democratic republic of congo: biodiversity and tropical forestry ...

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF CONGO: 

BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL 

FORESTRY ASSESSMENT (118/119) 

FINAL REPORT 

JANUARY 2010 

This publication was produced for review by the United States Agency for International 

Development. It was prepared by DAI.

DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC OF 

CONGO: BIODIVERSITY AND 

TROPICAL FORESTRY ASSESSMENT 

(118/119) 

FINAL REPORT 

Program Title: 

Sponsoring USAID Office: 

Contract Number: 

Contractor: 

Prosperity, Livelihoods and Conserving Ecosystems Indefinite Quantity 

Contract (PLACE IQC) 

USAID/Democratic Republic of the Congo 

Task Order EPP-I-03-06-00021-00 

DAI 

Date of Publication: January 2010 

Authors: 

James R. Seyler 

Duncan Thomas 

Nicolas Mwanza 

Augustin Mpoyi 

Cover Photo: Community Green Turtle Rescue at Mwanda, Bas Congo, 

Photo: DAI 

The authors’ views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect the views of the United 

States Agency for International Development or the United States Government.

CONTENTS 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS .................................................................... VII 

ABBREVIATIONS .............................................................................. IX 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY .................................................................. XV 

1. INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 1 

2. COUNTRY CONTEXT ............................................................. 3 

2.1 DRC’S ECONOMY .......................................................... 3 

2.2 NATURAL RESOURCES AND THE ECONOMY .................... 4 

3. CURRENT STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY, TROPICAL 

FORESTS, RIVER BASINS AND KEY WATERSHEDS ......... 7 

4. MAJOR ECOSYSTEM TYPES OR ECOREGIONS .............. 13 

4.1 WESTERN DRC ........................................................... 14 

4.2 THE MOIST FOREST ..................................................... 15 

4.3 SOUTHERN DRY FOREST (CENTRAL ZAMBEZIAN 

MIOMBO WOODLANDS, INCLUDING SMALLER AREAS 

OF OTHER ECOREGIONS) ............................................. 19 

4.4 NORTHERN CONGOLIAN FOREST-SAVANNA MOSAIC .... 20 

4.5 SOUTHERN CONGOLIAN FOREST-SAVANNA MOSAIC 

AND THE KASAI AQUATIC ECOREGION .......................... 21 

4.6 EASTERN MOUNTAINS.................................................. 21 

4.7 RIFT VALLEY LAKES ON THE NILE AND CONGO ............ 23 

5. NATURAL AREAS OF CRITICAL IMPORTANCE ............... 27 

5.1 ENVIRONMENTAL AND NONCOMMERCIAL SERVICES OF 

NATURAL AREAS ......................................................... 29 

5.1.1 Forest Ecosystems ......................................... 29 

5.1.2 Aquatic Ecosystems ....................................... 30 

5.2 LAND TENURE ARRANGEMENTS AND CONSERVATION ... 34 

DRC: BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FORESTRY ASSESSMENT 

i

6. STATUS AND MANAGEMENT PROTECTED AREAS IN 

THE DRC ............................................................................... 39 

6.1 PARKS AND WILDLIFE/NATURE RESERVES .................. 39 

6.1.1 The On-Going Process of Protected Area 

Creation in DRC ............................................. 39 

6.1.2 Hunting Reserves ........................................... 39 

6.1.3 Reserves for Scientific Research ................... 40 

6.2 PROTECTED AREA STAFFING ....................................... 44 

6.3 MAJOR THREATS AND CHALLENGES FACING 

PROTECTED AREAS ..................................................... 45 

6.4 CONSERVATION OUTSIDE THE PROTECTED AREA 

SYSTEM ....................................................................... 45 

7. THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES .................. 47 

7.1 MAMMALS ................................................................... 47 

7.2 HERPETOFAUNA .......................................................... 49 

7.3 BIRDS .......................................................................... 50 

7.4 FISH ............................................................................ 52 

7.5 ARTHROPODA .............................................................. 52 

7.6 MOLLUSCS .................................................................. 53 

7.7 PLANTS ....................................................................... 54 

8. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL 

FORESTS .............................................................................. 57 

8.1 UNDERLYING CAUSES .................................................. 57 

8.2 DIRECT THREATS ......................................................... 59 

8.2.1 Agriculture Expansion ..................................... 59 

8.2.2 Illegal Logging ................................................ 61 

8.2.3 The Bushmeat Trade ...................................... 62 

8.2.4 Mining ............................................................. 64 

8.2.5 Fuelwood ....................................................... 69 

8.2.6 Illegal Trade in Endangered Species .............. 70 

8.2.7 Road Construction .......................................... 71 

8.2.8 Diseases ........................................................ 71 

8.2.9 Alien Invasive Species ................................... 71 

8.2.10 Bushfires ....................................................... 72 

8.2.11 Threats to Aquatic Biodiversity ..................... 73 

8.3 INDIRECT THREATS ...................................................... 74 

8.3.1 Climate Change Impact .................................. 74 

8.3.2 Displaced Populations and Conflicts .............. 75 

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DRC: BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FORESTRY ASSESSMENT

9. CURRENT CONSERVATION EFFORTS—SCOPE AND 

EFFECTIVENESS ................................................................. 77 

9.1 BILATERAL AND MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS ......... 77 

9.2 UNIVERSITIES AND RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS ................ 78 

9.3 INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL 

ORGANIZATIONS .......................................................... 81 

9.3.1 International NGOs and Organizations ........... 81 

9.3.2 Other USG Support ........................................ 86 

9.3.3 National NGOs ............................................... 87 

9.4 GOVERNMENT OF DRC INSTITUTIONS ........................... 89 

9.4.1 Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation 

and Tourism ................................................... 90 

9.4.2 Congolese Institute for Nature Conservation .. 91 

9.4.3 Department in Charge of the Protection 

of the Mining Environment, Directorate of 

Mines, Ministry of Mines ................................. 96 

9.4.4 National Service for Development of 

Fisheries ......................................................... 96 

9.5 CROSS CUTTING INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES ....................... 97 

9.5.1 Weak Control and Law Enforcement .............. 97 

9.5.2 Coordination across Government Institutions . 98 

9.5.3 Coordination between International NGOs 

and Government ............................................. 98 

9.5.4 Information and Data Collection ..................... 98 

9.5.5 Overlapping Mandates ................................... 99 

10. LEGISLATION RELATED TO THE ENVIRONMENT AND 

BIODIVERSITY .................................................................... 101 

10.1 FOREST CODE ........................................................... 101 

10.2 MINING CODE ............................................................ 103 

10.3 FISHERIES LEGISLATION ............................................ 105 

10.4 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION LEGISLATION .............. 106 

10.5 ENVIRONMENTAL LAW ............................................... 107 

10.6 POLICY/LEGISLATIVE ISSUES AFFECTING THE 

GOVERNMENT’S CAPACITY TO ADDRESS 

THREATS TO TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY . 108 

10.6.1 Cross Cutting .............................................. 108 

10.6.2 Sector Specific ............................................ 109 

10.7 INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS ........... 114 


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11. COMMERCIAL AND PRIVATE SECTOR 

CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES ........................................... 121 

11.1 THE CONGO BASIN FOREST PARTNERSHIP ................. 121 

11.2 PRIVATE GAME RANCHES AND ZOOS ......................... 121 

11.3 LOGGING CONCESSIONS ............................................ 121 

11.4 TENKE FUNGURUME MINING ...................................... 122 

12. ASSESSMENT OF USAID/DRC’S BILATERAL AND 

REGIONAL PROGRAMS AND STRATEGY ...................... 123 

12.1 STRATEGIC APPROACH AND PRIORITIES .................... 123 

12.1.1 Goal 1: Peace and Security— 

Increase Stability in the DRC ....................... 123 

12.1.2 Goal 2: Governing Justly and Democratically 

—Strengthen Core Governance Capacity .... 124 

12.1.3 Goal 3: Economic Growth— 

Promote Economic Growth with Emphasis 

on Poverty Reduction and Environmental 

Sustainability ................................................ 125 

12.1.4 Goal 4: Health— 

Improve the Basic Health Conditions of the 

Congolese People ........................................ 127 

12.1.5 Goal 5: Education— 

Improve Access to Quality Education at 

all Levels of Schooling .................................. 128 

12.2 USAID/DRC’S COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE ............... 129 

12.3 RECOMMENDATIONS .................................................. 130 

12.3.1 Priorities in the Short Term ......................... 131 

12.3.2 Recommended Medium-Term and 

Longer-Term Interventions ........................... 135 

ANNEX A: SCOPE OF WORK ....................................................... 139 

ANNEX B: PERSONS CONTACTED ............................................. 145 

ANNEX C: DOCUMENTS REVIEWED AND REFERENCED ........ 149 

ANNEX D: PAST AND CURRENT DONOR SUPPORT ................. 159 

ANNEX E: STAFFING PATTERN FOR ALL PROTECTED 

AREAS BY LABOR CATEGORY ................................................... 171 

ANNEX F: PUBLISHED FOREST CODE IMPLEMENTING 

DECREES ....................................................................................... 171 

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TABLES AND FIGURES 

TABLE 

1 Comparison of Inside and Outside Protected Areas Forest Loss for the Period 

1990–2000 ..................................................................................................................... 9 

2 Elephant Population Trends for Selected Protected Areas .......................................... 16 

3 Growing Stock, Biomass, and Carbon Biomass in the Congo Basin ........................... 29 

4 Estimated Orders of Magnitude of the Economic Value of Annual Flows of 

Forest and Services in the DRC ................................................................................... 30 

5 Protected Areas in the DRC ......................................................................................... 40 

6 Staffing Patterns for Selected National Parks and Reserves ....................................... 44 

7 Threatened and Endangered Mammals ....................................................................... 48 

8 Threatened and Endangered Herpetofauna................................................................. 49 

9 Threatened and Endangered Birds .............................................................................. 50 

10 Threatened and Endangered Fish................................................................................ 52 

11 Threatened and Endangered Arthropoda..................................................................... 53 

12 Threatened and Endangered Molluscs ........................................................................ 53 

13 Threatened and Endangered Plant Species ................................................................ 54 

14 2007 University Enrollment Figures ............................................................................. 78 

15 International Conservation NGOS ................................................................................ 81 

16 Advocacy NGOs ........................................................................................................... 85 

17 Other USG Activities and Programs ............................................................................. 86 

18 National Nongovernmental Organizations .................................................................... 88 

19 ICCN Headquarters Staffing by Employment Category ............................................... 92 

20 DRC’S Particpation In International Treaties and Conventions .................................. 116 

FIGURE 

1 Forest Change in the DRC 1990–2000 ........................................................................ 11 

2 Moist Forest Area Along a River in Central DRC ......................................................... 16 

3 The 12 CARPE Landscapes ........................................................................................ 18 


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4 A Block of Miombo Dry Forest ...................................................................................... 19 

5 Savanna/Gallery Forest Mosaic in the Garamba Area, Northeast DRC ...................... 20 

6 Ecosystem Regions in the DRC ................................................................................... 25 

7 Results of a National Strategic Evaluation of Biodiversity in the DRC ......................... 28 

8 Wetland Priority Areas for the DRC .............................................................................. 31 

9 Mangrove National Park ............................................................................................... 32 

10 Ecosystems Research Laboratory at Luki .................................................................... 40 

11 Major Protected Areas in the DRC ............................................................................... 42 

12 Shifting Cultivation in Western DRC ............................................................................. 60 

13 Palm Civet for Sale in Bas Congo ................................................................................ 62 

14 The Landscape at Kundulungu National Park in Katanga ............................................ 63 

15 Overlap Between Mineral Reserves and DRC’s Tropical Forests, 

Miombo Woodlands and the Protected Area Network ................................................. 65 

16 Old Gecamines Site Near Lubumbashi ........................................................................ 66 

17 Geographic Distribution of Protected Areas, Mining Permits, and Forest Titles 

in the DRC .................................................................................................................... 67 

18 Cassiterite Mining in Eastern DRC ............................................................................... 68 

19 Impact of Cutting for Fuelwood Around Lubumbashi ................................................... 69 

20 Road Construction in Central Africa’s Tropical Moist Forest ........................................ 70 

21 Bushfires in the Congo Basin 2009 .............................................................................. 73 

22 Over-Exploitation of Oysters Near Mangrove National Park ........................................ 73 

23 ICCN Organigram—Kinshasa ...................................................................................... 93 

24 ICCN Generic Site Organigram .................................................................................... 94 

25 The Guard Detachment in Kundulungu National Park ................................................. 97 

26 Faroa Malaissei—Known Only to Occur on Copper/Cobalt Outcroppings at 

Two Localities – Luita and Fungurume Mines ............................................................ 122 

27 Artificial Habitat Established at Fungurume ............................................................... 122 

vi 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) Biodiversity and Tropical Forestry Assessment Team is 

very grateful for the assistance provided by Jeff Bryan, Program Officer, USAID/DRC, Tim Resch, 

Environmental Advisor in USAID’s Bureau for Africa, Office of Sustainable Development, Pierre 

Méthot, World Resources Institute, and Mr. Kalambayi wa Kabongo, General Secretary, Ministry of 

Environment, Nature Conservation and Tourism. The Team would also like to extend a particular vote of 

thanks to the DRC Building Recovery and Reform through Democratic Governance Project staff, 

particularly Toby Vaughn and Wivine Bozeme, who went above and beyond the call of duty in 

facilitating the Team’s logistics and well being in Kinshasa and up country. Finally, the Team would also 

like to extend their appreciation to the many resource persons, technical specialists and organizational 

representatives who agreed to meet with the team in the DRC and who provided both information and 

documentation and simulating discussion on a wide variety of environment and natural resource issues. 

For a complete list, please see Annex B of this report. 


vii

ABBREVIATIONS 

ADB 

ADIE 

AEWA 

AFLEG 

APF 

ASBL 

ASL 

ATIBT 

AWF 

BAK 

BTC 

CAF 

CARPE 

CAS 

CBD 

CBFP 

CCAA 

CDM 

CEFDHAC 

CI 

CIDA 

CIFOR 

CITES 

CNONGD 

CoCoCongo 

CoCoSi 

CODELT 

CoFCCA 

COMIFAC 

CREF 

CRON 

African Development Bank 

Agence pour le Développement de l’Information Environnementale 

Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds 

Africa Forest Law Enforcement and Governance 

African Parks Foundation 

Associations Sans But Lucratif 

Above Sea Level 

Association Technique Internationale des Bois Tropicaux 

African Wildlife Foundation 

Nouvelles Approches/Biodiversity in Katanga 

Belgian Development Cooperation 

Country Assistance Framework 

Central African Regional Program for the Environment 

Country Assistance Strategy 

Convention on Biological Diversity 

Congo Basin Forest Partnership 

Climate Change Adaptation for Africa 

Clean Development Mechanism 

Conférence sur les Ecosystèmes de Forêts Denses et Humides 

d’Afrique Centrale 

Conservation International 

Canadian International Development Agency 

Center for International Forest Research 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species 

Conseil National des ONG de Développement 

Coalition pour la Conservation au Congo 

Comité pour la Coordination du Site 

Conseil pour la Défense Environnementale pour la Légalité et la Traçabilité 

Congo Basin Forests and Climate Change Adaptation 

Commission des Ministères des Forêts d’Afrique Centrale 

Centre de Recherche en Ecologie et Foresterie 

Coalition des Réseaux des ONGs de l’Environnement 


ix

CRSN 

DFGF 

DfID 

DRC 

EC 

ECOFAC 

EGAT 

EIS 

EITI 

ENGAGE 

ERAIFT 

ERGS 

ESMP 

ETOA 

EU 

FAA 

FAO 

FFI 

FIB 

FLEGT 

FORAC 

FSC 

FZS 

GDA 

GDP 

GDRC 

GEF 

GIC 

GIS 

GJD 

GNP 

GRASP 

GTF 

Centre de Recherche en Sciences Naturelles 

Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund 

Department for International Development 

Democratic Republic of Congo 

European Commission 

Conservation et Utilisation Rationnelle des Ecosystèmes Forestiers en 

Afrique Central 

Bureau for Economic Growth, Agriculture, and Trade 

Environmental Impact Study 

Extractive Industries Transparency Initiative 

Encouraging Global Anticorruption and Good Governance Efforts 

Ecole Régionale d’Aménagement Intégré des Forêts Tropicales 

Environmental Resources Management and Global Security 

Environmental and Social Management Plan 

Environmental Threats and Opportunities Analysis 

European Union 

Foreign Assistance Act 

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 

Fauna and Flora International 

Fédération des Industries du Bois 

Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade 

Observatoire des forêts d’Afrique Centrale 

Forest Stewardship Council 

Frankfurt Zoological Society 

Global Development Alliance 

Gross domestic product 

Government of the Democratic Republic of Congo 

Global Environment Facility 

Gillman International Conservation 

Geographic information system 

Governing Justly and Democratically 

Garamba National Park 

Great Apes Survival Project Partnership 

Groupe de Travail Forets 

x 


GTZ 

HIPC 

ICCN 

IDA 

IDRC 

IFIA 

IMF 

INERA 

INRB 

IQC 

IRF 

ISAV 

ISDR 

ISEA 

ISP 

IST 

ISTA 

IRI 

IUCN 

JGI 

KBNP 

KfW 

KNP 

LINAPYCO 

M&E 

MDG 

MENCT 

MIKE 

MLS 

MONUC 

MPI 

MRP 

MZS 

NGO 

Gesellschaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit (German Technical 

Cooperation) 

Heavily Indebted Poor Countries 

Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature 

International Development Association 

International Development Research Center 

Inter-African Association of Forest Industries 

International Monetary Fund 

Institut National de Recherche Agronomique 

Institut National de Recherche Biomédicale 

Indefinite Quantity Contract 

International Rhino Fund 

Institut Supérieure Agro Vétérinaire 

Institut Supérieurs de Développement Rural 

Institut d’Etudes Agronomiques 

Instituts Supérieurs Pédagogiques 

Institut Supérieurs Techniques 

Institut Supérieur des Techniques Appliqués 

Interactive Radio Instruction 

International Union for the Conservation of Nature 

Jane Goodall Institute 

Kahuzi-Biega National Park 

German Bank for Development 

Kundelungu National Park 

La Ligue Nationale des Associations Autochtones Pygmées du Congo 

Monitoring and Evaluation 

Millennium Development Goals 

Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Tourism 

Monitoring of Illegal Killing of Elephants 

Multilateral System 

Mission des Nations Unies au Congo (United Nations Mission in Congo) 

Max Planck Institute 

Mitigation and Rehabilitation Plan 

Milwaukee Zoological Society 

Nongovernmental organization 


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NP 

NRM 

NSNC 

OAB 

OCEAN 

OFR 

OSFAC 

PNFoCo 

PNV 

PRSP 

RAPAC 

RAPY 

REAFOR 

REDD 

REFADD 

REPEC 

RFUK 

ROCFAD 

R-PIN 

RRN 

RS 

SARW 

SENADEP 

SGS 

SIDA 

SPIAF 

SYGIAP 

TFCA 

TFM 

TNC 

TRIPS 

UK 

ULPGL 

UNDP 

National Park 

Natural Resource Management 

National Strategy for Nature Conservation 

Organisation Africaine du Bois 

Organisation Concertée des Ecologistes et Amis de la Nature 

Okapi Faunal Reserve 

Observatoire Satellital des Forêts d’Afrique Centrale 

Programme National Forêt et Conservation 

Parc National de Virunga 

Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper 

Réseau des Aires Protégées en Afrique Centrale 

Réseau des Associations Autochtones Pygmées 

Program for Relaunching Agricultural and Forest Research in the DRC 

Reducing Emissions from Degradation and Deforestation 

Réseau Femmes Africaines pour le Développement Durable 

Réseau des Partenaires pour l’Environnement au Congo 

Rainforest Foundation UK 

Réseau des Organisations Communautaires Francophones 

d’Appui au Développement Local 

Readiness Plan Idea Note 

Réseau Ressources Naturelles 

Remote sensing 

South African Resource Watch 

Service National pour le Développement des Pêches 

Société Générale de Surveillance 

Sweden International Development Agency 

Service Permanent d’Inventaire et d’Aménagement Forestier 

Système de Gestion d’Information sur les Aires Protégées 

Tropical Forest Conservation Act 

Tenke Fungurume Mining 

The Nature Conservancy 

Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights 

United Kingdom 

Université Libre des Pays des Grands Lacs 

United Nations Development Program 

xii 


UNEP 

UNESCO 

UNF 

UNP 

USAID 

USDAFS 

USFWS 

USG 

VNP 

WCS 

WFC 

WHS 

WRI 

WWF 

ZSL 

United Nations Environmental Program 

United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization 

United Nations Foundation 

Upemba National Park 

United States Agency for International Development 

U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service 

United States Fish and Wildlife Service 

United States Government 

Virunga National Park 

Wildlife Conservation Society 

Worldfish Center 

World Heritage Site 

World Resources Institute 

World Wildlife Fund 

Zoological Society of London 


xiii

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

This Biodiversity and Tropical Forest Assessment report has been prepared to provide information and 

analysis as requested by USAID/DRC, required by the U.S. Congress, and stipulated in the U.S. Foreign 

Assistance Act (FAA) of 1961. This report updates the 2003 countrywide Environmental Threats and 

Opportunities Analysis (ETOA) and seeks to provide a concise and targeted assessment to inform the 

USAID/DRC Mission’s strategic planning, program development, and implementation. This assessment 

includes: 

• An overview of the status of biodiversity and tropical forest conservation; 

• An analysis of threats to biodiversity and tropical forests and underlying causes; 

• The institutional, policy and legislative framework for environmental management in the DRC; and 

• Current interventions in the environmental sector, bi- and multilateral donors, non -governmental 

organizations (NGOs), the private sector and other institutions; and 

• An examination of how the proposed activities in USAID/DRC’s Country Assistance Strategy (CAS) 

could contribute to conservation needs and includes recommendations for actions related to the CAS’s 

goals. 

COUNTRY CONTEXT 

Following the emergence of a durable peace process in 2001, the Government of the Democratic Republic 

of the Congo (GDRC) has made substantial progress overcoming the legacy of mismanagement and 

conflict, and in establishing effective institutions of government. The GDRC has implemented a solid 

program of economic reforms, including new investments in labor, mining, and forestry codes designed to 

make these traditionally opaque sectors more transparent, and able to attract reputable foreign investors. 

As a result, economic growth returned in 2003, after a decade of decline, and reached a high of 8% in 

2008. However, the challenges ahead remain daunting. Since September 2008, DRC’s economic 

prospects have sharply deteriorated as a consequence of the changing international financial environment. 

Insecurity, caused by several factors including the presence of illegal armed groups in the East, continues 

to drive large-scale population displacement, violence, and human rights abuses. Endemic corruption and 

capital flight hinders economic growth. 

The DRC is endowed with a wealth of natural resources which, if managed properly, can help the country 

recover from the devastation created by years of conflict and mismanagement that have made it one of the 

poorest countries in Africa. The country has fertile soils, ample rainfall, immense water resources and 

enormous mineral wealth. DRC’s forests are the second largest block of tropical forest in the world (145 

million hectares, or approximately 62 percent of national territory). These forests are critical to the 

livelihood of about 40 million Congolese, providing food, medicine, domestic energy, building materials, 

and cash. They play a vital role in regulating the global environment. They harbor much unique 

biodiversity: DRC ranks fifth among nations for its plant and animal diversity. If they are conserved and 

managed well, DRC’s forests could provide many national and global benefits in perpetuity. Yet DRC’s 

forests and biodiversity are under threat from a variety of fronts including clearing land for agriculture, 


xv

illegal logging, a high rate of bushmeat consumption, population growth and migration, poverty, and 

conflict. Recognizing these and other threats, the GDRC seeks to develop and institutionalize a vision of 

DRC’s forests as an enduring provider of multiple goods and services rather than as an arena for the rapid 

extraction of timber and other resources. 

CURRENT STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY, TROPICAL FORESTS, RIVER 

BASINS, AND KEY WATERSHEDS 

In the early years of independence, the DRC was fairly well-positioned to begin biodiversity 

conservation. A large amount of work was conducted by Belgian scientists on the flora and fauna of the 

Congo. Today, however, it is debatable how much biodiversity conservation is happening in DRC. 

Megafauna protection in large protected areas is not biodiversity conservation per se, and can have 

negative as well as positive impacts on biodiversity. Positive effects of large protected areas on 

biodiversity are obvious, since by and large the included biodiversity will be protected if there is good 

management. However, they are often located in the least disturbed areas, where megafauna protection is 

most effective but where the threats to other diversity are minimal, leaving the hotspots of biodiversity 

loss at risk and national attention focused away from these threats. Planning tools can also pose a threat to 

biodiversity, since powerful Geographic Information System (GIS)-based approaches can seemingly 

produce results even in the absence of the necessary information base, and can replicate mistakes over 

large areas. 

DRC’s forests cover an area of 2 million square kilometers of which roughly half are closed high 

rainforests and the remainder open forests and woody savannah. Designated parks and conservation areas 

occupy around 18 million hectares, or 8% of the national territory, though most of these exist only on 

paper. DRC contains an estimated 10,000 species of plants, 409 species of mammals, 1,117 species of 

birds and 400 species of fish—making it the 5th most biodiverse country on earth. The annual 

deforestation rate for the 1990—2000 period was estimated at 0.22% and the current rate is thought to be 

around 0.33% per year. Forest types include the moist evergreen/semi deciduous forest across the center 

of the country, and extensive dry forest (miombo) in the south. There are also forest/savanna mosaics. 

The definition used by the Central African Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) is very 

narrow, and when CARPE and partners use the term forest, they often mean moist forest only. The 

concept of a large expanse of tropical dry forest in southern DRC, seriously threatened by deforestation 

has taken a back seat to the conservation of the moist forest. Another large information gap of potential 

significance concerns the vegetation dynamics of the Congo Basin. In the absence of sound forest science, 

managers are making assumptions about the stability of the forest, the regeneration of timber trees, and 

especially about the impacts of long-term climate change and the degradation of forest by human activity. 

MAJOR ECOSYSTEM TYPES OR ECOREGIONS 

In the DRC there are three different classes of ecoregions: terrestrial, freshwater aquatic and marine, with 

the first two overlapping because of the extensive freshwater swamps. The ecoregions are described in 

groupings: western DRC, moist forests, northern forest/savanna mosaic, southern forest/savanna mosaic, 

miombo dry forest, montane/alpine vegetation, and the rift valley lakes. In the north/central part of DRC 

lies the vast block of Congolian moist tropical forest and swamp forests which is home to an enormous 

and largely endemic flora and fauna, but with several species listed by the World Conservation Union as 

endangered or threatened. For example, total DRC elephant population (forest and forest-savanna 

xvi 


hybrids) is likely under 20,000, down from a population estimated at over 100,000 elephants 50 years 

ago, and still dropping due to poaching and the illegal ivory trade. 

The southern part of the DRC supports extensive dry forests of the miombo type, widespread in eastern 

Africa and rich in biodiversity though less so than the moist forest. A very strange feature of the 

Congolian forest is that the moist and dry forests are not adjacent to each other. There is a large expanse 

of sparsely-wooded tall grass savanna between them. Similar vegetation also occurs to the north of the 

Congo, where the forest/savanna mosaic occurs between the moist forest and the woodlands dominated 

by Isoberlinia and other trees that takes the place of miombo in the north. The dynamics of this vegetation 

are still poorly-understood. However, the savannas appear to be a fire-climax community that will 

develop into moist forest if burning is suppressed. DRC’s aquatic ecosystems are extensive and contain a 

high number of endemic species. The DRC has three Ramsar sites, including the world’s largest Ramsar 

site, the 25,365 square mile Nigiri and Lac Maï‐Ndombe/Bassin wetland. 

NATURAL AREAS OF CRITICAL IMPORTANCE 

Given the enormous biodiversity of the DRC and the high level of endemism, there must be large 

numbers of species of animals and plants that depend upon as yet unidentified critical natural areas for 

their survival. Documenting the biodiversity of the DRC and its distribution and critical habitat areas 

needs to be an important priority for the universities and natural resources agencies of the DRC and their 

foreign partners. In 2007, ICCN in collaboration with partners undertook an important first step in this 

direction by conducting a strategic evaluation of biodiversity in the DRC which identified a number of 

areas of high biodiversity importance outside of the protected area system. In addition to this evaluation, a 

few smaller sites for the protection lower-profile species have been identified, and the bird 

conservationists have taken the lead here, identifying critical bird conservation areas in the fragmented 

forests of the eastern highlands and elsewhere. Other critical sites are caves along the lower Congo with 

endemic fish, the Mont Hoyo area near the Virungas with Bedford’s paradise-flycatcher and cave 

ecosystems, sandy beaches with marine turtle nesting, and the southernmost fragment of the species-rich 

Mayombe forest at Luki. 

ENVIRONMENTAL AND NONCOMMERCIAL SERVICES OF NATURAL AREAS 

On a global scale, the DRC’s forests provide essential ecosystem services, such as watershed 

conservation, climate regulation and carbon sequestration. They are an important driver of atmospheric 

circulations, the exchange of energy and water between the forests and atmosphere influencing regional 

and global weather systems. In terms of carbon storage, the DRC has by far and away the majority of the 

Congo Basin’s carbon biomass estimated at 23,173 million tons with an estimated value of $1211 per ton. 

The estimated economic value of current annual flows for artisanal timber is $60 million, and over $1 

billion each for bushmeat and firewood. 

The DRC has the largest freshwater resources in Africa and its hydroelectric potential ranks fourth in the 

world, and has the potential to produce 150,000 Megawatts of power, approximately three times Africa’s 

present consumption. Aquatic resources in the DRC play an important role in many people’s livelihoods 

and are often the only means of subsistence for local populations, particularly since the onset of the war in 

the 1990s, which increased the isolation of the majority of rural communities from economic alternatives 

outside the exploitation of local resources. 


xvii

LAND TENURE ARRANGEMENTS AND CONSERVATION 

The basic land tenure regime reflects the 1967 Bakajika Law and the 1973 Land Tenure Law and 

customary tenure which is very complex and differs considerably across regions. This legacy of legal 

dualism has several implications for conservation: 

• The Forest Code does not modify the land tenure regime of 1973. It deals with forest products and 

services, but it does not transfer any rights concerning the land itself. Forest concessions and land 

concessions are distinct from one another. A forest concession deals exclusively with the forest, not the 

land. It is a rental contract with no transfer of ownership. The situation for community reserves is 

similar - land rights are not transferred, only management and supervision rights via an ICCN 

subcontract to NGOs representing the community. 

• The current land tenure system may affect the ability of communities to benefit from any payment for 

ecosystems services arrangements including those under Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and 

Degradation (REDD). For the community reserves, the assessment team was not able to examine ICCN 

management contracts to determine if there was provision for the subcontractors (and communities) to 

benefit directly from ecosystem services. However, the recently, signed agreement between Walt 

Disney and Conservation International to provide financing for development of REDD demonstration 

activities in the Tayna and Kisimba-Ikobo Community Reserves will provide invaluable experience in 

terms of gauging REDD land and resource problems and potential in the context of community 

reserves. 

• For the remaining majority of DRC’s rural/forest populations with customary tenure and no community 

reserve, gaining benefits from payments from ecosystem services may be more problematic. In 

conducting a multi country assessment of tenure issues related to REDD, Cotula and Mayers (2009) 

conclude that in the DRC, insecure tenure for local communities combined with revenue management 

issues (corruption and rent-seeking) and limits in GDRC’s implementation/enforcement capacity could 

be major stumbling blocks for REDD implementation in the DRC. This conclusion was also reached by 

a series of DRC stakeholder workshops on REDD facilitated by the World Resources Institute (WRI). 

Participants, including local and indigenous communities, community-based NGOs, and parliamentary 

representatives, expressed five concerns regarding REDD’s design and implementation including: 

limited recognition of land tenure rights; inadequate information about forest and carbon resources; 

weak institutional capacity and unclear roles; inequitable revenue distribution; and fewer opportunities 

for development activities. 

STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF PROTECTED AREAS IN THE DRC 

The process of creating protected areas began early in DRC, with the creation of national parks and 

hunting reserves during the 1920’s and 1930’s by the colonial administration. At the present time, DRC 

has 66 terrestrial protected areas and one marine area. The total area covered by these reserves is 

estimated at 286,345 km2 or 12.21% of the surface area. General problems include the lack of 

management plans and the lack of trained, equipped field staff. For the higher-profile protected areas, 

especially some of the national parks, the Congolese Institute for the Conservation of Nature (ICCN) is 

being assisted by international partners to create management plans and to re-establish reserve 

management. However, most of the reserves in DRC do not fall into this category, and are not managed at 

the moment. 

xviii 


Since the 2003 Environmental Assessment, new protected areas have been created and others are in 

progress. These new reserves are primarily to protect larger mammals in the moist forest zone, and 

include the huge Sankuru Reserve (30570 km2), the Lomako Reserve with ICCN and African Wildlife 

Foundation (AWF), the Tayna Nature Reserve, the Kisimba Ikobo Nature Reserve, the Itombwe Massif 

Nature Reserve, and the Kokolopori Natural Reserve. All of these new initiatives are the result of 

collaboration between ICCN and international partners. 

ICCN maintains staff in 39 of DRC’s 66 protected areas, thus many of the protected areas—particularly 

the hunting reserves—exist on paper only. In general, ICCN is constrained by limited technical (including 

guards) and scientific staff in the field. For example, there are only 19 scientific staff assigned to national 

parks and key reserves, and the area to be covered by technical staff is enormous—e.g., the ratio of staff 

to area for Salonga National Park is one staff member per 244 km 2 which makes surveillance and control 

difficult. 

THREATENED AND ENDANGERED SPECIES 

The DRC has a number of threatened and endangered species across all orders. There are 72 species that 

are completely protected by law in DRC, though in practice this protection is very weak, and 234 partially 

protected species, whose exploitation requires a permit. The DRC list of completely protected species lists 

many mammals, especially primates that are listed by IUCN in lower risk categories. 

The mammals category contains most of the highest profile endangered species. Some species continue to 

decline because of illegal trade in wildlife products, especially ivory and rhino horn, with DRC losing 

both of its rhinoceros species. The northern white rhino, which depended on protection in the Garamba 

National Park for survival, has apparently become extinct in the wild between the 2003 Environmental 

Analysis and this one. Elephant populations continue to decline because of a resurgent trade in illegal 

ivory with Asia. War in the east has increased pressure on gorillas and other wildlife, and led to the 

catastrophic decline in hippo numbers in Lake Albert. Larger mammals are especially susceptible to 

poaching, and species continue to decline through DRC, both because of the bushmeat trade and because 

of habitat loss. 

Although there has been little research on the possible impact of climate change on biodiversity, many 

endemic species with restricted ranges such as the mountain gorilla could be at risk from minor climatic 

changes. Migratory species—notably birds and marine turtles—are especially at risk due to climate 

change because they require separate breeding, wintering, and migration habitats of high quality and in 

suitable locations. 

Overall, knowledge of the distribution and status of most groups of organisms in the DRC is too poor for 

effective biodiversity measures to be designed and implemented. However, wildlife protection for the 

most part depends upon protected area management rather than species-based initiatives. 

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FORESTS 

Underlying Causes: 

• Former war elites—military, political, and economic—still remain influential in the illegal trade of 

DRC’s natural resources; 


xix

• Corruption and the lack of good governance continue to undermine progress towards conservation and 

sustainable management of forest resources and biodiversity; 

• Weak institutional capacity across GDRC institutions hampers their ability to manage and protect 

forest and biodiversity resources; 

• Lack of knowledge about the distribution and state of biodiversity, a poor understanding of the ecology 

of the forest/savanna mosaic areas and their carbon dynamics, and a poor understanding of vegetation, 

dynamics, significance, and effects of long term climate change are major obstacles for conservation 

and sustainable development; 

• Weak law enforcement combined with legislation that is far removed from the realities that it is trying 

to influence and low community awareness of existing legislation; 

• Lack of a holistic approach to environment/natural resource management—the GDRC and most donors 

view logging—commercial or artisanal—as the sole indicator of economic value in the forest sector, 

with little appreciation of the economic value of non timber forest products (including bushmeat); 

• Absence of alternative livelihood activities that can compete with incomes gained from illegal 

activities; 

• Insecure land and resource tenure make community investments in natural resource based economic 

activities problematic; 

• Absence of a strategy to address the compromises between environment and economic development 

may mean that economic development—in the form of mining, logging and agro industrial concessions 

may take precedence over the environment as they have done in the past; and 

Threats 

Direct threats include: 

• Agriculture expansion as a result of shifting cultivation, particularly in Eastern DRC as a result of 

demographic pressures and civil strife; future deforestation may be driven largely by the expansion of 

palm oil plantations into forest regions; 

• Illegal artisanal logging and cross border trade linked to industrial logging concessions; 

• The commercial bush meat trade which has replaced habitat loss as the primary cause of wildlife 

extinction; 

• Industrial mining activities—without adequate safeguards, including the use of biodiversity offsets— 

will continue to threaten the DRC’s forests and biodiversity given the overlap between DRC’s mineral 

resources and tropical forests/protected areas. Uncontrolled artisanal mining may have individually 

insignificant effects on biodiversity and tropical forests but cumulatively significant effects. 

• Cutting for fuelwood is a major driver of forest degradation around DRC’s urban areas, as wood 

accounts for 85% of domestic energy use in the DRC; 

• Illegal trade in endangered species continues to have an impact on the DRC’s elephant, hippo, grey 

parrot populations as well as on important plant species including Prunus africana and Afromosia spp; 

xx 


• As peace and stability return to the DRC, improving the country’s road network will be absolutely 

essential for development, but roads fragment the forests, favor the advance of agriculture and facilitate 

hunting and trade in bushmeat; 

• Zoonotic diseases such as Ebola have had an devastating impact on the Congo Basin’s great ape 

populations; 

• Invasive species such as Chromoleana odorata and Sericostachys scandens are displacing native 

species through competition for food and other resources, through predation, and alteration of habitat; 

• Bushfires in many areas are resulting in the progressive disappearance of the woody species most 

sensitive to fire and the re-growth of herbaceous species; 

• DRC’s aquatic biodiversity is menaced by overexploitation, pollution, alteration of habitat and 

destruction of shore zones. 

Indirect threats include: 

• Climate change. The impact of the current level of climate change on tropical forests is a matter of 

considerable controversy. However, nearly all models project that even in extreme scenarios, direct 

deforestation will impact tropical forests before climate-driven dieback; 

• Conflict and war in the DRC have led to large numbers of refugees and displaced persons and this has 

had a severe impact on natural ecosystems and on local populations. This problem is particularly acute 

in eastern DRC, in the Virunga Landscape and the Maiko-Tayna-Kahuzi-Biega Landscape. 

CURRENT CONSERVATION EFFORTS—SCOPE AND 

EFFECTIVENESS 

BILATERAL AND MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS 

A large number of donors have been and continue to be keen on assisting DRC in the field of 

conservation. The World Bank estimates that the current level of donor support over the next 2-3 years 

will reach approximately $360 million. A review of current and proposed donor activities suggests that: 

most donor emphasis has been placed on the tropical moist forest to the neglect of other ecoregions; few 

donor initiatives address core issues such as corruption, civil service reform, democracy and governance 

outside of the timber sector; and only one donor, Canada, is addressing the core issue of replacing a cadre 

of retiring professionals by strengthening the University of Kinshasa. Finally, although perhaps embedded 

as sub components of certain programs, there appears to be almost a complete neglect of alternative 

income generation activities. 

Improved donor coordination in the environment/natural resource sector is becoming increasingly 

important in DRC in light of the increased volume of aid, proliferation of projects, and the administrative 

weaknesses of the GDRC. Theoretically, the GDRC’s National Forest and Conservation Program 

(PNFoCo) should take on this role as PNFoCo but as PNFoCo has only recently been formally 

established, it is unclear whether it will play a donor coordination role or whether its mandate will extend 

beyond the tropical moist forest. 


xxi

UNIVERSITIES AND RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS 

Biology and its related branches are taught in most of the universities. However the biological curricula 

taught at most university institutions have been mainly limited to basic biological concepts or laboratory 

biology. Few institutions focus specifically on conservation biology in the DRC, and where this has been 

initiated the modules are still at a very early stage of development. Furthermore, provinces of high 

biodiversity importance like Equateur and Kivu have no university institutions providing training in 

conservation. The faculty of sciences of the University of Kisangani has a long history in teaching 

ecology, zoology, and botany and has produced a remarkable number of university graduates over the 

years. The University of Kinshasa has a curriculum in natural resource management at the Faculty of 

Agriculture, with an option in wildlife management, and is receiving support from the Canadian 

International Development Agency (CIDA) to upgrade facilities and curricula. The University of 

Kinshasa also hosts the Ecole Régionale d’Aménagement Intégré des Forêts Tropicales (ERAIFT), a 

central African regional postgraduate school financed by UNESCO that trains central African citizens in 

sustainable natural resource management and places a particular accent on the human dimension of 

conservation practice. The University of Lubumbashi supports research on ecology and site rehabilitation 

for the Tenke Fungurume Mining Company. 

The DRC also has a number of specialized higher education institutions where biology and its related 

branches are taught. CIDA is currently assisting the Institut Supérieure Agro Vétérinaire (ISAV) to 

develop an agroforestry option, and the Institut d’Etudes Agronomiques (ISEA) to develop an “Eaux et 

Forets” option. 

The DRC has a number of research institutions including the Centre de Recherche en Ecologie et 

Foresterie (CREF), the Centre de Recherche en Sciences Naturelles (CRSN), the Institut National de 

Recherche Biomédicale (INRB), the Institut National de Recherche Agronomique (INERA), and some 

aspects of ecological research are covered by these organizations. INERA is supported by the EU funded, 

FAO implemented Program for Relaunching Agricultural and Forest Research in the DRC (REAFOR) 

program. 

INTERNATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS 

A large number of international conservation NGOs working with a wide variety of public and private 

funding sources implement a wide range of conservation and applied conservation research projects 

throughout the country. Several of them remained in the country and continued to provide direct support 

to ICCN in the field throughout the war and it was largely thanks these organizations that the major public 

funding agencies were able to channel their funds to DRC. Their interventions cover a wide range of 

activities including all aspects of protected area management, surveys and monitoring, community 

conservation, environmental education, conservation-based research, capacity building. However, 

international NGO efforts to engage national and local staff in the strategic planning of activities has been 

limited as have NGO local capacity building initiatives. 

International advocacy NGOs are also active in the DRC in the areas of environmental advocacy and in 

filling the leadership void where they seek to compensate for national weakness in enacting and enforcing 

strong environmental/social rules and regulations particularly in the industrial logging and mining sectors. 

However, advocacy NGO success at influencing national policies has been limited, due in part to the 

absence of a consensus-based approach between the NGOs, major donors (particularly the World Bank) 

and Government. 

xxii 


LOCAL NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS 

The majority of environment/natural resource NGOs (réseaux or networks) were established in the late 

1990s/early 2000s with donor support, as a mechanism for donors to channel resources given that most 

direct aid to the GDRC was suspended. Local NGOs have a mandate to work with and represent the 

interests of local communities and thus have been involved in the development of the new Forest Code, 

the review/conversion of old forest titles and translating elements for the Forest Code into local languages 

and sensitizing local communities on their rights and responsibilities under the Code. Although it is 

generally recognized that DRC’s environment networks play an important role in lobbying, awareness 

raising and education at local and national levels, some are now representing donor interests at the 

community level, and in some instances, representing community interests has taken a back seat to 

advocating a particular donor agenda. 

GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS 

There are four GDRC institutions whose mandates cover tropical forests and biodiversity to one extent or 

another: the Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Tourism (MENCT), the Congolese 

Institute for Nature Conservation (l’Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature—ICCN), the 

Department in Charge of the Protection of the Mining Environment, Directorate of Mines, Ministry of 

Mines, and the National Service for Development of Fisheries. These institutions have historically 

suffered from corruption and abuse of authority, and large numbers of public servants equipped with 

limited means and training. Employees tend to be older with many near retirement age and many have 

little education beyond secondary school. Administrative management systems (financial management, 

human resources, and planning, monitoring, and evaluation) are manual, often in-operational, hardly 

transparent or effective. Ministerial control services are poorly equipped (communications, travel means, 

etc.) to fulfill their mandates to control Forest and Mining Code infractions, and to combat illegal 

exploitation and fraud. Limited technical capacity hampers institutional ability to develop proposals for 

funding, to manage important funding, and ensure implementation of major projects. Coordination across 

government institutions is currently very limited, many institutions have overlapping mandates, and all 

DRC government institutions face shortages of scientific information pertaining to tropical forest and 

biodiversity conservation and management. 

LEGISLATION RELATED TO THE ENVIRONMENT AND BIODIVERSITY 

Several legislative instruments govern the management, use and control of DRC’s tropical forest and 

biodiversity assets. These include: the 2002 Forest Code; the 2002 Mining Code; and various fisheries 

regulations (including the 1932 Decree on Exclusive Fishing Rights, the 1937 Decree on Fishing and 

Hunting, Ordinance No. 432/Agri. of 26 December 1947, the 1981 Ordinance regulating the use of 

fishing devices, and the 1979 ordinance (amended 1983) on fishing fees and license categories). 

Biodiversity conservation currently falls under a law dealing in a general way with wildlife resources, 

namely, law No. 082-002 of 28 May 1982, which regulates hunting of certain species under total 

protection status. Together with this law there is also ordinance-law No. 69-041 of 22 August 1969 on the 

conservation of nature, which sets out the framework for improved conservation of wildlife in general, 

especially great apes, who are covered under the notion of “nature reserves”, and law No.75- 024 of 22 

July 1975, concerning the establishment of “sanctuary areas”. In regulatory terms, arrangements for 

species protection derive from the combination of certain provisions of the hunting regulations. A new 

draft nature conservation law introduces major reforms to law No. 69-041 of 22 of August 1969. MENCT 


xxiii

is also in the process of elaborating a new environmental law (Projet de loi-cadre sur l’environnement au 

Congo), which has elements pertaining to the protection of DRC’s flora and fauna. 

Recently, the “Arrête Ministériel No. 107/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/09 of August 20, 2009 on the 

creation, composition, organization and functioning of a National Forestry Zoning Steering Committee” 

represents a critical first in improved land use land use planning in the DRC. 

In general terms the above legislation is sufficient to provide the enabling environment for the 

conservation of DRC’s biodiversity and tropical forests. However, there are still a number of cross cutting 

and sectoral issues that need to be addressed. 

CROSS CUTTING 

• Absence of a strategy or policy to address the compromises between environment and economic 

development; 

• Absence of any sectoral policies which guide decisions and achieve rational outcome(s); 

• The gap between legislation and practice—most of the legislation provides ‘technical’ solutions to 

environment/natural resource development ‘problems’, including overly comprehensive legislative 

mandates that are removed from the reality they are trying to influence. 

SECTOR SPECIFIC 

The Forest Code has a number of issues. Although the GDRC and its NGO partners have undertaken 

efforts to ensure that government, civil society, forest populations, and forest companies are well 

informed of the Forest Code; there have been some delays in scaling up dissemination efforts pending the 

availability of resources under the World Bank-funded Forest and Nature Project. Additionally, there are 

no guidelines or regulations governing the cahier des charges or the social contact between a logging 

concession and a community, as well as numerous challenges and legislative conflicts in terms of 

decentralizing forest governance. There are also delays in developing and approving the implementing 

guidelines for community forestry, and some concern that the guidelines for artisanal logging will not 

address the relationship between artisanal loggers and the minor logging concessions that may become 

eligible for title conversion. 

A major problem with the mining code is its focus on site rehabilitation with no provision for biodiversity 

offsets. 

Finally, a major issue in the draft nature conservation legislation is its near total neglect of the artisanal 

and commercial bushmeat trade. 

INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS 

The DRC is signatory to 21 international treaties and conventions related to biodiversity, tropical forests, 

climate change and the environment. DRC’s constitution stipulates that all properly concluded treaties 

and international agreements take precedence over national laws (on condition that the parties to the 

treaties or convention apply them). In order to conserve and manage its biological resources more 

effectively, the GDRC should - keeping in mind its limited institutional capacity to enforce compliance - 

also consider becoming signatory to the World Trade Organization Agreement of Trade-Related Aspects 

xxiv 


of Intellectual Property Rights, the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and 

Agriculture, and the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds. 

COMMERCIAL/PRIVATE SECTOR CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES 

Private sector investment in DRC’s biodiversity and tropical forests is still fairly limited. Private sector 

partners under the Congo Basin Forest Partnership have yet to substantially contribute to any activities in 

the DRC. There are reportedly over 80 private game ranches and zoos in Katanga Province which could 

conceivably make a contribution to restocking efforts, but both the legal and physical status of these 

efforts are unclear. The Fédération des Industries du Bois (FIB) reports that the majority of its 16 

members has established or plans to establish conservation zones within their logging concessions and are 

also interested in pursuing Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification, but informal and formal taxes 

have precluded them from doing so to date. Of all the mining companies, only Tenke Fungurume Mining 

has developed and is currently implementing a Biodiversity Action Plan. 

ASSESSMENT OF USAID/DRC’S STRATEGY AND BILATERAL AND 

REGIONAL PROGRAMS 

A review of USG and USAID priority goals in view of threats to biodiversity and tropical forests under 

the new 2009-2013 Foreign Assistance Strategic Plan suggests the following: 

STRATEGIC APPROACH AND PRIORITIES 

Goal 1: Peace and Security—Increase Stability in the DRC 

The Eastern regions mineral wealth, and to a certain extent its timber resources have been and continue to 

be implicated as complicit in the violence in the area. Indeed, conflict in the area is in part a consequence 

of various actors trying to accumulate wealth, often through the exploitation of natural resources and 

control over informal trading activities. Although restoring peace to the region will undoubtedly have an 

impact on the over exploitation of natural resources, war economies have the potential to persist in postconflict 

contexts and in some cases are hardly affected by peace processes; mechanisms of exploitation 

that have been instituted during wartime can largely survive in peacetime conditions. With this in mind, 

USAID/DRC could consider expanding its program to work directly with ‘illegal’ or ‘illicit’ traders in the 

natural resource shadow economy by incentivizing them through a process of engagement. 

Goal 2: Governing Justly and Democratically—Strengthen Core Governance Capacity 

USAID/DRC has the opportunity to help establish the necessary infrastructure for decentralizing natural 

resource powers, and improving natural resource decentralization in general. At the national level, 

USAID/DRC could work with decentralization actors to ensure sufficient, meaningful, and appropriate 

discretionary powers are transferred to local authorities, and that these powers are transferred as secure 

rights. At the Provincial and lower levels, USAID/DRC and partners could design and implement 

activities based on the five key governance indicators of successful natural resource decentralization 

programs: local community decision-making potential, primacy of law and sanctions, the fight against 

corruption and embezzlement of funds, downward accountability, and positive socioeconomic effects. 


xxv

Goal 3: Economic Growth—Promote Economic Growth with Emphasis on Poverty Reduction and 

Environmental Sustainability 

Work in the agriculture sector is critically important to improving the well being and economic status of 

those who need it the most. USAID’s agricultural/economic growth program has the opportunity to 

enhance the long term protection of biodiversity and tropical forests by promoting sustainable use and by 

providing a much needed source of alternative (to the bushmeat trade and illegal logging) income. 

Goal 4: Health—Improve the Basic Health Conditions of the Congolese People 

Under Goal 4, USAID has the opportunity to address HIV/AIDS and other health-related environmental 

issues and strengthen population, health and environment issues by developing institutional HIV/AIDS 

policies and strategies to help both employers and employees in MENCT, ICCN and national parks; 

adapting conservation training programs to include the development of special HIV/AIDS modules; and 

by developing linkages with RESPOND, USAID’s Avian and Pandemic Influenza and Zoonotic Disease 

Program. 

Goal 5: Education—Improve Access to Quality Education at All Levels of Schooling 

There is considerable potential for programs under this Goal to have a significant positive impact in 

tropical forests and biodiversity by expanding key messages on civic participation, health, and conflict 

mitigation to include messages on environmental issues. Links to the CARPE program could be 

strengthened by working with CARPE partners to develop Interactive Radio Instruction programs on the 

protection of biodiversity and tropical forest conservation. 

USAID/DRC’S COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE 

The USG and USAID, through CARPE and the Congo Basin Forest Partnership, play a major role in 

biodiversity conservation and the protection and management of tropical forests in DRC. The Mission and 

USG are capable of facilitating the involvement of large, international NGOs with an interest in 

biodiversity and tropical forest conservation, and support to these organizations has had an impact on 

conservation in DRC. USAID and the USG also have a distinct comparative advantage in terms of 

alternate conservation financing mechanisms. USAID/DRC and the USG can also use their positions in 

DRC to help the GDRC forge conservation partnerships with corporations such as Tenke Fungurume 

Mining Company and other mining concessions. USAID and the USG have built up a strong comparative 

advantage in its health programs, which over the last decade have improved the health of the poorest 

Congolese, particularly in rural areas. Through its Governing Justly and Democratically program, USAID 

has the opportunity to encourage more accountability for conservation activities and could provide a voice 

for development activities that consider the conservation and equitable distribution of DRC’s natural 

resources. Finally, the Mission’s “Investing in People: Education” program has been at the forefront in 

providing accelerated learning opportunities to disadvantaged and vulnerable populations using a number 

of innovative technologies and a community-centered approach. This approach to education and training 

would enable it to respond to the variety of learning challenges that are being faced by DRC’s 

environment and natural resource management institutions. 

RECOMMENDATIONS 

The assessment team has formulated a set of recommendations for program actions that USAID may wish 

to consider for improving its contribution to natural resources management and biodiversity conservation 

in DRC. Recommendations are broken down into short term and medium to long-term activities. 

xxvi 


Priorities in the Short Term 

• New Agriculture Development Project—include fuelwood as one of the commodities under this 

program; develop mechanisms whereby CARPE partners could draw on the project’s technical 

expertise to assist with development of alternative livelihood programs; 

• Encouraging Global Anticorruption and Good Governance Efforts (ENGAGE). USAID/DRC should 

consider developing a scope of work for, and issuing a Request for Applications (RFA) for a program 

to assist ENGAGE to become more actively involved in the decentralization of natural resource 

management, including establishing the necessary mechanisms for decentralizing natural resource 

powers, and improving natural resource decentralization in general; 

• Tenke Fungurume Mining (Freeport-McMoran Copper and Gold) Global Development Authority 

Agreement. Any eventual detailed agreement with TFM should place strong emphasis on forest 

management and biodiversity conservation; 

• Ensure that new initiatives under Goal 4 are linked to USAID/W’s RESPOND program. By 

encouraging linkages between RESPOND and any new initiatives under its Goal 4, USAID/DRC has 

the opportunity to address both human health issues and help alleviate a threat to DRC’s primates; 

• Strengthen linkages between CARPE implementing partners and GDRC institutions. USAID/DRC 

should encourage CARPE implementing partners to adopt a steering committee or similar approach as 

a mechanism for improving coordination with GDRC institutions and improving buy in from these 

institutions. Annual general meetings of all CARPE implementing partners and their respective steering 

committee members should be part of this approach; 

• Provide support to the development of a bushmeat policy and legislation. USAID/DRC should consider 

bringing in the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service under the Great Apes Survival Project to assist the 

GDRC in developing a policy framework and eventual legislation to better control the bushmeat trade. 

