhizomes. Rhizome brownish and scaly outside and bright orange inside. Shoots erect, up 

to 90 cm tall with 6–8 leaves and their sheaths form the pseudostem; leaf-lamina lancleota, 

acuminate, up to 28 cm x 7 cm. Inflorescences cylindrical spikes, up to 13 cm x 5 cm; bracts 

elliptic-lancleolate, up to 5 cm x 2.3 cm, upper bracts white-coloured and lower bracts light 

green; calyx toothed unequally and divided; corolla tube whitish, divides into 3 petals with dorsal 

lobe hooded; staminodes 2; labellum obovate with a yellow band long the centre, side lobes 

white-coloured; ovary inferior. 

4.0 Propagation : Rhizome 


Commonly cultivated as a spice and usually harvested annually. It grows well on rich moist 

sandy loam or alluvial soils. Flowers in March, without setting fruit. 


The rhizome contains curcumin which gives the yellow-orange colour, essential oil, fixed oil, 

bitter principles, resin, protein, cellulose, pentosans, starch and minerals. It also contains cycloisopropenmycren, 

P-tocylmethyl carbinol, demethoxycurcumin and bisdemethoxycurcumin. 

23




Not available 


The rhizome is useful as a remedy to relieve uncontrolled and frequent urination, probably 

due to infection of the urinary system. The skin of a rhizome is peeled and is used to rub, 

with an upward motion, the lower abdomen. A small portion of the skin can be chewed 

and swallowed after each rubbing session. 


Not available 




Resources. 

24


1.0 Scientific Name : Donax grandis Ridley 

Family : Marantaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Bamban batu, bemban (Brunei Darussalam) 


A sprawling half-herbaceous plant about 2 m tall. Stem, straight between nodes, up to 1.5 cm in 

diameter at the base, very smooth and green-coloured; branches, leaf-opposed. Leaves alternate, 

sheath, up to 12 cm long, enclosing the stem; laminar ovate with abruptly acuminate tips, up to 

13 cm x 7.5 cm, leathery and glabrous. Panicle leaf-opposed, up to 24 cm long, with 2 flowers on 

each branch which also bears a 4 cm long bract. Flower white, epicalyx 3–5 mm long and 

translucent, sepals 3–2.5 cm x 5 mm, corolla-tube to 2.5 cm long, 3-lobed with 2 narrow lobes 

and one broad lobe, style hooked and partly covered by the corolla-tube, ovary inferior. Fruit, 

bowl-shaped outline and bearing 3 seeds. 



The plant thrives on clay loam and soon forms a thick colony. 


Saponins have been detected in the rhizomes of the plants in Brunei Darussalam. The same 

phytochemicals have been found in plants in Malaysia. The juice of the stem has been regarded 

as an antidote for snake bites and blood poisoning in Malaysia. 

25




Not available 


Decoction of the rhizomes is consumed to treat diabetes and high blood pressure. The 

white flowers are picked fresh and eaten by children. 


Not available 




Resources. 

Goh, S.H. et. al., 1990. Phytochemical Guide to Malaysia Flora. IPT. University of Malaya, 

Malaysia. 

26


1.0 Scientific Name : Etlingera solaris (Bl.) R. M. Sm. 

Synonym : Phaeomeria solavis (Bl.) K. Sehura 


2.0 Vernacular Name : Tepus kantan 


A rhizomatous, clumbed plant growing up to 5–6 cm tall. Pseudostem swollen at the base, 

consists of layers of leaf-sheaths. Leaves, in 2 rows, alternate; petiole up to 5 mm long; lamina, 

linear, glabrous, up to 50 cm long and broad with narrow acuminate tip and rounded base. 

Inflorescence in upright, torch-shape spike; stalk, up to 20 cm long with overlapping greencoloured 

scales; bracts many and overlapping, pinkish-red, waxy, outside oblong and larger (8 

cm x 3 cm), smaller and narrower toward the centre; epicalyx tubular with 2 lobes, thin and 

papery; calyx tubular, up to 3 cm long with 2 sepals and red-tipped; corolla tube, up to 2 cm long 

with 3, 2 cm long petals, labellum anther 2-lobed, thin and papery; calyx tubular, up to 3 cm long 

with 2 sepals and spathaceous, red-coloured and folds the stamen and the pistil; anther 2-lobeb; 

ovary inferior. Fruits, tightly packed in a sphere 7–8 cm across, Irregularly-shaped with flattened 

top and a persistent flower remains; seeds many, black and embedded in mucilage. It flowers 

regularly. 

4.0 Propagation : Normally propagated from rhizome-cuttings. The seed can also 

be germinated. 


The terrestrial plant is occasionally grown in gardens. It thrives on clay loam in the open lowland 

and quickly establishes into a big clump.Widely planted in house gardens in Southeast Asia. 

27



Not available 

7.0 Reports on Medicinal Uses 


Not available 


The young inflorescence and sometimes the fruits are used as food flavourings. With 

the introduction of the plant, its traditional medicinal uses are also adopted. The juice of 

the young fruits is dropped into the ears to treat certain ear-aches. Decoction of the 

rhizome is used as an antiseptic for external wounds. The flowers are sometimes 

included in the herbal bath for a mother after childbirth. 


Not available 




Resources. 

28


1.0 Scientific Name : Languas galanga stuntz 

Synonym : Alpinia galanga (L.)Willd. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Languas, lengkuas (Brunei Darussalam, Indonesia Malaysia); 

galangal (English) 


A perennial herb with pseudostem, up to 2.2 m high, and thick underground rhizomes. Leaves 

alternately arranged in two rows, oblong-elliptic, up to 45 cm x 12 cm with short petioles; margins 

ciliated with a thin light green marking all around; stipule brownish green marking all around; 

stipule brownish green with patches of vicious hairs. Inflorescences in terminal panicles, corolla 

tube, up to 10 cm long and divides into 3 petals, each 1.9 cm x 1.6 cm; lip, up to 2 cm, with 2 deep 

limbs, white with red streaks. Fruits round, up to 1.4 cm and orange-red when ripe. 



Commonly planted in open areas in backyards. Widely distributed in all over Southeast Asian 

region. 

6.0 Chemical constituents 

Rhizome contains galangol which on distillation yields cineol, the latter responsible for the medicinal 

properties. Pinene and eugenol are also present. The amount of oil in the fresh rhizome was 

quoted at 0.04%. The decoction is warm and hot-tasting. 

29




Not available 


A decoction of the rhizomes and base of pseudostem is taken to cure stomach-ache, 

vomiting, diarrhea and indigestion. It is a common spice used in many local dishes. Some 

local herbalists regard the pseudostem as a useful aphrodisiac. 


Not available 




Resources. 

30


1.0 Scientific Name : Macaranga gigantea (Rchb. f. & Zoll.) M.A. 

Family : Euphorbiaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Mangkubong sedaman, merakubong, telinga gajah (Brunei 

Darussalam); mahang (Malaysia) 


A small to medium-sized tree, up to about 9 m tall, usually with straight trunk and dome-shaped 

crown. Bark smooth and grey. Wood soft and white. Leaves spiral and peltate; stipules 

papery and persistant; blade shallowly 3-lobed and without yellow granular gland, large to about 

40 cm across. Inflorescences axillary or behind the leaves; a raceme of clustered flowers; 

bracts minute apetalous with no disc; flowers dioecious, male flowers with sepals not overlapping, 

stamens free, anthers celled with no spitillode; female flowers with ovary chambered, styles 

unbranched. Fruit, a leathery capsule with rough skin which splits into 2 parts when mature to 

release many black seeds. 



Brunei Darussalam, Malaysia and Indonesia. Often found growing by roadside clearings, 

secondary forests and on wastelands. 


The root-bark contains tannin; kino glue comes from the sap and alkaloids from the fruit; the 

leaves and stem contain terpenoids. 

31




Not available 


The roots of a young tree are boiled and the resultant decoction is consumed to relieve 

diarrhea. The stem is cut and the fresh latex is carefully applied to sores on lips or mouth 

cavity. 


Not available 


Brunei Darussalam Agriculture Research Centre, Kilanas 1992. Medicinal Plants of Brunei 

Darussalam. Part II. Department of Agriculture, Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources. 

Burkill, I. H., 1996. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. 

Ministry of Agriculture and Co-operative, Kuala Lumpur, Vol. I & II. 

32


1.0 Scientific Name : Melastoma malabathricum L. 

Family : Melastomataceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Kuduk-kuduk (Brunei Darussalam); Senduduk (Malaysia) 


A rhizomatous perennial herb with pseudostems, up to 80 cm tall. Leaves 16–18, narrowly 

elliptic, up to 25 cm x 5.5 cm and glabrous. Inflorescences, a cylindrical spike from the rhizome, 

up to 16 cm long on an equal length of stalk; bracts overlapping, lower light green, upper red; 

flowers singly from bract-axil; calyx tubular, up to 2.5 long, spathaceous, 3-toothed, faint-yellow 

and translucent; corolla tube, up to 3 cm long, 3-lobed dosal lobe, up to 2 cm x 0.8 cm and curved 

over the anther; labellum dull purplish-yellow with yellow spots, and connected to the side lobes 

at half length; anther, up to 1cm long with a narrow beak-like appendage protruding 1 cm above 

and containing the style; ovary inferior. 

4.0 Propagation : Stem cutting and seed 


Commonly found growing on wasteland, along roadsides and in orchards. It thrives on most soils 

in direct sunlight, flowers and fruits readily and can be propagated from stem cuttings. This plant 

is widely distributed. 


Not available 

33




Not available 


The decoction of the twig mixed with 7–10 herbs is used in herbal baths after childbirth to 

revitalize the body system. The fresh petals are used to rub on dried wounds in order to 

accelerate healing and to reduce permanent scaring. 


Not available 




Resources. 

34


1.0 Scientific Name : Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miquel 

Family : Lamiaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Janggut kucing, misai kucing (Brunei Darussalam) 


A tender herb, up to about 1 m tall with squarish ascending stems. Leaves opposite, broadly 

elliptic, crenate, up to 7 cm x 3.5 cm with both surfaces pubescent, petioles, up to 2 cm long. 

Inflorescence in terminal raceme, up to 10 cm long, sepals 5, corolla white-coloured, 2-lips, 

upper-lip with 4 limbs, lower-lip narrow, stamens 4 with styles protruding 6 cm long resembling 

cat’s whiskers. 


The plant thrives well in moist, sandy loam soil with some shade. 

5.0 Propagation : Stem 


The herb is sweet and mildly bitter. No information on the constituents of this plant has been 

found. 



Not available 

35



A decoction of the leaves mixed with Nagella sativa (fennel flower, black cummin) and 

Allium cepa (onion) is taken orally after meals to control diabetes. For children, honey 

may be added to the decoction. 


Not available 




Resources. 

36


1.0 Scientific Name : Portulaca oleracea L. 

Family : Portulaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Lingiruh (Brunei) 

3.0 Physical description 

An annual and often with fleshy purplish red stems, old stems decumbent,up to 7 mm thick and 

50 cm long. Leaves opposite or in whorls, lamina near spatulate, to 2 cm x 1.2 cm and glabrous. 

Inflorescence at stem terminal, in tight bunch of several flowers; bracts 4 and very thin; sepals 

2 and green; petals 5, up to 4 mm long and yellow; ovary half-superior. Fruits capsular and 

containing many black, 1 mm thick seeds. 



Commonly found growing on moist fertile soils as weeds in vegetable gardens and along sides of 

drains. 


The whole herb contains cyanophoric constituent, fats, vitamins, alkaloid, antraquinone, glycosides, 

cardiac glycosides, coumarins and flavones and norepinephrine. The leaf has essential oil. 



Not available 

37



The whole herb is boiled and eaten to relieve high blood pressure. It is often consumed 

as a vegetable. 


Not available 




Resources. 

38


1.0 Scientific Name : Zingiber aromaticum Valeton 


2.0 Vernacular Name : Lempuyang (Brunei) 


A shrub, up to 2 m tall with squarish and often reddish stems; young bark rough with small bristly 

scales; old bark dark brown-coloured with netlike markings. Leaves opposite, narrowly elliptic, 

up to 9 cm x 2 cm, surface scurfy with 3 distinct ribs and 2 less prominent outer ribs. Flowers at 

stem terminals on short stalks; bracts 3, red with a green tinge, up to 1.5 cm x 1.0 cm; calyx 

reddish green, hairy with 5 sepals; petals 5, maroon-coloured, up to 2.5 cm x 1.5 cm; stamens 

10; style protruding and pink-coloured. Fruits with numerous small seeds embedded in purplish 

pulp. 



Often grown in gardens and house compounds. It thrives on sandy loam and alluvial soils in full 

sunlight and flowers in September. Widely planted in house gardens in Southeast Asia. 


Other related species contain camphene, zingiberene, essential oils and many volatile oils in their 

rhizomes. It is likely that Z. aromaticum has similar constituents. 



Not available 

39



The rhizomes are boiled and the resultant decoction is used as a herbal bath after childbirth. 

The leaves are warmed over a fire and wrapped around the joints of the limbs to relieve 

pain due to arthritis. 


Not available 




Resources. 

40

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Aegle marmelos (L.) Correa ex. Roxb. 

Family : Rutaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Phnov, golden apple, bael fruit tree, bengal quince, bel 


Tree, 10–15 m high. The leaves are trifoliolate and alternate. The leaflets are elliptic or lanceolateovate, 

2–7 cm wide and 4–13 cm long with inflorescence in terminal or axillary raceme. The 

aromatic flowers are greenish white on the inner side and green on the outer side. The orangecoloured 

fruits are fleshy and globose or ellipsoid with a hard pericarp. The flesh is reddish, with 

numerous seeds covered in a gummy layer. The taste is mucilaginous and slightly acidic. 



The plant grows wild throughout the forests and domestically around Buddhist monasteries for 

its fruits in Cambodia. 

6.0 Chemical Constituent 

Coumarins, including xanthotoxol and alloimperatorin methyl ether, flavonoids, rutin and marmesin. 

The alkaloids include á-fargarine(=allocryptopine), O-isopentenylhalfordinol, O-methylhafordinol 

and essential oils. 



Recent investigations have shown that the coumarins present may have potential antiulcer 

properties. 

43



Parts used are bark, rood, leaves, dried, unripe and ripe fruit. 

Medicinal properties include stomachic, digestive and astringent activity. Infusion of the 

dried unripe fruit is reputedly used as an antidiarrhoeal, antidysenteric, antifungal and 

antimicrobial. The ripe fruits possess laxative properties and promote digestion. Juice 

from the crushed leave is reported to relieve bronchitis. The common preparation is a 

liquid extract, with a dose of 4–8 ml. Infusion of the dried leaves also reputedly possesses 

hypoglycaemic properties. Recent investigations have shown that the coumarins present 

may have potential antiulcer properties. 


Not available 


Banerji, N., Maiti, M., Sem, S. & Datta, P.C. 1982. Pharmacognosy of Aegle marmelos (L.) 

Correa seed. A new protein source. Acta. Pharm. Hung. 52(3): Pp. 97–101. 

Goel, R.K., Maiti, R.N., Manickam, M. & Ray, A.B. 1997. Anti-ulcer activity of naturally occurring 

pyrano-coumarin and isocoumarins and their effect on prostanoid synthesis using human colonic 

mucosa (Aegle marmelos). Indian J .Exp. Biol. 35(10): Pp. 1080–1083. 

Karunanayake, E.H., Welihinda, J., Sirimanne, S.R. & Sinnadorai, G. 1984. Oral hypoglycaemic 

activity of some medicinal plants of Sri Lanka (Aegle marmelos). J. Ethnopharmacol. 11(2): 

Pp. 223–231. 

Kham, L. 2004. Medicinal Plants of Cambodia. Select Books Pte. Ltd., Australia. Pp. 19– 

20. 

44

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex. Lecomte 

Family : Thymelaeaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Daem chan kroessnaa, agar wood (English) 


Tree, 30–40 m tall. Leaves are alternate and the flowers are scented. Burnt wood also gives off 

a characteristic fragrance. 



Mostly found in Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia in primary and secondary forest. 


Volatile oil, baimuxinol and baimuxinic acid 

7.0 Report on Medicinal Usage 


Not available 


In traditional Cambodian medicine, the wood is mixed with other drugs and used against 

malaria. Another variety called A. sinensis is used in medicine for its active principles 

baimuxol and dehydrobaimuxinol. 

45



Not available 


Kham, L. 2004. Medicinal Plants of Cambodia. Select Books Pte. Ltd., Australia. 63 pp. 

Okugawa, H., Ueda, R., Matsumoto, K., Kawanishi, K. & Kato, A. 1993. Effects of agar wood 

(Aquilaria crassna) extracts on the central nervous system. Planta Med. 59(1):Pp. 32–36. 

Yang, J.S. & Chen, Y.W. 1986. [Studies on the chemical constituents of Aquilaria sinensis 

(Lour.) Gilg. II. Isolation and structure of baimuxol and dehydrobaimuxinol]. Yao Xue Xue Bao 

21(7): Pp. 516–620. 

Yang, J.S. & Chen, Y.W. 1983. [Studies on the constituents of Aquilaria sinensis (Lour.) Gilg. 

I. Isolation and structure elucidation of two new sesquiterpenes, baimuxinal]. Yao Xue Xue 

Bao 18(3): Pp. 191–198. 

Yang, J.S., Wang, Y.L. & Su, Y.L. 1990. [Studies on the chemical constituents of Aquilaria 

sinensis (Lour.) Gilg. V. Isolation and characterisation of three 2-(2-phenylethyl) chromone 

derivatives]. Yao Xue Xue Bao 25(3): Pp. 186–190. 

Yang, J.S., Wang, Y.L. & Su, Y.L. 1989. [Studies on the chemical constituents of Aquilaria 

sinensis (Lour.) Gilg. IV. Isolation and characterisation of 2-(2-enylethyl) chromone derivatives]. 

Yao Xue Xue Bao 24(9): Pp. 678–683. 

46

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Caesalpinia sappan L. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Sbaeng, sappan wood 


A small tree, 7–10 m tall, trunk and branchlets spiny. Leaves are bipinnate compound. Flowers 

are yellow, young flowering branchlets densely covered with ferruginous pubescence. The fruits 

are flat, oblong and woody pods, each with a pointed tip. 



This species is naturally distributed in tropical Asia. In Cambodia, it is sparsely found at forest 

edges, or in secondary forests and around villages. Also grown in many mountainous provinces 

in the northern part of Lao PDR, especially in Luangprabang, at the altitude of at least 800 ft. 


Brasillin, brasillenin hydrocyanic acid, ocimene, saponin, shikimic acid, tannin 



Not available 

47



The heartwood is used to treat haemostasis, bruises and diarrhea. It is generally given to 

women after labour. A decoction of the wood is used in many Asian countries to treat 

problems related to blood, because of its red colour. 


Not available 


Dy Phon Pauline. 2000. Plants Used in Cambodia. Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Pp. 218–219. 

National Center of Traditional Medicine. 1999. List of Medicinal Plants in Cambodia. Phnom 

Penh, Cambodia. 

48

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Cananga latifolia (Finet & Gapnep.) 

Family : Annonaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Chhke sreng 


A branchy shrub, 8–15 m tall. The bark is grey with white inner portion. The leaves are ovate, 

denticulate and alternate. The fragrant flowers are sometimes used to make necklaces. Shortlasting 

wood, used for temporary structures. 

4.0 Propagation : Plant cutting and seed 


It is native to Cambodia and grows near clear and semi-dense forests. 


Polyphenol glycosides 



Amoebicidal activity has been investigated from extracts of this plant. 


Infusion of the wood is considered a febrifuge. The bark forms one of the components of 

a remedy against dizziness. The scrapings from the wood are reputedly smoked to treat 

49


allergic rhinitis. Cananga latifolia is one the three main herbs that are used in combination 

with Zeylamica for the treatment of tuberculosis. Amoebicidal activity has been investigated 

from extracts of C. latifolia. 


Not available 


Chu, D.M., Miles, H., Toney, D., Nguyen, C. & Marciano Cabral, F. 1998. Amoebicidal activity 

of plant extracts from Southeast Asia on Acanthamoeba spp. (Cananga latifolia). Parasitol. 

Res. 84(9): Pp. 746–752. 

Kham, L. 2004. Medicinal Plants of Cambodia. Select Books Pte. Ltd., Australia. Pp.117– 

118. 

Wood, S.H., Reynolds, M.C., Sun, N.J., Cassady, J.M. & Snapka, R.M. 1997. Inhibition of 

topoisomerase II by liriodenine (Cananga latifolia). Biochem. Pharmacol. 54 (4): Pp. 467– 

473. 

50

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Capparis micracantha DC. 

Family : Capparaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Kanchee baaydaac 


2–3 m tall bush with thorny ends. The green leaves are lanceolate with an acute apex, 10–20 cm 

long and 5–7 cm wide. The barriers are oval and 2–3 cm wide with numcrous seeds. The 

berries are edible. 



This species grows in the open forests of Cambodia. 


Alkaloids and â-carotene 



Not available 


Roasted seeds are infused and taken against coughs. Infusion of the roots is used as a 

diuretic. Leaf mixed with other medicinal plant leaves is used for body steam-bath. Young 

stem or branch is used to cure polyps of the nose caused by smoking or drinking. 

51



Not available 


Chaturvedi, Y. & Nagar, R. 2001. Levels of â-carotene and effects of processing of selected 

fruits (Capparis micracantha) and vegetables of the arid zone of India. Plant Food. Hum. 

Nutr. 56(2): Pp. 127–132. 

Dy Phon Pauline. 2000. Plants Used in Cambodia. Phnom Penh, Cambodia. 286 pp. 

Guan,R.J., Zheng, J.M., Hu, Z. & Wang, D.C. 2000. Crystallization and preliminary X-ray 

analysis of the thermostable sweet protein mabinlin II (Capparis micracantha). Acta. Crys. 

D. Biol. Crystall. 56(Pt.7): Pp. 918–919. 

Jankowski, W.J. & Chojnacki, T. 1991. Long chain polyisoprenoid alcohols in leaves of Capparis 

species. Acta. Biochim. Pol. 38(2): Pp. 265–276. 




52

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Cassia alata L. 

Family : Caesalpiniaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Danghet, ringworm cassia 


A small shrub, about 1–2 m tall. The leaves are simple pinnate alternate with leaflets oblong or 

obovate. The flowers are orange. Fruits are black pods with two broad wings. 



Originating in tropical American, it is now widespread in Southeast Asian countries and cultivated 

near houses for ornamental and for utilitarian purposes in Cambodia. In Lao PDR, it can be 

found in all parts of the country, with an increasing frequency southwards, especially in 

Champasack province. 


Anthraquinone, chrysarobini, cinnamaldehyde, decanal, hydrocyanic acid, ricinoleic acid, saponin 



Not available 


In traditional Cambodian medicine, the crushed leaves are mixed with quicklime and 

water to treat sores and eczemas. The plant is toxic, commonly used to treat ringworm. 

53



Not available 


Dy Phon Pauline. 2000. Plants Used in Cambodia. Phnom Penh, Cambodia. Pp. 137–138. 



54

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Combretum quadrangulare Kurz 

Family : Combretaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Sanke 


Tree, 2–10 m tall. The branchlets are acutely quadrangular or very narrowly quadrialate. The 

leaves are simple, opposite, obovate, 3–8 cm wide and 6–15 cm long. The flowers are small, 

yellowish to white. The fruits are thinly quadrialate with brownish-red seeds. The leaves, dried 

and well spread under mattress or mast, are used as cigarette paper. The plant may host lacquer 

insects, which produces lacquer-gum, a natural dye for silk. 



The plant grows in deforested regions, and is common along riversides and banks of paddy 

fields throughout Cambodia. 


Triterpenes, tannin, combretol, daucosterol 



Recent studies have investigated possible hepatoprotective properties from the triterpenes 

present. 

55



In traditional Cambodian medicine, the fruits are used to remove ascaris. The bark is part 

of an ointment used to bandage ulcerations. Veterinarians reputedly use it as tonic for 

oxen and horses. The seeds are reputedly used as an anthelmintic for roundworms and 

threadworms in children. The leaves are used to relieve muscular pains. Recent studies 

have investigated possible hepatoprotective properties from the triterpenes present. 


Not available 


Adnyana, I.K., Tezuka, Y., Banskota, A.H., Tran, K.Q. & Kadota, S. 2001. Three new triterpenes 

from the seeds of Combretum quadrangulare and their hepatoprotective activity. J. Nat. 

Prod. 64(3): Pp. 360–363. 

Banskota, A.H., Tezuka, Y., Tran, K.Q., Tanaka, K., Saiki, I. & Kadota, S. 2000. Methyl 

quadrangularates A- D and related triterpenes from Combretum quadrangulare. Chem. Pharm. 

Bull. (Tokyo) 48(4): Pp.496–504. 


176. 

McGaw, L.J., Rabe, T., Sparg, S.G., Jager, A.K., Eloff, J.N. & van Staden, J. 2001. An 

investigation on the biological activity of Combretum species. J. Ethnopharmacol. 75(1): Pp.45– 

50. 

56

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Coscinium usitatum Pierre 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Voa romiet thom; yellow vine (English) 


Large climbing liana, often climbing on rocks or large trees up to 40 m high. The leaves are 

green, alternate and hairy underneath. The flowers are bright red and found in clusters. Incision 

of the trunk of the tree is bright yellow with a very bitter taste. 



Native to Cambodia, it is distributed thoroughly Pursat, Siem Reap, Kampot and Koh Kong 

provinces. 


Alkaloids, mainly berberine 

7.0 Report on Medicinal Usage: 


This plant reportedly contains analgesic and antipyretic properties. The antiinflammatory 

effect of berberine was confirmed through subcutaneous injection. Results showed a 

dose-dependant relationship against inflammation. Coscinium usitanum is also reputedly 

used as an antihypertensive agent in a dose-dependant manner. In Cambodia, the 

commercial extraction of berberine from C. usitanum is well documented, making the 

species rare. 

57



All parts can be used. The plant is used to stop dysentery by drinking the decoction 

obtained by boiling with water. 


Not available 



181. 

Singh, G.B., Singh, S., Bani, S. & Malhotra, S. 1990. Hypotensive action of Coscinium 

fenestratum stem extracts. J. Ethnopharmacol. 30(2): Pp. 151–155. 

58

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Bratiel preah a*kool, kranchura, kachura, shati, sati; round 

zedoary (English) 


Herb, 1–2 m tall, with long sheathing leaves at the bottom, 30–60 cm long and 7–8 cm wide, red 

spotted along the median vein. The flowers are red or yellowish white, generally appearing 

before the leaves. The rhizomes are larger than C. longa and are yellow. 



The plant is cultivated in Cambodia as a decorative plant. 


Essential oils with cineol, borneol, d-camphor, camphene and d-á-pinene as the main constituents. 

A bitter soft resin, organic acids, gum, starch, sugar, curcumin arabins, albuminoids, crude fiber, 

curcumemone, curcumol, curdioneand sesquiterpens are also present. 



Rhizome and leaves 

59



The roots are useful for flatulence and dyspepsia. In cases of cold and fevers, treatment 

is given in a decoction together with long pepper, cinnamon, liquorice and honey or sugar 

candy to relieve coughs and bronchitis. The pounded root is combined with alum and is 

applied to bruises. Fresh roots dispel leucorrhoeal and gonorrheal discharges. The dry 

root powdered and mixed with the powdered wood of Caesalpinia sappan makes the 

red powder called abir, which is mixed with water. For worms, the juice from the tubers 

is given to children. Curcuma zedoaria is used similarly as ginger to relieve indigestion, 

nausea and bloating and generally improves digestion. Studies have shown anticancer, 

antifungal and antiinflammatory activities in plant extracts. Dried grind bulb is used to 

increase human power and cure illness. It is boiled as tea or soaked in white wine before 

drinking or mixed with honey to make into tablets for swallowing. 


Not available 



Gupta, S.K., Banerjee, A.B. & Achari, B. 1976. Isolation of ethyl p-methoxycinnamate, the 

major antifungal principle of Curcuma zedoaria. Loydia. 39(4): Pp. 218–222. 

Jang, M.K., Sohn, D.H. & Ryu, J.H. 2001. A curcuminoide and sesquiterpenes as inhibitors of 

macrophage TNF-alpha release from Curcuma zedoaria. Planta. Med. 67(6): Pp. 550–552. 

Kham, L. 2004. Medicinal Plants of Cambodi. Select Books Pte. Ltd., Australia. Pp. 195– 

196. 

Kim, K.I., Kim, J.W., Hong, B.S., Shin, D.H., Cho, H.Y., Kim, H.K. & Yang, H.C. 2000. 

Antitumor, genotoxicity and anticlastogenic activities of polysaccharide from Curcuma zedoaria. 

Mol. Cells. 10(4): Pp. 392–398. 

Latif, M.A., Morris, T.R., Miah, A.H., Hewitt, D. & Ford, J.E. 1979. Toxicity of shoti (Indian 

arrowroot: Curcuma zedoaria) for rats and chicks. Br. J. Nutr. 41(4):Pp.57–63. 

National Center of Traditional Medicine, 1999. List of Medicinal Plants in Cambodia. Phnom 


Syu, W.J., Shen, C.C., Don, M.J., Ou, J.C., Lee, G.H. & Sun, C.M. 1998. Cytotoxicity of 

curcuminoids and some novel compounds from Curcuma zedoaria. J. Nat. Prod. 61(12): Pp. 

1531–1534. 

Yoshioka, T., Fujii, E., Endo, M., Wada, K., Tokunaga, Y., Shiba, N., Hohsho, H., Shibuya, H. & 

Muraki, T. 1998. Anti-inflammatory potency of dehydrocurdione, a zedoary-derived sesquiterpene 

(Curcuma zedoaria). Inflamm. Res. 47(12): Pp. 476–481. 

60

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Dracaena cambodiana Pierre ex Gagnep. 

Family : Dracaenaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : A*ree daek 


Shrub, 2–3 m tall. The leaves are slender spikes radiating from a central axis with an aerial 

inflorescence. The fruits are red and round with one seed. It is cultivated mainly indoors for its 

leaves grouped in bundles; the staples of the mature leaves are used to weave hammocks. 



Found in dense forests, especially in the mountain regions of Cambodia, mainly on Bokor mountain, 

especially on the calciferous rocks in Kampot province. 


1,2,4,5-tetrachloro-3,6-dimethoxy-benzene, docosyl acohol, octadecyl acetate, eicosyl acetate, 

resveratrol, 4-7-dihydroxy-flavone and saponins 



Stalks 

61



In traditional Cambodian medicine, the stalks are cut, macerated in alcohol and used as 

blood purifier for arthritic and joint pains. The recommended dosage is an infusion of 8– 

12 grams of the bark taken up three times daily. 


Not available 


Bruck, M. 1999. [Dragon’s blood (Dracaena species). A glance into the history of 

phamacognosy]. Bull. Soc. Sci. Med. Grand Duche. Luxemb. 1: Pp. 96–101. 



Miller, L.R. & Murashige, T. 1976. Tissue culture propagation of tropical foliage plants (Dracaena 

cambodiana). In vitro 12(12): Pp. 797–813. 



Nong, X. 1997. [Hemostatic effect of Dracaena cochinensis (Lour.) S.C. Chen]. Zhongguo 

Zhong Yao Za Zhi 22(4): Pp. 240–243, 256. 

Okunji, C.O., Iwu, M.M., Jackson, J.E. & Tally, J.D. 1996. Biological activity of saponins from 

two Dracaena species. Adv. Exp. Med. Biol. 404: Pp.415–428. 

Tang. R., Wen, D., Wei, H. & Bi, N. 1995. [Constituents of the petroleum ether and ethyl 

acetate extract fractions from Dracaena cochinensis (Lour.) S.C. Chem]. Zhongguo Zhong 

Yao Za Zhi 20(7): Pp. 421–423, 448. 

Wei, H., Wen, D., Liu, X. & Tang, R. 1998. [Constituents in petroleum ether and ethyl acetate 

extract fractions of Dracaena cochinensis (Lour.) S.C. Chen.]. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za 

Zhi 23(10): Pp. 616–618, 640. 

62

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Eurycoma longifolia Jack 

Family : Simaroubaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Antung sa; eurycoma (English) 


A shrub, 2–5 meters tall unbranched, leaves up to 100 cm long, leaflets lanceolate to obovatelanceolate 

5–20 cm X 1.5–6 cm, flower bisexual or unisexual, fruits 10–17 mm X 5–12 mm. 



This shrub is common in understorey primary and secondary forests on a wide range of soils 

and locally abundant throughout tropical Southeast Asia. 

6.0 Chemical Constituent 

Eurycomanol, quassianoids, cytotoxic 



Bark, fruit, seed, root 


In Cambodian traditional medicine, the barks are used to treat digestive troubles, the 

fruits are antidysenteric, ans the roots are used as antidote against drunkenness. The 

roots are used to increase human, power taken by boiling or soaking in white wine before 

drinking. 

63



Not available 


Dy Phon Pauline. 2000. Plants used in Cambodia. Phnom Penh, Cambodia. 286 pp. 


Locher, C.P., Burch, M.T., Mower, H.F., Berestecky, J., Davis, H., Van Poel, B., Lasure, A., 

Vanden Berghe, D.A. & Vlietinch, A.J. 1995. Anti-microbial activity and anti-complement activity 

of extracts obtained from selected Hawaiian medicinal plants (Psychotria reversii.). J. 

Ethnopharmacol. 49(1): Pp. 23–32. 



64

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Hopea odorata Roxb. 

Family : Dipterocarpaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Kokii 


Tree, 20–35 m tall with small ovate leaves. The durable wood is much in demand for the 

construction of ships and houses. It is used especially to make Cambodian pirogues. 



Grows in dense forests and is often cultivated along the avenues in some major provinces in 

Cambodia. It is occasionally found around Buddhist monasteries, due to its large shading properties. 


Tannins and resins 



Not available 


The bark, rich in tannins, is used to treat diarrhea. It may also replace areca nut in betel 

liquid. It forms part of a remedy in the treatment of inflamed gums and incontinence. In 

powdered form, it is a popular styptic. Bark is used for curing dysentery or held in the 

mouth to cure toothache. 

65



Not available 


Dy Phon Pauline. 2000. Plants Used in Cambodia. Phnom Penh. 286 pp. 


292. 

66

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Hydnocarpus anthelminthicus Pierre ex Laness. 

Family : Flacourtiaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Krabav plae thum, chaulmoogra tree 


Tree, 7–30 m tall. The leaves are simple, alternate and oblong. The flowers, solitary or short 

inflorescence, are reddish purple. The edible fruits are globose berries with a thick pericarp 

covered with brownish hairs. The wood is yellow-reddish, resistant and not affected by insects. 

The oil expressed has been used for illumination and in the manufacture of soap. There are 

approximately 30–40 seeds in a pod. 



Native to Cambodia, this tree grows in dense forest on sandy and rocky soils near water, especially 

in Kampot province. 


Cyclopentenylglycine, cyclopentenyl fatty acids and hydnocapric acid 



The seeds yield an oil which is reputedly used in the treatment of leprosy, dermatitis and 

tuberculosis. The bark is reportedly effective against incontinence and is also used as an 

antibacterial agent. 

67



The oil is used in the treatment of rheumatism, sprains, bruises and chest complaints. 

Stem and bark are used to treat women after finishing their menstrual flow. 


Not available 


Desai, A.C. & Bhide, M.B. 1977. Hynocarpus oil as an antileprotic agent in footpad technique. 

Lepr. India 49(3): Pp. 154–158. 



294. 



Oommen, S.t., Rao, M. & Raju, C.V. 1999. Effect of oil of hynocarpus on wound healing. Int. 

J. Other. Mycobact. 67(2): Pp. 154–158. 

Oommen, S.T. 2000. The effect of oil of hynocarpus on excision wounds. Int. J. Lepr. Other. 

Mycobact. 68(1): Pp. 69–70. 

Spener, F., Staba, E.J. & Mangold, H.K. 1974. Lipids in plant tissue cultures. II. Unusual fatty 

acids in lipids of Hydnocarpus anthelminthica. Chem. Phys. Lipids 12(4): Pp. 344–350. 

68

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Melastoma sanguineum Pav. ex D. Don 

Family : Melastomaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Riec dãas 


Branchy shrub, 1–2 m tall. The leaves are hairy, oblong and alternate. The flowers are dark 

pink. 



It grows all over the country, especially on wastelands. 


Unknown 



Roots and leaves 


In traditional Cambodian medicine, the roots are given as an infusion in cases of dizziness 

and vertigo. It is also a constituent of a remedy for the treatment of hepatic diseases such 

as jaundice. Another species, M. malabathricum L., has been used for indigestion and 

nervous disorder and in hemorrhoids. 

69



Not available 


Alen, Y., Nakajima, S., Nitoda, T., Baba, N., Kanzaki, H. & Kawazu, K. 2000. Antinematodal 

activity of some tropical rainforest plants (Melastoma sanguineum) against the pinewood 

nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. Z. Naturforsch [C]. 55(3–4): Pp. 295–299. 





Sharma, H.K., Chhangte, L. & Dolui, A.K. 2001. Traditional medicinal plants (Melastoma 

sanguineum) in Mizoram, India. Fitoterapia 72(2): Pp. 146–161. 

70

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Melodorum fruticosum Lour. 


2.0 Vernacular Name : Rumduel 


Tree, up to 8 m high. The leaves are simple, alternate, oblong-lanceolate, 2–3 cm wide and 7–15 

cm long. The flowers are solitary, axillary, pale yellow and fragrant. The fruits are aggregate 

and edible. The black berries when ripe, grow in bunches. 



This plant grows wild in dry regions or on top of hills, especially in Siem Reap province. The 

flowering season is around March to April. 


Essential oils and bioactive heptenes. 



Not available 


The dried flowers are considered a general tonic, particularly a cardiac tonic. It is also 

reputedly used to treat faintness. The stem is used to cure mothers after childbirth. It is 

taken by boiling or soaking in white wine before drinking. 

71



Not available 




345. 

Jung, J.H., Chang, C.J., Smith, D.L., McLaughlin, J.L., Pummangura, S., Chaichantipyuth, C. & 

Patarapanich, C. 1991. Additional bioactive heptenes from Melodorum fruticosum. J. Nat. 

Prod. 54(2): Pp. 500–505. 



72

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Phyllanthus emblica L. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Kantuat prey, Indian gooseberry, emblic myrobalan (English) 


Tree, 2–8 meters tall. The leaves are simple, alternate, oblong, 0.25–0.5 cm wide and 0.8–1.2 

cm long. The inflorescence is in fascicle with staminate clusters at base and pistillate flowers 

upwards. The acidic fruits, rich in vitamin C, are eaten either fresh or as a condiment. Eaten 

fresh, they have a sweet taste. The bark, leaves and fruits give a yellow dye. 



This plant grows in the clear forests of Cambodia. It is found abundantly in Kompong Speu 

province and the southeastern province of Cambodia on the hillsides, especially in Mondol Kiri 

province. 


Polyphenols including gallic acid, phyllemblin, emblicol, chebulagic acid, emblican A and B and 

querectin, organic acids, cytokinins, fatty acids, arachidic acid and behenic acid 



The leaves of P. emblica have inhibitory activity on polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMN) 

and platelets, which supports the antiinflammatory and antipyretic properties of this plant. 

73



The fresh fruit is used for inflammatory conditions of the pubic region, lungs and eyes. A 

paste of the fruit is reputedly effective when applied over the irritable bladder in urinary 

retention problem and to the forehead in cephalgia. The fruit possesses expectorant, 

diuretic, antidiarrhoeal, antipyretic, and antiscurvic activities. The fruit is also carminative 

and stomachic. 


Not available 


Bandyopadhyay, S.K., Pakrashi, S. & Pakrashi, A. 2000. The role of antioxidant activity of 

Phyllanthus emblica fruits on prevention from indomethecin induced gastric ulcer [short 

communication]. J. Ethnopharmacol. 70(2): Pp. 171–176. 

Ghosh, A., Sharma, A. & Talukder, G. 1992. Relative protection given by extract of Phyllanthus 

emlica fruit and a equivalent amount of vitamin C against a known clastogen-caesium chloride. 

Food. Chem. Toxicol. 30(10): Pp. 865–869. 

Ithantola Vormisto, A., Summanen, J., Kankaanranta, H., Vuorela, H., Asmawi, Z.M. & Moilanen, 

E. 1997. Anti-inflammatory activity of extracts from leaves of Phyllanthus emblica. Planta 

Med. 63(6): Pp. 518–524. 


401. 

74

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Plumeria alba L. 

Family : Apocynaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Champy saa, kshira, champaka, white frangipani 


The white flowers form part of ritual offering to the deities; necklaces are sometimes made to 

decorate coffins. They are also edible, under the form of fritters. 



Introduced into Cambodia, it is often cultivated as a decorative plant, especially around Buddhist 

monasteries. 


Alkaloids and glycosides 



Studies conducted have shown potential antiviral properties. 


The heart of the wood is used as a vermifuge. The plant’s milky bark is applied as a 

plaster over hard tumours and used to dispel indolent swellings. Internally, the root and 

bark are strong purgatives and used as laxatives. The stem, bark and flower are used to 

75


cure fever and to stop dysentery. It is boiled before drinking. Its resin mixed with coconut 

oil is used to cure wounds. 


Not available 


Dy Phon Pauline. 2000. Plants Used in Cambodia, Phnom Penh, Cambodia. 286 pp. 

Hamburger, M.O., Cordell, G.A. & Ruangrungsi, N. 1991. Traditional medicinal plants of Thailand. 

XVII. Biological active constituents of Plumeria alba. J. Ethnopharmacol. 33(3): Pp. 289– 

292. 




414. 

Radford, D.J., Gillies, A.D., Hind, J.A. & Duffy, P. 1986. Naturally occurring cardiac glycosides 

(Plumeria alba). Med. J. Aust. 144(10):Pp. 540–544. 

Tan, G.T., Pezzuto, J.M., Kinghorn, A.D. & Hughes, S.H. 1991. Evaluation of natural products 

as inhibitors of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) reverse transcriptase (Plumeria 

alba). J. Nat. Prod. 5491: Pp. 143–154. 

76

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Syzygium jambos (L.) Alston 

Family : Myrtaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Chumpuu saa, jambu; rose apple (English) 


Small branchy tree, 6–15 m tall. 



This species is cultivated in Cambodia for its edible fruits. It is found most abundantly in Kandal 

province, Phnom Penh. 


Phenolic glycosides and tannins. 



Leaves and bark extracts of S. jambos showed antibacterial activities. 


In Cambodian the juice yielded by macerating the leaves is reputedly antipyretic and 

antimicrobial. The pulverized leaves are rubbed on the body in cases of smallpox. 

77



Not available 


Djipa, C.D., Delmee, M. & Quertin L. J. 2000. Antimicrobial activity of bark extracts of Syzygium 

jambos (L.). Alston (Mytraceae). J. Ethnophamacol. 71(1–2): Pp. 307–313. 


Frame, A.D., Rios Olivares, E., De Jesus, L., Ortiz, D., Pagan, J. & Mendez, S. 1998. Plants 

(Syzygium jambos) from Puerto Rico with anti-mycobacterium tuberculosis. P.R. Health. 

Sci. J. 17(3): Pp. 243–252. 


Teixeira, C.C., Rava, C.A., Mallman da Silva, P., Melchior, R., Argenta, R., Anselmi, F., Almeida, 

C.R. & Fuch, F.D. 2000. Absence of antihyperglycemic effect of jambolan (Syzygium jambos) 

in experimental and clinical models. J. Ethnophamacol. 71(1-2): Pp.343–347. 

78

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Terminalia chebula Retz. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Sraamaa, chebulic myrobolan 


Tree with a grayish bark, 15–20 m tall. The leaves are simple, opposite or subopposite, elliptic, 

6–10 cm wide and 8–10 cm long. Inflorescence is axillary or terminal, raceme, bisexual with 

yellow flowers. Fruit fleshy, ovoid, 5-ribbed. The bitter black fruits are eaten raw with roasted 

fish. The fruits are 1–3 cm long. The wood is in much demand for cabinetwork and construction. 

The bark produces a gum and tannins used to dye fishing nets. 



This plant grows in the dense deciduous forests of Cambodia and is cultivated for its fruits. 


Triterpenoid glycosides including chebulosides I and II, argunin, arjunglucoside, 2a-hydroxyursolic 

acid and 2a-hydroxymicromiric acid, tannins chebulic acid, ellagic acid and gallic acid. Punicalin, 

terflavins A, B, C and D, maslinic acid, synergic acid, terchebulin I, ß- sitosterol, anthraquinones 

and fixed oils are also present. 



The leaves are used against diarrhea in children. The dose of the dried powder of the fruit 

is 1–6 grams per day. The infusion, 56–112 ml, is taken daily. 

79



The tannin and anthraquinone constituents in the green fruits make the fruits both astringent 

and cathartic which are often used as laxative. They are also reputedly carminative, 

deobstruent, antibacterial, expectorant and a remedy for salivation and heartburn. The 

green fruits are also used as purgative. The dry green fruits are infused as tea to increase 

appetite. 


Not available 


Jagtap, A.G. & Karkera, S.G. 1999. Potential of the aqueous extract of Terminalia chebula as 

an anticaries agent. [Short communication]. J. Ethnopharmacol. 68(1-3): Pp.299–306. 

Joshi, A.R. & Joshi, K. 2000. Indigenous knowledge and uses of medicinal plants (Terminalia 

chbula) by local communities of the Kali Gandaki Watershed Area, Nepal. J. Ethnopharmacol. 

73(1–2): Pp. 175–183. 


486. 

80

CAMBODIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Terminalia triptera Stapf. 


2.0 Vernacular Name : Preah phnov 


A large deciduous tree, up to 10–30 m in height. Bark grayish, with white and black speckles, 

many lenticels and spines. Leaves opposite or subopposite ovate or lanceolate, 5–12 cm long 

and 2–4 cm wide. Flowers abundant, minute, white-yellow, slightly fragrant, tetramerous. Fruit 

3 winged, wing thin, bright green, 2.5 cm long and 1.7–1.9 cm wide. 



This plant grows wild in the dense forests, especially along the coastal provinces of Cambodia. 


Tannins, especially catchintannic acid and phlobaphene 



During 1970, one of the manufacturers, Angkor Laboratories, produced an elixir of T. 

triptera phnov, which has a comparable effect to the elixir paregoriqe. 

81



The bark is used as astringent and may replace areca nut to chew betel. In traditional 

Cambodian medicine, the bark has reportedly been used as a decoction or infusion to 

treat dysentery. In combination with other ingredients, it is reputedly an effective remedy 

for diarrhea. 


Not available 


Fyhrquist, P., Mwasumbi, L., Haeggstrom, C.A., Vuorela, H., Hiltunen, R. & Vuorela, P. 2002. 

Ethnobotanical and antimicrobial investigation on some species of Terminalia and Combretum 

(Combretaceae) growing in Tanzania. J. Ethnopharmacol. 79(2): Pp.169–177. 


Munasinghe, J., T.C., Seneviratne, C.K., Thabrew, M.I. & Abeysekera, A.M. 2001. Antiradical 

and antilipoprotective effects of some plants extracts (Terminalia triptera) used by Sri Lankan 

tradition medical practitioners for cardioprotection. Phytother. Res. 15(6): Pp. 519–523. 

Saleem, A., Ahotupa, M. & Pihlaja, K. 2001. Total phenolic concentration and antioxidant potential 

of extracts of medicinal plants of Pakistan (Terminalia triptera). Z. Naturforsch. [C]. 56(11– 

12): Pp. 973–978. 

82

INDONESIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Acorus calamus L. 

Family : Acoraceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Sweet flag, sweet root, calamus (English); dringo (general); 

daringo (Sundanese-Indonesia); dringo (Javanese-Indonesia); 

jerango (Sumatra-Indonesia) 


A perennial glabrous herb up to 150 cm tall; rhizome creeping, extensively branched, up to 3 cm 

in diameter, pale yellowish to pinkish brown outside, whitish and sometimes slightly pinkish 

inside. Leaves erect, linear ensiform, with obliquely acuminate apex, distinct midrib and numerous 

parallel veins, glossy green, often reddish toward base and aromatic. Inflorescence arises from 

rhizome, erect, with a cylindrical straight or slightly curved spadix up to 10 cm long. Flowers 

densely arranged on a spadix, bisexual. Fruits a 2–3 celled berry, few seeded, reddish. Seeds 

ellipsoid. 

4.0 Propagation : Rhizome (vegetative part) 


Sweet flag is probably native to China and India. In the Malesian region, it is considered 

naturalized, not truly wild. It is found in many parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea 

and locally in the Philippines, and outside Malesia in Indo-China and Thailand. 


The rhizome contains pale yellow to pale brown essential oil. Major chemical constituents are 

phenylpropanes, monoterpenes, and thermolabile sesquiterpenoids. The major volatile components 

in the oil include â-asarone, (cis-isoasarone), methyleugenol, cis-methylisoeugenol, geranylacetate, 

â-farnese, shyobunone, epishyobunone, isoshyobunone, calamusenone and acorenone. 

85




Not available 


The rhizomes are usually used externally to treat inflammation, rheumatism, lumbago and 

skin diseases and after child birth, are used as part of “jamu”. Also known to be antibacteria, 

analgesic, antidepressant, diuretic and antipyretic. 

