C.A.P.E. - The Conservation of Freshwater ... - Biodiversity GIS

Part 1 

Freshwater Research Unit, UCT 

92 Cape Action Plan for the Environment 

Freshwater Component

Freshwater Research Unit, UCT Part 1 

Freshwater Research Unit 

• Large database of relevant references (Helen Dallas, Rebecca Tharme, Jackie 

King, Southern Waters). 

• Great deal of research has been and is being conducted here. 

Albany Museum 

• Has provided distribution records for a variety of invertebrate taxa. 

• Ongoing processing of invertebrate samples. 

• Ongoing research into invertebrate taxonomy 

Martin Villet’s website: Aquatic insects and Mites of South Africa 

(http://www.ru.ac.za/departments/zooento/Martin/Aquatics.html) 

• Catalogue of South African aquatic insects and relevant contact names for 

various taxa. 

• Includes comprehensive species and generic lists, usually with some 

commentary on broad distribution in South Africa. 

Biobase (Dallas and Janssens 1998) 

• Includes biological (macroinvertebrate) data, relevant chemical and physical 

parameters of the waterbody. 

• Several other features included are Bioregions, water quality management 

regions, sub-regions etc and data related to SASS4 (South African Scoring 

System). 

Cape Action Plan for the Environment 91 


Part 1 


Table 8.1 

A list of aquatic insect and mite orders for which electronic checklists 

are available. Taken from the web-site: 

http://www.ru.ac.za/departments/zooento/Martin/Aquatics.html 

Class Order Compiled by 

ACARINA • Hydrachnellae (water mites) • Arthur Harrison 

INSECTA • Ephemeroptera (mayflies) • Helen James 

• Odonata (damselflies & dragonflies) • Tanya Crouch & Tessa Hedge 

• Plecoptera (Stoneflies) • Martin Villet 

• Orthoptera (crickets & 

grasshoppers) 

• 

• Hemiptera (true bugs) • Martin Villet & Patric Reavell 

• Coleoptera (beetles) 

• Arthur Harrison & Stuart 

Mangold 

• Neuroptera (antlions & lacewings) 

• Megaloptera (dobsonflies & 

alderflies) 

• Martin Villet 

• Trichoptera (caddisflies) • Ferdie de Moor 

• Diptera (true flies) 

seems fairly limited. There are a few exceptions to this however. For example, Dr. 

Barbara Cook (Stellenbosch University) can provide the Freshwater Research Unit 

with relatively comprehensive distribution data for crabs of the CFK, which at the 

very least could help to pinpoint wetlands. Furthermore, the database on molluscs is 

fairly extensive and this may be of similar use. Biobase, which was developed by Ms 

Helen Dallas and Dr. Jenny Day provides fairly comprehensive data on invertebrates 

for much of the CFK. Of the remaining invertebrate taxa, the trichoptera, 

ephemeroptera and simulidae are probably the most useful as they are the most well 

known. 

8.3 Important sources of information 

The list provided below summarises the sources of information that have been 

particularly useful for water-associated mammals during the first phase of the project 

and which will probably be of great use when prioritising important conservation 

areas during the next. For a comprehensive list of people what have been contacted 

in connection with avifaunal data see Appendix 10.5. 




CHAPTER 8: AQUATIC INVERTEBRATES 

K. Goldberg and G.D.P. van Nieuwenhuizen 

8.1 Taxonomic data 

Aquatic invertebrates of the CFK display a high degree of both diversity and 

endemicity. These taxa have received great emphasis in freshwater research at 

various institutes in South Africa, including the Albany Museum and the Freshwater 

Research Unit at the University of Cape Town. 

Invertebrates have been found to be extremely good indicators of water quality and 

the general condition of riverine systems. A comprehensive inventory of this taxon for 

the entire CFK would therefore have been an ideal tool for assessing the integrity of 

aquatic systems in the region under investigation. In attempting to collect existing 

information on this taxon, however it has become evident that the taxonomy is under 

constant revision and that many species remain undescribed. Furthermore, 

comprehensive taxonomic inventories have been carried out only in specific areas 

(most of the research has focussed on rivers of the southestern Cape) and 

furthermore, inventories are lacking for virtually all wetlands of the region. It therefore 

makes little sense to compile species checklists of invertebrates found in various 

areas of the CFK since these will undoubtedly be incomplete and be greatly skewed 

by sampling bias. Bearing this in mind, however, a web-site co-ordinated by Martin 

Villet (see reference list) provides an excellent preliminary list of the aquatic insects 

and mites of South Africa and gives associated web-sites for many insect orders. 

Table 8.1 lists the orders for which there is a relevant web-site. 

In addition to this, the Albany Museum have provided us with a number of 

distribution databases for various invertebrate taxa found in various river systems. 

The Freshwater Research Unit is a particularly rich source of information on 

invertebrate data (see Appendices 10, 10.1 and 10.5 for more details). 

8.2 Indicator species 

It is well established that invertebrate taxa are excellent indicators of water quality 

and the general state of freshwater systems. However, as already mentioned, 

inventories of this nature are relatively scarce, even in the Western Cape where a 

great deal of research has been conducted. Therefore, the usefulness of invertebrate 

data as indicators either of wetland localities or condition of freshwater systems 



Part 1 


National Herbarium, Pretoria 

• contact person Mrs. René Glen 

• has given us a list of aquatic plants occurring in southern Africa (which include 

only bryophytes, pteridophytes and angiosperms 

• has provided us with a distribution list of plants endemic to the Western Cape 

• can provide a list of plants which can be used as indicators of wetland types 

• can provide distribution records for selected aquatic plants which are mostly 

accurate to the nearest quarter-degree 

• can provide information on the conservation status of selected plants. 

Compton, Natal, Bolus Herbaria 

• can provide distribution records for selected aquatic plants taken from 

herbarium sheets. 

List of wetland-related expertise in South Africa (van der Walt 1997) 

• gives contact information for individuals involved with aquatic plants, some of 

whom are listed in Appendix 10.4 




Table 7.4 

A list of some plant species that can be used as possible indicators of 

various wetland conditions. 

Species Wetland type Temp/perm 

Frankenia pulverulenta saline waters Temporary 

Frankenia repens saline waters Temporary 

Hypertelis arenicola saline waters Temporary 

Paspalum distichum saline waters Temporary 

Poecilolepis ficoidea saline waters Temporary 

Poecilolepis maritima saline waters Temporary 

Zostera capensis saline waters Temporary 

Salicornia meyeriana saline waters Temporary and Permanent 

Salicornia natalensis saline waters Temporary and Permanent 

Salicornia pillansi saline waters Temporary and Permanent 

Althenia filiformis saline waters Permanent 

Ruppia maritima saline waters Permanent 

Ruppia spiralis saline waters Permanent 

Samolus porosus saline waters Permanent 

Zannichellia aschersoniana saline waters Permanent 

Berzelia lanosa 

seeps and marshes 

Cannomois virgata 


Chondropetalum mucronatum seeps and marshes 

Chondropetalum tectorum seeps and marshes 

Disa cylindrica 


Disa elagans 


Disa ophryda 


Disa racinosa 


Disa reticulata seeps and marshes Temporary 

Disa rufescens 


Disa uniflora 


Juncus lomatophyllus seeps and marshes 

Kniphofia uvaria 


Nitorella foetida 


Osinitopsis 


Phragmites australis 


Xiris capensis 


Cotula pusilla Fresh water Temporary 

Eleocharis limosa Fresh water Temporary 

Ficina elatior Fresh water Temporary 

Isolepis brevicaulis Fresh water Temporary 

Isolepis natans Fresh water Temporary 

Isolepis striata Fresh water Temporary 

Lachenalia salteri Fresh water Temporary 

Limosella grandiflora Fresh water Temporary 

Onixotis stricta Fresh water Temporary 

Oxalis natans Fresh water Temporary 

Oxalis trichophyllis Fresh water Temporary 

Spiloxene aquatica Fresh water Temporary 



Part 1 


Table 7.3 

Continued. 

Order Family Species Status 

Hydrocotyle 

ranunculoides 

Berula erecta subsp. 

thunbergii 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Menyanthaceae (Marais & 

Verdoorn 1963; Aston 1969; 

Raynal 1974) 

Asteraceae (Hilliard 1977) 

Nymphoides indica 

subsp. occidentalis 

Cotula coronopifolia 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

7.2 Indicator species 

Aquatic and/or riparian species should be excellent indicators of different wetland 

types since their habitat requirements can be very specific and since they are not 

mobile, plants often indicate general longer-term characteristics of an environment. 

Very little documentation exists on precise habitat requirements of wetland plants, 

however, and we therefore rely on the expertise of specialists to identify species 

which will be reliable indicators. We have managed to compile a preliminary list of 

aquatic species that may be useful in indicating the location and particular 

characteristics of wetlands in the CFK (Table 7.4). This list may be expanded or 

edited using expertise from various institutions such as the National Herbarium (NBI, 

Pretoria). If required distribution data for selected species can be obtained from the 

National Herbarium (NBI, Pretoria), the Compton Herbarium (NBI, Kirstenbosch) and 

the Bolus-Herbarium (University of Cape Town). Other sources and references will 

also be incorporated. It should be noted that the distribution data for plants is 

generally relatively coarse and may therefore not be able to pinpoint wetlands with 

great precision. Furthermore, data is held by various sources and it may be beyond 

the scope or time-frame of this project to collate the data into a comprehensive 

database. 

7.3 Sources of information 


particularly useful for aquatic plants. For a comprehensive list of people what have 

been contacted in connection with avifaunal data see Appendices 9, 9.1 and 9.4 




Table 7.3 

Continued. 


Lagarosiphon major 

Lagarosiphon 

muscoides 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Araceae (Brown 1897) Pistia stratiotes Invader 

Angiospermae: 

Monocotyledonae 

Lemnaceae (Landolt 1986) 

Lemnaceae (Landolt 1986) 

Spirodela polyrrhiza 

Spirodela punctata 

Lemna 

aequinoctialis 

Lemna gibba 

Lemna minor 

Wolffia arrhiza 

Wolffia globosa 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Pontederiaceae (Obermeyer 

1985; Cook 1989) 

Eichhornia crassipes 

Pontederia cordata 

var. ovalis 

Invader 

Invader 

Angiospermae: 

Dicotyledonae 

Polygonaceae (Graham 1958, 

Wilson 1990) 

Persicaria 

senegalensis forma 

albotomentosa 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Nymphaeaceae (Verdcourt 

1989) 

Nymphaea nouchali 

var. caerulea 

Nymphaea 

mexicana (Cultivar) 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Invader 

Onagraceae (Goldblatt & Raven 

1997; Raven 1978) 

Ludwigia stolonifera 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Haloragaceae (Mendes 1978) 

Myriophyllum 

aquaticum 

Invader 

Apiaceae (Burtt 1991; Cannon 

1978) 

Hydrocotyle 

americana 

Opportunistic 

plant 



Part 1 


Several aquatic plants found in southern Africa are particularly opportunistic weedy 

species and often indicate fairly disturbed (usually highly eutrophic) aquatic systems. 

In addition, certain plant species have a negative affect on natural communities due 

to their invasive characteristics. The presence and distribution of these species are 

therefore worthy noting as they give some idea of the ecological state of aquatic 

systems. Distribution data for selected species may be useful in identifying rivers or 

wetlands that are in particularly bad health and that would require substantial input 

for rehabilitation. Table 7.3 therefore lists some of the aquatic species which are 

known either to be invasive or opportunistic. 

Table 7.3 

A preliminary list of some opportunistic or invasive aquatic plant 

species found in southern Africa. Taken from Appendix 11. 


Pteridophyta Salviniaceae (Burrows 1990) Salvinia molesta Invader 

Azollaceae (Burrows 1990; 

Saunders & Fowler 1992, 1993) 

Azolla filiculoides Invader 

Salviniaceae (Burrows 1990) Salvinia molesta Invader 

Azollaceae (Burrows 1990; 

Saunders & Fowler 1992, 1993) 

Azolla filiculoides 

Azolla pinnata 

subsp. africana 

Invader 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Angiospermae: 


Typhaceae (Anderson 1966) 

Potamogetonaceae (Obermeyer 

1966) 

Typha capensis 

Potamogeton 

crispus 

Potamogeton 

pectinatus 

Potamogeton 

pusillus 

Potamogeton 

schweinfurthii 

Potamogeton 

thunbergii 

Potamogeton 

trichoides 

Najas horrida 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Opportunistic 

plant 

Hydrocharitaceae (Obermeyer 

1966; Den Hartog 1970; 

Symoens & Triest 1983) 

Egeria densa 

Invader 




Table 7.1 

Continued. 


Utricularia tortilis 

Utricularia welwitschii 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Asteraceae (Hilliard 1977) Cadiscus aquaticus Endangered 

Cotula myriophylloides 

Vulnerable 

Table 7.2 

A preliminary list of endemic plants found in the Western Cape. 

Aponogeton angustifolius Aiton 

Aponogeton distachyos L.f. 

Cadiscus aquaticus E.Mey. ex DC. 

Carex clavata Thunb. 

Carpha glomerata (Thunb.) Nees 

Chamaegigas intrepidus Dinter ex Heil 

Eleocharis limosa (Schrad.) Schult. 

Fissidens fasciculatus Hornsch. 

Isoetes capensis A.V. Duthie var. capensis 

Isoetes capensis A.V. Duthie var. stephanseniae (A.V. Duthie) Schelpe & N.C. Anthony 

Isoetes stellenbossiensis A.V. Duthie 

Isolepis digitata Schrad. 

Isopterygium strangulatum (C. Mll.) Broth. 

Limosella vesiculosa Hilliard & B.L. Burtt 

Prionium serratum (L.f.) DrŠge ex E. Mey. 

Pseudalthenia aschersoniana (Graebn.) Hartog 

Ranunculus capensis Thunb. 

Romulea aquatica G.J. Lewis 

Romulea multisulcata M.P. de Vos 

Schoenoplectus scirpoideus (Schrad.) Browning 

Spiloxene aquatica (L.f.) Fourc. 

Wardia hygrometrica Harv. & Hook. 



Part 1 


Table 7.1 

Continued. 


Oxalis natans 

Endangered 

Oxalis simplex 

Endangered 

Scrophulariaceae (Philcox 

1970; Fisher 1992) 

Limosella africana 

Vulnerable 

Limosella vesiculosa 

Vulnerable 

Lindernia conferta 

Vulnerable 

Chamaegigas intrepidus 

Vulnerable 

Lentibulariaceae (Taylor 

1989) 

Genlisea hispidula 

Utricularia arenaria 

Utricularia australis 

Utricularia benjaminiana 

Utricularia bisquamata 

Utricularia cymbantha 

Utricularia firmula 

Utricularia foliosa 

Utricularia gibba 

Utricularia inflexa 

Utricularia livida 

Utricularia prehensilis 

Utricularia reflexa 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Utricularia sandersonii 

Vulnerable 

Angiospermae: 

Dicotyledonae 

Lentibulariaceae (Taylor 

1989) 

Utricularia scandens 

Utricularia subulata 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 




Table 7.1 

Continued. 


Eriocaulaceae (Obermeyer 

1985) 

Xyris nivea 

Xyris rehmannii 

Eriocaulon africanum 

Eriocaulon angustisepalum 

Eriocaulon maculatum 

Eriocaulon setaceum 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Rare 

Rare 

Vulnerable 

Vulnerable 

Pontederiaceae 

(Obermeyer 1985; Cook 

1989) 

Amaryllidaceae (Verdoorn 

1973) 

Monochoria africana 

Crinum campanulatum 

Crinum paludosum 

Crinum variabile 

Rare 

Rare 

Vulnerable 

Vulnerable 

Iridaceae (Goldblatt 1979, 

De Vos 1983) 

Romulea aquatica 

Romulea multisulcata 

Galaxia stagnalis 

Vulnerable 

Rare 

Vulnerable 

Angiospermae: 

Dicotyledonae 

Angiospermae: 

Dicotyledonae 

Podostemaceae 

(Obermeyer 1970; Cusset 

1980; 1997) 

Podostemaceae 

(Obermeyer 1970; Cusset 

1980; 1997) 

Tristicha trifaria subsp. 

Trifaria 

Ledermanniella 

warmingiana 

Vulnerable 

Vulnerable 

Letestuella tisserantii Vulnerable 

Sphaerothylax algiformis Vulnerable 

Hydrostachyaceae 

(Obermeyer 1970) 

Hydrostachys polymorpha Vulnerable 

Oxalidaceae (Salter 1944) 

Oxalis disticha 

Vulnerable 



Part 1 


Table 7.1 

Continued. 


Angiospermae: 


Cyperaceae (Archer in 

prep.) 

Bolboschoenus nobilis 

Eleocharis acutangula 

Eleocharis dulcis 

Eleocharis limosa 

Eleocharis naumanniana 

Eleocharis retroflexa 

subsp.subtilissima 

Carpha glomerata 

Cladium mariscus subsp. 

Jamaicense 

Scleria angusta 

Scleria greigiifolia 

Scleria lacustris 

Scleria poiformis 

Carex acutiformis 

Carex austro-africana 

Carex clavata 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Arecaceae (Glen in press) Raphia australis Vulnerable 

Lemnaceae (Landolt 1986) Wolffiella denticulata Rare 

Wolffiella hyalina Vulnerable 

Wolffiella welwitschii 

Vulnerable 

Xyridaceae (Lewis & 

Obermeyer 1985) 

Xyris anceps 

Xyris capensis 

Xyris gerrardii 

Xyris natalensis 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 




Table 7.1 

Continued. 


Cyperus pectinatus 

Cyperus prolifer 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Cyperus sensilis 

Rare 

Angiospermae: 



prep.) 

Pycreus mundii 

Oxycaryum cubensis 

Schoenoplectus articulatus 

Schoenoplectus 

brachyceras 


corymbosus 

Schoenoplectus erectus 

Schoenoplectus muricinux 


muriculatus 

Schoenoplectus paludicola 


praelongatus 

Schoenoplectus pulchellus 

Schoenoplectus roylei 

Schoenoplectus scirpoides 


senegalensis 


tabernaemontani 

Schoenoplectus triqueter 

Isolepis digitata 

Isolepis fluitans 

Bolboschoenus glaucus 

Bolboschoenus maritimus 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 



Part 1 


Table 7.1 

A preliminary list of threatened aquatic plants found in southern Africa. 

Plant status taken from Hilton-Taylor 1996 or directly from Appendix 8. 


Bryophyta Hypnaceae (Sim 1926) Isopterygium strangulatum Rare 

Pteridophyta Isoetaceae (Burrows 1990) Isoetes aequinoctialis Rare 

Isoetes capensis var. 

capensis 

Rare 

Isoetes capensis var. 

stephansenii 

Rare 

Isoetes giessii 

Rare 

Isoetes schweinfurthii 

Isoetes stellenbossiensis 

Isoetes transvaalensis 

Isoetes welwitschii 

Isoetes wormaldii 

Rare 

Rare 

Vulnerable 

Rare 

Endangered 

Pteridophyta Isoetaceae (Burrows 1990) Marsilea coromandelina Rare 

Marsilea distorta 

Rare 

Marsilea fenestrata 

Endangered 

Marsilea minuta 

Rare 

Marsilea nubica var. nubica 

Vulnerable 

Marsilea schelpeana 

Vulnerable 

Angiospermae: 


Zannichelliaceae 

(Obermeyer 1966) 

Pseudalthenia 

aschersoniana 

Rare 

Aponogeton ranunculiflorus 

Rare 


prep.) 

Lipocarpha abietina 

Lipocarpha chinensis 

Websteria confervoides 

Cyperus articulatus 

Cyperus denudatus 

Cyperus papyrus 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 

Threatened 

habitat 




CHAPTER 7: AQUATIC AND RIPARIAN VEGETATION 

K. Goldberg and G.D.P. van Nieuwenhuizen 


It appears that relatively little work has been done on developing a database or 

creating a centre that holds information for aquatic and riparian vegetation in 

southern Africa. The National Botanical Institute (NBI) in Pretoria has only recently 

approved a proposal to develop a database of this nature. While some information 

does exist on water-dependent plants, widespread expertise on these taxa appears 

to be lacking. 

While it is relatively easy to identify aquatic plants that have an obligate dependence 

on waterbodies it is more difficult to produce a comprehensive checklist that includes 

all plants that have close associations with water. An attempt has in fact been made 

by the NBI and Appendix 11 provides an unpublished list of aquatic plants occurring 

in Southern Africa. This list covers only those plants “of which the physiologically 

active parts are permanently or at least for several months of each year submerged 

or float on the surface of water” (Appendix 11). Riparian vegetation is therefore not 

included; nor are phytoplankton, blue-greens or algae. 

Distribution data for all types of vegetation in South Africa that is housed at NBI, 

Pretoria, has been collated in the PRECIS database. This information can be made 

available if required and can be augmented by information obtained from the Bolus 

and Compton Herbaria as well as checklists from various references and sources 

(see Appendices 10, 10.1 and 10.4 for more details). 

As with other taxonomic data, the presence of threatened or endemic aquatic plant 

species at various sites or areas can be used in prioritising areas of potential 

conservation concern. Table 7.1 provides a preliminary list of threatened aquatic 

plants found in the Western Cape. However, due to the scarcity of surveys and 

information for this type of plant, the species list and associated distribution records 

are by no means comprehensive. Furthermore it only includes aquatic plants as 

defined above and therefore does not include riparian plants or many other species 

closely associated with waterbodies or moist waterlogged environments. Similarly the 

list of endemic species (Table 7.2) is taken directly from Appendix 12 and is probably 

incomplete. 



Part 1 


Table 6.2 

List of threatened water-associated mammals found in the CFK. 

Present conservation status is based on the criteria laid out by 

Smithers (1986) while Previous Conservation Status is according to 

Meester (1976) or Skinner et al (1977). 

Present Conservation status 

Previous Conservation 

Status 

Water rat Indeterminate Rare 

Verreaux's mouse 

Rare 

Leopard Rare Rare 

Cape Mountain Zebra Vulnerable Endangered 

Bontebok Rare Rare 

Hippototamus Rare Special Case 

Table 6.3 

Endemicity of water-associated mammals recorded in the CFK. 

