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Frontier Tanzania Environmental Research 

REPORT 99 

Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve 

A Biodiversity Survey 

Frontier Tanzania 

2003

Frontier Tanzania Environmental Research 

REPORT 99 


A Biodiversity Survey 

Staddon, S., Bracebridge, C., Fanning, E., & Howell, K.M. (eds) 

Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, 

Tanzania 

Wildlife Division 

WWF Tanzania Programme Office 

Dar es Salaam 


University of Dar es Salaam 

Society for Environmental Exploration 

Dar es Salaam 

2003

Report citation: 

Frontier Tanzania (2003) Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve: A biodiversity survey. 

Frontier Tanzania Enviromental Research Report 99. Society for Environmental 

Exploration UK, University of Dar es Salaam, Wildlife Division and WWF Tanzania 

Programme Office, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 

Section citation: 

Staddon S. & Bracebridge C. (2003). Results of mid-altitude miombo woodland. In 

Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve: A Biodiversity Survey. pp 7-11.Frontier Tanzania 

Enviromental Research Report 99. Society for Environmental Exploration UK, 

University of Dar es Salaam, Wildlife Division and WWF Tanzania Programme 

Office, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 

Staddon S. & Bracebridge C. (2003). Results of Afro-montane forest grassland mosaic: In 

Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve: A Biodiversity Survey pp.12-15. Frontier Tanzania 


University of Dar es Salaam, Wildlife Division and WWF Tanzania Programme Office, 

Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 

Staddon S. & Bracebridge C. (2003). Discusion and Recommendations: In 

Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve: A Biodiversity Survey pp.12 –15. Frontier Tanzania 


University of Dar es Salaam, Wildlife Division and WWF Tanzania Programme Office, 

Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 

Staddon S. & Bracebridge C. (2003). Conclusions: In Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve: 

A Biodiversity Survey pp. 22.Frontier Tanzania Enviromental Research Report 99. 

Society for Environmental Exploration UK, University of Dar es Salaam, Wildlife 

Division and WWF Tanzania Programme Office, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. 

The Frontier-Tanzania Environmental Research Report Series is published by: 

The Society for Environmental Exploration 

50-52 Rivington Street 

London, EC2A 3QP 

United Kingdom 

Tel: +44 (0)20 7613 3061 

Fax: +44 (0)20 7613 2992 

Email: research@frontier.ac.uk 

Web Page: www.frontier.ac.uk 

ISSN 1479-1161 (Print) 

ISSN 1748-3670 (Online) 

ISSN 1748-5124 (CD-ROM) 

© Frontier-Tanzania 2003, 2005

Worldwide Fund For Nature – Tanzanian Programme Office (WWF-TPO) 

The Worldwide Fund for Nature – Tanzanian Programme Office is a non-profit organisation, whose larger 

counterpart WWF works worldwide on a range of conservation, environmental and community-based 

projects. WWF-TPO has been working in the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve since July 2001, in 

collaboration with the Wildlife Division, District councils of Njombe and Makete and local communities, to 

establish and facilitate an effective management system for this newly gazetted area. It aims to support 

ecological monitoring and research of the game reserve, initiatives to boost the economy of local 

communities and to reduce unsustainable use of natural resources within the reserve. WWF-TPO will work 

in Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve until June 2005. 

Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve (Wildlife Division) 

The Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve, located in the Southern highlands of Tanzania, was gazetted on 21 st 

August 2002, in recognition of it’s value as a water catchment area and it’s high biodiversity of flora and 

fauna. It covers an area of 1,574 km 2 and an altitudinal range of 1 080m asl – 2 858m asl with two main 

habitat types, afro-montane forest-grassland mosaic and mid-altitude miombo woodland. It is managed by 

the Wildlife Division, Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, with initial support from WWF-TPO to 

implement effect management strategies. 

The University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) 

The University of Dar es Salaam was established in July 1970 as a centre for learning and research in the 

arts and the physical, natural, earth, marine, medical and human sciences. The University is surveying and 

mapping the flora and fauna of Tanzania and is conducting research into the maintenance and improvement 

of the environment and the sustainable exploitation of Tanzania’s natural resources. 

The Society for Environmental Exploration (SEE) 

The Society is a non-profit making company limited by guarantee and was formed in 1989. The Society’s 

objectives are to advance field research into environmental issues and implement practical projects 

contributing to the conservation of natural resources. Projects organised by The Society are joint initiatives 

developed in collaboration with national research agencies in co-operating countries. 

Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme (FT FRP) 

The Society for Environmental Exploration and the University of Dar es Salaam have been conducting 

collaborative research into environmental issues since July 1989 under the title of Frontier Tanzania, of 

which one component is the Frontier-Tanzania Forest Research Programme (FT FRP). Biological field 

surveys were conducted in the coastal forests from 1989 to 1994, in the East Usambara mountains in 

collaboration with EUCAMP, Tanga from 1995-2002, the Udzungwa mountains in collaboration with 

MEMA, Iringa 1999-2001 and has commenced activities in the Mahenge mountains 2003. 

FOR MORE INFORMATION: 

Department of Zoology & Marine Biology 

University of Dar es Salaam 

P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

Tel: 255-22-2410462 

E-mail: zoology@udsm.ac.tz 

WWF-Tanzania Programme Office 

P.O. Box 63117, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, 

Tel: 255-22-2775346 

E-mail: tzrep@wwftz.org 



Tel: 255-22-2700729 

E-mail: frontier@twiga.com 

Society for Environmental Exploration 

50-52 Rivington Street, London, U.K. 

Tel: +44 20 76 13 30 61 

Fax: +44 20 76 13 29 92 

E-mail: research@frontier.ac.uk 


P.O. Box 66, Illembula, Njombe 

District, Tanzania, 

Tel: 255-26-2730089 

E-mail: mpangawildlife@yahoo.com

Mpanga / Kipengere Game Reserve; A Biodiversity Survey 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Table of Contents .....................................................................................................................................................................iii 

Executive Summary..................................................................................................................................................................iii 

Foreward .....................................................................................................................................................................................iii 

Acknowledgements ..................................................................................................................................................................iii 

1. Introduction........................................................................................................................................................................ 3 

2. Study Site............................................................................................................................................................................ 3 

2.1 Location ..................................................................................................................................................................... 3 

2.2 Geology and terrain.................................................................................................................................................. 3 

2.3 Climate....................................................................................................................................................................... 3 

2.4 History and status..................................................................................................................................................... 3 

3. Methodology...................................................................................................................................................................... 3 

3.1 Flora ............................................................................................................................................................................ 3 

3.2 Fauna.......................................................................................................................................................................... 3 

3.3 Human resource-use................................................................................................................................................ 3 

4. Results................................................................................................................................................................................. 3 

4.1 Mid-altitude miombo woodland............................................................................................................................. 3 

4.2 Afro-montane forest-grassland mosaic................................................................................................................. 3 

5. Discussion and Recommendations ................................................................................................................................ 3 

5.1 Flora................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 

5.2 Fauna................................................................................................................................................................................. 3 

5.3 Human resource-use....................................................................................................................................................... 3 

6. Conclusion.......................................................................................................................................................................... 3 

7. Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................................... 3 

Appendix 1: Taxonomic verifications.................................................................................................................................... 3 

Appendix 2: Summary of sampling effort of each survey technique employed............................................................. 3 

Appendix 3: Summary of weather conditions during each fieldwork phase................................................................... 3 

2a. Dry season phase:........................................................................................................................................................... 3 

2b. Wet season phase:........................................................................................................................................................... 3 

Appendix 4: Summary details of worksite bases/zoological trapsites.............................................................................. 3 

Appendix 5: Summary details of vegetation plots............................................................................................................... 3 

Appendix 6: Summary details of transects used to detect animal signs and human resource-use. ............................. 3 

6a. Dry Season....................................................................................................................................................................... 3 

6b. Wet Season ...................................................................................................................................................................... 3 

Appendix 7: Vegetative Data................................................................................................................................................... 3 

Appendix 8: Mammal Data...................................................................................................................................................... 3 

Appendix 10: Reptile Data....................................................................................................................................................... 3 

Appendix 11: Amphibian Data................................................................................................................................................ 3 

Appendix 12: Butterfly Data.................................................................................................................................................... 3 

Appendix 13: Sketch map of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve. ............................................................................. 3 

Appendix 14: Images of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve ...................................................................................... 3 

TABLE OF FIGURES AND TABLES 

Table 1 Summary of biodiversity taxa surveyed.........................................................................................................................iii 

Table 2 A summary of fauna recorded in mid-altitude miombo woodlands of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve 

(refer to Appendix 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12) .................................................................................................................................. 3 

Table 3 Summary results of a pole and timber cutting survey across miombo woodlands of the Mpanga/Kipengere 

Game Reserve............................................................................................................................................................................. 3 

Table 4 A summary of fauna recorded in the afro-montane forest-grassland mosaic of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game 

Reserve. ....................................................................................................................................................................................... 3 

Table 5 Summary results of a pole and timber cutting survey within forest-grassland mosaic of the 

Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve. ........................................................................................................................................ 3 

Table 6 A summary of floral diversity recorded throughout the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve................................. 3 

Table 7 A summary of faunal diversity and species of biological or conservation interest recorded throughout the 

Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve. ........................................................................................................................................ 3 

Figure 1 Map of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve............................................................................................................. 3 

Frontier Tanzania Environmental Research Report 99 

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve, in the Southern highlands of Tanzania, was gazetted in August 2002. It 

is situated in Njombe and Makete districts, Iringa region, and covers 1,574 km2, encompassing mainly 

afro-montane forest-grassland mosaic and mid-altitude miombo woodland, with an elevational range of 

between 1,080m to 2,858m a.s.l. 

The area is well documented in terms of its water catchment properties, but little is known of the exact 

biodiversity values. In early 2002 WWF-TPO approached the Frontier-Tanzania Forest Research 

Programme (FT FRP) to conduct a baseline biodiversity survey of the reserve. Jointly funded by both 

organisations, the survey was completed over two 10-week fieldwork ‘phases’ during late 2002 and early 

2003, one phase coinciding with the dry season and one with the wet. This arrangement allowed temporal 

variations in species and habitats to be investigated and accounted for. Both zoological and vegetation work 

was conducted throughout the reserve, including trapping, casual observations and collections, large 

mammals and disturbance transects and vegetation plots. This report serves to detail the findings of the FT 

FRP biodiversity survey of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve. It provides an inventory of flora and 

fauna compiled throughout both phases of fieldwork, highlighting records of particular interest. An 

assessment of the level of human resource-use within the area was also made, giving the extent and 

potential threat of each form of ‘disturbance’ recorded. Table 1 summaries species richness and species of 

particular conservation and/or biological interest. 

Table 1 Summary of biodiversity taxa surveyed 

Taxa Miombo woodland Forest-grassland mosaic Total ** 

Number 

of 

species 

Species of 

biol./cons. 

interest * 

Number of 

species 

Species of 


interest * 

Number of 

species 

Species of 


interest * 

Trees / shrubs 133 22 89 5 213 27 

Herbs / grasses 33 0 61 6 91 6 

Ferns 2 0 4 0 5 0 

Mammals 51 2 31 7 63 9 

Birds - - - - 199 18 

Reptiles 24 11 13 8 33 18 

Amphibians 13 2 15 3 24 5 

Butterflies 128 5 61 3 169 8 

Total 384 42 274 33 797 91 

* This includes species listed as range restricted, of conservation concern, forest-dependent or for which the record in the reserve represents a 

distribution or altitudinal range extension, but does NOT include the number of forest dwelling species 

** The total figures represent the number of species recorded throughout both miombo woodland and forest-grassland habitats, they do not simply 

add the number of species found in both habitats as some repetition or overlap in species was noted 

Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve has significant conservation value on local, national and international 

levels. The forest-grassland mosaic forms the WWF-designated Eco-region 76, designated a conservation 

status of Critical/Endangered. Southern and Eastern African flora and fauna converge in the Southern 

Highlands and over 120 plant and animal taxa are endemic to the area. Due to its rich grassland bird 

community, the area falls within the ‘Tanzanian/Malawi mountains’ Birdlife International Endemic Bird 

Area (No. 105). The area is a critical dry-season refuge for game including elephant, buffalo, Greater 

Kudu, duikers, dik-dik, bushpig, warthog, baboons, Vervet monkeys and Black and White colobus. The 

Igando-Igawa wildlife corridor links the north of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve with the Usangu 

Game Reserve, itself linked to the Ruaha National Park. It is an area rich in biodiversity and is comparable 

to the Kitulo Plateau, a recently gazetted National Park. 

With regard to fauna surveyed, the reserve is home to 487 species of which 59 species hold particular 

interest for their conservation and biological value, such as the globally threatened Blue swallow (Hirundo 

atrocaerulea) and the locally vulnerable (IUCN) Black and White Colobus (Colobus angolensis sharpei). 


ii


It also has a rich diversity of flora with 309 species, of which 33 hold particular interest, such as the 

orchids, that are illegally traded to Zambia and Malawi, Brachycorythis pleistophylla, Disa sp. and 

Roeperocharis bennettiana (Davenport & Ndangalasi 2001). The habitats and species of 

Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve are under threat from agriculture, charcoal production, pitsawing, 

grazing, hunting and the illegal orchid trade. Despite the fire-climax nature of the grasslands, excessive and 

uncontrolled burning may degrade areas of natural vegetation. 

The information collected will be used for management planning by WWF-TPO and the Wildlife Division. 

The survey results will also form a baseline for future monitoring work. 

Animal specimens have been deposited at the Department of Zoology and Marine Biology, University of 

Dar es Salaam and sent on loan to: The British Museum of Natural History, London; California Academy 

of Sciences, California; Southern highlands Project, Mbeya; Chicago Field Museum, Chicago; Zoological 

Museum, Copenghagen. Appendix 1 provides contact details. 

Botanical specimens are held at the National Herbarium of Tanzania (NHT) in Arusha and Missouri 

Botanical Gardens, USA. 


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FOREWORD 

The Kipengere/Mpanga Game Reserve in South-western Tanzania is part of the commonly known as 

Southern Highlands that belong to the Southern Rift Montane Forest/Grassland Eco-region – one of the 

areas renown for it’s unique habitats of high conservation value. The Kipengere/Mpanga Game Reserve 

itself is an important area for biodiversity conservation due to the variety of habitats found there caused by 

variation in topography, altitude and climate, the major habitat types being heath grassland, riverine forest 

and miombo woodland/forest. 

The Kipengere/Mpanga Game Reserve was established in 2001 by the Ministry of Natural Resources and 

Tourism (through the Wildlife Division) with support from WWF-Tanzania Programme Office (WWF- 

TPO) in order to conserve these important features and habitats. Up until 2001, this was the only ecoregion 

in Tanzania that had no formal protection nor was it represented in the protected areas mosaic of 

Tanzania. Besides being a dry season refuge for large game such as the African elephant (Loxondonta 

Africana) and the African buffalo (Syncerus Caffer), the Kipengere/Mpanga Game Reserve is a critical 

catchment for the Great Ruaha River and its associated Usangu wetlands. 

In order to understand the biodiversity of the Game Reserve more thoroughly, WWF-TPO approached 

Frontier Tanzania (FT)-a collaboration between the University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania; and the Society 

for Environmental Exploration, in the UK; to undertake a biodiversity survey of the area. Jointly funded by 

both organisations, the survey was completed over two 10 week field phases (dry and wet season) with the 

help of voluntary research assistants between July to September 2002 and March to June 2003. While the 

general importance of the area for conservation have been appreciated for a number of years, the findings 

presented in this report are the results of the first mayor investigations to take place in the area. These 

findings provide baseline information on the biological values of the different habitats within the Game 

Reserve as a basis for management planning and long term monitoring. 

We hope that this report will contribute to efforts to study and understand the unique ecosystems of the 

Southern Highlands, adding important information to our understanding of biodiversity and opening doors 

to continued research and conservation efforts. Even more then that we hope that this information will 

contribute to the development of a thorough and well informed management plan, conservation practices 

and monitoring programme to insure that future generations living, working and visiting this area will see it 

for the beauty that it is today. 

Dr. Hermann Mwageni 

Country Representative-WWF-TPO 


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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

This report is the culmination of the advice, co-operation, hard work and expertise of many people. In 

particular we would like to acknowledge and thank the following people: 

WORLDWIDE FUND FOR NATURE – TANZANIAN PROGRAMME OFFICE 

Country Representative 

Project Executive for Mpanga 

Botanist 

Dr. Herman Mwagene 

Mr Clement Mabula 

Mr Omari Kibure 

WILDLIFE DIVISION 

Mpanga/Kipengere Game 

Reserve Project Manager 

Usangu Game Reserve 

Natural Resources Department, 

Njombe 

Mr Issai Swai 

Mr Masawe & Mr Chisanyo 

Mr Msovella 

SOCIETY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EXPLORATION 

Managing Director: 

Ms Eibleis Fanning 

Programme Development Manager: Mr Alessandro Badalotti & Ms Elizabeth Humphreys 

Programme Manager: 

Ms Nicola Beharrell 

Operations Manager: 

Mr Matthew Wilson 

USDM 

FT Co-ordinators 

Dr. M.Muruke & Prof. K.M. Howell 

FRONTIER-TANZANIA 

DSM Co-ordinator: 

Project Co-ordinator 

Research Co-ordinators: 

Assistant Research Co-ordinators: 

Logistics Manager: 

Research Assistants: 

Field Assistants 

FT Drivers: 

Game Guards: 

Ms. Elizabeth Tapper 

Ms Jessica Ward 

Ms Claire Bracebridge & Ms Sam Staddon 

Ms Polly Anderson, Mr Peter Knamiller, Mr Steve Ryder, Ms 

Rosalind Salter & Ms Jillian Smith 

Ms Claire Latham 

Mr Emmanuel Salyeem (UDSM), Ms Helen Binks, Ms Elisabeth 

Bywaters, Mr Michael Carey, Mr Jimmy Choi, Ms Tamarind Falk, 

Ms Katy Grogan, Ms Laura Goodall, Mr Mark Harrison, Ms Ruth 

Jackson, Mr Melvin Jarman,, Mr Ed Jenner, Mr Donald Malone, Ms 

Marie Mapstone, Mr James Plumb, Mr Thomas Pynn, Mr 

Christopher Seagrove, Mr Luke Sidebottom, Ms Keren Stead, Mr 

Andrew Stringer, Mr Daniel Taylor, Ms Jenny Williams & Mr 

Winston Woodward 

Mr Lumumba J. Hanyabwisye, Mr Simon Luponezo Lulandala, Mr 

Shabani Ali Magwila, Mr Abel Isaka Mgao, Mr Riziki Minila & Mr 

Ramathan Rajabu 

Mr Betram Hyera & Mr Rashid Limaga 

Mr Elias Korosso (Natural Resources Department, Usangu) 

Mr Stephen Mgaya (Natural Resources Department, Usangu) 

Mr Obed Ngaillo (Natural Resources Department, Njombe) 

Mr Kassion Luwanga (MBOMIPA Project, Anti-poaching Unit, Iringa) 


v


Cook: 

Mr Kalisto Mwageni 

WILDLIFE CONSERVATION SOCIETY OF TANZANIA 

Ornithologist 

Mr Elias Mungaya 

We are also grateful to all of the taxonomists listed in Appendix 1 for providing us with the identifications 

of the zoological specimens. 

Editorial Comments: 

Ms Nicola Beharrell, SEE; Prof. K. Howell, UDSM, Mr Clement Mabula, 

WWF-TPO & Dr Hermann Mwageni, WWF. 

We would also like to express gratitude to Mr Joseph Mbogela from Makete District Council for his 

support. Many people from the villages and towns of Ilembula, Njombe, Mpanga, Kimani, Mfumbi, 

Usalimwani, Wangama, Imalilo, Nkenja, Ikuwo and Matenga are also thanked for all their help and 

assistance. Lastly, many thanks go to the extreme hard work and motivation of the survey team. 


vi


1. INTRODUCTION 

In a collaborative venture, the Wildlife Division (Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism) and the 

Worldwide Fund for Nature–Tanzania Programme Office (WWF-TPO) are working to manage and protect 

the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve in the Southern Highlands. Although the area’s valuable water 

catchment properties are well documented, little is known of its biodiversity value. In order to rectify this 

situation, in early 2002 WWF-TPO approached the Frontier-Tanzania Forest Research Programme (FT 

FRP) to conduct a detailed baseline biodiversity survey of the reserve 1 . Jointly funded by both 

organisations, the survey was completed over two 10-week fieldwork ‘phases’ during late 2002 and early 

2003, one phase coinciding with the dry season and one with the wet. This arrangement allowed temporal 

variations in species and habitats to be investigated and accounted for. 

