parks victoria technical series marine natural values study vol 2 ...

parks victoria technical series 

Number 79 

Marine Natural Values Study Vol 2: 

Marine Protected Areas of the Flinders 

and Twofold Shelf Bioregions 

Jan Barton, Adam Pope and Steffan Howe 

August 2012

© Parks Victoria 

All rights reserved. This document is subject to the Copyright Act 1968, no part of this publication 

may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, 

electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise without the prior permission of the publisher. 

First published 2012 

Published by Parks Victoria 

Level 10, 535 Bourke Street, Melbourne Victoria 3000 

Opinions expressed by the Authors of this publication are not necessarily those of Parks Victoria, 

unless expressly stated. Parks Victoria and all persons involved in the preparation and distribution 

of this publication do not accept any responsibility for the accuracy of any of the opinions or 

information contained in the publication. 

Authors: 

Jan Barton – Research Fellow, Deakin University 

Adam Pope – Research Fellow, Deakin University 

Steffan Howe – Marine Science Manager, Parks Victoria 

National Library of Australia 

Cataloguing-in-publication data 

Includes bibliography 

ISSN 1448-4935 

Citation 

Barton, J., Pope, A. and S. Howe (2012) Marine Natural Values Study Vol 2: Marine Protected 

Areas of the Flinders and Twofold Shelf Bioregions. Parks Victoria Technical Series No. 79. 

Parks Victoria, Melbourne. 

Printed on environmentally friendly paper

Parks Victoria Technical Paper Series No. 79 

Marine Natural Values Study (Vol 2) 

Marine Protected Areas of the Flinders 

and Twofold Shelf Bioregions 

Jan Barton, Adam Pope and Steffan Howe* 

School of Life & Environmental Sciences 

Deakin University 

*Parks Victoria 

August 2012

Parks Victoria Technical Series No. 79 

Flinders and Twofold Shelf Bioregions Marine Natural Values Study 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Along Victoria’s coastline there are 30 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) that have been 

established to protect the state’s significant marine environmental and cultural values. These 

MPAs include 13 Marine National Parks (MNPs), 11 Marine Sanctuaries (MSs), 3 Marine 

and Coastal Parks, 2 Marine Parks, and a Marine Reserve, and together these account for 

11.7% of the Victorian marine environment. The highly protected Marine National Park 

System, which is made up of the MNPs and MSs, covers 5.3% of Victorian waters and was 

proclaimed in November 2002. This system has been designed to be representative of the 

diversity of Victoria’s marine environment and aims to conserve and protect ecological 

processes, habitats, and associated flora and fauna. The Marine National Park System is 

spread across Victoria’s five marine bioregions with multiple MNPs and MSs in each 

bioregion, with the exception of Flinders bioregion which has one MNP. All MNPs and 

MSs are “no-take” areas and are managed under the National Parks Act (1975) - Schedules 

7 and 8 respectively. 

This report updates the first Marine Natural Values Study (Plummer et al. 2003) for the 

MPAs in the Flinders and Twofold Shelf bioregions on the east coast of Victoria and is one of 

a series of five reports covering Victoria’s Marine National Park System. It uses the 

numerous monitoring and research programs that have increased our knowledge since 

declaration and aims to give a comprehensive overview of the important natural values of 

each MNP and MS. 

Wilsons Promontory MNP is the only MPA in the Flinders bioregion and is the largest MPA in 

Victoria. Ninety Mile Beach, Point Hicks and Cape Howe MNPs and Beware Reef MS are in 

the Twofold Shelf bioregion. Both bioregions have cool temperate biota with some warmtemperate 

species due to the influence of the East Australian Current (EAC). Long sandy 

beaches with granite headlands and promontories are typical of the coast in the bioregions. 

Shores in Flinders plunge steeply onto deep sandy sea floor. In Twofold Shelf the low 

carbonate sandy sediments slope off more gently to deep waters. 

High resolution bathymetry mapping has increased our understanding of habitats in the 

shallow waters of all the MPAs, and for the whole of Point Hicks and Cape Howe MNPs. All 

the MPAs, except Ninety Mile Beach MNP, have both shallow and deep subtidal reef. All, 

except for Beware Reef, have extensive intertidal soft sediment habitat or beaches where 

wrack material contributes to the detrital cycle and is a significant source of food for many 

shore birds and invertebrates. Intertidal reef is not extensive in either bioregion and biota is a 

mix of cool and warm temperate species. All MPAs have subtidal soft sediment habitat, 

which can have very high numbers of invertebrate species living on and in it. Subtidal soft 

sediment and open water are the dominant habitat types in the MPAs. 

Ongoing monitoring and focused research projects have described the flora and fauna of the 

shallow subtidal reefs in all the MPAs except Ninety Mile Beach MNP, which has limited (if 

any) reef habitat. Differences in wave exposure, depth and reef structure can result in 

different biotic assemblages, within and between MPAs. The shallow subtidal reefs in the 

MPAs differ in the composition of canopy forming macroalgae species, understorey and the 

associated invertebrate and fish assemblages. The canopy is usually dominated by 

crayweed Phyllospora comosa, with the contribution of common kelp Ecklonia radiata and 

bull kelp Durvillaea potatorum varying. Common to all the MPAs is the blacklip abalone 

Haliotis rubra and wrasse spp. The herbivorous, warm temperate sea urchin 

Centrostephanus rodgersii occurs in both bioregions and can remove all erect algae to 

create ‘urchin barrens’. Warm temperate fish species such as the damsel fish, including the 

one-spot puller Chromis hypsilepis and white-ear damselfish Parma microlepis, are a feature 

of Twofold Shelf shallow subtidal reefs. 

ii



Wilsons Promontory MNP has two distinct shallow subtidal reef assemblages, high exposure 

in the west and south, and low exposure in the east. Point Hicks and Cape Howe MNP 

shallow subtidal reefs are highly exposed and have varied structure, providing a wide range 

of habitats. The shallow subtidal reef in the Beware Reef has seaweed, invertebrate and fish 

communities that are distinctly different to the other reefs in Twofold Shelf MPAs. The deep 

reefs in both the bioregions have a dense and often spectacular cover of epifauna, 

especially sponges, stalked ascidians, soft corals, sea anemones, zooanthids gorgonians 

and sea whips, and abundant fish life. 

Subtidal soft sediment is a dominant habitat in all the MPAs but detailed knowledge of its 

flora and fauna is restricted to shallow waters, except for Point Hicks and Cape Howe MNPs. 

Sediments are predominantly inhabited by infauna (small crustaceans and worms that 

burrow into the sand), sponges and bottom-dwelling skates and rays. Deep water sediments 

in Point Hicks and Cape Howe MNPs have extensive beds of sessile invertebrates, 

predominately sponges and green algae Caulerpa. 

Seagrass beds are found in sheltered bays, Heterozostera in Oberon Bay and Amphibolis 

and Halophila in Waterloo Bay in Wilsons Promontory MNP. Many species of fish are 

associated with these beds such as wide-bodied pipefish Stigmatopora nigra, spotted 

pipefish S. argus, slender weed whiting Siphonognathus attenuatus and weedfish 

Heteroclinus spp. and Cristiceps spp. Seagrass beds are not a feature of the Twofold Shelf 

bioregion. 

All the MPAs support species of high conservation significance. They provide important 

feeding and roosting habitat for many threatened shore and sea birds, from 17 species in 

Beware Reef MS and up to 38 in Cape Howe MNP. They are also important for many 

migratory birds, from 7 species in Wilsons Promontory MNP to 24 in Cape Howe MNP. 

Numerous species are found at the limit of their distribution range within individual MPAs. In 

Wilsons Promontory MNP over 126 species, including algae, invertebrates and fish, are 

believed to be at the edge of their distributional range, whilst none are known from Ninety 

Mile Beach MNP. Fourteen are believed to be at the edge of their range in Point Hicks MNP, 

17 in Beware Reef MS and 38 in Cape Howe MNP. 

The humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae, threatened southern right whale Eubalaena 

australis and threatened New Zealand fur seal Arctophoca forsteri are found in the waters of 

both bioregions. The southern right whale E. australis has been observed to calve in Cape 

Howe and Wilsons Promontory MNPs. Five listed marine reptiles: loggerhead turtle Caretta 

caretta, green turtle Chelonia mydas, Pacific ridley Lepidochelys olivacea, leatherback turtle 

Dermochelys coriacea, and yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis platurus occur as warm water 

vagrants in the bioregions. The whale shark Rhincodon typus east coast range extends to 

Point Hicks MNP. The islands surrounded by Wilsons Promontory MNP, particularly 

Kanowna in the Anser Group, are breeding colonies of little penguins Eudyptula minor, 

Australian fur seals A. pusillus doriferus, and a small colony of New Zealand fur seals A. 

forsteri. The MNP is also a nationally significant area for the recovery of great white shark 

Carcharodon carcharias populations. In Ninety Mile Beach one species of crab, Halicarcinus 

sp MoV746 and in Point Hicks one mollusc, the welk Fax molleri, are presumed to be 

endemic to the MNPs. Cape Howe MNP is an important foraging area for a significant 

breeding colony of little penguins E. minor from neighbouring Gabo Island. The state 

vulnerable New Zealand fur seal A. forsteri has also been recorded breeding in the MNP. 

The southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina has been recorded in Beware Reef MS. 

The introduction of foreign species or marine pests, by recreational or commercial vessels, 

threatens the integrity of marine biodiversity. The New Zealand screw shell Maoricolpus 

roseus has been recorded in high densities on the subtidal sediment of Point Hicks MNP. 

The introduced green shore crab Carcinus maenas is presumed to occur on the intertidal 

iii



reefs of all the MPAs except Ninety Mile Beach MNP, which has no intertidal reef. Abalone 

viral ganglioneuritus has been slowly spreading on the west coast, killing a large percentage 

of abalone in infected areas from Discovery Bay MNP to Cape Otway. It could have serious 

ecological consequences for subtidal reef communities if it spreads into the Flinders and 

Twofold Shelf bioregions. 

Recreational boating has also been identified as posing a threat to seagrass beds, soft 

sediments and shallow subtidal reefs through propeller scour or anchors. Disturbance of 

wildlife, shore birds by vehicles, people or dogs; or breeding colonies of seals by boats are 

also a threat in the MPAs, as is poaching of abalone or fish. Commercial vessels also pose a 

threat due to the risk of oil spills. Water quality in the MPAs may be threatened by increased 

nutrients and sediments from land use or waste discharge. 

Climate change represents a serious threat but the specific ecological consequences are not 

well understood in temperate marine systems. Increased sea levels, water and air 

temperature, cloud cover, ultraviolet light exposure and frequency of extreme weather 

events are predicted. Changes in the chemical composition, circulation and productivity of 

the seas are also predicted. These predicted changes have the potential to impact all marine 

habitats, causing loss of habitats, decreases in productivity and reproduction and distribution 

of species. A number of species are at the limit of their distributional range in both bioregions 

and would be particularly vulnerable to climate change. In contrast, the urchin 

Centrostephanus rodgersii range increase is thought to be linked to climate change with the 

EAC extending further south. 

Parks Victoria has established extensive marine monitoring and research programs for the 

MPAs that address important management challenges, focussing both on improving 

baseline knowledge of the MPAs as well as applied management questions not being 

addressed by others. This knowledge will continue to enhance Parks Victoria’s capacity to 

implement evidence-based management through addressing critical knowledge gaps. The 

research and monitoring programs have been guided by the research themes outlined as 

part of Parks Victoria’s Research Partners Panel (RPP) program, a Marine Research and 

Monitoring Strategy 2007 - 2012 and Marine National Park and Marine Sanctuary Monitoring 

Plan 2007 - 2012 (Power and Boxshall 2007). Much of the research has been undertaken as 

part of the RPP program involving collaboration with various research institutions. Subtidal 

reef monitoring occurs in all MPAs in the bioregions except Ninety Mile Beach MNP. 

Intertidal reef monitoring is not conducted in either bioregion as this habitat is limited. Other 

statewide projects are currently underway to determine which MPAs are most at risk from 

introduced species, to document and photograph marine natural values, and to detect 

poaching. 

Since declaration considerable advancement has been made in identifying and 

understanding the marine natural values of the Flinders and Twofold Shelf bioregions. There 

are still major gaps in our knowledge. Comprehensive knowledge of basic habitats, their 

distribution and extent, is limited to shallow waters except in Point Hicks and Cape Howe. 

Monitoring changes in flora and fauna over time is limited to shallow subtidal reef. There is 

limited knowledge of the bioregion’s intertidal and subtidal soft sediment and open waters. 

Whilst general and individual threats to the MPAs have been identified we have limited 

knowledge of how those threats will affect marine natural values. 

iv



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

This project was undertaken for Parks Victoria and principally managed by Steffan Howe. 

We would also like to thank Tony Varcoe for his project management. Thank you to Parks 

Victoria’s research partners who implemented many of the research projects cited in this 

report. Thank you to Anthony Boxshall who managed many of the earlier research partner 

projects cited in the report. Thank you to Richard Zavalas for creating the maps, Jacquomo 

Monk and Alex Rattray for GIS assistance and Margie Morrice for her fine editing. Thank you 

also to Matt Edmunds and Hugh Kirkman for their editorial comments. Thank you to all that 

generously made their photos available for this report. 

v



CONTENTS 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...................................................................................................... ii 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..................................................................................................... v 

CONTENTS ......................................................................................................................... vi 

INDEX OF FIGURES AND TABLES ................................................................................. viii 

FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ viii 

TABLES .......................................................................................................................... xi 

ACRONYMS ...................................................................................................................... xiii 

1 Introduction .................................................................................................................... 1 

1.1 Victoria’s Marine Protected Areas ............................................................................... 1 

1.2 Purpose of Report ...................................................................................................... 2 

1.3 Structure ..................................................................................................................... 2 

1.4 Methods ..................................................................................................................... 2 

1.5 Flinders and Twofold Shelf Bioregions ....................................................................... 4 

1.6 Other Victorian Bioregions .......................................................................................... 6 

2 Marine National Parks .................................................................................................... 8 

2.1 Wilsons Promontory MNP – Flinders Bioregion .......................................................... 8 

2.1.1 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS & PROCESSES ...................................................... 9 

2.1.2 MARINE HABITAT DISTRIBUTION .................................................................. 12 

2.1.3 MARINE ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES .......................................................... 14 

2.1.4 SPECIES OF CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE ............................................. 20 

2.1.5 MAJOR THREATS............................................................................................ 27 

2.1.6 CURRENT RESEARCH AND MONITORING ................................................... 29 

2.1.7 KNOWLEDGE GAPS ........................................................................................ 31 

2.2 Ninety Mile Beach MNP - Twofold Shelf Bioregion ................................................... 32 

2.2.1 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS & PROCESSES .................................................... 33 




2.2.5 MAJOR THREATS............................................................................................ 40 



2.3 Point Hicks MNP – Twofold Shelf Bioregion ............................................................. 44 





2.3.5 MAJOR THREATS............................................................................................ 62 



2.4 Cape Howe MNP – Twofold Shelf Bioregion ............................................................ 68 

vi







2.4.5 MAJOR THREATS............................................................................................ 84 



3 Marine Sanctuaries ....................................................................................................... 90 

3.1 Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary – Twofold Shelf Bioregion ....................................... 90 




3.1.4 SPECIES OF CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE ........................................... 103 

3.1.5 MAJOR THREATS.......................................................................................... 107 

3.1.6 CURRENT RESEARCH AND MONITORING ................................................. 109 

3.1.7 KNOWLEDGE GAPS ...................................................................................... 112 

SUMMARY ....................................................................................................................... 113 

REFERENCES ................................................................................................................. 119 

APPENDIX 1 .................................................................................................................... 124 

APPENDIX 2 .................................................................................................................... 140 

vii



INDEX OF FIGURES AND TABLES 

FIGURES 

Figure 1. Locations of IMCRA mesoscale (i.e. 100-1000km) bioregions (IMCRA 

2006 v4) .......................................................................................................................... 1 

Figure 2. Eastern Victoria with IMCRA mesoscale bioregions, Marine National 

Parks and Marine Sanctuaries. ........................................................................................ 4 

Figure 3. Algal beds on subtidal reef at Wilsons Promontory Marine National 

Park in the Flinders bioregion .......................................................................................... 5 

Figure 4. A common species in the park: butterfly perch Caesioperca lepidoptera 

at Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park. .................................................................. 7 

Figure 5. Hermit crab (probably Strigopagurus strigimanus) in Wilsons 

Promontory Marine National Park. Photo by Julian Finn Museum of Victoria. ................ 10 

Figure 6. Location map of Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park with high 

resolution and 1:250,000 bathymetry. Subtidal reef monitoring sites inside 

and outside the MNP are shown, there are no intertidal monitoring sites. ...................... 11 

Figure 7. Crayweed Phyllospora comosa in Wilsons Promontory Marine National 

Park ............................................................................................................................... 12 

Figure 8. Substrate and biota mapping of Wilsons Promontory Marine National 

Park. .............................................................................................................................. 13 

Figure 9. Seirococcus axillarus (centre of frame) with Ecklonia radiata in Wilsons 

Promontory Marine National Park. ................................................................................. 18 

Figure 10. Yellow zoanthid Parazoanthus sp. and sponge in Wilsons Promontory 

Marine National Park. Photo by Julian Finn, Museum of Victoria. .................................. 20 

Figure 11. Old wife Enoplosius armatus over a Phyllospora bed in Wilsons 

Promontory Marine National Park.................................................................................. 28 

Figure 12. Red Velvetfish Gnathanacanthus goetzeei in Wilsons Promontory 

Marine National Park. Photo by Mark Norman, Museum of Victoria. .............................. 31 

Figure 13. Intertidal soft sediment of Ninety Mile Beach Marine National Park .................... 33 

Figure 14. Location map of Ninety Mile Beach Marine National Park with 

1:250,000 bathymetry. Subtidal reef monitoring sites inside and outside the 

MNP are shown, there are no monitoring sites. ............................................................. 35 

Figure 15. Location of habitat types based on coarse geology mapping. 

Geological and biological sites of significance for Ninety Mile Beach Marine 

National Park also indicated. ......................................................................................... 36 

Figure 16. Steep dunes bordering Ninety Mile Beach Marine National Park ........................ 41 

Figure 17. Location map of Point Hicks Marine National Park with high resolution 

bathymetry. Subtidal reef monitoring sites inside and outside the MNP are 

shown, there are no intertidal monitoring sites. .............................................................. 46 

Figure 18. Aerial view of the coast of Point Hicks Marine National Park (QASCO 

20/01/04). Photography ortho-rectified by PIRVic. Figure from Ball and Blake 

(2007)............................................................................................................................ 48 

Figure 19. Substrate mapping of Point Hicks Marine National Park showing sites 

of geological significance............................................................................................... 49 

Figure 20. Biota mapping of Point Hicks Marine National Park showing sites of 

biological significance. ................................................................................................... 50 

Figure 21. Sponge garden in Point Hicks Marine National Park. Photo by Mark 

Norman Museum of Victoria. ......................................................................................... 51 

Figure 22. Blue mussels Mytilus edulis on subtidal reef in Point Hicks Marine 

National Park. Photo by Mark Norman Museum of Victoria. .......................................... 52 

Figure 23. Banded stingaree Urolophus cruciatus in Point Hicks Marine National 

Park. Photo by Mark Norman Museum of Victoria. ........................................................ 54 

viii



Figure 24. Black urchins Centrostephanus rodgersii and butterfly perch 

Caesioperca lepidoptera in Point Hicks Marine National Park. Photo by Mark 

Norman Museum of Victoria. ......................................................................................... 56 

Figure 25. A school of butterfly perch Caesioperca lepidoptera over a subtidal 

reef sponge garden in Point Hicks Marine National Park. Photo by Mark 

Norman, Museum of Victoria. ........................................................................................ 57 

Figure 26. Featherduster worms Sabellastarte australiensis on subtidal reef in 

Point Hicks Marine National Park. Photo by Mark Norman, Museum of 

Victoria. ......................................................................................................................... 61 

Figure 27. Finger sponges and colonial sea squirt in Point Hicks Marine National 

Park. Photo by Mark Norman, Museum of Victoria. ....................................................... 63 

Figure 28. Black urchins Centrostephanus rodgersii and yellow zoanthid corals in 

Point Hicks Marine National Park. Photo by Mark Norman, Museum of 

Victoria. ......................................................................................................................... 64 

Figure 29. Castle sponge in Point Hicks Marine National Park. Photo by Mark 

Norman, Museum of Victoria. ........................................................................................ 67 

Figure 30. Location map of Cape Howe Marine National Park with high 

resolution bathymetry. Subtidal reef monitoring sites inside and outside the 

MNP are shown, there are no intertidal monitoring sites. ............................................... 70 

Figure 31. Aerial view of the coast of Cape Howe Marine National Park (QASCO 

20/01/04). Photography ortho-rectified by PIRVic. Figure from Ball and Blake 

(2007)............................................................................................................................ 71 

Figure 32. Substrate mapping of Cape Howe Marine National Park showing sites 

of geological significance. .............................................................................................. 73 

Figure 33. Biota mapping of Cape Howe Marine National Park showing sites of 

biological significance .................................................................................................... 74 

Figure 34. A canopy of the kelp Ecklonia radiata with an understorey of small 

algae on a reef in Cape Howe Marine National Park. .................................................... 75 

Figure 35. Shell fragment dominated soft sediment and an erect sponge 

providing habitat for many invertebrates and fish in 105 m depth in Cape 

Howe Marine National Park, one of the deepest known parts of Victorian 

coastal waters. .............................................................................................................. 79 

Figure 36. A bed of the green algae Caulerpa with encrusted shells on sandy 

sediments in Cape Howe Marine National Park. ............................................................ 80 

Figure 37. The introduced screw shell Maoricolpus roseus in high densities on 

deep soft sediments in Cape Howe Marine National Park. ............................................ 85 

Figure 38. An adult cat shark in sponges, sea whips and algae in the Cape Howe 

Marine National Park at about 30 m depth..................................................................... 89 

Figure 39. Finger sponge, feather stars, zooanthids and butteryfly perch 

Caesioperca lepidotera on subtidal reef on Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. 

Photo by Mark Norman Museum of Victoria................................................................... 91 

Figure 40. Location map of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary with bathymetry. 

Subtidal reef monitoring sites inside and outside the MS are shown, there are 

no intertidal monitoring sites. ......................................................................................... 93 

Figure 41. Bathymetry of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary ................................................... 94 

Figure 42. Geological and biotic significant sites near Beware Reef Marine 

Sanctuary. ..................................................................................................................... 94 

Figure 43. Superb feather hydroid Gymnangium superbum in Beware Reef 

Marine Sanctuary. Photo taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. ............. 95 

Figure 44. Banjo ray Trygonorrhina fasciata on subtidal reef in Beware Reef 

Marine Sanctuary. Photo taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. ............. 97 

Figure 45. Female herring cale Odax cyanomelas in Beware Reef Marine 

Sanctuary. Photo taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. ......................... 98 

ix



Figure 46. Rosy weedfish Heteroclinus roseus in the understory of bull kelp 

Ecklonia radiata canopy. Photo taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine 

Sanctuary. ..................................................................................................................... 98 

Figure 47. Invertebrate fauna of the subtidal reef in Beware Reef Marine 

Sanctuary: a) tent shell Astralium tentoriformis, b) elephant snail Scutus 

antipodes, c) gloomy octopus Octopus tetricus, d) purple urchin Heliocidaris 

erythrogramma, e) blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra and f) black sea urchin 

Centrostephanus rodgersii. Photos taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine 

Sanctuary. ................................................................................................................... 100 

Figure 48. Deep subtidal reef invertebrates in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary: a) 

ascidian Botrylloides perspicuus, b) feather star Cenolia trichoptera, c) 

southern jewel anemone Corynactis australis and d) basket star Conocladius 

australis on a sponge. Photos taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine 

Sanctuary. ................................................................................................................... 101 

Figure 49. Eastern temperate fish species on Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary: a) 

juvenile white-ear damsel fish Parma microlepis, and b) one-spot puller 

Chromis hypsilepis. Photos taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine 

Sanctuary. ................................................................................................................... 102 

Figure 50. School of butterfly perch Caesioperca lepidoptera in Beware Reef 

Marine Sanctuary. Photo by Mark Norman, Museum of Victoria .................................. 102 

Figure 51. Lions's mane jellyfish Cyanea capillata in the open water off Beware 

Reef Marine Sanctuary. Photo by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. ............ 103 

Figure 52. An Australian fur seal Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus in Beware Reef 

Marine Sanctuary. Photo by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. ..................... 105 

Figure 53. Thornfish Bovichtus angustifrons in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary ................ 107 

Figure 54. Eastern red sea fan Mopsella sp. in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. 

Photo taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. ......................................... 109 

Figure 55. Southern peacock weed Distromium flabellatum in Beware Reef 

Marine Sanctuary. Photo taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. ........... 111 

Figure 56. Crowned nudibranch Polycera capensis in Beware Reef Marine 

Sanctuary. Photo taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. ....................... 112 

Figure 57. Green moray eel Gymnothorax prasinus in Beware Reef Marine 

Sanctuary. Photo taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. ....................... 118 

x



TABLES 

Table 1. Physical attributes of the Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park. .................... 10 

Table 2. Summary of the number of species in major biotic groups from surveys 

in Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park. ................................................................ 14 

Table 3. Conservation listed fish records from Wilsons Promontory Marine 

National Park and surrounds. ........................................................................................ 21 

Table 4. Conservation listed shorebird and seabird records from Wilsons 

Promontory Marine National Park and surrounds. ......................................................... 22 

Table 5. Conservation listed marine mammal and reptile records from Wilsons 

Promontory Marine National Park and surrounds. ......................................................... 23 

Table 6. Marine invertebrates presumed to be endemic to the Wilsons 

Promontory Marine National Park (O'Hara and Barmby 2000; O'Hara 2002) ................. 23 

Table 7. Marine species at their distribution limits in Wilsons Promontory Marine 

National Park (O'Hara 2002). ......................................................................................... 24 

Table 8. Reef fishes of conservation concern recorded near Squeaky Beach, 

Norman Bay and Oberon Bay (Colton and Swearer, 2009; 2010). Species in 

bold are targeted for fishing outside MPAs. ................................................................... 26 

Table 9. Ongoing Research Partner Panel (and RPP-like) research projects and 

monitoring programs implemented in partnership with, or commissioned by, 

Parks Victoria relevant to Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park. ........................... 30 

Table 10. Physical attributes of the Ninety Mile Beach Marine National Park. ..................... 34 

Table 11. Conservation listed shorebird and seabird records from Ninety Mile 

Beach Marine National Park and surrounds................................................................... 39 

Table 12. Conservation listed marine mammal and reptile records from Ninety 

Mile Beach Marine National Park and surrounds. .......................................................... 40 

Table 13. Ongoing Research Partner Panel (and RPP-like) research projects 

implemented in partnership with, or commissioned by, Parks Victoria relevant 

to Ninety Mile Beach Marine National Park. ................................................................... 43 

Table 14. Physical attributes of the Point Hicks Marine National Park................................. 47 


in Point Hicks Marine National Park. .............................................................................. 52 

Table 16. Conservation listed fish records from Point Hicks Marine National Park 

and surrounds. .............................................................................................................. 58 

Table 17. Conservation listed shorebird and seabirds records from Point Hicks 

Marine National Park and surrounds.............................................................................. 59 

Table 18. Conservation listed marine mammal and reptile records from Point 

Hicks Marine National Park and surrounds. ................................................................... 60 

Table 19. Marine species at their distribution limits in Point Hicks Marine National 

Park (O'Hara 2002). ....................................................................................................... 61 



Parks Victoria relevant to Point Hicks Marine National Park. ......................................... 65 

Table 21. Physical attributes of the Cape Howe Marine National Park. ............................... 71 


in Cape Howe Marine National Park. ............................................................................. 76 

Table 23. Conservation listed shorebird and seabird records from Cape Howe 

Marine National Park and surrounds. ............................................................................. 81 

Table 24. Conservation listed marine mammal and reptile records from Cape 

Howe Marine National Park and surrounds. ................................................................... 82 

Table 25. Marine species at their distribution limits in Cape Howe Marine 

National Park (O'Hara and Barmby 2000; O’Hara and Poore 2000). ............................. 83 

Table 26. Fish species of conservation concern because of their limited 

statewide distribution and abundance recorded at Cape Howe and Gabo 

Island (Colton and Swearer 2009). Species in bold are targeted for fishing. .................. 84 

xi





Parks Victoria relevant to Cape Howe Marine National Park. ........................................ 87 

Table 28. Physical attributes of the Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. .................................. 92 

Table 29. Summary of the number of species in major biotic groups found in 

Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. .................................................................................... 95 

Table 30. Conservation listed shorebird and seabirds records from Beware Reef 

Marine Sanctuary and surrounds. ................................................................................ 104 

Table 31. Threatened marine mammal and reptile records from Beware Reef 

Marine Sanctuary and surrounds. ................................................................................ 105 

Table 32. Marine species at their distribution limits in Beware Reef MS (O'Hara 

2002). .......................................................................................................................... 106 



Parks Victoria relevant to Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. .......................................... 110 

xii



ACRONYMS 

AME - Australian Marine Ecology 

C - listed under CAMBA 

CAMBA - Chinese Australia Migratory Bird Agreement 

CR - Critically Endangered 

CSIRO - Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation 

DPI - Department of Primary Industries 

DSE - Department of Sustainability & Environment 

EAC - East Australian Current 

ECC – Environment Conservation Council 

EN - Endangered 

EPBC - Environment Protection Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999 

FFG - Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act 1988 

GIS - Geographic Information System 

J - listed under JAMBA 

JAMBA - Japan Australia Migratory Bird Agreement 

IMCRA - Integrated Marine and Coastal Regionalisation of Australia 

IRMP - Intertidal Reef Monitoring Program 

IUCN - International Union for Conservation of Nature 

L - listed under FFG 

LCC - Land Conservation Council 

LiDAR - Light Detection And Ranging 

MAFRI - Marine & Freshwater Research Institute, 

MAVRIC - Monitoring and Assessment of Victoria’s Rocky Intertidal reefs 

MNP - Marine National Park 

MNVS - Marine Natural Values Study 

MPA - Marine Protected Area 

MS - Marine Sanctuary 

MV - Museum Victoria 

NT - Near Threatened 

PE – presumed to be at or near eastern limit in MPA 

PIRVic - Primary Industries Research Victoria 

PN – presumed to be at or near northern limit in MPA 

PW – presumed to be at or near western limit in MPA 

PV Parks Victoria 

RE – recorded to be at eastern limit in MPA 

RPP – Research Partners Panel 

RW – recorded to be at western limit in MPA 

ROV - remote operated vehicle 

SRMP - Subtidal Reef Monitoring Program 

VU - Vulnerable 

VROTS - Victorian Rare or Threatened Species 

xiii



1 Introduction 

1.1 Victoria’s Marine Protected Areas 

Victoria’s marine environment has been classified into five bioregions (Otway, Central 

Victoria, Flinders, Twofold Shelf and Victorian Embayments (Figure 1, IMCRA 2006). Within 

each marine bioregion there is a variety of distinct and unique habitats and biological 

communities, structured by a combination of physical, chemical and biological processes 

(Parks Victoria 2003). These bioregions reflect how physical processes in particular have 

influenced the distribution of ecosystems and biodiversity over scales of 100 – 1000 km 

(mesoscales). General habitats include intertidal rocky reefs, shallow rocky reefs, deep rocky 

reefs, pelagic waters, intertidal sandy (beaches) and muddy (mudflats) soft sediments and 

subtidal sandy and muddy soft sediments. Habitats are also formed by certain types of plant 

and animal species. Biological habitats include kelp forests on shallow rocky reefs, sponge 

and coral gardens on deep rocky reefs, seagrass on sandy sediments and rocky reefs, and 

mangrove and saltmarsh on sheltered intertidal sediments. The flora and fauna is generally 

quite different between these habitat types. The types of species and their abundances in 

any particular habitat can vary along more subtle environmental gradients, particularly 

gradients in wave exposure, depth and light availability (Parks Victoria 2003). 

Figure 1. Locations of IMCRA mesoscale (i.e. 100-1000km) bioregions (IMCRA 2006 v4) 

Victoria’s system of Marine National Parks (MNPs) and Marine Sanctuaries (MSs) was 

established under the National Parks Act (1975) and gazetted in November 2002 (Power 

and Boxshall 2007). It was established to conserve and protect the diversity of Victoria’s 

marine environment, its ecological processes, habitats and associated flora and fauna 

(Parks Victoria 2003). 

Sites for the Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) were chosen to be representative of the 

diversity of Victoria’s marine environment (ECC 2000) and the 24 parks are spread across 

Victoria’s five marine bioregions (Figure 1). More than one park and/or sanctuary was 

usually selected within each bioregion, to reflect as far as possible the range of habitats and 

biological communities within each, to incorporate the variability within habitats, and to 

insure against loss due to unforeseen or future catastrophic events (Parks Victoria 2003). 

These parks and sanctuaries now protect 5.3 % of Victoria's coastal waters, incorporating 

important marine habitats and species, significant natural features, cultural heritage and 

aesthetic values (Parks Victoria 2003). The MPAs are highly protected areas where no 

fishing, extractive or damaging activities are allowed but to which access is unrestricted. 

Recreation, tourism, education and research are encouraged and properly managed (Power 

and Boxshall 2007). MPAs are generally classified Category II (MNP) and III (MS) under the 

1



International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) classification (Power and Boxshall 

2007); the exceptions are Point Cooke, Ricketts Point and Beware Reef MSs which are all 

IUCN Category II. There are also Marine Parks, Marine Reserves, and Marine and Coastal 

Parks which have the primary objective of conservation but allow a larger range of 

ecologically sustainable uses than MNPs or MSs (Parks Victoria 2003). 

1.2 Purpose of Report 

Since declaration of Victoria’s system of MPAs and release of the first Marine Natural Values 

Study (MNVS) in September 2003 (Plummer et al. 2003) there have been ongoing 

monitoring and research programs aiming to increase our knowledge about the MPAs. 

Programs commissioned by Parks Victoria include habitat mapping, intertidal and subtidal 

reef monitoring, statewide and individual MPA risk assessment as well as various research 

projects (reports from which are available online at http://www.parkweb.vic.gov.au). These 

programs have considerably increased our knowledge of the habitats, and flora and fauna of 

Victoria’s 13 MNPs and 11 MSs. The primary aim of this report is to add this new knowledge 

to the identification and description of the natural values associated with Victoria’s MPAs. 

Natural values are defined as the parts of the environment valued by people and are 

considered to be a proxy for biodiversity and natural processes. They are also the basis of 

Parks Victoria’s Adaptive Management Framework(Power and Boxshall 2007). The natural 

values of Victoria’s MPA system incorporate qualities such as distinct physical environments 

and processes, the diversity and arrangement of marine habitats, ecological communities 

(including their diversity, richness and important biological processes) as well as species of 

particular conservation significance (Power and Boxshall 2007). 

This report updates the first MNVS (Plummer et al. 2003) for the Flinders and Twofold Shelf 

bioregions and is one of a series of four reports covering Victoria’s MPAs. It aims to give a 

comprehensive overview of the important natural values of each MPA that will assist in park 

management within the region. The report will also provide a resource for education and 

public recognition of the natural values of the MPAs in the Flinders and Twofold Shelf 

bioregions. 

1.3 Structure 

This report firstly describes the Flinders and Twofold Shelf bioregions and the MPAs within 

that bioregion. This report then identifies and describes the specific natural values on a park 

by park basis, including maps of the available spatial data. Research undertaken within each 

MPA is identified and the findings of that research in relation to the parks’ natural values are 

discussed. The report also discusses the major threats to the natural values as identified by 

a comprehensive risk assessment conducted by Carey et al. (2007a; 2007b). Knowledge 

gaps for each MPA are identified and highlighted. Marine Parks, Reserves and Marine and 

Coastal Parksare not specifically addressed in this report. 

1.4 Methods 

The information within the original MNVS (Plummer et al. 2003) was used as a starting point 

and guide for this report. Bioregional scale physical, habitat and biota assemblage 

characteristics were derived from mostly pre-declaration sources (i.e. LCC 1993; ECC 2000; 

Ferns and Hough 2000; IMCRA 2006). Technical reports and papers from the Parks Victoria 

MPA monitoring and research programs and other research conducted since the first natural 

values report were reviewed and incorporated. The aim was to achieve consistency in the 

basic level of information presented for each MPA and to highlight knowledge gaps. 

2



This report used existing spatial data in a geographic information system (GIS) format to 

assist in determining the physical and biological characteristics of natural values for each 

MPA. The available spatial layers included: 

• MNP and MS boundary (for calculating areas of MPAs; Parks Victoria, PV); 

• Victorian Coastline at 1:25,000 (for calculating shoreline lengths; Department of 

Sustainability & Environment, DSE); 

• Marine substrata for Victoria’s open coast (derived from Landsat imagery and hydroacoustic 

mapping, Marine & Freshwater Research Institute, MAFRI and CSIRO); 

• Marine substrata for shallow marine habitats (derived from aerial photography and 

Landsat imagery and video ground truthing; Primary Industries Research Victoria, 

PIRVic for PV); 

• Marine substrata and habitats in Victoria MNPs (from hydro-acoustic mapping, video 

ground truthing and modelling as part of a joint venture between Parks Victoria and 

the Coastal CRC; involving the University of Western Australia, Fugro Pty Ltd and 

Deakin University); 

• Bathymetry for Bass Strait (1:250,000) and bays and inlets (1:25,000) (MAFRI 

database and sourced from Victorian Channel Authority and Australian Hydrographic 

Office databases); 

• Detailed bathymetry for shallow waters from Light Detection And Ranging (LiDAR) 

(DSE); 

• Shoreline coastal type (Oil Spill Response Atlas – MAFRI); 

• Vicmap watercourse 1:25000 (used to identify fresh water sources; metadata at 

http://www.giconnections.vic.gov.au/content/vicgdd/record/ANZVI0803002490.htm); 

• Shorebird habitats and roosts (Oil Spill Response Atlas and DSE); 

• Victorian Threatened Fauna database point records (DSE); 

• Atlas of Victorian Wildlife point records (DSE); and 

• Sites of Geological and Geomorphological Sites of Significance (Minerals and 

Petroleum Victoria). 

In addition to these spatial databases, a number of digital datasets provided quantitative and 

descriptive information about habitats and species in and around the MNPs and MSs. The 

primary datasets used in this study: 

• Subtidal Marine Monitoring Program (SRMP, Australian Marine Ecology, for PV). 

• Sea Search Community Based Monitoring Program (PV) 

• Monitoring and Assessment of Victoria’s Rocky Reefs (Monitoring and Assessment 

of Victoria’s Rocky Intertidal reefs, MAVRIC, Museum Victoria) 

The assessment of marine habitat distribution included new shallow (< 10 m) and deeper 

subtidal mapping of bathymetry, substrates and biota as well as previous mapping. Not all 

MPAs had the same data from monitoring, survey or research so a tiered approach was 

taken, especially with the substrate and habitat descriptions and maps. All MPAs have broad 

level (i.e. 1:250,000 scale) bathymetry and substrate mapping. All MPAs also have high 

resolution bathymetric mapping in shallow waters derived from aerial LiDAR surveys. Some 

MPAs have high resolution hydroacoustic mapping that, with video ground truthing, allows 

the bathymetry and substrate to be mapped and modelled respectivelyat finer scales. This 

substrate mapping and modelling can be extended to broad habitat mapping for some 

MPAs. Descriptions of marine ecological communities were derived from new monitoring 

and mapping reports as these generally had a greater level of detail and more sites than 

previous research. 