Cape Floristic 

South African 

Southern African 

Sub-Saharan 

Kingdom endemic 

endemic 

endemic 

endemic 

• Water rat 

spp Dasymys 

incomptus 

capensis is 

endemic to the 

southwestern 

Cape 

• Bontebok 

• Cape Mountain 

Zebra 

Confined to Mnt 

Zebra NP & mtns 

in Gamka, 

• Grey climbing 

mouse 

• Mountain 

Reedbuck 

disjunct distributions 

• Spotted-necked 

otter 

restricted to SW 

Cape, mainly 

Kamanassie, 

Kouga and 

• Large-spotted 

Genet 

• Cape Clawless 

Otter 

bet. Bredasdorp 

and Cape 

Agulhas 

• Verreaux's 

mouse 

Baviaanskloof 

• Cape Molerat 

high conc in the 

CFK 

• Vlei rat 

• Water mongoose 

• Bushpig 

• Bushbuck 

• Hippopotamus 

• Cape Dune 

Molerat 




further serves to highlight those species which, due to either their restricted ranges or 

their Red Data Status, need consideration in the planning phases of this project. 

Table 6.2 therefore provides information on the Red Data Status of the relevant 

species listed in Smithers (1986), while Table 6.3 provides information on the degree 

of endemicity of the relevant species. 



particularly useful for water-associated mammals during the first phase of the project 

and which will probably be of great use when prioritising important conservation 

areas during the next. For a comprehensive list of people what have been contacted 

in connection with avifaunal data see Appendices 10, 10.1 and 10.3. 

SA Museum 

• has provided all distribution records available for water-associated mammals 

which fall within the CFK. Usually includes site name and geographical coordinates 

to the nearest quarter-degree. 

Caffrarian Museum 

• has provided all distribution records available for water-associated mammals 

which fall within the CFK. Usually includes geographical co-ordinates to the 

nearest minute or second. 

The mammals of southern Africa (Skinner and Smithers, 1990). 

• provided the information required to identify water-associated mammals in the 

CFK. 

Thesis on the conservation status of small endemic mammals in South Africa 

(Gelderblom 1993) 

• provides spatial distribution data of small endemic mammals of South Africa 

• assesses areas which should receive priority in terms of conserving these 

animals. 

Two volumes of the historical incidence of mammals in the Cape Province 

(Skead 1987) 

• provides records of sightings which have been used to trace the distribution of 

mammals in the Cape Province at the time of the first settlers. 



Part 1 


Table 6.1 

A list of all water-associated mammals recorded in the CFK. Taken 

from Skinner and Smithers (1990). 

Common name 

Cape Dune Molerat 

Cape Molerat 

Vlei rat 

Water rat 

Verreaux's mouse 

Grey climbing mouse 

Leopard 

Cape Clawless Otter 

Spotted-necked otter 

Large-spotted Genet 

Large Grey Mongoose 

Water mongoose 

Cape Mountain Zebra 

Bushpig 

Bontebok 

Bushbuck 

Mountain Reedbuck 

Hippopotamus 

Species name 

Bathyergus suillis 

Georychus capensis 

Otomys irroratus 

Dasymys incomtus 

Myomyscus verreauxii 

Dendromys melanotis 

Panthera pardus 

Aonyx capensis 

Lutra mucalicollis 

Genetta tigrina 

Herpestes ichneumon 

Atilax paludinosus 

Equus zebra 

Potamochoerus porcus 

Damaliscus dorcas 

Tragelaphus scriptus 

Redunca fulvorutula 

Hippopotamus amphibius 

taxon at this stage. Distribution data have however been sought and collected from 

several museums as it may be of use in the later phases of the project when more 

detailed information for specific areas may be required. 

While available distribution data will probably serve a limited function at this point, 

information of the species found within the CFK and their relative conservation status 

will provide useful background information on the faunal diversity of the region. It 




CHAPTER 6: WATER-ASSOCIATED MAMMALS 

Karen Goldberg 


Table 6.1 provides a list of water-associated mammals recorded in the CFK. It 

includes species that may not be considered to be “aquatic” organisms. However all 

species that usually inhabit or utilise aquatic habitats and those that are usually not 

found very far from water have been included since they do rely to some extent on 

the healthy functioning of aquatic systems. For example the Cape dune molerat 

(Bathyergus suillis) and Cape Molerat (Georychus capensis) both occur mainly in 

sandy substrates. They therefore utilise coastal dunes, sandy flats and alluvial sand 

along river systems. Thus while they are not directly associated with water, the 

hydrological state of river systems has important consequences for the distribution of 

these species. Similarly, while the leopard (Panthera pardus) is independent of water 

supplies it tends to utilise water-courses extensively, especially in drier regions where 

sufficient prey animals occur. In the CFK it is commonly found to inhabit forested 

kloofs. 

Note that the hippopotamus (Hippopotamus amphibius) no longer occurs in the CFK. 

However its historical occurrence in the area has potential consequences for the 

conservation plan since reintroduction of the species may be considered and 

investigated at a later stage. 

As with birds, data on the distribution of water-associated mammals was initially 

thought to be of relatively little use in aiding the selection of priority areas for 

conservation for the same reasons as mentioned previously. Examination of existing 

available data has revealed that the information has not been adequately 

synthesised for inclusion in the prioritisation of areas in the broadscale study. This is 

because distribution records are relatively sparse since this data, unlike bird 

distribution records rely on verification in the form of actual specimens housed at 

various museums. Bird distributions in contrast are largely based on sightings from 

reliable sources and due to extensive and thorough expeditions the data is more 

likely to be comprehensive and can be used as presence-absence data with a fair 

level of confidence. Furthermore mammal distribution data have not been compiled 

into one database as has been done for birds, and, given the time constraints of this 

project it will not be possible to create a comprehensive distribution database for this 



Part 1 


GIS coverage of IBAs. 

IBA Report (Barnes 1998). 

• comprehensive document detailing all newly-proclaimed Important Bird Areas 

of southern Africa and the reasons why each site has been included as an IBA 

• provides extensive information on the location, topography, edaphic features, 

habitat and dominant vegetation type of each area 

• provides lists of threatened and endemic birds and for wetland sites includes 

all species whose populations either exceed 0.5% or 1% of a biogegraphical 

or global population 

• provides extensive information on other threatened/endemic wildlife and 

important conservation issues such as threats to the area 

• provides comprehensive reference list of all relevant literature pertaining to the 

site 

• provides lists of globally and nationally threatened species as well as 

restricted-range species and biome-restricted assemblages. 

Rallid report (Taylor 1997a, b). 

• report on the secretive water-rails which inhabit palustrine wetlands throughout 

South Africa 

• provides data on the distribution, movement, habitat requirements, population, 

important sites, threats, conservation status, habitat management and 

recommended action for each species 

• provides data on the location and habitat of selected palustrine wetlands as 

well as a list of all rallids observed at each site, potential threats and overall 

evaluation of the site 

CWAC report (Taylor et al 1999 in press). 

• comprehensive data of waterbird counts for more than 40 wetlands in the CFK 

• provides location and brief notes on all wetlands surveyed 

• provides the minimum and maximum populations recorded for summer and 

winter counts 

• indicates populations which exceed 0.5% or 1% of a biogegraphical or global 

population. 




Table 5.3 

A preliminary Red Data List of threatened bird species that have been 

recorded on rivers and wetlands in the CFK using the latest IUCN 

criteria. Information obtained from Barnes (1998). 

Globally threatened species 

Globally vulnerable 

Blue Crane* 

Globally near-threatened 

African Black Oystercatcher* 

Lesser Flamingo* 

Nationally threatened species 

Nationally endangered 

Roseate Tern 

Kerguelen Tern 

Nationally vulnerable 

Pinkbacked Pelican 

Whitebacked Night Heron 

African Marsh Harrier 

Blue Crane* 

Crowned Crane 

African Finfoot 

African Black Oystercatcher 

Caspian Tern 

Nationally near-threatened 

White Pelican 

Cape cormorant 

Black Stork 

Greater Flamingo 

Lesser Flamingo* 

Crowned Eagle 

Painted Snipe 

Chestnutbanded Plover 

Halfcollared Kingfisher 

Barlow’s Lark* 

Agulhas Longbilled Lark* 

Range-restricted species (only in 

Barlow’s Lark* 

South Africa) 


Biome-restricted assemblages: 


Note: 

* Denotes species that occur under other Red Data categories 

Italics– Denotes species which are either not closely associated with rivers and wetlands, or 

species which are vagrants or only occasional visitors to the CFK. 

Digitized Bird Atlas data (obtained from the ADU) 

• GIS coverages of all water-associated birds in quarter-degree grid squares for 

the Western and Eastern Cape 

• will provide data of biodiversity as well as distribution data for important 

indicator species. 

A list of indicator species compiled by Mr. James Harrison. 



Part 1 


list of species to help us differentiate various wetland types and assist in pinpointing 

particular characteristics of waterbodies. For a detailed report and list of relevent 

indicator species for the CFK, see Appendix 9. 

Digitized Bird Atlas Data from these lists of indicator species can then be used to 

both locate wetlands and to identify, at least to some extent, different types of 

wetlands that exist at a quarter-degree grid scale. Although using this scale has 

some limitations in that it is impossible to pinpoint the number and precise location of 

different wetlands in one grid square, it will at least give some indication of the range 

of wetlands that occur in any given area. Further, by using species richness or an 

adjusted measure of biodiversity (ADU has used a derivation of the Shannon-Weiner 

Index to accommodate reporting rates in the equation), one should be able to infer 

either the size or the relative abundance of various wetlands. 


The list provided below summarises the sources of information that were particularly 

useful for birds during the first phase of the project. For a comprehensive list of 

people that have been contacted in connection with avifaunal data see Appendices 

10, 10.1 and 10.2. 

Atlas of Southern African Birds (Harrison et al 1997). 

• reporting rates for all southern African species in quarter-degree squares 

• has provided information on the distribution of all water-associated birds in 

southern Africa and has allowed us to identify all waterbirds found in the CFK 

• gives an indication of core areas for relevant species 

• Gives an indication of the relative importance of the fynbos vegetation type 

(which covers the geographical extent of the CFK) for relevant species. 




environments. These are then further subdivided into birds that are restricted to the 

exposed shore, or found either in emergent vegetation or on the open water. Other 

categories which may be useful in terms of indicating particular habitats of 

importance are birds associated with riverine woodland or moist grassland. Using 

distribution data for relevant species, waterbodies can be located and in some cases, 

characteristics of the waterbody can be inferred. A list of these indicator species is 

provided in Appendix 8. 

In addition to the species chosen from the aforementioned classification scheme 

Keith Barnes (Sugarbird Avifaunal Consultants pers. comm.) has provided us with a 



Part 1 


Table 5.2 

Continued. 

Common Name Species name Robert’s bird no. 

Blacksmith Plover Vanellus armatus 258 

Turnstone Arenaria interpres 262 

Common Sandpiper Actitis hypoleucos 264 

Marsh Sandpiper Tringa stagnatitus 269 

Greenshank Tringa nebularia 270 

Curlew Sandpiper Calidris ferruginea 272 

Little Stint Calidris minuta 274 

Ruff Philomachus pugnax 284 

Ethiopian Snipe Gallinago nigripennis 286 

Bartailed Godwit Limosa lapponica 288 

Avocet Recurvirostra avosetta 294 

Blackwinged Stilt Himantopus himantopus 295 

Water Dikkop Burhinus vermiculatus 298 

Greyheaded Gull Larus cirrocephalus 315 

Hartlaub's Gull Larus hartlaubii 316 

Caspian Tern Hydropogne caspia 322 

Antarctic Tern Sterna vittata 329 

Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridis 338 

Whitewinged Tern Chlidonias leucopterus 339 

Pied Kingfisher Ceryle rudis 428 

Giant Kingfisher Megaceryle maxima 429 

Halfcollared Kingfisher Alcedo semitorquata 430 

Malachite Kingfisher Alcedo cristata 431 

Brownthroated Martin Riparia paludicola 533 

African Marsh Warbler Acrocephalus baeticus 631 

Cape Reed Warbler Acrocephalus gracilirostris 635 

African Sedge Warbler Bradypterus baboecala 638 

Levaillant’s Cisticola Cisticola tinneus 677 

Red Bishop Euplectus orix 824 

Common Waxbill Estrilda astrild 846 

Mallard Anas platyrhynchos 891 

Note: 

This list has been compiled from the following sources: 

1. James Harrison’s classification of indicator species (Avian Demography Unit, University of 

Cape Town, unpubl.) 

2. CWAC report (Taylor et al 1999) 

3. Barnes 1998. 

4. Harrison et al, 1997. 

5.2.2 Indicator species 

A classification scheme developed by James Harrison of the ADU has been used to 

identify birds that can be used as indicator species. His classification identifies birds 

that are obligately or facultatively associated with aquatic environments and further 

divides these according to whether they are restricted to lotic or lacustrine 




Table 5.2 

A list of all bird species closely associated with rivers and wetlands in 

the Cape Floristic Kingdom. Birds that are generally not closely 

associated with aquatic inland systems or have catholic habitat 

requirements are excluded. Species which are occasional visitors or 

vagrants to the region or whose core area falls well outside the CFK 

are also excluded. 

Common Name Species name Robert’s bird no. 

Great Crested Grebe Podiceps cristatus 006 

Black-Necked Grebe Podiceps nigricollis 007 

Dabchick Tachybaptus ruficollis 008 

White Pelican Pelicanus onocrotalis 049 

Whitebreasted Cormorant Phalacrocorax carbo 055 

Reed Cormorant Phalacrocorax africanus 058 

Darter Anhinga melanogaster 060 

Grey Heron Ardea cinerea 062 

Purple Heron Ardea purpurea 065 

Little Egret Egretta garzetta 067 

Yellowbilled Egret Egretta intermedia 068 

Blackcrowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax 076 

Little Bittern Ixobrychus minutus 078 

Hamerkop Scopus umbretta 081 

Sacred Ibis Threskiornis aethiopicus 091 

African Spoonbill Platelea alba 095 

Greater Flamingo Phoenicopterus ruber 096 

Lesser Flamingo Phoeniconaias minor 097 

South African Shelduck Tadorna cana 103 

Yellowbilled Duck Anas undulata 104 

South African Black Duck Anas sparsa 105 

Cape Teal Anas capensis 106 

Redbilled Teal Anas erythrorhyncha 108 

Cape Shoveller Anas smithii 112 

Southern Pochard Netta erythrophthalma 113 

Spurwinged Goose Plectropterus gambensis 116 

Maccoa Duck Oxyura maccoa 117 

African Fish Eagle Haliaeetus vocifer 148 

African Marsh Harrier Circus ranivorus 165 

Osprey Pandion haliaetus 170 

Blue Crane Anthropoides paradiseus 208 

African Rail Rallus caerulescens 210 

Black Crake Amaurornis flavirostris 213 

Redchested Flufftail Sarothrura rufa 217 

Purple Gallinule Porphyrio porphyrio 223 

Moorhen Gallinula chloropus 226 

Redknobbed Coot Fulica cristata 228 

African Black Oystercatcher Haematopus moquini 244 

Ringed Plover Charadrius hiaticula 245 

Chestnutbanded Plover Charadrius pallidus 247 

Kittlitz's Plover Charadrius pecuarius 248 

Threebanded Plover Charadrius tricollaris 249 



Part 1 


contribution in the identification of priority areas. Birds are relatively conspicuous 

organisms and a great deal of research has been carried out regarding both their 

distribution and their habitat requirements. The information available is therefore 

particularly comprehensive with the majority of data housed at the Avian 

Demography Unit (ADU). 

The Bird Atlas Data (recently produced by the ADU) provides detailed digitised 

information on the distribution of all southern African birds at a quarter degree grid 

scale. Various other sources of information such the CWAC report, The Important 

Bird Areas of southern Africa (Barnes 1998) and bird checklists from nature reserves 

and national parks provide valuable and complementary data to the Bird Atlas Data. 

In addition to providing an idea of the pattern of biodiversity in the CFK, bird data can 

also potentially be used to assess invertebrate diversity, since different bird species 

tend to feed on different sizes of invertebrate prey (P.A.R. Hockey, pers.comm.). 

Thus areas or sites with high bird diversity will probably possess a relatively high 

degree of invertebrate diversity. 

With the ADU as the main source of information, we set ourselves the task of 

collating the following data. 

• A checklist of all water-associated bird species found in the CFK 

• A list of Red Data species 

• A list of IBAs which are important in terms of inland waters 

• A list of water-associated birds endemic to southern Africa 

The checklist of water-associated birds of the CFK (Appendix 7) includes all birds 

that have been recorded on inland waters in the CFK. This list therefore includes 

species such as most of the terns and gulls that are predominantly marine or 

estuarine that are not closely associated with freshwater systems. Table 5.2 thus lists 

only those species that are thought to have close associations with inland aquatic 

systems. Birds with either catholic habitat requirements, or species that are 

occasional visitors, or vagrants to the region, are excluded. Sea and estuarine birds 

are generally also excluded, except for those species for which inland waters provide 

important breeding sites. 




Table 5.1 

List of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) relevant to inland waters and 

estuarine systems in the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 

Site 

Number 

Site Name 

Primary Relevance To 

Aquatic Systems 

SA093 Kouga-Baviaanskloof Complex Includes riverine habitat 

SA096 

Swartkops Estuary, Redhouse and Chatty 

Saltpans 

Wetland IBA 

SA098 Tsitsikamma National Park Includes riverine habitat 

SA099 Olifants River Estuary Wetland IBA 

SA101 Cedarberg-Koue Bokkeveld Complex Includes riverine habitat 

SA103 Velorenvlei Wetland IBA 

SA104 Lower Berg River Wetlands Wetland IBA 

SA105 

West Coast National Park and Saldanha Bay 

Islands 

Wetland IBA 

SA107 Eastern False Bay Mountains Includes riverine habitat 

SA111 Rietvlei Wetland Reserve Wetland IBA 

SA112 Outeniqua Mountains Includes riverine habitat 

SA113 Southern Langeberg Mountains Includes riverine habitat 

SA114 Wilderness-Sedgefield Lakes Complex Wetland IBA 

SA115 Overberg Wheatbelt Wetland IBA 

SA116 False Bay Park Wetland IBA 

SA118 Botriviervlei and Kleinmond Estuary Wetland IBA 

SA119 De Hoop Nature Reserve Wetland IBA 

SA121 Heuningsnes River and Estuary Systems Wetland IBA 

Note: 

This table has been derived directly from: K.N. Barnes (ed). 1998. 

5.2 Water-associated birds 

5.2.1 Taxonomic lists 

It was initially thought that birds would probably not be particularly useful in assisting 

with identifying priority areas since they generally have a relatively wide distribution 

and because of their high degree of mobility. This may seem particularly true for 

water-associated birds which tend to be migratory, and this is highlighted by the fact 

that there are no water-associated species which have a range totally restricted to 

the CFK (Barnes 1998). Closer investigation of the available data on birds suggests 

however that this information should not be overlooked in terms of its potential 



Part 1 


r 

O l i f a n t s R i v e r 

E s t u a r y 

r 

V e r l o r e n v l e i 

r 

r 

L o w e r B e r g R i v e r W e t l a n d s 

r 

r 

C e d a r b e r g - K o u e 

B o k k e v e l d C o m ple x 

W e s t C o a s t N a t i o n a l P a r k & 

S a l d a n h a B a y I s l a n d s 

E a s t e r n F a l s e 

R i e t v l e i W e t l a n d 

B a y M o u n t a i n s 

r 

R e s e r v e 

r 

F a l s e B a y P a r k 

O v e r b e r g W heatbelt 

B o t r i v i e r v l e i & r 

K l e i n m o n d E s t u a r y 

r 

r 

Sout he rn La ngebe rg 

Mo untain s 

r 

H e u nin gnes R iver & 

E s tuary System 

De H oo p Nature Res er ve 

Out eniqua M o u n t a i ns 

r 

r 

Wilder n e s s - S e dg efie ld 

Lak es C o m p l e x 

Koug a- Bavia anskloof Comp lex 

r 

r 

Tsit sika mma 

Nationa l Park 

Sw ar tko ps Es tuary 

r 

Fig 5.1 

Important Bird Areas associated with freshwater ecosystems in the CFK. 




CHAPTER 5: FRESHWATER BIRDS 

Important areas for the conservation of birds associated with freshwater ecosystems. 

Karen Goldberg, K.N. Barnes and G.D.P. Van Nieuwenhuizen 

5.1 Introduction 

A report of the Important Bird Areas (IBAs) of southern Africa (Barnes 1998) 

highlights areas of global conservation value with regard to birds and therefore is 

useful as a starting point for identifying key freshwater areas in the CFK. In Table 5.1, 

we highlight all IBAs that are relevant to aquatic systems in the CFK. These are 

displayed graphically in Figure 5.1 using the digital coverages supplied by the Avian 

Demographic Unit (ADU) at UCT. While not all listed IBA’s are aquatic, they include 

all those areas where birds benefit either directly or indirectly from the presence of 

aquatic habitats. The Cedarberg- Koue Bokkeveld Complex was chosen as an 

aquatic IBA, for example, based largely on the numerous range-restricted and biomerestricted 

assemblages to which it is home. While this region does not support any 

wetland or water-dependent assemblages, it includes the Olifants River Catchment, 

whose riverine thicket provides food, shelter and breeding habitats for many species 

and further provides a corridor along which numerous birds are able to move. The 

aquatic habitat in this region therefore performs an important function in maintaining 

the avian diversity of the region. 

Since the criteria for classifying an area as an IBA are particularly restricted, 

waterbodies, that do not meet the standards of an IBA may still be important on a 

national level. Therefore a more detailed investigation of rivers and wetlands is 

required to identify other areas of potential importance for birds within the CFK. 

In addition, while there are no waterbirds endemic to the CFK (Barnes, 1998), 

probably largely because many of these species are migratory, there are three 

species whose distribution is restricted to southern Africa. These are the Cape 

Shoveller (Anas smithii), the South African Shelduck (Tadorna cana) and the Blue 

Crane (Anthropoides paradiseus), which is not closely closely associated with aquatic 

habitats. 



Part 1 





workshop discussions and associated maps of areas of conservation importance. 

Everybody who helped with technical data capture and input, as well as database 

related aspects are thanked as well. 

Secondly, we acknowledge the technical support by members of the various 

museums and institutions which made it possible to collate the current herpetological 

database upon which this report is based. In particular, the South African Museum 

(Cape Town), John Ellerman Museum (University of Stellenbosch), Port Elizabeth 

Museum, and Marius Burger (formerly Eastern Cape Nature Conservation) are 

thanked for supplying data for the database. 

Andrew Turner, database consultant to Cape Nature Conservation's Scientific 

Services Division, is thanked for supplying valuable input both during the 

development phase of the project and the workshop. 

