Myrrh & Related Commiphora - Cropwatch

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Cropwatch’s Bibliography of Myrrh: Commiphora myrrha (Nees) 

Engl., & other related Commiphora spp. 

Compiled by Cropwatch v1.01 Jan 2010. 

[to be progressively extended]. 

Cropwatch Introduction: The Commiphora genus contains up to 200 species of 

often thorny shrubs or small- to medium-sized dioecious trees with a peeling, 

papery bark distributed across Africa & the Arabian peninsula, with four species 

also found in India. Myrrh itself is the air-dried gum oleoresin principally obtained 

from the schizogenous gum-oleoresin cavities in the stem or branches of the 

small tree Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. or C. myrrha (Nees) Engl. var. 

molmol (Fam. Burseraceae) and other Commiphora spp. such as C. abyssinica - 

(Berg.) Engl., C. schimperi (Berg.) Engl. These shrubs grow in sandy and rocky 

areas in Somalia, Sudan, Ethiopia, S. Arabia (Saudi Arabia, Yemen) and Kenya. 

Still other species yielding types of myrrh include C. africana (A. Rich) Engl., C. 

mukul (Hook ex Stocks) Engl. and C. guidottii (Chiov. ex Guidottii) which yields 

‘scented myrrh’. 

General reference: Gillett, J.B. (1973). “Commiphora Jacq. (Burseraceae) - Englerian species 

which disappear.” Kew Bull. 28(1), 25-28. 

Contents 

Commiphora africana (A. Rich) Engl. 

Commiphora caudata (Wight & Arn.) Engl. 

Commiphora confusa Vollesen. 

Commiphora erythraea (Ehrenb.) Engl. 

Commiphora guidottii Chiov. ex Guidottii. 

Commiphora holtziana 

Commiphora incisa Chiov.. 

Commiphora kataf (Forssk.) Engl. 

Commiphora kua (R.Br. ex Royle) Vollesen. 

Commiphora madagascariensis Jacq. 

Commiphora merkeri Engl. 

Commiphora molmol Engl. ex Tschirch. syn. C. myrrha 

Commiphora mukul Hook ex Stocks. 

Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. - Chemistry & 

Composition 

Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. - Properties. 

1

Commiphora opobalsamum L. 

Commiphora pseudopaoli JB Gillet 

Commiphora schimperi (Berg.) Engl. 

Commiphora sphaerocarpa Chiov. Chiovenda. 

Commiphora tenuis. K. Vollesen 

Commiphora wightii Arnott. 

Commiphora africana (A. Rich) Engl. 

syn Commiphora pilosa Engl. 

Cropwatch comments: Source of “myrrh-like resin” (Gachathi 1997) 

Ayedoun M.A. (1998) "Aromatic plants of Tropical West Africa. VI. alpha- 

Oxobisabolene as main constituent of the leaf essential oil of Commiphora 

africana (A. Rich.) Engl. from Benin." Journal of Essential Oil Research 10(1), 

105-107. Abstract. The leaf oil of Commiphora africana has been analyzed by 

GC, GC/MS coupling and 13C-NMR spectroscopy. The two major compounds 

identified in the oil were alpha-oxobisabolene (60%) and gamma-bisabolene 

(10%). 

Banso A. & Mann A. (2006) "Antimicrobial alkaloid fraction from Commiphora 

africana (A. Rich)." J of Pharmacy & Bioresources 3(2), 98-102. Abstract. An 

alkaloid fraction was isolated from Commiphora africana (Myrrh) and assayed 

against Escherichia coli, Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas 

aeruginosa and Streptococcus pyogenes using the agar diffusion method. The 

fraction exhibited antimicrobial activities against all the test microorganisms 

Bacillus subtilis was the most susceptible to the alkaloids followed by 

Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Streptococcus pyogenes and 

Pseudomonas aeruginosa respectively. The minimum inhibitory concentration 

ranged between 3.5mg/ml and 4.5mg/ml while the minimum bactericidal 

concentration ranged between 4.0mg/ml and 5.0mg/ml. The alkaloids fraction 

from Commiphora africana could be a potential source of chemotherapeutic 

agents. 

Choudhury M.K., Johnson E.C. & Agbaji A.S. (2006) "l investigation of the bark of 

Commiphora africana (Burseraceae)." Indian Journal of Pharmaceutical 

Sciences. 62(4), 311-2. Abstract. The methanolic extract of bark of the plant 

Commiphora africana (family:Burseraceae) gave a homogeneous product 

through chromatographic separation which after crystallization from methanol 

furnished needles (mp. 142-143 degree), characterized as dimethylterephthalate 

(benzene-1, 4-dicarboxylic acid dimethylester), C(10) H(10) O(4) (M+194) on the 

basis of spectral analysis (UV, IR, NMR, Mass) and comparison with the 

synthetic dimethylester prepared from terephthalic acid. 

Gachathi F. N. (1997) “Recent advances on classification and status of main 

gum-producing species in the Family Burseraceae” available at 

http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.aspurl_file=/docrep/X0098e/X0098e01. 

htm 

2

Gbolade A.A. & Adeyemi A.A. (2008) "Anthelmintic activities of three medicinal 

plants from Nigeria." Fitoterapia 79(3), 223-5. Abstract. Aqueous extracts of the 

leaf, stem bark and root bark from Canna bidentata, Spondias mombin and 

Commiphora africana were examined for anthelmintic activity against earthworm. 

All the extracts demonstrated a concentration-dependent activity at tested 

concentrations of 10-80 mg/ml. Higher activities were observed at the higher 

concentrations, 40-80 mg/ml for all the plant extracts. C. bidentata with a 

paralysis time of 3-5 min and death time of 5-18 min at these concentrations for 

the stem bark, and S. mombin which exhibited comparatively higher efficacy (34- 

44 min paralysis time and 105 min death time for the leaf) at lower 

concentrations of 10-20 mg/ml were adjudged the outstanding anthelmintics of 

plant origin accordingly. 

Ma J., Jones S.H. & Hecht S.N. (2005) “A dihydroflavonol glucoside from 

Commiphora africana that mediates DNA strand scission” Journal of Natural 

Products 68(1),115-117. Abstract. A crude CH 2 Cl 2 −MeOH extract prepared from 

Commiphora africana was found to mediate Cu2+-dependent relaxation of 

supercoiled plasmid DNA. Bioassay-guided fractionation of this extract was 

carried out and was monitored by the use of an in vitro DNA strand scission 

assay. The dihydroflavonol glucoside phellamurin (1) was identified as the active 

principle responsible for the DNA cleavage activity of the crude extract. 

Commiphora caudata (Wight & Arn.) Engl. 

Chandrasekar K., Rajan V., Raj C.D. Gowrishankar N.L. (2009) "Antiulcerogenic 

activity of Commiphora caudata bark extract against ethanol-induced gastric 

ulcer in rats." Journal of Pharmacy Research 2(4), 701-703. Abstract. The 

ethanolic extract of Commiphora caudata bark extract was evaluated for their 

cytoprotective activity against ethanol-induced gastric lesions in rats. Four groups 

of male Sprague Dawley rats each consist of 6 animals. Group I animals were 

pretreated with phosphate buffer saline 5 ml/kg, p.o. as a control, whereas Group 

II and Group III rats were pretreated with 200 mg/kg, p.o. and 400 mg/kg p.o. of 

Commiphora caudata bark extracts respectively. Group IV rats were pretreated 

with cimetidine 50 mg/kg p.o. as reference. After 30 minutes, all animals were 

administered orally with 1 ml of absolute ethanol. After 15 minutes, all rats were 

sacrificed. Macroscopically, oral administration of absolute ethanol to rats 

pretreated with PBS significantly produced extensive hemorrhagic lesions of 

gastric mucosa, whereas animals pretreated with 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg 

ethanolic extract or cimetidine significantly reduced the formation of gastric 

lesions, when compared to control group. These results strongly document the 

beneficial cytoprotective effects of plant extract against ethanol-induced gastric 

ulcer in rats. 

Latha S., Selvamani P., Pal T.K.., Gupta J.K. & Ghosh L.H. (2009) “Antibacterial 

Activity of Commiphora caudata and Commiphora berryi Leaves” Indian Drugs 

40(10), 696-698. 

3

Latha S., Selvamani P., Pal T.K.., Gupta J.K. & Ghosh L.H. (2006) 

"macognostical studies on leaves of Commiphora caudata (Wight et Arn) Engl." 

Ancient Science of Life 26(1/2), 19-25 

Kannan C. (2009) "ulcerogenic activity of Commiphora caudata bark extract 

against ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in rats." Journal of Pharmacy Research 

2(4). Abstract. The ethanolic extract of Commiphora caudata bark extract was 

evaluated for their cytoprotective activity against ethanol-induced gastric lesions 

in rats. Four groups of male Sprague Dawley rats each consist of 6 animals. 

Group I animals were pretreated with phosphate buffer saline 5 ml/kg, p.o. as a 

control, whereas Group II and Group III rats were pretreated with 200 mg/kg, p.o. 

and 400 mg/kg p.o. of Commiphora caudata bark extracts respectively. Group IV 

rats were pretreated with cimetidine 50 mg/kg p.o. as reference. After 30 

minutes, all animals were administered orally with 1 ml of absolute ethanol. After 

15 minutes, all rats were sacrificed. Macroscopically, oral administration of 

absolute ethanol to rats pretreated with PBS significantly produced extensive 

hemorrhagic lesions of gastric mucosa, whereas animals pretreated with 200 

mg/kg and 400 mg/kg ethanolic extract or cimetidine significantly reduced the 

formation of gastric lesions, when compared to control group. These results 

strongly document the beneficial cytoprotective effects of plant extract against 

ethanol-induced gastric ulcer in rats. 

Nanthakumar R., Stephen Ambrose S., Sriram E., Babu G., Chitra K. and Uma 

maheswara Reddy C. (2009) "Effect of bark extract and gum exudate of 

Commiphora caudata on aspirin induced ulcer in rats." Pharmacognosy 

Research 11(6), 375-380. Abstract. Commiphora caudata is used in Indian folk 

medicine as an antiulcerogenic agent. Despite of its promising use, there has 

been no scientific report present regarding its antiulcer activity. Therefore, this 

study was designed to evaluate the antiulcer activity of bark extract and gum 

exudate of Commiphora caudata on aspirin induced ulcer in rats. Acute toxicity 

study was performed and 200 mg/kg was selected as an effective dose. Four 

groups of Albino Swiss rats were included in this study. Aspirin suspended in 0.5 

% carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) was given orally to group 1 rats as a negative 

control group. Group 2 and group 3 animals received methanolic extract and gum 

exudate of Commiphora caudata respectively. Sucralfate was given orally to 

group 4 animals as a positive control. The methanolic extract of Commiphora 

caudata has been found to reduce total acidity as much as by sucralfate. 

However, it has not changed the fluid secretion. The gum preparation not only 

reduced the total acidity but also considerably reduce the gastric fluid secretion. 

In case of ulcer score sucralfate, methanolic extract and the gum have produced 

the low ulcer score compared to aspirin. Increased gastric mucosal protective 

mechanism by bark extract and gum exudate is probably due to the presence of 

some active principles present in the plant. However, further investigations are 

required to elucidate their exact mechanism of anti-ulcer activity. 

4

Sivakumar T., Kannan K., Kannappan N. & Kathiresan K. (2009) 

"Antiinflammatory activity of Commiphora caudata [Wight and Arn]." Asian 

Journal of Chemistry 21(5),4130-4132. 

Commiphora confusa Vollesen. 

Cropwatch comments: Source of “myrrh-like resin” (Gachathi 1997). 

Dekebo A., Dagne E., Curry P., Gautun O.R. & Aasen A.J. (2002) "Dammarane 

triterpenes from the resins of Commiphora confusa." Bulletin of the Chemical 

Society of Ethiopia 16(1),81-86(6). Abstract. The resin of Commiphora confusa 

afforded two new dammarane triterpenes, (3R,20S)-3,20-dihydroxydammar-24- 

ene and (3R,20S)-3-acetoxy-20-hydroxydammar-24-ene along with the known 

triterpenes, cabraleadiol 3-acetate and -amyrin. 

Manguro L.O., Ugi I. & Lemmen P. (2003) "Dammarane triterpenes of 

Commiphora confusa resin.” Chem Pharm Bull 51, 483–486. Abstract. 