The objectives of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve Biodiversity Survey are: 

1. To conduct a biological survey as a baseline against which future monitoring activities may be based in 

order to detect changes in biodiversity status; 

2. To provide information on the biological value of different sites within the area and assist in the 

identification of areas most suitable for biodiversity conservation; 

3. To provide information on human disturbance and levels of resource use; 

4. To train Tanzanian personnel from USDM, expatriate volunteers and any others (project participants) 

in biological survey techniques; 

5. To provide a medium through which there is potential for project participants to gain the BTEC 

qualification Tropical Habitat Conservation (equivalent to a British A-level), funding dependent; 

6. To raise awareness of the biodiversity values of the Southern Highlands nationally and internationally 

through discovery of unique taxa; 

7. To contribute to global biodiversity assessment and conservation efforts through collaboration with 

specialists elsewhere. 

This report serves to detail the findings of the FT FRP biodiversity survey of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game 

Reserve. It provides an inventory of flora and fauna compiled throughout both phases of fieldwork, 

highlighting records of particular interest. An assessment of the level of human resource-use within the area 

is also made, giving the extent and potential threat of each form of ‘disturbance’ recorded. This report is 

aimed at managers, conservationists and scientists alike and it is hoped that it will help in some way to 

ensure the future protection of this extremely valuable and interesting site. 

1 The FT FRP (a collaboration between the University of Dar es Salaam and UK based Society for Environmental Exploration) has 

been successfully undertaking such surveys of Tanzania’s Eastern Arc and Coastal forests since 1989 and has produced a number 

of reports detailing their findings. 


1


2. STUDY SITE 

2.1 Location 

The Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve lies in Tanzania’s Southern Highlands (Figure 1). Located in the 

Regions of Mbeya, Rukwa and Iringa, the Southern Highlands extend from the watershed of Lake Nyasa 

through the Matengo Plateau, the Poroto Mountains, the Livingstone Mountains and the Kipengere Range 

to the Mufindi Plateau. The Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve covers an area of 1,574 km 2 (157,425 ha) in 

the east of the Southern Highlands and is situated within the Districts of Njombe and Makete, in the Region 

of Iringa. It is to be found at latitudes between 34 0 00 and 34 0 30’E and longitudes between 8 0 45’ and 

9 0 15’S. The nearest major settlements are Njombe (50 km to the south-east), Iringa (195 km to the northeast) 

and Mbeya (135 km to the west). 

2.2 Geology and terrain 

The Southern Highlands comprises mountain ranges, plateaus and volcanoes and includes the two highest 

peaks in southern Tanzania, Mount Mtorwi and Mount Rungwe (2,961 and 2,960m a.s.l. respectively). Rift 

Valley faulting in the Late Cretaceous period formed these peaks while subsequent volcanic activity 

resulted in deposits of lava and ash, adding to the area’s geological interest (SHCP 2002). 

Altitude within the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve varies between 1,080m to 2,858m a.s.l. and can be 

divided into ‘midland’ (1,000 – 1,500m a.s.l.) and ‘highland’ (> 1,500m a.s.l) areas. The midlands are 

located in the northern half of the reserve, whilst to the south the highlands correspond to the Kipengere 

Range and the southern section of the Lugala Mountains. 

Across the northern midlands a few small hills rise to 300m above generally low-lying terrain. The 

Mbarali, Mlombonje, Kimani, Mpanga and Kipera rivers drain northwards across this area, passing outside 

of the reserve and into the Usangu Wetlands and associated swamplands of the Great Ruaha River. The 

Lugala Mountains escarpment dissects the entire reserve, rising steadily from approximately 1,500m a.s.l in 

the north-east of the reserve (in the midlands) to 2,500m a.s.l at the south-eastern reserve border (in the 

highlands). The southern reserve borders lie along the east-west aligned Kipengere Range, which rises 

steeply above numerous valleys winding to the north and south. 

Mpanga/Kipengere 

Game Reserve 

Figure 1 Map of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve 


2


2.3 Climate 

Whilst the Eastern Arc derives its moisture from inshore breezes from the Indian Ocean, the Southern 

Highlands receives its rainfall through convectional uplift from Lake Nyasa. Annual rainfall averages 

1,500mm across the area, but some areas receive up to 2,900mm a year, the highest in Tanzania. The 

majority of rain falls between November and April. Temperatures average a maximum of 22 0 C and a 

minimum of 10 0 C, although frost is common on the highest ground between May and July. Temperatures 

of –7 0 C have been recorded on the Kitulo Plateau, which neighbours the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve 

(SHCP 2002). 

2.4 History and status 

Whilst the highland area of the Kipengere Range remains sparsely populated, people have increasingly 

taken advantage of fertile soils by clearing areas for cultivation along river valleys and in lower-lying 

woodland to the north. Immigrants from Mbeya, Mbarali, Rungwe and Makambako have been blamed for 

such activities (Swai 1999). In areas where unreliable rainfall has meant cultivation is unprofitable, pole 

and timber extraction, charcoal production and hunting has taken place. Loss of tree cover and soil erosion 

have been associated with such land-use changes. 

Five major rivers drain from the highland areas of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve, joining to form 

the Great Ruaha River. This river feeds wetland eco-systems of the Usangu plains and the Ruaha National 

Park, irrigates agricultural areas, serves the Mtera reservoir and supplies countless human populations with 

water on it’s path to the Rufiji River and delta. National concern over the sustainability of water supplies 

from the Ruaha River became evident in 1995 when power rationing was put into operation in response to 

low water levels at the Mtera reservoir. Along with irrigation schemes and over-grazing in the Usangu 

plains, land-use changes in upland catchment areas have been blamed for this decrease in water supply 

predictability. 

Although the importance of the Kipengere highlands as a water catchment area prompted initial concerns 

regarding its conservation as early as 1975, budget restrictions meant that it was not proposed as a Game 

Reserve to the Prime Minister’s Office until 1999. The area received official recognition and government 

protection only on 21 st August 2002. 

The ‘Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve Project’ is a collaborative undertaking between the Wildlife 

Division (Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism) and WWF-TPO. The project initiated its work in the 

area by entering into discussion with District Councils and local communities concerning the location of 

reserve borders. The project is currently undertaking demarcation of reserve boundaries and aims not only 

to provide patrols of the area but to develop Community Based Conservation (CBC) efforts in order to 

integrate the protection of natural resources with the future of local people. Public meetings and discussions 

with local community leaders have highlighted that Income Generating Activities that do not conflict with 

the conservation goal are possible. These might include ecotourism, beekeeping, gardening, timber-tree, 

crop, livestock and fish farming. Building the capacities of Village Environmental Committees will allow 

them to establish and manage such alternative schemes as tree nurseries, reforestation initiatives and 

integration of environmental conservation with farming activities. 


3


3. METHODOLOGY 

Fieldwork was conducted during two ten-week ‘phases’, one coinciding with the dry season and one with 

the wet. During the first phase survey work was carried out from four main ‘basecamps’, each lasting for 

two weeks. The second phase had two four-week basecamps due to logistical constraints and road access 

during the wet season. These camps were positioned across the reserve in order to encompass as wide a 

variety of habitats and altitudes as possible. Work was conducted from each basecamp during day 

excursions and from a number of ‘satellite camps’. These were located within a days walk from a basecamp 

and lasted for four or five days, enabling a small number of the survey team to access more remote areas. 

Survey work concentrated on investigations of the reserve’s flora, fauna and human resource-use. A variety 

of tried and tested techniques were used to study each of these, with methods based on those employed by 

FT FRP in the East Usambara Biodiversity Survey (SEE Methodology, 1998). 

3.1 Flora 

• Vegetation plots (VPs) 

Semi-permanent plots of 50 m x 50 m were temporarily established using four lengths of 50 m rope, 

aligned north-south and east-west using a compass. Within each VP work concentrated on trees and shrubs 

of 10 cm or greater diameter at breast height (dbh), in which each stem had to be > 10 cm dbh in order to 

be recorded. The dbh of all such individuals was measured at 1.3 m using a calibrated dbh tape, from the 

up-slope side of individuals growing on a hillside and from the under-side of a lean of any individuals that 

were growing at an angle. Red gloss paint was used to mark the point of dbh measurement and to assign 

each tree with a plot number (above the line marking the point of measurement) and individual, sequential 

tree number (below the line). All data were recorded on standard recording forms and included the habitat, 

altitude, GPS location, soil and rock type, and water association of each VP. 

Vegetation plots were arranged in a stratified-random pattern across the reserve. Approximately equal 

numbers of VPs were established from each of the four main work bases and therefore within each of the 

major habitat types found within the reserve. Exact VP locations were chosen by the botanist or survey 

leader in order to gather data from sites representative of both habitat and altitude within the reserve. 

• Regeneration plots (RPs) 

In order to survey both regenerating trees and shrubs and the ground-layer flora, five plots of 2 m x 2 m 

were temporarily established within each VP, using red plastic tags in each corner. Within each RP all 

vascular plants of less than 10 cm dbh were identified. Individuals were not counted nor marked in any 

way. All data were again recorded on standard recording forms, referenced to those for the VP in which the 

RP was located. 

• Opportunistic observations and collection 

Plant material was observed and collected on an opportunistic basis throughout the reserve. It was hoped 

that such work would supplement the standard quantitative methods employed by ensuring that those 

species not recorded in either VPs or RPs were represented in the species inventory. 

A botanist was employed to identify all individuals recorded in VPs and RPs and on the opportunistic basis. 

When necessary and if possible, up to six specimens of leaves and preferably flowers and fruits were taken 

to aid identification of an individual. All specimens were pressed and dried in the field and later identified 

in the University of Dar es Salaam herbarium and the National Herbarium of Tanzania, Arusha, with 

specimens also being sent to Missouri Botanical Gardens. 


4


3.2 Fauna 

• Sherman traps 

Sherman traps (90mm x 80mm x 230mm) were used to survey the small mammal fauna of the reserve. At 

each main camp 50 traps were set for 8 nights. During the dry season phase each satellite camp used 8 traps 

which were set for 3 nights, whilst the wet season phase, teams used 25 traps for 4 nights. Traps were 

placed within different habitats and micro-habitats at each ‘trapsite’ and detailed habitat notes and location 

details were taken for each trap. Traps were baited with fried coconut and peanut butter and set before dusk 

each day. In the highest altitude sites grass and bracken was put in the trap as an insulator for any animals 

that might be captured. Traps were checked early in the morning and data regarding the capture of any 

animals and details of the individuals involved was recorded on standardised data sheets. This included 

preliminary identification, sex, weight, biometrics and pelage colour. If not taken as specimens, animals 

were marked by clipping a small area of fur in a given pattern and released unharmed. 

• Bucket pitfall drift fence 

During the wet season phase of work, one bucket pitfall trap line with a drift fence was incorporated in to 

the main zoological worksite. The aim was to try to target more systematically the amphibian and reptile 

populations, as well as that of small mammals, in particular shrews. One 50m linear transect was created 

whereby eleven 10 litre plastic buckets, spaced 5 m apart, were sunk into the ground with their rims flush 

to ground level. A sheet of vertical plastic (approximately 0.5m high) was run along the bucket line 

crossing the centre of each bucket to form a ‘drift fence’. Animals moving into the area from either side 

would be channelled along the plastic towards the bucket traps. Traps were checked early each morning for 

the duration of the trapsite period and data regarding the identification of each animal captured was 

recorded on standardised data sheets. 

• Animal sign transects 

In order to survey larger and more cryptic animals, dung, tracks or other animal signs were recorded along 

a 4m wide 200m long transect. Transects were arranged randomly throughout the reserve, starting in 

representative habitats and following a bearing selected by throwing a stick and following the direction in 

which it pointed. The bearing was kept using a compass and the transect completed in four 50m sections, 

each temporarily demarcated by a length of rope. Data were recorded on standard recording forms that 

included the altitude and habitat of all transects. (These transects doubled as those to survey signs of human 

resource-use). 

• Bat netting 

Mist-nets were used to survey the bat fauna of the reserve. A variety of sizes of nets (3m, 6m, 9m and 12m 

long) were erected in various formations, generally along predicted bat flight-paths such as animal paths, 

rivers and streams. Detailed habitat notes and location details were taken for each net. Nets were opened at 

dusk for varying lengths of time during which they were checked every 15 minutes. Data regarding the 

capture of any animals and details of the individuals involved were recorded on standard recording forms. 

This included preliminary identification, sex, weight, biometrics and pelage colour. If not taken as 

specimens, animals were released unharmed. 

• Bird survey 

Bird surveys were conducted between dawn and dusk using a combination of sight, mist-nets and calls. 

Binoculars (8 x 42mm) and telescope (20 x 60) were used in direct observations. A combination of up to 

eight 9m and 12m long mist-nets were erected in various formations and opened from dawn until dusk for 

two days at each study site. Nets were checked every 30 minutes and birds were released unharmed after 

recording the identification, sex and age. No timed point-counts or transects were used. An ornithologist 

was employed to implement these surveys and record all species identified. Casual lists were also collected 

by the field team and have been added to the bird list produced by the ornithologist. These are clearly 

marked as additional sightings in Appendix 9. 

• Timed man-hour searches 

The reptile and amphibian fauna of the reserve was surveyed through timed searches. Searches were 

conducted during both the day and night and were of various lengths, with various numbers of survey 


5


members. Data were recorded on standard recording forms and included the survey effort, habitat and 

altitude of each search, as well as the identification of any captures. If not taken as specimens, captures 

were released unharmed. 

• Sweepnetting 

Sweepnets were used to survey the low-flying butterfly fauna of the reserve. Netting took place around 

midday, employing up to four survey members. Netting sites were chosen to represent all habitats and 

altitudes within the reserve. Data were recorded on standard recording forms and again, included the survey 

effort, habitat and altitude of each netting session, as well as the identification of any butterfly captured. If 

not taken as specimens, butterflies were released unharmed. 

• Canopy traps 

Four Blendon-style canopy traps were used to survey high-flying butterflies not targeted by sweepnets. 

Traps were placed in different habitats between four and 10m above the ground, and were opened for a 

minimum of 8 days at each site, baited with fermented banana. Data were recorded as for the sweepnetting 

and again if not taken as specimens, butterflies were released unharmed. 

• Opportunistic observation and collection 

In order to supplement the standard and quantifiable methods listed above, all animal taxa were observed 

and collected on an opportunistic basis throughout the reserve. It was hoped that this would allow a more 

complete inventory of the reserve’s fauna to be compiled. Local hunters and residents were also asked to 

produce a list of animals that they believed to be living within the reserve but that were not recorded during 

the present survey. 

Available literature was used to make preliminary identifications of all species captured in the field, 

however a variety of experts were consulted in order to verify the identification. Wherever possible, two 

individuals (one male, one female) of each species recorded were taken as specimens and sent to 

taxonomists (Appendix 1). Specimens were also taken of anything that could not be confidently identified 

in the field or cross-referenced to a specimen already taken. Where indirect evidence was used, for instance 

in the animal sign transects, identifications were based on discussion with trained Game Guards and locally 

employed Field Assistants and by using available literature. 

3.3 Human resource-use 

• ‘Disturbance transects’ 

Signs of human resource-use (or ‘disturbance’) were recorded along a 4m wide 200m long transect. Such 

signs were taken to include evidence of pole and timber cutting, fire, charcoal production, cultivation and 

pitsawing. In order to compare the extent of wood extraction with natural growth rates, the number of live, 

naturally dead and cut poles (5-15cm dbh) and timbers (> 15cm dbh) were recorded along the entire 

transect. Transects were arranged randomly throughout the reserve, starting in representative habitats and 

following a bearing selected by throwing a stick and following the direction in which it pointed. The 

bearing was kept using a compass and the transect completed in four 50m sections, each temporarily 

demarcated by a length of rope. Data were recorded on standard recording forms that included the altitude 

and habitat of all transects. (These transects doubled as those to survey signs of large and cryptic animals). 

• Opportunistic observations 

Observations of human resource-use were made in each vegetation plot and throughout the reserve. Again, 

it was hoped that this would complement the standard quantifiable methods employed and give a fuller 

picture of the state of the reserve with regards to human impact. 


6


4. RESULTS 

1,878 researcher-days were spent conducting a survey of floral and faunal diversity and human resourceuse 

of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve. Survey work was conducted during the dry season between 

26 th June and 4 th September 2002, and during the wet season between 5 th April and 9 th June 2003. Please 

refer to Appendix 2 for a detailed account of survey effort for each of the following research areas; flora, 

fauna and human resource-use. 

Two major habitats were found to dominate the reserve; mid-altitude miombo woodland and afro-montane 

forest-grassland mosaic. This variation in habitat reflects greater differences in altitude and geology and the 

results presented below are given according to these two habitats, as the species found within them differ 

greatly. 

4.1 Mid-altitude miombo woodland 

In order to survey the mid-altitude miombo woodland, two basecamps were located in the northern area of 

the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve during the dry season fieldwork phase and one during the wet season 

phase. 

4.1.1 Flora 

The mid-altitude miombo woodlands in the gently undulating north of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game 

Reserve were found to be interspersed with areas of riverine woodland along water courses and open 

grasslands, presumably as a result of clearance for cultivation. 

• Miombo woodlands 

At least 101 species of trees and shrubs representing 31 families and 31 species of herbs and grasses 

representing 15 families (Appendix 7) were recorded in the areas of miombo woodland in the reserve. 

One near-endemic shrub species was found in the miombo woodland, Barleria nyasensis. This is restricted 

to the mountains of Tanzania at the north and north eastern end of Lake Nyasa and the adjoining Nyika 

plateau of Malawi / Zambia. 

Some species were identified as being targeted for timber extraction, in particular Pterocarpus angolensis 

and Afzelia quanzensis. In addition, charcoal production also threatened woodland tree species, especially 

Brachystegia boehmii, Brachystegia spiciformis, Combretum spp. and Terminalia sericea. 

Temporary settlements have been built within miombo woodland areas, thus damaging various tree species, 

such as Brachystegia spp., Acacia drepanolobium, Acacia nilotica, Acacia nigrescens and Acacia 

polyacantha. 

• Riverine woodlands 

At least 32 species of trees and shrubs representing 19 families and 2 species of herbs and grasses 

representing 2 families (Appendix 7) were recorded in the areas of riverine woodland in the reserve. Two 

species of liane and two species of fern were also recorded in the riverine habitat, representing one and two 

families respectively. 


7


4.1.2. Fauna 

The mid-altitude miombo woodlands of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve were found to contain a 

number of larger game animals, as well as a high diversity of birds and butterflies and many interesting 

herpetofauna. 

Table 2 A summary of fauna recorded in mid-altitude miombo woodlands of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve 

(Appendix 8, 9, 10, 11 and 12) 

Taxa Number of families Number of species 

Mammals 24 51 

Birds* 54 199 

Reptiles 10 24 

Amphibians 4 13 

Butterflies 5 128 

Total 97 415 

*Bird numbers presented are for the mid-altitude miombo woodland and the Afromontane forest-grassland mosaic together, as birds are a taxa that 

move easily between habitats and are thus not easy to segregate into habitat types. 

• Mammals 

At least 51 species of native mammal representing 24 families were recorded in the areas of mid-altitude 

miombo woodland in the reserve (Appendix 8). Although the identification of most species is certain, those 

of species that were captured remains tentative whilst awaiting taxonomic verifications (i.e. all small 

mammals, including bats) and some of the dung found could only be identified to genus. All taxonomy and 

nomenclature follows that of Kingdon (1997). 

Remains of an elephant (Loxodonta africana) were found in miombo woodland, on the northern end of the 

Lugala ridge. The bones were thought to be around 15 years old and local knowledge suggests that 

elephants have not been found within the reserve for at least 10 years. Old hippopotamus tracks were found 

at Kimani river, again suggesting the presence of larger mammals in the area. 

Despite not being recorded during the present survey, local knowledge would suggest that the following 

species are currently, although often seasonally, present in wooded areas of the reserve; Lion (Panthera 

leo), Spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), Striped weasel (Poecilogale albinucha), Slender mongoose 

(Herpestes sanguinea), Buffalo (Syncerus caffer), Eland (Taurotragus oryx), Harvey’s duiker 

(Cephalophus harveyi) and Rock hyrax (Procavia johnstoni). 