Species of conservation significance, particularly species distribution information, were 

derived from new research, monitoring and mapping reports. Species from the Atlas of 

Victorian Wildlife recorded near and within MPAs were included in the lists of species of 

conservation significance for each MPA. Constraints were made on the database searches 

3



to ensure all records were for animals in the marine habitats in or near (i.e. within 5 km) 

individual MPAs. Aall animals not found below the high water limit were excluded. Records 

of dead animals were not included in this report. 

Threats to natural values were derived from lists of hazards and associated risks in Carey et 

al. (2007b). These were the result of a statewide consultative process to identify threats to 

MPAs. Through public and agency workshops, the natural values in individual MPAs and the 

threats that could affect them over the next 10 years were identified. This list of hazards was 

then ranked (low, medium, high and extreme) by the risk posed by each hazard (Carey et al. 

2007b). The threats listed in this report are the hazards identified as having an extreme risk. 

The outputs from the workshops have informed Parks Victoria in their management planning 

process and prioritisation of research gaps and on ground works. 

Data gaps were identified for each MPA as existing information was reviewed. 

Results from Parks Victoria monitoring and research programs and other databases were 

used to produce a non-comprehensive checklist of species known to be part of the intertidal 

and subtidal reef flora and fauna in MPAs in the Flinders and Twofold Shelf bioregions Port 

(Appendix 1). 

1.5 Flinders and Twofold Shelf Bioregions 

Figure 2. Eastern Victoria with IMCRA mesoscale bioregions, Marine National Parks and Marine 

Sanctuaries. 

The Flinders bioregion encompasses Wilsons Promontory and the eastern Bass Strait 

islands of the Furneaux Group in Tasmania (Figure 1, IMCRA 2006). In Victoria, it contains 

one MNP, Wilsons Promontory, and no Marine Sanctuaries (Figure 2). It has a cold 

temperate climate. It has less exposure to swells compared with the other bioregions (Parks 

4



Victoria 2003). However, this region is subject to high current flows and high winds, with 

some influences from local and regional upwellings and current boundaries (e.g. East 

Australian Current, EAC). The winds can create substantial surface waves, affect local 

currents and cause turbidity (Parks Victoria 2003). Wave exposure is moderate but higher on 

the western side of Wilsons Promontory than on the eastern side. The tidal range is 

macrotidal. The coastline is predominantly granite headlands and promontories with long 

sandy beaches in between. Shores plunge steeply onto a sandy sea floor (IMCRA 2006). 

The reefs (Figure 3) consist of a variety of forms: smooth, featureless reef; deep vertical 

walls; fissures and pinnacles; boulder fields (with boulders ranging from 1 to 5 m in size) 

creating extensive overhang and cavern spaces; and rubble beds (0.1–1 m cobble and 

boulders) (Parks Victoria 2003). There are extensive deepwater and shallow sandy beds. 

The biota is cool temperate with low numbers of warm-temperate species that are commonly 

found in New South Wales (IMCRA 2006). Although the dominant biota of this region 

consists of a mixture of species from all of the adjacent biogeographical provinces, the 

eastern and southern provincial species appear to be more prevalent than the western 

province species (Parks Victoria 2003). 

Figure 3. Algal beds on subtidal reef at Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park in the Flinders 

bioregion 

The Twofold Shelf bioregion extends east of Wilsons Promontory (including the Kent Group 

Islands in Tasmania) to Tathra in southern New South Wales (Figure 1, IMCRA 2006). 

Within Victorian waters there are three MNPs, Ninety Mile Beach, Point Hicks and Cape 

Howe, and one MS, Beware Reef (Figure 2). Its climate is moist cool temperate. Water 

temperatures are generally warmer than elsewhere on the Victorian open coast due to the 

influence of the EAC (Parks Victoria 2003). These waters are also seasonally and 

periodically influenced by the boundary of the EAC with the more southern subtropical 

convergence (Harris et al. 1987). The continental slope is quite close to the far eastern 

Victorian shore and cold-water upwellings are frequent (Parks Victoria 2003). These 

upwellings provide nutrients to inshore ecosystems, contributing to higher productivity. The 

continental shelf becomes broader and shallower in the west. Wave energy in this bioregion 

5



is relatively low. The coastline is dominated by dunes and sandy shorelines, with granite 

outcrops (IMCRA 2006). There are extensive areas of inshore and offshore sandy soft 

sediments. This region also has occasional strips of low-relief calcarenite reef immediately 

behind the surf zone (7 – 25 m deep) (Parks Victoria 2003). Reefs are generally dominated 

by warm temperate species. The fauna is characterised by distinctive assemblages of reef 

fish, echinoderms, gastropods and bivalves. This bioregion is notable for the presence of 

species that also occur along the Southern NSW coast but not in central or western Victorian 

waters (IMCRA 2006). One such species is the large sea urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii, 

which removes macroalgae from shallow reefs creating a coralline algal encrusted barrens 

habitat on some reefs in the eastern part of the bioregion (Edmunds et al. 2007). 

1.6 Other Victorian Bioregions 

The Otway Marine bioregion extends from Cape Jaffa in South Australia to Apollo Bay and 

the western Bass Strait islands such as King Island (Figure 1, IMCRA 2006). In Victoria it 

contains two MNPs, Discovery Bay and Twelve Apostles, and two MSs, Merri and The 

Arches. It has a cool temperate climate and waters, with localised coastal upwellings in the 

west. The sea temperature is generally 2 – 3 °C lower than in the other Victorian bioregions 

(Parks Victoria 2003).The tidal range is microtidal (0.8 to 1.2 m). It is subject to the greatest 

wave action in Victoria, being nearly continuously subjected to large predominantly southwest 

swells generated in the Southern Ocean (Parks Victoria 2003). Its high energy 

coastline has headlands of volcanic outcrops and limestone cliffs. Sandy beaches and dunes 

are common in the western region and cliffed shorelines are common elsewhere (IMCRA 

2006). Marine habitats also include rocky rubble, steep drop-offs at the base of cliffs, sandy 

soft sediments and extensive offshore reefs (Parks Victoria 2003). Seagrass beds occur in 

the lee of reefs (IMCRA 2006). The biota of this region consists predominantly of 

cosmopolitan, southern temperate and western temperate species that are well adapted to 

the colder, rough water conditions (Parks Victoria 2003). For many macroalgal communities, 

this region forms the westward limit of a number of species (IMCRA 2006). Plant species 

diversity is very high, particularly among the red algae. Fish and plant species-richness are 

both high compared to other South Australian, Victorian and Tasmanian regions (IMCRA 

2006). 

The Central Victorian bioregion extends from Apollo Bay to Cape Liptrap, it does not include 

Port Phillip Bay and Western Port, which are included in the Victorian Embayments 

bioregion (IMCRA 2006). Within the Central Victoria bioregion, there are two MNPs, Point 

Addis and Bunurong, and five MSs, Marengo Reef, Eagle Rock, Point Danger, Barwon Bluff 

and Mushroom Reef. It has a temperate climate with moist winters and warm summers. The 

shore is characterised by cliffs with sandy beaches and has the western-most occurrence of 

granites in its eastern region. Offshore gradients are steep in the east to very steep in the 

west (IMCRA 2006). It is relatively exposed to swells and weather from the south-west, but 

less so than the Otway bioregion (Parks Victoria 2003). Sea surface temperatures are 

representative of Bass Strait waters and wave energy is moderate (IMCRA 2006). Tides 

change from twice to four times a day from west to east (IMCRA 2006). The habitats include 

shallow near-shore reefs and sandy beaches along with large areas of subtidal sandy 

sediment and patchy, low profile subtidal reef. Reefs can be limestone, basalt, granite or 

mudstone (Parks Victoria 2003). The limestone reefs are usually offshore from a surf beach 

and readily erode to provide a complex habitat for a diverse array of macroalgae, sponges, 

bryozoans, corals and ascidians as well as mobile crevice dwellers (Parks Victoria 2003). 

The dominant biota of this region consists of a diverse mixture of species from all of the 

adjacent biogeographical provinces – western, eastern and southern temperate species – in 

addition to cosmopolitan southern Australian species (Parks Victoria 2003). 

6



The Victorian Embayment bioregion is a discontinuous region that contains the major 

embayments, inlets and some of the major estuaries along the Victorian coast (Figure 1, 

IMCRA 2006). Within the bioregion, there are five MNPs, Port Phillip Heads in Port Phillip 

Bay, Yaringa, French Island, Churchill Island in Western Port, and Corner Inlet. Port Phillip 

Heads MNP is discontinuous and consists of six sites in the southern region of Port Phillip 

Bay. Three MSs, Point Cooke, Jawbone and Ricketts Point in Port Phillip Bay, also occur in 

the bioregion. The climate is moist temperate, with a pronounced west to east variation in 

catchment run off and seasonality. Variations in salinity and temperature are much higher 

than on the open coast (Parks Victoria 2003). The embayments have a variety of forms from 

drowned river valleys to impounded drainage behind dune barrier systems, their maximum 

depth is generally less than 20 m, but reaches depths of approximately 50 m in Port Phillip 

Heads. They have low energy coastlines with large tides, influencing the extensive areas of 

subtidal and intertidal sediments. Rock outcrops are limited mainly to the margins (IMCRA 

2006). Some shallow reef areas are present in Port Phillip and Western Port (Parks Victoria 

2003). The biota of the Victorian embayments include a diverse range of biotic assemblages 

found in estuarine and open coast environments depending on their morphological and 

hydrological characteristics (Parks Victoria 2003; IMCRA 2006). Port Phillip Bay is a marine 

embayment fringed by seagrass beds, rocky reefs and sandy beaches. The benthic 

assemblages in the muddy central region are distinct from those in the sand to the west and 

east. Western Port Bay and Corner Inlet are large muddy estuaries with extensive mudflats, 

mangroves, saltmarshes and seagrass beds (IMCRA 2006). 

Figure 4. A common species in the park: butterfly perch Caesioperca lepidoptera at Wilsons 

Promontory Marine National Park. 

7



2 Marine National Parks 

2.1 Wilsons Promontory MNP – Flinders Bioregion 

Wilsons Promontory MNP is the only Marine National Park in the Flinders bioregion, which 

also contains Wilsons Promontory Marine Park and Marine Reserve. Wilsons Promontory 

MNP is approximately 220 km south-east of Melbourne and surrounds the southernmost tip 

of Wilsons Promontory National Park. It extends offshore from high water mark along 44.6 

km of coastline from the southern end of Norman Bay to Cape Wellington, and offshore to 

within 300 m of the Glennie Group of islands (Figure 6). The MNP surrounds the Anser 

Group of islands (Anser, Wattle and Kanowna Islands and Anderson Islets, part of Wilsons 

Promontory National Park) to the mean high water mark along 13.3 km of island coastline 

(Parks Victoria 2006g). The MNP adjoins Wilsons Promontory Marine Park which extends 

north along the west coast of Wilsons Promontory from Norman Bay. The Glennie Group of 

islands is surrounded by the Wilsons Promontory Marine Reserve and adjoins the MNP. The 

coastal water north of Cape Wellington along the east coast of Wilsons Promontory is also 

part of the Wilsons Promontory Marine Reserve and adjoins the MNP. 

Aboriginal tradition indicates that the Wilsons Promontory MNP is part of the sacred Country 

known as Yiruk for the Gunai/Kurnai people and Wamoom for the Boon Wurrung people 

(Parks Victoria 2006f). 

Important natural values of Wilsons Promontory MNP are its biological communities with 

distinct biogeographic patterns, including shallow subtidal reefs, deep subtidal reefs, 

intertidal rocky shores, sandy beaches, seagrass, subtidal soft substrates and expansive 

areas of open water (Parks Victoria 2006g). It has a wide range of habitat types, from low to 

high wave exposure. It has unusual granite habitats, with extensive heavy reefs with smooth 

surfaces, boulders and rubble and low profile reefs (Carey et al. 2007b). Its deep heavy 

reefs have a dense cover of epifauna, especially sponges, stalked ascidians and sea whips, 

and abundant fish life (Edmunds et al. 2009). Its soft sediment has diverse biotic 

assemblages. In some sheltered bays there are significant seagrass beds (e.g. Amphibolis 

and Halophila in Waterloo Bay, Heterozostera in Oberon Bay). Two important macroalgal 

communities have been identified, a Phyllospora-Ecklonia dominated macroalgal 

community, with fleshy red algae and some other brown species abundant, and a 

Phyllospora dominated macroalgal community, with Ecklonia and encrusting corallines 

abundant (Edmunds et al. 2007). The invertebrate communities generally have very 

abundant urchins Heliocidaris erythrogramma, blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra and feather 

stars Cenolia trichoptera. Two distinct invertebrate communities have been recognised, the 

south east invertebrate community typically has the seastar Nectria macrobranchia 

(Edmunds et al. 2007). The north west invertebrate community typically has the seastars 

Patiriella brevispina and P. vernicina (Edmunds et al. 2007). Wilsons Promontory MNP is 

considered to have relatively high species richness and high diversity indices along with 

higher than average abundances for most fish species compared to other areas in central 

Victoria (Edmunds et al. 2000). The fish communities are usually dominated by four species, 

the barber perch Casioperca rasor, blue-throated wrasse Notolabrus tetricus, purple wrasse 

N. fucicola, long-finned pike Dinolestes lewini and herring cale Odax cyanomelax. Fish 

communities include a western and eastern fish community, distinguished by the dominance 

of herring cale in the former (Edmunds et al. 2007). 

Wilsons Promontory MNP is a nationally significant area for recovery of great white shark, 

Carcharodon carcharias, populations (Carey et al. 2007b). Wilsons Promontory MNP and 

the islands surrounded by the MNP provide important feeding and roosting habitat for 

several threatened bird species such as the hooded plover Thinornis rubricollis, whitebellied 

sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster and Caspian tern Hydroprogne caspia which are listed 

8



under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee (FFG) Act (1998). The MNP protects feeding areas 

for species of national environmental significance under the Commonwealth Environment 

Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act (1999) and species that are listed 

under the China–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (CAMBA) and the Japan–Australia 

Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA) (Parks Victoria 2006g). The islands, particularly 

Kanowna in the Anser Group, are breeding colonies of little penguins Eudyptula minor, 

Australian fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus, and a small colony of New Zealand fur 

seals Arctophoca forsteri (Carey et al. 2007b). The conservation listed southern right 

Eubalaena australis and humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae, killer whale Orcinus 

orca and leatherback Dermochelys coriacea and green turtles Chelonia mydas use the MNP 

waters. The bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncates, common dolphin Delphinus delphis and 

leopard seal Hydrurga leptonyx have been observed in the waters in and around the park. 

One hundred and twenty-six species of marine flora and fauna are believed to be at their 

eastern or western distributional limits within the planning area. 

Serious threats to the Wilsons Promontory MNP include limited ecological knowledge of 

important processes. Serious threats to the Wilsons Promontory MNP include limited 

ecological knowledge of important processes. Invasive marine pests; nutrients from sewage; 

propeller scour; major oil spills; boat disturbance of seal colonies; inadequate management; 

and climate change all pose serious threats to the integrity of the MNP (Carey et al. 2007b). 

Measures to address or minimise these threats form part of the management plan for 

Wilsons Promontory MNP (Parks Victoria 2006g). Ongoing intertidal and subtidal reef 

monitoring, and specific research aims to increase ecological knowledge about the natural 

values of, and threats to Wilsons Promontory MNP. 

2.1.1 PHYSICAL PARAMETERS & PROCESSES 

Wilsons Promontory MNP is 15,580 hectares in size which makes it the largest of the 24 

Marine National Parks and Sanctuaries in Victoria (Figure 6, Table 1). Its shoreline geology 

is dominated by a massif of Devonian granite forming the southern part of the Promontory 

itself. The area includes numerous geological and landform features of national geological 

and geomorphological significance (Figure 8, Bird 1993). Within the MNP, Cleft Island in the 

Anser Group is listed as having State geological significance. Just outside the MNP the 

numerous sheets of granites at Norman Point are also listed while the sea caves of Great 

Glennie Island are of regional significance. Wilsons Promontory’s smooth-walled granite 

cliffs plunge abruptly to the sea-floor and its sandy beaches slope gradually to depths of 30 

to 70 m within 3 km offshore (Figure 6). Over 90 % of the MNP is > 20 m depth (Table 1). 

Water depth reaches 30 m around many headlands (Oberon Point to South East Point), and 

75 m further offshore between the Anser Group and Forty Foot Rocks (Parks Victoria 

2006g). The MNP is less exposed to swells than other parts of the Victorian coast, but is 

subject to strong current flows and high winds (Parks Victoria 2006g). These winds can 

create substantial surface waves, affect local currents and cause turbidity. Strong and 

complex tidal patterns occur in the MNP (Parks Victoria 2006g). The western coast of the 

MNP is generally subject to a south-west swell, and the eastern coast to a south-east swell 

(Parks Victoria 2006g). The only major current in the MNP area is the very weak termination 

of the East Australian Current (Parks Victoria 2006g). Wilsons Promontory is significant in 

that it marks the boundary between the warmer waters of the eastern Australian coast and 

the colder waters of central and western Victoria. Surface water temperatures cool and are 

comparable to sea temperatures in Tasmanian waters (Parks Victoria 2006g). The tides are 

mostly semi-diurnal with a marked diurnal inequality (i.e. two low tides of different height, 

and two high tides of different height, within a 24-hour period) (Parks Victoria 2006g). 

Numerous small estuaries run directly into the MNP (Table 1). 

9



Table 1. Physical attributes of the Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park. 

Park Name 

Wilsons Promontory 

Conservation status 

Marine National Park 

Biophysical Region 

Flinders 

Size 15580 ha (ranked 1 st of 24) 

Length of coastline 

~ 44.6 km 

Shoreline geology 

granite 

Area with depth: 

Less than 10m 575 ha 

Comprising:



Figure 6. Location map of Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park with high resolution and 

1:250,000 bathymetry. Subtidal reef monitoring sites inside and outside the MNP are shown, there are 

no intertidal monitoring sites. 

11



2.1.2 MARINE HABITAT DISTRIBUTION 

Mapping of habitats is important for understanding and communicating the distribution of 

natural values within Marine National Parks and Sanctuaries, particularly as the marine 

environment is not as easily visualised as the terrestrial environment (Parks Victoria 2003). 

For management purposes, knowledge of the distribution and extent of habitats is required 

to more effectively target management activities, including emergency response, monitoring 

and research. Mapping of marine habitats provides a baseline inventory, allows the 

identification of suitable monitoring sites and possible tracking of environmental change, as 

well as identifying areas vulnerable to particular threats or suitable for recreational activities. 

The main habitats present in Wilsons Promontory MNP include some intertidal soft sediment 

and reef, extensive subtidal soft sediment and reef, and open ocean (Figure 8). LiDAR 

mapping of the coastline has been done but it is limited by depth to shallow habitats in 

Oberon and Norman Bays on the west side of Wilsons Promontory MNP, in Waterloo Bay on 

the east side of the park and some areas around the tip of Wilsons Promontory (Figure 6). 

This represents a very small proportion of the park, the surveys found heavy reef with some 

low profile reef. No modelling of habitats has been done, so unlike other parks, we do not 

have a good understanding of the distribution and extent of basic habitats within the MNP. 

The majority of the Wilsons Promontory MNP substrate has been mapped as soft sediment, 

but this may change with additional more detailed acoustic mapping. The subtidal sand 

plains extend to at least 20 m depth and are composed of both coarse and fine calcarenite 

sediments Plummer et al. (2003). 

Figure 7. Crayweed Phyllospora comosa in Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park 

12



Figure 8. Substrate and biota mapping of Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park. 

13



2.1.3 MARINE ECOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES 

General 

Since the first natural values report by Plummer et al. (2003) there have been several 

monitoring, mapping surveys and research projects conducted in Wilsons Promontory MNP 

(Edmunds et al. 2007; Edmunds et al. 2009). The new data for fish abundances, 

distributions or interactions is generally limited to shallow subtidal reef habitats (Colton and 

Swearer 2009; Colton and Swearer 2010), with some research focussing on deeper reefs 

(Edmunds et al. 2009). Important locations for some birds and mammals are shown in 

Figure 8. Surveys in the MNP found red algae dominate the diversity of macrophytes, 

gastropods and echinoderms the invertebrates and fish the vertebrates in Wilsons 

Promontory MNP (Table 2, Appendix 1). There is no new information on the ecological 

communities of sandy beaches and intertidal soft sediments and there is presently no 

information available for water column assemblages. 

Table 2. Summary of the number of species in major biotic groups from surveys in Wilsons 

Promontory Marine National Park. 

Biotic group 

Number of species 

Macrophytes 145 

Green algae 16 

Brown algae 49 

Red algae 79 

Seagrasses 1 

Invertebrates 121 

Cnidaria 3 

Polychaetes 1 

Barnacles 5 

Decapod 

12 

Sea 

t 

spiders 3 

Chitons 6 

Gastropods 43 

Bivalves 5 

Sea slugs 7 

Cephalopods 2 

Echinoderms 38 

Vertebrates 195 

Ascidians 1 

Fish 137 

Birds 60 

Reptiles 3 

Mammals 9 

14



Intertidal 

Soft sediment 

The major areas of intertidal soft sediment in the MNP are in Oberon Bay and Waterloo Bay 

(Figure 8). Flora is restricted to macroalgae drift and macroalgal epiphytes. Beach-washed 

materials in sandy beach habitats are a significant source of food for scavenging birds, and 

contribute to the detrital cycle that nourishes many of the invertebrates, such as bivalves, 

living in the sand (Weston 2003; Parks Victoria 2006g). Norman Bay just north of the Park 

boundary may provide an indication of the likely fauna of similar areas within the MNP 

(Plummer et al. 2003). Norman Bay features fine intertidal sand and has impoverished 

infauna with fewer than ten macroinvertebrate species recorded. The soldier crab Mictyris 

longicarpus is the dominant invertebrate reaching very high densities at mid-tide level. The 

moon shells Polinices conicus and P. sordidus are also common (Plummer et al. 2003). 

No specific data for fish on intertidal sandy beaches in the MNP are available. As reported in 

Plummer et al. (2003) fish such as mullets, hardyheads and Australian salmon Arripis trutta 

are offshore of sandy beaches and usually mobile and transient. Hooded Plovers Thinornis 

rubricollis, endangered in Victoria, are thought to prefer wide beaches with beach-washed 

macroalgae like Oberon Bay (Weston 2003). 

Reef 

Intertidal reef biota is exposed to large changes in physical conditions such as temperature, 

water cover and wave exposure. Intertidal rocky reefs in the MNP are generally steep 

boulder-fields. There is great spatial and temporal variability in the life histories of the 

organisms and the environmental processes in intertidal reef habitats (Underwood and 

Chapman 2004). The recruitment of new biota onto the reef, from the plankton, strongly 

influences the ecological patterns for individual species and assemblages. Interactions 

between biota on the reef also influence biota distribution. Some mobile species of animals, 

particularly chitons, brittlestars, opisthobranchs and gastropods are predominately found 

under boulders (Underwood and Chapman 2004). Space on which to live and food itself are 

often resources in short supply on intertidal reefs (Underwood and Chapman 2004). There is 

no intertidal reef monitoring program in Wilsons Promontory MNP. 

The intertidal rocky shore at Wilsons Promontory MNP is not as diverse as some other 

locations in Victoria, probably due to the weathering patterns of the granite which result in 

less varied and protected microhabitats for invertebrates (Plummer et al. 2003). The steep 

aspect of the large granite boulders at Wilsons Promontory MNP mean that the intertidal 

zone is often only as wide as the tidal range which limits the substrate available (Plummer et 

al. 2003). 

Macroalgae and Aggregating Sessile Invertebrates 

Dominated by steep granite boulders, the intertidal rocky shore provides habitat for lichens, 

various brown algae, chitons and ascidians (Parks Victoria 2006g). Two lichens, Lichina 

confinis and the orange lichen Gasparinnia murorum (which is rare elsewhere in Victoria) 

dominate the region above the high water mark which is exposed to wind-blown spray and 

water droplets (Plummer et al. 2003). The mussel Brachidontes rostratus, the barnacles 

Chthamalus antennatus, Chamaesipho columna, Catomerus polymerus and 

Austromegabalanus nigrescens, the anemone Actinia tenebrosa and the globular 

cyanobacteria Rivularia firma are common in the mid-intertidal (Plummer et al. 2003). The 

small brown algae Splachnidium rugosum occurs only in summer when it can form a 

conspicuous band. Near the low water mark encrusting calcareous red algae, the ascidian 

Pyura stolonifera and medium sized brown algae Cystophora sp. can be common. Further 

down the shore the large brown algae Durvillaea potatorum is dominant at Wilsons 

Promontory MNP in comparison to other regions of Victoria. Also dominant in the surge zone 

15



exposed only by low spring tides are the browns Ecklonia radiata and Phyllospora comosa 

along with coralline red algae (Plummer et al. 2003). 

Mobile Invertebrates 

Above the high water mark in amongst the lichen are the dominant invertebrate periwinkle 

gastropods Nodilittorina unifasciata and N. praetermiss. They can only be found on Bass 

Strait coasts, including Tasmania (Plummer et al. 2003). In amongst the mussels and 

barnacles are the limpets Cellana solida, C. tramoserica, Notoacmea alta, N. mayi, N. 

petteridi, Patelloida victoriana, and P. latistrigata. The predatory gastropods Diacthais orbita 

and Lepsiella vinosa are also common and feed on the mussels and barnacles. Near lowwater 

mark the gastropods Diacthais orbita and Turbo undulatus, chitons of the genus 

Plaxiphora spp. and the limpet Patella peroni are common. Both the chitons and limpets 

extend into the surge zone. Shore birds such as the sooty oystercatcher frequent the 

intertidal reefs. 

Fish 

Intertidal fish communities have not been surveyed at Wilsons Promontory MNP. The steep 

rocky intertidal zone in the MNP supports only small and cryptic fishes such as the blenny 

Parablennius tasmanianus and dragonet Bovichtus angustifrons (Plummer et al. 2003). 

Subtidal 

Soft sediment 

There are some shallow and extensive deep sandy beds within the Wilsons Promontory 

MNP and these are predominantly inhabited by infauna (small crustaceans and worms that 

burrow into the sand) and bottom-dwelling skates and rays (Parks Victoria 2003). 

Drift algae and algae attached to shells and debris are common on soft sediments. Seagrass 

beds of Halophila ovalis and Heterozostera nigricaulis are restricted to sheltered waters, in 

particular Waterloo and Oberon Bays (Plummer et al. 2003). Cover of H. ovalis is generally 

sparse and is often replaced by H. nigricaulis in deeper waters. Extensive meadows of H. 

nigricaulis were recorded down to a depth of 21 m in Oberon Bay. Posidonia australis has 

been recorded just outside the Marine National Park in shallow water at Great Glennie Island 

and Norman Bay (Plummer et al. 2003). Seagrass can support numerous algal epiphytes, 

sessile invertebrates such as bryozoans, hydroids and sponges and mobile invertebrates 

such as molluscs, isopods, crabs (Figure 5) and amphipods. No specific seagrass surveys 

have been undertaken in the MNP. From Norman Bay just to the north of the Marine 

National Park at Wilsons Promontory, the unusual octocoral Pseudogorgia godeffroyi was 

recorded on two occasions at a depth of 13 m in seagrass communities. This species was 

previously only recorded between 30 - 64 m deep on sand swept by currents (Plummer et al. 

2003). A variety of fish have been recorded on seagrass and associated sand substrate 

including the southern goatfish Upeneichthys vlamingii, silverbelly Parequula melbournensis, 

wide-bodied pipefish Stigmatopora nigra, spotted pipefish S. argus, slender weed whiting 

Siphonognathus attenuatus, blue throated wrasse Notolabrus tetricus, gobies Nesogobius 

spp., weedfish Heteroclinus spp. and Cristiceps spp. and toothbrush leatherjackets 

Acanthaluteres vittiger (Plummer et al. 2003). 

The demersal fish fauna of subtidal soft sediment environments at Wilsons Promontory MNP 

are typical of much of the shallower parts of Bass Strait (Plummer et al. 2003). The most 

common benthic fish is the sparsely spotted stingaree Urolophus paucimaculatus, but other 

elasmobranches including Tasmanian numbfish Narcine tasmaniensis, banded stingaree 

Urolophus cruciatus, angel shark Squatina australis and shortnose sawshark Pristiophorus 

nudipinnis are also common. Boney fishes including sand flathead Platycephalus bassensis, 

16



silver trevally Pseudocaranx dentex, prickly toadfish Contusus brevicaudus and several 

leatherjackets are common (Plummer et al. 2003). 

Depth and sediment affect the distribution of benthic invertebrates along the Victorian coast. 

Coleman et al. (2007), and Heislers and Parry (2007) found that species richness was 

greater at 40 metres compared to 10 or 20 metres depth. Their coastal survey of benthic 

fauna included the benthos of Wilsons Promontory MNP. One transect off Oberon Bay on 

the west coast and one off Waterloo Bay on the east sampled the soft sediment with two 0.1 

m 2 grab samples in 10, 20 and 40 m of water depth. The grab samples contained between 

39 to 734 individuals and 16 to 71 species consisting mainly of crustaceans including 

amphipods, cumaceans, isopods and ostracods and polychaetes (Coleman et al. 2007; 

Heislers and Parry 2007). The sediment was generally fine sand with some medium sand 

(Heislers and Parry 2007). 

Reef 

Subtidal reefs and the assemblages associated with them are strongly influenced by the 

position of the reef, its orientation, slope, depth, exposure and topography (Connell 2007). 

These physical parameters influence key physical processes such as light, water flow and 

sedimentation, and biological processes such as foraging and recruitment (Connell 2007). 

Shallow subtidal reefs are often dominated by canopy forming algae. Deep reefs, where light 

penetration is limited, are often dominated by large sessile invertebrates such as massive 

sponges, whip corals, soft corals and colonial ascidians. Biotic assemblages can form 

habitat and food sources for invertebrates and fish. 

Flora 

Diversity and species composition varies with location within the Wilson Promontory MNP. 

Central Waterloo Bay on the east coast and other areas to the north-east of the MNP are 

identified as having high macrophyte species diversity and richness (Edmunds et al. 2000). 

The macrophyte population in the southern part of the MNP is of low diversity, predominantly 

because a dense canopy is comprised of only one to three species with a sparse 

understorey (Edmunds et al. 2000). These three species (Phyllospora comosa, Ecklonia 

radiata and Seirococcus axillaris; Figures 7 and 9) form distinct algal assemblages: a 

Phyllospora dominated, an Ecklonia-Seirococcus dominated (Figure 9); and mixed brown 

algae (Edmunds et al. 2003; Edmunds et al. 2007). The species richness and diversity of the 

macroalgal communities is lowest at the exposed western and south-western sites, where 

the canopy is predominantly Phyllospora with a reduced cover of understorey species 

(Edmunds et al. 2007). Relatively large variations in community structure were observed 

between surveys at Oberon Point, Roaring Meg Bight and Fenwick Point (Edmunds et al. 

2007). 

The Phyllospora dominated assemblage is the most common, present at all MNP sites 

(Edmunds et al. 2007). This assemblage consists of a canopy of predominantly Phyllospora 

comosa (> 30% cover) and a lesser proportion of Ecklonia radiata. The associated 

understorey has a sparse cover of thallose red algae, with much of the underlying rock 

covered by encrusting corallines. Common understorey species included Phacelocarpus 

peperocarpus, Plocamium angustum, P. dilatatum, Pterocladia lucida, Ballia callitricha, 

Haliptilon roseum and Melanthalia obtusata. At sites in the south-west of the MNP, South 

Norman Point, Oberon Point and Sea Eagle Bay, Phyllospora cover has increased since the 

inception of the monitoring program. Phyllospora has higher abundances, and Ecklonia 

proportionately less so, at the most exposed sites, particularly Sea Eagle Bay and West 

Landing. At slightly less exposed sites, Ecklonia has a greater proportion of cover in the 

canopy, particularly Oberon Point, East Landing and Fenwick Point (Edmunds et al. 2007). 

17



Figure 9. Seirococcus axillarus (centre of frame) with Ecklonia radiata in Wilsons Promontory Marine 

National Park. 

In the Ecklonia-Seirococcus dominated assemblage Ecklonia radiata and Seirococcus 

axillaris comprised the dominant proportion of the canopy cover at moderately sheltered 

Waterloo Bay (Edmunds et al. 2007). Phyllospora comosa was also present at this site, but 

contributed less than 20 % of the canopy cover. Thallose understorey algae were a greater 

component of the assemblage, with 50 – 70 % cover compared with less than 30 % cover for 

the Phyllospora assemblage. The understorey composition is similar to the Phyllospora 

assemblage but with reduced abundance of Ballia callitricha and the erect coralline Haliptilon 

roseum, with smaller brown species more prevalent. These brown species included 

Sargassum verruculosum, Sargassum sonderi, Perithalia cordata and Acrocarpia paniculata 

(Edmunds et al. 2007). 

At some sites, i.e. North Anser Island, East Landing, Fenwick Point and North Waterloo, 

both Ecklonia and Phyllospora are abundant (Edmunds et al. 2007). At Oberon Point and 

East Landing, there has been a gradual decrease in abundance of Ecklonia radiata since 

monitoring began in 1999. Seirococcus axillaris was generally most abundant at Oberon 

Point. An increase in the percent cover of Plocamium angustum has been observed at North 

Anser Island and Roaring Meg during recent surveys (Edmunds et al. 2007). 

The sessile flora and fauna of five sites on deep subtidal reefs within Wilsons Promontory 

MNP have been video surveyed by remote operated vehicle (ROV, Edmunds et al. 2009). 

Wilsons Promontory MNP deep reefs (up to 50 m) are smooth granite of varying steepness 

(Edmunds et al. 2009). Eight taxa of algae and 47 taxa of sessile invertebrates were 

identified (Appendix 1). The most abundant taxa, sponges, could not be identified beyond 

morphotype from the survey method used, but less than half of Victoria’s sponges have 

been formally described. The deep reefs in Wilsons Promontory MNP were characterized by 

the presence of gorgonian corals Pteronisis sp and Acabaria sp and the seawhip Primnoella 

australasia. The abundance of the sessile flora and fauna is variable (Edmunds et al. 2009; 

Figure 10). Particularly the deep turf cover, seawhip Primnoella australasia, encrusting 

18



ruffled grey sponge, encrusting sponges, gorgonian fan Pteronisis sp., thallose red algae, 

encrusting ruffled yellow sponge, unidentified aboresecent bryozoans, lace bryozoans 

Triphyllozoon moniliferum and hard bryozoans (Edmunds et al. 2009). 

Invertebrate fauna 

The invertebrate species richness typically ranged from 10–20 species, with the common 

invertebrate assemblages appearing to differ according to the exposure at the different sites 

(Edmunds et al. 2007). Assemblage structure at the more sheltered sites, Roaring Meg 

Bight, Fenwick Point and Central Waterloo Bay, consist of a high abundance of the sea 

urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma and moderate abundances of blacklip abalone Haliotis 

rubra and the featherstar Cenolia trichoptera. The sea stars Nectria ocellata, Nectria 

macrobrachia and Plectaster decanus are also common. At more exposed sites, South 

Norman Point, North of Sea Eagle Bay and Sea Eagle Bay, Haliotis rubra is more dominant 

in abundance and Heliocidaris erythrogramma is relatively less abundant. Nectria 

macrobrachia and Plectaster decanus is also less abundant at sheltered sites. The warrener 

Turbo undulatus tends to be more abundant at exposed sites. South Norman Point and 

North of Sea Eagle has moderate to high abundances of Haliotis rubra, but has 

comparatively low abundances of Heliocidaris erythrogramma and Cenolia trichoptera. The 

Fenwick Point and Central Waterloo Bay sites had high abundances of Heliocidaris 

erythrogramma and low abundances of Cenolia trichoptera and Haliotis rubra (Edmunds et 

al. 2007). The abundance of these invertebrates is higher than found in the adjacent Central 

bioregion (Edmunds et al. 2000). 

Over the ten SRMP surveys, the urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii has been recorded in low 

abundance at East Landing and just outside the MNP at Glennie Island (Edmunds et al. 

2007). When in high densities C. rodgersii causes community shifts from macrophyte 

dominated reefs to urchin barrens. This species is of particular interest as in recent years it 

has increased its range down the east coast of Australia to Tasmania, causing major losses 

in macrophyte reef communities. Wilsons Promontory appears to be a western satellite site 

for the urchin as it is found in high abundance in the Twofold Shelf bioregion on the east 

coast of Victoria, but not the Bunurong Marine Park on the central coast (Edmunds et al. 

2007). 

Two pycnogonid species (Stylopallene dorsospinum and Achelia transfugoides) have been 

found on subtidal reefs and were new records for Victoria (O'Hara 2000). The bryozoan 

fauna near Lighthouse and Waterloo Bay is composed of large colonies of Canda 

arachnoides, Amathia plumosa, Amathia woodsii, Orthoscuticella, Euthyroides episcopalis 

and Triphyllozoon munitum attached either to rock, Ecklonia radiata holdfasts or Ecklonia 

radiata fronds (O'Hara 2000). 

Fish 

The fish fauna of Wilsons Promontory is composed primarily of wide-ranging cool temperate 

species endemic to Southern Australian, with a much smaller proportion of warmer-water 

temperate species towards the southern limits of their range (Plummer et al. 2003). Wilsons 

Promontory MNP is considered to have relatively high species richness and high diversity 

indices along with higher than average abundances for most fish species compared to other 

central Victorian areas (Edmunds et al. 2000). Notable are the colony of old wives 

Enoplosus armatus (Figure 11) at Oberon Bay, sea dragons of Tongue Point, the large 

bastard trumpeter Latriopsis forsteri of South Point, and the exceptionally high abundances 

of planktivorous fishes (Edmunds 2003). Species richness of fishes at Wilsons Promontory 

MNP is between 15 and 25 at most sites (Edmunds et al. 2007). The common fish species 

are: the barber perch Caesioperca rasor; blue-throated wrasse Notolabrus tetricus; purple 

wrasse Notolabrus fucicola; southern hulafish Trachinops caudimaculatus; silver sweep 

Scorpis lineolata; and magpie perch Cheilodactylus nigripes. Other common species 

19



included: the toothbrush leatherjacket Acanthaluteres vittiger; herring cale Odax 

cyanomelas; butterfly perch Caesioperca Lepidoptera (Figure 4); sea sweep Scorpis 

aequipinnis; and mado Atypichthys strigatus. 

Figure 10. Yellow zoanthid Parazoanthus sp. and sponge in Wilsons Promontory Marine National 

Park. Photo by Julian Finn, Museum of Victoria. 

Water column 

The water column as a whole is the largest habitat in the MNP and is important in different 

ways for many organisms including for transit or as a permanent home for particular stages 

of their life cycle. Organisms that use the water column environment can be broadly grouped 

into two categories based on mode of movement: either pelagic (actively swimming) or 

planktonic (drifting with the current). Larger species are often planktonic during early life 

stages before becoming pelagic as they grow. Smaller species tend to be planktonic but can 

influence their movement to some extent by controlling their height in the water column. 

