Indian Medicinal Plants - An Illustrated Dictionary - Asian Journal of ...

Indian Medicinal Plants

C.P. Khare (Ed.)Indian Medicinal PlantsAn Illustrated DictionaryWith 215 Pictures of Crude Herbs123

AuthorC.P. KhareB-1/211, Janak PuriNew Delhi-110 058Indiachandrma_khare@yahoo.comLibrary of Congress Control Number: 2007922446ISBN: 978-0-387-70637-5 Springer-Verlag Berlin/Heidelberg© 2007 Springer Science+Business Media, LLC.All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without thewritten permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC., 233 Spring Street,New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarlyanalysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation,computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafterdeveloped is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks,and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression ofopinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights.springer.comPrinted on acid-free paper SPIN: 11979302 2109 — 5 4 3 2 1 0

Dedicated tothe distinguished scientistDr.A.P.J.AdbulKalamwho revived the glory ofIndian medicinal and aromatic plantsin the Rashtrapati Bhawan.

Guiding FactorsFirst of all, let me acknowledge with gratitude the contribution of the followingreference works which synchronised the synonyms and medicinal properties ofIndian medicinal plants:• A Catalogue of Indian Synonyms of the Medicinal Plants of India by MoodeenSheriff (1869). (The first exhaustive compilation of synonyms of Indian medicinalplants in 12 regional languages, besides Latin and English).• Indian Medicinal Plants by Lt. Col. K.R. Kirtikar and Major B.D. Basu (1918).• Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants by Col. Sir Ram Nath Chopra et al. (CSIR,1956).• Useful Plants of India (CSIR, 1986;basedonThe Wealth of India series, Vol. I1948,Vol.XI1976).• Dictionary of Indian Medicinal Plants by Akhtar Husain et al. (CIMAP, 1992).Based on this legacy, Indian Medicinal Plants. An Illustrated Dictionary is aimedat bringing out an updated Active Study Dictionary of plant sources of Indianmedicine, as a companion volume of my earlier book Encyclopedia of IndianMedicinal Plants/Indian Herbal Remedies, published by Springer.Ayurvedic synonyms have been selected from the following sources:• The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (Vol. I to IV).• Standard Nomenclature of Ayurvedic Medicinal Plants (CCRAS, 1999).• Medicinal Plants used in Ayurveda (Rashtriya Ayurveda Vidyapeeth/ NationalAcademy of Ayurveda, 1998).• Plants of Sharangadhara Samhita by Prof. K.C. Chunekar and Dr. K. Pondel(National Academy of Ayurveda, 1999).

VIIIGuiding Factors• Plants of Bhava Prakash by Prof. K.C. Chunekar and Dr. N.P. Hota (NationalAcademy of Ayurveda, 1998).• Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS). Publishedliterature.• Dravyagun Vigyaan, Vol. II (Hindi) by Dr. Priyavrata Sharma (1991).Unani synonyms have been selected from the following sources:• The National Formulary of Unani Medicine.• Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine (CCRUM). Published literature.• Unani Dravyagunaadarsh (Hindi) by Daljit Singh (Ayurvedic and Tibbi Academy,Uttar Pradesh, Lucknow, 1974).Siddha/Tamil synonyms have been selected from the following sources:• Formulary of Siddha Medicine. (Indian Medical Practitioners’ CooperativePharmacy and Store Ltd., IMPCOPS, Chennai).• The Wealth of India (Vol. II to XI).• Dictionary of Indian Medicinal Plants (CIMAP).• The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (Vol. I to IV).• Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha (CCRAS). Publishedliterature.The medicinal plants shortlisted by the National Academy of Ayurveda andthe department of Indian Systems of Medicine (AYUSH) have been included inthe book.Key applications of medicinal plants are based on the following sources:• German Commission E monographs.• ESCOP monographs.• WHO monographs.• Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.• The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India (Vol. I to IV) for traditionally recognisedapplications.

Guiding FactorsIX• The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.• The British Herbal Compendium.• Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.For further study, all major findings and leads, including references to researchdocuments and journals, can be reached through the following books (insequence):• The Wealth of India First Supplement Series (Vol. I to V).• The Wealth of India original series (Vol. II to XI and revised Vol. 1 to 3).• Compendium of Indian Medicinal Plants (Vol. I to V, CDRI).• Potter’s New Cyclopaedia of Botanical Drugs and Preparations (1998 edn).• Natural Medicines Comprehensive Database, 2007.• PDR for Herbal Medicines, 2004.• The Treatise on Indian Medicinal Plants (Vol. I to VI).• Additional sources, as cited at appropriate places.Dosage of crude herbs is based on the recommendations of The AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India (Vol. I to IV) and Standard Nomenclature of AyurvedicMedicinal Plants (CCRAS).Roman spellings of Ayurvedic synonyms, introduced for the first time byRashtriya Ayurveda Vidyapeeth (National Academy of Ayurveda), New Delhi-110 026, have been followed. Asiatic Society’s markings are now obsolete. Thetext has been formatted following the style-manual of The Wealth of India seriesof CSIR.Detailed references of research journals are beyond the purview of this project.The text is based on authentic treatises which are the outcome of scientificscreening and critical evaluation by eminent scholars. As I have already indicated,readers, if they so desire, can always refer back to a particular research papercited in the original source. I did not follow the trend of enumerating researchpapers which were not actually consulted by me. Researchers should consult theDatabase on Medicinal Plants used in Ayurveda series (CCRAS) andReviews onIndian Medicinal Plants series (ICMR) for detailed bibliography.All Indian common names have been spelled according to their actual pronunciation.The way was shown by the National Academy of Ayurveda byintroducing aa in the spellings. In The Review of Natural Products (Facts andComparisons) 2005 edition., Khat, Chaat, Chat, qaad, jaad and Miraa have been

XGuiding Factorsincluded among the common names of Catha edulis, while the common nameof Gymnema sylvestre is spelled as Gurmar instead of Gurmaar. Perhaps theactual pronunciation was not known to the editors. In India, O is pronouncedin a specific ascent, as in Om, that is the reason uu is used instead of oo. Similarly,Sanskrit synonyms end with a, that is why aa is used for facilitating properpronunciation. These changes have been included so that Indian names arepronounced correctly.A few words of gratitude. Dr.V.K.AgarwalPh.D.(MedicinalChemistry),whowas the senior editor (chemistry and pharmacology) of The Wealth of India seriesfor 28 years, reviewed the entire text. He remained closely associated with all myprojects and deserves much more than a few formal words of thanks. Sarita Joshi,my research associate, bore the brunt of the workload throughout the difficultphases of the project. For this she also deserves a special mention.Finally, I would like to add that a concerted effort has been made in the bookto rationalise the therapeutic coverage of Indian medicinal plants as part of mycommitment to scientific herbalism.C.P. KhareSociety for New Age HerbalsB-1/211, Janak Puri, New Delhi-110 058

AAbelmoschus esculentus(Linn.) Moench.Synonym ◮ Hibiscus esculentus Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical Africa;cultivated throughout India, up to1,350 m.English ◮ Gumbo, Lady Finger, Okra.Ayurvedic ◮Bhendaa.Unani ◮ Baamiyaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vendai.Bhaandi, Bhindaka,Folk ◮ Bhindi, Raamturai.Action ◮ Immature pods (decoction)—emollient,demulcent anddiuretic (in catarrhal affections,ardor urine, dysuria, dysentery).Seeds—antispasmodic.Fatty fraction of the fresh watery extractof the seeds causes destructionof cancerous cell growth in vitro. Thepods are reported to exhibit antitumouractivity. An ethanolic extractof pods was effective against Grampositivebacteria.The ripe fruits contain quercetin,hyperin (hyperoside), hydrolysate ofprecipitated mucilage, proanthocyanidins,D-glucose, D-glucuronic andgalacturonic acids.Fresh flowers contain flavonol glycosidesand anthocyanins.Abies pindrow Royle.Synonym ◮ A. pindrow Spach.A. webbiana Lindl. var. pindrowBrandis.Pinus pindrow Royle.Family ◮ Pinaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir, HimachalPradesh, Tehri-Garhwal and otherareas of northern India, at altitudesof 2,100–3,600 m.English ◮ Pindrow-Fir, Silver-Fir, TheWest-Himalayan Low-Level Fir.Ayurvedic ◮ Taalisha (related sp.).Folk ◮ Badar, Morinda, Raisalla,Ransla.Action ◮ Uses similar to those of A.webbiana.Terpenoids, flavonoids, glycosidesand steroids of the leaf were foundto have mast cell stabilizing action inrats. Terpenoids and flavonoids offeredbronchoprotection against histaminechallenge in guinea pigs. Theulcer protective action of petroleumether, benzene and chloroform fractionhas been attributed to steroidalcontents. Terephthalic acid demethylester (TADE), isolated from the leaf,exhibited protection against inflammationand bronchospasm in guinea pigs.Ethanolic extract of leaves showed significantanxiolytic effects on all theparadigms of anxiety, barbiturate hypnosispotentiation.Pindrolactone, a lanostane-basedtriterpene lactone, isolated from the

2 Abies webbiana Lindl.Aleaves, showed mild activity againstGram-positive bacteria but exhibitedpotent antibacterial activity againstGram-negative bacteria E. coli.Abies webbiana Lindl.Synonym ◮ A. spectabilis (D. Don)Spach.Pinus webbiana Wall.Family ◮ Pinaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Assam at altitudes of1,600–4,000 m.English ◮ Indian Silver Fir, TheWest-Himalayan High-Level Fir,The East-Himalayan Fir.Ayurvedic ◮ Taalisa, Taalisapatra,Taalisha, Patraadhya, Dhaatriparni,Dhaatripatra.Unani ◮ Taalisapattar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Taalispatri.Folk ◮ Badar, Chilrow, Morinda,Raisalla, Taalispatra. (Tallispatra,Taalispatri and Talespattre arealso equated with the leaves ofCinnamomum tamala Nees.)Action ◮ Expectorant, bronchial sedative,decongestant, anticatarrhal,antiseptic, carminative.Key application ◮ Fir (Abies albaMiller) needle oil—in catarrhal illnessof upper and lower respiratorytract (internally and externally);externally in rheumatic and neuralgicpains. Contraindicated inbronchial asthma and whoopingcough. (German Commission E.)A biflavonoid, abiesin, n-triacontanol,beta-sitosterol and betuloside arepresent in the leaves.The essential oil from leaves containsalpha-pinene, l-limonene, deltacarene,dipentene, l-bornyl acetate andl-cardinene as major constituents.Dosage ◮ Needles—2–6 g powder.(API Vol. IV.)Abroma augusta Jacq.Synonym ◮ Ambroma augustaLinn. f.Family ◮ Sterculiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the hotter andmoister parts of India, from Punjaband Uttar Pradesh, eastwardsto Arunachal Pradesh, Assam,Meghalaya and Tripura, ascendingto 1,200 m, southwards in PeninsularIndia.English ◮ Perennial Indian Hemp,Devil’s Cotton.Ayurvedic ◮ Pishaacha Kaarpaasa,Pivari.Unani ◮ Ulat-kambal.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivapputtuti.Folk ◮ Kumal, Sanukapaasi.Action ◮ Rootbark—emmenagogue(used for dysmenorrhoea,amenorrhoea), abortifacient, galactotrophic.The root contains abromine (betaine),friedelin, abromasterol, abromasterolA, choline, beta-sitosterol,stigmasterol and octacosanol. Leaves,reported to be useful in treating uterine

Abutilon indicum Linn. Sweet. 3disorders, contain taraxerol, its acetateand lupeol.Dosage ◮ Leaf juice—10–20 ml.Rootbark powder—3–6 g. (CCRAS.)Abrus precatorius Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the country,ascending to an altitude of about1,050 m in the outer Himalayas.English ◮ Indian Wild Liquorice,Jequirity, Crab’s Eye, PrecatoryBean.Ayurvedic ◮ Gunjaa, Gunjaka,Chirihintikaa, Raktikaa, Chirmiti,Kakanti, Kabjaka, Tiktikaa,Kaakananti, Kaakchinchi. (Not tobe used as a substitute for liquorice.)Unani ◮ Ghunghchi, Ghamchi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kunri.Folk ◮ Chirmiti, Ratti.Action ◮ Uterine stimulant, abortifacient,toxic. Seeds—teratogenic. Apaste of seeds is applied on vitiligopatches.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India has indicated the use of seedsin baldness.Seeds contain abrin, a toxalbumin,indole derivatives, anthocyanins, sterols,terpenes. Abrin causes agglutinationof erythrocytes, haemolysis andenlargement of lymph glands. A nontoxicdose of abrin (1.25 mcg/kg bodyweight), isolated from the seeds of redvar., exhibited a noticeable increase inantibody-forming cells, bone marrowcellularity and alpha-esterase-positivebone marrow cells.Oral administration of agglutinins,isolated from the seeds, is useful in thetreatment of hepatitis and AIDS.The seed extract exhibited antischistosomalactivity in male hamsters.The methanolic extract of seeds inhibitedthe motility of human spermatozoa.The roots contain precol, abrol, glycyrrhizin(1.5%) and alkaloids—abrasineand precasine. The roots also containtriterpenoids—abruslactone A,methyl abrusgenate and abrusgenicacid.Alkaloids/bases present in the rootsare also present in leaves and stems.A. fruticulosus Wall. Ex Wight andArn. synonym A. pulchellus Wall., A.laevigatus E. May. (Shveta Gunjaa) isalso used for the same medicinal purposesas A. precatorius.Dosage ◮ Detoxified seed—1–3 gpowder.Rootpowder—3–6g.(APIVols. I, II.)Abutilon indicum Linn. Sweet.Synonym ◮ A. indicum G. Don.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the hotterparts of India. Found as a weed inthe sub-Himalayan tract and otherhills up to 1,200 m.English ◮ Country Mallow, FloweringMaples, Chinese Bell-flowers.Ayurvedic ◮ Atibalaa, Kankatikaa,Rishyaproktaa.A

4 Acacia arabica Willd. var. indica Benth.AUnani ◮ Kanghi, Musht-ul-Ghaul,Darkht-e-Shaan.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thutthi.Folk ◮ Kanghi, Kakahi, Kakahiyaa.Action ◮ Dried, whole plant—febrifuge, anthelmintic, demulcent,diuretic, anti-inflammatory (inurinary and uterine discharges,piles, lumbago). Juice of the plant—emollient. Seeds—demulcent(used in cough, chronic cystitis),laxative. Leaves—cooked andeaten for bleeding piles. Flowers—antibacterial, anti-inflammatory.Bark—astringent, diuretic. Root—nervine tonic, given in paralysis;also prescribed in strangury.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of the root ingout, polyuria and haemorrhagic diseases.The plant contains mucilage, tannins,asparagines, gallic acid and sesquiterpenes.Presence of alkaloids,leucoanthocyanins, flavonoids, sterols,triterpenoids, saponins and cardiacglycosides is also reported.Asparagine is diuretic. Gallic acidis analgesic. Mucilages act by reflex,loosen cough as well as bronchial tension.Essential oil—antibacterial, antifungal.The drug exhibits immunologicalactivity. It augments antibody inanimals. EtOH (50%) extract of A.indicum ssp. guineense Borssum, synonymA. asiaticum (Linn.) Sweet, exhibitsanticancer activity.Related sp. include: Abutilon avicennaeGaertn., synonym A. theophrastiiMedic.; A. fruticosum Guill. et al.;A. hirtum (Lam.) Sweet, synonym A.graveolens Wt. and Arn.; A. muticumSweet, synonym A. glaucum Sweet; andA. polyandrum Wight and Arn., synonymA. persicum (Burm. f.) Merrill(known as Naani-khapaat, Jhinakikhapaat,Kanghi, Makhamali-khapaatand Khaajavani-khapaat, respectively,in folk medicine).Dosage ◮ Root—3–6 g powder. (APIVol I.)Acacia arabica Willd. var.indica Benth.Synonym ◮ A. nilotica (Linn.) Delilesubsp. indica (Benth.) Brenan.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the drier partsof India.English ◮ Babul, Black Babul, IndianGum arabic tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Babbuula, Babbuuri,Baavari, Aabhaa, Shuulikaa,Shitaka, Kinkiraata, Yugmakantaka,Sukshmapatra, Pitapushpaka.Unani ◮ Aqaaqia, Babuul, Kikar,Mughilaan, Samur.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karu-velamaram,Karuvelei. Velampisin (gum).Action ◮ Stembark—astringent,spasmolytic, hypoglycaemic.Gum—demulcent (soothing agentfor inflammatory conditions of therespiratory, digestive and urinarytracts). Pods—used in urogenitaldisorders. Seeds—hypoglycaemicin normal rats; no such effect in

Acacia catechu (Linn. f.) Willd. 5diabetic rats. Seed oil—antifungal.Flowers, pods and gum resin—usedin diarrhoea and dysentery.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of stembarkin acute diarrhoea and helminthiasis.Tannin contents of the bark variesconsiderably (12–20%). Several polyphenoliccompounds have been reportedin the bark, also in the pods.The whole pod contains 12–19% tanninsand 18–27% after the removal ofseeds.The seeds of A. benthamii, A. niloticassp. subulata, probably same as ssp. indica,are considered hypoglycaemic.Some seed components stimulate insulinsecretion by beta cells.The gum contains galactose; l-arabinose,l-rhamnose and aldobiouronicacids, also arabinobioses.The flowers contain flavonoids—kaempferol-3-glucoside, iso-quercitrinand leucocyanidin.Dosage ◮ Stembark—20–30 g fordecoction. (API Vol. I.)Acacia canescens Grab.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Bihar and South India.Ayurvedic ◮ Aadaari (related sp.)Folk ◮ Ari, Araara.Action ◮ See A. torta.Acacia catechu (Linn. f.) Willd.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Drier regions of India,particularly Punjab, MadhyaPradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,Andhra Pradesh, Orissa andRajasthan.English ◮ Cutch tree, Catechu.Ayurvedic ◮ Khadira, Kadara,Somavalka, Gaayatri, Dantdhaavan,Kantaki, Raktasaara (heartwoodextract).Unani ◮ Khair, Kaat, Katthaa(heartwood extract).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karunkaali(bark), Kalippakku, Kadiram.Katthakkaambu, Kaasukkatti(heartwood extract).Action ◮ Cutch from wood—powerful astringent (in urinary andvaginal discharge), antidiarrhoeal,haemostatic; used for treatingexcessive mucous discharges,haemorrhages, relaxed conditionsof gums, throat and mouth,stomatitis, irritable bowel; also usedas an antileprotic drug.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of dried piecesof heartwood in inflammations, skindiseases and urinary disorders, recommendsitsuseasabloodpurifier,indiseases caused by lipid disorders.Cutch (the concentrated extract)contains tannins 2–20%, catechin 25–33%, phlobatannins including catechutannicacid 20–50%; flavonoids includingquercetin, quercitrin, fisetin;gums, resins, pigments. The gum fromA. catechu is a good substitute for Gumarabic.A

6 Acacia chundra Willd.ASeed extract—hypoglycaemic tonormal albino rats, but not effectivein diabetic rats. The saline extract ofseeds shows leuco-agglutinating activityagainst leukaemic cells. It agglutinateswhite cells from patients withdifferent types of leukaemia. The activityis inhibited by simple sugars. Rootextract shows antibacterial and fungicidalactivity.The heartwood contains a hepatoprotectiveprinciple—cyanidanol.Astringent and antibacterial propertiesof catechu result from its hightannin content.Gambrine in pale catechu shows hypotensiveeffects.Fisetininblackcatechuand(+)-catechin in black and pale catechumay protect against liver damage; (+)-catechin is also thought to protectagainst experimentally induced ulcersin animals; (+)-catechin (cianidanol) isassociated with fatal anaemia. Methylcatechin,one of the major metabolitesof (+)-catechin, inhibits the bindingof monocytes to vascular endothelialcells; thus, the catechin found in catechumay reduce atherosclerosis. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Dosage ◮ Heartwood—20–30 g fordecoction. (API Vol. I.)Acacia chundra Willd.Synonym ◮ A. sundra DC.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Rajasthan, Gujarat,Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu andAndhra Pradesh on dry and rockysoils.English ◮ Red Cutch.Ayurvedic ◮ Khadira (related sp.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Katthakkaambu(heartwood extract).Folk ◮ Laal Khair.Action ◮ Uses similar to those of A.catechu heartwood extract.The bark and leaves are used for ulceratedabscesses and toothache; woodfor leucoderma.EtOH (50%) extract—spermicidaland spasmolytic.Acacia concinna (Willd.) DC.Synonym ◮ Asinuata(Lour.) Merrill;A. rugata (Lamk.) Ham.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical jungles throughoutIndia, especially in the Deccan.Ayurvedic ◮ Saptalaa, Shitalaa,Saatalaa, Shrivalli, Kantvalli.Unani ◮ Shikaakaai, Kharunb Nabti.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Seekai, Sigakai.Folk ◮ Ban-Reethaa.Action ◮ Febrifuge, expectorant,emetic, spasmolytic, diuretic,antidiarrhoeal. Leaves—an infusionis given in malarial fever. Pods andseeds—decoction is used to removedandruff (known as Shikaakaai),extensively used as a detergent. Anointment is used for skin diseases.Bark—extract is used in leprosy.

Acacia leucophloea Willd. 7The bark yields a saponin which,on hydrolysis, yields lupeol, alphaspinasteroland acacic acid lactone.Pods also yield saponins (20.8%). Sugarsidentified are glucose, arabinoseand rhamnose.The leaves contain alkaloids, nicotineand colycotomine, a triterpenoidsaponin and oxalic, tartaric, citric, succinicand ascorbic acids.The bark saponins are spermicidal,also haemolytic and spasmolytic. A decoctionof pods relieves biliousness andacts as a purgative.Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to West Indies; nowoccurring throughout India.English ◮ Cassie Flower, CassieAbsolute, Sweet Acacia.Ayurvedic ◮ Arimeda, Vitkhadira.Unani ◮ Vilaayati Kikar, Gandbabuul,Guyaa Babuul, Durgandh Khair.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kastuurivel, Veddayala.Action ◮ Bark—astringent, demulcent,anthelmintic, antidysenteric,anti-inflammatory (used in stomatitis,ulcers, swollen gums, dentalcaries, bronchitis, skin diseases).Ripe pods contain tannins and severalpolyphenolic compounds. Essentialoil from pods—direct muscle relaxant,cardiac depressant and sedative.Various plant parts are used in insanity,epilepsy, delirium and convulsions.The ethanolic extract of unripe podsyields a glycosidal fraction (0.28%)which exhibits anti-inflammatory activity.It also shows significant antibacterialactivity.Theplantactsasanantisepticagentfor curing sores, gums and loose teeth.The flowers are the source of Cassieperfume.The main constituents of the flowersare benzyl, anisic, decylic and cuminicaldehydes, as well as traces of geraniol,farnesol and linalool.Acacia leucophloea Willd.Synonym ◮ A. alba Willd.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Dry regions of the country,especially in Punjab, Rajasthan andMadhya Pradesh.English ◮ White Babul.Ayurvedic ◮ Arimeda, Arimedaka,Arimanja, Irimeda, Vitakhadir,Godhaa-skandha, Raamaka.Unani ◮ Kath Safed, Vilaayati Babuul,Guyaa Babuul.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Valval, Velvayalam.Folk ◮ Safed Babuul, Safed Kikar,Renvaa.Action ◮ Bark—bitter, demulcent andcooling; used in biliousness andbronchitis. Seeds—haemagglutinatingactivity has been reported.Leaves—antisyphilitic and antibacterial.Gum—demulcent.EtOH (50%) extract of aerial parts—hypotensive and central nervous systemdepressant.A

8 Acacia pennata (L.) Willd.AThe rootbark contains leucophleol,leucophleoxol and leucoxol.Acacia pennata (L.) Willd.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India; ascendingto 1,700 m in the Himalayas.Ayurvedic ◮ Lataakhadira, Aadaari,Ari.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Indan, Indu. IyakKoluntu (tender leaves).Folk ◮ Aila.Action ◮ Bark—antibilious, antiasthmatic.Leaf—stomachic, styptic(for bleeding gum), antiseptic (forscalding of urine). A decoction ofyoung leaves is taken for body pain,headache and fever.The bark contains tannin 9%, lupeoland alpha-spinasterol. Stem yieldssitosterol.Acacia senegal Willd.Synonym ◮ A. verek Guillem andPerr.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Sudan. Cultivatedin dry parts of western India.English ◮ Gum arabic tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta Babbuula.Action ◮ The tree yields the true Gumarabic of commerce. Mucilaginous,demulcent, emulsifying agent. Usedas an ingredient in compounds fortreatment of diarrhoea, catarrh.Bechic, antihaemorrhagic, antiinflammatory.Stembark—antiinflammatory,spasmolytic. Root—used for dysentery and urinarydischarges.The gum consists mainly of arabin.It is the salt of an organic acid, arabicacid, with metals such as calcium,magnesium and potassium.The stembark gives octacosanol,beta-amyrin, uvaol, beta-stosterol andits glucoside and erthrodiol. An alkaloid,dimethyltryptamine has beenisolated from the leaves.Acacia suma Buch.-Ham.Synonym ◮ A. polycantha Willd.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ WestBengal,Bihar,westernpeninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta Khadira, Kadara,Somavalkala.Unani ◮ Khor, Safed Khair.Action ◮ Cutch is prepared from theheartwood. See A. catechu.Acacia ferruginea DC. is also equatedwith Shveta Khadira.Acacia torta (Roxb.) Craib.Synonym ◮ A. intsia Willd.A. caesia Wright and Arn. non-Willd.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India in the dryand intermediate zones; ascendingto an altitude of about 1,200 m inthe Himalayas.

Acanthospermum hispidum DC. 9Ayurvedic ◮ Aadaari, Lataa Khadira(related sp., see. A. pennata).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kariyundu, Ingu.Folk ◮ Araar, Chilar (Punjab), Aila(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Flower—emmenagogue.Bark—anti-inflammatory, antiseptic(in skin diseases). Bark contains17% tannins, triterpene alcohol,saponins of acacic acid, lupeol anda steroid, acaciol. An alkaloid,tryptamine, is present in the rootand stem bark.Various plant parts are used incough, bronchitis, measles, tubercularfistula and in the treatment of menstrualdisorders. The bark is used forwashing the hair.Acalypha ciliata Forsk.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Common in plains,as a weed in gardens; also inwastelands, especially in Bangaloreand Pachmarhi.Ayurvedic ◮ Kuppi (smaller var.).Folk ◮ Daadari (Gujarat).Action ◮ See A. indica.Folk ◮ Chinnivara.Action ◮ Leaves—stomachic, alterative;prescribed in digestivedisorders, dyspepsia, colic, diarrhoea.Acalypha indica Linn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Occurs throughout theplains of India, ascending the hillsin Orissa up to 210 m.English ◮ Indian Acalypha.Ayurvedic ◮ Kuppi, Muktavarchaa,HaritamanjariSiddha/Tamil ◮ Kuppaimeni.Folk ◮ Khokli,Kuppi,Aamaabhaaji.Action ◮ Antibacterial (leaf used inscabies). Plant—emetic, expectorant(used in bronchitis, asthma,pneumonia). Tincture of freshplant is used in homoeopathyfor incipient phthisis with bloodyexpectorations, emaciation andarterial haemorrhage.The plant contains kaempferol;leaves and twigs contain acalyphamideand other amides, quinone, sterols,cyanogenic glycoside.The herb causes intestinal irritation.AAcalypha fruticosa Forsk.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Orissa, Tamil Nadu,Karnataka and Kerala.English ◮ Birch-leaved Acalypha.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kuppaimeni.Acanthospermum hispidumDC.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Brazil; found asa weed throughout the greater partof India.

10 Acanthus ilicifolius Linn.AAyurvedic ◮ Trikantaka. (Differentfrom Gokshura; also equated withMartynia diandra, Martineacea,known as Kaakanaasaa.)Action ◮ Used in dermatologicalaffections.The essential oil (yield 0.2%) showedantibacterial and antifungal activity.Acanthus ilicifolius Linn.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Common in tidal forestsalong the East and West coasts; alsodistributed in Meghalaya and theAndamans.English ◮ Sea Holly.Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna Saraiyaka.(Blue-flowered Katasaraiyaa.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kollimulli.Folk ◮ Hargozaa.Action ◮ Decoction—antacid (usedin dyspepsia with acid eructations),also diuretic (used in dropsy andbilious swellings). Aerial parts showeffect on nictitating membrane.The root is a cordial attenuant andis used in debility associated withasthma, paralysis, leucorrhoea.The air-dried plant contains an alkaloid,acanthicifoline, and a flavone.Achillea millefolium Linn.Synonym ◮ A. lanulosa Nutt.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The western Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Kumaon.English ◮ Milfoil, Yarrow, ThousandLeaf.Unani ◮ Biranjaasif. NationalFormulary of Unani Medicinealso equates Leonurus cardicaLinn. (Labiatae) with Biranjaasif.Folk ◮ Gandana, Rojmari.Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic(used in cold, flatulentcolic, heartburn), emmenagogue,cicatrizant, antidysenteric, antihaemorrhagic,antipyretic, diaphoretic,diuretic, urinary antiseptic.Key application ◮ In dyspepticailments, such as mild, spasticdiscomforts of the gastrointestinaltract. As astringent, antispasmodic,choleretic, antibacterial. (GermanCommission E.) As diaphoretic. (TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) Internallyfor feverish conditions,common cold and digestive complaints;topically for slow-healingwounds and skin inflammations.(The British Herbal Compendium.)The plant contains flavonoids, alkaloids(achilleine), polyacetylenes,triterpenes, coumarins, tannins, salicylicacid, a volatile oil containinglinalool, camphor, sabinene, chamazuleneand other azulenes.Sesquiterpene lactones are bitter andtonic. Achilleine helps arrest internaland external bleeding. Flavonoids contributeto the antispasmodic action.The flavonoid apigenin is anti-inflammatory,antiplatelet and spasmolytic.Alkaloids and bases are antiinflammatory.Alkaloid betoncine is

Achyranthes aspera Linn. 11haemostatic. Salicylic acid is antiinflammatory.Chamazulene is antiinflammatoryand antiallergenic. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Anextractoftheplantwasfoundto be rich in luteolin or luteolin 7-glucoside and can be used for the treatmentof hyperpigmentation of skin.Achras zapota Linn.Synonym ◮ Manilkara zapota (Linn.)P. van RoyanManilkara achras (Mill.) FosbergSapota achras Mill.Family ◮ Sapotaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Central America.Cultivated chiefly in Maharashtra,Tamil Nadu and West Bengal.English ◮ Sapota, Sapodilla Plum,Chicle.Unani ◮ Sapotaa, Cheeku.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shimai eluppai.Action ◮ Fruit—antibilious. Seed—diuretic. Fruit and bark—febrifuge.The bark contains latex (20–25%of which consists of gutta-percha-likesubstance); also contains tannin(11.8%). The seeds contain quercitol.Chewing gum consists of approximately20% chicle, plus sugar, cornsyrup and flavourings.Achyranthes aspera Linn.Family ◮ Amaranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the tropicaland subtropical regions, up to analtitude of 2,100 m, in the southernAndaman Islands.English ◮ Prickly Chaff Flower.Ayurvedic ◮ Apaamaarga, Chirchitaa,Shikhari, Shaikharika, Adahshalya,Mayura, Mayuraka, Kharamanjari,Kharapushpaa, Pratyakpushpaa,Aaghaat, Vashira, Kanihi.Unani ◮ Chirchitaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naayuruvi.Folk ◮ Chirchitta, Chichidaa,Latjeeraa.Action ◮ Astringent, pectoral (ashesof the plant used in asthma andcough), diuretic, hepatoprotective,emmenagogue. Benzene extract ofthe plant exhibited abortifacientactivity. The flowers, ground andmixed with sugar, are given formenorrhagia. Roots—astringent,haemostatic. Seeds—emetic; usedfor biliousness. Essential oil—antifungal.Key application ◮ As astringent,emetic. (Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of the wholeplant in lipid disorders and obesity, theroot for its blood-purifying property.The plant juice and ash are usedfor treating bleeding piles. An alkalinepowder of the plant is used inpreparing Kshaarasutra of Ayurvedicmedicine, which is recommended fortreating fistula-in-ano.The whole plant contains the alkaloidsachyranthine and betaine. Achyranthine,a water-soluble alkaloid, isA

12 Achyranthes bidentata BlumeAreported to dilate blood vessels, lowerblood pressure, decrease heart rateand increase the rate and amplitude ofrespiration. It also shows spasmodiceffects on the rectus muscle of frog, diureticand purgative action in albinorats.The presence of ecdysterone andoleanolic acid is also reported in theroot.The ashes of the plant yield largequantities of potash. The seeds yieldsaponins and oleanolic acid and its ester.The presence of tannins and glycosidesisalsoreportedintheplant.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—20–30 g fordecoction. Root—5–10 g. (APIVols. II, III.) Ash—500 mg to 2 g.(CCRAS.)Achyranthes bidentata BlumeFamily ◮ Amaranthaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate and subtropicalHimalayas from Kishtwarto Sikkim at 1,200–3,200 m, Khasihills.Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta Apaamaarga.(Rakta Apaamaarga is equatedwith Achyranthes rubra-fuscaHook. f. and A. verschaffeltii Lam.,synonym Iresine herbstii Hook. f.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naayurivi.Action ◮ Astringent, diuretic,spasmolytic. Plant is givenin whooping cough, roots inhemicrania.A water-soluble oligosaccharide,composed of six glucose units andthree mannose units, has been isolatedfrom the roots. It enhanced immuneresponse and prolonged survival timeof mice bearing Ehrlich carcinoma.The roots contain free oleanolic acid(0.096%) and its saponins (1.93%). Analcoholic extract of the root showedpresence of amino acids, steroids, triterpenoids,alkaloids and coumarins.The seeds afforded achyranthin.Extract of the plant—antimicrobial.Aconitum atrox(Bruchl) Mukherjee.Synonym ◮ Aconitum balfourii Stapf.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ The sub-alpine and alpineHimalayas between 3,300 and3,900 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Vatsanaabha (relatedsp.).Folk ◮ Banwaa.Action ◮ Poisonous, highly toxic.Air-dried roots contain 1.2% totalalkaloids of which pseudoaconitine is0.4%. Pseudoaconitine is biologically1.5 times as active as aconitine. (A.atrox is a poisonous species and is oneof the common constituents of Aconitumferox of commerce.)Aconitum chasmanthumStapf ex Holmes.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ The western Himalayasfrom Hazara to Kashmir and

Aconitum falconeri Stapf. 13Chamba in Himachal Pradesh,between altitudes of 2,100 m and3,600 m.English ◮ Indian Napellus.Ayurvedic ◮ Visha, Shringika-Visha,Vatsanaabha (related sp.).Folk ◮ Mohri, Meethaa Zahar.Action ◮ Sedative, antirheumatic,analgesic, antitussive, antidiarrhoeal.Ayurvedic Formulary ofIndia, Part I and Part II, equatedA. chasmanthum with Vatsanaabha.(See A. ferox.) It has the same usesas A. ferox. The alkaloid contentof the root ranges from 2.98 to3.11%; includes chasmaconitine andchasmanthinine.Napellus, equated with Aconitumnapellus Linn., is indigenous to CentralEurope (named after the Black seaport Aconis and known as Wolfsbane,Monkshood). Aconitum of homoeopathicmedicine is an alkaloid obtainedfrom the roots and stems of A. nepellus.Used as an analgesic and sedative. Itcontains terpenoids up to 1.2%, includingaconitine and aconine.Toxic constituents of A. napellusare aconitine, mesaconitine, hypaconitine,3-acetylacoitine, lappaconitine(diterpenoid-ester alkaloids), benzaconine,benzoylaconine.Aconitine, mesaconitine and hypaconitineexert widespread effects oncardiac, neural and muscle tissue byactivitating sodium channels. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Aconitine is absorbed through mucusmembranes and the skin. (FrancisBrinker.) It is a cardiotoxin andinteracts with antiarrhythmics, antihypertensives,Digoxin/cardiac glycosides.(Sharon M. Herr.)Dosage ◮ Root—10–15 mg powder.(CCRAS.)Aconitum deinorrhizum Stapf.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Alpine regions of Chattadharand Bhalesh ranges ofBhadarwah district in Jammu andKashmir.Ayurvedic ◮ Vatsanaabha (relatedsp.).Folk ◮ Bashahr-Mohra, DudhiyaaBish, Safed Bikh.Action ◮ Roots and leaves are used inrheumatism, rheumatic fever andacute headache.The roots contain 0.9% total alkaloids,of which 0.51% is pseudoaconitine.Aconitum falconeri Stapf.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ The sub-alpine and alpinezones of the Garhwal Himalayas.Ayurvedic ◮ Vatsanaabha (relatedsp.).Folk ◮ Bikh, Bis, Meethaa Telia.Action ◮ Sedative, carminative,anti-inflammatory (used for thetreatment of nervous system,digestive system; rheumatism,fever).A

14 Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser.AThe root alkaloids contain bishatisine,bishaconitine, falconitine andmithaconitine. Treatment with cow’smilk reduces cardiotoxic effect of theroot.Aconitum ferox Wall. ex Ser.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ The alpine Himalayas fromSikkim to Garhwal and Assam.English ◮ Indian Aconite, Wolfsbane,Monkshood.Ayurvedic ◮ Vatsanaabha, Visha,Amrita, Vajraanga, Sthaavaravisha,Vatsanaagaka, Shrangikavisha,Garala.Unani ◮ Bish, Bishnaag.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vasanaavi, Karunaabhi.Folk ◮ Bacchanaag, Bish, MithaaZahar, Telia Visha.Action ◮ Narcotic, sedative, antileprotic,anti-inflammatory. Extremelypoisonous. (Roots possess depressantactivity, but after mitigation incow’s milk for 2–3 days, they exhibitstimulant activity.)Key application ◮ In neuralgia.(Aconitum napellus L. has beenlisted by German Commission Eamong unapproved herbs.)The root contains diterpenoid alkaloids,which act as a powerful poisonthat affects the heart and central nervoussystem. Aconitine has a shortlivedcardiotonic action followed bycardiac depression. Topically, aconitinehas analgesic, anti-inflammatoryand anaesthetic activity.Aconitum heterophyllumWall. ex Royle.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated at Manali andRahla in Himachal Pradesh. Alsofound in northwestern Himalayasat altitudes ranging from 2,000 to4,000 m.English ◮ Atis Root, Aconite.Ayurvedic ◮ Ativishaa, Arunaa,Vishaa, Shuklakandaa, Bhanguraa,Ghunapriyaa, Ghunavallabhaa,Kaashmiraa, Shishubhaishajyaa(indicating its use in paediatrics),Vishwaa.Unani ◮ Atees.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Athividayam.Folk ◮ Patis.Action ◮ Often regarded as nonpoisosnous,antiperiodic, antiinflammatory,astringent (usedin cough, diarrhoea, dyspepsia),tonic (used after fevers), febrifuge,antispasmodic (used in irritabilityof stomach and abdominalpains).Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of the dried,tuberous root in emesis and helminthiasis.The roots yield 0.79% of total alkaloids,of which atisin is 0.4%. Atisineis much less toxic than aconitine and

Aconitum violaceum Jacq. ex Stapf. 15pseudoaconitine. (The inert characterof the plant is well known to the hillpeople, who often use it as a vegetable.)The plant possesses potent immunostimulantproperties.Dosage ◮ Root—0.6–2.08 g. (APIVol. I.)Aconitum laciniatum(Bruhl) Stapf.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ The sub-alpine and alpineHimalayas of Sikkim betweenaltitudes of 3,330 m and 4,200 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Vatsanaabha (relatedsp.).Folk ◮ Kaalo Bikhmo.Action ◮ Poisonous. (Found mixedwith the roots of A. ferox andA. spicatum of commerce.)Aconitum luridumHook. f. and Thoms.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas from easternNepal to Chumbi at altitudes of3,600 to 4,200 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Vatsanaabha (relatedsp.).Action ◮ As potent as Aconitum ferox.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ The alpine Himalayas ofSikkim, Nepal, the adjoining partsof southern Tibet, between altitudesof 3,000 m and 4,800 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Prativishaa, Shyaamkandaa,Patis.Folk ◮ Bikhamaa.Action ◮ Root—antiemetic, antidiarrhoeal,antirheumatic, antiperiodic.The root contains diterpenoid alkaloidsand a nitrogenous non-alkaloidcompound, benzamide. Alkaloids includevakognavine, palmatisine, vakatisine,vakatisinine and vakatidine.The root is intensely bitter, like quinine,is used with Piper longum for diarrhoeaand vomiting; used externallyas an application for rheumatism.Aconitum spicatum Stapf.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ The alpine zone of theHimalayas of Sikkim and Chumbi.Principal source of Bikh or Bish ofKolkata market.English ◮ Nepal Aconite.Ayurvedic ◮ Vatsanaabha (relatedsp.).Action ◮ Antipyretic, analgesic.The roots yield 1.75% of alkaloidswhich contain mainly pseudoaconitineand bikhaconitine.AAconitum palmatum D. Don.Synonym ◮ A. bisma (Buch.-Ham.)Rapaics.Aconitum violaceumJacq. ex Stapf.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.

16 Acorus calamus Linn.AHabitat ◮ The alpine zone of theHimalayas from Gilgit to Kumaon.Ayurvedic ◮sp.).Vatsanaabha (relatedFolk ◮ Tilia Kachnaag, Dudhia.Action ◮ Nervine tonic.Air-dried roots of the plant are reportedto contain 1% indaconitine.Acorus calamus Linn.Family ◮ Araceae.Habitat ◮ Wild and cultivatedthroughout India in damp marshyplaces from 900 to 1,800 m; commonin Manipur and Naga Hills.English ◮ Sweet Flag, Calamus.Ayurvedic ◮ Vachaa, Ugragandhaa,Ugraa, Golomi, Shadgranthaa,Shataparvaa, Tikshnagandhaa,Kshudra-patra, Maangalyaa, Ghorbach.Unani ◮ Waj-e-Turki, Waj.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vasambu.Action ◮ Rhizome—nervine tonic,hypotensive, tranquilizer, sedative(with neuroleptic and antianxietyproperties), analgesic, spasmolytic,anticonvulsant; used for bronchialcatarrh, chronic diarrhoea anddysentery.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of the driedrhizomes as a brain tonic in weak memory,psychoneurosis and epilepsy.Four types of Calamus are usedin herbal medicine: type I—Acoruscalamus L. var. americanus, adiploidAmerican var.; type II—var. vulgarisL. (var. calamus), a European triploid;type III and type IV—var. augustatusBess. and var. versus L., subtropicaltetraploids.Beta-asarone is carcinogenic in animals.Volatile oil of types II, III andIV—major constituent is usually betaasarone(isoasarone), up to 96%. Indiancalamus oil contains asarone upto 82% and its beta-isomer. In type I,beta-asarone and other phenylpropanoidsare absent. It is superior in spasmolyticactivity to the other types.Indian practitioners mostly use A.calamus externally. Shveta Vachaa(Haimavati, equated with Acorus gramineusScoland. Ex Ait., a diploid, isused internally. Unani physicians useParis polyphylla Sim. as KhuraasaaniBach.The essential oil-free alcoholic extractof A. calamus possesses sedativeand analgesic properties.Alpha-asarone potentiates pentobarbital,accounts for some, but not all,neurodepressive activity. Beta-asaroneis reportedly hallucinogenic. (FrancisBrinker.)The ethanolic extract of rhizomesshow significant antisecretory and antiulcerogenicactivity; also, protectiveeffect against cytodestructive agents,experimentally.Dosage ◮ Rhizome—60–120 mgpowder. (API Vol. II.)Acorus gramineus Soland. ex Ait.Family ◮ Araceae.

Actinodaphne hookeri Meissn. 17Habitat ◮ Native to Japan, occasionallymetwithinSikkimatanaltitudeof 1,800 m, in Khasi Hills up to1,500 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Haimavati (white var. ofVachaa).Action ◮ Antispasmodic (used inabdominal colic). See A. calamus.Actaea spicata Linn.Synonym ◮ A. acuminata Wall. exRoyleFamily ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; grows intemperate Himalayas from Hazarato Bhutan.English ◮ Baneberry Grapewort.Folk ◮ Visha-phale (Kannada).Action ◮ Root—antirheumatic,anti-inflammatory, nerve sedative,emetic, purgative; used in thetreatment of rheumatic fever,lumbago, scrofula, nervous disorders,chorea.The plant is reported to containtrans-aconitic acid, which shows astrong cytostatic action. Its Me etheris active against Ehrlich’s ascites tumours.In folk medicine, roots are used incases of ovarian neuralgia, uterine tendernessand sub-involution. They areadulterant of the roots of Helleborusniger. Berries are poisonous; used topicallyfor skin diseases. The toxic constituentis protoanemonin (lactone). Itis irritant to mucous membrane.Actiniopteris dichotoma Kuhn.Synonym ◮ A. australis (L. f.) Link.A. radiata (Sw.) Link.A. dichotoma Kuhn.Family ◮ Adiantaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, especiallycommon in Kumaon Hillsand the Nilgiris, below an altitudeof 1,200 m.English ◮ Peacock’s tail.Ayurvedic ◮ Mayurshikhaa, Madhuchhadaa,Sahastrahi, Vahrishikhaa.Action ◮ Styptic, antibacterial,antipyretic.The stems and leaves contain rutin,a styptic active principle. Anthelminticactivity, attributed to the fern, was notobserved in experiments on mice.Dosage ◮ Root—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Actinodaphne hookeri Meissn.Synonym ◮ A. angustifolia Nees.Family ◮ Lauraceae.Habitat ◮ The western Ghats, Orissaand Sikkim up to 1,500 m.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thali, Paratathali.Folk ◮ Pisaa (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Infusion of leaves—urinarytract disinfectant, antidiabetic,spasmolytic.The leaves contain a very smallamount of an amorphous alkaloid.They also contain beta-sitosterol, hentriacontanone,hentriacontanol andA

18 Adansonia digitata Linn.Aquercetin-3-rhamnoside and hydrocarbons.The bark gives an alkaloid, actinodaphnine.Adansonia digitata Linn.Family ◮ Bombacaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical Africa;common along the west coast ofIndia.English ◮ Baobab, Monkey Breadtree, African calabash.Ayurvedic ◮ Sheet-phala, Ravanaamlikaa,Gorakshi, Panchparni.Unani ◮ Gorakh Imli.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Papparapuli.Folk ◮ Gorakh Imli; GorakhChinchaa.Action ◮ Cooling, refrigerant (allaysburning sensation). Leaves—diaphoretic (used as a prophylacticagainst fevers). Fruit—antidysenteric,antiseptic, antihistaminic.The fruit pulp is a source of vitaminC (175.0–445.4 mg/100 g); driedpulp contains calcium and vitamin B1.Furfural (9.6%) is obtained after distillationof the fruit. In Africa, driedleaves provide much of the dietary calcium.Aqueous extract of the bark isused for treating sickle cell anaemia.An infusion of the leaves and flowersis given in respiratory disorders.(Powdered leaves prevented crisis inasthma induced by histamine in guineapigs.) Dried fruit pulp also gives reliefin bronchial asthma, allergic dermatitisand urticaria.The roots contain a flavanone glycoside.Adenanthera pavonina Linn.Family ◮ Leguminosae; Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ The western Ghats, theAndamans and sub-Himalayantract; also cultivated.English ◮ Coral Wood, Red Wood.Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta Kanchana, RaktaKambala.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Anai-gundumani.Folk ◮ Ghumchi (bigger var.).Action ◮ Astringent and styptic(used in diarrhoea, haemorrhagefrom the stomach, haematuria),anti-inflammatory (in rheumaticaffections, gout). Seeds—anticephalgic; also used for thetreatment of paralysis. A decoctionis given in pulmonary affections.The seed contains an anti-inflammatoryactive principle, O-acetylethanolamine.The leaves contain octacosanol,dulcitol, glucosides of betasitosteroland stigmasterol. The barkcontains sitgmasterol glucoside.Adhatoda vasica Nees.Synonym ◮ A. zeylanica Medic.Justicia adhatoda Linn.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up to analtitude of 1,300 m.English ◮ Malabar Nut, Vasaca.

Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn. 19Ayurvedic ◮ Vaasaa, Vaasaka,Vaasikaa, Simhaasya, Simhaparni,Simhavadanaa, Vaajidanta, Vrisha,Aataruushaka.Unani ◮ Arusaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aadaathodai.Folk ◮ Vasaakaa.Action ◮ Expectorant (used inbronchial, asthmatic and pulmonaryaffections), antispasmodic,febrifuge.Key application ◮ As bronchodilatory,expectorant. (Indian HerbalPharmacopoeia.) The AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India indicates itsuse in dyspnoea.The chief quinazoline alkaloid vasicineis reported in all parts of theplant, the highest being in inflorescence.It is a bitter bronchodilator, respiratorystimulant, hypotensive, cardiacdepressant, uterotonic and abortifacient.An aqueous solution of vasicinonehydrochloride, when studiedin mice and dogs, was found to potentiatethe bronchodilatory activityof aminophylline, also that of isoprenaline.Vasicinone exhibited smoothmuscle-relaxantproperties of airways.Alkaloids present in the plantshowed significant protection againstallergin-induced bronchial obstructionin guinea pigs.The leaves are found to activate thedigestive enzyme trypsin.An extract of the leaves showedsignificant antifungal activity againstringworm.Adhatoda beddomei C.B. Clarke,found in Kerala, is considered to bemore powerful and active than A. vasica.Freshleafjuiceisusedinhaemoptysisand menorrhagia, also as an antiasthmatic.Jacobinia tinctoria Henl. is equatedwith the red-flowered var. of Vaasaa.Dosage ◮ Leaf—10–20 ml juice.Dried leaves—10–20 g for deoction.Root—3–6 g powder. (API Vols. I,IV.)Adiantum aethiopicum Linn.Synonym ◮ A. emarginatum Bedd.Family ◮ Adiantaceae.Habitat ◮ North Kanara and theNilgiri and Palni hills at higherelevations.Ayurvedic ◮ Hansapadi (related sp.).Action ◮ Rhizomes—decoctionabortifacient. Astringent andemetic. Emollient in coughs anddiseases of the chest; sudorific.Adiantum capillus-veneris Linn.Family ◮ Adiantaceae.Habitat ◮ All along the Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Sikkim betweenaltitudes of 1,800 and 2,700 m.English ◮ American MaidenhairFern,VenusHair,RockFern.Ayurvedic ◮ Hansaraaja, Hansapadi(related sp.).Unani ◮ Parsiaavashaan.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Seruppadai.Folk ◮ Mubaaraka.A

20 Adiantum incisum Forsk.AAction ◮ Astringent, demulcent,expectorant, antitussive, stimulant,emmenagogue. Fonds used inchronic catarrh (as an ingredientof cough and bronchial medicines);also in cold imposthumes of uterus,hard swellings and hard tumours ofspleen, liver and other viscera.The fern contains flavonoid glucosides,including rutin, isoquercetin, astragalin,kaempferol; hydroxycinnamicacid esters; terpenoids, includingadiantone.Adiantum incisum Forsk.Synonym ◮ A. caudatum Linn.Family ◮ Adiantaceae.Habitat ◮ The plains and the lowerslopes of the hills in Punjab,Rajasthan, West Bengal, TamilNadu and Maharashtra.Ayurvedic ◮ Nilakantha-shikhaa,Mayurshikhaa, Vahrishikhaa.Action ◮ Used in hemicrania,cough, fever; externally in skindiseases; used as a substitute forA. capillus-veneris.The fern yields adiantone, isoadiantone,fernene, hentriacontane, hentriacontanone-16,beta-sitosterol.Adiantum lunulatum Burm.Synonym ◮ A. philippense Linn.Family ◮ Adiantaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the greaterpart of India, up to an altitude of1,200 m.English ◮ Walking Maidenhair Fern.Black Maidenhair (A. venustum G.Don is also known as Hansaraaja.)Ayurvedic ◮ Hansapadi, Hansapaadi,Raktapaadi, Kitamaataa, Tripaadikaa,Hansaraaja; a substitutefor Taamrachuda-paadikaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Seruppadai.Folk ◮ Raajhans, Mubaaraka.Action ◮ Febrifugal, antidysenteric,soothing agent in erysipelas. Therhizome is also prescribed forstrangury, atrophy, emaciation orcachexy, muscular pain; emetic inlarge doses.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of the driedwhole plant in psychosis-related fear.(It is one of the ingredients of theclassical drug Maanasamitra Vataka,prescribed for mental disorders.)The chemical constituents are chlorophyll-degradationproducts andhigher carotenoids.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—1-3 g (APIVol. III.)Adina cordifoliaHook. f. ex BrandisFamily ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous in deciduousforests all over India.English ◮ Yellow Teak, Saffron Teak.Ayurvedic ◮ Haridru, Haraduaakadamba,Gaur-kadamba,Girikadamba, Dhaaraakadamba,Pitadaaru, Kadambapushpa.

Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Juss. ex Schult. 21Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manjakadambu.Folk ◮ Haladu, Kheta Kadam.Action ◮ Antibacterial, antiseptic,antidysenteric, antibilious (usedin biliary colic), febrifuge. Root—astringent.The heartwood contains indole alkaloids;bark 7.27–9.27% tannin. Theleaves contain ursolic acid and quercetin.Aegle marmelos(L.) Correa ex Roxb.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ The plains and submountainregions of India, ascendingtoanaltitudeof1,200minthewestern Himalayas; cultivated allover India.English ◮ Bael tree, Bengal Quince.Ayurvedic ◮ Bilva, Shriphala,Shaandilya, Shailuusha, Shalya,Sadaaphala, Mahaakapitha (Kapithais equated with Feronia limonia),Maaluura, Rudrajataa, Rudranirmaalya,Shivajataakhya.Unani ◮ Bael.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vilvam, Koovilam.Action ◮ Stomachic, antimicrobial(specific for diarrhoea, colitis,dysentery and enteric infections),digestive, astringent, spasmolytic,hypoglycaemic.Key application ◮ As antidiarrhoeal.(Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)Along with other therapeuticapplications, The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates theuse of root in dysuria; stembark indiabetes and lipid disorders.A number of coumarins (includingxanthotoxol and alloimperatorinmethyl ether), flavonoids (includingrutin and marmesin), alkaloids (includingalpha-fagarine), sterols andessential oils have been isolated fromplant parts. Pectin is an importantconstituent of the fruit.Alkaloid aegeline, present in theleaves, is efficacious in asthma. Theactive principle in aqueous extract ofleaf shows hypoglycaemic activity similarto insulin. Leaves are also givenin jaundice. Alcoholic extract of seedsshows antiallergic activity.Marmin, a coumarin isolated fromthe roots, shows anti-inflammatory effectsexperimentally. Marmin also inhibitedgastric haemorrhagic lesionsin rats and exhibited antiulcer effects.Seed oil showed beneficial effects inregeneration of tumour cells.Aurapten is found to be the mostpotent inhibitor of heart rate. Rootbarkis used for palpitation of the heart.Dosage ◮ Pulp of unripe or halfripe fruit—3 g powder. Root—6 gpowder. (API Vols. I, III.)Aerva javanica(Burm. f.) Juss. ex Schult.Synonym ◮ A. persica (Burm.f.)MerillA. tomentosa Frosk.Family ◮ Amaranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Central andPeninsular India.A

22 Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult.AEnglish ◮ Javanese Wool Plant.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perumpoolai.Folk ◮ Dholphuli, Khul. Paashaanabheda(southern India).Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, diuretic,anticalculus, insecticidal. Woolyseeds are used against rheumatism.The plant extract contains ascorbicacid, kaempferol, beta-amyrin andbeta-sitosterol. The leaves also containsitosterol and its glucoside.Aerva lanata (L.) Juss. ex Schult.Family ◮ Amaranthaceae.Habitat ◮ The warmer parts of India,ascending to 1,000 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Paashaanabheda.Gorakshaganjaa, Aadaanpaaki,Shatkabhedi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sirupeelai.Folk ◮ Paashaanabheda (southernIndia), Gorakhagaanjaa.Action ◮ Anticalculus (used inlithiasis), diuretic, demulcent,anthelmintic, antidiarrhoeal,anticholerin, bechic; leaf usedin hepatitis, root in strangury.A decoction of the plant is used incatarrh of bladder. The flowers androots are used for headache.Key application ◮ As diuretic andlithontriptic. (The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)The plant contains palmitic acid,beta-sitosterol and alpha-amyrin.Aerva scandens Wall., synonym A.sanguinolenta Blume, is also known asPaashaanabheda in the south.Species used as Paashaanabheda:Bergenia ligulata (north), Aerva lanata(south), Coleus amboinicus (east) andBryophyllum pinnatum (west).Dosage ◮ 50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Aesculus hippocastanum Linn.Family ◮ Hippocastanaceae; Sapindaceae.Habitat ◮ Endemic to the mountainsof Balkan Peninsula and westernAsia. Introduced into India; occasionallygrown as an ornamentaltree.English ◮ Horse Chestnut tree.Unani ◮ Baloot. (Quercus incana andQ. infectoria have also been equatedwith Baloot in National Formularyin Unani Medicine.)Folk ◮ Pu.Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, vasodilator,astringent (used forrheumatism, venous congestion,haemorrhoids), febrifuge. Leaf—used in whooping cough.Key application ◮ In chronic venousinsufficiency, varicosis, nocturnalsystremma (cramps in the calves)and swelling of the legs. (Noninvasivetreatment measures shouldalso be followed.) (GermanCommission E, ESCOP, The BritishHerbal Pharmacopoeia.)

Aframomum melegueta (Rosc.) K. Schum. 23Horse Chestnut contains triterpenoidsaponins (especially aescin, acomplex mixture composed of acylatedglycosides of protoaesigenin andbarringtogenol-C, including hippocaesculin),coumarins and flavonoids.Aescin has been shown to eliminateoedema and reduce exudation. It antagonizesthe effect of bradykinin, althoughit is not a direct bradykininantagonist. It causes an increase inplasma levels of ACTH, corticosteroneand glucose in rats. Hippocaesculinand barringtogenol-C-21-angelateshow antitumour activity in vitro.The hydroxycoumarin aesculinleads to increased bleeding time.(Roasting seems to destroy the toxins.)A few fruits can cause severetoxic symptoms. (Francis Brinker.) Insome countries, an intravenous mixturecontaining aescin is used aftersurgery. (Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Aesculus indica Hook.Family ◮ Sapindaceae; Hippocastanaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to western Nepal, Kuluand Chamba in Himachal Pradesh,Tehri-Garhwal and Kumaon inUttar Pradesh at 900–3,600 m.English ◮ Indian Horse Chestnut,Himalayan Chestnut.Folk ◮ Bankhor.Action ◮ Antirheumatic, galactogenic,antileucorrhocic.The leaves contain aescin, quercetinand beta-sitosterol. Stems also containrutin, astragalin, aesculin. Seedscontain aescin, aesculuside A and B, alsoaliphatic esters. Seeds possess antiinflammatoryactivity.The extract of seeds is consideredto be active against P-388 lymphocyticleukaemia and human epidermoidcarcinoma of nasopharynx.Aframomum melegueta(Rosc.) K. Schum.Synonym ◮ Amomum meleguetaRosc.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical Africa;cultivated in Indian gardens.English ◮ Grains of Paradise, Alligatorpepper, Meleguetta pepper.Unani ◮ Heel Habshi.Action ◮ Roots possess cardamomliketasteandaregivenasadecoctionfor constipation; also as a vermifugefor tapeworms. Juice of youngleaves—styptic. The seeds containan alkaloid, piperine; also gingerol,paradol, shogaol and zingerone.Gingerol and shogaol suppress gastriccontractions; also have sedativeand analgesic actions. Pungency of thegrains is due to paradol.A decoction of the whole plant istaken internally as a febrifuge.High oxalic acid content in the fruitmay cause reduced function of theheart.Aframomum korarima K. Schum.,native to tropical Africa, known asA

24 Aganosma dichotoma (Roth) K. Schum.AFalse cardamom, is also equated withHeel Habshi.Active principle is agaric acid (agaricin),present to the extent of 14–16%.Aganosma dichotoma(Roth) K. Schum.Synonym ◮ A. caryophyllata G. DonFamily ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, West Bengal, Bihar,Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and TamilNadu;oftencultivatedinIndiangardens.Ayurvedic ◮ Madhumaalati.Action ◮ Antiseptic; anodyne (aningredient in massage oils forparaplegia, neuralgia, sciatica); alsoanthelmintic and emetic.The leaves contain quercetin, kaempferoland phenolic acids. Shoot tipsand flower buds contain tannin.Aganosma calycina A. DC. is alsoequated with Madhumaalati.Agaricus albus Linn.Family ◮ Agaricaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Asia Minor.English ◮ Purging Agaric.Unani ◮ Gharaiqoon; also equatedwith Fomes officinalis (Vill. ex Fr.)Lloyd.Action ◮ Diuretic, laxative, deobstructant,expectorant; purgativeand emetic in large doses; used inthe treatment of night sweats inphthisis, and as a supporting drugfor asthma.Agaricus campestris Linn.Synonym ◮ Psalliota campestris(Linn.) Fr.Family ◮ Agaricaceae.Habitat ◮ The fungi is distributed inmany parts of India, particularlyon the hills and plains of northernand eastern India. Grows duringthe rainy weather on dead organicmatter, e.g. rotting leaves andmanure.English ◮ Field mushroom, Ediblemushroom.Ayurvedic ◮ Chhatraka, Bhuumichhatra.Unani ◮ Kammat.Siddha ◮ Venkodiveli.Folk ◮ Khumbi.Action ◮ A protein (2.74%) supplementand an excellent source ofvitamins of B complex. Vitamins K,C and D are also present. Thoughall the amino acids are reportedto be present, the concentration oftryptophane is particularly low.Extracts of A. campestris contain tyrosinase;lowered blood pressure of hypertensiveanimals when administeredintravenously (exhibited no effect onnormal animals).Fungal enzyme preparations havebeen used in digestive diseases.Field mushroom contains amylase,maltase, glycogenase, protease, catalase,tyrosinase, phosphomonoesteras-

Aglaia roxburghiana Miq. Hiern 25es, polyphosphatases, polyphenoloxidaseand dehydropeptidases.Agaricus ostreatus (Jacq.) FriesFamily ◮ Agaricaceae.Habitat ◮ Artocarpus interifolia,indigenous to the western Ghats.English ◮ Oyster Mushroom (growson Artocarpus integrifolia).Action ◮ Prevents excessive salivation.Also given internally in dysentery,diarrhoea, stomatitis; as a paste togums in apthae.Agave americana Linn.Family ◮ Agavaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to America; grownin gardens for ornamentation.English ◮ Century Plant, AmericanAloe.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaantala (related sp.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Alagai.Folk ◮ Ban-Kevaraa.Action ◮ Leaf juice—used forwarts, cancerous ulcers and putridtumours. Leaves are also used asa resolvant in syphilis and scrofula.The leaves contain ten steroidal saponins(six of these are spirostanolicand four furostanolic), also hecogenin(0.20%) and piscidic acid. The seedscontain steroid sapogenins includinghecogenin. The plant exhibits significantantibacterial activity.Ageratum conyzoides Linn.Family ◮ Asteraceae, Compositae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up to analtitude of 1,800 m.English ◮ Goat Weed, White Weed.Ayurvedic ◮ Dochunty, Uchunti,Sahadevi (related sp.).Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, antibacterial,antifungal, styptic.The leaf is reported to contain stigmasterol(59.9%) and beta-sitosterol(26.7%) as major component of sterolfaction. The dried flowering plant containsthe pyrrolizidine alkaloids, lycopsamineand echinatine.An aqueous extract of leaves is reportedto show haemostatic activity.The plant extract exhibited muscle relaxantactivity experimentally. Theethanolic extract (95%) of roots possessesanti-inflammatory and analgesicproperties.The aqueous extract of leaves exhibitsantifungal and crude plant extractantibacterial properties.Aglaia roxburghiana Miq. HiernSynonym ◮ A. elaegnoidea (A. Juss.)Benth.Milnea roxburghiana (Miq.) Wightand Arn.Family ◮ Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats, tropicalforests in the hills of AndhraPradesh, Karnataka, Kerala andAndaman and Nicobar islands.Ayurvedic ◮ Priyangu (var.)A

26 Agrimonia eupatoria auct non L.ASiddha/Tamil ◮ Gnaazhal. (Driedflowers of Myristica malabaricaLam. are also used as Priyangu.)Action ◮ Fruit—cooling (in febrilecomplaints), antipyretic, astringent,antidiarrhoeal, antidysenteric,anti-inflammatory (seeds used forpainful micturition). Fruits arealso used for treating obstinate skindiseases and tumours.Bisamide alkaloids of the leaves exhibitanticancer activity (by inhibitingthe growth of vinblastine-resistant KBcells).Agrimonia eupatoria auct non L.Synonym ◮ A. pilosa Hook.f. nonLedeb.A. pilosa Ledeb. var. nepalensis (D.Don) NakaiFamily ◮ Rosacae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to West Bengal at 900–3,000 m, and in Arunachal Pradesh,Nagaland and Meghalaya.English ◮ Agrimony, Stickle Wort.Unani ◮ Ghaafis.Folk ◮ Belu.Action ◮ Astringent, antiinflammatory,hepatic, cholagogue,diuretic, mild haemostatic, antibacterial.Used for irritations andinfections of the intestinal tract,gallbladder diseases, hyperacidity,colic, urinary disorders (bedwetting,incontinence), sluggishliver, mucus membrane inflammations;externally for ulceratedand discharging skin, psoriasis andseborrhoic eczemas.Key application ◮ In mild, nonspecific,acute diarrhoea andin inflammation of oral andpharyngeal mucosa; as astringent.(German Commission E, The BritishHerbal Pharmacopoeia.)The herb contains condensed tanninsup to 8%, coumarins, flavonoids(glucosides of luteolin, apigenin andquercetin), polysaccharides, volatileoil. Luteolin 7-glucoside shows a cholegogicaction. Aqueous extracts inhibitedMycobacterium tuberculosis, alsostrains resistant to streptomycin andp-aminosalicylate. Essential oil is antibacterial,active against Bacillus subtilis.The ethanolic extracts of the herbare used for their antiviral properties.(Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Coumarins interact with anticoagulants,and drugs that increase the riskof bleeding Furanocoumarin contentincrease photosensitivity. (Sharon M.Herr.)Agropyron repens Beauv.Synonym ◮ Triticum repens L.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ The western Himalayas andKashmir at altitudes between 2,700and 3,600 m.English ◮ Couch grass, dog grass,wheat grass.Action ◮ Demulcent (used incystitis, nephritis), aperient,

Ailanthus glandulosa Desf. 27diuretic and urinary antiseptic,anticholesterolaemic.Key application ◮ In irrigationtherapy for inflammatory diseasesof the urinary tract and for theprevention of kidney gravel.(German Commission E, The BritishHerbal Pharmacopoeia.) It iscontraindicated in oedema due tocardiac or renal insufficiency.The juice of rhizomes is used for cystitis,nephritis, scirrhous liver; decoctionfor tonsils and as an adjuvant forcancer; also used for gout and rheumatism,and chronic skin disorders.The rhizome contains triticin, a carbohydrateallied to starch, a fructosanpolysaccharide, inositol, mannitol;volatile oil up to about 0.05%, consistingmainly of agropyrene; vanillinglucoside; mucilage, gum, large quantitiesof silica; iron, minerals, vitamins,K salt. Agropyrene is reportedto have broad antibiotic properties. Extractsshow uric acid solvent properties.Agropyrene is antifungal.Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.Family ◮ Simaroubaceae.Habitat ◮ Bihar, Madhya Pradesh,Gujarat, Orissa and southern India.English ◮ Tree of Heaven, Maharukh.Ayurvedic ◮ Aralu, Katvanga,Dirghavranta, Puutivrksha, Bhalluka.(Mahaanimba is a synonym ofMelia azedarach Linn.)Siddha ◮ Perru, Perumaruttu,Peruppi.Action ◮ Bark—bitter, astringent,febrifuge, anthelminitic, antispasmodic,expectorant (used in asthma,bronchitis). Also used for dysenteryas a substitute for Holarrhenaantidysenterica.Barkand leaves—used as tonic in debility,especially after childbirth.Leaves—used as adulterant for Adhatodazeylanica leaves.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of stembarkin high fevers and giddiness.The bark contains several quassinoidsincluding ailanthone derivatives.They exhibit antitumour activityagainst P-388 lymphocytic leukaemiaand are cytotoxic against KB test system.Dosage ◮ Stembark—1–3 g (APIVol. III.) Decoction—50–100 ml.(CCRAS.)Ailanthus glandulosa Desf.Synonym ◮ A. altissima (Mill.)SwingleFamily ◮ Simaroubaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of China and Japan.Found in the hills of northern Indiaup to an altitude of 2,400 m.English ◮ Tree of Heaven, Ailanto.Ayurvedic ◮ Aralu (related sp.).Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antispasmodic,parasiticidal, narcotic,cardiac depressant (exercises powerfuldepressing influence on nervoussystem similar to that of tobacco).A

28 Ailanthus malabarica DC.ALeaves produce dermatitis; their accumulationin well-water produceschronic gastritis.Many quassinoids and ailanthonederivatives are vermifuge and amoebicidal.Constituents of the bark andstem, particularly ailanthone, have antimalarialactivity in vitro against Plasmodiumfalciparum and in mice againstP. berghei. (Alkaloids do not appear tohave these properties.) Some quassinoidsare antineoplastic, and are reportedto have antileukaemic properties.The rootbark is used in traditionalChinese medicine for dysentery andleucorrhoea. In Africa, rootbark isused in epilepsy.Ailanthus malabarica DC.Synonym ◮ A. triphysa (Dennst.)Alston.Family ◮ Simaroubaceae.Habitat ◮ The evergreen forestsof western Ghats from Konkansouthwards.Siddha ◮ Perumaram.Folk ◮ Guggul-dhuupa. (Maharashtra.)Action ◮ Bark—febrifuge, carminative(given in typhoid, dyspepsiaand constipation). Oleo resin—used for dysentery and bronchitis.The bark and roots give a numberof beta-carboline alkaloids. The resinuousexudates from trunk give severaltriterpenoids, including malabaricoland malabaricanediol.Ainsliaea aptera DC.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Bhutan at altitudes of2,400 m, extending to Khasi hills ofMeghalaya.Folk ◮ KaruiBuuti(Garhwal).Action ◮ Powdered roots—used forquick relief from acute stomachache; diuretic.A related sp., A. latifolia Sch-Bip., isused as an adulterant to Podophyllumemodi.Ajuga bracteosa Wall. ex Benth.Family ◮ Labiatae Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayan tract,plains of Punjab and the upperGangetic plain.Ayurvedic ◮ Neelkanthi.Folk ◮ Ratapaati (Kumaon), Khurbanti(Punjab).Action ◮ Astringent, febrifugal (givenin intermittent fever), stimulant,aperient, diuretic. Used for thetreatment of gout and rheumatism;also for amenorrhoea. Juice ofthe leaves—blood purifier. Thepowder is used for burns and boils.The leaves are used in fever asa substitute for cinchona.An aqueous extract of the leavesshowed diuretic activity. An alkaloidalfraction showed stimulant action onthe perfused frog heart. The plantexhibited anticancer activity.

Albizia amara (Roxb.) Boivin 29Alangium begoniaefolium(Roxb.) Baill.Synonym ◮ A. chinense (Lour.)Harms.Family ◮ Alangiaceae.Habitat ◮ The plains and foothills, upto an altitude of 2,100 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Ankola (related sp.).Folk ◮ Akhani.Action ◮ Bark and roots—sedative,anthelmintic.A triterpenoid was responsible forthe sedative effect on motor activity ofrat brain.Chloroform extract of the drug,which was devoid of anabasine, exhibitedprominent sedative effect inrat. It significantly decreased concentrationof norepinephrine in cortex,of dopamine and serotonin (5-HT) inbrain stem, but increased concentrationof 5-HT in cortex.Alangium lamarckii Thw.Synonym ◮ A. salviifolium (Linn. f.)Wang.Family ◮ Alangiaceae.Habitat ◮ The drier parts of India,in plains and foothills of southernIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Ankola, Ankota,Taamraphala, Guptasneha, Dirghakeelaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Azinjil.Action ◮ Rootbark—astringent,spasmolytic, hypotensive, also diaphoreticand antipyretic. Leaves—hypoglycaemic. Fruits—acidic,astringent, laxative and refrigerant.Used in haemorrhages, stranguryand consumption. The bark isused as a substitute for Cephaelisipecacuanha. It is a rich sourceof alkaloids structurally related toipecac alkaloids (emetin).The bark contains the alkaloid alanginewhich shows a selective action ofthe parasympathetic mechanism, theaction being more marked on gastrointestinaltract. The root extract showshypotensive action. Flowers containdeoxytubulosine, a potent antiplateletaggregation component, which hasastrongbindingwithDNA.The plant extract possesses antineoplasticproperties.Dosage ◮ Rootbark—1–2 g powder.(CCRAS.)Albizia amara (Roxb.) BoivinFamily ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout southern Indiain dry forests, up to 900 m, and insome parts of Madhya Pradesh.Ayurvedic ◮ Shirish (bark—grey orgreenish).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thuringil.Action ◮ Leaf and flower—antiinflammatory,used for boils andulcers. Leaf—used for erysipelas.Seeds—astringent, antidiarrhoeal,antibacterial.The seed extract showed DNA bindingactivity, which has been found toA

30 Albizia lebbeck (Linn.) Willd.Abe due to pithecolibine alkaloids, budmunchiamines.Budmunchiaminesare antibacterial, and they inhibit plateletaggregation and human lymphocytetransformation. They also showanti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activity.The leaves contain prodelphinidins,myricitrin, hyperin, quercitrin, transp-coumaricacid, cis-p-coumaric acidand trans-ferulic acid.The seeds contain echinocystic acidand taxifolin-3-O-beta-D xylopyranosyl-beta-D-arbinopyranoside.The oil from the seeds is said to cureleprosy and leucoderma.Albizia lebbeck (Linn.) Willd.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ All over India, from theplains up to 900 m in the Himalayas;also in the Andamans.English ◮ Siris tree, East Indianwalnut.Ayurvedic ◮ Shirisha, Bhandi,Bhandila, Shitapushpa, Mridupushpa,Kapitana (bark—dustyblack).Unani ◮ Siras.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vaagei.Action ◮ Antiseptic, antibacterial,antiallergic, antidermatosis,antidysenteric. Bark—used in bronchitis;bark and seeds in piles; rootin hemicrania; flowers in cough,bronchitis, tropical pulmonaryeosinophilia, and asthma. Pod—antiprotozoal.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of stembarkin rhinitis, sinusitis and migraine.Analysis of the plant revealed thepresence of flavonoids, triterpenoidsand triterpenoid saponins; oleanolicacid, albigenic acid, albigenin andacacic acid. The bark contains 7–11%condensed tannin; also d-catechin andd-leucocyanidin.Aqueous extract of the bark decreasedhistamine-induced bronchospasmin guinea pigs.Alcoholic extract of stembark containscardenolide glycosides of digitoxinnature. It showed antidermatophyticactivity. Anthraquinone glycosidesand its aglycone exhibited antibacterialactivity.A saponin from seeds exhibitedspermicidal activity in animals. EtOH(50%) extract of pods was found tobe spermicidal against rat and humanspermatozoa at 2% concentration.The therapeutic properties of Albiziajulibrissin Durazz, Pink Siris, found inthe outer Himalayas from the Induseastwards to Sikkim, are the same asthose of A. lebbeck.Dosage ◮ Stembark—3–6 g powder.20–50 g for decoction. (APIVol. III.)Albizia procera Benth.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ All over India.Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta Shirisha (bark—white or greenish-white).

Alhagi pseudalhagi (Bieb.) Desv. 31Action ◮ Bark—a decoction is givenin rheumatism and haemorrhage.The bark contains beta-sitosteroland yields 12–17% tannins.An oleanolic acid saponin, procericacid saponin mixture from seeds androot saponin exhibit spermicidal activity.Aleurities moluccana(Linn.) Willd.Synonym ◮ A. triloba J. R. and G.Forst.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China; nowmostlygrownontheteaestatesofKangra Valley in Himachal Pradesh,and also in Assam and Bengal toprovide shade for tea bushes.English ◮ Candlenut tree.Ayurvedic ◮Akharot.Akshota, JangaliSiddha/Tamil ◮ Naatuakrottu.Action ◮ Oil from seeds—purgative;employed externally in rheumatism;ulcers; also as a hair tonic. Leaves—applied in acute rheumatism.Fruit—carminative and expectorant.Bark and flowers—used forasthma.Aleurites fordii Hemsl., Tung Oiltree, native to China, is also equatedwith Jangali Akharot.The tree was introduced on the teaestates of Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Coorgand Mysore.Alhagi pseudalhagi (Bieb.) Desv.Synonym ◮ A. camelorum Fisch. exDC.A. maurorum Medic.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ The drier parts of Rajasthan,Gujarat, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh.English ◮ Camel Thorn, PersianManna Plant.Ayurvedic ◮ Yavaasaka, Yavaasa,Yaasa, Duhsparshaa, Duraalabhaa,Kunaashak. Substitute forDhanvayaasa. Yaasa-sharkaraa(Alhagi-manna).Unani ◮ Jawaansaa. Turanjabeen(Alhagi-manna).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Punaikanjuri, Kanchori.Action ◮ Laxative, antibilious,diuretic, diaphoretic, expectorant.Leaves—used for fever, headache,rheumatism. Flowers—bloodcoagulant, used for piles. Alhagimanna—expectorant,antiemetic,laxative.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of dried wholeplantingoutandhaemorrhagicdisorders.The aerial parts contain flavonoids,tannins, sterols, triterpenes, saponinsand anthroquinones.The proanthocyanidins derivedfrom the plant possess hypolipidemicand antiatherosclerotic properties. Thecompounds prevented an increase inrat serum cholesterol and triglycerides,A

32 Alkanna tinctoria (L.) Tausch.Aand they decreased the manifestationof atherosclerosis.A polymeric proanthocyanidin, extractedfrom the plant, improved energymetabolism and increased the workcapacity in rats.Ethanolic extract of the aerial partsproduced positive inotropic effect onrabbit heart.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—20–50 gfor decoction. (API Vol. II.)Decoction—50–100 ml. (CCRAS.)Alkanna tinctoria (L.) Tausch.Family ◮ Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Central andsouthern Europe.English ◮ Alkanet, Dyers’ or SpanishBugloss.Unani ◮ Ratanjot. National Formularyof Unani Medicine equated Ratanjotwith Onosma echioides Linn., foundin Kashmir and Kumaon.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ratthapaalai, Surulpattai,Dineshavalli.Action ◮ Astringent, antimicrobial(used for indolent ulcers, wounds,erysipelas).The root contains up to 5% alkannins,which are lipophilic isohexenylnaphthazarinred pigments; tanninsand wax. A pyrrolizidine (hepatotoxic)alkaloid has also been isolated fromthe herb. The alkannins have antimicrobialand wound-healing propertiesand are non-toxic in mice. They havebeen used clinically for indolent ulcers.Allemanda cathartica Linn.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Central Americaand Brazil. Grown in Indiangardens.English ◮ Golden Trumpet.Folk ◮ Zahari Sontakkaa. (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaves—cathartic (inmoderate doses; emetic in largedoses). Bark—hydragogue, inascites.The purgative property of the aqueousextract of leaves was confirmedpharmacologically in rats. The extractalso showed antifungal activity againstringworm causing fungi. Flower extractinhibits fungal growth.EtOH extract of roots showed invivoactivity against P-388 leukaemiain mouse and in vitro against humancarcinoma cells of nasopharynx (KB).The root contains antileukaemic iridoidlactone, allamandin and two otheriridoids, allamandicin and allamdin.The stems and leaves contain betaamyrin,beta-sitosterol and ursolicacid. Petals gave flavonoids—kaempferoland quercetin.Allium ascalonicum Linn.Fam ◮ Liliaceae; Alliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Palestine;cultivated in India.English ◮ Shellot.

Allium cepa Linn. 33Ayurvedic ◮ Grnjana.Unani ◮ Gandanaa, Ek-daanaaLehsun, Ek-potia Lehsum. (Alsoequated with Asphodelus tenuifoliusCav.)Action ◮ Anticoagulant, fibrinolytic,hypocholesterolaemic.The aqueous extract of the bulbscontains mainly fructose (50%), besidesglucose, arabinose, galactose,mannose, rhamnose, glucosamine anduronic acid. It also contains lysine, glutamicacid and aspartic acid. It showssignificant activity against P-388 lymphocyticleukaemia in mice.In experiments on rabbits, the alcoholicextracts of the bulb showed significantanticoagulant, fibrinolytic andhypocholesterolaemic properties.Allium cepa Linn.Family ◮ Liliaceae; Alliaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated as an annualall over the country. The mostimportant onion-growing states areMaharashtra, Tamil Nadu, AndhraPradesh., Karnataka and MadhyaPradesh.English ◮ Onion.Ayurvedic ◮ Palaandu, Durgandh.Unani ◮ Piyaaz.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Venkaayam.Action ◮ Antibiotic, antibacterial,antisclerotic, anticoagulant,anti-inflammatory, antiasthmatic,expectorant, carminative, antispasmodic,diuretic, hypotensive,antidiabetic.Key application ◮ For the preventionof atherosclerosis (GermanCommission E) and age-dependentchanges in the blood vessels, andloss of appetite (WHO).The official onion bulb of the Pharmacopoeiaof the People’s Republic ofChina is a different species, Alliummacrostemon Bge., than that of theGerman Commission E monographs,A. cepa. Chinese onion is used forcough, dyspnoea, angina pectoris anddysentery.Scallions or Spring Onion of Chinesemedicine are equated with Alliumfistulosum.Onion bulbs contain a volatile oilwith sulphurous constituents, includingallylpropyldisulphide; sulphurcontainingcompounds, including allicin,alliin; flavonoids; phenolic acidsand sterols.Hypoglycaemic activity of the onionis attributed to the allylpropyldisulphideand allicin. Diphenylamine, isolatedfrom mature bulbs, also exhibitspotent antihyperglycaemic activity.Alliin and allicin have an inhibitoryeffect on platelet aggregation. Antibioticactivity is due mainly to allicin.Regular use of onion (50 g/day) reducesinsulin requirement of a diabeticpatientfrom40to20unitsaday.Thiosulphinates, isolated from onionjuice, exhibited antiasthmatic activityin vivo.Dosage ◮ Juice of bulb—10–20 ml.(CCRAS.)A

34 Allium macleanii Baker.AAllium macleanii Baker.Family ◮ Liliaceae, Alliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Afghanistan.(A bulbous plant related to onion.)English ◮ Oriental Royal Salep.Unani ◮ Baadshaahi Saalab.Action ◮ Anabolic and gastrointestinaltonic.Allium porrum Linn.Synonym ◮ A. ameloprasumHook. f. non Linn.Family ◮ Liliaceae, Alliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the Mediterraneanregion; cultivated in India.English ◮ Leek.Folk ◮ Vilaayati Piyaaz. Praan(Kashmir). Seemevangayam (TamilNadu).Action ◮ Expectorant; used asa substitute for garlic.Leek is poor in volatile oil content incomparison with garlic, but it containssufficient amounts of non-toxic saponins,which perhaps give it expectorantproperties.The bulbs contain several thiosulphinates,and also potentially anticarcinogenicflavonoids, quercetin andkaempferol.Allium sativum Linn.Family ◮ Liliaceae, Alliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Central Asia.Cultivated all over India.English ◮ Garlic.Ayurvedic ◮ Lashuna, Rasona,Yavaneshta, Ugragandha, Mahaushadh,Arishta.Unani ◮ Seer, Lahsun.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ullippoondu, Vellaippondu.Action ◮ Antibiotic, bacteriostatic,fungicide, anthelmintic, antithrombic,hypotensive, hypoglycaemic,hypocholesterolaemic. Also usedfor upper respiratory tract infectionsand catarrhal conditions.Key application ◮ As a supportive todietary measures for elevated levelsof lipids in blood; as a preventivemeasure for age-dependent vascularchanges. (German Commission E,ESCOP, WHO, The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.) Also as anantimicrobial. (The British HerbalPharmacopoeia). Garlic has beenshown to be effective in respiratoryinfections and catarrhal conditions.(The British Herbal Compendium.)The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaindicates the use of the bulb asa brain tonic in epilepsy and psychicdisorders.Heavy consumption of garlic priorto surgery led to increased clottingtime or reduced platelet aggregation(in human case reports). Garlic tabletsatadoseof400mgtwicedailyfor12 weeks reduced platelet aggregation59% compared with placebo in 80 patients(in human clinical study). (FrancisBrinker.)Garlic cloves are high in sulphurcontainingamino acids known as alliin(no taste, no smell, no medicinal

Alocasia indica (Lour.) Spach. 35action). With crushing or chewing alliincomes into contact with the enzymealliinase. Alliinase, in less than 6 s,transforms alliin into allicin (stronglymedicinal), which breaks down intoa number of sulphur compounds includingajoene, vinyldithin and diallyldisulfide, and trisulfide. The antibioticeffect is attributed to allicin; hypoglycaemiceffect to allicin and allylprophyldisulphide(also to S-allyl cysteinesulfoxide); anticarcinogenic activity todiallyl monosulfide; platelet aggregationinhibitory effect to diallyl-di- andtri-sulphides. Ajoene inactivated humangastric lipase, which is involvedin digestion and absorption of dietaryfats.Diallyltetra, penta-, hexa- and heptasulphidesare potential antioxidants.Allium leptophyllum Wall. is equatedwith Vana Lashuna, Jangali Lahsun.Dosage ◮ Bulb—3 g (API Vol. III.)Allium schoenoprasum Linn.Family ◮ Liliaceae, Alliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to temperatenorthern Europe and the U.S.;distributed in the western Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Kumaon ataltitudes of 2,400–3,000 m.English ◮ Chives.Action ◮ Used in place of youngonions.An alcoholic extract of the bulbsexhibited hypotensive and cardiac depressantactivity.The aerial parts (chives) gave alliins(alkylcysteine sulfoxides), particularlymethyl alliin and pentylalliin.Allium tuberosum Rottl. ex Spreng,found in eastern India and westernHimalayas, is equated with ChineseChives. It is available in Meghalaya.Alocasia indica (Lour.) Spach.Synonym ◮ A. macrorrhiza (Linn.)G. DonFamily ◮ Araceae.Habitat ◮ AgenusoftopicalAsia,Malayasia and the Pacific. Foundwild and cultivated all over India.English ◮ Giant Taro.Ayurvedic ◮ Maanaka, Maana,Maankanda, Kasaalu, Hastikarni.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Merukan kizhangu.Action ◮ Rootstock—mild laxative,diuretic (in anasarca); used ininflammations and diseases ofabdomen and spleen. Leaf—astringent,styptic,antitumour.Rootandleaf—rubefacient. Tubers—used asvegetable after eliminating oxalatecontent.All parts of the plant, except tubers,contain cyanogenic principle,a mixture of triglochinin and isotriglochinin.The tubers contain sterolsand high concentration of soluble oxalates(prolonged use may lead to calciumdeficiency and oxaluria.) Thetubers contain a trypsin/chymotrypsininhibitor. The plant contains HCN(0.0027%). It is found to be mitogenicA

36 Aloe barbadensis Mill.Ato human peripheral blood lymphocytes.Dosage ◮ Tuber—5–10 g powder.(CCRAS.)Aloe barbadensis Mill.Synonym ◮ A. vera Tourn. ex Linn.A. indica RoyleA. littoralis KoeningFamily ◮ Liliaceae; Agavaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughoutIndia, wild on coasts of Maharashtra,Gujarat and South India.English ◮ Curacao Aloe, BarbadosAloe, Indian Aloe, Jaffarabad Aloe.Ayurvedic ◮ Kanyaasaara, Eleyaka(dried juice of the leaves). Kumaari,Kumaarikaa, Kanyaa, Grihkanyaa,Ghritkumaarika (plant).Unani ◮ Gheekwaar, Sibr.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sotru Kattraazhai,Kumaari. Moosaambaram (driedjuice).Folk ◮ Elwaa, Musabbar (dried juiceof leaves).Action ◮ Purgative (causes griping),emmenagogue. Gel—topicallyemollient, anti-inflammatory,antimicrobial (used for woundhealing, sunburn).Key application ◮ In occasionalconstipation; contraindicatedin intestinal obstruction andacutely inflamed intestinal diseases,ulcerative colitis, appendicitis.(German Commission E, ESCOP,WHO.)The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia recommends the use of driedjuice of leaves in dysmenorrhoeaand diseases of the liver.Aloe vera improved the hypoglycaemiceffect of glyburide (glibenclamide)when one tablespoonful aloejuice was given orally in the morningand at bedtime to 36 diabetic patientsfor 42 days. The juice (same dose)showed antihyperglycaemic activity(independently). (Francis Brinker.)Anthraquinone glycosides, knownas aloin, in small doses act as a tonicto the digestive system, and at higherdoses become a strong purgative, aswell as increase colonic secretions andperistaltic contractions. Resin fractionis also as important as aloin in catharticaction. In A. barbadensis the highestpercentage of aloin is 21.8%.Aloe produces pelvic congestion andis used for uterine disorders, generallywith Fe and carminatives. The pulp isused in menstrual suppressions.A molecule in the Aloe vera gel, acemannan,stimulates macrophages andreleases immune system potentiators;enhances function of T cells and interferonproduction. Animal studieshave shown promising results in sarcoma.The carboxypeptidase and salicylatecomponents of Aloe gel can inhibitbradykinin, a pain-producing agent;C-glycosyl chromone appears to reducetopical inflammation. Aloe gelalso slows or inhibits the synthesisof thromboxane, which may acceleratethe healing of burns. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)

Alpinia officinarum Hance 37Dosage ◮ Leaf pulp juice—10–20 ml.(CCRAS.) Dried leaf pulp juice—125–500 mg powder. (API Vol. I.)Alpinia galanga Willd.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas andsouthern region of western Ghats.English ◮ Greater Galangal.Ayurvedic ◮ Kulanjana, Sthuulagranthi,Sugandhaa, Ugragandhaa,Malaya Vachaa, Mahaabhari-Vachaa. Substitute for Raasnaa(Pluchea lanceolata).Unani ◮ Khulanjaan.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perarattai.Action ◮ Rhizome—carminative (indyspepsia), stomachic, circulatorystimulant, diaphoretic, antiinflammatory.Throughout southern India, the rhizomeof Alpinia galanga is used asRaasnaa for rheumatism, intermittentfever, dyspepsia and respiratory ailments.(In the north, Vanda tessellataor Pluchea lanceolata is used as Raasnaa.)EtOH extract of the plant showsanti-inflammatoryactivity. Theethanolicextract also showed significant antiulceractivity in rats, which has beenattributed to the antisecretory and cytoprotectiveproperties of the plant.Major constituents of the essentialoil are methyl cinnamate, cineole andd-pinene. In moderate doses, the oilexhibits antispasmodic action.Unani physicians use A. galanga asa sex tonic. In mice, the drug causeda significant gain in the weight of sexualorgans and increased sperm motilityand sperm count.Plants used as Raasnaa in Indianmedicine: Alpinia galanga Willd. (Zingiberaceae)insouthernIndia;Pluchealanceolata C. B. Clarke (Compositae;Asteraceae) in Uttar Pradesh; Vandaroxburghii R. Br. (Orchidaceae) ineastern Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal;Blepharispermum subsessile DC.(Compositae; Asteraceae) in MadhyaPradesh; and Dodonaea viscosa (Linn.)Jacq. (Sapindaceae)inAndhraPradesh.Dosage ◮ Rhizome—1–3 g powder.Decoction—50–100 ml. (CCRAS.)Alpinia malaccensis Rosc.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, Assam,Khasi Hills, Meghalaya, up to1,500 m, and western Ghats ofKerala.Folk ◮ Saliyeridumpa (Tamil).Action ◮ Rhizome—employed tocure sores. Fruits—emetic (usedwith salt).The rhizomes yield essential oil consistingof methyl cinnamate as chiefconstituent.Alpinia officinarum HanceFamily ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China; cultivatedin northern India.English ◮ Lesser Galangal, Alpinia,Catarrh Root, Chinese Ginger.A

38 Alpinia speciosa (Wendl.) K.Schum.AAyurvedic ◮ Kulanjan (var.).Unani ◮ Khulanjaan (smaller var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chitrarattai.Action ◮ Rhizome—a circulatorystimulant and carminative.Key application ◮ As a carminative.(The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)Aqueous and methanolic extracts ofthe rhizome, on oral administration,exhibited significant decrease in gastricsecretioninrabbitsandshowedanticholinergiceffect in pylorus-ligatedrats.Flavones from rhizomes are stronglyantifungal against a wide varietyof pathogenic fungi, responsible formajor skin diseases in eastern India.Flavones were also found to be activeagainst a number of Gram-positive andGram-negative bacteria.The gingerols and diaryheptanoidsconstituents of the rhizome are potentinhibitors of PG synthetase (prostaglandinbiosynthesizing enzyme); theycan also be active against 5-lipoxygenase,an enzyme involved in leukotrienebiosynthesis. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)Alpinia speciosa(Wendl.) K.Schum.Synonym ◮ A. Zerumbet Burtt andR.M. SmithFamily ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to East Indies.Occurs in the eastern Himalayasfrom West Bengal eastwards.English ◮ Light Galangal.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chitraraththai.Action ◮ Rhizomes are used asa substitute for A. galanga andeven for ginger; antiulcerative,spasmolytic.The leaves and rhizomes yield anessential oil which contains alpha-andbeta-pinene, borneol, campene and cineoleas major constituents.Alstonia scholaris R. Br.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout moist regionsof India, especially in West Bengaland west-coast forests of southernIndia.English ◮ Devil’s tree, Dita Bark tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Saptaparna, Saptachhada,Saptaparni, Saptaahvaa,Vishaaltvak, Shaarada, Vishamchhada.Unani ◮ Chhaatim, Kaasim (KaasimRoomi, Anjudaan Roomi is equatedwith Myrrhis odorata Scope.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ezhilamippalai,Mukkampalai.Folk ◮ Chhitavan, Sataunaa.Action ◮ Bark—febrifuge, antiperiodic,spasmolytic, antidysenteric,uterine stimulant, hypotensive; usedfor internal fevers.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of stembarkin phosphaturia and recommends it asa blood purifier.

Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.) R. Br. ex DC. 39Alstonia sp. is known as Fever Bark.A. constricta is native to Australia;A. scholaris to Australia and SoutheastAsia. The bark of both the speciescontains indole alkaloids. A. constrictacontains reserpine (a hyptotensiveagent). A. scholaris contains echitamine,which has also demonstratedhypotensive effects. Though A. scholarisproduces fall in the temperatureof human patients with fever, thereare conflicting reports about the activityof echitamine against Plasmodiumberghei.Dosage ◮ Stembark—20–30 g fordecoction. (API Vol. I.)Alstonia venenata R. Br.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular India.Folk ◮ Pazh-munipala (Tamil),Addasarpa (Kannada), Palamunpala(Malyalam).Action ◮ Stembark and fruit—antiepileptic.The plant is a rich source of indolealkaloids. Major alkaloids in the stembarkare alstovenine, venenatine, 3-dehydroalstovenine, reserpine (0.003–0.3%), venoxidine and kopsinine.Alstovenine, in lower doses, exhibitsmonoamine oxidase inhibitor activity;in higher doses, shows marked centralstimulant effect (reversal of reserpineeffects). Venenatine exhibits reserpinelikeprofile of activity (sedation, ptosis,reduction in motor activity).The fruit contains vincadifforminetype of alkaloids. Echitovenidine, themajor alkaloid, shows monoamineoxidase-inhibitory activity both in vitroand in vivo.Alternanthera sessilis(Linn.) R. Br. ex DC.Synonym ◮ A. triandra Lam.A. denticulata R. Br.A. repens Gmel. Non-Link.Family ◮ Amaranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the hotterparts of India, especially aroundtanks and ponds.Ayurvedic ◮ Matsyaakshi, Matsyaakshika(amultimeaningname,also indicating Braahmi, Aindri),Matsyagandhaa, Matsyaadini,Minaakshi, Bahli, Gandali,Gartkalambukaa, Vaahlikaa.Unani ◮ Machhechhi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ponnonkanni keerai.Folk ◮ Gudari Saag.Action ◮ Febrifuge, galactagogue,cholagogue.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of dried wholeplant in diseases due to vitiated bloodand obstinate skin diseases.Young shoots contain protein 5%and iron 16.7 mg/100 g. Leaves alsocontain a good amount of alpha- andbeta-tocopherols.The plant gave stigmasterol, betasitosterol,a saturated aliphatic hydrocarbonand aliphatic ester.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—2–6 gpowder. (API Vol. II.)A

40 Althaea officinalis Linn.AAlthaea officinalis Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to eastern Europe;found in Kashmir and HimachalPradesh.English ◮ Marshmallow, Hollyhock.Unani ◮ Khatmi, Gul-Khairu (alsoequated with Althaea rosea Linn.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shemai-tutti.Action ◮ Demulcent, emollient,antitussive (used for cough,bronchitis, gastritis, enteritis andcystitis), antilithic, diuretic.Key application ◮ (leaf and root) Inirritation of the oral and pharyngealmucosa and associated dry cough;in mild inflammation of the gastricmucosa. (German Commission E,ESCOP.) As demulcent. (TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)In gastroenteritis, peptic andduodenal ulceration, commonand ulcerative colitis. (The BritishHerbal Compendium.) Topicallyfor varicose veins, skin ulcers,abscesses, cuts, burns.Althaea rosea (L.) Cav., synonym Alcearosea L., Hollyhock flower, is usedas mucilage for prophylaxis and therapyof diseases and discomforts of therespiratory and gastrointestinal tractand for urinary complaints. (It is includedamong unapproved herbs byGerman Commission E.)The root contains starch, mucilage,pectin, flavonoids, phenolic acids, sucrose,tannins and asparagines. Mucilage(18–35%) consists of a number ofpolysaccharides. Flavonoids includekaempferol, quercetin and diosmetinglucosides. Polyphenolic acids includesyringic, caffeic, salcyclic, vanillic andp-coumaric acids.The mucilages have proven biologicalactivity including stimulation ofphagocytosis in vitro.The root counters excess stomachacid, peptic ulceration and gastritis.Altingia excelsa NoronhaFamily ◮ Altingiaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam and ArunachalPradesh.English ◮ Storax, Oriental SweetGum.Ayurvedic ◮ Shilaarasa, Turushka,Silhaka (substitute for Liquidamberorientalis, Hamamelidaceae).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Neriyurishippal.Action ◮ Resin—carminative, stomachic,antiscorbutic expectorant,antipyretic, anti-inflammatory, antistress,hepatoprotective. Externallyused in scabies and leucoderma.The ethyl acetate extract of the rootof A. excelsa was studied for antistresseffect in a variety of biological modelsof stress; also in stress-induced ulcersand CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity. Antistresswas the most significant pharmacologicalproperty of the Storax.Amanita muscaria Linn.Family ◮ Agaricaceae; Amanitaceae.English ◮ Fly Agaric (mushroom),Aga, Soma.

Amaranthus spinosus Linn. 41Ayurvedic ◮ Identified as Soma ofRigveda (controversial). (Sushrutadescribed 24 varieties of Soma and18 other drugs as its substitutes.)Intensely poisonous; used forintoxication.The fungus has been used in Russiafor preparing an intoxicating drink.Toxic principles arecholine, muscarineand mycetoatropine (muscaridine).Muscarine stimulates postganglionic,cholinergic and neuroeffectorjunctions. The isoxazole constituentsare psychoactive.2–4 Fly Agaric (more than 10 g fresh)are toxic; 20 (more than 100 g fresh) arelethal. (Francis Brinker.)A. pantherina is used in Japan forintoxication.Agaisnotatruehallucinogen.Theillusions are a misinterpretation of sensorystimuli due to isoxazole, ibotenicacid, muscimol, muscazone and tracesof muscarine. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)Amaranthus blitum Linn. var.oleraceus DuthieFamily ◮ Amaranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Trailing Amaranth, WildBlite.Ayurvedic ◮ Maarisha.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aarumathathandu,Kiraitandu.Folk ◮ Marasaa.Action ◮ Cooling, stomachic,emollient. Used in biliousness,haemorrhagic diathesis.Amaranthus caudatus Linn.Family ◮ Amaranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Grown as vegetable innorthern India.English ◮ Love-Lies-Bleeding, TasselFlower.Ayurvedic ◮ Raam-daanaa (grain).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pungikeerai, Sirukeerai.Folk ◮ Chuko.Action ◮ Blood-purifier, diuretic;used in piles, strangury, dropsyand anasarca; tea has been usedfor relieving pulmonary conditions;also given in scrofula and appliedto scrofulous sores. Antimicrobialpeptides have been isolated fromseeds.In Western herbal medicine, Love-Lies-Bleeding is equated with Amaranthushypochondriacus, andisusedforulcers, diarrhoea, as well as inflammationof the mouth and throat.Preliminary evidence suggests thatAmaranth seed can reduce total cholesteroland LDL, while increasing HDL,but Amaranth muffins failed to reducecholesterol levels in hypercholesterolemicadults beyond the reductionachieved by low-fat diet. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Amaranthus spinosus Linn.Family ◮ Amaranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated fields, wasteplaces and along roadsides.A

42 Amaranthus tricolor Linn.AEnglish ◮ Spiny Amaranth, ThornyAmaranth, Spiny Pigweed.Ayurvedic ◮ Tanduliya, Tandulaka,Meghnaad, Megharava, Vishaghn,Alpamaarish.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mullukkeerai.Folk ◮ Katili-chaulai.Action ◮ Galactogenic, laxative,emollient, spasmolytic, diuretic.Pollen extract—used for allergicasthma and allergic rhinitis. Root—used in menorrhoea.Plant contains sterols. Leaves andstems contain alpha-spinasterol andhentriacontane. Leaves also containamino acids with high content of lysine.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—10–20 mljuice; 400–800 mg powder.(CCRAS.)Amaranthus tricolor Linn.Synonym ◮ A. gangeticus Linn.A. melancholicus Linn.A. polygamus Linn. Hook. f. in part.A. tristis Linn.Family ◮ Amaranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughoutIndia.English ◮ Chinese Spinach, GardenAmaranth, Fountain Plant.Ayurvedic ◮ Maarisha-rakta (redvar.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Arai-keerai, Sirukeerai,Thandu-keerai, Mulakkerai(Tamil).Folk ◮ Laal Shaak, Laal Marashaa.Action ◮ Astringent (in menorrhagia,leucorrhoea, dysentery, diarrhoea,haemorrhagic colitis); also used incough, bronchitis and consumption;externally emollient.The plant contains amarantin, isoamarantin,betaine, amino acids, sterols.Dosage ◮ Leaf, seed, root—10–20 mljuice. (API Vol. III.) Powder—2–4g.(CCRAS.)Amberboa divaricata KuntzeSynonym ◮ Volutarella divaricataBenth. and Hook. F.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Distributed in the Mediterraneanregion, extending to CentralAsia and India.Ayurvedic ◮ Brahmadandi (Tricholepisglaberrima DC. of thesame family is also equated withBrahmadandi.)Unani ◮ Baadaavard.Action ◮ Deobstruent, aperient,febrifuge, nervine (used in debility),antiseptic (used in leucoderma).Ammannia baccifera Linn.Family ◮ Lythraceae.Habitat ◮ Marshy areas throughoutIndia, as a weed.English ◮ Blistering Ammannia.Ayurvedic ◮ Agnipatri.

Ammi visnaga (Linn.) Lam 43Folk ◮ Daadmaari. (Also known asPaashaanabheda.)Action ◮ Stomachic, laxative,antirheumatic, febrifuge. Leaves—used externally for ringworm,herpic eruptions and other skindiseases; rubefacient.Leaves contain lawsone. Plant extract—antibacterial.Extracts of stem,leaf and inflorescence are more effectiveas compared with the seed and rootextract.Ammi majus Linn.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Jammu andHimachal Pradesh.English ◮ Biship’s Weed-Amee,Greater Ammi.Unani ◮ Itarilaal, Khalah.Action ◮ Source of xanthotoxin,a drug employed in the treatment ofleucoderma. Dried fruit powder orextractoftheplantisusedtopicallyin vitiligo.The fruits contain ammoidin (xanthotoxin),ammidin (imperatorin) andmajudin (bergapten). All the threecompounds are used in leucoderma.Maximum xanthotoxin content (1%) isfound in green fruits from Jammu.The 8-MOP, methoxypsoralen constituentof the weed is one of the firstagents used along with UVA radiationto treat psoriasis. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)Ammi visnaga (Linn.) LamSynonym ◮ Daucus visnaga Linn.Visnaga daucoides Gaertn.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated as a gardenornamental; runs wild at manyplaces in Jammu region.English ◮ Khella.Folk ◮ Paashaanabhedi (controversial;Bergenia ligulata has been equatedwith the classical Paashaanabheda).Action ◮ Antispasmodic in renalcolic, bronchial asthma, whoopingcough (used by Unani physicians),vasodilator (in angina pectoris).Key application ◮ GermanCommission E approved theherb on 13 March 1986, but due toinformation on potential risks, itsstatus was changed to unapprovedon 15 April 1994.Khella contains khellin (1%), visnagin,khellol glycoside, flavonoids,sterols, volatile oil (0.2%). Khellin andvisnagin exert a powerful antispasmodiceffect on the smaller bronchialmuscles, the coronary arteries and onthe urinary tubules. Khellin providesrelief to asthmatic patients. The drugalso relieves painful spasm of stone inkidney and bladder (no more used forexpelling kidney stones).Khella does not reduce blood pressurein spite of being a vasodilator.Khellin is toxic at 100 mg. (FrancisBrinker.)Khella is used topically for vitiligoand psoriasis. The Khellin constituentis similar to the psoralen nucle-A

44 Amomum aromaticum Roxb.Aus and might be useful as a photosensitizerin patients with psoriasis. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)(Several modern drugs includingamiodarone, nifedipine and cromolynhave been developed from Khella.)Amomum aromaticum Roxb.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ North Bengal and Assam.English ◮ Bengal Cardamom,Cardamom.Ayurvedic ◮ Sthula-elaa (var.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perelam.Folk ◮ Morang-elaaichi.Action ◮ Similar to that of A. subulatum.The seeds yield on essential oil (1.0–1.2%) containing cineole as the principalconstituent.Chinese practitioners avoid the useof cardamom in conditions marked bysymptoms of excessive heat.Amomum subulatum Roxb.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in swampyplaces in Bengal, Sikkim, Assamand Tamil Nadu.English ◮ Greater or Nepal Cardamom.Ayurvedic ◮ Sthula-elaa, Bhadraa,Bhadrailaa, Bahulaa, Prithivikaa,Triputaa, Truti.Unani ◮ Heel Kalaan, QaaquleKubaar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peria Elam, KattuElam, Beraelam.Action ◮ Stomachic, antiemetic, antibilious,astringent, alexipharmic;used for the treatment of indigestion,biliousness, abdominalpains, vomiting, in congestion ofliver. Pericarp—in headache andstomatitis.The seeds contain a chalcone (cardamonin),a flavonoid (alpinetin), petunidin-3,5-diglucoside and leucocyanidinglucocide; also a aurone glycosidesubulin. The essential oil (2.5%) containscineole.Dosage ◮ Seed–1–3 g powder.(CCRAS.)Amoora cucullata Roxb.Family ◮ Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Coastal forests of WestBengal and Andaman Islands.Folk ◮ Amur, Latmi, Natmi (Bengal).Action ◮ Leaf—anti-inflammatory.Amphicome emodi Lindl.Family ◮ Bignoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalaya fromKashmir to Kumaon at 600–2700 m.Folk ◮ Kaur (Kashmir).Action ◮ Plant—febrifuge; used asa substitute for Swertia chirayita.

Amygdalus persica Linn. 45An iridoid glycoside named amphicosideis reported from the plant.Amorphophallus campanulatus(Roxb.) Blume ex Decne.Family ◮ Araceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical Asia;cultivated throughout India.English ◮ Elephant-foot Yam.Ayurvedic ◮ Suurana, Kanduula,Arshoghna, Kand-ayak, Kandala.Unani ◮ Zamin-qand, Zamikand.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chenaikkizhangu.Kaathukarunai (wild var.)Action ◮ Corm is prescribed inbronchitis, asthma, abdominal pain,emesis, dysentery, enlargement ofspleen, piles, elephantiasis, diseasesdue to vitiated blood, rheumaticswellings.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of corm inprostatic hyperplasia.(Thecormisirritantduetothepresenceof calcium oxalate. It can be consumedafteritiswashedwellandboiledin tamarind water or butter milk.)The corm contains an active diastaticenzyme amylase, betulinic acid,tricontane, lupeol, stigmasterol, betasitosteroland its palmitate and glucose,galactose, rhamnose and xylose.Intake of 3.6-7.2 g of konjac (Amorphophalluskonjac tuber) mannan for90 days reduced the dose of insulin orhypoglycaemic drugs (in human clinicalstudy). (Francis Brinker.)Amorphophallus sylvatius Kunth. isequated with the wild var. of Suurana,used especially in the treatmentof piles.Dosage ◮ Dried corm—2–10 gpowder. (API Vol. III.) 3–5 gpowder. (CCRAS.)Amygdalus communis Linn.Synonym ◮ Prunus amygdalus Baill.A. communis var. dulcis (sweetalmond).A. communis var. amara (bitteralmond).Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Asia Minor andPersia; cultivated in India in coolerparts of Punjab and Kashmir.English ◮ AlmondAyurvedic ◮ Vaataama, Vaataada.Unani ◮ Badaam, Loz.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vaadumai.Action ◮ Sweet almonds—nutrient,nervine tonic, demulcent. Oil—externally for skin. Bitter almonds—not used medicinally.Almondflourandalmondbutterarefree from starch and used in foods fordiabetics and for patients with pepticulcers. Chief protein in kernels is globulin.Amygdalus persica Linn.Synonym ◮ Prunus persica Batsch.Family ◮ Rosaceae.A

46 Anacardium occidentale Linn.AHabitat ◮ Native to China; cultivatedin Himalayan regions; grows intropical and semi-tropical regionsand temperate climates.English ◮ Peach tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Aaruka.Unani ◮ Aaaduu, Khokh.Action ◮ Leaves and bark—expectorant(used in cough, whoopingcough, and chronic bronchitis),sedative, stomachic, demulcent,antiscorbutic, diuretic. Freshleaves—anthelmintic. Powder ofleaves—styptic (externally). Fruit—stomachic, antiscorbutic.Anacardium occidentale Linn.Family ◮ Anacardiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America,from Mexico to Peru and Brazil.Cultivated largely in Malabar,Kerala, Karnataka, Tamil Naduand Andhra Pradesh, and to someextent in Maharashtra, Goa, Orissaand West Bengal.English ◮ Cashew Nut.Unani ◮ Kaaju.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mindiri.Action ◮ Leaves and bark—fungicidal,vermicidal, protozoicidal,antimicrobial (used for toothache,sore gums). Karnel—eaten forits high protein content. Cashewapple—antiscorbutic. Resinousjuice contained in the seeds—usedin cases of mental derangement,memory disturbances, palpitationof heart, rheumatic pericarditis,sexual debility.The nut contains 45% fat and 20%protein. Leaves contain flavonoids,mainly glycosides of quercetin andkaempferol, and hydroxybenzoic acid.The bark contains a balsam-containinganacardic acid, anacardol, cardol andginkgol. The caustic liquid in theshell contains about 39% anacardicacid, a mixture of alkyl salicylic acidderivatives. The leaves are febrifuge.Anacardic acid is bactericidal, fungicidal,vermicidal and protozoicidal. Theleaves and bark exhibited hypotensiveactivity in rats.The phenolics of the cashew-nutshell oil have inhibited the enzymicactivity of alpha-glucosidase, invertaseand aldose reductase (anacardic acidsbeing the most potent). Cardols havealso shown antifilarial activity in vitro.Anacardic acids, cardols and methylcardols have been found to exhibitmoderate cytotoxic activity.Anacyclus pyrethrum DC.Synonym ◮ A. officinarum HayneFamily ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the Mediterraneanregion; cultivated in Algeria.English ◮ Spanish, Pellitory,Pyrethrum Root.Ayurvedic ◮ Aakaarakarabha,Aakallaka, Aakulakrit, Agragraahi.Unani ◮ Aaqarqarhaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Akkiraakaaram.

Anamirta cocculus (Linn.) Wight and Arn. 47Action ◮ Stimulant, cordial, rubefacient.Agargle of infusion is prescribedfor relaxed vulva. Root—used for toothache, rheumatic andneuralgic affections and rhinitis.Roots, along with the root of Withaniasomnifera and Vitis vinifera, areused in epilepsy.Along with other therapeutic applications,Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of the rootin sciatica, paralysis, hemiplegia andamenorrhoea.The root contains anacycline, isobutylamide,inulin and a trace of essentialoil.The local anaesthetic activity of thealcoholic (2%) extract of the root wasfound to be comparable to that of xylocainehydrochloride (2%) in dentalpatients.Use of the drug in patients withinsulin-dependent diabetes mellitusreduces the dose of insulin. It decreasedthe plasma glucose and serumcholesterol levels after oral administrationfor 3–6 weeks. (The plant ismixed with Helleborus nigar in a ratioof 1:3.) The plant extract inhibitedtobacco-induced mutagenesis by 47.5%at a concentration of 1 mg/plate.Dosage ◮ Root—500 mg to 1 gpowder. (CCRAS.)Anagallis arvensis Linn.Family ◮ Primulaceae.Habitat ◮ Northwestern Himalayasfrom Kashmir eastwards to Nepal,hills of West Bengal; Central andsouthern India.English ◮ Bird’s Eye, Bird’s Tongue,Blue Pimpernel, Scarlet Pimpernel.Unani ◮ Anaaghaalis.Folk ◮ Jonkmaari (Maharashtra),Dhabbar (Punjab), Jighanaa,Jenghani.Action ◮ Plant—anti-inflammatory,astringent, deobstructant, antifungal,nematocidal; toxic toleeches.The plant yields anagalligenone B.The presence of quaternary alkaloids,gluco-fructoside and tannin have beenreported. The root yields glycosidicsaponins, including cyclamin. Anacetyl saponin, isolated from the plant,was found to possess marked taenicidalactivity but had no effect on roundworms.A methanolic extract of the aerialparts showed activity against herpessimplex I, adenovirus type II and poliotype II. Triterepene saponins haveoestrogenic activity.Anamirta cocculus(Linn.) Wight and Arn.Synonym ◮ A. paniculata Colebr.Family ◮ Menispermaceae.Habitat ◮ The Khasi Hills, Orissa andpeninsular India.English ◮ Fish Berry, Levant Berry,Poison Berry, Crow Killer.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakaadani, Kaakamaari.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaakkaikkollividai.Action ◮ Insecticide, antifungal;highly valued in skin diseases; usedA

48 Ananas comosus (Linn.) MerrillAexternally to kill lice and otherparasites.The leaves and fruit contain picrotoxin(up to 5%) and alkaloids. Picrotoxin(sesquiterpene glycoside) isa powerful poison and nerve stimulant.It is rarely taken internally. Cocculus(a tincture prepared from the powderedseeds of Cocculus indicus)isusedinternally as a homoeopathic medicinefor convulsions, neurological disordersand psychosis-related fear.Picrotoxin at 20 mg is toxic, andtwo to three berries are lethal. (FrancisBrinker.)Ananas comosus (Linn.) MerrillFamily ◮ Bromeliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South America;cultivated mostly in Tamil Nadu,coastal Andhra Pradesh, Assam,Kerala, Karnataka, West Bengal,Tripura and Orissa.English ◮ Pineapple.Ayurvedic ◮ Anaanaasa, Bahunetra.Unani ◮ Anannaas.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Annanshippazham,Annasi.Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory (freshjuice used as a gargle for sorethroat). A proteolytic enzyme,bromelain, is derived from thestem—anti-inflammatory, smoothmuscle relaxant, digester, inhibitorof blood platelet aggregation. (It isused for cellulitis, post-operativeoedema, sinusitis and for promotingdigestion of proteins.)Key application ◮ Bromelain, theproteolytic enzyme, is used in acutepostoperative and post-traumaticconditions of swellings, especiallyof the nasal and paranasal sinuses.(German Commission E.)InEurope,a patented tape that containsbromelain is used for debridingescharotic skin. (Internally,bromelain’s bioavailability has beenquestioned.)Anaphalis neelgerriana DC.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The Nilgiri Hills at 2,100–2,500 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Raktaskandana.Folk ◮ Kaatplaaster (Nilgiri hills).Action ◮ Antiseptic. Fresh leaves arebruised and applied to wounds andcuts as plaster.An acyl flavonoid glycoside, anaphaloside,along with isoquercitrin andastragalin, has been isolated from theflowers of a related sp. Anaphalis contorta,used as an antibacterial and styptic.Anastatica hierochuntica Linn.Family ◮ Cruciferae.Habitat ◮ Arabia,Palestine,Syria.English ◮ Jericho Rose.Unani ◮ Kafemariyam, Kafe-aaishaa.Folk ◮ Garbha-phool.Action ◮ Used in difficult labour.

Andrographis panicultata Wall. ex Nees 49Anchusa italica Retz.Synonym ◮ A. azurea Mill.Family ◮ Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ Indian gardens, and hills.English ◮ Cow’s Tongue Plant.Ayurvedic ◮ Gojihvikaa (consideredas a vegetable, equated with Launaeaasplenifolia Hook. f., Compositae,Asteraceae.) Unani Gaozabaan isa different drug.Unani ◮ Gaozabaan. (Now equatedwith species of Boraginaceae,particularly Borago officinalis Linn.Imported Unani drug Gaozabaanconsists of the leaves and nutlets ofAnchusa strigosa Labill and Echiumamoenum Fisch. and Mey.)Action ◮ Stimulant, tonic, demulcent;used in bilious complaints, fever,cough, asthma; as diuretic inbladder and kidney stones. Oil—arich source of vitamin E (0.72%),more than that of wheat-germ oil(0.18%). The nutlets show positivetests for alkaloids and tannins. Theflowers yield anthocyanins and theleafy stems yield bornesitol.Andrographis echioides NeesFamily ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Warmer parts of India.Folk ◮ Ranchimani (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Febrifuge, diuretic.The plant contains a flavone, echiodinin,and its glucoside, echioidin.EtOH (50%) extract of the plant exhibiteddiuretic activity in animal studies.Andrographis panicultataWall. ex NeesFamily ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, fromHimachal Pradesh to Assam andMizoram, and all over southernIndia.English ◮ Creat.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaalmegha, Bhuunimba,Bhuuminimbaka, Vishwambharaa,Yavtikta, Kalpanaatha, Kiraata-tikta(var.).Unani ◮ Kiryaat.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nilavembu.Action ◮ Hepatoprotective, cholinergic,antispasmodic, stomachic,anthelmintic, alterative, bloodpurifier, febrifuge. It acts well onthe liver, promoting secretion ofbile. Used in jaundice and torpidliver, flatulence and diarrhoea ofchildren, colic, strangulation ofintestines and splenomegaly; alsofor cold and upper respiratory tractinfections.Key application ◮ As bitter tonic,febrifuge and hepatoprotective.(Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)Kaalmegha, officinal in IP, consistsof dried leaves and tender shoots,which yield not less than 1% andrographolideon dry-weight basis.Several active constituents have beenidentified from the leaf and rhizome,including andrographolide, deoxyandrographolideand other diterpenes.Andrographolide exhibited strongcholeretic action when administeredi.p. to rats. It induces increase in bileA

50 Andropogon muricatus Retz.Aflow together with change in physicalproperties of bile secretion. It wasfound to be more potent than silymarin.Andrographolide was found to bealmost devoid of antihepatitis-B virussurface antigen-like activity (whencompared with picroliv.)The leaf and stem extracts of Kaalmegha/andrographolidegiven s.c. ororally did not change blood sugar levelof normal or diabetic rats.Alcoholic extract of the plant exhibitedantidiarrhoeal activity againstE. coli enterotoxins in animal models.Clinical evidence of effectiveness ofandrographis in humans is limited tothe common cold. Preliminary evidencesuggests that it might increaseantibody activity and phagocytosis bymacrophages, and might have mastcell-stabilizing and antiallergy activity.(Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)The herb is contraindicated in bleedingdisorders, hypotension, as well asmale and female sterility (exhibited infertilityin laboratory animals).Dosage ◮ Whole plant—5–10 mljuice; 50–100 ml decotion; 1–3 gpowder. (CCRAS.)Andropogon muricatus Retz.Synonym ◮ Vetiveria zizanioides(Linn.) Nash.Family ◮ Poaceae.Habitat ◮ All over India.English ◮ Vetiver, Cuscus.Ayurvedic ◮ Ushira.Unani ◮ Khas.Siddha ◮ Vettiveru.Action ◮ Roots—refrigerant,febrifuge, diaphoretic, stimulant,stomachic and emmenagogue;used in strangury, colic, flatulence,obstinate vomiting; paste used asa cooling application in fevers.Major constituents of the essentialoil are vetiselinenol and khusimol. Severalsesquiterpenoids, including vetidiol,are also present. The two types ofoils, laevorotatory and dextrorotatory,from northern India and southern India,respectively, are biochemically different.Andropogon sp.: see Cymbopogonsp.Anemone obtusiloba D. DonSynonym ◮ A. pulsatilla Linn.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; thrivesin dry grassland in central andnorthern parts of the continent.English ◮ Wind-Flower, WoodAnemone, Pasque Flower, Pulsatilla.Unani ◮ Gul-laalaa, Shaqaaq-un-Nomaan.Action ◮ Nervine and sedative(used for anxiety neurosis, nervousexhaustion, tension, headache,migraine, insomnia), antispasmodic(in catarrh); used for amenorrhoea,inflammation of ovaries, painfulmenstruation and genito-urinaryinfections. The rootstock is givenwith milk for concussions. The

Angelica archangelica Linn. var. himalaica (C.B.Clarke)KrishnaandBadhwar 51seeds cause vomiting and purging.The seed oil is used in rheumatism.Pulsatilla contains ranunculin,which hydrolyzes to a toxic, unstablecompound protoanemonin, whichreadily dimerizes to non-toxic anemonin.Anemonin and protoanemonin exhibitsedative and antipyretic activity.Protoanemonin is also antimicrobial.(Topically, Pulsatilla is used for infectiousdiseases of the skin.)Anethum sowa Roxb. ex Flem.Synonym ◮ A. graveolens Linn. var.sowa Roxb.A. graveolens DC.Peucedanum sowa Roxb.Peucedanum graveolens Benth.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated all over India.English ◮ Indian Dill, Sowa.Ayurvedic ◮ Shataahvaa. Shatapushpaa(also accepted as Foeniculumvulgare Mill., equated withMishreya, Mishi, Madhurikaa).Unani ◮ Shibt, Soyaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sadakuppai.Action ◮ Carminative, stomachic,antispasmodic.Key application ◮ In dyspepsia.(German Commission E.)The fresh and dried leaf is used forprevention and treatment of diseasesand disorders of the gastrointestinaltract, kidney and urinary tract, forspasms and sleep disorders. (Includedamong unapproved herbs by GermanCommission E.)An aqueous dill extract, administeredintravenously, lowers blood pressure,dilates blood vessels, stimulatesrespiration and slows heart rate in animals.(Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Dill seeds contain up to 5% volatileoil (about half of which is carvone),flavonoids, coumarins, xanthones andtriterpenes. The yield of the oil fromIndian A. sowa varies from 1.3 to 3.5%.Carvone is the major constituent (19.5–69.7%).Theoilfromseedsisusedforflatulence in children and enters intothe preparations of gripe water. The oilis also antimicrobial and antifungal.Dill apiol is considered undesirableand toxic. Vizag fruit var. fromAndhra Pradesh is dill-apiol-free andwith 54–56%, carvone content havingsame flavonoid pattern as A. sowa.Dosage ◮ Dried fruit—3–6 g powder.(API Vol. III.) Fruit, leaf—1–3 gpowder. (CCRAS.)Angelica archangelica Linn. var.himalaica (C.B.Clarke)Krishnaand BadhwarFamily ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Syria; now grownin Kashmir at 1,000–3,900 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Chandaa, Chandaamshuka,Kathachoraa.Action ◮ Expectorant, carminative,digestant, cholagogue, antispasmodic,diaphoretic, diuretic,anti-inflammatory, smooth musclerelaxant, antifungal, antibacterial.A

52 Angelica glauca Edgew.AKey application ◮ In flatulence andpeptic discomforts. The rootis a component in numerousgastrointestinal, cholagogue andbiliary remedies in Germany.(Angelica root is an approved herb,whereas the seed and above-groundparts have been included amongunapproved herbs by GermanCommission E.)Chinese angelica root, Dong Quai,is equated with Angelica sinensis. Itis prescribed internally for menstrualirregularity, lack of menstruation andpainful menstruation.The roots from Kashmir yield furocoumarins,phenol compounds andflavonoids.Xanthotoxol exhibited antihistaminticand antinicotinic activities onguinea-pig ileum. The dry extract hasbeen shown to have anti-inflammatoryactivity.The root is reported to inhibit bacterialand fungal growth.Furocoumarins, especially psoralenand 8-methoxypsoralen, are used inthe photochemotherapy of psoriasisand vitiligo. The biological activityis due to covalent linkage formedwith DNA by irradiation with longwavelengthUV light.Most of the coumarins have shownsignificant calcium antagonistic activityin vitro.Angelicin, a resin, is stimulating tothe lungs and skin. contraindicated inbleeding disorders, peptic ulcers andpregnancy. (Sharon M. Herr.)Dosage ◮ Root—1–3 g powder.(CCRAS.)Angelica glauca Edgew.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir and Chamba inHimachal Pradesh, between 1,800–3,700 m.English ◮ Angelica.Ayurvedic ◮ Choraka, Chorakaa,Kopanaa, Chorakaakhya,Nishaachara, Dhanhar, Taskara,Kshemaka.Action ◮ Root—cordial and stimulant,carminative (used in constipation),expectorant, diaphoretic.The root contains furocoumarins,also dimeric, lingusticum lactone.Dosage ◮ Root—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Anisochilus carnosus Wall.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ The western Himalayas,Central and southern India.Folk ◮ Karpuravalli (southernregion).Action ◮ Stimulant, expectorant anddiaphoretic. Juice of fresh leaves isused in urticaria and other allergicconditions; a domestic remedy forcoughs and cold. Alcoholic extractof the whole plant—antibacterial.Essential oil—antitubercular.The oil exhibits antihistaminic propertyin vitro on smooth muscles of theuterus and the intestines. It also possessesmuscle-relaxant action; bactericidaland fungicidal properties. The

Annona squamosa Linn. 53leaves contain glucosides of luteolinand apigenin.Anisomeles malabarica(Linn.) R. Br. ex SimsFamily ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ The western Ghats fromMaharashtra to Karnataka; AndhraPradesh, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.English ◮ Malabar Catmint.Ayurvedic ◮ Sprikkaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Irattaipeyameratti.Action ◮ Antispasmodic (usedin dyspepsia, colic), antipyretic,diaphoretic, antiperiodic, emmenagogue,antirheumatic. The oil isused externally as an embrocationin rheumatic arthritis.The plant contains beta-sitosterol,letulinic acid, ovatodiolide and anisomelicacid. The essential oil fromtops and flowers yield a terpene hydrocarbon,citral and geranic acid.Annona reticulata Linn.Family ◮ Annonaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the West Indies.Cultivated in Bengal, Assam, KhasiHills and southern India.English ◮ Bullock’s Heart, CommonCustard Apple.Ayurvedic ◮ Raamphala.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aninuna.Folk ◮ Luvuni.Action ◮ Leaves—insecticide, anthelmintic,styptic, externally usedas suppurant. Unripe and driedfruit—antidysenteric. Bark—powerful astringent, used asantidysenteric and vermifuge.Rootbark,leavesandstemsgaveisoquinolinealkaloids. Two acetogenins,annoreticuin and isoannoreticuin, isolatedfrom the leaves, were found to beselectively cytotoxic to certain humantumours.The leaves and stems also gave alkaloids—dopamine,salsolinol and coclaurine.Annona reticulata, Annona muricata,Annona squamosa and Annonacherimola are known as Raamphala,Lakshman-phala, Sitaa-phala andHanumaan-phala, respectively.Annona squamosa Linn.Family ◮ Annonaceae.Habitat ◮ A native to South Americaand the West Indies; now cultivatedthroughout India.English ◮ Custard Apple, SugarApple, Sweet-sop.Ayurvedic ◮ Gandagaatra, Sitaaphala (also equated with Curcurbitamaxima).Unani ◮ Sharifaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sitaaphalam, Atta.Action ◮ Leaves—insecticide (seedpowder, mixed with leaf juice isused for removing lice from scalp).Seeds—abortifacient. Root—purgative, used in blood dysentery.A

54 Anogeissus latifolia Wall. ex Bedd.AFruit—invigorating, sedative toheart, antibilious, antiemetic,expectorant. Dried, powderedunripe fruits—used for treatingulcers. Ripe fruit made into pastewithbetelleavesisappliedtotumour to hasten suppuration.Leaves, bark, unripe fruit—stronglyastringent; used for diarrhoea anddysentery.A fraction of total alkaloid fromroots exhibits antihypertensive, antispasmodic,antihistaminic and bronchodilatoryproperties. Leaves containa cardiotonic alkaloid, quinoline.Squamone and bullatacinone were selectivelycytotoxic to human breast carcinoma.In Cuban medicine, leaves are takento reduce uric acid levels.Anogeissus latifoliaWall. ex Bedd.Family ◮ Combretaceae.Habitat ◮ Central and southern India.English ◮ Axle-wood, Button tree,Ghatti tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Dhava, Dhurandhara,Shakataahya. Indravrksha(A. acuminata Wall. ex Bedd. isa related sp. of Dhava).Unani ◮ Dhaawaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellaynaga.Folk ◮ Ghatti (Gum).Action ◮ Astringent, cooling, usedin diarrhoea, dysentery, ulcers,piles, urinary disorders and dysuria.Gum—used as a tonic after delivery.The leaves, bark and heartwoodyield quinic and shikmik acids; leavescontain gallotannin (90–95% of thetannins). The young leaves and shootscontain 50% tannins (dry basis). Thebark contains 12–18% tannins. Heartwoodcontains gallic acid, ellagic acid,its derivatives, quercetin and myricetin.Thegumismainlythecalciumsaltof a complex, high molecular weightpolysaccharic acid (ghattic acid). Thegum is a substitute for Gum arabic.Anthemis nobilis Linn.Synonym ◮ Chamaemelum nobile (L.)Allioni.Family ◮ Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate regions ofthe Himalayas. Wild at severalplaces.English ◮ Roman Chamomile, DoubleChamomile.Unani ◮ Gul-e-Baabuuna.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shimai chamantipu.Action ◮ Mild sedative, anticonvulsant,antispasmodic, antiinflammatory,mild analgesic;used externally for skin disorders,poultice of flowers in sprains andrheumatism.Key application ◮ Used mainlyin France for mild spasmodicgastrointestinal disturbances andsluggishness of bowels, also fornervousness. (PDR.) (GermanChamomile has been includedby German Commission E amongapproved herbs, whereas Roman

Antiaris toxicaria Lesch. 55chamomile remains unapproveddue to lack of clinical evidence.)The British Herbal Pharmacopoeiarecognizes antispasmodic activityof Anthemis nobilis.The flower heads contain volatileoil (including azulenes and bisabolol);sesquiterpene lactone (nobilin); flavonoids,cyanogenic glycoside, bitter glucoside(anthemic acid); acetylenic salicylicderivatives, coumarins (includingscopolin), valerianic acid; tannins.Azulenes and bisabolol are antiinflammatoryand antispasmodic, reducinghistamine-induced reactions,including hay fever and asthma. Flavonoids,especially anthemidin, are alsoantispasmodic. Valerianic acid andcyanogenic glycosides are sedative.Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.Synonym ◮ A. indicus A. Rich.A. chinensis (Lam.) A. Rich. exWalp.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, Bengal, southwardsto Andhra Pradesh and westernGhats.English ◮ Kadam.Ayurvedic ◮ Kadamba, Priyaka,Vrtta-pushpa, Nipa, Halipriya.Kadambaka is equated with Adinacordifolia.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Venkadambu, VellaiKadambam.Action ◮ Stembark—febrifugal,antidiuretic, anthelmintic, hypoglycaemic.Fruit—cooling; anticatarrhal,blood purifier, analgesic.Flowers and root—abortifacient.Leaves—astringent. A decoction isused for gargling in stomatitis andaphthae.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of dried stembarkin disorders of female genital tractand bleeding disorders.The dried bark contains alkaloids,steroids, reducing sugars and also tannins(4.61%). The ether-soluble alkaloidof the bark shows antibacterial activity.Dosage ◮ Stembark—0.5–1.5 gpowder. (API Vol. II.)Antiaris toxicaria Lesch.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats fromKonkan southwards to Trivandrum,up to 600 m.English ◮ Sacking tree, Upas tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Valkala vrksha.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aranthelli, Mara-uri,Nettavil.Folk ◮ Jangali Lakuch, Jasund,Chaandakudaa.Action ◮ Seed—febrifuge, antidysenteric(in minute doses). Latex—circulatory stimulant (in minutedoses.)The latex contains a series of poisonouscardenolides, of which alphaand/orbeta-antiarin are the main components.The total amount of crystallinecardiac glycosides in the latexA

56 Aphanamixis polystachya (Wall.) Parker.Aranges from 0.1 to 2.5%; alpha-antiarinfrom 0.0 to 1.38% and beta-antiarinfrom 0.075 to 1.44%. Antiarins are saidto act on the heart more powerfullythan digitalin. Beta-antiarin is morepotent than alpha-antiarin.Latex, in small quantities, is a mildcardiac and circulatory stimulant,whereas in large quantities it acts asa myocardial poison. It stimulates intestinaland uterine contractions.As many as 34 Kedde-positive substanceswere reported in the seed samplefromIndonesia.Thelatexsampleshowed the presence of 29 Keddepositivesubstances.Aphanamixis polystachya(Wall.) Parker.Synonym ◮ Amoora rohituka W. andA.Family ◮ Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayas tracts,Sikkim, Assam, Bengal, westernGhats and the Andamans.Ayurvedic ◮ Rohitaka, Daadimachhada,Daadima-pushpaka,Plihaghna. Tecoma undulata G.Don., Bignoniaceae, is also equatedwith Rohitaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Malampuluvan.Action ◮ Bark—strongly astringent,used in the diseases of the liver andspleen, and for tumours, enlargedglands. Seed oil—used in muscularpains and rheumatism. All partsof the plant exhibit pesticidalactivity. Seed extract—antibacterial,antifungal.An aqueous extract of the bark,when injected i.p. in normal guineapigs, showed reduction in absolutelymphocyte count and an increase inspleen weight. The bark appears to bean effective immunosuppressive drugsimilar to prednisolone.The stembark contains a limonoid,ammorinin and a saponin, poriferasterol-3-rhamnoside.Apium graveolens Linn.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; cultivatedin northwestern Himalayas and inhills of Uttar Pradesh, HimachalPradesh and southern India.English ◮ Celery.Ayurvedic ◮ Ajmodaa, Ajmoda,Ajmodikaa, Dipyaka.Unani ◮ Karafs.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Celery-keerai.Folk ◮ Ajmodaa.Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory (used inrheumatic disorders, inflammationof the urinary tract), diuretic,carminative, nervine, sedative,antiemetic, antispasmodic, antiseptic(used in bronchitis, asthma, aswell as liver and spleen diseases),emmenagogue. Essential oil fromseeds—tranquilizer, anticonvulsant,antifungal. Seeds are used in thetreatment of chronic skin disordersincluding psoriasis.Key application ◮ As diuretic. (TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)

Aquilaria agallocha Roxb. 57Celery yields an essential oil (3%),major constituent being d-limonene(50%) and phathalides and beta-selinene;coumarins, furanocoumarins(bergapten); flavonoids (apiin and apigenin).Alkaloid fraction of seedsshowed tranquilizing activity in animals.The phthalides are sedative inmice and exhibit antiepileptic activityin rats and mice. The aqueous extractof the celery has been shown toreduce adjuvant-induced arthritis inrats, and to be hypotensive in patientsas well as animals. The tincture of theplant exhibits drop in blood pressureaccompaniedbyanincreaseinurineoutput.Apium leptophyllum(Pers.) F. Muell. ex Benth.Family ◮ Umbelliferae.Habitat ◮ Native to America; cultivatedin Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka.Ayurvedic ◮ Ajmodaa, Dipyaka.Unani ◮ Ajmod, Karafs-e-Hindi.Siddha ◮ Omam.Action ◮ See Apium graveolens.The essential oil contains Meethersof thymol, carvacrol and thymoquinol;used as a carminative. The oil showsstrong antifungal activity against Candidaalbicans, and moderate activityagainst Gram-positive and Gramnegativebacteria.Dosage ◮ Dried fruit—3–6 g powder.(API Vol. II.)Aquilaria agallocha Roxb.Synonym ◮ A. malaccensis Lamk.Family ◮ Thymelaceae.Habitat ◮ The hills of Assam,Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur andTripura.English ◮ Aloewood, Eaglewood,Agarwood.Ayurvedic ◮ Aguru, Krimij, Krishnaaguru,Jongaka, Maaliyaka, Loha,Kaalaloha, Asitaka.Unani ◮ Ood-ul Hindi, Ood Gharqi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Akil kattai, Agil.Action ◮ Heartwood—astringent,carminative, antiasthmatic, antidiarrhoeal,antidysenteric; used ingout, rheumatism and paralysis; asa stimulant in sexual debility; asa liniment in skin diseases.The agarwood or eaglewood of commerceis derived from the fungusinfectedtree through wounds causedby the species of Aspergillus, Fusarium,Penicillium, and also by some of FungiImperfecti. Agarwood on distillationyields an essential oil, known as AgarOil.The essential oil yields a numberof agarofurans, sesquiterpene alcoholsand spirosesquiterpene alcohols.The stemwood yields sesquiterpenoids—gmelofuranand agarol; alsoa coumarinolignan—aquillochin.(Agar is a different drug—extract ofa seaweed, Gelidium Amansii, usedasa mild laxative.)Dosage ◮ Heartwood—1–3 g powder.(API Vol. IV.)A

58 Arachis hypogaea Linn.AArachis hypogaea Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; FabaceaeHabitat ◮ Native to Brazil, but widelygrown for its pods in southernIndia, Maharashtra and Gujarat.English ◮ Groundnut, Peanut,Monkeynut.Ayurvedic ◮ Mandapi, Tailamudga,Bhuumimudga.Unani ◮ Moongphali.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nelakadalai,Verkadalai.Action ◮ Kernels—contain proteaseinhibitors. Peanut skin—haemostatic.There is a haemostatic principle inthe peanut flour, which is said to improvethe condition of haemophiliacs.The protease inhibitor acts on the fibrinolyticsystem, primarily as an antiplasmin.It is reported to form complexesnot only with the enzymes, butalso with the corresponding zymogens.The peanut (red) skin contains bioflavonoids,which possess vitamin–P activity; tannins; a lipoxidase andaproteaseinhibitor. Capricacid,obtainedfrom the (red) skin, showedantifungal activity against Aspergillusniger.Aralia binnatifida (Seem.) Clarke.Synonym ◮ A. pseudo-ginseng Wall.ssp. himalaicus Hara.Family ◮ Araliaceae.Habitat ◮ Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan,Khasi Hills.Folk ◮ Taapamaari (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Stimulant, aphrodisiac,antipyretic, dyspeptic, expectorant.Arctium lappa Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to northern Europe;now found in western Himalayas,Kashmir and Simla.English ◮ Common or Great Burdock.Folk ◮ Phaggarmuul (Kashmir).Action ◮ Hypoglycaemic (plantextract caused reduction of bloodsugarwithanincreaseincarbohydratetolerance). Roots—inhibitoryof tumour growth, cardiac stimulant,diuretic, spasmolytic. Leavesand seeds—anticutaneous (used inpsoriasis, seborrhoic eczema).Key application ◮ As dermatologicalagent. (The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)Important constituents of Burdockroots are fatty acids, organic acids, phenolicacids, lignans, sesquiterpenes,tannin, inulin and mucilage.Extracts of the fruit are reported tohave hypoglycaemic activity in rats.Arctigenin (lignan) is a weak inhibitorof experimental tumour growth. Theantimicrobial properties are due topolyacetylenes (of the root). The rootexhibits antibiotic activity againstStaphylococcus, and is used for fungaland bacterial infections. A flavonoid,arctiin, shows smooth muscle relaxantproperties.

Areca catechu Linn. 59Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Spreng.Family ◮ Ericaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to North America,Europe and Asia.English ◮ Bearberry.Unani ◮ Inbud-dub, Angur-e-khiras,Reechh Daakh.Action ◮ Astringent, dirutic; used forurinary tract infections, dysuria,cystitis, urethritis, pyelitis.The leaves gave 0.8–1% of a flavanolglucoside, isoquercitin, arbutin andmethyl arbutin. Total arbutin contentvaries from 7.5 to 10.7%; tannins 15to 20%. Arbutin hydrolyses to hydroquinone,a urinary antiseptic.Arbutin is antimicrobial, but thecrude extract of uva-ursi is more effectivethan isolated arbutin. In rats, uvaursishowed anti-inflammatory activityagainst experimentally induced inflammation.(Natural Medicines comprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Areca catechu Linn.Family ◮ Palmae; Arecaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Malaysia; nowgrown along the coasts of Karnataka,Kerala, Tamil Nadu, West Bengal,Assam and Maharashtra.English ◮ Arecanut, Betel Nut.Ayurvedic ◮ Puuga, Puugi, Kramuka,Ghontaa, Guwaak, Ghorant.Unani ◮ Fufal, Chhaalia, Supaari.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kottai Paakku,Kamugu.Action ◮ Taeniacide (confined toveterinary medicine), astringent,stimulant.Along with other therapeutic application,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of dried ripeseed in leucorrhoea and vaginal laxity.Arecanut contains several alkaloidsbelonging to pyridine group, the mostimportant being arecoline (0.1–0.5%).Arecaidine, guvacine and isoguvacineare also present. Arecoline is anthelmintic(in animals, not in humans).Arecaidine has no parasympathomimeticeffects, but only stimulatingproperties; sedative in higher doses.Isoguvacine produces hypotension.Contraindicated in asthma due tobronchoconstrictive effects of the alkaloidarecoline (human case reports).(Francis Brinker.)Arecanut tannins (8.0–18.0%) arepredominantly catechol tannins whichclosely resemble Mimosa bark tannins.Powdered nuts are prescribed indiarrhoea and urinary disorders. Incombination with other astringent andstypticherbs,arecanutisusedasamajorconstituent in confections of Indianmedicine for gynaecological disorders.Aqueous extract of the nut exhibitsdirect vasoconstriction and adrenalinepotentiation in rats. Antimicrobialactivity is due to polyphenolic fraction.Tannins potentiated the action ofacetylcholine in ileum and uterus of ratand noradrenaline on seminal vesicleat low concentration.Due to increased incidence of oralcancer associated with betel chewing,the use of arecanut as a masticatory isbeing discouraged.A

60 Argemone mexicana Linn.ASeeds are toxic at 8–10 g, fluid extractat 3.7 ml; and arecoline hydrobromideat 4.3–6.5 mg. (Francis Brinker.)Dosage ◮ Dried ripe fruit—1–2 gpowder. (API Vol. I.)Argemone mexicana Linn.Family ◮ Papaveraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to America;naturalized throughout India.English ◮ Prickly Poppy, MexicanPoppy.Ayurvedic ◮ Katuparni, Svarnkshiri,Kaanchan-kshiri, Pitadugdhaa.Hemaahvaa, Himaavati, Hemavati.(Not to be equated with Brahmadandi—Tricholepisglaberrima.)Unani ◮ Satyaanaashi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Piramathandu,Kudiyotti.Action ◮ Seed—responsible forepidemic dropsy. Causes diarrhoeaand induces toxicity. Oil, leafjuice and root—used externally forindolent ulcers and skin diseases.The herb contains isoquinoline alkaloids.The fresh latex contains proteindissolvingconstituents and is used externallyto treat warts, tumours andcancer. Latex contains alkaloid berberine(0.74%), protopine (0.36%) and freeamino acids. Sanguinarine is the toxicfactor in seeds.Argyreia speciosa Sweet.Synonym ◮ A. nervosa (Burm. f.) Boj.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Found all over India,ascending to 300 m.English ◮ Elephant Creeper.Ayurvedic ◮ Vriddhadaaruka,Vriddhadaaru, Vriddhadaaraka,Bastaantri, Sthavira, Sthaviradaaru,Atarunadaaru, Samudrashosha.(Seeds of Salvia plebeia R. Br. arealso known as Samudrashosha.)Unani ◮ Samunder sokh.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ambgar, SamuddirapacchaiFolk ◮ Bidhaaraa.Action ◮ Root—aphrodisiac (consideredas a rejuvenator), nervine(used in diseases of nervous system,sexual disorders), diuretic(used in strangury), antirheumatic.Seeds—hypotensive, spasmolytic.Leaves—used externally in skindiseases (ringworm, eczema, boils,swellings); rubefacient, topicallystimulant.The seeds contain hallucinogenicergoline alkaloids, the main ones beingergine and isoergine. EtOH (50%)extract of seeds exhibits hypotensiveactivity. (Seeds of all species of Argyreiacontain ergoline alkaloids andare hypotensive.) Leaves of Argyreiasp. contain sitosterol and are antiphlogistic.In Indian medicine, A. speciosa isnot used as a single drug for sexualdisorders in men, but as a supportingdrugforexertingitsantiphlogistic,spasmolytic and hypotensive actionson the central nervous system. The

Aristolochia indica Linn. 61drug, in itself, did not show anaboliccum-androgen-likeor spermogeneticactivity experimentally.Ipomoea petaloidea Chois and Ipomoeabiloba Forsk of the Convolvulacaefamily are also used as Vriddhadaaru.In Western herbal medicine, HawaiianBaby Woodrose is equated withArgyreia nervosa (synonym Argyreiaspeciosa; grows in Florida, Californiaand Hawaii). The seed is used for painrelief and as a hallucinogen.The seeds contain hallucinogens includingergonovine, isoergine (isolysergicacid amide) and ergine (lysergicacid amide). Four to eight seedsare equivalent to 10–100 mcg of LSD,a potent serotonin-1A (5-HT1A) agonist.The effects last 6–8 h. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Dosage ◮ Root—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Aristolochia bracteolata Lam.Synonym ◮ A. bracteata Retz.Family ◮ Aristolochiaceae.Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh, Bengal,Madhya Pradesh and westernpeninsular India.English ◮ Bracteated Birthwort.Ayurvedic ◮ Kitamaari, Dhumrapatraa,Naakuli.Unani ◮ Kiraamaar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aadutheendaappaalai,Kattusuragam.Action ◮ Oxytocic, abortifacient,emmenagogue.Leaves and fruit contain ceryl alcohol,aristolochic acid and beta-sitosterol.Aristolochic acid is insecticidal,poisonous, nephrotoxic. Leaf juice—vermifuge. Seeds—strong purgative.Products containing aristolochic acidare banned in the U.S., Canada, GreatBritain, European countries andJapan.The seed compounds, aristolochicacid and magnoflorine, induce contractionsin the isolated uterus of pregnantrat and stimulate the isolatedileum of guinea pig. They also activatethe muscarinic and serotonergicreceptors in a variety of organs.Magnoflorine decreases arterial bloodpressure in rabbits, and induces hypothermiain mice.See also A. longa.Aristolochia indica Linn.Family ◮ Aristolochiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the country,mainly in the plains and lower hillyregions.English ◮ The Indian Birthwort.Ayurvedic ◮ Ishvari, Gandhnaakuli,Naagadamani, Arkamuula.Unani ◮ Zaraavand-Hindi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Adagam.Folk ◮ Isarmuula, Isrola.Action ◮ Oxytocic, abortifacient,emmenagogue.Aristolochia sp. contain aristolochicacids and aristolactams.A

62 Aristolochia longa Linn.AAristolochia longa Linn.Family ◮ Aristolochiaceae.English ◮ European Birthwort.Unani ◮ Zaraawand Taweel.Action ◮ Oxytocic, abortifacient,emmenagogue.Aristolochic acid and its Me ester—stronglyabortifacient, showeddamage to liver and kidney. Roots—anti-oestrogenic. A cytotoxic lignan,savinin, has been isolated from theroots.Aristolochic acid also has an effectagainst adenosarcoma and HeLa cellsin culture; however, it is suspected tobe carcinogenic.Aristolochia extracts show a pronouncedenhancement of phagocytosisby leucocytes, granulocytes and peritonealmacrophages, due to the presenceof aristolochic acids.Tardolyt-coated tablets, which contain0.3 mg of aristolochic acid, increasephagocytosis in healthy men.Aristolochic acid also exhibits reductionof some of the toxic effectsof prednisolone, chloramphenicol andtetracycline in experiments in vitro,and a reduction in the rate of recurrentherpes lesions in vivo.Armoracia lapathifolia Gilib.Synonym ◮ A. rusticana Gaertn et al.Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; grownin gardens in northern India and inhill stations of southern India.English ◮ Horseradish.Action ◮ Circulatory stimulant,diaphoretic, diuretic, antibiotic.Used for both urinary and respiratorytract infections. Root—liver,spleen and pancreatic stimulant;an alternative to Cayenne pepper;urinary antiseptic; diuretic; usedin the treatment of gout, increasesexcretion of uric acid; also forproteinura and vaginal discharges.An infusion is used for hepatitis.Key application ◮ In catarrhs of therespiratory tract and as a supportivetherapy for infections of the urinarytract; externally for catarrhs of therespiratory tract and hyperaemictreatment of minor muscle aches.(German Commission E.) Itiscontraindicated in stomach andintestinal ulcers and kidneydisorders; not to be administered tochildren under 4 years.The root contains glucosinolates,mainly sinigrin, which releases allylisothiocyanate on contact with the enzymemyrosin during crushing. Theoil exhibits broad-spectrum antibioticactivity due to allyl isothiocyanatesand allied compounds; used internallyas stimulant, sudorific and diuretic.Antibiotic activity is stronger againstGram-positive bacteria than againstGram-negative bacteria. The oil alsoexhibits cytotoxic activity.The root produces an inhibitory effecton the growth of Gram-negativebacteria of the typhoid-paratyphoidentertitisgroup.Kaempferol, a component of Horseradish,inhibits thyroid peroxidase,which is involved in the biosynthe-

Artemisia absinthium Linn. 63sis of thyroid hormone. (Sharon M.Herr.)Arnebia benthamii(Wall. ex G. Don) Johnston.Synonym ◮ Macrotomia benthamii A.DC.Family ◮ Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ The alpine Himalayas fromKashmir to Kumaon, at altitude of3,000–3,900 m, and in Nepal.Folk ◮ Kashmiri Gaozabaan, KashmiriKahzabaan.Action ◮ Stimulant, cardiac tonic,expectorant, diuretic (syrup andjam, used in diseases of the mouthand throat, also in the treatmentof fevers and debility.) The rootspossess antiseptic and antibioticproperties.Artabotrys hexapetalus(Linn. f.) Bhandari.Synonym ◮ A. odoratissimus R. Br.Family ◮ Annonaceae.Habitat ◮ Southern India, largelygrowningardens.Ayurvedic ◮ Panasagandhi, (Harit)Champaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manoranjidam.Folk ◮ Haraa champaa (north),Kathari champaa; Hirvaa champaa(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Cardiacstimulant,uterinestimulant, muscle relaxant.The extract of the pericarp showeda positive ionotropic and chronotropiceffect on all types of experimental animals.The cardiac stimulant and uterinestimulant activity is attributed tothe glycosides, whereas the relaxant actionon plain muscles and hypotensiveeffect, which could be partly cholinergicand partly resulting from vasodilatoryaction, are probably due to thepresence of the volatile oil.The leaves are found to contain anantifertility principle. The root containsan antimalarial agent.Artemisia absinthium Linn.Synonym ◮ Absinthium vulgareGaertn.A. officinale Lam.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir at altitudes of1500–2100 m.English ◮ Wormwood, Maderwood.Unani ◮ Afsanteen, Vilaayati Afsanteen.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Machipatri.Folk ◮ Mastiyaaraa (Punjab), Titween(Kashmir).Action ◮ Choleretic (bile and gastricjuice stimulant), anthelmintic,stomachic, carminative, antispasmodic,anti-inflammatory, emmenagogue,mild antidepressant; usedin chronic fevers.Key application ◮ In loss of appetite,dyspepsia, biliary dyskinesia. (GermanCommission E.) Inanorexia,for example, after illness, andA

64 Artemisia maritima Linn.Adyspeptic complaints. (ESCOP.)It is contraindicated in gastricand duodenal ulcers. Excessivedoses may cause vomiting, severediarrhoea, retention of urine ordazed feeling and central nervoussystem disturbances. (ESCOP.)The herb contains a volatile oil ofvariable composition, with alpha- andbeta-thujone as the major component,up to about 35%; sesquiterpenelactones (artabasin, absinthin, anabsinthin);azulenes; flavonoids; phenolicacids;lignans.Thujone is a toxic constituent whichshows hallucinogenic and addictive activityfound in Indian hemp. It stimulatesthe brain; safe in small doses,toxic in excess. The azulenes are antiinflammatory.The sesquiterpene lactonesexhibit an antitumour effect andare insecticidal and anthelmintic.Essential oil from leaves—antibacterial,antifungal. The oil is toxic at10 ml.Artemisia maritima Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The western Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Kumaon.English ◮ Wormseed, Santonica.Ayurvedic ◮ Chauhaara, KirmaaniYavaani, Chuhaari Ajawaayin; notrelated to Ajawaayin.Unani ◮ Dirmanah, Kirmaalaa,Afsanteen-ul-bahar. (DirmanahTurki is equated with A. stechmanianaBesser.)Folk ◮ Kirmaani Ajawaayin,Kirmaani-owaa, Kirmaani-ajmo.Action ◮ Deobstructant, stomachic,anthelmintic (effective againstroundworms), antifungal.A decoction of the fresh plant is givenin cases of intermittent and remittentfever.A. maritima var. thomsoniana C. B.Clarke is a santonin-yielding var.; A.maritima var. fragrans (Willd.) Ledeb.is a non-santonin var.Immature flowerheads and leavescontain santonin. Roots, stems andtwigs are devoid of santonin. Santonin,a sesquiterpene lactone, is usedfor the treatment of ascaris and oxyurisinfections. Large doses (0.3 g is adultsand 0.06 in children) are toxic.Beta-santonin is less anthelmintic inaction than santonin; pseudosantoninis devoid of anthelmintic property.Studies is albino mice revealed thatsantonin had no androgenic, estrogenic,antiestrogenic, progestationaland antiprogestational effects.Santonin is toxic at 60 mg in children;200 mg in adults. (FrancisBrinker.)Dosage ◮ Whole plant—3–6 gpowder. (CCRAS.)Artemisia vestita Wall. ex DC.Family ◮ Compositae, Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas at2,100–3,000 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Gangaa Tulasi.Folk ◮ Kundiyaa, Chamariyaa.

Artocarpus integrifolia Linn. f. 65Action ◮ Leaf—haemostatic. Essentialoil—antibacterial, antifungal (in1:1000 dilution).The major components of the essentialoil from leaves and flowering topsare alpha-terpinene, thujyl alcohol, terpenylacetate, nerol, phellandrene, cineol,neral,thujylacetate,beta-thujoneand artemisol.Related sp., known as Gangaa Tulasi,are Artemisia lacrorum Ledeb. andA. parviflora Wight.Artemisia vulgaris Linn. var.nilagirica Clarke.Synonym ◮Pamp.A. nilagirica (Clarke)Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The hilly regions of India,also in Mount Abu in Rajasthan, inwestern Ghats, and from Konkansouthward to Kerala.English ◮ Indian Wormwood,Fleabane, Dungwort, Mugwort,Wild Wormwood.Ayurvedic ◮ Damanaka, Pushpachaamara,Gandhotkata. (Related sp.:A. siversiana Ehrh. ex Willd.)Unani ◮ Afsanteen-e-Hindi. (NationalFormularly of Unani Medicineclubbed it with Baranjaasif.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maasipattiri.Folk ◮ Daunaa, Damanaa.Action ◮ Leaf—emmenagogue, menstrualregulator, nervine, stomachic(in anorexia and dyspepsia), anthelmintic,choleretic, diaphoretic.An infusion of flower tops is administeredin nervous and spasmodicaffections. The herb is also usedas an antilithic. Oil from leaves—antibacterial, antifungal in 1:1000dilution.Key application ◮ As emmenagogue.(The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The plant yields about 0.34% of anessential oil. Plants at lower altitudehad more percentage of cineol, thujone,thujyl and citral, whereas fromhigher altitude terpenes are in higherpercentage. The highest amount ofcineol was reported to be 30%.The plant is also used as an inferiorsubstitute for cinchona in fevers.Artocarpus integrifolia Linn. f.Synonym ◮ A. heterophyllus Lam.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughout thehotter parts of India.English ◮ Jackfruit, Jack tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Panasa, Kantakiphala,Ativrihatphala, Aamaashayaphala.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Murasabalam.Folk ◮ Katahal, Phanasa.Action ◮ Latex—bacteriolytic,promotes healing of abscesses.Juice of the plant—applied toglandular swellings and abscessesfor promoting suppuration. Root—used for diarrhoea, asthma, skindiseases. Unripe fruit—acrid,astringent. Ripe fruit—cooling,laxative, difficult to digest. Seeds—diuretic. Lactin extraction showedA

66 Artocarpus lacucha Buch.-Ham.Apotent and selective stimulation ofdistinct human T and B cells.The seed extract stimulates the heartand causes a fall in arterial blood pressureof experimental animals pretreatedwith physostigmine. The seeds showequal inhibitory activity against trypsinand chymotrypsin. (The activity is destroyedwhen the seeds are boiled orbaked.)The leaves and stems show presenceof sapogenins, and exhibit estrogenicactivity.An aqueous extract of mature leavesexhibited hypoglycaemic activity inexperimental animals. Leaves containcycloartenone, cycloartenol andbeta-sitosterol. Heartwood containsflavonoids, artocarpesin and norartocarpetinand their structures.Dosage ◮ Fruit—50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Artocarpus lacucha Buch.-Ham.Synonym ◮ A. lakoocha Roxb.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Uttar Pradesh,Bengal, Khasi Hills and westernGhats.English ◮ Monkey Jack.Ayurvedic ◮ Lakuch, Kshudra Panas,Granthiphala, Pitanaasha.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ilangu, Irapala,Ottipilu (Tamil).Folk ◮ Badhar.Action ◮ Bark—when appliedexternally, draws out purulentmatter; heals boils, cracked skinand pimples. Seeds—purgative,haemagglutinating. Stems—vermifuge.The stembark contains oxyresveratrol,used for tapeworm.A lectin, artocarpin, isolated fromseeds, precipitates several galactomannans.It agglutinates rat lymphocytesand mouse ascites cells.Dosage ◮ Fruit—5–10 ml juice.(CCRAS.)Arundo donax Linn.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Mediterraneanregion; found in Kashmir, Assamand the Nilgiris, also grown inhedges.English ◮ Great Reed, Spanish-Bamboo-Reed, Giant-Bamboo-Reed.Ayurvedic ◮ Nala, Potgala, Shuunyamadhya,Dhamana.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Korukkai.Action ◮ Rhizome—sudorific,emollient, diuretic, antilactant,antidropsical; uterine stimulant(stimulates menstrual discharge),hypotensive.The rhizome yields indole-3-alkylaminebases, including bufotenidineand dehydro-bufontenine. The leavesyield sterols and triterpenoids.Bufotenidine possesses antiacetylcholineproperties, histamine release

Asclepias curassavica Linn. 67activity and is a uterine stimulant. Alkaloidsfrom the flowers produced curarimeticeffect of the non-polarizingtype.Dosage ◮ Root—50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)4.5%) with methyl eugenol (an importantconstituent of A. europaeum), andalso aristolochic acid. (Aristolochicacid is carcinogenic and nephrotoxic.)Asarum sp. are not used as a substitutefor ginger.AAsarum europaeum Linn.Family ◮ Aristolochiaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to the northernparts of southern Europe, Centraland East-Central Europe; cultivatedin the United States. A relatedsp., Asarum himalaicum, synonymA. canadense, isreportedfromtheeastern Himalayas.English ◮ Asarbacca, Hazelwort, WildNard.Unani ◮ Asaaroon, Subul-e-Barri,Naardeen-Barri.Folk ◮ Tagar Ganthodaa.Action ◮ Brain and nervine tonic,diuretic, deobstructant and antiinflammatory;used in bronchialspasm and in preparations ofcephalic snuffs.The volatile oil (0.7–4%) consists ofasarone up to 50%, asaraldehyde 2–3%,methyleugenol 15–20%, with bornylacetate, terpenes and sesquiterpenes.Asarone and its beta-isomer is foundto be carcinogenic in animals. The rhizome,inaddition,containscaffeicacidderivatives and flavonoids.A related sp., Asarum canadenseL., indigenous to North America andChina, contains a volatile oil (3.5–Asclepias curassavica Linn.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Naturalized in many partsof India as an ornamental.English ◮ Curassavian Swallow-Wort, West Indian Ipecacuanha,Blood-Flower.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakanaasikaa (substitute).Folk ◮ Kaakatundi (Kashmir).Action ◮ Spasmogenic, cardiotonic,cytotoxic, antihaemorrhagic,styptic, antibacterial. Variousplant parts, as also plant latex,are used against warts and cancer.Root—used as an astringent inpiles. Leaves—juice, antidysenteric,also used against haemorrhages.Flowers—juice, styptic. Alcoholicextract of the plant—cardiotonic.An alcoholic extract of the Indianplant has been reported to containa number of cardenolides, includingcalactin, calotropin, calotropagenin,coroglaucigenin, uzarigenin, asclepin,its glucosides and uzarin. Asclepin, thechief active principle, is spasmogenicand a cardiac tonic, having longer durationof action than digoxin (96 h incat, as opposed to the 72 h of digoxin).Calotropin exhibits cytotoxic activity.

68 Asparagus adscendens Roxb.APleurisy root of the U.S. is equatedwith Asclepias tuberosa. It is usedfor cold, flu and bronchitis in Westernherbal medicine.Toxic principles of the herb includegalitoxin and similar resins, and glucofrugoside(cardenolide). Toxicity isreduced by drying.Asparagus adscendens Roxb.Family ◮ Asparagaceae.Habitat ◮ The western Himalayas andPunjab, from Himachal Pradesh toKumaon, up to 1,500 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Mushali, (white var.),Mahaashataavari. The blackvariety is equated with Taalamuuli,Chlorophytum arundinaceum Baker.Unani ◮ Shaqaaqul-e-Hindi.Action ◮ A substitute for A. officinalis.The root yields asparagin. SapogeninsA and B, isolated from the root,were identified as stigmasterol andsarsasapogenin.Action ◮ Diuretic, laxative, cardiotonic,sedative, galactagogue;used for neuritis and rheumatism,as well as for cystitis and pyelitis.Key application ◮ In irrigationtherapy for inflammatory diseasesof the urinary tract and forprevention of kidney stones.(German Commission E.). It iscontraindicated in kidney diseasesand oedema because of functionalheart.The root contains steroidal glycosides(asparagosides) and bitter glycosides;asparagusic acid and its derivatives;asparagines, arginine and tyrosine;flavonoids, including rutin,kaempferol and quercetrin; polysaccaridesand inulin. Asparagine isa strong diuretic source of folic acidand selenium.A spirostanol glycoside, isolatedfrom the methanolic extract of thefruits, has shown 100% immobilizationof human spermatozoa.Dosage ◮ Root—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Asparagus officinalis Linn.Family ◮ Asparagaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and WestAsia.English ◮ Asparagus, Sparrow grass.Ayurvedic ◮ Shataavari, Vari,Shatviryaa, Shatmuuli, Shatpadi,Bhiru, Naaraayani, Bahusutaa,Atirasaa.Unani ◮ Haliyun.Asparagus racemosus willd.Family ◮ Asparagaceae.Habitat ◮ Foundwildintropicalandsubtropical parts of India, includingthe Andamans and ascending in theHimalayas to 1,500 m.English ◮ Indian asparagus.Ayurvedic ◮ Shataavari, Shatmuuli,Atirasaa, Bahusutaa, Shatpadi,Shatviryaa, Bhiru, Indivari,

Asphodelus fistulosus Linn. 69Vari. (Substitute for Medaa,Mahaamedaa.)Unani ◮ Sataavar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thanneervittankizhangu, Sataavari Kizhangu.Action ◮ Used as a galactagogueand for disorders of femalegenitourinarytract;asastypticandulcer-healing agent; as an intestinaldisinfectant and astringent indiarrhoea; as a nervine tonic, and insexual debility for spermatogenesis.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicates the use of the tuberousroot in gout, puerperal diseases,lactic disorders, haematuria, bleedingdisorders and also recommends it forhyperacidity.The plant contains saponins—shatavarinsI–IV. Shatavarin IV is a glycosideof sarsasapogenin. The saponinin doses of 20–500 mcg/ml producesa special blockade of syntocinon (oxytocin)-inducedcontraction of rat, guinea-pigand rabbit uteri in vitro andin situ. It also blocks the uterine spontaneousmotility.The dried root yields sitosterol; 4,6-dihydroxy-2–O-(2’ hydroxyisobutyl)benzaldehyde and undecanyl cetanoate,and contains a large amount of saccharinematter, mucilage and minerals—Ca(0.172), Cu (0.033), Na (14.60),K (8.32), Mg (0.169), Mn (0.0074),Ni (0.105) and Zn (0.072) mg/g(dryweight).The root was found to reduce gastricemptying time comparable to thatof metoclopramide. (J PostgradMed,1990, 36(2), 91–94).The root extracts exhibited antiallergicactivity in animal studies.The root, when fed orally, actedas immunomodulator against inducedsepsis and peritonitis in rats and mice.Asparagus sarmentosus Linn. hasbeen equated with Mahaa-shataavari.Other related sp. are Asparagus curillusBuch.-Ham., A. filicinus Buch.-Ham.and A. gracilis Royle.Dosage ◮ Dried root—3–6 g powder.(API Vol. IV.)Asphodelus fistulosus Linn.Synonym ◮ A. tenuifolius Cav.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Most parts of the plainsfrom West Bengal westwards toPunjab and Gujarat, as a field weed.English ◮ Asphodel.Unani ◮ Piyaazi, Khunsaa, Asraash.(Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. isequated with Shellot, Gandanaa.)Folk ◮ Bokat.Action ◮ Seeds—diuretic; appliedexternally to ulcer and inflamedparts.Seeds contain an ester, 1-O-17-methylstearylmyoinositol.The seed oilyields myristic, palmitic, oleic, linoleic,linolenic acids, beta-amyrin andbeta-sitosterol. The oil, due to itshigh linolenic content (62.62%), maybe of therapeutic value in preventingatherosclerosis.The mineral elements present in theweed are iron 178.4, zinc 44.5 and copper6.4 ppm. A triterpenoid, lupeoland quercetin are also present.A

70 Aspidopterys indica Hochr.AAspidopterys indica Hochr.Synonym ◮ A. roxburghiana A. Juss.Family ◮ Malpighiaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, Assam,Meghalaya, Orissa and peninsularIndia.Folk ◮ Chuttakulaa-tigaa (Telugu).Action ◮ The extract of aerial parts—hypotensive.Asplenium adiantum-nigrumLinn.Family ◮ Aspleniaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir at 1500–2000 mand extending to Dalhousie andChamba in Himachal Pradesh.English ◮ Black Spleenwort.Folk ◮ Krishna fern.Action ◮ Fond—expectorant, pectoral,emmenagogue. Rhizome—anthelmintic. Plant—bitter, diuretic,laxative, anti-inflammatory. Itis used for diseases of spleen andin jaundice; produces sterility inwomen.The fonds contain aliphatic hydrocarbons,the chief one being hentriacontane,non-acosane and triterpenoidhydrocarbons, mainly of 22 (29)-hopene.Alcohols, sterols and fatty acids arealso reported.Related sp. include: A. laciniatum D.Don (vitamin K3 and phthiocol havebeen isolated for the first time fromthe plant); A. adiantoides (L.) C. Chr.,synonym A. falcatum Lam. (used inthe treatment of enlarged spleen, in incontenenceof urine, in calculus, jaundiceand malaria); A. nidus Linn. synonymThamnopteris nidus (L.) C. Presl.,known as Bird’s Nest Fern (used asa depurative and sedative).Asteracantha longifolia Nees.Synonym ◮ Hygrophila spinosa T.AndersFamily ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Common in moist places,paddy fields, throughout India andSri Lanka.Ayurvedic ◮ Kokilaaksha, Kokilaakshi,Ikshura, Ikshuraka, Kaakekshu,Kshurak, Bhikshu.Unani ◮ Taalmakhaanaa. (Wronglyequated with Euryale ferox Salisb.(Fox Nut) in National Formulary ofUnani Medicine, PartI,firstedn.,1981.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Neermulli, Nerugobbi.Action ◮ Diuretic, used for catarrh ofthe urinary organs, also for dropsywhen accompanied by hepaticobstruction.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the seed in lithiasis;the whole plant and root for gout.Aqueous extract of herb ash—diureticin albino rats. EtOH (50%)—spasmolytic and hypotensive. Theherb exhibits antihepatotoxic activityin dogs. Essential oil from wholeplant—antibacterial.The plant gave lupeol, stigmasteroland hydrocarbons; seed gave sterols;flowers, apigenin glucuronide.

Astragalus hamosus Linn. 71Aqueous extract decreased fastingglucose and improved glucose tolerancein rats. (Sharon M. Herr.)Dosage ◮ Whole plant—3–6 g,powder; dried seed—3–6 g powder;dried root—3–6 g for decoction.(API Vol. II.) Herb ash—1–3 g(CCRAS.)Astragalus candolleanus Royle.Family ◮ Fabaceae; Papilionaceae.Habitat ◮ The western Himalayas.Ayurvedic ◮ Rudanti, Rudravanti.Action ◮ Depurative, bechic, bloodpurifier (used in skin diseases).Root powder and decoction alsoused as an adjunct in tuberculosis.Dosage ◮ Fruit—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Astragalus gummifer Labill.Family ◮ Fabaceae; Papilionaceae.Habitat ◮ Highlands of Asia Minor,Iran, Greece, Syria and Russia.English ◮ Tragacanth Gum.Unani ◮ Katiraa, Kataad (Gum)Action ◮ Demulcent, emollient (usedfor irritation of the internal mucosa,colitis, dry coughs), laxative.Mucilage used as an application toburns.The gum contains polysaccharidesand proteinaceous polysaccharides.Tragacanthin is water-soluble, consistingof an arbinogalactan and tragacanthicacid. Bassorin is an insolublemethylated fraction (gel). The polysaccharideshave been shown to have immunostimulatingactivity (stimulationof phagocytosis and an increase in plasmacell counts of T-lymphocytes.Although tragacanth increasesweight of stool and decreases gastrointestinaltransit time, it does not appearto affect cholesterol triglycerideor phospholipid levels as other solublefibres do. (Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Tragacanth has been shown to beactive against a variety of tumours. Itappears to inhibit growth of cancercells.Astragalus hamosus Linn.Family ◮ Fabaceae; Papilionaceae.Habitat ◮ Found in the plains ofPunjab.English ◮ Tonkin bean, Melilot,King’s crown, King’s clover.Unani ◮ Naakhunaa, Ikil-ul-Malik.(It is also equated with Melilotusalba Desv. and Trigonela uncataBoiss. in National Formulary ofUnani Medicine.)Action ◮ Nervine tonic (used innervous and catarrhal affections),antirheumatic, anti-inflammatory,emollient, diuretic, galactogenic.The callus of the plant containsamino acids; roots contain saponinsand sterols. The leaves yield 3-nitropropionicacid.A

72 Astragalus sarcocola Dymock.AAstragalus sarcocola Dymock.Family ◮ Fabaceae; Papilionaceae.Habitat ◮ The mountainous regionsfrom Asia Minor to Iraq and Iran.English ◮ Sarcocola.Ayurvedic ◮ Rudanti (substitute).Unani ◮ Anzaroot, Kohal Kirmaani(Gum).Action ◮ Gum—antirheumatic,aperient, anthelmintic, emollient.Astragalus strobiliferus Royle.Family ◮ Fabaceae; Papilionaceae.Habitat ◮ The western Himalayas at2,400–3,900 m, and Kashmir.English ◮ Indian Gum tragacanth.Action ◮ Gum—an Indian substitutefor tragacanth (A. gummifer gum).Atalantia monophylla(L.) Correa.Synonym ◮ A. floribunda Wt.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, especiallyin Assam, Meghalaya andAndaman Islands.English ◮ Wild Lime.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Narangam,Kattu Elumichai.Folk ◮ Jungli Nimbu.Action ◮ Oil from leaves and berry—antibacterial, antifungal. Leaves—a decoction is applied to cutaneousaffections. Fruit—juice, antibilious.The rootbark yields alkaloids, atalaphyllineand its N-methyl derivativesand atalaphyllidine, which have closestructural similarities with the antitumouralkaloid, acronycine, and its cogeners.The rootbark also contains thelimonoid, atalantin.The leaf juice forms an ingredient ofa compound liniment used in hemiplegia.The essential oil is used in paralysis.The oil contains higher terpene estersbelonging to azulene group (29%).(Azulenes impart anti-inflammatoryactivity.)Atropa acuminata Royle ex Lindl.Synonym ◮ A. belladonna auct. nonL.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir and HimachalPradesh up to 2,500 m.English ◮ Indian Belladonna, IndianAtropa.Ayurvedic ◮ Suuchi.Unani ◮ Luffaah, Luffaah-Barri,Yabaruj, Shaabiraj.Action ◮ Highly poisonous; sedative,narcotic, anodyne, nervine,antispasmodic (used in paralysis);parkinsonism; encephalitis; carcinoma;spastic dysmenorrhoea;whooping cough, spasmodic asthma;colic of intestines, gall bladderor kidney, spasm of bladder andureters; contraindicated in enlargedprostate.Key application ◮ In spasm andcolic-like pain in the areas of

Avena sativa Linn. 73the gastrointestinal tract and bileducts. (German Commission E, TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) Itis contraindicated in tachycardiacarrhythmias, prostate adenoma,glaucoma, acute oedema of lungs.A. belladonna L. (European sp. Belladonna,Deadly Nightshade) is cultivatedin Kashmir and Himachal Pradesh.The herb contains tropane (tropine)or solanaceous alkaloids (up to 0.6%),including hyoscamine and atropine;flavonoids; coumarins; volatile bases(nicotine).Tropane alkaloids inhibit the parasympatheticnervous system, whichcontrols involuntary bodily activities;reduces saliva, gastric, intestinal andbronchial secretions, and also the activityof urinary tubules. Tropane alkaloidsalso increase the heart rateand dilate the pupils. These alkaloidsare used as an additive to compoundformulations for bronchitis, asthma,whooping cough, gastrointestinal hypermotility,dysmenorrhoea, nocturnalenuresis and fatigue syndrome.Atropine provides relief in parkinsonismand neurovegetative dystonia.The root is the most poisonous, theleaves and flowers less, and the berriesthe least. (Francis Brinker.)Dosage ◮ Leaf, root—30–60 mgpowder. (CCRAS.)Atylosia goensis Dalz.Synonym ◮ A. barbata BakerFamily ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Subtropical tract of Assam,Maharashtra and Kerala, up to1050 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Maashaparni (substitute).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peruvidukol.Action ◮ Febrifuge, antibilious, antirheumatic(used in consumptionand swellings).Atylosia scarabaeoides (L.)Benth.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India; up to1,800 m in the western Himalayas.Ayurvedic ◮ Vana-kulattha.Folk ◮ Jangli Tur, Kulthi.Action ◮ Antidysenteric, anticholerin,febrifuge; also used in anaemia,anasarca and hemiplegia. Seeds—taeniafuge.A flavone glucoside, atyloside, hasbeen isolated from the leaves.Avena sativa Linn.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ A cereal and fodder crop ofEurope and America; also cultivatedin India.English ◮ Oat, Common oat.Ayurvedic ◮ Yavikaa. (Indian sp. isequated with A. byzantina C. Koch.)Unani ◮ Sult (Silt), Jao Birahnaa, JaoGandum.A

74 Averrhoa bilimbi Linn.AAction ◮ Nervine tonic (usedin spermatorrhoea, palpitation,sleeplessness), cardiac tonic (used indebility), stimulant, antispasmodic,thymoleptic, antidepressant (usedin menopausal phase). Also usedin diarrhoea, dysentery, colitis.Externally, emollient.Key application ◮ Oat straw—externally in baths for inflammatoryand seborrhoeic skin diseases.(German Commission E.) Theeffecton blood sugar is less than that frommost of the fiber-containing herbsand foods. (Sharon M. Herr.)The seeds contain proteins and prolamines(avenins); C-glycosyl flavones;avenacosides (spirostanol glycosides);fixed oil, vitamin E, starch.Silicon dioxide (2%) occurs in theleaves and in the straw in soluble formas esters of silicic acid with polyphenolsand monosaccharides and oligosaccharides.Oat straw contains a high content ofiron (39 mg/kg dry weight), manganese(8.5 mg) and zinc (19.2 mg).In an experimental study, oat strawstimulated the release of luteinizinghormone from the adenohypophysis ofrats. (Expanded Commission E Monographs.)An alcoholic extract of green oatswas tried on opium addicts. Six chronicopium addicts gave up opium completely,two reduced their intake andtwoshowednochangefollowingregularuse of 2 ml three times daily (humanclinical study). A significant diminishmentof the number of cigarettes usedby habitual tobacco smokers resultedfrom using 1 ml (four times daily) offresh Avena alcoholic extract of matureplants; however, a few studies gave disappointingresults. (Francis Brinker.)Oat polyphenol composition preventedthe increase of cholesterol andbeta-lipoprotein of blood serum offasting rabbits. Antioxidant propertyof the oat flour remains unaffectedby heat. Homoeopathic tinctureofseedsisusedasanervinetonic.Beta-glucan from the oats stimulatedimmune functions.Avenacosides exhibit strong antifungalactivity in vitro.Averrhoa bilimbi Linn.Family ◮ Oxalidaceae; Averrhoaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Malaysia;cultivated throughout the country.English ◮ Bilimbi, Tree Sorrel.Ayurvedic ◮ Karmaranga (var.).Unani ◮ Belambu (a variety ofKamrakh).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pilimbi, Pulichakkai.Action ◮ Asyrupmadefromthefruits is used in febrile excitement,haemorrhages and internal haemorrhoids;also in diarrhoea, biliouscolic and hepatitis. The fruit is usedfor scurvy. An infusion of flowers isgiven for cough.Averrhoa carambola Linn.Family ◮ Oxalidaceae; Averrhoaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Malaysia;cultivated throughout the warmerparts of India, especially in Kerala.

Azadirachta indica A. Juss. 75English ◮ Carambola, Star Fruit,Chinese Gooseberry.Ayurvedic ◮ Karmaranga.Unani ◮ Khamraq, Karmal.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tamarattai.Folk ◮ Kamarakh.Action ◮ Root—antidote in poisoning.Leaf and shoot—appliedexternally in ringworm, scabies,chickenpox. Flower—vermicidal.Fruit—laxative, antidysenteric,antiphlogistic, febrifuge, antiinflammatory,antispasmodic (usedin hepatic colic, bleeding piles).Seeds—galactogenic; in large dosesact as an emmenagogue and causeabortion.The fruits are a fairly good sourceof iron but deficient in calcium. Theyalso contain oxalic acid and potassiumoxalate. The presence of fluorineis also reported. A wide variation ofvitamin-C content (0.3–23.0 mg/100 g)is recorded from different places in India.Sugar (3.19%) consists mainly ofglucose (1.63%).Avicennia officinalis Linn.Synonym ◮ A. alba BlumeFamily ◮ Verbenaceae; Avicenniaceae.Habitat ◮ A tree occurring in saltmarshes and tidal creeks.English ◮ White mangrove.Ayurvedic ◮ Tuvara.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kandal.Folk ◮ Tivaria (Gujarat), Upattam(Tamil Nadu).Action ◮ Stem/bark—astringent.Pulp of unripe fruit—used forhealing skin lesions of smallpox;fruits and immature seeds, used ascicatrizant of abscesses and ulcers.The bark contains 5% tannin, triacontanoland triterpenoids. Kernelscontain lapachol, which possesses antitumouractivity. Aerial parts yieldbeta-sitosterol, friedelin, lupenone, lupeol,betulinic and ursolic acids.Azadirachta indica A. Juss.Synonym ◮ Melia azadirachta Linn.Family ◮ Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Burma; found allover India.English ◮ Neem tree, Margosa tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Nimba, Nimbaka,Arishta, Arishtaphala, Pichumarda,Pichumanda, Pichumandaka,Tiktaka, Sutiktak, Paaribhadra.Unani ◮ Aazaad-Darakht-e-Hindi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vemmu, Veppu,Veppan, Arulundi.Action ◮ Leaf, bark—antimicrobial,antifungal, anthelmintic, insecticidal,antiviral, antipyretic, antimalarial,antiperiodic, mosquitolarvicidal, anti-inflammatory,antifertility, spermicidal, hypoglycaemic;used in inflammation ofgums, gingivitis, periodonitis, sores,boils, enlargement of spleen, malarialfever, fever during childbirth,measles, smallpox, head scald andcutaneous affections. Oil—usedA

76 Azima tetracantha Lam.Aas a contraceptive for intravaginaluse, for the treatment of vaginalinfections, and as a mosquitorepellent.Plant tetranortriterpenoids havebeen examined extensively for their antibiotic,antitumour, insecticidal, antibacterialand antifungal activities.The methanolic extract of the barkshows antimalarial activity againstPlasmodium falciparum.The aqueous extract of leaves exhibitedantiulcer and anti-inflammatoryactivity.The water-soluble portion of alcoholicextract of leaves reduces bloodsugar in glucose-fed and adrenalineinducedhyperglycaemic rats (but notin normal and streptozotocin-induceddiabetic rats).A volatile fraction of the Neem oilis reported to be responsible for spermicidalactivity at a dose of 25 mg/mlfor human sperm. The oil has beenfound to retard the growth of humanimmunodeficiency virus.Neem oil has caused mitochondrialinjury in mice; poisonous in highdoses. (Sharon M. Herr.)Dosage ◮ Dried leaf—1–3 g powder;10–20 g for decoction; stembark—2–4 g powder decoction for externaluse. (API Vol. II.) Leaf juice—10–20 ml; oil—5–10 drops; barkdecoction—50–100 ml. (CCRAS.)Azima tetracantha Lam.Family ◮ Salvadoraceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, Orissa,West Bengal.English ◮ Mistletoe Berrythorn.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mulchangan.Folk ◮ Kundali.Action ◮ Root—diuretic (used inSiddha medicine for dropsy andrheumatism). Leaves—stimulant(used in rheumatism); expectorant,antispasmodic (used in cough andasthma); given to women afterconfinement. Bark—antiperiodic,astringent, expectorant.The leaves contain the alkaloids azimine,azcarpine and carpine. EtOH(50%) extract of aerial parts exhibitedspasmogenic activity.

BBacopa monnieri (Linn.) Penn.Synonym ◮ Herpestis monnieria(Linn.) H.B.&K.Monieracuneifolia Michx.Family ◮Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains ofIndia in damp marshy areas.English ◮Thyme-leaved Gratiola.Ayurvedic ◮ Braahmi, Aindri, Nirbraahmi,Kapotavankaa, Bhaarati,Darduradalaa, Matsyaakshaka,Shaaluraparni, Mandukaparni (alsoequated with Centella asiatica Linn.,synonym Hydrocotyle asiatica Linn.Umbelliferae, Apiaceae).Unani ◮Brahmi.Siddha/Tamil ◮Neerbrami.Folk ◮Piramivazhukkai,Jalaneem, Safed-Chammi.Action ◮ Adaptogenic, astringent,diuretic, sedative, potent nervinetonic, anti-anxiety agent (improvesmental functions, used in insanity,epilepsy), antispasmodic (used inbronchitis, asthma and diarrhoea).Key application ◮ In psychic disordersand as a brain tonic. (The AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India; IndianHerbal Pharmacopoeia.)B. monnieri has been shown to causeprolonged elevated level of cerebralglutamic acid and a transient increasein GABA level. It is assumed that endogenousincrease in brain glutaminemay be helpful in the process of learning.The herb contains the alkaloidsbrahmine, herpestine, and a mixtureof three bases. Brahmine is highly toxic;in therapeutic doses it resemblesstrychnine. The herb also containsthe saponins, monnierin, hersaponin,bacosides A and B. Bacosides A andB possess haemolytic activity. Hersaponinis reported to possess cardiotonicand sedative properties. Itwasfound,asincaseofreserpene,to deplete nor-adrenaline and 5-HTcontentoftheratbrain.An alcoholic extract of the plant inadoseof50mg/kgproducedtranquilizingeffect on albino rats and dogs,but the action was weaker than thatproduced by chlorpromazine.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—1–3 gpowder. (API Vol. II.)Balanites aegyptiaca(Linn.) Delile,Synonym ◮Simaroubaceae; Balani-Family ◮taceae.B. roxburghii Planch.Habitat ◮ Drier parts of India,particularly in Rajasthan, Gujarat,Madhya Pradesh and Deccan.English ◮Desert Date.

78 Balanophora involucrata Hook. f.BAyurvedic ◮ Ingudi, Angaar Vrksha,Taapasadrum, Taapasa vrksha,Dirghkantaka.Unani ◮ Hingan, Hanguul.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nanjunda.Folk ◮ Hingol, Hingota, Hingothaa.Action ◮ Seed—expectorant, bechic.Oil—antibacterial, antifungal.Fruit—used in whooping cough;also in leucoderma and other skindiseases. Bark—spasmolytic.The plant is reported to be a potentialsource of diosgenin (used inoral contraceptives). The fruit pulpcontains steroidal saponins. The diosgenincontent of the fruit varies from0.3 to 3.8%. Aqueous extract of fruitsshowed spermicidal activity withoutlocal vaginal irritation in human up to4%; sperms became sluggish on contactwith the plant extract and thenbecame immobile within 30 s; the effectwas concentration-related.Protracted administration of thefruit pulp extract produced hyperglycaemia-inducedtesticular dysfunctionin dogs. An aqueous extract of mesocarpexhibited antidiabetic activity instreptozotocin-induced diabetes inmice.The seed contains balanitins, whichexhibit cytostatic activity.Dosage ◮ Leaf, seed, bark, fruit—50–100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)Balanophora involucrataHook. f.Family ◮Balanophoraceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Sikkim and Darjeelingat altitudes of 1,800–3,400 mAyurvedic ◮ Chavya (tentativesynonym).Action ◮ Astringent. Used in piles,also in rheumatism.Arelated species, B. polyandra Griff.,found in Nagaland, Manipur, WestBengal, Bihar, Orissa and Andhra Pradeshat 2,000 m, gave a phenolic glycoside,coniferin. The plant is used asan antiasthmatic.Baliospermum montanum(Willd.) Muell.-Arg.Synonym ◮ B. axillare Bl.B. polyandrum Wt.Croton polyandrus Roxb.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, Assam,Khasi Hills, Bengal, MadhyaPradesh, Bihar and PeninsularIndia, ascending to 1,800 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Danti, Nikumbha,Udumbarparni, Erandphalaa,Shighraa, Pratyak-shreni, Vishaalya.Baliospermum calycinum Muell-Arg. is considered as Naagadanti.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Neeradimuthu, Danti.Folk ◮ Jangli Jamaalgotaa.Action ◮ Seed—purgative. Leaves—purgative (also used in dropsy),antiasthmatic (decoction is given inasthma). Latex—used for body acheand pain of joints. Root and seedoil—cathartic, antidropsical.

Balsamodendron myrrha Nees. 79Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicated the use of driedroot in jaundice, abdominal lump andsplenomegaly.The presence of steroids, terpenoidsand flavonoids is reported in the leaves.The root contains phorbol derivatives.EtOH extract of roots showed in vivoactivity in P-388 lymphocytic leukaemia.Dosage ◮ Root—103 g powder. (APIVol. III.)Balsamodendron mukulHook. ex StocksSynonym ◮ Commiphora mukul(Hook. ex Stocks) Engl.C. wightii (Arn.) Bhandari.Family ◮ Burseraceae.Habitat ◮ Rajasthan, MadhyaPradesh, Assam, Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka.English ◮ Indian Bdellium, GumGuggul.Ayurvedic ◮ Guggul, Devadhoop,Kaushika, Pur, Mahishaaksha,Palankash, Kumbha, Uluukhala.Unani ◮ Muqallal yahood, Muql,Bu-e-JahudaanSiddha/Tamil ◮ ErumaikanKungiliyam.Action ◮ Oleo-gum-resin—used forreducing obesity and in rheumatoidarthritis, osteoarthritis, sciatica.Key application ◮ In the treatmentof hyperlipidemia, hypercholesterolaemiaand obesity. (WHO.)Guggulipid is hypocholesteremic.Guggul resin contains steroids—gugglsteronesZ and E, guggulsterols I–V, diterpenoids; volatile oil, includingother constituents, contains a terpenehydrocarbon cembrene A. E- and Z-guggulsterones are characteristic constituents,which distinguish C. mukulfrom other Commiphore sp.Guggul resin increases catecholaminebiosynthesis and activity in cholesterol-fedrabbits, inhibits platelet aggregation,exhibits anti-inflammatoryactivity and appears to activate thethyroidglandinratsandchicken. Z-guggulsterone may increase uptake ofiodine by thyroid gland and increaseoxygen uptake in liver and bicep tissues.(Planta Med 1984,1,78–80.)The gum is also used in hemiplegiaand atherosclerotic disorders; as a garglein pyrrhoea aveolaris, chronic tonsilitisand pharyngitis. Fumes are recommendedin hay fever, chronic bronchitisand nasal catarrh.Oleo-gum resin of Balsamodendroncaudatum is also equated with Guggulin Siddha medicine.Dosage ◮ Oleo-gum-resin—2–4 g(API Vol. I.) 500 mg to 1 g (CCRAS.)Balsamodendron myrrha Nees.Synonym ◮ Commiphora molmolEngl.C. abyssinica (Berg.) Engl.Family ◮ Burseraceae.Habitat ◮ Arabia, Somaliland.Ayurvedic ◮ Bola, Hiraabola, Surasa,Barbara, Gandharasa.B

80 Balsamodendron opobalsamum Kunth.BUnani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Murmakki, Bol.Vellaibolam.Action ◮ Oleo-gum-resin—emmenagogue(used for irregularmenstruation and painful periods),anti-inflammatory (on pharyngitisand gingivitis), antiseptic, bacteriostatic,antiviral, astringent,stimulant, expectorant, stomachic,carminative (in dyspepsia), a leucocytogenicagent (increases numberof white cells in the blood). Usedexternally for treating acne, boilsand pressure sores, internally asa blood purifier.Key application ◮ In topical treatmentof mild inflammations of the oraland pharyngeal mucosa. (GermanCommission E.) Asagargleormouth rinse for the treatmentof aphthous ulcers, tonsillitis,common cold and gingivitis. (TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeia,ESCOP.)The gum (30–60%) contains acidicpolysaccharides, volatile oil (2–10%)including other constituents, heerabolene,eugenol, furanosequiterpenesand monoterpenes.Myrrh is taken as a powder or a tincture,rather than as an infusion; usedgenerally externally or as a gargle.Aqueous suspension of the gumresin decreased ethanol-induced andindomethacin-induced ulcer in rats.(JEthnopharmacol,1997, Jan 55(2), 141–150.)Dosage ◮ Gum-resin—3–5 g(CCRAS.)Balsamodendronopobalsamum Kunth.Synonym ◮ Commiphora opobalsamum(L.) Engl.Family ◮Burseraceae.Habitat ◮ Found in countries onboth sides of Red Sea.English ◮ Balsam tree, Balsam ofMecca, Balsam of Gilead.Unani ◮ Balsaan, Roghan-e-Balsaan(oil), Hab-e-Balsaan (fruit). Ood-e-Balsaan (wood).Action ◮ Used in diseases of theurinary tract. Balsams are diureticand stimulate mucous tissues insmall doses (nauseatic and purgativein large doses).In Unani medicine, the fruit is usedas an expectorant and emmenagogue,also for neurological affections. Thewood is also used as an ingredientin compounds for epilepsy and othernervine disorders. The oil is used externallyfor its anti-inflammatory andrevitalizing properties.Bambusa bambos (L.) Voss.Synonym ◮ B. arundinaceae (Retz.)Roxb.Arundo bambos L.Family ◮Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Wild throughout India,especially in the hill forests ofWestern and Southern India.English ◮Spiny or Thorny Bamboo.

Barleria buxifolia Linn. 81Ayurvedic ◮ Vansha, Venu, Kichaka,Trinadhwaj, Shatparvaa, Yavphala.Vanshalochana, Vansharochanaa,Shubhaa, tugaa, Tugaakshiri, Tvakkshiri(Bamboo-manna). Starchof Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.,Zingiberaceae, was recommendeda substitute for Vanshalochana(Ayurvedic Formularly of India, PartI, First edn).Unani ◮ Qasab, Tabaashir (Bamboomanna).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Moongil; Moongiluppu,(Bambo-manna.)Action ◮ Leaf bud and youngshoots—used in dysmenorrhoea;externally in ulcerations. Leaf—emmenagogue,antileprotic, febrifuge,bechic; used in haemoptysis. Stemand leaf—blood purifier (usedin leucoderma and inflammatoryconditions). Root—poisonous.Burnt root is applied to ringworm,bleeding gums, painful joints.Bark—used for eruptions. Leafand Bamboo-manna—emmenagogue.Bamboo-manna—pectoral,expectorant, carminative, cooling,aphrodisiac, tonic (used in debilitatingdiseases, urinary infections,chest diseases, cough, asthma).The plant gave cyanogenic glucoside—taxiphyllin.Bamboo-mannacontains silicious crystalline substances.The starch obtained from Marantaarundinacea Linn., Marantaceae, isalso used as Bamboo-manna (knownas Koovai Kizhangu, Kookaineer andAraroottu Kizangu in Siddha medicine).Dosage ◮Manna—1–3 g (CCRAS.)Barbarea vulgaris R. Br.Family ◮ Brassicaceae, Cruciferae.Habitat ◮ Subalpine and temperateHimalayas, at altitudes of 1,800–3,750 m.English ◮ Bitter Cress, HedgeMustard, Yellow Rocket, WinterCress.Folk ◮ Cress.Action ◮ Diuretic, anthelmintic,stomachic, antiscorbutic, (leaves arerich in vitamin C 130 mg/100 g).Pulverised herb is used as an agentfor stimulating spermatogenesis.The roots contain sinigrin; seedscontain a glucoside, glucobarbarin,and myrosin.The protein and phosphorus contentsof the plant decrease with thematurity, whereas the calcium contentsincrease (tender stems are eatenas a salad). The leaves and buds area rich source of provitamin A (betacarotene).Barleria buxifolia Linn.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular India fromMaharashtra southwards up to analtitude of 1,200 m. An ornamentalhedge plant in gardens.Ayurvedic ◮ Sahachara (purple, blue,rose or white-flowered var.)Folk ◮ Jhinti.B

82 Barleria cristata Linn.BAction ◮ Roots and leaves are usedin cough, bronchitis, inflammations(applied to swellings).Barleria cristata Linn.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Subtropical Himalaya,Sikkim, Khasi Hills, Central andSouthern India at 1,350 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Sahachara, Shveta-Rakta-pushpa Saireyaka (whiteandred-flowered var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ottamulli.Folk ◮ Katsaraiyaa. Raktajhinti.Action ◮ Extract of the plant—sasmogenic and hypoglycaemic.Root extract—given in anaemia.The leaves are chewed in toothache.Roots and leaves are applied toswellings. An infusion is given incough.The roots contain anthraquinones;flowers gave apigenin, naringenin,quercetin and malvindin.Barleria prionitis Linn.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the hotterparts of India. Also, commonlygrown as a hedge plant in gardens.English ◮ Common Yellow Nail DyePlant.Ayurvedic ◮ Sahachara, Baana,Kurantaka, Kuranta, Koranda,Korandaka, Shairiya, Pita-saireyaka(yellow-flowered var.). Also equatedwith Vajradanti.Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Piyaabaansaa.Chemmulli.Folk ◮ Piyaabaasaa, Jhinti, Katsaraiyaa.Action ◮ Leaf—juicegiveninstomachdisorders, urinary affections; mixedwith honey and given to childrenwith fever and catarrh; leaf juiceis applied to lacerated soles of feetin the rainy season, mixed withcoconut oil for pimples. Leavesand flowering tops—diuretic.Bark—diaphoretic and expectorant.Roots—paste is applied over boilsand glandular swellings. Plant(Vajradanti)—antidontalgic, usedfor bleeding gums in Indianmedicine. Ash, obtained from thewhole plant, mixed with honey, isgiven in bronchial asthma.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends oil extract of the plantfor arresting greying of hair.The leaves and flowering tops arediuretic, rich in potassium salts. Leavesand stems showed presence of iridoidglucosides, barlerin and acetylbarlerin.Flowers gave the flavonoid glycoside,scutellarein-7-neohesperidoside. Thepresence of beta-sitosterol is reportedin the plant.In the south, Nila Sahachara isequated with Ecbolium linneanun Kurz.(known as Nilaambari), and Shveta Sahacharawith Justica betonica Linn.Ecbolium linneanun plant is used forgout and dysuria; the root is prescribedfor jaundice.