8.0 Contraindication 

Not available 


Darmawan, E., Maryanto & Katno. 2003. Aktivitas anti-inflamasi minyak atisir daun dringo 

(Acorus calamus L.) hasil budidaya basah dan hasil pengeringan pada tikus jantan putih. 

Prosiding Seminar Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia 23. Jakarta, 25–26 March 2003. 

Dharma, A.P. 1985. Tanaman Obat Tradisional Indonesia. PN Balai Pustaka, Jakarta. 291 

pp. 

Ika, Y.A. & Diniatik. 2003. Efek anti-depresi ekstrak methanol rimpang dringo (Acorus calamus 

L.) terhadap mencit (Mus muculus) galus Swiss dan uji fitokimianya. Prosiding Seminar 

Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia 23. Jakarta, 25–26 March 2003. 

Kloppenburg-Versteegh, J. 1983. Petunjuk Lengkap Mengenai Tanaman-Tanaman di 

Indonesia dan Khasiatnya Sebagai Obat-Obatan Tradisionil. Yayasan Dana Sejahtera 

dan CD R.S. Bethesda, Yogyakarta. 199 pp. 

Mardisiswoyo, M. & Rajakmangunsudarso, H. 1985. Cabe Puyang Warisan Nenek Moyang. 

PN Balai Pustaka, Jakarta. 129 pp. 

Nuratmi, B., Adjirni & Tri Wahyuni L. 2003. Efek anti-diare jus rimpang dringo (Acorus calamus 

L.) pada tikus putih. Prosiding Seminar Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia 23. Jakarta, 25–26 

March 2003. 

Rakhmawati, E., Widowati, L.E. & Teguh Setiawan, W. 2003. Uji efek dan potensi analgetik 

ekstrak air dringo (Acorus calamus L.) dengan metode induksi termal. Prosiding Seminar 

Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia 23. Jakarta, 25–26 March 2003. 

86

INDONESIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. 


2.0 Vernacular Name : Lidah buaya (Malaysia, Indonesia) 


Succulent shrubby perennial, often with very short stem and fleshy fibrous roots. Leaves arranged 

spirally in a rosette, sometimes distichous, linear to lanceolate or triangular, very thick and fleshy, 

sheathing at the base margins, entire; surface sometimes spiny, containing colourless sap. 

Inflorescence a pseudo-lateral, simple or branches, long-cylindrical raceme. Flowers bisexual, 

protandrous, pedicillate; sepals usually connate into a tube, sometimes outer 3 free, fleshy, apices 

acute to obtuse; stamens 6, in two rows of three; ovary superior, 3-locular, style filiform, longer 

than stamens; stigma small. Fruit a loculicidal capsule, many seeded. Seeds elongate and ovoid, 

grey or black, arillate. 

4.0 Propagation 

It can be propagated vegetatively through sucker offsets or cutting, or by seed. Micropropagation 

through invitro culture of vegetative meristems as well as invitro regeneration of leaf base 

explants appears to be possible. 


Approximately 330 species of Aloe vera originated from Africa, Madagascar and Arabia, and 

over 100 species are cultivated. All Malaysian Aloe vera have been introduced and are popular 

garden and pot plants. Aloe vera was formerly produced in Barbados, where it had been introduced 

early in the 16th century. Nowadays, it is cultivated widely and commercially in Malaysia, 

Indonesia, Thailand, the United States, the Caribbeans, Australia, and other regions. 

87



Aloe leaf juice contains a pyrone derivative (aloenine) and resins, free and 8-C-glucosylated-2- 

acetonyl-7-hydroxy-5-methylchromones. The aloe drug contains 15-40% aloe-emodin-athrone 

10-C-glucosides (hydroxy-anthraquinone derivatives) such as aloin, hydroxyaloins and aloinoside. 



Aloe gel has proven effective in the treatment of skin burns by X-ray radiation. 

7.2 Uses in traditional medicine 

Aloe juice is used to make the laxative drug known as aloe, aloes or bitter aloes. Aloe gel, 

the mucigel from polyhedral cells is claimed to have healing properties. Aloe vera gel has 

gained popularity as a folk remedy worldwide. 


Not available 


Aguilar, N. O. & Brink, M. 1992. Aloe L. In De Padua, L. S., Bunyapraphatsara, N. and 

Lemmens, R.H.M.J. (Eds). Medicinal and Poisonous Plants 1. Plant Resources of South- 

East Asia No. 12(1): PROSEA, Bogor, Indonesia. 

Grindlay, D. & Reynolds, T. 1986. The Aloe vera phenomenon: A review of the properties and 

modern uses of the leaf parenchyma gel. J. of Ethnopharmacol. 16(2-3):117–151. 

Hodge, H. 1953. The drug aloes of commerce, with special reference to the Cape species. 

Economic Botany 7:99–129. 

88

INDONESIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Arcangelisia flava Merr. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Yellow fruited moonseed (English); akar kuning, tali kuning 

(general); ki koneng (Sundanese-Indonesia); sirawan (Javanese- 

Indonesia); daun bulan (Moluccas-Indonesia) 


A large, woody, glabrous, dioecious liana up to 20 m long. Stem up to 5 cm in diameter; wood 

yellow, exuding yellow sap when cut. Leaves usually ovate, coriaceous palmately 5-veined at 

the base. Petioles swollen at both ends, stipulate absent. Inflorescence axillary or cauliflorous, 

paniculate, slender, 10–50 cm long; lateral branches spicate to subspicate. Flowers unisexual 

with 3–4 outer sepals and 6 large inner sepals; petals absent; male flower subsessile with a 

sessile globose cluster of 9–12 anthers; female flowers with 3 carples and a number of staminodes. 

Fruits are slightly laterally compressed; drupe transversely subovoid, 2–3 cm in diameter; yellow 

with a club-shaped stalk; endocarp woody, covered with a dense mat of radial fibres. Seeds 

broadly ellipsoidal with ruminate endosperm, cotyledons much folded. 

4.0 Propagation : Seed or stem cutting 


Yellow fruited moonseed occurs up to 1000 m, in seaside, riverbanks, or in secondary forests. 

It is widely distributed from China, Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, Sumatra, Java, 

Borneo, Sulawesi, Moluccas to the Philippines. 


Main stem contains alkaloids such as berberine, columbamine, jatrorrhizine, palmatine, shobakunine, 

dehydrocorydalmine, 8-hidroxyberberine, thalifendine, (-) RR limacine, (+) R,S homoaromaline 

and pycnarrhine. Seeds contain saponin. 


7.1 Uses support by experimental /clinical data: 

Not available 

7.2 Uses described in traditional medicine: 

The stems are used to treat sprue, stomach problem and jaundice. In Sumatra, local 

people use the plant as aphrodisiac, and for treatment of rheumatism and broken bones. 


Not available 

89



Departemen Kesehatan. 1999. Inventaris Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia (5). Badan Penelitian 

dan Pengembangan Kesehatan, Jakarta. 

Hernani. 2001. Akar kuning. In: Supriadi (ed.) Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia: Penggunaan 

dan Khasiatnya. Pustaka Populer Obor, Jakarta. Pp. 6–8. 

Kloppenburg-Versteegh. J. 1983. Petunjuk Lengkap Mengenai Tanaman-Tanaman di 

Indonesia dan Khasiatnya Sebagai Obat-Obatan Tradisionil. Yayasan Dana Sejahtera 

dan CD R.S. Bethesda, Yogyakarta. 199 pp. 

Mandia, E.H., Ridsdale, C.E., Horsten, S.F.A.J & Aguinaldo, A.M. 1999. Arcangelisia flava 

(L.) Merr. In: de Padua, L.S., N. Bunyapraphatsara and R.H.M.J Lemmens (Eds.) Plant 

Resources of Southeast Asia 12(1) Medicinal and Poisonous plants (1). Prosea, Bogor, 

Indonesia. Pp. 129–132. 



90

INDONESIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Centella asiatica L. Urb. 

Family : Apiaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Daun kaki kuda, pegagan, antanan (Indonesia); pegaga 

(Malaysia), asiatic pennywort (English) 


A small perennial herb, creeping with long stolons (up to 2.5 m long), rooting at the nodes, young 

parts more or less puberulous. Leaves in rosettes, simple, lamina orbicular-reniform, 1–7 cm in 

diameter; regularly crenate or crenate dentate, palmately veined, subglabrous; petiole 1–50 cm 

long, glabrous to puberulous, broadening at the base into a leaf-sheath; stipules absent. 


Can be easily propagated vegetatively by runners, which root on the nodes, although reproduction 

by seed is possible. It often regenerates from fragments of stems buried in the soil during 

hoeing. 


Centella comprises approximately 40 species. Found abundantly in South Africa, C. asiatica is 

a pantropical and distributed in Southeast Asia and in some subtropical regions. Pegaga occurs 

in sunny or slightly shaded, fertile soils (preferring sandy loams with much organic matter) up to 

2,500 m above sea-level. 


Triterpenoid compounds, such as asiaticoside, madecasoside, asiatic acid and madecassic acid 

91



7.1 Uses support by experimental /clinical data: 

Not available 


Asiatic pennywort has been used for a wide range of complaints, but the most important 

use is in skin-related diseases. The leaf extract is used effectively in the treatment of 

keloids, leg ulcers, phlebitis, slow-healing wounds, scleroderma, lupus, leprosy, surgical 

lesions, striae distensae, cellulitis and aphthae. Purified extracts are known to accelerate 

cicatrizing and skin grafting. It has also been known as a medicinal plant with tonic and 

cooling properties. Orally, the extract is indicated to relieve the symptoms of nervous and 

lymphatic vessel insufficiency, and used to treat atonic wounds and for hypertrophy. 

Asiatic pennywort is a relished vegetable in many Southeast Asian countries. The slightly 

bitter leaves are eaten raw or cooked. 


Not available 


Buwalda, P. 1949. Umbelliferae. In van Steenis, C.G.G.J. (Eds): Flora Malesiana. Series 1 

Vol. 4. Noordhoff-Kolff N. V., Djakarta, Indonesia. 

Hargono, D. P., Lestari, Y., Astuti & van den Bergh M. H. 1999. Centella asiatica. (L.) Urb. 

In L. S. De Padua, N. Bunyapraphatsara and R.H.M.J. Lemmens (Eds). Plant Resources of 

South-East Asia No. 12(1): Medicinal and Poisonous Plants 1. PROSEA, Bogor, Indonesia. 

92

INDONESIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Curcuma mangga Valeton & Zijp 


2.0 Vernacular Name : Temu mangga (Indonesia, Malaysia) 


A herb with branched rhizome, yellowish outside, top white inside lemon-coloured to sulphuryellow 

with a white outer layer. Leaf-sheaths 30–65 cm long; blades elliptical-oblong to oblongoblanceolate, 

15–95 cm x 5–23 cm, green; inflorescence on a separate shoot; bract green, coma 

bracts white at base, purple toward the top; corolla 3–4 cm long, white; labellum 15–25 mm x 

14–18 mm; white with a yellow median band; other staminodes longitudinally folded, white; 

anther with long, narrow spurs. 



Southeast Asia, cultivated in Indonesia and Malaysia 


Not available 


7.1 Uses support by experimental/clinical data: 

Not available 

93



The rhizomes are used to treat fever and chewed by women to strengthen the womb 

after childbirth. The starch of the rhizome is recommended by traditional healers to treat 

abdominal illness. Curcuma mangga is also edible. 


Not available 


Burkill, I. H. 1966. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. Ministry 

of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 

Sara, N. & R.H.M.J. Lemmens (Eds.). 1994. Medicinal and Poisonous Plants 1. Plant 

Resources of Southeast Asia 12(1): PROSEA Bogor, Indonesia. 

Valeton, T. 1918. New notes on the Zingiberaceae of Java and Malayan Archipelago. Bulletin 

du Jardin Botanique de Buitezorg. 27:57–61. 

94

INDONESIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Curcuma zedoaria Rosc. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Temu putih (general); koneng tegal (Sundanese-Indonesia) 


A herb with branched rhizome, outside grey, inside pale yellowish to bright yellow; leaf-sheaths 

35–60 cm long; blades oblong to oblong lanceolate, 25–75 cm x 7–20 cm, green with a purple 

band along the midrib; bract green or green with a purple margin, some bracts purple or dark 

pink; corolla 3.5–4.5 cm long, yellowish-white with a darker yellow median band; other stamidones 

longitudinally folded, yellowish-white; anthers with long spurs. 



Temu putih is found in various shady, damp localities on various soils but prefers well-drained 

sandy soils, up to 1,000 m above sea level. It is widely distributed in South Asia, Southeast Asia 

to China and Taiwan. 


Rhizome of C. zedoaria contains essential oil with cineol, borneol, d-camphor, camphene, and 

d-á-pinene. 



Water extract inhibits the growth of mouse L5178Y leukaemia cells in a dose dependantmanner. 

95


7.2 Uses in traditional medicines: 

Uses described in folk medicine are not supported by experimental or clinical data: The 

plant is believed to repair blood circulation,act as stimulant, stomachic, increase appetite, 

and to be anticancer, diuretic, carminative, antidiarrhoeal, antiemetic antipyretic and 

depurative. 


Not available 


Darwis, S.N., Indo, M. & Hasiyah, S. 1992. Tumbuhan obat famili Zingiberaceae. Seri 

Pengembangan Tanaman Perkebunan, No. 17. Puslitbangtri, Bogor. 

Hadad, E.A. & Noviyanti, R. 2001. Temuputih (Curcuma zedoaria). In: Supriadi (Ed.) 

Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia: Penggunaan dan Khasiatnya. Pustaka Populer Obor, Jakarta. 

Hutapea, J.R. 1993. Inventaris Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia (2). Departemen Kesehatan, 

Jakarta. 

Kardinan, A. & Taryono. Tanaman Obat Penggempur Kanker. Agromedika Pustaka, 

Jakarta. 


Indonesia dan Khasiatnya sebagai Obat-Obatan Tradisionil. Yayasan Dana Sejahtera 

dan CD R.S Bethesda, Yogyakarta. 199 pp. 

Makhmud, A.I. & Tobo, F. 2002. Isolasi dan karakterisasi komponen kimia ekstrak rimpang 

temu putih (Curcuma zedoaria). Prosiding Seminar Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia 21. 

Surabaya, March 2002. 

Nuratmi, B., Nugrobo, Y.A. & Sundari, D. 2002. Efek antidiare jus temu putih dan temu 

mangga pada tikus putih. Prosiding Seminar Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia 21. Surabaya, 

March 2002. 

Sunardi. 2002. Studi aktivitas anti mikroba minyak atsiri dari rimpang Kaempferia rotunda, 

Curcum zedoaria dan Curcuma mangga. Prosiding Seminar Tumbuhan Obat Indonesia 

21. Surabaya, March 2002. 

Wardini, T.H. & Prakoso, B. 1999. Curcuma zedoaria (Christm.) Roscoe. In: de Padua, L.S., 

N. Bunyapraphatsara and R.H.M.J Lemmens (Eds.) Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 

12(1) Medicinal and Poisonous plants (1). Pp. 218–219. Prosea, Bogor, Indonesia. 

96

INDONESIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Justicia gendarussa Burm.f. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Gandarusa (general); besi-besi (Aceh), kawo (Seram) 


Shrub up to 150 cm tall; young twig usually dark purple; leaves linear lanceolate, 5–20 cm x 1– 

3.5 cm, with up to 1 cm petiole; inflorescence a spike, bracts lanceolate, about 4 mm long; 

flowers 1.5–2 cm long, white with purplish streaks and spots inside. Fruit clavate to ellipsoid, 

about 1.3 cm long, glabrous. 

4.0 Propagation : Seed and cutting 


Pakistan, India, Sri Lanka, Indo-China, Thailand, Peninsular Malaya, Jawa, the Moluccas and 

the Philippines. It is naturally found in forests, forest borders and on river banks in Java, up to 

1,500 m altitude. 


The leaves contain four simple o-disubstitute aromatic amines: 2-amino benzyl alcohol, 2-(2’amino 

berzylamino) benzyl alcohol and their respective O-methyl esters, also â-sitosterol. 



Not available 


The leaves are used to treat headache, rheumatism and pain. 


Not available 



Indonesia dan Khasiatnya sebagai Obat-Obatan Tradisionil. Yayasan Dana Sejahtera 

dan CD R.S.Bethesda, Yogyakarta. 199 pp. 

97


Sangat-Roemantyo, H. 1999. Justica gendarussa. In: de Padua, L.S., N. Bunyapraphatsara 

and R.H.M.J Lemmens (Eds.) Plant Resources of Southeast Asia 12(1) Medicinal and 

Poisonous Plants (1). Prosea, Bogor, Indonesia. 

Wijayakusuma, H., Wirian, A.S., Yaputra, T., Dalimartha, S. & Wibowo, B. 1996. Tanaman 

berkhasiat obat di Indonesia. Fifth edition. Pustaka Kartini, Bandung. 44 pp. 

98

INDONESIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Morinda citrifolia L. 

Family : Rubiaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Mengkudu (Malaysia); pace (Javanese-Indonesia), cengkudu 

(Sundanese-Indonesia) 


Morinda citrifolia grows to 5 m in height, with a short trunk and a head ovoid in outline; it bears 

ellipsoid fruits of a greyish transparent white, in appearance anything but appetizing, and in 

flavour as of soap and sugar mixed, with a smell like decaying cheese. Apparently in Indo-China 

it is eaten with salt. It is common in gardens throughout Indonesia and Malaysia. 

4.0 Propagation : Morinda.citrifolia can be propagated by seed. It grows well 

in well-tilled soil. 


Morinda citrifolia is a native of Queensland (Australia). It may have been distributed by man 

and carried westwards into the Indian Ocean by sea currents, reaching the Pacific between 

30ºN and 30ºS altitude, into the Marquesas, Hawaii and Easter Islands. It is present through 

Southeast Asia both wild and cultivated. It often occurs wild in coastal zones. It is naturalized in 

the Caribbean region and cultivated in villages throughout Southeast Asia and Malaysia. Mengkudu 

is commonly found up to altitude of 1,500 m in humid and seasonal climates of the region. 


The basis of the morindone dyeing matter, called Turkish red, is the hydrolyzed (red) form of the 

glycoside morindine. This is the most abundant anthraquinone which is mainly found in the root 

bark which reaches a concentration of 0.25–0.5% in fresh bark in 3–5 years. It is similar to that 

found in Rubia tinctorum and to synthetic alizarin. The curative properties of the plant parts 

99


are ascribed to the presence of medicinally active anthraquinone derivatives. The fruit contains 

rancid smelling capric acid and unpleasant tasting caprilic acid. It is though that antibiotically 

active compounds are present. The leaves are a rich source of vitamin A. 

7.0 Report on Medical Usage 


Not available 


The overripe fruit is stated to be used as an emmenagogue both in Indonesia, Malaysia, 

and in Indo-China. In the Medical Book of Malayan Medicine, the juice is recommended 

for leucorrhea and sapraemia. It is also recommended by the Rumpt for dysuria and the 

fruit for diabetes. The fruit is sometimes used internally in various preparations for swollen 

spleen, liver disease, beri-beri, haemorrhage and coughs. It is also reported that in Java 

the ripe fruits are taken and their seeds removed, the pulp mashed with sugar and drunk, 

as a slightly laxative preparation. 


Not available 


Abbot, I. A. & Shimazu, C. 1985. The geographic origin of plants most commonly used for 

medicine by Hawaiians. Journal of Ethnopharmacology. 14(2/3):213–222. 

Groenendijk, J. J. 1992. Morinda citrifolia L. Pp. 94–96 in: Plant Resources of Southeast 

Asia 3: Dye and Tannin-producing Plants. PROSEA Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. 

Hidayat, E. Morinda citrifolia L. and its special use as a traditional drug. Bulletin Kebun 

Raya. 3(4):141–144. 

100

INDONESIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Orthosiphon aristatus (Blume) Miq. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Java tea (English); kumis kucing (general); kumis kucing 

(Sundanese-Indonesia), remuk jung (Javanese-Indonesia) 


A perennial herb, up to 2 m tall with quadrangular, poorly ramified ascending stem. Leaves 

decussately opposite, ovate or rhombic cuneate at base acute or acuminate at apex; serrate 

glabrous or minutely pubescens, grandular punctuate petiole 0.5–2 (–4.5) cm long. Flowers 

pedicellate calyx 2.5–4.5 mm long, bilabiate, gland-dotted; corolla 10–20 mm long, tubular, bilabiate, 

white or pale lilac; stamens 4, long-protruding from the corolla tube; ovary superior, style long 

protruding, slender, with enlarged, club-shaped and shallowly cleft stigma. Fruits splitting into 4 

oblong-ovoid nutlets, 1.5–2 mm long, brownish, rugose. 



Java tea is distributed in India, Indo-China, Thailand, through Malaysia, Indonesia to Australia. 

It is grown in Southeast Asia, Africa, Georgia (Caucasus) and Cuba. In Indonesia it grows at 

100–1,200 m. 


Sinensetin, flavonol glycosides, caffeic acid derivatives (mainly rosmarinic acid and 2,3 dicaffeoyltartaric 

acid), inositol, phytosterols (â-sitosterol), saponins and about 0.7% essential oil 

101


7.0 Reports on Medical Usage 


Not available 


The leaves are used as diuretic and against various kidney complaints and illnesses, renal 

calculi, phosphaturic catarrh of the bladder, and gout. They are used in combination with 

other plant species (Sonchus and Sericoccalyx spp.) to stimulate the kidney and as a 

medicine for kidney stones. 


Not available 


Dharma, A.P. 1985. Tanaman Obat Tradisional Indonesia. PN Balai Pustaka, Jakarta. 291 

pp. 

Dzulkarnae, B., Widowati, L., Isnawati, A. & Thijssen, H.J.C. 1999. Orthosiphon aristatus 

(Blume) Miq. In: de Padua, L.S., N. Bunyapraphatsara and R.H.M.J Lemmens (Eds.) Plant 

Resources of Southeast Asia. 12(1) Medicinal and Poisonous plants (1). Pp. 368–371. 

Prosea, Bogor, Indonesia. 

Kloppenburg-Versteegh, J. 1983. Petunjuk lengkap mengenai tanaman-tanaman di 

Indonesia dan khasiatnya sebagai obat-obatan tradisionil. Yayasan Dana Sejahtera dan 

CD R.S.Bethesda, Yogyakarta. 199 pp. 



Wijayakusuma, H., Wirian, A.S., Yaputra, T., Dalimartha, S. & Wibowo. B. 1992. Tanaman 

berkhasiat obat di Indonesia. Fifth edition. Pustaka Kartini, Bandung. 44 pp. 

102

INDONESIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merrill 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Daun katuk (Indonesia); cekur manis (Malaysia) 


An erect, glabrous, perennial, monoecious shrub which can reach a height of 3.5 m, but is kept 

much lower in cultivation. Branches terete and flaccid, lateral ones at first tetragonous; with 

many small short-period leaves and persistent stipules. Leaves buseriate, alternate, oblong to 

orbicular, 1–7.5 cm x 1–3 cm, entire, glaucous, above dark green. Often with vague greyish 

spots, beneath light green. Inflorescence dense, and in branches, axillary, first producing one or 

a few female flowers, afterwards several male ones; flowers without corolla, but with more or 

less intensely red-coloured persistent calyx; calyx of the male flower disciform, 6–20 mm in 

diameter; stamens 3, connate; calyx of the female flower 6-cleft more than halfway down, lobe 

6–8 mm broad; stigma 3-branched, red, each branch bilobed. Fruit a globose to faintly 6-angular 

capsule, about 1.5 cm in diameter, white or purplish, dehiscing with 3 valves. 

4.0 Propagation : Seed and stem cutting 


The exact origin of Sauropus androgynus is unknown, but it occurs in Sri Lanka and India to 

southern China in Indo-China and throughout Southeast Asia, mainly cultivated, but also found 

wild. In Indonesia and Malaysia, Sauropus androgynus is cultivated from sea-level up to 1300 

m altitude, but it is most abundant at low elevation. 


Sauropus androgynus is a very nutritious vegetable with a higher protein content than most 

other leafy vegetables. Per 100 g edible leaf portion, it contains: water 79.8 g, protein 7.6 g, fat 

103


1.8 g, carbohydrates 6.9 g, fibre 1.9 g, vitamin A 10000 IU, vitamin B1 0.23 mg, vitamin B2 0.15 

mg, vitamin C 136 mg, Ca 234 mg, P 64 mg, and Fe 3.1 mg. 



Not available 


Sauropus androgynus is claimed to stimulate breast milk production. In Indonesia, 

especially in Java, the young leaves with the flowers or fruits are consumed raw as well 

as cooked. 


Not available 


Martin, F. W. & Ruberte, R. M. 1975. Edible Leaves of the Tropics. Antillian College 

Press, Mayaguez, Puerto Rico, United States. Pp. 35–37. 

Ochse, J. J. & Van Den Brink, R. C. B. 1980. Vegetables of the Dutch East Indies. 3rd 

English Edition. Asher and Co., Amsterdam. The Netherlands. Pp. 290–292. 

Van Den Bergh, M. H. 1994. Souropus androgynus (L.) Merriill. In Siemonsma J. S. and 

Piluek, K. (Eds). Plant Resources of South-East Asia No. 8: Vegetables. PROSEA 

Foundation, Bogor, Indonesia. Pp. 244–246. 

104

LAO PDR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Aegle marmelos (L.) Corrêa ex Roxb. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Bael tree, bel-fruit tree, Bengal quince, bilak, golden apple, Holy 

fruit, stone apple (English); marmelos de Bengal (French); bael, 

bel, sirphal (Hindu); phneau, pha-nong (Cambodia); mark toom 

(Lao PDR); kawista, maja, maja batu, maja gedang, maja ingus, 

maja kalepung, maja lumut, maja pait (Java-Indonesia); bila, 

bilak, bel (Malaysia); bilvam, sriphala (Sanskrit); kathan ta then, 

mapin, matum, tum (Thailand); trái m1m (Viet Nam) 


Bael tree is a small to moderate-sized tree, bark darkish grey, slightly corky, twigs having strong 

axillary thorn. Leaves alternate, 3-foliate. Flowers white, sweet scented. Fruit globose, yellowish 

grey, shell woody. Seeds numerous, oblong, compressed, with a wooly mucous testa, embedded 

in a clear mucilage and a mass of yellow sweet and agreeable aromatic mealy pulp. 

4.0 Propagation : Seed (vegetative part) 


Globally, A. marmelos is distributed in the Indo-Malaysian region. It grows sparsely in 

dipterocarpous forest in Lao PDR. It is also planted for its fruit for making drink. 


The fruit pulp possesses sugars and tannins. The seeds contain bitter oil. Marmolosine, 

cloramarmine and aegline are 7-Geranyloxy coumarine derivatives, and many lignane glycosides 

are isolated from the stem bark. Anthraquinone derivatives are also reported. The leaf contains 

contains essential oil having antifungal effect. 

107




Not available 


Lao indigenous medicine broadly uses different parts of A. marmelos for completing 

many traditional remedies. The ripe fruits are raw material for making normal tea; the tea 

has a delicious taste and an agreeable odour. 


Not available 


Krup, P. N. V. 1977. Hand Book of Medicinal Plants, Vol. 1. Research in Indian Medicine 

and Homoeopathy, New Delhi. 

Nang Sothy, Vu Ngoc Lo, Nguyen Xuan Dung, Nguyen Thanh Do. 1989. These de Doctorat 

en Pharmacie, Contribution a L’etude des Plantes Medicinales du Kampuchea, Avec 

Etude Chimique de Huit Plantes a Huiles Essentielles. Phaculte de Pharmacie de Ha 

Noi, Ha Noi. 

Vidal, J. 1956. Noms Vernaculaires des Plants (Lao, Meo, Kha) en Usage Au Lao PDR, 

Tame XLIX, Fascicule 2, Ecole Francaise D’ Extreme Orient, Paris. 

108

LAO PDR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Alstonia scholaris (L.) R. Br. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Tinpet (Lao PDR); pulai (Malaysia) 


Big evergreen tree about 10–20 m high with whorled branching. Bark thick, lenticellate, much 

fluted, greyish brown. Leaves ablong, rounded at the apex, 5–8 verticillate, but usually crowded 

at the end of branches, 8–15 long, 2.5–4.5 cm wide, shining dark green above, glaucous beneath, 

secondary nerves parallel. Flowering period, September–October. Fruiting period, November– 

March. 



The plant is widely found in the tropical regions of Asia. In Lao PDR, the plant is found in most 

parts of the country including the city. 


The bark contains ditaine, echitenine, echitamine (ditamine) and echitamidine. 



Not available 

109


7.2 Uses in traditional medicine 

In Lao PDR, the plant in the form of decoction and elixir is used to treat fever, coughs, 

diarrhea and dysentery. The bark is used to treat diabetes, stomach-ache, coughs, malaria 

and cold. The leaves are used in treating cold, diarrhea and consumed as tonic. 


Not available 


Bounhong Southavong et. al. 1993. The Medicines in Your Garden. Volume I. Research 

Institute of Medicinal Plants, Ministry of Public Health, Vientiane. 

Nanthavanh Bounyapraphat et al. Medicinal Plants of Thailand. Volume 2, Pp. 243, 2542. 

National Institute of Materia Medica, 1999. Selected Medicinal Plants in Viet Nam. Volume 

1. Science and Technology Publishing House, Ha Noi. 

Vasilalangsy, Chalune et al. 1985. Recipe of Traditional Medicine in Lao PDR. State Council 

of Science and Technology, Vientiane. 

Vidal, J. 1963. Premiere Partie Noms Vernaculaires – Noms Scientifique en Usage au 

Lao PDR. 

110

LAO PDR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Asparagus cochinchinensis Merr. 

Family : Asparagaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Cochinchinese asparagus; shiny asparagus (English), moeum 

sam seb (Cambodia), cheon-moon-dong (Korea), phark xee 

xang, ya nang xang (Lao PDR); thiên môn, tiên môn dông, tóc 

tiên leo (Viet Nam) 


Perennial scandent shrub with tuberous roots. Stems glabrous, spinous. Branchlets reduced to 

leaves (cladophyllus), falciform, angular. Flowers white, small, arising in the leaf-axils. Berry 

globose, pale green at first, finally white. Seeds black. 

4.0 Propagation : Seed (vegetative part) 


It grows wild among shrubs. In Lao PDR, it is found in Saravane province. 


The root contains asparagine, spirostanol saponin: asparacochinchinenside A; spirosteroids: 

asparacochinchinensins A and B, phenolic compounds: 3'-methoxy-asparenydiol and 3'-methoxynyasol, 

polysaccharide, methyl-protogracillin. 



Not available 

111



The roots are used for fever in the form of decoction. 


Not available 


Ð\ Huy Bích et al. Cây thu2c và Ð4ng v5t làm thu2c 6 Viet Nam. TAP I VA II 2, National 

Institute of Meteria Medica, Sciences and Technology (Vietnamese version). 

National Institute of Materia Medica, Ha Noi, Viet Nam 1999. Selected Medicinal Plants in 

Viet Nam. Volume 1. Le Van Truyen et al. (Eds.). Science and Technology Publishing House, 

Ha Noi. 


Tome XLIX, Fascicule 2, Ecole Francaise D’ Extreme Orient, Paris. 

112

LAO PDR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Caesalpinia sappan L. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Farng daeng (Lao PDR); sapan wood, bukkum wood, 

brasil-wood (English) 


There are 373 species belonging to the Caesalpinia genus; 4 species have been found in Lao 

PDR. Caesalpinia sappan, small tree, 5–10 m in height; stem bark prickly; young shoots 

tomentose; leaves pinate, leaflets glabrous, above, tomentose beneath. Inflorescence in terminal 

raceme; corolla 5-lobed, yellow; stamens 10; filaments tomentose at lower part. Pod ovoid, 

compressed with hard shell and sharp horn. Seeds 3-4, yellowish brown. 

4.0 Propagation : Not available 


Caesalpinia sappan grows in many mountainous provinces in the northern part of Lao PDR, 

especially in Luang Prabang province, at the altitude of at least 800 ft. It has been found in lowland 

area. 


The lignin of old plants consists of phenolic compounds. The most important active compounds 

are brasilin and sappanin. An essential oil (D-a-phellandrene, ocimene), gallic acid and saponosides 

are also present in this species. 

113


SAPPANIN 

BRASILIN 

7.0 Reports on medicinal usage 


The hardwood of C. sappan possesses antibacterial activities. It is used for treating 

many intestinal-related diseases caused by various bacteria such as Shigella dysenteriae, 

S. flexneri, Bacillus subtilis and Escherichia coli etc. It also shows haemeostatic and 

demulcent properties. 


Sappan wood is indicated for the treatment of diarrhoea, type of bacillary dysenteria, 

colic and hemorrhoides with a dose of 8–16 g per day. Recently, the Pharmaceutical 

Development Center (PDC) Ministry of Health of Lao PDR, produced 0.5 g tablets from 

the dry extract of sappan wood under the trade name Tanin. This tablet is used for the 

treatment of acute dysentery and diarrhoea. 

It is orally administrated for adults at a dose of two tablets per time, thrice a day. 

The decoction of sappan wood is used in post-partum, contusions, and blood stasis caused 

by trauma. It is also used for ameliorating blood flow and eliminating high blood pressure. 


Not available 


Index Kewensis, Kew Garden, London. 

Jeffrey, B. H. et al. 1993. Phytochemical Dictionary. Taylor & Francis, London. Pp. 542. 

National Institute of Materia Medica Ha Noi, Viet Nam. 1999. Selected Medicinal Plants in 


Ha Noi. Pp. 151–158. 

Vidal, J. 1959. Noms Vernaculaires des Plantes Lao, Meo, Kha. Ta. XLIX, Fascicule 2, 

Ecole Francaise D’ Extreme Orient, Paris. Pp. 570. 

114

LAO PDR 

1.0. Scientific Name : Calotropis gigantea (L.) (W. T. Aiton) 

Family : Asclepiadaceae 

2.0. Vernacular Names : Niujiaogua (China); crown flower, giant Indian milkweed, giant 

milkweed (English); asclepiade gigantesque, faux arbre de soie, 

mercure végétal (French); biduri, saduri, sidaguri widuri (Java- 

Indonesia); dok hack (Lao PDR); rembega, lembega, kayu 

(Malaysia); dok rak, pan thuean, po thuean (Thailand); b(ng 

b(ng, cây lá hen, nam t+ bà (Viet Nam) 

3.0. Plant Description 

Calotropis gigantea is a shrubby plant, stem woody, grows up to 3 m high. Leaves opposite, 

obovate, thick, sessile with the base clasping the stem, lobe clothed with fine cotton tomentum 

beneath. Inflorescence in axillary; flowers arranged in umbellate cyme, white; calyx, 5 sepals 

ovate; 5 stamens; ovary superior. The fruit is a swollen follicle, short and turn back. Seeds 

numerous with silky tuft of hair. 

4.0. Propagation : Stem (vegetative parts) 

5.0. Geographical Distribution/Ecology 

It is planted in Lao PDR in front of houses for their leaves and flowers for praying on ceremonial 

and wedding days and also for medicinal purposes. It is also found in other countries in Asia like 

Cambodia, India, Myanmar, Sri Lanka, Thailand and Viet Nam. It can be propagated by vegetative 

multiplication, planting the healthy cuttings at the beginning of rainy season. 

6.0. Chemical Constituents 

All parts of the plant contain white latex, rubber matter and resins. The latex comprises the 

esters valerianic and acetic of two alcohols, á and â-calotropeol. Cardioactive steroidic glycoside 

115


or cardenolides, namely calotropin, calactin and usharidin, are also reported. The roots contain 

of triterpenic saponines. 

7.0. Report on Medicinal Usage 

7.1. Uses supported by experimental/clinical data: 

Not available 

7.2. Uses in traditional medicine: 

The leaves and powder of the flower are used for coughs and asthma. 

8.0. Contraindications 

Not available 

9.0. Bibliography 





116

LAO PDR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Cassia alata L. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : KhyLeck (Lao PDR); gelenggang (Malaysia) 


Small shrub, about 1.5 m high or more; stem stout branches horizontally spreading, strait and 

minutely pubescent. Leaves paripinnate, big sized, alternate 30–40 cm long, leaflets 8–12 pair, 

rectangular or oval 5–13 cm long, 2.5–7 cm wide, increasing in size from the base, broadly 

rounded oblique at the base, glabrous on both sides; petiole slightly winged; stipule erect, acute, 

persistent; twigs and petioles usually reddish brown. Inflorescence in axillary and terminal erect 

spike 20–30 cm long, 3–4 cm wide; peduncle stout; bracts caduceus; flower yellow; sepals 5 

unequal; glabrous petals 5 oblong. Pod long, slightly compressed with winged margins 8–16 cm; 

seed numerous, rhombiform, black. Flowering and fruiting period: October–December. 



Cassia alata is one of the typical tropical plants, widespread in Southeast Asian countries. In 

Lao PDR, it can be found on both mid- and highlands in all parts of the country, with an increasing 

frequently southwards, especially in Champasack province. 


Anthraquinones, chrysophanol, aleo-emodin, thein and emodin. The total anthraquinones are 

0.2% in the leaf and 1.3% in the fruit, anthraquinone I and II were isolated from the root. 

117




The leaves have diuretic and anti-inflammatory action. The leaf extract, given orally, 

produces no effects on blood glucose in normoglycaemic rats, but lowers blood glucose in 

rats made hyperglycemic by streptozotocin. 


A combination of C. alata leaves with Combretum quadrangulare seeds is applied to 

treat ascariasis. The purgative action of C. alata leaves enhances the vermifuge effect 

of C. quadrangulare seeds, the rate of ascarid excretion attaining 50–60%. An ointment 

made from C. alata leaves has been tried for drug safety and fungicide activities. 

The stem bark is used to treat skin diseases, diarrhea, parasitic skin diseases, scabies, 

dehydration and hemorrhoids. Cassia alata is employed to treat constipation, oedema, 

hepatalgia and jaundice. Its external application cures ringworm, tinea imbricata (tokelau) 

and circinate herpes. The juice of crushed leaves is topically applied to washed and 

scaled infected parts. Crush fresh leaves can also be rubbed directly to diseased parts. 

For the therapy of constipation: C. alata 20 g, Rumex wallichii 20 g and rhubarb 4–6 g. 

Their decoction is given orally per day. 


Cassia alata is not advisable for pregnant women. 


1998. Medicinal Plants in the South Pacific. WHO Regional Publication. Western Pacific 

Series No. 19, Regional Office for the Western Pacific, Manila. 

Bounhong Southavong, Sisouk Vorlasing & Somsanith. 1993. The Medicines in Your Garden. 

Volume I, Research Institute of Medicinal Plants, Ministry of public Health, Vientiane. 

Nanthavanh Bounyapraphat. et al. Medicinal Plants of Thailand. Volume 2. Pp. 852, 2542. 

National Institute of Materia Medica. 1999. Selected Medicinal Plants in Viet Nam. Volume 

I, Science and Technology Publishing House, Ha Noi. 



Vidal, J. 1963. Premiere partie noms vernaculaires – noms scientifique en usage Au 

Lao PDR. 

118

LAO PDR 

1.0. Scientific Name : Codonopsis pilosa (Franch.) Nannf. 

Family : Campanulaceae 

2.0. Vernacular Names : Dangshen (China); man kha kay, mak Kon thuay (Lao PDR); 

=3ng sâm, =ông =3ng sâm, phong =3ng sâm (Viet Nam) 


Codonopsis pilosa is a slender perennial twining herb. Roots tuberous, cylindrical and yield 

milky juice. Leaves opposite; base cordate; apex acuminate; margins entire or denticulate or 

wavy. Flowers solitary at the leaf-axil; corolla campanulate, ivory yellow with violet-veined 

inside. Berry globose, violet, seeds numerous. 

4.0. Propagation : Seed 


Codonopsis pilosa is found in some provinces of the northern part of Lao PDR, especially 

abundant in Hua Phanh and Xieng Khuang provinces. It grows at the altitude of more than 1,000 

m above sea level, preferring to grow in the bedding grass fields in mountainous region. 


According to foreign literature, the roots of C. pilosa possess taraxerol, friedelin, n- 

butylallophanate and some micro-elements including K, Na, Ca, Mg, Fe, Cu, Co, Zn, Mn, Cr, 

Mo, Sn, Al and Sr. 



Not available 

119



Codonopsis pilosa is used for treating general debility, fatigue, anemia, jaundice, dyspepsia, 

diarrhoea, etc. 


Not available 





Tome XLIX, Fascicule 2, Ecole Francaise D’Extreme Orient, Paris. 

120

LAO PDR 

1.0. Scientific Name : Costus speciosus (Koenig) Sm. 

Family : Costaceae 

2.0. Vernacular Names : Pi-ch’iao-chiang (China); cane-reed, crape ginger, elegant 

costus, malay ginger, spiral flag (English); costus élégant 

(French); tabar-tabar, setawa, tawa-tawa (Indonesia), dok uong, 

uong Bon (Lao PDR); setawar, tawar, tawar-tawar, tawaga, 

stengteng, tenge (Malaysia); ueang chang, ueang mai na, ueang 

yai, ban dai sawan (Thailand); cát l(i, =8t =7ng, mia dò (Viet 

Nam) 


Costus speciosus is a herbaceous perennial plant, up to 2 m high. Rhizome stout, fleshy, creeping 

up to 50 cm long. Stem hollow, less-branched. Leaves alternate, have tubular sheaths, oblongovoid, 

apex acminate, young leaves are spiral. Inflorescence in terminal panicled spike; 

zygomorphic flowers supported by thick haired bracts, flowers white, large, fragrant. Fruit globose 

or ovoid capsules. Seeds obovoid or subglobose, black, with a narrow fleshy aril. 

4.0. Propagation 

Costus speciosus can be propagated both by replanting rhizome cuttings and transplanting 

seedlings. 


Costus speciosus is widely grown in Lao PDR. It is found also in other tropical countries. 

121



The rhizome of C. speciosus consists of steroid saponin, dioscin and gracillin, genines diosgenin 

and tigogenin. â-sitosterol glycoside and curcuminoid, curcumin are also reported. 



Not available 


The juice of the burnt fresh stem is used as an ear drop for healing otitis. 

The decoction of the rhizome of C. speciosus is used for crushing kidneys and bladder 

stones. It is used also as a cholagogue, antiamoebic and for antiinflammation. 


Not available 




National Institute of Materia Medica, Ha Noi, Viet Nam 1999. Selected Medicinal Plants in 


Ha Noi. 

Vidal, J. 1956. Noms Vernaculaires des Plants (Lao, Meo, Kha) en Usage Au Lao PDR. 


122

LAO PDR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Dioscorea persimilis Prain & Burk. 

Family : Dioscoreaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Manh kap (Lao PDR) 


Glabrous climber. Tuber single or paired, stout and slightly flat, with a round tip, resembling a 

gourd, 30–50 cm long or more, descending deep into the soil; stems glabrous, obscurely angular, 

sometimes purplish usually bearing axillary bulbils (aerial tubers). Leaves alternate or opposite, 

broadly ovate-cordate, 8–10 cm long, 6–8 m wide, apexacuminate; main nerves 5–7, radiating 

from the base; petiole 1.5–3.5 cm long. Inflorescence in axillary raceme; flowers small, yellow, 

unisexual, dioecious; perianth of 6 equal segments; stamen 6, male spike 40 cm long, female 

reaching 20 cm in length. Flowering period: May–July. Fruiting period: August–October. 

4.0 Propagation : Tuber 

5.0 Geographical Distibution/Ecology 

There are about 140 species identified worldwide, scattered mainly in tropical and sub-tropical 

regions. Dioscorea persimilis is found in Southeast Asia, South China and India. It is also 

common in the mountainous regions of Lao PDR and Viet Nam. This plant is regarded as food 

for the natives. It is hygrophilous and shade-tolerant. It usually climbs over different plants in 

secondary and limestone mountain forests at an altitude of up to 1,000 m. It grows vigorously in 

summer, withers in winter or in dry season and grows again in spring. Some varieties of Dioscorea 

have been cultivated in the northern part of Lao PDR for medicinal purposes. 

123



In addition to starch as the main component, the tuber contains mucin (a viscous protein), allantion, 

amino acids (arginine, choline) and maltase. Analysis of the tuber yields 63.25% starch, 0.45% 

lipids and 6.75% proteins. 



The hormonal activity of D. persimilis was studied in immature albino rats of both sexes. 


It acts as a tonic and is good for the spleen and stomach, and invigorates the lung and 

kidney. It is also useful for the treatment of dyspepsia, chronic enteritis, lientery, night 

sweating, polyuria, spermatorrhoea and metrorrhoea. As a tonic, it is used in the form of 

a decoction or powder, and given in combination with other plants. It also gives beneficial 

effects to children’s diseases such as ascariasis, emaciation, anorexia and nausea. 


Not available 


Bounhong Southavong et al. 1993. The Medicines in Your Garden. Volume I, Research 


National Institute of Materia Medica, 1999. Selected Medicinal Plants in Viet Nam. Volume 

1. Science and Technology Publishing House, Ha Noi. 



Vidal, J. 1963. Premiere Partie Noms Vernaculaires – Noms Scientifique en Usage au 

Lao PDR. 

124

LAO PDR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Eclipta prostrata (L.) L. 

Synonyms : Eclipta alba (L.) 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Dyer’s weed, dye-wed, false diasy, trailing eclipta, white eclipta, 

white heads, (English); éclipte droite (French); goman, urangaring 

(Java-Indonesia); smao khmanh (Cambodia); nha hom 

keo (Lao PDR); aghing-aghing, ari(ng)-aring, daun dakelin, 

dawah (Malaysia); bhingarajah, bhingaraj, tekarajah (Sanskrit/ 

Hindu); ka meng, hom kiao (Thailand); nh8 n(i, c9 m0c, h!n 

liên th"o (Viet Nam) 


Eclipta alba is slender, erect, prostrate, much branched, with rooted nodes. Leaves opposite, 

variable sessile linear, or oblong-lanceolate, narrowed at both ends, oppressed hairs on both 

sides. Inflorescence in axillary or terminal heads; flowers white; pappus 2–5, minute teeth, 

arches narrowly oblong, ribbed tipped with the pappus teeth. 



Eclipta alba grows wildly in wet land. It can be found almost everywhere in Lao PDR. It is 

found also in other Asian and Southeast Asian countries. 

125



The whole plant contains thiophen, including derivatives of diethienyl acetylenester, thienyl such 

as á-terthienyl, á-terthienyl-methanol, aldehyd, ecliptal. Organic acid, echinocystic acid, and 

wedelolactone are also found in the plant. 



Not available 


Lao traditional healers use E. alba to complete the following remedy for treating fever 

with convulsion: (1) fresh plant of Centella asiatica 50 g, (2) E. alba 50 g, (3) the roots 

of Strobilantes flaccidifolius (hom ban) 20 g and (4) the bark of Oroxylum indicum. 

All ingredients are thoroughly washed with clean water, adding 1 litre of clear water, 

grinding and filtering to get the juice. 


Not available 

9. 0 Bibliography 



National Institute of Materia Medica Ha Noi, Viet Nam 1999. Selected Medicinal Plants in 


Ha Noi. 



126

LAO PDR 

1.0. Scientific Name : Elephantopus scaber L. 


2.0. Vernacular Names : Didancao (China); prickly-leaved elephant’s foot (English); pied 

d’éléphant, herbe de jouissance (French); misumi-gusa (Japan); 

tapak gajah, tapak liman, tapak tana, tapak tangan, tutupbumi 

(Java-Indonesia); prakrap thom (Cambodia); khi fay nok khum 

(Lao PDR); berseh hitam, chapa, sebongbong, tapak babi, tapak 

sulaiman (Malaysia); gojiha, karipadam, satamulika (Sanskrit); 

do may ru lom, nat pha, ya fay nok khum (Thailand); cây th#i 

l%a, ch$ thiên, kh# =&a ="m, ti'n h( nam (Viet Nam) 


Elephantopus scaber is an erect, stout herb, 0.5–1.1 m high. Leaves radical forming a rosette 

on the ground 12–15 cm long, 5–6 cm broad, obovate oblong, rounded or subacute, coarsely 

serrate-dentate, hairy on both sides. Inflorescence in terminal and axillary heads. Flowers 

numerous clusters of heads surrounded at the base by 3 large stiff broadly ovate-cordate 

conspicuously nerved leafly bracts, flowers are violet. Fruits are pappus. 

4.0. Propagation : Seed (vegetative parts) 


Elephantopus scaber grows wildly in almost all provinces of Lao PDR. It is found in grass 

fields, growing alternately with other species of grass in abandoned land, along the roads and at 

the edges of rice fields. It strongly endures drought. It is found also in other countries of Indo- 

China, India and Himalaya 

127



According to some foreign references, the whole plant of E. scaber contains elephantine, 

elephantopin, deoxyelephantopin, iso-deoxyelephantopine, epifriedelanol, lupeolacetate, 

dotriacontan-ol. Recently, aurantiamide and crepiside E have been also isolated from the plant. 



Not available 


Elephantopus scaber is traditionally used for treating liver diseases and coughs. 