Organisms that make their permanent home in the water column include sea jellies, salps, 

many fish, and both phytoplankton and zooplankton. Planktonic organisms play an important 

role in nutrient cycling, dispersal of species and providing food for larger animals, both within 

the MNP and more broadly in the marine environment. The water column is also used by 

fish, invertebrates and algae for transport and food (and other resources like oxygen). Parks 

Victoria does not currently monitor the water column as a habitat (Power and Boxshall 

2007). As described in the following section a wide variety of seabirds, mammals and 

reptiles are found in the waters of Wilsons Promontory MNP. 

2.1.4 SPECIES OF CONSERVATION SIGNIFICANCE 

The approach of managing MNPs for their marine ecological communities, rather than 

threatened species, is also likely to protect and enhance threatened species populations 

(Power and Boxshall 2007). Whole-of-habitat management may also result in the protection 

of species not yet identified because of their rarity or cryptic nature (Power and Boxshall 

2007). 

20



Flora 

No threatened marine flora has been recorded in the park (Parks Victoria 2006g). 

Fish 

Many fish found in streams and rivers in terrestrial Wilsons Promontory National Park, have 

marine larval stages that would pass through and probably feed in the MNP. This would 

include the critically endangered Australian mudfish, and the state and nationally vulnerable 

Australian grayling (Table 3). Other fish recorded in or near the MNP are the broad-finned 

galaxias Galaxias brevipinnis, spotted galaxias G. truttaceus, pouched lamprey Geotria 

australis and short-headed lamprey Mordacia mordax. Great white sharks Carcharodon 

carcharias are often sighted around the islands of Wilsons Promontory MNP and park is a 

nationally significant area for recovery of great white shark populations (Carey et al. 2007b). 

The eastern blue groper Achoerodus viridis is present in low numbers in Wilsons Promontory 

MNP. It is thought to be threatened by over fishing and a temporary protection from all 

fishing was introduced in April 2011. 

Table 3. Conservation listed fish records from Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park and 

surrounds. 

Victorian listing National listing 

Common name Scientific name FFG VROTS EPBC 

Australian mudfish Neochanna cleaveri L CR 

Australian grayling Prototroctes maraena L VU VU 

L = FFG listed, VU = vulnerable, CR = critically endangered 

Birds 

Twenty-five conservation listed shore or sea birds have been sighted in or in the immediate 

surrounds of Wilsons Promontory MNP (Table 4). Twenty-two are recognised as threatened 

in Victoria, listed under the FFG Act 1988 or the Victorian Rare or Threatened Species 

(VROTS) list. Five birds are listed at both the state and national level, including the southern 

giant-petrel which is nationally recognised as endangered. The soft-plumaged petrel is listed 

as vulnerable at the national level EPBC Act 1999. Seven birds are recognised 

internationally under the Australia Migratory Bird Agreement with either China (CAMBA) or 

Japan (JAMBA). 

A pair of hooded plovers has been recorded as breeding in the MNP on the beach at Oberon 

Bay. Hooded plovers also nest outside the MNP at Picnic and Squeaky Beaches. They have 

been observed but do not nest at Norman Beach and on the beaches of Waterloo Bay. The 

hooded plover is endemic to Southern Australia and is recognised as endangered in Victoria 

and listed as vulnerable nationally. Hooded plovers feed and nest on the beach or in the 

nearby dunes of high energy ocean beaches (Wescott 2002). Beach-washed seaweed is an 

important habitat and food source of the wide variety of invertebrates they eat (Wescott 

2002). They nest in solitary pairs and defend their breeding territories from August to March. 

There is a high mortality of eggs and chicks caused by disturbance from humans and dogs, 

and predation by foxes and cats (Wescott 2002). 

There are two breeding colonies of little penguins within the boundaries of the Wilsons 

Promontory MNP, one on Anser Island (400 breeding pairs) and one on Wattle Island (500 

breeding pairs). Breeding colonies of little penguins are also on the Glennie Group and 

Norman Island outside the MNP. These birds are a protected species under the Wildlife Act 

1975. Little penguins nest from May to January with adults foraging within 20 km of the 

colony while feeding chicks. Outside of the breeding season they may travel larger distances 

from their colonies to feed, mainly keeping within 15 km of the coast. 

21



Three of the islands within the MNP, Wattle, Kanowna and Anser are of state significance for 

shorebird habitat (Plummer et al. 2003). Species recorded include the crested tern, sooty 

oystercatcher, silver gull, Pacific gull (the only Victorian breeding site for this species), shorttailed 

shearwater, fairy prion and common diving-petrel (Plummer et al. 2003). Similar 

species are recorded on the islands of the Glennie Group to the west of the MNP (Plummer 

et al. 2003). 

Table 4. Conservation listed shorebird and seabird records from Wilsons Promontory Marine National 

Park and surrounds. 

Victorian listing National 

listing 

International 

treaty 

Common name Scientific name FFG VROTS EPBC CAMBA JAMBA 

Australasian bittern Botaurus 

L EN 

poiciloptilus 

eastern reef egret Egretta sacra L EN 

fairy tern Sternula nereis L EN 

black-faced cormorant Phalacrocorax 

NT 

fuscescens 

common diving-petrel Pelecanoides 

NT 

urinatrix 

Pacific gull Larus pacificus NT 

pied cormorant 

Phalacrocorax 

NT 

varius 

sooty oystercatcher Haematopus 

NT 

fuliginosus 

white-fronted tern Sterna striata NT 

hardhead Aythya australis VU 

white-faced storm-petrel Pelagodroma 

VU 

marina 

hooded plover Thinornis rubricollis L VU 

eastern curlew 

Numenius 

NT C J 

madagascariensis 

Latham's snipe Gallinago hardwickii NT C J 

sanderling Calidris alba NT C J 

Caspian tern Hydroprogne caspia L NT C J 

white-bellied sea-eagle Haliaeetus 

L VU C 

leucogaster 

southern giant-petrel Macronectes 

L VU EN 

giganteus 

black-browed albatross Thalassarche 

VU VU 

melanophris 

fairy prion Pachyptila turtur VU VU 

shy albatross Thalassarche cauta L VU VU 

yellow-nosed albatross Thalassarche 

L VU VU 

chlororhynchos 

soft-plumaged petrel Pterodroma mollis VU 

common tern Sterna hirundo C J 

short-tailed shearwater Ardenna tenuirostris J 

L= listed, NT = Near Threatened, VU = Vulnerable, EN = Endangered, C = listed under the CAMBA 

treaty, J = listed under the JAMBA treaty 

22



Marine mammals and reptiles 

The southern right whale Eubalaena australis and humpback whale Megaptera 

novaeangliae have been recorded in or near the Wilsons Promontory MNP (Table 5). The 

southern right whale E. australis is listed as critically endangered in Victorian waters and 

endangered nationally. The humpback whale M. novaeangliae is listed as vulnerable at the 

state and national level. Both species have been observed to calf in the MNP. These two 

whales along with the killer whale Orcinus orca are migratory listed species under the Bonn 

convention. The state vulnerable New Zealand fur seal Arctophoca forsteri has been 

recorded as breeding on Kanowna Island and presumably feeds in the MNP. The state and 

nationally listed leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea and the nationally vulnerable green 

turtle Chelonia mydas have both been recorded from the MNP. Three other marine reptiles 

occur as vagrants along the eastern Victorian coast: loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta, 

Pacific ridley Lepidochelys olivacea, yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis platurus and probably 

use the waters of the MNP (Plummer et al. 2003). The bottlenose dolphin Tursiops 

truncatus, common dolphin Delphinus delphis, and leopard seal Hydrurga leptonyx have 

been observed in the waters in and around the park. The Australian fur seal Arctocephalus 

pusillus doriferus feeds in the MNP and breeds on the islands surrounded by the park, with a 

particularly large breeding colony on Kanowna Island (Littnan et al. 2007, Arnould & 

Kirkwood 2008, Tripovich et al. 2009, Deacon & Arnould 2009, Gibbons & Arnould 2008, 

Tripovich et al 2006, Spence-Bailey et al. 2007). Numbers are concentrated in breeding 

areas from October to December. 

Table 5. Conservation listed marine mammal and reptile records from Wilsons Promontory Marine 

National Park and surrounds. 


listing 

International 

convention 

Common name Scientific name FFG VROTS EPBC Bonn 

southern right whale Eubalaena australis L CR EN L 

humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae L VU VU L 

New Zealand fur seal Arctophoca forsteri VU L 

Arctocephalus pusillus 

Australian fur seal doriferus 

L 

killer whale Orcinus orca L L 

leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea L CR VU L 

green turtle Chelonia mydas VU L 

L = listed, M = listed Migratory, VU = vulnerable, EN = endangered, CR = critically endangered 

Species distribution information 

An assessment of distribution, endemism and rarity of biota across the state found that 

Wilsons MNP had four molluscs presumed to be endemic to the park (O'Hara and Barmby 

2000; O'Hara 2002; Table 6). 

Table 6. Marine invertebrates presumed to be endemic to the Wilsons Promontory Marine National 

Park (O'Hara and Barmby 2000; O'Hara 2002) 

Phylum Order Family Species 

Mollusca Gastropoda Cyclostrematidae Liotella vercoi 

Mollusca Gastropoda Cystiscidae Cystiscus halli 

Mollusca Polyplacophora Eulimidae Eulima styliformis 

Mollusca Polyplacophora Eulimidae Eulima victoriae 

23



One hundred and twenty-six biota have been recorded or presumed to be at their 

distributional limit in Wilsons Promontory MNP (O'Hara 2002). Sixty biota have been 

recorded as being at the easterly limit of their distribution in Wilsons Promontory MNP, 

including thirty-five algae, two shrimps, three sea stars, three sea urchins, and seventeen 

fish. Forty-two biota are presumed to be at their easterly limit of distribution, including sixteen 

algae, the seagrass Amphibolis antarctica, three chiton, two marine snail, one shrimp, one 

brittle star, one feather star and seventeen fish. Eighteen biota have been recorded as being 

at their western limit of distribution in Wilsons Promontory MNP, including one alga, three 

sea urchins, and fourteen fish. One shrimp, two brittle stars and the fish black sole are 

presumed to be at their western limit of distribution. One marine snail and the fish flathead 

congollis are presumed to be at their northern limit of distribution (O'Hara 2002). The 

distributional limits of the biota listed in Table 7 may reflect collection effort in this area rather 

than actual Victorian distributions. Many areas of the Victorian coast have never been 

sampled and therefore biota ranges may be much greater than those suggested. 

Table 7. Marine species at their distribution limits in Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park 

(O'Hara 2002). 

Order Family Species Common name 

Dist. 

code 

Caulerpales Caulerpaceae Caulerpa annulata green algae RE 

Caulerpales Caulerpaceae Caulerpa brownii green algae RE 

Caulerpales Caulerpaceae Caulerpa longifolia green algae RE 

Caulerpales Caulerpaceae Caulerpa obscura green algae RE 

Caulerpales Caulerpaceae Caulerpa simpliciuscula green algae RE 

Caulerpales Caulerpaceae Caulerpa trifaria green algae RE 

Caulerpales Caulerpaceae Caulerpa vesiculifera green algae RE 

Derbesiales Bryopsidaceae Bryopsis gemellipara green algae RE 

Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Chlanidophora microphylla brown algae PE 

Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Dictyopteris acrostichoides brown algae RW 

Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Dictyota diemensis brown algae RE 

Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Distromium flabellatum brown algae PE 

Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Pachydictyon polycladum brown algae PE 

Dictyotales Dictyotaceae Zonaria spiralis brown algae RE 

Fucales Cystoseiraceae Carpoglossum confluens brown algae PE 

Fucales Cystoseiraceae Cystophora congesta brown algae PE 

Fucales Cystoseiraceae Cystophora grevillei brown algae RE 

Fucales Cystoseiraceae Cystophora siliquosa brown algae RE 

Fucales Cystoseiraceae Cystophora subfarcinata brown algae RE 

Fucales Fucaceae Xiphophora chondrophylla brown algae RE 

Fucales Sargassaceae Sargassum decipiens brown algae RE 

Fucales Sargassaceae Sargassum sonderi brown algae RE 

Fucales Sargassaceae Sargassum spinuligerum brown algae RE 

Fucales Seirococcaceae Seirococcus axillaris brown algae RE 

Sphacelariales Stypocaulaceae Halopteris funicularis brown algae RE 

Sporochnales Sporochnaceae Perithalia caudata brown algae PE 

Bonnemaisoniales Bonnemaisoniaceae Ptilonia australasica red algae RE 

Ceramiales Ceramiaceae Acrothamnion pressii red algae PE 

Ceramiales Ceramiaceae Dasyphila preissii red algae PE 

Ceramiales Ceramiaceae Griffithsia teges red algae RE 

Ceramiales Ceramiaceae Heterothamnion muelleri red algae PE 

Ceramiales Ceramiaceae Pterothamnion nodiferum red algae RE 

Ceramiales Dasyaceae Dasya ceramioides red algae RE 

Ceramiales Dasyaceae Thuretia australasica red algae PE 

Corallinales Corallinaceae 

Lithophyllum 

chamberlainianum red algae PE 

Corallinales Corallinaceae Mastophoropsis red algae RE 

24




Dist. 

code 

canaliculata 

Corallinales Corallinaceae Metagoniolithon radiatum red algae RE 

Corallinales Corallinaceae Metagoniolithon stelliferum red algae RE 

Corallinales Corallinaceae Metamastophora flabellata red algae RE 

Gelidiales Gelidiaceae Gelidium asperum red algae RE 

Gigartinales Areschougiaceae Areschougia congesta red algae RE 

Gigartinales Areschougiaceae Callophycus laxus red algae RE 

Gigartinales Cystocloniaceae Austroclonium charoides red algae PE 

Gigartinales Nizymeniaceae Nizymenia australis red algae RE 

Gigartinales Phacelocarpaceae Phacelocarpus alatus red algae RE 

Gigartinales Phyllophoraceae Ahnfeltiopsis fastigiata red algae PE 

Gigartinales Phyllophoraceae Sterogramme leptophylla red algae PE 

Gigartinales Plocamiaceae Plocamium pressianum red algae PE 

Gracilariales Gracilariaceae Melanthalia concinna red algae RE 

Gracilariales Gracilariaceae Melanthalia obtusata red algae RE 

Rhodymeniales Rhodymeniaceae Cordylecladia furcellata red algae RE 

Rhodymeniales Rhodymeniaceae Hymenocladia chondricola red algae PE 

Potamogetonales Cymodoceaceae Amphibolis antarctica seagrass PE 

Caridea Alpheidae Alpheus australosulcatus shrimp RE 

Caridea Crangonidae Aegaeon lacazei shrimp PW 

Caridea Hippolytidae Tozeuma elongatum shrimp RE 

Caridea Rhynchocinetidae Rhynchocinetes kuiteri shrimp PE 

Gastropoda Anabathridae Pisinna columnaria marine snail PN 

Gastropoda Anabathridae Pisinna frenchiensis marine snail PE 

Gastropoda Anabathridae Pisinna tumida tumida marine snail PE 

Polyplacophora Acanthochitonidae Notoplax speciosa chiton PE 

Polyplacophora Ischnochitonidae Ischnochiton elongatus chiton PE 

Polyplacophora Ischnochitonidae Ischnochiton variegatus chiton PE 

Asteroidea Asterinidae Nepanthia troughtoni seastar RE 

Asteroidea Oreasteridae Nectria macrobrachia seastar RE 

Asteroidea Oreasteridae Nectria multispina seastar RE 

Crinoidea Antedonidae Euantedon paucicirra feather star PE 

Echinoidea Brissidae Spatagobrissus incus sea urchin RW 

Echinoidea Cidaridae Goniocidaris impressa sea urchin RE 

Echinoidea Diadematidae Centrostephanus rodgersii sea urchin RW 

Echinoidea Spatangidae Spatangus luetkeni sea urchin RW 

Echinoidea Temnopleuridae Holopneustes porosissimus sea urchin RE 

Echinoidea Temnopleuridae Microcyphus compsus sea urchin RE 

Ophiuroidea Amphiuridae Amphiura (Amphiura) dolia brittle star PW 

Ophiuroidea Ophiotrichidae 

Ophiothrix (Placophiothrix) 

spongicola brittle star PW 

Ophiuroidea Ophiuridae Ophioplocus bispinosus brittle star PE 

Clupeiformes Engraulididae Herklotisichtchys castelnaui sprat RW 

Gobiesociformes Gobiesocidae Genus A sp 2 

brown spotted 

spiny clingfish RW 

Orectolobiformes Parascyllidae Parascyllium variolatum varied catshark PE 

Perciformes Apogonidae Vincentia conspersa 

southern 

cardinal fish RE 

Perciformes Bovichtidae Pesudaphritis sp flathead congolli PN 

Perciformes Callanthiidae Callanthias allporti rosy perch RW 

Perciformes Carangidae Trachurus novaezelandiae 

yellow tail horse 

mackeral 

RW 

Perciformes Cheilodactylidae Nemadactylus douglassii blue morwong RW 

Perciformes Chironemidae Chironemus georgianus 

tasselled 

kelpfish 

RE 

Perciformes Clinidae Heteroclinus adelaide Adelaide RE 

25




Dist. 

code 

weedfish 

Perciformes Clinidae Heteroclinus eckloniae kelp weedfish RE 

Perciformes Clinidae Heteroclinus johnstoni 

Johnstons 

weedfish 

RE 

Perciformes Clinidae 

Heteroclinus 

macrophthalmus 

large eye 

weedfish 

RE 

Perciformes Clinidae Heteroclinus puellarum little weedfish RE 

Perciformes Clinidae Ophiclinops varius 

variegated 

snakeblenny PE 

Perciformes Clinidae Ophiclinus gabrieli 

frosted 

snakeblenny PE 

Perciformes Girellidae Girella elevata black drummer RW 

Perciformes Gobiidae Gobiopterus semivestitus glass goby RW 

Perciformes Labridae Achoerodus viridis 

eastern blue 

groper 

RW 

Perciformes Labridae Dotalabrus aurantiacus pretty polly RE 

Perciformes Mullidae Upeneichthys vlamingii red mullet PE 

Perciformes Odacidae Siphonognathus attenuatus 

slender weed 

whiting 

RE 

Perciformes Odacidae Siphonognathus beddomei 

pencil weed 

whiting 

RE 

Perciformes Odacidae Siphonognathus caninus 

sharpnose weed 

whiting 

RE 

Scorpaeniformes Pataecidae Aetapcus maculatus warty prowfish RE 

PE = presumed eastern limit, PW = presumed western limit, PN = presumed northern limit, RE = 

recorded eastern limit, RW = recorded western limit. 

In a study assessing the conservation of reef fishes in Victoria Colton and Swearer (2009; 

2010) observed 63 species of fish found around the points of Squeaky Beach, Norman and 

Oberon Bays. They regard seven, as species of concern as they are numerically and 

spatially rare at the state level (Table 8). Sphyraena novaehollandiae, Latris lineate and 

Dactylophora nigricans are targeted by fishing threat outside MPAs (Colton and Swearer 

2010). 

Table 8. Reef fishes of conservation concern recorded near Squeaky Beach, Norman Bay and 

Oberon Bay (Colton and Swearer, 2009; 2010). Species in bold are targeted for fishing outside MPAs. 

Family Species Common name 

Sphyraenidae Sphyraena novaehollandiae Australian barracuda or 

snook, 

Pentacerotidae Pentaceropsis recurvirostris longsnout boarfish 

Monacanthidae Scobinichthys granulates rough leatherjacket 

Latrididae Latris lineate striped trumpeter 

Hexanchidae Notorynchus cepedianus broadnose sevengill shark 

Cheilodactylidae Dactylophora nigricans dusky morwong 

Aracanidae Aracana ornata onate cowfish 

26



2.1.5 MAJOR THREATS 




threats that could affect them over the next ten years, were considered and ranked to 

identify hazards. This list of hazards was then ranked (low, medium, high and extreme) by 

the risk posed by each hazard (Carey et al. 2007b). Six hazards with the potential to be 

extreme were identified by Carey et al. (2007b). They are listed in rank order and the habitat 

or area at risk within the park is indicated in brackets: 

1. Exotic species and pathogens introduced via ballast water or recreational boating, 

affecting biodiversity by competing with local species (potentially all park); 

2. Nutrients from untreated sewage affecting subtidal rocky reef near South East Point 

light station or from seepage from settling ponds at Tidal River affecting marine 

habitats and communities of Norman Bay (intertidal and shallow subtidal reef and 

soft sediments); 

3. Propeller scour affecting seagrass beds and bare mudflats (subtidal soft sediments); 

4. Major oil or chemical spill from vessel damaging penguins, seals and rocky intertidal 

habitat (intertidal reef and soft sediment, marine mammals and birds); 

5. Presence of boats affecting breeding colonies of seals on Kanowna Is by increasing 

pup mortality (pups crushed/drowned when colony disturbed) and disruption to the 

social order (bulls losing territory on beach when colony disturbed) (marine 

mammals); and 

6. High profile of MNPs leading to reduced management and/or environmental focus on 

surrounding marine areas, to the subsequent detriment of the MNPs (potentially all 

park). 

The introduction of marine pests threatens the integrity of marine biodiversity and may 

reduce the social and economic benefits derived from the marine environment (Parks 

Victoria 2003). Most marine pests known from Victorian waters are limited to Port Phillip Bay 

(Parks Victoria 2003). One introduced species or marine pest has been recorded from the 

south-east of Wilsons Promontory MNP, the bryozoan Bugula neritina (O'Hara and Barmby 

2000). It is thought that the introduced green shore crab Carcinus maenas is also found 

within the MNP. The New Zealand seastar Astrostole scabra and screw shell Maoricolpus 

roseus have been reported in Point Hicks and Cape Howe MNPs. The Northern Pacific 

seastar Asterias amurensis was found at nearby Anderson Inlet in 2004-05 (Parks Victoria 

2006b), at San Remo in 2011, and most recently in 2012 in Tidal River in the Wilsons 

Promontory National Park. In each case there has been a coordinated effort to eradicate 

these populations. Other species of particular concern include the European fanworm 

Sabella spallanzanii, Japanese kelp Undaria pinnatifida and broccoli weed Codium fragile 

ssp. fragile (Parks Victoria 2003). 

A virus affecting abalone called abalone viral ganglioneuritus has been slowly spreading 

east along Victoria’s west coast. This virus can kill a large percentage of abalone in an area 

and has been confirmed from Discovery Bay MNP to near Cape Otway (DPI 2009). It is not 

in the Wilsons Promontory MNP but its spread into the park could have serious long term 

ecological consequences for rocky reef communities (DPI 2009). 

Climate change represents a serious threat to marine ecosystems (McLeod et al. 2009) but 

specific ecological consequences of accelerating climate change are not well understood in 

marine systems, particularly in temperate systems. Climate change is predicted to increase 

water temperature, alter chemical composition (salinity, acidity and carbonate saturation), 

change circulation and productivity, increase frequencies of extreme weather events and 

exposure to damaging ultraviolet light (UVB), and increase air temperature, cloud cover and 

sea levels (conservatively 80 cm by 2100; CSIRO-BoM 2007; Fine and Franklin 2007; VCC 

27



2008; McLeod et al. 2009). A combined increase in cloud cover and sea level could result in 

decreased light availability potentially changing benthic flora. Increased storm surges and 

ocean current changes also have the potential to change the distribution of fauna and flora 

and could result in loss of habitats (CSIRO-BoM 2007). Intertidal communities will face 

increased desiccation, storm wave exposure and habitat shift. Changes in the relationship 

between climate and annual life-history events may force major change in functional groups 

and consequent ecosystem function (Fine and Franklin 2007). Climate change is also 

anticipated to modify species recruitment and habitat connectivity, species interactions and 

disturbance regimes in the marine environment (CSIRO-BoM 2007; Fine and Franklin 2007). 

A large number of species are at the eastern or northern limit of their distributional range at 

Wilsons Promontory and such species would be particularly vulnerable to climate change. In 

contrast, the urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii, which is found in Wilsons Promontory MNP, 

has increased its range down the east coast of Australia to Tasmania and that increase is 

thought to be linked to climate change with the EAC extending further south (Banks et al. 

2010). 

Measures to address or minimise these hazards form part of the management plan for 

Wilsons Promontory MNP (Parks Victoria 2006g). For example research has been 

conducted into the disruption of boat approach on seal colonies on Kanowna Island 

(Kirkwood et al. 2003; Patkin 2005) and management actions have been implemented to 

minimise these disruptions (Parks Victoria 2006g). Parks Victoria has also undertaken a 

strategic climate change risk assessment to identify the risks and stressors to natural values 

in the MPAs through assessment at the habitat level for parks in each marine bioregion. 

Parks Victoria will use an adaptive management approach to develop responses and actions 

that focus on priority climate change issues such as extreme weather events and existing 

risks that will likely be exacerbated by climate change. 

Figure 11. Old wife Enoplosius armatus over a Phyllospora bed in Wilsons Promontory Marine 

National Park. 

28



2.1.6 CURRENT RESEARCH AND MONITORING 










part of the RPP program involving collaboration with various research institutions. The 

research relevant to Wilsons Promontory MNP has been published in Parks Victoria’s 

Technical Series available on Parks Victoria’s website (http://www.parkweb.vic.gov.au). As 

most research in the MNP has been carried out under permits issued by DSE, the permit 

database was also used to identify relevant projects for this report (see Table 9 and 

Appendix 2). 

Wilsons Promontory MNP does not have an ongoing intertidal reef monitoring program as it 

has limited intertidal reef area with relatively low human pressure. The shallow subtidal reef 

monitoring program (SRMP, Edmunds and Hart 2003) in and around the Wilsons 

Promontory MNP began in 1999. Since that time sites in the MNP and reference sites 

outside of the MNP (Figure 6) have been surveyed over ten census events (Edmunds et al. 

2003; Lindsay and Edmunds 2006; Edmunds et al. 2007). The monitoring involves 

standardised underwater diver-mediated visual survey methods of macroalgae, invertebrates 

and fish, generally in a depth less than ten metres (Edmunds and Hart 2003). The SRMP 

monitors a specific suite of fish associated with reefs in shallow waters and is not designed 

to assess non-reef associated shallow water fish nor is it designed to assess the suite of 

species found in deeper water. Over 230 different species of biota have been observed 

during the SRMP in, and around, Wilsons Promontory MNP (Appendix 1). 

Preliminary analysis of the SRMP subtidal reef monitoring data to 2006 by Keough and 

Carnell (2009) has assessed changes in the park since declaration by comparing subtidal 

reef MNP sites to reference sites outside of the MNP (Figure 6). Limitations to the 

preliminary analysis were the relatively short time since declaration (four years) and the 

corresponding small data set (Keough and Carnell 2009). Preliminary analysis found there 

were no significant differences in overall species richness and abundance between MNP 

and reference sites post-declaration of the MNP (Keough and Carnell 2009). The seastar 

Patiriella brevispina showed a convergence in abundance between MNP and non-MNP sites 

since declaration (Keough and Carnell 2009). The toothbrush leatherjacket Acanthaluteres 

vittiger, showed a general increase since the declaration, with a slightly greater abundance 

in MNP sites. Herring cale Odax cyanomelas also showed an effect of MNP, with a decrease 

in abundance in MNP sites. Magpie perch Cheilodactylus nigripes, blue-throated wrasse 

Notolabrus tetricus and silver sweep Scorpis lineolata showed differences between east and 

west coasts of Wilsons Promontory MNP that was unrelated to the MNP. Purple wrasse 

Notolabrus fucicola displayed an increase in the difference between MNP and non-MNP 

sites since declaration on the west coast, but not on the east coast (Keough and Carnell 

2009). 

29



Table 9. Ongoing Research Partner Panel (and RPP-like) research projects and monitoring programs 

implemented in partnership with, or commissioned by, Parks Victoria relevant to Wilsons Promontory 

Marine National Park. 

Ongoing RPP (and RPP-like) Projects 

University of Melbourne: Malcolm Lindsay, Stephen Swearer, Mick Keough 

Developing tools for assessing ecological performance of marine protected areas. 

Deakin University: Julia Back, John Arnould 

The physiological and behavioural response of Australian fur seals to boat disturbance: 

developing guidelines for boat-based eco-tourism. 

University of Melbourne: Kim Millers, Jan Carey, Mick McCarthy 

Optimising the allocation of resources for defending Marine Protected Areas against invasive 

species. 

Multiple Research Partners: Marine Monitoring and Marine Natural Values 

University of Melbourne: Mick Keough, Paul Carnell 

Ecological performance measures for Victorian Marine Protected Areas: Review of the 

existing biological sampling data. 

Deakin University: Gerry Quinn, Jan Barton, Adam Pope 

Marine Natural Values Reports for the Marine National Parks and Sanctuaries – Version 2. 

University of Melbourne: Jan Carey 

Developing Report Cards for the Marine National Parks. 

Deakin University: John Arnould 

Support for research on Kanowna Island in Wilsons Prom National Park and Marine National 

Park. 

Museum Victoria: Mark Norman, Julian Finn. Parks Victoria: Roger Fenwick 

Under the Lens - Natural History of Victoria’s Marine National Park System. 

University of Melbourne: Prue Addison, Jan Carey 

New statistical methods for the analysis of marine monitoring data. 

University of Melbourne: Tarek Murshed, Jan Carey, Jacqui Pocklington 

Conceptual model development for marine habitats. 

University of Tasmania: Graham Edgar (also involves other university and industry partners). 

Biotic connectivity within the temperate Australian marine protected area network at three levels 

of biodiversity - communities, populations and genes. 

Ongoing Habitat Mapping Projects 

DSE / DPI / Worley Parsons/ Deakin University 

LiDAR Mapping Project. Mapping of bathymetry and marine habitats along the Victorian coast 

Active Monitoring Programs 

Contracted Monitoring 

Subtidal Reef Monitoring Program 

A clear MPA effect is unlikely to be detected until sometime after declaration. Nationally and 

internationally it has taken well over a decade since declaration to detect changes in fauna 

size classes and abundance in MPAs (Edgar et al. 2009; Edgar and Stuart-Smith 2009). 

Because Wilsons Promontory MNP had minimal pressure before declaration a clear effect of 

the declaration might not be detected at all as any recovery may be relatively small. The 

major benefit of declaration in this case would be to ensure protection of the MNP area 

against future threats to biodiversity and natural processes. A targeted analysis of monitoring 

data in relation to conservation outcomes for the park will be done by 2013. The major 

directions for monitoring include implementing an expanded and improved monitoring 

program following a review of the major findings taking into account knowledge generated 

since park declaration (Keough et al. 2007; Power and Boxshall 2007; Keough and Carnell 

2009). 

The sessile flora and fauna of five sites on deep subtidal reefs within Wilsons Promontory 

MNP have been video surveyed by remote operated vehicle (ROV, Edmunds et al. 2009). 

The surveys were carried out for comparison to the biota in Port Phillip Heads as part of the 

30



impact and recovery assessment for the Port Phillip Heads Channel Deepening Project. Five 

sites within Wilsons Promontory MNP, West Kanowna Is, Roaring Meg East, Southeast 

Landing, Church Rocks and Waterloo Bay North were surveyed in 2002 and again 2009 with 

the exception of Kanowna Is (Edmunds et al. 2009). Two more surveys are scheduled in 

2013 and 2019. 

Other ongoing research in Wilsons Promontory MNP include research being conducted by 

John Arnolds Deakin University research team focussing on the ecology of fur seal and 

seabird species on islands around Wilsons Promontory, in particular, Kanowna Island. 

Research includes the response of fur seal colonies to boats, the feeding ecology of fur 

seals, little penguins and other seabirds. 

Statewide, the Museum of Victoria is collecting additional data on the marine natural values 

of Victoria’s MPAs. They are gathering information about natural history through video and 

photos (Figure 12), and using semi-quantitative methods to determine spatial and temporal 

changes across the system in response to threats, including marine pests and climate 

change. Jan Carey, University of Melbourne, is conducting research focussing on marine 

pest species which may impact on park values, and the MPAs which are most at risk of 

invasion. This will help prioritise Parks Victoria surveillance monitoring efforts to MPAs 

where there is greatest potential for successful management. 

2.1.7 KNOWLEDGE GAPS 

Only a very small proportion of Wilsons Promontory MNP has been mapped for detailed 

bathymetry or substrates. No modelling of the habitats has been done so there is not an 

understanding of the distribution and extent of basic habitats within the MNP. No new 

surveys exist for the ecological communities of sandy beaches, intertidal soft sediments, with 

little new data on fish abundances, distributions or interactions except in shallow subtidal 

reef habitats. No information exists at present for water column assemblages. Major threats 

have been identified for Wilsons Promontory MNP but we have limited knowledge of the 

effect on the natural values, particularly ecological communities. 

Figure 12. Red Velvetfish Gnathanacanthus goetzeei in Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park. 

Photo by Mark Norman, Museum of Victoria. 

31



2.2 Ninety Mile Beach MNP - Twofold Shelf Bioregion 

Ninety Mile Beach Marine National Park (Figure 13) is one of three MNPs in the Twofold 

Shelf Bioregion, which also contains Point Hicks and Cape Howe. Beware Reef Marine 

Sanctuary is the other Marine Protected Area in the bioregion. Ninety Mile Beach MNP is 

approximately 260 km east of Melbourne, 40 km south of Sale, and immediately south-west 

of the small town of Seaspray. It extends offshore for approximately five kilometres (three 

nautical miles) to the limit of Victorian waters from the high water mark along 5 km of 

coastline (Figure 14). Ninety Mile Beach MNP is relatively inaccessible from the land, except 

through private property, but is readily accessible by boat from Seaspray. It includes areas 

between the high and low water mark that were formerly part of McLoughlins Beach – 

Seaspray Coastal Reserve, reserved under the Crown Lands (Reserves) Act 1978 (Vic.). 

Ninety Mile Beach MNP protects approximately 4 % of the Ninety Mile Beach coastline 

(Parks Victoria 2006e). Lake Denison, on the coast adjacent to the MNP is regionally 

geologically significant as an example of lake, barrier, bluff and lagoon channel evolution 

(Figure 14). McGaurans Beach, Merriman Creek and near Seaspray are also recognised as 

geologically significant. 

Aboriginal tradition indicates that the Ninety Mile Beach MNP is part of the Country of the 

Gunai/Kurnai people (Parks Victoria 2006d). 

Important natural values of Ninety Mile Beach MNP are its soft sediment habitat both 

intertidal and subtidal, and its water column that provides habitat for a diversity of marine 

flora and fauna species, including sessile invertebrates, algae, fish and transient whales 

(Parks Victoria 2006e). The MNP has extensive subtidal sandy sediments. Clumps of 

ascidians (mainly Pyura australis) occur on the sand (ECC 2000). Subtidal low calcarenite 

rocky reefs may occur along Ninety Mile Beach but preliminary mapping has not located the 

reefs within the MNP, although they may have been covered by sand (ECC 2000; Carey et 

al. 2007b; Edmunds et al. 2010a). Reefs in the area are dominated by invertebrates (70% 

coverage) and have sparse floral communities of small red algae (ECC 2000). Invertebrates 

include sponges, ascidians, and smaller bryozoans and hydroids (ECC 2000; Carey et al. 

2007b). 

A large endemic southern Australian seastar Coscinasterias muricata occurs along this 

coast in large numbers as well as an unusual soft coral Pseudogorgia godeffroyi (ECC 

2000). Aggregations of juvenile white shark Carcharodon carcharias, snapper Pagrus 

auratus, Australian salmon Arripis sp., long-finned pike Dinolestes lewini and short-finned 

pike Sphyraena novaehollandiae occur in the MNP (ECC 2000). 

Ninety Mile Beach MNP provides important feeding and roosting habitat for several 

threatened bird species such as the great knot Calidris tenuiros, fairy tern Sternula nereis 

and little egret Egretta garzetta, which are listed under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee 

(FFG) Act (1998) and as endangered in Victoria. The MNP protects feeding areas for the 

fairy prion Pachyptila turtur which is of national environmental significance under the 

Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act (1999) 

and twenty species that are listed under the Japan–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement 

(JAMBA) and the China–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (CAMBA, Parks Victoria 

2006e). The threatened southern right whale Eubalaena australis and New Zealand fur seal 

Arctophoca forsteri use the MNP waters. Although not recorded, the leatherback turtle 

Dermochelys coriacea probably also occurs in the MNP. One species of crab, Halicarcinus 

sp MoV746 is presumed to be endemic to the MNP. No marine flora or fauna are believed to 

be at their distributional limits within the MNP. 

Serious threats to the Ninety Mile Beach MNP include limited ecological knowledge of 

important processes. Human disturbance of shorebirds, invasive marine pests; benthic 

32



fishing adjacent to the MNP, introduced pathogens via fish bait; and climate change all pose 

serious threats to the integrity of the MNP (Carey et al. 2007b). Measures to address or 

minimise these threats form part of the management plan for Ninety Mile Beach MNP (Parks 

Victoria 2006d). Specific research aims to increase ecological knowledge about the natural 

values of, and threats to Ninety Mile Beach MNP. 

Figure 13. Intertidal soft sediment of Ninety Mile Beach Marine National Park 


Ninety Mile Beach MNP is 2650 hectares in size which makes it the 9th largest of the 24 

Marine National Parks or Sanctuaries in Victoria (Table 10, Figure 14). The shoreline 

geology is quartzose sands (Bird 1993). Subtidal soft sediment is recent Holocene sand (< 

10 000 years ago) consisting of a mixture of fine and medium sand with some silt, gravelly 

sand and shell, with a low carbonate content of 14 to 19 % (ECC 2000). The MNP is off 

shore from Ninety Mile Beach, a large NE-SW orientated beach that extends from Corner 

Inlet to Red Bluff, broken only by the artificial entrance at Lakes Entrance, and is part of a 

major barrier system that fronts the Gippsland Lakes. The coast adjacent to Ninety Mile 

Beach MNP has a narrow single dune barrier unlike the broader, three barrier systems to the 

east. The beach is steep faced and high energy (Parks Victoria 2006e). The MNP is on the 

Gippsland Shelf which is one of the most extensive areas of shallow water on the Victorian 

coast. The seafloor of the park drops away to 25 metres in depth and the majority of the park 

is between 15 to 20 metres depth. 

Surface water temperatures average 18 °C in the summer and 13 °C in the winter. The MNP 

is influenced by the warmer waters of East Gippsland and the cooler waters of Bass Strait. 

Consequently the area has some of the flora and fauna of both areas (ECC 2000). Tidal 

currents run parallel to the coast and follow a semi-diurnal pattern (Parks Victoria 2006e). 

33



Tidal variation is 0.9 metres for spring tides and 0.6 metres for neap tides (Plummer et al. 

2003). Strong tidal currents (2 to 2.5 knots) are characteristic of this area (ECC 2000). The 

area is protected from south-westerly swells by Tasmania but is strongly influenced by 

south-easterly and easterly swells heights of 1.0 – 1.5 m, with maximum heights varying 

between 1.9 and 2.7 m (LCC 1993). The combination of these tidal currents and high energy 

swells result in well-mixed coastal waters (ECC 2000). Wave action is the main source of 

beach erosion in the park (Parks Victoria 2006e). Wind patterns also influence 

hydrodynamics, with south-westerly winds dominating in winter, resulting in an overall northeasterly 

movement of water and sand along the coast (ECC 2000). 