Basella alba Linn. var. rubra Stewart. 83Dosage ◮ Whole plant—50–100 g fordecoction. (API Vol. III.)Barleria strigosa Willd.Family ◮Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas from UttarPradesh to West Bengal, up to analtitude of 1,200 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Sahachara (bluefloweredvar.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nili.Folk ◮ Koilekhaa.Action ◮ Mild antiseptic, expectorant(given in spasmodic cough); alsoused as an antianaemic.The plant gave beta-and gammasitosterol.Barringtonia acutangula(Linn.) Gaertn.Synonym ◮ Eugenia acutangula L.Family ◮ Lecythidaceae; Barringtoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tracts fromthe Ganges eastwards to Assam andMadhya Pradesh.English ◮ Indian Oak. (Oak isequated with Quercus robur L.)Ayurvedic ◮ Nichula, Hijjala, Ijjala,Vidula, Ambuj. (Central Council forResearch in Ayurveda & Siddha haswrongly equated Hijjala, NichulaandVidulawithArgyreianervosa,Elephant Creeper.)Unani ◮ Samandarphal. (Samandarphalis also equated withRhus parviflora Roxb. in NationalFormulary of Unani Medicine.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadappai, Samudraphullarni.Action ◮ Leaf juice—given indiarrhoea. Fruit—bitter, acrid,anthelmintic, haemolytic, vulnerary;prescribed in gingivitis as anexpectorant. Powdered seeds—emetic and expectorant. Bark—astringent, used in diarrhoea andblennorrhoea. Febrifuge. Wood—haemostatic (in metrorrhagia).Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicated the use of the fruit ingoitre; also in psychological disorders.The bark contains tannins (16%), alsoellagic acid.The fruits contain triterpenoid sapogenins.Saponins possess haemolyticproperties.A related sp. B. racemosa (L.) Roxb.,found in Assam, eastern and westerncoasts of India and the AndamanIslands, is also equated with Samudraphalaand Hijjala.European Oak (Quercus robur)contains15–20% tannins, consisting ofphlobatannin, ellagitannins and gallicacid. Thebarkisusedasastringent,antiseptic and haemostatic.Dosage ◮Fruit—1–3 g (API Vol. III.)Basella alba Linn. var.rubra Stewart.Synonym ◮ B. rubra Linn.Family ◮ Basellaceae.B

84 Bassia longifolia Koen.BHabitat ◮ Grown as a pot herb inalmost every part of India, excepthills.English ◮ Indian Spinach.Ayurvedic ◮ Upodikaa, Potaki,Maalvaa, Amritvallari.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vaslakkirai.Folk ◮ Poi.Action ◮ Demulcent, diuretic,laxative (a good substitute forspinach and purslane). Used asa cooling medicine in digestivedisorders. Leaf juice is used inbalanitis and catarrhal affections.Externally applied in urticaria,burns, scalds. Root—decoction isgiven to stop bilious vomiting andin intestinal complaints. Used aspoultice to reduce local swellings;sap is used in acne.Used for checking malnutrition inchildren.The essential amino acids are arginine,leucine, isoleucine, lysine, threonineand tryptophan. The plant containsseveral vitamins and minerals, isrich in calcium and iron compoundsand contains a low percentage of solubleoxalates. The leaves also containcarotenoids, organic acids and watersolublepolysaccharides, bioflavonoidsand vitamin K.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—10–20 mljuice. (CCRAS.)Bassia longifolia Koen.Synonym ◮ Madhuca longifolia(Linn.) Macbride.Family ◮Sapotaceae.Habitat ◮ South India; common inthe monsoon forests of WesternGhats.English ◮ Mowra Butter tree, SouthIndian Mahua.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Illupei, Elupa, Naatu,Iluppei, Iruppei.Action ◮ Flowers—laxative, bechic(used in coughs, colds and bronchitis),stimulant and nervinetonic. Seed oil—galactogenic,anticephalalgic, laxative in casesof habitual constipation and piles;used externally in rheumatism andskin affections. Bark, seed oil andgum—antirheumatic.The herb contains 17% tannins andis used for bleeding and spongy gums,tonsillitis, ulcers, rheumatism and diabetesmellitus. Roots are applied toulcers.Seed kernel gave protobassic acid (asapogenol) and two major saponins—Mi-saponins A and B. Mi-saponins(bisdesmosides of protobassic acid)exhibit anti-inflammatory activity inrheumatism.The carollas are a rich source of sugarsand contain an appreciable amountof vitamins and calcium (total sugars72.9%, calcium 140 mg/100 g). Sugarsareidentifiedassucrose,maltose,glucose, fructose, arabinose and rhamnose.Flowers are largely used in thepreparation of distilled liquors. Theyconstitute the most important raw materialfor fermentative production ofalcohol.

Bauhinia racemosa Lamk 85Bauhinia acuminata Linn.Family ◮Habitat ◮English ◮Caesalpiniaceae.Central India.Dwarf White Bauhinia.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaanchnaara, Kovidaara(white-flowered var.)Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Kachnaal.Vellaimandarai.Action ◮ Bark and leaves—adecoction is given in biliousness,stone in bladder, venereal diseases,leprosy and asthma. Root—boiledwith oil is applied to burns.Bauhinia malabarica Roxb.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ South India, Assam andBengal.English ◮ Malabar Mountain Ebony.Ayurvedic ◮ Ashmantaka var.,Kaanchanaara var. (in the South).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Malaiyatti.Folk ◮ Aapataa (Maharashtra), Amli,Amlosaa.Action ◮ Antidysenteric.The plant contains flavonoid glycosides—quercitroside,iso-quercitroside,rutoside, taxifoline rhamnoside,kaempferol glycosides and quercetolglycoside.Bauhinia purpurea Linn.Family ◮CaesalpiniaceaeHabitat ◮ The Himalayas, anddistributed in Northern India,Assam, Khasi Hills. Also cultivatedin gardens.English ◮ Camel’s Foot tree, PinkBauhinia, Butterfly tree, Geramiumtree, Orchid tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Kovidaara, RaktaKaanchanaara.Unani/Siddha ◮ Sivappu mandaarai.Siddha ◮ Mandarai.Folk ◮ Koilaara, Khairwaal, Kaliaar,Rakta Kanchan.Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antidiarrhoeal.Flower buds and flowers,fried in purified butter, are given topatients suffering from dysentery.Extract of stems are used internallyand externally for fracturedbones. Plant is used in goitre. Itexhibited antithyroid-like activityin experimental animals.The flowers contain astragalin, isoquercitrinand quercetin, also anthocyanins.Seeds contain chalcone glycosides.Bauhinia racemosa LamkFamily ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tractsfrom Ravi eastwards, ascendingto 1,000 m. in the Uttar Pradesh,West Bengal and Central and SouthIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Ashmantaka, Kanchini.Unani ◮ Kachnaar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kokku mandarai.B

86 Bauhinia retusa Roxb.BFolk ◮ Aapataa (Maharashtra),Kachnaala.Action ◮ Bark—highly astringent,anti-inflammatory (usedin glandular inflammations, skindiseases, ulcers), cholagogue.Leaves—anthelmintic; with onionfor diarrhoea. Flowers—used inhaemorrhages, piles; also in cough.Seed—antibacterial.Octacosane, beta-amyrin and betasitosterolhave been isolated from thebark. EtOH (50%) extract of seeds exhibitedanticancer activity.Bauhinia retusa Roxb.Synonym ◮ B. semla Wunderlin.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Northwestern Himalayasup to 1500 m, also in Orissa, MadhyaPradesh and Andhra Pradesh.Siddha ◮ Nirpa (Telugu).Folk ◮ Semalaa, Kathmahuli. Gum—ThaurAction ◮ Gum—emmenagogue,diuretic. (Gum resembles Gum arabic;used as an external applicationfor sores). Protein isolated fromseeds—hypoglycaemic, hypocholesterolaemicin young, normalas well as alloxan-induced diabeticalbino rats.The bark contains quercetin-3-Obeta-D-glucosideand rutin.Bauhinia tomentosa Linn.Family ◮Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Southern India, Assamand Bihar.English ◮ Yellow Bauhinia, St.Thomas tree, Bell Bauhinia.Ayurvedic ◮ Pita Kovidaara (yellowfloweredvar.), Pita Kanchana.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kokkumandarai,Tiruvaatti, Kanjani.Folk ◮ Kachnaar.Action ◮ Antidysenteric. Fruit—diuretic. Bark—astringent. Rootbark—vermifuge. A decoction ofthe root bark is prescribed for liverdiseases. Seed—used for woundhealing.Seeds yield a fatty oil called ebonyoil, a water soluble mucilage and saponins.Flowers gave isoquercitrin (6%),rutin (4.6%) and quercetin (smallamounts).Bauhinia variegata Linn.Synonym ◮ B. candida Roxb.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Western Peninsulaand Assam. Also cultivated ingardens.English ◮ Mountain Ebony, BuddhistBauhinia.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaanchanaara, Kaanchanaaraka,Kanchanak, Kaanchana,Gandhaari, Sonapushpaka,Ashmantaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivappumanchori.Action ◮ Buds—a decoction is givenin piles (also used against tumours),haematuria, menorrhagia. Dried

Belamcanda chinensis (L.) DC. 87buds are used in diarrhoea,dysentery, worm infestation,piles and tumours. Root—carminative, used in dyspepsiaand flatulence (a decoction isreported to prevent obesity).Bark—astringent, anthelmintic;used externally in scrofula and skindiseases. Seeds—possess humanblood agglutinating activity. Leaf—antifungal.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicated the use of the stembark in lymphadenitis and goitre. (KaanchnaarGuggulu is prescribed forglandular swellings and goitre.)Water-soluble portion of alcoholicextract of the plant showed preventiveeffect against goitre in rats.Flowers gave flavonoids, kaempferol-3-galactosideand kaempferol-3-rhamnoglucoside. The stem barkyields hentriacontane, octacosanol andstigmasterol. Stem contains beta-sitosterol,lupeol and a flavanone glycoside.Dosage ◮ Stem bark—20–30 g fordecoction. (API Vol. I.)Begonia laciniata Roxb. var.nepalensis A. DC.Family ◮ Begoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical and sub-tropicalregions, especially in America.Found in Sikkim, ArunachalPradesh, Assam, Meghalaya,Nagaland and Manipur, ascendingto an altitude to 2,100 m.English ◮ Beefsteak Geraniums,Elephant’s Ear.Folk ◮ Hooirjo (West Bengal), Teisu(Nagaland).Action ◮ A decoction of the root isgiven for liver diseases and fever.The extract from succulent stalks isused for venereal diseases in folkmedicine. Fresh shoots are chewedfor tooth troubles. Aqueous extractsof the leaves and flowers of Begoniasp. are active against Gram-positiveand Gram-negative bacteria.Hooirjo and Teisu are also equatedwith B. palmata D. Don var. gambleiHara, found in northeastern regions ofIndia.Belamcanda chinensis (L.) DC.Family ◮Iridaceae.Habitat ◮ Introduced from China;cultivated all over India, up to analtitude of 1,800 m.Folk ◮ Surajkaanti (Assam), Dasbaha,Dasbichandi (Bengal).Action ◮ Rhizomes—expectorant,deobstruent, resolvent, used intonsillitis, chest and liver complaints(antiviral against pneumonia).Presence of alkaloids is reportedfrom the plant, glucoside, belamcandinfrom the roots. The leaves andflowers contain a glycoflavone. Theseeds tested positive for leucoanthocyanins.B

88 Benincasa hispida (Thunb.) Cogn.BBenincasa hispida(Thunb.) Cogn.Synonym ◮ B. cerifera Savi.Cucurbita hispada Thunb.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated largely in UttarPradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan andBihar.English ◮ Ash Gourd, White Gourd,Wax Gourd, White Pumpkin.Ayurvedic ◮ Kuushmaanda, Kuushmaandaka,Kuushmaandanaadi.Unani ◮ Pethaa, Mahdabaa, Kaddue-Roomi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ven-poosani,Saambalpushani.Action ◮ Leaves—cooling, juicerubbed on bruises. Fruit decoction—laxative,diuretic, nutritious,styptic (given for internal haemorrhagesand diseases of therespiratory tract.) Juice of fruit—used for treating epilepsy, insanityand other nervous diseases. The ashof fruit rind—applied on painfulswellings. Seeds—anthelmintic.The fruits contain lupeol, beta-sitosterol,their acetates and several aminoacids. The fruit juice produces tranquilizingactivity and mild CNS depressanteffect in mice.The roots of mature plant containa pentacyclic triterpene, which exhibitsantiallergic activity against bothhomologous passive cutaneous anaphylaxisand delayed hypersensitivityin mice. The fruit beverage containspyrazine compounds.Isomultiflorenol acetate, a pentacyclictriterpene, has been isolated asthe major constituent of wax coatingof fruits.Dosage ◮ Dried pieces of the fruit—5–10 g (API Vol. IV.) Fruit juice—10–20 m (CCRAS.)Berberis aristata DC.Sub sp. ◮ B. asiatica Roxb. ex DC.Substi. ◮ B. lycium Royle & otherspecies.Family ◮ Berberidaceae.Habitat ◮ Northwestern Himalayas,Nilgiris, Kulu and Kumaon.English ◮ Indian Barberry.Ayurvedic ◮ Daaruharidraa, Daaru,Daarvi, Daarunishaa, Daarurajani,Vrahitaphala, Valliphala,Sthirphala. Pushpaphala, Somakaa,Parjanyaa, Parjani, Kantkateri,Taarthya, Pachampachaa. Kaaliyakais now equated with Pita Chandana(Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.)Colebr., Menispermaceae). Extract—Rasaanjana.Unani ◮ Daarhald. Rasaut (extract).Zarishk (fruit).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Marmanjal.Action ◮ Rasaut, Rasasranjana(extract)—bitter, cholagogue,antidiarrhoeal, stomachic, laxative,diaphoretic, antipyretic,antiseptic. Used externally inopthalmia,conjunctivitis, ulcers,sores, swollen gums. Root bark—anti-inflammatory, hypoglycaemic

Berberis vulgaris Linn. 89hypotensive, antiamoebic, anticoagulant,antibacterial. Bark—used in liver complaints, diarrhoea,dysentery, cholera, gastric disorders,enlargement of spleen and forregulating metabolism. Berries—antiscorbutic, laxative.Berberine hydrochloride and sulphatehelp in the diagnosis of latentmalaria by releasing the parasites intothe blood stream.Alkaloid berberine possesses antibacterialand anti-inflammatory activities.It is used as an intestinal antisepticand bitter stomachic. It alsoexhibits antineoplastic properties. (Itssynthetic derivative dihydroberberineis used in brain tumour.)Berberine has been found to inhibitthe activity of enzymes trypsin (32%)and chymotrypsin (60%) in in-vitrostudies.B. asiatica Roxb.ex Dc. is found inthe Himalaya at 900–3,000 m, Assamand Bihar.See B. vulgaris.Dosage ◮ Extract—1–3 g (CCRAS.);dried stem—5–10 ml decoction.(API Vol. II.)Berberis chitria Lindl.Synonym ◮ B. aristata auct.Hook.f.&Thoms.Family ◮ Berberidaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Nepal, at altitudes of1,500–2,400 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Daaruharidraa (var.).Folk ◮ Totaro, Kintodaa (Garhwal).Action ◮ Same as that of Berberisaristata.The root and stem bark contain alkaloids(5 and 4.2% respectively, calculatedas berberine.)The alcoholic extract of the roots wasfound to be better antimicrobial agentthan the aqueous extract. The alkaloidpalmitine hydroxide possesses antispermatogenicproperties.See B. aristata and B. vulgaris.Berberis ulicina Hook, known asKhicharmaa in Tibet, is also equatedwith Daaruharidraa.Berberis vulgaris Linn.Family ◮ Berberidaceae.Habitat ◮ Distributed in NorthwesternHimalayas.English ◮ Common Barberry, TrueBarberry.Ayurvedic ◮ Daruharidraa (var.).Folk ◮ Chatrod, Kashmal.Action ◮ Root and bark—usedfor ailments of gastrointestinaltract, liver, gallbladder, kidney andurinary tract, respiratory tract, alsoas a febrifuge and blood purifier.Key application ◮ Listed by GermanCommission E among unapprovedherbs.An extract with 80% berberine andadditional alkaloids stimulated the bilesecretion of rats by 72%. (PDR.) Ascholagogue. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The main alkaloid is berberine (welltolerated up to 0.5 g). Berries are safe.B

90 Bergenia ligulata (Wall.) Engl.BBererine in small doses stimulatesthe respiratory system; poisoningshave been observed from overdoses.Poisonings from the total herb havenot been reported. (German CommissionE.)Berberine is bactericidal, amoebicidaland trypanocidal. Berberine is antidiarrhoeal,asitentersintothecytosolor binds to the cell membrane and inhibitsthe catalytic unit of andenylatecyclase. It is active in vitro and in animalsagainst cholera.Berberine stimulates bile secretionand shows sedative, hypotensive, anticonvulsantand uterine stimulant activityin animals. Alkaloid bermarine isalso strongly antibacterial. It has beenshown to increase white blood cell andplatelet counts in animals with iatrogenicleukocytopaenia.Berberine, berbamine and jatrorrhizineare hypotensive and sedative.Many of the alkaloids are antineoplastic.The alkaloid berbamine (50 mgthree times daily for 1–4 weeks) helpedreverse leukopaenia induced by benzene,cancer chemotherapy or radiotherapyin a clinical study. (FrancisBrinker.)Berberine, when combined withpyrimethamine, was more effectivethan combinations with other antibioticsin treating chloroquine-resistantmalaria. (Sharon M. Herr.)Bergenia ligulata (Wall.) Engl.Synonym ◮ B. ciliata Sternb.Saxifraga ligulata Wall.Family ◮ Saxifragaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayafrom Kashmir to Bhutan, betweenaltitudes of 900 and 3,000 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Paashaanabheda,Ashmaribhedikaa, Ashmaribhit,Ashmghna, Shilaabhit, Shilaabheda.(These synonyms are also equatedwith Aerva lanata Juss.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Padanbethi.Action ◮ Leaf and root—antiscorbutic,astringent, spasmolytic,antidiarrhoeal. Used in dysuria,spleen enlargement, pulmonaryaffections as a cough remedy,menorrhagia, urinary tract infections.Alcoholic extract of roots—antilithic. Acetone extract of rootbark—cardiotoxic,CNS depressantand anti-inflammatory; in milddoses diuretic but antidiuretic inhigher doses. Anti-inflammatoryactivity decreases with increasingdosage.Due to its depressant action on thecentral nervous system, the drugis used against vertigo, dizzinessand headache in moderate or lowdosage.Key application ◮ In lithiasis,dysuria, polyuria. (The AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India; IndianHerbal Pharmacopoeia.)The rhizome contains an active principlebergenin (0.6%), gallic acid, glucose(5.6%), tannins (14.2–016.3%),mucilage and wax; a C-glycoside andbeta-sitosterol.Bergenin prevented stress-inducederosions in rats and lowered gastricoutputs.

Betula utilis D. Don. 91(Paashaanabheda indicates that theplant grows between rocks appearingto break them; it does not necessarilymeanthatitpossesseslithotripticproperty.)Dosage ◮ Rhizome—20–30 g fordecoction. (API Vol. I)Beta vulgaris Linn. subsp. cicla(L.) Moq.Synonym ◮ B. vulgaris auct. non L.Family ◮ Chenopodiacae.Habitat ◮ Native to Mediterraneanregion; cultivated in North India,Maharashtra and South India.English ◮ Beet Root, Garden Beet,Chard.Ayurvedic ◮ Palanki.Folk ◮ Chukandar.Action ◮ Leaf—used in burnsand bruises, also for diseases ofspleen and liver. Tuber and seed—expectorant. Leaf and seed—diuretic. Leaf, tuber and seed—anti-inflammatory. Seed oil—analgesic.Beet roots are eaten raw as salad orcooked. The leaves are nutritionallysuperior to roots and are a good sourceof vitamins and minerals.The plant contains alkaloids of whichbetaine is a mild diuretic and emmenagogue.In research, using rats, chard increasedregeneration of beta cells inpancreas. Maximum reduction ofblood glucose was after 42 days ofadministration. (J Ethnopharmacol,2000, 73: 251–259.)Beets are used orally as a supportivetherapy in the treatment of liver diseasesand fatty liver (possibly due tobetaine). Ingestion of large quantitiesmight worsen kidney disease. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Betula alnoidesBuch.-Ham. ex D. Don.Synonym ◮ B. acuminata Wall.Family ◮ Betulaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate andsubtropical Himalayas, Khasi Hillsand Manipur.English ◮ Indian Birch, Naga Birch.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhojapatra (var.).Action ◮ Used in supportive therapyof rheumatic ailments.Methyl salicylate (92.8%) has beenreported from the essential oil of thebark (of the plant growing in northeasternregion of India).Betula utilis D. Don.Synonym ◮ B. bhojpattra Wall.Family ◮ Betulaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalaya fromKashmir to Bhutan.English ◮ Himalayan Silver Birch,Indian Paper tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuurja, Bahulvalkala,Bahuputa, Lekhyapatraka, Charmi,Chitrapatra, Bhutahaa.B

92 Bidens pilosa Linn.BFolk ◮Bhojapatra.Siddha/Tamil ◮(leaves).BoorjapattramAction ◮ Resin—laxative. Leaves—diuretic; used in the form of infusionin gout, rheumatism, dropsy, and asa solvent of stones in the kidneys;used in skin affections, especiallyeczema. Bark—used in convulsions.Oil—astringent, antiseptic.Key application ◮ (B. pendula) Inirrigation therapy for bacterialand inflammatory diseases of theurinary tract and for kidney gravel;supportive therapy for rheumaticailment. (German Commission E,ESCOP.)European Silver Birch is equatedwith Betula alba L., synonym B. pendulaRoth. Astringent, diuretic, antiinflammatory,bitter, cholagogue; containssalicylates. Used for kidney andbladder complaints, sluggish kidneyfunctions, rheumatism and gout.Methyl salicylate is obtained by distillationofthetwigs.InanIndiansp.,B.acuminata, methyl salicylate (92.8%)has been reported in the essential oilof the bark. B. utilis is also a closerelative of B. pendula.Dosage ◮ Bark—3–5 g powder;decoction—50–100 ml (CCRAS.)Bidens pilosa Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India ingardens, waste places and teaplantations.Folk ◮ Phutium (Gujarat), Kuri(Garhwal).Action ◮ Plant—cytotoxic. Leaf—applied to ulcers and swollen glands.The plant contains a number of polyacetyleneswhich are toxic to bacteria,fungi and human fibroblast cells.Phenylheptatriyne is the major constituentof the leaves and stems.B. pilosa Linn. var. minor (Blume)Sherff, synonym B. pilosa Linn. var. bipinnataHook. f. in part, gave phytosterin-B,which like insulin, showed hypoglycaemicactivity both in normaland diabetic rats. B. pilosa auct. nonLinn., synonym B. chinensis Willd., isused for leprosy, fistulae, pustules, tumours.Biophytum sensitivum(Linn.) DC.Synonym ◮ Oxalis sensitiva Linn.Family ◮ Oxalidaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout tropical India.Ayurvedic ◮ Lajjaalu (var.) VipareetLajjaalu (non-classical), Alambushaa(Hindi commentators haveequated it with Gorakh Mundi,Sphaeranthus indicus Linn.,Asteraceae.)Folk ◮ Lajoni, Jhalai, Lakajana.Action ◮ Plant—used in insomnia,convulsions, cramps,chest-complaints, inflammations,tumours, chronic skin diseases.Ash—in stomachache. Leaves—diuretic, astringent, antiseptic.Paste is applied to burns, contusions

Blepharis edulis Pers. 93and wounds. Decoction is givenin strangury, asthma and phthisis.Roots—decoction is given in lithiasis.Mature leaves are recommendedin diabetes; contain an insulin-likeprinciple.A saline extract of leaves showed hypoglycaemicactivity in rabbits.Bixa orellana Linn.Family ◮ Bixaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Central America,often cultivated in Madhya Pradeshand South India.English ◮ Annatto.Ayurvedic ◮ Sinduri, Sinduriyaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Jabara, Manjitti.Action ◮ Plant—astringent, antibilious,antiemetic, blood purifier.Leaves—infusion is given in jaundice,also in dysentery. Externally,scar-preventive. Root bark—febrifuge, antiperiodic. Seed pulp—haemostatic, antidysenteric, diuretic,laxative. Fruit—antidysenteric.An antimicrobial constituent, maslinicacid, alongwith gallic acid andpyrogallol, has been isolated from theleaves. Alcoholic extract of the leavescompletely inhibited Micrococcus pyogenes,but was inactive against E. coli.The aqueous extract, however, showedpartial inhibition against E. coli. Theaqueous extract also showed potent inhibitoryactivity towards lens aldose reductase,which plays an important rolein the management of diabetic complications.The activity is attributed toa flavonoid, isoscutelarein.Bixin, the main constituent of seedcoat, shows cytostatic effect on thegrowth of human lymphoma cells. Bixinalso has a hyperglycaemic effect andmay disturb blood glucose control.Blepharis edulis Pers.Synonym ◮ B. persica (Burm.f.)Kuntze.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab and westernRajasthan.English ◮ Acanthus.Ayurvedic ◮ Utangana, Kaamavridhi,Chatushpatri, Ucchataa (equatedwith Scirpus or Cyperus sp. duringthe classical period; with ShvetaGunjaa, Abrus sp. during themedieval period.)Unani ◮ Utangan.Folk ◮ Karadu (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Roots—diuretic. Usedfor urinary discharges and dysmenorrhoea.Seeds—deobstruent,resolvent, diuretic (used in stranguryand sexual debility). Powderedplant is applied locally on infectionsof the genitals and on burns.Key application ◮ Seed in dysuriaand impotency. (The AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India.)A benzoxazine glucoside, blepharin,has been isolated from seeds, anda saponin, which on hydrolysis gavelupeol.Dosage ◮ Dried seed—3–6 g powder.(API Vol. IV.)B

94 Blepharis linariaefolia Pers.BBlepharis linariaefolia Pers.Synonym ◮Family ◮B. sindica T. Anders.Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthanand Gujarat.Ayurvedic ◮(var.).Folk ◮Ushtrakaandi, UtanganUtangana (Sindh). Asad.Action ◮ Seeds, boiled in milk, aretaken as an invigorating tonic.Blepharis molluginifolia Pers., usedfor urinary discharges, is also equatedwith Utangana.Blepharispermum subsessileDC.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,Karnataka.Ayurvedic ◮ Used as a substitute forRaasnaa in Madhya Pradesh.Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory (usedinternally and externally forrheumatic affections).Blumea balsamifera DC.Synonym ◮ B. densiflora Hook. f. inpart.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Subtropical Himalayas,Nepal, Sikkim, Assam and KhasiHills at 700–1,350 m.English ◮ Ngai Camphor.Ayurvedic ◮ Kukundara, Gangaapatri.Unani ◮ Kakarondaa.Action ◮ Tranquilizer (used inexcitement and insomnia), expectorant,sudorific. Given in intestinaldiseases, colic, diarrhoea. Essentialoil from leaves—hypotensive.The plant is a source of Ngai orBlumea Camphor. Camphor occurs inall parts of the plant, but is generally extractedfrom leaves. Ngai Camphor oilconsists almost entirely of l-borneol. Itis redistilled to obtain the refined camphorfor use in medicine.The dried leaves contain sesquiterpenelactones. These lactones exhibitantitumour activity against Yoshidasacoma cells in tissue culture.The plant exhibits moderate antibacterialactivity against E. coli.Blumea densiflora DC.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-tropical Himalayas,Nepal, Sikkim, Assam and Khasiahills.English ◮ Ngai Camphor.Ayurvedic ◮ Kukundara (var.).Action ◮ Juice of fresh leaves—insecticidal, mosquito repellant.The plant yields an essential oilwhich yields camphor.Aerial part contains sesquiterpenelactones, tagitinin A, tirolundin ethylether and iso-alantolactone derivatives.

Blumea lacera. 95Blumea eriantha DC.Family ◮Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra,Karnataka, Tamil Nadu,Kerala.Ayurvedic ◮ Kukundara (var.).Unani ◮ Kakarondaa.Folk ◮ Nirmudi (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Juice of the herb—carminative. A warm infusionof leaves is given as a sudorific,while a cold infusion is considereddiuretic and emmenagogue. The oilpossesses significant antibacterialand antifungal properties. The oilalso shows insecticidal activity.The essential oil contains 95% ketones,the chief constituent of which ared-carvotanacetone and l-tetrahydrocarvoneand an alcohol.The plant contains a flavonol, crianthin(isolated from the flowers). Itis identical to artemetin, isolated fromArtemisia absinthium.Blumea fastulosa (Roxb.) Kurz.Synonym ◮ B. glomerata DC.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas, andthroughout the plains of Assam andPenninsular India.Ayurvedic ◮ Kukundara (var.).Unani ◮ Kakarondaa.Action ◮ Plant—diuretic. Essentialoil—CNS depressant.The steam non-volatile fraction ofplant extract contained a mixture ofn-alkanes.Blumea lacera.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains ofIndia, ascending to 700 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Kukundara, Kukuradru,Taamrachuuda.Unani ◮ Kakarondaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Narakkarandai, KaatuMullangi.Folk ◮ Kakranda.Action ◮ Plant—antipyretic. Leaf—astringent, febrifuge, diuretic,deobstruent, anthelmintic (particularlyin case of thread worm).Root—anticholerin. Essential oil—antibacterial, antifungal.The leaves on steam distillation yield0.5% essential oil from which camphoris isolated.The oil contains cineol 66, d-fenchone10 and citral about 6%. Theplant gave a diester of coniferyl alcohol,acetylenic compounds, a thiophenederivative; aerial parts gave campesterol,hentriacontane, hentriacontanol,alpha-amyrin and its acetate, lupeoland its acetate and beta-sitosterol.The alcoholic extract of the plantshowed marked anti-inflammatory activityin carrageenin and bradykinininducedinflammation in rats.Dosage ◮ Root—5–10 g paste.(CCRAS.)B

96 Boerhavia diffusa Linn.BBoerhavia diffusa Linn.Synonym ◮ B. repens Linn.B. procumbens Roxb.Family ◮Habitat ◮a weed.English ◮Nyctaginaceae.Throughout India asHorse-purslane, Hogweed.Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-punarnavaa,Punarnavaa, Katthilla, Shophaghni,Shothaghni. Varshaabhu (alsoequated with Trianthema portulacastrumLinn., which exhibitsanti-inflammatory, antipyretic andanalgesic activity).Unani ◮ Itsit, Bishkhaparaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mookkirattai.Folk ◮ Gadaha-purnaa.Action ◮ Diuretic, anti-inflammatory,antiarthritic, spasmolytic, antibacterial(used for inflammatory renaldiseases, nephrotic syndrome, incases of ascites resulting fromearly cirrhosis of liver and chronicperitonitis, dropsy associated withchronic Bright’s diseases, for serumuric acid levels). Root—anticonvulsant,analgesic, expectorant,CNS depressant, laxative, diuretic,abortifacient.Key application ◮ As diuretic,hepatoprotective. (Indian HerbalPharmacopoeia.)B. repanda, synonym B. chinensisLinn., roots exhibited antihepatotoxicactivity against carbon tetrachloridegalactosamine-and paracetamolinducedintoxication in rats. Powderedroot gave encouraging results in spermatorrhoeaand leucorrhoea.The chloroform and methanolic extractsof the roots and aerial parts ofB. diffusa also exhibited antihepatotoxicactivity against carbon tetrachlorideinducedintoxication in rats.Punarnavaa is official in IP as a diuretic.The diuretic action of the drug isattributedtothepresenceofxanthone,beta-ecdysone. Flavonoid, arbinofuranoside,present in the drug, was foundto lower serum uric acid in experimentalanimals, as also in humans.Punarnavaa has been reported toincrease serum protein level and reduceurinary protein extraction in clinicaltrials in patients suffering withnephrotic syndrome. The activity isattributed to the presence of rotenoidsin various parts of the plant.An antifibrinolytic agent, punarnavoside,has been found to stopIUCD-induced bleeding in monkeys.The drug contains quinolizidine alkaloids.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—20–30 g fordecoction (API Vol. I); root—1–3 gpowder; 10–20 ml fresh juice. (APIVol. III.)Boerhavia verticillata Poir.Family ◮ Nyctaginaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout plains ofIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta Punarnavaa,Vrshchiva, Vrshchiraka. (Vrishchirais also equated with Trianthema sp.)B. erecta, synonym B. punarnavaSaha and Krishnamurthy, is alsoequated with the white-floweredspecies of Boerhavia.Action ◮ See B. diffusa.

Borassus flabellifer Linn. 97Bombax ceiba Linn.See Salmalia malabarica Schott & Endl.Borago officinalis Linn.Family ◮Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ The Mediteranean region,Europe and Asia.English ◮Plant.Borage, Cow’s TongueUnani ◮ Gaozabaan (Onosmabracteatum Wall. has also beenequated with Gaozabaan).Action ◮ Fresh herb (compoundedwith water)—refreshing, restorativeand nervine tonic. Leavesand flowers—diuretic, febrifuge,expectorant, demulcent, emollient;promote the activity of kidneys;alleviate pulmonary affections.The drug strengthens adrenal glandsand is given for stress, mental exhausionand depression; provides supportto stomach and intestines in cases ofinfection and toxicity. Used as a tonicto counteract the lingering effects ofsteroid therapy. Seeds relieve irritablebowel syndrome and regulate menstruation.The leaves contain lycopsamine andsupindine viridiflorate as the predominantunsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids.Due to low concentration ofthese alkaloids Borage is not toxic.The drug contains potassium andcalcium, combined with mineral acids.The fresh juice affords 30%, the driedherb 3% of nitrate of potash. Thestems and leaves supply much salinemucilage. These saline qualities aremainly responsible for the wholesomeinvigorating properties of Borage.Borage imparts pleasant flavour andcooling effect to beverages. In India,squashes and syrups, sold during summer,contain Borage extract.Borage contains ascorbic acid(38 mg/100 g). Flowers contain cholin,glucose, fructose, amino acids, tannin(about 3%). Seeds contain protein(20.9%) and an oil (38.3%). The seedoil is one of the important sources ofgamma-linoleic acid and linoleic acid.Borage oil, combined with EveningPrimrose oil, is used in hypercholesterolaemia.Borage seed oil is used for rheumatoidarthritis, atopic eczema, infantileseborrhoeic dermatitis, neurodermatitis,also for PMS and for preventingheart disease and stroke. Only UPA(unsaturated pyrrolizidine alkaloids)free oil is given internally.Listed by German Commission Eamong unapproved herbs.It has been suggested that borage notbe used with drugs known to lower theseizure threshold such as tricyclic antidepressantsand phenothiazines dueto GLA content (only borage seed oilcontains significant amounts of GLA).(Francis Brinker.)Borassus flabellifer Linn.Family ◮ Palmae; Arecaceae.Habitat ◮ Coastal areas of Bengal,Bihar and Western and EasternPeninsula.English ◮ Palmyra Palm, Brab tree.B

98 Borreria articularis (Linn. f.) F. N. Williams.BAyurvedic ◮ Taala, Taada, Trinraj,Mahonnata, Lekhyapatra.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Panai, Panaimaram.Action ◮ Fresh sap—diuretic, cooling,antiphlegmatic, laxative, antiinflammatory.Slightly fermentedjuice is given in diabetes. Palmjaggery—usedas an energy foodfor convalscents. Ash of dryspadix—antacid, antibilious (usedin heartburn). Young root, terminalbuds, leaf-stalks—used in gastritisand hiccups.Thesapisgivenasatonictoasthmaticand anaemic patients. Jaggery isgiven for anaemia, for diseases characterizedby a marked loss of potassium.Palm candy is used in coughs and pulmonaryaffections and as a laxative forchildren.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends dried male inflorescencein dysuria.Jaggery solution may be used in hypertensionand oedema due to heartand liver diseases, also as a food fortyphoid patients.The sap is an excellent source of biologicallyavailable riboflavin.Aqueous MeOH extract of youngshoots contains heat-stable toxin; ediblepart of young shoot, neurotoxic torats, but not hepatotoxic.Dosage ◮ Dried male inflorescence—1–3 g (API Vol. III.)Borreria articularis(Linn. f.) F. N. Williams.Synonym ◮ B. hispada (L.) K. Sch.Spermacoce hispida Linn.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, asa weed in cultivated and sallowlands and pastures.English ◮ Shaggy Button Weed.Ayurvedic ◮ Madana-ghanti.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nathaichoori.Folk ◮ Ghanti-chi-bhaaji (Maharashtra),Gatbhanjan, Satgathiyaa.Action ◮ Herb—used in the treatmentof headache. Root—prescribed asa mouthwash in toothache. Leaf—juiceisgivenasanastringentin haemorrhoids. Seeds—usedas demulcent in diarrhoea anddysentery.The weed contains beta-sitosterol,ursolic acid and D-mannitol. It is richin calcium and phosphorus. Isorhamnetin,a flavonoid, is reported in theseeds.Boswellia serrata Roxb.Family ◮ Burseraceae.Habitat ◮ The drier parts ofPeninsular India.English ◮ Indian Frankincense,Indian Olibanum.Ayurvedic ◮ Shallaki, Susravaa,Gajabhakshyaa, Salai. Gum—Kunduru.Unani ◮ Kundur (gum).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Parangisambirani,Kungli.Folk ◮ Salai Guggul.

Brassica campestris Linn. var. rapa (L.) Hartm. 99Action ◮ Gum-resin—antiseptic,anti-inflammatory, antiatherosclerotic,emmenagogue, analgesic,sedative, hypotensive. Also usedin obesity, diarrhoea, dysentery,piles, urinary disorders, scrofulousaffections. Oil—used topically inchronic ulcers, ringworm.Nonphenolic fraction of gum-resinexhibited marked sedative and analgesiceffect in rats. It produced amarked and long-lasting hypotensionin anaesthetized dogs.Many derivatives of 3-keto-methylbeta-boswellicester, isolated from thegum-resin., have been prepared; a pyrazolinederivative exhibited maximumanti-inflammatory activity.(Gum-resin is used in osteoarthritis,juvenile rheumatoid arthritis, softtissue fibrositis and spondylitis, alsofor cough, bronchitis, asthma, mouthsores.)Essential oil from gum-resin—antifungal.Gum-resin contains triterpenes ofoleanane, ursane and euphane series.Stem and fruit—hypoglycaemic.Dosage ◮ Gum-resin—1–3 g (APIVol. IV.)Brassica alba (L.) Boiss.Synonym ◮ Sinapis alba L.Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of Europe and WestAsia. Cultivated in North India asacrop.English ◮ White Mustard.Ayurvedic ◮ Siddhaartha, ShvetaSarshapa, Sarshapa-Gaura.Unani ◮ Khardal Safed.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Venkadugu.Folk ◮ Safed Raai.Action ◮ Stimulant to gastric mucosa,increases pancreatic secretions;emetic (used in narcotic poisoning),diaphoretic, rubefacient. (Asa counter-irritant it increasesflow of blood to a specific area.)Used externally as a poultice inbronchitis, pleurisy, intercostalneuralgia, chilbains.Seeds contain glucosinolates.Sinalbin in B. alba and sinigrin in B.juneja oil are toxic constituents. Theoil with toxic constituents should beavoided in gastrointestinal ulcers andkidney disorders. When moistened,sinigrin in the seeds is degraded toallyl isothiocyanate, a potent irritantvolatile oil. (Francis Brinker.)Glucosinolates are goitrogenic. Excessiveconsumption of Brassica sp.vegetables may alter absorption of thyroidhormone in G2 tract. (Sharon M.Herr.)Brassica campestris Linn. var.rapa (L.) Hartm.Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated as an oil-yieldingcrop.English ◮ Field Mustard, TurnipRape.Ayurvedic ◮ Sarshapa, Siddhaartha.Unani ◮ Sarson.B

100 Brassica juncea (Linn.) Czern. & Coss.BSiddha/Tamil ◮ Kadugu.Action ◮ Stimulant, diuretic, emetic,rubefacient, counter-irritant. Usedexternally for bronchitis andrheumatic pains (increases flow ofblood to a specific area). Powderedseeds are used as a tea for colds,influenza and fever.The seeds contain glycosinolates(the derivatives are responsible for toxicity).The concentration of the majorglucosinolate, gluco-napin, variesfrom0.64 to 1.8% in the oil-free meal ofIndian brassicas. The glucosinolatesin rapeseed meal split upon enzymatichydrolysis to produce glucose, potassium,hydrogen sulphate and a sulphurcontainingcompound which undergoesintramolecular rearrangement togive rise to the antinutritional factors,isothiocyanates or thiocyanates.The volatile oil of mustard is giveninternally in colic; in overdoses it ishighly poisonous and produces gastroentericinflammations. It is employedexternally as a liniment for rheumaticpains.Adulteration of mustard oil withargemone oil (Argemone mexicana isfrequently found growing in brassicafields), by accident or by design, has ledto the widespread epidemics of dropsyand glaucoma due to an alkaloidsanguinarine.Black mustard contains sinigrin,which on hydrolysis by enzyme myrosin,produces allyisothiocynate; thewhitemustardcontainssinalbin, whichproduces p-hydroxybenzyl isothiocynate.Mucilage contains sinapine.Dosage ◮ Seed—500 mg to 1 g paste.(API Vol. III.)Brassica juncea(Linn.) Czern. & Coss.Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab, WestBengal, Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat.English ◮ Chinese Mustard, BrownMustard.Ayurvedic ◮ Raajikaa, Aasuri Raai,Tikshnagandhaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadugu.Folk ◮ RaaiAction ◮ Raai is a substitute forMustard. Antidysenteric, stomachic,diaphoretic, anthelmintic.Increases pancreatic secretions.A decoction of seeds is given inindigestion, cough. Used externallyas a counter-irritant in severalcomplaints of nervous systems.Brassica napus Linn.Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab,Bengal and Bihar.English ◮ Mustard, Indian Rape.Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna-Sarshapa,Raajakshavaka, Kattaka, Katusneha,Tantubha, Siddhaartha,Siddhaarthaka, Siddhaartha-sita,Rakshogna. (White variety ofSarshapa is also equated withSiddhaartha. Asita and Rakta seedvarieties are reddish; Gaur andSiddhaartha are whitish.)Unani ◮ Kaali Sarson.Action ◮ Emollient, diuretic,anticatarrhal.

Bridelia montana Willd. 101The oil gave brassino steroid—brasinolide.Seeds gave a antithyroid compound,5-vinyl-2-oxazolidinethone;thioglucosides and thioglucosinolates.The seed oil is said to dissolves gallstone.Brassica nigra (Linn.) Koch.Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab, UttarPradesh and Tamil Nadu.English ◮ Black Mustard.Ayurvedic ◮ Banarasi Raai, Raajika(var.).Unani ◮ Khardal Siyah.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadugu.Folk ◮ Raai.Action ◮ Seeds are used for treatingcoryza with thin excoriating dischargewith lacrimation, sneezingand hacking cough, nostril blockageand dry and hot feeling ofpharyngitis.The seeds contain glucosinolate sinigrin,which produces allyl isothiocyanatewhen mixed with warm water.Allyl isothiocynate acts as a counterirritantwhen diluted (1:50).Brayera anthelmintica Kunth.Synonym ◮ Hagenia abyssinica(Bruce)J.F.Gmelin.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to north-eastAfrica. Imported into Mumbai.English ◮ Cusso, Brayera.Folk ◮ Kusso.Action ◮ Anthelmintic. Administeredin the form of an infusionfor the expulsion of tapeworm(ineffective against hookworm,roundworm, whipworm). Irritantto mucous membrane; producesnausea, vomiting and colic in largedoses.Breynia retusa (Dennst.) Alston.Synonym ◮ B. patens Benth.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ The tropical Himalayasand Deccan peninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Bahuprajaa, Kaamboji(doubtful synonym).Folk ◮ KaaliKamboi(Gujarat).Action ◮ Used as a galactagogue (asa supporting drug in herbal compoundformulations). Spasmogenic.Bridelia montana Willd.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayan tractfrom Kashmir eastwards to Assam,and in Bihar, Orissa and AndhraPradesh.Ayurvedic ◮ Ekaviraa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Venge-maram.Folk ◮ Gondni, Asaanaa (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Bark and Root—astringent,anthelmintic. Used in the treatmentof bone fracture.B

102 Bridelia retusa (Linn.) Spreng.BThe root contains 5.7% tannins.The leaves contain beta-sitosterol,its beta-D-glucoside and a triterpenoid.Fructose, glucose and sucrosewere identified as the components ofthe glycoside.Bridelia retusa (Linn.) Spreng.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India up to analtitude of 1,000 m, except in verydry regions.Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaaviraa, Asana(Asana is equated with Pterocarpusmarsupium Roxb., the Indian Kinotree.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mulluvengai.Folk ◮ Gondani, Gondui, Khaajaa.Action ◮ Bark—astringent, usedin the form of a liniment inrheumatism. Paste of the stem barkis applied to wounds.The bark contains 16–40% tannin.Presence of a triterpene ketone in thebark is reported. The bark exhibitedhypotensive properties in pharmacologicaltrials. The extract of the barksignificantly increased the mean survivaltime of mice infected intracerebrallywith vaccinia virus. Ripe fruitpulp contains beta-sitosterol and gallicand ellagic acids.Brucea sativaNational Formulary of Unani Medicine,Part I, equated Jirjeer with Brucea sativaMill. or Nasturtium officinale R. Br.Nasturtium officinale, found in Europe,is known as watercress. Indiancress is cultivated in gardens as a creeper.Brucea is a totally different species(Simaroubaceae). Taraamirra of Unanimedicine should be equated with Erucasativa and not with Brucea sativa.Action ◮ Taraamiraa (Jirjeer)—used in Unani medicine as a spermatictonic (powder of seeds isadministered with a half-fried egg),also as a blood purifier, diuretic,emmenagogue and deobstruent.Leaf juice—used as a lotion forblotches, spots and blemishes.Nasturtium officinale (Brassicaceae):Antiscorbutic and stimulant. A richsource of vitamins A and E, also ofascorbic acid. Seeds contain gluconcasturtin.Used for metabolic disorders,anaemia, strangury, kidney andbladder disorders and catarrh of therespiratory tract.Eruca sativa Mill.: Cultivated inNorth India; known as Taraamiraa,Siddhaartha, Bhutaghna. Seeds areused like mustard. Seeds—antibacterial.Crude juice of the plant inhibitedE. coli, S. typhi and B. subtlis. Seedscontain (4-Me-thio)-Bu-glucosinolate(glucoerucin) as K and tetra-Me-Nsalts. A composition is used in indurationof liver.Brugmansia suaveolensBercht. & Presl.Synonym ◮ Datura suaveolens Humb.& Bonpl. ex Willd.Family ◮Solanaceae.

Bryophyllum pinnatum (Lam.) Kurz. 103Habitat ◮ Native to Mexico; grownin Indian gardens.English ◮Angel’s Trumpet.Action ◮ Leaf and flower—usedto treat asthma; to induce hallucinations.Can cause severetoxicity.All parts of the plant contain tropanealkaloids (concentration highest inthe foliage and seeds), particularlyatropine, hyoscyamine and hyoscine(scopolamine.)Brunella vulgaris Linn.Synonym ◮ Prunella vulgaris Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Bhutan at altitudes of1,400–4,000 m, in Khasi Hills andhills of South India.English ◮ Self-heal.Unani ◮ Substitute for Ustukhudduus.(Lavandula stoechas Linn.)Folk ◮ Dhaaru.Action ◮ Wound healing, expectorant,antiseptic, astringent,haemostatic, antispasmodic. Leaf—used in piles; and as a cooling herbfor fevers.The herb contains vitamins A, B, Cand K; flavonoids; rutin. Flower spikesare liver-restorative, hypotensive, antioxidant.Lupeol, stigmasterol and beta-sitosterolare obtained from the unsaponifiablefraction from the leaves, thesaponifiable fraction gave lauric,stearic, palmitic, myristic, oleic andlinoleic acids.Bryonopsis laciniosa(Linn.) Naud.Synonym ◮ Bryonia laciniosa Linn.Diplocyclos palmatus Jeff.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Bryony.Ayurvedic ◮ Lingini, Shivalingi,Chitraphalaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Iyaveli, Iyaviraali.Folk ◮ Lingadonda (Telugu).Action ◮ Seeds—anti-inflammatory,spasmolytic. Used for vaginaldysfunctions, as a fertility promotingdrug. Powdered seeds, alsoroots, are given to help conceptionin women. Plant is also used invenereal diseases.Bryophyllum pinnatum(Lam.) Kurz.Synonym ◮ B. calycinum Salisb.Kalanchoe pinnata Pers.Family ◮ Crassulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmand moist parts of India, especiallyabundant in West Bengal.Ayurvedic ◮ Parnabija, Airaavati.(Also known as Paashaanabheda.)Unani ◮ Zakhm-e-Hayaat.Action ◮ Leaf—disinfectant, antibacterial(used for boils, insect bites,swellings, burns, wounds).B

104 Buchanania axillaris (Desr.) Ramam.BLeaves, mixed with those of Aeglemarmelos, are given in blood andamoebic dysentery. Leaves are alsoeaten to control diabetes.Leaves yield glycosides of quercetinand kaempferol, and fumaric acid.Plant extracts—antifungal.Dosage ◮ Leaf—10–30 ml juice.(CCRAS.)Buchanania axillaris(Desr.) Ramam.Synonym ◮ B. angustifolia Roxb.Family ◮ Anacardiaceae.Habitat ◮ Dry deciduous forests inpeninsular India.English ◮ Buchanan’s Mango,Cuddapah Almond.Ayurvedic ◮ Priyaal (var.).Unani ◮ Habb-us-Simanaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mudaima, Saaraapparuppu.Action ◮ Kernel of seeds areconsidered best among Buchananiasp. Uses similar to those of B.lanzan.An ethanolic extract (50%) of theaerial part showed CNS-depressant activityin mice.Buchanania lanzan Spreng.Synonym ◮ B. latifolia Roxb.Family ◮ Anacardiaceae.Habitat ◮ Drier parts of India.English ◮ Almondette tree, Cheronjee,Buchanan’s Mango.Ayurvedic ◮ Priyaala, Piyaala,Kharskandha, Bahulvalkala, Taapaseshtha,Sannakadru Dhanushpat,Chaar.Unani/Tamil ◮Siddha ◮Saaraapparuppu.Mudaima, Morala (Tamil).Action ◮ Kernel—laxative, febrifuge.An ointment made out of thekernels is used to cure itch ofthe skin and to remove blemishesfrom the face. Oil from kernels—substitute for almond oil. Appliedto glandular swellings of the neck.The oil is a promising source ofpalmitic and oleic acids.Kernel lipids (65.6%), comprisedmainly of neutral lipids (90.4%), consistmostly of triacylglycerol (82.2%),free fatty acids (7.8%)andsmallamountof diacylglycerols, monoacylglycerolsand sterols.The kernels are used in Indian medicineas a brain tonic. The leaves arevalued as a cardiotonic.The leaves contain 2.64% tannins(0.35% gallo-tannins). The presenceof triterpenoids, saponins, flavonoidsand reducing sugars are also reported.Powdered or crushed leaves are appliedto wounds.The bark contains 13.40% tannins.The presence of alkaloids, saponins andreducing sugars is also reported.Gum (stem exudate) is antidiarrhoeal.Used internally in rheumatism.Dosage ◮ Stem bark—5–10 g (APIVol. IV.)

Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. 105Bupleurum flacutum Linn.Family ◮Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Bhutan and the KhasiHills, at 1,000–4,000 m.English ◮ Hare’s Ear.Folk ◮ Shingu (Himachal Pradesh),Sipil (Punjab), Thaanyo (Garhwal).Action ◮ Roots—anti-inflammatory,haemolytic, antipyretic. Used ininflammations, muscle stiffness,neurosis, pain and pyrexia. Rootsresolve inflammations of costalmargin and diaphragm.Key application ◮ Extracts havebeen used for the treatmentof chronic hepatitis, nephroticsyndrome and auto-immunediseases (WHO.).Therapeutic properties are attributedto saikoside or saikosaponins (yieldfrom roots 2.06–3.02%), a complexmixture of triterpenic saponins. Saponincontent varies with age. Saikosaponinsare analgesic, antipyretic aswell as antitussive; anti-inflammatoryon oral administration. In Japan andChina, roots have been used traditionallyin auto-immune diseases. Saikosaponinsform an ingredient of antitumourpharmaceuticals. A watersolublecrude polysaccharide fraction,prepared from the root, was reported toprevent HCl/ethanol-induced ulcerogenesisin mice significantly. Saikosaponin-d,at a concentration of morethan 5 μm, inactivated measles virusand herpes simplex virus at room temperature.Several sterols, possessing metabolicactivities and plasma cholesterolloweringactivity, have also been isolatedfrom the root.Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub.Synonym ◮ B. frondosa Koenig exRoxb.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up to1,200 m except in very arid regions.English ◮ Flame of the Forest, ButeaGum, Bengal Kino.Ayurvedic ◮ Paalasha, Kimshuka,Raktapushpaka, Kshaarshreshtha,Brahmavriksha, Samidvar.Unani ◮ Dhaak, Samagh Dhaak,Kamarkas.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Palasam, Purasus.Folk ◮ Tesu.Action ◮ Bark—astringent, styptic(prescribed in bleeding piles,ulcers, haemorrhages, menstrualdisorders), anthelmintic. Flowers—astringent, diuretic, emmenagogue(also given for leucorrhoea).A decoction of flowers is given indiarrhoea and haematuria, also topuerperal women. Seeds—clinicaluse of seeds as an anthelmintic drugis not considered safe in humans.Leaves—antibacterial. Stem bark—antifungal.An aqueous extract of flowers hasshown hepatoprotective activity againstCCl4-induced liver injury in albinorats.B

106 Butea superba Roxb.BExtracts of flowers have exhibitedsignificant anti-oestrogenic activity inmice. The seed suspension, on oraladministration to albino rats (175 and350 mg/kg body weight), showed 38.46and 68.75% cases, respectively, wherepregnancy was not interrupted but foetuswas malformed.Alcoholic extract of the whole plantproduced persistent vasodepression incats.The plant contains flavonoids andglucosides—butin, butrin, isobutrinand palastrin. Flowers contain butrin,coreopsin, monospermoside and theirderivatives and sulphurein; also chalcones.Dosage ◮ Stem bark—5–10 g powder(API Vol. II); flower—3–6 g powder;seed—3 g powder; gum—0.5–1.5 g(API Vol. IV.)Butea superba Roxb.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Central and SouthernIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Lataa-Palaash (orangeor orange scarlet-flowered var.).Action ◮ Seeds—sedative andanthelmintic; decoction emollientand used topically for piles. Seedoil—anthelmintic and hypotensive.Seeds exhibit haemagglutinatingactivity against human ABO redcells. Roots—hypotensive. Waterysap from stems is used for drinkingpurposes.Barkisusedintonicsandelixirs.White-flowered var. is equated withButea parviflora Roxb.Buxus wallichiana Baill.Synonym ◮ B. sempervirens Linn.Family ◮ Buxaceae.Habitat ◮ The Western and CentralHimalayas and Punjab.English ◮ Himalayan Boxwood tree.Folk ◮ Chikri, Shamshaad. Paapari(Garhwal).Action ◮ Wood—diaphoretic. Bark—febrifuge. Leaves—purgative,diaphoretic; used in rheumatism.Poisonous. Not a safe drug for“purifying blood”. Symptoms ofpoisoning are severe—abdominalpain, vomiting, convulsions anddeath.The mixture of alkaloids is referredto as buxine. Buxenine-G is cytotoxic.There is preliminary evidence thata specific Boxwood leaf extract (SVP30) might delay disease progression inHIV-infected patients. The extract isavailable through internet sources orAIDS Buyers’ Clubs. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)

CCaccinia crassifolia O. Kuntze.Synonym ◮Family ◮C. glauca Savi.Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Baluchistan.AvailableinIndianmarketasGaozabaan.Unani ◮ Gaozabaan. (Accordingto National Formulary ofUnani Medicine, Borago officinalisLinn. and other species of Boraginaceaeare used as Gaozabaan.)Action ◮ Leaf—diuretic, antiinflammatory,demulcent; used forstrangury, asthma and cough.The stems and leaves gave sapogenins—caccigenin,caccigenin lactoneand 23-deoxycaccigenin; rutin anda saponin derived from caccigenin.The leaves also gave a glucoside, caccinin.Caccinin and its aglucone caccinetin(which is the dimethylallyl esterof caffeic acid) is diuretic; saponinsexhibit anti-inflammatory activity.Flowers contain pyrrolizidine alkaloid,the diester of retronecine. Benzoicacid has also been isolated fromthe flowers.Cadaba fruticosa (L.) Druce.Synonym ◮ C. farinosa Forsk.C. indica Lam.Family ◮Capparidaceae.Habitat ◮ CommoninPunjab,Rajasthan, Gujarat, MadhyaPradesh and Tamil Nadu.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattagatti, Vilivi,Villi.Folk ◮ Kodhab.Action ◮ Root and leaves—deobstruent, emmenagogue; usedfor uterine obstructions.The leaves and stem bark gave alkaloids,L-stachydrine and L-3-hydroxystachydrine.Presence of quercetin,isoorientin, hydroxybenzoic acid, syringicacid, vanillic acid and 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzoic acid has alsobeen reported. The stembark containsan alkaloid cadabicine, and dry podscontain cadabalone.Caesalpinia bonduc(L.) Roxb. Dandy & Exell.Synonym ◮ C. bonducella Flem.C. crista Linn.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the hotterpartsofIndia. CommoninWestBengal and South India. Oftengrown as hedge plant.English ◮ FeverNut,BonducNut,Nikkar Nut.Ayurvedic ◮ Puutikaranja, Lataakaranja,Kantaki Karanja, Karanjin,Kuberaakshi (seed).

108 Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd.CUnani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Karanjwaa.Kazharchikkaai.Action ◮ Seed—antiperiodic,antirheumatic. Roasted and usedas an antidiabetic preparation.Leaf, bark and seed—febrifuge.Leaf and bark—emmenagogue,anthelmintic. Root—diuretic,anticalculous.The seeds contain an alkaloid caesalpinine;bitter principles such as bonducin;saponins; fixed oil.The seed powder, dissolved in water,showed hypoglycaemic activity inalloxanized hyperglycaemic rabbits.Aqueous extract of the seeds producedsimilar effects in rats. The powderforms a household remedy for treatmentof diabetes in Nicobar Islands.In Kangra, Himachal Pradesh, rootsare used in intermittent fevers and diabetes.In homoeopathy, the plant is consideredan excellent remedy for chronicfever.(Three plant species—Pongamiapinnata Pierre, Holoptelea integrifolia(Roxb.) Planch. and Caesalpiniabonduc (L.) Roxb. are being used asvarieties of Karanja (because flowersimpart colour to water). P. pinnatais a tree and is equated with Karanja,Naktamaala and Udakirya; H. integrifolia,also a tree, with Chirabilva, Putika(bad smell) and Prakiryaa; and C.bonduc, ashrub,withKantakiKaranjaor Lataa Karanja.)Dosage ◮ Seed kernel—1–3 g powder.(CCRAS.)Caesalpinia coriaria(Jacq.) Willd.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Grows abundantly inSouth India, also cultivated inNorth-western India and WestBengal.English ◮ American Sumac, Divi-diviPlant.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodivelam.Folk ◮ Libi-dibi; Divi-divi.Action ◮ Bark—febrifuge, antiperiodic.Pod—astringent (in piles).Fruit—semen coagulant.All parts of the plant contain tannin,the maximum amount occurringin the pods (69.4%). The tannins frompods comprise pyrogallol type of hydrolysabletannins and consists of gallotanninand ellagitannin. Divi-diviclosely resembles myrobalans both innature and contents of tannins. Seedscontain little or no tannin.The plant is used for treating freckles.Leaves contain ellagic and gallicacids, catechol and tannins.Ethanolic extract of the leavesshowed antifungal activity.Caesalpinia digyny Rottl.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Bengal, Assam andAndamans up to 1,000 m.English ◮ Teri Pods.Ayurvedic ◮ Vaakeri.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nunigatcha.

Caesalpinia sappan Linn. 109Action ◮ Root—astringent andantipyretic, used in phthisis andscrofulous affections.The roots gave a phenolic compoundvakerin, identical with bergenin. Theethanol-water extract of roots inhibitsthe growth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.The pods contain 28% tannin (withoutseeds, more than 54%). The barkcontains 28% tannin (without seeds,more than 54%). The tannin is puregallo-tannin and gallic acid.Dosage ◮ Root—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Caesalpinia pulcherrima Sw.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardensthroughout India.English ◮ Barbados Pride, PeacockFlower.Ayurvedic ◮ Padangam, Ratnagandhi,Krishnachuudaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mayirkonrai, Nalal.Folk ◮ Guleturaa, Sankeshwara.Action ◮ Leaves—laxative, antipyretic.Used in Eastern Indiaas a substitute for senna. Driedand powdered leaves are used inerysipelas. Flowers—anthelmintic.Also used for cough and catarrh.Root—a decoction is prescribedin intermittent fevers. Bark—emmenagogue, abortifacient.The plant contains a flavonoid, myricitroside.The leaves, flowers andfruits contain tannins, gums, resin,benzoic acid. Presence of cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside is also reported fromthe flowers, hydrocyanic acid from theleaves. The root contains caesalpin typediterpenoids along with sitosterol.The leaves have displayed anticanceractivity in laboratory animals. A diterpenoid,isolated from the root, alsoshowed anticancer activity.In Pakistan, the leaf and flower extractexhibited activity against Grampositivebacteria.Caesalpinia sappan Linn.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to India andMalaysia. Cultivated in Bengal andSouth India, also grown as a hedgeplant.English ◮ Sappan.Ayurvedic ◮ Pattanga, Patanga,Pattraanga, Raktasaara, Ranjana,Pataranjaka, Suranga, Kuchandana.Unani ◮ Bakam.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Patangam, Anaikuntrumani.Folk ◮ Patang.Action ◮ Wood decoction—emmenagogue, antidiarrhoeal; usedin skin diseases.The heartwood gave an anti-inflammatoryprinciple brazilin; amyrin glucoside,amino acids and carbohydrates.EtOH (50%) extract of stem exhibitedsemen coagulant activity.Aqueous and chloroform extracts ofthe wood exhibited inhibitory actionC

110 Cajanus cajan (Linn.) Millsp.Con cyclic AMP phosphodiesterase. Themethanolic extract of the sappan lignanshowed sleep-time-elongation effectin mice. Significant anti-hypercholesterolaemicactivity is attributed to benziliccompounds.The oil exhibited antibacterial andantifungal activity.Plant pigments find use in facialswhich are resistant to light, heat andwater and are non-irritating.Dosage ◮ Heartwood—5–10 g (APIVol. IV.)Cajanus cajan (Linn.) Millsp.Synonym ◮ C. indicus Spreng.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated as pulse crop,chiefly in Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,Uttar Pradesh and Karnataka.English ◮ Pigeon Pea, Red Gram.Ayurvedic ◮ Aadhaki, Tuvari, Tuvara,Shanapushpikaa.Unani ◮ Arhar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thuvarai.Action ◮ Green leaves are consideredhypocholesterolaemic. Pulse showscholesterol and phospholipidlowering effect (reported to causeflatulence). A paste of leaves withsalt and water, is taken on an emptystomach for jaundice. Leaves areused in diseases of the mouth, andtopically for treating measles andother eruptions.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaindicated the use of the seed inlipid disorders and obesity; externallyfor promoting breast development,and attributed blood purifying propertiesto the root.Amino acid analysis of the seed extractshowed that phenylalanine(26.3% of the total amino acids) isresponsible for about 70% of the antisicklingpotency of the seed extract.Seeds also contain riboflavin andpyridoxine. Root bark contains isoflavones,sterols, triterpenoids, flavones,anthraquinone derivatives. Plant alsocontains an isoflavone, cajanol.The aqueous extract of leavesshowed vasodilatory effect in experimentalanimals.Unroasted nuts had hypoglycaemiceffect in mice; roasted seeds, in contrast,had a hyperglycaemic effect.(Sharon M. Herr.)Dosage ◮ Root—2–6 g powder. (APIVol. III.)Calamus rotang Linn.Synonym ◮C. roxburghii Griff.Family ◮ Palmae; Arecaceae.Habitat ◮ Central and South India.English ◮ Rotang, Rattan, ChairBottom Cane.Ayurvedic ◮Vetra, Abhrapushpa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pirambu.Action ◮ Astringent, antidiarrhoeal,anti-inflammatory (used in chronicfevers,piles,abdominaltumours,strangury), antibilious, spasmolytic.Wood—vermifuge.

Calendula officinalis Linn. 111The plant is used in convulsions andcramps. Thepresenceofasaponininthe stem, an alkaloid in the leaves anda flavonoid in the root is reported.Calamus tenuis Roxb.Synonym ◮ C. amarus Lour.Family ◮ Palmae; Arecaceae.Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayan tractfrom Dehra Dun to Assam.English ◮ Bareilly Cane.Ayurvedic ◮ Vetra (var.) (Vetasa,Salix caprea Linn., is a differentdrug).Action ◮ See C. rotang.Calamus travancoricusBedd. ex Hook. f.Family ◮ Palmae; Arecaceae.Habitat ◮ Deccan peninsula, fromMalabar to Travancore.English ◮ Cane.Ayurvedic ◮ Vetra.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pirambu.Action ◮ Tender leaves are used indyspepsia, biliousness and as ananthelmintic. See C. rotang.Calendula officinalis Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India; wild inPunjab.English ◮ Pot-Marigold, Marigold;Calendula.Unani ◮ Zergul.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thulvkka Saamanthi.Action ◮ Flowers—anti-inflammatory,antiseptic, stimulant,antispasmodic, emmenagogue,antihaemorrhagic, styptic. Usedin gastric and duodenal ulcersand dysmenorrhoea; externallyfor cuts, bruises, burns, scalds.Plant—antiprotozoal. Flower—antimicrobial. Essential oil—antibacterial.Key application ◮ In inflammation ofthe oral and pharyngeal mucosa, internallyand externally. Externally,on poorly healing wounds, ulcuscruris.(German Commission E,WHO, ESCOP.) Anti-inflammatory,vulnerary. (The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)The flowers contain triterpenes,sterols, flavonoids, carotenes, bitterglycosides, resins, volatile oil, mucilage(do not contain tannins). Polysaccharidesfrom flowers exhibited immunostimulatingand antitumour activity inseveral in vitro test systems.An alcoholic extract has been shownto have antitrichomonal activity.Wound healing and anti-inflammatoryproperties are attributed to Mnand carotene. An aqueous alcoholic extractof florets showed CNS inhibitoryeffect with marked sedative activity inexperimental animals.The extract of flower-heads exhibitedestrogenic activity (reduces periodpains and regulates menstrual bleeding).Calephlone, the extract containingthe total polyphenols of the inflores-C

112 Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl.Ccence, has a marked cholagogic effectin rats and has been found helpful inthe treatment of CCl4-induced hepatitis.A hypocholesterolaemic saponinhas been extracted from the plant.Callicarpa macrophylla Vahl.Synonym ◮ C. incana Roxb.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tracts,from Hazara eastwards to Assam,up to 1,500 m.English ◮ Perfumed Cherry.Ayurvedic ◮ Priyangu, Priyangukaa,Priyaka, Gandhphali,Gandhpriyangu, Phalini, Vanitaa,Kaantaa, Kaantaahvaa, Shyamaa,Anganaapriya.Unani ◮ Habb-ul-Mihlb (Prunusmahaleb Linn., Rosaceae).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Gnazhal, Chokkala.(Fruits of Aglaia roxburghiana Miq.are used as Priyangu.)Action ◮ Leaves—applied hot inrheumatic pains. Smoked to relieveheadache. Seed—paste used instomatitis. Wood—paste used inmouth and tongue sores. Seedsand roots—employed as stomachic.Bark—used in rheumatism anddiseases of genitourinary tract.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia indicated the use of the fruitin emesis and giddiness.The seeds and leaves contain calliterpenoneand its monoacetate; theformer also contain fatty acids, betasitosteroland its beta-D-glucoside.Dosage ◮ Dried inflorescencespowder—1–3 g (API Vol. II); fruitpowder—1–2 g. (API Vol. IV.)Calophyllum apetalum Willd.Synonym ◮ C. wightianum T. Anders.Family ◮ Guttiferae; Clusiaceae.Habitat ◮ The evergreen forests ofWestern Ghats up to 330 m.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shirupinnai.Action ◮ Resin—antiphlogistic,anodyne. Seed oil—antileprotic.The leaves, stem, bark and root containfriedelin. Leaves also containcanophyllol and a triterpene lactone;stem, beta-amyrin; bark, apetalic acid.Heartwood contains a clathrate namedwightianone palmitic acid. Wood containsmesoinositol.Calophyllum inophyllum Linn.Family ◮ Guttiferae; Clusiaceae.Habitat ◮ Coastal regions, particularlyOrissa, Karnataka, Maharashtraand the Andamans. Also cultivatedas an ornamental tree.English ◮ Indian Laurel, AlexandrianLaurel.Ayurvedic ◮ Punnaaga, Tunga,Sultaan champaa, Naagchampaa,Raajchampaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Punnai, Punnagam.Action ◮ Oil of seeds—specific forscabies and other skin diseases,and for rheumatism. Used in the

Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br. 113treatment of genitourinary andvenereal diseases. Bark—juice istaken as purgative; pounded withwater is applied in orchitis, andfor dressing ulcers. Root bark—antibacterial, used for indolentulcers. Leaf—used in vertigo andmigraine, also for chicken pox, skininflammations, scabies, sunburn.Flowers and stamens—used asa substitute for Naagakesara (Mesuaferrea Linn.)The root bark and heartwood containxanthones. The xanthones exhibitedanti-inflammatory activity in ratsagainst carrageenan-induce oedema;also CNS depressant activity. Jacareubinand 6-deoxy derivatives exhibitedantiulcer activity in rats.Calophyllolide, a complex 5-Phcoumarinisolated from nuts, showedantiarrhythmic (as effective as quinidine),bradycardiac coronary dilator,and anticoagulant, also anti-inflammatoryand antiarthritic activity.Dosage ◮ Leaf, flower, bark—3–5 gpowder; 50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Calotropis gigantea(Linn.) R.Br. ex.Ait.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Madar (white-flowered),Giant Milk-weed.Ayurvedic ◮ Alarka, Raajaarka,Shvetaarka, Vasuka, Mandaar,Bhaasvanmuula, Dinesh, Prabhaakara,Ravi, Bhaanu, Tapana.Unani ◮ Madaar, Aak.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Erukku.Action ◮ Flowers—stomachic,bechic, antiasthmatic. Milky juice—purgative (gastrointestinal irritant).Roots—used in lupus, tuberculousleprosy, syphilitic ulceration.Leaves—juice poisonous. Used inexternal swellings. All parts—usedagainst bronchitis and asthma.The leaf extract showed antitussiveactivity due to the presence of alkaloidsand glycosides. The root contains glycosides0.60–1.42% on dry basis. Thelatex contains akudarin. Flowers containbeta-amyrin and stigmasterol.Dosage ◮ Milky juice—500 mg; leaf,flower, root bark—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Calotropis procera (Ait.) R.Br.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ An evergreen shrubdistributed in West and CentralIndia.English ◮ Swallow-Wart, Milk Weed,(purple-flowered), King’s Crown.Ayurvedic ◮ Alarka, Surya, Suuryaahvya,Vikirna, Vasuka,Tapana, Tuulaphala, Kshirparna,Arkaparna, Aasphota.Unani ◮ Aakh, Madaar, Ashar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellerukku, Erukku.Action ◮ The plant is used againstbronchial asthma (especially flowerswith black pepper). Leaves—usedfor treating chronic cases ofC

114 Caltha palustris Linn.Cdyspepsia, flatulence, constipationand mucus in stool. Seed oil—geriatric and tonic. Leaves, flowersand root-bark oil—antimicrobial(maximum activity in leaves).The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia indicated the use of the rootand leaf in asthma and dyspnoea;stem bark in diseases of the spleen.Root bark contains benzoyllineoloneand benzolisolineolone. Root,stem and leaves, also latex containbeta-amyrin. Flowers contain evanidin3-rhamnoglucoside. The plant containsa cardenolide, proceragenin, anantibacterial principle.The latex is given for treating epilepsy,also in painful, joints and swellings.The latex exhibited anti-inflammatoryactivity in carrageenan-and formalininducedrat paw oedema model.The herb can alter menstrual cycleand temporarily inhibit ovulation. Cardiacglycosides may be additive whencombined with Digoxin. (Sharon M.Herr.)Dosage ◮ Leaf—250–750 mg powder;root—1–3 g for decoction (API Vol.I); stem bark—0.5–1 g powder (APIVol. III). Milky juice—500 mg to 1 g(CCRAS.)Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory. Root—hypocholesterolaemic. Poisonoustohumanbeingsinmaturestages.The flowers contain flavonoids, 7-rhamnosides, 3-glucosides and 3-gluco-7-rhamnosidesof kaempferol andquercetin. Roots gave triterpenoidglycosides, which decreased serumcholesterol and total protein and increasedblood sugar equivalent to butadionein rats.EtOH (50%) extract of the plant exhibitsCNS depressant and hypotensiveactivity in rat.Calycopteris floribunda Lam.Family ◮ Combretaceae.Habitat ◮ Madhya Pradesh, PeninsularIndia and Assam.Ayurvedic ◮ Sushavi, Paaniyavalli.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Minnargodi.Action ◮ Leaf—antidysenteric; usedexternally for ulcers. Fruit—used injaundice.Leaves contain flavanolcalycopterin;flowers calycopterin and quercetin.Caltha palustris Linn.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Western temperateHimalayas from 2,500 to 4,000 m.English ◮ American cowslip, MarshMarigold, Water Buttercup.Folk ◮ Mamiri (Punjab).Camellia sinensis(Linn.) O. Kuntze.Family ◮ Theaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Assam,Darjeeling, Travancore, the Nilgiris,Malabar, Bengal, Dehra Dun andKumaon.English ◮ Tea.

Canarium strictum Roxb. 115Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Chaai, Shaahi, Shaayi.Thaeyilai.Action ◮ Stimulant, diuretic,astringent. In China, used fordiarrhoea and dysentery (causesgastrointestinal upsets and nervousirritability when consumed inexcess). Green tea: anticancereffects have been observed inChinese green tea, Camellia thea,extract; the extract of Japanese greentea showed antihepatotoxic effects.Important constituents of leaf budsand very young leaves are: caffeine,with a much smaller amount of otherxanthines (theophylline and theobromine);tannins (the main tanninin green tea is (−)-epigallocatechin);flavonoids, quercetin, kaempferol. Thestimulant and diuretic are due to caffeinecontent, the astringency due tothe tannins.Drinking tea lowers thiamine andthiamine diphosphate losses in urineand blood serum respectively but increasesniacin losses. Hot water extractof black tea facilitates Ca absorption inthe body experimentally. Tea may decreasezinc bioavailability.The tea, if added to the meal, significantlylower the availability of iron.Milk is as effective as ascorbic acid incountering the depressing effect of teaon iron availability (in vitro).The green tea catechin inhibited carcinogenesisin small intestines whengivenduringoraftercarcinogentreatmentto experimental rats. (−)-epigallocatechingallate and theaflavin digallatefrom green tea inhibited the infectivityof both influenza A and B virus(in vitro).Green tea, when added to a lardcholesteroldiet, decreased the cholesteroland triglyceride levels in fowls.Tea polyphenols exhibit hypocholesterolaemicactivity.Tea polyphenols—(−)-epicatechingallate, (−)-epigallocatechine galate,theaflavin monogallate A or B, andor theaflavin digallate—are used fortreating hyperglycaemia.Saponins from tea are used as antiulceragents.Concurrent use of tea and betaadrenergicagonists may increase therisk of cardiac arrhythmias. Caffeine,a component of tea, may increase insulinresistance. (Sharon M. Herr.)Canarium commune Linn.Synonym ◮ C. vulgare Leench.Family ◮ Burseraceae.Habitat ◮ AtreeindigenoustoMalaysia. Now grown in SouthIndia, particularly in Kerala andTamil Nadu.English ◮ Java Almond, Kenari Nut.Folk ◮ Jangali Baadaam.Action ◮ Fruit—laxative. Resin—anti-inflammatory. Tuber—styptic,bechic, diaphoretic.The essential oil from oleoresin contain34% anethole and a small quantityof terpenes.Canarium strictum Roxb.Synonym ◮C. sikkimense KingC

116 Cannabis sativa Linn.CFamily ◮BurseraceaeHabitat ◮ A large, deciduous treedistributed in West Ghats, Assamand Sikkim.English ◮ Black Dammar.Ayurvedic ◮ Raal Dhuup, MandDhuup.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karunkungiliyam(gum).Action ◮ Resin—used for chroniccutaneous diseases, such as psoriasis,pityriasis; as a linament inrheumatic affections. DammerOil—used for rheumatism, asthma,venereal diseases.Black dammer resin contains (+)-junenol, canarone and epikhusinal.The plant contains a sesquiterpeneketone—canarone.Canarium sikkimense King is knownas Gogul Dhuup in Nepal.Cannabis sativa Linn.Synonym ◮ C. indica Linn.Family ◮ Cannabinaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated all over thecountry. Commonly occurs inwaste grounds, along road side,often becoming gregarious alongthe irrigation channels of gardens.English ◮ Hemp, Indian Hemp.Ayurvedic ◮ Vijayaa, Bhangaa,Maadani, Maatulaani, Indraasana,Trailokya-vijayaa, Tribhuvanavijayaa,Shukranaashana, Ganjaa,Bhangaa. (Bhangaa is consumedorally; Ganjaa and charas are usuallysmoked.)Unani ◮ Bhang, Charas, Qinnab.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ganja.Folk ◮ Bhaanga.Action ◮ Hallucinogenic, hypnotic,sedative, analgesic, antiinflammatory,Hemp derivativesare suggested for treating glaucomaand as an antiemetic in cancerchemotherapy. All variants produceinitial excitement followed bydepression.Cannabis yields 421 chemicals ofvarious classes—cannabinoids, cannabispiransand alkaloids. More than60 cannabinoids have been isolated,the most important one is delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC).Toxic constituents are readily absorbed,excreted in urine and feces,stored in lipid tissues, especially CNS,crosses placenta. High doses in animalshave damaged developing embryosand resulted in birth defects.(Francis Brinker.)Dosage ◮ Dried leaves, afterremoving turbity—125–250 mgpowder. (API Vol. I.)Canscora decussata Schult.Family ◮ Gentianaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,ascending to 1,500 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Daakuni (used asa substitute for Shankhapushpi inWest Bengal)Unani ◮ Sankhaahuli.Folk ◮ Daankuni.

Capparis aphylla Roth. 117Action ◮ Anticonvulsant, CNSdepressant, anti-inflammatory,hepatoprotective.The plant contains calcium 0.38;magnesium 0.16; potassium 1.66 andiron 0.23 g/100 g; copper 18.97, zinc70.50; manganese 9.60, cobalt 3.15 andchromium 0.60 mcg/g.Roots contain beta-amyrin, friedelin,genianine and 16 xanthones includingmangiferin. Mangiferin is protectiveactivity against induced liver injuryin albino rats. Xanthones also showedactivity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis.Dried crude powder of the wholeplant exhibited anticonvulsant activityin albino rats.Canscora diffusa (Vahl) R. Br. exRoem. & Schultes (synonym C. lawiiWt.), found throughout India at1,100 m, is used as a substitute forC. decussata.Canthium parviflorum Lam.Synonym ◮ Plectronia parviflora(Lam.) Bedd.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the DeccanPeninsula, from Gujarat andMaharashtra southwards, and inBihar and Orissa.English ◮ Wild Jasmine.Folk ◮ Kaari.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karai, Kadan Karai,Nalla Karai, Kudiram.Action ◮ Leaves and fruits—astringent, antispasmodic; usedagainst cough. A decoction ofthe root and leaves is given in flu.Bark—antidysenteric.The plant contains mannitol (0.5%)and alkaloids. Canthium umbellatumWight is also known as Kaari.Capparis aphylla Roth.Synonym ◮ C. decidua Edgew.Family ◮ Capparidaceae.Habitat ◮ Rajasthan, Punjab andSindh; southward to Karnataka andTamil Nadu.English ◮ Caper Berry.Ayurvedic ◮ Karira, Krakar, Apatra,Granthila, Marubhoo-ruuha,Niguudhapatra, Karila.Unani ◮ Kabar, Kabar-ul-Hind,Kabar-e-Hindi; Tenti.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chhengan.Folk ◮ Tenti.Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory (used forenlarged cervical glands, sciatica,rheumatoid arthritis; externallyon swellings, skin eruptions,ringworm). Fruits and seeds—usedfor urinary purulent discharges anddysentery. Flowers and seeds—antimicrobial. The fruit is used asapickle.The root bark contains spermidinealkaloids, used for inflammations,asthma and gout.Activity of the seed volatiles againstvibro cholerae has been recorded.Aqueous extract of the plant exhibitsanthelmintic activity; seeds contain antibacterialprinciples—glucocapparin;C

118 Capparis moonii Wight.Cisothiocynate aglycone of glucocapparin.The blanched fruits, when fed torats at 10% dietary fibre level, showeda significant hypocholesterolaemic effect,which is attributed to its hemicellosecontent.Pickled fruits are use for destroyingintestinal worms.Dosage ◮ Leaf, root—50–125 mg(CCRAS.)Capparis moonii Wight.Family ◮ Capparidaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to NewZealand. Now distributed inKarnataka and Tamil Nadu.Ayurvedic ◮ Rudanti.Action ◮ Fruit—used in puerperalsepsis and septic wounds, also fordebility and cough.EtOH (50%) extract of aerial partsis CNS depressant.Fruits contain l-stachydrine, rutinand beta-sitosterol.Capparis sepiaria Linn.Family ◮ Capparidaceae.Habitat ◮ Dry regions of the country,also planted as a hedge plant.English ◮ Indian Caper.Ayurvedic ◮ Himsraa, Gridhnakhi,Duh-pragharshaa, Kaakdaani,Kabara, Kanthaari.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karunjurai.Folk ◮ Hains, Kanthaar.Action ◮ Antiseptic, antipyretic.Used for eczema and scabies.Leaves contain taraxasterol, alphaandbeta-amyrin and beta-sitosterol,erythrodiol and betulin.Dosage ◮ Root—5–10 g powder.(CCRAS.)Capparis spinosa Linn.Family ◮ Cappariadaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the Mediterraneanregion. Distributed inNorth-west India, Rajasthan, andPeninsular India.English ◮ Caper Bush.Ayurvedic ◮ Himsraa, Kaakdaani,Kabara.Unani ◮ Kabar.Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, deobstruentto liver and spleen, diuretic,anthelmintic, vasoconstrictive.Bark—given in splenic, renal andhepatic complaints. Juice of leavesand fruits—anticystic, bactericidaland fungicidal. Dried flower buds—used in scurvy.Plant gave glucosinolates—glucoiberin,glucocapparin, sinigrin, glucocleominand glucocapangatin. Rutinhas also been reported from plant.The root bark, cortex and leaves gavestachydrine. Stachydrine, when givento dogs, rabbits and rats, quickened thecoagulation of blood and reduced lossof blood.

Capsicum annuum Linn. 119Capparis zeylanica Linn.Synonym ◮Family ◮C. horrida Linn.f.Cappariadaceae.Habitat ◮ Common in plains asahedgeplant.English ◮Ceylon Caper.Ayurvedic ◮ Ahimsra (Himsraaand Ahimsra are synonyms).Vyaaghranakhi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aathondai.Folk ◮ Kareruaa.Action ◮ Root bark—sedative,stomachic, anticholerin, diureticfebrifuge. Leaves—applied aspoultice to piles, swellings, boils.The plant contains a saponin and p-hydroxybenzoic, syringic, vanillic, ferulicand p-coumaric acids. The leavescontain beta-carotene. The leaves andseeds contain glucocapparin, alphaamyrin,n-triacontane and a fixed oil.Aerial parts exhibited spasmolyticactivity.Capsella bursa-pastoris(Linn.) Moench.Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India asa weed in cultivated areas and wasteplaces, particularly in the temperateregionsuptoanaltitudeof4,200m.English ◮ Shepherd’s Purse, St.James’s Wort.Folk ◮ Mumiri.Action ◮ The herb or its juice extractsare employed to check menorrhagiaand haemorrhages from renal andgenitourinary tract. Also used indiarrhoea and dysentery and asadiuretic.Key application ◮ In symptom-basedtreatment of mild menorrhagiaand metrorrhagia. (German CommissionE.) The British HerbalPharmacopoeia reported antihaemorrhagicaction.Aerial parts contain flavonoids,polypeptides, choline, acetylcholine,histamine and tyramine.The extract of dried or green plantcauses strong contraction of the smallintestines and uterus of guinea pigs.A quarternary ammonium salt hasbeen isolated from the herb whichis reported to be responsible for itspharmacological activity.Young leaves contain vitamin A(5,000 IU/100 g) and ascorbic acid(91 mg/100 g); among other constituentsare hesperidin and rutin, whichreduced permeability of blood vesselwalls in white mice. A neoplasm inhibitorysubstance has been identifiedas fumaric acid. An inhibitory effectof the extracts of the herb on Ehrlichsolid tumour in mice was found to bedue to the fumaric acid.Major constituent of the essential oilis camphor.Capsicum annuum Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the WestIndies and tropical America; nowcultivated throughout tropicalregions of India.C

120 Capsicum frutescens Linn.CEnglish ◮Ayurvedic ◮Katuviraa.Chilli, Red Pepper.Raktamaricha, Lankaa,Unani ◮ Mirch, Filfil-e-Ahmar,Filfl-e-Surkh, Surkh Mirch.Siddha/Tamil ◮Milagay.Action ◮ Stimulant, acceleratesoxygenation of cells, encouragesadrenal glands to produce corticosteroids,increases gastrointestinalsecretion. Carminative, antispasmodic,antiseptic. Used externallyfor rheumatism, backache, lumbago,neuralgia, painful musclespasm.Red chilli contains capsaicin (0.1–1.5%), carotenoids, flavonoids, volatileoil; steroidal saponins (capsicidins, onlyin seeds).Capsaicin stimulates the circulationand alters temperature regulation; topicallydesensitizes nerve endings andacts as a local analgesic.Capsaicin produces a protective effectin rat lung and liver by strengtheningthe pulmonary antioxidant enzymedefence system. Acute capsaicintreatment causes release of substancedesensitization of the respiratory tractmucosa to a variety of lung irritants.Red pepper or an equivalent amountof capsaicin, when fed along withcholesterol-containing diets to femalealbino rats, prevented significantly therise of liver cholesterol levels.Vitamin P has been isolated from thechillies. Vitamin C gradually increasesduring maturation and reaches maximumat the semi-ripe or pink colouredstage and decreases thereafter.Capsaicin exhibited a hypoglycaemiceffect in dogs; insulin release wasincreased. (Phytother Res, 2001, Aug15(5), 391–4.)Dosage ◮ Fruit—30–60 mg powder.(CCRAS.)Capsicum frutescens Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated as a condimentcrop.English ◮ Bird Chilli.Ayurvedic ◮ Katuviraa.Unani ◮ Surkh Mirch.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Musi Milagay.Action ◮ See Capsicum annuum.Key application ◮ Externally, inpainfulmusclespasmsinareasof shoulder, arm and spine; fortreating arthritis, rheumatism,neuralgia, lumbago and chilbains.(German Commission E.) TheBritish Pharmacopoeia reportedrubefacient and vasostimulantaction.The plant contains hydroxybenzoicacid, hydroxycinnamic acid and ascorbicacid. Fruits contain up to 1% ofcapsaicin.Carallia brachiata (Lour.) Merr.Synonym ◮ C. integerrima DC.C. lucida Roxb. ex Kurz.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up toan altitude of 1,300 m, and in theAndamans.

Careya arborea Roxb. 121Folk ◮ Karalli, Kierpa. Varanga(Malyalam).Action ◮ Leaves—used in thetreatment of sapraemia. Bark—usedfor treating oral ulcers, stomatitis,inflammation of the throat.The leaves contain alkaloids (0.2%dry basis), the major being (+)-hygroline.Cardiospermum halicacabumLinn.Family ◮ Sapindaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains ofIndia, as a wild climber.English ◮ Ballon Vine, WinterCherry, Heartseed.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakatiktaa,Kaakaadani, Karnsphotaa,Shatakratulataa.Unani ◮ Habb-e-Qilqil.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mudukottan,Kottavan.Folk ◮ Kanphotaa, Kanphuti,Lataaphatakari. Used as Jyotishmatiin Bengal.Action ◮ Used in rheumatism,lumbago, skeletal fractures, nervousdiseases, amenorrhoea, haemorrhoids,erysipelas. The herb is usedin hairoils for treating dandruff,alopecia and for darkening hair.The plant extract showed significantanalgesic and anti-inflammatory activityand sedative effect on CNS. Thedrug also showed (transient) vasodepressantactivity.The leaves contain beta-sitosteroland its D-glucoside, an alkaloid, oxalicacid and amino acids. The presence ofa saponin and quebrachitol is reportedin the plant.The leaves and stem are used inpreparations used against commoncold. Alcoholic extract of the plantexhibits antisickling and antiarthriticactivity. Seeds have positive anabolicactivity and increase body weight byinducing a positive nitrogen balance.The alkaloid fraction from the seedsshowed hypotensive activities and cardiacinhibition in anaesthetized dogs;blocked spasmogenic effects of acetylcholine,histamine and 5-HT on guineapig ileum, biphasic effort on frog rectusabdominis muscle. The seeds alsoshowed antibacterial activity.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—50–100 mldecoction. (CCRAS.)Careya arborea Roxb.Family ◮ Barringtoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract, fromJammu eastwards to West Bengal,Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.English ◮ Kumbi, Slow-Match tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Katabhi, Kumbhika,Kumbhi, Kumbi, Kaitrya,Kumudikaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kumbi, Ayma.Action ◮ Bark—demulcent (incoughs and colds), antipyretic andantipruritic (in eruptive fevers),anthelmintic, antidiarrhoeal. Aninfusion of flowers is given afterchild birth.C

122 Carica papaya Linn.CSeeds contain triterpenoid sapogenols,sterols; leaves contain a triterpeneester, beta-amyrin, hexacosanol,taraxerol, beta-sitosterol, quercetinand taraxeryl acetate.Careya herbacea Roxb., a relatedspecies, is known as Kumbhaadu-lataain Bengal.Dosage ◮ Bark—50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Carica papaya Linn.Family ◮ Caricaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to West Indies andCentral America; now cultivated inUttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthan,Gujarat, Maharashtra and SouthIndia.English ◮ Papaya, Papaw.Ayurvedic ◮ Erand-karkati, Papitaa.Unani ◮ Papitaa Desi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pappaali, Pappayi.Action ◮ Ripe fruit—stomachic,digestive, carminative, diuretic,galactagogue. Useful in bleedingpiles, haemoptysis, dysenteryand chronic diarrhoea. Seeds—emmengagogue, abortifacient,vermifuge. Juice of seeds isadministered in enlarged liverand spleen, and in bleedingpiles.Key application ◮ Papain, theenzyme mixture extracted from rawpapain (latex of Carica papaya), hasbeen included among unapprovedherbs by German Commission E.Experiment-based as well as clinicalresearch indicate that papain maybe effective (in the treatment ofinflammations) in high doses (dailydose 1500 mg corresponding to2520 FIP units).Unripe fruit—emmengagogue andabortifacient. Latex—applied topicallyon eczema, ringworm, psoriasis, corns,warts, sloughing wounds, carbunclesand eschar of burns.Green parts of the plant and seedcontain an alkaloid carpaine. Seedsalso contain carpasemine.Latex contain enzymes—papain andchymopapain and alkaloids carpaineand pseudocarpaine. A proteinaceousmaterial from latex showed anticoagulantactivity; in higher doses it isheart depressant and as a spasmogenon smooth muscle of guinea pig ileum.An alkaloid solution showed depressantaction on heart, blood pressureand intestine.The anthelmintic action of seedsagainst Ascaris lumbricoides is due tocarpasemine.Papain, an enzyme mixture preparedfrom the fruit, seeds and leaf,hydrolyses polypeptides, amides andesters, particularly when used in analkaline environment, and is used indigestive disorders.Papain inhibits platelet aggregation,which may further increase the risk ofbleeding in patients also taking anticoagulants.Concurrent administrationof cyclophosphamide with papaincaused sever damage to lung tissues inrats. (Sharon M. Herr.)Chymopapin C is an immunosuppressiveenzyme from plant extract.Carpaine, extracted from the plant,

Carthamus tinctorius Linn. 123exhibited anti-tubercular activity, alsoantitumour in vitro, and hypotensive.Dosage ◮ Leaf—40–80 ml infusion;latex—3–6 g (CCRAS.)Carissa carandas Linn. var.congesta (Wt.) Bedd.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Christ’s Thorn, BengalCurrant.Ayurvedic ◮ Karinkaara, Karamarda,Krishnapaakphal, Kshirphena,Sushena, (Karamardakaa is equatedwith C. spinarum Linn.)Unani ◮ Karondaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kalakke.Action ◮ Used for acidity, flatulence,poor digestion, as a slimming diet.Juice of the fresh plant is used forinfected wounds that refuse to heal.Root—paste used for diabetic ulcer.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaindicated the stem bark in obstinateskin diseases, and the root in urinarydisorders.Alcoholic extract of roots exhibithypotensive activity. Roots yield cardioactivecompounds; cardiotonic activityis due to glucoside of odorosideH.Fresh fruits are rich in ascorbic acid(105 g/100 g fruit juice). The seeds arerich in potassium (360 mg/100 g freshmatter).Dosage ◮ Stem bark—48 g fordecoction. (API Vol. II); root—1–3 g (API Vol. III).Carissa opaca Stapf. Ex Haines.Synonym ◮ C. spinarum auct. non L.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the countryin dry regions, especially in Punjaband Kashmir.Ayurvedic ◮ Karamardikaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chirukila Chiru.Folk ◮ Jangali Karondaa. Garnaa(Punjab).Action ◮ Plant—cardiotonic. Root—purgative.The root contains caffeic acid, cardiacglycosides—odorosides B, C, Gand H, and evomonoside.Carissa paucinervia A. DC. is alsoequated with the wild var. of Karondaa.Carthamus tinctorius Linn.Family ◮ Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated mainly as anoil-seed crop in Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra.English ◮ Safflower.Ayurvedic ◮ Kusumbha, Vahinshikhaa,Vastraranjaka, Kusum.Unani ◮ Qurtum.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chendurakam.Action ◮ Oil—aids prevention ofarteriosclerosis, coronary heartdisease and kidney disorders asa polyunsaturated fat. Flowers—stimulant, sedative, diuretic,emmenagogue; used in fevers anderuptive skin conditions, measles.C

124 Carum bulbocastanum W. Koch.CCharred safflower oil is used inrheumatism and for healing sores.Key application ◮ Dried flowers—in cardiovascular diseases, amenorrhoea,dysmenorrhoea andretention of lochia; also in woundsand sores with pain and swelling.(Pharmocopoeia of the People’sRepublic of China, 1997.)Safflower contains carthamone, lignansand a polysaccharide. The polysaccharide,composed of xylose, fructose,galactose, glucose, arabinose,rhamnose and uronic acid residues,stimulates immune function in mice.It induced antibody formation in micefollowing peritoneal injection. Extractsof flowers have also been testedin China on blood coagulation, wherea prolongation of clothing time was observedand platelet aggregation inhibited.Chinese research indicates thatSafflower flowers can reduce coronaryartery disease, and lower cholesterollevels. Flowers and seeds exhibit lipaseactivity. The flower extract also exhibitedanti-inflammatory, sedative andanalgesic effect and inhibitory effecton spontaneous motor activity.The plant contains a propanetriolderivative, which can be used for thetreatment of circulatory disorders.Recent research suggests that improvingthe lipid profile might notbe as important to reducing the riskof cardiovascular disease as suggested.(Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Safflower is contraindicated in pregnancy,gastric disorders, excessivemenstruation, haemorrhagic diseases.Wild and thorny Safflower, growingin the arid tract of Haryana andPunjab (locally known as Kantiaari,Poli, Poiyan) is equated with C. oxycanthaBieb. The plant is diuretic.Seed oil is applied topically to ulcers.The plant contains a sesquiterpene glycoside.Aerial parts contain hinesolbeta-D-fucopyranoside.The plant alsocontains luteolin-7-glucoside.Dosage ◮ Leaf—3–6 g powder.(CCRAS.)Carum bulbocastanum W. Koch.Synonym ◮ Bunium persicum (Boiss.)Fedts.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; ApiaceaeHabitat ◮ Cultivated in the hills andplains of North India and in thehills of South India.English ◮ Black Caraway.Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna jiraka, Kaashmirajirak.Unani ◮ Jiraa Siyaah, Kamoonarmani.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shemai-shiragam,Pilappu-shiragam.Action ◮ See C. carvi.Carum carvi Linn.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe andWest Asia. Now cultivated in Bihar,Orissa, Punjab, Bengal, AndhraPradesh, and in the hills of Kumaon,Garhwal, Kashmir and Chamba.

Casearia tomentosa Roxb. 125Also found wild in the NorthHimalayan regions.English ◮ Caraway.Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna jiraka, Jiraa,Kaaravi, Asita Jiraka, Kaashmirajiraka,Prithvikaa, Upakunchikaa,Sugandha Udgaar, Shodhana.Unani ◮ Zeeraa Siyaah, Kamoon,Kamoon-roomi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shimai-shembu,Semai Seearagam, Karamjiragam.Action ◮ Carminative, antispasmodic,antimicrobial, expectorant,galactagogue, emmenagogue.Key application ◮ Seed oil—indyspeptic problems, such as mild,sapstic conditions of the gastrointestinaltract, bloating and fullness.(German Commission E, ESCOP,The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia recommended the seed inchronic fevers.The fruit contains a volatile oil consistingof carvone (40–60%) and limolinewithotherconstituents; flavonoids,mainly quercetin derivatives, polysaccharidesand a fixed oil; also calciumoxalate.The antispasmodic and carminativeeffects have been confirmed experimentally.The caraway has shown toreduce gastrointestinal foam.Both the seeds and the essential oilare classed as carminative in I.P.The essential oil shows moderateantibacterial and antifungal activityagainst several bacteria and fungi.Mixed with alcohol and castor oil, it isused for scabies.Dosage ◮ Seed—1–3 g powder.(CCRAS.)Casearia esculenta Roxb.Synonym ◮ C. ovata (Lamk) Willd.C.zeylanica (Gaertn.) Thw.Family ◮ Samydaceae; FlacourtiaceaeHabitat ◮ Peninsular India, up to1,800 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Saptachakraa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kakkaipilai, Kilar,Kottargovai.Folk ◮ Saptrangi (root and rootbark).Action ◮ Root—antidiabetic (usedin milder chronic diabetic cases),astringent, liver tonic. Frequentlyadulterated with the roots of Salaciachinensis Linn. and S. macrospermaWight.The crude aqueous extract of theroots has shown hypoglycaemic activity.The root gave leucopelargonidin,beta-sitosterol, dulcitol, a flavonoidand arabinose.Casearia tomentosa Roxb.Synonym ◮ C. elliptica Willd.Family ◮ Samydaceae; Flacourtiaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Nepal, ascending to1,000 m; throughout tropical India.Ayurvedic ◮ Chilhaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadichai.C

126 Cassia absus Linn.CFolk ◮Chillaa, Saptrangi.Action ◮ Root—hypoglycaemic.Root bark is used as a tonic inanaemic conditions.Fruit pulp—diuretic, purgative,Leaves—anti-inflammatory. Fruit pulp—diuretic.Ethanolic (80%) extract of the leavesshowed significant anti-inflammatoryactivity in rats. Oil extracted from theseeds in rubbed on sprains. Variousplant parts are used in neuralgia.Cassia absus Linn.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.Ayurvedic ◮ Chakshushyaa, Aranyakulathhikaa,Kataka.Unani ◮ Chaaksu.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Muulaipalyirai,Kaattukollu.Folk ◮ Ban Kulathi.Action ◮ Seed—bitter, blood-purifier,astringent, stimulant, diuretic. Usedtopically for leucoderma, ringworm,venereal ulcers and other skindiseases. Roots—purgative.Seeds gave sitosterol-beta-D-glucosideand alkaloids—chaksine and isochaksine.Chaksine is found to beantibacterial against Micrococcus pyogenesvar. aureus and Streptococcushaemolyticus. It stimulates contractionof different tissues of plain muscles,like uterus, intestine, bladder,and muscles in blood vessels. It depressesthe parasympathetic nerveendingsof certain organs like intestineand bladder. Chaksine has ganglionblockingproperty. Chaksine and isochaksinepossess a local anaestheticeffect intradermally. It producesa sustained fall in blood pressure ofanaesthetized animals and producesa weak anti-acetylcholine effect. Rootsalso contains anthraquinones and aloeemodin.Dosage ◮ Seed—3–6 g powder.(CCRAS.)Cassia alata Linn.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the West Indies.Found wild almost throughoutIndia.English ◮ Ringworm Cassia.Ayurvedic ◮ Dadrughna, Dadrumardana.Siddha ◮ Malanthakerai, Seemaiagathi (Tamil).Folk ◮ Daadmaari.Action ◮ Leaf—usedinskindiseaseslike herpes, blotch, eczema, mycosis(washerman’s itch). Dried leaves—in leprosy. A strong decoction isused for ringworm, eczema andherpes. Leaves are also used asa purgative.Young pods contain rhein, emodinand aloe-emodin. The antibacterialactivity of the leaves is reported to bedue to rhein. The roots contain anthraquinone.Emodin, aloe-emodinand anthraquinone contribute to thepurgative activity of the leaves androots. Crushed leaves or roots are

Cassia auriculata Linn. 127rubbed on to the skin to cure ringwormand to control Tinea imbricata,askinfungus.Cassia angustifolia Vahl.Synonym ◮ C. senna Linn. var. senna.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Sudan andArabia. Now cultivated mainly inTirunelveli and Ramnathpuramdistricts and to a lesser extent inMadurai, Salem and Tiruchirapallidistricts of Tamil Nadu. Also grownon a small scale in Cuddapahdistrict of Andhra Pradesh andcertain parts of Karnataka.English ◮ Indian Senna, TinnevellySenna.Ayurvedic ◮ Svarna-pattri,Maarkandikaa, Maarkandi.Unani ◮ Sannaa, Sanaa-makki,Senaai, Sonaamukhi, Sanaa-Hindi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nilaavaarai.Folk ◮ Sanaai.Action ◮ Purgative (free fromastringent action of rhubarktype herbs, but causes gripe),used in compounds for treatingbiliousness, distention of stomach,vomitingandhiccups.Alsousedasa febrifuge, in splenic enlargements,jaundice, amoebic dysentery.Contraindicated in inflammatorycolon diseases.Key application ◮ Leaf and driedfruit—in occasional constipation.(German Commission E.) Asa stimulant laxative. (The BritishHerbal Pharmacopoeia.) 1,8-dihydoxy-anthracene derivativeshave a laxative effect. This effect isdue to the sennosides, specifically,due to their active metabolite inthe colon, rheinanthrone. Theeffect is primarily caused by theinfluence on the motility of thecolon by inhibiting stationary andstimulating propulsive contractions.(German Commission E, ESCOP,WHO.) Seena has been included inI.P. as a purgative.Most of the Senna sp. contain rhein,aloe-emodin, kaempferol, isormamnetin,both free and as glucosides,together with mycricyl alcohol. Thepurgative principles are largely attributedto anthraquinone derivatives andtheir glucosides.Senna is an Arabian name. The drugwas brought into use by Arabian physiciansfor removing capillary congestion(pods were preferred to leaves).The active purgative principle ofsenna was discovered in 1866.Cassia acutifolia Delile is also equatedwith Maarkandikaa, Svarna-pattri,Sanaai.Dosage ◮ Leaves—500 mg to 2 g(API Vol. I.)Cassia auriculata Linn.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Wild in dry regions ofMadhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu andRajasthan. Cultivated in other partsof India.English ◮ Tanner’s Cassia.C

128 Cassia fistula Linn.CAyurvedic ◮Unani ◮Tarwar.Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Tarwar.Aaavartaki, Aaadaari.Aavaarai.Action ◮ Roots—used in skindiseases and asthma. Flowersenterintocompoundsfordiabetes,urinary disorders and nocturnalemissions.Pod husk contains nonacosane andnonacosan-6-one, chrysophanol,emodin and rubiadin.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—50–100 ml(CCRAS.)Cassia fistula Linn.Synonym ◮ C. rhombifolia Roxb.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated as an ornamentalthroughout India.English ◮ Indian Laburnum, PurgingCassia, Golden Shower.Ayurvedic ◮ Aaragvadha, Chaturaangula,Kritamaala, Kritmaalaka,Karnikaara, Shampaaka, Praagraha,Raajvrksha, Nripapaadapa,Raajadruma, Vyaadhighaataka,Aarevata.Unani ◮ Amaltaas, Khyaarshambar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sarakkonrai.Folk ◮ Amaltaasa.Action ◮ Flowers and pods—purgative, febrifugal, astringent,antibilious. Seed powder—used inamoebiasis.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia indicated the fruit pulp for constipation,colic, chlorosis and urinarydisorders.Pulp of the pod contains anthraquinoneglycosides, sennosides A andB, rhein and its glucoside, barbaloin,aloin, formic acid, butyric acid, theirethyl esters and oxalic acid. Presenceof pectin and tannin is also reported.Seeds gave galactomannan free sugarsand free amino acids; extract laxative,carminative, cooling and antipyreticproperties.Flowers gave ceryl alcohol, kaempferol,rhein and a bianthraquinoneglycoside, fistulin.Leaves gave free rhein, its glycosides—sennosidesA and B.Cassia javanica L., a related speciesfound in West Bengal, Maharashtraand Tamil Nadu, is used as a substitutefor Cassia fistula.Dosage ◮ Fruit pulp—5–10 g powder.(API Vol. I.)Cassia obovata (L.) Collad.Synonym ◮Family ◮C. obtusa Roxb.Calsalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Delhi, Rajasthan,Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, Maharashtra,Karnataka, Kerala andTamil Nadu.English ◮Spanish, Sudan Senna.Ayurvedic ◮ Maarkandikaa, Svarnapattri.(related species)Folk ◮Sonaamukhi, Sanaai.

Cassia sophera Linn. 129Action ◮ An adulterant of the truesenna. Leaves and seeds—purgativeand anthelmintic.Cassia obtusifolia Linn.Family ◮ Calsalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ From Jammu and HimachalPradesh to West Bengal, also incentral and western India, up to analtitude of 1,200 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Chakramarda, Prapunnaada.Folk ◮ Chakondaa, Chakwar,Pumariaa.Action ◮ Pods—Antidysenteric,antibacterial, antifungal. Seeds—used for ringworm and skin diseasesalso for cough, cold, asthma, and asa mild purgative in liver complaints.Cassia occidentalis Linn.Family ◮ Calsalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up toan altitude of 1,500 m.English ◮ Coffee Senna, FoetidCassia, Negro Coffee.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaasamarda, Kaasaari.Unani ◮ Kasondi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Paeyaavarai, Thagarai.Folk ◮ Kasondi (bigger var.).Action ◮ Purgative, diuretic,febrifugal,expectorant,stomachic.Leaves—used internally andexternally in scabies, ringworm andother skin diseases. A hot decoctionis given as an antiperiodic. Seeds—used for cough, whooping coughand convulsions. Roasted seeds(roasting destroys the purgativeproperty) are mixed with coffee forstrength.The pods contain sennosides andanthraquinones; seeds polysaccharides,galactomannan; leaves dianthronichetroside; pericarp apigenin; rootsemodol; plant xanthone—cassiolin;seeds phytosterolin; flowers physcionand its glucosides, emodin and betasitosterol.The volatile oil obtained from theleaves, roots and seeds showed antibacterialand antifungal activity.The seeds, when fed to animals, resultedin weight loss and also werefound to be toxic to experimental animals.Leaves are preferred to quinine asa tonic, seeds are considered as a haemateinictoxic and root is used as a hepatictonic.Dosage ◮ Seed—3–6 g powder;leaf—10–20 ml juice; root bark—50–100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)Cassia sophera Linn.Family ◮ Calsalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Ingardensashedgethroughout India.English ◮ Sophera Senna.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaasamarda.Unani ◮ Kasondi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ponnaavaarai.Action ◮ Leaves, seeds, bark—cathartic; considered specific forC

130 Cassia tora Linn.Cringworm and other skin diseases(bark may cause dermatitis); usedfor bronchitis and asthma.A paste of leaves is used for treatingpiles. An infusion of fresh leaves,with sugar, is given in jaundice. Plantis spasmolytic. Alcoholic extract ofleaves is intestinal and bronchial musclerelaxant.The leaves contain a flavone glycosideand sennoside. Root bark containsanthraquinones, chrysophanol,physcion and beta-sitosterol. Heartwoodgave isomeric derivatives, 1,2,7-trihydroxy-3-methylanthraquinone,along with sopheranin, beta-sitosterol,chrysophanol, physcion, emodin, 1-octadecanol and quercetin.Cassia tora Linn.Family ◮ Calsalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India asa weed.English ◮ Sickle Senna, RingwormPlant.Ayurvedic ◮ Chakramarda, Chakri,Prapunnaada, Dadrughna, Meshalochana,Padmaata, Edagaja.Unani ◮ Penwaad Taarutaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ushittgarai.Folk ◮ Chakavad, Daadamaari.Action ◮ Leaves—taken internallyto prevent skin diseases; appliedagainst eczema and ringworm;pounded and applied on cuts, actlike tincture of iodine. Seeds,soaked in water, are taken forspermatorrhoea. A paste made ofequal parts of leaves and seeds isgiven for jaundice. Pods are used indysentery.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicated the use of the seed inparalysis and hemiplegia as a supportingdrug.The leaves contain chrysophanol,aloe-emodin, rhein and emodin. Matureleaves possess purgative propertiesand are sometimes utilized to adulteratethe true senna; also used as anantiperiodic and anthelmintic.The leaf extract exhibited antifungalactivity against the ringworm fungusMicrosporon nanum.Seeds contain anthraquinone glycosides,naptho-pyrone glycosides, cassiasideand rubrofusarin-6-beta-gentiobioside.These constituents showedsignificant hepatoprotective activity.Thrachrysone, isolated from seeds,showed stronger antioxidant activitythan tocopherol and BHA.Chrysophanic acid-9-anthrone, extractedfrom the seed, was found to beactive against ringworm fungi.Dosage ◮ Seed—1–3 g powder. (APIVol. III.)Cassytha filiformis Linn.Family ◮ LauraceaeHabitat ◮ Throughout the greaterparts of India.English ◮ Doddar-Laurel, Love-Vine.Ayurvedic ◮ Amarvalli, Aakaashbel.(Cuscuta reflexa is also known asAmarvalli.)

Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don. 131Siddha/Tamil ◮Erumaikkottan.Action ◮ Astringent, diuretic (givenin dropsy and anasarca, also inbiliousness, chronic dysentery,haemoptysis and for supressinglactation after still-birth); piscicidaland insecticidal (used as a hair-washfor killing vermin).The plant contains aporphine alkaloids.Castanea sativa Mill.Synonym ◮ C. vulgaris Lam.Family ◮ Fagaceae.Habitat ◮ Darjeeling, Khasi Hills,Punjab and Himachal Pradesh.English ◮ Spanish Chestnut, SweetChestnut.Folk ◮ Singhaaraa (not to be confusedwith water-chestnut, Tripa natansL.)Action ◮ Leaves—astringent,antitussive and febrifuge (usedfor fevers and diseases of therespiratory tract). An infusion isused as a gargle in pharyngitis,proxysmal coughs, catarrh andwhooping cough. Nuts—extract, asplatelet inhibitor in thrombosis andatherosclerosis.The leaves contain tannins (8–9%)flavone glycosides, triterpenoids, ursolicacid, lupeol and betulin. Heartwoodcontains 61.4% tannins and 25.7% nontannins.The wood and bark contain 7–14 and 8–14% tannins respectively.Nuts are eaten raw, roasted or boiledlike potatoes. Nuts contain protein,calcium, phosphorus, thiamine, riboflavinand niacin; also tocopherols.Nuts, crushed with vinegar and barleyflour, are used against indurations ofbreast. The extract of nuts exhibits possibilityof its use as a platelet inhibitor inthrombosis and atherosclerosis. Leavesare inhibitors of pectinolytic enzymes.American chestnut and Europeanchestnut are equated with Castaneadentata and C. sativa,respectively. Bothare used for respiratory ailments.Casuarina equisetifolia Linn.Family ◮ Casuarinaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in coastalregions of Peninsular India.English ◮ Casuarina, She-Oak,Australian or Whistling Pine,Beefwood.Ayurvedic ◮ Jhaau, Vilaayati Jhaau.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Savukku.Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antidiarrhoeal.Leaf—antispasmodic,used in colic. Aerial parts—hypoglycaemic.The plant contains kaempferol glycoside,quercetin glycoside, cupressuflavone,tannins, shikimic acid, quinicacid, amino acids, sugars.Catharanthus roseus(L.) G. Don.Synonym ◮ Vinca rosea L.Lochnera rosea (L.) Reichub.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.C

132 Cayratia carnosa (Wall.) Gagnep.CHabitat ◮ Commonly grown inIndian gardens.English ◮ Madagascar Periwinkle(Vinca major L. Pich. and Vincaminor Linn. are known as GreaterPeriwinkle and Lesser Periwinklerespectively).Folk ◮ Sadaabahaar, Nayantaaraa,Nityakalyaani.Action ◮ The cytotoxic dimericalkaloids, present in MadagascarPeriwinkle, Catharanthus roseus L.Don, Vincea rosea L., and used forthe treatment of certain type ofcancer, have not been found in V.major.Catharanthus roseus (MadagascarPeriwinkle) : cytostatic, anti-neoplastic,slows down growth of cells by supressingimmune response. Vinblastineand Vincristine are said to prolongremission of leukaemia to more thanfive years. These chemotherapeuticagents are toxic to the nervous system.Vinblastine is also used for breastcancer and Hodgkin’s disease.Vinca major L. Pich. (Greater Periwinkle):astringent, anti-haemorrhagic;used for menorrhagia and leucorrhoea.Contains indole alkaloidsincluding reserpinine and serpentine;tannins.Vinca minor Linn. (Lesser Periwinkle):astringent; circulatory stimulant.Leaves—stomachic and bitter. Root—hypotensive. Used for gastric catarrh,chronic dyspepsia, flatulence; also forheadache, dizziness, behaviours disorders.A homoeopathic tincture is givenfor internal haemorrhages.Cayratia carnosa (Wall.) Gagnep.Synonym ◮ C. trifolia (L.) Domin.Vitis carnosa Wall.V.trifolia Linn.Family ◮ Vitaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmerparts of India, from Jammu andRajasthan to Assam and up to300 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Gandira.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tumans.Action ◮ Leaves, seeds, roots—astringent, applied to ulcersand boils. Leaves—diaphoretic(recommended in high fever). Rootgivenin anaemic conditions. Aerialparts—CNS active, hypothermic.The stems, leaves and rootscontain hydrocyanic acid. Presenceof delphinidin and cyanidin isreported in the leaves.Cayratia pedata (Wall.) Gagnep.Synonym ◮ Vitis pedata Vahl ex Wall.Family ◮ Vitaceae.Habitat ◮ Bihar, West Bengal andAssam, up to 900 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Godhaapadi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattuppirandai.Action ◮ Leaves—astringent and refrigerant(used for ulcers, diarrhoea,uterine and other fluxes).Aerial parts—diuretic, spasmolytic.Cedrela toona Roxb.Synonym ◮Toona ciliata M. Roem.

Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud. 133Family ◮Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract,Assam and throughout hilly regionsof Central and South India.English ◮ Red Cedar, Toon, IndianMahogany tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Tuunikaa, Nandi Vrksha.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tunumaram,Santhana Vembu.Folk ◮ Toonaa.Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antidysenteric,antiperiodic. Flowers—emmenagogue.Leaf—spasmolytic, hypoglycaemic, antiprotozoal.Bark and heartwood yielded tetranortriterpenoids,including toonacilin.Heartwood also gave a coumarin, geranylgernaloland its fatty esters. Toonacilinand its 6-hydroxy derivatives areantifeedant.Cedrus deodara (Roxb.) Loud.Synonym ◮ C. libani Barrel. var.deodara Hook. f.Family ◮ Pinaceae.Habitat ◮ North-western Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Garhwal, from1,000 to 3,500 m.English ◮ Himalayan Cedar, Deodar.Ayurvedic ◮ Devadaaru, Suradruma,Suradaaru, Devakaashtha,Devadruma, Saptapatrika, Daaru,Bhadradaaru, Amarataru, Amaradaaru,Daaruka, Devaahvaa,Surataru, Surabhuruha.Unani ◮ Deodaar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thevathaaram.Action ◮ Bark—decoction isused internally as astringent,antidiarrhoeal and febrifuge.Essential oil—antiseptic (used inskin diseases).The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia indicated the use of the heartwoodin puerperal diseases.The wood contains sesquiterpenoids;exhibits sapasmolytic activity. Alcoholicextract of the wood showedmarked anti-inflammatory activity inmice; alcoholic extract showed antibacterialactivity.The wood possesses diaphoretic, diureticand carminative properties, andis used in fevers and in pulmonary andurinary disorders.Himalayan Cedarwood Oil containstwo major sesquiterpenoids—alphaandbeta-himchalenes. Presence of butyricand caproic acids is also reported.The oil shows in vitro antibacterial andantifungal activity. It increases vascularpermeability. Needles, on steamdistillation, yield a volatile oil, rich inborneol and its esters. An alcoholic extractof the needles shows significantantibacterial activity against diptheriabacteria. The juice shows antiviral activityagainst tobacco mosaic virus andpotato virus.The bark contains 8-C methyltaxifoline,dihydroquercetin, 8-C methylquercetin,quercetin, sitosterol, andtannins 8.25%, non-tannins 6.95%(varies with the age of the tree). Analcoholic extract of the bark showssignificant activity against diptheriabacteria; aqueous extract of the driedbark showed anti-inflammatory activ-C

134 Ceiba pentandra (Linn.) Gaertn.City against acute and chronic inflammations.Aqueous extract of the barkis found effective in reducing sugarcontent of diabetic patient’s urine andblood to normal levels.Dosage ◮ Heartwood—3–6 gpowder. (API Vol. IV.)Ceiba pentandra (Linn.) Gaertn.Synonym ◮ Eriodendron anafractuosumDC.Family ◮ Bombacaceae.Habitat ◮ West and South India.Often found planted around villagesand temples.English ◮ Kapok, White Silk Cotton.Ayurvedic ◮ Kuuta-Shaalmali, ShvetaShaalmali.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ielavum (Tamil).Action ◮ Gum—laxative, astringent,demulcent (given in painful micturition).Unripe fruit—astringent.Root—diuretic, antidiabetic, antispasmodic(used in dysentery).Flowers—laxative; used in lochiorrhoea.Unripe pods—used invertigo and migraine. Seed oil—used in rheumatism.The plant contains linarin (acacetin7-rutinoside). Seeds contain fatty acids,diglycerides and phospholipids. Leavesare considered a good source of ironand calcium. Stem-bark extract—antimicrobial.Celastrus paniculatus Willd.Family ◮Celastraceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract up to2,000 m and South Indian hills.English ◮ Staff tree, Intellect tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Jyotishmati, Paaraavatpadi.Kangunikaa, Kanguni, Vegaa,Maalkaanguni, Svarnalatikaa,Kaakaandaki, Katuveekaa.Unani ◮ Maalkangani.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vaaluluvai.Action ◮ Seeds—nervine andbrain tonic, diaphoretic, febrifugal,emetic. Seed-oil—used for treatingmental depression, hysteria and forimproving memory; also used forscabies, eczema, wounds, rheumaticpains, paralysis. A decoction ofseeds is given in gout, rheumatism,paralysis and for treating leprosyand other skin diseases. Leaves—antidysenteric, emmenagogue.Root—a paste of root-bark isapplied to swollen veins andpneumonic affections.Key application ◮ As a tranquilizer(Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia)and brain tonic (The AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India). TheAyurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaindicated the use of ripe seed inleucoderma and vitiligo.The seeds are reported to contain thealkaloids, celastrine and paniculatine,which are the active principles of thedrug.In experimental animals, the drugshowed lowering of leptazol toxicity,motor activity and amphetamine toxicity,and raising the capacity for learningprocess. It showed significant CNSdepressant effect and a clear synergism

Centaurea behen Linn. 135with pentobarbital. The seed extractshowed hypolipidaemic effect and preventedatherogenesis in rabbits.The seed oil showed tranquillizingeffect and hastened the processof learning in experimental animals.It produced fall in blood pressure inanaesthetized dog, depressed the heartof frog, and was found to be toxic torats.In addition to the seed, 70% alcoholicextract of the plant showed sedative,anti-inflammatory and antipyretic,anti-ulcerogenic effect in experimentalanimals.Methanolic extract of flowersshowed both analgesic and antiinflammatoryactivities experimentally.Dosage ◮ Ripe seed, devoid ofcapsule wall—1–2 g; oil—5–15drops. (API Vol. II.)Celosia argentea Linn.Family ◮ Amaranthaceae.Habitat ◮ A common weed,occurring throughout India.English ◮ Wild Cock’s Comb.Ayurvedic ◮ Shitivaaraka, Vitunna.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pannaikeerai.Folk ◮ Shveta-murga, Sarvari,Sarvali, Surali.Action ◮ Flowers—used in menorrhagia,blood-dysentery. Seeds—antidiarrhoeal, also used in stomatitis.Whole plant—antibacterial,antiscorbutic and cooling.Tender leaves are rich in potassiumandinB1andB6.Analcoholicextractof the leaves and its flavonoids showedantibacterial activity, which was comparableto ampicillin and streptomycin.The seeds contain 11.6–17% of proteinand 6.4–10.9% of a fatty oil. Theseeds and roots yield triterpenoid saponins.An alcoholic extract of the seedspossess significant diuretic activity.Celosia cristata Linn.Family ◮ Amaranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Indian gardens, asornamental.English ◮ Cock’s Comb.Ayurvedic ◮ Jataadhaari.Folk ◮ Laal Murgaa.Action ◮ Seeds—demulcent; usedfor painful micturition, dysentery.Flowers—used in menorrhagia anddiarrhoea.The plant contains betanin, and severalsterols. The inflorescence containamarantin, isoamarantin, celosianinand isocelosianin. The seeds contain10.1–12.8% of protein and yield 7.2–7.9% of a fatty oil.Choline esters of hyaluronic acidfrom the plant, when fed to rats,showed antiulcer and gastro-protectiveeffect.Centaurea behen Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to Iran.Imported into India.C

136 Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban.CEnglish ◮Behman Safed, Behman-Unani ◮abyaz.White Rhapontic.Action ◮ Root—nervine and anabolictonic, strengthens central nervoussystem; also used in jaundice andaffections of the kidney.The roots contain taraxasterol, its acetateand myristate.Centella asiatica (Linn.) Urban.Synonym ◮ Hydrocotyle asiaticaLinn.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ In marshy places throughoutIndia up to 200 m.English ◮ Asiatic Pennywort, IndianPennywort.Ayurvedic ◮ Manduukaparni,Manduukaparnikaa, Maanduuki,Saraswati, Brahma-manduuki.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vallaarai.Action ◮ Adaptogen, centralnervous system relaxant, peripheralvasodilator, sedative, antibiotic,detoxifier, blood-purifier, laxative,diuretic, emmenagogue. Usedas a brain tonic for improvingmemory and for overcomingmental confusion, stress, fatigue,also used for obstinate skin diseasesand leprosy.Key application ◮ Extracts orallyto treat stress-induced stomachand duodenal ulcers; topically toaccelerate healing, particularlyin cases of chronic postsurgicaland post trauma wounds; alsoto treat second and third degreeburns. Patients suffering fromvenous insufficiency were treatedwith a titrated extract of the drug.(WHO.)Used in Indian medicine as a braintonic and sedative. (Indian HerbalPharmacopoeia.)Major constituents of the plant are:triterpenoid saponins—brahmoside,asiaticoside, thankuniside; alkaloids(hydrocotyline); bitter principles (vellarin).Brahmoside, present in the plant, isreported to exhibit tranquilizing andanabolic activity. Raw leaves are eatenor plant decoction is drunk to treathypertension.Asiaticoside, extracted from leaves,gave encouraging results in leprosy. Itdissolves the waxy covering of Bacillusleprae. Centelloside has also beenfound useful in leprosy. Asiaticosidereduced the number tubercular lesionsin the liver, lungs, nerve ganglia andspleen in experimental animals. Anotherderivative of asiaticoside, oxyasiaticoside,inhibits growth of Tuberclebacillus at a concentration of 0.15 ml/mlAsiaticosides are also hyperglycaemic.The asiatic acid acts against resistantbacteria, particularly Mycobacteriumtuberculosis and M. leprae as well asGram-positive cocci.Asiaticosides elevate blood glucose,triglycerides and cholesterol levels.They seem to decrease blood ureanitrogen and acid phosphatase levels.(Pharmacological findings. NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)

Centratherum anthelminticum Kuntze. 137Boiled leaves are eaten for urinarytract infections, and unfiltered juice forscrofula and syphilis.Extract of the fresh plant significantlyinhibits gastric ulceration by cold restraintstress in rats.In research, using rats, the herbexhibited protective effect against alcohol-inducedand aspirin-induced ulcers.(JExpBiol,2001, Feb, 39(2), 137–42.)Dosage ◮ Whole plant—3–6 g (APIVol. IV.)Centipeda orbicularis Lour.Synonym ◮ C. minima (Linn.) A.Br.&Asch.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ In damp places throughoutthe plains and low hills in India.English ◮ Sneezewort.Ayurvedic ◮ Kshavaka, Chhikkini,Chhikkikaa.Folk ◮ Nak-chhikani.Action ◮ Used for the treatment ofrhinitis, sinusitis, nasopharyngealtumors and obstructions, asthmaand cold; also used in hemicrania.The plant extract showed a good antitussiveand expectorant activity onmice. The flavonoids, sesquiterpenesandamideexhibitedsignificantantiallergyactivity in passive cutaneous anaphylaxis(PCA) test.Dosage ◮ Seed—1–3 g powder.(CCRAS.)Centratherum anthelminticumKuntze.Synonym ◮Willd.Family ◮Vernonia anthelminticaAsteraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India up to2,000 m in the Himalayas and KhasiHills.English ◮ Purple Flea-bane, Achenes.Ayurvedic ◮ Aranya-Jiraka, Vanajiraka,Kaalijiri, Karjiri. Somaraaji (alsoequated with Psoralea corylifoliaLinn., Papilionaceae).Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Kamoon barri.Kaattu seerakam.Action ◮ Anthelmintic (againstearthworms and tapeworms),stomachic, diuretic; used in skindiseases.Delta-7-avenasterol is the main activeprinciple of seeds. Seed oil containsvernasterol. Seeds bitter principleis a demanolide lactone. Centratherinand germacranolide from the leavesand stem have been isolated. Leavescontain abscisic acid. EtOH extract ofachenes exhibited good results in giardiasis.Various plant parts are used insyphilis. Clinical studies on vircarcikaeczema validated the use of the drug inskin diseases.The drug exhibited smooth musclerelaxantand hypotensive activity in animals.Dosage ◮ Seed—1–3 g powder.(CCRAS.)C

138 Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Brot.) A. Rich.CCephaelis ipecacuanha(Brot.) A. Rich.Synonym ◮ Psychotria ipecacuanhaStokes.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America.Now cultivated in Darjeeling,Assam, in the Nilgiris, and inSikkim.English ◮ Ipecac, Ipecacuanha.Action ◮ Root—Antiprotozal,expectorant (in low doses), diaphoretic,emetic (in high doses); used inamoebic dysentery, stubborn cough,whopping cough (for liquefyingbronchial phlegm).Key application ◮ As expectorant,emetic. (The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)The root contains isoquinoline alkaloids(consisting mainly of emetineand cephaeline); tannins (ipecacuanhaand ipecacuanhic acid; glycosidesincluding a monoterpene isoquinolinederivative); saponins; a mixture of glycoproteins;starch; choline; resins.The alkaloids are clinically useful inthe treatment of amoebiasis.Emetine and cephaeline are emeticdue to their irritating effect on stomach;cephaeline is more toxic. Emetineis a standard antiamoebic principle. Insmaller doses, both are expectorant.The fluid extract is 14 times strongerthan the syrup of the crude drug. Thepowder is toxic at 1–2 g.Emetine accumulates in liver, lungs,kidneys and spleen; traces are detectableafter 40–60 days. (FrancisBrinker.)Ceratonia siliqua Linn.Family ◮ Caesalpinaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab.English ◮ Locust Bean; St. John’sBread, Carob tree.Unani ◮ Kharnub Shaami.Action ◮ Pod and husk from seed—antidiarrhoeal (stools in gastroenteritisand colitis are known tosolidify within 48 h).The pods contain tannin from 0.88to 4.09%.Pulp of the pod contains 30–70%sugars, fats, starch, protein, aminoacids, gallic acid; leucoanthocyaninsand related phenolics. Leaves containcatechols.Ceratophyllum demersum Linn.Family ◮ Ceratophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ All over India fromtemperate to tropics, in ponds andlakes.English ◮ Coontail, Hornwort.Ayurvedic ◮ Shaivaala (also equatedwith Vallisneria spiralis Linn.,Hydrocharitaceae), Jalnili, Jalaja.Unani ◮ Tuhlub, Pashm Vazg.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Velampasi.Folk ◮ Sevaar.Action ◮ Purgative, antibilious,antibacterial.The herb is rich in protein, calciumand magnesium; contains ferredoxinand plastocyanin. EtOH (50%)extract—antimicrobial.

Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb. 139Dosage ◮ Whole plant—10–20 ml juice; 50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Cereus grandiflorus Mill.Family ◮ Cactaceae.Habitat ◮ Indian gardens.English ◮ Cereus, Night BloomingCereus, Sweet Scented Cactus.Folk ◮ Nivadung Paanchkoni(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Fresh, young shoots—cardiacstimulant, anti-inflammatory.The plant contains glucose, fructose,starch, amino acids and citric, fumaric,maleic, malonic and oxalic acids.Tyramine, a cardiotonic amine, canstrengthen heart muscle action.The flower, stem and young shoots ofcereus can stimulate heart and dilateperipheral vessels, as well as stimulatespinal cord motor neurons. Thereputed digitalis effect of cereus isclaimed to be non-cumulative. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Ceriops candolleana Arn.Synonym ◮ C. tagal (Perr.)C.B. Robins.Family ◮ Rhizophoraceae.Habitat ◮ Muddy shores and tidalcreeks of India.English ◮ Compound CymedMangrove.Folk ◮ Kirrari (Sindh, Maharashtra).Chauri (Maharashtra). Goran(Bengal, Sundarbans).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pandikutti, Pavrikutti,Pavrikutti, Kandal, Chira.Action ◮ Plant—astringent. Stembark—hypoglycaemic. Bark—haemostatic. A decoction is usedto stop haemorrhage and is appliedto malignant ulcers; also given afterchild birth.Shoots—used as a substitute for quinine.The leaves (dry basis) gave 15.45%tannin, 19.99% non-tannin; twig bark25.89%, tannin, 9.8% non-tannin; bolebark 41.42% tannin, 10.58% non-tannin.Presence of sitosterol, cholesterol,campesterol, stigmasterol, 28-isofucosteroland a hydrocarbon, squalene,is reported in the leaves.Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb.Family ◮ Asclepiadacae.Habitat ◮ Punjab and South India.Folk ◮ Khappar-kaddu, Bhuu-tumbi,Paataal-tumbi. Gilothi. Galot(Punjab). Gilodya.Action ◮ Tuberous root—used fordiarrhoea and dysentery.The fresh tubers are eaten afterremoving the bitterness by boiling.The bitter principle is an alkaloid,ceropegine. The tuber contains 42.52%starch and possesses refrigerant property.C

140 Ceropegia juncea Roxb.CThe aqueous extract of edible Ceropegiasp. contains steriods, polyphenols,sugars and potassium. It potentiatedpentobarbitone hypnosis and exhibitedanalgesic and diuretic activities.It also antagonized histamine-inducedasphyxia in guinea pigs.C. candelabrum L. var. biflora (L.)M. Y. Ansari, synonym C. biflora L.,C. tuberosa Roxb., C. intermedia auct.non-Wt., are also equated with Bhuutumbi,Paataal-tumbi.Ceropegia juncea Roxb.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular India.Folk ◮ Kanvel (Maharashtra). Bellagada(Telugu, Andhra Pradesh).(Soma is a disputed synonym)Action ◮ The plant extract exhibitstranquilizing, hypotensive, hepatoprotective,antiulcer, antipyretic,topically anaesthetic activities inexperimental animals.A pyridine alkaloid, cerpegin, togetherwith a triterpene, lupeol hasbeen isolated from the plant fromTiruneveli, Tamil Nadu.Cetraria islandica (Linn.) Ach.Family ◮ Parmeliaceae.Habitat ◮ Lichen found in the hillsfrom Tehri Garhwal to East Nepal.English ◮ Cetraria, Iceland Lichen,Iceland Moss.Ayurvedic ◮ Shaileya (black var.)Folk ◮ Charela (black var.)Action ◮ A food and tonic inconvalescence and exhaustingdiseases. Used for chronic catarrhand bronchitis.Key application ◮ In irritation ofthe oral and pharyngeal mucousmembrane and accompanyingdry cough. (German CommissionE, ESCOP.) Asdemulcent. (TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeia.) Asa bitter remedy for lack of appetite.(ESCOP.)The moss contains lichen acids (depsidones);mainly cetraric, protocetraric,fumarprotocetraric, lichestericand usnic acids; polysaccharides about50%—lichenin 40% and isolichenin10%; also furan derivatives, fatty acidlactones and terpenes. Lichenin isa moss-starch. Demulcent, expectorantand antiemetic properties are duemainly to the polysaccharides.The usnic acid and protolichesterinicacid in the lichen and its crude,aqueous extract showed antibacterialactivity against several pathogenic bacteria.Contraindicated in gastric or duodenalulcers due to its mucosa irritatingproperties. (Sharon M. Herr.)Lozenges containing 160 mg of anaqueous extract of Iceland moss, weredetermined to be positive in 86% caseswith good gastric tolerance. (ESCOP1997.)Cheiranthus cheiri Linn.Family ◮Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.

Chenopodium ambrosioides Linn. 141Habitat ◮ Native to South Europe,grownasanornamental.English ◮Unani ◮Wall-flower, Gilli Flower.Tudri (Surkh, Safed, Zard)Action ◮ Flowers—cardioactive,tonic, antispasmodic, purgative,emmenagogue, deobstruent (usedin liver diseases and sexual debility).Seeds— stomachic, diuretic,expectorant (in bronchitis andasthma); also goitrogenic. Juice ofleaves and seeds—antibacterial.Flowers contain flavonoids (quercetinand rhamnetin derivatives); seedscontain high levels of cardiac aglycones(30 cardiac glycosides have been isolated);oil contains cherinine, a glucosideof the digitalis group.In Unani medicine, the drug is usedas a tonic to the male reproductive system,but recent findings do not validateits therapeutic use. The flavonoid,kaempferol, isolated from the youngplant, inhibits spermatogenesis and altersleydig cell number and diameter,affecting the fertility.Chenopodium album Linn.Family ◮ Chenopodiaceae.Habitat ◮ A common herb. Itsleaves and tender twigs are used asvegetable and fodder.English ◮ Fat Hen, Lamb’s Quarter,White Goosefoot, Wild Spinach,Pigweed.Ayurvedic ◮ Vaastuuka.Unani ◮ Bathuaa, Baathu.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Paruppukeerai.Folk ◮Bathuaa, Chilli, Chilli-shaak.Action ◮ Laxative, anthelminticagainst round-and hookworms,blood-purifier, antiscorbutic.An infusion is used for hepaticdisorders, spleen enlargement,biliousness, intestinal ulcers. Usedfor treating burns.The leaves yield ascaridole, used fortreating round-and hookworms. Theoil also contain traces of ascaridole.Plant contains 8% saponins. Cryptomeridiol,isolated from the seeds,showed significant growth promotingactivity.Chenopodium ambrosioidesLinn.Family ◮Chenopodiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to West Indies andSouth America. Now distributedin South India, Bengal, Kashmirand Maharashtra in wet places withcultivated lands.English ◮ Indian Wormseed, SweetPigweed, Mexican Tea.Ayurvedic ◮ Sugandh-vaastuuka,Kshetra-vaastuuka.Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Khatuaa.Kattasambadam.Action ◮ Antispasmodic, pectoral,haemostatic, emmenagogue.Employed in treating nervousaffections, particularly chorea.Dried herb—anthelmintic againstround and hookworms.C

142 Chenopodium botrys Linn.CAscaridole, an active constituent ofthe oil, is highly active against roundworms,hookworms and small, but notlarge, tapeworms. It is highly toxic andcan cause serious side effects.The oil has been found useful inamoebic dysentery and intestinal infections(shouldbeusedwithcaution).Leaves contain kaempferol-7-rhamnosideand ambroside.A decoction of the herb is given as aninternal haemostatic and the infusionas an enema for intestinal ulceration.The infusion is sudorific and diuretic.The oil exhibits antimicrobial andstrong antifungal activity against humanpathogenic fungi.Chenopodium botrys Linn.Family ◮ Chenopodiaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalaya, fromKashmir to Sikkim.English ◮ Feather Geramium,Jerusalem-Oak.Folk ◮ Jangaddi (Tibbet). Sahanik,Vaastuuka (Ladakh).Action ◮ Stimulant, diuretic,carminative, antispasmodic, emmenagogue,pectoral. Used in asthma,catarrh; diseases of the stomach andliver. Seeds are considered toxic.The herb contains flavonoids (includingchrysoeriol and quercetin), alsoseveral sesquiterpenoids. Betaine isfound in all parts of the plant.Fresh herb yields an essential oil; Indianoil is reported to be devoid of ascaridole,the anthelmintic principle.Chloris gayana Kunth.Family ◮ Poaceae, Gramineae.Habitat ◮ Annual grass introducedinto India from South Africa;cultivated in tropical and subtropicallow-lying areas where rainfall is lessthan 125 cm.English ◮ Giant Rhodes, Rhodes-Grass.Folk ◮ Rhoolsoohullu (Karnataka).Action ◮ Aproteinaceousfactor,phytotrophin, isolated from thegrass, was found to have antigenicproperties similar to those of animalsex hormones and human chorionicgonadotrophin.A related species, Chloris incompletaRoth.,knownasBamnaainRajasthanand Mathania in Uttar Pradesh, hasbeen equated with Ayurvedic classicalherbs Manthaanak and Trnaaddhip.Another species, C. virgata Benth. &Hook. f., known as Gharaniyaa-ghassin Rajasthan, is used for the treatmentof colds and rheumatism.Chlorophytum arundinaceumBaker.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalaya from Nepalto Bhutan, Assam and Bihar.Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta-Musali. (Considereddifferent from Asparagusadscendens Roxb.)Unani ◮ Musali Safed, Biskandri.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vallaimusali.Folk ◮ Nising, Tibbati Ginseng.

Chondodendron tomentosum Ruiz et Par. 143Action ◮ Tuber—nervine andgeneral tonic. The plant is used asa substitute for onion. Fried powderof the root is chewed in aphthae ofmouth and throat. A decoction ofthe root with turmeric is given inrheumatism.The roots contain a bibenzyl xyloside,the steroidal sapogenins, besidesstigmasterol and its glucoside, nonacosaneand tetracosanoic, and triacontanoicacids.The root extract exhibited goodadaptogenic properties. The fruitsyield a polysaccharide, galactoglucan.Chlorophytum tuberosumBaker.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Central and PeninsularIndia up to 1,350 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Musali, Mushali.Unani ◮ Musali.Siddha ◮ Vallaimusali.Action ◮ Dried tubers are used astonic.The commercial drug, Safed Musali,contains the tubers of C. arundinaceumBaker, C. tuberosum Baker and C. indicum(Willd.) Dress, synonym C. attenuatumBaker.C. indicum is found on the hills inKerala, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and onthe hills near Udaipur in Rajasthan.Dosage ◮ Dried tuber—3–5 gpowder. (CCRAS.)Chloroxylon swietenia DC.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Dry, deciduous forests,throughout Peninsular India.English ◮ Indian Satinwood tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Provisionally equatedwith Bhillotaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karumboraju,Kudavuboraju, Poraju.Folk ◮ Bhirraa, Bharahula, Raktarohidi.Action ◮ Leaves—anti-inflammatory,antiseptic. A paste is appliedto wounds; also in rheumatism.Bark—astringent. A decoction isused in contusions and for painfuljoints. (The wood, its dust, moistdust of freshly cut wood, cause skinirritation and dermatitis.)The bark contains the alkaloids—skimmianine, swietenidins A and B,chloroxylin and chloroxylonine.Chloroxylonine is a powerful irritant.The bark also contains the coumarinsand lignans.The leaves yield an essential oilwhich shows antibacterial and antifungalactivity.Chondodendron tomentosumRuiz et Par.Family ◮ Menispermaceae.Habitat ◮ A native of Peru and Brazil.English ◮ False Pareira Brava.Ayurvedic ◮ Paatha, Ambashthaa(true Pareira is equated withCissampelos pareira root).C

144 Chonemorpha macrophylla (Roxb.) G. Don.CAction ◮ Diuretic (used for chronicinflammation of urinary passages,calculus affections, jaundice,dropsy); also for leucorrhoea,rheumatism.Roots and stem contain alkaloids,including delta-tubocurarine and l-curarine. Tubocurarine is a potentmuscle relaxant. The plant containstoxic derivatives and must be used inmedicinal doses with caution.Tubocurarine alkaloid is used astubocurarine chloride to paralysebody’s muscles during operations.Chonemorpha macrophylla(Roxb.) G. Don.Synonym ◮ C. fragrans (Moon)Alston.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Dense moist foreststhroughout India up to 1,500 maltitude.English ◮ Wood Vine.Ayurvedic ◮ Used in the Southernstates as Muurvaa.Action ◮ Powdered root and stems—laxative, antibilious.A lignan derivative has been isolatedfrom the stem. It accelerated uptake oflow density lipoprotein by Hep G2 cellby 67.0%.The root bark contains 3.03% oftotal alkaloids consisting mainly ofchonemorphine. Chonemorphine dihydrochlorideis an anti-amoebic principle.It showed in vitro activity againstEntamoeba histolytica and trichomonasvaginalis. It proved efficaciousagainst hepatic amoebiasis in goldenhamsters and intestinal amoebiasis inWister rats.Chrozophora plicata Hook. f.Synonym ◮ C. rottleri Klotzsh.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India exceptJammu & Kashmir and northeasternIndia as a weed.Ayurvedic ◮ Suuryaavart.Folk ◮ Nilakanthi.Action ◮ Ash of root—bechic. Leaf—depurative. Seed—cathartic.Roots contain xanthone glycosidesand a chromone glycoside. Seeds gaveoil rich in linoleate. The plant contains9.0% tannin.Chrysanthemum indicum Linn.Synonym ◮ Pyrethrum indicum L.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China and Japan.Cultivated as an ornamental.English ◮ Chrysanthemum.Ayurvedic ◮ Shatapatri.Unani ◮ Guldaaudi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Samanthipoo,Akkarakkaram.Action ◮ Flowers—stomachic, aperient,anti-inflammatory. Leaves—prescribed in migraine (as circulatorystimulant). Uses same as thoseof chamomile.

Cicer arietinum Linn. 145The flowers contain daucosterol,cumambrin-A, glyceryl-l-monobehenateand palmitic acid. The flowers alsocontain chrysanthemol which showedstrong anti-inflammatory activity inmice. The flavones, apigenin and luteolin,are reported to exhibit markedantitumour activity.Flowers yield an essential oil containingcamphor (16.0%), trans-carane-trans-2-ol(15.0%), bornyl acetate(12.0%) and sabinene (7%).A related species C. parthenium(Linn.) Berhh., Feverfew, synonymTanacetum parthenium, used for themanagement of migraine in Westernherbal, is found in Jammu and Kashmir.The plant extracts have a powerfuland prostaglandin-independent inhibitoryeffect on the secretion of granulecontent by leucocytes and platelets.The inhibition of the agonist-inducedserotonins release by platelets could beaccounted for the benefit in migraine.The compound responsible for theanti-secretory activity has been identifiedas sesquiterpene alpha-methylenegamma-lactonederivatives; parthenolidebeing the main constituent of thelactones. (Two fresh or frozen leavesa day are chewed or capsules or pillscontaining 86 mg of the leaf materialis taken for migraine. Fresh leaves maycause mouth sores.)Chukrassia tabularis A. Juss.Family ◮Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Hills of Sikkim, Maharashtra,Tamil Nadu and theAndamans.English ◮ Bastard Cedar, WhiteCedar, Indian Red Wood.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aglay, Melei Veppu.Folk ◮ Chikrassy.Action ◮ Bark—astringent, febrifuge,antidiarrhoeic, spasmolytic, diuretic.The plant is used in skeltalfractures.The bark contains sitosterol, melianone,scopoletin and 6,7-di-MeOcoumarin.The leaves gave quercetingalactoside, galloyl glucocide andtannic acid. The bark and young leavescontain 15 and 20% tannin respectively.Seeds contain tetranortriterpenoids.EtOH (50%) extract of the stembark exhibited spasmolytic, hypotensiveand diuretic activity. The salineextract of seeds showed haemagglutinatingactivity.Cicer arietinum Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in most parts ofIndia.English ◮ Bengal Gram, Chick pea.Ayurvedic ◮ Chanaka, Chanakaa,Harimantha, Vajimantha, Jivan,Sakal-priya.Unani ◮ Nakhud.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadalai, Mookkukkadalai.Action ◮ Antibilious, hypocholesteremic,antihyperlipidemic,antistress. Acid exudate fromthe plant—used in indigestion,diarrhoea, dysentery. Seed coatC

146 Cichorium endivia Linn.Cextract—diuretic, antifungal (externally).Dry leaf—refrigerant.Supplementation of gram in wheatbased diet helps in lysine absorptionwhich is otherwise a limiting aminoacid in cereal based diets. Germinationimproves mineral bioavailability.In germinated gram flour, there is significantincrease in nutritional qualityof protein and very significant increasein ascorbic acid.The seeds contain pangamic acid,the stemina building, antistress andantihyperlipidemic principle of gram.Gram is given as preventive diet toatherosclerosis patients because of itsrich phosphorus content.Isoflavones, biochanin A and formonetinexhibited hypolipidermic activityin rats. Total flavonoids reducedserum and liver cholesterol in rats.Seeds reduced postprandial plasmaglucose in human.Cichorium endivia Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the Mediterraneanregion, cultivated mainly inNorthern India.English ◮ Succory, Endive.Unani ◮ Kaasani, Bustaani (Baaghi).Action ◮ Plant—antibilious. Root—demulcent, febrifuge, diuretic; usedin dyspepsia; as a tonic for liverand digestive system. Milder thanC.intybus.Roots contain sesquiterpene lactones.See C. intybus.Cichorium intybus Linn.Family ◮Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe;commonly occurs in North WestIndia, Tamil Nadu and parts ofAndhra Pradesh.English ◮Ayurvedic ◮Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Chicory, Indian Endive.Kaasani.Kaasani Dashti (Barri).Kasinikkeerai.Action ◮ Diuretic, laxative, cholagogue,mild hepatic. Excitesperistalsis without affecting thefunctions of the stomach. Usedin liver congestion, jaundice,rheumatic and gouty joints.Key application (herb and root) ◮ Inloss of appetite, dyspepsia. (GermanCommission E.)The herb contains inulin (up to 58%in the root); sesquiterpene lactones(including lactucin and lactucopicrin);coumarins (chicoriin, esculetin, esculin,umbelliferone and scopoletin);the root includes a series of glucofructosans.Raw chicory root containsonly citric and tartaric acids; roastedchicory contains acetic, lactic, pyruvic,pyromucic, palmitic and tartaricacids. The carcinogenic hydrocarbonsand floranthene are also reported inthe chicory (a potent carcinogen 3,4-benzpyrene has been detected).Added to coffee, chicory root counteractscaffeine and helps in digestion.An alcoholic extract of the plant wasfound effective against chlorpromazine-inducedhepatic damage in adult

Cinchona officinalis Linn. 147albino rats. The cholagogue activity isattributed to polyphenols.The sedative effect of chicory is attributedto lactucopicrin. The sedativeeffect antagonizes the stimulant effectof tea and coffee. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)The extracts of roots were found tobe active against several bacteria.Dosage ◮ Seed—3–6 g powder;leaf—10–20 ml juice; root—50–100 ml. (CCRAS.)Cimicifuga racemosa(Linn.) Nutt.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate HimalayasfromKashmirtoBhutanuptoat3,000–4,000 m.English ◮ Black Cohosh Root, BlackSnake Root.Folk ◮ Cohosh, Jiuenti (Punjab).Action ◮ Sedative, anti-inflammatory,antitussive, diuretic, emmenagogue.Used in homoeopathy for rheumaticdiseases of nervous, hystericalwomen, suffering from uterineaffections; also for locomotorataxia.Key application ◮ In climacteric(menopausal), neurovegetativeailments, premenstrual discomfortand dysmenorrhoea. (GermanCommission E, ESCOP.)The rhizome contains triterpene glycosides(including actein, cimigoside,cimifugine and racemoside; isoflaones(including formononetin; isoferulicacid; volatile oil, tannin.Pharmacological studies haveshown that the menthol extract bindsto oestrogen receptors in vitro and inrat uteri; this activity is thought to bedue to the presence of formononetin.Racemoside exhibited antiulcer activityin mice. Isoferulic acid loweredbody temperature in rats.The rhizome is hypotensive in animals;a central nervous system depressantand antispasmodic in mice; causesperipheral vasodilation in human.Also exhibits anti-inflammatory (TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeia)andhypoglycaemicactivity.Actein has been studied for usein treating peripheral arterial disease.(Expanded Commission E Monographs.)Clinically, the rhizome and rootconstituents of Black Cohosh doesnot seem to affect hormonal levels,such as estradiol, LH, FSH and prolactin.(Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Cimicifuga foetida L. root is usedin bronchial and rheumatic diseases.Aqueous EtOH extract is used in cosmeticpreparations for protecting skin;also used for preventing oral diseasesand bad breath.White Cohosh, used for urinogenitaldisorders, is equated with Acteapachypoda, synonym A. alba, A. rubra.Blue Cohosh has been identified asCaulophyllum thalictroides. It is toxicand abortifacient.Cinchona officinalis Linn.Synonym ◮C. robusta How.C

148 Cinnamomum camphora (Linn.) Nees & Eberm.CFamily ◮Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in West Bengaland Tamil Nadu.English ◮Ayurvedic ◮Unani ◮Crown or Loxa Bark.Quinine.Al-keenaa, Kanakanaa.Action ◮ Antimalarial, febrifuge, astringent,orexigenic, sapasmolytic.Also prescribed in amoebic dysentery,jaundice, atonic dyspepsia,night cramps. Sometimes causesgastric and intestinal irritation.Key application ◮ In peptic discomfortssuch as bloating andfullness, loss of appetite. (GermanCommission E.)The bark contains alkaloids quinine(2.35–4.42%); quinidine (1.44–2.56%);cinchonine (0.10–0.66%); cinchonidine(0.49–0.89%) and other alkaloids,quinamine, javanine (0.14–0.63%).The leaves contain quercetin, kaempferoland avicularin.Quinine is antimalarial; quinidine isantiarrhythmic and cardiac tonic, alsoused in psychic treatments.The bark shows potent inhibitory activityagainst polymorphonuclear leucocytes;the activity is attributed to thealkaloids of the bark. Cinchona maypotentiate coumarin derivatives. Inlarge doses, it is sedative to CNS andcardiac plexus.Quinine is toxic at over 3 g, quinidineat 1 g.Related Cinchona sp.: C. calisayaWedd. (Nilgiris and Sikkim); C. calisayaWedd. var. ledgeriana How.(West Bengal, Khasi Hills and TamilNadu); and C. succirubra Pav. ex Klotz.(Nilgiris and Annamalis in TamilNadu, Sikkim and West Bengal).The bark of all the species containquinine, quinidine, cinchonine andcinchonidine and exhibit antimalarialactivity. The alcoholic extract ofC. ledgeriana Moens ex Trimen barkexhibits antibacterial activity againstGram-positive bacteria comparable tosodium penicillin. The extract, however,exhibits lesser activity than dihydrostreptomycinsulphate againstGram-negative bacteria.Cinnamomum camphora(Linn.) Nees & Eberm.Family ◮ Lauraceae.Habitat ◮ A tree native to China andJapan and often grown as a hedgeplant.English ◮ Camphor tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Karpura, Ghanasaara,Chandra, Chandra Prabhaa,Sitaabhra, Hima-valukaa, Himopala,Himakara, Shashi, Indu,Tushaara, Gandhadravya, Shitalraja.Unani ◮ Kaafoor.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Indu, Karupporam.Action ◮ Camphor taken internally insmall doses (toxic in large doses) actsas a carminative, reflex expectorantand reflex stimulant of heart andcirculation as well as respiration.Also used as a sedative and nervousdepressant in convulsions, hysteria,epilepsy, chorea. Topically used asa rubefacient and mild analgesic.

Cinnamomum cassia Blume. 149Key application ◮ Externally incatarrhal diseases of the respiratorytract and muscular rheumatism;internally in hypotonic circulatoryregulation disorders, Catarrhaldiseases of the respiratory tract.(German Commission E.)The plant contains a volatile oilcomprising camphor, safrole, linalool,eugenol and terpeneol. It also containslignans (including secoisosolariciresinoldimethyl ether and kusunokiol).Safrole is thought to be carcinogenic.Theleafoilisanaturalsourceoflinalool (94.9%); also contained citronellal(2.4%).Camphor in concentration of 500mcg/ml completely inhibits the growthof vibro parahaemolyticus, one of thecausative agents of diarrhoea and dysentery.Ethanolic extract (50%) offruits show antibacterial activityagainst several Gram-positive andGram-negative bacteria. The essentialoil from the plant possesses antifungalactivity against many fungi.Camphor is toxic at 2–20 g.Dosage ◮ Concentrate—125–375 mg(CCRAS.)Cinnamomum cassia Blume.Synonym ◮ C. aromaticum Nees.Family ◮ Lauraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China, Indonesiaand Vietnam.English ◮ Chinese Cinnamon, CassiaBark.Ayurvedic ◮ Tvak, Daalchini (bark).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Lavangappattai.Action ◮ Antispasmodic, carminative,antiputrescent, antidiarrhoeal,antiemetic, antimicrobial, mildanalgesic. Used for flatulentdyspepsia, colic, irritable bowel,diverticulosis; also for influenzaand colds.Key application ◮ In loss of appetite,dyspeptic complaints such as mildspasma of gastrointestinal tract,bloating, flatulence. (GermanCommission E, The British HerbalPharmacopoeia, ESCOP.)The bark yields an essential oil containingcinnamaldehyde (82.2%) andeugenol (1.5%) as major constituents.Cinnamaldehyde is a weak CNSstimulant at low doses and a depressantat high doses and has spasmolyticactivity. It is hypotensive, hypoglycaemicand increases peripheral bloodflow; it reduces platelet aggregabilityby inhibiting both cyclooxygenase andlipoxygenase pathways of arachidonicacid metabolism.Aqueous extract of the bark showssignificant antiallergic activity inguinea pig. Diterpenes (Cinncassiols)are thought to be responsible foratleast some of the antiallergic effects.The herb inhibited ulcers inducedby ethanol, also ulcers induced byphenylbutazone; failed to prevent ulcersinduced by indomethacin. (PlantaMed 1989,55(3),245–248.)The extract, when administeredorally to rats with nephritis, preventsthe increase of protein level in urine.The bark markedly reduces bloodpressure in experimental rats; exhibitstranquilizing effect and is used asC

150 Cinnamomum tamala.Can antiepileptic and sedative agent indrugs of TCM.Cinnamomum tamala.Family ◮ Lauraceae.Habitat ◮ The subtropical Himalayas,Khasi and Jaintia Hills.English ◮ Indian Cassia, Lignea.Ayurvedic ◮ Tejapatra, Patra,Patraka, Utkat, Tamaalpatra,Naalukaa, Naalikaa.Unani ◮ Saleekhaa, Saazaj Hindi (Alsoequated with Zarnab/Telispattarby National Formulary of UnaniMedicine, Part I.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Talishpattiri (nowequated with the leaf of Abieswebbiana); Lavangappattiri.Folk ◮ Tejpaata.Action ◮ Leaf—Carminative,antidiarrhoeal, spasmolytic, antirheumatic,hypoglycaemic.Essential oil—fungicidal.The oil from bark contains cinnamaldehyde(70–85%) as major constituent.(See.C.cassia.) Leaves fromNepal yield a volatile oil, containingmainly linalool 54.66%; cinnamaldehyde1.16%, alpha-and beta-pinene, p-cymene and limonene.Cinnamomum wighti Meissn. is alsoequated with Tejapatra. The bud,known as Sirunaagappoo in Siddha/Tamil, is used as Naagakeshara (blackvar.). (Naagakeshara is obtained fromMesua ferra and Dillenia pentagyne.)C. impressinervium Meissn. (Sikkim)and C. obtusifolium (Roxb.) Nees(the Central and Eastern Himalayas upto 2,100 m, Assam and Andaman Islands)are related species of Cinnamomum.The leaves and bark contain cinnamaldehyde.Dosage ◮ Dried leaves—1–3 gpowder. (API Vol. I.)Cinnamomum zeylanicum.Synonym ◮C. verum Persl.Family ◮ Lauraceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats at lowlevels. Plantations of cinnamon areconfined to Kerala State.English ◮ Cinnamon, CeylonCinnamon.Ayurvedic ◮ Tvak, Daaruchini,Chochaa, Choncha, Varaanga,Utkata, Daarusitaa (bark).Unani ◮Daarchini (bark).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Elavangappattai.Folk ◮ Daalchini.Action ◮ Bark—carminative, astringent,antispasmodic, expectorant,haemostatic, antiseptic. Leaf—antidiabetic. Ground cinnamon isused in diarrhoea and dysentery;for cramps of the stomach, gastricirritation; for checking nauseaand vomiting; used externally intoothache, neuralgia and rheumatism.The bark is included inmedicinal preparations for indigestion,flatulence, flu, mothwashes,gargles, herbal teas.

Cissampelos pareira Linn. 151Key application ◮ As antibacterialand fungistatic. Internally, for loss ofappetite, dyspeptic complaints suchas mild spastic conditions of thegastrointestinal tract, bloating andflatulence. (German CommissionE, ESCOP.) Contraindicated instomach and duodenal ulcers.(WHO.)The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaindicated the use of dried matureleaves of Cinnamomum tamala anddried inner bark of C. zeylanicum insinusitis.Cinnamaldehyde is the major constituent(74%) of the essential oil frombark.Major constituent of the leaf oil iseugenol (28–98%) and that of rootbarkoil camphor (60%).Cinnamaldehyde is hypotensive,spasmolytic and increases peripheralblood flow; and it inhibits cyclooxygenaseand lipoxygenase enzymes ofarachidonic acid metabolism.Cinnamaldehyde exhibits CNSstimulanteffects at high doses. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)The bark oil and extracts exhibit antibacterial,antifungal and antiviral activities,and enhance trypsin activity.Eugenol content of the leaf oil is antisepticand anaesthetic. It is not interchangablewith the bark oil.Root bark oil acts as a stimulant inamenorrhoea. The bark contains tannins(6.5%) consisting of tetrahydroxyflavandiols;diterpenes, cinnzeylaninand cinnzeylanol.C. malabatrum (Burm. f.) Blume isequated with Jangali Daarchini.Dosage ◮ Dried inner bark—1–3 gpowder. (API Vol. I.)Cissampelos pareira Linn.Family ◮Menispermaceae.Habitat ◮ The tropical and subtropicalparts of India.English ◮ Velvet-Leaf Pareira, PareiraBrava.Ayurvedic ◮ Paathaa, Ambashthaa,Varatiktaaa, Vriki, Aviddhakarni,Piluphalaa, Shreyashi.Bigger var.,Raaja Paathaa, is equated withStephania hernandifolia Walp.)Unani ◮ Paathaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Paadakkizhangu,Appatta.Action ◮ Root astringent, antispasmodic(used for cramps,painful menstruation), analgesic,antipyretic, diuretic, antilithic andemmenagogue. Prescribed fordiarrhoea, dysentery, piles, urogenitalaffections (cystitis, nephritis,menorrhagia) Root paste is appliedtopically on scabies and eruptionson the body. Also used forpreventing miscarriage.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaattributed blood purifying propertiesto the root and indicated it in lactaldisorders.Hayatine (dl-beberine) is the principalalkaloid of the root. Its derivatives,methiodide and methochlorideare reported to be potent neuromuscular-blockingagents.C

152 Cissus quadrangula Linn.CNot to be confused with Abuta grandiflora,a South American medicinalplant.Dosage ◮Vol. I.)Root—3–6 g powder. (APICissus quadrangula Linn.Synonym ◮Family ◮Vitis quadrangula Wall.Vitaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmerparts of India, also cultivated ingardens.English ◮ Square Stalked Vine,Adamant Creeper.Ayurvedic ◮ Asthisamhaara,Asthisamhrita. Asthi-samyojaka,Vajravalli, Chaturdhaaraa.Unani ◮ Hadjod.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perandai.Action ◮ The anabolic and steroidalprinciples of the aerial part showeda marked influence in the rate offracture-healing. The drug exertsinfluence both on the organic andmineral phase of fracture-healing.Stem—alterative in scurvy (theplant is rich in vitamin C) andirregular menstruation.The plant contains phytogenic steroid,ketosteroids, sitosterol, alphaamyrin,alpha-ampyrone and tetracyclictriterpenoids. Phytogenic steriodsshowed bone healing properties.Coloside-A possesses smooth musclerelaxant effect. The total alcoholic extractof the plant neutralizes the antianaboliceffect of the cortisone in healingof fractures. The aqueous extract ofthe plant hastens fracture-healing byreducing the total convalescent periodby 33% in experimental rats and dogs;it aids in recovery of the strength ofthe bones up to 90% in 6 weeks.Dosage ◮ Stem—10–20 ml juice.(API Vol. III.)Citrullus colocynthis Schrad.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Colocynth Bitter Apple.Ayurvedic ◮ Indravaaruni, Indravalli,Indravaarunikaa, Gavaakshi,Chitraa, Chitraphalaa, Indraasuri,Mrigaani, Mrigairvaaru, Vishaalaa,Vishaalyka, Indraayana. Aindri(also equated with Bacopamonnieri).Unani ◮ Hanzal.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kumatti.Action ◮ Dried pulp of ripe fruit—cathartic, drastic purgative, irritantand toxic. The pulp is used forvaricose veins and piles. A pasteof root is applied to variousinflammations and swellings. Thecataplasm of leaves is applied inmigraine and neuralgia.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia indicated the use of the fruit injaundice; the root in diseases of the liverand spleen and the leaf in cutaneousaffections and alopecia.Colocynth contains up to 3% cucurbitacin.The drug and its preparationscause drastic irritation of the gastrointestinalmucosa and haemorrhages.

Citrus aurantifolia (Christm.) Swingle. 153Cucurbitacins include cucurbitacinE-, J-, L-glucosides. In addition, thepulp contains caffeic acid derivatives(chlorogenic acid).Roots contain aliphatic compounds.Ethanolic extract (50%) shows significantanti-inflammatory activity in albinorats.Leaves and flowers contain quercetinand kaempferol. The ethanolic extractof leaves and flowers exhibits antibacterialactivity against a numberof Gram-positive and Gram-negativebacteria.The powder is toxic at 0.6–1.0 g. Thefruit exhibited carcinogenic activity inanimal studies.Dosage ◮ Dried fruit—125–500 mgpowder. (API Vol. III.) Root—1–3g.powder.(CCRAS.) Dried leaf—for external use. (API Vol. II.)Citrullus vulgaris Schrad.Synonym ◮ C. lanatus (Thunb.)Matsumura & Nakai.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughoutIndia on sandy river beds, up to analtitude of 1,500 m.English ◮ Watermelon.Ayurvedic ◮ Kalinga.Unani ◮ Tarbuz.Siddha ◮ Poiychaviral, Tharbuzapalam(Tamil.Action ◮ Pulp—cooling andrefreshing, a rich source of pectin,carotenoids, surcose (as majorsugar). Fruit juice is prescribed instrangury and urinary complaints,also in hepatic congestion andintestinal catarrh. Seeds—cooling,purgative, diuretic, demulcent (usedin urinary infections). Leaves—febrifuge. The pericarp is given indiarrhoea.Watermelon juice contains citrullin(0.17%) and arginine, which arethought to increase urea productionin the liver, thus increasing the flow ofurine.The seeds possess a high lipase activitycomparable to that of wheat germ, inaddition to high lipoxygenase, ureaseand trypsin-inhibitor activities. Aqueousextract of the seeds also exhibitamylase inhibitor activity. The seed oilis used as a substitute for almond oil.The roots of mature plant containa triterpene, bryonolic acid. Bryonolicacid possesses a stronger antiallergicactivity with lesser side effects than thatof glycyrrhetinic acid, the aglycone ofglycyrrhizin, used clinically in Japanfor the treatment of allergy and hepatitis.Citrus aurantifolia(Christm.) Swingle.Synonym ◮ C. medica L. var. acida(Roxb.) Hook. f.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Wild in the warm valleysof the outer Himalayas. Cultivatedin the plains.English ◮ Acid or Sour Lime,Country Lime.Ayurvedic ◮ Nimbuka.C

154 Citrus aurantium Linn.CUnani ◮Limu Kaghzi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Elummichhai,Thurinjippazham.Folk ◮Kaagazi Nimbu.Action ◮ Antiscorbutic, stomachic,appetizer, refrigerant. Used inbilious vomiting. Leaves—aninfusion is given for fever injaundice, for sore throat, thrush.Root—an infusion is given for colicand dysentery, also as febrifuge.Limes are rich in vitamins, mineralsand alkaline salts, but not in fruit sugars.Lime peel contains ergosterol. Anenzyme, 1,3-beta-glucan hydrolase hasbeen reported from the bark and leafextract. See C. limon.Citrus aurantium Linn.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Khasihills and Cachar. Also in Guntur(Andhra Pradesh). Found in semiwildstate in the Naga and Khasihills.English ◮ Citrus dulcis, Sour Orange,Sweet Orange.Folk ◮ Khattaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mallikanarangi.Action ◮ Peel—laxative, feeble stomachic,emmenagogue. Leaves—prescribed in the treatment ofarthritis and bronchitis. Flowers—aqueous extract is employed inscurvy, fever, inflammation, nervousand hysterical cases. Fruit—a decoction is used to recoverfrom cachexia left by intermittentfever and in cases of enlargedspleen. Dried rind—used in atonicdyspepsia.Key application ◮ Cut peel—in lossof appetite and dyspeptic ailments.(German Commission E.). As a bittertonic. (British Pharmacopoeia.)The main constituents of the peel includethe alkaloid synephrine and N-methyltyramine. Synephrine, an alpha1-adrenergic agonist, stimulates a risein blood pressure through vasoconstriction.N-methyltyramine also raisesblood pressure.The root gave xanthyletin.The essential oil exhibits antifungalactivity, it was found effective intreatment-resistant fungal skin diseases.(Expanded Commission E Monographs.)Commercially available Citrus vulgaris(bitter orange) extracts are oftenpromoted for weight loss due to purportedthermogenic effects. In animalmodels, synephrine causes weight loss,but also increases cardiovascular toxicity.(Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Citrus limon (Linn.) Burm.f.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated all over India.English ◮ Lemon.Ayurvedic ◮ Jambira, Jambh, Jambhir,Jaamphal, Nimbu, Nimbuka,Naaranga, Limpaka, Dantashatha,Airaavata, Neebu (bigger var.).Unani ◮ Utraj.

Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merrill. 155Siddha/Tamil ◮Periya elumuchhai.Action ◮ Fruit—antiscorbutic, carminative,stomachic, antihistaminic,antibacterial. Used during coughs,colds, influenza and onset of fever(juice of roasted lemon), hiccoughs,biliousness. Fruit juice—used externallyfor ringworm (mixed withsalt), erysipelas, also in the treatmentof leprosy and white spots.Leaves and stems—antibacterial.All parts of the plants of citrussp. contain coumarins and psoralins.The fruits contain flavonoids and limonoids.The flavonoids comprisethree main groups—flavanones, flavonesand 3-hydroxyflavylium (anthocyanins);flavanones being predominantlyfollowed by flavones and anthocyanins.Bitter flavonoids do not occurin lemon and lime.Lemon juice is a richer source ofantiscorbutic vitamin (contains 40–50mg/100gofvitaminC)thanlime,and a fair source of carotene and vitaminB1. Volatile oil (about 2.5% of thepeel) consists of about 75% limonene,alpha-and beta-pinenes, alpha-terpineneand citral. The fruit juice alsocontains coumarins and bioflavonoids.The acid content of the fruit, once digested,provides an alkaline effect withinthe body and is found useful in conditionswhere acidity is a contributoryfactor (as in case of rheumatic conditions).The bioflavonoids strengthenthe inner lining of blood vessels, especiallyveins and capillaries, and helpcounter varicose veins, arteriosclerosis,circulatory disorders and infections ofliver, stomach and intestines.Major flavonoid glycosides, isolatedfrom citrus peels and juices, includehesperidin (with properties of vitaminP). Rutin and other flavanones, isolatedfrom citrus fruits, form the principalcomponents of vitamin P. Flavanoneglycosides contained in lemon and limejuices are eriocitrin 47 and 94; hesperidin84 and 196 mg/l, respectively.The composition of cold pressedlime oil is quite similar to lemon oil,but citral content of lime oil is higher.Monoterpene alcohols and their esters,aldehydes—geraniol, geranial andneral, contribute to the characteristicaroma of lemon and lime.Dosage ◮ Fruit—6–12 g (Juice—5–10 ml). (API Vol. IV.)Citrus maxima (Burm.) Merrill.Synonym ◮ C. decumana Watt.C. grandis (L.) Osbeck.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ North-eastern region upto 1,500 m in Assam and Tripura.English ◮ Pummelo, Shaddock.Ayurvedic ◮ Madhukarkatikaa.Unani ◮ Chakotra.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pambalimasu.Folk ◮ Mahaa-nibu, Sadaaphal.Action ◮ Fruit—cardiotonic. Leaves,flowers and rind—used as a sedativein nervous affections. Leaves—used in convulsive cough, chorea,epilepsy, also in the treatment ofhaemorrhagic diseases. A lotion ofboiled leaves used hot in painfulswellings. The essential oil fromC

156 Citrus medica Linn.Cfresh leaves exhibits dermatophytic,and fungistatic activity.The root-bark contains beta-sitosteroland acridone alkaloids. It alsocontains several coumarins. The alkaloidsand coumarins show antimicrobialacitivity.The essential oil from the leavesand unripe fruits contain 20% limonin,30% nerolol, 40% nerolyl acetate and3% geraniol.diosmin, beta-sitosterol and beta-Dglucoside.The roots contain campesterol,stigmasterol, sitosterol and cholesterol.Aqueous extract of the peel showedhypotensive action in dogs.The fruits and seeds are a cardiotonic;found useful in palpitation.Dosage ◮ Fruit—10–20 ml juice. (APIVol. III.) Leaf, flower, fruit, root—50–100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)Citrus medica Linn.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Khasi Hills, submountainousHimalayan ranges in Garhwal,Kumaon in U.P., Maland areasof South, Pachmarhi (MadhyaPradesh), Sikkim and WesternGhats.English ◮ Citron.Ayurvedic ◮ Maatulunga, Lunga,Maatulaka, Mahaalunga, Bijpuura,Bijaahva.Unani ◮ Turanj.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadaranrathai,Naarthankai, Thurinjippazham.Folk ◮ Bijoraa.Action ◮ Fruit—antiscorbutic,refrigerant, astringent, carminative,stomachic, antibacterial. Usedfor dyspepsia, bilious vomiting,cold, fever, hiccough. Root—anthelmintic. Flowers and buds—astringent.The peel contains coumarins, limettin,scoparone, scopoletin and umbelliferon;besides nobiletin, limonin,Citrus paradisi Macf.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the West Indies.Commercialized in the USA.Cultivated mainly in Punjab.English ◮ Grapefruit, ‘Marsh’Grapefruit.Folk ◮ Chakotraa. Chima Bombilimaas(Tamil Nadu).Action ◮ Young leaves—decoctionis used to relieve cold or headache.Fruit—used for developing resistanceagainst colds and influenza.Grapefruit is rich in vitamins, minerals,potassium and pectin, which balancethe acid reaction in the stomachand stimulate appetite. Half grapefruitcontains vitamin A 318 IU, vitaminC 46.8 mg, niacin 0.2 mg, potassium158 mg. The fruit contains betacaroteneand cartenoid lycopene. Lycopeneis especially noted for reducingthe risk of prostate cancer. Thefruit juice contains furanocoumarins,including bergamottin, also naringin,naringenin, limonin, quercetin, kaempferoland obacunone.

Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul. 157For drug interactions with grapefruitjuice, see Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.Grapefruit is not to be confused withgrape (Vitis vinifera).Clausena pentaphylla(Roxb.) DC.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayan tractfrom Garhwal to Sikkim; also inChakrata range.Folk ◮ Ratanjot (var.), Rowana.Surasi is a doubtful synonym.Action ◮ Bark—anti-inflammatory,spasmolytic; used in veterinarymedicine for wounds and sprains.Aerial parts contain coumarins—clausmarins A and B. Coumarins exhibitspasmolytic activity. The root alsocontains coumarins. Root and stembark of Clausena excavata Burm. f.Eastern sub-Himalayan tract, Orissaand Bihar) also contain coumarins—clausenin and clausenidin. The rootbark exhibits antibacterial activityagainst both Gram-positive and Gramnegativebacteria.A related species, C. anisata (Willd.)Oliver, is reported from Uttar Pradesh.Ethanolic extract of the aerial partsexhibited spasmolytic activity. The furanocoumarins,anisolactone, xanthotoxol,indicolactone, imperatorin and2 ′ , 3 ′ -epoxy-anisolactone have beenisolated from the extract.In West African traditional medicine,the decoction of the root is givento control convulsions in children. Theanticonvulsant agent has been foundto be heliettin, extracted from the stembark and roots.Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tul.Family ◮ Hypocreaceae.Habitat ◮ A fungous parasite ona number of grasses particularly inrye, cultivated in the Nilgiris and atChakrohi farm in Jammu.English ◮ Ergot of Rye. Fungus ofRye.Ayurvedic ◮ Annamaya, Sraavikaa.Unani ◮ Argot.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ergot.Action ◮ Uterine stimulant. Oxytocic,abortifacient, parturient,vasoconstrictor, haemostatic. Usedin obstetrics (difficult childbirth,for exciting uterine contractions inthe final stages of parturition). Alsoused after abortion for removal ofthe placenta. It is no more employedin internal haemorrhages, as it hasbeen found to raise blood pressurein pulmonary and cerebral haemorrhage.Included among unapprovedherbs by German Commission E.The fungus gave indole alkaloids.The ergometrine or ergonovine groupincludes ergometrine and ergometrinine.The ergotamine group includesergotamine and ergotaminine. The ergotoxinegroup includes ergocristine,ergocristinine, ergocryptine, ergocryptinine,ergocornine and ergocorninine.The fungus also containshistamine, tyramine and other amines,sterols and acetylcholine.C

158 Clematis gouriana Roxb.CThe alkaloids of ergot are beingused independently (not as a herbalmedicine). Ergotamine is used to relievemigrainous headaches as it isa vasoconstrictor and has antiserotoninactivity. Ergometrine is usedafter childbirth in the third stage oflabour and for post-partum haemorrhage,as it is a powerful uterinestimulant, particularly of the puerperaluterus. (Both the constituents areused under medical supervision). Ergocorninesignificantly inhibited thedevelopment of induced mammary tumoursin rats. The derivatives of ergotalkaloids are known to have suppressingeffect on human breast cancer ininitial stages. This activity is linked toprolactin inhibitory action.The extract is toxic at 1.0–3.9 g,ergot alkaloids at 1 g in adults, 12 mgin infants. (Francis Brinker).Dosage ◮ Whole plant—10–30 mlinfusion. (CCRAS.)Clematis gouriana Roxb.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India inplains.English ◮ Commercially known asMuurvaa.Folk ◮ Belkangu (used as substitutefor Muurvaa in Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaf and stem—vesicant,poisonous.Aerial parts and roots contain a quaternaryaporphine alkaloid, magnofluorine.The leaves yield protoanemonin,a fungitoxic compound.A related species, C. napaulensisDC. is used in leprosy. C. recta (UprightVirgin’s Bower) is used in homoeopathicmedicine for cancerousand foul ulcers; orally for rheumaticpains, varicose veins, gout and asadiuretic.Cleome brachycarpa Vahl ex DC.Synonym ◮ C. vahliana Farsen.Family ◮ Capparidaceae.Habitat ◮ Northwestern Rajasthan,Punjab plains and Delhi.Unani ◮ Panwaar.Folk ◮ Madhio (Rajasthan).Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory,antirheumatic, antidermatosis (usedin scabies, also in leucoderma).The plant contains trinortriterpenoidsand cabralealactone, besides ursolicacid.Cleome icosandra Linn.Synonym ◮ C. viscosa Linn.Family ◮ Capparidaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India; Tripura,West Bengal and Gangetic valley, asa weed.English ◮ Wild Mustard.Ayurvedic ◮ Tilaparni, Hurhur(yellow var.), Aadityabhakta.Unani ◮ Panwaar, Hulhul.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nayikkadugu,Nalvellai.

Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn. 159Action ◮ Seed—carminative,antiseptic, anthelmintic (for roundworms). Leaf—sudorific. Bark—externally rubefacient, vesicant.Root—vermifuge.The aerial parts contain a macrocyclicditerpene, cleomaldeic acid, anda bicyclic diterpene, cleomeolide. Theseeds contain coumarino-lignans,cleomiscosin A,B,C and D. The leafextract exhibited fungitoxicity againstringworm causing fungi with reportedmycelian inhibitions.The aqueous extract of seeds exhibitedsignificant analgesic and localanaesthetic activities in mice andguinea pigs, respectively. It failed toprotect rats against convulsions inducedby picrotoxin, though it potentiatedthe barbiturate sleeping time.The purple var. of Hurhur is equatedwith Cleome monophylla L. (Bihar,Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and TamilNadu).Clerodendrum indicum(Linn.) Kuntze.Synonym ◮ Clerodendron siphonanthus(R. Br.) C. B. Clarke.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated as an ornamentalthroughout India, especially inSouth and Eastern India.English ◮ Turk’s Turban, Tube-Flower.Ayurvedic ◮ Vaamana-haati (asubstitute for Bhaarangi).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kavalai, Narivalai.Action ◮ Root—used for asthma,cough, scrofulous affections. Leaf—vermifuge. Resin—antirheumatic.The plant is also used in fever,atrophy, emaciation of cachexia andconsumption.The leaves contain flavonoids—scutellarein(0.5%), hispidulin (0.1%) andtheir 7-O-glucuronides; also sterols.Flowers contain beta-sitosterol and triterpenoids.The bark yields hexitol andsorbitol.The flavone, pectolinarin and a diterpene,oncinotine, exhibit antifeedantactivity.Clerodendrum inerme(L.) Gaertn.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India in tidalforests, wild all over coastal areas;planted in gardens in Tamil Nadu.English ◮ Smooth Volkameria.Ayurvedic ◮ Putigandhaa, Kundali,Vanajai.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peenaari, Sangankuppi.Folk ◮ Lanjai.Action ◮ Leaf—febrifuge, alterative.Used as a substitute for Swertiachirayita and quinine in remittentand intermittent fevers. The leafjuice is taken orally to relievemuscular pains and stiffness of legs(in tetanus).The leaves and stem contain a numberof triterpenes, neolignans, diterpenoids,sterols and flavones.C

160 Clerodendrum infortunatum auct. non Linn. C.B.Clarke.CThe roots are prescribed in venerealdiseases. The methanolic extract ofthe roots contains verbascoside whichexhibits analgesic and antimicrobialproperties.Clerodendrum infortunatumauct. non Linn. C.B.Clarke.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhaandira, Bhaandi,Kaari. Also known as Bhaarangi(C. serratum).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karukanni, Perugilai.Action ◮ Leaves—used as a substitutefor Chiretta. Leaves and roots—employed externally for skindiseases and alopecia. Leaves areprescribed in headache. Roots aregiven in cramps and rheumatism.In homoeopathy, the fresh leaves areemployed for colic due to worms, diarrhoeaassociated with nausea, chronicfever with loss of appetite and in enlargementof liver and spleen with indigestionand constipation.The alcoholic extract of the wholeplant showed antiprotozoal activityagainst Entamoeba histolytica. It alsoexhibited hypoglycaemic activity inalbino rats. The leaves exhibit antifungalactivity.Dosage ◮ Leaf—10–20 ml juice.(CCRAS.)Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in thedrier parts.Ayurvedic ◮ Agnimantha, Tarkaari,Vikraantaa, Jayanti, Jai, Jayaa,Ganikaarikaa, Vaijayanti, Biggervar. is equated with Premna integrifoliaLinn., Shriparni, Naadeyi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tazhuthaazhai.Folk ◮ Laghu Arni.Action ◮ Plant parts used indyspepsia, stomachache, colic,cholera, dysentery, postnatal fever,during convalscence from measles.Root and bark—bitter tonic, usedin debility and nervous disorders.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaindicated the use of root in dysuriaand retention of urine.Flavonoids, scutellarein and pectolinarin,have been isolated from theleaves. Stems gave d-mannitol, betasitosterol,its glucosides and ceryl alcohol.The roots contain ceryl alcohol,clerodin, clerosterol and clerodendrinA.The ethanolic extract of leaves exhibitedhepatoprotective activity. Theaqueous extract of leaves exhibited invitro anthelmintic activity. The plantalso exhibited antidiabetic activity.Dosage ◮ Root—12–24 g fordecoction. (API Vol. III.)Clerodendrum phlomidisLinn.f.Synonym ◮ C. multiflorum (Burm. f.)O. Kuntze.Clerodendrum serratum(Linn.) Moon.Family ◮Verbenaceae.

Clitoria ternatea Linn. 161Habitat ◮ Ashrubdistributedthroughout the country, especiallycommon in Assam and Bengal.English ◮ Blue-flowered Glory tree,Beetle Killer.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhaargi, Bhaarangi,Angaarvalli, Phanji, Braahmanyashtikaa,Kharshaak, Padma,Bhragubhavaa, Brahmayashtikaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kandoorbarangi(root), cherutekku.Action ◮ Root—Antiasthmatic,antihistaminic, antispasmodic,antitussive carminative, febrifuge.Leaf—febrifuge.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia indicated the use of the driedroots in cough, bronchitis, dyspnoea,chest diseases and sinusitis.The bark contains triterpenoids—serratagenic, oleanolic and queretaricacids; leaves contain alpha-spinasteroland flavonoids, including luteolin, apigenin,baicalein, scutellarein, phenolicacids—caffeic and ferulic acids.EtOH (50%) extract of the plant exhibitedhypotensive and spasmolyticactivity. Polyhydric property on isolatedguinea pig ileum. Antiasthmaticeffect was also observed pharmacologically.Dosage ◮ Root—3–6 g powder; 10–20 g for decoction. (API Vol. III.)Clitoria ternatea Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India intropical areas; also cultivated inhedges.English ◮ Butterfly Pea, WingedleavedClitoria, Mezereon.Ayurvedic ◮ Girikarnikaa, Aparaajitaa,Aasphota, Girimallikaa,Girikanyaa, Kokilaa,Yonipushpaa,Vishnukraantaa. (Evolvulus alsinoidesLinn. is also known asVishnukraantaa, Vishnukranti).Used as Shankhapushpi in theSouth.Unani ◮ Mezereon Hindi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kakkanam.Folk ◮ Koyal (Punjab).Action ◮ Root—cathartic likejalap. Roots cause gripe andtenesmus, hence not recommendedas purgative. Used in ascites. Rootbark—diuretic (infusion used inirritation of bladder and urethra).Root juice—given in cold milkto liquefy phlegm in chronicbronchitis. The root, bark, seedsand leaves—used for gastric acidity.The root is administered with honeyas a general tonic to children forimproving mental faculty.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia recommends the dried leaf inmigraine, psychoneurosis and mania.An alcoholic extract of the plantshowed sedative and hypothermic effectin rodents.Rats, fed with ethanol extract offlowers, showed a significantly loweredserum sugar level in experimentally induceddiabetes.The seeds contain a nucleoproteinwith its amino acid sequence similarto insulin, but for the absence of histidine,threonine, proline and crystine.C

162 Coccinia indica W. & A.CSeeds gave cinnamic acid, flavonol glycoside.Leaves contain glycosides ofkaempferol.In South India, the seeds and rootsconstitute the drug Shankhapushpi,used as a nervine tonic. In other regions,Canscora decussata, Convolvuluspluricaulis, Evolvulus alsinoides andLavendula bipinnata are used as Shankhapushpi.Dosage ◮ Root—1–3 g powder (APIVol. II); dried leaf—2–5 g; seed—1–3g.(API Vol. IV.)Coccinia indica W. & A.Synonym ◮ C. cordifolia Cogn.Cephalandra indica Naud.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Assam, WestBengal, Bihar, Orissa, Maharashtra,Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu; wildin many parts of India.English ◮ Ivy-Gourd.Ayurvedic ◮ Bimbi, Tundi, Tundikaa,Tundikeri, Kunduru, Raktaphala,Piluparni, Dantchhadaa.Unani ◮ Kanduri.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kovvai.Action ◮ Carminative, antipyretic,galactagogue. Powder of root istaken with water to stop vomiting.Juice of leaves—antispasmodic andexpectorant. Applied externallyin eruptions of the skin. Root—antiprotozoal. Fruit, leaf and root—antidiabetic. Various plant parts areused in slow pulse and convulsions,also against infective hepatitis.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the whole plant foroedema, anaemia, disorders due to vitiatedblood, cough and dyspnoea.The fruit yielded beta-amyrin and itsacetate, lupeol and cucurbitacin B.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—3–6 gpowder; 5–10 ml juice. (API Vol.III.)Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Diels.Synonym ◮ C. villosus (Lam.) DC.Family ◮ Menispermaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout tropical andsub-tropical tracts of India.English ◮ Broom-Creeper, Ink-Berry.Ayurvedic ◮ Chhilihinta, Paataalagaruda,Mahaamuulaa, Dirghavalli,Jalajamani.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattukodi.Action ◮ Root—laxative, sudorific,alterative, antirheumatic. Leaf—used externally for eczema, prurigoand inpetigo. A decoction of leavesis taken in eczema, leucorrhoea andgonorrhoea.Aqueous extract of stem and root—sedative, anticonvulsant, hypotensive,bradycardiac, cardiotonic and sapasmolytic.Roots are used as a substitutefor Sarsaparilla in chronic rheumatismgout, and syphilitic cachexia.The stem contains cyclopeptide alkaloids.The plant contains coclaurine,magnoflorine, beta-sitosterol, ginnoland a monomethyl ether of inositol.C. pendulus (Forsk.) Diels, synonymC. leaeba (Del.) DC. (Punjab, Gujarat

Cocos nucifera Linn. 163and South India) is known as Parwati(Gujarat, Sindh) and Ullar-billar (Punjab).Ethanolic extract of the leaves andstem showed anticancer and hypotensiveactivities associated with the alkaloidalfraction which contains bisbenzylisoquinolinealkaloids (includingpendulin and cocsulin). Presenceof quercitol is reported from nonalkaloidalfraction.Dosage ◮ Root—50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Cochlearia armoracia Linn.Synonym ◮ Armoracia rusticanaGilib.Family ◮ Cruciferae, Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Europe; cultivatedin Britain and the USA. Grown toa small extent in North India andhill stations of South India.English ◮ Horseradish.Action ◮ Root—used for catarrhs ofthe respiratory tract. Antimicrobialand hyperemic.The root contains glucosinolates,mainly sinigrin, which releases allylisothiocyanateon contact with the enzymemyrosin during crushing and2-phenylethylglucosinolate. Crushedhorseradish has an inhibitory effect onthe growth of micro-organisms.Fresh root contains vitamin C on anaverage 302 mg% of ascorbic acid.A related species, C. cochlearioides(Roth) Sant & Mahesh, synonym C.flava Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb. (upperand lower Gangetic valleys), is usedfor fevers.Cochlospermum gossypiumDC.Synonym ◮ C. religiosum (Linn.)Alston.Family ◮ Cochlospermaceae.Habitat ◮ Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,TamilNadu,MadhyaPradeshand Bihar; cultivated at Agartala inTripura.English ◮ Golden Silk tree, WhiteSilk Cotton tree.Unani ◮ Samagh, Kateeraa (substitutefor gum tragacanth).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kongilam (flowerjuice), Tanaku.Action ◮ Gum—cooling, sedative,bechic, useful in coughs, hoarsethroat,diarrhoea,dysentery,scalding urine. Dried leaves andflowers—stimulant.The leaves contain terpenoids, saponinsand tannins. Flowers containnaringenin and beta-sitosteryl-glucoside(0.3%). The gum, after hydrolysis,furnished a mixture of acidic oligosaccharides.Cocos nucifera Linn.Family ◮ Palmae; Arecaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated chiefly inKerala, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.English ◮ Coconut Palm.C

164 Coffea arabica Linn.CAyurvedic ◮ Naarikela, Naalikera,Laangali, Tunga, Skandhaphala,Sadaaphala, Trnaraaja, Kuurchshirshaka.Unani ◮ Naarjeel, Naariyal.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thenkai. Kopparai(kernel of ripe coconut).Action ◮ Water from tender fruit—cooling, used in thirst, fever, urinarydisorders, gastroenteritis, and asasourceofKforcholerapatients.Fruit—stomachic, laxative, diuretic,styptic, sedative; useful in dyspepsiaand burning sensation. Oil fromendosperm—antiseptic; used inalopecia. Root—astringent; used inurinary and uterine and disorders.Tender coconut water is rich inpotassium and other minerals and vitamins.It contains reducing sugars 2.22–2.85%, total sugars 3.5–4.25%; brix 5.5–6.2%. It is used as a substitute for normalsaline in cases of dehydration.Alcoholic extract of coconut shell(2% in petroleum jelly, externally) wasfound very effective in dermatophytosis.Lighter fractions of the tar oil areused as antiseptics.Flowers, mixed with oil, are appliedto swellings, leaves to treat abscesses,shoots and ashes of dry meat to deepcuts, grated meat to burns, roots towounds and gonorrhoea.Shell and fibre—antimicrobial.Dosage ◮ Dried endosperm—10–20 g powder. (API Vol. III.)Coffea arabica Linn.Family ◮Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ GrowninTamilNadu,Karnataka and Kerala.English ◮ Arabian coffee.Unani ◮ Kahvaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaapi, Bannu.Action ◮ Diuretic, antinarcotic,psychotropic agent, direct heartstimulant (raises blood pressure).Neutralizes therapeutic effects ofmany herbs; potentiates the actionof aspirin and paracetamol; depletesthe body of B-vitamins. Charcoalof the outer seed parts—astringent,absorbent.Key application ◮ Powdered coffeecharcoal—in nonspecific, acutediarrhoea; local therapy of mildinflammation of oral and pharyngealmucosa (average daily dose 9 g).(German Commission E.)According to WHO, coffee drinkingis not responsible for breast cancer andmay protect against cancer of colon andrectum. Caffeic and chlorogenic acidsin coffee act as anticarcinogens.Bronchial asthma is less frequentamong coffee drinkers due to caffeineand theophylline.The aroma components include severalfurfuryl methyl mercaptan derivatives.Coffee extracts yielded organicacids. Atractyloside, several sterols andacids, as well as alkaloids, have beenreported. Caffeine is the major alkaloidof coffee. One cup of coffee containsapprox. 60–120 mg caffeine; otheractive constituents include chlorogenicacid, caffeol and diterpenes.Chlorogenic acid in coffee mightinhibit glucose-6-phosphatase, which

Colchicum luteum Baker. 165might lower hepatic glucose productioncaffeine seems to stimulate pancreaticbeta cells to secrete insulin. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Coix lacryma-jobi Linn.Synonym ◮ C. lachryma Linn.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Warm and damp areas upto about 2,000 m, both wild andcultivated as an annual grass.English ◮ Job’s Tears.Ayurvedic ◮ Gavedhukaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaatu Kunthumani.Folk ◮ Garaheduaa, Gargari.Action ◮ Fruits—a decoction isused for catarrhal affections ofthe air passage and inflammationof the urinary tract. Seed—diuretic. Root—used in menstrualdisorders. Leaves—used as a drinkfor inducing fertility in women.The seeds contain trans-ferulyl stigmastanoland trans-ferulyl campestanol,which form part of an ovulationinducingdrug. Seed extract—immuno-enhancer,used for the preventionof cancer and infections. Seeds exhibitanti-tumour and anticomplimentaryactivities. Seeds contain coixenolides,a mixed ester of palmitoleic andvaccenic acids, which is an anticanceragent.The bigger var. of the grass is equatedwith Coix gigantea Koenig ex Roxb.,also known as Gavedhukaa and Gargari.Colchicum luteum Baker.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Chamba. Majorsupplies of the drug are receivedfrom Kashmir.English ◮ Hermodactyls, Colchicum,Meadow Saffron, Golden Collyrium(Indian substitute). (C. luteum isa good substitute for C. autumnaleL. which is official in the B.P.)Ayurvedic ◮ Hiranyatuttha.Unani ◮ Suranjaan Talkh.Action ◮ Non-steroidal antiinflammatory,anti-gout (relievesinflammation and pain of acute goutbut does not increase expulsionof uric acid, is used with analkaline diuretic), emetic, cathartic.Anti-chemotactic, antiphlogistic,inhibitor of mitosis. Highly toxic.Used for external application tolessen inflammation and pain.Key application ◮ In acute goutattack. (German Commission E.)The fresh corms and aerial parts ofa sample from Jammu yielded 0.94%and 070% of total alkaloids, the majorbeing colchicine 0.40% and 0.20%respectively. Colchicine analogs—decteyl thiocolchicine (DTC), decetylmethylcolchicine(DMC) and trimethylcolchicinicacid (TMCA) wereeffective in the treatment of gout; DTCmay elicit agranulocytosis.Colchicine binds to tubulin, the proteinsubunit of microtubules. Its mostimportant biological effect is the inhibitionof processes that depend uponmicrotubule function by blockingC

166 Coleus amboinicus Lour.Cpolymerization. In preventing microtubuleformation, colchicine has beenshown to inhibit catecholamine secretionfrom adrenal medulla, iodinesecretion from thyroid gland and prolactinsecretion from pituitary tumourcells. It inhibits stimulated insulinsecretion from isolated perfused pancreasandisletsinvitro.The use of Colchicum for long periodsisnotrecommendedowingtoitstoxicity in larger doses (even 7 mg ofcolchicine has caused death) and its depressantaction upon central nervoussystem.Prolonged use of Colchicum autumnalemay cause agranulocytosis, aplasticanaemia and peripheral nerve inflammation.(Sharon M. Herr.)Coleus amboinicus Lour.Synonym ◮ C. aromaticus Benth.Family ◮ Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Indonesia.English ◮ Indian Borage.Ayurvedic ◮ Parna-yavaani.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karpoorvalli.Folk ◮ Pattaa Ajawaayin.Pattharachuur (Bengal).Action ◮ Leaf—used in urinarydiseases, vaginal discharge, colicand dyspepsia. Stimulates thefunction of liver. Also given inepilepsy and other convulsiveaffections, asthma, bronchitis, coldand chronic cough. Bruised leavesare applied to burns; leaf juice tochapped lips.The leaf extract has shown regulatoryinfluence on calcium oxalate stoneformation in experimental rats. In folkmedicine, leaves are used internally forexpelling kidney stone (the herb is alsoknown as Paashaanbhedi).Homoeopathic medicine, preparedfrom fresh leaves, is used in the affectionsof urinary organs, especially indifficult urination or in burning painsduring and after urination.The aerial parts from Pakistan yieldan essential oil (0.1%) which containsthymol (79.6%); whereas in Fijiansample of leaves carvacrol and camphorare major constituents. Leavescontain a large amount of oxalaceticacid, flavonoid, cirsimaritin and betasitosterol.Dosage ◮ Leaf—5–10 ml juice.(CCRAS.)Coleus barbatus Benth.Synonym ◮ C. forskohlii Briq.Plectranthus barbatus Andr.Family ◮ Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ The sub-tropical Himalayasof Kumaon and Nepal; cultivated inAndhra Pradesh.Ayurvedic ◮ Gandira (Achyranthesaquatica Br. is also equated withGandira). (Doubtful synonym.)Folk ◮ Garmar (Gujarat), Gurmal.Action ◮ Root and leaf—spasmolytic,antithrombotic, anti-inflammatory,lipolytic.In experimental amoebiasis of rats,the root powder and ethanolic extract

Colocasia esculenta (Linn.) Schott. 167showed amoebicidal activity againstEntamoeba histolytica.An alcoholic extract of the roots andessential oil from it, were found to inhibitpassive cutaneous anaphylaxis inthe mouse and rat.The plant produces the labdanediterpenoid, forskolin in its tuberousroots.Forskolin was discovered duringa screening of medicinal plants byCentral Drug Research Institute, Lucknow,India, in 1974. (Planta Medica,1985, 51, 473–477.) The screeningrevealed the presence of a hypotensiveand spasmolytic principle, namedcoleonol (later the name was changedto forskolin). The basic mechanismof forskolin is the activation of anenzyme, adenylate cyclase, which increasesthe amount of cyclic adenosinemonophosphate (cAMP) in cells.Raised intracellular cAMP level exhibitsfollowing physiological effects: inhibition of platelet activation anddegranulation; inhibition of mast celldegranualation and histamine release;relaxation of the arteries and othersmooth muscles; increased insulin secretion;increased thyroid function;increased lipolysis.Forskolin, in clinical studies, reducedintraocular pressure when itwas applied to the eyes for treatingglaucoma. It has been shown to bea direct cerebral vasodilator. It hasalso been studied as a possible bronchodilator(in the treatment of asthma)and has been shown to effectively reversemethacholine-induced bronchoconstriction in extrinsic asthmatics.Standardized Coleus extracts containingforskolin (18% in 50 mg) findapplication in weight-loss programmes.(Michael T. Murray.)Studies on forskolin and some 50derivatives of the compound indicatethat the natural product is more activethan the analogs prepared from it.The wild var. is known as KaffirPotato.Coleus vettiveroides K. C. Jacob.Family ◮ Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Sri Lanka. Nowunder cultivation in Kerala andTamil Nadu.Ayurvedic ◮ Hrivera, Hiruberaka,Ambu, Ambhas, Udaka, Udichya,Jala, Vaari, Toya, Vaalaka, Baalaa,Baalaka, Baala. (Also equated withPavonia odorata Willd.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kuruver.Folk ◮ Iruveli (Kerala).Action ◮ Leaves—cooling andcarminative, used for indigestion,dyspepsia, dysentery, also for ulcers,bleeding disorders, dermatitis.C. zeylanicus (Benth.) Cramer (synonymPlectranthus zeylanicus Benth.)has been identified as a source of Ayurvedicdrug Hrivera. The juice of stemand leaves, mixed with honey, is prescribedfor diarrhoea.The plant afforded abietane typediterpenoides and a stereoisomer.Colocasia esculenta(Linn.) Schott.Synonym ◮C. antiquorum Schott.C

168 Commelina benghalensis Linn.CFamily ◮Habitat ◮India.English ◮Ayurvedic ◮Araceae.Cultivated throughoutTaro, EdibleYam.Pindaaluka, Aaluki.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chaembu, Shaeppamkizhangu.Folk ◮Arvi, Ghuiyaa.Action ◮ Juice from petiole—styptic,rubefacient. Juice of corn—used inalopaecia.The leaves contain flavones, apigeninand luteolin, also anthocyanins.Leaves cause severe irritation in mouth.Cooked leaves are a source of dietaryfibre for diabetics helping in loweringpost-prandial blood glucose level.A significant increase in total lipids,total cholesterol and triglyceride levelswas observed in hypercholesterolaemicrats when fed with dried leaf powder.The pressed juice of the petioles isused as an astringent and styptic. Allparts of the plant show an acridity. Theacridity is removed by boiling and byaddition of baking soda.From the tubers two dihydroxysterols,besides beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol,have been isolated. Five novelaliphatic compounds have been reported.Trypsin inhibitors are isolatedfrom the tubers.The total amino acids recorded inthe tubers range from 1380 to 2397 mg/100g.Thelysineconcentrationwasrelativelylow. Besides starch, the tuberscontain natural polysaccharides with56% neutral sugars and 40% anioniccomponents. Steamed corms contain30% starch and 3% sugar.Commelina benghalensis Linn.Family ◮ Commelinaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India in moistplaces.Ayurvedic ◮ Kanchata, Karnamorata,Karnasphota.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kanavazhai, Kananagakarai.Folk ◮ Kenaa (vegetable) (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Emollient, demulcent,laxative, diuretic, antileprotic.The rhizomes are starchy and mucilaginous.The plant contains n-octacosanol, n-triacontanol, n-dotriacontanol. stigmasterol,beta-sitosterol and campesterol.Commelina nudiflora Linn.Family ◮ Commelinaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.Ayurvedic ◮ Kanchata (var.).Folk ◮ Kenaa (vegetable) (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Antidermatosis. The plantis used as a blood purifier.Commelina diffusa Burm f; C. paludosaBlume synonym C. obliqua Buch.-Ham. and C. salicifolia Roxb. are relatedspecies of Kanchata and are knownas Kenaa vegetable.Commiphora sp. (Burseraceae).Refer to Balsamodendron sp.

Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy. 169Conium maculatum Linn.Family ◮Habitat ◮Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.North temperate regions.English ◮ Spotted Hemlock, PoisonHemlock.Unani ◮Khardmaanaa, Shuk.Action ◮ Sedative, anodyne,antispasmodic. Used for relief inwhooping cough, asthma; paralysis;epilepsy. Antidote to strichninepoisoning and other poisons of thesame class. Highly toxic. Mothertincture of Hemlock is used inhomoeopathy for prevention ofimmature cataract.All parts of the plant contain alkaloids—highestin aerial parts (1.77%)and lowest in stems. Gamma-coniceineis the principal alkaloid in theleaves, whereas N-methylconiine is themajoralkaloid in mature fruits. Besidethe alkaloids, a flavone glycoside, diosminand chlorogenic acid have been reportedin the leaves and inflorescence.Ripe seeds yield coumarins, bergaptenand xanthotoxin. Experimentally, theplant exhibited teratogenic properties.(Rarely used today.)Berries are toxic at 10 g, leaves at30 g and coniine at 150 mg. (FrancisBrinker.)Convolvulus arvensis Linn.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up to3,000 m in the Himalayas.English ◮ Deer’s Foot.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhadrabalaa, Hiranpadi.Unani ◮Folk ◮Lablaab.Hirankhuri, Haranpagaa.Action ◮ Plant—cooling, anticonvulsant.Root—cathartic.Plant extract—hypotensive in cats;raises coronary rate. Alkaloids—hypotensive,without vasodilation. EtOHextract—anticonvulsant in rats. Aqueousextract—exhibited muscarinic andmicotinic activity.The dried rhizome contains 4.9%resin. The cathartic action of theresinous substance is about one thirdof that of jalap (Ipomoea purga Hayne)resin.All parts of the plant contain beta-Me-esculetin; aerial parts n-alkanes,n-alkanols, alpha-amyrin and sterols;roots gave cuscohygrine.Convolvulus pluricaulis Choisy.Synonym ◮ C. microphyllus Sieb.C. prostratus Forsk.Family ◮Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,ascending to 2,000 m in theHimalayas.Ayurvedic ◮ Shankhapushpi,Shankhaahvaa, Kshirapushpi,Maangalya Kusuma (whiteflowered).Blue-flowered var.,Vishnukraanti, Vishnukraantaa,Vishnugandhi is equated withEvolvulus alsinoides Linn.Unani ◮ Sankhaahuli (blue-flowered)C

170 Convolvulus scammonia Linn.CSiddha/Tamil ◮ Sivakraandi (whiteflowered),Vishnukraandi (blueflowered).Action ◮ Plant—brain tonic, tranquilizerused in nervine disorders,mental aberration, anxiety neurosis,internal haemorrhages,spermatorrhoea. Also astringent,antidysenteric, antispasmodic,antiphlogistic, febrifuge, alterative.Flowers—styptic, used for uterinebleeding. Leaf—antiasthmatic,used in chronic bronchitis. Root—used in gastric and duodenal ulcers,uterine affections and for promotingfertility.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia recommends the plant for epilepsy.The plant contains sankhpushpinealkaloids.The alcoholic (50%) extract of theplant, when administered to rats(through gastric intubation at differentintervals), has shown enhancedneuropeptide synthesis of the brain.It induces an increase in brain proteincontent and increases acquisitionefficiency.Evolvulus alsinoides contains pentatriacontane,triacontane and betasitosterol.Shankhapushpi Syrup (a compoundcontaining C. pluricaulis, Centella asiatica,Nardostachys jatamansi, Nepetahindostana, Nepeta elliptica and Onosmabracteatum), when administeredwith phenytoin, a modern antiepilepticdrug, reduced not only antiepilepticactivity of phenytoin but also loweredplasma phenytoin levels.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—3–6 gpowder. (API Vol. III.)Convolvulus scammonia Linn.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ A native to the Mediterraneanregion.English ◮ Scammony.Unani ◮ Saqmunia.Action ◮ Resin from rhizomes—hydragogue,Cathartic, administeredin dropsy and anascara.Most of the resin available in Indiais imported from Syria and Asia Minorand is grossly adulterated.The roots contain on an average 8%resin together with dihydroxy cinnamicacid, beta-methyl-esculetin, ipuranol,surcose, a reducing sugar andstarch. The resin consists of the glycosidesand methylpentosides of jalapinolicacid and its methyl ester.Large doses cause acute gastro-intestinalirritation, and, if absorbed,produce cystitis and nephritis.Coptis teeta Wall.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Mishmi Hills in ArunachalPradesh. Cultivated commerciallyin China.Ayurvedic ◮ Mamira, Maamiraa,Tiktamuulaa. (Pita-muulikaaand Hem-tantu are provisionalsynonyms.)Unani ◮ Maamisaa, Maamiraa.Folk ◮ Titaa (Bengal and Assam).Action ◮ Stomachic, antiperiodic,antibacterial, antifungal. Prescribed

Corchorus aestuans Linn. 171in debility, convalescence, intermittentfevers, dyspepsia, dysenteryand intestinal catarrh. Used asa local application in thrush.The rhizomes contains berberine(9%) as the major alkaloid; other alkaloidspresent are: coptin (0.08%), coptisin0.02%) and jatrorrhizine (0.01%).Samples from China contained 9.26–12.23% berberine, 2.39–3.25% coptisinand 3.20–4.46% jatrorrhizine. In China,the herb is used as an antidiabetic;the ethanolic (50%) extract exhibitedhypoglycaemic and hypotensive activity.The drug due to berberine and itsrelated alkaloids promoted reticuloendotheliumto increased phagocytosis ofleucocytes in dog blood in vitro and invivo.Coptis chinensis (Huang Lian) inhibitederythrocyte haemolysis, decreasedlipid peroxidation in brain and kidney,decreased generation of superoxideperoxidation and decreased hydroxylradicals in rats. (Life Sci, 2000,66(8), 725–735.)Dosage ◮ Root—1–3 g powder.(CCRAS.)Corallocarpus epigaeusBenth. ex Hook. f.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,Bihar, West Bengal, Gujarat,Madhya Pradesh and PeninsularIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Shukanaasaa, Nahikaa,Katunaahi, Paataala-garudaa.(Cocculus hirsutus is used asPaataala-garudi).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kollankovai,Aaakaasagarudam.Action ◮ Laxative. Root used duringlater stages of dysentery and chronicmucous enteritis; also in syphiliticrheumatism. The herb shows noapparent effect on acute dysentery.The root contains a bitter principleallied to bryonin.Corchorus aestuans Linn.Synonym ◮ C. acutangulus Lam.Family ◮ Tiliaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmerparts of India, as a weed.English ◮ White Jute. (Tossa Jute isequated with C. olitorius Linn.).Ayurvedic ◮ Chunchu, Chanchu,Chinchaa. (bigger var. is equatedwith C. olitorius; smallar var. withC. capsularis.)Folk ◮ Chench shaaka, Titapat(Bengal).Action ◮ Seeds and aerial parts—stomachic, anti-inflammatory. Usedin pneumonia.The seeds contain cardenolides,beta-sitosterol, ceryl alcohol, oligosaccharides.The aerial parts containtriterpenoidal glycosides—corchorusins.Corchorusins have similar structuralsimilarity with saikosaponins(isolated so far from Bupleurum sp. ofJapan, China and Korea) and someof them exhibit antiviral, anti-inflam-C

172 Corchorus capsularis Linn.Cmatory and plasma-cholesterol loweringactivities.The alcoholic extract of the entireplant was found to have anticancer activityagainst epidermal carcinoma ofnasopharynx in tissue culture. Alcoholicextract and glycosides of seedsexhibit cardiotonic activity. Digitoxosecontaining glycosides are reportedto be present in Corchorus sp.C. olitorius Linn. is known as Jew’sMallow (Pattaa Shaaka or Patuaa Shaaka).Corchorosid A, reported from theplant, improved cardiac competenceexperimentally.The leaf extracts may be used asmoisturizers in skin cosmetics. Theextracts consist of uronic acid containingmuco-polysaccharide, Ca, K andP, among others, which act as effectivemoisturizers.Corchorus capsularis Linn.Family ◮ Tiliaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout warmer partsof India; extensively cultivated inWest Bengal.English ◮ White Jute.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaala shaaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pirattai-keerai.Folk ◮ Naadi shaaka, Narichaa.Titapat (Bengal).Action ◮ Leaves—stomachic,carminative, diuretic, antidysenteric(dried leaves). Seeds—purgative.Seeds contain cardiac glycosides.These include two monosides, helveticosideand corchoroside A and two polarglycosides, erysimoside and olitoriside.Leaves contain beta-sitosterolglucoside.Corchoroside A exhibitedcardiotonic properties.The aqueous/alcoholic extracts,containing polysaccharides, may beused in preparations of skin cosmeticsor hair preparations for their moisturizingeffect.Corchorus fascicularis Lam.Family ◮ Tiliaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout warmer partsof India.Ayurvedic ◮ Chanchuka, Chanchu.Folk ◮ Chanchu shaaka, Baaphali.Action ◮ Astringent, spasmolytic,restorative, mucilaginous.The plant contains betulinic acid andbeta-sitosterol. Seeds yield cardenolidesincluding trilocularin. The glycosidesof the plant were found to be devoidof any effect of its own on smoothmuscle of guinea pig ileum, but producedspasmolytic effect against acetylcholine,histamine and bradykinin. Directaction of the drug was observedon rabbit intestines. Slight cardiac depressanteffect was found on isolatedamphibian heart preparation.Corchorus depressus (L.) Christensen,found in drier parts of North India,is known as Bhauphali (Delhi).The Plant is used as a cooling medicinein fevers; its mucilage is prescribedin gonorrhoea, also for increasing theviscosity of seminal fluid. An extract

Cordia wallichii G. Don. 173of the plant is applied as a paste towounds.The plant contains alpha-amyrinderivatives, together with apigenin,luteolin, sitosterol and its glucoside.Presence of quercetin and kaempferolhas been reported in leaves and flowers.The plant exhibits antimicrobial andantipyretic activities.Cordia myxa Roxb. non Linn.Synonym ◮ C. dichotoma Forst. f.C. obliqua Willd.Family ◮ Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, wildand often planted.English ◮ Sabestan Plum.Ayurvedic ◮ Shleshmaataka, Shelu,Bahuvaara, Bahuvaaraka, Bhutvrkshak,Uddaalaka Shita, Picchila,Lisodaa.Unani ◮ Sapistaan, Lasodaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naruvili.Action ◮ Fruit—astringent, demulcent,expectorant, diuretic,anthelmintic, mucilaginous. Usedin the diseases of the chest andurinary passage. Bark—used indyspepsia and fevers. Kernels—externally applied to ringworm.Leaf—decoction used in cough andcold.ThefruitscontainCa55,P275,Zn2,Fe 6, Mn 2, Cr 0.2 and Cu 1.6 mg/100 g(Chromium is of therapeutic value indiabetes).Antinutritional factors are—phyticacid 355, phytate phosphorus 100 andoxalic acid 250 mg/100 g.The seeds contain alpha-amyrin andtaxifolin-3, 5-dirhamnoside, whichshowed significant anti-inflammatoryactivity. EtOH (50%) of leaves andstems—antimicrobial; aerial parts—diuretic and hypothermic.Cordia rothii Roem. & Schult.Family ◮ Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ Rajasthan, Gujarat, Deccanand Karnataka.English ◮ Sebestan (smaller var.)Ayurvedic ◮ Laghu-shleshmaataka,Lisodaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naruvili.Folk ◮ Gondi.Action ◮ See C. myxa.Bark—astringent; decoction is usedas a gargle.Cordia wallichii G. Don.Synonym ◮ C. oblique Willd.var. wallichii.Family ◮ Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ Gujarat, North Kanara andDeccan.English ◮ Sebestan (bigger var.).Ayurvedic ◮ Shleshmaataka(bigger var.), Uddaalaka, Bahuvaaraka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perunaruvili.Folk ◮ Gondi.Action ◮ Fruit—astringent, demulcent,expectorant.See C. myxa.C

174 Coriandrum sativum Linn.CCoriandrum sativum Linn.Family ◮Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated chiefly inMadhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, TamilNadu, Karnataka and Bihar.English ◮ Coriander.Ayurvedic ◮ Dhaanyaka, Kustumburu,Dhaanyeyaka,Dhanika,Dhanikaa, Dhaanaa, Dhaanya,Dhaniyaa, Kunati, Chhatraa,Vitunnaka.Unani ◮ Kishneez.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kotthamalli.Action ◮ Stimulant, stomachic,carminative, antispasmodic, diuretic;also hypoglycaemic andanti-inflammatory. Oil—bactericidaland larvicidal. Used in Chinaas a remedy for measles, diabetes,aerophagy and gastroenteritis.Key application ◮ In dyspepticcomplaints, loss of appetite.(German Commission E, BritishHerbal Pharmacopoeia, IndianHerbal Pharmacopoeia.)Coriander contains 0.5–1% volatileoil, consisting mainly of delta-linalool(55–74%), alpha-pinene and terpinine.It also contains flavonoids, coumarins,phthalides and phenolic acids (includingcaffeic and chlorogenic).Aqueous extract of the roasted seedscontains large amounts of acetylcholineand its precursor choline. (Cholineis found useful in preventing and curingcertain liver disorders.) The extractshows cholinomimetic effects experimentally.Coriandrin, an antiviral agent, hasbeen synthesized from the aerial parts.The plant forms an ingredient of a Pakistaniherbal drug (Intellan) which isconsidered to be a neuro-energizer.In Unani medicine, an infusion offruits is also used in bleeding piles,neuralgia, cephalalgia and spermatorrhoea.Dosage ◮Vol. I.)Fruit—1–3 g powder. (APICorydalis govaniana Wall.Family ◮ Papaveraceae.Habitat ◮ The West Himalayas, fromKashmir to Kumaon.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhootakeshi (a doubtfulsubstitute for Bhootajataa,Nardostachys jatamansi DC.)Species of Selinum are also used asBhootakeshi.Action ◮ Sedative, spasmolytic,hypotensive, nervine, antiseptic.Used in cutaneous and scrofulousaffections, chronic fever and livercomplaints.The roots contain phthalide isoquinolinealkaloids. In addition, stemsand leaves contain tetrahydroprotoberberines.A related species, C. solida, indigenousto Siberia, northern China andJapan, contains alkaloids includingcorydalmine, tetrahydropalmatine,protoberberine-type alkaloid lenticin.The alkaloids are analgesic and sedativeand have been shown to work, at leastin part, by blocking the dopamine receptorsin the central nervous system.

Coscinium fenestratum Colebr. 175The powdered rhizome of Corydalispossesses one-hundredth of the analgesicpotency of morphine.Corylus avellana Linn.Family ◮ Betulaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe andWestern Asia; common in gardenson hill-station in India.English ◮ European Hazel, Filbert.Unani ◮ Funduq, Bunduq.Action ◮ Kernel—nutritive, astringent;used as an anabolic tonicand in sexual debility in Unanimedicine. The oil is used to reducecholesterol and as an antioxidant.The kernel of the European HazelNut contains protein 12.7%, carbohydrate17.7%, fat 60.9% and phosphorus0.35%. The fatty acid components ofthe kernel oil are : oleic 88.1%, linoleic2.9%, palmitic 3.1%, stearic 1.6% andmyristic 2.2%.The stembarkcontains abiologicallyactive cyanidanol glycoside.The Turkish Hazel Nuts are rich inmono and polysaturated fatty acids—oleic 82% and linoleic 9%; also gavebeta-sitosterol.The Turkish Hazel Nuts are importedinto India during the winter season.Corylus colurna Linn.Family ◮ Betulaceae.Habitat ◮ Western temperateHimalayas from Kashmir toKumaon; common in Kashmirforests.English ◮ Turkish Hazel.Folk ◮ Virin (Kashmir). Thangi,Urni (Punjab). Kapaasi, BhotiaaBadaam (Kumaon).Action ◮ A mixture of flavonoids,isolated from the leaves, has shownpotent antiperoxidative and oxygenradical scavenging properties. Itexhibits very low toxicity and canbe used as an alternative to the toxicsynthetic antioxidants used for thetreatment of free radical-mediatedinjuries. See also C. avellana.Himalayan Hazel, occurring in centraland eastern Himalayas, locallyknown as Curri and Langura, is equatedwith Corylus ferox Wall.Coscinium fenestratum Colebr.Family ◮ Menispermaceae.Habitat ◮ South India, particularlyin Western Ghats.English ◮ False Calumba.Ayurvedic ◮ Pitachandana, Pitasaara,Harichandana, Kaaliyaka, Kalambaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maramanjal, Manjalkodi.Folk ◮ Jharihaldi.Action ◮ Root—stomachic, diuretic,hypotensive, antidysenteric, antibacterial,antifungal, bitter tonicin dyspepsia and debility.ThestemsandrootsofKalambakacontain alkaloids including berberineC

176 Costus speciosus (Koenig) Sm.C3.5–5% and jatorrhizine. Stems containceryl palmitic acid and oleic acid.The plant is also used against fractures;for dressing wounds and ulcersand in cutaneous leishmaniasis.The stems are used in South India asa substitute for Berberis (Daaruharidraa);also as an Indian substitutefor True Calumba (Jateorhiza palmataMiers).Dosage ◮ Root—3–5 g powder;decoction—50–100 ml. (CCRAS.)Costus speciosus (Koenig) Sm.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, North Bengal,Khasi and Jaintia Hills, subHimalayan tracts of Uttar Pradeshand Himachal Pradesh and WesternGhats.English ◮ Canereed, Wild Ginger.Ayurvedic ◮ Kebuka, Kembuka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Krrauvam, MalaiVasambu, Ven Kottam.Folk ◮ Kebu.Action ◮ Astringent, purgative,depurative, anti-inflammatory(used in gout, rheumatism; bronchitis,asthma, catarrhal fevers,dysuria), anthelmintic, antivermin,maggoticide, antifungal.The rhizomes contain saponins—dioscin, gracillin and beta-sitosterolbeta-D-glucoside.The alkaloids showpapaverine-like smooth-muscle-relaxantactivity, cardiotonic activity likethat of digitalis and antispasmodic,CNS-depressant, diuretic and hydrocholereticactivities. Saponins showsignificant anti-inflammatory and antiarthriticactivity.The seeds also contain saponins andexhibit potent and sustained hypotensiveand bradycardiac activities in dogswith low toxicity and without anyhaemolytic activity; also weak spasmolyticactivity on isolated guinea-pigileum.All parts of the plant yield steroidalsapogenin, diogenin (quantity variesfrom 0.32 to 4%).(Not to be confused with Kushtha ofIndian medicine, Saussurea lappa.)Crataegus crenulata Roxb.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromSutluj to Bhutan at altitudes of 800–2,500 m.Folk ◮ Ghingaaru.Action ◮ See Cratageus oxyacantha.Crataegeus oxyacantha Linn.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ British and Europeanhedge plant, met with in thetemperate Himalayas of Kashmirand Himachal Pradesh at an altitudeof 1,800–3,000 m. (The plant doesnot thrive in the plains of India.)English ◮ English Hawthorn.Folk ◮ Ring, Ringo, Pingyat, Phindak,Ban Sanjli (Punjab hills).

Cressa cretica Linn. 177Action ◮ Coronary vasodilator(strengthens heart muscle withoutincreasing the beat in coronaryarteries), antispasmodic, antihypertensive,sedative to nervous system,diuretic.Key application ◮ In cases ofcardiac insufficiency Stage II asdefined by NYHA (New York HeartAssociation). An improvement ofsubjective findings as well as anincrease in cardiac work tolerance,a decrease in pressure/heart rateproduct, an increase in the ejectionfraction and a rise in the anaerobicthreshold have been established inhuman pharmacological studies.(German Commission E, WHO.)The active principles include oligomericprocyanidins and flavonoids.The drug is official in HomoeopathicPharmacopoeia of India.Contraindicated in low blood pressure,chest pain, bleeding disorders.The herb may interfere with therapeuticeffect of cardiac drugs. (Sharon M.Herr.) Preparations based on hydroalcoholicextracts of Crataegus monogynaor C. laevigata are used as Hawthornin the Western herbal.Crataeva nurvala Buch.-Ham.Synonym ◮ C. magna (Lour.) DC.Family ◮ Capparidaceae.Habitat ◮ Wild as well as cultivatedin gardens all over India.Ayurvedic ◮ Varuna, Varana, Barnaa,Setu, Ashmarighna, Kumaarak,Tiktashaaka.Unani ◮ Baranaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maavilingam.Action ◮ Bark—diuretic (findsapplication in urinary disorders,including urolithiasis, prostatichypertrophy, neurogenic bladderand urinary infections; uterine andgastro-intestinal problems). Juiceof the bark is given to women afterchildbirth. Extract of root bark,mixed with honey, is applied toscrofulous enlargements of glands.Whole plant powder—cholinergicin smooth muscles includingurinary bladder.Key application ◮ As antiurolithiatic.(Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The antiurolithic activity of thestem-bark is attributed to the presenceof lupeol. Lupeol not only preventedthe formation of vesical calculi, butalso reduced the size of the preformedstones in the kidneys of calculogenicrats. It also reversed the biochemicalparameters in urine, blood and serumtowards normal.The stem bark also exhibit antiinflammatoryactivity, and is reportedtostimulatebilesecretion,appetiteandbowel movement.Dosage ◮ Stem bark—20–30 g fordecoction. (API Vol. I.)Cressa cretica Linn.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Costal regions of India.Ayurvedic ◮ Rudanti, Rudantikaa,Rudravanti.C

178 Crinum asiaticum Linn.CSiddha/Tamil ◮ Uppu Sanaga.Folk ◮ Khardi.Action ◮ Expectorant, stomachic,antibilious, alterative.Air-dried, powdered whole plantgave n-octacosanol, scopoletin, umbelliferone,isopimpinellin, beta-sitosteroland its –D(+)-glucoside and quercetin.Crinum asiaticum Linn.Family ◮ Amaryllidaceae.Habitat ◮ Wild as well as cultivatedas an ornamental.English ◮ St. John’s Lily, Poison Bulb.Ayurvedic ◮ Naagadamani, Naagapatra,Sudarshana (var.). C.defixum Ker.-Gawl, is equated withSukhadarshana.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vishamoongil.Action ◮ Bulb—laxative (a substitutefor ipecacuanha), expectorant. Usedin biliousness, and in stranguryand other urinary affections. Alsoused for the treatment of burns,whitlow and carbuncle. Freshroot—diaphoretic, emetic. Leaves—expectorant; externally, antiinflammatory(used in skin diseasesand for reducing inflammations).Seed—emmenagogue, diuretic.The bark gave sterols and triterpenoids.Seeds contain alkaloids—lycorine, crinamine and crinasiatine.Crinum latifolium Linn.Family ◮Amaryllidaceae.Habitat ◮ Wild as well as cultivatedas an ornamental.English ◮ Wide-leaved Crinum.Ayurvedic ◮ Sudarshana, Sukhadarshana,Chakraangi, Somvalli,Madhuparnikaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vishamoongil.Action ◮ Bulb—rubefacient, antirheumatic.Also used for piles andtubercular fistula.The alkaloids, crinafoline and crinafolidine,have been isolated from theplant. These along with crinafolinemethochloride exhibited significanttumour-inhibiting activity in vivo. Theplant extract in also used in allergiccondition. This activity is attributedto the presence of glucan A and phosphatidyllycorine.A related species, C. zeylanicum, isknown as Milk-and-Wine Lily.Dosage ◮ Leaf, root—5–10 g paste.(CCRAS.)Crocus sativus Linn.Family ◮ Iridaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Kashmir upto 2,000 m and in Chaubattia inUttar Pradesh.English ◮ Saffron, Crocus.Ayurvedic ◮ Kumkuma, Rudhira,Vadrika, Kaashmira, Kaashmiraka,Vaalhika, Agnishikhaa, Ghrusrrn,Rakta, Kshataja. Keshara (usuallyKeshara indicates Naagakeshara,Mesua ferrea Linn.)Unani ◮ Zaafraan.

Crotalaria juncea Linn. 179Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kumgumappoo(dried stigma).Action ◮ Stigma and style—nervinetonic, sedative, antispasmodic expectorant(in dry cough, whoopingcough, bronchitis), stomachic,diaphoretic, emmenagogue.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaindicated the use of the stigma andstyle in migraine, chronic sinusitis, andin urinary obstruction, inflammationof the urinary tract.The saffron is used in Chinesemedicine for melancholia, depression,shock and menstrual disorders.Saffron contains a volatile oil composedof terpenes, terpene alcohols andesters. The herb also contains crocin,picrocrocin, crocetin, carotenoids andriboflavin and thiamine.Preliminary evidence suggests thatcrocetin may improved atherosclerosisby increasing plasma oxygen diffusionand decreasing cholesterol andtriglyceride levels. In addition, crocetinbinds to albumin, potentially increasingoxygen diffusion and improvingatherosclerosis. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)The stigma showed remarkable inhibitoryeffect on blood coagulationdue to the presence of platelet aggregationinhibitor containing adenosine. Itaccelerated in vitro fibrinolytic activityof urokinase and plasmin.Small amounts of Saffron stimulategastric secretion; larger amounts stimulateuterine smooth muscle and exhibitemmenagogue and abortifacienteffects.Saffron extract showed cytotoxicand antimutagenic activity and antitumouractivity against ascites tumoursin mice. Chemical analysis indicatedthat the naturally occurring crocinmay be the active principle responsiblefor the observed anticancer activity.A xanthone, carotenoid glycosidicconjugate, mangi-crocin, isolated fromsaffron, showed significant adaptogenicactivity. A natural antioxidant,isolated from saffron stem callus,showed better antioxidant activity thanvitamin E. Saffron bulbs are toxic, stigmasin overdoses narcotic.The dose of stigma and styles at 1.5–5.0 g is toxic. (Recommended dose :0.5–1.5 g per day).Dosage ◮ Dried style and stigma—20–50 mg (API Vol. IV.)Crotalaria juncea Linn.Family ◮Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains ofIndia, especially in South India.English ◮Sun Hemp.Ayurvedic ◮ Shana, Shanapushpi,Malyapushpa.Unani ◮Sunn.Siddha/Tamil ◮Sannappu.Folk ◮Jhanjhaniaa.Sanal, Manji,Action ◮ Leaf—demulcent, purgative,emetic, emmenagogue, abortifacient,ant-implantation. Given indiarrhoea, dysentery and bleedingdisorders. Seeds—used in psoriasisand impetigo.C

180 Crotalaria verrucosa Linn.CSeeds—hepatotoxic. Seed oil gavefatty acids—linoleic, linolenic andoleic.Pyrrolizidine alkaloids—junceine,tricodesmine, riddelline, seneciphyllineand senecionine were also obtained.Dosage ◮ Seed—1–3 g powder. (APIVol. III.)Crotalaria verrucosa Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical regions of Indiafrom Himalayas to Sri Lanka.Ayurvedic ◮ Shanapushpi. Shana(var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sanal, Sannappu.Folk ◮ Sanai, Jhanjhaniaa.Action ◮ Juice of leaves—usedfor biliousness, dyspepsia, bloodimpurities, scabies and impetigo,both internally and externally.Taraxerol, beta-sitosterol and linoleic,palmitic, stearic, lauric, oleic, linolenic,arachidic, myristic and ricinoleicacids have been isolated from fixed oilof the stem.Dosage ◮ Seed—1–3 g powder.(CCRAS.)Croton oblongifolius Roxb.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Central, Western andSouthern India, also eastwards toBengal.Ayurvedic ◮ Naagadanti. (Dantiis equated with Baliospermummontanum Muell., Dravanti withJatropha curcas Linn. and Crotontiglium Linn.)Action ◮ Same as that of C. tiglium.Croton tiglium Linn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South-East Asia.Now cultivated in Assam, Bengaland South India.English ◮ Purging Croton.Ayurvedic ◮ Jayapaala, Dravanti,Dantibija, Tintidiphala.Unani ◮ Habb-us-Salaateen, Jamaalgotaa,Hubb-ul-Malook.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nervaalam.Action ◮ Cathartic, rubefacient,irritant. Used in ascites, anasarca,dropsy and enlargement ofabdominal viscera.The seed oil is purgative. It producessevere symptoms of toxicity when takeninternally or applied externally tothe skin.Croton oil showed tumour-promotingactivity on mouse skin. Theskin irritant and tumour promotingditerpene esters of the tigliane type(phorbol esters) and toxins have beenisolated from the seeds. (In China,where the herb is employed for thetreatment of gastro-intestinal disturbances,the highest incidence of nasopharyngealcancer has been reported.)1 ml oil is usually fatal. Phorbols(terpenoids) from nonvolatile oil are

Cucumis prophetarum Linn. 181toxic. Crotin, a toxic albuminous substance,is not extracted in the oil. Theplant caused haematuria and swellingof lymph glands in animals.Dosage ◮ Seed—6–12 mg powder.(API Vol. IV.)Cryptolepis buchananiRoem. & Schult.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae; Periplocaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Indian Sarsaparilla (blackvar.).Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna Saarivaa,Jambupatraa Saarivaa, Karantaa,Shyamalataa, Shyaama, Gopi,Gopavadhu, Kaalghatika.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maattan-kodi,Paal-Kodi, Kattupala.Folk ◮ Karantaa, Anantamuula(Varanasi).Action ◮ Blood-purifier, alterative.Used for rickets in children.In combination with Euphorbiamicrophylla, the herb is used asa galactagogue. A decoction of thestem is used as a supporting drugin paralysis; of the root bark inrheumatism.The major constituent of the root extractis germanicol docosanoate. Theroots contains cryptanoside C. Theleaves gave cryptanoside A and B anda cardenolide, cryptosin.Dosage ◮ Root—5–10 g (APIVol. IV.); infusion—50–100 ml.(CCRAS.)Ctenolepis cerasiformis Naud.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Wild on wastelands inGujarat.Ayurvedic ◮ Shankhini.(Also equated with Corivolvulusarvenis L.)Folk ◮ Aankha-phuutaa-mani(Gujarat).Action ◮ Emetic, drastic purgative.Used for internal tumours andabscesses. (C.R.A.V.)Cucumis meloLinn. var. utilissimus Duth. & Fuller.Synonym ◮ C. utilissimus Roxb.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab andUttar Pradesh.English ◮ Snake Cucumber.Ayurvedic ◮ Ervaaru, Ervaaruka,Urvaaru, Bahukanda, Karkati.Unani ◮ Kakari.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kakkarikkay,Vellarikkai.Action ◮ Seeds—cooling, diuretic;used in painful micturition andsuppression of urine.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia recommends the seed in dysuriaand lithiasis.Dosage ◮ Seed—3–6 g. (API Vol. II.)Cucumis prophetarum Linn.Synonym ◮C. myriocarpus Naud.C

182 Cucumis sativus Linn.CFamily ◮Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Wild on wastelands ofSindh, Baluchistan, Rajasthan; indry districts of Bellary in the South.English ◮ Wild Cucumber.Ayurvedic ◮ Indravarruni (var.).Folk ◮ Khar-indraayana.Action ◮ Emetic, purgative. Toxic.Fruit pulp—a bitter resinous body,myriocarpin, produces nausea and isslightly purgative.The fruit contain cucurbitacin B,C,Dand Q1, and propheterosterol and itsacetate. Cucurbitacin Q1 is an antitumouragent. Amino acids from thefruits are leucine, iso-leucine, phenylalanine,valine, tryptophan, tyrosine,proline, alanine threonine, glycine,arginine, crystine and aspartic acid.Cucumis sativus Linn.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated for its ediblefruits which are usually used assalad vegetable.English ◮ Cucumber.Ayurvedic ◮ Trapusha, Traapusha,Trapushi, Tiktakarkatikaa (bittervar.).Unani ◮ Khiyaar, Khiraa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellarikkai.Folk ◮ Khiraa.Action ◮ Seed—used in dysuria,irritation of the urinary tract,cystitis. Reduces specific gravity ofurine. Also used for tapeworms.Cucumber contains rutin; seeds glucosidesincluding cucurbitaside; leavesfree cucurbitasides B & C, ferredoxin,alpha-spinasterol. Free and boundsterols are found in seedlings and inmale and female flowers.Presence of proteolytic enzymes,ascorbic acid oxidase and succinic andmalic dehydrogenases has been reported.Dosage ◮ Seed—3–6 g powder; fruitjuice—25–50 ml. (CCRAS.)Cucumis trigonus Roxb.Synonym ◮ C. pseudo-colocynthisRoyle.C.callosus (Rottl.) Congn.Bryonia callosa Rottl.Habitat ◮ Wild throughout the drierupland tracts of India.Ayurvedic ◮ Indravaaruni (var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattutumatti.Folk ◮ Vishlumbha, Bhakuraa.Action ◮ Pulp of fruit—drasticpurgative. Decoction of roots—milder in purgative action. Seeds—cooling, astringent; useful in biliousdisorders. The fruit is used asa substitute for Colocynth.The fruits contain steroid and triterpenoidcompounds, cucurbitacinB and proteolytic enzymes. EtOHextract exhibits analgesic and antiinflammatoryactivity; stimulates isolateduterus of guinea pigs.Cucurbita maxima Duchesne.Family ◮Cucurbitaceae.

Cucurbita pepo Linn. 183Habitat ◮India.English ◮Cultivated throughoutRed Gourd, Red Pumpkin.Ayurvedic ◮ Peeta Kuushmaanda,Kuushmaandaka, Kuusmaandi,Karkaaruka, Seetaaphal.Unani ◮ Kaddu-e-Sheerin, Aqteen.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Parangikayi.Action ◮ Fruit pulp—sedative,emollient and refrigerant; usedas poultice, applied to burns,inflammations, boils, and burns.Seeds—diuretic, anthelmintic (fortapeworm). Because of their zinccontent and antimitotic effect, seedsare used to arrest enlargement ofprostate gland. Also used in cystitisand minor kidney dyfunction.Pumpkin (Cucurbita maxima and C.pepo) seeds contain B vitamins, VitaminA; minerals—calcium, iron, phosphorus,zinc; cucurbitacins; linonelicacid. An infusion of seeds (2–3 teaspoons)is taken as a diuretic and inhypertrophy of prostate.Seeds of C. maxima contain sterolglycosides and sterol fatty acid esterswhich showed antitumour activity inmice.The leaves contain calcium 36.38;magnesium 38.80; iron 2.04; zinc 0.76;and copper 0.42 (mg/100 g).The seed oil contains sterols and triterpenoids.The oil is used in migraineand neuralgia.Cucurbita moschataDuch. ex Poir.Family ◮Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Central America.Cultivated in warmer climate thanthat required for C. maxima.English ◮ Squash.Ayurvedic ◮ Kumshmaanda.Action ◮ Fruit—used in headache,bronchitis, asthma; as diureticin genitourinary disorders; asanthelmintic against tapeworms.Dried pulp is administered inhaemptysis.The lipids isolated from the seedsincluded glycerides, sterol esters, phosphatidylcholineand phosphatidylinositol.The aqueous extract of seedsshowed potent gastroprotective activityagainst ethanol-induced gastric lesionsin rats.In Chinese medicine, Cucurbita moschataflowerisusedinjaundice, dysenteryand cough; the root in jaundice,strangury, galactostasis and dysentery;the stem in irregular menstruation andscalds.Cucurbita pepo Linn.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to N. Mexico andeastern U.S.A. Now commonlycultivated in Northern India.English ◮ Pumpkin, Marrow.Unani ◮ Safed Kaddu, Kumhraa.Siddha ◮ Suraikayi (Tamil).Action ◮ See C. maxima.Key application ◮ Seeds—in irritatedbladder condition, micturitionproblems of benign prostaticC

184 Cuminum cyminum Linn.Chyperplasia stages 1 and 2. (GermanCommission E, The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.) In childhoodenuresis noctruna. (ExpandedCommission E.)The roasted and fresh seeds yield32.2 and 38.0% of fatty oil respectively.The oil filled capsules were administeredto patients suffering from hypertrophyof the prostate. Results showedthat the frequent urge to urinate decreasedand the urine residues wereminimized.The oil consists of the glyceridesof linoleic 45, oleic 25, palmitic andstearic acids 30%. Sterols have beenisolated.Cuminum cyminum Linn.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the Mediterraneanregion; now cultivated inPunjab and Uttar Pradesh.English ◮ Cumin.Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta-jiraka, Ajaaji,Shukla-ajaaji. The three jirakasmentioned in the Ayurvedic textsare: Jiraka, Krishna Jiraka (Carumbulbocastanum W. Koch.) andKaaravi (Carum carvi Linn.).Unani ◮ Safed Jeeraa, Kamun.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Cheerakam.Action ◮ Carminative, antispasmodic(usedindyspepsiaanddiarrhoea),stimulant, diuretic, antibacterial,emmenagogue, galactagogue.Cumin seeds contain up to 14.5%lipids. They are reported to contain 14flavonoid glycosides; 7 belong to apigenin,5 to luteolin and 2 to chrysoeriolgroup. Major constituents of the essentialoil include cuminaldehyde (20–40% of the oil) and p-cymene.EtOH (50%) extract of the fruit exhibitsspasmolytic and hypotensive activity.Cumin is considered superior iscomforting carminative qualities toFennel or Caraway. Due to its disagreeableflavour it has been replaced byCarawayinEuropeanherbalmedicine.Cumin oil and cuminaldehyde havebeen reported to exhibit strong larvicidaland antibacterial activity.Fine grinding of the seed can causeloss of 50% of volatile oil, most withinone hour. (Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Dosage ◮Vol. I.)Fruit—1–3 g powder. (APICupressus sempervirens Linn.Family ◮ Cupressaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Asia Minor,Syria and North Persia. The treeis a variety only known in thecultivated state in North-WestIndia. (Chopra RN.)English ◮ Mediterranean Cypress.Ayurvedic ◮ Suraahva.Unani ◮ Saro.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Suram, Churam.Action ◮ Tincture—vasoconstrictor,antiseptic, sedative, antispasmodic,diuretic. Used for cough, cold,bronchitis, varicose veins, piles,

Curcuma amada Roxb. 185menopausal cramps, leg-cramps.Essential oil—used only externally.Used in aromatherapy for massage(10 drops in 2 teaspoonful of almondoil).The essential oil from the plant gave73 compounds; major compound wasalpha-pinene (47.00–52.76%); amongothers—D-camphane, D-silvestren, p-cymene, L-cadinenes, cedrol, terpineol,acetyl-and isovalerianyl monoterpeneester.No longer taken internally as a dilutedessential oil. Medicinal parts arecones, branches and oil.Curculigo orchioides Gaertn.Family ◮ Amaryllidaceae; Hypoxidaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-tropical Himalayasfrom Kumaon eastwards; WesternGhats from Konkan Southwards.Ayurvedic ◮ Taalmuuli, Taalpatri,Krishna Mushali, Bhuumitaala.Unani ◮ Musli Siyaah.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nilappanan kizhangu.Action ◮ Nervine, adaptogenic, sedative,anticonvulsive, androgenic,anti-inflammatory and diuretic.Used in Jaundice, urinary disorders,skin diseases and asthma.Mucilaginous.The rhizome contains saponins (curculigosaponinC and F promoted proliferationof spleen lymphocytes verysignificantly; F and G increased theweight of the thymus in vitro in mice);sapogenins; phenolic glycosides, a triterpenealcohol; a pentacyclic triterpene,an aliphatic compound, hentriacontanol,sitosterol, stigmasterol,cycloartenol and sucrose. A peptide,Curculin C, containing 114 aminoacids, has been isolated from the fruit.In traditional Chinese medicine,dried rhizome, containing curculigosideis used as a tonic for its immunologicaland protective property.In Indian medicine, powdered rhizomeswithmilkaretakenasarestorativetonic, also for sexual debility.EtOH (50%) of the plant exhibitedhypoglycaemic property.Dosage ◮ Dried rhizome—3–6 gpowder. (API Vol. IV.)Curcuma amada Roxb.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Gujarat;wild in parts of West Bengal, UttarPradesh, Karnataka and TamilNadu.English ◮ Mango-ginger, WildTurmeric.Ayurvedic ◮ Aamra Haridraa, AamragandhiHaridraa, Surabhidaaru,Karpuraa.Unani ◮ Aambaa Haldi, Daarchob.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mangaiinji.Action ◮ Carminative, stomachic,appetizer, expectorant, antipyretic,anti-inflammatory. Specific inrheumatism and inflammation ofliver; rheumatism; in contusionsand sprains.C

186 Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.CPresence of curcumin and a phytosterolis reported in the rhizome. Theessential oil exhibited antimicrobial,antifungal and anthelmintic activityagainst tape worms.Significant decrease was observedin liver total lipids and serum triglyceridesof adult female rat when fed10% Mango-ginger or 10% curcuminalong with normal diet or a surcosebasedhypertriglyceridaemic diet.Dosage ◮ Rhizome—3–5 g powder;10–20 ml juice. (CCRAS.)Curcuma angustifolia Roxb.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Central Himalaya, Bihar,West Bengal, Maharashtra andSouth India.English ◮ East Indian Arrowroot,Travancore Starch.Ayurvedic ◮ Tvakshira, Tvakshiri.Unani ◮ Tikhur, Tabaasheer.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ararut-gaddalu.Action ◮ Starch—Cooling, demulcent,nutritious; used for asthmaand bronchitis, as a substitute forVansalochana (Bamboo-manna).Oil—antibacterial, antifungal,anthelmintic against tape worms.Rhizome—used for fever, diarrhoea,gravel, swellings and skin diseases.The rhizomes yield 9.4% of an essentialoil containing alpha-pinene 1.90,beta-pinene 17.92, d-ar-curcumene27.84, d-camphor 12.20, d-alpha-terpineol13.40, borneol 7.0, zingiberol 9.48and a sesquiterpene alcohol 8.0%.Dosage ◮ Rhizome—5–10 g powder.(CCRAS.)Curcuma aromatica Salisb.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated chiefly in WestBengal and Kerala.English ◮ Wild turmeric, YellowZedoary.Ayurvedic ◮ Karpuraa, Aranya-rajanikanda, Van Haridraa.Unani ◮ Daarchob.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kastoori Manjal.Action ◮ Uses similar to those of C.longa. Essential oil from rhizomes—antimicrobial, antifungal andanthelmintic. The tubers are appliedexternally to bruises and sprains,to skin eruptions and infections.A decoction is administered inbiliary gastritis.Fresh rhizomes contain a numberof sesquiterpenes including curdioneand cerumol. Curcumol and curdioneshowed inhibitory activity on sarcoma180 in mice.The rhizomes yield 6.1% of an essentialoil with d-camphene 0.8, d-camphor 2.5, sesquiterpenes 65.5, sesquiterpenealcohols 22.0, acids 0.7%.The essential oil shows high amountsof ar-curcumene (18.6%), beta-curcumene(25.5%) and xanthorrhizol(25.7%).The oil, on intraperitoneal administration,partly reversed toxipathic hepatitisin mice induced by CCl4.

Curcuma longa Linn. 187Dosage ◮ Rhizome—1–3 g powder.(CCRAS.)Curcuma caesia Roxb.Family ◮Habitat ◮Bengal.English ◮Zingiberaceae.Cultivated mainly in WestBlack Zedorary.Ayurvedic ◮ Rajani, Nishaa, Nishi,Raatri, Kaali Haldi, Nilkanth,Narkachura.Unani ◮ Zarambaad.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manupasapu.Action ◮ Carminative. Usedexternally for bruises and sprains.The essential oil contains camphoras main constituent; others are camphane,bornylene and sesquiterpenehydrocarbons.Curcuma longa Linn.Synonym ◮ C. domestica Valeton.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated all over India,particularly in West Bengal, TamilNadu and Maharashtra.English ◮ Turmeric.Ayurvedic ◮ Haridraa, Priyaka,Haridruma, Kshanda, Gauri,Kaanchani, Krimighna, Varavarnini,Yoshitapriyaa, Hattavilaasini,Naktaahvaa, Sharvari.Unani ◮ Zard Chob.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manjal.Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory,cholagogue, hepatoprotective,blood-purifier, antioxidant, detoxifierand regenerator of liver tissue,antiasthmatic, anti-tumour, anticutaneous,antiprotozoal, stomachic,carminative. Reduces high plasmacholesterol. Antiplatelet activity offersprotection to heart and vessels.Also protects against DNA damagein lymphocytes.Key application ◮ In dyspepticconditions. (German CommissionE, ESCOP, WHO.) Asantiinflammatory,stomachic. (IndianHerbal Pharmacopoeia.)The rhizomes gave curcuminoids,the mixture known as curcumin, consistingof atleast four phenolic diarylheptanoids,including curcumin andmonodesmethoxycurcumin; volatileoil (3–5%), containing about 60% ofturmerones which are sesquiterpeneketones, and bitter principles, sugars,starch, resin.Curcumin related phenolics possessantioxidant, anti-inflammatory,gastroprotective and hepatoprotectiveactivities. The antioxidant activity ofcurcumin is comparable to standardantioxidants—vitamin C and E, BHAand BHT.The volatile oil, also curcumin, exhibitedanti-inflammatory activity ina variety of experimental models (theeffects were comparable to those ofcortisone and phenylbutazone). Usedorally, curcumin prevents the releaseof inflammatory mediators. It depletesnerve endings of substance P, the neurotransmitterof pain receptors.C

188 Curcuma zedoaria Rosc.CCurcumin’s cholesterol-loweringactions include interfering with intestinalcholesterol uptake, increasingthe conversion of cholesterol into bileacids and increasing the excretion ofbile acids via its choleretic effects.Curcuminoids prevent the increasesin liver enzymes, SGOT and SGPT; thisvalidates the use of turmeric as a hepatoprotectivedrug in liver disorders.Curlone, obtained from the dried rhizome,is used against hepatitis.Turmeric and curcumin increasethe mucin content of the stomach andexert gastroprotective effects againststress, alcohol, drug-induced ulcerformation. (Curcumin at doses of100 mg/kg weight exhibited ulcerogenicactivity in rats.)The ethanolic extract of the rhizomeexhibited blood sugar lowering activityin alloxan-induced diabetic rats.Piperine (a constituent of black andlong pepper) enhances absorption andbioavailability of curcumin.Dosage ◮ Cured rhizome—1–3 gpowder. (API Vol. I.)Curcuma zedoaria Rosc.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughoutIndia; wild in Eastern Himalaya.English ◮ Zedoary, Zerumbet.Ayurvedic ◮ Karchuura, Draavida,Palaashi, Kachura, Gandhmuulaka,Shati.Unani ◮ Zarambaad.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kichhilikkizhangu.Action ◮ Carminative, stomachic,gastrointestinal stimulant, diuretic,expectorant, demulcent, rubefacient.Used in flatulence anddyspepsia. Fresh root is used forchecking lecorrhoeal discharge; alsofor blood purification. Zedoary’seffect on digestive organs is similarto ginger but milder.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicated the use of the rhizomein goiter.The rhizomes are a source of ShotiStarch, used as a food for babies andconvalescents, recovering from chronicstomatitis. It is cooling and demulcent.Zedoary, dried rhizomes, containsa number of terpenoids, includingcurcumene, curcumenone, curdione,curcumenol. Curzerenone, furanogermenone,germacrone, germacroneepoxide; a volatile oil (1.0–1.5%) resemblingginger oil, and starch (50%).Zedoary is thought to stimulate bileproduction (due to sesquiterpene ketones)and gall bladder emptying (dueto cucuminoid constituents).The sesquiterpenes, germacrone,germacrone epoxide, curzerenone andcurcumenol showed CNS depressantproperties. Curzerenone also showeda potent protective effect against inducedlesions in rats. Both curzerenoneand curcumenol showeda moderate analgesic action.The terpenoid furanogermenone exhibitsantiallergic activity. (Powderedzedoary, mixed with fructose, is usedas an antiallergant in Japan.)

Cyamopsis tetragonoloba (Linn.) Taub. 189Curcumenol and curdione areshown to possess tumour-inhibitingproperty. The rhizome is used in Chinafor extradural haematomas and certaintypes of tumours. It has been reportedin China that zedoary reduced cervicalcancer and increased the effects ofchemotherapy and radiotherapy.The volatile oil of zedoary exhibitsantimicrobial and antifungal activity.The antifungal constituent of the oil hasbeen reported as methyl-p-methoxycinnamate.Dosage ◮ Dried rhizome—1–3 gpowder. (API Vol. IV.)Cuscuta epithymum Linn.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ A parasitic climber,occuring in Europe, Asia, SouthAfrica.English ◮ Lesser Doddar, Hellweed,Devil’s Guts.Ayurvedic ◮ Aakaashvalli, Amarvalli,Amarvela.Unani ◮ Aftimoon.Folk ◮ Sitammapogunalu (Telugu).Action ◮ Hepatic, laxative, carminative.The parasitic plant accumulates alkaloidsfrom the host plant. It containsflavonoids, including kaempferoland quercetin, hydroxycinnamic acidderivatives. Cuscutalin (1%) and cuscutin(0.02%) are main active principlesof the plant. Seeds contain amarvelin,resins, oil (3%) and reducing sugars.Used in urinary, spleen and liver disorders.Cuscuta reflexa Roxb.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ A parasitic climbercommon throughout India up to3,000 m.English ◮ Doddar.Ayurvedic ◮ Amarvalli.Unani ◮ Kasoos.Action ◮ See C. epithymum.The seeds contain amarbelin andkaempferol; stem gave cuscutin, cuscutatin,beta-sitosterol, luteolin, bergeninand kaempferol. The parasitic plantaccumulates alkaloids from the hostplant. The climber growing on Mangieraindica has been found to containmangiferin.Cyamopsis tetragonoloba(Linn.) Taub.Family ◮ Fabaceae; Papilionaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughoutIndia, particularly in Haryana,Punjab, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradeshand Orissa.English ◮ Cluster bean, Guar.Ayurvedic ◮ Kshudra Shimbi,Gorakshaphalini, Guaar, Gwaalin.Unani ◮ Guaar phali.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kothaveray.C

190 Cyclea arnotii Miers.CAction ◮ Laxative, antibilious.Gum—hypoglycaemic, hypolipidaemic,appetite depressor (weightloss not observed), reduces glycosuriaduring gum supplementation.The administration of Guar gum(15 g/day) with normal diet for 6 weeksproduced significant reduction in plasma,total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol.The gum (10 g daily) is reportedto decrease blood-glucose level in normaland diabetic volunteers. The supplementationof the gum in the diet ofinsulin-dependent diabetics failed toimprove the long-term diabetic control,but significantly reduced serumcholesterol levels.Taking Guar gum orally with mealswas found to lower post-prandial glucoselevels in patients with type 1 diabetes.(Am J clin Nutr, 56, 1992, 1056–1060.)Oral administration of an ethanolextract of powdered pods has shownsignificant antiulcer, antisecretory andcytoprotective effects on various experimentally-inducedgastric lesions inrats.Guarmeal contains galactomannan,3-epikatonic acid and a saponin.Cyclea arnotii Miers.Synonym ◮Thoms.Family ◮C. peltata Hook. F &Menispermaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout South andEast India and in the Andaman andNicobar Islands.Ayurvedic ◮ Raaj-Paathaa (biggervar. of Paathaa, Cissampelos pareiraLinn.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Para.Action ◮ Roots—used in smallpox,bone fractures, malarial fever,jaundice, stomachache.The root yielded tetrandrine as themajor alkaloid. Tetrandrine (0.1 g/day)was found effective in the treatment ofchloroquine resistant malaria.Tetrandrine possesses cytotoxic andimmunomodulatory properties and isindicated in the treatment of chronicinflammatory diseases. It shows antihypertensive,cardiac depressant andvasodilator effect. It also exhibits antiallergicactivity.Cydonia oblonga Mill.Synonym ◮ C. vulgaris Pers.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab,Kashmir and the Nilgiri hills.English ◮ Quince Fruit.Ayurvedic ◮ Amritaphala, Paatalaa,Simbitikaa.Unani ◮ Bihi, Bihidaanaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shimaimathala.Action ◮ Fruit pulp and seeds—soothing and demulcent; usedin irritable bowel syndrome,diarrhoea, dysentery, constipation,and in irritable conditions of themucous membrane. Leaf, budand bark—astringent. Fruit—expectorant. Mucilage—used

Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schult. 191externally for scalds, ulcers andburns.The seed kernel contains the glycosideamygdalin, tannin, mucilage(about 22%), ash (1.3%) and fatty oil(14–19%).In Greece, a tea prepared by boilingdry seeds in water is given in cystitis.The major water-soluble polysaccharidein the mucilage of seeds containsa high proportion of glucuronicacid residues.The fruit contains pectin (yield0.53% fresh weight) and is similar tothat of apple. Ionone glycosides, alongwith octadienoic acid and its diol, havebeen isolated from the fruit.Fruit juice contains thiamine, riboflavin,nicotinic acid, vitamin B6,inositol, pantothenic acid, folic acidand biotin.The essential oil also gave a numberof ionone-related compounds. Thebuds contain a cyanogenetic glycoside.The bark and shoots yield hydrocyanicacid on distillation.Cymbopogon citratus(DC.) Stapf.Synonym ◮ Andropogon citratus DC.Family ◮ Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Grown in Punjab, Maharashtra,Gujarat and Karnataka.English ◮ Lemongrass.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuutika, Bhuutikaa.Action ◮ Leaf—stimulant, sudorific,antiperiodic, anticatarrhal. Essentialoil—carminative, anticholerin,depressant, analgesic, antipyretic,antibacterial, antifungal.The lemongrass contains a volatileoil, with citral (about 70%), citronellal,geraniol and myrcene as its main constituents.Cetral and citronellal exhibitmarked sedative activity.The lemongrass is taken as a tea fordigestive problems; it relaxes musclesof the stomach and gut, relieves spasmand flatulence. In catarrhal conditions,it is taken as a febrifuge.An infusion of fresh leaves on oraladministration has been found to producedose-dependent analgesia in rats.This analgesic acitivity is caused bymyrcene present in the leaf.Geraniol and d-limonene from theessential oil induce activity of glutathioneS-transferase, a detoxifyingenzyme, which is believed to be a majorfactor for chemical carcinogen detoxification.Cymbopogon jwarancusa(Jones) Schult.Synonym ◮ Andropogon jwarancusaJones.Family ◮ Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Himalayas from Kashmirto Assam, ascending up to morethan 300 m and in the north-westernplains.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuutikaa, Laamajjaka,Laamajja. (Subs. Vetiveriazizanioides (L.) Nash.)Unani ◮ Izkhar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vilaamichhan.C

192 Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Wats.CAction ◮ Blood purifier, bechic,anticholerin, emmenagogue,febrifuge, antirheumatic (also usedin gout). Flower—styptic. Essentialoil—antimicrobial.Major constituent of the essential oilis piperitone (64.7%) others includeborneol, cadinene, camphene, camphor,farnesene, geraniol, alpha-andbeta-pinene. The antibacterial activityis attributed to piperitone.Cymbopogon martinii(Roxb.) Wats.Synonym ◮ Andropogon martiniiRoxb.Family ◮ Poaceae.Habitat ◮ In drier parts of India;in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka, Madhya Pradeshand Uttar Pradesh. The mostimportant centers of Rosha Grassoil production are Betul and Mimarin Madhya Pradesh and Nasik inMaharashtra.English ◮ Rosha Grass, Palmarosa.Ayurvedic ◮ Rohisha-trn, Dhyaamaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kavathampillu.Action ◮ Essential oil is usedexternally for stiff joints andlumbago, skin diseases, and inthe treatment of baldness. Giveninternally in small doses in biliouscomplaints.The essential oil obtained from motiavar. is rich in geraniol (79–95%).The oil is known as Palmarosa, alsoRusa. Sofia var. yields an oil with lessergeraniol. It is known as GingergrassOil.Cymbopogon nardus(Linn.) Rendle.Synonym ◮ Andropogon nardus Linn.Family ◮ Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Mainly in South India;cultivated to a small extent inwarmer parts of India.English ◮ Ceylon Citronella Grass.Ayurvedic ◮ Jambir-trn (var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kamachipillu.Action ◮ Leaf—stomachic, carminative,spasmolytic, mild astringent.Essential oil—stimulant, carminative,diaphoretic, rubefacient,antiseptic, antibacterial, antifungal,larvicidal.Lemongrass and lemongrass oil preparationsare used almost exclusivelyin combinations for disorders and discomfortsof gastrointestinal tract, musclepain and neuralgia, colds, variousnervous disturbances and for conditionsof exhaustion.Major constituents of the essentialoil are: citronellal 31.6, neral 28.6, citronellol10.6, elemicine 7.3, geranyl acetate4.6, elemol 3.7, limonene 3.2 andisopulegol 2.7%.Citronella oil is also used as an insectrepellent.Cymbopogon schoenanthusSpreng.Synonym ◮ Andropogon schoenanthusLinn.

Cynodon dactylon Pers. 193Family ◮Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Warmer parts of India,from Punjab to Bengal and in SouthIndia.English ◮ Camel-Hay.Ayurvedic ◮ Rohisha (var.).Unani ◮ Rusaa Ghaas, Izkhar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karpurapul, Rohishatrna.Action ◮ Roots and rhizome—carminative, stimulant, diaphoretic,emmenagogue; used for fever, coldand genitourinary affections.Fresh leaves yield an essential oil(yield 0.8%). It contains a series ofmethyl ketones, along with limonene19.5, camphene 8.0%, and a group ofoxygenated sesquiterpenes, the majorbeing elemol 4.5%.The fragrant oil is known as Rusaor Geranium Oil and is used as a substitutefor rose oil. It exhibits stimulant,carminative, antispasmodic anddiaphoretic properties. It is applied externallyin rheumatism and neuralgia.Cynara scolymus Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Monastery gardens ofEurope. Now cultivated in India.English ◮ Globe Artichoke.Unani ◮ Harshaf.Action ◮ Herb—antitoxic, liverrestorative, hypocholesterolaemic.Water soluble extract is used forliver and renal diseases for itscholagogic and choleretic action(flow of bile increases up to 60 percent). Artichokes assist digestion offats, are known as diabetic’s potatoin Europe.Key application ◮ In dyspepticproblems. (German Commission E.)The British Herbal Pharmacopoeiareported hepatic action.All parts of the plant contains sesquiterpenelactone cynaropecrin andinulin. The leaves contain cynarin.Hepatic activity of the leaves is duetopolyphenolssuchascynarin,caffeoylquinicacid derivatives and flavonoids.Cynarin and caffeic acid exhibitedhepatoprotective activity inCCl4-treated rats. (A minimum of1% polyphenols and 0.2% flavonoidsin the dried leaves is required for theactivity.)The plant is included in indigenouscompound formulations recommendedfor viral and drug-induced hepatitis.All parts of the plant stimulate digestivesecretions, especially bile, and areused for the treatment of gallbladderproblems. Plant is used as a diureticin dropsy. The plant is also usedagainst atherosclerosis and for loweringcholesterol levels.The extract gave mixed results inpreventing alcohol-induced hangover.(CMAJ, 169, 2003, 1269–73; NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Cynodon dactylon Pers.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India up to3,000 m.C

194 Cyperus articulatus Linn.CEnglish ◮ Bermuda Grass, BahamaGrass, Couch Grass.Ayurvedic ◮ Duurvaa, Bhaargavi,Shatvalli, Shatparvaa, Tiktaparvaa,Shatviryaa, Sahastravirya, Shitaa,Anantaa, Golomi.Unani ◮ Duub.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Arugampallu.Action ◮ Thegrassisareputedasa remedy in epitaxis, haematuria,inflammed tumours, whitlowsfleshy excrescences, cuts, wounds,bleeding piles, cystitis, nephritis andin scabies and other skin diseases. Itis credited with astringent, diuretic,antidiarrhoeal, anticatarrhal, stypticand antiseptic properties.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommended the dried fibrousroot in menorrhagia, metrorrhagiaand burning micturation.Phenolic phytotoxins—ferulic, syringic,p-coumaric, vanillic, p-hydroxybenzoicand O-hydroxyphenyl aceticacids, are reported from the plant.The leaves contain tricin, flavone C-glycosides and a flavonoid sulphate.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—10–20 mljuice (API Vol. IV.); root—5–10 mljuice (API Vol. III.)Cyperus articulatus Linn.Family ◮ Cyperaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Turkey; foundin warm regions from Bengal to SriLanka in standing water of pondsand canals.English ◮ Guinea Rush, Ardue.Ayurvedic ◮Kronchaadana.Action ◮ Carminative, antiemetic(useful in vomiting of pregnancy),sedative (in dyspeptic disorders).The root contains a sesquiterpeneketone, articulone, which is identicalto cyperone. Volatile oil containssesquiterpene hydrocarbons andsesquiterpene alcohols, including cyperenone.Cypress is a totally different herb.See Cupressus sempervirens.Cyperus esculentus Linn.Family ◮Cyperaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to WestAsia and North Africa; occurringscattered from Punjab to Nilgirihills as a grass-like sedge.English ◮ Earth Almond, Chufa,Rush Nut, Tiger Nut. (Tuber iscalled Nut.)Ayurvedic ◮Chichoda.Folk ◮ Chichodaa, Kaseru (Punjab).Also equated with Naagaramustaka.Action ◮ A digestive tonic (usedfor indigestion, flatulence, colic,diarrhoea, dysentery); promotesdiuresis and menstruation. Thejuice is taken for treating ulcers ofthe mouth and gums.Tiger Nut is used in debility and asa nervine tonic due to its high crudelipid and carbohydrate contents andfairly good essential amino acid composition.

Cyperus scariosus R.Br. 195Cyperus rotundus Linn.Family ◮Cyperaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, asa weed upto 2,000 m.English ◮Nut Grass.Ayurvedic ◮ Musta, Mustaa, Mustaka,Abda, Ambuda, Ambhoda,Ambodhara, Bhadra, Bhadraa,Bhadramusta, Bhadramustaa,Bhadramustaka, Ghana, Jalada,Jaldhara, Meghaahvaa, Nirada,Vaarida, Vaarivaaha, Payoda,Balaahaka. Ganda-Duurvaa (var.).Unani ◮ Naagarmothaa, Saad-e-Kufi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Koraikkizhangu.Folk ◮ Mothaa.Action ◮ Carminative, astringent,anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic,hepatoprotective, diuretic,antipyretic, analgesic, hypotensive,emmenagogue and nervinetonic.Used for intestinal problems, indigestion,sprue, diarrhoea, dysentery,vomiting and fever; also as a hypocholesterolaemicdrug and in obesity.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicated the use of the rhizomein rheumatism, inflammations,dysuria, puerperal diseases and obesity.The tuber is rich in Cu, Fe, Mgand Ni. Beta-sitosterol, isolated fromthe tubers, exhibits significant antiinflammatoryactivity against carrageenan-and cotton pellet-inducedoedema in rats; the activity is comparableto hydrocortisone and phenylbutazonewhen administered intraperitoneally.The alcoholic and aqueous extractsof the tubers possess lipolytic actionand reduce obesity by releasing enhancedconcentrations of biogenicamines from nerve terminals of thebrain which suppress the appetite centre.Presence of eudalne group of sesquiterpeniccompounds of sesquiterpenealcohol, isocyperol is said to playan important role in lipid metabolism.An alcoholic extract of the plant exhibitsliver-protective activity againstCCL4-induced liver damage in mice.Methanolic extract of the plant stimulatesthe production of melanin incultured melanocytes. (Plant extract isused in preparations used for pigmentationof skin and hair, also in suntangels.)Aqueous-alcoholic extract of thetuber exhibited hypotensive, diuretic,antipyretic and analgesic activities.These are attributed to a triterpenoid.The essential oil (0.5–0.9%) from thetubers contains mainly sesquiterpenes.C. platystilis Br. is equated withKaivarta-mustaka.Dosage ◮ Rhizome—3–6 g powder;20–30 ml decoction. (API Vol. III.)Cyperus scariosus R.Br.Family ◮ Cyperaceae.Habitat ◮ Damp situations in UttarPradesh and eastern and southernparts of India.English ◮ Nut grass.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhadramustaa, Musta,Amoda, Naagaramustaka. (NaagaraC

196 Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link.Cis a different drug, equated withZingiber officinale Rosc.)Siddha ◮ Korai-kilangu (Tamil).Folk ◮ Naagara-mothaa.Action ◮ Essential oil—hypotensive,anti-inflammatory, CNS stimulant,antimicrobial. Rhizome—stomachic,cordial, antidiarrhoeal anddiuretic.See C. rotundus.Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link.Synonym ◮ Sarothamnus scoparius(L.) Koch.Family ◮ Papilionaceae, Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Mild climatic regions ofsouth and central Europe, northAfrica and West Asia. C. scopariusis fairly common in and aroundOatacmund (Nilgiris) and is foundwild as a garden escape. It grows alsoin Simla and neighbouring places.An allied species, C. monspessulanusLinn., White Broom, also occurs inthe Nilgiri hills.English ◮ Broom, Scotch Broom,Yellow Broom.Folk ◮ Broom.Action ◮ Green twigs of the plant,collected before flowering, eitherfresh or after drying, are used asdiuretic and cathartic. Emetic inlarge doses. The seeds are also usedsimilarly. The herb is used chiefly inthe form of sulphate in tachycardiaand functional palpitation. (Theaction of the whole plant is statedto be different from that of isolatedalkaloids.) The whole herb has beenused to treat tumours.Key application ◮ For functionalheart and circulatory disorders.Aqueous-ethanolic extracts areused internally. Simultaneousadministration of MAO-inhibitorscontraindicated due to the tyraminecontent. (German Commission E.)The British Herbal Pharmacopoeiareported antiarrhythmic anddiuretic action of the herb.The herb contains quinolizidine alkaloids;main alkaloids are (−)-sparteine,lupanine, ammodendrine andvarious derivatives; biogenic amines,including tryramine, epinine, dopamine;isoflavone glycosides includinggenistein, scoparin; flavonoids; essentialoil; caffeic acid and p-coumaricacids; tannins. Seeds contain lectins(phytohaemagglutinins).The herb contains over 2% tyramine.Tyramine acts as an indirect sympathomimetic,vasoconstrictive and hypotensive.The herb is contraindicated in highblood pressure, A-V block and pregnancy.Scoparin’s action on renal mucousmembrane is similar to that of Buchuand Uva-ursi. (A decoction or infusionof broom is used in dropsical complaintsof cardiac origin.)Sparteine produces a transient risein arterial pressure followed by a longer

Cytisus scoparius (L.) Link. 197period of decreased vascular tension(contradictory observations have beenrecorded). Some researchers are of theopinion that sparteine is a regulatorin chronic vulvar disease. It showedno cumulative action like digitalis. Inlarge doses, it is highly toxic and impairsthe activity of respiratory organs.C. monopessulanus (a related species)contains. 9% alkaloids.Sparteine is toxic at more than300 mg dose. (Francis Brinker.)C

DDactyloctenium aegyptiumBeauv.Synonym ◮ Eleusine aegyptiaca Desf.Family ◮ Gramineae, Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Common throughoutthe plains of India (a very variablegrass).Ayurvedic ◮ Takraa, Takraahvaa,Panchaanguli, Nrityakaundaka.(Classical synonyms.) (Takra is theclassical name of buttermilk.)Folk ◮ Makaraa, Makari (Bihar,Orissa), Timidaa (Tamil Nadu)Action ◮ Astringent, bitter tonic,anthelmintic. Used for polyurea;externally for wounds and ulcers.The grass growing is New SouthWales is reported to contain cyanogeneticglycosides.In Indian medicine, the grass is usedfor imparting medicinial properties ofTakra (buttermilk) in intestinal, biliaryand urinary diseases.Daemonorops draco Blume.Synonym ◮ Calamus draco Willd.Family ◮ Palmae; Aracaceae.Habitat ◮ Indo-Malayan region. Theresin is imported into India mostlyfrom Sumatra and Borneo.English ◮ East Indian Dragon’sBlood.Ayurvedic ◮ Raktaniryaas, Khoonkharaabaa,Heeraadokhi.Unani ◮ Damm-ul-Akhwain.Action ◮ Astringent. Used fordiarrhoea, dysentery. Also usedagainst malignant tumours.The resin contains red tannin derivatives—drocoresinotannols,dracoresenand flavone quinones.Dosage ◮Resin—1–3 g. (CCRAS.)Daemonorops jenkinsianusMart.Synonym ◮ Calamus jenkinsianusGriff.Family ◮ Palmae; Aracaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, Khasi Hills andSikkim.Ayurvedic ◮ Vetra (related species ofCalamus tenuis Roxb.)Action ◮ Used as a vegetablefor oedema, also in intrinsichaemorrhage.Dalbergia lanceolaria Linn.f.Synonym ◮ D. frondosa Roxb.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayantract, ascending up to 750 m, andthroughout India.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Erigai, Navelangu.

200 Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.DFolk ◮Gorakh, Takoli, Bithuaa.Action ◮ A decoction of bark—used in dyspepsia. Oil—applied torheumatic affections, and cutaneousdiseases. Leaf—in leprosy and alliedobstinate skin diseases.Baptigenin from leaves and flowerspossesses properties to treat arthriticaffections and inflammations. Anisoflavone glycoside of biochanin(lanceolarin) has been obtained fromthe root bark. Ether, EtOH and aqueousextract of leaves exhibited antiarthriticactivity in rats.The heartwood of Dalbergia sp. containsquinones. Bark and pods containtannins.Root bark gave isoflavone glycosidesand lanceolarin.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—50–100 mldecoction. (CCRAS.)Dalbergia latifolia Roxb.Synonym ◮ D. emerginata Roxb.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Bengal, Bihar, MadhyaPradesh and Western Peninsula.English ◮ East Indian Rosewood,Bombay Blackwood.Ayurvedic ◮ Shimshapaa (related sp.)Unani ◮ Sheesham.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Itti, Eravadi, Karundoroiral.Folk ◮ Sisu.Action ◮ Stimulant, appetiser,anthelmintic, spasmogenic. Usedin dyspepsia, diarrhoea; also inobesity, cutaneous affections andleprosy.The bark contains hentriacontane,latifolin, beta-sitosterol and tannins.EtOH (50%) extract of the bark exhibitsspasmogenic, and anthelminticactivity against Ascaridia galli.Dalbergia sissoides Grah.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,especially in the South.English ◮ Malabar Blackwood.Ayurvedic ◮ Kushimshapaa.(Shimshapaa related species).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vel-itti.Folk ◮ Sisam.Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory.The root contains isoflavones. Thealcoholic extract of the root exhibitedanti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-inducedhind paw oedema ofmale albino rats.A quinone, sissoidenone and dalbergion,latifolin and dalbergin havebeen isolated from the heartwood; alsooleanolic acid, liquiritigenin andisoliquiritigenin. The sapwood andyoung leaves gave sissotrin. BiochaninA, isolated from young leaves, inhibitedboth serum and epidermal growthfactor (EGF)—stimulated growth ofhuman prostate cancer cell lines.Dalbergia sissoo Roxb ex DC.Family ◮Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.

Daphne oleoides Schreb. 201Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayan tract,up to 1,200 m from Indus to Assamand in plains throughout India.English ◮ Sissoo, South IndianRedwood, Sissoo.Ayurvedic ◮ Shimshapaa, Krishnashimshapaa,Picchilaa.Unani ◮ Seesham.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Irupoolai.Action ◮ Leaves—bitter, andstimulant. Leaf mucilage, mixedwith sweet oil, is applied toexcoriations. Wood—anthelmintic,alterative, emetic, stomachic,antileprotic; used in diseases due tovitiated blood. Bark—anticholerin.Root—astringent.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicated the use of the heartwoodin turbity of the urine, calculusand lipuria.The leaves gave isoflavone sissotrin;flowers 7,4 ′ -di-Me-tectorigenin. Seedoil (4.1%) contained fatty acids composedof palmitic (16.2), stearic (7.0%),oleic (14.6), linolenic (9.80) and linoleic(52.5) acids and lipids comprisingneutral lipids (88.5), glycolipids (7.2)and phospholipids (4.0%). Pods contain2% tannins.Dosage ◮ Heartwood—1.5–10 gpowder; 10–20 g for decoction.(API Vol. III.)Dalbergia sympatheticaNimmo ex Grah.Synonym ◮Prain.D. multiflora Heyne exFamily ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Common in Maharashtraand Karnataka.Folk ◮ Tibali (Goa), Pentagul(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Bark—used as a paste forpimples. Leaf—alterative. Aerialpart—spasmolytic, CNS active,hypothermic.Dalbergia volubilis Roxb.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Central and EasternHimalayas, Uttar Pradesh andOrissa.Ayurvedic ◮ Gorakhi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Punali.Folk ◮ Bankharaa, Bhatiaa.Action ◮ Leaves—used in aphthae.Root—genitourinary tract disinfectant;used in scalding of urine, alsoin foetid discharges.The stem bark afforded isoflavonoids,dalbergio, tectorigenin. Theleaves gave flavonoid glycosides. Thewood gave friedelin.Daphne oleoides Schreb.Family ◮ Thymelaeaceae.Habitat ◮ The Western Himalayasand Kashmir at 1,000–3,000 m.English ◮ Mezereon.Folk ◮ Kutilal, Kanthan (Punjab).D

202 Datisca cannabina Linn.DAction ◮ Active principles areattracting scientific interest. Theorthoesters are co-carcinogenicand mezerein antileukaemic inexperimental studies. Bark—used as an ointment for inducingdischarge from indolent ulcers.Bark, root and root bark—usedmainly for obstinate cutaneousdiseases, especially for eczemawith severe itching and copiousexudation (weeping eczema).As the plant is poisonous, it is usedin homoeopathic dilutions internallyand topically.The bark gave diterpenes includingmezerein, daphnetoxin (0.02%). Mezereinis anti-inflammatory and anticarcinogenic.Daphnetoxin is poisonous.Seeds contain daphnane ester (0.1%)and daphnetoxin (0.02%).EtOHextractshowedsignificantactivityagainst P-388 lymphocytic leukemiaand L-1210 leukemia in mice,due to mezerein.Datisca cannabina Linn.Family ◮ Datiscaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate and subtropicalHimalaya from Kashmir to Nepal at300–1,800 m.English ◮ False Hemp.Folk ◮ Akal-ber. Bhang-jala (Punjab).Action ◮ Diuretic, purgative,expectorant. Used in fevers, andgastric and scrofulous ailments.The plant contains flavonoids, datiscinand datiscanin. EtOH (50%) extractof seeds and flowers exhibitedmarked sedative, highly anti-inflammatory,mild analgesic, antipyretic anddiuretic activity in rats.Datura alba Nees.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India inplains; wastelands, roadsides andgardens.Ayurvedic ◮ Dhattuura (white var.).(Dhattura consists of dried seeds ofDatura sp.)Unani ◮ Dhaturaa.Action ◮ See D. Metel Linn.Datura innoxia Mill.Synonym ◮ D. metel auct. non Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas andhilly regions of the western partsof Peninsular India, abundantly inMaharashtra.English ◮ Thornapple.Ayurvedic ◮ Dhattuura.Unani ◮ Dhaturaa, Joz Maasil.Action ◮ The plant is the sourceof alkaloid scopolamine which isused as a pre-anaesthetic in surgeryand childbirth, in ophthalmologyand for the prevention of motionsickness.Hyoscyamine and hyoscine and meteloidinewere found in the leaves, flowers,pericarp and seeds of the plant. The

Datura stramonium Linn. 203root gave tropane, tropine and pseudotropine.Datura metel Linn.Synonym ◮ D. fastuosa Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,particularly in waste place.English ◮ Thornapple, DownyDatura.Ayurvedic ◮ Dhattuura, Dhuurta,Dhastura,Unmatta,Shivapriya,Harapriya, Hema, Haatta, Dhustuura,Dhustuuraka, Kanaka, Maatula.Also equated with Raaj-dhatuura.(white var.)Unani ◮ Dhaturaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Oomatthai, Karuvoomatthai.Action ◮ Various plant parts are usedin headache, hemiplegia, epilepsy,delirium, convulsions, cramps, rigidthigh muscles, rheumatism. Leaf—antitumour, antirheumatic. Leafand corolla—anti-inflammatory.Flower—antiasthmatic. Seed, leafand root—anticatarrhal, febrifuge,antidiarrhoeal, antidermatosis; alsoused in cerebral complications.Seeds—used in asthma. Limited usein kinetosis (excessive salivation,nausea and vomiting).Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicated the use of the wholeplant in dysuria and alopecia.The plant accumulates more hyoscinethan hyoscyamine. Hyoscinecontent of dried leaves and floweringtops—between 0.02–0.55%. Alkaloidcontent of leaves—0.55%; stem—0.4%;seeds—0.19%; pericarps—0.8%; rootat flowering of the plant—0.77%.Hyoscine in large doses causes deliriumand coma.Dosage ◮ Seed—30–60 mg. (APIVol. III.)Datura stramonium Linn.Synonym ◮ D. tatula Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalaya fromKashmir to Sikkim up to 2,700 m,hilly districts of Central and SouthIndia.English ◮ Thornapple, Jimsonweed,Stramonium.Ayurvedic ◮ Krishnadhattuura,Dhuurta (black seed var.), Unmatta,Kitav, Tuuri, Maatul, Madan.Unani ◮ Dhaturaa.Action ◮ Spasmolytic, antiasthmatic,anticholinergic, cerebral depressant,nerve-sedative. Controls spasms ofbronchioles in asthma. Anticholinergic.Effects of overdose are similarto those of atropine. Temporaryrelief from Parkinsonian tremorrecorded. (Contraindicated withdepressant drugs.) Applied locally,stramonium palliates the pain ofmuscular rheumatism, neuralgia,also pain due to haemorrhoids,fistula, abscesses and similar inflammations.Prevents motionsickness.D

204 Daucus carota Linn. var. sativa DC.DKey application ◮ In diseases ofthe autonomic nervous system.(Included among unapprovedherbs by German Commission E.)The British Herbal Pharmacopoeiareported antispasmodic action of theleaf; Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeiaaccepted it as expectorant andantispasmodic.Whole plant contains 0.26% alkaloids(seeds 0.98% and stem 0.08%);also flavonoids, withanolides, coumarinsand tannins; the major alkaloidis hyoscyamine (44–67%), hyoscine(13.2–25.3%) and atropine (0.01–0.1%).The tropane alkaloids are similar tothose found in Atropa belladonna.Hyoscine is five times as active asatropine in producing mydriasis, butits main use is as antimotion sicknessdrug; and in combination as a sedative.Toxic constituents include anticholinergicalkaloids.Dosage ◮ Leaf—60–185 mg powder;seed—60–120 mg powder (CCRAS.)Daucus carota Linn. var.sativa DC.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and theMediterranean region; extensivelycultivated in Punjab, Haryana, UttarPradesh and Madhya Pradesh forits fleshy tap roots which are eatenraw or cooked. Wild Carrot: Nativeto Europe, Africa and Asia. Growsat 3,000–3,600 m in the Himalayas.English ◮ Carrot, Cultivated Carrot.Wild carrot (D. carota Linn.wildvar.: the root, small and white),Queen Anne’s Lace, Bird’s Nest.Bees’ Nest Plant.Ayurvedic ◮ Gaajara, Garjara,Granjana.Unani ◮ Gaajar.Action ◮ Roasted roots—prescribedin palpitation, burning micturation,cough and bronchitis. Carrotincreases the quantity of urineand helps the elimination of uricacid; also lowers blood sugar.Juice—a rich source of carotene.Seeds—diuretic, emmenagogue,spasmolytic (prescribed in anuriaand sexual debility). Wild carrot—diuretic and antilithic (used forkidney stones, cystitis and in gout).Seeds—emmenagogue. Also usedfor hot flushes of the menopause.In cooked (orange) carrots betacarotenecontent (1890 mcg) was foundmuch higher than in raw carrots-(1045 mcg/100 g). Heat processing ofcarrots affected alpha- and beta-carotenecontents; their value decreased(3.7; 5.3) in water blanching, whereasincreased (5.8; 8.2) in steam blanchingcompared to that in fresh carrots (5.2;8.1 mg/100 g) respectively.An interferon inducer has been isolatedfrom carrot. It stimulates cellsto produce the protein that increaseshuman resistance to virus infections.Aqueous extract of carrots showedhepatoprotective activity against CCl4-induced hepatic damage in mice liver.The ethanolic extract exhibits directrelaxant action on cardiac and smoothmuscle preparation and this actionmay be responsible for its hypotensive

Delonix regia Rafin. 205action. (Gently heated peeled roots,mixed with sugar candy, are given asa hypotensive drug.)The ethanolic extract of seeds exhibiteddiuretic effect in dogs.The British Herbal Pharmacopoeiarecommends Daucus carota Linn.(wild carrot) for its diuretic activity.Wild carrot contains flavones includingapigenin, chypsin, luteolin;flavonols including kaempferol, quercetinand various glycosides. The furanocoumarins,8-methoxypsoralen and5-methoxypsoralen are found in theplant. The seed oil contains terpinen-4-ol, a renal irritant. It is believed tocause diuretic activity.The root contains quercetin, kaempferol,coumarin and rutin. It hasa sweet sarsaparilla-like taste; contains92% fleshy matter and 8% woody core.The root can be stored for longerperiods and remains unaffected by microorganismsand insects, apparentlydue to the presence of the volatileprinciple which possesses bacteriostaticand toxic properties.The root, on steam distillation, gave4-O-methyl-resorcylaldehyde in a concentrationof 0.8%. (The growth of E.coli was arrested by the aldehyde in0.041% concentration; fish died within4 min in 0.02% solution.) The sterolsconsists mainly of stagma and brassicasterols. Alpha-amyrin and lupeol, bothfree and as esters are also present in theroot.The plant contains lupeol, betaamyrin2-hydroxy, 4-methoxy benzaldehyde,and ferulic acid.DDecalepis hamiltoniiWight & Arn.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Deccan Peninsula;common in the forest areas ofWestern Ghats.Unani ◮ Desi Ushbaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mahali kizhangu.Action ◮ Root—appetizer, bloodpurifier, bacteriostatic. Used asa substitute for Shveta Saarivaa(Hemidesmus indicus). Sold asSaarivaa in Kerala, Tamil Naduand Karnataka. The root powder isgiven to diabetics.Delima scandens Burkill.Synonym ◮ Tetracera scandensMerrill.Family ◮ Dilleniaceae.Habitat ◮ Forests of Bengal, Assamand the Andamans.Ayurvedic ◮ Paaniya Valli.Action ◮ A decoction of the plantis given in dysentery and coughs.Leaves—used for the treatment ofboils. Root—astringent, used asexternal application for burns.Delonix regia Rafin.Synonym ◮ Poinciana regai Bojer exHook.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Madagascar;grown in gardens and avenues forornamental purposes and for shade.

206 Delphinium brunonianum Royle.DEnglish ◮ Flamboyant Flame tree,Gold Mohur.Ayurvedic ◮ Gulmohar (var.) WhiteGold Mohur is equated with Delonixelata Gamble, synonym Poincianaelata Linn.Siddha ◮ Vadanarayana, Perungondrai,Mayarum. WhiteGulmohar. (Tamil)Action ◮ Bark—antiperiodic,febrifuge. Plant—antirheumatic,spasmogenic. Flowers (aqueous andalcoholic extract)—active againstroundworm.White Gulmohar trunk-bark yieldedasparagine and aspartic acid. Flowersgave iso-quercetin.Delonix regia bark gave leucocyanidin;bark and leaves contain tannin, lupeoland beta-sitosterol, and free OHprolineas major amino acid. Floweranthers are a rich source of zeaxanthin.Delphinium brunonianumRoyle.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China; distributedin West Himalayas.English ◮ Musk Larkspur.Ayurvedic ◮ Sprikkaa. (Melilotusofficinalis, known as Aspurka orNaakhunaa, is also equated withSprikkaa.) Used as a substitute forTagara (valerian).Action ◮ Himalayan species act ascardiac and respiratory depressant.All the species of Delphinium arepoisonous; find use in indigenousmedicine for destroying maggotsin wounds, particularly in sheep.The flowers are considered acrid,bitter and astringent; seeds arecathartic, anthelmintic, emetic andinsecticidal.Delphinium cashmirianumRoyle.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir (Himalayanspecies).English ◮ Kashmir Larkspur.Ayurvedic ◮ Used as a substitute forTagara (valerian).Action ◮ See D. brunonianum.Delphinium consolida Linn.Synonym ◮ D. ajacis Linn.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardens.English ◮ Forking Larkspur, Larkspur,Lark’s Claw, Knight’s Spur.Action ◮ Parasiticide. A tincture isused to destroy lice in hair.Thetoxicityoftheseedsisduetoditerpene alkaloids (delcosine, delsoline,consolidine). Delsonine and anthranoyllycoctonineare amorphous alkaloids.The alkaloids lead to bradycardia,lowering of blood pressure, and cardiacarrest. Also, they have a centralparalyzing and curare-like effect on therespiratory system. (German CommissionE.)

Delphinium vestitium Wall. ex Royle. 207Entire plant, including roots andseeds, is used topically. Not to be usedon abraded skin.Seeds contain 1.01–1.06% alkaloidsand 28.7% of a fixed oil. A diglycosidepigment, delphonin and kaempferolhave been isolated from the flowers.Delphinium denudatum Wall.Synonym ◮ D. pauciflorum Royle.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Kumaon ataltitudes of 2,400–3,600 m.English ◮ Larkspur.Ayurvedic ◮ Nirvishaa, Nirvishi.(Kyllinga triceps Rottb. is used asa substitute for Nirvishaa.)Unani ◮ Jadwaar Khataai,Maatiryaaq.Folk ◮ Root—astringent, vulnerary,deobstruent, alterative. Used forpainful piles, muscular atrophy,gout and as a nervine tonic. Alsoused as an adulterant for aconite.Oral administration of the aqueousextractoftheplanttoratswithCCl4-induced hepatotoxicity revealed hepatoprotectiveproperty of the plant.The roots contain campesterol, stigmasterol,sitosterol, cholesterol, deltaavenasteroland alkaloids including denudatine,denudatidine, condelphine,talatizidine and iso-talatizidine.Delphinium staphisagria Linn.Family ◮Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Mediterraneanregion.English ◮ Stavesacre.Unani ◮ Muvizaj.Action ◮ Parasiticide. Used fordestroying lice. Contains poisonousalkaloids. Seeds are violentlyemetic and cathartic; used as anexternal application in obstinateskin diseases and eruptions undermedical supervision.Seeds contain diterpene alkaloids;delphidine, delphinine, delphirine, delphisineand neoline.Stavesacre has a similar effect to aconitine.Extract from the seeds is usedin homoeopathic dilutions.Delphinium vestitiumWall. ex Royle.Synonym ◮ Delphinium elatum auct.non Linn.D. speciosum Janka ex Nym.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayafrom Kashmir to Nepal to 2,700–4,700 m.English ◮ Candle Larkspur, BeeLarkspur.Ayurvedic ◮ Nirvisha.Action ◮ Whole plant—cardiacand respiratory depressant, emetic,diuretic, anthelmintic. Seed—insecticidal. Used in skin eruptions.Powdered flowers, mixed withmustard oil, are used for destroyinglica.D

208 Delphinium zalil Aitch. & Hemsl.DThe plant contains beta-sitosteroland alkaloid delpheline; aerial partscontain an alkaloid, elatine.Seeds are very poisonous; containseveral aconitine-like alkaloids. Delphinidine,isolated from seeds, causesdrastic gastro-enteric irritation.Delphinium zalil Aitch. & Hemsl.Synonym ◮ D. semibarbatum Blenertex Boiss.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Persia and Afghanistan.English ◮ Zalil Larkspur.Ayurvedic ◮ Sprikkaa. (Melilotusofficinalis, known as Aspurka orNaakhunaa, is also equated withSprikkaa.)Unani ◮ Zarir, Zalil, Asbarg,Gul-Zalil (flower).Action ◮ Diuretic, anodyne, antiinflammatory,detergent. Used injaundice, dropsy and diseases of thespleen. Ash—used externally onwounds and skin diseases.The seeds contain norditerpenoidalkaloid, zaliline, besides anhweidelphinine,browniine, desacetylnudicauline,lycoctonine, methyllycaconitineand nudicauline. The medicinalproperties of the plant are attributed todesacetylnudicauline, methyllycaconitineand nudicauline.Dendrobium ovatum(Willd.) Kranzl.Family ◮Orchidaceae.Habitat ◮ The Western Ghats.Ayurvedic ◮ Jivanti (substitute.)Folk ◮ Nagli (Maharashtra)Action ◮ Juice of fresh plant—stomachic,carminative, antispasmodic,laxative, liver tonic. (excites thebile). A related species, Dendrobiumcrumenatum Sw., occurs in AndamanIslands. Pounded leaves areused in Malaya for poulticing boilsand pimples. Traces of alkaloidshave been reported to be present inthe pseudobulbs and leaves.D. macraei Lindl. and D. normaleFace. are also known as Jivanti.Dendrophthoe falcata(Linn. f.) Etting.Family ◮ Loranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.Ayurvedic ◮ Bandaaka, Vrkshaadani,Vrkshruuhaa.Siddha ◮ Pulluri, Plavithil (Tamil).Folk ◮ Baandaa.Action ◮ Bark—astringent andnarcotic; used in menstrualdisorders, consumption, asthma,also for treating wounds.The plant contains several flavonoids.Being parasitic, different flavonoidshave been recorded in plantsgrowing on different host plants. Quercitrinhas been found to be the majorcommon constituent. The plant alsocontains gallic, ellagic and chebulinicacids.

Descurainia sophia (Linn.) Webb ex Prantl. 209Aqueous and alcoholic extracts ofthe plant were tested in rats for theirdiuretic and anti-lithiatic activities. Alcoholicextract was found to be moreeffective than aqueous extract.Dosage ◮ Leaf, flower—10–20 mljuice. (CCRAS.)Derris indica (Lamk.) Bennet.Synonym ◮ Pongamia pinnata Pierre.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the WesternGhats. Found all over India on thebanks of rivers and streams.English ◮ Indian Beech. Pongamiaoil tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Naktmaal, Guchpushpak,Ghritpuur, Udkirya, Karanja.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pungu.Action ◮ Used for skin diseases—eczema, scabies, leprosy, and forulcers, tumours, piles, enlargementof spleen, vaginal and urinarydischarges. Juice of root—usedfor closing fistulous sores andcleaning foul ulcers. Flowers—used in diabetes. Powder of seeds—used for whooping and irritatingcoughs of children. Seed oil—usedin cutaneous affections, herpes andscabies.The tree is rich in flavonoids and relatedcompounds. These include simpleflavones, furanoflavonoids, chromenoflavones,chromenochalcones,coumarones, flavone glucosides, sterols,triterpenes and a modified phenylalaninedipeptide.Essential oil from leaves—antibacterial,antifungal.Dosage ◮ Bark—50–100 ml decoction;leaf—10–20 ml juice.(CCRAS.)Derris uliginosa Benth.Synonym ◮ D. trifoliate Lour.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Costal forests of India andthe Andamans.Folk ◮ Paan-lataa (Bengal), Kitani(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Stimulant, antispasmodic,counter-irritant. Bark—alterative inrheumatism. An oil prepared fromthe plant is used externally as anembrocation.The roots contain dehydrorotenone,lupeol and a ketone. Bark contains9.3% tannic acid. Stems contain tannicacid, hexoic, arachidic and stearicacids, ceryl alcohol, isomerides ofcholesterol, potassium nitrate, gumsand resins.Descurainia sophia(Linn.) Webb ex Prantl.Synonym ◮ Sisymbrium sophia L.Family ◮ Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalaya fromKashmir to Kumaon at 2,200–4,100,also in eastern Himalaya.English ◮ Flix Weed, Flax Weed.Folk ◮ Khaakasi, Khuubkalaan.D

210 Desmodium gangeticum DC.DAction ◮ Leaf and flower—astringent,antiscorbutic. Seed—expectorant,anti-inflammatory, febrifuge,antidysenteric. Aerial parts—antiviral, hypoglycaemic.The plants has been used externallyfor ulcers, seeds are used as substituteor adulterant of the seeds ofSisymbrium iro Linn. (ThesourceofKhaakasi, Khubb, Tukhm-e-Shahuh,Khuubkalaan of Unani medicine,known as Hedge Mustard or LondonRocket.)Desmodium gangeticum DC.Synonym ◮ Hedysarum gangeticumLinn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Ascending to 1,500 m onthe Himalaya; common on lowerhills and plains throughout India.Ayurvedic ◮ Shaaliparni, Shaalaparni,Sthiraa, Somyaa, Guhaa, Triparni,Vidaarigandha, Anshumati. Alsoused as Prshniparni. (Uraria pictaDesv., Prshniparni, is used asa substitute for Shaalaparni.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pulladi, SirupulladiMoovilai (root).Folk ◮ Sarivan.Action ◮ Root—antipyretic, diuretic,astringent (used in irritablebowel syndrome, diarrhoea anddysentery), anticatarrhal (usedin post-natal care, chronic fever,cough, biliousness, vomiting),diuretic, anthelmintic, laxative andnervine tonic. Desmodium spp.:Roots—carminative, mildly purgative,stomachic, emmenagogue,diuretic. Leaves—galactagogue;a poultice of leaves is used forlumbago. Bark—used in diarrhoeaand haemorrhages.Roots afforded pterocarpanoids—gangetin, gangetinin, desmodin andseveral alkaloids. The aerial portiongave indole-3-alkylamines and theirderivatives.Gangetin showed significant antiinflammatoryactivity in 50 and100 mg/kg p.o. in rats.Dosage ◮ Root—5–10 g powder; 10–20 g for decoction. (API Vol. III.)Desmodium triflorum(Linn.) DC.Synonym ◮ Hedysarum triflorumLinn.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, inthe plains ascending to 1,200 m inKumaon and 1,800 m in Kashmir.Ayurvedic ◮ Tripaadi, Hamsapaadi(Kerala).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Seruppadi.Folk ◮ Jangali Methi, Ran-methi.Action ◮ Fresh leaves—usedinternally as galactagogue and fordiarrhoea; applied externally towounds and abscesses. Root—diuretic. Also used for cough,asthma.The leaf contains alkaloids (0.01–0.15%), major being beta-phenylethyl-

Dicentra canadensis Walp. 211amine; also contains tyramine and hypaphorine.Hypaphorine is presentin roots as well. Root contains 0.01–0.02% alkaloids.Desmostachya bipinnata Stapf.Synonym ◮ Eragrostis cynosuroidesBeauv.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains ofIndia in dry and hot areas and insandy deserts.English ◮ Sacrificial Grass (smallervar.)Ayurvedic ◮ Kusha, Suuchyagra,Yagyabhuushana, Kshurapatra.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tharubai.Action ◮ Root—cooling, diuretic,galactagogue, astringent. Used forurinary calculi, and other diseasesof the bladder. Clums—used inmenorrhagia, dysentery, diarrhoeaandinskindiseases.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia recommended the use ofthe rootstock in dysuria, vaginaldischarges and erysipelas.Dosage ◮ Rootstock—50–100 g fordecoction. (API Vol. III.)Dianthus carophyllus Linn.Family ◮ Caryophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir; commonlygrowningardens,especiallyonthehills.English ◮ Carnation, Clove Pink.Action ◮ Flowers—diaphoretic,alexiteric, cardiac tonic. wholeplant—vermifuge. Juice of plant—antiviral.Leaves contain glucoproteins.A related species, Dicentra anatolicusBoiss, found in the Western Himalayas,is used as an antiperiodic inintermittent fevers.Dicentra canadensis Walp.Family ◮ Papaveraceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKumaon to Khasia Hills. Cultivatedin Indian gardens.English ◮ Squirrel Corn. (A relatedspecies, Corydalis cucullaria, knownas Turkey Pea, occurs in Canadaand the USA.)Action ◮ Diuretic, alterative, antiscrofula.Used for torpid andsluggish conditions, menstrualdisorders and diseases due tovitiated blood. Also employed asa sedative for the relief of paralysisagitans and other muscular tremors.A large number of physiologicallyactive isoquinoline alkaloids havebeen isolated from the tubers of manyspecies of Dicentra, but the use ofCorydalis is not linked with the alkaloidsthey contain, only bulbocapnine,present in the tubers, exhibits therapeuticactivity. It produces catalepsyin mammals and possesses sympatheticas well as parasympathetic centraleffects.D

212 Dichroa febrifuga Lour.DIt has been employed for the reliefof paralysis agitans and other musculartremors, vesticular nystagmus andsimilar conditions.The root contains protopine, corydeline,bulbocapnine, cancentrine, dehydrocancentrinesA and B. Bicuculline(an isoquinoline alkaloid) isolatedfrom the tuber of Dicentra cucullaria,is a centrally-acting, spasmogenic antagonistof GABA.Dichroa febrifuga Lour.Family ◮ Saxifragaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Nepal to Bhutan and KhasiHills.Folk ◮ Basak.Action ◮ Febrifuge, antipyretic,antiparasitic (used for malarialfever). Dried roots, known asChang Shan, dried leafy tops,known as Shu Chi, in Chinesemedicine, are used for malarialfever. Dried roots (Chang Shan)contain the alkaloid dichroineAandB,dichrinAandB.The active principle febrifuginecompared to quinine was estimatedto be 16 to 64 times more efficaciousagainst Plasmodium gallinaceumin chicks, about 100 times against Plasmodiumlophurae in ducks also againstPlasmodium relictum in canaries. Theaqueous extract of the plant inhibitedthe infecting rate of the parasite Plasmodiumberghei up to 10 days and increasedthe mean survival time to twicethat of untreated control at 2.5 g/kgdose.Clinical trials with febrifugine indicatedthat the drug given in four oraldoses totalling 2–5 mg/day reduces theparasite count.Dichrostachys cinerea W. & A.Synonym ◮ Cailliea cinerea Macb.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Northwestern and CentralIndia, Maharashtra, from NorthKarnataka southwards.Ayurvedic ◮ Virataru, Vellantaru,Viravrksha.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vidathalai.Folk ◮ Varatuli, Khairi.Action ◮ Root—astringent anddiuretic; used in renal affections,urinary calculi, also in rheumatism.Tender shoots—applied externallyfor ophthalmia.The plant foliage contain tannin—2.40, 5.60 and 4.40 mg/100 g duringFebruary, June and November respectively.Roots afforded n-octacosanol,beta-amyrin, friedelan-3-one, friedelan-3-beta-olandbeta-sitosterol.Flowerscontain cyanidin and quercetin.Dosage ◮ Root, bark—50–100 mldecoction. (CCRAS.)Dicoma tomentosa Cass.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Africa andAsia, found in north-western andsouthern India.

Digitalis lanata Ehrh. 213Folk ◮ Navananji (Maharashtra),Vajradanti (Punjab).Action ◮ Febrifuge (used in febrileattacks after childbirth. Appliedlocally to putrescent wounds.In Indian medicine, Vajradanti,equated with Potentilla arbuscula D.Don and its related species (Rosaceae),is used topically for strengtheninggums and teeth.Dictamnus albus Linn.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas fromKashmir to Kunawar, common inPangi.English ◮ Gas Plant, Dittany, BurningBush.Action ◮ Root bark—used in nervousdiseases, hysteria, intermittentfevers, urinogenital disorders, andamenorrhoea; a decoction forscabies and other skin affections.Toxic.Dittany stimulates the muscles ofthe uterus, while its effect on thegastro-intestinal tract is antispasmodic,it relaxes the gut. (The plant isused in Greek folk medicine as antispasmodic.)The herb contains furoquinolinealkaloids (including dictamnine),furococumarins, limonoids, andflavonoids (including rutin).Volatile oil contains estragol, anethole,and a toxic alkaloid dictamnine.Flowers yield 0.05% essential oil containingmethylchavicol and anethole.Leaves yield 0.15% essential oil.Didymocarpus pedicellata R.Br.Synonym ◮ D. macrophylla auct.non-Wall. ex D. Don.Family ◮ Gesneriaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-tropical Himalayafrom Himachal Pradesh to ArunachalPradesh at 500–2,500 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Kshudra-Paashaanabheda,Shilaa-valkaa, Shilaapushpa.Action ◮ Leaf—antilithic. Used forstones in kidney and bladder.The leaves contain a number of chalcones,quinochalcones and flavanones.Pediflavone has also been isolated fromyoung leaves.Digera muricata (Linn.) Mart.Synonym ◮ D. arvensis Forsk.Desmochaeta muricata (L.) DC.Family ◮ Amaranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains ofIndia, as a weed in cultivated fields.Ayurvedic ◮ Katthinjara, Kunanjara.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thoyya-keerai.Folk ◮ Lat-mahuriaa, Lahsuvaa.Action ◮ Astringent, antibilious.Laxative in large doses. Flowers andseeds—diuretic; given for urinarydischarges.The plant contains alpha-and betaspinasterol.Digitalis lanata Ehrh.Family ◮Scrophulariaceae.D

214 Digitalis purpurea Linn.DHabitat ◮ Native to Europe. Nowcultivated mainly in Kashmir(Yarikhah), also occurs wild.English ◮ Grecian Foxglove.Ayurvedic ◮ Hritpatri, Tilapushpi(non-classical). (Yellow var.)Action ◮ See D. purpurea.Earlier, the herb was used to treatulcers, boils, abscesses, headaches andparalysis. William Withering, an 18thcentury English country doctor, exploredthe plant’s hidden properties.His work led to the production ofdigoxin, a life-saving medicine.Safety of the herb cannot be establisheddue to variable amounts of cardiacglycosides. The powder is toxic at520 mg.Digitalis purpurea Linn.Family ◮ Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to West Europe.Cultivated in Tangmarg andKishtawar in Kashmir, Darjeelingand the Nilgiris.English ◮ Digitalis, Foxglove.Ayurvedic ◮ Hritpatri, Tilapushpi(non-classical). (Purple var.)Action ◮ Main source of digoxinfor the pharmaceutical industry.Digitalisglycosidesincreasetheforce of contraction of heart withoutincreasing the oxygen consumptionand slow the heart rate whenauricular fibrillation is present. Tobe used only under strict medicalsupervision.Not used as a herbal drug.Dillenia indica Linn.Synonym ◮ Dillenia speciosa Thunb.Family ◮ Dilleniaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas from Nepalto Bhutan; north Bengal, Bihar,Orissa and Madhya Pradesh.English ◮ Elephant Apple.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhavya.Folk ◮ Uva, Chaaltaa.Action ◮ Fruit—laxative, carminative,bechic, febrifuge, antispasmodic(used for abdominal pains). Barkand leaves—astringent.The sepals contain (on dry weightbasis): tannin 0.37, glucose 2.92 andmalic acid 0.51%. The bark and leavescontain about 10% and 9% tannin (ondry weight basis) respectively.The fruit yielded a polysaccharide,arabingalactan.The leaves yielded cycloartenone,n-hentriacontanol, betulin, betulinicacid and beta-sitosterol. The bark gaveiso-rhamnetin, naringenin, quercetinderivatives and kaempferol.Dillenia pentagyna Roxb.Family ◮ Dilleniaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayan terai fromPunjab to Assam, and South Indiaand the Andamans.Folk ◮ Dillenia. Agai (Bihar), Agachi(Maharashtra).Action ◮ See D. indica.The bark contains 6% tannin.

Dioscorea bulbifera Linn. 215Dioscorea alata Linn.Synonym ◮ D. atropurpurea Roxb.D. globosa Roxb.D. purpurea Roxb.Family ◮Dioscoreaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to East Asia;cultivated in Assam, Vadodara,Tamil Nadu, Bengal and MadhyaPradesh.English ◮ Wild Yam, Greater Yam,Asiatic Yam.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaashthaaluka. Aaluka(var.). Aalukas (yams) of Ayurvedictexts, belong to Dioscorea spp.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perumvalli kizhangu.Folk ◮ Kathaalu.Action ◮ Even the best among thecultivated yams causes irritationin the throat or a feeling ofdiscomfort when eaten raw. Wildyams—cholagogue, antispasmodic,anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic,diuretic. Also used for painfulperiods, cramps and muscletension.Key application ◮ Dioscorea villosaL., Wild Yam—as spasmolytic,anti-inflammatory. (The BritishHerbal Pharmacopoeia.)The edible tubers of Dioscorea alataare purple-coloured and contain anthocyanins,cyanidin and peonidin-3-gentiobioside acylated with sinapicacid. The tubers contain surcose, whileleaves contain large quantities of D-fructose, D-glucose and the polyols,2-deoxyribitol, 6-deoxysorbitol andglycerol.Mouldy yams are reported to containa compound ipomeanol which isbeing tested against human lung cancer.(J. Am Med Assoc, 1994, 15, 23.)Diosgenin obtained from Dioscoreaspecies was used in the first commercialproduction of oral contraceptives,topical hormones, systemic corticosteroids,androgens, estrogens, progestogensand other sex hormones.The chemical transformation of diosgeninto estrogen, progesterone orany other steroidal compound does notoccur in human body. Topically appliedWild Yam does not appear tocause changes in serum FSH, estradiolor progesterone. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)Diosgenin, combined with the drugclofibrate, caused a greater decrease inLDL than either substance alone in rats.(Sharon M. Herr.)Dioscorea anguina Roxb.Synonym ◮ D. puber Blume.Family ◮ Dioscoreaceae.Habitat ◮ Wet regions of theHimalayas from Central Nepal,eastwards to northern Bengal,Assam and Chittagong.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaasaalu, Kasaalu.Folk ◮ Koshakanda (Bengal).Action ◮ See D. alata.Dioscorea bulbifera Linn.Synonym ◮ D. sativa Thumb auct.non L.D. versicolor Buch.-Ham ex Wall.D

216 Dioscorea daemona Roxb.DFamily ◮Dioscoreaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout tropical India,at 1,500–2,100 m.English ◮ Patoto Yam, Bulb-bearingYam, Air Potato, Dog Yam.Ayurvedic ◮ Vaaraahi, Vaaraahikanda,Grshti, Banaaalu, Suraalu,Raktaalu. Substitute for Vriddhi.Unani ◮ Baraahikand.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodi-kilangu,Pannu-kilangu.Action ◮ Driedandpoundedtubersare used as an application forswellings, boils and ulcers; roastedtubers are used in dysentery, piles,venereal sores. Leaf—febrifuge.The raw tubers are bitter due tothepresenceoffuranoidnorditerpenes(they lose their bitterness on roastingand are then eaten). The wild tuberscontain nearly 83% starch and possesshunger-suppressing property. Theycontain certain poisonous alkaloids.The rhizomes afforded D-sorbitol,furanoid norditerpenes—diosbulbinsA-D, 2,4,6,7-tetrahydroxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthreneand 2,4,5,6,-tetrahydroxyphenanthrene,diosgenin, lucein,neoxanthine,violaxanthin,zeaxanthin,auroxanthin and cyrptoxanthin.Dioscorea daemona Roxb.Synonym ◮ D. hispada Dennst.D. hirsuta Dennst.Family ◮ Dioscoreaceae.Habitat ◮ Sikkim, the Himalayas,Khasi Hills.Ayurvedic ◮ Hastyaaluka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peiperendai.Folk ◮ Karukandu, Kolo (Bihar).Action ◮ Tubers—used for ulcer, tokill worms in wounds. Plant parts—used in whitlow, sores, boils.The tubers contain 81.45–81.89%carbohydrates, 7.20–9.12% albuminoids.The toxic principle is dioscorinewhich is distributed throughout theplant.Dioscorea deltoideaWall ex Griseb.Synonym ◮ D. nepalensis Sweet exBernardi.Family ◮ Dioscoreaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalaya fromKashmir to Arunachal Pradesh andin Assam at 450–3,100 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Vaaraahikanda (var.),Grishti.Folk ◮ Gun, Kris (Punjab).Action ◮ Tuber—antipthiriac. Leaf—febrifuge. The rhizomes are a richsource of diogenin and its glycoside.Steroidal saponins have also beenisolated. Diogenin is used in thepreparation of various steroidaldrugs.Dioscorea esculenta Burkill.Synonym ◮ D. aculeata Linn.D. faciculata Roxb.D. spinosa Roxb ex Wall.

Dioscorea prazeri Prain & Burkill. 217Family ◮Dioscoreaceae.Habitat ◮ Madhya Pradesh, UttarPradesh, Orissa, Bengal, Assam andthe Andamans.English ◮ Lesser Yam, Karen Potato.Ayurvedic ◮ Madhvaaluka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Musilam, Vallikilangu, Siruvalli Kilangu.Folk ◮ Suthani.Action ◮ Tubers are starchy and freefrom dioscorine, contain 71.29%carbohydrates, 10.82% albuminoids.Dioscorea glabra Roxb.Family ◮ Dioscoreaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, Bengal, Bihar,Orissa and Andaman and NicobarIslands.Ayurvedic ◮ Shankhaaluka.Action ◮ Tubers contain 77.79–78.23% carbohydrates, 9.73–10.13%albuninoids.Dioscorea hamiltonii Hook. f.Family ◮ Dioscoreaceae.Habitat ◮ The Western Ghats,Sikkim, Assam, Orissa and Bengal.Ayurvedic ◮ Vaaraahi (var.).Folk ◮ Naagar-kanda (Bihar).Action ◮ Tubers contain 85.50%carbohydrates, 8.30% albuminoids.Dioscorea oppositifolia Linn.Family ◮Dioscoreaceae.Habitat ◮ South India; throughoutthe hills of Deccan.Ayurvedic ◮ Amlikaakanda (controversialsynonym).Siddha ◮ Kavala-kodi, Venilai Valli.Folk ◮ Aambaalio Kanda (Gujarat).Action ◮ Used externally for reducingswellings.Dioscorea pentaphylla Linn.Synonym ◮ D. triphylla var. doemonaPrain & Burkill.Family ◮ Dioscoreaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical Asia;distributed throughout India.Ayurvedic ◮ Vaaraahikanda (var., drypieces are sold as Vidaarikanda).Folk ◮ Kaantaalu.Action ◮ Tubers contain 71.07–80.77% carbohydrates, 8.68–15.93%albuminoids. Tubers are used todisperse swellings.Dioscorea prazeriPrain & Burkill.Synonym ◮ D. Clarkei Prain & BurkillD. deltoidea Wall. var. sikkimensisPrainFamily ◮ Dioscoreaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalaya from Nepalto Bhutan, up to 1,500 m, also inNaga Hills.Ayurvedic ◮ Neelaalu.Action ◮ Tuber—antiphthiriac.D

218 Diospyros ebenum Koenig.DThe rhizomes are used as a hairwash for killing lice. They containdiogenin (on dry basis) 2.5%. Also obtainedare steroidal sapogenins, sitosterolglucoside, prazerigenin-A glucoside,prazerigenin-A bioside and 9,10-dihydrophenanthrenes.Diospyros ebenum Koenig.Synonym ◮ D. hebecarpa A. Cunn exBenth.Family ◮ Ebenaceae.Habitat ◮ Orissa and South India.English ◮ Ebony Persimmon,Malabar Ebony, Ceylon Ebony.Ayurvedic ◮ Tinduka.Unani ◮ Aaabnuus.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Acha-Thumbi.Action ◮ Plant—astringent, attenuant,lithontriptic.The heartwood contains 2 betanaphthalhydes,2 naphthoic acid derivatives;ceryl alcohol, betulin, alphaamyrin,ursolic acid, baurenol andstigmasterol. The leaves contain ursolicacid, alpha-amyrin, betulin andlupeol.Diospyros embryopteris Pers.Synonym ◮ D. peregrina (Gaertn.)GurkeD. malabarica (Desr.) Kostel.Family ◮ Ebenaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India in shadywet places and near streams.English ◮ Gaub Persimmon, RiberEbony.Ayurvedic ◮ Tinduka, Tinduki, Sphuurjaka,Kaalaskandha, Asitkaaraka.Nilasaara.Unani ◮ Tendu.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tumbika, Kattatti.Action ◮ Fruit and stem bark—astringent. Infusion of fruits—usedas gargle in aphthae and sore throat.Fruit juice—used as application forwounds and ulcers. Oil of seeds—givenindiarrhoeaanddysentery.Ether extract of fruit—antibacterial.Bark—astringent and styptic,used in menorrhagia, diarrhoea,dysentery and intermittent fevers.A paste is applied to boils and tumours.The ethyl acetate extractshowed antistress and anti-ulcerogenicactivity. It also prevented hepatotoxicityand leucocytosis in experimentalanimals.The bark contains betulinic acid,myricyl alcohol, triterpenoids and saponin.The leaves gave beta-sitosterol,betulin and oleanolic acid. Fruit pulpand seeds contain lupeol, betulin, gallicacid, betulinic acid, hexacosane, hexacosanol,sitosterol, beta-D-glucosideof sitosterol and a triterpene ketone.Stem bark—antiprotozoal, antiviral,hypoglycaemic, semen-coagulant.Stems yielded nonadecan-7-ol-one.Dosage ◮ Bark—50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Diospyros kaki Linn. f.Family ◮Ebenaceae.

Diospyros montana Roxb. var. cordifolia Hiem. 219Habitat ◮ Native to China; nowgrowninHimachalPradesh,Kumaon, the Nilgiris and WestBengal for edible fruits.English ◮ Japanese Persimmon.Ayurvedic ◮ Tinduka (var.).Action ◮ Hypotensive, hepatoprotective,antidote to poisons andbacterial toxins. Calyx and peduncleof fruit—used in the treatmentof cough and dyspnoea. Roastedseeds—used as a substitute forcoffee.The fruit, in addition to sugars, glucose,fructose, ascorbic acid, citric acid,contains (% of fresh weight) 0.20–1.41tannins, 0.21–10.07 total pectins, 0.67pentosans and 0.16–0.25 polyphenols.The fruit also contains 2.4 mg/100 gcarotenoids; carotene expressed as vitaminA 2200–2600 IU. The carotenoidsidentified in the pulp includecryptoxanthine, zeaxanthin, antheraxanthin,lycopene and beta-carotene.(Many carotenoids originally presentin the fruit decompose during ripening.The fruit pulp is an antidote to bacterialtoxins and is used in the preparationof a vaccine for pertussis.Condensed tannins from the fruitseffectively inhibited 2-nitrofluorenemutagen.The immature leaves contain a steroidalsaponin, lignin and phenoliccompounds. Eugenol and dihydroactinidiolideare reported from freshleaves.The leaves are reported to exhibithepatoprotective activity. Leaves alsocontain hypotensive principles. Astragalinand isoquercitrin have been isolatedfrom leaves.Diospyros melanoxylon Roxb.Synonym ◮ D. dubia Wall. ex A. DC.Family ◮ Ebenaceae.Habitat ◮ Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra,Orissa, Bihar, Uttar Pradeshand West Peninsula.English ◮ Coromandel Ebony,Persimmon.Ayurvedic ◮ Tinduka (var.), Dirghapatrakaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karum Dumbi,Thumbi, Beedi-elai.Action ◮ Leaves—carminative,laxative, diuretic, styptic. Bark—astringent. Used in dyspepsiaand diarrhoea. Unripe fruit—carminative and astringent. Ripefruit—antibilious. Dried flowers—used in anaemia, inflammation ofspleen, also in leucorrhoea. Leafand dried flower—used in dyspepsiaand diarrhoea, topically in scabies.Aerial parts—hypotensive.Half-ripe fruit contains 23, ripe fruit15 and bark 19% tannin.The bark and sapwood extracts yieldbeta-sitosterol, lupeol, betulin and betulinicacid. Leaves contain hentriacontane,hentriacontanol, alpha-amyrin,baurenol, ursolic, oleanolic and betulinicacids.Diospyros montana Roxb. var.cordifolia Hiem.Family ◮Ebenaceae.D

220 Diospyros tomentosa Roxb.DHabitat ◮ Throughout the greaterpart of India.English ◮Visha-tinduka, Kaaka-Ayurvedic ◮tinduka.Siddha/Tamil ◮Vakkanatan.Folk ◮Mountain persimmon.Timru.Vakkanai,Action ◮ Various plant parts areused in fever, puerperal fever,neuralgia, pleurisy, pneumonia,menorrhagia, dysurea. Fruits areapplied externally to boils.Bark extract—anti-inflammatory,antipyretic and analgesic. Leaves andseeds—antibacterial.Diospyrin occurs in the bark andwood. Leaves contain hentriacontane,hentriacontanol, beta-sitosterol,alpha-and beta-amyrin, lupeol, taraxeroland ursolic acid.Alcoholic extract of the plant showedCNS depressant and spasmolytic activityand also produced bradycardia andhypertension.Diospyros tomentosa Roxb.Synonym ◮ D. exsculpta Buch.-Ham.Family ◮ Ebenaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract fromRavi to Nepal, also in Rajasthan,Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and Orrisa.English ◮ Nepal Ebony Persimmon.Ayurvedic ◮ Viralaa, Tinduka (var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tumbi.Folk ◮ Ebony.Action ◮ Astringent, antiinflammatory,styptic. Variousplant parts are used for dry cough,bronchitis,pleurisy,pneumonia,dysuria, fistula, tumours, bleedinggums, haemorrhagic conditions.The leaves and stems gave betasitosterol,lupeol, betulin, betulinic andoleanolic acids.Unsaponifiable matter of seedsshowed CNS depressant activity.Dipterocarpus alatus Roxb.Synonym ◮ D. incanus Roxb.Family ◮ Dipterocarpaceae.Habitat ◮ The Andamans.English ◮ Gurjun.Ayurvedic ◮ Ashwakarna, Garjan,Shveta-Garjan, Jarandruma.Action ◮ Decoction of the bark isprescribed in rheumatism. Oil—applied to ulcerated wounds.Balsam—applied externally ingonorrhoea.Dipterocarpus resin gave sesquiterpenoids.The essential oil contains 2sesquiterpenoids of eudesmane series.Dipterocarpus turbinatusGaertn. f.Synonym ◮ D. indicus Bedd.Family ◮ Dipterocarpaceae.Habitat ◮ The Andamans and Assam.English ◮ Common Gurjun tree,Wood Oil tree.

Dolichandrone falcate Seem. 221Ayurvedic ◮ Ajakarna, Chhaagakarna,Ashwakarna.Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Gurjan.Enney, Saara.Action ◮ Oleo-resin (known asGurjan Oil or Gurjan Balsam)—stimulant to genitourinary system,diuretic, spasmolytic; usedexternally on ulcers, ringwormand other cutaneous affections.Bark—a decoction is prescribedrheumatism.Essential oil from oleo-resin containedhumulene, beta-caryophyllene,a bicyclic sesquiterpene hydrocarbonand a sesquiterpene alcohol.The twig bark contains 9% tanninand 7.3% soluble non-tans.Dosage ◮Oil—3–5 ml. (CCRAS.)Dodonaea viscosa Linn. Jacq.Family ◮ Sapindaceae.Habitat ◮ North-western Himalayaup to 1,350 m, in Punjab, SouthIndia, ascending to 2,400 m onNilgiris. Also planted as a hedgeplant in Northern India.English ◮ Jamacia Switch Sorrel.Ayurvedic ◮ Raasnaa (substitute,used in Andhra Pradesh). (Raasnaais equated with Pluchea lanceolataC. B. Clarke.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Virali, Velari.Action ◮ Leaves—anti-inflammatoryand antibacterial (used in thetreatment of swellings, burns,wounds), febrifuge, embrocation ofleaves is applied to sprains. Bark—astringent and anti-inflammatory.Aerial parts—hypoglycaemic.The plant contains bioflavonoids (vitaminP) which are biologically activein improving blood circulation andstrengthening capillaries. Aqueousand alcoholic extracts of the plant exhibitedcardioinhibitory and coronoryconstricting, also spasmolytic, sedativeand hypotensive activity.The leaves and pods gave iso-rhamnetin-3-O-rutinoside,quercetin-3-Ogalactosideand quercetin-3-O-rutinoside.Resin gave a diterpene carboxylicacid (hautriwaic acid). Flowers gavekaempferol.Dolichandrone falcate Seem.Family ◮Bignoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Moist forests of centraland southern India.Ayurvedic ◮ Mesha-shringi (alsoequated with Gymnena sylvestre R.Br.), Vishaanikaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Varsana,Kaddalatti, Kaliyacca.Action ◮ Fruits—bitter, carminative,used in diabetes, urinary disorders,bronchitis and skin diseases.Leaves—applied externally toswollen glands. Abortifacient.The leaves yield luteolin, chrysin andits 7-rutinoside and glucoside.Fruits are also known as Rshabhakain the South.D

222 Dolichos biflorus Linn.DDolichos biflorus Linn.Synonym ◮Walp.Family ◮Vigna unquiculata (L.)Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Apulsecrop,particularlyin Madras, Mysore, Mumbai andHyderabad.English ◮ Horsegram.Ayurvedic ◮ Kulattha, Kulittha,Khalva, Vardhipatraka.Unani ◮ Kulthi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kollu, Kaanam.Action ◮ Plant—used in measles,smallpox, adenitis, burns, sores.Seeds—astringent, antipyretic,diuretic. Decoction or soup is usedin affections of the liver and spleen,intestinal colic, in leucorrhoeaand menstrual dissorders, urinarydischarges. A valuable proteinsupplement.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia recommends the decoctionof dry seeds in calculus andamenorrhoea.The seeds contain crude protein20.8, pentosan 10.8 and water-solublegum 2.8%. The presence of antinutritionalcomponents such as haemagglutininand a protease inhibitor hasbeen reported. The inhibitor activitydecreased during germination.The mean protein value of the seedsis 25.47% which is more or less equivalentto soybean, winged bean and gram.Nutritionally, the horsegram seeds arericher in lysine content when comparedto Cajanus cajan (Arhar) pulseand gram pulse.Presence of vitamin A in the greenpods makes them a valuable diet forchildren; green leaves may be used invitamin C deficiency syndrome, due tothepresenceofascorbicacidandcalcium.The seeds contain several commonphytosterols.Strepogenin—several times higherthan in casein.A decoction of seeds (soaked orboiled in water) is prescribed as diureticand antilithiatic and has beenclinically established.Diuretic activity of a dipeptide (pyroglutamylglutamine)has been foundto be 2–3 times that of acetazolamidein albino rats.Globulin fraction of the seedsshowed hypolipidaemic effects in rats.A lectin-like glycoprotein fromstems and leaves possesses carbohydrate-binding activity.Dosage ◮ Seed—6 g powder;decoction 50–100 ml. (CCRAS.)Dolichos falcatus Seem Klein.Family ◮ Papilionaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKumaon to Khasi Hills and inWestern Peninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Kulatthikaa.Action ◮ Root—prescribed forconstipation and skin diseases.A decoction of seeds is used forrheumatism.Dolichos lablab Linn. var.typicus Prain.Synonym ◮Lablab purpureus Linn.

Doronicum hookeri Hook. f. 223Family ◮Habitat ◮India.Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Cultivated throughoutEnglish ◮ Indian Butter Bean, LablabBean, Horsebean.Ayurvedic ◮Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Nishpaav, Sem.Lab Laab, Semphali.Avarin.Action ◮ Seeds—febrifuge, stomachic,antispasmodic, antifungal.Key application ◮ As expectorant.(The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)Lablab pods contain protein 4.5, carbohydrates10.0, calcium 0.05%; vitaminC (7.33 to 10.26 mg/100g in cookedsamples; 0.77–1.12 mg/100 g in uncookedsamples) increases on cooking.Enzyme liberation of essential aminoacids from protein is slower than fromcasein and wheat.Callus tissue of Dolichos lablab Linn.(Horsebean) showed presence of betasitosterol,stigmasterol, lanosterol andcholesterol. The isolated flavonoidsshow antifungal activity (the maximumamount of flavonoids was foundin the flowers). The plant contains thealkaloid, trigonelline, which exhibitshypoglycaemic activity. The maximumalkaloid was found in the seeds(0.14 mg/g dry weight). In tissue culturesraised from seedlings, the maximumamount was present in the tissueat the age of 6 weeks (0.068 mg/g dryweight).Dorema ammoniacum D. Don.Family ◮Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Persia, South-West Asia,Southern Siberia.English ◮ Ammoniacum, Gumammoniac.Ayurvedic ◮Unani ◮Uushaka, Ushaka.Ushaq, Ushah, Kandal.Action ◮ Gum-resin—antispasmodic,expectorant, diaphoretic,emmenagogue, used in cough,asthma, bronchitis and catarrh,especially when the secretion istough and viscid. Also used inenlargement of liver and spleen.Gum-resin from the flowering andfruiting stems contain resin (60–70%),consisting mainly of amino-resinol;gum; volatile oil, about 0.5%, containingferulene as major component; freesalicylic acid; coumarins (umbelliferoneis absent).Ammoniacum is similar to asafoetidain medicinal properties.Doronicum hookeri Hook. f.Family ◮Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas at Lachenand Tungu, and Sikkim.English ◮ Leopard’s Bane. (Arnicamontana Linn. is also known asLeopard’s Bane.)Unani ◮Daarunaj Aqrabi.Action ◮ Root—used as a constituentof cardiac and nervine tonics. Usedas exhilarant. Acts as a stomachicanddissolvestrappedgases.D

224 Doronicum pardalianches Linn.DDoronicum pardalianches Linn.Family ◮Habitat ◮Unani ◮Compositae; Asteraceae.Native to Europe.Daarunaj Aqrabi.Action ◮ Used in nervous depression,melancholia and as a constituent ofcardiac tonic preparations.The plant contains photoactive thiophenes,in amounts reported to betoxic. Roots and aerial parts yieldsesquiterpene alcohol, paraliancholand its aetophenone derivatives.Doronicum roylei DC.Family ◮Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The Western Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Garhwal.Unani ◮Daarunaj Aqrabi Hindi.Action ◮ The root is reported toprevent giddiness caused duringhigh attitude ascents.The root yields a gum-resin, usedin gargle water as stimulant, astringentand in toothpaste. Root—usedin rheumatism. Leaves—carminative.Dracocephalum moldavica Linn.Family ◮ Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate WesternHimalaya in Kashmir from 2,100–2,400 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Raam Tulasi.Unani ◮ Feranjmushk.Action ◮ Seeds—Febrifuge, carminative,astringent, demulcent,vulnerary. Used is cephalalgia,neurological disorders, as a cardiactonic, brain tonic and deobstruentin Unani medicine.Citral and geranyl acetate are majorconstituents of the essential oil. Othersinclude alpha-pinene, nerol, citronellol,linalool, geraniol, limoneneand caproic acid. Flavonoids, includingmoldavoside, have been isolatedfrom the plant.Dracaena cinnabari Balf. f.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to East Africa andSaudi Arabia.English ◮ Dragon’s Blood.Ayurvedic ◮ Khoonkharaabaa,Heeraadokhi.Unani ◮ Dammul-Akhwain.Action ◮ See Daemonorops draco.Dracontium polyphyllum Linn.Family ◮ Araceae.Habitat ◮ Maharashtra and Karnataka;cultivated in the South.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Karunayikkilangu.Folk ◮ Jangali Suuran.Action ◮ Root—antidiarrhoeal,anti-inflammatory (prescribed forhaemorrhoids), antispasmodic

Drosera peltata Sm. 225(used in asthma), emmenagogue,abortifacient.Dregea volubilis(Linn. f.) Benth. ex Hook. f.Synonym ◮ Wattakaka volubilis(Linn. f.) Stapf.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Konkan and Maharashtra,also in Bengal and Assam.Ayurvedic ◮ Suparnikaa, Madhumaalati.Muurvaa (substitute).Nak-chhikkini.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodippalai.Action ◮ Root and tender stalks—emetic and expectorant, causesneezing, used in colds, sinusitis,and biliousness. Leaves—used as anapplication to boils and abscesses.The stems and leaves contain a pigmenttaraxerol, a triterpenoid, kaempferol,a glucoside of kaempferol andsaponins. Seeds contain a number ofpregnane glycosides which do not exhibitdigitalis-like action. Root containsa glucoside which lowered carotidblood pressure in mice and dogs whenadministered intravenously.Drosera peltata Sm.Synonym ◮ D. lunata Buch.-Ham.Family ◮ Droseraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up to2,438 m.English ◮ Sundew.Ayurvedic ◮ Brahma-suvarchalaa(doubtful synonym).Folk ◮ Mukhjali. (Drosera burmanniiVahl is also known as Mukhjali.)Action ◮ Resin from plant—usedin bronchitis and whooping cough.Plant—antisyphyilitic. Bruisedleaves, mixed with salt are appliedfor treating blisters.Key application ◮ Drosera rotundifolia—indry cough and coughing fits,as bronchoantispasmodic. (GermanCommission E.).The leaves contain napthaquinones,plumbagin (0.5%), droserone (3-hydroxyplumbagin)and hydroxydroserone(0.01%), and the flavonoids,quercetin, gossypetin, gossypin andisogossypitrin. The antispasmodic actionof the herb has been attributedto naphthoquinones. Plumbaginis antimicrobial in vitro against someGram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria,influenza virus, pathogenic fungiand parasitic protozoa, and is activeagainst some species of Leishmania. Inlarge doses plumbagin is cytotoxic, butin small doses exhibits immunostimulatingactivity in vitro.A related species, Drosera indicaLinn., is found in Deccan peninsula,particularly in the West coast. Plumbagone,isolated from the plant, depressesthe isolated intestine of theguinea-pig and suppresses the effect ofacetylcholine. In Indo-China, a macerationof the plant is applied topicallyto corns.In Western herbal, Sundew is obtainedfrom the aerial parts of DroseraD

226 Drynaria quercifolia (Linn.) J. Smith.rotundifolia which grows throughoutEurope.See Cinnamomum campho-Action ◮ra.DDrynaria quercifolia(Linn.) J. Smith.Synonym ◮ Polypodium quercifoliumLinn.Family ◮ Polypodiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, inplains and low mountains.Ayurvedic ◮ Ashvakatri (nonclassical).Folk ◮ Baandar-Baashing (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Pectoral, expectorant.anthelmintic. Used in the treatmentof chest diseases, cough, hectic fever,dyspepsia, loss of appetite, chronicjaundice and cutaneous affections.Pounded fonds are used as poulticefor swellings. Peeled rhizome withsugar is prescribed for urinarydisorders and in spermatorrhoea.Aqueous extracts possess antibacterialproperties.Dryobalanops camphoraColebr.Synonym ◮ D. aromatica Gaertn. f.Family ◮ Dipterocarpaceae.Habitat ◮ From Borneo to Sumatraislands.English ◮ Borneo or Barus Camphor.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhimseni Kapoor.Folk ◮ Baraas Kapoor.Dryopteris dentata(Forsk.) C. Chr.Synonym ◮ Cyclosorus dentatus.Family ◮ Polypodiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India in theplains, also on the hills.Action ◮ Aqueous extracts—antibacterial against Staphylococcusaureus.Dryopterisfilix-mas(Linn.) SchouttSynonym ◮ Aspidium filix-mas Linn.Family ◮ Polypodiaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate regions ofAmerica, Europe, Asia, near dampand shady terrains.English ◮ Male Fern, Aspidium.Unani ◮ Sarakhs, Sarakhs Muzakkar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Iruvi.Action ◮ Taenifuge, vermifuge(normally used in conjunction witha saline purgative, not used withcastor oil.) Also, deobstruent, abortifacient.Externallyfor rheumatism,sciatica and neuralgia. No morein use as an anthelmintic as betteralternatives are available.Rhizomes and fonds contain filicin(2%), a mixture of dimeric, trimericand tetrameric butanone chloroglucosides,that kills tapeworms. Excessivedose of filicin may cause intestinal

Durio zibethinus Linn. 227cramps and blindness, also liver damage.Related Himalayan species include:D. odontoloma (Kashmir valley), D.marginata, D. barbigera (Kashmir toSikkim), D. schimperiana (Mussoorie)and D. blanfordii (Chattri, Chamba).Theferns gave filicin 2.3, 2.1, 2.1,4.4 and 3.5%, respectively.Drypetes roxburghii(Wall.) Hurusawa.Synonym ◮ Putranjiva roxburghiiWall.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Wild and cultivatedthroughout tropical India.Ayurvedic ◮ Putrajivaka, Sutajva,Putrakamanjari.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karupali, Irukolli.Action ◮ Leaves, fruits and stonesof fruits are given in colds andfevers, also in rheumatic affections.Rosaries,madeofhardstonesofthefruit, are placed around the necksof children to protect them fromdiseases.The seed kernel yield 0.5% of asharpsmellingessential oil of the mustard oiltype. The oil contains isopropyl and2-butyl isothiocyanates as the mainconstituents and 2-methyl-butyl isothiocyanateas minor component. An additionalglucoside, glucocleomin, hasbeen found in the seed kernels. A glucosidicpattern similar to that in theseeds is reported in the shoots androots.The fruit pulp contains a large proportionof mannitol and small quantitiesof a saponin glucoside and alkaloid.The alkaloid is also present in a smallquantity in the stones of the fruit.Dosage ◮ Seed, leaf, bark—3–6 gpowder. (CCRAS.)Duranta plumieri Jacq.Synonym ◮ Duranta repens Linn.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated as a hedge plant.Folk ◮ Durantaa.Action ◮ Antifungal (topically).The leaves contain a saponin andfruits an alkaloid analogous to narcotine.Macerated fruits, which even indilutionsof1: 100partsofwater,islethaltomosquitolarvae(theactionisless marked on Culicine larvae.Durio zibethinus Linn.Family ◮ Bombacaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Malaysia;cultivated in South India for itsedible fruit, in lower elevations ofthe Nilgiris and some parts of theWest Coast.English ◮ Durian, Civet Fruit.Folk ◮ DurioAction ◮ Fruit—reduces lethality ofalcohol. Leaves and roots—used ina prescriptions for fever. Leaves—used in medicinal bath during fever.Fruit-walls—used externally forD

228 Dysoxylum binectariferum Hook. f.Dskin diseases. Ashes of the skin—given after childbirth.The edible pulp of the fruit containsabout 12% total sugars and an equalamount of starch; crude protein 2.8, fat3.9, total carbohydrates 34.1, mineralmatter 1.2%; carotene 20, vitamin C25 mg/100 g.The seeds are edible like chestnutsafter roasting.Dysoxylum binectariferumHook. f.Family ◮ Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, Sikkim, Bengaland the Western Ghats.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Agunivagil, Cembil.Folk ◮ Lassuni (West Bengal).Action ◮ Fruit—anti-inflammatory,diuretic, CNS depressant.The bark from mature trees contain15% tannin and that from young trees10%.EtOH (50%) extract of fruit—antiinflammatory,diuretic and CNS depressant.The fruit contains a tetranortriterpenoid,dysobinin, a potential CNS depressantand inflammation inhibitor.The stem bark contains an alkaloid,rohitukine, which exhibited anti-inflammatoryand immunomodulatoryproperty.

EEcballium elaterium A. Rich.Family ◮Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Mediterranean region andWestern Asia.English ◮Squirting Cucumber.Ayurvedic ◮ Kantaki Indravaaruni(non-classical).Folk ◮Kateri Indryaayana, Kitran.Action ◮ Hydragogue; employed forthe evacuation of dropsy, especiallyin nephritic patients. Root—usedto treat skin diseases and parasiticscalp diseases; also for scirrhouseruptions.Roots, leaves and fruits yield cucurbitacinsC, D, E, G, H and I. Fruitjuice gave cucurbitacins B, L and R andtheir derivatives. Cucurbitacins (tetracyclictriterpene glycosides) are toxicconstituents of the fruit.Ecbolium linneanum Kurz.Synonym ◮ E. viride (Forsk.) Alston.Justica ecbolium Linn.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Northeastern PeninsularIndia.English ◮ Blue Fox Tail Nail Dye.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nilambari.Action ◮ Plant—used in gout anddysuria; decoction of leaves forstricture. Roots—given in jaundice,menorrhagia and rheumatism.The leaves, flowers and roots yieldorientin, vitexin and their isoflavones.Echinochloa colonum(Linn.) Link.Synonym ◮ Panicum colonum Linn.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Maharashtra,Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Bihar andAndhra Pradesh.English ◮ Shama millet.Ayurvedic ◮ Varaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karumpul, Varsanampillu.Folk ◮ Jangali sawuk, Shamaa,Saanvaa.Action ◮ Diuretic.The protein content of the dehuskedmillet is higher when compared torice. Except for lysine all other essentialamino acids are present in fairquantity. The grains are a rich sourceof zinc and iron.Echinochloa crus-galli(Linn.) Beauv.Synonym ◮ Panicum crus-galli Linn.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated mainly inMaharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,

230 Echinochloa frumentacea Link.EKarnataka, Tamil Nadu and AndhraPradesh.English ◮ Barnyard Millet.Ayurvedic ◮ Ambah Shyaamaaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Oathupul.Folk ◮ Samak.Action ◮ Whole plant—used fordiseases of the spleen and forchecking haemorrhage.The grains are rich in carbohydrates(3.474 wt %) and trace elements (Cu,Cd,Cr,Ni,Fe,Mn,Sn). Thetotalprotein content is 4.2 wt% and the totallipids 4.46%. A hormone, oestrogen, isreported from the lipid.A polysaccharide extracted from theendosperm and composed of glucosewas identified as a phytoglycogen.Echinochloa frumentacea Link.Synonym ◮ Panicum frumentaceumRoxb.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated mainly inKarnataka, Tamil Nadu, UttarPradesh and Madhya Pradesh.English ◮ Japanese Barnyard Millet.Ayurvedic ◮ Shyaamaaka.Siddha ◮ Kudrraivali pillu (Tamil).Folk ◮ Shamaa, Saanvaa.Action ◮ Plant—cooling anddigestible, considered useful inbiliousness and constipation.The millet has a well balanced aminoacid composition, but is deficient inlysine. Glutelin is the major constituentof protein.Echinops echinatus Roxb.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Globe-Thistle, Camel’sThistle.Ayurvedic ◮ Utkantaka, Uttundaka,Brahmadandi.Folk ◮ Uunta-Kateraa.Action ◮ Alterative, diuretic, nervetonic (used in hoarse cough,dyspepsia, scrofula, hysteria.)Aerial parts of the plant containalkaloids, echinopsine, echinopsidineand echinozolinone. Taraxasterol acetate,isolated from the plant, is a potentanti-inflammatory constituent;the ethanolic extract of the wholeplant is more effective when administeredparenterally than orally. Apigeninand its derivatives, echinacin andechinaticin show antifungal activity.Eclipta alba (Linn.) Hassk.Synonym ◮ E. prostrata Roxb.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up to2,000 m on the hills.English ◮ Trailing Eclipta Plant.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhringaraaja, Bhringa,Bhringaja, Bhrngaaraka, Bhrngaara,Maarkava, Kesharaaja, Keshranjana.Unani ◮ Bhangraa.

Ehretia laevis Roxb. var. aspera (Willd.) C.B. Clarke. 231Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Bhangaraa.Karisalaankanni.Action ◮ Deobstruent, antihepatotoxic,anticatarrhal, febrifuge. Usedin hepatitis, spleen enlargements,chronic skin diseases. Leaf—promoteshair growth. Its extract in oilis applied to scalp before bed timein insomnia. The herb is also usedas an ingredient in shampoos.Key application ◮ As hepatoprotective.(Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia;The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia.)The herb should be dried at roomtemperature under shade. Its activeprinciples are lost due to aerial oxidationduring sun drying or drying underreduced pressure below 40°C. The herbcontains wedelolactone and demethylwedelolactone,which showed a dosedependenteffectagainstCCl4,d-galactosamine-or phalloidin-induced cytotoxicityin primary cultured rat hepatocytes,and exhibited potent antihepatotoxicproperty. The whole plantshows effect on liver cell regeneration.Immunoactive property has been observedagainst surface antigen of hepatitisB-virus. The plant is also reportedto be effective in the treatment of pepticulcer, inflammatory diseases, includingrheumatoid arthritis, diseases ofthe gallbladder and skin infections.Aqueous extract of leaves exhibitsmyocardial depressant and hypotensiveactivity (unrelated to cholinergicand histaminergic effects).The roots are very rich in thiopheneacetylenes. Thiophene derivativesshow activity against nematodes.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—3–6 ml freshjuice; 13–36 g for decoction. (APIVol. II.)Ehretia buxifolia Roxb.Synonym ◮ Carmona microphylla(Lam.) G. Don.Family ◮ Ehrethiaceae.Habitat ◮ Commonindryscrubforests of the Deccan Peninsula.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kuruvingi, Kattuvettilai.Folk ◮ Pala.Action ◮ Root—alterative in cachexiaand syphilis; an antidote to vegetablepoisoning. Dried leaves—pecticand stomachic.The plant contains microphyllone.EtOH (50%) extract of aerial partsshowed low anti-inflammatory andcardiovascular activities.Ehretia laevis Roxb. var.aspera (Willd.) C.B. Clarke.Synonym ◮ E. aspera Willd.E. obtusifolia Hochst. ex DC.Family ◮ Ehretiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, alsogrown along roadsides.Ayurvedic ◮ Charmi-vrksha.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Addula.Folk ◮ Chamror (Punjab). Kuptaa,Datarangi (Maharashtra.)E

232 Eichhornia crassipes Solms Laub.EAction ◮ Root—used in venerealdiseases. A decoction of bark isused internally and as gargle inthroat infections.The plant contains tannins, saponinsand allantoin, and monomethylethers of cyclitols. Leaves yieldeda pyrrolizidine alkaloid, creatinine.Eichhornia crassipes Solms Laub.arsenic effectively. It can be used inpurification of silver-containing wastewater, also for the treatment of lowlevelliquid radioactive wastes andmercurial waste water. The plant hasa strong capacity for removing phenol.Biomass of non-living dried water Hyacinthroots showed high absorptionof copper from aqueous solutions.The plant exhibits antifungal activityagainst Candida albicans.Synonym ◮ E. speciosa Kunth.Family ◮ Pontederiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical SouthAmerica; naturalized all over India.English ◮ Water-Hyacinth, BengalTerror,BlueDevil,TheMillionDollar Weed.Ayurvedic ◮ Wrongly equated withJalakumbhi (Pistia stratiotes Linn.,Tropical Duckweed.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Akasa thammarai.Action ◮ Flower—antifungal. Usedin skin diseases.The plant gave stigmasterol, rootsgibberellins, flowers delphinidin glucoside.The leaves contain a good amountof protein (18% on dry wt basis). Thecontent of water soluble pectins in leaf,petiole and root is: 1.3–5.8, 1.5–7.2 and1.0–2.5% respectively.Research shows that Water-Hyacinthcan be used as a source to removeminerals, organic substances and evenheavy metals like Cd, Cr, Cu, Zn and Nipresent as pollutants from domestic orindustrial effluents. It can also removeElaeocarpus ganitrusRoxb. ex G. Don.Synonym ◮ E. sphaericus K. Schum.Ganitrus sphaericus Gaertn.Family ◮ Elaeocarpaceae.Habitat ◮ West Bengal, MadhyaPradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa,Andhra Pradesh, Western Ghats.English ◮ Utrasum Bead tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Rudraaksha, Panchmukhi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Rudraaksham.Action ◮ Fruit—used for epilepticfits and headache. Powderedfruits (0.5 g) mixed with warmwater are given two/three timesdaily in asthma. Stem bark—hypoglycaemic.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaindicated the use of the seed in hypertension,insomnia, psychoneurosisand mental diseases.The fruits contain palmitic, isopalmitic,linoleic and myristic acids.Leaves gave alkaloids—rudrakine, (+)-elacocarpine and (+)-iso-elacocarpine;

Eleocharis dulcis Trin. 233phenolics—quercetin, gallic acid andellagic acid. EtOH (50%) extract ofstem bark—hypoglycaemic. Aqueousextract of fruits—sedative, hypotensive,spasmolytic, anticonvulsant,choleretic, bronchodilatory andcardiostimulant.The fruit of E. oblongus Mast. non-Gaertn., synonym E. glandulosus Wall.ex Merrill (Western Ghats) is used inmental disorders and tetanus.Dosage ◮ Seed—1–2 g. (API Vol. IV.)Elaeocarpus serratus Linn.Synonym ◮ E. cuneatus Wt.Family ◮ Elaeocarpaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas andWestern Ghats up to 1,000 m.English ◮ Wild Olive tree, CeylonOlive.Ayurvedic ◮ Rudraaksha (var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Uttraccham,Ulankarei.Action ◮ Leaf—antirheumatic.Fruit—antidysenteric. Aerialparts—CVS and CNS active.The leaves gave ellagic acid, myricitrin,myricetin and mearnsetin. Fruitpulp gave citric acid and D-galactose.It contains pectin (2.57% fresh weightbasis).Elaeocarpus tuberculatus Roxb.Family ◮ Elaeocarpaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats fromKanara southwards.Ayurvedic ◮ Rudraaksha (var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ruthracham,Pagumbar.Folk ◮ Rudirak, Bhutali.Action ◮ Bark—stomachic, antibilious.Used in haematemesis. Nut—antiepileptic, antirheumatic.The leaves gave quercetin, kaempferol,gallic acid and ethylgallate.Elaeodendron glaucum Pers.Synonym ◮ Cassine glauca (Rottb.)Ktze.Family ◮ Celastraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, alsoplanted as an ornamental.Ayurvedic ◮ Krishnamokshaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Selluppaimaram.Folk ◮ Kaalaa-mokhaa, Ratangaruur.Jamrasi (gum).Action ◮ Astringent, antiinflammatory,emetic.The bark and the leaves contain 8–13.5 and 8–15% tannin respectively.Powdered leaves have a sternutatoryaction and are used as snuff to relieveheadache and as a fumigatory in hysteria(in folk medicine it is believed thatthe smoke wards off ghosts.)Fresh root bark is rubbed into a pastewith water and applied to swellings.A cold water extract of the crushedrootsisusedasanemetic(fatalinoverdoses).Eleocharis dulcis Trin.Synonym ◮ E. plantaginea R. Br.E. tuberosa Schult.E

234 Elephantopus scaber Linn.EFamily ◮Cyperaceae.Habitat ◮ Widely cultivated in China.Sold in Kolkata under the nameSingapuri Keysur.English ◮ Chinese Water Chestnut.Ayurvedic ◮ Shringaataka (substitute),Kasheruka (substitute).Action ◮ Tuber—antidysenteric,antileucorrhoeic, antibacterial.The juice expressed from the tubershows antibiotic activity againstStaphylococcus aureus, E. coli and Aerobacteraerogenes. The antibiotic principlehas been designated as puchiin.In ethanolic extract, hexacosanoicacid, 5 alpha-stigmastane-3, 6-dione,betulin and tricin were present. It alsocontained beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol.applied to ulcers and eczema.Roots—given to patients withheart and liver affections; topicallyin rheumatism. Root and leaf—used in dysuria and other urethralcomplaints. An infusion of thewhole plant is used to stimulatediuresis, reduce fever and toeliminate bladder stones. Thedecoctionisalsousedinpepticulcers, swelling or pain in stomach.Plant is also used in piles andscabies.The plant contains germacranolidedilactones. Hydroxylated germacanolides,molephantin and molephantinin,exhibited cytotoxic and antitumourproperties.The plant also gave epifriedelanol,lupeol, stigmasterol, triacontan-l-oland dotriacontan-l-ol.Elephantopus scaber Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout warmer partsof India.Ayurvedic ◮ Mayura-shikhaa,Gojihvaa. (Actinopteris dichotomaBedd. and Celosia cristata Linn. arealso used as Mayura-shikhaa.Anchusa strigosa Lebill., and otherBoraginaecae sp. are used asGojihvaa.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Yaanaichhuvadi.Folk ◮ Mayurjuti, Maaraajuti.Action ◮ Plant—astringent, cardiactonic, diuretic, mucilaginous,emmolient (used in dysuria,diarrhoea, dysentery. Leaves—Elettaria cardamomum Maton.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated either as pureplantation crop, or as subsidiaryto coffee and arecanut in hillyforests regions of Western Ghatsin Karnataka and Kerala, and inparts of Madurai, the Nilgiris andTirunelveli in Tamil Nadu.English ◮ Lesser Cardamom.Ayurvedic ◮ Elaa, Sukshmailaa,Kshudrailaa, Bhrngaparnikaa,Tutthaa, Draavidi, Prithvikaa,Triputaa, Truti, Upkunchikaa.Unani ◮ Heel Khurd.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Yelakkai, Ilam.Folk ◮ Ilaayachi.

Eleusine coracana Gaertn. 235Action ◮ Carminative antiemetic,stomachic, orexigenic, anti-gripe,antiasthmatic, bechic, Oil—antispasmodic, antiseptic. Used forflatulence, loss of appetite, colic,bronchitis, asthma. Paste usedas balm for headache, husk forrheumatism.Key application ◮ In dyspepsia;also as cholagogue. (GermanCommission E.)The seeds yield an essential oil (6–11% dry basis). The major constituentsare, 1,8-cineole and alpha-terpinylacetate,with limonene, alpha-terpineol,sabinene and linalool. The seeds containpalmitic and oleic as dominant fattyacids, besides linoleic and linolenicacids, along with alpha-tocopherol,desmosterol and campesterol.The extracts of cardamom causea significant decrease in gastric secretionafter 3 h of treatment. The effect ofmethanol extract is primarily observedas decreased pepsin output.Terpineol and acetylterpineol, theactive principles of cardamom seeds,showed greater penetration enhancingcapacities than Azone which wasused as a comparative penetrationenhancer for the diffusion of Prednisolonethrough mouse skin in vitro.Volatile components exhibit antimicrobialactivity. The oil inhibits aflatoxinsynthesis.The cardamom seed can trigger gallstonecolic (spasmodic pain) and isnot recommended for self-medicationin patients with gallstone. (GermanCommission E, PDR, Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)Dosage ◮ Seed of dried fruit—1–2 gpowder. (API Vol I.)Eleusine coracana Gaertn.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ A grain crop of Karnataka;alsogrownonlargescaleinTamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh andMaharashtra.English ◮ Finger Millet, Africanmillet, Ragi.Ayurvedic ◮ Madhuuli, Markatahasta-trna.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ragi, Kezhvaregu.Action ◮ Seeds—cooling, astringent.Nutritive value of ragi is higherthan that of rice and equal to thatof wheat. White ragi is superior tothe pigmented type. A nourishingfood for infants, growing children,expectant mothers and aged people.Ragi is considered an ideal food fordiabetics because of slow release ofsugars to the body. A decoction ofleaves and stems is drunk to easevaginal bleeding.The protein content of ragi is 8–13%, with P 250, Fe 7.6, thiamine 0.18—and riboflavin 0.1 mg/100 g. Ragi hashigh glycemic index value. It reducedplasma cholesterol, total serum cholesteroland LDL cholesterol by 9% each,and triglycerides by 15%, and increasedHDL cholesterol, thus exhibited a significantbeneficial effect on plasma profile.The lipemic index for ragi is 55,taking isocaloric wheat-supplementedbackground diet (control) at 100.E

236 Eleusine indica Gaertin.EEleusine indica Gaertin.Family ◮Gramineae, Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Australia, North America;throughout the warmer parts of theworld. In India, in wet plains andlow hills and pasture grounds.English ◮ Crowfoot Grass, CrabGrass.Ayurvedic ◮ Nandimukha (var.).Folk ◮ Nandiaa (Orissa), MahaarNaachni (Maharashtra), ThippaRagi (Tamil Nadu).Action ◮ Used for biliary disorders.In Vietnamese traditional medicine,a decoction of the whole plantis used as stomachic, diuretic,febrifuge, and in sprains.Aerial parts contain vitexin, 3-Obeta-D-glucopyranosyl-beta-sitosteroland its 6 ′ -O-palmitoyl derivatives.Elsholtzia cristata Willd.Synonym ◮ E. ciliata (Thunb.)Hyland.Perilla polystachya D. Don.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas and Assamup to 3,000 m, introduced into theNilgiris (Tamil Nadu).Ayurvedic ◮ Ajagandhaa (controversialsynonym).Folk ◮ Ban-Tulasi, Bovai, Phoot-Kanda.Action ◮ Carminative, stomachic,astringent. Leaf—diuretic, antipyretic.Neutralizes after effectsof intoxication. Used for abdominalpains, nausea, bleeding nose.Fresh plants from Uttaranchalgave 0.4% essential oil havingdehydroelsholtzia ketone 88.7% asthe main constituent, followed byhumulene 2.4% and caryophyllene0.9% (the oil composition of thespecies which grow in Japan andKashmir is different.)Plant contains linarin, apigenin and7-O-glucosides of apigenin and luteolin.The Japanese species, used for hangovers,gave compounds including triterpenoids,steroids and flavonoids.Elsholtzia blenda Benth., synonymPerilla elata D. Don, is also equatedwith Ban-Tulasi. Major constituentof the essential oil is geranyl acetate.Other constituents are p-cymene, sabinene,borneol, geraniol, linalyl acetate,fernesol, limonene, linalool, citronellol,thymol and nerolidol.Elytraria crenata Vahl.Synonym ◮ E. acaulis Lindau.Tubiflora acaulis Kuntze.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ The Deccan Peninsula,extending northwards to easternHimalayas.Folk ◮ Patharchattaa, Dasmori. (Alsoknown as Shat-muuli.)Action ◮ Leaves—decoction prescribedin fever, also in venerealdiseases. Root—used in mammarytumours and abscesseses, pneumoniaand infantile diarrhoea. Plant

Embelia robusta C. B. Clarke, non-Roxb. 237infusion is used as a cough remedyfor infants.Embelia ribes Burm. f.Family ◮Habitat ◮English ◮Myrsinaceae.Throughout India.Embelia.Ayurvedic ◮ Vidanga, Krmighna,Krmihara, Krmiripu, Chitratandula,Jantughna, Jantunaashana, Vella,Amogha.Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Baobarang, Barang Kaabuli.Vaayuvidangam.Action ◮ Ascaricidal, anthelmintic,carminative, diuretic, astringent,anti-inflammatory, antibacterial,febrifuge. Used in diseases of chestand skin. Active principles arefound to be oestrogenic and weaklyprogestogenic. Root—bechic,antidiarrhoeal. Seed—spermicidal,oxytocic, diuretic. The plant isalso used for its blood purifyingproperties. It is an ingredientin cough syrups, preparationsfor anaemia, genitourinary tractinfections, diarrhoea and diseasesof the liver.Embelin, isolated from the berries,shows significant anti-implantationand post-coital antifertility activity.(Successful trials have been carried outat the National Institute of Immunology,New Delhi on human beings.) Itis found to be a potential male antifertilityagent. Spermatogenesis has beenimpaired and sperm count reduced tothe level of infertility. The antispermatogenicchanges are found to bereversible without any toxic effects.Aqueous and EtOH extract of thefruit—anthelmintic against earthworms.Fruit powder (200 mg/kg),taken with curd on empty stomach,expelled tapeworm within 6–24 h.The treatment was also found effectivein giardiasis. EtOH (50%) ofthe plant was found slightly activeagainst E.coli. Di-salts of embelin—anthelmintic.Amino salts exhibited lessside effects than embelin. The effect ofdi-isobutyl amino derivatives lasted upto 10 h, also showed anti-inflammatory,hypotensive and antipyretic activities.Berries gave quinones—embelin, rapanone,homoembelin, homorapnoneand vilangin.Dosage ◮ Fruit—5–10 g powder.(API Vol. I.)Embelia robustaC. B. Clarke, non-Roxb.Synonym ◮ E. tsjeriam-cottam A.DC.Family ◮ Myrsinaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout greater part ofIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Vidanga (allied species)Substitute for Embelia ribes.Folk ◮ Baayabirang.Action ◮ Fruit—antispasmodic,carminative, anthelmintic, antibacterial.Powdered fruit—used indysentery. Plant—used in weakpulse rate.E

238 Emblica officinalis Gaertn.EEtOH (50%) extract of aerial partsexhibit slightly hypotensive activity.Stem contains embelin. See Embeliaribes.Emblica officinalis Gaertn.Synonym ◮ Phyllanthus emblicaLinn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical SoutheastAsia; distributed throughout India;also planted in public parks.English ◮ Emblic, Indian gooseberry.Ayurvedic ◮ Aaamalaki, Aaamalaka,Dhaatri, Kaayasthaa, Amoghaa,Amritaphala, Amla, Aaamalaa,Dhaatriphala, Vayasyaa, Vrshya,Shiva, Hattha.Unani ◮ Aamalaa, Amlaj.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nellikkaai, Nelli.Action ◮ Fruit—antianaemic, anabolic,antiemetic, bechic, astringent,antihaemorrhagic, antidiarrhoeal,diuretic, antidiabetic, carminative,antioxidant. Used in jaundice,dyspepsia, bacillary dysentery, eyetrouble and as a gastrointestinaltonic. Juice with turmeric powderand honey is prescribed in diabetesinsipidus. Seed—antibilious, antiasthmatic.Used in bronchitis.Bark—astringent. Leaf—juice isgiven in vomiting.A decoction of powdered pericarpis prescribed for paptic ulcer.Key application ◮ As an antacid.(Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeia.).The fruit is an important source ofvitamin C, minerals and amino acids.The edible fruit tissue contains proteinconcentration threefold and vitamin C(ascorbic acid) concentration 160-foldthan those of apple. The fruit alsocontains considerably higher concentrationof most minerals and aminoacids than apple.The fruit gave cytokinine-like substancesidentified as zeatin, zeatin ribosideand zeatin nucleotide; suspensionculture gave phyllembin. Phyllembinexhibits CNS depressant and spasmolyticactivity, potentiates action ofadrenaline and hypnotic action ofNembutal.The leaves contain gallic acid (10.8mg/g dry basis), besides ascorbic andmusic acid. The methanol extract ofthe leaves is found to be effective in ratpaw inflammation.The bark contains tannin identifiedas mixed type of proanthocyanidin.The fruit contains superoxide dismutase482.14 units/g fresh weight andexhibits antisenescent (anti-aging) activity.Fruit, juice, its sediment andresidue are antioxidant due to gallicacid. EtOH (50%) extract—antiviral.Aqueous extract of the fruit increasescardiac glycogen level and decreasesserum GOT, GPT and LDH in rats havinginduced myocardial necrosis.Preliminary evidence suggests thatthe fruit and its juice may lower serumcholesterol, LDL, triglycerides andphospholipids without affecting HDLlevels and may have positive effect onatherosclerosis. (Eur J clin Nutr, 42,1988, 939–944; Phytother Res, 14, 2000,592–595.)

Enicostemma littorale auct. non-Bl. 239An aqueous extract of the fruit hasbeen reported to provide protectionagainst radiation-induced chromosomaldamage in both pre-and postirradiationtreatment. The fruit is reportedto enhance natural killer cell activityand antibody dependent cellularcytotoxicity in mice bearing Dalton’slymphoma ascites tumour. The extractof the fruit and ascorbic acid preventedhepatotoxic and nephrotoxic effectsinduced by lead and aluminium.The toxicity could be counteracted toa great extent by the fruit extract thanby an amount of ascorbic acid aloneequivalent to that contained in fruits.(The fruit can be used as a dietarysupplement to counteract prolongedexposure to metals in population inindustrial areas.)The fruits are reported to activatetrypsin (proteolytic enzyme) activity.The fruits can be used as coagulantin the treatment of water and can purifylow turbidity water.The fruits can be consumed safelyall round the year.Dosage ◮ Fresh fruit—10–20 g; pulpjuice—5–10 ml. (API Vol. I.)Emilia sonchifolia (L.) DC.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,ascending to 1,350 m in the hills.Ayurvedic ◮ Shash-shruti (nonclassical).Unani ◮ Hirankhuri.Folk ◮ Sadamandi.Action ◮ Plant—sudorific, febrifuge,antiseptic. Used in infantiletympanitis and bowel complaints.Root—antidiarrhoeal. Leaf—usedfor otitis media under medicalsupervision.The aerial parts contain pyrrolizidinealkaloids, senkirkine and doronine.Presence of simiaral, beta-sitosterol,stigmasterol, palmitic and triacontannicacids is also reported.Enhydra fluctuans Lour.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Hills of Bihar, West Bengaland Assam.English ◮ Marsh Herb, Water Cress.Ayurvedic ◮ Hil-mochikaa.Folk ◮ Harakuch.Action ◮ Leaf—antibilious, laxative,demulcent, antidermatosis. Used indyspepsia, diseases of the nervoussystem and cutaneous affections.The plant is a good source of betacarotene(3.7–4.2 mg/100 g fresh basis)which is lost during cooking. Used asaleafyvegetable.Enicostemma littoraleauct. non-Bl.Synonym ◮ E. hyssopifolium (Willd)I. C. Verdoorn.E. axillare (Lam.) Raynal.Exacum hyssopifolium Willd.Adenema hyssopifolium G. Don.Family ◮ Gentianaceae.E

240 Entada scandens auct. non-Benth.EHabitat ◮ Throughout India, fromPunjab and Gangetic Plain toKanyakumari up to 500 m.English ◮ Indian Gentian.Ayurvedic ◮ Naagjhvaa, Maamajjaka,Naahi, Tikshnapatra.Unani ◮ Naai, Naahi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellargu.Folk ◮ Chhotaa Chirayataa.Action ◮ Bitter tonic, carminative,blood purifier, antirheumatic,anti-inflammatory, antipsychotic,anthelmintic, cardiostimulant.The plant is used as a substitutefor Swertia chirayita, andisreportedto be effective against malaria. Theplant contains ophelic acid which isalso present in chiretta as a hydrolyticproduct of chiratin. The root extractshowed antimalarial activity both invitro and in vivo.Whole plant gave alkaloids—gentianine,erythrocentaurin, enicoflavineand gentiocrucine; flavonoids—apigenin,genkwanin iso-vitaxin, swertisin,saponarin and 5-O-glucosidederivatives of sylwertisin and isoswertisin;glucosides—swertiamarin, a triterpenebetulin. Swertisiode exhibitedhypotensive activity.The plant extracts inhibited carrageenan-inducedoedema and its antiinflammatoryactivity was found comparableto that of hydrocortisone.Enicostema verticellatum Blume, thesmallar var. of Kiryaata, is also equatedwith Vellargu (Siddha/Tamil).Dosage ◮ Whole plant—3–5 gpowder; 50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Entada scandensauct. non-Benth.Synonym ◮ E. phaseoloides Merrill.E. pursaetha DC.Mimosa entada Linn.Family ◮ Momosaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, hills ofBihar, Orissa and South India.English ◮ Garbee Bean, MackayBean, Elephant Creeper.Ayurvedic ◮ Gil.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chillu, Vattavalli.Folk ◮ Gil-gaachh.Action ◮ Seed—carminative,anodyne, spasmolytic bechic,anti-inflammatory, anthelmintic,antiperiodic. Used in liver complaints,glandular swellings, debility,skin diseases. The seed, stemsand bark are poisonous. A pasteof the seeds is applied locally forinflammatory glandular swellings.The juice of wood and bark is usedas an external application for ulcers.The leaves are reported to be freefrom the toxic saponins. Aftersoaking in water and roasting toxicprinciples can be removed from thewhite kernels of the seeds.The seeds gave saponins of entagenicacid; a triterpenoid glucoside entanin;beta-sitosterol, alpha-amyrin, quercetin,gallic acid, cyamidin chloride, lupeoland a saponin mixture which gaveprosapogenin A. Entanin exhibits antitumouractivity. It inhibits Walker 256tumours in rats without deaths.Entadamide A (the sulphur-containingamide from the seed) is a 5-lipo-

Equisetum arvense Linn. 241xygenase inhibitor and is found to beeffective in the treatment of bronchialasthma. The bark is used for hair wash.Entagenic acid, a sapogenin of entadasaponin IV, imparts antifungal activityto the bark.Ephedra gerardianaWall. ex Stapf.Family ◮ Ephedraceae.Habitat ◮ The drier regions of thetemperate and alpine Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Sikkim from 2,350to 5,350 m.English ◮ Ephedra (Ephedra sinicaStapf.)Ayurvedic ◮ Soma, Soma-valli(substitute).Folk ◮ Asmaaniyaa, Budaagur(Punjab); Tipat, Traani (Himalayanregion).Action ◮ Circulatory stimulant, bronchodilator,vasodilator, antiallergic,antiasthmatic (usualy given withexpectorants), diaphoretic. Notprescribed with antidepressants.Key application ◮ Ephedra sinica—in diseases of the respiratory tractandmildbronchospasms.Alsoinacute coryza, allergic rhinitis andsinusitis. (German Commission E.)In the treatment of nasal congestiondue to hay fever, allergic rhinitis,acute coryza, cold, sinusitis and asabronchodilator.(WHO.)Contraindicated in anxiety, restlessness,high blood pressure, glucoma,impaired circulation of the cerebrum,adenoma of prostate with residualurine accumulation, pheochromocytoma,thyrotoxicosis. (German CommissionE.)Ephedra is official in the nationalpharmacopoeias of China, Japan andGermany. The herb is listed in AyurvedicPharmacopoeia. Onlyitsisolatedderivatives, ephedrine and ephedrinehydrochloride are official in IndianPharmacopoeia.Ephedrine is toxic at more than300 mg in 1 day (Francis Brinker.)Aerial parts yielded ephedrine andephedroxane. Pseudoephedrine is themost active anti-inflammatory principleof Ephedra sp., it exhibited inhibitoryaction on a number of acute inflammations.Ephedroxane possessesa minor anti-inflammatory principle.Among the Indian species, Ephedramajor, found in Lahul, contains over2.56% alkaloids of which nearly threefourths is ephidrine. Ephedra gerardianacontains 1.22% total alkaloidsand 0.68% ephedrine.On 30 December 2003, the FDAbanned ephedra products in the US.Equisetum arvense Linn.Family ◮ Equisetaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas at highaltitudes.English ◮ Field Horsetail.Ayurvedic ◮ Ashwa-puchha (nonclassical).Action ◮ Haemostatic, haemopoietic,astringent, diuretic. Used for genitourinaryaffections (urethritis,enuresis, cystitis, prostatitis),E

242 Erigeron canadensis Linn.Einternally as an antihaemorrhagicand externally as a styptic.The ashes of the plant are beneficialin acidity of the stomach and dyspepsia.Key application ◮ Internally in irrigationtherapy for post-traumaticand static inflammation, and forbacterial infections and inflammationof the lower urinary tract andrenal gravel.The British Herbal Compendium reportedweak diuretic, haemostyptic,vulnerary and mild leukocytosis causingactions.The haemostatic substance has beenshown to act orally, it has no effect onblood pressure and is not a vasoconstrictor.The herb contains 10–20% minerals,of which over 66% are silicicacids and silicates; alkaloids, includingnicotine, palustrine and palustrinine;flavonoids, such as iso-quercitrin andequicertin; sterols, including cholesterol,isofucosterol, campesterol; a saponinequisitonin, dimethyl-sulphone,thiaminase and aconitic acid. Diureticaction of the herb is attributed toits flavonoid and saponin constituents,Silicic acid strengthens connective tissueand helps in healing bones.Erigeron canadensis Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Upper GangeticPlain, Assam, Western Ghats andWestern Himalayas.English ◮ Canadian Fleabane.Ayurvedic ◮ Jaraayupriya,Makshikaa-visha, Palit (nonclassical).Action ◮ Astringent, haemostatic,antirheumatic, diuretic. Usedfor diarrhoea, kidney disorders,bronchitis and for bleeding piles,wounds, bruises. Essential oil—used in bronchial catarrh andcystitis.The extracts of the plant gave sesquiterpenes,beta-santalen, beta-himachalene,cuparene, alpha-curcumene,gamma-cadinene.The petroleum ether and ethanolicextracts of aerial parts exhibit significantanti-inflammatory activity.Aqueous extract of powdered plantproduces fall in blood pressure, depressesthe heart and increases respirationin animals.The essential oil, obtained from aerialpartsinJapan,isfoundtocontain47volatile compounds of which 91.0% areterpenoids. The leaves contain cumulenederivatives.For preparing plant extract as a drug,the volatile oil is removed from a hotaqueousextractandtheresidueisfilteredand concentrated to 24% or 60%of dry matter content. The 6% drymatter extract contains flavones 0.83,tannins 0.52, reducing sugars 6.37 andtotal sugars 12.6%. The extract is antiinflammatory,analgesic, bactericidaland fungicidal.Eriobotrya japonica Lindl.Family ◮Rosaceae.

Eruca sativa Mill. 243Habitat ◮ Native to China; nowcultivated mainly in Saharanpur,Dehradun, Muzaffarnagar, Meerut,Kanpur, Bareilly districts of UttarPradesh, Amritsar, Gurdaspur andHoshiarpur districts of Punjab.English ◮ Loquat, Japanese Medlar.Ayurvedic ◮ Lottaaka (non-classical).Unani ◮ Lokaat.Siddha ◮ Ilakotta, Nokkotta (Tamil).Action ◮ Leaves—used in China andIndia for the treatment of diabetesmellitus and skin diseases. Fruit—sedative, antiemetic. Flower—expectorant.The plant contains lipopolysaccharides(LPS), which exhibit antirheumaticactivity. LPS is also found usefulfor treating diabetes mellitus andlowering high cholesterol level. Theethanolic extract of the leaves showedanti-inflammatory activity on carrageenan-inducedoedema in rats andsignificant hypoglycaemic effect innormal rabbits like the standard drugtolbutamide. The sesquiterpene glycosideand polyhydroxylated triterpenoidsshowed a marked inhibition ofglycosuria in genetically diabetic mice;also reduced blood glucose level in normoglycaemicrats. The hypoglycaemiceffect is mediated through the releaseof insulin from pancreatic beta cells.The leaves gave ionone-derived glycosidesand triterpenes. Maslinic andursolic acids have also been isolated.Maslinic acid possesses significantanti-inflammatory activity. It also exhibitsinhibitory effect on histamineinducedcontraction in isolated ileumof guinea pig.Hot aqueous extract of the leavesshowed hepatoprotective activity experimentally.The leaves yield an essential oil containingnerolidol (61–74%).The presence of an antifungal compound,eriobofuran, is also reported.The methanolic extract of the plantexhibits antioxidant and radical scavengingactivity.Eruca sativa Mill.Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in UttarPradesh, Punjab, Delhi and MadhyaPradesh.English ◮ Rocket-Salad.Ayurvedic ◮ Tuvari, Tuvarikaa,Shveta-sursaa, Bhuutaghna, Daradharsha,Siddaartha.Unani ◮ Jirjeer, Taraamiraa.Folk ◮ Safed Sarson.Action ◮ Tender leaf—stimulant,stomachic, diuretic, antiscorbutic,rubefacient. Seed—vesicant,antibacterial.Seeds and fresh plant gave glucoerucin(4-methylthiobutyl glucosinolate);leaves yielded iso-rhamnetin-3-glucoside and iso-rhamnetin. Thevolatile oil of the seeds contains isothiocyanatederivatives. The oil at 0.004and 0.008 ml/kg exhibits diuretic activity.The ethanolic extract of the seedsis diuretic at 20 and 40 mg/kg Seedsare used to induce vomiting in place ofipecac.Crude juice of the plant inhibited E.coli, S. typhi and B. subttis.E

244 Ervataemia coronaria staff.EFor eating purposes, the plantshould be gathered before flowering;for medicinal use when in flower.Ervataemia coronaria staff.Synonym ◮ E. divaricata (L.) Alston.Tabernaemontana coronaria R.Br.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the sub-Himalayan tract from Garhwaleastwards to Assam and Bengal,extending southwards to NorthCircars.English ◮ East Indian Rosebay.Ayurvedic ◮ Nandivrksha, Tagar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nandiyaavattam.Action ◮ Topically anodyne; chewedfor relief of toothache; administeredas a vermicide. Various parts of theplant are used in the indigenoussystem of medicine for skin diseasesand cancer.The plant from Sri Lanka and Pakistancontains several indole alkaloids,including voacristine.Isovoacristic hydrochloride causedbradycardia in frogs and rabbits. Thedecoction of leaves exhibits antihypertensiveand diuretic activity. Tabersonine,reported in the flowers, showed hypotensiveeffect on anaesthetized cats.The most abundant alkaloids instem cortex are tabernaemontanine,dregamine and 20-epi ervatamine.Erycibe paniculata Roxb.Family ◮Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,commoninUttarPradesh.Ayurvedic ◮ Ashoka-rohini (nonclassical).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Unamkodi.Action ◮ Bark—anticholerin. Ripefruit eaten in constipation. Poundedroot prescribed internally in fever.Bark is used in cholera.EtOH (50%) extract of aerial partsexhibit diuretic and hypotensive activity.Eryngium caeruleum Bieb.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir and WesternHimalayas.Folk ◮ Pahaari Gaajar, Dudhali(Punjab), Saleli-misri.Action ◮ Root—nervine, stimulant,haematinic, diuretic, diaphoretic,expectorant. Ash of the plant—antiseptic, anti-inflammatory (usedin haemorrhoids).Leaves and flowers contain d-mannitol.Underground parts yield saponins.Eryngium foetidum Linn.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam up to 1,700 m,found as a garden plant in DehraDun.English ◮ Sea Holly.

Erythrina indica Lam. 245Folk ◮ Brahma-Dhaniyaa, JangaliGaajar (var.).Action ◮ Root—stomachic. Plant—galactagogue, diuretic. Freshleaves are used as a vegetable andflavouring agent.Hot aqueous extract of the plantpossesses anticonvulsant property. Theethanolic extract (50%) of aerial partsshowed cardiovascular, diuretic andantistrychnine activity. The plant isCVS an CNS active and hypothermic.Sea Holly, found in sandy soils nearthe sea in Britain and Europe, is equatedwith Eryngium maritimum Linn.The root possesses diuretic and antiinflammatoryproperties and is usedfor urinary tract infections (urethritis,cystitis, polyurea, renal colic, prostaticaffections).The root gave coumarins, saponins,flavonoids, plant acids and polyphenolicacids. Saponins are haemolytic,rosmarinic acid is known for its antiinflammatoryactivity.Erythraea roxburghii G. Don.Synonym ◮ Centaurium roxburghii(G. Don) Druce.Family ◮ Gentianaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-tropical and temperateregions.Ayurvedic ◮ Kiraat-tikta (relatedspecies), Yavatiktaa (related species)(A substitute for Swertia chirayita.)Folk ◮ Khet-chiraayataa.Action ◮ Bitter tonic.Key application ◮ Erythraea centaurium—inloss of appetite andpeptic discomfort. (GermanCommission E.)Erythrina indica Lam.Synonym ◮ E. variegata Linn. var.orientalis (Linn.) Merril.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Grownasanornamental.English ◮ Indian Coral tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Paaribhadra, Paaribhadraka,Paarijaataka, Mandaara,Dadap. Kantaki-palaasha, Kantkimshuka,Raktapushpa; Nimbataru.(Erythrina suberosa Roxb. isalso equated with Paaribhadra.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaliyanamurukkan.Folk ◮ Farhad.Action ◮ Leaf—cathartic, diuretic,antiseptic, anti-inflammatory.Applied externally for dispersingvenereal buboes. Bark—antibilious,anthelmintic, febrifuge, astringent,expectorant. (E. variegata is anadulterant to the Ayurvedic drugRohitaka.) Different parts ofthe plant are used as nervinesedative, antiepileptic, astringent,antiasthmatic and antiseptic. Barkis used in liver ailments, fever andrheumatism.A number of tetracyclic alkaloidshave been isolated from the plant.The alkaloids showed a muscle relaxantactivity and increased the sedativeeffects of hexabarbital. The alkaloidsextracted from the leaves are re-E

246 Erythrina stricta Roxb.Eported to have anti-inflammatory activity.Bark alkaloids are neuromuscularblocking, smooth muscle relaxant,CNS depressant, hydrocholereticand anticonvulsant. The bark contains0.05% alkaloids.The root extracts exhibited antimicrobialactivity in vitro against Staphylococcusaureus and Mycobacteriumsmegmatis.The seeds of many of the speciesof Erythrina contain alkaloids withcurare-like activity. Clinical trials onbiologically standardized beta-erythroidinehydrochloride and dihydrobeta-erythroidinehydrochloride haveshown promising results in the treatmentof conditions involving certaintypes of muscular rigidity.Dosage ◮ Stem bark—6–12 g powder;12–24 g for decoction. (API Vol. II.)Erythrina stricta Roxb.Family ◮Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, Manipur, WestBengal and South India.Ayurvedic ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Muraa (controversial).Mullu-murukku.Action ◮ Bark—antibilious, antirheumatic,febrifuge, antiasthmatic,antiepileptic, antileprotic.Flowers—antidote to poison. InAssam, the juice of the root barkisgiventochildreninthreadworminfection.The plant gave tetracyclic alkaloids—(+)-erythraline and (+)-erythrinine.Erythroxylum coca Lam.Family ◮ Erythroxylaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenus to Peruand Bolivia, introduced andexperimentally cultivated in Assam,West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,Tamil Nadu and Kerala.English ◮ Coca, Cocaine Plant.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivadari.Action ◮ Mydriatic and toxic. (Cocaleaf extract, after removing cocaine,is used as a flavouring agent forsoft drinks. Maximum use level:0.055%.)Coca leaves contain a large numberof alkaloids including cocaine, tropacocaine,cinnamoylcocaine, truxillinesand benzoylecgonine. (alkaloid contentvaries from 0.5 to 1.5%). The barkand seeds also contain cocaine.Coca is subject to restrictions inmost countries.Not to be confused with Cocoa seed(Theobroma cacao.)Erythroxylum monogynumRoxb.Synonym ◮ E. indicum (DC.) Bedd.Family ◮ Erythroxylaceae.Habitat ◮ South India, up to 1,000 m.English ◮ Bastard Sandal, Red Cedar.Ayurvedic ◮ Kattuchandanam(Kerala).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Devadaram.Folk ◮ Gandh-giri (Maharashtra).

Eugenia uniflora Linn. 247Action ◮ Leaf—diaphoretic, stimulant,diuretic, stomachic. A decoctionis used for malarial fever. Barkand wood—febrifuge.The wood yields diterpenes, includingmonogynol, OH-ogynol, devadarool;d-hibaene, its epoxide and anolefinic hydrocarbon.Biological activity of the plant is hypothermicand CNS active.Eucalyptus globules Labill.Family ◮ Myrtaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Australia; nowcultivated mainly at the hill-stationsof India.English ◮ Blue-Gum tree, AustralianGum tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Tilaparna, Tailaparna,Sugandhapatra, Haritaparna Neelaniryaasa,Tribhandi, Triputaa, Saralaa,Suvahaa, Rechani, Nishotraa.Unani ◮ Neelgiri oil.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karpooramaram.Action ◮ Essential oil from leaves—antiseptic, antibiotic, antiviral,antifungal, antispasmodic, decongestant,antiasthmatic, expectorant,antirheumatic, diaphoretic. Usedin chronic, bronchitis, migraine,congestive headache, neuralgia andague, as an inhalant or internalmedicine. Root—purgative.Key application ◮ Leaf tea for catarrhsof the respiratory tract. Oil usedexternally for rheumatic complaints,contraindicated internally ininflammatory diseases of thegastrointestinal tract, bile ducts, andin severe liver diseases. (GermanCommission E.) Oil—internallyas adjuvant treatment of chronicobstructive respiratory complaints,including bronchitis and bronchialasthma, also for symptomatic reliefof colds and catarrh of the upperrespiratory tract; externally forsymptomatic treatment of colds andrheumatic complaints. (ESCOP.)Leaf—antiseptic. (The BritishHerbal Pharmacopoeia.)E. globulus is the main commercialsource of Eucalyptus leaf oil; yield is2.12%; 1,8-cineole exceeds 70% (pharmaceuticalgrade oil requires a minimumcineole content of 70%).Several potent euglobals, havingclosely related acyl-phloroglucinolmonoterpene(or sesquiterpene) structures,are isolated from the leavesand flower buds. These compoundsshowed strong granulation-inhibitingactivity and inhibition of TPA inducedEBV (Epstein-Barr Virus) activation.Phloroglucin derivatives, isolatedfrom leaves, showed better anti-inflammatoryactivity than indomethacin.Natural antioxidants have also beenisolated from the plant.Dosage ◮ Leaf—50–100 ml infusion.(CCRAS.)Eugenia uniflora Linn.Family ◮ Myrtaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South America;cultivated in gardens; nownaturalized in some parts of In-E

248 Eulaliopsis binata (Retz.)C.E.Hubbard.Edia at medium elevations undersub-tropical conditions.English ◮ Pitaanga, Surinam Cherry.Action ◮ Fruit—used as a sourceof carotenoids (225.9 mcg/g)and provitamin A (991 RE/100g).Leaves—diuretic, antirheumatic,antifebrile. Used for lowering bloodpressure, blood cholesterol, uricacid level, also for reducing bodyweight. Essential oil— digestive,carminative.The leaves gave flavonoids, quercitrin,quercetin, myricitrin and myricetinas major constituents.The bark contains 28.5% tannins.Eulaliopsis binata(Retz.) C. E. Hubbard.Synonym ◮ Pollinidium angustifoliumHaines.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Many parts of North India.English ◮ Baib grass, Sabai grass.Ayurvedic ◮ Balvaja.Folk ◮ Bhaabar.Action ◮ Diuretic. Used for treatinglithiasis.EtOH (50%) extract of the plant issasmogenic.Eulophia campestris Wall.Family ◮ Orchidaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout greater part ofIndia, mostly in the plains.Ayurvedic ◮ Amrita, Sudhaa-muuli,Munjaataka (Salep var.) Saalammisri(substitute). Munjaataka andSaalam-misri have been equatedwith Orchis latifolia Linn. of thesame family.Action ◮ Tubers—used in stamatitis,purulent cough and as a cardiacand nervine tonic. Also used inscrofulous diseases and dyscrasia.Used a substitute for Salep.Eulophia herbacea Lindl.Family ◮ Orchidaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas,Bengal and Western parts of DeccanPeninsula.English ◮ Salep (var.).Ayurvedic ◮ Munjaataka (substitute),Saalam-misri (substitute).Action ◮ Tubers—used as a substitutefor Salep.Eulophia nuda Lindl.Family ◮ Orchidaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas fromNepal eastward to Assam, and inDeccan from Konkan southwards.Ayurvedic ◮ Baalakanda, Amarkanda,Maalaakanda.Folk ◮ Ambarkanda (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Tubers—used for bronchitis,diseases due to vitiated blood,tumours, scrofulous glands. Alsoused as vermifuge.

Eupatorium cannabinum Linn. 249The tubers yield two phenanthrenederivatives, eulophiol and nudol, alongwith n-hexacosyl alcohol and lupeol.Eulophia pratensis Lindl.Synonym ◮ E. ramentaceae Lindl. exWt.Family ◮ Orchidaceae.Habitat ◮ Pasture lands of Deccanfrom Konkan southwards.English ◮ Salep (var.).Folk ◮ Sataavari (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Tuber—used for scrofulousglands.Euonymus tingens Wall.Family ◮ Celastraceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas fromSimla to Bhutan between 2,150 and3,200 m, and in Assam.English ◮ Spindle Wood, Wahoo.(Euonymus atropurpureus, foundin Eastern and Central USA andCanada, is equated with Wahoo andSpindle tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhillotaka.Folk ◮ Chopra, Mermahaul, Kunku,Barphali.Action ◮ Cholagogue, laxative,diuretic, circulatory stimulant.Used for constipation, torpidityof liver, gall bladder disorders,jaundice and dyspepsia.Bark is used in diseases of theeye.Key application ◮ Bark—as laxative.(The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The plant yielded triterpenes—epifriedelinol,taraxerol, dulcitol, pristimerinand tingenins A and B. Pristimerinexhibited antitumour activity.Only bark and root bark is usedmedicinally. The seeds are poisonous.Toxic constituents of E. atropurpureusare furan-a-carboxylic acid; d-phenyl-glucosone (sterol glucoside);euatroside; euatromonoside (steroidglycosides). (Francis Brinker.)Eupatorium cannabinum Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasup to 3,600 m and in Khasi Hillsbetween 1,000 and 2,000 m.English ◮ Hemp Agrimony, WaterHemp, Hemp Eupatorium.Folk ◮ Bundaar (Maharashtra),Tongollati (Assam).Action ◮ Diuretic, cathartic,anti-tumoral. Used under strictmedical supervision for bloodimpurities and tumours. Internaladministration is not advisedunless the hepatotoxic alkaloidsare shown to be absent from thesample.The herb contains volatile oil (about0.5%); sesqiterpene lactones, the majorone being eupatoriopicrin; flavonoids,pyrrolizidine alkaloids; immunoactivepolysaccharides.Eupatoriopicrin has shown to be cytostaticas well as cytotoxic; it delayedE

250 Eupatorium triplinerve Vahl.Etransplanted tumour growth in mice ina dose-dependent manner.An aqueous extract of the plant exhibitedanti-necrotic activity againstcarbon tetrachloride-induced hepatotoxicityin rats. The effect is attributedtothepresenceofflavonoids,rutoside,hyperoside and quercetin; phenolicacids, caffeic and chlorogenic; and notdue to the presence of eupatoriopicrin.Acrylic acid and the lactic, malic andcitric acids, present in the plant, alsoexhibited protective effect against acutetoxicity induced by ethanol in mice.The polysaccharides have immunostimulatoryactivity and enhance phagocytosisin a number of immunologicaltests. The leaf oil is reported toexhibit fungicidal effect.A related species, Eupatorium odorumLinn., is known as Gondri in Orissa.Eupatorium triplinerve Vahl.Synonym ◮ E. ayapana Vent.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Brazil; naturalizedin many parts of India; grown ingardens of Maharashtra.English ◮ Ayapana Tea.Ayurvedic ◮ Vishalyakarani, Ayaapaana.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ayapanai.Folk ◮ Ayapani (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Cardiacstimulant,laxative,emetic, expectorant, bechic,antiscorbutic, alterative. Used inague, also in dyspepsia. Leaf—anticholerin, haemostatic.The leaves contain ayapanin andayapin, with pronounced haemostaticproperties. The leaves also containcarotene and free vitamin C (25 mg/100 g); there is 100% increase in vitaminC content on frying the leaves inoil.A aqueous extract of dried leavesand shoots exhibits cardiac stimulantactivity, increasing the force of theheartbeat but diminishing its frequency.The plant is comparable to chamomile(Anthemis sp.).Euphorbia antiquorum Linn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ The warmer regions ofIndia; often cultivated for hedges.English ◮ Triangular Spurge.Ayurvedic ◮ Snuhi (Substitute),Vajra-kantaka, VajratundiSiddha/Tamil ◮ Chathurakkali.Folk ◮ Tridhaari, Tidhaaraa Sehunda.Action ◮ Latex—purgative. Appliedon burns. Plant—used in dropsy,anasarca, sores, venereal sores,syphilis; also in dysentery, bronchitis,asthma. Root—anthelmintic.Fresh stems—used for skin soresand scabies. A decoction of stems isgiven in gout.The stems yielded friedelan-3 alphaoland 3 beta-ol, taraxerol and taraxerone.The roots yielded taraxerol. Latexgave beta-amyrin, cycloartenol, euphol(70%) and alpha-euphorbol.