Interestingly, despite low to no previous records of leopard in this area evidence from this survey points to 

the presence of this large cat within the game reserve. Tracks near the Kimani waterfalls and a Tanzanian 

field assistant’s observation that a dead calf was killed by a leopard suggest the possibility of the presence 

of this species. The Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve provides many suitable habitats, such as rocky 

outcrops and open woodland, and the presence of Greater Kuku, bushbuck and duiker provide a viable food 

source for leopard to survive in this area. 

Dung from several smaller carnivores, both felids and canids, were found reflecting the diversity and 

abundance of small mammal and antelope populations. These included: Serval (Felis serval), Caracal 

(Felis caracal), Wild cat (Felis sylvestris), Fox (Vulpes sp.), Bat-earred fox (Otocyon megalotis) and the 

African civet (Civettictis civetta). 

Two species of bushbabies were observed during nightwalks, the Greater galago (Otolemur 

crassicaudatus) and the Senegal dwarf galago (Galago senegalensis), as well as an interesting sighting of 

the Lord Derby’s Anomalure (Anomalurus derbianus), a gliding rodent. 

Domestic cows and goats were seen grazing throughout the area of miombo woodland surveyed, although 

particularly near to the northern reserve borders (Section 4.1.3). 


8


• Birds 

At least 199 species of bird representing 54 families were recorded in the Mpanga/Kipengere Game 

Reserve (Appendix 9) in a variety of habitats, which included areas of mid-altitude miombo woodland, 

riverine habitats within the woodland, open grassland, montane forest and rocky cliffs. All identifications 

are considered certain, except six species indicated with a question mark. All taxonomy and nomenclature 

follows that of Baker (2002). 

The Miombo grey tit (Parus griseiventris) was observed although the identification is not certain. The 

Miombo grey tit is normally an inhabitant in miombo woodland in Western Tanzania. The Ashy starling 

(Cosmopsarus unicolor) is an endemic to Tanzania and it was encountered at it’s extreme southern limit in 

the Mpanga/Kipengere game reserve. Shelley’s Sunbird (Cinnyris habessinica) was recorded, this species 

is generally uncommon and previously only known from Morogoro and Songea areas. 

• Reptiles 

At least 24 species of reptile representing ten families were recorded in the areas of mid-altitude miombo 

woodland in the reserve (Appendix 10). All identifications of species that were captured remain tentative 

whilst awaiting taxonomic verifications. All taxonomy and nomenclature follows that of Spawls et al. 

(2002). 

An uncertain identification of a Black mamba (Dendroaspis polylepis) was made from one observation, 

which if confirmed would represent a Tanzanian range extension for the species, which is normally found 

in eastern and northern parts only. 

Several interesting captures represent range extensions geographically or altitudinally. Both the Tropical 

spiny agama (Agama armata) and Red-headed rock agama (Agama agama), found in the lowlands, have 

been previously recorded in central and north-eastern Tanzania only. The Angolan dwarf gecko 

(Lygodactylus angolensis) has previously only had a few scattered records and is rare in Tanzania, as is the 

Yellow-throated plated lizard (Gerrhosaurus flaviculatus). No records have been recorded in Southern 

Tanzania for the Tree skink (Mabuya planifrons) and the Leopard tortoise (Geochelone pardalis). Further 

range extensions are that of the Walhberg’s skink (Mabuya wahlbergi), found only in the east and to the 

south of Lake Tanganyika and the Snake-eyed skink (Panaspis megalurus), a Tanzanian endemic 

previously recorded from the central and Usangu plains. The Velvety-green night adder (Causus resimus), 

has a patchy distribution in East Africa normally found around Lake Victoria, moving into Western Kenya, 

also along the coastal belt of Kenya (Spawls et. al 2002). Turner’s thick-toed gecko (Pachydactylus 

turneri) has a patchy distribution as it is secretive and is probably under collected. It has been recorded on 

the Kenyan and Tanzanian border and in northwest Rwanda, so the recording here represents a range 

extension. 

• Amphibians 

At least 13 species of amphibian representing four families were recorded in the areas of mid-altitude 

miombo woodland in the reserve (Appendix 11). All identifications remain tentative whilst awaiting 

taxonomic verifications. All taxonomy and nomenclature follows that of Channing (2001). 

The Natal sand frog (Tomopterna natalensis), if positively identified, is a range extension, as it normally 

inhabits open habitats in South Mozambique to the Eastern Cape Province in South Africa. 

Several specimens of toad (Bufo spp.) were taken and may provide some interesting results once formally 

identified. 


9


• Butterflies 

One hundred and twenty eight species of butterfly representing five families were recorded in the areas of 

mid-altitude miombo woodland in the reserve (Appendix 12). At least four species from the family 

Hesperidae, 25 species of the family Lycaenidae, 62 species of Nymphalidae, three species of Papilionidae 

and 34 species of Pieridae were recorded. Dry season specimens have been identified, whilst identifications 

for the wet season phase remain tentative whilst awaiting taxonomic verifications. All taxonomy and 

nomenclature follows that of Larsen (1991). 

The wet season work provided over 30 additional species to the list, predominantly to the Lycaenidae and 

Hesperidae families. Both of these families are still under represented as they are small butterflies and often 

difficult to see and catch. Most species were widely distributed, occupying open savanna habitats. 

Of the species of interest, Charaxes condoni is a Tanzanian endemic known only from Nyumbenitu, 

Dabaga and Mufindi in Iringa region to Njombe, Kitesa and Tukuyu in Mbeya region. Bicyclus cottrelli is 

known from Brachystegia woodland in Angola, Congo, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe and west Tanzania. 

Thus, this record is the most easterly record so far. Finally Hemioalus coecilus coecilus is a range-restricted 

endemic subspecies known from Brachystegia woodland in Zambia and south west Tanzania. 

4.1.3. Human resource-use 

Survey work aimed at investigating the level of human resource-use within the reserve revealed one of the 

major uses of the woodland habitat to be the production of charcoal. Species targeted for charcoal 

production include Brachystegia spiciformis and Combretum schumannii. Poles are also no doubt cut for 

local firewood. A number of recent and past pitsaw sites were also found within the woodlands, a number 

of which were for the production of Pterocarpus angolensis (Mninga) timber, although it is thought that 

Afzelia quanzensis is also exploited for timber. In order to assess the degree of both pole and timber cutting 

within the reserve, quantitative methods were used to compare the number of live and naturally dead stems 

with the number of cut stems (Table 3). Results are based on surveys of fifty-nine 200m transects, each 

split in to four 50m sections. 

Table 3 Summary results of a pole and timber cutting survey across miombo woodlands of the Mpanga/Kipengere 

Game Reserve. 

Total Total no. Live (% Average Dead (% Average Cut (% of Average 

transect sampled of total) live per of total) dead per total) cut per 

length 

(m) 

hectare 

(ha) 

hectare 

(ha) 

hectare 

(ha) 

Poles 11,800 4866 3902 (80) 330 714 (15) 60.5 250 (5) 21.2 

Timbers 11,800 1118 951 (85) 80.6 115 (10) 9.7 52 (5) 4.6 

A total of 4866 poles and 1118 timbers were surveyed along transect lines. Although the survey of pole and 

timber cutting was not systematic, from the data obtained it was clear that areas for pole cutting were 

utilised from easy access points, such as human paths running through the game reserve between villages. 

An average of 21.2 poles were cut per hectare. Close proximity to villages also increased the chances of 

finding pole cutting. Timber cutting was observed at a much lower frequency with an average of 4.6 per 

hectare. However 12 pit sawing sites, some only one month old, were seen around Kimani waterfalls and 

heading north towards the village at the edge of the reserve. Obviously many cut timbers would have been 

removed from the woodland already. As well as recording levels of pole and timber cutting, the survey 

outlined above also revealed that 33 % of transects (78 out of the 236 50m sections) had been damaged to 

some degree by fire with most naturally dead poles and timbers dying from this cause (an average of 60.5 

and 9.7 per hectare) 


10


A variety of evidences indicating the activities of poachers were found within miombo woodlands in the 

reserve. These included the burning of grassy vegetation to stimulate new re-growth, wire snares, small 

mammal basket-traps, signs of dogs, fishing dams and remains of dwellings. 

As stated previously (Section 4.1.2), domestic cows and goats were found grazing in the area, particularly 

towards the north where the reserve borders the main Iringa/Mbeya road along which numerous villages 

are located. People are still living in the reserve and certain areas, particularly along the Little Ruaha 

valley, were found to be cultivated. 

4.2 Afro-montane forest-grassland mosaic 

In order to survey the afro-montane forest-grassland mosaic, two basecamps were located in the southern 

area of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve during the dry season work and one during the wet season. 

4.2.1. Flora 

The afro-montane forest-grassland mosaic is found in the mountainous south of the Mpanga/Kipengere 

Game Reserve. Wide-open grasslands occur on the upper- and mid-slopes and hilltops, whilst closedcanopy 

forests are common in the valleys and gullies, where they are associated with underground water 

supplies. Small patches of bamboo forest also occur in the upper reaches of valleys originating along the 

Kipengere Range. 

• Grasslands 

At least 28 species of tree and shrub representing 16 families and 50 species of herbs and grasses 

representing 19 families (Appendix 7) were recorded in grassland areas of the forest-grassland mosaic in 

the reserve. 

One near-endemic species of herb was identified in the grasslands, Eriosema ukingense. This is restricted 

to the mountains of Tanzania at the north and north eastern end of Lake Nyasa and the adjoining Nyika 

plateau of Malawi / Zambia. 

Three orchid species were recorded, Brachycorythis pleistophylla, Disa sp. and Roeperocharis bennettiana. 

These species are threatened by the illegal orchid trade to Zambia and Malawi. 

Small fields of pareto (Pyethrum sp.) flowers can be found on grassy hillsides, along with the vegetable 

simson, cultivated for commercial and domestic use respectively (Section 4.2.3). 

• Forests 

At least 61 species of tree and shrub representing 35 families (Appendix 7) and 11 species of herbs and 

grasses representing 8 families (Appendix 7) were recorded in the forested areas of the forest-grassland 

mosaic in the reserve. One liane and four species of fern were also recorded in the montane forest patches, 

representing one and four families respectively. 

Four important timber tree species were identified within the forests, Hagenia abyssinica, Ocotea 

usambarensis, Podocarpus latifolius and Podocarpus milanjianus. 

4.2.2. Fauna 

The afro-montane forest-grassland mosaic of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve was found to contain 

many birds of conservation interest, a number of forest-dependent mammals, a high diversity of rodents 

and again many interesting herpetofauna (Table 4). 


11


Table 4 A summary of fauna recorded in the afro-montane forest-grassland mosaic of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game 

Reserve. 

Taxa Number of families Number of species 

Mammals 15 31 

Birds 54 199 

Reptiles 4 13 

Amphibians 5 15 

Butterflies 5 61 

Total 83 319 

*Bird numbers presented are for the mid-altitude miombo woodland and the Afromontane forest-grassland mosaic together, as birds are a taxa that 

move easily between habitats and are thus not easy to segregate into habitat types. 

• Mammals 

At least 31 species of native mammals representing 15 families were recorded in the areas of forestgrassland 

mosaic areas of the reserve (Appendix 8). Although the identification of most species is certain, 

those of species that were captured remains tentative whilst awaiting taxonomic verifications (i.e. all small 

mammals including bats). All taxonomy and nomenclature follows that of Kingdon (1997). 

Two primate species, Moloney’s monkey (Cercopithecus mitis moloneyei) and the Black and White 

Colobus (Colobus angolensis sharpie) were recorded frequently in every forest patch in the gullies of the 

mountains. These are Southern Highland endemic subspecies, which are forest dependent and thus 

vulnerable to local activities, such as pitsawing. The Black and White Colobus is listed in IUCN as locally 

vulnerable. 

There was a wide diversity and abundance of small mammal species, predominantly found in the montane 

forest areas. These were all forest dependent species, so again potentially vulnerable to forest destruction. 

Such species found were the: Soft-furred rat (Promys cf. delectorum), Climbing shrew (Sylvisorex sp.) and 

the Mouse shrew (Myosorex sp.), the latter of which is likely to be localised to the area. The Lesser 

pouched rat subspecies (Beamys hindei major) has a restricted range situated in montane forests of 

Southern Tanzania and Malawi. The Four-striped mouse (Rhabdomys pumilio) has a discontinuous 

distribution, although it is not uncommon and therefore not threatened. The Narrow-footed woodland 

mouse (Grammomys comete) has a restricted range of the wet montane areas of north and south Lake 

Nyasa. 

Indirect signs indicated the presence of a small carnivores in the highland area: Black-backed jackal (Canis 

mesomelas), Serval cat (Felis serval) and Wild cat (Felis sylvestris). 

Domestic cows, goats, sheep and donkeys were seen grazing throughout grassy areas of the forestgrassland 

mosaic, however they were absent from the forest patches (Section 4.2.3). 

• Birds 

At least 199 species of bird representing 54 families were recorded in Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve, in 

a diverse array of habitats, including open grassland, montane forest, miombo woodland, riverine forest and 

rocky cliffs. All identifications are considered certain, except six species, which are indicated with a 

question mark in the bird list (Appendix 9). All taxonomy and nomenclature follows that of Baker (2002). 

Interesting findings included the possible sighting of the Blue Swallow (Hirundo atrocaerulea), which is 

globally threatened species. The Scarlet-tufted sunbird (Nectarinia jonhstoni) is a biome restricted species 

found only in alpine moorlands from 3 000 – 4 500m asl, thus it is also a threatened species. 

Other range restricted birds, which are endemic to Southern Tanzania, especially the southern highlands 

are: Mountain Greenbul (Andropadus nigriceps race chlorigula), Churring Cisticola (Cisticola njombe), 


12


Montane Marsh Widowbird (Euplectes psammocromius), Kipengere seedeater (Serinus cabanist) and 

Yellow-browed seedeater (Serinus whytii). 

The Black stork (Ciconia nigra) and White stork (Ciconia ciconia) are migratory species that have been 

recorded in the upland grasslands of the neighbouring Kitulo Plateau Proposed National Park and 

Important Bird Area (IBA) (Birdlife International). Although the Kitulo IBA forms a contiguous habitat to 

that of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve, neither species were recorded in the reserve during the 

current study. Neither fieldwork phase coincided well with the migratory season however and local 

communities do report sightings of these birds within the reserve between December and January. The 

Lesser Falcon (Falcon naumani) is another migratory species that it is thought likely to be visiting the 

Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve. 

The presence of Denham’s bustard (Neotis denhami) in the Kitulo IBA strongly suggests that it may also 

inhabit the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve. As it still relatively widespread it has yet to be listed by 

Birdlife International as threatened, however due to a constantly shrinking habitat it is thought to be the 

most threatened bustard in Africa (Collar et. al. 1994). The Kitulo Plateau is considered one of the only 

remaining viable sites for this species and thus the adjacent Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve could prove 

to be an important extension of this site. 

An unconfirmed identification of Mrs Moreau’s warbler (Bathmocercus winifredae) was made through 

both call and observation in some forest patches. This species is globally threatened and thus it is hoped 

that the identification can be verified in the near future. This species is previously known from the Uluguru, 

Ukaguru and Udzungwa mountains, part of the Eastern Arc chain. 

• Reptiles 

At least 13 species of reptile representing four families were recorded in the areas of forest-grassland 

mosaic in the reserve (Appendix 10). All identifications of species that were captured remain tentative 

whilst awaiting taxonomic verifications. All taxonomy and nomenclature follows that of Spawls et al. 

(2002). 

The reptile collections and observations provided some very interesting findings with several range 

extensions both geographically and altitudinally. The Tubercle-nosed chamelon (Chameleo tempeli) and 

Goetze’s chamelon (Chameleo goetzei goetzei) are both South Tanzanian endemics to montane areas. They 

seemed to have a high abundance within the reserve. Two dwarf gecko species represent altitudinal range 

extensions with the Angulate dwarf gecko (Lygodactylus angularis), normally found within the range of 1 

600 – 2 300m asl but found here at 2 750m a.s.l, and the Angola darf gecko (Lygodactylus angolensis), 

predominantly a low-altitude savanna species yet caught at 2 500m a.s.l here. There were two new records 

for Southern Tanzania within the skink family with the Speckle-lipped skink (Mabuya maculilabris) and 

the Striped skink (Mabuya striata ) being recorded in the highlands. 

• Amphibians 

At least 14 species of amphibian representing four families were recorded in the forest-grassland mosaic in 

the reserve (Appendix 11). All identifications remain tentative whilst awaiting taxonomic verifications. All 

taxonomy and nomenclature follows that of Channing (2001). 

Several toads were caught but were identified to genus only. These may prove to be interesting once 

positively identified. The Nyika dwarf toad (Bufo nyikae) and Fuelleborn’s stream frog (Strongylopus 

fuellebornii) both caught in the grasslands, represent range extensions, as they have previously only be 

known from the open grasslands in the highlands between the border of Malawi and Zambia. 


13


• Butterflies 

Sixty one species of butterfly representing five families were recorded in the areas of forest-grassland 

mosaic in the reserve (Appendix 12). At least two species of the family Hesperiidae, 13 species of 

Lycaenidae, 29 species of Nymphalidae, six species of Papilionidae and 11 species of Pieridae were 

recorded. All identifications remain tentative whilst awaiting taxonomic verifications. All taxonomy and 

nomenclature follows that of Larsen (1991). Of interest was Harpendyreus juno, which is a southern rift 

endemic found only in the mountains of northern Malawi and Tanzania’s Southern Highlands. 

4.2.3. Human resource-use 

Survey work aimed at investigating the level of human resource-use within the reserve revealed the major 

use of the forest-grassland mosaic to be the grazing of cows and, particularly, goats. Grazing is particularly 

damaging due to the associated burning of areas to stimulate fresh re-growth. The transect survey revealed 

that almost a third, 30.8 % of transects (48 out of the 156 50m sections) had been damaged by fire to some 

degree. 

Pressure from cultivation was also evident in the forest-grassland mosaic, although generally restricted to 

areas close to the borders in the south-west of the reserve, near to the villages of Matenga and Ikuwo. Small 

(c. 1 hectare) plantations of Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus sp.) and Black Wattle (Acacis meansee) were found in 

this area, where bamboo was also found to be growing freely. Particularly evident in the south-east of the 

reserve, near to the village of Imalilo, were small plots on open grassy hillsides in which pareto (Pyethrum 

sp.) flowers (to be sold for the commercial production of insecticides) and simson vegetables (the seeds 

from which are used to produce oil for local cooking needs) were cultivated. 

The harvesting of terrestrial orchid tubers for the culinary delicacy, Chikanda or Kinaka, was found to 

occur from grassland areas of the reserve. 4.2% of transects (11 out of 256 50m sections) were found to 

reveal evidence of tuber harvesting. Orchid plants grow individually and are patchily distributed in the 

highlands, thus it is highly likely that these findings underrepresent the orchid digging activities. Further 

evidence was observed casually. 

Certain areas of forest would appear to be under pressure from pole cutting, presumably for firewood, but 

not to the extent of the northern miombo woodland areas. Three pitsaw sites were recorded in the forested 

valleys, one of which was near to the basecamp near Matenga village. It is believed that the presence of the 

field team forced the loggers to abandon the site until the field work was completed in that area. In order to 

assess the degree of both pole and timber cutting within the reserve, quantitative methods were used to 

compare the number of live and naturally dead stems with the number of cut stems (Table 5). Results are 

based on surveys of thirty nine 200m transects, each split in to four 50m sections. 

Table 5 Summary results of a pole and timber cutting survey within forest-grassland mosaic of the 


Total Total no. Live (% Average Dead (% Average Cut (% of Average 

transect sampled of total) live per of total) dead per total) cut per 

length 

(m) 

hectare 

(ha) 

hectare 

(ha) 

hectare 

(ha) 

Poles 7,800 1693 1402 (83) 179.7 187 (11) 23.9 104 (6) 13.3 

Timbers 7,800 690 601 (87) 77 84 (12) 10.8 5 (1) 0.6 

A total of 1,693 and 690 poles and timbers were recorded in the transect survey. Of these, 104 poles and 5 

timbers were cut, which represents 13.3 and 0.6 per hectare, respectively. These numbers are much lower 

than those found in the mid-altitudinal areas of the reserve. This reflects the evidence that grazing is the 

predominant problem encountered within the highland parts of the reserve. Eleven percent and twelve 

percent of the poles and timbers were dead, an average of 23.9 and 10.8 per hectare respectively. Most of 

these were caused by burning found along 30% of the transect (47 out of 156 50m sections). 