This could be done in collaboration with TRAFFIC (The Wildlife Trend Monitoring Network) which is 

currently assisting the GDRC in developing a national bushmeat strategy and action plan, that will 

include improving the efficiency of legal and institutional frameworks; 

• Expand the USDA Forest Service’s role in DRC’s national land use planning process. The Forest 

Service currently supports the Forest Inventory and Management Department, of MENCT, and the 

inter-ministerial and multi-stakeholder National Forestry Zoning Steering Committee, as they outline a 

national land use planning policy and process. However, the assessment team understands that as of 

January 1, 2009, the Forest Service will only be providing intermittent support to MENCT and the 

Steering Committee. As DRC is moving forward in its ambitions to carry out zoning and management 

of 143 million hectares of forest into protected areas, permanent production forests, and other uses, the 

assessment team believes USAID should consider expanding the Forest Service’s role through the 

provision of a full-time Forest Service land use planning advisor to be embedded in MENCT; and 

• Provide support for university training. Even limited USAID/DRC support for university level training 

can have long-term impacts in terms of human resource development. Additionally, linkages between 

CARPE partners and DRC’s universities and forestry schools could be expanded to increase the skills 

of faculty and students by involving them in research, policy analysis, field level surveys and other 

activities. 


xxvii

Medium- and Longer-Term Interventions 

• Analysis of climate change adaptation needs. USAID/DRC should consider supporting an objective, 

up-to-date, and comprehensive assessment of climate change adaptation in the DRC. Such an 

assessment would: i) complement the Congo Basin Forests and Climate Change Adaptation (CoFCCA) 

Project’s objective of “contributing to national processes of adaptation to climate change through the 

development of policy-oriented adaptation strategies that also ensure sustainable use of forest resources 

in the Congo Basin Forests;” and ii) help strengthen the design and development of the Mission’s food 

security program. 

• Use Mission bilateral funds to supplement/complement CARPE activities and help CARPE achieve its 

Phase III goal of transferring activities to GDRC institutions. CARPE is USAID’s major conservation 

program in Central Africa and is one of USAID’s largest field-based conservation programs. In the 

DRC, CARPE has seen many major accomplishments not the least of which is providing support to the 

only organizations with the capacity to protect biodiversity and tropical forest resources – namely 

international conservation NGOs. CARPE partner contributions to biological and socio-economic 

surveys, zoning, gazetted community reserves, spatial planning and policy reform have significantly 

increased the conservation status of biodiversity and tropical forests in the DRC. However, there are 

several issues that may undermine CARPE’s ability to achieve its Phase III goal of facilitating the final 

transfer of CARPE activities to the Central African institutions with which it works. 

Although the landscape approach has been very successful in identifying high priority conservation 

targets and supporting habitat conservation needs, and is also beginning to achieve some legal 

recognition, the linkages between the landscapes and DRC’s local administrative structures are 

generally weak. This can limit local buy-in for critical conservation-development initiatives such as 

alternative livelihood and strengthening local environmental governance programs. 

CARPE implementing partners have also found it difficult to develop alternative income 

opportunities—yet, viable alternative income opportunities for DRC’s rural populations represent one 

of the best options to reduce threats from illegal activities such as the bushmeat trade as well as illegal 

logging and mining. 

The efforts of CARPE partners to engage national and local staff in the strategic planning of activities 

have also been modest as have capacity building efforts. 

Finally, CARPE’s legislative mandate precludes it from having direct formal bilateral relationships 

with Central African governments, thus CARPE cannot provide “direct” assistance to the GDRC. 

Instead CARPE relies on international NGO partners who execute direct bilateral agreements with 

those governments. In spite of these constraints, CARPE and the USG have been able to provide some 

indirect assistance through the USDA Forest Service and the USFWS. Although such support is 

appreciated by the GDRC, many GDRC personnel still contrast this assistance unfavorably with other 

bilateral donors that are managed in direct cooperation with the GDRC. 

The assessment team understands that USAID/DRC will be receiving additional biodiversity, climate 

change and food security funds in FY 2010. By using these and future bilateral resources plus existing 

CARPE resources to implement the short and medium term recommendations noted above, the Mission 

is in the position to help CARPE address the aforementioned issues and thereby contribute to the 

achievement of CARPE’s Phase III goals and objectives. An increased emphasis on alternative 

livelihood activities along with new bushmeat and community rights/tenure legislation, increased 

support to the decentralization of natural resource management—including directly engaging ‘illegal’ 

xxviii 


or ‘illicit’ traders in the natural resource shadow economy, expanded support to MENCT’s national 

land use planning initiative, and a better understanding of climate change adaptation issues would all 

combine to make a thoroughly integrated USG conservation and development program, one that is 

responsive to GDRC needs and concerns, and one that contributes substantially to reducing threats to 

biodiversity and tropical forests. Finally, an integrated USAID/DRC and CARPE program would also 

contribute to the achievement of the USG’s Congo Basin Forest Partnership goal of promote economic 

development, alleviating poverty, combating illegal logging, enhancing anti-poaching laws, improving 

local governance, and conserving natural resources. 


xxix

1. INTRODUCTION 

The United States Government Country Assistance Strategy (2009-2013) for the Democratic Republic of 

the Congo (DRC) was approved in March 2009. The strategic vision for U.S. Foreign Assistance to the 

DRC is to support the security conditions and governance structures necessary for improvement of 

Congolese social and economic sectors and to permit extension of state authority across the country. The 

United States (U.S.) Mission will advance this vision by working with the Congolese government and 

local actors to transition from conflict and humanitarian relief programming to development assistance, 

and specifically working to fight poverty, consolidate democratic reform, and provide for the basic human 

needs of a Congolese population ravaged by more than ten years of war. 

This Biodiversity and Tropical Forest Assessment report has been prepared to provide information and 

analysis as requested by USAID/DRC, required by the U.S. Congress, and stipulated in the U.S. Foreign 

Assistance Act (FAA) of 1961. Sections 117, 118 and 119 of the FAA require USAID Missions to 

examine issues of environmental impacts and tropical forest and biodiversity conservation when 

preparing strategies for development assistance. Specifically, this assessment is designed to take into 

consideration the FAA provisions related to: 

• Section 117: Consideration of the impact of proposed activities on the environment and how to 

implement programs with an aim toward maintaining and restoring natural resources upon which 

economic growth depends; 

• Section 118: Analysis of the actions necessary to achieve conservation and sustainable management of 

tropical forests and the extent to which the actions proposed by USAID meet these needs; and 

• Section 119: Analysis of the actions necessary to protect endangered species and to conserve biological 

diversity and the extent to which the actions proposed by USAID meet these needs. 

In 2003, a countrywide Environmental Threats and Opportunities Analysis (ETOA) was prepared for the 

Mission. The purpose of this environmental analysis was to provide an assessment of the state of the 

environment and natural resource management in the DRC at one of the most important crossroads in the 

nation’s short history, notably the peace agreements that ended nearly a decade of war. The report from 

the ETOA—Democratic Republic of Congo Environmental Analysis—along with other literature 

addressing biodiversity, tropical forestry and other environmental concerns, have been used as a basis for 

updating this 118/119 assessment. The updated report seeks to provide a concise and targeted assessment 

to inform the USAID/DRC Mission’s strategic planning, program development, and implementation. 

This assessment includes: 

• An overview of the status of biodiversity and tropical forest conservation; 

• An analysis of threats to biodiversity and tropical forests and underlying causes; 

• The institutional, policy and legislative framework for environmental management in the DRC; and 

• Current interventions in the environmental sector, bi- and multilateral donors, non-governmental 

organizations (NGOs), the private sector and other institutions. 

DRC: BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FORESTRY ASSESSMENT 1

The report also examines how the proposed activities in the new Country Assistance Strategy (CAS) 

could contribute to conservation needs and includes recommendations for actions related to the CAS’s 

goals including: i) increased stability in the DRC; ii) strengthened core governance institutions; iii) 

increased economic growth with emphasis on poverty reduction and environmental sustainability; iv) 

improved basic health conditions; v) improved access to quality education; and vi), the cross cutting 

themes of conflict, disaster assistance, corruption, protection of vulnerable populations, gender, capacitybuilding, 

HIV/AIDS and environment. The assessment also provides near term and longer-term 

suggestions for additional programming. These additional suggestions could also be presented for 

consideration by other donors, depending on the funding levels and capacity of USAID/DRC over the 

coming years. These recommendations are aimed at supporting environmental sustainability and 

conservation objectives in a manner consistent with the overall strategy of USAID and in ways that help 

to address the needs identified in this assessment. 

Findings, conclusions and recommendations for the report are based on a series of interviews with key 

stakeholders, specialists, and program representatives in the DRC and in Washington, D.C., and three 

weeks of fieldwork in the DRC including site visits to Luki Biosphere Reserve, Mangroves National Park, 

Kundelungu National Park, the Tenke Fungurume Mining Company, and adjacent landscapes in the 

Provinces of Bas Congo and Katanga. Annex A provides a complete scope of work for the assessment; 

Annex B provides a list of contacts; Annex C provides a list of documents reviewed and referenced; 

Annex D provides a list of past and current donor projects; Annex E provides the staffing pattern for all 

DRC protected areas by labor category; and Annex F provides a list of all published forest code 

implementing decrees. 

This report was prepared from June to November 2009 by a four-person team combining experience in 

tropical forestry, biodiversity conservation, natural resource management, environmental policy and 

management. Dr. Jim Seyler acted as assessment team leader and is a forestry/natural resource specialist 

with over 25 years of experience providing technical and management expertise on forestry and natural 

resources activities and assessments in Africa, Asia and Eastern Europe. Dr. Duncan Thomas, the 

assessment’s biodiversity specialist, has 30 years of experience in tropical biodiversity program 

management including recent environmental assessment expertise in the Democratic Republic of Congo, 

Gabon, Chad, and Cameroon. Augustin Mpoyi, Environmental Lawyer and Executive Director of the 

Conseil pour la Défense Environnementale pour la Légalité et la Traçabilité (CODELT) served as the 

team’s institutional and legislative specialist. Finally, Nicolas Mwanza, Director of the Centre de 

Recherche en Ecologie et Foresterie (CREF) provided both technical input and guidance on a wide 

variety of issues, and served as a critical local “reality check” for many of the assessment’s 

recommendations. 

2 DRC: BIODIVERSITY AND TROPICAL FORESTRY ASSESSMENT

2. COUNTRY CONTEXT 

2.1 DRC’S ECONOMY 

Following the emergence of a durable peace process in 2001, substantial progress has been made in 

overcoming the legacy of mismanagement and conflict, and in establishing effective institutions of 

government. The Government strengthened policies and institutions over the period 2001-2006, leading 

to DRC attaining the International Monetary Fund/World Bank Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) 

decision point in 2003, but has not yet reached the completion point that would allow for approximately 

$10 billion in debt to be forgiven by lender nations. Since 2001, with the support of the Bretton Woods 

institutions and others, the Government has implemented a solid program of economic reforms, including 

new investments in labor, mining, and forestry codes designed to make these traditionally opaque sectors 

more transparent, and able to attract reputable foreign investors. DRC recently joined the Extractive 

Industries Transparency Initiative (EITI), as a further effort to increase transparency in the mining and 

forestry sectors. Private investment has been relatively high, mainly in the natural resource sector (about 

US$2.7 billion in new investments since 2003), and now constitutes a significant share of the overall 

private capital flows to Sub-Saharan Africa. Better management of public finance has helped break hyperinflation 

and stabilize the exchange rate. As a result, economic growth returned in 2003, after a decade of 

decline, and is estimated to have been about 5 percent between 2003 and 2007 reaching a high of 8% in 

2008. 

The December 2006 elections marked an important moment in Congolese history when the government, 

parliament and local authorities assumed power through a democratic process, with intensive support 

from the international community. With a new cabinet appointed in February 2007, the post-election 

period has provided a new opportunity to push forward much needed reforms. The DRC completed its 

first full Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) in July 2006. The five pillars of the PRSP are: 1) 

promote good governance and consolidate peace; 2) assure macroeconomic stability and accelerate 

economic growth; 3) improve access to social services and reduce vulnerability; 4) fight HIV/AIDS; and 

5) promote community dynamics. Through participation in development of the PRSP, the international 

donor community agreed to a shared strategic approach for assistance called the Country Assistance 

Framework (CAF). The CAF, which includes the United States among 18 participating donors, elaborates 

a joint vision and plan of action according to the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper’s (PRSP) five pillars 

and represents the agreed-upon development agenda between donors and the DRC. 

The challenges ahead remain daunting. Since September 2008, DRC’s economic prospects have sharply 

deteriorated as a consequence of the changing international environment resulting from the financial 

crisis, which abruptly impacted the mining sector. Insecurity, caused by several factors including the 

presence of illegal armed groups in the East, continues to drive large-scale population displacement, 

violence, and human rights abuses, demanding the attention and additional resources of international 

actors. A November 2007 agreement in Nairobi and subsequent January 2008 Conference on Peace 

Security and Development in Goma provide the foundation for improved security in eastern DRC, though 

the nascent peace process remains precarious and will require significant diplomatic, technical, and 

financial support in order to stay on track. 


Endemic corruption and capital flight hinders economic growth, with the DRC ranked 168 out of 180 

countries surveyed in Transparency International’s 2007 Corruption Perception Index. For the past three 

years the World Bank’s Doing Business Report rated the DRC as the most difficult place in the world to 

do business, during which time the government did not make needed reforms to address rampant 

corruption and improve the business climate. However, the Government recently adopted a Governance 

Compact with the people of DRC, under which it promises to work on a broad front to reform the security 

sector, strengthen the judiciary, strengthen political governance (through decentralization and the 

increased role of the women in public life), and improve economic governance (through public finance 

management and anti-corruption efforts). The key challenge will be to implement this ambitious 

program—a long-term effort for which a substantial amount of external support will be necessary. 

2.2 NATURAL RESOURCES AND THE ECONOMY 

With the gradual return to peace and a new, democratically elected Government in place, the DRC has a 

strong opportunity to reduce poverty and promote broad-based, sustainable, and pro-poor growth. Yet, the 

country’s history suggests that economic growth alone will not necessarily translate into better living 

conditions for the majority of the Congolese people. DRC is endowed with a wealth of natural resources 

which, if managed properly, can help the country recover from the devastation created by years of conflict 

and mismanagement that have made it one of the poorest countries in Africa 1 . Indeed, the opportunity is 

enormous. DRC has the third largest population and second largest land area (equivalent to Western 

Europe) of all countries in sub-Saharan Africa. The country has fertile soils, ample rainfall, and immense 

water resources. Its enormous mineral wealth includes copper, cobalt, coltan, diamonds, gold, zinc, other 

base metals, and oil. 

DRC’s forests 2 are the second largest block of tropical forest in the world (145 million hectares, or 

approximately 62 percent of national territory). These forests are a strategic resource for many reasons. 

They are critical to the livelihood of about 40 million Congolese, providing food, medicine, domestic 

energy, building materials, and cash. They play a vital role in regulating the global environment. They 

harbor much unique biodiversity: DRC ranks fifth among nations for its plant and animal diversity, and it 

has five natural World Heritage Sites, more than the rest of Africa combined. If they are conserved and 

managed well, DRC’s forests could provide many national and global benefits in perpetuity. Yet DRC’s 

forests and biodiversity are under threat from a variety of fronts: 

• While annual deforestation rates have remained relatively low, at 0.27 percent for several years, 

deforestation can be locally very high and is generally associated to clearing land for agriculture, 

population growth and migration, poverty, and conflict. During the war, entire villages sought refuge in 

the forest (which sustained them at the expense of increasingly scarce wildlife) or in urban areas and 

refugee camps (which depleted the surrounding forests for fuel, building material, and cropland). In all 

instances, reducing deforestation calls for action outside the forest sector including innovation to 

improve agricultural productivity and alternative sources of income; 

1 

DRC’s Human Development Index declined by more than 10 percentage points in the last ten years—and DRC now ranks 167 

out of 177 rated countries, with the great majority of the population without access to the most basic human services. About 70 

percent of the population lives below the poverty line, and in some parts of the north and east, poverty levels are above 80 

percent. 

2 

DRC forests are among the world’s most coveted and important. They include half of Africa’s rainforests (86 million hectares), as 

well as dry forests (45 million hectares), swamp forests (9 million hectares), and mountain forests (5 million hectares). 


• Bushmeat consumption is higher in DRC than in any neighboring countries (three times as much 

extraction per square kilometer 3 ). While making a fundamental contribution to the income and protein 

intake of the poor, bushmeat trade is the most serious threat to biodiversity after land conversion. The 

war left large swaths of forest practically depleted of wildlife, resulting in environmental losses and 

malnutrition in affected areas; 

• Most logging is carried out by artisanal companies which supply the local and regional markets. 

Industrial timber exports from DRC are modest, less than 15% the exports of Gabon or Cameroon 

which have only a fraction of DRC’s forest resources. Yet, the stage was set long ago for Congo’s 

forests to be plundered as soon as peace and rebuilt infrastructure permitted. Even before the war 

began, speculative interests controlled the vast majority of DRC rainforests. By the time the war ended, 

an area twice the size of the United Kingdom (more than 43 million hectares) was under 285 logging 

contracts. Few of these contracts had been awarded transparently or competitively; none of them was 

designed to benefit anyone except the contract holder-not the government, and certainly not local and 

indigenous people, who were neither consulted about nor expected to receive benefits from logging 

operations. In some locations, logging permits, mining concessions, national parks, and farmland 

occupy the same forest space, which often spurs conflict and mismanagement; 

Recognizing these and other threats, the new Government seeks to develop and institutionalize a vision of 

DRC’s forests as an enduring provider of multiple goods and services rather than as an arena for the rapid 

extraction of timber and other resources. Its strategy is based on: i) addressing the legacy of past 

mismanagement by cancelling logging contracts that were obtained or managed illegally; ii) using 

participatory forest zoning to apportion forests to conservation, sustainable production of forest-based 

goods and services, community management and other purposes; iii) expanding national parks and 

supplying forest-based environmental services to emerging global markets; iv) ensuring that timber 

production is organized around sound social and environmental sustainable principles; and v) introducing 

transparency and participation of civil society, rural people and indigenous communities into all aspects 

of forest conservation and management. 

3 

Wilkie and Carpenter (1999). 


3. CURRENT STATUS OF 

BIODIVERSITY, TROPICAL 

FORESTS, RIVER BASINS AND 

KEY WATERSHEDS 

Biodiversity is a term that covers all types of plants, animals, fungi and other micro-organisms. 

Measurements of biodiversity can focus on numbers of species, numbers of groups, genetic diversity and 

other diversity metrics. Biodiversity is found everywhere. In order to make patterns of species 

distributions more understandable, systems of habitat classification such as ecoregions have been 

developed to provide a framework for biodiversity conservation. In DRC, the main habitats are moist 

tropical forest, dry tropical forest, wooded and grassland savannas, tropical montane and alpine habitats, 

freshwater ecosystems and a short length of Atlantic coast with marine and estuarine habitats. 

The concepts of biodiversity and biodiversity conservation were developed about 40 years ago, partly to 

balance the thrust of conservation towards large protected areas for megafauna with a broader approach. 

Conservation Biology provides distribution data from biological inventories and ecological studies as the 

scientific basis for conservation. The types of action include the identification and protection of special 

habitat areas, and the conservation of species using a broad range of approaches. 

Once, Belgians had the prize research network in Africa. Founded in 1933, their Institut National pour 

l’Etude Agronomique au Congo (INEAC) had 32 research centers in what is now the DRC. Each center 

had many buildings, research plots, European researchers and Congolese technicians (Terese Hart, 

www.bonoboincongo.com). A large amount of work was conducted by Belgian scientists on the flora and 

fauna of the Congo. Large numbers of specimens were collected in Congo, especially from areas 

accessible from the research centers, and were lodged in museums in Belgium, often with duplicate 

specimens at the research centers. For example, the National Botanic Garden of Belgium 

(http://www.br.fgov.be/RESEARCH/COLLECTIONS) has about one million specimens from Africa, 

most from the Congo. Similarly the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences (http://www.natural 

sciences.be/ collections/entomo/collection_entomo_GB.htm) has about 15 million insect collections, 

many from Congo. 

In line with museum policy worldwide, the collection data from these specimens is being put online, 

sometimes with photographs of the specimens. These specimens form the basis for biological inventory of 

Congo. Large numbers of scientific publications have been produced, together with comprehensive 

inventory projects such as the series now know as the Flore d'Afrique Centrale (DRC, Rwanda, Burundi). 

The first volume of the floristic inventory was published by INEAC in 1948, and the on-going project is 

now about 60% complete and progressing slowly. However, as Terese Hart has pointed out, the sites that 

were accessible to the Belgian naturalists such as Yangambi have become degraded and have lost 

conservation interest. For the lowland forests at least, the sites that are now of high conservation interest 

were largely unvisited by scientists during colonial times, and therefore lack inventory data, even in the 

vast collections of the Belgian museums. 


As with other biological inventories for DR Congo, the links 

between the museums and the field have tragically weakened 

since independence for a number of reasons. The field 

stations still exist, and are now under control of the DRC 

Government agencies, especially INERA. However, their 

central function in biodiversity inventory has largely 

disappeared. Museum collections still exist in DRC but are in 

very poor condition, including the ones that the assessment 

team visited at Luki and at the University of Kinshasa. 

Declining funding for the European museums has impaired 

their capacity to continue foreign aid to DRC in the form of 

biodiversity inventory and to forge new relationships in DRC. 

Meanwhile, the concept of biological inventory has been 

degraded by the aid community into species checklists 

produced by conservation organizations for protected areas, 

often incomplete and of low quality. CARPE, however, has 

conducted a number of higher quality inventories in the 

various landscapes and some examples of these are provided 

in the text box. In general, however, the high quality applied 

research needed to drive biodiversity conservation is often 

mistakenly viewed as “pure research” in Congo, so that 

conservation is forced to go forward on a very shaky 

scientific base, and there is little recognition of the work of 

museums as foreign aid. For DRC to recover from decades of 

neglect, it will be necessary to recognize the importance of 

true biodiversity conservation in DRC and the central role of 

inventory, and to better connect the technical assistance from 

museums with DRC institutions and field programs. 

Selected CARPE-Supported Biological 

Inventories 

Inogwabini (2007). Great apes in the Lake 

Tumba landscape, Democratic Republic of 

Congo: newly described populations. 

http://carpe-infotool.umd.edu/IMT/ 

LS7 Lake Tele-Lake Tumba/Landscape/ 

LS7_EC_Great_Apes_in_Lake_Tumba_Inog 

wabini_2007.pdf 

Steel L. (2007). Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru 

Landscape. Summary Results of WWF 

Biological Surveys: 2006 – 2007. 

http://carpe-infotool.umd.edu/IMT/LS8 

Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru/Landscape/LS8_ 

EC Biological Surveys Steel 2007.pdf 

Abondance et Distribution de la Faune et 

des Activités Humaines dans le Landscape 

Maringa/Lopori-Wamba: Rapport de collecte 

des données biologiques de base. 

http://carpe-infotool.umd.edu/IMT/ 

Landscape.phpLandscape=9 

Bashonga M. (2007). Etude de la Répartition 

de l’Okapi (Okapia johnstoni) et autres 

mammifères dans le secteur nord du Parc 

National des Virunga. http://carpeinfotool.umd.edu/IMT/LS12_Virunga/Landsc 

ape/LS12 EC Okapi and Mammal Study 

Bashonga_2007.pdf 

Makana (2006). Pre-harvest forestry and 

botanical inventories in ENRA logging 

concession in the Ituri Forest Landscape, 

northeastern Congo Basin Rainforest 

(Democratic Republic of Congo). 

http://carpe.umd.edu/resources/Documents/ 

SI Ituri ForestryInventory TechnicalRpt Se 

pt2006.pdf/ 

Thus, it is debatable how much biodiversity conservation is 

happening in DRC. Megafauna protection in large protected 

areas is not biodiversity conservation per se, and can have negative as well as positive impacts on 

biodiversity. To move from a traditional protected areas approach to more sophisticated biodiversity 

conservation, large amounts of information are needed on species distributions and habitats. In the 

absence of such information, effective biodiversity conservation will not be able to proceed very far, 

leaving an undocumented portion of the nation’s biodiversity at risk. 

Positive effects of large protected areas on biodiversity are obvious, since by and large the included 

biodiversity will be protected if there is good management. In the case of large protected areas in the 

species-rich moist forest zone, such as Salonga, even without inventory and monitoring we can assume 

that the amount of protected biodiversity is enormous and includes many rare and endemic species. 

However, like any other kind of development, large protected areas can also negatively impact diversity. 

They are often located in the least disturbed areas, where megafauna protection is most effective but 

where the threats to other diversity are minimal, leaving the hotspots of biodiversity loss at risk and 

national attention focused away from these threats. Planning tools can also pose a threat to biodiversity, 


since powerful Geographic Information System (GIS)-based approaches can seemingly produce results 

even in the absence of the necessary information base, and can replicate mistakes over large areas. At the 

moment, with the main focus on re-establishing the rule of law in the protected area network, the lack of 

capacity and information does not much impede this effort. In the future, if biodiversity conservation 

focused on a wide range of plants and animals and on their critical habitats—similar to approaches being 

implemented elsewhere in Africa—then an enormous effort in capacity-building inventory and 

monitoring will be needed. 

Forests and Biodiversity. DRC’s forests cover an area of 2 million square kilometers of which roughly 

half are closed high rainforests and the remainder open forests and woody savannah. Designated parks 

and conservation areas occupy around 18 million hectares, or 8% of the national territory, though most of 

these exist only on paper. DRC contains an estimated 10,000 species of plants, 409 species of mammals, 

1,117 species of birds and 400 species of fish—making it the 5th most biodiverse country on earth. 

The annual deforestation rate for the 1990—2000 period was estimated at 0.22% and the current rate is 

thought to be around 0.33% per year. This is a low figure by continental standards, but nevertheless 

implies a gross loss of 358,000 hectares of forest per year. Table 1 provides a comparison of forest loss 

inside and outside protected areas between 1990 and 2000. 

TABLE 1: COMPARISON OF INSIDE AND OUTSIDE PROTECTED AREAS FOREST LOSS 

FOR THE PERIOD 1990–2000 

Forested Regions 

1990 Forest Cover 

(km2) 

2000 Forest 

Cover (km 2 ) 

Forest Cover Loss 

(Km 2 ) 

Forest Cover Loss 

(%) 

DRC 1,088,092 1,066,423 21,668 1.99 

Inside protected areas 147,004 146006 998 0.68 

Outside protected areas 941,088 420,418 20,670 2.2 

Source: CARPE (2006). 

As Figure 1 below indicates, most of the forest loss is occurring in the northwest and in the densely 

populated eastern region. Most of the deforestation is a consequence of small scale shifting agriculture 

with logging being an important factor in Bas Congo and Equateur Provinces. 

Forest types include the moist evergreen/semi deciduous forest across the center of the country, and 

extensive dry forest (miombo) in the south. There are also forest/savanna mosaics. The definition used by 

the Central African Program for the Environment (CARPE) is very narrow, and when CARPE and 

partners use the term forest, they often mean moist forest only. Given the importance of CARPE partners 

to forest conservation in DRC, it is understandable that the concept of a large expanse of tropical dry 

forest in southern DRC, seriously threatened by deforestation, has taken a back seat to the conservation of 

the moist forest. This needs to change if loss of forest cover and valuable natural resources in the southern 

half of the Congo Basin is to be prevented. 

Another large information gap of potential significance concerns the vegetation dynamics of the Congo 

Basin. In the absence of sound forest science, managers are making assumptions about the stability of the 

forest, the regeneration of timber trees, and especially about the impacts of long-term climate change and 

the degradation of forest by human activity. In reality, at least the drier forest areas appear to be highly 


dynamic, changing the relative distribution of species and of forests and grasslands, and probably 

accumulating large carbon stocks in less populated areas, which could be sold. 


FIGURE 1: FOREST CHANGE IN THE DRC 1990–2000 

Source: SYGIAP (2008). 


4. MAJOR ECOSYSTEM TYPES 

OR ECOREGIONS 4 

An ecoregion is an area or a group of areas with similar physical and biological characteristics 

throughout. Ecoregions provide a convenient framework for describing biodiversity, endemism and 

conservation. In the DRC there are three different classes of ecoregions: terrestrial, freshwater aquatic and 

marine, with the first two overlapping because of the extensive freshwater swamps. Generally speaking, 

the vegetation potential for terrestrial ecosystems over most of the DRC is moist or dry forest under 

current rainfall regimes. Where this potential is not realized, the main causes are agriculture practices that 

prevent forest from reestablishing especially on sandy soils, and frequent burning of grasslands creating a 

fire-climax savanna and preventing the establishment of forest trees. Terrestrial areas lacking potential for 

forest include some montane/alpine formations, some scrub formations along the Albertine Rift, and on 

very dry substrates such as rock or unconsolidated sand. Freshwater aquatic vegetation includes vast 

tracts of seasonally inundated forests, especially in the Cuvette Centrale, and these are often included in 

terrestrial ecoregions. Other freshwater types include emergent marshes and open water on rivers and 

lakes. The DRC coastline is very short, but does include half of the estuary of the Congo River. 

In the north/central part of DRC lies the vast block of Congolian moist tropical forest and swamp forests, 

home to an enormous and largely endemic flora and fauna. The southern part of the DRC supports 

extensive dry forests of the miombo type, widespread in eastern Africa and rich in biodiversity though 

less so than the moist forest. A very strange feature of the Congolian forest is that the moist and dry 

forests are not adjacent to each other. There is a large expanse of sparsely-wooded tall grass savanna 

between them. Similar vegetation also occurs to the north of the Congo, where the forest/savanna mosaic 

occurs between the moist forest and the woodlands dominated by Isoberlinia and other trees that takes the 

place of miombo in the north. The dynamics of this vegetation are still poorly-understood. However, the 

savannas appear to be a fire-climax community that will develop into moist forest if burning is 

suppressed. 

One theory is that this vegetation is the result of intensive agricultural degradation of moist forest, and 

this may be true in more densely populated areas. A second theory, advanced by Jean Maley (Maley, 

2006) and others, is that the forest contracted in response to a very dry period about 2000 years ago and is 

still in the process of recovery. If it is true that the forests/savannas on both the north and south sides of 

the Congo Basin are still undergoing a massive response to long-term climate change, this has major 

implications for all aspects of forest and grassland management, including biodiversity, wildlife habitat, 

timber harvest and carbon storage. A high priority is to greatly increase the monitoring of the vegetation, 

using a combination of both satellite images and intensive ground-based studies in the various vegetation 

types, to thoroughly document the changes that are occurring and the ecological processes that underlie 

4 

This overview is based on the World Wildlife Fund’s (WWF) terrestrial ecoregion descriptions, WWF/The Nature Conservancy 

(TNC) aquatic ecoregions, and the 2003 DRC ETOA report. Ecoregion descriptions are drawn from: 

http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/terrestrial.html; http://www.feow.org; 

http://www.panda.org/about_our_earth/ecoregions/ecoregion_list/; http://www.ramsar.org/wurc/wurc_drcongo_inventaire2008.pdf, 

supplemented with additional material. 


the changes by establishing appropriate monitoring baselines followed by long-term recensus programs. 

Without the applied ecology derived from monitoring, it will not be possible to understand the impacts of 

agriculture, logging and future climate change on the forests and grasslands. 

The ecoregions are described in groupings: western DRC, moist forests, northern forest/savanna mosaic, 

southern forest/savanna mosaic, miombo dry forest, montane/alpine vegetation, and the rift valley lakes. 

4.1 WESTERN DRC 

The most extensive terrestrial ecoregion in western DRC is the Western Congolian Forest-Savanna 

Mosaic with small areas of Atlantic Equatorial Coastal Forests and Central African Mangroves near the 

coast. Aquatic ecoregions are the Lower Congo, the Lower Congo Rapids, Malebo Pool, and the Gulf of 

Guinea South Marine Ecoregion. 

The area around Kinshasa and extending westwards to the coast has varied topography and vegetation and 

a high human footprint associated with high population density, intensive agriculture, industries including 

oil and hydropower, port facilities, and relatively good roads and communications. The Kinshasa area is a 

plateau with sandy soils mostly under various forms of agriculture. Formerly forested, the landscape is 

now fields with scrubby fallows, and even the riparian forest is often cleared for cultivation. Crops and 

fuelwood/charcoal are major products of this landscape. East of Boma and Matadi are the Mounts Crystal 

with thin infertile soils, less human disturbance, and more natural vegetation, including remnants of the 

species-rich Mayombe forest which reaches its southern limit here. Between Boma and the coast are 

extensive sandy plains and marshes. Protected areas near the coast are the Mangrove National Park and 

the Luki Biosphere Reserve. Included in the former are most of the mangrove swamps on the DRC side of 

the Congo River Estuary, and the sandy beaches along the coast, important for marine turtle nesting, have 

partial protection and a small WWF conservation project. 

Luki Reserve, although small, protects about 8,000 hectares of Mayombe forest, important for plant 

conservation, and is the focus of a World Wildlife Fund (WWF)/ICCN conservation project. Along with 

the eastern mountains and the Katanga mining area, western Congo has the largest human footprint, and 

biodiversity loss and forest degradation are more severe here than in less disturbed areas. Problems 

include both species extinction and loss of diversity within landscapes, including diversity useful to 

communities. The loss of the larger mammals from this area has been documented but for diverse groups 

such as plants there is little distribution data at the species level, so we cannot say how much extinction is 

occurring. However, biodiversity hotspots that combine high diversity and high endemism with a large 

human footprint, such as the Mayombe forest, are the most likely places to find high extinction rates. 

Biodiversity should be a focus of rural development and agriculture projects in western Congo, to develop 

models for the inclusion of biodiversity, especially useful biodiversity in populated landscapes. 

One advantage of the western DRC is that it already has small-scale ecotourism and could have a lot 

more. It does not have the problems of access and security that plague the more remote conservation 

areas, and there are a large number of Kinshasa residents interested in weekend tourism at sites within 

driving distance. The Bombo-Lumene Reserve, less than two hours drive east of Kinshasa, has a lot of 

disturbance from cultivation and poaching, but still has scenic areas with grasslands and forested ravines 

with tourism potential and with some existing tourism facilities. Also, there are spectacular sites along the 

Congo River which could be developed more than they are at the moment to combine tourism revenues 

and environment protection and start to rebuild DRC’s ecotourism industry. Although the ecotourism 


potential of these sites would require further analysis beyond the scope of this assessment, according to 

IUCN, the following have significant potential: 

• The Inkisi Basin and falls in Bas Congo have potential for both cultural and traditional ecotourism. 

From a cultural perspective, the Basin was part of the Kingdom of the Kongo. The region east of the 

Inkisi River all the way to the Kwango River was part of the Kongo federation as early as the 15 th 

century, and the Basin is mentioned in historical records as the setting of some of the Kongo’s 

expanding conquests. The towns of Kimpemba, Kimpangu and Kinzundu, located within the Basin are 

also associated to historical areas of the Kongo Kingdom and include important commercial routes 

during the slave trade. The nearby Kisantu Botanical Gardens, the rapids, and the Mbanza Ngungu 

caves are popular tourist sites for visitors coming from Kinshasa, although there are few facilities to 

support them. The absence of drivable roads connecting Kinshasa to other parts of the country makes 

these sites some of the few places accessible to tourists, and their development could conceivably 

generate income for the local communities there. 

• The Congo River and estuary below Matadi in the Bas Congo is considered “outstanding” at the sub 

regional level for its richness in birds including pelicans, the black‐crowned crane, herons (including 

the Goliath heron), and egrets and is a key staging, feeding and breeding areas for migratory water bird 

species. The area also harbors populations of manatees and dwarf buffalo. The area overlaps with the 

Luki Biosphere Reserve, the Mangroves National Park and the coastal town of Moanda, all of which 

are tourist destinations for Kinshasa residents. The development of the site as a birding destination 

could conceivably increase the number of international visitors coming to the area, with a subsequent 

increase in tourism revenues and local income generation. 

• The Congo River below Matadi and Bela in Bas Congo is another potential ecotourism site. It’s an 

historical site of the Kingdom of the Kongo and was an important commercial route during the slave 

trade. The caves of Banza Sanda (road to Luozi), as well as Stanley’s Manianga post were popular 

tourist destinations in the region before Independence, and may have potential for ecotourism 

development today . 

• The Aruwimi‐Ituri‐Uélé wetland (Oriental Province) on the Ituri River, a major tributary to the Congo, 

is a key site for migratory birds and a feeding or resting ground for many species. This area is also an 

ecotone—a zone of transition between the forests and savanna and harbors bird species from both 

zones. Birdlife International reports that this area was an important birding site before independence, 

and as the wetland overlaps with the Okapi Wildlife Reserve, the potential for ecotourism development 

could be considered high. 

4.2 THE MOIST FOREST 

This is the vast rainforest that covers the uplands and swamps along both sides of the Congo River, 

including the forests in the big bend. This area is very high in biodiversity and endemism, but is also 

poorly explored, and might even yield new species of larger mammal, like the new Cercopithicus 

monkey, resembling the endangered owl-faced monkey, recently discovered in the Tshuapa-Lomami- 

Lualaba area. The forest is very important for great apes, bonobos, chimpanzees, and gorillas, listed by 

the World Conservation Union (IUCN) as critically endangered or endangered. Okapi (IUCN: nearthreatened) 

are endemic to the eastern part of the moist forest, and populations of forest elephants 

continue to decline. 


The decline of DRC’s elephant population is particularly distressing. Hart (2009) estimates that total DRC 

elephant population (forest and forest-savanna hybrids) is likely under 20,000, down from a population 

estimated at over 100,000 elephants 50 years ago, and still dropping due to poaching and the illegal ivory 

trade. He estimates that there are only 6 core elephant populations (≥ 500 elephants occupying contiguous 

range) remaining in the DRC, and all core populations are in protected areas with the exception of about 

500-1000 individuals in the Tshuapa, Lomami and Lualaba River basin area. Remnant populations (< 500 

animals, not necessarily contiguous occurrence) occur in other protected areas including Virunga, Kahuzi- 

Biega, Lomako and Upemba, and other sites ( Kokolopori, Mbou mon Tour, Shabunda and Itombwe) 

with the vast majority of these occurring in Virunga (±450 animals in isolated fragments) and Upemba (< 

200 animals). 

Core populations have decreased in the last 10 years, some catastrophically, as indicated in Table 2. 

TABLE 2: ELEPHANT POPULATION TRENDS FOR SELECTED PROTECTED AREAS 

Protected area 

Historical record 

(Pre-1980) 

Before war 

(1986-1996) 

Civil War 

(1996-2003) 

Post-war Anarchy 

(2003-2009) 

Garamba National Park 23,000 11,175 5,980 3,800 

(forest/savanna) 

Okapi Forest Reserve N.D. 6800 N.D. 3,540 

Maiko National Park N.D. 6,500 N.D. 2,000 

Salonga National Park N.D. 6,330 N.D. 1,900 

Kahuzi-Biega NP— 

N.D. ±800 ±20 ±20 

upland forest 

Kahuzi-Biega NP— 

N.D. 3,720 N.D. No sign 

lowland forest 

Virunga National Park 2,900 469 286 ±450 

Source: Hart (2009). 

Protecting endangered and threatened species and their 

habitats is currently the main thrust of conservation 

across the moist forest, and given the seriousness of 

the threats from the bushmeat trade and ivory 

poaching, larger mammals are likely to be the primary 

focus of moist forest conservation for the foreseeable 

future. The forest has several large protected areas 

including the vast Salonga National Park (NP), but not 

much effective protection. 

FIGURE 2: MOIST FOREST AREA ALONG 

A RIVER IN CENTRAL DRC 

This photo shows natural forest (dark green) with 

degradation to secondary forest and scrub by shifting 

cultivation along road corridors (pale green). 

Conservation of the moist forest—the core biodiversity 

management area of the DRC—is the focus of 

CARPE. CARPE supports 12 Congo Basin Forest 

Partnership and Central African Forest Commission 

(COMIFAC) designated conservation areas or 

landscapes across seven Central African Countries. Six 

landscapes are either wholly or partially located in the 

DRC including: 

• Ituri-Epulu-Aru Landscape. This landscape covers 

Satellite Image: Google Maps 


the upper basin of the Ituri River and thus the most northern part of the Congolese forest with its 

adjacent forest-savannah mosaic. The Ituri forests are exceptionally rich in mammals and a total of 90 

species have been found in the central sector. The Landscape contains populations of world importance 

for several species with a limited distribution, endemic or almost endemic to the DRC, including the 

okapi (Okapia johnstoni). It also has large populations of globally threatened species, such as the forest 

elephant (Loxodonta africana cyclotis) and the chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes). 

• Maiko-Tayna-Kahuzi-Biega Landscape. This Landscape is situated in the eastern part of the DRC and 

covers an area of 67,121 km², and includes the Kahuzi-Biega and Maiko national parks as well as the 

Tayna Gorilla Reserve. Given its diverse habitats, the Landscape is home to a rich variety of mammals, 

in particular the elephant (L. africana), the chimpanzee (P. troglodytes), the eastern gorilla (Gorilla 

beringei), including almost the entire population of the graueri form), and numerous other primates. 

• Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscape. The Landscape lies in the heart of the central basin of the 

Congo River in the DRC straddling the provinces of Equateur, Bandundu, Kasai-Occidental and Kasai- 

Oriental. It covers 102,847 km² and is centered on Salonga National Park. The latter has an area of 

33,350 km² and is the second largest area of protected forest in the world, but it is divided into two 

separate blocks. The Landscape is home to the bonobo (Pan paniscus), a great ape endemic to the 

central Congolese forests ecoregion. 

• Lake Télé-Lake Tumba Landscape. The Lake Télé-Lake Tumba Landscape is situated at the heart of 

the Congo Basin region, centering on Lake Télé in the Republic of Congo, and the Tumba and Mai- 

Ndombe lakes in DRC. It extends over an area of 126,440 km². The 54,001 km² western section is 

situated in the Republic of Congo and the 72,439 km² eastern section is in DRC. It includes one 

protected area, the Lake Télé Community Reserve in the west. In the eastern section, primates are 

represented by the bonobo (P. paniscus) and the common chimpanzee (P. troglodytes). The western 

section is considered to be an important area for bird conservation, particularly owing to the presence 

of large colonies of water birds. 

• Maringa-Lopori-Wamba Landscape. The Landscape is limited to the basin of the Maringa and Lopori 

rivers in the districts of Equateur, Mongala and Tshuapa in the Equator Province. The Landscape 

covers 74,544 km² and is characterized by tropical forests and some inhabited strips along the rivers. It 

is a very isolated enclave, given the deterioration of the road infrastructure in the 1980s and 1990s and 

the discontinuation of river transport since the war, which is only now beginning to start up again. At 

least eleven species of diurnal primates have been observed. The dryas monkey (Cerco pithecus) is 

endemic to the basins of the Maringa and the Lopori and only two examples of the species are known. 

The avifauna comprises over 400 species, and the density of the Congo peafowl (Afropavo congensis), 

is thought to be highest in the country. The Landscape contains the Lomako-Yokokala Faunal Reserve. 

• Virunga Landscape. The Virunga Landscape covers 15,155 km² and includes two contiguous national 

parks, Virunga National Park in DRC and Volcano National Park in Rwanda, and the Rusher Hunting 

Zone. Outside the Landscape, the two national parks are also contiguous with the national parks of 

Semuliki, Queen Elizabeth, Rwenzori and Mgahinga in Uganda. Together, these six national parks 

constitute the largest transborder complex of protected areas in Africa. The landscape is home to the 

mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei) and has the highest species endemism rate in Africa. 

Figure 3 below provides a map of all CARPE landscapes. 


FIGURE 3: THE 12 CARPE LANDSCAPES 

Source: CARPE. 

The protected areas within these landscapes are benefitting from the efforts of CARPE partners to reestablish 

law enforcement and to plan natural resources management outside protected areas. It is 

remarkable that several large new protected areas have been established in the interval between the first 

USAID biodiversity/forests report and this one. New gazetted reserves in the moist forest are Sankuru 

Nature Reserve (2007, three million hectares), the Tumba-Lediima Nature Reserve in wetlands (2006, 

750,000 ha), the Tanya Nature (gorilla conservation) Reserve (2005, 88,600 ha), the Kisimba-Ikobo 

(2005, 97,000 ha), the Itombwe Massif Nature Reserve, and the Kokolopori Natural Reserve (2009, 

487,500 ha). All of these new initiatives are the result of collaboration between ICCN and international 

partners. 

The central Congo and its main tributaries in the moist forest zone have about 206 known species of fish, 

with 11 endemics. However, most of the tributaries, especially smaller forested tributaries remain poorly 

explored for fish (and other) diversity. For the wetlands areas and rivers, local overfishing, especially in 

lakes is a problem, and the establishment of well-managed fisheries is a problem. Fishing with dynamite 

should be eliminated. Aquatic weeds are also a problem, especially the water hyacinth which is invading 


lakes. There is sedimentation from riverbank degradation by agriculture and other development, and local 

pollution problems around settlements, especially the larger cities. 

For biodiversity other than larger mammals, conservation is unclear. One of the main concerns about 

tropical rainforest is loss of the enormous diversity of vascular plants and arthropods, and DRC has a 

large responsibility here, since it contains much of the world’s second largest rainforest. We can assume 

that most of the biodiversity that is inside existing protected areas where effective reserve management is 

being re-established will be safe. However, for megafauna protection to transition into biodiversity 

conservation in the moist forest, there has to be a large inventory and monitoring program with local 

capacity-building; but the rebuilding of DRC’s capacity for conservation biology is proceeding very 

slowly and DRC is very far from being able to conduct gap analysis to identify further conservation 

needs. Priority actions include the establishment and management of national biodiversity databases, 

thorough inventory of existing protected areas, and finally, a more detailed assessment of critical habitats 

and concentrations of biodiversity outside protected areas, including logging concessions. DRC also 

needs more information on forest ecology than is available at present, since even the most basic processes 

of forest and timber regeneration remain poorly-understood. Until these information needs are met, it is 

unlikely that management plans based only the conservation of larger mammals, the interpretation of 

satellite images, and imported concepts of forest ecology will achieve sustainable forest management, and 

management is likely to harm as well as benefit biodiversity. 

4.3 SOUTHERN DRY FOREST (CENTRAL ZAMBEZIAN MIOMBO 

WOODLANDS, INCLUDING SMALLER AREAS OF OTHER 

ECOREGIONS) 5 

Dry deciduous forest (miombo), widespread in eastern and 

southern Africa, is the climax vegetation over much of the 

southeast DRC and constitutes about 10% of the countries’ 

total forest cover. The vegetation is a large-scale mosaic of 

forests interspersed with edaphic grasslands, especially on 

sand or dry ridges, and riparian/wetlands vegetation in 

depressions. Miombo is fairly rich in species, especially 

plants and birds, and low in endemism, though rare birds 

occur around the wetlands and rare plants occur on 

copper-rich soils and elsewhere. Formerly, dry forests 

were moderately rich in large mammals, with higher 

densities around wetlands, but populations have been 

greatly reduced by poaching. The black rhino, formerly 

present in Katanga is now extinct in DRC, elephant 

populations are much-reduced, and only a small 

population of zebras survives in Upemba National Park 

(NP). Although miombo typically has very poor soils and 

low human population density, Katanga province is an 

exception since there are large settlements associated with 

mining. The need of the large urban population for food 

FIGURE 4: A BLOCK OF MIOMBO DRY 

FOREST 

This photo shows the forest (dark green) on gentle 

slopes in Katanga Province, with grassland (red) 

on a steeper slope lower right. 


5 

From http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.phpeco=544 with additional material. 


and fuel has led to the degradation of the miombo woodland near settlements, while demand for bushmeat 

has greatly reduced the densities of large mammals throughout the area. 

Large wetlands included in this dry forest zone include Lake Upemba (Dépression de Kamalondo) and 

Lualaba River, a large expanse of shallow lakes and emergent marshes in a rift valley, with vast papyrus 

beds and floating reed islands, important for birds and mammals. Part of these wetlands is included in the 

Upemba NP currently lacking any effective management. (http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_ 

details.phpeco=545). A second large wetlands complex on the Luffira River is entirely within the Annex 

of the Kundelungu NP, which was created specifically to protect these wetlands. However, like Upemba, 

the Kundulungu NP has no effective protection at present. Together, Upemba and Lufira are reported to 

support over 180 species of fish including 28 endemics, plus a rich herpetofauna with six endemic frogs. 

In addition, two large artificial lakes near Kolwezi and Likasi are listed as important bird habitat. Lake 

Mweru (Moero), shared by DRC and Zambia, is a large shallow lake draining into the Congo River. It is 

unprotected and unmanaged on the DRC side, with overfishing and pollution from numerous fishing 

villages and a few towns around the lake shore, with more than a quarter million people living in the 

vicinity of the lake. It has high fish diversity, with about 150 species of which 39 are endemic. 

Major threats to this ecoregion come from poaching, degradation of the dry forest, poor mining 

techniques and overfishing. Priorities for biodiversity conservation are to re-establish the integrity of the 

Upemba and Kundelungu NPs and to establish rural 

development that includes sustainable management of 

FIGURE 5: SAVANNA/GALLERY 

FOREST MOSAIC IN THE GARAMBA 

the dry forests and the wetlands basins. 

AREA, NORTHEAST DRC 

The green gallery forests occupy drainages while 

the tall grass savanna occupies the plateau. The 

4.4 NORTHERN CONGOLIAN 

grass on the left (black) has been recently burned, 

FOREST-SAVANNA MOSAIC 6 

while that on the right (orange) has not, but 

otherwise the grasslands are probably identical. 

This vegetation borders the Congo moist forest to the Most vegetation of this type in DRC would 

north, and is a fire-climax savanna with semi-deciduous 

regenerate as moist forest if the frequency of 

wildfires were reduced. 

forest in valleys. Compared to the moist forest to the 

south, the forest/savanna mosaic has less diversity in 

most groups and fewer endemics, though it formerly 

supported important megafauna. Moist forest is 

probably the potential vegetation of this ecoregion 

under current climate conditions but cannot establish 

with current burning regimes. Because this area of 

northeast and north-central DRC was sparsely 

populated and contained large populations of savanna 

megafauna, large protected areas were created and 

conservation is a major land use. More than half of this 

ecoregion in DRC is taken up by two large complexes 

of protected areas. North-center is the Bomu Nature 

Reserve surrounded by large Hunting Reserves, while 

in the northeast is the Garamba National Park and 

associated Hunting Reserves. 


6 

From http://www.eoearth.org/article/Northern_Congolian_forest-savanna_mosaic with additional material. 


Unfortunately, civil unrest in DRC and neighboring countries has resulted in uncontrolled poaching in the 

reserves, so that Garamba’s flagship species, the last population of northern white rhino, is now extinct, 

while the elephants have been largely eliminated from Garamba and Bomu. Consequently, DRC has set 

aside large areas of forest/savanna mosaic as protected areas to protect wildlife values that have been 

largely lost to poaching. These protected areas need to be thoroughly reviewed for management 

objectives and management plans need to be created and implemented by ICCN and international and 

local partners. Important factors are the current status and future prospects for the megafauna and other 

important biodiversity (endemics etc.), the dynamics of the vegetation, the needs of the local communities 

and options for future carbon storage and timber production. 

4.5 SOUTHERN CONGOLIAN FOREST-SAVANNA MOSAIC AND THE 

KASAI AQUATIC ECOREGION 7 

These ecoregions cover a large area of about 570,000 km 2 mostly in southern DRC. The Southern 

Congolian Forest-Savanna Mosaic is a blend of forest, woodland, shrubland and grassland habitats. In 

DRC, this ecoregion is a plateau that slopes downwards from the Angola border and the Katanga uplands 

towards the Congo River drained by the large Kasai River and other Congo tributaries. While the forests 

have only a few known endemic species, they had a rich fauna, including a number of different antelope 

species and high numbers of African elephants, current status not known. The rivers/riparian areas are 

reported to support high fish diversity and endemism, and to be rich in amphibians. Human population 

density varies from high around the larger towns to sparse in the extensive more remote areas. There are 

relatively few protected areas in this ecoregion, mostly old hunting reserves, heavily poached/encroached 

and with no management. Given the lack of biodiversity inventory and the lack of protected areas, we can 

assume that the larger mammals and the (largely unknown) rare/endemic species of this ecoregion are 

under threat from lack of conservation management. 

In terms of its vegetation, this large ecoregion is a mosaic of savannas and forests sandwiched between 

the moist forest zone to the north, and the dry (miombo) forests to the south. Elsewhere, this type of 

vegetation is not in equilibrium with current climate, and would naturally support moist forest in the 

absence of grassland burning and cultivation. We can assume that the area has the potential to accumulate 

and store very large quantities of carbon, gaining several hundreds of tons/ha as the grassland develops 

into forest so the management and the development of this ecoregion should be a high priority for the 

DRC. 

4.6 EASTERN MOUNTAINS 

The Albertine Rift is one DRC’s most species and endemic rich regions. It is very different to the rest of 

DRC because of the mosaic of high-elevation vegetation types, large numbers of rare/endemic species 

and high human population pressure. The unique rift valley lakes are treated separately below. In contrast 

to the very high alpha-diversity of the moist lowland forests, where stands of forest vegetation contain 

very large numbers of species, the montane/alpine areas have lower stand diversity but a very large range 

of ecological conditions, with unusual biodiversity occurring in unique conditions often quite small in 

7 

Adapted from http://www.nationalgeographic.com/wildworld/profiles/terrestrial/at/at0718.html and 

http://www.feow.org/ecoregion_details.phpeco=546 with additional material. 


area. Combined with the high human population pressure at montane elevations, this leads to biodiversity 

hotspots and a high risk of extinction for narrow endemics. 

The mountain ranges create a variety of elevations and climates, including both east and central African 

types. Several east African scrub and mosaic vegetation types enter DRC in this region, while the moist 

forest to the west changes in character with increasing elevation to become more montane, with montane 

species replacing lowland ones across elevational gradients. Above the montane vegetation are the unique 

alpine/subalpine moorlands of the Ruwenzori/Virunga National Parks along the DRC-Uganda border. 

The area has significant numbers of endemic birds and amphibians. The vulnerable cream-banded 

swallowtail butterfly is confined to this region. In addition to the many endemic species of smaller size, 

the mountain gorilla, one of the most critically threatened large mammals in Africa, is also found in a few 

places within the ecoregion. In terms of plants, the area is probably rich in both species and endemics, but 

remains poorly-explored. 