Fractionation of a steam distilled residue of Commiphora confusa resin has 

yielded four novel dammarane triterpenes characterised as (20S)-3beta-acetoxy- 

12beta,16beta-trihydroxydammar-24-ene, 

(20S)-12beta,16betatrihydroxydammar-24-ene-3beta-O-beta-glucopyranoside, 

(20S)-3beta-acetoxy- 

12beta,16beta,25-tetrahydroxydammar-23-ene, and (20S)- 

3beta,12beta,16beta,25-pentahydroxydammar-23-ene. The known compounds 

beta-amyrin, 3beta-amyrinacetate, 2-methoxyfuranodienone, 2- 

acetoxyfuranodienone, (20R)-3beta-acetoxy-16beta-dihydroxydammar-24-ene, 

(20R)-3beta,16beta-trihydroxydammar-24-ene, 3beta-acetoxy-16betahydroxydammar-24-ene, 

3beta-hydroxydammar-24-ene, 3beta-acetoxydammar- 

24-ene, and beta-sistosterol were also isolated from the same extract. The 

structures of the compounds were determined using spectroscopic, physical, and 

chemical methods. 




htm 

Commiphora erythraea (Ehrenb.) Engl. var glabrescrens Engl. 

Opoponax. 

Cropwatch comments: Source of opoponax. 

Carroll J.F., Maradufu A. & Warthen Jr. J.D. (1989) "An extract of Commiphora 

erythraea: a repellent and toxicant against ticks." Entomol. Exp. Appl. 53, 111- 

116. Abstract. A hexane extract of the gum of an African plant, Commiphora 

erythraea Engler (Burseraceae), has larvicidal and repellent activity against the 

lone star tick, Amblyomma americanum (L.) and the American dog tick, 

Dermacentor variabilis (Say). Adult deer ticks, Ixodes dammini Spielman, 

Clifford, Piesman and Corwin, were also repelled by the extract. Concentrations 

of 0.02 mg/cm 2 of the extract impregnated onto filter paper killed 96.15 (+ 

3.56)% of A. americanum larvae exposed to it for 24 h. A concentration of 0.16 

5

mg/cm 2 was needed to kill 80.3% of D. variabilis larvae. The extract was less 

effective as a larvicide against A. americanum and D. variabilis than permethrin. 

Less than 15.5% of A. americanum larvae and adults and D. variabilis and L 

dammini adults entered and remained for 2 or 3 min on areas of cloth strips 

treated with the extract at the rate of 0.2 mg/cm 2. However, 73.3 to 83.3% of the 

ticks tested entered and remained in areas treated with hexane. Permethrin was 

about 1 or 2 orders of magnitude more effective against A. americanum larvae as 

a repellent than the extract. 

Lawrence B.M. (1983). “Opoponax oil Commiphora erythraea var. glabrescens” 

Perfum. & Flav. 8, 27-28. 

Lawrence B.M. (2004) Progress in Essential Oils: Opoponax & Other 

Commiphora spp. Perf. & Flav. 29(7), 88-101. 

Marcotullio M.C., Santi C., Mwankie G.N.O.-M. & Curini M. (2009) "Chemical 

Composition of the essential oil of Commiphora erythraea." Natural Product 

Communications 4(12),1751-1754. 

Maradufu A. (1982) “Furanosesquiterpenoids of Commiphora erythraea and C. 

myrrh.” Phytochemistry 21, 677–680. 

Wenninger J.A. & Yates R.L. (1969) J. Assocn. of Anal. Chem. 52, 1155 through 

Khalid S.A. (1983) “Chemistry of the Burseraceae” Ann. Proc. Phytochem. Soc. 

Europe 22, 281-299. 

Commiphora guidottii Chiov. ex Guidottii. 

Scented Myrrh. Bissabol. Habak Hadi. 

Ali A.Y. & Bowen I.D. (2005) "Antifeedant and molluscicidal activity of scented 

myrrh applied as a spray." IOBC WPRS Bulletin 28(6),9-14. 

Andersson M., Bergendorff O., Shan R.D., Zygmunt P. & Sterner O. (1997) 

Planta Med 63, 251–254. Abstract. Minor components with smooth muscle 

relaxing properties from scented myrrh (Commiphora guidottii). 

Claeson P., Andersson R. & Samuelsson G. (1991). T-cadinol: a 

pharmacologically active constituent of scented myrrh: introductory 

pharmacological characterization and high field 1H- and 13C-NMR data. Planta 

Med. 57, 352-6. 

Craveiro A., Corsano S., Proietti G. & Strappaghetti G. (1983) “Constituents of 

essential oil of Commiphora guidottii.” Planta Med 48, 97–98. Abstract. From the 

essential oil of Commiphora guidotti seven sesquiterpene hydrocarbons and a 

furanosesquiterpenoid, furanodiene, were isolated. 

Thulin M. & Claeson P. (1991) "The botanical origin of Scented Myrrh (Bissabol 

or Habak Hadi)." Economic Botany 45(4), 487-494. Abstract. It is concluded that 

the botanical origin of scented myrrh (bissabol or habak hadi), a major article for 

export from Somalia since ancient times, is Commiphora guidottii (Burseraceae) 

6

and not C. erythraea as generally has been presumed. The reasons for the 

previous confusion are discussed, and an updated synonymy and distribution 

map for C. guidottii are given. 

Commiphora holtziana ssp. holtziana 

syn. Commiphora caerurea 

Gum haggar. 


Birkett M.A., Al Bassi S., Kröber T., Chamberlain K., Hooper A.M., Guerin P.M., 

Pettersson J., Pickett J.A., Slade R. & Wadhams L.J. (2008) "Antiectoparasitic 

activity of the gum resin, gum haggar, from the East African plant, Commiphora 

holtziana." Phytochemistry 69(8), 1710-1715. Abstract. The mechanism of ixodid 

tick (Acari: Ixodidae) repellency by gum haggar, a resin produced by 

Commiphora holtziana (Burseraceae), was investigated by evaluating activity 

against the cattle tick, Boophilus microplus. In an arena bioassay, a hexane 

extract of the resin of C. holtziana exhibited a repellent effect lasting up to 5 h. 

The hydrocarbon fraction of the resin extract was shown to account for the 

repellent activity, and was analysed by coupled gas chromatography–mass 

spectrometry (GC–MS). Major sesquiterpene hydrocarbons were tentatively 

identified as germacrene-D, δ-elemene and β-bourbonene. The identity and 

stereochemistry of the former compound was confirmed as the (+)-isomer by 

peak enhancement using enantioselective GC, whereas the latter 2 compounds, 

which are most likely degradation products of germacrene-type precursors, were 

identified through isolation by preparative gas chromatography followed by 

microprobe-NMR spectroscopy. GC comparison of gum haggar with another 

resin, C. myrrha, which was inactive in the tick bioassay, showed that the latter 

contained much lower levels of these hydrocarbons. To assess the suitability of 

the gum haggar resin as a general acarine repellent, further tests were made on 

a major acarine pest of European and US animal husbandry systems, the red 

poultry mite, Dermanyssus gallinae (Acari: Dermanyssidae). Gum haggar extract, 

and the isolated hydrocarbon fraction, showed strong repellent effects in an 

olfactometer assay, and again gum myrrh showed no effect. These findings 

provide a scientific basis for the observed anti-tick properties of gum haggar, and 

demonstrate the potential for its development as a general acarine repellent for 

use in animal husbandry systems. 

Cavanagh I.S., Cole M.D., Cavanagh J.S., Gibbons S., Gray A.I., Provan G.J & 

Waterman P.G. (1992) "A novel sesquiterpene, 1,2-epoxyfurano-10(15)- 

germacren-6-one, from the resin of Commiphora holtziana Engl." Flav. & Frag. J. 

8(1),39-41. Abstract. Three known and one novel furanogermacrenes have been 

isolated from the resinous exudate of Commiphora holtziana Engl. The structures 

of the known compounds were determined by comparison of 1H- and 13C-NMR 

spectra with those already published. The structure of the novel compound was 

determined as 1,2-epoxyfurano-10(15)-germacren-6-one (IV), using 

spectroscopic techniques. Some previous 13C-NMR assignments for the known 

compounds were corrected or clarified. 

7

Manguro L.O.A., Opiyo S.A., Herdtweck E. & Lemmen P. (2009) "Triterpenes of 

Commiphora holtziana oleo-gum resin." Canadian Journal of Chemistry 

87(8),1173-1179. Abstract. Chemical analysis of the acetone extract of 

Commiphora holtziana gum resin has led to the isolation of triterpenes 

characterized as methyl 3-oxo-1α,19α,28-trihydroxyurs-12-en-24-oate (1), methyl 

3β-acetyl-2α,11α,19α,28-tetrahydroxyurs-12-en-24-oate (2), methyl 3β,11αdiacetyl-1α,2α,28-trihydroxyurs-12-ene-24-oate 

(3), and 3β,28-diacetyl-1α,2α,25- 

trihydroxydammar-23-ene (4). The known compounds isolated from the same 

extract included cabraleadiol monoacetate (5), mansumbinol (6), 3β-acetylamyrin 

(7), 3α-acetylboswellic acid (8), 2-methoxy-8,12-epoxygermacra-1(10),7,11-trien- 

6-one (9), 2-methoxy-5-acetylfuranogermacra-1(10),7,11-trien-6-one (10), 

furadienone (11), 2-methoxy-5-acetyl-4-furanogermacra-1(10)Z-en-6-one (12), α- 

amyrin (13), sistosterol (14) and stigmasterol 3-O-acetate (15). Structural 

elucidation was carried out using spectroscopic and physical methods as well as 

by comparison with the literature data. 

Provan G. J., Gray A. I. & Waterman P. G. (1987) “Monoterpene-rich Resins from 

some Kenyan Burseraceae” Flav. Frag. J. , 2, 115-118. Abstract. Volatile oils 

obtained by the steam distillation of resins from Boswellia neglecta, Commiphora 

africana, C. campestris and C. ogadensis have been examined by capillary GC 

and GC-MS. In each case the oils were found to be entirely monoterpenoid in 

constitution. All four oils were generally characterized by large amounts of - 

pinene. Other constituents that were important markers of individual species 

included -thujene (B. neglecta, C. africana), sabinene (C. campestris), myrcene 

and car-3-ene (C. ogadensis) and p-cymene (B. neglecta, C. africana). 

Cropwatch comments: According to Provan et al. (1987)The main constituents 

of the oil of Commiphora holtiziana are 1 (10),2-methoxy-8,12-epoxygermacra- 

1(10, 7, 11-trien-6-one, 5-acetoxy-2-methoxy-8,12-epoxygermacra-1(10),7,11- 

trien-6-one, 3-methoxy-8,12-epoxygermacra-1,7,10(15),11-tetraen-6-one, elemol, 

furanodiene, furanodienone, isofuranogermacrene, curzerenone, lindestrene, 

furanoeudesma-1,3-diene, furanoeudesma-1,4-diene-6-one, 1(10)Z, 4Zfuranodiene-6-one, 

2-methoxy-furanodiene, 2-acetoxyfuranodiene, 4,5- 

dihydrofuranodiene-6-one. 

Commiphora incisa Chiov.. 

syn. C. candidula Sprague. 

Cropwatch comments: Source of “myrrh-like resin” (Gachathi 1997). Local use 

as masticatory gum. 

Duwiejua M., Zeitlin I.J., Waterman P.G., Chapman J., Mhango G.J. & Provan 

G.J. (1993) "Anti-inflammatory activity of resins from some species of the plant 

family Burseraceae." Planta Med. 59(1),12-6. Abstract. The anti-inflammatory 

activities of extracts from the resins of four species of the plant family 

Burseraceae, Boswellia dalzielli, Boswellia carteri (gum olibanum), Commiphora 

mukul, and Commiphora incisa, were studied. The aqueous extracts of the resins 

of B. dalzielli, C. incisa, and C. mukul significantly inhibited both the maximal 

edema response and the total edema response during 6 h of carrageenan- 

8

induced rat paw edema. The octanordammarane triterpenes, mansumbinone and 

mansumbinoic acid, isolated from the resin of C. incisa, were separated and 

tested. Administered prophylactically, mansumbinone proved to be more than 20 

times less potent than indomethacin and prednisolone in inhibiting carrageenaninduced 

rat paw edema. However, the molar potency of mansumbinoic acid was 

within one order of magnitude of those of indomethacin and prednisolone. The 

anti-inflammatory action of the acid on the carrageenan-induced edema was 

dose-related between 1.3 x 10(-5) and 2.5 x 10(-4) mol kg-1 when given before 

the inflammatory stimulus. The acid was able to reverse an established 

carrageenan-induced inflammatory response when administered 2 h after 

induction. Daily administration of mansumbinoic acid at a single dose level (1.5 x 

10(-4) mol kg-1) significantly reduced joint swelling in adjuvant arthritis in rats. 