Not available 






128

LAO PDR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Eleutherine subaphylla Gagnep. 

Family : Iridaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Phak boua luad (Lao PDR) 


Perennial herb, 30–40 cm high. Bulb oblong-ovoid, about 5 cm long, 2.5–3 cm in diameter. 

Scale thin, brownish red. Leaves lanceolate, acute at both ends with numerous parallel nerves. 

Inflorescence in raceme arising from bulb, 20 cm long; bracts resembling leaves; flowers white 

long-pedicelled; sepals 3, thin linear; petals 3; stamens 3; anthers yellow; ovary obovoid, trigonous. 

4.0 Propagation : Bulb 


The plant originates from America and is now commonly grown in Indonesia, the Philippines 

and other Southeast Asian countries. It is also planted widely in Lao PDR for medicinal uses. 

Plants growing in gardens endure shade. It is adaptable to various climatic conditions except 

the cold in high mountainous areas. The plants often wither in winter, the bulbs remain in the 

ground and re-sprout in the next spring. Flowers bloom every year, but seeds have not been 

observed. 


The bulbs contain quinoid substances, eleutherine, isoeleutherine, and eleutherol. 

129




Extract with 40 alcohol of E. subaphylla markedly inhibits in vitro growth of various 

strains of Diplococcus pneumoniae, Streptococcus haemolyticus, Staphyloccoccus 

aureus and mildly depresses Shigella flexneri, S. dysenteriae, Bacillus anthracis 

and B. mycoides. The extract exerts beneficial effects for mild infectious diseases of the 

upper respiratory tract, especially when combined with Belamcanda chinensis extract. 


In Lao PDR, the plant in the form of decoction and bills is used to treat jaundice, gastritis 

ulcer, headache, and as a tonic. 


Not available. 


Bounhong Southavong et al. 1993. The Medicines in Your Garden. Volume I, Research 




Ha Noi. 



Vidal, J, 1963. Premiere Partie Noms Vernaculaires - Noms Scientifique en Usage au 

Lao PDR. 

130

LAO PDR 

1.0. Scientific Name : Euodia lepta L. 


2.0. Vernacular Names : San-ya-k’u (China); vôr anhor (Cambodia); khom la van jo, 

kok khao may (Lao PDR); andang, chabang tiga, medang 

ketimang, pepauh, setenggek (Malaysia); sam ngam (Thailand); 

cây d)u d1u, chè =7ng, ba g!c t7m gh- (Viet Nam) 


Euodia lepta is a woody shrub, 3–5 m in height. Stem erect, glabrous, less branched; stem bark 

yellowish white; young twigs covered with smooth hairs. Leaves alternate, three leaflets, leaflet 

lanceolate. Infloresence in terminal or axillary cyme; flowers small, white; folicles one seeded, 

seeds black, shining. 

4.0. Propagation : Seed 


Euodia lepta grows scarsely in secondary and dipterocarp forests. It is found in many provinces 

of Lao PDR, particularly in the northern part of the country. It is found also in the southern part 

of China, Viet Nam, Cambodia, in most parts of peninsula Malaysia and India. 


The roots of E. lepta contain alkaloids: edulinine, isoplatydesmine and ribalinine. The leaves 

contain flavonoid derivatives, tannin and organic acids. 

131



7.1. Uses supported by experimental data: 

Not available 


Euodia lepta is used in Lao traditional medicine in the treatment of asthma. 


Not available 






132

LAO PDR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Morinda citrifolia L. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Mark nho ban (Lao PDR); awltree, hag apple, ice leaf, India 

mulberry (English) 


Medium to rather big-sized tree, 5–10 m high. Young twigs, quadrangular, slightly compressed 

and grooved. Leaves opposite, stipuliferous, shining above and pale below, undulate at margins. 

Inflorescence in dense ovoid head, white at the beginning of the flowering period and then 

yellow. Fruit ovoid, drupelets, pink when ripe, seed numerous. 

4.0 Propagation : Morinda citrifolia is planted by the villagers for its edible fruit 

and grows sparsely in many localities of Lao PDR, but no 

information about the method of propagation was found. 


Morinda citrifolia grows abundantly in secondary forest at the altitude of about 700 ft. It also 

grows in many other provinces throughout the countries. 


Phytochemical screening shows that the roots, stem and leaves of M. citrifolia contain 

anthraquinone derivatives. Root bark contains morindine, morindone, alizarine derivative (alizarinea-ethylethr),and 

flavonoid, rutine; hardwood contains morindone, physcion-8-O-[{a-L. 

arabinosy1(1 3)}{b-D-galactopyrannosy1(1 6)}(b-D-galactopyranoside)]. The flower contains 

anthraglycoside and flavonoside. The fruit contains a small amount of essential oil. 

133


MORINDIN 



Extracts of M. citrifolia show the following biological activities: antitumour, antitumourpromoting, 

hypotensive, antibacterial (Staphylococcus, but weak versus Bacillus subtilis), 

antiascariasis, antimutagenic (Salmonella), antinematode (Bursaphelenchus xylophilus). 


The dry fruits of M. citrifolia are used for treatment of arthritis, diabetes and breast 

cancer. They are abortifacient and used as cardiotonic and emmenagogue. Aqueous leaf 

or root extracts are consumed for the treatment of acute malaria and cathartic. The 

leaves are used for stomach-ache, sore gums, sore throat, chest cold in infants, pleurisy, 

dysentery, induced abortion, infected wound healing, inflammation, broken bones and 

leprosy sores. The fresh roots are used for ichtheotoxin/sting and external cancerous 

swelling. The decoction of the roots is used for treatment of coughs. The dried bark is 

used for urinary disorders. 

A decoction of the dried fruits and seeds of M. citrifolia is used for arthritis. Dried roots 

and fruits are beneficial in the form of decoction or infusion for hypertension. The roots 

are also used for treating lumbago and relieving body pain. 

Dose: 30 g dry root, 20-30 g dry fruit. 


Not available 


Index Kewensis. Kew Garden, London. 




Ha Noi. Pp. 102–105. 

NAPRALERT = NAtural PRoduct ALERT A2230B database (www.napralert.org), University of 

Illinois at Chicago, Chicago. 

134

LAO PDR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Passiflora foetida L. 

Family : Passifloraceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Phack buang, kheua nian harng, phack ho harm, phack tarm 

nin thorng (Lao PDR); timun dendang (Malaysia) 


Perennial climber with tendrils. Stem hollow, cylindrical. Leaves alternate, trilobed; margins 

wavy with ciliate silky hairs; nerves palmate; petiole doubly glandular; tendril axilary. Flowers 

bisexual, solitary at the axil of the leaves; corolla white, pale violet in the centre; coronal violet; 

stamens 5; ovary superior. Fruit ovoid or globose; pericarp crisp and yellow when ripe; seeds 

numerous, edible. 



It grows wild in open places in tropical countries. 


The aerial parts of the plant contain indol alkaloid, tryptamine, 5-hydroxy indole and harman; 

tetraphylline B (sulphate) alicyclie; flavonols: ermanine and pachypodol. The leaves contain 

deidacline aicyclic, linamarine alkanol, 3-5-hydroxy-4-7-Di-O-methy1 flavonone, two apigenine 

derivatives: 4-7-dimethoxy flavone and 4-7-Di-O-methyl flavone. The fruit contains volkenine, 

and seed contains oil and linoleic acid. 

135


HARMAN 

APIGENIN 7,4-DIMETHYL FLAVONE 



Not available 


The whole plant is used to treat hypertension, antispasmodic insomnia, headache, epilepsy, 

giddiness, emmenagogue, constipation, coughs, flu and sores. The dry roots are used to 

stimulate menstruation and for abortion. The fresh fruit is used as food, in relieving 

constipation, sores and cough. 

The plant is known to have a tranquilizing effect. A mixture of the plant with the young 

leaves of indian bean (Erythrina variegata), the embryo of sacred lotus (Nelumbo 

nucifera) and young leaves of mulberry tree (Morus alba) is used for treating insomnia. 

In the case of insomnia with heart trouble, a mixture of leaves of N. nucifera, P. foetida 

and the aerial part of Leonurus heterophyllus is used. 

A decoction of P. foetida is used as a natural tranquilizer and for hiccup. It is formulated 

in the form of 1.03–3.0 g per bowl, 2–3 bowls per time, and thrice a day. Young leaves of 

P. foetida are consumed as vegetable. 


Not available 





Ha Noi. Pp. 164-169. 



136

LAO PDR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Polygonum multiflorum Thunb. 

Synonyms : Pleuropterus multiflorum, Pleuropterus multiflorus 

Family : Polygonaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Man orn ling (Lao PDR) 


Scandent perennial herb with big brownish red tuberous root. Stems elongate, branchlets and 

petioles violet-purple. Leaves alternate, simple, ovate-cordate. Inflorescence in axillary or terminal 

panicle, flowers numerous, small, greenish white. Nutlet triangular, three winged, entirely closed 

by sepals. Flowering seasons from July to October. 



It grows wild in highland or mountain thickets, especially in Huaphanh and Xieng Khouang 

provinces, Lao PDR. 


The tuber contains steroid, daucosterol; isoquinoline alkaloid, N-trans-ferulyl-3-methyl, dopamine; 

quinoid: emodin and its derivatives, emodine monomethylether, 2-acethyl emodin, emodin 

monoethylether, emodin-1-6-dimethlether, emodin-6-methylether, emodin-8-O-â-D-glucoside, 

juglone (6-acethy1-2-methoxy-7-methylquinone), chyrosphannol, rhein and physcion; triterpenic 

saponine; flavonol: quercitrin, foeniculin, hyperoside, etc. The entire plant contains resveratrol 

(3-5-4-trihydroxystilbene) and rhapontin. 

137


RESVERATROL 



Not available 


In China, the dry aerial part is used as decoction to treat insomnia, increases vigour and 

fertility. The tuber possesses antihepatotoxic and antioxidant activities, and is used for 

treating coronary disease and hyperlipidemia. The extract of P. multiflorum also shows 

hair stimulant properties. Dose: 8–16 g daily. 

Decoctions of the roots are given to women after childbirth. A mixture of the plant and 

Codonopsis javanica extracts has been used as tonic for neuralsthenia, insomnia, 

rheumatism, lumbago, hypogalactia, anemia, etc. The average daily dose is 20–30 g. 


Not available 





Ha Noi. Pp. 202-207. 



138

LAO PDR 

1.0. Scientific Name : Rauvolfia serpentina Benth. ex Kurz 


2.0. Vernacular Names : Bon-ma-ya-zar (Burma); she gen mu, yin-tu lo-fu mu (China); 

rauwolfia, serpentine, serpentine root, serpent wood, snake 

wood, snake-root, (English); racine de serpent (French); 

chhotachand, sarap-gandha (Hindu); Indo-Jyaboku (Japan); kha 

gnom phoo (Lao PDR); sarpagandha, chandrika (Sanskrit); 

rayom (Thailand); ba g!c _n =4 (Viet Nam) 


Rauvolfia serpentina is an undershrub, 0.3–1 m high. Root much-fluted. Stem lanticellate, less 

branched. Leaves 3-verticilate, occasionally opposite, lanceolate, attenuate at both sides. 

Inflorescence in terminal or axillary umbellate cymes; flowers tubular, white to pink cymes. 

Drupes ovoid, purplish-black when ripe, glabrous, single-seeded. The plant yields milky juice. 

4.0. Propagation : Seed (vegetative parts) 

5.0. Geographic Distribution 

Rauvolfia serpentina prefers to grow in tropical or subtropical areas with mean annual rainfall 

of 1,500–2,000 mm and mean temperature ranging from 25º to 30º C. The plant is indigenous to 

Indo-China, Borneo, Sumatra, Sri Lanka and India. It is a rare plant, but is found in some 

provinces of Lao PDR, especially on the Nam Ngum river banks, in Veun Kham area, Vientiane 

capital city. 


The plant, especially the root bark, contains indol alkaloids; the total alkaloids range from 1 to 

3%. The alkaloids are classsified into four types: 

139


1. Yohimbine-type: including reserpine, the main active compound of the plant, reserpinine, 

reserpidine, rescinnamine, yohimbines (á-yohimbine, b-yohimbine and ø-yohimbine), aniso 

rauhimbine. 

2. Heteroyohimbine-type: including ajmalicine, serpentine, serpentinine and raubasine. 

3. Sarpagan-type (sarpagine type): including raupine (sarpagine), a hypotensive active 

compound. 

4. Ajmalane-type (ajmaline type): including ajmaline, an antiarrhythmic compound, iso-ajmaline. 



Not available 


In Lao traditional medicine the root of R. serpentina combining with other materia medica 

is used for relieving headache. It used also for hypertension. 


Not available 






Ha Noi. Pp. 227–231. 



140

LAO PDR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Solanum procumbens Lour. 

Synonym : S. Hainanense Hance 

Family : Solanaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Khang khom kheua (Thailand) 


The plant is a straggling shrub, stem and branches numerous, short, stout and recurved prickles. 

Leaves simple, alternate, thin, ovate or oblong in texture; margins irregularly lobed. Inflorescence 

in axillary cyme, of 2–8 flowers, pale violet. Fruit globose, glabous, reddish yellow when ripe; 

seed numerous, yellow, reniform. 



It is widely distributed in every part of Lao PDR. It is also found in many Asian countries. 


The leaf contains tomatid-5-en-3-b-ol. Entire plant: glyco-alkaloids (solatunine or (b-solanine) 

or steroidal saponines. b-Solanine can be hydrolyzed to yield solanidine and solasodine. 

141


SOLASODINE 



Not available 


The root, leaf or whole plant is used for treating some respiratory-related diseases such 

as coughs and asthma; they are also expectorant, detoxicant or antidote, antidiabetic, 

tonic and diuretic agents. 

The plant has been used for treating snake bites, phlegmatic and stingy wounds. A handful 

of the root segments is crushed and then macerated in about 200–300 ml cool drinking 

water, the macerate is immediately given to the victim. The treatment will continue for a 

couple of days by giving patients the decoction of the root. 

The fruit is an expectorant, cough relief. It is also used to stop bleeding in cases of 

hermorrhoids. 


Not available 


Farnswoth, N. R. et al. 1992. Thai Medicinal Plants. Prachachon Publishing, Bangkok. Pp. 

225. 

Index Kewensis, Kew Garden, London. 




Ha Noi. 


Tome XLIX, Fascicule 2, Ecole Francaise D’ Extreme Orient, Paris. Pp. 201. 

142

LAO PDR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Stephania rotunda Lour. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Di bu rong (China); Indian tape-vine, moon seed creeper, 

(English); koma pich (Cambodia); hua tom ngeun, king kang 

dong (Lao PDR); daun nasi-nasi (Malaysia); pha nang nang 

(Thailand); bình vôi, c[ b(ng b'nh (Viet Nam) 


Stephania rotunda is a perennial evergreen shrub, 2–10 m long; tuber stout, attaining 100 kg. 

Leaves alternate, thin, peltate; radiately nerved; glabrous on both sides; petioles long, inserted at 

one quarter from the base of the lamina. Inflorescence in axillary umbelllate cyme. Flowers 

orange, female and male on different plants. Drupes globose, compressed, red when mature. 

Seeds hippocrepiform with transverse rips. 



Stephania rotunda prefers to grow in limestone mountains, and is found scarcely in deciduous 

forest, in lowland forests. It can be shade-enduring. The plant is found in many localities in Lao 

PDR, and also in many countries of Southeast Asia, in the southern part of China, Viet Nam and 

Cambodia. 


The main active compound of S. rotunda is l.tetrahydropalmaine (gindarine or hindarine), 

Roemerine is also reported. 

143




Not available 


In Lao traditional Medicine, Stephania tuber is used for serious dysentery (stool with 

blood); it is used as a decoction. 


Not available 






144

MALAYSIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Ardisia elliptica Thunb. 

Family : Myrsinaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Mata pelanduk (Malaysia); sea-shore ardisia (English) 


A bush or small tree. Leaves simple, alternate, leathery pink when young, elliptic or obovate 

obtuse, 5–12.5 cm long, 2.5–6 cm; margins entire. Flowers small in stalked cluster from the leaf 

axils, pink. Fruits berries rounded, flattened from above, green when young turning red when 

mature, edible with sweet taste. 


5.0 Geographic Distribution 

It grows wild and is widely distributed in lowland to hill forest in Malaysia. 


Syringic acid, isorhamnetin and quercetin 



Syringic acid, isorhamnetin and quercetin obtained from dried fruit extract of A. elliptica 

showed antisalmonella activity. 

147



The roots are used by women with irregular menses and herbal tonic for body maintenance. 

The leaves are used in treatment of earache and mouth ulceration. 


Not available 


Burkill, I.H. 1935. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. Crown 

Agents, London. 

Corner, E.J.H. 1988. Wayside Trees of Malaya. Vol. II. The Malayan Nature Society, Kuala 

Lumpur. 

Gimlette, G. D. 1939. A Dictionary of Malayan Medicine. Oxford Univ. Press, Kuala Lumpur. 

160 pp. 

Henderson, M.R. 1951. Malayan Wild Flowers: Dicotyledons. Malayan Nature Society. 

Kuala Lumpur. 478 pp. 

Phadungkit, M. & Luanratana, O. 2006. Anti-salmonella cativity of constituents of Ardisia 

elliptica Thunb. Nat. Prod. Research 20(7): Pp. 693–696. 

Ridley, H.N. 1967. The Flora of the Malay Peninsula. Vol. I and II. Reeve & Co., London. 

148

MALAYSIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. King & H. Rob. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Pokok kapal terbang, pokok jerman (Malaysia); 

christmas bush, siam weed, baby tea (English) 


Subshrub with long rambling branches; stems terete, pubescent. Leaves opposite, flaccidmembranous, 

velvety-pubescent, deltoid-ovate, acute, very coarsely toothed, each margin with 

1–5 teeth, or entire in youngest leaves; 1–1.5 cm long; blade mostly 5–12 cm long, 3–6 cm wide. 

Inflorescence subcorymbose axillary and terminal clusters; peduncles 1–3 cm long; bracteates, 

bracts slender, 10–12 mm long; involucre of about 4–5 series of bracts; pale with green nerves, 

acute, the lowest ones about 2 mm long, upper ones 8–9 mm long, all acute, distally ciliate, flat, 

appressed except the extreme divergent tip; florets all alike (disc-florets), pale purple to dull offwhite, 

the styles extending about 4 mm beyond the apex of the involucre, spreading radiately; 

receptacle very narrow; florets about 20–30 or a few more, 10–12 mm long; ovarian portion 4 

mm long; corolla slender trumpet form; pappus of dull white hairs 5 mm long. Seeds achenes 

glabrous. 


5.0 Geographical Distribution 

It grows wild in open and disturbed areas mainly in lowlands all over Southeast Asia. 


(+)-eupaten, 2’,3’,4,4’,6’-pentahydrocxchalcone, acacetine, eupaten, isosakuranetine, mikanine, 

odoratine, sakuranetine, salvigenine, tamarixetine, velutine, á-sitosterol, anisic acid, â-amyrin, â- 

sitosterol, ceryl-alcohol, copper, epoxylupeol, eupatenol, ã-sitosterol, lupeol, magnesium, 

149


manganese, phosphorus, tannin, protocatechuic, p-hydroxybenzoic, p-coumaric,ferulic, vanillic 

acids 



i. From the flowers of C. odorata (Eupatorium odoratum) four flavanones, 

isosakuranetin (5,7-dihydroxy-4'-methoxyflavanone) (1), persicogenin (5,3'- 

dihydroxy-7,4'-dimethoxyflavanone) (2), 5,6,7,4'-tetramethoxyflavanone (3) and 4'- 

hydroxy-5,6,7-trimethoxyflavanone (4), two chalcones, 2'-hydroxy-4,4',5',6'- 

tetramethoxychalcone (5) and 4,2'-dihydroxy-4',5',6'-trimethoxychalcone (6), and 

two flavones, acacetin (5,7-dihydroxy-4'-methoxyflavone) (7) and luteolin (5,7,3',4'- 

tetrahydroxyflavone) (8) were isolated and identified. Compound 1 exhibited 

moderate antimycobacterial activity against mycobacterium tuberculosis with the 

MIC value of 174.8 microM, whereas compounds 4, 7, and 8 exhibited weak activity 

with the MIC values of 606.0, 704.2 and 699.3 microM respectively. Compound 7 

showed moderate cytotoxicity against human small cell lung cancer (NCI-H187) 

cells with the MIC value of 24.6 microM, whereas compound 8 exhibited moderate 

toxicity against NCI-H187 cells and week toxicity against human breast cancer 

(BC) cells with the MIC values of 19.2 and 38.4 microM respectively. 

ii. Clinical studies using this plant extract have shown antimicrobial and anticoagulation 

effects as well as the promotion of tissue remodelling in the wound healing process. 

However, the mechanism by which this agent affects cells involved in the wound 

healing process is unknown. Fibroblasts and endothelial cells, two cell types that 

play a crucial role in wound healing, were used to investigate some of the effects 

of eupolin extract in vitro. Cell growth was estimated by a colorimetric assay at 

different time intervals. Enhanced growth of fibroblasts and endothelial cells was 

found at concentrations of 10 microg/ml and 100 microg/ml of eupolin extract. This 

was particularly evident in medium supplemented with only 0.5% fetal calf serum 

where the cells were quiescent. Toxicity of the extract to fibroblasts was observed 

at 250 microg/ml in Dulbecco’s modified Eagle’s medium/0.5% fetal calf serum, 

but there was no significant damage at this dose to the endothelial cells. The results 

of the study demonstrated that eupolin extract increased fibroblast and endothelial 

cell growth, and this could explain in part the beneficial clinical effects that have 

been observed. 


The leaves are used as wound healing and a local antiseptic agent, ailments including 

malaria, fever and infection and as a haemostatic agent. 


Not available 


Bamba, D., Bessiere, J. M., Marion, C., Pelissier, Y. & Fouraste, I. 1993. Essential oil of 

Eupatorium odoratum. Planta Medica 59(2): Pp. 184–185. 

150

MALAYSIA 

Bose, P. H., Chakrabarti, P., Chakraverti, S., Dutta, S. P. & Barua, A. K. 1973. Flavonoid 

constituents of Eupatorium odoratum. Phytochemistry, 12. Pp. 667–671. 

Glasby, J.S. 1991. Dictionary of Plants Containing Secondary Metabolites. Great Britain: 

Bunges Science Press. 

Muhamad Zakaria, Mustafa Ali Mohd, 1994. Traditional Malay Medicinal Plants. Kuala 

Lumpur, Penerbit FajarBakti Sdn Bhd. 

Phan TT, Hughes MA, Cherry GW. 1998. Enhanced proliferation of fibroblasts and endothelial 

cells treated with an extract of the leaves of Chromolaena odorata (Eupolin), an herbal remedy 

for treating wounds. Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery. 101(3): Pp. 756–765. 

Phan, T T; Wang, L; See, P; Grayer, R J; Chan, S Y; Lee, S T, 2001. Phenolic compounds of 

Chromolaena odorata protect cultured skin cells from oxidative: implication for cutaneous 

wound healing, Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin 24: Pp. 1373–1379. 

Sam Teng Wah, 1995. Constituents and uses of Eupatorium odoratum L. Trends in Traditional 

Medicines Research, USM Penang. 

Suksamrarn A, Chotipong A, Suavansri T, Boongird S, Timsuksai P, Vimuttipong S, Chuaynugul 

A. 2004. Antimycobacterial activity and cytotoxicity of flavonoids from the flowers of 

Chromolaena odorata. Arch. Pharm. Res. 27(5): Pp. 507–511. 

Talapatra, S. K., Bhar, D. S. & Talapatra, B. 1977. Terpenoids and related compounds 13- 

epoxylupeol, a new triterpenoid from Eupatorium odoratum. Indian J. Chem. 15 (9): Pp. 

806–807. 

151


1.0 Scientific Name : Curcuma xanthorhiza Roxb. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Temu lawak (Malaysia); rimpang lawak (Indonesia) 


A herb with branched rhizome, outside dark yellow to reddish-brown, inside orange or orangered; 

leaf sheaths up to 75 cm long, blades elliptical-oblong to oblong-lanceolate, 25–100 cm x 8– 

20 cm, green with reddish-brown band along the midrib; inflorescence on a separate shoot, 

bracts pale green, coma bracts purple; corolla 4–6 cm long, pale red, labellum 2–2.5 cm x 1.5– 

2 cm, yellowish with darker yellow median band, staminodes yellow-white, anther with long 

spurs. 



The plant is cultivated throughout the tropic. 


b-Atlantone, bisacumol, bisacurol, b-curcumene, 5’-methoxycurcumin, b-methoxycurcumin, 

curcuminoid, essential oil, germacrone, phenolic diarylheptanoid, sesquiterpenoid, ar-tumerone, 

a-tumerone, b-tumerone, xanthorrhizol 

152

MALAYSIA 



Curcuma xanthorhiza showed antioxidant and antibacterial properties. Xanthorrhizol 

has a preventive effect on cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity and exerts anti-metastatic 

activity in vivo. 


Used as tonic, carminative and anti-inflammatory for constipation, colic, stomachache, 

vermifuge, fever, malaria, rheumatism, constipation, numb feet, gonorrhoea. Used as a 

poultice for swelling, cosmetic, mosquito repellent and ingredient in shampoo and perfume. 


Not available 



of Agriculture and Cooperative, Kuala Lumpur. Vol. I & II. 

Choi M. A., Kim, S. H., Chung, W. Y., Hwang, J. K. & Park, K. K. 2004. Xanthorrhizol, a 

natural sesquiterpenoid from Curcuma xanthorhiza, has an anti-metastatic potential in 

experimental mouse lung metastasis model. Biochemical and Biophysical Research 

Communications 326(1): 210–217. 

Departemen Kesehatan Republik Indonesia. 1979. Materia Medika Indonesia Vol. III. 

Herbal Medicine Research Centre, Institute for Medical Research, Kuala Lumpur. 2002. 

Compendium of Medicinal Plants Used in Malaysia 1: 233–234. 

Hwang, J. K., Shim, J. S. & Pyun, Y. R. 2000. Antibacterial activity of xanthorrhizol from 

Curcuma xanthorhiza against oral pathogens. Fitoterapia 71(3): 321–323. 

Ibrahim, J., Abu Said, A., Mohd. Ali N.A., Ahmad, A., R. & Halijah I. 1999. Chemical composition 

of the rhizome oils of four Curcuma species from Malaysia. J. Essential Oil Research 11: 

719–723. 

Kim S. H., Hong, K. O., Chung, W. Y., Hwang, J. K. & Park, K. K. 2004. Abrogation of 

cisplatin-induced hepatotoxicity in mice by xanthorrhizol is related to its effect on the regulation 

of gene transcription. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 196(3): 346–355. 

Kim, S. H., Hong, K. O., Hwang, J. K. & Park, K. K. 2005. Xanthorrhizol has a potential to 

attenuate the high dose cisplatin-induced nephrotoxicity in mice. Food and Chemical 

Toxicology 43(1): 117–122. 

Masuda, T., Isobe, J., Jitoe, A. & Nakatani, N. 1992. Antioxidative curcuminoids from rhizomes 

of Curcuma xanthorhiza. Phytochemistry 31(10): 3645–3647. 

Padua, L.S., Bunyapraphatsara, N. & Lemmens, R.H.M.J. (Eds.) 1999. Medicinal and Poisonous 

Plants 1. Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA) No. 12 (1). Bogor, Indonesia. 

153


Pandji C., Grimm, C., Wray, V., Witte, L. & Proksch, P. 1993. Insecticidal constituents from four 

species of the zingiberaceae. Phytochemistry 34(2): 415–419. 

Ruslay, S., Abas, F., Shaari, K., Zainal, Z., Maulidiani, Sirat, H., Israf, D. A. & Lajis, N. H. 2007. 

Characterization of the components present in the active fractions of health gingers (Curcuma 

xanthorhiza and Zingiber zerumbet) by HPLC–DAD–ESIMS. Food Chemistry 104(3): 1183– 

1191. 

Sirat, H. M., Hong, N. M., & Jauri, M. H. 2007. Chemistry of xanthorrhizol: synthesis of 

several bisabolane sesquiterpenoids from xanthorrhizol. Tetrahedron Letters 48(3): 457– 

460. 

Suksamrarn A., Eiamong, S., Piyachaturawat, P., & Charoenpiboosin, J. 1994. Phenolic 

diarylheptanoids from Curcuma xanthorhiza. Phytochemistry 36(6): 1505–1508. 

Yasni, S., Imaizumi, K., Nakamura, M., Aimoto, J. & Sugano, M. 1993. Effects of Curcuma 

xanthorhiza Roxb. and curcuminoids on the level of serum and liver lipids, serum apolipoprotein 

A-I and lipogenic enzymes in rats. Food and Chemical Toxicology 31(3): 213–218. 

Yasni, S., Imaizumi, K., Sin, K., Sugano, M., Nonaka, G. & Sidik. 1994. Identification of an 

active principle in essential oils and hexane-soluble fractions of Curcuma xanthorhiza Roxb. 

showing triglyceride-lowering action in rats. Food and Chemical Toxicology 32(3): 273–278. 

154

MALAYSIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Cymbopogon citratus Stapf. 

Family : Poaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Serai, serai makan (Malaysia); lemon grass (English); sereh, 

semiai, sere, sarai, sorai (Indonesia); chakai, takrai (Thailand) 


Perennial. Culms densely clumped and leafy at the base, up to 2 m tall; leaf-sheaths terete, 

glabrous; blades linear-acuminate up to 90 cm long by 2 cm wide; ligule 2 mm deep. Inflorescence 

a loose nodding panicle; racemes up to about 2 cm long; rachis-internodes and spikelet pedicels 

2.5–3 mm long; densely hairy. 

4.0 Propagation : Cutting 

5.0 Geographic Distribution/Ecology 

It is widely distributed in tropical regions and is cultivated in open and dry areas. 


a-Camphorene, caprylic acid, caryophyllene, cerylalcohol, 1,8-cineole, citronellal, citronellic acid, 

citronellol, citral, cymbopogone, cymbopogonol, a- and b-dihydropseudoionone, decanal, N- 

decylaldehyde, diacetyl, dipentene, farsenal, farsenol, furfural, geranic acid, geranial, geraniol, 

geranylacetate, hexacosanol, isopulegol, isovaleraldehyde, isovaleric acid, linalol, linalylacetate, 

limonene, luteolin, luteolin-C-glycoside, methylheptenone, methylheptenol, b-myrcene, neral, nerol, 

a-pinene, quercetin, rutin, b-sitosterol, a-terpineol, tricontanol, minerals and saponins 

155




i. The objective of study was to test the efficacy of a slow-release citronella 

formulation as a repellent against the head louse. During four months in 2003 a 

randomized, placebo-controlled double-blind clinical study was conducted in four 

elementary schools; 103 children were treated with the test formulation and 95 

with a placebo. A significant difference was observed during the second examination 

two months later, when 12.0% of the children treated with the test repellent and 

50.5% of those treated with placebo were infested with lice. A significant difference 

was also observed at the third examination two months later, when 12.4% of the 

children treated with the test repellent and 33.7% treated with placebo were infested. 

Overall, there were significant differences between those treated with the repellent 

and those treated with the placebo (15.4% and 55.1% respectively, P < 0.0001). 

Side effects were observed in 4.4% of children who disliked the odour of the 

formulation, and an additional 1.0% who complained of a slight itching and burning 

sensation. Use of an effective repellent could significantly lower the incidence of 

reinfestations, which would lower expenditure on lice control, including pediculicides, 

combs and products for nit removal, and the time spent on treatment and removal 

of the nits. 

ii. The essential oils obtained by hydrodistillation from fresh leaves of C. citratus and 

Ocimum gratissimum growing in Cameroon were analysed by GC and GC/MS. 

The main constituents of the oil of O. gratissimum were gamma-terpinene (21.9 

%), beta-phellandrene (21.1 %), limonene (11.4 %) and thymol (11.2 %), while the 

oil of C. citratus contained geranial (32.8 %), neral (29.0 %), myrcene (16.2 %) 

and beta-pinene (10.5 %). The effects of these oils on the growth of Plasmodium 

berghei were investigated. Both oils showed significant antimalarial activities in 

the four-day suppressive in vivo test in mice. At concentrations of 200, 300 and 

500 mg/kg of mouse per day, the essential oil of C. citratus produced the highest 

activity with the respective percentages of suppression of parasitaemia: 62.1, 81.7 

and 86.6 %. The corresponding values for the oil of O. gratissimum at the same 

concentrations were 55.0, 75.2 and 77.8 %, respectively. Chloroquine (10 mg/kg 

of mouse, positive control) had a suppressive activity of 100 %. 


Lemon grass is used as digestion aid, emmenagogue, fermentations and food flavouring. 

It is also used as a mild diuretic and tonic, promoting perspiration, treating kidney problems 

and herbal tea. The essential oils are used for flatulence, irregular bowel movement, 

gastric irritability, arresting vomiting, rheumatism, sprains and insect repellent. 


Not available 


Adegoke, G.O. & Odesola, B.A. 1996. Storage of maize and cowpea and inhibition of microbial 

agents of biodeterioration using the powder and essential oil of lemon grass (Cymbopogon 

citratus). International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation 37: Pp. 81–84. 

156

MALAYSIA 

Baratta, M.T.; Dorman, H.J.D.; Deans, S.G.; Figueiredo, A.C.; Barroso, J.G.; & Ruberto, G. 

1998. Antimicrobial and antioxidant properties of some commercial essential oils. Flavour and 

Fragrance Journal 13: Pp. 235–244. 



Cheah, P.B., Ng, C.H. & Wong, C.F. 2001. Antioxidant activity of tropical lemon grass 

(Cymbopogon citratus) extracts in linoleic acid and chicken fat systems. Journal of Food 

Science and Technology 38: Pp. 62–64. 

De F. Melo, S.; Soares, S.F.; Da Costa, R.F.; Da Silva, C.R.; De Oliveira, M.B.N.; Bezerra, 

R.J.A.C.; Caldeira-de-Araújo, A.; & Bernardo-Filho, M. (2001). Effect of Cymbopogon citratus, 

Maytenus ilicifolia and Baccharis genistelloides extracts against the stannous chloride oxidative 

damage in Escherichia coli. Mutation Research 496: Pp. 33–38. 

De-Oliveira, A.C.A.X., Ribeiro-Pinto, L.F., Otto, S.S. Goncalves, A. & Paumgartten, F.J.R. 

1997. Induction of liver monooxygenases by b-myrcene. Toxicology 124: Pp. 135–140. 

De-Oliveira, A.C.A.X.; Ribeiro-Pinto, L.F.; & Paumgartten, F.J.R. 1997. In vitro inhibition of 

CYP2B1 monooxygenase by b-myrcene and other monoterpenoid compounds. Toxicology 

Letters 92: Pp. 39–46. 

Gilliland, H.B. 1971. A Revised Flora of Malaya: Grasses of Malaya. Vol. 3. Government 

Printing Office, Singapore. Pp. 294–299. 

Jaganath, I.B. & Ng, L.T. 2000. The Green Pharmacy of Malaysia. Vinpress Sdn. Bhd., 

Kuala Lumpur. 

Kauderer, B., Zamith, H., Paumgartten, F.J. & Speit, G. 1991. Evaluation of the mutagenicity of 

beta-myrcene in mammalian cells in vitro. Environmental and Molecular Mutagenesis 18: 

Pp. 28–34. 

Kishore, N., Mishra, A.K. & Chansouria, J.P. 1993. Fungitoxicity of essential oils against 

dermatophytes. Mycoses 36: Pp. 211–215. 

Lima, E.O., Gompertz, O.F., Giesbrecht, A.M., & Paulo, M.Q. 1993. In vitro antifungal activity 

of essential oils obtained from officinal plants against dermatophytes. Mycoses 36: Pp. 333– 

336. 

Lorenzetti, B.B., Souza, G.E., Sarti, S.J., Santos Filho, D., & Ferreira, S.H. 1991. Myrcene 

mimics the peripheral analgesic activity of lemon grass tea. Journal of Ethnopharmacology 

34: Pp. 43–48. 

Mishra, A.K. & Dubey, N.K. 1994. Evaluation of some essential oils for their toxicity against 

fungi causing deterioration of stored food commodities. Applied and Environmental 

Microbiology 60: Pp. 1101–1105. 

Mumcuoglu KY, Magdassi S, Miller J, Ben-Ishai F, Zentner G, Helbin V, Friger M, Kahana F, 

Ingber A. 2004. Repellency of citronella for head lice: double-blind randomized trial of efficacy 

and safety. Isr. Med. Assoc. J. 6(12): Pp. 756–759. 

157


Perry, L.M. & Metzger, J. 1980. Medicinal Plants in East and Southeast Asia. The MIT 

Press, Cambridge & Massachusetts. 

Puatanachokchai, R., Kishida, H., Denda, A., Murata, N., Konishi, Y., Vinitketkummuen, U. & 

Nakae, D. 2002. Inhibitory effects of lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus Stapf) extract on the 

early phase of hepatocarcinogenesis after initiation with diethylnitrosamine in male Fischer 344 

rats. Cancer Letters 183: Pp. 9–15. 

Rajapakse, R. & Van Emden, H.F. 1997. Potential of four vegetable oils and ten botanical 

powders for reducing infestation of cowpeas by Callosobruchus maculatus, C. chinesis and 

C. rhodesianus. Journal of Stored Products Research 33: Pp. 59–68. 

Rao, V.S. Menezes, A.M. & Viana, G.S. 1990. Effect of myrcene on mociception in mice. The 

Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 42: Pp. 877–878. 

Suaeyun, R.; Kinouchi, T.; Arimochi, H.; Vinitketkummuen, U.; & Ohnishi, Y. 1997. Inhibitory 

effects of lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus Stapf) on formation of azoxymethane-induced 

DNA adducts and aberrant crypt foci in the rat colon. Carcinogenesis 18: Pp. 949–955. 

Tchoumbougnang F, Zollo PH, Dagne E, & Mekonnen Y. 2005. In vivo antimalarial activity of 

essential oils from Cymbopogon citratus and Ocimum gratissimum on mice infected with 

Plasmodium berghei. Planta Med. 71(1): Pp. 20–23. 

Vinitketkummuen, U., Puatanachokchai, R., Kongtawelert, P., Lartprasertsuke, N. & Matsushima, 

T. 1994. Antimutagenicity of lemon grass (Cymbopogon citratus Stapf) to various known 

mutagens in salmonella mutation assay. Mutation Research 341: Pp. 71–75. 

Zamith, H.P., Vidal, M.N., Speit, G. & Paumgartten, F.J. 1993. Absence of genotoxic activity of 

beta-myrcene in the in vivo cytogenetic bone-marrow assay. Brazilian Journal of Medical 

and Biological Research 26: Pp. 93–98. 

158

MALAYSIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Cymbopogon nardus (L.) Rendle 

Family : Poaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Serai wangi (Malaysia); citronella grass (English); 

sereh, wangi, seriwang (Indonesia) 


Perennial. Tufted with fibrous roots from a thickened base. Culms erect up to 2.5 m high, the 

tops drooping; leaf-sheaths glabrous; blades, the lower up to 1 m long by 2 cm wide, the upper 

smaller, edges and surfaces rough, glabrous except near the base; ligule up to 5 mm deap, 

glabrous. Inflorescence ultimate branches slender; zig-zag internodes about 1.5–2.5 cm long 

with reduced leaf at each node and at its axil one or more short branches each bearing a pair of 

racemes. 



It is widely distributed in tropical regions including India, Ceylon and Southeast Asia. 


Citronellol and citronellal; geraniol; borneol, bournonene, camphene, camphor, 1-carvotanacetone, 

d-3-carene, citronellybutyrate, D-citronellolacetate, D-citronellol-N-butyrate, p-cymene, elemol, 

ethanol, farnesol, furfurol, geranylacetate, geranylbutyrate, geranylformate, hexanol, limonene, 

linalol, linalylacetate, methyleugenol, methylisoeugenol, methylheptanone, menthol, myrcene, nerol, 

nerolidol, cis-ocimene, perillaldehyde, phellandral, a-phellandrene, a-pinene, b-pinene, sabinene, 

a-terpineol, terpinen-4-ol, terpinolene, tujylalcohol, trans-ocimene and tricyclene 

159




The mosquito-repellent activity of 38 essential oils from plants at three concentrations 

was screened against the mosquito Aedes aegypti under laboratory conditions using 

human subjects. On a volunteer’s forearm, 0.1 mL of oil was applied per 30 cm 2 of 

exposed skin. When the tested oils were applied at a 10% or 50% concentration, none of 

them prevented mosquito bites for as long as 2 h, but the undiluted oils of C. nardus 

(citronella), Pogostemon cablin (patchuli), Syzygium aromaticum (clove) and 

Zanthoxylum limonella (Thai name: makaen) were the most effective and provided 2 h 

of complete repellency.From these initial results, three concentrations (10%, 50% and 

undiluted) of citronella, patchouli, clove and makaen were selected for repellency tests 

against Culex quinquefasciatus and Anopheles dirus. As expected, the undiluted oil 

showed the highest protection in each case. Clove oil gave the longest duration of 100% 

repellency (2–4 h) against all three species of mosquito. 


The whole plant is used traditionally for stomach comfort and digestion aid, as well as an 

emmenagogue and a wash after childbirth. It is found to have diuretic, sudorific and 

antiperiodic properties. 


Not available 


Blacow, N.W. & Wade, A. 1973. The Extra Pharmacopoeia. 26th ed. London : The 

Pharmaceutical Press. 



Chowdury, J.U., Yusuf, M., Begun, J., Mondello, L., Previti, P. & Dugo, G. 1998. Studies on the 

essential oil bearing plants of Bangladesh. Part IV. Composition of the leaf oils of three 

Cymbopogon species : C. flexuosus (Nees ex Steud.) Wats., C. nardus (L.) Rendle var. 

confertiflorus (Steud.) N. L. Bor and C. martini (Roxb.) Wats. var. martini. Journal of 

Essential Oil Research 10: Pp. 301–306. 

De Billerbeck, V.G., Roques, C.G., Bessière, J.M., Fonvieille, J.L., & Dargent, R. 2001. Effect 

of Cymbopogon nardus (L.) W. Watson essential oil on the growth and morphogenesis of 

Aspergillus niger. Canadian Journal of Microbiology 47: Pp. 9–17. 

Gilliland, H.B. A Revised Flora of Malaya: Grasses of Malaya. Vol. 3. Government Printing 

Office, Singapore. Pp. 294–299. 

Hasnah, H. 1980. Analisis dan pencirian minyak bauan dari Cymbopogon nardus dan 

Cymbopogon winteriansis (minyak serai wangi). Tesis Smsn. Jabatan Kimia, Fakulti Sains 

Fizis dan Gunaan. Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Bangi. 

160

MALAYSIA 

Ibrahim, J. & Zaridah, M.Z. 1995. Development of environmentally-friendly insect repellents 

from the leaf oils of selected Malaysian plants. in Ghazali, I.; Murtedza, M. & Laily, B.D. (Ed.) 

Chemical Prospecting in the Malaysian Forest. Sarawak : Pelanduk Publication (M) Sdn 

Bhd. Pp. 205–212. 

Jaganath, I.B. & Ng, L.T. 2000. The Green Pharmacy of Malaysia. Vinpress Sdn. Bhd., 

Kuala Lumpur. 

Jantan, I.; Zaki, Z.M.; Ahmad, A.R.; & Ahmad, R. 1999. Evaluation of smoke from mosquito 

coils containing Malaysian plants against Aedes aegypti. Fitoterapia 70: Pp. 237–243. 

Ketoh, G.K.; Glitho, A.I.; & Huignard, J. 2002. Susceptibility of the bruchid Callosobruchus 

maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) and its parasitoid Dinarmus basalis (Hymenoptera: 

Pteromalidae) to three essential oils. Journal of Economic Entomology 95: Pp. 174–182. 

Press, Cambridge & Massachusetts. 

Raja, N., Albert, S., Ignacimuthu, S., & Dorn, S. 2001. Effect of volatile oils in protecting stored 

cowpea Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walpers against Callosobruchus maculatus (F.) (Coleoptera: 

Bruchidae) infestation. Journal of Stored Products Research 37: Pp. 127–132. 

Ridley, H.M. 1925. The Flora of the Malay Peninsular. Vol. V. Reeve & Co. Ltd, London. 

Perry, L.M. & Metzger, J. 1980. Medicinal Plants in East and Southeast Asia. The MIT 

Trongtokit Y, Rongsriyam Y, Komalamisra N, Apiwathnasorn C. 2005. Comparative repellency 

of 38 essential oils against mosquito bites. Phytother Res 19(4): Pp. 303–309. 

161


1.0 Scientific Name : Elephantopus scaber L. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Tutup bumi, tapak sulaiman (Malaysia) 


An upright, stiff herb about 20–40 cm high, very pubescent due to abundance of trichomes 

throughout the entire plant. Leaves crowded at stem; base forming a rosette close to the ground, 

oblong, or broadest near the rounded or bluntly pointed tip, tapered to the base 4–15 cm long, 1– 

5 cm wide; leaf stalk very short, white, hairy; leaf margins sometimes wavy. Flower heads at 

the end of white-woolly branches rising from the leaves, several heads in a cluster, surrounded 

by broad, pointed, leaf-like bracts which are often tinged purplish; petal protruding nearly 1 cm 

beyond the inner, narrow, pointed bracts, pink with a white tube. 



It is distributed in Malaysia, Southeast Asia, mainland China, Japan and Indo-China. 


Dotriacontanol, epifriedelinol, triacontanol, potassium chloride, 11, 13 – dihydrodeoxyelephantopin, 

11,13-dihydroelephantopin, stigmasterol, deoxyelephantopin, isodeoxy- elephantopin, 

epifriedelanol and lupeol 



Not available 

162

MALAYSIA 


As an antibacterial, diuretic and aphrodisiac. It is useful in the treatment of venereal 

disease for women, fever, vomiting, dropsy and inflammation of the scrotum, as a tonic 

for women after childbirth, and to ward away evil spirits. 


Not available 


Burkill, I.H. & Haniff, M. 1930. Garden Bulletin Straits Settlement 6: 219. 

Chandler, R.F. & Hooper, S.N. 1979. Friedelin and rhoiptelenyl acetate, a new pentacyclic 

triterpenoid associated triterpenoids. Phytochemistry 18: Pp. 711–724. 

DeSilva, L., Herath W.H.M.W., Jennings, R.C., Mahendran, M. & Wannigama, G.E. 1982. A 

new sesquiterpene lactone from Elephantopus scaber. Phytochemistry 21: Pp. 1173–1175. 

Gimlettle, J.D., & Burkill, I.H. 1930. Garden Bulletin Straits Settlement 6: 494. 

Gimlette, J.D. & Thomsom, H.W. 1939. A Dictionary of Malayan Medicine. London. Oxford 

University Press. 234 pp. 

Govindachari, T.R., Jadhav, S.J., Joshi, B.S., Kamat, V.N., Mohamed, P.A., Parthasarathy, P.C., 

Patankar, S.J., Prakash, D., Rane, D.F. & Viswanathan, N. 1969. Indian Journal of Chemistry 

7: 308–310. 

Govindachari,,T.R., Viswanathan, N. & Fuhrer, H. 1972. Isodeoxyele-phantopin, a new 

germacranediolide from Elephantopus scaber Linn. Indian Journal of Chemistry 10: Pp. 

272–279. 

Malaysia Monograph Committee. 1999. Malaysia Herbal Monograph Vol. 1. Kuala Lumpur. 

Republic of China & the National Science. 1978. Flora of Taiwan 4:853. Epoch Pub.Co.Ltd., 

Taiwan. 

Perry, L. M. 1980. Medicinal Plants of East and Southeast Asia.. Massachusetts MIT 

Press. 92 pp. 

Pongboonrod, S., Mai-tet-muang-thai. 1979. Kasem Bannakich 222 pp. 

Sim, K.Y. & Lee, H.T. 1969. Constituents of Elephantopus scaber (Compositae) 

Phytochemistry 8(5): Pp. 934–935. 

163




2.0 Vernacular Names : Tongkat ali, penawar pahit, bedara pahit, tongkat baginda, 

petala bumi, pasak bumi , setunjang bumi 


A medium-sized slender shrub reaching 10 m in height, often unbranched with reddish brown 

petioles. Leaves compound, even pinnate reaching 1 m in length, each consists of 30–40 leaflets, 

lanceolate to obovate-lanceolate, each leaflet is about 5–20 cm long, 1.5–6 cm wide, much paler 

on the ventral side. Inflorescence axillary, in large brownish red panicle, very pubescent with 

very fine, soft, glandular trichomes. Flowers are hermaphrodite; petals small, very fine pubescent, 

drupe hard, ovoid, yellowish brown when young and brownish red when ripe. 



Malaysia, lower Myanmar, Thailand, Indo-China to Sumatra and Borneo 


Aervin, stigmasterol, campesterol, b-sitosterol, 9-hydroxycanthin-6-one, 9-hydroxycanthin-6-one 

n-oxide, 9-methoxycanthin-6-one, 9-methoxycanthin-6-one n-oxide, b-carboline-1-propionic acid, 

b-7-methoxycarboline-1-propionic acid, eurycomalactone, eurycomanol, eurycomanol 

2-O-b-D-glucoside, 13-b-18-dihydroeurycomanol,14-15-dihydroxyklaineanone eurycomanone, 

13-21-dihydroeurycomanone, 13-b-21-dihydroxyeurycomanone, 14-15-b-dihydroxyklaineanone, 

longilactone 

164

MALAYSIA 



Antimalarial and antihistaminic 


The roots are useful for fever, medication after birth, boils, wounds, ulcer, syphilis and 

bleeding gums. 