In terms of protected areas, there are several, the Virungas NP, plus a (growing) number of protected 

areas in the montane forest/lowland forest transition zone, such as Kahuzi-Biega NP, focused particularly 

on the protection of the eastern/mountain gorillas. The mountains are popular with foreign conservation 

organizations, which are assisting ICCN with conservation. With increasing security in the area, it should 

be possible to re-establish ecotourism based on the gorillas and the scenic values of the landscape. 

The biodiversity of this region is threatened by a number of activities—agriculture, grazing of livestock, 

hunting, and logging—and many of the montane forests have already been cleared for cultivation. The 

wars have led to the displacement of large populations, causing degradation of protected areas and 

increased poaching. It is likely that there are pockets of unique biodiversity outside of the currently 

established protected areas that are under serious pressure and finding and protecting these areas should 

be a high priority. 

Active Programs in the Virungas 

Under CARPE, the World Wildlife Fund is the lead for Landscape 12—Virungas with consortium partners Wildlife 

Conservation Society, African Wildlife Foundation, and the Netherland Development Organization (SNV). WWF 

and partner’s work in the in the Virunga landscape builds on more than 20 years of supporting Virunga National 

Park and its surrounding communities. In that time, WWF has helped promote sustainable livelihoods, provided 

environmental education, and increased protection of critically endangered species like the mountain gorilla. WWF 

is currently active on the ground to reduce the environmental impacts of this conflict in concert with those 

addressing humanitarian needs. WWF and ICCN are currently working to restore patrols and asses the health of 

the park’s wildlife whenever the security situation permits. Other support to the Virungas includes: 

• European Commission’s $20 million Great Virunga Project ( 2009-2014), supports cross-border collaboration 

with Rwanda and Uganda in the areas of protected area management, park rehabilitation, recruitment and 

training of personnel, and tourism development; 

• Swedish International Development Agency (SIDA) provides support to WWF for landuse planning; 

• United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization/United Nations Fund (UNESCO/UNF) Protected 

Area Management program supports population relocation, boundary marking, protection of mountain gorillas 

and control of illegal logging; 

• Fauna and Flora International, through the International Gorilla Conservation Program, supported the 

November 2008 to late January 2009 gorilla census; and 

• Frankfurt Zoological Society provides support to the Virungas for management planning, improvement of 

infrastructure, capacity building of ICCN staff and partners, establishing training opportunities for park rangers, 

plus provision of medicines and medical equipment for park rangers. 


4.7 RIFT VALLEY LAKES ON THE NILE AND CONGO 

LAKE TANGANYIKA 8 

Shared by DRC and Tanzania, with Burundi in the north and Zambia in the south, Lake Tanganyika is 

one of the world’s largest freshwater lakes, second only to Lake Baikal in volume. The watershed is 

relatively small and water residence time is estimated at 440 years, making the lake very susceptible to 

pollution. There are no protected areas bordering the lake in DRC. A regional program under the Lake 

Tanganyika Authority aims at sustainable management of the lake and the Food and Agricultural 

Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Environmental Program/Global Environment Facility 

(UNEP/GEF) have provided funding. In DRC, there is currently little capacity to control fisheries, slow 

degradation of the watershed, limit sedimentation and pollution all of which have been identified as 

threats. It is also predicted that global warming will have adverse impacts on the lake. The lake supports 

extraordinary biodiversity. For fish alone there are 325 known species, with 289 species and 33 genera 

endemic. Estimates of the maximum fishing potential range from 125,000 to 400,000 tons per year. 

Current harvest is about 200,000 tons/year, with about half of this taken in DRC. This lake supports one 

of the largest fisheries in DRC, comparable in tonnage to the entire Congo River system. Better 

management could not only improve protection of the biodiversity, but also lead to improved fish harvest. 

LAKE KIVU 9 

Kivu is a deep lake located at high elevation in the mountains of the rift valley, between DRC and 

Rwanda. It is 1460 m above sea level (ASL), covers 2,370 km 2, and has a maximum depth of 485 m, 240 

m average. The area is densely populated, with about half a million people in the lakeshore cities of Goma 

and Bukavu and dense rural population along the DRC lakeshore. Protected areas on the DRC lakeshore 

are the Rutshuru Reserve to the north and the small Bushyeni Reserve on Isle Idjwi. Both of these have 

been largely lost to agriculture and rural population expansion. The lake shows characteristics typical of 

an area with active volcanism including mineral deposits of volcanic origin in the lake sediments and 

large quantities of dissolved gasses in the deep water. The water is estimated to contain 250 km 3 of 

carbon dioxide, 55 km 3 of methane and 5 km 3 of nitrogen. There is concern that a catastrophic release of 

gas from the lake could occur, much larger than the Lake Nyos, Cameroon event that killed 1,700 

villagers in 1986. The lake’s methane is being developed as an energy source in Rwanda, with a 4 

megawatt pilot plant and plans for a 100 megawatt plant in future. Processing the gas-rich deeper water 

from the lake will release large quantities of greenhouse gasses. No comparable energy development is 

being undertaken in DRC. The lake has few fish species, about 23 with 15 endemics. Estimates of the 

maximum fisheries potential of the lake range from 7,000—19,000 tons/year. Ecological problems in the 

lake include overfishing, pollution from raw sewerage, introduction of fish species (lake sardine) and the 

consequent loss of the main plankton-grazing shrimp. 

LAKE EDWARD 10 

Lake Edward averages only 17 m deep and lies at fairly high elevation in the Albertine Rift (912 m ASL, 

area 2,325 km 2 ). It is shared by DRC and Uganda and is the only large lake in the Albertine Rift that is 

8 

From http://www.ilec.or.jp/eg/lbmi/pdf/22_Lake_Tanganyika_27February2006.pdf with additional material. 

9 

From http://www.co2.ulg.ac.be/kivu.htm with additional material. 

10 



completely inside protected areas, the Virunga NP in DRC and the Ruwenzori NP in Uganda and it is 

surrounded by the highest mountains in the area. Inflows to the lake are from fairly small rivers, with 

most of the watershed on the Uganda side and the DRC shores mostly steep and rugged. There are 81 fish 

species reported from the lake, of which 56 are endemic. A large natural lake surrounded by high 

mountains should be a tourist paradise, but unfortunately, following the war there are many illegal 

settlements, with overfishing and poaching. The lake and rivers formerly supported the world’s densest 

population of hippopotamus, with 23,000 in the DRC alone in 1989. Now, poaching has reduced the 

numbers to a few hundred. However, unlike many other conservation areas in DRC, the Virunga NP has a 

lot of support from foreign donors and non-governmental organizations (NGO), including 11 million 

Euros from the European Union (EU) so the reestablishment of park management and tourism is likely to 

be fairly rapid once the area becomes secure. 

LAKE ALBERT 11 

Lake Albert receives water primarily from Lake Edward to the south. The Victoria Nile enters Lake 

Albert at the north end, close to the Albert Nile outlet, so that it affects the lake level but only affects the 

water quality at the north tip. It is at moderate elevation, 620 m ASL, with a surface area of 5270 km 2 . 

The lake is rather shallow, with a maximum depth of 50 m and an average depth of only 25 m, and the 

water is evenly oxygenated throughout, greenish with dense pelagic algae. The lakeshore is 

predominantly steep on the DRC side, with extensive marshes and papyrus beds in Uganda. 48 species of 

fish are reported, of which 23 are endemic. Estimates of the maximum fisheries potential range from 

9,700—13,300 tons/year. No protected area borders the lake in DRC, but there are two, one at each end in 

Uganda. Since the fisheries are not managed at present, there are likely to be problems with poor fishing 

techniques and overfishing. The Albert basin has rich oil deposits and there are oil concessions on both 

the DRC and Uganda sides. DRC leases are held by a consortium of Heritage Oil (Canada), Tullow Oil 

(U.K.) and COHYDRO (DRC state oil company). Production is likely to start soon. The assessment team 

could not find any information on environmental impacts and proposed mitigation for oil exploration and 

development in the DRC, although some information is more than likely available at the Ministry of 

Mines. 

A map of DRC’s ecoregions is provided in Figure 6 below. 

11 



FIGURE 6: ECOSYSTEM REGIONS IN THE DRC 


5. NATURAL AREAS OF 

CRITICAL IMPORTANCE 

Natural areas of critical importance contain concentrations of biodiversity, especially rare and endangered 

species, endemic species (a specific type of rarity where a species is limited to a narrow geographic 

range), disjunct species (species that have widely separated populations, such as alpine species that occur 

on widely separated mountain tops). Reasonable targets for biodiversity conservation in DRC will involve 

the types of actions being taken elsewhere in tropical Africa, a combination of species-level and natural 

areas protection. At a species level, the highest-profile species and their habitats are protected, and this 

process is fairly well-advanced in DRC through the protected area network and the active support of 

foreign conservation organizations. Conservation should also include the protection of the most natural 

examples of the vegetation types, and the protection at a small scale of critical areas for rare species of 

plants and animals. 

At a large scale, this concept meshes with ecoregion classification and the protected area network. Critical 

areas include the less-disturbed areas of moist forest and wetlands right across central DRC, the montane 

forests, the alpine areas and the lakes along the rift valley. Currently, identified critical areas for most of 

the larger mammals tend to be very large, since elephants, primates, and okapi, have populations spread 

across large areas of rain forest. In the east of the DRC, forest habitat is more fragmented, and areas with 

populations of gorillas are smaller. Formerly, the less disturbed areas of dry forest and forest-savanna 

mosaic were important natural areas, especially for elephants and rhinos, but these values have been 

greatly reduced by poaching in recent decades. 

Given the enormous biodiversity of the DRC and the high level of endemism, there must be large 

numbers of species of animals and plants that depend upon as yet unidentified critical natural areas for 

their survival. Documenting the biodiversity of the DRC and its distribution and critical habitat areas 

needs to be an important priority for the universities and natural resources agencies of the DRC and their 

foreign partners. In 2007, ICCN in collaboration with partners undertook an important first step in this 

direction by conducting a strategic evaluation of biodiversity in the DRC. The evaluation identified a 

number of sites of high biodiversity importance outside of the protected area system. The results of this 

evaluation are presented in Figure 7 below. 

In addition to this evaluation, a few smaller sites protection lower-profile species have been identified, 

and the bird conservation has taken the lead here, identifying critical bird conservation areas in the 

fragmented forests of the eastern highlands and elsewhere, including Lufira (an artificial lake), Marungu 

and Lendu. Other critical sites are caves along the lower Congo with endemic fish, the Mont Hoyo area 

near the Virungas with Bedford’s paradise-flycatcher and cave ecosystems, sandy beaches with marine 

turtle nesting, and the southernmost fragment of the species-rich Mayombe forest at Luki. This is the 

beginning of what needs to be a very long list for conservation in DRC to work at the species level. 

Capacity is needed in plant and animal taxonomy to increase knowledge of these groups at least to the 

current levels of information on larger mammals and birds in DRC. 


FIGURE 7: RESULTS OF A NATIONAL STRATEGIC EVALUATION OF BIODIVERSITY IN THE DRC 

Source: ICCN (2007). 


5.1 ENVIRONMENTAL AND NONCOMMERCIAL SERVICES OF 

NATURAL AREAS 

5.1.1 FOREST ECOSYSTEMS 

On a global scale, the DRC’s forests provide essential ecosystem services, such as watershed 

conservation, climate regulation and carbon sequestration. Although no specific data are available for the 

DRC, the Congo Basin’s forests are a sink of an estimated 24-39 Gt of carbon, and current deforestation 

rates are estimated to be releasing 0.02- 0.44 Gt of carbon per annum (Hoare, 2007). DRC’s forests are an 

important driver of atmospheric circulations, and the exchange of energy and water between the forests 

and atmosphere influence both regional and global weather systems (Hoare, 2007). It is believed that 

deforestation in the Congo Basin would have a particularly strong effect on local rainfall. Cadet and Nnoli 

(1987) showed that a large part of the rainfall comes from the recycling of moisture by the forest, whereas 

in other monsoon regions most rainfall comes from water vapour accumulated from the oceans. Although 

the estimate is somewhat old, Brinkman (1983) found that as much as 75-95% of rainfall is recycled 

within the Congo Basin. 

In terms of carbon storage, as Table 3 indicates, the DRC has by far and away the majority of the Congo 

Basin’s carbon biomass. 

TABLE 3: GROWING STOCK, BIOMASS, AND CARBON BIOMASS IN THE CONGO BASIN 

COUNTRY 

Per 

hectare 

(m 3 /ha) 

GROWING STOCK 

Total 

(million 

m 3 ) 

Commercial 

(% of total) 

Per 

hectare 

(tons/ha) 

BIOMASS 

Total 

(million 

tons) 

CARBON IN 

BIOMASS 

Per hectare 

(tons/ha) 

Total 

(million 

tons) 

PER 

HECTARE 

VALUE 

US $ / t C 

Cameroon 61.8 1313 10.1 179.1 3804 90 1902 630 

Central 

167.0 3801 - 246.3 5604 123 2801 861 

African 

Republic 

Republic of 202.5 4551 30 461.1 10361 231 5181 1617 

Congo 

Democratic 230.8 30833 - 346.9 46346 173 23173 1211 

Republic of 

Congo 

Equatorial 65.6 107 - 141.5 231 70 115 490 

Guinea 

Gabon 222.5 4845 - 334.6 7285 167 3643 1169 

TOTAL 203.4 45450 329.5 73631 164.7 36815 1152.9 

Source: Zunia Knowledge Exchange (2007). 

In terms of the value of DRC’s forest resources, Table 4 provides an estimate of the annual flow of forest 

goods and services in the DRC. 


TABLE 4: ESTIMATED ORDERS OF MAGNITUDE OF THE ECONOMIC VALUE OF 

ANNUAL FLOWS OF FOREST GOODS AND SERVICES IN THE DRC 12 

Good/Service 

Formal timber 

Informal timber 

Fuelwood 

Bushmeat 

Other foods 

Medicines 

Materials, implements 

Watershed protection 

Ecotourism 

Carbon 

Option, existence values 

Cultural, political dimensions 

Source: Debroux (2007). 

Estimated order of magnitude of the economic value of current annual 

flows for selected forest products and services, in US dollars (market value, 

replacement value, or willingness to pay) 

Approximately 60 million 


Tentatively estimated over 1 billion 

Tentatively estimated over 1 billion 

No figures available 



Tentatively estimated 0.1-1 billion 

Marginal 

Zero 



5.1.2 AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS 

The DRC has the largest freshwater resources in Africa and its hydroelectric potential ranks fourth in the 

world; it has the potential to produce 150,000 Megawatts of power, approximately three times Africa’s 

present consumption, and could become the hub of a pan-African power grid. Aquatic resources in the 

DRC play an important role in many people’s livelihoods. Local natural resources are often the only 

means of subsistence for local populations, particularly since the onset of the war in the 1990s, which 

increased the isolation of the majority of rural communities from economic alternatives outside the 

exploitation of local resources. 

Although the DRC’s major aquatic ecosystems are described to a certain extent above, in late 2007/early 

2008, MENCT and IUCN with support from Ramsar, WWF and the Observatoire Satellital des Forêts 

d’Afrique Centrale (OSFAC) undertook a country‐wide wetlands/biodiversity assessment to identify 

priority areas for conservation and contribute strategic data to inform an ongoing government legal 

review. A summary of the findings for selected wetlands are provided below with the full findings 

provided in IUCN (2008). A map of wetland priority areas for the DRC is provided in Figure 8. 

12 

Author’s disclaimer and method. All figures mentioned in this table are to be taken as tentative approximations of orders of 

magnitude. In this war-torn country, databases are piecemeal and uncertain. There are few quantitative studies on the economic 

value of forests. They rarely cover representative samples at the national level, and extrapolations therefore cannot be robust. 

Uncertainty ranges are obviously high, yet difficult to assess in statistical terms. Methodologies used in various studies may not be 

comparable. Some estimates are based on assumptions and simplifications that are open to debate and could be inaccurate. All 

figures mentioned in this section must therefore be treated with the greatest care. This initial effort will need to be further improved 

and updated as better data become available. Additional studies are needed to that end. 


FIGURE 8: WETLAND PRIORITY AREAS FOR THE DRC 

Source: IUCN (2008). 

Area E1: Bassin d’Inkisi et Chutes 

The area is outstanding at sub regional scale for fish endemism. The Mbanza‐Ngungu caves harbor 

Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) and IUCN protected Caecobarbus 

geertsii; some caves are threatened by agricultural development with sediment entering caves. The caves 

also potentially harbor other endemic fish or invertebrate species. Along with the caves found in 

Lastoursville and Ndendé in Gabon, these caves represent a rare habitat type and constitute the only 

known cave systems in the Congo Basin. There are also many endemic fishes found in the rapids, e.g., 

Schilbe zairensis. 

Area E3: Fleuve Congo en dessous de Matadi à l’Estuaire (Bas Congo/Muanda and Seke‐Banza) 

The lower Congo River and associated coastal swamps, from the coast upstream to Boma, are rich in 

marine species. Mangrove National Park, located in the DRC, was designated as a Ramsar site in 1996. 

Mangrove areas are dominated by red mangrove (Rhizophora racemosa) as well as R. mangle, Avicenia 

nitida, A. tomentosa, Longucularia racemosa, Hibiscus tiliaceus, and Acrostichum aureum. Other 

vegetation includes wet grasslands (Heteropogon contortres and Andropogon schirensis), grassland 

savanna (Annona arenaria and Anisophylla pogei), swamp vegetation (Canavalia maritima, Ipomea 

pescaprae, and Alternanthera maritima), and strips of Corynanthe paniculata forest. Aquatic fauna 


includes shark, barracuda, sole, capitaine, snakes, turtles, crustaceans (shrimp, crab), and oysters. Notable 

mammals are manatee (Trichechus senegalensis) and 

dwarf buffalo (Syncerus caffer nanus). A mixture of 

FIGURE 9: MANGROVE NATIONAL PARK 

marine and freshwater fishes is found in the lower 

river, including several uncommon species of 

freshwater fish. Several cichlids have limited 

distributions in the lower portion of the Congo River, 

including Haplochromis fasciatus and Oreochromis 

lepidurus. Oil exploitation, increased human 

population, and the introduction of exotics threaten 

the lower Congo River. African bonytongue 

(Heterotis niloticus) has already been introduced. 

Area E7: Pool Malebo (Kinshasa) 

A large diversity of species occurs within Pool 

Malebo, apparently stemming from the different Photo: DAI 

input‐drainages, e.g., Kwango, Oubangui, Koyo, 

Kasai. Outstanding at the ecoregional scale for fish endemism:—a number of species are known only 

from Pool Malebo, including several mountain catfish, Dolichamphilius brieni, and Belonoglanis 

bouilloni, and an African suckermouth catfish, Atopochilus chabanaudi. However, collection intensity has 

always been high. This unique riverine habitat is subject to industrial and sewage pollution from the 

nearby cities of Kinshasa and Brazzaville. Fishing pressure is also high in this area. 

Area E8: Bassin du Lac Moëro 

The area is outstanding for the region for fish, aquatic mollusks and wetland bird endemism; there are ~15 

endemic cichlids, 12 endemic gastropods (out of ~ 27 total species), and high endemism among other fish 

taxa (e.g., Nothobranchius malaissei). The papyrus yellow warbler (Chloropeta bensoni) is known only 

from Lake Mweru at the mouth of the Luapula River in Zambia and from Nkole in DRC. Heavy fishing 

impacts the area, particularly in the lower Luapula River. 

Area E9: Upemba—Kundelungu—Lufira (Katanga) 

The area is outstanding for the region for fish richness with ~ 200 species of fish. Upemba National Park 

has been documented to be one of the richest regions globally for Odonata spp. The swamps, shallow 

lakes, and river channels of Upemba host a relatively rich aquatic fauna and suspected high odonate 

endemism. The area is also outstanding for the region for fish endemism with ~47 endemic fish species. 

Endemic mammals include the Upemba Lechwe (Kobus anselli) and Upemba shrew (Crocidura 

zimmeri). At least 15 reptiles are endemic to Katanga, and these include three aquatic reptiles: the 

Upemba hinged terrapin Pelusios upembae, Upemba water snake Lycodonomorphus upembae and 

Laurent’s water snake, L. leleupi. The area is a key site for migratory birds and a globally important 

habitat for the Shoebill stork and Wattled crane. The area/site regularly supports >20,000 water birds, and 

at least 16 endemic birds occur in this region, with two weaver birds restricted to the Lufira basin 

(Ploceus ruweti) and Upemba (Ploceus upembae). 


Area E13: Lac Maï‐Ndombe/Bassin de la Lukenie (Bandundu, 

Equateur) 

The area is a large, shallow blackwater lake with unique 

water quality (pH ~4.0, no minerals, high tannin content). 

The southwestern part of the Cuvette Centrale covers the 

lowest part of the extensive, low‐lying central depression of 

the Congo Basin. Maï‐Ndombe and the Lokoro harbor at 

least 120 fish species, including several endemics and 

undescribed species (Chrysichthis spp., Characins spp.). 

Freshwater mammals include Allen’s swamp monkey 

(Allenopithecus nigroviridis), Congo clawless otter (Aonyx 

congica), and giant otter shrew (Potamogale velox). The rare 

small kingfisher (Corythornis leucogaster leopoldi) is 

recorded around Lake Maï‐Ndombe. A new species of a 

brown semi‐aquatic snake of the genus Boulengerina sp. 

(Elapidae) has recently been discovered. 

The World’s Largest Ramsar Site 

As a result of MENCT’s and IUCN’s work, 

The Nigiri and Lac Maï‐Ndombe/Bassin 

wetlands were combined and designated as 

a Ramsar site in April 2009. Lying on the 

eastern side of the Congo River very close to 

the Equator, the Ngiri-Tumba-Maindombe 

wetland is the largest Ramsar site in the 

world extending over 25,365 square miles 

(6,569,624 hectares) of marshy rainforest 

punctuated by rivers and lakes. Located in 

the transboundary area of Lake Télé and 

Lake Tumba, the new site contains the 

largest continental freshwater mass in Africa, 

making it one of the most important wetlands 

in Africa and one of the most important 

freshwater masses in the world. The addition 

of this site brings DRC’s total Ramsar sites 

to three—Virunga National Park, Parc 

National des Mangroves, and now Ngiri- 

Tumba-Maindombe. 

Area E22: Ngiri (Equateur) 

The area is a key staging, feeding, breeding areas for migratory water bird species. The Ngiri region is a 

BirdLife International Important Bird Area for waterbirds including 1,000+ breeding pairs of Ardea 

purpurea and 870+ breeding pairs of Merops malimbicus. 

Area E14: Tshuapa ‐ Maringa ‐ Lopori ‐ Lomami (Equateur, Orientale, Maniema, Kasaï Oriental) 

The area is outstanding at the sub‐regional scale for fish richness -a large fraction of freshwater fishes 

only occurs in the northern Cuvette Centrale, but most species are often shared with the Republic of 

Congo. This region also provides core habitat for aquatic mammals, such as Allen’s swamp monkey 

(Allenopithecus nigroviridis). Other notable aquatic mammals include giant otter shrew (Potamogale 

velox), Congo clawless otter (Aonyx congica), sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekei), and chevrotain 

(Hyemoschus aquaticus). A water bird of special concern found in this region is Hartlaub’s duck 

(Pteronetta hartlaubii).This bird species is threatened throughout its range by habitat loss due to 

deforestation, and populations are believed to be declining. 

Area E23: Lac Albert (Orientale) 

The area is outstanding at the ecoregional scale for fish endemism: Labeo mokotoensis, is endemic to 

Lake Ndaraga (Altitude: 1750 m) at Mokoto in the national park, not far from Lake Albert. 

The area is a key staging, feeding, breeding areas for migratory waterbird species, and includes part of the 

Rift valley that is a key migratory route for wetland birds. The area/site regularly supports >20,000 

waterbirds annually. 

Area E29: Saline Mwashia (Katanga) 

The area is outstanding at the ecoregional scale for fish endemism—Oreochromis salinicola. This species 

is known only from Mwashia (also spelt Moa Chia and Mwashya), a region of saline springs near the 

Lufira River below the barrage lake at Mwadingusha in Katanga. 


Area E30: Lac Tanganyika (Katanga, Sud Kivu) 

The area is outstanding for the region for fish and aquatic invertebrate richness, and outstanding for the 

region for fish and aquatic invertebrate endemism, and has an extremely high degree of endemism in all 

taxonomic groups, including three hundred endemic fish species. 

5.2 LAND TENURE ARRANGEMENTS AND CONSERVATION 

The basic land tenure regime in the DRC reflects the 1967 Bakajika Law and the 1973 Land Tenure Law. 

During the colonial era, the government acknowledged the rights of local populations on the lands they 

‘occupied, cultivated and exploited one way or another according to local custom’. But in 1967, the socalled 

Bakajika law gave the government “full ownership rights over its domain and full sovereignty in 

conceding rights to land to up to 20 kilometers, forests and mines through the extent of its territory,” and 

in essence cancelled individual and community land property. The land law of 1973 then somewhat 

relaxed the rule by establishing several categories of land concessions as alternatives to private property 

allowing for certain types of ‘permanent private concessions,’ and also recognized that customary laws 

apply to user rights over ‘non-allocated lands in rural areas.’ According to the World Bank, important 

implementation decrees of the 1973 law were not adopted and up to now, the Congolese land ownership 

legislative framework remains incomplete; key implementation decrees were not adopted and the legal 

land tenure regime is characterized by the coexistence of written and customary laws and inconsistencies 

between the two have not been formally reconciled. Forest ownership and user rights are now subject to 

the 2002 Forest Code which sets out the basic framework for the GDRC’s forest policy. However, the 

Code does not modify the 1973 Land Law, but continues to assert state ownership over all areas of forest. 

It does broadly define certain categories of forest, such as for ‘exploitation’, ‘community use’ and 

‘conservation.’ 

Customary tenure in the DRC is very complex and differs considerably across regions. Given the diverse 

ethnic composition of DRC’s population, there is a dense and complex pattern of traditional ownership 

and use of land and forest resources over much of the country. Within each of the broad categories of 

‘Bantu’ agriculturalists and the various ‘Pygmy’ hunter-gatherers, there are marked differences and 

complexities of traditional land tenure regimes, and the two broad systems often overlap. For example, 

within hunter-gatherer groups, ‘territories’, where ‘access rights’ can be exercised, may depend on family 

lineages, and specific individuals within any clan may have access rights to areas of forest according to as 

many as 10 different lineages. 

Different parts of the forest in relation to ‘camps’ or villages may have a different tenure or access status, 

with gathering of forest products taking place within 2-3 kilometers of camps (within an area of 12-14 

square kilometers), whereas hunting areas may extend 30 kilometers away for good net-hunting sites. The 

base ‘camps’ might move 4-6 times per year, so the already complex system of access rights is also 

constantly moving. Groups of hunter-gatherers might well share parts of their ‘territories’ with members 

of other clans, and allow the migratory passage of them through their ‘own’ areas. The overall size of 

‘territories’ is thus extremely difficult (and in some sense meaningless) to calculate, but it might be in the 

range of 70-400 square kilometers for any hunting-gathering clan—possibly depending on the richness of 

the flora and fauna to be found within it. Some ‘territories’ are essentially linear, extending along 

preferred footpaths and other routes of migration through the forest. 

For agricultural communities, fields and fallow may extend up to 5 kilometers and sometimes up to 10 

kilometers from the village, but fishing, gathering and trapping might extend 20 kilometers. The 

‘territories’ used and claimed by agricultural communities are generally more fixed than those of hunter- 


gatherers, but not necessarily static. Rights to cultivate certain parts of the forest might only be granted to 

individuals by the community as a whole until the forest reaches a certain stage in regeneration, at which 

point it reverts to the community. Colonial and post-colonial governments added to the traditional tenure 

complexity by agglomerating smaller communities together, such that individuals within any given 

community might now, through their lineages in other communities, retain rights to cultivate land far 

from their own villages and closer to others. 

Each of these arrangements is complex enough, but they are often superimposed on top of each other, 

creating an enormously complex system that is likely to shift in both time and space. It is sometimes even 

further complicated by the fact that one or other of the ethnic groups might at least partly define their own 

‘territories’ in terms of the other groups’ land use. 

In the above context, the current land and resource tenure situation has several implications for tropical 

forest and biodiversity conservation in the DRC: 

• DRC’s legacy of legal dualism has resulted in relatively secure statutory land tenure and property rights 

for natural resources accruing to a small percentage of the population, i.e., those with permanent 

private concessions. The remainder of the population receives more insecure customary land tenure 

and property rights. While this dualism actually may have been instituted with the benign intention of 

retaining traditional management systems, in many areas it has resulted in confusion, as lands with 

legal titles intersect with those managed under customary use rights and as the pressure to utilize land 

resources increases with population growth and economic development. Land tenure and property 

rights for certain segments of the population, particularly Pygmies, women and other disadvantaged 

groups, have been significantly impaired by the constraints stemming from this dualistic system and 

may be further eroded as DRC moves toward political stability and potentially a more formalized 

system of land tenure and property rights; 

• If the methodology used for zoning DRC’s forests—and thus, ultimately, for the delineation and 

designation of ‘logging concessions’—does not properly take account of existing land claims and 

traditional tenure regimes, then it may not be consistent with the Council Resolution on the FLEGT 

Action Plan, the Congolese constitution, or with international standards, such as International Labor 

Organization resolutions. All logging concessions allocated under such a process are likely to be 

challenged locally, and to be a source of conflict. Because of the size of DRC, and the intention to 

phase the allocation of concessions’ over time, such conflicts are likely to continue to emerge over a 

period of many years; 

• The Forest Code makes no specific reference to the user rights of indigenous people. Although these 

groups enjoy the same consultation and participation mechanisms as all Congolese citizens, there are 

no implementation decrees that specify provisions to take account of their cultural and socioeconomic 

specificities; 

• The Forest Code does not modify the land tenure regime of 1973. It deals with forest products and 

services, but it does not transfer any rights concerning the land itself. Forest concessions and land 

concessions are distinct from one another. A forest concession deals exclusively with the forest, not the 

land. It is a rental contract with no transfer of ownership. 


• The situation for community reserves is similar - land rights are not transferred, only management and 

supervision rights. For example, in April 2006, the “Tayna Nature Reserve” was created via an Arrêté 

by MENCT, and the completely protected integral zone was officially integrated into the DRC network 

of protected areas. However, the management of the Reserve remains with the local community 

through a long-term contract in which ICCN subcontracted supervision of the Reserve to the Tayna 

Gorilla Reserve Project, an NGO representing the local community. Similarly, the Kisimba-Ikobo 

Nature Reserve was created by Ministerial Arrêté in April, 2006 and management of this reserve was 

subcontracted to another local NGO (ReCoPriBa), representing the local community. 

• Clarifying rights and responsibilities of local resource regimes is essential for establishing ecosystem 

payment services. The current land tenure system may affect the ability of communities to benefit from 

any payment for ecosystems services arrangements including those under Reducing Emissions from 

Deforestation and Degradation (REDD): 

o 

o 

For the community reserves, the assessment team was not able to examine ICCN management 

contracts to determine if there was provision for the subcontractors (and communities) to benefit 

directly from ecosystem services. Recently, however, the Walt Disney Company and Conservation 

International (CI) signed an agreement through which Disney will provide financing for 

development of REDD demonstration activities in the Tayna and Kisimba-Ikobo Community 

Reserves. Experience gained from these demonstrations will be invaluable in terms of gauging 

REDD land and resource problems and 

potential in the context of community 

reserves. Of particular interest will be 

the reaction of the local landowners 

who “ceded” land for the development 

of the reserves. 

For the remaining majority of DRC’s 

rural/forest populations with customary 

tenure, gaining benefits from payments 

from ecosystem services may be 

problematic. In conducting a multi 

country assessment of tenure issues 

related to REDD, Cotula and Mayers 

(2009) argue that security of local land 

and forest use rights is a key issue in the 

DRC, and the DRC’s “weak local 

tenure on paper and in practice” could 

undermine the formal value of 

customary rights and expose local 

people to dispossession as outside 

interests (in gaining REDD benefits) 

“muscle in.” They conclude that 

insecure tenure for local communities 

DRC Stakeholder Concerns about REDD 

• Limited recognition of land tenure rights - REDD will 

further threaten their informal and customary property 

rights (over which the state’s formal ownership takes 

precedence) as the value of land increases and 

government and private-sector interest in the land 

grows 

• Inadequate information about forest and carbon 

resources - the lack of knowledge about forest and 

carbon resources will be an impediment to effective 

REDD design and implementation 

• Weak institutional capacity and unclear roles - limited 

capacity of government staff responsible for forest 

management and control. 

• Inequitable revenue distribution - misgivings about both 

the national government and the local administrations 

involved in disbursing forestry funds, since the 

misappropriation of funds is commonplace; and 

• Fewer opportunities for development - suspicious of 

promises from the government and worried that REDD 

will be similar to previous projects that ended without 

the expected impact on their livelihoods; concerns that 

communities living in and around protected areas will 

not receive any compensation because their 

conservation activities will not be additional to business 

as usual 

combined with revenue management issues (corruption and rent-seeking) and limits in GDRC’s 

implementation/enforcement capacity could be major stumbling blocks for REDD implementation 

in the DRC. 


The same concerns expressed by Cotula and Mayers have in fact been expressed by a number of other 

stakeholders in the DRC. The World Resources Institute (WRI), along with the Council for 

Environmental Defense by Legality and Traceability (CODELT), engaged underrepresented local 

communities in the DRC on issues regarding REDD 13 . They conducted a series of workshops with 

local and indigenous communities, community-based NGOs, and parliamentary representatives to raise 

their awareness of forest/climate issues and REDD. The workshop participants then had an opportunity 

to discuss their aspirations and concerns regarding REDD’s design and implementation. Their five 

main concerns are presented in the text box above. 

Finally, the GDRC’s REDD Readiness Plan Idea Note (R-PIN) - a requirement for the GDRC to access 

resources from the World Bank’s Forest Carbon Partnership Facility - outlines how the GDRC views 

the challenges of deforestation and degradation in the country and how it intends to go about 

addressing them. Although this document is only an initial overview of the GDRC’s perceptions of the 

drivers of deforestation and degradation and principal elements of any approach to addressing it, they 

may strongly influence the orientation of future REDD plans and offer a glimpse into whose interests 

are served. In this context, Dooley (2008), in reviewing DRC’s R-PIN, noted that several major issues 

are not discussed including: cross-sectoral issues such as land ownership, resource use rights, rights to 

revenues from them, and taxation thereof; issues related to forest law enforcement and governance; no 

discussion of the role of indigenous role in the REDD processes; and no information provided about the 

monitoring of benefits from REDD implementation to biodiversity conservation or to rural livelihoods. 

13 

See Dkamela et al (2009). 


6. STATUS AND MANAGEMENT 

PROTECTED AREAS IN THE 

DRC 

The process of creating protected areas began early in DRC, with the creation of national parks and 

hunting reserves during the 1920’s and 1930’s by the colonial administration. At the present time, DRC 

has a large number of gazetted protected areas of various categories, but many of these have little in the 

way of existence on the ground, and few remaining natural values. According to the World Database on 

Protected Areas, there are about 66 terrestrial protected areas in DRC, and one marine area. The total area 

covered by these reserves is estimated at 286,345 km 2 or 12.21% of the surface area. General problems 

include the lack of management plans 14 and the lack of trained, equipped field staff. For the higher-profile 

protected areas, especially some of the national parks, ICCN is being assisted by international partners to 

create management plans and to re-establish park management. However, most of the protected areas in 

DRC do not fall into this category, and are not managed at the moment. 

6.1 PARKS AND WILDLIFE/NATURE RESERVES 

These categories include the highest-profile protected areas, and contain some areas of outstanding scenic 

value and high potential for tourism, as well as areas created primarily to protect wildlife. Parks in the 

central moist forest zone and along the rift valley generally benefit from international partners working 

with ICCN to establish management in the parks, with funding from CARPE and other donors. Parks 

elsewhere, especially in the north and in Katanga, do not have much support and have little management 

at present. 

6.1.1 THE ON-GOING PROCESS OF PROTECTED AREA CREATION IN DRC 

There is an on-going process of protected area creation in DRC at the moment, with several new reserves 

created since the 2003 Environmental Assessment, and several more in progress. New gazetted reserves 

are Sankuru Nature Reserve (2007, three million hectares), the Tumba-Lediima Nature Reserve in 

wetlands (2006, 750,000 ha), the Tanya Nature (gorilla conservation) Reserve (2005, 88,600 ha), the 

Kisimba-Ikobo (2005, 97,000 ha), the Itombwe Massif Nature Reserve, and the Kokolopori Natural 

Reserve (2009, 487,500 ha). All of these new initiatives are the result of collaboration between ICCN and 

international partners. 

6.1.2 HUNTING RESERVES 

Hunting Reserves (Domaines de Chasse) are a major component in terms of numbers and areas, 35 (out of 

about 66), covering a documented 80,000 sq km. However, databases of DRC protected areas are 

14 

To the assessment team’s knowledge, only Salonga and Maiko National Parks have complete management plans but it is 

generally agreed without international technical and financial assistance, ICCN does not have sufficient resources to implement 

them. 


somewhat vague on hunting reserves, and more than half of them have no size or other information listed, 

so the area is probably quite a lot larger than this. Hunting Reserves were mostly created in colonial 

times, to protect larger mammals for sport hunting. They fall into two general types, those that were 

created to create hunting opportunities near towns, and those created around National Parks or other more 

strictly protected areas to create a mosaic of land-use designations based on wildlife. In general, reserves 

in the first category have lost most of their wildlife interest and any other values over decades without 

management and with uncontrolled poaching. Hunting Reserves adjacent to protected areas include 

hunting reserves in Katanga around the Upemba and Kundelungu, Hunting Reserves in the north around 

Garamba National Park and Boma Nature Reserve. These reserves have also lost much of their value, but 

could be useful again in future if protected area management were reinstated. Clearly a national review of 

the current status and future management possibilities of the Hunting Reserves is needed. 

6.1.3 RESERVES FOR SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH 

Except for Yangambi (2500 km 2 ), these reserves 

FIGURE 10: ECOSYSTEMS RESEARCH 

are small, and were created during colonial times 

LABORATORY AT LUKI 

for scientific research. Many of them still have 

research stations attached. They differ from all 

other reserves in their administration, which is 

through Institutes of the Ministry of Research. 

The Institut National de Recherche Agronomique 

(INERA) is responsible for Yangambi and Luki, 

while CREF has Luo and Mabali. These reserves 

are listed as Biosphere Reserves, and are 

important because of their potential for research 

on conservation biology and reserve management. 

Timber, forest reserves, community reserves. By 

contrast to the national efforts to create 

conservation areas to protect wildlife, the 

protection of forest reserves for the sustainable 

Photo: DAI 

harvest of timber and for community use is not 

effective in DRC. These forests which could be used for the sustainable production of natural resources 

are currently outside of the protected area system. 

A list of protected areas 15 in the DRC is provided in Table 5 below while a map indicating DRC’s major 

protected areas is provided in Figure 11. 

TABLE 5: PROTECTED AREAS IN THE DRC 

Reserve Type DRC/IUCN Management Date Size Km2) 

Semliki-Kasenyi Hunting Zone ICCN 

Abumonbazi Reserve 5784 

Azande Hunting Zone VI ICCN 3200 

15 

From the World Database on Protected Areas supplemented with additional material. 



Bakano Forest Reserve Community Reserve 2006 957 

Basse Kando Hunting Zone VI ICCN 330 

Beni (Oicha) Hunting Zone VI ICCN 

Bili-Uere Hunting Zone VI ICCN 6000 

Bombo-Lumene Hunting Zone VI ICCN 1930 7000 

Bomu Nature Reserve Ib ICCN 10671 

Botende Hunting Zone VI ICCN 1959 10 

Bukama Hunting Zone VI ICCN 

Bushenyi (Idjwi Island) Forest Reserve IV ICCN 1939 41 

Bushimaie Hunting Zone VI ICCN 600 

Epi Hunting Zone ICCN 4562 

Epulu Hunting Zone VI ICCN 

Fizi Hunting Zone VI ICCN 

Gangala-na Bodio Hunting Zone VI ICCN 9859 

Garamba National Park II ICCN 1938 4920 

Gungu Hunting Zone ICCN 3800 

Hoyo Mont Strict Nature Reserve Ia ICCN 1947 200 

Itombwe Massif Nature Reserve ICCN 2006 1600 

Kahuzi-Biega National Park II ICCN 1970-75 6600 

Kalemie Hunting Zone ICCN 

Kalule Hunting Zone ICCN 

Kibali-Ituri Hunting Zone VI ICCN 

Kisimba Ikobo Nature Reserve ICCN 2006 970 

Kokolopori Nature Reserve ICCN 2009 4875 

Kolwezi Hunting Zone ICCN 3313 

Kundelungu National Park II ICCN 1970 7600 

Lac Tumba-Lédira Strict nature reserve ICCN 2006 7500 

Libenge Hunting Zone ICCN 

Lomako Forest Reserve ICCN 2006 3625 

Lowa Forest Community Reserve 2006 393 

Lualaba Hunting Zone VI ICCN 

Luama Kivu Hunting Zone VI ICCN 1935 3435 

Luama/Shaba Hunting Zone VI ICCN 4098 

Lubudi—Samppa Hunting Zone VI ICCN 1968 92 

Lubutu Gorilla Reserve ICCN 2006 2618 

Lueba-Izeba Hunting Zone ICCN 

Luki Forest Reserve INERA 1937 330 

Luo Scientific Reserve Scientific Reserve CREF 1990 501 

Mabali Scientific Reserve CREF 19 



Mai Mpili Forest Reserve ICCN 1142 

Maika-Penge Hunting Zone VI ICCN 9000 

Maiko National Park II ICCN 1970 10830 

Mangroves National Park II ICCN 930 

Maniema Forest Reserve ICCN 5092 

Marungu mountains Reserve 

Masako Reserve U. Kisangani 1953 21 

Massif d’Itombwe Nature reserve ICCN 6074 

Mitwaba Hunting Zone ICCN 

Mondo Missa Hunting Zone VI ICCN 10000 

Mont Kabobo Nature Reserve ICCN 1125 

Mulumbu Hunting Zone ICCN 

Mwanza Hunting Zone ICCN 

Mwekaji Hunting Zone ICCN 

Ngaenki Reserve 509 

Ngiri Reserve 

Okapi Faunal Reserve Faunal Reserve II ICCN 1992 13726 

Punia Gorilla Reserve ICCN 2006 3878 

Reserve d’Hippopotame de Mangai Hunting Zone VI ICCN 360 

Rubi-Tele Hunting Zone VI ICCN 1930 9080 

Rutshuru Hunting Zone VI ICCN 1953 642 

Sakanya Hunting Zone ICCN 

Salonga National Park II ICCN 1970 36560 

Sankuru Nature Reserve Ib ICCN 2007 30570 

Shaba Elephant Reserve 2050 

Swa-Kibula Hunting Zone VI ICCN 1400 

Tayna Nature Reserve ICCN 2002 900 

Tshuapa-Lomami-Lualaba National Park (pending) 12590 

Ubundu Strict Nature Reserve Ib ICCN 

Upemba National Park II ICCN 1939 11730 

Usala Gorilla Reserve ICCN 2005 1152 

Utunda and Wassa Gorilla Reserve ICCN 2005 3395 

Uvira Reserve 

Virunga National Park II ICCN 1925 7835 

Wamba Scientific Reserve ICCN 1974 3500 

Yangambi Biosphere Reserve Strict Nature Reserve INERA 2500 

Source: World Database on Protected Areas, supplemented with additional material 


FIGURE 11: MAJOR PROTECTED AREAS IN THE DRC 

Map: CARPE/USAID (2008) 


6.2 PROTECTED AREA STAFFING 

ICCN maintains staff in 39 of DRC’s 66 protected areas (ICCN 2008), which suggests that many of the 

hunting reserves exist on paper only. In general, ICCN is constrained by limited technical (including 

guards) and scientific staff in the field. For example, there are only 19 scientific staff assigned to national 

parks and key reserves, and the area to be covered by technical staff is enormous—e.g., the ratio of staff 

to area for Salonga National Park is one staff member per 244 km 2 which makes surveillance and control 

difficult. Staffing patterns for selected national parks and reserves are presented in Table 6 below, while 

staffing patterns for all of DRC’s protected areas by detailed labor category are presented in Annex E. 

TABLE 6: STAFFING PATTERNS FOR SELECTED NATIONAL PARKS AND RESERVES 

Staff By Category 

National Park or Reserve 

Total 

Administrative Technical Scientific 

Parc de la N’sele 48 31 2 81 

Upemba NP/Nord Lusinga 6 56 0 62 

Upemba NP/Sud Kayo 3 46 0 49 

Kundelungu NP/Katwe 6 32 0 38 

Salonga NP - Nord-Monkoto 4 43 0 47 

Salonga NP - Nord-Watsikengo 2 39 0 41 

Salonga NP - Nord-Mundjoko 1 29 0 30 

Salonga NP - Nord-Yokekelu 2 30 0 32 

Salonga NP - Sud-Anga 9 45 1 55 

Salonga NP - Sud-Mundja 0 22 2 24 

Virunga NP/Centre - Rwindi 11 76 0 87 

Virunga NP/Nord - Mutsora 9 98 0 107 

Virunga NP/Sud -Rumangabo 34 96 0 130 

Virunga NP - Lulimbi 10 68 1 79 

Virunga NP- Kabaraza 0 34 0 34 

Kahuzi-Biega NP - Tshivanga 15 116 4 135 

Garamba NP—Nagero & Gangala 19 180 0 199 

Maiko NP/Nord - Loya 2 19 0 21 

Maiko NP/Nord - Etaito 3 24 2 29 

Maiko NP/Sud -Lubutu 6 24 0 30 

Okapi Wildlife Reserve -Epulu 11 84 4 99 

Lake Tumba-Ledira S. Nat. Res 12 39 3 54 

TOTAL 213 1231 19 1463 

Source: ICCN (2008). 


6.3 MAJOR THREATS AND CHALLENGES FACING PROTECTED 

AREAS 

Threats facing protected areas fall into two categories, those resulting from human activities, which are 

fairly well documented, and those resulting from natural threats, which are very poorly understood at 

present. Threats from human activities are generally the result of poor management, so the lack of 

effective protected area management throughout DRC is the major threat to the protected area network. 

This threat manifests itself in several ways, principally through the uncontrolled poaching of megafauna, 

encroachment and habitat degradation caused by expanding agriculture or by displaced populations 

relocating into protected areas, and through illegal artisanal logging and mining. 

The management problem is being addressed by foreign organizations working with ICCN and other 

agencies, especially in the moist forest zone. Field projects funded by CARPE, GTZ and other 

organizations are re-establishing protection and wildlife management in the field. In the short term, this 

approach will establish conservation of selected protected areas essentially run by foreign organizations. 

In the longer term, establishing ICCN as a fully effective organization requires adequate numbers of welltrained, 

well-equipped staff at all levels, national, provincial and local, and there is currently no indication 

when this might happen. Alternative ways of managing protected areas at the local level, such as those 

being developed by Conservation International (CI) and local communities for gorilla protection, need to 

be more actively pursued. Overall, the threat to protected areas from poor management will continue for 

the foreseeable future, and the challenge of re-establishing protection will continue to be the main thrust 

of conservation efforts. 

Natural threats to protected areas come from catastrophic changes following natural events. Examples 

include volcanism affecting forests and lakes along the rift valley, or sea level change affecting the 

mangroves. Climate change is of growing concern as a possible driver of changes in vegetation cover, 

biodiversity and economic activities in the Congo basin. While climate change probably offers 

opportunities as well as threats, there is not enough information available to make sound predictions at 

present. The status of the current vegetation and biodiversity, its relationship to the current climate, and 

how and how fast it might change in future are all more or less unknown parameters. 

6.4 CONSERVATION OUTSIDE THE PROTECTED AREA SYSTEM 

Protected areas constitute a relatively small portion of the national territory and tend to be large and focus 

on the protection of the animals with the largest ranges. A lot of important diversity likely does not occur 

within these areas. Also, conservation and forest management outside protected areas defines the 

effectiveness of conservation nationwide. Outcomes can be very different, ranging from isolated protected 

areas in a matrix of agricultural lands as in, say, Ghana, or protected areas forming cores of natural habitat 

in a matrix of forest concessions, community forests and savannas that allow the existence of wildlife and 

other native species throughout landscapes, prevent genetic isolation and maintain forest canopy. The 

latter model is more desirable from the point of view of biodiversity, but for this to be realized 

biodiversity and natural habitat need to be managed in forest concessions, community forests, fisheries 

and in agricultural landscapes. DRC is taking the first steps in this direction with the forest concession 

management plans, which require zoning within the concession to protect natural values, and preliminary 

legislation for community forestry. Field projects in the moist forest zone are working with communities 

to protect selected megafauna species outside protect areas. However, these actions are just the beginning, 


and it will be some time before the effectiveness of conservation in timber concessions and community 

forests will be seen. 

Protected area creation is often inappropriate for the protection of natural values in wetlands, because of 

the multiple uses of these areas, including fishing, transportation, agriculture and port development. 

Wetlands management involves active collaboration between various agencies and interest groups to 

prevent overfishing, reduction of pollution from cities and mines, protection of riparian areas, reduction 

of sedimentation and sound planning of water-related development. The lack of this type of land use 

management in DRC presents a threat to wetlands, especially the biologically important rift valley lakes, 

but also to parts of the Congo River system. Although DRC is a Ramsar signatory, wetlands management 

for biodiversity and other natural values outside protected areas is almost non-existent at the moment. 


7. THREATENED AND 

ENDANGERED SPECIES 

The global status of red-listed species is monitored by IUCN and listed online at 

http://www.iucnredlist.org/. IUCN provides the following classification: CR—Critically Endangered, 

EN—Endangered, VU—Vulnerable, LR/CD—Lower Risk: Conservation Dependent, NT or LR/NT— 

Near Threatened. Within the DRC, the MENCT maintains two lists of protected species. There is a list of 

72 species that are completely protected by law, though in practice this protection is very weak. The 

second list is 234 partially protected species, whose exploitation requires a permit. The IUCN lists are 

presented here and organized taxonomically: Mammals, Herps, and Birds include both IUCN and DRC 

status, while Fish, Arthropods, Molluscs, and Plants have IUCN status only. Overall, knowledge of the 

distribution and status of most groups of organisms in the DRC is too poor for effective biodiversity 

measures to be designed and implemented. Given the lack of information, it is generally assumed that 

habitat degradation is leading to an undocumented and potentially large loss of biodiversity, especially in 

the east and the west of the country where the human footprint is largest. 

Although there has been little research on the possible impact of climate change on biodiversity, most 

specialists agree that as with tropical forests, loss of habitat through anthropogenic factors will impact 

biodiversity long before any possible impact from climate change. There are two possible exceptions to 

this. First, many endemic species with restricted ranges, are most at risk from minor climatic changes. 

One example is the endangered mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei), which is found in the 

Virunga Landscape. Migratory species—notably birds and marine turtles—are especially at risk due to 

climate change because they require separate breeding, wintering, and migration habitats of high quality 

and in suitable locations. 

7.1 MAMMALS 

The mammals category contains most of the highest profile endangered species. Some species continue to 

decline because of illegal trade in wildlife products, especially ivory and rhino horn, with DRC losing 

both of its rhinoceros species. The northern white rhino, which depended on protection in the Garamba 

National Park for survival, has apparently become extinct in the wild between the 2003 Environmental 

Analysis and this one. Elephant populations continue to decline because of a resurgent trade in illegal 

ivory with Asia. The decline of DRC’s elephant population is particularly distressing. As noted in Section 

4.2 above, Hart (2009) estimates that total DRC elephant population (forest and forest-savanna hybrids) is 

likely under 20,000, down from a population estimated at over 100,000 elephants 50 years ago, and still 

dropping due to poaching and the illegal ivory trade. War in the east has increased pressure on gorillas 

and other wildlife, and led to the catastrophic decline in hippo numbers in Lake Albert—only 1300 

animals remain—a drop of 95% in 30 years. Larger mammals are especially susceptible to poaching, and 

species continue to decline throughout DRC, both because of the uncontrolled bushmeat/endangered 

species trade and because of habitat loss. The DRC list of completely protected species lists many 

mammals, especially primates that are listed by IUCN in lower risk categories. However, wildlife 

protection for the most part depends upon protected area management rather than species-based 

initiatives. 