Euphorbia hirta Linn. 251Euphorbia dracunculoidesLamk.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India in theplains and low hills.Ayurvedic ◮ Saatalaa, Saptalaa,Sapralaa, Viduraa, Charmasaahvaa,Charmakashaa.Unani ◮ Thuhar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tillakada, Thusimullai.Folk ◮ Titali.Action ◮ Fruit—removes wartstopically. Plant extract—cholinergic.The aerial parts are used asa vegetable for maintaining smoothand regular movement of bowels.The alcoholic and aqueous extractsof aerial parts showed significant actionon gastro-intestinal motility inrats. The activity is more pronouncedin alcoholic extract than in aqueousextract.The extract of air-dried plant exhibitscholinergic action and directstimulation of different muscle preparations.Plant gave euphorbol, surcose,glycosides, sterols and kaempferol.Dosage ◮ Root—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Euphorbia hirta Linn.Synonym ◮ E. pilulifera auct. nonLinn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout warmerregions of India.English ◮ Euphorbia, AustralianAsthma Weed, Pill-bearing Spurge.Ayurvedic ◮ Dudhi, Dudhikaa,Naagaarjuni, Vikshirini.Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Dudhi Khurd.Amman pachharisi.Action ◮ Pectoral, antiasthmatic,antispasmodic. Used for asthma,laryngitis, chronic nasal andbronchial catarrh; diarrhoea,dysentery, intestinal parasitosisAlso used in postnatal complaints,failure of lactation. Latex—vermifuge. Used in diseases ofurinogenitory tract.The herb contains several terpenes,anthocyanins, alcohols and steroids.Aerial parts also gave shikimic acid,choline, L-inositol and free sugars.Antiasthmatic activity is attributedto choline and shikimic acid. Shikimicacid and choline showed relaxant andcontracting properties on guinea-pigileum.The aqueous extract of the herb exhibitedsedative, anxiolytic, analgesic,antipyretic and anti-inflammatory activities;exerted an inhibitory effect onplatelet aggregation.Quercitrin is reported to be responsiblefor antidiarrhoeal activity.Methanolic extract of the leaves exhibitsantibacterial and antifungal activities.Dimeric hydrolysable tannins, euphorbains,have been isolated from theplant.E

252 Euphorbia hypericifolia auct. non Linn.EEuphorbia hypericifoliaauct. non Linn.Synonym ◮ E. indica Lam.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout warmerregions of India, up to 1,500 m inthe Himalaya.Ayurvedic ◮ Dugdhikaa.Action ◮ Plant—used in colic,diarrhoea and dysentery. Leaf—astringent, antidysenteric, antileucorrhoeic(also used in menorrhagia).The plant contains taraxerol, octacosanol,campesterol, stigmasterol,beta-sitosterol, quercetin, quercitrin,ellagic acid, rhamnetin-3-galactoside,rhmnetin-3-rhamnoside and kaempferol.Euphorbia neriifolia auct. nonLinn.Synonym ◮ E. ligularia Roxb.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Grown as a field andboundary fence and as curious onrockeries in gardens.English ◮ Holy Milk Hedge, Dog’sTongue.Ayurvedic ◮ Snuhi, Samant-dugdhaa,Sehunda, Singhtunda, Snuk, Gudaa,Sudhaa, Vajra, Vajjri, Vajjradram,Thuuhar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ielaikkali, Perumbukalli.Action ◮ Latex—purgative, diuretic,antiasthmatic, expectorant, rubefacient.Used in ascites, polyuria,anasarca, chlorosis, tympanitis;externally on warts, cutaneouseruptions, scabies, unhealthy ulcers.Asuccus compounded of equal partsof the juice and simple syrup is said tobe used for giving relief in asthma.The triterpenoids, euphol, 24-methylenecycloartenol,euphorbol hexacosonate,glut-5 (10)-en-1-one, glut-5-en-3 beta-yet-acetate, taraxerol, friedelan-3alpha-oland–3beta-olhavebeenreported from the plant.Euphorbia nivulia Buch.-Ham.Family ◮Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Northern and centralIndia, often planted in dry areas.Ayurvedic ◮ Snuhi (substitute),Patra-Snuhi.Siddha/Tamil ◮Kalli, Naga-kalli.Action ◮ Latex—used for treatingjaundice, dropsy, enlargement ofliver and spleen; colic; syphilis,leprosy; applied to haemorrhoids.Coagulated latex is used forbronchitis. Leaf—juice is used asa purgative. Warmed in mustardoil, applied in cold and headache.The latex gave cycloart-25-en-3beta-ol, and cyclolaudenol; stem containedcyclolaudenol and sitosterol;leaves gave sitosterol. (None of thesetriterpenes have been reported from E.neriifolia.) These triterpenes exhibitedantimicrobial activity against Staphylococcusaureus and E. coli.

Euphorbia thomsoniana Boiss. 253Euphorbia pilosa Linn.Family ◮Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas fromGarhwal, westwards to Kashmir.Ayurvedic ◮ Saatala, Saptalaa.(Substitute).Action ◮ Purgative, emetic. Root—used in fistulous sores.Prostratin, isolated from the roots ofvar. cornigeria Hook. f., was found tobe pro-inflammatory.Euphorbia resinifera Berg.Family ◮Habitat ◮English ◮Unani ◮Euphorbiaceae.Native to Morocco.Euphorbium.Farfiyuun, Afarbiyuun.Action ◮ A drastic purgative,irritant, vesicant and toxic, proinflammatory.Internal use of thedrug has been abandoned.Dried latex gave diterpene esters;derivatives of 12-deoxyphorbol, whichare pro-inflammatory, tumour promotingand cause platelet aggregation;exhibit co-carcinogenic activity.Euphorbia royleana Boiss.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalaya fromKumaon to Nepal.Ayurvedic ◮ Snuhi, Snuk, Sehunda,Gudaa (Substitutes.) (Adhogudaaof Ayurvedic medicine and Banamuuliof folk medicine have beenequated with Euphorbia acaulisRox.)Unani ◮ ThuuharFolk ◮ Thor, Surai.Action ◮ Latex—cathartic, anthelmintic.The latex yield euphol, cycloeucalenol,an inseparable mixture of fourtetra-and four tri-esters of macrocyclicditerpene ingenol, octacosanol, tetracosanol,beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol,alpha-amyrin and campesterol. Theplant gave ingenol.The latex is a valuable source of ingenolesters. Ingol is a macrocyclicditerpene and is of therapeutic interestdue to its antileukemic properties.Fractionation of the latex gave ingol-12-acetate and 8-tigloyl-12-acetate. Theacylation of ingol-12-acetate yieldedderivatives which inhibit the growth ofthe basophilic leukaemia cells in rats.Euphorbia thomsoniana Boiss.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir, above 2,350 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Hiyaavali, Svarnakshiri(also equated with Argemonemexicana L., Papaveraceae.),Kanchanakshiri, Pitadugdhaa,Katuparni.Folk ◮ Hiravi (Kashmir). Titari(Himachal Pradesh).Action ◮ Root—purgative. Latex—used in eruptions and other skindiseases.E

254 Euphorbia thymifolia Linn.EDosage ◮ Latex—125–250 mg(CCRAS.)Euphorbia thymifolia Linn.Family ◮Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Smaller var., equatedwith E. thymifolia, isfoundintropical plains and low hills ofIndia, ascending to 1,750 m. Biggervar., E. pilulifera/E. hirta Linn. isfound in warmer parts of India fromPunjab eastwards, and southwardsto Kanyakumari.Ayurvedic ◮ Dudhi (smallervar.), Dugdhikaa, Naagaarjuni,Swaaduparni.Siddha/Tamil ◮Sittrapaladi.Action ◮ Plant—antispasmodic,bronchodilator, antiasthmatic(used in bronchial asthma),galactagogue (also used for spermatorrhoea).Root—used inamenorrhoea. Latex—used inringworm, dandruff. Leaf, seed andlatex—purgative. A decoction ofthe plant, with honey, is given totreat haematuria.Aerial parts gave epitaraxerol, n-hexacosanol, euphorbol, two derivativesof deoxyphorbol-OAC, 24-methylenecycloartenol and quercetin galactoside.Co-carcinogenic activity is dueto phorbol derivatives. The plant exhibitsantimicrobial activity due to alkaloids.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—10–20 gpaste. (CCRAS.)Euphorbia tirucalli Linn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Africa; naturalizedin the warmer parts ofIndia.English ◮ Milk-Bush, Milk Hedge, Indiantree Spurge, Aveloz, PetroleumPlantAyurvedic ◮ Saptalaa, Saatalaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tirukalli.Folk ◮ Angulia-thuuhar.Action ◮ Purgative, emetic, antiasthmatic,bechic. Used for whoopingcough, asthma, dyspepsia, biliousness,jaundice, enlargement ofspleen, leucorrhoea. Latex—appliedexternally on warts.Used as a purgative and for rheumatismand neuralgia. Stem bark—usedfor gastralgia, colic, asthma.The latex contains an ingol ester besidestriterpenoids, euphorbinol andcycloeuphordenol.Presence of a number of ingenol andphorbol esters (diterpenoids), and triterpenoidsare reported from the plant.The stem gave hentriacontane, hentriacontanol,beta-sitosterol, Me-ellagicand ellagic acids and kaempferol glucoside.The latex is a weak tumour promoter.Euphoria longan Steud.Family ◮ Sapindaceae.Habitat ◮ South India, Assam andBengal.English ◮ Longan

Euryale ferox Salisb. 255Ayurvedic ◮ Aakshiki (non-classical).Siddha/Tamil ◮Puvatti, Shempuvan.Folk ◮ Aashaphala (Bengal), Naaglichi(Assam).Action ◮ The aril of the fruit isused in prescriptions of Chinesetraditional medicine for treatinginsomnia, neurosis, palpitation,amnesia and anaemia.It has been found to ameliorate theimpaired learning process in mice.An aqueous extract of the fruit pulpshowed stimulating effect on superoxidedimutase activity in red blood cellsof mice., indicating its possible use indelaying the aging process.The seeds contain antimutagens,amino-hydroxy-hexynoic acid, hypoglycinA (which causes hypoglycaemia)and amino-hydroxy-heptynoic acid.Euphrasia simplex D. Don.Synonym ◮ E. officinalis Linn.Family ◮ Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ The Temperate Himalayafrom Kashmir to Sikkim, from 1,350to 4,000 m.English ◮ Eyebright.Action ◮ Plant—astringent, antiallergic,bechic, anticatarrhal.Key application ◮ Externally aslotions, eye-baths, poultices, foreye complaints associated withinflammatory conditions, and asa preventive measure against mucusof the eyes, “glued” and inflammedeyes. (Traditional uses mentionedby German Comission E.)Orally, Eyebright is used to treat allergies,common cold, bronchial conditionsand sinusitis. Ophthalmic applicationis not recommended. Eyebrighthas been used in a British herbaltobacco product, which was smokedfor cold and chronic bronchial conditions.Aerial parts showed presence ofphenol, carboxylic acid, flavones andmethyl flavone derivatives. Plant gavequercetin glucoside, diosmetin, kaempferol,caffeic and ferulic acids, stigmasteroland beta-sitosterol. Iridoidglycosides, including aucubin, are alsopresent. Tannins include both condensedand hydrolysable gallic acidtype.Euryale ferox Salisb.Family ◮ Nymphaeaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir, Bihar, Rajasthan,Assam, Manipur, Tripura, Bengaland Uttar Pradesh, in lakes andponds.English ◮ Gorgan Nut, Fox Nut.Ayurvedic ◮ Makhaann, Paaniyaphala,Padma-bijaabha, Ankalodya.Unani ◮ Makhaanaa.Action ◮ Seed—deobstruent,astringent, nervine tonic. Usedin spermatorrhoea and sexualaffections (restrains seminal gleet)and debility.Edible parts of the seeds gave the followingvalues: moisture 12.8, protein9.7, fat 0.1, mineral matter 0.5, carbohydrates76.9, calcium 0.02, and phosphorus0.09%; iron 1.4 mg/100 g.E

256 Evolvulus alsinoides Linn.EEvolvulus alsinoides Linn.Synonym ◮ E. hirtus Lam.E. angustifolius Roxb.Convolvulus alsinoides L.Family ◮Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, asa common weed in open and grassyplaces; ascending to 2,000 m in theHimalayas.Ayurvedic ◮ Shankapushpi (bluefloweredvar., Convolvus pluricaulis:white-flowered var.)Unani ◮ Shankhaahuli.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vishnukrandi(blue-flowered), Shivakrandi(white-flowered).Action ◮ Brain tonic, an aid inconception, astringent, antidysenteric.Leaf—antiasthmatic. Used innervine affections (epilepsy, insanity,spermatorrhoea),andduodenalulcers, also for uterine affections.Flowers—used for uterine bleedingand internal haemorrhages.A decoction of the herb is given asa blood purifier.The plant contains alkaloid evolvine,beta-sitosterol, stearic, oleic, linoleicacids, pentatriacontane and triacontane.The alkaloid evolvine exhibitedpowerful stimulant activity on respirationand blood pressure (possiblyanaleptic).Aqueous extract of the petal showedantifungal property.Habitat ◮ A weed of grassy lawns.Ayurvedic ◮ Aakhukarni,Muusaakarni (substitute forMerremia emarginata (Burm. f.)Hallier f., synonym Ipomoeareniformis Choisy).Folk ◮ Muusaakaani, Chhinipatra(Bihar).Action ◮ Weak sedative, anthelmintic.Exacum bicolor Roxb.Synonym ◮ E. tetragonum Roxb.E. perrottetii Griseb.Family ◮ Gentianaceae.Habitat ◮ Upper Gangetic plains andtropical Himalaya, also in SouthIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Ava-chiraayataa (biggervar. of chiraayataa).Folk ◮ Titakhana, Uudakiraayita(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Stomachic,febrifuge,antifungal, bitter tonic.The leaves gave apigenin, luteolin,vanillic, p-hydroxybenzoic, protocatechuicand p-coumaric acids.A related species. Exacum pedunculatumL., found throughout India,ascending up to 1,000 m, is also usedas a substitute for Swertia chirayita andGentiana lutea. Pounded plant is appliedexternally in rheumatism andgout. It also gave luteolin, diosmetinand phenolic acids.Evolvulus nummularius Linn.Family ◮Convolvulaceae.Excoecaria agallocha Linn.Family ◮Euphorbiaceae.

Exogonium purga Benth. 257Habitat ◮ The coastal and tidalforests of India.English ◮Blinding tree.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kampetti, Tillai, Agil,Ambala-vrksham.Folk ◮ Gevaa, Huraa (Maharashtra).Gangawaa.Action ◮ Latex—antileprotic. Thelatex blisters the skin and is reportedto cause blindness if it enters theeye. The juice, boiled in oil, isapplied in rheumatism, paralysisand leprosy.The leaves are toxic and contain gallotannins (0.616 mg/g dry weight).Fresh twigs and bark contain a piscicidalcomponent. The latex is biocidal.Exogonium purga Benth.Synonym ◮ Ipomoea purga Hayne.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Amercia. Growsin Southern and Eastern India.English ◮ Jalap.Unani ◮ Jalaapaa.Action ◮ Tuber—drastic hydragoguecathartic, acts briskly,causes watery evacuations. Overdosesproduce hypercatharsis.Contraindicated in inflammatoryconditions of the bowels. (Theroots of Operculina turpethumsynonym Ipomoea turpethumare used as a substitute forjalap.)E

FFagonia cretica Linn.Synonym ◮ F. arabica Linn. (Correctname for Indian sp. is Fagoniaschweifurthii Hadidi. F. bruguieriDC. is not a synonym of F. cretica,according to CDRI.)Family ◮Zygophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Western India, upperGangetic plains and PeninsularIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Dhanvayaasa, Dhanvayavaasa,Dhanvayaasaka, Duraalabhaa,Samudraantaa. Gaandhaari,Kachhuraa, Anantaa, Duhsparshaa.(Alhagi pseudalhagi is used asa substitute for F. cretica.)Unani ◮ Dhamaasaa.Action ◮ Astringent, antiseptic,blood-purifier and febrifuge.Applied to abscesses, scrofulousglands and wounds; also givenas a prophylactic against smallpox.Bark—used for dermatosisExtract of aerial parts—antiviral,antiamphetaminic, spasmogenic.Plant ash—given to childrensuffering from anaemia.The aerial parts contain several triterpenoidsaponins which gave sapogenin,nahagenin, oleanolic acid.Aerial parts also gave diterpenes, fagononeand its derivatives, besidesflavonoids.The flavonoids, quercetin and kaempferol,isolated from the leaves andflowers, showed antimicrobial activity.The fruits are rich in ascorbic acid.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—50–100 mldecoction. (CCRAS.)Fagopyrum esculentumMoench.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Central Asia;now grown as minor grain-crop inhilly regions of North India and theNilgiris.English ◮ Buckwheat.Ayurvedic ◮ Kotu.Folk ◮ Kutu, Phaapar.Action ◮ Used for treating fragilecapillaries, chilbains and forstrengthening varicose veins. Usedat a supporting herb for treating highblood pressure. Rutin is obtainedfrom fresh or dried leaves andflowers. (Rutin is used in a varietyof haemorrhagic conditions.)The seed are commonly used in colic,choleraic diarrhoea and abdominalobstructions. Root decoction is usedin rheumatic pains, lung diseases andtyphoid; juice in urinary disorders. InChina, used in pulmonary sepsis.The plant is used as a venous andcapillary tonic, and for alleviating venousstasis and vericose veins.It is a potential source of rutin (yield3–5%). The leaves and blossoms containmost of the rutin (80–90%).

260 Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.FQuercetin caused significant decreasein ulcer index in acute gastriculcer with respect to control group inrats. Quercetin, rutin or kaempferolinhibited, in dose-dependent manner,gastric damage produced by acidifiedethanolin rats.The plant also gave hyperoside andanthracene derivatives.Buckwheat is a good source of lysineand other amino acids. The flouris reported to repress exogenous hypercholesterolemiaand promotes accumulationof triglyceride in the liverof rats.Seed oil exhibits antimicrobial activityagainst Bacillus anthrasis, E.coli andSalmonella paratyphi.Whole plant, dried or green, cancause photosensitization.Fagopyrum tataricum Gaertn.Family ◮Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in the Himalayas,especially in the colderparts of Ladakh, Zaskar andWestern Tibet.English ◮Ayurvedic ◮Folk ◮Tatary Duckwheat.Ukhal.Kutu (var.).Action ◮ See F. esculentum.Duckwheatis a better source of rutinthan the common Buckwheat.It contains 45–80% more rutinthan the latter, and maintains itshigh rutin content for a longerperiod.Fagus sylvatica Linn.Family ◮ Fagaceae.Habitat ◮ Cooler regions of northernhemisphere. Distributed in Kuluand the Nilgiris.English ◮ European Beech, CommonBeech.Action ◮ Seeds and fatty oil—used externally in skin diseases,rheumatism and gout. Seeds—poisonous. Saponins cause severegastrointestinal symptoms. Leavesalso contain saponins. Wood tar—antiseptic, analgesic; mixed withtalc, used as a dusting powder forgangrene and bed sores.Farsetia hamiltonii Royle.Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Mediterranean region,eastwards to India and southwardsto tropical Africa.Folk ◮ Farid-booti (Punjab).Action ◮ Antirheumatic.Farsetia species contain a volatile oilwhich gave glucosinolates. Allylglucosinolateis the major constituent.Farsetia jacquemontiiHook. f. Thoms.Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Rajasthan and Northwesternparts of India.Folk ◮ Farid-booti.Action ◮ Antirheumatic.

Ferula foetida Regel. 261Feijoa sellowiana Berg.Synonym ◮Family ◮Acca sellowiana Berg.Myrtaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to westernParaguay, southern Brazil, Uruguayand parts of Argentina; cultivatedin South India in Nilgiris andKodaikanal hills.English ◮ Feijoa, Pineapple Guava,New Zealand Banana.Action ◮ The fruit contains iodineand vitamin C. Iodine content variesaccording to locality and fluctuatesfrom year to year, usual range is1.64–3.9 mg/kg Fruit also containsvitamin P-active polyphenols. Thefruit is found beneficial only in mildcases of thyrotoxicosis.Feronia limonia (Linn.) Swingle.Synonym ◮ F. elephantum Corr.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to South India;cultivated throughout the plains ofIndia up to 500 m in the westernHimalaya.English ◮ Wood Apple.Ayurvedic ◮ Kapittha, Dadhittha,Dadhiphala, Surabhichhada,Dantshatha, Kapipriya.Unani ◮ Kuvet.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vilamaram, Vilangai,Narivila.Folk ◮ Kaith.Action ◮ Fruit—antiscorbutic,carminative, stimulates the digestivesystem bark. Pulp is included ina paste to tone the breast. Leaves—astringent; used for indigestion,flatulence, diarrhoea, dysentery andhaemorrhoids.Unripe fruit—prescribed in sprue,malabsorption syndrome. (The AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India.)The leaves and stem bark contain thecoumarins, luvangetin, xanthotoxinand limonin and the steroids, sitosteroland sitosterol-O-beta-D-glucoside.Antifungal compounds, psoralenefrom stem bark; xanthotoxin and osthenolfrom root bark and 2,6-dimethoxybenzo-quinonefrom the fruit shellare reported. Roots contain xanthotoxinand bergapten, used for the treatmentof leucoderma, characterized byvitiligo.Dosage ◮ Dried pulp of maturefruit—1–3 g powder. (API Vol. II.)Ferula foetida Regel.Synonym ◮ F. assafoetida Linn.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Iran, Afghanistanand Pakistan. F. narthex occurs inKashmir.English ◮ Asafoetida.Ayurvedic ◮ Hingu, Hinguka,Raamattha, Baahlika, Jatuka,Sahasravedhi, Vedhi.Unani ◮ Hilteet, Hing.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perunkaayam.Action ◮ Olea-gum-resin—stimulatesthe intestinal and respiratoryF

262 Ferula galbaniflua Boiss. ex Buhse.Ftracts and the nervous system bark.Used for simple digestive problemssuch as bloating, indigestion,constipation; for congested mucus,bronchitis, whooping cough, alsofor neurological affections, epilepsy,cramps and convulsions.Key application ◮ In dyspepsia,chronic, gastritis, irritable colon;as spasmolytic. (The British HerbalPharmocopoeia.) Contraindicatedin bleeding disorders, pregnancy,infectious or inflammatory G1diseases. (Sharon M. Herr.)Ferula foetida contains: resins about40–60%, consisting of asaresionotannolsand their esters; farnesiferols,ferulic acid and other acids; about25% gum; about 6–17% volatile oil,major constituent being sec-propenylisobutyldisulphide; sulphated terpenes,pinene, cadinene and vanillin;sesquiterpenoid coumarins. Somecompounds from Ferula sp. ehibit antifertilityactivity.Dosage ◮ Detoxified oleogum-resin—125–500mg. (APIVol. I.)Ferula galbanifluaBoiss. ex Buhse.Synonym ◮Family ◮F. gummosa Boiss.Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Persia. Occasionallygrown North-WesternHimalaya.English ◮Galbanum.Unani ◮ Gaosheer, Jawaasheer.(Galbanum has been wronglyequated with Gandhbirozaa, theoleo-resin of Pine.)Action ◮ Oleo-gum-resin—digestivestimulant, antispasmodic; usedfor flatulence and colic; as anexpectorant; and as a uterine tonic.Ferula gummosa contains resinuoussubstances (60%), major constituentsbeing galbaresenic and galbanic acids;volatile oil (5–30%) containing monoandsesquiterpenes, alcohols and acetates;azulenes; thiol esters; undecatriens;resinic acids (30–40%); gums;umbelliferone.Ferula jaeschkeana Vatke.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Jammu and Kashmir andHimachal Pradesh from 2,000 to4,000 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Hingupatri.Action ◮ Abortifacient, antiimplantation.Being investigated asa potential contraceptive. A relatedspecies, F. silphion,wasusedinancient Rome as a contraceptive.The oil extracted from the leavespossesses mycotoxic property againstdermatophytes, Trichophyton sp.The ethanolic extract of the aerialparts produced dilation and congestionand hypertrophy in liver in rats.The roots contain sesquiterpenoids.A coumarin, ferujol, isolated from therhizome, showed abortifacient andanti-implantation activity at a single

Ficus arnottiana Miq. 263dose of 0.6 mg/kg in rats by oral administrationin a suspension of gumacacia. The essential oil shows antimycoticactivity.Action ◮ Resin—less strong thanasafoetida; used in the same way asasafoetida and galbanum. Used inMiddle East for rheumatic affectionsand backache.Ferula narthex Boiss.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir.English ◮ Narthex asafoetida.Ayurvedic ◮ Hingu (var.).Unani ◮ Hilteet, Hing.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perungayam.Action ◮ The gum-resin is used asasafoetida.The oil is reported to be bacteriocidal.It exhibited antimicrobial activityagainst Gram-positive and Gramnegativebacteria.The essential oil, obtained fromseeds, shows antioxidant activity comparableto BHT.The plant gave coumarin derivativesincluding umbelliferone and scopoletin.Dosage ◮ Gum-resin—125–500 mg.(CCRAS.)Ferula persica Willd.Family ◮ Umbeliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Arabia andPersia.English ◮ Sagapenum.Unani ◮ Sakbeenaj, Sakbekh.Ferula sumbul Hook. f.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Central Asia.English ◮ Musk Root.Folk ◮ Sumbul, Sambala.Action ◮ Used as a sedative in hysteriaand other nervous disorders.Also used as a mild gastrointestinalstimulant. Formerlyused for asthma, bronchitis andamenorrhoea.Ferula sumbul contains 0.2–0.4%volatile oil; 5–15% resin; hydroxycoumarinsincluding umbelliferone;sumbulic and angelic acids.Ficus altissima Blume.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, eastwards toMalaysia.Ayurvedic ◮ Nandi vrksha (var),Choraka-patra (var.).Folk ◮ Gadgubar (Assam).Action ◮ Leaves and bark—used inskindiseases. Thetreeisoneofthe recorded hosts of the Indian lacinsect.Ficus arnottiana Miq.Family ◮Moraceae.F

264 Ficus asperrima Roxb.FHabitat ◮ Cultivated in Rajsthan,Madhya Pradesh, Bihar and WesternPeninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Nandi Vriksha, Prarohi,Gajapaadapa, Paarasa Pipala.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kagoti.Action ◮ Leaves—a moderatesterilizer, given to women aftermenses. Leaves and bark—used inskin diseases.Dosage ◮ Bark—50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Ficus asperrima Roxb.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Madhya Pradesh andWestern Peninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Kharapatra (nonclassical).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kal-arasu.Folk ◮ Kaala-umar.Action ◮ Juice of bark—given forenlargement of liver and spleen.Ficus benghalensis Linn.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract andPeninsular India. Planted alongroadsides, and in gardens.English ◮ Banyan tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Vata, Nyagrodha,Bahupaada, Dhruv.Unani ◮ Bargad, Darakht-e-Reesh.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aalamaram.Action ◮ Infusion of bark—usedin diabetes, dysentery, and inseminal weakness, leucorrhoea,menorrhagia, nervous disorders,erysipelas, burning sensation. Milkyjuice and seeds—applied topicallyto sores, ulcers, cracked soles ofthe feet, rheumatic inflammations.Buds—a decoction in milk is givenin haemorrhages. Aerial roots—antiemetic, topically applied topimples. Leaves—a paste is appliedexternally to abscesses and woundsfor promoting suppuration.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India recommends the aerial root inlipid disorders.Phytosterolin, isolated from theroots, given orally to fasting rabbitsat a dose of 25 mg/kg, produced maximumfall in blood sugar level equivalentto 81% of the tolbutamide standardafter 4 h. The root bark showed antidiabeticactivity in pituitary diabetes andalloxan-induced diabetes.The alcoholic extract of the stembark also exhibited antidiabetic activityon alloxan-induced diabetes inalbino rats, and brought down thelevel of serum cholesterol and bloodurea. This activity is attributed toa glucoside, bengalenoside and theflavonoid glycosides, leucocyanidinand leucopelargonidin. Bengalenosideis half as potent as tolbutamide. Theleucopelargonidin glycoside is practicallynontoxic and may be useful incontrolling diabetes with hyperlipidemia.The leucocyanidin, when combinedwith a low dose of insulin, notonly equalled in response the effects

Ficus cordifolia Roxb. 265brought about by a double dose of insulin,but also excelled in ameliorationof serum cholesterol and triglycerides.(Additional references: Indian JPhysiol Pharmacol, 1975, 19(4), 218–220; JEthnopharmacol, 1989, 26(1), 1–55; Indian J Physiol Pharmacol, 1994,38(3), 220–222.)Ficus benjamina Linn.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ The Eastern Himalaya,Assam, Bihar, Andhra Pradesh,kerala and the Andaman Islands.English ◮ Java Fig.Siddha ◮ Malai Ichi, Pon Ichi,Putrajuvi (Tamil).Folk ◮ Pimpri (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Diuretic. Leaves—decoction, mixed with oil, is appliedto ulcers.The fruits gave bergapten. The latex,in addition to bergapten, gave alphaamyrinand imperatorin.Ficus carica Linn.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the Mediterraneanregion; now cultivated inUttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Punjab,Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.English ◮ Common Fig.Ayurvedic ◮ Phalgu, Manjul,Raajodumbara, Bhadrodumbara.Unani ◮ Anjeer, Teen.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Semaiatti.Action ◮ Fruit—gentle laxativeand expectorant. Syrup of figs—a remedy for mild constipation.Fruit pulp-analgesic and antiinflammatory,used for treatingtumours, swellings and gumabscesses. Latex—analgesic andtoxic. Used for treating warts, insectbites and stings. Leaf—used inlucoderma. Bark—used for eczemaand other skin diseases.Key application ◮ As a laxative.(Included among unapproved herbsby German Commission E.)The leaves gave bergapten, psoralen,taraxasterol, beta-sitosterol, rutin anda sapogenin. Calotropenyl acetate, lepeolacetate and oleanolic acid have beenidentified in the leaves.Three peptides which exhibit actionagainst angiotensin I-converting enzyme(ACE) have been isolated fromthe fresh latex. Their inhibitory activityis similar to that of ACE inhibitorsderived from casein. (ACE catalyzesboth the production of vasoconstrictorangiotensin II and the inactivation ofthe vasodilator bradykinin.)Dosage ◮ Fruit—10–20 ml juice; 5–10 g paste. (CCRAS.)Ficus cordifolia Roxb.Synonym ◮ F. rumphii Bl.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up to1,700 m in the hills.Ayurvedic ◮ Ashmantaka (var.)F

266 Ficus cunia Buch.-Ham.Folk ◮ Gajanaa, Ashtaa, Paakar.Action ◮ Fruit juice and latex—antiasthmatic and vermifuge.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kal Aal, Pei Aal.Action ◮ Fruit—cardiotonic. Leavesand bark—used in affections of theliver and skin diseases.FFicus cunia Buch.-Ham.Synonym ◮ F. semicordata Buch.-Ham. ex Sm.F. conglomerata Roxb.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract fromChenab eastward to Bhutan and inAssam, Bengal and Orissa.English ◮ Indian Fig.Ayurvedic ◮ Malayu, Chorakapatra,Laakshaa-vrksha, Laghuudumbara.Siddha ◮ Taragadu (Tamil).Action ◮ See F. carica. Fruits—spasmolytic; used in aphthouscomplaints. Root—used forbladder and visceral troubles.Bark-decoction—used for washingulcers; juice and powdered bark—applied to wounds and bruises.Syconium—used for ulcers ofmucous membrane. Syconium andbark—antileprotic.The tree is one of the recorded hostsof the Indian lac insect.Ficus dalhousiae Miq.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Tamil Nadu.Ayurvedic ◮ Soma-valka (doubtfulsynonym).Ficus heterophylla Linn. f.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmerparts of India.Ayurvedic ◮ Traayanti, Traayamaanaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodi Athi.Folk ◮ Daantiraa (Rajasthan).Action ◮ Fruits—used for constipationduring fevers. Leaf-juice—antidysenteric. Root bark—mixedwith water, given internally incoryza, asthma and bronchialdiseases. Root—antispasmodic.Ficus hispida Linn. f.Synonym ◮ F. daemona Koen. exVahl.F. oppositifolia Roxb.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Outer Himalaya fromChenab eastwards to West BengalAssam, Central and South Indiaand the Andaman Islands.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakodumbara,Kaashtodumbara, Phalgu, Malayu,Malapu.Unani ◮ Anjir Dashti.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peyatti, Chona Atthi.Action ◮ Syconium—galactagogue.Bark and seed—purgative, emetic.

Ficus palmata Forsk. 267The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the fruit in jaundice,oedema and anaemia; fruit and root inleucoderma, vitiligo.The fruits, seeds and bark containbeta-sitosterol, beta-amyrin, n-triacontanyl acetate, gluacol acetate,hispidin, a phenanthraindolizidine alkaloid,bergapten and psoralen. A leucocyaninhas been isolated from theroot; oleanolic acid from the leaves.Dosage ◮ Fruit—10–20 g; root—1–3gpowder.(API Vol. III.)The stem bark of the plant yield acetatesof long-chain alcohols, methylricinolate,beta-sitosterol, lanosterol,caffeic acid, bergenin and sugars. Thetriterpenoids, lupeol and alpha- andbeta-amyrin, are also present in theleaves. Flavonoids including sorbifolinand scutellarein derivatives, have beenisolated from the leaves.Dosage ◮ Stem bark—50 g powderfor decoction (API Vol. II); driedfruit—5–10 g. (API Vol. IV.) Leaf,root—10–20 g paste. (CCRAS.)FFicus lacor Buch.-Ham.Synonym ◮ F. infectoria auct. non-Willd.F. viren Aiton.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Plains and lower hills ofIndia.English ◮ White Fig.Ayurvedic ◮ Plaksha, Karpari, Pitana,Parkati.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kurugu, Itthi,Kallalnaram.Action ◮ Bark—decoction is usedfor washing ulcers, as a gargle insalivation; also used for menstrualdisorders and leucorrhoea. Leaf—estrogenic. Plant— used inerysipelas, ulcer, epistaxis.Fresh ripe fruit or powder of driedfruits is used to treat diabetes.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaindicates the use of the fruit andstem bark in syncope, delirium and illusiveand unstable state of mind.Ficus microcarpa Linn. f.Synonym ◮ F. retusa auct. non Linn.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ WestBengal,Bihar,Centraland Peninsular India and AndamanIslands.Growningardens,andasan avenue tree. Quite common inNew Delhi.Ayurvedic ◮ Plaksha (related sp.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kal Ichi.Folk ◮ Itti.Action ◮ Bark—antibilious. Leaf—antispasmodic. Root bark and leaf—used in preparations of oils andointments for ulcers, skin diseases,oedema and inflammations.Ficus palmata Forsk.Synonym ◮ F. caricoides Roxb.F. virgata Wall. ex Roxb.Family ◮ Moraceae.

268 Ficus racemosa Linn.FHabitat ◮ North-western India andRajasthan, from Kashmir eastwardto Nepal, ascending to 1,000 m.English ◮ Indian Fig.Ayurvedic ◮ Phalgu, Anjiri.Siddha ◮ Manjimedi (Telugu).Action ◮ Fruit—demulcent andlaxative. Latex is applied onpimples. Ripe fruits—hypotensive.Leaves gave bergapten and betasitosterol.Ficus racemosa Linn.Synonym ◮ F. glomerata Roxb.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India. Growswild in forests and hills. Oftenfound around subterranean waterstreams.English ◮ Cluster Fig, Country Fig.Ayurvedic ◮ Udumbara, Sadaaphala,Hema-daudhaka, Jantuphala,Yagyaanga.Unani ◮ Anjir-e-Aadam, Anjir-e-Ahmak, Gular.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Atthi.Action ◮ Astringent and antiseptic;used in threatened abortions,menorrhagia, leucorrhoea, urinarydisorders, skin diseases, swellings,boils, haemorrhages. Unripefruits—astringent, carminative,digestive, stomachic; used in diarrhoea,dyspepsia, dysentery,menorrhagia and haemorrhages.Ripe fruits—antiemetic, alsoused in haemoptysis. Root andfruit—hypoglycaemic. Bark—decoctionisusedinskindiseases,inflammations, boils andulcers.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the use of the bark inlipiddisordersandobesity.Leaves and fruit contain gluacol.The fruit also contains beta-sitosterol,lupeol acetate, friedelin, higher hydrocarbonsand other phytosterols.Petroleum ether extract of the stembark significantly reduced blood sugarlevel of rats with streptozotocininduceddiabetes. It completely inhibitedglucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenasefrom rat liver. Extracts of fruitand latex did not show any significanteffect on blood sugar level of diabeticrats, they inhibited only glucose-6-phosphate but not arginase from ratliver.An alcoholic extract of the bark hasbeen found to be very effective in reducingblood sugar in alloxan-induceddiabetic albino rats. It helped in improvingthe damaged beta cells of isletsof Langerhans, thus exerting permanentblood sugar lowering effect.The ethanolic extract of seeds alsoshowed hypoglycaemic activity.Lignin, the main fiber constituentof the fruit, prevented the rise inserum cholesterol levels of some extent.Fresh whole fruits, used as a source ofdietary fibre, exhibited more hypocholesterolemicactivity than pure cellulose.Dosage ◮ Bark—20–30 g fordecoction. (API Vol. I.)

Flacourita indica (Burm. f.) Merr. 269Ficus religiosa Linn.Family ◮Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tracts,West Bengal, Central and SouthIndia; planted throughout India asan avenue tree.English ◮ Peepal, Bot-tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Ashvattha, Bodhidru,Bodhivrkisha, Sebya, Chalapatra,Gajabhaksha, Kshiradruma,Peeppal.Unani ◮ Peepal.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Arasu, Ashvatham.Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antiseptic,alterative, laxative, haemostatic,vaginal disinfectant (used indiabetes, diarrhoea, leucorrhoea,menorrhagia, nervous disorders;also in skin diseases.) Appliedexternally on unhealthy ulcersand wounds. Leaves and twigs—laxative.The bark contains beta-sitosteryl-Dglucoside.Vitamin K, n-octacosanol,methyl oleanolate, lanosterol, stigmasterol,lupen-3-one are reported fromthe stem bark.A hypoglycaemic response is reportedfor beta-sitosterol-D-glucoside obtainedfrom the bark.Aerial roots are given to women, alsoused in prescriptions, for inducingconception. The dried fruits are usedas a uterine tonic.The fruits contain 4.9% protein havingthe essential amino acids, isoleucineand phenylalanine. The chloroformextract of fruits exhibited antitumourand antibacterial activities inbioassays.Various plant parts are includedin formulations used for menorrhagia,metrorrhagia, blood dysentery,bleeding piles, haematuria and haemorrhages.Dosage ◮ Bark, fruit—50–100 mldecoction. (CCRAS.)Ficus talbotii G. King.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular India.Ayurvedic ◮ Plaksha (related species).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Itthi, Kal Itthi.Action ◮ Bark—antileprotic (used forulcers and venereal diseases). Aerialparts exhibit diuretic, spasmolytic,CNS depressant and hypothermicactivity.Fimbristylis ovata Kern.Synonym ◮ F. monostachya Hassk.Family ◮ Cyperaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout warmerregions of India, as a weed.Ayurvedic ◮ Ibha-muulaka. (Alsoequated with F. annua.)Action ◮ Used in adenitis, scrofula,syphilis; also in cough, bronchitisand asthma.Flacourita indica (Burm. f.) Merr.Synonym ◮ F. ramontchi L’Herit.Family ◮ Flacourtiaceae.F

270 Flacourtia jangomas (Lour.) Raeusch.FHabitat ◮ Cultivated in Assam,Maharashtra and Bengal.English ◮ Ramontchi, MadagascarPlum, Mauritius Plum, Governor’sPlum.Ayurvedic ◮ Vikankata, Yajnyavrksha,Gopakantaa, Sruva-vrksha.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sottai-kala, Katukala.Folk ◮ Poniol (Assam), Kataaya,Kakaiyaa.Action ◮ Gum—anticholerin. Usedas a gargle. Applied to eczema andskin diseases. Bark—antidysenteric,astringent, diuretic. Seed—antirheumatic. Fruit—stomachic.Root—applied externally in skindiseases. Leaves and young shoots—astringent and stomachic.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the use of the leaf andstem bark in jaundice, oedema and diseasesdue to vitiated blood.The bark contains a phenolic glucosideester, (−)-flacourtin. The heartwoodcontains the steroid, ramontoside,beta-sitosterol and its beta-Dglucopyranoside.The fruits contain 3.9–7.2% protein,vitamin C and mineral matter0.39%; calcium 24.1 and phosphorus12.5 mg/100 g. Fruits are given in jaundiceand enlarged spleen.Dosage ◮ Leaf—50–100 g fordecoction. (API Vol. IV.) (Alsobark—CCRAS.)Flacourtia jangomas(Lour.) Raeusch.Synonym ◮F. cataphracta Roxb.Family ◮Flacourtiaceae.Habitat ◮ Bengal, Assam, Orissa,Andhra Pradesh and Eastern Ghats.English ◮ Puneala Plum.Ayurvedic ◮ Praachinaamalaka,Paaniyaamalaka. (Taalispatri (Hindi),Taalispatra (Gujarati), Taalisam(Malyalaam), Taalispatramu (Telugu)are confusing synonyms ofPaaniyaamalaka.)Unani ◮ Taalisfar, Nabaq Hindi,Zarnab. In National Formulary ofUnani Medicine, Zarnab, synonymTelispattar, is equated with F.catapracta, alsowithCinnamonumtamala Nees. (Zarnab is also equatedwith Salix aegyptiaca Sprengel andTaalisfar with Rhododendronanthapogon D. Don or R. lipidotumby Unani scholars.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Saralu, Vayangarai.Folk ◮ Paniyaalaa (Bihar).Action ◮ Leaves—astringent,antidiarrhoeal, stomachic. Usedin chronic bronchitis. Fruit—usedin affections of the liver. Bark andfruit—antibilious. Infusion of barkis used as a gargle. Fruits contain(dry basis) protein 3.9%; vitamin C218, Ca 175, K 158, P 147, Fe 118, Mg57 mg/100 g. The fruit stem bark andbark yielded a coumarin, ostruthin,and limonoids, jangomolide andlimonin.(Taalisha, Taalisam, Taalisapatri,Taalisapatra—all the synonyms arenow equated with Abies spectabilis(D. Don) Spach., synonym A. webbianaLindl., Pinus webbiana Wall.)

Foeniculum vulgare Mill. 271Flacourtia sepiaria Roxb.Family ◮Flacourtiaceae.Habitat ◮ Kumaon and n the dryforests of Bengal, Bihar, Orissa andSouth India.Ayurvedic ◮ Vikankata (relatedspecies), Kinkini (provisionalclassical synonym).Folk ◮ Kondai, Kondari.Action ◮ The bark of the plant,triturated in sesame oil, is used asliniment in gout and rheumatism.Foeniculum vulgare Mill.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the Mediterraneanregion; now cultivatedmainly in Punjab, Assam, Maharashtraand Vadodara (Gujarat).English ◮ Fennel. (Poison hemlockhas been misidentified as fennel.)Ayurvedic ◮ Mishreyaa, Mishi, Madhurikaa,Madhuraa, Shatapushpaa,Shataahvaa. (Shatpushpaa is equatedwith Saunf and Shataahvaa withSoyaa. Some authors treat these asvice-versa.)Unani ◮ Baadiyaan, Saunf.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sombu.Action ◮ Carminative, stomachic,antispasmodic, emmenagogue,galactagogue, anti-inflammatory,diuretic. Relieves bloating, nausea,settles stomach and stimulatesappetite. Also used in amenorrhoeaand enuresis.Key application ◮ In dyspepsias suchas mild, spastic, gastrointestinalafflictions, fullness, flatulence.Fennel syrup or honey can beused for the catarrh of the upperrespiratory tract in children. Fenneloil preparations not recommendedduring pregnancy. (GermanCommission E, ESCOP, WHO.)German Commission E reported thatfennel seed promotes gastrointestinalmotility and in higher concentrationsacts as antispasmodic. Inexperiments anethole and fenchonehave been shown to have a secretolyticaction in respiratory tract. TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeia and IndianHerbal Pharmacopoeia report itscarminative and spasmolytic property.Fennel seed contain about 8% volatileoil (about 50–60% anethole, amongothers 10–15% fenchone and methylchavicol),flavonoids, coumarins (includingbergapten) and sterols.The extract of seeds inhibits thegrowth of micro-organism, especiallyStreptococcus mutans, that are responsiblefor dental caries and periodontaldiseases.The essential oil from the seed is reportedto be antibacterial, antifungal,antioxidant, emmenagogue, oxytocicand abortifacient.The fatty acid, petroselenic acid, obtainedfrom the oil, exhibited antimicrobialactivity.Anethole, amajorconstituent of fennelseed/oil has been found to be anactive estrogenic agent with minimalhepatotoxicity and no teratogenic effect.F

272 Fraxinus griffithii Clarke.FThe oil also exhibits anticarcinogenicactivity and can be used as a chemoprotectiveagent.It possesses antioxidant activity closeto BHT.Anethole and limonene are used inpharmaceutical compositions for decreasingthe side effects of chemotherapyand increasing the immune function.Limonene showed the capacity to inhibitmammary tumours in rats.The boiling water extract of leavesshows hypotensive effect in rats.The methanolic extract of seedshowed antispasmodic activity, whileaqueous extract accelerated the spontaneousmovement of rabbit stomach.Dosage ◮ Dried fruit—3–6 g powder.(API Vol. I.)Fraxinus griffithii Clarke.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ Arunachal Pradesh(Mishmi Hills).Action ◮ Toxic to CNS.The extract of the bark and leaves areused as an adulterant of illegal opiumand are sold in the black market incertain areas in Indonesia.The bark contains an iridoid glucoside,ligstroside, and the phenolicglucosides, syringin and sinapaldehydeglucoside.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ F. excelsior Linn.—GreatBritain, Europe and North America.F. hookery—Western Himalaya at2,700–3,350 m.English ◮ European Ash, WeepingAsh.Folk ◮ Kum, Sum, Hum, Sinnun(Punjab, Kashmir).Action ◮ F. excelsior—laxative, antiinflammatory,febrifuge. The barkand leaves are used for arthritis andrheumatism.The herb gave coumarin derivatives,including fraxin, fraxetin and fraxinol;flavonoids based on aesculetin, includingaescin, also rutin and quercetin.A coumarin derivative is actively diuretic.A saccharine exudate, manna, consistingprincipally of mannitol, is obtainedby incising the stem barks ofsome Fraxinus sp. found in India. Themanna of commerce is derived fromF. ornus. F. hookery (bark)—astringent,febrifuge, bitter tonic. Leaves—cathartic.Ash Bark is used, in decoction, inthe treatment of intermittent fever andague, as a substitute for Peruvian bark.Also used for treating obstructions ofthe liver and spleen and in rheumatismand arthritic affections.Preparations of European Ash Barkshowed an analgesic, anti-exudativeand antiphlogistic action. (GermanCommission E.)Fraxinus hookery Wenz.Synonym ◮ F. excelsior auct. non L.Fraxinus ornus Linn.Family ◮Oleaceae.

Fucus vesiculosus Linn. 273Habitat ◮ Indigenous to the coastsof the Mediterranean from Spain toSmyrna.English ◮ Flake Manna.Unani ◮ Turanjeen.Action ◮ A children’s laxative.Usually prescribed with otherpurgatives. (Not to be used in thepresence of ileus.)Key application ◮ In constipationwhere an easier elimination anda soft stool are desirable; inaniments such as anal fissures,haemorrhoids and post-rectal andsurgery. (German Commission E.)The exudation contains 40–90%mannitol, 10–15% stachyose and mannotriose,glucose, fructose.Fritillaria cirrhosa D. Don.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Central and WesternHimalaya between 3,700 and5,350 m.Folk ◮ Yathu.Action ◮ Corm—antiasthmatic, usedfor bronchitis and tuberculosis.The bulbs contain steroidal alkaloids—ebeinone,eduardine, edpetilidine,verticinone, isoverticine andisobaimonidine and pimaradienic diterpene,oblongifolic acid.Ebeinone exhibited anticholinergicactivity.Fritillaria roylei Hook.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Western temperateHimalaya from Kashmir to Kumaonat 2,700–4,35 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Kshira-Kaakoli, Viraa,Kaayasthikaa, Vaaysoli.Action ◮ Used in the treatment ofasthma, bronchitis and tuberculosis.(Withania somnifera is a substitutefor Kaakoli and Kshira-Kaakoli.)The bulbs gave alkaloids—peimine,peimisine, peimiphine, perminine,permidine and permitidine. The bulbsalso gave neutral compounds—propeiminand a sterol. The plant gave kashmirine.Dosage ◮ Bulb—3–6 g powder.(CCRAS.)FFritillaria imperialis L.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir at 1,700–3,000 m.English ◮ Crown Imperial, ImperialFritillary.Action ◮ Bulbs—emollient, diuretic,resolvent, spasmolytic, hypotensive,cardiotonic.Fucus vesiculosus Linn.Family ◮ Fucaceae. (Laminaria sp.)Habitat ◮ On the shores of theUnited Kingdom, North AtlanticOcean, North Pacific Coast ofAmerica; as a weed; found in IndianOcean on the Manora Rocks. Alliedspecies—F. distichus Linn., and F.

274 Fumaria officinalis Linn.Fnodosus Linn. (Included in Glossaryof Indian Medicinal Plants, CSIR,also in its second supplement.) F.nodosus is found in India along seashores.English ◮ Bladderwrack, Black Tang,Rockweed, Kelp.Action ◮ Weed—one of the richestsource of minerals, chiefly iodine,sodium, manganese, sulphur, silicon,zinc and copper. Effectiveagainst obesity, antirheumatic.Stimulates circulation of lymph.Endocrine gland stimulant. Allaysonset of arteriosclerosis bymaintaining elasticity of walls ofblood vessels. Mild diuretic, bulk,laxative, antibiotic. High sodiumcontent may reduce effectiveness ofdiuretics.(The herb contains trace metal, particularlyiodine from 0.03–1.0%. It maycontain waste metals such as cadmiumand strontium, when grown in a pollutedenvironment. Variable iodine contentand arsenic contamination makethe herb unsafe.)The herb should be used with cautionin hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism.Excess thyroid activity may beaggravated by the iodine content of theherb;itmaydisruptthyroidfunction.One gram of Bladderwrack might containas much as 600 mcg iodine (Ingestingmorethan150mcgiodineperdaymay cause hyperthyroidism or exacerbateexisting hyperthyroidism.) (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Due to the antithrombin effects of itsfucan polysaccharides, consumption ofthe herb in cases of G1 bleeding disordersis contraindicated.(Included among unapproved herbsby German Commission E.)Fumaria officinalis Linn.Family ◮ Fumariaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe andNorth America. Found at highaltitudes in Nilgiris and Salem(Tamil Nadu).English ◮ Fumitory.Ayurvedic ◮ Parpata (related species).Unani ◮ Shaahtaraa.Action ◮ Antispasmodic andamphicholeretic. Stimulant to liverand gall bladder; used for eczemaand other skin diseases. Alsodiuretic and mild laxative.Key application ◮ In spastic discomfortsin the area of gallbladderand bile ducts, as well as thegastrointestinal tract. (GermanCommission E, The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)The herb contains indenobenzazepinealkaloids—fumaritrin and fumarofine.Other alkaloids include (−)-scoulerine,protopine, fumaricine, (+)-fumariline.The plant also contain rutin,fumaric acid and hydroxycinnamicacid derivatives.Protopine exhibits antihistaminic,hypotensive, bradycardic and sedativeactivity in small doses, but excitationand convulsions in large doses. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)

Fumaria vaillantii Loisel. 275The seed oil contains myristic 4.2,palmitic 17.6, stearic 2.7, oleic 19.6,linoleic 55.7 and linolenic acid 0.2%.The upper flowering part of the herbis used for biliary disorders, variousskin diseases and fevers. The herb canalso treat arteriosclerosis by helping inlowering blood cholesterol level andimproving the elasticity of arterial wall.Fumaria parviflora Lam.Synonym ◮ F. indica (Haussk.)Pugsley.Family ◮ Fumariaceae.Habitat ◮ At high altitudes inTamil Nadu; up to 2,700 m on theHimalayas.English ◮ Fumitory.Ayurvedic ◮ Parpata, Parpataka,Varatikta, Renu, Kavacha,Sukshmapatra.Unani ◮ Shaahtaraa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thura.Folk ◮ Pittapaaparaa.Action ◮ Detoxifying, laxative,diuretic, diaphoretic.The plant contains isoquinoline alkaloids—includingprotopine, sanguinarine,cryptopine, d-bicuculline, fumaridine,fumaramine. The leavescontain kaempferol and quercetin glycosides.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—1–3 g (APIVol. IV); 3–35 g powder; 50–100 mldecoction. (CCRAS.)Fumaria vaillantii Loisel.Family ◮ Fumariaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India on thehills.Ayurvedic ◮ Parpata.Unani ◮ Shaahtaraa.Folk ◮ Pittapaaparaa.Action ◮ The plant is used asa substitute for Fumaria parviflora.A decoction of the herb is used forblood purification and in skin diseases,especially psoriasis.Methanolic extract of the plant exhibitsantimicrobial activity againstSarcina subflava.The herb contains several isoquinolinealkaloids which are common toFumaria officinalis and Fumaria parviflora.Protopine showed smooth musclerelaxant activity in guinea-pigs, rabbitsand albino rats and hydrocholeretic activityin anaesthetized dogs. L-tetrahydrocoptisineshowed antipsychotic(neuroleptic) activity in albino rats andmice. Narceimine, narlumidine, adlumidineand protopine nitrate exhibitanti-inflammatory activity.Alkaloids, narlumidine and protopine,exhibit significant antifungalactivity.F

GGalium aparine Linn.Family ◮Habitat ◮Rubiaceae.The Temperate Himalayas.English ◮ Goosegrass, Clivers,Cleavers, Catch Weed.Action ◮ Choleretic, stomachic,diuretic, refrigerant, lymphatic,alterative, antiscorbutic, detoxifier;non-steroidal anti-inflammatoryused for enlarged lymph nodes,especially cervical neck nodes,cystic and nodular changes in theglands, modular goitre. Used asa cleansing drink for malignantconditions and skin disorders,including psoriasis.Key application ◮ As diuretic. (TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The plant contains iridoid monoterpenes(asperuloside), benzyl isoquinolinealkaloids (including protopine),beta-carbolin alkaloids (including harmine),quinazoline alkaloids and flavonoids(such as luteolin). Methanolicextractoftheplantcontainschlorogenicacid, scopoletin and rutin. Theplant is reported to contain severalsterols. The root contains anthraquinones.Asperuloside can be chemically convertedto prostanoid intermediates.Galium verum Linn.Family ◮Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir, Lahul and otherwest Himalayan regions, at altitudeof 2,000–3,000 mEnglish ◮ Lady’s Bedstraw, CheeseRennet.Action ◮ Herb—diuretic, used forkidney stone, gravel, gout. Usedtopically for poorly healing wounds.The plant contains the iridoids includingasperuloside and galioside;flavonoid glycosides; quercetin-3-glucoside,quercetin-7-glucoside, quercetin-3-rutinoside,luteolin-7-glucoside;anthraquinone derivatives, includingalizarin, and large amounts ofsalicylic acid. Its high organic acidcontent causes curdling of milk.The root contain n-alkanes.Garcinia cambogia Desr.Synonym ◮ G. gummi-gutta (Linn.)Robs.Family ◮ Guttiferae; Clusiaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats and Nilgiris.English ◮ Gamboge tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Vrkshaamla (alliedspecies), Kokam (var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodakkapuli.Action ◮ Fruit rind—used in ricketsand enlargement of spleen, inskeletal fractures.The plant contains iso-prenylatedpolyphenols—cambogin and cambo-

278 Garcinia cowa Roxb.Gginol. The fruit contains about 30%acid (dry weight basis), which is essentially(−)-hydroxycitric acid (HCA).HCA is a potent inhibitor of ATP citratelyase, the enzyme that producesacetyl CoA for both fatty acid andcholesterol synthesis.Taking Garcinia fruit rind extractorally does not seem to help decreaseweight, satiety, fat oxidation or energyexpenditure in obese people. Some researchersare of the view that garciniainhibits the supply of fatty acids withoutaffecting adipose conversion. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Latex gave benzophenone derivatives,camboginol and cambogin.Garcinia cowa Roxb.Synonym ◮ G. kydia Roxb.Family ◮ Guttiferae; Clusiaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical forests of Assam,Bengal, Orissa and the Andamans.Ayurvedic ◮ Paaraavata, Kowaa.Folk ◮ Kaphal (Nepal), Kujithekera(Assam).Action ◮ Sun-dried slices of the fruitare used in dysentery. The latexis used as febrifuge. Gum-resin—drastic cathartic (may producenausea and vomiting).The fruits from Assam contain: totalsoluble solids 9.8, titrable acidity4.7, total sugars 3.8% and vitamin C8.64 mg/gThe latex gave xanthones, cowanin,cowanol, cowaxanthone and norcowanin.The bark contains cowanin, cowanol,cowaxanthone and rubraxanthone.Cawanol and cowaxanthone are reportedto exhibit moderate antimicrobialactivity against Staphylococcus aureus.Garcinia hanburyi Hook. f.Family ◮ Guttiferae; Clusiaceae.Habitat ◮ Evergreen forests of Assamand Khasi Hills.English ◮ Siam Gamboge.Ayurvedic ◮ Kankushtha;Kaalakushtha, Tamaala.Unani ◮ Usaar-e-revand.Action ◮ Gum-resin—drastichydragogue, cathartic; used fordropsical conditions. Toxic. Thegum-resin contains 70–75% resinsconsisting mainly of alpha- andbeta-garcinolic acids with gambogicacids; about 20–25% gum.Gambogic acid, morellic acid andisomorellic acid are toxic constituentsof the gum-resin.Garcinia indica Choisy.Synonym ◮ G. purpurea Roxb.Family ◮ Guttiferae; Clusiaceae.Habitat ◮ Evergreen forests ofWestern Ghats from Konkansouthwards and in Goa. Alsocultivated in southern districts ofMaharashtra and on lower slopes ofNilgiris.

Garcinia mangostana Linn. 279English ◮ Kokam Butter tree,Mangosteen Oil tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Vrkshaamla, Tintidika,Chukra, Amlavrkshak, Kokam,Amsula.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Murgal.Folk ◮ Kokam.Action ◮ Fruit—antiscorbutic,cholagogue, cooling, antibilious,emollient and demulcent. A syrupfrom the fruit juice is given in biliousaffections. Bark—astringent, Oil orKokam Butter—used for dysenteryand diarrhoea with mucus. Appliedexternally to ulcerations, fissures oflips, chapped skin and skin diseases.The fruit rind contain a polyisoprenylatedphenolic pigment, garcinoland its isomer isogarcinol, alongwith (−)-hydroxycitric acid, cyanidin-3-glucoside and cyanidin-3-sambubioside.L-leucine and DNP-L-leucine hydrochloridehave been reported fromthe leaves.EtOH (50%) extract of aerial partsexhibited semen coagulant and CNSdepressant activity.Kokum butter contains fatty acids—palmtic 2.0, stearic 57.5, oleic 39.0,linoleic 1.3 and others 0.2%.Dosage ◮ Fruit—10–20 mljuice; root bark—40–80 mldecoction. (CCRAS.)Garcinia mangostana Linn.Family ◮ Guttiferae; Clusiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Malaysia. Nowcultivated mainly on lower slopes ofthe Nilgiris.English ◮ Mangosteen, Dodol.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sulambuli, Mangusta.Folk ◮ Mangustaan.Action ◮ Fruit—antileucorrhoeic,astringent, antifungal, antibacterial;used in cystitis, diseases of thegenitourinary tract, diarrhoea,tropical dysentery and fevers.Pericarp—used externally foreczema and other skin diseases.Leaves—anti-inflammatory, antiimmunosuppressive,antiprotozoal,antimicrobial.The plant contains anthocyanin glycosides,a benzophenone, maclurinand several prenylated and related xanthones.The leaves contain terpenoids,xanthones and long chain hydrocarbons.The pericarp (fruit hull) contains thexanthone derivatives, mangostin, normangostin,beta-mangostin, gammamangostin,isomangostin as majorconstituents.Mangostin, isolated from the rindof fruit, inhibited primary and secondaryresponses to adjuvant-inducedarthritis in rats. Mangostin, isomangostinand mangostin triacetate exhibitedpronounced anti-inflammatoryactivity in rats both by i.p. and oralroutes.Mangostin also produced antiulceractivity in rats.Mangostin and some of its derivativesproduced CNS depression, characterizedby ptosis, sedation and decreasedmotor activity.Gamma-mangostin showed morepotent radical scavenging and antioxidantactivity than BHA.G

280 Garcinia morella (Gaertn) Desv.GGarcinia morella (Gaertn) Desv.Synonym ◮Family ◮G. pictoria Roxb.Guttiferae; Clusiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout southernIndia, also in Assam and WestBengal, up to 1,000 mEnglish ◮Indian Gamboge.Ayurvedic ◮ Kankushtha, Tamaal,Taapichha, Ushaare-revand.Siddha/Tamil ◮Iravakhinni.Action ◮ Gum-resin—hydragogue,cathartic, anthelmintic. Used indropy and amenorrhoea. Causesnausea, vomiting and griping inlarge doses.The gum contains morellin, neomorellin,beta-guttiferin and alphaguttiferinand their derivatives. Theheartwood gave morelloflavone. Seedcoat gave morellin, isomorellin andtheir neo derivatives which exhibitedantibacterial and antiprotozoal activity.Dosage ◮ Gum-resin—50–125 mg.(CCRAS.)Garcinia pedunculata Roxb.Family ◮Guttiferae; Clusiaceae.Habitat ◮ Forests of northeastBengal, sporadic in NEFA, Manipurand upper AssamAyurvedic ◮ Amlavetasa. Vetasaamla.Folk ◮Thaikala (Bengal).Action ◮ Antiscorbutic, astringent,cooling, cardiotonic, emollient.Used in anorexia, dyspepsia, colic,liver and spleen diseases difficultmicturition. Cough and otherrespiratory disorders, ulcers andskin diseases.Dry fruits (pericarp) contain thebenzophenones, pedunculol, garcinoland cambogin.The heartwood gave benzophenoneand xanthone.Dosage ◮ Fruit—5–10 ml juice.(CCRAS.)Garcinia xanthochymusHook. f. ex T. And.Synonym ◮ G. tinctoria (DC.) W. F.Wt.Family ◮ Guttiferae; Clusiaceae.Habitat ◮ The lower hill forestsof Eastern Himalayas, PeninsularIndia, Orissa, Maharashtra and theAndamans.English ◮ Egg tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Tamaal (var.), Vrkshaamla(var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kulavi, Malaippachai,Mukki, TamalamFolk ◮ Amsul (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Fruit—anthelmintic, improvesappetite. Also used as a cardiotonic.Fruit gave xanthochymoland isoxanthymol (polyprenylatedbenzophenone derivatives),flavones and xanthones.

Gardenia latifolia Ait. 281Gardenia gummifera Linn. f.Synonym ◮ G. arborea Roxb.G. inermis Dietr.Family ◮Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu.English ◮ Gummy Cape Jasmine.Ayurvedic ◮ Venupatrikaa, Naadihingu,Hingushivaatikaa. Hingupatrikaa,Hingupatri (also equatedwith Ferula Jaeschkeana Vatke).Unani ◮ Dikaamaali.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Dikkamalli, Kambil,Sinna Kambil.Action ◮ Gum—carminative, antispasmodic,stimulant, diaphoretic,anthelmintic, antiseptic, expectorant.Given to children in nervousdisorders and diarrhoea due todentition.The gum yielded flavones, includinggardenin, de-Me-tangeretin andnevadensin; wogonins, isoscutellarein,apigenin and de-MeO-sudachitin.Dosage ◮ Gum—250–500 mg.(CCRAS.)Gardenia jasminoides Ellis.Synonym ◮ G. florida Linn.G. augusta Merrill.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China and Japan;cultivated in Indian gardens.English ◮ Cape Jasmine.Ayurvedic ◮Gandharaaja.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karinga.Action ◮ Plant—cathartic, antispasmodic,anthelmintic, antiperiodic.Root—antidysenteric. Also used indyspepsia and nervous disorders.Fruits—used in gastric hyperacidity,constipation, cholestasis, internallyand externally for inflammationand as a tranquilizer.The plant contains iridoid glycosides—geniposide56.03, genipin 1.72,gardenoside 2.16 and geniposidic acid1.79 mg/g The stem and root containoleanolic acid, D-mannitol and stigmasterol.The leaves contain an antifungalcompound, cerbinal.Geniposide is an important activeprinciple of the fruit. The fruit alsocontain the carotenoids, crocin andcrocetin. Aqueous and methonalic extractsof the fruit exhibited antioxidantactivity due to the presence of geniposideand crocin; crocin was morepotent than geniposide.The extract as well as geniposidecaused a remarkable decrease in GOT,GPT and ALP activities. They also produceda significant decrease in the levelof total cholesterol in the serum ofCCl4-induced and D-galactosamineintoxicatedrats. The crude extract aswell as geniposide exhibited protectiveeffect against induced hyperbilirubinemiaby effectively lowering serumbilirubin.Gardenia latifolia Ait.Family ◮Rubiaceae.G

282 Gardenia resinifera Roth.GHabitat ◮ Throughout the greaterpart of India, mostly in dry forests.English ◮Ayurvedic ◮Kumbay, Perungam-Siddha/Tamil ◮bil.Folk ◮Boxwood Gardenia.Parpataki.Paaparaa, Ban-pindaalu.Action ◮ Bark—used in skin diseases.The stem bark contains hederagenin,D-mannitol, sitosterol and siaresinolic,episiaresinolic, oleanolic andspinosic acid.Gardenia resinifera Roth.Synonym ◮ G. lucida Roxb.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Central India and DeccanPeninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Naadihingu (relatedspecies), Jantuka.Unani ◮ Dikaamaali.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kambil, Kumbai,Dikkamalli.Action ◮ Gum—antimicrobial,anthelmintic; used in skin diseases.Gum gave flavonoids—gardenins,wagonin derivatives, de-Metangeretin,nevadensin, hexacosylp-coumarate.See G. gummifera.Gardenia turgida Roxb.Synonym ◮ Ceriscoides turgida Roxb.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the greaterpart of India, up to 1,360 mAyurvedic ◮ Mahaapindi, Karahaata,Kharahaara. (Bark is sold asBhaargi.) Thanella.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nanjundam, Malangarai.Action ◮ Root—used as a remedyfor indigestion in children. Fruits—used in affections of the mammaryglands. Pounded pulp is applied toforehead in fever.The bark and wood gave beta-sitosterol,hederagenin, Me-esters of oleanolicand gypsogenic acids. Root gavegardnins.Saponins from bark decreased formationof histamine and may find usein asthma. (Market drug is expectorantand weak spasmolytic, but was notfound effective in asthma.)Garuga pinnata Roxb.Family ◮ Burseraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up to1,000 m on the hills.English ◮ Grey Downy Balsam.Ayurvedic ◮ Paaranki, Kharpata.(Kinkiraata, Karnikaara, Mrigalindikaare doubtful synonyms.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karre Vembu,Arunelli.Folk ◮ Ghogar, Toon.Action ◮ Fruit—stomachic. Leaf—astringent, antiasthmatic. Bark—antidiabetic.

Gentiana kurroo Royle. 283The leaves and stem bark containsterols, sitosterol, stigmasterol andcampesterol; fatty acids; aliphatic compounds;a mixture of long chain esters;along with tannins and waxes.The leaves also contain garugarinand amentoflavone. Gum-resincontains alpha-amyrin, butyrospermoland dammarandiol.Aqueous and ethanolic extract of theleaves exhibit anti-inflammatory andantiallergic activities.Gaultheria fragrantissima Wall.Family ◮ Ericaceae.Habitat ◮ Central and EasternHimalayas, Khasi Hills, WesternGhats, the Nilgiris and Travancore.English ◮ Fragrant Wintergreen,Indian Wintergreen. (Wintergreenoil is obtained from G. procumbensLinn., a native of America.)Ayurvedic ◮ Gandhapuura, Gandhapuurna.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kolakkaai.Action ◮ Leaves—stimulant, carminative,diuretic, antiseptic. Oil (inthe form of liniment or ointment)—applied externally in rheumatism,sciatica and neuralgia. The plant isstrongly irritant.The leaves gave hyperoside (quercetin-3-galactoside),ursolic acid, betasitosteroland essential oil containingmethyl salicylate as a major constituent.The yield of oil from Assamplants contains 99.14% methyl salicylate.Heptyl aldehyde, present in thelow boiling fraction of the oil, broughtabout the regression of tumours inmice and dogs.Gelidium amansii Kutz.Family ◮ Gelidaceae, Rhodophyceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to Japan.English ◮ Agar Agar, JapaneseIsinglass. (Dried mucilaginousextract.)Folk ◮ Agar-Agar.Action ◮ Bulk-laxative. Agar-Agardoes not increase peristaltic action.Its action is similar to that ofcellulose of vegetable foods whichaids the regularity of the bowelmovement. (Often made into anemulsion with liquid paraffin foruse in constipation.)Most agars consist of two majorpolygalactoses, the neutral agaroseand the sulphonated polysaccharideagaropectin, with traces of amino acidsand free sugars.Agar contains a large amount ofpectin which may precipitate when exposedto alcohol. (Sharon M Herr.)Gentiana kurroo Royle.Family ◮ Gentianaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir and North-WestHimalayas.English ◮ Himalayan Gentian, IndianGentian Root.Ayurvedic ◮ Traayamaana, Traayanti,Traayanta, Traayantikaa, Neelkanthi,Anujaa, Girijaa, Girishaanujaa,G

284 Geophila repens (Linn.)I.M.Johnson.GBalbhra, Paalani. (Paakhaanabhedais a wrong synonym)Unani ◮ Ghaafis.Action ◮ Sialagogue, digestant,appetite-stimulant, antispasmodic,anti-inflammatory, emmenagogue.Used for alkalosis, feeble digestionin the elderly from gastric aciddeficiency (increases gastric juiceswithout altering PH); also used forjaundice, nausea, vomiting, travelsickness, diarrhoea, malaria andnervous exhaustion. (In Chinesemedicine, Gentiana sp., known asLongdan, are used for jaundice,hepatitis, urinary tract infections,pruritis and eczema.)Key application ◮ Gentiana lutea—internally, for digestive disorders,such as lack of appetite, fullness andflatulence (German CommissionE, WHO), for anorexia followingillness and dyspepsia (ESCOP).The British Herbal Compendiumapproves gentian for lack ofappetite, anorexia, atonic dyspepsia,gastrointestinal atony, and asantiemetic. The British HerbalPharmacopoia recognizes it asa bitter tonic.The rhizome and roots of G. Kurroocontain iridoid glycoside; majorcomponent was identified as 6 ′ -cinnamoylcatalpol.The rhizomes and roots of Picrorhizakurrooa Royle ex Benth., found inthe Himalayas, have similar propertiesand uses and are mixed or substitutedfor those of G. kurroo.Gentiana lutea (Yellow Gentian) isa native of Europe and Asia Minor andis imported into India. The most importantconstituents of the drug aresecoiridoid bitter compounds, amarogentinand gentiopicroside, togetherwith traces of swertiamarin andsweroside. The roots also contain alkaloids,gentianine and gentioflavine,xanthones, and bitter oligosaccharides,gentiobiose and gentianose.Amarogentin, gentiopicrin, swertiamarin,sioeroside (iridoid monoterpenes)are toxic constituents.Gentiana tenella Rottb., synonymGentianella tenella H. Smith and G.decumbens Linn.f. occur at high altitudesin the Himalayas, and are usedas substitutes for gentian. G. tenella isknown as Kadu in Kashmir and Titaain Punjab. The rhizome is used asTraayamaana in Ayurvedic medicine.The flowering tops of G. olivieriGriseb., synonym G. dahurica Fisch.,used in Unani medicine as Gul-e-Ghaafis, are imported into India fromPersia.Dosage ◮ Root—1–3 g powder.(CCRAS.)Geophila repens(Linn.) I. M. Johnson.Synonym ◮ G. reniformis D. Don.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, Western Ghats andAndaman Islands.Folk ◮ Karintakaali (Kerala).Action ◮ Properties are similar(though inferior) to those of Ipeac(Cephaelis ipecacuanha A. Rich.).

Geum urbanum auct. non Linn. 285Geranium nepalense Sweet.Synonym ◮ G. affine W. & A.Family ◮Geraniaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas,Kashmir, Khasi Hills and theNilgiris.English ◮ Nepal Geranium, NepaleseCrane’s Bill.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhanda, Bhandaa.Folk ◮ Ratanjot (var.), Roel (Kashmir).Action ◮ Astringent, styptic,used in renal diseases, diarrhoea,internal and external bleeding.Also used topically for ulcers andhaemorrhoids.The plant gave geraniin, kaempferol-7-rhamnoside and kaempferitrin. Theleaves gave tannins.EtOH (50%) extract of the plant exhibitedhypotensive activity.A gastrointestinal-contracting choline-likesubstance has been isolatedfrom var. thumbergii and is found usefulfor the treatment of gastrointestinaldisorders such as gastroptosis.Geranium robertianum Linn.Family ◮ Geraniaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas fromKashmir to Garhwal at 2,000–2,700 m.English ◮ Herb-Robert Geranium.Action ◮ Haemostatic, astringent,antidiarrhoeic, styptic, antidiabetic.The herb has a disagreeable odourand a bitter, saline and astringent taste.Applied externally as a resolvent to tumours.In Western herbal, the herb is usedfor diarrhoea, to improve functioningof liver and gallbladder and to preventthe formation of calculi.The herb contains several flavonoidsincluding rutin. A ethanolic extractcan inhibit the growth of E. coli, P.aeruginosa and S. aureus.Geranium wallichianumD. Don ex Sweet.Family ◮ Geraniaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas fromKashmir to Kumaon at 2,350–3,700 m.English ◮ Wallich Crane’s Bill.Ayurvedic ◮ Ratanjot (substitute).Folk ◮ Laal Jadi, Laal Jahri.Kaoashund (Kashmir).Action ◮ Astringent.The root stocks sometimes substitutedfor those of Coptis teeta Wall.;contain 25–32% tannins and 18% nontannins.Geum urbanum auct. non Linn.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Kumaon at 3,000–3,700 m Grows wild in Europe andGreat Britain.English ◮ Avens Root, Herb Bennet,Wood Avens.G

286 Ginkgo biloba Linn.GAction ◮ Astringent, styptic,stomachic, febrifuge.The herb and root was used in Europein chronic dysentery, diarrhoeaand intermittent fevers. In India, aninfusion of the rootstock is used assudorific in fevers, ague, chills andcatarrh.Eugenol is present in the root stockin combination with vacianose as phenolicglycoside gein. The rootstockcontains tannins (30–40%).A related species, G. elatum Wall., isfound in the Himalayas from Kashmirto Sikkim It is used for dysentery anddiarrhoea.Ginkgo biloba Linn.Family ◮ Ginkgoaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China and Japan;cultivated in Indian gardens as anornamental.English ◮ Maidenhair tree calledLiving Fossils (in India), Kew tree.Action ◮ Antagonizes bronchospasm,used as a circulatory stimulant,peripheral vasodilator.Key application ◮ Standardizeddry extract—for symptomatictreatment of disturbed performancein organic brain syndrome withinthe regimen of a therapeutic conceptin cases of dementia syndromes—memory deficits, disturbance inconcentration, depressive emotionalconditions, dizziness, tinnitus andheadache. (German CommissionE, ESCOP, WHO.) As vasoactiveand platelet aggregation inhibitor.(The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)(For pharmocological studies inhumans and clinical studies, seeESCOP.)The majority of pharmacologicalstudies and clinical trials have beenconduced using a standardized extractwhich contains 24% flavonoid glycosides(Ginko flavone glycosides) and6% terpenoids (ginkgolides and bilobalide).The extract increases tolerance tohypoxia and exhibits anti-ischaemiceffect. It simultaneously improves thefluidity of blood, decreases platelet adhesion,decreases platelet and erythrocyteaggregation and reduces plasmaand blood viscosity. The extract protectserythrocytes from haemolysis.The extract also decreases the permeabilityof capillaries and protects thecell membrane by trapping deleteriousfree radicals.The extract also increased cerebralblood flow in about 70% patients evaluated(patients between 30–50 year agehad 20% increase from the base line,compared with 70% in those 50- to 70-year-olds).A reversal of sexual dysfunctionwith concurrent use of ginkgo withantidepressant drugs has been reported.(Am J Psychiatry, 2000 157(5), 836–837.)The National Centre for Complementaryand Alternative Medicine,USA, is conducting a 5-year studyof 3000 people aged 75 and older todetermine if ginkgo, 240 mg daily,prevents dementia or Alzheimer’sdisease.(www.clinicaltrials.gov/ct/gui/c/r). 2000.

Gloriosa superba Linn. 287Girardinia heterophylla Decne.Synonym ◮Eriss.Family ◮G. diversifolia (Link)Urticaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate and sub-tropicalHimalayas from Kashmir to Sikkim,and in Assam and Khasi hills.English ◮ Himalayan Nettle.Ayurvedic ◮ Vrishchikaa.Folk ◮ Bichhuu-booti, Awaa, Chikri.Action ◮ Leaves—decoction is givenin fevers; applied externally toswollen joints, also as a paste forheadache. (Due to stringing hair,the plant causes dermatitis and isknown as Bichhuu.)The leaves contain 5-OH-tryptamineand histamine, also AC-choline.The plant gave beta-sitosterol.Gironniera reticulata Thw.Synonym ◮ G. cuspidata Kurz.Family ◮ Ulmaceae.Habitat ◮ Northeastern parts ofIndia and in Deccan Peninsula.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodaittani.Folk ◮ Narakyaa-ood (Maharashtra,Indian bazar).Action ◮ Blood-purifier in itch andcutaneous eruptions; mixed withlemon juice, applied externally.The wood contains a skatole and silica(0.86–1.2%).Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn.Family ◮ Aizoaceae.Habitat ◮ Drier parts of Northernand Western India and DeccanPeninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Elavaaluka (var.).(Prunus cerasus Linn., Rosaceae, isthe accepted source of Elavaaluka.)Folk ◮ Baalu-ka-saag, Morang,Sareli.Action ◮ Anthelmintic. Fresh herb isused for taenia.The plant contains triacontane, dotriacontane,myristone, sugars, andflavonoids.Glinus lotoides Linn.Synonym ◮ Mollugo lotoides (L.)O. Kuntze.MhirtaThumb.Family ◮ Molluginaceae; Aizoaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains andlower ghats of India in river beds.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Siru seruppadai.Folk ◮ Gandhi-buuti.Action ◮ Plant—antidiarrhoeal,antibilious, diuretic. Decoction isgiven in piles.The plant gave pentacyclic triterpenoidsapogenins; a mixture of beta-andgamma-sitosterol, oleanolic acid, mollugogenoland its constituents. Aerialparts gave vitexin and vicenin.Gloriosa superba Linn.Family ◮Liliaceaes.G

288 Glossocardia bosvallia DC.GHabitat ◮ Throughout tropical India,up to 2,350 m on the hills.English ◮ Glory Lily, Super Lily,Tiger’s Claws.Ayurvedic ◮ Laangali, Laangaliki,Laangalaki, Laanglaahva, Indrapushpi,Agnishikhaa, Anantaa,Vishaalyaa, Halini, Sirikramaa,Shukrapushpikaa, Vahnimukhi,Garbhanut, Garbhapaatani. Kalihaari(Costus specious Koen., is alsoused as Kalihaari), Kalikaari.Siddha/Tamil ◮Kalappankizhangu.Action ◮ Tuberous root—antiinflammatory,alterative, anthelmintic,antileprotic. Used forpiles, swollen joints, parasiticalaffections of skin. Fresh juice ofplant—uterine stimulant.The root contain colchicine 0.23–0.3%. Colchicine and its derivatives arepresent in tubers, seeds and flowers.The seeds are used as raw materialfor preparing drugs for gout. They areconsidered a rich source of colchicineand gloriosine.The herb is a gastrointestinal irritant.Dosage ◮ Detoxified tuberous root—125–250 mg. (API Vol. III.)Glossocardia bosvallia DC.Synonym ◮Family ◮G. linearifolia Cass.Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Plains of Northernand Western India and DeccanPeninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Parpata (substitute).(Fumaria parvifolora Linn., Hedyotiscorymbosa (L.) Lam synonymOldenlandia corymbosa Linn.,Mollugo cerviana (L.) Ser., Justiciaprocumbens Linn., Polycarpeacorymbosa Lam are also used asParpata for fevers.)Siddha ◮ Parapalanamu.Action ◮ Used as emmenagogue.The essential oil from the plant isantimicrobial, that from flowers anthelmintic.Glycine max Merrill.Synonym ◮ G. soja Sieb. & Zucc.G. hispida Maxim.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South East Asia;now cultivated as pulse crop mainlyin Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,Himachal Pradesh, Maharashtra,Gujarat, Naga Hills, Mainpur andKashmir.English ◮ Soybean, Soya.Folk ◮ Soyabean, Raam Kurthi, Bhat.Action ◮ Used as a protein supplement.(Products include fortifiedwheat flour, soymilk, snack foods,cooking oil.)Key application ◮ Soy lecithin (phospholipidsextracted from the seedsof G. max)—used for moderatedisturbances of fat metabolism,especially hypercholesterolaemic (ifdietary measures are not sufficient).(German Commission E.)

Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn. 289Soybean is rich in protein, oil andminerals, but low in carbohydrates. Italso contains water-and fat-soluble vitamins.The major portion of soy proteinis composed of glycinin and betaconglycinin.Wheat flour can be fortified withfull-fat or defatted soyflour for balancingit in essential amino acids, lysineand methionine.Soy saponins are divided into threegroups according to their respectivetype of aglycon, soyasapogenol A, Band E. Saponin A and AB group fractionprotects the liver against antioxidationand improved lipid metabolismin the injured liver.Administration of a small peptidederived from soybean showed antifatigue,antiobesity and hypoglycaemicactivity in mice.Feeding soy protein to hamsters,consistently, resulted in significantlyreduced incidence of gallstones.In studies of experimental carcinogenesisin animals, soybean isoflavonesexhibited protective effect in 65% animals.Glycosmis pentaphylla(Retz.) DC.Synonym ◮ G. arborea (Roxb.)A. DC.G. cochinchinensis Gamble.Limonia pentaphylla Retz.Family ◮Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular India andAndaman Islands. Cultivated ingardens.Ayurvedic ◮ Vana-nimbuukaa,Ashwa-shaakhota.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Konji, Amam,Kula-pannai.Folk ◮ Bana-Nimbu, Paanal (Kerala).Action ◮ Plant—bechic, antianaemic,antirheumatic. Root—anti-inflammatory. Leaf—used inJaundice and liver disorders, eczemaand other skin affections. Leaf androot—vermifuge, febrifuge. A pasteof the wood is applied externally topimples.Leaf extract from a Sri Lankan plantyielded the alkaloids arborine, skimmianineand arborinine. The steamdistillate of leaves showed significantantifungal activity.Glycyrrhiza glabra Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the Mediterraneanregions. Now grown inPunjab, Jammu and Kashmir andSouth India.English ◮ Licorice, Liquorice.Ayurvedic ◮ Yashtimadhu, Madhuyashtyaahvaa,Madhuli, Madhuyashtikaa,Atirasaa, Madhurasaa,Madhuka, Yastikaahva, Yashtyaahva,Yashti, Yashtika, Yashtimadhuka.Klitaka (also equated with Indigoferatinctoria). (Klitaka and Klitanakamwere considered as aquatic varietiesof Yashtimadhu.)Unani ◮ Asl-us-soos, Mulethi.Rubb-us-soos (extract).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Athimathuram.G

290 Gmelina arborea Roxb.GAction ◮ Demulcent, expectorant,antiallergic, anti-inflammatory,spasmolytic, mild laxative, antistress,antidepressive, antiulcer,liver protective, estrogenic, emmenagogue,antidiabetic. Used inbronchitis, dry cough, respiratoryinfections, catarrh, tuberculosis;genitourinary diseases, urinary tractinfections; abdominal pain, gastricand duodenal ulcers, inflamedstomach, mouth ulcer. Also usedfor adrenocorticoid insufficiency.Key application ◮ In catarrh ofthe upper respiratory tract andgastric, duodenal ulcers. (GermanCommission E, ESCOP, WHO.)The British Herbal Compendium indicatesthe use of liquorice for bronchitis,chronic gastritis, peptic ulcer,rheumatism and arthritis, adrenocorticoidinsufficiency, and to preventliver toxicity. Indian Herbal Pharmacopoeiarecognizes its use as an antiinflammatoryand antiulcer agent.The main chemical constituent ofliquorice is glycyrrhizin (about 2–9%), a triterpene saponin with lowhaemolytic index. Glycyrrhetinic (glycyrrhetic)acid (0.5–0.9%), the aglyconeof glycyrrhizin is also present inthe root. Other active constituents ofliquorice include isoflavonoids, chalcones,coumarins, triterpenoids andsterols, lignans, amino acids, amines,gums and volatile oils.Hypokalemia is the greatest threatwhen liquorice preparations high inglycyrrhizin are prescribed for prolongedperiods. Liquorice causes fluidretention. Patients should be placedon a high potassium and low sodiumdiet. Special precautions should betaken with elderly patients and patientswith hypertension or cardiac, renal orhepatic disease.A special liquorice extract known asDGL (deglycyrrhizinated liquorice) isused in the treatment of peptic ulcer.Oral liquorice preparations, containingglycyrrhetinicacid, are used for the treatment ofviral infections—viral hepatitis, commoncold. Topical preparations, containingglycyrrhetinic acid, are usedfor herpes, eczema, psoriasis.In Japan, a preparation of glycyrrhizin,cysteine and glycine is used by injectionfor the treatment of acute andchronic hepatitis.Dosage ◮Vol. I.)Root—2–4 g powder. (APIGmelina arborea Roxb.Synonym ◮Premna arborea Roth.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up to1,700 m on the hills and in AndamanIsland; also grown in gardens.English ◮ Candahar tree, White Teak.Ayurvedic ◮ Gambhaari, Kaashmari,Kaashmarya, Sarvatobhadraa,Bhadra, Mahaabhadraa, Sadaabhadraa,Madhuparnikaa, Sriparni,Pitarohini, Hiraa, Bhadraparni,Trishati.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattanam, KumizhamAction ◮ Leaf—demulcent, bechic.Used for removing foetid dis-

Gnetum montanum Markgraf. 291charges from ulcers. Root—stomachic, laxative, antibilious,demulcent, galactagogue. Bark—anticephalalgic. Root and bark—febrifuge.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the use of the barkand stem in inflammatory diseases andoedema; the fruit in dysuria and haemorrhagicdiseases.The heartwood contains lignans, arborone,7-oxodihydrogmelinol, paulowninacetate and epieudesmin; metrans-p-methoxycinnamateand transp-hydroxycinnamicacid.Alcoholic extract of stem barkshowed anti-inflammatory activitycomparable to phenylbutazone.Dosage ◮ Root, root bark—20–30 gfor decoction. (API Vol. I.)Gmelina asiatica Linn.Synonym ◮ G. parvifolia Roxb.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ South India; planted ingardens in Maharashtra and WestBengal.English ◮ Small Cashmere tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Gambhaari (relatedspecies), Gopabhadra, Vikarini.Siddha/Tamil ◮ KumizhamAction ◮ Root and leaf—demulcent,alterative, blood purifier (used invenereal diseases), anticatarrhal,astringent, antirheumatic.The plant contains lignans of thefurofuran series.The leaves show antibiotic activityagainst E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus.Gnaphalium luteo-album Linn.Family ◮ Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,ascending up to 3,350 m in theHimalayas.English ◮ Jersey Cudweed, CottonWeed,Cat’sFoot,EverlastingFlower.Folk ◮ Bal-raksha.Action ◮ Leaves—astringent,haemostatic, vulnerary. Thetomentum is applied as counterirritantin gout, also used astinder.Gnetum montanum Markgraf.Synonym ◮ G. scandens Roxb. inpart.Family ◮ Gnetaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas fromNepal to Bhutan, Assam andMeghalaya.English ◮ Joint Fir.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Anapendu, Peiodal(G. ula.)Action ◮ Seed oil—antirheumatic.Plant— antiperiodic. Leaves—piscic.The stem-wood yielded bergenin,acetophenone and stilbene derivatives.G

292 Gnida glauca (Fresen.) Gilg.GG. ula Brongn. non-Karst is found inevergreen forests of Western and EasternGhats up to 1,800 m.Gnida glauca (Fresen.) Gilg.Synonym ◮ G. eriocephalus Meis.Lasiosiphon glaucus Fresen.L. eriocephalus (Meisner) Decne.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats.Action ◮ Leaf—anti-inflammatory;used for contusions and swellings.Plant—vesicant.The plant contains bicoumarins,lysocephalin and lasiocrin; a coumaringlucoside, crioside, and a bicoumaringlycoside, eriocephaloside. The plantalso gave ingiresinol, syringin, genkwaninand its glycoside, beta-sitosteroland its glucoside.Gordonia obtusa Wall.Family ◮ Theaceae.Habitat ◮ Konkan and WesternGhats.Folk ◮ Miyili, Atangi, Ola, Nagette,Thorilla (Tamil Nadu).Action ◮ Leaves—stomachic,appetizer.Leaves contain 0.04% alkaloid andtannic acid. The bark contains ellagicacid and coumarin.Gossypium arboreum Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated all over India asafibreplant.English ◮Ayurvedic ◮Tree Cotton, Desi Cotton.Kaarpaasi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sempartthi (RedCotton), Sivappuparutthi.Folk ◮Kapaasa.Action ◮ Seed—anticatarrhal (usedin consumption), antigonorrhoeic(used in gleet and chronic cystitis).Root—febrifuge. Plant (especiallyleaf)—uterine stimulant.The glands contain 35–50% gossypol,a polyphenolic toxic compound.Seeds contain 18.5–25.4% protein,0.57–2.38% free gossypol. Gossypolis a male contraceptive. At an initialdose of 20 mg/day orally for 3months, followed by 50–60 mg weeklymaintenance dose, sperm motility isreduced initially as it inhibits importantenzymes of metabolic pathwaysthus affecting availability of enzymeto spermatozoa. Subsequently spermproduction is blocked.Gossypol is reported to cause a transientweakness early in therapy, hypokalaemiaand changes in ECGamong other side effects.Gossypol also assists menstrual flowand effectively inhibits eggs implantation.Gossypol and its derivatives havebeen shown to have significant antimicrobialactivity as well as wound healingeffect. It is reported to kill herpesvirus.Gossypium barbadense Linn.Family ◮Malvaceae.

Gracilaria lichenoides (Linn.) Harv. 293Habitat ◮ Native to South America,particularly its north-western parts.Also cultivated in India.English ◮ Egyptian Cotton, Sea-Island Cotton.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaarpaasa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Semparutthi.Folk ◮ Kapaasa.Action ◮ Root—emmenagogue,oxytocic, abortifacient, parturient,lactagogue. Seed and leaf—antidysenteric. Seed—galactogogue,pectoral, febrifuge. Seedoil—used externally for clearingspots and freckles from theskin. Leaf—hypotensive, antirheumatic.Flower—used inhypochondriasis and bronchialinflammations.The seed contains 26.2–27.9% protein;1.22–2.42 free gossypol.Gossypium herbaceum Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated mainly inMaharashtra, Tamil Nadu, AndhraPradesh and Karnataka.English ◮ Asiatic Cotton, LevantCotton, Uppam Cotton.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaarpaasa, Kaarpaasi,Kaarpaasaka, Rakta-Kaarpaasa,Shona-Kaarpaasa, Samudraantaa,Tuula, Pichu, Bhaaradwaaji,Tundikeri.Unani ◮ Pambahdaanaa. (Seed.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ ParuttikkootamAction ◮ Root bark—diuretic,oxytocic. Bark—emmenagogue,haemostatic. Seed—demulcent,laxative, expectorant, abortifacient,galactagogue, nervine, anticephalalgic.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the seed oil for toningup the breast.The seed contains 21.3–25.2% protein,free gossypol 0.82–1.96%.Dosage ◮ Seeds, devoid of lint—3–6gpowder.(API Vol. I.)Gouania leptostachya DC.Synonym ◮ G. tiliaefolia Lam.Family ◮ Rhamnaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan regionfrom Kangra eastwards and in partsof Assam, Bengal, Bihar, Orissa andAndhra Pradesh.Folk ◮ Batvaasi (Nepal), Batvaasi(Bengal), Bitkil-chaand (Bihar).Action ◮ Leaves—used in poulticesfor sores. Bark—used for washinghair for destroying vermin.The bark and root contain saponin.The leaves of a related species, Gouaniamicrocarpa DC., found in PeninsularIndia from Konkan southwards,gave a triterpenic acid, along withtetratriacontanoic acid.Gracilaria lichenoides(Linn.) Harv.Family ◮Rhodophyceae.G

294 Grangea maderaspatana Poir.GHabitat ◮ The coasts of Indian Oceanand Chilka Lake.English ◮Moss.Folk ◮ Chinai-ghaas. Known asCeylon Agar-Agar or Agal-Agal.Action ◮ Emollient, diuretic,alterative. Aqueous extract—antihypotensive and spasmolytic.Aqueous extract contains prostaglandins.Grangea maderaspatana Poir.Synonym ◮ Artemisia maderaspatanaLinn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the greaterpart of India.Ayurvedic ◮ Aakaarakarabhasubstitute (doubtful).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maasipathri.Folk ◮ Mastaru, Mukhatari,Maachipatri (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaf—stomachic, antispasmodic,sedative, emmenagogue,deobstruent, antiseptic. Used inamenorrhoea.Aerial parts of the plant affordedclerodane derivatives. Presence ofphytol, lupeol, p-hydroxybenzoic acid,a phenylalanine derivative, hardwickiicacid, strictic acid and butenolides, isreported. Aura amide was also isolatedfrom the aerial parts.A mixture of flavonoids extractedfrom the aerial parts exhibited oestrogenicityand anti-implantation activityin mice. A crude extract of the plantexhibited strong cytotoxic activity.Graptophyllum picum (L.) Griff.Synonym ◮ G. hortense Nees.Justica picta L.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ A native to Polynesia;introduced into Indian gardens.English ◮ Caricature Plant.Folk ◮ Kaalaa-aduusaa (Maharashtra).Ysjudemaram (TamilNadu).Action ◮ Leaves—emollient andresolvent; applied to swellings andulcers. (Used as a substitute forAdhatoda vasica).Grewia asiatica auct. non L.Synonym ◮ G. subinaequalis DC.Family ◮ Tiliaceae.Habitat ◮ Extensively cultivated inIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Parushaka, Parusha.Unani ◮ Phaalsaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Palisa, Thadachi.Action ◮ Fruit—stomachic, astringent,cooling. Bark—demulcent.Root bark—antirheumatic. Leaf—used in pastular eruptions.The bark contains taraxasterol, betasitosterol,erythrodiol; lupeol, betulin,lupenone, friedelin; alpha-amyrin. The

Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl. 295heartwood gave beta-sitosterol. Quercetin,kaempferol and their glycosideswere also obtained from the leaves.Ripe fruits are rich in vitamin A andC; threonine, phosphoserine, serineand taurine are the dominant aminoacids in the juice. The fruits also containsodium 22, potassium 1250, andcalcium 260 ppmFruits also gave pelargonidin-3, 5-diglucoside, quercetin, quercetin-3-0-beta-D-glucoside, naringenin and 7-0-beta-D-glucoside.The stem bark exhibited antifertilityactivity.Dosage ◮ Ripe fruit—20–50 ml juice.(CCRAS.)Grewia populifolia Vahl.Synonym ◮ G. tenax (Forsk.) Aschers&Schwf.Family ◮ Tiliaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab, Sind,Rajasthan and Western India, downto the Nilgiri Hills.Ayurvedic ◮ Gaangeru(ki). Substitutefor Gulshakari (Naagabalaa).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Achhu.Folk ◮ Gangeran.Action ◮ See G. hirsuta.The stem bark contains triterpenoids.Dosage ◮ Root—10–20 ml juice; 50–100 ml decotion. (CCRAS.)GGrewia hirsuta Vahl.Synonym ◮Family ◮G. polygama Mast.Tiliaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract fromthe Indus to Nepal up to 1,500 m,also in hills of Bihar, Orissa andTamil Nadu.Naagabalaa, Gud-Ayurvedic ◮sharkaraa.Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Gulshakari.Tavadu.Action ◮ Fruit and root—diuretic,antidiarrhoeal. Roots andleaves, crushed with sugar candy,are prescribed for spermatorrhoea.Dosage ◮ Root—50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Grewia sclerophyllaRoxb. ex G. Don.Synonym ◮ G. scabrophylla Roxb.G. obliqua auct. non-Juss.Family ◮ Tiliaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract andouter hills from Kumaon to Bhutanup to 1,200 m and in AssamAyurvedic ◮ Parushaka (relatedspecies), Dhanvana (related species)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Kadali.Folk ◮ Jangali Phaalsaa.Action ◮ Root—emollient, bechic.Used in irritable conditions of theintestines and bladder.Grewia tiliaefolia Vahl.Family ◮Tiliaceae.

296 Grewia villosa Willd.GHabitat ◮ Upper Gengetic plain, Bihar,Bengal, Central and PeninsularIndia.English ◮ Dhaman.Ayurvedic ◮ Dhanvana, Dhanurvriksha.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tarra, Unnu, Sadachi.Folk ◮ Dhaamin, Dhaaman.Action ◮ Bark—antidysenteric. Stembark—semen coagulant. Plant—used in fractures.The roots and bark gave triterpenoids.A related species, Grewia optiva,found in sub-Himalayan tract at 500–2,000 m, is also known as Dhaaman.Grewia villosa Willd.Family ◮ Tiliaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujarat,Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.English ◮ Tamthar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kullai.Folk ◮ Dhohan (Rajasthan), Jalidar(Punjab), Kharamati (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Root—antidiarrhoeal. Rootand bark—used in genitourinaryinfections, syphilis and smallpox.The methanol extract of the rootscontain beta-carboline alkaloids, harman,harmine, harmol, harmalol andharmaline.The roots are also used to treatcough.Guaiacum officinale Linn.Family ◮Zygophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Introduced from the WestIndies; grown as an ornamental.English ◮ Lignum Vitae, Tree-of-life,Pockwood tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Jivadaaru, Loha-Kaashtha.Unani ◮ Chob-hayaat.Folk ◮ Loha-lakkar.Action ◮ Antirheumatic, antiinflammatory,mild laxative,diuretic, diaphoretic, fungistatic(During the sixteenth century it wasused as a cure for syphilis.)Key application ◮ As a supportivetherapy for rheumatic complaints.(German Commission E.) TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeiareported anti-inflammatory activityin the resin.Several triterpene saponins, sapogeninsand prosapogenins have beenisolated from different parts of theplant.A triterpenoidal saponin, isolatedfrom the flowers, showed activityagainst Gram-negative bacteria. (Theherb is used as a additive to mouthwashes.)Guazuma ulmifolia Lam.Synonym ◮ G. tomentosa H. B. & K.Family ◮ Sterculiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America.Cultivated as a roadside shade treein warmer parts of the country.English ◮ Bastard Cedar.

Gymnema montanum Hook. f. 297Ayurvedic ◮ Pundraaksha, Rudraakshi(fake Rudraaksha).Siddha ◮ Rudraksham and alliednames are misnomers for thisplant. (Rukraaksha is equated withElaeocarpus ganitrus Roxb.)Action ◮ Fruit—anticatarrhal (usedin bronchitis). Bark—demulcent,sudorific. Usedinskindiseases.Seed—astringent, carminative,antidiarrhoeal.The plant gave kaempferol glycosides.Leaves contain octacosanoland taraxerol-OAC, friedelin-3-alpha-OAC, 3 beta-ol and beta-sitosterol.Bark contains friedelin, betulin andbeta-sitosterol.Guettarda speciosa Linn.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;occurs in tidal forests of SouthIndia and in Andaman Islands.(An extract of flowers, resemblingrose-water,insoldinTravancoremarkets.)Action ◮ Bark—used in chronicdysentery; also applied to woundsand abscesses.Guizotia abyssinica Cass.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical Africa.Cultivated in Madhya Pradesh,Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka andOrissa.English ◮ Nigerseed.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pey Ellu, Uch Ellu.Folk ◮ Raam-til, Kaalaa Til, Sargujaa.Action ◮ Oil from seed—antirheumatic.The seeds yield an oil (33%), a mixtureof triglycerides, lauric, palmitic,palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic andarachidic acids. The unsaponifiablematter is a mixture of stigmasterol, n-triacontane and lupeol. Seeds containlysine.Gymnema hirsutumWight & Arn.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Southern parts of UttarPradesh adjoining Madhya Pradesh,also in Bihar and Western Ghats.Folk ◮ Gurmaar (related species).Action ◮ Leaf—when chewed,temporarily paralyses the sense oftaste for sweet and bitter substances.Plant—used as stomachic, bechic,expectorant, and in male impotency,poor lactation.The leaves contain gymnemic acid.Gymnema montanum Hook. f.Family ◮ Asclepidaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats fromKonkan southwards.Folk ◮ Gurmaar (related species).Action ◮ See G. sylvertre.The leaves contain gymnemic acid.G

298 Gymnema sylvestre B. Br.GGymnema sylvestre B. Br.Family ◮Habitat ◮India.Asclepiadaceae.Central and PeninsularEnglish ◮ Australian Cow Plant,Ipecacuanha (Indian).Ayurvedic ◮ Meshashringi, Meshavishaanikaa,Meshavalli, Chhaagalshrngi.Ajashringi (also equatedwith Dolichandrone falcata andPergularia extensa).Unani ◮ Gurmaar Buuti.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kannu Minnayamkodi,Passaam, Shirukurinja.Action ◮ Leaf—antidiabetic. Stimulatesthe heart and circulatorysystem, activates the uterus. Usedin parageusia and furunculosis.Plant—diuretic, antibilious. Root—emetic, expectorant, astringent,stomachic.Gymnemagenin, the main sapogeninin the leaves, yielded 3.9–4.6% oftotal gymnemic acids.Gymnemic acids are antisweet principlesand exhibit inhibitory effect onlevels of plasma glucose.The extract of dried leaves, given todiabetic rats at a dose of 20 mg/dayper rat for 8 weeks, was found to bringabout blood glucose homoeostasis byincreasing serum insulin levels. Increasedglycoprotein level and the resultantnephropathy, retinopathy andmicro-and macro-angiopathy were alsocontrolled.The leaf extract (25–100 mg/kg),when orally administered to experimentallyinduced hyperlipidaemic ratsfor2weeks, reduced the elevated serumtriglyceride and total cholesterol ina dose-dependent manner. The efficacyand antiatherosclerotic potential ofthe extract (100 mg/kg) were comparableto that of a lipid lowering agent,clofibrate.In homoeopathy, a drug obtainedfrom the leaves and roots is prescribedfor both diabetes mellitus and insipidusGymnemic acid is reported to inhibitmelanin formation in vitro. It alsoinhibits dental plaque formation.Dosage ◮ Root, leaf—3–5 g powder;50–100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)Gymnosporia spinosa(Forsk.) Fiori.Synonym ◮ G. Montana (Roth)Benth.Maytenus senegulensis Exell.M. emarginata Ding Hou.Family ◮ Celastraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the drier partsof India.Ayurvedic ◮ Vikankata (substitute)Sruva-Vrksha (substitute),Vyaaghrapaadi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattangi, Nandunarai,Valuluvai.Folk ◮ Baikal.Action ◮ Plant—antispasmodic.Root—used in gastroenteritis anddysentery.The bark is ground to a paste and appliedwith mustard oil to kill lice in thehair. A decoction of leafy twigs is usedas a mouth wash to relieve toothache.

Gynocardia odorata R.Br. 299The leaves contain celacinnine, alpha-andbeta-amyrin, beta-amyrone,beta-sitosterol and its 3 ′ -O-glucosideand kaempferol. The extracts of theplant show cytotoxic effect on somecancers. An ointment, prepared bymixing leaf ash and purified butter, isused for sores.Gynandropsis gynandra(Linn.) Briq.Synonym ◮ G. pentaphylla DC.Cleome gynandra Linn.Family ◮ Capparidaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout warmer partsof India.Ayurvedic ◮ Tilaparni (whitevar.), (Pita or yellow-floweredvar. is equated with Cleome viscosaLinn.), Ajagandhaa, Pashugandhaa,Ugragandhaa, Puutigandhaa,Barbaraka. Suuryaavartta has beenequated with G. pentaphylla DC.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thaivelai, Nalvelai.Action ◮ Leaves and seeds—usedin the same way as mustard.Bruised leaves—rubefacient andvesicant, used as counter-irritantin headache, neuralgia, rheumaticaffections. Roots—decoction,febrifuge. Seeds—anthelmintic;externally counter-irritant. Appliedas poultice to sores with maggots.An infusion is given for coughs.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommended the use of the seedin chlorsis, chronic obstructive jaundiceand enlarged prostate.The seeds are reported to containcleomin, hexacosanol, free beta-sitosteroland kaempferol; also glucosinolates.Alcoholic extract of the whole plantexhibited anti-inflammatory activity incarrageenan-induced inflammation inrats.The medicinal properties of theseeds are attributed to the presenceof cleomin. Seeds also contain 1% tannins.Dosage ◮ Seed—1–3 g powder. (APIVol. I.) Leaf—50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Gynocardia odorata R.Br.Synonym ◮ Hydnocarpus odorataLandl.Family ◮ Flacourtiaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, KhasiHills and Sikkim.Ayurvedic ◮ Chaalmograa (substitute).Tuvaraka (var.) (Controversialsynonyms.)Unani ◮ Tukhm-e-Biranj Mograa.Folk ◮ Chaaval-mungari.Action ◮ Oil from seed used inpsoriasis, eczema, scrofula, gout,rheumatic affections.A triterpenoid ketolactone, odolactone,has been isolated from the plant.The fruit pulp is used as piscic.The seeds of G. odorata were formerly,erroneously, thought to be thesource Chaalmograa oil of commerceobtained from the seeds of Hydnocar-G

300 Gynura pseudo-china (L.) DC.Gpus kurzii, used in leprosy. Gynocardiaoil does not contain chaulmoogric orhydnocarpic acid.Gynura pseudo-china (L.) DC.Synonym ◮ G. nudicaulis Arn.Family ◮ Asteraceae, Compositae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalaya, Sikkim,Assam, and Western Ghats in TamilNadu and Kerala.Action ◮ Plant—emollient, resolvent.Used as a poultice in erysipelasand for tumours in the breast.Root—used both externally andinternally for enhancing bloodcirculation especially when bluespots and blotches result fromblows. The powdered root,mixed with tea, is given toparturient women. Leaves—usedfor poulticing pimples. The juice isused asa gargle for inflammationsof the throat.

HHabenaria edgeworthiiHook. f. ex Collett.Family ◮ Orchidaceae.Habitat ◮ Outer range of WesternHimalayas from Punjab to Kumaon.Ayurvedic ◮ Riddhi. (Tubers ofEulophia nuda Lindl. and Dioscoreabulbifera are also used as Riddhi.)Action ◮ Nervine and cardiac tonic.Habenaria intermedia D. Don.Family ◮ Orchidaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayan region.Found in Ranikhet.Ayurvedic ◮ Riddhi, Vriddhi.(Substitute: Dioscorea bulbifera.)Action ◮ Nervine and cardiac tonic.Habenaria acuminata Thw., H.goodyeroides D. Don., H. griffithii HK.are also equated with Riddhi, Vriddhi.Dosage ◮ Tuber—3–6 g powder.(CCRAS.)Haematoxylon campechianumLinn.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae, MimosaceaeHabitat ◮ Native to tropical Americaand the West Indies. Grown inIndian gardens.English ◮ Logwood, Peachwood,Compeachy tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Pattanga, Patraanga,Bakam (substitute). (Caesalpiniasappan is also equated withPattanga.)Unani ◮Buqqam, Bakam-Hindi.Action ◮ Astringent. Used for atonicdyspepsia, diarrhoea, summerdiarrhoea, dysentery, internalhaemorrhages, menorrhagia,leucorrhoea. (It imparts red colourto urine and stool. Incompatiblewith chalk or lime-water.)The wood contains about 10% haematoxylon,a red-brown phenolic dye,tannins, resin and volatile oil.Haematoxylin exhibited significantanti-inflammatoryactivityinthecarrageenan-inducedoedema test.The seed contains crude protein 29.1,pentosan 6.6, and water-soluble gum3.2%.Haplanthus verticillatus(Roxb.) Nees.Family ◮Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Hills of Deccan Peninsulaand parts of western and centralIndia.Kaalaa-Kirayaat (Maharash-Folk ◮tra).Action ◮Febrifuge, bitter tonic.

302 Hardwickia binata Roxb.HA closely related species, Haplanthustentaculatus Nees, is also knownas Kaalaa-Kiryaat. The herb is given infever.Hardwickia binata Roxb.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Dry forests of DeccanPeninsula, Central India and partsof Uttar Pradesh and Bihar.Ayurvedic ◮ Anjana.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Katudugu, Kodapalai.Action ◮ Balsam—used for sexuallytransmitted diseases. The balsamis similar to Copaiba balsam(Copaifera langsdorffii Desf.,Leguminosae) ofBrasilandisusedin leucorrhoea, chronic cystitis,gonorrhoea, combined with cubebsand sandal. The resin (not theoleo-resin) is used as diuretic.The essential oil of H. binata is nota substitute for Copaiba oil.The methanolic extract of the heartwoodyields beta-sitosterol, (+)-taxifolin,eriodictyol, (+)-catechin, (+)-epicatechinand (+)-mopanol. The phenoliccompounds are said to impartantibacterial and antifungal propertyto the herb.The bark has a good absorption capacityfor mercury from water.Hedera helix Linn.Synonym ◮ H. rhombea Sieb. & Zucc.Family ◮ Araliaceae.Habitat ◮ Hills of Tamil Nadu.Growningardensasanornamental.English ◮ Common Ivy, Bentwood.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maravalai.Action ◮ Leaf—expectorant, antispasmodic,antineuralgic, vasoconstrictive.Fruit—used in jaundice, haemptysis.Flower—antidysenteric. Leafand resin—emmenagogue. Tendertwigs—boiled in butter, used forsunburn. Extracts are used in somecosmetic preparations.Key application ◮ In catarrh ofthe upper respiratory passages,symptomatic treatment of chronicinflammatory bronchial conditions.(German Commission E.)The stem and bark gave triterpeneglycosides, named kizuta saponins.Oleanolic acid glycoside was also obtainedfrom the plant but the presenceof emetine could not be confirmedin subsequent work. The fruits gavehederagenin glycosides.Emetin has been isolated from Europeanand British plant. The fruit andhederagenin glycosides exhibit molluscacidalactivity. Emetine-containingplant is amoebicidal.Hedera nepalensis Koch.Synonym ◮ H. helix auct. non Linn.H. himalaica Tobler.Family ◮ Araliaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas; fromKashmir to Bhutan at 1,500–2,000 m and Assam at 1,350–2,000 m.

Hedychium spicatum Ham. ex Smith. 303English ◮Folk ◮Nepal Ivy.Baandaa, Bandaa, Lablab.Action ◮ Leaves and berries—cathartic, diaphoretic, febrifuge,antispasmodic, expectorant. Usedin whooping cough. Leaves—used in glandular enlargements.A decoction of the leaves is usedtopically to destroy lice in thehair. An infusion of berries isgiven in rheumatism. Gum—emmenagogue.The inflorescences contain betaamyrin,beta-sitosterol and its D-glucoside,oleanolic acid, triterpene glycosides,nepalins. Nepalins 1,2 and3 at 0.5, 0.25 and 0.125% respectivelycompletely immobilize human sperm.Plant extract exhibited antitumouractivity in vivo and in vitro againstEhrich ascites.Hedychium coronarium Koenig.Family ◮Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the moistparts of India, up to 2,000 m. Alsogrown in gardens of Assam andSouth India.English ◮Ayurvedic ◮Ginger Lily.Shati (related species).Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic,febrifuge, tranquilizer.The rhizomes gave furanoditerpene,hedychenone, an anti-inflammatoryprinciple, also cytotoxic principles aslabdane-type diterpenes.The essential oil from rhizomeshows anthelmintic and mild tranquilizingproperty. The essential oil containsalpha- and beta-pinene, limonene,carene, and its oxide, linalooland elemole in varying concentrations.The essential oil also gave borneol,methyl salicylate, eugenol and methylanthranilate.Hedychium spicatumHam. ex Smith.Synonym ◮ H. album Buch-Ham. ExWall.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Central Himalaya at 1,100–2,500 m, East India and hills ofSouth India.English ◮ Spiked Ginger Lily.Ayurvedic ◮ Shathi, Shati, Gandhashathi,Gandhapalaashi, Kapuurkachari,Suvrataa, Gandhaarikaa,Gandhavadhuu, Gandhamuulikaa.Unani ◮ Kapuurkachari.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Poolankizangu,Kichilikizangu.Folk ◮ Ban-haldi (Kumaon).Action ◮ Rhizome—carminative,spasmolytic, hepatoprotective,anti-inflammatory, antiemetic,antidiarrhoeal, analgesic, expectorant,antiasthmatic, emmenagogue,hypoglycaemic, hypotensive,antimicrobial, anthelmintic, insectrepellent.The rhizome shows hypotensive effectin dogs at low doses, lowers bloodpressure in high doses.H

304 Hedyotis corymbosa (Linn.) Lam.HEtOH (50%) extract—anti-inflammatoryand hypoglycaemic; gave encouragingresults in tropical pulmonaryeosinophilia in clinical studies.Alcoholic extract of the plant—vasodilator,mild hypotensive and antisepticin animals. Essential oil fromrhizome—mild tranquilizer in malealbino rats; antimicrobial.Rhizomegavesitosterolanditsglucoside,a furanoid diterpene—hedychenoneand 7-hydroxyhedychenone.The essential oil contains cineole,gamma-terpinene, limonene, betaphellandrene,p-cymene, linalool andbeta-terpineol as major constituents.The oil inhibits the growth of severalfungi. The ethanol (95%) extractshowed antibacterial activity. The 50%extract showed antimalarial activityin vitro against Plasmodium bergheistrain.Dosage ◮ Rhizome—1–3 g powder.(API Vol. I.)Hedyotis corymbosa(Linn.) Lam.Synonym ◮ Oldenlandia corymbosaLinn.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ A weed in wet, low landsand in cultivated fields.Ayurvedic ◮ Kshetraparpata (used inKerala as Parpataka).Action ◮ Purifies blood, improvesdigestion, stimulates action of liver.The presence of caffeine and fumaricacid has been reported in H. corymbosa.Iridoidoglucosides have been isolatedfrom H. diffusa Willd. The plant isreported to have immunopotentiationactivity and has been used in Chinato treat some tumours. An aqueousextract of the plant yielded a polysaccharidecomposed of rhamnose, arabinose,xylose, mannose, galactose andglucose.Hedyotis herbacea Linn., synonymOldenlandia herbacea Roxb. is alsoused in Kerala as Parpata, Parpataka.See Fumaria indica.Helianthus annuus Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to America.Cultivated in India.English ◮ Sunflower.Ayurvedic ◮ Suurajmukhi, Suuryaavarta.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Suryakanti.Action ◮ Seeds—build up physicalendurance and resistance againstdiseases; a decoction is usedin coughs and colds, bronchial,laryngeal and pulmonary affections,whooping cough, also as a febrifugeand diuretic.The seeds contain a fatty oil (37–48%), rich in polyunsaturated acids(linoleic 70%, oleic 20%). The oil alsocontains tocopherols (alpha-type 92%of the total) and phytosterol (betasitosterol154 mcg/100 g). In Europeand USA, several hybrids produce oilsrich in oleic acid. Sunflower oil is reportedto decrease the risk of coronaryand arterial diseases.

Heliotropium indicum Linn. 305Extracted oil from dehulled seeds(chlorogenic acid, present in hulls,interferes with lipid metabolism) reducedserum and hepatic cholesterolin healthy women.The tubers of Helianthus tuberosusLinn., a related species, consists mainlyof inulin. The dried tubers can beutilized in diabetic products. The tuberconcentrate as food diminishes therisk of developing arteriosclerosis. Itis advantageous in the diet of patientswith gout, chronic renal diseases, andfor obesity control.Helicteres isora Linn.Family ◮ Sterculiaceae.Habitat ◮ Dry forests throughout thecountry.English ◮ East Indian Screw tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Aavartani, Aavartphalaa,Aavartaki.Unani ◮ Marorphali.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Valampiri.Action ◮ Pods and bark—antidiarrhoeal,astringent, antibilious. Barkand root—antigalactic, demulcent,expectorant (used in cough andasthma). Leaf—paste used againstskin diseases. Pods—anthelmintic.Used in fever due to cold. Seeds—aqueous extract administered incolic and dysentery.The plant contains a 4-quinolone alkaloid,malatyamine, an antidiarrhoealprinciple.The seeds gave diosgenin. Root gavecytotoxic principles—cucurbitacin Band iso-cucurbitacin B. Leaves yieldedas ester tetratriacontanyl—tetratriacontanoatealong with tetratriacontanoicacid, tetratriacontanol and sitosterol.Dosage ◮ Fruit, bark—3–6 g powder;50–100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)Heliotropium indicum Linn.Family ◮ Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Scorpion Tail.Ayurvedic ◮ Hastishundi Shrihastini,Vrischikaali.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thaelkodukku.Action ◮ Plant—diuretic, astringent,emollient, vulnerary. Used as a localapplication for ulcers, wounds,sores, gum boils and skin affections.Decoctionofleavesisusedinurticaria and fevers; that of root incoughs. Flowers—emmenagoguein small doses, abortifacient inlarge doses. Masticated seeds—stomachic.Aerial parts of the plant containalkaloids—indicine (principal base),echinatine, supinine, heleurine, heliotrine,lasiocarpine and lasiocarpine-N-oxide. Aerial parts and root gavean anticancer principle—indicine-Noxide.The aqueous and alcohol extracts ofthe plant possess oxytocic activity. Theroots contain significant amounts ofestradiol, a sex hormone.The inflorescences are used by tribalsfor scorpion bite.H

306 Helleborus niger Linn.HHelleborus niger Linn.Family ◮Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to sub-alpine woodsin Southern and Eastern Europe.GrowninIndiangardens.English ◮ Black Hellebore, ChristmasRose.Ayurvedic ◮ Khuraasaani Kutaki.Unani ◮ Kharbaq Siyah, Kutaki.Action ◮ Digitalis-like actionin cardiac disorders, drasticpurgative, abortifacient, diuretic,local anaesthetic, narcotic.The rhizome contains cardiac glycosides;helleborin, helleborein, hellebrinand others based on helleborigenin.Helleborin has a burning, acridtaste and is narcotic. Helleborein hasa sweetish taste and is a highly activecardiac poison. Helleborin andveratrin (steroidal saponins), hellebrinor helleborein (steroid glycoside)are main constituents of the root andleaves. The plant irritates mucousmembranes.A related species, Helleborus virdisLinn. (Bear’s Foot, Green Hellebore) isknown as Kaali Kutaki and Krishnabhedi.The plant contains magnoflorineand corytuberine. The rootsand rhizomes gave hellebrin, desglucohellebrin,hellebrigenin, bufatetraenolide,beta-ecdysterone and 5beta-hydroxyecdysterone.Hemerocallis fulva Linn.Family ◮Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalaya, Khasi Hills;cultivated in Indian gardens.English ◮ Common Yellow Day-lily,Tawny Day-lily, Orange Day-lily.Action ◮ Flower—analgesic, especiallyin child birth; blood purifier.(Flowers are sold in Chinese foodshops as Gum-Tsoy or Gum-Jum.)Hemerocallin, a neurotoxic principle,has been found in Hemerocallissp. The plant gave amino acid—oxypinnatanine.Hemidesmus indicus (L.) R. Br.Synonym ◮ Periploca indica Linn.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae, Periplocaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India;commoninBengal,Maharashtraand extending to Travancore.English ◮ Indian Sarsaparilla (whitevar.). Sarsaparilla root is equatedwith Smilax sp. in Western herbal.Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta Saarivaa, Anantmuula,Gopi, Gopaa, Gopakanyaa,Gopavalli, Gopasutaa, Krishodari,Sphotaa, Utpalsaarivaa, Kapuuri,Dugdhgarbhaa.Unani ◮ Ushbaa Hindi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nannaari, Suganthipala.Action ◮ Blood purifier, antisyphilitic,antileucorrhoeic, galactogenic,antidiarrhoeal, antirheumatic,febrifuge, alterative. Roots usedagainst gonorrhoea, leucoderma,bleeding piles, jaundice anddysentery.

Heracleum candicans Wall. ex DC. 307Key application ◮ Smilax sp.—in skindiseases and urinary infections.(German Commission E includedSmilax sp. among unapprovedherbs.)Hemidesmus indicus does not containthe same saponins or other principalconstituents which are found insarsaparilla. (Tyler’s Honest Herbal.)The root contains coumarino-lignoids,hemidesmine, hemidesmin-1,2. The stem contains pregnane glycosides,hemidine, hemidescine, emidineand indicine, a triterpene lactone, a lupanone,besides lupeol acetate, sitosteroland hexadecanoic acid and severalhydroxy- methoxybenzaldehydes.Aqueous extract of the root is bacteriostaticagainst Mycobacterium leprae.Dosage ◮ Root—20–30 g fordecoction. (API Vol. I.)Hemidictyum ceterach L.Synonym ◮ Ceterach officinarumWilld.Asplenium ceterach L.Family ◮ Athyriaceae, Polypodiaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalaya, fromKashmirtoGarhwal,upto3,000m.Action ◮ Fern—diuretic, astringent;used for diseases of the urinarytract, infirmities of spleen, also fortreating jaundice.The plant contains caffeic acid, neohesperidin,kaempferol-3, 7-diglucoside,chlorogenic acid and quercetol-3-glucoside. The leaves gave methylesters of the acids—myristic, palmitic,palmitoleic, stearic, oleic, linoleic andarachidic. Pyrocatechol, tannins, flavonoidsand amino acids were alsopresent.Hemionites arifolia(Burm. f) Moore.Family ◮ Adiantaceae.Habitat ◮ Plains and mountains ofSouth India up to 1,200., and inWest Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.English ◮ Mule Fern.Folk ◮ Raamabaanam (AndhraPradesh), Chakuliya (Bengal).Action ◮ Fonds—antibacterial, usedin burns and as febrifuge.Heracleum candicansWall. ex DC.Synonym ◮ H. nepalense D. Don.H. lanatum Michx.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Chamba, Kulu, Jammu& Kashmir, Bushahr, Garhwal andKumaon Hills.English ◮ Cowparsnip.Folk ◮ Kaindal (Kashmir),Gandhraayana (Garhwal).Action ◮ Fruit—stimulant, nervinetonic, spasmolytic. Heraclenin(active principle)—hypoprothrombinaemic.Essential oil from the fruits is moderatelyantimicrobial.H

308 Herniaria glabra Linn.HFuranocoumarins present in thewhole fruit and leaves are psoralen,xanthotoxin and bergapten. Roots alsocontain furanocoumarins.The fruits of H. concanense Dalz.contain a coumarin which is effectiveagainst dermatophytosis. The fruitsof H. regins Wall. ex DC. are usedfor cough and bronchitis, also for urinaryconcretions in Siddha medicine.H. thomsoni C. B. Clarke (Kashmirand Himachal Pradesh) also containsa coumarin; the fruit showed nonspecificspasmolytic activity equipotent topapaverine.Herniaria glabra Linn.Family ◮ Illecebraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout Europe.Introduced into Indian gardens.English ◮ Rupture-Wort.Action ◮ Plant—astringent, diuretic,antimicrobial, anticatarrhal. Aninfusion is used principally forbladder complaints for ruptures.The plant gave a flavonic glycoside,rutoside; coumarins, herniarin andumbelliferone, and saponins.A related species, H. hirsuta L. (Himalaya,from Kashmir to Kumaon upto 3,000 m) gave umbelliferone, scopoletinand herniarin.Heterophragma roxburghii DC.Synonym ◮ H. quadriloculare (Roxb.)D. Schum.Family ◮ Bignoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka, Tamil Nadu.Ayurvedic ◮ Waarasa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Barokalagoru.Folk ◮ Pullunga, Paatang (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Tar extracted from wood—used in skin diseases. Leaf juice—applied externally on toe sores andin chilblain.The flowers gave hentriacontane andallantoin; the leaves contain ursolicacid and sitosterol. The seeds containa saponin (rhamnoside), lupeol, betasitosterol,stigmasterol and cubulin.The essential oil from flowers exhibitsantimicrobial activity.Hibiscus abelmoschus Linn.Synonym ◮ Abelmoschus moschatusMedic.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmerparts and hilly regions of India; alsocultivated.English ◮ Musk Seed, Muskmallow,Ambette Seed.Ayurvedic ◮ Lataakasturi, Lataakasturikaa,Kattaphala, Katuka.Unani ◮ Mushkdaanaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kasturi-vendai.Action ◮ Seeds—diuretic, antispasmodic,stomachic, nervine (nervousdebility, hysteria and other nervousdisorders). Used externally for skindiseases and itch. Mucilage made

Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn. 309from the root and leaves is prescribedin venereal diseases, urinarydischarges and painful micturition.Seeds, steeped in water, are used forasthma, cold, flu.Fatty oil of seeds contains phospholipids—alphacephalin, phosphatidylserineand its plasmalogen and phosphatidylcholineplasmalogen. Absolutecontains farnesol and ambrettolicacid lactones.The seeds contain chiefly 2-trans,6-trans-farnesyl acetate, 2-cis, 6-transfarnesyl acetate and ambrettolide. Theleaves contain beta-sitosterol and itsbeta-D-glucoside.Dosage ◮ Seed—2–4 g powder. (APIVol. IV.)Hibiscus cannabinus Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical Americaand Africa; cultivated in WestBengal, Andhra Pradesh, Assam,Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,Tamil Nadu, Bihar and Punjab.English ◮ Bimlipatam Jute, Kenaf,Mesta, Deccan Hemp.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pulichhai, Pulimanji,Kasini.Folk ◮ Patsan, Pitwaa. Ambaadi(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Seed—nervine tonic,analgesic. Leaf—purgative. Thejuice of flowers, mixed with sugarand black pepper, is given forbiliousness.The leaves contain flavonoids, includingrutin and isoquercitrin; kaempferol;polyphenols. The flowers gavemyricetin glucoside; the root containspolyphenols, also proanthocyanidins.The seeds gave phosphonolipids.Hibiscus mutabilis Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China; plantedin the hedges of gardens.English ◮ Cotton-Rose, Chinese-Rose, Confederate Rose.Ayurvedic ◮ Sthala-Padam, Sthal-Kamal.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Irratai-vellaichembarattam,Sembarattai.Action ◮ Flower—used in pectoraland pulmonary affections. Leafand flower—expectorant, bechic,anodyne. Used in menorrhagia,dysuria, swellings, fistulae, woundsand burns.The flowers contain quercetin,kaempferol, betulinic acid, hexyl stearate,tetratriacontanol, nonacosane,stigmasta-3, 7-dione, stigmasta-4-eneoneand beta-sitosterol. Flowers collectedin the morning gave no anthocyanin;maximum anthocyanin isfound in the afternoon.Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of China; grown ingardens throughout India.H

310 Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn.HEnglish ◮ Rose-of-China, Shoeflower,Chinese Hibiscus.Ayurvedic ◮ Japaa, Javaa, Odrapushpa,Rudrapushpa, Arunaa.Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Gul-e-Gurhal.Semparuthi.Action ◮ Flower—used in impotency,bronchial catarrh. Flowerand bark—emmenagogue. Leaf—stimulates expulsion of placentaafter childbirth; laxative, anodyne.Flower and root—used inmenorrhagia.The plant contains the cyclopropanoids,methyl sterculate, methyl-2-hydroxysterculate, 2-hydroxysterculate,malvalate and beta-sitosterol.The major anthocyanin in the floweris cyanidin 3-sophoroside. The flowernectar is rich in amino acids, mainlyaspartic acid and asparagin. Duringpollination, the amino acid concentrationincreases substantially.Flower powder exhibited anti-inflammatoryactivity in male albinorats with carrageenan-induced rat pawoedema. The aqueous extract of theplant showed antitumour activityagainst sarcoma 180 ascites.An aqueous extract of flowers reducedthe duration of oestrus cycle inexperimental albino rabbits. The alcoholicextract of flowers showed antiimplantationactivity. The benzene extractof flowers, on oral administration,terminated pregnancy in experimentalanimals.Flower buds are used in the treatmentof vaginal and uterine discharges.Oral administration of flower extractto rats affected spermatogenesisand endocrine function of testis.In diabetic patients, a flower bud isgiven daily up to 10 days or until thelevel of blood sugar is reduced to tolerablelimits.The white-flowered var. of Japan(cultivated all over India in garden) isequated with Hibiscus syriacus Linn.(Rose of Sharon, Shrubby Althaea).The white flower is an oriental drugused as demulcent and antidiarrhoeal.The bud yields mucilage which consistsmainly of partially acetylated acidicpolysaccharides. The aqueous extractof the petals causes vasorelaxation ofthe isolated rat arota via both endothelium-dependentand -independentmechanisms. The petals contain anthocyaninpigments.The cortex and bark exhibit antifungalacitivity.The bark gave canthin-6-one anda fatty acid fraction consisting of lauric,myristic and palmitic acids.Dosage ◮ Flower—10–20 g paste.(CCRAS.)Hibiscus sabdariffa Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the West Indies;now cultivated in Uttar Pradesh,Andhra Pradesh, West Bengal,Bihar, Punjab, Assam and TamilNadu.English ◮ Roselle, Jamaican Sorrel,Natal Sorrel, Red Sorrel.Ayurvedic ◮ Ambashtthaki.

Hippophae rhamnoides Linn. 311Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivappu Kashmakki,Pulichai-keerai, Gogu, SeemaiKaseru.Folk ◮ Laal-ambaadi, Patavaa,Patsan.Action ◮ Digestive, choleretic,antibilious, laxative, diuretic,hypotensive, antiscorbutic. Usedas a cardiac and nervine tonic fordisorders of circulation, also forcalcified arteries.Key application ◮ Flowers—usedfor loss of appetite, for colds,catarrhs of the upper respiratorytract and stomach, for disordersof circulation. (Included amongunapproved herbs by GermanCommission E.)The seeds contain sterols, including3.2% ergosterol; leaves containsitosterol-beta-D-galactoside. Flowerscontain myricetin, kaempferol andquercetin, but did not contain free mutagenicflavonol aglycons.The aqueous extract of flower budshas been reported to decrease bloodpressure, cause relaxation of rat uterus.Succulent sepals and leaves—hypotensive,antimicrobial and anthelmintic.Oil and unsapanofiable matter—antibacterial,antifungal.Dosage ◮III.)Root—5–10 g. (API Vol.Hibiscus surattensis Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmerparts of India.Ayurvedic ◮Folk ◮Ran Bhindi.Kishli-Keerai (Tamil Nadu).Action ◮ Flower—emollient,pectoral. Stem and leaf—used inurethritis and venereal diseases.Petals (yellow part) gave gossypitrinand gossypetin; the purple part gavecyanidin, delphinidin and pelargonidin.Hippophae rhamnoides Linn.Family ◮Elaeagnaceae.Habitat ◮ North-west Himalayas at2,350–5,000 m.English ◮ Seabuckthorn, Sand Thorn.Folk ◮ Dhurchuk, Chumaa, Tarwaa(Uttar Pradesh), Sirmaa (Punjab,Ladakh).Action ◮ Fruit—astringent, antidiarrhoeal,stomachic, antitussive,antihaemorrhagic.Sea Buckthorn preparations are usedinternally for stomach ulcer, duodenalulcer and other illnesses of the alimentaryorgans; externally in cases ofburns, bedsores and other skin complicationsinduced by the treatment withX-rays and other radiations.The berries contain polyphenols,3,4-dihydroxy benzoic acid and p-coumaric acid. They are an importantsource of vitamins for people living incold, long winter regions; contain highconcentration of vitamin A (carotene30–40 mg), B1, B2, B6, C (50–600 mg)and E (160 mg/100 g).H

312 Hiptage benghalensis Kurz.HThe plant is an effective antioxidantand shows protective effect onsmooth muscles of rabbits in vitro. Themethanolic extract of the berry showedscavenging activity on chemically generatedsuperoxide radicals.The leaves contain flavonoids, isorhamnetinand astragalin; the barkgave serotonin.Hiptage benghalensis Kurz.Synonym ◮ H. madablota Gaertn.Family ◮ Malpighiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmerparts of Maharashtra, Konkan,Karnataka and other parts ofIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Atimukta, Atimuktaka,Maadhavi, Vaasanti, Pundrika,Mandaka, Vimukta, Kaamuka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Madhavi, Vasandagala-malligai.Action ◮ Kernel of seeds is prescribedfor reducing abdominal girth(obesity). Leaves—used in chronicrheumatism, asthma and skindiseases. Bark—used in bronchialasthma.The stem and its bark contain friedelin,epi-friedelinol, octacosanol, alphaamyrin,beta-sitosterol and its beta-Dglucoside.The root bark gave a nitrogenousglucoside, hiptagin, identicalwith endecaphyllin and a glucosylxanthone, mangiferin.Dosage ◮ Fruit, seed, root—powder3–5 g; paste 5–10 g. (CCRAS.)Holarrhena antidysenterica(Linn.) Wall.Synonym ◮ H. pubescens (Buch.-Ham.) Wall. ex G. Don.Family ◮Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ The tropical Himalayas,going up to an altitude of 1,100 m.Also found throughout many forestsof India, in Travancore, Assam andUttar Pradesh.English ◮ Easter tree, Ivory tree,Tellicherry Bark.Ayurvedic ◮ Kutaja, Girimallikaa,Kaalinga, Kalingaka, Indravriksha,Shakra, Vatsa, Vatsaka,Shakraahvya. Indrayava, Indrabija,Vatsabija (seed). Kurchi (bark).Unani ◮ Inderjo talkh, Teewaaj-e-Khataai.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kudasappaalai-pattai,-vidai (bark, seed).Action ◮ Root and bark—used inamoebic dysentery. Bark—astringent,anthelmintic, amoebicidal,diuretic. Used in colic, dyspepsia,piles, diseases of the skin andspleen. Seed—antibilious. Usedfor promoting conception, alsofor toning up vaginal tissues afterdelivery.The bark contains the alkaloids,regholarrhenine-A, -B, -C, -D, -E and-F; pubescine, norholadiene, pubescimine,kurchinin, kurchinine, kurchinidine,holarrifine, holadiene,kurchilidine, kurchamide, kurcholessine,kurchessine, conessine, cones-

Holostemma annularis (Roxb.) K. Schum. 313simine and isoconessimine, and thesteroidal compounds kurchinicin andholadyson.The alkaloid conessine is used asa therapeutic drug for the treatmentof dysentery and helminthic disorders.Conessine and conimine inhibited thegrowth of Shigella sonnei, S. flexneriand Salmonella enteritidis strains invitro. In chronic amoebiasis, Bi-iodidecompound of total alkaloids, givenorally, compare favourably with emetineBi-iodide.The plant possesses potent immunostimulantproperty.The Kurchi seeds are sold as a substitutefor Strophanthus sp. seeds in Indianmarket. (Seeds of Strophanthussp. contain a toxic glucoside, strophanthin,and are poisonous.)Dosage ◮ Stem bark—20–30 g fordecoction. (API Vol. I); seed—3–6gpowder;20–30gfordecoction.(API Vol. III.)Holoptelea integrifolia Planch.Family ◮Ulmaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout greater partsof India, also grown in gardens.Ayurvedic ◮Prakirya.Siddha/Tamil ◮(bark)Chirbilva, Putika,Avil thol, Ayil pattaiAction ◮ Bark—internally andexternally used in rheumatism.Stem bark paste—in scabies.Seeds—used topically on ringworm.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends dried fruits in polyuriaand other urinary disorders.The stem bark contains the triterpenoidalfatty acid esters, holoptelin-A(epi-friedelinol palmitate) and holoptelin-B(epi-friedelinol stearate), friedelinand epi-friedelinol.The powdered bark exhibited lipolyticaction and mobilized fat from adiposetissues in rats and consequentlyhelped in the reduction of obesity.Dosage ◮ Dried fruit—1–3 g. (APIVol. III.)Holostemma annularis(Roxb.) K. Schum.Synonym ◮ H. ada-kodien Schult.H. rheedii Wall.Asclepias annularis Roxb.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas andWestern Peninsula. Cultivated inDharmapuri district of Tamil Nadu.Ayurvedic ◮ Ark-pushpi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Palay-keerai.Action ◮ Roots—used in orchitis,spermatorrhoea, also as laxative.Roots are used as Jivanti in Kerala(See also Leptadenia reticulata.)The tubers contain protein (5.5–10%). It gave alpha-amyrin, lupeol andbeta-sitosterol. Aspartic acid, glycine,serine, threonine and valine were detectedchromatographically.The bark gave alpha-amyrin, lupeoland beta-sitosterol.H

314 Homonoia riparia Lour.HHomonoia riparia Lour.Synonym ◮ex Roth.Family ◮Adelia neriifolia HeyneEuphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern, Central andPeninsular India, up to 700 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Paashaana-bheda(substitute), Kshudra Paashaanabheda.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Alari.Action ◮ Root—diuretic, spasmolytic,antilithic. Used for urinarydischarges. Leaf and stem—depurative. Leaf and fruit—used inskin diseases.The roots gave alpha-spinasteryl acetate.The fatty acid from the fat ofroots gave myristic, palmitic, stearicand oleic acids.Hordeum vulgare Linn.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated as food cropin Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal,Bihar, Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan,Haryana, Punjab, Himachal Pradeshand Jammu and Kashmir.English ◮ BarleyAyurvedic ◮ Yava, Hayeshtha,Hayapriya, Shuka-dhaanya, Tikshnashuka.Unani ◮ Barley, Jao Shaeer.Siddha ◮ Yavam. Saambaluppu (ash).Action ◮ Barley—nutritive anddemulcent during convalescenceand in cases of bowel inflammationand diarrhoea. Protects immunesystem.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends barley in urinary disorders,muscular rigidity, chronic sinusitis,cough, asthma, lipid disorderand obesity.Juice of young barley leaves—7 timesricher in vitamin C than oranges, 5timesricherinironthanspinach,25times richer in potassium than wheat;high in SOD (superoxide dismutase),an enzyme that slows ageing of cells.The nutritional quality of the barleydepends on beta-glucan fraction ofthe grain. Beta-glucan-enriched fractionproduced cholesterol-lowering effectin hamsters.Naked barley extracts have beenfound to selectively inhibit cyclohexanaseactivity and may be useful asa therapeutic drug for treating thrombosisand atherosclerosis.Ethanol extract of young greenleaves exhibits antioxidant activity attributedto a flavonoid, 2 ′′ -O-glucosylisovitexin.It also exhibits anti-inflammatoryand antiallergic activities. Theleaves contain an indole alkaloid, gramine,which exhibits antibacterialproperties.Dosage ◮ Dried fruit—100–200 g.(API Vol. II); dried plant—10–20 g.(API Vol. IV.)Hovenia dulcis Thunb.Synonym ◮Family ◮H. acerba Lindl.Rhamnaceae.

Humulus lupulus Linn. 315Habitat ◮ Native to China. Nowcultivated in Kumaon, Sikkim andWest Bengal.English ◮ Japanese Raisin tree, Coraltree.Folk ◮ Sikkaa.Action ◮ Fruit—diuretic; relievesintoxication due to wine.The leaves and root bark gave triterpenesaponins. Root bark also gavepeptide alkaloids.The fruit extract contains potassiumnitrate and potassium malate and isstrongly diuretic. The seeds containbeta-carboline alkaloid, perlolyrine.A toothpaste, containing extracts of thefruitsandseedsasoneoftheingredients,has been patented for controllingdental caries (in Japan).Hugonia mystax Linn.Family ◮Linaceae.Habitat ◮ Konkan and North Kanara,throughout dry forests of TamilNadu.Folk ◮ Kaakibeeraa, Kansamaara.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Agori. Motirakkanni.Action ◮ Root—anti-inflammatory,febrifuge; disperses swellings.Humulus lupulus Linn.Family ◮ Cannabinaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe andAsia. Conditions for its successfulcultivation are reported to exist inKashmir and parts of HimachalPradesh.English ◮ Hops.Unani ◮ Hashish-ut-Dinaar.Action ◮ Flowers—sedative, hypnotic,nervine tonic, diuretic,spasmolytic on smooth muscle,analgesic, astringent. Used fornervous diseases, intestinal cramps,menopause, insomnia, neuralgiaand nervous diarrhoea. Also asa tonic in stomach and liver affections.As a blood cleanser, the rootis used like sarsaparilla.Key application ◮ In mood disturbances,such as restlessnessand anxiety, sleep disturbances.(German Commission E. ESCOP.)The British Herbal Compendium andThe British Herbal Pharmacopoeia reportedherb’s action as sedative, soporific,spasmolytic and aromatic bitter,and indicated its use for excitability,restlessness, disorders of sleep and lackof appetite.Hop cones consist of the wholedried female inflorescences of Humuluslupulus.Hop contains bitter principles—lupulin containing humulon, lupulonand valerianic acid; volatile oil (0.3–1.0%) including humulene; flavonoidsincluding xanthohumole; polyphenolictannins, asparagin, oestrogenic substances.Bitter principles stimulate the digestivesystem. Valerianic acid is sedative.The resin components, lupulon andhumulon are antiseptic against Grampositivebacteria. Asparagin is diuretic.Research suggested that the anti-H

316 Hura crepitans Linn.Hspasmodic effect is stronger than thesedative, and hops also possess antihistaminicand anti-oxytocic properties.(Cases of amenorrhoea and dysmenorrhoeaare treated with hops.)Hop extracts exert different effectson CNS in mice. They show hypothermic,hypnotic, sedative, muscle relaxingand spontaneous locomotor activities,besides potentiating pentobarbitalanaesthesia in mice.Humulone inhibited induced inflammationin mice.The dried strobila containing humuloneandlupuloneshowedantidiabeticactivity in experimental rats.Hop mash or extract is used in thepreparation of toothpaste for inhibitingGram-positive bacteria and in hairpreparations for preventing dandruffformation. It is also used in skinlighteningcreams.Hura crepitans Linn.Family ◮Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;introduced into India.English ◮ Sandbox tree, MonkeyDinner-bell.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mullarasanam.Action ◮ Seed, bark and fresh latex—emetocathartic, antileprotic. Seed—insecticidal, piscidal.In South America, a poultice madefrom the latex is used for treating cutaneousleishmaniasis. Highly irritantand tumour-promoting deterpene esters(DTC) have been detected in thelatex. Latex gave the triterpenes, 24-methylene cycloartanol, cycloartanoland butyrospermol. Sap of the plantgave a diterpene hexaol ester, huratoxin,and a glycolipoprotein, crepitin.Hydnocarpus kurzii (King) Warb.Synonym ◮ H. heterophylla auct.non-Bl.Taractogenos Kurzii King.Family ◮ Flacourtiaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam and Tripura.English ◮ Chalmogra.Ayurvedic ◮ Tuvaraka (relatedspecies, substitute for H. laurifolia.)Unani ◮ Chaalmograa, Tukhm-e-Biranj Mograa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Niradi-muttu.Action ◮ Antileprotic, dermatic,febrifuge, sedative. Used parenterallyfor leprosy; also for psoriasis,eczema and dermatitis.The plant is a source of chaulmoograoil (Oleum Chaulmoograe which containshydnocarpic, chaulmoogric, gorlic,oleic, palmitic acids and lower homologuesof hydnocarpic acid. The oilmixed with neem oil or oil of Psoraleacorylifolia is used in leprosy.In mice, intraperitoneal and subcutaneousadministration of chaulmoografatty acids demonstrated antimicrobialactivity against Mycobacteriumleprae. (PDR.)Hydnocarpus laurifolia(Dennst.) Sleumer.Synonym ◮H. wightiana Blume.

Hygrophila auriculata (K. Schum.) Heine. 317Family ◮Habitat ◮English ◮Flacourtiaceae.Western Ghats.Soorty Oil tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Tuvaraka, Katu-Kapittha, Kushtavairi, Garudaphala,Chaalmograa.Unani ◮ Chaalmograa, Tukhm-e-Biranj Mograa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maravattai, Niradimuttu.Action ◮ Seed oil—antileprotic,anti-inflammatory, antirheumatic.The seed oil gave chemical constituentssimilar to Hydnocarpus kuzii,and contain the flavonolignan, hydnowightin,hydnocarpin and neohydnocarpin.Hydnocarpin showed good antiinflammatoryand anti-neoplastic activityin mice, in vivo. Cytotoxicityagainst the growth of murine and humantissue cultured cells was also observed.The stem bark and leaves containtriterpenes, acelylbetulinic, betulinic,ursolic and acetylursolic acids.Dosage ◮ Seed—3–5 g powder; oil—5–10 drops. (CCRAS.)Hydrocotyle javanica Thunb.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, Khasi Hillsand Western Ghats.Ayurvedic ◮ Manduukaparni (relatedspecies).Folk ◮ Brahma-manduuki (Sikkim).Action ◮ Used as a substitutefor Centella asiatica, as a bloodpurifier (in cutaneous diseases);for indigestion, dysentery andnervousness.The plant is used for treating leucoderma.Hydrocotyle rotundifolia Roxb.(throughout India, up to 2,350 m) isalso equated with Manduukaparni.Hydrolea zeylanica Vahl.Family ◮ Hydrophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in moistand swampy places.Ayurvedic ◮ Wrongly equated withLaangali. (Laangali is equated withGloriosa superba Linn.) Known asIsh-languulia (West Bengal).Action ◮ Leaves and paste—used for callous ulcers. Plant—antiprotozoal.Hygrophila auriculata(K. Schum.) Heine.Synonym ◮ H. schulli (Ham.) MR &SM Almeida.H. spinosa T. anders.Asteracantha longifolia (L.) Nees.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India alongthe banks of fresh or stagnant waterditches and swampy grounds, mixedwith marshy grasses and sedges.Ayurvedic ◮ Kokilaaksha, Kokilaakshi,Ikshuraka, Ikshura, Kshuraka,Bikshu, Kaakekshu.H

318 Hymenodictyon excelsum Wall.HUnani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Taalmakhaanaa.Neermulli.Action ◮ Leaves, roots and seeds—diuretic; used for diseases of theurinogenital tract, spermatorrhoea.Seeds promote sexual vigour, arrestabortion and cure diseases dueto vitiated blood. Also used forarthritis and oedema.The seeds contain large amountsof tenacious mucilage and potassiumsalts, which may be responsible for thediuretic property of seeds. The seedsalso contain linoleic acid (71%), besidesdiastase, lipase and protease.EtOH (50%) extract of the plant isspasmolytic and hypotensive.The chloroform soluble fraction ofethanolic extract of aerial parts exhibitedpromising hepatoprotective activityin albino rats.The plant contains lupeol, stigmasteroland hydrocarbons.Dosage ◮ Seed—3–6 g powder;ash—1–3 g. (CCRAS.)Hymenodictyon excelsum Wall.Synonym ◮ H. orixense (Roxb)Mobb.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Central India and WesternPeninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhramar-chhalikaa,Ugragandhaa (a confusing synonym).Bhringa-vrksha (provisionalsynonym).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sagappu, VelleiKadambu, Peranjoli.Folk ◮ Bhaulan, Bhramarchhali,Bhuurkunda.Action ◮ Bark—astringent, febrifuge,antiperiodic (especially for tertianague).The stem bark contains scopoletinand its apioglucoside, hymexelsin(yield0.12%). Thepresenceofglucose,fructose, galactose and severalamino acids, alanine, arginine, cystine,glycine, leucine; besides fatty acids,beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol is alsoreported from the bark.Roots contain several quinones.Hyoscyamus muticus Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ North-western Himalayas.Cultivated on limited scale in NorthIndian plains.English ◮ Egyptian Henbane.Ayurvedic ◮ Paarsika-yavaani(related species), Turushkaa.Unani ◮ Ajwaayin Khuraasaani,Shuukraan, Tukhm-bang.Folk ◮ Vajra-bhang.Action ◮ Sedative.The leaves and flowering tops containhigher concentration of tropanealkaloids than other species of Hyoscyamus,used as a source of hyoscine.Hyoscyamus niger Linn.Family ◮Solanaceae.

Hypericum perforatum Linn. 319Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and Asia.Occurs in the temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Garhwal.English ◮ Indian Henbane, BlackHenbane.Ayurvedic ◮ Paarsika-yavaani,Yavaani, Madkaarini, Turushkaa,Khuraashaanikaa, KhuraasaaniAjwaayin.Unani ◮ Barz-ul-Banj, KhuraasaaniAjwaayin.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Paarseekayavani,Khurasani Omam.Action ◮ Sedative. Narcotic drug.Used for convulsions. Actionsimilar to Belladonna.Key application ◮ In spasms ofgastrointestinal tract. (GermanCommission E, The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)The leaves and flowering tops containtropane alkaloids, 0.045–00.14%,the principal ones being hyoscyamineand hyoscine. The alkaloids are parasympatholytic,with similar actions toBelladonna, although with less cerebralexcitement.The seeds show inhibitory activityagainst digestive enzyme, lipase in vitro.Contraindicated in tachycardias,prostatic hyperplasia, narrow-angleglaucoma, acute pulmonary oedema,stenosis of gastrointestinal tract, magacolon.Dosage ◮ Seed—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Hypecoum leptocarpumHook. f. & Thoms.Family ◮ Papaveraceae.Habitat ◮ Mediterranean region andtemperate Asia. (Allied species: H.pendulum Linn. and H. procumbensLinn., found in Peshavar, Multan,Waziristan and Baluchistan).Occurs in Sikkim.Folk ◮ Zirgulaki, Waziri.Action ◮ Used in stomachache. Juiceof the plant has the same effect asopium. Leaves diaphoretic. Plant—narcotic.The whole plant contains protopine(0.19) as the major alkaloid.Hypericum perforatum Linn.Family ◮ Hypericaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate WesternHimalayas from Kashmir to Shimlaat 2,000–3,000 m.English ◮ Common St. John’s wort.Unani ◮ Heufaariqoon, Bassant,Balsaan.Action ◮ Antidepressant, sedative, relaxingnervine, anti-inflammatory.Used in anxiety, stress, depression,menopausal nervousness,menstrual cramps, neuralgia andrheumatism.Key application ◮ Psychovegetativedisturbances, depressive moods,anxiety and or nervous unrest.Externally, oil preparation fortreatment and post-therapy of acuteand contused injuries, myalgiaH

320 Hyptis suaveolens (Linn.) Poit.Hand first degree burns. (GermanCommission E, ESCOP, BritishHerbal Pharmocopoeia.)The herb contains hypericin andpseudohypericin (0.0095 to 0.466% inthe leaves and as much as 0.24% inthe flowers), rutin, quercetin, hyperoside,methylhesperidin, caffeic, chlorogenic,p-coumaric, ferulic, p-hydroxybenzoicand vanillic acids.Plant’s standardized extract (0.3%hypericin) shows antidepressant activityby inhibiting MAO.A biflavonoid, amentoflavone, isolatedfrom the plant, exhibited antiinflammatoryand antiulcerogenic activity.Alcoholic extract of the plant showsin vivo hepatoprotective activity in rodents.The oily extract of the flowers havebeen found effective in wound-healingdue to the antibiotically active acylphlorogucinol,hyperforin.The aerial parts show significantantibacterial activity against severalGram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria.A lyophilized infusion from theaerial parts exhibited antiviral activityand inhibited reproduction of differentstrains of influenza virus types A andBbothin vivo and in vitro.The whole herb is effective againstmany viral infections.Hyptis suaveolens (Linn.) Poit.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America.Distributed throughout India.Ayurvedic ◮ Tumbaaka (provisionalsynonym).Folk ◮ Gangaa Tulasi, VilaayatiTulasi, Bhunsari.Action ◮ Carminative, antispasmodic,antisoporific, antirheumatic,anticephalalgic, lactagogue. Usedin catarrhal and uterine affections,parasitical cutaneous diseases,epistaxis.The plant gave lupeol, lupeol acetateand friedelin, leaves and flowers gavecampesterol and fucosterol; roots containedbeta-sitosterol, oleanolic andalpha-peltoboykinolic acids.The plant gave an essential oil containingl-sabinene. l-limonene andazulenic sesquiterpenes as major constituents.The oil inhibits the growthof Gram-positive and Gram-negativebacteria, particularly, Staphylococcusaureus; also exhibits fungitoxicity.Alcoholic extract (50%) of the wholeplant exhibited hypoglycaemic andanticancer activity.Hyssopus officinalis Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe andtemperate Asia. Occurs in WestHimalyas from Kashmir to Kumaon.English ◮ Hyssop.Ayurvedic ◮ Dayaa-kunji. (Nepetalongibractea is also equated withZuufaa, Dayaa-kunji.)Unani ◮ Zuufaa, Zuufaa Yaabis.Folk ◮ Diyaanku (Laddakh).

Hyssopus officinalis Linn. 321Action ◮ Stimulant, carminative,sedative, antispasmodic, diuretic,pectoral. Used for bronchitis,coughs and colds. Induces heavysweating in fevers, increases bloodpressure. Emmenagogue. Usedexternally for bruises, discolouredcontusions and cuts.Key application ◮ As expectorant.(The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)Hyssop contains terpenoids, includingmarrubiin; a volatile oil consistingmainly of camphor, pinocamphoneand beta-pinene; flavonoids, glucosides,tannins and resin. Marrubiinis a strong expectorant. The plantalso contains ursolic acid, an antiinflammatoryprinciple. The alcoholicextract of the aerial parts at floweringyields an active antioxidant compound,rosmanol-9-ethyl ether. Itsactivity is much greater than butylatedhydroxytoluene. The extract of theplant showed weak hepatoprotectiveactivity against CCl4-induced toxicityin albino mice.Pinocamphone and isopinocamphoneare toxic constituents of theessential oil. Wild plants from Kumaon(Uttaranchal) shows presenceof very small amounts of pinocamphone(0.61%) in essential oil, as comparedto Himalayan hyssop (38.44%)and cultivated North American hyssop(42.66%). The essential oil can induceepileptic seizures.H

IIberis amara Linn.Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; cultivatedin gardens. Reported to occur inChamba.English ◮ Rocket Candytuft, Clown’sMustard.Action ◮ Used for gout, rheumatism,also for bronchitis and asthma; asa tonic in enlargement of heart toallay excited action of the heart.The seeds contain a mustard oil anda glycoside, glucoiberin. The plantcontains sulphur-containing glucosinolates;also contains bitter and toxictetracycloterpenoids, cucurbitacin Eand I.The seed extract exhibited cytotoxicityagainst renal and brain tumoursand melanoma cell lines. The activitymay be attributed to the presence ofcucurbitacins E and I.Ichnocarpus frutescens R. Br.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh, MadhyaPradesh, Bihar, Assam and theSunderbans.English ◮ Black Creeper.Ayurvedic ◮ Gopavalli, KrishnaSaarivaa (var.), Krishna-muuli,Shyaamalataa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karunannari,Makalikilanzhu.Folk ◮ Kaalisar, Karantaa.Action ◮ Root—demulcent, diuretic,alterative, diaphoretic; used infevers, dyspepsia and cutaneousaffections. The roots of the plantare used as a substitute for Indiansarsaparilla and are often mixedwith the roots of Hemidesmusindicus (their therapeutic propertiesfor use as sarsaparilla have bot beenestablished).The root gave 2-hydroxy-4-methoxybenzaldehyde.Alkaloids and flavonoids were presentin the roots but not in the leaves andfruits. Saponins were absent in theseparts. The whole plant gave n-butylsorboside, kaempferol and its glucoside.Ilex aquifolium Linn.Family ◮ Aquifolilaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; grownoccasionally in gardens at hillstations.English ◮ English Holly, CommonHolly.Action ◮ Leaves—diaphoretic,febrifuge. Used in catarrh, pleurisy,intermittent fever, smallpox andrheumatism. Also in jaundice.Berries—violently emetic andpurgative; employed in dropsy.Powdered berries are used asastringent to check bleeding.

324 Ilex paraguariensis St.-Hil.I(Berries possess totally differentqualities as compared to leaves.)The plant contains ilicin (a bitterprinciple), ilexanthin, theobromine(only in the leaf) and caffeic acid. Alkaloidtheobromine is used for asthma.In Greece, boiled leaves are used fortreating enlarged prostate.An extract of the plant caused a fataldrop in blood pressure in rats.The ethanolic extract of the fruitsyields cyanogenic glucosides.Ilex paraguariensis St.-Hil.Family ◮ Aquifoliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South America;cultivated in some Indian gardens.In northern India, grows inLucknow.English ◮ Mate Tea, Yerba Mate.Paraguay Tea.Action ◮ Stimulant to brain andnervous system, mild antispasmodic,eliminates uric acid. Used forphysical exhaustion, rheumatism,gout and nervous headache. (Anational drink of Paraguay andBrazil.) Causes purging and evenvomiting in large doses.Key application ◮ In physicaland mental fatigue. (GermanCommission E, WHO.) Infatigue,nervous depression, psychogenicheadache especially from fatigue,rheumatic pains. (The BritishHerbal Pharmacopoeia.) GermanCommission E reported analeptic,positively inotropic, positivelychronotropic, glycogenolytic,lipolytic and diuretic properties.The leaves contain xanthine derivatives,including caffeine (0.2–2%),theobromine (0.3–00.5%), theophylline(absent in some samples), polyphenolics,tannins and chlorogenic acid,vanillin, vitamin C, volatile oil. Used inthe same way as tea, due to its caffeineand theobromine content.Mate is a world famous tea and iscommonly consumed in several SouthAmerican countries.The flavour constituents exhibitedmoderate to weak broad-spectrumantimicrobial activity against severalGram-positive bacteria. Some componentsare bactericidal, particularlyagainst the most carcinogenic bacteria,Streptococcus mutans.Illicium anisatum Linn.Family ◮Habitat ◮English ◮Unani ◮Magnoliaceae; Illiciaceae.Indigenous to China.Star Anise.Baadiyaan (related species).Action ◮ Carminative and pectoral.Used in hard, dry cough whereexpectoration is difficult. (Oil ofAnise is distilled in Europe fromthe fruits of Pimpinella anisum.)The seeds, though used as a substitutefor Star Anise, contain toxicconstituents, anisatin, neoanisatin, 6-deoxymajucin, besides pseudoanisatinand sesquiterpene lactones.

Impatiens balsamina Linn. 325Illicium verum Hook. f.Family ◮Magnoliaceae, Illiciaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China. Fruitsimported from China and Indo-China.English ◮ Star Anise, Chinese Anise,Aniseed Stars.Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Baadyaan Khataai.Anasphal.Takkola, Anasippo.Action ◮ Carminative (used forcolic), stimulant, diuretic. Alsoused in rheumatism.Key application ◮ In catarrhs of therespiratory tract and peptic discomforts.(German Commission E.)The fruit contains a volatile oil containingtrans-anethole 80–90%, andfeniculin (14.56%), with estragole,beta-bisabolene, beta-farnesene, caryophyllene,nerolidol.The intake of trans-anethole (1.0%)does not show any chronic toxicity inrats. Veranisatins, isolated from theextract, showed convulsive effect inmice. Methanolic extract exhibiteda hypothermic effect in mice.Illicium griffithii Hook. f. & Thoms.is found in Bhutan and Khasi hills ataltitudes of 1,400–1,100 m. The fruit,known as Baadiyaan, is bitter and astringent,reported to be poisonous. It isused as stimulant and carminative. Essentialoil resembles that from aniseed(Pimpinella anisum Linn.) and fennel(Foeniculum vulgare Mill.)Impatiens balsamina Linn.Family ◮ Balsaminaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in plainsthroughout India.English ◮ Garden Balsam. (BalsamApple is not related to Impatiens. Itisthe fruit of Momordica balsamina.)Ayurvedic ◮ Tarini (provisionalsynonym).Unani ◮ Gul-menhdi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kasittumbai.Action ◮ Cathartic, diuretic,antirheumatic. Flowers—used inburns and scalds.The plant is reported to containcyanochroic constituents, antibacterialsubstances and an alkaloid. The seedscontain the triterpenoid hosenkol A,the first baccharance triterpenoid fromnatural source. The seeds also containa protein-associated amyloid, galactoxyloglucanand beta-sitosterol.In China, the aerial parts are usedfor the treatment of articular rheumatism.In Korea, the plant is used fortreating tuberculosis. In Brunei, a decoctionof the root is given in irregularmenstruation. In Japan, the juice, obtainedfrom the white petals, is appliedtopically to treat several types of dermatitis,including urticaria.The flowers contain flavonols, flavonoidpigments, phenolic compoundsand quinones.An ethanolic extract (35%) of flowersshows significant anti-anaphylacticactivity in mice.The methanolic extract of the wholeplant exhibited strong antibacterialI

326 Imperata cylindrica Rausch.Iactivity against Bacillus subtilis andSalmonella typhimurium; antibacterialand antifungal activity has been attributedto a naphthoquinone derivative.Imperata cylindrica Rausch.Synonym ◮ I. arundinacea Cyr.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ The hotter parts of India,both in plains and hills, ascendingup to 2,300 m in the Himalayas.English ◮ Thatch Grass.Ayurvedic ◮ Darbha, Suuchyagra,Yagnika, Yagyabhuushana, Bahir.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Dharba.Folk ◮ Daabh.Action ◮ Diuretic, anti-inflammatory.The rhizomes contain flavonoids, togetherwith lignans, graminone A andB. A sesquiterpenoid, cylindrene, andbiphenylether compounds, cylindol Aand B, are also reported.Cylindrene and graminone B showinhibitory activity on the contractionsof vascular smooth muscles and aortaof rabbit respectively; while cylindolA exhibits 5-lipoxygenase inhibitoryactivity.The hot aqueous extract of the rhizomesshow moderate GTP activity onprimary cultured rat hepatocytes intoxicatedwith carbon tetrachloride cytotoxicity.The leaves and stem contain cyanochroicconstituents. The roots containantibacterial substances. The root isused in fevers but does not possess antipyreticactivity.Dosage ◮ Root—50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Indigofera arrecta Hochst.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Assam, Biharand in parts of Uttar Pradesh.English ◮ Natal Indigo, Java Indigo,Bengal Indigo.Ayurvedic ◮ Nili (related species).Action ◮ See I. tinctoria.Aqueous extract of the plant exhibitsantihyperglycaemic activity in rats dueto insulinotropic property.The indigotin content of the plant(0.8–1.0%) is higher than that of otherspecies of Indigofera. The leaves containup to 4% of a flavonol glycosidewhichonhydrolysisyieldsrhamnoseand kaempferol.Indigofera articulataauct. non-Gouan.Synonym ◮ I. caerulea Roxb.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Bihar and Western andPeninsular India.English ◮ Egyptian Indigo, ArabianIndigo, Wild Indigo, Surat Indigo.Ayurvedic ◮ Nili (related species).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aaramuri, Iruppumuri,Kattavuri.Folk ◮ Surmai Nila.Action ◮ Root, leaf—bitter tonic.Seed—anthelmintic.

Indigofera pulchella Roxb. in part. 327Indigofera aspalathoidesVahl ex DC.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Plains of Karnataka,Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.English ◮ Wiry Indigo.Ayurvedic ◮ Nili (related species),Shivanimba.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivanaarvembu,Iraivanvembu.Folk ◮ Shivanimba (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Antileprotic, antitumour,anti-inflammatory. Used inpsoriasis and erysipelas. Ashof the burnt plant is used fordandruff. Root is used in aphthae.Indigofera enneaphylla Linn.Synonym ◮ I. linnaei Ali.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas up to1,200 m and in plains of India.English ◮ Trailing indigo.Ayurvedic ◮ Vaasukaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Cheppunerinjil.Folk ◮ Hanumaan-buuti, Bhui-nila.Action ◮ Juice of the plant—antiscorbutic, diuretic, alterative.The plant, boiled with oil, is appliedto burns. A decoction is given inepilepsy and insanity.The plant contains two unsaturatedhydrocarbons—indigoferin and enneaphyllin.The seeds contain 37.8%protein, also yield lipids (4.4%) containingpalmitic and oleic acid. Thetoxicity of the plant is attributed toa non-protein amino acid, indospicine(6-amidino-2-aminohexanoic acid).(Consumption of the plant producesa neurological syndrome, known asBirdsville disease, in horses. The toxicityis greatly reduced when the materialis chopped and dried.)The aerial parts gave 3-nitropropanoylesters of D-glucose.Indigofera oblongifolia Forsk.Synonym ◮ I. paucifolia Delile.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout greater partsof India.English ◮ Wild Indigo, MysorePanicled Indigo.Ayurvedic ◮ Bana-Nila, Dill, Jhill.Unani ◮ Vasmaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattukkarchamathi.Folk ◮ Jhil (Gujarat).Action ◮ Plant—antisyphilitic. Allparts of the plant are found usefulin enlargement of liver and spleen.The leaves gave apigenin 7-rhamnoglucoside,apigenin 7, 4 ′ -diglucoside,kaempferol-3-neohesperidoside andrhoifolin, along with protocatechuic,p-coumaric, p-hydroxybenzoic, salicylicand vanillic acid.Indigofera pulchellaRoxb. in part.Synonym ◮ I. cassioides Rottl. ex DC.I

328 Indigofera tinctoria Linn.IFamily ◮Habitat ◮Ayurvedic ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Fabaceae.The hills in India.Nili (related species).Nirinji.Action ◮ Root—used for cough.Powder of the root applied externallyformuscularpaininchest.Leaves and roots—used for swellingof the stomach.The seeds contain crude protein 27.6,pentosans 8.9 and water soluble gum12.8%.Indigofera tinctoria Linn.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in many partsof India.English ◮ Indigo.Ayurvedic ◮ Nilikaa, Nilaa, Nila,Nili, Nilini, Nilapushpa, Ranjani,Shaaradi, Tutthaa.Unani ◮ Habb-ul-Neel.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nili, Averi, Asidai,Attipurashadam.Action ◮ Plant—antiseptic, hepatoprotective,hypoglycaemic, nervinetonic. Used in enlargement of liverand spleen, skin diseases, leucoderma,burns, ulcers, piles, nervousdisorders, epilepsy, asthma, lumbago,gout. Leaf—anti-inflammatory.Used in blennorrhagia. Root—diuretic. Used in hepatitis. Rootand stem—laxative, expectorant,febrifuge, anticephalalgic, antitumour,anthelmintic, promotegrowth of hair.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the use of dried wholeplant in phobia, delusion and disturbedmental state.Indicine (5–15 mg/g, dry basis) andthe flavonoids, apigenin, kaempferol,luteolin and quercetin are present invarious plant parts, maximum in theleaves and minimum in the roots (howeverquercetin was minimum in leaves).The presence of coumarins, cardiacglycosides, saponins and tannins is alsoreported.Alcoholic extract of the aerial partsshowed hepatoprotective activity inexperimental animals against CCl4-induced hepatic injury. The extractincreased bile flow and liver weight inrats. The alcoholic extract also exhibitedhypoglycaemic activity in rats.The plant is used in the treatmentof endogenous depression. It containsappreciable amounts of conjugated indoxyl(indican). The use of indigo andits constituents, indirubin and indigotin,prevents allergic contact dermatitis.The 8 weeks old tissues in culturecontain maximum histamine content(5.0 mg/g dry weight).Dosage ◮ Dried leaf—50–100 g fordecoction; root—48 g for decoction(API Vol. II); whole plant—10–20 gfor decoction. (API Vol. III.)Indigofera trifoliata Linn.Synonym ◮ I. prostrata Willd.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout greater partsof India.

Ionidium suffruticosum Ging. 329Folk ◮Vana-methi.Action ◮ Astringent, antileucorrhoeic,antirheumatic, alterative,restorative.The seeds contain crude protein 31.5pentosan 7.3, water soluble gum 3.0%.Inula racemosa Hook. f.Synonym ◮ I. royleana auct. non-DC.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate and AlpineHimalayas from Chitral to Nepal at1,500–4,200 m.English ◮ Elecampane.Ayurvedic ◮ Pushkaramuula,Pushkara, Paushkara, Padmapatra,Kaashmira, Kushtha-bheda.Action ◮ Antispasmodic, stomachic,antihistaminic, expectorant,anticatarrhal. Used for asthma,chronic bronchitis and pulmonarydisorders.Key application ◮ Inula helenium—as expectorant. (The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)Roots are used in Kashmir as adulterantof Saussurea lappa.The root contains a volatile oil, about1–4%; major constituents being inulin(10.0) and sesquiterpene lactones,mainly alantolactone, isoalantolactoneand their dihydro derivatives. Alantolactoneand others in the mixtureknown as helenalin (sesquiterpene lactones)are toxic constituents of the root.Alantolactone is anti-inflammatoryin animals and has been shown to stimulatethe immune system. It is also hypotensiveand anthelmintic in animals;antibacterial and antifungal in vitro Itirritates mucous membranes. It is usedas an anthelmintic in Europe and UK.Plant extract showed potent antispasmodiceffect against bronchialspasm induced by histamine and variousplant pollens.The root, when combined withCommiphora mukul gum-resin, acts asahypolipidaemicagent,exhibitsbetablockingactivity and beneficial effectin myocardial ischaemia.The roots also exhibit sedative andblood pressure lowering activity.The European species is equatedwith Inula helenium Linn.Dosage ◮ Root—1–3 g powder. (APIVol. IV.)Ionidium suffruticosum Ging.Synonym ◮ Hybanthus enneaspermus(Linn.) F. Muell.Family ◮ Violaceae.Habitat ◮ The warmer parts ofIndia from Delhi to Bengal andthroughout Deccan Peninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Amburuha.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Orilaithamarai.Folk ◮ Ratna-purush.Action ◮ Diuretic, antigonorrhoeticand demulcent. Root—givenin urinary infections, for bowelcomplaints of children.The plant gave a dipeptide alkaloid,aurantiamide acetate and a triterpene,iso-arborinol, and beta-sitosterol.I

330 Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.IIpomoea aquatica Forsk.Synonym ◮ I. reptans Poir.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the greaterpart of India.English ◮ Swamp Cabbage.Ayurvedic ◮ Kalambi, Naalikaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellaikeerai, Koilangu.Action ◮ Emetic and purgative.Used as an antidote to arsenicalor opium poisoning. Plant juice isused for liver complaints; buds forringworm.The leaves are a good source ofminerals (2.1%), vitamins (especially,carotene and tocopherol). Plant isgiven for nervous and general debility.Whole plant gave beta-carotene, xanthophyll,traces of taraxanthin, hentriacontane,beta-sitosterol and its glucoside.The buds of pigmented variety arerecommended as a food for diabetics.An insulin-like substance is reportedfrom the buds.The stems contain N-trans- andNcis-feruloyltyramines,which have beenfound to be the inhibitors of in vitroprostaglandin synthesis.The plant shows abundant growth inwaste water and absorbs some organicand inorganic components, includingheavy metals from waste water. Theplant may be useful in the treatment ofwaste water by biogeofiltration.Ipomoea batatas (Linn.) Lam.Family ◮Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;cultivated throughout India foredible tubers.English ◮ Sweet potato.Ayurvedic ◮ Mukhaaluka, Rataalu,Raktaalu, Raktapindaka, Raktakanda.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sakkareivelleikulangu.Unani ◮ Shakarkand, Rataalu.Action ◮ Root—used in strangury,urinary discharges, burning sensation,thirst. Whole plant—used inlow fever and skin diseases.Cooked tubers contain reducingsugars 6.45, sucrose 2.23, maltose 8–64, dextrins 0.51 and polysaccharides14–13%. Cooking increases the sweetnessas a result of the hydrolysis ofstarch to maltose and dextrins throughthe action of beta-amylase.Sweet potatoes are rich in starchcontent. During the storage a part ofstarch content is converted into reducingsugars and subsequently into sucrose.In a sample stored for 5 months,the starch content was reduced from19.1% to 14.1% while the percentage ofreducing sugars (as dextrose) and sucroseincreased from 0.9 to 1.7 and 1.9to 6.1% respectively.Indian types with white flesh containlittle or no carotene, while Americantypeswithpinkfleshcontainashighas5.4–7.2 mg/100 g of carotene. Vitaminspresent in the tubers are : thiamine0.09–0.14, riboflavin 0.05–0.10 and vitaminC 16–22 mg/100 g.The hot aqueous extract of leaves exhibitssignificant inhibitory activity ofrat lens aldose reductase (AR). Ellagic

Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br. 331and 3,5-dicaffoylquinic acids have beenisolated as potent inhibitors.The leaves also contain polysaccharideswhich increase the platelet countin experimental animals due to enhancedproduction of thrombopoietin.From the stem and root, hexadecyl,octadecyl and eicosyl p-coumarateshave been isolated.The tubers show significant lectinactivity and exhibit haemagglutinatingactivity in trypsinized rabbit erythrocytes.Ipomoea bona-nox Linn.Synonym ◮ I. alba Linn.Calonyction bona-nox Bojer.C. aculeatum (Linn.) House.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Moon Flower.Ayurvedic ◮ Chandrakaanti, Gulchaandani,Dudhiaa Kalami.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naganamukkori.Folk ◮ Chaandani, Dudhiaa Kalami.Action ◮ Root bark—purgative.Leaves—used in filariasis.The plant contains pentasaccharideglucoside of ethyl-11-hydroxy hexadecanoate.The seeds contain alkaloids,ipomine, isoipomine, methoxyipomine,dimethoxyipomine, ipalkidinium,ipalbidine and ipalbine.Ipomoea digitata Linn.Synonym ◮ I. paniculata R. Br. Burm.I. mauritiana Jacq.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical India in moistregions.English ◮ Milky Yam.Ayurvedic ◮ Kshira-vidaari, Kshirvalli,Payasvini, Swaadukandaa,Ikshukandaa, Gajavaajipriyaa, Kandapalaasha,Bhuumikuushmaanda.Siddha ◮ Paalmudukkan kizhangu.Folk ◮ Bilaaikanda. Bhuin Kakhaaru(Orissa).Action ◮ Cholagogue, galactagogue,alterative, demulcent, purgative.Resin from root—uses similar toJalap. Flour of raw rhizome is givenin enlargement of liver and spleen,also for menorrhagia, debility andfat accumulation.Rhizomes gave taraxerol acetate andbeta-sitosterol. Fresh leaves contain6.3 mg/100 g of carotene.Vidaari is equated with Puerariatuberosa DC. (Fabaceae). Dry piecesof Dioscorea pentaphylla Linn. are soldas Vidaari Kanda.Dosage ◮ Tuber—3–6 g powder.(CCRAS.)Ipomoea eriocarpa R. Br.Synonym ◮ I. hispida Roem. &Schult.I. sessiliflora Roth.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.Ayurvedic ◮ Aakhukarni (relatedspecies), Sheetavalli (provisionalsynonym).I

332 Ipomoea hederacea (L.) Jacq.IFolk ◮Nikhari, Bhanwar (Punjab).Action ◮ Antirheumatic, anticephalalgic,antiepileptic and antileprotic.The plant is boiled in oil and used asan application for rheumatism, headache,epilepsy, fevers, ulcers, leprosy.The seeds are reported to contain a resinsimilar to that present in the seeds ofIpomoea nil.Ipomoea hederacea (L.) Jacq.Synonym ◮ Convolvulus hederacusLinn.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ North American species.Not found wild in India. Grown inIndian gardens.Folk ◮ Krishna-bija, Kaalaadaanaa.Kakkattan (Tamil Nadu). Jirki(Andhra Pradesh).Action ◮ Seed—purgative. Used asa substitute for Jalap (Exogoniumpurga).The seed gave alkaloids—lysergol,chanoclavine, penniclavine, iso-penniclavineand elymoclavine.Ipomoea marginata(Desr.) Verdc.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India in theplains, especially on the bank ofstream and rivers.Ayurvedic ◮ Lakshmanaa (Alsoequated with Ipomoea obscura(Linn.) Ker-Gawler.), Putradaa,Putrajanani.Folk ◮ Tirutaalli (Kerala).Action ◮ Used as a single drug forcuring sterility in women, and forpromoting fertility and virility.The seeds of Ipomoea obscura containnon-ergolin type indole alkaloids,ipobscurine A and B and serotonin alsoalkaloid ipobscurine C.Ipomoea muricata(Linn.) Jacq., non-Cav.Synonym ◮ I. turbinata Lag.Convolvulus muricatus Linn.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, WestBengal,Bihar,Orissa,Maharashtraand South India.English ◮ Traveller’s Midnight Lilies.Ayurvedic ◮ Krishnabija (relatedspecies). (Sold as Kaalaadaanaa,seeds of Ipomoea nil.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Talai.Folk ◮ Michaai.Action ◮ Purgative, febrifuge.Seeds—cardiac depressant, spasmolytic,hypotensive, antibacterial,antifungal. Plant juice destroysbedbugs.The seeds contain resin glycosideswhich are laxative. Lysergol is alsopresent in the seeds. It exhibits hypotensive,psychotropic, analgesic, anduterus and intestine-stimulating properties.The presence of indole alkaloidsis reported in the seed.

Ipomoea pes-caprae (Linn.) Sweet. 333Ipomoea nil (Linn.) RothSynonym ◮ I. hederacea auct., non-Jacq.Convolvulus bilobatus Roxb.Convolvulus nil Linn.Family ◮Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India; alsooccurs as a weed.English ◮Pharbitis seeds.Ayurvedic ◮ Antah-kotarpushpi,Kaalaanjani (provisional synonym),Krishnabija, Kaalaadaanaa,Shyaamabija, Shankhani, Jhaaramaaricha.Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Kaalaadaanaa.Kaakkattan.Action ◮ Purgative and bloodpurifier.A substitute for Jalap.Seeds—antifungal.The seeds from Pakistan contain alkaloids—lysergol,chanoclavine, penniclavine,isopenniclavine and elymoclavine.Alsocontain14.2%resinandglucosides.Commercial samples of the drugcontain 14–15% of crude resinous matter.Research has shown that glycosidalpart of the resin is inert; the nonglycosidalresin (2% of the drug) causescopious purgation in doses of 250 mg.Besides the resinous matter, the seedscontain a fixed oil (12.4%) and smallamounts of saponin, mucilage and tannin.The flowers of the plant contains anthocyaninpigments.The plant extract exhibited hypoglycaemicactivity in rats.Dosage ◮ Seed—3–6 g powder.(CCRAS.)Ipomoea pes-caprae(Linn.) Sweet.Synonym ◮ I. biloba Forsk.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Near sea, especially on theWest Coast.English ◮ Goat’s Foot Creeper.Ayurvedic ◮ Chhagalaantri, Maryaada-valli.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Adambu, Attukkal,Musattalai.Action ◮ Astringent, stomachic,laxative, antidiarrhoeal, antiemetic,analgesic. Leaf—diuretic, antiinflammatory.Used in colic,prolapsus ani; externally in rheumatism.Essential oil of leaves—antagonistic to histamine. Leafextract is used for different typesof inflammations including injuriescaused by poisonous jelly-fish.Clinical trials have proved that anextract (IPA) inhibited the action ofjelly-fish toxins. Its topical applicationinhibited carrageenan-induced pawand ear oedema induced by arachidonicacid or ethyl phenylpropionatein rats. The crude extract of leaves alsoshow inhibitory effect on prostaglandinsynthesis in vitro.Crude extract (IPA) of the leaves hasalso been shown to antagonize smoothmuscle contraction induced by severalagonists via non-specific mechanism.Antispasmodic isoprenoids,I

334 Ipomoea petaloidea Choisy.Ibeta-damascenone and E-phytol havebeen isolated from the extract. The antispasmodicactivity was found to be inthe same range as that of papaverine.The alcoholic extract of leavesshowed insulinogenic and hypoglycaemicactivities in rats, comparableto the hypoglycaemic drug chlorpropamide.The leaves and seeds contain indolealkaloid. Plant also contains a steroid,an amide, pentatriacontane, triacontane,volatile oil and behenic, melissic,butyric and myristic acids.Ipomoea petaloidea Choisy.Synonym ◮Choisy.Family ◮Operculina petaloideaConvolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India;ascending to 300 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Shyaamaa, Chhaagalaantri,Vriddhadaaraka, Vriddhadaaru.Argyreia nervosa(Burm. f.) Boj., synonym A.spiciosa Sweet, Convolvulaceae, isequated with Vriddhadaaru andVriddhadaaruka, while Ipomoeapetaloidea and I. pes-caprae arealso known by identical synonyms.Operculina turpethum, synonym I.turpethum is used as a substitute forI. petaloidea.Unani ◮Siddha ◮Folk ◮var.)Shaaraf.Nilapoosani.Bidhaaraa, Nishoth (blackAction ◮ Purgative. Used asa supporting herb for diseases ofthe nervous system.Dosage ◮ Leaf, root—3–6 g powder;leaf juice—5–10 ml. (CCRAS.)Ipomoea purga Hayne.Synonym ◮ I. jalapa Scheide andDeppe.Exogonium purga (Hayne) Benth.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in the Nilgirisand Poona.English ◮ Jalap.Folk ◮ Jalaapaa.Action ◮ Strong cathartic andpurgative. Usually used withcarminatives.Resin from dried root (commercialjalap) contains beta-D-quinovoside of11-OH-tetradecanoic acid. The glycosidalresin is known as “convolvulin”.Ipomoea purpurea (Linn.) Roth.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of tropical America;found throughout greater part ofIndia,growningardens.English ◮ Tall Morning-Glory.Folk ◮ Karakatiyaa (seeds).Action ◮ Purgative. Seed extract—antibacterial.The stemcontains asoft resin (4.8%),essential oil (0.08%) and tannin. The

Ipomoea vitifolia Blume. 335resin is the active principle, it containsipuranol, which is identical withsitosterol glucoside, ipurolic acid, d-methyl acetic acid, hydroxylauric acidand glucose.Ipomoea quamoclit Linn.Synonym ◮ Quamoclit pinnata Bojer.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;grownasanornamental.English ◮ Cypress Vine, Indian Pink.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaamalataa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kembumalligai,Mayirmanikkam.Folk ◮ Sitaakesh.Action ◮ Powdered root is given asasternutatory.Poundedleavesareapplied to bleeding piles.The leaves and stems are reportedto contain small amounts of alkaloids.Traces of hydrocyanic acid are presentalso in roots, stems and flowers.Ipomoea reniformis Choisy.Synonym ◮ Merremia emarginata(Burm. f.) Hallier f.M. gangetica (L.) Cufod.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ In damp places in upperGangetic plains; Bihar, Bengal,Peninsular India.Ayurvedic ◮ Aakhuparni, Aakhuparnika,Muusaakarni, Aakhukarni.Undurukarnikaa. (Also equatedwith Dravanti.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Yelikkaadhukeerai,Perettaikkirai.Action ◮ Deobstruent, diuretic,alterative. Used for rheumaticaffections, neuralgia, headache, skindiseases and urinary affections.Evolvulus nummularis Linn. (Convolvulaceae)is also known as Muusaakarni(Muusaakaani) and is used forcutaneous affections.Ipomoea sepiaria Koen. ex Roxb.Synonym ◮ I. maxima (Linn. f.) G.Don.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout greater part ofIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Banakalami, Hanumaan-Vel, Manjika. (Also equated withLakshmanaa.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thaalikeerai (Lakshmanaaof the South).Action ◮ Juice of the plant—deobstruent,diuretic, hypotensive,uterine tonic, antidote to arsenicpoisoning. Seeds—cardiac depressant,hypotensive, spasmolytic.Ipomoea vitifolia Blume.Synonym ◮ Merremia vitifolia(Burm. f.) Hallier.Convululus vitifolius Burm. f.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout warmer partsof India, except the north-westernarid region.I

336 Iris ensata Thunb.IFolk ◮Nauli, Nawal (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Diuretic. Used in strangury,urethral discharges.Iris ensata Thunb.Family ◮Iridaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate NorthwesternHimalaya at 1,500–2,700 m. andfrom Kashmir to Himachal Pradesh.Oftengrowningardens.Ayurvedic ◮ Paarseeka Vachaa,Haimavati, Shveta Vachaa, Baalbach.Unani ◮ Irsaa, Sosan, Iris.Folk ◮ Marjal, Unarjal (Kashmir).Action ◮ Used in diseases of the liver.Aerial parts contain xanthone glycosides;C-glycoside of apigenin andphenolic acids. Roots contain ceryl alcohol.Natural irones, the main constituentof Orris oil, are obtained from differentspecies of Iris. The laccases, obtainedfrom Iris species and other plants areused in hair cosmetic preparations, asan oxidizing agent in oxidative hairdyes and permanent hair wave-settingcompositions. The root extracts of Irisspecies are used in cosmetic preparationsfor the prevention of skin roughnessand ageing.Iris germanica Linn.Family ◮ Iridaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of Italy andMorocco; cultivated in Kashmir,also found run wild on graves.English ◮ Orris, Iridis Rhizome,German Iris.Ayurvedic ◮ Paarseeka Vachaa,Haimavati, Shveta Vachaa (alsoconsidered as Pushkarmuula),Baal-bach.Action ◮ Demulcent, antidiarrhoeal,expectorant. Extract of the leaf isused for the treatment of frozenfeet.Key application ◮ In irritable bowel,summer diarrhoea in children, instubborn cases of respiratory congestion.(Folk medicine.) (Claimsnegatively evaluated by GermanCommission E: “blood-purifying,”“stomach-strengthening” and“gland-stimulating.”)The rhizomes gave triterpenes, betasitosterol,alpha-and beta-amyrin andisoflavonoids; an essential oil, about0.1–2%, known as “Orris butter,” consistingof about 85% myristic acid,with irone, ionone, methyl myristate.Isoflavonoids include irisolidone,irigenin and iridin. In volatile oil,chief constituents are cis-alpha andcis-gamma-irones. Triterpenes includeiridal and irigermanal. Rhizomes alsogave xanthones C. glucosylxanthones(Orris root is the root of Iris germanica.In homoeopathy, Iris versicolor isused.)Related species ◮I. pallida Lam.Iris kemaonensis Wall.Family ◮Iridaceae.I. florentina Linn.;

Isatis tinctoria Linn. 337Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromGarhwal to Arunachal Pradesh at2,400–3,600 m.Folk ◮ Karkar, Tezma (Punjab).Action ◮ Diuretic, spasmolytic,febrifuge; antidote for opiumaddiction.The rhizomes contain isoflavones—iridin, iriskumaonin and its methylether, irisflorentin, junipegenin A andirigenin.Iris nepalensis D. Don.Family ◮ Iridaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalaya andin Khasi Hills.Ayurvedic ◮ Paarseeka Vachaa.Folk ◮ Sosan, Shoti, Chalnundar,Chiluchi.Action ◮ Deobstruent (in biliousobstructions), diuretic, cathartic.Used in diseases of the liver.The plant contains an isoflavone,irisolidone. Rhizomes contain irisoloneand irigenin.Iris pseudacorus Linn.Family ◮ Iridaceae.Habitat ◮ On river banks, by theside of lakes, ponds. Native to GreatBritain.English ◮ Yellow Flag.Folk ◮ Paashaanabheda (Gujarat).Action ◮ Cathartic and acrid. Usedin dysmenorrhoea and leucorrhoea.Juice of the root—used for obstinatecoughs and convulsions.Rhizomes contain a glycoside, irisin,iridin or irisine, reportedly present,with myristic acid.Iris versicolour Linn.Family ◮ Iridaceae.Habitat ◮ In swamps. Native toAmerica and Canada.English ◮ Blue Flag Root, Liver Lily.Ayurvedic ◮ Haimavati Vachaa.Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, astringent,cholagogue, laxative, diuretic,antiemetic, blood and lymph purifier,alterative for sluggish conditionsof liver, gallbladder and glandularsystem.Key application ◮ As laxative. (TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The rhizomes contain a volatile oil;a glycoside, iridin; acids including salicylicand isophthalic; a monocyclic C31triterpenoid; sterols, gum, resin. Irisinis the toxic constituent of the resin. Itirritates the mucous membrane, liverand pancreas.The drug is contraindicated in pregnancy.The root powder is toxic at 2 gandfluidextractat3.7ml.Isatis tinctoria Linn.Family ◮Crucifere; Brassicaceae.I

338 Ixora coccinea Linn.IHabitat ◮ Native to Afghanistan andWestern Tibet. Now cultivated asan ornamental.English ◮ Dyer’s Woad.Action ◮ Plant—used in the form ofan ointment for ulcers, oedematousand malignant tumours. Leaves—antimicrobial, antifungal.The aerial parts yield tryptanthrin,indole-3-acetonitrile and p-coumaricacid methylester.The roots contain anti-blood plateletaggregation constituents, uridine, hypoxanthine,uracil and salicylic acid togetherwith indigo, palmitic acid andbeta-sitosterol.In China, tablets made from theleaves and roots of Isatis tinctoria andArtemisia scoparia have been foundto be effective in treating hepatitis Bpatients.Ixora coccinea Linn.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ South-western PeninsularIndia. Cultivated throughout India.English ◮ Jungleflame Ixora.Ayurvedic ◮ Bandhuka, Paaranti.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vetchi, Thechii.Folk ◮ Rukmini, Rangan.Action ◮ Herb—astringent, antiseptic,blood-purifier, sedative,antileucorrhoeic, antidiarrhoeal,anti-catarrhal. Used in dysmenorrhoea,haemoptysis, bronchitis.Root—astringent, antiseptic (usedagainst scabies and other skindiseases). Flowers—prescribed indysentery and dysmenorrhoea.The saponifiable fraction of the petroleumether extract of roots exhibitedanti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-inducedpaw oedema in albinorats.The leaves contain a triterpenoid, lupeol,which shows anti-inflammatoryactivity. The crude alcoholic extractand the ethyl acetate fraction exhibitedantigenic activity.The flowers contain an essential oil(0.5%) which possesses antimicrobialactivity. Flower contain leucocyanidinglycoside.The plant substrate removes heavymetals, such as lead, cadmium andmercury from polluted water.Ixora pavetta Andr.Synonym ◮ I. Parviflora Vahl.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ West Bengal, Bihar,Western Central and South India.English ◮ Torchwood Tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Nevaari, Nevaali,Ishwara, Rangan.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shulundu-kora,Korivi.Action ◮ Flowers—poundedwith milk, for whooping cough.Bark—a decoction for anaemiaand general debility. Fruit androot—given to females whenurine is highly coloured. Theleaves contain ixoral and betasitosterol.Leaves and flowers gave

Ixora javanica (Blume) DC. 339flavonoids—rutin and kaempferol-3-rutinoside; stems gave a flavoneglycoside, chrysin 5-O-beta-Dxylopyranoside.The aerial partscontain 6,7-dimethoxycoumarin.The seed oil gave capric, lauric,myristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic,behenic, oleic and linoleic acids.Ixora javanica (Blume) DC.Family ◮Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Gardens of Kerala andWest Bengal.Action ◮ Leaves, flowers—cytotoxic,antitumour.The ethanolic, extract of leavesshowed cytotoxic activity against Dalton’slymphoma, Ehrlich ascites carcinomaand Sarcoma 180 tumour cellsin vitro. The flowers have been foundto contain antitumour principles, activeagainst experimentally inducedtumour models.I

JJacaranda acutifoliaauct. non-Humb. & Bonpl.Synonym ◮ J. mimosifolia D. DonJ. ovalifolia R. Br.Family ◮ Bignoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Indiangardens.Folk ◮ Nili-gulmohar.Action ◮ Leaves’ volatile oil—appliedto buboes. Leaves and bark ofthe plant—used for syphilis andblennorrhagia. An infusion of thebark is employed as a lotion forulcers.The leaves contain jacaranone, verbascosideand phenylacetic-beta-glucosidealong with a glucose ester, jacaranose.Flavonoid scutellarein andits 7-glucuronide, and hydroquinoneswere also isolated. Fruits contain betasitosterol,ursolic acid and hentriacontane;stem bark gave lupenone andbeta-sitosterol.The flowers contain an anthocyanin.In Pakistan, the flowers are sold as asubstitute for the Unani herb Gul-e-Gaozabaan.The lyophylized aqueous extract ofthe stem showed a high and broadantimicrobial activity against humanurinary tract bacteria, especially Pseudomonassp.The fatty acid, jacarandic acid, isolatedfrom the seed oil, was found tobe a strong inhibitor of prostaglandinbiosynthesis in sheep.J. rhombifolia G. F. W. May., syn.J. filicifolia D. Don is grown in Indiangardens. Extracts of the plant showinsecticidal properties.Several species of Jacaranda are usedfor syphilis in Brazil and other partsof South America under the namescarobin, carabinha etc. A crystallinesubstance, carobin, besides resins,acids and caroba balsam, has beenisolated from them.Jasminum angustifolium Vahl.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ South India.English ◮ Wild Jasmine.Ayurvedic ◮ Bana-mallikaa, Vanamalli,Kaanan-mallikaa, Aasphotaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaatumalli.Action ◮ Root—used in ringworm.Leaves—juice is given as an emeticin cases of poisoning.Fresh flowers gave indole.Jasminum arborescens Roxb.Synonym ◮ J. roxburghianum Wall.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract,Bengal, Central and South India.English ◮ Tree Jasmine.Ayurvedic ◮ Nava-mallikaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nagamalli.

342 Jasminum auriculatum Vahl.JFolk ◮Chameli (var.), Maalati (var.).Action ◮ Leaves—astringent andstomachic. Juice of the leaves, withpepper, garlic and other stimulants,is used as an emetic in obstructionof the bronchial tubes due to viscidphlegm.Jasminum auriculatum Vahl.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughoutIndia, especially in Uttar Pradeshand Tamil Nadu. In Uttar Pradesh,cultivated on commercial scale inGhazipur, Jaunpur, Farrukhabadand Kannauj for its fragrant flowerswhich yield an essential oil.Ayurvedic ◮ Yuuthikaa, Yuuthi,Mugdhee.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Usimalligai.Folk ◮ Juuhi.Action ◮ See Jasminum humile.The leaves gave lupeol, its epimer,hentriacontane and n-tricantanol,a triterpenoid, jasminol; d-mannitol;volatile constituent, jasmone. The pintype pointed flower buds (long styled)on solvent extraction yielded higherconcrete content rich in indole andmethyl anthranilate, whereas thrumtype (short styled) buds yield higherabsolute with benzyl acetate as theprominent constituent.Jasminum flexile Vahl.Synonym ◮J. azoricum Linn.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, Mizoram,Meghalaya and Western Ghats.Ayurvedic ◮ Maalati (var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ramabanam mullai.Folk ◮ Chameli (var.).Action ◮ See Jasminum officinale.Jasminum heterophyllumRoxb. non-Moench.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ Nepal, North Bengal,Assam hills, Khasi hills andManipur.Ayurvedic ◮ Svarna-yuuthikaa (var.).Folk ◮ Juuhi (yellow var.).Action ◮ See Jasminum humile.Jasminum humile Linn.Synonym ◮ J. humile auct. non L.J. bignoniaceum Wall ex G. Don.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-tropical Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Nepal and in theNilgiris, Palni Hills, Western Ghatsand Kerala.English ◮ Yellow Jasmine, NepalJasmine, Italian Jasmine.Ayurvedic ◮ Svarna-yuuthikaa,Svarnajaati, Hemapushpikaa,Vaasanti.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Semmalligai.Folk ◮ Juuhi (yellow var.).