This project formed part of the Aquatic Component of the Cape Action Plan for the 

Environment executed by the University of Cape Town. The Global Environmental 

Facility is thanked for providing funding for non-Cape Nature Conservation members 

of the team of authors, students and consultants. Finally, the Director, Cape Nature 

Conservation is thanked for permission to CNC members to take part in the CAPE 

project. 



Part 1 


biodiversity both in- and outside statutory conservation areas. This includes 

regulating the control over the utilization of biodiversity too. Also, provincial 

authorities take the responsibility as regional CITES Management Authority, and 

where capacity exists, Scientific Authority as well. At local government level, the 

provincial government has the option of delegating certain powers and 

responsibilities to Regional Councils, Local Substructures, and/or Municipalities. The 

law enforcement sections of these authorities usually take responsibility for the 

enforcement of any environmental legislation and regulations. 

Para-statal organisations such as museums and universities have an important role 

to play in herpetofauna conservation in that inventories and research executed by 

them, may yield information necessary to compile effective conservation strategies 

and action plans, the implementation of which, resides mainly with conservation 

authorities. Taxonomic research may for example identify a new taxon with a very 

restricted range and narrow habitat requirements. This information has to be 

incorporated into any strategy aimed at alleviating the conservation plight of the 

taxon. Non-governmental organisations (such as wildlife societies, TRAFFIC, etc.) 

also have an important role to play in a so-called "watchdog" capacity, pointing out 

environmentally sensitive sites and issues, and mustering support for conservation in 

general. 

The conservation of land in private ownership can be somewhat difficult to achieve. 

First one needs an interested and dedicated private individual whose conservation 

ethic is strong enough to drive any effort towards the conservation of a natural 

element(s) on his/her property. Secondly, the property (for example in the case of a 

production unit such as a farm) should be able to function viably despite the fact that 

part of the farm has been zoned as a conservation area, and thirdly, the landowner 

should be able to derive a tangible benefit from conserving part of his/her farm (for 

example in the form of a tax break). In other words, the landowner should be able to 

afford not to utilise the conservation area on his property for production of crops. 

This has proven difficult in many cases and has in all probability been one of the 

main factors contributing to the fragmentation of especially lowland habitats in the 

CFK. 

4.13 Acknowledgements 

The scientific input and technical support by members of the team of authors is 

acknowledged, especially that of Annelise le Roux who played a major role in the 

collation of museum and institutional data, and supplied the information base for the 




Apart from national parks, which are proclaimed at central government level, the 

provincial governments of the Western, Northern and Eastern Cape Provinces are 

statutory bodies in the CFK which are responsible for the proclamation of statutory 

nature conservation areas. The provincial authorities may further assist in (and 

encourage) the proclamation of private and local nature reserves on private and local 

authority properties, respectively. 

In the Western Cape Province, the four taxa currently recognised as Endangered, are 

contained in some form of conservation area, for example the micro frog (one local 

authority nature reserve), Cape platanna (Cape of Good Hope Nature Reserve, 

incorporated into the Cape Peninsula National Park), Table Mountain ghost frog 

(Cape Peninsula National Park) and geometric tortoise (four provincial and two 

private nature reserves). Herpetologists of Cape Nature Conservation are involved in 

conservation efforts targeted towards these taxa. Monitoring of population status 

continues, but a lack of capacity is hampering the effectiveness of some efforts. 

4.12 Organizations, institutions and other roleplayers involved in the 

conservation of CFK herpetofauna 

It is somewhat difficult to quantify all the different organisations, institutions and 

roleplayers involved in the conservation of CFK herpetofauna. In a broad sense, 

however, these may be organised into three major categories, namely, governmental, 

para-statal and private. 

Firstly, conservation can be achieved at first-, second- or third-tier government. The 

national Department of Environmental Affairs & Tourism is primarily responsible for 

the conservation of biodiversity in South Africa. By signing for example the 

Convention on Biodiversity and the CITES convention, the South African Government 

has pledged itself towards biodiversity conservation and control of biodiversity trade, 

but has devolved certain powers and responsibilities to provincial and local 

governments. National policy guidelines towards the utilization of the South African 

herpetological resource are currently being drafted through a consultation process. 

As a national, statutory conservation body, South African National Parks also 

contributes to herpetological conservation through the in situ conservation of habitats 

ranging from coastal forests to West Coast strandveld in national parks within the 

CFK biogeographical boundary. 

At secondary government level, the provincial nature conservation authorities, take 

responsibility for conservation at a provincial scale. This involves the conservation of 



Part 1 


4.10 Recommendations towards the conservation of CFK herpetofauna 

The above section, together with Appendix 6 and the mapped sites and areas of high 

diversity and/or sensitivity (Figure 4.1) contain recommendations towards improving 

the conservation status of some taxa considered to be at risk. It would be wise for 

conservation authorities to develop, in consultation with experts in the field, action 

plans and/or conservation strategies to enhance current efforts towards conserving 

the herpetodiversity of the CFK. 

4.11 Ongoing research and conservation actions targeted towards CFK 

herpetofauna 

The following organisations and academic institutions are currently involved in 

herpetological research and/or conservation activities in the CFK: 

• Cape Nature Conservation (biodiversity inventories and monitoring of 

threatened taxa, conservation policy and planning, as well as law 

enforcement) 

• University of Cape Town (terrestrial tortoise systematics and genetics, frog 

atlassing) 

• University of Stellenbosch (mainly frog and lizard systematics, physiology, 

ecology and behaviour) 

• University of the Western Cape (frog systematics and taxonomy, terrestrial 

tortoise systematics, ecology and physiology, freshwater terrapin breeding 

biology) 

• Villanova University, USA (gecko systematics and phylogeny, general 

herpetofaunal biogeography) 

• Port Elizabeth Museum (biodiversity inventories, herpetological 

systematics and biogeography) 

• Various natural history museums providing curation facilities for CFK 

herpetological specimens 

Private landowners who own property within the biogeographical boundaries of the 

CFK possess a large proportion of the remaining natural habitats of the three 

southern provinces, namely the Western, Northern and Eastern Cape. By protecting 

and managing natural habitats on their properties carefully and correctly, interested 

private landowners can make a tremendous contribution towards the conservation of 

CFK biodiversity, and herpetodiversity in particular. In situ habitat conservation is the 

single most important aspect in securing the survival of many taxa. 




plants. Although some records indicate that they occur in conservation 

areas, more areas where these taxa occur need to be incorporated into 

statutory conservation areas. 

• Tsitsikamma and Kareedouw Mountains (see Figure 4.1, area no. 17 

– Tsitsikamma Mountains) This area has been identified as containing 

isolated populations of the endangered Smith's dwarf chameleon 

(Bradypodion taeniabronchum) and proper management of mountain 

fynbos habitats is important in ensuring the continued survival of 

suitable habitats for this taxon. 

• Coastal area between Kromme River estuary and Chelsea Point, 

Eastern Cape (see Figure 4.1, area 20 – St Francis Bay coast) 

Peringuey's gecko, Cryptactites peringueyi, was recently re-discovered 

here after an approximately 50 years' absence from the herpetological 

scene (Branch and Bauer, 1992). It appears to be dependent on the 

salt marsh habitat within the estuarine boundary, as well as coastal 

fynbos communities adjacent to estuaries, and is potentially at risk due 

to coastal development, pollution and general habitat disturbance and 

degradation. No records occur more than 100 m from tidal zones. 

Cognisance of its distribution and conservation status should be taken 

during the compilation of coastal structural development plans, and 

representative samples of its range should be included into statutory 

conservation areas. 

• Coastal Fynbos habitats West of Port Elizabeth (see Figure 4.1, 

area no. 62 – West of Port Elizabeth) This area has been identified as 

containing a probable cryptic species, FitzSimons' seps, Tetradactylus 

africanus fitzsimonsi (currently under investigation). This taxon appears 

to be restricted to the coastal fynbos habitats West of Port Elizabeth - a 

habitat type currently threatened by the extension of urban 

development and agricultural small-holdings, as well as the increasing 

number of man-induced fires in the region, stimulated in part by the 

increased communal grazing of goats and cattle by informal 

communities, specifically those adjacent to the Bridgemead area. This 

seps seems not to occur in any conservation area and measures 

should be implemented to incorporate a representative example of its 

range in a statutory conservation area(s). 



Part 1 


• Ratel River Estate and Hagelkraal wetlands (see Figure 4.1, area no. 

10 and 11 – Ratel River wetlands and Hagelkraal wetlands) These 

wetlands incorporate important habitats for numerous frog genera and 

also contain the two above-mentioned endangered frogs (micro frog 

and Cape platanna). The endemic, restricted and possibly endangered 

southern adder, Bitis armata, also occurs in the area (Branch, in press). 

The continued healthy state of these wetlands and continued proper 

maintenance of the surrounding landscape (clearing of alien vegetation, 

etc.) is important. Furthermore, they are situated adjacent to existing 

conservation areas and represent natural extensions to the latter. The 

incorporation of these areas into current statutory conservation areas, 

e.g. Walker Bay conservation area, is strongly recommended. 

• Limestone fynbos habitats between Gansbaai and Infanta, 

including De Hoop Nature Reserve (see Figure 4.1, area no. 16 – 

Gansbaai-De Hoop coast) This area has been identified as important 

coastal habitats for the endemic, restricted and possibly threatened 

southern dwarf adder, Bitis armata (Branch, in press). Apparently 

extinct from the Cape Flats, the limestone, calcrete and coastal fynbos 

habitats along the southwestern Cape coastline support isolated 

populations of this taxon. More samples of the habitats where this 

taxon occurs should be included into statutory conservation areas. 

• Algoa Bay Basin coastal lowlands (falls partly within CFK) (see 

Figure 4.1, area no. 15 – Algoa Bay basin) Similar to coastal lowlands 

in the Western Cape, this region is at risk due to development pressure 

in the coastal zone. A number of reptile and amphibian taxa occur 

there and are at risk due to general habitat disturbance and destruction, 

specifically strip mining for limestone, development of an industrial 

zone, and rapid urbanization. It is important that conservation 

measures be undertaken to include representative examples of the 

distribution ranges of the threatened herpetofauna occurring there, in 

statutory conservation areas. 

• Longmore-Otterford Forest Area (incorporating the 

Vanstadensberg) Eastern Cape (see Figure 4.1, area no. 6 – 

Longmore-Otterford) The endangered Hewitt's ghost frog (Heleophryne 

hewitti) and Smith's dwarf chameleon (Bradypodion taeniabronchum) 

occur in this area, with the latter taxon also in the Tsitsikamma 

Mountains, Eastern Cape Province (see Figure 4.1, area no. 17 – 

Tsitsikamma Mountains). Within the region, both taxa are critically 

threatened by afforestation and the encroachment of invasive alien 




access. Extension of the current statutory conservation area is 

proposed. 

• Greater Landdroskop area, Hottentots Holland Mountains (see 

Figure 4.1, area no. 60 - Landdroskop) This area is of high scientific 

importance because it contains melanistic animal taxa which are 

important indicators of changing climates, etc. A recently-described 

crag lizard species from there, Pseudocordylus nebulosus, (Mouton and 

Van Wyk, 1995) appears at risk due to its very restricted range (

Part 1 


Hout Bay valley) These areas were identified as important for the 

continued existence of frog breeding habitats, especially for the 

Western Cape population of the leopard toad, Bufo pardalis. Evidence 

suggest that this may be a separate taxonomic entity isolated from the 

Eastern Cape population by the Southern Cape coastal lowlands. If 

this is indeed the case, then the conservation status of this population 

may move into a higher category. Its breeding habitats are threatened 

by degradation and destruction, mainly through urban development 

throughout, as well as river course canalization. Because these 

animals undertake mass migrations to the breeding sites, many also 

succumb to road traffic. Adequate buffer zones around breeding sites 

and corridors connecting individual wetlands are important 

considerations. Representative examples of its range should be 

included into statutory conservation areas such as the Cape Peninsula 

National Park. 

• Kenilworth Race Course wetlands (see Figure 4.1, area no. 12 – 

Kenilworth Race Course) These wetlands contain a good 

representative example of frogs of Cape Flats region - an area which 

has largely been disturbed and converted beyond rehabilitation. This 

site contains a population of the endangered micro frog - the last 

surviving population on the Cape Flats. The continued existence of 

these wetlands is considered important, and statutory arrangements for 

its inclusion into a conservation area, such as the Cape Peninsula 

National Park, are recommended. 

• Remaining West Coast Renosterveld isolates (see Figure 4.1, areas 

no. 21-59) The remaining isolated patches of West Coast renosterveld, 

known to support numerous endemic and threatened plant taxa, as well 

as geometric tortoises, Psammobates geometricus, and Cape cacos, 

Cacosternum capense, should be targeted for inclusion in the analysis 

in an attempt to incorporate as much of what is left of this threatened 

habitat type into statutory conservation areas or conservancies as 

possible. It is imperative that this lowland habitat be actively targeted 

for conservation due to the increasing rate of habitat deterioration and 

habitat loss. 

• Top of Dasklip Pass (see Figure 4.1, area no. 19 – Dasklip Pass) 

This site contains an isolated population of Oelofsen's girdled lizard, a 

melanistic, montane relict lizard taxon which appears at risk due to a 

restricted distribution range, possible commercial value and easy road 




potentially the reptile trade. The conservation of these taxa should be 

catered for in coastal development structure plans, and representative 

examples of their distributions should, where possible, be incorporated 

into statutory conservation areas. 

• Greater Saldanha region and limestone coastal fynbos (see Figure 

4.1, area no. 18 – Saldanha limestone area) This area is important 

because it contains a number of reptile species which are at 

considerable conservation risk. The endemic, restricted and possibly 

endangered southern adder, Bitis armata, occurs in the area (Branch, 

W.R. in press.). The limestone coastal plant communities are at risk 

too, and development pressure is building in this general area. 

Furthermore, it contains a scientifically important "contact zone" 

between two lizard species, one a relict, melanistic taxon, occurring 

only there and on the Cape Peninsula. This contact zone is threatened 

by habitat disturbance and coastal development. Its inclusion in a 

statutory conservation area is of scientific and conservation importance. 

The conservation of these taxa should be catered for in coastal 

development structure plans, and representative examples of their 

distributions should where possible, be incorporated into statutory 

conservation areas. 

• Cape Peninsula (see Figure 4.1, area no. 1 – Cape Peninsula) The 

Cape Peninsula with its topographically and biologically diverse 

landscape contains numerous reptile and amphibian taxa, some of 

which are threatened and endangered. The endangered Cape 

platanna (Xenopus gilli) and Table Mountain ghost frog (Heleophryne 

rosei) both occur there, while the southern-most, isolated population of 

the black girdled lizard, Cordylus niger are also found there. The 

continued existence of suitable habitats in the new Cape Peninsula 

National Park, especially that of the threatened taxa, is important to the 

survival of these, and many other taxa. 

• Cape Point Nature Reserve (see Figure 4.1, area no. 13 – Cape Point 

wetlands) This reserve contains critical habitat of the endangered Cape 

platanna. The continued existence of these pristine blackwater 

lakelets, and proper management of the surrounding landscape to 

prevent eutrophication, invasion by invasive alien plants, etc. is very 

important. Although part of the Cape Peninsula National Park, the 

panel was of the opinion that this area warrants special attention. 

• Fish Hoek/Noordhoek corridor, Hout Bay Valley and Cape Flats 

(see Figure 4.1, areas no. 3 and 4 – Fish Hoek-Noordhoek corridor and 



Part 1 


the unsustainable use of this resource may affect the ecosystem integrity in the long 

term. 

In addition, the analysis should also consider the potential negative impacts on 

general biodiversity of the sectoral activities listed in Table III (pp. 46-49) of the 

White Paper on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of South Africa's Biological 

Diversity (Anonymous, 1997). 

4.8 Constraints towards conserving CFK herpetofaunal biodiversity 

In general, the following constraints towards the conservation of CFK herpetological 

biodiversity have been identified: 

• Lack of resources, both in human and financial capacity 

• Lack of uniform, national guiding principles, policies and legislation towards 

herpetological conservation 

• Lack of implementation of international conservation legislation and 

Conventions 

• Lack of conservation law enforcement capacity, especially at ports of 

import and export 

• Fragmented (and outdated) provincial conservation legislation 

• Lack of institutional capacity (mainly financial) to procure conservation land 

• Lack of environmental education with regard to herpetological issues 

• Lack of incentives for private land owners to conserve threatened habitats 

• Lack of communication between role players 

• Lack of training 

4.9 Biodiverse, sensitive or threatened geographical areas regarding 

herpetofauna within the CFK 

The following geographical areas within the CFK have been identified as biodiverse, 

sensitive or threatened (Refer to Appendix 6 and Figure 4.1): 

• Coastal lowlands from Lambert's Bay and Graafwater, southwards 

towards the Driefonteinberg (see Figure 4.1, area no. 61 – Elands 

Bay coastal flats) These coastal lowlands, including the coastal region 

from Lambert's Bay to Eland's Bay contain a number of reptile taxa (see 

Appendix 6 for taxa listed as indicators of West Coast herpetological 

species assemblage) which are at considerable conservation risk 

mainly due to coastal development pressure (habitat destruction) and 




Another critical component linked to habitat disturbance, is the influence of invasive 

alien vegetation. Unchecked invasion by many alien plant species, especially the 

inconspicuous alien grasses and herbs, has a detrimental effect on habitat status. 

In this regard monocultures of alien grasses and herbs, and dense stands of 

invasive alien trees have led to a number of taxa becoming threatened. 

Related to alien vegetation infestation is the alteration of water tables and the 

reduction of run-off. The construction of dams and roads, the damming of streams 

and alteration of drainage lines also all contribute to a lowering of the water table 

and reduction in run-off. Together these have serious implications for, in particular, 

taxa dependant on sensitive wetland habitats. 

Fire regime is another component which remains important to a number of CFK 

reptiles and amphibians because of both the direct and indirect impact it has on 

populations. For example, in isolated and fragmented lowland renosterveld habitats 

wildfires have the potential of wiping out viable populations of taxa such as the 

endangered geometric tortoise and endangered plants. Besides lowering 

populations to a critical threshold of survival (direct impact), populations may be 

unable to recover because of lower recruitment and inadequate corridors to facilitate 

recolonisation. Following fire, habitat disturbance such as overgrazing, trampling, 

etc. may further affect the habitat status in an indirect (and negative) way. Fire in 

mountain areas also has the potential to alter habitats crucial to the survival of 

certain montane species. If not managed correctly, fires could change vegetation 

cover in the medium to long term, which in turn may affect run-off and threaten for 

example seepages, sponges and other damp areas which may be important to the 

survival of taxa dependent on these habitats. 

The utilization of components of the CFK herpetofauna for commercial purposes 

(specifically the international pet trade) is a very real threat because of the relatively 

high number of endemic taxa found there. As collectors' items, geometric tortoises, 

Oelofsen's girdled lizards, dwarf crag lizards, armadillo lizards, dwarf adders (Bitis 

spp, including the berg adder and adders of the Bitis cornuta complex), and many 

others, could be targeted to supply an ever-increasing demand world wide. More 

and more international attention is being turned to South Africa because of the 

dwindling supply from countries which have been over-exploited (for example, 

627 718 ball pythons and 10 039 pancake tortoises imported into the USA from 

Africa during 1983-1995: Hoover, 1998). Except in certain justified cases (e.g. the 

common platanna for biological research purposes), the commercial exploitation of 

CFK herpetofauna should only be allowed under very special conditions, because 



Part 1 


and urban purposes appears irreversible, and this calls for drastic measures to 

prioritise and include the few remaining natural habitats in conservation areas. 

Agricultural legislation towards natural resource conservation must be enforced 

because what remains of natural lowland habitats is currently in the hands of private 

landowners. Their co-operation in the conservation of these habitats must be 

prioritised. 

On the surface, conservation legislation appears to be effective towards curbing the 

illegal trade in and utilization of herpetofauna, but a severe lack of enforcement 

capacity is seriously hampering effective conservation. Conservation legislation 

needs to be revised in order to become more practical and "user-friendly", not only 

in an effort to control the sustainable utilization of herpetofauna, but also to stimulate 

interest and improve the transfer of information about these animals. 

The recent announcement of regulations in terms of the Environmental 

Conservation Act by which the unauthorised development of natural resources is 

prohibited, has been a positive step towards habitat conservation in general. Any 

development, with a few exceptions, must go through a scoping process to 

investigate the potential impact of the proposed development on the environment. It 

has become a challenge to environmentalists and conservationists to provide 

developers with a clear indication of sensitive habitats and biodiverse sites in order 

to strike a mutually agreeable (and beneficial) compromise, if indeed the 

development must go ahead. The intention of this report and of the accompanying 

report on the CFK freshwater fishes (chapter 3) is to identify centres of biodiversity, 

sensitive habitats and sites of special interest should be followed by other 

disciplines. 

4.7 Critical components and threats to the conservation of CFK 

herpetofauna 

Following the workshop to select those taxa which may be threatened and/or 

indicators of sensitive habitats and/or sites within the CFK, it was clearly evident that 

habitat degradation and destruction was the most important and critical component 

threatening the continued survival of many taxa. This is illustrated by Appendix 6 

which indicates that in more than 60% of cases, habitat degradation and destruction, 

especially in the lowlands, constitute the major threat. Habitat conservation 

strategies are therefore crucially important to target those sites, habitats and 

ecosystems in need of protection and mitigation against habitat disturbance and 

degradation. 




There is unfortunately very little information available regarding the use of reptiles 

and amphibians in traditional medicine in the CFK. Items such as python and 

leguaan skin and fat, leguaan claws, dried chameleons, etc. regularly appear in 

traditional healers' catalogues, but there are no quantifying data available for the 

CFK as yet. This has the potential to become a significant threat to the conservation 

status of at least some of the rarer taxa. Cape Nature Conservation has 

representation on the Cape Traditional Healers' Association forum and attempts to 

stay abreast of developments in this field. According to information received, it is 

believed that TRAFFIC South and East Africa has initiated a study towards the 

utilization of, amongst other, reptiles and amphibians by traditional healers. 

The CFK herpetofauna is also utilized in a non-consumptive manner, for example by 

members of the public hiking on mountain trails, private landowners and an 

increasing number of public facilities such as restaurants, wineries, guest houses, 

guest farms, etc. More and more people realise that frogs, tortoises, lizards and 

snakes can act as drawcards to the increasing ecotourism industry that South 

Africa, and especially the CFK, is experiencing. The University of Stellenbosch has 

initiated a post-graduate study investigating the "ecotourism potential" of 

herpetofauna and the implications and spin-offs for conservation, as well as the 

potential impact (positive and/or negative) of a better public awareness on the status 

of these animals. 