TABLE 7: THREATENED AND ENDANGERED MAMMALS 

Order Scientific Name English Name 

Status 

IUCN 16 

AFROSORICIDA Micropotamogale ruwenzorii Rwenzori Otter Shrew NT 1 

CARNIVORA Acinonyx jubatus Cheetah VU 1 

CARNIVORA Caracal aurata African Golden Cat NT 2 

CARNIVORA Lycaon pictus African Wild Dog EN 1 

CARNIVORA Panthera leo Lion, African Lion VU 1 

CARNIVORA Panthera pardus Leopard NT 2 

CETARTIODACTYLA Hippopotamus amphibius Hippopotamus VU 1 

CETARTIODACTYLA Kobus vardonii Puku NT 2 

CETARTIODACTYLA Okapia johnstoni Okapi NT 1 

CETARTIODACTYLA Tragelaphus eurycerus Bongo NT 2 

CHIROPTERA Eidolon helvum Straw-coloured Fruit Bat NT 2 

CHIROPTERA Hipposideros vittatus Striped leaf-nosed bat NT 0 

CHIROPTERA Otomops martiensseni Large-eared Free-tailed Bat NT 2 

CHIROPTERA Rhinolophus ruwenzorii Ruwenzori Horseshoe Bat VU 0 

EULIPOTYPHLA Crocidura kivuana Kivu Shrew VU 1 

EULIPOTYPHLA Crocidura lanosa Kivu Long-haired Shrew EN 1 

EULIPOTYPHLA Crocidura niobe Niobe’s Shrew NT 0 

EULIPOTYPHLA Crocidura stenocephala Kahuzi Swamp Shrew EN 1 

EULIPOTYPHLA Crocidura tarella Tarella Shrew EN 1 

EULIPOTYPHLA Myosorex babaulti Babault’s Mouse Shrew NT 0 

EULIPOTYPHLA Myosorex blarina Montane Mouse Shrew EN 1 

EULIPOTYPHLA Paracrocidura maxima Greater Shrew NT 0 

EULIPOTYPHLA Ruwenzorisorex suncoides Ruwenzori Shrew VU 1 

EULIPOTYPHLA Sylvisorex lunaris Moon Forest Shrew VU 0 

EULIPOTYPHLA Sylvisorex vulcanorum Volcano Shrew NT 0 

MACROSCELIDEA Rhynchocyon cirnei Checkered Elephant Shrew NT 0 

PERISSODACTYLA Ceratotherium simum cottoni Northern White Rhinoceros CR 1 

PERISSODACTYLA Diceros bicornis Black Rhinoceros NT 1 

PHOLIDOTA Phataginus tricuspis Tree Pangolin NT 2 

PHOLIDOTA Smutsia gigantea Giant Pangolin NT 2 

PRIMATES Cercopithecus dryas Dryas Monkey CR 2 

PRIMATES Cercopithecus hamlyni Owl-faced Monkey VU 1 

PRIMATES Cercopithecus lhoesti L’hoest’s Monkey VU 2 

PRIMATES Gorilla beringei beringei Eastern Gorilla CR 1 

PRIMATES Gorilla beringei graueri Mountain Gorilla EN 1 

Status 

DRC 

16 

CR—Critically Endangered, EN—Endangered, VU—Vulnerable, LR/cd—Lower Risk: Conservation Dependent, NT or LR/nt— 

Near Threatened 


Order Scientific Name English Name 

Status Status 

IUCN 16 DRC 

PRIMATES Gorilla gorilla gorilla Western Lowland Gorilla CR 1 

PRIMATES Lophocebus aterrimus Black Crested Mangabey NT 0 

PRIMATES Pan paniscus Bonobo EN 1 

PRIMATES Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii Eastern Chimpanzee EN 1 

PRIMATES Pan troglodytes troglodytes Central Chimpanzee EN 1 

PROBOSCIDEA Loxodonta africana africana African Elephant NT 1 

PROBOSCIDEA Loxodonta africana cyclotis African Elephant NT 1 

RODENTIA Delanymys brooksi Delany’s Mouse VU 0 

RODENTIA Dendromus kahuziensis Mt. Kahuzi Climbing Mouse CR 0 

RODENTIA Grammomys dryas Forest Thicket Rat NT 0 

RODENTIA Hybomys lunaris Moon Striped Mouse VU 0 

RODENTIA Lophuromys medicaudatus Brush-furred Rat VU 0 

RODENTIA Lophuromys rahmi Rahm’s Brush-furred Rat EN 0 

RODENTIA Thamnomys kempi Kemp’s Thicket Rat VU 0 

RODENTIA Thamnomys venustus Charming Thicket Rat VU 0 

SIRENIA Trichechus senegalensis African Manatee VU 1 

7.2 HERPETOFAUNA 

The reptiles list includes four marine turtles, listed by both IUCN and DRC, though it is still uncertain 

which turtle species of the eastern Atlantic occur regularly along the short DRC coastline. All three 

crocodile species are listed as fully protected in DRC, though only the dwarf crocodile is listed by IUCN 

as threatened. For amphibians, three rift valley frogs are listed as endangered, while others are threatened. 

On the list of species partially protected in DRC are 15 species of chameleon and the large monitor 

lizards, none of which are listed as threatened or endangered by IUCN. 

TABLE 8: THREATENED AND ENDANGERED HERPETOFAUNA 

Class Scientific Name English Name 

Status 

IUCN 

REPTILIA Dermochelys coriacea Leatherback turtle CR 1 

REPTILIA Eretmochelys imbricata Hawksbill turtle CR 1 

REPTILIA Caretta caretta Loggerhead EN 1 

REPTILIA Chelonia mydas Green turtle EN 1 

AMPHIBIA Hyperolius leleupi EN 0 

AMPHIBIA Hyperolius leucotaenius EN 0 

AMPHIBIA Leptopelis karissimbensis EN 0 

AMPHIBIA Afrixalus orophilus VU 0 

AMPHIBIA Callixalus pictus VU 0 

AMPHIBIA Hyperolius castaneus VU 0 

AMPHIBIA Hyperolius chrysogaster VU 0 

Status 

DRC 


Class Scientific Name English Name 

Status Status 

IUCN DRC 

AMPHIBIA Hyperolius discodactylus VU 0 

AMPHIBIA Hyperolius frontalis VU 0 

AMPHIBIA Hyperolius polystictus VU 0 

REPTILIA Kinixys homeana Home’s Hinge-back Tortoise VU 2 

REPTILIA Osteolaemus tetraspis African Dwarf Crocodile VU 1 

AMPHIBIA Phrynobatrachus acutirostris VU 0 

AMPHIBIA Phrynobatrachus bequaerti VU 0 

AMPHIBIA Phrynobatrachus versicolor VU 0 

REPTILIA Crocodylus niloticus Nile Crocodile LR/lc 1 

AMPHIBIA Arthroleptis pyrrhoscelis NT 0 

AMPHIBIA Leptopelis kivuensis NT 0 

REPTILIA Crocodylus cataphractus Sharp-nosed Crocodile DD 1 

7.3 BIRDS 

Bird distributions are relatively well known for the DRC, especially for the eastern highlands with large 

numbers of endemics and wetlands areas. The lowland forests are less well explored. Birds are included 

on the DRC list of completely protected and partially protected species. Eighteen important bird areas 

have been identified for DRC, mostly in existing protected areas. 

TABLE 9: THREATENED AND ENDANGERED BIRDS 

Scientific Name 

Common Name (ENG) 

Status 

IUCN 

Apalis argentea Kungwe Apalis EN 0 

Ardeola idae Madagascar Pond-heron EN 0 

Bradypterus graueri Grauer’s Swamp-warbler EN 0 

Caprimulgus prigoginei Itombwe Nightjar EN 2 

Chlorocichla prigoginei Prigogine’s Greenbul EN 0 

Eremomela turneri Turner’s Eremomela EN 0 

Francolinus nahani Nahan’s Francolin EN 0 

Phodilus prigoginei Congo Bay-owl EN 1 

Ploceus aureonucha Golden-naped Weaver EN 0 

Zoothera guttata Spotted Ground-thrush EN 0 

Afropavo congensis Congo Peacock VU 1 

Balaeniceps rex Shoebill VU 1 

Chloropeta gracilirostris Papyrus Yellow Warbler VU 0 

Circaetus beaudouini Beaudouin’s Snake-eagle VU 0 

Cossypha heinrichi White-headed Robin-chat VU 0 

Cryptospiza shelleyi Shelley’s Crimsonwing VU 0 

Egretta vinaceigula Slaty Egret VU 0 

status 

DRC 




Status status 

IUCN 

DRC 

Falco naumanni Lesser Kestrel VU 0 

Glaucidium albertinum Albertine Owlet VU 1 

Grus carunculatus Wattled Crane VU 1 

Hirundo atrocaerulea Blue Swallow VU 0 

Muscicapa lendu Chapin’s Flycatcher VU 0 

Nectarinia rockefelleri Rockefeller’s Sunbird VU 0 

Ploceus flavipes Yellow-legged Weaver VU 0 

Ploceus subpersonatus Loango Weaver VU 0 

Prionops alberti Yellow-crested Helmet-shrike VU 1 

Pseudocalyptomena graueri African Green Broadbill VU 1 

Schoutedenapus schoutedeni Congo Swift VU 0 

Torgos tracheliotos Lappet-faced Vulture VU 2 

Trigonoceps occipitalis White-headed Vulture VU 1 

Balearica pavonina Black Crowned-crane NT 2 

Bubo shelleyi Shelley’s Eagle-owl NT 0 

Circus macrourus Pallid Harrier, Pale Harrier NT 2 

Columba albinucha White-naped Pigeon NT 0 

Coracina graueri Grauer’s Cuckoo-shrike NT 0 

Crex crex Corncrake NT 0 

Ficedula semitorquata Semi-collared Flycatcher NT 0 

Gallinago media Great Snipe NT 0 

Glareola nordmanni Black-winged Pratincole NT 0 

Gyps africanus White-backed Vulture NT 2 

Indicator pumilio Dwarf Honeyguide NT 0 

Kupeornis chapini Chapin’s Mountain-babbler NT 0 

Kupeornis rufocinctus Red-collared Mountain-babbler NT 0 

Laniarius mufumbiri Papyrus Gonolek NT 0 

Malaconotus lagdeni Lagden’s Bush-shrike NT 0 

Neotis denhami Denham’s Bustard NT 2 

Oxyura maccoa Maccoa Duck NT 1 

Phoeniconaias minor Lesser Flamingo NT 0 

Psittacus erithacus African Grey Parrot NT 2 

Rynchops flavirostris African Skimmer NT 0 

Sterna balaenarum Damara Tern NT 0 

Terpsiphone bedfordi Bedford’s Paradise-flycatcher NT 0 

Zoothera crossleyi Crossley’s Ground-thrush NT 0 

Zoothera oberlaenderi Forest Ground-thrush NT 0 

Zoothera tanganjicae Kivu Ground-thrush NT 0 

Bucorvus abyssinicus Abyssinian ground hornbill LC 1 




Status 

IUCN 

Ciconia ciconia White stork LC 1 

Falco peregrinus Peregrine falcon LC 1 

Sagittarius serpentarius Secretary bird LC 1 

Pseudochelidon eurystomina African river-martin DD 1 

status 

DRC 

7.4 FISH 

IUCN lists twelve species of freshwater fish from DRC as threatened/endangered and a further five 

species as near-threatened. Fish are not included on the DRC protected species lists. Most of the listed 

fish species are from the rift valley lakes (16/17), especially Lake Tanganyika (12/17). One species is a 

blind fish from a cave complex near the lower Congo. No fish from the Congo River are listed by IUCN, 

reflecting either the health of the river or lack of inventory and monitoring. 

TABLE 10: THREATENED AND ENDANGERED FISH 

Family Scientific Name Common Name Status 

ALESTIIDAE Brycinus jacksonii Victoria Robber EN 

LATIDAE Lates angustifrons Tanganyika Lates EN 

LATIDAE Lates macrophthalmus Albert Lates EN 

LATIDAE Lates microlepis Forktail Lates EN 

CYPRINIDAE Barbus huloti VU 

CYPRINIDAE Caecobarbus geertsi Congo Blind Barb VU 

LATIDAE Lates mariae Bigeye Lates VU 

CICHLIDAE Neolamprologus christyi VU 

CICHLIDAE Simochromis marginatus VU 

CICHLIDAE Tropheus duboisi VU 

CICHLIDAE Tropheus polli VU 

CICHLIDAE Xenotilapia burtoni VU 

CYPRINIDAE Barbus lufukiensis NT 

CLARIIDAE Dinotopterus cunningtoni NT 

CICHLIDAE Eretmodus cyanostictus Tanganyika Clown NT 

CICHLIDAE Haplochromis labiatus NT 

CICHLIDAE Lepidiolamprologus attenuatus NT 

7.5 ARTHROPODA 

IUCN lists four species of arthropod from DRC as endangered, and a further two (both dragonflies) as 

critically endangered. Two of the endangered species are shrimp from Lake Kivu. The arthropod fauna of 

DRC is huge and most groups are poorly-known, so it will be a long time before a clearer idea of their 

status emerges. However, recent critical reviews of the status of dragonfly species have greatly improved 

the listings. 


TABLE 11: THREATENED AND ENDANGERED ARTHROPODA 

Order Family Name Status 

ODONATA CHLOROCYPHIDAE Platycypha pinheyi CR 

ODONATA LIBELLULIDAE Tetrathemis denticauda CR 

ODONATA CHLOROCYPHIDAE Chlorocypha molindica EN 

ODONATA CHLOROCYPHIDAE Chlorocypha schmidti EN 

DECAPODA POTAMONAUTIDAE Potamonautes gonocristatus EN 

DECAPODA POTAMONAUTIDAE Potamonautes idjiwiensis EN 

ODONATA PROTONEURIDAE Chlorocnemis pauli NT 

ODONATA CHLOROCYPHIDAE Chlorocypha jacksoni VU 

LEPIDOPTERA LYCAENIDAE Erikssonia acraeina VU 

HYMENOPTERA FORMICIDAE Pheidole neokohli VU 

HYMENOPTERA FORMICIDAE Serrastruma inquilina VU 

CALANOIDA DIAPTOMIDAE Tropodiaptomus simplex VU 

7.6 MOLLUSCS 

The IUCN Red Data List includes 11 gasteropods (snails) from DRC listed as endangered. These records 

were created in 1994 by D.S. Brown 17 for rare snails endemic to the rift valley lakes, but with no threats 

identified. The listings need to be updated. Molluscs are not included on protected species lists issued by 

the DRC Government. 

TABLE 12: THREATENED AND ENDANGERED MOLLUSCS 

Family Name Status 

THIARIDAE Anceya terebriformis EN 

THIARIDAE Bathanalia howesi EN 

VIVIPARIDAE Bellamya contracta EN 

VIVIPARIDAE Bellamya crawshayi EN 

VIVIPARIDAE Bellamya leopoldvillensis EN 

VIVIPARIDAE Bellamya mweruensis EN 

VIVIPARIDAE Bellamya pagodiformis EN 

VIVIPARIDAE Bellamya rubicunda EN 

THIARIDAE Hirthia littorina EN 

THIARIDAE Martelia tanganyicensis EN 

THIARIDAE Stanleya neritinoides EN 

AMPULLARIIDAE Lanistes bicarinatus VU 

AMPULLARIIDAE Lanistes intortus VU 

THIARIDAE Lavigera coronata NT 

17 

Brown, D.S. (1994). Freshwater Snails of Africa and Their Medical Importance, 305, CRC Press. 


Family Name Status 

THIARIDAE Melanoides admirabilis NT 

THIARIDAE Spekia coheni NT 

THIARIDAE Tanganyicia rufofilosa NT 

7.7 PLANTS 

Twelve plant species are listed as endangered by IUCN, including several timber species threatened by 

over-exploitation (Millettia laurentii, Pericopsis elata, etc.). A further 57 species are listed by IUCN as 

vulnerable, including most of the important timber trees in the Meliaceae (mahogany family). By contrast, 

botanists have been slow to identify plant species threatened by habitat loss, because of the lack of data 

and lack of field botanists in central Africa. One exception is the Zamiaceae or cycads, long-lived palmlike 

trees of mountains and rock outcrops, which figure prominently in the list including near-threatened 

and Data-deficient listings. There does not appear to be any DRC national list of protected plant species. 

TABLE 13: THREATENED AND ENDANGERED PLANT SPECIES 

Family 

Genus/Species 

IUCN 

STATUS 

SCYTOPETALACEAE Brazzeia longipedicellata EN 

RHIZOPHORACEAE Cassipourea acuminata EN 

LEGUMINOSAE Dialium excelsum EN 

EBENACEAE Diospyros crassiflora EN 

LEGUMINOSAE Gossweilerodendron balsamiferum EN 

MELIACEAE Lovoa swynnertonii EN 

LEGUMINOSAE Millettia laurentii EN 

LEGUMINOSAE Pericopsis elata EN 

LEGUMINOSAE Swartzia fistuloides EN 

MENISPERMACEAE Tiliacora lehmbachii EN 

MENISPERMACEAE Triclisia lanceolata EN 

ANNONACEAE Uvariopsis vanderystii EN 

LEGUMINOSAE Baphia incerta ssp. lebrunii VU 

CHRYSOBALANACEAE Magnistipula butayei var. greenwayi VU 

CELASTRACEAE Salacia lehmbachii var. uregaensis VU 

RUBIACEAE Tricalysia anomala var. montana VU 

LEGUMINOSAE Afzelia africana VU 

LEGUMINOSAE Afzelia bipindensis VU 

LEGUMINOSAE Afzelia pachyloba VU 

LEGUMINOSAE Albizia ferruginea VU 

SAPINDACEAE Allophylus agbala VU 

COMMELINACEAE Aneilema silvaticum VU 

LEGUMINOSAE Anthonotha lebrunii VU 

LEGUMINOSAE Anthonotha nigerica VU 

ANACARDIACEAE Antrocaryon micraster VU 


Family 

Genus/Species 

IUCN 

STATUS 

SAPOTACEAE Baillonella toxisperma VU 

LAURACEAE Beilschmiedia ambigua VU 

LAURACEAE Beilschmiedia bracteata VU 

LAURACEAE Beilschmiedia giorgii VU 

LAURACEAE Beilschmiedia mayumbensis VU 

LAURACEAE Beilschmiedia ugandensis VU 

LAURACEAE Beilschmiedia vermoesenii VU 

RUBIACEAE Calycosiphonia macrochlamys VU 

EUPHORBIACEAE Cleistanthus evrardii VU 

BORAGINACEAE Cordia mukuensis VU 

MYRSINACEAE Embelia upembensis VU 

ZAMIACEAE Encephalartos schaijesii VU 

MELIACEAE Entandrophragma angolense VU 

MELIACEAE Entandrophragma candollei VU 

MELIACEAE Entandrophragma cylindricum VU 

MELIACEAE Entandrophragma utile VU 

GUTTIFERAE Garcinia kola VU 

MELIACEAE Guarea cedrata VU 

MELIACEAE Guarea mayombensis VU 

MELIACEAE Guarea thompsonii VU 

RUBIACEAE Hallea ledermannii VU 

RUBIACEAE Hallea stipulosa VU 

SIMAROUBACEAE Hannoa kitombetombe VU 

ANNONACEAE Isolona dewevrei VU 

MELIACEAE Khaya anthotheca VU 

MELIACEAE Khaya grandifoliola VU 

OCHNACEAE Lophira alata VU 

MELIACEAE Lovoa trichilioides VU 

CAPPARACEAE Maerua elegans VU 

MELASTOMATACEAE Memecylon bequaertii VU 

COMPOSITAE Mikaniopsis vitalba VU 

LEGUMINOSAE Millettia lacus-alberti VU 

CUCURBITACEAE Momordica enneaphylla VU 

RUBIACEAE Nauclea diderrichii VU 

LAURACEAE Ocotea kenyensis VU 

RUBIACEAE Pavetta intermedia VU 

SAPINDACEAE Placodiscus paniculatus VU 

ROSACEAE Prunus africana VU 

STERCULIACEAE Pterygota bequaertii VU 


Family 

Genus/Species 

IUCN 

STATUS 

BOMBACACEAE Rhodognaphalon breviscupe VU 

ASCLEPIADACEAE Secamone racemosa VU 

MELIACEAE Turraeanthus africanus VU 

RUTACEAE Vepris mandangoa VU 

SAPOTACEAE Vitellaria paradoxa VU 

ZAMIACEAE Encephalartos ituriensis NT 

ZAMIACEAE Encephalartos marunguensis NT 

ZAMIACEAE Encephalartos schmitzii NT 

ZAMIACEAE Encephalartos laurentianus DD 

ZAMIACEAE Encephalartos septentrionalis DD 


8. THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY 

AND TROPICAL FORESTS 

8.1 UNDERLYING CAUSES 

The assessment of national policies and strategies and their effectiveness, institutional capacity, trade, 

private sector growth, participation in international treaties, and the role of civil society, provided in 

Sections 9 and 10 below suggest that there are a number of underlying causes of threats to biodiversity 

and tropical forests. 

• A war economy. The status of DRC’s biodiversity and tropical forest s has decisively influenced by its 

war economy. Based on the abundant natural resources of the country, the war economy provided huge 

spoils to war elites and also resulted in a deep restructuring of Congolese society. Ever since the end of 

the formal war in December 2002, the situation in the DRC still remains fragile; political transition is 

threatened by endemic violence in the eastern provinces and instability in many other areas. The issue 

is that despite positive changes in economic and political structures, former war elites—military, 

political, and economic—still remain influential. They defend their positions and benefits of the war 

era—including the exploitation of the country’s natural resources—and try to transfer them to the 

changed situation. 

• Corruption and the lack of good governance. These two problems are undermining progress towards 

conservation and sustainable management of forest resources and biodiversity in the DRC. Corruption 

and bad business practices are causing or maintaining a lack of transparency and good governance in 

the awarding of forest and mining concessions, often in contravention of the laws and regulations in 

force. This situation, along with growing formal and informal tax pressure on companies, is perhaps 

discouraging long term investments vital to improving the sustainability of DRC’s natural resources. 

Poor governance also diverts part of the profits from the exploitation of natural resources and reduces 

equitable distribution of benefits among DRC’s populations, particularly rural communities. 

• Weak institutional capacity. Institutions managing forest and conservation interests were basically 

abandoned after the war without a budgetary allocation and left to fend for themselves. Employees tend 

to be older with many near retirement age and only a small percentage has had any educational training 

beyond secondary school. DRC’s universities have barely functioned for the past 20 years; the lack of 

university-level courses in natural resources management, biodiversity and taxonomy, means there are 

few prospects to replace retiring cadres and rejuvenate these institutions. An inflated civil service based 

on political patronage means that salaries are low, often paid late and with very few resources available 

for office equipment or transport. This saps the offices and employees of dynamism, encourages a 

resistance to change, weakens their motivation, and affects the quality of their work. 

• Lack of data, monitoring and evaluation. Lack of knowledge about the distribution and state of 

biodiversity, a poor understanding of the ecology of the forest/savanna mosaic areas and their carbon 

dynamics, and a poor understanding of vegetation, dynamics, significance, and effects of long term 

climate change are major obstacles for conservation and sustainable development in the DRC. 


Moreover, a reliance on satellite imagery, analyses and procedures for monitoring changes in 

vegetation combined with little effective ground truthing means that any planning and monitoring is 

based on canopy cover with little understanding of what’s going on beneath the canopy. Not only are 

the exact distribution and current size of the populations of most species unknown, but also very few 

reliable historical data exist. Furthermore, the few existing historical data are often either ignored or 

called into question. It is therefore virtually impossible to set realistic baselines for monitoring and 

evaluation. Improving monitoring and evaluation tools and capacity is therefore essential so that 

decision-makers can have permanent access to the information in order to make the best possible 

decisions. The lack of available data is primarily due to the slow-down in research since the end of the 

1970s, combined with a reduction of GDRC and donor funding allocated to research. 

• Weak law enforcement. One of the key challenges facing environmental protection and management is 

the lack of enforcement of the existing laws. There are several reasons for this. First, the DRC’s civil 

conflict, and the resulting shortages in travel budgets, supplies, and equipment have limited the ability 

of most GDRC agencies to actively implement law enforcement operations. When agency personnel do 

go into the field to monitor compliance, transport and expenses are usually paid by the entity being 

monitored. Second, given the post conflict situation and new mandates, there seems to be a certain 

hesitancy among environmental agencies to enforce laws given current socio political and economic 

interests and concerns. In addition to these issues, there are two other contributing factors to the weak 

law enforcement problem: 

− Legislation is far removed from the realities that it is trying to influence. Drafted by Kinshasa-based 

lawyers and technicians with much external support, DRC’s biodiversity/forest legislation is not 

based on realities in the field but on the assumption that field reality is manageable and that the 

future is predictable. This view has resulted in top down ‘technical’ solutions to environment/natural 

resource development problems, including overly comprehensive and difficult to implement 

legislative mandates. Complicated legislation results in poor understanding and contributes to 

difficulties in enforcement. The net result of this technical approach is that the majority of codes are 

far removed from the reality they are trying to influence. 

− Low community awareness of policies and legislation. The problem of weak law enforcement is also 

exacerbated by the fact that many communities/resource users are unaware of the new Forest Code. 

For example, although MENCT and many NGOs maintain that they have made every effort to 

consult with communities on the new legislation, many people interviewed stated that there is 

relatively little awareness on the details of the new code, particularly with regard to conceptual 

clarity on community and conservation forestry. In particular, they cited an overall lack of 

understanding of the rules and procedures regarding community decisions on issues such as allowing 

land for logging and lack of clarity on what actual decision-making powers communities have at the 

local level regarding forest management as major problems. 

• Lack of a holistic approach to environment/natural resource management. In general, MENCT tends 

to view commercial logging as the sole indicator of economic value in the forest sector. There is little 

appreciation of the economic value of non-timber forest products (NTFP—including bushmeat) in 

terms of the restrictions posed by the protected areas, community access to NTFPs in logging 

concessions or an acknowledgement that NTFPs from forests and wetlands are also a major source of 

economic benefits for DRC’s rural populations. In most instances, MENCT and ICCN focus on 

curtailing negative practices with regard to hunting and the bush meat trade rather than on positive 

economic ventures that could be properly regulated. 


• Barriers to alternative livelihoods. Although there are few alternative livelihood programs in the DRC, 

the ones that do exist have had very limited success; the livelihood options presented to communities 

by these programs cannot compete with incomes gained from illegal logging, the bushmeat trade or 

mining in the parks and reserves. A major part of the reason for this is that the livelihoods offered are 

based on an assessment of what communities “want to do” rather than any kind of value chain analysis 

of several subsectors to identify products and services that show the greatest potential for increasing 

household income, and what elements along the value chain—from access to technical information and 

capital to market access—act as barriers to alternative livelihood development. 

The problem of alternative livelihoods is particularly apparent around DRC’s National Parks. The 

Forest Code provides that 40% of revenues from logging concessions will be returned to the 

communities. Communities that live around strictly protected areas, however, receive no compensation 

for the loss of rights to forest products but are expected to make up the difference through donor 

supported alternative livelihood programs. As these programs fail to generate income, communities 

continue to illegally log, hunt bushmeat, and dig for diamonds and cassiterite. 

• Insecure land and resource tenure. Poverty, land, and the environment are inextricably linked. The 

rural poor of DRC depend almost entirely upon land and other natural resources for their livelihoods, 

including their food, fuel, shelter, water and medicines. Unequal access to and ownership of land and 

other resources have contributed significantly to economic and political inequities and environmental 

degradation throughout DRC’s history, and have exacerbated tensions and conflict. The existing 

systems of land acquisition favor the wealthy and the elite. Women in particular have had limited land 

and resource rights. The need for and importance of rapidly developing a land tenure policy and 

legislation is becoming increasingly critical, not only for forestry issues but for the country as a whole. 

• Absence of a strategy to address the compromises between environment and economic development. 

Sustainable development is based on the notion that growth strategy should take into account 

environmental and social concerns, as well as the efficient management of resources to achieve longterm 

prosperity. This concept has been endorsed by the international development declarations and 

their initiatives, starting with the Rio Summit in 1992 and the World Summit on Sustainable 

Development in Johannesburg in 2002, and finishing with the recent launch of the Millennium 

Development Goals (MDGs). DRC’s Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper does not address this issue, and 

the assessment team is concerned that without a strategy or policy that specifically addresses tradeoffs 

between the environment and economic development, mining, logging and agro industrial concessions 

will continue to take precedence over the environment as they have done in the past. 

8.2 DIRECT THREATS 

8.2.1 AGRICULTURE EXPANSION 

Shifting Cultivation 

As the human population grows, so does the need to sustain it. With a population growth of 3.2 %, DRC’s 

population has gone from approximately 40 million in 1990 to an estimated 2009 population of 

68,692,542, and is expected to roughly double in the next 20 years. Although agriculture is a primary 

cause of deforestation, estimated at 0.4-0.6% by FAO, for the most part, its impact is still localized, 


affecting a small part of the landscape. For example, in DRC’s central basin which is relatively sparsely 

populated, shifting cultivation results in only 

minimal losses of forest cover. 

Shifting cultivation is poorly understood 

despite its widespread use in the lowland 

tropics. It is basically a rotation agroforestry 

system, where one to several years of 

cultivation is followed by fallow, during which 

scrub or secondary forests develop. In a 

traditional shifting cultivation system, only a 

small percentage of a village’s agriculture 

lands are in cultivation in any given year, 

sometimes less than 10%. The non-cultivated 

lands support scrub and forest, and supply a 

diversity of forest products, including bush 

meat, fuel wood, wild food plants, medicinal 

plants, and plants producing natural fibers and 

construction materials such as building poles, 

thatch, rattan and raffia. Passive cultivation of 

FIGURE 12: SHIFTING CULTIVATION IN 

WESTERN DRC 

Photo: Bruce G. Marcot 

woody plants is also a feature of shifting cultivation. Besides forest products, fallows provide two 

important services: they restore soil fertility and they eliminate weeds from crop lands. 

Shifting cultivation also has few inbuilt protections against intensifying land use, since in its traditional 

form shifting agriculture is regulated by economics alone, it is simply not practical to bring too much land 

into cultivation. Soil infertility and weed problems will increase, increasing the labor required to produce 

crops. Urban demand for food and increased crop values through easier market access tip the scale in 

favor of more intensive cultivation, with the reduction or elimination of fallows, and this process is 

occurring around Kinshasa and the densely populated areas in Eastern DRC. 

Thus, when it is suited to a local context, shifting cultivation in itself is not destructive, especially if it is 

practiced on a small scale. But when demographic pressures, civil strife, poorly planned infrastructure 

projects and unfair land-tenure regimes occur, they undermine traditional shifting agricultural systems 

and threaten natural forests. This is the case of Eastern DRC—Ituri, Maiko-Tayna-Kahuzi-Biega and 

Virunga—where the most urgent problems are related to demography. These landscapes are seeing an 

influx of people from the densely populated regions of the Albertine Rift. This is not a new phenomenon, 

but it has accelerated substantially over the last few decades and could become totally uncontrollable in 

the years to come with the return of security and the rehabilitation of roads. 

Agro-Industrial Crops—Oil Palm 

DRC was the world’s second largest palm oil producer in the 1960s but years of economic decline have 

left it as a minor producer Current oil palm production in DR Congo stands at around 240,000 metric 

tons, while demand is expected to grow to 465,000 metric tons in 2010 and 540,000 metric tons in 2015. 

Gas and diesel imports to DRC were 251,000 metric tons in 2006 according to the International Energy 

Agency (IEA), suggesting that biodiesel production from palm oil could meet the country’s entire demand 

for diesel and palm oil. 


Thus, future deforestation may be driven largely by the expansion of palm oil plantations into forest 

regions. Indeed, Chinese companies are currently paying more than $300 per hectare for forest lands with 

the goal of transforming these areas into palm plantations. Allafrica.com reported on July 10, 2009 that 

ZTE Agribusiness Company Ltd, a Chinese firm, plans to establish a three million hectare oil palm 

plantation in the DRC for biofuel production, although the report did not specify whether production 

would be for local consumption or export, nor did it note the location of the plantation. The bottom line is 

that the opportunity costs of slowing the expansion of palm oil into dense forests may be higher than the 

costs of slowing shifting agriculture. Virtually all of the dense humid (high carbon) forests of the DRC 

are on soils and in climatic conditions that are suitable for palm oil production. 

8.2.2 ILLEGAL LOGGING 

With some exceptions, notably from the Rainforest Foundation and Greenpeace, it is generally thought 

that at least short-term, the impact from industrial logging on DRC’s tropical forests will be minimal. 

Industrial timber exports from DRC are modest, less than 15% the exports of Gabon or Cameroon which 

have only a fraction of DRC’s forest resources. Along with the new Forest Code, the GDRC has also 

launched a forest reform agenda that included: (i) cancellation of 25.5 million hectares of patently illegal 

logging contracts; (ii) a legal review (assisted by a third party) of the remaining logging contracts; (iii) a 

moratorium on all new logging contracts; (iv) a new forest tax system that discourages speculation and 

directs 40 percent of the revenue from area taxes to forest communities and local governing bodies; (iv) 

the conversion of old logging contracts into new long-term sustainable management concession contracts 

that require the concessionaire to fulfill strict social and environmental obligations; (v) participatory 

forest zoning to build consensus on which forest areas should be biodiversity reserves, production forests, 

rural community forests, or converted to other uses; and (vi) the integration of participatory approaches, 

public dissemination of information, and communication at all levels to disseminate the new policy 

directions and garner support from civil society. 

Discussions with the Fédération des Industries du Bois (FIB) appear to confirm this assertion. Given high 

transportation costs and the high costs of externalities (bribes), nearly all of the concessions under FIB are 

only cutting high value species at a rate of about 1-2 cubic meters per hectare or less than one tree per 

hectare. Although this practice—referred to as high grading—is said to have an impact on regeneration of 

commercial species, there is no literature or research available which would support this hypothesis. On 

the contrary, some argue that opening of the forest canopy through selective logging actually enhances 

biodiversity by providing more diverse habitats for different species. 

While the impact from industrial logging appears minimal, the same cannot be said for artisanal logging 

which supplies the majority of local and regional markets. In 1998, WRI 18 stated that “artisanal logging 

for local furniture-making and construction, which is poorly monitored, consumes three times more 

timber than industrial logging for export. Most artisanal loggers operate at the edge of forests and 

therefore do not increase access to forests. However, farmers often clear these areas once artisanal loggers 

have removed the largest trees.” 

18 

Wolfire, D., Brunner, J & Sizer N. (1998). Forests and the Democratic Republic of Congo: Opportunity in a Time of Crisis. 

Washington, DC; World Resources Institute. 


Unfortunately, since 1998, the artisanal logging situation has not improved. The Forest Code does not as 

yet have a framework or set of regulations governing artisanal logging; in theory only MENCT can issue 

artisanal logging permits (maximum size of 50 ha), but in practice provincial governments have been 

issuing permits as well. Moreover, MENCT has no accurate record of the number of permits issued and 

there is no routine monitoring of artisanal sites. Additionally, many of the artisanal operations are prefinanced 

by industrial concessions. This is particularly worrisome as the Minister MENCT has come 

under pressure to add additional concessions due to the current economic situation, and that most of the 

concession to be added have links to and support illegal artisanal mining. Considering the fact that 

artisanal logging is one of the most lucrative activities—particularly for high value species such as 

Afromosia spp.—in eastern DR Congo due to available markets in neighboring countries—Uganda, 

Kenya and Rwanda (IUCN 2008), the assessment team suspects that artisanal concessions have moved 

operations to the center of the forests, and that artisanal operations followed by shifting agriculture are a 

major cause of forest loss. 

8.2.3 THE BUSHMEAT TRADE 

Only recently has bushmeat become an important source of 

income in the DRC. In rural areas, people once made money 

growing and selling palm oil, cacao, coffee, rice and peanuts. 

Over the past 20 years, livelihoods have suffered as a result of 

the civil conflict, lack of agriculture extension services, and 

increasingly poor transport systems that make it more difficult 

and costly to transport goods to markets. With farming 

unprofitable and almost no off-farm jobs available, many 

rural people have resorted to commercial hunting and trading 

of bushmeat because high returns can be made from a 

relatively small investment, and wildlife are free-for-thetaking. 

DRC’s urban populations fuel the demand for 

bushmeat; these populations have grown substantially since 

the 1960s and their buying power has declined with the weak 

economy. Families that were once able to afford to eat beef, 

chicken, and pork have now shifted to typically less 

expensive wildlife as their meat of choice. Bushmeat is 

relatively inexpensive because hunters do not pay the costs of 

producing wildlife as do farmers who raise livestock. 

Moreover, logging companies have opened up once-isolated 

FIGURE 13: PALM CIVET FOR 

SALE IN BAS CONGO 

Photo: DAI 

forests, providing hunters with easy access to abundant wildlife and traders with cheap transportation, 

which in turn reduces bushmeat production costs and increases supply to urban markets. 

As a result, the DRC has the highest rate of bush meat consumption in the Congo Basin, estimated by 

Wilkey to be over 1 billion kg annually or roughly 897 kg per hectare of forest area per year. In terms of 

species, although country-wide data are not available, one study in the Ituri forest found that 60–95% of 

bushmeat consumption was from ungulates (mainly duikers), 5–40% from primates (including Graul’s 

gorilla), and only 2 percent from rodents and other species. Quantitative studies show that: a) bushmeat 

remains the primary source of animal protein for the majority of DRC families; b) bushmeat hunting can 

constitute a significant source of revenue for forest families, from $300 to $1000 annually, considerably 

more than the average household income for the DRC and comparable to the salaries of those responsible 


for controlling the bushmeat trade.; c) bushmeat consumption by low density populations living in the 

forest may be sustainable at present; d) demand for bushmeat by growing numbers of urban consumers 

has created a substantial market for bushmeat that is resulting in a halo of defaunation around population 

centers, and may be driving unsustainable levels of hunting, even in relatively isolated regions; and e) 

large-bodied animals (ungulates and primates) with low reproductive rates are most susceptible to overexploitation 

compared with more r-selected species (rodents) that can tolerate relatively intensive hunting 

Though habitat loss is often cited as the 

primary cause of wildlife extinction, 

commercial bushmeat hunting is now the 

most immediate threat to wildlife 

conservation in the DRC. The scale of 

commercial hunting to supply large, 

rapidly growing urban populations with 

meat is now exceeding levels that can be 

tolerated by most large-bodied, slowreproducing 

forest animals. At current 

levels of exploitation this will result in the 

progressive depletion and local extinction 

of most species of apes and other primates, 

large antelope, and elephant from hunted 

forests. Only small, rapidly reproducing 

animals such as rodents and the smallest of 

antelope are likely to survive the pressure 

from commercial hunters. 

FIGURE 14 : THE LANDSCAPE AT KUNDULUNGU 

NATIONAL PARK IN KATANGA 

The park’s animal populations have been decimated as a result of 

commercial bushmeat hunting led by Mobutu's sons in the early 

1990s and continue today by local political elites. 

Moreover, hunting indirectly impacts the 

forest by (1) threatening the survival of Photo: DAI 

forest carnivores such as leopard, golden 

cat, crowned eagles, and snakes that rely on bushmeat species as prey and (2) significantly reducing the 

number of seed dispersing animals, thus changing tree species regeneration rates and forest structure and 

composition. The direct and indirect impacts of unsustainable hunting will have both immediate and longterm 

adverse impacts on the structure and function of the forest. In addition, bushmeat consumption may 

place people in increased jeopardy of contracting and transmitting animal-derived (epizootic) diseases 

such as Ebola or other emerging pathogens. 

With the exception of some command and control measures in logging concessions, GDRC attempts to 

control the bushmeat trade have been largely ineffective due to pervasive corruption, the involvement of 

political elites in the bushmeat trade, reluctance to enforce existing regulations due to the number of 

players in the bushmeat value chain (traders, transporters, market sellers and restaurateurs) that benefit 

from the bushmeat trade, and a reluctance to devolve ownership and management rights of forest 

resources to local communities. However, as demand for bushmeat increases, more people will be 

encouraged to become involved in the trade, increasing the pressure on wildlife populations, threatening 

the survival of rare species, and jeopardizing access of future families to the nutritional and income 

benefits from wildlife. 


8.2.4 MINING 

The DRC is endowed with exceptional mineral resources; it contains some of Africa’s largest deposits of 

copper, cobalt, and coltan (80% of the world’s deposits) and significant reserves of gold, diamonds, 

cadmium, zinc, cassiterite, magnesium, and other minerals. In the past, the DRC has been unable to 

harness its mineral wealth for economic development, due largely to corrupt management and political 

interference in the parastatal mining companies, and to inappropriate policies that limited private sector 

investment. 

The GDRC has taken some important steps to stimulate development of the sector, including restructuring 

the parastatals and allowing private sector investment, and the passage of the 2002 Mining Code, and is 

counting on growth in the mining sector as a means of contributing significantly to employment, income 

generation and infrastructure development. However, the World Bank (2008) argues that these measure 

“will not result in a positive economic outcome or improved well-being of the Congolese, because the 

administration of the sector is dysfunctional—handicapped by insufficient institutional capacity, 

continuing political instability, corruption, and fundamental deficiencies in governance.” 

As Figure 15 indicates, there is a high degree of geographic overlap between mineral reserves and DRC’s 

tropical forests, Miombo woodlands and the protected area network. The danger is that as investment in 

the mining sector increases without a concurrent change in administration of the sector, mining activities 

will continue to threaten the DRC’s forests and biodiversity, and by extension affect global climate 

change. In short, if exploitation continues to occur and expand within these areas as expected, the 

potential to significantly affect biodiversity and forest cover should be considered very high. Forest 

destruction will be locally extensive and permanent. In almost all cases, the impacts can only be mitigated 

and never eliminated. 

Industrial Mining 

New investments. Private investment in Congo is beginning. According to the World Bank, Congo has 

seen nearly $3 billion in new private sector investment since 2003, mainly in the mining sector. U.S.- 

based Freeport McMoran has begun activities at one of the largest mining concessions in the world, in 

Tenke-Fungurume, located in Katanga. The GDRC, like other African states, is working with Beijing. 

Reports indicate that China and the Congo are likely to agree to a multiyear set of business deals worth 

approximately $9 billion. China’s central focus is to facilitate its access to Congo’s enormous deposits of 

copper and cobalt, which it needs for its own development. Given the number of mining permits and their 

proximity to DRC’s protected areas (see Figure 17), the issue is whether the GDRC has the capacity and 

political will to enforce environmental regulations under the new Mining Code. To the assessment’s 

team’s knowledge, of the new investments, only Freeport has submitted the required environmental and 

social impact assessment (in March 2007), but has yet to hear from the Ministry of Mines on its status. 

Yet the potential environmental impacts of mining are enormous and can include: 

• Siltation of dams and rivers; 

• Indiscriminate deforestation; 

• Additional degraded lands from settlement patterns of miners; 

• Ground and surface water pollution, including acidic mine drainage and heavy metal pollution from 

copper, lead, arsenic, mercury, or cyanide, if the excavation is in highly mineralized zones; 


• Dust pollution; 

• Water table depression as a result of pumping water through shafts, and in some cases through 

boreholes; 

• Oil pollution from leaks from vehicles and machinery; and 

• Habitat fragmentation, decreased habitat effectiveness, and increased mortality of wildlife, through 

increased bush meat consumption 

FIGURE 15: OVERLAP BETWEEN MINERAL RESERVES AND DRC’S TROPICAL 

FORESTS, MIOMBO WOODLANDS AND THE PROTECTED AREA NETWORK 

Source: Institute for Environmental Security (2008) 


Legacy issues, pollution stocks, and pollution 

flows. Mining has taken place in many areas of FIGURE 16: OLD GECAMINES SITE NEAR 

DRC since the early 1900s. Over the years, LUBUMBASHI 

significant stocks of pollution have accumulated, 

and old mine workings have not been properly 

closed or rehabilitated. For example, there are 

allegations that a number of furnaces and processing 

plants in Katanga are polluting the water supply for 

the City of Lubumbashi. The GDRC has not 

prepared a comprehensive inventory of the legacy 

sites and a national environmental remediation plan 

for the pollution stocks. Importantly, the partnership 

agreements signed between the state-owned 

enterprises and private partners generally explicitly 

waive any responsibility for existing environmental 

liabilities by the private partner or the new entity Photo: DAI 

which is created to operate the mine. Furthermore, 

the Mining Code specifies that all mineral rights holders need to establish an environmental rehabilitation 

guarantee in favor of the government. International practice is generally for the mineral rights holder to 

arrange for the posting of a bond or guarantee through a reputable financial institution, and the 

establishment of a special reserve account within the financial statements of the company to cover the 

eventual costs of rehabilitation. In practice, since there are no international or local banks in Congo 

willing to issue these guarantees, the company must pay substantial sums up-front as rehabilitation 

guarantees upon issuance or renewal of the mineral right. But according to the World Bank (2008) no 

evidence can be found of effective government agency control of the rehabilitation funds that the 

companies have paid, and the funds that have been paid are unaccounted for. 


FIGURE 17: GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF PROTECTED AREAS, MINING PERMITS, AND FOREST TITLES IN THE DRC 

Source: ICCN/SYGIAP (2008).Artisanal Mining 


It is estimated that 90 percent of minerals production in DRC comes from artisanal miners. Estimates vary 

on the number of artisanal miners in DRC: 500,000 to 2,000,000 diggers (creuseurs) are thought to be 

actively and directly involved in extraction of minerals. With an average of four to five dependents for 

each digger, the total number of persons whose livelihood depends on this activity for could be as high as 

8 to 10 million—or 14 to 16 percent of the total population of Congo. 

Artisanal and small-scale mining takes place in virtually all of DRC’s mineral producing areas: 

• Gold is mined by artisans principally in the east of the country (Orientale, Ituri, Kivus); 

• Cassiterite is exploited by artisans in the Kivus; 

• Diamonds are mined by an estimated 700,000 to 1,000,000 artisans, principally in Kasai Orientale and 

Kasai Occidentale; 

• Heterogenite (25 percent copper, 10 percent cobalt) is produced by an estimated 150,000 diggers, 

principally in Katanga (estimates range from 50,000 to 250,000). 

Small-scale gold and diamond 

artisanal operations typically FIGURE 18: CASSITERITE MINING IN EASTERN DRC 

involve the digging of pits within 

alluvial river channels and 

excavating for black sands that are 

associated with diamond-bearing 

gravels. Up to 100 individuals 

work on a one-acre site. The 

diggers use shovels to extract the 

target gravel, which is most often Photo: British Broadcasting Corporation. 

carried off in pans or sacks to an 

area where the gravels are washed using a sieve. Cassiterite and heterogenite mining is more extensive 

and takes place on the hillsides. 

Artisanal mining has had and continues to have an impact on the DRC’s forests and biodiversity, 

including an impact on national parks and wildlife reserves. In 2002, a reported 10,000 artisanal miners 

moved into Kahuzi-Biega and 4,000 to the Okapi Wildlife Reserve. Currently, the Ministry of Mines 

acknowledges that there are still many artisanal miners in the parks and reserves, but can provide no 

estimate of the total number. 

The majority of the artisanal activity may have individually insignificant effects on biodiversity and 

tropical forests but cumulatively significant effects. In combination with the lack of any effective 

reclamation programs for mined areas, artisanal mining has led to significant areas with decreased habitat 

capability and increased erosion, although the extent of this area is not known. Biodiversity is impacted 

by the change in habitat, water quality, and land use after extraction. Reportedly, artisanal mining has also 

facilitated DRC’s trade in endangered species through increased access to remote sites. 

Other potential environmental impacts from artisanal mining are similar to those of industrial mining and 

include: 

• Siltation of rivers; 

• Indiscriminate deforestation; 


• Additional degraded lands from settlement patterns of miners (e.g., the establishment of mining 

camps); 

• Ground and surface water pollution, including acidic mine drainage and heavy metal pollution from 

copper, lead, arsenic, mercury, or cyanide, if the excavation is in highly mineralized zones; and 

• Habitat fragmentation, decreased habitat effectiveness, and increased mortality of wildlife, through 

increased bush meat consumption. 

Current artisanal mining practices will likely lead to continued environmental impacts, unless improved 

methods and management activities are introduced. Although the Mining Code provides for special 

artisanal mining zones, for the most part, these have not been established, and where they have been 

established, they have not functioned. Similarly, the Code authorizes provincial authorities to issue a 

“diggers card” (carte de creseur), which costs the artisan US$25 per year and authorizes the digger to 

mine within a certain zone. In reality, virtually no artisanal miner possesses the card (in 2007, only 59 

small-scale mining permits were issued). Even if they recognize the legal requirement to have the card, 

they are unable or unwilling to pay US$25 to obtain one. Furthermore, the card is valid only for a certain 

zone, while the miners are mobile and migrate from zone to zone. Also, the authorization is subordinate to 

a mining right (exploration or exploitation permit), and thus companies can (and frequently do) take over 

permit areas which are actively worked by artisans. 

8.2.5 FUELWOOD 

Wood accounts for 85% of domestic energy 

use in the DRC. Fuel wood consumption varies 

between 1 and 1.6 m3 of fuel wood per person 

per annum, and from 85 to 90 kg of charcoal 

per person per annum, based on FAO 2005 

figures. The UN’s Energy Statistics Database 

estimates that from 2001 to 2005, annual 

household fuelwood consumption increased 

from 12,935,000m 3 to 14,507,874 m 3 while 

industrial consumption increased from 

66,080m 3 to 71,066m 3 during the same period. 

Fuelwood consumption is undoubtedly a major 

cause of forest degradation particularly for 

peri- urban forests, although the extent of the 

degradation is not known. There are reports 

FIGURE 19: IMPACT OF CUTTING FOR 

FUELWOOD AROUND LUBUMBASHI 


that fuelwood for Kinshasa is now coming from distances of up to 400 km. In Lubumbashi, ICCN reports 

that most of the fuelwood supplying Lubumbashi is now coming from distances of over 40 kilometers, 

and even a casual observer to Lubumbashi can see the impact of cutting for fuelwood on the miombo 

woodlands surrounding the city. As one Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique 

(CIRAD) researcher put it, "as the population has grown, we have almost reached the point of no return as 

regards forest degradation, particularly in peri-urban areas, where wood is the main energy source". 

Unfortunately, the GDRC and donors have accorded little attention to this issue, and as a result, little is 

known about the fuelwood value chain. 


8.2.6 ILLEGAL TRADE IN ENDANGERED SPECIES 

The DRC continues to suffer from illegal trade in endangered species. For the most part this trade 

involves a complex network of dealers and civil servants (often members of the army, police and other 

political or economic elites), the ‘heads’ of which are located in the urban centers. More often than not, 

these local networks are supported and financed by international networks (e.g., Chinese “syndicates” in 

the case of ivory). A by no means exhaustive summary of traded endangered species is presented below: 

• The Northern white rhino, found only in National Park is probably extinct. There were only a male and 

a female left as of early 2009, and they have not been sighted for several months according to ICCN. 

Unfortunately, when their numbers fell to just ten in 2007, an emergency plan to translocate half the 

population to Kenya in an attempt to guarantee the survival of the species was not approved by DRC’s 

Parliament; 

• Although trade in elephant ivory has been prohibited since 1990 by the Convention on International 

Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), in vast regions of DRC, particularly in the Maiko-Tayna- 

Kahuzi-Biega and Salonga-Lukenie-Sankuru Landscapes, elephants have become very rare. ICCN 

estimates that 17 tons of elephant ivory was smuggled out of the Okapi Wildlife Reserve, in eastern 

Congo’s Ituri forest, between June and December 2004. ICCN also estimates that the elephant 

population in Ituri as decreased from an estimated population of 6700 in 2001 to a current population 

of around 2000, with most of the loss attributed to the illegal ivory trade. Elephant hunters are also 

increasingly using the meat of the animals that they kill, which is an alarming trend. Although 

bushmeat is not as valuable as ivory on a unit measure basis, the large volume of meat available on an 

elephant means that the total value of the elephant is high. In some cases, the total value of the meat 

surpasses the total value of the ivory, especially when the animals have only small-tusks. Thus the 

economics of supply and demand of bushmeat, like that of ivory, drive illegal elephant killing in the 

DRC; 

• Orphaned (usually a result of the mother being killed) bonobos, chimps and gorillas continue to supply 

the illegal pet trade; 

• African Grey Parrots are also at risk from 

the illegal pet trade. For example, in 

December 2007, an estimated 550 rare birds 

of various species were brought into 

Pakistan without the required 

documentation. The birds, including African 

grey parrots, canaries and budgerigars, were 

brought into Karachi in three consignments, 

two directly from the DRC, and one from 

the DRC via the Netherlands; 

FIGURE 20: ROAD CONSTRUCTION IN 

CENTRAL AFRICA’S TROPICAL MOIST 

FOREST 

• Africa’s largest remaining natural stands of 

Prunus africana (whose bark used to treat 

pre -prostate cancer) located in Eastern 

DRC are at risk due to uncontrolled 

harvesting in combination with the use of 

unsustainable harvesting techniques; 

Photo: Nadine Laporte 


• The demand for hippo teeth sold in the illegal ivory trade has decreased the hippo population in Lake 

Albert (Virunga National Park) to about 1300 animals, a drop of 95% in 30 years. 

8.2.7 ROAD CONSTRUCTION 

Part of the legacy of the Mobutu era in DRC is a complete neglect of all but the most important roads. 

This is generally believed to have been a strategic decision by the former dictator to make it difficult for 

potential aggressors (be it rebellious populations or invading armies) to advance on his strongholds and 

take over the country. Thus, river transportation has been the major mode of access to remote forests in 

the DRC. River boats have long been transporters of bushmeat from the forest to important urban areas. 

As peace and stability return to the DRC, improving the country’s road network will be absolutely 

essential for development, but roads fragment the forests, favor the advance of agriculture and facilitate 

hunting and trade in bushmeat. The damage that they cause is usually the result of a lack of planning and 

non-compliance with the laws in force. In certain cases, roads have positive effects and attract populations 

away from the forests, sometimes even out of protected areas. In effect, they allow these populations to 

develop activities other than hunting and gathering. The construction or rehabilitation of roads is therefore 

a very ambiguous problem that, more than any other problem requires an objective, rational and 

multidisciplinary approach. 

8.2.8 DISEASES 

Animal health, human health and biodiversity are closely linked. The best examples of this relationship 

are provided by malaria, HIV/AIDS and Ebola, all of which are having devastating effects on local human 

capacity in forest management, conservation and the environment. In addition to its occasional effects on 

humans, the Ebola virus has been exterminating great apes and other species of fauna in great swathes of 

forest in the Congo Basin for thirty years. Insufficient knowledge of the links between human health and 

animal health, combined with a lack of infrastructure capable of minimizing the effects of epidemics, 

constitute major threats to sustainability in the DRC. 

8.2.9 ALIEN INVASIVE SPECIES 

Alien invasive species (AIS) are those that have crossed natural barriers and entered ecosystems where 

they have not existed previously in recorded history. They can include plants, animals, fungi, bacteria, 

algae or viruses. Impacts on the environment from AIS can include: 

• Displacement of native species through competition for food and other resources, through predation, 

alteration of habitat and food webs; 

• Dilution and potential loss of locally adapted gene pools caused by the introduction of non-locally 

adapted strains of the same species, or closely related species that are able to hybridize; and 

• Infection of native animal and plant species by a variety of parasitical organism, such as bacteria, 

viruses, and fungi. 

There are many floral and faunal species that have invaded DRC over the decades. Although no inventory 

has as yet been done on AIS in DRC, nor have the impacts of AIS been quantified, there are at least three 

species that are thought to have an impact on forest ecosystems: 


• Chromoleana odorata is an herb, and a typical pioneer species of secondary forest succession with a 

strong heliophilic character and vigorous vegetative development. Initially it spreads through seed 

dispersion, but after establishment it may also reproduce vegetatively from lateral branches. Regrowth 

occurs after slash and burn cultivation. Due to abundant vegetative development, C. odorata outcompetes 

young trees leading to poor natural regeneration. It also provides a habitat and breeding 

spaces for harmful insects such as the variegated grasshopper, Zonocerus variegates, which attacks 

cassava fields causing substantial yield losses. During the dry season, it constitutes a fire hazard. 

• Water hyacinth. One of the most globally well-known waterweeds is the Water Hyacinth (Eichornia 

crassipes), which occurs in the Congo River and its tributaries. The Water hyacinth is an exotic, freefloating 

aquatic plant that can form small colonies, “floating islands” or extensive mats that can cover 

thousands of hectares of previously open water. When invasive, water hyacinth forms a complete 

covering of the water surface that excludes most light and air for submerged organisms thus depriving 

them of essentials for survival. A significant reduction of general aquatic biodiversity and a change of 

fisheries results from invasion. The mats can also have serious mechanical impacts on water supply 

systems, drainage canals, inflows to hydropower generators, and movement of shipping and river 

flows. The hyacinth increases evapotranspiration leading to significant water loss from reservoirs and 

other water bodies. The crowding of plants at the edges of water bodies prevents access to the water for 

collecting water or fishing. 

• Sericostachys scandens. S. scandens is a keystone species, a semi-woody climber capable of growing 

20-30 m in length. In the 1990s, this species has come to dominate large expanses of the forest in 

Kahuzi-Biega National Park in Eastern DRC and other mountain forests in the region, as a result of 

declining elephant populations which kept the species under control. Where present, this liana has 

created a mono-dominant understory and mid canopy patches that cover large areas which causes the 

decline of local plant species important for the nutrition of gorillas. 