14


Evidence of hunting was found in snares set for duiker, bushpig , Scrub hares and ‘Mole rats’ on rocky 

hilltop outcrops and by remains of Suni bones. Poachers camps were observed, one in the valley and two in 

the highland area of the Lugala range. These latter two were well equipped with cooking pots, firewood 

store and bedding of grass within a small cave, indicating the recent use of this area for traps and burning to 

flush out large mammals. 


15


5. DISCUSSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 

5.1 Flora 

An interesting and varied flora was recorded across the two main habitats of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game 

Reserve; mid-altitude miombo woodland and afro-montane forest-grassland mosaic (Table 6). 

Table 6 A summary of floral diversity recorded throughout the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve. 

Taxa Miombo woodland * Forest-grassland mosaic Total ** 

Number of 

families 

Number of 

species 

Number of 

families 

Number of 

species 

Number of 

families 

Number 

of species 

Trees and 41 133 45 89 63 213 

shrubs 

Herbs and 17 33 24 61 31 91 

grasses 

Ferns 2 2 4 4 4 5 

Total 60 166 73 150 98 309 

* The figures given for miombo woodland include those for the patches of riverine woodland found within that habitat 



The diversity of trees and shrubs is greatest within the miombo woodlands of the reserve, however the 

number of both herb and grass species is much greater in the afro-montane forest grassland mosaic. Simple 

species diversity does not however reflect the biological or conservation interest of the species involved, as 

this is anticipated to be greater within the forest-grassland mosaic. Mid-altitude miombo woodland is 

widespread, covering large areas of Tanzania and beyond, and is well studied. The afro-montane forestgrassland 

mosaic on the other hand, has a very small coverage, ranging only across Tanzania’s Southern 

Highlands. The forest-grassland mosaic forms the WWF-designated Eco-region 76, designated a 

conservation status of Critical/Endangered. Southern and eastern African flora (and fauna) converges in the 

Southern Highlands and over 120 plant and animal taxa are endemic to the area. Two near-endemic plants 

were recorded within the reserve, a woodland shrub, Barleria nyasensis, and a grassland herb, Eriosema 

ukingense. Both of these species are restricted to the mountains at the north end of Lake Nyasa, including 

the Nyika plateau of Malawi and Zambia. 

• Mid-altitude miombo woodland 

A high variety of tree, shrub, herb and grass species were recorded within the miombo woodlands and 

riverine woodlands of the reserve. The latter habitat covers only a limited area however it is of great 

importance to the species found there and depends heavily on reliable water supplies. Species of particular 

interest are those which are currently considered to be threatened by human activities. Pterocarpus 

angolensis and Afzelia quanzensis are exploited locally for timber and a number of pitsaws were found 

within the woodlands of the reserve. Brachystegia boehmii, Brachystegia spiciformis, Combretum 

schumannii and Terminalia sericea are species favoured for the production of charcoal and a number of 

charcoal burning sites were found, along with large amounts of cutting in certain areas (Section 4.1.3 and 

5.3). Due to the temporary settlements of the Wamang’ati from Shinyanga and Mbeya, who have moved 

into the reserve with their cattle, several miombo woodland species are being damaged. These include: 

Brachystegia spp., Acacia drepanolobium, Acacia nilotica, Acacia nigrescens and Acacia polyacantha. 

• Afro-montane forest-grassland mosaic 

The mosaic is a botanically rich mixture of open grasslands, closed-canopy forests and small patches of 

bamboo forest. The latter is a particularly rare sub-habitat within an already restricted and threatened 

major-habitat. Grasslands in the mosaic have been destroyed across the Southern Highlands for plantations 

of exotic trees such as wattle (Acacis sp.) and pine (Pinus sp.); for commercial and local farming for maize 

and wheat schemes; pyrethrum; Irish potatoes (Solanum tuberosum), peas and groundnuts; and through 

general pressures from an increasing local human population. Livestock grazing will also effect the floristic 


16


composition of the grasslands. Four timber species within the montane forests were identified (Ocotea 

usambarensis, Hagenia abyssinica, Podocarpus latifolius, and Podocarpus milanjianus) and evidence of 

pitsawing demonstrates local villages use of these species. 

As already concluded, this combination of habitats is depended upon by a number of specialised animals 

and animals of conservation or biological interest / importance. Of particular interest floristically are a 

number of orchid species (Disa spp.and Roeperocharis bennettiana), which despite being supposedly 

protected by CITES II classification, are illegally harvested and exported to Zambia and Malawi where the 

tuber is sold as a culinary delicacy (Section 4.2.3 and 5.3). 

5.2 Fauna 

An extremely diverse and interesting fauna was recorded within the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve 

during the current study, both within areas of miombo woodland and forest-grassland mosaic (Table 7). 

Table 7 A summary of faunal diversity and species of biological or conservation interest recorded throughout the 


Taxa Miombo woodland Forest-grassland mosaic Total ** 

Number of 

species 

Species of 


Number of 

species 

Species of 


Number of 

species 

Species of 


interest * 

interest * 

interest * 

Mammals 51 2 31 7 63 9 

Birds - - - - 199 18 

Reptiles 24 11 13 8 33 18 

Amphibians 13 2 15 3 24 5 

Butterflies 128 5 61 3 169 8 

Total 216 20 119 22 488 58 

* This includes species listed as range restricted, of conservation concern, forest-dependent or for which the record in the reserve represents a 

distribution or altitudinal range extension, but does NOT include the number of forest dwelling species 



As with floral diversity, the diversity of nearly all animal taxa was greatest within the miombo woodlands, 

however this again in no way reflects the biological or conservation interest of the species involved, which 

is far greater within the forest-grassland mosaic. As stated previously, mid-altitude miombo woodland is 

widespread and the species found within it have generally been well documented. As also stated, the forestgrassland 

mosaic not only has a very small coverage but has been given a conservation status of 

Critical/Endangered. Little biological, and in particular faunal, research has been carried out in the habitat, 

with many past conservation-aimed surveys, if not in savanna habitats, concentrating on the prestigious 

Eastern Arc forests and to a lesser extent, Coastal forests. These facts imply that the current survey is of 

particular value, both in revealing which species are to be found within the reserve (and possibly thus 

across the Southern Highlands) and to what extent are they threatened. 


Many game species were recorded within the reserve’s miombo woodland during this study and discussion 

with local communities suggest that many more are present. One aim of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game 

Reserve Project is to increase the flow of game animals between the northern miombo woodlands of the 

reserve and the Usangu Game Reserve, located to the north. This northern area of the reserve is considered 

a wildlife corridor for many game animals and it is hoped that through increased protection and 

management of the area more animals will migrate into the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve from the 

Usangu Game Reserve during the dry season. The species involved include elephant (Loxodonta africana) 

(which according to local residents have not been found within the reserve for at least 10 years), buffalo 

(Syncerus caffer) (thought by locals to be present but not recorded during the current study), Greater kudu 

(Tragelaphus strepsiceros), duikers (Cephalophus sp.), dik-dik (Madoqua sp), bushpig (Potamochoerus 


17


larvatus), warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus), baboons (Papio sp.) and vervet monkeys (Cercopithecus 

(aethiops) pygerythrus). This ‘Igando-Igawa’ wildlife corridor acts as a link not only between the 

Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve and the Usangu Game Reserve, but also as a link to the Ruaha National 

Park, which is adjacent to the northern end of the Usangu Game Reserve. A free flow of animals between 

all three of these protected areas is hindered by the presence of a major highway and many villages 

(between the Usangu Game Reserve and the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve) and may not come 

immediately, but it is certainly to be encouraged and aimed for in the mid- to long-term future. Careful 

management and some protection status would be essential as the narrow corridor area would be 

particularly susceptible to hunting and poaching. 

One species of fruit bat, Epomophorus labiatus, and four species of insectivorous bats were recorded in the 

mid-altitude areas, but this is likely to be an under representation of the bat diversity in the reserve. 

It is predicted that a significantly higher diversity of birds may exist within miombo woodlands than was 

recorded during the current study. With further surveys it is thought that the number of species may 

increase up to 300 across the whole reserve, justification in itself for increased protection and management 

of the area. Amongst the avifauna recorded within the miombo woodlands was the Ashy starling 

(Cosmopsarus unicolor). This species is endemic to Tanzania and the record within the reserve represents 

the extreme southern limit of its distribution. The Miombo Grey Tit (Parus griseiventris) was also recorded 

in the reserve, normally being found in Western Tanzania. 

Reptilian surveys revealed a wealth of information about this under-studied taxon both within miombo 

woodlands of the reserve and within the Southern Highlands at large. In total, the records of seven species 

within the reserve represent their first recording within the Southern Highlands, with some species 

previously only recorded as far away as the southern shores of Lake Victoria; the Tropical Spiny agama 

(Agama armata), the Red-headed Rock agama (Agama agama), Leopard tortoise (Geochelone pardalis), 

Tree skink (Mabuya planifrons), Wahlberg’s snake-eyed skink (Panaspis wahlbergi), Snake-eyed skink 

(Panaspis megalura) and the Velvety-green night-adder (Causus resimus). Three other species were of 

particular interest, due to rarity and scattered records, the Angolan dwarf-gecko (Lygodactylus angolensis), 

the Yellow-throated plated lizard (Gerrhosaurus flavigularis) and the Nile monitor lizard (Varanus 

niloticus). 

A relatively low diversity of amphibians was recorded within the miombo woodlands of the reserve, 

however one interesting frog was recorded, the Natal sand frog (Tomopterna natalensis), which represents 

a range extension from Southern Mozambique. 

Butterfly diversity was great within the areas of miombo woodland surveyed, particularly within the 

Nymphalidae family. Of interest were three species: two southern Tanzanian endemics, Charaxes condoni 

and Hemiolaus coeculus coeculus and a southern range extension, Bicyclus cottrelli. 


A seemingly healthy population of Black and White colobus (Colobus angolensis sharpei) was observed, 

with troops of 6 to10 or more individuals appearing to inhabit forest patches in different valleys on the 

northern side of the Kipengere Range. This species is reliant on good quality forests and due to a 

combination of this dependency and hunting pressures, it is currently listed as locally vulnerable by IUCN. 

That a presumably viable population exists within the reserve is a good indicator of the quality of the forest 

(for other species) and justifies every conservation effort aimed particularly at the montane forests. A 

healthy, population of Moloney’s monkey (Cercopithecus mitis moloneyi) was also observed within 

patches of forest. This particular sub-species is endemic to the Southern Highlands and again, is a forestdependent 

species reliant on the maintenance of good quality forest cover for its continued survival. A 

surprisingly low bat diversity was offset by an extremely rich rodent fauna, comprising many forestdwelling 

species and two sub-species of restricted range; the Narrow-footed woodland mouse (Grammomys 

cometes) and the Lesser pouched rat (Beamys hindei major), and a species of shrew, Myosorex sp., which 

is believed to be localised to the areas it inhabits. 


18


The results of the ornithological survey in the forest-grassland mosaic were extremely interesting, revealing 

the presence of one globally threatened species; the Blue swallow (Hirundo atrocaerulea), five rangerestricted 

species; the Churring cisticola (Cisticola njombe), the Kipengere seedeater (Serinus 

melanochrous), the Yellow-browed seedeater (S. whytii), the Uhehe fiscal (Lanius marwitzi) and the 

Mountain Marsh widowbird (Euplectes psammocromius), and one biome-restricted species; the Scarlettufted 

sunbird (Nectarina johnstoni). All of these species were recorded across the open grasslands of the 

forest-grassland mosaic, where it is also predicted that a number of migratory species may visit and 

Denham’s bustard (Neotis denhami) may reside. The neighbouring Kitulo Plateau Proposed National Park 

and Important Bird Area (Birdlife International) is considered one of the few remaining viable sites for the 

latter species and it is thought that the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve could offer a much-needed 

extension of the site for this highly threatened species. An unconfirmed identification of Mrs Moreau’s 

warbler (Bathmocercus winifredae) was made within some patches of forest and it is hoped that this may 

be verified in the near future as the species is globally threatened. The great ornithological wealth and 

diversity of the reserve is considered justification enough in itself for the protection and conservation of the 

whole area. 

Over sixty percent of the reptile species recorded within the forest-grassland mosaic were of particular 

interest for a variety of reasons, including that the record in the reserve represents an extension of the 

previously reported altitudinal range at which the species is normally found, such as the Angulate and 

Angolan Dwarf geckos (Lygodactylus angularis and Lygodactylus angolensis respectively). The Tuberclenosed 

chameleon (Chamaeleo tempeli) is endemic to Tanzania , the Goetze’s chameleon (Chamaeleo goetzi 

goetzi) is a Tanzanian endemic subspecies and the Ukinga Mountain skink (Mabuya brauni) is of restricted 

range. The Speckle-lipped skink (Mabuya maculilabris) represents a range extension with no previous 

records in the Southern Highlands. 

Despite a low overall amphibian diversity, two species represent range extensions with previous records 

from the border of Malawi and Zambia. These are Nyika dwarf toad (Bufo nyikae) and Fuelleborn’s stream 

frog (Strongylopus fullebornii). 

Unsurprisingly, a relatively low recorded butterfly diversity reflected the cold weather conditions 

experienced across the forest-grassland mosaic. Two species were range restricted to Southern Tanzania, 

Harpendyreus juno and Neocoenyra heckmanni heckmanni. One species was the first recording in the 

Southern highlands, Papilio demodocus demodocus. 

5.3 Human resource-use 

A wide variety of forms of human resource-use were recorded throughout the Mpanga/Kipengere Game 

Reserve. Some were specific to a particular habitat whilst others were widespread in both miombo 

woodlands and the forest-grassland mosaic. 


One major use of, and thus threat to, the miombo woodland would appear to be from the production of 

charcoal. Numerous tracks allow a high degree of access to the relatively flat terrain on which the 

woodland is found, encouraging the cutting of poles and timbers and their burning in piles for the 

commercial production of charcoal. Species targeted are thought to include Brachystegia spiciformis and 

Combretum schumannii. Pterocarpus angolensis and Afzelia quanzensis are targeted for the production of 

timber and evidence was found of both old and current pitsaws within the reserve. Again, the network of 

tracks allows easy removal and transport of the timber. Employees of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game 

Reserve Project had to deal with illegal charcoal production and timber harvesting during the fieldwork for 

the current study. Five percent of both poles and timbers were found to be cut, however many more were 

observed casually, thus, it is predicted that this number would increase if more of the area were to be 

systemmatically surveyed. Most areas that showed evidence of cutting were easy access from paths and 

tracks, for example near to Kimani waterfalls and the surrounding area. 


19


A variety of evidences pointed to the activities of poachers within miombo woodlands of the reserve. 

Along with direct effects on the animal populations targeted (mainly antelope), threats from such activities 

include fire damage to the woodland habitat. Grasses are burnt in order to stimulate fresh re-growth which 

it is hoped will encourage herbivores and grazers into the area to feed. Fires burn uncontrolled however and 

although some fire disturbance is of no negative impact to the habitat, repeated and sustained burning can 

only do harm. If more herbivores were to eventually start to enter the reserve via the wildlife corridor, this 

may result in future competition with cattle and goats for the new flush of grasses. The fires may also aid 

poachers as it flushes out animals from the burning area and allows easy hunting for target species. 

Grazing by domestic cows and goats was found within areas to the north of the reserve, whilst settlement 

and cultivated land was found particularly along the Little Ruaha river valley. The village of Mpanga is 

also of course within the reserve boundaries, although efforts are underway on the part of the 

Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve Project to relocate the whole village. Whilst the cultivation was of 

limited range and distribution and considered to be of minimal threat to the conservation of the reserve as a 

whole, the grazing was more widespread and it is suggested that actions be taken to move the grazers 

elsewhere. 


One of the major uses of, and thus threats to, areas of forest-grassland mosaic would appear to be from the 

grazing of cattle and in particular goats. Grazing will have its own pressures on grassland species itself, 

however the situation is made worse by the deliberate burning of areas to stimulate re-growth. Thirty 

percent of the transects surveyed showed signs of fire-damage. Although the natural grassland is fireclimax, 

repeated and unmanaged burning may pose a serious threat. The grazing pressure was considered 

far greater than in the northern woodland areas of the reserve. In terms of management, further study would 

be required to understand and assess the extent of impact that grazing has on the grassland ecosystem, 

particularly if this practice has continued for many years and the ecosystem has, to some extent, adapted to 

it. Zoning may be appropriate with controlled grazing areas, zero grazing areas and open grazing areas. As 

this is the major threat from human activities within the forest-grassland mosaic, it needs careful 

consideration within any management strategy. 

Certain areas were found to be under pressure from cultivation, however these were restricted to areas close 

to the reserve borders in the south-west of the reserve, near to the villages of Matenga and Ikuwo. Small (c. 

1 hectare) plantations of Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus sp.) and Black Wattle (Acacis meansee) were also found 

in this area. Despite its biodiversity value being minimal, the current borders include a heavily populated 

and cultivated area within this region of the reserve. It is strongly suggested that during ‘ground-truthing’ 

for the reserve borders, this area be made to lie outside of the reserve, thus saving the need to relocate many 

people and destroy many crops for minimal biodiversity gain. Of minimal concern is the cultivation of 

pareto (Pyrethrum sp.) flowers and simson vegetables particularly towards the south-eastern corner of the 

reserve. The threat of spread of these species from generally small and well-tended plots near to the reserve 

borders is not considered serious. The spread of an exotic bamboo (Bambusa simensis) grown in villages 

for the production of pombe could possibly pose a greater threat to native vegetation, however this is still 

not considered a serious problem. 

A serious threat to many species of orchid found within grasslands of the forest-grassland mosaic is the 

illegal harvesting and subsequent trade of orchid tubers. Tubers are dug up by local villagers or those from 

further afield, primarily for sale in Zambian markets as the culinary delicacy Chikanda or Kinaka. Despite 

all orchids receiving CITES II classification, the practice of tuber harvesting has been recognised in the 

neighbouring Kitulo Plateau Proposed National Park and may well be widespread throughout the Southern 

Highlands (Davenport & Ndangalasi 2001). It is suggested that if the trade is to be controlled in any way, 

an in-depth survey should be conducted into the harvesting and sale of tubers, considering potential 

alternatives for local income-generating activities. It was ascertained from local villagers that they are able 

to earn Tsh 4,000 for a 10 litre bucket of tubers. 


20


Amounts of both pole and timber cutting were low in the forest-grassland mosaic when compared to the 

miombo woodlands, being 6% and 1% of the total pole and timber count and an average of 13.3 and 0.6 per 

hectare, respectively. This rate is not high and is sustainable for the time being. However, pitsawing is a 

concern in the south west corner of the reserve, near Matenga village, where one site was in use. The forest 

patches in the grassland-forest mosaic are all small and thus, vulnerable to human activities, which threaten 

the whole forest ecosystem. 

Evidence of hunting for (small) antelope and Scrub hares (Lepus saxatillus), was found across grasslands of 

the forest-grassland mosaic. Traps set to catch hares were evident on many rocky hill-tops. 


21


6. CONCLUSION 

The findings of this biodiversity survey of the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve are extremely interesting 

and reveal the area to be of great importance for a variety of both habitats and species. The records of many 

range-restricted or globally threatened birds species, for example the Kipengere seedeater (Serinus 

melanochorus), the Churring cisticola (Cisticola njombe) and the Blue swallow (Hirundo atrocaerulea), 

demonstrate the importance of the montane grasslands. The records of forest-dependent species such as the 

Black and White colobus (Colobus angolensis sharpei) for example highlight the significance of the 

montane forest patches. The records of game such as the Greater kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros) and the 

extent of suitable habitat demonstrate not only the importance of the miombo woodlands but also of the 

areas recently appointed status as Game Reserve. The numerous records of endemic and restricted range 

species and those records representing extensions of previously reported distributional or altitudinal range 

demonstrate the lack of previous biological investigations in the area and thus its importance in terms of 

scientific discovery. This is in particular true of the herpetofauna. These records also indicate the reserve’s 

importance in terms of long-term conservation interests and the high esteem under which it should be held. 