4.6 Effectiveness of current conservation 

Current conservation of the CFK herpetological resource is unintentionally biased 

towards montane species included in the vast statutory mountain catchment areas 

and nature reserves. For example, statistics on the percentage vegetation types 

conserved in the Western Cape Province indicate that >20% of mountain fynbos in 

the province is contained in statutory conservation areas, but that only 0.46% and 

0.56% of West Coast renosterveld and Sand Plain Fynbos, respectively, is 

conserved. These great imbalances are specifically evident in the lowlands of the 

CFK, and a concerted effort should be made towards the inclusion of more 

representative samples of lowland habitats and vegetation types into an optimally 

designed reserve system. 

Looking at the current CFK reserve system, it is clear that reptiles and amphibians in 

montane habitats fare much better than their lowland counterparts, but there still is a 

definite need to manage mountain habitats properly in an effort to maintain these 

species assemblages. The conversion of lowland habitats mainly for agricultural 



Part 1 


• Animal Protection Act 

• Performing Animals Act 

• Provincial Nature Conservation Ordinances 

• Land Use Planning Ordinance 

• Relevant conservation authority policies towards herpetological conservation 

This list may be incomplete. 

4.5 Utilization of CFK herpetofauna 

As far as we know, the utilization of herpetofauna in the CFK is relatively limited. All 

reptiles and amphibians, except for the venomous snake genera, in the Western, 

Northern and Eastern Cape Provinces are classified as either Endangered or 

Protected Wild Animals by the Cape Nature Conservation Ordinance (No. 19 of 

1974). Venomous snakes, however, are protected by the fact that no wild animal 

may be collected, transported, etc. without valid permits. 

The utilization of herpetofauna may be categorised as follows: a) the collection (and 

export) of animals for scientific and educational purposes by universities, museums 

and other institutions, b) the possession thereof for private purposes (mainly to keep 

as pets), and c) the medicinal use thereof by traditional healers. 

In the Western Cape Province (and largely in the CFK), policy and legislation 

towards the utilization of herpetofauna for scientific and educational purposes 

regulate the collection, possession, transportation and export of reptiles and 

amphibians. Valid permits are required for the above activities. Many reptiles, in 

particular tortoises such as the angulate and leopard tortoises, are kept as pets by 

members of the public. Snakes are the next most popular as pets, while lizards and 

frogs appear to be far less popular. However, one abundant and wide-spread frog 

species, the common platanna, Xenopus laevis, is extensively utilized for biological 

research. The limited herpetological expertise in the Northern and Eastern Cape 

provincial conservation authorities is worrying, but Western Cape conservation 

herpetologists are consulted from time to time for recommendations concerning 

permit applications, policy advice and legislation. Valid permits from Western, 

Northern and Eastern Cape conservation authorities are required to keep any of the 

above in captivity, and regulations control the legal requirements, e.g. cage sizes, 

etc. 




Cape coastal towns and inland in Pietermaritzburg, Bloemfontein, Pretoria and at 

Gariep Dam. Thirdly, the flowerpot snake, Ramphotyphlops braminus from 

Australasia, has colonised many oceanic islands and most continents, including 

southern Africa, where small populations have been found in a few coastal cities, 

e.g. Cape Town and Durban. 

For the purpose of this report, the status of those amphibian and reptile taxa listed in 

the South African Red Data Book (Branch, 1988) was not considered, but a revision 

of the current status of CFK herpetofauna yielded a number of new, proposed IUCN 

Red List taxa (Appendix II). Three indigenous taxa, Fisk's house snake Lamprophis 

fiskii, the yellow-bellied house snake Lamprophis fuscus, and the Namaqua plated 

lizard Gerrhosaurus typicus, currently listed on the IUCN Red List, have not been 

included in Appendix II due to the fact that they have relatively wide distribution 

ranges beyond the CFK boundary and were not considered threatened, sensitive 

and/or indicator taxa in terms of the analysis. 

Cognisance should also be taken of monotypic genera such as Poyntonia, 

Microbatrachella, Cryptactities and others which should be considered of scientific 

importance, some often endemic to the CFK, while others occupy relatively small 

distribution ranges. 

4.4 Legislation protecting CFK herpetofauna 

The following legislative controls, which may have an influence on herpetological 

conservation within the CFK, have been identified: 

• RAMSAR Convention 

• CITES 

• Convention on Biodiversity 

• Environmental Conservation Act (plus revision = CONNEP) 

• Environmental Management Act (and Regulations) 

• SA Whitepaper on Biodiversity Conservation 

• Water Act 

• Forest Act 

• Mountain Catchment Areas Act 

• Sea Shore Act 

• Sea Fisheries Act 

• Resource Conservation Act 

• Animal Diseases Act 



Part 1 


Endemic to CFK 

56% 

Endemic to Africa 

11% 

Endemic to southern 

Africa 

11% 

Endemic to South 

Africa 

20% 

Near endemic to CFK 

2% 

Fig 4.2 

Endemicity of the indigenous amphibians of the Cape Floral Kingdom. 

Endemic to South 

Africa 

29% 

Endemic to southern 

Africa 

27% 

Near endemic to 

CFK 

8% 


19% 

Alien to CFK 

2% 

Endemic to Africa 

15% 

Fig 4 3 

Endemicity of the indigenous reptiles of the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 

The three non-indigenous taxa comprise firstly, the Cape dwarf gecko, Lygodactylus 

capensis capensis which is endemic to southern Africa but has been introduced to 

urban centres outside of its natural distribution range, such as Port Elizabeth, 

Grahamstown and Bloemfontein. Secondly, introduced colonies of the tropical 

house gecko, Hemidactylus mabouia, occurring in KwaZulu/Natal northwards into 

southeastern Africa, but also on Madagascar, other Indian Ocean islands and the 

east coast of South and Central America have been recorded in various eastern 




Another aspect where there is uncertainty, but which has to be accepted for the 

interim, is the matter of the so-called "confirmed absence" of taxa from certain 

geographical areas. In other words, does no record(s) from a particular area mean a 

particular taxon does not occur there, or does it mean that it has not yet been 

recorded there Bearing in mind, however, the fact that one could, with a reasonable 

amount of certainty and accuracy, "predict" the absence of certain taxa, especially 

specialised endemics, from certain areas (e.g. dwarf crag lizards absent from lowlying 

coastal fynbos communities, or geometric tortoises and micro frogs from 

montane habitats), it may be useful to map the confirmed absence of certain taxa to 

aid in the analysis process. 

Because South Africa is still very much in its alpha phase of herpetological inventory, 

more and more data could be added to the database to increase our knowledge 

about the distribution and conservation status of taxa (especially population status 

figures). At the time of the workshop, the panel considered the 20 096 herpetological 

records currently in the database (of which 58% and 10% are accurate to seconds 

and minutes latitude and longitude, respectively) to reflect a reasonably accurate 

picture of the herpetological distribution within the CFK. 

With further emphasis on herpetological inventories and taxonomic research in South 

Africa, specifically in the CFK, as well as better funding, our knowledge about the 

taxonomic status of many taxa will improve, hopefully to the point one day where 

descriptions of new taxa will reach a plateau (for example, some 83 new 

herpetological taxa have been described during the past 10 years: Branch, 1998). 

Additionally, with regard to determining the conservation status of taxa, it is important 

that monitoring be undertaken on the population status of threatened, endemic taxa 

in particular. 

4.3.2 Herpetological statistics for the Cape Floristic Kingdom 

Figure 4.2 indicates the relevant percentages of endemicity of the 44 indigenous 

amphibians known to occur in the CFK. It is important to note the relatively high 

percentage of endemic frog taxa. There are also currently no non-indigenous (alien) 

frog taxa known to occur in the CFK. 

4.3.3 Region 

Figure 4.3 indicates the relevant percentages of endemicity of the 142 indigenous 

and 3 non-indigenous (alien) reptiles known to occur in the CFK. 



Part 1 


Reptiles 

Amphibians 

Study Area 

ð N 

W 

S 

E 

Fig 4.1 

Critical areas for the conservation of amphibians and reptiles. 




deliberations upon. Besides the obvious errors as mentioned above, it remains 

uncertain as to what level specimens in museums have been accurately identified. 



Part 1 


This report is based largely on the results obtained from an analysis of a CFK 

biodiversity database and a workshop held between a panel of experts in the 

herpetological field (see list of authors and Acknowledgements). The CFK 

biodiversity database was compiled by the Scientific Services Division of Cape 

Nature Conservation, along with data from the various museum and institutional 

sources as listed in the Acknowledgements. A checklist of amphibians and reptiles 

known to occur in the CFK was generated from the biodiversity database and from 

the available literature on CFK herpetofauna (Appendix 5). This checklist also 

contains information about indigenous and non-indigenous taxa, as well as their level 

of endemicity in relation to the CFK, South Africa, southern Africa and Africa. For the 

purposes of this report, taxa with up to 75% of their distribution ranges falling within 

the CFK boundary are regarded as near-endemics. It became apparent that the bulk 

of information on the occurrence of herpetofauna in statutory conservation areas 

comprises unconfirmed records. It would therefore be misleading to include this 

information for biogeographical analytical purposes. This important aspect could not 

be addressed in time for this project, but is receiving attention for future conservation 

planning. For the purpose of the biogeographical analysis of CFK biodiversity, all 

marine herpetofauna (sea turtles and snakes) was excluded. 

An annotated checklist of those CFK herpetological taxa regarded as sensitive and/or 

threatened and which may be useful indicators of habitats/landscapes in need of 

conservation attention was also drawn up (Appendix 6). The panel evaluated the 

checklist with regard to the composition and conservation status of those taxa listed, 

and assigned proposed IUCN Red List Categories (Mace and Lande, 1994) to those 

regarded in need of conservation attention. In addition, specific habitats and/or sites 

and areas known to be sensitive and/or vulnerable to disturbance and habitat 

degradation, or which are known to support a diverse herpetofauna, were identified 

and mapped at the 1:50 000 scale and incorporated in the Cape Nature Conservation 

Geographical Information System (Figure 4.1). 

4.3 Results and discussion 

4.3.1 Accuracy and status of knowledge 

For very obvious reasons, the outcome of the biodiversity database analysis is only 

as good (and complete) as the amount of accurate data in the database. Despite 

numerous errors encountered during the process of museum data collation (outdated 

taxonomy, vague locality descriptions, misplaced localities, and obvious 

misidentifications or specimen labelling mistakes), the panel was satisfied that the 

level of accuracy of records supplied was sufficient to base their discussions and 




herpetology is still very much in its alpha phase, since distribution surveys and 

taxonomic research continuously turn up new taxonomic entities. This is also due to 

improved molecular techniques which are useful for identifying biological diversity. 

The past approximately 10 years of herpetological research in South Africa has seen 

valuable work done on the general taxonomy, distribution, ecological and 

physiological aspects of reptiles and amphibians, while the conservation of 

herpetofauna has mainly been targeted at specific species and issues. 

The conservation of CFK biodiversity is primarily concentrated in the mountainous 

areas where the past establishment of nature reserves, state forests and other 

conservation areas, as well as the declaration of mountain catchment areas, has 

resulted in the establishment of a reserve system biased towards mountain habitats. 

Mountains, however, play a significant role in harbouring biodiversity, and human 

influences, such as urban and agricultural development (two of the main culprits in 

the loss of biodiversity), are limited by the sheer nature and hostility of the terrain. 

Specific areas within montane habitats act as significant refugia where for example, 

biogeographically related phenomena, such as melanism, relict populations, etc. may 

be conserved. In contrast, the rate of biodiversity loss in the coastal zone and 

lowlands is high, whilst the conservation of biodiversity in these regions is patchy and 

fragmented, and often seriously compromised due to development pressure in these 

regions. 

This report constitutes the herpetological contribution to the Cape Action Plan for the 

Environment (CAPE), a biogeographical analysis of CFK biodiversity executed by the 

University of Cape Town. The work which this report is based upon was done as part 

of the Aquatic Component of the CAPE project. The report aims to review the 

distribution and status of reptiles and amphibians in the CFK, and to identify those 

species, habitats and sites which are in need of conservation attention. Various 

issues of threat and constraint will be discussed, while legislation towards and 

effectiveness of conservation will be highlighted. Finally, the report will supply 

recommendations towards the effective conservation of herpetofaunal biodiversity 

within the CFK, that will be included in the biogeographical analysis of biodiversity 

conservation in the CFK (hereafter "the analysis"). It must be stressed that this is a 

review report and is not aimed at a full and detailed discussion of all the issues 

pertaining to herpetological conservation in the CFK. 

4.2 Methods 



Part 1 


CHAPTER 4: AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES 

A review of the amphibians and reptiles of the Cape Floristic Kingdom as indicators 

of centres of biodiversity,sensitive habitats and sites of special interest 

Ernst H.W. Baard, 1 William R. Branch 2 , Alan C. Channing 3 , Atherton L. de Villiers 1 , Annelise 

le Roux 1 and P. le Fras N. Mouton 4 

1 Cape Nature Conservation, Private Bag X5014, Stellenbosch 7600 

2 Port Elizabeth Museum 

3 University of the Western Cape 

4 University of Stellenbosch 


The Cape Floristic Kingdom (CFK), which also includes the well-known Fynbos 

Biome, is one of the six Plant Regions of the World. With its tremendous botanical 

wealth (approximately 8 500 spp.), and more specifically its extraordinarily high 

diversity per unit area, it features high on global biodiversity conservation priority lists. 

The recent establishment of the Kogelberg Biosphere Reserve (South Africa's first) is 

an important first step to securing the medium- to long-term conservation of the most 

diverse part of the CFK, namely the Kogelberg Mountains and surrounding 

landscape. 

The CFK is not only diverse with regard to the variety of plant species occurring 

there, but also contains a wide diversity of animal species, biogeographical zones, 

landscapes and natural features. In addition to the topographical diversity of the 

Cape Fold Mountains, the coastal zone and lowlands, and their transition into 

surrounding habitats, the CFK experiences a wide climatic diversity too. These 

features have resulted in an extensive and complex diversity of habitat types which 

explains the rich biological diversity within the CFK. Past climatic changes on a 

global scale have also influenced systems and processes within the CFK to the 

extent where it is believed that vicariant speciation processes during global climatic 

changes have resulted in evolutionary driving forces that have had significant impacts 

on the biodiversity within the biogeographical boundaries of the CFK. 

The reptiles and amphibians of the CFK are also recognised as a truly diverse group 

with a relatively high number of endemic species. On a global scale, the distribution 

ranges of many endemic species are obviously miniscule, but in terms of the long 

term conservation of biodiversity, their conservation ranks very high on conservation 

priority lists. They are also good indicators of centres of biodiversity. South African 




would also like to thank WWF-SA for funding the Olifants River system fish survey 

work (grant number ZA515) and Sally Terry at the J.L.B. Smith Institute. 

The Director of WCNC is thanked for permission to publish this report. 



Part 1 


• A dedicated funding base for freshwater fish conservation within the CFK is 

required to allow urgent research projects and field surveys to proceed. Little 

is yet known about the biology and ecology of several highly threatened 

species This could be administered by an organisation such as WWF-SA and 

managed by a dedicated working group. 

• It is essential that voucher specimens are collected during studies and lodged 

in recognised museums for long-term curation. Most of the distribution records 

that form the basis of this study are from museum records. 

• River rehabilitation projects, specifically involving alien fish removal from 

critical fish conservation areas, are urgently required. Sufficient funding and 

collaborative projects with the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry are 

needed to erect barrier weirs in sensitive tributaries followed by eradication of 

alien fish above these weirs. 

• Law enforcement has been neglected resulting in little control over the 

movement of live fish between inland waters and habitat damage to rivers by 

activities such as bulldozing. Capacity in this area needs immediate 

strengthening together with a greater will to act against offenders. 

• Environmental education and public awareness needs specific attention to 

change the way in which land-owners, anglers and the broader public view 

rivers and our indigenous fishes. A sense of custodianship of natural 

resources must be developed together with innovative methods of promoting 

the resource value of indigenous fishes. 

3.15 Acknowledgements 

The World Bank and Global Environment Facility (GEF) are especially thanked for 

funding this long overdue and essential study. The authors believe that this project 

offers the greatest hope towards securing effective conservation for the unique and 

threatened freshwater fishes of the CFK. 

The GIS section of Western Cape Nature Conservation (Helen de Klerk, Riki de 

Villiers, Peter Hill and Tim Sutton) are thanked for supplying IT and database design 

support. The Albany Museum, J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology, South African 

Museum and WCNC are thanked for providing their freshwater fish databases for this 

study. 

Andrew Turner, technical consultant to WCNC’S Scientific Services section, is 

thanked for providing valuable input during the development phase of this project. 

Peter Lloyd of WCNC is thanked for editorial comments. One of the authors (IRB) 




Private: non-governmental organisations such as WWF-SA, the Wildlife and 

Environment Society of S.A. and certain angling clubs (e.g. Federation of South 

African Flyfishers, Cape Piscatorial Society) play valuable roles in promoting 

indigenous fish conservation and acting as “environmental watchdogs” by reporting 

incidences of pollution and other negative impacts on rivers. Land-owners are playing 

an increasingly positive role by purchasing areas of scenic beauty and conserving 

associated biota. Examples include the Visgat Natural Heritage Site on the upper 

Olifants River and Bushmanskloof Private Nature Reserve in the Cedarberg (also a 

Natural Heritage Site). 

3.14 Recommendations for the future conservation of CFK freshwater 

fishes 

The indigenous freshwater fishes of the Cape Floristic Kingdom are probably the 

most threatened and endemic component of its biota, yet have been neglected to 

date in strategies and decisions to conserve the region. This is because most of the 

species are small, have little in the way of charismatic features, have no immediate 

economic value, are “out of sight” (i.e. underwater), coupled with the difficulties 

associated with conserving river systems. Several of these unique fishes face 

extinction in the near future, should this neglect continue and capacity inadequacies 

within organisations involved in river and fish conservation in the CFK not be 

addressed. 

The key recommendations to be addressed to improve the conservation status of 

these fishes comprise the following: 

• Develop a reserve network that includes key aquatic systems for fish 

conservation (see Figure 3.1). According to Skelton et al. (1995) the following 

aspects are important: (i) ideally a reserve should encompass the entire 

catchment of the affected area; (ii) the reserve must secure the minimum 

water quantity and quality requirements of the entire biotic community of the 

aquatic ecosystem; (iii) natural hydrological cycles must be maintained, (iv) 

high-impact alien predators such as bass and trout must be eradicated and (v) 

reserves placed higher in the catchment will be better protected and easier to 

manage than downstream reserves. 

• Capacity inadequacies within organisations (especially nature conservation 

authorities) involved in conserving freshwater fishes of the CFK must be 

addressed without further delay. Staff complements need to be strengthened 

with suitably qualified people. 



Part 1 


critical capacity and funding constraints within the nature conservation agencies. The 

main activities involve monitoring, environmental education (including land-owner 

awareness) and collaboration with ongoing research projects. However, this is done 

on an ad hoc basis. 

There is an urgent need to empower the aquatic scientific sections of the nature 

conservation authorities, so that pro-active work that focusses on the critical 

conservation issues becomes the operational focus, rather than a strategy that is 

never realised. The past focus on single-species conservation (e.g. Clanwilliam 

yellowfish B. capensis) and on promoting alien fishes prior to the 1980’s (see Hey 

1995) has prevented WCNC from attaining its true conservation objectives. There is 

an urgent need to focus on ecosystem conservation and the conservation of aquatic 

biodiversity, including genetic diversity. This is now being achieved within the limits of 

WCNC capacities. 

This report is expected to culminate in a series of specific conservation actions that 

need urgent attention within the CFK together with a realistic timetable of actions. 

Projects need to be critically evaluated in an open and objective forum (the Internet is 

a possibility) so that expert advice is available on a wide range of issues from a 

variety of people. 

3.13 Organisations, institutions and other role players involved in 

conservation programmes 

The quantification of all role players involved in conservation programmes is difficult, 

but in general they can be divided into three loose categories, namely government, 

parastatal and private. 

Government: involvement is achieved at first (national Department of Environmental 

Affairs and Tourism (DEA&T)), second (provincial nature conservation authorities) 

and third tier level (local government e.g. municipalities). DEA&T has primary 

responsibility for biodiversity conservation in South Africa, the delegation of which is 

usually carried out by provincial nature conservation authorities, both within and 

outside statutory conservation areas, and S.A. National Parks. Some local authorities 

manage important areas for river and fish conservation. 

Parastatal: museums and universities play a vital role here by developing and 

managing collections, conducting surveys and undertaking fundamental research in a 

wide range of fields. 




Table 3.6 Recent and current research and conservation management 

programmes for freshwater fishes of the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 

Species Current research Current conservation actions 

Austroglanis 

barnardi 

systematic & biology study Detailed surveys of Olifants tributaries 

A. gilli systematic & biology study Detailed surveys of Olifants tributaries 

Barbus andrewi genetics, systematics Stocking of farm dams 

B. anoplus 

JLB has a growing collection 

of DNA material for this 

Detailed surveys in Olifants System 

species 

B. calidus biology, genetics 

Detailed surveys of Olifants tributaries, 

translocation into Bushmanskloof Private Game 

B. capensis 

B. erubescens 

B. pallidus 

Systematics of yellowfish, 

water releases from dam to 

study effect on spawning 

behaviour (Cambray et al. 

1997 and King et al.1998) 

Marriott’s 1997 thesis is 

presently being published (2 

papers), genetics 

Bloomer and Fouche (genetics 

work) 

B. serra Ecology, genetics, systematics 

Pseudobarbus series of life history papers by 

afer 

Cambray and workers 

P. asper as for P. afer 

P. burchelli 

P. burgi Genetics 

genetics, Bills & Kaiser hope 

P. phlegethon to start breeding and feeding 

project at J.L.B. Smith Institute 

P. tenuis 

Galaxias 

zebratus 

Labeo seeberi 

L. umbratus 

Sandelia 

capensis 

life history and populations 

genetics 

Reserve (BPGR) 

Detailed surveys in Olifants tributaries, 

controlled water releases from Clanwilliam dam 

recommended to DWAF to trigger spawning in 

downstream yellowfish sanctuary. Stocking of 

farm dams, translocations into BPGR 

Detailed biological and ecological study, yet 

recommendations have not been addressed 

Detailed surveys in Olifants tributaries, stocking 

of farm dams and translocations (BPGR) 

Detailed surveys of Olifants tributaries 

Small stone weir erected on Krom River to 

prevent bass moving upstream. Cambray 

recommended conservation of 2 small 

populations in Gamtoos/Kouga and Krom 

Rivers 

Detailed surveys of Olifants tributaries 

focused on the phylogenetics of the family. The B. erubescens study was undertaken 

as an MSc study (Marriott 1997) and funded by WCNC as part of its contract 

research programme and the J.L.B. Smith Institute. 