Jasminum officinale Linn. var. grandiflorum (L.) Kobuski. 343Action ◮ Flower—astringent, cardiactonic. Root—used in ringworm.The milky juice, exuded fromincisions in the bark, is used fortreating chronic fistulas. The plantis also used for treating hard lumps.The leaves gave alpha-amyrin, betulin,friedelin, lupeol, betulinic, oleanolicand ursolic acids; beta-sitosterol,10-cinnamoyloxyoleoside-7-methylester(jasminoside) and a secoiridoidglycoside.Jasminum malabaricum Wight.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ Deccan, West Coast,Western Ghats and in the Nilgiris.Ayurvedic ◮ Mudgara.Folk ◮ Mogaraa (var.), Ran-mogaraa.Action ◮ See Jasminum sambac.Jasminum multiflorum(Burm. f.) Andr.Synonym ◮ J. pubescens Willd.J. hirsutum Willd.J. bracteatum Roxb.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract andin moist forests of Western Ghats.English ◮ Downy Jasmine.Ayurvedic ◮ Kunda, Kasturi Mogaraa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Magarandam, Malli.Folk ◮ Kasturi Mogaraa.Action ◮ Diuretic, emetic. Boiledbark—applied on burns.Ethanolic extract of fresh leavesand flowers contain the secoiridoidlactones, jasmolactone A, B, C andD; and secoiridoid glycosides. JasmolactoneB and D and the secoiridoidglycosides (multifloroside and10-hydroxyoleuropein) exhibited vasodilatoryand cardiotropic activities.Jasminum officinale Linn. var.grandiflorum (L.) Kobuski.Synonym ◮ J. grandiflorum Linn.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ North-Western Himalayasand Persia; cultivated in Kumaon,Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, MadhyaPradesh; in gardens throughoutIndia.English ◮ Spanish Jasmine.Ayurvedic ◮ Jaati, Jaatikaa, Jaatimalli,Pravaaljaati, Saumanasyaayani,Sumanaa, Chetikaa, Hriddgandhaa,Maalati, Chameli.Unani ◮ Yaasmin.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manmadabanam,Mullai, Padar-malligai, Pichi, MalliFolk ◮ Chameli.Action ◮ Flowers—calming andsedative, CNS depressant, astringentand mild anaesthetic. A syrupprepared from the flowers isused for coughs, hoarsenessesand other disorders of the chest.Plant—diuretic, anthelmintic,emmenagogue; used for healingchronic ulcers and skin diseases.Oil—externally relaxing.J

344 Jasminum rottlerianum Wall. ex DC.JIndian oil sample gave benzyl acetate26.3, benzyl benzoate 19.2, phytol10.6, jasmone 8.5, methyl jasmonate6.3, linalool 5.4, geranyl linalool 3.5,eugenol 2.9, isophytyl acetate 2.7, andisophytol 2.4%.The leaves gave ascorbic acid, anthranilicacid and its glucoside, indoleoxygenase, alkaloid jasminine and salicylicacid.The flowers contain pyridine andnicotinate derivatives; tested positivefor indole.The flowers and leaf juice is used fortreating tumours.Dosage ◮ Dried leaves—10–20 gpowder for decoction (API, Vol.III.); Juice—10–20 ml. (CCRAS.).Jasminum rottlerianumWall. ex DC.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Peninsula, fromKonkan southwards to Kerala.Ayurvedic ◮ Vana-mallikaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Erumaimullai,Kattumalligei, Uyyakondan.Action ◮ Leaf—used in eczema.Jasminum sambac (Linn.) Ait.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughoutIndia, especially in Uttar Pradesh,on a large scale in Jaunpur, Kannauj,Ghazipur and Farrukhabad for itsfragrant flowers.English ◮ Arabian Jasmine, TuscanJasmine, Double Jasmine.Ayurvedic ◮ Mallikaa, Madayanti,Madyantikaa, Nava-Mallikaa,Shita-bhiru, Vaarshiki.Unani ◮ Mograa.Siddha ◮ Malligai.Folk ◮ Belaa, Motiaabelaa; Mogaraa(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Root—emmenagogue,blood purifier. Flowers—lactifuge.Alcoholic extract—hypotensive.Leaves—antibacterial; used againstindolent and breast tumours.The leaves contain the secoiridoidglycosides, jasminin, quercitrin, isoquercitrin,rutin, quercitrin-3-dirhamnoglycoside,kaempferol-3-rhamnoglycoside,mannitol, alpha-amyrin,beta-sitosterol and an iridoid glycoside,sambacin. The absolute containsseveral pyridine and nicotinate derivatives.Dosage ◮ Decoction—50–100 ml.(CCRAS.)Jateorhiza palmata Miers.Synonym ◮ J. calumba Miers.Family ◮ Menispermaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to south-easttropical Africa. Imported intoIndia.English ◮ Calumba, Colombo.Ayurvedic ◮ Kalambaka. (Cosciniumfenestratum Colebr., known as Falsecalumba, is used as a substitute forJ. palmata.)

Jatropha glandulifera Roxb. 345Siddha/Tamil ◮Kolumbu.Action ◮ Root—bitter tonic withoutastringency, carminative, gastrictonic, antiflatulent, hyptotensive,orexigenic, uterine stimulant,sedative. Used in anorexia,poor digestion, hypochlorhydria,amoebic dysentery and menstrualdisorders. Antifungal.Key application ◮ As appetitestimulant. (The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)The root gave isoquinoline alkaloids2–3%; palmatine, jaterorrhizine and itsdimer bis-jateorrhizine, columbamine;bitters (including chasmanthin andpalmanin). Volatile oil contains thymol.The alkaloid jateorrhizine is sedative,hypotensive. Palmatine is a uterinestimulant.As calumba contains very little volatileoil and no tannins, it is free from astringencywhich is common with otherbitter herbs.The root alkaloids exhibit narcoticproperties and side effects similarto morphine. It is no longer used(in Western herbal) as a digestive aid,and is rarely used as an antidiarrhoealagent. (Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Jatropha curcas Linn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropicalAmerica. Now cultivated alongwith Cromandel Coast and inTravancore.English ◮ Physic Nut, Purging Nut.Ayurvedic ◮ Vyaaghrairanda (var.),Sthula-eranda, Kaanan-eranda.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Amanaku.Folk ◮ Bagharenda (var.).Action ◮ Seed—highly toxic. Nut—purgative. Plant—used for scabies,ringworm, eczema, whitlow, warts,syphilis. Stem bark—applied towounds of animal bites; root barkto sores.The protein of the seed contains thetoxic albumin curcin (protein 18.0%,curcin 0.005%).Seed and seed oil—more drasticpurgative than castor seed oil andmilder than Croton tiglium oil.An aqueous (10%) infusion of leavesincreased cardiac contraction is smalldoses. EtOH (50%) extract of aerialparts—diuretic and CNS depressant.The seed contain phorbol derivatives.The plant also contains curcosonesand lathyrane diterpenes.Jatropha glandulifera Roxb.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ South India and Bengal.Ayurvedic ◮ Vyaaghrairanda.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Adalai, Eliyamanakku.Folk ◮ Bagharenda, Jangali-erandi.Action ◮ Root and oil from seed—purgative. Oil—antirheumatic,antiparalytic. Used externally onringworm and chronic ulcers.Root—used for glandular swellings.J

346 Jatropha gossypifolia Linn.JLatex—applied to warts andtumours.The plant contain alkannins (isohexenylnaphthazarins).The presenceof alkannins in this plant (a member ofEuphorbiaceae) shouldbeconsideredas an exception.The root gave jatropholone A, fraxetinand a coumarinolignan.Dosage ◮ Seed—50–100 mg powder.(CCRAS.)Jatropha gossypifolia Linn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Brazil; cultivatedas an ornamental.English ◮ Tua-Tua.Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-Vyaaghrairanda.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Stalai.Folk ◮ Laal Bagharenda.Action ◮ Leaf and seed—purgative.Leaf—antidermatosis. Bark—emmenagogue. Seed—emetic.Seed fatty oil—used in paralyticaffections, also in skin diseases.The leaves contain triterpenes, a trihydroxyketone and correspondingdiosphenol. The root contains thediterpenes, jatropholone A and jatrophatrione.A tumour-inhibitor macrocyclicditerpene, jatrophone, hasbeen isolated from roots.The seeds contain phorbol derivatives,jatropholones A and B, hydroxyjatrophoneand hydroxyisojatrophone.Hotwaterextractoftheplantexhibitsantimalarial activity against Plasmodiumfalciparum.Jatropha multifida Linn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South America.Naturalized in various parts ofIndia.English ◮ Coral plant, Physic Nut.Ayurvedic ◮ Brihat-Danti (biggervar. of Danti, also equated withBaliospermum montanum).Folk ◮ Danti (var.).Action ◮ Seeds—purgative, emetic.Fruits—poisonous. Leaves—usedfor scabies. Latex—applied towounds and ulcers.The latex from the plant showed antibacterialactivity against Staphylococcusaureus. It contains immunologicallyactive acylphloroglucinols, multifidol,phloroglucinol and multifidolbeta-D-glucopyranoside. The latex alsocontains an immunologically active,cyclic decapeptide, labaditin.J. panduraefolia Andr. (native toAmerica), widely grown in Indian gardens,is known as Fiddle-leaved Jatropha.The latex from the plant showsfungitoxic activity against ringwormfungus, Microsporum gypseum.Juglans regia Linn.Family ◮ Juglandaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Iran; nowcultivated in Kashmir, HimachalPradesh., Khasi Hills and the hillsof Uttar Pradesh.English ◮ Walnut tree.

Juncus effusus Linn. 347Ayurvedic ◮ Akshoda, Akshodaka,Akshota, Shailbhava, Pilu,Karparaal, Vrantphala.Unani ◮ Akhrot.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Akrottu.Action ◮ Leaves and bark—alterative, laxative, antiseptic, mildhypoglycaemic, anti-inflammatory,antiscrofula, detergent. An infusionof leaves and bark is used forherpes, eczema and other cutaneousaffections; externally to skineruptions and ulcers. Volatile oil—antifungal, antimicrobial.Key application (leaf) ◮ In mild,superficial inflammation of the skinand excessive perspiration of handsand feet. (German Commission E.).When English Walnuts (Juglansregia) are added to low fat diet, totalcholesterol may be decreased by 4–12% and LDL by 8–16%. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Walnut hull preparations are usedfor skin diseases and abscesses.Walnut is eaten as a dry fruit. Becauseof its resemblance to the brain,it was thought, according to the “doctrineof signatures”, to be a good braintonic. Walnuts are also eaten to lowerthe cholesterol levels.From the volatile oil of the leavesterpenoid substances (monoterpenes,sesquiterpenes, diterpene and triterpenederivatives) and eugenol havebeen isolated. Fatty acids, includinggeranic acid; alpha-and beta-pinene,1,8,cincole, limonene, beta-eudesmoland juglone are also important constituentsof the volatile oil.The leaves contain napthoquinones,mainly juglone. The root bark gave3, 3 ′ ,-bis-juglone and oligomeric juglones.Unripe fruit husk also gavenapthoquinones.The kernels of Indian walnuts contain15.6% protein, 11% carbohydrates,1.8% mineral matter (sodium, potassium,calcium, magnesium, iron, copper,phosphorus, sulphur and chorine).Iodine (2.8 mcg/100 g), arsenic, zinc,cobalt and manganese are also reported.Kernels are also rich in vitamins ofthe B group, vitamin A (30 IU/100 g),andascorbicacid(3mg/100g).The juice of unripe fruits showedsignificant thyroid hormone enhancingactivity (prolonged use of such extractmay cause serious side effect).White Walnut, Lemon Walnut, Butternut,Oilnut of the USA is equatedwith Juglans cineraria L. The innerbark gave napthoquinones, includingjuglone, juglandin, juglandic acid, tanninsand an essential oil.Butternut is used as a dermatologicaland antihaemorrhoidal agent. Jugloneexhibits antimicrobial, antiparasiticand antineoplastic activities.Dosage ◮ Dried cotyledons—10–25 g(API, Vol. II.)Juncus effusus Linn.Synonym ◮Family ◮J. communis E. Mey.Juncaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas andKhasi Hills.English ◮Rush, Matting Rush.J

348 Juniperus communis Linn. var. saxatillis Palias.JAction ◮ Pith—antilithic, discutient,diuretic, depurative, pectoral.Root—diuretic, especially instrangury.The leaves gave flavonoids, lutcoline-7-glucoside, diosmin and hesperidin;aerial parts gave phenolic constituents,effusol and juncusol. Juncusol is antimicrobial.A dihydrodibenzoxepin,isolated from the plant, showed cytotoxicactivity.Juniperus communis Linn. var.saxatillis Palias.Synonym ◮ J. communis auct. non L.Family ◮ Pinaceae; Cupressaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe andNorth America. Distributed inWestern Himalayas from Kumaonwestwards at 1,700–4,200 m.English ◮ Common Juniper.Ayurvedic ◮ Hapushaa, Havushaa,Haauber, Matsyagandha.Unani ◮ Abahal, Haauber, Hubb-ularar,Aarar.Action ◮ Berries—diuretic, urinaryantiseptic, carminative, digestive,sudorific, anti-inflammatory,emmenagogue. Used for acute andchronic cystitis, renal suppression(scanty micturition), catarrhof the bladder, albuminuria,amenorrhoea, leucorrhoea. Aerialparts—abortifacient.Key application ◮ In dyspepsia.(German Commission E.) Juniperberry may increase glucose levels indiabetics. (ESCOP.) Asadiuretic.(The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia recommends the dried fruitin malabsorption syndrome.Animal studies have shown an increasein urine excretion as well as a directeffect on sooth muscle contraction.(German Commission E, ESCOP.)Contraindicatedin kidney disease. (SharonM. Herr.)(In Kerala, Hapushaa and Mundi areconsidered to be synonyms; Syphaeranthusindicus,Asteraceae, is used asHapushaa.)The major constituents of the volatileoil are alpha-pinene, sabinene andalpha-terpinene. Methanolic extractof the plant gave several labdane diterpenoidsand diterpenes. The leavescontain the biflavones, cupressuflavone,amentoflavone, hinokiflavone,isocryptomerin and sciadopitysin. Theberries also contain condensed tannins.Seeds gave haemagglutinin.Juniperus recurva Buch-Ham ex D.Don, syn. J. excelsa auct. non-Bieb.(temperate Himalaya from Kashmir toBhutan) is known as Weeping Blue Juniper.J. macropoda Boiss. (the Himalayafrom Nepal onwards) is knownas Himalayan Indian Juniper. Boththe species are used like J. communisvar. saxatillis.The berries gave a diterpene ketone,sugrol, beta-sitosterol glucoside and10-nonacosanol.Plant extract can be used in toothpastesand mouth-rinses to reduce dentalplaque and bleeding.Dosage ◮ Dried fruit—2–6 g powder.(API, Vol. III.)

Justicia betonica Linn. 349Juniperus virginiana Linn.Family ◮Pinaceae; Cupressaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to North America;introduced into India.English ◮Pencil Cedar, Red Cedar.Action ◮ The berries in decoction arediaphoretic and emmenagogue likethose of common juniper; leavesare diuretic. Red cedar oil is usedin the preparation of insecticides.Small excrescences, called cedarapples, are sometimes found onthe branches. These are used asan anthelmintic. (Yellow Cedar isequated with Thuja occidentalles.)Juniperus procera Hochst. (EastAfrican Cedar), J. bermudiana Linn.(BermudaCedar) and J. Chinensis Linn.(Chinese Juniper) have also been introducedinto India.Jurinea macrocephala Benth.Synonym ◮ J. dolomiacea Boiss.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Kumaon.Ayurvedic ◮ Jaatukanda, Gugguluka.Folk ◮ Guugal, Dhuup.Action ◮ Roots—used as incense.Stimulant, given in colic, also infever after child birth. Bruised rootsare applied to eruptions.The alcoholic extract of the rootinhibits about 50% growth of NK65strain of Plasmodium berghei at a doseof 2 g/kg per day in 4 days.Jussiaea suffruticosa Linn.Synonym ◮ Ludwigia octovalvis(Jacq.) Raven.Oenothera octovalis Jacq.Family ◮ Onagraceae.Habitat ◮ A native of the New World;foundinmarshyfieldsinIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Jala-lavanga, Bhuulavanga,Bana-laung.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nirkkrambu.Action ◮ Cooling, diuretic, astringent,mild laxative. Used incatarrhal affections of children;applied externally for burns andscalds. Pulp of the plant, steepedin buttermilk, is used for dysentery.Root—febrifuge.Jussiaea tenella Burm. f.Synonym ◮ J. linifolia Vahl.J. fissendocarpa Haines.Family ◮ Onagraceae.Habitat ◮ Watery and swampy placesin Bihar and Orissa and in someparts of South India.Ayurvedic ◮ Jala-lavanga (var.).Action ◮ See J. suffruticosa.An infusion of the root is given insyphilis. The plant is employed in poulticefor pimples.Justicia betonica Linn.Family ◮Acanthaceae.J

350 Justicia gendarussa Burm. f.JHabitat ◮ Throughout greater partsof India, in waste lands, hedges androcky ravines.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Velimungil.Folk ◮ Had-paata (Bihar), Pramehaharati,Mokandar. (MadhyaPradesh).Action ◮ Plant—used in diarrhoea;externally for swellings and boils.Justicia gendarussa Burm. f.Synonym ◮ Gendarussa vulgarisNees.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the greaterpart of India and AndamanIslands.Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna Vaasaa (bluevar.), Nila-nirgundi, Krishnanirgundi,Nila-manjari.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karunochhi,Vadaikkuthi.Action ◮ Febrifuge, diaphoretic,emetic, emmenagogue. Infusion ofleaves—given internally in cephalalgia,hemiplegia and facial paralysis.Fresh leaves—used topically inoedema and rheumatism. Bark—emetic.The leaves contain beta-sitosterol,an alkaloid, lupeol, friedelin and aromaticamines.Justicia procumbens Linn.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats, West Coastfrom Konkan to Kerala; abundantin the rainy season.Ayurvedic ◮ Parpata (substitute).Action ◮ The plant containsnaphthofuranones, justicidin A,B, C, D, G and H, and diphyllin,which are used for the treatment ofosteoporosis. The flowers containpeonidine glucoside. Essential oil—antifungal.Justica tranquebariensis Linn. f.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Deccan, Mysore southwards.Folk ◮ Sivanarvembu (Tamil Nadu).Action ◮ Leaves—cooling, aperient;given for smallpox to children,bruisedleavesappliedtocontusions.The alcoholic extract of the aerialparts yielded several lignans, phytosterols,brassicasterol, campesterol,7,22-ergostadienol, stigmasterol, sitosterol,spinasterol, 28-isofucostil anda sterol glucoside, beta-sitosterol-3-Oglucoside.Justica vasculosa Wall. (Eastern Himalayas,Assam Khasi Hills) is alsoused for inflammations.

KKadsura heteroclita(Roxb.) Craib.Synonym ◮ K. roxburghiana Arn. K.wightiana Arn.Family ◮ Magnoliaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalaya, Assam,Western Ghats in Malabar.Folk ◮ Pattiamlo, Salado-rik(Himalayas). Kang-mari, Mi-jangew,Theiarbawm (Assam).Action ◮ The stems have beenused in Chinese folk medicineto promote blood circulationand for the treatment of gastricand duodenal ulcer, acute andchronicgastroenteritis,postpartumabdominal pain and trauma.The stem contains dibenzocyclooctadienetype lignans. The plant lignansshowed PAF (platelet activatingfactor) receptor antagonistic activity.The lignans have also been reportedto be potent inhibitors of lipid peroxidationin rat liver. The fruit containsgomisin D, which is an active ingredientof an antiulcer agent.Kaempferia galanga Linn.Family ◮Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains ofIndia, cultivated in gardens.English ◮Galanga, Maraba.Ayurvedic ◮ Sugandha-vachaa,Chandramuula, Chandramuulikaa.(In Kerala, used as Karchuraand Shathi.) (Kapurakachari isa different drug, equated withHedychium spicatum.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kachoram.Action ◮ Tuber—stimulant, carminative,expectorant, diuretic usedfor respiratory ailments like cough,bronchitis and asthma.The essential oil from rhizomes containn-pentadecane, ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate, ethyl cinnamate, carene,camphene, borneol, p-methoxystyrene,p-methoxy cinnamate, p-methoxy-trans-cinnamicacid and cinnamaldehyde. Insecticidal activity ofthe oil is attributed to ethyl cinnamates.Ethyl-p-methoxy-cinnamateshows monoamine oxidase inhibitoractivity and a cytotoxic principle (therhizomes exhibit cytotoxic activity).Leaves and flowers exhibit antiphlogisticand vitamin P activity. Ethyl-pmethoxy-transcinnamate is the maincompound in the root.Kaempferia rotunda Linn.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India in wetorhumidshadedareas.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuumi-champaka,Bhuu-champaka, Hallakam.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karunkuvalai.

352 Kalanchoe integra (Medic.) Kuntze.KFolk ◮Bhui-champaa.Action ◮ Tuber—antitumour. Usedfor swellings (removes blood clot),mumps and wounds.Tubers gave crotepoxide and betasitosterol.The oil contained chavicol,cineole.Kalanchoe integra(Medic.) Kuntze.Synonym ◮ K. brasiliensis Cambress.K. spathulata Roxb.Family ◮ Crassulaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas fromKashmir to Bhutan, on Lushai hillsand in the Deccan.Ayurvedic ◮ Parnabija (var.).Unani ◮ Zakhm-e-Hayaat.Folk ◮ Rungru, Tatara. Bakalpattaa,Patkuari (Kumaon). Hathokane(Nepal).Action ◮ Plant—hypotensive,antiarrhythmic.Aqueous extract of the leaves depressedCNS and potentiated barbiturate-inducedhypnosis in mice.The flowers yielded triterpenoids—friedelin, taraxerol and glutinol anda mixture of long chain hydrocarbons,n-alkanols and sterols. Kaempferoland its 3-O-rhamnoside, patuletin andpatuletin-3, 7-di-O-rhamnoside, quercetinand quercetin-3-O-glucoside-7-O-rhamnoside are reported fromleaves and flowers.The leaves exhibit wound healingproperties.Kalanchoe laciniata (Linn.) DC.Synonym ◮ K. schweinfurthii Penzig.Cotyledon laciniata Roxb.Family ◮ Crassulaceae.Habitat ◮ Maharashtra, Deccan andBengal.Ayurvedic ◮ Parnabija (var.),Vatapatri.Unani ◮ Zakhm-e-Hayaat.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Malakalli.Folk ◮ Hemasaagar.Action ◮ Plant—used in fever,dyspepsia, skin allergy, asthma,bronchitis. Leaves—astringent,antiseptic, astringent. Applied toinsect bites. Lotions are used forsmallpox. Leaf juice is given indiarrhoea, dysentery, lithiasis.Kalanchoe pinnata (Lam.) Pers.Synonym ◮ Bryophyllum pinnatum(Lam.) Oken.B. calycinum Salisb.Family ◮ Crassulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmand moist parts of India, especiallyabundant in West Bengal.Ayurvedic ◮ Parnabija, Pattharchuur,Pattharchat, Hemsaagar. (Paashaanabhedais a misleading synonym.)Unani ◮ Zakhm-e-Hayaat.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Runakalli.Action ◮ Leaf—anti-inflammatory,antifungal, antibacterial. Applied towounds, burns, boils, swellings.

Khaya senegalensis A. Juss. 353The methanolic extract of leaves exhibitedpotent anti-inflammatory activityagainst both exudative and proliferativephases of inflammation. Theleaf extract also showed analgesic activity.The leaves gave flavonoids—quercetin,kaempferol, quercetin-3-diarabinosideand kaempferol-3-glucoside; alson-hentriacontane, n-tritriacontane,alpha- and beta-amyrin and sitosterol;p-coumaric, ferulic, syringic, caffeicand p-hydroxybenzoic acids.Kandelia rheedii Wight & Arn.Synonym ◮Family ◮K. candel (L.) Druce.Rhizophoraceae.Habitat ◮ Costal forests of eastern andwestern Peninsulas, the Sunderbans(West Bengal).Siddha/Tamil ◮Thuvar kandan.Folk ◮ Rasunia (Orissa), Guria(Bengal).Action ◮ Bark—used with gingeror long pepper and rose waterfor diabetes (aqueous or alcoholicextracts of the bark did not exhibitany effect on the blood sugar ofnormal or alloxan-diabetic rabbits).The Bark contains 17.3% tannin and13.5% non-tans. Novel proanthocyanidindimers and trimers—all containinga phenylpropionoid substituent inthe upper flavan unit, along with propelargonidindimers and procyanidintrimers of common types, have beenisolated from the bark.Kedrostis foetidissima(Jacq.) Cogn.Synonym ◮ K. rostrata (Rottl.) Cogn.Bryonia rostrata Rottl.Rhynghocarpa foetida ClarkeFamily ◮Cucurbitacease.Habitat ◮ Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh andTamil Nadu.Folk ◮ Appakovay (Tamil Nadu).Kukumadona, Nagadonda (AndhraPradesh) Nurakvel (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Root and fruit—demulcent;used in asthma and piles.Khaya senegalensis A. Juss.Synonym ◮Family ◮Melia dubia Cav.Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South Africa.Planted in forest nurseries andplantation at Pune and Vada(Maharashtra).English ◮African Mahogany.Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory,cardiogenic.Methanolic extract of the stem barkshowed cardiovascular (cardiogenic)effect in rodents by increasing bloodpressure and vasoconstriction of thearota partly due to the stimulationof beta-receptors and alpha-adrenoceptors.Alcoholic extract of the stem barkshowed anti-inflammatory activity.K

354 Kigelia pinnata (Jacq.) DC.KKigelia pinnata (Jacq.) DC.Synonym ◮ K. africana (Lam.) Benth.Family ◮Bignoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to West Africa,cultivated as a roadside tree.English ◮Folk ◮Common Sausage tree.Jhaar Phaanuus.Action ◮ Bark—antidysenteric,antirheumatic, diuretic. Usedin venereal diseases. Fruits—purgative.The root bark contains monoterpenoids,pinnatal, isopinnatal and isokigelinolnapthoquinones.The fruit gave a cytostatic compound.In Africa, the root bark is used in thetreatment of venereal diseases, haemorrhoidsand rheumatism; also as a vermifuge.Kingiodendron pinnatum(Roxb. ex DC.) Harms.Synonym ◮ Hardwickia pinnataRoxb. ex DC.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Hills of Tamil Nadu,Karnataka and Kerala.English ◮ Piney.Ayurvedic ◮ Samparni.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodapalai, Madayansambrani.Action ◮ Oleo-gum-resin—usedin catarrhal conditions of thegenitourinary and respiratorytracts; also for treating sores.The oleo-gum-resin contains monoterpenesand diterpenes—hardwickiic,kolavic, kolavenic acids and kolavenol.Kirganelia reticulata (Poir) Baill.Synonym ◮ Phyllanthus reticulatusPoir.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ All over India; also grownas a hedge plant.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaamboji.Folk ◮ Panjuli.Action ◮ Plant—spasmolytic,hypotensive, antiviral. Fruit—astringent, used in inflammations.Leaves—astringent, antidiarrhoeal,diuretic. Root bark—astringent,attenuant, diuretic.The leaves contain beta-sitosterol,friedelin and its derivatives, glochidonoland betulinic acid. Betulin,glochidonol, friedelin, octacosanol,taraxeryl acetate, taraxerone and betasitosterolare obtained from the root.Kleinhovia hospita Linn.Family ◮ Sterculiaceae.Habitat ◮ Grown in Indian gardensand as an avenue tree.Folk ◮ Panuitteku (Tamil Nadu). Bol(Bengal).Action ◮ Bark and leaves—usedin the treatment of cough andtuberculosis.

Kydia calycina Roxb. 355The roots contain kaempferol, quercetinand rutin.Knema angustifolia(Roxb.) Warb.Synonym ◮ Myristica gibbosaHook. f.Family ◮ Myristicaceae.Habitat ◮ Sikkim Himalayas, Assam.Folk ◮ Motaa-pasuti (Assam),Ramguwaa (Nepal).Action ◮ Kino—astringent; usedfor dysentery; topically applied tomouth sores.Kino contains 33.6% tannin and resembleskino from Pterocarpus marsupiumis appearance.Kochia indica Wt.Family ◮ Chenopodiaceae.Habitat ◮ North-western andPeninsular India.Folk ◮ Bui-chholi (Punjab). Kauraro.Action ◮ Cardiac stimulant.Resinous alkaloid, isolated from alcoholicextract of the plant, showednicotinic action on autonomic ganglionand neuromuscular junction ofvoluntary muscles.Fruits and leaves of a related sp., K.scoparia Schrad are used as a cardiactonic and diuretic.Petroleum ether extract of aerialparts contain n-alkanes, free alcoholsand a mixture of sterols (mainly sitosterol,70.9%).The plant exhibits antibacterial activitywhich is attributed to hydrocarbonsand sterols present in it. The plantis also used as an ingredient of a medicinalpowder used for dermatitis.Krameria triandra Ruiz & Pav.Family ◮ Krameriaceae.Habitat ◮ Peru, Bolivia. Reported tobe imported into India.English ◮ Peruvian Rhatany,Krameria.Action ◮ Astringent, styptic,antidiarrhoeal, vulnerary. Used formenorrhagia; topically for wounds,haemorrhoids and chilblains; asa lozenge, gargle or mouthwash forgingivitis and pharyngitis.Key application ◮ For topicaltreatment of mild inflammationsof oral and pharyngeal mucosa.(German Commission E.)The astringency of the drug is due tocondensed tannins composed of procyanidinsand propelargondins.In India, the roots of Hemidesmusindicus are sometimes used as a substitutefor Rhatany.Kydia calycina Roxb.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Common in sub-Himalayan tract.Folk ◮ Pola, Pulu, Pula, Polao. Vendi(Tamil Nadu). Potri, Konda Potari,Pandiki, Pachabotuka (AndhraK

356 Kyllinga triceps Rottb.KPradesh). Velukku, Venta, Nedunar(Kerala).Action ◮ Plant—mucilaginous, antiinflammatory,febrifuge. Leaf androot—antirheumatic. The leavesstimulate saliva. A paste of leavesis applied in body pains, used inpoultices for skin diseases.Kyllinga triceps Rottb.Synonym ◮ K. tenuifolia Stend.Cyperus triceps (Rottb.) Endl.Family ◮Cyperaceae.Habitat ◮ Northwestern India,Gujarat, Rajasthan and South India.Ayurvedic ◮ Nirvishaa (var.) Mustaka(var.), Apivisha.Folk ◮ Mustu (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Root—febrifuge andantidermatosis. Also used fordiabetes.Kyllinga monocephala Rottb., synonymCyperus kyllinga Endl., commonthroughout India, is also knownas Nirvishaa, Nirbishi and Mustaa(var.). Therootisusedasdiuretic(inpolyuria), demulcent, refrigerant andantipyretic. It is prescribed for fistula,pustules, tumours, measles, diarrhoeaand other intestinal affections.Traces of hydrocyanic acid are reportedto be present in the root, stemsand nutlets.

LLactuca runcinata DC.Synonym ◮Family ◮L. heyneana DC.Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Many parts of India, asa common weed.Undir-chaa-kaan (Maharash-Folk ◮tra).Action ◮ Diuretic, slightly aperient.Used as a diuretic in calculous affections,also for chronic obstructionof liver and bowels.A smaller var., found in western UttarPradesh, Rajasthan, Saurashtra andthe Deccan Penninsula, is equated withL. remotiflora DC.Lactuca sativa Linn.Synonym ◮ L. scariola Linn. var.sativa C.B. Clarke.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Southern andWest Asia. Cultivated throughoutIndia as a cold weather crop.English ◮ Garden Lettuce.Unani ◮ Kaahuu Bustaani, SalaadPattaa, Salaad Baaghi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Salattu.Action ◮ Plant—used in painfululcers and burns.The leaves contain calcium, phosphorus,iron, thiamine, riboflavin, niacin,carotine, iodine, fluorine. A. dietaryallowance of 10 g of lettuce is adequateto meet the vitamin K requirementof the body.Aqueous extract of roots gave a guaiene-typesesquiterpene glycoside, lactosideC, along with known glycosides,lactoside A and macro-cliniside A.Lactuca serriola Linn.Synonym ◮ L. scariola Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The Western Himalayas,between1,800and3,300m.Foundwild.English ◮ Wild Lettuce, PricklyLettuce.Ayurvedic ◮ Salaad, Vanya-Kaahuu.Unani ◮ Kaahuu Saharai, KaahuuBarri.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Salattu.Action ◮ Plant—mild sedative,diuretic, diaphoretic, expectorant,antiseptic. Seed—demulcent. Theseeds are used in the form of powderfor coughs and as a decoction forinsomnia.Seeds contain protein, amino acids;Mg Al and K as major elements besidesNa, Ca, Si, Ti, Mn, Fe and Cu.Arachidic, caproic, linoleic, oleic,palmitic, stearic acids and sitosterol(from the root); ascorbic acid,beta-carotene, 8-deoxylactucin, lacticin,jacquilenin, lactupicrin, ubiqui-

358 Lactuca virosa Linn.Lnone (from the plant) have been isolated.Lactuca virosa Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe. Importedinto India.English ◮ Bitter Lettuce, WildLettuce.Unani ◮ Kaahuu Sahrai (var.),Kaahuu Barri (var.).Action ◮ Mild sedative, hypnotic,(once used as a substitute foropium), anodyne, expectorant.Key application ◮ As sedative. (TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)Used in insomnia, nervous excitability,anxiety, restlessness, hyperactivityin children, nymphomania, smoker’scough, irritable cough and bronchitis.Aerial parts contain sesquiterpeneglycosides.The leaves and dried juice containlacticin, lactucopicrin (sesquiterpenelactones); flavonoids (mainly based onquercetin); coumarins (cichoriin andaesculin); N-methyl-beta-phenethylamine;triterpenes include taraxasteroland beta-amyrin. The sesquiterpenelactones have a sedative effect.The Wild Lettuce also contains hyoscyamine,while the dried sap is devoidof it. Morphine content has beenfound in low concentrations, too lowto have pharmacological effect. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)The oil of seeds is used for arteriosclerosis.Lagenaria siceraria(Mol.) Standl.Synonym ◮ L. vulgaris Ser.L. leucanth Rusby.Cucurbita siceraria Mol.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Bitter Bottle-Gourd.Ayurvedic ◮ Katu-tumbi, Tumbini,Ikshavaaku. Tiktaalaavu, Pindaphalaa.Unani ◮ Kaddu-e-talkh (bitter var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Suraikai.Action ◮ Pulp—purgative, emetic.Leaf—used in jaundice.Cucurbita lagenaria Linn. is equatedwith Lauki or Sweet Bottle-Guard, usedall over India as a vegetable.Cucurbita siceraria Mol. is equatedwith Titalauki or the Bitter Bottle-Gourd. Bitter fruits yield 0.013% ofa solid foam containing cucurbitacinB,D,G and H, mainly cucurbitacin B.These bitter principles are present inthe fruit as aglycones. Leaves containcucurbitacin B, androotscucurbitacinsB, D and traces of E. The fruit juice containsbeta-glycosidase (elaterase).Plants which yield non-bitter fruitscontain no bitter principles or elaterase;their roots are not bitter.Lagerstroemia flos-reginaeRetz.Synonym ◮ L. speciosa (L.) Pers.L. reginae Roxb.

Laggera alata Sch.- Bip. ex Oliver. 359Family ◮Lythraceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalaya, andAssam, Western and Eastern Ghats,up to 1,000 m.English ◮ Pride of India, Queen’sFlowers, Queen Crape Myrtle.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadalai, Pumaruttu.Folk ◮ Jaarul. Kramuk and Arjun areconfusing synonyms.Action ◮ Seed—narcotic. Root—astringent, stimulant, febrifuge.Fruit—used for aphthae of themouth. Leaves—purgative, diuretic,deobstruent. Bark—an infusion isgiven in diarrhoea and abdominalpain.A decoction of the leaves, also ofdried fruits, is used like tea for diabetesmellitus in Philippines. Mature leavesand fruits, in fresh condition, exhibithypoglycaemic activity experimentally.The potency decreases on storing thematerial.The leaf extract, when administeredas powder and as tannin-freeextract, showed hypoglycaemic activityin mice. Amino acids constitute theinsulin-like principle. The plant containstriterpenoids, colocolic acid andmaslinic acid. Colocolic acid is knownto possess hypoglycaemic activity.Leaves contain lageracetal and sitosterol.Ellagitannins have been isolatedfrom fruits and leaves.Lagerstroemia indica Linn.Family ◮ Lythraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China; grown asan ornamental.English ◮ Common Crape Myrtle.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pavalak-kurinji,Sinappu.Folk ◮ Saavani, Faraash.Action ◮ Seed—narcotic. Bark—stimulant, febrifuge. Leavesand flowers—purgative. Root—astringent. Used as a gargle.Lagerstroemia parviflora Roxb.Family ◮ Lythraceae.Habitat ◮ Almost throughout India,up to an altitude of 900 m, in theHimalayas.Ayurvedic ◮ Siddhaka, Siddha,Syandana (provisional synonym).Folk ◮ Dhauraa, Bakli. Chungi(Hyderabad). Lendia (trade).Action ◮ Astringent, fungitoxic.The bark and leaves contain tannin7–10 and 16% respectively. The plantcontains a pentacyclic triterpene, lagflorin.Aqueous extract of fresh andethanolic extract of dried and powderedleaves exhibit fungitoxic activityagainst several fungal pathogens ofrice.Laggera alata Sch.- Bip. ex Oliver.Family ◮ Asteraceae, Compositae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,ascending up to 2,100 m in thehills. (Native to tropical Africa andMadagascar.)English ◮ False Tobacco.L

360 Lallemantia royleana Roxb.LFolk ◮Action ◮Amadok (Garhwal).Disinfectant.The plant is one of the major ingredientsof an ointment used in thetreatment of skin tumours in Chinesemedicine. In Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso,Gabon and Tanganyika, differentparts of the plant are used for the treatmentof intercostal pain, rheumaticpain and fever. The leaf and root decoctionsare used to treat pneumonia.The plant from Nigeria was foundrich in phenolic ethers (45%), followedby monoterpenes (22%) andsesquiterpenes (12%). The major componentof the oil was dimethyl thymoquinone(44%). It showed activityagainst Gram-positive microorganisms.Dried powder of the plant containedartemisetin (artemetin).Lallemantia royleana Roxb.Family ◮ Labiatae.Habitat ◮ Plain and hills of Kumaonand Punjab, extending westwards toAfghanistan. Imported into Indiafrom Persia.Unani ◮ Baalango, Tukhm-e-Baalango.Folk ◮ Tuut-malangaa.Action ◮ Seed—cooling, diuretic,sedative; given internally asa soothing agent during urinarytroubles, also for cough. A poulticeof seeds is applied to abscesses,boils and inflammations. (Seeds arenot to be used as a substitute forPlantago sp.)Seeds contain linoleic, oleic, palmiticand stearic acids; beta-sitosterol.Gum contains L-arabinose, D-galactose,L-rhamnose, pentosans, protein,uronic anhydride. Amino acids are alsofound in the plant.Lamium album Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ West Himalayas fromKashmir to Kumaon.English ◮ White Dead Nettle,Archangel.Action ◮ Haemostatic (particularlyon the uterus), astringent, diuretic,anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic,expectorant. Used for menorrhagia,leucorrhoea, cystitis, prostatitis,bleeding piles, diarrhoea, irritablebowel and respiratory catarrh.Key application ◮ Internally, forcatarrh of the upper respiratorypassages; externally, for mild,superficial inflammation of the skin.(German Commission E.) Flowershave been recommended for teasand other galenical preparationsfor internal applications, rinses,baths and moist compresses. Asastringent. (The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)The herb contains iridoid monoterpenes;triterpene saponins; caffeic acidderivatives; flavonoids based on kaempferol;tannins (mainly catechins). Theplant also gave a carbocyclic iridoid,caryoptoside; besides lambalbide, albosidesA and B (iridoid monoterpenes).

Lansium domesticum Correa. 361Laminum amplexicaule Linn.Family ◮Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Kumaon, Sikkimand Assam.Folk ◮ Titpaati (Garhwal), Jipachi(Tibbet).Action ◮ Plant—stimulant, laxative,diaphoretic, cephalic, antirheumatic.Lamprachaeniummicrocephalum Benth.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Deccan, Konkan andKarnataka.Unani ◮ Brahmdandi. (Tricholepisangustifolia DC. of the samefamily has also been equated withBrahmdandi in National Formularyof Unani Medicine.)Folk ◮ Brahmdandi (Maharashtra),Ajadandi.Action ◮ Antiseptic, bitter tonic.Lannea coromandelica(Houtt.) Merrill.Synonym ◮ L. grandis (Dennst.)Engl.;Odina wodier Roxb.Family ◮ Anacardiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,ascending to 1,500 m in theHimalayas.Ayurvedic ◮ Jingini, Jhingan,Gudamanjari.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kalasan, Anaikkarai,Odiyan.Action ◮ Bark—stimulant andastringent; used in gout; decoctionfor aphthae of the mouth and fortoothache. Leaves— boiled andapplied to sprains, bruises, localswellings, elephantiasis. Gum—given in asthma; as a cordial towomen during lactation.The roots contain cluytyl ferulate;heartwood gave lanosterol; bark, dlepi-catechinand (+)-leucocyanidin;flowers and leaves, ellagic acid, quercetinand quercetin-3-arabinoside. Flowersalso contain iso-quercetin andmorin. Leaves in addition containbeta-sitosterol, leucocyanidin and leucodelphinidin.Lansium domesticum Correa.Family ◮ Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Nilgiris anda few other places in South India.En ◮ glishLangsat Fruit, Dockoa.Folk ◮ Duku.Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antidysenteric.Resin—antidiarrhoeal,prescribed in intestinal spasm.Seed—febrifuge, vermifuge.The peel of the fruit contains a triterpenoidacid(lansicacid).Seedsarebitter; contain traces of an alkaloid andresin.The crude extract of fruit peel, containinglansic acid, lansioside A, B andL

362 Lantana camara Linn. var. aculeata Moldenke.LC or their derivatives, is used as an ingredientof shampoos and hair tonics.Lantana camara Linn. var.aculeata Moldenke.Synonym ◮ L. aculeata L.Family ◮Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;naturalized and occurs throughoutIndia. Also grown as hedge plant.English ◮ Lantana, Wild Sage,Surinam Tea Plant.Ayurvedic ◮ Chaturaangi, Vanachchhedi.Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Unnichedi.Ghaaneri (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Plant—antirheumatic,antimalarial; used in tetanusand ataxy of abdominal viscera.Pounded leaves are applied to cuts,ulcers and swellings; a decoction ofleaves and fruits is used as a lotionfor wounds.The plant is considered poisonous.The leaves contain toxic principles,lantadenes A and B, which cause acutephotosensitization, jaundice, kidneyand liver lesions. A steroid, lancamarone,is cardioactive and fish poison.The bark of stems and roots containa quinine-like alkaloid, lantanine. Theextract of the shoot showed antibacterialactivity against E. coli and Micrococcuspyogenes var. aureus. Flowerscontain anthocyanin.Laportea crenulata Gaudich.Family ◮ Urticaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas fromNepal eastwards, Bihar, ChotaNagpur, Bengal, Assam, AnaimalaiHills and Western Ghats in Kerala.English ◮ Devil Nettle, Fever Nettle.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perunkanchori.Folk ◮ Utigun, Chorpaat (Bengal).(Uttangan is equated with Blepharisedulis Pers.)Action ◮ Root—juice used in chronicfevers. Roots and leaves are appliedto swellings and abscesses.Larix griffithiana Carr.Synonym ◮ L. griffithii Hook. f. &Thoms.Family ◮ Pinaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromeastern Nepal to Bhutan at altitudesof 2,400–3,600 m.English ◮ Himalayan Larch, SikkimLarch.Folk ◮ Boargasella, Binyi (Nepal).Action ◮ Balsam—antiseptic,hypermic.Key application ◮ Larix deciduaMiller—in rheumatic and neuralgicdiscomforts, catarrhal diseasesof the respiratory tract, furuncle(in the form of ointments, gels,emulsions and oils). (GermanCommission E.)American Larch is equated with Larixlaricina Koch., synonym L. americanaMichx. It is known as Tamarac.

Lathyrus sativus Linn. 363European Larch is equated with Larixdecidua Miller., synonym L. europeaDC., Pinus larix L., Abies larix. It isknown as Pine Larch.The bark of American Larch contains2–15% tannins. The bark ofLarix dedidua is also astringent, balsamicand diuretic. It contains lignans;lariciresinol, liovil and secoisolariciresinol;60–80% resins; essentialoil, containing alpha- and beta-pinene,limonene, phellandrene, borneol asmajor constituents.Lasia spinosa (L.) Thw.Synonym ◮ Lasia aculeata Linn.Family ◮ Araceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Sikkim Himalayas,Assam, Bengal and Southwards toSri Lanka.Siddha ◮ Kantakachoramu, Mulasari(Telugu.)Folk ◮ Kantakachu (Bengal),Kaantaasaru. Lakshmanaa andIndiver-kand are doubtful synonyms.Action ◮ Plant—used for colic andintestinal diseases. Leaves—usedfor stomachache. Rootstock andfruits—for affections of the throat.Lasiosiphon eriocephalusDecne.Family ◮ Thymelaceaceae.Habitat ◮ Deccan and WesternGhats, from Konkan southwards toKerala at altitudes of 1,200–2,500 m.Siddha ◮ Nachinaar (Tamil).Folk ◮ Raamethaa (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Bark and leaves—poisonous.Plant—vesicant. Leaves are appliedto swellings and contusions.The stem bark and seeds containa xanthone glycoside, lasioside anda biscoumarin, lasiocephatin.Lathyrus sativus Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated chiefly inMadhya Pradesh, Eastern UttarPradesh, West Bengal, AndhraPradesh and Gujarat.English ◮ Chickling Vetch, GrassPea.Folk ◮ Khesaari, Latari, Kalaaya.Action ◮ Seeds—toxic. Prolongedconsumption results in paralysis oflegs, both in animals and humanbeings, known as lathyrism. Thetoxic substance responsible forlathyrism had been identified asselenium. Peritoneal injectionof beta-N-oxalylaminoalanine(isolated from the seeds) producedacute neurolathyrism at LD50doses (748.8 mg/kg) in mice and(694.9 mg/kg) in chicken; liver andkidney cells showed denaturation,vacuolar and fatty degeneration.(It is a neuropoison, which mainlyaffects central nervous system.)Related species include, Lathyrusaphaca Linn., L. sphaericus Retz. andL. tingitanus Linn., known as Kalaayaor Khesaari.L

364 Launaea mucronata (Forsk.) Muschler.LLaunaea mucronata(Forsk.) Muschler.Synonym ◮ L. chondrilloides Hook. f.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Western India, Punjab andSind.Folk ◮ Dudh-phad (Rajasthan).Action ◮ Plant—galactagogue.A decoction is administered inconstipation.Launaea pinnatifida Cass.Synonym ◮ L. sarmentosa (Willd.)Alston.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Sandy coasts of India.Ayurvedic ◮ Gojihvaa, Golomikaa.(Gaozabaan, used in Unanimedicine, is equated with Boraginaceaesp.)Folk ◮ Vana-gobhi; Paathri (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Plant—galactagogue,soporific, diuretic, aperient.Action ◮ Leaves—mild sedative, gastrictonic, cholagogue, diaphoretic,antiseptic, antifungal. Used as a gargleagainst sore throat. Oil—usedexternally for rheumatism and inhair dressings for dandruff. Berry—emmenagogue, antileucorrhoeic,antidiarrhoeal.Fresh leaves from Lahore (Pakistan)gave an essential oil (0.3–0.36%) with,1,8-cineole 42.2, eugenol 16.4, sabinene6.5, alpha terpineol 1.6, alpha-pinene3.4, methyl eugenol 2.4 and terpinolene1.9%. Major components of Greek andRussian oils were 1,8-cineole followedby alpha-terpinyl acetate.The fruit from Kumaon region gavean essential oil (5%), including amongothers, 1,8-cineol (28.4), methyl cinnamate(20.1), alpha phellandrene (10.1)and alpha-pinene (9.3%).The leaves contain sesquiterpenelactones and isoquinoline alkaloids.Ethanolic extract of leaves producesa significant decrease in blood glucoselevel of diabetic rabbits. It containsamylase inhibitors which can supresssugar metabolism and can be used asan antiobesity agent for pet animals.The leaf extract has been used as anantidandruff solution.Laurus nobilis Linn.Family ◮ Lauraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the Mediterraneanregion; cultivated throughoutIndia.English ◮ Laurel, Sweet Bay.Unani ◮ Habb-ul-Ghaar, Daphni.Lavandula angustifolia Mill.Synonym ◮ L. officinalis Chaix. L.spica Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Mediterraneanregion; cultivated in Jammu andKashmir.

Lavandula stoechas Linn. 365English ◮Lavender.Action ◮ Herb—mildly sedative,antiflatulent and cholagogue. Essentialoil—antiseptic, antibacterial,antispasmodic.Key application ◮ Internally, formood disturbances, such as restlessnessor insomnia; functionalabdominal complaints (nervousstomach irritation and discomfort);for the treatment of functionalcirculatory disorders in balneotherapy.(German Commission E.) TheAyurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaindicates the use of Lavandulasp. for depressive states associatedwith digestive dysfunction.Major constituents of the essentialoil are linalool and linalyl acetate. Othersinclude borneol, camphor, lavandulyl,caryophyllene, limonene, betaocimene,terpene-4-ol-and alpha-terpineol.Aerial parts of the plant containsursolic acid lactone, betulin, betulinicacid and 3 beta-formyl ursolic acid.The essential oil from flowering shootsshowed neuro-depressive or anxiolyticactivity in albino rats.Lavandula bipinnata Kuntze.Synonym ◮ L. burmanni Benth.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Bihar, Chota Nagpur,Orissa,MadhyaPradesh,Rajasthan,Maharashtra, Decan and Konkansouthwards to Kerala.English ◮ Wild Lavender.Ayurvedic ◮ Shankhapushpi (Gujarat).Action ◮ Used as a substitute forConvolvulus pluricaulas Choisy.Lavandula stoechas Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Mediterranean region andAsia Minor. Dried plant and flowersare imported into Mumbai fromPersian Gulf.English ◮ Arabian or FrenchLavender.Unani ◮ Ustukhuddus, Alfaajan.Folk ◮ Dhaaru.Action ◮ Flowers—antidepressive,sedative, anticonvulsant, carminative,antispasmodic, antibacterial,antiseptic. Used in depression, nervousheadache, sluggish circulation,physical and mental exhaustion,insomnia, epilepsy, neuralgia andrheumatic affections.Oil—rubefacient, antimicrobial.Used for nervous palpitations, giddiness,spasm and colic. Relieves sprains,neuralgia and rheumatism; rubbed forstimulating paralysed limbs. Appliedto sores, burns, scalds and varicoseveins.Plant—used for the treatment ofepilepsy and chronic sinusitis in Unanimedicine.Aerial parts of the plant containoleanolic, ursolic and vergatic acid,beta-sitosterol, alpha-amyrin and itsacetate, lupeol, erythrodiol, luteolin,acacetin and vitexin.L

366 Lawsonia inermis Linn.LThe leaves contain polyphenols, apigenin-7-O-beta-D-glucoside,luteolinand its 7-O-beta-D-glucoside, and 7-Obeta-D-glucuronide,rosmarinic acid,and 6-O-caffeoyl glucose.For depression, tincture of lavenderflower (1 : 5 in 50% alcohol), 60 dropsper day, has been used for 4 weeksin Western herbal. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)Lawsonia inermis Linn.Family ◮ Lythraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Arabia andPersia; now cultivated mainly inHaryanaandGujarat;toasmallextent in Madhya Pradesh andRajasthan.English ◮ Henna.Ayurvedic ◮ Madayanti, Madayantikaa,Mendika, Ranjaka.Unani ◮ Hinaa, Mehndi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Marithondi,Marudum.Action ◮ Leaves—astringent,antihaemorrhagic, antispasmodic,oxytocic, antifertility, antifungal,antibacterial. Used externally totreat skin infections (tinea); also asa hair conditioner.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaindicated the use of the leaves indysuria, jaundice, bleeding disorders,ulcers, prurigoand other obstinate skindiseases. The leaf is also recommendedin giddiness and vertigo.The leaves contain naphthoquinones,in particular lawsone; coumarins(laxanthone, I, II and III); flavonoids,luteolin and its 7-O-glucoside,acacetin-7-O-glucoside; beta-sitosterol-3-O-glucoside;all parts containtannins.Chloroform and ethanol extracts ofleaves exhibit promising antibacterialactivity against Shigella and Vibriocholerae. Leaf extract shows antifungalactivity against several pathogenicbacteria and fungi.Hennapaintisusedasamedicamentfor treatment of hands and feetfor mycosis. The antimycotic activityis due to lawsone, a naphthoquinone.The ethanol-water (1 : 1) extract ofthe stem bark shows hepatoprotectiveactivity CCl4-induced liver toxicity.Stem bark and root, probably due to thepresence of isoplumbagin and lawsaritol,exhibit anti-inflammatory activityexperimentally.Evidence shows Henna leaf might beable to decrease the formation of sickledcells in individuals with sickle cellanaemia. (Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Dosage ◮ Leaves—5–10 ml juice.(API, Vol. IV.)Leea aequata Linn.Synonym ◮ L. hirta Roxb. exHornem.Family ◮ Vitaceae.Habitat ◮ Northern Eastern India,West Peninsula and the Andamans.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakajanghaa,Nadikaantaa, Sulomaasha, Paaraavatapaadi.

Lens culinaris Medic. 367Folk ◮Surapadi (Telugu).Action ◮ Stem and root—astringent,anthelmintic. Used for indigestion,jaundice, chronic fever and malaria.Essential oil—inhibits the growthof Mycobacterium tuberculosis(Schroeter) Lehmann & Neumann;also inhibits the growth of Micrococcuspyogenes var. aureus andPasteurella pestis. Root, tuber andstem—mucilaginous, astringent.Leaves and twigs—antiseptic; usedfor poulticing wounds.Leea crispa Linn.Family ◮ Vitaceae.Habitat ◮ North-Eastern India and inWestern parts of Deccan Peninsula.Folk ◮ Banachelt (Maharashtra),Banachalit (Bengal), Nalugu, Nellu(Kerala).Action ◮ Leaves—applied to wounds.Root tubers—used for guineaworm.Plant—a host of the Indian lacinsect.Action ◮ Root—antidiarrhoeal,antidysenteric, antispasmodic,cooling, sudorific. A decoctionallays thirst. Leaves—juice ofyoung leaves, digestive. Ointmentprepared from roasted leavesrelieves vertigo.The leaves contain amorphous frothforming acid.Leea macrophylla Roxb.Family ◮ Vitaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout hotter partsof India.Ayurvedic ◮ Hastikanda, Hasti-karnaPalaasha; Kekidandaa.Folk ◮ Hatkan, Dholsamudra, Haath,Kaan.Action ◮ Astringent, anodyne,styptic, antiseptic. Root tubers—astringent, mucilaginous; appliedto wounds and sores; used forringworm and guineaworm.LLeea indica Merrill.Family ◮ Vitaceae.Habitat ◮ Forests of tropical andsubtropical India, from Himalayasas far west as Kumaon, andsouthwards to the Peninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Chhatri, Karkatajihvaa,Kukurjihvaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nalava, Nyekki,Ottanali.Folk ◮ Karkani (Maharashtra).Lens culinaris Medic.Synonym ◮ L. esculenta Moench.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South West Asia;cultivated as a pulse crop mainly inNorth India, Madhya Pradesh andsome parts of Maharashtra.English ◮ Lentil.Ayurvedic ◮ Masura, Masurikaa,Mangalyaa, Mangalyak, Adaasa.Unani ◮ Masoor.

368 Leonotis nepetaefolia (L.) R. Br.LSiddha ◮Misurpurpu.Action ◮ Seeds—mostly used asa pulse. Contain as much as 30%proteins (similar to those of peasand beans). Soup is used in gastrictroubles and constipation. Pasteor poultice is applied to foul andindolent ulcers.Dosage ◮ Dried seed—10–20 g.(API, Vol. III.)Leonotis nepetaefolia (L.) R. Br.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmerparts of India.Ayurvedic ◮ Granthiparni, Kaakapuchha.Folk ◮ Gathivan, Deepamaal(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaves—spasmolytic. Ashof flower head—applied to burnsand scalds, in ringworm and otherskin diseases.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the root in cough,bronchitis and dyspnoea.The root contains n-octacosanol,n-octacosanoic acid, quercetin, 4,6,7-trimethoxy-5-methylchromene-2-one,campesterol and beta-sitosterol-beta-D-glucopyranoside.The plant contains 4,6,7-trimethoxy-5-methyl-chromene-2-one.The leaves contain neptaefolin, neptaefuran,neptaefuranol, neptaefolinol,leonitin, neptaefolinin and (−)-55, 6-octadecadienoic acid.The seed oil contains oleic, linoleic,palmitic and stearic acids. The fattyoil, extracted from the seeds, is similarto olive oil. The seeds possess feebleantimalarial activity. The seed extractshowed 100% toxicity against Alternariaalternata and marked toxicityagainst Aspergillus niger.Dosage ◮ Root—5–10 g powder.(API, Vol. IV.)Leonurus cardiaca Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; alsodistributed in Himalayas fromKashmir to Kumaon.English ◮ Common Motherwort,Lion’s Tail.Unani ◮ Baranjaasif. (Also equatedwith Artemesia vulgaris Linn; andAchillea millifolium Linn.)Action ◮ Stomachic, laxative,antispasmodic, diaphoretic, emmenagogue(used in absent orpainful menstruation, premenstrualtension, menopausal flushes). Hypnotic,sedative. Used as a cardiactonic. (Studies in China have shownthat Motherwort extracts showantiplatelet aggregation actions anddecrease the levels of blood lipids.)Key application ◮ In nervous cardiacdisorders and as adjuvant forthyroid hyperfunction. (GermanCommission E.) As antispasmodic.(The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The British Herbal Compendiumindicated its use for patients whohave neuropathic cardiac disordersand cardiac complaints of nervousorigin.

Lepidium ruderale Linn. 369The plant contains diterpene bitterprinciples, iridoid monoterpenes,flavonoids including rutin and quercitrin,leonurin, betaine, caffeic acidderivatives, tannins and traces of avolatile oil.The herb is a slow acting adjuvantin functional and neurogenic heartdiseases. Its sedative and spasmolyticproperties combine well with Valerianaofficinalis or other cardioactivesubstances.The herb contains several componentswith sedative effects—alphapinene,benzaldehyde, caryophyllene,limonene and oleanolic acid. (SharonM. Herr.)Lepidagathis trinervis Nees.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ North-west Himalayas andSikkim and from Bihar to central,western and southern India.Folk ◮ Safed Raasnaa (Bihar).Hiran-chaaro, Paniru (Gujarat).Action ◮ Plant—bitter tonic. Usedfor rheumatic affections. (Raasnaais equated with Pluchea lanceolata.)Related species of Lepidagathis: L.cristata Willd., and L. hamiltonianaWall. ex Nees. These are used as a bittertonic in fevers and are applied toitchy affections of the skin. The leavesof L. incurva D. Don, synonymL. hyalinaNees are chewed to relieve cough.Habitat ◮ Western Europe. Seeds areimported into India from Persia.English ◮ Pepper-Grass.Unani ◮ Bazr-ul-khumkhum, Todari(white var.).Action ◮ Seeds—blood purifier;prescribed in bronchitis.The fatty acid of the oil are: oleic12.9, linoleic 47.87, linolenic 5.43, erucic31.97, stearic 0.54 and palmitic 1.22%.The seed mucilage on hydrolysisgave galactose, arabinose, rhamnoseand galacturonic acid.Flowering tops and seeds containa bitter principle, lepidin.The plant yield a sulphur-containingvolatile oil.Lepidium latifolium Linn.Family ◮ Curciferace; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ North-West Himalayas.Folk ◮ Gonyuch (Ladakh).Action ◮ Plant—depurative, antilithic,diuretic, stomachic, antiscorbutic.An infusion is given for liverand kidney diseases. Also used asa resolvent in skin affections.The leaves show dose-dependent increaseof diuretic activity; also increasein potassium excretion in urine.The leaves contain cholesterol, stigmasteroland beta-sitosterol.LLepidium iberis Linn. var. alba.Family ◮Curciferace; Brassicaceae.Lepidium ruderale Linn.Family ◮Curciferace; Brassicaceae.

370 Lepidium sativum Linn.LHabitat ◮ Bhutan, Kumaon andKashmir, at altitudes of 2,100–3,900 m.Action ◮ Plant—used in impetigo.The herb, seeds and volatile oil exhibitproperties similar to those of otherLepidium sp.Aqueous extracts of the herb causea brief drop in blood pressure and depressrespiration in mice and rabbits.Lepidium sativum Linn.Family ◮ Curciferace, Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to West Asia;cultivated throughout India asa salad plant.English ◮ Garden Cress, Water Cress.Ayurvedic ◮ Chandrashuura, Chandrikaa,Vaas-pushpaa, Pashumehankaarikaa,Nandini, Suvaasaraa,Aashaalim.Unani ◮ Habb-ul-rashaad, Tukh-e-Taratezak, Haalim, Sipandaan.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Alivirai.Action ◮ Used in asthma, bronchialaffections and bleeding piles.Seeds—lactagogue, diuretic, andemmenagogue. Used for treatingskin disorders, fever, amoebicdysentery and asthma. Leaf—stimulant, antiscorbutic, diuretic.Roots—used in secondary syphilisand in tenesmus.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the use of dried seeds,in powder form, in gout.The seeds are a good source of iron,but its bioavailability is poor (5.4% oftotal iron). They are used for rapidhealingofbonefractures.Theethanolicextract of seeds significantly increasedcollagen synthesis and its depositionat bone fracture portion in thetreated rats. The tensile strength of thebroken tibiae also increased.The seeds contain an alkaloid(0.19%), glucotropaeolin, sinapin (cholineester of sinapic acid), sinapic acid,mucilaginous matter (5%) and uricacid (0.108 g/kg). The seed oil exhibitspronounced oestrogenic activity.The seed mucilage allays the irritationof the mucous membrane ofintestines in dysentery and diarrhoea.It consists of a mixture of cellulose(18.3%) and uronic acid-containingpolysaccharides; acid hydrolysis yieldL-arabinose, D-galactose, L-rhamnose,D-glacturonic acid and D-glucose.The plant contains pantothenic acid,pyridoxin and rutin. Ethanolic extractof the plant showed antiviral activityagainst rinderpest virus.Dosage ◮ Seed—3–6 g powder. (API,Vol. I.)Leptadenia reticulata W. & A.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tractsof Punjab and Uttar Pradesh andDeccan Peninsula up to an altitudeof 900 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Jivanti; Jivaniya, Jivapushpa,Hemavati, Jivana. Shaakashreshtha,Payaswini, Maangalya,Madhusravaa. (Guduuchi, Medaa,Kaakoli and Vrkshaadani are alsoknown as Jivanti.) (Haimavati

Leucaena glauca Benth. 371is equated with Orris Root andHemapushpa with Sarca asocaflower.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Keerippaalai.Folk ◮ Dodishaak (Gujarat).Action ◮ Plant—stimulant andrestorative. Improves eyesight.Found useful in the treatment ofhabitual abortion. Leaves and rootsused in skin diseases.The herb contains n-triacontane,cetyl alcohol, beta-sitosterol, betaamyrinacetate, lupanol 3-O-diglucosideand lepitidin glycoside.Stigmasterol and lipoid fraction ofthe plant exhibited estrogen mimeticeffects.Alcoholic extract of roots and leavesshow antibacterial activity againstGram-positive and Gram-negativebacteria.Intravenous administration of aqueousextract of stems has a pronouncedand hypotensive action in anaesthetizeddogs.Dosage ◮ Root—3–6 g powder.(CCRAS.)Leptadenia spartium Wight.Synonym ◮ L. pyrotechnica (Forsk.)Decne.Family ◮ Asclepiadaeae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Western UttarPradesh, Rajasthan and northernparts of Mumbai along the sea coast.Folk ◮ Kheemp (Rajasthan), Kheep(Gujarat). Prasaarani is a doubtfulsynonym.Action ◮ Antiseptic. Plant used forthe treatment of burns and wounds.The plant contains a triterpenoid,leptadenol; also 2.32 g/100 g tannin.Lettsomia elliptica Wight.Synonym ◮ Argyreia elliptica (Wight)Choisy.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Chota Nagpur, Orissa,Deccan, Karnataka, Anaimalai Hillsand Western Ghats from Konkansouthwards to Kerala.English ◮ Silverweed.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Unnayangodi.Folk ◮ Khedari, Bond vel (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaves—a paste is appliedexternally in cough and quinsy.Leucaena glauca Benth.Synonym ◮ L. leucocephala (Lam.)de Wit.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ The plains of India.English ◮ White Popinac, Lead tree.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tagarai.Folk ◮ Vilaayati Baval Lasobaval(Gujarat).Action ◮ The bark and leaves contain16.3 and 3% tannin respectively.Leaves also contain quercitrin(0.08%). The toxicity of the plantis due to an alkaloid leucenine orL

372 Leucas aspera Spreng.Lleucenol. Beta-and alpha-aminopropionicacid is reported to beidentical with mimosine (fromMimosa pudica).Seeds, in addition to a fatty oil(8.8%), also contain mucilage composedof mannans, glactans and xylans.Stachyose is also reported to bepresent in the seeds. (Heat treatmentof leaves and seeds after moisteninglowers the alkaloid content.)Leucas aspera Spreng.Family ◮ Labiatae; Laminceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India incultivated fields, wastelands,roadsides.English ◮ White Dead Nettle.Ayurvedic ◮ Dronpushpi, Phalepushpaa,Kutambaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thumbai.Folk ◮ Guumaa, Halkusa (smallervar.), Tumbaa.Action ◮ Carminative, antihistaminic,antipyretic, febrifuge, antiseptic.Used in jaundice, anorexia,dyspepsia, fever, helminthic manifestation,respiratory and skindiseases.Flowers—given with honey forcoughs and colds to children. Leaves—juice is used as an external applicationfor psoriasis, chronic skin eruptionsand painful swellings.An alcoholic extract of leaves showsantibacterial activity.The plant gave oleanolic acid, ursolicacid and beta-sitosterol. The rootcontains a triterpenoid, leucolactone,and the sterols, sitosterol, stigmasteroland campesterol.Leucas cephalotes(Roth.) Spreng.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the greaterpart of India, as a weed, ascendingup to 1,800 m in the Himalayas.Ayurvedic ◮ Dronpushpi, Katumbaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tumbai.Folk ◮ Guumaa, Dhurpi saaga,Halkusa (bigger var.), Tumbaa.Action ◮ Plant—stimulant, diaphoretic,antiseptic (fresh juice is usedin scabies), insecticidal. Flowers—a syrup is used as a domesticremedy for coughs and colds. Dryleaves along with tobacco (1 : 3) aresmoked to treat bleeding as well asitching piles.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaindicated the use of the driedwhole plant in jaundice, inflammations,cough, bronchial asthma andintermittent fever.The plant contains beta-sitosterolglycoside and traces of an alkaloid.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—5–10 mljuice; 1–3 g powder. (API, Vol. II.)Leucas lavandulaefolia Rees.Synonym ◮ L. linifolia Spreng.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Ayurvedic ◮ Dronpushpi (relatedspecies).

Lilium giganteum Wall. 373Folk ◮Tumbaa, Guumaa.Action ◮ Leaves—a decoction isused as a sedative in nervousdisorders; also as a stomachic andvermifuge. Crushed leaves areapplied externally for dermatosis,a poultice to sores and wounds.Roots, stems and leaves are cyanogenetic.Leucas martinicensis R. Br.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Bihar and South India.Folk ◮ Guumaa (var.). Sugandhak isa doubtful synonym.Action ◮ Plant—an infusion isgiven for colds and gastrointestinaltroubles.Ligularia tussilaginea(Burm. f) Makino.Synonym ◮ L. kaempferi Sieb & Zucc.Senecio kaempferi DC.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Japan; grows inIndian gardens.Action ◮ Used for obstinate skindiseases.The rhizomes contain inulin andbeta-dimethylacrylic acid.Lilium candidum Linn.Family ◮Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Southern Europeand South-West Asia; grown inIndian gardens.English ◮ Madona Lily, AnnunciationLily, White Lily.Action ◮ Bulb—astringent, demulcent.Used for gynaecologicaldisorders. A decoction of the bulbsinwaterormilkisgivenfordropsy;a poultice is applied to tumours,ulcers and skin inflammations.Fresh flowering plant is used inhomoeopathy as an antispasmodic;the pollen is used against epilepsy.A total extract stimulates phagocytosisin mice. The bulbs containalkaloids (pyrroline derivatives), jatropham,ethyljatropham and citraconicacid imides.Mucous, tannin, sterine and glucosideimpart anti-inflammatory, analgesic,diuretic and expectorant propertiesto the bulb.Bulbs of Lilium species contain solublepolysaccharides (glucomannans),starch, gamma-methylene glutamicacid and tuliposide.Lilium giganteum Wall.Family ◮Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas fromKumaon and Garhwal to Sikkim,Khasi and Aka hills and Manipur ataltitudes of 1,200–3,000 m.Folk ◮ Gaayotraa (Jaunsar).Action ◮ Leaves—used as an externalcooling applications to alleviatepains of wounds and bruises.L

374 Lilium polyphyllum D. Don.LLilium polyphyllum D. Don.Family ◮Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Uttaranchal, HimachalPradesh.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakoli, Madhuraa,Kshira, Vayhasthaa, Karnikaa,Vaayasoli.Action ◮ Tuberous root—used asa tonic in emaciation and as a sourceof energy, after dry roasting.Dosage ◮ Tuberous root—3–6 g.(API, Vol. III.)Lilium tigrinumKer-Gawl.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China and Japan;cultivated in Indian gardens.English ◮ Tiger Lily, Crumple Lily.Action ◮ Bulbs—used as a cardiactonic. Flowers—used for ovarianneuralgia, also recommended inmyoptic astigmia.The bulbs of Lilium martagon Linn.,Turk’s Cap Lily, also possesses cardiotonicproperties and are used in thetreatment of dysmenorrhoea; externallyfor ulcers.Lilium wallichianum Schutt. f.Family ◮Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas, Nepal,Lushai hills, Manipur and hills ofSouth India at altitudes of 300–2,400 m.Folk ◮ Findora. Badai (Lushai).Action ◮ Dried bulb scales—demulcent; used like salep inpectoral complaints.Limnanthemum cristatum(Roxb.) Griseb.Synonym ◮ Menyanthes hydrophyllumLour.Nymphoides hydrophyllum Kuntze.Family ◮ Menyanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, infresh water ponds and tanks.(Considered by some authorsa synonym of Nymphoides Hill.)Folk ◮ Ghainchu, Tagarmuula;Panchuli, Chandmalla (Bengal);Kumudini (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Plant—used in fevers andjaundice. Seeds—anthelmintic.Stalks and leaves—applied to ulcersand insect bites. A decoction isused as a wash for parasitic skinaffections. The plant is used asa substitute for Swertia Chirata.The rhizomes and roots of Nymphoidesmacrospermum Vasudevan (Family:Menyanthaceae) aresoldinthemarket as Granthik Tagar. These areused as a substitute for Valeriana hardwickiiWall. in neurological disordersand colic.Limnanthemum indicum(L.) Griseb.Synonym ◮ Menyanthes indica Linn.Nymphoides indicum (L.) O. Kuntze.

Limnophila indica (Lam.) Bruce. 375Family ◮Menyanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in tanksand back waters.Folk ◮ Barachuli, Chinnambal(Kerala).Action ◮ Plant—bitter, febrifuge,antiscorbutic. Used as a substitutefor Swertia Chirata in fever andjaundice.Limnanthemum nymphaeoidesHoffm. & Link.Synonym ◮ Nymphoides peltata(Gmel.) O. Kuntze.Family ◮ Menyanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir.English ◮ Fringed Water-Lily.Folk ◮ Kuru, Khairposh (Punjab).Action ◮ Leaf—used in periodicheadache.Limnophila aromatica(Lam.) Druce.Synonym ◮ L. gratissima Blume.Family ◮ Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ South Bihar, Orissa,Assam, Western parts of SouthIndia, up to 600 m, also in backwaters.Folk ◮ Aamragandha Karpuur(non-classical); Karpuur (Bengal);Ambuli (Maharashtra); Manganari(Kerala). Kuttra.Action ◮ Plant—galactagogue,aperient, antiseptic. Juice given infever and to nursing mothers whenmilk is sour. Oil—antiseptic.The plant gave an essential oil (0.1%),containing d-limolene and d-perillaldehydeas principal constituents. Theessential oil showed significant antimicrobialactivity against Bacillus subtilis,Candida albicans, Aspergillus niger andRhizopus oryzae.The plant, made into a liniment withcoconut oil, is used in elephantiasis.L. conferia Benth., known as Munganariin Kerala, contains flavonoidsshowing anti-inflammatory activity,quercetin showed significant activityonly at a dose of 150 mg/kg, whilewogonin, nevadensin and quercetinpentamethylether at 75 mg/kg. Theessential oil from the plant exhibitedantifungal activity against ringwormfungi.Limnophila indica (Lam.) Bruce.Synonym ◮ L. gratioloides R. Br.L. racemosa Benth.Family ◮ Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India in dampplaces, swamps and rice fields.Folk ◮ Kuttra; Karpuur (Bengal),Ambuli (Maharashtra); Manganari(Kerala).Action ◮ Plant—carminative,antiseptic. Leaves—an infusion isgiven in dyspepsia and dysentery.A liniment prepared from the plantis used in elephantiasis.Related species: L. rugosa (Roth)Merrill, synonym L. roxburghii G. Don,L

376 Limonia crenulata Roxb.Lknown as Kaalaa Karpuur (throughoutIndia),isusedasdiuretic,stomachic,digestive tonic. Also used as a hairperfume.Limonia crenulata Roxb.Synonym ◮ Hesperethusa crenulata(Roxb.) M. Roem.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, fromPunjab and Kumaon eastwards;in Assam, Bihar, Orissa, MadhyaPradesh, Maharashtra, Karnatakaand South India.Ayurvedic ◮ Bilvaparni.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nayvila.Folk ◮ Ran-limbu, Naringi (Mumbai),Tondsha (Maharashtra), Beli,Bainthaa.Action ◮ Dried fruit—stomachic;used in pestilent fevers, also asan antidote to poisons. Root—purgative, sudorific.The plant showed anti-inflammatoryactivity which was attributed to 8-hydroxy-6-methoxy-2-methyl-anthraquinone-3-O-beta-D-glucopyranosidein animal studies.The leaves contain an essential oil;major constituents are geraniol, alphaandbeta-pinene, 1,8-cineole, elemolacetate, linool, alpha-terpinolene,camphor, eudesmol, p-cymene, camphane,azulene, borneol acetate, alphaterpenol,alpha-curcumene,alphathujone,limolene, myrcene and betaocimene.Leaves also contain anthraquinonesand dalbargin galactopyranoside.Lindenbergia indica(Linn.) Kuntze.Synonym ◮ L. urticaefolia Lehm.Family ◮ Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,ascending to 2,100 m in theHimalayas.Folk ◮ Haldi Basanto (Bengal),Dhol (Maharashtra), Patthar-chatti(Gujarat), Bheet-chatti.Action ◮ Plant—juice is given inchronic bronchitis; also applied toskin eruptions.Lindera nessiana Benth.Family ◮Lauraceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas fromNepal eastwards at 1,800–2,400 m,and in Assam.Folk ◮ Gandha-daaru (Bengal),Siltimur (Nepal).Action ◮ Carminative.The plant is reported to yield sassafras,which is substituted for the truesassafras from Cinnamomum glanduliferumMeissn.The seeds yield a fatty oil (60.7%).It gave methyl esters : methyl laurate75.2, methyl caprate 13.3, methyl oleate5.4, methyl myristate 2.4, and methylpalmitate0.5%.Linum usitatissimum Linn.Family ◮Linaceae.

Lipasis rostrata Rehd. 377Habitat ◮ Cultivated mainly inMadhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,Maharashtra, Bihar and Rajasthan.English ◮Linseed, Flax.Ayurvedic ◮ Atasi, Umaa, Masrnaa,Nilapushpi, Kshumaa.Unani ◮Kattan.Siddha/Tamil ◮(Seed).Ali, Virai, SirraliAction ◮ Seed—demulcent, emollient,laxative, antilipidemic,antitussive, pectoral (used in bronchitisand cough). Flowers—usedas nervine and cardiac tonic. Oil—used in burns, skin injuries andsores.Key application ◮ Internally, forchronic constipation, for colonsdamaged by abuse of laxatives, irritablebowel syndrome, diverticulardisease, symptomatic short-termtreatment of gastritis and enteritis.Externally, for painful skininflammations. (German CommissionE, ESCOP, The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)The plant contains chlorogenic acidand its isomer. Also present are palmitic,stearic, oleic, linoleic acids, alongwith amino acids, and sugars. Linseedalso contains mucilage (3–10%) in epidermis;fatty oil (30–40%); cyanogenicglycosides (0.05–00.1%) mainly linustatin,neolinustatin and linamarin; lignans;phenylpropane derivatives includinglinusitamarin. (Cyanogenicglycosides are not found toxic in therapeuticdoses as these are broken downonly to a limited extent in the body.)The seeds are an excellent source ofdietary alpha-linolenic acid for modifyingplasma and tissue lipids. Flaxseedpreparations reduced atherogenic riskin hyperlipemic patients. (Cited in ExpandedCommission E Monographs.)Human studies have indicated Flaxseed’suse in atherosclerosis, hypercholesterolemia,lupus nephritis, chronicrenal diseases and in cancer prevention(active principle: lignan precursorsecoisolariciresinol diglycoside).(Sharon M. Herr. Also Am J Clin Nutr,1999, 69, 395–402.)The PP glucose response to a 50 gcarbohydrate load given as Flaxseedbreadwasfoundtobe27%lowerwhencompared with regular white bread.Taking Flaxseed oil daily for 3months did not improve symptomsof pain and stiffness in rheumatoidarthritis and no effect was observedon RA, such as C-reactive protein andESR. (Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)The water-binding capacity and rheologicalproperties of linseed mucilageresembled those of guar gum.Dosage ◮ Ripe seed—3–6 g powder.(API, Vol. I.) Flower-bud—3–6 g;oil—5–10 ml. (CCRAS.)Lipasis rostrata Rehd.Family ◮ Orchidaceae.Ayurvedic ◮ Jivaka-Rshabhaka (bulbsof Microstylis wallichi Lindl. and M.musifera, also of other orchids, aresold as Jivaka-Rshabhaka).Action ◮ Used in age-sustaining andinvigorating tonics.L

378 Lippia geminata H. B. & K.LLippia geminata H. B. & K.Synonym ◮ L. alba (Mill.) N.E.Br.L. javanica (Burm.f.) Spreng.Family ◮Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Bihar and Orissa toAssam; Madhya Pradesh, Nilgirisand Anaimalais up to 900 m in wetplaces and river banks.Folk ◮ Basula (Madhya Pradesh),Naagaa-aiari (Orissa).Action ◮ Leaves—stomachic andnervine. Essential oil—fungitoxic.The essential oil from leaves containscitral, neral and geranial. Diterpenes,d- andl-limonene, l-piperitone, geranial.Diterpenes, d-and l-limonene, l-piperitone, lippone, a saturated ketone,d-alpha-pinene, dl-dihydrocarvone,citral and camphor have been identifiedin different samples.Lippia nodiflora Rich.Synonym ◮ Phyla nodiflora (Linn.)Greene.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in wetplaces and river banks.English ◮ Wild sage.Ayurvedic ◮ Jalapippali, Shaaradi,Shakulaadani, Jalakarnaa, Matsyagandhaa.Laangali (now equatedwith Gloriosa superba).Unani ◮ Bukkum Booti.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Paduthalai.Action ◮ Plant—cooling, febrifuge,diuretic. Poultice used as maturantfor boils. Leaves—an infusion isgiven to women after delivery.An alcoholic extract of the leavesshows antibacterial activity against E.coli. The leaf juice enters into hair oilsfor alopecia areata.Aerial parts are reported to containflavonoids, flavone aglycones andflavone sulphates.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—10–20 mljuice. (CCRAS.)Liquidambar formosana Hance.Family ◮ Altingiaceae; Hamamelidaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China; nowreported to have been introducedinto Lalbagh gardens, Bangalore.English ◮ Fragrant Maple.Ayurvedic ◮ Silhak (var.).Unani ◮ Silaaras (var.).Action ◮ See Liquidambar orientalis.Balsam (Chinese Storax) containscinnamic acid (16%). Cinnamyl alcohol,borneol, a resin alcohol andvolatile constituents (1.8–8%). Theleaves on steam-distillation yield 005%of a volatile oil consisting principallyof terpenes (88%).Liquidambar orientalis Mill.Altingiaceae; Hamameli-Family ◮daceae.Habitat ◮Native to Asia Minor.

Lithospermum officinanle Linn. 379English ◮Gum.Ayurvedic ◮Kapitaila.Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Storax, Oriental SweetTurushka, Silhaka,Ambar Saayil, Silaaras.Neri-arishippal.Action ◮ Balsam—anti-inflammatory,stimulating expectorant, antiparasitic,antiseptic, antimicrobial. Usedexternally in scabies, ringworm andother skin diseases. Used for coughsand bronchitis as an inhalation.Storax contained cinnamic acid upto 30%—cinnamin acid esters, cinnamylcinnamate (styracin), phenylpropylcinnamate; triterpene acids;vanillin; styrene; aromatic alcohols.Pentacyclic triterpene aldehydes—liquidambronaland ambronal—havebeen isolated from nonvolatile partof resin along with bornyl trans-cinnamate.Dosage ◮Gum—1–3 g. (CCRAS.)Liriodendron tulipifera Linn.Family ◮ Magnoliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to North America;introduced into hill stations inIndia.English ◮ Tulip tree.Action ◮ Bark—antipyretic, diaphoretic;used in rheumatism,dyspepsia and as antimalarial.The root contains an alkaloid tulipiferin,traces of a glycoside, essential oiland tannin.Litchi chinensis (Gaertn.) Sonn.Synonym ◮ Nephelium litchiCambess.Family ◮ Sapindaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China; nowcultivated mainly in NorthernBihar, particularly in Muzaffarpurand Darbhanga districts, andSaharanpur, Dehra Dun, Muzaffarnagar,Gorakhpur, Deoria, Gonda,Basti, Faizabad, Rampur, Bareilly,Bahraich, Kheri and Pilibhitdistricts of Uttar Pradesh.English ◮ Litchi, Lychee.Action ◮ Fruit—refrigerant duringsummer. Leaf—used in bites ofanimals.Litchi aril contains: total sugars (asinvert sugar) 12.1–14.8; reducing sugar9–13.7; non-reducing sugar 1.0–3.4;acidity (as citric acid) 0.22–0.36%; andascorbic acid 34.5–45.4 mg/100 g.The plant contains levulinic, malic,citric, lactic, malonic, fumaric, succinic,phosphoric and glutaric acids.The Bark contains friedelin and stigmasterol.Litchi seeds are prescribed in Malayafor neurological disorders and orchitis.In seed lipids, fatty acids cyclopropanoic42.0; oleic 27.0, palmitic 12.0and linoleic 11.0%, have been determined.Lithospermum officinanle Linn.Family ◮ Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir and Kumaon, ataltitudes of 1,500–2,700 m.English ◮ Corn Gromwell.L

380 Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C. B. Robinson.LFolk ◮Lubis firmun.Action ◮ Leaves—sedative. Seeds—diuretic, lithotriptic. A decoction ofrootsandtwigsisgivenintheformof syrup in eruptive diseases, suchas smallpox and measles.The aerial parts contain pyrrolizidinealkaloids.Saline extracts of the aerial partsand roots, administered to experimentalanimals by injection, inhibit oestrusand the functioning of ovaries andtestes; the activity of the thyroid glandis also reduced. The active principle isformed from phenolic precursors likecaffeic,chlorogenic,rosmarinicacidaswell as luteolin-7 beta-glucuronide byan oxidation step. Other constituentsare lithospermic acid and shikonin.Shikonin and acetyl-shikonin, thepigments of the root, exhibit antiinflammatoryactivity comparable tophenylbutazone.An infusion of leaves is used in Spainas sedative.Litsea glutinosa(Lour.) C. B. Robinson.Synonym ◮ L. sebifera Pers.L. chinensis Lam.Family ◮ Lauraceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Khasi Hills,Bengal, Assam and South India.English ◮ Common Tallow Lowrel.Ayurvedic ◮ Medaasaka.Unani ◮ Maidaa-lakdi, Maghaase-Hindi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mushaippeyetti,Elumpurukki, Uralli.Action ◮ Leaf—antispasmodic andemollient. Bark—demulcent, emollient,astringent, antidiarrhoeal,anodyne. Root—decoction isused as an emmenagogue. Oilfrom berries—used in rheumatism.Essential oil—antibacterial,antifungal.The bark is mucilaginous.The plant contains a polysaccharide.Leaves and stem contain aporphine alkaloids—boldine,laurotetanine, actinodaphnineand their derivatives. Thetrunk bark gave sebiferine and litseferine.Boldine produced dose-dependentinhibition of induced microsomal peroxidationin experimental studies.Dosage ◮ Bark—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Litsea monopetala (Roxb.) Pers.Synonym ◮ L. polyantha Juss.Family ◮ Lauraceae.Habitat ◮ Assam and EasternHimalayas, also Tamil Nadu.Ayurvedic ◮ Maidaa-lakdi (var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maidalagadil, Picinpattai.Action ◮ Bark—stimulant, astringent,spasmolytic, stomachic,antidiarrhoeal. Root—appliedexternally for pains, bruises andcontusions.The bark contains beta-sitosteroland an aporphine alkaloid, actinodaphnine.

Lobelia inflata Linn. 381Litsea stocksii Hook. f.Family ◮Lauraceae.Habitat ◮ The hills of western DeccanPeninsula.Folk ◮Pisi, Posha (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaves—an infusion isgiven in irritation of bladder andurethra.The seeds yield a fat consisting mostlyof lauric acid with a small amount ofoleic acid.The leaves are mucilaginous.Lobelia chinensis Lour.Synonym ◮ L. radicans Thunb.Family ◮ Campanulaceae, Lobeliaceae.Habitat ◮ Nepal, Chota Nagpurand Khasi hills at altitudes of 900–1,500 m.Action ◮ Plant—used in China forfevers and asthma. Root—considereddepurative and antirheumaticin Indo-China. The plant is oneof the constituent of a tinctureformulation used for the treatmentof scars.The rhizomes of the plant are reportedto contain the polyfructosan,lobelinin.Lobelia inflata Linn.Campanulaceae; Lobeli-Family ◮aceae.Habitat ◮ Native to eastern UnitedStates; imported into India.English ◮ Indian Tabacco, Pukeweed.Ayurvedic ◮ Devanala (var.).Action ◮ Antiasthmatic, antispasmodic,broncho-dilator, expectorant,mild sedative and relaxant.Used as a tabacco deterrent (as a majoringredient in many antismokingmixtures).Key application ◮ In the treatmentof asthma, bronchitis. (GermanCommission E.) Asrespiratorystimulant. (The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)Lobelia contains piperidine alkaloids,mainly lobeline, with lobelanine,lobelanidine, norlobelanine, isolobinine.Lobeline stimulates respirationin animals by stimulating respiratorycentre and at high doses stimulates thevomiting centre.Lobeline has similar but less potentpharmacological properties to nicotinebut 1/20–1/5 as potent.Lobeline (0.5%) has also been usedas an active ingredient in skin-lighteningpreparations.Clinical research could not demonstratelobeline efficacy greater thanplacebo in smoking cessation. It wasdisallowed as an ingredient in antismokingproducts in the US in 1993.(Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)The leaves contain beta-amyrin palmitatewhich possesses sedative andantidepressant properties comparableto the antidepressant drug mianserin.Methanolic extract of leaves exhibitedantidepressant activity.L

382 Lobelia leschenaultina (Persl) Skottsb.LThe leaf powder is toxic at 0.6–1.0 g.(Francis Brinker.)Lobelia leschenaultina(Persl) Skottsb.Synonym ◮ L. excelsa Lesch.Family ◮ Campanulaceae; Lobeliaceae.Habitat ◮ Hills of South India ataltitudes above 1,800 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Nala (var.).Folk ◮ Devanala (var.) (Maharashtra.)Action ◮ Leaves—filtered solutionis used in the control of aphids,tingids and mites on vegetable andother crops. Plant—poisonous toman and livestock. The leaves arecured and smoked as tabacco.Lobelia nicotianaefolia Heyne.Family ◮ Campanulaceae; Lobeliaceae.Habitat ◮ Deccan, Konkan andWestern Ghats, at altitudes of 900–2,100 m.English ◮ Wild Tobacco.Ayurvedic ◮ Devanala, Nala (var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattuppugaiyilai,Upperichedi.Action ◮ Used as a substitute forLobelia inflata.An analysis of Lobelia nicotianaefolia,grown in Maharashtra, showsthat the plant contains appreciablequantities of nor-lobelanine and smallamounts of lobinine and minor bases.Lobelia cardinalis Linn., CardinalFlower,iscultivatedinIndiangardens.It contains lobinaline as main alkaloid.Lobinaline depresses blood pressurebut has no influence on respiration. L.erinus Linn. and L. succulenta Blume,synonym L. affinis Wall. also containalkaloids with lobinaline 0.445%.Lobelia cordigera Cav., synonym L.fulgens Willd., an ornamental Lobeliasp., grown in Indian gardens, containsinulin.Lobelia pyramidalis Wall. (Himalayasfrom Kumaon eastwards to Sikkimand Assam at altitudes of 900–2,700 m)contains 0.29–0.38% alkaloids as lobeline,and may be used as a substitutefor Lobelia inflata.Lodoicea maldivica (Poir.) Pers.Family ◮ Arecaceae; Palmae.Habitat ◮ A dioecious palm, cultivatedin gardens as an ornamental.English ◮ Double Coconut Palm, SeaCoconut Palm.Ayurvedic ◮ Samudra-naarikela,Dariyaayee Naariyal.Unani ◮ Naarjeel-e-Daryaayee,Naarjeel-e-Bahari.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadalthengai,Aklaari.Action ◮ The water of the green fruitand its soft kernel—antacid andantibilious.A decoction of the fibrous husk isreported to bring down urinary sugar

Loranthus falcatus Linn. f. 383level in diabetic patients (the effect istemporary).The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends dried endosperm ingastroenteritis.Dosage ◮ Dried endosperm—5–10 gpowder. (API, Vol.IV.)Lolium temulentum Linn.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ The Western Himalayas,Punjab and Upper Gangetic Plain.English ◮ Darnel, Taumelloolch.Ayurvedic ◮ Mochani.Folk ◮ Mostaki, Visha-ghaasa(Bihar).Action ◮ Sedative.The overground parts of the grassgave alkaloids—loline and perloline.The caryopses of the plant containvolatile alkaloids—N-acetylloline, N-formylloline and N-acetylnorloline.Loline dihydrochloride did not showCNS toxicity.Lonicera japonica Thunb.Family ◮ Caprifoliaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam (Lushai hills);cultivated in gardens.English ◮ Japanese Honeysuckle.Action ◮ The plant is used in Chinaas an antipyretic, stomachic andin dysentery, also as an antidoteto consumption of poisonousmushroom. Dried flowers areconsidered diuretic.The plant contains tannin and a saponin;lutolin and i-inositol have beenisolated from the flowers. The berriesare rich in carotenoids of which cryptoxanthinis the major component.Lonicera angustifolia Wall. ex DC. (theHimalayas from Kashmir to Sikkimat altitudes of 1,800–3,600 m), knownas Geaang, Chulu and Mithik in Punjab;and L. glaucea Hook.f.Thoms.(the Himalayas from Kashmir to Kumaonat altitudes of 3,600–4,800 m),known as Sheaa and Shevaa in Punjaband Kumaon, possess antispasmodicproperties.Lonicera periclymenum Linn.,Woodbine Honeysuckle, cultivated inhill stations of India, possesses antispasmodic,diuretic and sudorificproperties. Flowers are used in theform of syrup in diseases of the respiratorytract. The leaves contain an amorphousglycoside and salicylic acid. Secoiridoidand secoxyloganin have beenisolated from the plant.Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardw. isequated with Himalayan Honeysuckle,found in the Himalayas from Kashmirto Bhutan, up to an altitude of 4,000 m.Honeysuckle, also known as DuchHoneysuckle, Goat’s Leaf, is equatedwith Lonicera caprifolium Linn.Loranthus falcatus Linn. f.Synonym ◮ Dendrophthoe falcate(Linn. f.) Etting.Family ◮Loranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, asaparasite.L

384 Loranthus pentandrus Linn.Ayurvedic ◮ Bandaaka, Sanharshaa,Vrikshaadani, Vrikshaaruha,Vriksha-bhakshaa. (A large bushyparasite, which causes much damageto the host tree.)Folk ◮ Baandaa.Action ◮ Tender shoots—contain10% tannins. Bark—astringent andnarcotic.The plant contains the oleanane typetriterpene saponins. It is reported toexhibit antitumour activity.The fruit juice is used as a homoeopathicdrug in hepatic congestion, irritationand inflammation of gastric mucosa.Dosage ◮ Leaf, fruit, root—10–20 mljuice. (CCRAS.)LLoranthus pentandrus Linn.Synonym ◮ Dendrophthoe pentandra(Linn.) Miq.Family ◮ Loranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Sylhet. (A parasite foundon trees.)Ayurvedic ◮ Bandaaka (var.).Folk ◮ Baandaa.Action ◮ Leaves—used as poulticefor sores and ulcers. The twigscontain quercitrin and a wax, whichgives melissyl alcohol. The twigash (8.95%) contains manganese(0.26%).Luffa acutangula (Linn.) Roxb.var. amara (Roxb.) C. B. Clarke.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Ribbed or Ridged Gourd(bitter var.).Ayurvedic ◮ Katukoshataki, Tiktakoshtaki.Action ◮ Plant—purgative, diuretic.Used for oedema, splenic enlargement,cough and asthma. Seeds—emetic, expectorant.Luffa cylindrica(Linn.) M. J. Roem.Synonym ◮ L. aegyptiaca Mill.L. pentandra Roxb.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughoutgreater parts of India.English ◮ Smooth Luffa, Spongegourd,sponge Cucumber.Ayurvedic ◮ Dhaamaargava, Mahaakoshtaki,Mahaajaalini, Raajakoshataki.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mozhukupeerankai,Pikku.Action ◮ Plant—used againstpharyngitis, rhinitis, mastitis, oedema,swellings and burns. Leaves—used for chronic bronchitis. Leafjuice is given for amenorrhoea.Flowers—used for treating migraine.Seeds—alcoholic extractexhibited 9.80% fungitoxic activity.German Commission E includedLuffa aegyptiaca among unapprovedherbs. Preparations of Luffa sponge,used as a preventive for infectionsor cold, as a remedy for colds, nasal

Lupinus albus Linn. 385catarrh as well as sinusitis and suppurationof the sinus, have been negativelyevaluated.The saponins isolated from aerialparts are effective in controlling obesity,also the side-effects of steroids.The oleanane saponins, lucyoside A-H (at least one component) is effectivein preventing loss of hair.Spongegourd extracts or saponins(ginsenosides and lucyosides) find applicationin topical medication for skindisorders and haemorrhoids. Lucyosidesare also used as antitussive.The roots of the mature plants containan acidic pentacyclic triterpene,bryonolic acid. Bryonolic acid showedantiallergic and anti-inflammatory activityin experimental animals. Anaqueous extract of seeds showed strongfibrinolytic activity. It also showedanticancer activity in transplanted tumours.Dosage ◮ Leaf, flower, fruit—10–20 ml juice. (CCRAS.)Luffa echinata Roxb.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,Bengal and Gujarat.English ◮ Bristly Luffa.Ayurvedic ◮ Devadaali, Devataadaka,Jimuuta, Garaagari, Kothaphala.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Panibira.Folk ◮ Bandaal (Varanasi).Action ◮ Fruit—purgative (intenselybitter and fibrous). An infusionis given in biliary and intestinalcolic; also in nephritis and chronicbronchitis.The fruit contains chrysoeriol andits glycosides as principal flavonoids.Seeds contain cucurbitacin B, triterpenealcohols, and a saponin with oleanolicacid as sapogenin.The alcoholic and ether extracts ofthe plant showed protection againstCCl4-induced hepatic injury in rats.The aqueous extract of fruits is beneficialin jaundice as it significantlylowered serum bilirubin level inchlorpromazine-induced jaundice inrats and human patients. The ethanolicextract (50%) of the plant exhibitedhypoglycaemic activity.The yellow-flowered var. of Devadaali(Eastern Himalayas, Sikkim,Bihar, Bengal) is equated with Luffagraveolens Roxb.Dosage ◮ Fruit—1–3 g powder.(CCRAS.)Lupinus albus Linn.Family ◮ Leguminosae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardens.English ◮ While Lupine, Wolfsbohne.Unani ◮ Turmus.Action ◮ Seeds—deobstruent, carminative,alterative, anthelmintic.Used as an external application toulcers.The seed contains alkaloids d-anddl-lupanine and hydroxylupanine.The principal alkaloid of Blue Lupine(Lupinus angustifolius L.) seedsis d-lupanine, also hydroxylupanine.L

386 Luvunga eleutherandra Dalz in part.LYellow Lupine (Lupinus luteus L.) seedscontain lupinine (0.43–0.73%) andsparteine (0.20–0.37%). Seeds arefeebly cyanogenetic. Other speciesof Indian gardens, Lupinus hirsutusLinn. and Lupinus mutabilis Sweet,contain sparteine.Luvunga eleutherandraDalz in part.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ The western part ofPeninsular India, from Konkansouthwards to Anaimalai andTravancore hills, up to an altitudeof 1,000 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Lavanga-lataa (var.).Folk ◮ Kokilaa (Bengal).Action ◮ See Luvunga scandens.Luvunga scandens(Roxb.) Buch.-Ham. ex Wight.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Bengal, Assam and KhasiHills.Ayurvedic ◮ Lavanga-lataa.Folk ◮ Sugandh-kokilaa (Bengal).Action ◮ Essential oil—antifungal.Mature berries contain coumarins.The essential oil from berries containscinnamyl cinnamate, cineole, d-camphor and methyl cinnamate as majorcomponents.Dried fruits are used in medicinalhair oils, prescribed for treating baldness.The bark contains myricadiol, taraxeroland myricolal.Lycium barbarum Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Rajasthan, Gujaratand Maharashtra.Unani ◮ Chirchataa, Chirchitaa,Chirchitta.Folk ◮ Kheechar Chirchataa.Action ◮ Immunostimulatory,antiproliferatory, antiageing;antioxidant.The leaves and flowers contain freequercetin (1.28 and 1.58 mg/g dryweight, respectively), and bound kaempferol.Total alkaloid percentage isnearly the same in shoots (1.26%)and fruits (1.24%) but lower in calli(0.83%) and roots (0.67%). Fruitshad highest atropine content (0.95%)and shoots the highest hyoscyaminecontent (0.33%).Flavonoids are active against E. coli,Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans(quercetin does not show activityagainst Candida albicans).The polysaccharide extract fromfruits showed antiageing, immunostimulatoryand antiproliferatory activities.The polysaccharide acts as an antioxidantand prevented CCl4-inducedincreases in lipid peroxidases in liver.It can also protect against geneticdamage from mutagenic and genotoxiccompounds. This activity leads to itspotential use in preventing the adverseeffects of chemotherapeutic agents.

Lycopodium clavatum Linn. 387The fruit contain beta-carotene (8mg/100 g dry weight), also free aminoacids (1.0–2.6%); major amino acid isproline.The dried fruit and root bark reducecholesterol level by preventingitsabsorptioningastrointestinaltract.A constituent of the root bark, kukoamineexhibits cholesterol lowering,antihypertensive and hypoglycaemiceffects. Hepatoprotective activity is attributedto a cerebroside constituentfound in the fruit. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)The fruit and root bark is contraindicatedin bleeding disorders and hypoglycaemia.(Sharon M. Herr.)Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.Synonym ◮ Solanum lycopersicumLinn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in many partsof India.English ◮ Tomato, Love Apple.Unani ◮ Tamaatar.Action ◮ Mild aperient, bloodpurifier, cholagogue, digestive.Used in homoeopathy for treatingrheumatic conditions, colds, chills,digestive disorders, diabetes,obesity, leucorrhoea, metrorrhagia.Tomato is a powerful deobstruent.It promotes flow of bile; mildly laxative,especially when taken raw. Tomatostimulates torpid liver and kidneysand helps to wash away toxins. Tomatois recommended for diabetics. It isa major dietary source of carotenoidlycopene.Tomato juice inhibits carcinogenicN-nitrosocompound formation chieflyin the stomach. Most of the inhibitionof formation of N-nitrosomorpholineby phenolic fraction of tomato juicewas due to chlorogenic acids. Theascorbate fraction of the juice alsocontains compounds that inhibit nitrosation.Consumption of tomato juice cansignificantly increase serum lycopenelevels. (Decreased serum lycopeneconcentrations are associated with anincreaseriskof prostatecancer.) (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)The alcoholic extract of tomato possessesCNS depressant and analgesicproperties.Lycopodium clavatum Linn.Family ◮Lycopodiaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to NorthAmerica, Europe, Asia; found inKumaon, eastwards in West Bengal,Sikkim, Asam, Khasi Hills, Manipurand in Western Ghats.English ◮Common Club Moss.Folk ◮ Naaga-beli (Nepal), Bendarali(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Sedative, antispasmodic,diuretic. At one time used forurinary disorders (spasmodicretention of urine, catarrhal cystitisand chronic kidney disorders), andas a gastric sedative in gastritis.L

388 Lycopus europaeus Linn.LThe plant contains alkaloids (about0.1–00.2%), including lycopodine, lycodoline,faucettimine and lycoflexine;triterpenoids including clavatol andoxoserrat derivatives; flavonoids includingapigenin; polyphenolic acidsincluding dihydrocaffeic.Lycopodine produces uterine contractionsand stimulates peristalsis inthe small intestines of rodents.The plant contains (dry basis): lipid4.06 and desmethylsterols 0.05%.Used in homoeopathy for distendedabdomen, cough, cystitis, renal colicand disorders of menstruation.Chinese Club Moss, equated withHuperzia serrata, is a different herb. Itsconstituent, huperzine A is thought tobe beneficial in dementia due to its effecton acetylcholine levels.L. annotinum Linn., L. complanatumLinn. (American Club Moss) and L.selago Linn. are among other speciesof Lycopodium occurring in India.Lycopus europaeus Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas inJammu and Kashmir, and HimachalPradesh.English ◮ Gipsywort, Bugleweed.Folk ◮ Gandam-gundu, Jalneem.Action ◮ Cardioactive, diuretic,peripheral vasoconstrictor, sedative,narcotic, antihaemorrhagic,antitussive, thyrostatic.Key application ◮ In mild thyroidhyperfunction (contraindicated inthyroid hypofunction, enlargementof thyroid) with disturbances ofvegetative nervous system; mastodynia(tension and pain in breast).No simultaneous administrationof thyroid preparations. Administrationof Bugleweed preparationsinterferes with the administrationof diagnostic procedures usingradioactive isotopes. (GermanCommission E.)The leaves contain lithospermic acid.Plant contains luteolin-7-glucoside; ursolicacid, caffeic acid, chlorogenicacid, sinapic acid, ellagic acid and otherderivatives of phenolic acid. Theantioxidant activity of the plant is partiallyattributed to rosmarinic acid.Antigonadotropic activity of the leafextract is attributed to phenolic precursors.Ethanol extract of the plant showeddiverse effects on the pituitary, thyroidand gonadal glands of rats.A closely related species, Lycopusvirginicus of Europe, exhibits antithyrotropicactivity. It induces TSHrepletion in hypothyroid rats and reductionof TSH levels in euthyroidrats. Antigonadotropic activity hasbeen demonstrated in rats.Lygodium flexuosum (L.) Sw.Synonym ◮ L. pinnatifidum Sw.Family ◮ Schizaeaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India; upto an elevation of 1,500 m in theHimalayas.Folk ◮ Vallipana (Malyalam);Bhuuta-bhairavi (Bengal), Bhuutaraaj;Kalzhaa (Bihar). Rudrajataa isa doubtful synonym.

Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude. 389Action ◮ Plant—expectorant. Root—used in external applications forrheumatism, sprains, cut wounds,eczema, scabies, carbuncles.Adecoctionindrunkingastricattacks.The acetone extract of fresh leavesexhibits antifungal activity. The ferncontains a methyl ester of gibberellin.The plant contains lygodinolide,dryocrassol, tectoquinone, kaempferol,beta-sitosterol and stigmasterol.The root contains quercetin.Alcoholic extract of the plant exhibitedpotent antifertility activity.L. japonicum Sw., found in NorthIndia from Kashmir to Sikkim andBhutan, and in Western mountains ofSouthIndia,isusedasanexpectorantin China.Lyonia ovalifolia (Wall.) Drude.Synonym ◮ Pieris ovalifolia D. Don.Family ◮ Ericaceae.Habitat ◮ Outer Himalayas fromKashmir to Sikkim, at 1,000 to2,500 m, and in Khasi hills between1,200 to 2,000 m.Folk ◮ Angyaar (Garhwal), Arwan(Punjab), Angeri (Nepal).Action ◮ Young leaves and buds—used externally for cutaneousaffections. Leaves—insecticidal.Honey from flowers—poisonous.Leaves contain a toxic, insecticidalsubstance andromedotoxin.The wood yields 0.51% ash, rich insoluble potassium salts.L

MMaba nigrescens Dalz. & Gibs.Family ◮Habitat ◮Ebenaceae.Gujarat.Folk ◮ Ragat-Rohido (Gujarat),Rakta-Rohido.Action ◮ Used for diseases of liverand spleen. In folk medicine, asa substitute for Rakta-Rohitaka.(Rohitaka is equated with Tecomelliaundulata Seem., synonymTecoma undulata G. Don, Bignoniaceae.)In Gujarat, Polygonum glabrumWilld. (Polygonaceae) and Myristicaattenuta Wall., synonym Knema attenuata(Wall.) Warb. (Myristicaceae) arealso known as Rakta Rohido, and areused for diseases of liver and spleen.In Mumbai, Rhamnus wightii Wight&Arn. (Rhamnaceae) isknownasRakta-Rohidaa. The bark is used asastringent and deobstruent.Folk ◮ Phulwaaraa, MaakhaniaaMahuaa.Action ◮ Fatusedasointmentinrheumatism, for chapped hands andfeet during winter.The flowers contain beta-amyrin acetate,friedelin, erythrodiol monopalmitate,beta—sitosterol and apha-spinasterol.The seeds contain triterpenoidsaponins, butyroside C and butyrosideD. A triterpenoidal sapogenin,butyraceol, has been isolated from theseed. The leaves contain butyracicacid. Defatted seed flour contains10.4% saponins.Administration of acute dose ofsaponins to albino rats caused severediarrhoea and histopathologicalchanges in liver and kidney and altered,particularly in female rats, levelsof serum alkaline phosphatase, cholesteroland proteins.Madhuca indica J. F. Gmel.Madhuca butyracea Macr.Synonym ◮ Aisandra butyracea(Roxb.) Baehni.Family ◮ Sapotaceae.Habitat ◮ Found in sub-Himalayantract from Kumaon to Bhutan.Ayurvedic ◮ Madhuuka (relatedspecies).Synonym ◮ M. longifolia (Koen.)Macb. var. latifolia (Roxb.) Cheval.Bassia latifolia Roxb.Family ◮Sapotaceae.Habitat ◮ A large tree, cultivatedmainly in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar.English ◮Mahua tree, Moha.Ayurvedic ◮ Madhuuka, Madhupushpa,Madhusrav, Gudapushpa.

392 Madhuca longifolia (Koen.) Macb.MUnani ◮Mahuaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮Ieluppai.Action ◮ Flowers—stimulant,demulcent, laxative, anthelmintic,bechic. Seed oil—galactogenic,anticephalgic, emetic. Used inpneumonia, skin diseases, piles.Bark—astringent, emollient. Usedfor tonsilitis, gum troubles, diabetes,ulcers. Bark, seed oil and gum—antirheumatic.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the flower withoutstalk or calyx in asthma and pthisis.The fruit pulp yielded a numberof triterpenoids (including alpha- andbeta-amyrin acetate); also n-hexacosanol,beta-D-glucoside of beta-sitosteroland free sitosterol.Nut shell gave beta-sitosterol glucoside,quercetin and dihydroquercetin.The carollas are rich source of sugars,vitamins, phosphorus, calcium andiron; magnesium and copper are alsopresent. The sugars identified are sucrose,maltose, glucose, fructose, arabinoseand rhamnose.The seeds yielded saponins—2,3-di-O-glucopyranoside of bassic acid(saponin A and saponin B). Mixture ofsaponins from seeds exhibits spermicidalactivity.Trunkbarkcontainedlupeolacetate,beta-amyrin acetate, alpha-spinasterol,erythrodiol monocaprylate, betulinicacid and oleanolic acid caprylates.Dosage ◮ Flower—10–15 g (API, Vol.II.); flower-juice—10–20 ml; bark—50–100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)Madhuca longifolia(Koen.) Macb.Synonym ◮Family ◮Bassia longifolia Koenig.Sapotaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in UttarPradesh, Bihar, Andhara Pradesh,Karnataka, Bengal and Maharastra.English ◮South Indian Mahua.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Illupei, Elupa, NaatuIluppai, Iruppai.Folk ◮ Madhuulaka, Jala-Madhuuka,Jala-Mahuaa.Action ◮indica.Same as that of MadhucaSeed kernel gave protobassic acid(a sapogenol) and two major saponinsnamed Mi-saponins A and B anda minor one Mi-saponin C—all bisdesmosidesof protobassic acid. Misaponinsexhibit anti-inflammatoryand antiulcerogenic activities.Mahua oil causes total but reversiblesterility in male rats as it shows testicularatrophy with degeneration of seminiferoustubules.A related species, Madhuca neriifolia(Moon) H. J. Lam., synonymBassia neriifolia Moon, Bassia malabaricaBedd. (known as Atta Illuppeiin Tamil), is found in Western Ghatsand coastal region of South India.The flowers are used in renal diseases;fruits in rheumatism, cough,asthma and consumption; seed oil isused in rheumatism.

Mallotus philippensis Muell.-Arg. 393Maerua arenariaHook. f. & Thoms.Synonym ◮ M. oblongifolia (Forsk.)A. Rich.Family ◮ Capparidaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Sind, Gujarat,Central and Southern India.Ayurvedic ◮ Morata, Piluparni,Madhusravaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Bhumichakkarai.Folk ◮ Murhari.Action ◮ Root—used for bleedingpiles, as alterative in fevers; asa tonic in muscular debility.(The root resembles liquorice rootin appearance and taste.)Magnolia grandiflora Linn.Family ◮ Magnoliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to North America;found in the Himalayas and theNilgiri hills up to 2,100 m.English ◮ Bull Bay, Great LaurelMagnolia, Southern Magnolia.Ayurvedic ◮ Him-Champaa.Action ◮ Bark—anti-inflammatory,stimulant, diaphoretic. Wood—toxic. Plant is used against cold,headache and stomach-ache. Leafextract—fungitoxic.The leaves gave germacanolide lactones,a guaianolide (magnograndiolide,melampomagnolide A and B);the wood, quaternary aporphine alkaloids;bark, cyclocolorenone; rootbark, eudesmanolides; seeds, phenolicconstituents.The sesquiterpene ketone, cyclocolorenone,also found in leaves, showsantifungal activity.Magnolia pterocarpa Roxb., synonymM. sphenocarpa Roxb. (Vana-Champaa), Dhulichampaa) bark containssesamin, eudesmin, fargesin, imperatorin,dimethyl-terephthalate andbeta-sitosterol. Powdered bark is usedfor fevers and cough.Mahonia napalensis DC.Synonym ◮ Berberis nepalensisSpreng (in part).Family ◮ Berberidaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayasfrom Garhwal to Bhutan at 1,350–2,700 m. and in Khasi Hills.English ◮ Holly Leaved Berberry.Folk ◮ Chhatri (Nepal), Haldia(Garhwal).Action ◮ Used as Berberis. Antiprolific,antipsoriatic, alterative,demulcent, diuretic, antidysenteric.The plant gave tertiary aporphines,berberine and jatrorrhizine.Mallotus philippensisMuell.-Arg.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout tropicalregions of India.English ◮ Kamala tree, Monkey Facetree.M

394 Malpighia glabra Linn.MAyurvedic ◮ Kampillaka, Kampilla,Karkash, Raktaanga, Rechan,Chandra.Unani ◮ Kamilla, Kambilaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kapli, Kalupatti.Action ◮ Gland and hair of fruit—purgative, anthelmintic, styptic.Used for the treatment of tapeworminfestation; in scabies, ringworm,herpes. Fruit—hypoglycaemic,spasmolytic, antibacterial.Capsule hair and glands gave phloroglucinolderivatives; rottlerin, isorottlerin,iso-allorottlerin (the “red compound”)and methylene-bis-methylphloroacetophenone(the “yellow compound”).The red powder, obtainedfrom capsules, containing largely resinousmatter, had lithotropic effect inrats, comparable to drugs used commonlyagainst urinary calculi. Twomore compounds designated as kamalins1 and 2 have been isolated.The stem bark contains kamaladiol-3-acetate and friedelin.Dosage ◮ Glands and hairs of thefruit—0.5–1.0 g powder. (API,Vol.I.)Malpighia glabra Linn.Family ◮ Malpighiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;cultivated in gardens as hedge.English ◮ Barbados Cherry, Acerola.Action ◮ Fruits—used in dysentery,diarrhoea and liver disorders.Fruits are rich in ascorbic acid(1,000–4,000 mg/100 g of ediblepulp). The bark contains about 26%tannin. Fruits of Brazilian plantgave alpha-carotene, beta-caroteneand beta-cryptoxanthine.Malpighia punicifolia Linn.Family ◮ Malpighiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Tamil Naduand Karnataka.English ◮ West Indian Cherry.Folk ◮ Vallari (Telugu), Simeyaranelli(Kannada).Action ◮ See Malpighia glabra.Fruits contain ascorbic acid in highconcentration (green fruits containup to 3,000 mg/100 g). 3-methyl-3-buten-1-ol has been identified as majorvolatile constituent of the fruit.Malus pumila Mill.Synonym ◮ M. domestica Borkh.M. sylvestris Hort. non-Mill.Pyrus malus Linn. in part.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and WestAsia; now cultivated in HimachalPradesh., Kashmir, Kulu, Kumaon,Assam and in the Nilgiris.English ◮ Cultivated Apple.Ayurvedic ◮ Sinchitikaa.Folk ◮ Seb, Sev.Action ◮ Bark—anthelmintic,refrigerant, hypnotic, given inintermittent, remittent and biliousfevers. Leaves—inhibit the growth

Malva sylvestris Linn. 395of a number of Gram-positive andGram-negative bacteria.The fruit contains malic (90–95%of the total acids), citric, lactic andsuccinic acids; (unripe fruit containsquinic acid, citric acid, succinic acid,lactic acid); caffeic acid derivatives,pectins, minerals and vitamins.Edible portion of fresh apple containsthiamine 0.12, riboflavin 0.03,niacin 0.2 and ascorbic acid 2 mg/100 g.The ascorbic acid content varies widelyand values up to 40 mg/100 g. Sugarsconstitute about 80% of the total carbohydratesof ripe fruits—fructose (60),glucose (25) and sucrose (15%). Thepectin content of the edible portionvaries from 0.14 to 0.96% (as calciumpectate). The uronic acid content ofapple pectin varies from 0.5 to 15%.The astringent principles of apple includetannins, tannin derivatives andcolouring materials (flavones). Thebrowning of apple slices on exposureto air is due to enzymic oxidation oftannin compounds.Fresh juice contains 0.20–0.80 malicacid, 11.6 total sugars and 0.021–00.080% tannin.The seeds contain cyanogenic glycoside,amygdalin (0.62–1.38%, HCNequivalent, 0.037–00.087%).Malva rotundifolia Linn.Synonym ◮ M. neglecta Wall.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Simla, Kumaon and plainsof North India.English ◮ Round-leaved Mallow,Drawf Mallow, Cheese Cake Flower.Ayurvedic ◮ Suvarchalaa.Unani ◮ Khubhaazi, Gul-Khair.Action ◮ Leaves—demulcent, emollient;used in glycosuria, stomachdisorders and as emmenagogue;used as poultice for maturingabscesses. Seeds—demulcent;prescribed in bronchitis, cough,inflammation of the bladder andhaemorrhoids.Marshmallow (Althaea officinalis)isa different herb.Malva sylvestris Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas fromPunjab to Kumaon, up to 2,400 m;Maharashtra, Karnataka and TamilNadu.English ◮ Common Mallow, BlueMallow, High Mallow.Ayurvedic ◮ Suvarchalaa (var.).Unani ◮ Khubbaazi, BhubhaaziBustaani, Gul-Khair.Action ◮ Mucilaginous, emollient,laxative, antitussive, pectoral,antibacterial. Infusion is used forcoughs and colds, irritation of thebronchi. Phagocyte stimulant.Key application ◮ In irritation of themucosa and throat and dry, irritativecough. (German Commission E.)The herb contains sulphated flavonolglycosides, mucilage and tannins.Flowers contain malvin (an anthocyanin),malvidin diglucoside, tannins,carotene and ascorbic acid.M

396 Mandragora autumnalis Spreng.MMalva coromandeliana Linn. (alsomalvastrum) is anti-inflammatory,pectoral, antidysenteric and diaphoretic.Mandragora autumnalis Spreng.Synonym ◮ M. microcarpa Bertol.M. officinarum Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Mediterranean region.English ◮ Mandrake.Ayurvedic ◮ Wrongly equated withLakshmanaa, a fertility promotingherb. (In Indian medicine, Panaxquinquefolium Linn. and Panaxschinseng Nees have been equatedwith Lakshmanaa.)Action ◮ Anaesthetic, narcotic,poisonous. Alkaloid pattern similarto Atropa belladona. Asampleof roots from Morocco containedatropine (0.2% at flowering stage).In India, Panax sp. are perceived asfertility and vitality promoting herbs,which have been attributed to Lakshmanaa.Mandrake exhibits anticholinergiceffects.English Mandrake and AmericanMandrake are equated with Bryoniaalba and Podophyllum hexandrum respectively.Mangifera indica Linn.Family ◮ Anacardiaceae.Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh., Punjab,Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh,West Bengal and Tamil Nadu.English ◮ Mango.Ayurvedic ◮ Aamra, Amb, Rasaal, Sahakaar,Pikavallabha, Madhudoot,Atisaurabha, Maakanda.Unani ◮ Aam, Ambaj.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manga, Mau,Mamaram (bark), MangottaiParuppu (seed).Action ◮ Unripe fruit—astringent,antiscorbutic. Ripe fruit—invigoratingand refrigerant in heat apoplexy.Leaves—anti-inflammatory, antibacterial,chloretic, diuretic. Usedin diabetes, externally in burnsand scalds. Kernel—astringent,anti-inflammatory, antibacterial,antifungal, anthelmintic, antispasmodic,antiscorbutic; given indiarrhoea, diabetes and menstrualdisorders. Stem bark—astringent;used for haemorrhages, diarrhoea,rheumatism.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the dried seed in diarrhoeaand dysentery; and the driedstem bark in genitourinary disorders.Ripe mango contains sugars (9.5–18.6%), citric acid (0.12–0.34%), ascorbicacid (10.8–225.0 mg/100 g), carotenoidsas beta-carotene (2,000–17,000 mcg/100 g). The fruit gave phenoliccompounds (m-digallic acid, gallotannin,phloroglucinol, protocatechuicacid); flavonoids (1,2,3,4-tetrahydroxybenzene, kaempferol and myricetin).The seed kernel contains alpha-andbeta-amyrins, gallotannin, glucogallinand several sterols.The leaves contain a pentacyclic triterpenealcohol, indicol, besides tarax-

Manilkara kauki (L.) Dubard. 397one, taraxerol, friedelin, lupeol andbeta-sitosterol. Leaves contain severalsugars, free malic and citric acidsand amino acids. Some esters of benzophenoneC-glucosides and kinic andshikmic acids have also been reported.Mangiferin is present predominantlyin the leaves and twigs.The bark contains phenolic compounds(gallocatechin, protocatechuicacid), xanthones (homomangiferin),several triterpenoids and sterols.All parts gave phenolic acids (ellagicacid, gallic acid, ethyl gallate);flavonoids (catechin), and xanthones(mangiferin).Dosage ◮ Dried seed—1–2 g powder(API, Vol. I); stem bark—3–6 gpowder, 25–50 g for decoction.(API, Vol. III.)Manihot esculenta Crantz.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Brazil. Majorcrop in Kerala, Tamil Nadu andAndhra Pradesh.English ◮ Manioc, Tapioca, Cassava.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maravalli kizhangu,Ezhalai kizhangu.Folk ◮ Tapioca.Action ◮ Staple food for poorersection of the population in manytropical countries. The starch isused for the manufacture of dextose,liquid glucose. The bitter varietyis used for treating scabies andweeping skin.The tuber is a good source of provitaminA carotenoids. It contains0.1–3.0 mg/kg (fresh weight) of betacaroteneand 0.05–00.6 mg/kg (freshweight) of lutein. The bitterness ofthe tuber is related to the cyanoglucosidecontent which ranges from 320to 1,100 mcg cyanide/g in very bittertubers and from 27.5 to 77.5 mcg isnon-bitter tubers. Boiling, crushingand sun-drying reduce bitterness andalso cyanoglucoside content. The tanninequivalent content in the clonesvaries from 0.31 to 0.34% and saponinequivalent varies from 0.18 to 0.29%.Feeding tapioca significantly reducedthe plasma cholesterol profileexperimentally in cats and rats.Manilkara kauki (L.) Dubard.Synonym ◮ Minusops Kauki L.Family ◮ Sapotaceae.Habitat ◮ A native of Malaya;occasionally grown in gardens,especially in North India, AndhraPradesh and Kerala.English ◮ Kauki.Ayurvedic ◮ Khirni.Siddha ◮ Palai.Action ◮ Root and bark—astringent.Given in infantile diarrhoea. Seed—febrifuge, anthelmintic, antileprotic.Leaf—used as poultice for tumours.Seeds contain about 16% of fatty oiland 1% saponin.Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dubard,synonym Mimusops hexandraRoxb., found in central India and DeccanPeninsula, and cultivated throughoutthegreaterpartofIndia,isalsoequated with Khirni.M

398 Maranta arundinacea Linn.MAll parts gave taraxerol, a triterpeneketone, alpha-and beta-amyrin, cinnamates,alpha-sipnasterol, beta-sitosterol,its beta-D-glucoside, quercitol,quercetin and its dihydroderivatives,ursolic acid.The bark contains 10% tannin.Maranta arundinacea Linn.Family ◮ Marantaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;cultivated throughout the countryfor its edible starch.English ◮ Arrowroot.Siddha ◮ Koovaikizhangu,Kookaineer.Action ◮ Nutritive, demulcent(especially for infants and convalescence).Used as a dietary aid in acutediarrhoea and gastroenteritis. Usedas a substitute for Bamboo-manna.The rhizome contains about 25–27%neutral starch.Marrubium vulgare Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiacea.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe andCentral Asia; also found in Kashmir.English ◮ Horehound.Unani ◮ Faraasiyun (wrongly equatedwith Valerian in National Formularyof Unani Medicine).Action ◮ Expectorant, cholagogue;bitter tonic for stomach and liver,antispasmodic. Used for bronchitis,asthma, whooping cough, hardcough with little phlegm; also forcardiac extrasystols.Key application ◮ In loss of appetite,dyspepsia; bloating andflatulence. (German CommissionE.) The British Herbal Pharmacopoeiaand The British HerbalCompendium (additionally) indicateits use for acute bronchitis,non-productive cough and catarrhand the respiratory tracts.The herb yields a diterpenoid, premarrubiin,which generates marrubiinas an artefact; caffeic acid derivatives;and flavonoids—apigenin, apigenin-7-glucoside, luteolin, luteolin-7-glucoside,quercetin-3-glucoside and -3-rhamnoglucoside. The extracts of theherb exhibit anti-inflammatory andantiserotonin activity experimentally.Marrubiin is considered to be responsiblefor expectorant activity. It hasalso shown to normalize extrasystolicarrhythmias. High doses may causecardiac irregularities.The oil exhibits antimicrobial propertiesand is reported to be vasodilatoryand hypotensive.Marsdenia roylei Wight.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Western and EasternHimalayas, Simla and Kumaon,hills of Assam.Ayurvedic ◮ Muurvaa (var.).Folk ◮ Maruaa-bel. Khaarchu(Garhwal).Action ◮ Root—purgative.

Martynia annua Linn. 399M. hamiltonii Wight (sub-Himalayantract and adjacent plains of UttarPradesh and Bihar) has also beenequated with a Muurvaa var. It isknown as Moran-adaa in folk medicine.Marsdenia tenacissimaWight & Arn.Family ◮Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Himalayas from Kumaonto Assam, up to 1,500 m, MadhyaPradesh, Bihar, Deccan Peninsula.English ◮White Turpeth.Ayurvedic ◮ Muurvaa, Atirasaa,Madhurasaa, Gokarni, Morataa,Madhulikaa, Suvaa, Devi, Tejani,Tiktavalli.Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Maruaa-bel.Perunkurinjan.Action ◮ Root—purgative, antispasmodic,mild CNS depressant; usedin colic.Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the bark in lipid disorders,also in polyuria and haemorrhagicdiseases.Roots and seeds are rich in pregnaneglycosides of 2-deoxysugars, whichon hydrolysis gave genins and sugars.Stem yielded tenacissosides A to E.In folk medicine, the root is knownas White Turpeth (Safed Nishoth). Operculinaturpethum (Linn.) Silva Mansosynonym Ipomoea turpethum R. Br.is the source of Turpeth (Nishoth) inIndian medicine.Dosage ◮ Root—2–6 g powder, 10–20 g for decoction. (API, Vol.II.)Marsilea minuta Linn.Family ◮ Marsileaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India asa weed in marshy places.Ayurvedic ◮ Sunishannaka, Parnaka,Vastika-parnika, Swastika, Chatushpatri,Susunishaak, Chaupaitra.Action ◮ Sedative. Used in insomniaand in the treatment of epilepsy andbehavioral disorders.The most active anti-epileptic principleis marsilin (1-triacontanol cerotate).Dosage ◮ Whole plant—10–20 mljuice. (CCRAS.)Martynia annua Linn.Synonym ◮ M. diandra Glox.Family ◮ Martyniaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of Mexico; foundthroughout India.English ◮ Devil’s Claw, Tiger Claw.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakanaasikaa,Kaakaangi, Shirobal.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kakatundi, Thelkodukkukai.Folk ◮ Hathajori, Bichhuu.Action ◮ Leaf—used in epilepsy, alsoapplied to tuberculous glands ofthe neck. Fruit—anti-inflammatory.Ash of the fruit, mixed with coconutM

400 Matricaria chamomilla Linn.Moil, is applied on burns. Seed oil—applied on abscesses and for treatingitching and skin affections.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the seed for arrestinggreying of hair.Flowers gave (several flavonoids includingapigenin, luteolin, apigenin-7-O-beta-D-glucuronide, luteolin-7-Obeta-D-glucuronide,pellargonidin-3,5-diglucoside, cyanidin-3-galactoside.The essential oil from the plant moderatelyinhibited passive cutaneousanaphylaxis in animals.Pentatropis microphylla W. & A. andP. spiralis Decne have also been equatedwith Kaakanaasaa, Kaakanaasikaa.Dosage ◮ Dried seed—2–5 g. (API,Vol. III.)Matricaria chamomilla Linn.Family ◮Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native of Europe; grownin Jammu & Kashmir, HimachalPradesh and Uttar Pradesh.English ◮ German Chamomile,Chamomile. German chamomileflower is equated with Matricariarecutita L. (synonym Chamomillarecutita L.) and Roman Chamomileflower with Anthemis nobilis L.(synonym Chamamaelum nobilis L.)Unani ◮Baabunaa.Action ◮ Sedative, anticonvulsant,carminative, antispasmodic, analgesic,anti-inflammatory, antiseptic.See also Anthemis nobilis.Key application (German Chamomile)◮ In inflammatory diseases of thegastrointestinal tract and gastrointestinalspasm. Externally, in skin,mucous membrane and ano-genitalinflammation and bacterial skindiseases. (German Commission E,The British Herbal Compendium.)As anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic.(The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)The flowers of German chamomilegave volatile oil up to about 2%, containingalpha-bisabolol up to 50%, azulenesincluding chamazulene, guiazulineand matricine; flavonoids includingapigenin and luteolin and theirglycosides, patuletin and quercetin;spiroethers; coumarins; polysaccharides.The flowers are used as herbal teafor cough and cold and for promotingthe flow of gastric secretion and bile.In chamomlile extracts, chamazulenehas been found responsible for antiinflammatoryactivity. Matricine and(−)-alpha-bisabolol also show antiinflammatoryand analgesic activity.Bisabolol exhibits ulceroprotective effect.Natural (−)-alpha-bisabolol hasbeen shown to be significantly effectivein healing burns; (−)-alpha-bisabolol,spiroethers and apigenin exhibit spasmolyticeffect comparable with that ofpapaverine.The polysaccharides are immunostimulatingand activate macrophagesand B lymphocytes; play an importantrole in wound healing.Crude aqueous extract of the planthas been reported to significantly delaythe onset of convulsions and reduce

Medicago sativa Linn. 401mortality rate produced by picrotoxinexperimentally.Matthiola incana R. Br.Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of Europe; grownas ornamental.English ◮ Stock, Gilli-flower.Unani ◮ Tudri Safed.Action ◮ Expectorant, diuretic,stomachic.The seeds contain mucilage, a fattyoil, two crystalline colouring mattersand a volatile oil which yields methyl,isopropyl and 4-methylthiobutyl isothiocyanates.Beta-sitosterol is presentin fatty oil. Fatty acids include palmitic,stearic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic and rucic.Meconopsis aculeata Royle.Family ◮ Papaveraceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas fromKashmir to Kumaon, between3,300–4,500 m.English ◮ Blue Poppy.Folk ◮ Gul-e-Nilam (Kashmir),Gudi, Kunda, Kanderi (Punjab),Kalihaari (Himachal).Action ◮ Plant—diuretic. Root—narcotic.In Garhwal Himalayas, the wholeplant is used as a blood purifier andto reduce blood pressure. The nativesapply the plant paste externally inrheumatic pains as anodyne.Meconopsis horridula Hook, knownasTasargauninTibet,isusedforcardiacand respiratory disorder.Meconopsis napaulensis DC., synonymM. wallichii HK. (temperate andalpine Himalaya from Nepal to Bhutanat 2,700–5,200m)alsoexhibitsnarcoticproperties. The roots gave alkaloids—protopine, magnoflorine, cryptopine,coptisine, allocryptopine, rhoeadine,papaverrubines E and D, corysamineand 2-methyl-6-methoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-beta-carboline.Medicago sativa Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,Gujarat, Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu,West Bengal, as a farm crop.English ◮ Alfalfa, Lucerne.Ayurvedic ◮ Alfalfa, Vilaayatigawuth,Lasunghaas, Lusan.Unani ◮ Barsem.Action ◮ Anticholesterolemic, richin essential enzymes, minerals andvitamins; a preventive of high bloodpressure, diabetes, peptic ulcer.Alfalfa tea is used to strengthen thedigestive system. Sprouts (of seeds) areused by diabetics.The herb contains carotinoids (includinglutein), triterpene saponins,isoflavonoids coumarins, triterpenes(including sitgmasterol, spinasterol);also cyanogenic glycosides (correspondingto less than 80 mg HCN/100 g); pro-vitamins A, B6, B12, D, K,E and P; calcium, phosphorus, iron,M

402 Melaleuca leucadendron Linn.Mpotassium, magnesium, choline, sodium,silicon and essential enzymes.The seeds contain 33.2% protein and4.4% mineral matter; saponins withthe aglycones, soyasapogenol B and Eand polymines, diaminopropane andnorspermine. Two storage globulins,alfin and medicagin are found in theseeds.The flowers contain flavonoids,kaempferol, quercetin, myricetin andlaricytrin. The fruits contain betaamyrin,alpha- and beta-spinasterol,beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol, myrsellinol,scopoletin and esculetin.The saponin, medicagenic acid, isfoundinleavesandroots(leaves1.49%,roots 2.43% of dry matter).Alfalfa seed extracts prevented hypercholesterolemia,triglyceridaemiaand atherogenesis in cholesterol-fedrabbits and cynomologus monkeys.The saponins in the extract reduce intestinalabsorption of cholesterol inrabbits.Human trials have indicated the useof the herb in menopause. (Sharon M.Herr.)Melaleuca leucadendron Linn.Family ◮ Myrtaceae.Habitat ◮ Indegenous to Burma,Cambodia, Thailand, MalayPeninsula to Australia; grown inIndian gardens and parks.English ◮ Cajeput tree, Swamp Teatree, White Tea tree.Folk ◮ Kaayaaputi. (The oil of Cajeputis imported into India, chiefly fromFrance and Netherlands.)Action ◮ Oil—used as an expectorantin chronic laryngitis and bronchitis,and as a carminative. Actsas anthelmintic, especially againstround worms. Enters into ointmentsfor rheumatism and stiff joints,sprains and neuralgia, migraine,colds, influenza, and as a mosquitorepellent.Key application ◮ The oil is antimicrobialand hypermic in vitro.(German Commission .)The oil contains terpenoids, 1,8-cineole (40–65%) as major component,with alpha-pinene, alpha-terpineol,nerolidol, limonene, benzaldehyde,valeraldehyde, dipentene and varioussesquiterpenes; 3,5-dimethyl-4,6,di-O-methylphloroacetophenone.The essential oil of Melaleuca alternifolia(Tea Tree Oil) is indicatedfor acne, tinea pedis and toe and nailonychomycosis on the basis of humantrials. (Sharon M. Herr.)Tea Tree Oil is distilled from theleaves of several species of Australiantrees belonging the genus Melaleuca,principaly from M. alternifolia. TeaTree Oil should contain a maximum of15% 1,8-cineole and a minimum of 30%(+)-terpinen-4-ol, the principal germicidalingredient. Other constituents,alpha-terpineol and linalool, also exhibitantimicrobial activity. (Cited inRational Phytotherapy.)The essential oil of Melaleuca virdifloraSolander ex Gaertner leaves,known as Niauli Oil, is used for catarrhof the upper respiratory tract. The oil isantibacterial and stimulatory to circulationin vitro. (German Commission

Melia azedarach Linn. 403E.) Like cajeput oil, the principal constituentis cineole (eucalyptol).A related species, M. genistifolia,indigenous to Australia, is grown inbotanical gardens at Saharanpur andLucknow (Uttar Pradesh). The leavesand terminal twigs yield 0.53% ofa volatile oil which consists mainlyof d-pinene, and about 2% cineole andtraces of aldehyde.Melastoma malabathricumLinn.Synonym ◮ M. normale D. Don.Family ◮ Melastomataceae.Habitat ◮ Moist parts of India, up to1,800 m.English ◮ Indian Rhododendron.Folk ◮ Laakheri, Paalorey (Maharashtra).Tulasi (Nepal). Nakkukappan(Tamil Nadu), Phutuka (Assam).Action ◮ Leaf—antidiarrhoeal,antiseptic. Locally applied insmallpox to prevent pox-marks.Leaf and flowering top—astringent,antileucorrhoeic. Bark—appliedto wounds. Also employed inpreparation of gargles.The leaves gave amino acids—glycine,valine, leucine, aspartic acid,glutamic acid, methionine, tyrosine,isoleucine and hydroxyproline. Theroots gave beta-sitosterol and a triterpene,melastomic acid.Melia azedarach Linn.Family ◮Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated and naturalizedthrouhout India. Wild in theSub-Himalayan tract up to 1,800 m.English ◮ Persian Lilac, Pride ofIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaanimba, Ramyaka,Dreka. (Neem is equated withAzadirachta indica.)Unani ◮ Bakaayan.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Malaivembu.Action ◮ Leaf—diuretic, anthelmintic,antilithic. Leaf andflower—febrifuge, sedative, emmenagogue.Leaf, fruit and stembark—antileprotic. Leaf, flower,fruit, root bark—deobstruent,resolvent. Seed oil—antirheumatic,insecticidal. Leaves, bark andfruit—insect repellent. Gum—used in spleen enlargement. Heartwood—anaqueous extract, used inasthma.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaindicated the use of the dried stembark in increased frequency and turbidityof urine, skin diseases, nausea,emesis, asthma, gastroenteritis, giddinessand vertigo.The bitter constituents are presentexclusively in the pericarp, not in thekernel as in the case of Neem fruit.Bakayanin has been isolated from thepericarp (bitter in dilutions of 1 in10,000).The heartwood also yielded bakayaninand a lactone, bakalactone. Leavesgave quercitrin and rutin and tetranortriterpenoids,salanin and vilasinin.An infusion of the bark is effectiveagainst ascariasis. The activity residesin the inner bark which is bitter but notM

404 Melia composita Willd.Mastringent (outer bark contains tanninsand is astringent).The ethanolic extract of the leavesis fungicidal and antibacterial. The activityis attributed to azadrine and meliotannicacid.The fruits are considered poisonousto man and animals; contain melianoninol,melianol, melianone, meliandiol,vanillin and vanillic acid. Vanillicacid analogues show micro- andmacro-filaricidal activity.Gedunin, present in the plant, inhibitsPlasmodium falciparum, whilethe seed extract does not show antimalarialactivity against P. berghei.The plant exhibited sedative andpsychostimulant properties. Antitumourand antiviral activities have alsobeen reported. Intraperitoneal administrationof partially purified extracts offresh green leaves reduced the spread ofTacaribe virus (that causes typical encephalitis)to kidneys, liver and brainin inoculated neonatal mice.Dosage ◮ Stem bark—5–10 g (API,Vol. IV.); leaf, seed, root—50–100 ml decoction; 3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Melia composita Willd.Synonym ◮ M. dubia Hiern. non-Cav.Family ◮ Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, Assam,Western Ghats, Ganjam and Deccanup to 1,800 m.English ◮ Hill Neem, Malabar Neem,Common Bead tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Arangaka.Folk ◮ Malaivembu (Tamil).Action ◮ Fruit—anthelmintic; usedin skin diseases.The leaves and seeds gave tetranortriterpenoids,compositin and compositolide.The fruit gave salannin.The heartwood yielded a triterpenoid.Tamil and Malyalam synonyms(Malaivembu and Malavembu) arecommon to Melia azedarach and Meliacomposita.Melilotus alba Desr.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and Asia;growninNorthIndia.English ◮ White Sweet Clover.Unani ◮ Ilkil-ul-Malik, Naakhunaa(white-flowered var.).Action ◮ See Melilotus indica.Melilotus indica (Linn.) All.Synonym ◮ M. parviflora Desf.Family ◮ Paplionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Eurasia; foundas winter weed and cultivated forfodder in parts of Punjab, Haryanaand Uttar Pradesh.English ◮ Sweet Clover, AnnualYellow Sweet Clover, Small-floweredMelilot.Ayurvedic ◮ Vana-methikaa.Unani ◮ Ilkil-ul-Malik (yellowfloweredvar.).Folk ◮ Ban-Methi, Senji.

Melissa axillaris (Benth.) Bakh f. 405Action ◮ Plant—astringent, discutient,emollient. Used as poulticeor plaster for swellings. Theplant gave coumarins—fraxidin,herniarin, umbelliferone andscopoletin.When fed alone as a green fodder,it exhibits narcotic properties; causeslethargy, tympanitis and is reportedto taint the milk of dairy cattle. Itmay cause even paralysis. The plantcontains 3-methoxyflavone, meliternatinwhich experimentally inhibitedcell growth, induced granularity, retractionand then lysis of cells.Melilotus officinalis Linn.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Ladakh, at 3,000–4,000 m,also cultivated.English ◮ Yellow Sweet Clover,Melilot.Unani ◮ Iklil-ul-Malik, Asaab-ul-Malik, Naakhunaa.Action ◮ Plant—astringent, woundhealer, styptic, anti-inflammatory,sedative, mild analgesic, anticoagulant,spasmolytic. Flower andleaf—diuretic, analgesic, antiinflammatory,smooth musclerelaxant, vasodilator. Seed—used incold.Key application ◮ In chronic venousinsufficiency. For supportivetreatment of thrombophlebitis,haemorrhoids and lymphaticcongestion. (German CommissionE.) As venotonic, vulnerary. (TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The herb contains coumarin derivatives;flavonoid glycosides, includingkaempferol and quercetin. Dicoumarol(melitoxin) is producedwhen fermentation takes place in melilot.Seeds gave canavanin and trigonelline.Reported poisonous to horses.The flowers contain the flavonoids,quercetin and myricetin besides kaempferol.The herb has shown increase invenous reflux and improvement inlymphatic kinetics. Animal experimentsshow an increase in healingwounds. Flower and leaf extractshave shown analgesic activity, prolongationin pento-barbital-inducedhypnosis time and smooth muscle relaxantactivity in mice; also exhibitedhypotensive and vasodilatory activityin rabbit. Dicoumarol is a potentanticoagulant.In Europe and China, the plant extractis used for inflammations, arthritis,rheumatism, phlebitis, venous insufficiency,haemorrhoids, brachialgiaand bronchitis.The Red Clove is equated with Trifoliumpratense.Melissa axillaris (Benth.) Bakh f.Synonym ◮ M. parviflora Benth.Family ◮ Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate and alpineHimalaya, from Garhwal to Bhutanand in Darjeeling and Aka, Mishmiand Khasi hills at 1,000–3,600 m.Unani ◮ Billilotan.Action ◮ Carminative, diaphoretic,febrifuge in cases of catarrh andM

406 Melissa officinalis Linn.Minfluenza. The fruit is considereda brain tonic and useful inhypochondriac conditions.The aerial parts of the plant yield 2%essential oil which is a good source ofmonoterpenic alcohols and aldehydes.It contains d-camphene 2.5, dl-alphapinene2.3, 1-beta-pinene 2.13, deltacarene2.05, d-limonene 12.95, azulene1.26, linalool 13.36, 1,8-cineole 9.33, citronellal4.0, citronellol 8.2, citral 13.0,geraniol 21.01, neptalactone 1.91, thymol4.0 and citronellic acid 2.0%.The herb is used as a substitute forMelissa officinalis Linn.Melissa officinalis Linn.Family ◮ Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to the eastMediterranean region; introducedin India.English ◮ Mountain Balm, Sweet orLemon Balm.Unani ◮ Baadranjboyaa, Billilotan.(Nepeta cataria Linn. and Nepetahindostana Haines are also knownas Billilotan.)Action ◮ Antidepressant, antispasmodic,antihistaminic, antiviral.Used in anxiety neurosis and nervousexcitability, palpitation andheadache. Also in hyperthyroidism.Key application ◮ In nervous sleepingdisorders and functional gastrointestinalcomplaints. (GermanCommission E, ESCOP.) Externallyfor Herpes labialis (cold sores).(ESCOP.) As sedative and topicalantiviral. (The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)Only fresh (herb within 6 monthsafter collection) is usable as a sedative,because of low volatile oil content andits high volatility.The volatile oil of the herb (0.1–00.2%) consists mainly of geranialand neral, with caryophyllene oxideand smaller quantities of terpenes;glycosides of the alcoholic or phenoliccomponents of the volatile oil(including eugenol glucoside); caffeicacid derivatives (rosmaric acid);flavonoids (including cymaroside, cosmosiin,rhamnocitrin, isoquercitrin);triterpene acids (including ursolicacid).Hot water extracts exhibit antiviralproperties, mainly due to rosmaric acidand other polyphenols. (A cream containingthe extracts of Balm is usedfor the treatment of cutaneous lesionsof Herpes simplex virus.) Aqueous extractsinhibit tumour cell dividing.Freeze-dried aqueous extracts inhibitmany of the effects of exogenousand endogenous thyroid stimulatinghormones (TSH) on bovine thyroidgland by interfering with the bindingof TSH to plasma membranes and byinhibiting the enzyme iodothyroninedeiodinase in vitro.The anti-hormonal, mainly antithyroideffects of Balm are well documented.(Potter’s New Cyclopedia,Sharon.M. Herr.)For mild to moderate Alzheimer disease,60 drops per day of standardizedLemon Balm extract (1 : 11 45%alcohol) was prescribed daily. Resultswere encouraging. (J Neurol Neurosurg

Memecylon edule Roxb. 407Psychiatry, 74, 2003; Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.) (Forcholinergic activity, BMJ, 325, 2002,1312–1233.)Melochia corchorifolia Linn.Family ◮Sterculiaceae.Habitat ◮ Kumaon to Sikkim, Gujaratand Peninsular India.Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Chunch, Bilpat.Pinnakkuppundu.Action ◮ Leaf and root—antidysenteric.Leaf—applied as poultice forswellings of abdomen and sores.The leaves gave flavonol glycosides,cyclopeptide alkaloids. The triterpenoidsand steroids, isolated fromthe aerial parts, are friedelin, betasitosteroland its beta-D-glucoside andstearate.Melothria maderaspatana(L.) Cogn.Synonym ◮ Cucumis maderaspatanaLinn.Bryonia scabrella Linn. f.Mukia scabrella (Linn. f.) Arn.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,ascending up to 1,800 m in the hills.Ayurvedic ◮ Ahilekhana, Trikoshaki.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Musumsukkai.Folk ◮ Agmaki.Action ◮ Tender shoots—gentleaperient, diuretic, stomachic;decoction used in biliousness andflatulence.The root contains columbin; seed oilgave linoleic, oleic and palmitic acids.Fresh aerial parts exhibit potent antihepatotoxicactivity.In carbon tetrachloride-induced liverdysfunction in albino rats, the recoveryof liver, treated with the extractfrom aerial parts, was significantand there was marked decrease inserum levels of the enzymes, alanine,aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferaseand alkaline phosphatase.Kuruvikizhangu of Siddha medicine,used for acute diarrhoea andfever, is equated with Malothria perpusilla(Blume) Cogn. Zehneria hookerianaArn., found in upper Gangeticplain from Nepal to Assam and inPeninsular India.Memecylon edule Roxb.Synonym ◮ M. umbellatum Burm. f.Family ◮ Melastomataceae.Habitat ◮ Orissa, Assam and WesternPeninsula.English ◮ Iron Wood.Ayurvedic ◮ Anjani.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kasai, Anjani.Folk ◮ Yaalki, Lokhandi (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Fruit and leaf—astringent.Leaf—antileucorrhoeic, spasmolytic,hypoglycaemic. A lotionprepared from the leaves is usedin ophthalmia. Root—used inexcessive menstrual discharge.M

408 Mentha aquatica Linn.MAerial parts gave umbelactone, betaamyrin,ursolic acid, oleanolic acid,sitosterol and its glucoside.Mentha aquatica Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Indiangardens.English ◮ Water Mint, Wild Mint.Unani ◮ Pudinaa Nahari.Action ◮ Leaf—stimulant, astringent.Used for diarrhoea anddysmenorrhoea.The essential oil is composed of40–50% menthofuran, with menthol,methyl acetate, pulegone among otherconstituents.Mentha arvensisLinn. var. piperascens Holmes.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Jammu andKashmir.English ◮ Japanese Mint.Unani ◮ Naanaa.Action ◮ Carminative, cholagogue,expectorant, antibacterial,antifungal.Key application ◮ Mint oil—internally for flatulence, functionalgastrointestinal and gallbladderdisorders; catarrhs of the upperrespiratory tract. Externally, formyalgia and neuralgia. (GermanCommission E.)Major components of the essentialoil are menthol (up to 95%) and menthone.Others are alpha-and betapinene,alpha-thujene, l-limonene,beta-phellandrene, furfural, methylcyclohexanoneand camphene. Theessential oil possesses both antibacterialand antifungal properties.The leaves show anti-implantationeffect. Seeds showed abortifacient activity(29%) in albino rats with markedmalformations in neonates where pregnancywas not terminated.Mentha longifolia (Linn.) Huds.Synonym ◮ M. sylvestris Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and Asia;cultivated in Kashmir, Maharashtra,Uttar Pradesh and Punjab.English ◮ English Horsemint.Unani ◮ Pudinaa-Barri, JangaliPudinaa.Action ◮ Leaf and flowering top—carminative, stimulant, antiseptic,febrifuge. Used for digestivedisorders and headaches. Essentialoil—antibacterial.Chiefcomponentsofthevolatileoilare 1,8-cineole 28.8, piperitone 13.9, cispiperitoneoxide 15.4 and piperitenone13.8%. The aerial parts contain flavonoids—3′ -hydroxy-4 ′ ,5,6,7-tetramethoxyflavone,hesperetin-7-rutinoside,luteolin, ursolic acid and betasitosterol.The essential oil acts asa CNS depressant and has somnifacientproperties. Phenolic extract showed

Mentha spicata Linn. emend. Nathh. 409stimulative effect on CNS of mice. Administrationof the oil leads to a dropin body temperature.American Horsemint is equatedwith Monarda punctata L. The majorcomponent of the volatile oil is thymol.The leaves and tops are used as stimulant,carminative and emmenagogue.Mentha piperataLinn. emend. Huds.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe;cultivated in Maharashtra, Kashmirand Punjab.English ◮ Peppermint, Brandy Mint.Ayurvedic ◮ Vilaayati Pudinaa.Action ◮ Oil—digestive, carminative,chloretic, antispasmodic, diuretic,antiemetic, mild sedative, diaphoretic,antiseptic, antiviral, used inmany mixtures of indigestion andcolic and cough and cold remedies.Key application ◮ Leaf—internallyfor spastic complaints of the gastrointestinaltract, gallbladder andbile ducts. (German Commission E,ESCOP.) The British Herbal Compendiumindicates peppermint leaffor dyspepsia, flatulence, intestinalcolic, and biliary disorders.Key application ◮ Oil—as a carminative.(The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)Inspasticdiscomfortfo the upper gastrointestinal tractand bile ducts, irritable colon, therespiratory tract and inflammationof the oral mucosa. Externally, formyalgia and neuralgia. (GermanCommission E.) ESCOP indicates itsuse for irritable bowel syndrome,coughs and colds. Externally,for coughs and colds, rheumaticcomplaints, pruritus, urticaria, andpain in irritable skin conditions.(ESCOP.)The essential oil has both antibacterialand antifungal properties.The major constituents of the essentialoil are: menthol, menthone, pulegone,menthofuran, 1,8-cineole, menthylacetate, isomenthone. The leavescontain flavonoid glycosides, eriocitrin,luteolin 7-O-rutinoside, hesperidin,isorhoifolin, diosmin, eriodictyol7-O-glucoside and narirutin, besidesrosmarinic acid, azulenes, cholene,carotenes.Peppermint oil relaxed carvacholcontractedguinea-pig tenia coli, andinhibited spontaneous activity inguinea-pig colon and rabbit jejunum.It relaxes gastrointestinal smooth muscleby reducing calcium influx. Peppermintoil reduced gastric emptyingtime in dyspeptics.The aqueous and ethanolic extractsexhibited antiviral activity against RPV(rinder pest virus), a highly contagiousviral disease of cattle.Mentha spicataLinn. emend. Nathh.Synonym ◮M. viridis Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab, UttarPradesh and Maharashtra.M

410 Menyanthes trifoliata Linn.MEnglish ◮Spearmint, Garden Mint.Ayurvedic ◮ Pudinaa, Podinaka,Puutihaa, Rochini.Unani ◮Nanaa. Pudinaa Kohi.Action ◮ Carminative, stimulant,antispasmodic, antiemetic, diaphoretic,antiseptic. A tea of dryflowersandleavesisprescribedfortracheobronchitis and hypertension.The chief constituents of the essentialoil are carvone (55–75%) andlimonene (up to 21.4%). The herb gaveflavonoids, diosmin and diosmetin.Caffeic acid derivatives include rosmarinicacid in the volatile oil.Dosage ◮ Leaf—5–10 ml juice; 3–5mlextract.(CCRAS.)Menyanthes trifoliata Linn.Family ◮ Gentianaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Britain andEurope; found in Kashmir.English ◮ Bogbean, Buckbean, Goat’sbean, Marsh Trefoil.Folk ◮ Buckbean.Action ◮ Bitter tonic, deobstruent.Laxative in large doses. Used fordiseases of liver and gallbladder,and rheumatism. (Contraindicatedin diarrhoea, dysentery and colitis.)Key application ◮ Leaf—in lossof appetite, peptic discomforts.(German Commission E.) As a bittertonic. (The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)Thedrugstimulatessalivaand gastric juice secretion. (GermanCommission E.)The herb contains iridoid glycosides,foliamenthin, dihydrofoliamenthin,menthiafolin and loganin; pyridinealkaloids including gentianine;coumarins (scopoletin); phenolic acids(caffeic, with protocatechuic, ferulic,sinapic, vanillic including others; flavonoidsincluding rutin, hyperoside.Choleretic action of the herb is attributedto the synergistic action of caffeicand ferulic acids and iridoid glycosides.Scoparone and scopoletin (coumarinsisolated from the aerial parts)exhibit antihepatotoxic, choleretic andcholagogue properties.The rhizomes contain dihydrofoliamenthin,loganin, menthiafolin anda triterpenoid saponin menyanthoside.Aqueous extract of the rhizomeshowed greater preserved renal functionand higher glomerular filtrationrate, possibly due to Platelet ActivatingFactor (PAF)-antagonistic effect of theextract.Merremia quinquefolia(Linn.) Hallier f.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Maharashtra, Gujarat,Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan.Action ◮ Seeds—sedative.The seeds contain ergoline alkaloids.The alkaloids are reported to producevasoconstrictor, uterotonic, neurohormonic,sympathicolytic and sedativeeffects.Plants of Merremia sp. are twinersand are used as diuretic, deobstruent,antirheumatic and alterative; the root

Mesua ferrea Linn. 411is used as a mouthwash; leaves are usedfor burns, scalds and sores. M. vitifolia(Burm. F.) Hallier f. exhibits potentdiuretic and antiseptic activity in stranguryand urethral discharges.(Most of the twiners are known asPrasaarini in Indian medicine and arespecific for rheumatic affections.)Merremia tridentata(Linn.) Hallier. f.Synonym ◮ Convolvulus tridentatusLinn.Ipomoea tridentata (L.) Roth.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Upper Gangetic Plain,Bihar, Orissa, West Bengal, SouthIndia and Gujarat.Ayurvedic ◮ Prasaarini (Kerala andKarnataka), Tala-nili.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mudiyaakunthal.Action ◮ Laxative, astringent,anti-inflammatory. Used in piles,swellings, rheumatic affections,stiffness of the joints, hemiplegiaand urinary affections.The aerial parts contain the flavonoids,diometin, luteolin and their 7-O-beta-D-glucosides.Mesua ferrea Linn.Synonym ◮ M. nagassarium(Burm. f.) Kosterm.Family ◮ Guttiferae; Clusiaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, Assam,West Bengal, Western Ghats,Travancore and the AndamanIslands.English ◮ Iron-wood, Mesu.Ayurvedic ◮ Naagakeshara, Naagapushpa,Chaampeya, Naaga,Naagakinjalika, Ahipushpa. (InAyurvedic Formulary of India PartI, revised edn 2003, Keshara andKesara are equated with Mesuaferrea, while Kumkuma is equatedwith Crocus sativus.)Unani ◮ Naarmushk.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sirunagappo,Nagakesaram. Sirunagappo alsoconsists of the tender fruitsof Cinamonum wighti Meissn.Malabar Naagakeshar consists ofthe fruits of Dillenia pentagynaRoxb.Action ◮ Flower bud—antidysenteric.Flowers—astringent, haemostatic,anti-inflammatory, stomachic.Used in cough, bleeding piles,metrorrhagia. Essential oil fromstamens—antibacterial, antifungal.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the use of dry stamensin gout, haemorrhagic disorders anddiseases of the urinary bladder.The heartwood gave xanthones—euxanthone, mesuaxanthones A and B,which exhibit anti-inflammatory, CNSdepressant and antimicrobial activities.Theseedoilgave4-phenylcoumarinanalogues—mesuol, mammeigin, mesuagin,mammeisin and mesuone.Phenol-containing fraction of seed oilis antiasthmatic and antianaphylaxis.Stamens gave alpha- and beta-amyrin,beta-sitosterol, biflavonoids, mesuaferronesA and B, and mesuanicM

412 Meyna laxiflora Robyns.Macid. Stamens constitute the drug Naagakesharof Indian medicine, used asan astringent, haemostatic, particularlyin uterine bleeding and renal diseases.Ethanolic extract of the plantshowed diuretic and hypotensive activity.Dosage ◮ Dried stamens—1–3 gpowder. (API, Vol. II.)Meyna laxiflora Robyns.Synonym ◮ Vangueria spinosaHook. f.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa,in hedges and waste places.Ayurvedic ◮ Pinditaka. Madanaor Mainphala is a misleadingsynonym. It is equated with Randiadumetorum Poir.Folk ◮ Muyana, Moyana, Muduna.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manakkarai.(Madana or Mainphala is known asMarukkallankay.)Action ◮ Fruit—cholagogue, a decoctionused in biliary complaintsand hepatic congestion. Driedfruits—narcotic; used for boils.Michelia champaca Linn.Family ◮ Magnoliaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, lowerhills of Assam, hills of South Indiaup to 1,000 m., cultivated in variousparts of India.English ◮ Champak, GoldenChampa.Ayurvedic ◮ Champaka, SvarnaChampaka, Hemapushpa, Chaampeya.Siddha/Tamil ◮Sampagi.Action ◮ Flowers—bitter, carminative,antispasmodic, demulcent,antiemetic, diuretic (used for dysuria),antipyretic. Fruits—usedfor dyspepsia and renal diseases.Bark—stimulant, diuretic andfebrifuge. Dried root and rootbark—purgative and emmenagogue.Externally—flower oil isused as an application in cephalalgia,gout and rheumatism; fruitsandseedsforhealingcracksinfeet.The ethanolic extract of the stembark showed hypoglycaemic activityin rats. The benzene extract of theanthers showed 67% post-coital antiimplantationactivity in rats (1000 mg/kg per day).Stem bark and roots yielded an alkaloidliriodenine. Root bark yieldedsesquiterpene lactones (includingparthenolide and micheliolide). Leavesgave a polyisoprenoid, beta-sitosteroland liriodenine. Mono-and sesquiterpenesoccur in essential oils isolatedfrom the flowers, leaf and fruit ring.The bark and root cortex of theChinese plant gave magnosprengerine(0.41%) and salicifoline (0.39%). Theseactive principles showed lasting musclerelaxant and hypotensive activity.The bark of Michelia montana Blume(Eastern Himalayas and hills of Assam)

Micromelum integerrimum (Buch-Ham.) Roem. 413is used as a bitter tonic in fevers. Itbears white and fragrant flowers. Theleaf and stem yield an essential oil, 0.95and 0.36% on fresh basis, respectively.The flowers contains 75% safrole andthe latter 76% sarisan.Michelia nilgarica Zenk. (WesternGhats, above 1,700 m) is knownas Kattu-sambagam in Tamil Nadu,the yellow-flowered var. of Champaa.The bark and leaves are consideredfebrifuge. The bark contains a volatileoil, acrid resins, tannin and a bitterprinciple. The flowers yield a volatileoil similar to the bark oil. Aerial partsexhibit diuretic and spasmolytic activity.Dosage ◮ Dried buds and flowers—1–3 g powder. (API, Vol. IV.) Bark—50–100 m decoction. (CCRAS.)Microcos paniculata Linn.Synonym ◮ Grewia microcos Linn.G. ulmifolia Roxb.Family ◮Tiliaceae.Habitat ◮ North-eastern parts ofIndia, West Bengal, Western Ghatsand Andaman Islands.Folk ◮ Asar (Bengal); Thengprenkeorong(Assam); Kadambu, Visalam,Kottei (Tamil Nadu); Abhrangu(Karnataka).Action ◮ Plant—stomachic, antidysenteric,antisyphilitic, antibacterial(also used for smallpox andeczema).Microglossa pyrifolia(Lamk.) Kuntze.Synonym ◮ M. volubilis DC.Family ◮ Asteraceae, Compositae.Habitat ◮ North-eastern Indian hills.Action ◮ Leaf—used for ringwormof the scalp.A acetylenic glucoside, isolated fromthe leaf, showed antibacterial activityagainst Pseudomonas aeruginosa andStaphylococcus aureus.Micromelum integerrimum(Buch-Ham.) Roem.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Bihar, Orissa, Bengal,Sikkim, Nepal, Assam, Khasi, Akaand Lushai hills.Action ◮ Bark of the root, stem andbranches—used in the treatment oftubercular cases.The root contains coumarins, micromelin,phebalosin and yuehchakene.Micromelum pubescens Blume, synonymM. minutum (Forst. f.) Seem. isfound in the Andamans. The plant isused in Malaya and Indonesia for phthisisand chest diseases. The root ischewed with betel for coughs.The leaves contain coumarins, micropubescinand phebalosin.The bark contains phebalosin. Theroots contain micromelumin, phebalosin,imperatorin, angelical, limettin,scopoletin, minumicrolin andmurrangatin.M

414 Micromeria capitellata Benth.MMicromeria capitellata Benth.Family ◮Lamiaceae; Labiatae.Habitat ◮ Kumaon, Upper Gangeticplain, Bihar, Orissa, Western Ghats,Nilgiris.Folk ◮ Pudinaa (var.).Action ◮ Plant—carminative. Usedas a substitute for Mentha piperataLinn.The plant yields an essential oil(1.6%) which contains mainly pulegone(80%).Micromeria biflora Benth., equatedwith Indian Wild Thyme, is found intropical and temperate Himalayas, andin Western Ghats and hills of SouthIndia.The principal constituent of volatileoil of Camphorata sp. is camphor; ofCitrata sp. is citral; of menthata andPulegata sp. is d-menthone; and pulegone.Microstylis musifera Ridley.Synonym ◮ Malaxis muscifera(Lindley) Kuntz.Family ◮ Orchidaceae.Habitat ◮ Northern Himalayas ataltitudes of 1,500 to 2,800 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Jivaka, Madhura,Shranga, Hriswaanga, Kurcha,Shirraka. (Substitute: Puerariatuberosa.)Action ◮ Rejuvenating tonic.Dosage ◮ Tuber—3–6 g power(CCRAS.)Microstylis wallichii Linn.Synonym ◮ Malaxis acuminata D.DonFamily ◮ Orchidaceae.Habitat ◮ Northern Himalayas ataltitudes of 1,500 to 2,800 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Rshabhaka, Rshabha,Rshabham, Vrishabh, Dhira,Vishani. (Substitute: Puerariatuberosa.)Action ◮ Rejuvenating tonic.Dosage ◮ Tuber—3–6 g powder.(CCRAS.)Mikania cordata(Burm.) B. L. Robinson.Synonym ◮ M. micrantha Kunth.M. scandans Hook. f. non-Willd.Family ◮ Asteraceae; Compositae.Habitat ◮ West Bengal, easternAssam, as a weed in tea gardens; saland other forests and waste lands.Distributed in tropical America,Africa and Asia.Folk ◮ Mikaaniaa.Action ◮ Root—anti-inflammatory,hepatoprotective, adaptogenic.Stigmasterol, beta-sitosterol andsesquiterpene dilactones, mikanolide,dihydromikanolide, deoxymikanolideand scandenolide have been isolatedfrom the weed.The root extract exhibited anti-inflammatoryactivity; reduced carrageenan-inducedpaw oedema in experimentalrats.

Millingtonia hortensis Linn. f. 415The methanolic extract of the rootshowed CNS deperssant action. Itshowed reduction in spontaneousmotility, hypothermia, potentiation ofpentobarbitone sleeping time, analgesia,suppression of aggressive behaviourand antagonism to amphetaminetoxicity on experimental animals.The methanolic extract of the rootexhibited adaptogenic activity againsta variety of stress-induced effects inalbino rats.The chemoprotective, anticarcinogenicand hepatoprotective effect of themethanolic extract of the root were alsoevaluated in animal studies. Chemicalcarcinogens were reduced in the liverof rats treated with the plant extract.The root extract induced recovery fromcarbon tetrachloride-induced damageto liver tissues in mice.Miliusa velutinaHook. f. & Thoms.Family ◮ Annonaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract andouter Himalayas, in North-eastand Central India, eastern coast ofDeccan Peninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Rshiyaproktaa.Folk ◮ Gandha-Palaasa (Orissa),Kaari (gum).Action ◮ Bark—used in the treatmentof gout.Millettia auriculataBaker ex Brandis.Synonym ◮Baker.M. extensa Benth. exFamily ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract andouter Himalaya up to 1,200 m fromKashmir to Bhutan and in Assamand Central and Southern India.Folk ◮ Godaar (Bihar).Action ◮ Root—vermifuge, pesticidal,kills lice and ticks.The roots, leaves and stems gave isoflavones(including iso-auriculatin, auricularin)and a rotenoid, sumatrol.Millettia racemosa Benth.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Deccan Peninsula.Folk ◮ Godaar (Bihar).Action ◮ Insecticidal.The debarked stem contains isoflavans,isomillinol, besides behenic acid,beta-amyrin and beta-sitosterol. Theisoflavans showed bactericidal and insecticidalactivity. The antibacterial activitywas observed against Staphylococcusaureus and E. coli.Millingtonia hortensis Linn. f.Family ◮ Bignoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughoutIndia.English ◮ Indian Cork tree.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maramalli.Folk ◮ Aakaasha Neem, Neem-Chameli.Action ◮ Bark—antipyretic. Flowers—usedfor asthma and sinusitis.M

416 Mimosa pudica Linn.The butanol soluble fraction fromaqueous extract of flowers showedbronchial smooth muscle relaxantproperty. Hispidulin, isolated from theflowers, is reported to exhibit bronchodilatoryand antiphlogistic activities.Hispidulin is found to be morepotent than aminophyllin and less toxicthan the crude extract.gallic acid. The aerial parts of theplant contain C-glycosylflavones, 2 ′′ -O-rhamnosylorientin and 2 ′′ -Orhamnosylisoorientin.Dosage ◮ Whole plant, root—10–20 ml juice; 50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Wholeplant—10–20gfordecoction. (API, Vol. II.)MMimosa pudica Linn.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropicalAmerica; naturalized in tropicaland subtropical regions of India.English ◮ Sensitive-plant, Humble-Plant.Ayurvedic ◮ Lajjaalu, Laajavanti,Namaskaari, Samangaa, Sankochini,Shamipatraa, Khadirkaa,Raktapaadi.Unani ◮ Chhuimui, Sharmili,Laajwanti.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thottalsurungi.Action ◮ Leaf—astringent, alterative,antiseptic, styptic, blood purifier.Used for diarrhoea, dysentery,haemophilic conditions, leucorrhoea,morbid conditions ofvagina, piles, fistula, hydrocele andglandular swellings. Root—usedin gravel and urinary complaints.A decoction is taken to relieveasthma.The plant contains mimosine andturgorin. The periodic leaf movementsexhibited by the plant are dueto presence of derivatives of 4-O-(beta-D-glucopyranosyl-6 ′ -sulphate)Mimusops elengi Linn.Family ◮ Sapotaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in North India,Western Peninsula and South India.English ◮ Spanish-Cherry, WestIndian Medlar, Bullet Wood.Ayurvedic ◮ Bakula, Keshara,Simhakeshara, Sthiraa, Sthirapushpa,Vishaarada, Dhanvi,Madhupushpa, Madhugandha,Chirpushpa, Maulsiri.Unani ◮ Molsari.Siddha ◮ Magilam.Action ◮ Pulp of ripe fruit—astringent;used in chronic dysentery.Flowers, fruit and bark—astringent.Bark—given for promoting fertilityin women. Seeds—purgative. Theleaves contain sterols, reducing sugarsand tannins; roots, a steroidalsaponin; stem bark, spinasteroland taraxerol; flowers, D-mannitol,beta-sitosterol and beta-sitosterol-D-glycoside; seeds, pentacyclictriterpene acids, mimusopic andmimusopsic acids.Essential oil obtained from the plantis reported to be mycotoxic. Antimicrobialactivity of the root extract has

Mollugo cerviana Ser. 417been reported. Saponins isolated fromthe seeds have been found to effectthe cardiovascular activity in dogs andhaemolytic activity in human beings.Spasmolytic activity in isolated ileumof guinea-pigs has also been recorded.Saponins from seeds also showedspermicidal activity.Dosage ◮ Seed, bark—10–20 g paste;50–100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)Mirabilis jalapa Linn.Family ◮ Nyctaginaceae.Habitat ◮ North-West Himalayas,Bengal and Manipur.English ◮ Four-O’Clock Plant,Marvel of Peru.Ayurvedic ◮ Trisandhi.Unani ◮ Gul-abbaas.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Andhimalligai.Action ◮ Leaf—used for treatinguterine discharge; as poultice forabscesses and boils; fresh juice isapplied to body in urticaria, also forinflammations and bruises. Tuber—used as a poultice on carbuncles.Root—mild purgative, spasmolytic.The tuberous roots were erroneouslythought to be the source of jalap.Theplantisusedforitsantitumourand virus-inhibitory activity.The plant contains triterpenes, alpha-amyrinand its acetate. MirabilisAntiviral Protein (MAP) was isolatedfrom the tuberous roots. MAP alsoshowed antiproliferative effect ontumour cells. (MAP is abortifacient.)TwoMirabilis jalapa antimicrobial proteins,Mj-AMP-1 and Mj-AMP-2, isolatedfrom seeds, showed broad spectrumantifungal actvity involvinga number of pathogenic fungi.Miraxanthins I, II, III and IV, indicaxanthinand vulgaxanthin have beenisolated from flowers.Mitragyna parvifolia(Roxb.) Korth.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ All over India, and up to1,200 m in the outer Himalaya.English ◮ Kaim.Ayurvedic ◮ Giri-kadamba, Kadamba(var.).Siddha ◮ Chinna-Kadambu.Action ◮ Bark—used for muscularpain. Bark and root—febrifuge,antispasmodic.Both indole and oxindole alkaloidshave been isolated from the plant.(The composition of alkaloids varieswith season and from place to place.)The main indole alkaloid reportedis akuammigine and oxindole alkaloidshave been identified as mitraphylline,isomitraphylline, pteropodine,isopteropodine, speciophyllineand uncarine F.Anthocephalus cadamba Miq. is theaccepted source of Kadamba.Mollugo cerviana Ser.Family ◮Aizoaceae; Molluginaceae.M

418 Mollugo spergula Linn.MHabitat ◮ Upper Gangetic Plains,Punjab, Delhi, Rajasthan, Gujarat,Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,Orissa, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka.Ayurvedic ◮ Parpata (substitute).Grishma-Sundara.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Parpaatakam.Folk ◮ Jeem Shaak.Action ◮ Plant—stomachic, aperient,febrifuge, antiseptic, blood purifier(used for venereal diseases),emmenagogue. Root—used inrheumatism and gout.Flowers and shoots—diaphoretic,given in fevers. An infusion of theplant is given to promote lochial discharge.The plant contains orientin (leteolin-8-C-glucoside),vitexin (apigenin-8-C-glucoside) and their 2 ′′ -O-glucosides.The plant is cardiostimulant, alsoantibacterial.Mollugo spergula Linn.Synonym ◮ M. oppositifolia Linn.Glinus oppositifolius (Linn.) A. DC.Family ◮ Aizoaceae, Molluginaceae.Habitat ◮ Greater part of India,especially in Assam, Bengal andDeccan Peninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Grishma-sundara,Parpata (Kerala).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thurapoondu.Folk ◮ Jala-papr (Bihar), Jeem Shaak.Action ◮ Plant—stomachic, aperientand antiseptic. Used as a bitter tonicforliverdisorders.Aerial parts gave vitexin, vitexin-7-glucoside and 2 ′′ -p-coumaroylvitexin-7-glucoside.Mollugo stricta Linn., synonym M.pentaphylla Linn. (throughout theplains and Ghats of India), is alsoknown as Parpatakam in the South,Jala-papr in Bihar and Kharas in Maharashtra.The plant is stomachic, aperient,emmenagogue and antiseptic. Itsbiological activity is spermiostatic.Momordica balsamina Linn.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Gujarat, DehraDun and Andhra Pradesh.English ◮ Balsam Apple.Ayurvedic ◮ Jangali Karelaa.Folk ◮ Mokhaa. Chhochhidan(Gujarat).Action ◮ Fruit—applied to burns,haemorrhoids and chapped hands.Internally, cathartic, hypoglycaemic.The plant contains a ribosome inactivatingprotein, momordin II. Methanolicextract of the aerial parts containsphenylpropanoid esters, verbascoside,calceolarioside and rosmarinicacid. The esters exhibited antihypertensive,analgesic and antibacterial activities.Momordica charantia Linn.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated all over Indiafor its fruits.

Momordica charantia Linn. 419English ◮Carilla.Bitter Gourd, Blsam Pear,Ayurvedic ◮ Kaaravellaka, Kaaravella,Kaathilla, Sushaavi.Unani ◮Karelaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮Paakal, Paharkai.Action ◮ Seed/fruit—improvesdiabetic condition. Fruit—stomachic,laxative, antibilious, emetic,anthelmintic. Used in cough, respiratorydiseases, intestinal worms,skin diseases, also for gout andrheumatism. Powdered fruit—appliedto wounds and ulcers. Leaf—emetic, antibilious, purgative. Fruit,leaf and root—abortifacient. Leafand seed—anthelmintic. Root—astringent; appled to haemorrhoids.Immature fruits gave several nonbitterand bitter momordicosides.Fruits, seeds and tissue culture gavea polypeptide containing amino acids.Fruits also gave 5-hydroxytryptamine,charantin (a steroidal glucoside), diosgenin,cholesterol, lanosterol and betasitosterol.Bitter principles are cucurbitacinglycosides.Hypoglycaemic effects of the fruithave been demonstrated by blood testsin both humans and animal studies.Researchers have warned that thefruit extract leads to a false negativetest for sugar in the urine (due to itsability to maintain the indicator dye inthe glucose oxidase strips and the alkalinecopper salts in a reduced state).Chronic administration of the fruitextract (1.75 g/day for 60 days) to dogsled to testicular lesions with mass atrophyof the spermatogenic elements.The extract reduced the testicular contentof RNA, protein and sialic acidas also the acid-phosphatase activity.(Medicinal Plants of India, Vol. 2, 1987,Indian Council of Medical Research,New Delhi.)The fruits and seeds yielded a polypeptide,p-insulin, which was consideredsimilar to bovine insulin. (Fitoterapia,60, 1989; Chem Abstr 112, 1990.)The seed and fruit contain an inhibitorof HIV, MAP-30 (Momordicaanti-HIV-protein) which exhibitedantiviral and antitumour activity invitro. (Chem Abstr, 113, 1990; ibid,117, 1992.) Another protein, MRK-29,found in the seed and fruit of a smallervar. of Bitter Gourd found in Thailand,was found to inhibit HIV reversetranscriptase and to increase tumournecrosis factor (TNF). (Planta Med,67, 2001; Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)The seeds yield alpha-and betamomorcharins(glycoproteins). Whenthese glycoproteins were co-culturedwith isolated hepatocytes, morphologicalchanges in hepatocytes were observed,indicating hepatotoxicity. Anotherprinciple with antilipolytic andlipogenic activities, found along withthe alpha-and beta-momorcharin inthe seed extract, did not show toxiceffect.Vicine is the hypoglycaemic constituentin the seed. Pure vicine hasbeen found to possess 32.6% hypoglycaemicactivity as against 22.2% shownby fresh juice, when tested on albinorats. The vicine is non-haemolytic.Dosage ◮ Fresh fruit—10–15 mljuice (API, Vol. II); 10–20 ml juice(CCRAS.)M

420 Momordica cochinchinensis Spreng.MMomordica cochinchinensisSpreng.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughout thecountry, especially found in Assam,Bengal, South India and AndamanIslands.Ayurvedic ◮ Karkataka, Kaaravellajalaja.Folk ◮ Kakrol (Maharashtra),Bhat-karelaa, Gulkakraa.Action ◮ Leaf and fruit—usedexternally for lumbago, ulceration,fracture of bone. Seed—bechic,aperient, emmenagogue, antiinflammatory,deobstruent. (Usedfor obstructions of liver and spleen).The tuberous root contains saponinsbelonging to the pentacyclic triterpeneglycoside series. Seeds containmomordica saponins I and II (esterglycosides of gypsogenin and quillaicacid respectively), the diterpenoidcolumbin, oleanolic acid, its derivativemomordic acid and bessisterol.The seeds contain the glycoprotein,momorcochin S, which exhibits RNAN-glycosidase activity.Momordica dioica Roxb. ex Willd.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up to1,500 m in the Himalaya.English ◮ Small Bitter Gourd, BurCucumber.Ayurvedic ◮ Karkotikaa, Karkotikaavandhyaa,Karkotaka, Karkota.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tholoo-pavai,Paluppakai, Kaattupaagala.Folk ◮ Jangali Karelaa, Ban-Karelaa,Bhat-Karelaa, Dhar-Karelaa.Action ◮ Tuberous root—astringent,febrifuge, antiseptic, anthelmintic,spermicidal. Used in bleeding piles,urinary affections; smeared overbody in high fever with delirium (asa sedative). A paste, prepared withthe root of male plant, is appliedexternally for pain in the breast.The root extract exhibited significantanti-allergic activity comparablewith standard drugs used against allergyand bronchial asthma (in experimentalanimals).Momordica tuberosa(Roxb.) Cogn.Synonym ◮ M. cymbalaria Fenzl exNaud.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Maharashtra and TamilNadu, in bushes along the banks ofwater courses. (It is not cultivated.)Ayurvedic ◮ Kaarali-Kanda, Kuduhunchi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ AthalaikaiFolk ◮ Kakrol (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Tuberous root—emmenagogue,abortifacient; acrid; containsa bitter glycoside.Monochoria vaginalis Presl.Family ◮Pontederiaceae.

Morinda citrifolia Linn. 421Habitat ◮ Throughout India inponds, tanks, ditches, as a weedcommon in rice fields.Ayurvedic ◮ Indivara (Kerala).Kakapola (Malyalam), Nirkancha(Telugu).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Senkzhuneerkizhangu.Folk ◮ Nukha, Nanda (Bengal).Action ◮ Leaves—juice is givenfor coughs. Roots—prescribed forstomach and liver complaints.Bark—prescribed with sugar forasthma.Monotropa uniflora Linn.Family ◮ Monotropaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Himachal Pradesh to Bhutanand in Khasi Hills at 1,800–2,400 m.English ◮ Indian Pipe.Action ◮ Root—sedative, nervine,antispasmodic.The plant gave sitosterol, campesteroland traces of cholesterol. The oilcontained linolenic, palmitic, linoleicand hexadecenoic acids.Morinda citrifolia Linn.Synonym ◮ M. bracteata Roxb.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tracts,Darjeeling, Konkan and theAndamans.English ◮ Indian Mulberry.Ayurvedic ◮ Ashyuka, Akshi, Atchy.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nunaa, Togaru.Action ◮ Fruit—emmenagogue,antileucorrhoeic, antidysenteric,anticatarrhal (used in throatinfections and asthma). Rootand leaf—cathartic, febrifuge,anti-inflammatory (used in gout).Root—anticongestive, hypotensive.A decoction is given to regulatemenstruation.The heartwood yielded anthraquinones—alizarinand its glycosides, nordamnacanthol.Leaves contain ursolicacid and beta-sitosterol. Fruits gaveasperuloside and caproic acid.The lyophilized aqueous extract ofroots was evaluated for analgesic andbehavioural effects in mice; positive resultswere observed confirming a sedativeproperty without exhibiting anytoxic effects.Ethanolic extract of the plant showedsignificant antimicrobial activity.Morinda coreia Buch.-Ham., M. tinctoriaRoxb. (dry forests throughout thegreater part of India) is considered asthe wild form or a varient of Morindacitrifolia and is known by the samevernacular nemes. The root bark gavethe insecticidal glycoside, morindin-6-primeveroside, which was found lethalon cockroaches and houseflies topically.Morinda umbellata L. (Bihar, KhasiHills and Peninsular India) is alsoknown as Nunaa in Tamil Nadu.A decoction of root and leaves isused for diarrhoea and dysentery. Theroot bark contains a considerableamount of rubichloric acid and smallquantities of anthraquinones.M

422 Moringa concanensis Nimmo ex Gibs.MMoringa concanensisNimmo ex Gibs.Family ◮ Moringaceae.Habitat ◮ Rajasthan and PeninsularIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Shigru (Red var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaatumurungai.Action ◮ See M. pterygosperma.Moringa pterygosperma Gaertn.Synonym ◮ M. oleifera Lam.Family ◮ Moringaceae.English ◮ Drumstick, Horse-Radish.Ayurvedic ◮ Shigru (white var.),Madhu Shigru, Sigra, Shobhaanjana,Haritashaaka. Raktaka,Murangi, Mochaka, Akshiva,Tikshnagandhaa.Unani ◮ Sahajan.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Murungai.Action ◮ All parts of the treeare reported to be used as cardiacand circulatory stimulant.Pods—antipyretic, anthelmintic;fried pods are used by diabetics.Flowers—cholagogue, stimulant,diuretic. Root juice—cardiactonic, antiepileptic. Used fornervous debility, asthma, enlargedliver and spleen, deep-seated inflammationand as diuretic incalculus affection. Decoctionis used as a gargle in hoarsenessand sore throat. Root andfruit—antiparalytic. Leaf—juiceis used in hiccough (emetic inhigh doses); cooked leaves aregiven in influenza and catarrhalaffections. Root-bark—antiviral,anti-inflammatory, analgesic.Bark—antifungal, antibacterial.Stem-bark and flower—hypoglycaemic.Seeds—an infusion,anti-inflammatory, antispasmodicand diuretic; given in venerealdiseases.Along with other therapeutic applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India indicated the use of the driedroot bark in goitre, glycosuria and lipiddisorders (also dried seeds), and leaf,seed, root bark and stem bark in internalabscess, piles and fistula-in-ano.The plant contains antibacterialprinciples, spirochin and pterygosperminwhich are effective against bothGram-Positive and Gram-Negativebacteria.The leaves contain nitrile glycosides,niazirin and niazirinin and mustard oilglycosides. The mustard oil glycosidesshowed hypotensive, bradycardiac effectsand spasmolytic activity, justifyingthe use of leaves for gastrointestinalmotility disorders.The roots possess antibacterial, anticholericand antiviral properties due tothe presence of pterygospermin, Spirochin and benzylisothiocyanate. Theroot extract exhibited significant antiinflammatoryactivity in carrageenaninducedpaw-oedema in rats.The leaves exhibited hypoglycaemicactivity, although the plasma insulinlevel did not alter much.The root and bark showed antifertilityactivity through biphasic actionon the duration of the estrous cycle offemale rats.

Morus nigra Linn. 423Dosage ◮ Leaf—10–20 ml. juice.(API, Vol. III); root bark—2–5 gpowder; stem bark—2–5 g powder;seed—5–10 g powder (API, Vol. IV).Leaf, flower, fruit, seed, bark, root—1–3 g powder; 50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Morus alba Linn.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China; cultivatedin Punjab, Uttar Pradesh, Kashmirand North-Western Himalayas.English ◮ Chinese White-Mulberry.Unani ◮ Shahtuut, Tuut.Action ◮ Fruit—cooling, mildlaxative. Used for sore throat,dyspepsia and melancholia. Leavesand root bark—expectorant,diuretic, hypotensive. Barkextract—hypoglycaemic. Leaf—anti-inflammatory, emollient,diaphoretic. Used as a gargle ininflammations of the throat.The plant is rich in phenolics.The leaves gave flavonoids (includingrutin, moracetin); anthocyanins(cyanidin and delphinidin glucosides);artocarpin, cycloartocarpin and analogues.The root bark contained flavonoidsincluding the kuwanons, sangennons,mulberrosides and mulberrofurans.Hot water extract of the dried mulberryleaves fed to rabbits on 1% cholesteroldiet exhibited significant hypolipidaemicor hypocholesterolaemic effect.In addition, suppression of hepaticenlargement and fat deposition inthe hepatic cells was also observed.An aqueous methanol extract of theroot bark significantly reduced plasmasugar levels in mice.The extract also showed anti-inflammatoryand antipyretic activity inexudative, proliferative and chronicphases of inflammation.Aqueous and alkali extracts of leavesand stems are active against Gram-Positive bacteria and yeast.Morus nigra Linn.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to West Asia;cultivated in Kashmir, also grownin Darjeeling.English ◮ Black Mulberry.Unani ◮ Tuut Siyaah.Action ◮ Berries and root bark—mild laxative and used in thetreatment of respiratory catarrh.Berries—refrigerant, given duringconvalescence.The fruit contains invert sugar, pectin,fruit acids (including malic andcitric acid), ascorbic acid, and flavonoids(including rutin). Leaves containflavonoids, including rutin (2–6%). Root bark contains calciummalate; the bark of branches containstannins, phlobaphenes, a sugar, a phytosterol,ceryl alcohol, fatty acids andphosphoric acid.An infusion of leaves causes a dropin blood sugar, sometimes diuresis anda reduction in arterial pressure. Itshows no effect on glucosuria.Morus acidosa Griff., M. australisPoir and Morus indica L. have also beenM

424 Mucuna monosperma DC.Mequated with Tuut Siyaah of Unanimedicine.Mucuna monosperma DC.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Nepal, Khasi Hills, DeccanPeninsula and the Andamans.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakaandolaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Periyattalargai.Folk ◮ Kaagadolia (Gujarat).Action ◮ Seeds—sedative, restorative,expectorant; used in coughs,asthma.Mucuna prurita Hook.Synonym ◮ M. pruriens Baker nonDC.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughotu India,including Andaman and NicobarIslands.English ◮ Cowhage, Horse-eye Bean.Ayurvedic ◮ Aatmaguptaa, Kapikacchuu,Rshabhi, Adhigandhaa,Ajadaaa, Kacchuraa, Laanguli,Rshyaproktaa, Svaguptaa,Shyaamguptaa, Markati, Kanduraa,Kevaanch, Shuukashimbi.Unani ◮ Konchh.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Poonaikkaali.Action ◮ Seed—astringent, nervinetonic, local stimulant, used in impotence,spermatorrhoea, urinarytroubles, leucorrhoea, traditionallyused for male virility. Also used indepressive neurosis. Hair on fruit—vermifuge, mild vesicant; used fordiseases of liver and gallbladder.Leaf—applied to ulcers. Pod—anthelmintic. Root and fruit—spasmolytic,hypoglycaemic. Root—CNS active.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the seed in impotenceand paralysis agitans; the root in vaginallaxity.The seeds contain the alkaloids, mucunine,mucunadine, mucunadinine,prurieninine, pruriendine and nicotine,besides beta-sitosterol, gluthione,lecithin, vernolic and gallic acids. Theycontain a number of bioactive substancesincluding tryptamine, alkylamines,steroids, flavonoids, coumarinsand cardenolides. L-DOPAis present in the seed as well as in thestem, leaves and roots.Major constituents of the hairs onthepodareaminessuchas5-hydroxytryptamine(serotonin), and a proteolyticenzyme mucuanain. (Serotoninwas present only in pods.)Prurieninine slowed down heartrate, lowered blood pressure and stimulatedintestinal peristalsis in experimentscarried out on frogs. The spasmolysisof smooth muscles was causedby indole bases.Seed diet produced hypoglycaemiceffect in normal rats, however, suchdiet had insignificant effect on alloxantreatedrats.There is some evidence that Cowhagemight be useful for chlorpromazine-inducedhyperprolactinemia inmen. (Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.) (Males with hy-

Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng. 425perprolactinemia frequently face impotency.)(Cured seeds are used inIndian medicine for male sexual dysfunction.)Mucuna cochinchinensis Cheval.;synonym M. nivea (Roxb.) DC.; Stizolobiumniveum Kuntze (cultivatedin Bengal and Bihar for edible podsand seeds) is known as Lyon Bean(Khamach in Bengal). The pod yieldedL-DOPA (0.06%).Dosage ◮ Cured seed—3–6 g (API,Vol. III); root—3–6 g powder fordecoction (API, Vol. IV.)Murdannia nudiflora(L.) Brenan.Synonym ◮ Aneilema nudiflorum(L.) Wall.Family ◮ Commelinaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, inmoist and marshy places; commonin West Bengal.Ayurvedic ◮ Koshapushpi.Folk ◮ Kanshura.Action ◮ Plant—used in burns, boilsand sores.Murdannia scapiflora(Roxb.) Royle.Synonym ◮ Anilema scapiflorum Wt.A. tuberosum Buch.-Ham.Family ◮ Commelinaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate and tropicalHimalaya, upper Gangetic plainsand Peninsular India.Folk ◮ Siyaah Musli; Sismulia(Gujarat); Kureli.Action ◮ Root—astringent, febrifuge;used in headache, giddiness,jaundice. Root bark—diuretic,antispasmodic, (used in asthma,colic, infantile convulsions.)Murraya exotica Linn.Synonym ◮ M. paniculata (Linn.)Jack.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India andAndaman Islands up to an altitudeof 1,500 m.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Konji.Folk ◮ Kaamini; Aanthil (Bihar).Action ◮ Leaves—astringent;used in diarrhoea and dysentery(sap, squeezed from leaves, isadministered). Root—antipyretic.The plant is rich in coumarins, carbazolealkaloids and flavonoids. Theleaves contain a number of coumarins,the major ones being murrangatinand phebalosin. Murrangatin, derivedfrom the precursor phebalosin, is reportedto possess antithyroid property.The root contains a bis-indole alkaloid,yuehchukene,withpotentantiimplantationactivity.Mexolide (dimeric coumarin), isolatedfrom the stem bark is antibacterial.The steam distillate of leaves exhibitantifungal and antibacterial activity.Murraya koenigii (Linn.) Spreng.Family ◮Rutaceae.M

426 Musa paradisiaca Linn.MHabitat ◮ Cultivated in Tamil Nadu;Maharashtra and North India.English ◮Ayurvedic ◮Unani ◮Curry-Leaf tree.Surabhini-nimba.Karipattaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karuveppilei,Karivempu, Kattuveppilei.Folk ◮ Mithaa Neem, Kathneem,Gandhela, Barsanga.Action ◮ Leaf—stomachic, antiprotozoal,spasmolytic; promotesappetite and digestion, destroyspathogenic organism, antidysenteric.Externally, used against skineruptions.All parts of the plant, especially theleaves, are rich in carbazole alkaloids(several carbazole bases have been isolated).The leaves also gave a coumaringlucoside, scopolin.The beta-carotene content of curryleaves was found decreased on cooking;deep frying resulted in maximum loss.Inclusion of curry leaves in the dietof diabetic patients reduced the bloodglucose level appreciably (it did notproduce any insulin response).The steam distillate of the leaves isreported to exhibit antifungal and insecticidalactivities.The ethanolic extract of the stembark showed anti-inflammatory effectin carrageenan-induced inflammationin rats.Musa paradisiaca Linn.Synonym ◮ M. Sapientum Linn.Family ◮ Musaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, Madhya Pradesh,Bihar, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,Karnataka, Jalgaon district (Maharashtra),West Bengal, Tamil Naduand Kerala.English ◮ Banana, Plantain.Ayurvedic ◮ Kadali, Rambhaa,Sakrtphala, Vaaranaa, Mochaa,Ambusaara, Anshumatiphal.Unani ◮ Kelaa, Mouz.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vaazhai.Action ◮ Fruit—mild laxative,combats diarrhoea and dysentery,promotes healing of intestinallesions in ulcerative colitis. Unripefruit considered useful in diabetes.Fruit powder—used as a foodsupplement in sprue and otherintestinal disorders. Root—anthelmintic.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the fresh rhizomein dysuria, polyuria (in females) andmenstrual disorders; the flower in asthma,bleeding disorders, vaginal dischargesand leucorrhoea.Thepulpofripefruit(50g/ratperday) given daily with standard foodpellets prevented increase in bloodpressure in deoxycorticosterone-inducedhypertension in rats. This wasfound partially related to increasedserotonin levels triggered by the highcarbohydrate and tryptophan contentof the fruit.Dietary fibre prepared from unripebanana exerted an antiatherogenic effect,keeping the levels of cholesterol inserum and aorta low, as also the level ofLDL cholesterol in rats fed on cholesteroldiet.

Mycrotomia benthami C. B. Cl. 427An anti-ulcerogenic acylsterylglycoside,sitoindoside IV, has been isolatedfrom unripe banana.A pectin containing hexoses (32.4%)and uronic acid (52.5%) has been isolatedfrom the pith of the stem. Thepectin was found to exhibit significanthypolipidaemic and hypoglycaemic activityin rats.The flower extract exhibited hypoglycaemicactivity in rabbits.The pseudostem is reported to possesslithotriptic and antilithic properties.The extract reduced the precursorof oxalate formation, the liver glycolicacid content in hyperoxaluric rats.The benzene extract of the root exhibitedsignificant antibacterial and antifungalactivity.Dosage ◮ Dried flower—10–20 g.(API, Vol. IV.)Mussaenda frondosa Linn.Synonym ◮ M. frondosa var. glabrataHook. f.M. glabrata (Hook. f.) Hutch.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas, KhasiHills, Deccan Peninsula and theAndamans.English ◮ White Lady, White RagPlant.Ayurvedic ◮ Shrivati.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellai-yilai, Vellimadandai.Folk ◮ Shrivara, Bedina, Bebina,Bhutakesha (Maharashtra),Naagaballi (Bengal)Action ◮ Flower—diuretic, antiasthmatic,antiperiodic. Leavesand flowers—used in externalapplications for ulcers. Root—usedin the treatment of white leprosy.White petiolate bract—prescribedin jaundice.The flowers contain anthocyanins,hyperin, quercetin, rutin, ferulic andsinapic acids; beta-sitosterol glucoside.Mussaenda glabra Vahl (tropical Himalayasfrom Nepal eastwards, Bihar,Bengal and Assam) is known as Sonaaruupaain Assam. An infusion ofthe leaves is used for cough, asthma,recurrent fevers; also as a diuretic indropsy.Mycrotomia benthami C. B. Cl.Family ◮Habitat ◮Boraginaceae.Garhwal, Tibet.Folk ◮ Dimok (Tibet), Ratanjot(Garhwal).Action ◮Topically antiseptic.National Formulary of Unani Medicinehas equated Onosma echioidesLinn. (Boraginaceae) with Ratanjot.Geranium wallichianum D. Don.(Geraniaceae); Clausena pentaphyllaDC.(Rutaceae); and Anemone obtusilobaD. Don. (Ranunculaceae) arealsoknown as Ratanjot.Ratanjot should be equated withthe root of Alkanna tinctoria (Boraginaceae),known as Dyer’s or SpanishBugloss.M

428 Myrica nagi Hook. f. non-Thunb.MMyrica nagi Hook. f. non-Thunb.Synonym ◮ex Don.Family ◮M. esculenta Buch.-HamMyricaceae.Habitat ◮ Subtropical Himalayasfrom the Ravi eastwards at 900–2,100 m.English ◮ Box Myrtle.Ayurvedic ◮ Katphala, Kushbhikaa,Shriparnikaa, Mahaavalkal,Bhadraa, Bhadravati.Unani ◮ Kaayaphal.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Marudam.Action ◮ Bark—carminative,antiseptic. Used in fever, coughand asthma; also as a snuff incatarrhwithheadache.Fruitwax—used externally for ulcers. Fruit—pectoral, sedative.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the stem bark andfruit in anaemia and polyuria.The stem bark gave myricanol, a proanthocyanidin.The root bark yieldedbeta-sitosterol, taraxerolandmyricadiol.The stem bark exhibited analgesic,spasmolytic, hypotensive and antiarrhythmicactivity.Dosage ◮ Fruit—3–5 g, stem bark—3–5 g. (API, Vol. III.)Myristica fragrans Houtt.Family ◮ Myristicaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the MoluccasIslands;grownintheNilgiris,Kerala, Karnataka and West Bengal.English ◮ Nutmeg, Mace.Ayurvedic ◮ Jaatiphala, Jaatishasya,Maalatiphala (seed kernel).Jaatipatri, Jaatipatra, Jaatipatraka,Jaatikosha (mace).Unani ◮ Jauzbuwaa (seed), Bisbaasaa(mace).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Jaathikkai, Saadikai(nutmeg); Saadippatthiri, Jaadippatiri(mace).Action ◮ Nutmeg—carminative,spasmolytic, antiemetic, orexigenic;topically anti-inflammatory.Mace—stimulant carminative.Narcotic in high doses.Nutmeg is used in flatulency, diarrhoea,nausea and vomiting. Maceis used in rheumatism, chronic bowelcomplaints and asthma. When roasted,both nutmeg and mace are usedfor diarrhoea, colic, flatulence and dyspepsia.Key application ◮ Dried seed andaril—included among unapprovedherbs by German Commission E.Following actions have been considered:antispasmodic, MAO inhibition,inhibition of prostaglandinsynthesis.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the kernel of the fruitin spermatorrhoea.An aqueous extract of nutmeg is reportedto show anti-secretory activityagainst E. coli heat-labile enterotoxin;the hexane soluble fraction of the alcoholicextract inhibited the heat-labileand heat-stable-enterotoxin-inducedsecretory response in animal studies.