8.2.10 BUSHFIRES 

Bushfires are undoubtedly having an impact on DRC’s forests and biodiversity although there is very little 

information available on the extent of this impact. In many areas fires are lit several times a year by peasants 

for various reasons (clearing for agriculture, pasture regeneration and for hunting buffalos, antelopes or even 

small rodents), which results in the progressive disappearance of the woody species most sensitive to fire and 

the re-growth of herbaceous species. As Figure 21 indicates, in 2009, the most serious areas for bushfires in 

the DRC are in Bas Congo, Kahuzi-Biega, and the Miombo woodland areas of Katanga. 


FIGURE 21: BUSHFIRES IN THE CONGO BASIN 2009 

Source: CARPE Mapper (2009). 

8.2.11 THREATS TO AQUATIC BIODIVERSITY 

The DRC is endowed with extensive fisheries resources, 

found mostly in the eastern Rift Valley lakes and in the 

riverine and swamp fisheries of the vast Congo Basin. 

FAO Food Balance Sheet estimates for 1997 put 

national fisheries production at 162 961 metric tons, and 

report that fish products contributed nearly one third of 

the total national animal protein supply for that year. 

However, following years of political and economic 

collapse leading up to the civil war of 1996-97 and the 

subsequent period of instability, it is not possible to 

construct a reliable picture of the current s state of the 

DRC fisheries sector. Fisheries administration in the 

country effectively does not exist, and statistical and 

other information on specific water bodies is either 

lacking or very outdated. 

FIGURE 22: OVER-EXPLOITATION OF 

OYSTERS NEAR MANGROVE 

NATIONAL PARK 

Photo: DAI 

IUCN (2008) does provide an indication of some of the threats to aquatic biodiversity, including: 


• DRC’s fish populations are menaced by overexploitation, pollution, alteration of habitat and 

destruction of shore zones; 

• Aquatic invertebrates, used for food (harvested at moderate levels), are menaced by hydrocarbon 

pollution (habitat alteration); 

• There are no regulations governing aquatic organisms, and no protected zones established for their 

conservation; 

A new generation of coupled climate/carbon models is being used to explore the prospects for the 

persistence of tropical forests in a changing climate. Early studies projected that business-as-usual 

increases in CO 2 and temperature could lead to dramatic dieback and carbon release from tropical forests, 

raising concerns that high sensitivity of tropical forests to climate change might compromise the long- 

term value of reduced deforestation, with dieback releasing much of the carbon originally conserved. 

However, more recent climate-carbon cycle models project that tropical forests will continue to act as 

carbon sinks, albeit declining sinks, throughout the century. The moderate sensitivity indicated by the 

new results suggests that reducing deforestation can result in long-term carbon storage, even with 

substantial climate change. More importantly, all models project that even in extreme scenarios, direct 

deforestation will impact tropical forests before climate-driven dieback. 

• Aquatic ecosystems and natural habitats of DRC have never been considered in government planning, 

not even for their possible contribution to the national aquatic production to reduce the enormous 

imports of fish products. The hope of reducing imports justified the elaboration, with the participation 

of FAO, of a Master Plan for Fisheries in 2008 whose implementation has yet to begin. 

• Current legislation, dating from 1937, is not adapted to the current reality. Similarly, international, 

regional and sub-regional accords that represent opportunities of action for sustainable use of fisheries 

resources are not appropriately monitored or enforced. 

8.3 INDIRECT THREATS 

8.3.1 CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACT 

Forests 

The impact of the current level of climate change on tropical forests is a matter of considerable 

controversy, with estimates ranging from massive uptakes to massive emissions of carbon by standing 

tropical forests. The amount of monitoring data—although much greater than what was available only a 

few years ago—is still inadequate to resolve some of the controversies. Other parts are a matter of 

interpretation of the data at hand. Of course, not all interpretations, and not all data sets, are equal in terms 

of their consistency. 

Generally speaking, in recent decades, carbon losses from tropical deforestation have been partly or 

largely offset by a tropical sink. Forest sinks are, however, unlikely to continue indefinitely, and 

continued warming will likely diminish and potentially even override any fertilization effects of 

increasing CO 2 . Climate change might also adversely impact tropical forests by reducing precipitation and 

evapotranspiration, making them drier, more susceptible to fires, and more prone to replacement by 

shrublands, grasslands, or savanna ecosystems, which store much less carbon. Continued deforestation 

may disrupt forest water cycling, amplifying the negative impacts of climate change. 


Biodiversity 

Although there has been little research on the possible impact of climate change on biodiversity, most 

specialists agree that as with tropical forests, loss of habitat through anthropogenic factors will impact 

biodiversity long before any possible impact from climate change. There are two possible exceptions to 

this. First, many endemic species with restricted ranges, are most at risk from minor climatic changes. 

One example is the endangered mountain gorilla (Gorilla beringei beringei), which is found on the 

borders of the DRC (Virunga NP), Rwanda and Uganda. The second exception would be for migratory 

animals. The unique way of life of migratory animals, be it birds, marine or terrestrial mammals, fish, 

marine turtles, or insects, illustrates like no other phenomenon the connectivity of ecosystems across the 

globe. While climate change has and will have very different faces in different regions, migratory animals 

will need to adjust their migration patterns accordingly if they are to survive. Migratory species are 

especially at risk due to climate change because they require separate breeding, wintering, and migration 

habitats of high quality and in suitable locations. Often, one or more of these habitats could be at risk 

because of changing temperature ranges and hydrological patterns. 

8.3.2 DISPLACED POPULATIONS AND CONFLICTS 

Conflict and war in the DRC have led to large numbers of refugees and displaced persons. Despite United 

Nations assistance, these populations have been forced to depend on the country’s natural resources and 

live in places where their impact has been very severe, both on natural ecosystems and on local 

populations. Resource degradation and forest loss as a result of displaced populations is particularly acute 

in eastern DRC, in the Virunga Landscape and the Maiko-Tayna-Kahuzi-Biega Landscape. 


9. CURRENT CONSERVATION 

EFFORTS—SCOPE AND 

EFFECTIVENESS 

9.1 BILATERAL AND MULTILATERAL ORGANIZATIONS 

A large number of donors have been and continue to be keen on assisting DRC in the field of 

conservation. The World Bank estimates that the current level of donor support over the next 2-3 years 

will reach approximately $360 million. 19 Indeed, without this sustained support, it is probable that many 

of the most important protected areas, particularly those in the east of the country, would have ceased to 

exist by now. Annex D provides a summary of past and currently active initiatives that support tropical 

forests and biodiversity. 

A review of donor activities brings to the forefront several key issues: 

• Most donor emphasis has been placed on the tropical moist forest. With the exception of the United 

Nations Development Program’s (UNDP) work in Upemba and Kundulungu National Parks, and GTZ 

and the EC’s work in Garamba, DRC’s other ecoregions have received little support. Yet these 

ecoregions harbor significant forest and biodiversity resources; 

• To date, most donor emphasis has placed on creating the minimum conditions for principled access to 

and use of moist forest resources- specifically timber. Although this emphasis has addressed corruption 

and democracy and governance issues with regard to timber resources, very few projects are addressing 

core issues such as corruption, civil service reform, democracy and governance outside of the timber 

sector. The exception to this is GTZ’s work in initiating a pilot civil service reform agenda in MENCT; 

• Although donors have emphasized “in service” capacity building at MENCT and ICCN, and the EU 

supports the Ecole Régionale d’Aménagement et de Gestion Intégrée des Forets Tropicales 20 

(ERAIFT), only the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) is addressing the core issue 

of replacing a cadre of retiring professionals by strengthening the University of Kinshasa’s Forestry 

Department—which has in essence not functioned in the last 30 years; 

• Although perhaps embedded as sub components of certain programs, there appears to be almost a 

complete neglect of alternative income generation activities. Yet such activities will be critical to 

stemming the bushmeat, illegal logging, and endangered species trade. 

In sum, the assessment team is doubtful where current donor efforts will yield immediate results unless 

they are integrated into a broader and longer term agenda aimed at counteracting poverty, corruption, 

insecurity and civil conflict, which are the major drivers of forest degradation and biodiversity loss in the 

19 

World Bank (2009). 

20 

‘ERAIFT is a regional UNESCO project and forms an integral part of the Man and the Biosphere Program (MAB). Students come 

from more than ten African countries. Degree programs include Ph.D. and Diplôme d’Etudes Supérieures Spécialisées (DESS). 


DRC. In this sense, sustainable resource management and improved wellbeing of DRC’s people cannot be 

achieved in isolation from a number of more general development aims, including widespread peace and 

civil security, better infrastructure and communications, a strengthened democracy, and wider community 

participation. As one MENCT employee put it, “most donor programs in the DRC seem to focus on 

curing the symptoms of the disease rather than curing the disease itself.” 

Finally, improved donor coordination in the environment/natural resource sector is becoming increasingly 

important in DRC in light of the increased volume of aid, proliferation of projects, and the administrative 

weaknesses of the GDRC noted in Section 9.4 below. Theoretically, the GDRC’s National Forest and 

Conservation Program (PNFoCo) should take on this role as PNFoCo is a national program which serves 

as a common framework for all nationally and donor-assisted interventions in the sector. However, as 

PNFoCo has only recently been formally established, it is unclear whether it will play a donor 

coordination role—or at a minimum develop an environment/natural resource project database. Moreover, 

it is unclear whether PNFoCo’s mandate will extend beyond the tropical moist forest. 

9.2 UNIVERSITIES AND RESEARCH INSTITUTIONS 

In 1954, the Belgian colonial authorities founded the first university in the sprawling Congo territory, and 

two years later they established a second. The first university had its campus in Leopoldville (now 

Kinshasa) and was called Université Lovanium. The second university was the Université Nationale du 

Congo in Elizabethville (now Lubumbashi). A third institution, Université Libre du Congo, was 

established with Protestant-sourced funding in Stanleyville (now Kisangani) at the headwaters of the 

Congo River. In 1971, the Mobutu government of the newly named Zaire, decided to nationalize all three 

universities and pull them together into one institution—the University of Zaire—with its headquarters in 

Kinshasa. Ten years later, the government reversed its earlier decision and unbundled the University of 

Zaire into its three original components. A fourth university, Goma University, was established in the 

early 1990s as the ‘university centre’ of North Kivu that was originally attached to the established 

University of Kisangani, but during the war, became a de facto independent university run by the rebels. 

In 2005, several years after peace had more or less been restored to the DRC, the University Centre of 

North Kivu was officially transformed into the autonomous but centrally supported l’Université Libre des 

Pays des Grands Lacs. 

These universities remain the most important educational centers in the country in terms of the number of 

students they enroll annually. Enrollment figures for 2007 by University are presented in Table 14 below. 

TABLE 14: 2007 UNIVERSITY ENROLLMENT FIGURES 

University 

Total 

Enrollment 

Undergraduate 

Degree/Diploma 

Post-Graduate 

Degree 

University of Kinshasa 26,186 20,754 5,432 

University of Lubumbashi 21 21,898 13,898 (104 M.Sc. and 64 Ph.D.) 

University of Kisangani 19 6,058 1,591 (37 plus 17 PhD) 

University of Goma 19 4,522 4,490 (32 M.Sc. degrees) 

Source: SARUA (2009). 

21 

Totals for student numbers do not tally. Verification was sought from the university by the South African regional Universities 

Association, but was not received. 


Biology and its related branches are taught in most of the universities. However the biological curricula 

taught at most university institutions have been limited to basic biological concepts or laboratory biology, 

though some courses in practical botany with a brief introduction to the concept of ecology have been 

taught in certain biology departments (University of Kinshasa). Few institutions focus specifically on 

conservation biology in the DRC, and where this has been initiated the modules are still at a very early 

stage of development. Furthermore, provinces of high biodiversity importance like Equateur and Kivu 

have no university institutions providing training in conservation. 

The faculty of sciences of the University of Kisangani has a long history in teaching ecology, zoology and 

botany and has produced a remarkable number of university graduates over the years. Currently, Ghent 

University is supporting a small remote sensing laboratory at the University and is training staff members 

in remote sensing and GIS, and the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences is providing support for a 

training program for the study of biodiversity and management of terrestrial and aquatic vertebrates. The 

Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA) is also supporting forestry curricula development 

under its Support to Natural Resource Management Training Project. 

The University of Kinshasa has a curriculum in natural resource management at the Faculty of 

Agriculture, with an option in wildlife management. The University of Kinshasa also hosts ERAIFT, a 

central African regional postgraduate school financed by UNESCO. The school trains central African 

citizens in sustainable natural resource management and places a particular accent on the human 

dimension of conservation practice. There is also a private organization based at the University of 

Kinshasa known as Environmental Resources Management and Global Security (ERGS), founded since 

1998 to promote the rational management of natural resources for global security. The OSFAC program 

maintains a GIS/RS lab within the School of Agronomy at the University of Kinshasa. The University’s 

Forestry Department has basically not functioned since 1979, but CIDA, through the University of Laval, 

is now supporting the Department in terms of infrastructure, curriculum development, faculty training and 

distance learning programs. 

In response to the nearby mining activity, nearly 200 of the 769 academic and research staff employed at 

the University of Lubumbashi is active in the science, engineering and technology fields. There are active 

geology, engineering, and information science departments, and the geology depart supports research on 

ecology and site rehabilitation for the Tenke Fungurume Mining Company. Tripartite co-operation 

between the University of Lubumbashi, the University of Liege in Belgium, and the University of 

KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa focuses on mining and metallurgy, as well as HIV/AIDs and blood 

transfusions. 

In spite of the extraordinarily difficult circumstances of the first 15 years of its existence, the L’Université 

Libre des Pays des Grands Lacs (ULPGL—Goma University) has enjoyed remarkable growth. The 

university has five faculties: law, economic sciences and management, health and community 

development, and education sciences. Although the university does not have a biological sciences 

program, the law faculty organizes field trips for students to both sensitize local communities on legal 

issues, and new legislation and policies (including the Forest Code) and better prepare future lawyers. 

After independence the DRC created a number of other specialized higher education institutions. These 

include the Instituts Supérieurs Pédagogiques (ISP), the Instituts Supérieurs de Développement Rural 

(ISDR), the Instituts Supérieurs Techniques (IST), the Institut Supérieure Agro Vétérinaire (ISAV), the 

Institut Supérieur des Techniques Appliqués (ISTA) and the Institut d’Etudes Agronomiques (ISEA). 


Biology and its related branches are taught in most of the ISPs. ISTA includes environmental studies in 

its curriculum, focusing on environmental health questions (water and waste treatment, urban 

environment, etc.). CIDA is currently assisting ISAV to develop an agroforestry option, and ISEA to 

develop an “Eaux et Forets” option. 

Additionally, a new institution called the Tayna College of Conservation Biology, supported initially 

by USAID/CARPE, is in its fifth year of operations and has graduated over 200 students. It is located 

in the eastern region of the country with a view to training students that will manage the forests of the 

community reserves. 

A number of research institutions were also created including the Centre de Recherche en Ecologie et 

Foresterie (CREF), the Centre de Recherche en Sciences Naturelles (CRSN), the Institut National de 

Recherche Biomédicale (INRB), the Institut National de Recherche Agronomique (INERA), and some 

aspects of ecological research are covered by these organizations. INERA is supported by the EU funded, 

FAO implemented Program for Relaunching Agricultural and Forest Research in the DRC (REAFOR) 

program. 

In general, however, if the DRC is to develop the quality and quantity of human resources necessary to 

ensure sound management of its exceptional natural heritage, a number of core issues will need to be 

addressed. The World Bank’s Country Study “Education in the Democratic Republic of Congo: Priorities 

and Options for Regeneration” (World Bank, 2005), provides a concise summary of these issues. 

Higher Education in the DRC 

With an almost complete reliance on household financing for the last 15 years and in the conditions of 

economic decline, the quality of higher education has deteriorated very rapidly. Curricula and programs are 

outdated. There has been little or no investment in infrastructure, laboratories or libraries for many years. 

Students have limited access to textbooks or other materials. Professional staff has no opportunities for 

professional development, which earlier used to be offered by exchanges with universities in Europe. 

An uncontrolled expansion in student numbers has led to a lowering in standards, reinforced by the decline in 

quality of secondary education. The high transition rate between upper secondary education and higher 

education has led to an explosive growth in student numbers, which has reduced quality further. Universities 

are under pressure to admit more students because of their heavy reliance on student fees to pay teachers’ 

salaries. Increasing student numbers have been accommodated by converting hostels and dining facilities into 

lecture rooms, while many classrooms are extremely overcrowded. 

A decline in the number of teaching staff is one of the main issues in higher education, caused by the limited 

number of students entering doctoral programs and willing to enter the profession. Most private universities 

use staff from public universities, who therefore teach simultaneously in several universities, compounding the 

problems of providing quality instruction. 

Among the other structural problems of the higher education system are the multiplicity of courses and 

options, the limited academic autonomy of Universities to introduce courses, the fragmentation of provision 

across a number of small institutions and an excess of administrative staff both at the Ministry and in the 

institutions. These factors lead to the inefficient use of resources and high unit costs. 

Although the private sector has contributed to the expansion of the higher education system, it is a largely 

unregulated and operates in a confusing policy framework. A large number of ad hoc decisions implemented 

over the last twenty years have contributed to this confusion, with the result that degrees from private 

institutions are still not officially “recognized.” 


9.3 INTERNATIONAL AND NATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL 

ORGANIZATIONS 

9.3.1 INTERNATIONAL NGOS AND ORGANIZATIONS 

Conservation NGOs 

A large number of international conservation NGOs working with a wide variety of public and private 

funding sources (EC, USAID, Belgium, GEF, UNDP, World Bank, UNF, Foundations, private donors) 

implement a wide range of conservation and applied conservation research projects throughout the 

country. Several of them remained in the country and continued to provide direct support to ICCN in the 

field throughout the war and it was largely thanks these organizations that the major public funding 

agencies were able to channel their funds to DRC. In addition to the funds that they receive from the 

public funding agencies, including USAID/CARPE (which represents the major part of their funds) these 

NGOs also mobilize funds from their own networks of private funders. Their interventions cover a wide 

range of activities including all aspects of protected area management, surveys and monitoring, 

community conservation, environmental education, conservation-based research, capacity building. 

Several of them (Wildlife Conservation Society—WCS, WWF, and Gillman International 

Conservation—GIC) have been supporting the DRC uninterrupted for over 20 years. WWF is particularly 

active in Virungas NP and has secured several funding sources ($US1.7m) for park management, 

community conservation, participatory management and land use planning activities in the Virungas over 

the next 2-3 years. Table 15 provides a list of the major conservation NGOs operating in the DRC along 

with a summary of their major activity areas. 

TABLE 15: INTERNATIONAL CONSERVATION NGOS 

Organization 

Africa Parks 

Foundation (APF) 

African Wildlife 

Foundation (AWF) 

Conservation 

International (CI) 

Activity Areas 

Working in Garamba National Park, APF supports anti-poaching initiatives to ensure the 

protection of the northern white rhino and implements an action plan to recover the 

population. 

AWF is the lead CARPE partner for Landscape 9 (Maringa—Lopori—Wamba) in 

collaboration with consortium members World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF), the WorldFish 

Center (WFC), the Netherlands development organization (SNV), and REFADD (a local 

NGO). AWF has helped establish the Faunal Reserve of Lomako-Yokokala—a reserve of 

more than 3,600 square kilometers. This is a landmark achievement as it is the DRC’s first 

reserve that formally recognizes the local community in the development of its management 

plan. As part of the process to identify an appropriate protected area, AWF conducted 

biological surveys which confirmed rich biodiversity, including the endangered bonobo. The 

data collected helped AWF to develop a map with proposed boundaries that would ensure 

the adequate protection of bonobos. The established 3,625 square kilometer Faunal 

Reserve not only offers protection for the bonobos, but it also harbors critical populations of 

the endemic Congo peacock, golden cat, giant pangolin, ten species of primates and other 

key species. AWF is also one of the first CARPE partners to establish a formal steering 

committee for program oversight compose of ICCN, local government and MOE officials. 

CI is the lead for Landscape 10 ( Maiko—Tayna- Kahuzi-Biega Forest) with Consortium 

members Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International (DFGFI), WWF, and Jane Goodall 

Institute (JGI). CI and the Dian Fossey Gorilla Fund International support the Tayna Gorilla 

Reserve, a community-managed protected area that safeguards vital gorilla habitat. 

Through this program, Congolese scientists have reported larger than previously recorded 

populations of Grauer’s gorilla, once feared to be at risk of local extinction. The program 

has expanded to include seven reserves that link Maiko and Kahuzi-Biega National Parks. 

The parks and reserves together form a landscape corridor of more than 17 million acres, 

protecting roughly 90% of the Grauer’s gorilla’s range. CI is also providing support to 


Organization 

Dian Fossey Gorilla 

Fund International 

(DFGFI) 

Fauna and Flora 

International (FFI) 

Gillman International 

Conservation (GIC) 

International Rhino 

Foundation (IRF) 

Jane Goodall 

Institute (JGI) 

Lukuru Wildlife 

Research Project 

(LWRP) 

Max Planck Institute 

(MPI) 


conservation efforts for mountain gorillas and is developing a carbon trading pilot project. 

Beginning in 2000 with the Tayna Nature Reserve, DFGFI has been heavily involved with 

the creation and support of a series of community-based reserves, which are home to the 

endangered Grauer’s gorilla and many other unique and rare species. The Tayna Nature 

Reserve) was created by local chiefs and their communities, to protect their remaining 

forests. The success of Tayna became a model for additional community-created and 

managed reserves, which now help create a wildlife corridor that runs between Maiko and 

Kahuzi-Biega national parks. The Tayna Nature Reserve has now become a governmentsanctioned 

entity and serves as the model for other community-based reserves that have 

formed. In the Kisimba-Ikobo Nature Reserve, for example, local communities and 

customary powers have been working on creating a completely protected (non-extractive) 

zone since 2002. They modeled their efforts after their neighbors in Tayna, and are 

members of UGADEC (Union of Associations for Gorilla Conservation and Community 

Development in eastern DRC), a federation of eight local associations working to build 

community-managed reserves, providing a biological corridor zone between Maiko and 

Kahuzi-Biega National Parks in eastern DRC. DFGFI has also helped create the Tayna 

Center for Conservation Biology (TCCB), which was created by the local community and is 

now a government-recognized university. Located near the Tayna Nature Reserve, TCCB’s 

curriculum is focused on conservation biology. 

FFI is a partner in the International Gorilla Conservation Program for Uganda, the DRC and 

Rwanda 

GIC, a consortium member with WCS for Landscape 11 (Ituri—Epulu- Aru) has been 

operating in Eastern DRC for over two decades. GIC’s Okapi Conservation Project (OCP) is 

located within the Ituri Forest which covers 175,000 square kilometers of lowland tropical 

forest and contains some of the most important closed canopy rainforest and species 

diversity in the world. In recognition of the importance of this unique ecosystem, which 

harbors high levels of endemism, including a large population of okapi, the Okapi Wildlife 

Reserve was gazetted in 1992, encompassing 13,700 square kilometers. In 1996, it was 

designated as a United Nation’s World Heritage Site. 

Conducted census of N. rhino populations in Garamba National Park. 

A consortium partner with CI and DFGFI in Landscape 10 ( Maiko—Tayna- Kahuzi- Biega 

Forest), JGI is working with DFGFI in a 7.4 million-acre conservation corridor stretching 

from Maiko National Park and the Tayna Gorilla Reserve to Kahuzi-Biega National Park. 

The corridor is home to an estimated 5,000 eastern lowland gorillas and 15,000 

chimpanzees. Despite its high ecological and biodiversity value, this region is experiencing 

a severe conservation crisis due to agricultural/pastoral expansion, high levels of 

subsistence hunting, bushmeat extraction, exotic animal trade, extensive gold, coltan and 

other mining, as well as socio-economic depression resulting from more than a decade of 

civil war. JGI’s contribution is to organize and help implement community-centered 

conservation initiatives modeled after TACARE (Lake Tanganyika Catchment Reforestation 

and Education Project), a holistic and participatory program supporting locally managed 

education, socio-economic development, and sustainable natural resource management in 

western Tanzania. The DRC program works to improve health care, provide family planning 

training and methods, and support local people in the development of sustainable and more 

efficient agricultural and livestock practices. The program also focuses on improving local 

governance, empowering communities, and the application of information technology to 

support sustainable practices. 

The mission of the Lukuru Wildlife Research Project (LWRP) is to conduct scientific 

research on, conservation of, and educational activities about fauna, primarily the bonobo 

(Pan paniscus), and flora within the region corresponding to the administrative Zone 

Dekese, Kasai Province. 

Working in Salonga National Park, MPI conducts research on Bonobo feeding behavior and 

nutritional ecology, population genetics and socioecology and behavioral physiology. 


Organization 

Nouvelles 

Approches/ 

Biodiversity in 

Katanga (BAK) 

PACT 

Therese and John 

Hart—TL2 Project 

The World 

Conservation Union 

(IUCN) 

Wildlife Conservation 

Society (WCS) 


Works to safeguard of the natural inheritance of Katanga Province. 

PACT works in two landscapes: Salonga-Lukenia-Sankuru landscape, and the Ituri-Epulu- 

Aru landscape, in collaboration with landscape leads and consortium partners. In June 2008 

PACT and WCS received additional funds from the Office for Conflict Mitigation and 

Management (CMM) of USAID. These funds were targeted at improving the skills and 

knowledge of the Consortium partners to mitigate and manage natural resource based 

conflicts in the Ituri- Epulu-Aru Landscape specifically. Key activities included: 

• mapping conflicts and identifying potential risks in the landscape; and 

• training Government departments and other stakeholders involved in the CARPE work in 

conflict analysis, mapping and dialogue 

Through the Extractive Industries Network (EIN), PACT established a network of 

responsible, internationally-listed mining companies, international development 

organizations and local and national non-governmental organizations. The goal of the EIN 

is to achieve sustainable and equitable economic recovery and improved governance in the 

Democratic Republic of the Congo. Through the network, PACT works with companies and 

local communities to identify social needs and develop solutions. The first phase of this 

project came to a close in January of 2009. USAID has provided additional funding under 

this project for work in Oriental province in northeast DRC. PACT is also continuing its 

relationship with Tenke Fungurume Mining (TFM) in Katanga province, to 

monitor/implement TFM’s social component. 

Initiated in 2006 and with the support from the Arcus Foundation, US Fish and Wildlife 

Service, Wallace Global Fund, Abraham Foundation, and Edith McBean, the TL2 project is 

a group of people with a mission to find out how many bonobos are in the central unknown 

forests of Congo between the three north flowing rivers -the Tshuapa on the west, Lomami 

through the center and Lualaba (or southern Congo River) on its far east, for an area of 

about 25,000 square miles. The team’s mission also is to find out what other large animals 

are in this forest, what threatens them and is it possible to protect them. The ultimate goal 

of the TL2 project is the creation of a new national park at the center of the area. 

IUCN, through CARPE supports a Small Grants Program which aims to strengthen civil 

society for conservation as an essential requisite to reach sustainable forest conservation in 

Central Africa. The program targets interested NGOs and local associations, non 

Governmental research centers, independent researchers, women and minority groups in 

all nine countries covered by the activities of CARPE (Burundi, Cameroon, Central African 

Republic, Congo-Brazzaville, Democratic Republic of Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, 

Rwanda and Sao Tomé and Principe). IUCN also implements the Strengthening Voices for 

Better Choices (SVBC) program—an EU supported initiative. SVBC is pursuing this goal in 

Bikoro territory, Equator province, a sparsely populated and heavily forested region lying 

just below the equator in the north-west of the country. Three logging companies are active 

here, but its forests are also under growing pressure from illegal artisanal logging and 

charcoal production. Several social groups, including pygmies and women, are 

marginalized and there are few alternative livelihood options for those involved in illegal 

logging. Additionally, with French co-operation support, IUCN is restoring the botanical 

garden of Kinshasa. 

WCS is the lead for Landscape 7—Lac Tele—Lac Tumba Swamp Forest with consortium 

partners WWF and PACT. The Congo River runs through the heart of this landscape and 

separates many species including the regions highest density of western lowland gorillas in 

the Republic of Congo and a population of bonobos in the DRC. WCS operates in Lac Tele 

on the ROC side, while WWF works in Lac Tumba on the DRC side 

WCS is also the lead for Landscape 11 (Ituri—Epulu- Aru ) with consortium partners GIC 

and PACT. Here, WCS works closely with villagers to rebuild respect for protected areas 

and to initiate a firm basis for their protection through a number of innovative community 

conservation programs. These include a zoning program that addresses immigration into 


Organization 


the Okapi Reserve, and the development of community organizations to build consensus 

regarding challenges to the Park and Park limits in Salonga and Kahuzi Biega NPs. 

Worldfish Center 

(WFC) 

As a consortium partner in the Virunga landscape, WCS works with the governments of 

Uganda, Rwanda and the DRC to develop a strategic plan for the conservation of this rich 

landscape. The goal is an effectively co-managed, protected area network allowing wildlife 

numbers to be maintained or increase. WCS is training park authorities in wildlife surveying 

and monitoring, as well as effective law enforcement. WCS is also supporting transborder 

collaboration between the countries and reducing conflicts between the parks’ staff and 

surrounding communities so they can successfully protect this diverse ecosystem. 

WFC is a consortium partner in Landscape 9 ( Maringa—Lopori—Wamba) and in 

Landscape 8 (Salonga—Lukenie- Sankuru). WFC conducted a study of the existing 

systems of management of Salonga National Park’s boundary rivers and future possibilities 

of co-management between communities and ICCN. The results will be used to guide the 

building of capacity and collaborative platforms in support of the recently determined freefishing 

zones of the park. 

WWF is the lead for Landscape 12—Virungas with consortium partners WCS, SNV and 

AWF. WWF’s work in the Virunga landscape builds on more than 20 years of supporting 

Virunga National Park and its surrounding communities. In that time, WWF has helped 

promote sustainable livelihoods, provided environmental education and increased 

protection of critically endangered species like the mountain gorilla. WWF is currently active 

on the ground to reduce the environmental impacts of this conflict in concert with those 

addressing humanitarian needs. WWF and ICCN are currently working to restore patrols 

and asses the health of the park’s wildlife whenever the security situation will permit us to 

do so. 

World Wildlife Fund 

(WWF) 

WWF is also the lead for Landscape 8 (Salonga—Lukenie- Sankuru ) with consortium 

partners WCS, PACT and the Zoological Society of Milwaukee (ZSM). Six ICCN stations 

have been positioned on Salonga National Park boundaries. ICCN’s ability to protect the 

park, however, is impeded by a lack of strategic planning, equipment, management and 

planning capacity, and long-term funding in support of surveillance and monitoring activities. 

WWF is assisting ICCN by establishing sustainable funding mechanisms, by providing 

training and improved transport and communication equipment for antipoaching activities, 

and by enhancing their capacity to work strategically, and with local communities. WWF has 

also launched a landscape-wide program to monitor and protect bonobos, forest elephants 

and other wildlife species. WWF and its international partners—the Zoological Society of 

Milwaukee, the Wildlife Conservation Society, and PACT—have completed large mammal 

surveys focused on bonobos and elephants over much of the landscape. These efforts 

have been complemented by socioeconomic studies documenting the importance of natural 

resources to the rural communities and emphasizing opportunities for sustainable 

livelihoods. Another component focuses on building national partner capacity by providing 

training, equipment and support for antipoaching operations, and technical advice to park 

service personnel protecting Salonga. 

Zoological Society of 

Milwaukee (ZSM) 

As a consortium partner in Landscape 7(Lac Tele—Lac Tumba Swamp Forest), WWF 

works with local communities and international partners to improve sustainable 

development in the landscape and preserve biodiversity, ensuring that local economies are 

based on sustainably managed natural resources. WWF works for the conservation of 

bonobos through strengthening local communities and helping them partner with local 

governments. WWF also works with the Bonobo Conservation Initiative to improve 

conservation awareness on the DRC side of the landscape. 

ZSM has built a program of activities in DRC called the Bonobo and Congo Biodiversity 

Initiative (BCBI). The program’s objectives are to: 

• Determine the status and distribution of the bonobo and other large mammals by 

conducting a comprehensive survey of the Salonga National Park; 

• Train and develop a cadre of Congolese experts who can assess bonobo populations 

and contribute to a range-wide conservation strategy; 

• Strengthen the ability of ICCN to promote bonobo conservation; 


Organization 


• Aid ICCN by providing support to the Salonga National Park to increase protection of 

bonobos and other wildlife; and 

• Educate the public (in DRC and the U.S.) about the bonobo and its habitat. 

Advocacy NGOs 

Advocacy NGOs including Greenpeace, the Rainforest Foundation and Global Witness have been active 

in the DRC in the areas of environmental advocacy and in filling the leadership void where they seek to 

compensate for national weaknesses in enacting and enforcing strong environmental rules and 

regulations. In the DRC, they engage in lobbying, serve as representatives and advisory experts to 

decision-makers, conduct research, hold conferences, stage citizen tribunals, monitor and expose actions 

(and inactions) of others, disseminate information to key constituencies, set/define agendas, develop and 

promote codes of conduct and organize boycotts or investor actions. They have been powerful in 

influencing companies (particular mining companies) to change their policies, although success at 

influencing national policies has been limited, due in part to the absence of a consensus-based approach 

between the NGO, major donors (particularly the World Bank) and Government. As one World Bank 

official put it, “negative criticism alone without recognition of positive steps risks undermining reformers. 

It may eventually end up in an unintended coalition with vested interests that seek to maintain the status 

quo 22 .” Table 16 provides a list of the major advocacy NGOs operating in the DRC along with a summary 

of their major activity areas. 

TABLE 16: ADVOCACY NGOS 

Organization 


Rainforest 

Foundation UK 

(RFUK) 

Greenpeace 

RFUK works to ensure the long-term protection of rainforests by securing the rights of 

indigenous communities to land, life and livelihoods. In the DRC, RFUK has actively 

advocated for and won commitment to a series of key principles on community 

consultation, community rights, proper participatory zoning and upholding the moratorium 

on issuing new logging concessions in DRC. RFUK is also contributing the empowerment 

and development of indigenous Twa peoples and rolling out a community-based rainforest 

mapping projects in a bid to help indigenous people protect six million acres of endangered 

rainforest. RFUK has trained 66 Congolese ‘Master Mappers’ who will work with local 

communities in Inongo territory to produce a sketch map of their area and then use the 

hand-held GPS units, to record accurately the important points on their maps. Once all the 

data from the field has been collected, it will be transferred from the GPS units to a 

computer to produce a map of the entire territory. 

Greenpeace’s goal is to defend the natural world and promote peace by investigating, 

exposing and confronting environmental abuse, and championing environmentally 

responsible solutions. In the DRC, Greenpeace has had a number of advocacy campaigns 

including “exposes” on how international logging companies are causing social chaos and 

wreaking environmental havoc, and how the World Bank is “failing to stop this destruction 

whilst the rainforest is being sold off under the illusion that it will alleviate poverty.” 

22 

See CIFOR (2007). 


Organization 

Global Witness 

South African 

Resource Watch 

(SARW) 


Global Witness’s advocacy campaign in the DRC covers a broad range of issues relating 

to the exploitation of the country’s rich and diverse natural resources. Resources such as 

timber, diamonds, gold, coltan and cassiterite (tin ore) have directly fuelled one of Africa’s 

most brutal wars and have contributed to grave human rights abuses by Congolese and 

foreign actors during the conflict. Politicians, military and militia groups have plundered the 

country’s natural wealth and used it to enrich themselves at the detriment of the 

population. Global Witness’s campaign aims to document, expose and ultimately break 

these links. Global Witness has also documented other problems in the natural resource 

sector in the DRC, including extensive corruption, lack of transparency and life-threatening 

labor conditions. The findings of their research are published in reports, briefings and news 

releases which are widely distributed inside and outside the DRC. 

SARW has developed guidelines to provide a framework which the DRC can use to ensure 

that the revision of mining contracts is fair, just and transparent. 

9.3.2 OTHER USG SUPPORT 

Through CARPE, the USG also supports the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S. Department of 

Agriculture Forest Service initiatives in the DRC. A summary of activities for these organizations is 

presented in Table 17. 

TABLE 17: OTHER USG ACTIVITIES AND PROGRAMS 

Organization 

U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service 

(USFWS) 

U.S. Department 

of Agriculture 

Forest Service 

(USDA/FS) 


The USFWS receives a portion of funding for the Great Apes Conservation Fund. USFWS 

conservation efforts in the Congo Basin are closely coordinated with CARPE partners’ activities 

and governmental and NGO conservation partners. USFWS support emphasizes direct action in 

the field including: building institutional and human resource capacity, improving law 

enforcement, outreach to local communities, providing economic incentives for conservation, and 

applied research to provide scientific information for conservation and management. 

The USDA/FS is working with USAID and other CARPE partners, as well as host country natural 

resource management agencies to develop planning processes and management planning 

guides for comprehensive landscape level planning and for the landscapes as a whole and the 

three different use zones within those landscapes: protected areas, community use zone, and 

extractive use zone, by providing planning tools and standards to support the promotion of 

sustainable natural resource management in the landscapes. Specific USDAFS activities in the 

DRC include: 

• Protected Area Planning at Salonga National Park. Working with WWF and their partners, 

particularly the Congolese Institute for the Conservation of Nature (ICCN), the USDAFS 

provided guidance on the structure and the process for the creation of an effective 

management plan for the national park; 

• Community Use Zone Management Planning, Lac Tumba. Working with WWF on 

identifying the components and processes involved with the creation of a community use 

management plan for the region. 

• Landscape Level Planning. Working with AWF and WCS on landscape scale land use 

planning for the I Maringa-Lopori-Wamba and Ituri landscapes; 

• Supporting the Forest Inventory and Management Department, of MENCT, and the interministerial 

and multi-stakeholder National Forestry Zoning Steering Committee, as they 

outline a national land use planning policy and process. 


9.3.3 NATIONAL NGOS 

The majority of environment/natural resource NGOs (réseaux or networks) were established in the late 

1990s/early 2000s with donor support, as a mechanism for donors to channel resources given that most 

direct aid to the Government of the DRC (GDRC) was suspended. Currently, DRC’s civil society derives 

its legitimacy from the Constitution and the Décret-loi du 29 janvier 1999 portant réglementation des 

associations sans but lucratif et des établissements d’utilité publique (ASBL). This law recognizes NGOs 

as partners in economic and social development and gives them a mandate to work with and represent 

local communities. However, the law also specifies that development NGOs must ensure that in the 

design and development of their programs, they follow GDRC guidelines. The law also provides for their 

participation as advisors to GDRC institutions, granting them the right to represent the legal interests of 

local communities. 

Despite some MENCT resistance, it has nevertheless involved a number of NGOs in the development of 

the new Forest Code, particularly in writing and posting texts for Code application. NGOs have also been 

stakeholders in the MENCT’s review of forest titles, have identified community representatives to 

participate in this review, and have also contributed to the decisions taken by the Commission 

Interministérielle (CIM) on the conversion of old forest titles. Currently a number of NGOs are actively 

involved in translating elements for the Forest Code into local languages and sensitizing local 

communities on their rights and responsibilities under the code. 

Although it is generally recognized that DRC’s environment networks play an important role in lobbying, 

awareness raising and education at local and national levels, and in forest management, monitoring and 

conservation projects in the field, several issues were raised during the course of the assessment: 

• As most networks are dependent on donor support, some are now representing donor interests at the 

community level, and in some instances, representing community interests has taken a back seat to 

advocating a particular donor agenda; 

• Indigenous peoples (Pygmy) NGOs derive their legitimacy and recognition of the concept of 

indigenous peoples at international level. However, the most the most influential of the organizations 

originate in the Kivu areas (with little representation from Pygmies in the Equateur area), and a number 

of these organizations do not even have Pygmies in their management structure; 

• There is some resentment among MENCT staff regarding the networks. As one MENCT employee put 

it, “most of the directors and staff of these networks used to be MENCT employees, and were a major 

part of the problems we face today. Now that they are on the ‘other side’ and we are more like 

adversaries than partners.” 

Table 18 provides a list of the major environment/natural resource networks in the DRC. Most of these 

operate under the Coalition des Réseaux des ONGs de l’Environnement (CRON), which serves as a 

coordinating body. 


TABLE 18: NATIONAL NONGOVERNMENTAL ORGANIZATIONS 

Organization 

Organizations Under CRON 

Réseau Femmes Africaines 

pour le Développement 

Durable (REFADD) 

La Ligue Nationale des 

Associations Autochtones 

Pygmées du Congo 

(LINAPYCO) 

Réseau des Associations 

Autochtones Pygmées 

(RAPY) 

Groupe de Travail Forets 

(GTF) 

Réseau des Organisations 

Communautaires 

Francophones d’Appui au 

Développement Local 

(ROCFAD) 


Created during the first Conference on the Ecosystems of the Dense and Wet 

Forests of Central Africa (CEFDHAC), and focusing on women, environment 

and sustainable development, REFADD aims to: (i) identify the ways and the 

methods to increase the participation of the women in natural resource 

management and the conservation of the biodiversity; (ii) identify environmental 

strategies to support the participation of NGOs of the Congo basin in the 

development and the realization of the national and regional programs on 

natural resource management and the conservation of the biodiversity; (iii) 

support the participation of women in the natural resource management, with 

information, training and through the active participation of women in decisionmaking 

on questions related to the management of forests and the 

environmental protection; and (iv) improve communications between NGOs in 

the Congo Basin. REFADD’s network is both regional and national. Regionally, 

REFADD works with a number of NGOs in Burundi, Cameroun, Congo, Gabon, 

Guinea Equatorial and the Central African Republic. Nationally, REFADD is 

active in the provinces of Bas Congo, Bandundu, and Kasaï Oriental. 

LINAPYCO is a framework of consultation and dialogue for the integral 

development of the DRC’s Batwa/Bambuti communities. It has 30 association 

members at the provincial level, with active programs in South Kivu, North 

Kivu, Katanga and Eastern Province representing about 200 Batwa/Bambuti 

communities. LINAPYCO’s vision is the internal and external self-determination 

of Batwa/Bambuti of the DRC. Its mission is to improve the living conditions of 

the Batwa/Bambuti in all the sectors of life—political, social, economic, cultural, 

environment and religious. LINAPYCO areas of intervention include human 

rights, community development, women and youth programs and the 

environment (forest, coastal and marine ecosystems). 

RAPY, created in 2002 in Bukavu, has the objective of developing a dynamic of 

solidarity and dialogue between DRC organizations working with Pygmy 

communities for better coordination and promotion of minority rights. RAPY 

coordinates its action with regional organizations such as Heirs to Justice, 

Action pour la Promotion des Droits des Minorités Autochtones en Afrique 

Centrale (APDMAC), the Centre d’Accompagnement des Autochtones 

Pygmées et Minorités Vulnérables (CAMV) and the Union pour l’Émancipation 

de la Femme Autochtone (UEFA). RAPY also produces guidebooks in local 

languages to inform local communities on the country’s new mining and 

forestry codes and continues to document human rights abuses against Batwa 

and Bambuti communities in eastern DRC. 

Created in 2001 and active in the Provinces of Equateur, Orientale, Bandundu , 

Bas Congo, and Kasai Occidentale, GTF’s objective is to contribute to the 

improvement of forest governance. GTF works in the areas of advocacy for 

sustainable natural resource management, forest governance monitoring, 

community conservation, and community development for forest populations. 

GTF has been active in popularization of the forest code, the legal review of 

forest concessions, and strengthening local community capacity. 

Created in 2003, ROCFAD’s vision is to become within 10 years, a framework 

of reference to consolidate decentralization, good local governance, and 

participatory and sustainable community development at the local, national, 

and regional levels. Currently, ROCFAD has 35 nongovernmental 

organizations members distributed among six Provinces (Kinshasa, Bandundu, 

Bas Congo, Katanga, Eastern and Equateur. Province Eastern and Ecuador). 

To carry out its mission, ROCFAD promotes exchanges and dialogue between 

community organizations, decision makers (local, provincial and national) and 

international partners; strengthens capacities of local communities through 

training in sustainable development and good governance; defends the 

interests of the promoters of local sustainable development initiatives; 

promotes techniques, practices and the popular knowledge likely to contribute 


Organization 

Réseau Ressources 

Naturelles (RRN) 

Non CRON NGOs 

Organisation Concertée des 

Ecologistes et Amis de la 

Nature (OCEAN) 

Conseil National des ONG 

de Développement 

(CNONGD) 


to the development of the local communities; and carries out collective and 

individual actions to develop local potential including natural resources, human, 

financial, cultural, historical and touristic. 

Created in Kinshasa in 2003 and with 11 current provincial focal points and 256 

member organizations, RRN’s goal is to visions is to safeguard ecosystems 

while striving to bring the interests of local communities and indigenous groups 

into DRC’s natural resource management equations, by promoting and 

defending the rights of these groups. RRN works on a number of themes 

including: ensuring the participation of local communities in the forest title 

conversion process; active local participation in forest zoning; the promotion of 

new alternatives to the industrial exploitation of wood; ensuring local 

participation in the renegotiation of the mining contracts and the legal 

framework for artisanal mining; popularization of the Mining and Forest Codes 

and application measures; and the popularization and the application of the 

Corporate and Social Responsibilities Code. 

OCEAN’s goal is to help communities attain sustainable development in 

equilibrium with their environment while ensuring food security. OCEAN’s 

objectives are to: (i) promote sustainable agriculture based on ecological 

principles; (ii) fight against food insecurity by promoting improved production 

and increased value of local resources; (iii) promote improved health by 

increasing the availability of potable water and a better understanding/use of 

medicinal plants; (iv) advocate for the more rational and sustainable use of 

natural resources and the equitable distribution of benefits; (v) ensure 

permanent monitoring of logging and mining concessions; (vi) promote the 

conservation of protected areas through ecotourism and sensitizing border 

communities; and, (vii) increase awareness of communities on natural 

resource—related legislation. Specific areas of intervention include; 

environmental education, protection of natural ecosystems, food security, 

conservation of protected areas, forest certification, environmental impact 

assessments, and monitoring natural resource exploitation. OCEAN is active in 

North and South Kivu, Maniema and Eastern Provinces. 

Founded in 2004, CNONGD strives for a society in which people can satisfy 

their basic needs, influence political decisions, participate in the management 

of the country, integrate gender and help take charge through the development 

of well organized and structured development NGOs. CNONGD’s mission is to 

promote good governance in the network, promote ethics and transparency, 

and ensure respect of rules as well as all tasks and functions. Its objectives are 

to: (i) ensure the promotion and defense of the network’s interests; (ii) ensure 

resource mobilization; (iii) develop a culture of advocacy, lobbying and 

resource management in the network; (iv) reinforce the dynamics of civil 

society to establish and maintain peace and law and order in the DRC; (v) 

promote integration of the “gender” approach in the network and in society in 

general; (vi) encourage and reinforce research-action as well as capitalize on 

existing experience; and (vii) improve communication within and outside the 

network. Activities include organizing meetings, documentation, publications, 

press conferences, training (project writing, organizing training for trainers, 

advocacy and lobbying techniques, strengthening capacity of members), 

fundraising, advocacy, etc. CNONGD has working groups on forest protection 

and promotion of ecosystems, and sustainable forest management. 

9.4 GOVERNMENT OF DRC INSTITUTIONS 

Forest and biodiversity suffer from the same institutional shortcomings as other sectors. Public 

administration in the DRC has historically suffered from corruption and abuse of authority, and large 

numbers of public servants equipped with limited means and training. The war made this situation worse. 


The central government lost much of its territorial presence, including in most of the forested regions of 

the north and east. The previously meager government allocations for environment and forests ceased 

altogether. The average civil servant wage is about 37 dollars per month at the director level. 

Against this backdrop, there are four GDRC institutions whose mandates cover tropical forests and 

biodiversity to one extent or another: the Ministry of Environment, Nature Conservation and Tourism 

(MENCT), the Congolese Institute for Nature Conservation (l’Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de 

la Nature—ICCN), the Department in Charge of the Protection of the Mining Environment, Directorate of 

Mines, Ministry of Mines, and the National Service for Development of Fisheries. 

An overview of the mandates of these institutions along with a brief analysis of some the major 

institutional issues facing each organization are presented below. 

9.4.1 MINISTRY OF ENVIRONMENT, NATURE CONSERVATION AND TOURISM 

MENCT’s mandate is to “promote, supervise, and coordinate all activities relating to the environment 

with the realization of this mandate based on the current progress of science.” MENCT currently has 

eleven Directorates, eight Specialized Services, and four “cellules,” the majority of which deal with 

biodiversity and tropical forestry to one extent or another. MENCT’s presence at the provincial level is 

through Provincial Coordinators, District and Town Coordinators, Territory and Communal Supervisors, 

and Cell Chiefs at the collectivity level. Competencies are delegated to the provincial level via Article 

190 of the law 80 and include issuing permits and controlling ‘dangerous’ institutions, confiscating and 

transferring (to Kinshasa) animal trophies (ivory, skins), the power to open or close hunting and fishing 

seasons, issue hunting and fishing permits, and issue permits for the legitimate detention of protected 

animals. 

Much like other public institutions in DRC, institutions managing forest and conservation interests were 

abandoned without a budgetary allocation and left to fend for themselves. MENCT employees tend to be 

older (the average age is 50 years, and more than 26% of employees are above retirement age), and poorly 

educated (less than 15% of employees total15 have educational training beyond secondary school). 

Salaries are often paid late, and no office equipment or means of transport are provided. Numerous agents 

under temporary contracts (new units) may not receive a salary at all pending formal admission to the 

civil service and inclusion in the payroll. This saps the offices and employees of MENCT of dynamism, 

encourages a resistance to change, weakens their motivation, and affects the quality of their work. 

Administrative management systems (financial management, human resources, and planning, monitoring, 

and evaluation) are manual, often in-operational, hardly transparent or effective. Files are poorly 

protected and are often incomplete, causing numerous irregularities to continue. One notices equally the 

overlap of responsibilities and a lack of collaboration between the different components of the Ministry. 

The absence of means for travel at the provincial level results in ineffective monitoring of industrial forest 

operations because controls need to use the transportation facilities offered by industry and take place at 

times and locations convenient to industry. 

MENCT’s current workforce consists of 4,881 regular employees and 408 contractors and new recruits 

(not yet in the payroll). 2,292 work at the central level and 6,670 in provinces, districts and sub districts. 

2,261 of the regular staff are eligible for retirement (having exceeded both retirement age and 30 years of 

service). 1,265 of them work in provinces and lower territorial levels. In collaboration with the Ministry 

of Public Administration and the ad-hoc Working Group that was set up under the auspices of the 

President to facilitate the fair and smooth retirement of eligible public servants, MENCT has requested 


funding for the retirement of the 2,261 employees (637 from the Kinshasa and 1,624 from field locations) 

and the recruitment of 1,000 new employees. 

Field services comprise 11provincial departments, 40 districts and 144 territories. These teams are left 

largely on their own, without equipment, and having little contact with Kinshasa. At present, the forestry 

department is unable to enforce the policies of the new Forest Code in the field. The danger is that state 

employees, private operators and local authorities could act with little or no reference to national policy or 

to the concerns of local communities. 

MENCT has started a process of profound institutional reform involving a reduction in the total number 

of Directorates from 23 to 12, the creation of a new Division of Community Forestry, mandatory 

retirement of overage staff, new recruitments and improved synergy with ICCN. The restructured 

Ministry intends to give priority attention to rebuilding capacity in the field and at HQ and emphasize the 

following thematic areas: administration and financial management, human resources management, 

planning, monitoring and donor coordination, forest management systems and control functions, impact 

assessment, community forestry, wildlife and national park management (through ICCN). MENCT 

offices at the province, district and sub-district level will receive particular attention in this effort. 

MENCT’s efforts will be supported by the World Bank’s Forest and Nature Conservation Project. The 

objective of this $64 million activity is to increase the capacity of the MENCT and ICCN, and increase 

collaboration among government institutions, civil society, and other stakeholders in order to manage 

forests sustainably and equitably for multiple uses in pilot provinces. There are three components to the 

project. The first component of the project is institutional strengthening of MENCT. This component will: 

(a) improve the institutional capacity of MENCT’s and Provincial Ministries; (b) strengthen MENCT’s 

forest management technical capacity; (c) carry out an institutional reform within MENCT; and (d) 

support project implementation. The second component of the project is community participation in forest 

management. This component will: (a) increase local community and civil society participation in forest 

management; (b) support increased use of environmental services; and (c) assist with implementation the 

project’s environmental and social documents and safeguard plans. The third component of the project is 

management of protected areas and support to ICCN. This component will: (a) provide Institutional 

Strengthening for ICCN; and (b) help rehabilitate the Maiko National Park. 

9.4.2 CONGOLESE INSTITUTE FOR NATURE CONSERVATION 

ICCN is a parastatal organization under MENCT charged with the management of DRC’s protected areas. 

ICCN’s mandate is to control and patrol these protected areas, to collect and analyze data from the field 

and to facilitate tourism activities where possible. ICCN’s vision is to ensure the conservation and the 

effective and sustainable management of biodiversity in the national network of protected areas of the 

DRC in cooperation with local communities and other partners for the well-being of the Congolese people 

and all humanity. 

ICCN operates under two statutory bodies, the Board of Directors and the Management Committee. 

ICCN’s Board provides direction and policy orientation while the Management Committee overseas dayto-day 

operations. ICCN’s national management structure is presented in Figure 23 23 . 

23 

ICCN was in the process of reorganizing during the Assessment Team’s visit. The organigram is the Team’s best approximation 

of ICCN’s new structure. 


ICCN’s staffing pattern at headquarters by employment category is presented in Table 19. 

TABLE 19: ICCN HEADQUARTERS STAFFING BY EMPLOYMENT CATEGORY 

Employment 

Category 

Director 

General 

Asst. 

Director 

General 

Technical 

Director 

Scientific 

Director 

Director 

Admin. 

Director 

Finance 

Administrative 12 4 10 1 16 17 60 

Technical 6 6 

Scientific 6 6 

Total 12 4 16 7 16 17 72 

Source: AGRECO (2006). 

Total 

At the provincial level, ICCN has five provincial directorates, notably. 

• North Kivu at Goma; 

• South Kivu at Bukavu; 

• Katanga at Lubumbashi; 

• Orientale at Kisangani; and 

• Equateur at Mbandaka. 

Although staffing patterns were not available for the provincial directorates, each directorate generally 

has 2-3 technical staff and 2-3 administrative staff operating under a Provincial Director. Provincial 

Directorates are responsible for the overall management of protected areas within their respective regions. 