Table 3.6 reveals that few active conservation projects are being undertaken despite 

their urgent need. The main reasons have already been discussed and are due to 



Part 1 


• innovative marketing projects are developed to promote awareness of their 

ecological and recreational value; 

• increasing utilisation by anglers and divers leads to the development of 

associated tourism infrastructure (e.g. chalets, day tickets for anglers or 

divers); and 

• financial incentives, which are presently lacking, should be investigated to 

reward land-owners who conserve fish habitat in sensitive areas, or at least 

utilise such habitat sustainably. 

3.11 Effectiveness of current conservation management 

Current conservation management of freshwater ecosystems and their fishes cannot 

be regarded as effective. Inadequate capacity and funding from statutory sources is 

the major cause for this situation which appears unlikely to change in the near future, 

unless the recommendations listed in this report are implemented. These 

inadequacies affect operational capabilities in Western and Eastern Cape Nature 

Conservation in the following ways: 

• inability to undertake regular survey work; 

• inability to undertake priority research projects; 

• inability to purchase land to conserve freshwater aquatic systems, particularly 

hot spots; 

• inability to undertake or implement species or habitat recovery plans; 

• poor communication and co-operation with riparian land-owners and angling 

clubs; 

• insufficient public awareness campaigns; and 

• poor enforcement capability. 

3.12 Ongoing research and conservation actions 

Current research on CFK freshwater fishes and actions taken to conserve species 

and associated habitats are shown in Table 3.6. This table shows that active 

research is being undertaken in the fields of population genetics, distribution and 

general biological studies e.g. Austroglanis (Bills 1998), B. andrewi (Impson & 

Bloomer in press), B. calidus (Nthimo 1997, Swartz in prep.), B. erubescens (Marriott 

1997), G. zebratus (Waters & Cambray 1997), P. burgi (Bloomer & Impson in press), 

P. phlegethon (Swartz in prep.) and yellowfish (Naran 1997). The Austroglanis study 

is being undertaken by one of the authors (IRB) to look at the conservation biology 

and status of the two species and the initial phase was funded by WWF-SA, J.L.B. 

Smith Institute and WCNC. This has now developed into a broader PhD study mainly 




The indigenous fishes, in contrast, are poorly utilised for recreational or subsistence 

purposes. There are two reasons for this. 

• The CFK only has four species of large fish of potential angling or food value. 

Species such as B. capensis, B. serra and B. andrewi were historically popular 

with anglers (see Scott 1982), and to an extent with subsistence fishermen 

and farm workers. 

• Since the 1960’s, alien invasive fishes such as M. dolomieu began to 

dominate the ichthyofauna of the larger rivers. The result has been that 

potential indigenous angling species are now difficult to locate and often 

restricted to relatively inaccessible areas. 

However, increasing numbers of landowners and anglers are becoming aware of the 

value of CFK fishes and the contribution they can make to conserving these fishes. 

Applications and enquiries are regularly received about stocking farm dams and 

garden ponds with indigenous fishes in preference to alien species. The Federation 

of South African Flyfishers (FOSAF), an organisation historically concerned with 

promoting flyfishing for trout, established a yellowfish working group in 1997. Their 

main aim was to promote environmentally responsible angling for yellowfishes 

(including B. serra and B. andrewi) and sustainable use of their habitat. The angling 

ethic of “catch and release” is gaining momentum for these indigenous fishes and is 

mandatory in terms of WCNC’s Ordinance of 1974. 

A further area of growth is underwater diving trails for CFK freshwater fishes. Many 

perennial fynbos streams are clear, warm and slow flowing in summer which are 

ideal conditions for diving. A marketing drive will be necessary to encourage the large 

numbers of divers who visit the sea to extend their interests to freshwater habitats. 

Alien fishes such as O. mykiss, M. dolomieu and C. carpio are relatively widespread 

and abundant in most large rivers and associated dams of the CFK and are hence 

popular with anglers. They form the basis of a significant socio-economic recreational 

fishery. 

3.10 Economic incentives to conserve CFK freshwater fishes 

The economic incentives to conserve CFK fishes are not immediately obvious as 

they do not presently form the basis of a significant recreational fishery or ecotourism 

industry. However, they have considerable economic potential provided that: 



Part 1 


beds and use surface or ground water for irrigation. Their actions can have a major 

influence on river processes and biotic diversity. 

The previous government did little in terms of legislative development to promote 

sustainable utilisation of aquatic resources culminating in a landowner philosophy of 

resource ownership rather than custodianship of resources. Few landowners have an 

understanding of river functioning and the ecological needs of rivers and thus at 

present are unable to contribute to conserving rivers and indigenous fishes. Rivers 

are regularly bulldozed for flood control purposes and to create weirs, a practice often 

referred by farmers as “Ons maak die rivier skoon” (we are cleaning the river!!). 

Similarly, some highly sensitive tributaries have abstraction points that remove the 

entire surface flow of the river during summer. The ecological impacts of such 

practices appear to be of little concern to many farmers as their focus is on 

production and making a profit. Farm dams are often stocked with fish without nature 

conservation permits, resulting in the further spread of invasive species such as bass 

and trout. 

The attitude and activities of many freshwater anglers is also of concern. The CFK 

has few indigenous freshwater fishes of angling value and the three species that are 

so regarded are not being easily accessible to the general public. Hence alien 

species are targeted and, being popular and accessible, are the ones that are 

stocked into new waters. Few stockings are legal (i.e. undertaken with the approval 

of conservation authorities) resulting in the continual spread of harmful invasive 

species such as carp (C. carpio), sharptooth catfish (Clarias gariepinus Burchell 

1822), bluegill sunfish (Lepomis macrochirus Rafinesque 1819), Micropterus spp., 

Salmo trutta and Onchorychus. mykiss into new habitats. In the majority of cases, 

anglers stock fish without being aware of the legislative requirements and the 

ecological consequences but some anglers stock fish without permits fully aware of 

the illegality of their actions. 

3.9 Utilisation of CFK freshwater fishes 

The rivers of the CFK are critically important to the economic development of the 

region. This is because many areas, especially the south-western Cape region, have 

hot dry summers when agricultural production of most crops (e.g. deciduous fruits 

and grapes) reach their peak. Rivers are heavily utilised to supply water to farms, 

towns and industries. Winter water is stored in farm and larger irrigation dams while 

the small summer base flows may be entirely utilised. 




Table 3.5 

Main threats to freshwater fishes of the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 

Type of threat 

Instream dams 

Bulldozing of rivers 

Unsustainable 

water abstraction 

Excessive use of 

pesticides and 

herbicides 

Excessive use of 

fertilizers 

Alien invasive 

fishes 

Alien invasive 

plants 

Lack of education 

and awareness 

Impact on fish or ecosystem 

Barrier to upstream migration, alteration of flow patterns and water chemistry 

downstream of dam, refuge for alien invasive fishes during floods 

Localised destruction of instream and riparian habitat, reduces habitat diversity 

and quality, increased turbidities and sedimentation 

Rivers pumped dry or flow severely reduced during dry season resulting in 

major loss of habitat during peak times of recruitment 

Poorly studied but rivers with good habitat adjacent to large orchards appear to 

be devoid of fishes (e.g. Suurvlei River, Cedarberg) 

Eutrophication and mineralization of CFK rivers which are characteristically 

oligotrophic and acidic in nature 

Elimination or severe reduction of indigenous fish populations through 

predation, competition or habitat alteration 

Invade catchment, riparian and instream areas reducing water yield and stream 

flow (e.g. pines Pinus spp.), out-competing and eliminating indigenous flora 

(e.g. black wattle Acacia mearnsii), altering nutrient cycles (e.g. A. mearnsii) 

and reducing light and oxygen penetration to surface waters (e.g. water 

hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes) 

Local communities and anglers are often unaware of local indigenous fishes 

and their importance. This can be overcome through effective environmental 

education programmes 

The WCNC contract research programme funds outside researchers enabling 

collaborative research on projects identified by scientists within the department. This 

programme has been successful but is dependent on internal funding for its 

operation. This important work is now in jeopardy as a 34% funding cut on contract 

research programmes was made in 1998. 

Fishes poorly conserved Fish distribution maps generated during this analysis show 

that the vast majority of records fall outside formally conserved areas. Rivers are 

generally poorly conserved and especially so in their middle and lower reaches. The 

main reasons for this are threefold: (i) their value for irrigation purposes gave riparian 

land a premium value; (ii) freshwater fishes are not as visible and charismatic as 

large mammal species; and (iii) there are difficulties associated with conserving a 

longitudinal ecosystem. 

Lack of public awareness The two most important public groups involved in 

freshwater fish utilisation and management in the CFK are farmers (especially 

riparian landowners) and anglers. Farmers own catchment areas, riverbanks and 



Part 1 


3.8 Constraints to conserving CFK freshwater fishes 

Invasive alien fishes: The impact of invasive alien fishes is possibly the greatest 

constraint to the effective conservation of indigenous freshwater fishes in the CFK. 

Once a fish species has established itself it becomes almost impossible to eradicate 

as biological control agents are not available and poisons such as Rotenone cannot 

be safely administered throughout a system. Projects to eradicate alien fishes from 

parts of certain systems are feasible and are urgently required. 

Capacity: Critical capacity shortages have emerged at conservation authorities since 

1990 due to severance packages being offered by the state to reduce the size of the 

public service and vacated posts not being filled due to budgetary constraints. In 

1992, WCNC had nine scientists and technicians in their aquatic section – presently 

there are two. The situation in the Eastern Cape is also unsatisfactory. The province 

is home to a small portion of the CFK that includes six fish species, but presently has 

no freshwater aquatic scientists or dedicated technical support staff. These statistics 

of inadequate manpower are alarming, given the high percentage of endemic fishes, 

their imperilled conservation status and the rich and unique diversity of aquatic 

invertebrates in the CFK. Clearly, freshwater systems cannot be effectively managed 

without sufficient and appropriate expertise. 

Funding: WCNC funding has been progressively reduced in real terms since 1990. 

Funding constraints have prevented the filling of posts and have restricted the 

number of fish surveys undertaken due to budget cuts in mileage and other incidental 

costs. This has adversely affected monitoring and research on fishes. River systems 

that were monitored every two to three years (e.g. Breede & Olifants systems) are 

now monitored at five- to seven-year intervals. This is unacceptable given the rapid 

slide of several species towards extinction. Some of the smaller systems that may 

contain genetically distinct populations of fishes have not been surveyed for more 

than a decade. 

A number of research projects have been recently completed or are being 

undertaken (see section 3.12) which are providing valuable insights into the biology 

and population genetics of several threatened species. These projects have been 

supported by WCNC’s contract research programme, World Wide Fund for Nature – 

South Africa (WWF-SA), JLB Smith Institute of Ichthyology, Department of 

Ichthyology and Fisheries Science (DIFS, Rhodes University) and Albany Museum. 




3.6 Protective legislation 

Key legislation affecting the conservation of CFK fishes and associated ecosystem is 

the Water Act of 1998, Section 21 Regulations (Listed Activities requiring impact 

assessments) of the Environmental Conservation Act of 1989, WCNC’s Ordinance 19 

of 1974 and guideline documents within WCNCs “Aquatic Research Programme 

1990”. 

The Water Act regulates the use of water (e.g. abstractions, construction of dams, 

inter-basin water transfers) and its discharge into the natural environment. The 

ecological needs of the water resource (e.g. river, aquifer and lake) are recognised 

and catered for. The “Environmental Reserve” enjoys the only right to water usage 

and comprises the ecological needs of the resource provider and basic human 

needs. 

The Section 21 Regulations ensure that impact assessments are undertaken and 

permits issued for a range of proposed activities (e.g. bulldozing of rivers, 

construction of farm dams & aquaculture) prior to their implementation. 

The Nature Conservation Ordinance 19 of 1974 controls, by means of a permit 

system, the transport of aquatic biota between inland waters, the import or export of 

biota into the Province and the capture of indigenous aquatic biota. 

Western Cape Nature Conservation has a series of guideline or “policy” documents 

within its 1990 Aquatic Research Programme that are used to guide fish stockings of 

various alien species. 

Other relevent legislation includes the Convention on Biodiversity, CITES, the S.A. 

White Paper on Biodiversity Conservation, Mountain Catchment Areas Act, 

Conservation of Agricultural Resources Act and the Environmental Management Act. 

3.7 Threats to CFK freshwater fishes 

The IUCN World Conservation Strategy (IUCN 1980, in Skelton 1987) recognises six 

broad categories of threats to the survival of vertebrates of which two (habitat 

destruction or degradation and the impacts of introduced species) have had severe 

impacts on CFK freshwater fishes. Threats to South African fishes and rivers are 

discussed in detail by Bruton & Van As (1986), Skelton (1987) and Davies & Day 

(1998). A summary of the impacts of these threats on CFK fishes is presented in 

Table 3.5. 



Part 1 


Table 3.4 

State of knowledge of Cape Floristic Kingdom freshwater fishes. 

Species 

Recommended 

Status 

Rating of confidence 

in recommended 

status 

Rating of present 

knowledge of 

distribution 

Knowledge gaps 

Austroglanis 

barnardi 

EN 90% 100% 

Breeding, feeding 

biology, phylogenetics 

A. gilli EN 90% 90% As for A. barnardi 

Barbus andrewi EN 90% 70% 

present distributions, 

biology 

B. anoplus NL 

80% (if species 

complex-reassess) 

60% 

Taxonomy, genetics, 

distribution 

B. calidus EN 80% 95% Biology 

B. capensis VU 80% 

70% (lower Olifants 

unknown) 

Genetics, mainstream 

distribution 

B. erubescens CR 95% 100% Captive rearing projects 

B. pallidus NL 80% 70% Genetics 

B. serra EN 90% 70% 

Genetics, biology, 

mainstream distribution 

Pseudobarbus 

afer 

VU 80% 50% 

Genetics, taxonomy, 

distribution 

P. asper VU 80% 50% 

P. burchelli EN 90% 80% 

P. burgi EN 95% 90 % 

P. phlegethon EN 95% 95% 


distribution 


distribution 

Biology, detailed 

surveys 

Breeding & feeding 

biology 

P. tenuis EN 80% 50% Genetics, distribution 

Galaxias 

zebratus 

LR (nt) 

80% (if species 

complex-reassess) 

40% 

Taxonomy, genetics, 

distribution 

Labeo seeberi EN 60% 50% 

Distributions, population 

estimates, biology 

L. umbratus NL 80% 50% Genetics, distribution 

Sandelia 

capensis 

NL 50% 40% 


distribution 

Recent genetic studies (e.g. Waters & Cambray 1997, Impson & Bloomer in press, 

Bloomer & Impson in press, Swartz unpubl.) have revealed that several species 

consist of distinct populations and in the case of G. zebratus these may represent a 

species complex (Waters & Cambray 1997). This aspect of biodiversity conservation 

for CFK fishes needs urgent attention and may show that the region is home to a far 

greater freshwater fish diversity with greater endemicity than is presently 

acknowledged. 




burgi). Without a good understanding of the life history requirements of these 

species, it is impossible to develop and implement effective species and habitat 

recovery. 

Table 3.3 

Contribution of formal conservation areas in the Cape Floristic 

Kingdom towards freshwater fish conservation at the species level. 

No. of C.A.P.E. 

No. of C.A.P.E. 

No. of C.A.P.E. local 

Species 

national parks in 

provincial nature 

authority reserves in 

which recorded 

reserves recorded in 

which recorded 

Austroglanis 

barnardi 

A. gilli 2 

Barbus andrewi 4 1 

B. anoplus 6 

B. calidus 2 

B. capensis 3 

B. erubescens 

B. pallidus 3 2 

B. serra 2 

Pseudobarbus 

afer 

1 6 

P. asper 7 

P. burchelli 5 3 

P. burgi 2 

P. phlegethon 1 

P. tenuis 2 

Galaxias 

zebratus 

3 12 3 

Labeo seeberi 2 

L. umbratus 4 

Sandelia 

capensis 

16 5 



Part 1 


Table 3.2 

Contribution of formal conservation areas in the Cape Floristic 

Kingdom towards conserving freshwater fish diversity. 

Conservation area 

No of 

species 

% 

species 

No of IUCN 

species 

% IUCN 

species 

Cape Floristic Kingdom 19 100 15 100 

C.A.P.E* Provincial reserves 17 89 13 87 

C.A.P.E. National Parks 2 10 1 7 

C.A.P.E. Local authority 

nature reserves 

5 26 3 20 

3.4 Critical areas for conservation 

River areas of critical importance to the conservation of CFK fishes were mapped at 

the 1:50 000 scale. The key considerations were biodiversity hotspots within larger 

catchments such as the Olifants and Gourits River systems as well as river areas of 

critical importance to the conservation of a species or unique population of a species. 

The most important areas are shown in Figure 3.1 and are listed in Appendix 4. 

3.5 Accuracy and status of knowledge 

The successful outcome of a biodiversity analysis such as this one is dependent on a 

good overall knowledge of the freshwater ichthyofauna at a community, species and 

population level. The panel was fortunate to tackle a relatively small faunal group 

comprising only 19 species. Our knowledge of the distribution of CFK species is good 

but of the biology and ecology of most species is unsatisfactory (Table 3.4). 

Some species and systems (especially the smaller systems) have been undersampled. 

A recent detailed survey of the tributaries of the Olifants River system by 

one of the authors (IRB) is the type of monitoring required in future. Greater 

institutional capacity and funding is required to ensure that our knowledge of species 

distributions remains updated and accurate. 

Capacity and funding limitations are the primary reasons for the poor knowledge of 

the biology and ecology of most species. This is of particular concern for those poorly 

studied species that appear to be at greatest risk (e.g. B. andrewi, L. seeberi & P. 




Freshwater fishes of the CFK, including threatened species, would appear to be well 

conserved as only two of the 19 indigenous species, both critically endangered 

(spotted rock catfish Austroglanis barnardi and Twee River redfin Barbus 

erubescens), have not been recorded from formally conserved areas (Table 3.2). 

Some species are relatively well conserved, for example the widespread S. capensis 

(in 16 provincial nature reserves and five local authority nature reserves) and Cape 

galaxias (Galaxias zebratus) (Table 3.3). This table shows that S.A. National Parks 

within the CFK make a negligible contribution to the conservation of indigenous CFK 

fishes (two species recorded) compared to the moderate contribution of local 

authority nature reserves (five species) and substantial contribution of provincial 

nature reserves (PNR’s) (17 of the19 species recorded). Of concern are the few 

records we have in conservation areas of several highly threatened species, for 

example the Clanwilliam redfin Barbus calidus (two PNR’s), Clanwilliam sandfish 

Labeo seeberi (two PNR’s) and Berg River redfin Pseudobarbus burgi (also two 

PNR’s). 

Few, if any, of the formally protected areas within the CFK were designed to 

conserve representative and functional riverine ecosystems and their fishes. Skelton 

et al. (1995) identified attributes that a formal conservation area requires to be 

effective for conserving riverine fishes. These are discussed in more detail in the 

recommendations section at the end of this report. Regarding CFK freshwater fishes, 

the following deficiencies in the existing reserve system were noted: 

• Only a small proportion of indigenous fish distribution records are within 

reserves. 

• In several cases, CFK indigenous fishes share reserve habitat with predatory 

invasive alien fishes such as bass (Micropterus spp.) and trout (brown trout 

Salmo trutta Linnaeus 1758 and rainbow trout O. mykiss). 

• Existing manpower and funding make eradication of alien species extremely 

difficult. 

• Highly threatened species such as B. erubescens, L. seeberi and P. burgi are 

poorly conserved. 

There is an almost total bias towards conserving montane areas and their associated 

headwater river zones. The middle and lower reaches of rivers, where endangered 

species such as the whitefish (Barbus andrewi), sawfin (B. serra) and Labeo seeberi 

occur, are highly impacted and poorly conserved. 



Part 1 


Lande 1994) as well as to identify river areas of critical importance to the 

conservation of these fishes. The authors then used a desk-top analysis to 

summarise existing knowledge of other issues of relevance to the conservation of 

CFK fishes and their associated ecosystems. 

3.3 Results and discussion 

3.3.1 Statistics for indigenous freshwater fishes of the CFK 

The CFK is home to relatively few indigenous freshwater fishes (19 species), mostly 

endemic (see Figure 3.2), and an alarmingly high number of alien fish species (16 

species), including invasive species (12 species) (Appendix 2). 

The highly endemic freshwater fishes of the CFK are also increasingly threatened. 

Appendix 3 provides a review of the current and proposed conservation status of 

CFK freshwater fishes and threats and conservation recommendations specific to 

each species. The proposed list of threatened species comprises 11 species as 

critically endangered or endangered (previously 9), 3 as vulnerable (previously 4) and 

1 as near-threatened (previously 2). Only the chubbyhead barb Barbus anoplus, 

goldie barb Barbus pallidus, moggel Labeo umbratus and Cape kurper Sandelia 

capensis are regarded as safe, although some populations of each of these species 

are under threat. Several of these populations are in isolated tributaries and are 

probably genetically distinct. 

Endemic to SA 

11% 

Endemic to 

southern Africa 

5% 


84% 

Fig 3 2 

Endemicity of the 19 indigenous freshwater fish species of the Cape 

Floristic Kingdom. 




Table 3.1 

Primary indigenous freshwater fishes of the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 

Family 

Austroglanididae 

" 

Cyprinidae 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

" 

Galaxiidae 

Anabantidae 

Species 

Austroglanis barnardi 

(Skelton 1981) 

Austroglanis gilli 

(Barnard 1943) 

Barbus andrewi 

Barnard 1937 

Barbus anoplus Weber 

1897 

Barbus calidus Barnard 

1938 

Barbus capensis A. 

Smith 1841 

Barbus erubescens 

Skelton 1974 

Barbus pallidus A. 

Smith 1841 

Barbus serra Peter 

1864 

Labeo seeberi Gilchrist 

& Thompson 1911 

Labeo umbratus (A. 