The results indicated that this compound is worthy of further investigation as an 

anti-inflammatory drug. 




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Provan G.J. & Waterman P.G. (1988) "Major triterpenes from the resins of 

Commiphora incisa and C. kua and their potential chemotaxonomic significance." 

Phytochemistry 27(12),3841-3843. Abstract. The resin obtained from 

Commiphora incisa has yielded two novel triterpenes which have been identified 

as 1α-acetoxy-9,19-cyclolanost-24-en-3β-ol and 29-norlanost-8,24-dien- 

1α,2α,3β-triol. No trace could be found of the octanordammaranes previously 

reported for this species and it now appears that these originate from the closely 

related C. kua. 

Provan G.J. & Waterman P.G. (1985)"Piropolygamain: a new lignan from 

Commiphora incisa." Planta Medica 51(3), 271-272. Abstract. The resin 

produced by Commiphora incisa has yielded two epimeric aryltetralin lignans 

which have been identified as the known polygamain (1 R, 2 R, 3 R) and its novel 

C-2 epimer to which the trivial name picropolygamain (1 R, 2 S, 3 R) has been 

assigned. 

Provan G.J. & Waterman P.G. (1986) “The mansumbinanes: 

Octanordammaranes from the resin of Commiphora incisa." Phytochemistry 

25(4), 917-922. Abstact. The resin of Commiphora incisa (Burseraceae) has 

yielded three C22 compounds derived by loss of the C-17 side chain from a 

dammarane triterpene. They have been ident̀ified by spectral analysis and 

chemical modification as 4α,4β,8β,10β,14α-pentamethyl-5α-gon-16-en-3-one 

(mansumbinone), the corresponding 3-hydroxy compound (mansumbinol) and 

the derivative 3,4-seco-mansumbinoic acid in which the A-ring has opened 

between C-3 and C-4. A fourth compound was characterized as 16(S),20(R)- 

dihydroxydammar-24-en-3-one, a possible precursor of the mansumbinanes 

Commiphora kataf (Forssk.) Engl. 

9

African Opoponax. 


ANLAP data-base http://www.ics.trieste.it/EssentialOils/EssentialOil.aspxID=19 

Cropwatch comments: This reports the following components confirmed by GC- 

MS and NMR in a Kenyan steam distillled essential oil of C. kataf: camphene 

(0.8%), γ-elemene (2.4%), β-elemene (14.4%), germacrene-D (15.5%), elmol 

(4.6%), furanogermacra-1, 10(15)-diene-6-one (16.7%). 

Baser K.H.C., Demirci B., Dekebo A. & Dagne E. (2003) “Essential oils of some 

Boswellia spp, Myrrh and Opoponax” Fl. & Frag. J. 18, 153-6. Cropwatch 

comments: Baser et al. indicate the presence of the following components in C. 

kataf oil: germacrene D, germacrene B, furanosesquiterpene and (1E)-8,12- 

epoxygermacra-1,7,10,11-tetraen-6-one. 

Commiphora kua (R.Br. ex Royle) Vollesen. 

Kenya, Ethiopia, Somalia & Yemen 

Awadh Ali N.A., Wurster M., Lindequist N.A.U. & Wessjohann L. (2008) 

"Essential oil composition from oleogum resin of Soqotraen Commiphora kua." 

Rec. Nat. Prod. 2:3 (2008), 70-75. Abstract. The major constituents of the 

essential oil obtained by hydrodistillation from the oleogum resin of Commiphora 

kua Vollesen were identified by GC-MS. Sixteen constituents were detected from 

the essential oil, which constituted about (90.5%) of the total amount. Major 

constituents of the oil were α- cadinol (33.0%), γ-cadinene (22.5%), δ-cadinene 

(17.0%), isocaryophyllene (3.7%), allo-aromadendrene (2.8%), α-muurolene 

(2.7%), and α-humulene (2.4%). The Oil of Commiphora kua showed moderate 

antifungal activity against Cladosporium cucumerinum. 

Battu, G.R., Zeitlin, I.J. & Gray, A.I. (2000). "Anti-inflammatory activity of 

adjuvant-induced arthritis in rats of octanordammarane triterpenes from resin 

extracts of Commiphora kua." Br. J. Pharmacol. 133, 199. 

Battu, G.R., Zeitlin, I.J. and Gray, A.I. (2000). “Investigation of anti-inflammatory 

actions of molecules from Kenyan Myrrh, Commiphora kua.” J. Pharm. 

Pharmacol. 52, 309. 

Battu, G.R., Zeitlin, I.J. & Gray, A.I. (2000). Anti-inflammatory activity of 

myeloperoxidase inhibitory molecules isolated from resin extracts of Commiphora 

kua. Br. J. Pharmacol. 131, 187p. 

Battu G.R., Zeitlin I.J., Gray A.I & Watermann P.G. (1999). “Inhibitory actions on 

rat myeloperoxidase of molecules isolated from antinflammatory extracts of 

Commiphora kua. “ Brit J. Pharmacol. 128, 274 Suppl. S. 

Dekebo A., Dagne E., Hansen L.K., Gautun O.R. & Aasen A.J. (2002) "Two 

octanordammarane triterpenes from Commiphora kua." Phytochemistry 58(4), 

399-403. Abstract. The resin of Commiphora kua yielded two new 

octanordammarane triterpenes namely 15α-hydroxymansumbinone and 28- 

acetoxy-15α-hydroxymansumbinone, along with the four known compounds, 

10

mansumbinone, mansumbinol, (16S, 20R)-dihydroxydammar-24-en-3-one and T- 

cadinol. These structures were elucidated by spectroscopic techniques, including 

1D and 2D NMR spectroscopy, and X-ray analysis. 

Manguro L.O.A., Ugi I. & Lemmen P. (2003) "Further bisabolenes and 

dammarane triterpenes of Commiphora kua resin." Chem Pharm Bull. 51(5), 479- 

482. Abstract. From the resins of Commiphora kua a novel bisabolene; 6- 

hydroxy-2-methyl-5-(5'-hydroxy-1'(R),5'-dimethylhex-3'-enyl)-phenol together with 

two new dammarane triterpenes, 3.BETA.,16.BETA.,20(S),25- 

tetrahydroxydammar-23-ene and 3.BETA.-acetoxy-16.BETA.,20(S),25- 

trihydroxydammar-23-ene, have been isolated. In addition, being reported are 

known compounds identified as 2-methyl-5-(4'(S)-hydroxy-1'(R),5'-dimethylhex- 

5'-enyl)-phenol, 2-acetoxyfuranodienone, 2-methoxyfuranodienone, 

3.BETA.,16.BETA.,20(R)-trihydroxydammar-24-ene and its acetate derivative, 

3.BETA.-acetoxy-16.BETA.,20(R)-dihydroxydammar-24-ene, and .BETA.-amyrin 

and its acetate derivative. 2-Methyl-5-(4'(S)-hydroxy-1'(R),5'-dimethylhex-5'-enyl)- 

phenol displayed fungicidal activity against Cladosporium cucumernum on TLC 

assay. 

Manguro L.O., Mukonyi K.M. & Githiomi J.K. (1996) "Bisabolenes and 

furanosesquiterpenoids of Kenyan Commiphora kua resin." Planta Med. 62(1), 

84-5. Abstract The isolation and structure determination of a new bisabolene, 2- 

methyl-5-(5'-hydroxy-1',5'-dimethyl-3'-hexenyl)phenol, together with known 

bisabolene, xanthorrhizol and furanosesquiterpenoids, 2- O-acetyl-8,12- 

epoxygermacra-1(10),4,7,11-tetraene and 2- O-methyl-8,12-epoxygermacra- 

1(10),4,7,11-tetraene, from gum exudate of Commiphora kua are reported. 

Commiphora madagascariensis Jacq. 

syn. Commiphora abyssinica (Berg.) Engl. 

syn. Commiphora habessinica (Berg) Engl. 

Cropwatch comments: Source of “myrrh-like resin” (Gachathi 1997) 

Gachathi F. N. (1997) “Recent Advances on Classification and Status of Main 

Gum-Producing Species in the Family Burseraceae” available at 


htm 

Commiphora merkeri Engl. 

Zebrabark Myrrh 

Fourie T.G. & Snyckers F.O. (1989) “A pentacyclic triterpene with anti- 

Inflammatory and analgesic activity from the roots of Commiphora merkeri.” J. 

Nat Prod 52, 1129–1131. 

Commiphora molmol Engl. ex Tschirch. 

syn Commiphora myrrha var molmol 

True myrrh. Molmol (N.E. Kenya). 

11

Al Faraj S. (2005) "Antagonism of the anticoagulant effect of warfarin caused by 

the use of Commiphora molmol as a herbal medication: a case report." Annals of 

Tropical Medicine and Parasitology 99(2). 219-220. 

Ashry K.M., El-Sayed Y.S., Khamiss R.M., El-Ashmawy I.M. (2009) "Oxidative 

stress and immunotoxic effects of lead and their amelioration with myrrh 

(Commiphora molmol) emulsion." Food Chem Toxicol. 2009 Oct 8. Abstract. The 

possible role of Commiphora molmol emulsion (CME) in protecting against lead 

(PbAc)-induced hepatotoxicity, oxidative stress and immunotoxicity in rabbits was 

assessed. Six groups of animals were used: groups I (control) and II (PbAc) were 

not supplemented with CME. Groups III (CME50) and IV (CME50+PbAc) were 

administered with CME in a dose rate of 50mg/kgbwt, while groups V (CME100) 

and VI (CME100+PbAc) were received 100mgCME/kg bwt daily p.o for 

successive 14weeks. Groups II, IV and VI were given 80mg PbAc/kg bwt/day 

orally for 6weeks starting from the 9th week. At the 12th week, animals were 

subjected to immunization by a single dose of sheep RBCs. The PbAc-group 

showed 220% increase in hepatic malondialdehyde levels, while glutathione, 

glutathione S-transferase and glutathione peroxidase levels decreased. Leadacetate 

induced hypoproteinemia and hypoalbuminemia, and increased 

aminotransferases activity. It reduced the values of lymphocyte transformation 

test, phagocytic activity, phagocytic index and antibody titer against sheep 

SRBCs. Interestingly, pretreatment with CME attenuated these adverse effects in 

a dose-dependent protection. CME, therefore, is a potent antioxidant, and can 

protect against PbAc-induced hepatic oxidative damage and immunotoxicity by 

reducing lipid peroxidation and enhancing the antioxidant and immune defense 

mechanisms. 

Haffor A.S. "Effect of myrrh (Commiphora molmol) on leukocyte levels before and 

during healing from gastric ulcer or skin injury." J Immunotoxicol. 2009 Dec 8. 

Abstract. Myrrh (Commiphora molmol) has been widely used as an antiinflammatory 

and wound healing commercial product. As white blood cell 

(WBC)/leukocyte counts have been used as an indicator by clinicians to monitor 

progress of healing in patients, the purpose of this study was to examine effects 

of myrrh supplementation on blood WBC numbers before an injury and during 

healing. Male rats (7-8-wk-of-age) were randomly assigned to four groups. Group 

1 (SIM) served as "skin injury treated + myrrh treatment (500 mg/kg/day)," Group 

2 (SI) as "skin injury alone", Group 3 (GUM) as "gastric ulcer treated + myrrh 

treatment", and Group 4 (GU) as gastric ulcer only. Myrrh treatments (via 

drinking water) began 4 wk before induction of injury and continued for a 2 wk 

period post-injury. Baseline values for each WBC type were recorded before start 

of the myrrh treatments. Counts were performed again on Day 1 of the 5th wk (1- 

2 hr before injury) and post-injury on Days 4 and 7 of the 5th wk, and a final time 

on Day 4 of the 6th wk. Results showed that levels of all WBC types were 

significantly (P < 0.05) elevated before either injury in myrrh-treated rats (Groups 

1 and 3) as compared with levels in rats in Groups 2 and 4. At all timepoints, 

there were neither significant differences between the values seen with rats in 

Groups 1 and 3, nor between those in Groups 2 and 4. Treatment with myrrh 

12

also induced an initial increase in WBC levels that persisted through the postinjury 

healing period. Levels of most cell types only increased in the Group 2 and 

4 rats once the injury was induced, but then declined over the healing period. 