At the protected area level, although staffing patterns may vary by site, the general schema for protected 

areas management is presented in Figure 24. 24 

To meet the challenges of managing a 215.000 km2 protected area network, ICCN has established a 

Congo Conservation Coalition (Coalition pour la Conservation au Congo- CocoCongo) whose objective 

is to strengthen the capacity of the ICCN as well as the mechanisms for strengthening partnerships in 

implementing DRC’s national conservation strategy and protected areas action plan. At the site level, 

ICCN’s establishes Site Coordination Committees (Comité de Coordination du Site - CoCoSi). Composed 

of local and regional stakeholders and partners, the CoCoSi is charged with planning, coordinating and 

monitoring and evaluating all site level activities to ensure harmony of relations between partners at the 

site, and to encourage exchange of experiences with other sites. 

24 

ICCN was in the process of reorganizing during the Assessment Team’s visit. The organigram is the Team’s best approximation 

of ICCN’s new site structure. 


FIGURE 23: ICCN ORGANIGRAM—KINSHASA 



FIGURE 24: ICCN GENERIC SITE ORGANIGRAM 



Issues 

AGRECO (2006) in conducting an institutional review for the European Union on ICCN’s capacity 

strengthening program identified a number of issues with regard to ICCN capacity to conserve 

biodiversity. A brief summary of these issues follows: 

• Despite piloting planning, monitoring and evaluation program activities at the national level, these 

efforts have not generated the degree of stakeholder participation and delegation required for effective 

strategy implementation; 

• Despite some achievements, ICCN does not yet have sufficient internal capacity to develop proposals 

for funding, to manage important funding and ensure implementation of major projects according to 

standards required by donors; 

• Although ICCN has extensive experience in participatory boundary delimitation for protected areas 

(PA), it does not formally participate in the initiatives and processes of zoning outside the PA network, 

particularly for emerging new initiatives such as community and private reserves; 

• ICCN does not have the capacity to pilot the inventories and studies required for PA classification 

leading to the expansion of the PA network to 15% of the territory; 

• Although management plans have been developed for some sites, ICCN does not have the ability to 

control their development and has not proposed a harmonized management plan model; developing 

operational plans is the consolidation of the interventions of the partners, monitoring their 

implementation is entrusted to the CoCoSi and overall evaluation to a delegate of the CEO; 

• The absence of a donor coordination forum causes a geographical and thematic, concentration of effort 

as well as imbalanced support for the real needs of the institution. There is an effort to strengthening 

information management, but capacity at all levels is still insufficient for SYGIAP an effective tool for 

tracking, planning, communication and marketing network level; 

• Surveillance operations fail to address the magnitude of the pressure and very serious threats still weigh 

on all PAs; patrol organization is based on emergencies and not longer-term planning. The number of 

guards and trained cadres is generally insufficient, and the distribution of stations and PP should be 

based on spatial analysis and incorporated into management plans. Outside of the PAs, ICCN has 

formalized systematic collaboration with the population and local authorities, but public understanding 

and support for punishing offenses are greatly inadequate; 

• Limited financial and human resources preclude ICCN’s ability to undertake needed PA infrastructure 

development (roads, tracks, bridges firebreaks, views, etc.); 

• Hunting concession contracts are being developed between ICCN and foreign companies for the 

Domaines de Chasses, but no hunting operation has taken place since its closing in 1984; no hunting or 

tourism plans exist and ICCN has not been proactive in developing them; 

• In terms of scientific support, there is vigorous bio monitoring capacity building to internalize the use 

of data collected on the ground; the extension of the Système de Gestion d’Information pour les Aires 

Protégées (SYGIAP) to the other PAs is an important challenge. In the absence of a master plan 

research (until recently) and site management plans, any research done is a result of partner efforts, 

with ICCN only assigning counterparts to these efforts; 


• Due to lack of experience in this area, ICCN does not currently have the technical capacity to validate 

the PA management plans and to support their implementation with the information, training, and 

technical support required; 

• ICCN created five provincial directorates to serve as an administrative relay and tracking system, but 

so far, Provincial Directors have not taken on this role given low capacity, limited resources, and lack 

of internal recognition. Moreover, ICCN management tends to keep direct lines of communication with 

the sites, often bypassing the provincial offices. Additionally, the exact role of the provincial offices 

has not been effectively communicated to sites and partners. 

Since the AGRECO study, ICCN has begun addressing some of these issues and with the support of the 

World Bank, through the National Parks Network Rehabilitation Project, many of them are expected to be 

resolved. The objective of this project is to enhance the capacity of ICCN for management of targeted 

protected areas. There are three components to the project. The first component of the project is support 

to institutional rehabilitation. This component will focus on re-establishing a functional financial 

directorate within ICCN headquarters, will strengthen ICCN’s coordination, communication, monitoring 

and evaluation (M&E), and social impact management systems, and will help ICCN develop a sustainable 

funding strategy. The second component of the project is support to national parks. This component will 

help rehabilitate the Garamba National Park and the Virunga National Park—Mikeno Sector. The third 

component of the project is technical studies and consultations. This component will strengthen the 

capacity of ICCN to conduct the technical studies, surveys, and local consultations needed to identify new 

protected areas to ensure better representativeness of the national protected areas network. 

9.4.3 DEPARTMENT IN CHARGE OF THE PROTECTION OF THE MINING 

ENVIRONMENT, DIRECTORATE OF MINES, MINISTRY OF MINES 

The Directorate of Mines is responsible for inspecting and supervising mining activities and quarry works 

with regard to safety, health, work procedures, production, transport, sale and social matters. The 

Department in Charge of the Protection of the Mining Environment, in collaboration with MENCT: 

• Undertakes the technical evaluation of the Mitigation and Rehabilitation Plans (MRP) in relation to the 

prospecting operations for mineral substances classified as mines and quarries; and 

• Undertakes the technical evaluation of Environmental Impact Studies (EIS) and Environmental 

Mitigation and Monitoring Plans for projects presented by applicants requesting mining or quarry 

exploitation rights. 

The Department has about 40 technical staff of which more than half have specialized degrees in geology, 

mining, engineering, etc., and the majority have either formal or informal Environmental Impact 

Assessment (EIA) training and experience. Like most GDRC institutions, the Department suffers from 

insufficient resources making sites visits difficult and/or putting the staff at the mercy of the operators. 

Although the Mining Code calls for the collaboration between the Department and MENCT, in practice 

this does not happen, and there is even an apparent animosity between the two organizations. 

9.4.4 NATIONAL SERVICE FOR DEVELOPMENT OF FISHERIES 

Overall fisheries management responsibility in the DRC nominally lies with the National Service for 

Development of Fisheries (SENADEP—Service National pour le Développement des Pêches), under 


MENCT 25 . SENADEP is theoretically represented within each of the country’s eight regions by a 

‘regional coordinator.’ At the sub-regional level there are SENADEP ‘heads of office,’ and at the lower 

zone level by there are ‘supervisors.’ Fisheries administration at all levels has for some years been 

moribund due to civil strife and national economic collapse. Specifically, SENADEP’s various offices 

cannot function due to: isolation between stations and central establishment (remote areas, deteriorated 

infrastructure, and civil war zones); insufficient or nonexistent budget; low staff motivation (poor or 

nonexistent pay); inadequate staffing and training at all levels of administration; lack of basic office and 

field equipment and facilities; inability to enforce regulations; and absence of reliable data. Theoretically, 

MENCT with FAO support is elaborating a new fisheries master plan for the DRC but the assessment 

team was not able to secure a copy of this plan. 

9.5 CROSS CUTTING INSTITUTIONAL ISSUES 

In addition to specific institutional issues discussed above, there are four cross cutting issues that affect 

institutional capacity to address threats to tropical forests and biodiversity. 

9.5.1 WEAK CONTROL AND LAW ENFORCEMENT 

Ministerial control services are poorly 

equipped (communications, travel means, 

FIGURE 25: THE GUARD DETACHMENT IN 

KUNDULUNGU NATIONAL PARK 

etc.) to fulfill their mandates to control 

Forest and Mining Code infractions, and to 

combat illegal exploitation and fraud. 

Control officers are poorly and irregularly 

paid and the control missions that are 

undertaken are usually paid for by the 

concession owners/operators. In these 

conditions, no real control or law 

enforcement is possible. 

In 2007, the European Commission engaged 

Global Witness to conduct a feasibility study 

to establish an Independent Observer of 

Forests (OIF) position. Considering Global 

Witness’s openly hostile bias against 

industrial logging operations and the 

Photo: DAI 

absence of any control structures on the ground, the study made little contribution to better control 

operations. 

For its part, the MENCT has requested Société Générale de Surveillance S.A. (SGS) to conduct a study 

on monitoring and verification of forest logging and timber chain-of-custody. Preliminary 

recommendations from the study suggest that a chain of custody program could be paid for by revenue 

generated from control operations. However, the experience from other countries (particularly Cameroon) 

tends to suggest that this type of external control cannot be funded by control revenues (fines) and 

25 

The Ministry of Agriculture also has a Department of Fisheries, which mainly focuses on aquaculture, although the lines between 

SENADEP and this Department are not clear. 


governments revert to increasing taxes on the concession operators, thus decreasing profits and hampering 

their ability to invest in other programs such as green certification. 

9.5.2 COORDINATION ACROSS GOVERNMENT INSTITUTIONS 

Coordination across government institutions is currently very limited. However, as DRC’s economy 

begins to grow and as new agriculture and mining concessions are awarded, coordination will become 

increasingly important. Examples that illustrate the need for improved collaboration include: 

• Logging and mining on the same tract of land and the separation of mining claim holders from that of 

forest concession holders; 

• Competing land uses being considered by different government agencies for land proposed as protected 

areas, and the absence of a common land use policy between MENCT, the Ministry of Agriculture, and 

the Ministry of Mines; and 

• Granting agricultural concessions (e.g., oil palm) without or with limited reference to MENCT. 

9.5.3 COORDINATION BETWEEN INTERNATIONAL NGOS AND GOVERNMENT 

During the course of assessment team consultations with ICCN and MENCT staff, several people pointed 

out that information sharing between CARPE implementing partners and ICCN/MENCT was much better 

that had been in the past. However, they also remarked that with some exceptions, CARPE partner efforts 

to engage national and local staff in the strategic planning of activities was still very limited. As noted in 

the CARPE mid-term evaluation (Weidemann, 2006), the CARPE structure envisages a CARPE-funded 

“Focal Point’ as the linchpin to ensure country level coordination and communication among CARPE 

partners and between CARPE and the host government. However, the focal point mechanism has not 

been effective in carrying out these responsibilities. Informal coordination often takes place among the 

key implementing NGOs operating in the DRC, other donors and USAID, but these informal processes 

often leave out the GDRC. CARPE/DRC has not yet established a mechanism for bringing together the 

host government, CARPE partners, and the CARPE SO team to plan and review progress in meeting 

CARPE objectives. 

9.5.4 INFORMATION AND DATA COLLECTION 

DRC government institutions are also facing shortages of scientific information pertaining to tropical 

forest and biodiversity conservation and management. The use of remote sensing technology (through 

CARPE) to monitor forest cover, area, and change (through degradation or conversion), has been very 

effective. However, the assessment team is concerned that in the absence of sound ‘on the ground’ forest 

science, managers are making assumptions about the stability of the forest, the regeneration of timber 

trees, and especially about the impacts of long-term climate change and the degradation of forest by 

human activity. 

In terms of biodiversity, in the early years of independence, the DRC was fairly well-positioned to begin 

biodiversity conservation. Biological inventory was well-advanced at the national level, with some sites 

fairly well documented. There was an active flora project and a network of large protected areas. Since 

that time, conditions have deteriorated to the point where DRC has very limited capacity for biodiversity 

research, inventory and conservation and the nation’s conservation priorities (and research agendas) are 


developed by international conservation organizations, whose main focus is on retaining the protected 

areas and any megafauna that they still support. 

To move from a traditional protected areas approach to more sophisticated biodiversity and forest 

conservation and management approach, large amounts of information are needed on species distributions 

and habitats, and the ecology of the forest/savanna mosaic areas and their carbon dynamics. In the 

absence of such information, effective biodiversity and tropical forest conservation and management will 

be compromised. 

9.5.5 OVERLAPPING MANDATES 

Although there are several examples of overlapping institutional mandates, the situation between 

MENCT’s Direction of Human Establishments and Environmental Protection and the Ministry of Mines 

Department in Charge of the Protection of the Mining Environment is perhaps the most relevant. The 

Direction’s mandate is to ensure and monitor the execution of tasks related to the protection of the 

environment including, the development of spaces, the evaluation of the effects of the human activities on 

the environment, and the prevention of activities which result in air, water and soil pollution. Specifically, 

the Direction is charged with environmental rehabilitation in mining areas as well as the conduct of 

environmental assessments, which is essentially the same mandate as Ministry of Mines Environmental 

Department. Furthermore, it is not clear how the new environmental framework law will address this 

issue as there is no specific mention in the draft of the relationship between the proposed National 

Environment Protection Agency and the Ministry of Mines. Additionally, Ministry of Mines’ staff 

maintains that the Mining Code will take precedence over any framework environmental law. 


10. LEGISLATION RELATED 

TO THE ENVIRONMENT AND 

BIODIVERSITY 

10.1 FOREST CODE 

Until 2002, forest management in DRC was governed by the Forest Decree dating from 1949. In practice, 

implementation was based on a technical paper called “The Logger’s Guide.” This guide lacked clear 

legal status. It focused on the timber industry without providing a balanced overall view or providing a 

focus on forest conservation. In April 1999, an Inter-Ministerial Committee on Timber recommended the 

cancellation all contacts for “non-inventoried, abandoned, and/or undeveloped forests.” 

State ownership over forest lands was established by a series of laws including the Forest Decree of 1949, 

the Bakajika Land Law of 1966, the 1973 Land Law, and the 1980 Revised Land Law. 

In May 29, 2002, the GDRC imposed a Moratorium on the issuance of new concessions until new rules 

for the awarding of forest concessions had been published. Following the Moratorium, the Forest Code, 

law 1 1/2002, dated August 29, 2002 was published in DRC’s Journal Officiel in November 2003. 

Among several other issues, the Forest Code deals with forest concessions (defined as rental contracts 

without transfer of ownership) but not with, land concessions. 

The Forest Code only sets general principles. Of the thirty-eight regulations or implementing decrees 

deemed necessary to implement the 2002 Forest Code, thirty-five have been published and three – 

regulations for the cahier des charges, artisanal logging and community forestry—are under various 

stages of development. A list of published Forest Code implementing decrees is presented in Annex F. 

The discussion below notes certain important elements of the Code relevant to biodiversity and tropical 

forest conservation. 

Objective1 Article 2 of the Forest Code (“the Code”) describes its objective: to “foster rational and 

sustainable management of forest resources with a view to increasing their contribution to the economic, 

social and cultural development of today’s generations, while preserving forest ecosystems and forest 

biodiversity for future generations.” The Code provides several major concepts that generally apply to all 

categories of forests addressed under the Code. Additionally, the Forest Codes provides for the 

classification of different types of forests, and includes provisions that differ according to the category of 

the forest. 

Categories of Forest Uses. Article 10 establishes three broad categories of forest uses: (1) “gazetted 

forests” which are devoted to conservation; (2) “permanent production forests” where timber can be 

harvested based on forest concession contracts and forest management plans: and (3) ‘protected forests” 

devoted to rural development. The Code states that these are priority uses, but not necessarily exclusive 

ones. 


Consultations. Article 15 provides for prior consultations with local people before a forest is designated 

for conservation or production: “Gazettement takes place by Ministerial Order after due notification from 

the Provincial Forest Advisory Council based on prior consultations with local populations”. And Article 

84 states: “Forest concession contracts shall be preceded by a public inquiry. The inquiry aims to 

establish any rights third parties might have on the forest to be granted for the purposes of compensation, 

if any.” 

User Rights. According to Article 44: “Populations neighboring a forest concession shall continue to 

exercise their traditional users’ rights on said concession insofar as it is compatible with forestry 

exploitation, with the exclusion of agriculture. The concession holder shall not claim any sort of 

compensation following the exercise of such rights.” In the case of indigenous people, Article 84 calls for 

inquiries to determine any “third party” rights that might be compensated. 

Sustainable Forest Management Plans. Articles 71, 99 and 100 refer to implementation of sustainable 

forest management plans in all production forests with the last stipulating: “loggers must comply with the 

legal provisions pertaining to nature protection, hunting and fishing.” And Article 14 requires that: 

“Gazetted forests must account for at least 15% of the national territory’s total area.” 

Concession Allocation System. The Forest Code also establishes, in Articles 83, 85 and 86, a concession 

allocation system based on transparent auctions rather than arbitrary decisions. In Article 122 it provides 

that 40 % of the concession fees will be transferred to provincial governments. 

Sole Sourcing. Articles 83 and 86 of the Code state that under exceptional circumstances, sole sourcing, 

authorized by the Minister, may be used to allocate concessions. 

Cahier de Charges. Article 89 makes the ‘cahier de charge’ with local communities) mandatory. These 

are social contracts and components of forest concession agreements in Central Africa. They vary from 

place to place, but call for the logging company to build facilities directly for the community. These could 

include roads, bridges, schools, health clinics, etc. 

Consultations and Conservation Concessions. In several articles, the Forest Code refers to a system of 

consultation including Provincial Forest Advisory Councils and regular public information on forest 

allocations and concessions. It refers numerous times to including the private sector, local communities 

and NGOs in consultations. It also refers explicitly to conservation concessions, biological prospecting, 

tourism, and environmental services. 

Article 119 states that Articles 115 to 118 (relating to forest exploitation) do not apply to “conservation 

concessions.” Under Article 115, a concession holder has the obligation to exploit the forest in the 18 

months after the signing of the contract. Article 116 addresses the case in which the concession holder 

does not use his concession and states that if the concession is not used for 2 years then it goes back to the 

government. Article 117 deals with the case in which the concession stops. Article 118 addresses the case 

of non-payment or insolvency of the concession holder. The Code thus specifies the need to exempt 

conservation concessions from obligations that would, presumably, be at odds with their creation and use 

(e.g. to exploit the forest). 

Community Forests. Another important issue that has been raised in the context of the legal framework 

is the recognition of community forests in DRC. Article 22 opens some possibilities for forest 

management by local communities: “Upon request, a local community may obtain as a concession part or 

all of the protected forests among the forests properly owned according to custom. The Forest Code 


defines “local communities” as “people organized in a traditional manner according to custom and united 

by bonds of tribal or parental solidarity that establish its internal consistency. A local community is 

further characterized by its attachment to a specific territory.” 

Forest Zoning. The “Arrête Ministériel No. 107/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/09 of August 20, 2009 on the 

creation, composition, organization and functioning of a National Forestry Zoning Steering Committee” 

is a critical first in improved land use land use planning in the DRC. Composed of Government, private 

sector, civil society, international NGOs, and research organizations, the Committee is charged with 

assisting MENCT with forest zoning issues, and is specifically tasked with: 

• Providing orientation on forest zoning in relationship to other Government priorities; 

• Providing a forum for exchanging and harmonizing different points of view from different sectors with 

regard to zoning; 

• Harmonizing the needs and interests of different parties who are concerned with space utilization and 

natural resources; 

• Proposing reforms required to resolve legislative conflicts; 

• Providing advice on the limits of proposed forests for zoning and assure that these limits are not in 

conflict with other potential uses; and 

• Developing a tenure map at a national scale noting the categories of forests, mining sites, agroindustrial 

plantations, hydro-electric projects, and other infrastructure. 

An operational guide for forest zoning standards was prepared by SPIAF in September 2009 with 

assistance from the World Bank, USAID/CARPE, USDAFS, FAO, WWF, the Rainforest Foundation, 

and IUCN. 

10.2 MINING CODE 

The discussion below notes certain important elements of the Mining Code (Law No. 007/2002 of July 

11, 2002 Relating to the Mining Code) relevant to biodiversity and tropical forest conservation. 

Prohibited Areas. Article 6 states that “if national security, the safety of the population, the 

incompatibility of the mining and quarry activities with other existing or planned uses of the soil or subsoil, 

as well as in the case that the protection of the environment so requires, the President of the Republic 

may, on his own initiative or on the proposal of the Minister, after having obtained the opinion of the 

Mining Registry, declare an area to be off-limits for mining activities and/or quarry works.” 

Department in Charge of the Protection of the Mining Environment. Article 15 states that “in coordination 

with the other State entities responsible for the protection of the environment, the Department 

in charge of the Protection of the Mining Environment within the Ministry of Mines exercises the powers 

which are devolved to it by the present Code and by all other regulations regarding the protection of the 

environment.…” 

Conditions for Prospecting. Article 20 requires the holder of a Prospecting Certificate to comply with 

the applicable regulation which applies with regard to protection of the environment. 


Environmental Evaluation. Article 42 states that “in accordance with the provisions of article 15 of the 

Present Code and the provisions concerning each type of mining and/or quarry right, the department 

responsible for the protection of the mining environment evaluates the Environmental Impact Study (EIS) 

and the Environmental Mitigation and Monitoring Plan (EMPP) relating to the application for mining 

exploitation rights or Permanent Quarry Exploitation Authorization, as well as the MRP relating to an 

application for a Temporary Quarry Exploitation Authorization in accordance with the provisions of the 

present Code. At the end of the evaluation, it provides its opinion on the environmental aspects to the 

Mining Registry, within the deadline/time period set forth for each type of mining and/or quarry right.” It 

also requires that the environmental opinion must be publicly displayed. 

The Ministry’s Decision. Article 76 states that “if the registrar and technical opinions following the 

processing of the application for the Exploitation License are favorable but the environmental opinion has 

not been issued yet, the Minister makes a preliminary and conditional decision within a period of twenty 

working days, as of the date the file containing the application is sent to him by the Mining Registry and 

postpones his final decision to grant or refuse the Exploitation License until he has received the 

environmental opinion. The Minister’s preliminary and conditional decision has the effect of definitively 

ratifying the registrar and technical opinions. The final decision on the granting of the application is 

conditional on receipt of a favorable environmental opinion.” 

Processing or Transformation Plants. Article 83 states that “the installation and functioning of a plant 

for the processing or transformation of mineral substances are subject to the regulations with regard to the 

protection of the environment which are set forth in the present Code and by specific environmental 

legislation.” 

Authorization for Artisanal Mining. Article 111states that artisanal miners’ cards are issued by the 

Head of the provincial division of Mines in the area, to eligible persons who apply for them and undertake 

to comply with the regulations on protection of the environment, health, and safety in the artisanal 

exploitation areas. 

During Exploitation. Article 204 states that “any applicant for an Exploitation License, an Exploitation 

License for Tailings, a Small-scale Mining Exploitation License, or an Authorization for Quarry 

Exploitation must submit an environmental impact study together with an environmental management 

plan for the project, and obtain the approval of his EIS and EMPP, as well as implement the EMPP. The 

environmental impact study will include a description of the ecosystem before commencing mining 

operations, including the flora and fauna, soil and topography, air quality, underground and surface water. 

It specifies the aspects which may be affected qualitatively and quantitatively by the mining or quarry 

exploitation activity. It will include as well, the measures planned for the protection of the environment, 

the elimination or the reduction of pollution, the rehabilitation of the sites, as well as the verification of 

the effectiveness of said measures.” 

Provision for Site Rehabilitation. Article 258 requires that “the holder must make, free of tax on profits, 

a provision for rehabilitation of the site on which the mining activities take place. The maximum amount 

to be allocated for this provision is equal to 0.5% of the turnover for the tax year during which it is made. 

In case the holder is required to make a provision or to fulfill other financial obligations in compliance 

with the regulations on the protection of the environment, the amount of this second provision or of these 

financial obligations shall be deducted from the maximum authorized amount of the provision for the 

rehabilitation of the site. This provision must be used within a period of ten years as of the end of the tax 

year during which it was made. The unused amount of the provision is reintegrated into the taxable profits 


for the eleventh tax year following the one during which said provision was made. The unused amount of 

the provision at the end of the last tax year of the project is reintegrated into the taxable profits for said 

tax year.” 

Compensation for the Occupants of the Land. Article 281 states “any occupation of land depriving the 

rightful holders of enjoyment of the surface rights, any modification rendering the land unfit for 

cultivation, shall cause the holder or lessee of the mining and/or quarry rights, at the request of the 

rightful holders of the surface rights, and at their convenience, to pay fair compensation, corresponding 

either to the rent or the value of the land at the time of its occupation, plus fifty per cent.” 

Suspension. Article 292 states that “any serious offence defined in the Mining Regulations committed by 

the Holder is punishable by immediate suspension of works, decided by the Minister, with prior official 

notification. The duration of the suspension is set by regulation depending on the extent of the gravity of 

the offence committed and of its impact on the environment, public health and safety.” 

10.3 FISHERIES LEGISLATION 

The main fisheries regulations include the following: 

• 1932 Decree on Exclusive Fishing Rights; 

• 1937 Decree on Fishing and Hunting; 

• Ordinance No. 432/Agri. of 26 December 1947; 

• 1981 regulation of fishing devices; 

• 1979 ordinance (amended 1983) on fees and license categories. 

To the assessment team’s knowledge, the basic legislation on fisheries remains the 1937 Decree on 

Fishing and Hunting (as amended for its fisheries provisions by a decree of 17 January 1957, a legislative 

ordinance No. 52/273 of 24 June 1958 and a decree of 27 June 1960). This decree applied throughout the 

territories then administered by Belgium (Ruanda-Urundi and Belgian Congo). 

The 1932 Decree on Exclusive Fishing Rights enables competent authorities to grant exclusive fishing 

rights in a designated area to any person. The decree outlines the general terms and conditions governing 

the agreement to be entered into and spells out the rights and obligations of each contracting party. Where 

the existence of traditional fishing rights has been clearly established in the area to be designated, the 

grant of exclusive fishing rights may be denied or subject to certain conditions designed to ensure the 

protection of such rights. 

The Ordinance No. 432/Agri. of 26 December 1947 (as amended in 1952 and 1954) provides for the 

status and powers of fish controllers. 

A regulation of 1981 prohibits fishing by means of electrical devices, explosives or toxic substances 

throughout the then Zairian territory and provides for the seizure by the authorities of any such articles 

and any catch caught by such means. 

A 1979 ordinance (as amended by a regulation of 1983) provides for the rate of fishing permits fees and 

determines the various issuing authorities. Authorization to fish is required for all types of fishing 

operations and is subject to the payment of a prescribed fee. Conditions to a fishing permit include the 


prohibition of discarding any fish or part thereof. Industrial fishing permits are issued by the Governor of 

the Province on the advice of a consultative commission. Fishing in Southern Lake Tanganyika using 

drag nets or nets of a mesh size less than 4mm is prohibited. The use of beach nets, however, remains 

lawful. Lastly, industrial fishing is prohibited within a 5 km-wide area measured from the shoreline. 

A similar regulation was enacted within Kivu Region (northern Lake Tanganyika), also in 1958. 

Regulations include industrial fishing unit specifications extending the total length of set nets to 5,000 m. 

Likewise, the total length of set nets that can be used by an artisanal fishing unit in the northern area of 

Lake Tanganyika was extended to 4,500 m. A further regulation enacted in 1959 for Kivu Region limits 

to six the total number of industrial fishing permits that can be issued in respect of the northern portion of 

the lake (north of Lake Nyanza parallel). 

In 1985, a draft law providing a general legal framework for both marine and inland fisheries was devised 

with the assistance of FAO. The law was composed of 70 articles primarily directed at regulating inland 

fisheries. Insofar as is known, this law was not submitted to Parliament due to political turmoil at the 

time. The Ministry of Agriculture’s (MOA) Department of Fisheries and SENADEP, in collaboration 

with FAO is apparently formulating a fisheries master plan which will include a new fisheries code. 

10.4 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION LEGISLATION 

MENCT has prepared a new Framework Law on Nature Conservation. However, the law has not as yet 

been adopted. Pending adoption, biodiversity conservation currently falls under a law dealing in a general 

way with wildlife resources, namely, law No. 082-002 of 28 May 1982, which regulates hunting of 

certain species under total protection status, a list of which is contained in Table 1 of the annexes to the 

law. 

Together with this law there is also ordinance-law No. 69-041 of 22 August 1969 on the conservation of 

nature, which sets out the framework for improved conservation of wildlife in general, especially great 

apes, who are covered under the notion of “nature reserves”, and law No.75- 024 of 22 July 1975, 

concerning the establishment of “sanctuary areas”. 

In regulatory terms, arrangements for species protection derive from the combination of certain provisions 

of the hunting regulations under law No. 082-002. For example, article 26 states that: 

“For hunting purposes animals are divided into three categories: 

1. Fully protected animals listed in table I of the annex to the present law; 

2. Partially protected animals listed in table II of the annex; 

3. Non-protected animals not listed in tables I or II.” 

On these grounds, Article 27 states that “it is forbidden to kill, capture, hunt, pursue, deliberately disturb, 

or illegally and with prejudicial intent cause any of these animals to flee, unless furnished with a scientific 

permit issued by the ministry responsible for hunting issues.” 

The draft nature conservation law introduces major reforms to law No. 69-041 of 22 August 1969 in that 

it: 

• Obliges the Congolese State to develop a national policy aimed at ensuring the conservation and 

sustainable use of biological diversity, the preservation of landscapes, sites and monuments; 


• Obliges the State to ensure that any policy, program or project likely to significantly affect natural 

habitats, wetlands and wild fauna and flora and their habitats, including foreign and national 

investments, provide safeguard measures to be defined via an impact study; 

• Obliges the Ministry in charge of the conservation of nature, in consultation with other agencies 

concerned (including universities and other training institutions and research organizations), to 

implement and provide financial resources for training program and encourage the exploitation of the 

results of scientific research on biological diversity and genetic resources; 

• Obliges the Government to ensure the financing of national activities retained as priorities in national 

and biological diversity action plan strategy as well as in the parks as per the DRC conservation policy; 

• Is based on the principle of the establishment of a system of parks for which special measures must be 

taken to conserve biological diversity, the protection of ecosystems and natural habitats and maintain 

viable populations of species in their natural environment; 

• Highlights the need to train, inform and involve local communities living in and/or around parks in 

conservation matters with the assistance the competent authority, public bodies, and non-governmental 

organizations; 

• Obliges the State to ensure the protection of knowledge, innovations and practices of local 

communities that embody the traditional ways of life, sustainable use of biological diversity and the 

equitable sharing of genetic resources from profits. 

• Obliges that the State guarantee all Congolese fair access to genetic resources. 

• Recognizes any Congolese citizen and any authorized non-governmental organization and operating in 

the environmental sector the right to act in justice to obtain the cancellation of a decision taken by an 

administrative authority in violation of this Act; 

• Gives conservators of protected areas, hunting inspectors, and guards paramilitary status and 

enforcement/offences functions. 

10.5 ENVIRONMENTAL LAW 

MENCT is in the process of elaborating a new environmental law (Projet de loi-cadre sur 

l’environnement au Congo). Chapter 10 of the draft environmental legislation provides for the protection 

of wildlife and flora. Specific articles include: 

• Article 66 provides for the protection of spaces and natural landscapes, the preservation of the 

maintenance of biological balances in which they are involved and the protection of natural resources 

against all causes of degradation that threaten animal and plant species; 

• Article 67 provides for the conservation and rational management of fauna and flora; the Department 

responsible for the environment establishes protected according to the procedures in force areas; 

• Article 68 gives right to compensation on the part of the administration for the benefit of local 

communities when the classification of recognized areas of particular interest to the protection of fauna 

and flora causes direct harm to those communities; 


• Article 69 prohibits bush fires or brush fires, sizes of wood and other plants in protected areas, while 

Article 70 excludes prescriptive and other forms of preventive fires from Article 69 to be allowed by 

the services of the Department responsible for the environment, according to regulations in force; 

• Article 71 states that traditional fires and fires for clearing areas to plant crops or for the development 

of pastoral areas are tolerated subject to compliance with the conditions that will be determined by the 

Department responsible for the environment; 

• Article 72 provides for fines not exceeding 6 million to 120 million NZ and to imprisonment for 3 to 6 

months, for an infraction of Articles 69 to 71 above. 

Finally, Article 80 provides for the creation of a public establishment of ‘industrial and commercial 

nature’, with civil personality and financial autonomy, referred to as the National Environmental 

Protection Agency. The Agency will be governed by the law on public companies and placed under the 

Department responsible for the environment. Administrative and financial organization of the Agency and 

its terms of its operation will be established by a Council of Ministers Decree. 

10.6 POLICY/LEGISLATIVE ISSUES AFFECTING THE 

GOVERNMENT’S CAPACITY TO ADDRESS THREATS TO TROPICAL 

FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY 

In general terms the above legislation is sufficient to provide the enabling environment for the 

conservation of DRC’s biodiversity and tropical forests. However, there are still a number of issues that 

need to be addressed. These issues—both cross cutting and sector specific—are discussed below. 

10.6.1 CROSS CUTTING 

Absence of a Strategy or Policy to Address the Compromises Between Environment and Economic 

Development 

Sustainable development is based on the notion that growth strategy should take into account 

environmental and social concerns, as well as the efficient management of resources to achieve long-term 

prosperity. This concept has been endorsed by the international development declarations and their 

initiatives, starting with the Rio Summit in 1992 and the World Summit on Sustainable Development in 

Johannesburg in 2002, and finishing with the recent launch of the Millennium Development Goals 

(MDGs). 

Although DRC’s Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP), addresses environmental, and climate change 

adaptation concerns, they are not explicitly mainstreamed throughout the PRSP, but are mentioned in 

some of the sector documents. Environmental protection is referred to separately in the PRSP under rural 

development/agriculture and relates to biodiversity conservation, forestry, and the convention on climate 

change. The vision of the PRSP is a 2-digit Gross Domestic Product (GDP) growth rate, equitable 

distribution of wealth, and achievement of the MDGs by 2015. These growth targets are predicated for the 

most part on the anticipated dynamism of activities in construction and public works, trade and 

transportation, as well as a diversification and increase in the products from the primary sector, including 


mines and forests and an upward trend in agricultural production. However, none of the sector strategies 

address sustainability issues, nor do any of the Strategy’s five pillars 26 . 

Without a strategy or policy that specifically addresses tradeoffs between the environment and economic 

development, the assessment team is concerned that economic development—in the form of mining, 

logging and agro industrial concessions—will continue to take precedence over the environment as they 

have done in the past. 

Absence of Any Sectoral Policies 

A policy is typically described as a deliberate plan of action to guide decisions and achieve rational 

outcome(s). Policies usually incorporate a vision and statements on how a particular authority is to 

achieve its goals and objectives with regard to a specific subject area or class of subject areas. Legislation, 

on the other hand, is drafted to implement the policy. The assessment team was surprised to learn that 

there are no sectoral policies in the DRC and tropical forests and biodiversity are managed through 

legislation only—much of which was imposed by external actors. 

The Gap between Legislation and Practice 

Drafted by Kinshasa- based lawyers and technicians, DRC’s environment/natural resource legislation is 

based on the assumptions that reality is manageable and that the future is predictable. This view has 

resulted in ‘technical’ solutions to environment/natural resource development ‘problems’, including 

overly comprehensive legislative mandates. Complicated legislation results in poor understanding and 

contributes to difficulties in enforcement. The net result of this technical approach is that the majority of 

“codes” are far removed from the reality they are trying to influence. 

10.6.2 SECTOR SPECIFIC 

The Forest Code 

Limited on the ground implementation 

Although the majority of the Forest Code’s implementing decrees have been drafted and finalized 27 (see 

Appendix F for a complete list), the Code and many of its implementing provisions have not yet been 

applied on the ground for several reasons, including: 

• Delays in publishing Appendices (different license models and forms that they imposed) to the signed 

texts; 

• MENCT continues to use earlier legislation (prior to the Forest Code) on the grounds that they had to 

wait the outcome of the statutory old forest titles review. Between 2007 and 2008, notes were 

circulated by the Minister to central and provincial authorities suspending the application of the new 

texts; 

26 

These include good governance and consolidating peace; economic stability and growth; improving access to social services and 

reducing vulnerability; combating HIV/AIDS; and supporting communities. 

27 

There are only three texts remaining; two for community forests—procedures for the award of concessions to local communities 

and management modes for community forest exploitation, and the text on artisanal operations. 


• Delays in scaling up efforts to disseminate the Forest Code. The GDRC and its NGO partners have 

undertaken efforts to ensure that government, civil society, forest populations, and forest companies are 

well informed of the Forest Code, through the integration of participatory approaches, public 

dissemination of information, and communication at all levels. Indeed, in a widely disseminated 

statement, Minister Endundo (MENCT), on October 6, 2008, stated that efforts to scale up 

dissemination for the Forest Code are a policy priority for MENCT, as is fostering the adoption of 

Forest Code regulations not yet adopted. As noted in Section 9.33 above, a number of NGOs, 

particularly those under CRON, are actively involved in translating elements for the Forest Code into 

local languages and sensitizing local communities on their rights and responsibilities under the Code. 

However, during the course of the assessment, a number of people interviewed in Kinshasa and the 

field felt that the new texts have not been well publicized and are not well know by communities and 

other stakeholders. The assessment team expects that this situation will change as funds under the 

World Bank-funded Forest and Nature Project become available. A major component of this project is 

to support information campaigns to disseminate the Forestry Code across the country through 

workshops, the printed media, radio, television, printing, and dissemination of information materials, 

and translation into local languages. 

• Certain texts have a different status based on the degree to which they were developed using a 

participatory process. This is the case of Decree 011 April 2007 which established the “l’autorisation 

de coupe industrielle de bois d’œuvre,” and repealed the provisions of Decree No. 036 October 2006 on 

the “permis de coupe ordinaire;” 

• The emergence of conflicts between the central Government and the provinces on the application of 

new provisions with regard to the division of powers is becoming a major problem. Indeed, a number 

of matters that fell within the central Government have been transferred to the provinces by the 

decentralization initiative (e.g., royalties and all the issues related to artisanal operations), but there is a 

great reluctance on behalf of the central government to relinquish these powers; 

• Finally, DRC’s weak judiciary has not been able to sufficiently clarify irregularities in the legislation. 

This observation contrasts somewhat with the commitments the GDRC made in terms of the Africa 

Forest Law Enforcement and Governance (AFLEG) process enforcement, the Forest Law Enforcement, 

Governance and Trade (FLEGT) action plan of the Commission des Ministères des Forêts d’Afrique 

Centrale (COMIFAC) convergence plan and other international agreements. 

No guidelines for the cahier des charges 

As noted above, the Forest Code provides that any forest concession contract should have two parts; the 

first is the contract itself, and the second is the cahier des charges which is a social contract that requires a 

logging company to build facilities directly for the community. Prior to the Forest Code, the cahier de 

charge was basically a discretionary practice. Under the pressure of local communities and NGOs, the 

titles review process was used as an opportunity to assess social agreements negotiated since 2002. The 

assessment suggested that while there were concrete achievements, they were not always consistent with 

local expectations, negotiations and sometimes subject to pressure (and misuse) by local authorities. 

Currently, there are two issues with regard to the cahier des charges. First, there are no guidelines (or 

regulations) to govern their development. Although, MENCT has developed a scope of work for a 

consultant to develop these guidelines, delays caused by World Bank procurement practices has 

essentially put this critical activity on hold for over a year. 


Second, the signing of the social agreements is a prerequisite to the signing of new contracts for forest 

concessions for those with converted titles. According to the Forest Code, in the absence of such 

contracts, no licenses can be issued and any harvesting is illegal. In practice, however, although officially 

no cutting permit was issued for 2009 (which can be understood in the context of current crisis in the 

sector), a number of permit extensions have been requested and granted without the requisite social 

agreements. 

Unequal compensation for equal loss 

The Forest Code, via the cahier des charges, provides for community compensation in timber concession 

areas. Communities that live around strictly protected areas, however, receive no compensation for the 

loss of rights to forest products but are expected to make up the difference through GDRC and donor 

supported alternative livelihood programs. Unfortunately, the few alternative livelihood programs that 

exist in DRC have had very limited success; the livelihood options presented to communities by these 

programs cannot compete with incomes gained from illegal logging, the bush meat trade or artisanal 

mining. The assessment team believes that a community losing rights of forest use in a strictly protected 

area should be compensated at least as highly as timber concession communities. Pending development of 

viable alternative livelihood programs, the GDRC needs to explore options in establishing a 

compensation plan for communities around strictly protected areas using existing resources or those of 

any eventual (e.g., REDD) conservation trust fund. 

The challenge of decentralization in forestry governance 

The 2006 Constitution provides for the transition from 11 to 26 provinces, the new provinces replacing 

districts, there where they exist. In addition to the provinces, it grants judicial authority to cities and 

municipalities (in urban areas), sectors, and chefferies (in rural areas). The latter (chefferies) have at their 

head a customary authority. The GDRC initially planned to develop a framework law on decentralization 

to give content to constitutional provisions relating to decentralization. Unable to reach a global 

consensus on all the issues, a series of organic laws were developed, approved and implemented. These 

include: the Loi Portant Principes Relatifs a la Libre Administration Des Provinces (31 juillet 2008), and 

the Loi Instituant la Conférence Des Gouverneurs De Province et la Loi Portant Composition, 

Organisation et Fonctionnement des ETD (7 octobre 2008). 

The Constitution provides transfers of competencies to the provinces, distinguishing exclusive 

competencies of the State, provinces and shared competencies. In the forest sector, the transfer of 

competencies does not fundamentally change the equilibrium in the sector; the provinces main function is 

to apply national legislation and participate in the regulation of various forest regimes. 

Competencies include: 

• Exclusive jurisdiction of the central government 

− National forest program development and coordination of general interest programs; 

− Forest administration and rules governing hunting, fishing and nature conservation (Art. 202.25); 

− Legislation governing the conservation of natural resources (Art. 202.36-e). 

• Exclusive jurisdiction of the provincial governments 


− Development of forest programs and their delivery pursuant to national planning; 

− Application of national legislation concerning forests (art. 204.20) 

• Shared competencies 

− Forest administration (Art. 203.16) 

− Regulations governing forest administration (Art. 203.19). 

Legislation regarding the retention of revenues at the national or provincial level is perhaps the most 

confusing and contentious part of the decentralization process. Article 122 of the Forest Code provides 

that 60 % of issued timber revenues/royalties go to the National Treasury while 40 % goes to 

decentralized administrative entities (25 % for the province and 15 % for the territory), and that these 

funds should be exclusively assigned to the achievement of community interest-based infrastructure. 

The Constitution (Article 175) states that the share of receipts allocated to the provinces is 40 %. The 

Constitution does not impose any prior assignment to these resources. Article 54 of the 31 July 2008 law 

08/012 Portent Principes Fondamentaux Relatifs à la Libre Administration des Provinces (LAP) 

stipulates that withholding is done by an automatic 40 % retention in the account of the province and 60% 

in the Treasury ledger account. Article 55 of the LAP goes on to state that state-owned receipts, revenues 

and revenue from taxes recovered on large enterprises, oil production, as well as other taxes can be 

retained at their place of achievement. Under the terms of articles 49 and 50 of the LAP, taxes on forest 

concession area are among the resources that Provinces can recover in accordance with procedures laid 

down by national legislation (art. 48). Here, the proceeds from taxes of common interest between the 

provinces and between decentralized territorial entities is set by legislation that establishes such taxes 

(i.e., from the Forest Code), after notice of the Conference of Provincial Governors. 

Although there is an obvious need to harmonize the above legislation to be in line with the constitution, 

the major issue to be resolved is that the Central Government does not want any fees to be collected by 

the Provinces. However, the three forest provinces, led by the Eastern Province seized article 50 of the 

LAP to require direct payment by all forest concessions of land rent as they maintain that this is under 

their competency as one of their own resource area fees. Pursuant to article 49 of the LAP, the Eastern 

Provincial Assembly adopted an edict establishing the Directorate of Receipts of Eastern Province 

responsible for recovering these and other fees. Presently, the Minister MENCT has not accepted this 

decision and the LAP is currently being reviewed, thus delaying concession operations even further 

The addition of new logging concessions 

In May 2002, a Ministerial Arrété established a Moratorium on the awarding of new forest concessions. 

After the Moratorium was issued, the MENCT sorted through the previous forestry contracts that had 

been approved prior to May of 2002, and organized them into different categories: contracts that remained 

valid, abrogated contacts, and contested contracts. Information on the review was disclosed by the 

MENCT at all stages of the process. As part of a significant drive towards improved transparency in the 

forest sector, at the end of both the review and appeal stages, the Minister provided detailed explanations 

on the process followed and the criteria used for examining and determining the legality of the forest 

titles. As a result, out 156 requests, only 65 were found eligible for conversion. Provided that all 

companies will be able to successfully negotiate social and environmental responsibility agreements with 

local and indigenous populations, the area to be converted to long term forest management concessions in 


DRC would be 9.7 million hectares, a decrease from the 43.5 million hectares prior to the 2002 forest 

reform and the 22.4 million hectares prior to the Review. However, the Service Permanant d’Inventaire 

Forestier (SPIAF), using GIS technology has determined that the real area under forest concessions is 

about 12 million hectares. This difference highlights the difficulties of control of the administration, who 

determined the areas based on partially obsolete maps. 

More importantly, however, the Minister MENCT has come under pressure to add additional concessions 

due to the current economic situation, and the need to generate local employment and incomes. To this 

end, the Inter-ministerial Commission charged with title reviews has recommended that an additional 16 

concessions be included in the eligible for conversion category. Of these 16, eleven will probably be 

selected for an additional 2.7 million hectares. The issue here is that these companies do not have the 

capital or other resources required to manage a concession according to the Forest Code, and most of 

them have links to and support illegal artisanal logging. 

Sole sourcing 

Sole sourcing of logging concessions can be authorized by the Minister, but the Code does not indicate 

under which criteria sole-source can be authorized. This may leave considerable room for discretionary 

decision- making. 

Artisanal logging 

Article 112 of the Forest Code specifies that local communities have the right to exploit their forest. This 

operation can be made either by themselves or through the intermediary of artisanal, private operators 

under a written agreement. Artisanal private operators can operate in local communities through an 

approval issued by the Provincial Governor on a proposal from the local forest administration. Although 

the text on artisanal operations is being developed, there is concern that the text will not address the issue 

of the linkages between illegal artisanal operators and the addition of new logging concessions noted 

above. 

Community forests 

Article 22 of the Forest Code specifies that a local community may obtain as a forestry concession part or 

all of a forest owned by the community owned by virtue of custom. The procedures for the award of 

concessions to local communities are determined by a decree of the President of the Republic. There are 

two texts currently being drafted for this Article. The first is a decree laying down the procedures for the 

award of concessions to local communities; the second is a decree laying down the modalities for the 

management and exploitation of local community forests. However, there have been significant delays in 

approving these texts as there have been problems in reconciling the two drafts (projet textes)—the first 

developed by FORCOM (le Projet de la Foresterie Communautaire en RDC) and the second, developed 

under Forest Monitor’s “Modes de gestion des forêts des communautés locales en contribution à la lutte 

contre la pauvreté” program. Text approval is not expected until June 2010, which may jeopardize 

implementation of community initiatives currently being developed. 


The Mining Code 

No provision for biodiversity offsets 

A major problem with the mining code is its focus on site rehabilitation. All mineral resource extraction 

will have direct adverse impacts to the surrounding environment, including its biodiversity. In almost all 

cases, the impacts can only be mitigated and never eliminated, and in the case of open pit mining, forest 

destruction will be locally extensive and permanent and no amount of money will be able to bring these 

sites back to some semblance of their original status. Thus, rather than focus on site rehabilitation for 

certain sites, Ministry of Mines should explore the use of biodiversity offsets. 

Biodiversity offsets—conservation activities that intend to compensate for the residual and unavoidable 

harm to biodiversity caused by economic development activities such as mining—are widely seen as a 

useful tool for managing the adverse impacts of such activities. The potential benefits of biodiversity 

offsets include: 

• Undertaking projects that might not otherwise be possible; 

• Promoting better relationships with local communities, government regulators, environmental groups 

and other important stakeholders; 

• Providing a practical tool for managing social and environmental risks and liabilities; 

• Creating an opportunity to influence emerging environmental regulation and policy; 

• Reducing the costs of compliance with environmental regulations; and 

• Providing a mechanism to encourage companies to make increased contributions to biodiversity 

conservation, without necessarily requiring elaborate new rules. 

10.7 INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS 

DRC’s constitution stipulates that all properly concluded treaties and international agreements take 

precedence over national laws (on condition that the parties to the treaties or convention apply them). It 

also allows the government to discuss and to conclude international agreements, which are not subjected 

to ratification, but requires that “peace treaties, treaties on commerce, treaties on international 

organizations and those related to international conflicts, those that imply public financial support, those 

that modify national legislation, those that are related to the human well being, and those that may imply a 

change in national territory, be ratified by passing a law in parliament implementing such treaties.” Table 

20 provides a summary of treaties and conventions related to the environment and biological 

resources that have been signed by the GDRC to date. 

In order to conserve and manage its biological resources more effectively, the GDRC should - 

keeping in mind its limited institutional capacity to enforce compliance - also consider becoming 

signatory to the following: 

• World Trade Organization Agreement of Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual 

Property Rights (TRIPS). The TRIPS Agreement is designed to “promote effective and 

adequate protection of intellectual property rights” and to “reduce distortions and 

impediments to international trade” resulting from the enforcement of Intellectual Property 

Rights (IPR). According to its objectives, included in Article 7, it seeks to promote 


technological innovation and transfer, in a manner “conducive to social and economic 

welfare, and to a balance of rights and obligations.” The TRIPS Agreement includes a 

number of forms of IPR with implications for biodiversity conservation including patents, 

and “sui generis systems” for plant variety protection. Patents and sui generis systems are 

relevant to the implementation of the Convention on Biodiversity as they play a key role in 

defining who gains access to information about genetic resources, how the benefits are shared 

(including with traditional communities), and what technologies are developed and 

transferred with implications for conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity; 

• The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture, 

popularly known as the International Seed Treaty, is a comprehensive international 

agreement in harmony with Convention on Biological Diversity 28 , which aims at 

guaranteeing food security through the conservation, exchange and sustainable use of the 

world's plant genetic resources for food and agriculture, as well as the fair and equitable 

benefit sharing arising from its use. It also recognizes farmers' rights to: freely access genetic 

resources, unrestricted by intellectual property rights; be involved in relevant policy 

discussions and decision making; and use, save, sell and exchange seeds, subject to national 

laws. At the heart of the Treaty is a Multilateral System (MLS) that seeks to facilitate access 

to a negotiated list of plant genetic resources, as well as the fair and equitable sharing of 

benefits arising from their use. Genetic resources listed on the MLS are to be circulated 

“freely.” Developing countries are encouraged to place germplasm in the MLS in exchange 

for benefit sharing in areas of information exchange, technology transfer, and capacity 

building; and 

• The Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds 

(AEWA). The AEWA covers 255 species of birds ecologically dependent on wetlands for at 

least part of their annual cycle, including many species of divers, grebes, pelicans, 

cormorants, herons, storks, rails, ibises, spoonbills, flamingos, ducks, swans, geese, cranes, 

waders, gulls, terns, tropic birds, auks, frigate birds, and the South African penguin. The 

agreement covers 118 countries and the European Community from Europe, parts of Asia 

and Canada, the Middle East and Africa. The geographical area covered by the AEWA 

stretches from the northern reaches of Canada and the Russian Federation to the 

southernmost tip of Africa. The Agreement provides for coordinated and concerted action to 

be taken by the Range States throughout the migration system of waterbirds to which it 

applies. Parties to the Agreement are called upon to engage in a wide range of conservation 

actions which are described in a comprehensive Action Plan. This detailed plan addresses 

such key issues as: species and habitat conservation, management of human activities, 

research and monitoring, education and information, and implementation. 

28 

This Treaty arose in part due to difficulties in transferring the bilateral bargaining model of access to genetic resources promoted 

by the Convention on Biological Diversity to plant genetic resources for food and agriculture. 


TABLE 20: DRC’S PARTICIPATION IN INTERNATIONAL TREATIES AND CONVENTIONS 

Convention/ 

Treaty 

Convention on Biological 

Diversity (CBD) 

The Cartagena Protocol 

on Biosafety to the 

Convention on 

Biological Diversity 

United Nations 

Convention to Combat 

Desertification 

Adoption Date 

Ratification/ 

in force Date 

Objectives 

11 June 1992 3 Dec 1994 Promote conservation of biological diversity 

sustainable use of its components 

fair and equitable sharing arising out of the utilization 

of genetic resources 

23 Mar 2005 To contribute to ensuring an adequate protection in 

the field of living modified organisms resulting from 

modern biotechnology 

14 Oct 1994 12 Sep 1997 To combat desertification and mitigate the effect of 

drought in countries experiencing serious droughts 

and/or desertification 

Projects and Programs 

National Biodiversity Strategies, 

Action Plan, and Country Report 

funded by UNDP in 1996 

The United Nations 

Framework Convention on 

Climate Change 

11 June 1992 09 Jan 1995 To achieve stabilization of green house gas 

concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that 

would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference 

with the climatic system 

Kyoto Protocol 23 Mar 2005 To strengthen the commitment of developed country 

parties with a view to reduce their overall emissions 

Ramsar Convention 

on Wetlands 

18 May 1996 To manage wetland systems so that the human uses 

of these areas are undertaken in such a way as to 

retain their natural capital for future generations. 

to encourage and support countries to develop and 

implement national policy and legislative 

frameworks, education and awareness raising 

programs, as well as inventory, research and 

In 1997, UNDP/GEF provided 

technical assistance and support 

development of in-country capacity to 

enable Congo DR to prepare, 

formulate and submit its first national 

communication to the UNFCC. The 

project directly assisted in the 

development of a national inventory 

of anthropogenic emissions by 

sources. 

UNDP and UNEP assisting with 

development of Reducing Emissions 

from Deforestation and forest 

Degradation (REDD) strategy. UN- 

REDD is providing funding to 

jumpstart projects in the DRC after 

strategy development 

The Democratic Republic of Congo 

has designated, effective 24 July 

2008, the rainforest wetland called 

“Ngiri-Tumba-Maindombe” (6,569,624 

hectares, 01°30’S 017°30’E ), a vast 

area of rainforest, rivers, and lakes on 

the eastern side of the Congo River, 

adjacent to the nearly equally 


Convention/ 

Treaty 

The Convention on Illegal 

Trade of Endangered 

Species of Flora and 

Fauna (CITES) 

The Convention on the 

Protection of Migratory 

Species 

The World Natural and 

Cultural Heritage 

Convention 

The African Convention 

for Nature Conservation 

The Lagos Action Plan for 

African Economic 

Development: 1980— 

2000; 

The International 

Agreement on Tropical 

Timber 

Adoption Date 

Ratification/ 

in force Date 

Objectives Projects and Programs 

training projects 

enormous “Grands affluents” Ramsar 

site (5,908,074 hectares) across the 

Congo River in the state of Congo. 