Smith 1841) 

Pseudobarbus afer 

Peters 1864 

Pseudobarbus asper 

(Boulenger 1911) 

Pseudobarbus burchelli 

(A. Smith 1841) 

Pseudobarbus burgi 

Boulenger 1911 

Pseudobarbus 

phlegethon Barnard 

1938 

Pseudobarbus tenuis 

Barnard 1938 

Galaxias zebratus 

Castelnau 1861 

Sandelia capensis 

(Cuvier 1831) 

Common 

name 

Distribution (from 

Skelton 1993) 

IUCN 

status* 

CFK 

Endemic 

Spotted rock 

catlet 

Olifants River system CR Yes 

Clanwilliam 

rock catlet 

Olifants system VU Yes 

Whitefish Berg & Breede systems VU Yes 

Chubbyhead 

barb 

Widespread in S.A. NL No 

Clanwilliam 

redfin 

Olifants system EN Yes 

Clanwilliam 

yellowfish 

Olifants system VU Yes 

Twee River 

redfin 

Olifants system CR Yes 

Coastal systems of E. Cape, 

Goldie barb also Vaal, Limpopo and NL 

No 

Tugela 

Sawfin Olifants system EN Yes 

Clanwilliam 

sandfish 

Olifants system CR Yes 

Moggel Widespread in S.A. NL No 

Eastern Cape Coastal rivers of CFK from 

redfin Mossel Bay to Sundays River 

LR (nt) Yes 

Small-scale 

redfin 

Gourits & Gamtoos systems VU Yes 

Burchell’s redfin 

Breede & Duiwenhoks 

systems 

EN 

Yes 

Berg River Berg, Verlorevlei, Langvlei & 

redfin Eerste (now extinct) systems 

CR Yes 

Fiery redfin Olifants system EN Yes 

Slender redfin 

Gourits & Keurbooms 

systems 

EN 

Yes 

Cape galaxias Widespread in CFK LR (nt) Yes 

Cape kurper Widespread in CFK NL Yes 

* from Baillie & Groombridge 1996; where CR = critically endangered, EN = endangered, VU = vulnerable, 

LR (nt) = lower risk, near threatened & NL = not listed. 

WCNC, J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology and Albany Museum (including South 

African Museum records) were amalgamated. Fish distribution maps were developed 

for the CFK using a geographical information system (GIS) package (Arc View 3.1) 

which included overlays of the rivers and formally conserved areas. At the workshop, 

these maps and other parameters (e.g. population size of species and threats) were 

used to evaluate fish conservation status (using IUCN Red List categories, Mace & 



Part 1 


(Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum 1792) and competitors such as carp (Cyprinus 

carpio Linnaeus 1758). Permanent eradication of these species is necessary within 

reserves to effectively conserve CFK fishes. 

Rivers, especially their middle and lower reaches, are poorly conserved within the 

CFK, resulting in their biota encountering ever-increasing levels of anthropogenic 

disturbance. The longitudinal nature of rivers makes them extremely difficult to 

conserve (Davies et al. 1993), as ideally whole systems, including their catchments 

require protection. 

Legislative improvements in the form of the Impact Assessment Regulations of 1996, 

the Water Act of 1998 and severe penalties for illegal fish stockings within Western 

Cape Nature Conservation’s (WCNC) Ordinance 19 of 1974 should enhance the 

ability of regulatory authorities to conserve the rivers of the CFK. However, crucial 

shortages of trained staff at both Western and Eastern Cape Nature Conservation 

(ECNC) need to be addressed for legislation and conservation management to be 

effective. 

This report constitutes the freshwater fish contribution to the Cape Action Plan for the 

Environment (C.A.P.E.), an analysis of the biodiversity and identification of 

biodiversity hotpsots of the CFK, executed by the University of Cape Town (UCT). 

The primary purpose of the report is to review the distribution records and 

conservation status of CFK freshwater fishes and identify river areas of critical 

importance for the future survival of these fishes. Other issues which have an 

important influence on the conservation of freshwater fishes of the CFK and 

associated ecosystems are highlighted, including their threats, the constraints to the 

conservation of this fauna, the status and accuracy of our knowledge, and research 

and conservation actions being undertaken. The report is concluded with 

recommendations for the effective conservation of these fishes. 

The report should be seen as a review of conservation needs for the unique and 

imperilled freshwater fishes of the CFK and not a detailed discussion and analysis of 

all the issues and literature pertaining to freshwater fish conservation in the CFK. 

3.2 Methods 

The report is based on the results of a detailed CFK freshwater fish database 

analysis and associated workshop attended by the authors. Distribution records at 




Gifberg 

Jan Dissels-Kliphuis River Systems 

Verlorenvlei-Langvlei 

Driehoeks-Matjies River System 

Twee River System 

Piketberg-Berg River tributaries 

Upper Olifants River 

Twentyfour-Leeu River Systems 

Fish(rev)cfr.shp 

Outline.shp 

Sundays-Wit-Krom River Systems 

Sanddrif -Hex River Sysytem 

Gamka-Seweweeks-Nel-Huis Rivers 

Witte River System 

Groot River System 

Kammanassie River System 

Brandvlei Dam 

Gamtoos-Groot-Kouga River Sy tems 

Kogmanskloof-Kigna River Systems 

Keurbooms-Bietouu River Systems Lower Gamtoos tributaries 

Upper Berg System 

Buffeljags-Tradouw River Systems 

Southern Cape coastal rivers Krom River System Baakens River System 

Riviersonderend River System Goukou River System 

Heuningnes River System 

Fig 3.1 

Identified areas of high conservation value containing viable populations of indigenous freshwater fish. 



Part 1 


help conserve them if they share their habitat with predatory alien species such as 

smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu Lacepède 1802) and rainbow trout 




CHAPTER 3: FRESHWATER FISHES 

The primary freshwater fishes of the Cape Floristic Kingdom: conservation needs for 

a unique and highly threatened fauna 

N. Dean Impson 1 , I. Roger Bills 2 , Jim A. Cambray 3 & Annelise le Roux 1 

1 Cape Nature Conservation, Private Bag X5014, Stellenbosch 7600 

2 JLB Smith Institute of Ichthyology, Private Bag 1015, Grahamstown 6140 

3 Department of Ichthyology, Albany Museum, Grahamstown 6139. 


The indigenous freshwater fish fauna of the Cape Floristic Kingdom (CFK) (see 

Figure 3.1 for area outline), although species depauperate, is arguably its most 

threatened biotic component. Of its 19 primary freshwater fish species, 14 (73%) are 

threatened and 12 (63%) are endangered. The fish fauna of the CFK, like the flora, 

has a high level of endemicity (16 of 19 species) (84%) and is thus reliant on effective 

conservation of the region for their survival. 

The south-western Cape, where most of these species occur, is recognised as a 

centre for a distinct “Cape” component of the ichthyofauna of Africa (Skelton 1994). 

The fauna is dominated by cyprinids (15 species) with two austroglanids, an 

anabantid and a galaxiid (Table 3.1). Taxonomic groups characteristic of the CFK 

include Pseudobarbus Smith 1841 (the CFK has 6 of its 7 species) and Sandelia 

Castelnau 1861. Galaxias zebratus Castelnau 1861 is regarded as a Gondwana relic 

with its closest relatives in South America (Waters & Cambray 1997). Likewise, 

Austroglanis (Skelton et al. 1984) has been hypothesised to be the sister-group to 

the relict family Horabagrus from southern India (De Pinna 1993). 

The ichthyofauna is characterised by isolated and geographically restricted ranges, 

high levels of endemicity, inflexible life history styles and a low resilience to 

disturbance (Skelton 1987). The most notable endemic fish hotspot in southern Africa 

is the Olifants River system of the CFK (Skelton et al. 1995), which supports 10 

species, 8 of which are endemic and all of which are threatened with extinction. 

The major threats to fishes of the CFK are predation by, and competition with, 

invasive alien fishes; habitat degradation; and destruction by inappropriate 

agricultural development. Placing indigenous fishes within nature reserves does not 



Part 1 





rr 

Rietfontein 

Papendorp 

r r 

Kobee 

r 

Olifants 

r 

Thee 

r 

r 

Jakkals r Oudste 

Twee 

r 

r 

Biedou 

r 

Tra-Tra 

r r 

r 

Wadrifr 

r 

rr 

r 

r 

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rr 

Matjies 

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Verlorenvlei 

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Kruismans 

BrandkraalsWind Heuvel 

r 

r 

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r r 

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rr 

Wit 

Vlei 

Nels 

Bietou 

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Grootdam 

Keisies 

Wit 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

Boesmans 

Klues 

r r 

r 

r 

r 

Leeu 

DoringSwart 

Bloukrans Kukoerie 

Dwariega 

Wit Els 

r 

r 

r 

Geelbek 

Groot 

rr 

r 

r r 

r 

r 

r r Koekedou De Vlakte 

Duiwenshoeks Waterkloof 

r r 

r r 

r 

r 

Kariega 

r r 

r 

r 

Bok 

r Hex 

r 

Kango 

Baviaanskloof 

r 

r 

r 

rr 

r r 

r 

Modder 

Platdrif Jan du Toits" 

Moeras 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

rr 

Nuy 

r 

Kouga 

Sundays 

Touws 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r r 

r 

Holsloot 

Kaaimans 

Loerie 

r 

r 

r r 

Tradouw 

Keurbooms 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

Diep 

Diep 

r 

r 

r 

rr 

Rietvlei Meul Klip 

Langtou Weyers Meul 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r r rr 

r 

r r 

r rr 

Elands 

r r 

r r 

r 

r 

r 

r r 

r 

r 

r r r r r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r r 

r 

rrr 

r 

r 

r 

Diep 

r r 

rr 

r 

r 

r 

r r r rr r 

r 

r r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

rr 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

rr 

r r 

r r 

r 

r 

Riviersonderend 

Boskloof 

r r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r Gwaing Crooks Elands 

Maitland 

r r 

r 

r r 

r 

Rondevlei 

r 

r 

r 

Sand Huis 

Soutpan Voëlvlei 

r 

r 

rr 

r Blinde 

r 

r 

r r r 

rr 

r r r r r 

rrr 

r rrr 

r 

r Bree 

Klipdrif (O os) Slang 

r 

r 

r 

r 

r 

Krom 

De Hoop 

Gouriqua 

r r r r r 

r 

r 

r r 

r 

Bot 

r 

r 

r 

De Hoopvlei Kafferkuils 

r r 

r 

r 

Slang 

Kars 

r 

r r 

r 

r 

Gansbaai 

r r 

r 

r 

r r rr 

r De Mond-Heuningnes 

r 

r 

Wetl(cnc)alb.shp 

W etl(deat)alb.shp 

Outline(alb).shp 

Fig 2.3 

Major wetlands of the CFK (Sources: Department of Environmental Affairs & Tourism and Cape Nature Conservation). 



Part 1 


Clinning, 1995; Williams & Randall, 1995; Underhill, 1995). This means that usable 

data are sketchy. Furthermore, at the scale (1:250 000) used here, a great 

percentage of the smaller wetlands in the area cannot be identified, while the use of 

aerial photographs is very time consuming and requires verification in the field. 

The data set eventually used in the present project was presented by the 

Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) in a directory of (major) 

South African Wetlands (Cowan and Van Riet 1998), which forms part of the South 

African Wetlands Conservation Programme. This database, while incomplete, was 

the most comprehensive available at this scale. Major wetlands identified by DEAT 

and CNC are displayed in Fig 2.3. 

Given the remarkable degree of diversity of wetlands in the CFK, it will be necessary 

to classify them if we are to be able to conserve adequate representatives of the 

different types. At present no suitable classification system is available, although a 

number of systems are being developed for one purpose or another. A detailed 

classification of the vegetation of the area has been produced as part of the CAPE 

project (Cowling et al, 1999), however and can be used to some extent to predict the 

types of wetlands in each area. In this way we the diversity of minor wetlands will be 

accounted for through the conservation analysis of the terrestrial ecosystems. 

Furthermore, a preliminary classification exercise has been undertaken as part of the 

detailed study of the wetlands of the Agulhas Plain (Jones, 2000). 

We consider that one of the major subjects that still needs to be addressed in a 

comprehensive conservation plan for the CFK is a more detailed analysis of the 

wetlands of the CFK. 




• the substrate should be nonsoil and should be saturated with water or covered 

by shallow water at some time during the growing season. 

In practical terms, since no true lakes occur in the CFK we have assumed for the 

purposes of this project that all aquatic ecosystems other than rivers are wetlands. 

2.5.1 Wetlands in the CFK 

The nature of specific wetlands is determined by both abiotic and biotic factors. 

These include geology, vegetation, altitude, slope, climate and hydrology. 

Vegetation is a good indicator of the types of wetland one might expect to find in a 

certain area because vegetation is a reflection of all the abiotic factors that influence 

wetlands. This also explains why vegetation is considered to be an important 

component in the classification of wetlands. 

The wetlands in the CFK form a suite of remarkably different types. In size they vary 

from minute temporary potholes in eroded rocks to large permanent coastal lakes, 

from intertidal estuarine salt flats to high-altitude pools, and from alkaline salt pans, 

both seasonal and perennial, to peat-stained acidic marshes. 

The geomorphology and climate of the region ultimately determine the distribution of 

wetlands in the south-western Cape. The flat dry plateau in the north east, the lowlying 

Karoo and the coastal plain all favour the formation of pans. Perennial 

endorheic wetlands are more common in the moister southern coastal regions, while 

conditions often favour wetland formation along seeps and streams in the foothills of 

the sandstone mountains. Finally, coastal sandbars, forming estuarine lagoons and 

salt marshes, may dam rivers at sea level. 

Wetlands are under serious threat in the CFK. Huge areas of seasonal wetlands 

have been filled in and built upon in urban areas such as Cape Town, while in rural 

areas many of them have been put to the plough. The construction of farm dams has 

greatly changed the hydrology of some of the fertile valleys in the south and the once 

palustrine environments of marsh and vlei are now dominated by the lacustrine 

habitats of pond and lake (King and Silberbauer, 1991). 

2.5.2 Data on wetlands 

Remarkably little information is available on the wetlands of the CFK as ecosystems 

(e.g. Silberbauer & King, 1991; Cowan et al., 1995), although a fair number of 

papers deal with them as habitats for water birds (see, for instance, references in 



Part 1 


of waterlogged soil conditions. It is far more difficult to distinguish them from aquatic 

ecosystems, although the depth of permanent free water, which restricts the 

development of emergent vegetation, is important in some wetlands and the 

impermanence of free water is important in others. Indeed, although most wetlands 

have certain common characteristics such as a high water table, hydric soils, 

hydrophilic vegetation and reducing conditions in the soil and water, they vary 

enormously from small to large, from permanent to ephemeral, from saline to fresh 

and from being associated with rivers to being free-standing and inward draining 

(endorheic). For a discussion on the definition of wetlands see Cowardin et al. (1979) 

and Davies & Day (1998). 

As a contracting party to the Ramsar convention South Africa presently makes use of 

Cowardin’s (1979) definition: 

Wetlands are areas of marsh, fen, peat or water, whether natural or artificial, 

permanent or temporary, with water that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or 

salt, including areas of marine water the depth of which at low tide does not 

exceed six metres. 

The definition of wetlands used in the present study is that used by South Africa’s 

National Wetlands inventory (Cowan et al., 1998) modified from (Cowardin et al., 

1979): 

Wetlands are defined as lands transitional between terrestrial and aquatic 

systems where the water table is usually at or near the surface or the land is 

covered by shallow water and deep-water habitats: permanently flooded 

lands lying below the deepwater boundary of wetlands. They include 

environments where surface water is permanent and often deep, so that 

water, rather than air, is the principle medium within which the dominant 

organisms live, whether or not they are attached to the substrate. 

In order for an area to be classified as a wetland, Cowardin et al. (1979) stated that it 

must meet at least one of the following criteria: 

• the land, at least periodically, must support predominantly hydrophytes; 

• the substrate should be predominantly hydric soil; 




Mountain stream 

Foothill river 

Transitional river 

Lowland river 

0 100 

Kilometers 

N 

Fig 2.2 

Geomorphological (sub-regional) classification of rivers in the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 



Part 1 


that were readily available or could be captured within the timeframe of the project. 

This classification system lends itself to this purpose. 

Although segments may be composed of a composite of reach types as a result of 

variations in local control variables, a recognisable commonality within a segment 

was achieved by using a uniform set of driving forces, namely slope, discharge and 

sediment load (Rowntree et al., 1998). Perennial rivers were digitised from 1:250 000 

topographical maps and classified into four geomorphological categories according to 

the following criteria: 

• Mountain stream (gradient 0.01 – 0.07): steep gradient; stream dominated by 

bedrock and boulders with step-pool morphology, waterfalls, rapids and pools; 

locally cobble or coarse gravels forming plane beds; floodplain generally 

absent but lateral bench-type features may occur; sinuous channel pattern 

• Foothill river (gradient 0.002 – 0.008): moderately steep gradient; 

gravel/cobble bed commonly with pool-riffle or pool-rapid morphology; locally 

bedrock-controlled; narrow floodplain of sand or gravel normally present; 

channel pattern meandering or braided 

• Transitional river (gradient 0.001 – 0.0036): lower-gradient mixed-bed alluvial 

channel with sand or cobble/gravel, pool-riffle morphology, sandbars; 

floodplain often present 

• Lowland river (gradient 0.0002 – 0.002): low-gradient alluvial sand-bed 

channel, fully developed meandering pattern (often tortuous) within a distinct 

floodplain increased silt content in bed or banks. 

The Geomorphological (sub-regional) classification of rivers in the CFK may be seen 

in Fig 2.2. 

2.5 Wetlands 

Wetlands occupy an intermediate position in the continuum between terrestrial and 

aquatic environments. Since the continuum is variable in space and time, it is not 

surprising that ‘there is not one single, correct, indisputable, ecologically sound 

definition for wetlands’ (Cowardin et al 1997). 

The prime feature that separates wetlands from terrestrial systems is the persistence 




suitable for agriculture, they are probably less impacted by human activities than are 

the rivers of any of the other bioregions in the CFK 

2.4.1.4 The Southern Inland bioregion 

The Southern Inland bioregion includes two groups of rivers: 

• those such as the Couga, Baviaanskloof and Olifants rivers of the inland 

corridor between the Outeniqua mountains and the Swartberge, where rainfall 

is low (200-600mm per annum); characterised by neutral, clear water, and low 

conductivities. 

• shorter coastal rivers, such as the Klein Brak, Keurbooms, Diep, Swart and 

Langtou rivers, which rise in ‘false fynbos’ close to the coast and mostly drain 

shales. 

Little is known about these rivers or their biotas although the larger rivers are 

particularly heavily impacted by agricultural activities. 

2.4.1.5 The Arid Interior 

The Arid Interior bioregion encompasses the lower Olifants and Sout Rivers. Rainfall 

is very low so most rivers are ephemeral, and therefore support a limited biota. The 

lower Olifants River has a less limited, but still rather depauperate, invertebrate fauna 

and is heavily impacted by damming, abstraction of water and other agricultural 

activities. 

2.4.1.6 The Drought Corridor 

As suggested by the name, the Drought Corridor bioregion is characterised by erratic 

rainfall and seasonal rivers. It encompasses the Great Fish, Sundays, Kowie and 

Bushmans Rivers, several of which are seriously salinised as a result of irrigation 

over many years. Little is known about the biotas of these systems. 

2.4.2 Sub-regional classification 

The sub regional classification of the rivers of the CFK (Fig. 2.2) was performed 

specifically for this project and was based on a model for the classification of South 

African rivers developed by Kate Rowntree and Roy Wadeson of the Geography 

Department at Rhodes University, Grahamstown. This system was chosen because 

it is compatible with the National Biomonitoring initiatives, was approved in concept 

by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, and is ecologically based. At the 

scale of the CFK and the CAPE project, it was necessary to limit detail to the data 



Part 1 


Arid Interior 

Fynbos 

Drought Corridor 

Alkaline Interior 

Southern Inland 

Southern Coastal 

Fig 2.1 Bioregions of the CFK based on Bioregions of South Africa, National Biomonitoring Programme (Brown et al, 1996). 




2.4.1 Bioregional classification 

Classification of the land into bioregions (Brown et al, 1996) is based on the broad 

biogeographic patterns exhibited by riverine biotas and gross differences in the 

physical structure of rivers (See fig 2.1 Bioregions of the CFK). On this basis the CFK 

has been divided into the following bioregions by the National Biomonitoring 

Programme (Brown et al, 1996). 

2.4.1.1 The Fynbos bioregion 

The Fynbos region is bordered in the north by the mouth of the Olifants River, in the 

northeast by the channel of the Doring River and in the southeast by the mouth of the 

Breede River. It is characterised by a Mediterranean climate with predominately 

winter rainfall, which tends to become more aseasonal to the east and north-west. 

Rainfall varies between 600 and 2000 mm per annum. Rivers are characterised by 

oligotrophic (nutrient-poor) waters, which are often peat-stained and acidic, some 

having pH values as low as 4. Many of the rivers in the west are seasonal or 

ephemeral. Endemism of several animal taxa is known to be very high. The largest 

rivers in the bioregion are the Olifants, the Berg and the Breede, all of which are 

heavily impacted by damming and abstraction of water, as well as agricultural 

activities and the effects of urban development. 

2.4.1.2 The Alkaline Interior 

The Alkaline Interior region stretches from the main channel of the Doring River in the 

west to the Gamtoos River in the east. It completely encircles the Southern Inland 

and Southern Coastal bioregions, extending to the coast only in the vicinity of the 

Gouritz and Gamtoos Rivers. Most of the rivers, except those near the coast, are 

seasonal or ephemeral, with alkaline waters and poorly known biotas. Virtually all 

are impacted to a greater or lesser extent by agricultural activities. 

2.4.1.3 The Southern Coastal bioregion 

The Southern Coastal bioregion stretches along the south coast. Rivers are generally 

short (< 20 km), peat-stained and acid and probably have biogeographical affinities 

with the upper zones of the rivers of the Fynbos bioregion. They occur on sea-facing 

slopes that drain Table Mountain Sandstone. Rainfall is aseasonal and varies 

between 600 and 2000mm per annum. The rivers have clear, NaCl-dominated, peatstained, 

acid waters (pH < 6) low in TDS. Examples of these rivers are the 

Bloukraans, Elands, Silwer, Kaaimans, Duiwe, Homtini and Touws rivers. Because 

these rivers are short and steep, and their catchments generally not particularly 



Part 1 


ecosystems. 

Spatial data used during this study were collated from a variety of sources. Appendix 

1 contains a description, source, scale and technical; information relating to all the 

data sets used here. 

2.4 Rivers 

Rivers are complex four-dimensional systems, comprising longitudinal, lateral (crosssectional) 

and vertical spatial components that change over time and within which 

biotic communities must exist and respond to a variety of fluctuating environmental 

variables. We have organised the rivers of the CFK into ecologically similar units by 

classifying them into bioregions and sub-regions so that the conservation value and 

conservation status of like systems can be compared. 