Myroxylon balsamum Harms. 429The hexane extract contains myristicin,an anti-inflammatory principle,and licarin-B and dehydro diisoeugenolwhich exhibited CNS depressantproperties. The extracts ofnutmeg decreased kidney prostaglandinlevels in rats. They also inhibitedplatelet aggregation (due to eugenoland isoeugenol). The anti-inflammatoryactivity observed in carrageenan-inducedoedema in rats and enhancedvascular permeability in mice,are attributed to myristicin present inmace.Mace also activates hepatic detoxificationprocess. Monomeric and dimericphenyl propanoids (myristicin, dehydrodiisoeugenol) from mace, on p.o.administration in mice, produced suppressionof lipid peroxidation in liver.Seeds contain about 0.24% myristicin,whereas volatile oil about 3.12%.The resorcinols, malabaricones Band C, isolated from the seed coat(mace) exhibited strong antibacterialand antifungal activities. Neoplasminhibitors, phenylpropyl derivatives,have been isolated from pulverizedmace.Dosage ◮ Endosperm of dried seed(kernel of fruit)—0.5–1.0 g powder.(API, Vol. I.)Myristica malabarica Lam.Family ◮ Myristicaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats, Kanaraand Malabar.English ◮ Malabar Nutmeg, FalseNutmeg, Bombay Nutmeg, BombayMace.Ayurvedic ◮ Paashikaa, Raamapatri,Ku-Jaavitri. Pashupaashi (Kerala).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pathiri, Kattu Jhadi.Action ◮ Topically stimulant; appliedto indolent ulcers.The fruit rind yielded diarylnonanoidsand a lignin, malabaricanol.Leaves gave beta-sitosterol, myristicacid and its triglyceride, trimyristin.Fat and resin are the major constituentsof the Bombay mace. Thecrude fat (Pundi oil) is used as an embrocationin rheumatism.The bark yields a kino.Ripe fruits form the source of BombayNutmeg and Bombay Mace, usedas adulterant of Myristica fragrans.Dosage ◮ Seed kernel—1.5 g powder;oil—1–3 drops. (CCRAS.)Myroxylon balsamum Harms.Synonym ◮ M. toluiferum H. B. & K.Family ◮ Leguminosae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to Venezuela,Columbia and Peru;. grown in LalBagh Botanic Garden (Bangalore)and Kallar (Nilgiris).English ◮ Tolu Balsam tree.Action ◮ Balsam—antiseptic,stimulant and expectorant. Used asan ingredient in cough mixtures,also used as an inhalant in cases ofobstinate catarrh.Key application ◮ Externally forpoorly healing wounds, for burns,decubitus ulcers, frost bite, ulcuscruris, bruises caused by prostheses,M

430 Myrsine africana Linn.Mhaemorrhoids; as antibacterial, antisepticand antiparasitic (especiallyfor scabies). (German CommissionE.)Balsam contains cinnamic acid,benzoic acid and their esters.Myroxylon pereirae Kolotzsch (LalBagh Botanic Garden, Bangalore), isthe source of Peru Balsam. Used externallyin the form of an ointment ortincture, as a parasiticide in scabies,ringworm and pediculosis and for bedsoresandchilblains.Itentersintosuppositoriesused in hemorrhoids.Myrsine africana Linn.Family ◮ Myrsinaceae.Habitat ◮ Outer Himalayas fromKashmir to Nepal and in Khasi Hillsat 300–2,700 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Vaayavidanga (substitute).(Embelia ribes is the authenticsource of Vidanga.)Folk ◮ Bebrang (Punjab), Kakhum,Shamshaad (according to Unanireference books, Shamshaad isobtained from a Pinaceae tree).Action ◮ Fruit—anthelmintic (usedfor the expulsion of tape worms;also as a substitute for Embliaribes); antispasmodic, purgative;used externally against ringwormand other skin affections. Aerialparts—antifertility, abortifacient.(According to Unani medicine,the fruits of Shamshaad showantifertility activity in females.)Berries and seeds contain embelicacid and quercitol (1%). Embelin (3%)is present in the dried fruit. Seeds alsocontain embelin.Seeds of M. semiserrata Wall. containembelin (0.4%) and quercitol(0.8%).Seeds of M. capitellata Wall. contain1.6% embelin.These related species are found inNepal, Bhutan, Assam and North Bengal.Myrtus communis Linn.Family ◮Myrtaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardensof Northwestern India and TamilNadu.English ◮ Myrtle, Clove Myrtle,Spanish Myrtle.Unani ◮ Habb-ul-Aas, Muurad,Muurad-daan.Folk ◮ Vilaayati Mehndi. Sutrasowa(Bengal). Kulinaval (Tamil Nadu).Action ◮ Leaves—antiseptic,antimicrobial, antiparasitic. Usedfor acute and chronic respiratorytract infections, bladder conditions,urinary infections, and worminfestation.Key application ◮ As a cough remedy.(German Commission E.)The leaves contain tannins (pyrogallolderivative), flavonoids (includingmyricetin, about 90%, with kaempferoland quercetin glycosides; volatileoil containing alpha-pinene, cineole,myrtenol, nerol, geraniol and dipentene.

Myxopyrum serratulum A. W. Hill. 431Myrtol, a fraction of myrtenol, isabsorbed in the intestines, stimulatesthe mucous membrance of the stomachand deodorizes the breath.Berry exhibits anti-inflammatoryactivity. The aqueous and ethanolicextracts of the leaves and branches exhibithypoglycaemic activity in rats.The essential oil and myrtucommuloneB, isolated from the plant, are antibacterialand antitubercular. (Clovemyrtle is used in Homoeopathy fortreating lung complication of pleurodyniaand dry hollow cough.)Myxopyrum serratulumA. W. Hill.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats.Folk ◮ Chathuravalli, Chathuramulla(Kerala). Hem-maalati.Action ◮ Leaves—used with clarifiedbutter in cough, asthma, chestdiseases; also in nervous complaintsand rheumatism. Oil extract of theleaves is used for massage in fever,headache and backaches.M

NNaravelia zeylanica (Linn.) DC.Family ◮Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ The tropical forests ofeastern Himalayas, Assam, Bengal,Bihar, Deccan Peninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Dhanavalli (Kerala),Chhagul-bati (Bengal).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vathomkolli, Neendavalli.Action ◮ Astringent, antiinflammatory,vulnerary, anthelmintic.Used for colic, headache,inflammations, rheumatic pain,wounds and ulcers, intestinalworms, leprosy and skin diseases.Saps of stem—effective in onychia.Narcissus tazetta Linn.Family ◮ Amaryllidaceae.Habitat ◮ All over Europe. Grown inIndian gardens.English ◮ Narcissus, Daffodil, LentLily.Unani ◮ Nargis.Action ◮ Bulbs—powerfully emetic,diuretic, purgative. Poisonous. Oilis applied for curing baldness.The bulbs are imported into India.Dried and sliced bulbs are sold as a substitutefor bitter hermodactyls.Alkaloids, lycorine, pseudolycorine,galanthamine, haemanthamine andnarcisine, have been isolated from thebulbs of the species. The alkaloid narcisineis toxic.The mucilage, narcissus T-glucomannan,isolated from the bulbs, wasfound to exhibit significant hypoglycaemicactivity in mice.Nardostachys jatamansi DC.Synonym ◮Family ◮N. grandiflora DC.Valerianaceae.Habitat ◮ Alpine Himalayas,Kumaon, Sikkim and Bhutan.English ◮Spikenard, Musk-root.Ayurvedic ◮ Maansi, Jataamaansi,Bhuutajataa, Tapaswini, Sulomashaa,Jatilaa, Naladaa.Unani ◮ Sumbul-e-Hindi, Sambul-ut-Teeb, Naardeen-e-Hindi, Baalchhar.Siddha/Tamil ◮Sadamanchil.Action ◮ Used as a substitute forValerian. Tranquilizer, sedative,hypotensive. Used for the treatmentof epilepsy, hysteria, convulsiveaffections, palpitation of heart andin intestinal colic. A decoctionof powdered roots is prescribedas a home remedy for highblood pressure. It is used indysmenorrhoea for pain relief andsmooth menstrual flow. It is used inhair oil for arresting hair loss andgreying of hair.

434 Naregamia alata Wight & Arn.NThe Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends dry rhizomes in obstinateskin diseases, erysipelas, disturbedmental state and insomnia.The rhizome is rich in sesquiterpenoids.The crude drug gave an oil(yield 2.5% v/w), which contains d-nardostachone, valeranone and jatamansoneas the major ketonic sesquiterpenes.The oil potentiated phenobarbitalnarcosis in rats, reduced brainserotonin content and decreased theconditioned avoidance performancein cats.Jatamansone was shown to exerttranquilizing effect in mice and monkeys.In rabbits, jatamansone wasfound to impair biosynthesis of serotonininthebrainleadingtoareductionin brain level of 5-hydroxytryptamine.The degradation of serotoninwas unaffected. The mode of actionof jatamansone was thus in variancewith that of reserpine which has directaction on the cell to liberate serotonin.On the other hand, the alcoholicextractoftherootsofIndianNardcaused an overall increase in the levelsof central monamines, 5-hydroxyindole acetic acid and the inhibitoryamino acids, gamma-aminobutyricacid, norepinephrine, dopamine andserotonininratbrain.In a clinical trial on hyperkineticchildren, jatamansone showed significantreduction in hyperactivity andimprovement in restlessness and aggressiveness,almost at par with D-amphetamine.The volatile oil was found to be lessactive than quinidine in several tests.It did not counteract digitalis inducedventricular arrhythmias.Jatamansone semicarbazone, a sesquiterpeneketone, was found to possessantiestrogenic activity.N. jatamansi is also used in place ofMuraa (Selinum tenuifolium Wall. exDC.)Dosage ◮ Root—2–3 g powder;5–10 g for infusion; 50–100 mlinfusion. (API, Vol. I; CCRAS.)Naregamia alata Wight & Arn.Family ◮ Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats of TamilNadu and Karnataka, up to 1,000 m.English ◮ Goanese Ipecacuanha.Folk ◮ Nilanaaringa, Bhumi-Naagaranga. Pitta-vela, Tinpaani(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Root—emetic, cholagogue,expectorant, antidysenteric; plant—antirheumatic; leaf and stem—antibilious.Creeping roots possess propertiessimilar to ipecacuanha (Cephaelis ipecacuanha).The plant is used in prescriptions formalarial and chronic fevers, anaemiaand enlarged spleen.The root and stem gave heneicosane,beta-sitosterol, stearic and palmiticacids.Nasturtium officinale R. Br.Synonym ◮ Rorippa nasturtiumaquaticum(Linn.) Hayek.

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. 435Family ◮Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Bengal,Orissa and Punjab.English ◮Watercress.Folk ◮ Piriyaa-Haalim (Punjab),Latputiyaa (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaves—antiscorbutic,expectorant (used in catarrh of therespiratory organs), diuretic (usedin kidney and bladder disorders),detoxifying. A lotion of leavesis applied to blotches, spots andblemishes. Fresh herb is used asa blood purifier.Key application ◮ For catarrhof respiratory tract. (GermanCommission E.)Watercress contains vitamin A 4720IU,ascorbicacid77mg/100g,alsothiamine,riboflavin, niacin and biotin;mineral matter 2.2%—calcium 290,phosphorus 140, iron 4.6 mg/100 g, alsosulphur, iodine, manganese, zinc, arsenicand copper; proteins 2.9%, aminoacid composition includes leucine,phenylalanine, valine, lysine, tyrosine,alanine, threonine, glutamic acid, serine,aspartic acid, cystine, methioninesulphoxide and proline.The glucosinolate phenethyl isothiocyanate,which is released upon chewingthe leaf, is a chemopreventive agentagainst lung cancer. (cited in ExpandedCommission E Monographs.)Watercress is contraindicated in gastricand duodenal ulcers and inflammatorykidney diseases. (FrancisBrinker.)Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn.Synonym ◮Willd.Family ◮Nelumbium speciosumNymphaeaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout warmer partsof India, up to 1,800 m.English ◮Lotus.East Indian Lotus, SacredAyurvedic ◮ Kamala, Padma,Nalina, Aravinda, Jalaja, Raajeeva,Pushkara, Ambuja, Abja, Pankaja.Pundarika (whitish), kokanada(red), Indivara (Bluish).Unani ◮ Used as a substitute forNilofar.Siddha/Tamil ◮Thaamarai, Ambel.Action ◮ Filament—astringentandhaemostatic. Prescribedforbleeding piles and menorrhagia.Flowers—a decoction is given incholera, fever, strangury, palpitationof heart. Rhizomes—given inpiles, chronic dyspepsia anddysentery; applied externally tocutaneous eruptions, scabies andringworm. Rhizome-arrowroot—giventochildrenindiarrhoeaand dysentery. Root—astringent,diuretic, antiemetic, cooling. Usedfordysentery,dyspepsia,piles,skinaffections and for its anticoagulantproperties.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends dried rhizomes, withroots attached at nodes, in syncope andvertigo.Flowers yielded quercetin, luteolinand their glycosides and kaempferolN

436 Nepeta cataria Linn.Nglycosides. Leaves gave quercetin, isoquercitrinand leucoanthocyanidin.Isoquinoline alkaloid, nuciferin, isneuroleptic. Active agents in the leavesare the alkaloids, nelumbin and roemerin.Dosage ◮ Dried flower—12–24 g fordecoction (API, Vol. II); rhizomes—5–10 m powder; 10–20 ml juice(API, Vol. III). Seed—3–6 g powder;flower—10–20 ml juice. (CCRAS.)Nepeta cataria Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae, Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Britain andthe USA. Occurs in Himalayas fromKashmir to Nepal at 2,000–3,300 m.English ◮ Catnip, Catnep, Catmint.Action ◮ Leaves and flowers—gentle nerve relaxant and sedative,carminative, antispasmodic, antidiarrhoeal,diaphoretic, febrifuge.Used in restlessness, convulsions,nervous headache, colic, early stagesof fever, colds and influenza. Theherb is to be infused (not boiled).Catnip contains iridoids, tanninsand volatile oil, major components beingalpha- and beta-nepetalactone (upto 42%), citronellol and geraniol.The catnip response in the domesticcat is being attributed to iridoid lactones,nepetalactone, dihydronepetalactone,iso-dihydronepetalactone andneonepetalactone. Its reputation asa hallucinogen has been disputed, buta few studies have shown behaviouraleffects, although weak, in young chicks,rodents and cats. (Potter’s New Cyclopaedia.)Neptalactone is structurally relatedto valepotriates found in valerian.(Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Nepeta hindostana(Roth) Haines.Synonym ◮ N. ruderalis Buch-Ham.ex Benth.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Uttar Pradesh,Bihar, West Bengal, MadhyaPradesh and South India up to2,400 m. (Blue-flowered var.)Unani ◮ Baadranjboyaa, Billilotan.Also equated with Melissa officinalis.Action ◮ See Nepeta cataria.The alcoholic extract of the plantyielded a triterpenoid aldehyde, nepehinal.Nepetidone, nepedinol, anda triterpenic acid have also been reported.The plant contains flavonoidsincluding nepitrin, dinatin, nepetin.Flowers and stem gave napetol, hentriacontaneand beta-sitosterol. Anaqueous extract of flowers containedNa,K,Ca,Mg,Zn,Cd,Cu,Ni,Mnand Fe.Alcoholic extract of the plant producedmarked hypocholesterolaemiceffect in experimental animals. It alsoproduced beneficial effects in thehistopathology of myocardial infarction.Aqueous extract of the plant,given intravenously, lowered the bloodpressure in dogs by 26.87%. It alsoshowed CNS depressant and sedative

Nerium oleander Linn. 437activities. (In Indian medicine, theplant is used in various cardiac conditionsincluding cardiac asthma.)Neptunia oleracea Lour.Synonym ◮ N. prostrata Baill.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, intanks.Ayurvedic ◮ Lajjaalu (var.), Alambushaa.(Provisional synonyms.)Siddha ◮ Sadai, Sundaikkirai.Folk ◮ Paani-lajak (Punjab).Action ◮ Astringent, refrigerant.Mimosa pudica Linn. is the acceptedsource of the classical herb Lajjaalu. Itis used as astringent and styptic.Nerium indicum Mill.Synonym ◮ N. odorum Soland.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of Mediterraneanregion; grown in Indian gardens.English ◮ Indian oleander, Whiteoleander.Ayurvedic ◮ Karavira, Viraka, Ashvamaaraka,Hayamaaraka, Gauripushpa,Divyapushpa, Shatakumbha,Siddhapushpa (white-floweredvar.). Raktapushpa, Raktaprasava,Ravipriya (red-flowered var.)Unani ◮ Kaner Safed, Diflaa,Samm-ul-maar, Khar-zaharah.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Arali, Alari, Aatrulari,Karaviram.Action ◮ Root—resolvent andattenuant. A paste of the root isexternally applied to haemorrhoidsand ulcerations in leprosy. Paste ofthe root bark and leaves is used inringworm and other skin diseases.An oil extracted from the rootbark is used in skin diseases ofscaly nature. Leaves—cardioactive(digitalis-like effect) and diuretic,anti-inflammatory, antifungal,insecticidal. Toxic.The leaves contain several glycosidesincluding glycosides of 8 betahydroxy-digitoxigenin.Cardenolideglycosides and pregnanolone glycosideshave been isolated from roots.The ethanolic extract of the flowersinhibits the growth of dermatophytes.The plant shows antifungal activityagainst ringworm fungus, Microsporumnanum.Dosage ◮ Detoxified leaves—30—125 mg powder (API, Vol. I); root—30 mg—125 mg powder (API, Vol.III).Nerium oleander Linn.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Mediterraneanregion; grown in Indian gardens.English ◮ Red Oleander, Rose Bay.Unani ◮ Surkh Kaner.Action ◮ See N. indicum.(The white- and red-flowered varietiesare equated with Nerium oleander;both possess similar properties. Theyellow-flowered variety is equated withThevetia peruviana.)N

438 Nervilia aragoana Gaudich.NKey application ◮ Leaf—includedamong unapproved herbsby German Commission E. Positivelyinotropic and negativelychronotropic actions have beenmentioned; the use of leaf fordiseases and functional disorders ofthe heart, as well as for skin diseaseshas been indicated.The leaves and roots gave a numberof active principles including glycosides,terpenoids, sterols and othercompounds. Cardiac steroids, isolatedfrom the leaf, include oleandrin, gentiobiosyloleandrin, odoroside. Thestem contained alanine arginine, asparticacid, cysteine, glutamic acid,glycine, histidine, leucine, isoleucine,lysine, phenylalanine, proline, serine,threonine, tryptophan, tyrosine andvaline. A polysaccharide (2.3%), containinggalacturonic acid, rhamnose,arabinose and galactose has been isolatedfrom leaves.Neutral fraction from leaves at lowdoses caused marked suppression of locomotoractivity.Aqueous extract of leaves showedsignificant antibacterial activity againstPseudomonas aeruginosa. The leavesalso showed insecticidal activity.Nervilia aragoana Gaudich.Synonym ◮ Pogonia flabelliformisLindl.Family ◮ Orchidaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas fromGarhwal eastwards at altitudes of1,200–1,500 m and in Bihar, Konkan,North Kanara and Travancore.Ayurvedic ◮ Padmachaarini,Shankhaaluka. (Sthala Kamalais a doubtful synonym.)Action ◮ Astringent, diuretic (usedin dysuria).A decoction of leaves is given afterparturition.Neuracanthus sphaerostachyusDalz.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats, Deccanand Gujarat.Folk ◮ Ganther (Gujarat and Maharashtra),Ghosa-vel (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Root-paste applied toringworm.Nicotiana tabacum Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;cultivated mainly in AndhraPradesh, Maharashtra, Karnataka,Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal.English ◮ Tobacco.Ayurvedic ◮ Taamraparna, Dhuumrapatraa.Unani ◮ Tambaakhu.Action ◮ Leaves—decoction is locallyapplied for muscle relaxation indislocation, strangulated herniaand orchitis. Also for arthralgia,lumbago, rheumatism and gout (anointment is made by simmering theleaves in lard). Not used internallyas a medicine.

Nigella sativa Linn. 439The plant contains nicotine as themajor alkaloid.Toxic influence of cigarette and bidismoking on carboxyhaemoglobin levelsof the blood of regular smokers wascompared and no significant differencewas observed in both of them. A pyrolysedtobacco product, used in Indiaas a dentifrice, when administeredto rats, showed activity comparable tobenzo(a)pyrene, a potent carcinogen.Habitual consumption of betel quidcontaining tobacco shows a strong cytotoxicpotential.Nicotiana rustica Linn. is known asKalakatiyaa or Vfilaayati tobacco. Itsnicotine content is high and is not suitablefor cigarettes, cigars or bidis. Differentvariants of this tobacco are usedfor hookah, chewing and snuff.Nigella damascena Linn.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Southern Europe;cultivated in Indian gardens.English ◮ Love-in-a-mist.Ayurvedic ◮ Upakunchikaa (var.).Siddha ◮ Karumcheerakam.Action ◮ Seeds—carminative,emmenagogue, anthelmintic.A tincture prepared from theripe seeds is used against catarrhalinflammations of liver and intestinesin homoeopathy.Nigella sativa Linn.Family ◮Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab,Bengal, Assam and Bihar.English ◮ Black Cumin, Small Fennel.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaalaajaaji, Kalikaa,Prthvikaa, Sthulajiraka, Sushavi,Upkunchikaa (the plant bears seedsof bigger size).Unani ◮ Kalonji, Kamaazaruus.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karum seeragm.Action ◮ Seeds—stimulant, carminative,diuretic, lactiferous, emmenagogue(stimulate uterinecontractions). Used in puerperalfever. Powdered seeds externallyapplied to boils. Essential oil—used in common cold, cough andbronchospasm.The essential oil from seeds containsnigellone and 2-methyl-4-isopropyl-pquinone.The oil contains carvone (45–60%), d-limonene and cymene. Seedscontain fatty acids including palmitic,myristic, stearic, oleic, linoleic andlinolenic. Beta-sitosterol is also presentin the seeds.Low concentration of nigellone hasbeen shown to inhibit the release ofhistamine from mast cells in animals.(Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)The ethanolic extract of the seedsand the volatile oil from seeds showedantispasmodic activity in experimentalanimals, possibly due to a calciumantagonistic effect.The oil exhibited CNS depressantand potent analgesic effects on experimentalanimals, possibly due to thepresence of an opioid principle in theoil.N

440 Nilgirianthus ciliatus (Nees) Bremek.NDosage ◮ Seed—1–3 g powder (API,Vol. I); 3–5 g powder (CCRAS).Nilgirianthus ciliatus(Nees) Bremek.Synonym ◮ Strobilanthes ciliatusNees.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats from SouthKanara to Travancore, in evergreenforests.Ayurvedic ◮ Sahachara (pale-rosefloweredvar. used in Kerala).(Sahachara is equated with Barleriaprionitis in other regions.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kurinji, Sinnangurinji.Action ◮ Used against neurologicaldisorders, sciatica, glandularswellings and oedema.Nothosaerva brachiata Wight.Family ◮ Amaranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Distributed in tropicalAfrica and Asia; found throughoutthe plains of India.Folk ◮ Dhaulaa-findauri (Rajasthan).Action ◮ Used as a substitute forPaashaanabheda (Aerva lanata Juss.ex Schult., Amaranthaceae) foritsdiuretic and lithotriptic properties.Notonia grandiflora DC.Family ◮Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Konkan,Western Ghats,Deccan and hills of South India.English ◮ Common Fleshy Rag-weed.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mosakathu-thalai.Folk ◮ Waandar-Roti, Gaidar(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Plant—feebly aperient.Used externally for pimples.Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn.Family ◮ Oleaceae; Nyctanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Outer Himalaya, Assam,West Bengal; cultivated in manyparts of India.English ◮ Tree of Sorrow, NightJasmine, Coral Jasmine.Ayurvedic ◮ Paarijaata, Shephaali,Shephaalikaa, Mandaara.Unani ◮ Harasingaar.Siddha ◮ Pavazha mattigai.Action ◮ Leaves—bitter tonic, cholagogue,febrifuge, anti-inflammatory,antispasmodic, hypotensive, respiratorystimulant. Used for fevers,rheumatism, obstinate sciatica.The leaves and seeds contain iridoidglycosides; other constituents reportedfrom the leaves are mannitol,beta-amyrin, beta-sitosterol, hentriacontane,benzoic acid, astragalin, nicotiflorin,oleanolic acid, nyctanthic acid,friedelin and lupeol. The seeds containa polysaccharide glucomannan.All parts of the plant are used forallergic disorders. Alcoholic extract ofthe plant was found to inhibit passive

Nymphaea rubra Roxb. ex Salisb. 441cutaneous anaphylaxis (PCA) in experimentalanimals. The inhibition wascomparable to standard drugs used forallergy and bronchial asthma.Ethanolic extract of the leaves, flowersand seeds demonstrated strongstimulation of antigen specific andnon-specific immunity in mice.The 50% ethanolic extracts of theleaves, flowers, seeds and roots werefound effective in treating caecal amoebiasiscaused by Entamoeba histolyticain rats. But the extracts did not exhibitdirect amoebicidal activity in vitroagainst trophozoites of the parasite.The iridoid glucosides showed antileishmanialactivity both in vivo andin vitro.Dosage ◮ Leaf—10–20 ml juice.(CCRAS.)Nymphaea alba Linn.Family ◮ Nymphaeaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir (in lakes).English ◮ European White Water-lily.Ayurvedic ◮ Kumuda, Utpala (whitefloweredvar.) (Mahotpla is thesynonym of Nelumbo nucifera.)Unani ◮ Nilofar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Alli (water lilies).Action ◮ Flowers and rhizomes—astringent,demulcent, mild sedative,spasmolytic, antiseptic, antimicrobial.Used in the form of an infusioninternally for chronic diarrhoea,as a douche for leucorrhoea andvaginitis, as a gargle for sore throat.Also given internally in prostatis.Seeds—used in diabetes, also incutaneous diseases. Filaments—astringent and cooling; prescribedfor bleeding piles and menorrhagia.Plant—toxic on the nervous system.The flowers contain flavonoids includingquercetin, kaempferol, apigenin.Cardiac glucoside, nymphalin,showed sedative action in small doses.The petroleum ether extract of theplant of Nymphaea species, given atadoseof300mg/kgi.p. preventednecrosis of the liver tissue and promoted,to some extent, liver regenerationin CCl4-induced toxicity.Dosage ◮ Dried flowers—3–6 g (API,Vol. III); seed—3–6 g. powder(CCRAS.).Nymphaea rubra Roxb. ex Salisb.Synonym ◮ N. nouchali Burm. f.N. lotus Hook. f. Thoms non L.Family ◮Nymphaeaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmerparts of India.English ◮Indian Red Water-lily.Ayurvedic ◮ Kumuda, utpala(red-flowered var.).Alli-tamarai, Vellam-Siddha/Tamil ◮bal.Action ◮ Flower—astringent, cardiactonic; used in palpitation of heart.Rhizomes—used for dysentery anddyspepsia.See N. alba.N

442 Nymphaea stellata Willd.Nymphaea stellata Willd.Family ◮Nymphaeaceae.Habitat ◮ A native to SoutheastAsia; found in ponds and ditchesthroughout India.English ◮ Indian Blue Water-lily.Ayurvedic ◮ Nilotpala (blue orvoilet-flowered var.).Unani ◮ Nilofar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Neelothpalam.Action ◮ See N. alba.Nymphoides macrospermumVasudevan.Family ◮ Menyanthaceae.Habitat ◮ South India.Folk ◮ Granthik Tagar.Action ◮ Sedative, antispasmodic.Used in neurological disorders andcolic.Stalks and leaves—pounded withoil and applied to ulcers.See Limnanthemum cristatum Griseb.N

OOchna jabotapita Linn.Synonym ◮Family ◮O. squarrosa Linn.Ochnaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, Bihar, Orissa andDeccan Peninsula. Often cultivatedin parks and gardens.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chilanti, Sherundi.Folk ◮ Kanaka Champaa. (Bhuinchampaa,Bhuumi-champaka(Ochna pumila).Action ◮ Bark—digestive tonic.Root—a decoction is used inasthma, tuberculosis and inmenstrual disorders. Leaves—boiled and used as emollientcataplasm; used as a poultice inlumbago.Isoflavones, along with beta-sitosteroland oleanolic acid, have been isolatedfrom the heartwood.A related species, Ochna pumilaBuch.-Ham. ex D. Don., found inouter Himalayas and sub-Himalayantract from Kumaon to Assam, is reportedto exhibit antitubercular activity.Tetrahydroamentoflavone has beenisolated from the leaves. The plant isalso used for epilepsy in folk medicine.Ochrocarpus longifoliusBentb. & Hook. f.Synonym ◮ Mammea longifoliaPlanch. & Triana.Family ◮ Guttiferae; Clusiaceae.Habitat ◮ Evergreen forests ofWestern India from Khandalasouthwards to Malabar and Coimbatore.Ayurvedic ◮ Surapunnaaga (Naagakesharais equated with Mesuaferrea.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nagappu, Nagesarpu.Folk ◮ Laal-Naagakeshar. Surangi(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Flowerbuds—cooling,stomachic, analgesic, antibacterial;used for gastritis, haemorrhoids,blood diseases, leprosy, leucoderma.Flower buds are popularly known asNaagakeshar.Flowers exhibited potent hypotensive,anti-inflammatory and antispasmodicactivity attributed to vitexin.Leaves gave amentoflavone, quercetinand vitexin as major constituents.Ocimum basilicum Linn.Synonym ◮ O. caryophyllatum Roxb.O. minimum Linn.O. pilosum Willd.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Lower hills of Punjab;cultivated throughout India.English ◮Sweet Basil, Basil Herb.

444 Ocimum canum Sims.OAyurvedic ◮ Barbari, Tuvari, Tungi,Kharpushpa, Ajgandhikaa, BaabuiTulasi.Unani ◮ Faranjmishk. (also equatedwith Dracocephalum moldavicaLinn. by National Formulary ofUnani Medicine.), Raihan (alsoequated with O. sanctum). (used asa substitute for Phanijjaka.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tiruneetruppachhilai.Folk ◮ Bana-Tulasi. Sabzaa (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Flower—stimulant, carminative,antispasmodic, diuretic,demulcent. Seed—antidysenteric.Juice of the plant—antibacterial.Essential oil—antibacterial,antifungal, insecticidal.(Because of high estragole contentof the essential oil, the herb should notbe taken during pregnancy, nursing orover extended periods of time.) (GermanCommission E.) Includedamongunapproved herbs by German CommissionE.The herb contains an essential oil;major constituents are linalool (up to55%) methyl ether (estragole) up to70% and eugenol; caffeic acid derivatives;flavonoids. Thymol and xanthomicrolwere isolated fromthe leaves.Aesculetin, p-coumaric acid, eriodictyol,its 7-glucoside and vicenin-2 fromleaves have been isolated.The essential oil at concentrationof 0.15% completely inhibited mycelialgrowth of twenty two species of fungi,including mycotoxin-producingstrains of Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus.Leaves act as an insect repellentexternally; bring relief to insectbites and stings.In homoeopathy, the fresh matureleaves are used to treat haematuria, inflammationand congestion of kidney.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—50–100 mldecoction; seed—1–3 g powder.(CCRAS.)Ocimum canum Sims.Synonym ◮ O. americanum Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Plains and lower hills ofIndia.English ◮ Hoary Basil.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaali Tulasi, Vana-Tulasi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ganjamkorai,Nai-Tulasi.Action ◮ Plant—stimulant, carminative,diaphoretic. Leaf—bechic,febrifuge; used in cold, bronchitis,catarrh, externally in skin diseases.Essential oil—antifungal. Seeds—hypoglycaemic; also used in thetreatment of leucorrhoea and otherdiseases of urinogenital system.The essential oil at the floweringstagecontainscitralasamajorcomponentalong with methylheptenone,methylnonylketone and camphor.Leaves yielded beta-sitosterol, betulinicacid and ursolic acid and flavonoids,pectolinarigenin-7-methyletherand nevadensin.Seeds exhibited antidiabetic activity,improved glucose tolerance was observedin diabetic patients who were

Ocimum sanctum Linn. 445given 30 g seed/day for 1 month, loweringof fasting plasma glucose level upto 30% was also observed.Ocimum gratissimum Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Shrubby Basil.Ayurvedic ◮ Vriddha Tulasi, Raam-Tulasi, Raan-Tulasi.Siddha ◮ Elumicha-Tulasi, Peria-Tulasi.Action ◮ Plant—used in neurologicaland rheumatic affections, inseminal weakness and in aphthae ofchildren. Seed—used in cephalalgiaand neuralgia. Essential oil—antibacterial, antifungal.In homoeopathy, fresh mature leavesare used in constipation, cough, fever,nasal catarrh; also in gonorrhoea withdifficult urination.A heterotic hybrid ‘Clocimum’ (polycrossof gratissimum) has been developedin India which yields 4.5–5.7% essential oil having a eugenolcontent up to 95%. Direct productionof methyl eugenol and eugenol acetatefrom ‘Clocimum’ oil is reported.Major constituents reported from‘Clocimum’ oil are myrcene 8.87, eugenol68.14, isoeugenol 13.88, methyleugenol1.74%; other constituents arealpha- pinene, limonene, phellandrene,terpene 4-ol, alpha-terpineol, carveol,carvene, geranyl acetate, caryophylloneand caryophyllone oxide.(At Regional Research Laboratory,CSIR, Jammu, a study was conductedto assess the inheritance pattern of majorchemical constituents of essentialoils in hybrids produced by interspecificas well as intraspecific crosses ofOcimum sp.).Ocimum kilimandscharicumGuerke.Synonym ◮ O. camphora Guerke.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of Kenya. Cultivatedon a small scale in West Bengal,Assam, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka,Kerala and Dehr Dun.English ◮ Camphor Basil.Ayurvedic ◮ Karpura Tulasi.Action ◮ Plant—spasmolytic,antibacterial. Decamphorized oil—insecticidal, mosquito repellent.Essential oil contains camphor, pinene,limonene, terpinolene, myrcene,beta-phellandrene, linalool, camphene,p-cymene, borneol and alpha-selinene.The Camphor content varies in differentsamples from 61 to 80.5%.Ocimum sanctum Linn.Synonym ◮ O. tenuiflorum Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India; grownin houses, gardens and temples.English ◮ Holy Basil, Sacred Basil.Ayurvedic ◮ Tulasi, Surasaa, Surasa,Bhuutaghni, Suravalli, Sulabhaa,Manjarikaa, Bahumanjari, Deva-O

446 Ocimum viride Willd.Odundubhi, Apet-raakshasi, Shuulaghni,Graamya, Sulabhaa.Unani ◮ Tulasi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tulasi, Nalla-Tulasi.Action ◮ Leaf—carminative, stomachic,antispasmodic, antiasthmatic,antirheumatic, expectorant, stimulant,hepatoprotective, antiperiodic,antipyretic and diaphoretic. Seed—used in genitourinary diseases.Root—antimalarial. Plant—adaptogenic,antistress. Essential oil—antibacterial, antifungal.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the use of the leaf andseed in rhinitis and influenza; the seedin psychological disorders, includingfear-psychosis and obsessions.Major components of the essentialoil are eugenol, carvacrol, nerol andeugenolmethylether. Leaves have beenreported to contain ursolic acid, apigenin,luteolin, apigenin-7-O-glucuronide,luteolin-7-O-glucuronide, orientinand molludistin.Ursolic acid, isolated from leaves,exhibited significant protection of mastcell membrane by preventing granulationand decreased histamine release.The ethanolic extract (50%) of freshleaves, volatile oil from fresh leaves andfixed oil from seeds showed antiasthmaticactivity and significantly protectedguinea-pigs against histamineanddyspnoea.Theyalsoshowedantiinflammatoryactivity against carrageenan-,serotonin-, histamine- andPGE-2-inducedinflammationandinhibitedhind paw oedema in rats.The ethanol extract (90%) of theleaves showed hepatoprotective effectagainst paracetamol-induced liverdamage.The plant extract exhibited antiulcerogenicproperty against experimentalulcers.Oral administration of alcoholic extractof leaves lowers blood sugar levelin normal, glucose-fed hyperglycaemicand streptozotocin-induced diabeticrats. The activity of the extract was91.55 and 70.43% of that of tolbutamidein normal and diabetic rats respectively.Administration of the juice of theplant affected a significant reductionin the size of urinary brushite crystals.A study of methanol extract andaqueous suspension of the leavesshowed immunostimulation of humoralimmunologic response in albinorats indicating the adaptogenic actionof the plant.Dosage ◮ Seed—1–2 g powder (API,Vol. IV); plant—50–10 ml infusion(CCRAS.).Ocimum viride Willd.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Africa; introducedinto India.English ◮ Fever plant of Sierra Leone.Folk ◮ Taap-maari Tulasi (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaves—febrifugal. Usedas a remedy for coughs and fevers.Oil—antiseptic.Ocimum viride species, cultivated inJammu-Tawi, gives maximum oil yield

Olax scandens Roxb. 447(0.4%) at full bloom stage and highestpercentage of thymol (55.12%) in theoil, which can be used as a substitutefor thyme-ajowan oil.Oenanthe javanica (Blume) DC.Synonym ◮DC.O. stolinifera Wall. exFamily ◮ Apiaceae; Umbelliferae.Habitat ◮ Marshy places and riverbanks in North India from Kashmirto Assam.Folk ◮ Jateraa (Meghalaya); Panturasi(Bengal).Action ◮ The plant extract showedstrong antimutagenic and antitumouractivity.Fromtheherb, beta-sitosterylglucoside,stigmasteryl glucoside, isorhamnetinand hyperin were isolated. Thefruit yield 1.5% of an essential oil, containingphellandrene and myristicin.Oenothera odorata Jacq.Family ◮ Onagraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Chile; cultivatedas a garden plant in South Australia.Introduced into Indian gardens.English ◮ Evening Primrose (var.);Sundrop (var.).Action ◮ Oil from seeds—prescribedfor eczema (in children); premenstrualsyndrome and cyclical breastpain.Linalool (70.0%) was determined inthe flower oil.Evening Primrose is equated withOenothera biennis L. (native to NorthAmerica). The oil from seeds, knownas Evening Primrose oil, contains about70% cis-linolenic acid and about 9%cis-gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). EveningPrimrose oil is one of the mostwidely prescribed plant-derived medicinesin the world. Sold under thetradenameEpogam,itisrecognizedby the governments of Great Britain,Germany, Denmark, Ireland, Spain,Greece, South Africa, Australia andNew Zealand as atreatment foreczema.A combination, known as Efamol Marine,used for eczema, contains 80%Evening Primrose Oil and 20% fish oil.Evening Primrose Oil has becomea frontline treatment in Great Britainfor initial treatment of cyclical breastpain and fibrocystic breast disease.Olax scandens Roxb.Family ◮Olacaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayas tract ofKumaon and Bihar, Orissa, MadhyaPradesh, Deccan and WesternGhats.Ayurvedic ◮ Dheniaani, Karbudaar(doubtful synonym).Siddha/Tamil ◮Kadalranchi.Folk ◮Malliveppam,Rimil-beeri (Bihar).Action ◮ Bark—used in anaemia andas a supporting drug in diabetes;also in the treatment of fever.O

448 Oldenlandia umbellata Linn.OOldenlandia umbellata Linn.Synonym ◮ Hedyotis umbellata(Linn.) Lam.Family ◮Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Bihar, Orissa, Travancore.Cultivated on the Coromandelcoast.English ◮ Indian Madder, Chay-Root.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Inbooral.Folk ◮ Chiraval (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaves and roots—used inbronchitis, asthma, consumption.The plant gave anthraquinone derivatives.The root gave alizarin, rubichloricacid and ruberythric acid, alsoanthraquinones. Purpurin, pupuroxanthincarboxylic acid, present inMadder (Rubia tinctorum), are almostentirely absent.Olea europaea Linn.Family ◮ Olaeaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of Mediterraneanregion; cultivated in Jammu andKashmir and Himachal Pradesh.English ◮ Olive.Unani ◮ Zaitoon.Action ◮ Leaves and bark—febrifugal, astringent, diuretic,antihypertensive.Oil—preparations are used for cholangiitis,cholecystitis, cholelithiasis,icterus, flatulence, meteorism, lack ofbacteria in the intestines. Demulcentand mild laxative. Externally usedfor wound dressing and for minorburns, psoriasis and pruritus. (Includedamong unapproved herbs byGerman Commission E.)Chemical investigations of two varieties—Ascotriniaand Ascolina—grown in Jammu region have shownthat the characteristics of fruits andtheir oils are similar to those of Europeanvarieties.Leaves of Olea europaea gave iridoidmonoterpenes including oleuropeinand oleuroside; triterpenes includingoleanolic and maslinic acids;flavonoids including luteolin and apigeninederivatives. The oil containsglycerides of oleic acid about 70–80%,with smaller amounts of linoleic, palmiticand stearic acid glycerides.The leaves exhibited hypotensive,antiarrhythmic and spasmolytic activitiesinanimalstudies.Theoilexhibitedcontraction of gallbladder due toraising of the cholecystokinin level inthe plasma.India’s requirements of olive oil aremet by imports.Onosma bracteatum Wall.Family ◮ Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir and Kumaon.English ◮ Borage.Ayurvedic ◮ Gojihvaa, Kharpatraa,Darvipatraa, Vrishjihvaa.Unani ◮ Gaozabaan (related species).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ununjil.Action ◮ Cooling, astringent, diuretic,cardiac tonic. Used for cold,

Operculina turpethum (Linn.) Silva Manso. 449cough, bronchial affections; insomnia,depression, mental exhaustion;constipation, misperistalsis, jaundice;dysuria, urethral discharges;fevers.The name Gaozaban is applied tosix different plants, belonging to fivegenera. According to The Wealth of India,Gaozaban is derived not from thisplant but from Anchusa strigosa Labill,which occurs in Iran. Kashmiri Gaozabanis derived from Macrotomia benthamii.Coccinia glauca is also used asGojihvaa.Borage has been equated with Boragoofficinalis Linn. (Boraginacea.).Dosage ◮ Dried leaves and stems,flowers—3–6 g powder.Onosma echioidesC. B. Clarke non Linn.Synonym ◮ Onosma hispidumWall. ex D. Don.Family ◮ Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir and Kumaon upto 1,000–1,500 m.Unani ◮ Ratanjot (equated withOnosma echioides Linn., accordingto National Formularly of UnaniMedicine).Action ◮ Astringent and styptic.Root—bruised and used as applicationto eruptions. An ingredientof ointments for ulcers, scrofula,burns. Flowers—stimulant, cardiactonic.Ursolic acid and naphthoquinones,onosone A and B have been isolatedfrom the root. Shikonin acetateis obtained from callus cultures of theplant.The species, distributed in westernHimalayas, is Onosma echioides C. B.Clarke non Linn.; Onosma echioidesLinn. is an European species. A varietyof this species, var. kashmiricumJohnson, is found in Kashmir. Onosmahookeri C. B. Clarke occurs in Sikkimand Bhutan.Maharanga emodi (Wall.) DC., synonymOnosma emodi (Wall.) DC. (theHimalayas from Garhwal to Bhutanat altitudes of 3,500–4,000 m) is alsoknown as Ratanjot and Shankhuli.(Ratanjot is used in a generic senseto cover a range of red dye-yieldingroots, rather than the root of a singlespecies. As many as 15 plant speciesbelonging to four different families areknown as Ratanjot; five of them do notyield red dye. General properties andcolour reactions attributed to Ratanjotresemble Alkanet from Alkanna tinctoriaTausch.)Operculina turpethum(Linn.) Silva Manso.Synonym ◮ Ipomoea turpethum R.Br.Family ◮Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India up to1,000 m; occasionally grown ingardens.English ◮Indian Jalap, Turpeth.Ayurvedic ◮ Trivrta, Trivrtaa, Tribhandi,Triputaa, Saralaa, Suvahaa,O

450 Ophioglossum vulgatum Linn.ORechani, Nishotra, Kumbha, Kaalaa,Shyaama, Shyaamaa.Unani ◮ Turbud, Nishoth.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karunchivadai.Action ◮ Root—purgative, antiinflammatory(particularly used inrheumatic and paralytic affections;also in fevers, oedema, hepatic andhaemophilic diseases).White Turpeth is preferred to BlackTurpeth as cathartic; the latter producesdrastic purgation and causesvomiting, fainting and giddiness.White Turpeth is derived from Marsdeniatenacissima in folk medicine.The active principle of O. turpethumis a glycosidic resin present in the drugup to 10%. It is similar to jalap resin andis concentrated mostly in the root bark.It contains an ether insoluble glycoside,turpethin, which constitutes about halfof the resin and two ether soluble glycosides,alpha-and beta-turpethein (8and 6% respectively).Dosage ◮ Root—1–3 g powder. (API,Vol. III.)Ophioglossum vulgatum Linn.Family ◮ Ophioglossaceae.Habitat ◮ Moist meadows in GreatBritain. Found in the Himalayas,Bihar, Assam, Pune (Maharashtra),Annamalai and Shevaroy hills(South India); up to an altitude of2,700 m.English ◮ English Adder’s Tongue.Serpant’s Tongue.Action ◮ Fern—antiseptic, styptic,vulnerary, detergent, emetic.The mucilaginous and astringentdecoction of the fern is used inangina in Reunion. An ointment,prepared by boiling the herb in oilor fat, is used for wounds.Ophioglossum pendulum L. (Assam)is used in the form of a scalp ointmentfor improving the hair growth.American Adder’s Tongue is equatedwith Erythronium americanum Ker-Gawl (Liliaceae). The fresh leaves gavealpha-methylenebutyrolactone.Ophiorrhiza mungos Linn.Family ◮Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Khasi Hills up to 600–700 m, in Western Ghats and theAndaman Islands.English ◮ Mongoose Plant.Ayurvedic ◮ Sarpaakshi. (Gandhanaakuliis a wrong synonym. It isequated with Aristolochia indica.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Keerippundu.Folk ◮ Sarahati. Mungus-vel(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Root—bitter tonic. Leaves—used for dressing ulcers.The roots contain starch, a resinand small amounts of a bitter amorphousalkaloid. Beta-sitosterol, 5-alpha-ergost-7-en-3-beta-ol and 5-alpha-ergost-8 (14)-en-3 beta-ol (asan ester) have been identified in theroot. Leavesandstemscontaintracesof hydrocyanic acid.

Opuntia vulgaris Mill. 451Opuntia cochinellifera Mill.Synonym ◮ Nopalea cochenilliferaSalm-Dyck.Family ◮ Cactaceae.Habitat ◮ Indian gardens. Introducedinto India towards the end of the18th century.English ◮ Cochineal Cactus. (A hostfor cochineal insect, Dactylopiuscacti Linn.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Puchikalli.Action ◮ Fruits—emollient, bechic.Mucilaginous joints—used aspoultices in cases of articularrheumatism, inflammations, scalds,burns and skin diseases.Opuntia dillenii (Ker-Gawl.) Haw.Synonym ◮ O. stricta Haw. var.dillenii (Ker-Gawl.) Benson.Family ◮ Cactaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of Mexico; wellacclimatizedthroughout India.English ◮ Prickly Pear, Slipper Thorn.Ayurvedic ◮ Naagaphani, Kanthaari.Unani ◮ Naagphani.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sappathikalli,Nagathali.Action ◮ Leaves—applied aspoultice to allay inflammation andheat. Fruit—baked and given inwhooping cough.Dried or fresh flowers of cactus (opuntiaseries)—astringent and haemostatic.An infusion is given in irritablebowel, mucous colitis, and prostatitis.Ash of the aerial portion, mixed withsugar candy, is given for 21 days forbirth control in tribal areas of AndhraPradesh.The Plant is recommended for growingin high pollution zones for abatingsulphur dioxide pollution.Pods contain a polysaccharide, arbinogalactan.Betanin has been isolatedfrom ripe fruits. Flowers contain theglycosides of isorhamnetin and quercetin,with smal amounts of the freeflavonols.Opuntia ficus-indica (Linn.) Mill.,known as Prickly Pear or Indian Fig,is a spineless cactus, mostly cultivatedin Indian gardens. Ripe fruits are nutritious.Flowers are astringent and reducebleeding; used for diarrhoea andirritable bowel syndrome; also for enlargedprostate. The flower decoctionexhibits a strong diuretic effect.The cladodes are used as a topicalanti-inflammatory remedy for oedemataand arthrosis, as regulators ofsmooth muscles in the treatment ofwhooping cough and as anti-infectiveagent.The stem or their crude preparationsshowed hypoglycaemic effect innon-insulin-dependent diabetes mellituspatients (irrespective of its beingheated or blended during preparation).Neobetanin (14,15-dehydro betanin)is the major constituent in the fruit.Opuntia vulgaris Mill.Family ◮ Cactaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the greaterpart of India.O

452 Orchis latifolia Linn.OEnglish ◮Ayurvedic ◮Prickly Pear.Naagaphani (var.).Action ◮ In homoeopathy, a tincturemade from the flowers andwood, is given for diarrhoea andsplenomegaly.The fresh stalks yielded calciummagnesium pectate which exhibitedantihaemorrhagic action. A flavonosidehas been obtained from driedflowers. It resembles rutoside in itsaction of inhibiting capillary fragility.The flavonoside on hydrolysis producestrihydroxy-methoxy-flavonol and glucose.The plant is reported to containan alkaloid. It also yields a mucilagewhich gives arabinose and galactose.Orchis latifolia Linn.Family ◮Orchidaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir to Nepal ataltitudes of 2,500–5,000 m in dampplaces.English ◮Orchis, Salep.Ayurvedic ◮ Munjaataka, Saalammisri,Saalam-panjaa. (Eulophiacampestris Wall. is also equated withMunjaataka.)Unani ◮ Saaleb, Khusyaat-us-Saalab,Saalab Misri.Siddha ◮Silamishri.Action ◮ Considered aphrodisiacand nervine tonic by Unaniphysicians. Tuber—nutritive,demulcent, restorative. Givento convalescents suffering fromchronic diarrhoea and biliousfevers. Allays irritation of gastrointestinaltracts.Orchis species (Salep) contain mucilage(up to 50%)–glucans, glucomannans(partially acetylized), starch(25%), proteins (5–15%).The leaves of Orchis latifolia containa glucoside, loroglossin. Most ofthe Salep used in Unani medicine isimported from Iran and Afghanistan.Allium macleanii Baker (Afghanistan)is known as Baadashaahi (royal)Saalab, and is used as a substitutefor Munjaataka.Dosage ◮ Tuber—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Origanum majorana Linn.Synonym ◮Moench.Family ◮Majorana hortensisLabiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and GreatBritain.English ◮ Sweet Marjoram. (Origanumvulgare Linn., Wild Marjoram,occurs in Simla hills and inKashmir valley.)Ayurvedic ◮ Sukhaatmaka, Marubaka,Phanijjaka. (Ocimum basilicumis used as a substitute for Phanijjaka.)Unani ◮Marzanjosh.Folk ◮ Maruae. Santhraa. JangaliMaruaa (Origanum vulgare Linn.).

Oroxylum indicum Vent. 453Action ◮ Emmenagogue, antispasmodic,carminative, expectorant.Leaves and seed—astringent, antispasmodic.Warm infusion of herb—promotessuppressed menstrualflow.The herb contains about 3% volatileoil comprising sabinene hydrate, sabinene,linalool, carvacrol, estrogole,eugenol and terpenes; flavonoids includingluteolin-7-glucoside, diosmetin-7-glucoside,apigenin-7-glucoside;rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid; andtriterpenoids such as ursolic acid, oleanolicacid, sterols.Marjoram herb and oil exhibit antibacterialaction. (German CommissionE.) The herb contains arbutinand hydroxyquinone (a carcinogenicagent) in low concentrations. The herbis not suited for extended use. Topicalapplication of hydroxyquinone leadsto depigmentation of the skin. There isno reports of similar side effects withmarjoram ointment. (German CommissionE.)Origanum vulgare Linn. (Wild Marjoram)contains volatile oil with a widelyvarying composition; major componentsinclude thymol, beta-bisabolene,caryophyllene, linalool and borneol;other constituents are similar to thoseof O. majorana.The leaves of Wild Marjoram containphenolic acids. The phenyl propionicacid and the phenyl glucosideshowed antioxidant activity comparableto that of BHA, a synthetic antioxidant.Wild Marjoram preparations areused for bronchial catarrh and disturbancesof the gastrointestinal tractin Unani medicine.Sweet Marjoram shows stronger effecton the nervous system than WildMarjoram and gives better results inanxiety, headaches and insomnia.Both the species have been includedamong unapproved herbs by GermanCommission E.Oroxylum indicum Vent.Family ◮ Bignoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the greaterpart of India.English ◮ Indian Trumpet Flower.Ayurvedic ◮ Shyonaaka, Shoshana,Tuntuka, Kutannata, Madhukparna,Patrorna, Bhalluka, Prthushimba,Nata.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peruvaagai.Folk ◮ Sonaa-paathaa.Action ◮ Tender fruit—carminative,stomachic, spasmolytic. Seed—purgative. Root bark—astringent,antidiarrhoeal. Used for amoebicdysentery. Bark—antirheumatic,diuretic.The leaves contained flavones andtheir glycosides including baicaleinand scutellarein; also anthraquinone,aloe-emodin. Bark of the root gavechrysin, baicalein and oroxylin A. Barkalso gave dihydrobaicalein. Heartwoodyielded beta-sitosterol and aniso-flavone, prunetin.Dosage ◮ Root—5–10 g powder; 25–50 g for decoction. (API, Vol. III.)O

454 Orthosiphon grandiflorus Boldingh.OOrthosiphon grandiflorusBoldingh.Synonym ◮ O. aristatus (Blume) Miq.O. spiralis (Linn.) MerrillO. stamineus Benth.Family ◮Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Manipur, Naga and Lushaihills, Chota Nagpur, Western Ghats.English ◮Folk ◮Kidney Tea Plant, Java Tea.Mutri-Tulasi (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaves—diuretic, usedin nephrosis and severe cases ofoedema. Aninfusionofleavesisgivenasaspecificinthetreatmentofvarious kidney and bladder diseasesincluding nephrocirrhosis andphosphaturia, also in rheumatismand gout.Key application ◮ In irrigationtherapy for bacterial and inflammatorydiseases of the lower urinarytract and renal gravel. (GermanCommission E.)Flower tops and leaves (samplesfrom Indonesia) contained methyl ripariochromeneA. In another sample,leaves also yielded several phenoliccompounds including lipophilicflavones, flavonol glycosides and caffeicacid derivatives. Rosmarinic acidand 2,3-dicaffeoyl-tartaric acid (67%of total phenolics, 94.5% in hot waterextract) were major compounds ofcaffeic acid derivatives.The leaves also contain a high percentage(0.7–00.8) of potassium salts.Presence of orthosiphonin and potassiumsalts help in keeping uric acid andurate salts in solution, thus preventscalculi and other deposits. The leaf extractlowers blood sugar in diabetics,but not consistently.Orthosiphon pallidus Royle, equatedwith the Ayurvedic herb Arjaka andShveta-Kutherak and known as Ajagurand Naganda-baavari in folk medicine,is used for dysuria and colic.Orthosiphon tomentosus Benth.var. glabratus Hook. f.Synonym ◮ O. glabratus Benth.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Orissa, Gujarat, SouthIndia, ascending up to 1,000 m inthe hills.Ayurvedic ◮ Prataanikaa (nonclassical).Folk ◮ Tulasi (var.), Kattu-thrithava(Kerala).Action ◮ Plant—a decoction isgiven in diarrhoea. Leaves—appliedexternally to cuts and wounds.Oryza sativa Linn.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated all over India asa food crop.English ◮ Rice.Ayurvedic ◮ Shaali, Vrihidhaanya,Tandula, Nivara.Unani ◮ Biranj Saathi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nell.

Osmanthus fragrans Lour. 455Action ◮ Rice-water (a waterdecoction of rice)—demulcentand refrigerant in febrile andinflammatory diseases and indysuria. Also used as a vehiclefor compound preparations usedfor gynaecological disorders. It isregarded as cooling in haematemesisand epistaxis, and as diuretic.The green clum or stalks—recommendedin biliousness. Ash of thestraw—used in the treatment ofwounds and discharges. Lixiviated ashofstrawisusedasanthelminticandinnausea.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the dried root in dysuriaand lactic disorders.The pigments occurring in colouredtypes of rice are a mixture of monoglycosidesof cyanidin and delphinidin.The dark Puttu Rice of India containsa diglycosidic anthocyanin.Dosage ◮ Root—50 g for decoction.(API, Vol. II.)Osbeckia chinensis Linn.Family ◮ Melastomataceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromGarhwal to Bhutan, North Bengal,Bihar and Khasi, Aka and Lushaihills.Folk ◮ Bhui-lukham (Lushai).Action ◮ Plant—anodyne, antipyretic,anti-inflammatory.The plant contains the flavonoids,quercetin, kaempferol and hydrolysabletannins, besides gallic acid, methylgallate and ellagic acid.The flavonoids and tannins showedantioxidant activity. Ellagic acid suppressedincrease in lipid peroxidationinduced by CCl4 and Cobalt-60 irradiationand this effect was morethan that of alpha-tocopherol. Gallicacid showed anti-inflammatory activityagainst zymosan-induced acutefootpad swelling in mice.Osmanthus fragrans Lour.Family ◮Obleaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China and Japan.Found in Kumaon, Garhwal andSikkim.Ayurvedic ◮ Vasuka (Also equatedwith Brihat Bakula.)Folk ◮Silang, Silingi, Bagahul, Buuk.Action ◮ Diuretic, genitourinarytract disinfectant.Flowers—antiseptic, insecticidal.Used for protecting clothes from insects.The flowers yield an oil containingoleanolic and urosolic acids, betasitosterol,glycosides and a wax (0.04%)composed mainly of triacontane. Theleaves are reported to contain a phillyrin-likeglycoside.Osmanthus suavis King, known asSilingi in Nepal and Chashing in Bhutan,is found in eastern Himalayas ataltitudes of 2,700–3,000 m and in Akahills in Assam. It is used as a var. ofVasuka.Dosage ◮ Flower—500 mg to 1 gpowder. (CCRAS.)O

456 Osmunda regalis Linn.OOsmunda regalis Linn.Family ◮Osmundaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, Khasi hillsand the Western Ghats at altitudesof 1,500–3,000 m.English ◮Royal Fern.Action ◮ Fern—antispasmodic,astringent, an aqueous extract isadministered for intestinal gripe;used externally in rheumatism; alsoprescribed in muscular debility.Fonds enter into diuretic drinksused for treating body swellings.Root—mucilaginous, styptic,stimulant.The rhizomes contain phenolic, gallic,caffeic, p-coumaric, vanillic, salicylic,p-hydroxybenzoic and ferulicacids and catechol tannins (2.8%)which are responsible for fern’s astringentactivity. Biological activity ofthese tannins corresponds to that of10% tannic acid.Osyris wightiana Wall. ex Wight.Synonym ◮ O. arborea Wall. ex DC.O. quadriparita Salzm. ex Decne.Family ◮Santalaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-tropical Himalaya,Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.Folk ◮ Popli (Maharashtra); Paral(Karnataka, Tamil Nadu); Jhuri(Nepal); Dalmi, Dalmia (Garhwal,Kumaon).Action ◮Leaf—emetic.The leaf contains 20% tannin. It gavecis-4-hydroxy-L-proline, and exhibitedantiviral activity.The heartwood is faintly fragrantandreportedtobeusedforadulteratingsandalwood.Ougeinia dalbergioides Benth.Synonym ◮ Ougeinia oojeinensis(Roxb.) Hochr.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Outer Himalayas andsub-Himalayan tract from Jammuto Bhutan up to an altitude of1,500 m, and extending through thewhole of northern and central Indiainto the greater part of DeccanPeninsula.English ◮ Chariot tree, Punjab Kino.Ayurvedic ◮ Tinishaa, Tinisha,Syandana, Nemi, Sarvasaara,Ashmagarbhaka, Vajjala, Chitrakrt.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Narivengai.Folk ◮ Saanan.Action ◮ Bark—febrifuge, antidiarrhoeal,spasmolytic.The leaves and heartwood containediso-flavonoids—dalbergion, hemoferritinand urgenin. Leaves, in addition,contained flavonoids—quercetin,kaempferol and leucopelargonidin.Stem bark gave triterpenes, lupeol andbetulin.Oxalis acetosella Linn.Family ◮Oxalidaceae.

Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill. 457Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Sikkim from 2,500to 4,000 m and Nilgiris in TamilNadu.English ◮ Common Wood-Sorrel.Ayurvedic ◮ Chaangeri (relatedspecies).Folk ◮ Tinpatiyaa, Amrul.Action ◮ Diuretic and refrigerant.Used for urinary affections andfevers. (Sorrel is equated withRumex acetosa Linn.)Aerial parts gave 2 ′′ -O-(beta-D-glucopyranosyl)isovitexin. The wholeflowering plant contains 0.3–1.25%oxalic acid (high in fresh leaves androots).Oxalis corniculata Linn.Family ◮ Oxalidaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmerparts of India.English ◮ Indian Sorrel.Ayurvedic ◮ Chaangeri, Amlapatrikaa,Amlikaa, Chukraa,Chukrikaa, Chhatraamlikaa.Unani ◮ Ambutaa bhaaji, Amutaasaag.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Puliyarai.Folk ◮ Tinpatiyaa, Ambilonaa.Action ◮ Plant—boiled with buttermilk is a home remedy for indigestionand diarrhoea in children.Used for tympanitis, dyspepsia,biliousness and dysentery; also forits anti-inflammatory, analgesic,antipyretic and antiscorbutic activities.Leaf paste is applied overforehead to cure headache.The leaves contain the flavonoids,vitexin, isovitexin and vitexin-2 ′′ -Obeta-D-glucopyranoside.The leavescontain 1.47% of lipid (dry weight),arichsourceofessentialfattyacidsand alpha-and beta-tocopherol (1.58and 6.18 mg/g dry basis, respectively.)They are a good source of vitamin C(125 mg/100 g), carotene (3.6 mg/100 g)and calcium (5.6% of dry material) butcontain a high content of oxalates (12%of dry material).The leaves and stem contain tartaricand citric acid; stems contain alsomalic acid.An aqueous extract of the plantshows activity against Micrococcus pyogenesvar. aureus. Expressed juice ofthe entire plant shows activity againstGram-positive bacteria.Oxalis martiana Zucc. (native toAmerica, naturalized in moist andshady placaes in temperate parts ofIndia) is equated with Wood-Sorrel. ItisknownasKhatmitthiinDelhiandPeria-puliyarai in Tamil Nadu.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—5–10 mljuice. (API, Vol. III.)Oxyria digyna (L.) Hill.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Sikkim, in the alpineregion at altitudes of 3,000–6,000 m.Folk ◮ Chohahak, Amlu (Punjab).Kailaashi (Kashmir).Action ◮ Refrigerant, antiscorbutic.O

458 Oxystelma secamone (Linn.) Karst.Oxystelma secamone(Linn.) Karst.Synonym ◮ O. esculentum R. Br.Sarcostemma secamone (Linn.)Bennet.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout theplains and lower hills of India,including paddy fieldsand hedges rear semi-marshyplaces.Ayurvedic ◮ Dugdhikaa, Duudhilataa,Duudhialataa .Folk ◮ Usipallai (Tamil Nadu);Dugdhani (Maharashtra); Jaladudhi(Gujarat).Action ◮ Herb—antiseptic, depurative,galactogogue; decoction usedas a gargle in stomatitis and sorethroat. Latex—vulnerary. Freshroot—prescribed in jaundice.A pregnane ester oligoglycoside(oxysine), a pregnane triglycoside (esculentin),a cardenolide (oxyline), twomore cardenolides, oxystelmoside andoxystelmine, have been isolated fromthe roots.O

PPaederia foetida Linn.Family ◮Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Central and EasternHimlayas extending to Assam, WestBengal,Bihar,Orissa.Ayurvedic ◮ Talanili, Gandhaprasaarini.(Prasaarini is alsoequated with Raaja-balaa, Sidaveronicaefolia.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Talanili, MudiyarKundal.Folk ◮ Gandhabhaaduli (Bengali).Action ◮ Leaf—carminative, antiinflammatory,astringent, spasmolytic,antidiarrhoeal, diuretic, antilithic.Root— anti-inflammatory.Used for rheumatic affections, piles,inflammations of the liver, spleenand chest.Aerial parts contain epi-friedelanol,embelin and beta-sitosterol. Leavesand stems gave iridoid glycosides, sitosterol,stigmasterol, campesterol, ursolicacid,hentriacontane,hentriacontanol,ceryl alcohol, palmitic acid andmethyl mercaptan. The foetid smell isdue to methyl mercaptan.All parts of the plant have been employedfor rheumatic affections.A related species, Paederia scandens(Lour.) Merill, synonym P. tomentosaBlume, is known as Gandha Prasaarini.The iridoid glucosides, paederoside,paederosidic acid and scandosideshave been isolated from the plant.Dosage ◮ Plant—10–20 ml juice; 50–100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)Paeonia emodi Wall. ex Royle.Family ◮ Paeoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Northwestern Himalayafrom Kashmir to Kumaon at 2,000–3,000 m.English ◮ Himalayan Paeony.Unani ◮ Ood Saleeb, Ood Gharqi,Phaavaaniaa.Folk ◮ Root—used in nervous affections,uterine diseases, as a bloodpurifier. Flower—antidiarrhoeal.Seed—emetic, cathartic. Plant—CNS depressant, hypothermic,diuretic, anti-inflammatory.The root contains an essential oil,with salicylaldehyde as the chief component,a fixed oil, benzoic acid andsucrose. The plant gave Gallo tanninand glucogallin.Paeonia officinalis Linn.Family ◮ Paeoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to GreatBritain.English ◮ Paeony.Unani ◮ Ood Saleeb, Ood Gharqi.Action ◮ Root—antispasmodic,sedative, smooth muscle relaxant,vasodilatory, hypotensive,

460 Panax pseudoginseng Wall.Panti-inflammatory, analgesic, emmenagogue,hepatoprotective.Flower—used for diseases of mucousmembranes, fissures, analfissures associated with haemorrhoids,also for ailments of therespiratory tract, nervous conditionsand skin diseases. Root—used for arthritis, neuralgia, neurasthenia,migraine, epilepsy, allergicdisorders, whooping cough andpainful spasms.The herb gave monoterpene esterglucosides of the pinen-type (includingpaeoniflorin); anthocyanin includingpaeonin; tannins (pentagalloyl glucose);flavonoids including kaempferolglycosides.Paeoniflorin shows a smooth musclerelaxant, vasodilatory, anti-inflammatory,immunostimulating and someCNS depressant activity in animalstudies. Pentagalloyl glucose exhibitedantiviral activity in animal studiesin vitro against herpes simplex.German Commission E includedPaeony (flower and root) among unapprovedherbs. The Pharmacopoeia ofPeople’s Republic of China indicates theuse of the root in dementia, headacheand vertigo. (WHO.)Panax pseudoginseng Wall.Family ◮ Araliaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas,Pithoragarh district of Uttaranchal.English ◮ Indian Ginseng, IndianPseudoginseng.Ayurvedic ◮ In Indian medicine,Panax quinquefolium Linn. andPanax schinseng Knees have beenequated with Lakshmanaa.Action ◮ Adaptogen, digestiverelaxant, old-age revitalizer. Sustainsnerves and immune system inphysical exhaustion and during convalescence.Antiarrhythmic (usedfor angina). Activities comparablewith Korean ginseng.Indian pseudoginseng, includingsubspecies himalaicus and its varieties,variety angustifolius and varietybipinnatifidus, has been found to bea rich source of oleanolic acid saponins,while dammarane saponins (panaxadioland panaxatriol) are present inminor quantities. Panax burkillianusBennet & Viswan and P. sikkimensisBanerjee are also related to the commercialginseng.Panax quinquefolium (AmericanGinseng) has been introduced into Indiain the Kashmir valley during 1983.It is rich in dammarane saponins. Theair-dried roots of the plant, introducedin India, contain total saponin contentof 11.5%. The saponins isolated includeginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, Rc,Rd, Re, Rg1, pseudoginsenoside F11and chikusetsu saponin V; the majorsaponin being ginsenoside Rb1. Thesaponin fraction of the root yieldedpanaxadiol, panaxatriol and oleanolicacid.Ginsenosides Rb and Rc are ‘diols’,while Rg is a ‘triol’. (‘triol’ group isarousing, ‘diol’ is sedative.) In Americanginseng ‘diols’ predominate.Panax pseudoginseng, equated withHimalayan ginseng (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007), is believedto dilate the coronary vessels, re-

Panicum miliaceum Linn. 461duce vascular resistance and improvethe coronary collateral circulation. Itincreased blood flow while reducingblood pressure.Panax schiseng, synonym P. ginsengMey. (Asiatic or Chinese Ginseng) iscultivated in northern China, Koreaand Japan.Pandanus facicularis Lam.Synonym ◮ P. tectorius auct. nonSoland ex Parkinson.P. odoratissimus Linn. f.Family ◮Pandanaceae.Habitat ◮ Sea coast of the IndianPeninsula on both sides, and theAndaman Islands.English ◮Screw Pine.Ayurvedic ◮ Ketaka, Ketaki,Suuchikaa pushpaa, Jambuka,Trinshunya, Ketakark, Krakchhada.Unani ◮Keoraa.Siddha/Tamil ◮Thazhai, Thalay.Action ◮ Flower—carminative, stomachic,cooling, antiseptic. Used forheadache, ulcers, dysuria, scabiesand other skin diseases. Root—used for osteoarthritis, leucorrhoeaand amenorrhoea; contraindicatedduring pregnancy. Leaves—used for skin diseases, small pox,scabies, leprosy. The AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India recommendsthe decoction of the root inabdominal inflammation. Oil andotto—stimulant, antispasmodic,antirheumatic.The chief constituent of the oil ismethyl ether of beta-phenylethyl alcohol.The oil also contains diterpene,d-linalool, phenylethyl acetate, citral,phenylethyl alcohol, ester of phthalicacid, fatty acids and stearoptene.The leaves contain the piperidine alkaloids.Dosage ◮ Root—29–30 g fordecoction (API, Vol. I); flowerlinctus—25–30 ml. (CCRAS.).Pandanus utilis Bory.Family ◮ Pandanaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of Malagasy; grownin Indian gardens.Ayurvedic ◮ Ketaki (related species).Action ◮ Root—a decoction isused for the treatment of venerealdiseases.Panicum miliaceum Linn.Family ◮ Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated mainly in UttarPradesh, Madhya Pradesh, AndhraPradesh, Karnataka and TamilNadu.English ◮ Common Millet, ProsoMillet, Hog Millet.Ayurvedic ◮ Chinaaka, Cheenaa.Unani ◮ Chinaa Ghaas, Faaluudaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Panivaragu.Folk ◮ Chenaa, Chi-Tibet.Action ◮ Seeds (grains)—demulcent;used in diarrhoea. Plant—antigonorrhoeal.P

462 Papaver rhoeas L.The seedlings contain an alkaloidhordenine (beta-p-hydroxyphenethyldimethylamine). Saponins affordeddiosgenin and yamogenin isolatedfrom the leaves.The grains contain 10–18% of proteinswhich include prolamin, glutelinand smaller amounts of albumin andglobulin. The protein has a biologicalvalue of 56% and a digestibility coefficientof 91% at 10% level of proteinintake.In Indian medicine, Chinaaka andKangu (Setaria italica L. Beauv.) aresynonyms.(0.015%). The capsules contain morphine,thebine and narcotine and meconicacid.Other species, commonly grownin Indian gardens, are P. nudicauleLinn. (Iceland Poppy) and P. orientale(Oriental Poppy). P. nudicauleplants with yellow flowers are morecyanogenetic than those with red orwhite flowers. P. orientale contains0.16% alkaloids, which include thebaine,isothebaine, protopine, glaucidineand oripavine. Isothebaine stimulatesand later depresses the centralnervous system.PPapaver rhoeas L.Family ◮Papaveraceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir and throughoutthe plains of North India; cultivatedin gardens.English ◮ Corn Poppy, Red Poppy.Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta Posta.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivappu, Kasakasa.Folk ◮ Laal Posta, Laal Kaskas.Action ◮ Latex from capsules—narcotic. Petal—expectorant,antitussive, sudorific. Used fordiseases of the respiratory tract, fordisturbed sleep and as a sedative forthe relief of pain. (Included amongunapproved herbs by GermanCommission E.)The petals contain cyanidine derivatives.An alkaloid rhoeadine is presentin leaves and flowers (0.031%), unripecapsules (0.035%) and in rootsPapaver somniferum Linn.Family ◮ Papaveraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Asia; now grownin Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Rajasthanand Madhya Pradesh.English ◮ Opium Poppy.Ayurvedic ◮ Ahiphena, Aaphuuka.Post-daanaa (seed).Unani ◮ Afyum. Tukhm-ekhashkhaash(seed).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kasakasa (seeds).Action ◮ Opium is obsoleteas a drug. Narcotic, sedative,hypnotic, analgesic, sudorific,anodyne, antispasmodic. Crushedpoppyheads were in use as a topicalpoultice for crippling pain interminal diseases.Poppy seed—nutritive, demulcent,emollient, spasmolytic, devoid ofnarcotic properties. Specific againstobstinate constipation, also usedin catarrh of the bladder. Poppy

Paris polyphylla Sm. 463seed oil is also free from narcoticproperties. Used against diarrhoea,dysentery and scalds.Opium contains isoquinoline alkaloids;the major one is morphinewith narcotine, codeine, papaverineand thebaine. Poppy seeds, used inIndian medicine, do not contain alkaloids.The seeds contain thiamine 420,riboflavin 49, folic acid 30, pantothenicacid 2667 and niacin 1877 mcg/100 g.The seed oil (from Turkey) containsgamma-tocopherol 220, alpha-tocopherol40 and beta-tocopherol 20 mcg/100 g. Some low-molecular proteins(15% of total protein) have been isolated,along with cysteine, glutamic acidand arginine. The seeds yield a fattyoil (45%) containing palmitic, stearic,oleic, linoleic and linolenic acids.The extract of seeds showed highlysignificant antisecretory (antidiarrhoealactivity) against E. coli enterotoxin-inducedsecretory responses inexperimental animals.The triglycerides isolated from seedsshowed anti-tumour activity againstEhrlich’s ascites in mice.The aqueous extract of seeds showedmarked hypoglycaemic activity whenadministered to glucose-loaded and alloxandiabetic rats.The seeds were found to increasethe activity of carcinogen detoxifyingenzyme, glutathione-S-transferase bymore than 78% in the stomach, liverand oesophagus in mice.Following Papaver sp. are found inIndia:P. argemone Linn. (indigenous tothe Mediterranean region; commonlygrowningardensinIndia)contains0.15% of alkaloids including rhoeadine,protopine, and anthocyanins. Petalsare sudorific.P. dubium Linn. (North-western Himalayaform Kashmir to Garhwal; asa winter weed in North Indian plains)contains rhoeagenine as the principalalkaloid, besides rhoeadine, protopine.Petals contain cyanidin B andpelargonidin C. Petals are sudorific.P. hybridum Linn. (gardens of Punjaband Uttar Pradesh) is diaphoretic(petals). Plant latex contains alkaloidsincluding berberine, coptisine,pahybrine, papaverrubines A, B, D andE and sanguinarine. Plant also gaveglaucine and glucamine.P. nudicaule Linn. (Gulmarg, Kashmir,at altitudes of 3,300–3,600 m),known as Iceland Poppy, gave alkaloidsincluding papaverrubines B and D;leave gave cyanogenic glycosides includingdhurrin and triglochinin. Theflower and fruit are mild diaphoretic.P. orientale Linn. (indigenous toMediterraneanregion;growninIndiangardens), known as Oriental Poppy,contains 0.16% of alkaloids includingthebaine, isothebane, protopine,glaucidine and oripavine. Latex frompoppy capsule is narcotic.Paris polyphylla Sm.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayasfrom Simla to Bhutan and in Lushaiand Aka Hills.Ayurvedic ◮ Haimavati, Shvetavachaa.Folk ◮ Baal-bach.P

464 Parmelia perlata (Huds.) Ach.PAction ◮ Plant—sedative, analgesic,haemostatic, anthelmintic.The rhizome contains a glucoside,alpha-paristyphnin, which exhibiteda depressant action on carotid pressure,myocardium, and respiratorymovements experimentally. It producedvasoconstrictioninkidney,butvasodilation in the spleen and limbs,and stimulated isolated intestines.Parmelia perlata (Huds.) Ach.Family ◮ Parmeliaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Kashmir hillsand the Himalayas.Ayurvedic ◮ Shaileya, Shaileyaka,Shilaapushpa, Shilaadaaru,Shailaka, Shilodbhava, Shaila,Shailpushpa. Kaalaanu-saarthaka,Bhuri-charilla, Sthavira, Vrddha,Shitashiva.Unani ◮ Charelaa.Action ◮ Astringent, resolvent,diuretic. Used externally for painin renal and lumbar regions. Alsoused as an ingredient in cosmeticpreparations.The lichen contains lecanoric acidand atranorin.Several lichen species contain abundantquantities of usnic acid which exhibitsantimicrobial and antifungal activityand is immunologically active incontact dermatitis.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommendsthethallusindysuria.Dosage ◮ Whole thallus—1–3 gpowder. (API, Vol. III.)Parthenium hysterophorusLinn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical and subtropicalcountries of the world.English ◮ Congress Grass.Folk ◮ Pichhi, Machhipatri.Action ◮ Anti-amoebic, antidysenteric,febrifuge, analgesic, emmenagogue.The grass was introduced into Indiaduring 1950 s (it first appeared inPune).The grass exhibits in vitro antiamoebicactivity against axenic andpolygenic cultures of Entamoeba histolytica,comparable to the standarddrug for amoebiasis, Metronidazole.Parthenin and some of its derivativesexhibited significant antimalarialactivity against a multi drug-resistantstrain of Plasmodium falciparum.The main toxic constituent of thegrass responsible for causing dermatitisand other forms of allergy areparthenin and coronopilin. Partheninin present up to 8% in the capitulumand 5% in the leaves.Parthenocissus himalayana(Royle) Planch.Synonym ◮ Vitis himalayana Brandis.Family ◮ Vitaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the Himalayas.Folk ◮ Kandur (Jaunsar), Philunaa(Garhwal) Laderi (Kumaon).

Passiflora foetida Linn. 465Action ◮ Bark and twigs—astringentand expectorant.Paspalum scrobiculatum Linn.Family ◮Habitat ◮India.English ◮Ayurvedic ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Gramineae; Poaceae.Cultivated throughoutKodo millet.Kodo.Kodrava, Korduusha.Varagu.Action ◮ Plant—used as a CNSdrug for treating schizophrenia andpsychoses.The plant contains hentriacontanol,hentriacontanone and sitosterol. Thegrains have often been reported tocause poisoning in men and animalswhen used as a food; non-poisonoustypes have been reported from TamilNadu.Passiflora edulis Sims.Family ◮ Passifloraceae.Habitat ◮ Native of Brazil; cultivatedin Tamil Nadu, Kerala and AndhraPradesh, in North India in Punjaband Himachal Pradesh.English ◮ Purple Granadilla, PassionFruit.Action ◮ Juicefrompurplefruit—a good source of ascorbic acid(contains up to 75 mg/100 g),carotene and sugars.The juice from the yellow variety(equated with Passiflora edulis f. flavicarpa)contains lesser amounts of ascorbicacid and sugars.The purple Passion fruit containsthe C-glucoside, beta-ionyl-beta-Dglucopyranoside.A protease inhibitor(PEPI) has been isolated from thejuice. PEPI inhibited trypsin and chymotrypsinactivities, but did not inhibitpapain activity. The esters andterpenoids form the major part of fruitcomponents. The terpenoids includea number of monoterpenes (includinghydroxylated linalool derivatives),and monoterpene glycosides. Norterpenoidaglycones have also been found.The yellow Passion fruit containssulfur-containing volatiles, acetates,butanoates and hexanoates of 3-mercaptohexanol.The leaves contain C-glycosylflavonoids.Passiflora foetida Linn.Family ◮ Passifloraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to America; foundwilld in Uttar Pradesh, Karnatakaand Tamil Nadu.English ◮ Stinking Passion Flower.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Siru Ponaikalli.Action ◮ Leaves and roots—emmenagogue,antihysteric. Fruits—emetic. A decoction is used for biliousnessand asthma (for expellingbile and cough).The plant contains C-glycosides ofapigenin and luteolin. Apigenin-8-C-glucoside has been detected in theplant.P

466 Passiflora incarnata Linn.PPassiflora incarnata Linn.Family ◮Passifloraceae.Habitat ◮ Native of South-eastAmerica;growninIndiangardens.English ◮ Wild Passion Flower,Maypop.Action ◮ Flowering and fruitingdried herb—mild sedative,hypnotic, tranquilizer, hypotensive,vasodilator, antispasmodic,anodyne, anti-inflammatory,Key application ◮ In nervous restlessness,irritability and difficultyin falling asleep. (German CommissionE, ESCOP, The British HerbalCompendium, The British HerbalPharmacopoeia, WHO.) The BritishHerbal Compendium also indicatedit in neuralgia, dysmenorrhoea, andnervous tachycardia.The herb contains flavonoids (up to2.5%), in particularC-glycosylflavones;cyanogenic glycoside, gynocardine.The alkaloid harman has been isolated,but the presence of harmine, harmaline,harmol and harmalol has beendisputed. The alkaloid and flavonoidsarereportedtohavesedativeactivityin animals. Apigenin exhibits antispasmodicand anti-inflammatory activity.Passion Flower was formerly approvedas an OTC sedative in the USA,butitwastakenoffthemarketin1978because safety and effectiveness hadnot been proven. An animal study in1977 suggested that apigenin binds tocentral benzodi-zepine receptors (possiblycausing anxiolytic effects). (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)The drug is used in homoeopathicmedicine for epilepsy.The herb exhibits a motility-inhibitingeffect in animal experiments.Passion Flower, used as an adjunctto clonidine, was superior to clonidinefor mental symptoms of opiate withdrawal.(Sharon M. Herr.)Passiflora laurifolia Linn.Family ◮Passifloraceae.Habitat ◮ Native of tropical America;growninIndiangardens.English ◮ Water-lemon, JamaicaHoney Suckle.Action ◮ Leaves—anthelmintic.Seeds—hypnodil. Fruit—edible.Plant—poisonous (the foliageproduces hydrocyanic acid).The fruit pulp contains pantothenicacid (1.55 mg/100 g); leaves contain387 mg/100 g vitamin C.Passiflora quadrangularis Linn.Family ◮Passifloraceae.Habitat ◮ Native of tropical America;growninIndiangardens.English ◮Giant Granadilla.Action ◮ Fruit—edible; contains64 mg/100 g ascorbic acid; narcoticwhen eaten in excess. Leaves,the peel and seeds of green fruit,and roots—cyanogenetic. Roots—poisonous.

Paullinia asiatica Linn. 467The root contains an alkaloid passiflorawhich is identical with harmanfrom Passiflora incarnata.Pastinaca sativa Linn.Synonym ◮ Peucedanum sativumBenth. & Hook. f.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; growsin cool climate in India. (HollowCrown, Student and Large Guernseyare Indian horticultural varieties.)English ◮ Parsnip.Action ◮ Above ground parts—diuretic, carminative (eaten asa vegetable and salad), used forkidney disorders. Root—used forkidney disorders, fever and asadiureticandanalgesic.The parsnip is a rich source ofcoumarins (1.7% dry weight). Thecoumarin fraction of the fruit extractinhibits growth of cancer cells (HeLa-S3)cultured in the dark. The fruit containssmall amounts of photoactivefurocoumarins which are phototoxic.(Severe dermatitis results after contactwith the furocoumarin in the presenceof light.) The fruit contains xanthotoxin(0.1%), imperatorin (0.17%) andbergapten (0.38%). Coumarin, pastinacin,isolated from the fruit, showedspasmolytic action.Pastinaca secacul Linn.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe.English ◮ Wild Parsnip.Unani ◮ Shaqaaq-ul-Misri.Action ◮ Root—galactagogue,aphrodisiac, spermatogenetic. Animportant ingredient of Unanicompounds for oligospermia, lowsexual drive and debility.Shaqaaq-ul-Misri has also beenequated with Trachydium lehmanniBenth. In Kashmir, Eryngium caeruleumBieb (Umbelliferae)andinChakrata,Polygonatum verticillatum All.(Liliaceae) are known as shaqaaqul(also Dudhaali).Polygonatum verticillatum rhizomesare used in Tibetan medicinefor emaciation and senility. The driedrhizomes contain diosgenin.Paullinia asiatica Linn.Synonym ◮ Limonia oligandraDalz. Toddalia aculeata Pers.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Found in Konkan andMaharashtra.English ◮ Lopez Root tree, WildOrange tree, Forest Pepper.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaanchana, Dahana.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Milagu,Milagaranai.Folk ◮ Jangali Kaalimirchi, Limri(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Root bark—bitter, febrifuge,diaphoretic, antiperiodic. Infusionused in constitutional debility andconvalescence after febrile and otherexhausting diseases.P

468 Pavetta indica Linn.PThe root gave coumarins, includingtoddanol, todhanone, toddasin,pimpinellin, toddalolactone; alkaloids,including toddaline, toddalnine.Pavetta indica Linn.Synonym ◮ P. tomentosa Roxb. exSm.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout greater partof India, ascending to an altitudeof about 1,500 m in the Himalayas,also recorded from the Andamans.English ◮ White-Pavetta.Ayurvedic ◮ Papata, Kathachampaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pavattai.Folk ◮ Paapadi (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Root—bitter and aperient.Prescribed in visceral obstructions,renal dropsy and ascites. Leaves—used for fomenting piles and forhaemorrhoidal pains. The root barkcontains d-mannitol.Pavonia odorata Willd.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ North-West India, Bengaland Konkan.English ◮ Fragrant Sticky Mallow.Ayurvedic ◮ Vaalaka, Baalaka, Baala,Barhishtha, Hrivera, Ambu, Jala,Nira,Paya,Toya,Udichya,Vaari,Muurdhaja. Sugandhbaalaa (alsoequated with Valeriana Jatamansi).In the South, Celus vettiveroides isequated with Baalaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peraamutti, Kastoorivendai.Action ◮ Plant—anti-inflammatoryand spasmolytic. Used in rheumaticaffections. Root—stomachic,astringent, demulcent. Used indysentery, haemorrhages fromintestines; ulcers and bleedingdisorders.The roots gave an essential oil containingisovaleric acid, isovaleraldehyde,armomadendrene, pavonene,alpha-terpinene, azulene and pavonenol.The plant exhibits antiparasitic activityagainst Entamoeba histolytica.Pavonia zeylanica Cav.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout greater part ofIndia.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sithamutti, Mammatti,Peraamutti.Action ◮ Plant—purgative, anthelmintic,febrifuge.The stem gave a saponin, pavophylline,and a keto-ester, methyl 19-ketotetracosanoate.Pedalium murex Linn.Family ◮ Pedaliaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains ofIndia.English ◮ Caltrops (bigger var.).

Pedilanthus tithymaloides Poir. 469Ayurvedic ◮ Brihatgokshura,Kshouraka, Trikantaka, Gokantaka,Swaadukantaka, Bhakshantaka.Unani ◮ Khaar-e-khasak Kalaan,Gokharu Kalaan.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peru-neranji, Annaineringi.Action ◮ Fruit—used for spermatorrhoea,nocturnal emissions,menstrual irregularities, puerperaldiseases, genitourinary disorders,difficult micturition, chroniccystitis, renal calculus. Root—antibilious.The stem and fruits contain flavonoidspedalitin and its glucoside (pedaliin),diometin, dinatin and its derivatives.The fruits contain nonacosane,tritriacontane, triacontanoic acid,sitosterol-beta-D-glucoside, rubusicacid, luteolin as major constituents.Leaves and fruits yield phenolic acidswhich include caffeic, protocatechuic,p-coumaric and ferulic acids. Flowersgave dinatin, quercetin and quercetin-7-glucoside.Aqueous extract of the fruit is reportedto produce in vitro inhibitoryeffect on crystallization in urinary lithiasis.The solubility of uric acid in aqueousextract is reported to be 45% morethan in water alone.The plant extracts exhibit diureticactivity.Dosage ◮ Fruit, root—3–5 g powder;50–100ml.decoction.(CCRAS.)Pedicularis pectinata Wall.Family ◮Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir eastwards at altitudesof 2,000–4,300 m, extending toSikkim.English ◮ Lousewort.Folk ◮ Mishran, Michren (Punjab),Lugro-maarpro (Kashmir).Action ◮ Leaves—astringent,haemostatic, diuretic.The herb is closely related to Eyebright(Euphrasia officinalis Linn.) ofthe same family, found in the TemperateHimalayas from Kashmir to Kumaon.Eyebright is astringent and bacteriostatic.Pedilanthus tithymaloides Poir.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to West Indies;cultivated as an ornamental.English ◮ Slipper Plant, Bird-Cactus.Folk ◮ Vilaayati-sher (Maharashtra),Naagaphani, Naagadaman (MadhyaPradesh).Action ◮ Latex—used for warts,leucoderma, venereal diseases.Root—emetic (used in West Indiesas Ipecacuanha).An extract of the air-dried andpowdered whole plant contains octacosanol,cycloartenone, oxime andbeta-sitosterol.The latex from the stem contains theproteolytic enzyme, pedilanthain. Itexhibited anti-inflammatory activity incarrageenan-induced rat paw oedemaand was more effective than the controlP

470 Peganum harmala Linn.Pdrug phenylbutazone. The enzyme alsoshowed anthelmintic property.The leaves contain n-hentriacontanoland dehydrodammaronol-A. Theroot gave azafrin.Peganum harmala Linn.Family ◮ Zygophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout Northern andNorthwestern India, and in drierregions of Deccan.English ◮ Wild Rue; Foreign Henna,Syrian Rue.Ayurvedic ◮ Haramal, Isband.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Simaiyaravandi,Simaiyalavinai.Action ◮ Plant—emmenagogue,abortifacient. Seeds—narcotic,hypnotic, antispasmodic, anodyneand emetic; used in asthma, hiccough,colic, neuralgia, hysteria,dysmenorrhoea; used as abortifacient(properties similar to ergot,savine and rue). (Dried seeds constitutethe drug Harmal of Indianmedicine.)The plant gave flavonoids—kaempferol,quercetin and acacetin. Aerialparts and seeds contain alkaloids—harmine, harmaline and harmalol(called harman alkaloids). Harmanalkaloids from the seeds have beensuggested for use in nervous diseases,and as coronary dilators and embolic.Harmol exhibits hypertensive activity.Harmine, vasicinone, deoxyvasicinoneand 8-hydroxy glucosylharmineexhibit antitumour activity.The alkaloids, harmine, harmalineand harmol exhibit antibacterial andantifungal activity.The aqueous extract of seeds exhibitedsignificant antiviral activity in vitroagainst herpes virus hominis type 1,slight activity was also observed againstinfluenza viruses A and B. The plant extractexhibits significant analgesic activity.Pelargonium graveolens L’Hert.Family ◮ Geraniaceae.Habitat ◮ Introduced into India inthe Shevroy hills of Tamil Nadu;cultivated largely in the Nilgiri andPalni hills of Tamil Nadu.English ◮ Geranium.Action ◮ Oil—antifungal.Geranium oil produced from theplant grown in the temperate region athigh altitudes is rich in menthone, citronellol,nerol and geraniol; while theoil produced from the plants grown atlower altitudes is rich in isomenthone,linalool and citronellyl formate.Geranium oil and its constituentsare reported to exhibit marginal antitumouractivity.The oil also exhibits in vitro antifungalactivity.Peltophorum pterocarpumBacker ex K. Heyne.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Coastal forests of theAndaman Islands.

Pentatropis spiralis Decne. 471English ◮ Copper Pod, RustyShield-Bearer.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ivalvagai, Perungondrai.Action ◮ Bark—used for dysentery;also used as a constituent of gargles,tooth-powders and lotions for soresand muscular pains.The bark contains 20.8% of a catecholtype of tannin and 9.5% non-tans.The wood and leaves also contain tannin.The pods contain bergenin whichexhibits anti-inflammatory activity incarrageenan-induced rat paw oedemaand is found to be equipotent tophenylbutazone.Aqueous extract of leaves and ethanolicextract of flower exhibit antifungalactivity.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ West Bengal, Gujarat andPeninsular India.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakanaasaa,Kaakanaasikaa, Kaakaangi, Kaaktundphalaa,Shringiritti.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Uppilankodi.Folk ◮ Singarauti (Gujarat). Amarvel.Action ◮ Plant—antifungal, antiseptic,keratolytic; used in various skinconditions.The plant gave n-octacosanol, alphaamyrin,friedelin, beta-sitosterol. Anappreciable amount of salicyclic acidhas been isolated from the plant. Theplant also yields a cardiac glycoside.Dosage ◮ Plant—50–100 ml.decoction. (CCRAS.)Pentapetes phoenicea Linn.Family ◮ Sterculiaceae.Habitat ◮ Ashrubcultivatedasanornamental throughout the hotterparts of India.Ayurvedic ◮ Bandhujiva, Bandhuuka,Arkavallabha.Folk ◮ Gul-dupahariaa.Action ◮ Capsule—mucilaginous,used for the diseases of the bowels;a decoction is used as emollient.Root—astringent, antibilious,antiphlegmonous, febrifuge.Pentatropis microphylla W. & A.Synonym ◮Bullock.P. capensis (Linn. f.)Pentatropis spiralis Decne.Synonym ◮ P. cynanchoides R. Br.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ A climber found inPunjab, Delhi, Upper GangeticPlain, Rajasthan and Gujarat.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakanaasaa (relatedspecies).Folk ◮ Ambarvel, Vanaveri (Punjab).Action ◮ Root—astringent, antigonorrhoeic,alterative. Plant—emetic,purgative.An acyclic diterpene ester, cis-phytyl-l-palmitate,together with the triterpenes,squalene, n-taraxasterol andtaraxasterol, has been isolated fromthe plant.P

472 Pergularia extensa N. E. Br.PPergularia extensa N. E. Br.Synonym ◮ P. daemia (Forsk.) Chiov.Asclepiadaceae; Periplo-Family ◮caceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India andhotter parts.English ◮Plant.Hairknot Plant, WhitlowAyurvedic ◮ Uttamaarani,Vrischikaali, Vishaanikaa. Phalakantaka.Ajashringi is a doubtfulsynonym.Utthaamani, Veli-Siddha/Tamil ◮paruthi.Folk ◮Utaran.Action ◮ Plant—Uterine stimulant,tones up urinary bladder, stimulatesgastric secretion, expectorant, emetic.Leaf—used for amenorrhoea,dysmenorrhoea; externally appliedto carbuncles.The plant gave betaine, a polypeptide,hentriacontane, lupeol, alpha-andbeta-amyrin, beta-sitosterol as majorconstituents. Seeds and stems gave cardenolides—calactin,calotropin, calotropagenin,uzarigenin and coroglaucigenin.The plant extract exhibits stimulatingaction on uterine and other involuntarymuscles. The extracts cause risein arterial blood pressure, increase inmovement and tone of urinary bladder,and stimulation of gastric secretions.An aqueous extract of the leaves showsantibacterial activity against E. coli andMicrococcus pyogenes var. aureus.Pericampylus glaucus(Lam.) Merill.Family ◮ Menispermaceae.Habitat ◮ Hill forests of Sikkim,Northern Bengal and Assam.Folk ◮ Baarak-kaant (Maharashtra),Goriaa-loti (Assam).Action ◮ Leaves—an infusion is usedfor asthma and high fever. Poundedleaves are applied in headache.The mucilage in water is used forarresting falling of hair.The bark contains a non-toxic principle.The root is reported to containanarcoticalkaloid.Perilepta auriculata(Nees) Bremek.Synonym ◮ Strobilanthes auriculatusNees.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Upper Gangetic Plain,Madhya Pradesh.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kurinji.Folk ◮ Pandadi (Gujarat).Action ◮ Pounded leaves—rubbedon body during the cold stage ofintermittent fever.Perilla frutescens (Linn.) Britton.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiacae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the Himalayasup to an altitude of about 3,500 m,and in the hills of Assam.English ◮ Perilla, Wild Coleus.

Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees. 473Folk ◮ Bhanjeer, Ban-tulasi, Banjiraa,Bhasindi.Action ◮ Herb—sedative, antispasmodic,antiasthmatic, resolvent.P. frutescens var. crispa is used inmixtures prescribed for cough and lungaffections.Several chemotypes of Perilla havebeen detected. The Indian type is richin rosefuran. Other components areperillene, perilla ketone, beta-caryophyllene,phellandrene and a few sesquiterpenoids.Aerial parts gave ethyllinolenate, linolenic acid and betasitosterol.The leaves also gave an anthocyanin,perillanin. The leaves andflowering tops yield essential oils containingperilla ketone as major component—94%in leaf oils and 47% ininflorescence oils at fruiting stage.Perillaldehyde, a major componentof the plant extract, inhibits (moderately)a broad range of both bacteriaand fungi. The MeOH extract ofvar. acuta Kudo is reported to prolonghexobarbital-induced sleep in mice.Dillapiol has been isolated as the activeprinciple from the methanolic extract.Periploca aphylla Decne.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae; Periplocaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab and Rajasthan.Folk ◮ Barri (Punjab).Action ◮ Plant—stomachic; usedin cerebral fever. Bark—purgative.Latex—used against tumours andswellings.The leaves and stems contain 2.2%of resin alcohol, a bitter substance, tanninand small quantities of a glucosidalprinciple which produces first a decreaseand then an increase in bloodpressure. The bark contain 8% tannin.Periploca calophylla Falc.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, fromKashmir to Nepal and Meghalaya,ascending to 1,800 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna Saarivaa(substitute). (Cryptolepis buchananiis equated with Krishna Saarivaa.)Action ◮ Used in place of Cryptolepisbuchanani and Hemidesmus indicusfor rheumatism, urinary and skindiseases.The glycosides locin, plocin, plocinin,calocin, calocinin, as well as triterpenoids,have been reported from thetwigs.Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Distributed throughoutIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Nadikaantaa,Praachibalaa, Sulomshaa, Kaakatikta,Kaakajanghaa. (Aatarilaal isawrongsynonym. Itisequatedwith Anthriscus cerefolium Hoffm.,used in Unani medicine.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chebisa.Folk ◮ Masi.P

474 Persea americana Mill.PAction ◮ Plant—febrifuge. Theessential oil shows tuberculostaticactivity in vitro. It inhibits thegrowth of various strains ofMycobaterium tuberculosis.Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the dried root in insomniaand for fear-psychosis in children.Dosage ◮ Root—1–5 g powder. (API,Vol III.)Persea americana Mill.Synonym ◮ P. gratissima Gaertn. f.Family ◮ Lauraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Central America;introduced into India and grown forits fruit in Bangalore, Nandi Hills,Courtallam, Nagarcoil, Shevaroys,lower Palnis and the foothills of theNilgiris; also in Pune.English ◮ Avocado, Alligator Pear,Butter Fruit.Action ◮ Fruit—hypocholesterolaemic.Leaf—bacteriostatic;potentially toxic to goats and sheep.The fruit is highly nutritious. Thefruit from Nilgiris contains 22.8% fat,1.7% protein; also manganese, phosphorus,iron, potassium, vitamin E, vitaminC, beta-carotene, thiamine, riboflavin,nicotinic acid and foliate. Itis relatively low in sodium and simplesugars.American Avocado is rich in oil (15–30 g/100 g fresh fruit) that is mainlymonounsaturated and a good sourceof linoleic acid. Its high fiber contentmight be responsible for its cholesterollowering effects.Preliminary evidence suggests thatunsaponifiable fractions of Avocadoand soybean oils (combination) caninhibit cartilage degradation and promotecartilage repair in osteoarthriticchondrocytes. (Properties of Avocadocited in Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Avocado oil is used in cosmeticpreparations, soaps and pharmaceuticals.The peel of immature fruit containsantifungal compounds. The fruitpulp is used topically to promote hairgrowth.Persea macrantha(Nees) Kosterm.Synonym ◮ Machilus macranthaNees.Family ◮ Lauraceae.Habitat ◮ Bihar and PeninsularIndia, up to 2,100 m.English ◮ Machilus.Action ◮ Bark—antiasthmatic,antirheumatic, purgative.The root gave phytosterols, glycosidesand alkaloids, the major one beingmachiline, shown to be identicalwith dl-coclaurine. Machiline exhibitshypotensive activity.The leaves are used in external applicationsfor ulcers.Petiveria alliacea Linn.Family ◮Phytolaccaceae.

Petroselinum crispum (Mill.) Airy-Shaw. 475Habitat ◮ Native to America;introduced into India, grown ingardens.Action ◮ Root—diuretic, antispasmodic,emmenagogue, abortifacient.Used for whooping cough,also for rheumatism and nervousdiseases. (Long term use in highdoses causes brain damage.)Ethanolic extract of the leaves containsleridal, leridol, 5-O-methylleridoland 3-O-rhamnosides of dihydrokaempferol,dihydroquercetin and myricetin.The presence of high nitratecontent in the plant has been reportedand is considered a risk factor inhumans.Petroselinum crispum(Mill.) Airy-Shaw.Synonym ◮ Apium crispum Mill.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe, nowcultivated throughout India.English ◮ Parsley.Unani ◮ Fitraasaaliyum, Karafs-e-Kohi.Action ◮ Diuretic (used for bladderdisorders, painful urination,retention of excess fluid in thetissues), antispasmodic, uterinetonic, emmenagogue, sedative(used for PMS and menopausalhot flushes, also in prostatitis),carminative, expectorant, aperient,antiseptic, anti-inflammatory.Key application ◮ For flushingout the efferent urinary tract indisorders of the same and inprevention and treatment of kidneygravel. (German CommissionE.) Contraindicated in kidneyinflammations.The British Herbal Compendium approvesthe internal use of the herbfor flatulent dyspepsia, dysuria andrheumatic conditions.The leaves and roots contain furocoumarins—psoralen,5-and 8-methoxypsoralen, imperatorin, oxypeucedanin,iso-pimpinelin. Myristicin hasbeen isolated from the leaf oil. Theplant gave flavonoids—apiin, luteolin,apigenin-7-glucoside, luteolin-7-glucosideamong others.Myristicin showed high activity asan inducer of the detoxifying enzymesystem, Glutathione S-transferase(GST) in the liver and small intestinesof female mice (may be considered asa cancer chemoprotective agent).The flavonoids, particularly apigenin,have been shown to be antiinflammatory,to inhibit histamine releaseand to act as a free radical scavenger.Apiole, a constituent of thevolatile oil, is reportedly antipyreticand phthalides of the root, seed andleaf are sedative in mice.Both apiole and myristicin exhibitaquaretic and uterine stimulant activity,while sodium retention has beenobserved. (Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)In homoeopathy, the herb is used forthe treatment urinary disorders—suddenurge to urinate with severe pain,dribbling of urine after urination, gleetdischarge and for amenorrhoea andneuralgic dysmenorrhoea.P

476 Peucedanum grande C. B. Clarke.PPeucedanum grandeC. B. Clarke.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats and hills ofPeninsular India.Folk ◮ Baaphali (Gujarat), Duku.Action ◮ Fruits—carminative,diuretic, stimulant. An infusionis used for gastric and intestinaltroubles.The seeds and roots gave imperatorin,byakangelicin and osthol. Seeds,in addition, gave phelopterin, columbianadinand byakangelicol.Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq.Synonym ◮ Vigna aconitifolia (Jacq.)Marechal.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.Cultivated.English ◮ Aconite-Bean, Moth.Ayurvedic ◮ Makushtha, Moth.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tulukkapayir.Action ◮ Seeds—used as a dietin fever; contains 24.4% protein.Root—narcotic.Phaseolus adenanthusG. F. W. Mey.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in theplains.Ayurvedic ◮ Aranya-mudga. Mudgaparni(Kerala).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattupayaru.Action ◮ A decoction is used inbowel complaints and stricture. Theroots are used to stop excessivesalivation.Phaseolus lunatus Linn.Synonym ◮ P. inamoenus Linn.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;cultivated throughout India.English ◮ Double Bean, Lima Bean,Burma Bean.Ayurvedic ◮ Shimbi.Unani ◮ Lobiyaa, Sem.Action ◮ Seeds—astringent. Usedas a diet in fever. The shoots andpods from Manipur are reportedto contain alkaloids, saponins andflavonoids.Phaseolus mungoLinn. non-Roxb. & auct.Synonym ◮ Vigna mungo (Linn.)Hepper.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.English ◮ Kidney Bean, Black Gram.Ayurvedic ◮ Maasha. (P. sublobatusRoxb. and Teramnus labialis Spreng.are equated with Maashaparni; driedaerial parts are used.) Phaseolusdalzellii Cooke and P. sublobatusRoxb. are known as Maashaparni inKerala.

Phaseolus vulgaris Linn. 477Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Urd-Siyaah.Ulunthu.Action ◮ Used as a pulse. In the formof a confection, used for leucorrhoeaand seminal debility. Oil extractsof the pulse is used externally inrheumatism, contracted knee, stiffshoulder. Root—used as a poulticefor inflammations and abscesses.Narcotic.Teramnus labialis Spreng. (growswild): The whole plant is used inrheumatism, paralysis, nervous diseases,haemoptysis and catarrh of respiratorytract.Phaseolus radiatusLinn. non-Roxb. & auct.Synonym ◮Wilczek.Family ◮Vigna radiata (Linn.)Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Extensively cultivated allover India.English ◮Ayurvedic ◮Unani ◮Greengram, Golden Gram.Moong.Siddha/Tamil ◮Mudga, Mungalya.Pattishai-payaru.Action ◮ Used as a pulse. Soupis given as a diet to patients ofenlarged liver and spleen, andafter recovery from acute illness.A poultice of it is used for checkingsecretion of milk and reducingdistention of the mammaryglands.Phaseolus trilobussensu Ait. & auct.Synonym ◮ Vigna trilobata (Linn.)Verdcourt.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, upto an elevation of 2,100 m in thenortheast.English ◮ Wild Gram.Ayurvedic ◮ Mudgaparni, Kaakaparni,Suuryaparni, Alpikaa, Sahaa,Kaakamudraa, Maarjaargandhikaa.(P. adenanthus G. F. W., and Vignapilosa Baker are used as Mudgaparniin the South. Dried aerial parts,root and seed are used.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaatupayaru.Folk ◮ Jangali Moong, Mugavan.Action ◮ Whole plant—febrifuge.Leaves—sedative, cooling, antibilious.A decoction is usedin intermittent fever. The plantcontains friedelin, epifriedelin,stigmasterol and tannins. The beancontains methionine, tryptophanand tyrosine; also strepogenin,uridine, diphosphate-galacturonicacid. The seed protein containedlysine, valine, leucine and phenylalanine.Dosage ◮ Seed—50–100 ml.decoction (CCRAS.); whole plant—3–5 g. (API, Vol. IV.)Phaseolus vulgaris Linn.Synonym ◮ P. nanus Linn.Family ◮ Fabaceae.P

478 Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus Nees.PEnglish ◮ Kidney Bean, French Bean,Haricot Bean.Unani ◮ Raajmah (seed), Lobia,Frashbean.Action ◮ Bean—diuretic, hypotensive,resolvent, regulates bloodsugar. Used for water retention; albuminuria,especially of pregnancy;premenstrual tension.Key application ◮ Seed-free pods—insupportive treatment for inability tourinate. (German Commission E.)The seeds of French Bean containtriterpenoid glucosides and soyasaponinV.Raajmah consumption by diabeticpatients is reported to produce highlysignificant reduction in their bloodglucose level and glycaemic index, ascompared to wheat and rice consumption.Raw bean contains lectins which aredestroyed when cooked. Its hypoglycaemicactivity is most likely due to itschromium, trigonelline and fiber content.(Sharon M. Herr.)Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorusNees.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ The sub-tropical Himalayas,Upper Gangetic Plain,Bihar, North Bengal and Assam.Folk ◮ Dieng-soh kajut (Meghalaya),Chuhai (Bihar), Titaaphul (Assam).Action ◮ Whole plant—used likeAdhatoda vasica in whoopingcough and menorrhagia. Fruitsand leaves—burnt and prescribedfor fevers. The leaves are reportedto contain diterpene lactone,phlogantholide A and its glucoside.A related species, P. jenkinsii C. B.Clarke, found in Assam, is also knownas Titaaphul. A decoction of leaves isgiven for diseases of spleen and liverand for fevers.Phoenix dactylifera Linn.Family ◮ Palmae; Arecaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Punjab andRajasthan.English ◮ Date Palm.Ayurvedic ◮ Kharjuura, Kharjuuraka,Kharjuurikaa. Pindakharjuurikaa.Chhuhaaraa (dry date). Pindakharjuurais the fruit of Phoenix acaulisRoxb.Unani ◮ Khurmaa, Khajuur,Chhuharaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perichchankay, Ita.Action ◮ Fruit pulp—antitussive,expectorant, demulcent, laxative,diuretic, restorative. Sap—cooling,laxative. Gum—used in diarrhoeaand genitourinary diseases.The fruit contains ascorbic acid (vitaminC), carotene (as vitamin A),nicotinic acid, riboflavin, thiamine,sugars (60–80%). Besides sucrose andinvertsugars,rhamnose,xylose,arabinose,ribose, galactose and galacturonicacid have been identified inthe fruit. Invert sugar predominatesin the soft dates; sucrose in dry varieties.The dried date, used in Ayurvedic

Pholidota articulata Lindl. 479and Unani compositions, contains protein2.5–3, fat 0.5, carbohydrates 75.8–82.9% and calcium 35.9, phosphorus129.3 and iron 3.4 mg/100 g.Presence of sterols of ergosterolgroup, and esterone has been reportedfrom dried date seeds.Charged C-glycosylflavones and caffeylshikimicacid, leucocyanidin arecharacteristically present in the plant.Flavonol glycosides are also common.Several uncharged C-glycosylflavoneswere also detected.Dosage ◮ Fresh fruit—10–50 g, driedfruit—10–15 g. (API, Vol. IV.)Phoenix paludosa Roxb.Family ◮ Palmae.Habitat ◮ Coastal swamps of WestBengal (particularly Sundarbans),Orissa and the Andamans.Ayurvedic ◮ Hintala.Folk ◮ Hital (Orissa), Hintalamu(Telugu).Action ◮ Fruits—antiphlogistic,cooling; used in flatulence.Triacontanol, beta-sitosterol havebeen isolated from the plant.Phoenix pusilla Gaertn.Family ◮ Palmae; Arecaceae.Habitat ◮ Coromandel Coast.Ayurvedic ◮ Parushaka (Kerala).(Grewia asiatica Linn., Tiliaceae, isalso equated with Parushaka.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kalangu, Ithi, Sagi.Action ◮ Fruit—cooling, laxative.Used in respiratory disorders.Gum—used in diarrhoea andgenitourinary diseases. Fresh sap—laxative.Phoenix sylvestris Roxb.Family ◮ Palmae; Arecaceae.Habitat ◮ Andhra Pradesh, Karnatakaand Madhya Pradesh.English ◮ Wild Date Palm.Ayurvedic ◮ Kharjuuri.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Periyaitcham, Icham.Folk ◮ Sulemaani Khajuur, DesiKhajuur.Action ◮ Fruits—restorative. Juice—cooling, gastric stimulant. Seeds—used in ague. Root—used fornervous debility.Fresh, unfermented sap (Niraa) isa good source of ascorbic acid, nicotinicand isonicotinic acids, riboflavin,thiamine, sugars; crystine, leucine,isoleucine, lysine, phenylalanine, threonine,tyrosine.The concentration of amino acids ismuch higher in palm jaggery than insugar cane jaggery.Fresh fruits contain protein 1.2, fat0.4, calcium 0.022 and phosphorus0.38%.Dosage ◮ Fruit—10–20 g paste.(CCRAS.)Pholidota articulata Lindl.Family ◮Orchidaceae.P

480 Phragmites communis Trin.PAyurvedic ◮ Jivanti (substitute).(Dendrobium macraei Lindl. is alsoused as a substitute for Jivanti.Jivanti is equated with Leptadeniareticulata W. & A.)Action ◮ Age-sustaining tonic,restorative.Phragmites communis Trin.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, fromKashmirtoKumaonuptoanaltitude of 4,000 m.English ◮ Common Reed.Folk ◮ Dila, Dambu (Punjab).Action ◮ Rhizomes and roots—diuretic,emmenagogue, diaphoretic,hypoglycaemic, antiemetic.The rhizomes are rich in carbohydrates;contain nitrogenous substances5.2, fat 0.9, N-free extr. 50.8, crudefibre 32.0, sucrose 5.1, reducing sugars1.1, and ash (rich in silica) 5.8%; asparagine0.1% is also present. Leavespossess a high ascorbic acid content(200 mg/100 g).Nodes and sheathsyield 6.6% and the underground partsover 13% of furfural.The root of common Reed is prescribedin Chinese traditional medicineas an antipyretic against influenzaand fevers. Presence of polyols,betaines and free poline has been reportedin the methanolic extract. Theextract is reported to show bactericidalactivity. The root gave a polysaccharidewhich contains sugars, arabinose,xylose and glucose in a molar ratioof 10:19:94; some of the fractions showedimmunological activity.Phragmites karka Trin. ex Steud.Synonym ◮ P. roxburghii (Kunth)Steud.P. maxima Blatter & McCann inpart.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, inmarshy places.English ◮ Common Reed-grass.Ayurvedic ◮ Nala. (Arundo donaxLinn. is also equated with Nala.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perunanal.Folk ◮ Narakul.Action ◮ Stem and rhizome—diuretic, diaphoretic. Used topicallyto relieve insect bite.P. karka is not discriminated from P.communis for medicinal uses in Indianmedicine.Phyla nodiflora (L.) E. Greene.Synonym ◮ Lippia nodiflora A. Rich.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, nearfresh water bodies.English ◮ Jalapippali, Shaaradi,Shakulaadani, Matsyagandhaa,Matsyaadani, Laangali, Vashiraa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Poduthalai.Action ◮ Spasmolytic, diuretic,febrifuge.

Phyllanthus distichus Muell.-Arg. 481The plant contains flavone glycosides—nodiflorinsA and B, lipiflorinsA and B, as well as free flavones including6-hydroxyluteolin, nepetin andnodifloretin along with beta-sitosteroland stigmasterol glucosides.Dosage ◮ Plant—10–20 ml. juice.(CCRAS.)Phyllanthus amarusSchum. & Thonn.Phyllanthus fraternus Webster.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the hotterparts of India, particularly oncultivated land, up to 1,000 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuumyaamalaki, Bahupatri,Bhuudhaatri, Bahuphalaa,Taamalaki.Unani ◮ Bhui Aaamalaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Keelkaay Nelli.Action ◮ Plant—diuretic, deobstruent,astringent, anti-inflammatory,styptic. Used as a single drug inthe treatment of jaundice. Usedin prescriptions for dyspepsia,indigestion, chronic dysentery,urinary tract diseases, diabetes, skineruptions.The leaves yielded lignans—phyllanthin(bitter), hypophyllanthin (nonbitter);niranthin, nirtetralin and phyltetralin.The whole plant gave a numberof flavonoids, including quercetin,quercitrin, astragalin, rutin, kaempferol.Isolation of a hydrolysable tannins,amarulone, is reported from the plant.The plant is reported to show antiviralactivity against hepatitis B virus andrelated hepadna virus. It was also foundto effectively repair CCl4-induced liverdamage in rats.The herb exhibited hypotensive andhypoglycaemic activity. (Indian J ExpBiol 1995, 33 (11) 861–864.)Phyllanthus fraternus Webster: Theethanolic extract of the plant exhibitedhepatotoxic-protective activity inalbino rats pretreated with CCl-4, Thepetroleum extract is reported to possessanalgesic and anti-inflammatoryproperties. The flavonoids, isolatedfrom the ethanolic extract of theplant, exhibit hypoglycaemic activityin alloxan-treated albino rats. Theethanolic and aqueous extracts of theplant exhibit antibacterial and antifungalactivity.Dosage ◮ Root, stem, leaf—3–6.powder. (API, Vol. I and III.)Phyllanthus distichus Muell.-Arg.Synonym ◮ P. acidus Skeels.Cicca acida (Linn.) Merrill.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Indian gardens.English ◮ Country Gooseberry.Ayurvedic ◮ Lavali-phala, LowaniHariphala.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aranelli.Action ◮ Fruit—astringent, tonic toliver; improves appetite, useful inbiliousness, constipation, vomiting,bronchitis. Roots and seed—cathartic. The juice of the rootP

482 Phyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn.bark produces headache and severeabdominal pain.The root bark contains 18% tannin,saponin, gallic acid and a crystallinesubstance (probably lupeol). The barkcontains beta-amyrin and phyllanthol.The fruit is sour; contains acidity (asacetic acid) 1.70%.Taking Chanca Piedra orally doesnot seem to be effective for treatinghepatitis B. The herb contains niuride,which inhibits specific HIV-proteinbinding activity, but does not protectcells from acute HIV infection. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)PPhyllanthus maderaspatensisLinn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout drier parts ofIndia.Unani ◮ Kanochaa, Isfahaan Marv.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mela-nelli.Action ◮ Leaves—an infusion is usedin headache. Seeds—carminative,diuretic.Whole plant revealed antispasmodicaction in isolated guinea-pig ileum,CNS depressant and hypothermic effectsin mice.Phyllanthus niruri Linn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to America.English ◮ Chanca Piedra.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuumyaamalaki,assigned to P. niruri, has now beenequated with P. fraternus.Action ◮ Antispasmodic, antipyretic,diuretic, antiviral, bactericidal.Phyllanthus simplex Retz.Synonym ◮ P. virgatus J. R.et G. Forst.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhumyaamalaki (var.).Folk ◮ Mothi-bhuiaamvali (Maharashtra).Plant—antiseptic. Fresh leaves,bruised in butter milk, are used asa wash for itch. Fresh leaves, flowersand fruits with cumin seeds and sugar,are used in gonorrhoea. Root—appliedto mammary abscesses.Fruits contain oxalic acid.Phyllanthus urinaria Linn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains ofIndia from Punjab to Assam andSouthwardtoKeralaupto1,000m.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhuumyaamataki (var.),Taamravalli.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Senkeezhnelli.Folk ◮ Laal-bhui-aamlaa, Hazaarmani.Action ◮ See P. amarus.

Physalis peruviana Linn. 483The leaf and stem gave flavonoids—quercetin, astragalin, quercitrin, isoquercitrinand rutin; Me-brevifolincarboxylateand tri-dehydrochebulicacid.Aerial parts yielded seco-withanolides—cleavedsteroidal constituentscontaining physalins. In Taiwan, physalinB and F have been isolated fromthe ethanolic extract of the whole plant.Both physalin B and F are reported toinhibit the growth of several humanleukaemia cell systems.Physalis alkekengi Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South-eastEurope and Japan; naturalized inmany parts of the world; grown inIndian gardens.English ◮ Strawberry Tomato, WinterCherry. (Withania somnifera is alsoknown as Winter Cherry.)Ayurvedic ◮ Raajaputrikaa.Unani ◮ Kaaknaj.Action ◮ Berries—diuretic, antitussive,oxytocic, analgesic, febrifuge;used for urinary disorders, suppressionof urine, gout and intermittentfevers.Berries contain flavonoids, includingluteolin-7-glucoside and withasteroids.Physalis angulata Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;cultivated in Indian gardens inUttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu; alsogrows in moist places as a weed.Action ◮ Plant—diuretic.Physalis minima Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,ascending up to 2,300 m.English ◮ Sun-berry.Ayurvedic ◮ Tankaari, Parpotikaa,Chirapotikaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sodakku thakkali.Action ◮ Berries—diuretic, aperient,alterative. Used for gout and urinarydiseases.Quercetin 3-O-galactoside, isolatedfrom the crude extract of the leaves, isreported to exhibit anti-inflammatoryactivity comparable to phenylbutazonein carageenan-induced rat paw oedema.Physalis minima Linn. var indica C.B. Clarke is common weed in irrigatedfields and bunds.The plant contains withasteroids,physalindicanols, withaminimin andwithaphysalin, 3-O-glucosides ofkaempferol and quercetin, in additionto beta-sitosterol and its glucoside.The diuretic action of Physalis minimaleaves is attributed to the high contentof potassium nitrate (8–10%).Physalis peruviana Linn.Family ◮Solanaceae.P

484 Physochlaina praealta Miers.PHabitat ◮ Native to tropical America;grown in the hills and plainsthroughout India.English ◮ Cape Gooseberry.Ayurvedic ◮ Parpoti (var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perungunni, Pottipallam.Folk ◮ Rasbhari, Mako.Action ◮ Plant—diuretic. Leaf—anthelmintic, an infusion is usedin abdominal disorders. Fruits—a good source of carotene andascorbic acid; eaten as a table fruit.The fruit contain carotene (as vitaminA) 2,380 IU, thiamine 0.05, riboflavin0.02, nicotinic acid 0.3 andascorbic acid 49 mg/100 g; mineralmatter 0.8%; phytin phosphorus 18,iron 2.0, ionizable iron 0.9, sodium 0.9,potassium 320, copper 0.19, and sulphur43 mg/100 g. The juice from theripe fruits contain considerable quantityof pectin. The chief acid is citricacid, but malic and tartaric acids arealso present.The plant is a source of highly oxygenatedergostane-type of steroids—withanolides and related compounds.Physochlaina praealta Miers.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Lahul valley (Punjab),Ladakh, North Kashmir. WesternTibbet at altitudes of 3,300–4,600 m.Folk ◮ Daturaa (Ladakh), Laangtaan;Sholar, Bajarbang (Punjab).Action ◮ Leaves—poisonous andnarcotic.The roots of the plant contain 0.64%alkaloids (calculated as hyoscyamine).The plant constitutes an excellentsource of atropine.Picea smithiana Boiss.Synonym ◮ P. morinda Link.Abies smithiana Lindl.Family ◮ Pinaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Kumaon at altitudes of1,500–3,500 m.English ◮ West Himalayan Spruce.Folk ◮ Roi, Rhai, Raghaa, Kathela,Kandre, Morindaa. Spruce (trade).Action ◮ Essential oil—antiseptic.Used in bath salts, room sprays anddeodorants.Key applications ◮ Fir NeedleOil, obtained from Picea abies,synonym P. excelsa)—externallyand internally, for catarrhal illnessof the upper and lower respiratorytract; externally, for rheumaticand neuralgic pains. (GermanCommission E.)The oil contains alpha-pinene, l-alpha-phellandrene, dipentene, bornylacetate,cadinene, S-guaiazulene anda bicyclic sesquiterpene. The oil distilledfrom the leaves collected in Gulmarghad a ester content of 23.2% (asbornyl acetate). The bark contained4.22% tannin.Picea abies has been introduced atManali (at 1,890 m). It yields an oleoresinwhich is used in plasters andointments. The essential oil is used in

Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth. 485perfumes and cosmetics. The needlesyielded dilignol glycosides.Picrasma quassioides Bennett.Family ◮ Simaroubaceae.Habitat ◮ Garhwal, HimachalPradesh and Kulu.English ◮ Quassia (substitute for P.excelsa Lindtl).Ayurvedic ◮ Bhurangi, Nimbi.(Clerodendrum serratum and itsrelated species represent Bhaargi orBhaarangi.)Folk ◮ Nimatotaa.Action ◮ Wood—a non-astringentbitter tonic and stomachic, amoebicidal,anthelmintic (used asenema), insect repellent. Usedas a supporting medicine fortemporary relief in cirrhosis ofliver.Many indole alkaloids of beta-carboline,canthin-6-one and beta-carbolinedimer type, have been isolatedfrom the wood. These are reportedto increase the blood flow rate in theintestine and stomach of rabbit; alsoexhibited antiviral activity on Herpessimplex virus.Nigaki lactone and methylnigakinone,isolated from the wood, showedantigastric ulcer activity in rats. Theextract of the wood is reported to preventthe secretion of gastric juice ina dose-dependent manner in rats. Theextract also showed the same effectson rats having aspirin-induced gastriculcer.Picrorhiza kurroa Royle ex Benth.Family ◮Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ The alpine Himalayas fromKashmir to Sikkim.English ◮ Picrorhiza.Ayurvedic ◮ Katukaa, Katurohini,Kattarohini, Katuki, Katukikaa,Krishnabhedaa, Kaandaruhaa,Matsyashakalaa, Chakraangi, Shatparvaa,Arishta, Ashokarohinya,Shakuldaani.Unani ◮ Kutki, Kharbaq-e-Hindi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaduguragini.Action ◮ Root—stomachic, antidiarrhoeal,cholagogue, hepatoprotective.Used in hepatitis, chronicdysentery, amoebiasis.Key application ◮ In jaundice,intermittent fever, dyspnoea andskin diseases. (The AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India.)The roots yield a glycosidal bitterprinciple, kutkin, found to be a mixtureof two iridoid glycosides, picrosideI and kutkoside. Also obtainedwere D-mannitol, kutkiol, kutkisteroland a ketone (identical with apocynin).Kutkin exhibited hepatoprotectiveactivity in CCl4-induced toxic rats.Picroliv, a standardized fractionfrom the alcoholic extract of the rootand rhizome, containing 55–60% ofa mixture of picroside I and kutkoside(1:15) showed dose-dependent protectiveactivity on isolated hepatocytesin vitro against thiocetamide-inducedhepatic damage in rat and was foundto be more potent than Silymarin,P

486 Picrorhiza scrophulariaeflora Pennell.Pa known hepatoprotective agent. Picrolivis reported to show protectiveeffect against rifampicin-induced hepatotoxicityin rats. It also exerts hypolipidaemiceffect in normal, tritontreatedand cholesterol-fed rats.Kutkin, picroside I and kutkosideexhibit anti-inflammatory property.The phenolic glycoside, androsin,isolated from the plant, prevents allergenand platelet activating factorinducedbronchial obstruction inguinea-pigs in vitro.Cucurbitacin glycosides, isolatedfrom the root, exhibit liver protective,tumour inhibitory and anti-inflammatoryactivity.Dosage ◮ Root—1–3 g; 3–6 g aspurgative. (CCRAS.)Picrorhiza scrophulariaefloraPennell.Family ◮ Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayan inNepal and Sikkim.Action ◮ Properties similar to thoseof Picrorhiza kurroa.The root contains the iridoid glycosides,amphicoside, catalpol, aucubinand androsin; also cucurbitacin glycosides.Action ◮ Stimulant (excites mostglands), expectorant, powerfuldiaphoretic. Used in hair tonicsto stimulate hair growth. (Irritatesstomach and causes vomiting inoverdose.)The leaf contains a parasympatheticstimulant pilocarpine (0.5%). It is anobsolete medicinal herb, but is used inthe production of pilocarpine. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Pimenta dioica (Linn.) Merrill.Synonym ◮ P. officinalis Lindl.Family ◮ Myrtaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to West Indies andtropical America; grown in Indiangardens; in Bengal, Bihar, Orissaand Bangalore.English ◮ Allspice tree, JamaicaPepper tree, Pimento tree.Action ◮ Berry oil and leaf oil—carminative and stimulant. The oilcontains chiefly eugenol (65–80%),responsible for the herb’s effect onthe digestive system and its painrelief properties; also for anaestheticeffect when crushed berries areapplied topically.Pilocarpus microphyllus Stapf.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;cultivated in Indian gardens.English ◮ Jaborandi.Pimpinella anisum Linn.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the Mediterraneanregion; cultivated in UttarPradesh., Punjab, Assam and Orissa.

Pinus excelsa Wall. ex D. Don. 487English ◮Unani ◮Anise, Aniseed.Anisoon, Baadiyaan-roomi.Action ◮ Carminative, diuretic,anticholerin, antispasmodic, expectorant.Used for flatulence,dry coughs, whooping cough,bronchitis.Key application ◮ Internally indyspeptic complaints; internallyand externally in catarrhs ofthe respiratory tract. (GermanCommission E, ESCOP, WHO, TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)The fruit gave volatile oil consistingmainly of trans-anethole (70–90%),with estragole, anise ketone, anisicacid, beta-caryophyllene, anisaldehyde,linalool. The fruit containedtraces of furocoumarins; seeds gavebenzoic acid, caffeic acid, containingprotein and myristicin. Roots affordedsterols, coumarins and flavone glycosides.Aniseed has been demonstratedto increase the mucociliary transportin vitro and to significantly increaseliver-regeneration in rats.Aniseed is also used as a galactagogue.This property is thought due tothepresenceofpolymersofanethole,dianethole and photoanethole.Aqueous extract of roasted aniseedis reported to show cholinomimetic effecton rat blood pressure, rat jejunumand frog rectus abdominis preparations.Alcoholic extract of aniseeds possessesantimicrobial and fungicidal activity.Anethole has a structure similar tocatecholamines including adrenaline,noradrenaline and dopamine and tothe hallucinogenic compound myristicinas well. (Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Pimpinella saxifraga Linn. var.dissectifolia C. B. Clarke,non-Boiss.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir at 3,900 m.English ◮ Burnet Saxifrage, PimpinellaRoot.Action ◮ Root—carminative,stimulant, expectorant, cholagogue,diuretic, emmenagogue. Used fordiarrhoea.Key application ◮ Rhizome—incatarrhs of the upper respiratorytract. (German Commission E.Above ground parts have beenincluded among unapprovedherbs.)The main components of the fruitsand roots are isoeugenol epoxy tiglicester, isoeugenol epoxy-2-methylbutanoicester and 4-phenyl tiglic ester.Roots also contain pimpinellin andisopimpinellin.Pinus excelsa Wall. ex D. Don.Synonym ◮ P. wallichianaA. B. Jackson.Family ◮ Pinaceae.Habitat ◮ Himalayas from Kashmirto Bhutan at 1,800–3,700 m, alsoAssam.English ◮ Indian Blue Pine, BhutanPine, Five-leaved Pine.P

488 Pinus gerardiana Wall.PAyurvedic ◮ Sarala (var.).Folk ◮ Chillaa.Action ◮ Uses similar to Pinusroxburghii.The essential oil contains alpha-andbeta-pinene as major constituents.Pinus gerardiana Wall.Family ◮ Pinaceae.Habitat ◮ Northwest Himalayas fromGarhwal eastwards at altitudes of1,800–3,000 m.English ◮ Neosia Pine, Edible Pine,Chilgoza Pine.Ayurvedic ◮ Nikochaka.Unani ◮ Chilgozaa.Action ◮ Kernels—stimulant,carminative, expectorant. Oil fromseeds—externally used for woundsand ulcers.The kernels gave protein 15.9, fat49.9, carbohydrates 21.6 and mineralmatter 2.9%. The mineral constituentsinclude calcium 90.8, phosphorus 92.4and iron 2.4 mg/100 g. Pectin is presentto the extent of 1.73% (calculated as calciumpectate). Seed protein on hydrolysisgave amino acids—leucine, isoleucine,valine, lysine, phenylalanine,tryptophan and methionine. The oilgave glycerides. The essential oil fromoleoresin contains alpha-and beta-pineneas major constituents; other constituentsare sesquiterpenes.Pinus khasya Royle.Synonym ◮P. insularis Endl.Family ◮ Pinaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam; introduced intohills of North Bengal.English ◮ Khasi Pine.Ayurvedic ◮ Sarala var.Folk ◮ Digsaa (Khasia).Action ◮ Spasmolytic, antimicrobial.Oleo-resin—considered superior tothat of P. roxburghii for turpentine.The bark contains 7–10% of tannin.The essential oil from oleoresin containschiefly alpha-pinene. Other constituentsare beta-pinene, longifolineand sesquiterpenes. Abetic acid fromrosin possesses weak cardiac and spasmolyticactivities.Pinus roxburghii Sarg.Synonym ◮ P. longifolia Roxb.Family ◮ Pinaceae.Habitat ◮ The Western and EasternHimalayas.English ◮ Long-leaved Pine, ThreeleavedPine, Chir Pine.Ayurvedic ◮ Sarala, Pita-vriksha,Surabhidaaruka, Dhuupavriksha,Namasu. Oleo-resin—Shriveshtaka,Ghandh-Birojaa.Unani ◮ Sanobar-ul-Hindi. Oleoresin—Gandh-Bihrojaa,Qinn,Berzad.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Simaidevadaru.Action ◮ Needle, needle oil—decongestant, expectorant, antiseptic.Oil—used in cough and coldremedies, particularly inhalations

Piper betle Linn. 489and in rubefacients for rheumatismand muscle stiffness. Resin—expectorant, antiseptic, antipruritic.The essential oil from oleoresin containschiefly alpha-and beta-pinene;carene and longifoline.Pinus pinaster Ait (Cluster Pine,Maritime Pine) has been successfullygrowninKulu,ManaliandRahini.German Commission E recognized theefficacy of the needle-oil in catarrhaldiseases of the upper and lower respiratorytract (internally, as well asexternally).Dosage ◮ Heartwood, root—1–3 gpowder. (API, Vol. III.)Pinus succinifera(Goppert) Cornw.Family ◮ Pinaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of northernscandinavia.English ◮ Baltic Amber, Succinite.Unani ◮ Ambar, Kahruubaa,Action ◮ Cardiac tonic, styptic.Vateria indica is used in Unanimedicine as a substitute for P.succinifera gum-resin (Fossil-resin).Piper attenuatumBuch.-Ham. ex Miq.Synonym ◮ P. bantamense Blume.Family ◮ Piperaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern tropical Himalayas,Assam, Khasi Hills and the Nilgiris.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattumilaaku.Action ◮ Root—diuretic. Plant—rubefacient; used for muscularpains and headache.Several aristolactams have been reportedfrom the aerial parts of theplant. Crotepoxide exhibited significantantitumour activity.Roots contain alkamides includingpiperine, piperlonguminine andguineensine.Piper betle Linn.Family ◮ Piperaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in warmerand damper parts of India; Assam,West Bengal, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh,Karnataka, Kerala.English ◮ Betel pepper.Ayurvedic ◮ Taambula, Naagvallari,Naagini, Taambulvalli, Saptashiraa,Bhujangalataa.Unani ◮ Paan, Tambool.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vetrilai Nagavalli,Kammaaruvetritai.Action ◮ Leaf—stimulant, carminative,astringent, antiseptic. Essentialoil from leaves—antispasmodic,antiseptic. Used in respiratorycatarrhs. Fruit—bechic.The leaves afforded beta- and gamma-sitosterol,hentriacontane, pentatriacontane,n-triacontanol, stearicacid and chavicol. The essential oilfrom leaves contained carvacrol, eugenol,chavicol, allyl catechol, cineole,estragol, caryophyllene, cardinene, p-cymene and eugenol methyl ether.P

490 Piper chaba Hunter non-Blume.Administration of the leaf extract resultedin decreased tumour burden andtumour incidence and a delay in theonset of mammary tumour in Wistarrats.The alcoholic extract of the leaf stalkis reported to show antispermatogenicand antiandrogenic effect in male albinorats.The essential oil exhibited hypotensive,cardiac as well as respiratory depressantand cardiotonic properties.The leaf showed antifungal and antibacterialactivity. The antiseptic activityis attributed to chavicol.Dosage ◮ Leaf—10–15 ml juice. (API,Vol. III.)Key application ◮ In diseases of thespleen, chlorosis, diseases of theabdomen. colic, worm infestation.(The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia.)Java long pepper is similar in compositionto black pepper; it containsless piperine and volatile oil (piperine4.5 and volatile oil 1.5%).The stem is used as a substitute forPiper longum root. It contains the alkaloidspiperine and piplartine. Betasitosterol,glycosides, glucose and fructoseand mucilage have also been reported.Active principles show musclerelaxant property.PPiper chaba Hunter non-Blume.Synonym ◮ P. retrofractum Vahl.P. officinarum DC.Family ◮ Piperaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Moluccas,cultivated in Indonesia, also inIndia.English ◮ Java Long Pepper.Ayurvedic ◮ Gajapippali (spikes ofScindapsis officinalis, Araceae, arealso known as Gajapippali), Chavya,Chavika.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chevuyam.Action ◮ Similar to P. longumand P. nigrum. Fruits—stimulant,carminative; used in haemorrhoidalaffections; as a tonic, afterchildbirth.Roots—chewed orbrewed in decoction for colic,dyspepsia and gastralgia.Piper cubeba Linn. f.Family ◮ Piperaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Indonesia;cultivated in Assam and Karnataka.English ◮ Cubeb, Tailed Pepper.Ayurvedic ◮ Kankola, Kakkola,Kankolaka, Takkola, Koraka,Kolaka, Kashphala, Sheetalchini,Chinoshana.Unani ◮ Kabaabchini, Habb-uluruus.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Valmilagu.Action ◮ Fruit—Carminative,diuretic, expectorant. Used forcoughs, bronchitis, asthma, urinarytract infections, amoebic dysentery.Stimulates genitourinary mucoussurfaces. Oil—antibacterial, used ingenitourinary diseases and cystitis.Key application ◮ In dysuria. (TheAyurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.)

Piper longum Linn. 491The ground fruits have been foundto be effective in treating amoebic dystentery.The oil exhibits antiviral activity inrats and antibacterial in vitro.Unripe fruit contains volatile oil (10–20%) consisting of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons;lignans, mainly cubebine(about 2%), with (−)-cubebinin and kinokinin;cubebic acid. The oxygenatedcyclohexanes, piperenol A and B, togetherwith (+)-crotepoxide and (+)-zeylenol, have been isolated from thefruit. Polyhydroxy cyclohexanes possessantitumour, antileukaemic and antibioticactivities.Dosage ◮ Fruit—1–2 g powder. (API,Vol. I.)Piper hamiltonii C. DC.Family ◮ Piperaceae.Habitat ◮ Sikkim, Terai, West Bengaland Khasi hills, up to 900 m.English ◮ Wild Pepper.Folk ◮ Jangali Paan.Action ◮ Carminative and diuretic.Kadsurin A and isodihydrofutoquinolB have been isolated from aerialparts.Piper longum Linn.Family ◮ Piperaceae.Habitat ◮ Warmer parts of India,from Central Himalayas to Assam,lower hills of West Bengal; UttarPradesh, Andhra Pradesh, WesternGhats from Konkan southwards toTrivandrum. Often cultivated.English ◮ Indian Long Pepper,Joborandi.Ayurvedic ◮ Pippali, Maagadhi,Maagadha, Maagadhaa, Maagadhikaa,Magadhodbhavaa, Vaidehi,Upkulyaa, Pippalikam, Chapalaa,Kanaa, Krishnaa. Uushnaa, Shaundi,Kolaa, Tikshna-tandulaa.Unani ◮ Filfil Daraaz, Daarfilfil.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thippili, Arisi thippili.Thippiliver (root).Action ◮ Fruits—used for diseasesof the respiratory tract (cough,bronchitis, asthma); as sedative (ininsomnia and epilepsy); as cholagogue(in obstruction of bile ductand bladder), as emmenagogue, asdigestive, appetizer and carminative(in indigestion); as general tonic andhaematinic (in anaemia, chronicfevers and for improving intellect).Applied locally on muscular painsand inflammations.Several aristolactams and dioxoaporphineshave been isolated from Indianlong pepper. It also contains thelong chain isobutyl amide, longamide,besides guineensine and the lignans,pluviatilol, methyl pluviatilol (fargesin),sesamin and asarinine.Piperine is the major alkaloid of peppers.Piperine is antipyretic, hypotensive,analeptic, CNS stimulant. It has beenreported to exert significant protectionagainst CCl4-induced hepatotoxicityin mice. It improves drug availabilityin experimental animals, and isP

492 Piper nigrum Linn.Pused for enhancing the efficacy of coadministeredmedicaments.Piperine enhanced bioavailability ofhexobarbital, phenytoin, propranololand theophylline. (Sharon M. Herr.)(Piperine is also a component of Pipernigrum.)N-isobutyl-deca-trans-2-trans-4-dienamide, isolated from the fruit, exhibitedantitubercular property.Milk extract of the fruit effectivelyreduced passive cutaneous anaphylaxisin rats. It protected guinea-pigs againstantigen-induced bronchospasm.In China, Piper longum oil constituentswere reported to inhibit theincrease in serum total cholesterol inducedbytritoninmice.The root powder exhibited antifertilityactivity.A related species, P. peepuloidesRoxb., is known as Saamvali Peepal.It is used specifically against obstinateskin diseases and as a sialagogue.Dosage ◮ Fruit—1–3 mg (API, Vol.IV); root—1–3 g powder. (CCRAS.)Piper nigrum Linn.Family ◮ Piperaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of the Indo-Malaysian region; cultivatedin Western Ghats, Karnataka,Maharashtra, Assam and Kerala.English ◮ Black Pepper.Ayurvedic ◮ Maricha, Vellaja,Uushna, Suvrrita, Krishnaa.Unani ◮ Filfil Siyaah, Safed.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Milagu. Milaguver(root).Action ◮ Stimulant, carminative,diuretic, anticholerin, sialagogue,bechic, antiasthmatic. Used infevers,dyspepsia,flatulence,indigestion,and as mucous membraneand gastro-intestinal stimulant. Externally—rubefacientand stimulantto the skin. Used as a gargle for sorethroat. Used with ginger and Piperlongum for viral hepatitis.The fruit yielded piperine, piperatineand piperidine; amides, piperyline,piperoleins A and B, and N-isobutyl-cicosa-trans-2-trans-4-dienamide.The aqueous extract of roasted blackpepper is reported to show cholinomimeticeffect on rat abdominis muscles.Dosage ◮ Fruit—500 mg to 1 g.(CCRAS.)Piper schmidtii Hook. f.Family ◮ Piperaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, Western Ghats,the Nilgiris and Palni hills above1,500 m.English ◮ Nilgiri Pepper.Action ◮ Carminative.The neolignan schmiditin, togetherwith lignin galgravin as well asfriedelin, beta-sitosterol and its beta-O-glucoside have been isolated fromthe extract of aerial parts. The extractexhibited antiamoebic activity.Piper sylvaticum Roxb.Family ◮Piperaceae.

Pisonia aculeata Linn. 493Habitat ◮Ayurvedic ◮Folk ◮Assam and Bengal.Vana-Pippali.Pahaari Peepal.Action ◮ Fruit—carminative. Aerialparts—diuretic.The root yielded a lignin, sesamin;amides (including piperine, piperlongumine)and beta-sitosterol.Piper thomsoni Hook. f.Family ◮ Piperaceae.Habitat ◮ Sikkim, Bengal, Manipur,Khasi and Jaintia hills.Folk ◮ Jangali Paan.Action ◮ Root—(macerated in water)diuretic.Piper wallichii Hand.-Mazz.Synonym ◮ P. aurantiacum Wall exDC.Family ◮ Piperaceae.Habitat ◮ Nepal, Lakhimpur andKhasi Hills in Assam.Ayurvedic ◮ Wrongly equated withSambhaaluka. (Sambhaalu hasbeen identified as Vitex negundo.)Renukaa is also a wrong synonym(it is equated with the seed of Vitexagnus-castus).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kaattu-milagu.Action ◮ Fruits—used as uterinestimulant.The fruit contain piperine, piperettineand sylvatine, besides beta-sitosterol.The seeds gave aurantiamide, itsacetate and auranamide.The fraction, containing alkaloids,showed oxytocic activity. The ligninconstituents inhibited platelet aggregationcaused by platelet-activating factor.Piscidia piscipula (Linn.) Sarg.Synonym ◮ P. erythrina Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to America;introduced in India.English ◮ Jamaica Dogwood.Action ◮ Sedative, spasmolytic,analgesic, anti-inflammatory.The bark gave several, isoflavonoids.Piscidone and piscerythrone exhibitspasmolytic activity. Piscidin glycosideand rotenone are toxic constituents.The bark is used for neuralgia, migraineand insomnia in South Americaand West Indies.In some in vitro tests, the root bark’sextract exhibited antispasmodic effectsasstrongaspapaverine’s(NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Pisonia aculeata Linn.Family ◮ Nyctaginaceae.Habitat ◮ The sea coast in PeninsularIndia, also in the Andaman Islands.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karindu.Folk ◮ Baghachuur (Bengal).P

494 Pisonia grandis R. Br.PAction ◮ Bark and leaves—counterirritantfor swellings and rheumaticpains. Fresh leaves—used as a washfor scabies.Pisonia grandis R. Br.Synonym ◮ P. morindaefolia R. Br. exWt.Family ◮ Nyctaginaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardens inChennai and other places near thesea on both east and west coasts.English ◮ Lettuce tree.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chandi keerai,Leechai kottai keerai, Nachu Kottaikeerai.Action ◮ Fresh leaf—diuretic, usedin inflammations (of elephantoidnature in legs and other parts).Root—purgative.The plant gave octacosanol, betasitosterol,alpha-spinasterol, beta-sitosterol-beta-D-glucopyranoside,dulcitoland quercetin.Karkata, Karkataakhya, Kulirashringaaya,Kuliravishaanikaa,Vakraa, Vishaani. Ajashringi (alsoequated with Gymnema sylvestre).Unani ◮ Kaakraasingi, Kakar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karkatagasingi.Action ◮ Gall—astringent, expectorant,antiasthmatic, antidysenteric,styptic.Key application ◮ In cough, bronchitisand dyspnoea. (The AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India.)The tetracyclic triterpenes, pistacigerrimonesA, B and C have been isolatedfrom the galls produced on theleaves.Alpha-pinene 21.8, beta-pinene 16.2,alpha-phellandrene 15.5 and delta-carene11% are major constituents ofthe essential oil extracted from galls.The oil is reported to exhibit CNSdepressant,antispasmodic, carminativeand antibacterial, antiprotozoal,antiamoebic, anthelmintic activities.Dosage ◮Vol. I.)Gall—3–6 g powder. (API,Pistacia integerrimaStewart ex Brandis.Synonym ◮ P. chinensis Bungesubspecies Integerrima (Stewart)Rech. f.Family ◮ Anacardiaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas from Industo Kumaon.Ayurvedic ◮ Karkatashringi,Shringi, Karkatashringikaa,Pistacia lentiscus Linn.Family ◮ Anacardiaceae.Habitat ◮ Mediterranean countries.The resin is imported into India.English ◮ Mastic tree.Unani ◮ Mastagi, Roomi Mastagi,Mastaki.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ponnuikan kungiliyam.

Pistia stratiotes Linn. var. cuneata Engl. 495Action ◮ Resin—carminative,diuretic, stimulant, astringent.The mastic gum contains 2% essentialoil. The oil sample from Spain isreported to contain 90% monoterpenehydrocarbons, the major constituentsof which are alpha-pinene 79% and mycrene3%.Chiefcomponentsoftheresintriterpenesare mastic acid, isomastic acid,oleanolic acid and tirucallol.The lyophilized aqueous extract ofthe aerial parts gave steroid-triterpenes,catechin tannins, flavonoids, saponins,resins and sugars. In some regionsof Spain, the aerial parts are usedagainst hypertension.There is some preliminary evidencethat Mastic might have hypotensiveand antioxidant effects. (The Review ofNatural Products by Facts and Comparisons,1999.)For prevention of gastric and duodenalulcers, some researchers think Masticmight have antisecretory and possiblycytoprotective effects. (J Ethnopharmacol,15(3), 1986; Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)Pistacia khinjuk Stocks is known askhinjak, Butum and Roomi Mastagiin Mumbai and Maharashtra. P. terebinthusLinn. is known as Kabuli Mustaki.Pistacia vera Linn.Family ◮Anacardiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to eastern Mediterraneanregion, Iran, Afghanistanand Central Asian countries;cultivated in North India.English ◮ Pistachio, Green Almond.Ayurvedic ◮ Mukuulaka.Unani ◮ Pistaa (Kernel), Ilk-ul-Ambaat (resin).Action ◮ The kernel is used asa cardiac and brain tonic; flowersare included in prescriptions forleucorrhoea; husk is used againstdysentery and as astringent instomatitis and tonsillitis.Pistia stratiotes Linn. var.cuneata Engl.Family ◮ Araceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical and sub-tropicalAsia, Africa and America.English ◮ Water Lettuce, TropicalDuckweed.Ayurvedic ◮ Jalakumbhi, Vaariparni,Vaarimuuli.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Agasatamarai.Action ◮ Whole plant and root—diuretic, used for dysuria. Leaf—antitussive,demulcent,antidysenteric,externally applied to haemorrhoids,ulcers, skin diseases. Ash—appliedto ringworm of the scalp.The plant gave 2-di-C-glycosylflavonesof vicenin and lucenin type,anthocyanin-cyanidin-3-glucoside, luteolin-7-glycosideand mono-C-glycosylflavones—vitexin and orientin.Dosage ◮ Plant—10–20 ml juice.(CCRAS.)P

496 Pithecellobium dulce Benth.PPithecellobium dulce Benth.Family ◮Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughout theplains of India.English ◮ Minila Tamarind, MadrasThorn, Quamachil.Siddha/Tamil ◮Puli.Karapilly, KodukkaaFolk ◮ Vilaayati Imli, DakhiniBabool.Action ◮ Bark—astringent, febrifuge,antidysenteric. Stem-bark—spasmolytic.Seeds—anti-inflammatory.The leaves contain alpha-spinasterol;its beta-D-glucoside, octacosanol,kaempferol, its 3-rhamnoside, behenicand lignoceric acids. An insulin-likeprinciple has also been reported in theleaves.Seeds gave kaempferol, quercetinand a saponin consisting of a mixtureof oleanolic and echinocystic acid glycosides.Lecithin is also reported fromseeds.The seed exhibited haemolytic agglutinatingreaction with human blood.Saponins from seeds show spermicidalactivity.The bark contains tannins (up to37%) of a catechol type; non-tans 10–15%; 1.5% of pectin.Pithecellobium monadelphumKosterm.Synonym ◮ P. bigeminatum auct.non-(L.) Mart. ex Benth.;P. gracile Bedd.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, Khasi,Jaintia and Lushai Hills.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kalpakku.Folk ◮ Kachloraa.Action ◮ Leaf—used externallyas a mostrum for leprosy; alsoapplied for promoting growth ofhair. Seed—hypoglycaemic. Aerialparts—diuretic, spasmolytic.The seeds contain 18.3% protein;major amino acids are aspartic acid13.2, glutamic acid 10.9, alanine 9.7,leucine 8.3, glycine 8.2, serine 7.4%.Seeds contain a poisonous principlepithecolobine. They are used after repeatedboiling and discarding of water.Pittosporum dasycaulon Miq.Family ◮ Pittosporaceae.Habitat ◮ The rain forests of SouthIndia.Folk ◮ Gapasundi (Maharashtra),Boogri (Karnataka).Action ◮ Stem-bark—antibacterial,antifungal.Pittosporum floribundumWight & Arn.Family ◮ Pittosporaceae.Habitat ◮ Subtropical Himalayas,Ganjam, Konkan, Western Ghatsand the Nilgiris.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu Sampangi.Folk ◮ Tumari. Vikhaari, Vekhali(Maharashtra).

Plantago lanceolata Linn. 497Action ◮ Bark—anti-inflammatory,antispasmodic, narcotic; used inchronic bronchitis; also administeredin leprous affections; a pasteis applied to inflammatory andrheumatic swellings.The Himalayan plants yielded an essentialoil (0.26%) with alpha-pinene,dipentene, linalool, cineol, methyl salicylate,decyl aldehyde, anisaldehyde,bergapten, eugenol, indole and salicylicand benzoic acids as major constituents.The oil is applied topically insprains, bruises, sciatica, rheumatism,chest affections and in certain skin diseases.The narcotic action of the bark isattributed to the presence of a yellowoleoresin. The bark also containa saponin, pittosporin.Plantago amplexicaulis Cav. var.bauphula (Edgew.) Pilger.Family ◮ Plantaginaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Rajasthan andDelhi.English ◮ Brown Ispaghula.Unani ◮ Aspaghol.Action ◮ Seed—astringent. Seedcoat—demulcent.See Plantago ovata.Plantago lanceolata Linn.Family ◮ Plantaginaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas, fromKashmir to Garhwal and Simla.English ◮ Rib Grass, Ribwort Plantain,English Plantain, BuckhornPlantain.Unani ◮Folk ◮Baartang, Aspaghol.Balatang.Action ◮ Leaf and root—astringent,bechic, antiasthmatic,anti-inflammatory, hypothermic,diuretic. Seed—cathartic, diuretic,haemostatic.Key application ◮ Internally, forcatarrhs of the respiratory tract andinflammatory alterations of the oraland pharyngeal mucosa; externallyfor inflammatory reactions of theskin. (German Commission E,ESCOP.)Globularin and methyl ester of desacetylasperulosidic acid were isolatedfrom the plant along with catapol.A crude mucilage, isolated fromthe leaves, contains L-arabinose 26.0,D-galactose 35.8, D-glucose 21.9, D-mannose 4.6, L-rhamnose 4.6 anduronic acid 6.9%. Alpha-D-glucan wasseparated from this mucilage.Leaves gave aucubin and esculetin,in addition to polysaccharides. Thewhole plant yielded rhamnosidoglycosideof caffeic acid. Seeds contain 1.1%aucubin. Aucubin exhibits antibacterialactivity. Hepatoprotective effect isalso attributed to the aucubin content.Alcoholic extract of young leaves exhibitantibacterial action against Streptococcusbetahaemolyticus, Micrococcuspyogenes var. aureus and Bacillussubtilis, thus confirming their woundhealingproperties.P

498 Plantago major Linn.PPlantago major Linn.Family ◮Plantaginaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate and alpineHimalayas from Kashmir to Bhutanat altitudes of 600–3,500 m.English ◮ Broadleaf Plantain.Ayurvedic ◮ Ashvagola (var.).Folk ◮ Isabgol.Action ◮ Plant—haemostatic,antihistaminic, antibacterial,wound-healing in burns andinflammation of tissues. Leaves—cooling, astringent, diuretic,vulnerary, febrifuge. Used fordiarrhoea, bacillary dysentery,hepatitis, urinary diseases, piles,ulcers and skin diseases. Leavesare used for cystitis with blood,haematuria and other bladderdisorders.The aqueous extract of the leavesshowed anti-inflammatory activity inmice.The aerial parts contain an iridoidglucoside, majoroside. The leavescontain a phenylpropanoid glycoside,plantamajoside, exhibiting antibacterialactivity against several pathogenicbacteria including E. coli and Staphylococcusaureus. (The glycoside is lessinhibitory than the free acids, caffeic,ferulic, and rosmarinic and esculetin.)Plantago ovata Forsk.Synonym ◮ P. ispaghula Roxb.Family ◮ Plantaginaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in parts ofRajasthan and Maharashtra.English ◮ Ispaghula, Spogel seeds,Blond Psyllium.Ayurvedic ◮ Ashvagola. Ashwakarna(also equated with Shorea robusta).Unani ◮ Aspaghol.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Isapppa.Folk ◮ Isabgol.Action ◮ Seed and husk—laxative,diuretic, demulcent, bechic,cholinergic. Used in inflammatoryconditions of the mucousmembrane of gastrointestinal andgenitourinary tract, chronic amoebicand bacillary dysentery; also inhypercholesterolemia.Key application ◮ In chronicconstipation and irritable bowel.(German Commission E.) Alsoinconstipation due to duodenal ulceror diverticulitis (WHO.) GermanCommission E also noted thatBlond Psyllium seed lowers serumcholesterol levels. It has also beenshown to slow sugar absorptionthereby reducing blood glucose.(ESCOP.) Use of Blond Psylliumhusk up to six months did notclinically alter vitamin or mineralstatus in a review of eight humantrials. It did not reduce absorptionof calcium. (J AmGeriatrSoc,43,1995; Am J Clin Nutr, 71, 2000;Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)The seed contains amino acids includingvaline, alanine, glutamic acid,glycine, cystine, lysine, leucine andtyrosine; and a mucilage consistingof a mixture of polysaccharides composedmainly of xylose, arabinose and

Plectranthus mollis Spreng. 499galacturonic acid; rhamnose and galactoseare also present. The seeds alsogave aucubin, the antibacterial principle.The seed coat contains fatty acidsmainly linoleic, oleic and palmitic acidsin decreasing concentrations.The seeds show a liver protective effecton induced hepatotoxicity in mice.In China, the plant is used clinically totreat certain types of hepatitis (activitydue to aucubin content).Dosage ◮Husk—5–10 g. (CCRAS.)Platanus orientalis Linn.Family ◮ Platanaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to eastern Mediterraneanregion; cultivated in Kashmirand North-western Himalayas at1,200–2,400 m.English ◮ Oriental Plane, OrientalSycamore. European Plane tree.Folk ◮ Chinaar, Buin (Kashmir andPunjab).Action ◮ Bark—antidiarrhoeal,antiscorbutic, antirheumatic.Leaf—astringent. Buds—antiseptic,used for urinary infection.The buds yielded kaempferol, itsderivatives and caffeic acid. The methanolicextract exhibits antiseptic andantimicrobial activities.The bark contains 1.5% of platanin,also 5.9% tannin and 7.3% non-tans.The shoots and leaves contain alantoin;roots phlobaphene. The sap ofthe tree contains up to 90% mannitol.A triterpene, platanolic acid, is foundin most parts of the plant except thefruit.Platycodon grandiflorum(Jacq.) A. DC.Family ◮ Campanulaceae.Habitat ◮ East Asia; introduced intoIndia and cultivated in rockeriesand borders.English ◮ Balloon Flower, ChineseBell Flower.Action ◮ Expectorant and antitussive.Root—used to treat cough, tonsillitisand asthma, also to treat stomatitis,peptic ulcer and inflammatorydiseases. (WHO.)The major chemical constituents ofthe root are triterpene saponins. Theroot exhibits haemolytic action.Plectranthus mollis Spreng.Synonym ◮ P. incanus Link.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayasfrom Simla to Sikkim and in Bihar,Madhya Pradesh and WesternGhats.Folk ◮ Laal-Aghaadaa (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaves—styptic, febrifuge.The aerial parts yielded an essentialoil (0.35%) containing piperitenoneoxide (45.01) and cis-pipestone oxide(35.70%) as major constituents.The antimicrobial activity of 10 mgof the oil was found to be the same asthat of 10 units of penicillin G. sodium.The essential oil also exhibited cardiacdepressant, respiratory stimulant andvasoconstrictor action. The leaves andP

500 Plesmonium margaritiferum Schott.Pflowering tops, in addition to the oil,also contain resin and tannin.Plesmonium margaritiferumSchott.Family ◮ Araceae.Habitat ◮ Bengal, Chhota Nagpur,Ranchi, Purnea, Vishakhapatnamand Tamil Nadu.Ayurvedic ◮ Vajrakanda.Folk ◮ Kharhar(UttarPradesh).Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory (wellgroundtubers are rubbed onswellings of the extremities).Seeds—externally applied tobruises. The tubers are poisonous(can be eaten after several boilings).Pluchea indica Less.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Sundarbans, in saltmarshes and mangrove swamps.Folk ◮ Kukarondh, Manjurukh(Bengal).Action ◮ Root and leaves—astringent,antipyretic; given in decoction asa diaphoretic in fevers. Leaf—juice is given for dysentery;an infusion for lumbago, alsoagainst leucorrhoea. Root—antiinflammatory,hepatoprotective.The aerial parts contain terpenicglycosides. The root contains sesquiterpenes,lignin glycosides, thiophenederivatives.Theextractsofdefattedrootsshowedsignificant anti-inflammatory activity.The extracts inhibited protein exudationand leucocyte migration.Neuropharmacological studies ondifferent experimental models of rodentsexhibited potent central nervoussystem depressant activity.The methanolic fraction of the extractexhibited significant hepatoprotectiveactivity against induced hepatotoxicityin rats and mice. The extractalso caused significant reductionin the elevated serum enzyme levelsand serum bilirubin content in acuteliver injury.Pluchea lanceolata C. B. Clarke.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Upper Gangeticplains, Gujarat, Rajasthan.Ayurvedic ◮ Raasnaa, Rasanaa, Raasnikaa,Rasaa, Yuktaa, Yuktrasaa,Suvahaa, Elaaparni.Folk ◮ Vaaya-surai (Uttar Pradesh),Raayasan.Action ◮ Aerial parts—smoothmuscle relaxant. Stem—antiinflammatory.Pluchea lanceolatais the source of Raasnaa in Punjab,Uttar Pradesh and Gujarat. Vandaroxburghii is used as Raasnaa inBengal. Throughout South India,Alpinia galanga is accepted asRaasnaa.The stem and leaves contain moretenol,moretenol acetate, neolupenol, octacosanoic,hexacosanoic and tetracosanoicacid, tetracosanol, hexaco-

Plumbago zeylanica Linn. 501sanol, triacontanol, stigmasterol andbeta-sitosterol-D-glucoside.The petroleum extract of the stemand leaves and the chloroform-solubleportion of the methanolic extract exhibited31.9% and 54.5% antioedemaactivity, respectively. The triterpenes,moretenol acetate, moretenol and neolupenolexhibited 55.2, 32,8 and 39.7%anti-inflammatory activity respectivelyas against ibuprofen as standard exhibiting65.5% activity.Plumbago capensis Thunb.Synonym ◮ P. auriculata Lam.Family ◮ Plumbaginaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South Africa;growningardensinIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Nila-chitraka (bluefloweredvar.). (Bears pale-blueflowers.)Action ◮ See P. zeylanica.Plumbago indica Linn.Synonym ◮ P. rosea Linn.Family ◮ Plumbaginaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to Sikkim andkhasi hills, grown in Indian gardens.English ◮ Rose-coloured Leadwort.Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-chitraka (redfloweredvar.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chittramoolam.Action ◮ See P. zeylanica. P. indicais preferred in West Bengal andKerala. Both P. indica and P.zeylanica contain about 0.9%plumbagin.Plumbago zeylanica Linn.Family ◮ Plumbaginaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardensthroughout India; also found wildin Peninsular India.English ◮ Ceylon Leadwort,Leadwort.Ayurvedic ◮ Chitraka, Agni, Vahni,Jvalanaakhya, Krshaanu, Hutaasha,Dahana, Sikhi.Unani ◮ Sheetraj Hindi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chittramoolam.Action ◮ Root—intestinal floranormalizer, stimulates digestiveprocesses; used for dyspepsia. Rootpaste is applied in order to openabscesses; a paste prepared withmilk, vinegar or salt and water, isused externally in leprosy and otherobstinate skin diseases. A coldinfusion is used for influenza andblack-water fever.Key application ◮ In sprue, malabsorptionsyndrome, piles and inflammatorydiseases of ano-rectum.(The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia ofIndia.)The root yielded naphthoquinonederivatives, plumbagin being the mostimportant active principle.The root extract, after processingfor plumbagin enhancement, has beenused in a number of drug formulationsfor liver ailments. Experimentally,plumbagin prevented the accumulationof triglycerides in liver and aortaP

502 Plumeria acuminata Ait.Pand regressed atheromatous plaquesand abdominal aorta. The chloroformextract of the root showed significantactivity against pencillin-resistant (alsonon-pencillin resistant) strains of Neisseriagonorrhoea. (The root is used fortreating sexually transmitted diseasesin traditional Indian medicine.)In Siddha medicine, in Tamil Nadu,the plant is an ingredient in anumberofdrug formulations for treating cancersof the uterus, breast, lungs and oralcavity, in addition to haemorrhoids.Plumbagin is abortifacient, antiovulatory;causes selective testicular lesionsin dogs; in lower doses it behaveslike a spindle poison, in higher concentrationexhibits radiomimetic nucleotoxicand cytotoxic effects.Dosage ◮ Detoxified root—1–2 gpowder. (API, Vol. I.)Plumeria acuminata Ait.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Mexico;cultivated in Indian gardens.English ◮ Pagoda tree.Action ◮ Root bark—used in herpes,sexually transmitted diseases.Bark—stimulant, emmenagogue.Root—violent cathartic. Latex—purgative, rubefacient.Iridoids are present in the leaf, stem,flower and root. Plumieride glucosidehas been isolated from all parts of theplant. The plumeric acid, isolated fromleaves, exhibits promising cytotoxic activity.Fulvoplumierin (a pigment) inhibitsthe growth of various strains of Mycobacteriumtuberculosis.Plumeria alba Linn.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to West Indies;cultivated in Indian gardens.English ◮ White Champa.Ayurvedic ◮ Kshira Champaka(white-flowered var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Perumal Arali,Seemai Arali.Action ◮ Root bark—used in blennorrhagia.Bark and latex—usedexternally in herpes, syphilitic ulcersand scabies. Seed—haemostatic.The root gave iridoids—iso-plumericin,plumericin, plumieride, plumieridecoumarate and its glucoside.The bark gave alpha-and beta-amyrinand their acetates, beta-sitosterol, scopoletinand plumieride. The flowers alsocontain plumieride coumarate andits glucoside, in addition to quercetinderivatives.Plumeria rubra Linn.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Mexico; grownthroughout India.English ◮ Red Jasmine.Ayurvedic ◮ Kshira Champaka(red-flowered var.).

Podophyllum sikkimensis R. Chatterji & Mukerjee. 503Action ◮ Root bark—used inblennorrhagia. Flower—bechic(used in pectoral syrups). Bark—a decoction is used in venerealdiseases and leprosy.The bark contains cytotoxic iridoids(including fulvoplumierin which alsoinhibits the growth of Mycobacteriumtuberculosis) and the lignin, liriodendrin.The plant contains the triterpenerubrinol which showed antibacterialactivity against Gram-positive andGram-negative bacteria, includingPseudomonas aeruginosa (a causativeagent responsible for infecting burns,wounds, urinary tract and infection incystic fibrosis) and Pseudomonas pseudomallei(which causes melioidosis orpseudoglandess).The herb contains cardiac glycosideswhich have a narrow-margin of safety.(Sharon M. Herr.)Podophyllum hexandrum Royle.Synonym ◮ P. emodi Wall. exHook. f. & Thoms.Family ◮ Berberidaceae.Habitat ◮ Inner ranges of theHimalayas, from Kashmir to Sikkimat 1,800–4,000 m.English ◮ Indian Podophyllum.Ayurvedic ◮ Giriparpata.Folk ◮ Bana-kakari (Punjab), Venivel(Gujarat), Patvel (Maharashtra).Paapraa, Paapri.Action ◮ Rhizomes and roots—antineoplastic. Strongly irritantto skin and mucous membranes.Used topically as an ointment forvenereal warts, verrucae and similarconditions.Key application ◮ P. peltatum—externally, for removal of pointedcondyloma (skin adjacent to thetreated area should be protected).(German Commission E.) P. hexandrum:Podophyllin (10–40%) forexternal application, 2–6 h weekly,for anogenital warts. (Indian HerbalPharmacopoeia.) (Podophyllin isa mitotic poison.)May Apple of North America isequated with Podophyllum peltatumLinn. The main lignin is podophyllotoxin.Podophyllum hexandrum containssimilar lignans with the exceptionof alpha-and beta-peltatins, whichare reportedly absent; the concentrationof podophyllotoxin is up to 4.3%.P. peltatum contains about 0.25% andthe Taiwanese species P. pleianthum0.1% podophyllotoxin.(Podophyllotoxin is a valuable lignin,as it is used for the synthesisof chemically administered cytostaticetoposide and tenoposide.)Podophyllum sikkimensisR. Chatterji & Mukerjee.Family ◮ Berberidaceae.Habitat ◮ Sikkim.Folk ◮ Paapraa (var.).Action ◮ Resin—used againsttumours.The rhizomes and roots yield 7.5%resin which gave a lignin lactone desig-P

504 Pogostemon benghalensis Kuntze.Pnated sikkimotoxin; also 3-galactosidylquercetin, quercetin and isorhamnetin.It is yet to be established that thelactone possesses properties analogousto those of podophyllotoxin.Pogostemon benghalensisKuntze.Synonym ◮Family ◮P. plectranthoides Desf.Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout greater part ofIndia.Folk ◮ Ishwar-jataa. Jui-lataa (Bihar,Bengal). Phaangalaa (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Root—used in haemorrhage,especially in uterinehaemorrhage. Leaf—styptic; usedfor cleaning wounds. Essentialoil—antifungal. Acetone extract—insecticidal, insect repellent.Pogostemon pubescens Benth., synonymP. parviflorus Benth. isalsoknownas Phaangalaa in Maharashtra. Aerialpart exhibits antifungal and leaf antibacterialactivity.Sesquiterpene lactone, caryophyllen-9-beta-10-olide,has been isolatedfrom the whole plant.Pogostemon purpurascens Dalz.(Manipur and South-western India)also possesses properties similar toP. benghalensis. The acetone extractexhibited larvicidal activity againstthe larvae of malaria vector, Anophelesstephensi. It also showed activityagainst yellow fever mosquito.Pogostemon cablin Benth.Synonym ◮Hook. f.Family ◮P. patchouli var. sauvisLabiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the Philippines;introduced in India.English ◮Ayurvedic ◮Folk ◮Patchouli.Paanari.Paachi.Action ◮ Plant—insecticidal.Leaves—aninfusionisgiveninmenstrual troubles.The oil, extracted from dried leaves,is reported to possess antibacterial activityagainst E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus,Streptococcus pyogenes, Bacteriumcoli and B. typhosum. It is alsofound effective against Mycobacteriumtuberculosis. The oil is used in insectrepellentpreparations.Pogostemon parviflorus Benth.Synonym ◮Family ◮P. pubescens Benth.Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Hills of South-westernIndia, ascending to 1,200 m.Folk ◮Phaangalaa (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Aerial parts—antifungal,antibacterial.Acetone extract of the aerial partsexhibits larvicidal activity against thelarva of malaria vector, Anopheles stephensiand Culex quinquefasciatus.

Polyalthia longifolia Thw. 505Pogostemon patchoulisHook. f. non-Pelletier.Synonym ◮ P. heyneanus Benth.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats ofKarnataka, Kerala and the Nilgirihills up to 1,800 m.English ◮ Patchouli.Ayurvedic ◮ Paachi, Pancholi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadir Pachai.Folk ◮ Paanch (Maharashtra),Sugandhi Paanadi (Gujarat).Action ◮ Leaf—bechic, antiasthmatic.Apoulticeofleavesisappliedtoboils and to relieve headache.The plant gave alpha-pyrone derivatives,pogopyrones A and B; n-octacosanol,beta-sitosterol and its glucosideand several flavones. Pogopyrone B exhibitedcytotoxic activity.Polianthes tuberosa Linn.Family ◮ Amaryllidaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Mexico;cultivated for ornamental use.English ◮ Tuberose.Ayurvedic ◮ Rajanigandhaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nilasampangi.Folk ◮ Gulcheri, Gulshabbu.Action ◮ Flowers and bulbs—diuretic. Externally used for skineruptions. The bulbs are rubbedwith turmeric and butter andapplied over red pimples of infants.The bulbs are reported to containan alkaloid, lycorin, which causesvomiting.Dried and powdered bulbs are usedfor gonorrhoea.Polyalthia longifolia Thw.Family ◮ Annonaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Sri Lanka; grownin gardens throughout the warmerparts of India.English ◮ Mast tree, Fake Asoka tree,False Devadaru, Cemetry treeAyurvedic ◮ Devadaari (Devadaaruis equated with Cedrus deodara).(An adulterant to the bark of Saracaasoca.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nettilingam.Action ◮ Febrifuge. Causes cardiacdepression.The stem bark contains clerodanediterpenes, polyalthialdoic acid andkolavenic acid. The stem and its barkalso contain the cytotoxic aporphinealkaloid, liriodenine, besides nor-oliverolineand oliveroline-beta-N-oxide.Azafluorene alkaloids are also presentin the bark and leaves. The leaf exhibitsfungitoxic activity.Polyalthia simiarum Hook. f. &Thoms. (Orissa, Assam, Bengal, Bihar,Eastern Himalaya) is also equatedwith Fake Ashoka tree. It is knownas Boga-khamtou in Assam, Wojarah,Mongai in Orissa and Labshi, Kutti inNepal.Polyalthia suberosa Thw. (from Assamto Uttar Pradesh in the Northand Kerala in the South) is knownP

506 Polycarpaea corymbosa Lam.Pas Chamkhirni. The leaves containalpha-and beta-amyrin, lupeol, betasitosterol,stigmasterol and campesterol.The stems and leaves contain thetriterpene, suberosol, which showedanti-HIV replication activity. The stembark contains alkaloids, oxostephanineand lanuginosine, which exhibitedantibacterial activity against severalGram-positive and Gram-negativebacteria.Polycarpaea corymbosa Lam.Family ◮ Caryophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the greaterpart of India, ascending up to2,100 m in the Himalaya.Ayurvedic ◮ Parpata (substitute).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nilaisedachi.Folk ◮ Pittapaaparaa (Uttar Pradesh),Rupaaphuli (Gujarat).Action ◮ Leaves—anti-inflammatory,applied as poultice. Also prescribedin jaundice in the form of pills withmolasses. Flowering head, alongwith stem and leaves—astringent,demulcent. Plant—spermicidal.The plant gave camelliagenins (barrigenol)and stigmasterol.Polycarpon prostratum(Forsk.) Alschers & Schweinf.Synonym ◮ P. loeflingii Benth. &Hook. f.Family ◮ Caryophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmerparts of India in fields and wasteplaces.Folk ◮ Ghima, Suretaa.Action ◮ Leaves—an infusion ofroasted leaves is given for coughfollowing fever, particularly inmeasles.Alcoholic extract of the plant exhibitsspasmolytic activity. The aerialparts contain tetrahydroxy triterpenes.Presence of a triterpenoid saponin, andhentriacontane, hentriacontanol, betaamyrinand its acetate, beta-sitosteroland stigmasterol is also reported.Polygala chinensisauct. non Linn.Synonym ◮ P. arvensis Willd.Family ◮ Polygalaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India and theAndamans.English ◮ Senega.Folk ◮ Meradu, Maraad, Negali(Maharashtra). Maraad (Nepal).Action ◮ Root—antiasthmatic; usedas a substitute for Senega obtainedfrom the American plant Polygalasenega. (In Chinese medicineSenega refers to P. tenuifolia Willd.)Key application ◮ Senega Root—in productive cough, catarrh ofthe respiratory tract and chronicbronchitis. (German Commission E,ESCOP, WHO.)Senega yielded lactonic lignans,their glycosides and flavonol glycosides.The root gave arctiin, afzelin,

Polygonatum cirrhifolium (Wall.) Royle. 507myricitrin and rutin. A triterpenicsaponin was also obtained from theplant. The root contains salicylic acid,methyl salicylate and senegin (a saponinmixture).Senega is used for chronic bronchitis,catarrh, asthma and croup, as aninfusion.Related species are: P. chinesis Linn.,synonym P. glomerata Lour; P. telephioidesWilld., synonym P. brachystachyaDC. non-Bl., found throughoutthe plains of India. Both the plants areused as expectorant, antiasthmatic andanticatarrhal.Toxic constituents of Polygala senegaroot are: triterpene saponins—6–16% senegasaponins A-D with aglyconepresenegenin or senegin. Saponinsirritate GI tract mucosa and causereflex secretion of mucous in the bronchioles.A French patent is used against graftrejection, eczema and multiple sclerosisasananti-inflammatorydrug.Polygala crotalarioidesBuch.-Ham. ex DC.Family ◮Polygalaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas fromSimla to Sikkim and the Khasi Hills.Folk ◮ Lilakanthi, Lilakaathi. (Bihar).Maraad (var.).Action ◮ Root—used for coughand pulmonary catarrh; chewedor ground and drunk with waterto expel phlegm from the throat;provokes coughing.Polygala sibirica Linn.Synonym ◮ P. heyneana Wall.ex W. & A.Family ◮ Polygalaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the Himalayasand Western Ghats.English ◮ Common Milkwort.Folk ◮ Negali, Meradu (var.).Action ◮ Leaves—used in spermatorrhoea.Root—a decoction is givenas an expectorant in cold and coughand chronic chest diseases. (Usedas a substitute for Senega.) Alsoused for inflammation of urinarybladder; externally for mammaryabscesses and carbuncles.Polygonatum cirrhifolium(Wall.) Royle.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Northern Himalayas, from1,500 to 3,300 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaa-medaa, Medaa,(substitute: Asparagus racemosus,also Saalab-misri.)Folk ◮ Devarigaanl (Gharwal).Action ◮ Root—rejuvenating tonicfor nervous system.The root gave neoprazerigenin A-3-O-beta-lycotetraoside (PS-III) andits methyl proto-type congener (PS-II) and steroidal saponins, sibiricosideA (PS-I) and sibiricoside B (PS-IV).Dosage ◮ Root—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)P

508 Polygonatum multiflorum All.PPolygonatum multiflorum All.Family ◮Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Kumaon and inManipur.English ◮ Solomon’s Seal.Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaa-medaa, Medaa(var.). (Substitute: Asparagusracemosus.)Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory, nervine,astringent. Used as an infusion forpulmonary complaints; as a poulticefor piles and bruises.The root and herb gave diosgeninand its glycosides.Dosage ◮ Root—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Polygonatum verticillatum All.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas andManipur.Ayurvedic ◮ Medaa. (Substitute:Asparagus racemosus.)Unani ◮ Shaqaaqul. (Substitute:Pastinaca secacul.)Folk ◮ Mithaa-dudhiaa.Action ◮ Used in Tibetan medicinefor treating emaciation, senility,pulmonary affections. The rhizomesis valued as salep.The dried rhizomes contain 6.2–9%diosgenin.The lactins of the rootstock did notcontain carbohydrates; the amino acidrevealed presence of 28% aspartic acidand asparagine.The plant exhibits diuretic properties.It gave a digitalis glucoside and isconsidered poisonous by the hill peoplein the Himalayas.Polygonum affine D. Don.Synonym ◮ Bistorta affinis (D. Don)Green.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ Himalayas from Kashmirto Nepal at altitudes of 2,400–4,800 m.Folk ◮ Khukhudi.Action ◮ Flowers—stimulant.The inflorescence gave flavonoids,including quercetin, isorhamnetin, luteolinand apigenin derivatives. Theleaves contain the flavonoids, 8-Cglucosyltricinand isorhamnetin.Polygonum aviculare Linn.Family ◮Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ From Kashmir to Kumaon.English ◮ Knotgrass, Knotweed,Mexican Sanguinaria.Folk ◮ Machoti, Kesri.Action ◮ Astringent and haemostatic.Used for excessive menstruation,bleeding piles; bleeding frombowel, stomach, lungs, nose, throat;mucous colitis, children’s summerdiarrhoea.

Polygonum glabrum Willd. 509Key application ◮ In mild catarrhs ofthe respiratory tract, inflammatorychanges to the oral and pharyngealmucosa. (German Commission E.)The plant gave flavonoids includingquercetin, avicularin, quercitrin, andderivatives of kaempferol, esculetinand scopoletin. The plant also gavegallic, caffeic, oxalic., silicic, chlorogenicand p-coumaric acids; tanninsincluding catechin.The methanolic extract of the plantshowed high protection against CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity in mice. Thisactivity is attributed to the presence offlavonoid glucosides.The flavonoids exhibit astringentproperties and are found to decreasecapillary fragility and have a cortisonelike-effecton gingival tissue. (JEthnopharmacol,74(1), 2001.)Polygonum bistorta Linn.Synonym ◮Hook. f.Family ◮P. paleaceum Wall. exPolygonaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Sikkim and the hills ofAssam.English ◮ Snake Weed, Bistort,Dragon Wort.Unani ◮Anjabaar.Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory,haemostatic, astringent, demulcent,anticatarrhal, antidiarrhoeal. Usedfor internal haemorrhages, irritablebowel, diverticulosis, urinary anduterine affections. Used as a mouthwash and gargle for ulcerated mouthand bleeding gums.The herb contains ferulic, sinapic,vanillic, syringic, melilotic, p-coumaric,p-hydroxybenzoic, gentisic, salicyclicand ellagic acids, about 15–20%tannins mainly catechins.When administered before the inductionof adjuvant arthritis, theaqueous-ethanolic extract of the herbinhibited both the maximal oedema responseand the total oedema responsein rat.Polygonum glabrum Willd.Family ◮Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India inmarshy places, up to 1,900 m. in thehills.Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-rohidaa (Gujarat).Siddha/Tamil ◮Attalaree.Action ◮ Plant juice and rootstock—used in pneumonia, consumption,jaundice, fevers. Leaf—antispasmodic. Used for colic.The leaves contain flavonoids—quercetin, rhamnetin, quercitrin, avicularinand rutin. Flowers containpigments, delphinidin-3,5-diglucosideand cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside andquercetin.The methanolic aqueous extract ofthe leaf gave a pure anthelmintic substance,aterpenoid(PGA).(Theherbis used as an anthelmintic in Sudan.)P

510 Polygonum hydropiper Linn.PPolygonum hydropiper Linn.Family ◮Habitat ◮places.Polygonaceae.Throughout India in wetEnglish ◮ Water Pepper, Pepperwort,Smartweed.Folk ◮ Paakur-muula, Paani-maricha(Bengal).Action ◮ Haemostatic, astringent,anti-inflammatory, diuretic,lithotriptic, emmenagogue (usedas infusion for delayed mensesand amenorrhoea), antifungal(root and leaf used externally).Contraindicated during pregnancy.The herb contains sesquiterpenes,including warburganal and polygodial,in the leaves; polygonal, isodrimeninol,isopolygodial and confertifolin inthe seeds; and flavonoids includingquercetin, kaempferol, isorhamnetinand rhamnesin; polygonolide (an isocoumarin).Isoquercitrin exhibited significantanti-oxidative activity. Polygodial andwarburganal possess significant antifungalproperty. Warburganal alsopossesses potent cytotoxic and antibioticactivity. (The herb is used againstcancer.)Polygonum plebeium R.Br.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.English ◮ Throughout warmer partsof India in moist areas, ascendingto 2,100 m in the Himalayas.Ayurvedic ◮ Sarpaakshi (a confusingsynonym).Folk ◮ Muniyaaraa (Bihar), Raaniphool,Macheti, Dubiaa Saaga.Action ◮ Galactogenic, antidiarrhoeal.Powdered herb is given inpneumonia.The whole plant yields 11% tannin.The rootstock contains oxymethylanthraquinone.Flowers gave oleanolic acid, betulinicacid, epi-friedelanol, beta-sitosterol,and flavonoids—quercetin, quercetin-3-arabinoside and quercetin-3-rutinoside.Polygonum viviparum Linn.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Sikkim at 3,300–4,800 m.English ◮ Viviparous Bistort.Unani ◮ Anjabaar. (substitute).Folk ◮ Billori, Maamekh (Punjab).Action ◮ Rootstock—astringent,antidiarrhoeal, antileucorrhoeic,antiseptic, antiperiodic. Usedin haemoptysis; also for gleet.A decoction is used as a gargle forsore throat and spungy gums, asa lotion for ulcers.Polypodium vulgare Linn.Family ◮ Polypodiaceae.English ◮ Polypody Root.Unani ◮ Bisfaayaj.

Pongamia pinnata Pierre. 511Action ◮ Expectorant, laxative,stomachic, cholagogue, alterative,antistress. Used in cough, bronchitis,catarrh,lossofappetite,dyspepsia; and in skin diseases.The rhizome gave saponin glycosides,based on polypodosapogenin,including osladin; ecdysteroids; phloroglucinderivatives; tannin.Polyporus officinalis FriesFamily ◮ Polyporaceae.Habitat ◮ On the old trunks ofvarious coniferous trees.English ◮ White Agaric.Unani ◮ Ghaariqoon.Action ◮ Used in the treatment ofsweats in wasting diseases such asphthisis (it checks profuse sweats);also as an expectorant and diuretic.The drug contains agaric acid (agaricin).The resinous extract, when burnt,yields not more than 2% of a white ash,rich in phosphates. The drug gives 4–6% soft resin.Agaric acid acts as a counter-irritantwhen applied to abraded surfaces ormucous membrane.Polyscias fruticosa (L.) Harms.Synonym ◮ Nothopanax fruticosum(L.) Miq.Panax fruticosus L.Family ◮ Araliaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardens allover India.Action ◮ Leaf—used in sinusitis,headache, migraine, tonsillitis. Stembark—used for promoting expulsionof placenta after child birth. Root—antibacterial, antifungal, diuretic.Leaf and root—used in dysuria.The root contains polyacetylenes,falcarinol and heptadeca derivatives.Falcarinol and heptadeca exhibitedstrong antibacterial activity againstGram-positive bacteria and the dermatophyticbacteria, also showed antifungalactivity. The antibacterial activityof falcarinol was found to be15 to 35 times stronger than that oferythromycin, chloramphenicol andoxytetracyclin.Polyscias scutellaria (Burm. f.) F. R.Fosberg (commonly grown in Indiangardens) exhibits anti-inflammatoryactivity. The leaves contain several triterpenoidsaponins, polyscisaponins,oleanolic acid derivatives.Pongamia pinnata Pierre.Synonym ◮ P. glabra Vent.Derris indica (Lam.) Benett.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats, tidalforests up to 1,200 m.English ◮ Pongam Oil tree, IndianBeech.Ayurvedic ◮ Karanja.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pungam.Action ◮ Oil—applied in scabies,herpes, leucoderma and othercutaneous diseases; over chest inpneumonia and cold; also usedP

512 Populus alba Linn.Pinternally as cholagogue in sluggishliver. Leaves—juice is prescribedin flatulence, dyspepsia, diarrhoeaandcough.Aninfusionisgivenforleprosy and gonorrhoea. Root—a paste is used in scrofulousenlargements; juice is used forcleaning foul ulcers and closingfistulous sores. Stem bark—giveninternally in bleeding piles. Rindof pod and seed—prescribed inbronchitis and whooping cough.Leaf and seed—antileprotic. Leafand seed oil—antirheumatic.The tree is rich in flavonoids and relatedcompounds. These include simpleflavones, furanoflavonoids, chromenoflavones,chromenochalcones,coumarones, flavone glucosides, sterols,triterpenes and a modified phenylalaninedipeptide. Seeds and seed oilgave karanjin, pongamol, pongapinand kanjone.The aqueous extract of stem barkshows significant sedative and antipyreticeffects in rats, and antispasmodiceffect in vitro on smooth muscles.In Indonesia, a decoction of the barkis drunk after child birth.The aqueous extract of seeds showedsignificant antiviral activity againstherpes simplex viruses HSV-1 and 2cell lines experimentally. Albino rats,treated with the aqueous extract ofseeds, recovered faster from inducedinfection and skin-burn than the untreatedones.Dosage ◮ Seed—250 mg powder; 5–10 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I.)Populus alba Linn.Family ◮Salicaceae.Habitat ◮ Northwestern Himalayaat 1,200–3,000 m, also grown inavenues.English ◮Folk ◮White Poplar.Safedaa, Jangali Fraas.Action ◮ Bark—antirheumatic,anti-inflammatory, antibacterial,antipyretic, diuretic, febrifuge,stimulant, antiseptic. Used forarthritis, rheumatic affections,cystitis and other urinary diseases,stomach and liver disorders,anorexia and debility.Key application ◮ Unopened leafbudsexternally for haemorrhoids,frostbite and sunburn. (GermanCommission E.)The bark contains glycosides, salicinand populin, erisin and tannin (5–9%).Salicin, a bitter tonic and antiperiodic,is used like quinine in intermittentfever, also in rheumatism.Populus nigra Linn. var.italica Kochne.Family ◮Salicaceae.Habitat ◮ North-western Himalayaat 900–3,700 m.English ◮Black Lombardy Poplar.Action ◮ Bark and balsam fromleaf bud— used for cold. Bark—depurative. Leaf bud—antiseptic,anti-inflammatory.

Portulaca quadrifida Linn. 513The bud exudate contains dimethylcaffeicacid, which was found activeagainst herpes simplex virus type 1.A50%ethanolextractofamixtureof flowers and buds showed 11% inhibitionof enzymatic conversion of testosteroneinto 5 alpha-dihydrotesteroneand 4-androstene-3, 17-dione. The extractwas partitioned between ethylacetateand water and the resultant ethylacetatefraction contained the activecompounds, pinobanksin, demethylquercetinand pinocembrin. It exhibited15% inhibitory activity on the enzyme.Pinocembrin was the most potent,almost equal to estradiol, whichwasusedasacontrol.The bark of all Populus species contains,phenolic glycosides, salicin andpopulin (salicin benzoate). Tannins arealso present (5–9%).Both salicin and populin cause eliminationof uric acid. Salicin is antiperiodicand is used like quinine in intermittentfever, also in coryza, rheumatismand neuralgia.Portulaca oleracea Linn.Family ◮Portulacaceae.Habitat ◮ All over India, cultivatedas a vegetable.English ◮Common Purslane.Ayurvedic ◮ Brihat Lonikaa, Lonaa,Loni, Ghoddhika, Ghotikaa,Upodika, Khursaa.Unani ◮Pulli-keerai, Parup-Siddha/Tamil ◮pukirai.Khurfaa, Kulfaa.Action ◮ Refrigerant (reduces bodyheat), mild spasmodic, diuretic,antiscorbutic. Used in scurvy and indiseases of liver, spleen, kidney andbladder; also in dysuria, stomatitisand dysentery. A paste of leavesis applied to swellings, erysipelas,burns and scalds. Seeds—diuretic,antidysenteric; applied externally toburns and scalds.A crude protein-free extract of theherb contained l-nor-adrenaline, dopamineand l-dopa, also catechol. (Thefresh plant contained 2.5 mg/g l-noradrenalinein one sample.) The extractgave a strong pressor response when injectedintravenously into anaesthetizeddogs.The oral administration of the homogenatesof P. oleracea reduced theblood sugar level of alloxan-diabeticrabbits to normal.The extract of the leaves and stemsreduced muscle tone in individualssuffering from spasticity and exhibitedskeletal muscle relaxant activityboth in vitro and in vivo. The extractproduced dose-dependent negative inotropicand chronotropic effects andpressor response on rat blood pressure.The diuretic action of the herb isattributedtothepresenceofhighpercentageof potassium salts.Dosage ◮ Plant-125–400 mg powder;juice—1–20 ml (CCRAS.)Portulaca quadrifida Linn.Family ◮Portulacaceae.P

514 Portulaca tuberosa Roxb.PHabitat ◮ Warmer parts of India,cultivated as a vegetable.Ayurvedic ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Laghu-lonikaa.Siru Pasalai-keerai.Action ◮ Similar to P. oleracea.Used in asthma, cough, urinarydischarges, inflammations andulcers. A poultice of the herbis applied to haemorrhoids anderysipelas.Portulaca tuberosa Roxb.Synonym ◮ P. pilosa Linn.Family ◮ Portulacaceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, nearsea-coasts.Ayurvedic ◮ Bichhuu-buuti.Folk ◮ Jangali Gaajar (Gujarat),Sanjivani (Bihar).Action ◮ Leaves—an infusionis given internally in dysuria;externally applied to erysipelas. Theherb shows diuretic, calculolythic,analgesic and antipyretic properties.The aerial parts contain diterpenoids,pilosanone A and B.Potentilla anserina Linn.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas ataltitudes of 2,100–4,800 m.English ◮ Silverweed.Action ◮ Astringent, antiinflammatory,antispasmodic,haemostatic. Used for diarrhoea,leucorrhoea, dysmenorrhoea,arthritis, cramps, kidney stones,bleeding piles; as a mouth wash inpyrrhoea, gingivitis and sore throat.Key application ◮ In mild dismenorrhoealdisorders; as a support fortreatment of milder, nonspecific,acute diarrhoea and in light inflammationof the oral and pharyngealmucosa. (German Commission E.)The plant gave anthocyanins—cyanidinand delphinidin. Aerial partsgave tannins (2–10%). The plant alsogave choline, betaine, histidine, anessential oil and vitamin E.The maximum amounts of tanninsoccur in the root stock (up to 17.5% ondry basis). The ethanolic and aqueousextract of the herb (1 : 5) contain 0.3to 0.8% of tannin. The tannin fractionexhibited anti-mutagenic effect.Potentilla fruticosa HK. (temperateHimalaya) is also used like Silverweed.The flowers and young shoots containflavonoids, quercetin, terniflorin,tribuloside and (−)-catechin. The plantalso contains stigmasterol, beta-sitosteroland campesterol; (−)-epicatecholgallate, (±)-catechol, (−)-epicatechol,(−)-epigallocatechol and (−)-epigallocatecholgallate have been isolated fromaerial parts.Potentilla arbuscula D. Don.Family ◮Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalaya fromHimachal Pradesh to Sikkim andthe hills of Assam at 1,200–4,350 m.

Premna herbacea Roxb. 515Ayurvedic ◮ Bajradanti (Kumaonand Garhwal). Potentilla fulgensHK. is also equated with Bajradanti.Action ◮ Rootstock—antidiarrhoeal;used in tooth powders forstrengthening gum and teeth.Potentilla nepalensis Hook.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Kumaon.Folk ◮ Ratanjot (substitute).Action ◮ Rootstocks—depurative;ash, mixed with oil, is applied toburns.Pothos scandens Linn.Family ◮ Araceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated as an ornamental.Found in Bihar, NorthBengal, Orissa, Western Ghats andSouthwards.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aanaparuga.Action ◮ Leaves—anti-inflammatory,antiseptic, antimicrobial. Applied tosmallpox pustules. Root—bruisedand fried in oil, applied to abscesses.Prangos pabularia Lindl.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir and HimachalPradesh at altitudes of 1,800–4,000 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Avipriya.Unani ◮ Baadiyaan-kohi, Karafs-ekohi,Fitraasaaliyun (also equatedwith Petroselinum crispum Mill.Nym. ex auct. Kew.).Folk ◮ Komal.Action ◮ Root and fruit—diuretic,emmenagogue. An infusion of rootis given for indigestion and irregularmenses.The roots and umbels yielded coumarinsand their glycosides. Osthol(7-methoxy-8-isopentenyl-coumarin),which occurs in the dried roots up tothe extent of 3.6%, has been found tobe a potent respiratory and circulatorystimulant in experimental animals. Itsrespirotonic effect was more markedthan that of coramine, leptazol andcaffeine.Premna herbacea Roxb.Synonym ◮ Pygmaeopremna herbaceaMoldenke.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ The sub-tropical Himalayasand in Assam, extending southwardsthrough West Bengal, Bihar, Orissainto Deccan Peninsula. Roots areusually confused with those ofClerodendrum serratum and aresold as Bhaarangi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Siru Thekku.Folk ◮ Gethiaa, Ghantu Bhaarangi.Baaman-haati (Bengal). Fruitsare known as Bhuumi-jambu,Phin Jaamun. The root is knownas Bhaarangamuula; in AndhraPradesh, Gandu Bhaarangi.P

516 Premna integrifolia Linn.Action ◮ Root and leaves—given inasthma, rheumatism.The root contains several diterpenoids.Quinonemethide (bharangin)is reported from the plant.controlling the activity of the adrenocorticotropichormone.Dosage ◮ Leaf, root bark—50–100 ml decoction, powder—1–3 g.(CCRAS.)PPremna integrifolia Linn.Synonym ◮ P. obtusifolia R. Br.P. corymbosa auct. non Rottl. &Willd.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Indian and AndamanCoasts, plains of Assam and Khasihills.English ◮ Headache tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Agnimantha (Kerala),Shriparni, Jayee, Ganikaarikaa,Vaataghni.Siddha/Tamil ◮ MunnaiFolk ◮ Agethaa, Ganiyaari.Action ◮ Carminative, galactagogue.The tender plant is used for neuralgiaand rheumatism. A decoction ofleaves is used for flatulence andcolic.Aqueous extracts of the plantshowed a powerful action on the uterusand gout of the experimental animals,causing a marked increase in their activity.The leaves contain an isoxazole alkaloidpremnazole, which was foundto reduce granuloma formation in rats(34.62%), its activity was comparableto phenylbutazone (35–36%).Premnazole also reduced GPT andGOT in serum and liver. Studies suggestthat premnazole acts probably byPremna latifolia Roxb.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, Bihar,West Bengal and North-easternIndia.English ◮ Dusky Fire Brand Bark.Ayurvedic ◮ Agnimantha (var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pachumullai, Erumaimunnai.Folk ◮ Agethu (var.).Action ◮ Leaves—diuretic, spasmolytic.Stem bark—hypoglycaemic.The leaves gave a furanoid, premnalatin,and flavone glycosides. Thestem bark gave iridoid glucosides andgeniposidic acid.Premna latifolia var. mucronata C. B.Clarke and Premna barbata Wall. areknown as Bakaar and Basota (in Garhwal).These have been equated with theclassical herb Vasuhatta.Premna tomentosa Willd.Synonym ◮ Cornulia corymbosaLam.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular India and Biharup to 1,200 m.English ◮ Bastard Teak.