This can be seen as especially true as, in terms of biodiversity and ‘intactness’, it can easily be compared to 

the neighbouring Kitulo Plateau. This area is soon to receive the highest form of recognition under the 

government through its gazettement as a National Park and is already recognised as an Important Bird Area 

by Birdlife International. 

A variety of human activities do however currently threaten both habitats and species and the long-term 

future of the reserve. These include the grazing of domestic animals, the production of charcoal and timber, 

the hunting of wild animals and the harvesting and subsequent illegal trade of orchid tubers. Increased 

protection through carefully designed management plans should aim to reduce the impact of all such forms 

of human resource-use within the reserve. The area holds great potential for tourism, such as trekking and 

bird / primate watching. Sensitively implemented tourist activities could bring in much needed revenue to 

both the reserve and inhabitants of nearby villages and towns. It is vital however that all work aimed at 

protecting and managing the reserve should involve discussion with and the involvement of local 

communities at all stages. In all decisions, their future should be considered alongside that of the reserve. 

Finally, work aimed at conserving the Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve for biodiversity will also protect 

the water sources that feed various wetland eco-systems, irrigate agricultural areas and supply countless 

human populations with water far beyond the reserve borders. 


22


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Polhill, D. 1988. Flora of Tropical East Africa. Index of collecting localities. Royal Botanical Gardens, 

Kew. 

SEE, 1998. Methodology report (SEE, 1996. Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme: Methodology 

report ‘Old and New’. L. Stubblefield & P. Cunneyworth eds. Technical paper of the Society for 

Environmental Exploration, London). 

Sinclair I. (1993) Sasol Birds of Southern Africa. Wah Press (pte) Ltd, Singapore. 


23


Spawls S., Howell K., Drewes R & Ashe J. (2002) A Field Guide to the Reptiles of East Africa. Academic 

Press, Hong Kong. 

Stevenson T. & Fanshawe J. (2002) Field guide to the birds of East Africa. T. & A. D. Poyser, London. 

Spawls, S., Howell, K., Drewes, R. and Ashe, J. 2002. A Field Guide to the Reptiles of East Africa. 

Academic Press, London, UK. 

Stattersfield, A.J., Crosby, M.J., Long, A.J. and Wege, D.C. 1998. Endemic Bird Areas of the World. 

Priorities for Biodiversity Conservation.BirdLife Conservation Series No. 7, BirdLife International. 

Stuart, C. & Stuart, T. (1994). A field guide to the tracks & signs of Southern and East African wildlife. 

Southern Book Publishers (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town. 

Van Wyk, B. & Van Wyk, P. (1997). Field guide to trees of Southern Africa. Struik Publishers (Pty) lTd, 

Cape Town. 

Walker, C. 1996. Signs of the Wild. Struik Publishers (Pty) Ltd, Cape Town. 

Zimmerman, D.A., Turner, D.A. & Pearson, D.J. 1996. Birds of Kenya and Northern Tanzania. Russel 

Friedman Books, South Africa. 


24


APPENDIX 1: TAXONOMIC VERIFICATIONS. 

BOTANY 

Omari Kibure WWF P.O. Box 77226, Dar es Salaam 

tbtp1997@yahoo.com or psumbi@wwftz.org 

ZOOLOGY 

Mammals: 

Prof. Kim Howell University of Dar es Salaam Department of Zoology 


khowell@twiga.com 

Dr. Bill Stanley Chicago Field Museum Mammal Section, Field Museum, Chicago, IL 60605, 

USA 

stanley@fieldmuseum.org 

Amphibians: 




Prof. J. Poynton British Natural History Museum Cromwell Road, South Kensington, London, UK. 

Reptiles: 




Dr. R.C. Drewes California Academy of Sciences Department of Herpetology, Golden Gate Park 

San Francisco, California 94118, USA 

bdrewes@calacademy.org 

Butterflies: 

Dr. Tim Davenport Wildlife Conservation Society Southern Highland Conservation Project, 

P.O. Box 1475, Mbeya, Tanzania 

trbd@twiga.com 

Birds: 

Mr. Elias Mungaya Wildlife Conservation Society P.O. Box 70919. Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

of Tanzania 

Stonechat2@avu.org 


25


APPENDIX 2: SUMMARY OF SAMPLING EFFORT OF EACH SURVEY 

TECHNIQUE EMPLOYED. 

Survey technique Target taxa Sampling effort per major habitat type: 

(and sampling unit) Woodland Forest-grassland 

Total 

mosaic 

DRY WET DRY WET 

Flora 

Vegetation plot Trees, shrubs, herbs 15 - 9 5 29 VPs * 

Opportunistic obs./collection Trees, shrubs, herbs - - - - - 

Fauna 

Sherman traps (trap-nights) Small mammals 875 1500 850 1200 4425 trap-nights 

Animal signs transects Larger mammals 40 19 25 14 98 transects 

Bat netting (mist-net hours) Bats 242 1462 450 745 2899 Mist-net hours 

Bird surveys (weeks work) Birds - 1.5 4 1.5 7 weeks work 

Timed searches (man-hours) Herpetofauna 30 86 22 73 211 Man-hours 

Sweep-netting (man-hours) Butterflies 24 20 10 12 66 Man-hours 

Canopy traps (trap-days) Butterflies 64 80 42 80 266 Trap-days 

Opportunistic obs./collection All animal taxa - - - - - 

Human resource-use 

Transects Human resource-use 40 19 25 14 98 transects 

Opportunistic observation Human resource-use - - - - - 

* Accomplished over both fieldwork phases. 


26


APPENDIX 3: SUMMARY OF WEATHER CONDITIONS DURING EACH 

FIELDWORK PHASE. 

2a. Dry season phase: 

16 

35 

14 

30 

12 

25 

Rainfall (mm) 

10 

8 

6 

20 

15 

Temperature (deg C) 

Rainfall (mm) 

Min. temp 

Max. temp 

4 

10 

2 

5 

0 

0 

1 

4 

7 

10 

13 

16 

19 

22 

25 

28 

31 

34 

37 

40 

43 

Days 

2b. Wet season phase: 

25 

40 

35 

20 

30 

Rainfall (mm) 

15 

10 

25 

20 

15 

5 

0 

1 

4 

7 

10 

13 

16 

19 

22 

25 

28 

31 

34 

37 

40 

43 

46 

49 

52 

Temperature (deg C) 

Rainfall (mm) 

Min. temp (oc) 

Max. temp (oc) 

10 

5 

0 

Day 


27


APPENDIX 4: SUMMARY DETAILS OF WORKSITE BASES/ZOOLOGICAL 

TRAPSITES. 

Site Latitude Longitude Altitude Major habitat type 

DRY SEASON PHASE 

Basecamp 1 S 08 0 53’ 07.8’’ E 034 0 24’ 51.5’’ 1 270 m asl Woodland 

Satellite camp 1 S 08 0 51’ 55.1’’ E 034 0 18’ 50.0’’ 1 360 m asl Woodland 

Basecamp 2 S 08 0 55’ 37.1’’ E 034 0 12’ 28.4’’ 1 200 m asl Woodland 

Satellite camp 2 S 08 0 57’ 52.0’’ E 034 0 12’ 24.7’’ 1 360 m asl Grassland & woodland 

Satellite camp 3 (A) S 08 0 57’ 06.3’’ E 034 0 08’ 52.8’’ 1 220 m asl Woodland 

Satellite camp 3 (B) S 08 0 55’ 35.3’’ E 034 0 07’ 51.4’’ 1 180 m asl Cultivation & woodland 

Basecamp 3 S 09 0 09’ 19.5’’ E 034 0 21’ 48.6’’ 2 540 m asl Forest-grassland mosaic 

Satellite camp 4 S 09 0 08’ 38.5’’ E 034 0 25’ 07.9’’ 2 230 m asl Forest-grassland mosaic 



Satellite camp 6 S 09 0 04’ 29.6’’ E 034 0 11’ 08.6’’ 1 680 m asl Grassland & woodland 


WET SEASON PHASE 


Satellite camp 1 S 09 0 06’ 52.3” E 034 0 07’ 02.5” 2 210m asl Grassland & woodland 

Satellite camp 2 S 08 0 08’ 07.6” E 034 0 24’ 51.7” 1 290m asl Woodland 

Satellite camp 3 S 09 0 08’ 35.4’’ E 034 0 07’ 32.5’’ 2 813m asll Afro-alpine moorland 

Satellite camp 4 S 09 0 04’ 29.8” E 034 0 11’ 10.4” 1 680m asl Cultivation & woodland 

Basecamp 2 S 08 0 55’ 34.4” E 034 0 12’ 20.0” 1 265m asl Woodland 

Satellite camp 5 S 08 0 58’ 21.3” E 034 0 17’ 47.8” 2 028m asl Grassland 

Satellite camp 6 S 08 0 59’ 10.0” E 034 0 21’ 33.1” 1 558m asl Woodland 

Satellite camp 7 S 09 0 04’ 25.4” E 034 0 16’ 25.4” 2001m asl Grassland & woodland 


28


APPENDIX 5: SUMMARY DETAILS OF VEGETATION PLOTS. 

Vegetation 

Plot number 

Latitude (S) Longitude (E) Altitude 

(m asl) 

Major Habitat 

Type 

1 08°53' 13.4" 034°24' 151.1" 1 302 Woodland 

2 08°50' 46.9" 034°21' 34.2" 1 287 Grassland 

3 08°55'58.1" 034°23' 56.9" 1 374 Woodland 

4 08°54' 36.1" 034°24' 08.4" 1 393 Woodland 

5 08°51' 03.6" 034°26' 27.6" 1 484 Woodland 

6 08°52'34.8" 034°16' 58.7" No veg plot 

7 08°52' 41.0" 034°17' 23.1" - Grassland 

8 08°55' 43.6" 034°12' 31.0" - Grassland 

9 08°57' 01.1" 034°12' 48.7" 1 200 Woodland 

10 08°54' 21.5" 034°15' 07.4" 1 350 Woodland 

11 08°53' 43.4" 034°12' 46.9" - Grassland 

12 08°52' 52.5" 034°09' 17.4" 1 230 Riverine forest 

13 08°58' 29.1" 034°13' 08.5" 1 290 Woodland 

14 08°58' 03.4" 034°12' 41.9" 1 400 Woodland 

15 08°56' 23.5" 034°09' 20.2" - Forest-grassland 

16 09°10' 33.9" 034°20' 21.5" No veg plot 

17 08°54' 28.4" 034°15' 10.1" - Woodland 

18 09°07' 21.8" 034°22' 14.1" 2 700 Grassland & Woodland 

19 09°09' 34.2" 034° 21' 51.2" - Forest & Grassland 

20 09°08' 36.7" 034°25' 11.8" 2 230 Forest & Grassland 

21 09°09' 04.8" 034° 22' 31.9" 2 324 Forest 

22 09°09' 34.2" 034°21' 51.2" 2 600 Forest 

23 09°07' 00.0" 034°15' 46.3" 2 450 Forest 

24 09°09' 08.4" 034°20' 56.7" 2 540 Forest & Grassland 

25 09°06' 11.8" 034°05' 07.5" 2 200 Forest 

26 09°04' 35.5" 034°11' 15.5" No veg plot 

27 

28 

29 

30 

31 

32 

09°06’ 37.0" 

09°06’ 

09°06’ 37.0" 

09°06’ 23.2" 

08°58’ 23.2" 

08°58’ 05.7" 

034°04’ 50.1" 

034°0 

034°04’ 50.1" 

034°05’ 26.1" 

034°17’ 52.1" 

034°18’ 08.8" 

1 680 

2 255 

2 377 

2 308 

2 053 

1 956 

Woodland & Grassland 

Forest 

Grassland 

Montane forest 

Woodland 

Woodland 


29


APPENDIX 6: SUMMARY DETAILS OF TRANSECTS USED TO DETECT 

ANIMAL SIGNS AND HUMAN RESOURCE-USE. 

6a. Dry Season 

Transect Latitude (S) at Longitude (E) at Grid Ref Grid Ref Major habitat type 

number start 

start (E) (N) 

1 08°53' 47.4" 034°24'31.7" 06 54908 90 16386 Woodland 

2 08°53'23.2" 034°24' 02.1" 06 54006 90 17132 Woodland 

3 08°54' 02.2" 034°25'28.5" 06 56642 90 15923 Woodland 

4 08°50' 47.2" 034°21' 34.8" 06 49526 90 21940 Woodland 

5 08°50' 29.7" 034°21' 40.2" 06 49692 90 22478 Woodland 

6 08°50' 01.3" 034°21' 35.5" 06 49551 90 23350 Woodland 

7 08°55' 58.3" 034°23' 56.5" 06 53819 90 12370 Woodland / Grassland 

8 08°54' 35.3" 034°24' 08.2" 06 54185 90 14916 Woodland 

9 08°54' 36.0" 034°24' 03.6" 06 54044 90 14896 Woodland 

10 08°54' 35.3" 034°24' 09.8" 06 54235 90 14916 Woodland 

11 08°51' 01.8" 034°26' 28.3" 06 58492 90 21457 Woodland 

12 08°50' 54.1" 034°26' 36.5" 06 58742 90 21694 Woodland 

13 08°52' 41.0" 034°17' 37.7" 06 42267 90 18472 Woodland 

14 08°52' 26.0" 034°18' 03.7" 06 43066 90 18930 Woodland 

15 08°52' 07.2" 034°18' 29.8" 06 43866 90 19504 Woodland 

16 08°51' 35.0" 034°18' 35.0" 06 44025 90 20492 Woodland 

17 08°51' 00.4" 034°18' 15.6" 06 43437 90 21558 Woodland 

18 08°50' 31.8" 034°17' 55.8" 06 42836 90 22438 Woodland 

19 08°57' 13.4" 034°12' 13.7" 06 32343 90 10138 Woodland 

20 08°56' 36.3" 034°12' 24.6" 06 32682 90 11277 Woodland 

21 08°55' 53.7" 034°11' 58.2" 06 31877 90 12588 Woodland 


23 08°54' 06.5" 034°12' 30.0" 06 32860 90 15877 Woodland 

24 08°54' 53.8" 034°12' 40.4" 06 33172 90 14422 Woodland 

25 08°55' 35.0" 034°12' 43.3" 06 33259 90 13160 Woodland 

26 08°55' 19.2" 034°13' 16.3" 06 34267 90 13640 Woodland 

27 08°55' 01.4" 034°12' 48.6" 06 33422 90 14188 Woodland 

28 08°53' 27.6" 034°09' 29.9" 06 27361 90 17000 Woodland 

29 08°53' 06.3" 034°10' 57.6" 06 30041 90 17644 Grassland 






35 08°57' 49.6" 034°12' 51.9" 06 33508 90 09022 Woodland 

36 08°55' 34.0" 034°07' 55.4" 06 24463 90 13215 Woodland 

37 08°55' 23.3" 034°08' 05.7" 06 24781 90 13545 Woodland 

38 08°53' 10.0" 034°11' 03.1" 06 30209 90 17532 Woodland 

39 08° 52' 09.5" 034°10' 43.8" 06 29626 90 19392 Woodland 

40 08°52' 56.9" 034°10' 13.4" 06 28691 90 17938 Woodland 

41 09°10' 34.4" 034°20' 21.1" 06 47137 89 85392 Bush/Scrub/Thicket 

42 09°10' 02.0" 034°20' 01.0" 06 46526 89 86390 Grassland 

43 09°09' 11.8" 034°20' 29.5" 06 47402 89 87926 Grassland 

44 09°07' 28.2" 034°22' 08.9" 06 50449 86 91100 Grassland 

45 09°07' 21.3" 034°18' 28.2" 06 43713 89 91336 Grassland 

46 09°07' 48.4" 034°18' 54.9" 06 44526 89 90498 Rock / Barren 

47 09°08' 20.7" 034°25' 04.8" 06 55815 89 89556 Grassland 


30


Transect Latitude (S) at Longitude (E) at Grid Ref Grid Ref Major habitat type 

number start 

start (E) (N) 

48 09°08' 09.4" 034°25'12.1" 06 56040 89 89904 Grassland 

49 09°08' 06.3" 034°25' 06.9 06 55883 89 89997 Grassland 

50 09°09' 18.1" 034°21' 49.5" 06 49846 89 87818 Grassland 

51 09°09' 31.6" 034°22' 19.2" 06 50751 89 87397 Grassland 

52 09°09' 35.8" 034°21' 48.6" 06 49819 89 87272 Grassland / Forest 

53 09°06' 23.1" 034° 16' 38.7" 06 40375 89 93136 Grassland 

54 09°06' 02.6" 034°06' 09.3" 06 21163 89 93828 Grassland / Cultivation 

55 09°05' 41.0" 034°08' 09.9" 06 24847 89 94482 Grassland / Cultivation 

56 09°06' 57.5" 034°05' 27.0" 06 19866 89 92146 Grassland 

57 09°07' 52.9" 034°06' 06.3" 06 21060 89 90440 Grassland 

58 Grassland 

59 09°06' 29.1" 034°05' 07.1" 06 19261 89 93020 Grassland 

60 09°06' 19.8" 034°05' 04.8" 06 19194 89 93306 Forest 


62 09°05' 10.4" 034°11' 07.4" 06 30770 89 96 306 Woodland / Grassland 

63 09°10' 24.1" 034°09 07.4" 06 26573 89 85780 Grassland 

64 09°08' 39.0" 034°07' 43.9" 06 24035 89 89014 Grassland 

6b. Wet Season 

Transect 

number 

Latitude (s) at 

start 

Longitude (E) 

at start 

Grid Ref 

(E) 

Grid Ref (N) Major Habitat 

Type 

1a 09 07 '44.4" 034 07' 26.8" 06 23522 89 90784 Grassland 

1b 09 06' 19.0" 034 05' 02.7" 06 19131 89 93420 Grassland 

2 09 06' 45.3" 034 04' 51.8" 06 18795 89 92614 Grassland 

3 09 06' 38.8" 034 04' 52.1" 06 18805 89 92816 Grassland 

4 09 06' 45.8" 034 05' 16.8" 06 19557 89 92598 Forest 

5 09 06' 16.0" 034 04' 49.1" 06 18715 89 93516 Forest 

6 09 06' 38.1" 034 05' 25.4" 06 19823 89 92832 Grassland 

7 09 06' 32.9" 034 05' 11.1" 06 20143 89 92992 Forest 

8 09 08' 41.4" 034 07' 47.2" 06 24137 89 89032 Grassland 

9 09 09' 08.4" 034 08' 00.1" 06 24531 89 88204 Rock / grassland 

10 09 10' 04.3" 034 08' 57.7" 06 26283 89 86482 Rocky / grassland 

11 09 07' 05.6" 034 05' 36.2" 06 20149 89 91986 Grassland 

SC41 09 04' 53.4" 034 11' 04.3" 06 30177 89 96018 Woodland 

SC42 09 05' 18.4" 034 11' 52.4" 06 31644 89 95244 Woodland 

12 08 55' 01.8" 034 12' 07.9" 06 32181 90 14180 Grassland 

13 08 55' 19.4" 034 11' 21.3" 06 30756 90 13644 Grassland 

14 08 55' 20.8" 034 13' 38.4" 06 34941 90 13588 Woodland 

15 08 56’ 24.2" 034 12’ 47.5" 06 33380 90 11645 Woodland 

16 08 58’ 38.2" 034 12’ 54.4" 06 33378 90 07530 Woodland 

17 08 53’ 38.6" 034 11’ 45.1" 06 31493 90 16737 Woodland 

18 08 57' 05.5" 034 17' 40.8" 06 42336 90 10346 Grassland 

19 08 59' 33.3" 034 19' 44.5" 06 46096 90 05794 Grassland 

20 08 58' 43.6" 034 18' 40.0" 06 44133 90 07328 Grassland/woodland 

21 08 57' 01.8" 034 12' 12.2" 06 32299 90 10494 Grassland 

22 08 56' 57.0" 034 10' 36.9" 06 29389 90 10651 Woodland 

23 08 56' 05.4" 034 13' 00.4" 06 33777 90 12222 Woodland 

24 08 56' 56.4" 034 12' 52.5" 06 33536 90 10656 Woodland 

25 08 54' 23.2" 034 15' 33.1" 06 38453 90 15346 Woodland 

26 08 59' 26.8" 034 19' 48.5" 06 46309 90 05832 Grassland 

27 08 59' 43.8" 034 21' 09.8" 06 48700 90 05462 Woodland 

28 08 59' 19.1" 034 21' 50.7" 06 49953 90 06214 Woodland 

29 09 00' 22.3" 034 20' 24.8" 06 47321 90 04280 Montane Forest 

30 09 06’ 12.4” 034 16’ 00.0 06 39198 89 93560 Grassland 

31 09 04’ 17.0” 034 17’ 20.4” 06 41663 89 97096 Woodland 


31

Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve, A biodiversity Survey 

APPENDIX 7: VEGETATIVE DATA 

Plant species recorded in Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve following Mabberley (1997) 

Species Habitat Life Form Notes 

Annonaceae 

Artabotrys stolzii Diels 

Friesodielsia obovata (Benth) Verdc. 