Burkill I. H. 1966. A Dictionary of the Economic Product of the Malay Peninsula, Ministry 

of Agriculture, Malaysia , Volumes I & II: Pp. 1000. 

Burkill, I. H. & Haniff, M. 1930. Garden Bulletin Straits Settlement. 6: Pp.182. 

Chan K. L., O’Neill M. J., Phillipson J. D. & Warhurst D. C. 1986. Plants as sources of 

antimalarial drugs. Part 3: Eurycoma longifolia. Planta Medica 52: Pp. 105–107. 

Chan, K. L., Lee, S. P., Sam, T. H. & Han, B. H. 1989. A quassinoid glycoside from the roots of 

Eurycoma longifolia Phytochemistry 28: Pp. 857–2859. 

Chan, K. L., Lee, S. P., Sam, T. H. & Tan, S. C., Noguchi, H. & Sankawa, U. 1991. 13â, 18- 

dihydroeurycomano – a quassinoid from Eurycoma longifolia. Phytochemistry 30: Pp. 3138– 

3141. 

Darise, M., Kohda, H., Mizutani, K. & Tanaka, 0. 1982. Eurycomanone and eurycomanol, 

quassinoids from the roots of Eurycoma longifolia. Phytochemistry 21: Pp. 2091–2093. 

Gimlette J. D. & Burkill, I. H. 1930. Garden Bulletin Straits Settlement.6: 329. 

Gimlette, J. D. & Thomson, H. W. 1939. A Dictionary of Malayan Medicine, London: 

Oxford Univ. Press. Pp. 242. 

Kardono L. B. S., Angerhoper C. K., Tsauri S., Padmawinata K., Pezzuto J. M. & Kinghorn A. 

D. 1991. Cytotoxic and antimalarial constituents of the roots of Eurycoma longifolia. Journal 

of Natural Products 54: 1360–1367. 

Marziah Mohammad. 1987. Tanaman Perubatan Tradisional, Serdang : Universiti Pertanian 

Malaysia. 

Morita, H., Kishi, E., Takeya, K., Itokawa, H. & Tanaka, O. 1990. New quassinoids from the 

roots of Eurycoma longifolia. Chemistry Letters 5: Pp. 749–752. 

Oei-Koch A. & Kraus L. 1978. Constituents of Eurycoma longifolia. I. Sterols and saponins. 

Planta Medica. 34: Pp. 39. 

165


1.0 Scientific Name : Fibraurea tinctoria Lour. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Kamin kura, kuma kua, manmiet, akar stupai, olor lobai 

(Thailand); areuj gember (Java), akar badi, akar kunyit, akar 

penawar, mengkunyit, akar kuning, akar mengkunyit, akar 

kencing kerbau (Malaysia) 


Big liana. Leaves ovate oblong, base rounded, apex acuminate; nerves from base, prominent 

beneath, deep green coriaceous glabrous, 18 cm long, 10 cm wide; petioles 6.4 cm long. Flowers, 

male, white in lax panicles from old wood, 5 to 15.2 cm long. Bracts narrow linear cute. Sepals 

6, rounded-obovate. Inner petals narrower than outer ones, elliptic. Stamens 6, bluish green. 

Female flowers green. Carpels 3, obovoid bluish green. Drupe orange colour, elliptic smooth, 

pulp bitter, 3.8 cm long. Seed oblong, 2.5 cm long, grooved deeply on the lower surface, ends 

rounded. 


5.0 Geographic distribution 

It is very common in secondary forest in lowland to hill forest throughout Malaysia. 


Berberrubine, fibleucin, fibraurin, 6-hydroxyfibraurin, palmatrubine, pseudojatrorrhizine, 

carboxyfibleucin, chasmatine, colombamine, jatrorrhizine, magnoflorine, palmatine 

166

MALAYSIA 


7.1 Uses supported by experimental/clinicsl data: 

Not available 


The stem and roots are used after childbirth, to treat stomach-ache, dysentery, diabetes, 

headache and eye-ache; smoke from dry wood is inhaled for ulceration of the nose. The 

yellow colour from the wood is used as colouring agent. 


Not available 


Bakhari N. A., Wah S. T., Cinnakali K., Fu H.-K. & Razak I. A. 1999. Acta Cryst. C55: Pp. 

228–230. 


Lemmens R.H.M.J. 1991. PROSEA 3. Dye and tannin-producing plants. Fibraurea 

tinctoria Lour. (Eds. Lemmens & Wulijarni-Soetjipto). Pudoc Wageningen. Pp. 74–75. 

Ridley, H.N. 1922. The Flora of the Malay Peninsula. Vol 1. Reeve & Co. Ltd, London. Pp. 

101–115. 

Unone. 2000. Dictionary of Natural Products. Chapman & Hall. UK. 

Van Steenis C. G. G .J. & De Wilde W. J. J. O. 1984-1989. Flora Malesiana. Kluwer 

Academic Pub. Dordrecht/Boston/London. Vol 10(2): Pp. 207–209. 

167


1.0 Scientific Name : Gynura procumbens Merr. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Sambung nyawa, daun dewa (Malaysia) 


Herbaceous, fleshy, purple tinge stem. Leaves fleshy, hairy, oval to elliptic, up to 9 cm long, 3.7 

cm wide, and margin with small, widely spaced teeth. Flower heads about 1 to 2.5 cm long, 

narrow, hanging on long stalks in a branched inflorescence, tubular shaped, orange. Fruits narrow, 

with 10 ribs and a fine, white, silky pappus. 


5.0 Geographic Distribution 

It is common in tropical countries and grows well in open places in lowlands to hills. 


Gynurone, 4-hydroxy-4-methyl-2-pentanone, methyl hexadecanoate, methyl 9-octadecenoate, 

bis(2-ethylhexyl)-1,2-benzenedicarboxylate, dibutyl malonate, 6,10,14-trimethyl-2-pentadecanone, 

dctadecanal, 3,7,11,15-tetramethyl-2-hexadecen-1-ol, stigmasterol, â-sitosterol, ethyl p- 

methoxycinnamate, 4-hydroxy-4-methyl-2-pentanone, stigmasterol acetate, flavonol quercitin, 

quercitin 3-O-rhamnosyl(1-6)galactoside, quercitin 3-O-rhamnosy(1-6)glucoside, nonadecane, 

phytyl valerate, kaempferol 3-O-glucoside, kaempferol 3-O-neohesperidoside, adenosine 

168

MALAYSIA 



i. The crude ethanolic extract of G. procumbens has antiinflammatory action. To 

relate the activity to particular fractions using a croton oil-induced mouse ear 

inflammation model, the original ethanolic extract of G. procumbens was partitioned 

between water and ethyl acetate. The residues were subjected to antiinflammatory 

evaluation. While the water extract did not show any antiinflammatory activity, the 

administration of the original organic extract significantly inhibited the increase in 

ear thickness in response to croton oil (n = 5). The activity of 0.75 mg/ear original 

organic extract showed similar antiinflammatory activity (inhibition 65.2%) to that 

of 6 mg/ear hydrocortisone 21-hemisuccinate sodium salt (inhibition 64.8%). The 

organic extract was then fractionated with a series of solvents in order of increasing 

polarity. Each fraction was dried, dissolved in acetone and monitored using the 

same bioassay. These experiments showed that the hexane and toluene fractions 

showed significant inhibitions of 44.6% and 34.8%, respectively. These two fractions 

had similar activities to 4 mg/ear of hydrocortisone (inhibition 35.0%). The possible 

chemical constituents in the extracts and fractions were investigated using thin 

layer chromatography and specific color reagents. These tests showed that steroids 

might be one class of antiinflammatory compounds in this plant. 

ii. The ethanolic extract of the leaves of G. procumbens, at single doses of 50, 150 

and 300 mg/kg orally, significantly suppressed the elevated serum glucose levels in 

diabetic rats; 150 mg/kg was found to be the optimum hypoglycaemic dose. The 

extract, however, did not significantly suppress the elevated serum glucose levels 

in normal rats, unlike glibenclamide. Metformin, but not glibenclamide, improved 

glucose tolerance in the diabetic rats. When the optimum dose was given to diabetic 

rats for seven days, the extract significantly reduced serum cholesterol and 

triglyceride levels in these rats. These results indicate that the leaves of G. 

procumbens may have biguanide-like activity. 


The plant has antidiabetic and antimalarial properties. The leaves are used as a febrifuge 

in eruptive fever, to treat kidney problem, rheumatism and colon cancer. 


Not available 


Akowuah, A. G. 2000. Phytochemical and Hypoglycaemic Studies of Gynura procumbens 

(Lour.), Merr., Universiti Sains Malaysia, Penang. 

Aminah, H. I. 1994. Kajian Fitokimia Daun Sambung Nyawa. Universiti Sains Malaysia, 

Penang. 

Burkill, I. H 1996. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Penisula. Ministry 

of Agriculture and Cooperative, Kuala Lumpur. 

169


Christophe, W. 2000. Medicinal Plants of Southeast Asia. Pelanduk Pubs. Sdn Bhd. Kuala 

Lumpur. 

Henderson, M.R. 1951. Malayan Wild Flowers.: Dicotyledons. Malayan Nature Society. 

Kuala Lumpur. Pp. 478. 

Iskander MN, Song Y, Coupar IM, Jiratchariyakul W. 2002. Antiinflammatory screening of the 

medicinal plant Gynura procumbens. Plant Foods Hum Nutr. 57(3-4): Pp. 233–244. 

Materia Medica Indonesia. Jilid 4. 1978. Departemen Kesehatan Republik Indonesia, 

Indonesia. 

Zhang XF, Tan BK. 2000. Effects of an ethanolic extract of Gynura procumbens on serum 

glucose, cholesterol and triglyceride levels in normal and streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. 

Singapore Med. J. 41(1): Pp. 9–13. 

170

MALAYSIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Kaempferia galanga L. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Kencur (Indonesia); cekur (Malaysia); dusol (Philippines); pro 

hom, waan hom, waan teen din (Thailand); dia lien, son nai, 

tam nai (Viet Nam) 


Herbaceous with fleshy rhizomes. Leaves 2 or 3, spreading out close to the ground, usually 

more or less broadly elliptical in outline and asymmetrical, tip broadly pointed, base rounded, 

usually covering the earth, 8–10 cm long, 6–7 cm wide with wavy margins; petiole very short, 

3–10 mm long. Flowers white with a purple patch on one petal of the corolla. Corolla is about 3 

cm long, consists of 3 bracteas which are half as long as the corolla. Rhizomes short and stout, 

light brown, the rhizome consists of dense small tubers sometimes adhering to one another to 

form a larger tuber. 



It is cultivated throughout Malaysia and is also found in Indonesia, Southern China and Indo- 

China. 


The rhizome contains chlorogenic acid, p-hydroxybenzoic acid, vanillic acid, car-3-en-5-one, 

cinnamic acid ethyl ester, p-methoxycinnamic acid, p-methoxycinnamic acid ethyl ester, transp-methoxycinnamic 

acid ethyl ester, trans-p-methoxycinnamic acid, n-pentadecana, ethyl-pmethoxycinnamate, 

ethyl cinnamate, carene, camphene, borneol, p-methoxystyrene 

171




Not available 


The rhizomes are carminative. They are useful for skin problems, leucorrhea, sinusitis, 

sore eyes, tonic, bruises, inflammation, childbirth, coughs, rheumatism, sore throat and 

fever. 




Burkill, I. H. & Haniff, M. 1930. Garden Bulletin Straits Settlement 6: 264. 



Duke, J. A. 1985. C.R.C. Handbook of Medicine Herbs. Florida CRC Press. 

Gimlette, J. D. & Thomson, H. W. 1939. A Dictionary of Malayan Medicine, Oxford University 

Press, London. 

Gimlettle, J. D & Burkill, I. H. 1930. Gardens Bulletin Straits Settlement. 6: 451. 

Kiuchi, F., Nakamura, N. & Tsuda, Y. 1987. 3-Caren-5-one from Kaempferia galanga. 

Phytochemistry 26(12): 3350–3351. 

Kiuchi, F., Nakamura, N., Tsuda, Y., Kondo, K. & Yoshimura, H. 1988. Studies on crude drugs 

effective on visceral larva migrans. II. Larvicidal principles in Kaempferia galanga. Chemical 

and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 36(1): 412–415. 

Kosuge, T., Yokota, M., Sugiyama, K., Saito, M., Iwata, Y., Nakura, M. & Yamamoto, T. 1985. 

Studies on anticancer principles in Chinese medicine. II. Cytotoxic principles in Biota orientalis 

(L.) Endl. and Kaempferia galangal L. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 33(12): 

5565–5567. 

Malaysian Monograph Committee. 1999. Malaysian Herbal Monograph. Vol. 1: 41–44. 

Merh, P. S., Daniel, M. & Sabnis, S. D. 1986. Chemistry and taxonomy of some members of the 

zingibererales. Current Science 55: 835–839. 

Noro, T., Miyase, T., Kuroyanagi, M., Ueno, A. & Fukushima, S. 1983. Monoamine oxidase 

inhibitor from the rhizomes of Kaempferia galangal L. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 

31(8): 2708–2711. 

172

MALAYSIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Labisia pothoina Lindl. 

Synonym : L. pumila Benth. & Hook.f. 

Family : Myrsinaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Kacip fatimah, selusuh fatimah (Malaysia). 


Small herbaceous under-shrub, rooting from the stem. Leaves few, usually 4–12, pointing 

upwards, elliptic-lanceolate and acuminate, tip pointed and base tapered or rather broad-rounded, 

the whole leaf is about 5–35 cm long and 2–8 cm wide, finely toothed with numerous veins, dark 

green on adaxial, lighter green on abaxial; petiole usually 2–8 cm but may reach 12 cm long; 

the leaf blade running down to form a broad or narrow wing, or often absent. Flowers are very 

small, pink or white, in spike like panicle of small clusters, 6–30 cm long; sepals, petals and 

stamens 5; the petals wrapped round and enclosing the stamens. Fruit about 0.5 cm diameter, 

bright red or purple. 



It is found in Malaysia and Indo-China and is common in dense forests all over the countries in 

the lowlands, sometimes in the hills. 


(Z)-5- (pentadec-4’-enyl)benzene-1,3-diol, (Z)-5- (pentadec-8’-enyl) benzene-1,3-diol, (Z)-5- 

(pentadec-10’-enyl) benzene-1,3-diol , pelargonidin 

173




Extract of L. pothoina roots showed antiinflammatory activity and antibacterial activity. 


The plant is used for gynaecological problems, to quicken delivery, as after-birth medicine, 

for flatulence, dysentery, menstruation problem and venereal diseases. 


Not available 


Burkill I. H. 1966. A Dictionary of the Economic Product of the Malay Peninsula. Ministry 

of Agriculture, Malaysia, , I & II, Pp. 1311. 

Fasihuddin,A., Rahman, A. H. Hasmah, R. 1995. Medicinal plants used by Bajau community in 

Sabah. In Trends in Traditional Medicine Research. Chan, K.L. et al. (Eds.). University 

Science Malaysia, Penang. Pp. 493–504. 

Gimlette J. D. & Thomson H. W. 1939. A Dictionary of Malayan Medicine. Oxford Univ. 

Press, London. Pp. 58. 

Ibrahim, J. Yong, H. K., Dae, Y. S. & Byung, H. H. 1996. Inhibitory effects of Malaysian 

medicinal plants on the platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptor binding. Natural Product 

Science 2(2): Pp. 86–89. 

Nik Musaadah, M., Nur Muna, H. A. M. & Rasadah, M. A. 2004. Topical anti-inflammatory 

activity of L. pumila. In Proceedings of the Seminar on Medicinal Plants, 20–21 Aug. 

2002. Chang, Y. S. et al. (Eds.) FRIM, Kepong. Pp.168–170. 

Perry L. M. Medicinal Plants of East and Southeast Asia. 1980. M.I.T. Press, Massachusetts. 

Pp. 282. 

174

MALAYSIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Languas galanga Stuntz 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Lengkuas (Malaysia); khaa (Thailand); palla (Philippines); 

rieng, rieng kho, rieng nep, son nai (Viet Nam) 


Grows from rhizomes. The young stem sprouts out from the base of the old stem. Stem non-woody, 

soft, watery, smooth and green in colour. Leaves lanceolate with pointed end, 24–27 cm long, 

3.5– 11.5 cm wide; upper surface of leaf is dark green and lighter green underneath; leaf margin 

is wavy; petiole short, 1–1.5 cm long; ligule (tongue shaped), brown with very fine hairs. Flower 

terminal with a large peduncle, bell shaped, 12 cm long, greenish white. The number of flowers 

lower down the stalk is more (3–6) compared with the upper part (1–2); bract lanceolate, 

pointed, thin and glabrous. The size of the bract decreases towards the peak of the peduncle. 


It is cultivated in rather wet ground in Malaysia, Indo-China, Indonesia and Thailand. 



1-acetoxychavicol acetate, 1-hydroxychavicol acetate, a-terpineol, 4-hydroxybenzaldehyde, transconiferyl 

diacetate, trans-p-coumaryl diacetate, a-bergamotene, b-bisabolene, borneol, borneol 

acetate, butanol acetate, camphene, carveol I, carveol II, chavicol, chavicol acetate, citronellol 

acetate, a-copaene, curcumene, p-cymene, p-cymenol, eugenol methyl ether, 1-acetoxyeugenol 

acetate, trans-b-farnescene, geraniol acetate, a-humulene, limonene, myrcene, nerol acetate, 

pentadecane, linalool, propanol acetate, 2-methyl sabinene, santalene, b-sesquiphellandrene, g- 

terpinene, terpinolene, tridecane, caryophyllene oxide, 1-acetoxychavicol acetate, 1-hydroxycineol 

acetate, p-hydroxycinnamaldehyde, di-(p-hydroxy-cis-styryl)-methane, a-pinene, b-pinene, 

175


quercetin, kaempferol, quercetin-3-methyl ether, isorhamnetin, kaempferide, galangin and galangin- 

3-methyl ether 



Flavonoids from the rhizome showed antifungal activity against Trichophyton rubrum, 

T. mentagrophytes, Epidermophyton floccosum and other gram-positive and gramnegative 

bacteria. 


The rhizome is antiseptic. It is useful for fever, pityriasis versicolor, afterbirth, colic, 

ringworm, puerpera, flatulence, headache, borborygmus, desquamation of soles and hand, 

stomach-ache and diarrhoea, insanity and menstrual pain. It strengthens stomach and 

intestine, improves digestion and purifies blood. 


Not available 


A. Samad Ahmad. 1988. Warisan Perubatan Melayu. Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, Kuala 

Lumpur. Pp. 126. 

Barik, B. R., Kundu, A. B. & Dey, A. K. 1987. Two phenolic constinuents from Alpinia galanga 

rhizome. Phytochemistry 26: Pp. 2126–2127. 

Burkill, I. H. & Haniff, M. 1930. Garden Bulletin Straits Settlement.6: Pp. 268. 


of Agriculture, Malaysia. I & II: Pp. 1327–1332. 

De Pooter, H. L., Omar, M. N., Coolsaet, B. A. & Schamp, N. M. 1985. The essential oil of 

greater galanga (Alpinia galanga) from Malaysia. Phytochemistry 24: Pp. 93–96. 

Gimlette, J. D. & Haniff, M. 1930. Garden Bulletin Straits Settlement 6: Pp. 473. 

Gimlette, J. D. & Thomson, H. W. 1939. A Dictionary of Malayan Medicine, Oxford University 

Press. London. Pp. 145–146. 

Holtum, R. E. 1950. The Garden Bulletin Singapore 12: Pp. 142. 

Janssen, A. M. & Scheffer, J. J. C. 1985. Acetoxychavicol acetate, an antifungal component of 

Alpinia galangal. Planta Medica 50: Pp. 507–511. 

Janssen, A. M., Scheffeer, J. J. C. & Baerheim-Svendsen, A. 1985. Abstract International. 

Res. Congress Natural Product Coll. Pharm., University North Carolina. July 7–12. Pp. 

45. 

Leungsakul, S. 1987. Antipyogenic bacterial activities of extracts from six species of medicinal 

plants. 13th Symposium on Sciences and Technology of Thailand, Songkhla, Thailand, 20–22 

October 1987. 

176

MALAYSIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Mitragyna speciosa Korth. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Biak, biak-biak, ketom, kutum (Malaysia), kratom, krathom, 

ithang, kakuam or thom (Thailand) 


Large tree about 20 m height. Leaves orbicular or ovate blunt acuminate; base round cordate or 

narrowed, 5–15 cm long, 2.5–10 cm wide. Stipule obovate. Peduncles usually in threes, axillary, 

3–5.5 cm long; head 1.2 cm. Fruit head 1.2 cm, oblong-ovoid. 



It occurs is lowlands throughout Malaysia and Thailand. 


Ajmalicine, ajmaliene, aquamigine, apigenin, apigenin-7-O-glucoside, apigenin-7-Orhamnoglucoside, 

caffeic acids, ciliaphylline, corynantheidine, corynoxeine, corynoxines, 3- 

dehyromitragynine, epicatechin, 3-epiisorotundifoline, 9-hydroxyryhncophylline-type oxindoles, 

hyperoside, 3-isoajmalicine, isocorynantheidine, isopaynantheine, isomitrafoline, isomitraphylline, 

isorotundifoleine, isospeciofoline, isoquercitrin, isospecionoxeine, javaphylline, kaempferol, 

kaempferol-3-glucoside, mitraciliatine, mitrafoline, mitragynine, mitrajavine, mitraphylline, 

mitraspecine, mitraversine, oxyindole alkaloids, paynantheine, quercitin, quercitin-3-galactoside- 

7-rhamnoside, quercitrin, rhynchociline, rhynchophylline, rotundifoleine, rutin, speciociliatine, 

speciofoline, speciogynine, specionoxeine, speciophylline, stipulatine, uncarine 

177




Mitragyna speciosa possesses mild anti-narcotic activity. It has a morphine-like action 

on gastric acid secretion in the CNS (central nervous system). Its anti-depressant 

activity has no effect on the spontaneous motor activity. It has acute and long-term effects 

on food and water intake and body weight in rats. 

Alkaloid extract of the plant indicates an antinociceptive and /or antidepressive actions 

partly through activation of the dorsal raphe nucleus in rat CNS. 

7-hydroxymitragynine isolated from plant demonstrated induced more potent opioid 

antinociceptive effects and was less constipating than morphine. 

Indole-alkaloid mitragynine of the plant inhibits the contraction of the vas deferens produced 

by electrical transmural stimulation in guinea pig probably through its blockage of neuronal 

Ca 2+ channels. 

Administration mitragynine in mice contributes descending noradrenergic and serotonergic 

systems which are involved in the antinociceptive activity of supraspinally on the mechanical 

noxious stimulation, while the descending noradrenergic system predominantly contributes 

to the effect of supraspinal mitragynine on the thermal noxious stimulation and may differ 

from morphine in mice. 


The leaves are used as poultice to treat wound, fever and expel worms in the stomach 

and enlarged spleen. They are also used as analgesic, antidiarrhoea, antihelmintic, stimulant, 

fumitory, masticatory, mild narcotic and remedy for opium addiction. 


Not available 


Abdul Karim, A. G., Alam Shah, S. & A. Hasimah, 1991. Tissue culture and alkaloid production 

from Mitragyna speciosa Korth. In Medicinal Products from Tropical Rain Forests: 

Proceedings of the Conference, May 13–15 1991. Khozirah, S. et al. (Eds.) FRIM, Kepong. 

Pp. 228–230 

Beckett, A. H., Shellard, E. J., Phillipson, J. D. Calvin & Lee, M. 1965. Alkaloids from Mitragyna 

speciosa (Korth.). Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacology 17: 753–755 

Burkill I. H. 1966. A Dictionary of the Economic Product of the Malay Peninsula. Ministry 


Burkill, I.H & Haniff, M. 1930. The Garden’s Bull. Straits Settlement. Vol. 6. 

Chaudhury, R. R. 1986. Folklore herbal contraceptive and remedies. Trends in Pharmacological 

Sciences 7(4): 120–123. 

Emboden, W. 1979. Narcotic Plants. Macmillan Pub. Co., New York. 

178

MALAYSIA 

Goh, S. H., Chuah, C. H., Mok, J. S. L. & Soepadmo, E. 1995. Malaysian Medicinal Plants 

for the Treatment of Cardiovascular Disease. Pelanduk Pub., Kuala Lumpur. 

Harbone, J. B. & Baxter, H. 1993. Phytochemical Dictionary. Taylor & Francis, Baringstoke. 

Horie, S., Koyama, F., Takayama, H., Ishikawa, H., Aimi, N., Ponglux, D., Matsumoto, K. & 

Murayama, T. 2005. Indole alkaloids of a Thai medicinal herb, Mitragyna speciosa that has 

opioid agonistic effect in guinea-pig ileum. Planta Medica 71(3): 231–236. 

Jansen, K. L. R. & Prast, C. J. 1988. Ethnopharmacology of kratom and the Mitragyna alkaloids. 

Journal of Ethnopharmacology 23: 115–119. 

Malaysian Herbal Monograph Committee. 2009. Malaysian Herbal Monograph. Vol. 2. FRIM, 

Kuala Lumpur. 

Matsumoto, K., Mizowaki, M., Suchitra, T., Takayama, H., Sakai, S., Aimi, N. & Watanabe, H. 

1996. Antinociceptive action of mitragynine in mice: evidence for the involvement of supraspinal 

opioid receptors. Life Sciences 59(14): 1149–1155. 

Razak, H. L & Adenan, J. 2000. Siri Tumbuhan Beracun in Penawar Racun. PRN Bulletin, 

Penang. Vol. 30. 

Ridley, H. N. 1922. The Flora of the Malay Peninsula. Vol II. L. Reeve & Co. Ltd, London. 

Tsuchiya, S., Miyashita, S., Yamamoto, M., Horie, S., Sakai, S., Aimi, N., Takayama, H. & 

Watanabe, K. 2002. Effect of mitragynine, derived from Thai folk medicine, on gastric acid 

secretion through opioid receptor in anesthetized rats. European Journal of Pharmacology 

443(1-3): 185–188. 

Zarembo, J. E., Douglas, B., Valenta, J. & Jerry, A. W. 1974. Metabolites of Mitragynine. 

Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciences 63: 1407–1415. 

179


1.0 Scientific Name : Momordica charantia L. 

Family : Cucurbitaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Bitter melon, balsam apple, peria katak (Malaysia) 


Herbaceous, slender climber with tendril, slightly pubescent, the tendril up to 20 cm long. Leaves 

10–12 cm long, palmately 5–7 lobed; the lobes sinuate-dentate. Flowers yellow; peduncle with 

a reniform bracteole; corolla 1.5–2 cm long. Fruit obovoid or oblong-cylindric, coarsely ridged 

and bumpy-tuberculate, up to 20 cm long, orange or dark yellow when ripe. Seeds black covered 

with a soft, fleshy red aril, 12–16 mm long. 



Native to tropical Africa and Asia, it grows wild or is planted in house gardens throughout 

Southeast Asia. 


5-a-stigmasta-7,25-dien-3-betalol, 5-hydroxytryptamine, alkaloids, a-elaeostearic-acid ascorbigen, 

b-sitosterol-d-glucoside, charantin, citrulline, cryptoxanthin, elasterol, flavochrome, fluoride, gaba, 

galacturonic-acid, lanosterol,Lutein, lycopene, momordicin, momordicoside-F-1, momordicoside- 

F-2, momordicoside-G, momordicoside-I, mutachrome, oxalate, oxalic-acid, pipecolic-acid, 

polypeptide-p, rubixanthin, stigmasta-5,25-dien-3-b-ol, sugars, zeaxanthin, speciophylline, 

stipulatine, uncarine 

180

MALAYSIA 



In vivo studies 

i. Blood sugar-lowering effect of this bitter fruit. The fruit has also shown the ability 

to enhance cells’ uptake of glucose, to promote insulin release, and to potentiate 

the effect of insulin. 

ii. Bitter melon’s fruit and/or seed have been shown to reduce total cholesterol. 

Elevated cholesterol and triglyceride levels in diabetic rats were returned to normal 

after 10 weeks of treatment. 

iii. Antitumour activity of the entire plant of bitter melon. Water extract blocked the 

growth of rat prostate carcinoma; another study reported that a hot water extract 

of the entire plant inhibited the development of mammary tumours in mice. 

iv. The leaf extract increased resistance to viral infections and had an immunostimulant 

effect in humans and animals, increasing interferon production and natural killer 

cell activity. 

In vivo clinical studies 

i. The studies have demonstrated the relatively low toxicity of all parts of the bitter 

melon plant when ingested orally. However, toxicity and even death in laboratory 

animals have been reported when extracts were injected intravenously. 

ii. Other studies have shown extracts of the fruit and leaf (ingested orally) to be safe 

during pregnancy. 

iii. Other studies have shown extracts of the fruit and leaf (ingested orally) to be safe 

during pregnancy. The seeds, however, have demonstrated the ability to induce 

abortions in rats and mice, and the root has been documented as a uterine stimulant 

in animals. 

iv. The fruit and leaf of bitter melon have demonstrated an in vivo antifertility effect 

in female animals; and in male animals, to affect the production of sperm negatively. 

In vitro studies 

i. Numerous in vitro studies have also demonstrated the anticancerous and antileukemia 

activity of bitter melon against numerous cell lines, including liver cancer, 

human leukemia, melanoma, and solid sarcomas. 

ii. Antiviral activity against numerous viruses, including Epstein-Barr, herpes, and 

HIV viruses. 

iii. The leaf extracts of bitter melon have demonstrated broad-spectrum antimicrobial 

activity. Various extracts of the leaves have demonstrated in vitro antibacterial 

activities against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus, Pseudomonas, Salmonella, 

Streptobacillus and Streptococcus; an extract of the entire plant was shown to 

have antiprotozoal activity against Entamoeba histolytica. The fruit and fruit juice 

have demonstrated the same type of antibacterial properties and, in another study, 

a fruit extract demonstrated activity against the stomach ulcer-causing bacteria 

Helicobacter pylori. 


The leaves or whole plant is abortifacient and carminative, and used to treat earache, 

headache, asthma, boil, burn, bilious problems, cancer, colic, dysmenorrhoea, colitis, coughs, 

catarrh, chilblain, dysentery, diabetes, eruption, fever, gout, halitosis, hepatitis, hyperglycemia, 

181


itch, jaundice, leprosy, night-blindness, piles, poison, psoriasis, malaria, rheumatism, 

roundworms, sores, splenitis, stones, thrush, urethritis, and wounds. The plant is also used 

as astringent, lactogogue, refrigerant, soap, stomachic, tonic, depurative, emetic, laxative, 

purgative, styptic and vermifuge. 


· Bitter melon traditionally has been used as an abortive and has been documented with 

weak uterine stimulant activity; therefore, it is contraindicated during pregnancy. 

· This plant has been documented to reduce fertility in both males and females and should 

therefore not be used by those undergoing fertility treatment or seeking pregnancy. 

· The active chemicals in bitter melon can be transferred through breast milk; therefore, it 

is contraindicated in women who are breast feeding. 

· All parts of bitter melon (especially the fruit and seed) have demonstrated in numerous in 

vivo studies that they lower blood sugar levels. As such, it is contraindicated in persons 

with hypoglycemia. Diabetics should check with their physicians before using this plant 

and use with caution while monitoring their blood sugar levels regularly as the dosage of 

insulin medications may need adjusting. 

· Although all parts of the plant have demonstrated active antibacterial activity, none have 

shown activity against fungi or yeast. Long-term use of this plant may result in the die-off 

of friendly bacteria with resulting opportunistic overgrowth of yeast (Candida). Cycling 

off the use of the plant (every 21–30 days for one week) may be warranted, and adding 

probiotics to the diet may be beneficial if this plant is used for longer than 30 days. 


Ahmad, N., Hassan, M. R., Halder, H. & Bennor, K. S. 1999. Effect of Momordica charantia 

(karolla) extracts on fasting and postprandial serum glucose levels in NIDDM patients. 

Bangladesh Medical Research Council Bulletin 25(1): 11–13. 

Ahmed, I., Edeghate, E., Sharma, A. K., Pallot, D. J. Singh, J. 1998. Effects of Momordica 

charantia fruit juice on islet morphology in the pancreas of the streptozotocin-diabetic rat. 

Diabetes Research and Clinical Practice 40(3): 145–151. 

Akhtar, M. S. 1982. Trial of Momordica charantia Linn (Karela) powder in patients with 

maturity-onset diabetes. Journal of Pakistan Medical Association 32(4): 106–107. 

Basaran, A. A., Yu, T. W., Plewa, M. J. & Anderson, D. 1996. An investigation of some 

Turkish herbal medicines in Salmonella typhimurium and in the COMET assay in human 

lymphocytes. Teratogenesis Carcinogenesis and Mutagenesis 16(2): 125–138. 

Bourinbaiar, A. S. & Lee-Huang, S. 1996. The activity of plant-derived antiretroviral proteins 

MAP30 and GAP31 against herpes simplex virus in vitro. Biochemical and Biophysical 

Research Communications 219(3): 923–929. 

Claflin, A. J., Taylor, B., Claflin, L, Rudikoff, S. & Hood, L. 1978. Inhibition of growth and 

guanylate cyclase activity of an undifferentiated prostate adenocarcinoma by anextract of the 

balsam pear (Momordica charantia abbreviata). Proceedings of National Academy of 

Sciences of USA 75(2): 989–993. 

182

MALAYSIA 


http://www.rain-tree.com/bitmelon.htm. Database file for Bitter melon (Momordica charantia). 

7 August 2005. 

Lee-Huang S, Huang, P. L., Chen, H. C., Huang, P. L., Bourinbaiar, A. S., Huang, H. I. & Kung, 

H. F. 1995. Anti-HIV and anti-tumor activities of recombinant MAP30 from bitter melon. Gene 

161(2): 151–156. 

Lee-Huang S, Huang, P. L., Nara, P. L., Chen, H. C., Kung, H. F. Huang, P., Huang, H. I. & 

Huang, P. L. 1990. MAP 30: a new inhibitor of HIV-1 infection and replication. FEBS Lett. 

272(1-2): 12–18. 

Lee-Huang, S., Huang, P. L., Huang, P. L., Bourinbaiar, A. S., Chen, H. C. & Kung, H. F. 1995. 

Inhibition of the integrase of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) type 1 by anti-HIV plant 

proteins MAP30 and GAP31. Proceedings of National Academy of Sciences of USA 92(19): 

8818–22. 

Matsuda, H, Li, Y., Yamahara, J., Yoshikawa, M. 1999. Inhibition of gastric emptying by triterpene 

saponin, momordin Ic, in mice: roles of blood glucose, capsaicin-sensitive sensory nerves, and 

central nervous system. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 289(2): 

729–734. 

Matsuda, H., Li, Y., Murakami, T., Matsumura, N., Yamahara, J., Yoshikawa, M. 1998. Antidiabetic 

principles of natural medicines. III. Structure-related inhibitory activity and action mode of 

oleanolic acid glycosides on hypoglycemic activity. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 

(Tokyo) 46(9): 1399–1403. 

Matsuda, H., Murakami, T., Shimada, H., Matsumura, N., Yamahara, J., Yoshikawa, M. 1997. 

Inhibitory mechanisms of oleanolic acid 3-O-monodesmosides on glucose absorption in rats. 

Biological and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 20(6): 717–719. 

Muhammed, M. & Prakash, L. 1997. Alternative medicine goes mainstream for better health 

care delivery. Paper presented at the 49th Indian Pharmaceutical Congress, Thiruvananthpuram, 

December 18–21, 1997. 

Platel, K. & Srinivasan, K. 1997. Plant foods in the management of diabetes mellitus: vegetables 

as potential hypoglycaemic agents. Nahrung 41(2): 68–74. 

Quisumbing, E. 1978. Medicinal Plants of the Philippines. Katha Publishing Co. Inc. 

Raza, H., Ahmad, I., John, A. & Sharma, A. K. 2000. Modulation of xenobiotic metabolism and 

oxidative stress in chronic streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats fedwith Momordica charantia 

fruit extract. Journal of Biochemical and Molecular Toxicology 14(3): 131–139. 

Sarkar, S, Pranava, M. & Rosalind, M. A. 1996. Demonstration of the hypoglycemic action of 

Momordica charantia in a validated animal model of diabetes. Pharmacology Research 

33(1): 1–4. 

Takemoto, D. J., Jilka, C., Rockenbach, S. & Hughes, J. V.1983. Purification and characterization 

of a cytostatic factor with anti-viral activity from the bitter melon. Preparative Biochemistry 

and Biotechnology 13(4): 371–393. 

183


Takemoto, D. J., Jilka, C., Rockenbach, S. & Hughes, J. V. 1983. Purification and characterization 

of a cytostatic factor with anti-viral activity from the bitter melon. Preparative Biochemistry 

and Biotechnology 13(5): 397–421 

Takemoto, D. J., Jilka, C. & Kresie, R. 1982. Purification and characterization of a cytostatic 

factor from the bitter melon Momordica charantia. Preparative Biochemistry and 

Biotechnology 12(4): 355–375. 

Takemoto, D. J., Kresie, R. & Vaughn, D. 1980. Partial purification and characterization of a 

guanylate cyclase inhibitor with cytotoxic properties from the bitter melon (Momordica 

charantia). Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications 94(1): 332–339. 

Takemoto, D.J., Dunford, C., Vaughn, D., Kramer, K, Smith, A. & Powell. 1982. Guanylate 

cyclase activity in human leukemic and normal lymphocytes. Enzyme inhibition and cytotoxicity 

of plant extracts. Enzyme 27(3): 179–788. 

Zhang, Q. C. 1992. Preliminary report on the use of Momordica charantia extract by HIV 

patients. J. Naturopath. Med. 3: 65–69. 

184

MALAYSIA 

1.0 Scientific Name : Ocimum bacilicum L. 

Synonyms : O. album L., O. americanum Jacq., O. barreleiri Roth., 

O. caryophyllatum Roxb., O. citriodorum Blanco, O. 

graveolens R.Br., O. hispidum Lamk., O. integerrimim 

Willd., O. menthaefolium Benth., O. petitianum Rich. O. 

pilosum Willd. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Selasih (Malaysia); sweet basil (English); tulsi (India) 


A bushy, much branched, aromatic herb or shrublet, up to 1.3 m height. Stem and inflorescence 

often purplish. Leaves small, oval, 2–3 cm long, 1.2 cm wide; margins with tiny teeth or none. 

Inflorescence 7.7–20.5 cm long. Flowers in whorls spaced, white or purplish. Seeds small, 

black. 

4.0 Propagation : Seeds 


Native to Asia. It is cultivated in house gardens in open and semi-shaded areas. 


Chemical constituents with commercial potential: Anethole, apigenin, b-bisabolene, carvone, 

caryophyllene, esculetin, esculin, myrcene, p-coumaric acid, essential oil (anethole, cineole, eugenol, 

linalol, methyl chavicol, ocimene, pinene, terpene hydrate) 

Other chemicals: Acetic acid, ascobic acid, a-amorphene, cis-anethole, trans-anethole, 

benzylacetate, benzy alcohol, a-bergamotene, a-bisabolol, borneol, borneol acetate, b-bourbonene, 

185


a-bulnesene, butyric acid, a-, b-, d-, g-cadinene, 5,10(15)-cadinen-4-ol, b-cadinol, T-cadinol, caffeic 

acid, caffeic acid-N-butylester, calamene, camphene, camphor, caproic acid, b-carotene, b- 

caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, a- and b-cedrene, chavicol, chavicolmethylether, cinnamic 

acid-methylester, cis-cinnamic acid methylester, trans-cinnamic acid, trans-cinnamic acidmethylester, 

1,8-cineole, citral, citronellol, a-copaene, a- and b-cubebene, cyclosativene, b-cymene, 

p-cymene, a-p-dimethylstyrene, b- and g-elemene, elemol, epibicyclosesquiphellandrene, 1-epibicyclosesquiphellandrene, 

2-epi-a-cedrene, eriodictyol, eriodictyol-7-O-glucoside, estragole, 

eugenol, eugenol-methyl ether, farnesol, a-farnesene, (E)-b-farnesene, (Z)-b-farnesene, fenchone, 

a-fenchene, fenchyl acetate, fenchyl alcohol, furfural, D-galacturonic acid, geranial, geraniol, 

geranyl acetate, germacrene D, a- and d-guaiene, g-gurjunene, cis-3-hexenol, humulene, a- 

humulene, humulene epoxide, hydroxy benzoic acid-4-b-D-glucoside, isocaryophyllene, isoeugenol, 

isoeugenolmethylether, isoquercitrin, juvocimene-I, juvocimene-II, kaempferol, kaempferol-3- 

O-b-D-rutinoside, ledene, limonene, cis-limonene, linalyl acetate, luteolin, D-mannuronic acid, 

menthol, menthone, p-methoxycinnamaldehyde, methylchavicol, methylcinnamate, methylthymol, 

methyleugenol, mucilage, a- and g-muurolene, b-myrcene, neral, nerol, nerolidiol, nerolidol, niacin, 

b-ocimene, cisocimene, trans-ocimene, cis-allo-ocimene, trans-allo-ocimene, octanol, 1 -octen- 

3-ol, 3-octanone, oleanolic acid, orientin, phellandrene, phenylethyl alcohol, a- and b-pinene, 

planteose, propionic acid, quercetin, quercetin-3-O-diglucoside, riboflavin, rosmarinic acid, 

sabinene, cis-sabinenehydrate, trans-sabinene-hydrate, safrole, salicylic acid-2-b-D-glucoside, 

sambulene, a- and b-santalene, a- and b-selinene, sesquithujene, stigmasterol, b-sitosterol, suceinic 

acid, syringic acid-4-b-D-glucoside, syringoyl-glucose, tannin, a- and g-terpinene, terpinen-4-ol, 

a-terpineol, terpinolene, a-terpinylacetate, thiamin, a- and b-thujone, thymol, tricyclene, 

undecylaldehyde, ursolic acid valerie acid, vanillic acid-4-b-D-gIucoside, vicenin-2, xanthomicrol, 

xi-bulgarene; amino acids, fatty acids (linoleic acid, linolenic acid, oleic acid, palmitic acid, stearic 

acid); minerals, phytosterols, sugars (D-arabinose, D-galactose, D-glucose, D-mannose, L- 

rhamnose, xylose) 



i. Pharmacological effects – In traditional Ayurvedic system of medicine, several 

medicinal properties have been attributed to this plant. Recent pharmacological 

studies have established the anabolic, hypoglycemic, smooth muscle relaxant, cardiac 

depressant, antifertility, adaptogenic and immunomodulator properties of this plant. 

ii. Antimicrobial effects – Essential oil of tulsi has antibacterial, antifungal and antiviral 

properties. It inhibits the growth of E. coli, B. anthracis, M. tuberculosis, etc. Its 

antitubercular activity is one-tenth the potency of streptomycin and one-fourth that 

of isoniazid. Preparations containing tulsi extract significantly shorten the course 

of illness, clinical symptoms and the biochemical parameters in patients with viral 

hepatitis and viral encephalitis. 

iii. Antimalarial effects – Essential oil of tulsi has been reported to possess 100% 

larvicidal activity against the Culex mosquitoes. Trials have shown excellent 

antimalarial activity of tulsi. Its extracts have marked insecticidal activity against 

mosquitoes. Its repellant action lasts for about two hours. 

iv. Antiallergic and immunomodulator effects – Essential oil of tulsi was found to 

have antiallergic properties. When administered to laboratory animals, the compound 

was found to inhibit mast cell degranulation and histamine release in the presence 

of allergen. These studies reveal the potential role of O. sanctum extracts in the 

management of immunological disorders including allergies and asthma. 

186

MALAYSIA 

v. Antistress/adaptogenic effects - Extracts from the plant have been found to reduce 

stress. 

vi. Antifertility effect – One of the major constituents of the leaves, ursolic acid, has 

been reported to possess antifertility activity in rats and mice. This effect has been 

attributed to its antiestrogenic effect which may be responsible for arrest of 

spermatogenesis in males and inhibitory affection implantation of ovum in females. 

This constituent may prove to be a promising antifertility agent devoid of side 

effects. 

vii. 

viii. 

ix. 

Antidiabetic effect – A randomized, placebo-controlled cross-over single blind trial 

on 40 human volunteers suffering from Type II diabetes was performed. During 

the four week trial, subjects alternately received a daily dose of 2.5 g of tulsi leaf 

powder or a placebo for two-week periods. The results showed 17.6 % reduction 

in fasting blood glucose and 7.3% decline in postprandial blood glucose on treatment 

with tulsi as compared with the blood glucose levels during treatment with placebo. 

For Heart ailments – As tulsi (basil) has a positive effect over blood pressure and 

also is a detoxicant, its regular use prevents heart attacks. A tonic may be prepared 

by mixing 1 gm of dry leaves with a spoonful of butter and some candy sugar or 

honey. Take twice a day first thing in the morning and before going to bed at night. 

Other effects – The leaves in the form of a paste are used in parasitical diseases 

of the skin and also applied to the finger and toe nails during fever when the limbs 

are cold. The juice of the leaves is given in catarrh and bronchitis in children. The 

plant is said to have carminative, diaphoretic and stimulant properties. A decoction 

of the plant is used for coughs and also as mouth wash for relieving toothache. It 

is good for headache, convulsions, cramps, fevers and cholera. 


Uses described in pharmacopoeias and in traditional system of medicine: 

Basil oil combined with other oil is used in: 

i. wound treatment, rheumatic discomfort, colds, bruises, painful joints, irrigation 

therapy; 

ii. maintenance and stimulation of sexual capacity, prevention of sexual fatigue in 

male and female, prevention of frigidity in male and female; 

iii. supportive treatment for infections of lower urinary tract, as well as inflammations 

of kidneys, bladder and urethra; 

iv. nasal catarrh, temporary shortness of breath, fatigue, cough, congestion, muscle 

pain, nerve pain, pain in the limbs (neuralgia), lumbago, sprains, dislocations, 

contusions, heartburn, flatulence, bad breath, travel fatigue, inflammation, oral 

hygiene, air quality improvement, foot bath, bath additives; 

v. supportive therapy for massages used as warm-up procedures of the muscles 

before sports activities and particularly exertions in order to prevent muscle sprains 

and muscle spasms and their consequences, and for massages of hardened muscle 

parts. 

Uses described in folk medicine, not supported by experimental or clinical data: 

The juice of the leaves is used to cure ringworm infections, as cough remedy and a nasal 

douche in myosis and irregular menstrual cycles. Leaves are a diuretic and a stimulant 

for weak digestion. The leaf is used in treating high fever and after childbirth, to possess 

narcotic effect which helps to ease itchiness in the throat, to relieve stomach-ache and 

stimulate bowel movement. The seed are mucilaginous and cooling, and used to treat 

187


gonorrhoea, diarrhoea, and chronic dysentery. The jelly is used for treating intestinal 

troubles in children, kidney trouble and diarrhoea. 


Not available 


Adirukmini et al. 1995. Types of basil (Ocimum sp.) found in Malaysia. In Proceedings of the 

International Conference on the use of Traditional Medicine & Other Natural Products 

in Health Care. 

Barghava, K.P and Singh, N. 1981. Anti-stress activity of Ocimum sanctum Linn. Indian 

Journal of Medical Research 73: 443–451. 

Burkil I. H. 1966. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. Volume 

2. Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 

Rajasekaran, M. Sudhakaran, C., Pradhan, S. C., Bapna, J. S. & Nair, A. G. R. 1989. Mast cell 

protective activity of ursolic acid á-triterpene from the leaves of Ocimum sanctum. Journal of 

Drug Development 2(3): 179–182. 

Banerjee, S., Prashar, R., Kumar, A. & Rao, A. R. 1996. Modulatory influence of alcoholic 

extract of Ocimum leaves on carcinogen-metabolizing enzymes activities and reduced glutation 

leveld in mouse. Nutrition and Cancer 25(2): 205–217. 

Agarwal, P., Rai, V. & Singh, R. B. 1996. Randomised placebo – controlled, single blind trial of 

holy basil leaf in patients with noninsulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. International Journal of 

Clinical Pharmacology, Therapy and Toxicology 34(9): 406–409. 

Betty, P. J & Derek, W. S. 1974. Powdered Vegetable Drugs: An atlas of Microscopy for 

use in the Identification and Authentication of some Plant Materials Employed as 

Medicinal Agents. Stanley Thornes Ltd, London, Great Britain. 

Brown, D. 2002. The Royal Horticultural Society New Encyclopedia of Herbs & Their 

Uses. Dorling Kindersley Limited, Britain. 

Chavan, S. R. & Nikam S. T. 1982. Mosquito larvicidal activity of Ocimum basilicum Linn. 

Indian Journal of Medical Research 75: 220–222. 