Three waterways and one saline waste water outfall discharge into the sea in the vicinity of 

the park (Parks Victoria 2006e). Merriman Creek discharges intermittently into the sea 

approximately 500 m north-east of the park, and the overflow from Lake Dennison, locally 

known as ‘The Fisheries’, very occasionally discharges approximately three kilometres to the 

south-west of the park boundary (Parks Victoria 2006e). Mason Creek runs directly into the 

park (Table 10). The saline water outfall is associated with electricity production from the 

Latrobe Valley and discharges 4 km south-west of the MNP at McGaurans Beach (Parks 

Victoria 2006e). 

Table 10. Physical attributes of the Ninety Mile Beach Marine National Park. 

Park Name 

Ninety Mile Beach 




Twofold Shelf 

Size 2650 ha (ranked 9 th of 24) 

Length of adjacent coastline ~ 5 km 


Quartzose sands 


< 5 m 136 ha 

5 - 10 m 168 ha 

10 - 20 m 2085 ha 

20 - 30 m 261 ha 

Mean tidal variation - spring 0.9 m 

Mean tidal variation - neap 0.6 m 

Mean water temp - summer 18 o C 

Mean water temp - winter 13 o C 

Adjacent catchment 

Agricultural, Urban 

Discharges into MNP 

Mason Creek and drain. 

Nearest major estuary 

(distance & direction) 

Merriman Creek 5.5 km 

northeast of MNP 










The main habitats present in Ninety Mile Beach MNP (Figure 15) include intertidal soft 

sediment, extensive subtidal soft sediment, and the water column (Parks Victoria 2006e). 

34

Figure 14. Location map of Ninety Mile Beach Marine National Park with 1:250,000 bathymetry. Subtidal reef monitoring sites inside and outside the MNP are 

shown, there are no monitoring sites.

Figure 15. Location of habitat types based on coarse geology mapping. Geological and biological sites of significance for Ninety Mile Beach Marine National 

Park also indicated.




General 

Since the first natural values report by Plummer et al. (2003) there has been limited further 

research or mapping surveys in Ninety Mile Beach MNP. There has been broadscale 

bathymetric mapping, with the intertidal and shallow subtidal areas mapped by aerial LiDAR 

surveys. There have been no surveys of the pelagic habitats. 

No new surveys of biota have been done in the MNP since declaration. Our knowledge of 

biota found in Ninety Mile Beach MNP is limited to large fauna such as birds and mammals 

(Appendix 1). Forty-nine species of birds and over six species of marine mammals have 

been recorded in or in the immediate surrounds of the MNP. 

Intertidal 

Soft sediment 

The intertidal soft sediment is in the north of Ninety Mile Beach MNP as a high-energy steepfaced, 

coarse-grained sandy beach fronting an extensive dune barrier system. The intertidal 

sand communities at McGaurans and Woodside Beaches to the west of the MNP are 

species-poor (LCC 1993). Between 1983 and 1990 eight surveys were conducted at these 

beaches and found low biodiversity (nine species per sample) and dominated by isopods, 

with bivalves, polychaetes, amphipods and insect larvae (LCC 1993). Bivalves (such as 

pipis) and worms are known to occur in the sand in the lower intertidal area (LCC 1993).The 

abundance of beach infauna was also low (5 to 102 m 2 ), with invertebrate populations on 

both beaches being extremely variable, fluctuating considerably between years. This is 

typical of these types of beaches. 

Flora is restricted to macroalgae drift and macroalgal epiphytes. Beach-washed materials in 

sandy beach habitats are a significant source of food for scavenging birds, and contribute to 

the detrital cycle that nourishes many of the invertebrates, such as bivalves, living in the 

sand. 

Reef 

There is no intertidal rocky reef in the Ninety Mile Beach MNP. 

Subtidal 

Soft sediment 

Invertebrate species diversity of subtidal soft sediment in the Orbost region at the eastern 

end of Ninety Mile Beach is regarded as one of the most biologically diverse marine 

environments in the world (Coleman et al. 1997). Invertebrate diversity in East Gippsland 

was therefore higher compared to the rest of the Victorian coastline and was generally 

greater with depth (Coleman et al. 2007; Heislers and Parry 2007). A transect east of the 

MNP was sampled with 0.1 m 2 grab samples in 10 and 40 m of water depth. The shallow 

sediment was fine sand and deep was medium sand (Coleman et al. 2007). The grab 

samples contained between 260 to 430 individuals and 36 to 72 species (Coleman et al. 

2007). Crustaceans were the dominant taxa in both depth classes, representing more than 

13 of the 21 most abundant families (Heislers and Parry 2007). Ten families were common 

in both depth classes (Heislers and Parry 2007). These organisms live in or on the sand and 

their ecological relationships are poorly known, except that they are a key component of the 

local food web and that their population dynamics are extremely variable (Parks Victoria 

2006e). 

No information on nearshore fish is available from within the MNP, but recreational fishing 

guides indicate that Seaspray Beach, (just east of the MNP), is known for populations of 

Australian salmon Arripis sp., snapper Pagrus auratus, tailor Pomatomus saltatrix and 

37



flathead (Plummer et al. 2003). Newborn pups of gummy sharks Mustelus antarcticus inhabit 

shallow inshore areas and there is some evidence to suggest that the inshore sandy areas 

east of Wilsons Promontory, including Ninety Mile Beach MNP, may be important feeding 

areas for gummy shark pups (Plummer et al. 2003). 

Reef 

Subtidal low calcarenite rocky reefs occur along Ninety Mile Beach but preliminary mapping 

has not located the reefs within the MNP, although they may have been covered by sand 

(ECC 2000; Carey et al. 2007b; Edmunds et al. 2010a). Reefs in the area are dominated by 

invertebrates (70 % coverage) and have sparse floral communities of small red algae (ECC 

2000). Invertebrates include sponges, ascidians, and smaller bryozoans and hydroids. 

Water column 















reptiles are found in the relatively shallow waters of Ninety Mile Beach MNP. 






2007). There are no listed sites of biological significance in the MNP. 

Flora 

No conservation listed marine flora has been recorded in Ninety Mile Beach MNP (Parks 

Victoria 2006e). 

Fish 

No conservation listed fish have been recorded at Ninety Mile Beach MNP or its immediate 

surrounds. 

Birds 

Twenty-eight conservation listed shore or sea birds have been sighted in or in the immediate 

surrounds of Ninety Mile Beach MNP (Table 11). Nineteen are recognized as threatened in 

Victoria, listed under the FFG Act 1988 or the Victorian Rare or Threatened Species 

(VROTS) list. Three, the great knot Calidris tenuiros, fairy tern Sternula nereis and little egret 

Egretta garzetta are regarded as endangered. One bird the fairy prion Pachyptila turtur is 

listed as vulnerable at both the state and national level. Twenty birds are recognized 

internationally under the Australia Migratory Bird Agreement with either China (CAMBA) or 

38



Japan (JAMBA). Hooded plovers Thinornis rubricollis are thought to nest outside of the MNP 

at McLoughlins Beach in the Seaspray Coastal Reserve (Figure 15). 

Table 11. Conservation listed shorebird and seabird records from Ninety Mile Beach Marine National 


Victorian 

listing 

National 

listing 

International 

treaty 


fairy prion Pachyptila turtur VU VU J 

great knot Calidris 

L EN C J 

tenuirostris 

eastern great Ardea modesta L VU C J 

egret 

little tern Sternula albifrons L VU C J 

Caspian tern Hydroprogne L NT C J 

caspia 

white-bellied seaeagle 

Haliaeetus 

L VU C 

leucogaster 


little egret Egretta garzetta L EN 

hooded plover Thinornis 

L VU 

rubricollis 

Pacific golden Pluvialis fulva NT C J 

plover 

red knot Calidris canutus NT C J 

Latham's snipe Gallinago 

NT C J 

hardwickii 

grey plover Pluvialis 

NT C J 

squatarola 

white-winged Chlidonias 

NT C J 

black tern leucopterus 

red-necked stint Calidris ruficollis C J 

curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea C J 

bar-tailed godwit Limosa lapponica C J 

sharp-tailed Calidris acuminata C J 

sandpiper 

common 

Tringa nebularia C J 

greenshank 

sooty shearwater Ardenna grisea C J 


marsh sandpiper Tringa stagnatilis C J 

short-tailed Ardenna 

J 

shearwater tenuirostris 

royal spoonbill Platalea regia VU 


pied cormorant Phalacrocorax 

NT 

varius 

nankeen night Nycticorax 

NT 

heron 

caledonicus 


39




The marine mammals recorded in the MNP are transient and include the southern right 

whale Eubalaena australis that is listed as critically endangered in Victorian waters and 

endangered nationally, Australian fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus and the state 

vulnerable New Zealand fur seals Arctophoca forsteri (Table 12). Five listed marine reptiles 

occur as vagrants along the eastern Victorian coast and probably occur in the waters of the 

MNP include the loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta, green turtle Chelonia mydas, Pacific 

ridley Lepidochelys olivacea, leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea, and yellow-bellied 

sea snake Pelamis platurus (Plummer et al. 2003). 

Table 12. Conservation listed marine mammal and reptile records from Ninety Mile Beach Marine 

National Park and surrounds. 


Common name Scientific name FFG VROTS EPBC AROTS 

southern right whale Eubalaena australis L CR EN EN 


Australian fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus 

L 

doriferus 

L = FFG listed, VU = vulnerable, EN = endangered, CR = critically endangered 


An assessment of distribution, endemism and rarity of biota across the state found that the 

Brachyura crab Halicarcinus sp. MoV746 was presumed to be endemic to the Ninety Mile 

Beach area including the MNP (O'Hara and Barmby 2000; O’Hara and Poore 2000). No 

biota have been recorded or presumed to be at their distributional limit in Ninety Mile Beach 

MNP (O'Hara and Barmby 2000; O’Hara and Poore 2000; Plummer et al. 2003). 







the risk posed by each hazard (Carey et al. 2007b). Four hazards with the potential to be 



1. Visitor activities on shore within the park (e.g. dune buggies, dogs off-lead) affecting 

the feeding and roosting of shorebirds (intertidal soft sediment); 

2. Introduction of exotic marine species via ballast water or hull fouling, recreational 

boating, or natural dispersal from adjacent waters, and resulting in displacement of 

native species (all of park especially soft sediment); 

3. Trawling or scallop dredging affecting subtidal soft sediment and reef (i.e. benthic) 

habitats (subtidal soft sediment); and 

4. Introduction of pathogens via fish bait or berley for either commercial or recreational 

fishing (but probably largely recreational) affecting local species (all of park especially 

soft sediment). 

Native vegetation has been largely removed from the dunes behind the beach and replaced 

with Marram Grass (Parks Victoria 2006e; Figure 16). This has contributed to the formation 

of a high, single-ridge dune along Ninety Mile Beach which is more susceptible to wind and 

wave erosion. The changing dune structure has resulted in a beach face that is frequently 

40



inundated by wave action right up to the dune base, reducing the beach’s suitability for 

shore-nesting birds (Parks Victoria 2006e). Illegal vehicle access on and through the dunes 

has contributed to blowouts in areas adjacent to the park (Parks Victoria 2006e). 

Figure 16. Steep dunes bordering Ninety Mile Beach Marine National Park 



Victoria 2003). No known introduced species have been recorded in the MNP (Parks Victoria 

2006e). Because of the park’s inaccessibility and associated difficulty in conducting regular, 

detailed surveys, incursions of marine pests are unlikely to be detected until they are fully 

established and beyond potential control (Parks Victoria 2006e). Most marine pests known 

from Victorian waters are limited to Port Phillip Bay (Parks Victoria 2003). Species of 

particular concern include the Northern Pacific seastar Asterias amurensis, European 

fanworm Sabella spallanzanii, broccoli weed Codium fragile (subsp. fragile) and screw shell 

Maoricolpus roseus (Parks Victoria 2003). 

The screw shell has been recorded south-east of Ninety Mile Beach MNP in Point Hicks 

MNP and Corner Inlet (Parks Victoria 2006e; Heislers and Parry 2007; Holmes et al. 2007a). 

It is a 5 cm long gastropod introduced to Tasmania from New Zealand in the 1920s (Bax et 

al. 2003). It has now spread out to the 80 m depth contour off the eastern Victorian and New 

South Wales coasts (Patil et al. 2004). The dense beds of this invasive species change the 

benthic structure with unknown (and unexamined) effects on ecosystem services (Patil et al. 

2004). In Point Hicks MNP where this invasive species was most abundant, the diversity of 

infauna was reduced, suggesting that this exotic species poses a serious threat to the high 

diversity of infauna that is characteristic of much of Bass Strait (Heislers and Parry 2007). 

41







change circulation and productivity (El Nino), increase frequencies of extreme weather 

events and exposure to damaging ultraviolet light (UVB), and increase air temperature, cloud 

cover and sea levels (conservatively 80 cm by 2100; CSIRO-BoM 2007; Fine and Franklin 

2007; VCC 2008; McLeod et al. 2009). A combined increase in cloud cover and sea level 

could result in decreased light availability potentially changing benthic flora. Increased storm 

surges and ocean current changes also have the potential to change the distribution of 

fauna and flora and could result in loss of habitats (CSIRO-BoM 2007). Intertidal 

communities will face increased desiccation, storm wave exposure and habitat shift. 

Changes in the relationship between climate and annual life-history events may force major 

change in functional groups and consequent ecosystem function (Fine and Franklin 2007). 

Climate change is also anticipated to modify species recruitment and habitat connectivity, 

species interactions and disturbance regimes in the marine environment (CSIRO-BoM 2007; 

Fine and Franklin 2007). 


Ninety Mile Beach MNP (Parks Victoria 2006e). Parks Victoria has also undertaken a 

















research relevant to Ninety Mile Beach MNP has been published in Parks Victoria’s 

Technical Series available on Parks Victoria’s website (http://www.parkweb.vic.gov.au). As 

most research in the MNP has been carried out under permits issued by DSE, the permit 


Appendix 2). 



photos, and using semi-quantitative methods to determine spatial and temporal changes 

across the system in response to threats, including marine pests and climate change. Jan 

Carey (University of Melbourne) is conducting research focussing on marine pest species 

which may impact on park values, and the MPAs which are most at risk of invasion. This will 

help prioritise Parks Victoria surveillance monitoring efforts to MPAs where there is greatest 

potential for successful management. The University of Melbourne is also investigating and 

assessing water quality issues affecting natural values in all MPAs. 

42



Table 13. Ongoing Research Partner Panel (and RPP-like) research projects implemented in 

partnership with, or commissioned by, Parks Victoria relevant to Ninety Mile Beach Marine National 

Park. 




species. 






Museum Victoria: Mark Norman, Julian Finn, Parks Victoria: Roger Fenwick 








No new surveys exist for the ecological communities of sandy beaches, intertidal or subtidal 

soft sediments. There is little data on fish abundances, distributions or interactions. No 

information exists at present for water column communities. Major threats have been 

identified for Ninety Mile Beach MNP but we have limited knowledge of the effect on the 

natural values, particularly ecological communities. 

43



2.3 Point Hicks MNP – Twofold Shelf Bioregion 

Point Hicks is one of three Marine National Parks in the Twofold Shelf bioregion, which also 

contains Ninety Mile Beach and Cape Howe MNP. Other conservation areas are Gippsland 

Lakes and Cape Conran Coastal Parks. Point Hicks MNP is approximately 450 km east of 

Melbourne, 68 km east of Orborst and 25 km south-east of Cann River. It adjoins Point Hicks 

Lighthouse Reserve and the Croajingolong National Park. It extends offshore to state limits 

from high water mark along 9.6 km of coastline from two kilometres east of Clinton Rocks to 

Stable Bay (Figure 17). It includes Whaleback Rock and Sensation Reef. Point Hicks MNP is 

accessible by a short walk from Point Hicks Road, or less readily by boat (Parks Victoria 

2006f). The reef directly below Point Hicks (formerly known as Cape Everard), Whaleback 

Rock and Satisfaction Reef are the best-known geological features of the park (Parks 

Victoria 2006f). The area of coast between Point Hicks and Thurra River is a site of State 

geological and/or geomorphological significance because of its important dune stratigraphic 

sequence. 

Aboriginal tradition indicates that the Point Hicks MNP is part of the Country of the Bidawal 

people and Gunai/Kurnai people and that other Aboriginal people including the Monero- 

Ngarigo people also have an association with the coastal region of this area (Parks Victoria 

2006e). 

Important natural values of Point Hicks MNP are its granite intertidal and shallow and deep 

subtidal rocky reefs, sandy shores and open oceans that provide habitat for a diversity of 

marine flora and fauna species, including sessile invertebrates, algae, fish and transient 

whales (Parks Victoria 2006f). Shallow rocky reef habitats have varied forms, from flat 

platform reefs bordered by sand, pinnacles and bombies, gutters, large boulders rising to six 

metres to clusters of smaller rocks and stones (ECC 2000; Carey et al. 2007b; Edmunds et 

al. 2010a). They are highly exposed, which is reflected in the types of kelp habitats present 

(Edmunds et al. 2010a). Deep subtidal reef characteristics have not been fully described 

(Edmunds et al. 2010a). The MNP also has extensive subtidal soft sediments of variable 

grainsize, with a low carbonate content (Carey et al. 2007b). Very high faunal species 

richness, including intertidal and shallow subtidal invertebrates have been recorded in the 

MNP (ECC 2000). Eastern temperate and southern cosmopolitan species co-occur, as a 

result of the mixing of warm eastern and cool southern waters (Parks Victoria 2006f). The 

marine flora and fauna of the subtidal reefs are spectacular with colourful and diverse sessile 

invertebrates (Carey et al. 2007b). A notable feature are the front reefs and Whaleback 

Rock, which have high relief gutters of 1 - 15 m and a high area of sessile invertebrate 

habitat on the vertical walls (O'Hara 2000). 

An important characteristic of Point Hicks MNP is its canopy forming algae and small 

understorey algae (ECC 2000; Carey et al. 2007b). The stands of canopy forming algae are 

generally a mixture of crayweed Phyllospora comosa and common kelp Ecklonia radiata, 

with the proportions of these two species varying according to the habitat, depth and location 

(Williams et al. 2007; Edmunds et al. 2010b). The reef beneath the canopy varies from 

encrusting and erect sponges to small fleshy red algae (Parks Victoria 2003). The 

Phyllospora invertebrate community includes relatively high abundances of the predatory 

whelk Cabestana spengleri and the seastar Patiriella calcar, and moderate abundances of 

blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra and the red bait crab Plagusia chabrus (Parks Victoria 2003; 

Edmunds et al. 2005; Williams et al. 2007). The herbivorous sea urchin Centrostephanus 

rodgersii can remove all erect algae to create ‘urchin barrens’ on the reefs in the MNP 

(Williams et al. 2007). 

Fish assemblages at Point Hicks MNP are a mixture of cool southern and warm eastern 

species. They are dominated by large numbers blue throat wrasse Notolabrus tetricus and 

44



purple wrasse Notolabrus fucicola (Edmunds et al. 2010b). Other fish species include the 

banded morwong Cheilodactylus spectabilis, sea sweep Scorpis aequipinnis, Maori wrasse 

Ophthalmolepis lineolata, one-spot puller Chromis hypsilepis and white-ear damselfish 

Parma microlepis (Parks Victoria 2003). The eastern blue grouper Achoerodus viridis is also 

a prominent species, but present in low numbers (Parks Victoria 2003). 

Point Hicks MNP provides important feeding and roosting habitat for several threatened bird 

species such as the hooded plover Thinornis rubricollis, little egret Egretta garzetta and fairy 

tern Sternula nereis which are listed under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee (FFG) Act 

(1998). The latter two are regarded as endangered. The MNP protects feeding areas for 

species of national environmental significance under the Commonwealth Environment 

Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act (1999) and species that are listed 

under the Japan–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA) and the China–Australia 

Migratory Bird Agreement (CAMBA, Parks Victoria 2006f). The conservation listed southern 

right Eubalaena australis and humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae, killer whale 

Orcinus orca and whale shark Rhincodon typus use the MNP waters. The leopard seal 

Hydrurga leptonyx have been observed in the waters in and around the MNP. Although not 

recorded the leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea probably also occurs in the MNP. 

Eleven species of marine flora and fauna are believed to be at their eastern or western 

distributional limits within the MNP. 

Serious threats to the Point Hicks MNP include limited ecological knowledge of important 

processes. Invasive marine pests from commercial and recreational boats; poaching of 

abalone; and climate change all pose serious threats to the integrity of the MNP (Carey et al. 

2007b). Measures to address or minimise these threats form part of the management plan 

for Point Hicks MNP (Parks Victoria 2006f). Ongoing intertidal and subtidal reef monitoring, 

and specific research aims to increase ecological knowledge about the natural values of, 

and threats to Point Hicks MNP. 


Point Hicks MNP is 3810 hectares in size which makes it the 5th largest of the 24 Marine 

National Parks or Sanctuaries in Victoria (Table 14, Figure 17). Point Hicks promontory is 

granite with a wide rocky and bouldery shore, which includes some metamorphic outcrops 

west of the lighthouse (Bird 1993). Sandy beaches flank the headland backed by extensive 

dunes (Figure 18). The seabed has a relatively steep gradient with reef descending into 

deeper water relatively close to shore (Ball and Blake 2007). The subtidal reef consists of 

granite slopes, boulders and outcrops (Williams et al. 2007). The seafloor of the park drops 

away rapidly to 88 metres in depth (Holmes et al. 2007a). Greater than 80% of the MNP is 

>20 m depth. Prevailing winds and swells are generally from the south-west and north-east 

(Parks Victoria 2006f). Most of the subtidal reef in Point Hicks MNP is highly exposed to 

westerly swell and seas (Williams et al. 2007). The coastline is influenced by high energy 

waves and twice daily tides. Tidal variation is 0.9 metres for spring tides and 0.6 metres for 

neap tides (Plummer et al. 2003). Surface water temperatures average 19° C in the summer 

and 14 °C in the winter. The MNP is influenced by both cool southern waters and the warm 

East Australian Current. The continental slope is quite close and cold-water upwellings are 

frequent (Williams et al. 2007). These upwellings provide nutrients to the inshore 

ecosystems, contributing to high productivity (Williams et al. 2007). No estuaries or 

intermittent creeks run directly into the park (Table 14). 

45

Figure 17. Location map of Point Hicks Marine National Park with high resolution bathymetry. Subtidal reef monitoring sites inside and outside the MNP are 

shown, there are no intertidal monitoring sites.



Table 14. Physical attributes of the Point Hicks Marine National Park. 

Park Name 

Point Hicks 




Twofold Shelf 



~ 9.6 km 


Granite and sand 


0 - 10 m 307 ha 

Comprising 10 m) subtidal substrate and biota was 

surveyed and mapped acoustically (Figure 19 & Figure 20) by Holmes et al. (2007a). 

Underwater video transects allowed the substrate and biota to be predictively modelled for 

the areas not surveyed. 

47



The coast of Point Hicks MNP is mostly bare sandy sediment with a band of high profile reef 

extending from a narrow intertidal rock platform around the base of Point Hicks itself (Figure 

17 and 18). The majority of the intertidal habitat is sandy beach fronting an extensive dune 

system in the west of the MNP (Ball and Blake 2007). The subtidal reef is mostly continuous 

close to shore, becoming more patchy moving offshore (Ball and Blake 2007). It consists of 

granite slopes, boulders, rock gullies and outcrops (Williams et al. 2007). Some areas of 

boulders and cobble are interspersed with sand (Williams et al. 2007). The main biotic 

habitat is tall crayweed Phyllospora comosa and common kelp Ecklonia radiate (Williams et 

al. 2007). Underneath this canopy there is a highly diverse cover of fleshy red thallose algae 

(Williams et al. 2007). Giant kelp Macrocystis pyrifera can also occur adding to the vertical 

habitat structure (Williams et al. 2007). 

The majority of the subtidal sediment (Figure 19) is flat medium sand or coarse gravel made 

up of shells or shell fragments (Holmes et al. 2007a). Sediment as mapped by Holmes et al. 

(2007a) covered 33 sq. km and reef outcrops in nearshore shallower water < 55 m, covered 

1 sq. km. Nearly half of the mapped sediment had no identifiable biota living on it. The rest 

has sparse macroalgae Caulerpa and sessile invertebrates (e.g. Figure 22) predominately 

sponges (Holmes et al. 2007a). Sessile invertebrates are common from approximately 30 m 

depth (Figure 20), and sparse Caulerpa is modelled as present over an extensive band at 

moderate water depths (Holmes et al. 2007a). 

Figure 18. Aerial view of the coast of Point Hicks Marine National Park (QASCO 20/01/04). 

Photography ortho-rectified by PIRVic. Figure from Ball and Blake (2007). 

48



Figure 19. Substrate mapping of Point Hicks Marine National Park showing sites of geological 

significance. 

49



Figure 20. Biota mapping of Point Hicks Marine National Park showing sites of biological significance. 

50



Figure 21. Sponge garden in Point Hicks Marine National Park. Photo by Mark Norman Museum of 

Victoria. 


General 

Since the first natural values report by Plummer et al. (2003) Parks Victoria has invested in 

extensive monitoring and mapping surveys in Point Hicks MNP. There has been broadscale 

habitat mapping, with the intertidal and shallow subtidal areas mapped from aerial and 

satellite imagery (Ball and Blake 2007) and the deep subtidal areas with hydroacoustic 

surveys (Holmes et al. 2007a). There have been four SRMP surveys of the shallow subtidal 

reef biota of Cape Howe which are summarised by Williams et al. (2007) and Edmunds et al. 

(2010b). Additional funding has allowed samples from deep subtidal soft sediment surveyed 

in the MNP in 1998 to be processed and identified (Heislers and Parry 2007). There have 

still been no surveys of sandy beaches, the biota of intertidal reefs or the pelagic habitats. 

Important locations for some birds and mammals are shown in Figure 20. Surveys in the 

MNP found red and brown algae dominate the diversity of macrophytes, gastropods and 

echinoderms the invertebrates and fish and birds the vertebrates in Point Hicks MNP (Table 

15, Appendix 1). 

51



Table 15. Summary of the number of species in major biotic groups from surveys in Point Hicks 


Biotic group 



Green algae 3 


Red algae 19 

Seagrasses 1 


Sponges 0 

Cnidaria 0 

Polychaetes 0 

Barnacles 0 

Decapod crustaceans 4 

Sea spiders 0 

Chitons 2 

Gastropods 22 

Bivalves 0 

Sea slugs 1 

Cephalopods 0 



Fish 46 

Birds 54 

Reptiles 1 

Mammals 5 

Figure 22. Blue mussels Mytilus edulis on subtidal reef in Point Hicks Marine National Park. Photo by 

Mark Norman Museum of Victoria. 

52



Intertidal 

Soft sediment 

The intertidal soft sediment is in the north-west of Point Hicks MNP as sand beach fronting 

an extensive dune system (Ball and Blake 2007). As noted by Plummer et al. (2003) no 

specific data on the biota on sandy beaches are available in the MNP or nearby. Intertidal 

soft sediment flora is restricted to macroalgae drift and macroalgal epiphytes. Beach-washed 

materials in sandy beach habitats are a significant source of food for many shore birds, and 

contribute to the detrital cycle that nourishes many of the invertebrates, such as bivalves, 

living in the sand (Parks Victoria 2006c). 

Reef 

Rocky intertidal reefs, also called rocky reefs or intertidal platforms, are generally found in 

Victoria on and near headlands with stretches of sandy beaches either side. Along with 

beaches, intertidal reefs are one of the most accessible components of the marine 

environment as they are the interface between the ocean and the land (Power and Boxshall 

2007). As such they are valued as important habitats by people and tend to be visited more 

than other sections of the coast (Carey et al. 2007a; Carey et al. 2007b). This means they 

are often subjected to human pressures like harvesting, fossicking and trampling as well as 

pressures from pollution sources on land and in the sea (Power and Boxshall 2007). 

Intertidal reef biota are exposed to large changes in physical conditions such as temperature 

and desiccation. There is great spatial and temporal variability in the life histories of the 

organisms and the environmental processes in reef habitats (Underwood and Chapman 

2004). The recruitment of new biota onto the reef, from the plankton, strongly influences the 

ecological patterns for individual species and assemblages. Interactions between biota on 

the reef also influence biota distribution. Resources which are often in short supply on 

intertidal reefs are space on which to live and the food itself (Underwood and Chapman 

2004). 

The composition of invertebrate assemblages living on the intertidal reefs at Point Hicks are 

more similar to those found at Mallacoota, Merimbula and Bermagui than to assemblages 

found further west along the Victorian coast (Hidas et al. 2007). East coast species 

contributing to these differences have lower densities at Point Hicks than in NSW (Hidas et 

al. 2010). 

The MNP has a relatively narrow band rock platform around the base of Point Hicks itself 

(Ball and Blake 2007). The remote location of the MNP means that human threats to the 

intertidal reef such as biota collection and trampling is low, due to this there is has been no 

intertidal reef monitoring program in Point Hicks MNP. As noted by Plummer et al. (2003) no 

specific data on the biota on intertidal reefs are available in Point Hicks MNP or nearby. 

Subtidal 

Soft sediment 

Between Whaleback Rock and the isolated reef directly off Point Hicks biogenic gravel, 

consisting of whole and broken shells often encrusted in pink algae, covers the ocean floor 

(Holmes et al. 2007a). Shell areas tend to have many small orange ball sponges Tethya in 

amongst the shells (Holmes et al. 2007a). Sometimes vertical sponges are also present, 

attached to larger shells (Holmes et al. 2007a). Areas with rippled sand also contains shells 

in the ripple troughs. These shells are usually covered in pink encrusting algae, possibly 

indicating the presence of rhodoliths in these areas (Holmes et al. 2007a). Sand areas tend 

to be bare, although if vegetation is present, it is usually clumps of Caulerpa. Some areas of 

sand are inhabited by sessile invertebrates; however, as the species of invertebrates 

observed must attach to a hard substrate, it is assumed that the sand forms a thin veneer 

over the reef (Holmes et al. 2007a). 

53



Depth and sediment affect the distribution of benthic invertebrates along the Victorian coast. 

According to Coleman et al. (2007) and Heislers and Parry (2007) species richness was 

greater at 40 metres compared to 10 or 20 metres depth. Their coastal survey of benthic 

fauna included the benthos of Point Hicks MNP. One transect off Point Hicks was sampled 

with two 0.1 m 2 grab samples in 10, 20 and 40 m of water depth. The sediment ranged from 

fine sand to coarse sand with shells (Heislers and Parry 2007). The grab samples contained 

between 100 to 1130 individuals and 16 to 71 species (Heislers and Parry 2007). 

Crustaceans were the dominant taxa in each depth class, representing more than half of the 

most abundant families. The majority of these were amphipods and cumaceans, while 

isopods and ostracods were also common. Polychaetes represented the bulk of the 

remaining families while molluscs were poorly represented. Four families were common in all 

depth classes, including one amphipod family (Phoxocephalidae), and three polychaete 

families (Spionidae, Syllidae and Paraonidae). The invasive New Zealand screw shell, 

Maoricolpus roseus, was identified in very high densities at 40 m depth in the Pt Hicks MNP 

(Heislers and Parry 2007). Where this invasive species was most abundant, the diversity of 



Trawl surveys conducted off Point Hicks indicate that the dominant fish species on subtidal 

soft sediment are school whiting Sillago flindersi, sparsely spotted stingaree Urolophus 

paucimaculatus, piked dog shark Squalus megalops, jack mackerel Trachurus declivis, 

round snouted gurnard Lepidotrigla mulhalli, red rock cod Scorpaena papillosus and cocky 

gurnard Lepidotrigla vanessa (Plummer et al. 2003). Other important species include banded 

stingaree Urolophus cruciatus (Figure 23), short finned gurnard, scaber leatherjacket Parika 

scaber and gurnard perch Neosebastes scorpaenoides (Plummer et al. 2003). 

Nearby inshore areas have been identified in recreational fishing guides as hosting gummy 

sharks Mustelus antarcticus, Australian salmon Arripis trutta and tailor Pomatomus saltatrix 

(Plummer et al. 2003). Newborn pups of gummy sharks inhabit shallow inshore areas and 

there is some evidence to suggest that the inshore sandy areas east of Wilsons Promontory, 

including Point Hicks MNP, may be important feeding areas for gummy shark pups 

(Plummer et al. 2003). The commercial catch data also indicates that the general area 

provides suitable habitat for gummy sharks, saw sharks and elephant sharks Callorhinchus 

milii (Plummer et al. 2003). These shark species are all demersal and so the subtidal soft 

sediment environment within and adjacent to Point Hicks MNP may provide an important 

feeding ground for these species (Plummer et al. 2003). 

Figure 23. Banded stingaree Urolophus cruciatus in Point Hicks Marine National Park. Photo by Mark 

Norman Museum of Victoria. 

54



Reef 





Biotic assemblages of algae and sessile invertebrates can form habitat and food sources for 

invertebrates and fish. Shallow (




Common invertebrate grazers found on Point Hick reefs include blacklip abalone Haliotis 

rubra, the eastern temperate gastropod Astralium tentoriformis, warrener Turbo undulates 

and sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma. Predatory invertebrates include dogwhelks 

Dicathais orbita, eastern rock lobster Jasus verreauxi, octopus Octopus moarum and a wide 

variety of seastar species (Williams et al. 2007; Edmunds et al. 2010b). The cunjevoi Pyura 

stolonifera is an obvious invertebrate on the reef close to shore (Ball and Blake 2007). In 

general, Point Hicks shallow subtidal reefs are characterised by high abundances of the 

predatory gastropod Cabestana spengleri, the seastar Patiriella calcar and moderate 

abundances of blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra and the red bait crab Plagusia chabrus (Parks 

Victoria 2003; Edmunds et al. 2010b). Point Hicks MNP invertebrate assemblage is distinct 

from Cape Howe and Beware Reef regions (Edmunds et al. 2010b). 

The long-spined black sea urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii (Figure 24) does occur in Point 

Hicks MNP (Williams et al. 2007). Centrostephanus forms large grazing aggregations which 

denude the reef of erect algal species, forming ‘sea urchin barrens’ and these have been 

observed in the MNP (O'Hara 2000; Holmes et al. 2007a; Edmunds et al. 2010b). The 

occurrence of urchin barren habitat reflects the influence of species from the east coast of 

Australia on the MNP (Williams et al. 2007). Removal of large seaweeds by 

Centrostephanus causes substantial changes to subtidal reef community structure (Williams 

et al. 2007). 

Figure 24. Black urchins Centrostephanus rodgersii and butterfly perch Caesioperca lepidoptera in 

Point Hicks Marine National Park. Photo by Mark Norman Museum of Victoria. 

Deep subtidal reefs (> 20 m) are dominated by sessile invertebrates. From 15 – 20 m to 

approximately 40 m depth, the Ecklonia canopy thins out and is gradually replaced by a 

‘garden’ of massive erect sponges, encrusting sponges, gorgonian coral Mopsella zimmeri, 

sea-whip coral Primnoella australasiae, and basket star Conocladus australis (Ball and 

Blake 2007). 

56



Fish 

The fish assemblages associated with the Twofold Shelf bioregion Phyllospora communities 

are quite different to Phyllospora communities elsewhere in Victoria (Parks Victoria 2003). 

These fish assemblages have characteristics typical of both eastern and southern temperate 

waters (Williams et al. 2007). There are high abundances of banded morwong, Maori wrasse 

Ophthalmolepis lineolata, one-spot puller Chromis hypsilepis and white-ear damselfish 

Parma microlepis (Williams et al. 2007; Edmunds et al. 2010b). Species such as the mado 

Atypichthys strigatus, rock cale Crinodus lophodon, purple wrasse Notolabrus fucicola and 

the blue morwong Nemadactylus douglasii are regularly observed (Ball and Blake 2007; 

Williams et al. 2007). The fish assemblages in Point Hicks MNP are distinct from Beware 

Reef and Cape Howe (Edmunds et al. 2010b). They are dominated by large numbers of 

blue-throated wrasse Notolabrus tetricus and particularly the purple wrasse (Edmunds et al. 

2005; Williams et al. 2007; Edmunds et al. 2010b). The eastern blue grouper Achoerodus 

viridis is also a prominent species in the MNP, but present in low numbers (Parks Victoria 

2003). The density of herring cale Odax cyanomelas can show large temporal variations and 

the densities of sea sweep Scorpis aequipinnis is generally low (Edmunds et al. 2010b). 

Zebra fish Girella zebra can occur in large numbers (Williams et al. 2007). The banded 

morwong is common over both shallow and deep reef (Ball and Blake 2007). Schools of 

butterfly perch Caesioperca lepidoptera (Figures 24 and 25) can be observed in deeper 

areas where sessile invertebrates start to dominate (Ball and Blake 2007). 

Figure 25. A school of butterfly perch Caesioperca lepidoptera over a subtidal reef sponge garden in 

Point Hicks Marine National Park. Photo by Mark Norman, Museum of Victoria. 

57



Water column 















reptiles are found in the waters of Point Hicks MNP. 






2007). 

Flora 

No threatened marine flora has been recorded in Point Hicks MNP (Parks Victoria 2006f). 

Fish 

Many fish found in streams and rivers nearby Point Hicks National Park, have marine larval 

stages that would pass through and probably feed in the MNP. This would include the state 

and nationally vulnerable Australian grayling (Table 16). The nationally threatened whale 

shark has been recorded in the waters of Point Hicks MNP. The eastern blue groper 

Achoerodus viridis is present in low numbers in Point Hicks MNP. It is threatened by over 

fishing and a temporary protection from all fishing in Victoria was introduced in April 2011. 

Table 16. Conservation listed fish records from Point Hicks Marine National Park and surrounds. 


Common name Scientific name FFG VROTS EPBC 

Australian grayling Prototroctes maraena L VU VU 

whale shark Rhincodon typus VU 

L = FFG listed, VU = vulnerable 

Birds 

Twenty-six conservation listed shore or sea birds have been sighted in or in the immediate 

surrounds of Point Hicks MNP (Table 17). Twenty are recognized as threatened in Victoria, 

listed under the FFG Act 1988 or the Victorian Rare or Threatened Species (VROTS) list. 

Two, the little egret and fairy tern are regarded as endangered. Four birds are listed as 

vulnerable at both the state and national level, including the northern giant-petrel, fairy prion, 

shy and black-browed albatross. Twelve birds are recognized internationally under the 

Australia Migratory Bird Agreement with either China (CAMBA) or Japan (JAMBA). Hooded 

Plover nesting sites have been recorded along the coast to the east of the park and at the 

mouth of the Mueller and Thurra Rivers, and it is likely that they forage along the park’s 

shore (Parks Victoria 2006f). 