RWL 

RWL 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Acanthaceae 

Barleria nyasensis C.B.Clarke 

Justicia betonica L. 

Justicia heterocarpa T. Anders. 

Justica sp. 

Mimulopsis solmsii 

Phaulopsis imbricata (Forsk.) Sweet 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

MF 

WL 

Shrub 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Near-endemic to Southern highland area 

Adiantaceae 

Pellaea quadripinnata (Forssk-) Prantl. MF Fern 

Amaranthaceae 

Centemopsis gracilenta (Hiern) Schinz WL Herb 

Anacardiaceae 

Lannea edulis Sond.) Engl 

Ozoroa insignis Delile 

Rhus sp. 

Rhus quartiniana A.Rich 

Sclerocarya birrea A.Rich)Hochst 

Apocynaceae 

Carissa spinarum L. 

Diplorhynchus condylocarpon (Muell.Arg.) Pichon 

Landolphia buchananii (Hallier.f.) Stapf 

Landolphia owariensis P. Beauv 

WL 

WL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

WL 

RWL 

WL 

RWL & MF 

RWL 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Shrub 

Tree 

Liane 

Liane 

Aquifoliaceae 

Ilex mitis ( Linneus) Radlkofer MF Tree 

Frontier Tanzania Environmental Research Report 99



Araliaceae 

Cussonia spicata Thumb . 

Polyscia fulva(Hiern.) Harm 

Schefflera sp. 

MF 

MF 

MF & EF 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Edible young shoots / flowers for Colobus monkeys 

Asclepiadaceae 

Stigmatorhynchus umbelliferus K.Schum.) Schltr. WL Herb 

Asparagaceae 

Asparagus setaceus 

Asparagus sp. 

MF 

MF &RWL 

Herb 

Herb 

Balsaminaceae 

Impatiens pseudozombensis Grey-Wilson EF & MF Herb 

Berberidaceae 

Beriberis holstii AFGL Tree 

Boraginaceae 

Cynoglossum johnstonii L AFGL Herb 

Brassicaceae 

Agianthus bipartitus E. Green AFGL 

Burseraceae 

Commiphora africana (A.Rich./ Engl 

Commiphora caerulea B.D. BurH 

Commiphora mossambicensis (Oliv.) Engl. 

Commiphora ugogensis 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 


33



Caesalpiniaceae 

Alfzelia quanzensis Welw 

Bauhinia petersiana Bolle 

Bauhinia thonningii Schumacher 

Bobgunnia madagascariensis Desv. 

Brachycorythis pleistophylla 

Brachystegia boehmii Thunb 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Brachystegia microphylla Harms 

Brachystegia manga De Wild 

Brachystegia spiciformis Benth 

Chamaecrista mimoxoides 

Craibia brevicaudata (Vatke) Dann 

Dolichos ichthyophone 

Julbernardia globiflora (Benth.) Troupin 

Lonchocarpus capassa Rolfe 

Tamarindus indica L. 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

MF 

AFGL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Herb 

Tree 

Herb 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Timber species 

Used for charcoal production / Edible young fruits/seed for 

monkeys 

Used for charcoal production 



Capparidaceae 

Boscia angustifolia A.Rich. 

Cadaba farinose Forsk. 

Maerua parvifolia Pax 

WL 

RWL 

WL 

Tree 

Shrub 

Tree 

Celasteraceae 

Catha edulis [M.Vahl.]Forssk.ex Endl 

Elaeodendron buchananii [Loes.]Loes 

Maytenus acuminata [L.f.]Loes 

Maytenus heterophylla [Eckl.&Zeyh]N.Robson 

Maytenus senegalensis 

Mystroxylon aethiopicum [Thunb.]Loes 

MF &EF 

WL 

MF 

WL 

MF 

RWL 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Shrub 

Tree 

Twigs chewed by humans for mental stimulation 

Chrysobalanaceae 

Prinari capensis [Oliver.]R.Grah WL & AFGL Tree 


34



Clusiaceae 

Garcinia buchananii Baker. 

Garcinia livingstonei T.Anders 

Garcinia kingaensis Engl. 

Hypericum revolutum Vahl 

RWL 

MF 

MF 

EF 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Combretaceae 

Combretum zeyheri Sond 

Combretum molle G.Don. 

Combretum sp. 

Terminalia prunioides Laws 

Terminalia kaiseriana F.Hoffm 

Terminalia sericea Burch. ex. DC 

Terminalia sp. 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 








Commelinaceae 

Commelina africana WL & AFGL Herb 

Compositae 

Aspilia pluriseta Schweinf. 

Aster tansaniensis L 

Athrixia rosmarinifolia Ker-Gawler 

Bidens lineariloba Oliv 

Bidens ochracea (O.Hoffm.) Sherff 

Chrysanthemoides monilifera 

Cineraria grandiflora L 

Cirsium buchwaldii O. Hoffm 

Dicoma anomala Sond 

Gerbera ambigua (Cass.) Sch. Bip 

Helichrysum kirkii Oliver 

Helichrysum odoratissimum L. Sweet, 

Helichrysum panduratum Miller 

Helichrysum tillandsiifolium Miller 

Hypericophyllum elatum N.E. Br 

Laggera crispate Shultz- Bp ex Koch 

Senecio subsessilis Oliv & Hiern 

Senecio sp. 

Stoebe kilimandscharica O. Hofm 


WL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

WL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

WL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Tree 

Shrub 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Tree 

Tree 

 

 

Shrub 

Shrub 

 

35


Vernonia brachcalyx Demf. & AFGL(T) 

Vernonia exertiflora Bak 

Vernonia stenocephala Olv. 

EF 

AFGL 

WL 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 


Cornaceae 

Cornus volkensii Harms MF Shrub 

Crassulaceae 

Crassula alba Forssk. AFGL Herb 

Cyatheaceae 

Alsophila capensis Forssk. MF Fern 

Cyperaceae 

Scleria bulbifera A.Rich 

Cyperus sp. 

Dipterocarpaceae 

Monotes glaber A.DC 

Monotes sp. 

AFGL 

AFGL 

WL 

WL 

Sedge 

Sedge 

Tree 

Tree 

Ebenaceae 

Diospyros fischeri Gurke. 

Diospyros mespiliformis 

Diospyros whyteana [Hiern.]F.White. 

Euclea divinorumHiern. 

RWL 

RWL 

MF 

WL 

Tree 

Tree 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Ericaceae 

Agarista salicifolia 

Agauria salicifolia (Commerson Ex Lam.) Hook. F.ex Oliv 

Blaeria johnstonii Engl. 

Erica sp 

AFGL 

AFGL & EF 

AFGL 

AFGL & WL & EF 

Tree 

Tree 

Herb 

Shrub 

Euphorbiaceae 

Antidesma venosum 

Acalypha psilostachya Hochst. 

Bridelia cathartica Betol.f. 

Bridelia duvigneaudii 

Clutia abyssinica Taub&Spanch 

Clutia paxii Knauf 


WL 

MF 

RWL 

RWL 

AFGL & EF 

EF 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

36


Euphorbia heterochroma Pax 

Euphorbia matabelensis Pax 

Euphorbia usambarica Pax 

Margaritaria discoidea (Baill.)Webster 

Macaranga kilimandscharica Pax. 

Phyllanthus sp. 

Pseudolachnostylis maprouneifolia Pax 

Tragia furialis Bajer 

Uapaca kirkiana Muell. Arg. 

Uapaca nitida Muell. Arg. 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

MF 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

Herb 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Ripe fruits edible to humans, baboons & monkeys 


Flacourtiaceae 

Aphloia theiformis (Vahl) Benn 

Flacourtia indica (Burm.f.) Merrill, 

Oncoba spinosa 

MF 

MF 

WL 

Tree 

Tree 

Shrub 

Gentianaceae 

Swertia abyssinica Hochst. AFGL & MF Herb 

Geraniaceae 

Pelargonium luridum (Andr.) Sweet AFGL Herb 

Gleicheniaceae 

Dicranopteris linearis (Burm.f.) underw. MF & RWL Fern 

Gramineae 

Aria caryophyllea 

Aristida adscenscionis 

Cymbopogon giganteus 

Elionorus muticus 

Eulalia villosa (Taub) Nees 

Eragrostis canescens K. Schum 

Festuca abyssinica 

Heteropogon contortus 

Heteropogon melanocarpus 

Hyparrhenia cymbaria 

Hyparrhenia rudis 

Loudetia simplex 

Loudetia superba De.Not 


AFGL 

WL 

WL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

WL & AFGL 

AFGL 

AFGL & WL 

AFGL 

WL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

WL 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

All grasses threatened by grazing of livestock 

37


Loudetia simplex (Nee) C.E. Hubbard 

Melinis minutiflora 

Panicum atrosanguineum 

Rhynchelytrum nerviglume (Franch) Chior 

Trachypogon spicatus 

Vulpia bromoides 

Zonotriche inamoena 

WL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

WL 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 

Grass 


Hamamelidaceae 

Trichocladus ellipticus Ecklon & Zeyher MF Tree 

Hypoxidaceae 

Hypoxis sp. AFGL Herb 

Iridaceae 

Aristea alata Baker, 

Dierama cupuliflorum Klatt 

Gladiolus dalenii Van Geel 

Gladiolus decoratus Baker 

Moraea carsonii Baker 

Lamiaceae 

Ocimum sp. 

Satureja uhligii L. 

MF 

AFGL 

MF 

MF 

AFGL 

WL 

WL 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Lauraceae 

Ocotea usambarensis Engl. MF Tree 

Liliaceae 

Aloe secundiflora WL Herb 

Lobeliaceae 

Lobelia giberroa Hemsl. MF Tree 

Loganiaceae 

Nuxia congesta Fresen. 

Strychnos matopensis S. Moore 

Strychnos potatorum L.F. 

Strychnos madagascariensis Poir 


MF 

WL 

WL 

WL 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

38



Lycopodiaceae 

Huperzia verticillata L.f MF Tree 

Malvaceae 

Thespesia garkeana (F.H.) Exell & Hill WL Shrub 

Melastomataceae 

Dissotis trothae Gilg. EF & AFGL Tree 

Meliaceae 

Ekebergia capensis Sparrman . 

Entandrophragma caudatum 

Lepidotrichilia volkensii [Gurke.]J.Leroy 

Turraea floribunda Hochst 

AFGL & RWL 

RWL 

MF 

MF 

Tree 

Tree 

 

Shrub 

Melianthaceae 

Bersama abyssinica MF Shrub 

Menispermaceae 

Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & A. Rich) Walp AFGL Herb 

Mimosaceae 

Acacia depranolobium 

Acacia nigrescens Oliver 

Acacia nilotica (L.) Del. 

Acacia polyaccantha Willd. 

Acacia tortilis (Forsk.) Hayne 

Acacia sp. 

Acacia senegal [ L.]Wild. 

Albizia antunesiana Harms 

Albizia gummifera [J.F.Gmel]C.A.Sm. 

Albizia harveyi Fournier 

Albizia versicolor 

Albizia sp. 

Faidherbia albida Del. 

Dichrostachys cinerea (L.) Wight & Arn 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

RWL & WL 

WL 

MF & EF 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Shrub 

Acacia species threatened by building of temporary 

settlements 

Monimiaceae 

Xymalos monospora (Harvey) Warb. MF Tree 


39



Moraceae 

Ficus amadiensis De Wild 

Ficus ingens (Miq.) Miq. 

Ficus natalensis Hochst. 

RWL 

RWL 

MF 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Mussaceae 

Ensete ventricosum (Welw.) Cheesman MF Herb 

Myrsinaceae 

Embelia schimperi Vatke 

Maesa lanceolata Forssk 

Myrsine africana (L.) 

Myrsine melanophloeos (L.) R.Br. 

Myrtaceae 

Syzygium cordatum Krauss 

Syzygium guineense (Willd.) DC 

Ochnaceae 

Ochna puberula N.Robson 

Ochna cyanophylla N.Robson 

Ochna holstii Engl. 

Ochna sp. 

Olacaceae 

Olax obtusifolia De Wild 

Ximenia Americana L. 

Ximenia caffra Sonder 

Oleaceae 

Jasminum fluminense Vell. 

Jasminum odoratissimum (Gilg) P.S. Green 

Schrebera alata (Hochst.) Welw 

Schrebera trichoclada (Welw) 

MF 

MF & RWL 

MF 

AFGL & MF 

RWL 

MF 

RWL 

MF 

MF 

MF 

RWL 

WL 

WL 

AFGL 

MF 

WL & AFGL 

WL 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Tree 

Tree 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Oliniaceae 

Olinia rochetiana A. Juss MF & EF Tree 


40



Orchidaceae 

Brachycorythis pleistophylla Reichb f. 

Disa sp. 

Roeperocharis bennettiana Reichb.f. 

AFGL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Illegal trade of edible orchid tubers to Malwai & Zambia 



Osmundaceae 

Osmunda regalis L RWL Fern 

Papilionaceae 

Abrus schimperi Bak 

Adenocarpus mannii (Hook.f.) Hook.f 

Aeschynomene abyssinica – A Rich) Vatke 

Aeschynomene rubrofarinacea (T) F. White 

Argyrolobium stolzii Harms 

Clitoria ternatea L. 

Crotalaria natalitia Meissn. 

Crotalaria sp. 

Dalbergia nitidula Welw. Ex Baker 

Desmodium sp. 

Dolichos kilimandscharicus Taub 

Droogmansia pteropus (Bak) De Wild 

Eriosema flexuosum Staner 

Eriosema psoraloides (Lam)Donn 

Eriosema ukingense De Wild 

Eriosema verdickii Lam.ex DC. 

Erythrina abyssinica Lam.ex DC 

Indigofera atriceps Hook .f. 

Indigofera paniculata Pers 

Humularia drepanocephala M. Micheli ex Th. Durand 

Humularia sp. 

Kotschya recurvifolia (Tamb.) F. White 

Mucuna stans Baker 

Mucuna sp. 

Ormocarpum trichocarpum (Tanb.) Engl 

Pseudeminia comosa (Bak.) Verdc 

Pterocarpus angolensis DC 

Pterocarpus tinctorius Welw 

Tephrosia linearis (Willd.) Pers. 


WL & AFGL 

AFGL 

WL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

RWL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL & AFGL 

WL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

WL 

EF 

RWL & AFGL 

AFGL 

AFGL 

EF 

WL 

EF & WL 

WL 

WL 

WL 

WL & RWL 

WL 

 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Tree 

Herb 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Tree 

Tree 

Herb 

Tree 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Tree 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Herb 

Herb 

 

 

 

Shrub 

 

Tree 

Tree 

Shrub 

Edible tubers for humans 

Near-endemic species to Southern highland area 


41


Vigna vexillata (L) A. Rich 

Zeroderris stuhlmanii (Taub.) Mendonca & P.Sousa 

WL 

WL & RWL 

Herb 

 


Pedaliaceae 

Sesamum angustifolium WL Herb 

Piperaceae 

Peperomia tetraphylla Forsk 

Piper capense L.F. 

Podocarpaceae 

Podocarpus latifolius 

Podocarpus milanjianus 

EF 

MF 

MF & EF 

MF & EF 

Herb 

Herb 

Tree 

Tree 

Polygalaceae 

Securidaca longipedunculata Fresen WL Tree 

Polygonaceae 

Oxygonum dregeanum Meisn 

Rumex abyssinica Jacq 

WL 

AFGL 

Herb 

Herb 

Proteaceae 

Faurea rochetiana (Arich) Pic. Serm 

Faurea saligna Harvey 

Protea gaguedi J Gmelin 

Protea humifusa 

Protea wentzeliana Engl. 

WL & AFGL 

WL 

WL & AFGL &EF 

AFGL 

WL & AFGL & EF 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Pteridaceae 

Pteridium aquilinum MF Fern 

Rhamnaceae 

Rhamnus prinoides L. WL Shrub 

Rosaceae 

Hagenia abyssinica (Brucer) J.F. Gmel 

Prunus africana [Hook.f.]Kalkman 

MF 

AFGL & MF 

Tree 

Tree 



42



Rubiaceae 

Anthospermum usambarense K. Schum 

Canthium burttii Bullock. 

Catunaregum spinosa 

Crossopteryx febrifuga (G.Don) Benth 

Coffea mufindiensis 

Fadogia ancylantha Hiern 

Hymenodictyon floribundam [Stend.&Hochst] R.Robinson 

Keetia venosa 

Oxyanthus pyriformis 

Oxyanthus speciosus DC. 

Pauridiantha paucinervis (Hiern.) Bremek. 

Pavetta gardeniifolia A.Rich. 

Pavetta schumanniana K. Schum 

Psydrax whitei Bridson 

Psychotria zombamontana 

Psychotria sp. 

Pyrostria lobulata Bridson 

Rothmannia fischeri [K.Sschum]Bullock 

Rothmannia engleriana (K. Schum.) Keay 

Rytigynia sp. 

Spermacoce dibrachiata Oliver 

Tricalysia coriacea (Benth.) Hlern. 

Tricalysia verdcourtiana Robbrecht 

Tricalysia sp. 

Vanguera infausta Burch 

Vangueria sp. 

EF & AFGL 

MF 

WL 

WL 

MF 

WL 

EF & AFGL 

RWL 

MF 

MF 

MF 

MF 

WL 

MF 

RWL & MF 

WL 

MF 

WL 

RWL 

RWL 

MF 

MF 

WL 

RWL 

 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Tree 

Tree 

 

Tree 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

 

Tree 

Shrub 

Tree 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Ranunculaceae 

Clematis villosa WL Herb 

Rutaceae 

Clausena anisata Willd. J. D. Hook ex-Benth 

Vepris stolzii Veroorn 

WL & MF 

MF 

Shrub 

Tree 

Santalaceae 

Osyridocarpos schimperianus (Hochst. ex A.Rich.) A.DC 

Osyris quadripartite Hohst et steud 

Thesium kilimandscharicum 


EF 

EF 

AFGL 

 

Shrub 

Herb 

43



Sapindaceae 

Allophylus africanus P. Beauv. 

Dodonaea viscosa Jacq. 

Zanha africana (Radlk.) Exell. 

MF 

EF &RWL 

WL 

Herb 

Herb 

Shrub 

Sapotaceae 

Englerophytum natalense 

Manilkara sp. 

Scrophulariaceae 

Halleria lucida L. 

Sopubia conferta .S.Moore 

Striga latericea Vtke. 

Wahlenbergia polycephala 

MF 

RWL 

EF 

MF 

AFGL 

AFGL 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Shrub 

Herb 

Herb 

Herb 

Smilacaceae 

Smilax aspera L. MF Shrub 

Solanaceae 

Solanumincanum L. WL Shrub 

Sterculiaceae 

Dombeya burgessiae Gerrard ex Harv. 

Dombeya rotundifolia Harvey 

Sterculia quinqueloba [a Gurke] K.Schum 

Thespesia garckeana F.Hoffm. 

WL 

AFGL & WL 

WL 

WL 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Shrub 

Strychnaceae 

Strychnos henningsii RWL Shrub 

Thymelaeaceae 

Gnidia mollis C.H.Wright. 

Gnidia glauca [ Fresen.]Gilg 

Peddiea fischeri Engl. 

Peddiea polyantha Gilg. 

MF 

EF 

EF 

MF 

Tree 

Tree 

Shrub 

Shrub 


44



Tiliaceae 

Grewia bicolor A.Juss. 

Grewia monticola 

Triumfetta tomentosa Bojer 

WL 

WL 

WL 

Tree 

Shrub 

Herb 

Ulmaceae 

Celtis africana Burm.f. MF Tree 

Velloziaceae 

Xerophyta spekei Bak. WL Shrub 

Verbenaceae 

Clerodendrum cephalanthum Oliv. 