Henderson, M.R. 1951. Malayan Wild Flowers: Dicotyledons. Malayan Nature Society, 

Kuala Lumpur. 

Indu, B. I. & Ng, L.T. 2000. Herbs: The Green Pharmacy of Malaysia, Malaysian Agriculture 

Research and Development Institute, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 

Jayaweera, D. M. A. 1981. Medicinal Plants Used in Ceylon. Part 3,. The National Science 

Council of Sri Lanka, Colombo. 

188

MALAYSIA 

Kusamran, W. R., Ratanavila, A. & Tepsuwan, A. 1998. Effect of neem flowers, Thai and 

Chinese bitter gourd fruits and sweet basil leaves on hepatic monooxygenases and glutathione 

s-transferase activities, and in vitro metabolic activation of chemical carcinogens in rats. Food 

and Chemical Toxicology 36(6): 475–484. 

Lachowicz, K. J., Jones, G. P., Briggs, D. R., Bienvenu, F. E., Wan, J., Wilcock, A. & Coventry, 

M. I 1998.The synergistic preservative effect of the essential oil of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum 

L.). Letters in Applied Microbiology 26(3): 209–214. 

Ridley, H.N. 1922. The Flora of the Malay Peninsula. Vol II. L. Reeve & Co. Ltd, London. 

Simon JE, Quinn I & Murray RG. 1990. Basil: A source of essential oil. In: Janick I & Simon JE 

(Eds.). Advances in New Crops. Timber press, Portland, USA. Pp. 484–489 

The Complete German Commission E Monographs. 1998. Therapeutic Guide to Herbal 

Medicines. American Botanical Council, Austin, Texas, USA. 

189


1.0 Scientific Name : Phyllanthus amarus Schumach. & Thonn. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Meniran, rami buah, dukung anak (Malaysia ); stone breaker, 

seed on the leaf, child pick-a-back (English) 


Glabrous weedy herb 30 to 40 cm tall. Leaves distichous oblong or elliptic-obovate subsessile, 

0.5 cm long, 0.2 cm wide; petiole minute or none. Stipule subulate, base broad. Male flowers 

solitary or in pair, very minute. Female flowers twice as large. Fruit globose, smooth, on underside 

of leaf rachis. Seeds pale brown with 6–7 straight longitudinal ribs. 



It is widely distributed in tropical countries and easily grows at wet and shaded places. 


3,5,7-trihydroxyflavonal-4'-O-a-1(-)-rhamnopyranoside, 4-methoxynorsecuri-nine, 4-methoxysecurinine, 

5,3',4'-trihydroxyflavonone-7-O-a-1-(-)-rhamnopyranoside, astragalin, brevifolincarboxylic 

acid, cymene, hypophyllanthin, limonene, lintetralin, lupa-20(29)-ene-3-b-ol, lupa-20(29)- 

ene-3-b-ol-acetate, lupeol, methyl salicylate, niranthin, nirtetralin, niruretin, nirurin, niruriside, 

phyllanthin, phyllochrysine, phyltetralin, quercetin, quercetin-heteroside, quercetol, quercitrin, rutin, 

saponins, triacontanal, tricontanol, geraniin 

190

MALAYSIA 



i. In 1990, the Paulista School of Medicine in São Paulo, Brazil, conducted studies 

with humans and rats with kidney stones. They were given a simple tea of P. 

amarus for 1–3 months and it was reported that the tea promoted the elimination 

of stones. They also reported a significant increase in urine output as well as 

sodium and creatine excretion. 

ii. In a 1999 in vitro clinical study, a P. amarus extract exhibited the ability to block 

the formation of calcium oxalate crystals (the building blocks of most kidney stones) 

which indicates that it might be a useful preventative aid for people with a history 

of kidney stones. 

iii. In a 2002 in vivo study, researchers seeded the bladders of rats with calcium 

oxalate crystals and treated them for 42 days with a water extract. The results 

indicated that P. amarus strongly inhibited the growth and number of stones formed 

over the control group. Several of the animals even passed the stones which did 

form. In 2003 scientists confirmed in vitro that P. amarus could help prevent the 

formation of kidney stones. 

iv. In the mid-1980s the antispasmodic and muscle relaxant properties activity of P. 

amarus was observed. In 1990, Nicole Maxwell reported that Dr. Wolfram 

Wiemann (of Nuremburg, Germany) treated over 100 kidney stone patients with P. 

amarus obtained in Peru and found it to be 94% successful in eliminating stones 

within a week or two. 

v. In a 2002 study, Indian researchers reported that P. amarus increased bile acid 

secretion in the gallbladder and significantly lowered blood cholesterol levels in 

rats. The beneficial effects of lowering cholesterol and triglyceride levels was also 

confirmed by another in vivo (rat) study in 1985. 

vi. The hypotensive effects were first reported in a dog study in 1952. The hypotensive 

effects were attributed to a specific phytochemical in P. amarus called geraniin in 

a 1988 study. In 1995 Indian researchers gave human subjects with high blood 

pressure P. amarus leaf powder in capsules and reported a significant reduction in 

systolic blood pressure, a significant increase in urine volume and sodium excretion. 

vii. In the above 1995 study, researchers also reported that blood sugar levels were 

reduced significantly in human subjects studied. Two other studies with rabbits and 

rats document the hypoglycemic effect of P. amarus in diabetic animals. Aldose 

reductases are substances that act on nerve endings exposed to high blood sugar 

concentration and can lead to diabetic neuropathy and macular degeneration. 

Substances which inhibit these substances can prevent some of the chemical 

imbalances that occur and thus protect the nerve. 

viii. Another area of research has focused on the pain-relieving effects of P. amarus 

and was performed at a Brazilian university. So far, they have published six studies 

on their findings. The first three studies reported strong and dose-dependent painrelieving 

effects in mice given extracts of chanca piedra against six different 

laboratory-induced pain models. In 1996, they isolated and tested P. amarus 

hypotensive plant chemical geraniin and reported that it was seven times more 

potent as a pain-reliever than aspirin or acetaminophen. Their last two studies 

(published in 2000) continued to document chanca piedra’s pain-relieving effects 

against normal pain models in mice, and, newly-tested nerve-related pain models. 

Again, they related this effect to the geraniin plant chemical and reported its ability 

191


to inhibit several neurotransmitter processes that relay and receive pain signals in 

the brain. 

ix. The liver-protecting activity of P. amarus has been established with clinical research 

with animals and humans. These effects have been attributed to (at least) two 

novel plant chemicals in P. amarus named phyllanthin and hypophyllanthin. The 

researchers who reported the cholesterol-lowering effects also reported that P. 

amarus protected rats from liver damage induced by alcohol, and normalized a 

“fatty liver.” One in vitro study and four in vivo studies (with rats and mice) 

document that extracts of P. amarus effectively protect against liver damage from 

various chemical liver toxins. Two human studies reported P. amarus liver protective 

and detoxifying actions in children with hepatitis and jaundice. Indian researchers 

reported that P. amarus was an effective single drug in the treatment of jaundice 

in children, and British researchers reported that children treated with a P. amarus 

extract for acute hepatitis had liver function return to normal within five days. 

Researchers in China also reported liver protective actions when P. amarus was 

given to adults with chronic hepatitis. 

x. A 2000 study even documented that P. amarus increased the life-span of mice 

with liver cancer from thirty-three weeks (control group without treatment) to 

fifty-two weeks. Another research group tried to induce liver cancer in mice that 

had been pretreated with a water extract of P. amarus. Their results indicated the 

P. amarus extract dose-dependently lowered tumour incidence, levels of carcinogenmetabolizing 

enzymes, levels of liver cancer markers, and liver injury markers. 

Both studies indicate that the plant has a better ability to prevent and slow down 

the growth of tumours rather than a direct toxic effect or ability to kill cancer cells. 


The whole plant is used as an antihepatotoxic, antihypertensive, antidysenteric, purgative, 

emmenagogue, febrifuge, stomachic and diuretic. It is used internally in treatment of 

jaundice, dropsy, genito-urinary infections, blennorrhagia, colic, diabetes, dysentery, fever, 

flu, tumours, jaundice, vaginitis and dyspepsia. It is used externally for cuts, bruises, ulcers, 

sores and swelling. 


· Phyllanthus amarus has demonstrated hypotensive effects in animals and humans. People 

with a heart condition and/or taking prescription heart medications should consult their 

doctor before taking this plant. It may be contraindicated for some individuals with heart 

conditions and/or heart medications that may need monitoring and adjusting. 

· Phyllanthus amarus has been considered in herbal medicine to be abortive (at high 

dosages) as well as a menstrual promoter. While not studied specifically in humans or 

animals, animal studies do indicate it has uterine relaxant effects. It should therefore be 

considered contraindicated during pregnancy. 

· Phyllanthus amarus has been documented with female antifertility effects in one mouse 

study (the effect was reversed 45 days after cessation of dosing). While this effect has 

not been documented in humans, the use of the plant is probably contraindicated in women 

seeking pregnancy or taking fertility drugs. This effect has not been substantiated 

sufficiently to be used as a contraceptive, however, and should not be relied on for such. 

192

MALAYSIA 

· Phyllanthus amarus has demonstrated hypoglycemic effects in animals and humans. It 

is contraindicated for people with hypoglycemia. Diabetics should consult their doctor 

before taking this plant as insulin medications may need monitoring and adjusting. 

· Phyllanthus amarus has been documented in human and animal studies with diuretic 

effects. Chronic and acute use of this plant may be contraindicated in various other 

medical conditions where diuretics are not advised. Chronic long-term use of any diuretic 

can cause electrolyte and mineral imbalance; however, human studies witj P. amarus 

(for up to three months of chronic use) has not reported any side effects. Consult your 

doctor if you choose to use this plant chronically for longer than three months concerning 

possible side effects of long term diuretic use. 


Agrawal, S. S., Garg, A. & Agrawal, S. 1986. Screening of Phyllanthus niruri Linn. and 

Ricinus communis Linn. on alcohol-induced liver cell damage in non- hepatectomized and partially 

hepatectomized rats. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 18(4): 211–214 

Duke, J. & Vasque, R. 1994. Amazonian Ethnobotanical Dictionary. CRC Press Inc., Boca 

Raton, FL. 

Goh, S. H., Chuah, C. H., Mok J. S. L. & Soepadmo, E. 1995. Malaysian Medicinal Plants 

for the Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases. Pelandok Publication Sdn. Bhd. Kuala 

Lumpur. 

http://rain-tree.com/chanca.htm. Database file on Phyllanthus niruri. 8 August 2005. 

Indu B.J. & Ng, L. T. 2000. Herbs: The Green Pharmacy of Malaysia. Malaysian Agricultural 

Research and Development Institute (MARDI), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia. 

Materia Medika Indonesia Jilid II. 1978. Departemen Kesehatan Republik Indonesia, Jakarta, 

Indonesia. 

Ridley, H.N. 1922. The Flora of the Malay Peninsula. Vol. III. L. Reeve & Co. Ltd, London. 

Ueno H, Horie S, Nishi Y, Shogawa H, Kawasaki M, Suzuki S, Hayashi T, Arisawa M, Shimizu 

M, Yoshizaki M, et al. 1988. Chemical and pharmaceutical studies on medicinal plants in Paraguay, 

Geraniin, an angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor from “Paparai mi”, Phyllanthus niruri. 

Journal of Natural Products 51(2): Pp. 357–359. 

193


1.0 Scientific Name : Rafflesia hasseltii Suringar 

Family : Rafflesiaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Bunga pakma (Malaysia) 


Parasitic herb growing on the roots or branches of other plants. The plant body is almost wholly 

within the host plant. The flower and fruit are the only parts of the plant outside the tissue of the 

host plant. The bud breaking through the bark of the host looks like a large brown cabbage. The 

flower is very large, very thick and fleshy, but not long lasting. The average size of the flower is 

30–40 cm across, radially symmetrical, epigynous; the ovary inferior or partly so. Sepals very 

large, 4–16; petals none; stamens numerous, without stalk arranged round a fleshy column, the 

top of which forms the stigma. The pollen chamber opening by slits or apical pores; carpel 4– 

8; the ovary 1-chambered; placenta parietal; ovules numerous. Fruit is a berry. 



Found throughout Malaysia, Indonesia (Sumatra, Java and Kalimantan), Brunei Darussalam, 

Thailand (southern provinces) and the Philippines. It grows only on the roots and stems of two 

species of vines belonging to the grape family, Terastigma leucostaphylum and T. diepenhostii. 


No report found 

194

MALAYSIA 



Not available 


The flower is astringent and an aphrodisiac for women. It is reported to be used as afterbirth 

medication for (purifies uterus), after menstruation and to expedite delivery. 


Not available 


Burkill I. H. 1966. The Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. 

Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. I & II: Pp. 1894–1895. 

Burkill, I. H. & Haniff, M. 1930. Malay Village Medicine, Garden Bulletin Straits Settlement. 

6: Pp. 240. 

Dawn, J. 1994. Rafflesia in Temenggor. Malayan Naturalist 47: Pp. 26–27. 

Meijer, W. & Wong, M. 1993. Rafflesia cantleyl and R. hasseltii compared. Malayan 

Naturalist.47: Pp. 10–12. 

195


1.0 Scientific Name : Smilax myosotiflora A. DC. 

Family : Smilacaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Ubi jaga, ubi besi, keranting, itah besi, akar ding (Malaysia) 


Herbaceous climber; stem slender but very tough and rigid; branching loosely, light green and 

very smooth. Presence of nodes and internodes about 2–15 cm long. Occasionally rooting occurs 

at the nodes and adheres to the ground. Leaves lanceolate or broadly elliptic. Base of leaf is 

broad and gradually cuneated or suddenly accuminated apex, 8–17 cm long, 2–15 cm broad, 

grass green on adaxial side while paler green on abaxial side of leaf; densely veined; marginal 

nerves slightly thickened; petiole 7–25 mm long. Tendrils 6–13 cm, long, slender, often becoming 

brownish. Inflorescence umbels and axillary together with tendrils; peduncles 1–4 cm long; 

pistilate umbels 8–14 flowered; staminate perianth yellow-green 3.5–4.2 mm long, 4–5 mm 

wide, connate, lobed to 2.5 from top; outer lobes oblong, 1.5 mm wide, inner lobes half as long as 

outer ones. 



It is common in lowlands and in the hills forest. 


No report found 

196

MALAYSIA 


7.1 Uses supported by clinical data: 

Not available 


The tuber has an aphrodisiac property and it is used to treat syphilis. 


Not available 


Burkill, I. H. 1966. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula, 

Ministry of Agriculture, Malaysia I & II: Pp. 2075. 

Gimlette, J. D.& Burkill, I. H. 1930. The Garden Bulletin Straits Settlement. Pp. 470. 

197


1.0 Scientific Name : Stemona tuberosa Lour. 

Family : Stemonaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Galak tua, janggut adam (Malaysia) 


Herb with upright, twining slender stems. Leaves alternate, heart shaped in outline with an 

abrupt, narrow pointed end, dark green, usually about 10 x 7 cm, sometimes reaching twice this 

size; leaf stalk about 7 cm long; leaf has prominent longitudinal ribs and fine, close cross-veins; 

rib about 7–13. Flower arises from leaf axils; individual flower stalk is about 3 cm long, jointed 

in the middle, long narrow, deep purple to pink; lobes narrowly elliptical in outline. 

4.0 Propagation : Root tuber 


It is found throughout Peninsular Malaysia to South Thailand, Central China, Taiwan, India and 

Indo-China. 


Root tuber: Fluoride, stemonal, stemonone, stemonidine, stemotinine, iso-stemotinine, stemonine, 

stenine, tuberostemonine, tuberostemonone 



The root tubers are used as antiparasitic and antimicrobial towards Streptococcus 

pneumoniae, b-haemolytic Streptococcus, Neisseria meningitidis and Staphylococcus 

198

MALAYSIA 

aureus. Various preparations of the tubers also showed better than 85% effectiveness in 

treating pertussis. The tuber is useful for pulmonary tuberculosis, coughs, skin diseases 

and as a vermifuge. 


Not available 


Not available 


Bensky, D. & Gamble, A. 1986. Chinese Herbal Medicine: Materia Medica. revised edition, 

Eastland Press Inc., USA. Pp. 202–203. 

Chu, J. H. & Young, P. T. 1955. Hua Hsueh Hsueh Pao 21: Pp. 173–177. 

Etude botanique, clinique et pharmacodynamique de la racine de ‘Stemona tuberosa’ (drogue 

vermifuge sinoannamite). 

Journal of crystallographic and spectroscopic research. Pp. 26–34. 

Keys, J. D. 1976. Chinese Herbs: Their Botany, Chemistry and Pharmacodynamics. 

Charles E. Tuttle Co., Japan. Pp. 71. 

Lin, W. H., Xu, R. S., Wang, R. J., Mak, T. C. W. 1991. Crystal and molecular structure of 

tuberostemonone. Journal Crystallogr. Spectrosc. Refs. 21: Pp. 189–194. 

Lobstein, J. E. & Grumbach, J. 1932. Bulletin Science Pharmacology. 39: 26. 

Malaysian Monograph Committee. 1999. Malaysian Herbal Monograph. Pp. 71–73. 

Perry, L. M. 1980. Medicinal Plants of East and Southeast Asia. MIT Press, Massachusetts. 

Pp. 397. 

Roengsamran, S. 1973. Master thesis, Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn University, Thailand. 

Pp. 43. 

Sakai, T., Kobashi, K., Tsunezuka, M., Hattori, M. & Namba, T. 1985. Studies on dental caries 

prevention by traditional Chinese medicines (Part VI). On the fluoride contents in crude drugs. 

Shoyakugaku Zasshi. 39: Pp. 165–169. 

Willaman, J. J. & Li, H. L. 1970. Alkaloid-bearing plants and their contained alkaloids. Lloydia. 

33: 286. 

Xu, R. S., Lu, Y. J., Chu, J. H., Iwashita, T., Naoki, H., Naya, Y. & Nakanishi, K. 1982. Studies 

on some new stemona alkaloids: A diagnostically useful 1 H-NMR line-broadening effect. 

Tetrahedron. 38: 2667–2670. 

199


1.0 Scientific Name : Zingiber officinale Rosc. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Halia (Malaysia); kinkh, khing-daen (Thailand); 

gung, sinh khuong (Viet Nam), luya (Philippines) 


An upright herb; soft non-woody stem. Rhizome is light yellow in whorl, aromatic smell and 

slightly hot in taste; the stem grows from the rhizome and may reach up to 50 cm tall, covered 

with leaf-sheath. Leaf is linear-lanceolate, about 17 cm long, 1.8 cm wide, dark green, smooth 

on the upper surface and slightly rough on the underneath which is covered with very fine hairs; 

ligule light green in colour. Flower in the axil of each bract; the bracts are arranged in whorl; 

corolla tube is 2–2.5 cm long that is slightly longer than bractea and consists of 3 separated 

lobes, the dorsal lobe broader 12 mm by 10 mm, light purple with yellow spots. The other two 

lobes are 6 mm by 4 mm, yellowish green. 



It is cultivated in all tropical countries. 


Acetaldehyde, acetone, n-butyraldehyde, diethyl sulfide, ethyl acetate, n-heptane, methyl acetate, 

n-nonane, n-nonanol, nonyl aldehyde, n-octane, propionaldehyde, ethyl isopropyl sulfide, methyl 

allyl sulfide, isovaleraldehyde, (+)-borneol, chavicol, benzaldehyde, 2-hydroxy-1,8-cineol, cisgeranic 

acid, trans-geranic acid, 6-methylhept-5-en-2-ol, hexanol, linalool oxide, p- 

mentha-1,5-dien-7-ol, p-mentha-2,8-dien-1-ol, p-mentha-1-5-dien-8-ol, p-metha-1,8-dien-7-ol, 

nerol oxide, 2,6-dimethylocta-2,6-diene-1,8-diol, 2,6-dimethylocta-3,7-diene-1,6-diol, octan-2-ol, 

n-octanol, cis-selinen-4-ol, 1,8-terpinen hydrate, 4-terpineol, a-ylangene, acetic acid, 

200

MALAYSIA 

aromadendrene, 3-phenylbenzaldehyde, 4-phenylbenzaldehyde, bornyl acetate, a-cadinol, 

calamenene, camphene hydrate, d-car-3-ene, cedorol, citronellyl acetate, ethyl myristate, farnesol, 

geranyl acetate, guaiol, 6-methylhept-5-en-2-one, 2,2,4-trimethylheptane, cis-hexan-3-ol, hexanol, 

b-himachalene, b-ionone, juniper camphor, trans-linalool oxide, menthol acetate, methyl nonyl 

ketone, a-muurolene, g-muurolene, 9-oxonerolidol, trans-octen-2-al, patchouli alcohol, pirellen, 

n-propanol, neoisopulegol, a-selinene, b-selinen, cis-sesquiabinene hydrate, sesquiphellandrene, 

terpinen-4-ol, b-thujone, alloaromadendrene, d-cadinene, p-cymen-8-ol, b-elemene, g-eudesmol, 

isoeugenol methyl ether, farnesal, a-farnesene, trans-b-farnesene, fluoride, furfural, heptan-2-one, 

hexanal, trans-nerolidol, nonan-2-one, octanal, perillene, myrtenal, rosefuran, selina-3,7(11)-diene, 

tricyclene, undecan-2-ol, sabinene, heptan-2-ol, undecan-2-one, borneol, nonan-2-ol, ß-bisabolol, 

camphor, b-caryophyllene, p-cymen, lauric acid, a-phellandrene, g-terpinene, terpinolene, 

xanthorrhizol, asparagine, trans-trans-a-farnesene, b-sesquiphellandrene, a-zingiberene, b- 

bisabolene, curcumere, zingiberol, n-nonanone, b-phellandrene, csitronellal, methylheptenone, 

borneol acetate, elemol, b-eudesmol, isoborneol, b-sesquiphellandrol, myrcene, b-pinene, citronellol, 

cineol, a-cadinene, caffeic acid, p-coumaric acid, camphene, citral, caprylic acid, capsaicin, 

car-3-ene, a-terpineol, a-terpinene, geraniol acetate, nerol, a-copaene, a-curcumene, 

3,5-diacetoxy-1-(4-hydroxy-3,5-dimethoxy-phenyl)-7-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxy-phenyl)heptane, 

meso-3,5-diacetoxy-1,7-bis-(4-hydroxy-3-methoxyphenyl) heptane, hexahydrocurcumin, 

farnesene, furanogermenone, geranial, a-pinene, neral, limonene, linalool, geraniol, germanium, 

10-gingediol, 6-gingediol, 6-gingediol diacetate, 6-gingediol diacetate methyl ether, 6-gingediol 

methyl ether, 8-gingediol, gingerol methyl ether, 10-methylgingerol, 12-methylgingerol, 6- 

methylgingerol, 8-methylgingerol, paradol, 4-gingerol, 10-gingerdione, 6-dihydrogingerdione, 6- 

dehydrogingerdione, gingerenone B, isogingerenone B, gingerenone C, gingerenone A, gingerol, 

10-gingerol, shogaol, 12-gingerol, 14-gingerol, 16-gingerol, 7-gingerol, gingerol, 9-gingerol, 8- 

gingerol, glanolactone, 8b,17-epoxylabd-trans-12-ene-15,16-dial, 6-paradol, 6-gingerol, nerolidol, 

pentan-2-ol, pipecolic acid, cis-b-sesquiphellandrol, trans-b-sesquiphellandrol, cis-sesquisabinene 

hydrate, 10-shagaol, shagaol derivatives, starch, n-undecanone, zingerone, zingiberene, 

zingiberenol, zingiberone, Zingiber officinale var. macorhizomum galanolactone, 6-gingerol, 8- 

gingerol, 10-gingerol, trans-8b,17-epoxylabd-12-ene-15, 16-dial. Zingiber officinale var. rubens 

galanolactone, 6-gingerol, 8-gingerol, 10-gingerol, trans-8-b-17-epoxylabd-12-ene-15, 16-dial, 

8b, 17-epoxylabd-trans-12-ene-15, 16-dial 



Not available 


The rhizome is carminative and stimulant. It is useful as after-birth medication and for 

menstrual pain, coughs, constipation, rheumatism, colic, body-ache, leucorrhea/puerperal 

infection, tonic/sexual debility, sea-food poisoning, nausea and cold stomach. 


Not available 


Malaysian Monograph Committee. 1999. Malaysian Herbal Monograph. Pp. 85–88. 

201


202

MYANMAR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Barleria prionitis L. 


2.0 Vernacular Name : Leik-Su-Shwe (Myanmar) 


A much-branched shrub, about 5 ft, usually prickly at the stem branches, leaves opposite, ovateelliptic, 

tip acute, margin entire or slightly wavy, mid-vein distinct. Flowers bisexual, pentamerous, 

funnel shaped, yellow or purple. 



It is found in tropical regions. 


Scutellarein – 7 – rhammosyglucoside, barlerin and acety-balerin 



Not available 


The leaves are applied for swellings, aches, skin diseases, as hair tonic and antiseptic 

(cleans, boils and abscesses). The discharge of blood in urine can be cured by giving theit 

juice or the powder of the whole plant mixed with sugar. The decoction of the whole plant 

205


is given for piles, melena diuretic action and eodema. The dried powder is taken with 

honey to increase spermatogenesis, and is also used as antiseptic. The decoction of the 

leaf is famous for tuberculosis, used externally for swellings and inflammation. 


Not available 


Department of Traditional Medicine. 2001. Medicinal Plants of Myanmar. Department of 

Traditional Medicine, Yangon. 

Rastogi, R.P. & Mehrotra, B.N. 1993. Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol. 3. 

CDRI Lucknow & Publication and Information Directorate, New Delhi. 

State Traditional Medical Council, Myanmar Traditional Medicine Manual for Health Basic 

Training Course (WHO/MMR/TRM/003). 

Thidar Swe. et al. 2000. Ethnobotany of Yangon Division, Myanmar, Myanmar Health Research 

Congress. Program & Abstract. 

206

MYANMAR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Dioscorea esculenta (Lour.) Burkill 

Family : Dioscoreaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Wet-ka (Myanmar); ubi torak (Malaysia) 


Annual herb with perennial underground large tuber. Spiny climber 3–5.5 m high. Base of the 

stem produces many white roots, log, woody with numerous sharp, painted, whitish spines 1–2 

cm arising from the surface, surrounding the tuber. Leaves broadly orbicular (or) cordate, 

acuminate, glabrous above, slightly hairy below, 8–11 nerved. Male flower in spike form and 

female is minute in raceme. 



It grows in lowland to hilly regions, preferring subtemperate areas (Myanmar). It is found wild 

in open areas in Malaysia. 


The tuber has the toxic principle, dioscorine. 



Not available 

207



It is used as tonic, and has antioxidant properties (prolongs longevity of life and youth) 

and a rich source of vitamin E. The tuber is applied to ulcers and swellings. In certain 

species of Dioscorea, the leaves are used for intermittent fevers. 


Ashin-nagathein. Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants. 

Hooker, J. D. 1879. The Flora of British India. Vol. L. Reeve and Company, London. 

Hyndley, H. G. 1987. List of Trees, Shrub and Principal Climbers etc. Recorded with 

Vernacular Names. Forest Department, Burma. 

Kirtikar, K. R. & Basu, B. D. 1933. India Medicinal Plants. Vol. II, 12th edition. The Prabasi 

Press, Calcutta. 

208

MYANMAR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Elettaria cardamomum Maton 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Hpalar, phalar-thein, phalar-nge (Myanmar); 

buah pelaga (Malaysia) 


Perennial herb with a large and fleshy rhizome; the flowering stems spread horizontally near the 

ground. Leaves oblong-lanceolate. Fruit capsule, subglobose or oblong, marked with fine vertical 

striations. 

4.0 Propagation : Rhizomes 


It grows wildly in rich moist soil and cultivated in tropical regions. 


The fruit contains fixed oil, volatile oil. The principal constituents of volatile oil are cineol, terpeneol, 

limonene and sabinene, D-borneol, bornylacetate, d-camphor, nerolidol, linalool. 



Not available 

209



It is antiseptic, antimicrobial, aphrodisiac, astringent, antispasmodic, digestive, diuretic, 

settles digestive discomfort, helps with flatulence, stimulates saliva and is used in tonic. 

The fruit is used mostly as spice and flavouring agent. It is used as carminative in traditional 

practice. 


Not available 


Ashin-nagathein. Encyclopedia of Medicinal Plants. 

Hooker, J. D. 1879. The Flora of British India. Vol. L. Reeve and Company, London. 

Hyndley, H. G. 1987. List of Trees, Shrub and Principal Climbers etc. Recorded with 

Vernacular Names. Forest Department, Burma. 

Kirtikar, K. R. & Basu, B. D. 1933. India Medicinal Plants. Vol. II, 12th editon. The Prabasi 

Press, Calcutta. 

210

MYANMAR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Gloriosa superba L. 

Family : Colchicaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Si-mee-dauk (Myanmar) 


Herbaceous, tall, stout climbing herb. Root-stock of arched, solid, fleshy-white cylindric tubers. 

Leaves sessile. Ovate lanceolate, tip ending in a tendril-like spiral. Flowers large solitary, axillary, 

changing colours from greenish yellow, orange, scarlet to crimson from blooming to fading. 

Fruits capsule. 



It grows widely in tropical regions. 


Seed contains high level of colchicines. Cornigerine, 3-demethyl-N-formyl-N-deacetyl-blumicolchicine, 

3-demethyl-g-lumicolchicine, 3-demethyl colchicines have been isolated from 

the plant. b-sitosterol, its glucoside, a long chain fatty acid, b and g-lumiccolchicines from fresh 

tubers and luteolin, colchicines, N-formyldeacetylcolchicines and glucosides of 3- 

demethylcolchicine have been isolated from flowers. 



Not available 

211



It is indicated for asthma, tussis and amenorrhoea, and used as antiinflammatory agent, in 

arthritis. Dried flowers mixed with other ingredients are used to cure asthma. The powder 

of dried tubers mixed with roasted salt is also used to treat asthma and arthritis. 


Not available 


Rastogi, R. P. & Mehrotra, B. N. 1993. Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol. 1–5. 


212

MYANMAR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Millettia extensa (Benth.) Baker 

Family : Fabaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Wun-u 


A large climbing shrub about 9 m. Stem finely downy. Leaves pinnate compound; leaflets 3–5 

abovate-oblong, tip acute, long petioled, elongated, glabrous rachis. Flowers short-pedicelled, 

close axillary racemes; sepals bell-shaped; petals densely silky, red. Pod hard and woody. 



It occurs naturally in tropical areas. 


Nil 



Not available 


The roots and stem are used to treat bone fractures and skin diseases, i.e itches and 

scabies. 

213



Not available 


Hooker, J. D. 1879. The Flora of British India. Vol.L. Reeve and Company, London. 

Hundley, H. G. 1987. List of Trees, Shrub and Principal. 

Kirtikar, K. R. & Basu, B. D. 1933. India Medicinal Plants. Vol II, 12th edition. The Prabasi 

Prees, Calcutta. 

Watt, G. 1889. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of India. Vol.C. Government Printing 

Press, India. 

214

MYANMAR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Nervilia fordii (Hance) Schltr 

Family : Orchidaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Ta-bin-shwe-hti (Myanmar) 


Perrenial herb with fleshy tuber. Tuber globular, 5–20 mm in diameter, with fibrous roots and 1– 

2 blades. Leaf ovate-cordate, about 6–12 cm in length and width; with several obvious arched 

parallel veins; petiole long, tubular at the lower part, surrounded by the purple-red leaf sheath; 

flower rare. Inflorescence spike; flower white with pinkish-violet spots. Capsule rhomboid striate. 



It is found in tropical and subtropical regions, growing mostly in hill regions of evergreen forests, 

often in rich soil under shade. 


Not available 



Not available 


It is used as depurative, especially in the case of mushroom intoxication. The leaves are 

used for alleviating coughs and relieving pain. It clears away heat and toxic material. It 

215


is used for skin infection of intense heat type, sorethroat, summer-heat syndrome with 

fever and thirst, scrofula. It moisturizes the lungs to relieve coughs. 


Not available 




Ha Noi. 

http://herb.damo-qigong.net/b024.htm - 24 August 2003. 

216

MYANMAR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Piper betle L. 

Family : Piperaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Kun (Myanmar); sirih (Malaysia, Indonesia, Brunei Darussalam) 


A perennial aromatic creeper. Stem long, slender, producing small roots at the nodes. Leaves 

alternate; long petiolate, coiled at the base; leaves shaped broadly ovate; tip acute; base cordate; 

margin entire; 5–7 nerved; palmately veined; upper surface bright green, lower pale; thick, long 

stalk. Inflorescence spikes; flowers minute. Fruit small berries, one-seeded. 



Tropical regions 


Leaf contains aromatic essential volatile oil of sharp burning taste, aromatic odour containing 

betel-phenols, starch, sugars and tannin. Essential oil: eugenol, methyleugenol, a-terpineol, terpinyl 

acetate and caryophyllene. 



Not available 

217



The leaves are used for the treatment of low pressure and irregular movements of the 

heart. They have been used successfully for colds, loss of voice, coughs and asthma. 

They cure throat disorders, loss of appetite, indigestion, constipation and germ diseases. 

The decoction of leaves is taken orally for the treatment of fever. They are also widely 

used to treat asthma and inflammation. The fresh leaves are eaten together with jaggery 

for the treatment of hypertension. The decoction of leaves combined with sugar and 

jaggery is given for diarrhoea. 


Not available 


Nadkarni, K. M. 1993. Indian Materia Medica. Popular Prakashan Private Limited, Mumbai. 

Rastogi, R. P. & Mehrotra, B. N. 1993. Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol.3. 


State Traditional Medical Council, Myanmar Traditional Medicine Manual for Health Basic 

Training Course. (WHO/MMR/TRM/003). 

218

MYANMAR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Rauvolfia serpentina Benth. ex Kurz. 


2.0 Vernacular Name : Bon-ma-ya-zar (Myanmar) 


Roots up to 15 cm in length and 2 cm in diameter, stout, thick, tortuous. Surface is slightly 

wrinkled, rough with coarse longitudinal marking. External colour greyish yellow to brown, wood 

pale yellow. Fracture short, irregular. Odourless, taste very bitter. 



Tropical regions 


Alkaloid-ajmaline, serpentine, serpentinine 



Not available 


The root is used as anthelmintic and febrifuge. It is also used as a remedy for snakebites 

and stings of insects and in dysentery. Its powder is combined with other ingredients for 

treatment of hypertension, fevers, high blood pressure, hypochondria, insanity, insomnia, 

painful bowel disorders. 

219



Not available 


Chopra, R. N., Nayar, S. L. & Chopra, I. C. 1956. Glossary of Indian Medicinal plants. 

Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, New Dehli. 

Department of Traditional Medicine. 2001. Medicinal Plants of Myanmar. Ministry of Health. 

Rastogi, R. P. & Mehrotra, B. N. 1993. Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol. 2 & 

3. CDRI Lucknow & Publication and Information Directorate, New Delhi. 

State Traditional Medical Council, Myanmar Traditional Medicinal Manual for Health Basic 

Training Course (WHO/MMR/TRM003). The Union of Myanmar. 

Thidar Swe et al. 2000. Ethnobotany of Yangon Division, Myanmar. Myanmar Health 

Research Congress Programme & Abstract. 

http://www.pharm.kumamoto-u.ac.jp/yakusoen/rauorufia-e.html - 24 August 2003. 

220

MYANMAR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Vitex negundo L. 


2.0 Vernacular Name : Kyaung-pan-gyi 


A large shrub or small tree, branches quadrangular. Leaves compound opposite; long petiolate; 

leaflets penta-foliate, lanceolate, glabrous above, tomentose below. Inflorescence terminal thyrse. 

Flowers bisexual, bluish purple, tomentose outside, hairy inside. Fruits drupe, globose, black 

when ripe. 



It grows in warmer place and is found mostly in waste places. 


Vanillic and p-hyroxybenzoic acids and luteolin isolated from bark. Roots contain hentriacontance, 

â-sitopsterol, â-sitopsterol acetate and stigmasterol. Leaves contain essential oil. 



Not available 


The leaf juice is taken in treatment of swelling of joints, weakness of brain, paucity of 

menses and ailments connected with childbirth. It cures itches and ailments caused by 

221


heat. The decoction of the plant is given in the treatment of fever as well as malaria. The 

decoction of the leaves is useful for dysentery and gastric ulcer. 


Not available 


Rastogi, P. T. & Mehrotra, B. N. 1993. Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants. Vol. 2 & 

3. CDRI Lucknow & Publication and Information Directorate, New Delhi. 

Chopra, R. N., Nayar, S. L. & Chopra, I. C. 1956. Glossary of Indian Medicinal plants. 

Council of Scientific & Industrial Research, New Dehli. 

State Traditional Medical Council, Myanmar Traditional Medicine Manual for Heatlh Basic 

Training Course. (WHO/MMR/TRM/003) Union of Mynmar. 

Department of Traditional Medicine. 2001. Medicinal Plants of Myanmar. Ministry of Health. 

222

MYANMAR 

1.0 Scientific Name : Vitis repens Lam. Wight & Arn. 

Family : Vitaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Ta-bin-taing-mya-nan (Myanmar) 


Tendrillar climber, slender, scandent. Stem 6-angled with ridges and furrows. Rhizome glaucous, 

fusiform to tuberculous. Leaves alternate, simple; margin serrulate; white patch in pale-greencoloured 

leaf blade. Cymose, small yellowish green flowers are borne on the peduncle. Fruits 

berries. 



It is widely distributed in hill regions. 


Glycosides and flavonoids. 



Not available 


The root is used for sores, ulcers and tumours. The whole plant is used for hepatitis, 

jaundice and hypertension. It is used mostly for sores, ulcers and tumours. 

223



Not available 


San, S. Y. 1989. Taxonomical, Pharmacognostical and Antitubercular Studies of Two 

Species of Vitis. M.Sc. thesis, Yangon University. 

Department of Traditional Medicine. Medicinal Plants of Myanmar. A Selection of 60 

commonly used species compiled by the Ministry of Health. 

224

PHILIPPINES 

1.0 Scientific Name : Aloe barbadensis Mill. 

Synonym : Aloe vera (L.) Burm. f. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Aloe, curacao aloe (English); sabila, sabila-pinya (Tagalog); 

dilang-halo (Bisakol); dilang-boaia (Bikol); acibar (Spanish) 


A short-stemmed herb cultivated both as ornamental and medicinal. The thick, sword-shaped 

leaves form a rosette immediately above the ground. They are 30 to 40 cm long, pale green with 

white spots and smooth except for weak marginal spines. The flower cluster (raceme), about 

30 cm long, has a long stalk with distant acute scales. The yellow flowers without calyx are 

drooping, 2.5 cm long, tube shaped, tipped with short lobes which are curved outward. The 

capsule (fruit) bears angular seeds. 

4.0 Propagation : Commonly propagated by suckers 


Aloe is commonly found in the Philippines as an ornamental. 


Histochemical findings are as follows: tannin in leaves (detectable); calcium oxalate in leaves 

(abundant); sulphur, fats, iron formic acid and glycoside in leaves (detectable). 



Not available 

227



Leaf juice is used for treating burns, abrasions and skin irritations; also purgative, vermifuge; 

tonic and remedy for kidney pains; cathartic; juice of leaves applied to the scalp prevents 

falling hair, and is said to be good for the complexion. Crushed leaves as poultice for 

contusions. Juice mixed with water is a remedy for indigestion and peptic ulcers. It is 

usually combined with other antispasmodic drugs; vermifuge; emmenagogue. 


Not available 


De Padua, L. S., Lugod, G. C. & Pancho, J. V. 1981. Handbook on Philippine Medicinal 

Plants. Vol. III. Technical Bulletin Vol. V, No.2. University Publication Office, Las Banos, 

Laguna, Philippines. Pp. 66. 

228

PHILIPPINES 

1.0 Scientific Name : Anacardium occidentale L. 

Synonym : Cassuvium reniforme Blanco 

Family : Anacardiaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Balubad, kasoy, balugo (Phillipines); Gajus, jambu bongkok 

(Malaysia) 


Small tree with gnarled trunk. Leaves simple, alternate, ovate or obovate, 10–20 cm long and 7– 

12 cm wide, with slightly rounded apex. Flowers small crowded at the tip of branches; petals 

yellowish to white sometimes with pink stripes. Fruit is a nut, ash-colored, kidney-shaped, about 

2 cm long, with its receptacle or torus fleshy, juicy yellow and pear shaped, about 5–7 cm long. 

4.0 Propagation : Seed, stem cutting, marcotting, inarching, budding and 

grafting 


The cashew is a native of northeastern Brazil in tropical America, where it occurs wild in 

extensive islands. From its native home, it became well dispersed throughout the tropics in the 

lowlands of Central and South America, Mexico and the West Indies where it was thoroughly 

naturalized and became abundant. In the 16th century, Portuguese traders introduced cashew 

into India where it was planted along the seashores to bind the soil and check erosion. Soon, the 

species spread throughout India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia and other Asian countries. The early 

Spanish missionaries are credited to have introduced cashew into the Philippines from tropical 

America and India. At present, the cashew is an important nut crop in India, Mozambique, 

Tanzania, Brazil, Madagascar, Kenya, Sri Lanka, Nigeria, Senegal, the Philippines and other 

tropical countries. The greater bulk of cashew kernel is consumed in the United States, Russia, 

United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, Federal Republic of Germany and Japan. 

229



Alkaloids, glycosides, saponin, tannin and calcium oxalate 



Not available 


Decoction of the bark is used to treat diarrhea, diabetes, syphylitic swellings and ulcerations 

in the mouth. Infusion of the leaves and bark acts as astringent, relieves toothache, sore 

gums and for dysentery. Juice from the pericarp is diuretic and sudorific. The bruised nut 

is used in abortion. Oil from the nut is used for warts, blisters, corns and ulcers. Tincture 

of the pericarp is vermifuge. 





Plants. Vol. I. University Publication Office, Las Banos, Laguna, Philippines. 

Quisumbing, E. 1954. Medicinal Plants of the Philippines. Bureau of Printing, Manila. 

230

PHILIPPINES 

1.0 Scientific Name : Annona reticulata L. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Anonas, nona (Malaysia) 


A tree, 10 m high or less. Leaves oblong to oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, 20 cm long or less, 

glabrous; petioles 1–1.5 cm long. Flowers greenish-yellow, fragrant, 2–2.5 cm long, 2 or 3 

together on lateral peduncles. Fruit subglobose or ovoid, large, fleshy edible, with pentagonal 

areolae on the outside. 



Anonas is widely distributed after the discovery of the New World and is now found in all 

tropical and subtropical regions. It has been long established in India. 


Alkaloids, tannin, formic acid, peroxidases and calcium oxalate 



Not available 

231



Fresh leaves are applied onto the stomach of children suffering from indigestion. Fresh 

leaves and fruits are anthelmintic. Young fruits and bark act as astringent in dysentery 

and diarrhea. 


Not available 



Plants. Vol. II. University Publication Office, Las Banos, Laguna, Philippines. 


232

PHILIPPINES 

1.0 Scientific Name : Areca catechu L. 

Synonym : Areca alba Bory. 

Family : Arecaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Areca nut, betel nut palm, boa, bunga, dapiau, hua, lugos, luyos, 

pasa, takobtob, vua, va 


The trunk is erect and solitary, up to 25 m high, and marked with annular scars. The leaves are 

up to 4 m long; with numerous leaflets, 60 to 90 cm long, with the upper ones confluent. The 

spadixis much branched and compressed, with branched filiform bearing numerous, somewhat 

distichous male flowers which are yellow and about 5 mm long. The female flowers are at the 

base of the branches and in axils, about 1 cm long or more. The fruit is ovoid, smooth, orange or 

red (when ripe), 4 to 6 cm long, with the pericarp somewhat fleshy, and the mesocarp fibrous. 



The plant is often cultivated throughout the Philippines. Possibly it is native to the country, 

having been found once, spontaneous in primary forests in Palawan. It also occurs in the Old 

World Tropics generally, and has been introduced into the New World. 


The first chemical analysis of the seed was performed in 1886 and isolated a liquid volatile 

alkaloid called arecaine. Other alkaloids isolated from the seeds are in the following proportions 

- arecaine 0.1% and arecoline 0.07-0.1%; arecaidine, guvacoline and choline occur only in 

traces. Arecolidine is another alkaloid obtained. The seed contains 15% of tannin and 14% of 

fat. 

233


Tannin is located almost entirely in the kernel. However, the husk contains only traces. As the 

green nuts ripen, the amount of tannin in the kernels decreases. Analyses of full-grown betel nut 

(kernel) yielded 12.98–26.89% of tannin. 

The kernel has gallic acid and gum. The most important of all the alkaloids and the one which 

has anthelmintic property is arecoline (C 8 

H 13 

NO 2 

). Arecoline is a colourless, oily liquid with a 

boiling point of 230° C, and forms crystalline salt with acids. 



Not available 

7.2 Uses in the traditional medicine: 

In the Philippines, as well as in the Indo-Malayan and Polynesian regions, the areca nut is 

extensively chewed with lime and the leaves of betel piper (Piper betle) which is locally 

known as ikmo. The buyo, is generally regarded as a tonic and a general stimulant, but 

its excessive use is certainly harmful. The fruit in decoction is considered an abortifacient 

and the nut as an emmenagogue. Excessive use of buyo causes loss of appetite, salivation, 

and general degeneration of the organism. The tender seeds are said to be purgative and 

grated ripe ones are vermifuge, and externally used as an astringent. 

The fresh nut is somewhat intoxicating and produces giddiness in some persons. The 

dried nut is a stimulant, astringent and taenifuge. It increases the flow of saliva, sweetens 

the breath, strengthens the gum, and produces mild exhilaration. Arecoline is a highly 

toxic substance, and its pharmacological action resembles that of muscarine, pelletierine, 

and pilocarpine. It violently stimulates the peristaltic movements of the intestines and 

produces a marked constriction of the bronchial muscles which can, however, be overcome 

by adrenaline or atropine. It is a powerful sialogogue and stimulates the secretion of 

sweat in the same way as pilocarpine. 

The young nut is useful in bowel complaints. The tincture forms an astringent gargle 

when diluted with water, which is useful for bleeding gums. It may also be injected to stop 

water discharges from the vagina. It is useful in checking the pyrosis during pregnancy. 

The young green shoots act as an abortifacient in early pregnancy. Large doses of areca 

nut can cause vomiting and diarrhoea. The roots (shredded, steeped in water, pounded 

and the juice extracted) are used as poison. 

The tannic and gallic acids in young nuts are responsible for the astringent properties. 

The burned and powdered nuts make an excellent dentifrice. The juice of young leaves 

mixed with oil is used externally for lumbago. It has been found to be useful to cure 

urinary disorders. It is also reported to possess aphrodisiac properties. The powdered 

nuts have long been known to be antihelmintic in man and animals and are useful in the 

expulsion of tapeworms from human, as well as in combating round worms. The nut is 

regarded as a nervine tonic. 


Not available 

234

PHILIPPINES 



Plants. Vol. I. Technical Bulletin Vol. 11(3). University Publication Office, Las Banos, Laguna, 

Philippines. Pp. 63. 

Quisumbing, E. 1954. Medicinal Plants of the Philippines. Manila Blue Printing. 

235


1.0 Scientific Name : Basella rubra L. 

Synonyms : Basella alba L., Basella lucida L., Basella cordifolia Lam. 

Family : Basellaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Alugbati, arogbati, dundula, grana; ilaibakir, libato, malabar 

nightshade, Lok’uei 


The plant is a succulent, branched, smooth, twining, herbaceous vine reaching a length of several 

meters. The stems are green or purplish. The leaves are somewhat fleshy, ovate or heartshaped, 

5–12 cm in length stalked, tapering to a pointed tip, and cordate at the base. The spikes 

are axillary, solitary, and 5–29 cm in length. The flowers are pink, and about 4 mm long. The 

fruit is fleshy, stalkless, ovoid or nearly spherical, 5–6 mm in length, and purple when mature. 



The plant is widely cultivated and found at low and midland elevations throughout the Philippines. 

It is certainly not a native of the archipelago but is a prehistoric introduction. It also occurs in 

tropical Asia, Africa and Malaysia. 


Histochemical test analysis indicates that calcium oxalate in leaves is abundant and in stems 

detectable. Starch in leaves is detectable and in stems abundant, while saponin in leaves is 

detectable. 

236

PHILIPPINES 



Not available 


The roots are employed as rubefacient, and as a poultice to reduce local swelling. The 

sap is used to anoint any part of the body affected by acne to reduce irritation. It is 

demulcent, diuretic and emollient. It makes wholesome and is most easily digested and 

acts as a mild laxative. The leaves are reduced to a pulp and applied to boils, ulcers and 

abscesses to hasten suppuration. The juice of the leaves together with sugar is useful in 

catarrhal infections in children. It is useful in treating gonorrhea and balanitis. The juice 

from the leaves, thoroughly rubbed and mixed with butter, is a soothing and cooling 

application for burns and scalds. The mucilaginous liquid obtained from the leaves and 

tender stalks of this plant is a popular remedy for habitual headaches. The leaves are 

considered good maturation as cataplasm. A decoction of the leaves is a good laxative 

for pregnant women and children. The fruit is used as rouge for the cheeks and lips and 

also as a dye. 