58



Table 17. Conservation listed shorebird and seabirds records from Point Hicks Marine National Park 

and surrounds. 


listing 

International 

treaty 



common 

Tringa nebularia C J 

greenshank 

whimbrel 

Numenius 

VU C J 

phaeopus 


sooty oystercatcher Haematopus 

NT 

fuliginosus 

little egret Egretta garzetta L EN 


common sandpiper Actitis 

VU C J 

hypoleucos 

hooded plover Thinornis 

L VU 

rubricollis 

grey plover 

Pluvialis 

NT C J 

squatarola 




Caspian tern Hydroprogne L NT C J 

caspia 


black-faced Phalacrocorax 

NT 

cormorant 

fuscescens 

pied cormorant Phalacrocorax 

NT 

varius 



Haliaeetus 

L VU C 

leucogaster 

common divingpetrel 

Pelecanoides 

NT 

urinatrix 


Wilson's stormpetrel 

short-tailed 

shearwater 

northern giantpetrel 

shy albatross 

Oceanites 

oceanicus 

Ardenna 

tenuirostris 

Macronectes halli L NT VU 

Thalassarche L VU VU 

cauta 

black-browed Thalassarche 

VU VU 

albatross 

melanophris 

L= listed, NT = Near Threatened, VU = Vulnerable, EN = Endangered, C = listed under the CAMBA 

treaty, J = listed under the JAMBA treaty 

J 

J 

59





novaeangliae have been recorded in or near the Point Hicks MNP (Table 18). The southern 

right whale E. australis is listed as critically endangered in Victorian waters and endangered 

nationally. The humpback whale M. novaeangliae is listed as vulnerable at the state and 

national level. The killer whale Orcinus orca, leopard seal Hydrurga leptonyx and Australian 

fur seal Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus have been observed in the waters in and around the 

park. Marine mammals such as dolphins, whales, Australian fur seal A. pusillus doriferus 

and threatened New Zealand fur seal Arctophoca forsteri are transient through the MNP 

(Parks Victoria 2006f). The yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis platurus has been recorded in 

or near the MNP. Four other listed marine reptiles occur as vagrants along the eastern 

Victorian coast: loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta, green turtle Chelonia mydas, Pacific ridley 

Lepidochelys olivacea and leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea and probably transit 

through the MNP (Plummer et al. 2003). Many other animals probably use the MNP waters 

but its remoteness means there are few observations. 

Table 18. Conservation listed marine mammal and reptile records from Point Hicks Marine National 



listing 

International 

convention 





Australian fur seal Arctocephalus pusillus 

L 

doriferus 


Loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta L 

Leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea L 

L = FFG listed, M = listed Migratory, VU = vulnerable, EN = endangered, CR = critically endangered 


An assessment of distribution, endemism and rarity of biota across the state found that Point 

Hicks MNP had one mollusc the welk Fax molleri presumed to be endemic to the park 

(O'Hara and Barmby 2000; O’Hara and Poore 2000). 

Fourteen biota (Table 19) have been recorded or presumed to be at their distributional limit 

in Point Hicks MNP (O'Hara and Barmby 2000; Plummer et al. 2003). Four red algae have 

been recorded as being at the easterly limit of their distribution in Point Hicks MNP. Eight 

biota have been recorded as being at their western limit of distribution in Point Hicks MNP, 

including five gastropods, one feather star, one sea urchin and the whale shark. One crab 

and one gastropod are presumed to be at their western limit of distribution (O'Hara and 

Barmby 2000; O’Hara and Poore 2000). The distributional limits of the biota listed in Table 

19 may reflect collection effort in this area rather than actual Victorian distributions. Many 

areas of the Victorian coast have never been sampled and therefore biota ranges may be 

much greater than those suggested. 

60



Table 19. Marine species at their distribution limits in Point Hicks Marine National Park (O'Hara 2002). 

Order Family Species Common Category 

name 

Gigartinales Plocamiaceae Plocamium dilatatum red algae RE 

Erythropeltidales Erythrotrichiaceae Porphyropsis minuta* red algae RE 

Ceramiales Ceramiaceae Scageliopsis patens* red algae RE 

Erythroneaema 

red algae RE 

ceramoides* 

Brachyura Oziidae Ozius truncatus crab PW 

Gastropoda Onchidiidae Onchidella australis marine snail PW 

Gastropoda Cerithiidae Glyptozaria euglypta marine snail RW 

Gastropoda Anabathridae Pisinna albizona marine snail RW 

Gastropoda Anabathridae Pisinna laseroni marine snail RW 

Gastropoda Turridae Vexitomina torquata marine snail RW 

Polyplacophora Chitonidae Chiton (Rhyssoplax) chiton 

RW 

jugosus 

Crinoidea Isocrinidae Metacrinus cyaneus feather star RW 

Echinoidea Temnopleuridae Pseudechinus notius sea urchin RW 

Orectolobiformes Rhincodontidae Rhincodon typus whale shark RW 


recorded eastern limit, RW = recorded western limit. 

‘* from Kraft, G.T. (2001) as reported by Plummer et al. (2003). 

Figure 26. Featherduster worms Sabellastarte australiensis on subtidal reef in Point Hicks Marine 

National Park. Photo by Mark Norman, Museum of Victoria. 

61




Threats to natural values in Point Hicks MNP were derived from lists of hazards and 

associated risks in Carey et al. (2007b). These were the result of a statewide consultative 

process to identify threats to MPAs. Through public and agency workshops, the natural 

values in individual MPAs and the threats that could affect them over the next 10 years, were 

considered and ranked to identify hazards. This list of hazards was then ranked (low, 

medium, high and extreme) by the risk posed by each hazard (Carey et al. 2007b). Four 

hazards with the potential to be extreme in Point Hicks MNP were identified by Carey et al. 

(2007b). They are listed in rank order and the habitat or area at risk within the MNP is 

indicated in brackets: 

1. Introduced species from commercial vessels (including secondary introductions) 

leading to changes in community structure (potentially all of MNP, benthic 

communities most at risk); 

2. Poaching of abalone in commercial quantities leading to decreased abalone 

populations and consequent impacts on subtidal reef communities (subtidal reef); 

3. Lack of ecological knowledge leading to inappropriate management and thus impacts 

on habitats and communities (potentially all of MNP); and 

4. Introduced marine pests from recreational boats leading to impacts on relevant 

ecological communities (potentially all of MNP, benthic communities most at risk). 



Victoria 2003). Most marine pests known from Victorian waters are limited to Port Phillip 

Bay (Parks Victoria 2003). Two introduced species or marine pest has been recorded Point 

Hicks MNP, the screw shell Maoricolpus roseus (Holmes et al. 2007a) and the New Zealand 

sea star Astrostole scabra (Edmunds et al. 2010b). It is presumed that the introduced green 

meany or green shore crab Carcinus maenas occurs on the intertidal reefs of all the MPAs, 

except Ninety Mile Beach which has no intertidal reef. Other species of particular concern 

include the Northern Pacific seastar Asterias amurensis, European fanworm Sabella 

spallanzanii, Japanese kelp Undaria pinnatifida and broccoli weed Codium fragile (subsp 

fragile) (Parks Victoria 2003). 

The screw shell Maoricolpus roseus has been recorded within the Point Hicks MNP (Heislers 

and Parry 2007). This 5 cm long gastropod was introduced to Tasmania from New Zealand 

in the 1920s (Bax et al. 2003). It has now spread out to the 80 m depth contour off the 

eastern Victorian and New South Wales coasts (Patil et al. 2004). In New Zealand it is found 

from soft sediments to exposed habitats. This habitat flexibility means there is a higher 

potential for greater ecological and environmental impacts over larger areas than introduced 

species restricted to specific inshore environments (Patil et al. 2004). The dense beds of this 

invasive species change the benthic structure with unknown (and unexamined) effects on 

ecosystem services (Patil et al. 2004). It can cover soft sediments with its hard shell, and 

once dead, its shell provides abundant homes for a particular hermit crab that can use its 

heavy tapered shell, thus potentially shifting the pre-invasion food web (Bax et al. 2003). 

Dense beds of this burrowing filter feeder may have adverse impacts on native filter feeders, 

with native turritellids numbers declining with increasing M. roseus numbers (Patil et al. 

2004). In Point Hicks MNP where this invasive species was most abundant, the diversity of 



62



Figure 27. Finger sponges and colonial sea squirt in Point Hicks Marine National Park. Photo by Mark 

Norman, Museum of Victoria. 

A number of other introduced marine pests also have the potential to colonise the park, 

especially in the sheltered waters of Stable Bay and the western side of Point Hicks (Parks 

Victoria 2006f). The park is vulnerable to pest introductions from ballast water and biofouling 

because of shipping lanes (Parks Victoria 2006f). Recreational vessels and users are also 

potential vectors for exotic species and diseases (e.g. from contaminated diving equipment) 

(Parks Victoria 2006f). Impacts from introduced marine pests are as diverse as the species 

themselves and include altering natural nutrient cycles and outcompeting native species for 

food and or space. Introduced marine pests can have economic impacts (e.g. commercial 

fisheries) and social impacts (e.g. affect public health and safety) (Parks Victoria 2006f). 




in the Point Hicks MNP but its spread into the park could have serious long term ecological 

consequences for rocky reef communities (DPI 2009). 












63








A number of species are at the eastern or northern limit of their distributional range at Point 

Hicks and such species would be particularly vulnerable to climate change. In contrast, the 

urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii, which is found in Point Hicks MNP, has increased its 

range down the east coast of Australia to Tasmania and that increase is thought to be linked 

to climate change with the EAC extending further south (Banks et al. 2010). 

Figure 28. Black urchins Centrostephanus rodgersii and yellow zoanthid corals in Point Hicks Marine 

National Park. Photo by Mark Norman, Museum of Victoria. 

Measures to address or minimise these hazards form part of the management plan for Point 

Hicks MNP (Parks Victoria 2006f). For example research is being conducted into marine 

pest species that may impact on park values, which includes identifying the MPAs which are 

most at risk of invasion.. Parks Victoria has also undertaken a strategic climate change risk 

assessment to identify the risks and stressors to natural values in the MPAs through 

assessment at the habitat level for parks in each marine bioregion. Parks Victoria will use an 

adaptive management approach to develop responses and actions that focus on priority 

climate change issues such as extreme weather events and existing risks that will likely be 

exacerbated by climate change. 

64














research relevant to Point Hicks MNP has been published in Parks Victoria’s Technical 

Series available on Parks Victoria’s website (http://www.parkweb.vic.gov.au). As most 

research in the MNP has been carried out under permits issued by DSE, the permit 


Appendix 2). 

Table 20. Ongoing Research Partner Panel (and RPP-like) research projects and monitoring 

programs implemented in partnership with, or commissioned by, Parks Victoria relevant to Point Hicks 





species. 





















Community Based Monitoring 

Reef Life Survey - Subtidal Reefs 

Point Hicks MNP does not have an ongoing intertidal reef monitoring program as it has 

limited intertidal reef area with relatively low human pressure. The shallow subtidal reef 

monitoring program (SRMP, Edmunds and Hart 2003) in and around the Point Hicks MNP 

began in 2001. Since that time four sites in the MNP and four reference sites outside of the 

MNP (Figure 17) have been surveyed over four census events (Edmunds et al. 2005; 

Williams et al. 2007; Edmunds et al. 2010b). The monitoring involves standardised 

65



underwater diver-mediated visual survey methods of macroalgae, invertebrates and fish, 

generally in a depth less than ten metres (Edmunds and Hart 2003). The SRMP monitors a 

specific suite of fish associated with reefs in shallow waters and is not designed to assess 

non-reef associated shallow water fish nor is it designed to assess the suite of species found 

in deeper water. 

Keough and Carnell’s (2009) preliminary analysis of the SRMP data from the first three 

census events up to 2006 was done at the bioregion level of Point Hicks MNP, Cape Howe 

MNP and Beware Reef MS. The analysis compared sites within MPAs to reference sites 

outside the MPAs. They found there was no significant difference in species richness and 

number of species between MPA and reference sites post-declaration for the Twofold Shelf 

bioregion. Limitations to this work include the relatively short time since declaration and the 

corresponding small data set (Keough and Carnell 2009). All algae analysed had similar 

percentage cover between MPA and reference sites (Keough and Carnell 2009). The purple 

sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma and dogwelk Dicathais orbita showed a greater 

abundance at reference sites compared to MPA sites (Keough and Carnell 2009). The triton 

Cabestana spengleri, red bait crab Plagusia chabrus and H. erythrogramma had significant 

differences in abundance between the various MPAs (Keough and Carnell 2009). The 

abundance of dominant fish species varied, but were generally similar between MPA and 

reference sites over time (Keough and Carnell 2009). Mado, purple wrasse and bluethroated 

wrasse were particularly variable but differences were not related to MPAs (Keough 

and Carnell 2009). A clear MPA effect is unlikely to be detected until sometime after 

declaration. Nationally and internationally it has taken well over a decade since declaration 

to detect changes in fauna size classes and abundance in MPAs (Edgar et al. 2009; Edgar 

and Stuart-Smith 2009). A major benefit of MPA declaration, apart from recovery from fishing 

pressure, is to ensure the protection of the MNP area against future threats to biodiversity 

and natural processes. 

A targeted analysis of monitoring data in relation to conservation outcomes for the park will 

be done by 2013. The subtidal reef monitoring program will continue to be implemented in 

Point Hicks MNP. The major directions for monitoring include implementing an expanded 

and improved monitoring program following a review of the major findings taking into 

account knowledge generated since park declaration and conservation outcomes developed 

for the MNPs (Keough et al. 2007; Power and Boxshall 2007; Keough and Carnell 2009).. 



photos (Figures 26, 27, 28 and 29), and using semi-quantitative methods to determine 

spatial and temporal changes across the system in response to threats, including marine 

pests and climate change. Jan Carey, University of Melbourne, is conducting research 

focussing on marine pest species which may impact on park values, and the MPAs which 

are most at risk of invasion. This will help prioritise Parks Victoria’s surveillance monitoring 

efforts to MPAs where there is greatest potential for successful management. 


No new surveys exist for the ecological communities of sandy beaches, intertidal soft 

sediments or biota on intertidal reef of Point Hicks MNP. There is little new data on fish 

abundances, distributions or interactions except in shallow subtidal reef habitats. No 

information exists at present for water column assemblages. Major threats have been 

identified for Point Hicks MNP but we have limited knowledge of the effect on the natural 

values, particularly ecological communities. 

66



Figure 29. Castle sponge in Point Hicks Marine National Park. Photo by Mark Norman, Museum of 

Victoria. 

67



2.4 Cape Howe MNP – Twofold Shelf Bioregion 

Cape Howe is one of three Marine National Parks in the Twofold Shelf bioregion, which also 

contains one other MPA, Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary, and Gippsland Lakes and Cape 

Conran Coastal Parks (Figure 2). Cape Howe MNP is approximately 15 km east of 

Mallacoota. It extends offshore from high water mark to the seaward limit of Victoria’s 

coastal waters. It borders 4.8 km of coastline from approximately 1 km east of Telegraph 

Point and Gabo Island to the New South Wales border, excluding a section of coast and sea 

around Iron Prince (Figure 30 and 31). It is Victoria’s most easterly MNP abutting Cape 

Howe Wilderness Zone of Croajingolong National Park, one of only three wilderness zones 

on the Victorian coast (Parks Victoria 2006c). 

Aboriginal tradition indicates that the park is part of the Country of the Bidwell people and 

that other Aboriginal people, including the Yuin Nation, also have an association with the 

coastal region of this area (Parks Victoria 2006c). 

Important natural values of Cape Howe MNP are its diversity of habitats including long sandy 

beaches, intertidal reef along its eastern shore, shallow and deep subtidal reefs, extensive 

subtidal soft sediment, and expansive areas of deep open water (Parks Victoria 2006c). Its 

rocky reefs have a complex structure, including eroded low-profile sandstone reef and highprofile 

granite reef (Carey et al. 2007b). The shallow subtidal reef is dominated by a mixture 

of crayweed Phyllospora comosa and bull kelp Durvillaea potatorum, the reef further 

offshore tends to be dominated by P. comosa (Ball and Blake 2007; Edmunds et al. 2010b). 

On these reefs the herbivorous sea urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii, can remove all erect 

algae to create ‘urchin barrens’ (Williams et al. 2007). Common invertebrates include the 

blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra, the warrener Turbo undulatus and another turban shell 

Astralium tentoriformis (Williams et al. 2007; Edmunds et al. 2010b). Common fish are 

herring cale Odax cyanomelas, the leatherjacket Meuschenia freycineti, striped mado 

Atypichthys strigatus, banded morwong Cheilodactylus spectabilis and the damselfishes 

Parma microlepis and Chromis hypsilepis (Williams et al. 2007; Edmunds et al. 2010b). Its 

deep (30 to 50m) sandstone reefs are heavily covered with a diverse array of sponges, 

ascidians and gorgonians (Carey et al. 2007b; Holmes et al. 2007b). 

The extensive area of subtidal soft sediments are mainly a fine and medium sand, with a low 

carbonate content, which becomes dominated by shells in depths >50 m (Holmes et al. 

2007b). Extensive macroalgal beds occur on sediment and sediment covered reef 10 to 40 

m depth with Caulerpa dominating in 30 to 40 m. Sponges dominate sediment at depths >40 

m, with orange ball sponges Tethya dominant in 40 to 60 m depth (Holmes et al. 2007b). 

Crustaceans such as amphipods, cumaceans, isopods and ostracods, and polychaetes are 

the dominant infauna in 10 to 20 m depth sediments (Heislers and Parry 2007). Common 

fish over sediment and sediment covered reef are yellow scad Trachyurus novaezelandiae, 

ocean leatherjacket Nelusetta ayraudi, whiting Sillago, grubfish Parapercis sp. eastern bluespotted 

flathead Platycephalus caeruleopunctatus, velvet leatherjacket Meuschenia scaber 

and the butterfly perch Caesioperca lepidoptera (Moore et al. 2009). The draughtboard shark 

Cephaloscyllium laticeps is also common and can be found down to the deepest depths (105 

m) of the MNP (Moore et al. 2009). 

Cape Howe MNP has a high diversity of intertidal and shallow subtidal invertebrates 

(Edmunds et al. 2005; Carey et al. 2007b). Eastern temperate, southern cosmopolitan and 

temperate species co-occur as a result of the mixing of warm eastern and cool southern 

waters (Edmunds et al. 2005; Parks Victoria 2006c). Thirty-eight species of marine flora and 

fauna are believed to be at their eastern, western or northern distributional limits within the 

planning area (O’Hara and Poore 2000). 

68



Cape Howe MNP is thought to be an important feeding area for several threatened bird 

species (Parks Victoria 2006c; Carey et al. 2007b). This includes the endangered 

Australasian bittern Botaurus poiciloptilus, critically endangered grey-tailed tattler 

Heteroscelus brevipes, and the endangered wandering albatross Diomedea exulans. All of 

which are listed under the Flora and Fauna Guarantee (FFG) Act (1998) with the wandering 

albatross also listed under the Commonwealth Environment Protection and Biodiversity 

Conservation (EPBC) Act (1999). The MNP protects feeding areas for bird species that are 

listed under the Japan–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA) and the China– 

Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (CAMBA). It is also an important foraging area for a 

significant breeding colony of little penguins Eudyptula minor from neighbouring Gabo Island 

(Plummer et al. 2003). 

The conservation listed southern right Eubalaena australis and humpback whales Megaptera 

novaeangliae, and leatherback Dermochelys coriacea, green Chelonia mydas and hawksbill 

turtles Eretmochelys imbricata use the MNP waters (Parks Victoria 2006c). The southern 

right whale E. australis has been observed to calf in the park but is not known to feed there. 

The state vulnerable New Zealand fur seal Arctophoca forsteri has also been recorded 

breeding in the MNP. The killer whale Orcinus orca, minke whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata 

and Australian fur seal Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus have been observed in the waters in 

and around the park. 

Serious threats to the Cape Howe MNP include limited ecological knowledge of important 

processes. Poaching of abalone, invasive marine pests from commercial and recreational 

boats; anchor damage; and climate change all pose serious threats to the integrity of the 

MNP (Carey et al. 2007b). Measures to address or minimise these threats form part of the 

management plan for Cape Howe MNP (Parks Victoria 2006c). Ongoing intertidal and 

subtidal reef monitoring, and specific research aims to increase ecological knowledge about 

the natural values of, and threats to Cape Howe MNP. 


Cape Howe MNP is 4060 hectares in size which makes it the fourth largest of the 24 Marine 

National Parks or Sanctuaries in Victoria (Table 21, Figure 30). Its shoreline geology 

consists of predominately large mobile dunes with sandy beaches, and boulder strewn 

outcrops of sandstone in the east (Bird 1993). Water depths reach 105 m (Holmes et al. 

2007b). Greater than 85 % of the MNP is > 20 m depth. Prevailing winds and swells are 

generally from the south-west and north-east. The coastline is influenced by high-energy 

waves and swells. Weather originating from the south-west and east influences water activity 

and movement, as do twice-daily tides (Parks Victoria 2006c). The warm water East 

Australian Current is a major influence in the MNP (Parks Victoria 2006c). As the continental 

shelf is quite close to the far eastern Victorian shore, cold water upwellings are frequent and 

mix with the warmer waters, bringing increased nutrients and creating an ecosystem high in 

productivity (Parks Victoria 2006c; Edmunds et al. 2010a). A small intermittent estuary, the 

outflow from Lake Wau Wauka, runs directly into the park (Table 21). The catchment 

adjacent to the MNP is the remote and relatively undisturbed Cape Howe Wilderness Zone 

which is part of Croajingolong National Park. 

69

Figure 30. Location map of Cape Howe Marine National Park with high resolution bathymetry. Subtidal reef monitoring sites inside and 

outside the MNP are shown, there are no intertidal monitoring sites.


Natural Values Study 

Flinders and Twofold Shelf Bioregions Marine 

Figure 31. Aerial view of the coast of Cape Howe Marine National Park (QASCO 20/01/04). 

Photography ortho-rectified by PIRVic. Figure from Ball and Blake (2007). 

Table 21. Physical attributes of the Cape Howe Marine National Park. 

Park Name 

Cape Howe 




Twofold Shelf 



~ 4.8 km 


Sandstone & granite 













Aerial photography (Figure 31) and satellite imagery from 2004 was used to map the 

intertidal and shallow (< 10 m) subtidal habitats of Cape Howe MNP (Ball and Blake 2007). 

The subtidal area was ground truthed in 2007 with underwater video (Ball and Blake 2007). 

The intertidal area could not be ground truthed due to the inaccessibility of the shore (Ball 

and Blake 2007). In 2004/2005 the deep (> 10 m) subtidal substrate and biota of Cape Howe 

MNP was surveyed and mapped acoustically (Figure 32 and Figure 33) by Holmes et al. 

(2007b). Underwater video transects allowed the substrate and biota to be predictively 

modelled for the areas not surveyed. 

The habitats present in Cape Howe MNP include intertidal soft sediment and some reef, 

extensive subtidal soft sediment and some subtidal reef, and open ocean (Figure 32 and 

Figure 33). Intertidally a band of rocky shore extends from the east side of Iron Prince to the 

NSW border, with the rest of the intertidal area being sand beach fronting an extensive dune 

system (Ball and Blake 2007). The majority of the shallow subtidal habitat is bare rippled 

sandy sediment. The shallow subtidal reef habitat is restricted to an area running parallel to 

the shore for a distance of approximately 700 m from the north-eastern MNP boundary 

extending down to depths of approximately 16 m (Ball and Blake 2007). The reef is primarily 

a mixture of high profile broken reef and more solid low profile reef. The inshore reef is 

generally broken and patchy (Ball and Blake 2007). The reef changes from low relief in the 

west to larger bombies, steep ledges and drop-offs in the east (Williams et al. 2007). This 

reef has been extensively described and sampled as part of the SRMP (Williams et al. 2007; 

Edmunds et al. 2010b). 

Based on predictive modelling, deep (> 10 m) subtidal soft sediment covers 33 sq. km of the 

MNP, while deep subtidal reef was mapped over 8 sq. km and located mainly in the nearshore 

centre of the MNP offshore of Iron Prince (Holmes et al. 2007b). An equal amount of 

reef is covered with sediment. The sediment is primarily sand in water < 50 m deep, while 

mixed sand and shell fragments in deeper water (Holmes et al. 2007b). The reef generally is 

flat or with a gentle slope with some drop offs. The reef structure is a mixture of solid reef 

and boulders (Holmes et al. 2007b). Extensive macroalgae beds, predominately of Caluerpa 

occur in 30 to 40 m across the MNP (Holmes et al. 2007b). 

72

Figure 32. Substrate mapping of Cape Howe Marine National Park showing sites of geological significance.

Figure 33. Biota mapping of Cape Howe Marine National Park showing sites of biological significance




General 

Since the first natural values report by Plummer et al. (2003) there have been extensive 

monitoring and mapping surveys conducted in Cape Howe MNP. There has been extensive 

broadscale habitat mapping, with the intertidal areas mapped from aerial and satellite 

imagery (Ball and Blake 2007) and the deep subtidal areas mapped with hydroacoustic 

surveys (Holmes et al. 2007b). Both surveys were ground truthed with underwater video 

imagery. There have been four SRMP surveys of the shallow subtidal reef biota of Cape 

Howe which are summarised by Williams et al. (2007) and Edmunds et al. (2010b). In 

addition to the SRMP fish surveys, benthic deep water (> 10 m) fish have been surveyed 

with baited video in 2006 (Moore et al. 2008; Moore et al. 2009). A total of 74 species of fish 

belonging to 39 families were sampled over subtidal sediments and reef (Moore et al. 2008). 

Additional funding has allowed samples from deep subtidal soft sediment surveyed in the 

MNP in 1998 to be processed and identified (Heislers and Parry 2007). There have been no 

surveys of sandy beaches, intertidal reef or the pelagic habitats. Important locations for 

some birds and mammals are shown in Figure 33. Surveys in the MNP found that red algae 

dominate the diversity of macrophytes, gastropods, decapod crustaceans and echinoderms 

the invertebrates and fish and birds the vertebrates in Cape Howe MNP (Table 22, Appendix 

1). 

Figure 34. A canopy of the kelp Ecklonia radiata with an understorey of small algae on a reef in Cape 

Howe Marine National Park. 

75



Table 22. Summary of the number of species in major biotic groups from surveys in Cape Howe 


Biotic group 



Green algae 3 


Red algae 39 

Seagrasses 4 


Decapod crustaceans 14 

Chitons 1 

Gastropods 27 

Sea slugs 3 

Cephalopods 1 



Fish 40 

Birds 63 

Reptiles 5 

Mammals 6 

Intertidal 

Soft sediment 

As noted by Plummer et al. (2003) no specific data on the biota on sandy beaches are 

available in the MNP or nearby. Intertidal soft sediment flora is restricted to macroalgae drift 

and macroalgal epiphytes. Beach-washed materials in sandy beach habitats are a significant 

source of food for many shore birds, and contribute to the detrital cycle that nourishes many 

of the invertebrates, such as bivalves, living in the sand (Parks Victoria 2006c). 

Reef 

Rocky intertidal reefs, also called rocky reefs or intertidal platforms, are generally found in 

Victoria on and near headlands with stretches of sandy beaches either side. Along with 

beaches, intertidal reefs are one of the most accessible components of the marine 

environment as they are the interface between the ocean and the land (Power and Boxshall 

2007). As such they are valued as important habitats by people and tend to be visited more 

than other sections of the coast (Carey et al. 2007a; Carey et al. 2007b). This means they 

are often subjected to human pressures like harvesting, fossicking and trampling as well as 

pressures from pollution sources on land and in the sea (Power and Boxshall 2007). 

Intertidal reef biota are exposed to large changes in physical conditions such as temperature 



2004). The recruitment of new biota onto the reef, from the plankton, strongly influences the 

ecological patterns for individual species and assemblages. Interactions between biota on 

the reef also influence biota distribution. Resources which are often in short supply on 

intertidal reefs are space on which to live and the food itself (Underwood and Chapman 

2004). The remote location of the MNP means that human threats to the intertidal reef such 

as biota collection and trampling is low, due to this there is has been no intertidal reef 

monitoring program in Cape Howe MNP. 

Macroalgae and Aggregating Sessile Invertebrates 

The dominant intertidal algae in Cape Howe MPA are sea lettuce Ulva australis, neptune’s 

necklace Hormosira banksii and various coralline red algae (Plummer et al. 2003). The bull 

76



kelp Durvillaea potatorum occurs on the intertidal fringe and most of the upper intertidal 

rocks are unvegetated (Plummer et al. 2003). 

Mobile Invertebrates 

The upper intertidal is dominated by barnacles Tesseropora rosea, Chthamalus antennatus 

and mussels Xenostrobus pulex with Sydney rock oyster Saccostrea glomerata, red bait 

crabs Plagusia chabrus, keyhole limpets Fissurellidae and Paguridae hermit crabs are also 

present in rock pools (Plummer et al. 2003). In deeper pools, the elephant snail Scutus 

antipodes, abalone Haliotis rubra and Haliotis coccoradiata, seastars Patiriella spp. and 

swift-footed crab Leptograpsus variegatus are common (Plummer et al. 2003). 

Fish 

Intertidal fish communities have not been surveyed at Cape Howe MNP. Little is known 

about intertidal fish, although sea mullet Mugil cephalus are sometimes caught in rockpools 

in Cape Howe MNP (Plummer et al. 2003). 

Subtidal 

Soft sediment 

Extensive macroalgal beds occur on sediment and sediment covered reef 10 to 40 m deep 

in Cape Howe MNP (Holmes et al. 2007b). These beds differentiate into Caulerpa 

dominated beds in 30 to 40 m (Holmes et al. 2007b). Sponges dominate sediment deeper 

than 40 m. Orange ball sponges of the genus Tethya dominate sediments in 40 to 60 m 

depth in the MNP (Holmes et al. 2007b). 

Depth and sediment type affect the distribution of benthic invertebrates along the Victorian 

coast. A statewide coastal survey of benthic fauna by Coleman et al. (2007) and Heislers 

and Parry (2007) included the benthos of Cape Howe MNP. One transect off Cape Howe 

MNP sampled the soft sediment with two 0.1 m 2 grab samples in 10 and 20 m of water 

depth. The fine sand contained between 142 to 162 individuals from 16 to 26 families with 68 

to 207 species (Heislers and Parry 2007). Representation of major taxa was relatively 

consistent between depths. Crustaceans were the dominant taxa including amphipods, 

cumaceans, isopods and ostracods (Heislers and Parry 2007). Polychaetes were also 

common while molluscs were poorly represented. Seven families were common in both 

depth classes, including four crustacean families, three amphipods (Phoxocephalidae, 

Urohaustoriidae and Ampeliscidae), one cumacean (Gynodiastylidae) and three polychaete 

families (Spionidae, Syllidae and Paraonidae). 

In waters > 10 m the most common fish over sediments is yellow scad Trachyurus 

novaezelandiae, juveniles dominate the shallower sediments whereas schools of adults 

were found in the deeper sediments (Moore et al. 2008). The ocean leatherjacket Nelusetta 

ayraudi is common over the deeper sediments whilst schools of whiting Sillago species are 

commonly sighted over more shallow sediment (Moore et al. 2008). Grubfish Parapercis sp. 

and flathead Platycephalus like ocean leather jackets are associated with deep sediments. 

The eastern blue-spotted flathead Platycephalus caeruleopunctatus is found throughout the 

relatively shallower depths of the MNP (





Shallow subtidal reefs are often dominated by canopy forming algae. Deep reefs, where light 

penetration is limited, are often dominated by large sessile invertebrates such as massive 

sponges (Figure 38), whip corals, soft corals and colonial ascidians. Biotic assemblages can 

form habitat and food sources for invertebrates and fish. The biota of the Cape Howe MNP 

comprises both southern and eastern Australian temperate species. Assemblages vary 

according to the location, depth and exposure (Williams et al. 2007). 

Flora 

The inshore reef is dominated by a mixture of crayweed Phyllospora comosa and bull kelp 

Durvillaea potatorum, the reef further offshore tends to be dominated by P. comosa (Ball and 

Blake 2007; Williams et al. 2007). The algal understorey (Figure 34) at Cape Howe is 

dominated by encrusting coralline algae, with only sparse cover of erect fleshy understorey 

species (Williams et al. 2007). The brown algae Carpomitra costata, Zonaria turneriana and 

Halopteris spp, red algae Delisea pulchra, Phacelocarpus peperocarpus, Rhodymenia 

linearis, Galaxaura marginate are the common fleshy understorey species (Williams et al. 

2007). Arthrocardia wardii and Haliptilon roseum are the common erect coralline algae. The 

Phyllospora canopy is particularly dense in places, with little light at the reef surface which is 

covered by sponges rather than algae (Williams et al. 2007). Deeper waters have 

macroalgal beds on sand covered reef, including large beds of the green algae Caulerpa in 

the north-east of the MNP (Holmes et al. 2007b; Figure 36). 


An important invertebrate of the Cape Howe MNP and the eastern Twofold Shelf bioregion is 

the long-spined black sea urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii (Williams et al. 2007; Edmunds 

et al. 2010b). Centrostephanus forms large grazing aggregations which denude the reef of 

erect algal species, forming ‘urchin barrens’. Urchin barrens have been observed in Cape 

Howe MNP (Ball and Blake 2007; Holmes et al. 2007b; Williams et al. 2007; Edmunds et al. 

2010b). The occurrence of urchin barren habitat at this location reflects the influence of 

species from the east coast of Australia on the Twofold Shelf bioregion. Removal of large 

seaweeds by Centrostephanus causes substantial changes to subtidal reef community 

structure on reefs in eastern temperate Australia (Williams et al. 2007; Edmunds et al. 

2010b). 

There are high abundances of large herbivorous invertebrates on shallow subtidal reefs in 

Cape Howe MNP including the sea urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii, blacklip abalone 

Haliotis rubra, the warrener Turbo undulatus and another turban shell Astralium tentoriformis 

(Williams et al. 2007). Other common invertebrate grazers are the eastern temperate 

gastropod Astralium tentoriformis, and purple sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma. 

Predatory invertebrates include dogwhelks Dicathais orbita, eastern rock lobster Jasus 

verreauxi, octopus Octopus moarum and a wide variety of seastar species (Williams et al. 

2007). Other large reef invertebrates include mobile filter feeding animals such as feather 

stars Cenolia trichoptera and sessile (attached) species such as sponges, corals, bryozoans, 

hydroids and ascidians (Williams et al. 2007). Sessile invertebrates such as sponges, 

asicidians, seawhips and gorgonian corals dominate the reef in 30 to 40 m (Holmes et al. 

2007b). 

Fish 

Common subtidal reef fish at Cape Howe MNP are herring cale Odax cyanomelas, 

leatherjacket Meuschenia freycineti, striped mado Atypichthys strigatus, banded morwong 

Cheilodactylus spectabilis and the damselfishes Parma microlepis and Chromis hypsilepis 

(Williams et al. 2007). Herring cale is an abundant large species of fish. It feeds on kelp and 

can be an important structuring agent of algal communities when present in high numbers 

during breeding aggregations. The other kelp feeding species, rock cale Crinodus lophodon 

78



is not so abundant (Williams et al. 2007). Blue throat wrasse Notolabrus tetricus and purple 

wrasse Notolabrus fucicola are generally not very abundant at the MNP, more common is 

the Maori wrasse Opthalmolepis lineolate (Williams et al. 2007). The striped mado, 

damselfish species, eastern hulafish Trachinops taeniatus or yellow tail mackerel Trachurus 

novaezelandiae can be numerically dominate at individual sites (Williams et al. 2007). The 

damsel fishes, white ear Parma microlepis and the one-spot puller Chromis hypsilepis occur 

together predominantly in ‘urchin barrens’ (Williams et al. 2007). The plankton feeding 

striped mado is typically highly abundant on reefs in eastern Australia. Large long-finned 

pike Dinolestes lewini occurs widely on the shallow subtidal reefs of Cape Howe MNP 

(Williams et al. 2007). 

In waters > 10 m the velvet leatherjacket Meuschenia scaber and butterfly perch 

Caesioperca lepidoptera are common over both reef and sediment covered reef (Moore et 

al. 2008). Also associated with these habitats are white ear, Maori wrasse, six-spined 

leatherjacket Meuschenia freycineti and the blue morwong Nemadactylus douglasii (Moore 

et al. 2009). The eastern blue grouper Achoerodus viridis is strongly associated with solid 

reef and boulders (Moore et al. 2009). The green moray Gymnothorax prasinus is found only 

in reef with high topographic complexity as it needs the crevices and holes as refuges during 

the day (Moore et al. 2009). 

Water column 















reptiles are found in the waters of Cape Howe MNP. 

Figure 35. Shell fragment dominated soft sediment and an erect sponge providing habitat for many 

invertebrates and fish in 105 m depth in Cape Howe Marine National Park, one of the deepest known 

parts of Victorian coastal waters. 

79



Figure 36. A bed of the green algae Caulerpa with encrusted shells on sandy sediments in Cape 







2007). 

Flora 

No conservation listed marine flora has been recorded in Cape Howe MNP (Parks Victoria 

2006c). 

Fish 

The eastern blue groper Achoerodus viridis is present in low numbers in Cape Howe MNP. It 

is threatened by over fishing and a temporary protection from all fishing in Victoria was 

introduced in April 2011. 

Birds 

Thirty-eight conservation listed shore or sea birds have been sighted in or in the immediate 

surrounds of Cape Howe MNP (Table 23). Twenty-six are recognized as threatened in 

Victoria, listed under the FFG Act 1988 or the Victorian Rare or Threatened Species 

(VROTS) list. The Australasian bittern and wandering albatross are regarded as endangered 

and grey-tailed tattler as critically endangered at the state level. Six birds are listed at both 

the state and national level, vulnerable nationally under the EPBC Act 1999. Twenty-four 

birds are recognized internationally under the Australia Migratory Bird Agreement with either 

80



China (CAMBA) or Japan (JAMBA). Four conservation listed birds, the sooty oystercatcher 

Haematopus fuliginosus, little tern Sternula albifrons, short-tailed shearwater Ardenna 

tenuirostris and white-faced storm-petrel Pelagodroma marina have been recorded as 

breeding in or in the immediate surrounds of the MNP. In addition the masked lapwing 

Vanellus miles and little penguin Eudyptula minor have also been recorded breeding in the 

MNP. The Eastern reef egret Egretta sacra has been recorded from the MNP but is no 

longer present. 

Table 23. Conservation listed shorebird and seabird records from Cape Howe Marine National Park 


Victorian 

listing 

National 

listing 

International 

treaty 


common sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos VU C J 

red knot Calidris canutus NT C J 

curlew sandpiper Calidris ferruginea C J 


Latham's snipe Gallinago hardwickii NT C J 

grey-tailed tattler Heteroscelus brevipes L CR C J 

Eastern curlew Numenius 

NT C J 

madagascariensis 

whimbrel Numenius phaeopus VU C J 


ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres C J 

Australasian bittern Botaurus poiciloptilus L EN 

lesser sand plover Charadrius mongolus VU C J 

Pacific golden Pluvialis fulva NT C J 

plover 





sooty 

Haematopus 

NT 

oystercatcher fuliginosus 

Eastern reef egret Egretta sacra C 


black-faced Phalacrocorax 

NT 

cormorant 

fuscescens 

pied cormorant Phalacrocorax varius NT 


Haliaeetus leucogaster L VU C 



Wilson's stormpetrel 

Oceanites oceanicus 

J 

white-faced stormpetrel 

Pelagodroma marina 

VU 

common divingpetrel 

Pelecanoides urinatrix 

NT 

sooty shearwater Ardenna grisea C J 

wedge-tailed 

shearwater 

Ardenna pacifica 

J 

81



Victorian 

listing 

National 

listing 

International 

treaty 


short-tailed Ardenna tenuirostris 

J 

shearwater 

Arctic jaeger Stercorarius 

J 

parasiticus 

pomarine jaeger Stercorarius pomarinus C J 

Buller's albatross Diomedea bulleri L VU 

wandering 

Diomedea exulans L EN VU J 

albatross 

shy albatross Thalassarche cauta L VU VU 

yellow-nosed Thalassarche 

L VU VU 

albatross 


black-browed Thalassarche 

VU VU 

albatross 

melanophris 

L= listed, NT = Near Threatened, VU = Vulnerable, EN = Endangered, CR = critically endangered C = 

listed under the CAMBA treaty, J = listed under the JAMBA treaty 



novaeangliae have been recorded in or near the Cape Howe MNP (Table 24). The southern 

right whale E. australis is listed as critically endangered in Victorian waters and endangered 

nationally. The humpback whale M. novaeangliae is listed as vulnerable at the state and 

national level. The southern right whale E. australis has been observed to calf in the MNP. 