Since myrrh enhanced WBC levels before injury, we conclude that myrrh likely 

contains substances that could induce an apparent antigen-driven response. As 

the myrrh also helped maintain elevated WBC levels throughout the healing 

period, this implied it was also able to induce maturation/differentiation/activation 

of both myeloid and lymphoid cell types during the effector phase of the immune 

responses involved in wound healing. 

Massoud A. M., Kutkat M. A., Abdel-Shafy S., El-Khateeb R. M., Labib I.M. 

(2005) "Acaricidal efficacy of myrrh (Commiphora molmol) on the fowl tick Argas 

persicus (Acari: Argasidae). J Egyptian Soc of Parasitology 35(2),667-686. 

Rahman M.M.. Garvey M., Piddock L.J. & Gibbons S. (2008) "Antibacterial 

terpenes from the oleo-resin of Commiphora molmol (Engl.)." Phytotherapy 

Research 22(10),1356-1360. Abstract. Two octanordammaranes, 

mansumbinone (1) and 3,4-seco-mansumbinoic acid (2), and two 

sesquiterpenes, beta-elemene (3) and T-cadinol (4) have been isolated from the 

oleo-resin of Commiphora molmol (Engl.). The structures of these compounds 

were established unambiguously by a series of 1D and 2D-NMR analyses. We 

have also unambiguously assigned all (1)H and (13)C NMR resonances for 2 

and revised its (13)C data. The crude extract of the oleo-resin of C. molmol 

displayed potentiation of ciprofloxacin and tetracycline against S. aureus, several 

Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium strains and two K. pneumoniae strains. 

The antibacterial activity of terpenes 1-4 was determined against a number of 

Staphylococcus aureus strains: SA1199B, ATCC25923, XU212, RN4220 and 

EMRSA15 and minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values were found to be 

in the range of 4-256 microg/ml. The highest activity was observed by the seco- 

A-ring octanordammarane 2 with an MIC of 4 microg/ml against SA1199B, a 

multidrug-resistant strain which over-expresses the NorA efflux transporter, the 

major characterized antibiotic pump in this species. This activity compared 

favorably to the antibiotic norfloxacin with an MIC of 32 microg/ml. Compound 2 

also displayed weak potentiation of ciprofloxacin and tetracycline activity against 

strains of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium SL1344 and L10. 

Tonkal A.M.D. & Morsy T.A. (2008) "An update review on Commiphora molmol 

and related species." Egyptian Society of Parasitology 18(3),763-796. Abstract. 

The origins of myrrh and frankincense are traced to the Arabian Peninsula. 

According to Herodotus (5th century BC): "Arabia is the only country which 

produces frankincense, myrrh, cassia, and cinnamon.., the trees bearing the 

frankincense are guarded by winged serpents of small size and various colors." 

Diodorus Siculus wrote, in the second half of the first century BC, that "all of 

Arabia exudes a most delicate fragrance; even the seamen passing by Arabia 

can smell the strong fragrance that gives health and vigor." He also mentioned 

gold mines so pure that no smelting was necessary. The Magi, carrying myrrh, 

frankincense, and gold, came from the East: Arabia. The frankincense trade 

13

oute, with transport by donkeys and later by camel caravans, reached 

Jerusalem and Egypt from the Dhofar region of what is today Oman, through 

Yemen, turning north to follow the Red Sea coast. It is likely that the same or 

similar species of the resin-bearing plants grew across the Red Sea in the area 

that is now Somalia and Ethiopia, while the collection of the gum resins was 

initiated in Arabia. Myrrh contributed much in the human welfare. 

Schistosomiasis was known in ancient Egypt since remote times. Haematuria 

with urinary bladder disturbances was mentioned in four Papyrus papers dated 

back to 1950-1900 BC, and Schistosoma ova was detected in a cirrhotic liver of a 

mummy from 1200 BC (Ruffer, 1910). Also, Fasciola eggs were detected in a 

mummy (Looss, 1896). Fascioliasis infected over 17 million people worldwide 

causing marked morbidity and mortality (Haseeb et al., 2002). Schistosomiasis 

affected over 200 million people in 74 countries and territories worldwide (WHO, 

1999) causing several chronic complications. Both were incriminated to 

predispose or accompanied human hepatitis and predisposed to HCV (Wahib et 

al., 2006). Most zoonotic helminthes induced immune response (Nutman, 2001) 

characterized by producing of type 2 cytokines, Ig G1, IgG2, IgE antibodies and 

eosinophil and mast cell activation (Hoffman et al., 2002). Treatment of 

fascioliasis required high or drug multiple doses with side effect (Farid et al., 

1990). In schistosomiasis, praziquantel (PZQ) in use for > 20 years was faced 

with low efficacy (Leishout et al., 1998), or with increased resistance (Coles et 

al., 1986; Watt et al., 1988; Herrera et al., 1994; Ismail et al., 1994; 1999; Tonelli 

et al., 1995; Stelma et al., 1995; Fallon et al., 1997; Bennett et al., 1997; Boisier 

et al., 1998; Periera et al., 1998; Kusel and Hagan, 1999; Liang et al., 2000; King 

et al., 2000; N'Goran et al., 2003; Raso et al., 2004), potentiality of 

carcinogenicity, genotoxicity (Rosenkranz et al., 1995), mutagenicity (Montero et 

al., 1993), big dose lethality and enhanced clastogenicity of environmental 

pollutants (Anwar, 1994). On the other hand, Nomicos (2007) in USA reported 

that since antiquity, the genus Commiphora is composed of more than 200 

species, and exploited as a natural drug to treat pain, skin infections, 

inflammatory conditions, diarrhea, and periodontal diseases. He added that in 

more recent history, products derived from C. myrrha and various other species 

of Commiphora are becoming recognized to possess significant antiseptic, 

anesthetic, and antitumor properties. Traditional practice and evidence-based 

research have supported that these properties are directly attributable to 

terpenoids (especially furanoses-quiterpenes), the active compounds present in 

myrrh essential oil. Very recently, current studies have focused on applying 

clinical trial methodologies to validate its use as an antineoplastic, an 

antiparasitic agent, and as an adjunct in healing wounds. Weeks and Simpson 

(2007) in USA presented the molecular phylogeny of Commiphora, a 

predominantly tropical African, arid-adapted tree genus to test the monophyly of 

its taxonomic sections and to identify clades to help direct future study of this 

species-rich and geographically widespread taxon. The multiple fossil 

calibrations of Commiphora phylogeny proved that it is sister to Vietnamese 

Bursera tonkinensis and that its crown group radiation corresponds with the 

onset of the Miocene. Auffray (2007) in France studied the impact of two types of 

14

antioxidant on sebum squalene peroxidation by UV irradiation. The first type was 

free radical scavenger (Butyl hydroxyl toluene and an olive extract rich in 

hydroxytyrosol). The second type was the essential oil of C. myrrha, a singlet 

oxygen quencher. These properties were confirmed using the 2,2-diphenyl-1- 

picrylhydrazyl test for anti-radical capacity and 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran test for 

the capacity to quench singlet oxygen. Also, the author extended an ex vivo 

method to classify the efficacy of cosmetics to protect squalene by collecting 

sebum in vivo and irradiating it in a controlled way. The squalene 

monohydroperoxide formation was monitored by high performance liquid 

chromatography. This method compared the efficiency of 3 antioxidants at 0.6% 

in a cosmetic formulation to protect squalene from photo oxidation. The data 

showed that essential oil of C. myrrha gave the best protection against squalene 

peroxidation, and that squalene peroxidation during solar exposure was mainly 

because of singlet oxygen and not due to free radical attack, and that sun care 

cosmetics should make use not only of free radical scavengers but also of singlet 

oxygen quenchers. This study aimed to review more than 70 out of hundreds 

papers (Pub-med-indexed for Medline) on the medical importance and safety of 

Commiphora molmol and other Commiphora species. 

Commiphora mukul Hook ex Stocks. 

Guggal or Guggul 

Cropwatch comments: Common adulterant of myrrh. 

Amjad A.M. & Mashooda H. (1967) “Chemical investigation of Commiphora 

mukul.” Pakistan J Sci Ind Res 10, 21–23. 

Arora R.B., Kapoor V., Gupta S.K. & Sharma R.C. (1971) “Isolation of a 

crystalline steroidal compound from Commiphora mukul & its anti-inflammatory 

activity.” Indian J Exp Biol 9, 403–404. 

Arora R.B., Taneja V., Sharma R.C. & Gupta S.K. (1972) “Anti-inflammatory 

studies on a crystalline steroid isolated from Commiphora mukul.” Indian J Med 

Res 60, 929–931. 

Saeed M.A & Sabir A. W. (2004) "Antibacterial activities of some constituents 

from oleo-gum-resin of Commiphora mukul." Fitoterapia 75(2), 204-208. Abstract. 

The essential oil, chloroform extract and seven sesquiterpenoids compounds 

newly isolated from the oleo-gum-resin of Commiphora mukul showed a wide 

range of inhibiting activity against both Gram (+) and Gram (-) bacteria. 

Bajaj A.G. & Sukh D.S. (1982) “Chemistry of Ayurvedic crude drugs-V: Guggulu 

(resin from Commiphora mukul) -5 some new steroidal components and, 

stereochemistry of guggulsterol-I at C-20 and C-22.” Tetrahedron 38, 2949– 

2954. 

Bhati A. (1950) “Essential oil from the resin of Commiphora mukul.” J Indian 

Chem Soc. 27, 436–440. 

15

Bose S. & Gupta C. (1964) “Structure of Commiphora mukul gum: Part I – Nature 

of sugars present & the structure of the aldobiouronic acid.” Indian J Chem 2, 

57–60. 

Bose S, & Gupta C. (1964) “Structure of Commiphora mukul gum: Part III – 

Methylation & periodate oxidation studies.” Indian J Chem 4, 87–89. 

Bose S, Gupta C. (1964) “Structure of Commiphora mukul gum: Part II – 

Structure of the degraded gum.” Indian J Chem 2, 156–158. 

Cornick C.L., Strongitharm B.H., Sassano G., Rawlins C., Mayes A.E., Joseph 

A.N., O'Dowd J., Stocker C., Wargent E., Cawthorne M.A., Brown A.L., Arch J.R.. 

(2009) "Identification of a novel agonist of peroxisome proliferator-activated 

receptors alpha and gamma that may contribute to the anti-diabetic activity of 

guggulipid in Lep(ob)/Lep(ob) mice." J Nutr Biochem. 20(10), 806-15. Abstract. 

The ethyl acetate extract of the gum of the guggul tree, Commiphora mukul 

(guggulipid), is marketed for the treatment of dyslipidaemia and obesity. We have 

found that it protects Lep(ob)/Lep(ob) mice from diabetes and have investigated 

possible molecular mechanisms for its metabolic effects, in particular those due 

to a newly identified component, commipheric acid. Both guggulipid 

(EC(50)=0.82 microg/ml) and commipheric acid (EC(50)=0.26 microg/ml) 

activated human peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor alpha (PPARalpha) 

in COS-7 cells transiently transfected with the receptor and a reporter gene 

construct. Similarly, both guggulipid (EC(50)=2.3 microg/ml) and commipheric 

acid (EC(50)=0.3 microg/ml) activated PPARgamma and both promoted the 

differentiation of 3T3 L1 preadipocytes to adipocytes. Guggulipid (EC(50)=0.66 

microg/ml), but not commipheric acid, activated liver X receptor alpha 

(LXRalpha). E- and Z-guggulsterones, which are largely responsible for 

guggulipid's hypocholesterolaemic effect, had no effects in these assays. 

Guggulipid (20 g/kg diet) improved glucose tolerance in female Lep(ob)/Lep(ob) 

mice. Pure commipheric acid, given orally (960 mg/kg body weight, once daily), 

increased liver weight but did not affect body weight or glucose tolerance. 

However, the ethyl ester of commipheric acid (150 mg/kg, twice daily) lowered 

fasting blood glucose and plasma insulin, and plasma triglycerides without 

affecting food intake or body weight. These results raise the possibility that 

guggulipid has anti-diabetic activity due partly to commipheric acid's 

PPARalpha/gamma agonism, but the systemic bioavailability of orally dosed, 

pure commipheric acid appears poor. Another component may contribute to 

guggulipid's anti-diabetic and hypocholesterolaemic activity by stimulating 

LXRalpha. 