20 July 1976 18 Oct 1976 To ensure that international trade in specimens of 

wild animals and plants does not threaten their 

survival 

1 Sept 1990 To promote, cooperate in or support research 

relating to migratory species; to provide immediate 

protection for migratory species; to conclude 

agreements covering the conservation and 

management of migratory species 

23 Sept 1974 To link together in a single document the concepts of 

nature conservation and the preservation of cultural 

properties 

13 Nov 1976 Contracting States shall undertake to adopt the 

measures necessary to ensure conservation, 

utilization and development of soil, water, flora and 

faunal resources in accordance with scientific 

principles and with due regard to the best interests 

of the people 

Cooperation in the field of natural resource control, 

exploration, extraction and use for the development 

of economies for the benefit of people and to set up 

the appropriate institutions to achieve these 

purposes 

20 Nov 1990 To promote the expansion and diversification of 

international trade in tropical timber from sustainably 

managed and legally harvested forests 

Properties inscribed on the World 

Heritage List 

Garamba National Park (1980) 

Kahuzi-Biega National Park (1980) 

Okapi Wildlife Reserve (1996) 

Salonga National Park (1984) 

Virunga National Park (1979) 

Properties submitted on the Tentative 

List 

Grottes de Dimba et Ngovo (1997) 

Grottes de Matupi (1997) 

Dépression de l’Upemba (1997) 


Convention/ 

Treaty 

The Vienna Convention 

on the Protection of the 

Ozone Layer 

The UN Convention on 

Law of Seas 

Ratification/ 

Adoption Date Objectives Projects and Programs 

in force Date 

22 Mar 1985 22 Sept 1988 To take appropriate measures to protect human 

health and the environment against adverse effects 

resulting or likely to result from human activities 

which modify or are likely to modify the ozone layer 

22 Aug 1983 17 Feb 1989 Protects the economic, environmental, and national 

security concerns of coastal states; establishes 

international cooperative mechanisms for resolving 

disputes; 

safeguards imperiled marine species 

The London Convention 

on the Conservation of 

Wild Species of Fauna 

and Flora 

The Convention on the 

Prohibition of the 

Development, Production 

and Stockpiling of 

Bacteriological (Biological) 

and Toxin Weapons and 

on their Destruction 

The London Convention of 

Ocean Water Pollution 

The Basel Convention the 

Transport and Treatment 

Toxic Wastes 

First multilateral convention on conservation (1900); 

Designed to “prevent uncontrolled massacre and 

conservation of various species of wild animals in 

Africa 

16 Sept 1975 Never develop, produce, stockpile or otherwise 

acquire or retain microbial or other biological agents, 

or that have no justification for prophylactic, 

protective or other peaceful purpose 

Covers the deliberate disposal at sea of wastes or 

other matter from vessels, aircraft, platforms, and 

other man-made structures at sea. 

06 Oct 1994 Regulates the transboundary movements of 

hazardous and other wastes; obliges parties to 

ensure that hazardous and other wastes are 

managed and disposed of in an environmentally 

sound manner 


Convention/ 

Treaty 

The Convention the 

African Timber 

Organization (OAB), as 

revised in Kinshasa, 2002; 

The Declaration of 

Yaoundé creating the 

conference of ministers 

responsible for the forests 

of Central African 

(COMIFAC) 

The Declaration of 

Kinshasa, creating the 

Conference on the Dense 

Humid Forests of Central 

Africa (CEFDHAC). 

Adoption Date 

Ratification/ 

in force Date 

Objectives 

Projects and Programs 

African Timber Organization (ATO) set of principles, 

criteria, and indicators to promote the sustainable 

management of African forests. 

May 2002 

Harmonization of forest policy and taxation, 

inventory of flora and fauna, ecosystem 

management, conservation of biodiversity, 

sustainable use of natural resources, capacity 

building and community participation, research, and 

innovative financing mechanisms 

To encourage the sustainable use and conservation 

of the Central African forest belt; to contribute to the 

design of policies, strategies, national and regional 

plans for the conservation and the sustainable use of 

Central African dense rainforest ecosystems; to 

ensure the participation of all stakeholders and to 

build up local and regional capacities 

President Kabila’s announcement of 

his intention to increase the protected 

areas network to 15% of the country’s 

area 


11. COMMERCIAL AND 

PRIVATE SECTOR 

CONSERVATION ACTIVITIES 

11.1 THE CONGO BASIN FOREST PARTNERSHIP 

The Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP) was launched at the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable 

Development in Johannesburg as a non-binding partnership registered with the United Nations 

Commission on Sustainable Development. As a "Type II" partnership, it represents a voluntary multistakeholder 

initiative contributing to the implementation of an intergovernmental commitment, i.e. the 

Yaoundé Declaration, and brings together the 10 member states of the COMIFAC, donor agencies, 

international organizations, NGOs, scientific institutions and representatives from the private sector. 

CBFP works in close relationship with the Central African Forests Commission (COMIFAC), the 

regional body in charge of forests and environmental policy, coordination and harmonization, with the 

objective of promoting the conservation and sustainable management of the Congo Basin’s forest 

ecosystems. Private sector partners include: the American Forest and Paper Association, the Inter-African 

Association of Forest Industries (IFIA), the Association Technique Internationale des Bois Tropicaux 

(ATIBT), Precious Woods, and the Society of American Foresters. 

11.2 PRIVATE GAME RANCHES AND ZOOS 

ICCN’s regional office in Katanga reports that there are around 80 private game ranches and zoos in 

Katanga Province. Most of these are owned by DRC’s wealthy, political elite or by expatriate business 

people. According to ICCN, all of these establishments are legal in that ICCN approval has been given for 

ranch/zoo establishment and animal collection. However, there are reports that in some of these 

establishments, animals are not properly cared for. As private game ranches pose both an opportunity and 

a threat to biodiversity conservation in the DRC, ICCN needs to conduct an inventory if these facilities, 

assess the status of animals, cancel permits of poorly managed facilities if necessary, and work to develop 

partnerships with those operations that are performing according to international norms and standards for 

such facilities. 

11.3 LOGGING CONCESSIONS 

The Fédération des Industries du Bois (FIB) reports that the majority of its 16 members has established or 

plans to establish conservation zones within their logging concessions. Indeed, many CARPE 

implementing partners are assisting concessions with this effort. FIB also reports that the majority of its 

members are interested in pursuing Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification. According to FIB, 

however, the major impediment to pursuing and developing these initiatives in a more concrete fashion is 

resources; once formal and informal taxes and fees are paid (and profits taken), there is not much left for 

conservation. 


11.4 TENKE FUNGURUME MINING 

Tenke Fungurume Mining (TFM) focuses on minimizing 

environmental impacts, impact mitigation and environmental 

performance monitoring. TFM works with local communities 

as well as world experts to understand local flora and fauna 

and to enhance efforts to preserve biodiversity. Companyimplemented 

issues and data driven risk management 

strategies are in conformance with international best practice. 

TFM reports environmental and biodiversity performance 

against Global Reporting Initiative indicators. Implementation 

of TFM environmental program is through an environmental 

and social management plan, which includes a “greenstake” 

program for managing site-specific impacts and mitigation. 

FIGURE 26: FAROA MALAISSEI— 

KNOWN ONLY TO OCCUR ON 

COPPER/COBALT OUTCROPPINGS 

AT TWO LOCALITIES – LUITA AND 

FUNGURUME MINES 

The copper-cobalt habitat types of DRC have high flora 

species diversity, high species endemism (often with a very 

Photo: Thomas Weiskopf 

narrow distribution range), and a number of unique plant 

communities. Certain of these communities have been classified as potentially ‘critical’ under IUCN 

guidelines. 

TFM has developed and is currently implementing a Biodiversity Action Plan which uses a number of 

tools to address flora conservation issues. These include: 

• Conservation zones—areas within the concession that are set aside for biodiversity conservation 

purposes; 

• Nurseries—with both indigenous and exotics species for site 

rehabilitation; 

• Seeds banks, located in the DRC and internationally, where 

seeds from many endemic species are stored; 

FIGURE 27: ARTIFICIAL HABITAT 

ESTABLISHED AT FUNGURUME 

• Artificial or engineered habitats for endemic floral species 

that have been salvaged from the wild and transplanted. 

TFM’s Biodiversity Action Plan is being implemented with 

scientists from Gembioux University in Belgium and the 

University of Lubumbashi. 

Other TFM Environment and Social Management elements 

include public health and safety; air quality and noise; storm 

water control; surface and ground water quality; soil 

conservation and erosion control; and waste management. 

Photo: DAI 


12. ASSESSMENT OF 

USAID/DRC’S BILATERAL AND 

REGIONAL PROGRAMS AND 

STRATEGY 

The following provides a review of USAID priority goals in view of threats to biodiversity and tropical 

forests under the new 2009-2013 Foreign Assistance Strategic Plan. 

12.1 STRATEGIC APPROACH AND PRIORITIES 

The overarching U.S. Foreign Policy goal in the DRC is the emergence of a stable democratic Congo that 

is at peace with its neighbors and provides for the basic needs of its citizens. The five-year strategic vision 

for U.S. Foreign Assistance to the DRC is to support the security conditions and governance structures 

necessary for improvement of Congolese social and economic sectors and to permit extension of state 

authority across the country. The U.S. Mission will advance this vision by working with the Congolese 

government and local actors to transition from conflict and humanitarian relief programming to 

development assistance, and specifically working to fight poverty, consolidate democratic reform, and 

provide for the basic human needs of a Congolese population ravaged by more than ten years of war. 

The United States Government (USG) will pursue five mutually reinforcing priority goals for the agencies 

and departments administering foreign assistance in the DRC: 

12.1.1 GOAL 1: PEACE AND SECURITY—INCREASE STABILITY IN THE DRC 

Supporting processes and mechanisms to end conflict in the DRC is the United States’ highest foreign 

assistance priority. This is not only because of the direct consequences of insecurity on the Congolese 

population and the instability it creates in the region, but also because conflict diverts resources and 

attention from the process of reconstruction and retards progress toward the transformational diplomacy 

goal in DRC. The ability of the DRC to provide an army and police force that can respond to the basic 

security needs of the population, respecting human rights and providing protection, is an urgent 

prerequisite to all other aspects of development. Communities that have the means to address sources of 

renewed and latent conflict and tension are in a position to mitigate the likelihood of ongoing violent 

conflict and to support development activities. Preventing conflict and improving security conditions are 

therefore fundamental to the success of overall U.S. Mission poverty reduction, social and economic 

development efforts in the DRC. 

Geographic focus—Eastern DRC—Katanga (Tanganyika District), Province Orientale (Ituri and Tshopo 

Districts), North Kivu, South Kivu and Maniema. 


Threats and Opportunities 

The Eastern regions mineral wealth, and to a certain extent its timber resources have been and continue to 

be implicated as complicit in the violence in the area. Indeed, conflict in the area is in part a consequence 

of various actors trying to accumulate wealth, often through the exploitation of natural resources and 

control over informal trading activities. Some observers have suggested that it is economic interests, 

which have primarily motivated the proliferation of combatant groups and protracted the conflict, and that 

natural resources have shaped the power strategies of elites, and warring parties have increasingly 

operated based on the territorialisation of sovereignty around valuable resource areas and trading 

networks. Although restoring peace to the region will undoubtedly have an impact on the over 

exploitation of natural resources, war economies have the potential to persist in post-conflict contexts and 

in some cases are hardly affected by peace processes; mechanisms of exploitation that have been 

instituted during wartime can largely survive in peacetime conditions 29 . With this in mind, USAID/DRC 

could consider expanding its Peace and Security Program to work directly with ‘illegal’ or ‘illicit’ traders 

in the natural resource shadow economy by incentivizing them through a process of engagement. 

12.1.2 GOAL 2: GOVERNING JUSTLY AND DEMOCRATICALLY—STRENGTHEN CORE 

GOVERNANCE CAPACITY 

Democratic institutions can become the means through which the DRC overcomes political divisions 

created through years of conflict and builds a government that is responsive to citizens’ needs. As such, 

strengthening governance in the Congo is a crosscutting priority goal that directly affects social and 

economic development and reinforces the Mission’s overarching peace and security goal. Transparency 

and accountability for the management of public resources is critical to the DRC’s ability to improve 

performance and service delivery across political, social and economic arenas and thereby strengthen 

long-term stability. Governing Justly and Democratically foreign assistance programs will focus on the 

ability of GDRC institutions to function in citizens’ interest. Goal 2 will focus on: 

• Rule of Law and Human Rights programs will provide technical assistance, training and material 

support to implement the GDRC’s Action Plan for Justice Reform and to promote advocacy for 

stronger human rights protection; 

• Good Governance programs will provide technical assistance, training and material support to put into 

practice decentralization reforms and boost legislatures’ capacity to produce quality legislation and 

provide oversight of the executive branch; 

• Support for Political Competition and Consensus-Building will address the need for support for 

national and local elections. 

Geographic focus—Kinshasa, Bandundu, Katanga and the eastern provinces of North and South Kivu and 

Maniema 


Good governance, the rule of law, and the ability to participate in the selection of individuals called upon 

to make policy and decisions that both affect the quality of daily life and set the course for the future are 

extremely important for environmental management. However, as noted above, the desire to have access 

29 

See Garrett, N, and Mitchel, H. (2009). 


to natural resources is widely acknowledged to have been an important factor in recent military conflicts. 

These conflicts mostly involved minerals, although access to land and timber was also involved. In the 

DRC, which has one of the lowest per-capita income but is one of the richest countries in terms of natural 

resources, allocating access to those resources and to the benefits they generate could be the centerpiece 

of any governance program. Although Goal 2 does not explicitly deal with natural resources, it does state 

that policy reform and implementation efforts will work at the national level, as well as target provincial 

level economic management in tandem with the decentralization process. 

Working through CARPE and other partners, USAID/DRC has the opportunity to help establish the 

necessary infrastructure for decentralizing natural resource powers, and improving natural resource 

decentralization in general. At the national level, USAID/DRC could work with decentralization actors to: 

• Ensure sufficient, meaningful and appropriate discretionary powers are transferred to local authorities, 

and that these powers are transferred as secure rights; 

• Develop environmental subsidiarity principles 30 to guide the transfer of appropriate and sufficient 

powers to local authorities. Such principles include: transferring discretionary powers to local 

authorities to give them some independence; devolving powers such as control over land and forest 

access, or other powers that are meaningful to local people and, as a result, they reinforce the authority 

of those who hold them; transferring lucrative opportunities; and transferring funds and fund-raising 

powers including the power to collect revenue, borrow, tax and charge fees. 

At the Provincial and lower levels, USAID/DRC and partners could design and implement activities 

based on the five key governance indicators of successful natural resource decentralization programs: 

local community decision-making potential, primacy of law and sanctions, the fight against corruption 

and embezzlement of funds, downward accountability, and positive socioeconomic effects. 

12.1.3 GOAL 3: ECONOMIC GROWTH—PROMOTE ECONOMIC GROWTH WITH 

EMPHASIS ON POVERTY REDUCTION AND ENVIRONMENTAL SUSTAINABILITY 

Economic growth provides the foundation for long-term stability and improving living standards in the 

DRC. Increased agricultural productivity and marketing, along with development of economic 

opportunities building on investments in extractive industries, are two fundamental areas of investment 

that will support this economic growth. At the same time, increased macroeconomic stability and 

improved governance through a focus on the enabling environment contributes to job creation and rising 

incomes. Sound management of the critical biodiversity reserves in the DRC, addressed through regional 

and bilateral programs, recognizes the critical role of natural resources and ecosystem/environment 

services to the economy. Moreover, the illegal exploitation of natural resources has played a major role in 

the continuing conflict, particularly in the East, and thus enhancing the GDRC’s ability to oversee these 

resources not only improves economic standards but also undercuts one of the fueling factors of conflict. 

Specific areas of intervention on Goal 3 include: 

• Improving agricultural productivity and marketing opportunities to improve incomes and food security, 

especially among the poor; support for farmers to link with domestic markets in large urban centers, 

particularly Kinshasa and Lubumbashi; 

30 

WRI’s publication “Waiting for Democracy: The politics of choice in natural resource decentralization” provides a more complete 

list of subsidiarity principles as well as a framework to improved decentralized natural resource management. 


• Technical assistance, training and increased access to business services and credit; 

• Public-private partnerships will coordinate and leverage USG assistance with investment by 

multinational corporations in the extractive industries and agricultural production sectors; 

• Economic growth investments will promote sound natural resource management practices and 

biodiversity protection, recognizing the crucial environmental services provided by a well-functioning 

ecosystem. Both regional and bilateral investment in protection of biodiversity and other natural 

resources will provide for economic growth that does not compromise these services; 

• The Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) will provide leadership in natural 

resources management and biodiversity protection in priority landscapes, in recognition of the value of 

the natural environment to the DRC’s economic potential. Bilateral resources will seek to complement 

and build upon CARPE’s expertise by promoting sound policies and incorporating improved natural 

resource management and environmental sustainability into economic growth activities; 

• Macroeconomic stability; 

• Support for improved infrastructure and management capacity for regional energy supply, trade, and 

distribution management will play a critical role in as the DRC increases its energy supply through 

rehabilitation of power generation capacity supported by major investments from multilateral 

institutions and the private sector; and 

• Strengthened micro enterprise productivity. 

Geographic focus—the major urban centers of Kinshasa and Lubumbashi provide market opportunities 

for the development of production and marketing channels in the agriculture sector in Katanga, Bas- 

Congo, Equateur and Bandundu. 


Work in the agriculture sector is critically important to improving the well being and economic status of 

those who need it the most. However, as Gambino (2008) points out, “the Congolese government and 

donors, including the World Bank and (until recently) USAID), have largely neglected this sector. 

Agriculture is barely mentioned in the Congolese government’s strategy to alleviate poverty and promote 

growth despite the fact that approximately 70 percent of Congolese live in rural areas and agriculture 

accounts for more than half of GDP. The agricultural sector employs over 75 percent of the labor force, 

according to the most recent report by The Economist’s Economic Intelligence Unit. Most of these 

farmers are extremely poor women.” 

USAID’s agricultural program has the opportunity to enhance the long term protection of biodiversity and 

tropical forests by promoting sustainable use and by providing a much needed source of alternative (to the 

bushmeat trade and illegal logging) income. Activities can also help orient people away from critical 

protected areas as well as other areas highlighted as important for conservation. And if fuelwood is 

considered as an agricultural commodity, reforestation and agroforestry programs can help address the 

severe environmental degradation occurring around DRC’s major urban centers. At the same time, 

agriculture projects that do not plan for possible negative environmental consequences run the risk of 

contributing to the degradation and/or loss of forest cover and biodiversity. 


Unfortunately, the geographic focus of USAID’s economic growth activities precludes the program from 

working in the areas that need alternative income programs the most—the CARPE landscapes. Indeed, 

CARPE implementing partners have long struggled with the development of income generating activities 

to go hand in hand with conservation actions. Expanding the geographic focus of the Economic Growth 

program, or at a minimum, requesting contractors, grantees and other implementing partners under the 

program to assist CARPE partners with agriculture-based income generating activities, would go a long 

way in helping reduce a major threat to DRC’s forests and biodiversity. 

Finally, improvements in transportation infrastructure and support for improved infrastructure and 

management capacity for regional energy supply, although essential to improving the economic status and 

well being of isolated rural populations, such activities could have a negative effect on the environment, 

facilitating the overexploitation of natural resources by bringing down transportation costs for bush meat 

as well as facilitating human immigration into remote regions. To the extent that facilitating human 

movement between commercial centers and remote areas is a component of this or any Economic Growth 

activity working in or adjacent to areas of high biodiversity importance, measures should be taken to 

mitigate such potential problems. It is critical that the ICCN and the MENCT be contacted and brought 

into the planning process when such activities are to be undertaken. This will not only help avoid 

unintended consequences but could play a positive role by acknowledging the importance of protected 

areas. It is also imperative that vehicles and boats managed by USAID funded projects not transport 

bushmeat. 

12.1.4 GOAL 4: HEALTH—IMPROVE THE BASIC HEALTH CONDITIONS OF THE 

CONGOLESE PEOPLE 

Access to basic health services—including prevention and treatment of infectious diseases, reproductive 

health care—and strengthened public health management systems, are the top social services priorities for 

communities in the DRC in order to reduce the numbers of people dying from preventable causes. 

Support for the prevention, care, and treatment of HIV/AIDS will form an important part of USG efforts 

in the health sector. USG support for improved GDRC capacity and service delivery in the health sector 

will leverage crosscutting democracy sector support and reinforce the overall enabling environment for 

Congolese peace and security conditions to hold. 

Geographic focus- Bas-Congo, Katanga, Kasai Occidental and Kasai Orientale, Kinshasa, and South 

Kivu. 


With the exception of HIV/AIDS activities, the direct link between Goal 4 and threats and opportunities 

with respect to biodiversity and tropical forests are relatively minor. Health activities would be expected 

to take appropriate precautions when disposing of hospital and other waste. While incinerators are likely 

not available in most health zones, burning combustible waste at a site sufficiently removed from people 

would be appropriate. Burying of glass, needles and other noncombustible waste must be done in deep 

pits far removed from human habitations, areas important for biodiversity conservation, and slopes prone 

to erosion. One would also expect sufficient care would be taken to avoid inadvertent negative 

environmental impacts when rehabilitating health infrastructure. Similarly, one would expect that any 

new potable water supplies developed under the program would conform to Regulation 216 requirements 

in terms of water testing. 


HIV/AIDS, on the other hand, can have a direct impact on the environment due to: 

• Loss of human capacity to AIDS: this is seriously affecting conservation and community-based natural 

resource management. Conservation organizations are particularly at risk as staff are posted far away 

from their families in national parks and protected areas where they are more likely to engage in risky 

behaviors; 

• Increased use of natural resources: as AIDS-affected rural households lose salary earners and 

agricultural labor, many are turning to natural resources as the ultimate safety net. Activities such as 

hunting, fishing and charcoal making are increasing as families seek alternative livelihood means. 

Medicinal plant harvesting has increased to treat side effects of AIDS, and timber logging has 

accelerated in many areas to supply to growing coffin industry. These widely reported increases in 

resource use are often not sustainable and pose a long-term threat to community and ecological 

wellbeing; 

• Changes in land use: when traditional knowledge of natural resource management and local farming 

systems are lost, and when households are forced to change land use practices (e.g. growing less laborintensive 

crops), land and resources are often used in less appropriate ways. Problems with land tenure 

and land grabbing often occur when the male head of a household dies; in some societies, widows and 

orphans cannot inherit land (either legally or customarily). Land-grabbing results in loss of livelihood 

base for the immediate surviving family members; 

Under Goal 4, USAID has the opportunity to address HIV/AIDS and other health-related environmental 

issues and strengthen the linkages between health and environment issues by: 

• Developing institutional HIV/AIDS policies and strategies to help both employers and employees in 

MENCT, ICCN and national parks; 

• Adapting conservation training programs to include the development of special HIV/AIDS modules; 

• Working with local communities to develop natural resource-based micro-enterprises, e.g. promoting 

sound harvesting of medicinal plants for treating HIV/AIDS symptoms and more efficient extraction of 

active ingredients, and encouraging cultivation of species that can be grown domestically; 

• Promoting HIV prevention and awareness with local NGOs, particularly the various networks 

operating under CRON; and 

• Developing linkages with RESPOND, USAID’s Avian and Pandemic Influenza and Zoonotic Disease 

Program. The goal of the RESPOND program is to improve the capacity of countries in high risk areas 

to respond to outbreaks of emergent zoonotic diseases that pose a serious threat to human health. The 

intent of the project is to respond to outbreaks while they are still within the animal community, 

however, there may be occasions where a response is needed within the human population. 

12.1.5 GOAL 5: EDUCATION—IMPROVE ACCESS TO QUALITY EDUCATION AT ALL 

LEVELS OF SCHOOLING 

Improving access to and quality of education at all levels of schooling sets the stage for communities to 

escape poverty, while helping to mitigate potential drivers of conflict. Where security conditions permit, 

programs will build upon existing structures and work to improve access to basic and higher education. 

Education programs will also reach disadvantaged, vulnerable and returning populations, focusing on 


women and girls. With a Congolese population projected to triple (to 180 million) by 2050, US Mission 

education sector support will play a key role in mitigating the vulnerability of rising numbers of 

disadvantaged youth to violence and exploitation and thereby further compliment over-arching efforts to 

ensure that peace and security conditions hold in the DRC. 

Geographic focus—Bandundu, Bas-Congo, Equateur, Kasai Occidental, Kasai Orientale, Kinshasa, 

northern Katanga and Maniema. Programming will also focus in the conflict or hot spot areas identified 

by the Interagency Conflict Assessment Framework (ICAF) assessment, in the Eastern the provinces of 

North Kivu, South Kivu and Province Orientale (Ituri District). 


There are few if any negative impacts that can be envisioned by Goal 4 with respect to the environment in 

general and biodiversity and tropical forests in particular. In contrast, improving the education level of the 

Congolese people in general and disadvantaged, vulnerable and returning populations in particular, is 

critical to improving their economic status as well as understanding their relationship to the global 

economy. This should have positive impacts on the environment. 

Having said that, there is considerable potential for programs under this Goal to have a significant 

positive impact in tropical forests and biodiversity. For example, the program’s objective of updating 

obsolete education curricula to include key messages on civic participation, health, and conflict mitigation 

could be expanded to include messages on environmental issues. Links to the CARPE program could be 

strengthened by working with CARPE partners to develop Interactive Radio Instruction (IRI) programs 

on the protection of biodiversity and tropical forest conservation. The use of radio as an environmental 

extension tool has had positive impacts in DRC in the past (e.g., Ituri Forest, N. Kivu) and IRI has been 

an effective conservation tool in several countries, notably Costa Rica, Malawi and India. 

12.2 USAID/DRC’S COMPARATIVE ADVANTAGE 

The USG and USAID, through CARPE and the Congo Basin Forest Partnership, play a major role in 

biodiversity conservation and the protection and management of tropical forests in DRC. One major 

success of the CBFP has been to stimulate donor participation in forestry and conservation policies. 

COMIFAC provides a vehicle for encouraging the countries of the region to come together on policy 

issues. At the national level (and sometimes at the Basin level), several major policy issues have been 

identified and most are being addressed by donors. CARPE partners appear to be influencing national 

policies by taking the lead in establishing community management reserves and concession agreements. 

The Mission and USG are capable of facilitating the involvement of large, international NGOs with an 

interest in biodiversity and tropical forest conservation, and support to these organizations has had an 

impact on conservation in DRC. Based on its experience in forming, leading, and participation in multipartner 

collaborations, USAID is positioned to effectively collaborate with and support the work of more 

economic development-oriented organizations whose efforts would complement those of the conservation 

NGOs and provide the synergy required to strengthen critical conservation and development links. 

USAID and the USG also have a distinct comparative advantage in terms of alternate conservation 

financing mechanisms. Through the Tropical Forest Conservation Act (TFCA), USAID has extensive 

experience in developing and supporting conservation trust funds. USAID’s monetized PL 480 initiatives 

to support conservation and other environment and natural resources activities have provided the sort of 


long-term, flexible funding that is absolutely critical to innovation--and results. USAID/DRC and the 

USG can also use their positions in DRC to help the GDRC forge conservation partnerships with 

corporations such as Tenke Fungurume Mining Company and other mining concessions, and possibly 

with ZTE Agribusiness Company Ltd, a Chinese firm that will establish a one million hectare oil palm 

plantation in the DRC. Such partnerships could provide much needed alternative conservation financing 

through biodiversity offsets, collaborative conservation and community based natural resource 

management programs and other mechanisms. 

USAID and the USG have built up a strong comparative advantage in its health programs, which over the 

last decade have improved the health of the poorest Congolese, particularly in rural areas. USAID has led 

in successful programs to nearly eradicate polio in the Congo, distribute bed nets to fight malaria 

throughout the country, dramatically increase immunization coverage for children under five, and make 

other substantial improvements to the health of Congolese. Many other donors, including the World 

Bank, have used USAID’s health program as a model for their own activities. With its increased focus on 

HIV/AIDS, the Mission has the opportunity to address HIV/AIDS-related environmental issues such as 

loss of human capacity, increased use of natural resources and changes in land use patterns. 

Through its Governing Justly and Democratically program, USAID has the opportunity to encourage 

more accountability for conservation activities. With the active support and encouragement of a stronger 

and broader array of civil society organizations and local NGOs, the USG in concert with other 

development assistance and international organizations could provide a voice for development activities 

that consider the conservation and equitable distribution of DRC’s natural resources. 

Finally, USAID and the USG have provided both long and short-term training opportunities to hundreds 

of thousands of individuals in developing and transition countries each year. The Mission’s “Investing in 

People: Education” program has been at the forefront in providing accelerated learning opportunities to 

disadvantaged, vulnerable and returning populations using a number of innovative technologies and a 

community-centered approach. These technologies and approaches could easily be applied to the 

transmission of conservation and other environmental messages. USAID’s flexible approach to education 

and training would enable it to respond to the variety of learning challenges that are being faced by 

DRC’s environment and natural resource management institutions. 

12.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 

The assessment team has formulated a set of recommendations for program actions that USAID may wish 

to consider for improving its contribution to natural resources management and biodiversity conservation 

in DRC. Although the recommendations do not address all the actions needed to protect tropical forests 

and conserve biological diversity, the assessment team believes that these recommendations would lay the 

foundation for a more comprehensive and cohesive approach to natural resource management in the DRC 

and future longer-term investments. 

The short-term recommendations are targeted as specific actions based on existing USAID programs. 

These are incremental additions to or changes in USAID’s current and projected program areas, which 

seems to be the most practical approach to addressing biodiversity conservation given possible current 

and future funding constraints and opportunities. The mid- to long-term recommendations focus on the 

future of CARPE, community land and resource tenure and climate change adaptation, with the latter two 

more broadly based and relevant for consideration by other donors. 


12.3.1 PRIORITIES IN THE SHORT TERM 

New Agriculture Development Project 

USAID/DRC has issued a pre solicitation notice for a new agriculture development project within the 

Economic Growth priority goal. The project is intended to achieve the over arching result: “increased 

agricultural productivity (for primary agriculture commodities) and marketing to improve incomes and 

food security, especially among the poor.” The project is expected to operate in the Provinces of 

Bandundu, Bas Congo, Kinshasa, and Katanga. 

The assessment team believes that fuelwood should be considered as one of the commodities and that this 

should be specified in the Request for Proposals (RFP). Wood accounts for 85% of domestic energy in 

the DRC, and deforestation around urban areas for firewood and charcoal exert a heavy toll on natural 

forests and woodlands. In Kinshasa, for instance, charcoal is reportedly coming from 300 to 400 km 

away, while in Lubumbashi, fuelwood comes from 40 km away as the miombo ecosystem around the city 

has been degraded to the extent that it can no longer produce sufficient quantities of wood to satisfy 

demand. Clearly, the fuelwood resource needs to be managed better and USAID could make a substantial 

contribution to this effort by analyzing fuelwood (charcoal, firewood) value chains, and developing fast 

growing plantations and agroforestry systems with local communities and entrepreneurs to meet growing 

demand. Plantations (woodlots) and agroforestry systems have the added advantage in that carbon credits 

for such efforts can be sold under both the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) and voluntary 

markets, and producers can get paid for both sequestration, and after a period of time, harvesting and sale 

of product. 

Additionally, one assumes that the successful offeror for this project will field a team with considerable 

experience in value chain analysis, agriculture production and economic development in general. Such incountry 

expertise would greatly benefit CARPE implementing partners, and the assessment tem 

recommends that USAID develop mechanisms whereby CARPE partners could draw on this expertise. 

Alternatively, the RFP could be amended to include 1-2 project staff who would be solely dedicated to 

working with CARPE partners on alternative livelihoods development. 

Encouraging Global Anticorruption and Good Governance Efforts (ENGAGE) 

This is a new procurement under the “Encouraging Global Anticorruption and Good Governance Efforts 

(ENGAGE)” Indefinite Quantity Contract (IQC) managed by USAID’s Bureau for Democracy and 

Governance. The purpose of the program is to improve management capacity and accountability of select 

legislatures and local governments. The three Intermediate Results are: 

• Citizens demand accountability; 

• Selected parliaments are more democratic and effective; and 

• Laws, policies and procedures for decentralization established and implemented 

The program will focus on three categories of partners: (1) parliamentary institutions at the central and 

provincial level; (2) public institutions having a stake and role in decentralization; and (3) civil society 

and community-based organizations. 

Under this proposed activity, USAID/DRC has the opportunity to help establish the necessary 

infrastructure for decentralizing natural resource powers, and improving natural resource decentralization 


in general. At the national level, the project could work on developing and testing guidelines for 

transferring discretionary powers to local authorities and the development of subsidiarity principles to 

guide the transfer. At the local level, the project could work with and help strengthen the capacity of the 

various NGO natural resource networks and their local partners to deliver training programs to their 

constituents on local community decision-making potential, corruption, accountability, etc. 

Should the Mission be interested pursuing this recommendation, the assessment team would strongly 

suggest that the Mission develop a scope of work and issue a Request for Applications (RFA) for a 

program to assist ENGAGE to develop a natural resource decentralization component. 

Tenke Fungurume Mining (Freeport-McMoran Copper and Gold) 

The assessment team understands that USAID/DRC has signed or will soon be signing a Global 

Development Authority (GDA) Agreement with TFM. We also understand that specific areas of focus 

under the agreement have not yet been determined. The assessment team would strongly suggest any 

eventual detailed agreement place strong emphasis on forest management and biodiversity conservation. 

Assessment team discussions with TFM indicate they would be interested in a number of collaborative 

activities from improved miombo management by communities and woodlot establishment to support for 

the protection and development of Upemba National Park. Such collaboration has the added advantage in 

that it would satisfy biodiversity earmark requirements. 

Ensure that new Initiatives under Goal 4 Are Linked to USAID’s RESPOND Program 

Wildlife is increasingly a source of new zoonotic infections comes from the consumption of “bush meat.” 

In the Congo Basin, this trend has fueled an increase in outbreaks of zoonotic diseases such as Ebola 

Hemorrhagic Fever. Ebola, like the HIV virus that causes AIDS, passes into the human population 

through contact with blood from infected primates, such as gorillas and chimpanzees, as well as other 

primates like monkeys, which regularly form part of the bush-meat trade. In this context, the goal of 

USAID’s RESPOND project is to improve the capacity of countries in high-risk areas to respond to 

outbreaks of emergent zoonotic diseases that pose a serious threat to human health. The intent of the 

project is to respond to outbreaks while they are still within the animal community, however, there may 

be occasions where a response is needed within the human population. The geographic scope of the 

project is directed to those zoonotic “hotspots” of wildlife and domestic animal origins, including the 

Congo Basin/DRC. By encouraging linkages between RESPOND and any new initiatives under its Goal 

4, “Improving the Basic Health Conditions of the Congolese People,” USAID/DRC has the opportunity to 

address both human health issues and help alleviate a threat to DRC’s primates. 

Strengthen Linkages between CARPE Implementing Partners and GDRC Institutions 

As discussed above, CARPE/DRC needs to develop a better mechanism for bringing together GDRC 

partners for both strategic planning and progress review purposes. One simple mechanism, developed by 

AWF, appears to hold considerable promise for strengthening linkages between CARPE implementing 

partners and GDRC institutions, while fostering improved dialogue on DRC’s biodiversity and tropical 

forests. AWF has done what most USAID-supported programs are supposed to do—i.e., have a steering 

committee to guide implementation. AWF’s steering committee is composed of key partners (ICCN 

national and park staff, and provincial and local government authorities) who meet on a quarterly basis to 

develop workplans, review implementation progress, and identify and resolve any implementation 

bottlenecks. AWF staff report that this simple approach to coordination not only helps build local 


capacity, but also helps immensely with buy-in from partner organizations. Such a system could be 

replicated by other CARPE implementing partners. The assessment team would also suggest at least once 

a year, all CARPE implementing partners and their respective steering committees meet to review 

progress against objectives. Such a meeting could be sponsored by implementing partners on a rotational 

basis. 

Provide Support to the Development of a Bushmeat Policy and Legislation 

The DRC has no specific legal framework governing the bushmeat trade. The new framework law on 

nature conservation does not address the issue while the hunting law (law No. 082-002 of 28 May 1982) 

only deals in a general way with bushmeat, through the control of hunting. Given the threat of the 

bushmeat trade to biodiversity, there is an urgent need to develop a framework for dealing with bushmeat, 

including the control of the bushmeat trade in both protected and non-protected areas. In developing this 

framework, there are many questions to be asked. How effectively can communities control bush meat 

harvesting and protect rare species within their hunting areas What role will logging and mining 

companies play in the protection of wildlife within concessions Policy and legislation on wildlife 

protection and community forestry needs to provide a broad outline, while allowing the development of 

adaptive management in wildlife protection and the bush meat trade. Hoyt (2008) has developed the 

following wildlife policy recommendations: 

• Manage wildlife as a national resource, use a pragmatic approach; 

• Manage vulnerable species and locales, limiting interventions to those with a high probability of 

success; 

• Control transport and markets, generating revenue stream to support management; 

• Focus enforcement on commercial hunters rather than farmer/hunters; and 

• Recognize community use rights (example: timber concessions do not include rights to wildlife). 

In this context, the assessment team suggests that USAID/DRC consider bringing in the U.S. Fish and 

Wildlife Service (USFWS) under the Great Apes Survival Project to assist the GDRC in developing a 

policy framework and eventual legislation to better control the bushmeat trade. The USFWS’s 

international programs play a key role in developing multifaceted approaches to curbing illegal bushmeat 

trade and consumption. Through its network of key organizations and individuals, the Service supports a 

wide array of projects that combine appropriate law enforcement, prosecution, public awareness, and 

community development projects. As the U.S. agency responsible for implementation of the Convention 

on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), the Service plays a key role in shaping 

international efforts, training, and enforcing U.S. obligations. The Service maintains a strong network of 

individuals, organizations, and in-house expertise to address all aspects of the illegal bushmeat trade. 

Through this network, the Service could provide assistance to MENCT and ICCN in developing 

appropriate legislation and policy aimed at reducing the impact of bushmeat hunting on DRC’s wildlife 

populations. 

Should the Mission decide to pursue this option, the Service’s work should be done in close collaboration 

with TRAFFIC’s Central Africa program, which operates a bushmeat program that endeavors to monitor 

trade in the region. In September 2009, TRAFFIC helped convene a workshop in the DRC where 

government agencies and others drew up a National Action Plan to address the unsustainable bushmeat 


trade. Workshop participants identified the three main areas on which to construct the future strategy and 

action plan on bushmeat in the DRC, namely: (i) improvement of the efficiency of legal and institutional 

frameworks, (ii) the initiation and the promotion of alternative activities to bushmeat consumption and 

trade and (iii) promoting awareness of the bushmeat problem by all stakeholders. 

Expand the USDA Forest Service’s Role in DRC’s National Land Use Planning Process 

The USDA Forest Service currently supports the Forest Inventory and Management Department, of 

MENCT, and the inter-ministerial and multi-stakeholder National Forestry Zoning Steering Committee, 

as they outline a national land use planning policy and process. This work has taken many forms, from 

providing training to government of DRC employees on land use planning concepts, to consultations with 

various interested parties, to support on the technical, administrative, and political processes, products, 

and systems needed, and assisting with the details of drafting guidance on the creation of land use plans. 

This technical cooperation is built on certain shared context and requirements for land management 

between the US and DRC. Both countries contain vast forests that generally are governed (or expected to 

be) by multi-use management regimes. In a piece meal fashion the U.S. has zoned hundreds of millions of 

acres into macro zones of protected areas, national forests and other categories during the past 100 years. 

Moreover, those macro-zoned areas have been micro-zoned into various multiple land uses. No country 

possessing large expanses of forest have achieved such levels of zoning. Much of what the Forest Service 

has learned over many years in the US is very relevant when adapted to the realities and constraints of 

DRC. 

However, the assessment team understands that as of January 1, 2009, the Forest Service will only be 

providing intermittent support to MENCT and the Steering Committee. As DRC is moving forward in its 

ambitions to carry out zoning and management of 143 million hectares of forest into protected areas, 

permanent production forests, and other uses, the assessment team believes USAID should consider 

expanding the Forest Service’s role through the provision of a full-time Forest Service land use planning 

advisor to be embedded in MENCT. This advisor would: 

• Provide support to the National Steering Committee and its procedures and decision making methods; 

• Assist MENCT in the establishment of provincial level Steering Committees to support zoning 

implementation; 

• Assist in the establishment of a planning team that would guide DRC through the zoning process from 

macro to micro; and 

• Work with the Steering Committee and MENCT on zoning concepts and implementation focusing on 

national forests, the establishment of protected areas, the designation of production areas and zoning 

and establishment of ranger district management approaches. 

Provide Support for University Training 

Other donors—particularly CIDA—are providing much needed investments in universities and forestry 

schools in the DRC; nevertheless these institutions are generally very weak. Even limited USAID/DRC 

support for university level training can have long-term impacts in terms of human resource development. 

Additionally, linkages between CARPE partners and universities and forestry schools to increase the 

skills of faculty and students by involving them in research, policy analysis, field level surveys and other 

activities, could also be expanded. 


12.3.2 RECOMMENDED MEDIUM-TERM AND LONGER-TERM INTERVENTIONS 

Assessment of Climate Change Adaptation 

Climate change constitutes an additional burden that constrains national development in the DRC. DRC is 

particularly vulnerable to the impacts of climate change due to close economic and social dependence on 

natural resources. Although not fully understood as yet, some the risks include: increased incidence of 

floods, drought, severe storms/flooding, reduced agricultural yields and direct threats to land-based and 

coastal communities, biodiversity, and ecosystems. Other indirect risks include: increased health-related 

risks due to an expanded range of diseases, reduced food security, loss of local livelihoods, increased 

migration, and increased land and resource conflict. The impact of climate change on food security in the 

DRC is particularly important as it will undoubtedly have a negative effect on the livelihoods of the poor 

majority (especially women) who are highly dependent on climate-sensitive sectors like agriculture, 

fisheries, pastoral practices, and forests for household energy, food, water supply, herbs, and tree barks as 

first line of health care products. 

In this context, the Mission may want to consider supporting an objective, up-to-date, and comprehensive 

analysis of climate change adaptation in the DRC. Such an analysis would complement the Congo Basin 

Forests and Climate Change Adaptation 31 (CoFCCA) Project’s objective of “contributing to national 

processes of adaptation to climate change through the development of policy-oriented adaptation 

strategies that also ensure sustainable use of forest resources in the Congo Basin Forests.” The results of 

the assessment would also help strengthen the Mission’s food security program, which the assessment 

team understands will be designed in FY 2010. 

Develop a Community Land Rights Program 

Sound and equitable governance of land and forest resources is a necessity for rural Congolese to move 

out of poverty. When combined with other objectives such as better access to markets and diversification 

of incomes it can be transformative. A legal and institutional framework that allows rural Congolese to 

make productive investments in their lands and forests is a cornerstone of rural development. Careful 

stewardship of forests and other natural resources will follow from more secure rights if accompanied by 

clear delineation of responsibilities, capacity building for community enforcement and sustainable 

economic growth opportunities. 

While the DRC needs functioning institutions to manage natural resources as soon as possible, these 

institutions have to be built from a solid understanding of existing natural resource and land management 

systems, the effects of war and migration, and the emergence of democratic decision making. Land, 

forests and trees are key assets for rural Congolese, representing their wealth and stability. Without clear 

governance and tenure systems for these assets, it will be difficult for rural Congolese to take advantage 

of economic development opportunities. Disputes are likely to escalate as development proceeds and 

unsound natural resource management practices may result from failure to resolve disputes and settle 

claims transparently and equitably. Deeding lands and forests without transparent and fair processes 

would be a step backward for the nation as it works to build a reputation for good governance. 

31 

CoFCCA is a three-year effort of the Center for International Forestry Research funded by the International Development 

Research Center under the Climate Change Adaptation for Africa (CCAA) project. 


Community forestry is seen as one bridge to more secure tenure for rural people. Through community 

forestry, communities with historical relations to particular forest areas will be able to retain these areas 

for livelihood purposes as well as some forms of commercial use. The creation of a just and workable 

community forestry tenure instrument – which would include within it dispute resolution mechanisms at 

different levels and build expertise for dispute resolution based on both customary and statutory law— 

will be an important advance for the DRC. 

USAID/DRC, by developing workable models in targeted areas of opportunity (notably in the CARPE 

landscapes), could assist the GDRC to craft new policies and institutions as well as build capacity at 

national and local levels to implement new governance systems for transparent and equitable management 

of land and forest resources. Specifically, USAID/DRC could provide technical support to the GDRC 

institutions in the areas of land tenure and property rights. Such a program could provide technical 

assistance to GDRC institutions in the form of support to national-level land and property rights 

discussions, applied research on existing tenure arrangements, analyses of current land tenure and 

property rights laws, provision of specific policy recommendations to the government on possible 

approaches to improve land and property rights systems and training for local authorities on how to 

implement land tenure policy reform, support legal rights and increase incentives for local investment. 

Use Mission bilateral funds to supplement/complement CARPE activities and help CARPE achieve its Phase 

III goal of transferring activities to GDRC institutions 

Begun in 1995 and with Phase II scheduled to end in September 2011, CARPE is USAID’s major 

conservation program in Central Africa and is one of USAID’s largest field-based conservation programs. 

In the DRC, CARPE has seen many major accomplishments not the least of which is providing support to 

the only organizations with the capacity to protect biodiversity and tropical forest resources – namely 

international conservation NGOs. CARPE’s implementing partners have been willing to work 

collaboratively in some of the most challenging and remote regions of the world. Their contributions to 

biological and socio-economic surveys, zoning, gazetted community reserves, spatial planning and policy 

reform have significantly increased the conservation status of biodiversity and tropical forests in the 

DRC. 

Although the purpose of this assessment was not to evaluate CARPE, there are, in the assessment team’s 

opinion, several issues that may undermine CARPE’s ability to achieve the Phase III goal of facilitating 

the final transfer of CARPE activities to the Central African institutions with which it works. These 

include: 

• Weak linkages between landscapes and DRC’s local administrative areas. The landscape approach 

has been very successful in identifying high priority conservation targets and supporting adequate 

habitat conservation needs. Indeed, the approach has been ratified by COMIFAC member countries and 

endorsed by the Congo Basin Forest Partnership (CBFP) as a long term vision/strategy for sustainable 

forest management in Central Africa. Moreover, in the DRC, landscapes are beginning to achieve some 

legal recognition. The GDRC has issued a decree establishing the Maringa-Lopori-Wamba landscape 

as a pioneering site for zoning in the country and three of the "macrozones" comprising the landscape 

have a legal framework - logging concessions, the Lomako-Yokokala Faunal Reserve, and three related 

community reserves. However, the linkages between the landscapes and DRC’s local administrative 

structures are generally weak, which limits local buy-in for critical conservation-development 

initiatives such as alternative livelihood and strengthening local environmental governance programs. 


• Limited focus on alternative livelihoods. CARPE implementing partners have found it difficult to 

develop alternative income opportunities, and as noted in Section 9.1. In general, there has been little 

donor support accorded to alternative livelihood activities (See Annex D) - yet, viable alternative 

income opportunities for DRC’s rural populations represent one of the best options to reduce threats 

from illegal activities such as the bushmeat trade as well as illegal logging and mining. 

• Limited engagement of national and local staff in strategic planning. As noted in Section 9.5.3, the 

efforts of CARPE partners to engage national and local staff in the strategic planning of activities have 

also been modest as have capacity building efforts. Informal coordination often takes place among the 

key implementing NGOs, other donors and USAID, but these ad hoc processes often sideline the 

agencies of the GDRC that are responsible for implementing conservation efforts. 

• Limited direct technical support to GDRC biodiversity and forestry institutions. CARPE’s legislative 

mandate precludes it from having direct formal bilateral relationships with Central African 

governments, thus CARPE cannot provide “direct” assistance to the GDRC. Instead CARPE relies on 

international NGO partners who execute direct bilateral agreements with those governments. In spite of 

this constraint, CARPE and the USG have been able to provide some indirect assistance through the 

USDA Forest Service (notably for land-use planning and zoning) and the USFWS (whose efforts under 

the Great Apes Conservation Fund are closely coordinated with CARPE partners). Although such 

support is appreciated by the GDRC, many GDRC personnel still contrast this assistance unfavorably 

with donor programs managed by the World Bank as well as GTZ, CIDA, DfID, and other bilateral 

donors that are managed in direct cooperation with the GDRC. This situation has apparently not 

changed since it was flagged as a shortcoming in CARPE’s 2006 midterm assessment – it still 

represents a serious hindrance to GDRC buy-in to CARPE objectives. 

The assessment team understands that USAID/DRC will be receiving additional biodiversity, climate 

change and food security funds in FY 2010. By using these and future bilateral resources plus existing 

CARPE resources to implement the short and medium term recommendations noted above, the Mission is 

in the position to help CARPE address the aforementioned issues and thereby contribute to the 

achievement of CARPE’s Phase III goals and objectives. An increased emphasis on alternative livelihood 

activities along with new bushmeat and community rights/tenure legislation, increased support to the 

decentralization of natural resource management—including directly engaging ‘illegal’ or ‘illicit’ traders 

in the natural resource shadow economy, expanded support to MENCT’s national land use planning 

initiative, and a better understanding of climate change adaptation issues would all combine to make a 

thoroughly integrated USG conservation and development program, one that is responsive to GDRC 

needs and concerns, and one that contributes substantially to reducing threats to biodiversity and tropical 

forests. Finally, an integrated USAID/DRC and CARPE program would also contribute to the 

achievement of the USG’s CBFP goal, i.e., to “promote economic development, alleviate poverty, combat 

illegal logging, enhance anti-poaching laws, improve local governance, and conserve natural 

resources…through support for a network of national parks and protected areas, well-managed forestry 

concessions, and creation of economic opportunities for communities that depend upon the forest and 

wildlife resources of the Congo Basin.” 


ANNEX A: SCOPE OF WORK 

Scope of Work (SOW) Democratic Republic of Congo Biodiversity and 

Tropical Forestry Assessment (118/119) 

I. OBJECTIVE 

To conduct an updated country-wide assessment of biodiversity and tropical forestry conservation needs 

and related issues for the purposes of complying with section 117, 118, and 119 of the Foreign Assistance 

Act of 1961, as amended, and Agency guidance on country strategy development, under ADS 20 1.3.4.1 

1 and ADS 204.5. Based on this needs assessment, provide analysis of proposed actions under USAID’s 

strategy to identify how they contribute to the conservation needs identified. 

II. BACKGROUND 

A. OVERVIEW 

The DRC is a “rebui1ding country” that has made progress in addressing pressing political, economic and 

social challenges in recent years since the end of the civil war. There is increasing international attention 

in the DRC as demonstrated by multiple new donor initiatives largely due to its significant forest cover, 

biodiversity, and related interest in the post-Kyoto Protocol climate change mitigation regime. Likewise, 

DRC is experiencing growth in private investment for extractive resources as well as infrastructure. The 

legislative framework for forests and the environment has been further developed. A recent review of 

existing forest titles for conversion into forest concessions by the DRC government yielded the cancelling 

of over two thirds of the previously allocated forest titles (surface area). Nevertheless, pressures on 

DRC’s forests, biodiversity, natural resources and ecosystems are increasing. At the same time, there are 

growing opportunities for USAID to collaborate with other donors, non-governmental organizations 

(NGOs), government agencies that are acquiring new mandates and competencies and the private sector. 

The previous analysis’ period of validity has expired, which has led the Mission to decide that an updated 

Biodiversity and Tropical Forestry Assessment are warranted. 

In 2003, the first countrywide environmental threats and opportunities analysis (ETOA), Democratic 

Republic of Congo Environmental Analysis” was completed. The current assignment will build on this 

work and include a comprehensive analysis of the sector noting significant changes arid updates over the 

past five years. This will be gathered from a review of relevant reports as well as interviews and field 

work conducted in the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC). 

B. POLICIES GOVERNING ENVIRONMENTAL PROCEDURES 

USAID environmental compliance is directed by U.S. policy and law. The Foreign Assistance Ad (FAA) 

of 1961, Section 117, requires that the President take fully into account the impact of foreign assistance 

programs and projects on environment and natural resources (Sec 117 (c)(1)). 


Section 118 states that each country development strategy statement or other country plan prepared by the 

U.S. Agency for International Development shall include an analysis of (1) the actions necessary in that 

country to achieve conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests, and (2) the extent to 

which the actions proposed for support by the Agency meet the needs thus identified. 

Section 119 of the FAA relates to Endangered Species. It states that “the preservation of animal and plant 

species through the regulation of the hunting and trade in endangered species, through limitations on the 

pollution of natural ecosystems and through the protection of wildlife habits should be an important 

objective of the United States development assistance” (FAA, Sec. 119 (a)). Furthermore it states, “Each 

country development strategy statement or other country plan prepared by the Agency for International 

Development shall include an analysis of (1) the actions necessary in that country to conserve biological 

diversity and (2) the extent to which the actions proposed for support by the Agency meet the needs thus 

identified” (FAA, Sec. 119(d)). 

C. USAID’S PROGRAM IN DRC 

The overarching strategic vision for U.S. Foreign Assistance in the next five years (2009-2013) is to 

support the security conditions and governance structures that will allow for improvements in social and 

economic sectors and the extension of state authority across the DRC’s territory to take hold. The priority 

goals as described in the Country Assistance Strategy (CAS) are: 

• Peace and Security: Increase Stability in the DRC 

• Governing Justly and Democratically: Strengthening Core Governance Capacity 

• Economic Growth: Promote Economic Growth with Emphasis on Poverty Reduction and 

Environmental Sustainability 

• Health: Improve the Basic Health Conditions of the Congolese People 

• Education: Improve Access to Quality Education at all Levels of Schooling 

The Strategic Objective of The Central Africa Regional Program for the Environment (CARPE) is to 

reduce the rate of forest degradation and loss of biodiversity through increased local, national, and 

regional natural resource management capacity in nine central African countries: the Central African 

Republic, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Republic of Congo, Burundi, Cameroon, Rwanda, Sao Tome & 

Principe, and the DRC. This is to be done through three intermediate results focusing on (i) improving the 

sustainability of natural resources management (NRM), (ii) strengthening the governance framework for 

NRM (policies, institutions, laws), and (iii) institutionalizing monitoring of natural resources within the 

Congo Basin region. 

III. STATEMENT OF WORK 

The Contractor shall perform the following activities: 

A) Pre-travel informational meetings and information gathering. Prior to traveling to the field, the 

contractor is expected to: 

• Hold meetings with the Bureau Environmental Officer (BEG) in USAID/Washington and with 

Biodiversity experts in the USAID Africa Bureau and the USAID Bureau for Economic Growth, 


Agriculture, and Trade (EGAT) to ensure full understanding of USAID environmental procedures, the 

role of the regional bureau in environmental compliance, and purpose of this assignment. This would 

include policy decisions and approaches that the Bureau Environmental Officer (BEO) and agency 

environmental advisor are taking as per their authority under Reg. 216. 