The state vulnerable New Zealand fur seal Arctophoca forsteri has also been recorded 

breeding in the MNP. The state and nationally listed leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea 

and the nationally vulnerable green Chelonia mydas and hawksbill Eretmochelys imbricata 

turtles have been recorded from the park. Three other listed marine reptiles occur as warm 

water transients along the eastern Victorian coast: loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta, Pacific 

ridley Lepidochelys olivacea and yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis platurus and probably 

use the waters of the MNP (Plummer et al. 2003). The yellow-bellied sea snake has been 

recorded washed up dead on the beach in the MNP a number of times. The killer whale 

Orcinus orca, minke whale Balaenoptera sp., both migratory species and Australian fur seal 

Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus have been observed in the waters in and around the park. 

Table 24. Conservation listed marine mammal and reptile records from Cape Howe Marine National 



listing 

International 

convention 




New Zealand fur seal Arctophoca forsteri VU 

Australian fur seal 


doriferus 

L 


minke whale Balaenoptera sp. L L 

leatherback turtle Dermochelys coriacea L CR VU L 

green turtle Chelonia mydas VU L 

hawksbill turtle Eretmochelys imbricata VU L 

L = listed, VU = vulnerable, EN = endangered, CR = critically endangered 

82




An assessment of distribution, endemism and rarity of biota across the state found that Cape 

Howe MNP did not have any molluscs, echinoderms or decapod crustaceans endemic to the 

park (O'Hara and Barmby 2000; O’Hara and Poore 2000). 

Table 25. Marine species at their distribution limits in Cape Howe Marine National Park (O'Hara and 

Barmby 2000; O’Hara and Poore 2000). 

Order Family Species 

Common 

name 

Category 

Bonnemaisoniales Bonnemaisoniaceae Leptophyllis conferta red algae PE 

Ceramiales Ceramiaceae Antithamnion biarmatum red algae PE 

Ceramiales Ceramiaceae Callithamnion obstipum red algae PE 

Ceramiales Ceramiaceae Ceramium pusillum red algae PE 

Ceramiales Ceramiaceae Griffithsia elegans red algae PE 

Ceramiales Ceramiaceae Involucrana crassa red algae PE 

Ceramiales Ceramiaceae Ochmapexus minimus red algae PE 

Ceramiales Dasyaceae Dasya comata red algae PE 

Corallinales Corallinaceae Jania puchella red algae PE 

Corallinales Corallinaceae Melobesia membranacea red algae PE 

Gelidiales Gelidiaceae Gelidium australe red algae PE 

Gigartinales Cystocloniaceae Rhodophyllis multipartita red algae PE 

Gigartinales Mychodeaceae Mychodea marginifera red algae PE 

Gigartinales Plocamiaceae Plocamium mertensii red algae PE 

Rhodymeniales Rhodymeniaceae Rhodymenia prolificans red algae PE 

Rhodymeniales Rhodymeniaceae Rhodymenia verrucosa red algae PE 

Hydrocharitales Hydrocharitaceae Halophila decipiens seagrass PW 

Hydrocharitales Hydrocharitaceae Halophila ovalis seagrass PW 

Polyplacophora Acanthochitonidae Acanthochitona retrojectus chiton PE 

Gastropoda Fissurellidae Emarginula gabensis marine snail PE 

Gastropoda Triphoridae Aclophoropsis festiva marine snail PE 

Gastropoda Triphoridae Eutriphora tricolor marine snail PE 

Gastropoda Turridae Splendrilla subviridus marine snail PN 

Gastropoda Anabathridae Pisinna frauenfeldi marine snail PW 

Gastropoda Anabathridae Pisinna vincula marine snail PW 

Gastropoda Conidae Conus papilliferus marine snail PW 

Gastropoda Haliotidae Haliotis coccoradiata marine snail PW 

Gastropoda Triphoridae Aclophoropsis maculosa marine snail PW 

Gastropoda Trochidae Clanculus floridus marine snail PW 

Gastropoda Turridae Austroturris steira marine snail PW 

Thalassinidea Upogebiidae Upogebia australiensis ghost shrimp PW 

Caridea Alpheidae Alpheus socialis shrimp PW 

Caridea Palaemonidae Palaemon debilis shrimp PW 

Dendrobranchiata Penaeidae Parapenaeus australiensis prawn PW 

Brachyura Portunidae Scylla serrata crab PW 

Asteroidea Goniasteridae Tosia magnifica seastar PW 

Echinoidea Echinothuriidae Araeosoma thetidis sea urchin PW 

PE = presumed eastern limit, PW = presumed western limit, PN = presumed northern limit. 

Thirty-eight biota have been recorded or presumed to be at their distributional limit in Cape 

Howe MNP (O'Hara and Barmby 2000; O’Hara and Poore 2000; Table 25). Twenty biota are 

presumed to be at the easterly limit of their distribution in Cape Howe MNP, including 16 red 

algae, one chiton, and three marine snails. Seventeen biota are presumed to be at their 

western limit of distribution, including three seagrass, eight marine snails, four shrimps, one 

crab, one seastar and one sea urchin. One marine snail is presumed to be at its northern 

limit of distribution (O'Hara and Barmby 2000; O’Hara and Poore 2000). The distributional 

limits of the biota listed in Table 25 may reflect collection effort in this area rather than actual 

83



Victorian distributions. Many areas of the Victorian coast have never been sampled and 

therefore biota ranges may be much greater than those suggested. 

In a study assessing the conservation of shallow subtidal reef fishes in Victoria Colton and 

Swearer (2009; 2010) observed 71 species of fish at Cape Howe and Gabo Island. They 

regard seven (Table 26), as species of concern as they are numerically and spatially rare at 

the state level. Four of these species are fished but low numbers in shallow subtidal reef 

may be partly because this is not their primary habitat. 

Table 26. Fish species of conservation concern because of their limited statewide distribution and 

abundance recorded at Cape Howe and Gabo Island (Colton and Swearer 2009). Species in bold are 

targeted for fishing. 

Family Species Common name Reason 

Carangidae Seriola lalandi yellowtail 

kingfish 

Unknown, fishery, tends 

to be pelagic 

Cheilodactylidae Nemadactylus macropterus jackass 

Usually deeper, fished 

morwong 

Moridae Lotella rhacina rock cod Unknown 

Orectolobidae Orectolobus sp. (O. spotted or Unknown 

maculatus, or O. halei) banded 

wobbegong 

Pentacerotidae Pentaceropsis recurvirostris Unknown 

Sphyraenidae Sphyraena novaehollandiae barracuda Fishery; prefers different 

habitat to that sampled 

Triakidae Mustelus antarcticus gummy shark Fished 







the risk posed by each hazard (Carey et al. 2007b). Five hazards with the potential to be 






on habitats and communities (all of MNP); 


ecological communities (potentially all of MNP); 


leading to changes in community structure (potentially all of MNP); and 

5. Anchoring of recreational boats causing physical damage to subtidal reef habitats 

and communities (subtidal reef). 

84



Figure 37. The introduced screw shell Maoricolpus roseus in high densities on deep soft sediments in 

Cape Howe Marine National Park. 



Victoria 2003). Most marine pests known from Victorian waters are limited to Port Phillip Bay 

(Parks Victoria 2003). Two introduced species or marine pest has been recorded Point Hicks 

MNP, the screw shell Maoricolpus roseus (Holmes et al. 2007a; Figure 37) and the New 

Zealand sea star Astrostole scabra (Edmunds et al. 2010b). It is presumed that the 

introduced green meany or green shore crab Carcinus maenas occurs on the intertidal reefs 

of all the MPAs, except Ninety Mile Beach which has no intertidal reef. Other species of 

particular concern include the Northern Pacific seastar Asterias amurensis, European 

fanworm Sabella spallanzanii, Japanese kelp Undaria pinnatifida and broccoli weed Codium 

fragile (subsp fragile) (Parks Victoria 2003). 

The screw shell Maoricolpus roseus is a 5 cm long gastropod that was introduced to 

Tasmania from New Zealand in the 1920s (Bax et al. 2003). It has now spread out to the 80 

m depth contour off the eastern Victorian and New South Wales coast (Patil et al. 2004). In 

New Zealand it is found from soft sediments to exposed habitats. This habitat flexibility 

means there is a higher potential for greater ecological and environmental impacts over 

larger areas than introduced species restricted to specific inshore environments (Patil et al. 

2004). The dense beds of this invasive species change the benthic structure with unknown 

(and unexamined) effects on ecosystem services (Patil et al. 2004). It can cover soft 

sediments with its hard shell, and once dead, its shell provides abundant homes for a 

particular hermit crab that can use its heavy tapered shell, thus potentially shifting the preinvasion 

food web (Bax et al. 2003). Dense beds of this burrowing filter feeder may have 

adverse impacts on native filter feeders, with native turritellids numbers declining with 

increasing M. roseus numbers (Patil et al. 2004). 



85




in the Cape Howe MNP but its spread into the park could have serious long term ecological 






change circulation and productivity), increase frequencies of extreme weather events and 












A large number of species are at the eastern or northern limit of their distributional range at 

Cape Howe and such species would be particularly vulnerable to climate change. In 

contrast, the urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii, which is found in Cape Howe MNP, has 

increased its range down the east coast of Australia to Tasmania and that increase is 

thought to be linked to climate change with the EAC extending further south (Banks et al. 

2010). 

Measures to address or minimise these hazards form part of the management plan for Cape 

Howe MNP (Parks Victoria 2006c). For example research is being conducted into marine 

pest species which may impact on park values, and options are being trialled for improving 

management of illegal activities in the MNP. Management actions have been implemented to 

minimise marine pest species and illegal fishing (Parks Victoria 2006c). Parks Victoria has 

also undertaken a strategic climate change risk assessment to identify the risks and 

stressors to natural values in the MPAs through assessment at the habitat level for parks in 

each marine bioregion. Parks Victoria will use an adaptive management approach to 

develop responses and actions that focus on priority climate change issues such as extreme 

weather events and existing risks that will likely be exacerbated by climate change. 









Monitoring Strategy 2007-2012 and Marine National Park and Marine Sanctuary Monitoring 

Plan 2007-2012 (Power and Boxshall 2007). Much of the research has been undertaken as 


research relevant to Cape Howe MNP has been published in Parks Victoria’s Technical 


research in the MNP has been carried out under permits issued by DSE, the permit 

86




Appendix 2). 


programs implemented in partnership with, or commissioned by, Parks Victoria relevant to Cape 





species. 









University of Melbourne: Egemen Tanin, Les Kitchen, Lars Kulik 

Developing options for improving management of illegal activities in Marine National Parks and 

Sanctuaries. 







University of Tasmania: Graham Edgar (also involves other university and industry partners). 

Biotic connectivity within the temperate Australian marine protected area network at three levels 

of biodiversity - communities, populations and genes. 









Cape Howe MNP does not have an ongoing intertidal reef monitoring program as it has 


monitoring program (SRMP, Edmunds and Hart 2003) in and around the Cape Howe MNP 

began in 2001. Since that time four sites in the MNP and four reference sites outside of the 

MNP (Figure 30) have been surveyed over four census events (Edmunds et al. 2005; 

Williams et al. 2007; Edmunds et al. 2010b). The monitoring involves standardised 







census events up to 2006 was done at the bioregion level of Cape Howe MNP, Point Hicks 

MNP and Beware Reef MS. The analysis compared sites within MPAs to reference sites 

87



outside the MPAs. They found there was no significant difference in species richness and 

number of species between MPA and reference sites post-declaration for the Twofold Shelf 

bioregion. Limitations to this work include the relatively short time since declaration and the 

corresponding small data set (Keough and Carnell 2009). All algae analysed had similar 

percentage cover between MPA and reference sites (Keough and Carnell 2009). The purple 

sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma and dogwelk Dicathais orbita showed a greater 

abundance at reference sites compared to MPA sites (Keough and Carnell 2009). The triton 

Cabestana spengleri, red bait crab Plagusia chabrus and H. erythrogramma had significant 

differences in abundance between the various MPAs (Keough and Carnell 2009). The 

abundance of dominant fish species varied, but were generally similar between MPA and 

reference sites over time (Keough and Carnell 2009). Mado, purple wrasse and bluethroated 






pressure, is to ensure the protection of the MNP area against future threats to biodiversity 



be done by 2013. The subtidal reef monitoring program will continue to be implemented in 

Cape Howe MNP. The major directions for monitoring include implementing an expanded 

and improved monitoring program following a review of the major findings taking into 

account knowledge generated since park declaration and conservation outcomes developed 

for the MNPs (Keough et al. 2007; Power and Boxshall 2007; Keough and Carnell 2009) 

Other ongoing research in Cape Howe MNP includes research being conducted by the 

University of Melbourne trialling options for improving management of illegal activities in the 

MNP. 





Carey, University of Melbourne, is conducting research focussing on marine pest species 



potential for successful management. 


No new surveys exist for the ecological communities of sandy beaches, intertidal soft 

sediments. No information exists at present for water column assemblages. Major threats 

have been identified for Cape Howe MNP but we have limited knowledge of the effect on the 

natural values, particularly ecological communities. 

88



Figure 38. An adult cat shark in sponges, sea whips and algae in the Cape Howe Marine National 

Park at about 30 m depth 

89



3 Marine Sanctuaries 

3.1 Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary – Twofold Shelf Bioregion 

Beware Reef MS is the only Marine Sanctuary in the Twofold Shelf Bioregion, which also 

contains Ninety Mile Beach, Point Hicks and Cape Howe Marine National Parks. Beware 

Reef MS is approximately 400 km east of Melbourne, and 5 km south east of Cape Conran 

and 2.6 km offshore from the Cape Conran Coastal Park. The MS covers 220 hectares and 

comprises a 1.5 km square around the isolated Beware Reef (Figure 40 & Figure 41) 

Beware Reef MS is accessible by boat from the West Cape ramp on Cape Conran (Parks 

Victoria 2006a). The high diversity of marine flora and fauna make Beware Reef MS a highly 

regarded scuba diving area (ECC 2000). Three steamship wrecks, the Auckland, Ridge Park 

and Albert San also are important recreational diving venues in the MS (Parks Victoria 

2006a). 

Aboriginal tradition indicates that the Beware Reef MS is part of the Country of the Bidwell 

people and Gunai/Kurnai people and that other Aboriginal people including the Monero- 

Ngarigo people and Moogji Aboriginal Council people also have an association with the 

coastal region of this area (Parks Victoria 2006a). 

Important natural values of Beware Reef MS are its isolated intertidal and subtidal granite 

reef, extensive subtidal soft sediment, and open ocean that provide habitat for a diversity of 

marine flora and fauna species, including sessile invertebrates, algae, fish and transient 

whales (ECC 2000; Carey et al. 2007b). The intertidal reef provides a haul-out area for 

Australian Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus and New Zealand Arctophoca forsteri fur seals 

(Parks Victoria 2006a; Carey et al. 2007b). Stands of bull kelp Durvillaea potatorum grow on 

the reef (Carey et al. 2007b; Edmunds et al. 2010b). Sponge ‘gardens’ of soft corals, 

sponges, sea anemones, ascidians and zooanthids dominate the reef in deep waters. The 

MS has extensive deep subtidal sandy sediment surrounding the reef (Carey et al. 2007b). 

In the shallow subtidal (< 10m) the stands of canopy forming algae at Beware Reef MS are 

generally bull kelp Durvillaea potatorum and crayweed Phyllospora comosa, with a lesser 

contribution by the common kelp Ecklonia radiata (Edmunds et al. 2010b). Red algae 

dominates the understorey and includes Rhodymenia wilsonii, Plocamium dilatatum and R. 

linearis (Edmunds et al. 2010b). Beware Reef MS invertebrate assemblages have large 

numbers of the feather star Cenolia trichoptera and high densities of the black sea urchin 

Centrostephanus rodgersii and blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra (Edmunds et al. 2010b; Figure 

47). The herbivorous sea urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii can remove all erect algae to 

create ‘urchin barrens’ on the reefs in the MNP (Edmunds et al. 2010b). 

Common fish at Beware Reef MS are blue throated wrasse Notolabrus tetricus and purple 

wrasse N. fucicola (Edmunds et al. 2010b). Other fish species include the Maori wrasse 

Ophthalmolepis lineolata, one-spot puller Chromis hypsilepis, white-ear damselfish Parma 

microlepis and toothbrush leather jacket Acanthaluteres vittiger (Williams et al. 2007; 

Edmunds et al. 2010b). Large aggregations of butterfly perch Caesioperca lepidoptera are 

also a feature of the reef (Edmunds et al. 2010b). 

Beware Reef MS provides important feeding habitat for several threatened bird species such 

as the shy albatross Thalassarche cauta and wandering albatross Diomedea exulans, which 

are listed under both the Flora and Fauna Guarantee (FFG) Act (1998) and Commonwealth 

Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation (EPBC) Act (1999). Both are listed as 

vulnerable nationally with the wandering albatross listed as endangered in Victoria. The MS 

protects feeding areas under the EPBC Act (1999) and species that are listed under the 

Japan–Australia Migratory Bird Agreement (JAMBA) and the China–Australia Migratory Bird 

90



Agreement (CAMBA, Parks Victoria 2006a). The threatened southern right whale Eubalaena 

australis, humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae, southern elephant seal Mirounga 

leonina and New Zealand fur seal Arctophoca forsteri use the MS waters. New Zealand fur 

seals and Australian fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus use the intertidal reef as a 

haul-out site for most of the year (Parks Victoria 2006a). The killer whale Orcinus orca, 

bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus and common dolphin Delphinus delphis have been 

observed in the waters in and around the park (Parks Victoria 2006a). Seventeen species of 

marine flora and fauna are believed to be at their eastern or western distributional limits 

within the MSP. 

Serious threats to the Beware Reef MNP include limited ecological knowledge of important 

processes. Invasive marine pests from commercial and recreational boats; anchor damage; 

poaching of abalone; increased sediments from catchment runoff; and climate change all 

pose serious threats to the integrity of the MNP (Carey et al. 2007b). Measures to address or 

minimise these threats form part of the management plan for Beware Reef MNP (Parks 

Victoria 2006a). Ongoing intertidal and subtidal reef monitoring, and specific research aims 

to increase ecological knowledge about the natural values of, and threats to Beware Reef 

MNP. 

Figure 39. Finger sponge, feather stars, zooanthids and butteryfly perch Caesioperca lepidotera on 

subtidal reef on Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. Photo by Mark Norman Museum of Victoria. 


Beware Reef MS is 220 hectares in size which makes it the 15th largest of the 24 Marine 

National Parks or Sanctuaries in Victoria (Table 28, Figure 40). The reef is granite rising 

from a sandy sea floor (Ball and Blake 2007; Edmunds et al. 2010b). The seafloor of the 

park drops away to 33.5 metres in depth (Figure 41) and the MS is predominately > 20 

metres deep (Ball and Blake 2007). Prevailing winds and swells are generally from the 

south-west and south-east (Parks Victoria 2006a). The MS is influenced by high-energy 

waves and currents (Parks Victoria 2006a). Tidal variation is 0.9 metres for spring tides and 

0.6 metres for neap tides (Plummer et al. 2003). Surface water temperatures average 18.5 

91



°C in the summer and 13.5 °C in the winter. The MS is influenced by the warm East 

Australian Current waters and the cooler Bass Strait waters. The continental slope is close 

and cold-water upwellings are frequent (ECC 2000). These upwellings provide nutrients to 

the inshore ecosystems, contributing to high productivity (ECC 2000). No estuaries or 

intermittent creeks run directly into the park as it is an isolated reef offshore from the coast 

(Table 28).There are no declared sites of geological or geomorphological or biotic 

significance in the MS (Figure 42). 

Table 28. Physical attributes of the Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. 

Park Name 

Beware Reef 


Marine Sanctuary 


Twofold Shelf 


Length of adjacent coastline 0 km 


Granite 


Figure 40. Location map of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary with bathymetry. Subtidal reef monitoring sites inside and outside the MS 

are shown, there are no intertidal monitoring sites.



Figure 41. Bathymetry of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary 

Figure 42. Geological and biotic significant sites near Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. 

94




General 

Since the first natural values report by Plummer et al. (2003) Parks Victoria has invested in 

monitoring and mapping surveys in Beware Reef MS. This includes detailed bathymetric 

mapping (Figure 41) of the MS (Ball and Blake 2007). There have been four SRMP surveys 

of the shallow subtidal reef biota of Beware Reef MS (Edmunds et al. 2005; Williams et al. 

2007; Edmunds et al. 2010b). There have been no surveys of the biota of intertidal reef or 

the pelagic habitats. From surveys so far (Table 29), red algae dominate the diversity of 

macrophytes, fish and birds the vertebrates, however many more species of biota have been 

identified and photographed by Friends of Beware Reef. Nearby important locations for 

some birds is shown in Figure 42 but there are no recognised significant biota sites in the 

MS. 

Table 29. Summary of the number of species in major biotic groups found in Beware Reef Marine 

Sanctuary. 

Biotic group 



Brown algae 7 

Red algae 12 


Decapod 3 

Chitons 3 

Echinoderms 3 


Fish 17 

Birds 29 

Reptiles 1 

Mammals 7 

Figure 43. Superb feather hydroid Gymnangium superbum in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. Photo 

taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. 

95



Intertidal 

Soft sediment 

There is no intertidal soft sediment habitat in Beware Reef MS. 

Reef 

Intertidal reef biota is exposed to large changes in physical conditions such as temperature 



2004). The recruitment of new biota onto the reef, largely from plankton, strongly influences 

the ecological patterns for individual species and assemblages. Interactions between biota 

on the reef also influence biota distribution. Resources which are often in short supply on 

intertidal reefs are space on which to live and food (Underwood and Chapman 2004). 

The exposed intertidal reef is a 0.3 hectare gently rounded offshore granite platform, which 

is wave-swept in high seas (Parks Victoria 2006a). Thick stands of bull kelp Durvillaea 

potatorum dominate the lower intertidal reef, with coralline algae and fleshy green and brown 

algae occurring elsewhere (Parks Victoria 2006a). Durvillaea is more abundant along the 

exposed southern side of the island (Edmunds et al. 2005).The cunjevoi Pyura stolonifera is 

the dominant invertebrate on the intertidal reef (Parks Victoria 2006a). Large barnacles and 

mussels cover much of the rock, while other areas are bare (Parks Victoria 2006a). 

As noted by Plummer et al. (2003) no specific data on the biota of intertidal reefs are 

available for Beware Reef MS. 

Subtidal 

Soft sediment 

Deep subtidal soft sandy sediment is widespread within the MS. No biological surveys have 

been undertaken of this community within the sanctuary to date, but it probably supports 

numerous polychaetes, isopods, gastropods, euphausiids, ophiuroids, bivalves, amphipods, 

cumaceans and cephalopods (Plummer et al. 2003). A trawl survey conducted 10 km west 

of the sanctuary indicates that the presence of some species of fish is seasonal. Common 

species found included: sparsely spotted stingaree Urolophus paucimaculatus, gurnard 

Lepidotrigla spp., flathead Platycephalus spp., common gurnard perch Neosebastes 

scorpaenoides, banded stingaree Urolophus cruciatus and school whiting Sillago bassiensis 

(Bird & Watson 1993 as reported in Plummer et al. 2003). Numerous shark species were 

also found in the survey: swell Cephaloscyllium laticeps, angel Squatina australis, spotted 

cat Asymbolus analis, southern saw Pristiophorus nudipinnis, elephant Callorhynchus milii, 

gummy Mustelus antarcticus and Port Jackson Heterodontus portusjacksoni sharks. 

Newborn pups of gummy sharks inhabit shallow inshore areas and there is some evidence 

to suggest that the inshore sandy areas east of Wilsons Promontory, including Beware Reef 

MS, may be important feeding areas for gummy shark pups (Plummer et al. 2003). 

Reef 





Biotic assemblages of algae and sessile invertebrates can form habitat and food sources for 

invertebrates and fish. Shallow (< 15 m) subtidal reefs are known for their high biological 

complexity, species diversity and productivity and in addition they have significant economic 

value through commercial and recreational fishing (outside of MPAs), diving and other 

tourism activities (Power and Boxshall 2007). Shallow subtidal reefs are often dominated by 

canopy forming algae. Deep reefs, where light penetration is limited, are often dominated by 

large sessile invertebrates such as massive sponges, whip corals, soft corals and colonial 

96



ascidians (Power and Boxshall 2007). Deep reef assemblages contain a unique combination 

of organisms and the biological and physical differences mean that deeper areas may also 

respond differently to threats. 

Flora 

Seaweeds provide important habitat structure for other organisms on the reef. This habitat 

structure varies considerably, depending on the type of seaweed species present (Williams 

et al. 2007). The major canopy species of the shallow reef at Beware Reef MS are bull kelp 

Durvillaea potatorum and crayweed Phyllospora comosa, with a lesser contribution by the 

common kelp Ecklonia radiata (Edmunds et al. 2010b). These species have large, stalk-like 

stipes and form a canopy 0.5 - 2 m above the rocky substratum (Williams et al. 2007). Lower 

layers of structure are formed by red algae typically 10 - 30 cm high and includes 

Rhodymenia wilsonii, Plocamium dilatatum and R. linearis (Edmunds et al. 2010b). There is 

a general absence of green algal and filamentous brown and red turf species (Edmunds et 

al. 2010b). Beware Reef has a similar shallow reef flora to the monitored sites at Point Hicks, 

including a similar mixed algal canopy and a higher cover of fucalean species, such as 

Cystophora spp. and Sargassum spp., and fleshy thallose red algae (Edmunds et al. 2010b). 

The cover of crustose coralline algae at Beware Reef MS varies a lot between monitoring 

times, but is characterised by a lower cover of encrusting coralline algae than Cape Howe 

(Edmunds et al. 2010b). 

Bull kelp D. potatorum has not been observed at the other MPA or reference monitoring sites 

in the bioregion. It is a large robust species adapted to living in highly exposed conditions. Its 

abundance has been observed to increase with decreasing abundance of E. radiata 

(Edmunds et al. 2010b). There have been limited studies on seaweeds in the Twofold Shelf 

bioregion, but a considerable number of rare and new species have been documented 

(Edmunds et al. 2010b). 

Figure 44. Banjo ray Trygonorrhina fasciata on subtidal reef in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. Photo 


97



Figure 45. Female herring cale Odax cyanomelas in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. Photo taken by 

Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. 

Figure 46. Rosy weedfish Heteroclinus roseus in the understory of bull kelp Ecklonia radiata canopy. 

Photo taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. 


98



An abundant and diverse range of invertebrates is present on the subtidal reef (Plummer et 

al. 2003; Figures 47 and 48). The invertebrate fauna of the Twofold Shelf bioregion 

comprises both southern and eastern Australian temperate species. Common invertebrate 

grazers found at Beware Reef MS include the tent shell Astralium tentoriformis and elephant 

snail Scutus antipodes (Williams et al. 2007). Predatory invertebrates include the triton 

Cabestana spengleri, octopus Octopus moarum and a wide variety of seastar species 

(Williams et al. 2007). Other large reef invertebrates include mobile filter feeding animals 

such as feather stars Cenolia trichoptera and sessile (attached) species such as sponges, 

corals, bryozoans, hydroids (see Figure 48) and ascidians (Williams et al. 2007). The 

holdfasts of E. radiata are encrusted with sponges, worms and the brittle stars Ophiothrix 

spongicola and O. caespitose (Plummer et al. 2003). 

Beware Reef invertebrate fauna is similar to both the Point Hicks and Cape Howe monitored 

sites. It has large numbers of the mobile filter feeding feather star Cenolia trichoptera like 

Point Hicks and high densities of the black sea urchin Centrostephanus rodgersii and 

blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra like Cape Howe (Edmunds et al. 2010b). The purple urchin 

Heliocidaris erythrogramma is also abundant at the MS (Williams et al. 2007). The 

abundance of legal sized abalone appears to have increased in the MPAs of Twofold Shelf 

bioregion since declaration (Edmunds et al. 2010b). The black sea urchin C. rodgersii can 

form large grazing aggregations which denude the reef of erect algal species, forming ‘sea 

urchin barrens’ and these have been observed in the MS (Edmunds et al. 2010b). The 

occurrence of urchin barren habitat reflects the influence of species from the east coast of 

Australia on the MS (Williams et al. 2007). Removal of large seaweeds by Centrostephanus 

causes substantial changes to subtidal reef community structure (Williams et al. 2007). 

Deep on the subtidal reefs (> 20 m) sessile invertebrates dominate with ‘gardens’ of massive 

erect sponges, encrusting sponges, gorgonian coral, sea-whip coral, zooanthids and basket 

stars (ECC 2000; Edmunds et al. 2005). The northern side of the reef has steep drop-offs, 

with urchin-modified habitat and sessile invertebrate wall fauna below the kelp zone 

(Edmunds et al. 2005). The sea urchins C. rodgersii and H. erythrogramma, and the feather 

star C. trichoptera were particularly prominent on the northern side (Edmunds et al. 2005). 

Anemones Anthothoe albocincta and Balanophyllia bairdiana, encrusting sponges and large 

finger sponges, colonial Botrylloides sp. and stalked ascidians are abundant on deeper 

vertical faces and in shaded gutters on the reef where limited light penetration reduces algae 

cover (Plummer et al. 2003). Crinoids Cenolia trichoptera and C. tasmaniae of green, orange 

and white colour morphs are common in cracks (Plummer et al. 2003). Hydroids, gorgonians 

Mopsella sp. and Capnella sp. and sea whips Primnoella australasiae are common towards 

the base of the reef (Plummer et al. 2003). The jewel anemone Corynactis australis and the 

nudibranch Hypselodoris bennetti are also found on the reef (Plummer et al. 2003). 

99



a) b) 

c) d) 

e) f) 

Figure 47. Invertebrate fauna of the subtidal reef in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary: a) tent shell 

Astralium tentoriformis, b) elephant snail Scutus antipodes, c) gloomy octopus Octopus tetricus, d) 

purple urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma, e) blacklip abalone Haliotis rubra and f) black sea urchin 

Centrostephanus rodgersii. Photos taken by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. 

100



a) b) 

c) d) 

Figure 48. Deep subtidal reef invertebrates in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary: a) ascidian 

Botrylloides perspicuus, b) feather star Cenolia trichoptera, c) southern jewel anemone Corynactis 

australis and d) basket star Conocladius australis on a sponge. Photos taken by Friends of Beware 

Reef Marine Sanctuary. 

Fish 

The fish assemblages associated with Phyllospora communities of the Twofold Shelf 

Bioregion have characteristics typical of both eastern and southern temperate waters, and 

are therefore quite different to elsewhere in Victoria (Edmunds et al. 2010b; Williams et al. 

2007; Figures 44, 45, 46 and 53). 

Wrasse and damselfish were the more abundant species at Beware Reef. Four species of 

wrasse, the blue throat wrasse Notolabrus tetricus, purple wrasse N. fucicola, Maori wrasse 

Opthalmolepis lineolata and rosy wrasse Pseudolabrus psittaculus are common (Williams et 

al. 2007; Edmunds et al. 2010b), although their abundance is variable between surveys 

(Edmunds et al. 2010b). The damsel fish, the one-spot puller Chromis hypsilepis and whiteear 

damselfish Parma microlepis are eastern warmer water species that occur in the MS 

(Edmunds et al. 2005; Williams et al. 2007; Edmunds et al. 2010b; Figure 49). Banded 

morwong Cheilodactylus spectabilis is also common at Beware Reef MS (Williams et al. 

2007). 

Beware Reef MS has very high densities of the plankton feeding butterfly perch Caesioperca 

Lepidoptera, with schools of over 1000 being observed (Figure 50). High densities of 

butterfly perch are generally associated with reefs of high relief with extension into deep 

water, such as at Beware Reef (Edmunds et al. 2010b). The abundance of this species 

101



makes the MS distinct from other MPAs in the bioregion (Edmunds et al. 2005; Edmunds et 

al. 2010b).The rosy wrasse Pseudolabrus rubicundus, is also typical of higher relief reefs. 

Other fish observed in the MS are bullseye Pempheris sp., long-snouted boarfish 

Pentaceropsis recurvirostris, draughtboard shark Cephaloscyllium laticeps, sea sweep 

Scorpis aequipinnis, Port Jackson shark Heterodontus portusjacksoni, wobbegong Shark 

Orectolobus sp. and weedy sea dragon Phyllopteryx taeniolatus (Plummer et al. 2003). Fish 

diversity has been observed to be higher on the northern side of the reef compared to the 

more exposed southern side (Williams et al. 2007). 

a) b) 

Figure 49. Eastern temperate fish species on Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary: a) juvenile white-ear 

damsel fish Parma microlepis, and b) one-spot puller Chromis hypsilepis. Photos taken by Friends of 

Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. 

Figure 50. School of butterfly perch Caesioperca lepidoptera in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. 

Photo by Mark Norman, Museum of Victoria 

102



Water column 

The water column as a whole is the largest habitat in the MS and is important in different 



into two categories based on mode of movement: either pelagic (actively swimming; Figure 

51) or planktonic (drifting with the current). Larger species are often planktonic during early 

life stages before becoming pelagic as they grow. Smaller species tend to be planktonic but 

can influence their movement to some extent by controlling their height in the water column. 








reptiles of conservation significance are found in the waters of Beware Reef MS. 

Figure 51. Lions's mane jellyfish Cyanea capillata in the open water off Beware Reef Marine 

Sanctuary. Photo by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. 






2007). 

103



Flora 

No conservation listed marine flora has been recorded in Beware Reef MS (Parks Victoria 

2006a). 

Fish 

No conservation listed fish have been recorded at Beware Reef MS or its immediate 

surrounds. 

Birds 

Very few seabird sightings have been recorded for the sanctuary. Seventeen conservation 

listed shore or sea birds have been sighted in or in the immediate surrounds of Beware Reef 

MS (Table 30). Twelve are recognized as threatened in Victoria, listed under the FFG Act 

1988 or the Victorian Rare or Threatened Species (VROTS) list. One, the wandering 

albatross Diomedea exulans is regarded as endangered at the state level and vulnerable 

nationally. Three birds are listed as vulnerable at both the state and national level, including 

the fairy prion Pachyptila turtur, shy Thalassarche cauta and yellow-nosed T. chlororhynchos 

albatross. Eleven birds are recognized internationally under the Australia Migratory Bird 

Agreement with either China (CAMBA) or Japan (JAMBA). 

Little Penguins Eudyptula minor rest on the exposed reef platform throughout the year, and it 

is a common roosting and feeding area for other seabirds, particularly pied cormorants 

Phalacrocorax varius and Australian gannets Morus serrator (Parks Victoria 2006a). 

Table 30. Conservation listed shorebird and seabirds records from Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary 



listing 

International 

treaty 

Common name Scientific name FFFG VROTS EPBC CAMBA JAMBA 

wandering albatross Diomedea exulans L EN VU J 

shy albatross Thalassarche cauta L VU VU J 

yellow-nosed Thalassarche 

L VU VU J 

albatross 


fairy prion Pachyptila turtur VU VU J 



Haliaeetus leucogaster L VU C 


ruddy turnstone Arenaria interpres C J 


eastern reef egret Egretta sacra C 

arctic jaeger Stercorarius parasiticus J 

short-tailed 

Ardenna tenuirostris 

J 

shearwater 



pied cormorant Phalacrocorax varius NT 

sooty oystercatcher Haematopus fuliginosus NT 


L= listed, NT = Near Threatened, VU = Vulnerable, EN = Endangered, C = Listed under the CAMBA treaty, J = 

Listed under 


Southern right whales Eubalaena australis, humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae, 

southern elephant seals Mirounga leonina and New Zealand fur seals Arctophoca forsteri 

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have been recorded in or near the Beware Reef MS (Table 31). The southern right whale E. 

australis is listed as critically endangered in Victorian waters and endangered nationally. The 

humpback whale M. novaeangliae is listed as vulnerable at the state and national level. The 

southern elephant seal M. leonina is listed as vulnerable at the national level and the New 

Zealand fur seals A. forsteri at the state level (Table 31). New Zealand fur seals A. forsteri 

and Australian fur seals Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus (Figure 52) use the intertidal reef as 

a haul-out site for most of the year (Parks Victoria 2006a). The killer whale Orcinus orca, 

bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus and common dolphin Delphinus delphis have been 

observed in the waters in and around the park (Parks Victoria 2006a). Fiver other listed 

marine reptiles occur as warm water vagrants along the eastern Victorian coast: leatherback 

turtle Dermochelys coriacea, loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta, green turtle Chelonia mydas, 

Pacific ridley Lepidochelys olivacea, and yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis platurus and 

probably occur in the MNP (Plummer et al. 2003). Many other animals, probably use the MS 

waters but its remoteness means there are few observations. 

Table 31. Threatened marine mammal and reptile records from Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary and 

surrounds. 

Victorian 

listing 

National 

listing 

International 

convention 


southern right whale Eubalaena australis L CE EN L 

Megaptera 

L 

humpback whale novaeangliae L VU VU 

southern elephant 

seal Mirounga leonina VU 


Australian fur seal 


doriferus 

L 

Killer Whale Orcinus orca L L 

L= listed, M = listed Migratory, VU = Vulnerable, EN = Endangered, CE = Critically Endangered 

Figure 52. An Australian fur seal Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. 

Photo by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. 

105




An assessment of distribution, endemism and rarity of biota across the state found that 

Beware Reef MS had no known endemic or rare biota (O'Hara and Barmby 2000; O’Hara 

and Poore 2000). 

Fifteen biota have been recorded or presumed to be at their distributional limit in Beware 

Reef MS (Table 32, O'Hara and Barmby 2000; O’Hara and Poore 2000; Plummer et al. 

2003). One red algae has been recorded as being at the easterly limit of its distribution at 

Beware Reef MS (Table 32). Five algae and six invertebrates are presumed to be at their 

eastern limit of their distribution in the Beware Reef MS. Two chitons and one sea urchin are 

presumed to be at their western limit of distribution. The distributional limits of the biota listed 

in Table 32 may reflect collection effort in this area rather than actual Victorian distributions. 

Many areas of the Victorian coast have never been sampled and therefore biota ranges may 

be much greater than those suggested. 

Table 32. Marine species at their distribution limits in Beware Reef MS (O'Hara 2002). 