Francis J.A., Raja S. N. & Nair M.G. (2004) "Bioactive terpenoids and 

guggulusteroids from Commiphora mukul gum resin of potential anti- 

Inflammatory Interest." Chemistry and Biodiversity 1(11), 1842-1853. 

Kakrani H.K. (1981) “Flavonoids from the flowers of Commiphora mukul. “ 

Fitoterapia 52, 221–223. 

16

Kakrani H.K. (1982) Physicochemical examination of seed oil from Commiphora 

mukul Hook ex Stocks.” Indian Drugs 19, 339–341. 

Kumar V. & Dev S. (1987) “Chemistry of Ayurvedic crude drugs-VII: Guggulu 

(resin from Commiphora mukul). 6. Absolute stereochemistry of guggultetrols.” 

Tetrahedron 43, 5933–5948. 

Mesrob B., Nesbitt C., Misra R. & Pandey R.C. (1998) High-performance liquid 

chromatographic method for fingerprinting and quantitative determination of E- 

and Z-guggulsterones in Commiphora mukul resin and its products. J. 

Chromatogr B 720, 189–196. 

Nohr LA, Rasmussen LB, Straand J (2008) "Resin from the mukul myrrh tree, 

guggul, can it be used for treating hypercholesterolemia A randomized, 

controlled study." Complement Ther Med. 17(1),16-22. Abstract. 

BACKGROUND: Guggul, herbal extract from resin of the Commiphora mukul 

tree, is widely used in Asia as a cholesterol-lowering agent based on Indian 

Ayurvedic medicine. Its popularity for this use is increasing in the US and 

Western Europe. Guggulsterones, the presumed bioactive compounds of guggul, 

may antagonise two nuclear hormone receptors involved in cholesterol 

metabolism, which is a possible explanation for hypolipidemic effects of these 

extracts. However, publications of efficacy data on the use of guggul extracts in 

Western populations are scarce. OBJECTIVE: To study the efficacy of a guggulbased 

formulation (short: guggul) on blood lipids in healthy adults with 

moderately increased cholesterol. METHODS: Double-blind, randomised, 

placebo controlled trial in Norwegian general practice. 43 women and men, age 

27-70, with moderately increased cholesterol, randomised to use 2160mg guggul 

(4 capsules) daily, or placebo for 12 weeks. OUTCOME MEASURES: Mean 

change in total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), 

triglycerides, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) and total 

cholesterol/HDL-C ratio compared with baseline. Lipids were analysed at 

baseline, and at 6 and 12 weeks. In addition, unexpected events and adverse 

effects were recorded. RESULTS: Two dropouts, one withdrawal, and incomplete 

lab results for six persons left 34 participants to accomplish the trial (18-guggul, 

16-placebo) with complete lab test data. After 12 weeks, mean levels of total 

cholesterol and HDL-C in the active group were significantly reduced compared 

with the placebo group. However, the mean levels of LDL-C, triglycerides, and 

total cholesterol/HDL-C ratio between the two groups did not change 

significantly. Ten guggul users (vs. four in the placebo group) reported side 

effects: mild gastrointestinal discomfort (n=7), possible thyroid problems (n=2), 

and generalized skin rash (n=1). The latter resulted in withdrawal from trial. 

CONCLUSIONS: Even if total cholesterol and HDL-C were significantly reduced, 

the clinical magnitude of this remains obscure. More and larger studies are 

needed to establish effects and safety of guggul-based formulations in the 

treatment for hypercholesterolemia. 

Ojha S.K., Nandave M., Arora S., Mehra R.D., Joshi S., Narang R. & Arya D.S. 

(2008) "Effect of Commiphora mukul extract on cardiac dysfunction and 

17

ventricular function in isoproterenol-induced myocardial infarction." Indian J Exp 

Biol. 46(9), 646-52. Abstract. In present study, hydroalcoholic extract of C. mukul 

significantly improved the cardiac function and prevented myocardial ischemic 

impairment manifested in the form of increased heart rate, decreased arterial 

pressure, increased left ventricular end diastolic pressure, and altered myocardial 

contractility indices. C. mukul treatment additionally also produced a significant 

increase in lactate dehydrogenase levels and prevented decline of protein 

content in heart. C. mukul preserved the structural integrity of myocardium. 

Reduced leakage of myocyte enzyme lactate dehydrogenase and maintenance 

of structural integrity of myocardium along with favorable modulation of cardiac 

function and improved cardiac performance indicate the salvage of myocardium 

with C. mukul treatment. Guggulsterones which are considered to be responsible 

for most of the therapeutic properties of C. mukul may underlie the observed 

cardioprotective effect of C. mukul against cardiac dysfunction in isoproterenolinduced 

ischemic rats. 

Patil V.D., Nayak U.R., Dev S. (1972) “Chemistry of Ayurvedic crude drugs-I: 

Guggulu (resin from Commiphora mukul) -1: Steroidal constituents.” Tetrahedron 

28, 2341–2352. 

Patil V.D., Nayak U.R., Dev S. (1973) “Chemistry of Ayurvedic crude drugs-II: 

Guggulu (resin from Commiphora mukul) -2: Diterpenoid constituents.” 


. 

Patil V.D., Nayak U.R, Dev S. (1973) “Chemistry of Ayurvedic crude drugs-III: 

Guggulu (resin from Commiphora mukul) - 3 long-chain aliphatic tetrols, a new 

class of naturally occurring lipids.” Tetrahedron 29, 1595–1598. 

Prasad R.S. & Dev S. (1976) “Chemistry of Ayurvedic crude drugs-IV: Guggulu 

(resin from Commiphora mukul - 4 absolute stereochemistry of mukulol.” 


Purushothaman K.K. & Chandrasekharan S. (1976) “Gugulsterols from 

Commiphora mukul (Burseraceae).” Indian J Chem, Sect B 14B, 802–804. 

Rücker G. (1972) "Über monocyclische Diterpene aus dem indischen Guggul- 

Harz (Commiphora mukul).“ Arch. Pharm. (Weinheim) 305, 486–493. 

Wang X., Greilberger J., Ledinski G., Kager G., Paigen B. & Juergen G. (2004). 

"The hypolipidemic natural product Commiphora mukul and its 

componentguggulsterone inhibit oxidative modification of LDL.” Atherosclerosis. 

172, 239-46. 

Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. - Chemistry & Composition 

True Myrrh or Somalian Myrrh 

Ahmed F., Ali M. & Singh O. (2006) "New compounds from Commiphora myrrha 

(Nees) Engl." Pharmazie 61(8),728-731. 

18

El-Ashry E.S., Rashed N., Salama O.M. & Saleh A. (2003) "Components, 

therapeutic value and uses of myrrh." Pharmazie 58(3), 163-8. Abstract. 

Occurrence, constituents and medicinal use of myrrh, obtained from the stem of 

different Commiphora species are reviewed. The constituents of the volatile oil, 

the resin and the gum are outlined in detail. Myrrh has considerable antimicrobial 

activity and is medicinally used in a variety of diseases. 

Baser K.H.C, Demirci B, Dekebo A, Dagne E. (2003) “Essential oils of some 

Boswellia spp., myrrh and opopanax.” Flavour Fragrance J 18, 153–156. 

Brieskorn C.H. & Noble P. (1983) “Two furanoeudesmanes from the essential oil 

of myrrh.” Phytochemistry 22, 187–189. 

Brieskorn C.H, & Noble P. (1983) "Furanosesquiterpenes from the essential oil of 

myrrh." Phytochemistry 22, 1207–1211. 

Brieskorn C.H. & Noble P. (1982) "Inhaltsstoffe des etherischen Öls der Myrrhe. 

II: Sesquiterpene und Furanosesquiterpene.” Planta Med 44, 87–90. 

Brieskorn C.H. & Noble P. (1980) “Drei neue furanogermacrene aus myrrhe.” 

Tetrahedron Lett 21, 1511–1514. 

Hanuš L.O., Rosenthal D., Ezanka T., Dembitsky V. M. & Moussaief A.(2008) 

"Fast and easy GC/MS identification of myrrh resins." Pharmaceutical Chemistry 

Journal c/c of Khimitko-Farmatsevticheskii Zhurnal 42(12),719-720. Abstract. 

Extracts prepared from Commiphora molmol resins were analyzed by GC-MS. 

Twenty-two terpenoid compounds were identified in the hexane extract of the 

resin. Among them, 2-acetoxyfuranodiene (9.80%), furanoeudesma-1,3-diene 

(8.97%), isofuranogermacrene (6.71%), epicurzerenone (3.64%), 2- 

methoxyfuranodiene (2.97%), and lindestrene (2.74%) were the main 

compounds from the first myrrh resin (Tamar Ltd.), and furanoeudesma-1,3- 

diene (20.59%), isofuranogermacrene (17.94%), 2-acetoxyfuranodiene (8.80%), 

2-methoxyfuranodiene (7.33%), and lindestrene (6.24%) from the second myrrh 

resin (Pamir Ltd).. 

Hanus L.O., Řezanka T., Dembitsky V.M. & Moussaieff A. (2005) "Myrrh – 

Commiphora chemistry" Biomed. Papers 149(1), 3–28. Abstract. Myrrh and 

opopanax has been used throughout history in incense and as a perfume. Since 

Bible times it has been used for the treatment of wounds. The first attempts to 

identify content compounds were almost 100 years ago. In this review we 

discuss the present state of knowledge in the chemistry of substances of 

Commiphora spp. 

[Available at http://biomed.papers.upol.cz/pdfs/bio/2005/01/01.pdf] 

Kimura I., Yoshikawa M., Kobayashi S., Sugihara Y., Suzuki M., Oominami H., 

Murakami T., Matsuda H/ & Doiphode VV. (2001) “New triterpenes, myrrhanol A 

and myrrhanone A, from guggulgum resins, and their potent anti-inflammatory 

effect on adjuvantinduced air-pouch granuloma of mice. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 

11, 985–989. 

19

Ma X., Yu X., Zheng Z. & Mao J. (1992) “Investigation of volatile composition in 

frankincense and myrrh using analytical supercritical fluid extraction technique.” 

Yaowu Fenxi Zazhi 12, 83–86. 

Maradufua A. & Warthen Jr. J.D. (1998) "Furanosesquiterpenoids from 

Commiphora myrrh oil." Plant Science 57(2), 181-184. Abstract. Highperformance 

liquid chromatography has made possible the separation of 

furanosesquiterpenoids in Commiphora myrrh oil. Combined application of NMR, 

UV, and MS techniques have revealed that oil from C. myrrh gum resins contains 

isofuranogermacrene (1), lindestrene (2), furanoeudesma-1,3-diene (3), and 

furanodiene (4). 

Marongiu B., Piras A., Porcedda S. & Scorciapino A. (2005) "Chemical 

Composition of the essential oil and supercritical CO2 extract of Commiphora 

myrrha (Nees) Engl. and of Acorus calamus L." Journal of Agricultural and Food 

Chemistry 53(20), 7939-7943. Abstract. Volatile concentrates from the oleo-gum 

resin of Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. and from the rhizomes of Acorus 

calamus were isolated by supercritical extraction with carbon dioxide. The volatile 

oil of myrrh was obtained at 9.0 MPa and 50 °C and at a CO2 flow of 1.5 kg/h. 

Acorus calamus was extracted at 9.0 MPa and 45 °C and at a CO2 flow of 1.6 

kg/h. In both cases, an oil devoid of cuticular waxes was obtained with a single 

depressurization stage. The SFE myrrh oil had a yield, Y, of 3.2%. Its main 

components, identified and quantified by GC/MS, were furanoeudesma-1,3- 

diene, 34.9%; lindestrene, 12.9%; curzerene, 8.5%; and germacrone, 5.8%. The 

essential oils from the same starting material by hydrodistillation, HD, (Y = 2.8%) 

and by steam distillation, SD, (Y = 0.4%) were quite similar to the SFE extract. 

The main components of the SFE oil of A. calamus (Y = 3.5%) were acorenone, 

13.4%; iso-acorone, 11.6%; (Z)-sesquilavandulol, 11.0%; dehydroxy 

isocalamendiol, 7.7%; and β-asarone, 5.5%. The comparison with hydrodistilled 

(Y = 1.8%) and steam distilled (Y = 1.0%) oils revealed large differences in the 

content of iso-acorone and crypto-acorone. 