Vitex mombasae Vatke. 

Vitex doniana Sweet. 

Vitex payos Pieper Moldenke 

Violaceae 

Rinorea ferruginea Engl. 

Rinorea ilicifioloa 

WL 

WL & RWL 

RWL 

RWL 

MF 

MF 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Tree 

Shrub 

Tree 

Vitaseae 

Cyphostemma kilimandscharicum [Gilg.]Descoings. EF & MF Shrub 

Zygophyllaceae 

Balanites aegyptiaca AFGL Tree 

Key to Abbreviations: 

WL = Miombo woodland 

RWL = Riverine woodland 

MF = Montane forest 

AFGL = Afromontane grassland 

EF = Forest edge 


45


APPENDIX 8: MAMMAL DATA 

Mammal species recorded in Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve following Kingdom (1997). Voucher specimens are currently under going formal 

taxonomic verification (Appendix 1). 

Species Common name Local name Evidence Habitat recorded 

from 

ANOMALURIDAE 

Anomalurus derbianus** Lord Derby’s 

Zevu 

Observed/heard 

anomalure 

Notes 

BATHYERGIDAE 

Heliophobius 

argenteocinereus** 

Silky blesmol Fako Found dead &Mole-hills WL & FGM 

BOVIDAE 

Tragelaphus strepsiceros Greater kudu Tandala mkubwa Observed/dung/print WL 

Tragelaphus scriptus Bushbuck Mbwala Dung WL 

Sylvicapra grimmia** Common duiker Digi digi Observed/dung WL & FGM 

Redunca fulvorula* Mountain reedbuck Tohega Dung FGM 

Redunca sp.** Reedbuck Pongo Dung/track WL 

Raphicerus campestris** Steinbuck Pongo Observed WL Observed quickly, ID probable 

oreotragus oreotragus** Kilpspringer Kidisa Track FGM 

Neotragus moschatus Suni Paa Dung WL & FGM Forest dwelling species 

Madoqua kirkii* Kirk’s dik dik Digi digi Dung WL & FGM 

Madoqua sp.** Dik dik Digi digi Dung WL & FGM 

Cephalophus monticola* Blue duiker Digi digi Dung WL Forest dwelling species 

Cephalophus sp.** Duiker Digi digi Dung WL & FGM 

CANIDAE 

Canis mesomelas* Black-backed jackal Mbweha Dung FGM 

Otocyon megalotis** Bat-earred fox Umbamwitu Dung WL Probable ID 

Vulpes sp. Fox Umbamwitu Dung/track WL Probable ID 

CERCOPITHECIDAE 

Papio cynocephalus Yellow baboon Nyani Observed/dung/tracks WL & FGM 

Cercopithecus (aethiops) Vervet monkey Ngedere Dung WL 

pygerythrus 

Cercopithecus mitis moloneyi Moloney’s monkeys Kima Observed FGM 


46



from 

COLOBIDAE 

Colobus angolensis sharpei 

Black and white 

colobus 

Mbega Observed FGM Listed by IUCN as locally vulnerable. forest 

dependent. Sub-species restricted to Southern 

highlands 

CRICETIDAE 

Beamy hindei major Lesser pouched rat Panya Caught FGM Dependent on forest and dense woodland. Subspecies 

is restricted in range to montane southern 

Tanzania and Malawi. 

FELIDAE 

Felis caraca** Caracal Duma Dung WL Probable ID 

Felis serval Serval cat Pacapori Dung / track WL & FGM Forest dwelling species 

Felis sylvestris Wild cat Pacapori Dung WL & FGM 

Panthera pardus** Leopard Chui Track/remains of dead 

calf, killed by leopard 

WL 

Probable ID 

GALAGONIDAE 

Galago senegalensis 

Senegal dwarf 

Komba Observed/heard WL 

bushbaby 

Otolemur crassicaudatus Greater galago Komba Observed/heard WL 

HERPESTIDAE 

Atilax paluderiosus** Water mongoose Nkuchiro Seen/track/dung WL 

Mungos mungo Banded mongoose Nkuchiro Observed/tracks/dung WLv Forest dwelling species 

Mungos sp. Mongoose Nkuchiro Dung FGM 

HIPPOPOTAMIDAE 

Hippopotamus amphibius** Hippopotamus Kiboko Track, but old WL Uncertain ID 

HIPPOSIDERIDAE 

Hipposideros caffer/ruber Leaf-nosed bat Popo Caught WL Forest dwelling species 

Notes 


47



from 

HYSTERICIDAE 

Hystrix africaeaustralis** 

South African 

porcupine 

Nungu nungu Quill WL Southern Tanzania is an area of overlap for this 

species and the crested porcupine 

LEPORIDAE 

Lepus saxatillus Scrub hare Sungura Observed/dung/traps WL & FGM 

Pronolagus rupestris** Smiths red rabbit Sungura Observed/heard/dung WL 

MACROSCELIDINAE 

Elephantukus sp.** Lesser elephant shrew Panya Caught WL 

MURIDAE 

Aethomys sp. Bush rat Panya Caught WL 

Acomys spinossimus Spiny mouse Panya Caught WL 

Hylomyscus cf. denniae* African woodmouse Panya Caught WL & FGM Forest dwelling species 

Grammomys comete 

Narrow-footed 

woodland mouse 

Panya Caught FGM Forest dwelling species, restricted in range to wet 

montane areas north and south of Lake Nyasa 

Dendromus sp.* Climbing mouse Panya Caught WL & FGM 

Mus minutoides** Common mouse Panya Caught WL & FGM Forest dwelling species 

Lophuromys flavopunctatus Bruh-furred mouse Panya Caught FGM 

Praomys cf. delectorum Soft-furred mouse Panya Caught FGM Forest dwelling species 

Rhabdomys pumilio Four-striped mouse Panya Caught FGM Dicontinuous distribution 

MUSTELIDAE 

Aonyx capensis African clawless otter Fisimaji Observed/dung WL Patchily distributed, although still widely 

distributed, threatened by humans 

Mellivora capensis* Honey badger Nygere Dung WL & FGM Forest dwelling species 

Ictonyx striatus* Zorilla Kicheche Dung WL 

MYOXIDAE 

Graphiurus murinus African dormouse Panya Caught WL & FGM Forest dwelling species 

PTEROPODIDAE 

Epomophorus labiatus Epauletted fruitbat Popo Caught WL & FGM Forest dwelling species 

SCUIRIDAE 

Paraxerus ochraceus** Ochre bush squirel Kongogo Observed WL 

Notes 


48


Species Common name Local name Evidence Habitat recorded Notes 

from 

SORICIDAE 

Crocidura sp. White-toothed shrew Panya Caught WL & FGM 

Myosorex sp. Mouse shrew Panya Caught FGM Forest dwelling species, likely to be localised in 

the area 

Sylvisorex sp. Climbing shrew Panya Caught FGM Forest dependent species 

SUIDAE 

Potamochoerus larvatus Bushpig Nguruwe Dung / diggings WL Forest dwelling species 

Phacochoerus aethiopicus* Warthog Ngiri Dung / diggings WL 

THRYONOMIDAE 

Thrynomys cf. gregorianus Cane rat Ndezi Dung / Diggings WL 

TUBILIDENTATA 

Orycteropus afer Aardvark Muhanga Burrow WL Patchily distributed, although still widely 

distributed, threatened by humans 

VESPERTILIONIDAE 

Miniopterus schreibersii** Long-fingered bat Popo Caught WL 

Pipistrellus sp.* Pipistrelle Popo Caught WL & FGM 

Scotoecus hirundo** Evening bat Popo Caught WL 

VIVERRIDAE 

Civettictis civetta** African civet Fungo Seen WL 

Genetta sp.** Genet Kanu Dung WL 

* Species recorded only during dry season 

** Species recorded only during wet season 

No * if recorded in both the dry and wet season. 

WL = mid-altitude habitats 

FGM = afro-montane forest-grassland mosaic 


49


APPENDIX 9: BIRD DATA 

Birds species recorded in Mpanga /Kipengere Game Reserve following Baker (2002). 

Species Common Name Notes 

NON-PASSERINES 

Threskiornithidae – Idis and 

spoonbills 

Bostrychia hagedash* 

Phalacrocoracidae – Cormorants 

Phalacrocorax africanus 

Scopidae - Hamerkop 

Scopus umbretta 

Ciconiidae 

Ciconia nigra* 

Ciconia ciconia* 

Anatidae - Ducks and Geese 

Anas sparsa 

Alopochen aegyptiacus** (FT) 

Accipitridae - Vultures, Eagles, 

Kites, Hawks 

Macheiramphus alcinus* 

Accipiter tachiro * 

Accipiter badius * 

Batiste rufipennis * 

Buteo augur 

Pandion haliaetus * 

Milvus migrans* 

Kaupifalco monogrammicus** 

Terathopius ecaudatus** 

Circaetus cinereus ** 

Polemaetus bellicosus** 

Stephanoaetus rubricata** (FT) 

Lophaetus occipitalis** (FT) 

Falconidae – Falcons 

Falco biarmicus 

Falco naumani* 

Falco peregrinus** (FT) 

Falco tinnunculus** 

Numididae – Guineafowls 

Numida mealeagris 

Phasianidae - Francolins and 

Quails 

Francolinus levaillant 

Francolinus afer** 

Hadada Ibis 

Long-tailed cormorant 

Hamerkop 

Black stork 

White stork 

Black river duck 

Egyptian goose 

Bat hawk 

African goshawk 

Shikra 

Grasshopper buzzard 

Augur buzzard 

Osprey 

Black kite 

Lizard buzzard 

Bateleur 

Brown snake-eagle 

Martial eagle 

African crowned eagle 

Long-crested eagle 

Lanner falcon 

Lesser falcon 

Peregrine falcon 

Common falcon 

Helmeted guineafowl 

Red-winged francolin 

Red-necked spurfowl 




Otididae – Bustards 

Neotis denhami* 

Denham's bustard 


Scolopacidae - Snipes, Godwits, 

Sandpipers 

Actitis hypoleucos* 

Common sandpiper 

Columbidae - Pigeons and Doves 

Columba arquatrix* 

Columba Guinea* 

PegionTreron calva 

Aplopelia larvata 

Streptopelia lugens 

Streptopelia senegalensis 

Streptopelia decipiens * 

Streptopelia capicola 

Streptopelia semitorquatus 

Turtur chalcospilos 

Turtur afer * 

Turtur tympanistria 

Oena capensis * 

Psittacidae – Parrots 

Poicephalus meyeri 

Agapornis personatus 

Musophagidae – Turacos and 

Go-away Birds 

Tauraco livingstonii 

Tauraco schalowi* 

Corythaixoides personata 

Cuculidae - Cuckoos 

Cuculus clamosus** (FT) 

Centropodidae - Coucals 

Centropus superciliosu 

Strigidae – Owls 

Bubo africanus 

Bubo lacteus * 

Strix woodfordii 

Caprimulgidae – Nightjars 

Caprimulgus guttifer 

Caprimulgus natalensis * 

Apodidae – Swifts 

Telacanthura ussheri* 

Neafrapus boehmi * 

Apus aequatorialis * 

Apus barbatus 

Apus affinis * 

Apus apus 

Olive pigeon 

Speckled pigeon 

African green pigeon 

Lemon dove 

Dusky turtle dove 

Laughing dove 

Mourning dove 

Ring-necked dove 

Red-eyed dove 

Emerald-spotted wood dove 

Blue-spotted wood dove 

Tambourine dove 

Namaqua dove 

Brown parrot 

Yellow-collared lovebird 

Livingstone's turaco 

Schalow's turaco 

Bare-faced go-away bird 

Black cuckoo 

White-browed coucal 

Spotted eagle owl 

Verreaux's eagle owl 

African wood owl 

Usambara nightjar 

Swamp nightjar 

Mottled spinetail 

Böhm's spinetail 

Mottled swift 

Black swift 

Little swift 

Eurasian swift 


51



Alcedinidae – Kingfishers 

Corythornis cristata 

Halcyon albiventris 

Malachite kingfisher 

Brown-hooded kingfisher 

Megaceryle maxima 

Ceryle ridis 

Halcyon senegalensis** 

Meropidae - Bee-eaters 

Merops pusillus 

Merops apiaster** 

Coraciidae – Rollers 

Eurystomus glaucurus 

Phoeniculidae – Wood-hoopoes 

Phoeniculus purpuceus** (FT) 

Upupidae – Hoopoes 

Upupa africana** (FT) 

Bucerotidae - Hornbills 

Tockus alboterminatus 

Bycanistes brevis* 

Tockus nasutus** 

Torcus erythrorhynchus** 

Bucornus leadbeateri** (FT) 

Lybiidae - Barbets and 

Tinkerbirds 

Pogoniulus bilineatus* 

Pogoniulus Chrysoconus** 

Lybius melanopterus** 

Lybius melanopterus** 

Indicatoridae – Honeyguides 

Indicator variegatus* 

Indicator indicator 

Picidae – Woodpeckers 

Dendropicos fuscescens* 

Dendropicos griseocephalus * 

Giant kingfisher 

Pied kingfisher 

Woodland kingfisher 

Little bee-eater 

European bee-eater 

Broad-billed roller 

Green wood hoopoe 

African hoopoe 

Crowned hornbill 

Silvery-cheeked hornbill 

African grey hornbill 

Red-billed hornbill 

Southern ground hornbill 

Yellow-rumped tinkerbird 

Red fronted tinkerbird 

Brown-breasted barbet 

Black-colored barbet 

Scaly-throated honeyguide 

Greater honeyguide 

Cardinal woodpecker 

Olive woodpecker 

PASSERINES 

Hirundinidae - Swallows and 

Martins 

Psalidoprocne holomelas* 

Hirundo senegalensis* 

Hirundo abyssinica 

Hirundo daurica 

Hirundo atrocaerulea 

Hirundo smithii * 

Hirundo rustica * 

Hirundo fuligula** (FT) 

Delichon urbica * 

Psalidoprocne orientalis** 

Black roughwing 

Mosque swallow 

Lesser striped swallow 

Red-rumped swallow 

Blue swallow 

Wire-tailed swallow 

European swallow 

Rock martin 

House martin 

White-headed saw-wing 

Globally threatened species 


52



Motacillidae - Wagtails, Pipits, 

Longclaws 

Motacilla clara 

Anthus cinnamomeus 

Macronyx croceus 

Macronyx fuellebornii * 

Anthus lineiventris** 

Mountain wagtail 

Grassland pipit 

Yellow-throated longclaw 

Fülleborn's longclaw 

Striped pipit 

Campephagidae - Cuckoo 

Shrikes 

Campephaga flava * 

Pycnonotidae – Greenbuls 

Andropadus nigriceps race 

chlorigula 

Pycnonotus barbatus 

Picnonotus barbatus 

Turdidae - Thrushes, Robins, 

Wheatears, Chats, Akalats 

Monticola saxatilis* 

Turdus olivaceus * 

Cossypha caffra 

Cossypha heuglini 

Cercotrichas leucophrys * 

Saxicola torquata 

Pogonocichla stellata 

Cichladusa arquata** 

Sylviidae – Warblers 

Bathmocercus winifredae* 

Chloropeta similis* 

Sylvietta whytii * 

Cisticola brunnescens 

Cisticola aridulus * 

Cisticola njombe 

Cisticola galactotes* 

Prinia Prinia subflava* 

Apalis thoracica 

Camaroptera brachyura 

Bradipterus cinnamomeus* 

Cisticola lais** 

Cisticola cantans** 

Cistcola chiniana** 

Apalis melanocephala** 

Chloropeta natalensis** 

Hippolais icterina** 

Muscicapidae – Flycatchers 

Muscicapa caerulescens* 

Bradornis pallidus* 

Myioparus plumbeus** 

Black cuckoo shrike 

Mountain greenbul 

Yellow-vented bulbul 

Common bulbul 

Rock thrush 

Olive thrush 

Cape robin chat 

White-browed robin chat 

White-browed scrub robin 

Stonechat 

White-starred robin 

Collared palm thrush 

Mrs Moreau's warbler 

Mountain yellow warbler 

Red-faced crombec 

Pectoral-patch cisticola 

Desert cisticola 

Churring cisticola 

Winding cisticola 

Tawny-flanked prinia 

Bar-throated apalis 

Grey-backed camaroptera 

Cinnamon bracken warbler 

Wailing cisticola 

Singing cisticola 

Rattling cisticola 

Black-headed apalis 

Dark-capped yellow warbler 

Icterine warbler 

Ashy flycatcher 

African grey flycatcher 

Dusky flycatcher 

Range Restricted to Southern 

Tanzania, threatened 

Range restricted Uluguru, Ukaguru & 

Udzungwas. Globally threatened 

Range restricted to southern 

Highlands 


53



Platysteirdae - Wattle-eyes and 

Batis 

Batis mixta 

Batis molitor * 

Forest batis 

Chin-spot batis 

Monarchidae - Monarch 

Flycatchers 

Elminia albicauda* 

Trochocercus albonotatus** 

Timaliidae - Babblers, Iiadopsis, 

Chatterers 

Turdoides jardineii * 

White-tailed blue flycatcher 

White-tailed crested 

flycatcher 

Arrow-marked babbler 

Paridae - Tits 

Parus griseiventris** (FT) Miombo grey tit Range restricted to Miombo 

woodland in Western Tanzania 

Nectariniidae – Sunbirds 

Anthreptes collaris 

Nectarinia amethystina 

Nectarinia venusta 

Nectarinia mediocris 

Nectarinia johnstoni 

Nectarinia kilimensis * 

Cinnyris manoensis** 

Cinnyris shelleyi** (FT) 

Cinnyris mariquensis** (FT) 

Anthreptes longuemarei** 

Cyanomitra olivacea** 

Nectarinia famosa** 

Zosteropidae – White-eyes 

Zosterops senegalensis 

Collared sunbird 

Amethyst sunbird 

Variable sunbird 

Eastern double-collared 

sunbird 

Scarlet-tufted sunbird 

Bronze sunbird 

Miombo double-collared 

sunbird 

Shelley’s sunbird 

Marico sunbird 

Western violet-backed 

sunbird 

Olive sunbird 

Malachite sunbird 

Yellow white-eye 

Biome restricted species found only 

in alpine moorlands from 3 000 – 4 

500m asl. Threatened 

Locally and generally uncommon, 

500 – 1 200m asl from Morogoro and 

Songea 

Oriolidae – Orioles 

Oriolus larvatus 

Oriolus auratus** (FT) 

Laniidae – Shrikes 

Lanius cabanisi * 

Lanius collaris * 

Lanius marwitzi 

Corvinella melanoleuca* 

Eurocephalus rueppelli 

Lanus collurio** 

Black-headed oriole 

African golden oriole 

Long-tailed fiscal 

Common fiscal 

Uhehe fiscal 

Magpie shrike 

White-crowned shrike 

Red-backed shrike 

Range restricted species 


54



Malaconotidae - Puffbacks, 

Tchagras, Boubous, Bush 

Shrikes 

Dryoscopus cubla 

Laniarius aethiopicus 

Laniarius funebris 

Malaconotus sulfureopectus* 

Laniarus fuelleborni** 

Tchagra australis** 

Black-backed puffback 

Tropical boubou 

Slate-coloured boubou 

Sulphur-breasted bush shrike 

Fulleborn’s black boubou 

Black-crowned tchagra 

Prionopidae - Helmet Shrikes 

Prionops retzii 

Prionops plumatus 

Dicruridae – Drongos 

Dicrurus adsimilis 

Retz's helmet shrike 

White-crested helmet shrike 

Drongo 

Corvidae – Crows 

Corvus albus 

Corvus albicollis 

Sturnidae – Starlings 

Onychognathus walleri * 

Onychognathus morio 

Onychognathus tenuirostris* 

Cosmopsarus regius * 

Cosmopsarus unicolor* 

Cinnyricinclus leucogaster 

Lamprotornis elizabeth* 

Lamprotornis superbus 

Ploceidae - Weavers, Queleas, 

Bishops 

Ploceus baglafecht * 

Euplectes psammocromius 

Euplectes diadematus** (FT) 

Ploceus Zanthops* 

Quelea quelea** 

Dinemellia Dinemelli** 

Anaplectes rubriceps** 

Emberizidae - Waxbills, Cordonbleus, 

Mannikins 

Lagonosticta senegala 

Lagonosticta rubricata* 

Lagonosticta rhodopareia * 

Estrilda rhodopyga* 

Estrilda astrild * 

Lonchura cucullata 

Lonchura bicolor** (FT) 

Cryptospiza jacksoni** 

Vidua obtusa** (FT) 

Pied crow 

White-necked raven 

Waller's starling 

Red-winged starling 

Slender-billed starling 

Golden-breasted starling 

Ashy starling 

Violet-backed starling 

Southern blue-eared starling 

Superb starling 

Baglafecht weaver 

Mountane marsh widowbird 

Black-winged red bishop 

Holubs’ golden weaver 

Red-billed quelea 

White-headed buffaloweaver 

Red-headed weaver 

Red-billed firefinch 

African firefinch 

Jameson's firefinch 

Crimson-rumped waxbill 

Common waxbill 

Bronze mannikin 

Black and white mannikin 

Red-faced crimsonwing 

Borad-tailed paradise 

whydah 

Endemic to Tanzania, record 

represents extreme southern limit of 

its distribution 


highlands 


55



Fringillidae - Canarys and Seedeaters 

Serinus mozambicus 

Serinus whytii * 

Serinus melanochrous* 

Yellow-fronted canary 

Yellow-browed seedeater 

Kipengere seedeater 

Range restricted 


highlands 

Emberizidae – Buntings 

Emberiza tahapisi * 

Emberiza cabanisi** 

Cinnamon rock bunting 

Cabanis’s bunting 




FT = field team observations not ornithologist 


56


APPENDIX 10: REPTILE DATA 

Reptiles species recorded in Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve following Spawls, et al. (2002). Voucher specimens are currently 

undergoing taxonomic verification (Appendix 1) 

Species Common name Evidence Major habitat Notes (based on Spawls et al. 2002) 

recorded from 

AGAMIDAE 

Agama armata Tropical spiny agama Caught/observed WL Tanzanian range extension, normally found in the central plains, 

usually from 1,400-2,000m. Our findings are at 1,225m 

Agama agama Red-headed rock agama Observed WL Tanzanian range extension, normally found in central and northeastern 

parts 

BOIDAE 

Python natalensis* 

Southern african rock 

python 

Observed 

WL 

CHAMAELEONIDAE 

Chameleo dilepis Flap-necked chameleon Caught/observed WL 

Chamaeleo tempeli Tubercle-nosed chameleon Caught/observed FGM Southern Tanzanian endemic normally found in woodland and forest 

at 1 500 – 2 400 m a.s.l. Recorded here at 2 540 m a.s.l. thus an 

altitude range extension. 