An ecologically-based classification system of rivers was used in order to prevent 

inappropriate comparisons of disparate systems. For instance if one were to divide 

rivers into arbitrary segments and rate the relative importance of each, large 

differences might be found between the units merely as a result of natural differences 

between rivers. A 5-km stretch of lowland river could, for instance, inevitably provide 

fewer habitats and support less biotic diversity than the same length of mountain 

stream could and would therefore appear to be of lower conservation importance. If 

the assessment is restricted to a comparison between ecologically similar ‘river 

types’, then the natural variability between the systems will be low and comparisons 

more likely to be valid (Brown et al., 1996; Eekhout, 1997). 

The classification system used here was developed by a number of South African 

river scientists during a workshop forming part of the ‘National Biomonitoring 

Program’ (NBP). Brown et al (1996) discuss the classification framework, a threetiered 

hierarchy in which each “river type” is identified and can be described with 

reference to a bioregion, a sub-region and a type. For example Fynbos-Foothillperennial 

refers to one particular ‘river type’ which includes all sections of river within 

the fynbos bioregion that exhibit the geomorphological characteristics and biotic 

attributes characteristic of a foothill zone, and are perennial. 

When once the rivers of the CFK have been classified in this way it was possible to 

set conservation goals or targets for each type (for instance, the conservation of 10% 

of all fynbos bioregion mountain streams) and to determine priority areas by 

overlaying GIS coverages of threats and features such as fish populations. 




status of aquatic ecosystems. 

• The conservation value of a site is an indication of the contribution that a 

specific site can make towards achieving the conservation target for a 

particular type of habitat. 

• Given the patchy nature of the data at hand, some key taxa can be used as 

surrogates when assessing conservation value. For rivers, for instance, we 

have relied very heavily on data regarding fish, which are the best known 

animal taxon in the inland waters of the CFK. 

• Furthermore, rivers and wetlands are not independent entities but reflect the 

nature of their catchments. Thus rather than using the quarter-degree grid as 

a unit, we have chosen to use quaternary catchments (as defined by the 

Department of Water Affairs and Forestry -DWAF). 

• In a similar vein, we have assumed that, for the most part, conserving whole 

stretches of a catchment will adequately conserve its rivers and wetlands too. 

• This is a broad-scale study at 1:250 000 scale, which is aimed at presenting 

an overview of the conservation status and value of freshwater ecosystems in 

the CFK. Detailed conservation planning should be undertaken at cadastral 

level or 1:10 000 – 1:50 000 

• In the CFK, Freshwater ecosystems can be divided into wetlands, which are 

mostly standing waters, and rivers, which normally contain running water for at 

least part of most years. 

• Some of the data presented here have been used for preliminary analysis in 

this report, but the main aim was to collate and organize all available datasets 

for detailed conservation planning by the implementing agencies using a 

method called C-plan (Cowling et al, 1999) 

The terms ‘aquatic ecosystem’, ‘freshwater ecosystem’ and ‘inland waters’ are used 

interchangeably in this document although it is not entirely correct to do so. All of the 

systems we deal with are inland waters in the sense that they are not marine, and 

aquatic ecosystems in that they hold water at least on occasion, but many inland 

waters are very saline and so do not really fit the category of ‘freshwater’ 



Part 1 


Plettenberg Bay and the other between Plettenberg Bay and the mouth of the 

Bashee River. 

• Endemism is extremely high. Almost a quarter (22.5%, or 59 out of 262) of the 

species examined in the ‘true capensis’ bioregion are endemic. These include 

6 species of ephemeropteran, 40 of trichopteran, 4 of simuliid, 4 of mollusc, 3 

of fish and 2 of riparian plant. Endemism is less extreme, but still remarkable, 

in the ‘Namaqua capensis’ bioregion, at 14.4% (18 out of 125 species), 

including 7 species of trichopteran, 2 of simuliid, 1 of mollusc and 8 of fish. 

• A preliminary subdivision at regional level showed that geomorphological 

features provide a useful sub-regional classification, dividing rivers into upland 

(mountain) streams, foothill streams, and lower rivers. This aspect of the work 

of Eekhout et al. (1997) has been extended and incorporated in the present 

project. 

Other sets of data are available for rivers but none were comprehensive enough, or 

in suitable form, for immediate use in the present project. These include the 

‘Biobase’, a database that links co-occurrences of invertebrate and chemical data 

(e.g. Dallas, Janssens & Day, 1999). 

2.3 Our approach 

An early decision was made to use GIS tools for the terrestrial component of the 

project. Since integration of the terrestrial and aquatic data is imperative for 

conservation purposes, we also had to use GIS-based tools, which are very sensitive 

to ‘gaps’ - areas for which data are not available. We were thus unable to use much 

of the existing information on riverine organisms because of its fragmentary nature. 

We therefore started by distinguishing broad biogeographic regions or ‘bioregions’. 

These in turn were divided into sub-regions, based on physical habitats, which could 

be compared with regard to conservation value and status. 

We made the following fundamental assumptions. 

• It is possible to assess the degree to which a system has been altered through 

anthropogenic activities. This can be considered to be its conservation status. 

The higher the conservation status the greater its biodiversity relative to some 

‘pristine’ norm for that kind of ecosystem within the same bioregion. 

• It is possible to identify the threats to the continued protection or conservation 




CHAPTER 2: FRESHWATER ECOSYSTEMS 

Van Nieuwenhuizen, G.D.P. and Day, J.A 


A wide range of factors influence the diversity of freshwater ecosystems. These 

include the geology, topography, climate and vegetation of the catchment, as well as 

the temporal variability and predictability of factors such as rainfall. The specific 

characteristics of each aquatic ecosystem are dependent not only on these abiotic 

factors but also on the species composing their biotas and on the interactions 

between those species and their environments. Aquatic ecosystems are thus 

dynamic, being constantly affected by climatic conditions as well as by natural and 

anthropogenic changes to the vegetation and land use in their catchments. 

Since rivers and wetlands physically form the drains and sinks of their catchments, 

they are intimately affected by virtually everything that occurs in the landscape. As a 

result, they suffer both from the impacts that threaten terrestrial ecosystems and also 

from other, more specific, threats that do not affect terrestrial ecosystems. In an arid 

region such as the CFK, it is particularly necessary to anticipate and counteract such 

threats to the integrity of its aquatic ecosystems. 

2.2 Existing information on the biodiversity of the CFK 

Prior to the beginning of the CAPE project, our knowledge of the biodiversity of 

aquatic ecosystems of the CFK was very limited, especially with regard to wetlands. 

The most comprehensive information on the species diversity of rivers resulted from 

a national project that developed a preliminary biological classification of South 

African rivers (Eekhout et al., 1997). At the time the most comprehensive data 

existed for riparian plants, ephemeropterans, trichopterans, simuliids, aquatic 

molluscs, and fish. Most of these data were unsuitable for inclusion in the present 

analyses but some important conclusions did emerge from the work, as follows. 

On the basis of these taxa the quarternary catchments of the CFK can be divided into 

two ‘bioregions’: the ‘True capensis’ and the ‘Namaqua capensis’ regions. 

The riverine invertebrates of the ‘true capensis’ bioregion represent two 

biogeographically distinct subgroups, one centred between the west coast and 



Part 1 





Biodiversity associated with freshwater ecosystems is however affected by a wide 

range of factors that are attributable not only to the specific characteristics of the 

localized habitat but also to the processes that occur in the catchment. It is therefore 

obvious that any conservation effort aimed at conserving freshwater ecosystems 

should not be undertaken in isolation but should include the terrestrial ecosystems 

that affect them. By looking at ecosystem processes we were able to identify the 

specific threats that relate to each process and set targets for its conservation. This 

integration of the freshwater data with terrestrial is a crucial step towards the 

conservation of all aspects of biodiversity in the CFK. This process will happen after 

completion of this project during the implementation phase. 

Conservation value refers to the contribution that conserving a specific habitat can 

make towards the overall targets for conservation. In this regard we relied on the 

opinion of experts for three broad groups tha identified habitats and viable 

populations. 

However, conservation value, on its own does not necessarily indicate that an area 

should receive priority in conservation action. On the one hand it can be assumed 

that an ecosystem that is most the natural will contain the highest relative biodiversity 

in that ecosystem type and bioregion. But it was found that in most cases the same 

type of systems has been altered for most bioregion that they occur in. For instance, 

most mountain streams in the fynbos bioregion is still fairly pristine but almost all the 

lowland rivers of the same bioregion is greatly imperiled. The question then arises 

which one should receive conservation priority. 

By overlaying the areas identified for its conservation value and the conservation 

status they can be ranked in terms of conservation priority. This final map can be 

used as a starting point to identify the different conservation actions that can be 

applied to these different areas.

Part 1 


Inland water ecosystems support characteristic biotas that are quite different from 

those of their terrestrial counterparts. In the CFK, for instance, the aquatic plants are 

not particularly speciose, while whole suites of aquatic animals add to the overall 

biodiversity of the region. As well as the more obvious taxa such as fish and 

amphibians, these animals include aquatic invertebrates such as insects, molluscs, 

crabs and worms. As is the case with the terrestrial plants, many of the aquatic 

animals show extremes of endemism, some being confined to as small an area as a 

single tributary of a single river. Although the freshwater fish are not speciose, a 

remarkable 73% of the species are endemic to the CFK. These taxa, and the 

systems that support them, are thus worthy of conservation in their own right. 

Although this study will not be driven purely by species diversity, biological data had 

to be collected in order to assess the extent to which the area has been adequately 

studied and determine the areas that need more attention. Presence-absence data 

that covers the entire Cape Floral Kingdom (CFK) would have been the most useful 

for the purposes of this project. This has been done for some taxa such as birds but 

at a very coarse scale. 

Biological data can indicate the specific conditions inherent in certain systems that 

cannot be assessed from abiotic factors alone. It also indicates specific requirements 

of certain systems that will be taken into account when determining reserve 

configurations. Spatial data were collected from a variety of sources and at different 

scales. 

The quality data that is needed for objective analysis is extremely important and 

overall the data found was comprehensive enough. In this regard it was decided to 

combine expert opinion and GIS analysis in order to get the best possible result. 

Apart from accuracy, the two main criteria for data sets is that it must be presence 

absence data and give some indication of the ecological integrity of the habitat in 

question. 

It was found that extensive studies exist for the conservation needs for some of the 

groups for instance Birds and Amphibians, which are included here. These can 

however not be used in the analysis as indicative of pristine habitats in the case of 

birds and presence absence data in the case of amphibians. Fish was the only group 

that were found to have been sampled throughout the area and can therefore be 

used as presence absence data and is a good indicator of the integrity of the habitat. 




CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION 


In November 1998 the Freshwater Research Unit at the University of Cape Town 

(UCT) was approached by The World Wide Fund: South Africa, to do a situation 

assessment on the conservation of biodiversity associated with freshwater 

ecosystems in the Cape Floral Kingdom (CFK), as part of the Cape Action Plan for 

the Environment (CAPE). CAPE comprises three components: situation assessments 

on aquatic (this report, Griffith 2000 and Prochaska 2000) and terrestrial 

environments (Cowling 1999) and a financial and institutional component (CSIR ). 

This initial phase of the study was funded by the Global Environmental Fund. 

The overall objective was to initiate a systematic approach to conservation planning, 

whereby a set of reserves is established that contains an accurate representation of 

all aspects of biodiversity in the Floral Kingdom. (Cowling 1999). 

To this end the first step was to collate the information developed for individual 

projects into a comprehensive database that can be used for future systematic 

conservation planning. Several studies have been undertaken in specific aspects or 

areas of the Kingdom but newer before a conservation planning exercise for the 

entire area. 

The scale of the study area necessitated a certain level of coarseness. In order to not 

let the scale influence the quality of outcomes we relied on expert opinion to identify 

priority areas for the conservation of specific groups and habitats. The conservation 

status analysis, however, was conducted using recent satellite imagery and 

Geographic Information Systems (GIS). 

This report has been divided into two parts, part one contains the information 

collated and part two analysis of the data to determine conservation status and 

priorities. 

In part one of this report the aim was to collate information and determine the 

conservation value of species and habitats. Taxonomic information was collected for 

the entire region in order to provide a basis that may be used for later species 

diversity analysis.

Fig 12.6 

Priority areas for conservation overlaid with areas of conservation 

value to depict the extent of the contribution to conservation priorities 

of both conservation status and value. 167

Part 1 


Fig 11.20 Frequency histogram of the percentage of quaternary catchments 

represented in each level of conservation status. 145 

Fig 11.21 Conservation status of quaternary catchments in the CFK (see 

table 4.23 for detail on categorization of conservation status). 146 

Fig 11.22 Conservation status of quaternary catchments within Southern 

Coastal Bioregion. (Derived from Fig 4.22 Conservation status of 

quaternary catchments in the CFK. 148 
















Fig 12.1 Proportion of each river type conserved within existing protected 

areas in the CFK. 156 

Fig 12.2 Rivers of the CFK overlaid with existing conserved areas. 158 

Fig 12.3 Conservation Value of individual quaternary catchments. Each 

catchment was ‘flagged’ for the contribution that it could make 

towards the conservation of fish, amphibians and birds. Data 

derived from three studies identifying priority areas for the 

conservation of fish (see chapter 3), amphibians (see chapter 4), 

and birds (see chapter 5). 163 

Fig 12.4 Hypothetical diagram of conservation value versus conservation 

status. (Adapted from O’Keeffe 1986). 164 

Fig 12.5 Conservation priorities derived by integrating conservation status 

(fig 11.x) and value (fig 12.4)(see table 12.2) refer to appendix 14 

via catchment numbers for information relating to threats, 

conservation status, value and priority. 166 

xxiv 

Cape Action Plan for the Environment 


Fig 11.10 

Fig 11.11 

Fig 11.12 

Fig 11.13 

Fig 11.14 

Fig 11.15 

Fig 11.16 

Fig 11.17 

Fig 11.18 

Fig 11.19 

Number of dams per catchment area normalised / 100. Source: 

Dams: IWQS (DWAF) and Quaternary catchments: DWAF. 132 

Percentage of areas covered by urban areas per catchment. 

Sources, Urban areas: ARC and IPC and quaternary catchments: 

DWAF. 133 

Conservation status of quaternary catchments in terms of 

longitudinal flow processes (= Extent of each threat to seasonal 

flow per catchment ‘score’ X ‘weight’ of threat i.t.o effect on 

longitudinal flow) see Table 0.4: Integration of threats and 

ecosystem processes. 136 

Conservation status of quaternary catchments in terms of seasonal 

flow processes (= Extent of each threat to seasonal flow per 

catchment ‘score’ X ‘weight’ of threat i.t.o effect on seasonal flow) 

see Table 0.4: Integration of threats and ecosystem processes. 137 

Conservation status of quaternary catchments in terms of wetland 

hydrology (= Extent of each threat to seasonal flow per catchment 

‘score’ X ‘weight’ of threat i.t.o effect on wetland hydrology) see 

Table 0.4: Integration of threats and ecosystem processes. 138 

Conservation status of quaternary catchments in terms of nutrient 

dynamics (= Extent of each threat to seasonal flow per catchment 

‘score’ X ‘weight’ of threat i.t.o effect on nutrient dynamics) see 

Table 0.4: Integration of threats and ecosystem processes. 139 

Conservation status of quaternary catchments in terms of sediment 

dynamics (= Extent of each threat to seasonal flow per catchment 

‘score’X ‘weight’ of threat i.t.o effect on sediment dynamics) see 

Table 4: Integration of threats and ecosystem processes. 140 

Conservation status of quaternary catchments in terms of life 

history processes (= Extent of each threat to seasonal flow per 

catchment ‘score’ X ‘weight’ of threat i.t.o effect on life history 

processes) see Table 4: Integration of threats and ecosystem 

processes. 141 

Conservation status of quaternary catchments in terms of population 

processes (= Extent of each threat to seasonal flow per catchment 

‘score’ X ‘weight’ of threat i.t.o effect on population processes) 

see Table 4: Integration of threats and ecosystem processes. 142 

Conservation status of quaternary catchments in terms of community 

processes (= Extent of each threat to seasonal flow per catchment 

‘score’ X ‘weight’ of threat i.t.o effect on community processes) 

see Table 4: Integration of threats and ecosystem processes. 143

Part 1 


LIST OF FIGURES 

Fig 2.1 Bioregions of the CFK based on Bioregions of South Africa, National 

Biomonitoring Programme (Brown et al, 1996). 10 

Fig 2.2 Geomorphological (sub-regional) classification of rivers in the Cape 

Floristic Kingdom. 13 

Fig 2.3 Major wetlands of the CFK (Sources: Department of Environmental 

Affairs & Tourism and Cape Nature Conservation). 17 

Fig 3.1 Identified areas of high conservation value containing viable 

populations of indigenous freshwater fish. 20 

Fig 3 2 Endemicity of the 19 indigenous freshwater fish species of the Cape 

Floristic Kingdom. 23 

Fig 4.1 Critical areas for the conservation of amphibians and reptiles. 38 

Fig 4.2 Endemicity of the indigenous amphibians of the Cape Floral 

Kingdom. 44 

Fig 4 3 Endemicity of the indigenous reptiles of the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 44 

Fig 5.1 Important Bird Areas associated with freshwater ecosystems in the 

CFK. 62 

Fig 11.1 Geographical extent of threats to freshwater ecosystems in the 

CFK. (See Table 10.1 for source and scale details). 119 

Fig 11.2 Percentage of major threats found per river type. 120 

Fig 11.3 Conservation status of perennial rivers of the CFK, based on GIS 

analysis overlaying “threats layers” see fig 11.1 Threats to freshwater 

ecosystems and digitized rivers of the CFK see fig 2.2. 121 

Fig 11.4 Quaternary Catchments as Selection Units. 123 

Fig 11.5 High-density aliens along rivers. 125 

Fig 11.6 Percentage area covered by ‘high density’ alien vegetation per 

catchment. (Sources: “High-density Aliens”: ARC and IPC, 

Quaternary catchments: DWAF). 126 

Fig 11.7 The number of species of alien fish per catchment (Sources: Alien 

Fish: CNC, Quaternary catchments: DWAF). 127 

Fig 11.8 Percentage of area covered by cultivated land per catchment 

(Sources: Cultivated land ARC and IPC, Quaternary catchments: 

DWAF). 129 

Fig 11.9 Percentage of area covered by plantations per catchment. 

(Sources: Plantation ARC and IPC, Quaternary catchments: DWAF). 130 

xxii 



Part 1 


specific ecosystem process (see chapter 9: threats to freshwater 

ecosystems). 135 

Table 11.10 Classification of catchments ito conservation status. 145 

Table 12.1 The length of each river type conserved within existing 

protected areas. 156 

Table 12.2 Summary of the method used to determine conservation 

priorities. 165 

Appendix Tables 

Table A1.1 Geographic Information Systems (GIS). 183 

Table A10.1 A list of important contacts regarding general information on 

inland waters in the CFK. 242 

Table A10.2 A list of important contacts regarding bird diversity in the CFK. 243 

Table A10.3.1 A list of important contacts regarding mammal diversity in the 

CFK. 244 

Table A10.3.2 A list of people who may still be contacted and their relevant 

field of expertise (information provided by Mike Hoffmann). 244 

Table A10.4 A list of important contacts regarding plant diversity in the CFK. 245 

Table A10.5 A list of important contacts regarding invertebrate diversity in 

the CFK. 246 

Table A11 The aquatic plants of southern Africa. 251 

xx 



Table 7.4 A list of some plant species that can be used as possible 

indicators of various wetland conditions. 85 

Table 8.1 A list of aquatic insect and mite orders for which electronic 

checklists are available. Taken from the web-site: 

http://www.ru.ac.za/departments/zooento/Martin/Aquatics.html 88 

Table 9.1 Summary of threats to flow regime 94 

Table 9.2 Summary of threats to nutrient and sediment dynamics 96 

Table 9.3 Summary of threats to Life history processes 103 

Table 9.4 Summary of threats to Population processes 105 

Table 9.5 Summary of threats to Community processes 107 

Table 10.1 Cumulative table from tables 9.1-9.5, showing the various 

threats to freshwater ecosystems. Threats in italics have a direct 

effect on a particular process; threats in normal font have an 

indirect effect: because of the interaction between various 

ecosystem processes, threats to one process will are also threats 

to other processes. For example, changes in flow regime due to 

dams will change the quantity and velocity of water, which alters 

the amount of sediment and nutrients and other aspects of water 

chemistry. This alters habitat and thus affects which organisms 

can survive, the movement of these organisms up and 

downstream and ultimately the entire aquatic community. 116 

Table 11.1 Sources of data used to generate maps of identified threats, 

together with the scales of originals. IWQS = Institute for Water 

Quality Studies (DWAF), ARC= Agricultural Research Council, 

CNC = Cape Nature Conservation and IPC = Institute for Plant 

Conservation (UCT). 118 

Table 11.2 Conservation status of the river types in each bioregion. 122 

Table 11.3 Weighting of alien vegetation per catchment. 124 

Table 11.4 Categorization of extent of cultivated land per catchment. 128 

Table 11.5 Categorization of extent of plantations per catchment. 128 

Table 11.6 Categorizing dams per catchment based on the number of 

dams per catchment area. 131 

Table 11.7 Weighting the extent of urban areas per quaternary catchment. 131 

Table 11.8 Classification of catchments to conservation status of 

ecosystem processes. 134 

Table 11.9 Integration of threats and ecosystem processes. Spatial extent 

and ‘scores’ of threats are illustrated in section 10.4. Weighting 

of threats in terms of its real impact on ecosystem process were 

based on whether the threats impacts directly or indirectly on that

Part 1 


LIST OF TABLES 

Table 3.1 Primary indigenous freshwater fishes of the Cape Floristic 

Region. 22 

Table 3.2 Contribution of formal conservation areas in the Cape Floristic 

Region towards conserving freshwater fish diversity. 25 

Table 3.3 Contribution of formal conservation areas in the Cape Floristic 

Region towards freshwater fish conservation at the species level. 26 

Table 3.4 State of knowledge of Cape Floristic Kingdom freshwater fishes. 27 

Table 3.5 Main threats to freshwater fishes of the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 30 

Table 3.6 Recent and current research and conservation management 

programmes for freshwater fishes of the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 34 

Table 5.1 List of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) relevant to inland waters and 

estuarine systems in the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 62 

Table 5.2 A list of all bird species closely associated with rivers and 

wetlands in the Cape Floristic Kingdom. Birds that are generally not 

closely associated with aquatic inland systems or have catholic 

habitat requirements are excluded. Species which are occasional 

visitors or vagrants to the region or whose core area falls well 

outside the CFK are also excluded. 65 

Table 5.3 A preliminary Red Data List of threatened bird species that have 

been recorded on rivers and wetlands in the CFK using the latest 

IUCN criteria. Information obtained from Barnes (1998). 68 

Table 6.1 A list of all water-associated mammals recorded in the CFK. 