Monti D., Manitto P., Tagliapietra S., Dada G. & Speranza G. (1986) “The 

absolute stereochemistry of two furanogermacranes of myrrh as determined by 

the circular dichroism exciton chirality method.” Gazz Chim Ital 116, 303–306. 

Morteza-Semnani K, Saeedi M. (2003) “Constituents of the essential oil of 

Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. var. molmol.” J Essent Oil Res 15, 50–51. 

Shen T. Wan W.Z., Wang X.N., Yuan H.Q., Ji M. & Lou H.X. (2009) "A 

triterpenoid and sesquiterpenoids from the resinous exudates of Commiphora 

myrrha." Helevitica Chimica Acta 92(4),645-652. 

El-Sherbini G.T., El Gozamy B.R., Abdel-Hady N.M. & Morsy T.A. (2009) 

"Efficacy of two plant extracts against vaginal trichomoniasis." J Egypt Soc 

Parasitol. 39(1),47-58. Abstract. Trichomoniasis vaginalis is now an important 

worldwide health problem. Metronidazole has so far been used in treatment, but 

the metronidazole-resistant strains and unpleasant adverse effects have been 

20

developed. Treatment of patients with metronidazole refractory vaginal 

trichomoniasis constitutes a major therapeutic challenge and treatment options 

are extremely limited. In the present study, 33 metronidazole-resistant T. 

vaginalis females were treated with a combined course of metronidazole and 

tinidazole. Those still resistant to the combined treatment were given 

Commiphora molmol (Myrrh) as two capsules for six to eight successive days on 

an empty stomach two hours before breakfast. Also, natural plant extract purified 

from (Roman) was in-vitro investigated for its efficacy against T. vaginalis on 

fresh Diamond media. The anti-trichomoniasis vaginalis activity of both P. 

granatum (in-vitro) and C. molmol (in-vivo) extracts gave promising results. 

Wiendl R.M., Müller B.M. & Franz G. (1995) “Proteoglycans from the gum 

exudate of myrrh.” Carbohyd Polym 28, 217–226. 

Wiendl R.M. & Franz G. (1994) “Myrrh. New chemistry of an old plant drug.” 

Dtsch Apoth Ztg 134, 27–29, 31–32. 

Wilson R.A. & Mookherjee B.D. (1983) “Characterization of aroma donating 

components of myrrh.” Proceedings of 9th International Congress of Essential 

Oils, Singapore, 13–17 March, paper no. 400, pp. 1– 10, Book 4. Singapore: 

Essential Oils Association of Singapore. 

Yang G.-C., Li Z.-L., Li W. & Hua H.-M. (2008) The structure of a 

franosesquiterpenoid extracted from myrrh elucidated by NMR Spectroscopy." 

Chinese J of Magnetic Resonance 25(4), 548-553. 

Yu X, Ma X, Ding X. (1993) “GC/ITD study of major constituents of the extracts of 

myrrh and Curcuma zedoaria.” Fenxi Ceshi Xuebao 12, 8–13. 

Zhu N., Sheng S., Sang S., Rosen R.T. & Ho C-T. (2003) “Isolation and 

characterization of several aromatic sesquiterpenes from Commiphora myrrha.” 

Flavour Fragrance J. 18, 282–285. 

Zhu N., Kikuzaki H., Sheng S., Sang S., Rafi M.M., Wang M., Nakatani N., 

DiPaola R.S., Rosen R.T, & Ho C.-T. (2001) "Furanosesquiterpenoids of 

Commiphora myrrha." Abstract. An investigation on the gum exudates of 

Commiphora myrrha has led to the isolation of six sesquiterpenoids. On the basis 

of spectroscopic data interpretation, they were determined as two new 

furanosesquiterpenoids, rel-1S,2S-epoxy-4R-furanogermacr-10(15)-en-6-one (1) 

and rel-2R-methyl-5S-acetoxy-4R-furanogermacr-1(10)Z-en-6-one (2), and four 

known furanosesquiterpenoids, rel-3R-methoxy-4S-furanogermacra-1E,10(15)- 

dien-6-one (3), rel-2R-methoxy-4R-furanogermacr-1(10)E-en-6-one (4), 

furanogermacra-1(10)Z,4Z-dien-6-one, and curzerenone [6,7-dihydro-5βisopropenyl-3,6β-dimethyl-6-vinylbenzofuran-4(5H)-one]. 

This is the first report of 

the relative stereochemistry for the known compounds 3 and 4. Compound 1 

exhibited weak cytotoxic activity against a MCF-7 breast tumor cell line in a 

clonogenic assay, while the other five compounds were inactive in this assay. 

Commiphora myrrha (Nees) Engl. – Properties. 

21

True Myrrh or Somalian Myrrh. 

Abdul-Ghani RA, Loutfy N, Hassan A. (2009) "Myrrh and trematodoses in Egypt: 

an overview of safety, efficacy and effectiveness profiles. Parasitol Int. 58(3), 

210-4. Abstract. Myrrh is an herbal product that has been used since ancient 

ages for traditional medication and other purposes. The revolution of myrrh as an 

antiparasitic agent in Egypt began in the 1990s through scientific evidence-based 

research. The human trematode infections in Egypt were the main focus of 

research with stories of success and disagreement, at times. The present paper 

reviewed the antiparasitary activity of myrrh with stress on its possible mode of 

action, its safety, efficacy and effectiveness on trematode infections in 

experimental studies and clinical trials in Egypt as well as its molluscicidal effects 

on the intermediate hosts of trematodes. 

Bone, K. (2006) "Myrrh: A significant development in the treatment of parasites." 

Townsend Letter for Doctors and Patients 276, 46-54. 

Dolara P., Corte B., Ghelardini C., Pugliese A.M., Cerbai E., Menichetti S., Lo 

Nostro A. (2000) “Local anaesthetic, antibacterial and antifungal properties of 

sesquiterpenes from myrrh. Planta Med 66, 356–358. Abstract. We extracted, 

purified and characterized 8 sesquiterpene fractions from Commyphora molmol. 

In particular, we focused our attention on a mixture of furanodiene-6-one and 

methoxyfuranoguaia-9-ene-8-one, which showed antibacterial and antifungal 

activity against standard pathogenic strains of Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus 

aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Candida albicans, with minimum 

inhibitory concentrations ranging from 0.18 to 2.8 micrograms/ml. These 

compounds also had local anaesthetic activity, blocking the inward sodium 

current of excitable mammalian membranes. 

Dolara P., Luceri C., Ghelardini C., Monserrat C., Aiolli S., Luceri F., Lodovici M., 

Menichetti S. & Romanelli M.N. (1996) "Analgesic effects of myrrh." Nature 

379(6560), 29. 

Lemenih M. & Teketay D. (2003) "Frankincense and myrrh resources of Ethiopia: 

II. Medicinal and industrial uses." SINET: Ethiopian Journal of Science 26(2), 

161-172(12). Abstract. Oleo-gum resins such as frankincense and myrrh are 

some of the economically and culturally valuable products obtained from trees 

and shrubs of the genera Boswellia and Commiphora, respectively. They are 

important natural plant products used in several industries that include 

pharmacology, food, flavour, liqueur and beverage, cosmetics, perfumery and 

others. Moreover, frankincense and myrrh have several local applications in 

medicinal, hygienic, and insecticide areas that could be developed through 

research. They are widely used in traditional medicines of several countries for 

treatments of a wide variety of ailments from embalming to cancer, leprosy, 

bronchitis, diarrhea, dysentery, typhoid, mouth ulcers, inflammatory complaints, 

viral hepatitis, female disorders, infections/wounds, coughs, tumour, and others. 

Although Ethiopia is one of the few countries that are endowed with large 

frankincense and myrrh resources, little proper exploitation of these resources 

22

has been made so far. In this paper a review is presented on pharmacological 

and industrial applications of these valuable resources. The information is 

expected to prompt the enormous economic opportunity that these resources 

could provide both at national and local levels. Concurrently, this opportunity, if 

properly exploited, will contribute significantly towards the conservation and 

management of the vegetation resources that yield frankincense and myrrh as 

well as their ecosystems. 

Lv L., Yan G.-Y., Zhao Y.-L., He X.-J., Jiang X., Zhuo Y.-Q., Wang Y.-L. Wang L. 

& Cen X.-B. (2009) "Investigation of the dermal sensitizing potential of traditional 

medical extracts in local lymph node assays." Experimental Biology and Medicine 

234, 306-313. Abstract. "Traditional medical extracts are commonly used as 

complex mixtures, which may contain naturally occurring contact sensitizers. In 

this investigation, the mice local lymph node assay (LLNA) was performed to 

evaluate the dermal sensitization potential of Myrrh, Borneolum, Olibanum, 

Moschus and Cassia Bark, which are widely used in topical traditional 

medication. In the radioactive LLNA, the stimulation index (SI) values were 

calculated for each medical extract. Myrrh, Borneolum, Olibanum and Moschus 

induced dose-dependent cell proliferation and SI was more than 3. Cassia Bark 

showed no positive response over the range of test concentrations. In the flow 

cytometry analysis, the total number of CD3+, CD4+, and CD8+ cells in local 

lymph nodes was increased in Moschus-, Olibanum-, Myrrh- and Borneolumtreated 

mice. The ratio of the B220+/CD3+ (B/T cell ratio) and the percentage of 

I-Ak+ cells that was also positive for the CD69 marker (I-Ak+/ CD69+) were 

increased in the Moschus-, Olibanum- and Myrrh-treated mice. However, no 

ofbvious change was observed in Borneolum-treated mice. Cassia Bark did not 

induce changes in the lymphocyte subpopulations. These results indicate that 

Moschus, Olibanum and Myrrh can be regarded as sensitizers, and Borneolum 

regarded as an irritant. Cassia Bark is neither a sensitizer nor an irritant. The 

combination of radioactive and flow cytometric LLNA can be used for the 

prediction of sensitizing potential of medical extracts which lead to allergic 

contact dermatitis in humans. " 

Massoud A.M., El Ebiary F.H. & Abd El Salam N.F. (2004). "Effect of myrrh 

extract on the liver of normal and bilharzially infected mice. An ultrastructural 

study." J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 34, 1-21. 

Massoud A.M., Labib I.M. & Rady M (2001). "Biochemical changes of Culex 

pipiens larvae treated with oil and oleo-resin extracts of Myrrh Commiphora 

molmol." J Egypt Soc Parasitol. 31, 517-29. 

Mayer J.G. (2008) “[Gold, frankincense and myrrh]” Dtsch Med Wochenschr. 

133 (51-52):2665-8. 

Mincione E. & Lavarone C. (1972) “ Terpeni dalla Commifera mirra Arabica. Nota 

I.” Chim Ind (Milan) 54, 424–425. 

23

Nomicos E.Y. (2007) "Myrrh: medical marvel or myth of the Magi" Holist Nurs 

Pract. 21(6), 308-23. Abstract. Since antiquity, the genus Commiphora is 

composed of more than 200 species, and has been exploited as a natural drug to 

treat pain, skin infections, inflammatory conditions, diarrhea, and periodontal 

diseases. In more recent history, products derived from Commiphora myrrha and 

various other species of Commiphora are becoming recognized to possess 

significant antiseptic, anesthetic, and antitumor properties. Traditional practice 

and evidence-based research have supported that these properties are directly 

attributable to terpenoids (especially furanosesquiterpenes), the active 

compounds present in myrrh essential oil. More recently, current studies have 

focused on applying clinical trial methodologies to validate its use as an 

antineoplastic, an antiparasitic agent, and as an adjunct in healing wounds. 

Pank F. (2009) "Incense and myrrh - incense between mysticism and medicine." 

Zeitschrift fur Arznet und Gewurzpflanzen 14(4), 145-145. 

Racine P. & Auffray B. (2005) "Quenching of singlet molecular oxygen by 

Commiphora myrrha extracts and menthofuran." Fitoterapia 76(3-4), 316-23. 

Abstract. The quenching activity against singlet oxygen, an actor of lipid 

peroxidation and DNA degradation, of the essential oil and resinoid of 

Commiphora myrrha from Somalia has been studied and compared to DL-alphatocopherol 

using 1,3-diphenylisobenzofuran (DPBF) as a probe. To insure that 

the furan ring was the site of the reaction, experiments were conducted with 

menthofuran. The essential oil and menthofuran show a higher activity than DLalpha-tocopherol, 

suggesting their potential usefulness to neutralise this 

deleterious form of molecular oxygen. 