Prosopis chilensis Stuntz. 517Ayurvedic ◮Agnimanth (var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kolakottathekkupinari, Pondanganari.Folk ◮Gineri (var.).Action ◮ Bark and essential oilof root—used in stomach disorders.Leaf—diuretic, vulnerary;prescribed as a tonic after childbirth; used in dropsical affections.Pounded leaves—vulnerary.The heartwood gave apigenin derivatives.The leaves gave essential oilcontaining d-and dl-limonene, betacaryophyllenea sesquiterpene hydrocarbon,a diterpene hydrocarbon anda sesquiterpene tertiary alcohol.Primula denticulata Sm.Family ◮ Primulaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas fromKashmir to Bhutan and in Khasiand Jaintia hills at 1,500 m.Folk ◮ Keechey (Tibet).Action ◮ Root—powder used forkilling leeches. Flowers—eaten insalad.The whole plant contains several triterpenoidsaponins.Primula veris Linn., synonym P.officinalis Hill and P. elatior Hill aregrowninIndiangardens.Key application ◮ Primula veris, P.elatior Hill—the flower and the rootin catarrhs of the respiratory tract.(German Commission E, ESCOP.)Contraindicated in gastritis andgastric ulcer. (ESCOP.)The roots and rhizomes of P. verisand P. elatior contain a saponin, yieldinga sapogenin, primulagenin A. A flavonolglycoside named primulaflavonolosidehas been reported in the flowersof P. veris. The root of P. veris areconsidered as a substitute for Senega(Polygala senega) roots.Anthocyanidins have been detectedin most of the Primula species, alsoa highly toxic allergenic substance,primin, in the leaves and glandularhairs. The floral and foliar parts of thedifferent genotypes showed presence ofkaempferol, quercetin and myricetin.Primula vulgaris Huds.Synonym ◮ P. acaulis Hill.Family ◮ Primulaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan region.English ◮ Primrose (EveningPrimrose is equated with Oenotherabiennis), Cowslip.Unani ◮ Nakhud. (Also equatedwith Cicer arietinum by NationalFormulary of Unani Medicine.)Action ◮ Plant—anti-inflammatory,vulnerary, vermifuge, emetic. Usedonly externally.The plant gave phenolic glycosides,flavonoids, saponins.Prosopis chilensis Stuntz.Synonym ◮ Prosopis juliflora DC.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.P

518 Prosopis spicigera Linn.PHabitat ◮ Argentine, Arid, Mexican,Peruvian and Australian specieshave been introduced into India.English ◮ Mesquite.Folk ◮ Khejaraa, Vilaayati Kikar,Kaabuli Kikar.Action ◮ Gum—inferior to Gumarabic. The dry wood contains0.9, bark 3.0–8.4, and roots 6–7%tannin.The leaves contain piperidine alkaloids,juliprosinene, juliflorinine andN-methyljuliforidine. Other alkaloidspresent in the leaves are juliprosine,isojuliprosine, juliflorine, julifloricineand julifloridine.A mixture of alkaloids containingmainly juliprosine and isojuliprosineshowed significant antifungal activityagainst dermatophytes (comparable togriseofulvin).The alkaloid fraction also showedbroad spectrum bactericidal actionagainst both Gram-positive and Gramnegativebacteria (comparable to antibioticslike penicillin, streptomycin,ampicillin, sulphamethoxazole and tetracycline).Significant activity of juliflorineagainst fungi and bacteria, and thatof julifloricine against bacteria has alsobeen reported.The fruit gave a flavone glycoside,patulitrin which exhibited cytotoxicactivity.Prosopis spicigera Linn.Synonym ◮ P. cineraria Druce.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Dry and acrid regions ofIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Shami, Tungaa,Keshahantri, Shankuphalaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kalisam.Action ◮ Pod—astringent, pectoral,demulcent. Bark—antiinflammatory,antirheumatic.Flower—administered to preventmiscarriage.The stem bark contains vitamin K,n-octacosyl acetate, the long chainaliphatic acid. Presence of glucose,rhamnose, sucrose and starch is alsoreported.A cytotoxic principle, patulibin, hasbeen isolated from flowers.Dosage ◮ Leaf, fruit—3–5 g powder,50–100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)Prosopis stephaniana Kunth.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Parts of Punjab andGujarat.Ayurvedic ◮ Samudra-shami, Shami(var.).Folk ◮ Khejaraa (var.)Action ◮ Pods and roots—astringent,styptic, antidysenteric.Prunus amygdalus Batsch var.amara (bitter); var. sativa (sweet).Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Kashmirat elevation of 760–2,400 m, also

Prunus avium Linn. 519in Himachal Pradesh and UttarPradesh.English ◮ Almond.Ayurvedic ◮ Vaataama, Vaataada.Unani ◮ Baadaam Shireen, Loz.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vaadumai.Action ◮ Kernels—nutritious,demulcent and stimulant nervinetonic; valuable in diets for pepticulcer. Unripe fruits— astringent,applied to gums. Oil—nutritive,demulcent, slightly laxative.Almond flour made from the residueleft after expressing almond oil, and almondbutter, is used for the preparationof starch-free diabetic food.The chief protein of almond is a globulin,amandin, an albumin is also reported.Amandin has a high argininecontent (11.9%). The primary chemicaldifference between the sweet andbitter kernel lies in the high content(2.5–3.5%) of amygdalin in bitter kernel;the ripe sweet almond being freeof this cyanogenetic glucoside. Owingtothepresenceofamygdalin,whichon enzymatic hydrolysis yields hydrocyanicacid, the bitter almond is not fitfor human consumption.The oil yield from bitter kernels isusually 38 to 45% and from sweet almond44 to 55%. The bitter almondoil containing hydrocyanic acid findslimited use in medicine as an antispasmodicand sedative. Dissolved in 50times water, it is applied externally inprurigo senilis. Hydrocyanic acid-freeoil is used for flavouring purposes.Partial replacement of saturated fattyacids with almonds lowers totalplasma cholesterol and low-densitylipoprotein cholesterol.Prunus armeniaca Linn.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ North-western Himalayas,particularly in the valleys ofKashmir, Chenab and Kullu, and inSimla hills at altitudes of 3,000 m.English ◮ Apricot.Ayurvedic ◮ Peetaalu, Aaluka,Urumaana.Unani ◮ Khuubaani, Mashmash.Action ◮ Powdered kernels—antitussive, antiasthmatic.The dried apricot contains, 3,4-dihydroxybenzoic, chlorogenic andvanillic acids, quercetin, quercitrin,rutin, hyperoside and kaempferol.Apricot leaves contain quercetin, cynadin,kaempferol, caffeic acid andp-coumaric acid.Prunus avium Linn.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Eurasia;cultivated in Kashmir, Kumaon andHimachal Pradesh.English ◮ Sweet Cherry.Ayurvedic ◮ Elavaaluka, Elaya,Harivaaluka.Folk ◮ Gilaas, Krusbal.Action ◮ Fruit stalks—diuretic, antiinflammatory,astringent, used foroedema, inflammation of urinaryP

520 Prunus cerasoides D. Don.Ptract, cystitis, nephritis, urinaryretention.The stems contain salicylic acid,organic acids tannins and potassiumsalts. Protocatechuic, p-coumaric, ferulicand diferculic acids have beenidentified in the shoots.The fruit contains salicylates andcyanogenic glycosides, and vitamin A,B1 and C. Sugars consist mainly ofglucose and fructose, with sucrose asa minor component. Malic acid is theprincipal acid, small amounts of citric,tartaric and succinic acids are alsoreported. The lipids of the fruit pulpcontain cis-vaccenic acid.The acetone extract of peduncle gavean isoflavone, prunetin, which on hydrolysisyielded an aglycone identifiedas prunetin and sugar as glucose.The seeds contain a cyanogenic glycosideand are toxic. The bark containstannins up to 16%.Dosage ◮ Seed—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Prunus cerasoides D. Don.Synonym ◮ P. puddum Roxb. exBrandis. non-Miq.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Garhwal to Sikkim, also inOotacamund.English ◮ Wild Himalayan Cherry,Bird Cheery.Ayurvedic ◮ Padmaka, Padmagandhi,Padmaadyaa, Padmaakha,Padmakaashtha.Action ◮ Kernel—antilithic. Stem—refrigerant, antipyretic. Tenderbranches are crushed and soaked inwater and taken internally to avertabortion. Oil—similar to that ofbitter almond oil.The plant contains a flavone glucoside,puddumin-A. The root barkcontains beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol,ursolic acid, prunetinoside, glucogenkwaninand neosakuranin. Seeds containflavonoid glycosides.The leaves, twigs, bark and kernelscontain a cyanogenetic substance.Dosage ◮ Heartwood—1–3 g powder.(API, Vol. III.)Prunus cerasus Linn.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of Eurasia;cultivated in Kashmir, HimachalPradesh and Kumaon for ediblefruits.English ◮ Sour Cherry.Ayurvedic ◮ Elavaaluka (var.).Folk ◮ Aalu-baalu, Gilaas.Action ◮ Fruit—diuretic, antiinflammatory.Used for genitourinaryinflammations, cystitis andurine retention. Bark—febrifuge,antidiarrhoeal. Fruit stalk—diuretic.Fruit stalk and stem—pectoral.Bark and fruit stalk—astringent.Kernel—nervine. Leaf—an infusionis given for convulsions in children.Key application ◮ Heartwood—inskin eruptions, erysipelas, obstinateskin diseases, haemorrhagic

Prunus persica Batsch. 521diseases. As a tonic for promotingconception. (The AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India.)The leaves, fruits and bark gaveflavone glycosides. The bark contains5–7% tannin. The kernel containsa considerable proportion of hydrocyanicacid. The leaves contain amygdalin.(Amygdalin, a nitrile glycoside,has been reported to inhibit the growthof Sarcoma-180 cells in culture.)Prunus domestica Linn.Synonym ◮ P. communis Huds.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Kashmir,Himachal Pradesh and Kumaon.English ◮ Prune.Ayurvedic ◮ Aaruka (Prunus domesticavar. insititia). Aaluubukhaaraa.Unani ◮ Aaluuchaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Alpagada-pungam.Action ◮ Fruit—refrigerant, laxative,nutritive. Improves haemoglobinlevels in iron deficiency. Promotesexcretion of excess calcium bythe kidneys. An adjuvant foratherosclerosis and arthritis.Root—astringent.The fruit pulp contains about 44%sugar and malic acid as major constituents.Kernel contains fixed oilabout 45% and amygdalin and benzoicacid among others.The crude extract of the fruit wasfound effective in controlling centrallyinduced emesis in dogs. The actionwas comparable to that of Metoclopramide(Maxolon) and chlorpromazine(Largactil).Prunus mahaleb Linn.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe andWest Asia, introduced in India andgrownasanornamental.English ◮ Mahaleb Cherry.Ayurvedic ◮ Gandha-priyangu.(Priyangu is equated with Callicarpamacrophylla Vahl.)Unani ◮ Mahlib, Habb-ul-Mihlab.Folk ◮ Ghaulaa (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Kernel—paste appliedexternally for treating freckles andblemishes. Contains coumarin,salicylic acid, amygdalin and hydrocyanicacid as major constituents;the oil gave alpha-elecsteric acid.Prunus persica Batsch.Synonym ◮ Persica vulgaris Nutt.Amydgala persica Linn.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China; cultivatedin Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh andKumaon.English ◮ Peach.Ayurvedic ◮ Aaluka, Aaruka, Aru,Pichuka.Action ◮ Fruit—mild tranquillizer,expectorant, diuretic, antipyretic.Bark or leaves—used as tea forP

522 Pseudarthria viscida Wt. & Arn.Pmorning sickness, dry and hardcough, whooping cough andbronchitis. Leaves—used inleucoderma.Flowers—galactagogue.Peach seeds are a constituent of a traditionalChinese herbal drug which hasbeen used for the treatment of gynaecologicaldisorders such as hypermenorrhea,dysmenorrhoea and infertility.Peach fruit extract containing nitrileglycosides, such as prunasin and amygdalin,has been reported to inhibit thegrowth of Sarcoma-180 cells in culture.Fast-acting, wrinkle-eliminatingcosmetic formulations contain peachkernel extract as one of the components.The heartwood contains beta-sitosteroland its D-glucoside, hentriacontane,hentriacontanol, and the flavonoidsnaringenin, dihydrokaempferol,kaempferol and quercetin.Pseudarthria viscida Wt. & Arn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Orissa throughout SouthIndia and Gujarat.Ayurvedic ◮ Sanaparni, Shaalaparni(Kerala).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Neermalli.Action ◮ Root—astringent, febrifuge,antirheumatic. A decoction orpowder is used for biliousnessand diarrhoea. Used as a substitutefor Desmodium gangeticum(Shaalaparni) in South India.Leucopelargonidin has been isolatedfrom the root.Psidium guajava Linn.Family ◮Myrtaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Central America;cultivated chiefly in Uttar Pradesh,Punjab, Bihar, Maharashtra, andAndhra Pradesh.English ◮ GuavaAyurvedic ◮ Peruka (non-classical),Amaruuda.Siddha/Tamil ◮Koyya.Action ◮ Unripe fruit—antidiarrhoeal.Leaves—used for dysentery,diabetes, cough and cold. Flowers—anthelmintic.Guava juice may be helpful in regulatingblood sugar in type 2 diabetesand syndrome X. (Sharon M. Herr.)A residue obtained from methanolicfraction of unripe fruits was found topossess significant antidiarrhoeal activity.The fraction decreased gastricmotility in an experimental animalmodel. The fraction was also found toinhibit significantly the growth of differentstrains of Shigella sp. and Vibriocholerae.In China and Taiwan, the leaf extractis administered for treating diarrhoea,dysentery, diabetes and inflammations.The leaf extract (containing quercetin)inhibits acetylcholine release in thegastro-intestinal tract which might accountfor us antidiarrhoeal activity. Anextract of leaves with a little salt is givenin relieve whooping cough.In New Papua Guinea, decoction ofnew leaf tips is drunk to treat hepatitis.Guava seed oil contains very higherproporation of linoleic acid (75.52%)

Pterocarpus dalbergioides Roxb. 523than sunflower, groundnut, olive, soybeanand coconut oil. The seeds fromPakistan yield 9.25% of a fatty oil.Vitamin C content of the ripe fruitranges from 100 to 1000 mg/100 g. Itis highest in the skin and in the fleshnext to it.Psidium cattleyanum Sabine is equatedwith Straberry Guava and is knownas Seemai Koyya in Tamil Nadu andPahari Payaar in Bengal. The fruit containsvitamin C 15–44 mg/100 g.Smaller var. of Guava is equatedwith Psidium guineense Sw. It is foundin Tripura.Psoralea corylifolia Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.English ◮ Babchi, Purple Fleabane.Habitat ◮ Rajasthan., eastern districtsof Punjab and adjoining areas ofUttar Pradesh.Ayurvedic ◮ Somaraaji, Somavalli,Somavallik, Soma, Chaandri,Vaakuchi, Baakuchi, Avalguja.(Somaraaji and Avalguja have alsobeen equated with Centratherumanthelminticum.)Unani ◮ Baabchi, Bakuchi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karpoogaarisi.Action ◮ Seed—used in leucoderma,vitiligo, leprosy, psoriasis andinflammatory diseases of the skin,both orally and externally. (TheAyurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India.)The seed and roots contain chalcones,flavones, isoflavones, furanocoumarinsand coumesterol group ofcompounds. These include psoralen,isopsoralen, bavachinin.A mixture of psoralen and isopsoralen,in a ratio of 1:3, is recommendedfor topical application in leucoderma.These furanocoumarins initiate transformationof DOPA to melanin underthe influence of UV light. Seedsare powdered and administered orallywith warm water (5 g/day) in cases ofeczema.Psoralen was found to be cytotoxicin vitro. The combination therapy ofpsoralen and UV irradiation has beenshown to inhibit the growth of tumoursin vivo.Bavachinin-A, isolated from thefruits, exhibited marked anti-inflammatory,antipyretic and mild analgesicproperties similar to those ofoxyphenylbutazone and hydrocortisone.It demonstrated better antipyreticactivity than paracetamol experimentally.Oral administration of the powderedseeds has generally resulted inside reactions (nausea, vomiting, purging);external application generallyproved highly irritant to the skin.Dosage ◮ Seed—1–3 g powder(CCRAS.); 3–6 g powder (API,Vol. I).Pterocarpus dalbergioides Roxb.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ The Andamans, sparinglycultivated in West Bengal.English ◮ Andaman Padauk,Andaman Redwood.P

524 Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.PAyurvedic ◮Rakta-chandana (var.).Siddha ◮ Vengai (Tamil), Yerravegisa(Telugu).Folk ◮Action ◮Chalangada (Andamans).See Pterocarpus santalinus.The wood contains a red pigmentsantalin and a yellow flavonoid santal,both of which also occur in Pterocarpussantalinus. The bark and theheartwood contain pterostilbene. Theheartwood yields pterocarpin, liquiritigeninand isoliquiritigenin. The sapwoodgave homopterocarpin additionally.Pterocarpus indicus Willd. non-Baker,Malay Padauk, is also known asVengai in Tamil and Yerravegisa in Telugu.A decoction of the wood is givenin dropsy and for stone in the bladder.The bark-kino is used as an applicationfor sores and a decoction of the barkor kino is used for diarrhoea.Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the tropicalzones of India in the hilly regions.English ◮ Indian Kino tree, MalabarKino tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Asana, Bijaka, Priyaka,Pitashaala.Unani ◮ Bijaysaar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vengai.Action ◮ Bark-kino—astringent,antihaemorrhagic, antidiarrhoeal.Flowers—febrifuge. Leaves—usedexternally for skin diseases.Key application ◮ Heartwood—in anaemia, worm infestation,skin diseases, urinary disorders,lipid disorders and obesity. Stembark—in diabetes. (The AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India.)The heartwood and roots containisoflavonoids, terpenoids and tannins.Tannins include the hypoglycaemicprinciple (−)-epicatechin. Stilbenes,such as pterostilbene; flavonoids, includingliquiritigenin, isoliquiritigenin,7-hydroxyflavanone, 7,4-dihydroxyflavanone,5-deoxykaempferoland pterosupin; a benzofuranone marsupsinand propterol, p-hydroxy-benzaldehydeare active principles of therapeuticimportance.The gum-kino from the bark providesa non-glucosidal tannin, Kinotannic acid (25–80%).The (−)-epi-catechin increases thecAMP content of the islets which isassociated with the increased insulinrelease, conversion of proinsulin to insulinand cathepsin B activity.Oral administration of ethylacetateextract of the heartwood and its flavonoidconstituents, marsupin, pterosupinand liquiritigenin, for 14 consecutivedays to rats exhibited a significantreduction of serum triglycerides,total cholesterol and LDL- andVLDL-cholesterol levels, but it did notexert any significant effect on HDLcholesterol.The ethanolic and methanolic extractsof the heartwood exhibited significantin vitro antimicrobial activityagainst Gram-positive and Gramnegativebacteria and some strains offungi.

Pterospermum acerifolium Willd. 525Kino is powerfully astringent. Thetherapeutic value of kino is due to Kinotannic acid.Dosage ◮ Heartwood—50–100 gfor decoction. (API, Vol. I); stembark—32–50 g for decoction (API,Vol. III).Pterocarpus santalinus Linn. f.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Found in Cuddaph districtof Andhra Pradesh, neighbouringareas of Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.English ◮ Red Sandalwood, RedSanders.Ayurvedic ◮ Raktachandana,Raktasaara.Unani ◮ Sandal Surkh.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shivappu chandanam.Folk ◮ Laal-chandan.Action ◮ Heartwood—antibilious,anti-inflammatory, hypoglycaemic,astringent, diaphoretic, febrifuge.A paste of wood is used externallyfor inflammations and headache.Fruit—antidysentericThe heartwood contains terpenoids—eudesmol,iso-pterocarpolone,pterocarpol, cryptomeridiol, pterocarptrioland pterocarpdiolone; pigmentssantalins A and B. The bark containstriterpenoids—beta-ampyrone,lupenone and lupeol derivatives. Thesapwood gave acetyl oleanolic aldehyde,acetyl oleanolic acid and erythrodiol.An ethanolic extract (95%) of thewood powder was found effective inlowering blood sugar levels in fasting,fed, glucose-loaded and streptozotocindiabetic models in rats.A cream prepared from the methanolicextract of the heartwood of RedSandalwood and rhizomes of Curcumalonga showed 95.46% inhibition ofoedema in combination (Curcuma longaand red sandalwood showed 65.62and 64.14% inhibition respectively,when used individually).A decoction of the heartwood producedpotentiation of pentobarbitoneinducedhypnosis in albino mice;blocked conditioned avoidance responsein rats and showed anticonvulsantand anti-inflammatory activities.Dosage ◮ Heartwood—3–6 gpowder. (API, Vol. III.)Pterospermum acerifoliumWilld.Family ◮ Sterculiaceae.Habitat ◮ Maharashtra, Manipur,North Bengal, Bihar and Assam,Western Ghats and AndamanIslands.English ◮ Hathipaila.Ayurvedic ◮ Muchukunda,Muchakunda, Kshatravriksha,Chivuka, Prativishnuka,Muchukunda Champaa. Karnikaara(also equated with Cassia fistula).Unani ◮ Gul-e-Muchkun.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vennangu.Action ◮ Flower—anti-inflammatory,styptic (used for bleeding piles,haematuria, ulcers). CharredP

526 Pterospermum canescens Roxb.Pflowers and bark, mixed with thepowder of Mallotus philippinensis,are applied to smallpox eruptions.The fresh flowers yielded kaempferol-3-O-beta-D-galactoside,alongwith luteolin and its 7-O-glucoside.The leaves also contain betulin, lupeol,bauerenol, friedelin and betasitosterol.Dosage ◮ Flower—3–6 g powder.(CCRAS.)Pterospermum canescens Roxb.Synonym ◮ P. suberifolium Lam.non-Roxb.Family ◮ Sterculiaceae.Habitat ◮ Karnataka and TamilNadu, occasionally planted in WestBengal.Ayurvedic ◮ Muchukunda (var.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sempulavu.Action ◮ Flowers—anodyne; a pastewith rice-water and vinegar is usedexternally in migraine. Leaves—applied externally in headache.Flowers gave arachidic, linoleic, myristic,oleic, palmitic and stearic acidsand beta-sitosterol, kaempferol-3-beta-D-galactoside and kaempferol-3-rutinoside. The flavonoids presentin the leaves are kaempferol-3-beta-Dgalactoside,kaempferol, quercetin andits 3-O-arabinoside and 3-O-rhamnoside.The leaves also contain betulin,beta-amyrin, lupeol, bauerenol, friedelin,taraxerone and beta-sitosterol.Pueraria lobata (Willd.) Ohwi.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, Assamand Khasi Hills.English ◮ Tropical Kudze.Ayurvedic ◮ Vidaari (var.).Action ◮ Root—antipyretic, antiinflammatory,spasmolytic. Flower—hepatoprotective.The root of P. lobata is used in Chinesemedicine as an antipyretic andspasmolytic agent.The root contains pueraria glycosidesand puerarol. The glycosidesshowed strong antioxidant activity andinhibited lipid peroxidation. The rootalso contain several flavones whichshowed 66.8% inhibition against stomachcancer in vivo in mice. The isoflayvonoids,daidzein, formononetin,daidzin and puerarin. Daidzein andpuerarin show significant anti-inflammatoryactivity.The cosmetics containing the rootextracts with 20–40% puerarin and 20–45% sugars (as sucrose) are used asmoisturizing, skin-lightening and sunscreeningand hair-growth stimulatingpreparations.An isoflavonoid, triterpenoid saponinand tryptophan derivative isolatedfrom the flowers showed protective effectagainst experimental liver injuriesin mice.The tryptophan derivatives and theirglycosides exhibited antihyperglycaemicactivity.Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.)Benth., synonym P. javanica Benth.(Sub-Himalayan regions; Assam, An-

Punica granatum Linn. 527dhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Kerala,up to 1,100 m) is equated with TropicalKudze. The plant is used against ulcersand boils.Pueraria tuberosa DC.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Western UttarPradesh, Central India.English ◮ Indian Kudze.Ayurvedic ◮ Vidaari, Swaadukandaa,Ikshugandhaa, Gajavaajipriyaa,Kandapalaasha, Bhuumikushmaanda.(Substitute for Jivaka andRshabhaka.)Folk ◮ Bhui-kumhadaa, Suraal.Action ◮ Tuber—diuretic, cardiactonic, galactagogue. Also used forfertility control. Root—used asa demulcent, and refrigerant infevers, as cataplasm for swelling ofjoints, as galactagogue.The butanolic extract of Puerariatuberosa showed significant protectionagainst hepatic damage in rats. Theethanolic extract of the tubers and itsbutanol and pre-puerarin fractions exhibitedanti-implantation effect. Thepure compounds, puerarin, daidzeinand tuberosin, exhibited significantanti-implantation activity in hamsters.In Indian medicine, Vidaari andKshira-vidaari are used for promotingbreast milk and semen, and asa restorative tonic. Most authors haveequated Vidaari with Pueraria tuberosaand Kshira-vidaari with Ipomoea digitata.In Western herbal, Pueraria lobataand P. tuberosa roots are used aloneor in combination with other productsfor symptoms due to alcoholism. Butpreliminary research shows that Kudzedoes not improve sobriety in chronicalcoholics. (Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)Dosage ◮ Tuber—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Pulicaria dysenterica Bernh.Family ◮ Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir at 1,500–1,800 m.Action ◮ Plant—astringent, diuretic.Root—antidiarrhoeal. Leaf—antiasthmatic.Punica granatum Linn.Family ◮ Punicaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Iran; butcultivated throughout India.English ◮ Pomegranate.Ayurvedic ◮ Daadima, Daadimba,Raktapushpa, Dantabijaa,Raktakusumaa, Lohitpushpaka.Unani ◮ Anaar, Roomaan, Gulnaar,Gulnaar Farsi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maathulai.Action ◮ Rind of fruit—astringent,stomachic, digestive. Used for diarrhoea,dysentery, colitis, dyspepsiaand uterine disorders. Leaf—usedin stomatitis (recommended by TheAyurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India).Fresh juice of fruit—refrigerant,P

528 Putranjiva roxburghii Wall.Pcosive, antiemetic; given as anadjuvant in diarrhoea, dyspepsia,biliousness, inflammations of thestomach, palpitation, excessivethirst and fevers. Bark of stemand root—anthelmintic, febrifuge.Given for night sweats. Rind offruit, bark of stem and root—antidiarrhoeal. Powdered flowerbuds—used in bronchitis.The fruit rind (dried) contains up to26,stembark10–25,rootbark28andleaves 11% tannin.The rind gave an ellagitannin (granatinB, leaves gave granatins A andB and punicafolin); punicalagin, punicalinand ellagic acid. Pentose glycosidesof malvidin and pentunidinhave also been isolated from the rind.Rind extract showed significant hypoglycaemicactivity in mildly diabeticrats.Seeds gave malvidin pentose glycoside.Flowers gave pelargonidin-3,5-diglucoside;also sitosterol, ursolic acid,maslinic acid, asiatic acid, sitosterolbeta-D-glucosideand gallic acid.Extracts of the whole fruit werehighly active against Micrococcus pyogenesvar. aureus, E. coli and Pseudomonasaeruginosa; also very effectiveagainst intestinal pathogenic bacilli.Aqueous extract of the root wasfound to inhibit the activity of Mycobacteriumtuberculosis 607.The proanthocyanidins of pomegranateshowed hypolipidaemic activity bytheir ability to enhance resistance ofvascular wall preventing penetrationof cholesterol into atherogenic lipoproteins.Putranjiva roxburghii Wall.Synonym ◮ Drypetes roxburghii(Wall.) Hurusawa.Family ◮ Euphoriaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout tropical India,wild and cultivated as an avenuetree.English ◮ Child-life tree, IndianAmulet Plant, Spurious Wild Olive.Ayurvedic ◮ Putranjiva, Putrajivaka,Putrajiva, Yashtipushpa, ArthsaadhanaSiddha/Tamil ◮ Karupali Garbhadaaand Garbhakaraa are misleadingsynonyms.Folk ◮ Jiyaapotaa.Action ◮ Fruit—powered (deseeded)fruits are used againstcough, cold and sprue. Rosaries ofhard stones are used for protectingchildren from infections. (Dueto misleading nomenclature, the“conception-promoting” propertyhas been attributed to the drug infolkmedicine.Itsuseispossibleinvaginal infections and genitourinarydiseases, or skin eruptions duringpre-conception stage.)The seed kernel on steam distillationyield 0.5% of a sharp-smelling essentialoil of the mustard oil type. The oilcontains isopropyl and 2-butyl isothiocyanatesas the main constituents and2-methyl-butyl isothiocyanate as a minorcomponent. The iso-thiocyanatesare produced on enzymic hydrolysis ofglycosidic progenitors present in thekernels, viz. glucoputranjivin, glucocochlearinand glucojiaputin respec-

Pyrus communis Linn. 529tively. An additional glucoside, glucocleominhas been identified in the seedkernel, it affords a non-volatile mustardoil, cleomin. A glycosidic patternsimilar to that in the seed is reportedin the shoots and roots.The fruit pulp contains a large proportionof mannitol and small quantitiesof saponin glucosides and alkaloids.The seed coat gave putranjivoside,putranoside A, B, C and D, betasitosteroland tis beta-D-glucoside.The leaves gave amentoflavone andits derivatives, beta-amyrin and itspalmite, polyphenols, putranjiva saponinA,B,C, and D and stigmasterol.The bark contains friedelin, friedelanol,friedelanone, friedelan-3,7-dione(putranjivadione), 3-alpha-hydroxyfriedelan- 7-one (roxburgholone),carboxylic acid, putric acid, putranjivicacid.The essential oil from leaves showedmild antifungal activity against Rhizoctoniasolani.Pygmaeopemna herbacea(Roxb.) Mold.Synonym ◮Family ◮Premna herbacea Roxb.Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Andhra Pradesh, TamilNadu and Orissa and in some partsof Kerala.Ayurvedic ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Bhumi-jambu.Siru Thekku.Action ◮ Rootstock—antiasthmatic.Leaf— bechic, febrifuge. Rootstockand leaf—antirheumatic. (Sold inSouth Indian market as Bhaarangi.)A diterpenoid quinonemethide(bharangin) is reported from the plant.Pyrola rotundifolia Linn.Family ◮ Pyrolaceae.Habitat ◮ North-Western andeastern Himalaya at altitudes of2,700–3,000 m. and in Khasi andJaintia hills up to 1,500 m.Action ◮ Plant—astringent andantilithic. Used for healingwounds. A decoction of the plant isprescribed against profuse menses,bloody stools, haemorrhages andulcers in urinary passages. Thewhole herb is used in traditionalchinese medicine for the treatmentof arthritis.The plant contains ursolic acid, chimaphilin,hyperin, quercetin, myricetinand gallic acid. Chimaphilinand ursolic acid inhibit carrageenaninducedoedema in rat paw. Otherconstituents act as protective antioxidants.Pyrus communis Linn.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Distributed in thetemperate regions of Europe andWest Asia. Grown in Punjab andKashmir.English ◮ Common or EuropeanPear.Folk ◮ Bagu-goshaa, Babbu-goshaa.P

530 Pyrus communis Linn.Action ◮ Fruits—a good sourceof pectin, help in maintaininga desirable acid balance in thebody. Recommended to patientssuffering from diabetes because oflow sucrose content; and included inlow antigen content diets to alleviatethe symptoms in the managementof immune-mediated disease.Fresh pear juice exhibited goodactivity against Micrococcus pyogenesvar. aureus and Escherichia coli.An aqueous extract of the leaves wasactive against some strains of E. coli.The leaves contain arbutin, isoquercitrin,sorbitol, ursolic acid, astragalinand tannin (0.8–2.9%). The barkcontains friedelin, epifriedelanol andbeta-sitosterol. Phloridzin is presentin the root bark.The plant extract controls the developmentof freckles and blemisheson the skin and prevents melanin formation.It finds application in skinlighteningcreams.P

QQuassia indica Nooteboom.Synonym ◮ Samadera indica Gaertn.S. indica var. lucida Blatter.S. lucida Wall.Family ◮Simaroubaceae.Habitat ◮ West Coast, alongback waters and evergreen forestsfrom Maharashtra southwards toTrivandrum.English ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Karinjottei.Folk ◮Niepa Bark tree.Nibam, Niepa,Lokhandi (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Bark—febrifuge; juiceapplied to skin diseases. Aninfusion of wood and bark isgiven as emmenagogue. Seed—emetic, purgative; used for biliousfevers. Seed oil—applied inrheumatism. Leaves— externally inerysipelas.The bark contains the quassinoids,indaquassin, A, D, E and F; samaderineB to E, dihydrosamaderine B, bruceinD, soulameolide, cedronin andcanthin-2, 6-dione.Brucin D showed activity againstWalker’s carcinoma. Samaderine E,isolated from the plant, exhibits antileukaemicactivity.Quercus ilex Linn.Family ◮ Fagaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, fromthe Sutlej valley westwards andin Kashmir at altitudes of 900–2,600 m.English ◮ Holly or Holm Oak.Ayurvedic ◮ Maayaaphala (var.)(galls).Action ◮ Leaves—antioxidant.Galls—contain 41% tannin. Thebark contains 7–13%; leaves 2.1%tannin and 1.8% non-tannin.The leaves contain alpha-tocopherolas main antioxidant. The mature leavescontain proanthocyanidins 3.3, andleucoanthocyanidins 3.4 mg/g (on drymatter basis).Quercus incana Roxb.Synonym ◮ Q. leucotrichophora A.Camus ex Bhadur.Family ◮ Fagaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir and WesternHimalayas up to Nepal at altitudesof 1,000–2,400 m.English ◮ Grey Oak.Unani ◮ Baloot.Folk ◮ Shilaa Supaari (Kashmir),Phanat (Garhwal), Shiddar(Kashmir).

532 Quercus infectoria Oliv.QAction ◮ Acrons—diuretic, astringent.Used in indigestion anddiarrhoea (after removing tanninand associated substances by theprocess of germination underearth). Also used in gonorrhoea.The bark contains 6–23% of tannin.The stem bark contains friedelin, a triterpenoid,beta-sitosterol and a mixtureof leucoanthocyanidins (includingleucopelargonidin). Leaves containflavonoids— quercetin, quercetin-3-galacto-arabinoside.The kernels gave fatty acids, includingpalmitic, lignoceric and oleic.Quercus infectoria Oliv.Family ◮ Fagaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to Greece,Syria and Iran. Yields oak galls.English ◮ Oak galls, Aleppo galls,Mecca galls.Ayurvedic ◮ Maajuphalaka,Maayaaphala, Maayakku.Unani ◮ Maazu. Maaphal.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Maasikkaai.Action ◮ Astringent. Bark andfruits—used for eczema andimpetigo. Galls—used for diseasesof gums and oral cavity (dilutedwith toothpowder or paste; also asa gargle in nasal catarrh and sorethroat. Anointment(1in4partsof vaseline) is applied externally inhaemorrhoids. Also included inbreast and vaginal firming creams.A decoction of galls is used as anenema in prolapus of rectum.Key application ◮ Quercus robur L.bark—externally, in inflammatoryskin diseases; internally in nonspecific,acute diarrhoea, and localtreatment of mild inflammationof the oral cavity and pharyngealregion, as well as of genital and analarea. (German Commission E.)The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the gall in leucorrhoea,dry and itching vagina; topicallyfor dental inflammations.The fruits gave amentoflavone hexamethylether, isocryptomerin andbeta-sitosterol.The alcoholic extract of fruitsshowed 36% liver protection againstcarbon tetrachloride-induced toxicityat a dose of 800 mg/kg.The galls contain 50–70% gallo tannicacid, gallic acid 2–4%, ellagic acid,nyctanthic acid, rubric acid, besidessugars, starch, an essential oil and anthocyanins.Galls were also found tocontain beta-sitosterol, amentoflavone,hexamethyl ether and isocryptomerin.Quercus robur (English or Europeanoak) is reported to be cultivated in Nilgiris.The bark contains 15–20% tanninsconsisting of phlobatannin, ellagitanninsand gallic acid.The bark is contraindicated in cardiacinsufficiency and hypertonia; externallyon broken skin. (Sharon M.Herr.)Dosage ◮ Gall—1–3 g powder. (API,Vol. IV.)Quillaja saponaria Molina.Family ◮Rosaceae.

Quisqualis indica Linn. 533Habitat ◮ Indigenous to Chileand Peru; introduced in India inOotacamund.English ◮Soap Bark, Quillaia Bark.Action ◮ Bark—cutaneous stimulant.Its liquid extract is used as a lotionfor certain skin diseases of the scalp,and in antiulcer preparations.The detergent and medicinal propertiesof quillaia are due to the presenceof haemolytic saponins (9–10%) ofwhich quillaia-saponin (which yieldsglucuronic acid and quillaic acid, a sapogenin,on hydrolysis) is most important.Quillaja extracts caused markedswelling and haemorrhage in stomachand small intestines of mice after24 hours.An isolated saponin (QS-21) fromthe bark shows evidence that it mightaugment both antibody and cell-mediatedimmune response, significantlyincreasing antibody levels. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Quisqualis indica Linn.Family ◮ Combretaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Java andMalaysia; cultivated in Indiangardens.English ◮ Rangoon Creeper.Ayurvedic ◮ Rangoon-ki-Bel.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Irangunmalli.Folk ◮ Laal-chameli.Action ◮ Fruits and seeds—anthelmintic (particularly againstascarites and soporific). Seeds—soporific. Ripe seeds are roastedand given in diarrhoea and fever.Macerated in oil, are applied toparasitic skin diseases. Leaves—decoction prescribed in abdominalpain.The leaves and flowers gave rutinand pelargonidin-3-glucoside, quisqualicacid, trigonelline, L-proline andL-asparagine.Quisqualic acid showed anthelminticactivity. Seeds gave arachidic, linoleic,oleic, palmitic and stearic acids.Q

RRadermachera xylocarpa(Roxb.) K. Schum.Synonym ◮ Bignonia xylocarpa Roxb.Stereospermum xylocarpum (Roxb.)Wt.Family ◮ Bignoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Gujarat, Karnataka, TamilNadu.English ◮ Padri tree.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vedanguruni, Pathiri.Folk ◮ Paadiri. Kharsing, Kadashing,Bairsinge (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Plant—antiseptic. Resin—used for the treatment of skindiseases. Rootbark—bitter, astringent;used as substitute forStereospermumpersonatum (Hassk.)D. Chatterjee and S. suaveolens DC.(Trumpet-Flower, Yellow Snaketree, also known as Padri).The leaves gave flavonoids, dinatinand its glycoside. Roots yielded O-acetyl oleanolic acid, stigmasterol anda red pigment, radermachol.Randia dumetorum Poir.Synonym ◮ R. spinosa Poir.R. brandisii Gamble.R. longispina W. & A.R. tomentosa W. & A. non Blume.Xeromphis spinosa Keay.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, Naga andKhasi Hills, Travancore and theAndamans.English ◮Common Emetic Nut.Ayurvedic ◮ Madana, Chhardana,Pindi, Shalayaka, Vishapushpaka.Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Madkarai.Folk ◮Mainphal, Jauz-ul-Qai.Mainphal.Marukkaaraikai,Action ◮ Fruit—nervine, calmative,antispasmodic, emetic,anthelmintic, abortifacient. Used asa substitute for ipecacuanha.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the dried fruit inchlorosis, common cold, rhinitis andobstinate skin diseases.The activity of the drug is attributedto the presence of saponins which occurto the extent of 2–3% in fresh fruitsand about 10% in dried whole fruit.The saponins are concentrated mostlyin the pulp. A mixture of two saponins,viz. randialic or neutral saponin andrandialic acid or acid saponin has beenisolated from the pulp. On completehydrolysis both the saponins yield oleanolicacid as sapogenin. Ursosaponin,isolated from the ethanolic extract ofthe dried whole fruit, gave ursolic acidand glucose. Randianin, isolated fromthe fruit, gave a haemolytic triterpenoidsaponin.

536 Randia uliginosa DC.RIn experimental animals, the drugcaused haemolysis both in vitro and invivo. Crudesaponinfractionshowedhaemolytic, molluscidal and immunostimulatingactivities.Oleanolic acid 3-glucoside, isolatedfrom the seed, exhibited anti-arthriticactivity in exudative and proliferativephases of inflammation in rats.Dosage ◮ Fruit—0.5–1.0 g powderfor decoction, 3–6 g for inductionvomiting. (API, Vol. I.)Randia uliginosa DC.Synonym ◮ Catunaregam uliginosa(Retz.) Sivarajan.Family ◮Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Southern, Central andEastern India, including Assam andSikkim.Ayurvedic ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Pindaalu, Pinditaka.Wagatta, Perunkarai.Folk ◮ Mainphal, Pindaar, Pendraa,Pendhar.Action ◮ Unripe fruit—astringent.Root—diuretic; used for biliousness,diarrhoea and dysentery.Unripe fruits are roasted and used asa remedy for dysentery and diarrhoea.The root, boiled in purified butter, isalso prescribed for dysentery and diarrhoea.The fruits, like those of Randiaspinosa, contain a toxic saponin ofoleanolic acid. They also contain leucocyanidinand mannitol. The flowersyield an essential oil similar to Gardeniaoil.Ranunculus arvensis Linn.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ The Western Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Kumaon.English ◮ Corn Buttercup.Folk ◮ Chambul (Punjab). Gagerkanda(Kashmir).Action ◮ Used in intermittent fevers,asthma and gout.The active principle of the herb isprotoanemonin (0.54%) and its glycosidicprecursor, ranunculin. The herbyields hydrocyanic acid in very smallamounts.The leaves contain the antifungallactone protoanemonin which inhibitedgrowth of Epidermophyton floccosumand the yeast Rhodotorula glutinis.Ranunculus sceleratus Linn.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ The plains of northernIndia, and the warm valleys of theHimalayas from Kashmir to Assam.English ◮ Blister Buttercup, CeleryleavedCrowfoot.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaandira, Kaandakatuka,Naasaa-samvedana, Toyavalli,Sukaandaka.Folk ◮ Jal-dhaniyaa.Action ◮ Fresh Plant—highly acrid,rubefacient, vesicant and toxic;

Raphanus sativus Linn. 537causes inflammation of the digestivetract. Used after drying or asa homoeopathic medicine for skindiseases.The plant contains anemonin, protoanemonin,ranunculine, serotoninand other tryptamine derivatives.Serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine)is a potent vaso-constrictor. Protoanemoninpossesses strong antibacterial,antiviral, cytopathogenic andvermicidal properties, and is effectiveagainst both Gram-positive and Gramnegativebacteria, similar to penicillicacid. It inhibits the growth of E. coli,Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans.It inactivates in vitro diptheriatoxin.Dosgae ◮ Whole plant—1–3 gpowder. (CCRAS.)Ranunculus trichophyllus Chaix.Synonym ◮ R. aquatilis Linn. var.capillaceus DC.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir to Sikkim.English ◮ Water Crowfoot, WaterFennel.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaandira (var.).Folk ◮ Tohlab (Kashmir).Action ◮ Herb—used in intermittentfevers, rheumatism and asthma.Ranunculus muricatus Linn. (Punjaband Kashmir) is used in intermittentfevers, gout and asthma in Europe.The herb is rubefacient, vesicant andnarcotic.Raphanus sativus Linn.Family ◮Cruciferae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in UttarPradesh, Punjab, Maharashtra andGujarat.English ◮Radish.Ayurvedic ◮ Muulaka, Laghumuulaka,Muulakapotikaa, Visra,Shaaleya, Marusambhava. Pods—Sungraa, Singri, Mungraa.Unani ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Muuli, Turb Fajal.Mullangi.Action ◮ Radish—preparationsare used in liver, gallbladder andurinary complaints. Green leaves—diuretic and carminative. Seeds—diuretic, purgative, expectorant.A decoction of dry radish is givenorally in piles. Extract of the dry rootis given for hiccough, influenza, dysentery,colic and urinary troubles.Key application ◮ In peptic disorders,especially those related to dyskinesiaof the bile ducts; and in catarrhsof the upper respiratory tract.(German Commission E.)The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the juice of the wholeplant in sinusitis; juice of the root indiseases of the throat and sinusitis; andthe seed in amenorrhoea, cough anddyspnoea.The fleshy root and seeds containtrans-4-methyl-thiobutenyl isothiocyanateglucoside (the pungent principle),cyanidin-5-glucoside-3-sophoro-R

538 Rauvolfia serpentina Benth. ex Kurz.Rside, pelargonidin diglycoside, cyanidindiglycoside, 5-methyl-L-cysteinesulphoxide(methiin), steroidal sapogeninsand sulphorophene.The enzymes present in the radishare phosphatase, catalase, sucrase,amylase, alcohol dehydrogenase andpyruvic carboxylase.Radish contains caffeic acid and ferulicacid which exhibit hepatoprotectiveand choleretic properties. It containscholine which prevents depositionof fat in liver. Amino acids, ornithine,citrulline, arginine, glutamicacid and asparatic acid remove toxinsfrom the body and urea acumulation.Radish is a good source of ascorbicacid (15–40 mg/100 g), trace elementsinclude aluminium, barium, lithium,manganese, silicon, titanium, also iodine(upto 18 mcg/100 g) and ascorbigen.Roots, leaves, flowers and pods areactive against Gram-positive bacteria.The seeds are reported to containa broad spectrum antibiotic, machrolysin,specific against Mycobacteriumtuberculosis. Raphanin, extracted fromthe seeds, is active against Grampositiveand Gram-negative bacteria.A purified basic protein, homologousto nonspecific lipid transfer proteins,from seeds showed antifungal activity.Raphanus caudatus Linn., synonymR. sativus var. caudatus, is known asRat-Tail Radish.A native to Java, it is cultivated innorthern and western India. The rootis not used; pods, purple or violet incolour, are consumed for propertiesattributed to Raphanus sp. These areknown as Mungraa or Sungraa.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—20–40 mljuice; root—15–30 ml juice. (API,Vol. II.) Seed—1–3 g powder. (API,Vol. III.)Rauvolfia serpentinaBenth. ex Kurz.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayas tractfrom Punjab to Nepal, Sikkim,Bhutan, Assam, Western Ghats andthe Andamans.English ◮ Rauvolfia root, SerpentinaRoot, Indian Snakeroot.Ayurvedic ◮ Sarpagandhaaof Ayurvedic texts was notthe Sarpagandhaa of modernmedicine. (Sarpagandhaa wasequated with Naakuli, Sarpachhatrikaaand Varshaasu Chhatrikaaraa.Sarpagandhaa andSarpasugandhaa were synonyms ofNaakuli.)Folk ◮ Chhotaa Chaand.Action ◮ Root—decoction isemployed to increase uterinecontractions and for expulsionof foetus in difficult cases. Thetotal alkaloidal extract of the rootinduces bradycardia, hypotension,sedation. It finds applicationin hypochondria, neuropsychiatricdisorders, psychosis andschizophrenia.Key application ◮ In mild, essentialhypertension (borderlinehypertension, especially with elevatedtension of the sympatheticnervous system, for example,

Rauvolfia tetraphylla Linn. 539sinus tachycardia, anxiety, tensionand psychomotor irritation,when dietetic measures aloneare not sufficient. (GermanCommission E.)(Average daily dose: 600 mg drugcorresponding to 6 mg total alkaloid.)Treatment is usually administered witha diuretic to prevent fluid retentionwhich may develop if Rauvolfia root isgiven alone. (WHO.) Contraindicatedin depression, bleeding disorders, gastricand duodenal ulcers. (Sharon M.Herr.) Also contraindicated in pregnancy,since it has both teratogenicand abortifacient potential. (FrancisBrinker.)The root and root bark are rich inalkaloids, the most important beingreserpine, others, around 30, which includeajmaline, ajmalicine (raubasine),ajmalicine, yohimbine, coryanthine,iso-ajmaline, neo-ajmaline, papaverine,raubasine, rauwolscine, rescinnamine,reserpine, sarpagine, serpentine,serpentinine, serpinine and deserpidine.Reserpine is hypotensive and tranquilizer,used for certain forms of mentaldisorders. Ajmalicine (raubasine)and rescinnamine are also hypotensiveand tranquilizer. Deserpidine issedative, as well as hypotensive. Ajmalineexhibits antiarrhythmic activity.A number of Rauvolfia species arefound in India: R. beddomei Hook. f.;R. densiflora Benth ex Hook. f. (Himalayas,Khasi and Aka Hills; Westernand Eastern Ghats); R. micranthaHook. f; known as Malabar Rauvolfia,(Kerala, up to an altitude of 300 m)The roots of R. beddomei containajmalicine, sarpagine and serpentine,but no reserpine. R. densiflora yielded0.51% of total alkaloids (reserpine0.01%). R. micrantha gave ajmalicine,raunamine, reserpiline, sarpagine,neosarpagine, in addition to reserpine.(In classical Ayurvedic texts, Nakuliand Gandha-naakuli were included incompound formulations for mentaldiseases.)Rauvolfia tetraphylla Linn.Synonym ◮ R. canescens L.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Abundant in moist andwarm regions of West Bengal,particularly in 24 Parganas andHowrah, and Kerala (as a weed).Folk ◮ Badaa Chaand.Action ◮ Root—sedative, hypotensive.Plant juice, mixed with castoroil, is applied to skin diseases andto destroy parasites.The plant contains a number ofalkaloids, including rauvolscine, ajmalicine,canescine, reserpine, pseudoyohimbine;yohimbine, corynanthene,raunescine, iso-raunescine andrecanescine.The major alkaloid is rauwolscine(alpha-yohimbine), present in the rootbark (0.1%), stem bark (0.2%) andleaves (0.5%).The roots are often used as a substituteor adulterant of those of R. serpentina,though the reserpine contentof the dried root was found to be comparativelylow (0.03–0.05%).R

540 Reinwardtia indica Dum.RReinwardtia indica Dum.Family ◮Linaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Sikkim; commonlygrowningardens.English ◮ Winter-Flax, Yellow Flax.Ayurvedic ◮ Baasanti.Folk ◮ Abai (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Plant—used for thetreatment of paralysis in Bihar.The crushed leaves and stems areapplied to wounds infested withmaggots.Reissantia grahamii(Wight) Ding Hou.Synonym ◮ Hippocratea grahamiiWight.Pristimera grahamiiA. C. Smith.Family ◮ Celastraceae; Hippocrateaceae.Habitat ◮ Konkan, and the SouthAndamans.Folk ◮ Danshir, Daushir, Lokhandi,Yesti, Zerwati (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Root—used for thetreatment of respiratory affections,common cold and influenza.The roots contain about twice theamount of pristimerin as in R. indicaand show similar antibiotic properties.Pristimerin is found active againstStreptococcus viridans, causative organismfor sore throat and tonsilitis,and S. pyogenes.Reissantia indica Halle.Synonym ◮ Hippocratea indica Willd.Pristimera indica A. C. Smith.Family ◮ Celastraceae; Hippocrateaceae.Habitat ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮North-eastern India.Odangod.Folk ◮ Kazurati, Tirruli (Maharashtra),Atari-lataa, Kathapahaariaa,Lokhandi (Bengal).Action ◮ Root bark—used for thetreatment of respiratory troubles.Stem—febrifuge. Leaves—scorchedand given to women duringconfinement. Powdered leavesand roots are applied to sores andwounds.The roots contain dulcitol. The rootbark contains an antibiotic principle,pristimerin (0.1%) which shows consideredin vitro activity against severalGram-positive cocci, both haemolyticand non-haemolytic. Pristimerinalso inhibits in vitro growth of differentstrains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.Clinical trials have shown thatpristimerin is effective in the treatmentof inflammatory conditions ofthe naso-pharyngeal mucosa resultingfrom common cold and influenzal infections.It is found useful as an adjunctto the common antibiotic therapy ofrespiratory inflammations of both bacterialand viral origin, and is reportedto possess antitumour properties, butits high toxicity precludes its use asacancero-staticagent.

Rhamnus purshiana DC. 541Remusatia vivipara Schott.Family ◮Habitat ◮Araceae.Maharashtra, Karnataka.Folk ◮ Rukhaalu, Maanakand(Maharashtra). Lakshmanaa isa doubtful synonymAction ◮ Root—use for obstinateskin diseases and pruritus; alsofor disinfecting genitourinary tractand for promoting conception.Alocasia indica and Eulophia nudaare also known as Maanakanda inIndian medicine. Alocasia indicais used in Siddha medicine as ananti-inflammatory and diureticherb.Reseda luteola Linn.Family ◮ Resedaccae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to westernEurope; grown in gardens in India.English ◮ Dyer’s Rocket, Weld.Action ◮ Plant—diuretic, diaphoretic,anthelmintic.A luteolin glucoside, luteoloside, hasbeen isolated from the fresh blossomsand outer parts of the plant. It has a lowtoxicityandmildinfluenceoncapillaryresistance and possesses diuretic properties.Reseda odorata Linn., known asMignonette, is indigenous to NorthAfrica and cultivated in gardens inIndia.The herb is reported to allay irritationand ease pains. The seeds areapplied externally as a resolvent. Theroot is acrid and is used in Spain asa laxative, diuretic and diaphoretic.Rhamnus procumbens Edgew.Family ◮ Rhamnaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas fromSimla to Kumaon at an altitude of2,300 to 2,600 m.English ◮ Buckthorn (relatedspecies).Action ◮ Plant—anticonvulsant,anti-inflammatory, anti-ulcer.The plant contains kaempferol,kaempferol-7-O-methyl ether andkaempferol-4 ′ -O-methyl ether.The ethyl acetate soluble portionof the alcoholic extract showed antinociceptive,anticonvulsant and antiinflammatoryactivity. Kaempferol-4 ′ -O-methyl ether was found to exhibitcentral nervous system depressant,cardiac stimulant, antispasmodic andanti-inflammatory activity.The plant also contain emodin,which exhibited cardiac and intestinalstimulant, central nervous systemdepressant and analgesic activity inexperimental animals.Rhamnus purshiana DC.Synonym ◮ Frangula purshiana (DC)A. Grey.Family ◮ Rhamnaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe;introduced in Kashmir, HimachalPradesh, Bhutan and the Nilgiris.R

542 Rhamnus virgatus Roxb.REnglish ◮ Buckthorn (relatedspecies), Cascara Sagrada, SacredBark.Action ◮ Bark—stool-softener,non-habit forming stimulantlaxative, pancreatic stimulant.Used for dyspepsia and habitualconstipation.Key application ◮ In occasionalconstipation. (German CommissionE, ESCOP, WHO.) Asastimulantlaxative. (The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)The bark contains up to 10% anthraquinoneglycosides, consisting ofthecascarosidesA,B,CandD,about70% of the total; other glycosides in minorconcentrations include barbaloin,frangulin, chrysanol, glycosides basedon emodin, aloe-emodin, emodinoxanthroneand chrysophanol; dianthrones,and free aglycones.The cascarosides act on large intestinesand stimulate peristalsis. Theemodin exhibits antispasmodic activityin isolated rat intestine. Its antiinflammatoryand antiseptic actionwas also demonstrated.Rhamnus catharticus Linn., is equatedwith common Buckthorn, R. purpureaEdgew. with Purple Buckthorn.R. purpurea is found in the Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Nepal.Dried bark of Rhamnus frangulaL. (Alder Buckthorn) and dried ripeberries of Ramnus catharticus are alsoused against constipation. (GermanCommission E, WHO.)Long term use or excessive amountsmay cause albuminuria, haematuria,slowingofintestinaltransitandcardiacirregularities. (Sharon M. Herr.)Rhamnus triquetra Brandis (knownas Gudlei, Fagoraa, Gardhan in Punjab;Gaunt in Garhwal and Kumaonand Katheraa in Jaunsar) is found inthe Himalayas from Kashmir to Nepal.The bark is used as a tonic, astringentand deobstruent. Kaempferol, its 7-Omethylether and 4 ′ -O-methyl ether,physcion-8 beta-D-glucoside, emodinand its 8 beta-D-glucoside were isolatedfrom the whole plant. Emodinexhibited CNS depressant activity. (Fitoterapia,65, 1994.) The plant exhibitedsignificant anti-inflammatory anda nonspecific antispasmodic activity.It induced cardio-stimulation whichmight be due to the endogenous releaseof catecholamines.Rhamnus napalensis Wall. ex M.Laws. (known as Archal in Nepal;Biringa and Birringguli in Assam) isfound in eastern Himalayas and thehills and plains of Assam, Bihar, Orissa,Madhya Pradesh and northern AndhraPradesh, ascending up to an altitudeof 2,000 m. The fruit, pounded andmacerated in vinegar, is prescribed forthe treatment of herpes.Rhamnus virgatus Roxb.Family ◮ Rhamnaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout Himalayas,Khasi and Jaintia Hills, hills ofOrissa, Madhya Pradesh, and theNilgiris.English ◮ Indian Buckthorn.Folk ◮ Chhaduaa, Tadru (Punjab),Chadolaa (Garhwal).Action ◮ Ripe fruit—purgative,emetic. Given in the affections of

Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meissn. 543spleen. (Purgative action not foundin the bark.)The bark showed only traces of hydroxymethylanthraquinones and didnot exhibit purgative action on experimentalanimals.The plant contains the enzyme,rhamnodiastase, capable of hydrolyzingflavonoid glycosides.Rhamnus wightii Wight & Arn.Family ◮ Rhamnaceae.Habitat ◮ Hills of Peninsular India,up to an altitude of 2,000 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-Rohidaa (a nameapplied to several other astringentherbs).Action ◮ Bark—bitter, astringent anddeobstruent.The leaves gave chrysophanol, physcion,musizin, lupeol, rhamnazin,rhamnocitrin, emodin, frangulin Aand beta-sitosterol. A naphthaleneglucosidelactone—beta-sorigenin-1-O-beta-D-glucoside has been isolatedfrom the stem bark. Cynodontin,chrysophanol, physcion, musizin, lupeol,emodin, beta-syriogenin, betasitosteroland its glucoside were alsoisolated.Rhaphidophora laciniata(Burm. F.) Merr.Family ◮ Araceae.Habitat ◮ Deccan Peninsula,Coromandel Coast, Malabar andsouthwards to Sri Lanka.Folk ◮ Ganesh-kand (Maharashtra);Aaanaiittippili (Tamil Nadu).Action ◮ Antidote to poisonousinflictions; used against bites ofpoisonous raptiles.Rheum emodi Wall. ex Meissn.Synonym ◮ R. australe D. Don.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-alpine Himalayas,from Kashmir to Sikkim at altitudesof 3,300–5,200 m.; also cultivated inAssam.English ◮ Indian Rhubarb, HimalayanRhubarb.Ayurvedic ◮ Amlaparni, Pitamuuli,Gandhini Revatikaa. Revandachini(roots).Unani ◮ Revandchini.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Revalchinikattai,Nattirevaichini.Action ◮ Purgative, astringent,aperient. Used for constipationand atonic dyspepsia. Not advisedfor patients suffering from gout,rheumatism, epilepsy. (When giveninternally, the root imparts a deeptinge to the urine.)The root gave emodin, emodin-3-monomethyl ether, chrysophanol,aloe-emodin, rhein. These occur freeand as quinone, anthrone or dianthroneglycosides. The astringent principleconsists of gallic acid togetherwith small amounts of tannin. Thedrug also contain cinnamic and rheinolicacids, volatile oil, starch andR

544 Rheum nobile Hook. f. & Th.Rcalcium oxalate. Two major glycosidicactive principles, sennoside A andB, are present along with free anthraquinones.At low doses, the tannin exerts astringenteffect and relieves diarrhoea;at higher doses anthraquinones stimulatelaxative effect and relieve constipation.(Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)There are three main types of rhubarbs—Chinese,Indian or Himalayan,and Rhapontic.The Chinese rhubarb consists of therhizomes and roots of Rheum palmatumand R. officinale.The Indian rhubarb consists of driedrhizomes of R. emodi and R. webbianum;rhizomes and roots of R.moorcroftianum and R. spiciforme arealso reported to be mixed with thedrug. R. rhaponticum is the Rhaponticrhubarb.Rheum moorcroftianum Royle (theHimalayas at altitudes of 3,000–5,200 m., chiefly in Garhwal and Kumaon)possesses properties similar tothose of R. emodi and the roots aremixed with the latter.Rheum spiciforme Royle (drierranges of Kumaon and Sikkim at altitudesof 2,700–4,800 m.) also possessespurgative properties. The rhizomesand roots are mixed up with Himalayanrhubarb.Rheum webbianum Royle (the westernand central Himalayas at altitudesof 3,000–5,000 m.) is the source ofHimalayan rhubarb.Rheum palmatum is esteemed asthe best type of (Chinese) rhubarb.Two new stilbene glycosides, 4 ′ -Omethylpiceidand rhapontin, isolatedfrom the roots, exhibited moderatealpha-glucosidase inhibitory activity.Anthraquinone glucoside, pulmatin,isolated from the roots, alongwith its congeners, chrysophanein andphyscionin, showed cytotoxic activityagainst several types of carcinomacells. Polysaccharides, isolated fromthe roots and rhizomes, contained lyxose,glucose, galactose, xylose, rhamnose,mannose and ribose.Dosage ◮ Root—0.2–1.0 g powder.(CCRAS.)Rheum nobile Hook. f. & Th.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas from Nepalto Bhutan at 3,900–4,800 m.Folk ◮ Tehuka (Sikkim).Action ◮ The roots resemble thoseof Rheum emodi, but are spongyand inert. Stems are acidic, used assalad. Dried leaves are sometimesused as a substitute for tobacco.Rheum officinale Baillon.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ Southeast Tibet, West andNorthwest China.English ◮ Rhubarb.Unani ◮ Usaare Rewand.Action ◮ Astringent and cathartic(anthraquinones are laxative andtannins astringent), stomachic, aperient,cholinergic, gastric stimulant,antispasmodic, anti-inflammatory,

Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz. 545antiseptic. Used for indigestion,diarrhoea, dysentery and disordersof liver and gallbladder.Key application ◮ In constipation.Contraindicated in acute intestinalinflammation and obstruction.(German Commission E, ESCOP,The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia,WHO.)Rhubarb contains 1,8-dihydroxyanthracenederivatives. The laxativeeffect of the herb is primarily due to itsinfluence on the motility of the colon,inhibiting stationary and stimulatingpropulsive contractions. Stimulationof the chloride secretion increases thewater and electrolyte content of stool.(German Commission E.)The plant extract of R. officinaleis found to be strong and effectivescavenger of oxygen radicals in xanthine/xanthineoxidase and other systemsin vitro.Rheum rhaponticum, known as Rhaponticor English rhubarb, is extensivelycultivated all over Europe and America;also cultivated to a small extent inIndia in the Khasi Hills, the Nilgirisand West Bengal.Rhubarbs contain anthraquinonesbut English rhubarb contains onlychrysophanic acid and some of its glycosides.Stilbene glycosides, present inother types, are also found in Englishrhubarb. The roots contain rhapontin.(1.42%), reported to restore oestruscycle in castrated female rats.Rheum webbianum Royle.Family ◮Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas.Folk ◮ Archa.Action ◮ Antispasmodic, musclerelaxant, antiseptic.The rhizomes contain desoxyrhapontigenin.The compound, like papaverine,exhibited smooth muscle relaxantactivity in a wide variety of invitro and in vivo tests. Aqueous alcoholicextract showed papaverine-likenon-specific spasmolytic activity.The paste of fresh rhizomes is appliedon burns, blisters and boils toprevent scar formation.Rhinacanthus nasutus (L.) Kurz.Synonym ◮ R. communis Nees.Justicia nasuta L.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the greaterpart of India.English ◮ Snake Jasmine.Ayurvedic ◮ Yuuthiparni, Yuuthikaparni.Paalaka-Juuhi.Unani ◮ Gul-baglaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nagamalli.Action ◮ Leaf, seed and root—usedfor skin diseases. A paste of theroot, with lime juice, is appliedexternally to eczema, ringworm andDhobi’s itch.The roots are reported to contain anantiseptic and antiparasitic active principle,rhinacanthin (1.9%). The plant isrich in potassium salts; also containsoxymethyl anthraquinones.The flowers contain rutin.R

546 Rhizophora mucronata Lam.RDosage ◮ Leaf, seed, root—5–10 mljuice; 3–5 g powder. (CCRAS.)Rhizophora mucronata Lam.Family ◮Rhizophoraceae.Habitat ◮ The Sunderbans and alongthe Coromandel Coast and theAndamans.English ◮ True Mangrove.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Peykkandal, Kandal,Sorapinnai.Folk ◮ Kamo (Bengal), Kandal(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Bark—astringent. Usedin the treatment of haemorrhages,haematuria.The leaves contain 9.1, unripe fruits12.0, ripe fruits 4.2, twig bark 9–12, andwood 7–14% tannins.The leaves gave campesterol, cholesterol,28-isofucosterol, beta-sitosterol,stigmasterol and stigmast-7-en-3 betaol.The plant gave alpha-and betaamyrins,betulin, lupeol, oleanolic andursolic acids; gibberellins have alsobeen reported.Honey collected from the flowers isreported to be poisonous.R. apiculata Blume, also known asKandal, is found mixed up with R. mucronatain the tidal marshes of Indiaand the Andamans.Rhododendron anthopogonD. Don.Family ◮Ericaceae.Habitat ◮ The alpine Himalayas fromHimachal Pradesh to Bhutan, from3,000 to 5,000 m.Folk ◮ Taalisri (Punjab), Taalish(Tibet), Tazaktsum, Taalis-faz(Kashmir).Action ◮ Leaves—stimulant. Theplant yields an incense. The leavesof R. anthopogon get mixed up withthose of Abies webbiana (used forrespiratory diseases).The leaves contain quercetin, myricetin,taxifolin, kaempferol derivatives,ursolic acid and its acetate, epifriedinol,beta-sitosterol, betulinic acidand rutin.The leaves of R. lepidotum Wall. exG.Don,knownasTaalisfurinPunjab;and R. setosum D. Don, known asTsalluo in Bhutan, possess propertiessimilar to those of R. anthopogon.Rhododendron arboreum Sm.Synonym ◮ R. puniceum Roxb.Family ◮ Ericaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Bhutan, theNilgiris, Khasi Hills and Travancore.English ◮ Tree-Rhododendron,Rose-Tree.Folk ◮ Burans (Kumaon), Kurbak,Pullaas.Action ◮ Leaf—anticephalalgic(applied to the forehead). Leaf andstem-bark—spasmolytic. Flowers—used in diarrhoea and dysentery.The green leaves contain a glucoside,ericolin. The extracts of leaves,

Rhododendron campanulatum D. Don. 547stems and bark cause hypotension incats and inhibit intestinal movementsin rabbits. The acetone and chloroformextracts and a resinous fractionfrom the alcoholic extract of leaves depressrespiration. The petroleum etherextract decreases the rate of heartbeatand contraction in isolated heart offrog.An alcoholic (50%) extract of theflowers lowered blood pressure in dogsand albino rats.Cyanidin-3-galactoside and cyanidin-3-arbinosideare present in thepigments of flowers. The leaves ofvar. nilgiricum and var. cinnamonumcontain ursolic acid, friedelin, epifriedelanol,quercetin. A triterpenoid,campanulin, has been isolated fromthe leaves of var. nilagaricum.resulted in 20–40% reduction in bloodpressure. It also closely resemblesprotoveratrine in its stimulating effecton the barostatic-pressor-reflexmechanism,respiratory effects andemetic action. It produces reflex vasodepressorresponses in intact animals;in debuffered dogs, it producedvasopressor responses. It also produced,both direct and indirect, positiveionotropic effects, the latter beingmore pronounced.The leaves contain ursolic acid,alpha-amyrin, epi-friedelinol, campanulinand hyperoside. Chloroformextract of the leaves and shoots showeda depressant action. The honey fromflowers is poisonous; contains andromedotoxin.Rhododendron barbatumWall. ex G. Don.Family ◮ Ericaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKumaon to Bhutan, extending toAssam.English ◮ Giantblood Rhododendron.Folk ◮ Chimal (Nepal), Kurbak,Guraans.Action ◮ Respiratory depressant,emetic, toxic.The leaves and flowers gave andromedotoxinwhich resembles tertiaryamine veratrum alkaloids, particularlyprotoveratrine, in pharmacologicalaction. Intravenous administrationof andromedotoxin to dogsRhododendron campanulatumD. Don.Synonym ◮ R. aeruginosum Hk. f.Family ◮Ericaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the Himalayasat altitudes of 2,400–5,200 m.Folk ◮ Chimal (Kumaon, Nepal),Gagger vurmi, Nichnai (Kashmir).Cherailu, Taalis-far.Action ◮ Leaves—used in chronicrheumatism and sciatica. As a snuff,in colds and hemicrania.The leaves gave a toxic substancewhich resembles andromedotoxin; besidesericolin, ursolic acid, alpha-amyrin,friedelin, epi-friedelinol, campanulin,quercitin. The pigments of flowerscontain myricetin and quercetin.R

548 Rhododendron cinnabarinum Hook. f.RPetroleum ether and chloroform extractsof leaves, stems and flowers lowerblood pressure in cats and inhibit intestinalmovements in rabbits.Rhododendron cinnabarinumHook. f.Family ◮Ericaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas,extending into the Balipura tractand Aka hills of Assam at altitudesof 2,100–4,000 m.Folk ◮Action ◮Balu, Sanu, Chimal (Nepal).Plant—vasodepressor.The plant contains a toxic principle,andromedotoxin. The leavesare reported to contain friedelin, epifriedelinol,alpha-amyrin, campanulin,ursolic acid, triterpenes and quercetin.Theflowersarereportedtobepoisonous.R. falconeri Hook. f., known as Korlingain Nepal, Kegu and Kalma inBhutan, is found in the Himalayasfrom Nepal to Bhutan, Aka Hills, NagaHills and Manipur at altitudes of 2,100–4,300 m.The leaves and stem contain andromedotoxin;leaves also contain ursolicacid, alpha-amyrin, friedelin,campanulin and quercetin. The flowerscontain 3-rhamnoside and 3-galactosideof quercetin. The bark gave taraxerol,betulinic acid and quercetin.Petroleum ether extract of the leavesand stems lowers blood pressure in catsand inhibits intestinal movements inrabbits.Rhus chinensis Mill.Synonym ◮ R. javanica Linn.R. semialata Murr.Brucea javanica (L.) Merill.Family ◮ Anacardiaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Bhutan at 1,300–2,400 m.Folk ◮ Tatri, Arkhar (Punjab).Action ◮ Galls—astringent andexpectorant. Used in ointmentsand suppositories employed inthe treatment of haemorrhoids,swellings and wounds. Fruits—spasmolytic. Used for colic,diarrhoea and dysentery.Dry galls contain 50 to 80% tannin(in the form of Gallo tannic acid);small amounts of fat, resin and gum.The stem-bark contains 10.5% tannin.The fruit contains tannin, gallic acidand potassium acid salts, together withsmall amounts of aluminium, calcium,magnesium and iron acid salts of malic,tartaric and citric acids.The heartwood contained the flavonoids,pongapin, tetramethoxyfisetinand demethoxykanugin, and a dibenzoylmethane,ovalitenone.Rhus hookeri Sahni & Bahadur, synonymR. insignis Hk. f. is found in SikkimHimalayafromNepaltoBhutanat 1,600–2,000 m and in Khasi Hills at1,500 m. Juice of the plant is a powerfulvesicant. The fruit contain a fat similarto that found in the fruit of R. javanica.Rhus coriaria Linn.Family ◮Anacardiaceae.

Rhus succedanea Linn. 549Habitat ◮Mediterranean region.English ◮ European or SicilianSumach (used in Unani medicine).Unani ◮Sumaaq, Taatraak.Action ◮ Leaves and seeds—astringent, styptic.Limonene, nonanal and dec-2 (Z)-enal were obtained from pericarp oil,whereas the leaf oil contained betacaryophylleneand patchoulane. Cembraneand beta-caryophyllene wereisolated from branch and bark oil.Rhus parviflora Roxb.Family ◮ Anacardiaceae.Habitat ◮ Dry hot slopes of theHimalayas from Punjab to Nepaland in the hills of Madhya Pradeshand South India.English ◮ Sumach.Ayurvedic ◮ Tintidi, Tintindeeka.Unani ◮ Sumaaq.Folk ◮ Raitung, Tung (Kumaon).Action ◮ Fruit juice—vermifuge.The leaves contain the flavonoids,myricetin, quercetin and kaempferoland their 3-O-rhamnosides; the stemsand leaves also gave hentriacontane,hentriacontanol, beta-sitosterol, lignocericacid and iso-rhamnetin-3-alpha-L-arvinoside.Smooth Sumach and Sweet Sumach(Canada and USA) are equated withRhus glabra L. and R. aromatica Ait.Smooth Sumach is astringent and diuretic.Sweet Sumach is used for itsantidiabetic activity; the root bark isused for irritable bladder, bed-wettingand urinary incontinence. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Dosage ◮ Fruit—3–6 g powder.(CCRAS.)Rhus succedanea Linn.Synonym ◮ R. acuminata DC.Family ◮ Anacardiaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayas,from Kashmir, Sikkim to Bhutan ataltitudes of 600–2,500 m.English ◮ Japanese Wax tree, WildVarnish tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Karkatashringee.(Used as a substitute for Pistaciaintegerrima galls.).Unani ◮ Kaakraasingi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karkatakasringi,Kadukapoo (galls).Action ◮ Thorn-like excrescenceson the branches—astringent, expectorant;prescribed in diarrhoea,dysentery and vomiting. Fruits—expectorant (used as an adjuvant intuberculosis).The sapwood and heartwood containpolyphenols. The sapwood containsgallo tannin; the heartwood gavefisetin, and its -7-glucoside, fustin, garbanzol,3,7,4 ′ -trihydroxyflavone, gallicand ellagic acid. The bark is reportedto contain 10% of tannin.The juice from the leaves causes blisters.Leaves contain 20% tannin (drybasis), a flavone glycoside rhoifolin, corilaginand shikimic acid. EthanolicR

550 Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC.Rextract of the leaves is reported to exhibitanticancer and antiviral activities.Latex from the stem also causes blisters.Mesocarp of the fruit contains ellagicacid. An acid isolated from thefruit is reported to be cardiotonic andsympathomimetic. It was found to betoxic to rabbits. However, the fruitsare used in the treatment of tuberculosis.Hinokiflavone, isolated from thefruits, showed cytotoxic activity in vitroagainst KB culture cells.Drupes are rich in biflavones.The wax obtained from the pulpymesocarp of the fruit contains palmitic77,stearic5,dibasic6,oleic12%,andlinoleic acid (a trace). It is used asa substitute for beeswax.Rhynchosia minima (L.) DC.Family ◮ Papilionaceae.Habitat ◮ All over plains and in theHimalayas up to 1,200 m.Folk ◮ Raan-ghevaraa (smaller var.)(Maharashtra); Jhinki, Kammervel(Gujarat); Chittavarai (Tamil Nadu).Action ◮ Leaves—abortifacient.Seeds—bitter, toxic.The leaves afforded isovitexin andapigenin derivatives.Aerial parts gave steroidal glycosides,along with ergosterol peroxide,stigmasterol and lupeol; bergapten,isopimpinellin, umbelliferone andbeta-sitosterol have also been isolated.The seed coat and pericarp containedgallic and protocatechuic acid,prodelphinmidine and hydroquinonediacetate and C-glycosyl flavones.The extract of seeds shows agglutinatingactivity with certain type ofhuman red blood cells.R. bracteata Benth. ex Baker (upperGangetic plains) and R. jacobii Chandra& Shetty (Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu)contain vitexin, isovitexin, orientin,iso-orientin and apigenin derivatives.Ribes nigrum Linn.Family ◮ Grossulariaceae.Habitat ◮ Cold temperate regionsextending from Himalayas tonorthern Asia and Europe.English ◮ European Black Currant.Folk ◮ Nabar.Action ◮ Dried leaves and twigs—a home remedy for coughs.Leaves—diuretic, hypotensive,refrigerant. An infusion is usedfor inflammatory conditions,sore throat, hoarseness. Fruits—refrigerant, mildly spasmolytic,vasoprotective, anti-inflammatory.Black currents are very rich in vitaminC (average 150 mg/100g) and contain0.9–1.7% pectin as calcium pectate,also minerals, potassium (372 mg/100 g). The acidity of the fruit is mainlydue to citric acid; malic acid is presentin small amounts. Glucose and fructoseare principal sugars; sucrose isa minor component.The flavonoids in the fruits includekaempferol, quercetin and myricetin.About 0.3% anthocyanosides, concentratedmainly in the skin, consist ofglycosides of cyanidol and delphinidol.

Ricinus communis Linn. 551The anthocyanosides are reportedlybacteriostatic and exhibit vasoprotectiveand anti-inflammatory activity.They are antisecretory against choleratoxin-induced intestinal fluid secretionin vitro.The leaves contain an anti-inflammatoryprinciple, pycnometol and minutequantities of an essential oil composedmostly of terpenes.Polyphenolic extract of buds inhibitedlipid peroxidation by rat liver microsomes.Polyphenols present in R. nigrumand R. rubrum (Red Current, WesternHimalayas from Kumaon to Kashmir)exhibit free radical scavenging activity.The seed oil lowers VLDL and totalcholesterol.Contraindicated in bleeding disorders.(Sharon M. Herr.)Ricinus communis Linn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated chiefly inAndhra Pradesh, Maharashtra,Karnataka, and Orissa.English ◮ Castor seed.Ayurvedic ◮ Eranda, Chitrabija,Triputi; Tribija, Vaataari,Chanchu, Manda, Uruvaka,Gandharva-hastaa, Panchaangula,Vardhamaana, Uttaanpatraka,Vyaaghrapuchha, Chitraa.Unani ◮ Bedanjeer, Arand.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ammanakku.Action ◮ Oil from seeds and youngleaf—purgative. Oil is used indermatosis and eczema. Leaves—used as poultice to extract the worm.Root—a decoction is administeredfor lumbago and allied complaints.Bark—purgative.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the decoction of thedried, mature root in rheumatism, painin the urinary bladder, lumbago, diseasesof the abdomen and inflammations;fresh leaf in helminthiasis, dysuria,arthritis, pain in the urinary bladder,dysuria, abscesses; dried seed powderin constipation, rheumatism, diseasesof the liver and spleen, piles, lumbago,sciatica.The root extract exhibited significantanti-inflammatory activity againstcarrageenan-, bradykinin-, 5-HT-anddextran-induced rat hind paw oedema.N-Demethylricinine showed dose-dependentanticholestatic and hepatoprotectiveactivities in rats.Castor oil, derived from the seeds,is a well-known purgative (dose 5–20 ml).Castor seed contains toxic components(2.8–3.0% on whole seed; about10% in the flour) which are highly poisonousto human beings and animals.The principal toxic substance is the albumin,ricin. Allergens and a feeblytoxic alkaloid ricinine is also present.An ulcerative factor in the seed is reported.Like other toxalbumins, ricinagglutinizes the mammalian red bleedcorpuscles. (Ricin loses its toxicityand antigenic action on treatment withpotassium permanganate.)Castor oil consists principally of ricinoleicacid. Stearic, oleic, linoleicand dihydroxystearic acids are presentin small amounts. The strong laxativeR

552 Rivea corymbosa Hallier f.property of castor oil is reported dueto the local irritant action caused inthe intestines by ricinoleic acid formedby hydrolysis under the influence oflipolytic enzymes. (The oil should notbe used with fat-soluble vermifuge, itmay increase its absorption and toxicity.)Dosage ◮ Root—20–30 g fordecoction. (API, Vol. I.) Leaf—10–20 ml juice; 2–5 g powder; seed—0.5–3 g powder. (API, Vol. III.)Rivea hypocrateriformis Choisy.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Midnapore Creeper.Ayurvedic ◮ Phanji.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Budthi-kiray.Folk ◮ Kalmi-lataa, Phaang.Action ◮ Root—a tonic afterchildbirth. Leaves—astringent;used in haemorrhagic diseases,diarrhoea, dysentery.RRivea corymbosa Hallier f.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;cultivated as an ornament in gardensin Mumbai, Pune and Belgaum.English ◮ Ololiuqui, Snake Plant.Action ◮ Seeds—narcotic.The psychic effect produced by theground seeds have been ascribed to thepresence of ergot-type alkaloids (upto 0.07%) found in embryo. Amongthe principal alkaloids identified in theseeds are: ergine, isoergine, elymoclavine,lysergol and chanoclavine. Ergometrine,clymoclavine, penniclavineand ergometrinine have also been reported.Ergine has been reported to bethe most and lysergol the least effective.A glucoside, turbicoryn, isolatedfrom the seeds, was found to havea CNS stimulant action. (Doses exceeding31.6 mg/kg proved fatal to testanimals in 5–10 min.)Ergine and isoergine are present inthe leaves (0.03%, dry basis) and stems(0.01%, dry basis) but not in the roots.Rivea ornate (Roxb.) Choisy.Family ◮ Convolvulaceae.Habitat ◮ South India.Ayurvedic ◮ Phanji (var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Machuttai.Folk ◮ Baravat, Phaang.Action ◮ Juice of the plant—usedtopically in haemorrhagic diseasesand piles.Rivina humilis Linn.Synonym ◮ R. laevis Linn.Family ◮ Phytolacaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to warmer partsof America; introduced into Indiangardens.English ◮ Baby Pepper, Dog Blood,Blood Berry, Rouge-Plant.Action ◮ Berries—febrifuge, intestinalantiseptic.

Rosa alba Linn. 553A betaxanthin, humilixanthin, hasbeen isolated from the berry.A decoction of the herb is used forcold, chest congestion and pain, diarrhoeaand jaundice. Berries alleviatedysentery and amenorrhoea.Pounded leaves are used for woundhealingand for treating catarrh.Robinia pseudoacacia Linn.Family ◮ Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas andJammu & Kashmir.English ◮ Locust tree, False Acacia,Robinia, Black Locust.Action ◮ Leaves—laxative, antispasmodic(an infusion is prescribedin digestive disorders). Flowers—diuretic, antispasmodic.Thebark,leavesandrootscontaina toxalbumin, robin (1.6% in the bark),which resembles ricin present in thecastor seed. The bark also containsa glucoside robinitin (3%), syringin,tannin (up to about 7.0%). Inner barkcontains amygdalin and urease.The leaves are rich in calcium, phosphorusand potash. The presence ofglycosides, acaciin, apigenin-7-bioside,apigenin-7-trioside and indican, havealso been reported.The flowers are powerfully diureticdue to a glycoside, robinin. Flowersalso contain l-asparagine.The roots are rich in asparagine, alsocontain robin. Root bark, if taken inexcess, is emetic and purgative.The bark and young shoots are poisonousto livestock.Rorippa dufia Hara.Synonym ◮ R. indica Hiern.Nasturtium indicum DC.Family ◮ Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in dampplaces, ascending up to 2,100 m inthe Himalayas.Unani ◮ Khoobkalaan (also equatedwith Sisymbrium iro Linn., HedgeMustard, London Rocket).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu-kadugu.Action ◮ Plant—antiscorbutic,stimulant, diuretic (given indiarrhoea, dysentery and fever).Seeds—laxative, prescribed in thetreatment of asthma.Glucosinolates of 8-methylthio-octyl,8-methylsulphinyloctyl and 2-phenylethylhave been isolated from theseeds.R. islandica (Oeder) Borbas (Bihar,Bengal, Kerala) and R. montana Small(Punjab to Sikkim) are used for antiscorbutic,digestive and diuretic properties.Rosa alba Linn.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Asian Minor region.Cultivated in Indian gardens.English ◮ Common English DogRose, White Cottage Rose.Ayurvedic ◮ Sevati, Shveta Taruni.(Flowers—white or bluish.)Unani ◮ Sevati. Garden var.—Gul-safed Bustaani, Vard Abyaz.R

554 Rosa bourboniana Desportes.RWild var.—Gul-safed Sahraai, VardAbyaz Barri.Action ◮ Flower—cardiac tonic,prescribed in palpitation of heart,febrifuge. Petal—laxative.Rose hip contains pectin, citric acidand malic acid which are responsiblefor its laxative activity.The pollen contains carotene (2.08mg/100 g), free and bound amino acidsand sugars.The major constituents of the essentialoil are geraniol, beta-phenylethylalcohol, beta-geranic acid, geraniol esters,nerol, citronellol, eugenol, methyleugenoland benzoate.R. Canina Linn. is equated with (Indian)Dog Rose. The anthocyanin,isolated from the petals, exhibits radioprotectiveeffect. The scavenging andantilipoperoxidant activitiesofthefruitdepend on the polyphenol content.Rosa bourboniana Desportes.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughoutIndia, particularly in Uttar Pradeshon commercial scale, for rose water.Ayurvedic ◮ Taruni, Desi Gulaab,Baaraamaasi, Cheenia-Gulaab.(Flowers—usually purple.)Siddha ◮ Rojapoo (Tamil).Action ◮ Fruit—applied to wounds,injuries, sprains, foul ulcers.Rosa centifolia Linn.Family ◮Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated chiefly in UttarPradesh and Bihar.English ◮ Cabbage Rose, ProvenceRose, Hundred-leaved Rose.Ayurvedic ◮ Shatapatri, Shatapatrikaa(Shatapatra is equated with Nelumbonucifera.), Taruni, Devataruni,Karnikaa, Chaarukesharaa, Laakshaa,Gandhaaddhyaa. (Flowers—usually pink and double.)Unani ◮ Gul-e-Surkh.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Iroja, Rajapoo.Action ◮ Flowers—a decoction isprescribed for inflammation of themouth and pharynx, and ulcersof the intestine. Powder of rosebuttons and seeds—astringent inhaemorrhage and diarrhoea.The flowers and leaves contain 1.3and 8.5% of saponin respectively. Petelsare reported to contain methioninesulphoxide.Cabbage rose yields a volatile oil(0.2%) consisting mainly of citronellol,geraniol, nerol, phenylethanol, linalooland citral. It contains 15% tannins(oligomeric proanthocyanidins).Dosage ◮ Dried flower—3–6 gpowder. (API, Vol. III.)Rosa chinensis Jacq.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated chiefly inKannauj, Kanpur and Hathras.English ◮ Bengal Rose, MonthlyRose.

Rosa macrophylla Lindl. 555Ayurvedic ◮ Taruni-Kantaka (nonclassical).(Flowers—crimson orpink.)Unani ◮ Chini Gulaab.Folk ◮ Kaantaa-Gulaab.Action ◮ Hips—applied to wounds,injuries, sprains and foul ulcers.R. chinensis Jacq. and R. borbonianaDesp. are synonyms of Rosa indica,found and cultivated throughout India.This variety is also known as EdwardRose or Kat Gulaab.Rosa damascena Mill.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated chiefly inAligarh, Ghazipur and Kannauj,grown in gardens throughout India.English ◮ Damask Rose.Ayurvedic ◮ Taruni. (Flowers—red,pink or white.)Unani ◮ Gul-e-Surkh, Vard, Varde-Ahmar.Stamens—Zard-e-Vard.Fruit—Dalik, Samar-ul-Vard,Smar-e-Gul.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Irosa.Folk ◮ Fasali Gulaab.Action ◮ Flower buds—astringent,expectorant, laxative; used asa cardiac tonic and aperient.Stamens and fruits—astringent.Petals—Gulkand (a confection insugar)—laxative, anti-inflammatory(used in sore throat and tonsilitis.Rose water—cooling, refrigerant,antiseptic, anti-inflammatory (usedas a remedy for skin irritation, alsofor sore eyes).All parts of the rose plant yieldedquercetin, kaempferol and cyanidin.Lycopene, rubixanthin, zeaxanthin,xanthophyll and taraxanthin have beenisolated from the hips. The flowerscontain an essential oil with citronellol,nerol, geraniol, beta-phenylethanoland its glucoside, eugenol and methyleugenol; other constituents includeorganic acids, chlorogenic acid, tannin,cyanin, cyanidin and its 3,5-diglucoside,quercitrin, carotene andsugars. Pollen from flowers containcarotene (0.76 mg/100 g), sugars (1.0%)and chlorogenic acid (1.5%). Their prolinecontent is found unusually high.The red colouring matter consistsof cyanin (9–10% on dry weight basis);a yellow glucoside of quercetinand quercitrin is also present. Flowers,usually, yield 0.04% oil or otto ofrose.Dog Rose, extensively cultivated inEurope, North Africa and parts ofAsia, is equated with Rosa canina Lin.The rose hip contains vitamin C (0.2–2.0%), malic and citric acid, pectins(15%), invert sugar (12–15%), tannins(2%), carotenoids, flavonoids.Preparations of Rose hips are usedfor the prevention and treatment ofcolds and influenza-type infections, forthe treatment vitamin C deficiencies;and for increasing resistance.Rosa macrophylla Lindl.Family ◮Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Punjab to Sikkim at altitudesof 1,200–3,600 m.R

556 Rosa moschata Hook. f. non-Mill. nec Herrm.RAyurvedic ◮ Vanya Taruni (nonclassical).(Flowers—pink, fruits—red.)Folk ◮ Ban-gulaab.Action ◮ Fruits—rich in vitamin C(769 mg/100 g).Rosa moschataHook. f. non-Mill. nec Herrm.Synonym ◮ R. brunonii Lindl.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Central and WesternHimalayas, ascending to 3,000 m.English ◮ Himalayan Musk Rose.(Flowers—white, fruit—orange redor dark brown.)Ayurvedic ◮ Kubjaka (non-classical).Folk ◮ Kujai, Kuujaa.Action ◮ Plant—used in biliousaffections, irritation of the skin andeye diseases. Rose water and ottois extracted from the flowers inHimachal Pradesh.Rosa multiflora Thunb.Synonym ◮ R. polyantha Sieb. &Zucc.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Kulu.Occasionally found in hedges andabandoned coffee plantations inUpper Ghats.Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-Taruni (nonclassical).Folk ◮ Gulaab.Action ◮ Fruit—antiseptic, appliedto wounds, injuries, sprains andfoul ulcers.The fruit yielded beta-sitosterol, scoparone,salicylic and gallic acid. Fruitscontained multiflorin; flower petalsgave astragalin. A purgative compound,multinoside A acetate, has beenisolated from the fruit. Quercetin-3-O-xyloside, isoquercitrin and hyperinwere also isolated.Floral absolute oil contains eugenol(22.8), phenylethanol (18.1) and heneicosane(10.2%).The root gave a triterpenoid, tormenticacid.The plant extract, along with kojicacid or its derivatives, produced excellentskin-lightening and sun-burn preventingeffects.Rosa rubra Blackw.Synonym ◮ R. gallica Linn.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Indian gardens.English ◮ French Rose.Ayurvedic ◮ Rakta-Taruni (nonclassical),Gulaab.Action ◮ Dried petals—tonicand astringent. Used in debility,excessive mucous discharges andbowel complaints. The oil and rosewater—used in bronchial asthmaand as a remedy for skin irritation.The flowers yield 0.027–0.036% ofan essential oil. It contains geraniol40–76, l-citronellol 15–37, nerol 5–10,

Rosmarinus officinalis Linn. 557phenyl ethyl alcohol 3–9, eugenol 1, esters3–5, phenyl acetic acid traces; andstearoptene 15–30%; citronellol, citral,farnesol, l-linalool and nonylaldehydeare also present. (The flowers, unlikethose of Rosa damascena, develop theirperfume when dried.)The petals also contain fatty oil, sugars(3–14% as invert), tannin (Rosa tannicacid 10–24%), cyanin (up to 10%),cyanidin and quercitrin.The pollen contains carotene (1.67mg/100 g), free and bound amino acidsand sugars.Fresh hips and their pulp contain545 and 847 mg/100 g vitamin C respectively.Action ◮ Fruits—rich in vitamin C(751 mg/100 g,) concentration up to8% in dry pulp.Roscoea procera Wall.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas at altitudesof 1,500–2,100 m, in grassy slopes.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakoli, Kshira-Kaakoli.Action ◮ Tuberous root—revitalizingtonic, age-sustainer; used inrestorative tonics.One of the ingredients of the “EightTonic Herbs” (Ashta-varga)ofAyurvedicmedicine.Rosa sericea Lindl.Family ◮Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Chamba eastwards to Bhutanand Assam at altitudes of 2,500 to4,200 m.Folk ◮ Jangali Gulaab. (Flowers—white or yellow, fruit—red.)Action ◮ Fruits—rich in vitamin C.Rosa webbiana Wall.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Dry and inner Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Kumaon ataltitudes of 900–4,000 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Laddaakhi-Sevati.(Flowers— pink or deep red, fruit—red.)Rosmarinus officinalis Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the Mediterraneanregion, cultivated in NilgiriHills.English ◮ Rosemary.Folk ◮ Rusmari.Action ◮ Essential oil from flowersand leaves—anti-inflammatory,astringent, antiseptic, stomachic,carminative; used externally incirculatory disorders. Floweringtops and leaves—carminative,diuretic, emmenagogue; vaporbaths afford relief in incipientcatarrh, rheumatism and muscularaffections.Key application ◮ Leaf—internally indyspeptic complaints; externally inR

558 Rotula aquatica Lour.Rsupportive therapy for rheumaticdiseases and circulatory problems.(German Commission E.) Showsimprovement of hepatic and biliaryfunction.(ESCOP.) Carminative,spasmolytic of hepatic and biliaryfunction. (ESCOP.) Carminative,spasmolytic. (The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)In research using rats, the essentialoil and ethanolic extract of rosemarydecreased drug-induced hepatotoxicityand the suppression of bone marrowcells. Phenolic compounds in the herbexhibit antioxidant activity. (SharonM. Herr.)The herb contains volatile oil (1.0–2.5%), composed mainly of 1, 8-cineole(20–25%), alpha-pinene (15–25%),camphor (10–25%), others include borneol,isobutyl acetate, camphene, limonene,linalool, 3-octanone, terpineol,verbenol; flavonoids including apigenin,diosmetin, diosmin; rosmarinicacid and other phenolic acids; diterpenes;rosmaricine; ursolic acid, oleanolicacid and their derivatives.The anti-inflammatory effect ofRosemary has been attributed to rosmarinicacid,ursolicacidandapigenin.Among flavonoids, diosmin is reportedto be more effective in decreasingcapillary fragility than rutin. A rosmaricinederivative exhibits stimulantand mild analgesic activity.The phenolic fraction, isolated fromthe leaves, also from the oil, exhibitsantioxidant activity.Pressed juice of leaves possessesa strong antibacterial action on Staphylococcusaureus, E. coli and Bacillis subtilis.An infusion of the plant with boraxis used as a hair wash for preventinghair loss.Rosemary oil, in combination withthe essential oil from thyme, lavenderand cedarwood, showed improvementin hair growth by 44% after 7 monthsof treatment for alopecia areata. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Rotula aquatica Lour.Synonym ◮ Rhabdia lyciodes C. B.Clarke in part non Linn.Shretia cuneata Wt.Family ◮ Borginaceae.Habitat ◮ Kumaon to Assam andin Central, Western and SouthernIndia, and the Andamans.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Cheppu-nerinjal.Folk ◮ Paashaanbheda (Karnataka).Action ◮ Root—diuretic; used forstone in the bladder; also in venerealdiseases. The diuretic action of theroot is attributed to the presence ofallantoin; a sterol, rhabdiol, has alsobeen isolated from the roots.Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Alston.Synonym ◮ R. santaloides Wight &Arn.Connarus santaloides Vahl.Family ◮ Connaraceae.Habitat ◮ Western parts of thePeninsula, from Konkan southwardand in West Bengal and Assam.Ayurvedic ◮ Vridha.

Rubia cordifolia Linn. 559Folk ◮ Kal-vidhaaraa, Vaakeri(Maharashtra), Vardaar.Action ◮ Roots and twigs—bittertonic; prescribed in rheumatism,pulmonary complaints, scurvy,diabetes; externally for ulcers andskin diseases. Wood—a decoctionis administered after parturitionand as a febrifuge. Wood, roots andfruits—poisonous.The plant is credited with antisepticand antitubercular properties.The roots contain beta-D-glucosideof beta-sitosterol, hentriacontane andmeso-inositol.Roylea cinerea (D. Don) Baillon.Synonym ◮ R. elegans Wall. ex Benth.R. calycina (Roxb.) Briq.Family ◮ Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Himalaya from Kashmirto Nepal, at 1,200–3,700 m.Folk ◮ Patkarru; Titpaati, Karanoi,Karui (Kumaon); Kaur, Kauri(Punjab).Action ◮ Leaves—a decoction is usedas a bitter tonic and febrifuge; alsoas a tonic in contusions. The leavescontain betulin, beta-sitosterol,beta-amyrin, stigmasterol, cetylalcohol, glucose, fructose, arabinoseand palmitic, stearic, oleic, gallic,oxalic and tartaric acids. The leavesand stems contain the diterpenes,calyenone, precalyone and calyone,and a triterpene, moronic acid.Precalyone exhibited antitumouractivity against P-388 lymphocyticleukaemia.Aerial parts exhibited spasmolyticand CNS-depressant activity.Rubia cordifolia Linn.Synonym ◮ R. munjesta Roxb.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,ascending to an altitude of 3,700 m.English ◮ Indian Madder, BengalMadder.Ayurvedic ◮ Manjishthaa, Vikasaa,Samangaa, Yojanavalli, Kaalameshika,Raktaangi, Raktayashtikaa,Arunaa, Gandira, Jingi.Unani ◮ Manjeeth.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manjitti.Action ◮ Roots and dried stem—blood purifier, astringent, diuretic,emmenagogue, deobstruent,antidysenteric, antiseptic, alterative.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the use of the driedstem in blood, skin and urinogenitaldisorders; dysentery; piles, ulcers, inflammations;erysipelas, skin diseasesand rheumatism. (Roots, leaves andseeds of R.cordifolia,R.tinctorumandallied species are used in amenorrhoea,liver diseases, gall and spleen complaints.)(Mutagenic and carcinogenicaspects of the drug are under investigation.)It is reported that after oral administrationof the root decoction, the urineand bones of the patient show a redtinge.The roots are rich in anthraquinonesand their glycosides (around 20), theR

560 Rubia tinctorum Linn.Rimportant ones include purpurin (trihydroxyanthraquinone), munjistin(xanthopurpurin-2-carboxylic acid);besides xanthopurpurin, peudopurpurin(purpurin-3-carboxylic acid),free alizarin as well as its glucoside.Whole plant yielded pentacylic triterpenicacids—rubicoumaric and rubifolicacids.Antitumour cyclic hexapeptideshave been isolated from the root (whilelucidin is thought to be carcinogenic).The root extracts of R. sikkimensisKurz, known as Naaga-Madder (Nepaleastwards to Assam, Nagaland and Manipur);are very similar to those of R.cordifolia.Dosage ◮III.)Stem—2–4 g. (API, Vol.Rubia tinctorum Linn.Family ◮Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Southern Europeand parts of Asia; also found inKashmir.English ◮Alizari, European Madder.Action ◮ Root—used for menstrualand urinary disorders and liverdiseases.The root contains anthraquinoneand their glycosides, including alizarin,purpurin, purpuroxanthin, pseudopurpurin,rubiadin, ruberythric acidand lucidin primeveroside. There areindications that lucidin is carcinogenic.All parts of the plant contained an iridoid,asperuloside.Rubus ellipticus Sm.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab to Assam, extendingsouthwards into the Western Ghatsand Deccan.English ◮ Gach Strawberry.Folk ◮ Hinsaalu, Anchhu. Gouri-phal(Kashmir), Tolu, Aselu (Nepal).Action ◮ Root and young stem—administered in colic pain.Extract of the leaves showed anticonvulsantactivity against electricalinducedconvulsions, potentiated hypnoticeffect of pentobarbitone sodiumand had positive inotropic andchronotropic effects. (Compendium ofIndian Medicinal Plants, Vol. 5.)Rubus fruticosus Linn. (EuropeanBlackBerry, European Bramble, knownas Vilaayati Anchhu) is cultivated in thevalley of Kashmir and in Assam andTamil Nadu up to 2,000 m. A decoctionof the root is used for dysenteryand whooping cough. The plant gavea triterpenic acid, rubitic acid, characterizedas 7 alpha-hydroxyursolicacid.Key application ◮ Rubus fruticosusleaf—in nonspecific, acute diarrhoea,mild inflammation of themucosa of oral cavity and throat.(German Commission E.)Rubus rugosus Sm. synonym R.moluccanus auct non Linn., (knownas Kalsol in Kumaon) is found in Centraland Eastern tropical and temperateHimalaya from Nepal to Sikkim andin Assam. The plant contains triterpenes,also afforded rubusic acid and

Ruellia tuberosa Linn. 561beta-sitosterol; leaves gave tormenticacid. Leaves exhibit astringent, emmenagogueand abortifacient properties.Rubus niveus Thunb. (Mysore Raspberry,Mahabaleshwar Raspberry) iscommon in evergreen forests of Mahabaleshwar.European Raspberry is equated withRubus idaeus Linn. The leaves containflavonoids, mainly glycosides of kaempferol,quercetin and tannins. Raspberryleaf tea has been used in Europeto facilitate child birth. Its uterine relaxanteffects have been demonstratedin animals (the extract appears to effectonly the pregnant uterus, no activityhas been observed on the nonpregnantuterus).The leaves of European Raspberry(Rubus idaeus) and other species exhibitastringent, carminative and spasmolyticactivity. Leaves are used forpainful and profuse menstruation and,as mentioned earlier, for making parturitioneasier.Aninfusionisusedforbowel complains, also as a blood purifier.Leaves contain ascorbic acid (about80 mg/100 g). Polyphenol content ofthe fruit (methanolic extract) exhibitedscavenging and antilipo-peroxidantactivities.Rubus idaeus has been introducedinto India and is cultivated on a smallscale in South Indian hill stations.The leaf of Rubus idaeus has beenincluded among unapproved herbs byGerman Commission E, as its efficacyhas not been documented.Ruellia strepens Linn.Family ◮Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Central America;introduced into Indian garden asornament.Folk ◮ Kiranti-takkaaram (TamilNadu).Action ◮ Herb—diuretic; usedfor urinary disorders in Siddhamedicine.Ruellia suffruticosa Roxb.Synonym ◮ Dipteracanthus suffruticosusViogt.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to central America;introduced into Indian gardens asornament.Folk ◮ Chaarapaatu, Chaaraparaad(Bihar).Action ◮ Plant—used in renalaffections, gonorrhoea, syphilis andother venereal diseases.Ruellia tuberosa Linn.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to central America;growninIndiangardens.English ◮ Meadow-weed.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tapas-kaaya.Action ◮ Herb—emetic; usedas a substitute for ipecacuanha.A decoction is given in chronicbronchitis; also used as a diureticfor the treatment of stones in thebladder.R

562 Rumex acetosa Linn.RRumex acetosa Linn.Family ◮Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas fromKashmir to Kumaon.English ◮Dock.Ayurvedic ◮Unani ◮Garden Sorrel, SorrelChukram, Chuukaa.Hammaaz-Barri.Action ◮ Laxative, diuretic, antiscorbutic,refrigerant. Used for scurvy,as a cooling drink in febrile disorders,as a corrective of scrofulousdeposits. Seeds—astringent (inhaemorrhages).Flowers—hepatoprotective and antihaemorrhagic.Root—used for jaundice,also for gravel and stone in thekidneys.Aerial parts gave rutin, hyperinand vitexin and traces of oxymethylanthraquinone.The roots containanthraquinones—chrysophanol, physcionand emodin anthrones.The leaves contain 124.0 mg/100 gascorbic acid, about 0.3% oxalic acid.Free oxalic acid caused fatal hypoglycaemiain rabbits.Rumex acetosella Linn.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, Sikkimand the Nilgiris.English ◮ Sheep Sorrel.Ayurvedic ◮ Chukrikaa, Chuko.Unani ◮ Hammaaz, Shaaka-turshak,Tursh, Jangali Paalak.Action ◮ Diuretic, diaphoretic,antiscorbutic, refrigerant. Freshplant is used in urinary and kidneydiseases.The herb contains anthraquinones,chrysophanol, emodin and physcion.Free ascorbic acid content (50–150mg/100 g) remains constant throughoutthe year.Rumex crispus Linn.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; found inMt. Abu.English ◮ Yellow Dock, Curled Dock.Ayurvedic ◮ Chukra, Chukrikaa,Patraamla, Rochani, Shatvedhani.Action ◮ Root—used as a laxativein rheumatism, bilious disorders,and as an astringent in piles andhaemorrhagic affections; alsoused for skin eruptions, chronicskin diseases, scrofula, scurvy,congested liver and jaundice. Actslike Sarsaparilla when used forscrofulous skin affections andglandular swellings. Seeds—astringent. Used for dysentery.The root contains anthraquinones(about 2.17–4%) including nepodin,and other glycosides based on chrysophanol,physcion and emodin; alsotannins, rumicin and oxalates. Largedoses should be avoided. Disturbancescaused by the plant are attributedto rumicin. The root and rhizomeare reported to stimulate bile production.(Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.)

Rumex nepalensis Spreng. 563The leaves contain 30 mg/100 g ascorbicacid.R. crispus is pharmacologically moreactive than rhubarb, because the extractsof the roots of the former containmore quantity of anthraquinones(2.17%) than the extracts of the latter(1.42%).It has been suggested that Amlavetasshould be equated with R. crispus.Rumex dentatus Linn.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas up to300 m, and in the plains fromAssam to Western and SouthernIndia.Folk ◮ Jangali Paalak.Action ◮ Plant—astringent; used incutaneous disorders.The leaves contain vitamin C 115 mgand vitamin A value 11,700 IU/100 gand are a rich source of calcium andbeta-carotene. The dried leaves contained7.8% of flavonoids and 0.04% ofanthraquinone derivatives. Flavonoidsinclude rutin, avicularin, quercitrin,quercetin. Roots contain chrysophanicacid and emodin, the total anthraquinonecontent being 0.13%.Rumex hastatus D. Don.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas fromKumaon to Kashmir, between 300–2,400 m.Folk ◮ Amlora, Chumlora (Kumaon);Khattimal, Katambal (Punjab).Action ◮ Astringent.The root and bark yield 21–23% tannin.Rumex maritimus Linn.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayas,Assam, Bengal, Western Ghats andthe Nilgiris.English ◮ Golden Dock.Ayurvedic ◮ Kunanjara.Unani ◮ Seeds—Beejband, (siyah orsafed), Jangali Paalak.Action ◮ Leaves—catharitic; externallyapplied to burns. Seeds—incorporated in sex-tonics as aphrodisiac.(Seeds of Sida cordifoliaand Abutilon indicum are also usedas Beejband.) Roots are used asa substitute for rhubarb.The leaves contain anthraquinonesboth in free and bound forms. Thefruits contain rumarin (0.12%) rutinand hyperin. The seeds contain 5.1%tannin.The roots are purgative; containchrysophanic acid, saccharose and tannin(6%).The seeds and leaves contain rumarin,rutin, hyperin, chrysophanicacid, charose, tannin, emodin and itsmonoethyl ether, beta-sitosterol andits glucoside.Rumex nepalensis Spreng.Family ◮Polygonaceae.R

564 Rumex scutatus Linn.RHabitat ◮ The temperate Himalayas,Western Ghats and the Nilgiris.Folk ◮Kulli (Kumaon).Action ◮ Root—purgative. A substitutefor Rheum palmatum. Leaves—an infusion is given in colic,externally applied to syphiliticulcers.The roots contain nepodin, chrysophanicacid, also 12.8% tannin.Rumex scutatus Linn.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas up toan altitude of 2,400 m.English ◮ French Sorrel.Action ◮ Plant—refrigerant, astringent;givenindysentery.Juiceofleaves—antiscorbutic.The roots contain oxymethyl anthraquinone.Rumex vesicarius Linn.Family ◮ Polygonaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South-west Asiaand North Africa; cultivated all overIndia, especially in Tripura, WestBengal and Bihar.English ◮ Bladder-Dock, CountrySorrel.Ayurvedic ◮ Chukra, Chuko,Chakravarti.Unani ◮ Hammaaz.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shakkankeerai.Action ◮ Plant—astringent antiscorbutic,stomachic, diuretic, usedfor disorders of lymphatic andglandularsystem;forbronchitis,asthma; constipation, dyspepsia,diseases of liver and spleen; urinaryand renal disorders; alcoholism.Seeds—antidysenteric.Anthraquinone glucosides, emodinand chrysophanol, have been reportedfrom leaves, root and seeds. Theleaves contain large amounts of oxalate(21.8% on dry basis); vitamin C contentis 12 mg and vitamin A 6,100 IU/100 g.The leaves of Rumex species are eatenin salad or cooked like spinach.They contain protein, carbohydrates,potassium, magnesium, phosphorus,calcium, manganese, copper, zinc, (iodine,in some samples), ascorbic acid,beta-carotene and thiamine; also oxalicacid, potassium binoxalate and sometartaric acid.Rungia pectinata (L.) Nees.Synonym ◮ R. parviflora (L.) Neesvar. pectinata C. B. Clarke.Justicia pectinata L.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in wasteplaces and hedges.Ayurvedic ◮ Parpata (as adulterant).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Punakapundu.Action ◮ Leaves—juice is aperient,febrifuge, refrigerant; bruised leavesare applied externally to disperseswellings. Root—febrifuge. Thejuice of leaves is given to childrensuffering from smallpox.

Ruta chalepensis Linn. 565Rungia repens Nees.Family ◮Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India asa weed in moist places.Ayurvedic ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Kharmor.Parpata (substitute).Kodaga-saleh.Action ◮ Herb—vermifuge, diuretic;dried and pulverized herb is usedfor cough and fever. Fresh, bruisedleaves, mixed with castor oil, areapplied to scalp to cure tinea capitis(a scaly fungoid infection).The flavonoid pigments in ivorywhiteand pale yellow flowers (theplant also bears blue and pink flowers)showed the presence of luteolinand chrysoerial (3 ′ -O-methyl luteolin)and their glucosides. Deep yellowflowers contain isosalipurposide; thebluish pink flowers showed presenceof delphinidin-3,5-diglucoside.Ruscus aculeatus Linn.Family ◮ Liliaceae; Ruscaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to western Europe,MediterraneanregionandIran;widelygrownasornamentinIndia.English ◮ Butcher’s Broom, Jew’sMyrtle.Action ◮ Rhizomes—deobstruent,anti-inflammatory, haemostatic.Key application ◮ As supportivetherapy for discomforts of chronicvenous insufficiency and for complaintsof hemorrhoids.(GermanCommission E, ESCOP.)Aqueous-alcoholic extract of therhizomes contains steroid saponins (upto 6% of the extract). The spirostanolglycosides, degluconeoruscin and deglucoruscinfrom the extract are absorbedin human plasma after oraladministration. Besides, the rhizomescontain two furastanol glycosides, degluconeoruscoideand deglucoruscoside.The extract is used for the treatmentof venous insufficiency and entersinto dermatological and cosmeticcompositions for the treatment of darkskin under the eye and into anti-ageingand anti-sun-tanning preparations.Ruta chalepensis Linn.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to SouthernEurope and North Africa; cultivatedin Indian gardens. (Most ofthe reports of the Garden Rue,cultivated in India, refer to thisspecies and not to Ruta graveolens.)Unani ◮ Jangali Sudaab.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aruvadam-chedi,Arvada.Action ◮ Plant—antispasmodic,sudorific. Stimulates the nervoussystem; commonly used in decoctionin convulsions and fever. Alsoused as a fumigant in infant catarrh.Theplantgaveanessentialoilwhichcontains chiefly methyl heptyl ketone(while Ruta graveolens contains 80–90% methyl nonyl ketone and methylheptyl ketone in small amounts). Rutinis the most important active principleR

566 Ruta graveolens Linn.Rof the plant, responsible for its antiinflammatoryand tumour-inhibitingeffect.Ruta graveolens Linn.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Mediterraneanregion; cultivated all over India.English ◮ Garden Rue.Unani ◮ Sudaab, Suddaab.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aruvada.Action ◮ Herb—stimulating, antispasmodic,stomachic; irritant,abortifacient. Used as an emmenagogue,in hysterical conditions,cough and croupy affections, colicand flatulence. Leaf—used in atonicamenorrhoea, menorrhoea andcolic. Externally, used for sciatica,headache, muscular chest pain,bronchitis and arthritic conditions.(Fresh juice of leaves, internally,can lead to painful irritations ofthe stomach and intestines). Oil—antispasmodic, antiepileptic, emmenagogue,rubefacient. (Toxic inlarge doses.)Ruta graveolens has been includedamong unapproved herbs by GermanCommission E.The herb contains a volatile oil,with 2-undecanone (30.73) 2-nonanone(18.06), 2-nonyl acetate (11.03),psoralen (1.28) and bergapten and xanthotoxin(7.24%); rutin (about 2%).The flavonoids include quercetin; coumarinsinclude bergapten, daphnoretin,isoimperatorin, naphthoherniarin,psoralen, pangelin, rutamarin, rutarin,scopoletin and umbelliferone. Tissuecultureoftheplantgavefuracridonealkaloids. Tissue culture of the rootgave gravacridondiol and its glucoside.The spasmolytic activity of the herbis attributed to the presence of bergapten,xanthotoxin and the essential oil.Anti-inflammatory and antitumouractivity is due to rutin. The furocoumarinsare responsible for theherb’s phototoxicity.The herb is hepatotoxic, and is contraindicatedin kidney diseases andbleeding disorders. (Sharon M. Herr.)Maximum safe level is 0.001% forRue and 0.0002% for the oil. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)

SSaccharum munja Roxb.Synonym ◮ S. sara Roxb.S. bengalense Retz.Erianthus munja Jesw.Family ◮Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains andlow hills of India.Ayurvedic ◮ Munja, Bhadramuja,Vaana, Shara, Sara, Raamshara.Munjipul, Munjap-Siddha/Tamil ◮pullu.Folk ◮Sarpata.Action ◮ Refrigerant. Useful inburning sensation, thirst, dyscrasia,erysipelas and urinary complaints.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the use of the root indysuria, giddiness and vertigo.The stem is a good source of furfural(yield 5.67%, dry basis). It yields 19.5%(on dry weight) of reducing sugarswhen digested with sulphuric acid; glucose,xylose, galactose and rhamnosehave been identified in the hydrolysatewhich contains 34.5% fermentable sugars.(It can be used as a potential sourceof alcohol.)In Kerala, Saccharum arundinaceumRetz. is used as Shara for dysuria, diseasesdue to vitiated blood, erysipelas,leucorrhoea and piles. The grass isknown as Raamshara in North India.It can also be used for the productionof furfural (yield 5.1% dry basis) andyields 24.1% of reducing sugars whendigested with sulphuric acid. The hydrolysatecontains 65% of fermentablesugars,viz. glucose,xylose,galactoseand rhamnose.Dosage ◮ Root—20–50 g fordecoction; 6–10 g powder. (API,Vol. III.)Saccharum officinarum Linn.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh, Bihar andPunjab.English ◮ Sugarcane, Noble Cane.Ayurvedic ◮ Ikshu, Dirgha-chhada,Bhuurirasa, Morata, Asipatra,Madhutrna, Gudamuula, Trnarasa.Unani ◮ Gannaa, Naishakar.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karumbu, Nanal.Action ◮ Cane Juice—restorative,cooling, laxative, demulcent,diuretic, antiseptic. Used in generaldebility, haemophilic conditions,jaundice and urinary diseases.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the juice of the stemin haemorrhagic diseases and anuria;and the root in dysuria.Sugarcane juice contains surcose(70–80% of soluble solids in the juice),glucose and fructose. Non-sugar constituentspresent in the cane juice arecarbohydrates other than sugars. Asparagineand glutamine are prominentamino acids in the juice. Other

568 Saccharum spontaneum Linn.Samino acids include alanine, gammaaminobutyric acid, aspartic and glutamicacids, glycine, leucine, lysine,serine and tyrosine. The presence ofphenylalanine, histidine, valine, proline,threonine and arginine, pipecolicacid, methionine and tryptophan hasalso been reported.Aconitic acid constitutes aboutthree-fourths of the total carboxylicacid present in the juice.Vitamins present in the juice are:thiamine, riboflavin, niacin, pantothenicacid, biotin, and vitamin D; enzymesinclude diastase, invertase, lactase,peroxidase, tyrosinase.Phenols in the cane juice are mainlypolyphenols from tannin and anthocyaninfrom the rind.Cane juice contains glycolic acidwhich improves skin complexion as ithas antiwrinkle effect, prevents scalygrowth and increases natural collagenand elastin in the skin.Enzymes present in the seeds includelarge quantities of diastase andinvertase.An ester, vanilloyl-1-O-beta-D-glucoside,has been isolated from thebagasse.The leaves contain alpha-amylaseand glutathione-S-transferase.Dosage ◮ Stem—200–400 ml juice;rootstock—15–30 g for decoction.(API, Vol. IV.)Saccharum spontaneum Linn.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Thatch Grass.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaasha, Kandekshu,Shvetachaamara.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naanal, Pai Karumbu.Action ◮ Plant—cooling, astringent,diuretic, galactagogue. Used in thetreatment of burning sensation,dysuria, dyscrasia, kidney andbladder stones, dysentery, bleedingpiles. Root—diuretic, galactagogue.Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the root in calculus, dysuriaand haemorrhagic diseases.Dosage ◮ Root—3–6 g powder. (API,Vol. III.)The Five-Grassroots (Tripanchmuula)of Ayurvedic medicine contain extractsof S. munja, S. officinarum andS. spontaneum. The compound is prescribedas a diuretic.Saccolabium papillosum Lindl.Family ◮ Orchidace.Habitat ◮ The outer range ofHimalayas from Uttar Pradesheastwards to Sikkim and Assam.Ayurvedic ◮ Naakuli (substitute),Vrkshaadani (var.).Folk ◮ Raasanaa, Naakuli, Gandhalataa.Action ◮ Roots—used for rheumatism.An alkaloid and a bitter resin hasbeen reported in the plant.Roots are used as a substitute forSarsaparilla (Hemidesmus indicus).

Salacia macrosperma Wight. 569Sagittaria trifolia Linn.Synonym ◮ S. sagittifoliaHook. f. (non L.)Family ◮Habitat ◮India.English ◮Alismataceae.Throughout the plains ofOld world Arrowhead.Folk ◮ Chhotaa Kuuta, Muyaa(Bengali).Action ◮ Plant—discutient, antigalactagogue,astringent, antiinflammatory.Tuber—used forcutaneous diseases. Leaves—powderdusted in pruritus; mashed withmolasses used in sore throat andinflammation of the breasts.The plant contains a diterpene, sagittariol,beta-sitosterol, its glucoside andhentriacontanone. The diterpenes, trifolionesA, B, C and D, inhibited histaminerelease from rat mast cells.The bulbs contain sandaracopimaricacid which suppressed the immunefunction of animal T-cells.Salacia chinensis Linn.Synonym ◮ S. prinoides DC.Family ◮ Hippocrateaceae; Celastraceae.Habitat ◮ Alarge,climbingshrubor small tree occurring throughoutIndia, including the AndamanIslands.English ◮ Saptrangi.Ayurvedic ◮ Saptachakraa, Swarnmuula,Saptarangi.Folk ◮ Ingali (Maharashtra),Modhuphal (Bengal), Cherukuranti(Kerala).Action ◮ Roots—used in diabetes.Also used for amenorrhoea,dysmenorrhoea and genito-urinaryand venereal diseases.The root bark contains proanthocyanidins,consisting of monomericleucopelargonidin, its monomer,dimer and tetramer; triterpenoids(friedelin and its derivatives), mangiferine,phlobatannin, and glucosidaltannins.The stem yielded gutta, dulcitol andproanthocyanidin consisting of dimerof leucopelargonidin.Dosage ◮ Root—50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Salacia macrosperma Wight.Hippocrateaceae; Celas-Family ◮traceae.Habitat ◮ The Western Ghats, fromKonkan southwards.Folk ◮ Lendaphala (Maharashtra),Anakoranti (Kerala).Action ◮ Root—decoction is givenafter parturition. Leaves—appliedto eczema.A decoction of the roots of S. grandifloraKurz, synonym S. longifolia Hook.(the Andamans) and S. macrophyllaBlume, synonym S. flavescens Kurz andS. ovalis M. Laws. (Konkan and the Andamans)is also given after parturition.S

570 Salacia oblonga Wall. ex Wight & Arn.SSalacia oblongaWall. ex Wight & Arn.Family ◮ Hippocrateaceae; Celastraceae.Habitat ◮ Rain forests of WesternGhats from Konkan to Kerala.Folk ◮ Chundan (Tamil Nadu),Ponkoranti (Kerala).Action ◮ Root bark—used for thetreatment rheumatism; also forgonorrhoea, swellings and skindiseases. Plant—mildly antiseptic.Salacia reticulata Wt.Family ◮ Hippocrateacea; Celastraceae.Habitat ◮ Orissa, Andhra Pradesh,Kerala.Folk ◮ Ekanyakam, Koranti (Kerala,South India), Anukudu-chettu(Andhra Pradesh)Action ◮ Plant—mild antiseptic.Root bark—used againstgonorrhoea, skin diseases and inflammations.The root bark exhibitshypoglycaemic activity.Salicornia brachiata Roxb.Family ◮ Chenopodiaceae.Habitat ◮ Sea coast from Bengal toGujarat.Folk ◮ Kohlu (Andhra Pradesh).Action ◮ Ash—used in mange anditch.Air-dried plant contains 8.97% ash;a high percentage of sodium and chlorideions (sodium 5.68, chloride10.02%). The plant is a source ofalkaline earth (called Sajji), used forextracting sodium carbonate.Salix acmophylla Boiss.Family ◮ Salicaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tracts fromUttar Pradesh westwards ascendingto an altitude of 1,800 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Jala-vetasa.Action ◮ Bark—febrifuge.Salix alba Linn.Family ◮ Salicaceae.Habitat ◮ North-western Himalayas,up to an altitude of 2,400 m.English ◮ White Willow, EuropeanWillow.Ayurvedic ◮ Jalavetasa.Unani ◮ Bed Saadaa.Folk ◮ Vivir (Kashmir).Action ◮ Analgesic, antiinflammatory,febrifuge. Usedfor rheumatic inflammation,painful muscles, spondylitis,lumbago, sciatica, neuralgia, goutand fever. (In 1838, chemistsidentified salicylic acid in thebark. Afterwards, synthesized it asacetylsalicylic acid, aspirin, in 1899.)Key application ◮ In diseasesaccompanied by fever, headache,

Salix caprea Linn. 571rheumatic ailments. (GermanCommission E.) The British HerbalPharmacopoeia reported antiinflammatoryaction. The BritishHerbal Compendium additionallyreported analgesic, antipyretic,antirheumatic and astringentactions of the willow bark.The bark contains phenolic glycosides;salicin, picein and triandrinwith esters of salicylic acid and salicylalcohol, acetylated salicin, salicortinand salireposide; tannins; catechin; p-coumaric acid; flavonoids and polysaccharides.Salicylic acid inhibits prostaglandinproduction, relives pain and bringsdown fever.Salix babylonica Linn.Family ◮ Salicaceae.Habitat ◮ North India, along thebanks of rivers nad water-courses.English ◮ Weeping Willow.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Aatru Paalai.Folk ◮ Giur (Kashmir). Bed.Action ◮ Leaves and bark—astringent, antipyretic. Used inintermittent and remittent fevers.Bark—anthelmintic. Biologicalactivity of aerial part—antiviral,CNS active, hypothermic.The leaves are reported to containdelphinidin and cyanidin, fragilin,salicin, salicortin, salidroside, tremuloidin,triandrin and vimalin. Salicincontent in the stems and leaves is reportedto be 3 to 4%. The bark yieldsphenolics—triandrin, salicin, gallocatechol,catechol.Salix caprea Linn.Family ◮ Salicaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir, Punjab, HimachalPradesh and Uttar Pradesh.English ◮ Sallow, Goat Willow,Common Willow.Ayurvedic ◮ Vetasa, Vaanira,Vidula, Vanjula, Vaanjulaa. InKerala Homonoia riparia Lour.,Euphorbiaceae, is used as Vetasa orJalavetasa.Unani ◮ Bed Mushk.Action ◮ Distilled water from flowers—cordial,stimulant; externallyapplied to headache. Stem andleaves—astringent. Leaves—decoctionused as febrifuge. Bark andtwigs—astringent, applied to piles.Ash of wood—used in haemoptysis;mixed with vinegar, applied to piles.Alkaloids, glycosides and saponinsof male racemes increase the amplitudeand slow the heartbeat and act morerapidly than digitalis on isolated frogheart.Flavonoids present in the male racemesare: diometin, isorhamnetin, capreosideand salicapreoside.Phenol glycosides present in thebark are: delphinidin, cyanidin, pipecolicacid, fragilin, picein, salicin, salicortin,salireproside, triandrin andvimalin. Tannin content is reported tobe 8–13%.Salix daphnoides Vill. and Salix elegansWall. (The Himalayas from Kash-S

572 Salix fragilis LinnSmir to Nepal) are also known as Jalavetasa.Dosage ◮ Leaf, bark, root—50–100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)Salix fragilis LinnFamily ◮Salicaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Kashmir andHimachal Pradesh.English ◮Willow.Crack Willow, KashmirFolk ◮ Tilachaang (HimachalPradesh).Action ◮Bark—antirheumatic.Key application ◮ For relief of lowback pain; symptomatic relief ofmild osteoarthritic and rheumaticcomplaints. (ESCOP.) Thebarkcontains salicin 0.23%, salicase andtannin (6–12%).The phenol glycosides reported fromthe plant include fragilin, glycosmin,grandidentatin, picein, populin, salicin,salireposide, salicyloyl tremuloidin,triandrin and tremuloidin.Willow bark consists of the driedbark or twigs of various species of thegenus Salix, including S. purpurea L.and S. daphnoides Vill.Salicylate concentrations vary greatlyamong Salix sp. Salix alba bark is reportedto contain 0.49–0.98% salicin;Salix purpurea bark 3–9%, Salix daphnoidesbark 4.9–5.6% and Salix fragilisbark 3.9–10.2%. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)Salix nigra Marsh.Family ◮ Salicaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to America (NewYork and Pennsylvania).English ◮ Black Willow.Unani ◮ Bed-Siyaah.Action ◮ Astringent, febrifuge, sedative,nervine tonic. Anaphrodisiac(used for reducing sexual activity;in spermatorrhoea). Largely usedin the treatment of nocturnalemissions.The bark contains tannin, about 1%of glucoside salinigrin. Once considereda substitute for potassium bromide,but without a depressant effect.Salix tetrasperma Roxb.Family ◮ Salicaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the greaterpart of India, along the banks ofrivers and streams.English ◮ Indian Willow.Ayurvedic ◮ Jalavetasa, Naadeya,Niketan, Baishi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Attupalai.Folk ◮ Vaanira, Vaalunja.Action ◮ Dried leaves—antiinflammatory,given in rheumatism,swellings, piles. Bark—febrifuge.The bark is reported to contain 6.5%tannin, also salicin A.Salix viminalis Linn. (The Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Sikkim) is knownas Basket Willow and the Osier.

Salmalia malabarica (DC) Schott & Endl. 573The bark contains 8.2%–8.8% tanninand phenol glycosides, fragilin, picein,salicin (0.13%), salicortin, salireposide,triandrin and vimalin. Salicase, andcalcium and potassium nitrates are alsoreported from the bark.Dosage ◮ Bark—59–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Salmalia malabarica(DC) Schott & Endl.Synonym ◮ Bombax ceiba Linn.Bombax malabaricum DC.Gossampinus malabarica (DC.)Merr.Family ◮ Bombacaceae.Habitat ◮ The hotter parts of India,up to 1,350 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Shaalmali, Mochaa,Mochaahva, Pichhila, Raktapushpa,Sthiraayu, Kankataadhya, Tuulini.Shaalmali-veshtaka (gum).Unani ◮ Semal. Mochras (gum).Siddha ◮ Mul Ilavam. Ielavampisin(gum).Folk ◮ Semar.Action ◮ Young roots (Semulmusali)—astringent,(used fordysentery) stimulant, demulcent.Fruits—stimulant, diuretic,expectorant. Used for chronic inflammationof bladder, kidney alsofor calculus affections. Flowers—astringent and cooling, appliedto cutaneous affections. Leaves—anti-inflammatory. Stem bark—demulcent, styptic. Aqueous extractwith curd is given for blooddysentery.Bark—paste is applied toskin eruptions, boils, acne, pimples.Seeds used for chickenpox, smallpox,catarrhal affections, chroniccystitis and genitourinary diseases.Gum—astringent, demulcent, styptic.Used for diarrhoea, dysentery,haemoptysis, bleeding piles, menorrhagia,spermatorrhoea. Root andpod—used for the treatment of lowvitality and debility.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the stem bark inbleeding disorders and in acne vulgaris.All parts of the plant gave betasitosteroland its glucosides; seeds, barkand root bark, lupeol; flowers, hentriacontane,hentriacontanol; root bark,in addition, gave 7-hydroxycadalene.The seed oil yields arachidic, linoleic,myristic, oleic and palmitic acids; seedscontain carotenes, n-hexacosanol, ethylgallateand tocopherols; the gumcontains gallic and tannic acids, yieldsL-arbinose, D-galactose, D-galacturonicacid and D-galactopyranose.Younger roots contain more sugars(arabinose and galactose 8.2%) andpeptic substances (6.0%) than the olderones. They contain mucilage, starch(71.2%), mineral matter (2.1%), tannins0.4 and non-tannins 0.1%, along withother constituents.The Musali compares favourablywith the nutritive value of Puerariatuberosa, Dioscorea bulbifera, Ipomoeadigitata and Butea monosperma (allused in sexual debility).A related species, Salmalia insignis(Wall.) Schott & Endl., synonymS

574 Salsola kali Linn.SBombax insigne Wall. (Assam, WesternGhats and the Andamans); is known asSemul; Dumboil (Assam), Didu (Andamans)and Kal-ilavu (Tamil Nadu).Dosage ◮ Stem bark—5–10 g powder.(API, Vol. III.) Flower, bark root—3–5 g powder. (CCRAS.)Salsola kali Linn.Family ◮ Chenopodiaceae.Habitat ◮ North-West Himalayasand Kashmir.English ◮ Glass-Wort, RussianThistle, Prickly-Saltwort.Ayurvedic ◮ Sarjikaa, Katol, Laanaabuuti,Sajji-buuti.Unani ◮ Ushnaan, Ghaajuraan.Folk ◮ Barilla.Action ◮ Plant—cathartic. Juiceof fresh plant and seed-vessels—apotent diuretic. Ash of the plant isused in Unani medicine.Alcoholic extract of the plantshowed antimicrobial activity againstSalmonella paratyphi and Serratiamarcescens.Salvadora oleoides Dcne.Family ◮ Salvadoraceae.Habitat ◮ The arid regions of Punjab,Rajasthan and western India.Ayurvedic ◮ Pilu (bigger var.).Siddha ◮ Kalawa (Tamil).Action ◮ Leaf—bechic. Bark—vesicant. Fruit—febrifuge (in lowfever), used in enlarged spleen. Oilfrom seed—applied in rheumaticaffections and after child birth.The fruit contains sterols, beta-sitosteroland its glucosides and stigmasterol;benzylisothiocyanate, n-octacosanoland tetracosane; flavonoids includingquercetin and rutin; thioureaderivatives and phospholipids. Myristic,lauric and palmitic acids were obtainedfrom the seed fat.Salvadora persica Linn.Synonym ◮ S. persica L. var. wightianaVerde.S. indica Wt.Family ◮ Salvadoraceae.Habitat ◮ Arid regions, on salinelands and in coastal regions.English ◮ Mustard tree. Salt Bushtree, Tooth Brush tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Pilu (smaller var.),Pilukaa, Sransi, Angaahva, Tikshnavrksha.Unani ◮ Miswaak, Araak.Siddha ◮ Perungoli.Action ◮ Fruit—carminative(used in biliousness), deobstruent(used for rheumatism, tumours,splenomegaly), diuretic, lithotriptic.Leaves—decoction used for coughand asthma, poultice in painful pilesand tumours; juice in scurvy. Flowers—stimulant,laxative. Appliedin painful rheumatic conditions.Seeds—diuretic; purgative; fatty

Salvia lanata Roxb. 575oil applied locally on rheumaticswellings. Root bark—topicallyvesicant. Bark—emmenagogue,ascarifuge, febrifuge. Biologicalactivity of stem bark—spasmolytic.Plant—anti-inflammatory,hypoglycaemic, antibacterial.The root gave elemental gammamonoclinicsulphur, benzyl glucosinolate,salvadourea (a urea derivative),m-anisic acid and sitosterol. Benzylisothiocyanate, isolated from the root,exhibits antiviral activity against Herpessimplex virus-1 which affects oralregion. (The root is used in many partsof the world as a tooth brush.) Rootbark and stem bark contain trimethylamine.Myristic, lauric and palmiticacids are the major acid componentsof the seed fat.Dosage ◮ Fruit—3–6 g powder; 50–100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)Salvia aegyptiaca Linn.Synonym ◮ S. pumila Benth.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Arid areas from Delhiwestwards in Punjab and Rajasthan,and southwards in Gujarat andMaharashtra.Unani ◮ Tukhm-Malangaa.Action ◮ Seeds—used for diarrhoea,also in haemorrhoids.Seeds yield mucilage and a gumwhich contain aldobiuronic acid andaldotriouronic acid.The mucilage on hydrolysis yieldsD-galactose, L-arabinose, L-rhamnoseand galacturonic acid.The seeds of this plant are often confusedwith those of Lallemantia royeleanaBenth. which are also sold asTukhm-Malangaa.Salvia coccinea Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Indiangardens.Ayurvedic ◮ Samudrashosha (var.).English ◮ Red Sage, Texas Sage.Action ◮ Decoction—used inrenal diseases, also for lumbago.Contraindicated during pregnancy.Salvia haematodes Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Indiangardens.English ◮ Blood-veined Sage.Unani ◮ Behman Surkh. (BehmanSafed is equated with Centaureabehen Linn.)Action ◮ Both the varieties ofBehman are used in Unani medicineas a cardiac and sex tonic, also asa liver tonic in jaundice.Salvia lanata Roxb.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to NepalFolk ◮ Kuuthan-Kali.S

576 Salvia moorcroftiana Wall. ex Benth.SAction ◮ Roots—an adulterant ofSaussurea lappa. Used as a substitutefor Saliva moorcroftiana.Salvia moorcroftianaWall. ex Benth.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Northwestern Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Kumaon at 2,000–3,000 m.Folk ◮ Kaali-jarri (Punjab).Action ◮ Root—bechic. Leaves—antitussive; applied as poultice toboils and chronic skin affections.Seeds—antispasmodic, emetic.Used for colic, dysentery, also forhaemorrhoids; applied to boils.The root gave a diterpene quinone.Salvia officinalis Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the Mediterraneanregion; grown as anornamental.English ◮ Sage.Folk ◮ Salvia Sefakuss.Action ◮ Plant—astringent, antiinflammatory,carminative, antispasmodic,antiseptic. Leaf andflower—cholagogue, hypoglycaemic,antiasthmatic (used forrespiratory allergy), cholagogue,emmenagogue, antisudoriferous,antiseptic. Leaf—diaphoretic,antipyretic. Used for sore throat,laryngitis, tonsillitis, stomatitis.Key application ◮ Leaf—internally,for dyspeptic symptoms andexcessive perspiration; externallyfor inflammations of the mucousmembranes of nose and throat.(German Commission E.) ESCOPindicates its use for inflammationsand infections such as stomatitis,gingivitis, pharyngitis, andhyperhidrosis.The leaves contain a volatile oil;diterpene bitters including carnosolicacid; flavonoids including salvigenin,genkwanin, hispidulin, luteolin andits derivatives; phenolic acids includingrosmarinic, caffeic, labiatic; a condensedcatechin, salvia tannin.The roots contain diterpene quinonesroyleanoneand its derivatives. Volatileoil contains alpha-and beta-thujone,1,8-cineole and camphor. Thujoneis strongly antiseptic and carminative,also has an oestrogenic actionthat is partly responsible for theherb’s hormonal activity in reducingbreast milk production. The volatileoil also relieves muscle spasms. Rosmarinicacid, a phenol, allays inflammations.Cirsiliol, linalool and alpha-terpineol,constituents of the volatile oil, exhibitCNS depressant activities.In a double blind, randomized andplacebo controlled trial, extracts ofSalvia officinalis showed improvementin patients with mild to moderateAlzheimer disease. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)Sageoilisusedinperfumesasadeodorantand for the treatment of thrushand gingivitis. The herb is used intooth powders, mouth washes, gargles,

Sambucus ebulus Linn. 577poultices, hair tonics and hair dressings.Salvia plebeia R. Br.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the plains ofIndia, up to 1,500 m in the hills.Ayurvedic ◮ Samudrashosha,Kammarkasa.Folk ◮ Bhuu-Tulasi.Action ◮ Plant—diuretic, anthelmintic,astringent, demulcent.Leaves—used for toothache.Seeds—mucilaginous, used for diarrhoea,leucorrhoea, menorrhagiaand haemorrhoids.The plant contains flavones—nepetinand hispidulin and their glucosides.Flowers also contain nepetin.Sitosterol and oleanolic acid are alsopresent. The seeds yield secoisolariciresinoldiester.Salvia spinosa Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of Baluchistan.(Used in Unani medicine.)Unani ◮ Kanochaa, Marv. Seeds—Tukhm Kanochaa, Tukhm Marv.(National Formulary of UnaniMedicine equated Kanochaa withPhyllanthus maderaspatensis Linn.)Action ◮ Used for colic and as anintestinal tonic, deobstruent anddisinfectant. Roasted or processedseeds are prescribed in diarrhoeaand dysentery.Salvinia cucullata Roxb.Family ◮Salviniaceae; Azollaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India inshallow, freshwater lakes, ponds,ditches.Ayurvedic ◮ Aakhukarni (Kerala).(Suggested by Rashtriya AyurvedaVidyapeeth.)Action ◮ Root—digestive, diuretic,febrifuge, anthelmintic. Used forepistasis, fever and colic. Also fordysuria, polyuria and skin diseases.In Kerala, Merremia emarginata(Convolvulaceae) orHemionitis arifolia(Cheilanthaceae) are used as Aakhukarni.Salvinia is an aquatic fern, richin protein, minerals, chlorophyll andcarotenoids. Its extract exhibitedstrong antifungal activity against Fusariumnivale.Sambucus ebulus Linn.Synonym ◮ S. wightiana Wall. ex W.&A.Family ◮Caprifoliaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir at 2,000–3,600 m.English ◮Dwarf Elder.Unani ◮ Khamaan Saghir, Khamaanul-Arzaa,(Nabli) Khamaan.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mushkiyaara(Punjab), Khamman, Ganhulaa.Action ◮ Diuretic, expectorant. Usedfor kidney and bladder torpor.S

578 Sambucus nigra Linn.Lipid fraction of drupes containsunsaturated fatty acids, sterols, aliphaticalcohols, triterpenic alcohols, alphaandbeta-amyrin; also anthocyaninpigments, phenolic acids. The rootcontains beta-sitosterol and alphaamyrin.Aqueous extracts induced diuresisin rats and exhibited hypotensiveactivity in cats. The extract offlowering herb showed significant antiulcerogenicactivity.cyanogenic glycosides; berries containflavonoids, anthocyanins, vitaminAandC.Anti-inflammatory activity of theflowers has been attributed to ursolicacid. Elder flowers and peppermintis an old remedy for influenza in theWestern herbal.The berry is used against influenzavirus A and B. (J Alt Compliment Med,1(4), 1995.)SSambucus nigra Linn.Family ◮ Caprifoliaceae.Habitat ◮ Kangra and in Simla hills.English ◮ European Elder, BlackElder.Unani ◮ Khamaan Kabir.Action ◮ Anti-inflammatory,anticatarrhal, diuretic. Flowersand berries—used for commoncold, influenza, nasal catarrh,sinusitis; as a gargle in sore throat.Inner bark—cathartic, hydragogue,emetic, diuretic. Infusion of barkand flowers—given in epilepsy;also used as a gentle circulatorystimulant, diaphoretic, expectantand anticatarrhal; locally ininflammations.Key application ◮ In colds, also asa diaphoretic and anticatarrhal.(German Commission E, The BritishHerbal Compendium, WHO.)The flowers contain triterpenes includingursolic acid; flavonoids (up to3%) including rutin; phenolic acids;triterpenes; sterols; tannins; mucilage;volatile oil (up to 0.2%); leaves gaveSandoricum indicum Cav.Synonym ◮ S. koetjape (Burm. f.)Merrill.Family ◮ Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Wild in Kangra and inSimla hills.English ◮ European Elder.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sevai, Sayai.Action ◮ Root—astringent, carminative,antispasmodic. Used fordiarrhoea. Bark—anthelmintic.Fruit hulls gave bryonic and bryonolicacids, mesoinosital and dimethylmucate; heartwood also gave triterpenicacids including katonic and indicicacid.The seeds gave limonoids—sandoricinand 6-hydroxysandoricin. A secotriterpene,koetjapic acid, togetherwith katonic acid, has been isolatedfrom the stem. Sandoricin and 6-hydroxysandoricin exhibited effectiveantifeedant activity. Katonic acid exhibitedsignificant cytotoxicity againsta variety of cultured human cancercells.

Santalum album Linn. 579Sanicula europaea Linn.Family ◮Umbelliferae.Habitat ◮ Europe, including Britain.The Himalayas from Kashmir toBhutan, Assam, Western Ghats andPalni hills in South India.English ◮ Wood Sanicle.Action ◮ Plant—astringent, alterative,vulnerary. Used in leucorrhoea,menorrhagia, bleeding piles; also indiarrhoea and dysentery. The herbis also employed as an ingredient ofan ointment used for septic ulcers.The herb contains saponins based onsaniculogenins; allantoin; chlorogenicand rosmarinic acids. The flowers contain3.1 and fruits 1.1% rosmarinic acid.The leaves contain 0.6% chlorogenicacid. The roots contain 23.1, leaves 12.8,flowers 6.0 and fruits 5.2% surcose.Rhizome contains chlorogeni acid 1.2and sucrose 13.9%.Sansevieria hyacinthoides(Linn.) Druce.Synonym ◮ S. zeylanica (L.) Willd.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Sri Lanka; foundalong coastal regions of India fromBengal to Tamil Nadu.English ◮ Ceylon Bowstring Hemp.Ayurvedic ◮ Naagadamani (relatedspecies) (also known as Muurvaa).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Marul, Motta manji.Action ◮ See S. roxburghiana. Leavesand rhizomes are applied externallyin high fever with delirium.Rhizomes—diuretic, diaphoretic,expectorant.The leaf contains aconitic acid; theroot yielded an alkaloid sansevierine(0.018%).Sansevieria roxburghianaJ. & J. SchultesSynonym ◮ S. zeylanica auct.non-(L.) Willd.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ The eastern coast of Indiafrom West Bengal to Tamil Nadu inSouth.English ◮ Indian Bowstring Hemp.Ayurvedic ◮ Naagadamani, Takshaki.Used in West Bengal as a substitutefor Muurvaa.Siddha ◮ Marul, Motta Manji(Tamil).Action ◮ Rhizomes—mucilaginous,used for cough. Tender shoots—juice given to children for clearingphlegm from the throat. Wholeplant—finds application in glandularenlargement and rheumatism.Care must be taken that the herbdoes not accumulate in the system.The plant must not be confused withIndian Hemp (Cannabis indica).Santalum album Linn.Family ◮ Santalaceae.Habitat ◮ Dry regions of PeninsularIndia from Vindhya mountainsS

580 Santolina chamaecyparissus Linn.Ssouthwards, especially in Karnatakaand Tamil Nadu.English ◮ White Sandalwood.Ayurvedic ◮ Chandana, Shvetachandana,Shrikhanda, Bhadra-Shree,Gandhsaara, Malayaja, Hima,Ekaangi.Unani ◮ Sandal Safed, Sandal-e-Abyaz.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chandanam, Sandana,Ingam.Action ◮ Cooling, diaphoretic,diuretic, expectorant, antisepticand bacteriostatic against Grampositive bacteria. Used as a urinaryantiseptic in chronic cystitis andsexually transmitted diseases.A paste is applied to temples inheadache, during fevers and onburns, local inflammations and skindiseases (to allay pruritus). Essentialoil—antibacterial, antifungal. Usedas urinary antiseptic in dysuria,urethral discharges and diseases ofgallbladder.Key application ◮ In adjuvant therapyof infections of the lower urinarytract. Contraindicated in thediseases of the parenchyma of thekidney. (German Commission E.)The bark contains a triterpene—urs-12-en-3 butyl-palmitate. Chief constituentsof the essential oil from heartwoodare alpha-and beta-santalol.Other constituents include sesquiterpenehydrocarbons—alpha-,beta-, epibeta-santaleneand alpha-and betacurcumeneand beta-farnesene. Dihydroagarofuranis also present in theessential oil.Dosage ◮ Heartwood—3–6 gpowder. (API, Vol. III.)Santolina chamaecyparissusLinn.Family ◮ Compositae.Habitat ◮ Mediterranean region.Grownasanornamentalonthehills of South India.English ◮ Lavender Cotton.Action ◮ Plant—stomachic, antispasmodic,vermifuge, emmenagogue,analgesic, anti-inflammatory.The herb contains flavonoids, particularly6-methoxy flavones; pectolinarigenin,hispidulin, nepetin and anessential oil.The extract of flowers, leaves androots of the plant are reported to beactive against Gram-positive bacteria.Anti-inflammatory effects of the herbwere demonstrated in rats without ulcerogenicityor toxicity. (Planta Medica,6, 1986.)Sapindus laurifolius Vahl.Synonym ◮ S. trifoliatus auct. nonLinn.Family ◮ Sapindaceae.Habitat ◮ South India; also cultivatedaround villages in Madhya Pradesh,Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and WestBengal.English ◮ Soapnut tree of SouthIndia.

Sapium sebiferum Roxb. 581Ayurvedic ◮ Arishtaka, Phenila,Raktabeeja, Reethaakaranja,Garbhapaatana.Unani ◮ Reethaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Puvamkottai, Manipungu.Action ◮ Fruit—astringent, emetic,detergent, anthelmintic. Pulp—aqueous solution used as nasaldrops in migraine, epilepsy andhysteria. Root—used for gout,rheumatism and paralysis.Saponin from pericarp of nuts yieldedthe genins, methylhedragenate, sapindicacid and methyl oleanolate.Dosage ◮ Fruit—3–6 g powder.(CCRAS.)Sapindus mukorossi Gaertn.Family ◮ Sapindaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China and Japan;distributed in the Himalayas fromHimachal Pradesh eastwards and inAssam.English ◮ Chinese Soap Berry, SoapNut tree of North India.Ayurvedic ◮ Arishtaka, Phenila.Folk ◮ Reethaa.Action ◮ Fruits—emetic andexpectorant; used in excessivesalivation, chlorosis and epilepsy.The plant yielded triterpenoidglycosides, sapindosides, derivedfrom hederagenin. Saponins exhibithypotensive, anticholesterolemic,spermicidal and antimicrobialproperties.Saponin A and C sapindoside A andB, extracted from the fruit rind, showedantifungal activity. Hederagenin, isolatedfrom the fruit rind or pericarp,is used in skin-lightening and antiinflammatorycosmetics.Other constituents from the plantare flavonoids—quercetin, kaempferol,apigenin and rutin.Sapium indicum Willd.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Moist parts of India,especially along sea-coasts and backwaters.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pencolum.Folk ◮ Hurnaa (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Root bark—emetic, acridand purgative.The fruit contains aesculetin. A lactoneand an alcohol has been isolatedfrom the bark.Sapium sebiferum Roxb.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China; introducedat various elevations in northernIndia, chiefly on ravine lands in thefoothills. Planted throughout Indiaas ornament.English ◮ Chinese Tallow tree.Folk ◮ Tayapippali, VilaayatiShisham, Mom-China.Action ◮ Seed oil—vulnerary, emetic,purgative; used for skin diseases andfor promoting healing of wounds.S

582 Saponaria officinalis Linn.SLeaves latex—vesicant. Bark—adecoctionisgivenindyspepsia.Resin—purgative.Chinese vegetable tallow (of low iod.val.) is obtained from waxy mass coveringthe seed; the Stillingia Oil (ofhigh iod. val.) from the kernel. The tallowfrom Indian trees contains 62.3%palmitic and 27.4% oleic acid. A relatedspecies, S. discolor Muell-Arg., introducedinto the Lal Bagh Gardens, Bangalore,yields a tallow containing comparativelymore oleic and less palmiticacids. Stillingia Oil is considered superiorto linseed oil. The oil contains lauric,myristic, oleic, palmitic and stearicacids; the leaves contain ellagic and gallicacids, isoquercitrin and tannin 5.5%.Ethanol extract of powdered rootbark yielded 0.1% phloroacetophenone2,4-dimethylether and menthol extractgave xanthoxyline. The bark also containsmoretenone, moretenol and a triterpene,3-epi-moretenol.Saponaria officinalis Linn.Family ◮ Caryophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to temperate regionof Europe; introduced in Indiangardens.English ◮ Bouncing Bet, Soapwort.Action ◮ Roots—blood purifier,cholagogue, expectorant, diuretic,diaphoretic. Roots and leaves—used for scrofula and skin diseases.Sap used as a depurative for scabies,furuncles, hepatic eruptions andvenereal ulcers (as a lotion). Plant—employed for jaundice (to increasebile flow); also in respiratorydisorders (bronchitis, sore throat).Key application ◮ Root—in catarrhsof the upper respiratory tract.(German Commission E.)The plant contains saponin, sapotoxinand saponarin. The root containssapotoxin (4–5%) and saporubrinicacid. Saponin content of the root ishighest (7.7–8.2%) just before floweringstage and the lowest (about 3%)during the flowering period. The barkyield 0.8% of saponin. The leaves containsaponarin. Youngest leaves showthe highest haemolytic activity.Aqueous extract of the plant exhibitantibacterial activity.Saponaria vaccaria Linn.Family ◮ Caryophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India asa weed of cultivated fields of wheatand barley. Also cultivated ingardens for ornament.Folk ◮ Musna, Saabuni.Action ◮ See S. officinalis. Themucilaginous sap of the plant isfebrifugalandusedinchronicfevers. It is a mild depurative andused in the treatment of furunclesand scabies.Saprosma ternatumBenth. & Hk. f. in part.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Hills of Assam, in dampplaces and in the Andamans.

Sarcococca saligna (D. Don) Muell.-Arg. 583Folk ◮Bhedeli (Assam).Action ◮ Leaf—carminative, eaten torelieve flatulence and stomachache.A poultice is used after parturition.Saraca asoca (Roxb.) De Wilde.Synonym ◮ S. indica auct. non L.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, exceptNorthwestern India, up to 750 m.English ◮ Ashoka tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Ashoka, Ashoku,Hempushpa, Taamrapallava,Pindapushpa, Gandhapushpa.(Polyalthia longifolia Benth. &Hook. f., an ornamental roadsidetree, is wrongly called Ashoka.)Unani ◮ Ashoka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Asogam.Action ◮ Bark—uterine tonic (impartshealthy tone to uterus), usedfor suppressed menses, leucorrhoea,menstrual pain, menorrhagia, complaintsof menopause. Also used fordyspepsia, biliousness, colic, burningsensation. Flowers—poundedand mixed with water, used inhaemorrhagic dysentery, bleedingpiles and retention of urine.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the bark in metrohhagia,menorrhagia, chronic lymphadenitisand inflammations.The flowers contain fatty acidsand gallic acid; apigenin-7-O-beta-D-glucoside, cyanidin-3,5-diglucoside,kaempferol 3-O-beta-D-glucoside, pelargonidin-3,5-diglucoside,quercetinand its 3-O-beta-D-glucoside and sitosterol.The bark yields alkanes, esters andprimary alcohols. It gave n-octacosanol,tannin (6%), catechin, (+)-catechol,(−)-epicatechin, (−)-epicatechol,leucocyanidin, leucopelargonidin, procyanidinderivatives, methyl-and ethylcholesterolderivatives.Quercetin and its 3-O-rhamnoside,kaempferol-3-O-alpha-L-rhamnoside,amyrin, ceryl alcohol and beta-sitosterolhave been isolated from leavesand stems.Alcoholic extract of the bark is reportedto be active against a wide rangeof bacteria. The aqueous extract hasbeen found to enhance the life span ofmice infected with Ehrlich ascites carcinomaby 24%.Pure phenolic glucoside (P2), isolatedfrom stem bark, exhibited highlypotent oxytocic activity on differentmammals and was similar in nature topitocin and ergometrine.Dosage ◮ Dried stem bark—20–30 gfor decoction. (API, Vol. I.)Sarcococca saligna(D. Don) Muell.-Arg.Synonym ◮ S. pruniformis Hook. f.S. trinervia Wt.Family ◮ Buxaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas and thehills of North-eastern India up to2,700 m.Folk ◮ Geru (Garhwal, Patiala),Tiliari (Jaunsar), Sukatsing (Kumaon).S

584 Sarcostemma brevistigma W. & A.SAction ◮ Leaves—used in thetreatment of rheumatism and fever.The leaves contain steroidal alkaloids,including saracosine, saracodineand saracodinine; also betulin.Aerial parts exhibit spasmolytic, diureticand anti-inflammatory activity.Steroidal alkaloids induce nonrecoverablefall in blood pressure indogs.Sarcostemma brevistigmaW. & A.Synonym ◮ S. acidum Voigt.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Dry places in West Bengal,Bihar and Peninsular India.English ◮ Moon Plant, Soma Plant.Ayurvedic ◮ Somavalli, Somalataa,Somakshiri, Saumyaa, Dwijpriyaa.(Not to be confused with Soma ofthe Vedas.) (Substitute: Ephedragerardiana.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Somamum, Kodi-Kalli.Action ◮ Dried stems—emetic.Plant—insecticidal.The plant contains malic acid, succinicacid, reducing sugar, surcosa,traces of tannin, an alkaloid, a phytosterol,alpha-and beta-amyrins, lupeoland lupeol acetate and beta-sitosterol.The milky exudate from the stem contains4.1% of caoutchouc. Coagulumcontains: caoutchouc 16, resins 68.1and insolubles 15.9%.Related species, Sarcostemma brunonianumW. & A. (South India),known as Perumaattaan kodi in TamilNadu; S. intermedium Decne (PeninsularIndia), and S. stocksii Hk. f. (PeninsularIndia), are also said to have similaruses as those of S. acidum.Sarcostemma secamone (L.) Bennet,synonym S. esculentum (L. f.) Holm.(throughout the plains in semi marshyplaces) is known as Dughdhikaa orDuudhilataa in Northern India andUsippalai in Tamil Nadu. Whole plantis depurative, galactagogue and antiseptic(used as a gargle in sore throatand stomatitis; fresh root is prescribedin jaundice. A pregnane triglycoside,esculentin and cardenolide tetraglycosideshave been isolated from the root.Dosage ◮ Milky exudate from stem—1–3 drops. (CCRAS.)Sarcostigma kleinii W. & A.Family ◮ Icacinaceae.Habitat ◮ The Western Ghats, fromKonkan southwards.Ayurvedic ◮ Ingudi. (Balanitesaegyptiaca is also equated withIngudi.)Siddha ◮ Odal (Tamil).Action ◮ Seed oil—used externallyin rheumatism. Powdered bark—given in rheumatism, neurologicaldisorders and skin diseases.Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees.Synonym ◮ S. officinale Nees andEberm.S. variifolium Kuntze.

Saussurea affinis Spreng. ex DC. 585Family ◮Lauraceae.Habitat ◮ Canada to Florida. Driedroots of S. albidum are importedinto India.English ◮Unani ◮Ague tree.Sassafras.Action ◮ Root—used earlierfor rheumatism, gout, kidneycomplaints and skin diseases.Safrole is the main constituent ofthe volatile oil (80–90%), in additionto condensed tannins, resin, cinnamicacid derivatives. Safrole and itsmetabolite, L-hydroxysafrole are bothneuro- and hepatotoxic (carcinogenicin animals). Its internal use is no moreadvised. Safrole-free extracts are ineffective.Satureja hortensis Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Mediterraneanregion; found in Kashmir.English ◮ Summer Savory. WinterSavory is equated with S. montanaL.Action ◮ Flowering top—carminative,digestive, laxative, stomachic,diuretic, sudorific and vermifuge.Used in flatulent colic and menstrualsuppression. A tea (of leaves) isgiven as a carminative and expectorant.Essential oil—antibacterial,antifungal, spasmolytic.The plant gave fluorine, labiatic acid,ursolic acid and beta-sitosterol. Labiaticacid is antioxidant. The volatileoil consists mainly of carvacrol with p-cymene, beta-pinene, beta-phellandrene,limonene and borneol.The volatile oil of S. montana containscarvacrol, p-cymene and thymolwith alpha-and beta-pinene, cineoleand borneol.Sauropus androgynus Merrill.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Sikkim, Khasi Hills andWestern Ghats, and also grown inSouth India.English ◮ Star Goose Berry.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thavasai Murungai.Action ◮ Plant—known as MultivitaminGreen for its substantialvitamin content. Decoction is givenin stricture of the bladder and infevers; used as a diuretic.The leaves contain protein 6.8; carbohydrates11.6; mineral matter 3.4, Ca0.57, phosphorus 0.20, iron 28.0 mg,carotene (as vitamin A), 9,510 IU, thiamine0.48, riboflavin 0.32, nicotinicacid 2.6, and vitamin C 247 mg/100 g.Saussurea affinis Spreng. ex DC.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Foot Hills of EasternHimalayas and in Aka and LaushaiHills.Folk ◮ Ganga-muula (Assam).Action ◮ Root—juice is prescribedin gynaecological diseases.S

586 Saussurea gossypiphora D. Don.SSaussurea gossypiphora D. Don.Family ◮Compositae, Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Himalayas from Garhwalto Sikkim at 4,200–5,100 m.Folk ◮ Phen-kamal, Jogi Paashaa,Hiyun Kauni.Action ◮ Plant, root—a decoctionis prescribed in gynaecologicaldiseases.The plant afforded beta-sitosterol, 3-stigmastanol, stigmast-7-en-3-ol andergostan-3,24-diol. The aerial partsof the plant collected from Himalayasgave heptacosane, hentriacontane, nonacosane,alpha- and beta-amyrins andtheir acetates and palmitates, lupeol,its acetate, fructose, glucose and surcose.Saussurea heteromalla(D. Don) Raizada & Saxena.Synonym ◮ S. candicans C. B. Clarke.Carduus heteromallus D. Don.Family ◮ Compositae, Asteraceae.Folk ◮ Batula, Kaaliziri (Punjab).Action ◮ Leaves—antiseptic;applied to wounds. Seeds—carminative. The plant exhibitsCNS depressant and hypothermicproperties.Saussurea hieracioides Hook. f (SikkimHimalayas at 3,600–4,200 m) gavea sesquilignan, saussol; scopoletin,luteolin-7-O-beta-D-glucoside and syringinwere isolated from the aerialparts.Saussurea hypoleuca spreng.Synonym ◮ S. auriculata (DC.)Sch.-Bip.Aplotaxis auriculata DC.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Sikkim.Ayurvedic ◮ Kushtha (pseudo).Folk ◮ Uplet (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaves—used in thetreatment of syphilis.The root of the plant is found mixedwith the root of Kushtha of Indianmedicine.Saussurea lappa(Decne) Sch.-Bip.Synonym ◮ S. costus (Falc.) Lipsch.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir, HimachalPradesh and Garhwal at 2500–3,000 m; cultivated in Kashmir andneighbouring regions.English ◮ Kuth, Costus.Ayurvedic ◮ Kushtha, Kusht, Vaapya,Kaashmira, Gada, Rug, Ruk,Aamaya, Paalaka. (Substitute:Pushkara Muula, Inula racemosa.)Unani ◮ Qust.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kostum, Kottam.Folk ◮ Sugandha-Kuutth.Action ◮ Root—antispasmodic,expectorant, carminative, astringent,antiseptic. An ingredient ofprescriptions for dyspepsia, asthma,

Saussurea sacra Edgew. 587cough, chronic rheumatism, skindiseases. Applied locally to woundsand ulcerations. Powdered root,mixed with mustard oil, is appliedto scalp in prurigo.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the root in cough,bronchitis, dyspnoea; erysipelas andgout.The root (containing both the essentialoil and alkaloid, saussurine) is usedfor asthma, particularly of vagotonictype. It produces a definite relaxtionof the bronchioles. The relief obtainedis comparable to that of conventionalbronchodilators without side effects,like a rise in blood pressure, sweatingor headache even on repeated administration.Saussurine depresses parasympatheticnervous system. The aminoacidsesquiterpeneadducts, saussureaminesA, B and C show antiulcer effect.The aqueous extract of the root exhibitsantianginal activity.Essential oil inhibits peristalic movementof the gut. It is absorbed fromthe gastro-intestinal tract and partlyexcreted by lungs producing an expectorantaction and partly by the kidneysproducing diuretic effect. (In Westernherbal, Kuth essential oil is notprescribed internally.)Kuth roots contain resinoids (6%),and essential oil (1.5%), alkaloid(0.05%) inulin (18%), saussurea lactone(20–25%), a fixed oil and minor constituentslike tannin and sugars. Rootsobtained from Kashmir are, in general,richer in essential oil content than rootsobtained from Garhwal and Nepal.The roots of Punjab variety gave costunolide,dehydrocostuslactone, costicacid, palmitic and linoleic acids, betasitosteroland alpha-cyclocostunolide.The Kashmir variety, in addition, gavealantolactone, beta-cyclocostunolideand iso-alantolactone.The essential oil of the roots exhibitstrong antiseptic and disinfectant activityagainst Streptococcus and Staphylococcus.Costus speciosus Sm. synonymBanksea speciosa, also known as Kushtha,is a different herb of Zingiberaceaefamily. Rhizomes and stems yield diosgenin.Dosage ◮ Root—0.2–1.0 g powder.(API, Vol. I.)Saussurea obvallataWall. ex C. B. Clarke.Family ◮Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Sikkim at 4,200–5,000 m.Folk ◮ Brahma-kamal (Kumaon);Birm-kanwal (Punjab).Action ◮ Roots—antiseptic, styptic,anti-inflammatory. Applied towounds and cuts.Plant—hypothermic. Flower—CNSactive, antiviral. The flowers, after frying,are used in rheumatism.Saussurea sacra Edgew.Family ◮Compositae; Asteraceae.S

588 Scaevola frutescens auct. non-Krause.SHabitat ◮ Near snow line atelevations of 4,000 m and above inthe Himalayas.English ◮ Yogiraj Plant, SacredSaussurea.Folk ◮ Jogi-paadshaah (Kashmir),Ghuggi (Garhwal).Action ◮ Plant—used for nervousdebility. Root—used forgynaecological disorders.Scaevola frutescensauct. non-Krause.Synonym ◮ S. koenigii Vahl.S. taccada (Gaertn.) Roxb.Family ◮ Goodeniaceae.Habitat ◮ Sea coasts all around Indiaand in the Andaman Islands.English ◮ Fan Flower, Malay RicePaper Plant.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vella-muttangam.Folk ◮ Bhadraka, Bhadraaksha.Action ◮ Leaves—digestive, carminative;applied externally on tumoursand swollen legs. Fruit—juice, internallyfor inducing menstruation.Roots—used for dysentery.A decoction of the leaves and thebark is reported to combat tachycardia,one of the principal symptoms ofberiberi. The drug reduces the frequencyof heartbeat, slows down pulserate and at the same time stimulatesthe heart to normal contraction (doesnot possess cumulative action of digitalis).The drug acts as a diuretic byincreasing the tension in the renal arterieswithout causing irritation of thekidney parenchyma; and is used fordropsy.The aerial parts gave loganin, sylvestrosideIII, its dimethyl acetal, cantleyosideand its dimethyl acetal.Schima wallichii(DC.) Korth., Choicy.Family ◮Theaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas fromNepal eastwards to Assam, KhasiHills and Manipur up to 2,100 m.English ◮Folk ◮Chilauni Needle Wood.Chilauni. Makria (Assam).Action ◮ Stem bark—anthelmintic(used for tapeworms), rubefacient.Aerial parts—antifungal.The plant contains octacosanol, phytol,alpha-spinasterol and a saponin,schiwallin. Schiwallin is antidermatophytic.The bark and leaves contain 6% and4% tannin, respectively.Schizachyrium exile Stapf.Synonym ◮Hochst.Family ◮Andropogon exilisGramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Bihar, Assam, Bengal andTamil Nadu.Ayurvedic ◮Sprkaa, Sprk.Action ◮ Used as a substitute forDelphinium Zalil.

Schweinfurthia sphaerocarpa A. Br. 589Schleichera oleosa (Lour.) Oken.Synonym ◮Family ◮S. trijuga Willd & Klein.Sapindaceae.Habitat ◮ The sub-Himalayan tractfrom Kashmir to West Bengal;Bihar, Punjab, Madhya Pradesh,southwards to Peninsular India.English ◮ Lac tree, Macassar Oil tree,Honey tree, Ceylon Oak.Ayurvedic ◮ Koshaamra, Kshudraamra,Lakshaa vrksha, Ghanaskandha.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Puvathipuvam,Pulaachi.Action ◮ Bark—astringent; mixedwith oil, applied externally inskin eruptions. Seed oil—usedfor massage in rheumatism andapplied in alopecia, itch and acne;stimulates hair growth. (Tree is animportant host of Kusmi lac.)Fatty acids of the oil consisted of oleic(52.%), gadoleic, stearic, arachidic,behenic, palmitoleic and palmitic acids.Young leaves contain gallo-tannic acid(5.09%, dry matter basis). The barkcontains 9.4% tannin.Dosage ◮ Bark—50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Schrebera swientenioides Roxb.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical and subtropicalHimalayas from Kumaoneastwards; also Bihar, West Bengaland Peninsular India, up to 1,200 m.English ◮Weaver’s Beam tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Muskakaa. (Mokshaka,Ghantaa-Paatali, Kaashthapaatalaaare varieties of Paatalaa.)Siddha/Tamil ◮Mogalingum.Action ◮ Leaves—used in enlargementof spleen and in urinarydischarges. Root—used for leprosy.Bark—used for boils and burns.Fruits—beneficial in hydrocele.The Fruits gave betulinic and oleanolicacids.Schweinfurthia sphaerocarpaA. Br.Synonym ◮ S. papilionacea (Burm. f.)Boiss.Family ◮Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ The arid regions of Gujaratand in Rajasthan.Ayurvedic ◮Folk ◮Nepaal-Nimba.Saannipaat (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Broken pieces of driedfruits, stems and leaves—used inenteric fever. Leaf—antidiabetic.Fruit, leaf, stem—diuretic.An alkaloid, schweinfurthin, a hydrocarbonand an unsaturated ketonewere reported from the leaves. Recently,two macrocylic alkaloids, 11-epi-ephedradine and schweinine, havebeen isolated from the whole plant,along with (−)-ephedradine A. Experimentally,11-epi-ephedradine A wasmutagenic to Salmonella typhimurium.S

590 Scilla indica Baker non-Roxb.SScilla indica Baker non-Roxb.Synonym ◮ S. hyacinthiana (Roth)Macb.Ledebouria hyacinthina Roth.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Central and SouthernIndia, including Deccan Peninsula.English ◮ South Indian Squill.Substitute for White Squill, Urgineamaritima Baker and Indian Squill,Urginea indica Kunth.Ayurvedic ◮ Vana-Palaandu (SouthIndia), Korikanda.Unani ◮ Jangli Piyaz.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu velvengayam.Action ◮ Bulb—cardiotonic, stimulant,expectorant, diuretic. Usedin cough, dysuria, strangury. (Notused as a diuretic when kidneys areinflamed.)The bulb contains cardioactive glycosidesincluding bufadienolides, scillarenA, scillaridin A and proscillaridinA.The squill has shown to have cardiaceffects similar to digoxin, includingpositive inotropic and negativechronotropic effects. The aglyconesin squill are poorly absorbed fromthe GI tract and are therefore less potentthan digitalis cardiac glycosides.Additional cardiovascular propertiesinclude reducing left ventricular diastolicpressure and reducing pathologicallyelevated venous pressure. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Large amounts of squill are gastricirritants; small amounts expectorant.The squill of the Indian bazaars consistspartly of S. indica and chiefly ofUrginea indica.Scindapsus officinalis Schott.Family ◮Araceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas,Bengal, southwards to AndhraPradesh and the Andamans.Ayurvedic ◮ Gajakrishna, Hastipippali,Gajapippali (also equated withPiper chaba).Siddha/Tamil ◮Anaitippili.Action ◮ Fruits—stimulant, carminative,diaphoretic, anthelmintic,antidiarrhoeal. Decoction is usedas an expectorant in asthma.Fruits and shoots—hypoglycaemic.Fruit pulp—applied externally inrheumatism.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends dried pieces of maturefemale spadix in dyspnoea. (Gajapippaliis wrongly equated with male orfemale inflorescence of Borassus flabelliferLinn.)The fruits contain two glycosidicsubstances—scindapsin A and B,which on hydrolysis yield the aglucons,scindapsinidine A and B. Freesugars, rhamnose, fructose, glucoseand xylose together with some di-andtrisaccharides have been identified inthe plant.Dosage ◮ Dried pieces of maturefemale spadix—2–3 g for infusion.(API, Vol. II.)

Scleria lithosperma Sw. 591Scirpus articulatus Linn.Family ◮Habitat ◮Ayurvedic ◮Folk ◮Cyperaceae.Growninaquaticgardens.Laghu Kasheruka.Chichodaa.Action ◮ Tubers—prescribed indiarrhoea and vomiting.See S. kysoor.Scirpus corymbosus Roth.Family ◮Cyperaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, inshallow waters.Ayurvedic ◮Kronchaadana.Action ◮ Tuber—prescribed fordiarrhoea, dysentery and emesis.Scirpus kysoor Roxb.Synonym ◮ S. grossus Linn. f.Family ◮Cyperaceae.Habitat ◮ Distributed throughoutIndia, especially in swamps, up toan altitude of 700 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Kasheru, Kasheruka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karundan, Gundatigagaddi(rhizome).Folk ◮ Kaseru.Action ◮ Tuber—nutritious, astringent,antidiarrhoeal, antiemetic,galactagogue, hypoglycaemic, diuretic,urinary antiseptic. Used inprescriptions for dysuria, diabetes,genitourinary affections, dyscrasiaand as a spermopoietic and livertonic.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the powder of therhizome for promoting spermatogensisand development of breast.The tuber gave progesterone, sugars,tannins, starch and saponins. The fruitcontains amylase.The tuber of Scirpus lacustris L.(Kashmir, Ladakh, Kumaon), knownas Great Bulrush or Clubrush, is alsoused as astringent, diuretic and antimicrobial.The aromatic compoundsisolated from the rhizomes includederivatives of benzaldehyde, hydroxybenzoicand cinnamic acids.Dosage ◮ Rhizome—5–10 g powder.(API, Vol. I.)Scirpus tuberosus Desf.Synonym ◮ S. maritimus C. B. Clarkenon Linn.Family ◮ Cyperaceae.Habitat ◮ Marshy areas and on thebanks of streams up to an altitudeof 3,000 m.English ◮ Sea Clubrush.Ayurvedic ◮ Raaj Kasheruka.Action ◮ Tuberous root—astringent,diuretic, laxative.Oil from rhizomes on hydrolysisgave phellonic acid.Scleria lithosperma Sw.Family ◮Cyperaceae.S

592 Scoparia dulcis Linn.SHabitat ◮ Throughout India, up toan altitude of 900 m, except in acridareas in the West.English ◮ Scleria.Action ◮ Plant—antinephritic.Root—decoction is given afterparturition. Young tops—given tochildren for enlarged stomach.The roots of Scleria biflora Roxb.smell strongly of camphor or cajeput.The fruits of S. levis are used forcough and stomach disorders.A decoction of the sedge of S. pergracilis(Nees) Kunth (the Himalayasfrom Garhwal to Assam at altitudes of1,500 m and in Bihar, West Bengal andDeccan Penninsula) is used for cough.(Folk names not known. About 28species are found in India.)Scoparia dulcis Linn.Family ◮ Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to tropicalAmerica; introduced into India,commonly found as a weed inBengal and Tamil Nadu, and inmany parts of India.English ◮ Sweet Broomweed.Folk ◮ Jastimadhu, Madhukam,Ghodaa-tulasi.Action ◮ Plant—decoction is usedfor gravel and other renal affections.Leaves—infusion used in fever,cough and bronchitis. Root—febrifuge. Stem and leaves—used inanemia, albuminaria, ketonuria andother complications associated withdiabetes mellitus.An antidiabetic compound, amellin,occursintheleavesandstemsofthegreen plant.According to some researchers, hypoglycaemiccompounds were notpresent in the extracts obtained fromdry plant material.The leaves contain the flavonoids,scutellarein and 7-O-methylscutellarein. Whole plant gave the triterpenoids,dulcitol, friedelin, scopadol, betulinicacid, dulcitolic acid and dulciolone.Benzoxazolinone, beta-sitosterol,D-mannitol, hexacosanol and tritriacontanewerealsoobtainedfromthe plant.Scopolia anomala Airy Shaw.Synonym ◮ S. lurida Dunal.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKumaon to Sikkim, up to 3,900 m.English ◮ Scopolia.Action ◮ Used like belladonna.Dried leaves contain 0.32% of alkaloidscomprising hyoscyamine, himaline,atropine and scopolamine.Ripe seeds contain a small amount ofatropine but no hyoscyamine. Extractsof leaves, stalks and seeds showed presenceof atropine, scopolamine, cuscohygrine,hellaradine, tropine, scopine.The alkaloid himaline exhibits atropinetype activity. Roots (total alkaloid content1.9–2.8%), in addition, containhyoscyamine and himaline. The alkaloidcontent of the root is reported tobe 4.64 times more than that of theleaves of Atropa belladonna.

Scutia myrtina Kurz. 593Flavonoids occurring in the leavesand roots are chlorogenic acid, scopoletin,and scopoline; the leaves, in addition,contain rutin and caffeic acid.A related species, S. carniolicaJacquin, (rhizome), has been approvedby German Commission E, for use inspasm of gastrointestinal tract, bileducts and urinary tract.The rhizome of S. carniolica (Centraland Eastern Europe) gave tropane alkaloids,including hyoscine and hyoscyaminewith cuscohygrine, tropine andpseudotropine.Leaf extract of Indian species (S.anomala) is found to be more activethan belladonna infusions.Scutellaria galericulata Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir at 1,500–2,400 m.English ◮ Skullcap (equated with S.lateriflora Linn.), Scurvy Grass.Action ◮ Central nervous relaxantand restorative, brain and CNS vasodilator,sedative, antispasmodic,anticonvulsive. Used for nervousstress, disturbed sleep, menstrualtension, headache, migraine, neurologicaland neurimotor conditions,epilepsy.Roots, stem and flowers of S. galericulatagave flavonoids and their glycosides,chrysin-7-glucuronide, baicalein,baicalin, apigenin, apigenin-7-glucoside and galeroside (baicalcin-7-beta-L-rhamnofuranoside). Cytotoxicityof baicalin and baicalein (isolatedfrom S. barbata D. Don synonym S.rivularis Wall.) has been investigatedon human hepatoma cell lines, humanliver cells and human pancreatic cancerline. (Chem Abstr, 121, 292196y,1994.)S. galericulata is used as an adulterantof S. lateriflora. (See also WHOmonograph on Scutellaria grandifloraAdams.)In Oriental medicine, Skullcap refersto S. baicalensis Georgi. It containsthe flavonoids baicalin, baicalein,wogonin, skullcapflavones I and II inaddition to other flavones. Baicalin exhibitsanti-inflammatory and antiallergicproperties.S. baicalensis inhibited lipid peroxidationin rat liver and has been clinicallytested in China; patients withchronic hepatitis showed improvement(above 70%) in various symptoms.(Potter’s New Cyclopedia.)According to The British HerbalPharmacopoeia, S. lateriflora can beused as a mild sedative.Scutia myrtina Kurz.Synonym ◮Family ◮S. indica Brongn.Rhamnaceae.Habitat ◮ The Deccan peninsulafrom Mahabaleshwar southwards,and Orissa.Folk ◮ Cheemaat (Gujarat, Maharashtra);Tuvadi (Tamil Nadu);Gariki (Andhra Pradesh).Action ◮ Fruit—astringent. Leaf—used in an ointment applied locallyto hasten parturition.S

594 Sebastiana chamaelea Muell.-Arg.SSebastiana chamaeleaMuell.-Arg.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh, MadhyaPradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Orissaand South India.Folk ◮ Bhui-erendi.Action ◮ Plant—astringent, antidiarrhoeal.A decoction of theplant, mixed with purified butter, isapplied to the head in vertigo.Secale cereale Linn.Family ◮ Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Ladakh, Lahul andother north-western Himalayanareas; and as host for cultivationof medicinal ergot (fungus) inKashmir.English ◮ Rye Grass.Action ◮ Grass—used for benignprostatic hyperplasia (BPH),chronic prostatis and prostatodynia.Ryebread,biscuits,porridgeandalcoholicproducts are available in Europeancountries and the US. Rye graincontains 12.1% protein; made up of 42%gliadin (a prolamine), 42% glutelin, 8%globulin and 8% albumin. The biologicalvalue of Rye protein at 5% level ofintake is 80.4% and the coefficient oftrue digestibility 91.0%.The mineral contents in the grainare: calcium 61, potassium 453, magnesium155, phosphorus 376, sulphur146 and iron 4.8 mg/100 g; and smallamounts of zinc, copper, manganeseand aluminium. The carbohydrates(73.4%) include surcose, pentosans,starch and raffinose.Medicinally applicable part of RyeGrassisthepolanextract. Theextractcontains beta-sitosterol; relaxesurethral smooth muscle tone and increasesbladder muscle contraction.Some evidence suggests that it mightaffect alpha-adrenergic receptors andrelax the internal and external bladdersphincter muscle. The extract doesnot affect LH, FSH, testosterone ordihydrotestosterone. A specific RyeGrass pollen extract 126 mg three timesdaily has been used for BHP. (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)(It is not known if Rye Grass pollenis comparable to finasteride or hytrin.However, it is comparable to Pygeumand Paraprost, a Japanese prostateremedy containing L-glutamic acid,L-alanine and aminoacetic acid.)Securinega suffruticosa(Pall.) Rehder.Synonym ◮ S. ramiflora Muell.Flueggea suffruticosa Baill.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, up toan altitude of 250 m.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellaippula (S.virosa).Folk ◮ Dalme, Kodarsi, Pandharphali(S. virosa).Action ◮ Alkaloid, securinine in theleaves stimulates central nervoussystem similar to strychnine and

Selenicereus grandiflorus Britton & Rose. 595is comparatively less toxic. It isfound useful in paresis and paralysisfollowing infectious diseases andphysical disorders. (The plant canreplace strychnine and nux-vomicain medicinal preparations.)A related species, Securinega virosa(Roxb. ex Willd.) Baillon, distributedthroughout India up to an altitude of2,000 m, gave securinine as the mainalkaloid, along with virosecurinine andviroallosecurinine, and a coumarin,bergenin. The root bark contains analkaloid, virosine. Whole root containsalkaloids, hordenine (flueggeine)and nor-securinine. A decoction ofthe root is given to induce sleep andfor fever; that of bark in diarrhoea andpneumonia. The leaves are reported tobe given in venereal diseases.Selaginella involvens Spring.Family ◮ Selaginellaceae.Habitat ◮ Hilly regions of India ataltitudes of 1,000–2,000 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Kara-jodi-kanda (relatedspecies).Folk ◮ Hatthaa jodi (related species).Action ◮ Used as an age-sustainingtonic. The original source is S.rupestris Spring.Selaginella rupestris Spring.Family ◮ Selaginellaceae.Habitat ◮ Indian gardens, asornaments.English ◮ Little Clubmoss.Ayurvedic ◮ Kara-jodi-Kanda.Folk ◮ Hatthaajodi.Action ◮ Plant—a decoction isprescribed as a tonic and protectivemedicine after child birth; also asa sedative.S. tamariscina Spring var. pulvinata(Kumaon to Assam), known as Hatthaajodi,is used as an age-sustainingtonic and has been credited with theproperty of prolonging life. A decoctionis prescribed for amenorrhoea,bleeding piles and prolapse of rectum.A decoction of S. wallichii Spring(hilly regions of north-eastern India),knownasHatthaajodi,isprescribedafter childbirth. S. willdenovii Baker(Nicobar Islands) is also known asHatthaajodi. Its infusion is administeredin cases of high fever and ashesare used in a liniment for backache.Selenicereus grandiflorusBritton & Rose.Synonym ◮ Cereus grandiflorus Mill.Family ◮ Cactaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to Mexico;introduced in Indian gardens.English ◮ Night-Blooming Cereus,Sweet-scented Cactus.Ayurvedic ◮ Visarpin, Mahaapushpa,Raatripraphulla.Action ◮ Flowers and tender shoots—cardiac stimulant and diuretic (usedforirritablebladderandcongestedkidneys), central nervous systemstimulant.S

596 Selinum monnieri Linn.SThe plant contains alkaloids (includingcactine) and flavonoids based onisorhamnetin.Alkaloid, cactine is reported to havea digitalis-like activity on the heart.(Alcoholic extract is used in homoeopathy.)Selinum monnieri Linn.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ East Bengal, Bhutan andAssam.Folk ◮ Muraa (var.).Action ◮ Fruits—extracts used forosteoporosis, gynaecological problemsand stress-related disorders.Seeds—prescribed in rheumatismand renal diseases.In Japan, the plant is mainly used forthe treatment of swelling of women’sgenitals.The aerial parts contain the chromones,cnidimol and karenin. The fruitscontain the benzofurans, cnidioside A,B and C, cnidiol b and C; besides furanocoumarins,imperatorin, bergapten,xanthotoxin, osthol and several terpenoids.The seeds and volatile oilfrom the fruits also contain osthol andother coumarins.The coumarins prevented glucocorticoid-inducedosteoporosis in rats;they also reversed bone loss at earlymenopausal stage. Osthol showed antiallergicactivity. Cnidioside A andB and cnidiol b alleviate physiologicaldisorders caused by physical andmental stress; enhancement of sexualactivity has also been observed.Selinum tenuifoliumWall. ex DC.Synonym ◮ S. candollei DC.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Nepal at altitudes of1,800–4,200 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Muraa, Surabhi, Daitya,Gandhakuti, Gandhavati. (Substitutefor Nardostachys jatamansi.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mural.Folk ◮ Bhuutakeshi (Kashmir), Muur(Garhwal).Action ◮ Roots—sedative, analgesic.Isoimperatorin and oxypeucedaninhave been isolated as major inotropicconstituents from the rhizomes.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the root in syncope,giddiness, also for asthma.Dosage ◮ Root—1–3 g powder. (API,Vol. II.)Selinum vaginatum C. B. Clarke.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ North-Western Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Kumaon ataltitudes of 1,800–3,900 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Rochanaa-Tagara.Folk ◮ Peshaavari-Bhuutakeshi(Kashmir), Taggar (Garhwal).Action ◮ Roots—used as a nervinesedative. Oil—sedative, analgesic,hypotensive.

Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f. 597The roots gave coumarins, angelicin,oroselol, lomatin, selinidin, vaginidin,vaginol; a flavone derivative selinone;a sesquiterpene vaginatin.The dry roots yield an essential oilcontaining alpha-pinene45.5 limonene25.3, camphene 5.7, beta-phellandrene5.2, alpha-thujene 1.2, fenchyl alcohol3.2, terpineol 3.8, and a ketone 2.6%.Beta-pinene and fenchone have alsobeen reported.The roots are sold in the drug marketsof Jammu mixed with those ofSeseli sibiricum. The roots are also usedas a substitute for Nardostachys jatamansi.Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f.Family ◮Anacardiaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Assam, Khasi Hills,Madhya Pradesh and PeninsularIndia.English ◮ Marking-Nut.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhallaataka, Bhallata,Arushkara, Agnik, Agnimukha,Sophkrit, Viravrksha.Unani ◮ Balaadur, Bhilaayan,Bhilaavaan.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shenkottei, Erimugi.(Kattu shen-kottai is equated withS. travancorica Bedd., found inevergreen forests of Tinnevelly andTravancore.)Folk ◮ Bhilaavaa.Action ◮ Toxic drug, used only aftercuring. Fruit—caustic, astringent,anti-inflammatory, antitumour.Used in rheumatoid arthritis andfor the treatment of tumours andmalignant growths.A decoction, mixed with milk orbutter fat, is prescribed in asthma,neuralgia, sciatica, gout, hemiplegia,epilepsy. Kernel oil—antiseptic; usedexternally in gout, leucoderma, psoriasisand leprosy. Bark gum—used fornervous debility; in leprous, scrofulousand venereal affections.Bigger var. is equated with S. kurziiEngler.The nut shells contain biflavonoids,including tetrahydrobustaflavone, tetrahydroamentoflavoneand anacarduflavanone;nallaflavone; anacardic acid;aromatic amines and bhilawanol. Bhilawanolisamixtureofphenoliccompounds,including cis and trans isomersof urushenol (3-pentadecenyl-8 ′catechol), monohydroxy phenol andsemicarpol. These are the major constituentsof the shell liquid, isolatedfrom the nuts (about 46% of the weightof extract).A mixture of closely related pentadecylcatechols exhibits anticancer activity.Extracts of the fruit was found effectiveagainst human epidermoid carcinomaof the naso-pharynx in tissueculture.Milk extract of the nut showedanti-inflammatory activity against carrageenin,5-HT and formaldehydeinducedrat paw oedema in acute antiinflammatorystudies. (About 20%animals developed gangrene of limbs,tail and ears.)Dosage ◮ Detoxified fruit—1–2 g inmilk confection. (API, Vol. II.)S

598 Sempervivum tectorum Linn.SSempervivum tectorum Linn.Family ◮ Crassulaceae.Habitat ◮ Nilgiris, as ornament. (AcommongardenplantinBritainand Europe.)English ◮ Houseleek.Action ◮ Leaves—refrigerant,astringent, antispasmodic; appliedas poultice to inflammatoryconditions of skin. Juice of theleaves is applied topically fortreating corns.The leaves sliced in two and the innersurface applied to warts, act as a positivecure for corns.The leaves contain tannin, malic acidand mucilage. Three related species arefound in the alpine Himalayan rangefrom Kumaon to Kashmir.Senecio jacquemontianusBenth.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The Western Himalayasand Kashmir at elevation of 3,000–3,900 m.Folk ◮ Poshkar, Hatermuula(Kashmir).Action ◮ Root—nervine tonic. Usedas an adulterant of Saussurea lappa.Whole plant extract gave senecionine.Senecio vulgaris Linn.Family ◮Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The Nilgiris and UttarPradesh. Introduced into IndiangardensEnglish ◮ Groundsel.Action ◮ Formerly used as a diuretic,diaphoretic and emmenagogue, indysmenorrhoea and bilious pains.No more recommended for internaluse due to high concentration ofhepatotoxic alkaloids. Infusion isused as a lotion in chronic mastitis,gout and haemorrhoids. Extracts ofthe plant are haemostatic.From the dried plant material alkaloids(0.053–00.095%) have been isolated,including, seneciphylline, senecionineand retrorsine. Senecionineand retrorsine have been demonstratedto induce hepatic necrosis in experimentalanimals. The plant contains950 mcg/kg of iodine on fresh basis.A related species used in Westernherbal, Senecio aureus Linn. (GoldenGroundsel, Squaw Weed) is a uterinerelaxant, stimulant to gravid uterus andasoothingdrugfornervousandvascularirritability, menopausal symptoms,hot flushes. Alkaloidsincludesenecifoline,senescine, senecionine and otosenine—pyrrolizidinealkaloids, in isolation,arehighlytoxictoliver.Theplantis recommended only for external useas a douche for excessive vaginal discharge.Seronoa repens (Bartram) Small.Synonym ◮ Sabal serrulata (Michaux)Nichols.Family ◮ Palmae.

Sesamum indicum Linn. 599Habitat ◮ Southeastern NorthAmerica.English ◮Sabal, Saw Palmetto.Action ◮ Ripe fruit—diuretic,urinary antiseptic, antiandrogenic,and antiexudative.The fruit contains fatty acids, especiallycapric, caproic, caprylic, lauric,myristic, oleic, linoleic, linolenic,stearic and palmitic acids; sterols, principallybeta-sitosterol and its 3-glucoside(and fatty acid derivatives), campesteroland stigmasterol; triglycerides;triterpenes; alkanols; polysaccharides;flavonoids; essential oil and anthranilicacid.Key application ◮ In urinationproblems due to benign prostatichyperplasia stages I and II (GermanCommission E, ESCOP, WHO.)(Thelipophilic extracts of Saw Palmettoberries are used in France andGermany for the treatment of BPH.In a study (1999), shrinkage of theepithelial tissue in the transitionzone of the prostate has beenrecorded. (Expanded Commission EMonographs.) (For Clinical studies,see ESCOP.)In India, Sabal palmetto Lodd. ExRoem. & Schult (Sabal or CabbagePalm) is planted in gardens for ornament.The sweet drupes are eaten assuch or cooked for preparing a syrup.Other species of Sabal introduced intoIndian gardens are: S. mauritiiformisGriseb. & Wendl., S. mexicana Mart.,S. umbraculifera Mart., and S. minorPers. The leaves of S. mexicana containcyanidin. The leaves of S. minorcontain caffeic, p-coumaric and sinapicacids.Sesamum indicum Linn.Synonym ◮ S. orientale Linn.Family ◮ Pedaliaceae.Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh, MadhyaPradesh, Rajasthan, Orissa, Gujarat,Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, andMaharashtra.English ◮ Sesame, Gingelly.Ayurvedic ◮ Tila, Snehphala.Unani ◮ Kunjad, Til.Siddha ◮ Ellu (seed), Nallennai (oil).Action ◮ Seeds—an importantsource of protein; also rich inthiamine and niacine. Nourishing,lactagogue, diuretic, laxative,emollient. Powdered seeds—giveninternally in amenorrhoea anddysmenorrhoea. (Black seeds arepreferred in Indian medicine.) Pasteis applied to burns, scalds, piles.Leaves—used in affections of kidneyand bladder. Bland mucilage is usedin infantile diarrhoea, dysentery,catarrh and bladder troubles, acutecystitis and strangury.Non-saponifiable fraction of theseed oil gave sterols, a lignans, sesaminand a nitrolactone, sesamolin. Sesaminand sesamolin are not found in any othervegetable oil. Sesamin is present ina concentration of 0.5 to 1.0%. The oilfrom the white seeds from West Bengaland Assam is reported to containabout 2.5% sesamin. Sesamol, a phenolicantioxidant, is present in traces.S

600 Sesbania bispinosa W. f. Wight.SThe leaves gave a flavonoid, pedalin.Pinoresinol has also been reportedfrom the plant.The seed contains thiamine, niacin,riboflavin, nicotinic acid, pantothenicacid, folic acid, biotin, pyridoxine, inositol,choline, p-aminobenzoic acid,ascorbic acid, vitamin A, alpha-andbeta-tocopherol. Sugars present areglucose, surcose, galactose, planteose,raffinose. Fatty acid in the seed aremyristic, palmitic, stearic, arachidic,hexadecenoic, oleic, linoleic and lignoceric.Basic aroma compounds of the roastedseeds consisted of mainly dimethylthiazole and substituted pyrozines.Dosage ◮ Seed—5–10 g powder.(API, Vol. IV.)Sesbania bispinosa W. f. Wight.Synonym ◮ S. aculeata (Willd.) Poir.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas andplains, southwards to PeninsularIndia.English ◮ Prickly Sesban, Dhaincha.Ayurvedic ◮ Jayanti (var.), Itkata(var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mudchembai.Action ◮ Seeds—used externallyin ringworm and skin diseases.Plant—used for treating wounds.The leaf, stem and fruit gave positivetest for alkaloids. A mixture ofsaponins, reported to be present in theseeds, yields on hydrolysis oleanolicacid and neutral sapogenin. Colloidalsubstances similar to those of marinealgae, locust bean gum, guar gum andgum tragacanth are reported in theseeds.Sesbania grandiflora (L.) Poir.Synonym ◮ Agati grandiflora Desv.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical Asia;growninAssam,Bengal,Punjab,Vadodara, Andhra Pradesh andTamil Nadu.English ◮ Agati Sesban, Swamp Pea.Ayurvedic ◮ Agastya, Agasti,Munidrum, Munitaru, Muni,Vangasena, Vakrapushpa, Kumbha.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Agatti.Action ◮ Plant—astringent, antihistaminic,febrifuge. Usedfor intermittent fevers, catarrh,cough, consumption, glandularenlargement.The aqueous extract of flowers hasbeen found to produce haemolysis ofhuman and sheet erythrocytes even atlow concentration due to methyl esterof oleanolic acid. Flowers also gavenonacosan-6-one and kaempferol-3-rutinoside.The seed gave kaempferol-3,7-diglucoside,(+)-leucocyanidin and cyanidin-3-glucoside.Seed also containsgalactomannan.A saponin present in the leaveson hydrolysis gave an acid sapogeninoleanoic acid, galactose, rhamnose andglucuronic acid. Besides saponin, theleaves contain an aliphatic alcohol,grandiflorol.

Seseli sibiricum Benth. ex C. B. Clarke 601The bark contains gum and tannin.The red gum is used as a substitute forGum arabic. An infusion of the barkis given in first stages of smallpox andother eruptive fevers (emetic in largedoses).Dosage ◮ Whole plant—10–20 ml juice; 50–100 ml decoction.(CCRAS.)Sesbania sesban (Linn.) Merrill.Synonym ◮ S. aegyptiaca Pers.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated and wildthroughout India.English ◮ Common Sesban.Ayurvedic ◮ Jayantikaa, Jayanti, Jayaa,Jwaalaamukhi, Suukshma-muulaa,Suukshma-patraa, Keshruuhaa,Balaamotaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sembai, Karumsembai(leaf).Folk ◮ Jainta.Action ◮ Seed and bark—astringent,emmenagogue. Used inmenorrhagia, spleen enlargementand diarrhoea. Leaves—antiinflammatory.Bark—juice appliedto cutaneous eruptions. Unsaponifiablematter of fixed oil from seeds—cardiac depressant, antibacterial.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the use of the leaf indysuria.The pods and leaves contain cholesterol,campesterol and beta-sitosterol.Flowers contain cyanidin and delphinidinglucosides. Pollen and pollen tubescontain alpha-ketoglutaric, oxaloaceticand pyruvic acids.Dosage ◮ Leaf—3–6 g powder. (API,Vol. II.)Seseli indicum W. & A.Synonym ◮ S. diffusum (Roxb. exSm.) Santapau & WaghFamily ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Outer hills of the Himalayasin Kumaon and in the plains fromPunjab to Bengal, and in TamilNadu and Mysore.Ayurvedic ◮ Vanya-yamaani.Action ◮ Seeds—stimulant, anthelmintic(used for round worms),carminative.Seselin, isolated from the seeds, exhibitedsignificant and dose-dependentanti-inflammatory activity in carrageenan-inducedacute inflammation inrats. It also exhibited significant analgesicactivity and was found to be safein oral doses up to 6 g/kg (body weight)in 72 h mortality test in mice.A sample of commercial oil, availableas Ajmod Oil, is reported to contain(+)-limonene (50%), seselin, (−)-beta-selinene and beta-cyclolavendulicacid.Seseli sibiricumBenth. ex C. B. ClarkeFamily ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Jammu and Kashmir ataltitudes of 2,500 to 3,500 m.S

602 Setaria italica (Linn.) Beauv.SAyurvedic ◮ Bhuutakeshi. Selinumsp. are also known as Bhuutakeshi.Action ◮ Used for mental disordersas a tranquilizer. Volatile oil—hypotensive.The volatile oil, distilled from theroot, contains alpha-and beta-pinene,myrcene, limonene, p-cymene, betaphellandrene(major constituent), fenchone,fenchyl alcohol and acetate,fenchyl hydroxy cinnamate, osthol, p-hydroxy cinnamate (0.1%), sesibricin,imperatorin and bergapten.The volatile oil from aerial partscauses a fall in blood pressure, vasoconstrictionand stimulation of respiration.The action appears to betranquillizing. It potentiates the effectsof pentobarbital in rats and has no anticonvulsantactivity. Smooth muscleactivity is inhibited by the oil and negativeinotropic and chronotropic effectsare observed on heart muscle.Setaria italica (Linn.) Beauv.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in AndhraPradesh, Tamil Nadu, Gujarat,Maharashtra and Karnataka.English ◮ Italian Millet, Fox-tailMillet.Ayurvedic ◮ Kangu, Kanguni,Kangunikaa, Priyangu Dhaanya(Millet). (Priyangu, aromatic flowerbuds or seed kernels, is a differentdrug. Callicarpa macrophylla andPrunus mahaleb are equated withPriyangu.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tenai.Action ◮ Plant—used as a sedative tothe gravid uterus. Grain—used foralleviating pain after parturition.Applied externally in rheumatism.(The grain is reported injurious tohorses. Overfeeding affects kidneysand causes swelling and inflammationof joints.)Analysis of a dehusked sample (79%of whole grain) gave following values:protein 12.3, fat 4.3, minerals 3.3,crude fibre 8.0, and other carbohydrates60.9%. The principal proteinof the millet is prolamin (48%), albuminand globulin together form 13–14% of the total protein, and glutelin37%. The oxidation of unsaturated fattyacids, present in the grain, duringthe cold winter months is reported toyield toxic substances.Shorea robusta Gaertn. f.Family ◮ Dipterocarpaceae.Habitat ◮ North, east and centralIndia.English ◮ Sal tree. Oleoresin: SalDammer or Bengal Dammer.Ayurvedic ◮ Shaala, Saalasaara,Dhuupa-vriksha. (Substitute:Vateria indica.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kungiliyam,Venkungiliyam (resin).Action ◮ Fruit—a paste is prescribedin diarrhoea. Resin—astringent,detergent; antidiarrhoeal andantidysenteric. Essential oil of Salresin—antiseptic. Used for skindiseases.