Taken from Skinner and Smithers (1990). 72 

Table 6.2 List of threatened water-associated mammals found in the CFK. 

Present conservation status is based on the criteria laid out by 

Smithers (1986) while Previous Conservation Status is 

according to Meester (1976) or Skinner et al (1977). 74 

Table 6.3 Endemicity of water-associated mammals recorded in the CFK. 74 

Table 7.1 A preliminary list of threatened aquatic plants found in southern 

Africa. Plant status taken from Hilton-Taylor 1996 or directly 

from Appendix 7. 76 

Table 7.2 A preliminary list of endemic plants found in the Western Cape. 81 

Table 7.3 A preliminary list of some opportunistic or invasive aquatic 

plant species found in southern Africa. Taken from Appendix 10. 82 

xviii 



Part 1 


LIST OF ACRONYMS 

CNC 

CMC 

IPC 

SW 

FRU 

DWAF 

DEA&T 

IWQS 

CFK 

UCT 

KNPRRP 

Cape Nature Conservation 

Cape Metropolitan Council 

Institute for Plant Conservation, UCT 

Southern Waters Ecological Research and Consulting cc 


Department of Water Affairs and Forestry 

Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism 

Institute for Water Quality Studies, DWAF 

Cape Floristic Kingdom 

University of Cape Town 

Kruger National Parks Rivers Research Programme 

xvi 



Acknowledgements 

The authors would like to thank the following individuals and organisations for their 

inputs and contribution that enabled us to complete this project. 

Belinda Day (FRU), Andrea Plos (UCT Zoology), Annelies Le Roux (WCNC), Nick 

Lindenberg (GIS lab at UCT), Sally Archibald (FRU), Karen Goldberg (FRU), 

Charlene Coulsen (FRU), Sandra Sudhoff, Genevieuve Jones (FRU), Dean Impson 

(WCNC), Amanda Younge (WWF-SA). 

Members of the Freshwater Research Unit (FRU), Southern Waters Consulting c.c. 

and the Institute for Plant Conservation at the University of Cape Town (UCT) made 

information available and providing advice. Western Cape Nature Conservation 

Board provided technical support, data sets and facilitated workshops. The Institute 

for Water Quality Studies of the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry provided 

valuable information and spatial data sets. WWF (SA) managed the overall project 

and the Global Environmental Facility (GEF) funded the project. The South African 

Water Research Commission continues to provide support for our research.

Part 1 


If an area has a high conservation value and a high conservation status (fairly 

natural), therefore, that area will not be a priority for conservation in the immediate 

future. The conservation action required should focus on prevention of developments 

that might negatively impact the area of conservation importance. If, however, an 

area has a low conservation status score (has been extensively altered) and is of 

high conservation value, then that area should receive further detailed investigation. 

Such areas are therefore highlighted in the report as priority areas. 

In summary, the aquatic biota of the CFK is diverse, with a high degree of endemism, 

and are greatly threatened by loss of habitat, pollution, water abstraction and alien 

invasive species. Aquatic ecosystems are highly diverse, dynamic and intricately 

dependent on the integrity of their catchments. This report provides an initial 

assessment of some aspects of the diversity of both the biotas and the aquatic 

ecosystems that support them, and indicates the different conservation actions 

required for freshwater ecostsems in the CFK. The data sets that have been collated 

here are in formats that are compatible with that of the terrestrial component this 

project. It is essential that they be integrated in the implementation phase of this 

project where c-plan will be used to desigh a set of reserves that is representative of 

all aspects of biodiversity in the CFK. 

xiv 



We started off by collating a map of the threats to freshwater ecosystems. The major 

threats that were addressed spatially at this scale are: water reservoirs (dams), exotic 

plantations, invasive alien vegetation, alien fish, urban areas and cultivated land. 

These threats were weighted in terms of their relative impact on ecosystem 

processes. These were then overlaid with a map of quaternary catchments, which 

were categorised in terms of the extent of each of the threats within each catchment. 

A matrix was developed to integrate the scores. For instance cultivated land has a 

different impact on life history processes than on sediment dynamics. Cultivation 

therefore received different weightings in terms of its effect on these processes. All 

the quaternary catchments were then evaluated in terms of the spatial extent 

(percentage of area covered) multiplied by the specific effect weight. This analysis 

was repeated for each of the biotic and abiotic ecosystem processes mentioned 

above. In the final analysis conservation status, the totals for the different processes 

were added up. This total score derived for each catchment can be considered as a 

measure of its conservation status. 

Fewer than 15% of catchments are classified here as “relatively intact” and all of 

these occur in areas of lowest rainfall in the study area. Thirty-five percent can be 

considered to be “relatively stable”, while the remaining 50% have been altered to a 

greater degree through anthropogenic activities and contain most of the perennial 

rivers of the CFK. If one considers the fact that most anthropogenic activities occur 

on the lower reaches of rivers (which paints a bleak picture for the ecological integrity 

of our lowland rivers), the need for rehabilitation and guidelines for future 

development becomes a clear priority. The conservation status of a catchment is a 

reflection of the percentage of area per catchment that has been altered, and the 

consequent effects on ecosystem processes. If, for instance, 50% of a catchment has 

been altered, it is likely that the alterations have occurred almost entirely in the entire 

lowland areas, thus affecting lowland rather than upland aquatic ecosystems. 

Ecosystems with a high conservation value but a low conservation status (high level 

of alteration) deserve the most urgent conservation action. In order to identify 

conservation priorities we used a matrix that integrates conservation value and 

status. If a catchment was been identified as an important area for the conservation 

of fish, amphibians or birds it received a high score for conservation value. This score 

was multiplied by the score for conservation status of each catchment. According to 

the resulting score, catchments were categorised into five different conservation 

priority classes: low, medium, high, very high and critical.

Part 1 


An important shift in perspective in recent years has been a move from conserving 

species to a consideration of conservation of more complicated aspects of 

biodiversity, particularly of habitats and of ecosystem processes. At any one point in 

a river all its components, both biotic and abiotic, are completely dependent on 

conditions and processes upstream of that point, and also on the catchment outside 

of the river itself. The conservation of freshwater ecosystems therefore depends on 

the management of their catchments. 

It is now recognised that species cannot be adequately conserved without a 

consideration of the processes that govern and shape their environments. This issue 

is quite difficult to get to grips with, both because our understanding of 'ecosystem 

processes' is still in its infancy, and because it is difficult to find practical ways of 

ensuring the conservation of key ecosystem processes. We started by making a 

broad distinction between biotic and abiotic processes, because, while they are 

related, they need to be addressed in different ways. Abiotic processes are very 

important in aquatic ecosystems, often being the main factors controlling community 

composition and biodiversity. Hydrology, nutrient and sediment dynamics are the 

fundamental abiotic processes that govern the functioning of rivers and wetlands, 

although the biota will also shape and affect abiotic conditions. 

Biotic processes occur at various scales: organisms (individual life histories), 

populations (population dynamics and genetic drift), and communities (food-web 

dynamics, competition). The spatial aspect to the conservation of these processes 

involves identifying the type of habitat required for the functioning of these various 

processes, and then assessing the amount of land required and how it is distributed 

over the landscape. 

When dealing with a life-supporting resource, conservation cannot be seen as 

something separate from development. Not only is freshwater a resource but the 

ecological integrity of freshwater ecosystems is a direct reflection of the manner in 

which the resource is utilised. 

Conservation status gives an indication of the degree to which a specific habitat has 

been altered through anthropogenic activities. It therefore indicates a level of 

pristineness or biotic integrity and of the need for conservation intervention where, for 

example, most of the habitats of the same type have been seriously altered. In 

identifying conservation priorities it is paramount that the conservation status of the 

catchments be determined and integrated with information about conservation value. 

In this way it is possible to rank each area with regard to conservation priority. 

xii 



Aquatic biodiversity in the CFK is protected primarily in mountainous areas, where 

most nature reserves, state forests and other conservation areas, as well as 

mountain catchment areas, are concentrated. Mountains do, however, play a 

significant role in harbouring biodiversity, since human influences, such as urban and 

agricultural development (two of the main culprits in the loss of biodiversity), are 

limited by the sheer nature and hostility of mountainous terrain. Specific areas within 

montane habitats act as significant refugia where, for example, biogeographically 

related phenomena, such as melanism, relict populations, etc., may be conserved. In 

contrast, the rate of loss of biodiversity is significant in the coastal zone and the 

lowlands, where conservation of biodiversity is patchy and fragmented, and often 

seriously compromised due to development pressure in these regions, where greatly 

threatened species such as whitefish (Barbus andrewi) and sandfish (Labeo seeberi) 

occur. 

Important Bird Areas (IBAs) of southern Africa are areas of global conservation value 

with regard to birds and were therefore is useful for identifying key freshwater areas 

in the CFK. While not all listed IBA’s are aquatic, they include all those areas where 

birds benefit either directly or indirectly from the presence of aquatic habitats. 

A list of water-associated mammals recorded in the CFK is provided and includes 

species that, while not truly aquatic, do rely to some extent on functioning aquatic 

systems. 

Relatively little collated information is available for aquatic and riparian vegetation in 

southern Africa and, while some information does exist on water-dependent plants, 

widespread expertise on these taxa appears to be lacking. Distribution data for South 

African vegetation, housed at the National Botanical Institute, Pretoria, has been 

collated in the 'PRECIS' database and can be made available for more detailed 

conservation planning, together with other checklists from various sources. 

Aquatic invertebrates of the CFK are both diverse and highly endemic. A lot of work 

has been done on invertebrates at various institutions, including the Albany Museum 

and the Freshwater Research Unit at the University of Cape Town. Since 

invertebrates are good indicators of water quality and the general condition of riverine 

systems, a comprehensive inventory of this taxon would be an ideal tool for 

assessing the integrity of aquatic systems in the region under investigation. Data are 

not available for the entire region, though, and so this aspect has not been included 

in the present work.

Part 1 


Frogs are useful surrogates because, as both aquatic and terrestrial organisms, their 

habitat requirements range across the habitat requirements of many other species. 

Certain species of fish are also useful as surrogates because they require 

longitudinal continuity of habitat (e.g. between river and floodplain or between main 

stem and tributaries). Conserving their habitat thus provides longitudinal migration 

routes for other organisms between different stretches of river. 

Conservation value refers to the contribution that the conservation of a specific 

habitat can make towards achieving conservation targets for a specific habitat type or 

species. Our assessment of conservation value was based on expert opinion 

regarding the conservation needs of specific taxa. In this study, areas of 

conservation value were derived from studies identifying priority areas for the 

conservation of fish, amphibians, and birds. 

Indigenous freshwater fishes are a priority group for conservation within the CFK 

because 16 of the 19 species are endemic and the majority of these are threatened 

(73%). Alarmingly, 12 species are endangered or critically endangered. This 

ichthyofanua is also unique within an African context, including both Gondwanan 

relicts and endemic genera. The chapter on the conservation needs of fish is based 

on a detailed analysis of the CFK freshwater fish database, mainly based on museum 

specimens, using a geographic information system combined with expert opinion. 

The major threats to fishes of the CFK are predation by, and competition with, 

invasive alien fishes and habitat degradation and destruction by inappropriate 

agricultural development. Placing indigenous fishes within nature reserves does not 

help conserve them if they share their habitat with predatory alien species such as 

smallmouth bass (Micropterus dolomieu) or rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) or 

competitors such as carp (Cyprinus carpio). Permanent eradication of these species 

is necessary within reserves to effectively conserve CFK fishes. 

The reptiles and amphibians of the CFK are recognised as a truly diverse group with 

a relatively high number of endemic species. On a global scale, the distribution 

ranges of many endemic species are obviously miniscule, but in terms of the longterm 

conservation of biodiversity, their conservation ranks very high on conservation 

priority lists. They are also good indicators of centres of biodiversity. South African 

herpetology is still very much in its alpha phase, distribution surveys and taxonomic 

research continuing to turn up new taxonomic entities. 

x 



We know that in different regions of the study area different conditions occur, 

resulting in differences in the nature and biological composition of ecosystems. 

These can be grouped together into broad areas with similar physical characteristics 

and biological communities. Such regions are called bioregions. Different stretches of 

the perennial rivers within each bioregion in turn support entirely different sets of 

organisms, influenced by the physical characteristics of the specific habitat type. For 

instance the organisms that are able to survive in fast-flowing mountain streams are 

different from those adapted to the sluggish warm waters of a lowland river. In this 

study, we classified the riversinto four different types: mountain streams, foothill 

rivers, transitional rivers and lowland rivers. 

Remarkably little information is available on the wetlands of the CFK as ecosystems, 

although a fair amount is known about them as habitats for water birds. This means 

that usable data are sketchy. Given the remarkable degree of diversity of wetlands in 

the CFK, it will be necessary to classify them if we are to be able to conserve 

adequate representatives of the different types. At present, though, no suitable 

classification system is available. A detailed classification of the vegetation of the 

area has been produced as part of the CAPE project (see the accompanying 

document by Cowling et al., 1999), however, and was used in our study to some 

extent to predict the types of wetlands in each area. We have assumed that the 

diversity of minor wetlands will be accounted for through the conservation of 

surrounding terrestrial ecosystems. Furthermore, a preliminary classification exercise 

has been undertaken as part of the detailed study of the wetlands of the Agulhas 

Plain. One of the major subjects that still needs to be addressed in a comprehensive 

conservation plan for the CFK is a more detailed analysis of the wetlands of the CFK. 

Since GIS was used for the terrestrial component of the project, and since integration 

of the terrestrial and aquatic data is imperative for conservation purposes, we also 

used GIS-based tools. GIS-based systems are very sensitive to ‘gaps’ in the data - 

areas for which data are not available. We were thus unable to use much of the 

existing information on riverine organisms because of its fragmentary nature. 

When, in the future, C-plan is used identify the minimum set of reserves 

representative of freshwater and terrestrial ecosystems, only presence-absence data 

can be used. This limits the taxa that can usefully be included in the data set to fish, 

amphibians and birds. We have assumed, though, that if an area is large enough to 

support a viable population of a larger organism such as a fish, it will also provide 

adequate protection for smaller animals, such as insects, for example.

Part 1 


EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

This report addresses the diversity of freshwater ecosystems in the Cape Floral 

Kingdom, as well as the processes that threaten their integrity, and priorities for their 

conservation. The report was the final product of the freshwater component of the 

Cape Action Plan for the Environment (CAPE). 

The primary aim of the project was to produce a map and associated data sets, at a 

scale of 1:250 000, identifying areas of particular importance for the conservation of 

biodiversity associated with freshwater ecosystems in the Cape Floral Kingdom. This 

aim could be met only by understanding the diversity of ecosystems systems in the 

CFK, and the complexity of threats that impact on or alter them, which we did by 

performing a situation assessment. 

The nature and biological composition of freshwater ecosystems is shaped by a wide 

range of factors attributable not only to the specific characteristics of a freshwater 

habitat but also to the processes that occur in the surrounding landscape of its 

catchment. These include geology, topography, vegetation, climate and the 

organisms that inhabit them. But it is not only these natural aspects that shape 

freshwater ecosystems: they are also very sensitive to human activities and the 

ecological integrity of a system is often a direct reflection of the land-use in the 

catchment. 

Since rivers and wetlands physically form the drains and sinks of their catchments, 

they are intimately affected by virtually everything that occurs in the landscape. As a 

result, they suffer both from the impacts that threaten terrestrial ecosystems and also 

from other, more specific, threats that do not affect terrestrial ecosystems. In an arid 

region such as the CFK, it is particularly necessary to anticipate and counteract such 

threats to the integrity of its aquatic ecosystems. 

Rivers are complex four-dimensional systems, comprising longitudinal, lateral (crosssectional) 

and vertical spatial components that change over time and within which 

biotic communities must exist and respond to a variety of fluctuating environmental 

variables. We classified the rivers of the CFK into ecologically similar units by dividing 

them into bioregions and sub-regions so that the conservation value and 

conservation status of like systems could be compared. 

viii 



Part 1 


Appendix 13 

Database containing information used in the GIS analysis to 

compile conservation priority map (figure 12.5). Catchment 

numbers are colour coded for easy reference to its conservation priority 

as illustrated in figure 12.5. 269 

vi 



12.4 Conservation status 160 

12.5 Conservation value 160 

12.6 Conservation priorities 164 

13 Reference List 169 

Appendices 183 

Appendix 1 Spatial data 183 

Appendix 2 Origin of the freshwater fishes recorded within the Cape Floristic 

Kingdom. 189 

Appendix 3 Conservation status of and threats to freshwater fishes of the 

Cape Floristic Kingdom. 191 

Appendix 4 Critical areas including biodiversity hotspots for the 

conservation of primary freshwater fishes of the Cape Floristic Kingdom. 

193 

Appendix 5 Biogeographic status of amphibian and reptile taxa in the Cape Floristic 

Kingdom. 201 

Appendix 6 An annotated checklist of Cape Floristic Kingdom (CFK) 

amphibians and reptiles regarded as sensitive and / or 

threatened, and which may be useful indicators of habitats / landscapes in 

need of conservation attention. List compiled by Ernst Baard (CNC), Bill 

Branch (PEM), Alan Channing (UWC), Atherton de Villiers (CNC) & le 

Fras Mouton (US). Listed in descending proposed IUCN Category order. 

209 

Appendix 7 A list of water-associated birds. 221 

Appendix 8 South African bird “indicator species” associated with rivers 

or wetlands in South Africa. (Sensu Harrison unpubl.) 225 

Appendix 9 Birds as bio-indicators for wetlands in the Western and 

Eastern Cape Provinces. 230 

Appendix 10 Important sources of information. 240 

Appendix 10.1 General contacts 242 

Appendix 10.2 Contacts for birds 243 

Appendix 10.3 Contacts for mammals. 244 

Appendix 10.4 Contacts for aquatic vegetation 245 

Appendix 10.5 Contacts for invertebrates 246 

Appendix 11 Aquatic plants of southern Africa. 251 

Appendix 12 Conservation status of individual river systems. 264

Part 1 


Part 2 

9 Ecosystem processes 91 

9.1 Introduction 91 

9.2 Abiotic processes – rivers 92 

9.3 Abiotic processes- wetlands 96 

9.4 Biotic processes- rivers and wetlands 102 

10 Threats to freshwater ecosystems 109 


10.2 Dams 109 

10.3 Farm dams 110 

10.4 Inter-basin transfers (IBTs) 110 

10.5 Water abstraction 110 

10.6 Afforestation, invasive alien vegetation and destruction of indigenous 

vegetation 111 

10.7 Channel alteration 112 

10.8 Agriculture and livestock farming 112 

10.9 Pollution 112 

10.10 Alien organisms 113 

10.11 Eutrophication 114 

10.12 Clearing of vegetation 114 

10.13 Dumping, reclaiming, and draining 114 

10.14 Sedimentation 115 

11 Conservation status of freshwater ecosystems 117 


11.2 Threat layers 118 

11.3 Conservation status of rivers 118 

11.4 Conservation status analysis of quaternary catchments in terms of the 

extent of threats 123 

11.5 Conservation status of catchments in terms of ecosystems processes 134 

11.6 Conservation status of quaternary catchments 144 

11.7 Conservation status of bioregions 147 

12 Conservation priorities 155 


12.2 The current system of reserves 155 

12.3 Conservation targets 157 

iv 



3.14 Recommendations for the future conservation of CFK freshwater fishes 36 

3.15 Acknowledgements 37 

4 Amphibians and reptiles 39 


4.2 Methods 40 

4.3 Results and discussion 41 

4.4 Legislation protecting CFK herpetofauna 45 

4.5 Utilization of CFK herpetofauna 46 

4.6 Effectiveness of current conservation 47 

4.7 Critical components and threats to the conservation of CFK herpetofauna 48 

4.8 Constraints towards conserving CFK herpetofaunal biodiversity 50 

4.9 Biodiverse, sensitive or threatened geographical areas regarding 

herpetofauna within the CFK 50 

4.10 Recommendations towards the conservation of CFK herpetofauna 56 

4.11 Ongoing research and conservation actions targeted towards CFK 

herpetofauna 56 

4.12 Organizations, institutions and other roleplayers involved in the 

conservation of CFK herpetofauna 57 

4.13 Acknowledgements 58 

5 Freshwater birds 61 


5.2 Water-associated birds 63 

5.3 Important sources of information 67 

6 Water-associated mammals 71 

6.1 Taxonomic data 71 

6.2 Important sources of information 73 

7 Aquatic and riparian vegetation 75 


7.2 Indicator species 84 

7.3 Sources of information 84 

8 Aquatic invertebrates 87 


8.2 Indicator species 87 

8.3 Important sources of information 88

Part 1 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Table of contents 

Executive summary 

Acknowledgements 

List of acronyms 

List of tables 

List of figures 

i 

vii 

xiv 

xv 

xvii 

xxi 

Part 1 

1 Introduction 1 


2 Freshwater ecosystems in the CFK 5 


2.2 Existing information on the biodiversity of the CFK 5 

2.3 Our approach 6 

2.4 Rivers 8 

2.5 Wetlands 12 

3 Freshwater fishes 19 


3.2 Methods 21 

3.3 Results and discussion 23 

3.4 Critical areas for conservation 25 

3.5 Accuracy and status of knowledge 25 

3.6 Protective legislation 28 

3.7 Threats to CFK freshwater fishes 28 

3.8 Constraints to conserving CFK freshwater fishes 29 

3.9 Utilisation of CFK freshwater fishes 31 

3.10 Economic incentives to conserve CFK freshwater fishes 32 

3.11 Effectiveness of current conservation management 33 

3.12 Ongoing research and conservation actions 33 

3.13 Organisations, institutions and other role players involved in conservation 

programmes 35 

ii 



Cape Action Plan for the Environment: 

The conservation of freshwater ecosystems in the Cape 

Floral Kingdom 

G.D.P. van Nieuwenhuizen and J. A. Day (editors) 

Freshwater Research Unit 

University of Cape Town

C.A.P.E. - The Conservation of Freshwater ... - Biodiversity GIS

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