Saeed M.A. & Sabir A.W. (2004) “Irritant potential of some constituents from 

oleo-gum-resin of Commiphora myrrha.” Fitoterapia 75(1), 81-4. 

Shen T. & Lou HX. (2008) "Bioactive constituents of myrrh and frankincense, two 

simultaneously prescribed gum resins in Chinese traditional medicine." Chem 

Biodivers. 5(4), 540-53. 

Su SL, Duan JA, Tang YP, Zhang X, Yu L, Jiang FR, Zhou W, Luo D, Ding AW 

(2009) "Isolation and biological activities of neomyrrhaol and other terpenes from 

the resin of Commiphora myrrha". Planta Med. 75(4), 351-5. Abstract. A new 

cycloartane-type triterpene named cycloartane-1alpha,2alpha,3beta,25-tetraol 

(neomyrrhaol) (1), along with four known terpenes, sandaracopimaric acid (2), 

abietic acid (3), 2-methoxy-5-acetoxyfruranogermacr-1(10)-en-6-one (4), and 

dehydroabietic acid (5) have been isolated from the resin of COMMIPHORA 

MYRRHA. Their structures were elucidated by means of 1D, 2 D NMR and HRmass 

spectroscopy. Compounds 2-5 are known compounds but not previously 

isolated from the resin of C. Myrrrha. Compounds 4 and 5 exhibited significant 

aromatase inhibiting activity with IC50 values at 0.2 microM and 0.3 microM, 

respectively. As shown in the MTT assay, 2, 3, 4, and 5 had inhibitory effects on 

HUVEC growth with IC50 values of 0.122 microM (2), 0.125 microM (3), 0.069 

microM (5). Compounds 1-5 did not inhibit contraction of the isolated uterine and 

24

did not protect HUVEC from damage induced by H2O2 at the tested 

concentration. 

Tipton D.A., Lyle B., Babich H. & Dabbous M.Kh. (2003) "In vitro cytotoxic and 

anti-inflammatory effects of myrrh oil on human gingival fibroblasts and epithelial 

cells." Toxicol In Vitro. 17(3), 301-10. 

Tucker A.O. (1986) “Frankincense and Myrrh.” Econ Bot 40, 425–433. Abstract. 

While frankincense and myrrh have been harvested from a multitude of species, 

certain species have predominated in history. Boswellia carteri and B. frereana 

are the main sources of frankincense today, while B. papyrifera was the principal 

source of antiquity and B. sacra was the principal species of classical times. 

Commiphora myrrha is the chief source of myrrh today, but C. erythraea was the 

principal source of ancient and classical times. Each of these oleo-gum-resins 

has a characteristic odor that is predominately due to a mixture of complex 

sesquiterpenes. 

Commiphora opobalsamum L. 

syn. Commiphora gileadensis (L.) C. Chr. 

Balm of Gilead or Mecca Balsam. 

Cropwatch comments: Do not confuse with Cedronella canariensis syn. 

Cedronella triphylla, (Canary Balm) native to the Canary Islands and of marketed 

by European plant nurseries as Balm of Gilead, or with exudates or extracts of 

poplar buds (Populus balsamifera Moench). which are also offered as Balm of 

Gilead (but also sold as Tacamahac or Gum Tacamahac, a term previously 

applied to the fragrant resin from Bursera gummifera L.). 

Abbas F. A., Al-massarany S. M., Khan S., Al-howiriny T.A., Mossa J. S. & 

Abourashed E.A. (2007) "Phytochemical and biological studies on Saudi 

Commiphora opobalsamum L." Natural Product Research 21(5).383-391, 

Abdul-Ghani A.S. & Amin R. (1997) “Effect of aqueous extract of Commiphora 

opobalsamum on blood pressure and heart rate in rats.” J Ethnopharmacol 57, 

219–222. Abstract. The cardiovascular effects of aqueous extracts from the 

branches of Commiphora opobalsamum tree were investigated. The intravenous 

administration of 4 mg/kg of the aqueous extract depressed systemic arterial 

blood pressure by 20% (P

(80% ethanol, 0.2 M NaOH and 25% NaCl), hypothermic restraint stress, pyloric 

ligation (Shay) and indomethacin. Balessan, 250 and 500 mg/kg administered 

orally (intraperitoneally in Shay rat model) showed a dose-dependent ulcer 

protective effects in all the above ulcer models. Besides, the extract offered 

protection against ethanol-induced depletion of stomach wall mucus and 

reduction in nonprotein sulfhydryl (NP-SH) concentration. Ethanol treatment also 

caused histopathological lesions of the stomach wall. Pretreatment with Balessan 

extract provided a complete protection of gastric mucosa through supporting both 

the offensive and defensive factors. Balessan extract was also showed a large 

margin of safety without any apparent adverse effects in rats. 

Al-Howiriny T.A., Al-Sohaibani M.O., Al-Said M.S., Al-Yahya M.A., El-Tahir K.H. 

& Rafatullah S. (2004). "Hepatoprotective properties of Commiphora 

opobalsamum ("Balessan"), a traditional medicinal plant of Saudi Arabia." 

Drug.Exp Clin Res 30, 213-20. 

Al-Massarany S.M., Abbas F.A., Demirci B., Baser K.H.C., Khan S.I., Al-Rehaily 

A.J., Mossa J.S. & Abourashed E.A. (2007) "Chemical composition and biological 

evaluation of the essential oil of Commiphora opobalsamum L." Journal of Herbs 

Spices and Medicinal Plants 13(4),111-122. Abstract. The chemical composition 

of three essential oil samples (stored aerial parts, fresh aerial parts, and fresh 

flowering tops) of Commiphora opobalsamum L., obtained by hydrodistillation, 

was determined using GC-MS analysis. The identified constituents represented 

69.5 to 84.4 percent of the total chemical compounds of the three samples. The 

major components were -cadinol in the stored aerial parts, -calacorene in the 

fresh aerial parts, and terpinen-4-ol in the fresh flowering tops. The essential oil 

from the fresh aerial parts exhibited antimicrobial activity against Bacillus subtilis, 

Staphylococcus aureus, Candida glabrata, C. krusei, Cryptococcus neoformans, 

and Mycobacterium intracellulare. The same oil sample was non-selectively 

cytotoxic to four tumor cell lines: SK-MEL, KB, BT549 and SK-OV3. Weak 

antioxidant activity of the oil from the fresh aerial sample was demonstrated in a 

DPPH free-radical scavenging assay. 

Chaudhary & Al Jowaid (1999) Vegetation of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia pub. 

Ministry of Agric. & Water, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia 1999. Cropwatch comments: 

Authors say of C. giladensis ““more valuable than frankincense.” 

Shen T., Yuan H.-Q.,Wan W-Z. , Wang X.-L., Wang X.-N., Ji M. & Lou H.-X. 

(2008) "Cycloartane-Type triterpenoids from the resinous exudates of 

Commiphora opobalsamum." J. Nat. Prod., 71(1), 81–86. Abstract. Eight new 

cycloartane-type triterpenoids, cycloartan-24-ene-1α,2α,3α-triol (1), 3βacetoxycycloartan-24-ene-1α,2α-diol 

(2), 1α-acetoxycycloartan-24-ene-2α,3β-diol 

(3), 3β-isovaleroyloxycycloartan-24-ene-1α,2α-diol (4), cycloartan-24-ene-1α,3βdiol 

(5), cycloartan-23E-ene-1α,2α,3β,25-tetrol (6), and an epimeric mixture of 

24R,25-epoxycycloartane-1α,2α,3β-triol (7) and 24S,25-epoxycycloartane- 

1α,2α,3β-triol (8), together with one known compound, cycloartan-24-ene- 

1α,2α,3β-triol (9), were isolated from the resinous exudates of Commiphora 

opobalsamum. Their structures were established on the basis of mass 

26

spectrometry and multidimensional NMR spectroscopy. The cytotoxicity of 

compounds 1–9 was evaluated against the PC3 and DU145 human prostate 

tumor cell lines. All of the compounds except 1 and 5 exhibited moderate 

cytotoxicity against PC3 or DU145 cells with IC50 values ranging from 10.1 to 

37.2 µM. 

Shen T., Wan W.-Z., Wang X.-N., Sun L.-M., Yuan H.-Q., Wang X.-L., Ji M., & 

Lou H.-X. (2008) "Sesquiterpenoids from the resinous exudates of Commiphora 

opobalsamum (Burseraceae)." Helvetica Chimica Acta 91(5), 881-887. 

Shen T., Wan W., Yuan H., Kong F., Guo H., Fan P. & Lou H. (2007) "Secondary 

metabolites from Commiphora opobalsamum and their antiproliferative effect on 

human prostate cancer cells." Phytochemistry 68(9),1331-1337. Abstract. A 

cycloartane-type triterpenoid (1), an aliphatic alcohol glycoside (2), an 

eudesmane-type sesquiterpenoid (3), and a guaiane-type sesquiterpenoid (4) 

were isolated from the resinous exudates of Commiphora opobalsamum along 

with six known sesquiterpenoids (5–10). Their structures were established by 

extensive analysis of their 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic data and chemical 

methods. The isolated compounds 1–3 and 5–9 were tested against human 

prostate cancer cell PC 3 and LNCaP. Among them, 1 and 2 showed moderate 

antiproliferative effects on human prostate cancer cell lines with IC50 values 

ranging from 5.7 to 23.6 µM; they were also able to inhibit the expression of 

androgen receptor (AR) in LNCaP cells. The six sesquiterpenoids were inactive 

in the bioassays. 

Commiphora pseudopaoli JB Gillet 

syn. Commiphora paolii Chiov. 

Cropwatch comments: Source of opoponax (Gachathi 1997). 




htm 

Commiphora schimperi (Berg.) Engl. 

syn. Commiphora buraensis. 

Cropwatch comments: Source of “myrrh-like resin” (Gachathi 1997); Frequent 

adulterant of gum myrrh - Dekebo et al. (2002). 

Dekebo A., Dagne E. & Sterner O. (2002) “Furanosesquiterpenes from 

Commiphora sphaerocarpa and related adulterants of true myrrh.” Fitoterapia – 

Milano 73(1), 48-55. 




htm 

27

Paraskeva M.P., van Vuuren S.F., van Zyl R.L., Davids H. & Viljoen A.M. (2008) 

"The in vitro biological activity of selected South African Commiphora species." J 

Ethnopharmacol. 119(3),673-9. Abstract. Ten South African Commiphora 

(Burseraceae) species were investigated to validate their use in traditional 

healing rites. The leaf and stem extracts of each species were analysed for the 

anti-oxidant (ABTS and DPPH assays), antimicrobial (MIC and death kinetic 

assays), anti-inflammatory (5-LOX assay), anticancer (SRB assay) properties, as 

well as the cytotoxic effects (tetrazolium-based assay). The best anti-oxidant 

activity (ABTS assay) was observed for the stem extracts of Commiphora 

tenuipetiolata IC(50)=5.10 microg/ml), Commiphora neglecta (IC(50)=7.28 

microg/ml) and Commiphora mollis (IC(50)=8.82 microg/ml). Extracts generally 

exhibited poor anti-oxidant activity in the DPPH assay, with the exception of 

Commiphora schimperi (stem), Commiphora neglecta (stem), Commiphora 

tenuipetiolata (stem and leaf), and Commiphora edulis (stem), with IC(50) values 

ranging between 7.31 and 10.81 microg/ml. The stem extracts exhibited 

moderate to good 5-LOX inhibitory activity with Commiphora pyracanthoides 

(stem) displaying the greatest inhibitory effect (IC(50)=27.86+/-4.45 microg/ml). 

For the antimicrobial (MIC) assay, a greater selectivity was exhibited by the 

extracts against the Gram-positive bacteria (0.01-8.00 mg/ml) and the yeasts 

(0.25-8.00 mg/ml) than against the Gram-negative bacteria (1.00-8.00 mg/ml). 

Using death kinetic studies (time-kill studies), the rate at which Commiphora 

marlothii (stem) kills Staphylococcus aureus over a 24h period was determined. 