Not available 



Plants. Vol. I. Technical Bulletin Vol. 5(2). University Publication Office, Las Banos, Laguna, 

Philippines. Pp. 66. 


237


1.0 Scientific Name : Bixa orellana L. 

Family : Bixaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Achuete, asuite, achiti, atsuite, sotis (Philippines) 


A tree, 4–6 m high. Leaves ovate, entire, 8–20 cm long, 5–12 cm wide; base broad, more or less 

cordate; apex acuminate. Flowers white to pinkish, 4–6 cm in diameter. Capsules ovoid or 

subglobose, green or reddish purple, about 4 cm long, covered with long, slender, rather soft 

spines and containing many small, dark red seeds. 



The plant is usually planted around towns throughout the Philippines. It is a native of tropical 

America and is now pantropic in cultivation. 

6.0 Chemical Composition: 

Tannin, saponin, fats and calcium oxalate 



Not available 

238

PHILIPPINES 


Febrifuge, leaf infusion is used in treating dysentery. When pounded and macerated in 

water, the leaves are diuretic. Decoction of the bark is employed in febrile catarrhs, to 

relieve period pain and stomach-ache. Dye from this plant mixed with lime is applied 

externally in treating erysipelas. The seed is an efficient remedy for certain skin diseases. 

They are said to be an antidote to cassava and Jatropha curcas poisoning. 




De Padua, L. S., Lugod, G. C. & Pancho, J. V. 1978. Handbook on Philippines Medicinal 

Plants. Vol. 2. University Publication Office, Las Banos, Laguna, Philippines. 


http://www.nativehabitat.com/Bixaorellana.asp - 26 August 2003. 

239


1.0 Scientific Name : Caesalpinia pulcherrima (L.) Sw. 

Synonym : Poinciana pulcherrima L. 

Family : Caesalpiniaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Bulaklak ng paraiso (Philippines) 


An erect, glabrous sparingly spiny shrub or small tree, 1.5–8 m high. Leaves bipinnate, pinnae 

4–8 pairs, 6–12 cm long; leaflets sessile, 7–11 pairs, obtuse, elliptic, 1–2 cm long. Racemes 

terminal lax; pedicels long, slender. Flowers red yellow or yellow, about 4 cm in diameter; petals 

crisped, clawed; stamens long-exserted. Pods 5–9 cm long, 1.5 cm wide. 



It was introduced from tropical America. It is popular in other regions of the world. Introduced 

into the Philippines at an early date, it is now spontaneous in abandoned areas and vacant lots. 

Native of Madagascar. 

6.0 Chemical Composition: 

Alkaloids, saponin, tannin, glucosides and calcium oxalate. 



Not available 

240

PHILIPPINES 


Plant decoction or infusion is used as purgative and emmenagogue. Decoction of the 

leaves is used to treat liver infections and ulcers of the mouth and throat. Infusion of the 

leaves, roots or bark is employed for colds and skin diseases and is even said to induce 

abortion. Root decoction is used to cure intermittent fever. The flower is a popular remedy 

for erysipelas and for inflammation of the eyes. It is also used as a tonic. The seeds are 

an effective abortifacient. The fruit is employed against diarrhea and dysentery. 


Not available 



Plants. Vol. 2. University Publication Office, Las Banos, Laguna, Philippines. 

Quisumbing, E. 1954. Medicinal Plants of the Philippines. Bureau of Printing. Manila. 

241


1.0 Scientific Name : Carmona retusa (Vash.) Masam. 

Synonyms : Ehretia microphylla Lam., Ehretia buxifolia Roxb. 

Family : Boraginaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Putputai, alangit, tsaang gubat (Philippines) 


A shrub or much-branched small tree, 1–4(–10) m tall; young branches hispid, with buds or 

short shoots producing clusters of leaves and inflorescences. Leaves simple, alternate obovate 

to spatulate, 1–6(–10) cm x 0.5–2.5(–4) cm, thick gradually narrowing towards base, toothed or 

crenate towards apex with short rigid hairs; lateral veins about 5 arching; petiole 0.1–0.5(–1) 

cm long, stipules absent. Inflorescence in fascicles of 2–6 or in a cyme. Flowers actinomorphic, 

bisexual, (4–) 5 merous, pedicelled; calyx 3–6 mm long, with (–) 5 linear lobes densely hairy 

inside; corolla sub-rotate, white 6–9 mm in diameter, tube about 2 mm long, widening, lobes 

spreading 2.5–4.5 mm long; stamens (4–) 5 with filaments 2.5–3.5 mm long and anthers oblong; 

ovary superior, globose about 1 mm in diameter style deeply bifid 4.5–6 mm long. Fruits 

drupaceous globose 5–6 mm in diameter, red or yellow, with 1–4 seeds not breaking up into 

pyrenes. Seeds with straight or slightly curved embryo, embedded in thin albumen. Seedling 

with epigeal germination; cotyledons leafy, green, hypocotyl elongated. 



Found from India eastward to southern China, Taiwan, Japan, and further south throughout 

Malesia to New Guinea and to Solomon Island. The plant is often grown as ornamental. 

242

PHILIPPINES 


Boraginaceae commonly contain pyrrolizidine alkaloids, biosynthesized from the amino acid 

ornithine, and quinoid or phenolic compounds derived from C-prenylated, C-geranylated or C- 

farnesylated 4-hydrobenzoic acid. The isomeric red pigments alkannin and shikonin are best 

known representatives of such hydroxybenzoic acid derivatives. Specifically C. retusa contains 

alkaloids, glycocides and tannin. 



Not available 


In the Philippines, the leaves are taken as a substitute for tea. It is considered as stomachic, 

antidiarrhea and as remedy for dysentery and coughs. Infusions of the leaves are taken 

as febrifuge. A decoction of the leaves is consumed to cure stomach-ache and coughs. 


Not available 


De Padua, L.S. 1999. Plant Resources of South-East Asia. Medicinal and Poisonous 

Plants 1. Backhuys, Leiden, The Netherlands. Pp. 52. 

243


1.0 Scientific Name : Cassia fistula L. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Golden shower, Indian laburnum, purging cassia, pudding pipe 

tree, (English); bitsula (C. Bis.); cana fistula (Spanish); kanapestula 

(Ibn.); kana-pistula (Tagalog); fistula (C. Bis., Tagalog); 

ibabau (Bis.); lombayong (Bis.); lapad-lapad (Tagb.) 


This is a moderate-sized, erect, deciduous tree. The leaves are pinnate smooth, and 30 to 40 cm 

long. The leaflets are 8 to 16, ovate, and average 10 cm in length. The flowers are borne in 

long, lax racemes (30 to 50 cm long), and are fragrant, bright yellow, on stalks, and 3 to 5 cm in 

length. The calyx is 6 to 8 mm long, smooth, and deciduous. The petals are veined, obovate, 18 

to 25 mm long, bright yellow, and short-clawed at the base. The stamens are all furnished with 

anthers, the 2 or 3 lower ones being longer. The pod is cylindric, 30 to 60 cm long, about 2.5 cm 

thick, pendulous, smooth, shining, and dark brown. The seeds are numerous, embedded in 

black, sweet pulp, completely separated by thin, transverse dissepiments, small, ovoid, slightly 

compressed, smooth, shining and yellowish brown. 



Golden shower is found from northern Luzon to Mindanao and Palawan. Most often cultivated 

as an ornamental flowering tree and is sometimes planted for its medicinal properties. A native 

of tropical Asia, it was introduced into the Philippines and is now pantropic in cultivation. 

244

PHILIPPINES 


Pulp analysis: 20 parts of the pulp consist of sugar, 12.00; gum, 1.35; astringent matter; gluten; 

colouring matter; and water, the latter amounting to about 3.80. The root-bark and root-wood 

analysis results: 

Root-bark Root-wood 

Water (%) 10.01 8.21 

Ash (%) 8.92 2.29 

Petroleum ether extract (%) 0.32 0.52 

Ether extract (%) 2.17 0.45 

Absolute alcohol extract (%) 17.62 4.56 

Manganese was absent from the ash of both the root-bark and the root-wood; the former 

contained iron in a very marked amount. No alkaloidal principle was detected; resins were 

present. A bitter principle was also present to which the taste of the wood is probably due. As 

reported, oxymethyl-anthraquinone was isolated from the entire fruit, 0.95%; from the fruit pulp, 

1.05 %; and from the bark of the twigs, 1.20 %. In addition, saccharose (53-66 %), viscient 

sugar, citric acid, and pectin were present. 



Not available 


The roots are useful in fever, heart diseases, retained excretions, and biliousness; they 

are a strong purgative, tonic and laxative. 

The leaves are purgative. Externally the leaves, ground into a paste, are applied to ringworm. 

The juice of the young leaves is used to cure ringworm. The tender leaves are employed 

in rheumatic fever as a mild purgative. The powdered leaves are also laxative. The bark 

and leaves, mixed with oil, are applied to pustules, ringworm, insect bites, facial paralysis, 

and rheumatism. The bark is used as dye material. 

The flowers are purgative and are said to have demulcent properties. In decoction they 

are given in stomach affections. The pulp of the fruit is employed as a cathartic; extract 

of fruit-pulp proved to be good laxative. 


Not available 



245


1.0 Scientific Name : Ceiba pentandra (L.) 

Synonyms : Bombax pentandrum L., Eriodendron anfractuosum DC. 

Family : Bombacaceace 

2.0 Vernacular Names : White silk cotton tree (English); basanglai (Iloko); boboi 

(Bikol, Tagalog); boi-boi (Bisakol); buboi (Tagalog); bulak 

(Tagalog, Pampango); bulak-dondol, gapas, dogdol (Bisakol); 

kasanglai, bulak-kastila (Pampango); bulak-kahoi, balios, bulaksina 

(Tagalog); daldol (Bisakol); doldol (Bisakol); dondol (Iloko); 

gataoua (If.); kayo (Bikol, Bisakol); kapas-sanglai (Iloko); 

kapok (Bisakol, Sulawesi); kapas (Pang.); kapuk (Sulawesi); 

kulak (Iloko) 


It is an erect, deciduous tree 15 m or less in height. The trunk is cylindric, usually bearing 

scattered, large spines. The branches are in distant whorls, and spread horizontally. The leaves 

are compound, with 5 to 8 leaflets which are whitish and about 3 cm long. The capsules are 

pendulous, oblong, about 15 cm in length, and 5 cm thick. They contain numerous black seeds, 

which are compressed-globose, smooth, and embedded in fine, silky hairs. 



Kapok is widely distributed in the Philippines. It is possibly a native of tropical America and is 

now pantropic. 

246

PHILIPPINES 


Histochemical test indicates: tannin in leaves and stems (detectable-abundant); fats in stem 

(detectable); calcium oxalate in leaves and stems (detectable-abundant); peroxidase in leaves 

and stems (detectable). 

The seeds have been reported with the following composition: oil – 24.20%; water – 11.85%; 

ash – 5.22%; crude fiber – 23.91%; albuminoids – 18.52%; carbohydrates – 15.90%. Kapok 

oil has the following constants: specific gravity at 15º C – 0.9235%; solidifying point – 29.6%; 

saponification value (Mgrms KOH) – 181 – 205%; Iodine value – 117.9%; maumene test – 

95%; refractive index – 51.3%. The oil consists of a mixture of fatty acids about 70% of which 

is liquid, while 30% is palmitic acid, which is solid. 



Not available 


The bark is employed as vomitive and aphrodisiac. When brewed into decoction it is 

regarded as febrile catarrh. The root decoction is used for chronic dysentery, diarrhea, 

ascites and anasarca. The gum is sometimes given in bowel complaints. The leaves are 

used for coughs, hoarseness, intestinal catarrh and urethritis. Tender leaves are 

administered for gonorrhea. Flower decoction is used for constipation. The tender fruit is 

used as emollient. The unripe fruit is regarded as demulcent and astringent. 


Not available 



Plants. Vol. 2. Technical Bulletin Vol. III, No.3. University Publication Office, Las Banos, 


Quisumbing, E. 1954. Medicinal Plants of the Philippine. Manila Blue Printing. 

247


1.0 Scientific Name : Hibiscus rosa-sinensis L. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Shoeflower, hibiscus, china rose (English); gumamela (Tagalog); 

gumamela (Tagalog, Bisakol, Pampango); kayangan (Iloko, 

Bikol, Bisakol); aratongan (Pampango) 


The plant is an erect, much branched, smooth shrub, 1 to 4 m in height. The leaves are ovate 

and 7 to 12 cm long, with coarsely toothed margins. The flowers are solitary, axillary, very large, 

about 10 cm long, and 12 cm in diameter. The clyx is green and about 2 cm long, with ovate 

lobes. The petals are red, orange, or rose-white, obovate, rounded, and imbricate. The staminal 

tube is slender and longer that the corolla. There are many hybrids of different coloured, simple 

flowers in addition to a few doubles. 



Gumamela is found in cultivation for ornamental purposes, but nowhere spontaneous, throughout 

the Philippines. It is a native of the Old World and is now pantropic in cultivation. 


Histochemical findings are as follows: calcium oxalate in leaves and stem (detectable to abundant); 

sulphur in stem (detectable); peroxidase in leaves and stem (detectable to abundant); fats in 

leaves and stem (detectable to abundant); protein in leaves and stem (detectable to abundant). 

248

PHILIPPINES 



Not available 


The plant possesses antiinfection and antiinflammation properties. Decoction of dried 

plant is used for infection of urinary tract. Roots, bark, leaves and flowers in decoction 

are used as emollient. Fresh leaves are crushed and applied as poultice to abscesses and 

carbuncles. The bark is used as an emmenagogue. Flower buds, beaten into a paste, are 

applied as poultice to boils, cancerous swellings and mumps. The red flowers regulate 

menstruation; they are somewhat purgative and are sometimes said to cause abortion. 

Infusion of flowers used as an expectorant in bronchitis. Decoction of flowers is effective 

for coughs. The dark red petals are administered in the form of a mucilaginous infusion 

in irritable conditions of the genito-urinary tract; also a refrigerant drink in fevers. The 

seeds, pounded into a pulp and mixed with water, are given with much benefit in gonorrhea. 

Decoction of roots is used for sore eyes. 


Not available 



Plants. Vol. 2. Technical Bulletin Vol. III, No.3. University Publication Office, Las Banos, 



249


1.0 Scientific Name : Jatropha curcas L. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Physic nut tree, purging nut tree, big-purge nut (English); tubangbakod, 

kirisol, taba-taba (Tagalog); galumbang (Pampanga); 

kasla (Bisakol); tagumbau, tagumbau-na-purau, tauua (Iloko); 

tangan-tangan-tuba (Tagalog); taua-taua (Iloko); tuba (Bikol, 

Tagalog) 


This is a smooth, erect, branched shrub 2 to 5 m in height. The leaves are entire, angular or 

somewhat three-to five-lobed, orbicular-ovate and 10 to 18 cm long; the apex is pointed and the 

base heart-shaped. The petioles are long. The flowers are greenish or greenish white, 7 to 8 

mm in diameter, and borne on axillary cymes. The capsules are at first fleshy but later become 

dry, are rounded and are composed of two or three one-seeded divisions which are 3 to 4 cm 

long. 



Tubang-bakod is found throughout the Philippines. It was introduced at an early date in colonial 

history from Mexico, and is now pantropic in distribution. 


It contains 29 to 40 percent of a yellow fixed oil, known variously as hell oil, pinheon oil, oleum 

infernale, and oleum ricini majoris. The oil consists principally of glycerides of palmitic, oleic, 

and linolic acids. The bark contains a considerable amount of chlorophyll, reducing sugars or 

other reducing substances, saponin, a small amount of tannin, resin and a trace of volatile oil. 

250

PHILIPPINES 

The bark yields wax which is a mixture of melissyl alcohol and its melissinic acid ester. It 

consists of the glyceride of a characteristic acid, belonging to the same group as ricinoleic and 

crotonoleic acids, but is not identical with either. 



Not available 


A decoction of the leaves is a good antidiarrhetic. A decoction of the roots is also used as 

a cure for diarrhoea, while that of the leaves is employed as a cough remedy and to excite 

secretion of milk. The bark of this plant is pounded slightly and placed in the mouth as a 

cure for snake-bite. It is also used as a poultice for sprains and dislocations, and the sap 

is a cure for toothache. The fresh, viscid juice flowing from the stem is employed to 

arrest bleeding or haemorrhage from wounds, ulcers, cuts and abrasions; it is said to 

promote healing by coagulating the blood and forming an air-tight film when dry, like that 

produced by collodion. It is a successful local remedy for scabies, eczema and ringworm. 


A dose of 1 to 4 seeds is a mild purgative; an overdose is a drastic purgative – causing vomiting, 

purging - and violent inflammation of the mucous membrane of the stomach and intestines. 



251


1.0 Scientific Name : Mimosa pudica L. 

Synonym : Mimosa asperanta Blanco 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Bashful mimosa, humble plant, sensitive plant (English); babain 

(Iloko); damohia (Tagalog); dilgansusu (Iloko); harupai 

(Bisakol); huya-huya (Bisakol); kiromkirom (Bisakol); makahia 

(Pang., Tagalog); tuyag-huyag (Bisakol); torog-torog (Bikol) 


The species is a diffusedly spreading, half-woody herb, with branched stems up to 1 meter in 

length, sparingly prickly with numerous deflexed, bristly hairs. The leaves are very sensitive, 

both the pinnae and the leaflets closing when touched. The pinnate are usually 4, digitately 

arranged at the end of each petiole, 4–9 cm long. The leaflets are narrowly oblong, inequilateral, 

1–1.5cms long, sessile, sparingly bristly, with pointed tip. The heads are long-peduncled, solitary 

or 2 or 3 in each axil, nearly 1 cm in diameter. The flowers are pink and very numerous. The 

pods are flat, slightly recurve, numerous, 1–2 cm long made up of 3–5 one-seeded joints that at 

maturity fall away. 


Propagation is by seed and produced in dense population once mature pods opened up. 


Makahiya is abundant throughout the Philippines in open, waste places at low and medium 

altitudes in settled areas. It was introduced from tropical America and is now a pantropic weed. 

252

PHILIPPINES 


The roots contain tannin 10% and ash 5.5%. 



Not available 


The root is administered as a diuretic, and is used against dysentery and dismenorrhoea. 

The entire plant is considered as an adulterant and antiasthmatic. The root decoction is 

aphrodisiac and for urinary complaints; useful in diseases arising from corrupt blood and 

bile. The leaves and root in powdered form with milk is given in cases of piles and fistula. 

The leaves rubbed into a paste are applied to hydrocel and glandular swellings. The juice 

of the leaves is used to impregnate cotton wool for dressing in any form of sinus difficulty. 

The leaves are employed as a bath for pains of the hips and kidneys. The infusion of the 

leaves is considered tonic, given for dysentery and as bitter tonic. The seeds constitute a 

good emetic and for sore throat and hoarseness. 


Not available 



253


1.0 Scientific Name : Moringa oleifera Lam. 

Synonyms : Guilandina moringa L. Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn., 

Moringa nux-ben Perr. 

Family : Moringaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Horse-radish tree, arunggai, balungai, dool, kalamungai, 

kamalongan, kalungai, kamalungai, kompompilan, malomgai, 

malungai, malungit, marongoi, marungai 


The plant is a small tree, 8 m or less in height, with corky bark and soft, white wood. The leaves 

are alternate; usually thrice pinnate and 25–50 cm long; 3–9 leaflets on the ultimate pinnules, 

thin, ovate to elliptic and 1–2 cm long. The flowers are white and 1.5–2 cm long, on spreading 

panicles. The pod is 15–30 cm long, pendulous, 3-angled and 9-ribbed. The seeds are 3-angled 

and winged on the angles. 



The plant is planted throughout the Philippines in settlement areas at low and medium altitudes. 

It was introduced from tropical Asia in the prehistoric period, and is now pantropic in cultivation. 

It is drought resistant and grows in practically all kinds of well-drained soils. The plant conserves 

water by shedding its leaves during dry season. 


Histochemical test indicates the following: tannin in stem (abundant); sulphur in stem (detectable); 

calcium oxalate in leaves and stem (detectable-abundant); pectin substances in leaves and stem 

(detectable). 

254

PHILIPPINES 

The bark contains white crystalline alkaloid (occurring in the spirituous extract), 2 resins (one 

soluble and the other insoluble in ammonia), and inorganic acid, mucilage and ash 8%. The root 

yields an essential oil which is very pungent and has offensive odor. The seed contains traces of 

an acrid and pungent alkaloid ben or behen, and is said to contain the glycerides of margaric, 

oleic and behenic acid. Ben oil consists largely of the glycerides of oleic, palmitic and stearic 

acids. It also contains a solid acid of high melting point. The husked seeds yield a fixed oil, 

30.20%. The gum contains bassorin, dextrin, enzymes myrosin and emulsin. The astringent 

property of the gum is due to the presence of moringo-tannic acid. This substance differs from 

bassorin and contains some arabin. 



Not available 


The flowers, tender leaves, and young pods are eaten as vegetables and contain abundance 

of calcium and iron. The bark, flowers and the oil from the seeds are of medicinal value. 

The oil, known as ben oil, is used as an ointment base and an absorbent in the enfleurage 

process of extracting volatile oils from flowers. The oil is particularly valuable for ointments 

since it can be kept for almost any length of time without undergoing oxidation. The oil is 

used externally in treating rheumatism. Essential oil from the root is used externally as a 

rubefacient. The root juice has been used as a dog poison. 

The young leaves are used as a galactagogue. Decoction of the roots is used to cleanse 

sores and ulcers, also considered antiscorbutic and is given to delirious patients. The bark 

is used as a rubefacient remedy. It is said that the roots of the tree, if chewed and applied 

to snake-bite can prevent the poison from spreading. 

The leaves as a poultice are useful in reducing glandular swelling. They are said to have 

purgative property. Eating the leaves is also recommended in the treatment of gonorrhea 

on account of their diuretic action. 

The roots have a taste somewhat like that of horse-radish, and in India are eaten by 

Europeans as a substitute for the latter. The fresh root is regarded as an acrid, pungent 

remedy, which is stimulant and diuretic. 

The roots are regarded as antiscorbutic and when pounded are considered an effective 

poultice for inflammatory swelling. The roots are rubefacient applied externally in the 

form of a plaster as a counter-irritant. The juice of the roots mixed with milk is also useful 

as a decoction to treat hiccough, asthma, gout, lumbago, rheumatism, enlarged spleen or 

liver, internal and deep-seated inflammations, and calculous affections. Decoction or 

infusion of the root is an effective gargle and can cause abortion. A decoction of the bark 

of the roots is used as a fomentation to relieve spasm. The gum is also good for intestinal 

complains. The gum mixed with sesame oil is recommended for the relief of otalgia. 

The flowers are useful for catarrh, with or in lieu of young leaves or young pods. The 

pods have anthelmintic property and are administered to treat infections of the liver and 

spleen, articular pains, etc. 


Not available 

255



1971. Plants of the Philippines. UP Science Education Center. Pp. 96. 

De Padua, L.S. et. al. 1978. Handbook on Philippines Medicinal Plants. Volume 2 Technical 

Bulletin Vol. III, No. 3,. UPLB, College, Laguna. Pp. 34. 


256

PHILIPPINES 

1.0 Scientific Name : Premna odorata Blanco 

Synonyms : Premna curranii H.J.Lam, Premna benthamiana Domin, 

Premna inaequilateralis E. Beer & H.J.Lam 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Alagao, anobran (Philippines) 


A shrub of small tree up to 10(–12) m tall, with up to 25(–30) cm in diameter, bark finely flaky 

fissured; leaves ovate to ovate rotundate, sometimes ovate lanceolate (–)6.5 – 16(–20) cm x 4– 

10(13.5) cm, mostly entire, sometimes serrate-denticulate in upper half, pubescent all over 

especially beneath petiolate; flowers with pedicel 0.5–1.5 mm long; corolla greenish white or 

pinkish white; fruit obovoid, 3.5 mm long, green turning black. 

4.0 Propagation : Stem cutting and seedling 


Asia, Southeast Asia, China, Taiwan, Japan and Australia 


Alkaloids and glucosides in leaves and stem 



Not available 

257



The leaves are used as diuretic; decoction with sugar and little ‘calamansi’(Citrofortunella 

microcarpa) juice is consumed to treat coughs. An infusion is considered carminative 

and useful to treat beri-beri. A decoction of leaves or flowers is considered to be a 

febrifuge and is also used to cure abdominal pains and dysentery. Masticated roots are 

prescribed against cardiac problem. 


Not available 



Plants 1. Backhuys, Leiden, The Netherlands. Pp. 52. 

De Padua et al. 1978. Handbook on Philippine Medicinal Plants, Volume 1. Published by 

Documentation and Information Section, Office of the Director of Research. University of the 

Philippines Los Banos. 

258

PHILIPPINES 

1.0 Scientific Name : Streblus asper Lour. 

Synonyms : Calius lactescens Blanco, Streblus lactescens Blume 

Family : Moraceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Kalios (Tagalog); ampas (Pampango); buntatai, bagtak 

(Bisakol); kakadli (Tagalog); aludig (Iloko); lampataki (Tagalog) 


Kalios is a rigid and densely branched tree growing from 4 to 15 m in height. The leaves are 

oblong-ovate to subrhomboid, 4 to 12 cm long, very rough on both sides, with finely toothed 

margin, the tip blunt or tapering to a point, base narrowed. The male flowers are in rounded 

heads, 4 to 7 mm in diameter, short-peduncled, greenish yellow, or nearly white. The female 

flowers are peduncled, usually in pairs, green; the sepals accresent and nearly enclosing the 

fruit. The fruit is ovoid, 8 to 10 mm long, pale yellow; the pericarp soft and fleshy. The seed is 

ovoid, 5 to 6 mm long. 

4.0 Propagation : Kalios is propagated by seed, cutting and air layering. 


Kalios is found in thickets at low and medium altitudes, common in regions with long dry season, 

from Northern Luzon to Palawan and Mindanao. It also occurs in India to southern China and 

Malaysia. 


Histochemical test indicate the following findings: glucosides in stem (detectable); calcium oxalate 

in leaves and stem (detectable–abundant); sulphur in leaves and stem (abundant); peroxidase in 

leaves and stem (detectable); hydrocellulose in leaves and stem (detectable–abundant). 

259




Not available 


Bark decoction is used for disinfecting wound, internally used for skin diseases called 

“culebra”, for fever, dysentery and diarrhea. Bark is chewed as an antidote in snake 

poisoning. Roots are used in epilepsy and inflammatory swellings and applied to boils; 

juice is astringent and antiseptic. The latex is applied to sore heels and chapped hands, on 

glandular swellings. 


Not available 


De Padua, L. S. et al. 1981. Handbook on Philippine Medicinal Plants. Vol. II. Technical 

Bulletin Vol. II , No.3. 6. UPLB, College, Laguna. Pp. 67. 


260

PHILIPPINES 

1.0 Scientific Name : Tinospora crispa (L.) Hook f. & Thomson 

Synonyms : Tinospora rumphii Boerl., Tinospora tuberlata (Lamk) 

Beumee ex K. Heyne 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Makabuhay (Philippines); patawali, putawali, akar seruntum 

(Malaysia) 


A woody climber up to 15 m long; older stems very prominently tuberculate and producing very 

long filiform aerial roots; leaves broadly ovate to orbicular, 7–14(–25) cm x 6–12(–24) cm, 

without domatia; inflorescences appear when plant is leafless; flowers usually with 3 petals; 

fruit ellipsoidal, about 2 cm long, orange. The plant occurs primarily in rain forest and mixed 

deciduous forest but can be very common in secondary vegetation after logging and in hedges, 

up to 1,000 m altitude. 



India, Myanmar, Cambodia, Lao PDR, Viet Nam, Southern China (Yunnan), Thailand, Peninsular 

Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia (Java, Sumbawa) and the Philippines (Luzon, Mindoro, Mindanao). 

A commonly backyard plant. 


Alkaloid, sapponin, tannin and glycosides in leaves and stems 

261




Not available 


An infusion of the stem is served as vermifuge and the whole plant is used to treat 

cholera and diabetes mellitus. Externally applied to cure scabies and to heal wounds. 

Powdered stems are used to fatten horses and cattle by stimulating their appetite. The 

plant is a very commonly used medicinal plant in the Philippines, Thailand, Sri Lanka and 

India. 


Not available 


De Padua et al. 1978. Handbook on Philippine Medicinal Plants, Volume 1. Published by 

the Documentation and Information Section, Office of the Director of Research University of 

the Philippines Los Banos. 


Plants 1. Backhuys, Leiden, The Netherlands. 

262

PHILIPPINES 

1.0 Scientific Name : Vitex negundo L. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Lagundi (Philippines); legundi (Malaysia); kyaung-pan-gyi 

(Thailand) 


Evergreen or deciduous shrub or small to medium-sized tree, sometimes large, up to 45 m tall; 

bole crooked to straight, up to 125(–200) cm in diameter, usually without buttress but sometimes 

with distinct buttress, often deeply fluted; bark surface rather smooth to shallowly fissured or 

flaky, pale gray to pale yellowish brown, inner bark pale yellow to bright orange; crown often 

spreading. Leaves opposite or in whorls of 3; palmately compound with 3–7(–9) leaflets, rarely 

reduced to one leaflet without stipules, leaflet entire dentate or lobed. Inflorescence terminal or 

axillary, cymose; the cymes sessile or pedunculate, solitary or arranged in racemes, thyrses or 

panicles. Flowers bisexual; calyx campanulate to tubular; 5-lobed to truncate corolla usually 

with a short tube, 2-lipped, upper lip 2-fid, lower 3-fid often pubescent outside, white to blue or 

violet or rarely yellowish; stamens 4 didynamous, inserted on the corolla tube, exserted; ovary 

superior usually first to locular and later 4 locular with a single ovule in each cell; style 1 filiform; 

stigma vivid. Fruit, a juicy or dry drupe, seated on the often enlarged calyx, generally with 4- 

seeded pyrene. Seeds obovoid or oblong without endosperm. Seedling with epigeal germination; 

cotyledons emergent, leafy; hypocotyls elongated; leaves opposite conduplicate, first ones simple 

and with toothed margins. 

4.0 Propagation : Stem cuttings and seeds 


It grows well in tropical regions, commonly in thickets and wastelands. 

263



The active constituents are probably the flavonoids casticin, chresoplenol D, luteolin and 

isooreintin, and p-hydroxybenzoic acid. 



Lagundi is the only extensively studied cough remedy and antiasthma herbal preparation 

in the Philippines today. The National Integrated Research Program on Medicinal Plants 

(NIRPROMP) has established in both animal and human studies the wide margin of 

safety and efficacy of lagundi as a cough remedy and antiasthma medicine. Phase IIIdouble 

blind placebo controlled trial has shown bronchodilator effect and anttitussive 

effect. 


The bark, leaves, flowers, fruits or roots of various Vitex species are used as general 

tonic, antihelmintic and in the treatment of gastro-intestinal disorders. General applications 

are as anodyne, febrifuge, expectorant and diuretic. A poultice of the leaves is applied to 

relieve rheumatic pains, inflammations and sprains. An infusions of the leaves is used in 

the treatment of dermatitis and eczema. The leaves are traditionally placed between 

pages of books and clothes as well as in rice stores to ward off insects. In the Philippines 

the plant is applied in veterinary medicine to treat internal parasite. 


Not available 



Plants 1. Backhuys, Leiden, The Netherlands. 

264

THAILAND 

1.0 Scientific Name : Artocarpus lakoocha Roxb. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Ma haat, kaa-yae, taa-pae, taa-paeng, mahaat baiyai, haat, puaghaad 



The plant is a large-sized tree, 15–20 m tall; crown is dense, rounded; bark is brownish grey or 

dark brown and scaly. Young shoots covered with a tawny or rusty dense, villous tomentum. 

Leaves simple, alternate, 10–30 cm long, 5–20 cm wide, surface rough beneath; petiole 2–4 cm 

long, hairy or glabrous; blade oblong, elliptic or ovate; base rounded or cordate, unequal; apex 

acute or acuminate; mature leaf margin entire but young leaves serrulate. Flowers are monoecious, 

the males and females crowded on separate receptacles. The male inflorescences are irregularly 

oblong, yellow, solitary in the axils of the leaves; consisting of short peduncles; perianth 2-3-4 

parted; stamen 1 only, excerted; filament complanate. The female inflorescences usually 

irregularly globular; consisting of peduncle slightly longer than the male one; perianth tubular, 

entire; ovary free, 1-very rarely 2- or 3-celled, the cells with solitary pendulous ovule. Fruit, 

compound fleshy syncarp, irregularly rounded, about 5–8 cm in diameter, velvety puberulous, 

when fully ripe yellow, edible. Seeds oblong, lodged within the fleshy enlarged perianth parts. 



Not common in evergreen forests in peninsular, southeastern and southwestern parts of Thailand. 

It is cultivated for medicinal uses. 

267



The whole plant contains 2,3,4,5-tetrahydroxystil-bene. The stem contains 5-hydroxy-2,4,7- 

trimethoxyflavone, 2,34,5-tetrahydroxystilbene, while the bark contains amyrin acetate, lupeol 

acetate, tannin. Root bark contains 5,7-dihydroxyflavone-3-O-a-L- rhamnoside, galangin-3-Oa-b-D-galactosyl-(1-4)-a-L-rhamnoside, 

kaempferol-3-O-b-L-xylopyranoside, lupeol, quercetin- 

3-O-a-L-rhamnopyranosied, b-sitosterol. The plant is also known to contain 2,4,3,5- 

tetrahydroxystilbene. 



The aerial parts showed hypotensive activity when administered intravenously at 50% 

alcohol extract to dogs at a dose of 50.0 mg/kg. The heartwood (powdered) showed an 

anthelmintic activity against Taenia saginata. The 2,4,3,5-tetrahydroxystilbene, found in 

the stem bark, is responsible for the anthelmintic activity. A formula is being developed at 

the National Institute of Hygienic Sciences, Bangkok.The plant is also effective against 

pig ascaris. It managed to decrease helminth-eggs in faeces of both dogs and humans. 

The plant showed an antibacterial activity where a 95% alcohol extract of dried stemwood 

(91.0 mg/disc) exhibited the antibacterial activity against Bacillus subtilis. Antituberculosis 

activity was observed when 95% alcohol extract (1.0 mg/disc) was effective against 

Mycobacterium smegmatis. 

The bark showed an antiviral activity when an aqueous extract inhibited the growth of 

potato virus X when grown on Nicotiana tobacum leaves at 1:1 dilution. 


The root is antipyretic and antihelmintic. It is also used for alleviation of toxic symptoms 

and treatment of urinary stones. The wood is antiflatulent, and used as carminative and 

laxative. It is used in the treatment of skin rash, chronic gastrointestinal ailments of children 

characterized by marked malnutrition and usually associated with intestinal parasitism 

and round worm infestation, and also in the treatment of menstrual disorders, fainting, 

tapeworm, any disorders or diseases which cause cachexia, disorders of flatulence and 

tendomyopathy. The bark is known to be antipyretic. The pith is used in the treatment of 

menstrual disorders, any disorders or diseases which cause cachexia, nephropathy, 

distension of abdomen due to peritonitis or paralytic ileus, and also in treating insomnia; 

malnutrition syndrome in children due to intestinal parasitism; splenomegaly; eye irritation; 

dissipate hematoma; oropharyngeal symptom from gastroenteric disease; dyspepsia caused 

by wind element; cramp; clouded mind; incontinent urination. It is also known to be 

antidiarrheal, anthelmintic, febrifuge, antituberculosis and analgesic, and for increasing 

appetite. 

In the treatment of right-sided thoraco-abdominal spasm and cholesystopathy and as 

taenifuge, the powdered plant is suspended in lemon juice or water and taken orally. 


Not available 

268

THAILAND 


Buathong, M., Suvithayawat, V., Pavaro, C. & Huntrakul, T. 1976. Chemical Study of the 

Active Compound from the Wood of Artocarpus lakoocha. B.Sc. (Pharm.). Faculty of 

Pharmacy, Mahidol University. 

Bhakuni, D. S., Dhar, M. L., Dhar, M. M., Chawan, B. N., Gupta, B. & Srimali, R. C. 1971. 

Screening of Indian plants for biological activity. Part III. Indian Journal Experimental 

Biolology. 9: Pp. 91. 

Chauhan, J. S. & Kumari, G. 1979. A new glycoflavanol from the root bark of Artocarpus 

lakoocha. Planta Medica. 37: Pp. 85–88. 

Chauhan, J. S., Kumari, G. & Saraswat, M. 1980. A new flavanol glycoside from the root bark 

of Artocarpus lakoocha. Indian Journal Chemistry Ser B. 18: Pp. 473–475. 

Chauhan, J. S., Kumari, G., Kumar, S. & Chaturvedi, R. 1982. Chemical examination of the root 

bark of Artocarpus lakoocha. Product Natural Academy Science India Sect A. 52(2):217– 

218. 

Charoenlarp, P., Radomyos, P. & Bunnag, D. 1989. The optimum dose of puag-haad in the 

treatment of taeniasia. Ibid. 72(2):71–73. 

Choroenlarp, P., Shaipanich, C., Subhanka, S., Lakkantinaporn, P. & Tanunkat. 1991. A. 

pharmacokinetics of the active constituent of puag-haad in man. Symposium on Mahidol University 

Research and Development.ASEAN Institute Health Development, Salaya, Nakhon Pathom, 

Thailand, February 25–29, 1991. 

Kapel, R. S. & Joshi, S. S. 1960. Chemical constiuents of Artocapus lakoocha. Journal 

Science Indian Research 19B: Pp. 498. 

Khalique, M. A. & Mofizerd, D. A. 1955. Indigenous tanning materials of E. Pakistan. I. Leaching 

of goran, sonail, and dahua barks. Pakistan Journal Science Research 7(2): Pp. 51–53. 

Manmontri, M. 1949. Report on the anthelmintic activity of puak-haad against tape-worm. Journal 

Medical Association Thailand. 32(6): Pp. 1–9. 

Mongkolsuk, S., Alexander, R. & Towers, R. 1956. 2,3,4,5 Tetrahydroxy- stilbene from 

Artocarpus lakoocha. Journal Chemistry Society. Pp. 2231–2233. 

Mahati, S. B., Banerjee, S. K. & Chakravarti, R. N. 1966. Triterpenes of Artocarpus lakoocha 

Roxb. Bulletin Calcutta School of Tropical Medicine 14(1): Pp. 16. 

Nilvises, N., Panyathanya, R. & Wamnutchinda, W. 1985. Toxicity test of Puag Haad (Artocarpus 

lakoocha). Bulletin Department of Medical Science 27(1): Pp. 49. 

Pavaro, C. & Reutrakul, V. 1976. A study of a new flavonol in puak-huad. Mahidol University 

Journal of Phamaceutical Sciences. 3: Pp. 161–164. 

Pongpan, A., Chumsri, P. & Taworasate, T. 1982. The antimicrobial activity of some Thai 

medicinal plants. Mahidol University Journal of Pharmaceutical Sciencies 9(4): Pp. 82– 

91. 

269


Sambhandharaksa, C., Thantivatana. P. & Ratanachai, T. 1965. Pharmacognostical and 

phytochemical studies of Artocapus lakoocha Roxb. Journal Natural Resource Council 

Thailand. 3: Pp. 68–78. 

Singh, R. 1981. Inactivation of potato virus x by plant extracts. Phytopathology Mediterranean 

10(2): Pp. 211–212. 

Tiptssiankarn, L. I. 1967. The antioxidant action of 2,4,3,5 Tetrahydroxystilbene and 

some of its Derivatives. M.Sc. thesis (Pharmacology), Mahidol University. 

Wisutsonthorn, J., Sukprasert, A. & Aareekul, S. et al. 1985. Formulation of Some Thai 

Folkloric Anthelmintic Preparations. Seminar on Medicinal Plants Development, Bangkok, 

Thailand. July 17-19, 1985. 

Yodhabandu, C. 1960. A Pharmacopoeial Study on “Puag Haad” (2,4,3,5- 

tetrahydroxystilbene). B.Sc. (Pharm), Chulalongkorn University. 

270

THAILAND 

1.0 Scientific Name : Boesenbergia rotunda (L.) Mansf. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Kra chaai, ka aen, ra aen, chee-puu, see-phuu, poh-so-roh, pohsee, 

waan phra aa thit (Thailand); temu kunci (Malaysia) 


The plant is a rhizomatous herb; having roots cylindrical, fascicled, 6–10 cm long; tip acute, 

outside light brown, inside yellow, scented. Shoot leafy and very short, consisting of 3–4 leaves; 

petioles 12–25 cm long, 5–10 cm wide; apex acute; base cuneate or obtuse; margin entire. 

Inflorescence terminal, subsessile, enclosed by leaf-sheaths bearing 2-ranked bracts each 

subtending a single flower; bracts are linear-lanceolate up to 5 cm long; bracteoles are as long 

as the bracts but narrower. The uppermost flower opens first; calyx about 2 cm, bifid; corolla 

pink, tube exceeding the bracts; lobes about 1.5 cm, oblong; labellum bag-shaped about 2.5 cm 

long, 2 cm wide; lateral staminodes slightly shorter than corolla lobes and mottled purple. Fruits 

are ellipsoid. 



It is grown in almost all soil types but it grows best in sandy soil. It is widely cultivated throughout 

the country. 


Boesenbergin A, boesenbergin B, cardamonin, chavicinic acid, 2, 6-dihydroxy-4-methoxychalcone, 

2, 4-dihydroxy-6-methoxychalcone, 5, 7-dimethoxy-flavone, essential oil, 2-hydroxy-4, 4, 6- 

trimethoxychalcone, 2-ydroxy-4, 6’-dimethoxy-chalcone, 5-hydroxy 7, 4-dimethoxyflavanone, 

271


panduratin A, panduratin B1, panduratin B2, 3, 5, 7, 3, 4-pentamethoxyflavone, dl-pinocembrin(2, 

3-dihydroxychrysin) (1), dl-pinostrobin(5-hydroxy-7-methoxyflavanone) 4-tetramethoxyflavone 



Not available 


The rhizome has antibacterial, antifungal, mutagenic, antiinflammatory, antipyretic, 

antispasmodic and insecticidal activities. 


Not available 


Achararit, C., Panyayong, W. & Ruchatakomut, E. 1983. Inhibitory Action of Some Thai 

Herbian (Medicinal Plants) to Fungi. Special project for the degree of B.Sc. (Pharm.). 

Faculty of Pharmacy, Mahidol University, Thailand. 

Apisariyakul, A. & Anantasarn, V. 1984. A Pharmacological Study of the Thai Medicinal Plants 

Used As Cathartics and Antispasmodics. 10th Symposium on Science and Technology of Thailand, 

Chiang Mai, Thailand. 25–27 October 1984. 

Apisariyakul, A., Puddhasukh, D. & Niyomka, P. 1987. Pharmacological Screening of Thai 

Natural Products. The First Princess Chulabhorn Science Congress I, Bangkok, Thailand. 

Areekul, S., Sinchaisri, P. & Tigvatananon, S. 1987. Effect of Thai plant extract on the Oriental 

fruitfly I. Toxicity test. Kasetsart Journal (Natural Science), 21(4): Pp. 395–407. 

Hirunsalee, A., Pancharoen, O. & Tantiwachwuttikul, P. 1987. Further Studies of Flavonoids of 

the Black Rhizome of Boesenbergia pandurata. Journal Science Society Thailand. 13(2): 

Pp. 119–122. 

Iamthammachard, S. 1982. Study on the Effects of Some Medicinal Plants in the Family 

Zingiberaceae on the Growth of Some Bacteria. M.Sc. (Teaching Biology) thesis, Chiang 

Mai University, Thailand. 

Jaipetch, T., Kanghae, S., Pancharoen, O. et al. 1982. Constituents of Boesenbergia pandurata 

(Syn. Kaempferia pandurata): Isolation, Crystal Structure and Synthesis of (DL) — boesenbergin 

A. Australia Journal Chemistry. 35: Pp. 351–361. 

Laorpaksa, A., Amnuoypol, S. & Jongbunprasert, V. 1988. Preliminary Study on Antibacterial 

Action of Thai Medicinal Plants for Respiratory Tract Infection (I). Thai Journal Pharm 

Science. 13(1): Pp. 23–36. 

272

THAILAND 

Mahidol, C., Tuntiwachwuttikul, P., Pakawatchai, C. et al. 1988. Constituents of the Zingiberaceae. 

Crystal Structure of (+) — E- l [5-hydroxy-7’-methoxy-2-methyl=2-(-4-methylpent-3-enyl)- 

2’H-l-benzopyran-6’—YL]-3-Phenylprop-en-l-one. Journal Science Society Thailand. 14: 

Pp. 301–311. 

Pancharoen, A., Kelvin, P., Reutrakul. V, Taylor, W. C. & Tantiwachwuttikul, P. 1987. Constituents 

of the Zingiberaceae. X. Diastereomers of [17-hydroxy-5-methoxy-2-methylbut-2(4-methylpent- 

3-enyl)-2H-chromen-8-yl] [3-methylbut-2-enyl)-6-phenylcyclohex-3-enyl] methanone (panduratin 

B) a Constituent of the Red Rhizomes of a Variety of Boesenbergia pandurata. Australia 

Journal Chemistry. 40(3): Pp. 455–459. 

Suphat, P. 1964. Active Principle in Bosenbergia pandurata. M.Sc. thesis, Chulatongkorn 

University, Thailand. 

Tasneeyakul, W. A. 1984. Study on Anti-inflammatory Activity of 5,7-Dimethoxyflavone 

Isolated from Boesenbergia pandurata Extract in Albino Rats. M.Sc. thesis, Chiangmai 


Thamaree, S., Pachotilarn, C., Tankeyoon, M. & Itthipanichpong, C. 1985. Effects on intestinal 

motility of thirty herbal medicines used in the treatment of diarrhea and dysentery. Chula Medical 

Journal. 29(1): Pp. 39–51. 

Tuntiwachwuttikul, P., Kanghae, S., Jaipetch, T. & Reutrakul, V. 1980. Chemical Constituents 

of Bosenbergia pandurata. Abstract 4 th Asian Symposium Medicinal Plants Spices, Bangkok, 

Thailand, 15–19 September 1980. pg 77. 

Ultee, A. J. 1928. The Essential Oil from Gastrochilus panduratum. Ridl. Proceedings 

Academy Science Amsterdam. 31: Pp. 62–64. 

Ultee, A. J. 1957. The Ethereal Oil of Gastrochilus panduratum. Ridl. Verslag Academy 

Wetenschappen Amsterdam. 36: Pp. 1262–1264. 

Ungsurngsie, M., Suthienkul, D. & Paovalo, C. 1982. Mutagenicity screening of popular Thai 

spices. Food Cosmet Toxicology 120: Pp. 527–530. 

273


1.0 Scientific Name : Cassia fistula L. 


2.0 Vernacular Name : Khuun (Thailand) 


Small to medium-sized, upright tree, about 10–15 m tall. Trunk short, and branches slender, 

upright and spreading. Bark smooth, ash-coloured when young, becomes dark brown when 

mature. Stipules small and caducous. Leaves compound pinnate, rachis about 15–25 cm long, 

bears 3–8 pairs of leaflets about 7–12 cm long and 4–8 cm broad, smooth above and covered 

with fine veins, more distinct on the under-surface; petiolule about 5–10 mm long. Flowers 

racemes about 20–40 cm long, 1–3 racemes drooping from the axil; stalk about 15–35 mm long, 

slender, slightly hairy or quite smooth; 5 tender green sepals; 5 yellow petals, egg-shaped and 

distinctly veined; 10 stamens with thread-like filaments, the 3 longest stamens about 3 cm long, 

much curled and bear about 5 mm oblong anthers, the 4 smaller ones are quite straight, the 3 

remaining stamens are quite short and erect; ovary and style are hairy. Fruit is a straight 

cylindrical pod, 20–60 cm long and about 1.5–2 cm in diameter, quite smooth and dark green 

when young, turning dark brown and then black with age; seeds numerous, oval, shining, yellowish 

brown, embedded in a dark-coloured, sweetish pulp. 



The plant is found in mixed deciduous forests and cultivated for ornamental purpose throughout 

the country. 

274

THAILAND 


The sapwood contains 1-8-dihydroxy-3-methyl anthraquinone, (+)-catechin, dihydrokaempferol, 

(-)-epiafzelchin, kaempferol, procyanidin CF-1. 

The leaves contain anthraquinones, carbohydrates, carotene, cellulose, chitorin, chlorophyll A, 

chlorophyll B, chrysophanic acid, hemicelluloses, inorganic elements kaempferol-3-O-b-Dglucoside, 

kaempferol-3-O-b-D-neohesperidoside, kaempferlo-3-glucoside, kaempferol-3- 

rhamnosied, kaempferol-3-robinobioside-7-rhamnoside, lignins, myricetin, 3-neohesperidoside, 

phenolic ester and ethers, alcohol, pigments, protein, quercetin, quercetin-3-rutinoside, quercetin- 

3-xyloside, rhein, rhein glucoside, sennoside, sennoside A, sennoside B, steroids, tannins, vicein(6, 

8-di-C-glucosylapigenin, xylose D. 