• Gather and review existing background information on DRC, such as the country’s natural resources, 

geographical, ecological and biological specificities, current status of environment and biodiversity, 

institutional organization on entity and state level, key stakeholders and donors in environment and 

biodiversity, legislation related to the environment and biodiversity, and other relevant information 

required for the country assessment. 

• Meet or speak with key stakeholders or managers at the World Bank, USDA Forest Service, and U.S.- 

based NGOs including World Wildlife Fund, World Resources Institute, and Wildlife Conservation 

Society, or other organizations involved in biodiversity conservation in DRC or relevant regional 

efforts. 

B) Field a team to conduct an overview and general analysis of the country’s biodiversity and its 

current status. Upon arriving in DRC the team will: 

• Meet with USAID/DRC and USAID/CARPE to get a solid understanding of Mission program goals 

and objectives under its proposed updated strategy; perspectives of this assignment and specific 

interests for the team, including advice and protocol on approaching USAID partners and host country 

organizations with respect to this assignment. The team shall be aware of sensitivities related to an 

assessment exercise (i.e., the potential for raising expectations, and the need to be clear about the 

purpose of the assessment) and respect Mission guidance. The team will discuss organizations to be 

contacted and any planned site visits with the Mission and coordinate as required. USAID/DRC will 

facilitate meetings with other USAID Strategic Objective teams. 

• Hold meetings with donor organizations, NGOs, relevant government agencies, and other organizations 

that are knowledgeable about biodiversity and tropical forestry conservation or are implementing 

noteworthy projects and gather information locally. 

• Conduct no more than two priority site visits as required by the mission (DRC and CARPE activities in 

DRC), which would supplement understanding of USAID’s program, or of biodiversity issues that 

arise in interviews and literature or would confirm information in previous assessments. 

C) Assess and summarize the needs for biodiversity and tropical forestry conservation in DRC 

based on key threats and analysis of country, and donor and NGO responses to meet these needs. 

Prepare a report on the status of biodiversity, tropical forestry and conservation efforts in DRC and 

potential implications for USAID or other donor programming and environmental monitoring which shall 

define the actions necessary for conservation. The report shall include: 

• The current status of biodiversity, tropical forests, river basins, and key watersheds in DRC based on 

current and available information. 

• Major ecosystem types, highlighting important, unique aspects of the country’s biodiversity, including 

important endemic species and their habitats. 


• Descriptions of natural areas of critical importance to biodiversity conservation, such as forests, 

wetlands, coastal and fresh water areas critical for species reproduction, feeding or migration, if 

relevant. Particular attention should be given to critical environmental services and noncommercial 

services they provide (watershed protection. erosion control, soil. fuel wood, water conservation and 

amenity and recreation). It will also summarize how current land tenure arrangements affect 

conservation in DRC. 

• An overview table and map of the status and management of protected area system in DRC including: 

an inventory of all declared and proposed areas (national parks. wildlife reserves and refuges. forest 

reserves, wetland ecosystems, sanctuaries, hunting preserves and other protected areas). The inventory 

will identify the institution responsible for the protection and management of each decreed area, its date 

of establishment, area, and the protection status of each (i.e., staff in place, management plan 

published, etc.). In addition to this summary of the current protection and management status of 

protected areas, an overview of the major threats and challenges facing protected areas in DRC, 

including vulnerability of areas to predicted changes in climate, and a brief summary of any recognized 

economic potential of these areas (including productive assets, environmental services and recreation 

and tourism opportunities) should be provided. 

• The report should present the plant and animal species that are endangered or threatened with 

extinction. Discussion should focus on actual and potential threats to these species should be provided. 

In particular, endangered species of particular social, economic or environmental importance (and 

hence, potentially more directly threatened) should be highlighted and described, as should their 

habitats. Technical information resources such as the IUCN red list and their websites should be 

referenced for future Mission access as required. This section should not emphasize species counts, but 

look at the relation of endangered species and important habitat conservation areas and issues, and 

evaluate the pressures on those areas, including vulnerability to predicted changes in climate, and 

current efforts to mitigate pressures, including the participation and compliance with CITES and other 

international efforts. 

• Recent, current, and potential primary threats to biodiversity should be discussed — both direct threats 

related to human use (i.e., bush meat. industrial and small-scale mining, charcoal production, 

agriculture (particularly slash and burn), contamination from legal and illegal mining, fire or pests) or 

institutional (i.e.. failed or inadequate legislation, policies, regulations) or trans-boundary issues, as 

appropriate. These should emerge from a general assessment of national policies and strategies and 

their effectiveness, issues related to institutional capacity, trade, private sector growth, participation in 

international treaties, and the role of civil society. The role of illegal trade in natural resources should 

be considered as a driver of environmental degradation in the DRC. 

• Conservation efforts, their scope and effectiveness. This section also should include recent, current, and 

planned activities by donor organizations that support biodiversity and tropical forestry conservation, 

identification of multilateral organizations, NGOs, universities, and other local organizations involved 

in conservation, and a general description of responsible government agencies. A general assessment of 

the effectiveness of these policies, institutions, and activities to achieve biodiversity conservation 

should be included. Priority conservation needs that lack donor or local support should be highlighted. 

• Analysis of the current legislation related to the environment and biodiversity. This section should 

include identification of laws related to protection and management of biological resources and 

endangered species. It should also point out any differences in laws that require further harmonization. 


This section should also review international treaties signed and ratified, as well as those that DRC 

needs to sign in order to conserve and manage its biological resources more effectively. 

• An overview of the major biodiversity and tropical forest conservation activities of the commercial 

private sector to identify ways to better foster private sector alliances. Of interest are the norms and 

standards followed by those commercial entities most engaged in management and use of DRC’s 

tropical forests and tracts near protected areas, including extractive industries. Consideration of policies 

promoted by the Ministry of the Environment Conservation of Nature Forestry& Tourism and other 

key relevant governmental ministries should also be included. 

• An assessment of how USAID’s bilateral and regional programs efforts in DRC and the proposed 

country strategy could best meet the needs for biodiversity and tropical forestry conservation. The 

assessment should look beyond biodiversity and forestry funding and review all Mission strategic 

objectives to identify areas where USAID could to contribute to biodiversity and tropical forestry 

conservation, consistent with Mission program goals and objectives, through strategic objectives other 

than environment. The assessment shall include recommendations on where U.S. comparative 

advantages and capabilities are likely to have the greatest impact. These issues and recommendations 

should be prioritized to identify those requiring the most immediate attention. If any perceived areas of 

concern related to USAID’s program and its contribution or impact arise during this assessment, the 

contractor shall provide views and suggestions directly to the Mission Program Officer directly in the 

report and in a separate briefing. 

IV. TIMING 

The Biodiversity and Tropical Forest Background Assessment Study will be carried out to inform the 

DRC Country Assistance Strategy. The expected completion date will be determined in discussion with 

the USAID/DRC mission CTO or designated point of contact. 

VII. DELIVERABLES 

There shall be four deliverables under this contract: 

Preliminary Work Plan and Schedule: The Contractor shall provide USAID with a work plan and 

schedule within 7 days of contract inception. The work plan and schedule shall also contain a list of those 

individuals and agencies that are to be interviewed, and a list of reports, evaluations, etc., to be reviewed. 

This first deliverable should be completed before the contractor team departs Washington DC (see IlI.A 

above) for the field and after the first series of contacts in the USAID, State Department and Partner 

offices in Washington DC. 

Draft Report: The Contractor shall submit a draft report to the mission COTR or point of contact no later 

than four working days before the exit briefing (point 4 below). The draft report shall follow the generic 

outline provided in the attachment to this SOW. as refined during the course of the contract in 

consultation with USAID. The report shall include a five page executive summary, a more detailed main 

body, and appropriate annexes and pertinent figures (maps, institutional charts, tables) and references. 

Among the expected appendices is a briefly annotated bibliography of the most important current 

reference materials related to the topic and a contact list for each of the organizations discussed in the 

report. 


Final Report: The final report is due no later than two weeks after receiving USAID/DRC’s written 

comments on the draft report. 

In-Country Mission Exit Briefings: The team shall meet with USAID/DRC to provide them with a brief 

of the report findings. The exit brief shall be accompanied by a two-page written summary of key 

findings and recommendations. The Contractor will furnish both electronic file versions of all 

submissions (first draft and final report) and five copies in English, including one photocopy ready 

version of the final report. 


ANNEX B: PERSONS 

CONTACTED 

NAME POSITION ORGANIZATION 

Bashige, Mme. El Ali 

REFADD 

Batey, Stanley T. 

Senior Advisor, Social and 

Community Development 

Freeport-McMoran Copper 

and Gold 

Beck, Jim Central Africa Program Specialist USDA Forest Service 

Bobiya, Joseph Director RRN 

Botamba Esombo, Flory Deputy Director, Congo Heartland AWF 

Botamba Esombo, Flory Deputy Director, Congo Heartland AWF CARPE 

Boyzibu Ekhassa, Pierre Directeur Charge des Parcs 

ICCN 

Nationaux 

Brown, Keith 

Executive Vice President, Africa JGI 

Program 

Byler, Dirck 

Program Officer, Division of 

USFWS 

International Conservation 

Carroll, Richard Managing Director, Congo Basin WWF 

de Wasseige, Carlos Coordinateur Régional, Projet FORAF OFAC/FORAF 

Demarquez Ouar, Sadia Program Coordinator IUCN 

Dibolbol Kitmut, Patrice Director, Cellule de Coordination MENCT 

PNFoCo 

Djengo Bosulu, Fréderic Directeur, Direction de la Gestion MENCT 

Forestière 

Djengo Bosulu, Fréderic Directeur, Gestion Forestier MENCT 

Dupain, Jef Landscape Director AWF CARPE 

Flynn, John B. Director CARPE, USAID/Central 

Africa 

Fofolo Mafolo, Gabriel Conservateur, Parc National de ICCN 

Kundelungu, Station de Katwe 

Gayo, Francis Directeur, Direction des Pêches Ministry of Agriculture 

Habari, Jean-Pierre Curator, National Herbarium University of Kinshasa 

Haykin, Stephen M. Director USAID/DRC 

Ilunga Ndaie Makela Chef de Division Normes 

MENCT 

Kayenge, Vincent de Paul Environnementales 

Ipantua Iba-Yung, Gérard Directeur Charge du Tourisme et de ICCN 

la CITES 

Javelle, Anne-Gaëlle Associate, Institutions and 

WRI 

Governance Program 

Kakese, Gilbert 

Chef de Division Instruction et Ministry of Mines, Kinshasa 

Evaluation, Direction de Protection de 

l’Environnement 

Kalala Bilonda Control Forestier MENCT 

Kalambayi wa Kabongo, Secrétaire General à l'Environnement MENCT 



Abel Leon 

et Conservation de la Nature 

Kampangula, Justin Marie Control Forestier MENCT 

Kanyeba, Carine Program Assistant, CARPE IUCN 

Kanyeba, Carine Program Assistant, CARPE/USAID IUCN 

Kasonga Mbiye, Jean André Ingénieur Civil de Métallurgie, Ministry of Mines, Kinshasa 

Direction de Protection de 


Khasa, Damase 

Professor of Agroforestry and University of Laval 

International Forestry 

Kimona Maswmba, René Chef de Division Financière, Fonds MENCT 

de Restitution du Capital Forestier 

Kishiko Hamba, Dieudonné Ingénieur Civil des Mines, Direction Ministry of Mines, Kinshasa 

de Protection de l’Environnement 

Kisuki Mathe, Benoit Administrateur Directeur Technique ICCN 

Kiyulu, Joël 

Coordinator National Projet 

IUCN 

"Renforcement de Voix des Choix 

Meilleurs" 

Kuketuka Mabaka, Damien Control Forestier MENCT 

Landu, Nina Director ICCN 

Macharia, Alice Program Manager, East Africa JGI 

Mafuka, Paul 

Professor, Department of Natural University of Kinshasa 

Resource Management and Director 

of INERA 

Malele-Mbala, Sébastien Directeur, DIAF MENCT 

Matanga, Jean-Pierre Coordinator of ACODES, a local NGO ACODES 

at Mwanda working with WWF on the 

protection of marine turtles and on 

ecotourism in the Mangroves National 

Park 

Matete Amani, Polydor Direction de Protection de 

Ministry of Mines, Kinshasa 


Mbamdu, Joachim 

Farmer at Luki working with WWF rice 

and fish farming 

Mbayo Lukiso Wa Kabulo, Directeur Province de Katanga ICCN 

Félix 

Mehlman, Patrick Director CI CARPE 

Meta Mobula, Victor 

Agriculture Economist, Office of USAID/DRC 

Economic Growth 

Méthot, Pierre Senior Fellow WRI 

Mola Motya, Gabriel President Fédération des Industries du 

Bois 

Mpoyi Mbunga, Augustin Executive Director CODELT 

Musibono, Dieudonné Professor, Ecotoxicology, EIA and University of Kinshasa 

NRM, Faculty of Sciences 

Mwanambuyu, Kabala Directeur, Etablissements Humains et MENCT 

Protection de l’Environnement 

Ndunga, Jean-Baptiste Chief of the Research Station INERA-Luki 

Ngoma, Michel Expert Forestier, Cellule de MENCT 



Coordination PNFoCo 

Ngomba, Marcelline 

GIS/RS Trainer - Lab Manager, University of Kinshasa 

Observatoire Satellital des Forets 

d’Afrique Central 

Ngongolo Katolo, Marcell Chef de Division Suivi et Coopération MENCT 

Ngoy Isikimo, Bienvenu National Coordinator Groupe de Travail Forets 

Nsenga, Laurent 

Coordinator of WWF project at Luki WWF - RDC Luke 

Biosphere Reserve 

Ntedika Di-Muela, Grille- Control Forestier 

MENCT 

Rolière 

Omari Ilambu, Omer Conseiller Technique Principal WWF CARPE 

Perodeau, Bruno Conseiller Technique Principal WWF 

Perodeau, Bruno Conseiller Technique Principal WWF CARPE 

Ruggiero, Richard 

Chief, Near East, So. Asia and Africa USFWS 

Branch, Division of International 

Conservation 

Schoorl, Jaap 

Coordinator Biodiversity and Forest GTZ 

Program 

Sefu, Alfred Président du Conseil de Gérance Le Nouveau Millenium, 

Lubumbashi 

Sikunu-Diambania, Daniel Environmental Specialist, Direction de 

Protection de l’Environnement 

Ministry of Mines, Kinshasa 

Sowers, Fred Consulant, Mid-term evaluation Great Apes Survival Program 

Sullivan, Catherine 

Consultant, Mission International de UNEP, Geneva 


Tambwe Mutindi Moyo, Directeur, Service National de MENCT 

Richard 

Reboisement 

Thlibi, Jamel 

Expert Environnementaliste, Program UNDP 

de Lutte Contre la Pauvreté 

Vaughn, Toby Chief of Party Building Recovery and 

Reform through Democratic 

Governance in the DRC 

(DAI/BRDG) 

Veit, Peter Regional Director for Africa WRI 

Vunda, Albert 

Director of the Mangroves National ICCN 

Park 

Weiskopf, Thomas Environmental Manager Tenke Fungurume Mining 

Wilson, Edward B., 

Consultant, Mission International de UNEP, Geneva 


Zamena Nsita, Jonas Chef d’Antenne INERA (Herbarium) University of Kinshasa 


ANNEX C: DOCUMENTS 

REVIEWED AND REFERENCED 

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of Congo. Milwaukee: ICCN, WWF. 


ANNEX D: PAST AND CURRENT 

DONOR SUPPORT 

DONOR FUNDING PROGRAM/PROJECT STATUS 

African 

Development Bank 

(ADB) 

$80 million Preservation of Congo Basin Ecosystems Program 

(2009–2015) 

• Equateur and Eastern Provinces and four forest 

landscapes: Maringa-Lopori-Wamba, Maiko-Tayna- 

Kahuzi-Biega, Lac TCIC-Lac Tumba and Virunga 

• Institutional Support: targeting COMIFAC and its 

partners 

• Rural Community Development 

On going 

Belgian 

Development 

Cooperation (BTC) 

€4.65 million Sustainable Forest Management in DR Congo 

Belgian Development Cooperation finances or cofinances 

several actions regarding the protection and 

sustainable management of the DR Congo’s forests. The 

main aim here is to improve forest management there via 

the following projects: 

• Support WWF’s work on forestry legislation and 

modeling forestry concession plans (€1.75 million); 

• Support FAO in the modeling of community forestry 

(€1.2 million); 

• Support UNESCO in the monitoring of the 

management of protected areas (€2 million) and the 

training of top forestry officials at the Regional School 

of Forestry (ERAIFT) (€900,000). 

€1.5 million Joint Multi-Donor Forestry Governance Fund 

In 2006, Belgium actively supported the establishment of 

the Fonds Commun Multi-bailleurs Gouvernance 

Forestière (Joint Multi-Donor Forestry Governance Fund) 

managed by the World Bank, a joint initiative aimed at 

promoting good governance and sustainable forest 

management. The fund sets out to promote the 

application of the Forest Code and of the main agenda of 

Congolese reforms, and it is regarded as the first step 

towards a sectoral program. Belgium’s contribution totals 

€1.5 million. 

The International Conference on Sustainable Forest 

Management in the Democratic Republic of Congo 

On 26 and 27 February 2007 Belgian Development 

Cooperation organized an International Conference on 

Sustainable Forest Management in the Democratic 

Republic of Congo. The conclusions of that conference 

were set out in the Brussels Declaration. The event was 

backed by the government of DR Congo and by the 

international community (the European Commission, 

World Bank and British and French authorities 

responsible for development cooperation). Following the 

On going 

On going 

Completed 



conference, on 14 April 2007 a round table entitled 

Towards a New Vision for the Forests of the Congo was 

held in Washington on the sidelines of the spring 

meeting of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and 

World Bank. That round table was organized at the 

invitation of the governments of DR Congo and Belgium 

and of the President of the World Bank. The dossier was 

also discussed by European development ministers at 

their meeting in May 2007 and featured on the agenda of 

the G8 summit in June 2007. 

Agriculture, Rural Development, and Forests 

(2008–2011) 

As included in the Declaration of Brussels (February 

2007), the development and the application of adequate 

legislation as well as the reinforcement of the forest 

administration and its partners constitute priority axes for 

the years to come. Taking account of the other sources 

of financings and programs in progress or foreseeable, 

the program of co-operation will concentrate its attention 

during three years to come on: - reinforcement of the 

administration in the sector of agriculture and the rural 

development, in particular by supporting the 

reorganization of the corresponding ministries; openingup 

of the zones of agricultural production, and 

improvement of the management framework of the forest 

and environmental protection sectors. 

$2.55 million FA0 GCP/DRC/O33/BEL Project to Develop and 

Implement Community Forestry in DRC (2009–2012) 

• National level and in pilot sites: Lubumbashi, Lissala - 

Bumba, et Luki Institutional Reform: Support to the 

creation of a division of community 

• Participatory management of Forest Resources: 

Management of pilot forestry, definition of national 

approach to community forestry community forests 

$0.15 million Support to ERAIFT via UNESCO: 2009 

Regional - Ecole Régionale d’Aménagement et de 

Gestion Intégrée des Forets Tropicales (ERAIFT) 

Institutional Support : Technical training and education, 

plus scholarships 

$.066 million Direct Support to ERAIFT—Scholarships (2009–2010) 

• Regional—Ecole Régionale d’Aménagement et de 

Gestion Intégrée des 

• Forets Tropicales (ERAIFT) 

• Institutional Support : Scholarships 

$1.125 million Practical Model of Sustainable Natural Resource 

Management via WWF (2009–2012) 

• Regional—Biosphere Reserves: Luki and Yangami 

Reserves (DRC), 

• Dimonika Reserve (ROC) 

• Management of Forest Resources: Develop a model 

of sustainable development to serve as an operational 

guide for different sites 

On going 

On going 

On going 

On going 

On going 



$.45 million Support for Sustainable Development (2009–2010) On going 

• Muanda and Thsela (Bas-Congo) 

• Capacity Building: Improve organizational planning, 

develop ecotourism skills, community reforestation, 

improved agricultural techniques 

$.375 million FLEGT Initiative (2009–2010) 

National level Capacity Building: Technical assistance to 

study the implementation of a forest information system, 

promotion of good governance and fighting 

corruption, defining a log-tracking system 

On going 

Belgium, the 

European Union, 

France, Germany, 

Luxembourg and 

the Netherlands 

Canadian 

International 

Development 

Agency (CIDA) 

Approx €130 

million. 

$ 4,800,000 

(regional) with 

70% of the 

funds going to 

the DRC 

Fonds Commun Multi-bailleurs Gouvernance Forestière 

(Joint Multi-Donor Forestry Governance Fund) 

Created in 2006, the objective of the fund is to test and 

put in place strategies and instruments to improve forest 

governance, increase benefits for the local populations 

and the country, and to protect the environment. The 

program is expected to have four key results: 

• Result 1: Essential forest management tools and 

control of illegal logging are in place. These tools 

include: independent observation in support of forest 

control, improved procedures and capacity for 

verifying management plans, improved procedures for 

recovering taxes and fees, and development of a log 

traceability/tracking system; 

• Result 2: Simple systems of benefit sharing, 

community management and accompanying microenterprises 

are tested and consensus reached by all 

parties on these systems. These systems are: local 

consultations in the context of zoning, revenue flows 

to local communities, the schedules of conditions 

(cahier des charges), and community forestry 

including the informal sector and micro-enterprises; 

• Result 3: innovative processes are in place for 

implementing the forest code with processes agreed 

on by all stakeholders. These processes are: local 

consultations within the framework of participative 

zoning; the popularization of the forest code and 

preparation of the texts of application; and the 

valorization of environmental services. 

• Result 4: Institutional capacities are restored to 

ensure delivery of essential functions. These essential 

functions are: administrative and financial 

management, programming and follow-up-evaluation; 

forest control and tax recovery, verification of 

management plans and follow-up of socioenvironmental 

impacts. 

Support to Natural Resource Management Training 

Project (2008–2013) 

Implemented by the University of Laval, this project aims 

at strengthening institutional and technical capacities of 

training institutions (universities and colleges) in three 

Central Africa countries so they can become centers of 

excellence for the whole region in sustainable 

management of natural resources. Natural resources 

Since its 

creation, the 

fund has not 

supported any 

activities. The 

major problem 

is that the fund 

is under WB 

management 

and 

procurement 

regulations 

which have 

proven to be too 

cumbersome for 

effective 

implementation. 

Some donors 

are considering 

withdrawing 

support 

On going 



Department for 

International 

Development 

(DfID), United 

Kingdom 

$17.5 million for 

Africa Region 

constitute an important source of revenues for most 

states of Central Africa and are critical for local 

populations depending on them for their livelihood. To 

ensure sustainable management of natural resources, 

public administrations, private sector companies, and 

NGOs need to have specific competencies which are 

currently very weak, especially in the Democratic 

Republic of Congo. This project aims to help fill that gap 

through activities such as program reviews, training the 

trainer programs and regional consultations, and by 

putting emphasis on South-South cooperation. 

Forest Governance and Trade Program (2006–2011) 

DfID’s Forest Governance and Trade Program is a fiveyear, 

$35 million program that aims to tackle the 

problems of illegal logging in developing countries and 

the associated international trade in illegally logged 

timber. Its main area of activity is supporting reforms in 

countries that enter voluntary partnership agreements 

(VPAs) with the European Union under the Forest Law 

Enforcement, Governance and Trade (EU FLEGT) 

Action Plan. These agreements will establish a licensing 

system to ensure timber exported from signatory 

countries to the EU has been legally produced. 

On going 

This work is complemented by co-operation with the 

private sector to promote trade in forest products from 

legal and well-managed sources and collaboration with 

other major timber importing countries to influence the 

demand for products from responsibly managed forests. 

Implementation of the program involves a series of 

grants to non-governmental organizations and consulting 

contracts to undertake work that supports the program’s 

aims. Activities in support of VPAs focus on Africa and 

Asia with regional budgets of $17.52 million) and $10.22 

million respectively. The remaining $7.3 million is 

earmarked for support to research, communications, and 

advocacy work related to tackling illegal logging and 

forest governance issues. 

Africa Regional Program Congo Basin Parliamentarians’ 

conference. Funding was provided for Parliamentarians 

from the Congo Basin to attend a conference on illegal 

logging. 

FLEGT 

activities on 

going. 

FLEGT Multi-stakeholder Consultation (Jan 2007–Dec 

2009). Grant to IUCN to support multi-stakeholder 

engagement in the development of FLEGT Partnership 

Agreements in Africa. Work focused on Ghana and 

Liberia in West Africa; Cameroon, DRC, Congo- 

Brazzaville and Gabon in Central Africa; and the trade 

linkages between these countries and China. The 

program aims to foster, catalyze and reinforce informed 



European 

Commission (EC) 

multi-stakeholder negotiation and implementation of 

nationally defined priority actions that support VPAs. 

$2 million Support to Development of Community Forests (2009– 

2015) 

Bateke Plateau Carbon Services Project: Agroforestry 

plantations. Not a grant or loan, WB acts as financial 

intermediator 

$2.7 million Fuelwood Project (2009–2015) 

Goma Carbon Project : Fuelwood Plantations 

$7.7 million Ecosystems Forestier d’Afrique Centrale (ECOFAC) 

Regional level (Central Africa) and Salonga National 

Park Protected Area Rehabilitation and Management : 

Infrastructure (buildings, roads), personnel, equipment, 

training, institutional reform, preparation of management 

plan, socioeconomic development for populations 

surrounding Park 

$6 million Support to Reform ICCN (2009–2015) 

Support to ICCN central and field functions 

$0.9 million Support to ERAIFT (2009–2012) 

Ecole Régionale d’Aménagement et de Gestion Intégrée 

des Forets Tropicales (ERAIFT)—Building rehabilitation 

and technical training 

$7.5 million Support to Management of Garamba Park 

(2007–2010) 

Garamba Park Protected Area Management: Partnership 

between ICCN and nongovernmental organizations 

(NGO), infrastructure, surveys and scientific research, 

guard training, anti-poaching 

$1.8 million Support to Management of Virunga and Salonga Parks 

(2005–2008) 

Protected Area Management: infrastructure (buildings), 

guard training, antipoaching, revenue generating 

activities 

$20 million Great Virunga Project (2009–2014) 

• Cross-border Collaboration: Support to trinational 

collaboration with Rwanda and Uganda 

• Protected Area Management: Follow up on 

rehabilitation activities initiated by the first project, 

apply and implement institutional reforms, recruitment 

and training of personnel, tourism development 

$3.5 million Support to Development of Small and Medium-Sized 

Enterprises(via FAO) (2007–2009) 

Regional (Central Africa) and National levels 

Capacity building of small and medium sized enterprises 

associated with Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFP) 

Information collection, identification of NTFP and 

targeted groups, technical and business management 

training, market information 

$.8 million Support to Monitoring of the Illegal Killing of Elephants 

(MIKE) (2006–2009 – Phase II) 

On going 

On going 

On going 

On going 

On going 

On going 

Completed 

On going 

On going 

On going 



France $.02 million Development of A Training Program in Environment and On going 

Forestry (2008–2009) 

Regional (Central Africa - RIFFEAC - Réseaux des 

Institutions de Formation Forestière et Environnemental 

d’Afrique Central and National levels: Technical 

assistance in the definition and implementation of a 

national forest and environment training and education 

strategy, workshops, training of forest personnel 

$1.5 million MENCT Capacity Building:2008-2011 

On going 

Technical assistance and counsel to the Minister 

GTZ, Germany approximately 

$US 1.1m /year 

Programme de Maintien de la Biodiversité des Forêts 

This program is a continuation of Germany’s support to 

ICCN since the mid 80’s. The objective of the current 

program is to support the national institutions responsible 

for forest management and nature conservation. The 

three components of the program are: 

• Adaptation of sector policies and regional integration: 

elaboration of a policy, strategic and institutional 

framework which is fully coherent with respect to 

regional initiatives such as COMIFAC and FLEGT; 

• Support for the organizational development of ICCN: 

implementation of the upcoming institutional review 

recommendations; reinforcement of ICCN’s role as a 

service provider and coordinator (through CoCoCongo 

and CoCoSi) for decentralized national park 

management structures; elaboration and adoption of a 

concept through which the private sector is implicated 

in the management and use of buffer zones. This 

component is fully complementary with components 1 

and 2 of the GEF project, particularly with respect to 

CoCoCongo (comp 1) and private sector involvement 

in national parks (comp 2: APF in Garamba, tourism 

activities in PNV). 

• Support to Kahuzi-Biega NP: strengthen management 

capacities of this park in collaboration with local 

populations and other conservation partners (local 

and international). 

• A Technical Advisor, based ICCN Kinshasa, works 

directly with the ADG of ICCN. 

On going 

International 

Development 

Research Center 

(IDRC), Canada 

C$ 1,699,900 

(regional) 

Altering the Climate of Poverty under Climate Change: 

The Forests of Congo Basin (Sub-Saharan Africa) 

The forests of the Congo basin provide ecosystem 

services to over 80% of the population living in or near 

them. Climate change is challenging the past and future 

development efforts of those who depend on the forests 

for their survival and livelihoods. Yet forestry has 

received very little attention in national dialogues on 

climate change. This project aims to underscore the 

importance of the Congo basin forests in climate change 

adaptation efforts in Cameroon, Central African Republic 

and the Democratic Republic of Congo. Researchers will 

map adaptation priorities and policies in the countries 

under study. They will engage with stakeholders to 

ensure that local perspectives are brought to bear on 

On going 



KfW Bankenruppe, 

Germany 

Swedish 

International 

Development 

Agency (SIDA) 


Development 

Program/Global 

Environment 

Facility 

(UNDP/GEF) 

Approx €11 

million 

SEK 1,512,000 

forest management strategies (stakeholders will 

participate in the design and testing of such strategies). 

And, they will monitor policy processes and outcomes 

through field visits, networking, policy engagement 

analysis and a series of outreach and communication 

strategies. The overall goal is to ensure the sustainable 

use of forest resources in the Congo basin. 

Sustainable Management of Natural Resources 

( 2007–2011) 

The overall objective of the project is to make a 

contribution to the protection of the tropical forest and the 

biodiversity and to poverty alleviation. The project 

objective is to build up and strengthen the sustainable 

management of priority conservation areas and the 

certification of forest concessions. The project is 

implemented in cooperation with the World Bank, the 

European Commission and the GTZ as well as 

international and national non-governmental 

organizations already active in the region and comprises 

three components: 

• The financing of investments and operating costs for 

the reconstruction and management of conservation 

areas (Kahuzi-Biega national park and Okapi fauna 

reserve), including measures to support the 

sustainable use of resources and to improve incomes 

in the project areas; 

• The financing of investments in infrastructure, logistics 

and human capital in the context of the institutional 

strengthening of the nature protection agency ICCN. 

This is done in close cooperation with and 

complementary to Technical Cooperation (TC) 

measures implemented in this area; 

• The financing of studies, planning work and 

implementation measures in selected forest 

concessions, which—on the basis of concrete forest 

management plans of the concessions – pursue the 

objective of obtaining international certification (e.g. 

FSC) The program will be developed around two 

components: support for sustainable forest 

management (working with selected logging 

companies), and support to protected areas (mainly 

infrastructure development). 

Land use planning activities in the Virunga landscape 

2006-2010 implemented by WWF 

$395,000 Enabling Congo DR to Fulfill its Commitments to the 

UNFCCC (1997) 

This project provided technical assistance and support 

development of in-country capacity to enable Congo DR 

to prepare, formulate and submit its first national 

communication to the United Nations Framework 

Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 

accordance with Article 12.1 of the Convention. The 

On going 

On going 

Completed 




Development 


Environment 

Facility 

(UNDP/GEF) 


Development 


Environment 

Facility 

(UNDP/GEF) 

project directly assisted in the development of a national 

inventory of anthropogenic emissions by sources and 

removals by sinks of all greenhouse gases not controlled 

by the Montreal Protocol. The project used this inventory 

to estimate future sectoral emissions and to formulate a 

national greenhouse gas mitigation strategy. The project 

also assisted in organizing a national workshop on 

climate change strategies and in the preparation of the 

first national communications. 

$250,000 National Capacity Needs Self-Assessment for Global 

Environmental Management in DR Congo 

(2005–2006) 

The main objective of this project was to assess national 

capacities for global environment management in the 

DRC. This national self-assessment determined the 

gaps, constraints and priorities for the creation, 

development and reinforcement of individual, institutional 

and systemic capacities required to better manage 

environmental resources to ensure that they are used 

sustainably to support national efforts in the areas of 

development and the fight against poverty. The project 

also enabled the country to formulate a strategy and 

action plan to strengthen capacities for enhanced 

management of environmental resources, consult on and 

submit this action plan to partners and donors and carry 

out preliminary monitoring and evaluation. 

$7 million Support to the Congolese Institute for Nature 

Conservation (ICCN)’s Program for the Rehabilitation of 

the DRC’s National Parks Network (1006–2010) 

The global objective of the project is to support the 

biodiversity sub-program of the PNFC with an aim to 

raise the political profile of biodiversity conservation in 

DRC and enhance its linkage to the economic recovery 

agenda. It aims to rehabilitate long-term institutional 

capacity to manage and monitor DRC’s national network 

of protected areas. Together with other donors the 

project will support the implementation of an institutional 

capacity building program at the national level; provide 

direct assistance to three high priority protected areas at 

the site-level; and lay the foundation for creation of new 

protected areas covering up to 15% of the national 

territory. The proposed alternative, the Protected Areas 

Management and Nature Conservation program, is one 

prong of DRC’s sector-wide multi-donors Forest and 

Biodiversity Program. Together with other operations 

simultaneously under preparation by major donors 

(UNDP, EU, CARPE, Germany) it constitutes the first 

phase of the national program. Given the post-conflict 

situation and the pressing need to save existing assets in 

the field, this first phase focuses on rehabilitation. It 

encompasses a limited number of priority actions which 

need to be conducted urgently to restore minimum 

management capacity; which are achievable in a short 

Completed 

Extended – on 

going 




Education, 

Scientific and 

Cultural 

Organization/United 

Nations Foundation 

(UNESCO/UNF) 

$600,000 (UNF 

– second 

phase) 

time period; and which are complementary to those 

already envisioned by other internationally funded 

operations. The project provides support to the entire 

network of protected areas managed by ICCN, with a 

special emphasis on Upemba NP and Kundelungu NP in 

the Katanga province. It also helps build ICCN financial 

capacities, and develops studies and assessments to 

identify new protected areas. 

UNESCO-UNF Support to DRC’s World Heritage Sites in 

Danger 

In an effort to safeguard the outstanding universal value 

and integrity of the DRC’s 5 World Heritage Sites which 

were seriously threatened by the civil war, the UNESCO 

World Heritage Centre together with ICCN, and a 

number of international conservation NGOs (WCS, 

WWF, FFI, AWF) and with the financial support of the 

Government of Belgium and the United Nations 

Foundation, in 2000 launched a 4 year program to try 

innovative ways of conserving the 5 sites in the context 

of armed conflict. This first phase focused on maintaining 

conservation efforts at the site level and on gathering 

political support for the sites and was able to limit the 

destruction and safeguard the ecological capital of the 

sites. As peace and stability returns, the first phase was 

concluded by an international conference at which the 

DRC Transition Government expressed its commitment 

for the rehabilitation and restoration of the sites and the 

international donor community pledged important 

financial support. 

On going 


Education, 

Scientific and 

Cultural 

Organization/United 

Nations Fund 

(UNESCO/UNF) 

The second phase of the project mainly focuses on the 

implementation of Emergency Action Plans for World 

Heritage Properties with outstanding universal value in 

the DRC as well as on the setting up of an information 

management system for the benefit of protected areas. 

This particular component of the program is financed 

through a UNF grant (600,000 $US). The partnership 

for conservation in the DRC between UNESCO, ICCN 

and partners NGO foreseen in the project has now 

become a reality. Other UN agencies or program (i.e. 

UNDP, UNEP) as well as the United Nations Mission to 

DRC (MONUC) are now closely collaborating with the 

World Heritage Centre to address issues relating to the 

safeguarding of World Heritage properties in the DRC. 

$0.45 million Virunga National Park (2006–2009) 

Protected Area Management: Paid primes in Virunga 

Park (2006), relocation and boundary marking, protection 

of mountain gorillas, control of illegal logging 

On going 




GRASP—Great Apes Survival Project Partnership Completed 

Environmental 

Program (UNEP) 

This regional initiative, initiated by the UNEP in 

partnership with a number of international NGOs, covers 

the range states of the three great apes in Africa 

(gorillas, chimpanzees and bonobos) of which only the 

DRC has all three species. The objective is to mobilize 

funding and initiate field activities that will contribute to 

preserving these highly endangered species. 

$4 million Ibi Bateke Carbon Sink Plantation: Part I implemented On going 

(2007–2012) 

• Carbon Sink: Sequester C02 through fast growing 

forest plantations on grass savannahs covering 7,500 

ha over five years 

• Technical assistance 

The Mayombe Forest Transboundary Initiative 

On going 

Creation of a transboundary protected area in the 

Mayombe Mountains Region (R Congo, DR Congo and 

Angola 

Capacity Building and Technical Assistance in Garamba On going 

and Kahuzi-Biega National Parks 

Provide support to ICCN in park management, 

development of a conflict resolution strategy, training and 

increased capacity in law enforcement/surveillance and 

monitoring 

Post Conflict Environmental Assessment and National 

Action Planning for DR Congo 

• National scale, broad spectrum assessment of post 

conflict environmental issues in the DRC 

• Provides a baseline for longer-term planning 

On going 

UNEP – UNDP 

and FAO 

$0.2 million REDD readiness for DR Congo (2008–2009) 

Institutional Capacity Building: Preparation of an R-Plan 

$3.4 million in 

negotiation start 

after REDD 

preparation 

phase 

REDD implementation 

• National and Site level 

• Carbon Sink: Implementation of activities specified in 

R-Plan 

On going 

On going 

United States 

Agency for 

International 

Development 

(USAID) 

World Bank (WB) $70 million ($64 

million as IDA 

grant plus $6 

million from WB 

Global 

Environmental 

Facility 

$60 million Central African Regional Program on the Environment 

(2006–2011) 

• Five forest landscapes: Maringa-Lopori-Wamba; Lac 

Tumba; Salonga- Lukenie-Sankuru; Ituri-Epulu, Aru; 

Maiko-Tayna- Kahuzi-Biega 

• Participatory Management of Forest Resources: 

Macrozoning of forest landscapes, community 

development, protection, conservation of natural 

resources and biodiversity 

Forest and Nature Conservation Project (2009–2015) 

The objective of the Forest and Nature Conservation 

Project for Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) is to 

increase the capacity of the Ministry of Environment, 

Nature Conservation and Tourism (MENCT) and the 

Congolese Nature Conservation Institute (ICCN), and 

increase collaboration among government institutions, 

On going 

Accord signed 

in May 2009 

and $2 million in 

Project 

Preparation 

Funds (PPF) 

released in 



civil society, and other stakeholders in order to manage June 2009 

forests sustain ably and equitably for multiple uses in 

pilot provinces. There are three components to the 

project. The first component of the project is institutional 

strengthening of MENCT. This component will: (a) 

improve the institutional capacity of MENCT’s and 

Provincial Ministries; (b) strengthen MENCT’s forest 

management technical capacity; (c) carry out an 

institutional reform within MENCT; and (d) support 

project implementation. The second component of the 

project is community participation in forest management. 

This component will: (a) increase local community and 

civil society participation in forest management; (b) 

support increased use of environmental services; and (c) 

assist with implementation the project’s environmental 

and social documents (ESD) and safeguard plans. The 

third component of the project is management of 

protected areas and support to ICCN. This component 

will: (a) provide Institutional Strengthening for ICCN; and 

(b) help rehabilitate the Maiko National Park. 

World Bank (WB) $6 million 

(WB/GEF) 

National Parks Network Rehabilitation Project 

(2009–2015) 

Under 

procurement 

The project will help the Government of the Democratic 

Republic of Congo to enhance the administrative, 

financial management and advocacy capacity of the 

public institution in charge of managing protected areas 

(Institut Congolais pour la Conservation de la Nature). It 

will also help strengthen the capacity of this institution to 

evaluate and expand the national protected areas 

system, through the participation of local communities, 

indigenous groups and civil society organizations, as well 

as technical studies and consultations at the national 

level, and will help rehabilitate two priority national parks 

and their buffer zones. 

Source: Adapted from World Bank (2009) with additional material 


ANNEX E: STAFFING PATTERN FOR ALL 

PROTECTED AREAS BY LABOR CATEGORY 

No 

DIRECTEUR SOU/DIR CD CB ATB1 ATB 2 AGB1 AGB2 AA1 AA2 HUIS 

TOTAL/CADRES 

TOTAL 

ADM TECHSCIEN SD CC M R CSP CP CR CS C ATR CSA CA ASR CB OPG CBA OG AP SOG AAD BC AAUX B TQ GP TO G1e HUIS G2e ADM TECH SCIENGENERA 

1 DIRECTION GENERAL 5 4 4 2 1 7 1 16 2 1 8 1 7 6 4 8 1 1 64 7 7 78 

2 BOMBO-LUMEME 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 4 2 2 5 2 3 19 1 23 

3 PARC DE LA N'SELE 1 1 3 1 1 1 4 4 2 3 5 4 9 1 12 4 3 5 9 7 48 31 2 81 

4 PNU/NORD LUSINGA 1 1 1 1 1 2 8 3 5 7 3 14 15 6 56 0 62 

5 PNU/ SUD KA Y O 1 2 1 1 1 8 2 6 10 16 3 3 4 6 0 4 9 

6 PNKL/KATWE 1 1 1 1 6 2 5 7 5 9 6 32 0 38 

7 B.L. LUMBUBASHI 1 1 1 1 1 2 3 0 5 

8 D.C. LWAM A/KATANGA 1 1 0 2 0 2 

9 D.C. KANIAM A 2 0 2 0 2 

10 PNS/NORD-M ONKOTO 2 1 1 4 1 1 2 32 1 4 43 0 47 

11 PNS/NORD-WATSIKENGO 1 1 1 1 1 3 32 1 2 39 0 41 

12 PNS/NORD-M UNDJOKO 1 2 2 1 1 23 1 29 0 30 

13 PNS/NORD-YOKEKELU 1 2 2 26 1 2 30 0 32 

14 LOM AKO 1 1 1 2 52 1 7 1 53 1 55 

15 PNS/SUD-ANGA 1 1 1 1 3 5 7 5 22 1 7 9 45 1 55 

16 PNS/SUD-M UNDJA 1 2 1 1 8 11 0 22 2 24 

17 D.C. BUSHIM AIE 1 1 1 1 5 14 8 2 2 1 34 0 35 

18 D.C. SWA KIBULA 1 2 2 4 2 17 0 28 0 28 

19 D.C. M ANGAI 1 1 3 1 6 4 1 2 2 1 20 0 21 

20 P.M. MUANDA 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 3 1 7 4 7 16 1 24 

21 LAC TUMBA 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 2 1 4 5 2 5 5 4 12 39 3 54 

22 BUR. DE LIAISON-GOM A 4 1 1 1 1 4 2 1 1 1 1 2 9 8 1 18 

23 PNVi/CENTRE - RWINDI 1 1 1 1 5 1 8 5 17 1 20 4 22 2 1 11 76 0 87 

24 PNVi/NORD - M UTSORA 2 1 1 2 1 3 1 7 19 54 7 9 98 107 

25 PNV/SUD -RUMANGABO 1 4 5 2 1 3 4 15 18 3 22 23 27 2 34 96 0 130 

26 PN VIRUNGA - LULIM BI 1 1 1 2 1 1 1 1 7 9 8 11 42 10 68 1 79 

27 PN VIRUNGA -KABARAZA 1 1 1 8 2 3 18 0 34 0 34 

28 D.C. RUTSHURU 1 1 1 1 2 1 2 12 1 20 0 21 

29 BUR. DE LIAISON-BUKAVU 1 1 1 1 3 5 2 0 7 

3 0 PNKB / TSHIV A NGA 1 1 1 2 1 3 2 5 6 2 3 3 1 3 12 3 1 3 4 2 4 15 116 4 13 5 

31 D.C. LWAMA/KIVU 1 1 1 2 12 2 15 0 17 

32 ITOMBWE 1 1 1 1 1 2 0 3 

3 3 PNG NA GER O&GA NGA LA 2 1 2 2 1 2 1 7 3 1 9 3 6 8 10 2 3 2 1 2 4 19 18 0 0 19 9 

34 PNM AIKO/NORD - LOYA 1 2 1 1 7 9 2 19 0 21 

35 PNM AIKO/NORD -ETAITO 1 3 1 1 1 2 2 1 1 3 4 7 2 3 24 2 29 

36 PNM AIKO/SUD -LUBUTU 1 2 1 4 3 8 6 3 2 6 24 0 30 

37 D.C. BILI-UERE DIGBA 1 1 1 1 5 2 2 17 36 1 17 1 21 64 0 85 

38 D.C. M AIKA-PENGE 1 1 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 9 2 24 6 41 0 47 

39 D.C. RUBI-TELE 1 1 4 1 5 0 6 

40 R.F. OKAPI/EPULU 1 1 2 4 1 4 3 1 1 5 1 12 3 8 2 24 21 5 11 84 4 99 

TOTAL 5 10 4 3 14 0 11 18 3 24 30 4 14 24 18 41 50 28 38 28 44 35 197 34 166 59 369 50 502 8 109 338 1572 30 1940 


ANNEX F: PUBLISHED FOREST 

CODE IMPLEMENTING 

DECREES 

CHAPITRE I : CODE FORESTIER 

1. Loi n°011/2002 du 29 août 2002 portant code forestier 

CHAPITRE II : TEXTES TRANSITOIRES ORGANISANT LA 

CONVERSION DES ANCIENS TITRES FORESTIERS (LI ET GA) EN 

CONTRAT DE CONCESSION FORESTIERE 

1. Décret n°08/02 du 21 Janvier 2008 modifiant le Décret n°05/116 du 24 octobre 2005 fixant les 

modalités de conversion des anciens titres forestiers et portant extension du moratoire en matière 

d’octroi des titres d’exploitation forestière. 

2. Décret Présidentiel n° 06/141 du 10/11/06, portant nomination des membres de la Commission 

Interministérielle de conversion des titres forestiers ; 

3. Décret n° 05/116 du 24 octobre 2005 fixant les modalités de conversion des anciens titres forestiers 

en contrats de concession forestière et portant extension du moratoire en matière d’octroi des titres 

d’exploitation forestière ; 

4. Arrêté ministériel n°090 CAB/MIN/ECN- T /15/JEB/2009 du 23 janvier 2009 portant mesures de 

mise en œuvre des décisions de rejet des requêtes de conversion et de résiliation des anciens titres 

forestiers 

5. Arrêté ministériel n° 035 /CAB/MIN/ECN-EF/2005 du 26 mai 2005 rapportant l’arrêté ministériel n° 

071/CAB/MIN/ECN-EF/2004 du 22 novembre 2004 portant modification de l’arrêté ministériel n° 

050/CAB/MIN/ECN-EF/2004 du 02 juillet 2004 fixant les modalités de conversion des conventions 

portant octroi dies garanties d’approvisionnement en matière ligneuse et lettres d’intention en contrats 

de concession forestière ; 

6. Arrêté n° CAB/MIN/AF.F.-E.T/194/MAS/02 du 14 mai 2002 portant suspension de l’octroi des 

allocations forestières ; 

7. Message Radiophonie N°001/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/2009 

CHAPITRE II : TEXTES AYANT TRAIT A L’ADMINISTRATION DU 

DOMAINE FORESTIER ET L’ATTRIBUTION DES TITRES FORESTIERS 

8. Décret n°08/09 du 08 avril 2008 fixant la procédure d’attribution des concessions forestières ; 

9. Décret n°08/08 du 08 avril 2008 fixant la procédure de classement et de déclassement des forêts ; 

10. Arrêté ministériel n°024/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/08 du 07 août 2008 fixant la procédure d’enquête 

publique préalable à l’octroi des concessions forestières ; 

11. Arrêté ministériel n°028/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/O8 du 07 août 2008 fixant les modèles de contrat 

de concession d’exploitation des produits forestiers et de cahier des charges y afférent 


12. Arrêté ministériel n°022/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/2008 du 07 août 2008 fixant la procédure 

d’autorisation de cession, de location, échange ou donation d’une concession forestière ; 

13. Arrêté ministériel n°035/CAB/MIN/ECNT/15/JEB/08 du 22 août 2008 portant mesures relatives à 

l’estimation des prix des forêts à concéder; 

14. Arrêté ministériel n°037/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/2008 du 18 septembre 2008 fixant les critères de 

sélection des soumissionnaires des concessions forestières; 

15. Arrêté ministériel n°035/CAB/MIN/ECN-EF/2006 du 05 octobre 2006 relatif à l’exploitation 

forestière ; 

16. Arrêté ministériel n°CAB/MIN/AF.F-E.T/276/2002 du 05 novembre 2002 déterminant les essences 

forestières protégées ; 

CHAPITRE III : TEXTES RELATIFS AUX INVENTAIRES ET A 

L’AMENAGEMENT FORESTIERS 

17. Arrêté ministériel 020/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/2008 du 07 août 2008 fixant les mesures relatives 

aux autorisations de reconnaissance et d’inventaire forestiers d’allocation ; 

18. Arrêté ministériel n°021/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/2008 du 07 août 2008 portant normes relatives 

aux installations à implanter dans les concessions forestières ; 

19. Arrêté ministériel n°025/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/2008 du 07 août 2008 portant réglementation du 

permis de déboisement ; 

20. Arrêté ministériel n°034/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/08 du 22 août 2008 portant réglementation de la 

récolte de certains produits forestiers ; 

21. Arrêté n°038/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/2008 du 23 septembre 2008 fixant les modalités 

d’élaboration et de mise en œuvre du plan d’aménagement d’une forêt classée ; 

22. Arrêté ministériel n°036/CAB/MIN/ECN-EF/2006 du 05 octobre 2006 fixant les procédures 

d’élaboration, d’approbation et de mise en œuvre des plans d’aménagement des concessions 

forestières de production des bois d’œuvre ; 

23. Arrêté ministériel n° 0011/CAB/MIN/ECN-EF/2007 portant réglementation de l’autorisation de 

coupe industrielle de bois d’œuvre et des autorisations d’achat, vente et exportation de bois d’œuvre; 

CHAPITRE IV : TEXTES SUR L’EXPORTATION DES PRODUITS 

FORESTIERS 

24. Arrêté interdépartemental n°BCE/CE/ECNT/007/85 portant réglementation de l’exportation de 

grumes ; 

CHAPITRE V : TEXTES RELATIVES A LA FISCALITE FORESTIERE 

25. Arrêté interministériel n° 006/CAB/MIN/ECN-EF/2007 et n°004/CAB/MIN/FINANCES/2007 du 8 

mai 2007 portant fixation des taux des droits, taxes et redevances a percevoir en matière forestière sur 

l’initiative du ministère de l’Environnement, Conservation de la Nature, Eaux et Forets ; 

26. Arrêté interministériel n° 006/CAB/MIN/ENV/2005 et n°108/CAB/MIN/FINANCES/2005 du 25 

juillet 2005 portant fixation des taux des droits et taxes sur les établissements classés dangereux, 

insalubres ou incommodes à percevoir à l’initiative du Ministère de l’Environnement, Conservation 

de la Nature, Eaux et Forêts ; 


CHAPITRE VI : TEXTES SUR LA POLICE ET LA SURVEILLANCE DES 

FORETS 

27. Arrêté ministériel n°026/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/2008 du 07 août 2008 portant dispositions 

relatives à la supervision, au suivi et à l’évaluation des opérations de reconstitution du capital 

forestier ; 

28. Arrêté ministériel 027/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/2008 du 07 août 2008 relatif au marteau forestier de 

l’administration et à son utilisation ; 

29. Arrêté ministériel n°CAB/MIN/AF.F.ET/260/2002 du 03 octobre 2002 fixant la procédure des 

transactions en matière forestière ; 

30. Arrêté ministériel n° CAB/MIN.AF.F-E.T/277/2002 du 5 novembre 2002 portant réglementation de 

l’uniforme et des insignes distinctifs des grades des inspecteurs, fonctionnaires et agents forestiers 

assermentés ; 

31. Ordonnance n°52/175 du 23 mai 1953 sur l’interdiction de l’incendie des herbes et des végétaux sur 

pieds; 

32. Arrête ministériel 0001/71 du 15 février 1971 portant interdiction absolue des déboisements ou 

débroussaillements, comme des feux de brousse, de taillis ou de bois dans la concession ou dans tous 

les terrains formant le domaine dénommé « site d’Inga » ; 

CHAPITRE VIII : TEXTES ORGANIQUES RELATIFS AU SECTEUR 

FORESTIER 

33. Décret n° 029/24 du 21 mai 2009 portant création, organisation et fonctionnement du Fonds Forestier 

National, en abrégé F.F.N. 

34. Décret n°08/03 du 26 janvier 2008 portant composition, organisation et fonctionnement du Conseil 

Consultatif National des forêts ; 

35. Arrêté ministériel n° 107/CAB/MIN/ECN6T/15JEB/09 du 20 août 2009 portant création, 

composition, organisation et fonctionnement du Comité national de pilotage du zonage forestier 

36. Arrêté ministériel n° 0100 CAB/MIN/ECN-T/27/JEB/09 du 01 juin 2009 portant affectation des 

Directeurs Chefs des services du Secrétariat Général à l’Environnement et Conservation de la Nature 

37. Arrêté ministériel n° 0101 CAB/MIN/ECN- T /127 /JEB/09 du 05 juin 2009 portant affectation des 

Directeurs-Chefs des services du Secrétariat Général à l’Environnement et Conservation de la Nature 

38. Arrêté ministériel n°023/CAB/MIN/ECN-T/15/JEB/2008 du 07 août 2008 portant création et 

organisation du Comité de Pilotage du projet de foresterie communautaire en République 

Démocratique du Congo ; 

39. Arrêté ministériel n°004/CAB/MIN/ECN-EF/2007 du 25 janvier 2007 portant création, composition, 

organisation et fonctionnement du Comité de Coordination des travaux des contrôles forestiers ; 

40. Arrêté ministériel n°033 du 02 octobre 2006 portant organisation et fonctionnement du Cadastre 

forestier ; 

41. Arrêté ministériel n°034/CAB/MIN/ECN-EF/2006 du 05 octobre 2006 portant composition, 

organisation et fonctionnement des Conseils consultatifs provinciaux des forêts; 

42. Arrête ministériel N° CAB / MIN / AF.F-E.T/039/2001 du 07 novembre 2001 portant création et 

organisation d’un service public dénommé «Centre de Promotion du Bois», en abrégé «C.P.B.» ; 

43. Arrête 012/DECNT/CCE/81 du 18 février 1981 portant création et organisation du Service National 

de Reboisement.

democratic republic of congo: biodiversity and tropical forestry ...

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