Mostly, a concentration-dependent antibacterial activity was observed beginning 

after ca. 30 min. All concentrations exhibited antibacterial activity, with complete 

bactericidal effect achieved by the 24(th) hour. The most active Commiphora 

species against the HT-29 cells (SRB anticancer assay) were Commiphora 

glandulosa (leaf and stem) and Commiphora marlothii (leaf). The MCF-7 cells 

(SRB anticancer assay) exhibited the highest sensitivity to indigenous 

Commiphora species, with Commiphora edulis (leaf and stem), Commiphora 

glandulosa (leaf and stem), Commiphora marlothii (leaf), Commiphora 

pyracanthoides (leaf and stem), Commiphora schimperi (stem), and Commiphora 

viminea (stem) all possessing a percentage inhibition greater than 80% at 100 

microg/ml. Commiphora glandulosa (leaf and stem) and Commiphora 

pyracanthoides (leaf and stem) were the two most active species against the SF- 

268 cells (SRB anticancer assay), with IC(50) values ranging between 68.55+/- 

2.01 and 71.45+/-1.24 microg/ml. The majority of the Commiphora extracts were 

largely non-cytotoxic against Graham human kidney epithelial cells when 

investigated in the MTT assay. 

Commiphora sphaerocarpa Chiov. Chiovenda. 

Dekebo A., Dagne E. & Sterner O. (2002) "Furanosesquiterpenes from 

Commiphora sphaerocarpa and related adulterants of true myrrh." Fitoterapia 

73(1),48-55. Abstract. A new furanosesquiterpene, (1E)-8,12-epoxygermacra- 

1,7,10,11-tetraen-6-one (3), was isolated from the resin of Commiphora 

sphaerocarpa together with the known compounds curzerenone (1), 

furanodienone (2), (1E)-3-methoxy-8,12-epoxygermacra-1,7,10,11-tetraen-6-one 

28

(4), (1(10)E,2R*,4R*)-2-methoxy-8,12-epoxygermacra-(10),7,11-trien-6-one (5), 

and dihydropyrocurzerenone (6). Hydrodistillates of the resins of C. 

sphaerocarpa, C. holtziana, C. kataf and C. myrrha were analysed. The 

identifications were aided by NMR, GC and GC-MS. 

Dekebo A., Dagne E., Hansen L.K. Gautun O.R. & Aasen A.J. (2000) "Crystal 

structures of two furanosesquiterpenes from Commiphora sphaerocarpa" 

Tetrahedron Letters 41(50), 9875-9878. Abstract. The relative stereochemistry of 

a furanosesquiterpene, reported previously from myrrh, but isolated here from 

Commiphora sphaerocarpa is determined for the first time as (1(10)E,2R*,4R*)-2- 

methoxy-8,12-epoxygermacra-1(10),7,11-trien-6-one. Likewise the 

stereochemistry of furanodienone was established by NMR and X-ray 

crystallography as (1(10)E,4E)-8,12-epoxygermacra-1(10),4,7,11-tetraen-6-one 

Commiphora tenuis K. Vollesen. 

Asres K., Tei A., Moges G., Sporer F. & Wink M. (1998). "Terpenoids 

composition of the wound – induced bark exudate of Commiphora tenuis from 

Ethiopia.” Planta Med. 64, 437-475. Abstract. The bark of Commiphora tenuis 

Vollensen exudes a translucent, free-flowing odoriferous liquid upon wounding 

which was analysed by capillary GLC and GLC-MS. 42 mono- and 

sesquiterpenes were detected and 37 identified. The main components of the 

monoterpenoid fraction were alpha-pinene (60.8%), beta-pinene (8.8%), 

sabinene (6.3%), alpha-thujene (8.9%), limonene (5.5%), 3-carene (3.7%), betamyrcene 

(1.8%), and beta-elemene (1.1%) constituting 97% of the oil. Identified 

sesquiterpenoid components constituted approximately 1.6% of the oil. Oleanolic 

acid acetate was isolated and identified as the main triterpene from the resin by 

1H- and 13C-NMR. Three other triterpenes of the olean-12-ene group were also 

detected using GC-MS. The essential oil exhibited antibacterial activities against 

Staphylococcus aureus. Proteus mirabilis and E. coli with MIC between 0.5 and 

1%. 

Commiphora wightii Arnott. 

syn. Commiphora. mukul (Hook ex Stocks) 

Guggal or Indian Bdellium 

Bai S. & Jain M. (2008) "1H and 13C assignments of five cembrenes from 

guggul." Magn Reson Chem. 46(8), 791-3. Abstract. Chemical shift assignments 

of (1)H and (13)C of five cembrene compounds isolated from the hexane extract 

of guggul, the resin of Commiphora mukul, are reported. Using (1)H, (13)C, and 

2D NMR methods their structures were determined as cembrene (1-isopropyl- 

4,8,12-trimethyl-cyclotetradeca-2,4,7,11-tetraene), cembrene A (1-isopropenyl- 

4,8,12-trimethyl-cyclotetradeca-4,8,12-triene), cembrenol (1-isopropyl-4,8,12- 

trimethyl-cyclotetradeca-3,7,11-trienol), mukulol (1-isopropyl-4,8,12-trimethylcyclotetradeca-3,7,11-trienol), 

and verticillol (4,8,12,15,15-pentamethylbicyclo[9.3.1]pentadeca-3,7-dien-12-ol). 

29

Bhatt J.R., Nair M.N.B. & Ram H.Y.M. (1989) "Enhancement of oleo-gum resin 

production in Commiphora wightii by improved tapping technique." Current 

Science 58(7), 349-357. 

Coulter J. (1987) Market study for frankincense and myrrh from Somalia 

(unpubl). Study undertaken for the European Association for Cooperation. 

Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute. 

Fatope M.O. et al. (2003) "Muscanone: a 3-O-(1", 8", 14"- 

trimethylhexadecanyl)naringenin from Commiphora wightii." Phytochemistry 

62(8),1251-1255. Abstract. A new antifungal flavanone, muscanone (1), was 

isolated along with known naringenin (2) from Commiphora wightii (Arn.) 

Bhandari (Burseraceae) by directing the fractionation of an EtOH extract of the 

air-dried trunk of C. wightii with microbial sensitivity assay. The structures of 1 

and 2 were determined from EIMS, HREIMS, DEPT, 1H–1H COSY, HSQC and 

HMBC spectral data. Muscanone (1) was identified as 3-O-(1″, 8″,14″- 

trimethylhexadecanyl)naringenin and was found to be active against Candida 

albicans. The isolation, structure elucidation, NMR spectral assignments, and 

bioactivities of 1 and 2 are reported. 

Haque I, Bandopadhyay R, Mukhopadhyay K.(2010) “Population genetic 

structure of the endangered and endemic medicinal plant Commiphora wightii.” 

Mol Biol Rep. 37(2), 847-54 Abstract. Commiphora wightii is a medicinally 

important endangered species endemic to the Thar Desert of Rajasthan, India 

and adjoining areas of Pakistan. The populations of this species are declining 

sharply because of its extensive use as a natural herb. Random amplified 

polymorphic DNA analysis was conducted to find the genetic variation among 7 

populations of C. wightii. Of the 100 random primers screened, 44 primers 

yielded 220 loci. Statistical analysis indicated low genetic diversity (H (pop) = 

0.0958; I = 0.1498; mean polymorphic loci = 14.28%), and high genetic 

differentiation among the populations (G (ST) = 0.3990; AMOVA Phi (ST) of 

0.3390; Bayesian theta ((II)) = 0.3002). The low genetic diversity may be due to 

geographic isolation and restricted gene flow (N (m) = 0.7533) between the 

fragmented populations. Unsustainable utilization of the plant has fragmented the 

population continuum which served the purpose of genetic exchange between 

populations. Mantel's test was performed which revealed a highly significant 

positive correlation between genetic and geographic distance (r (2) = 0.614, P = 

0.023) among the populations studied. Low variation can also be attributed to 

poor seed setting and the slow growth pattern of the species, which is also an 

apomict. In UPGMA dendrogram the Commiphora wightii samples were divided 

into two major and one minor cluster. These findings can serve as a guide to 

preserving the genetic resources of this medicinal plant species. 

Meselhy M.R. (2003) "Inhibition of LPS-induced NO production by the oleogum 

resin of Commiphora wightii and its constituents." Phytochemistry 62(2), 213-218 

Abstract. Three new (1–3) and five known compounds (4–8) were isolated from 

the oleogum resin of Commiphora wightii (Arnott.) Bhanol. Their structures were 

elucidated by spectroscopic and chemical methods. The MeOH extract and the 

30

EtOAc-sol. fraction were found to demonstrate significant inhibition of NO 

formation in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated murine macrophages J774.1 in 

vitro (IC50 values of 16.4 and 12.8 µg/ml, respectively). When compared with 

curcumin (IC50 value of 12.3 µM), Z- and E-Guggulsterones (4 and 5, 

respectively) were the most potent inhibitors of NO production (IC50 values of 

1.1 and 3.3 µM, respectively), followed by myrrhanol A (7) and myrrhanone A (8) 

(IC50 values of 21.1 and 42.3 µM, respectively). Guggulsterone-M (1) and its 

didehydro derivative (2) were weak inhibitors, while guggulsterols I (6) and Y (3) 

were inactive (IC50 >500 µM). 

Raut A.A., Sunder S., Sarkar S., Pandita N.S. & Vaidya A.D. (2008) "Preliminary 

study on crystal dissolution activity of Rotula aquatica, Commiphora wightii and 

Boerhaavia diffusa extracts." Fitotherapia 79(7-8), 544-7. Abstract. Several 

Ayurvedic plants are known to have activity against diverse urinary crystals. The 

traditional knowledge of Ayurveda, collective clinical experience in arthritis and 

the earlier experimental studies on urinary crystals led to the selection of three 

plants, viz. Rotula aquatica, Commiphora wightii Bhandari syn. C.mukul. and 

Boerhaavia diffusa for screening anticrystal activity against basic calcium 

phosphate (BCP), calcium pyrophosphate (CPPD) and monosodium urate 

monohydrate (MSUM). The effects of each plant were assayed on microcrystals 

in 24-well microplates in vitro. Our results show that the aqueous extracts of only 

R. aquatica and C. wightii have shown crystal dissolving activity against MSUM. 

Salavert M, Amarger S, Le Bouedec MC, Roger H, Souteyrand P, D'incan M. 

(2007) "Allergic contact dermatitis to guggul in a slimming cream." Contact 

Dermatitis. 56(5), 286-7. 

Satyavati G.V. (1991) Guggulipid: A promising hypolipidaemic agent from gum 

guggul (Commiphora wightii). Economic and Medicinal Plant Research, 5. Plants 

and Traditional Medicine, 47–82. 

Satyavati G.V. (1988) "Gum guggul (Commiphora mukul)-the success story of an 

ancient insight leading to a modern discovery." Indian J Med Res. 87,327-35. 

Shishodia S, Harikumar K.B., Dass S, Ramawat K.G., Aggarwal B.B.. (2008) 

"The guggul for chronic diseases: ancient medicine, modern targets." Anticancer 

Res. 28(6A),3647-64. Abstract. Identfication of active principles and their 

molecular targets from traditional medicine is an enormous opportunity for 

modern drug development. Gum resin from Commiphora wightii (syn C. mukul) 

has been used for centuries in Ayurveda to treat internal tumors, obesity, liver 

disorders, malignant sores and ulcers, urinary complaints, intestinal worms, 

leucoderma (vitiligo), sinuses, edema and sudden paralytic seizures. 

Guggulsterone has been identified as one of the major active components of this 

gum resin. This steroid has been shown to bind to the farnesoid X receptor and 

modulate expression of proteins with antiapoptotic (IAP1, XIAP, Bfl-1/A1, Bcl-2, 

cFLIP, survivin), cell survival, cell proliferation (cyclin D1, c-Myc), angiogenic, 

and metastatic (MMP-9, COX-2, VEGF) activities in tumor cells. Guggulsterone 

mediates gene expression through regulation of various transcription factors, 

31

including NF-kappaB, STAT-3 and C/EBPalpha, and various steroid receptors 

such as androgen receptor and glucocorticoid receptors. Modulation of gene 

expression by guggulsterone leads to inhibition of cell proliferation, induction of 

apoptosis, suppression of invasion and abrogation of angiogenesis. Evidence 

has been presented to suggest that guggulsterone can suppress tumor initiation, 

promotion and metastasis. This review describes the identification of molecular 

targets of guggulsterone, cellular responses to guggulsterone, and animal 

studies and clinical trials of guggulsterone in cancer and other diseases. 

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Myrrh & Related Commiphora - Cropwatch

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