The flower contains 28-isofucosterol, gibberellin A-3, b-sitosterol, stigmasterol. 

The pod contains anthraquinones, arginine, aspartic acid, n-butyric acid, carbohydrates, citric 

acid, fistulic acid, formic acid, glutamic acid, hydroxymethylanthraquinone, leucine, lignoceric 

acid, d-(+)-malic acid, methionine, pectins, phenylalanine, protein, rhein, sucrose, tannins, 

terpenoids, triacontan-1-ol, n-triacontyl lignocerate, tryptophan, waxes. 

The seed contains amino acid. The plant is also known to contain alcohol, phenolic ester and 

ethers, steroids, triterpenes. 



Not available 


The fruit has antiviral, antitumour, antifertility, hypoglycemic, antiinflammatory, antibacterial 

and antifungal activities. 


Not available 


Agarwal, C. D., Rizvi, S. A. I., Gupta, P. C. & Tewari, J. D. 1970. Chemical examination of 

Cassia fistula pods. Proceedings Natural Academy Science, India, Sect. A. 40(3):338–340. 

Agarwal, C. D., Rizvi, S. A. I., Gupta, P. C. & Tewari, J. D. 1972. Structure of fistulic acid, a 

new coloring matter from the pods of Cassia fistula. Planta Medica. 21(2):150–155. 

Babbar, J. P., Joshi, M. N. & Madan, A. R. 1982. Evaluation of plants for antiviral activity. 

Indian Journal of Medical Research (Suppl). 76:54–65. 

Babbar, O. P. 1982. Protective patterns of different interferons: Possible efficacy of chick 

embryo and plant interferons against microbial infections and malignancies of animals. Ibid. 

20(8): Pp. 451–454. 

275


Babber, O. P., Bajpai, S. K., Chowdhury, B. L. & Khan, S. K. 1979. Occurrence of interferonlike 

antiviral and antitumor factor(s) in extract of some indigenous plants. Indian Journal 

Experimental Biology. 17(5): Pp. 451–454. 

Bhardwaj, S., Mathur, R. & Agarwal, O. P. 1980. Estrogenicity of fruit of Cassia fistula Linn. 

and its effect on implantation in female albino rats. Bulletin Medical Ethnobotany Res. 1: 

Pp. 281–286. 

Bhardwal, S. & Mathur, R. 1979. Anti-fertility screening of fruit of Cassia fistula in female 

albino rats. Comp Physiol. Ecology. 4(4): Pp. 277–279. 

Billore, S. K, Mehta, S .C. & Mall, L. P. 1976. Changes in chlorophyll A, B and carotenoid in 

summer leaves of tree species in a dry deciduous forest. Journal Indian Botany Society. 

55(1): Pp. 56–59. 

Chutiyasantyanon, C., Sirikul, S., Buntaweekul, S. & Temrattansirikul, A. A. 1984. Study of 

Medicinal Plants Used for Skin Diseases. Special Project for B.Sc. (Pharm.), Faculty of 


Dhar, M. L., Dhar, M. M., Dhawan, B. N., Mehrotra, B. N. & Ray, C. 1968. Screening of 

Indian plants for biological activity: Part I. Indian Journal Experimental Biology. 6: Pp. 

232-247. 

Estevez, A., Marquina, G., Polanco, N., Contreras, D., Vergara, A., Perez, I. & Kekoura, K. 

1976. Antitumor substances from twenty two Cuban plants. Revision Cubana Farm. 10: Pp. 

223–227. 

Ghosh, P., Thankur, S., Itoh, T. & Matsumoto, T. 1982. Sterols from flowers of Cassia siamea, 

Cassia sophera and Cassia fistula. Indian Journal Chemistry Series B. 21: Pp. 796–797. 

Gritsanapan, W. & Chulasiri, M. 1988. A Preliminary study of anti-diarrheal plants: I Antibacterial 

activity. Mahidol University Journal Pharmacology Science. 10(4): Pp. 119–123. 

Gupta, P. C., Singh, H., Sangwan, D. C. & Pradhan, K. 1975. Chemical composition and in 

vitro nutrient digestibility of some of the Tree Leaves. Indian Forest 101(11): Pp. 674–680. 

Kaji, N. N., Khorana, M. L. & Sanghavi, M. L. 1968. Studies on Cassia fistula Linn. Indian 

Journal Pharmacology 30(1): Pp. 8–11. 

Kamboo, V. P., Setty, S. S., & Khanna, V. M. 1977. Semen coagulation a potential approach to 

contraception. Contraception. 15: Pp. 601–610. 

Karim, M. A. & Guha Sircar, S. S. 1964. The fruit-pulp of Cassia fistula. Science Culture. 

12(4): Pp. 194. 

Katiyar, S. K. & Niranjan, G. S. 1981. Studies on carbohydrates and amino acids of some noncultivated 

leguminous seeds. Journal Indian Chemistry Society. 85: Pp. 98–100. 

Khan, M. R., Ndaalio, S., Nkunya, M. H., Wevers, H. & Sawhney, A. N. 1980. Studies on 

African medicinal plants. Part I. Preliminary screening of African medicinal plants. Part I. 

Preliminary screening of medicinal plants for antibacterial activity. Planta Medica Supplement. 

40: Pp. 91–97. 

276

THAILAND 

Menon, T. V., Pillai, N. G. K., Pillai, K. G. B., Kurup, P. B. & Nair, C. P. R.1980. A detailed 

study on Pama (Scabies) with Aragwatha Kwatham and Pamari Ointment. Journal of Science 

Research on Plants Medicine 1(3): Pp. 29–31. 

Mitscher, L. A., Leu, R. P., Bathala, M. S., WU, W. & Beal, J. L. 1972. Antimicrobial agent 

from higher plants. I. Introduction, Rationale, and Methodology. Lloydia. 35: Pp. 157–166. 

Naokata, M., Arisawa, M., Nagaes, M., Hsu, H. & Chen, Y. 1977. Studies on the constituents of 

Formosan leguminosae: III. On the flavonoids from Leucaena glauca (I). Benth, Cassia fistula 

L. and 8 other varieties. Syoyakugaku Zasshi 31(2): Pp. 172–174. 

Nayudamma, Y., Rajadurai, S., Bhanu, K.U., Xeddy, K. K. & Banerji, S. 1962. Some Recent 

Studies in the Chemistry of Indigenous Condensed Tannins. Seminar on Vegetable Tannins, 

Madras. Pp. 55–61. 

Patil, A. & Deshapande, V. H. 1982. A new dimeric proanthocyanidin from Cassia fistula 

sapwood. Indian Journal Chemistry Series B. 21:626–628. 

Plengvidhya, P. & Suvagondha, C. 1957. A study of diagnostic constants of leaves of some 

members in genus Cassia. Journal Pharmacology Association of Siam, Third Series. 10(1): 

10–12. 

Pongpan, A., Chumsri, P. & Taworasate, T. 1982. The antimicrobial activity of some Thai 

medicinal plants. Mahidol University Journal Pharmacology Science. 9(4):88–91. 

Prasav, V. & Gupta, S. C. 1967. Inhibitory effect of bark and leaf decoctions on the activity of 

pectic enzymes of Alternaria tenuis. Indian Journal Experimental Biology. 5(3):192–193. 

Pumsaard, U. 1979. The Isolation of Steroids in Cassia fistula L. M.Sc. thesis, Chiang Mai 


Quryamatity, P. 1980. Isolation of Rhein from Pudding Pipetree (Cassia fistula Linn.). 

M.Sc. thesis, Chiang Mai University, Thailand. 

Rai, A. & Seti, M. S. 1972. Screening of some plants for their activity against Vassinia and 

Fowl-pox viruses. Indian Journal Animal Science. 41(12): Pp. 1066–1070. 

Reauchianchai, S., Wacharothayangkul, W. & Chumsri, P. 1980. Quantitative Determination 

of Antraquinones in Cassia spp. Special project for the degree of B.Sc. (Pharm.), Faculty of 


Richter, G. & Hauenstein, H. 1967. Chemical quantitative determination of Senna drugs, extracts, 

and preparations by separate quantitative analysis of anthraquinone glycosides and aglycones. 

Deut Apoth-Ztg. 107(48): Pp. 1751–1756. 

Ros, S. A., Megalla, S. E., Bishay, D. W. & Awad, A. H. 1980. Studies for determining antibiotic 

substances in some Egyptian plants. Part I. Screening for antimicrobial activity. Fitoterapia 

51: Pp. 303–308. 

Sacco, T. 1958. Researches on Cassia fistula of Somaliland. Rev. Agriculture Subtrop 

Tropical. 52: Pp. 119–126. 

277


Sburlati, A. 1940. The Heteroxides of Senna. Arch Ital. Science Farmcology 9: Pp. 143–150. 

Schmidt, H. J. & Dittrich, C. 1960. Senna Extracts. Ger. (East) Patent. 23:397. 

Shah, R. R., Subbaiah, K.V. & Mehta, A. H. 1978. Carbohydrate influence on polyphenol 

accumulation in Cassia and Datura tissues cultured In-vitro. Biol Plant (Prague). 1978. 

20(1): Pp. 5–13. 

Singh, K. P. & Singh, R. P. 1977. The chlorophyll content of sun and shade leaves of common 

trees growing at Varanasi, India. Indian Journal Ecology 4(1):46–54. 

Sircar, P. K., Dey, S., Sanyal, T., Ganguly, S. N. & Sircar, S. N. 1970. Gibberellic acid in the 

floral parts of Cassia fistula. Phytochemistry. 735–736. 

Vasi, I.G. & Kaalintha, V. P. 1980. Chemical examination of the fruit pulp of Cassia fistula 

Linn. Journal Institute Chemistry (India). 52(2): Pp. 85–86. 

278

THAILAND 

1.0 Scientific Name : Cassia tora L. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Chumhet thai, ki-kia, no-panaa-noe, chumhet khwaai, chumhet 

naa, chumhet lek, phrom daan, lapmuen noi, yaa luek luen 



The plant is a herb or undershrub up to 1 m high, nearly glabrous. Leaves paripinnate, with 3 

pairs of leaflets; petiole about 1–4 cm long; rachis is 2–3 cm long with a subulate, 2 mm long 

gland between the 2 lower pairs of leaflets; stipules setaceous, 10–15 mm long, more or less 

cuducous; leaflets 2–5 x 1.5–2 cm obovate, membranous, with a short petiolule, broadly rounded 

apex and cuneate-rounded base. Flowers axillary, short; 1–3 flowered racemes; bracts linearacute, 

2–3 mm long; pedicels 4–10 mm long; 5 sepals, ovate, subequal, 5 x 2–4 mm; 5 petals, 

yellow, unequal, obobate, short-clawed with rounded apex, up to 10x6 mm; 7 stamens, nearly 

equal; filaments 1.5–2 mm; anthers 1.5–2.5 mm long, opening by apical pores; ovary densely 

pubescent having glabrous style and truncate stigma. Fruit is a terete linear, more of less falcate 

pod, 10–15 x 0.5 cm, having 20–30 seeds which are glossy, rhomboidal, 5 mm in diameter. 



The plant grows around villages, frequently on lower altitudes. It is a common weed throughout 

Thailand. 


The whole plant contains D-mannitol, myricyl alcohol, b-sitosterol. The leaves contain chlorophyll, 

chrysophanic acid, inorganic elements, emodin, protein, and 1,6,8 trihydroxy-3-methyl 

279


anthraquinone. The seeds contain alcohols, aloe emodin, aloe emodin glucoside, amino acid, 

anthraquinones, D-arabinose, aurantioobtusin, carbohydrates, chrysoobtusin, chrysophanic acid, 

chrysophanic acid-9-anthrone, chrysophanol diglucoside, chrysophanol triglucoside, chrysophanol- 

1-O-g-D-gentiobioside, emodin, D-galactose, D-glucose, gum, inorganic element, D-mannose, 

1-methionine, 2-naphhtho-g-pyrones, norrubrofusarin, obtusin, oligosaccharides, physcion, physcion 

diglucoside, polysaccharides, protein, D-rhamnose, rhein, rubrofusarin, rubrofusarin-6-O-b-Dgentiobioside, 

b-sitosterol, sitosterols, toralactone, 1-tryptophan, D-xylose. Oil from seeds contains 

linoleic, oleic, palmitic and stearic acids. The plant is also known to contain anthraquinones, 

carotene, chlorophyll A, chlorophyll B, and Vitamin C. 



The entire plant is known to have an antiviral activity, phygocytosis stimulation, 

antispasmodic activity, cytotoxic and toxic activities. The leaves have antimalarial, 

antibacterial and antifungal activities. The leaves and stems have an antihelminthic activity. 

The seeds have an antibacterial, antifungal, hypotensive activity, a smooth muscle 

stimulation and relaxation, diuretic and toxicity activities. 


The whole plant is used to treat skin diseases, fever, yaws, acute gastrointestinal ailments 

in children characterized by marked malnutrition, usually associated with intestinal 

parasitism. It is also used as a laxative, diuretic and expectorant. The stem is used to treat 

coughs. The leaves are used as a laxative, diuretic for neurotonic, and in the treatment of 

skin diseases and detoxication. The seeds are used in the treatment of disorders in urination, 

fever, asthma, yaws, skin diseases, constipation, as a diuretic, antihelmintic, kidney tonic, 

cardiotonic and demulcent. 


Not available 


Acharya, T. K. & Chatterjee, I. B. 1974. Isolation of chrysophanic scid-9-anthrone, a fungicidal 

compound from Cassia tora. Science Cultivation 40(7):316. 

Acharya, T. K. & Chatterjee, I. B. 1975. Isolation of Chrysophanic Acid-9-anthrone, the major 

antifungal principle of Cassia tora. Lloydia 38(3): Pp. 218–220. 

Bhakuni, O. S., Dhar, M. L., Dhar, M. M., Dhawan, B. N. & Mehrotra, B. N. 1969. Screening 

of Indian Plants for Biological Activity. Part II. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 

7: Pp. 250–262. 

Bhatia, R.K. & Clawan, D.D. 1976. Occurrence of phenolic substances in seed coat of Cassia 

species and their effect on early seedling growth. Geobios (Jodhpur) (6): Pp. 214. 

Broker, R. & Rhat, J. V. 1952. Phagocytic coefficient as a measure for evaluating plant antibiotics. 

Indian Journal of Medical Research 40(3):361. 

280

THAILAND 

Broker, R. & Bhatt, J. V. 1953. Symposium on Antibacterial Substances From Soil, Plants and 

Chan, S. H., Koo, A. & Li, K.M. 1976. The involvement of medullary reticular formation in the 

hypotensive effect from seed of Cassia tora. American Journal of Chinese Medicine 1:383. 

Desai, H. B. & Shukla, P. C. 1978. Note on chrysophanic acid in Cassia tora seeds and its 

removal by different treatments. Gujarat Agriculture University Research Journal 4(1):60. 

Dhar, M. L., Dhar, M. M., Dhawan, B. N., Mehrotra, B. N. & Ray, C. 1968. Screening of 

Indian plants for biological activity: Part 1. Indian Journal Experimental Biology 6: Pp. 232– 

247. 

Ito, K. & Ota, N. 1951. Effects of vegetable drugs on pathogenic fungi, Effect of Anthraquinoneglycoside 

Containing Crude Drugs Upon the Growth of Pathogenic Fungi. Bulletin of 

Pharmacology Research Institute Japan 2: Pp.23. 

Joshi, S. B. & Varma, K. C. 1964. Panevar (Cassia tora) gum as a suspending and emulsifying 

agent. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 26:175–177. 

Joshi, S. S. & Nigam, S. S. 1976. Amino acid composition of wild legumes. Curr. Science 

45(12): Pp. 450–451. 

Julkarat, P. 1972. Pharmacological Study of Cassia tora. Siriraj Hospital Gazette 24(10): Pp. 

1559. 

Katiyar, S.K. & Niranjan, G.S. 1982. Studies on carbohydrates and amino acids of some noncultivated 

leguminous seeds. Journal of Indian Chemistry Society 58: Pp. 98. 

Kawazu, K., Nishii, Y., Ishii, K. & Tada, M. 1980. A convenient screening method for nematicidal 

activity. Agriculture Biology Chemistry 44: Pp. 631. 

Kehar, N. D. & Murty, V. N. 1950. Investigation on famine rations: Panevar (Cassia tora) 

seed, a protein-rich feed for livestock. Journal of Science Indian Research 9(3): Pp. 77. 

Ketsingh, U. 1950. Clinical Trial on the Antimalarial Effect of Some Plants. Proceedings of 

Siriraj Symposium, Thailand. Pp. 275–281. 

Kimura, Y., Takido, M. & Takahashi, S. 1964. On the constituents of the seed of Cassia tora. 

Syoyakugaku Zasshi 18(1): Pp. 28–29. 

Kolatat, T. & Julkarat, P. 1973. Effect of Cassia tora on kidney blood circulation. Siriraj 

Hospital Gazatte 25(3): Pp. 434. 

Koo, A., Chan, W. S. & Li, K. M. 1976. A possible reflex mechanism of hypotensive action of 

extract from Cassis tora seeds. Ibid 4: Pp. 249. 

Koo, A., Wang, J. C. C. & Li, K. M. 1976. Extraction of hypotensive principles from seeds of 

Cassia tora. Ibid 4: Pp. 245. 

Koshioka, M., Hotta, N., Ishii, Y. & Takino, Y. 1978. Studies on the evaluation of crude drug. III. 

Quantiative estimation of fatty acids in Cassia seeds. Ibid 32: Pp. 173. 

281


Koshioka, M., Ikemoto, C., Nishimura, M., Ishii, Y. & Takino, Y. 1978. Studies on the evaluation 

of crude drug. VII. Separation and quantitative estimation of anthraquinones in Cassia seeds on 

column of Sephadex LH-20. Shoyakugaku Zasshi 32(4): Pp. 267. 

Koshioka, M. & Takino, Y. 1978. Studies on the evaluation of crude drug: 1. Quantitative 

estimation of anthraquinones in Cassia seeds. Chemistry Pharmacology Bulletin 26(5): Pp. 

1343. 

Lohakajornpun, P. 1978. The Study on Antibacterial and Antifungal Activity of Some 

Medicinal Plants. M.Sc. thesis, Chulalongkorn University. 

Mall, L. P., Singh, V. P. & Ramarao, S. V. 1977. Influence of industrial pollutants on pigment 

concentration of some Angiosperm flora. Indian Journal of Environmental Health 19(4): 

Pp. 365. 

Manjursree, P. A.L., Roy, D. K. & Pal, P. R. 1977. Emodin from the leaves of Cassia tora 

Linn. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 39(5): Pp. 116–117. 

Morimoto, I., Watanabe, F., Osawa, T., Okitsu, T. & Kada, T. 1982. Mutagenicity screening of 

crude drugs with Bacillus subtilis Rec-assay and Salmonella/Microsome Reversion Assay. 

Mutat. Research 97: Pp. 81. 

Murty, V. N. 1962. Cassia tora Leaf Meal as a Component in Poultry Rations. Poultry Science 

41: Pp. 1026–1028. 

Nazir, B. N., Tej, S. & Rao P. R. 1962. Chlorophyll from the leaves of Cassia tora. Bulletin 

Regional Research Laboratory Jammu, India 1: Pp. 57. 

Nath, Y., Chopra, I. C. & Rao, P. R. 1962. Oxytocic principle from the seeds of Cassia tora. 

Curr. Science 31(7): Pp. 285–286. 

Negi, S.S. 1962. Studies on the whole plant and the seeds of Cassia tora. Agricultural 

Research (India) 2(4): Pp. 301. 

Niranjan, G. S. & Katiyar, S. K. 1981. Chemical examination and biological evaluation of proteins 

isolated from some wild legumes. Journal of Indian Chemistry Society 58: Pp. 70. 

Other Sources. XV. Phagocytic coefficient as a measure for evaluating plant antibiotics. Indian 

Journal of Pharmacology 15: Pp. 309. 

Pandey, D. K., Tripathi, N. N., Tripathi, R. D. & Dixit, S. N. 1983. Antifungal activity of some 

seed extracts with special reference to that of Pimpinella diversifolia DC. International 

Journal of Crude Drug Research 21(4): Pp. 177. 

Patel, B. M. & Patel, C. A. 1972. Partial replacement of concentrate mixture by products 

mixture in the ration of bullocks. Indian Journal of Nutrient Diet 9(3): Pp. 157–160. 

Patel, B. M., Thakore, V. R., Patel, C. A. & Shukla, P. C. 1971. Molybdenum and Zinc contents 

of some common fodders and concentrates. Indian Journal of Agricultural Science 41(12): 

Pp. 1084–1087. 

282

THAILAND 

Patel, R. P. & Patel, K. C. 1957. Antibacterial activity of Cassia tora and Cassia obovata. 

Indian Journal of Pharmacology 19: Pp. 70–73. 

Plengvidhya, P. & Suvagondha, C. 1957. A study of diagnostic constants of leaves of some 

members in genus Cassia. Journal of Pharmaceutical Association Siam 10(1): Pp. 10. 

Poethke, W., Rao, D.N. & Loescher, K.D. 1968. Chromatographic characterization of the 

contents of Cassia tora L. seeds. Pharmacology Zentr 107(8): Pp. 571. 

Raewthianchai, S., Watcharothayanggoon, W. & Chumsri, P. 1980. Determination of 

Anthraquinones in Cassia spp. Special Project for the Degree of B.Sc. (Pharm.), Faculty of 


Raghunathan, K., Hariharan, V. & Rangaswami, S. 1974. Chrysophanol-l b-gentiobioside, a 

new anthraquinone glycoside from Cassia tora. Indian Journal of Chemistry 12(12): Pp. 

1251–1253. 

Rangaswami, S. 1963. Crystalline chemical components of the seeds of Cassia tora. Identity 

of tora substance C with rubrofusarin and tora substance B with norrubrofusarin. Proceedings 

of the Indian Academy Science Section A 57(2):88. 

Rizvi, S. J. H., Mukerji, D. & Mathur, S. N. 1980. A new report of possible source of natural 

herbicide. Indian Journal of Experimental Biology 18: Pp. 777–781. 

Sastry, M. A. 1965. ChemicalInvestigations on Cassia tora. Curr. Science 34 (16): Pp. 481. 

Shah, C. S. & Shinde, M. V. 1960. Phytochemical studies of seeds of Cassia tora and Cassia 

occidentalis. Indian Journal of Pharmacology 31(1): Pp. 27-8. 

Shibata, S. 1972. Some Chemical Studies on Chinese Drugs. Ranqaswani. Some Recent 

Developments in the Chemistry of Natural Products, S, Rav NVS, Eds. Prentice Hall, 

New Delhi. 

Singh, N. 1964. Leaf protein extraction from some plants of Northern India. Journal of Food 

Science Technology (Mysore) 1(3): Pp. 37–39. 

Tabata, M.T., Hiroka, N., Ikenque, M., Samno, Y. & Konoshima, M. 1975. The production of 

anthraquinones in callus cultures of Cassia tora. Lloydia 38:131. 

Takahashi, S. & Takido, M. 1973. Purgative Crude Drugs. VII. Constituents of the Seeds of 

Cassia tora. II. Structure of the New Naphtho-a-pyrone derivative, toralactone. Yakugaku 

Zasshi 93(9):261. 

Varshney, S. C., Rizvi, S. A. I. & Gupts, P. C. 1973. Structure of a polysaccharide from Cassia 

tora seeds. Food Chemistry 21(2): Pp. 222–226. 

Varshney, S. C., Rizvi, S. A. I. & Gupts, P. C. 1976. Structure of a polysaccharide from the 

seeds of Cassia tora. Part II. Partial Acidic Hydrolysis. Journal of Chemistry Society, 1 

1(15): Pp. 161–168. 

Yun, H. S. & Chang, I. M. 1977. Plants with liver protective activities(1). Korean Journal 

Pharmacognocy 8: Pp. 125. 

283


1.0 Scientific Name : Clinacanthus nutans (Burm. f.) Lindau 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Phayaa yo, Phak man kai, Phak lin khiat, Phayaa plong thong, 

Phayaa plong kham, Pho-so-chaang (Thailand) 


The plant is a shrub 1–3 m high with pubescent branches. Leaves are simple, opposite, narrowly 

elliptic oblong or lanceolate, 2.5–13 cm long, 0.5–1.5 cm wide. The leaves have apex acute or 

acuminate; margin exsculptate-dentate or subentire; base cuneate, obtuse, rounded or truncate 

often oblique; pubescence on the nerves; petiole 3–15 mm long. Flowers are in dense cymes at 

the top of the branches and their branchlets; cymes 5–8 flowered, often terminating with drooping 

horizontal branches but themselves erect, subsecund, combined into a large lax, leafy panicle. 

Each flower has calyx densely patently glandular-pubescent, about 1 cm long; corolla glandularpubescent, 

about 3.5 cm, dull red with green base; lower lip (turned upwards) with yellow 

streaks, apically sordidly yellow or greenish yellow; stamens 2, inserted in the throat, more or 

less appressed against the upper lip. Ovary is compressed, 2-celled, 2 ovules in each cell; having 

style filiform, shortly bidentate. Capsule is oblong, basally contracted into a short, solid stalk, 4- 

seeded (B2, B38). 



It is cultivated and found in deciduous forests. 


Roots contain betulin, lupeol, b-sitosterol, stigmasterol. The leaves contain lupeol, b-sitosterol, 

stigmasterol, and flavonoid compound. 

284

THAILAND 



The leaves are effective against snake venom. It is effective against aphthous ulcers and 

herpes simplex. The extract accelerated wound healing and lowered the inflammation 

activity. 


The leaves are antipyretic (E80) and antiinflammatory. Fresh leaves are pounded with 

arrack and used as poultice over burns. 


Not available 


Cherdchu, C., Poopyruchpong, N., Adchariya, R., Patanabanangkoon, S. & Patanabanangkoon, 

K. 1977. The absence of antagonism between extracts of Clinacanthus nutans Burm. and 

Naja Naja siamensis venom. Journal of Tropical Medicine Public Health 8 (2): Pp. 249– 

254. 

Chotikieat, U. & Pitiporn, S. 1989. Clinical Trials on the Treatment of Herpes simplex, Herpes 

zoster and Apthous Ulcer with Clinacanthus nutans. Workshop “Pharmacist and 

Development of Medicinal Plants”, 23–25 May 1989. 

Chuakul, W. 1986. Chemical Study of the Antiinflammatory Agents from the Leaves of 

Phayaa Plong Thong (Clinacanthus nutans Lindau). M.Sc. thesis, Faculty of Pharmacy, 

Mahidol University. 

Dampawan, P. 1976. Studies of the Chemical Constituents of Clinacanthus nutans 

(Acanthaceae) and Zingiber cassumunar Roxb. (Zingiberaceae). M.Sc. thesis, Faculty of 

Science, Mahidol University. 

Kittisiripornlul, S. 1984. The Antiinflammatory Action and Toxicological Studies of Extract 

From Clinacanthus nutans. M.Sc. thesis, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University. 

Lin, J., Li, H. & Yu, J. 1983. Studies on the chemical constituents of Niu Xu Hua (Clinacanthus 

nutans). Zhongcaoyao 14 (8): Pp. 337–338,340. 

Tanasomwang, W. 1986. The Screening of Antiinflammatory Action of Clinacanthus nutans 

Lindau: A Critical Evaluation of Carrageenan Induced Hind Paw Edema Model. M.Sc. 

thesis, Faculty of Science, Mahidol University. 

Thongharb, C. & Teijasen, P. 1977. The effect of slaed pang porn (Clinacanthus nutans) on 

Thailand cobra venom (Naja Naja siamensis). Thai Journal of Pharmacology Science 

2(6): Pp. 1057. 

285


1.0 Scientific Name : Curcuma longa L. 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Khamin (Thailand); kunyit (Malaysia); temu kuning (Indonesia) 


The plant is a stemless rhizomatous herb; rhizome fleshy, much branched, bright orange or 

yellow within and scented. Leaves emerge directly from the underground stem; with overlapping 

petioles 8–15 cm long or more, light green, 30–40 by 8–10 cm; having thin ellipse-shaped or 

elongate lance-shaped blades. A cylindrical inflorescence about 10–15 by 5–7 cm appears with 

the leaves; develops from the centre, pale green, pouchlike, curved bracts, each with two or 

more pale yellow flowers except in the upper part, the bracts are white and green or pink and 

without flowers; the tube-shaped calyx is split on one side to unequal teeth; the corolla tube is 

more or less funnel-shaped, not exerted beyond the bract, with 3-lobed limb and white; the 

lateral staminode petaloid is rather long and folded under the dorsal petal; there is a central 

yellow band at the labellum. A fertile stamen with short filament, broad and constricted at the 

apex is found in the floret; the anther is versatile and usually spurred at the base, sometimes with 

a small crest at the connective. The ovary consists of 3-locules; each locule contains 2 ovules; 

the capsules are ellipsoid; seeds are rare. 



The plant is cultivated throughout the tropics. It grows very well in rather hot climate with high 

humidity at night. It grows well on well-drained loam but clay or sandy soil is unsuitable. Heavy 

rain may cause damage to rhizomes. 

286

THAILAND 


Arabinose, atlantone, bisdesmethoxycurcumin, b-bisabolene, borneol, campesterol, camphene, 

camphor, caryophyllene, cineole, curcumin, L-b-curcumens, curdione, curone, curzerenone, 

cycloisoprenemyrcene, cymene, desmethoxycurcumin, 2, 5-dihydroxybisabola-3, 10-diene, 

dihydrocurcunim, dihydroxycurcumin, essential oil, eugenol, fatty acids, fructose, germacron- 

13-al, glucose, glutamic acid, 4-hydroxybisabola-2, 10-dien-9-one, isoborneol, limonene, linalool, 

4-methoxy-5-hydroxy-bisabola-2, 10-dien-9-one, D-g-phellandrene, a-pinene, b-pinene, 

procurcumadiol, D-sabinene, b-sesquiphellandrene, tocopherol, p-tolylmethycarbinol, arturmerone, 

turmerone, terpinene, zingiberene, zingerene. 



The rhizome is an antipeptic for ulcer, antiinflammatory, cholagogue, antibacterial, 

antifungal, antiyeast, antispasmodic, antiparasitic, and has hypocholesterolemic, 

immunological, mutagenic, insecticidal and insect repellant activities. It also has effect on 

the cardiovascular system. 


Not available 


Not available 


Bainiam, N. 1985. Effect of Potassium and Phosphorus on the Contents of Anti-Microbial 

Constituents, Volatile Oil, Total Curcuminoid and Curcuminoid Ratio of Curcuma longa. 

M.Sc. thesis (Pharmacognosy), Chiang Mai University, Thailand. 

Chavalittumrong, P. & Dechatiwongse, T. 1988. Quality evaluation of turmeric. Thailand Journal 

Pharmacological Science. 13(3): Pp. 317–327. 

Choiu, J. W. & Chang, W. H. 1983. Preliminary study on the antioxidative components of some 

spices grown in Taiwan. Chung-kuo Nung Yeh Hua Hsueh Hui Chih 21(1–2): Pp. 97–103. 

Dixit, R. S. & Perti, S. L. 1963. Indigenous insecticides. III. Insecticidal properties of some 

medicinal and aromatic plants. Bulletin Regional Reserach Laboratory Jammu, India. 1: 

Pp. 169–172. 

Franquelo, E. 1933. Active constituents of curcuma (Temoelavac). Münch Med. Wochchr. 

80: Pp. 524–526. 

Gonda, R., Tomoda, M., Shimizu, N. & Kanari, M. 1990. Characterization of polysaccharides 

having activity on the reticuloendothelial system from the rhizome of Curcuma longa. 

Chemistry Pharmaco. Bulletin. 38(2): Pp. 482–486. 

Huhtanen, C. N. 1980. Inhibition of Clostridium botulinum by spice extracts and alibhatic 

alcohols. Journal Food Protein 43(3): Pp. 195–196. 

287


Kelkar, N. C. & Rao, B. S. 1933. Indian essential oils. V. Essential oil from the rhizomes of 

Curcuma longa L. (turmeric). Journal Indian Institute Science 17A: Pp. 7–24. 

Keshavar, K. 1971. The influence of turmeric and curcumin on cholesterol concentration of 

eggs and tissues. Poultry Science 9(2): Pp. 167–169. 

Khalique, A. & Amin, M. N. 1967. Curcuma longa. I. Constituents of the rhizome. Science 

Research (Dacca, Pakistan) 4(4): 193–197. 

Khurana, A. & Ho, C. T. 1988. High Performance Liquid Chromatographic analysis of 

curcuminoids and their photooxidative decomposition compounds in Curcuma longa L. Journal 

Liquid Chromatography 11(11): Pp. 2295–2304. 

Krishnamoorthy, M. & Rahiman, M. A. 1987. Cytogenetic effects of curcumin salt on the 

meiotic chromosomes of Poecilocera picta. Journal Environmental Biology 8(1): Pp. 11– 

24. 

Mondon, J. M., Guerere, M. & Rajamaye, A. 1986. Comparison of Curcuma longa from 

Reunion Island with imported curcuma. Annal Falsif. Expert Chim. Toxicology. 79(847): 

Pp. 153–165. 

Rouseff, R. L. 1988. High Performance Liquid Chromatographic separation and spectral 

characterization of the pigments in turmeric and annatto. Z Food Science 53(6): Pp. 1823– 

1826. 

Rupe, H., Clar, G., St. Pfau, A. & Plattner, P. l. 1934. Volatile plant constituents. II. Tumerone, 

the aromatic principle of turmeric oil. Helv Chim Acta 17: Pp. 372–389. 

Saarbrucken, F. K. 1975. Schnelle Kennzeichnung von Curcuma-Rhizomen mit Dem TAS- 

Verfahren. Deutsche Apotheker-Zeitung 115(10): Pp. 325–327. 

Sinha, M., Mukherjee, B. P., Sikdar, S., Mukherjee, B. & Dasgupta, S. R. 1972. Further studies 

on the pharmacological properties of curcumin. Indian Journal Pharmacology 4: Pp. 135. 

Srinivasan, K. R. 1952. The coloring matter in turmeric. Current Science (India) 21: Pp. 311– 

312. 

Srinivasan, K. R. 1953. Chromatographic study of the curcuminoids in Curcuma longa. Journal 

Pharmacology 5: Pp. 448–457. 

Toda, S., Miyase, T., Arichi, H., Tanizawa, H. & Takino, Y. 1985. Natural antioxidants. III. 

Antioxidative components isolated from rhizome of Curcuma longa L. Chemistry 

Pharmacology Bulletin 33(4): Pp. 1725–1728. 

Toennesen, H. H., Karlsen, J., Adhikary, S. R. & Pandey, R. 1989. Studies on curcumin and 

curcuminoids. Part 17. Variation in the content of curcuminoids in Curcuma longa from Nepal 

during one season Z. Lebensm-Unters Forsch. 189(2): Pp. 116–118. 

Yang, M., Dong, X. & Tang, Y. 1984. Studies on the chemical constituents of common turmeric 

(Curcuma longa). Zhongcaoyao. 15(5): Pp. 197–198. 

Zhao, D. & Yang, M. 1986. Separation and determination of curcuminoids in Curcuma longa 

L. and its preparation by HPLC. Yaoxue Xuebao 21(5): Pp. 382–385. 

288

THAILAND 



2.0 Vernacular Names : Plaa lai phueak, krung badaan (Surat Thani), kha-hnaang, chanaang, 

trueng baadaan, tu-wu-boh-ming, tuu-wu-wo-ming, tung 

so, haae phan chan, phiak, yik bo thong, yik mai thueng, ian 

don, lai phueak 


Eurycoma longifolia is a small tree up to 10 m high with blackish stem and without stipule. 

Leaves are imparpinnte, up to 1 m long and numerous crowded at the tips of rather thick, pithy 

branches leaving large scars; leaflets are opposite or subopposite,lanceolate to abovate-lanceolate, 

rarely ovate-oblong sometimes slightly acuminate with a bluntish or acute apex; slightly oblique 

at the base: 0.5–20 by 1.5–6 cm. Flowers are reddish; branches of inflorescence, pedicles, 

sepals, and calyx are puberulous and with capitate - grandular hairs; bracts are triangular, very 

small, up to 1 mm long, caduceus; pedicels are rather thick, up to 7 mm long. Calyces are small, 

consisting of lobes 1 mm long. Petals are puberulous on both surfaces, lanceolate to ovate- or 

obovate-oblong, 4.5–5.5 by 2-3 mm; stamens usually are longer than the calyces, 1.5–2.5 mm 

long consisting of anthers 0.25 mm long; staminodes are 0.5 mm in female flowers to 2 mm in 

male flowers. Styles are rather long, with a peltate 5(6) - lobed stigma, elevated 1 mm above the 

ovaries. Fruits are ellipsoid or ovoid, 10–17 by 5–12 mm. 



The plant is found in primary and secondary, evergreen and mixed deciduous forests as understorey 

trees, typically growing on sandy soil, up to 700 m above sea level, but more frequently at 

lower altitude. It is found all over the country. 

289



Root 

Campesterol, campesterol acetate, 13, 18-dihydroxy-13,18-dihydroeurycomanone, 

eurycomalactone, eurycomanol, eurycomanol-12-O-â-D-glycopyranoside, eurycomanone, 10- 

hydroxycanthin-6-one, 15-hydroxyklaineanone, longilactone, palmitic acid, scopoletin, â-sitosterol, 

stigmasterol, stigmasterol acetate, unidentified saponins 

Root bark 

Eurycomalactone 

Whole plant 

Eurycomalactone, laurycolactone A, laurycolactone B 

Stem bark 

Campesterol, eurycomalactone, dihydroeurycomalactone, 2,6-dimethoxybenzoquinone, oil, resin, 

b-sitosterol 



Root 

Parasympathomimetic activity 

Strong activity was shown when the 50% alcoholic extract was tested in vitro using 

guinea pig ileums (0.01 g/ml). 

Antimalarial activity 

Extracts of the roots of E. longifolia were tested for antimalarial activity against a multidrug 

resistant Thailand strain (12-1) of Plasmodium falciparum, in vitro. The highest 

activities were shown in the chloroform extract (IC 50 

0.5–5 mg/ml) and 1-butanol extracts 

(IC 50 

0.5–5 mg/ml). Subsequent fractionation of the chloroform and the 1-butanol extracts 

yielded eurycomanone from one of the 1-butanol fractions, which was more active than 

chloroquin (relative potency of 1.52 compared to chloroquin); eurycomalactone(from the 

chloroform extract) and eurycomanol (from the same fraction that contained 

eurycomanone) were 60–70% as active as chloroquin (relative potencies of 0.68 and 

0.60 respectively). 

The stem and root extracts of E. longifolia also showed antimalarial activity against P. 

falciparum, in vitro with an IC 50 

of 4.5 x 10 -7 g/ml. It was shown in another study that an 

ethanol fraction of E. longfolia exhibited better inhibition of the growth of P. berghei, in 

vitro, than the chloroform or the hexane fraction. Both ethanol fraction and 

eurycomalactone were less active than chloroquin 

Antifungal activity 

An alcohol extract of roots was effective against Microsporum gypseum. 

Toxicity assessment 

An alcohol extract was administered by gastric incubation or s.c.in mice at a dose of 10 

g/kg. Toxic symptoms were as follows: always in lying position, deep breathing and chronic 

convulsions. In another study, an 34% ethanol extract given either i.p. or p.o. to mice, 

produced higher toxicity than a water extract. The LD 50 

of the 34% ethanol extract have 

been reported to be 15–20 mg/kg i.p. and 1,500–2,000 mg/kg p.o. An ethanol fraction 

containing eurycomalactone was found to be the most toxic fraction. 

290

THAILAND 

In order to study the acute toxicity of E. longifolia, male mice were given a suspension 

of dried ethanol extract by gavage. Mice showed the following symptoms: sedation, faint 

breathing, convulsions and death. The LD 50 

was 2.6 g/kg. A subchronic toxicity was 

carried out in both mice and rats by giving the suspension of the extract every two days 

for three months. It was reported that at a dose of 0.43 g/kg p.o., the extract caused 85% 

mortality in mice with weight gained in liver, kidneys, spleen and testis. But in rats receiving 

the extract at 0.35–0.5 g/kg p.o., no toxicity was observed. 

Root bark 

Antimalarial activity 

Both the 50% alcohol and water extracts of dried root bark were shown to be active 

against the growth of P. falciparum in broth cultures. Bioactive compound: 

eurycomalactone. 

No antibacterial activity of the glucoside, eurycomalactone, from E. longifolia, was 

detected at a dose as high as 1,000 mg/disk against the following bacteria: Staphylococcus 

aureus, Streptococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli and Salmonella typhosa. 

In conclusion, studies on the pharmacological actions of E. longifolia are still incomplete. 

Antipyretic activity testing showed negative results. A remark should be made that a 50% 

alcoholic extract had been used in the experimental study while a water extract was used 

in traditional Thai recipes for the same activity. Therefore, more studies on antipyretic 

activity should be carried out. Since toxicity has been shown at high dose, special caution 

should be emphasized. 


Root 

Treatment of sore throat and tonsillitis; as antipyretic, expectorant, antituberculosis, 

anthelmintic, diaphoretic, antimalarial and for detoxication. 

Bark 

As antipyretic and antimalarial. 


Not available 


Awiruthnunt, W. & Wuthiudomlert, M. 1983. Antifungal activity of some medicinal plants. 

Mahidol Univ J Pharm Sci, Thailand 10(3):87–89. 

Brockelman, C., Thanomsapaya, B., Somnabhandhu, A. & Tanaree, P. 1989. In vitro study of 

antimalarial activity of some Thai medicinal plant extracts. Symposium on Antimalarial from 

Plants, Government Pharmaceutical Organization, Nov, 1989. 

Chan, K. L., Lee, S. P., Sam, T. W. & Han, B. H. 1989. A quassinoid glycoside from the roots 

of Eurycoma longifolia. Phytochemistry 28(10): 2857–2859. 

Chan, K. L., O’Neill, M. J., Philipson, J. D. & Warhurst, D. C. 1986. Plants as sources of 

antimalarial drugs. Part 3 . Eurycoma longifolia. Planta Medica 52: 105–107. 

Darise, M., Kohda, H., Mizutani, K. & Tanaka O. 1982. Eurycomanone and eurycomanol, 

quassinoids from the roots of Eurycoma longifolia. Phytochemistry 21: 2091–2093. 

291


Dhammaupakorn P, Somnabhandhu A, Ruengransee N. & Suppakun N. 1989. Toxicity of 

Eurycoma longifolia root extact. Symposium on Antimalarial from Plants, Government 

Pharmaceutical Organization, Nov. 1989. 

Gilling, C. 1908. The constituents of Simaruba bark. Res Lab, Pharm Soc, Gt Brit A Pharm 

J. 80: 510–513. 

Mokkhasmit, M., Ngarmwathana, W., Sawasdimongkol, K. & Permphiphat, U. 1971. 

Pharmacological evaluation of Thai medicinal plants.(Continued). J Med Assoc Thailand 54(7): 

490–504. 

Mokkhasmit, M., Sawasdimongkol, K. & Sartravaha, P. 1971. Toxicity study of some Thai 

medicianl plants. Bull Dep Med Sci Thailand 12(2): 36–65. 

Morita, H., Kishi, E., Takeya, K., Itokawa, H. & Tanaka, O. 1990. New quassinoids from the 

roots of Eurycoma longifolia. Planta Medica 56:551. 

Oei-Kock, A. & Kraus, L. 1978. Constituents of Eurycoma longifolia. I Sterols and saponins. 

Planta Medica 34: 339. 

Oei-Koch, A. & Kraus, L. 1979. Components of Eurycoma longifolia Jack. II. Lipophilic 

constituents (sterolester, fatty acids). Science Pharm. 47(3): 243–245. 

Oei-Koch, A. & Kraus, L. 1980. Contents of Eurycoma longifolia Jack.III Bitter principle 

(Eurycomalactone). Science Pharm 48: 110–117. 

Suong, N. N., Bhatnagar, S., Polonsky, J., Vuilhorgne, M., Prange, T. & Pascard, C. 1982. 

Structure of laurycolactone A and B, new C18-quassinoids from Eurycoma longifolia and 

revised structure of eurycomalactone(X-Ray analysis). Tetrahedron Lett. 23: 5159–5162. 

Suppakun, N., Somanabandhu, A., Theptaranonth, Y. & Pavanon, K. 1982. An antimalarial 

principle from Eurycoma longifolia jack. NRCT-JSPS Rattanakosin bicentennial joint seminar 

on chemistry of natural products, Bangkok, Thailand, Aug 2–6,1982 , p 48. 

Suppakun, N., Satayawiwat, J., Thepthranont, Y. & Somnabhandhu, A. 1989. Antimalarial and 

toxicity studies of Eurycoma longifolia roots. Conference of Division of Malarial Control, 

3rd, Ministry of Public Health, Chiangmai, Oct 18–20 Oct 1989. 

Temcharoen, P., Glinsukon, T., Suksamrarn, A. & Bunyapraphatsaan .1988. Lack of antibacterial 

activity of four glucosides, eurycomalactone and hispidulin from Barleria lupulina, Eurycoma 

longifolia and hisidulin from Barleria lllupulina, Eurycoma longifolia and Milingtonia 

hortenisis . Thai J Toxicol. 4: 43–46. 

Thoi, L. V. & Suong, N. N. 1963. Chemical constituents from the bark of Eurycoma longifolia, 

II. Isolation of ß-sitosterol, campeserol, and 2, 6–dimethoxybenzoquinone. Ann Fac Sci, Univ 

Saigon 1: 43–51. 

Thoi, L. V. & Suong, N. N. 1970. Constituents of Eurycoma longifolia. J Drg Chem. 35: 

1104. 

Thoi, L.V., Suong, N. N. & Thu Van, L. T. 1986. Structure of laurycolactone A and B–two C 18 

quassinoids from Eurycoma longifolia. Tap Chi Huo Hoc 24(2):7–10. 

292

THAILAND 

1.0 Scientific Name : Hibiscus sabdariffa L. 


2.0 Vernacular Name : Krachiap (Thailand); roselle (English) 


The plant is an erect annual herb with reddish, cylindrical stem, nearly or quite glabrous. Leaves 

are simple, having petiole, blade 3–5 lobed or parted, the lobes serrate or obtusely toothed. 

Flowers are solitary, axillary, nearly sessile, 5–7 cm in diameter; consisting of epicalyx-segments 

8–12, distinct, lanceolate to linear, adnate at base of the calyx; calyx thick, red, and fleshy, cuplike, 

deeply parted, prominently 10-nerved; petals 5, yellow, twice as long as calyx; stamens 

numerous, the filaments united into a staminal column; style single, 5-branched near summit; 

stigma capitate. Fruit is capsule, ovoid, pointed, 1–2 cm long, shorter than calyx, having densely 

sharp and stiff hairs, dehiscent. 



It is native to the Old World tropics. It is extensively cultivated for its succulent, fleshy, edible 

calyx and the stem yields a fairly strong fibre. 


The leaf contain amino acids, anthocyanin, caprylic acid, a-carotene, B-carotene, formic acid, 

galactose, D-(+)-malic acid, oleic, pelargonic and propionic acids, protein, b-sitosterol, b-sitosterol- 

1-3-b-D-galactoside, stearic acid, steroidal glycoside, sucrose, tetrahydroxysteroid, vitamin A, 

vitamin C. 

293


The flower contains alkaloid, anthoxanthin, lascorbic acid, aspartic acid, chrysanthemin, citric 

acid, cyanidin-3(2(G)-glycosyl)-rutinoside, cyanidin-3, 5-diglucoside, cynidin-3-b-D-glucoside, 

cyanidin-3-sambubioside, cyanin, delphinidin, delphindin-3-O-b-D-glucoside, delphinidin-3- 

monoglucoside, delphinidin-3-sambubioside, galactose, galacturonic acid, glycolic acid, gossypetin, 

gossypetin-3-O-b-D-glucoside, gossypin, gossypitrin, gossytrin, heterosides, hibiscetin, hibiscic 

acid, hibiscin, hibiscitrin, hibiscus acid, malic acid, malvin, myrtillin oxalic acid, pectin, protocatechuic 

acid, quercetin, resin, sabdaretin, sabdaretrin, B-sitosterol, tartaric acid, waxes. 

The fruit contains acetic acid, anthocyanin, L-arabinose, calcium oxalate, caprylic acid, cellulose, 

citric and formic acids, D-galactose, gossypetin, malic, oleic, oxalic and pelargonic acids, protein, 

L-rhamnose, B-sitosterol, vitamin C, D-xylose. 

The seed contains calcium, cellulose, cis-12, 13-epoxy-cis-9-octadecenoic acid, epoxyoleic acid, 

gossypol, hibiscetin, hibiscic acid, hibiscin, inorganic elements, isoleucine, leucine, malvalic and 

myristic acids, oil, oleic, palmitic and palmitoleic acids, pentosans, phenylalanine, potassium, 

protein, B-sitosterol, sodium, starch, stearic and sterculic acids, threonine, tryptophan, valine. 



The calyx showed antibacterial, antifungal, hypotensive, cytotoxic, diuretic, choleretic 

activities. It also has urinary acidifying, uterine relaxation, and laxative effects. It is known 

to have effects on urinary uric acid and citrate excretion. 