Order Family Species Common Category 

name 

Laminariales Lessoniaceae Macrocystis pyrifera brown algae PE 

Sphacelariales Stypocaulaceae Phoiocaulon foecundum brown algae PE 

Sporochnales Sporochnaceae Austroneraia australis brown algae PE 

Gigartinales Areschougiaceae Rhabdonia coccinea red algae PE 

Cystocloniaceae Craspedocarpus 

red algae PE 

ramentaceus 

Cystocloniaceae Craspedocarpus venosus red algae RE 

Brachyura Leucosiidae Phlyixia intermedia crab PE 

Pilumnidae Pilumnus fissifrons crab PE 

Polyplacophora Acanthochitonidae Acanthochitona kimberi chiton PW 

Chitonidae Chiton (Rhyssoplax) chiton PE 

bednalli 

Chitonidae Chiton pelliserpentis chiton PW 

Echinoidea Fibulariidae Fibularia (Fibularia) sea urchin PW 

nutriens 

Temnopleuridae Amblypneustes ovum sea urchin PE 

Ophiuroidea Ophiactidae Ophiactis tricolor brittle star PE 

Perciformes Clinidae Heteroclinus perspicillatus spotshoulder PE 

weedfish 


recorded eastern limit. 

106



Figure 53. Thornfish Bovichtus angustifrons in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary 





threats that could affect them over the next 10 years, were considered and ranked to identify 

hazards. This list of hazards was then ranked (low, medium, high and extreme) by the risk 

posed by each hazard (Carey et al. 2007b). Seven hazards with the potential to be extreme 

were identified by Carey et al. (2007b). They are listed in rank order and the habitat or area 

at risk within the park is indicated in brackets: 


ecological communities (subtidal reef and soft sediments); 


leading to changes in community structure (subtidal reef and soft sediments); 

3. Anchoring of recreational boats causing physical damage to subtidal reef habitats 

and communities (subtidal reef); 




on habitats and communities (all of MS); 

6. Increased sediment loads from catchment runoff from park/forest roads leading to 

decreased water quality (all of MS); and 

7. Increased sediment loads from catchment runoff associated with timber harvesting 

leading to decreased water quality (all of MS). 

107





Victoria 2003). Most marine pests known from Victorian waters are limited to Port Phillip 

Bay (Parks Victoria 2003). No marine pests have been recorded in Beware Reef MS, 

however one the New Zealand screw shell Maoricolpus roseus (Holmes et al. 2007a) and 

New Zealand sea star Astrostole scabra have been recorded in Point Hicks and Cape Howe 

MNPs. It is presumed that the introduced green meanie or green shore crab Carcinus 

maenas occurs on the intertidal reefs of all the MPAs, except Ninety Mile Beach which has 

no intertidal reef. Other species of particular concern include the Northern Pacific seastar 

Asterias amurensis, European fanworm Sabella spallanzanii, Japanese kelp Undaria 

pinnatifida and broccoli weed Codium fragile (subsp fragile) (Parks Victoria 2003). 

The screw shell Maoricolpus roseus has been recorded within the Point Hicks MNP (Heislers 

and Parry 2007; Holmes et al. 2007a). This five cm long gastropod was introduced to 

Tasmania from New Zealand in the 1920s (Bax et al. 2003). It has now spread out to the 80 

m depth contour off the eastern Victorian and New South Wales coasts (Patil et al. 2004). In 

New Zealand it is found from soft sediments to exposed habitats. This habitat flexibility 

means there is a higher potential for greater ecological and environmental impacts over 

larger areas than introduced species restricted to specific inshore environments (Patil et al. 

2004). The dense beds of this invasive species change the benthic structure with unknown 

(and unexamined) effects on ecosystem services (Patil et al. 2004). It can cover soft 

sediments with its hard shell, and once dead, its shell provides abundant homes for a 

particular hermit crab that can use its heavy tapered shell, thus potentially shifting the preinvasion 

food web (Bax et al. 2003). Dense beds of this burrowing filter feeder may have 

adverse impacts on native filter feeders, with native turritellids numbers declining with 

increasing M. roseus numbers (Patil et al. 2004). In Point Hicks MNP where this invasive 

species was most abundant, the diversity of infauna was reduced, suggesting that this exotic 

species poses a serious threat to the high diversity of infauna that is characteristic of much 

of Bass Strait (Heislers and Parry 2007). 



and has been confirmed from Discovery Bay MNP to Cape Otway (DPI 2009). It is not in the 

Beware Reef MS but its spread into the park could have serious long term ecological 


















A number of species are at the eastern or western limit of their distributional range at 

Beware Reef and such species, especially those at the eastern eastern limit of their 

distribution, would be particularly vulnerable to climate change. In contrast, the urchin 

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Centrostephanus rodgersii, which is found in Beware Reef MS, has increased its range 

down the east coast of Australia to Tasmania and that increase is thought to be linked to 

climate change with the EAC extending further south (Banks et al. 2010). 


Beware Reef MSP (Parks Victoria 2006a). For example research is being conducted into 

marine pest species which may impact on park values. Parks Victoria has also undertaken a 






Figure 54. Eastern red sea fan Mopsella sp. in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. Photo taken by 












109




research relevant to Beware Reef MS has been published in Parks Victoria’s Technical 


research in the MNS has been carried out under permits issued by DSE, the permit 


Appendix 2). 


programs implemented in partnership with, or commissioned by, Parks Victoria relevant to Beware 

Reef Marine Sanctuary. 




species. 























Beware Reef MS does not have an ongoing intertidal reef monitoring program as it has 


monitoring program (SRMP, Edmunds and Hart 2003) in and around the Beware Reef MS 

began in 2004. Since that time one site in the MS and one reference site at Pearl Point 

outside of the MS (Figure 40) have been surveyed over four census events (Edmunds et al. 

2005; Williams et al. 2007; Edmunds et al. 2010b). The monitoring involves standardised 







census events up to 2006 was conducted at the bioregion level of Point Hicks and Cape 

Howe MNP, and Beware Reef MS. The analysis compared sites within MPAs to reference 

sites outside the MPAs. They found there was no significant difference in species richness 

and number of species between MPA and reference sites post-declaration for the Twofold 

110



Shelf bioregion. Limitations to this work include the relatively short time since declaration 

and the corresponding small data set (Keough and Carnell 2009). All algae analysed had 

similar percentage cover between MPA and reference sites (Keough and Carnell 2009). The 

purple sea urchin Heliocidaris erythrogramma and dogwelk Dicathais orbita showed a 

greater abundance at reference sites compared to MPA sites (Keough and Carnell 2009). 

The triton Cabestana spengleri, red bait crab Plagusia chabrus and H. erythrogramma had 

significant differences in abundance between the various MPAs (Keough and Carnell 2009). 

The abundance of dominant fish species varied, but were generally similar between MPA 

and reference sites over time (Keough and Carnell 2009). Mado, purple wrasse and bluethroated 






pressure, is to ensure the protection of the MPA area against future threats to biodiversity 



be done by 2013. The subtidal reef monitoring program will continue to be implemented 

every two years in Beware Reef MS. The major directions for monitoring include 

implementing an expanded and improved monitoring program following a review of the major 

findings taking into account knowledge generated since park declaration and conservation 

outcomes developed for the MNPs (Keough et al. 2007; Power and Boxshall 2007; Keough 

and Carnell 2009). 

Figure 55. Southern peacock weed Distromium flabellatum in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. Photo 


111



The Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary is an active diving community group that has 

mapped the shipwrecks in the MS (Parks Victoria 2006a). It is also collating and 

photographing the flora and fauna of the MS (Figures 55 and 56). Over three hundred types 

of biota have been photographed. The group is also monitoring the flora and fauna through 

the subtidal Reef Life Survey monitoring program. 





Carey, University of Melbourne, is conducting research focussing on marine pest species 



potential for successful management. 


No new surveys exist for the ecological communities of the intertidal reef or deep subtidal 

reef. There is little new data on fish abundances, distributions or interactions except in 

shallow subtidal reef habitats. No information exists at present for water column 

assemblages. Major threats have been identified for Beware Reef MS but we have limited 

knowledge of the effect on the natural values, particularly ecological communities. Limited 

information is available on the presence of species of conservation significance in the MS 

other than birds. 

Figure 56. Crowned nudibranch Polycera capensis in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. Photo taken by 


112



Summary 

Along Victoria’s coastline there are 30 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) that have been 

established to protect the state’s significant marine environmental and cultural values. These 

MPAs include 13 Marine National Parks (MNPs), 11 Marine Sanctuaries (MSs), 3 Marine 

and Coastal Parks, 2 Marine Parks, and a Marine Reserve, and together these account for 

11.7% of the Victorian marine environment. The highly protected Marine National Park 

System, which is made up of the MNPs and MSs, covers 5.3% of Victorian waters and was 

proclaimed in November 2002. This system has been designed to be representative of the 

diversity of Victoria’s marine environment and aims to conserve and protect ecological 

processes, habitats, and associated flora and fauna. The Marine National Park System is 

spread across Victoria’s five marine bioregions with multiple MNPs and MSs in each 

bioregion, with the exception of Flinders bioregion which has one MNP. All MNPs and 

MSs are “no-take” areas and are managed under the National Parks Act (1975) - Schedules 

7 and 8 respectively. 

This report updates the first Marine Natural Values Study (Plummer et al. 2003) for the 

MPAs in the Flinders and Twofold Shelf bioregions on the east coast of Victoria and is one of 

a series of five reports covering Victoria’s Marine National Park System. It uses the 

numerous monitoring and research programs that have increased our knowledge since 

declaration and aims to give a comprehensive overview of the important natural values of 

each MNP and MS. 

The Flinders and Twofold Shelf bioregions encompass the east coast of Victoria from 

Wilsons Promontory and extend into Tasmania and New South Wales respectively. Wilsons 

Promontory MNP is in the Flinders bioregion, and Ninety Mile Beach, Point Hicks and Cape 

Howe MNPs and Beware Reef MS are in the Twofold Shelf bioregion. Both bioregions have 

cool temperate biota but with some warm-temperate species commonly found in NSW due 

to the influence of the East Australian Current (EAC). The continental shelf narrows towards 

the east of Twofold Shelf bioregion, where nutrient rich, cold water upwellings occur. Long 

sandy beaches with granite headlands and promontories are typical of the coast in the 

bioregions. Shores in Flinders plunge steeply onto a deep sandy sea floor. In Twofold Shelf 

the sandy low carbonate soft sediments slope off more gently to deep waters. 

The MPAs are spread along the eastern Victorian coast to the NSW border and all are 

remote from large population centres. Wilsons Promontory adjoins other marine protected 

areas, and all MNPs, except Ninety Mile Beach MNP, adjoin terrestrial national parks. 

Wilsons Promontory MNP, at 15,530 hectares, is the largest MPA in Victoria. Ninety Mile 

Beach, Point Hicks and Cape Howe are 2650, 3805 and 4054 respectively. This makes them 

the ninth, fifth and fourth largest MNPs. Beware Reef, at 220 hectares, is the second largest 

MS. The four MNPs extend from high water mark on the coast to the limit of state waters 3 

nautical miles offshore, except Wilsons Promontory which has a slightly more complicated 

offshore boundary. Beware Reef MS does not adjoin the coast and is a 1.5 km square 

around an isolated granite reef. 

Mapping of marine habitats is important for understanding and communicating the 

distribution of natural values within Marine National Parks and Sanctuaries, particularly as 

the marine environment is not as easily visualised as the terrestrial environment (Parks 

Victoria 2003). Knowledge of the distribution and extent of habitats is required to effectively 

target management activities, including emergency response, monitoring and research. 

Mapping of marine habitats provides a baseline inventory, allows the identification of suitable 

monitoring sites and possible tracking of environmental change, as well as identifying areas 

vulnerable to particular threats or suitable for recreational activities. High resolution habitat 

and bathymetry mapping has increased our understanding of habitats in the shallow waters 

of all the MPAs, and extends to the whole MPA for Point Hicks and Cape Howe MNPs. All 

113



the MPAs, except Ninety Mile Beach MNP, have both shallow and deep subtidal reef. All, 

except for Beware Reef, have extensive intertidal soft sediment habitat or beaches. Flora in 

this habitat is restricted to macroalgae drift which, with other wrack material, contributes to 

the detrital cycle and is a significant source of food for many shore birds and invertebrates. 

All MPAs have subtidal soft sediment habitat, which can have very high numbers of 

invertebrate species living on and in it. Subtidal soft sediment and open water are the 

dominant habitat types in the MPAs. 

In Wilsons Promontory MNP intertidal rocky reef is limited to a narrow band as the shores 

are very steep. Intertidal rocky reef is a relatively narrow band rock platform around the base 

of Point Hicks and only along the far eastern shore of Cape Howe MNP. The Beware Reef 

MS intertidal reef platform provides a haul-out area for Australian Arctocephalus pusillus 

doriferus and New Zealand Arctophoca forsteri fur seals. The intertidal reef invertebrate 

assemblages in Twofold Shelf are more similar to southern NSW reef than those to the west 

along the Victorian coast. There is no intertidal reef monitoring program in either bioregion, 

because of limited intertidal reef and low threat from harvesting or trampling. 

Ongoing monitoring and focused research projects have described the flora and fauna of the 

subtidal reefs in all the MPAs except Ninety Mile Beach MNP. The shallow subtidal reefs in 

the MPAs differ in the composition of canopy forming macroalgae species, understorey and 

the associated invertebrate and fish assemblages. Common to all MPAs is the blacklip 

abalone Haliotis rubra and wrasse spp. The herbivorous, warm water sea urchin 

Centrostephanus rodgersii occurs on the reefs in both bioregions and can remove all erect 

algae to create ‘urchin barrens’. Warm water fish species such as the damsel fish, including 

the one-spot puller Chromis hypsilepis and white-ear damselfish Parma microlepis, are a 

feature of Twofold Shelf shallow subtidal reefs. 

Wilsons Promontory MNP has a wide range of subtidal habitat types, from low to high wave 

exposure creating distinct east west biogeographic patterns. On high exposure reef, 

common in the west and south of the MNP, crayweed Phyllospora comosa dominates the 

canopy, the seastars Patiriella brevispina and P. vernicina are typical and herring cale Odax 

cyanomelax is abundant. On moderate to low exposure reef in the east Ecklonia- 

Seirococcus assemblage dominates the canopy, the seastar Nectria macrobranchia is 

typical and herring cale O. cyanomelax abundance is low. Urchins Heliocidaris 

erythrogramma, blacklip abalone H. rubra and feather stars Cenolia trichoptera are abundant 

on shallow subtidal reefs throughout the MNP. Fish species number and abundance is high 

compared to shallow subtidal reefs west of Wilsons Promontory MNP. Four species of fish 

dominate, the barber perch Casioperca rasor, blue-throated wrasse Notolabrus tetricus, 

purple wrasse N. fucicola, long-finned pike Dinolestes lewini and herring cale O. 

cyanomelax. The eastern blue grouper Achoerodus viridis is present in low numbers in 

Wilsons Promontory MNP. 

Subtidal low calcarenite rocky reefs dominated by sessile invertebrates and sparse red algae 

occur along Ninety Mile Beach. Preliminary mapping has not located the reefs within the 

Ninety Mile Beach MNP, they may have been covered by sand at the time of mapping. 

Shallow subtidal rocky reefs in Point Hicks MNP are highly exposed and have varied forms, 

from simple to complex providing a wide range of habitats. The canopy is a mixture of P. 

comosa and common kelp Ecklonia radiata, with the proportions of these two species 

varying according to the habitat, depth and location. The reef beneath the canopy varies 

from encrusting and erect sponges to small fleshy red algae. Invertebrate assemblages 

include relatively high abundances of the predatory whelk Cabestana spengleri and the 

seastar Patiriella calcar, and moderate abundances of blacklip abalone H. rubra and the red 

bait crab Plagusia chabrus. Fish assemblages are dominated by large numbers of blue 

throat wrasse Notolabrus tetricus and purple wrasse N. fucicola. Other fish species include 

the banded morwong Cheilodactylus spectabilis, sea sweep Scorpis aequipinnis, and Maori 

114



wrasse Ophthalmolepis lineolata. The eastern blue grouper Achoerodus viridis is present in 

low numbers in Point Hicks MNP. 

In Cape Howe MNP shallow subtidal rocky reefs have a complex structure, including eroded 

low-profile sandstone reef and high-profile granite reef. The canopy is dominated by 

crayweed P. comosa, with some bull kelp Durvillaea potatorum in shallower waters. 

Invertebrate diversity is high and common invertebrates include the warrener Turbo 

undulatus and turban shell Astralium tentoriformis. Its fish assemblage is distinct in the 

bioregion. Common fish are herring cale O. cyanomelas, the six-spined leatherjacket 

Meuschenia freycineti, striped mado Atypichthys strigatus, and banded morwong C. 

spectabilis. The eastern blue grouper Achoerodus viridis is present in low numbers in Cape 

Howe MNP. 

The shallow subtidal reef in the Beware Reef has seaweed, invertebrate and fish 

communities that are distinctly different to the other reefs in Twofold Shelf MPAs. The 

canopy is dominated by bull kelp D. potatorum and crayweed P. comosa, with a lesser 

contribution by the common kelp E. radiata. Invertebrate assemblages have large numbers 

of the feather star Cenolia trichoptera and high densities of the black sea urchin 

Centrostephanus rodgersii and blacklip abalone H. rubra. Common fish at Beware Reef MS 

are blue throated wrasse N. tetricus and purple wrasse N. fucicola. Other fish species 

include the Maori wrasse O. lineolata, and toothbrush leather jacket Acanthaluteres vittiger. 

Large aggregations of butterfly perch Caesioperca lepidoptera are also a feature of the reef. 

Subtidal soft sediment is a dominant habitat in all of the five MPAs in the Flinders and 

Twofold Shelf bioregions but detailed knowledge of its flora and fauna is restricted to shallow 

waters. Point Hicks and Cape Howe are the exception where the entire MPAs have been 

mapped and substrate and biota modelled. Sediments are predominantly inhabited by 

infauna (small crustaceans and worms that burrow into the sand) and bottom-dwelling 

skates and rays. The fish fauna of subtidal soft sediment at Wilsons Promontory MNP are 

typical of much of the shallower parts of Bass Strait. Common benthic fish are the sparsely 

spotted stingaree Urolophus paucimaculatus, Tasmanian numbfish Narcine tasmaniensis, 

banded stingaree U. cruciatus, angel shark Squatina australis and shortnose sawshark 

Pristiophorus nudipinnis. Boney fishes include sand flathead Platycephalus bassensis, silver 

trevally Pseudocaranx dentex, prickly toadfish Contusus brevicaudus and several species of 

leatherjackets. 

The majority of Ninety Mile Beach MNP is < 20 m deep, with extensive intertidal and subtidal 

quartzose sand. Specific information on distribution and diversity of biota in the MNP is 

scarce. A large endemic southern Australian seastar Coscinasterias muricata is abundant 

along this coast, as well as an unusual soft coral Pseudogorgia godeffroyi. Aggregations of 

juvenile white shark Carcharodon carcharias, snapper Pagrus auratus, Australian salmon 

Arripis sp. and long-finned pike D. lewini and short-finned pike Sphyraena novaehollandiae 

occur in Ninety Mile Beach MNP. 

The dominant subtidal sediment in Point Hicks MNP and Cape Howe is sand, or in deeper 

waters (> 50 m) coarse gravel made up of shells or shell fragments. Orange ball sponges 

Tethya are common amongst the shell dominated substrate. Nearly half of the mapped 

sediment in Point Hicks had no identifiable biota living on it. The rest has sessile 

invertebrates predominately sponges in depths > 30 m. Sparse green algae Caulerpa is 

found amongst the invertebrates in 50 to 70 m. In Cape Howe MNP Caulerpa occurs in 

shallower depths (30 to 40 m). Inshore of the Caulerpa in Cape Hower are sparse 

macroalgal beds on sediment and sediment covered reef, while in deeper waters there are 

sessile invertebrates, predominately sponges. Common fish over sediment and sediment 

covered reef in the MNP are yellow scad Trachyurus novaezelandiae, ocean leatherjacket 

Nelusetta ayraudi, whiting Sillago, grubfish Parapercis sp., eastern blue-spotted flathead 

115



Platycephalus caeruleopunctatus, velvet leatherjacket Meuschenia scaber and the butterfly 

perch Caesioperca lepidoptera. The draughtboard shark Cephaloscyllium laticeps is also 

common and can be found down to the deepest depths (105 m) of Cape Howe MNP. 

Seagrass beds are found in sheltered bays, Heterozostera in Oberon Bay and Amphibolis 

and Halophila in Waterloo Bay in Wilsons Promontory MNP. A variety of fish have been 

recorded on seagrass and associated sand substrate in the MNP including the southern 

goatfish Upeneichthys vlamingii, silverbelly Parequula melbournensis, wide-bodied pipefish 

Stigmatopora nigra, spotted pipefish S. argus, slender weed whiting Siphonognathus 

attenuatus, blue throated wrasse N. tetricus, gobies Nesogobius spp., weedfish Heteroclinus 

spp. and Cristiceps spp. and toothbrush leatherjackets Acanthaluteres vittiger. Seagrass 

beds are not a feature of the Twofold Shelf bioregion. The deep reefs in both the bioregions 

have a dense and often spectacular cover of epifauna, especially sponges, stalked 

ascidians, soft corals, sea anemones, zooanthids gorgonians and sea whips, and abundant 

fish life (e.g. Figure 57). 

All the MPAs support species of high conservation significance. The MPAs and their 

surrounds provide important feeding and roosting habitat for many threatened shore and sea 

birds, from 17 species in Beware Reef MS and up to 38 in Cape Howe MNP. They are also 

important for many migratory birds, from 7 species in Wilsons Promontory MNP to 24 in 

Cape Howe MNP. Numerous species are found at the limit of their distribution range within 

individual MPAs. In Wilsons Promontory MNP over 126 species, including algae, 

invertebrates and fish, are believed to be at the edge of their distributional range, whilst none 

are known from Ninety Mile Beach MNP. Fourteen are believed to be at the edge of their 

range in Point Hicks MNP, 17 in Beware Reef MS and 38 in Cape Howe MNP. 

The humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae, threatened southern right whale Eubalaena 

australis and vulnerable New Zealand fur seal Arctophoca forsteri are found in the waters of 

both bioregions. Five marine warm water reptiles: loggerhead turtle Caretta caretta, green 

turtle Chelonia mydas, Pacific ridley Lepidochelys olivacea, leatherback turtle Dermochelys 

coriacea, and yellow-bellied sea snake Pelamis platurus occur as warm water vagrants in 

the bioregions. The islands surrounded by Wilsons Promontory MNP, particularly Kanowna 

in the Anser Group, are breeding colonies of little penguins Eudyptula minor, Australian fur 

seals A. pusillus doriferus, and a small colony of threatened New Zealand fur seals A. 

forsteri. The MNP is also a nationally significant area for recovery of great white shark 

Carcharodon carcharias populations. In Ninety Mile Beach MNP one species of crab, 

Halicarcinus sp MoV746 is presumed endemic to the MNP. In Point Hicks MNP whale shark 

Rhincodon typus uses the MNP waters. One mollusc the welk Fax molleri is presumed to be 

endemic to the park. Cape Howe MNP is an important foraging area for a significant 

breeding colony of little penguins E. minor from neighbouring Gabo Island. The threatened 

southern right whale E. australis has been observed to calve in the park. The state 

vulnerable New Zealand fur seal A. forsteri has also been recorded breeding in the MNP. 

The southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina has been recorded in Beware Reef MS. 

The introduction of foreign species or marine pests, by recreational or commercial vessels, 

threatens the integrity of marine biodiversity and may reduce the social and economic 

benefits derived from the marine environment. The introduced screw shell Maoricolpus 

roseus has been recorded in high densities on the subtidal sediment in Point Hicks MNP. It 

is presumed that the introduced green meany or green shore crab Carcinus maenas occurs 

on the intertidal reefs of all the MPAs, except Ninety Mile Beach MNP which has no intertidal 

reef. Other species of particular concern include the Northern Pacific seastar Asterias 

amurensis (recently found in the Wilsons Promontory National Park), European fanworm 

Sabella spallanzanii, Japanese kelp Undaria pinnatifida and broccoli weed Codium fragile 

(subsp fragile). 

116



Abalone viral ganglioneuritus has been slowly spreading on the west coast killing a large 

percentage of abalone in infected areas from Discovery Bay MNP to Cape Otway. It is not 

present in Flinders or Twofold Shelf bioregions but could have serious long term ecological 

consequences for subtidal reef communities if it spreads into the bioregions. Recreational 

and commercial boats and diving can be a vector for this virus. 

Specific threats to individual MPAs have been identified. Generally recreational boating, as 

well as being a vector for introduced species and diseases, has been identified as posing a 

threat to seagrass beds, soft sediments and shallow subtidal reefs through propeller scour or 

anchors. Disturbance of wildlife are also a threat, e.g. shore birds by vehicles, people or 

dogs; or breeding colonies of seals by boats in Wilsons Promontory MNP. Poaching of 

abalone or fish is a threat within the MPAs. Commercial vessels that pass near or through 

the waters of the MPAs also pose a threat due to the risk of oil spills. Increased nutrients and 

sediments through land use or waste discharge pose a threat to water quality in the MPAs. 

Climate change represents a serious threat to marine ecosystems but the specific ecological 

consequences are not well understood in marine systems. Increased sea levels, water and 

air temperature, cloud cover, ultraviolet light exposure and frequency of extreme weather 

events are predicted. Changes in the chemical composition (salinity, acidity and carbonate 

saturation), circulation and productivity of the seas are also predicted. These predicted 

changes have the potential to impact all marine habitats, causing loss of habitats, decreases 

in productivity and reproduction and distribution of species. A number of species are at the 

limit of their distributional range in both bioregions and such species would be particularly 

vulnerable to climate change. In contrast, the increased range of the urchin Centrostephanus 

rodgersii, is thought to be linked to climate change with the EAC extending further south. 










part of the RPP program involving collaboration with various research institutions. Subtidal 

reef monitoring occurs in all MPAs in the bioregions except Ninety Mile Beach MNP. No 

intertidal monitoring is conducted in the bioregions due to limited or no intertidal reef and low 

human pressure. Other statewide projects are currently underway to photograph and 

document their marine natural values, and also to determine which MPAs are most at risk 

from introduced species and to detect poaching. 

Detailed bathymetry mapping has been done for shallow waters in all MPAs, and for all of 

Point Hicks and Cape Howe MNPs. In Point Hicks and Cape Howe mapping has been done 

that allows predictive modelling of the distribution and extent of habitats for the entire MPA. 

For the remaining three MPAs our knowledge of their basic habitats, their distribution and 

extent, is generally limited, although Friends of Beware Reef have significantly added to our 

understanding of knowledge of habitats for the MS. Most of our knowledge about the flora 

and fauna of the MPAs is from the shallow subtidal reef marine monitoring program. There 

have been limted surveys of the intertidal reefs, which are a relatively small habitat in the 

MPAs. Technological improvements have increased our ability to explore and describe deep 

habitats, as has been done for reefs in Wilsons Promontory and soft sediments and reefs in 

Point Hicks and Cape Howe. There are significant knowledge gaps with regard to our 

understanding of the natural values associated with intertidal and subtidal soft sediments, 

117



and open waters, for these MPAs. Whilst threats to the MPAs have been identified we have 

limited knowledge of the effect of those threats on the natural values. 

Figure 57. Green moray eel Gymnothorax prasinus in Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. Photo taken 

by Friends of Beware Reef Marine Sanctuary. 

118



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123

4 Appendix 1 

Compilation of species from databases from: 

• the first Marine Natural Values reports; (MAFRI MNV v1, all MPAs except 90 Mile Beach MNP); 

• and PV subtidal reef monitoring program (SRMP_All, all MPAs except 90 Mile Beach MNP); 

• PV intertidal reef monitoring program (IRMP 02-04, Cape Howe MNP only); 

• MAVRIC (Monitoring and Assessment of Victoria’s Rocky Intertidal Coast – Wilsons Promontory MNP only); and 

• Atlas of Victorian Wildlife (Fauna 100, records within 5km of all MPAs, excluding terrestrial areas).. 

A “1” in the respective column indicates a record from that MPA. Some species listed in the body of the report above were not included in these 

datasets at the time of compilation. WP – Wilsons Promontory MNP; NMB – Ninety Mile Beach MNP; BR – Beware Reef MS; PH – Point Hicks 

MNP; CH – Cape Howe MNP. 

Source Habitat(s) Wilsons Promontory MNP Ninety Mile Beach MNP Beware Reef MS Point Hicks MNP 