Chamaeleo goetzi goetzi Goetze’s chameleon Caught/observed Southern Tanzanian endemic subspecies. 

CHELONIAN 

Geochelone pardalis** Leopard tortoise Shell WL Almost no records from S and W Tanzania, except for between Lake 

Rukwa & northern Lake Nyasa 

Pelusios sinuatus** Serrated hinged terrapin Caught WL 

COLUBRIDAE 

Duberria lutrix Slug-eater Caught/observed fgm Found from 1 000 – 2 600 m asl in high grassland & moist savanna 

Philothamnus semivarietus** Spotted bush snake Observed WL 

Philothamnus sp. Green snake Observed WL 

Prosymna sp.** Shovel-snouts Caught FGM 

Psammophylax variablis Grey-bellied skaapsteker Caught/found dead FGM 





GEKKONIDAE 

Hemidactylus platycephalus** Tree gecko Caught/observed WL 

Lygodactylus angolensis* Angolan dwarf gecko Caught/observed WL & FGM Particularly rare in Tanzania where there is only a few scattered 

records. Scattered records at low-altitude savanna in Kenya & 

Tanzania, thus an altitudinal range extension as recorded here at 2 

500 m asl 

Gekkonidae cont. 

Lygodactylus cf. angularis Angulate dwarf gecko Caught/observed FGM Normally found in woodland and forest at 1 600 – 2 300 m a.s.l. 

Recorded here at 2 720 m a.s.l. thus an altitude range extension. Also 

a disjunct range. 

Lygodactylus sp. Dwarf Gecko Observed FGM 

Pachydactylus turneri** Turner’s thick-toed gecko Caught WL Patchy distribution from Ke/Tz border & NW Rwanda. 

GERRHOSAURIDAE 

Gerrhosaurus flavigularis** Yellow-throated plated 

lizard 

Gerrhosaurus major* Greater plated lizard Observed WL 

Observed/tail caught WL Very few records from S and W Tanzania, except for Lake Rutwa & 

Kibondo. 

SCINICIDAE 

Heliobolus sp.** Sand lizard Caught, but squashed by WL 

vehicle 

Mabuya brauni* Ukinga mountain skink Caught/observed FGM Range restricted to grassland and savannah > 2 200 m a.s.l. in the 

Ukinga Mountains (southern Tanzania) and Nyika (northern 

Malawi). 

Mabuya maculilabris** Speckle-lipped skink Caught FGM Range extension as no records from Southern Highlands 

Mabuya megalura** Long-tailed skink Caught/obersved WL & FGM 

Mabuya planifrons Tree skink Caught/observed WL Range extension, as no records from S.Tanzania 

Mabuya striata** Striped skink Caught/observed WL & FGM Sporadic records in NE & E Kenya and lacking from S & W. 

Tanzania and N. Uganda 

Mabuya varia Variable skink Caught/observed WL & FGM 

Panaspis megalura** Snake-eyed skink Observed WL Tz endemic, mid-altitude in central and Usanu plains, range 

Panaspisa wahlbergi* 

Wahlberg’s snake-eyed 

skink 

extension 

Caught/observed WL Tanzanian range extension, normally found in the east and to the 

south of Lake Tanganyika 


58




VARANIDAE 

Varanus niloticus Nile monitor lizard Observed WL Sporadic records of this species in south-western Tanzania only 

VIPERIDAE 

Bitis arietans Puff adder Caught, Shed skin WL 

Causus resimus* Velvety-green night-adder Caught/observed WL Tanzanian range extension, normally found to the south of Lake 

Victoria 

Causus sp.** Night adder Observed WL Either rhombic or snouted species 







59


APPENDIX 11: AMPHIBIAN DATA 

Amphibians species recorded in Mpanga/Kipengere Game Reserve following Channing (2001). Voucher specimens are currently 

undergoing taxonomic verification (Appendix 1). 

Species Common name Major habitat Notes (based on Channing 2001) 


ARTHROLPETIDAE 

Arthroleptis stenodactylus Squeaker WL Forest-dependent species 

Athroleptis sp. Squeaker WL 

Schoutedenella xenochirus** Plain squeaker FGM Known from N. Malawi to NE Angola. Forest patches in open 

grassland from 1,800-2,500m 

BUFONIDAE 

Schismaderma careens* Red toad WL 

Bufo gutturalis** Guttural toad WL 

Bufo taitanus** Toad WL 

Bufo gutturalis* Guttural toad FGM 

Bufo nyikae** Nyika dwarf toad FGM Known from open grassland in highlands between Malawian and 

Zambian borders 

Bufo sp. A* Toad WL & FGM 

Bufo sp.B** 

FGM 

Bufo sp.C** 

FGM 

Bufo sp.D** 

FGM 

HYPEROLIDAE 

Hyperolius sp. Tree frog FGM 

PIPIDAE 

Xenopus cf. laevis* Common platanna WL & FGM 

Xenopus petersi** Peter’s platanna WL 

RANIDAE 

Athroleptella hewetii** Hewitt’s moss frog WL 

Afrana angolensis Angola river frog WL & FGM 

Afrana sp.A River frog FGM 

Phrynobatrachus natalensis Natal puddle frog WL 

Ptychadena anchietae* Anchieta’s grass frog WL 

Ptychadena sp.* Grass frog FGM 

Strongylopus fasciatus** Striped stream frog FGM 


60


Strongylopus fuellebornii Fuelleborn’s stream frog FGM Known from open grasslands in highlands between the border of 

Malawi and Zambia 

Species Common name Major habitat Notes (based on Channing 2001) 


Tomopterna natalensis** Natal sand frog WL Range extension as northern range is Southern Mozambique. 

Unknown sp.** 

FGM 







61


APPENDIX 12: BUTTERFLY DATA 

Butterfly species caught in Mpanga /Kipengere Game reserve following Larsen (1996), voucher specimens are currently undergoing 

taxonomic verification (Appendix 1). 

Species Common name Major Habitat recorded Notes 

from 

HESPERIDAE 

Acada biseriatus** Axehead skipper WL 

Caprona sp.** 

WL 

Celaenorrhinus galenus galenus* Orange sprite FGM Forest dwelling species 

Spialia sp. ** 

WL 

Zenonia zeno** Orange spotted skipper W; 

Unknown sp.** 

FGM 

LYCAENIDAE 

Cf. Apharitis sp.** 

FGM 

Actizera lucida* Rayed blue FGM 

Athene lunulata** Red spot ciliate blue WL 

Axiocerses amanga** Bush scarlet WL 

Axiocerses tjoane** 

WL 

Axiocerses sp.A** 

WL 

Axiocerses sp.B** 

WL 

Azanus ubaldus* Desert Babul blue WL 

Cacyreus lingeus** Common bush blue WL 

Cacyreus palemon palemon* Geranium blue FGM 

Cacyreus virilis Eastern bush blue WL & FGM 

Cacyreus sp.** 

WL 

Eicochrysops sp.** 

FGM 

Euchrysops malathana* Smokey bean cupid WL & FGM 

Harpendyreus juno FGM Southern rift endemic in northern Malawi and TZ 

southern highlands 

Hemiolaus coeculus coeculus Azure hairstreak WL Forest dwelling species, range-restricted endemic 

subspecies from zambia and SW Tz. 

Iolaus sidus** Red-lined sapphire WL 

Iolaus sp.** 

WL 

Leptotes jeanneli** 

WL 

Leptotes pirithous Common zebra blue WL 


62



from 

Lycaenidae cont. 

Leptotes sp. ** 

WL 

Lepidochrysopos sp.* Commodore FGM 

Lepidochrysops desmond** 

WL 

Lepidochrysops polydialecta** 

WL 

Lepidochrysops sp.A** 

WL 

Lepidochrysops sp.B* 

WL 

Lepidochrysops sp.C** 

WL 

Lycaena abboti* Small copper FGM 

Lycaena phlaeas** Small copper WL 

Pseudonacaduba sochela** African line blue WL 

Spindasis sp.** 

FGM 

Uranothauma cordatus** FGM Above 1,500m 

Uranothauma nubifer* Black heart FGM Forest dwelling species 

Zizulo hylax* Tiny Grass Blue WL 

Unknown sp.** 

WL 

NYMPHALIDAE 

Acraea alicia** 

FGM 

Acraea anacreon bomba 

FGM 

Acraea eponina eponina* Dancing Acraea FGM Forest dwelling species 

Acraea encedon encedon* Encedon Acraea WL & FGM 

Acraea goetzei* 

FGM 

Acraea insignis insignis* FGM Forest dwelling species 

Acraea leucopyga* 

WL 

Acraea neobule neobule* Wandering donkey WL 

Acraea natalica* Natal Acraea FGM 

Acraea sotikensis* Sotik Acraea WL Forest dwelling species 

Acraea sp.A** 

WL & FGM 

Acraea sp.B** 

WL 

Acraea sp.C** 

FGM 

Acraea sp. D** 

FGM 

Amauris cf. echeria** 

FGM 

Amauris ellioti junia Ansorge’s danaid FGM Forest dwelling species 

Antanartia dimorphica** Dimorphic admiral FGM 

Bebearia cocalia** Spectre WL 

Bicyclus cottrelli* bush brown WL Forest dwelling species, southern most record now 

Bicyclus anyana anyana* Squinting bush brown WL 


63



from 

Nymphalidae cont. 

Bicyclus campus** Hill bush brown WL 

Bicylus ena** Grizzled brown bush WL 

Bicyclus safitza safitza** Common bush brown WL 

Byblia anvatara acheloia African Joker WL 

Byblia ilithyia** Joker WL 

Byblia sp. A** 

WL 

Byblia sp.B** 

WL 

Catacroptera cloanthe** Pirate WL 

Charaxes achaemenes achaemenes Bush charaxes WL 

Charaxes ansorgei levicki** 

FGM 

Charaxes acuminatus** Mountain pearl charaxes FGM Forest dwelling species 

Charaxes berkeleyi** Berkley’s charaxes WL 

Charaxes bohemani Large blue charaxes WL 

Charaxes brutus** White barred charaxes WL 

Charaxes candiope candiope* 

Green veined charaxes 

Charaxes cithaeron kennethi Blue spotted charaxes WL Forest dwelling species 

Charaxes condoni* charaxes WL Forest dwelling species, Tanzanian endemic from Iringa 

and Mbeya regions 

Charaxes druceanus proximans Silver barred charaxes WL & FGM Forest dwelling species 

Charaxes etesipe taventensis* Savannah charaxes WL Forest dwelling species 

Charaxes ethalion** Satyr charaxes WL & FGM 

Charaxes etheocles** Demon charaxes WL Forest dwelling species 

Charaxes guderiana rabaiensis Blue spangled charaxes WL Forest dwelling species 

Charaxes jasius saturnus Foxy charaxes WL 

Charaxes kirkii** Kirk’s charaxes WL 

Charaxes lasti** Silver streaked charaxes WL 

Charaxes pollux** Black-bordered charaxes WL 

Charaxes protoclea azota Flame bordered charaxes WL 

Charaxes varanes vologeses Pearl Charaxes WL 

Charaxes sp** Charaxes WL 

Cnodontes vansomereni* Van Someren’s Buff WL Forest dwelling species 

Danaus chrysippus aegyptius African queen WL & FGM 

Eurytela dryope angulata Golden piper WL Forest dwelling species 

Hamanumida daedalus Guineafowl WL & FGM Forest dwelling species 

Issoria sp. ** FGM Forest dwelling species, not below 1,700m 

Junonia artaxia Commodore WL Forest dwelling species 

Junonia denone** Dark blue pansy WL 


64



from 

Nymphalidae cont. 

Junonia hierta cebrene Yellow pansy WL & FGM Found in Kenya and Somalia 

Junonia natalica natalica Natal pansy WL Forest dwelling species 

Junonia orithya madagascariensis* Blue pansy FGM 

Melanitis leda africana Common evening brown WL Forest dwelling species 

Neocoenyra duplex** 

FGM 

Neocoeenyra heckmanni heckmanni** Fritillary FGM Found in southern Tanzania only 

Neptis morosa** Morose sailor WL 

Neptis penningtoni** Pennington’s sailor WL 

Neptis serena serena* River sailor WL Forest dwelling species 

Neptis saclava marpessa Small spotted sailor WL Forest dwelling species 

Neptis sp.A** 

WL 

Neptis sp.B** 

WL 

Phalanta phalantha aethiops* Common leopard fritillary FGM 

Precis octavia sesames Gaudy commodore WL & FGM Forest dwelling species 

Precis antilope Darker commodore WL 

Precis archesia** Garden inspector WL 

Precis ceryne ceryne Marsh commodore WL 

Precis artaxia* Commodore WL 

Precis pelarga** Fashion commodore WL 

Precis tugela aurorina* Eared commodore WL Forest dwelling species 

Pseudoacrea boisduvali tremeni* Trimens false acrea WL & FGM Forest dwelling species 

Pseudoacrea lucretia expansa False chief WL & FGM Forest dwelling species 

Salamis anacardi* Clouded mother of pearl WL Forest dwelling species 

Vanessa cardui* Painted lady FGM 

Ypthima antennata** 

WL 

PAPILIONIDAE 

Graphium leonidas leonidas* Veined swordtail WL 

Graphium sp.A** 

WL 

Papilio bromius** Broad green banded swallowtail FGM Forest dwelling species 

Papilio desmondi usambarensis* FGM Forest dwelling species. Southern extent of range 

extended from Uluguru Mountains to here with this 

record 

Papilio demodocus demodocus* Citrus swallowtail WL & FGM Range extended to the Southern Highlands with this 

record 

Papilio fulleborni fulleborni** FGM Forest dwelling species 

Papilio phorcas nyikanus FGM Forest dwelling species 


65


Species Common name Major Habitat recorded 

from 

Papilionidae cont. 

Papilio sp.A** 

FGM 

Notes 

PIERIDAE 

Appias sp. ** 

WL 

Appias sabina** Sabine albatross FGM Forest dwelling species 

Belenois creona severina* Common white WL & FGM 

Belenois rubrosignata kongwana* Red-edged white WL Forest dwelling species 

Belenois aurota aurota* Caper white WL Forest dwelling species 

Belenois gidica* Pointed caper WL 

Belenois sp.A** 

WL 

Belenois sp.B** 

WL 

Catopsila florella** African emigrant WL 

Colias electo pseudokecate Africa clouded yellow FGM 

Colotis evenina** 

WL 

Colotis euippe omphale* Round winged orange tip WL 

Colotis antevippe gavisa* Large orange tip WL 

Colotis aurora dissociates* Sulphur orange tip WL 

Colotis auxo** Yellow orange WL 

Colotis evagore antigone Tiny orange tip WL 

Colotis daira** Black marked orange tip WL 

Colotis danae pseudacaste Scarlet tip WL 

Colotis ione* Purple tip WL Forest dwelling species 

Colotis eris eris Banded gold tip WL 

Colotis regina** Regal purple tip WL 

Colotis vesta** Veined orange WL 

Colotis sp.A ** 

WL 

Colotis sp.B ** 

WL 

Colotis sp.C** 

WL 

Dixeia doxo costata* African small white WL 

Eurema brigitta brigitta Small grass yellow WL & FGM 

Eurema desjardinsi** Angled grass yellow WL 

Eurema hecabe solifera Common grass yellow WL & FGM 

Eurema hapale** Marsh grass yellow WL 

Eurema regularis Regular grass yellow WL & FGM 

Eurema senegalensis** Forest green yellow WL & FGM Forest dwelling species 

Eurema upembana** 

FGM 


66



from 

Pieridae cont. 

Eurema sp.A** 

FGM 

Eronia leda Autumn leaf vagrant WL 

Mylothris agathina Eastern dotted border WL 

Mylothris sagela** Dusky dotted border WL 

Mylothris rueppelli rhodesiana* Ruppell’s dotted border FGM Forest dwelling species 

Nepheronia thalassina** Blue vagrant FGM Forest dwelling species 

Pinacopteryx eriphia eriphia* Zebra white WL Forest dwelling species 







67


APPENDIX 13: SKETCH MAP OF THE MPANGA/KIPENGERE GAME 

RESERVE. 

SC1 

BC1 

SC2 

SC3B 

BC2 

BC2 

SC3A 

SC2 

SC5 

SC6 

SC7 

BC1 

BC4 

SC6 

SC4 

SC1 

SC5 

SC4 

SC7 

SC3 

BC3 



ADDITIONAL KEY TO MAP: 

Dry season base camps 

Wet season base camps 

Dry season satellite camps 

Wet season satellite camps 

Evidence of orchid diggings 

Pitsawing areas 

Charcoal burning 

Evidence of poacher’s camps and traps 

Areas of heavy grazing 


69


APPENDIX 14: IMAGES OF THE MPANGA/KIPENGERE GAME RESERVE 

The reserve comprises 

northern lowlands dissected 

by the Lugala Mountains and 

bordered to the south and 

west by the Kipengere 

Range. This photo was taken 

near to the village of 

Machimbo and shows the 

Lugala escarpment beyond 

the lowlands. 

Taken from within the 

reserve on the track to 

Mpanga village, this photo 

shows the typical miombo 

woodland that dominates 

the northern lowlands. 

Dense miombo 

woodland can be 

seen here on slopes 

at the northern 

extent of the Lugala 

escarpment. 


70


The southern 

mountain ranges 

can clearly be seen 

here dominating 

over the northern 

lowlands. 

Unique forest-grassland 

mosaics cover 

mountaintops in the 

reserve, as can be seen 

here in the vicinity of 

Imalilo and Wangama 

villages. 

Dick Kajangu, Rosalind Salter, Clement 

Mabula, Israel Mwasese and Issai Swai 

(photo by Sam Staddon). 

The Kimani waterfalls not only provide 

water for the Usangu Wetlands, but also 

the potential for tourism activities within 

the area. 


71

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