Not available 


Not available 


Buogo, G. & Picchinenna, D. 1937. Chemical characteristics of roselle hemp. Ann Chim 

Applicata. 27: Pp. 557–582. 

Busson, F., Garnier, P. & Deniel, P. 1957. Amino-acid content of the calyces of Hibicus 

sabdariffa. Journal Agriculture Tropical Etno Botany Applied. 4: Pp. 265–266. 

Castiiiglioni, A. 1934. Chemical composition of Hibiscus sadariffa L. and its cultivation in 

Eritrea. Atti Acad Science Torino, Classe Science Fis, Mat Nat. 69:97–105. 

Copertini, S. 1936. Chemical and technological researches on karkade. Agriculture Colonial 

e1. 30:182–184. 

Du, C. T. & Francis, F. J. 1974. Anthocyanins of roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa). Journal Food 

Science. 38: Pp. 810. 

El-Hadidy, Z. A., El-Ghobashy, R. & Haridi, S. M. 1980. Biochemical changes of anthocyanins, 

protein and amino acids in roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa) plants. Ain Shams University Faculty 

Agriculture Res Bulletin. 0(1420): Pp. 1–21. 

294

THAILAND 

Indovina, R. & Capotummino, G. 1938. Chemical investigation of some products which can be 

obtained from Hibiscus sabdariffa L. Boll Studi informaz Palermo. 15:24. 

Kerharo, J. 1971. Senegal bisap (Hibiscus sabdariffa) of Guinia sorrel or red sorrel. Plant 

Medica Phytotherapy. 5(4):277–281. 

Khafaga, E. P. & Koch, H. 1980. Stage of maturity and quality of roselle (Hibiscus sabdariffa 

L. var. savdariffa). I. Organic acids. Angew Botany. 54(5-6): Pp. 287–293. 

La Gaetano, B. & Bruno, E. 1960. Presence of vitamin C (ascorbic acid) in Habiscus sabdariffa. 

Ann Chim (Rome). 50: Pp. 1357–1362. 

Leupin, K. 1935. Karkade. Pharm Acta Helv. 10: Pp. 138-142. 

Lorenxini, G. 1937. Vitamin C content of Karkaddde’ (Hibiscus sabdariffa). Arch Ist Biochim 

Italy. 9: Pp. 123–130. 

Minuto, N. 1937. Specificity of vitamin C determination; its determination in karkadé. Arch Ist 

Biochim Italy. 9: Pp. 383–388. 

Osman Am, Younes Me & Mokhtar, A. 1975. Chemical examination of local plants. VIII. 

Comparative studies between constituents of different parts of Egyptian Hibiscus sabdariffa. 

Indian Journal Chemistry 13(2): Pp. 198–199. 

Osman, A. M., Younes Me, Mokhtar, A. 1975. Sitosterol b-D- galactoside from Hibiscus sabdariffa. 

XIII. Phytochemisty. 14(3): Pp. 829–830. 

Pankajamani, K. S. & Seshadri, T.R.1955. Anthoxanthins. VIII. Journal Science India Res 

(India). 14B: Pp. 93–98. 

Penteado, M. de V. C., Minazzi, R. S. & Bicudo de Almeida, L. 1986. Carotenoids and provitamin 

A activity of vegetable leaves consumed in northen Brazil. Revision Farm Bioquim University 

Sao Paulo. 22(2): Pp. 97–102. 

Pratt, Ds. 1913. Roselle. Philip Journal Science. (A)7: Pp. 201–205. 

Sharaf, A. 1962. The pharmacological characteristics of Hibiscus sabdariffa. Planta Medica 

10: Pp. 48–52. 

Shibata, M. & Furukara, M. 1969. Reexamination of the structure of so-called hiviscin. 

Shokubutsugaku Zasshi. 82(974-975): Pp. 341–347. 

Tung, C. S. 1966. The determination of L-ascorbic acid in Hibiscus sabdariffa. Chung Kuo 

Nung Yeh Hua Hsueh Hui Chih 4 (1-2): Pp. 22–24. 

Tung, J. 1963. The non-nitrogenous organic acids of roselle by paper chromatogrphy. Journal 

Chinese Agriculture Chemistry Society (Taiwan). 1(1-2): Pp. 1–3. 

295


1.0 Scientific Name : Impatiens balsamina L. 

Family : Balsaminaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Thian dok (Thailand); kaembong (Malaysia) 


The plant is an erect, annual herb up to 60 cm high, pubescent or nearly glabrous. Leaves are 

alternate, narrowly or broadly lanceolate, 8–10 by 2–3 cm, tapering at the tip and base, consisting 

of deeply serrate margin; the petiole glandular. Flowers are large, short peduncled, borne in the 

axils of the leaves along the main stem below the leafy tip, in many colours from white to dark 

red or spotted, with a long spur curving up. The fruit is a long wooly capsule, opens when ripe, 

with many seeds. 



The plant is distributed throughout the tropics and subtropics. It is widely cultivated and especially 

grown ornamentally in shaded parts of gardens. 


The whole plant contains lawsone. The roots contain cyanidin monoglycoside. The stem contains 

cyanidin monoglycoside. The leaves contain cinnamic acid esters, galactolipids, kaempferol, 

kaempferol-3-arabinoside, phospholipids, proteins. The flower contains anthocyanins, p-coumaric 

acid, cyanidin, delphinidin, ferulic acid, flavonols, glucosidase, galactosidase, 3b-D-glucosidase, 

hydroxycinnamic acid, kaempferol, leucoanthocyanins, myriscetin, pelargonidin, pelargonidin 

monoglucoside, pelargonidin-3-O-a-L-rhamno-glucosyl-5-O-b-D-rhamnoside, pelargonidin-3-Oa-L-rhamnosyl 

glucoside, pelargonidin-3-O-b-D-feruloyl glucoside, pelargonidin-3-O-b-D-pcoumaroy 

1-5-O-b-D-glucoside, pelargonidin-3-O-b-D-p-coumaroyl glucoside, pelargonidin-3, 

296

THAILAND 

5-O-b-D-diglucoside, peargonidin-3-O-b-D-glucoside, pelargonidin-5-O-b-D-glucoside, 

pelargonins, peonidin, pigments, quercetin. The seeds contain lobids, b-sitosterol, and the seed 

oil contains parinaric acid. 



Antifungal and antibacterial activities. 


Not available 


Not available 


Alston, R. E. & Hagen, C. W. 1955. Relation of leuco-anthocyanins to anthocyanin synthesis. 

Nature 175: Pp. 990. 

Beth, S. C. 1958. Flavonols of Impatiens balsamina. Arch Biochemistry Biophysiology 76: 

Pp. 131–138. 

Boylen, C. W., Hagen, C. W. & Mansell, R. L. 1969. Differentiation of pigmentation of flower. 

Parts. V. Partial purification and characterization of a flavonoid 3-B-D-glucosidase from petals 

of Impatiens balsamina. Phytochemistry 8(12): Pp. 2311–2315. 

Grotzinser, E. W. 1974. Metabolism of lawsone in Impatiens balsamina. Diss Abstract Int B. 

35:1542. 

Hayashi, K., Ade, Y., Noguchi, T. & SuZushino, K. 1953. Anthocyanins. XXII. Analyses by 

paper chromatography of natural anthocyanins and its application to the investigation of dyes of 

the red impatiens application to the blood-red peach fruit. Pharmacology Bulletin (Japan): Pp. 

130–134. 

Manseil, R. L. & Kemerer, V. L. 1970. Differentiation of pigmentation in flower parts. VI. 

Qualitative and quantitative comparisons of hydroxycinnamic acid derivatives in petals of the 

(LLHHP’P’), white (llhhpp) and purple (LLhhP r P r ) genotypes of Impatiens balsamina. 

Phytochemistry 9(8): 1751–1755. 

Miles, C. D. & Hagen, C. W. 1968. The differentiation of pigmentation in flower parts. IV. 

Flavonoid elaborating enzymes from petals of Impatiens balsamina. Plant Physiology. 43(9): 

Pp. 1347–1354. 

Muller Wu & Leistner, E. 1976. 1,4-Naphtoquinone, an intermediate in juglone (5-hydroxy-1,4- 

naphthoquinone) biosynthesis. Phytochemistry 15: Pp. 407. 

Pepkin, A. G. & Shulman, I. 1914. Coloring matters contained as glucosides in flowers of some 

Indian plants. Proceedings Chemistry Society 30: Pp. 200–201. 

297


Pothiyanonth, P., Prasertwityakarn, S. & Suwakool, W. et al. 1989. Formulation of Dermatological 

Preparations from Extract of Impatierns balsamina Leaves. Eighth Conference of the Faculty 

of Pharmaceutical Science, Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. 

Sawhney, S., Sawhney, N. & Nanda, K. K. 1976. Gel electrophorertic studies of proteins in 

photo-induced and vegetative plants of Impatiens balsamina. Plant Cell Physiology. 17(4): 

751–755. 

Sharma, J. N. & Seshadri, T.R. 1955. Survey of anthocyanins from Indian sources. II. Journal 

Science India Reserach (India) 14B: Pp. 211–214. 

Tevini, M. 1976. Changes of glyco- and phospholipid contents during leaf senescence. Planta 

Med. 128(2): Pp. 167–171. 

Thungsuwan, S., Wiroonphol, S., Yingyong, O., Lipiphant, W., Phothiyanont, P. & Saipha, A. 

1985. Report on the Preparation of Dermatological Ointment From Impatiens balsamina Leaves. 

Faculty of Pharmacy, Chulalongkorn University. 

Weissenboeck, G., Tevini, M. & Reznik, H. 1971. Occurrence of flavonoids in chloroplasts of 

Impatiens balsamina. Z Pflanzenphysiol. 64(3) 274. 

298

THAILAND 

1.0 Scientific Name : Solanum violaceum Ortega 

Family : Solanaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Ma waeng ton, ma khwaeng, ma khwaeng khom, ma khwaeng 

dam, ma waeng, waeng khom, sa-kang-khae, maak-haengkhong 



The plant is a much-branched shrub, up to 1 m high; stem and branches are covered with 

stellate hairs and stout, recurved prickles. Leaves are simple, alternate of subopposite, usually 

crowned at the top of the branch; the blade is ovate, unlobed or shallowly 2 or 3-lobed on each 

side, 3–10 x 2–6 cm, subcoriaceous, having densely stellate hairs on both surfaces and prickly 

along the nerves. Inflorescences are lateral; flowers wheel-shaped, showy, 5-parted, violet; 

yellow stamens in the middle, about 2 cm in diameter; calyx campanulate with lanceolate acute 

lobes, tomentose, prickly; corolla short, tubular, 5-lobed, densely pubsecent outside; stamens 5; 

filament very short; anther oblong; style straight longer than the stamen. Fruit is globose, subtended 

by the spreading calyx lobes, about 1 cm in diameter, glabrous, red when ripe, having numerous 

seeds inside. 



It is widely spread in tropical and subtropical Asia and commonly found along wastelands and 

roadsides. 


The roots contain solanine, while the stem contains solasodine. The leaves contain diosgenin, b- 

sitosterol, solanine, solasodine and the fruits contain carbohydrates, diosgenin, a-glucosidase, 

maltase, pseudoglucosidase, b-sitosterol, solanine and solasodine. 

299


7.0 Report on Medicinal Usages: 


The plant showed hypotensive, antitumour, anticonvulsant, CNS depressant activities. On 

toxicity assessment, an LD 50 

of the 50% ethanol extract of entire plant was 900.0 mg/kg, 

i.p. in mice. The roots have antimicrobial and anticonvulsant activities, and are used in the 

treatment of anal haemorrhage, fever due to abnormality of combination of three of the 

following origins (Semha, Pitta, Wata, Kamdao, Lohita), as expectorant and anticough. 

The leaves showed an antimicrobial activity, used in the treatment of coughs, as tonic and 

antituberculosis. The fruits showed anticonvulsant, antimicrobial, and hypoglycemic 

activities, used in the treatment of anal haemorrhage, dry throat and coughs, as cholagogue, 

antidiabetes, expectorant, and diuretic. The seeds have an anticancer activity against 

sarcoma 180 (ASC) cells. Little information about its toxicity and no information is available 

to support its claimed antitussive effect. 


It is taken as an anticough by chewing the fruits and taking only the juice, or by pounding 

the fruits to obtain the juice, and mixing the juice with salt. 


Not available 


Hong Vareewatana, U. 1975. Study on the Alleged Hypoglycemic Activity of Solanum 

sanitwongsei Craib and Solanum trilobatum L. M.Sc. thesis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical 

Science, Chulolongkorm University, Bangkok, Thailand. 

Karunyavanich, P. & Suvagondha, C. 1949. Primary investigation for the insulin-like constituent 

of Mawaeang’s Berries. Journal of Pharmacology Association Siam 11(4): Pp. 151–158. 

Laorpaksa, A., Amnuoyphol, S. & Jongbunprasert, V. 1988. Preliminary study on antibacterial 

action of Thai medicinal plants for respiratory tract infection (I). Thai Journal of 

Pharmaceutical Science 13(1): Pp. 23–36. 

Mokkhasmit, M., Ngarmwathana, W., Sawasdimongkol, K. & Permphiphat, U. 1954. 

Pharmacological evaluation of Thai medicinal plants. Journal of Medical Association, Thailand 

54(7): Pp. 490–504. 

Purushothaman, K. K. & Narayanaswami, V. 1976. Isolation of tomatid-3-bata-ol from the 

leaves of Solanum trilobatum. Indian Patent 140: 381. 

Tasnawijitwongs, S. 1979. Chemical and Biochemical Studies of Antidiabetic Drugs in 

Some Plants. M.Sc. thesis (Chemistry) Chiangmai, University, Chiangmai, Thailand. 

300

VIET NAM 

1.0 Scientific Name : Abrus precatorius L. 

Family : Fabaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Cam thao day, chi chi 


Evergreen perennial twine, young twigs slender, covered with sparse. Leaves paripinnate, 

alternate, 5–10 cm long; leaflets 8–15 pairs, opposite, increasing slightly in size from the base, 

oblong-linear, base rounded, apex apiculate, dark green above, pale glaucous beneath, thin silky 

on both sides. Inflorescence in axillary and terminal peduculate raceme, 3–6 long; flowers pink 

closely clustered; calyx campanulate villous outside; corolla glabrous, standard broad, unguiculate 

wings linear; stamens 9–10 monodelphous; anthers oblong; ovary villous. Pod turgid, thinly 

pubescent, with a sharp deflected beak; seeds 3–7, polished bright scarlet with black patch. 



Abrus precatarius occurs at lowland to medium altitude (hill), especially in the coastal areas 

from Quang Binh to Ninh Thuan provinces, Phu Quoc and Con Dao islands. It can not tolerate 

droughts to some extent when growing in poor coastal soil together with other shrubs. In the 

north, it is winter deciduous, but behaves as an evergreen in the south, where it grows vigorously 

in the rainy season from June to October. Owing to good regenerative capacity after being cut, 

it can be collected twice or three times a year. 


The roots and leaves have been reported to contain glycyrrhizin at a percentage of 1.25 and 

10% respectively. The whole plant contains the triterpenoids: abruslactone A, me-abrusgenate 

and abrusgenic acid. 

303


The seeds contain a toxalbumin: abrin, an alkaloid: 1-abrin, trigonelline, precatorin, N, N-dimethyl 

tryptophan methyl ester, hypaphorine, the sterols: stigmasterol, brassicasterol, cycloartenol, 

squalene and ß-cholanis acid. The seeds also yield carbohydrates (9.91%), haemoglutinin, urease, 

abralin (a glucoside) and fatty oil (6%). The seed coat contains a coloured compound, abarnin 

(lanthocyane monoglucoside). 



Not available 


The whole plant and leaves are employed for the cure of coughs and cold and to counteract 

intoxication, modulate other drugs and relieve jaundice derived from viral hepatitis. The 

daily oral dose is 8–16 g in the form of a decoction. The seeds are also used in veterinary 

medicine as purgative, vomitory, aphrodisiac and to cure nervous troubles in animals. 


Not available 




Ha Noi. 

304

VIET NAM 

1.0 Scientific Name : Abutilon indicum (L) Sweet 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Coi xay, co to ep 


Perennial shrub, 1–1.5 m high; stems cylindrical and hairy. Leaves alternate; long-petioled; 

base cordate; apex acute; margins toothed; pubescent on both sides, glaucous beneath; main 

nerves 5–7, stipules filiform. Flower yellow, solitary in the axils of the leaves; pedicel long, 

jointed near the top; calyx tomentose outside, villous inside; sepals triangular, grayish; petals 

cuneiform; stamens numerous clustered on a column hairy at the base; carpels usually 20. Fruit 

consists of many capsules separately radiated as a rice-hulling mill; capsules hairy, dark brown, 

with a small acute point; seed reniform, glabrous, dull black. 



Abutilon indicum occurs wild from lowlands to mountains. The plant is hygrophilous and can 

be slightly shade-enduring. It is frequently mixed with other shrubs around villages and on 

hillsides. In the mountains, it is deciduous and grows vigorously in summer, sheds its leaves in 

winter or in dry season. 


The leaves contain mucilaginous substances. The plant yields essential oil consisting of ß- 

pinene, caryophyllene, caryophyllene oxide, cineole, geraniol, geranyl acetate, elemene, eudesmol, 

farnesol and borneol. The seed contains the glycerides of palmitic, stearic, oleic, linoleic and 

linolenic acids. The roots contain fatty oil, ß-sitosterol, ß-amyrin and an unidentified alkaloid. 

305




The alcohol extract of A. indicum exhibits a pronounced effect on the central nervous 

system. It induces hypothermia in treated animals. It also exhibits a marked inflammation 

inhibitory effect in kaolin-induced rat paw oedema. 


In Vietnamese traditional medicine, A. indicum is used to treat influenza, coryza, headache 

and dysuria. It is used on its own or in combination with other drugs. The juice extracted 

from pounded fresh leaves and seed is taken orally on furunculous and snake-bites and 

the residue is used as poultice. A decoction of dried leaves of A. indicum Adenosma 

cacruleum and Prenma integrifolia L. is used for postpartum jaundice. The preparation 

is taken daily in dose of 5–10 g of dry or 10–40 g of fresh materials. 

8.0 Contraindication: 

Not available 




Ha Noi. 

306

VIET NAM 

1.0 Scientific Name : Acanthopanax gracilistylus W.W. Smith 

Family : Araliaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Name : Ngu gia bi huong 


Rigid shrub, a few meters high. Bark grayish, sparsely spiny. Leaves alternate or 2–3 clustered, 

palmifoliate; leaflets 5 obovate or oblong; 2–6 cm long, 1–3 cm wide, the middle large; margins 

toothed and coarsely hairy; glabrous on both sides, shining dark above; petiole 2–6 cm long, 

glabrous. Inflorescence solitary in axillary umbels; peduncle 2–2.5 cm long, flowers greenish to 

yellow. Fruit globose compressed, black when ripe, 2 seeded. 



Acanthopanax gracilistylus is an evergreen, heliophilous and hygrophilous shrub. It is adaptable 

to humid to cool climatic conditions in high mountainous areas, at an altitude of 1,500–1,600 m. 

It often grows in clusters on rocky forest edges, and is also cultivated in gardens for medicinal 

purposes. It is winter deciduous. Acanthopanax gracilistylus is listed in the Red Data Book of 

Viet Nam for conservation. 


The root bark contains syringin, kauronic acid and 16a.17 – dihydroxykauran – 19 oic acid and 

saponins. 

307




It is reported to be antibacterial against Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus pyocyaneus. 


It is commonly used as tonic to strengthen the tendons. It is administered orally in the 

form of an elixir, taken daily in doses of 6–12 g dried bark. 


Not available 




Ha Noi. 

308

VIET NAM 

1.0 Scientific Name : Acanthopanax trifoliatus (L.) Merrill 


2.0 Vernacular Name : Ngu gia bi gai 


Rigid shrub, diffuse 17 m high. Stems ascending, spiny. Leaves alternate, 3–5 palmifoliate, 

almost 3; leaflets oblong - oval; 5–8 cm long, 2–4 cm wide; base rounded; apex acuminate; 

margins toothed; and nerves spiny, the middle larger; glabrous on both side, shining dark above; 

petiole 4–5 cm long, spiny. Inflorescence in terminal panicle of 3–10 umbels; peduncle 3–4 cm 

long; flowers small, greenish white. Petals triangular; stamens 5; filaments filiform; ovary inferior, 

2-celled. Fruit globose compressed, 2–5 mm in diameter, black when ripe, 2 seeded. Flowering 

period: September to November. 



The plant has only been found in Northern Viet Nam. It is hygrophilous and heliophilous, and 

often grows in clusters in forest edges or near watersides in limestone mountains areas (500– 

1,500 m). It is a valuable medicinal species in Viet Nam. It is listed in the Red Data Book of Viet 

Nam for conservation. 


The root and stem bark contains 3á-, 11á-dihydroxy – 23 – oxolup –20 (29)- ene – 28 oic acid, 

24-nor – 3á, 11á-dihydroxylup – 20 (29) ene- 28 oic acid; 24-nor-3á. 11á-hydroxylup – 20(29) 

– en 25oic acid. 

The leaf contains 3á-, 11á-dihydroxy –20 (29)- ene – 28 oic acid and 3á, 11á-23- trihydroxylup 

– 20-(29) ene- 28 oic acid. In addition other components viz-nevadensin, taraxerol and taraxerol 

acetic ester are also present. 



Not available 


Acanthopanax trifoliatus is used as tonic and effective in the treatment of rheumatism, 

back and knee pains, male impotence and vulvas of women. It is good for children in 

early stage of walking. It is administered in the form of a decoction or elixir. The herbal 

preparation is taken daily in doses of 6–12 g of dried material. 

309



Not available 




Ha Noi. 

310

VIET NAM 

1.0 Scientific Name : Achyranthes aspera L. 

Family : Amaranthaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Co xuoc, co nha lin ngu 


Herbaceous plant, about 1 m high. Stems and branches quadrangular, striate, pubescent, swollen 

at the nodes. Leaves opposite, elliptic or obovate; margins entire, waxy with pubescent on both 

sides. Inflorescence in elongate terminal spike, 20–30 cm long; flowers numerous, greenishwhite, 

deflected against the pubescent rachis; perianth glabrous; lobes subequal; stamens 5. 

Achence, utricle oblong-cylindrical, enclosed in the hardened perianth, brown, seeds oblongovoid. 



In Viet Nam this plant is widespread up to 1500 m. It often grows together with other herbs in 

gardens and abandoned grounds. During summer, it produces a lot of flowers and fruits. 


The root contains saponin, the aglycone of which is characterized as oleanolic acid. It also 

contains pentatricontane, â- pentatriacontanone, hexatriacontane and triacontane. The seeds 

contain hentriacontane, 10-octacosanone, 10-triacocsanone and 4-tritriacontanone. 



The roots produce antiinflammatory and thymolytic effects in rats. They stimulate uterine 

contractions and exhibit mild oeterogenic action. They have also antibacterial and 

hypoglycaemic properties. 


Achyranthes aspera is used to treat cold, fever, rheumatism, lumbago, osteodynia, arthritis, 

menstrual disorders, haematometra, rheumatoid poly-arthritis, limbs curling-up, oliguria, 

micturition and urodynia. It is also used to expel dead foetus and treat chronic malarial. 

The daily oral dose is 12–40 g of root, in the form of a decoction. It is effective against 

impetigo when used externally, kept in the mouth to treat stomatitis. The leaf juice is 

effective against dysentery. 


Not available 

311





Ha Noi. 

312

VIET NAM 

1.0 Scientific Name : Aconitum fortunei Hemsl. 

Family : Ranunculaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Au tau, o dau 


Perennial herba, 0.6–1 m high. Roots paired, tuberous, conical, including mother-tuber and 

daughter-tuber, glabrous outside and blackish. Stems erect, cylindrical less-branched. Leaves 

alternate of two kinds: the lower cordate-rotundate, coarsely crenate, the upper 3-palmatipartite, 

sharply denticulate; blade glabrous or pubescent; shining green above and pale below. 

Inflorescence in terminal loose raceme; flowers blue; perianth of 5 sepals, the upper broad 

helmet-shaped, the lateral somewhat obliquely obovate; corolla reduced; stamens numerous; 

ovary 3-celled with numerous carpels. Follicles, 5, sessile, oblong and divergent, seed winged. 



In Viet Nam, A. fortunei has been recorded to grow wild in Sa Pa. However, according to 

IMM specialists, it is cultivated. 


All parts of A. fortunei growing in Viet Nam contain alkaloids. The percentage of total alkaloids 

is highest in rootlets, the main alkaloid being aconitine. The percentage of aconitine is 0.28% in 

the mother root and 0.12% in the flower. The highest aconitine content is obtained at flowering. 



The decoction of prepared daughter-tubers of A. fortunei has blood pressure lowering 

effect. 


In modern medicine, A. fortunei is recommended as antitussive analgesic and diaphoretic. 

It is effective for sore throat, but caution is needed because of its high toxicity. It is used 

in the form of tincture. For adults the dose at a time is 5–10 drops, and the dose for 24 

hours is 40 drops. For children over 30 months old, the daily dose ranges 5–10 drops. 


Not available 

313





Ha Noi. 

314

VIET NAM 

1.0 Scientific Name : Acorus gramineus Soland 

Family : Acoraceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Thach xuong bo, bo hoang 


Perennial, semi-aquatic marsh herb, about 0.5 m high. Rhizome aromatic, creeping, 5–30 cm 

long. Leaves linear, sheathed amplexicaul in fascicles, 10–50 cm long, 0.4–0.8 cm wide; basal 

short and narrow; upper apex attenuate acute; glabrous on both sides; main nerves parallel. 

Inflorescence terminal spadix on a compressed scape, surrounded by a broad and long leaf-like 

spathe; spadix cylindrical, attenuate and slightly curved, 5-10 cm long; flowers numerous, small, 

bisexual, yellowish green; perianth in 6 lobes; sepals 3; petals 3; stamens 6; filaments short; 

ovary oblong, ovate. Seed berry elongated, bright red when ripe. 



Acorus gramineus is widely distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions of ASEAN including 

Viet Nam. It is scattered in mountain areas, mainly along the streams or climbing on rocks by a 

fibrous root system. Seeds are usually dispersed by water and often observed between the 

rocks along streams. The plant has been continuously overexploited. 


In Viet Nam, the rhizome of A. gramineus yields 0.34–0.41% essential oil including myrcene, 

camphor, cis-methyl isoeugenol, á-asarone, â-asarone and shyobunone. 

315




The rhizome exhibits sedative, antispasmodic and hypotensive actions, and aids sleep. It 

improves the memory in alcohol amnesia. The active trans-4-propenyl veratrol exerts 

inhibitive effect on the central nervous system. 


Acorus gramineus is employed as a tonic; it warms the stomach benefitting the digestion, 

relieves pain, improves eyesight and hearing, and counteracts rheumatism and osteodynia. 

It is taken daily in doses of 3–8 g, in the form of a decoction, pills or powder. Acorus 

gramineus can be combined with other herbal drugs. 


Not available 




Ha Noi. 

316

VIET NAM 

1.0 Scientific Name : Acronychia laurifolia Blume 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Buoi bung, co dong danh 


Small tree about 4–6 m high or more. Branches zigzag, greenish when young, then reddish 

brown. Leaves opposite, coriaceous; base narrowed; apex slightly acute; shining dark green 

above, first pubescent, then glabrous; petiole 2–3 cm long swelling at both ends. Inflorescence 

in axillary or teminal corymb; bracts and bracteoles in minute scales; flower bisexual white, very 

fragrant; sepals short; petals linear-oblong, spreading; stamens 8 inserted beneath the disk; 

ovary tomentose. Drupe globose, fleshy, 4-angled, pale yellow when ripe, seed black. Flowering 

period: July-September. 



Acronychia laurifolia is light - demanding and fairly shade - enduring when young. The plant 

can grow in different sites and tolerates drought to some extent, frequently associated with 

other shrubs and small trees in the hills, secondary forests around villages. 


The leaves yield an essential oil and the alkaloid acronycine. 



Not available 


It is used to treat rheumatism; pains of the limbs, knees and back; dyspepsia; abdominal 

pains; fever and coughs. 


Not available 




Ha Noi. 

317


1.0 Scientific Name : Adenosma glutinosum (L.) Druce 

Family : Scrophulariaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Nhan tran, Che noi 


Annual herb, 40–70 cm high or more to 1 m. Stems cylindrical, covered with a dense pubescence. 

Leaves opposite, oval-shaped; apex obtuse or slightly acuminate; 4–6 cm long, 2–3 cm wide; 

pubescent on both sides; margins serrate; petiole 0.5–1.2 cm long. Inflorscence in axillary or 

terminal spiciform raceme about 30 cm long; flowers violet-blue; calyx campanulate, 5-toothed, 

pubescent, the outer lanceolate, broad and elongate, the inner strictly narrow; corolla 2-lipped, 

1–1.4 cm long, the upper triangular, truncate or slightly concave, the lower nearly longer, 3- 

lobed; stamens 4. Capsule as long as the calyx, ovoid, apiculate, seeds numerous yellow. 



This plant is concentrated in some northern provinces such as Bac Can, Cao Bang, Tuyen 

Quang, Ha Giang, and Son La. In the south, it is only scattered at the height of more than 500 

m. The plant is hygrophilous and often occurs in association with other herbs and small shrubs. 

Seedlings appear in late spring. They grow vigorously for about three months and then flower 

and wither in September or October. 


The whole plant yields 1% essential oil. The oil content in the leaves and flowers is 1.86%. The 

essential oil distilled from flower bearing aerial part gives the flowing characteristics: d 25 

.0.8042. 

n D 

20 

. 1.4705. |á | D. 20 +4.8. 

The main composition of the oil is paracymene, limonene, á-pinene, cineole and anethole. Analysis 

of the 40° alcohol extract of the drug gave, besides essential oil, saponins, flavonoids and aromatic 

acids. 



In modern medicine, A. glutinosum is employed for curing viral hepatitis. In a clinical 

trial, all patients taken Adenosum medication have typical acute hepatitis signs. increase 

in bilinrubinaemia. The drug is used in the form of syrup, in a daily dose of 100 ml, divided 

into two split doses. After a period of medication, A. glutinosum normalized the amount 

of bilirubin in blood and the activities of SGPT and all the clinical symptoms are improved. 


In traditional medicine, it is used for treating jaundice in hepatitis, fevers and oliguria. 

318

VIET NAM 


Not available 




Ha Noi. 

319


1.0 Scientific Name : Alisma plantago-aquatica L. 

Family : Alismataceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Trach ta, ma de nuoc 


Marsh herb, 40–50 cm high. Rhizome stout, globular, fleshy and whitish. Leaves long-petioled 

and sheathed, forming a rosette; blade oval-shaped or ovate, entire, slightly, undulate; base 

rounded; apex acuminate; nerves 5–7, curved. Inflorescence in terminal, umbelliform cyme, 

scape reaching 1 m long; flowers white or rosy, hermaphrodite; sepals 3, persistent in fruit; 

petals 3; stamens 6–9, flat; ovary many-celled. Achence compressed with persistent calyx. 



In Viet Nam, this plant is grows in the north. The plant is a small marsh or, aquatic herb, growing 

in marsh fields or ponds. Its rhizomes are submerged in the mud. Flowers on long pseudostems 

emerging above the water. Leaves wither after fruit-ripening in June or July, and rhizomes 

re-sprout in the next spring. 


The rhizomes contain starch (23%) and triterpenes including alisol A, alisol B, alisol C, alisol A 

monocetate, alisol B monocetate, alisol C acetate, epialisol A, 24-acetylalisol A, 25- acetyl alisol B, 

23-acetyl alisol C. 

320

VIET NAM 



The plant is reported to be diuretic, antilipidosis, hypocholesterolaemic and 

antiatherosclerosis, hypotensive and hypoglycaemic. 


In traditional medicine, A. plantago - aquatica is used as diuretic. It is beneficial for 

treating oliguria, dysuria, urodynia and oedema in nephritis and urinary lithiasis. The drug 

is also effective against headache, dizziness, dry mouth and thirst. It is likewise prescribed 

as antidiabetic and a galactagogue in hypogalactia. 


Not available 




Ha Noi. 

321


1.0 Scientific Name : Aquilaria crassna Pierre ex Lacomte 

Family : Thymelaeaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Tram huong, do bau 


A large evergreen, 15–20 cm high, with a diameter of 40–50 cm. Bark grayish brown, easy to 

peel off, smooth, inner bark with much water. Crown open. Leaves corracears, oval, upper 

surface glossy and green, lower surface light-coloured. Inflorescence yellow; fruit a capsule, 

obovoid, 4 x 3 cm in size, hard when dry. Furnished with short, grayish yellow hairs and persisient 

calyx. 



It is found mostly in Viet Nam, Lao PDR and Cambodia, and abundantly in primary and secondary 

forests on typical ferralitic soils with shallow to moderately deep surface layers. 


The wood of the tree contains 13% oil. The main components are benzylacetone (26%); 

Metoxybenzylaceton (53%); Terpinen-ol 11% and cinnamic acid. 



Not available 

322

VIET NAM 


The species is used as antiemetic and diuretic and to treat sedative palpitation, asthma, 

chest-ache and stomach-ache. 

8.0 Contraindication: 

Not available 


Forest Inventory and Planning Institute. 1996. Viet Nam Forest Trees. Agricultural Publishing 

House. 

Loi, D. T. 1995. Medicinal Plants and Pharmaceutical Prescriptions of Viet Nam. Science 

and Technological Publishing House, Ha Noi. 

Ministry of Science, Technology & Environment. 1996. Red Data Book of Viet Nam. Vol. 2, 

Plants. Science and Technics Publishing House, Ha Noi. 

323


1.0 Scientific Name : Artocarpus tonkinensis A. Chev. 


2.0 Vernacular Name : Chay bac bo (Viet Nam) 


A small or medium tree, 20–25 m high and 30 cm in diameter; crown wide and open. Bark graybrown, 

inner bark pink with milky sap. Twigs yellow-brown, tomentose, then glabrous. Leaves 

big sized, lanceolate or ovate; base obtuse; apex mucronate; 20–25 cm long and 9–12 cm wide; 

upper surface glabrous when mature, brown-yellow tomentose on the veins beneath 10–12 

pairs, evident beneath.; petiole slender, tomentose, 2 cm long; stipules small. Male inflorescence 

axillary, ablong, slightly curved, 12–20 mm long and 8–12 mm wide; peducle slender, 10–15 mm 

long. Female inflorescence obovate, 15 mm long and 12 mm wide. Flowers numerous, laxly 

arranged with peltate bracts, tomentose on the surface; sepals 3, obovate, tubular; stamen 1, 

style extruded from 5 small holes. 



It is distributed in the northern part of Viet Nam and Lao PDR. 


Bark and root contain tannin. 



Not available 


Root and bark are chewed with betel for maintaining healthy teeth. Leaves and roots are 

used for backache, rheumatism and arthritis. 


Not available 



House. 



324

VIET NAM 

1.0 Scientific Name : Illicium verum Hook. f. 

Family : Illiciaceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Hoi, Dai hoi (Viet Nam); dok chan, poy kak bua, chinpaetklip, 

poikak bua (Thailand); bunga lawang, adas china (Malaysia); 

bunga lawang (Indonesia); star anise (English) 


A small or medium tree, 6–8 m height, diameter up to 15–36 cm. Trunk straight, terete. Bark 

grey-brown; branchlets green; crown conical to globose, looks beautiful. All parts of the tree 

have an agreeable aromatic smell. Leaves simple, usually clustered at branch-tips into 

pseudoverticils of 3–4 leaves. Leaves ovate, 6–12 cm long, 2–5 cm wide; leaf blade thick and 

brittle, dark-green above, paler beneath. Petiole glabrous, 7–10 mm long. Flower big, pinkwhite. 

Peticil stout and short. Sepals 6, pink at margin, green at back. Petals 16–20; broadelliptic 

sepal, white outside, red inside, dark-red at the middle of flower. Stamens 10–20, shorter 

than petals, elliptic; carpels 6–8. Fruit consists of 6–8 follicles, spreading woody and brown 

when mature, dehiscent by ventral side. Seed solitary in each follicle, brown, glossy and glabrous. 



Originating from North Viet Nam and South of China, the tree can be found on red, brown-red 

or yellow ferralitic soil, developed from schist-sandstone with deep, fertile and well-drained 

soils. 


Essential oils contained in fruits, leaves and seeds – anethol (80–90%), terpene (10–20%), 

pinene, dipentene, limonene, estradol, phellandrene, safrole and terpineol. 

325




Not available 


The essential oil is used for treating rheumatism, dyspepsia, fish poisoning, neuritis, colic 

and as antiemetic. Star anise has carminative, stomachic, stimulant and diuretic properties. 

It is a common flavouring for medicinal teas, cough mixtures and pastilles. 


Not available 



House. 



Ministry of Science, Technology & Environment. 1996. Red Data Book of Viet Nam. Vol. 2, 

Plants. Science and Technics Publishing House, Ha Noi. 

326

VIET NAM 

1.0 Scientific name : Litsea cubeba (Loureiro) Pers. 

Family : Lauraceae 

2.0 Vernacular Names : Mang tang, man tang (Viet Nam); lindos (Malaysia) 


A small tree, 8–10 m high and 7–15 cm in diameter. Stem and branches green or yellowish 

green when young. Twigs glabrous, black when dry. Leaves simple, alternate, oblong-ovate, 

soft and thin, 6–9 cm long, 2–3 cm wide, glabrous. Veins evident on both surfaces. Leaves and 

bark smell of citronella. Inflorescence of compound. Axis slender, very short (0.1–0.2 cm). Fruit 

globose, about 0.4–0.7 cm in diameter, succulent, yellowish green when young, black when 

mature. 



It is distributed in Lao PDR, China, Cambodia, Viet Nam, Malaysia, andm is found abundantly in 

secondary forests. 


Rich in essential oil. The fruits and leaves contain 6–15% and 0.2–0.4% oil respectively. The 

major components are composed of 70–90% citral, methyheptenone, cineol and aldehyde. 



Not available 

327



The essential oil is used as a deodorant and for diarrhoea, snake-bite, dyspepsia, flu, 

coughs and cold. 


Not available 

9.0 Biblioraphy: 


House. 



http://research.kahaku.go.jp/botany/Tailand/plant/picture_page/10.html - 24 August 2003. 

328

VIET NAM 

1.0 Scientific Name : Schefflera octophylla (Loureiro) Harms 


2.0 Vernacular Names : Chan chim, dang, sam nam (Viet Nam) 


Evergreen medium-sized tree, up to 10–20 m high; wide umbrella crown. Trunk cylindrical 

straight, reaching 40 cm in diameter. Bark white-grey, glabrous with many lenticels and horizontal 

stipule scars. Inner bark 6 mm thick, yellowish, aromatic. Leaflets 6–8, elliptic or oval 10–15 cm 

long, 3–5 cm wide. Lateral nerves 69 pairs. Petiole 25 cm long. Lateral leaflets with petiolules 

1.5–2.5 cm long and middle leaflet with petiolules 3.5–5 cm long. Inflorescence broadly paniculate, 

consisting of many umbels. Flowers minute white, aromatic and pedunculate. Calyx 5, lobed, 

tomentosa outside. Petals 5, white. Stamens 5, ovary inferior 5–8 locular, style very short. Fruit 

a globose berry, 4–5 mm in diameter, with 5–7 seeds. 


5.0 Geographical Distribution:/Ecology: 

It is found throughout China, Lao PDR, Indonesia and Viet Nam. In both tropical and subtropical 

forest areas, it commonly grows in secondary forests below 1,000 m. 


Glycosides: scheffoleoside A, scheffoleoside D, scheffoleoside E, scheffursoside B, scheffursoside 

C, scheffoleoside D, scheffoleoside E, oplopananaxogenin A 

329




Not available 


The roots and leaves are used as tonic. 


Not available 



House. 



Kitajima, J. & Tanaka, Y. 1989. Two new triterpenoid glycosides from the leaves of Schefflera 

octophylla. Chemical Pharm. Bulletin 37(10):2727–2730. 

http://www.bio.ncue.edu.tw/native/plant/p10.htm - 25 August 2004. 

330

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS 


1 Mr. Muhd Safwan Bin Abdullah Bibi 

Forestry Officer 

Forestry Department 

Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources 

Jalan Menteri Besar, Berakas BB3910 

Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam 

Tel: 673-2381678 

Fax: 673-2381012 

forestrybrunei@hotmail.com 

2 Mr. Mulyadi Hj. Mohd. Ali 

Agriculture Officer 

Agriculture Department 

Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources 

Jalan Menteri Besar, Berakas BB3910 

Bandar Seri Begawan, Brunei Darussalam 

Tel: 673-2663346 

Fax: 673-2661354 

mulyadi_ali@agriculture.gov.bn 

CAMBODIA 

3 Mr. Hung Suntra 

Deputy Head 

Forest and Wildlife Science Research 

Institute 

Forest Administration 

Ministry of Agriculture Forestry and Fisheries 

#40 Preah Norodom Boulevard 

Phnom Penh, Cambodia 

Tel: 855-23-219282, 855-12-802699 

Fax: 855-23-214282 

hsuntra@yahoo.com 

4 Mr. Chann Sophal 

Deputy Director 

Department of Forestry and Wildlife 

Forest Wildlife Research Institute 

#40 Preah Norodom Boulevard 

Phnom Penh, Cambodia 

Tel/Fax: 855-23-213612 

ffpri_fwri@online.com.kh 

INDONESIA 

5 Dr. Yetti Rusli 

Senior Advisor to Ministry of Forestry 

Ministry of Forestry 

Jakarta, Indonesia 

Tel: 62-21-5730205, 62-21-5730222 

Fax: 62-21-5700226 

yettir@dephut.cbn.net.id 

6 Dr. Nurliani Bermawie 

Head of Medicinal Plants Programme 

Indonesian Medicinal and Aromatic 

Crops Research Institute (IMACRI) 

Ministry of Agriculture 

Jl. Tentara Pelajar No.3, Bogor 

Indonesia 

Tel: 62-251-321879, 62-251-342891 

Fax: 62-251-327010 

nurlianib@yahoo.com 

LAO PDR 

7 Dr. Bounhong Southavong 

Director 

Traditional Medicine Research Center 

Ministry of Health 

Vientianne, Lao PDR 

Tel: 856-21-315693 

Fax: 856-21-312354 

laotmrc@laotel.com 

bsouthavong@hotmail.com 

8 Assoc. Prof. Kongmany Sydara 

Deputy Director 

Traditional Medicine Research Center 

Ministry of Health 

Ban Phon Papao Tha 

Sisattanak District 

Vientianne, Lao PDR 

Tel: 856-21-315693 

Fax: 856-21-315693 

ksydara@gmail.com 

333


MALAYSIA 

9 Dr. Rasadah Mat Ali 

Director 

Medicinal Plants Programme 

Biotechnology Division 

Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) 

52109 Kepong, Selangor Darul Ehsan, 

Malaysia 

Tel: 60-3-62797329 

Fax: 60-3-62728905 

rasadah@frim.gov.my 

10 Mr. Zainon Abu Samah 

Research Officer 

Medicinal Plants Programme 

Biotechnology Division 

Forest Research Institute Malaysia (FRIM) 

52109 Kepong, Selangor Darul Ehsan, 

Malaysia 

Tel: 60-3-62797330 

Fax: 60-3-62728905 

zainon@frim.gov.my 

MYANMAR 

11 Mr. Myo Myat 

Director 

Planning & Statistics Department 

Ministry of Forestry 

Yankin P.O. Yangon, Myanmar 

Tel: 95-67-405012 

Fax: 95-62-405378 

trincertcom@mptmail.net.mm 

PHILIPPINES 

12 Mr. Celso P. Diaz 

Ecosystems Research & Development Bureau 

Department of Environment & Natural 

Resources (DENR) 

College, Laguna, Phillipines 

Tel: 63-49-5362269 

Fax: 63-49-5362269 

erdb@laguna.net 

THAILAND 

13 Ms. Benjavon Caruhapattana 

Chief of Forest Products Chemistry 

Subdivision 

Forest Products Research Division 

Royal Forest Department 

Bangkok 10900, Thailand 

Tel: 66-22-561-4292/66-22-561-4293, ext-480 

Fax: 66-22-579-5412 

benjavon@forest.go.th 

VIET NAM 

14 Dr. Pham Duc Tuan 

Vice-Director General 

Department of Forestry 

Ministry of Agriculture and Rural 

Development 

2 Ngoc Ha - Ha Noi, Viet Nam 

Tel: 84-4-7332154 

Fax: 84-4-8438793 

pham-tuan@hn.unn.vn 

334

INDEX 

INDEX 

Abelmoschus moschatus, 1 

Abrus precatorius, 303 

Abutilon indicum, 305 

Acanthopanax gracilistylus, 307 

Acanthopanax trifoliatus, 309 

Achyranthes aspera, 311 

Aconitum fortunei, 313 

Acorus calamus, 85 

Acorus gramineus, 315 

Acronychia laurifolia, 317 

Adenosma glutinosum, 318 

Aegle marmelos, 43, 107 

Agathis borneensis, 3 

Alisma plantago-aquatica, 320 

Aloe barbadensis, Aloe vera, 5, 87, 227 

Alstonia scholaris, 109 

Amaranthus spinosus, 7 

Anacardium occidentale, 229 

Andrographis paniculata, 9 

Annona reticulata, 231 

Aquilaria crassna, 45, 322 

Arcangelisia flava, 89 

Ardisia elliptica, 147 

Areca catechu, 233 

Artocarpus lakoocha, 267 

Artocarpus tonkinensis, 324 

Asparagus cochinchinensis, 111 

Asplenium nidus, 11 

Barleria prionitis, 205 

Basella rubra, 236 

Bixa orellana, 238 

Blumea balsamifera, 13 

Boesenbergia rotunda, 271 

Caesalpinia crista, 15 

Caesalpinia pulcherrima, 240 

Caesalpinia sappan, 47, 113 

Calotropis gigantea, 115 

Cananga latifolia, 49 

Capparis micracantha, 51 

Carmona retusa, 242 

Cassia alata, 53, 117 

Cassia fistula, 244, 274 

Cassia tora, 279 

Ceiba pentandra, 246 

Centella asiatica, 91 

Centratherum intermedium, 17 

Chromolaena odorata, 149 

Clinacanthus nutans, 284 

Codonopsis pilosa, 119 

Combretum quadrangulare, 55 

Corchorus capsularis, 19 

Coscinium fenestratum, 21 

Coscinium usitatum, 57 

Costus speciosus, 121 

Curcuma longa, 23, 286 

Curcuma mangga, 93 

Curcuma zedoaria, 59, 95 

Curcuma xanthorhiza, 152 

Cymbopogon citratus, 155 

Cymbopogon nardus, 159 

Dioscorea esculenta, 207 

Dioscorea persimilis, 123 

Donax grandis, 25 

Dracaena cambodiana, 61 

Eclipta prostrata, 125 

Elephantopus scaber, 127, 162 

Elettaria cardamomum, 209 

Eleutherine subaphylla, 129 

Etlingera solaris, 27 

Euodia lepta, 131 

Eurycoma longifolia, 63, 164, 289 

Fibraurea tinctoria, 166 

Gloriosa superba, 211 

Gynura procumbens, 168 

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, 248 

Hibiscus sabdariffa, 293 

Hopea odorata, 65 

Hydnocarpus anthelminticus, 67 

Illicium verum, 325 

Impatiens balsamina, 296 

Jatropha curcas, 250 

Justicia gendarusa, 97 

Kaempferia galanga, 171 

Labisia pothoina, 173 

Languas galanga, 29, 175 

Litsea cubeba, 327 

335


Macaranga gigantea, 31 

Melastoma malabathricum, 33 

Melastoma sanguineum, 69 

Melodorum fruticosum, 71 

Millettia extensa, 213 

Mimosa pudica, 252 

Mitragyna speciosa, 177 

Momordica charantia, 180 

Morinda citrifolia, 99, 133 

Moringa oleifera, 254 

Nervilia fordii, 215 

Ocimum bacilicum, 185 

Orthosiphon aristatus, 35, 101 

Passiflora foetida, 135 

Phyllanthus amarus, 190 

Phyllanthus emblica, 73 

Piper betle, 217 

Plumeria alba, 75 

Polygonum multiflorum, 137 

Portulaca oleracea, 37 

Premna odorata, 257 

Rafflesia hasseltii, 194 

Rauvolfia serpentina, 139, 219 

Sauropus androgynus, 103 

Schefflera octophylla, 329 

Smilax myosotiflora, 196 

Solanum procumbens, 141 

Solanum violaceum, 299 

Stemona tuberosa, 198 

Stephania rotunda, 143 

Streblus asper, 259 

Syzygium jambos, 77 

Terminalia chebula, 79 

Terminalia triptera, 81 

Tinospora crispa, 261 

Vitex negundo, 221, 263 

Vitis repens, 223 

Zingiber aromaticum, 39 

Zingiber officinale, 200 

336

ASEAN Herbal and Medicinal Plants

You also want an ePaper? Increase the reach of your titles

Delete template?

Save as template?