Cape Howe 

MNP 

Fauna100_5kmSea All 56 50 37 43 62 

MAFRI distribution MNV v1 All 126 15 11 38 

MAFRI endemic MNV v1 All 4 1 1 

MAVRIC 

Rocky 

Intertidal 37 

IRMP 02-04 

Rocky 

Intertidal 

SRMP_All 

Rocky 

Subtidal 198 29 89 80 

Biotic group Family Species Common Name WP NMB BR PH CH 

Green algae Bryopsidaceae Bryopsis gemellipara Green alga 1 

Caulerpaceae Caulerpa annulata Green alga 1 

Caulerpa brownii Green alga 1 

Caulerpa cactoides Green alga 1 

Caulerpa flexilis Green alga 1 

Caulerpa flexilis var. muelleri Green alga 1 

Caulerpa longifolia Green alga 1 

124


Caulerpa obscura Green alga 1 

Caulerpa scalpelliformis Green alga 1 1 

Caulerpa simpliciuscula Green alga 1 

Caulerpa trifaria Green alga 1 

Caulerpa vesiculifera Green alga 1 

Cladophoraceae Chaetomorpha coliformis Green alga 1 

Chaetomorpha sp. Green alga 1 

Cladophora sp. Green alga 1 

Codiaceae Codium duthieae Green alga 1 

Codium galeatum Green alga 1 

Codium lucasii Green alga 1 

Ulvaceae Ulva sp. Sea lettuce 1 1 

Total green algae 16 0 0 3 2 

Brown algae Alariaceae Ecklonia radiata Common kelp 1 1 1 

Cladostephaceae Cladostephus spongiosus Brown alga 1 1 

Cystoseiraceae Acrocarpia paniculata Brown alga 1 1 

Carpoglossum confluens Brown alga 1 

Cystophora congesta Brown alga 1 

Cystophora expansa Brown alga 1 

Cystophora grevillei Brown alga 1 

Cystophora monilifera Brown alga 1 1 

Cystophora moniliformis Brown alga 1 1 1 

Cystophora platylobium Brown alga 1 

Cystophora retorta Brown alga 1 

Cystophora retroflexa Brown alga 1 

Cystophora siliquosa Brown alga 1 

Brown algae Cystophora subfarcinata Brown alga 1 

Dictyotaceae Chlanidophora microphylla Brown alga 1 

Dictyopteris acrostichoides Brown alga 1 1 1 

Dictyopteris muelleri Brown alga 1 1 

Dictyota dichotoma Brown alga 1 

Dictyota diemensis Brown alga 1 1 

Dilophus angustus Brown alga 1 

Dilophus marginatus Brown alga 1 

Distromium flabellatum Brown alga 1 

125


Distromium sp. Brown alga 1 1 1 

Glossophora nigricans Red alga 1 

Homeostrichus olsenii Brown alga 1 

Homeostrichus sinclairii Brown alga 1 1 

Lobophora variegata Brown alga 1 

Lobospira bicuspidata Brown alga 1 

Pachydictyon polycladum Brown alga 1 

Padina sp. Brown alga 1 1 

Zonaria angustata Brown alga 1 

Zonaria crenata Brown alga 1 

Zonaria sp. Brown alga 1 

Zonaria spiralis Brown alga 1 

Zonaria turneriana Brown alga 1 1 1 

Durvillaeaceae Durvillaea potatorum Bull kelp 1 

Fucaceae Xiphophora chondrophylla Brown alga 1 

Hormosiraceae Hormosira banksii Neptune's necklace 1 

Lessoniaceae Macrocystis angustifolia Kelp 1 1 1 

Sargassaceae Sargassum decipiens Brown alga 1 

Sargassum fallax Brown alga 1 

Sargassum sonderi Brown alga 1 

Sargassum sp. Brown alga 1 1 

Sargassum spinuligerum Brown alga 1 

Sargassum varians Brown alga 1 

Sargassum verruculosum Brown alga 1 1 

Sargassum vestitum Brown alga 1 1 

Scytosiphonaceae Colpomenia peregrina Brown alga 1 

Brown algae Seirococcaceae Phyllospora comosa Brown alga 1 1 1 1 

Seirococcus axillaris Brown alga 1 

Sporochnaceae Austroneraia australis Brown alga 1 

Carpomitra costata Brown alga 1 1 1 1 

Perithalia caudata Brown alga 1 

Sporochnus sp. Brown alga 1 1 

Stypocaulaceae Halopteris funicularis Brown alga 1 

Halopteris sp. Brown alga 1 1 1 

Phloiocaulon foecundum Brown alga 1 

126


UnknownFamily Unidentified brown algae Brown alga 1 1 1 

Valoniaceae Dictyota sp. (fine) Brown alga 1 

Total brown algae 50 0 7 21 14 

Red algae Areschougiaceae Acrotylus australis Red alga 1 1 1 

Areschougia congesta Red alga 1 

Callophycus laxus Red alga 1 

Erythroclonium sonderi Red alga 1 

Rhabdonia coccinea Red alga 1 

Bonnemaisoniaceae Asparagopsis armata Red alga 1 

Asparagopsis sp. Red alga 1 

Delisea pulchra Red alga 1 1 1 1 

Leptophyllis conferta Red alga 1 

Ptilonia australasica Red alga 1 

Ceramiaceae Acrothamnion pressii Red alga 1 

Antithamnion biarmatum Red alga 1 

Ballia callitricha Red alga 1 1 

Callithamnion obstipum Red alga 1 

Ceramium pusillum Red alga 1 

Dasyphila preissii Red alga 1 

Euptilota articulata Red alga 1 

Griffithsia elegans Red alga 1 

Griffithsia teges Red alga 1 

Heterothamnion muelleri Red alga 1 

Involucrana crassa Red alga 1 

Ochmapexus minimus Red alga 1 

Pterothamnion nodiferum Red alga 1 

Red algae Champiaceae Champia sp. Red alga 1 

Corallinaceae Amphiroa anceps Red alga 1 1 

Arthrocardia wardii Red alga 1 1 

Cheilosporum sagittatum Red alga 1 

Corallina officinalis Red alga 1 

Haliptilon roseum Red alga 1 1 1 1 

Jania pulchella Red alga 1 

Lithophyllum chamberlainianum Red alga 1 

Mastophoropsis canaliculata Red alga 1 

127


Melobesia membranacea Red alga 1 

Metagoniolithon radiatum Red alga 1 

Metagoniolithon stelliferum Red alga 1 

Metamastophora flabellata Red alga 1 

Unidentified coralline algae Red alga 1 1 

Unidentified encrusting corallines Red alga 1 1 1 1 

Unidentified erect corallines Red alga 1 

Cystocloniaceae Austroclonium charoides Red alga 1 

Craspedocarpus ramentaceus Red alga 1 1 

Craspedocarpus tenuifolius Red alga 1 

Craspedocarpus venosus Red alga 1 

Rhodophyllis multipartita Red alga 1 

Dasyaceae Dasya ceramioides Red alga 1 

Dasya comata Red alga 1 

Thuretia australasica Red alga 1 

Delesseriaceae Hemineura frondosa Red alga 1 1 1 

Galaxauraceae Galaxaura marginata Red alga 1 1 

Gelidiaceae Gelidium asperum Red alga 1 

Gelidium australe Red alga 1 1 

Gelidium sp. Red alga 1 

Pterocladia capillacea Red alga 1 1 1 

Pterocladia lucida Red alga 1 1 

Gracilariaceae Curdiea angustata Red alga 1 

Gracilaria secundata Red alga 1 1 

Melanthalia abscissa Red alga 1 

Melanthalia fastigiata Red alga 1 

Red algae Melanthalia obtusata Red alga 1 

Halymeniaceae Halymenia plana Red alga 1 

Polyopes constrictus Red alga 1 1 1 

Thamnoclonium dichotomum Red alga 1 

Sinkoraena tasmanica Red alga 1 

Hypneaceae Hypnea ramentacea Red alga 1 

Kallymeniaceae Callophyllis lambertii Red alga 1 

Callophyllis rangiferina Red alga 1 1 

Mychodeaceae Mychodea marginifera Red alga 1 

128


Nizymeniaceae Nizymenia australis Red alga 1 1 

Peyssonneliaceae Peyssonnelia novae-hollandiae Red alga 1 1 

Sonderopelta coriacea Red alga 1 

Phacelocarpaceae Phacelocarpus alatus Red alga 1 

Phacelocarpus peperocarpos Red alga 1 1 1 

Phyllophoraceae Ahnfeltiopsis fastigata Red alga 1 

Stenogramma leptophylla Red alga 1 

Plocamiaceae Plocamium angustum Red alga 1 1 1 1 

Plocamium cartilagineum Red alga 1 1 

Plocamium costatum Red alga 1 

Plocamium dilatatum Red alga 1 1 1 1 

Plocamium leptophyllum Red alga 1 1 1 

Plocamium mertensii Red alga 1 1 

Plocamium patagiatum Red alga 1 1 

Plocamium preissianum Red alga 1 

Rhodomelaceae Echinothamnion hystrix Red alga 1 

Laurencia elata Red alga 1 

Laurencia filiformis Red alga 1 

Laurencia sp. Red alga 1 

Rhodymeniaceae Cordylecladia furcellata Red alga 1 1 

Hymenocladia chondricola Red alga 1 

Rhodymenia australis Red alga 1 1 1 1 

Rhodymenia leptophylla Red alga 1 

Rhodymenia linearis Red alga 1 1 1 

Rhodymenia obtusa Red alga 1 

Rhodymenia prolificans Red alga 1 

Red algae Rhodymenia sp. Red alga 1 

Rhodymenia verrucosa Red alga 1 

Rhodymenia wilsonii Red alga 1 1 

UnknownFamily Unidentified filamentous red algae Red alga 1 

Unidentified thallose red algae Red alga 1 1 1 1 

Total red algae 78 0 12 20 40 

Seagrasses Cymodoceaceae Amphibolis antarctica Seagrass 1 

Hydrocharitaceae Halophila decipiens Seagrass 1 

Halophila ovalis Seagrass 1 

129


Zosteraceae Zostera muelleri Seagrass 1 

Total seagrasses 1 0 0 0 3 

Cnidaria Actiniidae Actinia tenebrosa Anemone 1 

Aulactinia veratra Anemone 1 

Total cnidarians 2 0 0 0 0 

Polychaetes Serpulidae Galeolaria caespitosa Tubeworm 1 

Total polychaetes 1 0 0 0 0 

Barnacles Catophragmidae Catomerus polymerus Surf barnacle 1 

Chthamalidae Chamaesipho tasmanica Honeycomb barnacle 1 

Chthamalus antennatus Acorn barnacle 1 

Tetraclitidae Tesseropora rosea Acorn barnacle 1 

Tetraclitella purpurascens Acorn barnacle 1 

Total barnacles 5 0 0 0 0 

Decapod crustaceans Alpheidae Alpheus australosulcatus Snapping shrimp 1 

Alpheus socialis Smooth snapping shrimp 1 

Crangonidae Aegaeon lacazei Shrimp 1 

Hippolytidae Tozeuma elongatum Hippolytid shrimp 1 

Hymenosomatidae Halicarcinus sp. MoV 746 Spider crab 1 

Leucosiidae Phlyixia intermedia Pebble crab 1 

Majidae Notomithrax ursus Spider crab 1 

Oziidae Ozius truncatus Reef crab 1 

Palaemonidae Palaemon debilis Shrimp 1 

Penaeidae Parapenaeus australiensis Red prawn 1 

Pilumnidae Pilumnus fissifrons Tasselled crab 1 

Portunidae Scylla serrata Mud crab 1 

Rhynchocinetidae Rhynchocinetes kuiteri Hinge-back shrimp 1 

Decapod crustaceans Upogebiidae Upogebia australiensis Mud shrimp 1 

Total decapod crustaceans 5 0 3 1 5 

Chitons Acanthochitonidae Acanthochitona kimberi Chiton 1 

Acanthochitona retrojectus Chiton 1 

Notoplax speciosa Chiton 1 

Chitonidae Chiton (Chiton) pelliserpentis Chiton 1 

Chiton (Rhyssoplax) bednalli Chiton 1 

Chiton (Rhyssoplax) jugosus Chiton 1 

Ischnochitonidae Ischnochiton elongatus Chiton 1 

130


Ischnochiton variegatus Chiton 1 

Mopaliidae Plaxiphora albida Chiton 1 

Total chitons 4 0 3 1 1 

Gastropods Anabathridae Pisinna albizona Sea snail 1 

Pisinna columnaria Sea snail 1 

Pisinna frauenfeldi Sea snail 1 

Pisinna frenchiensis Sea snail 1 

Pisinna laseroni Sea snail 1 

Pisinna tumida Sea snail 1 

Pisinna vincula Sea snail 1 

Buccinidae Fax molleri Whelk 1 

Cerithiidae Glyptozaria euglypta Gastropod 1 

Conidae Conus papilliferus Gastropod 1 

Cyclostrematidae Liotella vercoi Gastropod 1 

Cymatiidae Cabestana spengleri Triton (Trumpet shell) 1 

Cystiscidae Cystiscus halli Gastropod 1 

Eulimidae Eulima styliformis Gastropod 1 

Eulima victoriae Gastropod 1 

Fissurellidae Clypidina rugosa Keyhole limpet 1 

Emarginula gabensis Keyhole limpet 1 

Scutus antipodes Keyhole limpet 1 

Haliotidae Haliotis coccoradiata Abalone 1 

Littorinidae Afrolittorina praetermissa Periwinkle 1 

Austrolittorina unifasciata Periwinkle 1 

Bembicium melanostoma Periwinkle 1 

Bembicium nanum Periwinkle 1 

Gastropods Lottiidae Notoacmea petterdi Limpet 1 

Patelloida alticostata Limpet 1 

Patelloida latistrigata Limpet 1 

Muricidae Dicathais orbita Gastropod 1 

Lepsiella reticulata Gastropod 1 

Lepsiella vinosa Gastropod 1 

Nacellidae Cellana tramoserica Limpet 1 

Neritidae Nerita atramentosa Nerite 1 

Onchidiidae Onchidella patelloides Pulmonate sea slug 1 

131


Onchidina australis Pulmonate sea slug 1 

Siphonariidae Siphonaria diemenensis Pulmonate limpet 1 

Siphonaria funiculata Pulmonate limpet 1 

Triphoridae Aclophoropsis festiva Gastropod 1 

Aclophoropsis maculosa Gastropod 1 

Eutriphora tricolor Gastropods 1 

Trochidae Austrocochlea constricta Ribbed top shell 1 

Clanculus floridus Top shell 1 

Diloma concamerata Wavy top shell 1 

Turbinidae Turbo undulatus Common warrener (Turban shell) 1 

Turridae Austroturris steira Gastropod 1 

Splendrilla subviridus Gastropod 1 

Turridae Vexitomina torquata Gastropod 1 

Total gastropods 28 0 0 6 11 

Bivalves Mytilidae Brachidontes rostratus Beaked mussel 1 

Xenostrobus pulex Mussels 1 

Total bivalves 2 0 0 0 0 

Cephalopods UnknownFamily Unidentified Squid Squid 1 

Total cephalopods 0 0 0 0 1 

Echinoderms Amphiuridae Amphiura dolia Brittle Star 1 

Antedonidae Euantedon paucicirra Feather Star 1 

Asterinidae Nepanthia troughtoni Sea Star 1 

Patiriella calcar Sea Star 1 

Patiriella exigua Sea Star 1 

Brissidae Spatagobrissus incus Heart Urchin 1 

Cidaridae Goniocidaris impressa Sea Urchin 1 

Echinoderms Diadematidae Centrostephanus rodgersii Sea Urchin 1 

Echinothuriidae Araeosoma thetidis Sea Urchin 1 

Fibulariidae Fibularia nutriens Sand Dollar 1 

Goniasteridae Tosia magnifica Sea Star 1 

Isocrinidae Metacrinus cyaneus Featherstar 1 

Ophiactidae Ophiactis tricolor Brittle Star 1 

Ophiotrichidae Macrophiothrix spongicola Brittle Star 1 

Ophiuridae Ophioplocus bispinosus Brittle Star 1 

Oreasteridae Nectria macrobrachia Sea Star 1 

132


Nectria multispina Sea Star 1 

Spatangidae Spatangus luetkeni Heart Urchins 1 

Temnopleuridae Amblypneustes ovum Sea Urchin 1 

Holopneustes porosissimus Sea Urchin 1 

Microcyphus compsus Sea Urchin 1 

Pseudechinus notius Sea Urchin 1 

Total echinoderms 15 0 3 2 2 

Ascidian Pyuridae Pyura stolonifera Cunjevoi 1 

Total ascidians 1 0 0 0 0 

Fish Aplodactylidae Aplodactylus arctidens Marblefish 1 1 1 

Crinodus lophodon Rock Cale 1 1 1 

Apogonidae Vincentia conspersa Southern Cardinalfish 1 

Aracanidae Aracana aurita Shaw's Cowfish 1 

Aracanidae Aracana ornata Ornate Cowfish 1 

Arripidae Arripis georgiana Australian Herring 1 1 

Aulopodidae Aulopus purpurissatus Sergent baker 1 

Bovichtidae Pseudaphritis sp. Congolli 1 

Callanthiidae Callanthias allporti Rosy Perch 1 

Carangidae Pseudocaranx dentex White Trevally 1 1 1 

Trachinops taeniatus Eastern Hulafish 1 

Trachurus declivis Common Jack Mackerel 1 1 

Trachurus novaezelandiae Yellowtail Scad 1 1 1 

Cheilodactylidae Cheilodactylus nigripes Magpie Perch 1 

Cheilodactylus spectabilis Banded Morwong 1 1 1 1 

Dactylophora nigricans Dusky Morwong 1 

Nemadactylus douglassii Grey Morwong 1 1 1 

Fish Nemadactylus macropterus Jackass Morwong 1 

Chironemidae Chironemus georgianus Tasselled Kelpfish 1 

Chironemus marmoratus Kelp Fish 1 

Clinidae Cristiceps aurantiacus Yellow Crested Weedfish 1 

Heteroclinus adelaide Adelaide Weedfish 1 

Heteroclinus eckloniae Kelp Weedfish 1 

Heteroclinus johnstoni Johnston's Weedfish 1 

Heteroclinus macrophthalmus Large-eye Weedfish 1 

Heteroclinus perspicillatus Common Weedfish 1 

133


Heteroclinus puellarum Little Weedfish 1 

Ophiclinops varius Variegated Snake Blenny 1 

Ophiclinus gabrieli Frosted Snake Blenny 1 

Ophiclinus ningulus Variable Snake Blenny 1 

Dasyatididae Dasyatis brevicaudata Smooth Stingray 1 

Dinolestidae Dinolestes lewini Longfin Pike 1 1 1 

Dinolestidae Diodon nichthemerus Globefish 1 1 

Engraulididae Herklotisichtchys castelnaui Fish 1 

Enoplosidae Enoplosus armatus Old Wife 1 1 

Galaxiidae Galaxias brevipinnis Climbing Galaxias 1 

Galaxias truttaceus Spotted Galaxias 1 

Girellidae Girella elevata Black Drummer 1 1 1 

Girella tricuspidata Luderick 1 1 1 

Girella zebra Zebrafish 1 1 

Gnathanacanthidae Gnathanacanthus goetzeei Red Velvetfish 1 

Gobiesocidae Undescribed Genus clingfish Brown spotted spiny clingfish 1 

Gobiidae Gobiopterus semivestitus Glass Goby 1 

Heterodontidae Heterodontus portusjacksoni Port Jackson Shark 1 1 1 

Kyphosidae Kyphosus sydneyanus Silver Drummer 1 1 

Labridae Achoerodus viridis Eastern Blue Groper 1 1 1 

Dotalabrus aurantiacus Castelnau's Wrasse 1 1 

Eupetrichthys angustipes Snakeskin Wrasse 1 1 

Notolabrus fucicola Purple Wrasse 1 1 1 1 

Notolabrus gymnogenis Crimsonband Wrasse 1 

Notolabrus tetricus Bluethroat Wrasse 1 1 1 1 

Ophthalmolepis lineolata Maori Wrasse 1 1 1 1 

Fish Pictilabrus laticlavius Senator Wrasse 1 1 1 1 

Pseudolabrus luculentus Orange Wrasse 1 

Pseudolabrus psittaculus Rosy Wrasse 1 1 1 

Latridae Latridopsis forsteri Bastard Trumpeter 1 1 

Loliginidae Sepioteuthis australis Southern Calamari Squid 1 

Monacanthidae Acanthaluteres vittiger Toothbrush Leatherjacket 1 1 1 1 

Brachaluteres jacksonianus Southern Pygmy Leatherjacket 1 

Eubalichthys bucephalus Black Reef Leatherjacket 1 

Eubalichthys gunnii Gunn's Leatherjacket 1 

134


Meuschenia australis Brownstriped Leatherjacket 1 1 

Meuschenia flavolineata Yellowstriped Leatherjacket 1 

Meuschenia freycineti Sixspine leather jacket 1 1 1 1 

Meuschenia galii Bluelined Leatherjacket 1 

Meuschenia hippocrepis Horseshoe Leatherjacket 1 

Meuschenia scaber Velvet Leatherjacket 1 

Meuschenia trachylepis Yellowfin Leatherjacket 1 

Scobinichthys granulatus Rough Leatherjacket 1 

Thamnaconus degeni Bluefin Leatherjacket 1 

Moridae Pseudophycis bachus Red Cod 1 

Pseudophycis barbata Bearded Rock Cod 1 

Mullidae Upeneichthys vlamingii Bluespotted Goatfish 1 1 1 

Myliobatidae Myliobatis australis Southern Eagle Ray 1 1 

Odacidae Neoodax balteatus Little Weed Whiting 1 

Odax acroptilus Rainbow Cale 1 1 1 

Odax cyanomelas Herring Cale 1 1 1 1 

Siphonognathus attenuatus Slender Weed Whiting 1 

Siphonognathus beddomei Pencil Weed Whiting 1 

Siphonognathus caninus Sharpnose Weed Whiting 1 

Siphonognathus radiatus Longray Weed Whiting 1 

Siphonognathus tanyourus Longtail Weed Whiting 1 

Parascyllidae Parascyllium variolatum Varied Carpetshark 1 

Pataecidae Aetapcus maculatus Warty Prowfish 1 

Pemperididae Pempheris multiradiata Bigscale Bullseye 1 1 1 

Pentacerotidae Parequula melbournensis Silverbelly 1 1 

Pentaceropsis recurvirostris Longsnout Boarfish 1 1 1 

Fish Platycephalidae Platycephalus bassensis Cliff Flathead 1 

Platycephalus fuscus Dusky Flathead 1 

Plesiopidae Paraplesiops alisonae Alison's Blue Devil 1 

Paraplesiops meleagris Southern Blue Devil 1 

Trachinops caudimaculatus Southern Hulafish 1 

Pomacentridae Chromis hypsilepis Onespot Puller 1 1 1 1 

Parma microlepis White-ear 1 1 1 1 

Parma victoriae Scalyfin 1 1 

Pristiophoridae Pristiophorus nudipinnis Southern Sawshark 1 

135


Prototrocitidae Prototroctes maraena Australian Grayling 1 

Rhincodontidae Rhincodon typus Whale Shark 1 

Scorpaenidae Maxillicosta scabriceps Little Gurnard Perch 1 

Scorpaena papillosa Southern Red Scorpionfish 1 

Scorpididae Atypichthys strigatus Mado 1 1 1 

Scorpis aequipinnis Sea Sweep 1 1 1 

Scorpis lineolata Silver Sweep 1 1 1 1 

Tilodon sexfasciatus Moonlighter 1 

Scyliorhinidae Cephaloscyllium laticeps Draughtboard Shark 1 1 

Sepiidae Sepia apama Giant Cuttlefish 1 

Serranidae Acanthistius ocellatus Eastern Wirrah 1 

Caesioperca lepidoptera Butterfly Perch 1 1 1 

Caesioperca rasor Barber Perch 1 1 

Hypoplectrodes annulatus Blackbanded Seaperch 1 

Hypoplectrodes maccullochi Halfbanded Seaperch 1 

Sillago flindersi Eastern School Whiting 1 

Soleidae Synaptura nigra Black Sole 1 

Sphyraenidae Sphyraena novaehollandiae Snook 1 

Synodontidae Synodus variegatus Variegated Lizardfish 1 

Tetraodontidae Contusus brevicaudus Prickly Toadfish 1 1 

Tetractenos glaber Smooth Toadfish 1 1 1 

Tripterygiidae Forsterygion varium Variable Threefin 1 

Norfolkia incisa Notched Threefin 1 

Urolophidae Trygonoptera testacea Common Stingaree 1 

Urolophus paucimaculatus Sparsely-spotted Stingaree 1 

Total fish 108 0 17 46 37 

Birds Acanthizidae Gerygone mouki Brown Gerygone 1 

Accipitridae Haliaeetus leucogaster White-bellied Sea-Eagle 1 1 1 1 1 

Anatidae Cygnus atratus Black Swan 1 1 1 

Ardeidae Ardea ibis Cattle Egret 1 1 1 

Ardea intermedia Intermediate Egret 1 

Ardea modesta Eastern Great Egret 1 1 1 

Ardea pacifica White-necked Heron 1 1 

Botaurus poiciloptilus Australasian Bittern 1 

Nycticorax caledonicus Nankeen Night Heron 1 

136


Charadriidae Charadrius bicinctus Double-banded Plover 1 1 

Charadrius ruficapillus Red-capped Plover 1 1 1 1 

Elseyornis melanops Black-fronted Dotterel 1 

Pluvialis fulva Pacific Golden Plover 1 

Pluvialis squatarola Grey Plover 1 

Thinornis rubricollis Hooded Plover 1 1 1 1 1 

Vanellus miles Masked Lapwing 1 1 1 1 

Ciconiiformes Egretta garzetta Little Egret 1 

Egretta novaehollandiae White-faced Heron 1 1 1 1 1 

Egretta sacra Eastern Reef Egret 1 1 

Diomedeidae Diomedea exulans Wandering Albatross 1 1 

Thalassarche cauta Shy Albatross 1 1 1 1 

Thalassarche chlororhynchos Yellow-nosed Albatross 1 1 1 

Thalassarche melanophris Black-browed Albatross 1 1 1 

Haematopodidae Haematopus fuliginosus Sooty Oystercatcher 1 1 1 1 

Haematopus longirostris Pied Oystercatcher 1 1 1 1 1 

Hydrobatidae Pelagodroma marina White-faced Storm-Petrel 1 1 

Laridae Chlidonias leucopterus White-winged Black Tern 1 

Chroicocephalus novaehollandiae Silver Gull 1 1 1 1 1 

Hydroprogne caspia Caspian Tern 1 1 1 1 1 

Larus dominicanus Kelp Gull 1 

Larus pacificus Pacific Gull 1 1 1 1 1 

Sterna bergii Crested Tern 1 1 1 1 1 

Sterna hirundo Common Tern 1 1 1 1 1 

Sterna paradisaea Arctic Tern 1 1 

Sterna striata White-fronted Tern 1 1 1 1 

Birds Sternula albifrons Little Tern 1 1 

Sternula nereis Fairy Tern 1 1 

Meliphagidae Epthianura albifrons White fronted Chat 1 1 

Pelecanidae Pelecanus conspicillatus Australian Pelican 1 1 1 1 1 

Phalacrocoracidae Microcarbo melanoleucos Little Pied Cormorant 1 1 1 1 1 

Phalacrocorax carbo Great Cormorant 1 1 1 1 1 

Phalacrocorax fuscescens Black-faced Cormorant 1 1 1 

Phalacrocorax sulcirostris Little Black Cormorant 1 1 1 1 1 

Phalacrocorax varius Pied Cormorant 1 1 1 1 1 

137


Podicipedidae Poliocephalus poliocephalus Hoary-headed Grebe 1 1 1 

Procellariidae Ardenna grisea Sooty Shearwater 1 1 1 

Ardenna pacifica Wedge-tailed Shearwater 1 

Ardenna tenuirostris Short-tailed Shearwater 1 1 1 1 1 

Daption capense Cape Petrel 1 

Fulmarus glacialoides Southern Fulmar 1 1 

Macronectes halli Northern Giant Petrel 1 

Pachyptila belcheri Slender-billed Prion 1 

Pachyptila turtur Fairy Prion 1 1 1 1 1 

Pelecanoides urinatrix Common Diving-petrel 1 1 

Pterodroma lessonii White-headed Petrel 1 

Pterodroma macroptera Great-winged Petrel 1 

Puffinus gavia Fluttering Shearwater 1 1 1 1 1 

Psittacidae Neophema chrysostoma Blue-winged Parrot 1 

Rallidae Fulica atra Eurasian Coot 1 

Rallidae Gallirallus philippensis Buff-banded Rail 1 

Recurvirostridae Cladorhynchus leucocephalus Banded Stilt 1 

Himantopus himantopus Black-winged Stilt 1 

Scolopacidae Actitis hypoleucos Common Sandpiper 1 

Arenaria interpres Ruddy Turnstone 1 1 

Calidris acuminata Sharp-tailed Sandpiper 1 

Calidris alba Sanderling 1 

Calidris canutus Red Knot 1 1 

Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper 1 1 

Calidris ruficollis Red-necked Stint 1 1 

Calidris tenuirostris Great Knot 1 

Birds Gallinago hardwickii Latham's snipe 1 1 1 

Heteroscelus brevipes Grey-tailed Tattler 1 

Limosa lapponica Bar-tailed Godwit 1 1 1 

Numenius madagascariensis Eastern Curlew 1 

Tringa nebularia Common Greenshank 1 

Tringa stagnatilis Marsh Sandpiper 1 

Spheniscidae Eudyptula minor Little Penguin 1 1 1 1 1 

Stercorcariidae Stercorarius parasiticus Arctic Jaeger 1 1 

Stercorarius pomarinus Pomarine Jaeger 1 

138


Stercorarius skua Great Skua 1 

Sulidae Morus serrator Australasian Gannet 1 1 1 1 1 

Threskiornithidae Platalea regia Royal Spoonbill 1 1 

Threskiornis molucca White Ibis 1 1 1 

Total birds 44 49 29 38 53 

Reptiles Cheloniidae Chelonia mydas Green Sea Turtle 1 

Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill Turtle 1 

Hydrophiidae Pelamis platurus Yellow-bellied Sea Snake 1 1 

Total reptiles 0 0 1 0 3 

Mammals Balaenidae Eubalaena australis Southern Right Whale 1 1 1 1 

Balaenopteridae Balaenoptera acutorostrata Minke Whale 1 

Megaptera novaeangliae Humpback Whale 1 1 1 1 

Delphinidae Delphinus delphis Common Dolphin 1 

Orcinus orca Killer Whale 1 1 1 

Tursiops truncatus Bottlenose Dolphin 1 

Otariidae Arctophoca forsteri New Zealand Fur-seal 1 1 

Arctocephalus pusillus Australian Fur-seal 1 1 1 1 

Phocidae Hydrurga leptonyx Leopard Seal 1 1 

Mirounga leonina Southern Elephant Seal 1 

Physeteridae Kogia breviceps Pygmy Sperm Whale 1 1 

Physeter macrocephalus Sperm Whale 1 1 

Ziphiidae Ziphius cavirostris Cuvier's Beaked Whale 1 

Total mammals 9 1 7 5 6 

139



5 Appendix 2 

Completed research and monitoring projects carried out under National Parks Act 1975 research 

permits in or relevant to Flinders and Twofold Shelf MPAs with associated reports. Research Partner 

Panel (and RPP-like) research projects and monitoring surveys were implemented in partnership with, 

or commissioned by, Parks Victoria. Several other research projects were also carried out 

independently under National Parks Act 1975 permits. 

1. Wilsons Prom MNP 

Completed RPP (and RPP-like) Projects and Associated Reports 

Department of Primary Industries: Anthony Plummer, Liz Morris, Sean Blake, David Ball 

Marine Natural Values Study. Victorian Marine National Parks and Sanctuaries. 

Plummer, A., Morris, L., Blake, S. and Ball, D. (2003). Marine Natural Values Study, Victorian 

Marine National Parks and Sanctuaries. Parks Victoria Technical Series No. 1, Parks 


Monash University: Janosch Hoffmann, Richard Reina, André Chiaradia 

Diet and breeding ecology of little penguins, Eudyptula minor, on Rabbit Island, Wilsons 

Promontory National Park. 

Hoffmann, J. (2006). The diet and foraging movements of the Little Penguin at Rabbit Island, 

Victoria. Honours Thesis. School of Biological Sciences, Monash University. 

University of Melbourne: Jan Carey, Mark Burgman 

Risk Assessment for Marine National Parks and Sanctuaries. 

Carey, J.M., Burgman, M.A., Boxshall, A., Beilin, R., Flander, L., Pegler, P. and White, A.K. 

(2007). Identification of threats to natural values in Victoria’s Marine National Parks and 


Carey, J.M., Boxshall, A., Burgman, M.A., Beilin, R. and Flander, L. (2007) State-wide 



Carey, J.M., Beilin, R., Boxshall, A. Burgman, M.A. and Flander, L. (2007). Risk-Based 

Approaches to Deal with Uncertainty in a Data-Poor System: Stakeholder Involvement in 

Hazard Identification for Marine National Parks and Marine Sanctuaries in Victoria, Australia. 

Risk Analysis 27(1), 271-281. 

Carey, J.M. and Burgman, A. (2008) Linguistic Uncertainty in Qualitative Risk Analysis and 

How to Minimize It. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1128: 13–17. 

Department of Primary Industries: Simon Heislers, Greg Parry 

Species diversity and composition of benthic infaunal communities found in Marine National 

Parks along the outer Victorian coast. 

Heislers, S. and Parry, G.D. (2007). Species diversity and composition of benthic infaunal 


Technical Paper Series No. 53. Parks Victoria, Melbourne. 

Deakin University: John Arnould 

Support for research on island in Wilsons Promontory National Park and Marine National Park. 

Arnould, J.P.Y., Cherel, Y., Gibbens, J., White, J. G. and Littnan, C. L. (2011). Stable 

isotopes reveal inter-annual and inter-individual variation in the diet of female Australian fur 

seals. Marine Ecology Progress Series 422: 291–302. 

Arnould, J.P.Y. and Kirkwood, R. (2008). Habitat selection by female Australian fur seals 

(Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus). Aquatic Conservation: Marine and Freshwater 

Ecosystems 17: S53–S67. 

140



Atkinson, S., Arnould, J.P.Y. and Mashburn, K.L. (2011). Plasma cortisol and thyroid 

hormone concentrations in pre-weaning Australian fur seal pups. General and Comparative 

Endocrinology 172(2): 277-281. 

Costa, D.P., Robinson, P.W., Arnould, J.P.Y., Harrison, A-L., Simmons, S.E., Hassrick, J.L., 

Hoskins, A.J., Kirkman, S.P., Oosthuizen, H., Villegas-Amtmann, S. and Crocker, D.E. 

(2010). Accuracy of ARGOS Locations of Pinnipeds at-Sea Estimated Using Fastloc GPS. 

PLoS ONE 5(1): 1-9. 

Deacon, N.L. and Arnould, J. P. Y. (2009). Terrestrial apnoeas and the development of 

cardiac control in Australian fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus) pups. Journal of 

Comparative Physiology B 179:287–295. 

Gibbens, J. and Arnould, J.P.Y (2007). Age-specific growth, survival and population 

dynamics of female Australian fur seals. Canadian Journal of Zoology 87: 902-911. 

Gibbens, J. and Arnould, J.P.Y. (2009). Interannual variation in pup production and the 

timing of breeding in benthic foraging Australian fur seals. Marine Mammal Science 25(3): 

573–587. 

Gibbens, J., Parry, L.J. and Arnould, J.P.Y. (2010). Influences on fecundity in Australian fur 

seals (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus). Journal of Mammalogy, 91(2): 510–518. 

Kirkwood, R., Pemberton, D., Gales, R., Hoskins, A.J., Mitchell, T., Shaughnessy, P.D. and 

Arnould, J.P.Y. (2010). Continued population recovery by Australian fur seals. Marine and 

Freshwater Research 61: 695–701. 

Kirkwood, R., Warneke, R.M. and Arnould, J.P.Y. (2009). Recolonization of Bass Strait, 

Australia, by the New Zealand fur seal, Arctocephalus forsteri. Marine Mammal Science 

25(2): 441-449. 

Lancaster, M. L., Arnould, J. P. Y. and Kirkwood, R. (2010). Genetic status of an endemic 

marine mammal, the Australian fur seal, following historical harvesting. Animal Conservation 

13: 247-255. 

Littnan, C.L., Arnould, J.P.Y. and Harcourt, R.G. (2007). Effect of proximity to the shelf edge 

on the diet of female Australian fur seals. Marine Ecology Progress Series 338: 257-267. 

Lynch, M., Duignan, P., Taylor, T., Nielsen, O., Kirkwood, R., Gibbens, J. and Arnould, J.P.Y. 

(2011). Epizootiology of Brucella infection in Australian fur seals. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 

47(2): 352-363. 

Lynch, M., Kirkwood, R., Mitchell, A., Duignan, P. and Arnould, J.P.Y. (2011). Prevalence 

and significance of an alopecia syndrome in Australian fur seals (Arctocephalus pusillus 

doriferus). Journal of Mammalogy 92(2):342–351. 

Lynch, M., Nielsen, O., Duignan, P.J. Kirkwood, R., Hoskins, A. and Arnould, J.P.Y. (2011). 

Serologic survey for potential pathogens and Assessment of disease risk in Australian fur 

seals. Journal of Wildlife Diseases 47(3): 555-565. 

Spence-Bailey, L.M., Verrier, D. and Arnould, J.P.Y. (2007). The physiological and 

behavioural development of diving in Australian fur seal (Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus) 

pups. Journal of Comparative Physiology B 177: 483-494. 

Tripovich, J.S., Canfield, R. Rogers, T.L. and Arnould, J.P.Y. (2009). Individual variation of 

the female attraction call produced by Australian fur seal pups throughout the maternal 

dependence period. Bioacoustics 18: 259-276. 

Tripovich, J.S., Rogers, T.L., Canfield, R. and Arnould, J.P.Y. (2006). Individual variation in 

the pup attraction call produced by female Australian fur seals during early lactation. Journal 

of the Acoustical Society of America 120(1): 502-509. 

University of Melbourne: Mick Keough, Jeff Ross, Nathan A. Knott 

Ecological performance measures for Victorian Marine Protected Areas: Review of the existing 

141



biological sampling program. 

Keough, M.J., Ross, D.J. and Knott, N.A. (2007). Ecological performance measures for 



University of Melbourne: Madhavi Colton, Stephen Swearer 

The Conservation Status of Reef Fish Communities in Victorian Waters. 

Colton, M.A. (2011). Patterns in the Distribution and Abundance of Reef Fishes in South 

Eastern Australia. Ph.D. Thesis. Department of Zoology, University of Melbourne. 

Colton, M.A. and Swearer, S. E. (2009). The Conservation Status of Reef Fish Communities 

in Victorian Waters. Final Project Report, Regional Catchment Investment Plan. Submitted to 

Port Phillip and Western Port Catchment Management Authority, Frankston, Vic, Australia by 

the University of Melbourne, Australia. 

Colton, M.A. and Swearer, S. E. (2010). A comparison of two survey methods: differences 

between underwater visual census and baited remote underwater video. Marine Ecology 

Progress Series. 400: 19-36. 

Deakin University: Nicole Schumann, John Arnould. 

Support for survey of nesting seabirds on islands around Wilsons Promontory. 

Schumann, N. Arnould, J.P.Y. and Dann, P. (2008). Diet of Common Diving-petrels 

(Pelecanoides urinatrix urinatrix) in Southeastern Australia During Chick Rearing. Waterbirds 

31(4): 620-624. 

University of Melbourne: Masters students from Industry Project in Science program 

Investigation and assessment of Water Quality Issues affecting Natural Values in the Parks 

Victoria Managed Estuaries and Marine Protected Areas. 

Colautti, A., Errey, J., Chi Lam, M., Lewis, M., Michael, M. and Wright, M. (2010). 

Investigation and Assessment of Water Quality Issues Affecting Natural Values in the Parks 

Victoria Managed Estuaries and Marine Protected Areas. University of Melbourne MSc 

Industry Project. 

Habitat Mapping Projects and Associated Reports 

Department of Primary Industries: David Ball, Sean Blake 

Shallow Water Habitat Mapping at Victorian Marine National Parks and Sanctuaries. 

Ball, D., Blake, S. and Plummer, A. (2006). Review of Marine Habitat Classification Systems. 


Completed Monitoring Surveys and Associated Reports 


Edmunds M. and Hart S. (2003). Parks Victoria Standard Operating Procedure: Biological 

Monitoring of Subtidal Reefs. Parks Victoria Technical Series No. 9, Parks Victoria, 

Melbourne. 

Edmunds, M., Crozier, J., Judd, A. and Gilmour, P. (2007). Victorian Subtidal Reef 

Monitoring Program: The Reef Biota at Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park (Volume 

3). Parks Victoria Technical Series No. 50. Parks Victoria, Melbourne. 

Edmunds, M., Hart, S., Jenkins, S. and Elias, J. (2003). Victorian Subtidal Reef Monitoring 

Program: The Reef Biota at Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park. Parks Victoria 


Lindsay, M. and Edmunds, M. (2006). Victorian Subtidal Reef Monitoring Program: The Reef 

Biota at Wilsons Promontory Marine National Park. Parks Victoria Technical Series No. 27. 



142




Other reports produced for other research under National Parks Act 1975 permits 

Brunton, D. and Baling, M. (2005). Conservation genetics of the New Zealand fairy tern (Sterna 

nereis davisae). Auckland Uniservices Limited, University of Auckland. 

Costa, D.P., Robinson, P.W., Arnould, J.P.Y., Harrison, A-L., Simmons, S.E., Hassrick, J.L., 

Hoskins, A.J., Kirkman, S.P., Oosthuizen, H., Villegas-Amtmann, S. and Crocker, D.E. (2010). 

Accuracy of ARGOS Locations of Pinnipeds at-Sea Estimated Using Fastloc GPS. PLoS ONE 

5(1): e8677. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0008677. 

Edmunds, M., Zavalas, R., Pritchard, K. and Stewart, K. (2009). Port Phillip Bay Channel 

Deepening Project. Deep Reef Impact and Recovery Assessment. Appendices. Report to Port of 

Melbourne Corporation. Australian Marine Ecology Report 410 v1.0 A, Melbourne. 

Edmunds, M., Stewart, K., Pritchard, K., Cutajar, J., Zavalas, R., Sheedy, B., Ong, J., Kerrigan, 

J. and Lewis, Z. (2009). Port Phillip Bay Channel Deepening Project. Deep Reef Impact and 

Recovery Assessment. Appendices. Report to Port of Melbourne Corporation. Australian Marine 

Ecology Report 410. Melbourne. 

Edmunds, M., Stewart, K., Pritchard, K., Cutajar, J., Zavalas, R., Sheedy, B., Ong, J., Kerrigan, 

J. and Lewis, Z. (2009) Port Phillip Bay Channel Deepening Project. Deep Reef Impact and 

Recovery Assessment - Field Report. Report to Port of Melbourne Corporation. Australian 

Marine Ecology Report 407. Melbourne. 

Gorfine, H. (2005). Assessment of abalone populations in Victorian marine protected areas. 

Department of Primary Industries. 



Hidas, E.Z., Costa, T.L., Ayre, D.J. and Minchinton T.E. (2007). Is the species composition of 

rocky intertidal invertebrates across a biogeographic barrier in south-eastern Australia related to 

their potential for dispersal? Marine and Freshwater Research 58: 835-842. 

O’Hara, T.D. (2005). Monitoring and Assessment of Victoria's Rocky Intertidal Coast. Museum 

Victoria. Report for DSE Research Permit under the National Parks Act 1975. 

O’Hara, T.D., Addison, P.F.E., Gazzard, R., Costa, T.L. and Pocklington, J.B. (2010). A rapid 

biodiversity assessment methodology tested on intertidal rocky shores. Aquatic Conservation: 

Marine and Freshwater Ecosystems 20: 452-463. 

143



2. Ninety Mile Beach MNP 




























Habitat Mapping Projects and Associated Reports 





Monitoring Reports 

Power, B. and Boxshall, A. (2007). Marine National Park and Sanctuary Monitoring Plan 2007- 

2012. Parks Victoria Technical Series No. 54. Parks Victoria, Melbourne. 

144



3. Point Hicks MNP 








































145



Completed Habitat Mapping Projects and Associated Reports 








University of Western Australia / Fugro / Deakin University / Department of Primary 

Industries: 

Karen Holmes, Ben Radford, Kimberly Van Niel, Gary Kendrick, Simon Grove, Brenton Chatfield 

Mapping the Benthos in Victoria’s Marine National Parks (Deep Water Mapping). 

Holmes, K.W., Radford, B., Van Niel, K.P., Kendrick, G.A. and Grove, S.L. (2007) Mapping 

the Benthos in Victoria’s Marine National Parks, Volume 2: Point Hicks. Parks Victoria 




Edmunds M. and Hart S. (2003) Parks Victoria Standard Operating Procedure: Biological 


Melbourne. 

Edmunds M., Stewart, K. and Pritchard, K. (2011). Victorian subtidal reef monitoring 

program: the reef biota within the Twofold Shelf Bioregion. Parks Victoria Technical Series 

No. 68. Parks Victoria, Melbourne. 




Edmunds, M., Stewart, K., Pritchard, K., and Zavalas, R. (2010). Victorian Subtidal Reef 

Monitoring Program: The reef biota at Marine Protected Areas within the Twofold Shelf. 

Volume 3. Parks Victoria Technical Series No. 62. Parks Victoria, Melbourne. 




Reef Biota Within the Twofold Bioregion, (Volume 2). Parks Victoria Technical Series No. 45. 







146



Hidas, E.Z. (2007). The Patterns of Abundance and Demography of rocky intertidal marine 

invertebrates indicate that recruitment can set geographical range limits. MSc Research Thesis. 

School of Biological Sciences and Institute for Conservation Biology. University of Wollongong. 

Hidas, E.Z., Ayre, D.J. and Minchinton, T.E. (2010). Patterns of demography for rocky-shore, 

intertidal invertebrates approaching their geographical range limits: tests of the abundant-centre 

hypothesis in south-eastern Australia. Marine and Freshwater Research 61: 1243–1251. 

Hidas, E.Z., Costa, T.L., Ayre, D.J. and Minchinton T.E. (2007). Is the species composition of 

rocky intertidal invertebrates across a biogeographic barrier in south-eastern Australia related to 

their potential for dispersal? Marine and Freshwater Research 58: 835-842. 

147



4. Cape Howe MNP 





















University of Western Australia: Cordelia Moore, Euan Harvey, Gary Kendrick, Kimberly Van 

Niel 

Spatial Ecology of Demersal Fish Assemblages in Victorian Marine National Parks: Establishing 

Baselines. 

Moore, C.H., Van Neil, K. and Harvey, E. (2011). The effect of landscape composition and 

configuration on the spatial distribution of temperate demersal fish. Ecography 34(3): 425- 

435. 

Moore, C.H., Harvey, E.S. and Van Niel, K.P. (2009). Spatial prediction of demersal fish 

distributions: enhancing our understanding of species–environment relationships. ICES 

Journal of Marine Science, 66: 2068–2075. 

Moore, C. H., Harvey, E. S., and Van Niel, K. P. (2010). The application of predicted habitat 

models to investigate the spatial ecology of demersal fish assemblages. Marine Biology 157: 

2717-2729. 







148



University of Melbourne: Kate York, Belinda Appleton, Ary Hoffman 

Genetics and Recruitment of Invertebrates in MPAs. 

York, K. (2008). Taxonomy, biogeography and population genetic structure of the southern 

Australian intertidal barnacle fauna. Ph.D. Thesis. Department of Genetics, University of 

Melbourne. 

York, K.L., Blacket, M.J. and Appleton, B.R. (2008). The Bassian Isthmus and the major 

ocean currents of southeast Australia influence the phylogeography and population structure 

of a southern Australian intertidal barnacle Catomerus polymerus (Darwin). Molecular 

Ecology 17: 1948-1961. 































149





University of Western Australia / Fugro / Deakin University / Department of Primary 

Industries: 

Karen Holmes, Ben Radford, Kimberly Van Niel, Gary Kendrick, Simon Grove, Brenton Chatfield 

Mapping the Benthos in Victoria’s Marine National Parks (Deep Water Mapping). 

Holmes, K.W., Radford, B., Van Niel, K.P., Kendrick, G.A., Grove, S.L. and Chatfield, B. 

(2007). Mapping the Benthos in Victoria’s Marine National Parks, Volume 1: Cape Howe. 






Melbourne. 

















150



5. Beware Reef MS 







Monash University: David Hurst, Sharron Pfueller. 

Engaging communities in monitoring park values and threats. 

Hurst, D. (2007). The Community in Monitoring. Exploring the Concept of Social Capital. 

Honours Thesis. School of Geography and Environmental Science, Monash University. 















University of Melbourne: Kate York, Belinda Appleton, Ary Hoffman 

Genetics and Recruitment of Invertebrates in MPAs. 

York, K. (2008). Taxonomy, biogeography and population genetic structure of the southern 

Australian intertidal barnacle fauna. Ph.D. Thesis. Department of Genetics, University of 

Melbourne. 

York, K.L., Blacket, M.J. and Appleton, B.R. (2008). The Bassian Isthmus and the major 

ocean currents of southeast Australia influence the phylogeography and population structure 

of a southern Australian intertidal barnacle Catomerus polymerus (Darwin). Molecular 

Ecology 17: 1948–1961. 

University of Adelaide: Abby Sims, John Tibby 

The Environmental History of Tamboon Inlet: using sediment-based techniques to understand 

human impact. 

Sims, A. (2006). A palaeoecological reconstruction of Tamboon Inlet, eastern Victoria: 

shortcomings of classification. Bachelor of Environmental Studies Honours thesis, 

151



Geographical and Environmental Studies University of Adelaide. 





































Melbourne. 


152


















153

Parks Victoria is responsible for managing the Victorian protected 

area network, which ranges from wilderness areas to metropolitan 

parks and includes both marine and terrestrial components. 

Our role is to protect the natural and cultural values of the parks 

and other assets we manage, while providing a great range of 

outdoor opportunities for all Victorians and visitors. 

A broad range of environmental research and monitoring activities 

supported by Parks Victoria provides information to enhance park 

management decisions. This Technical Series highlights some of 

the environmental research and monitoring activities done within 

Victoria’s protected area network. 

Healthy Parks Healthy People 

For more information contact the Parks Victoria Information Centre 

on 13 1963, or visit www.parkweb.vic.gov.au

parks victoria technical series marine natural values study vol 2 ...

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