Sida cordifolia Linn. 603The bark contains 7–12, young leaves20, twigs and leaves 22, and powderdust 12% tannin. The spray-dried aqueousextract of the bark contains 39.6%of tannins with a trans/non-trans ratioof0.73. Thetanninsareofpyrogalloltype. Oleanolic acid has also beenisolated from the bark.Several triterpenoids have been isolatedfrom the resin. Hydroxy-hopanone,dammarenediol II (20S) and dammarenolicacid are reported to exhibitantiviral activity against Herpes simplex.The resin on dry distillation yieldsan essential oil, known as Chuaa Oil.It consists of 96.0% neutral and 3.0and 1.9% phenolic and acidic fractionsrespectively. Non-phenolic portion ofthe oil is reported to have a depressingeffect on the central nervous system,the phenolic portion is less effective.Dosage ◮ Heartwood, flower—3–5 g powder; 50–100 ml decoction;resin—1–3 g. (CCRAS.)Sibbaldia parviflora Willd.Family ◮ Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Garwal region.Ayurvedic ◮ Bajradanti. Barleriaprionitis L. and Potentilla arbusculaD. Don. are also used as Bajradanti.)Action ◮ Used as a tooth powder forstrengthening gums and teeth.Sida acuta Burm. f.Synonym ◮ S. carpinifolia auct.non Linn f.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmerparts of India.English ◮ Hornbeam-Leaved Sida.Ayurvedic ◮ Balaa (white-floweredvar.).Folk ◮ Jangali Methi.Action ◮ Root—astringent, cooling,stomachic, febrifuge, diuretic;used for nervous and sexualdebility, haemorrhoids, biliarydisorders. Leaves—demulcent;applied to testicular swellings andelephantiasis.The root contains alkaloids—phenethylamine,ephedrine (major), siephedrine,vasicinol, vasicinone, vasicine,choline, hypaphorine and betaine.(These alkaloids are also presentin aerial parts.) The root also containsalpha-amyrin and an hormone, ecdysterone.Whole plant, as well as theroot, contains an alkaloid cryptolepine.Cryptolepine exhibits hypotensive andantimicrobial activity.The seeds contain 0.26% of the alkaloidsandroots0.066%.The water-soluble portion of the alcoholicextract of the plant exerts spasmodicaction of the smooth muscles ofileum, trachea, uterus and heart of experimentalanimals. (The activity bearssimilarity to that of acetylcholine.)Sida cordifolia Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India in moistplaces.S

604 Sida rhombifolia Linn.SEnglish ◮Country Mallow.Ayurvedic ◮ Balaa (yellow-floweredvar.), Sumanganaa, Kharayashtikaa,Balini, Bhadrabalaa,Bhadraudani, Vaatyaalikaa.Unani ◮ Bariyaara, Khirhati, Khireti,Kunayi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nilatutti.Action ◮ Juice of the plant—invigorating, spermatopoietic,used in spermatorrhoea. Seeds—nervine tonic. Root—(officialpart in Indian medicine) usedfor the treatment of rheumatism;neurological disorders (hemiplegia,facial paralysis, sciatica); polyuria,dysuria, cystitis, strangury andhematuria; leucorrhoea and otheruterine disorders; fevers and generaldebility. Leaves—demulcent,febrifuge; used in dysentery.Ephedrine and si-ephedrine are themajor alkaloids in the aerial parts.The total alkaloid content is reportedto be 0.085%, the seeds contain themaximum amount. In addition to alkaloids,the seeds contain a fatty oil(3.23%), steroids, phytosterols, resin,resin acids, mucin and potassium nitrate.The root contains alkaloids—ephedrine,si-ephedrine, beta-phenethylamine,carboxylated tryptamines andhypaphorine, quinazoline alkaloids—vasicinone, vasicine and vasicinol.Choline and betaine have also beenisolated.A sitoindoside, isolated from theplant, has been reported to exhibitadaptogenic and immunostimulatoryactivities. Alcoholic extract of the plantpossesses antibacterial and antipyreticpropeptide. Ethanolic extract of theplant depresses blood pressure in catsand dogs.Sida rhombifolia Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in moistplaces.English ◮ Common Bala.Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaabalaa, Mahaasamangaa,Sahadevaa, Kshetrabalaa.Unani ◮ Bariyaara (red-floweredvar.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Athi Bala-chedi,Chitrmutti, Tennacham.Action ◮ Plant—used as a supportingdrug in pulmonary tuberculosis,nervous diseases and rheumatism.Leaves—applied to swelling aspaste. Stem-mucilage—demulcentand emollient. Used internally inskin diseases and as a diuretic andfebrifuge.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the root in deficientspermatogensis and oedema.Alkaloids, ephedrine, si-ephedrineand cryptolepine, are reported fromaerial parts. The root contains 0.054%alkaloids, beta-phenethylamine, N-methyl-beta-phenethylamine, vasicinol,vasicinone, vasicine, choline andbetaine. These alkaloids are also presentin the aerial parts.Alcoholic extract of the root exhibitedantibacterial and antipyretic activities.

Sida veronicaefolia Lam. 605Proteins, linoleic, malvlic and sterculicacids have been reported fromseeds.Dosage ◮ Root—3–6 g powder. (API,Vol. III.)Sida rhombifolia Linn. var.rhomboidea (Roxb.) MastFamily ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ West Bengal.Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaabalaa (whitefloweredvar.).Action ◮ Plant—spasmolytic, antiinflammatory.Root—sedative, CNSdepressant.Alkaloids from the plant exhibitantibacterial, antifungal and anthelminticproperties.See S. rhombifolia.Sida spinosa Linn.Synonym ◮ S. alba Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the hotterparts of India, ascending to analtitude of 1,350 m.English ◮ Prickly Sida.Ayurvedic ◮ Naagabalaa, Balaakantakini,Gangaati.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Arivalmanai-poondu.Folk ◮ Gulasakari, Gangeti, Jangalimethi.Action ◮ Root—nervine tonicand diaphoretic; used in debilityand fevers. Decoction givenas a demulcent in irritability ofbladder and genitourinary tract.Leaves—demulcent and refrigerant;used for scalding urine.The root contains alkaloids—betaphenethylamine,ephedrine, si-ephedrine,vasicinol, vasicinone, vasicine,choline, hypaphorine, methyl ester, hypaphorineand betaine. These alkaloidsare present in aerial parts as well.Ethanolic extract of the plant exhibitshypoglycaemic activity. It depressedthe normal blood pressure andlowered the activity of smooth musclesof the ileum of experimental animals.Sida veronicaefolia Lam.Synonym ◮ S. cordata (Burm. f.)Borssum.S. humilis Cav.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout hotter partsof India.Ayurvedic ◮ Raajabalaa, Bhumibalaa,Prasaarini, Suprasaraa (also equatedwith Naagabalaa, Grewia hirsuta).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Palampasi.Folk ◮ Farid-booti.Action ◮ Fruits and flowers—used forburning sensation in micturition.Leaves—juice, used for diarrhoea;poultice applied to cuts and bruises.Root bark—used for leucorrhoeaand genitourinary affections.In experimental animals, the herbprevented arthritic swellings.S

606 Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn.SThe plant contains beta-phenethylamines,quinazoline, carboxylatedtryptamine, linoleic acid, malvalic acid,sterculic acid and gossypol.Dosage ◮ Root—10–20 ml juice; 50–100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)Siegesbeckia orientalis Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India up to2,000 m.English ◮ The Holy Herb, Siegesbeckia.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Katampam,Kadambu.Folk ◮ Pili-badkadi (Gujarat), Latlatiaa(Bihar), Lichkuraa (Garhwal).Action ◮ Plant—antiscorbutic, sialagogue,cardiotonic, diaphoretic.Used for the treatment of rheumatism,renal colic and ague. Alsoused as a lotion for gangrenousulcers and sores, syphilis, leprosy,ringworm.The aerial parts contain sesquiterpenelactone, orientin; melampolidesincluding orientolide; diterpene, drutigenoland the corresponding glucosidedarutoside. The whole plant, inaddition, gave 3,7-dimethylquercetin.The plant exhibited antiviral, CVSactive, spasmolytic and hypoglycaemicactivity.Silybum marianum (L.) Gaertn.Family ◮Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas at1,800 and Kashmir at 2,400 m, alsogrowningardens.English ◮Holy Thistle, Milk Thistle.Action ◮ Seeds—liver protective,gallbladder protective, antioxidant.Used in jaundice and otherbiliary affections, intermittentfevers, uterine trouble, also asa galactagogue. Alcoholic extractused for haemorrhoids and asa general substitute for adrenaline.Seeds are used for controllinghaemorrhages. Leaves—sudorificand aperient. Young leaves andflowering heads are consumed bydiabetics.Key application ◮ In dyspepticcomplaints. As an ingredient offormulations for toxic liver damage;chronic inflammatory liver diseaseand hepatic cirrhosis induced byalcohol, drugs or toxins. (ExpandedCommission E Monographs, WHO.)The seeds gave silymarin (flavanollignin mixture), composed mainly ofsilybin A, silybin B (mixture known assilibinin), with isosilybin A, isosilybinB, silychristin, silydianin. In Germany,Milk Thistle has been used extensivelyfor liver diseases and jaundice. Silymarinhas been shown conclusively toexert an antihepatotoxic effect in animalsagainst a variety of toxins, particularlythose of death cap mushroom,Amanita phalloides. Silybin, when givenby intravenous injection to humanpatients up to 48 hours after ingestionof the death cap, was found to be highlyeffective in preventing fatalities.

Smilax aristolochiaefolia Miller. 607Silymarin has been used successfullyto treat patients with chronic hepatitisand cirrhosis; it is active against hepatitisB virus, and lowers fat deposits inthe liver in animals.(For hepatic cirrhosis: 420 mg perday; for chronic active hepatitis 240 mgtwice daily—extract containing 70–80% silimarin.)Sisymbrium irio Linn.Family ◮ Cruciferae; Brassicaeae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir, Punjab, Haryanaand from Rajasthan to Uttar Pradeshin moist soils.English ◮ London Rocket.Ayurvedic ◮ Khaaksi.Unani ◮ Khuubkalaan.Action ◮ Seeds—expectorant,restorative, febrifuge, rubefacient,antibacterial. Used in asthma.Leaves—rich in vitamin C (176 mg/100 g), beta-carotene (10,000 IU/100 g)and minerals. Used in throat and chestinfections.Aerial parts yield beta-sitosterol, 3beta-D-glucoside, isorhamnetin andquercetin.The seed contains a flavonoid, isorhamnetin.Fatty oil from seeds containlinolenic and oleic acids (as chiefconstituents), along with erucic, palmiticand stearic acids.Ethanolic extract of seeds exhibitedmarked antibacterial action, also antipyreticand analgesic effects.S. loeselii Linn. (Kashmir and HimachalPradesh) is used in scrofula andas an antiscorbutic. The seed oil containserucic acid and larger amountsof tetracosenoic acid. The plant containsalkaloids, organic acids, tannins,glycosides, saponins, coumarins andflavonoids.Smilax aristolochiaefolia Miller.Family ◮ Liliaceae; Smilacaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical Americaand the West Indies.English ◮ Sarsaparilla.Unani ◮ Ushbaa Maghrabi (UshbaaDesi is equated with Decalepishamiltonii.)Action ◮ Alterative, antiinflammatory,antipruritic, bloodpurifier, antiseptic. (It was firstintroduced in 1563 as a drug forsyphilis.)In Western herbal, Sarsaparilla isequated with Smilax aristolochiaefolia(American, Mexican, Vera Cruzor Grey Sarsaparilla); S. medica, S.regelii (Jamaican, Honduras or BrownSarsaparilla); S. febrifuga (Ecuadorianor Guayaquil Sarsaparilla). Hemidesmusindicus is equated with IndianSarsaparilla.Key application ◮ Preparations ofsarsaparilla root are used for skindiseases, psoriasis and its sequel,rheumatic complaints, kidneydiseases, and as a diaphoretic anddiuretic. (The claimed efficacy hasnot been established clinically.)Included among unapproved herbsby German Commission E.S

608 Smilax aspera Linn.SThe roots and rhizomes of sarsaparillacontain saponins based on aglyconessarsapogenin and smilagenin, the majorone being parillin (sarsaponin),with smilasaponin (smilacin) and sarsaparilloside;beta-sitosterol, stigmasteroland their glucosides. Chief componentsof saponins (0.5–3%) are sarsaparilloside,along with parillin asa breakdown product. Parillin showsantibiotic activity.Sarsaparilla root sterols are not anabolicsteroids, nor are they convertedin vivo to anabolic steroids. Testosterone,till now, has not been detectedin any plant including sarsaparilla.Hemidesmus indicus contains none ofthe saponins or principal constituentsfound in sarsaparilla. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)Smilax aspera Linn.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ The tropical and temperateregions, from Kashmir, Sikkim andAssam to South India.English ◮ Italian Sarsaparilla.Action ◮ Roots used as a substitutefor Hemidesmus indicus. Rutinhasbeen isolated as a major flavonoidfrom the plant.Smilax china Linn.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Japan, China and CochinChina.English ◮ China Root.Ayurvedic ◮ Chobachini, Chopachini,Dweepaantar-Vachaa, Madhusnuhi,Hriddhaatri.Unani ◮ Chobchini.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Parangi chakkai.Action ◮ Tubers—used as alterativein venereal diseases, chronic skindiseases and rheumatic affections.Used as official sarsaparilla. (Chinaof homoeopathic medicine isPeruvian bark, not Smilax china.)Sarsaparilla (Smilax species) is usedin Oriental as well as in Western herbalfor its alterative, gentle circulatorystimulant and mild testosterone activity.The root is known for its steroidalsaponins. Pro-sapogenin-A of dioscin,dioscin, gracillin. Me-protogracillin,Me-protodioscin and its 22-hydroxyanalog;besides beta-sitosterol glucoside,smilaxin, two furostan and onespirostane glycosides have been isolatedfrom the root.Dosage ◮ Root—50–100 mg powder.(CCRAS.)Smilax glabra Roxb.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, Khasi and GaroHills, eastwards to upper Burma,Indo-China and southern China.Ayurvedic ◮ Dweepaantara-Vachaa,Chobachini (bigger var.).Action ◮ Roots—used for syphilis,venereal diseases and sores, asa blood purifier.

Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq. 609Astilbin, 3-O-caffeoyl-shikimic, ferulic,palmitic, shikimic and succinicacids; engeletin, isoengeletin; glucose;daucosterol, beta-sitosterol, stigmasterolare major constituents of the root.Crude saponins, isolated from theplant, produced preventive effecton cholesterol-fed atherosclerosis inquails.Smilax lanceifolia Roxb.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Sikkim Himalayas, Assamand Manipur.Ayurvedic ◮ Hindi Chobachini.Folk ◮ Shukchin (Maharashtra),Hariaa.Action ◮ Roots—used for rheumaticaffections.Smilax ornata Hook.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas fromKumaon eastwards to Khasi, Garoand Naga Hills, and in Bihar.Unani ◮ Ushbaa. (Jamaica saksaparilla.)Action ◮ Roots—used as a bloodpurifying drug.Smilax ovalifolia Roxb.Synonym ◮ S. macrophylla Roxb.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical parts of India.Ayurvedic ◮ Maitri.Unani ◮ Ushbaa (wild species).Folk ◮ Ghot-vel (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Roots—used as a substitutefor Hemidesmus indicus. Usedfor venereal diseases, urinaryinfections, rheumatism. Also usedfor dysentery. (S. perfoliata Lour.,synonym S. prolifera Roxb. is usedas a substitute for S. ovalifolia.)Smilax zeylanica Linn.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical parts of Indiaincluding hills. Common in easternHimalayas.Unani ◮ Jangali Ushbaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Malai-thaamara.Action ◮ Root—used in prescriptionsfor venereal diseases. Decoction,used for abscesses, boils, swellingsand rheumatism; also for dysentery.Used as a substitute for S. ornata.Diosgenin is reported from the rootand leaf.Solanum aculeatissimum Jacq.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam and Kerala, indamp and waste places.Ayurvedic ◮ Brihati (related species,used in Kerala). Brihati andKantakaari have been used inIndian medicine as synonyms.S

610 Solanum albicaule Kotschy ex Dunal.SAction ◮ Both fruit and leavescontain glycoalkaloid solanine;immature fruits contain more of itthan the ripe ones. Air-dried leavesand fruits contain 0.26 and 0.14% ofalkaloids, respectively.See S. indicum Linn.Solanum albicauleKotschy ex Dunal.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Saurashtra (Gujarat) andRajasthan.Ayurvedic ◮ Brihati (related species).Folk ◮ Narkanta (Rajasthan).Action ◮ A decoction of the plantis prescribed for the treatment ofulcers.See S. indicum Linn.Solanum aviculare Forst. f.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Introduced to Kashmir forexperimental cultivation.Ayurvedic ◮ Kantakaari (relatedspecies).Action ◮ An important source ofsolasodine, a nitrogen analogue ofdiosgenin and one of the startingmaterials for the synthesis ofcorticosteroids and other steroidalhormones.See S. xanthocarpum.The leaves, stems, flowers and greenfruits contain the glycoalkaloid, solasonine,of which solasodine is the aglycone.Besides solasonine, the plantcontains solamargine and solasodamine.The average alkaloidal content (calculatedas solasodine) of leaves collectedfrom Kashmir, is reported to be 0.3%(dry weight basis).Solanum dubium Fresen.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Sandy coast of Saurashtra(Gujarat).Ayurvedic ◮ Kantakaari (relatedspecies).Action ◮ Seeds are soaked andeateninAfricaforthetreatmentofvenereal diseases.See S. xanthocarpum.Solanum dulcamara Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Sikkim at altitudesof 1,200–2,400 m.English ◮ Woody Night Shade,Bittersweet, Bitter Nightshade,Felonwort.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakamaachi-vishesha,Valli-kantakaarikaa.Unani ◮ Mako (red var.).Action ◮ Twigs and root bark—stimulating, expectorant, hepatic,astringent, antirheumatic, alterative,antifungal. Dried branches—sedative and analgesic. Used forchronic bronchitis, chronic eczemaand rheumatism.

Solanum ferox Linn. 611Key application ◮ As a supportivetherapy for chronic eczema.(German Commission E.)The plant is rich in alkaloidal glycosides.Alpha-, beta-, gamma-solamarinewere isolated from the fruits. TomatidenolI existed in the plant as alphaandbeta-solamarine. Solasodine wasobtained in traces as secondary alkaloid;it existed as solasonine and solamargine.Aerial parts gave alpha-andbeta-soladulcine, the glycoalkaloids.The sterols were present in free formand as esters, glucosides and palmiticesters of glucosides.Beta-solamarine shows significanttumour-inhibiting activity. Steroidalsaponins are antifungal; alkaloids areanticholinergic; solasodine exhibit antiphlogisticactivity.Solanum elaeagnifolium Cav.Family ◮Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;naturalized in India as a weed (metwith in cultivated fields and gardensin Coimbatore).English ◮ White Horse-Nettle.Action ◮ Plant—used as a poulticefor sores and ulcers. The plantis a rich source of the steroidalalkaloid, solasodine. The fruit andleaves contain 3–4% (solasodine3.2%) and 0.18% total alkaloids.Fruits also contain 0.55% diosgenin.A related species S. khasianum (Assam,Sikkim, West Bengal, Orissa andthe Nilgiris, ascending to an altitude of1,600 m) is also a good source of solasodine.The fruits collected from Nilgiriscontain 5.4% solasodine on dry weightbasis.Solanum erianthum D. Don.Synonym ◮ S. verbascifolium auct.non Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ The tropical and subtropicalIndia and the Andamans.Cultivated in South India. (forberries).Folk ◮ Chundai (Tami Nadu,Kerala); Rasagadimaanu (AndhraPradesh); Sowdangigida, Kadusinde(Karnataka); Kutri (Maharashtra).Vidaari is a confusing synonym(used by The Wealth of India).(Vidaari is equated with Purerariatuberosa.)Action ◮ Roots—a decoction isprescribed for vertigo. Leaves—prescribed for vaginal discharges.Various plant parts are groundwith warm water and appliedexternally to lessen inflammation,burning sensation and pain. Theglycoalkaloid, solasonine is presentin the leaves and fruits.Solanum ferox Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout warmer partsof India, up to an elevation of1,500 m.English ◮ Poison-Berry.S

612 Solanum indicum Linn.SAyurvedic ◮ Brihati, Brihatikaa,Mahati, Hinguli, Prasaha, Vartaki,Kaantaa, Kshudra-bhantaki, Simhi,Bana-bhantaa. Kateri (bigger var.)Unani ◮ Katai Kalaan.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mulli, Pappara-mulli,Karimulli.Folk ◮ Raam-begun (Bengal).Action ◮ Plant and root—stimulant,digestive, carminative, astringent,expectorant, diaphoretic,anthelmintic. Used for catarrhalaffections, asthma, dry cough;dysuria; intestinal worms; colic,flatulence, vomiting. Berries—usedin asthma and rheumatism.Air-dried fruits and leaves containsolanine; 0.30 and 0.43% of total alkaloidsrespectively.Dosage ◮ Fruit, root—3–6 g powder;50–100 ml decoction. (CCRAS.)Solanum indicum Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India in theplains and foot hills.English ◮ Poison Berry.Ayurvedic ◮ Brihati, Kshudrabhantaaki,Kateri (bigger var.).Unani ◮ Hadaq, Kataai Kalaan.Siddha ◮ Mullamkatti, Papparamulli(root).Folk ◮ Barahantaa.Action ◮ Root—carminative,expectorant; used for colic, dysuria,coughs and catarrhal affections.A decoction is prescribed in difficultparturition.The fruits and leaves contain glycoalkaloid,solasonine; the presenceof solanine in roots, leaves and fruitshas been reported. Diosgenin is alsopresent in leaves, stems and fruits.The total alkaloid content of fruitvaries from 0.2 to 1.8% (dry weightbasis); plants growing in Jammu andKashmir bear fruits with high alkaloidcontent (total alkaloid 1.8%).An alcoholic extract of fruits is activeagainst Staphylococcus aureus andE. coli. The extract of leaves is alsoactive against E. coli.The bigger var. of Kateri (IndianNightshade) is also equated with S. anguiviLam., synonym S. indicum auct.non L. It contains salasonine, diosgenin,beta-sitosterol, lanosterol, solamargine,solasodine and tomatidenol.The seed oil contains carpestrol.Dosage ◮ Root—10–20 g fordecoction. (API, Vol. II.)Solanum melongena Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to India; cultivatedthroughout India.English ◮ Eggplant, Brinjal.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhantaki, Bhantaa,Vaartaaka, Vaartaaku, Vaartaakini,Vrintaaka.Unani ◮ Baingan.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kathirikai.Folk ◮ Baingan, Bhantaa.

Solanum nigrum Linn. 613Action ◮ Fruit—recommended in livercomplaints and for amenorrhoea.The fruit is reported to stimulatethe intrahepatic metabolism ofcholesterol, produces a markeddrop in blood cholesterol level.Aqueous extract of fruit is reportedto inhibit choline esterase activityof human plasma. Root—antiasthmatic.Leaves—toxic; usedmostly externally for the treatmentof burns, cold sores and abscesses.Seeds—anticholesterolemic.Steroidal saponins, melongosideswere isolated from seeds; tigogenin,diosgenin were also obtained. Quercetin,3-O-rhamnoside and kaempferol-3-O-rutinoside have been isolated fromthe leaves. The ethanol extract (80%)showed anti-inflammatory activity inpaw oedema and cotton pellet methodin rats. Crude extract of fruits showeddiuresis and dose-dependent hypotensiveresponse in normotensive rats.Ether-soluble methanolic extract exhibitedstrong inhibitory activity onlipoxygenase, involved in atheroscleroticprocesses and platelet aggregationin rats.Solanum melongena Linn. var. incanumKuntze, synonym S. coagulansForsk. is known as Bana-bhantaa (alsoa synonym of Solanum ferox) andisused as Brihati in Kerala. Air-driedfruits and leaves from coimbatore contain1.05 and 0.97% of alkaloids respectively.The fruits contain solasodine,campesterol and beta-sitosterol.Solamargine, solasodine, ursolic acidand its derivatives exhibited significantcytotoxic effects against humanP2C/PRF/5 cells in vitro.Solanum nigrum Linn.Synonym ◮Family ◮S. rubrum Mill.Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in dryparts, up to an elevation of 2,100 m.English ◮Black Nightshade.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakamaachi,Kaakaahya, Kaakamaataa,Dhvankshamaachi.Unani ◮var.)Siddha/Tamil ◮Mako (smallar var., blackManittakkali.Action ◮ Plant—anti-inflammatory,antispasmodic, sedative, diuretic,laxative, antiseptic; fresh extract isused for inflammatory swellings,enlargement of liver and spleenand in cirrhosis of liver. Berries—antidiarrhoeal, antipyretic. Berriesand flowers—prescribed in coughand cold. Leaves— applied hotto swollen testicles; paste usedas poultice to gout, rheumaticswellings and skin diseases.The berries contain steroidal alkaloidglycosides, solasonine, alphaandbeta-solanigrine, alpha-and betasolamargine;steroidal sapogenins, diosgeninand tigogenin; solasodine andsolasodine.Solamargine and solasonine arepresent also in leaves. The total alkaloidcontent of fruits and leaves are0.101 and 0.431% respectively.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—5–10 mljuice. (API, Vol. II.)S

614 Solanum spirale Roxb.SSolanum spirale Roxb.Family ◮Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, Khasi Hills. Banga(Bengal); Titakuchi (Assam); Sohjhari(Khasi); Mungas-kajur (root,Bihar).Action ◮ Root—diuretic, narcotic.Unripe berries—poisonous.The leaves contain 1.29% alkaloids.Partial synthesis of etiolin has been reported.Solanum torvum Sw.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout tropical partsof India, in waste places.English ◮ West Indian Turkey Berry.Ayurvedic ◮ Brihati (White-floweredvar.),Goshtha-vaartaaku.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chundai.Folk ◮ Ran-Baingan, Goth-begun.Action ◮ Plant—digestive, diuretic,sedative. Leaves—haemostatic.Fruits—useful in liver and spleenenlargement (cooked and eaten asa vegetable); decoction used forcough. Root—used for poulticingcracks in feet.Unripe fruits and leaves contain theglycoalkaloid, solasonine (0.37% totalalkaloids in air-dried fruits of the plantfrom Khasi and Jaintia hills). Hydrolysisof the neutral glucosidal fractionyields a steroidal sapogenin, chlorogenin,which is rare in Solanum sp.The fruits gave sitosterol-D-glucoside.Extracts of the plant affect the rateand amplitude of respiration, alsoblood pressure. They also contractisolated ileum of guinea-pig. Leavescontain no vitamin K or derivativesof naphthoquinone; their haemostaticaction may be due to the oil or pectinsor both.Solanum trilobatum Linn.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Deccan Peninsula.English ◮ Climbing Brinjal.Ayurvedic ◮ Alarka, Vallikantakaarikaa,Kantakaari-lataa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Toothuvilai.Action ◮ Berries and flowers—adecoction is used for cough andchronic bronchitis.The steroidal alkaloid, solasodine, ispresent in fruit and leaf of the plant(air-dried fruits and leaves from Coimbatoregave 0.96 and 0.36% respectively).A crude glycoalkaloid mixture,isolated from the plant material,contained about 20% beta-solamarine.The plant exhibited antimitotic, antitumour,antibacterial and antifungal activitiesand showed promising resultsin two cancer test systems—KB cell andsarcoma 180 in mice.Solanum tuberosum Linn.Family ◮Solanaceae.

Solidago virga-aurea Linn. 615Habitat ◮ Native to South America;grown almost throughout India.English ◮Patoto.Ayurvedic ◮ Aaluka, Aaruka,Golaalu. (Aaluka, yam of Indianmedicine, is equated with species ofDioscorea.)Folk ◮ Aaluu.Action ◮ Potatoes are consumed asfood. Extract of leaves is used asantispasmodic in cough. Potatojuice is given as an adjuvant inthe treatment of peptic ulcer forbringing relief from pain and acidity.Starch and very small quantities ofatropine alkaloids reduce digestivesecretions and stomach acids.Potatoes are good for patientssuffering from hyperacidity; boiledpotatoes make an excellent diet forthose having hypertension.Solanum xanthocarpum S. & W.Synonym ◮ S. surattense Burm.f.S. virginianum Linn.S. maccanni Sant.Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India.English ◮ Wild Eggplant, Yellow-Berried Nightshade.Ayurvedic ◮ Kantakaari, Kantakaarikaa,Vyaaghri, Nidigdhikaa,Nidigdhaa, Duhsparshaa, Dhaavani,Kshudraa, Keteri (Smallarvar.), Bhatakataiyaa. Used asLakshmanaa.Unani ◮ Kataai Khurd, Hadaq.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kandankatthiri.Action ◮ Stimulant, expectorant,diuretic, laxative, febrifuge. Used inthe treatment of cough, bronchitis,asthma, for dislodging tenaciousphlegm; also used against rheumatism,enlargement of liver andspleen, vomiting, difficult urination,bladder stones, skin diseases.Fruit—used as an adjuvant forpromoting conception.Fruits gave solasonine, solamargine,beta-solamargine and solasodine; petalsyielded apigenin; stamens gavequercetin diglycoside and sitosterol.The glycoalkaloid content of fruits collectedfrom Jammu and Kashmir isreported to be 3.5% (total alkaloids,1.1%). The presence of diosgenin in theplant has been reported.Both glycoalkaloid and fatty acidfractions of the plants extracts causeliberation of histamine from choppedlung tissue. The beneficial effect of thedrug on bronchial asthma may be attributedto the depletion of histaminefrom bronchial and lung tissue.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—20–30 g fordecoction. (API, Vol. I.)Solidago virga-aurea Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir eastwards and inKhasi Hills, up to 3,000 m.English ◮ European Goldenrod,Woundwort.Action ◮ Anticatarrhal, diaphoretic,anti-inflammatory, antiseptic tomucous membranes.S

616 Sonchus arvensis Linn.SKey application ◮ In irrigationtherapy for inflammatory diseasesof the lower urinary tract, urinarycalculi and kidney gravel. (GermanCommission E.) ESCOP alsoindicates its use as an adjuvant inthe treatment of bacterial infectionsof the urinary tract.Anti-inflammatory activity is due tophenolic glycosides; antifungal activityis due to saponins based on polygalicacid (acts specifically against the candidafungus, the cause of vaginal andoral thrush). As a diuretic, aerial partsare used for nephritis and cystitis andto flush out kidney and bladder stones;urine volume is increased but not sodiumexcretion.The plant contains quercitrin, rutin,iso-quercitrin, astragalin, kaempferol,rhamnoglucoside, quercetin, caffeicacid and chlorogenic acid. Aerial partscontain diterpenoids of cis-clerodanelactone group.Sonchus arvensis Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Waste places and fieldsthroughout India, up to an altitudeof 2,400 m.English ◮ Corn Sow Thistle.Ayurvedic ◮ Sahadevi (bigger var.).(Vernonia cinerea is equated withSahadevi.)Action ◮ Plant—sedative, hypnotic,anodyne, expectorant, diuretic.Used for nervous debility. Seeds—used for asthma, bronchitis, cough,pertussis, fever; decoction ininsomnia. Leaves—applied toswellings. Root—used for diseasesof the respiratory tract.The plant contains amino acids,lipids, polymeric hydrocarbons, polyphenols,protein; alpha- and betaamyrins,lupeol, pseudotaraxasterol,taraxasterol. The latex contains mannitol,alpha-and beta-lactucerols. Aerialparts and fruits contain ceryl alcohol,choline, palmitic, tartaric and stearicacids.Sonchus asper HillFamily ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Waste places and fieldsthroughout India, up to elevation of3,600 m.English ◮ Spinyleaved Sow Thistle.Ayurvedic ◮ Sahadevi (bigger var.).Folk ◮ Didhi, Mhaataaraa (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Emollient. Pounded andapplied to wounds and boils.The latex contains rubber, alphaandbeta-lactucerols, ceryl alcohol,mannitol and traces of acetic acid.The whole plant contains the sesquiterpeneglycosides and ionone glycosides.Ascorbic acid (27 mg/100 g) is presentin the plant.Sonchus oleraceus Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Waste places throughoutIndia, up to elevation of 2,400 m.

Sophora mollis Grah. ex Baker. 617English ◮ Milk Thistle (a confusingsynonym. Silybum marianum hasbeen equated with Milk Thistle.)Folk ◮Duudhi, Dodaka, Dudhaali.Action ◮ Galactagogue, febrifuge,sedative, vermifuge. Used inindigestion and in the treatment ofdiseases of the liver. An ointmentis made from the decoction forwounds and ulcers.The leaves contain luteolin, luteolin-7-O-glucoside; hydroxycoumarins, cichoriinand scopoletin. Apigenin-7-Oglucosidewas also obtained from theleaves and stems. Young leaves are reportedto contain 4.1 mg/100 g of vitaminC.Sonneratia caseolaris Engl.Family ◮Sonneratiaceae.Habitat ◮ Tidal creeks and mangroveswamps of India.Folk ◮ Orchaa (Bengal), Tivar, Chipi(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Fruit—fermented juice isused for arresting haemorrhage.Juice of unripe fruit is givenin cough. Fruit is also used asa poultice in sprains and swellings.Fruit wall—vermifuge.The stem bark and root bark contain9–17 and 11.0 to 11.9% tannin of thepyrogallol class.The fruit yields 11% pectin on drybasis.Sophora japonica Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae, Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir; also introducedinto forest Research Institute, DehraDun.English ◮ Japanese Pagoda tree,Chinese Scholar tree, Umbrella tree.Action ◮ Flower—bitter, astringent,styptic, antibacterial.Flower buds are a very rich sourceof rutin (16.0–23.0% dry weight basis),several times more than that presentin Buckwheat which is an importantsource of the flavonoid.The plant is used for the treatmentof bleeding due to hemorrhoids and ulcerativecolitis. The antihaemorrhagicprinciple, quercetin, has been isolatedfrom aqueous extract of dried buds.The flower extract has been reportedto exhibit hepato-protective activity.Sophora mollis Grah. ex Baker.Synonym ◮ Edwardsia moltis Royle.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Himalayas from Kashmirto Nepal, up to an altitude of2,100 m.English ◮ Himalayan Laburnum.Action ◮ Seeds—used for destroyingvermin. Root—used for promotinghair growth.The seeds contain an alkaloid cytisine.The root imparts dark colour tohair.S

618 Sophora tomentosa Linn.SThe seeds of S. secundiflora Lag. exDC., known as Mescal-or Coral-Bean(Native to America, grown in Indiangardens) also contain substantialamounts of cytisine.The alkaloid, (−)-N-methylcytisine,isolated from the seeds, exhibited hypoglycaemicactivity in mice.Sophora tomentosa Linn.Family ◮ Popilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Grown in gardens for itsbright-yellow flowers.English ◮ Sea coast Laburnum, SilverBush.Action ◮ Seeds—dangerouslyemetocatharitc, toxic, febrifugal,stomachic. Seeds yield a fattyoil with expectorant properties.Decoction of seeds and roots isgiven in bilious disorders. Leaves—emetocathartic.Constituents of the aerial parts includebenzofurans; flavonoids includingsophoraisoflavone A and B, sophoronol,iso-sophoranone-and iso-bavachin.The leaves and seeds contain alkaloids—matrine,cytisine and smallamounts of methylcytisine. Cytisineis also present in the roots.Cytisine possesses insecticidalandphysiological properties similar tothose of nicotine.Sophoraisoflavone A exhibits antifungalactivity.Sopubia delphinifolia G. Don.Family ◮Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ Western India, as a rootparasite.Folk ◮Dudhaali (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Root—juice applied tosores on feet, caused by constantexposure to water and moisture.Alcoholic extract of air-dried powderedstems yielded isoflavonoids,which were found to be estrogenicallyactive in albino rats.Sorbus aucuparia Linn.Family ◮Rosaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe and Asia;distributed in temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Kumaon.English ◮ European Mountain Ash,Rowan tree, Mountain Ash Berry.Folk ◮ Battal (Punjab), Syaar(Garhwal).Action ◮ Fruits—antiscorbutic,depurative, diuretic, astringent,aperient, emmenagogue. Aninfusion is given in haemorrhoids,strangury and irritation of bladder;for disorders of the uric acidmetabolism, for dissolution of uricacid deposits; and for alkalizationof the blood (“blood purification”).(Seeds contain cyanogenic acid;should be removed before the fruitis used.) Leaves—laxative; used asapectoralincoughandbronchitis.Bark—astringent. Decoction isgiven in diarrhoea. (It is said toproduce irritation of the alimentarymucous membrane.)

Spathodea campanulata Beauv. 619Included among unapproved herbsby German Commission E.The fruit gave ursolic acid, parasorboside,quercetin, iso-quercetin, rutinand anthocyanins.Candied fruit may contain 30–40 mg/100 g of vitamin C and concentratesup to 240 mg/100 g. Freshfruit contains vitamin C 39–74 mg,carotene 6.2–9.8 mg/100 g.Amygdalin (34.27–61.70 mg/100 g)and hydrocyanic acid (2.02–3.72 mg/100 g) are reported to be present infrozen fruit.Leaves, buds, young twigs and barkcontain amygdalin; tannin (4.47%);triterpenoids; sorbose, sorbitol andsorbic acid.Sorghum vulgare (Linn.) Pers.Synonym ◮ Andropogon sorghumBrot.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughoutwarmer parts of India.English ◮ Sorghum, Broomcorn.Ayurvedic ◮ Yaava-naala.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Makkaseelam.Folk ◮ Jowaar, Paneraa.Action ◮ Grains—demulcent,diuretic. A confection of grains andFoeniculum vulgare seeds is used asa galactagogue. Sorghum is inferiorto wheat.About 80% of sorghum in India belongsto the race Durra (Sorghum durra(Frosk.) Stapf.).Soymida febrifuga A. Juss.Family ◮ Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, Rajasthanand Bihar.English ◮ Indian Red-Wood, BastardCedar.Ayurvedic ◮ Maansrohini, Rohini,Rohinaa, Prahaarvalli.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Somi-maram, Wond.Action ◮ Bark—antipyretic (particularlyprescribed in malaria), bittertonic in general debility, astringent(used for diarrhoea and dysentery);used as a gargle in stomatitis,applied to rheumatic swellings. Thebark is much inferior to cinchonabark, but a good substitute for oakbark.The plant contains mainly tetranor-triterpenoidsand flavonoids. Theheartwood gave febrifugine A andB, febrinins A and B; flavonoids—naringenin, quercetin, myricetin anddehydromyricetin. The Root heartwoodyielded sitosterol, obtusifoliol,syringetin and dihydrosyringetin. Thebark contains tetranor-triterpenoidswith modified furan ring.Petroleum ether extract of the barkyielded a steroid, methyl angolensate,ether extract yielded a steroid glycoside.Dosage ◮ Bark—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Spathodea campanulata Beauv.Family ◮Bignoniaceae.S

620 Spergularia rubra (Linn.)J.Persl&C.Persl.SHabitat ◮ Native to tropical Africa.Grown as a avenue tree, in Coffeeestates for shade.English ◮ Syringe tree, Fountain tree,African Tulip tree.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Patadi.Folk ◮Ruugatuuraa.Action ◮ Bark—decoction givenfor dysentery, gastro-intestinal andrenal ailments. Pulverized barkapplied to skin diseases. Leaves—infusion administered for urethralinflammation.The stem bark gave oleanolic andsiaresinolic acids. The bark yields smallquantities of tannin. Leaves gave caffeicand chlorogenic acids, quercetin-3-galactoside. Flowers gave malvidinand pelargonidin diglycoside.An aqueous alcoholic extract of theleaves and the hexane and chloroformextracts of stem bark showed antimalarialactivity.Spergularia rubra(Linn.)J.Persl&C.Persl.Synonym ◮Spergula rubra D. Dietr.Family ◮ Caryophylaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Southern Franceand Malta; found in Punjab andWestern Uttar Pradesh.English ◮ Sand-Spurry, Sandwort,Arenaria Rubra.Action ◮ Diuretic. Used in cystitisand urethral colic, dysuria andurinary calculi.Spermacoce hispida Linn.Synonym ◮ Borreria articularis(Linn. f.) F.N. Williams.Borreria hispida (L.) K. Schum.Spermacoce articularis L. f.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalaya, fromSimla westwards to Assam andsouthwards to Kanyakumari.Ayurvedic ◮ Madana Ghanti.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nellichoori.Action ◮ Leaves—an extract is givenas an astringent in haemorrhoidsand gall stones. Seeds—demulcent;givenindiarrhoeaanddysentery.Root—prescribed as a mouthwashto cure toothache. A decoction ofthe herb is used in the treatment ofheadache.The weed is rich in calcium andphosphorus; contains beta-sitosterol,ursolic acid and D-mannitol.The plant gave alkaloid borreline,along with beta-sitosterol, ursolic acidand iso-rhamnetin.Sphaeranthus indicusLinn. (also auct. non L.)Synonym ◮ S. senegalensis DC.S. hirtus Willd.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical parts of India,in rice fields, cultivated lands asa weed.Ayurvedic ◮ Mundi, Mundika,Munditikaa, Bhuukadamba, Alambusta,Shraavani, Tapodhanaa.

Spilanthes calva DC. 621(Mahamundi, Mahaa-shraavani isequated with S. africanus Linn.)Unani ◮Mundi.Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Kottakarthai.Gorakh-mundi.Action ◮ Juice—styptic, emollient,resolvent. Also used in hepaticand gastric disorders. Seeds androot—anthelmintic. Decoction isused in cough and other catarrhalaffections and chest diseases. Rootbark—given in bleeding piles.Flowers—blood purifier, alterative,depurative.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the dried leaf in cervicallymphadenitis, chronic sinusitis,migraine, epilepsy, lipid disorders, diseasesof spleen, anaemia, dysuria.The drug is mostly administered inthe form of its steam-distillate. Steamdistillation of fresh flowering herbyields an essential oil containing methylchavicol, alpha-ionone, d-cadinene,p-methoxycinnamaldehyde as majorconstituents. A bitter alkaloid, sphaeranthine,has been reported in the plant.Capitula contains albumin, a fattyoil (up to 5%), reducing sugars,tannins, mineral matter, a volatile oil(0.07%), and a glucoside. No alkaloidwas detected in the inflorescence.The glucoside on hydrolysisgave a aglycone, phenolic in nature.The unsaponifiable matter of the fattyoil showed beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol,n-triacontanol, n-pentacosaneand hentriacontane. The essential oilis active against Vibrio cholera and Micrococcuspyogenes var. aureus. Theflower heads gave beta-D-glucoside ofbeta-sitosterol.Eudesmanolides, cryptomeridioland 4-epicryptomeridiol have beenisolated from flowers.Flowers gave a sesquiterpene glycoside,sphaeranthanolide, which exhibitedimmune stimulating activity.Dosage ◮ Leaf—3–6 g (API, Vol III);whole plant—10–20 ml Juice (API,Vol. IV).Spilanthes calva DC.Synonym ◮ S. acmella auct. non (L.)Murr.S. paniculata auct. non-DC.S. pseudoacmella auct. non (L.)Murr.Family ◮ Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical and sub-tropicalparts of India, in waste places andopen moist fields.English ◮ Paracress.Ayurvedic ◮ Marahattikaa.Folk ◮ Marethi, Desi Akarkaraa.Action ◮ Plant—antidysenteric.Decoction, diuretic and lithotriptic,also used in scabies and psoriasis.Seeds—used in xerostomia, throatinfections and neurological affectionof tongue. Root—purgative.Whole plant gave alpha-and betaamyrinester, myricyl alcohol, stigmasteroland its glucoside. A tincture madefrom flower heads is used as a substitutefor the tincture of pyrethrum totreat inflammation of jaw-bones andcaries.S

622 Spilanthes oleracea Murr.SEthanolic extracts of the herb werefound to affect the blood pressure ofdogs and cats, and also the isolatedileum of guinea pigs. Spilanthol, obtainedfrom the ether as well as pentaneextracts, shows a strong sialogogicaction, acts as a local anaesthetic anda powerful insecticide.Spilanthes oleracea Murr.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Introduced from Brazil;often cultivated in Indian gardens.English ◮ Brazilian Cress, Para Cress.Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaaraashtri, Marethi,Desi Akarkaraa. Aakaarakarabhaof Ayurvedic medicine andAaqarqarha of Unani medicine isequated with Anacyclus pyrethrumDC. (root is used); S. acmella and S.oleracea flowering heads are used asDesi Akarkaraa and should not beconfused with the original drug.Action ◮ Flowers—used againstscurvy, gum troubles, toothacheand against bladder pains and gout.The flower heads yield 1.25% of spilantholfrom the pentane extract.The fresh plant yields an essentialoil consisting mainly of spilanthol anda hydrocarbon, spilanthene. The plantalso contains cerotic acid, crystallinephytosterols, tannic acid, resin, potassiummalate and large amounts ofcholine and potassium nitrate.Spinacia oleracea Linn.Synonym ◮S. tetrandra Roxb.Family ◮ Chenopodiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South-west Asia;cultivated throughout India.English ◮ Garden Spinach.Ayurvedic ◮ Paalankikaa, Paalankya,Paalakyaa.Unani ◮ Paalak.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vasaiyila-keerai.Action ◮ Seeds—cooling and laxative;given during jaundice. Spinach, asapotherb,isrichinnitrogenoussubstances, hydrocarbons and ironsesqui-oxide.Aerial parts afforded rutin, hyperoside,astragalin and caffeic, chlorogenic,neochlorogenic and protocatechuicacids. Seeds contain glycoprotein-boundhexosamine. Roots containspirasaponins.Spondias pinnata (Linn. f.) Kurz.Synonym ◮ S. mangifera Willd.Family ◮ Anacardiaceae.Habitat ◮ A small, aromatic treeoccurring wild or grown throughoutthe country for edible fruits.English ◮ Hog-Plum, Wild Mango.Great Hog-Plum is equated with S.cytherea Sonn, synonym S. dulcisSoland. ex Forst. f.Ayurvedic ◮ Aamraataka, Aamraata,Aamadaa, Madhuparni, Kundalini,Kapitana, Markataamra.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Mambulichi, Kattuma.Folk ◮ Jangali Aam.

Stachytarpheta jamaicensis Vahl. 623Action ◮ Fruits, leaves, bark—astringent, antidysenteric, antispeptic,antiscorbutic. Bark pasteapplied externally to articular andmuscular rheumatism. Root—usedfor regulating menstruation.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends stem bark in haemorrhagicdiseases.The fruit contains beta-amyrin, oleanolicacid and amino acids—glycine,cystine, serine, alanine and leucine;polysaccharides are also present.Aerial parts gave lignoceric acid,24-methylenecycloartanone, stigmast-4-en-3-one, beta-sitosterol and its glucoside.Dosage ◮ Stem bark—5–10 g powderfor decoction (API, Vol. II); 1–3 gpowder (API, Vol. III).Stachys palustris Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir, grows in dampplaces, at altitudes of 1,500–1,800 m.English ◮ Marsh, Woundwort(purple-flowered), Allheal. (InWestern herbal, Allheal is equatedwith Prunella vulgaris.)Action ◮ Haemostatic, sedative,antiseptic, antispasmodic, vulnerary.Used for haemorrhages, gout,cramp, vertigo; applied as poulticeto wounds.The herb contains iridoids, harpagideand acetyl harpagide; flavonoidsbased on isoscutellarein and oroxylinA.Stachys sylvatica Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir.English ◮ Hedge Woundwort(reddish-purple-flowered).Action ◮ See S. palustris.The plant contains the alkaloidsbetonicine, turicine, stachydrine andtrigonelline. Alcoholic and aqueousextracts of the plant cause contractionof isolated uteri of various animals.Betonicine has been shown to behaemostatic.An allied species, S. officinalis,known as Betony in Europe, is anageold headache remedy. It containsalkaloids (including stachydrine andbetonicine), also saponins and tannins.The plant is mildly sedative andrelieves nervous tension.Stachytarpheta jamaicensisVahl.Synonym ◮ S. indica C. B. Clarke.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardens.English ◮ Brazilian Tea, BastardVervain, Aaron’s Rod.Ayurvedic ◮ Kariyartharani.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Simainayuruvi,Simainaivirunji, Naioringi.Folk ◮ Chirchiti, Marang Chirchiti.Action ◮ Febrifuge, anti-inflammatory.In Brazil, the plantis externally used for purulentulcers and internally for rheumaticS

624 Stellaria aquatica (L.) Scop.Sinflammations and fever. Aninfusion of the bark is used againstdiarrhoea and dysentery.The leaves contain friedelin, stigmasterol,ursolic acid, hispidulin, scutellarein,choline, phenolic acids, chlorogenicacid and flavonoids—6-hydroxyluteolol-7-glucuronide,luteolol-7-glucuronide and apigenol-7-glucuronide.Stems and leaves gave an iridoidglycoside, tarphetalin (ipolamiide).The leaves are reported to beused for colds and cough.Stellaria aquatica (L.) Scop.Family ◮ Caryophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Uttar Pradesh at1,200–2,400 m.English ◮ Chickweed, WaterStarwort.Folk ◮ Budeolaa.Action ◮ Leaves—decoction used ingalactorrhoea.Fresh plant contains an essential oilhaving 3-hydroxymethylfuran, alphapinene,limonene, n-hexanol, geraniol,camphor, benzyl alcohol, guaiacol,cresol, eugenol and carvacrol asthe major constituents.Stellaria media (Linn.) Vill.Synonym ◮ Alsine media Linn.Family ◮ Caryophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India at 600–1,650 m.English ◮ Common Chickweed.Folk ◮ Kokoon (Jammu); Safed Fulki,Buchbuchaa (Delhi).Action ◮ Antirheumatic, antiinflammatory,astringent, refrigerant,demulcent, emollient,vulnerary, antipruritic. Dispels excessivebody heat, relieves irritation.Used internally for rheumatism,externally in the form of ointmentfor chronic skin conditions, varicoseulcers and abscesses. Applied asa plaster for broken bones andswellings.The plant contains saponin glycosides,coumarins, flavonoids (includingrutin), carboxylic acid. The leavescontain vitamin C and carotene.The plant also contains mucilage andis rich in potassium and silicon. Theaerial parts, in post-flowering period,contain 44 mg/100 g of vitamn E.Stephania glabra Miers.Family ◮ Menispermaceae.Habitat ◮ Himalayas from Simlato Sikkim, Khasi Hills andAssam.Ayurvedic ◮ Used as Paathaa(Cissampelos pareira).Folk ◮ Gidaangu (Garhwal), Paahraa(Dehradun).Action ◮ Tubers—used in pulmonarydiseases, asthma, intestinal,disorders and hyperglycaemia.Alkaloid palmitine exhibits antibioticactivity; stepharine anti-cholinesterase,cycleanine anti-inflammatory

Sterculia urens Roxb. 625and hyndarine sedative activity. Tetrahydropalmatineproduces sedative andanticonvulsant effects on animals (similarbut weaker to that of chloropromazine).Alkaloids from rhizomes—hypotensive. Pronuciferine hydrochloride—spasmolytic.Root—hypoglycaemic,spasmolytic, CNS active, antimicrobial.Stephania hernandiifolia Walp.Synonym ◮ S. japonica Miers.S. sotunda Hook. f. & Thorns.Family ◮Menispermaceae.Habitat ◮ Forests of the Western andEastern Ghats.Ayurvedic ◮ Used as Raaj-Paathaain the South. (Raaj-Paathaa is alsoequated with Cyclea arnotii Miersin southern and eastern parts ofIndia).Action ◮ Root—prescribed inskin diseases, pruritus, inflamedpiles, internal abscesses, urinarydiseases, vomiting, diarrhoea,colic, respiratory disorders and asa cardiotonic.The plant is rich in alkaloids. Aerialparts gave epi-stephanine (aknadine),hernandifoline, aknadinine and magnoflorine.Alkaloid aknadine showssignificant antispasmodic activity onuterine spasms. Cytotoxic alkaloidsinclude d-and dl-tetrandrine, d-isochondrodendrineand fangchinoline.The alkaloid, epi-stephanine (aknadine)possesses adrenergic neuronblocking activity.Sterculia foetida Linn.Family ◮ Sterculiaceae.Habitat ◮ South India, also cultivatedon roadsides.Habitat ◮ The West Coast fromKonkan southwards.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pinari, KudiraiPidukku.Folk ◮ Jangali Baadaam (in no wayrelated to Prunus amygdalus).Action ◮ Bark and leaf—aperient,diuretic. Fruit—astringent. Seedoil—carminative, laxative. Wood—antirheumatic. The wood, boiledwith seed oil, is used externally inrheumatism.Beans, called Java Olives, if taken inlarge quantities, cause nausea, act asviolent purgative.The leaves gave glucuronyl derivativesof procyanidin, scutellarein andluteolin; also taraxerol, n-otacosanoland beta-sitosterol. Lupenone, lupeoland betulin were obtained from theheartwood. Seed and root lipid containedcyclopropene fatty acids. Sterculicand malvalic acids show carcinogenicand co-carcinogenic activities.Leucoanthoyanidin-3-O-alpha-Lrhamnopyranosideand quercetinrhamnoside have been isolated fromthe root.Sterculia urens Roxb.Family ◮ Sterculiaceae.Habitat ◮ Rajasthan, Assam, Bihar,Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh,southwards to Western Peninsula.S

626 Stereospermum personatum (Hassk.) D. Chatterjee.SEnglish ◮Karaya Gum.Unani ◮ Gond Kateeraa (theauthentic source is Cochlospermumreligiosum).Siddha/Tamil ◮Kavalam.Folk ◮ Karai, Kandol (Maharashtra,Gujarat).Action ◮ Gum used as a substitutefor tragacanth in throat affections.The gum and mucilage contain aldobiuronicand aldotriouronic acids.The roots contains a coumarin, scopoletin.The leaves afforded flavonol glycosides,quercetin and kaempferol derivatives;beta-amyrin, its acetyl derivative,beta-sitosterol and an ester ofterephthalic acid. Stercurensin, a C-methylchalcone, has been isolated fromthe leaves.The gum of Sterculia villosa Roxb.(Udall Wood) resembles with that ofS. urens. Diometin and chrysoerioland their 7-O-glucosides were isolatedfrom the wood.Stereospermum personatum(Hassk.) D. Chatterjee.Synonym ◮ S. Chelonoides (Linn. f.)DC. (now S. Colais).S. tetragonum A. DC.Family ◮ Bignoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,especially in the moist regions.English ◮ Trumpet Flower, YellowSnake tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Paatalaa, Paatali, Paatalai,Krishna-vrantaa, Madhu-duuti,Kaama-duuti, Ativallabhaa, Taamrapushpi,Kuberaakshi. Amoghaa,Kumbhipushpi, Ambuvaasini.Copper-red-flowered var., knownas Taamrapushpi, is equated with S.suaveolens (Paatalaa) and the whitefloweredone with S. chelenoides.(Paatalai).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Paadiri.Action ◮ The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India recommends theroot of Paatalaa in lipid disorders;the stem bark in oedema andretention of urine.The white-flowered var. purifiesblood, increases appetite and is prescribedfor vomiting, hiccough, thirst,oedema and inflammatory chest diseases.The copper-red-flowered var. is prescribedin difficult breathing, vomiting,oedema, flatus and high fever.Ethanolic extract of the plant showedhypoglycaemic and anticancer activityexperimentally.A decoction of S. personatum rootis prescribed for asthma and cough; ofthe leaves in chronic dyspepsia. A decoctionof the root and leaves is creditedwith antipyretic properties. Thebark exhibited antibacterial and antitubercularproperties.A decoction of S. suaveolens roots isprescribed for intermittent and puerperalfevers, inflammatory affections ofthe chest. Extracts of the plant containlapachol.The leaves of S. chelonoides containa flavone, stereolensin. The barkgave an iridoid glycoside; the rootbark gave n-triacontanol and betasitosterol;the root heartwood gave la-

Striga gesneroides Vatke. 627pachol, dehydro-alpha-lapachone anddehydrotectol. Ceryl alcohol, palmitic,stearic and oleic acids were isolatedfrom the root. Lapachol exhibited cytotoxicactivity.Dosage ◮ Stem bark (white-floweredvar.)—3–6 g powder. (API, Vol. IV.)Root (red-flowered var.)—5–10 gpowder. (API, Vol. III.)Streblus asper Lour.Synonym ◮ Epicarpurus orientalis Bl.Family ◮ Moraceae.Habitat ◮ Drier parts of PeninsularIndia.English ◮ Siamee Rough Brush.Ayurvedic ◮ Shaakhotaka, Shaakhota,Pitaphalaka. Bhuutavaasa,Kharachhada.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Piraayan, Pirai.Folk ◮ Sihor.Action ◮ Stem bark—febrifuge,antidiarrhoeal. Root—applied oninflamed swellings and syphiliticeruptions. Latex—applied on glandularswellings and elephantiasis.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the use of the stembark in cervical lymphadenitis, also inlipid disorders.The root bark contained cardenolideglycosides, including asperoside andstrebloside; also yielded 6-deoxyallose.Stem bark yielded alpha-amyrin acetate,lupeol acetate, lupeol and betasitosterol.Asperoside and strebloside exhibitedantifilarial activity, former beingmore effective. Crude extract is usedfor filaria.The Central Drug Research Institute,Lucknow, has developed an antifilarialdrug from the crude extractof stem. The stem bark is reportedto cure filarial lymphangitis, lymphoedema,chyluria caused by filariasis.Dosage ◮ Stem bark—1–3 g powder.(API, Vol. III.)Striga asiatica (Linn.) Kuntze.Synonym ◮ S. lutea Lour.Family ◮ Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the countryand in the rainfed rice fields ofKerala.Ayurvedic ◮ Agnivrksha, Kuranti.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pallipundu.Folk ◮ Agiyaa.Action ◮ Improves appetite andtaste. Prescribed in strangury anddiseases due to vitiated blood.Striga gesneroides Vatke.Synonym ◮ S. orobanchioides Benth.Family ◮ Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Peninsular India.Folk ◮ Laal-giyaa.Action ◮ Used in diabetes (in folkmedicine). Hypoglycaemic activity,not confirmed.S

628 Strobilanthes callosus Nees.SStrobilanthes callosus Nees.Synonym ◮Bremek.Family ◮Carvia callosa (Nees)Acanthaceae.Folk ◮ Maruaa-daanaa, Kaarvi(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Bark—used in externalapplications for parotitis. Flowers—vulnerary. Leaves are poisonous.Roots contain lupeol; the seeds arereported to contain brucine.Strobilanthes flaccidifoliusNees.Synonym ◮ S. cusia (Nees) Imlay.Family ◮ Acanthaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, Meghalaya, WestBengal and Manipur.English ◮ Assam Indigo.Folk ◮ Ruum, Raampat (Assam);Khumaa (Manipur).Action ◮ Leaves—astringent, diureticand lithotriptic.The indican content of the leaves hasbeen reported to be 0.4–1.3%. Lupeol,betulin,lupenone,indigo,indirubin,a quinazolinone and a quinazolinedionehave been isolated.Strophanthus kombe Oliver.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical EastAfrica; runs wild at some places inWest Bengal.English ◮ Strophanthus.Action ◮ Dry ripe seeds—cardiacglycosides (the mixture is knownas Strophanthin-K) act like digitalisbut are poorly absorbed fromthe digestive tract, are given byinjection.Strophanthus wightianus Wall. exWight, known as Nerivalli (Tamil) andKambetti (Malyalam), is found alongwith western coast of Kerala.The plant yields 2.1% of glycosides.The glycosides are known as caulosideand divaricoside, the correspondinggenins are caudogenin and sarmentogenin;the latter a precursor of cortisone.Studies have indicated that thetinctures prepared from the seeds comparefavourably with those from theseeds of S. kombe.Strychnos colubrina Linn.Family ◮ Lognaniaceae; Strychnaceae.Habitat ◮ Deccan Peninsula fromKonkan to Cochin.Ayurvedic ◮ Kupilu-lataa, Kuchilaalataa.Folk ◮ Kaajar-vel (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaves and roots areboiled in oil and applied torheumatic swellings. Wood—usedfor malarial fever and cutaneouseruptions. Root—purgative,febrifugal, anthelmintic.The roots, wood, bark and seedscontain alkaloids (bark 5.54%, wood0.96%), consisting of brucine andstrychnine. Beta-sitosterol has beenreported in the plant.

Strychnos nux-vomica Linn. 629Strychnos ignatii Bergius.Family ◮Loganiaceae; Strychnaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to the Philippines.Seeds are imported into India.English ◮Ignatus Beans.Unani ◮ Papitaa Vilaayati. (PapitaaDesi is equated with Carica papayaLinn.)Siddha/Tamil ◮Kayappankottai.Action ◮ Properties similar to thoseof Nux vomica. Used as a stimulantand nervine tonic, also for asthmaand rheumatism.The seeds contain indole alkaloids;brucine and its N-oxide, alpha-andbeta-colubrine, diaboline, icajine, novacine,strychnine and its N-oxide, and12-hydroxyderivatives, vomicine, andothers. Share of strychnine is 45–60%,in indole alkaloids (2.5–5.6%).Strychnos nux-vomica Linn.Family ◮ Loganiaceae; Strychnaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical India up to analtitude of 360 m.English ◮ Nux vomica.Ayurvedic ◮ Kapilu, Kaakatinduka,Kaakendu, Kaakapiluka,Vishamushtikaa, Vishamushti,Vishatinduka, Kuchilaa, Ksuchalaa.Unani ◮ Azaraaqi, Kuchlaa.Siddha ◮ Yettikkottai.Action ◮ Nervine tonic and a potentCNS stimulant.Seeds—used in emotional disorders,insomnia, hysteria, epilepsy, paralyticand neurological affections, retentionor nocturnal incontinence of urine,spermatorrhoea, sexual debility andimpotence, general exhaustion; as antidoteto alcoholism; GIT disorders.Bark—juice given in acute dysentery,diarrhoea and colic. Root—given in intermittentfevers. In Chinese medicinea paste made of Nux vomica seedsis applied topically for treating facialparalysis.Included among unapproved herbsby German Commission E.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends detoxified seeds inparalysis, facial paralysis, sciatica andimpotency.The seeds contain indole alkaloids,the major one is strychnine (approx.50% of the alkaloids); others includestrychnine N-oxide, brucine and itsN-oxide, alpha-and beta-colubrine,condylocarpine, diaboline, geissoschizine,icajine, isostrychnine, normacusine,novacine, pseudobrucine, pseudo-alpha-colubrine,pseudo-beta-colubrine,pseudostrychnine and vomicine(3-hydro-beta-colubrine). Loganinis also present. Pseudostrychnineis non-toxic. The alkaloidal content ofthe seeds ranges from 1.8 to 5.3%.The leaves contain strychnine andbrucine (together 1.6%), strychnine0.025%; vomicine is the major constituentof leaves. The bark contains9.9% total alkaloids (brucine 8%,strychnine 1.58%); pseudostrychnine,pseudobrucine and beta-colubrine insmall amounts. The roots contain0.99% alkaloids (brucine 0.28%,strychnine 0.71%).S

630 Strychnos potatorum Linn.f.SStrychnine, when tested for antiulceractivity in shay rat model ata dose of 0.25 mg/kg body weight,complete absence of ulceration was observedwhich was comparable to cimetidine.Exhausted Nux-vomica powderat a dose of 20 mg/kg body weight,and brucine at a dose of 0.25 mg/kgbody weight gave protection similar tostrychnine.Orally, 30–50 mg Nux-vomica (5 mgstrychnine) is toxic.Dosage ◮ Detoxified seed—60–125 mg. (API, Vol. IV.)Strychnos potatorum Linn.f.Family ◮Loganiaceae; Strychnaceae.Habitat ◮ Forests of West Bengal,Central and South India, up to1,200 m.English ◮Clearing Nut tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Kataka, Katakaphala,Payah-prasaadi, Chakshushya,Nirmali.Unani ◮Nirmali.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thettran, Thetrankottai.Action ◮ Seed—antidiabetic,antidysenteric, emetic.Mannogalactan from seeds reducescholesterol and triglycerides (one-tenthand one-fifth when compared to clofibrate).Seeds are also applied to abscesses,and venereal sores (internallyin gonorrhoea). Fruits—antidiabetic;antidysenteric, expectorant. (Pulpis used as a substitute for ipecacuanha.)The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the seed in dysuria,polyuria, urolithiasis, also in epilepsy.The seeds, leaves and trunk barkgave diabolin (major alkaloid) andacetyldiabolin. Seeds alsogave brucine,strychnine, novacine, icajine, oleanolicacid and its glycoside. Leaves and barkgave isomotiol, stigmasterol, campesteroland sitosterol. Diabolin exhibitshypotensive activity.A decoction of seeds is given to treatstammering.The seeds resemble those of Nuxvomicabut are non-poisonous. Theripe seeds are used for clearing muddywater.Dosage ◮IV.)Seed—3–6 g. (API, Vol.Strychnos rheedei C.B.Clarke.Synonym ◮ S. cinnamomifolia Thw.S. wallichiana Steud.Family ◮Loganiaceae; Strychnaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats, from SouthKanara to Trivandrum, up to 900 mand in Andhra Pradesh.Siddha/Tamil ◮Valli Kanjiram.Action ◮ Roots—antirheumatic,anti-inflammatory, febrifuge.Used for neurological affections,elephantiasis and muscular pains.Indole type alkaloids have been reportedfrom the plant.

Swertia angustifolia Buch.-Ham ex D. Don. 631Styrax benzoin Dry.Family ◮Styraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South-East Asiaand East Indies.English ◮ True Gum Benzoin,Sumatra Benzoin or Gum Benjamin.Unani ◮Lobaan.Siddha/Tamil ◮Saambiraani.Action ◮ Gum—antiseptic, astringent,anti-inflammatory, expectorant(used for cough and respiratorytract catarrh). Used as genitourinaryantiseptic, as a mouthwash instomatitis, topically on wound andulcers,asaninhalationincolds,coughs and bronchitis. Lipophilicfraction stimulates phagocytosis.The gum contains mainly cinnamic,benzoic and sumaresinolic acid esters,benzaldehyde and vanillin.Styrax officinale Linn.Family ◮ Styracaceae.Habitat ◮ A native to Asia minor andSyria.English ◮ The True Storax tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Silhaka, Silaarasa,Turushka, Kapitaila, Yavandeshaja.Folk ◮ Silaajit, Usturak.Action ◮ Balsam is used for cough andrespiratory tract catarrh. Turushkawas obtained from Styrax officinale.Due to scarcity, it was replacedby the exudation of Liquidamberorientalis Mill. Balsam obtainedfrom Altingia excelsa Noronha isused as a substitute for Silhaka andis known as Silaarasa (occurs inAssam and Arunachal Pradesh).Dosage ◮ Balsam—500 mg to 1.0 g.(CCRAS.)Sutherlandia frutescens R.Br.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South Africa;cultivated in Indian gardens.English ◮ Bladdersenna, Cancerwort,Cape Baloon Pea.Action ◮ Leaves—infusion ordecoction given in stomach andintestinal disorders and hepaticaffections. Much milder in actionthan true Senna.Swertia affinis C. B. Clarke.Synonym ◮ S. angustifolia Buch.-Ham ex. D. Don var. pulchellaBurkill.Family ◮ Gentianaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-tropical Himalayafrom Himachal Pradesh to Bhutan,the Khasi and Lushai Hills, Manipurat 300–1,800 m. Bihar andPeninsular India up to 1,800 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Kiraatatikta (relatedspecies).Action ◮ Febrifuge and bitter tonic.Swertia angustifoliaBuch.-Ham ex D. Don.Family ◮Gentianaceae.S

632 Swertia chirayita (Roxb. ex Flem.) Karst.SHabitat ◮ Sub-tropical Himalayafrom Kashmir to Bhutan.Ayurvedic ◮Kiraata (sweet var.).Folk ◮ Pahaari Kiretta, Mithaa(sweet) Kiryaat.Action ◮ Used as a substitute for S.chirayita. (Inferior in bitter tonicproperties.)Aerial parts gave ursolic acid, xanthonesand beta-sitosterol. Severaltetra-and pentaoxygenated xanthoneshave been isolated from the plant.Swertia chirayita(Roxb. ex Flem.) Karst.Synonym ◮ S. chirata (Wall.) C. B.Clarke.S. tongluensis Burkill.Gentiana chirayita Roxb. ex Flem.G. chirata Wall.Ophelia chirata Griseb.Family ◮ Gentianaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas fromKashmir to Bhutan and in KhasiHills.English ◮ Chiretta.Ayurvedic ◮ Kiraata, Kairaata,Kiraataka, Kandatikta, Kiraatatikta,Kiraatatiktaka, Katutikta, Trinnimba,Bhuunimba, Aranyatikta,Raamasenaka. Bhuunimba (alsoequated with Andrographispaniculata).Unani ◮ Chiraitaa.Siddha ◮ Nilavembu.Action ◮ Blood purifier and bittertonic (The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India); used in skindiseases. Other properties: antiinflammatory(experimentally,the benzene extract was comparablewith phenylbutazone andbetamethasone in induced arthritis);hypoglycaemic (xanthone,swerchirin, lowers blood sugar),astringent, stomachic (in dyspepsiaand diarrhoea); antimalarial (beforethe discovery of Peruvian bark),anthelmintic; antiasthmatic, bechic;and as a liver tonic (several activeprinciples are hepatoprotective).The herb contains oxygenated xanthonederivatives, including decussatin,mangiferin, swerchirin, swertianin,isobellidifolin; iridoids includingchiratin, alkaloids including gentianine,gentiocrucine, enicoflavineand glycosyl flavones.Antitubercular activity has beenclaimed in xanthones. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)Green chiretta is equated with Andrographispaniculata Nees, Acanthaceae.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—1–3 gpowder; 20–30 g for decoction.(API, Vol. I.)Swertia ciliata (D. Don) Burtt.Synonym ◮ S. purpurascens Wall. exC. B. Clarke.Family ◮ Gentianaceae.Habitat ◮ From Konkan to Kerala at1,500–2,000 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Shailaja, Kiraatatikta(related species).

Swietenia mahagoni Jacq. 633Action ◮ A substitute for S.chirayita. The whole plant containsa number of tetraoxygenated andpentaoxygenated xanthones.Swertia densifolia(Griseb.) Kashyapa.Synonym ◮ S. decussata Nimmo exGrah.Ophelia multiflora Dalz.Family ◮ Gentianaceae.Habitat ◮ From Konkan to Kerala at1,500–2,000 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Shailaja, Kiraatatikta(related species).Action ◮ A substitute for S. chirayitaand Gentiana lutea L.The leaves and flowers contain xanthone—swartinin,triterpenes, oleanolicacid and beta-sitosterol. Decussatinis also present in the flowers and root.Swertia lawii Burkill.Synonym ◮ S. corymbosa var. lawiiC. B. Clarke.Family ◮ Gentianaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats fromMaharashtra to South Kanara at1,200 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Kiraatatikta (relatedspecies).Action ◮ Used as a substitute forSwertia chirayita.Whole plant gave a number of xanthones.Erythrocentaurin has alsobeen reported from the plant.Swertia paniculata Wall.Synonym ◮ Ophelia paniculata(Wall.) D. DonO. wallichii G. DonFamily ◮ Gentianaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalaya fromKashmir to Bhutan and in LushaiHills in Mizoram at 1,500–2,400 m.Action ◮ Used as a substitute forSwertia chirayita.The root gave xanthones (includingswerchirin and bellidifolin); flavone-C-glycosides—swertisin and homoorientin.The plant gave polyoxygenatedxanthones and xanthone-O-glucosides;also a pentacyclic triterpenehederagenin.Aerial parts, in addition toxanthones, contain ursolic acid.Swietenia mahagoni Jacq.Family ◮ Symphoremataceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Central America;cultivated in South India.English ◮ West Indian Mahogany.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ciminukku.Folk ◮ Mahaagani.Action ◮ Bark—astringent andantipyretic. Used as a substitute forcinchona bark is the West Indies.The bark contains 15% tannin, thewood 6%.The seeds have been reported to containa bitter substance; mahoganin, 7-deactyl-7-oxogedunin, cyclomahogenoland 6-hydroxymethyl angolensateare also present.S

634 Symphorema involucratum Roxb.STetranortriterpenoids have been isolatedfrom cotyledons and seeds. Theether extract of the leaves inhibitsplatelet activity factor (PAF)-inducedplatelet aggregation.Symphorema involucratumRoxb.Family ◮ Symphoremataceae.Habitat ◮ Indo-Malayasian region.Found in Deccan Peninsula,ascending to 1,200 m, and inBihar, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh andNagaland.Folk ◮ Surudu, Konatekkali,Gubbadaara (Telugu).Action ◮ Quercetin, isolated fromfresh water flowers, exhibitedanti-inflammatory activity experimentally,comparable to that ofphenylbutazone.Symphytum officinale Linn.Family ◮ Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ Europe and from theMediterranean to Caucasian region.Russian Comfrey or Blue Comfreyhas been introduced in Simla;Prickly Camfrey is cultivated inWestern India.English ◮ Comfrey, Knitbone.Folk ◮ Sankuutan (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Vulnerary (The BritishHerbal Pharmacopoeia), astringent,demulcent, haemostatic, tissuerestorative(repairs broken bonesand lacerated flesh, promotesformation of a callus).Key application ◮ Externally forfractures and sprains, to promotebone growth and formation ofcallus. (German Commission E.)Allantoin, a cell proliferant, helpsrepair damaged tissues. Anti-inflammatoryaction is due to rosmarinic acidand other phenolic acids. Used forstomach ulcers, irritable bowel syndrome,colitis, hiatus hernia; pleurisy,bronchitis (contraindicated in oedematousconditions of the lung); andfor the treatment of fractures, sickets,varicose ulcers. Experiments, duringthe 1960s, reveal that pyrrolizidine alkaloidsare toxic to liver (dispute stillunresolved); it is still not clear if theseare hepatotoxic in the context of thewhole plant. The aerial parts are consideredsafe.Russian Comfrey or Blue Comfreyhas been equated with Symphytumperegrinum Ledeb. (introduced intoIndia in Simla).The Plant is a good source of allantoin,a drug used in the treatmentof gastric ulcers, disorders of liver andcancer. Tincture of the fresh herb isreported to be used for asthma, bronchitisand congestive conditions of thelungs.Symplocos paniculata(Thunb.) Miq.Synonym ◮ S. crataegoides Buch.-Ham. ex Don.S. chinensis (Lour.) Druce.Prunus paniculatus Thunb.Family ◮ Symplocaceae.

Symplocos racemosa Roxb. 635Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Arunachal Pradeshand Assam; Khasi Hills at 1,000–2,500 m.English ◮ Sapphire Berry.Ayurvedic ◮ Lodhra-Pattikaa.Unani ◮ Lodh Pathaani.Action ◮ Leaf—spasmolytic, antiviral,antiprotozoal, anthelmintic. Bark—used as a tonic for preventingabortion. Other uses same as of S.racemosa.The water-soluble fraction from thebark has been reported to exhibit antioxytocicactivity. Ethanolic extract ofthe leaves showed activity against Entamoebahistolytica strain STA, Ascaridiagalli and Ranikhet-disease virus. It alsoaffected blood pressure in dogs andcats, and showed activity on the ileumof guinea-pigs. The extract of stem alsoaffected the blood pressure.The leaf and stem are CVS active.Symplocos racemosa Roxb.Synonym ◮ S. beddomei C. B. ClarkeS. candolleana Brand.Family ◮ Symplocaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout North andeastern India, extending southwardsto Peninsular India.English ◮ Lodh tree, Sapphire Berry.Ayurvedic ◮ Lodhra, Rodhra,Shaavara., Sthulavalkal, Trita,Pattikaa Lodhra, Shaabara Lodhra.Unani ◮ Lodh Pathaani.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellilethi, Vellilothram.Action ◮ Bark—used as specific remedyfor uterine complaints, vaginaldiseases and menstrual disorders;menorrhagia, leucorrhoea (TheAyurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India);also used in diarrhoea, dysentery,vaginal ulcers, inflammatoryaffections and liver disorders.The bark gave colloturine, harman(loturine) and loturidine. Stem barkgave proanthocyanidin-3-monoglucofuranosidesof 7-O-methyl-and 4’-Omethyl-leucopelargonidin.Betulinic,oleanolic, acetyl oleanolic and ellagicacids are reported from the plant.Glycosides, isolated from the ethanolicextract of the stem bark, are highlyastringent and are reported to be responsiblefor the medicinal propertiesof the bark.The bark extracts have been reportedto reduce the frequency and intensityof the contractions in vitro ofboth pregnant and non-pregnant uteriof animals. A fraction from the bark,besides showing action on uteri, wasspasmogenic on various parts of thegastrointestinal tract and could be antagonizedby atropine.The bark extracts were found to inhibitthe growth of E. coli, Micrococcuspyogenes var. aureus, and enteric anddysenteric groups of organisms.Dosage ◮ Stem bark—3–5 g powder;20–30 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I.)S. laurina Wall., synonym S. spicataRoxb. (North and East Idia, Westernand Eastern Ghats); S. ramosissimaWall. (the temperate Himalayasfrom Garhwal to Bhutan); S. sumuntiaBuch.-Ham. (Nepal to Bhutan) are alsoequated with Lodhra.S

636 Syringa vulgaris Linn.SThe powdered bark is used in folkmedicine for biliousness, haemorrhages,diarrhoea, dysentery and genitourinarydiseases.Symplocos theaefolia Buch-Ham. exD. Don (the Eastern Himalayas fromNepal to Bhutan and in the Khasi Hillsat altitudes between 1,200 and 2,500 m)is known as Kharanl in Nepal andDieng-pei or Dieng-twe-pe in khasi.The ethanolic extract of leavesshowed hypoglycaemic activity in ratsand anticancer activity against Friendvirus-leukaemia(solid) in mice. Theextract of the leaves and of stemsshowed activity against human epidermoidcarcinoma of the nasopharynxin tissue-culture.The Wealth of India equated S. laurinawith Lodh Bholica (Bengal) and S.sumuntia with Pathaani Lodh.The wood of Symplocos phyllocalyxC. B. Clarke is known as Chandan andLaal-chandan. It should not be confusedwith Santalum album or Pterocarpussantalinus.Syringa vulgaris Linn.Family ◮ Oleaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardens inthe hills.English ◮ Common Lilac.Action ◮ Bark, leaves and capsules—used as antipyretic, especially inchronic malaria, and as vermifuge.Leaf extract—antipyretic.The leaves, flowers and bark containthe glucoside, syringin and syringopicrin.Syringin is also present in theroots and fruits; mannitol has been reportedin leaves, bark and fruits. Theleaves contain 131.6 mg/100 g of vitaminC. Ursolic acid has also been reportedin the plant.Syzygium aromaticum(Linn.) Merr. & Perry.Synonym ◮ Eugenia aromaticaKuntze.Eugenia caryophyllata Thunb.Caryophyllus aromaticus Linn.Family ◮ Myrtaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Tamil Naduand Kerala.English ◮ Clove.Ayurvedic ◮ Lavanga, Devakusum,Devapushpa, Shrisangya, Shriprasuunaka.Unani ◮ Qaranful, Laung.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kiraambu, Lavangam.Action ◮ Carminative, antiinflammatory,antibacterial. Flowerbuds—antiemetic, stimulant, carminative.Used in dyspepsia, gastricirritation. Oil—employed as a localanalgesic for hypersensitive dentlinesand carious cavaties; internallyas a carminative and antispasmodic.Key application ◮ In inflammatorychanges of oral and pharyngealmucosa; in dentistry; for topicalanesthesia. (German CommissionE.)Eugenin, triterpene acids, crategolicacid and steroid glucosides afford antiinflammatoryand antiseptic proper-

Syzygium cuminii (Linn.) Skeels. 637ties to the buds. Eugenol, a majorcomponent of the oil, is antibacterial.Acetone extract of clove, eugenol andacetyleugenol possess cholagogue activity.The eugenol and acetyleugenolcomponents of the clove oil inhibitarachidonate-, adrenalin-andcollageninducedplatelet aggregation.Clove terpenes show significant activityas inducers of detoxifying enzyme,glutathione-S-transferase (GST)in mouse liver and intestine and bringabout carcinogen detoxification.Whole cloves might have chemoprotectiveactivity against liver and bonemarrow toxicity. (The Review of NaturalProducts by Facts and Comparisons,1999.)Dosage ◮ Dried flower-bud—0.5–2.0 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)Syzygium cerasoideum(Roxb.) Chatterjee & Kanjilal f.Synonym ◮ S. nervosum DC.S. operculatum Niedenz.Eugenia operculata Roxb.Family ◮Myrtaceae.Habitat ◮ Uttar Pradesh, Bihar,Orissa and Assam up to 600 m andin the Western Ghats up to 900 m.Ayurvedic ◮Bhumi Jambu.Folk ◮ Rai Jaamun, Dugdugiaa;Topaakudaa (Bihar), Peeta-jaam(Orissa).Action ◮ Fruit—antirheumatic.Aerial parat—hypoglycaemic.Root—rubefacient. Bark—bitter,astringent; given in dysentery, biliousnessand bronchitis. A concentrate ofthe root infusion is applied and rubbedover painful joints. Aerial parts exhibithypoglycaemic activity.Syzygium cuminii (Linn.) Skeels.Synonym ◮ S. jambolanum (Lam.)DC.Eugenia jambolana Lam.Family ◮ Myrtaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughoutIndia up to 1,800 m.English ◮ Java Plum, Jambolan, BlackPlum.Ayurvedic ◮ Jambu, Mahaaphalaa,Phalendraa, Surabhipatra. (Fruit—black.)Unani ◮ JaamunSiddha/Tamil ◮ Naaval.Action ◮ Fruit—stomachic, carminative,diuretic. Bark and seed—antidiarrhoeal. Seed—hypoglycaemic.Leaf—antibacterial,antidysenteric.Key application ◮ Bark—in nonspecificacute diarrhoea and intopical therapy for mild inflammationof the oral-pharyngeal mucosa;externally in mild, superficialinflammation of the skin. (GermanCommission E.) The seed hasbeen included among unapprovedherbs by German Commission E,as the blood sugar-lowering effectcould not be established by severalS

638 Syzygium hemisphericum (Wt.) AlstonSresearchers. Claimed applicationsmentioned in German CommissionE monograph: in diabetes, also incombination preparations for atonicand spastic constipation, diseases ofthe pancreas, gastric and pancreaticcomplaints.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the bark in acute diarrhoeaand haemorrhagic diseases; theseed in hyperglycaemia and polyuria.The aqueous alcoholic extract of thebark contains bergenin, gallic acid andethyl gallate.The fruit contains anthocyanins andyielded citric, malic and gallic acids.Gallic acid and tannins account for astringencyof the fruit. Malic acid isthe major acid (0.59%) of the weightof fruit; a small quantity of oxalic acidis reported to be present. Glucose andfructose are principal sugars in the ripefruit; surcose was not detected.The seeds contain tannin (about19%), ellagic acid, gallic acid (1–2%),beta-sitosterol, 0.05% essential oil;myricyl alcohol is present in the unsaponifiablematter.The stem bark yielded friedelan-3-alpha-ol, kaempferol, quercetin, betasitosteroland its glycoside, kaempferol-3-O-glucoside, gallic acid, friedelinand betulinic acid. It contained eugeninand epi-friedelanol. 10–12% tanninswere reported.The leaves contain aliphatic alcohols,sitosterols, betulinic acid andcrategolic (maslinic) acid.The flowers contain triterpenicacids—oleanolic acid and crategolicacid. The oleanolic acid is a strongprotector against adriamycin-inducedlipid peroxidation in liver and heartmicrosomes.Phenols, including methylxanthoxylinand 2, 6-dihydroxy-4-methoxyacetophenehave been isolated fromthe plant (also from the seed).Seeds in a dose of 10 mg/kg p.o.on normal and alloxanized rabbits exhibitedhypoglycaemic activity up to23 and 20% respectively. The chloroformfraction of seed extract exhibitedpotent anti-inflammatory actionagainst both exudative and proliferativeand chronic phases of inflammation,besides exhibiting significantanti-arthritic, antipyretic and analgesicactivities. Water extract exhibited antibacterialproperty against S. boydiand S. dysentrae in cases of dysenteryand diarrhoea.The bark extract is reported to havean effect on glycogenolysis and glycogenstorage in animals.Dosage ◮ Stem bark—10–20 gfor decoction; dried seed—3–6 gpowder. (API, Vol. II.)Syzygium hemisphericum(Wt.) AlstonSynonym ◮ Eugenia hemisphericaWt.Jambosa hemispherica (Wt.) Walp.Family ◮ Myrtaceae.Habitat ◮ South India, particularlyin the Nilgiri, Palni and Annamalaihills and Western Ghats.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vellai Naval.Action ◮ Bark—antibilious; also usedfor syphilitic affections.

Syzygium zeylanicum (Linn.) DC. 639Syzygium jambos (Linn.) Alston.Synonym ◮ Eugenia jambosLinn. Jambosa vulgaris DC.Family ◮Myrtaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in many partsof India.English ◮Rose Apple.Ayurvedic ◮ Raaj-Jambu. (Fruits—pale yellow or pinkish white).Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Peru Navel.Gulaabjaamun.Action ◮ Fruit—used in livercomplaints. Bark—astringent,antidiarrhoeal, antidysenteric.Leaves—astringent, anti-inflammatory.The juice of fresh fruit contains alanine,aspartic acid, cystine or cysteine,glutamine, threonine and tyrosine. Theessential oil, obtained from leaves, isa good source of dl-alpha-pinene (26–84%) and l-limonene (23–84%).Ethyl acetate and methanolic extractof the leaves are very effective in curingpedal oedema and in acute and chronicswelling; also gave encouraging resultsin arthritis. Though all extracts(methanolic, hexane, dichloromethaneand ethyl acetate) of the leaves exhibitanti-inflammatory activity, a 10% aqueousextract of the leaves is found significantlyeffective when compared to80 mg/kg of phenylbutazone.In Brazil, a decoction of dry leavesis given in diabetes.Aerial parts exhibit diuretic activity.Syzygium malaccense(Linn.) Merrill & Perry.Synonym ◮ Eugenia malccensis Linn.Family ◮ Myrtaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in Bengal andSouth India, chiefly in gardens.English ◮ Malay Apple, MountainApple.Action ◮ Leaves—dried andpowdered, used against stomatitis.Bark—astringent; used for makinga mouthwash for thrush.The extracts of seeds, fruits, leaves,stem and bark show varying degree ofantibiotic activity against Micrococcuspyogenes var. aureus. An extract offruits (without seeds) is moderately effectiveagainst E. coli and those of barkand leaves against Shigella paradys.The extracts of the plant, excludingroot,affecttherateandamplitudeofrespiration and also blood pressure.Syzygium zeylanicum(Linn.) DC.Synonym ◮ Eugenia zeylanica (L.)Wight.Family ◮ Myrtaceae.Habitat ◮ Maharshtra, Mysore,Kerala, Orissa and AndamanIslands.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Marungi.Folk ◮ Bhedas (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaves and roots—vermifuge. Plant—stimulant,antirheumatic. (Berries—white, thesize of a pea; edible.)S

640 Syzygium zeylanicum (Linn.) DC.Among other members of the genus,S. arnottianum (Wight) Walp. and S.caryophyllatum (Linn.) Alston are distributedin South India, particularly inWestern Ghats. The fruits are edible.Stem bark of all the species containtannin, that of S. arnottianum up to16%.S

TTabernaemontana coronaria(Jacq.) Willd.Synonym ◮ T. divaricata (L.) R. Br.Ervatamia coronaria (Jacq.) Staph.E. divaricata (L.) Burkill.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract.Cultivated in gardens.English ◮ East Indian Rosebay.Ayurvedic ◮ Tagar, Nandivriksha (TheWealth of India); Nandi Pushpa.(Tagar is equated with Valerianahardwickii and Nandivrksha withCedrela toona.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nandiyavattam.Folk ◮ Tengari, Chaandani.Action ◮ Leaves—milky juice, antiinflammatory;applied to wounds.Flowers—mixed with oil, usedin skin diseases. Root—acrid,anodyne; relieves toothache, alsoused as a vermicide.Various parts of the plant are usedin the indigenous system of medicinefor the treatment of skin diseases andcancer. A decoction of leaves is used asantihypertensive and diuretic.The plant from Sri Lanka (root,leaves and flowers) contain several indolealkaloids including voacristine,voacangine, coronaridine, vobasine,tabernaemontanine and dregamine.Isovoacristic hydrochloride, found inthe plant, caused bradycardia in frogsand rabbits. The flowers contain analkaloid tabersonine which is reportedto show hypotensive effect on anaesthetizedcats.Coronaridine showed autonomic aswell as CNS activity when tested for biologicalaction in animals. It producedanalgesia and was effective in suppressingfoot-shock-induced rage in mice.Indole alkaloid (I) inhibited HC1-induced ulcer in mice by 48.8%.The crude alkaloid extracts of theleaves, bark and flowers exhibit antibacterialactivity against Staphylococcusaureus.Tabernaemontana dichotomaRoxb.Synonym ◮ Ervatamia dichotomaBlatter.Rejoua dichotoma Gamble.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats at lowelevations.English ◮ Eve’s Apple, ForbiddenFruit.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kandalaippalai,Kattalari-palai.Folk ◮ Tengari (Var.).Action ◮ Seed, leaves, bark—purgative. Latex—cathartic.The fruit gave the alkaloid, coronaridine.Root bark gave alkaloids—heyneanine and voacristine hydroxyindolenine.The petroleum ether-ex-

642 Tacca aspera Roxb.Ttractable alkaloids of the fruit showedCNS depressant and hypotensive activities.Tabernaemontana heyneana Wall.,synonym, Ervatamia heyneana Cookeis also equated with Tengari of Indianmedicine.The wood and stembark yielded indolealkaloids; ursolic acid, beta-amyrinand beta-amyrin acetate. A numberof alkaloids showed cytotoxic activity.(Phytochemistry, 19, 1980.)Tacca aspera Roxb.Synonym ◮ T. integrifolia Ker-Gawl.Habitat ◮ Aka hills in ArunachalPradesh.Ayurvedic ◮ Vaaraahikanda (substitute),Vaaraahi. (Dioscorea bulbiferais equated with Vaaraahikanda.)Folk ◮ Duukarkand (Gujarat).Action ◮ Tuber—nutritive anddigestive; applied to haemorrhagicdiathesis, cachexia, leprosy andother cutaneous affections.The tuber contains gamma-aminobutyricacid, glycine, leucine, valine,quercetin-3-arabinoside, D (−)-ribose,n-triacontanol, betulinic acid, castanogeninand taccalin.Habitat ◮ Entire Deccan Peninsula,extending into Madhya Pradesh andBihar.English ◮ Fiji Arrowroot, TahitiArrowroot.Ayurvedic ◮ Suurana. (Instead ofwild var., cultivated elephant-footyam,Amorphophallus paeoniifoliusvar. campanulatus, is used.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karachunai.Action ◮ Tuber—acrid, astringent,carminative, anthelmintic. Used inthe treatment of piles, haemophilicconditions, internal abscesses, colic,enlargement of spleen, vomiting,asthma, bronchitis, elephantiasisand intestinal worms.The tuber, macerated and repeatedlywashed with water, yield a starch(76.0%).The presence of beta-sitosterol, cerylalcohol and taccalin (a bitter principle)has been reported in the tuber.Taccagenin and leontogenin havebeen isolated froma acid hydrolysateof leaf extract. Diosgenin and itsderivatives, isonarthogenin and isonuatigenintogether with nuatigenin havealso been isolated.A bitter extract, prepared by washingthe grated tubers in running water,is a rubefacient; and is also given indiarrhoea and dysentery.Tacca pinnatifida Forst. f.Synonym ◮ T. leontopetaloides (Linn.)Kuntze.Family ◮ Taccaceae.Tagetes erecta Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Mexico;cultivated in gardens all over India.

Tamarindus indica Linn. 643English ◮ Big Marigold, Aztec orAfrican Marigold.Ayurvedic ◮Jhandu, Gendaa.Unani ◮ Sadbarg, Gul-hazaaraa,Gul-jaafari.Siddha ◮Thuruksaamanthi.Action ◮ Whole plant—infusionuseful in cold and bronchitis,also in the treatment of rheumatism.Flowers—alterative; juice used forbleeding piles. Leaves—styptic, appliedexternally to boils and carbuncles;muscle pains. Leaves and florets—emengagogue, diuretic, vermifuge.The flowers gave lutein esters ofdipalmitate, dimyristate and monomyristate.Fresh petals gave hydroxyflavones,quercetagetin and tagetiin.The plant yields an essential oil containinglimonene, ocimene, linalyl acetate,linalool, tagetone and n-nonylaldehyde as major components.The aqueous extract of flowersshowed activity against Gram-positivebacteria.Tagetes minuta Linn., synonymT. glandulifera Schrank (North-westHimalayas; native to South America),known as Stinking-Roger, gives highestyield of the essential oil with highcarbonyl content, calculated as tagetoneamong the Tagetes sp. grown inIndia.Tagetes patula Linn. (Native to Mexico;cultivated in Indian gardens)known as French Marigold, is creditedwith nematocidal properties. Thejuice of flower heads is used on cutsand wounds.Dosage ◮ Leaf—10–20 ml juice.(CCRAS.)Talinum triangulare Willd.Family ◮ Portulaceceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;growninTamilNadu.English ◮ Ceylon Spinach, SurinamPurslane, Flame Flower, SweetHeart, Water Leaf, Ceylon Spinach.Folk ◮ Pasali, Cylon-keerai (TamilNadu)Action ◮ Leaves—used in polyuria.Diabetics and invalids use the leavesas a substitute for Amaranthusgangeticus Linn.Tamarindus indica Linn.Synonym ◮ T. occidentalis Gaertn.T. officinalis HK.Family ◮ Caesalpiniaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to tropicalAfrica; now distributed throughoutthe plains and sub-Himalayan tractsof India.English ◮ Tamarind tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Amli, Amlikaa, Suktaa,Chukraa, Chukrikaa, Chinchaa,Chandikaa, Tintidika.Unani ◮ Tamar HindiSiddha/Tamil ◮ Puli, Aanvilam.Action ◮ Pulp of fruit—cooling,digestive, carminative, laxative,antiscorbutic; infusion prescribedin febrile diseases and biliousdisorders; used as a gargle in soreT

644 Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst.Tthroat; applied as a poultice oninflammatory swellings.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the fruit pulp in tirednesswithout exertion.Leaves—juice, used for bleedingpiles, bilious fever and dysuria. Stembark—antipyreticand astringent.Used for diarrhoea. Bark is alsoprescribed in asthma and amenorrhoea.Seed-kernel—stimulant; usedas a supporting tonic in sexual debilityin Unani medicine.Water stored in the tumbler, madeout of the wood, is given for treatingsplenic enlargement.Ethanolic extract of the seed coatexhibited antioxidant activity. Kernelgave polysaccharides composed of D-glucose, D-xylose, D-galactose and L-arabinose in a molar ratio of 8 : 4 : 2 : 1.Polysaccharides showed immunomodulatoryactivities such as phagocyticenhancement, leukocyte migration inhibitionand inhibition of lymphocyteproliferation.The leaves gave flavone C-glycosides—orientin,vitexin, iso-orientin andiso-vitexin. The leaves and fruits gavetartaric acid and malic acid. Thefruit pulp yielded amino acids—serine,beta-alanine, proline, pipecolinicacid, phenylalanine and leucine.A bitter principle, tamarindienal,isolated from the fruit pulp, showedfungicidal and bactericidal activityagainst Aspergillus nigar, Candida albicans,Bacillus subtilis, Staphylococcusaureus, E. coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa.The ash of the bark is given in colicand indigestion. The ash is also usedin gargles and mouthwash for apthoussores.Dosage ◮ Fruit pulp without seeds—4–10 g. (API, Vol. IV.)Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst.Synonym ◮ T. articulata Vahl.T. orientalis Forsk.Family ◮ Tamaricaceae.Habitat ◮ Saline soils of Punjab,Haryana, Rajasthan and Gujarat.English ◮ Athel, Tamarisk.Ayurvedic ◮ Maacheeka, Maachikaa.Unani ◮ Maayin Khurd.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sivappattushavukku.Folk ◮ Laal jhaau. Galls—Chhoti-Maayin.Action ◮ Galls—astringent. Contain50% tannin. Bark—contains 14%tannin.Galls used as a substitute for oakgallsand sumac.Galls contain polyphenols—gallicacid, ellagic acid, dehydrodigallic acid,dihydrojuglone-5-glucoside, isoferulicacid and juglanin; flavonoids includingquercetin, its glucoside, isoquercitrin,its methyl derivative, tamarixetin andtamarixin.Tamarix dioica Roxb.Family ◮ Tamaricaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout in river bedsand near sea-coasts in Tamil Nadu.

Tanacetum vulgare Linn. 645Ayurvedic ◮species).Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Maachikaa (relatedNirumari.Jhaau. Galls—Maayin.Action ◮ Twigs and galls—astringent.Tannin content—leaves 8%, twigbark10%, galls 50%.The leaves gave tamarixetin, kaempferide,quercetiin and D-mannitol.Aerial parts contain trans-2-hydroxymethoxycinnamicacid and isorhamnetin.Hexane extract gave hentriacontan-7-ol.The flavones (tamaridone and tamadone)have also been isolated fromethanolic extract, along with hexacosyl-p-coumarate,gardenin, nevadensinand apigenin. Gardenin B exhibitedantiviral and anti-invasive activityagainst solid tumours.Tamarix ericoides Rottl.Family ◮ Tamaricaceae.Habitat ◮ South India, in river beds.Ayurvedic ◮ Maachika (relatedspecies).Folk ◮ Jhaau.Action ◮ Galls—astringent. Leaves—decoctionisgivenfortreatingenlarged spleen; also cough.Tamarix indica Roxb.Synonym ◮ T. troupii Hole.T. gallica auct. non Linn.Family ◮ Tamaricaceae.Habitat ◮ North Indian saline orwater-logged soils; on sandy banksin West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa andSouth India.English ◮ Takut Galls.Ayurvedic ◮ Jhaavuka, Bahugranthikaa,Shaavaka.Unani ◮ Maayeen Kalaan (largegalls), Maayeen Khurd (small galls).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sirusavakku.Folk ◮ Jhaau.Action ◮ Galls—astringent, given internallyin dysentery and diarrhoea.Infusion used as a gargle for sorethroat. Decoction applied to fouland sloughing ulcers. Pulverizedgalls, mixed with Vaseline, used forpiles and anal fissures. Manna—mild laxative and expectorant.Tannin content—galls 40–50%,bark 15.3%; tannin and non-tanninratio, quite high as compared to oakbark.Alcoholic extract of the whole plantexhibited antiallergic activity.Dosage ◮ Gall, leaf, root—1–3 gpowder. (CCRAS.)Tanacetum vulgare Linn.Synonym ◮ Chrysanthemum vulgare(L.) Bernh.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; found asan escape in some parts of Kashmir.English ◮ Tansy.Folk ◮ Peilmundi (Kashmir).T

646 Taraktogenos kurzii King.TAction ◮ Plant—anthelmintic, bittertonic, emmenagogue. Used formigraine, neuralgia and nausea;as a lotion for scabies. Toxicitydepends upon thujone contentof the part used. Tansy oil isused as a liniment for gout andrheumatism.Aerial parts afforded terpenoids—tanacetin, vulgarones A and B, tamirin,tanacin and tanavulgarol; germacanolides,stearic acid, and flavonoids—apigenin trimethyl ether, apigenin,luteolin, chrysoeriol, diometin, isorhamnetin,quercetin and axillarin.The leaves contain parthenolide, caffeic,chlorogenic, iso-chlorogenic acidsand vibernitol.Indian chemotype contains betathujone(28.1%) as the major constituentof the essential oil. Otherconstituents are: beta-thujyl alcohol8.7, l-camphor 10.0 and cineol 11.8%.The leaves contain parthenolide, caffeic,chlorogenic, isochlorogenic acidand vibernitol.Tanacetum parthenium (L.) SchultzBip. (native to Europe and BritishIsles), known as Feverfew, is availablein India for prophylactic treatmentof migraine. The characteristic constituentsof the herb (dried, whole orfragmented parts) are sesquiterpenelactones of which parthenolide, a germacanolide,is the major component.(Indian species, T. vulgare leaf alsocontains parthenolide).ESCOP recommends the herb forthe management of migraine for at leastafewmonths.(See ESCOP and WHO monographs.)It has been shown that Feverfewextract inhibits prostaglandin productionand arachidonic acid release (thisactivity, at least partly, explains theherb’s antiplatelet and antifebrile action).The extracts also inhibit secretionof serotonin from platelet granulesand proteins from polymorphonuclearleucocytes (PMN’s). Since serotonin isimplicated in the aetiology of migraineand PMN secretion is increased inrheumatoid arthritis. Feverfew is usedin migraine and rheumatoid arthritis.(Potter’s New Cyclopaedia.) Somehow,beneficial effects were not observedin a double-blind placebo-controlledtrial on 40 women with rheumatoidarthritis. (WHO.)Taraktogenos kurzii King.Synonym ◮ Hydnocarpus Kurzii(King.)Warb.H. heterophyllus Kurx.Habitat ◮ Throughout upper Assamand Tripura in evergreen forests.Folk ◮ Chaalmogra.Action ◮ Kernel yields the true ChaalmoograOil (Oleum Chaulmoograe),used externally in leprosy.Bark—astringent, rich in tannins,also used as a febrifuge.Taraxacum officinaleWeber ex Wiggers.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas,Khasi Hills, Mishmi Hills, Gujaratand in hills of South India.English ◮ Common Dandelion.

Taverniera cuneifolia Arn. 647Ayurvedic ◮ Dugdh-pheni, Luutaari,Payaswani.Unani ◮ Kaanful, Kaasani Dashti,Kaasani Sahraayi, Hind-baa-al-Barri. (Not to be confused with Cichoriumintybus, known as Kaasani.)Folk ◮ Dudhli, Dudhal.Action ◮ Root—diuretic, cholagogue,pancreatic and bile duct stimulant,stimulant to portal circulation,choleretic, urinary antiseptic,detoxicant, promotes elimination ofplasma cholesterol.Used chiefly in kidney and liverdisorders, for rheumatism and asa general tonic. A decoction is givenfor infective hepatitis.Key application ◮ In dyspepsia,loss of appetite, and for diuresis.(German Commission E, ESCOP.)ESCOP indicates its use forrestoration of hepatic and biliaryfunction.Most of the diuretics cause loss ofpotassium, but dandelion leaves containhigh levels of potassium.The leaves and root contain sesquiterpenelactones (bitter substances);triterpenesandsterols—beta-sitosterol,beta-sitosterol-glucosides, taraxasterol,psi-taratexol and taraxol; flavonoids,including among others, apigenin-7-O-glucosides and luteolin-7-O-glucosides;mucilages; inulin (2–40%, highvalues in autumn). The amaroids arecholagogic and secretolytic. (PDR.) Anappetite-stimulating bitter has beenidentified as eudesmanolides (previouslycalled taraxacin).The vitamin A content is higher thanin carrots.The polysaccharides and aqueousextracts exhibited antitumour activityin animals. The anti-inflammatoryactivity has also been confirmed inanimal studies.The high K+ content of roots andleaves is considered responsible for thediuretic activity.Dosage ◮ Root—1–3 g powder.(CCRAS.)Tarenna asiatica (Linn.) Alston.Synonym ◮ Webra corymbosa Willd.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular region,ascending to an altitude of 1,000 m,and in Assam.Folk ◮ Kuraa (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Fruit—smashed and appliedto boils to promote suppuration.Leaves—usedinskindiseases.Thewholeplant,includingtheroots,contained D-mannitol. The leaves containa flavone, corymbosin.Taverniera cuneifolia Arn.Synonym ◮ T. nummularia Bakernon-DC.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Plains of Punjab, GujaratandtheDeccaninwasteplaces.English ◮ East Indian Moneywort.Folk ◮ Jethi-madh (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaves—used as a poulticefor sloughing wounds. Root—usedas a substitute for liquorice.T

648 Taxus baccata Linn.TTaxus baccata Linn.Family ◮Taxaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas,Khasi Hills and Manipur.English ◮ European Yew. HimalayanYew is equated with Taxus wallichianaZucc., synonym T. baccataLinn. subspecies wallichiana (Zucc.)Pilgoe, T. baccata Hook. f.Ayurvedic ◮ Thunera, Sthauneya,Sthauneyaka, Shukapushpa,Dhaatri-patra, Vikarna. (Nota substitute for Taalisapatra.)Unani ◮Zarnab.Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Birmi, Thuno.Taaleespatri Bhedam.Action ◮ Herb—CNS depressant;reduces motor activity; analgesic,anticonvulsant. Leaf used innervousness, epilepsy, hysteria,asthma, chronic bronchitis. Leafand fruit—antispasmodic, sedative,emmenagogue.Berry—used in chronic bronchitis.Taxol—antimitotic; also being tried forthe treatment of severe drug-resistanthuman malaria. (Chem Abstr, 1994, 21,124674 j.) (The taxol content in HimalayanYew varied with season andlocation from 0.045–0.130%.)The needles contain diterpene estersof taxane-type (mixture is knownas taxine 0.6–2.0%). Taxine consistsof 11 compounds of which only taxineA and B have been characterized.Taxol, the diterpene amide, is foundactive against ovarian cancer in humans.(clinical results showed 24–30%response). The ester alkaloids in higherdoses are cardiotoxic.Dried needles contain biflavonoids,including sotetsuflavone, sequoiflavone,sciadopitysin, ginkgetin, kayaflavone,amentoflavone, beta-sitosterol,heptacosanol and surcose.The needles gave several phenolics.Betuloside (rhododendron) exhibitedhepatoprotective activity against hepatotoxinsin rats.The seeds are poisonous and containtaxine.The aqueous extract of leavesshowed a depressant effect on the centralnervous system in rats.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaattributedantirheumatic, anticatarrhal,insecticidal and wound-healingproperties to the dried needles of HimalayanYew and indicated the use ofthe drug in powder form (1–3 g) in disordersdue to vitiated blood, tumours,dermatosis and helminthiasis.Dosage ◮ Leaf—1–3 g powder. (API,Vol. III.) Leaf, bark—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Tecoma stans (Linn.) H. B. & K.Synonym ◮ Stenolobium stans (L.) D.Don.Bignonia stans Linn.Family ◮Habitat ◮English ◮Bignoniaceae.Cultivated in gardens.Yellow Elder, Yellow Bells.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sonapaati, ThangaArali, Naga Sambagam.

Tectona grandis Linn. f. 649Action ◮ Leaves—hypoglycaemic(tecomine and tecostanine arehypoglycaemic alkaloids).Root—diuretic, vermifuge.The flowers contain beta-caroteneand zeaxanthin. The plant gave phenolicacids, beta-sitosterol and triterpenoids—ursolicacid, oleanolic acid andalpha-amarine. An indole-metabolizingenzyme, indole-oxygenase, hasbeen isolated from the leaves. Antidiabeticactivity of the plant was tested onstreptozotocin-induced diabetic rats.Tecomella undulata(G. Don) Seem.Synonym ◮ Tecoma undulata G.Don.Bignonia undulata Sm.Family ◮ Bignoniaceae.Habitat ◮ North-West and WesternIndia, and in the outer Himalayas.English ◮ Rohida tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Rohitaka, Rohi,Daadimpushpaka, Daadimchhada,Plihaghna. (Amoora rohituka is alsoknown as Rohitaka.)Action ◮ Bark—relaxant, cardiotonic,choleretic. (Heartwood toxic due tolapachol.) Used for the treatmentof leucorrhoea, diseases of the liverand spleen, leucoderma, syphilisand other skin diseases.The bark contains tecomin (veratrylbeta-D-glucoside), alkanes, alkanolsand beta-sitosterols. The bark alsoyielded chromone glycosides—undulatosidesA and B, and iridoid glucosides—tecomellosideand tecoside.A quinonoid—lapachol, veratric acidand dehydrotectol are also reportedfrom the bark.Water soluble portion of the alcoholicas well as chloroform extracts ofthe bark shows smooth muscle relaxant,mild cardiotonic and chloretic activities.Dosage ◮ Flower, bark—50–100 mldecoction. (CCRAS.)Tectona grandis Linn. f.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ A tree occurring inWestern Peninsula, Central Indiaand Bihar.English ◮ Teak tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Shaaka, Bhuumisaha,Dwaaradaaru, Varadaaru, Kharachhada,Saagawaan, Saagauna.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thekku.Action ◮ Flower—used in bronchitis,biliousness and urinary discharges.Flower and seed—diuretic.Wood—expectorant, anti-inflammatory,antibilious, anthelmintic.Used for inflammatory swellings.Bark—astringent. Used in bronchitis.Root—used for anuria and retentionof urine. Nut oil—used in thetreatment of scabies and other skin diseases;also for promoting hair growth.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the heartwood inlipid disorders, also for treating threatenedabortion.The wood is rich in anthraquinones,naphthalene compounds and triterpenicand hemi-terpenic compounds.T

650 Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers.TThe Leaves contain tectoleafquinone.The bark contains 7.14% tannin.The seed oil contains linoleic acid(about 53%), along with lauric, myristic,palmitic, stearic, oleic, linolenicand arachidic acids. The kernels yield44.5% of a fatty oil.Dosage ◮ Heartwood—3–6 gpowder. (API, Vol. III.)Tephrosia purpurea (L.) Pers.Synonym ◮ T. hamiltonii Drumm.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ All over India; also grownas green manure and as cover crop.English ◮ Purple Tephrosia, WildIndigo.Ayurvedic ◮ Sharapunkhaa,Vishikha-punkhaa, Sarphokaa.Unani ◮ Sarponkhaa, Sarphukaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kattu-kolingi,Kolingi, Paavali, Mollukkay,Kollukkayvelai.Action ◮ The drug is consideredspecific for the treatment ofinflammation of spleen and liver (isknown as Plihaa-shatru, Plihaari inIndian medicine).Dried herb—diuretic, deobstruent,laxative. Given for the treatment ofcough, bronchitis, bilious febrile attacks,insufficiency of the liver, jaundice(not effective in infantile cirrhosis),kidney disorders and for the treatmentof bleeding piles, boils, pimples.Also used as a gargle. Root—decoctionused in dyspepsia, diarrhoea,cough, bronchitis, adenoids, asthmaand rheumatism. Juice is applied toskin eruptions. A liniment preparedfrom the root is employed in elephantiasis.Oil from seeds—specific againsteruptions of the skin, eczema, scabies,leprosy. Seed extract—hypoglycaemic.Powdered aerial parts preventedelevation of SGOP, SGPT and bilirubinlevels.Hepatoprotective effect of aerialparts was evaluated against (+)-galactosamine-inducedand carbon tetrachloride-inducedhepatotoxicity inrats.The leaves contain rutin and rotenoids(0.65–0.80% on dry basis). Rotenoidcontent is highest in the seed(1.60–1.80%).The leaves also contain a triterpenoid,lupeol, and beta-sitosterol.Seeds contain a diketone-pongamol;a dimethylchromene flavanone isolonchocarpin;furanoflavones karanjinand kanjone; a flavanone purpurin;and sitosterol. A flavonoid, lanceolarinB, is also present in seeds.The plant extract led to marked loweringof blood glucose level in normaland alloxan-induced diabetic rabbits.In diabetic rabbits the extract exerted60–70% hypoglycaemic effect as comparedto tolbutamide.Shveta Sharapunkhaa (stems: coveredwith white hair; flowers: pale pinkor pale violet) is equated with T. villosaPers.The roots gave a prenylated flavanone7-methylglabranin; pods containrotenoids—villosin, villon, villosol,villosinol, villinol and villosone.Thefreshrootiscreditedwithhypoglycaemicproperties, but leaves did

Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) W. & A. 651not show any such effect. The juiceof the leaf is given in dropsy. Ayurvedicclassical texts describe it as a specialdrug for treating sterility in women.Boiled leaves of T. uniflora subspeciespetrosa (Kant-punkhaa) areused for the treatment of syphilis. Themedicinal properties of the plant aremore or less similar to those of T. purpurea,but to a milder degree.T. spinosa Pers. (South India, ascendingto 400 m in hills) is alsoknown as Kant-punkhaa (Mulukolingiin Tamil Nadu).The root is applied to inflammationsand swellings of joints; a decoction isgiven in rheumatism.Chalcones, spinochalones A and Band flemistrictin A have been isolatedfrom the root. Spinochalone C andspinoflavonones A and B, and fulvinervinA have been isolated from theplant.Dosage ◮ Plant, root, seed—3–5 gpowder. (CCRAS.)Teramnus labialis Spreng.Family ◮Papilionaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, eastwards toBengal, extending southwards intoPeninsular India.Ayurvedic ◮ Maashaparni, Mahaasahaa,Suuryaasani, Lomash-parni,Kaamboja, Krishna-vrintaa. (InKerala different species of Vigna areused as Maashaparni.)Siddha/Tamil ◮Kattu-ulandu.Action ◮ Fruit—astringent, stomachic,febrifugal; also used asa nervine tonic in tuberculosis,haemoptysis, rheumatism andparalysis. Considered invigoratingin Indian medicine.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the plant in spermatorrhoea.In Ayurvedic texts, Maashaparniand Mudgaparni together form a groupof rejuvenating drugs.Mudgaparni is equated with Phaseolustrilobus. Maashaparni and Maasha(Vigna mungo) are different drugs.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—5–10 gpowder. (API, Vol.III.)Terminalia arjuna (Roxb.) W. & A.Family ◮ Combretaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the greaterpart of India, also grown as anavenue tree.English ◮ Arjun Terminalia.Ayurvedic ◮ Arjuna, Dhananjaya,Kaakubha, Kakubha, Aartagala,Indravriksha, Paartha, Virataru,Viravriksha.Unani ◮ ArjunSiddha ◮ Marudam.Action ◮ Bark—used as a cardioprotectiveand cardiotonic in anginaand poor coronary circulation; asa diuretic in cirrhosis of liver and forsymptomatic relief in hypertension;externally in skin diseases, herpesand leukoderma. Powdered bark isprescribed with milk in fracturesT

652 Terminalia bellirica Roxb.Tand contusions with excessive ecchymosis,also in urinary dischargesand strangury. Fruit—deobstruent.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the powder of thestembark in emaciation, chest diseases,cardiac disorders, lipid imbalances andpolyuria.The bark extract contains acids (arjunolicacid, terminic acid), glycosides(arjunetin, arjunosides I–IV),and strong antioxidants—flavones,tannins, oligomeric proanthocyanidins.The bark extract (500 mg every 8 h)given to (58 male) patients with stableangina with provocable ischemia ontreadmill exercise, led to improvementin clinical and treadmill exercise parametersas compared to placebo therapy.These benefits were similar to thoseobserved with isosorbide mononitrate(40 mg/day). (Indian Heart J. 2002,54(4), 441.)Arjunolic acid exhibited significantcardiac protection in isoproterenolinducedmyocardial necrosis in rats.(Mol Cell Biochem, 2001, 224 (1–2),135–42.) A study demonstrated that thealcoholic extract of Terminalia arjunabark augmented endogenous antioxidantcompounds of the rat heart andprevented from isoproterenol-inducedmyocardial ischemic reperfusion injury.(Life Sci. 2003, 73 (21), 2727–2739.) Cardiac lipid peroxidation inmale Wistar rats was reduced by 38.8%± 2.6% at a dose of 90 mg/kg, in a studybased on aqueous freeze-dried extractof the bark. (Phytother Res. 2001, 15(6),510–23.)Oral administration of bark powder(400 mg/kg body weight) for 10days produced significant increase incirculating histamine, a little increasein 5-HT, catecholamines and HDLcholesterol, and decrease in total lipid,triglycerides and total cholesterol innormal rats.Casuarinin, a hydrolyzable tannin,isolated from the bark, exhibited antiherpesvirus activity by inhibiting viralattachment and penetration. 50%ethanolic extract of the bark exhibitedsignificant increase in the tensile of theincision wounds.Dosage ◮ Stembark—3–6 g powder.(API, Vol. II.)Terminalia bellirica Roxb.Family ◮ Combretaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout deciduousforests of India.English ◮ Belleric Myrobalan,Bastard Myrobalan.Ayurvedic ◮ Bibhitaka, Vibhitaka,Bibhitaki, Bibhita, Baibhita, Aksha,Akshaka, Kaamaghna, Kalidru Kali,Karshaphala.Unani ◮ Balelaa, Baheraa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Thaanrikkaai,Thandri.Action ◮ Fruit—purgative whenhalf ripe, astringent when ripe;antipyretic; used in prescriptions fordiarrhoea, dyspepsia, biliousness;cough, bronchitis and upperrespiratory tract infections, tropicalpulmonary eosinophilia and allergiceruptions.

Terminalia chebula Retz. 653The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the drug in powderform in emesis and worm infestation,in addition to other therapeutic applications.The fruits contain beta-sitosterol,gallic and ellagic acids, ethyl gallate,galloyl glucose, chebulagic acid anda cardiac glycoside, bellaricanin.The fruits produce hepato-protectiveeffect in CCl4-induced liver injuryin mice. Alcoholic extract of the fruitexerted a negative chrono-and inotropicand hypotensive effect of varyingmagnitude in a dose dependent fashionon isolated rat and frog atria andrabbit heart.The fruit contains all componentsof Chebulic myrobalan (T. chebula)exceptcorilagin and chebulic acid.The fleshy fruit pulp contains 21.4%tannin, both condensed and hydrolysabletypes.The flower showed spermicidal activity.Dosage ◮ Fruit—3–6 g powder.(API, Vol. I.)Terminalia bialata Steud.Family ◮ Combretaceae.Habitat ◮ Andamans.English ◮ White Chuglam, SilvergreyWood.Action ◮ Bark—cardiac stimulant. Itcontains tannins and is used as anadulterant to cutch.Terminalia catappa Linn.Synonym ◮T. procera Roxb.Family ◮ Combretaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughouthotter parts of India, also in theAndamans.English ◮ Indian Almond, TropicalAlmond.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Natuvadom.Folk ◮ Jangali Baadaam, DesiBaadaam.Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antidysenteric,mild diuretic. Leaf—antiseptic, anti-inflammatory. Oilfrom kernel—substitute for almondoil; contains oleic, linoleic, palmiticand stearic acids. Fresh kernelsresemble almonds; contain fat 52.02,protein 25.42, sugars as glucose5.98%. Leaf—sudorific; applied torheumatic joints. Ointment madefrom juice—used in scabies andother cutaneous affections.The husk and endocarp contain tanninsand pentosans. The heartwoodand stembark contain beta-sitosteroland its palmitate. The heartwood, inaddition, contain terminolic acid andtriterpenic methyl esters.Terminalia chebula Retz.Family ◮ Combretaceae.Habitat ◮ Abundant in NorthernIndia. Also occurs in the forests ofAssam, West Bengal, Bihar, Assam,especially in Konkan.English ◮ Chebulic Myrobalan, BlackMyrobalan.Ayurvedic ◮ Haritaki, Kaayasthaa,Pathyaa, Shreyasi, Shivaa. (Jivanti,T

654 Terminalia citrina Roxb. ex Flem.TPuutanaa, Vijayaa, Abhayaa, Rohini,Chetaki, Amritaa—according tosome scholars, these represent sevenvarieties of Haritaki; now used assynonyms.)Unani ◮ Harad, Halelaa siyaah,Halelaa zard, Halelaa Kaabuli(varieties).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kadukkai.Action ◮ Gentle purgative, astringent(unripe fruits are more purgative,ripe ones are more astringent;sennoside A and anthraquinoneglycoside is laxative, tannins areastringent), stomachic, antibilious,alterative. Used in prescriptionsfor treating flatulence, constipation,diarrhoea, dysentery, cyst, digestivedisorders, vomiting, enlarged liverand spleen, cough and bronchialasthma, and for metabolic harmony.Bark—diuretic.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India,along with other therapeutic applications,indicated the use of powderof mature fruits in intermittent fevers,chronic fevers, anaemia and polyuria.The fruits of T. chebula are usedin combination with Emblica officinalisand T. bellirica (under the nameTriphalaa) in the treatment of liverand kidney dysfunctions. The mainpurgative ingredient of Triphalaa is T.chebula (the purgative principle is inthe pericarp of the fruit).Shikimic, gallic, triacontanoic andpalmitic acids, beta-sitosterol, daucosterol,triethyl ester of chebulic acid andethyl ester of gallic acid; a new ellagitannin,terchebulin, along with punicalaginand teaflavin A have been isolatedfrom the fruits. A new triterpene,chebupentol, and arjungenin, terminoicacid and arjunolic acid were alsoisolated from the fruit.Antioxidant constituents of theplant, phloroglucinol and pyrogallolhave been isolated along with ferulic,vanillic, p-coumaric and caffeic acids.Ether extract showed higher antioxidantactivity than BHA and BHT, Acidesters present in phenolic fraction ofextract, were found most effective.Dosage ◮ Pericarp of mature fruit—3–6 g powder. (API, Vol. I.)Terminalia citrina Roxb. ex Flem.Family ◮ Combretaceae.Habitat ◮ Foothills of Himalayasfrom Nepal eastwards to Assam.Folk ◮ Haritaki (Bengal); Monalu(Assam), Suravaari Harad (Gujarat).Action ◮ Bark—diuretic, cardiotonic.Fruits—used as those of T. chebula.The tannin in the fruit is reported tobe between 30–40% of the dry weight.Terminalia coriaceaWight & Arn.Family ◮ Combretaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Andhra Pradeshand Central India.English ◮ Leathery Murdah.Folk ◮ Tani (Andhra Pradesh)Action ◮ Bark—cardiac stimulant.

Terminalia tomentosa W. & A. 655Terminalia myriocarpaHeurck & Muell.-Arg.Family ◮ Combretaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Himalayas, fromNorth Bengal eastwards to Assam,Khasi Hills and Arunachal Pradesh.English ◮ Hollock.Ayurvedic ◮ Kakubha(alsoasynonymof Arjuna tree).Action ◮ Bark—cardiac stimulant,mild diuretic.The bark gave beta-sitosterol, andabout 18% tannins. Ellagic, gallic, chebulinicand chebulagic acids—mainconstituents of ellagitannins, and leuco-cyanidin,an important precursor toflavonoid tannins, have been isolated.Terminalia paniculata Roth.Family ◮ Combretaceae.Habitat ◮ Forests of Western Ghatsand Eastern Ghats up to 1,200 m.English ◮ Flowering Murdah.Folk ◮ Kinjal (Maharashtra);Neemeeri, Nimiri (AndhraPradesh); Pekadukkai (TamilNadu); Pilamuruthu, Pillamurda(Kerala). Kindal (trade).Action ◮ Bark—diuretic, cardiotonic.Juice of the bark, mixed withpurified butter and rock-salt, isapplied in parotitis.The heartwood gave 3,3 ′ -O-dimethylellagicacid and 3,4,3 ′ -O-trimethylflavellagicacid. A triterpenecarboxylic acid, beta-sitosterol, a glycoside3,3 ′ -di-O-methylellagic acid-4-monoglucoside and O-pentamethylflavellagic acid have been isolated.The bark contains 14% tannins, alsobeta-sitosterol.Terminalia tomentosa W. & A.Synonym ◮ T. alata Heyne ex Roth.Family ◮ Combretaceae.Habitat ◮ Common in the forests,especially in the humid regions ofIndia, including the sub-Himalayantracts of North-West provinces,Nepal and Sikkim; also southwardsthroughout the Peninsula.English ◮ Laurel (trade). (The Wealthof India.)Ayurvedic ◮ Asana (Asana isequated with Bridelia montanaWilld.) Bijaka (also equatedwith Pterocarpus marsupiumRoxb.) (Asana and Bijaka areconsidered as synonyms in Indianmedicine.) Jaranadrum, a substituteof Ashwakarna, and Kaushik arealso doubtful synonyms.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karramarda.Folk ◮ Sarj, Saaj. Sain (Dehra Dun).Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antidiarrhoeal,styptic, antileucorrheal.Used for haemorrhagic diseases,skin diseases, erysipelas, leucoderma.The bark contain 18.7%tannin.Beta-sitosterol, arjunic and arjunolicacids, arjunetin, betulinic and ellagicacids have been isolated from thebark.T

656 Tetracera indica Merrill.THydrolysis of gum gave oligo-saccharides,disaccharides and monosaccharides.Leaves and fruits gave betasitosterol.Laurel is native to Mediterranean regionand is equated with Laurus nobilisLinn. (Lauraceae.) The leaves and essentialoil are stomachic, cholagogue,stimulant and diaphoretic. The oil hasbeen used against dandruff, also as anexternal application for rheumatism.Tetracera indica Merrill.Synonym ◮ T. assa DC.Family ◮ Dilleniaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Anaittichal. (Arelated species T. laevis Vahl, isfound in the forests of Kerala.)Action ◮ Leaves—an infusionof shoots is given in pulmonaryhaemorrhages and is used as a garglein aphthae.The leaves yielded beta-sitosterol,lupeol, betulin and betulinic acid.T. laevis (Vennelvalli, Piripul) alsopossesses similar properties. A decoctionof leaves, mixed with rice-gruel, isgiven for the treatment of aphthae.Tetragonia expansa Murr.Synonym ◮ T. tetragonioides (Pall.)O. Kuntze.Family ◮ Tetragoniaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in the hills ofNorth Bengal, Shillong and otherhill stations, and in the Deccan, inMysore.English ◮ New Zealand Spinach.Folk ◮ Chikesoppu (Karnataka).Action ◮ Used as a substitute forSpinacia oleracea, asarichsourceof calcium, phosphorus, iron andvitamins A, B and C. Given inpulmonary and intestinal affections.The shoots of the plant containsaponin, but the seeds do not. Thesaponin has low toxicity which disappearson boiling the leaves. A sampleof the plant contained 1.2% oxalicacid, combined as calcium oxalatewhich is higher than found in commonspinach. Losses of phosphorusandirononcookingarealsoreportedto be high.The roots, leaves and immaturefruits gave positive reaction for thepresence of alkaloids. Cerebroside hasbeen synthesized.Tetrastigma serrulatum Planch.Synonym ◮ Vitis capreolata D. Don.Family ◮ Vitaceae.Habitat ◮ From Garhwal to Bhutan,up to an altitude of 2,600 m.Folk ◮ Charchari (Nepal).Action ◮ Alcoholic extract ofaerial parats, when injectedintramuscularly in rats, showedanticancer activity.The plant was found toxic to adultalbino mice.

Thalictrum foliolosum DC. 657Teucrium chamaedrys Linn.Family ◮Labiateae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe. Importedfor use in Unani medicine.English ◮ Germander, Wall Germander.Unani ◮Usqurdiyun, Kamaazariuus.Action ◮ Gastric stimulant, diuretic,sudorific. Used in spleen disordersand rheumatism; topically in skindiseases.The herb contains iridoid glycosides,including harpagide and acetylharpagide; clerodane and neoclerodanediterpenes; phenylpropanoids;volatile oil, containing about 60% caryophyllene;tannins and polyphenols.One of the major furanoneoerodanediterpenes, teucrin A, is hepatotoxic.Ether extract of the flowering herbshows antibacterial activity.Teucrium scordium Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae, Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; found inKashmir.English ◮ Water-Germander.Action ◮ Stimulant, antiseptic,sudorific. Given for phthisis andcough. An infusion is used aslaxative in piles, as a gargle in sorethroat and stomatitis. An extractof the herb is given in lupus andactinomycosis. Flower tops andleaves—astringent, diaphoretic,vermifuge.The herb contains iridoids, includingharpagide and acetyl harpagide; furanoidditerpenes; also choline, rutin,quercetin, iso-quercetin, stigmasterol,beta-sitosterol, beta-amyrin, chlorogenicand ursolic acids.Thalictrum foliolosum DC.Family ◮ Ranunculaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom 1,500 to 2,400 m, in the Khasihills and in Kashmir, Punjab, Delhi,Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Orissa.Ayurvedic ◮ Pitarangaa, Piyaaraangaa.Pitamuulikaa (substitute).Unani ◮ Mamiri. (Mamiraa isequated with Coptis teeta Wall.)Action ◮ Plant—used against goutand rheumatism. Root—febrifuge,antiperiodic; a bitter tonic duringconvalescence.The root contains alkaloids berberineand magnoflorine. (Berberinecauses a stimulant action on the movementsof the gastrointestinal tract, a depressionof both the auricles and ventriclesand distinct dilatation of theheart. Magnoflorine induces hypotention.)Berberine content is reduced toone-fourth and magnoflorine to tracesafter 6 months. The root also containspalmitine and jatrorrhizine.Thalictrum sp. (about 17 species arefound in India)—alkaloidal structureexhibits antitumoral activity.Over 60 isoquinoline and diterpenoidalkaloids have been isolated.(See The Wealth of India, Vol. X.)T

658 Themeda arundinacea (Roxb.) Ridley.TFollowing are the important Thalictrumsp. occurring in India:T. alpinum Linn. (the alpine Himalayasand western Tibet at altitudesbetween 3,000 and 5,100 m); T. elegansWall. ex Royle (the sub-alpineHimalayas from Kashmir to Sikkimat altitudes from 3,000 to 3,900 m);T. foetidum Linn. (North-West Himalayas);T. javanicum Blume (thetemperate Himalayas from Kashmirto Sikkim, Khasi hills, Kodaikanaland Nilgiri hills); T. minus Linn. (thetemperate Himalayas); T. reniformeWall. (the temperate Himalayas fromKulu to Sikkim between 2,400 and3,000 m).Themeda arundinacea(Roxb.) Ridley.Synonym ◮ Anthistiria giganteaHack. subspecies arundinaceaHack.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas and plainsof India.English ◮ Ulla Grass. Karad grassis equated with T. quadrivalvis (L.)Kuntze.Folk ◮ Sarkharaa, Kapoor Ghass.Action ◮ Febrifuge.Theobroma cacao Linn.Family ◮Sterculiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;cultivated in South India and Orissa.English ◮ Cocoa, Theobroma,Chocolate tree.Action ◮ Leaves—Central nervoussystem stimulant, local anaesthetic(due to cocaine).Seeds—stimulating and diuretic(due to caffeine).Cocoa contains methylxanthine,which acts as a diuretic. PreparationsofCocoaareusedforliver,bladderandkidney ailments, diabetes, as a generaltonic and as an astringent for diarrhoea.Cocoa and cocoa products cancause migraine headache, can also resultin constipation.Included among unapproved herbsby German Commission E.Thespesia lampas(Cav.) Dalz. & Gibs.Synonym ◮Alef.Family ◮Habitat ◮Ayurvedic ◮Azanza lampas (Cav.)Malvaceae.Grown as an ornamental.Tundikera.Folk ◮ Bana-Kapaasi. Raan-bhendi(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Flowers—used for cutaneousdiseases. Roots and fruits—used for treating gonorrhoea andsyphilis.Gossypol is reported to be presentin the plant—roots 2.75, flower buds1.95, seeds 1.74, leaves 0.98 and stems0.16%. The flowers contain quercetinand protocatechuic acid.

Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum. 659Thespesia populneaSoland. ex Correa.Synonym ◮ Hibiscus populneus Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Coastal regions of Indiaand the Andamans; and also grownas an ornamental.English ◮ Portia tree, Tulip tree,Umbrella tree, False Rosewood.Ayurvedic ◮ Paarisha, Kapitana,Paarshvpippala, Gardabhaanda.Siddha ◮ Poovarsu.Action ◮ Specific for skin diseases.Root, fruit and leaf—usedin psoriasis, scabies and othercutaneous diseases. Lupenone,lupeol and alkanes show activityagainst both Gram-positive andGram-negative bacteria. Bark—used for the treatment of haemorrhoidsand chronic dysentery.Leaf— anti-inflammatory.The flowers gave populnetin, herbacetin,populneol, quercetin and its glycosides,kaempferol and its glycosides,rutin, gossypol, beta-sitosterol andits glycosides, nonacosane, lupenone,myricyl alcohol, lupeol and gossypetin.Presence of thespesin (0.4%) andherbacetin has been reported fromfruits. Thespesin has been proved tobe optically active gossypol. Gossypoloccurring in cotton plant is opticallyinactive, whereas the gossypol from T.populnea has a high dextro-rotation.It exhibits antifertility, anti-tumour,anti-amoebic and anti-HIV activities.The ethanolic extract of fruitsshowed antiviral and anticancer activityin mice.Thevetia peruviana(Pers.) K. Schum.Synonym ◮ T. neriifolia Juss. exSteud.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;cultivated as hedge plant in theplains throughout India.English ◮ Yellow Oleander.Ayurvedic ◮ Pita-Karavira, Ashvaghna,Divyapushpa. (Whiteand red-flowered var. is equatedwith Nerium oleander, the yellowfloweredvar with T. peruviana.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pachiyalari.Action ◮ See Nerium oleander.Bark and leaves—bitter cathartic,emetic; poisonous. Roots—a plasteris applied to tumours.All parts of the plant produce poisonouslatex. Karnels contained nearlyseven times as much glycosides asleaves, stems, flowers or fruit pulp. Theroots and bark also contain glycosides.Of all Thevetia glycosides, peruvosideis the most important cardiac glycoside.It produced a fall in right arterialpressure and a rise in cardiac output.A few cases of arrhythmia respondedwell to peruvoside. Thevetin and otherglycosides are reported to exhibitdigitalis-like effect. As a cardiac glycoside,the potency of neriifolin is moderate.Cerberin is even weaker thanneriifolin. Cerebroside is the weakestglycoside in its cardiac effect.In addition to seeds, neriifolin andperuvoside have been isolated from thebark in small amounts.T

660 Thlaspi arvense Linn.TDosage ◮ Root—50–125 mg powder.(CCRAS.)Thlaspi arvense Linn.Family ◮Crucifereae; Brassicaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate andsub-alpine Himalayas.English ◮Folk ◮Pennycress, Fanweed.Drekaa (Laddakh).Action ◮ Astringent, diuretic, bloodpurifier.Seeds—stimulant. Plant—a good source of vitamin C (70–469 mg/100 g). Ripe seeds arepoisonous (pouring boiling waterover the seeds before use preventspoisoning).Leaves as well as seeds contain a glucoside,sinigrin.Thuja orientalis Linn.Synonym ◮ Biota orientalis Endl.Family ◮ Cupressaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to China; plantedall over India in gardens.English ◮ Oriental Arbor-Vitae.Folk ◮ Morepankhi.Action ◮ Leaves—diuretic, insecticidalantipyretic.The leaves contain rhodoxanthin,amentoflavone, hinokiflavone, quercetin,myricetin, carotene (20.8 mg/100 gdry basis), xanthophyll and ascorbicacid (68 mg/100 g). Essential oil, obtainedfrom twigs (0.32) and berries(0.25%), contains alpha-thujene, (+)-sabinene, (+)-camphene, cedrol, cedrenoland alpha-and beta-pinenes asmajor constituents.American Arbor-Vitae and WhiteCedar has been equated with T. occidentalisandisusedasThuja.It was introduced into India fromNorth America, and grows as a Christmastree in the plains of India.Leaves—aninfusionisusedasauterinestimulant, emmenagogue and diuretic.Boiled in lard, are applied externallyfor rheumatism. Bark—astringent,emmenagogue, diuretic. Oil—poisonous, disinfectant, insecticidal.Seed and fruit— antibacterial; inhibitedthe growth of Gram-positive microorganisms.The leaves yields a volatile oil, containingthujone as major component,with iso-thujone, borneol, bornyl acetate,l-fenchone, limonene, sabinene,camphor, l-alpha-thujene; flavonoids,mucilage, tannins.The heartwood yields a non-toxicantibiotic substance. It gave sesquiterpenealcohols—occidentalol and occidol;also alpha-beta-and gammaeudesmol.Thuja is used in homoeopathy fortissue degeneration and tumours, wartsand fungoid growths, both internallyand externally.Thymus serpyllum Linn.Family ◮ Labiatae; Lamiaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to North America;also found in temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Nepal; grown ingardens in western India.

Tilia sp. Linn. 661English ◮ Mother-of-thyme, WildThyme. Thymus vulgaris (GardenThyme) is found in the Nilgiris athigher elevations.Ayurvedic ◮ Ajagandhaa, Vana-Yavaani. (Not to be confused withYavaani, Ajmodaa, Shataahvaa,Raajikaa and Tilaparni.)Unani ◮Haashaa, Jangali Pudinaa.Action ◮ Antiseptic, antibacterial,antifungal, antiviral, antispasmodic,mild sedative, expectorant. T.serpyllum and T. vulgaris L. are usedfor coughs and common cold.Key application ◮ German CommissionE approved T. vulgaris forsymptoms of bronchitis, whoopingcough and catarrhs of the upperrespiratory tracts. Also to treatstomatitis. (ESCOP.)The British Herbal Pharmacopoeiarecognizes expectorant activity of T.serpyllum.T. serpyllum contains more linalooland p-cymol than Garden Thyme (T.vulgaris). Major constituent of thevolatile oil of both the species (highlyvariable) is thymol; with carvacrol(lesser amount in T. serpyllum, higherin T. vulgaris), 1,8-cineole, borneol,geraniol, linalool. bornyl and linalylacetate, thymol methyl ether andalpha-pinene.Flavonoids include apigenin, luteolin,thymonin, naringenin; other constituentsinclude labiatic acid, caffeicacid, tannins.The flavonoid fraction has shown tohave a potent effect on smooth muscleon guinea-pig trachea and ileum.Thymol is expectorant and antiseptic.Thymol and carvacrol are spasmolytic.Thymol is also urinary tractantiseptic and anthelmintic.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—3–5 gpowder. (CCRAS.)Thysanolaena agrostis Nees.Synonym ◮ T. maxima (Roxb.)Kuntze.Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in gardens.English ◮ Bouquet-Grass, Broom-Grass, Tiger-Grass, Amliso.Ayurvedic ◮ Juurnaa, Juurnaahv.Folk ◮ Junaar, Pirlu.Action ◮ Root—a decoction is usedas a mouthwash during fever, alsoafter parturition.Tilia sp. Linn.Family ◮ Tiliaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate regionsof northern hemisphere. Spp.introduced into India: Tilia cordataMill. (Himachal Pradesh atelevations of 2,100 m.) and T.europaea Linn., synonym T. vulgarisHayne (Kulu, Manali and Simla).English ◮ Small-leaved Lime orLinden and Common Lime orEuropean Linden (respectively).Action ◮ Flowers—nervine tonic,spasmolytic, sedative, hypotensive.An infusion is used for the treatmentof hysteria and indigestion.T

662 Tiliacora acuminata (Lam.)HK.f.&Thoms.TThe flowers contain a volatile oilup to about 0.1% containing farnesol;flavonoids including hesperidin, quercetin,astralagin, tiliroside; phenolicacidssuchaschlorogenicandcaffeic,tannins and mucilage (in the bract).In Western herbal, the flowers arean ingredient in blood pressure tabletsand mixtures and blood pressure medicinalteas.Tiliacora acuminata(Lam.)HK.f.&Thoms.Synonym ◮ T. racemosa Colebr.Family ◮ Menispermaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout tropical India.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kodaparuavalli.Folk ◮ Tiliyaa-koraa (Bihar, Bengal).Action ◮ Plant—CVS and CNSactive, spasmolytic, hypothermic.Used externally for skin diseases.The rootbark contains bis-benzylisoquinolinealkaloids—tiliacorine, tiliarine,tiliacorinine, nor-tiliacorininesA and B, corine, tiliacine and mohinine.The alkaloid tiliacoridine hasbeen reported from the leaves.Tinospora cordifolia(Willd.) Miers ex Hook. f. & Thoms.Family ◮ Menispermaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical India and theAndamans.Ayurvedic ◮ Guduuchi, Guduuchikaa,Guluuchi, Amrita, Amritaa,Amritalataa, Amritavalli,Chinnaruuhaa, Chinnodbhavaa,Madhuparni, Vatsaadani, Tantrikaa,Kundalini. Guduuchi sattva(starch).Unani ◮ Gilo, Gulanchaa. Sat-e-Gilo(starch).Siddha ◮Folk ◮Seenil, Amrida-valli.Giloya.Action ◮ Herb—antipyretic, antiperiodic,anti-inflammatory,antirheumatic, spasmolytic, hypoglycaemic,hepatoprotective. Waterextract increases urine output. Stemjuice—prescribed in high fever;decoction in rheumatic and biliousfevers. Aqueous extract of theplant—fabrifuge. Starch—antacid,antidiarrhoeal and antidysenteric.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India,along with other therapeutic applications,recommends the dried stemsin jaundice, anaemia, polyuria and skindiseases.The stem contains alkaloidal constituents,including berberine; bitterprinciples, including columbin, chasmanthin,palmarin and tinosporon,tinosporic acid and tinosporol.The drug is reported to possess onefifthof the analgesic effect of sodiumsalicylate. Its aqueous extract hasahighphagocyticindex.Alcoholic extract of the stem showsactivity against E. coli. Active principleswere found to inhibit in vitro thegrowth of Mycobacterium tuberculosis.Oral administration of alcoholic extractof the root resulted in a significantreduction in blood and urine glucoseandinlipidsinserumandtissuesof

Toddalia asiatica (Linn.) Lam. 663alloxan diabetic rats. (Phytother Res.2003 17 (4), 410–3.)A significant reduction in levels ofSGOT, SGPT, ALP and bilirubin wereobserved following T. cordifolia treatmentduring CCl4 intoxication in maturerats. (J. Toxicol Sci. 2002, 27 (3),139–46.) The plant extract showed invitro inactivating activity in Hepatitis-Bsurfaceantigen.(Indian Drugs, 1993,30, 549.)Anewhypoglycaemicagentwasisolatedfrom the plant; it was found to be1,2-substituted pyrrolidine.The starch from roots and stem,used in chronic diarrhoea and dysentery,contains a polysaccharide having1–4 glucan with occasional branchingpoints.Dosage ◮ Stem—3–6 g powder; 20–30 g for decoction. (API, Vol. I.)Tinospora crispaLinn. Miers ex Hook. f. Thoms.Synonym ◮Family ◮Habitat ◮Ayurvedic ◮species).T. rumphii Boerl.Menispermaceae.Assam.Guduuchi (relatedAction ◮ Plant—diuretic, as powerfula febrifuge as cinchona.The plant contains a bitter principlepicrotein and furanoditerpene glycoside,tinocrisposide.Stem, roots and tubers contain a diterpenoid—tinosporan,which appearsto be closely related to columbin.The mucilage from leaves gave galactan,pentosan, methyl pentosan andsugars.Tinospora malabaricaMiers ex Hook. f.Synonym ◮ T. sinensis (Lour.)Merrill.T. tomentosa (Colebr.) Miers.Family ◮ Menispermaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India,ascending to an altitude of 1,000 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Kandodbhava-guduchi,Vatsaadani, Padma-Guduuchi.Folk ◮ Gurch.Action ◮ Fresh leaves and stemare used in chronic rheumatism.Known as “muscle-relaxing vine” inChina.Used as a substitute for T. cordifolia.The plant is an inferior substituteas it contains less of carbohydrates,sterols, alkaloids and tannins.Alkaloid magnoflorine shows hypotensiveas well as curare-like effectin animals.Toddalia asiatica (Linn.) Lam.Synonym ◮ T. aculeata Pers.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas, fromKumaon eastwards to Assam, Khasihills and throughout the WesternPeninsula.English ◮ Wild Orange tree, ForestPepper.T

664 Torenia travancorica Gamble.TAyurvedic ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Milagaranai.Folk ◮Kanchana.Kattu Milagu,Jangali Kaali-mirch, Kanja.Action ◮ Whole plant—febrifuge,diuretic, Leaves—antispasmodic.Rootbark—antipyretic, diaphoretic,antiperiodic.Used as a tonic during convalescenceand constitutional debility. (Therootbark was used medicinally in thepast in Europe under the name LopezRoot or Cortex Radicis as an antimalarialdrug.)Unripe fruits and roots are includedin liniments used for rheumatism.The rootbark contains alkaloids, includingtoddaline, toddalinine, skimmianine.The root gave coumarins, includingtoddanol, toddanone, toddasin,pimpinellin, iso-pimpinellin andtoddalolactone.Alkaloid toddaline is irritant to themucous membrane, bronchi, intestinesand the bladder.Ethanolic extract of var. obtusifoliaGemble, found in the Nilgiris, TamilNadu, exhibited spasmolytic activity.Among the coumarins, chlorocoumarinis the most important activeprinciple and can be used an alternativefor papaverine obtained frompoppy.Torenia travancorica Gamble.Synonym ◮ T. asiatica Hook. f. inpart, non Linn.Family ◮ Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Ghats in theNilgiris, Madurai, Coimbatoreand Tirunelveli. (Torenias areornamental herbs.)Folk ◮ Kakapu (Kerala).Action ◮ Used in prescriptions forgonorrhoea.Torenia polygonoides Benth. (NorthEast India) is used in urinary tractinfections, topically for aching joints,sores and ulcers. T. thouarsii Kuntze(coastal areas of Mysore) is used forulcers.Trachelospermum fragransHook. f.Synonym ◮ T. lucidum (D. Don) K.Schum.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate and subtropicalHimalaya from Kumaon toArunachal Pradesh and in Assam,Meghalaya up to 2,100 m.Folk ◮ Duudhi (Kumaon), Akhaahilataa(Assam).Action ◮ Used as a substitute forAlstonia scholaris.T. jasminoides Lem. (Star-Jasmine),native to China and Japan, is cultivatedall over India. Alkaline extracts ofthe leaf and stem show activity againstyeast. The leaves and twigs containdambonitol, cyclitol, arctiin, tracheloside,beta-amyrin and its acetate, lupeolacetate, and a mixture of betastosterol,stigmasterol and campesterol.A flavone glycoside was isolatedfrom the butanol extract of dried leaves

Trachyspermum roxburghianum (DC.) Craib. 665and several indole alkaloids from thealcoholic extract of dried leaves andtwigs.The leaves, stem and twigs are usedfor treating rheumatic arthritis, nervousdisorders, urine retention and asa tonic for weak muscles or nerves.Trachyspermum ammi(Linn.) Sprague.Synonym ◮ T. copticum Link.Carum copticum Benth. ex Hiern.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated in MadhyaPradesh, Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat,Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh,Rajasthan and Bihar.English ◮ Ammi, Lovage, Carum,Ajowan.Ayurvedic ◮ Yavaani, Yamaani,Yavaanikaa, Yamaanikaa, Dipyaka.Unani ◮ Nankhwaah, Desi Ajawaayin.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Omam.Action ◮ Fruits—carminative,antispasmodic, anticholerin, antidiarrhoeal,bechic, stimulant.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the dried fruits intympanitis, constipation, colic andhelminthiasis. Oil—used as an expectorantin emphysema, bronchial andother respiratory ailments.Used externally in cases of rheumatism.Leaf juice—anthelmintic. Root—carminative, diuretic, febrifuge.The aqueous extract of the fruit isa popular remedy for diarrhoea in Indianmedicine.The fruit, in addition to protein(17.1), fat (21.8), carbohydrates (24.6)and mineral matter (7.9%), containssugars, tannins, flavone and sterol. Theseeds contain a phenolic glucoside,2-methyl-3-glucosyloxy-5-isopropylphenol.The principal constituents of theAjowan oil are the phenols, mainlythymol (35–60%) and some carvacrol.(Crystalized thymol is known in thetrade as Ajowan-kaa-phuul, Flowerof-Ajowan.)Thymol is a powerful antiseptic andantifungal. It is an ingredient in deodorantmouth-washes, toothpastesand gargles. The aqueous portion,left after the separation of essentialoil, is known as Omum-water and isprescribed in flatulence and gripe, especiallyin children.Dosage ◮ Fruit—3–6 g powder.(API, Vol. I.)Trachyspermumroxburghianum (DC.) Craib.Synonym ◮ Carum roxburghianum(DC.) Benth. & Hk. f.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughoutIndia.English ◮ Ajmud.Ayurvedic ◮ Ajamodaa, Ajamoda,Ayamoda, Ajmoja, Dipyaka.Unani ◮ Karafs-e-Hindi.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ashamtagam.Action ◮ Seeds—carminative,stomachic, stimulant, cardiac tonic.T

666 Tragia involucrata Linn.TUsed for dyspepsia, vomiting,hiccough, bronchitis, asthma,and pain in bladder; also as anemmenagogue.The seeds yield the coumarins—bergaptene, 7-methoxy-6-methyl coumarinand umbelliferone. Beta-sitosterolis also reported.Major constituent of the essential oilfrom the seeds are d-limonene (35.1),alpha-terpinene (19.4), d-linalool (4.7),dl-terpineol (5.7) and dl-piperitone(13.6%). Thymol content is 1.7%.The fruit (Ajmud) induced hyperactivityof the central nervous system inmice. It also exhibited activity againstEntamoeba histolytica. The ketonicsubstances exhibit powerful antispasmodicactivity.The fruit left after the extraction ofthe essential oil showed pronouncedcardiotonic activity.The oil produced marked diureticeffect in rabbits. It lowered blood pressurein dogs and rats.Tragia involucrata Linn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Outer Himalayan rangeseastwards to Assam; southwardsto Travancore, throughout warmerregions of India.English ◮ Indian Stinging-Nettle.Ayurvedic ◮ Vrishchhikaali,Vrishchhika-patrikaa. Used inKerala as Duraalabhaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chenthatti, Sirrukanchori.Action ◮ Root—febrifuge, diaphoretic,alterative, blood purifier. Givenin fever when the extremities arecold; also for pain in arms and legs.Used as a blood purifier in venerealdiseases; applied externally to skineruptions. Fruit—paste used inbaldness.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—3–6 g. (API,Vol. IV.)Tragopogon porrifolius Linn.Synonym ◮Family ◮T. sinuatum Ave. Lall.Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe;grown in Himachal Pradesh andMaharashtra.English ◮ Salify, Vegetable-Oyster,Purple Goat’s Beard, Oyster Plant.Action ◮ Root—specific in obstructionsof the gall in jaundice;antibilious. Also used for treatingarteriosclerosis and high bloodpressure.T. porrifolius contain several flavonoids,including orientin and isoorientin.The seeds yield an oil which containsa saturated epoxy acid viz. cis-9,10-epoxysteric acid and several conjugateddienoic acids.Cooked flashy roots of T. porrifoliuscontain sodium 8, potassium 183, calcium60, magnesium 14, iron 1.2, copper0.1, phosphorus 53, sulphur 25 andchlorine 46 mg/100 g. A large parts ofcarbohydrates occur as inulin.

Trewia nudiflora Linn. 667Trapa bispinosa Roxb.Synonym ◮ T. natans Linn. var. bispinosa(Roxb.) Makino.T. quadrispinosa Wall.Family ◮Habitat ◮English ◮Trapaceae.Throughout India.Water Chestnut.Ayurvedic ◮ Shrngaataka, Shrngaata,Shrngamuula, Trikota, Jalaphala,Trikonaphala, Paaniyaphala,Jalkanda,Trikona,Trika.Unani ◮ Singhaaraa.Siddha ◮ SingaraAction ◮ The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeiaof India recommends theuse of dried kernels in bleedingdisorders, threatened abortion,dysuria, polyuria and oedema.Flour of dried kernels is used inpreparations for breaking fast in India.The flour is rich in proteins andminerals. The flour, prepared fromdried kernels, of red and white varietiescontain: phosphorus 45, 48; sulphur122.81, 130.16; calcium 60, 20; magnesium200, 160; sodium 100, 80; andpotassium 1800, 1760 mg/100 g; iron145.16, 129.02 and manganese 18.93,11.36 ppm, respectively. The starch,isolated from flour, consists of 15%amylose and 85% amylopectin.Dosage ◮ Dried seed—5–10 gpowder. (API, Vol. IV.)Trema orientalis Blume.Synonym ◮Blume.T. amboinensis auct. nonFamily ◮ Ulmaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India inhumid regions, up to 2,430 m.English ◮ Charcoal tree, IndianNettle tree.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ambaratthi, Chenkolam.Folk ◮ Gio.Action ◮ Root—astringent andstyptic; prescribed for diarrhoea,haematuria. Bark—analgesic.Used as poultice for muscular pain.Root, bark and leaves—used in epilepsy.The bark contains 16% tannin. Stembarkgave triterpenoid alcohols simiarenoland tremetol; a triterpene simiurenone;octacosanoic acid and 1-octacosanyl acetate.Alcoholic extract of the roots produceda progressive depression ofblood pressure (a total of 50% in 1 h)in cats.Trewia nudiflora Linn.Family ◮ Euphorbiaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout moist and hotparts of India.English ◮ False White Teak, Gutel.Ayurvedic ◮ Shriparni, Tumri,Pindaara. Shriparni is a synonym ofGambhaari (Gmelina arborea).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Attarasu, Nay Kumil.Action ◮ Plant—antibilious, antiflatulent,bechic, anti-inflammatory.Root—carminative, antirheumatic.T

668 Trianthema decandra Linn.Applied as poultice in gout andrheumatism. Plant extract showed antileukaemicactivity.Plant contains a pyridine alkaloid,N-methyl-5-carboxamide-2-pyridone.Leavescontainanalkaloid,nudiflorine.Bark yields taraxerone and betasitosterol.Seeds contain an alkaloidricinidine. The seeds also containa maytansinoid compound, trewiasine(TWS). It exhibited significant cytotoxicactivity against various humancell lines in vitro.The charcoal made from the woodis rich in potassium (21.16%).Trewia polycarpa Benth. ex Hook. f.(Western Ghats, Konkan and Kerala)is also a related species of Tumri.Trianthema govindiaBuch.-Ham ex G. Don.Synonym ◮ T. pentandra auct. nonLinn.Family ◮ Aizoaceae.Habitat ◮ The plains from Punjabto Bihar, extending southwards toKarnataka.Ayurvedic ◮ Varshaabhu (relatedspecies).Action ◮ Plant—astringent instomach diseases, deobstruent,abortifacient.The root and stems contain hentriacontane,hentriacontanol, beta-sitosterolglucoside, stigmasterol glucosideand nonacos-1-en-4-one.TTrianthema decandra Linn.Family ◮Aizoaceae.Habitat ◮ South India, Gujarat,Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh andHaryana.Ayurvedic ◮species).Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Varshaabhu (relatedBisakhaparaa.Vellai Sharunnai.Action ◮ Root—deobstruent; used forasthma, hepatitis and amenorrhoea.The root, leaf and stem gave positivetest for alkaloid. The plant is a goodsource of zinc (1.077 ± 0.188) andcopper (0.416 ± 0.057) mg/100 g.Trianthema portulacastrumLinn.Synonym ◮ T. monogyna Linn.Family ◮ Aizoaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated fields andwastelands.English ◮ Horse Purslane.Ayurvedic ◮ Varshaabhu, Vrshchira,Vishakharparikaa, Shilaatikaa,Shothaghni, Kshdra. Wronglyequated with Shveta-punarnavaaor Rakta-punarnavaa. Varshaabhuand Punarnavaa are two differentherbs. T. portulacastrum is a rainyseason annual. Rakta-punarnavaais equated with Boerhavia diffusa,Shveta-punarnavaa with whitefloweredspecies, B. erecta L. (B.punarnava).

Tribulus terrestris Linn. 669Unani ◮Siddha ◮Folk ◮Biskhaparaa.Sharunai.Pathari, Bisakhaparaa.Action ◮ Root—antipyretic, analgesic,spasmolytic, deobstruent,cathartic, anti-inflammatory.Leaves—diuretic; used in oedemaand dropsy. A decoction of the herbis used as an antidote to alcoholic poison.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the dried root in diseasesof the liver and spleen, anaemiaand oedema.Ethanolic extract of the aerial partsexhibited hepatoprotective activity inCCl4-induced intoxication in rats. Theacetone-insoluble fraction of the extractis responsible for the activity.The red and white flowers containan alkaloid trianthemine, alsopunaranavine. The plant also gaveecdysterone (0.01 g/kg), a potentialchemosterilant; nicotinic acid and ascorbicacid. The plant is rich in phosphorusand iron but poor in calcium.The high content of oxalate affectsthe assimilation of calcium. Carotene(2.3 mg/100 g) has also been reported.Trianthema sp. are used as adulterantof the roots of Boerhavia diffusa.Dosage ◮ Root—2–5 g powder. (API,Vol. IV.)Tribulus alatus Delile.Family ◮ Zygophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Rajasthan, Gujarat, Punjaband Haryana.English ◮ Winged Caltrops.Ayurvedic ◮ Gokshura (relatedspecies).Unani ◮ Gokharu-kalaan.Folk ◮ Desi Gokharu, Aakharaa.,Hasaka.Action ◮ Fruits—diuretic, antiinflammatory,emmenagogue. Usedfor uterine and genitourinarydisorders.Seed—astringent, diuretic; given towomen to ensure fecundity.The fruit gave sterols—stigmasterol,campesterol and beta-sitosterol; flavonoids—luteolin,kaempferol-3-glucosideand rutin; sapogenins—diosgenin,gitogenin and chlorogenin. Root,stems, leaves and seeds contain sapogenins—diosgenin,gitogenin andchlorogenin; sterols—beta-sitosteroland stigmasterol.Tribulus terrestris Linn.Family ◮ Zygophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up to5,400 m.English ◮ Land-Caltrops, PunctureVine.Ayurvedic ◮ Gokshura, Gokshuraka,Kshudra (Laghu) Gokharu,Shvadamshtraa, Swaadu-kantaka,Trikanta, Trikantaka. (Largervar. is equated with Pedalium murexLinn. The fruits of both the varietiesare conical and have four spines,not three as the synonyms denote.Hence, Acanthospermum hispidumDC. and Martynia annua Linn. haveT

670 Trichodesma indicum R. Br.Tbeen suggested as the source ofTrikantaka.)Unani ◮ Khaar-e-Khasak Khurd.Siddha ◮ Sirunenunji, Nerinjil,Nerunjil.Action ◮ Fruits—diuretic, demulcent,anti-inflammatory, anabolic,spasmolytic, muscle relaxant,hypotensive, hypoglycaemic. Usedin strangury, calculus affections,urolithiasis, crystalluria, urinarydischarges, pruritus-ani, as a tonicin sexual inadequacy; also asa supporting medicine in coughand asthma. Leaf—diuretic,haemostatic. Root—stomachic,diuretic.In addition to all these applications,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiaattributes cardiotonic properties to theroot and fruit.The plant contains saponins, whichon hydrolysis yield sapogenins—diosgenin,gitogenin, chlorogenin, ruscogenin,25D-spirosta-3, 5-diene, amongothers. Flavonoids—rutin, quercetin,kaempferol, kaempferol-3-glucosideand-rutinoside, and tribuloside havebeen isolated from the leaves and fruits.The seeds contain carboline alkaloids—harmane and harmine. Harmol is alsoreported from the herb.A saponin (unidentified) is reportedeffective for treating angina pectorisin people with coronary heart disease(406 cases were treated). (NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Diuretic (more than furosemide),proerectile aphrodisiac, hypotensive,hypolipidaemic, hypoglycaemic (40–67% in diabetic mice) activities havebeen confirmed in several experimentalstudies. (Pub Med, Medline abstracts,2003.)Dosage ◮ Fruit—3–6 g powder.(CCRAS.)Trichodesma indicum R. Br.Family ◮ Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ The greater part of Indiain the plains.Ayurvedic ◮ Adah-pushpi, Adhomukha,Gandhapushpika, Andhaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kalhudaitumbai.Folk ◮ Andhaahuli.Action ◮ Herb—Diuretic, emollient,febrifuge. Leaf—depurative. Root—anti-inflammatory, astringent,antidysenteric. Pounded andapplied to swelling of joints.Flower—sudorific and pectoral.The seeds gave linoleic, linolenic,oleic, palmitic and stearic acids. Hexacosane,ethylhexacosanoate, 21,24-hexacosadienoic acid ethylester havebeen isolated from the leaves.Dosage ◮ Root—5–10 g paste.(CCRAS.)Trichodesma zeylanicum R. Br.Family ◮ Boraginaceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, crossinginto West Bengal.Ayurvedic ◮ Adah-pushpi (relatedspecies), Jhingi.

Trichosanthes bracteata (Lam.) Viogt. 671Folk ◮ Hetenuriyaa, Jalasirasa.Jinghini (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Flower—sudorific, pectoral.Leaves—diuretic, emollient, demulcent.Root—applied to wounds asanalgesic.Seeds contain a toxic alkaloid supinine(1% dry seeds). Aqueous extractsof stems, leaves and fruits is very toxicto cockroaches.Tricholepis angustifolia DC.Family ◮Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Coastal regions of Keralaand Karnataka.Ayurvedic ◮species).Folk ◮Action ◮Brahmadandi (relatedUuntakataaraa.Diuretic, bechic.Tricholepis glaberrima DC.Family ◮Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Rajasthan, MadhyaPradesh and Peninsular India.Ayurvedic ◮Brahmadandi.Action ◮ Antiseptic (used inleucoderma), nervine tonic (usedin seminal debility), urinary tractdisinfectant. Root—bechic.The plant contains betulin, spinasterol,stigmasterol, stigma-7-enol anda triterpenoid—cycloart-23-en-3beta,25-diol.Trichosanthes anguina Linn.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated throughoutIndia particularly in South India.English ◮ Snake-Gourd.Ayurvedic ◮ Dadhipushpi, Chichinda,Shvetaraaji, Ahiphala.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pudal.Folk ◮ Chichindaa, Chichendaa.Action ◮ Root and seed—antibilious,vermifuge, antidiarrhoeal. Fruits—improve appetite, cure biliousness.Alpha-, beta-, gamma-carotenes,cryptoxanthin, lycopene, lutein, hentriacontane,ceryl alcohol, quercetin,alpha-amyrin, taraxerone, oxalic acid,surcose, and beta-sitosterol have beenisolated from the fruit. The seedgave kaempferol, its 3-O-glucoside andquercetin.The plant gave cucurbita-5,24-dienol, 24-ethylcholesta-7-enol, 24-ethylcholesta-7, 22-dienol.Trichosanthes bracteata(Lam.) Viogt.Synonym ◮ T. palmata Roxb.T. lepiniana (Naud.) Cogn.Involucraria lepiniana Naud.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in moistplaces.Ayurvedic ◮ Indravaaruni (redvar.), Vishaalaa, Mahaakaala,Mahendra-vaaruni.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Korattai.T

672 Trichosanthes cordata Roxb.TFolk ◮ Mahkaar, Maakaal, LaalIndraayana, Kondal.Action ◮ Same as that of Citrulluscolocynthis. The fruits are poisonous.The seed extract showhaemagglutinating activity. Fruit—cathartic, antiasthmatic (the fruitis smoked in asthma and lung diseases),anti-inflammatory (used forrheumatic affections, weakness oflimbs, dental diseases, hemicrania).The root gave tetrahydroxypentacyclictriterpenoid, trichotetrol. Cyclotrichosantoland cycloeucalenolhave been isolated from the leaves.Trichosanthes cordata Roxb.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Foot hills of the Himalayasfrom Garhwal to Sikkim and innorth-eastern India, up to 500 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Vidaari (var.), Bhuumikushmaanda,Patola (relatedspecies.).Folk ◮ Bhui-kumhraa.Action ◮ Tuber—dried powder givenin enlarged spleen and liver; appliedexternally on leprous ulcers.Used in prescriptions for haemorrhagicdiseases and in spermatopoietictonics. Aerial parts—diuretic.The seeds yield 23.3% (dry basis)a fatty oil containing 32.3% of punicicacid.Trichosanthes cucumerina Linn.Family ◮Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Found throughout Indiain scrub-jungles and waste places.Ayurvedic ◮ Amritaphala, Vana-Patota, Tikta-Patoli.Siddha ◮ Kattu Pey Pudal.Action ◮ Bitter fruits—bloodpurifier (used in the treatmentof skin diseases); germicidal;appetizer, laxative (used in biliousdisorders); hepatoprotective. Rootand seed—anthelmintic, antifebrile.Whole plant—antipyretic. Root—cathartic. Leaves—used externallyin alopecia.Cucurbitacin B has been isolatedfrom the fruits.The root tuber containsglycoproteins and beta-trichosanthin.The leaves gave luteolin-7-glucoside,kaempferol, 3,7-dirhamnoside and 3-glucoside-7-rhamnoside, cucurbitacinsB and E, oleanolic acid, betasitosteroland its D-glucoside. Theseed oil showed the presence of punicicacid; oleic, linoleic, eleostearic,palmitic, stearic and arachidic acids.Meso-inositol was found to be presentin the plant.Trichosanthes dioica Roxb.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Warmer regions of India,particularly in Uttar Pradesh. Bihar,West Bengal and Assam.English ◮ Patol, Pointed Gourd.Ayurvedic ◮ Patola, Kulaka, Raajiphala,Karkashchhada, Karkasha,Bijagarbha.Unani ◮ Parwal.

Tridax procumbens Linn. 673Siddha ◮Kommu Patolia.Action ◮ Aerial parts—hypoglycaemic.Fruits—juice of unripefruits used in spermatorrhoea.Leaves—febrifuge; prescribed asa diet in enlargement of liver andspleen; piles and fistula. Root—cathartic, febrifuge.The fruits contain free amino acids,nicotinic acid, riboflavin, vitamin C,thiamine, 5-hydroxytryptamine. Matureplant and root gave cucurbita-5,24-dienol. Colocynthin, trichosanthin,hentriacontane have been isolatedfrom the root.Fatty acids from the seeds compriseelaeostearic, linoleic, oleic and saturatedacids.The whole fruit and pulp producedsignificant hypocholesterolaemic, hypotriglyceridaemicand hyper-phospholipidaemiceffects in normal andmidly diabetic human subjects.Extracts of seeds exhibit haemagglunatingactivity.Dosage ◮ Leaf—10–2 ml juice.(CCRAS.)Trichosanthes nervifolia Linn.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Karnataka, Kerala andTamil Nadu.Ayurvedic ◮ Patoli (related species ofPatola).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kombu Pudalai.Action ◮ Herb—bitter tonic,febrifuge. Root—purgative. Fruit—used as dentifrice.Tridax procumbens Linn.Family ◮ Asteraceae; Compositae.Habitat ◮ Waste places, road sidesand hedges throughout India.English ◮ Mexican Daisy.Ayurvedic ◮ Jayanti (doubtfulsynonym).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Vettukkaaya-thalai.Folk ◮ Akala Kohadi (Bihar).Action ◮ Leaves—styptic, antidiarrhoeal,antidysenteric. Also usedfor bronchial catarrh.The leaf juice exhibits antiseptic,insecticidal and parasiticidal properties.It is used to check haemorrhagefrom wounds, cuts and bruises, alsofor restoring hair growth.An aqueous extract of the plant producedreflex tachycardia and showeda transient hypotensive effect on normalblood pressure of dogs; it had alsoshowed a marked depressant action onthe respiration.Alcoholic extract of the whole plant(excluding roots) at a dose of 300 mgshowed good anti-secretory antidiarrhoealactivity against E. coli enterotoxin-inducedsecretory response in rabbitand guinea-pig ileal loop models.Alcoholic extract of aerial partsalso showed hepatoprotective actionagainst acute hepatitis induced by CCl4in albino rats.The leaves contain fumaric acid. Theplant gave n-alkanes, saturated and unsaturatedfatty acids along with dotriacontanol,beta-amyrin, beta-amyrone,lupeol, fucosterol and beta-sitosterol.Flowers contain glucoluteolin, isoquercetinand quercetin. PresenceT

674 Trifolium pratense Linn.Tof lauric, myristic, palmitic, stearic,arachidic, behenic, palmitoleic, linoleicand linolenic acid is reported inaerial parts except flower tops.Trifolium pratense Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir to Garhwal at1,200–2,400 m, and the Nilgiris.English ◮ Red Clover.Unani ◮ Ispast, Berseem, Clover(equated with T. alexandricumLinn.)Folk ◮ Trepatra (Punjab).Action ◮ Flower—deobstruent, antispasmodic,expectorant, sedative,anti-inflammatory, antidermatosis.Used for psoriasis, eczema and otherskin diseases; and as an expectorantin coughs and bronchitis. Also usedas antineoplastic against tumours andhard swellings.The plant contains iso-flavonoids—calycosin-7-galactoside, calycosin,pseudobaptigenin, fornononetin, diadzeinand medicagol; also hydroxypterocarpans.The flowerheads contain phenolicglycosides, flavonoids, salicylates,coumarins, cyanogenic glycosides,starch and fatty acids. Flavonoidsin the flowers and leaves are oestrogenic;provide relief in menopausalcomplaints.The British Herbal Pharmacopoeiarecognizes anti-inflammatory propertyof the flower.Trifolium alexandricum, accordingto National Formulary of Unani Medicine,is used as Ispast. The seeds containxanthosin.Trigonella corniculata Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir to Sikkim, and inBihar and West Bengal. Cultivatedin North India.Unani ◮ Pirang.Folk ◮ Kasuri Methi, MaarwaariMethi, Champaa Methi.Action ◮ Leaves—rich in phosphorus.Fruits—bitter, astringent andstyptic. Applied to swellings andbruises.The seeds afforded ethyl-alpha-Dgalactopyranoside,glycoflavones—vitexin(apigenin-C-glucoside), apigenin-6-8-di-C-monoglucosideand itsmonoacetate; also contain triacontane,22,23-dihydrostigmasterol, choline andbetaine; saponins on hydrolysis gaveyuccagenin and diosgenin.Trigonella foenum-graecumLinn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Widely cultivated in manyparts of India.English ◮ Fenugreek.Ayurvedic ◮ Methikaa, Methi,Vastikaa, Selu, Methini, Dipani,Bahupatrikaa, Bodhaini, Gandhaphala.Unani ◮ Hulbaa, Methi.

Trigonella incisa Benth. 675Siddha/Tamil ◮Vendhayam.Action ◮ Seeds—used in loss ofappetite, flatulence, dyspepsia,colic; diarrhoea, dysentery; enlargementof liver and spleen; and asalactagogueandpuerperaltonic.Key application ◮ German CommissionE reported secretolytic,hypermic and mild antisepticactivity of the seed. The BritishHerbal Pharmacopoeia reportedits actions as demulcent and hypoglycaemic.ESCOP and WHOmonographs indicate the use ofseeds in adjuvant therapy for diabetesmellitus, anorexia, also inhypercholesterolaemia.The seeds gave alkaloids, includingtrigonelline, gentianine and carpaine;saponins, based mainly on the sapogenins,diosgenin and its isomeryamogenin, gitogenin and tigogenin;flavonoids, including vitexin and itsglycosides and esters and luteolin; avolatile oil in small quantities. Themucilage (25–30%) is mostly a galactomannan.A C-steroidal sapogenin peptide ester,fenugreekine, exhibited hypoglycaemicactivity.About 80% of the total contentof free amino acids in the seeds ispresent as 4-hydroxyisoleucine, whichappears to directly stimulate insulin.(Eur J Pharmacol, 390, 2000; NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Saponin rich extracts reduce bloodlevels of the cholesterol. The fibrousfraction of seeds also causes a reductionin blood lipids.The aqueous extract is demulcent,promoted healing of gastric ulcers producedexperimentally in rats and exhibiteda smooth muscle relaxing effectin rabbits without affecting either theheart or blood pressure.Fenugreek has been reported tostimulate the liver microsomal cytochromeP450 dependent aryl hydroxylaseand cytochrome b5 in rats;increased bile secretion has also beenobserved.Fenugreek extract containing trigonellineand trigonellic acid may be usedas a hair growth stimulant.Dosage ◮ Seed—3–5 g powder.(CCRAS.)Trigonella incisa Benth.Synonym ◮ T. polycerata auct. non L.Family ◮Papillionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab plains and WesternHimalaya, up to 1,800 m.Folk ◮ Sainji, Chini, Shirgona(Punjab), Chainhari (Delhi), Methi(related species).Action ◮Seeds—antidiarrhoeic.Aerial parts and pods contain steroidalsapogenins—diosgenin 0.04, 0.25;and tigogenin 0.008, 0.18% respectively.Various plant parts and tissues inculture contain flavonoids, the majorbeing luteolin, besides kaempferol,quercetin and apigenin.T

676 Trigonella uncata Boiss.TTrigonella uncata Boiss.Family ◮Habitat ◮Papilionaceae, Fabaceae.Afghanistan, Persia.English ◮ Tonkin Bean, Melilot,King’s Crown.Unani ◮ Iklil-ul-Malik (also equatedwith Melilotus alba Desv., andAstragalus homosus Linn.).Folk ◮Sainji (white-flowered var.).Action ◮ Beans—anti-inflammatory,anodyne, diuretic, emmenagogue.(Indian species, bearing smallerbeans, has been equated with Trigonellacorniculata and is known as Pirang.)Triphasia trifolia(Burm. f.) P. Wils.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Wild in parts of PeninsularIndia; cultivated in gardens.English ◮ Lime Berry, Myrtle-Lime,Chinese Lime.Folk ◮ Chinese Naarangi.Action ◮ Leaves—used in skindiseases and in preparation of bathsalts. Ripe fruits—used againstcough.The leaves contain the alkaloid O-methylhalfordinol and coumarins, includingumbelliferone, isomeranzinand triphasiol.Triticum aestivum Linn.Family ◮Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Cultivated as a foodcrop mainly in Punjab, Haryana,Uttar Pradesh., Madhya Pradesh,Maharashtra, Bihar and Rajasthan.English ◮Ayurvedic ◮Folk ◮Wheat.Gehun.Godhuuma.Action ◮ Wheat germ oil is richin tocopherol (vitamin E) content,total tocopherols 1897 mcg/g, alphatocopherol 67%. The presence ofergosterol (provitamin D) has alsobeen reported.Wheat germ is also used for itsminerals, proteins and lipid contents.Germ proteins are rich in lysine (5.28–5.55 g/100 g protein) and possess highbiological value (94%) and protein efficiencyratio (2.9).Wheat germ contains haemagglutinatingandantipyreticfactors, but theseare destroyed by toasting. It also containshaemoproteins, possessing peroxidaseactivity.In adult rats, addition of wheat germ(7%) to a high fat (cholesterol) diet significantlydecreased VLDL-cholesteroland VLDL-triglycerides and increasedthe HDL-cholesterol after-7 weeks offeeding.Bran oil contains tocopherols, butmajor part of them (68%) is in epsilonform; alpha-tocopherol forms only 11%of the total.Gluten lipids, associated with gluten,contain a high percentage of linoleicacid; lowering of serum cholesterollevel has been observed in experiments(lipid-free gluten is devoid ofcholesterol-lowering effect).

Tulipa gesneriana Linn. 677Sensitivity to gluten has also beenreported(evenwhenwholewheatflourwas used).Triumfetta rhomboidea Jacq.Synonym ◮ T. angulata Lam.Family ◮ Tiliaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout tropical andsubtropical India, up to 1,200 m inthe Himalayas.English ◮ Burbush, Burweed.Ayurvedic ◮ Jhinjhireetaa, Gippit.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ottupullu.Folk ◮ Chikti, Biriyaaraa.Action ◮ Leaves and bark—astringent,anticholerin, demulcent. Usedin diarrhoea and dysentery. Root—styptic, diuretic, galactogenic. Hotinfusion facilitates childbirth andhastens parturition. Pounded rootsare given for the treatment of ulcers.Leaves and flowers—used againstleprosy.T. rotundifolia Linn., known as Mudapponduin Tamil Nadu and Bankitutturiin Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka,isusedasademulcent.Alcoholicextract of the root showed antiinflammatoryactivity and reduced cottonpellet granuloma formation in albinorats. Alcoholic extract of the wholeplant exhibited antimicrobial activity.Tropaeolum majus Linn.Family ◮Tropaeolaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South America;grownasanornamentalandsaladherb.English ◮ Garden Nasturtium, IndianCress, Climbing-Nasturtium.Action ◮ Leaves—an infusionincreases resistance to bacterial infections,reduces catarrh formationand expels phlegm. Juice of theplant—given internally for treatingscrofula. Flowers—used for healingwounds. Seeds— purgative.Common Nasturtium contains glucocyanates(including glycotropeoline),spilanthol, myrosin (an enzyme),oxalic acid and vitamin C. The leavesfrom the young plant showed greaterantibiotic activity than the stems; rootswere inactive.Extracts and preparations of T. majusare found efficacious in the infectionsof urinary and respiratory tract,but have no effect on infections of thebiliary tract or in typhoid fever.Tulipa gesneriana Linn.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas ataltitudes of 1,500–2,400 m.English ◮ Common Garden Tulip,Late Tulip. Tulip tree is equatedwith Liriodendron tulipifera.Unani ◮ Tulipa stellata Hook bulbsare wrongly equated with Suranjaanof Unani medicine. Colchicumluteum Baker is the source ofSuranjaan Talkh (bitter), andMerendera persica of SuranjaanShireen (sweet).T

678 Turnera ulmifolia Linn.TFolk ◮Tulip.Action ◮ Bulbs—mitogenic (TGlectin-erythrocyte, and TG lectinyeast).A cardiotoxic alkaloid has been reportedfrom the leaves. AntibioticD-glucosides (tuliposides), inhibit thegrowth of Bacillus subtilis, have beenisolated from pistils, stalks and leaves.Turnera ulmifolia Linn.Synonym ◮ T. angustifolia Mill.Family ◮ Turneraceae.Habitat ◮ West Bengal and Orissa andin the Peninsular India, particularlyon the coast.English ◮ West Indian Holly,Sagerose.Folk ◮ Bhinjir (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Herb—prescribed inindigestion, biliousness (leavesare used against dysentery), chestailments and rheumatism.The fresh plant yields a mixtureof cyanohydrin glucosides—deidaclinand tetraphyllin. Seeds, along withnormal fatty acids, contain a few unusualfatty acids, including vernolic,malvalic and octanoic acids.An allied species Turnera diffusavar. aphrodisiaca, a native to the Gulf ofMexico, Southern California, (knownas Damiana) is used in India by homoeopathicpractitioners as a tonicand sex restorative, and for treatingpremature ejaculation.Turnera diffusa Willd. has beenincluded among unapproved herbsby German Commission E. The BritishHerbal Pharmacopoeia recognizes itsthymoleptic activity.Turraea villosa Benn.Family ◮Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Gujarat to Karnataka, bothon the hills and the coasts, and inthe Anamalai Hills in Tamil Naduup to 1,200 m.Folk ◮ Pandre, Kapuur—bhendi(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Root—applied to fistula;also administered in leprosy.Villosterol, a pregnene steroid, hasbeen isolated from the plant.T. virens Linn. (Kerala) is reportedto be employed in the treatment of fits.Tussilago farfara Linn.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas fromKashmir to Nepal at 1,500–3,500 m.English ◮ Coughwort, Coltsfoot,Asses’ Foot.Unani ◮ Fanjiyun.Action ◮ Leaves and flowers—anticatarrhal, antitussive, expectorant,antispasmodic, demulcent,anti-inflammatory. Used for dry,unproductive, irritative cough,smoker’s cough, whooping cough,bronchial asthma (effect shortlived),laryngitis.

Tylophora indica (Burm. f.) Merrill. 679Key application ◮ In acute catarrhof the respiratory tract with coughand hoarseness; acute, mild inflammationof the oral and pharyngealmucosa. Contraindicated duringpregnancy and nursing. (GermanCommission E.)The leaves and flowers contain flavonoidsincluding rutin, hyperoside andisoquercetin; pyrrolizidine alkaloidsincluding senkirkine and tussilagine(about 0.015%); mucilage (about 8%)consisting of polysaccharides based onglucose, galactose, fructose, arabinoseand xylose; inulin, tannins.Polysaccharides are anti-inflammatoryand immuno-stimulating, as wellas demulcent. Flavonoids also haveanti-inflammatory and antispasmodicaction. Pyrrolizidine alkaloids havecaused hepatotoxicity in rats fed dailyon high doses, but not on daily lowdose regimes. These are largely destroyedwhen the herb is boiled.The leaf contains an inhibitor ofplatelet activating factor (PAF). ThePAF inhibitor can account for Coltsfoot’sefficacy in asthma. The constituent,tussilagone has respiratorystimulant and cardiovascular (includingpressor) activities. In animal studies,Coltsfoot is reported to have a pressoreffectsimilartodopaminebutwithouttachyphylasis. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)Tylophora fasciculataBuch.-Ham ex Wight.Family ◮Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayas tract fromUttar Pradesh to Meghalaya and incentral and Peninsular India.Ayurvedic ◮ Go-chandanaa.Action ◮ Toxic. Used as a substitutefor Cephaelis ipecacuanha asemetic, purgative and febrifuge;externally on unhealthy ulcers andwounds.Tylophora indica(Burm. f.) Merrill.Synonym ◮ T. asthamatica Wight &Arn.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, West Bengal,Orissa and Peninsular India.English ◮ Emetic Swallow Wort,Indian or Country Ipecacuanha.Ayurvedic ◮ Antamuula, Muulini,Arkaparni.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nay Palai, Nangilaippiratti.Action ◮ Leaves—used for bronchialasthma and allergic rhinitis.The whole plant yielded alkaloidsincluding tylophorine, tylphorinine,desmethyltylophorine and desmethyltylophorinine,and a flavonoid kaempferol.The root yielded alkaloids,tylophorinidine and gamma-fagarine.The leaves gave tylophorinidine, d-septicine, d-iso-tylocrebrine; triterpenoidsalpha-and beta-amyrin; betasitosterol,stigmasterol and campesterol;phenylalanine; and quercetin.Ceryl alcohol has also been reportedfrom the plant.T

680 Tylophora tenuis BlumeTThe plant exhibited anti-amoebicactivity against axenic and polyaxenicstrains of Entamoeba histolytica.Tylophorine and 4-methoxy-14-hydroxytylophorine are 2 and 4 timesmore effective, respectively, than thestandard drugs Emetine dihydrochlorideand Metroindazole. Tylophorineis found effective in intestinal as well ashepatic amoebiasis in test animals, butits gross toxicity excludes its potentialuse in humans.Tylophorine also exhibits anti-inflammatoryand anti-tumour properties.Desmethyltylophorine gave promisingresults in leukaemia.The drug irritates the digestive tract.Tylophora tenuis BlumeSynonym ◮ T. tenuissima (Roxb.) W.&A.Family ◮ Asclepiadaceae.Habitat ◮ Tamil Nadu up to 2,100 m,and along the back waters in Keralaand West Bengal.Folk ◮ Nanjaruppan (Tamil Nadu,Kerala).Action ◮ Plant—alexipharmic; usedfor the treatment of urticaria,smallpox, excessive perspiration,biolious swellings, as an antidoteto arsenic poisoning. Leaves—usedfor scabies.Typha australis Schum. & Thonn.Synonym ◮Chaub.T. angustata Bory &Family ◮ Typhaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, up toan altitude of 1,730 m.English ◮ Lesser Indian Reed-Mace.Ayurvedic ◮ Gundra, Gundraa,Gundraka, Guntha. (Gundraahas also been interpreted asBhadramustaa, Cyperus rotundusLinn.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Sambu.Folk ◮ Pater, Gondapateraa.Action ◮ Rhizomes—astringent anddiuretic. Spikes—ash is used forhealing wounds. The pollen, mixedwith honey, is applied to woundsand sores or taken internallyfor treating uterine bleeding andhaematuria.The plant contains isorhamnetin,pentacosane and sterols. A flavonolglucoside, yielding quercetin on hydrolysis,has been reported in the plant.Dosage ◮ Rhizome—50–100 mldecoction. (CCRAS.)Typha elephantina Roxb.Family ◮ Typhaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir and from UttarPradesh to Assam, in stagnant, freshand brackish-water.English ◮ Elephant Grass, Bulrush,Indian Reed-Mace.Ayurvedic ◮ Gundra, Gundraa,Gundraka, Potagala. (relatedspecies of T. australis.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Anai Korai, Chambu.

Typhonium trilobatum (L.) Schott. 681Folk ◮ Gondapateraa.Action ◮ Rhizomes—astringentand diuretic; used for dysentery.Pollen—used for internal andexternal bleeding; uterine bleeding,blood in urine, nose bleeds.The herb contains isorhamnetin,pentacosane and plant sterols.Typha laxmanni Lepech.Family ◮ Typhaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir (Gilgit), at2,700 m.English ◮ Scented Flag.Ayurvedic ◮ Airakaa.Folk ◮ Pizh (Kashmir).Action ◮ Stamens—astringent andstyptic. Used externally.Typhonium trilobatum(L.) Schott.Family ◮ Araceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, and fromYamuna eastwards; also grown inSouth India.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karu KarunaiKizhangu, Karunai Kizhangu.Action ◮ Tuber—applied as poulticeon scirrhous tumours (fresh tuberis very acrid and a powerfulstimulant). Eaten with bananas, thetubers relax the bowels and providerelief in haemorrhoids (tubersbecome innocuous on heating ordrying).The tubers contain carotene, folicacid, niacin, thiamine, sterols and betasitosterol.T

UUlmus wallichiana Planch.Family ◮Ulmaceae.Habitat ◮ The North WesternHimalayas.English ◮ Himalayan Elm. SlipperyElm is equated with Ulmus fulva.Folk ◮Hemar, Kitamaara.Action ◮ Bark—astringent, demulcent,emollient, expectorant,diuretic.The bark contains 0.76% tannins.Ulmus fulva Michx, though knownas Indian or Sweet Elm, is an Americanplant and does not occur in India.Powdered bark of Ulmus fulva givesa mucilage, composed of galactose, 3-methyl galactose, rhamnose and galacturonicacid residues. As a gruel itis prescribed for patients with gastricor duodenal ulcers. Coarse powderedbark is applied as poultice to burns andskin eruptions.The mucilages cause reflex stimulationof nerve endings in the GI tractandleadtomucoussecretionwhichprotects the GI tract against ulcerationand excess acidity. (Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)Uncaria gambier Roxb.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Malaysia and Indonesia.English ◮ Pale Catechu, Gambier.Ayurvedic ◮ Khadira (relatedspecies).Folk ◮ Chinai Katthaa.Action ◮ Intestinal astringent.Uses similar to Black Catechu(Acacia catechu). The extract ofthe leaves and shoots containstannins, mainly catechins up to35% and catechu tannic acid upto 50%; indole alkaloids includinggambirine, gambiridine; flavonoidssuch as quercetin; pigments andgambirfluorescin.Gambirine is reported to be hypotensive;d-catechu constricts bloodvessels. Catechins protect the liverfrom infection.A related species, U. rhynchophylla,native to China, known as Gou Teng inChinese medicine, is used for eclampsia,headache,dizziness, convulsions, high feverand hypertension. (WHO.)Unona desmos Raeusch.Synonym ◮ Desmos cochinchinensisLour.Family ◮ Annonaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam.Action ◮ Root—febrifuge.The roots contain a desmoflavone.A cycloartane triterpenoid desmosinolhas been isolated from stem. The root

684 Uraria alopecuroides Wight.Uof U. discolor Vahl, synonym Desmoschinensis Lour. (forests of north-east,south and west India) is given for vertigo.The root contains a flavonoid desmal.Desmal inhibited tyrosine kinasein situ in epidermal growth factor(EGF) receptor overexpressingNIH3T3 (ERIZ) cells. It also inhibitedEGF-induced inositol phosphateformation and morphological changes.Uraria alopecuroides Wight.Family ◮Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Grasslands and forestgladesfrom Uttar Pradesh to Assamand in Orissa, Andhra Pradesh andKarnataka.Ayurvedic ◮species).Prishniparni (relatedAction ◮ Pods and roots—usedagainst ringworm.Uraria crinita Desv.Family ◮Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout Himalayas,up to an altitude of 2,700 m and inKhasi, Aka and Lushai hills.Ayurvedic ◮sp.).Prishniparni (relatedAction ◮ Prescribed in dysentery,diarrhoea; enlarged spleen andliver; also for the treatment ofpustules, tumours and fistula.Uraria lagopoides DC.Synonym ◮ U. lagopodioides Desv.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Grasslands of Bihar, Orissa,West Bengal and Palni Hills.Ayurvedic ◮ Prishniparni. (Prishniparniand Shaaliparni are usedtogether in Indian medicine. Bothhave been equated with Uraria sp.,U. lagopoides and U. picta.Siddha ◮ Moovilai.Action ◮ Whole plant—anticatarrhaland alterative. Root—used inprescriptions for intermittent fevers,pulmonary inflammation and asa recuperating tonic. Leaves—prescribed in diarrhoea.Flavonoids, including 5-hydroxy-7,4 ′ -dimethoxy flavonol, have been isolatedfrom the plant.The plant is mentioned as an abortifacientin ancient Ayurvedic texts. Hotaqueous extract of the shoots showedoxytocic activity on both gravid andnon-gravid uteri of experimental animals.The aqueous extract of the plantshows anti-implantation activity onrats and spasmogenic effect on theguts of rabbits and uteri of rats.Uraria picta Desv.Synonym ◮ Hedysarum pictum Jacq.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India, in drygrasslands.Ayurvedic ◮ Prishniparni, Prithakparni,Simhapushpi, Kalashi,Dhaavani, Guhaa, Chitraparni.

Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth. 685Siddha/Tamil ◮ Oripai.Action ◮ Root—prescribed for cough,chills and fevers. Leaves—antiseptic,used for urinary discharges andgenitourinary infections.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends a decoction of wholeplant in alcoholism, insanity, psychosis;cough, bronchitis, dyspnoea; diseasesdue to vitiated blood; gout; bleedingpiles; blood dysentery, acute diarrhoea.The plant is credited with fracturehealingproperties. Its total extractexhibits better and quicker healing offractures in experimental animals dueto early accumulation of phosphorusand more deposition of calcium.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—20–50 gpowder for decoction. (API, Vol.IV.)Urena lobata Linn. Mast.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout warmer partsof India, frequent in West Bengal.Ayurvedic ◮ Naagabalaa (Grewiahirsuta and Sida veronicaefolia arealso equated with Naagabalaa).Used as Balaa in Kerala.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ottatti.Action ◮ Root—diuretic, emollient,antispasmodic (roots and stemused in severe windy colic),antirheumatic. Flowers—used asa pectoral and expectorant in dryand inveterate coughs. An infusionis used as a gargle for aphthae amdsore throat.The aerial parts gave magniferin andquercetin. Alkanes, stigmasterol andbeta-sitosterol are reported from thewhole plant. The seeds contain protein,pentosan and mucilage.Urena lobata Linn. var.sinuata King.Synonym ◮ U. sinuata Linn.Family ◮ Malvaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the warmerparts of India.Ayurvedic ◮ Used as a substitute forBalaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ottatti.Folk ◮ Lot-loti, Kunjuyaa.Action ◮ Leaves—used in inflammationof intestines and bladder.Flowers—an infusion is usedin bronchitis. Root—emollientand refrigerant. Used in externalapplication for lumbago andrheumatism.Urginea indica (Roxb.) Kunth.Synonym ◮ Drimia indica Roxb.non-(Wt.) Baker.Family ◮ Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas, Bihar,Konkan and along the CoromandelCoast. U. maritima (L.) Baker isnative to Mediterranean region.English ◮ Indian Squill, Sea Onion(red and white varieties).Ayurvedic ◮ Vana-palaandu,Kolakanda, Vajrakanda.U

686 Urtica dioica Linn.UUnani ◮ Unsul-e-Hindi, Isqueele-Hindi,Piyaaz-Dasti, Piyaaz-Sahraayi, Jangali Piyaaz.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Narivengayam.Action ◮ Used as a substitute forEuropean Squill, Urginea maritima.Expectorant (in dry respiratoryconditions, whooping cough andbronchial asthma), antispasmodic,emetic (in large doses), diuretic(promotes fluid elimination inheart disease), cardiac tonic (effect,non-cumulative). Used topicallyas a hair tonic for dandruff andseborrhoea (active constituent isthought to be scilliroside of the RedSquill.)Key application ◮ Urginea maritima—inmilder cases of heartinsufficiency, also for diminishedkidney capacity. (GermanCommission E.)Bulbs contain cardiac glycosides,scillarens A and B. Bulb, leaves androot contain stigmasterol, sitosteroland campesterol. Bulbs also containhentriacontanol, octacosanoic acid.Defatted air-dried bulbs afforded 6-desacetoxyscillirosidin.The plant exhibits cyanogenetic activity.Urginea maritima (White Squill) iscontraindicated in potassium deficiencyor when digitalis glycosides are beingused (Francis Brinker), in hypercalcaemiaand hyperkalaemia (SharonM. Herr).Urginea coromandeliana Hook. f.non-Wight, synonym U. wightianaHook f. (Coromandel coast and in dryregions of Andhra Pradesh and TamilNadu up to 3,000 m) is used as a substitutefor Indian Squill (U. indica).Dosage ◮ Bulb—120–200 mg powder.(CCRAS.)Urtica dioica Linn.Family ◮ Urticaceae.Habitat ◮ North-western Himalayafrom Kashmir to Simla at 2,400–3,600 m.English ◮ Stinging Nettle.Ayurvedic ◮ Vrishchhiyaa-shaaka(related species).Unani ◮ Anjuraa.Folk ◮ Shisuun (Kumaon).Action ◮ Plant—diuretic, astringent,antihaemorrhagic; eliminates uricacid from the body, detoxifies theblood. Externally, astringent andhaemostatic.Used internally for the treatmentof nephritis, haemoptysis and otherhaemorrhages.Key application ◮ Above groundparts—as a supportive therapy forrheumatic ailments (internally andexternally). Internally, in irrigationtherapy for inflammatory diseases ofthe lower urinary tract and preventionand treatment of kidney gravel.(German Commission E, ESCOP,The British Herbal Compendium,The British Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)Root—in symptomatic treatment ofmicturition disorders (dysuria, pollakiuria,nocturia, urine retention)in benign prostatic hyperplasia at

Urtica pilulifera Linn. 687stages I and II. (German CommissionE, ESCOP, WHO, The BritishHerbal Pharmacopoeia.)Clinical experiments have confirmedthe utility of the herb as a haemostaticin uterine haemorrhage andbleeding from nose. The herb is alsoused in sciatica, rheumatism and palsy.The treatment for paralysis comprisesslapping the patient with a bundle oftwigs. Alcoholic extract of Russiansp. is used in the cholecystitis and habitualconstipation.The root exhibits an antiproliferativeeffect on prostatic epithelial andstromal cells. It may also lessen the effectsof androgenic hormones by competitivelyblocking acess to human sexhormone binding globulin. (PlantaMed, 63, 1997; ibid, 66, 2000. Also,ESCOP monograph; Altern ComplemTher, 1998; Simon Mills; Natural MedicinesComprehensive Database, 2007.)In Europe, the juice of the leaves orroots, mixed with honey or sugar, wasprescribed for bronchial asthma. In theUSA, a freeze-dried preparation of theherb (300 mg gelatin capsules) has beenfound to improve condition of allergicrhinitis patients. The powdered seedswere considered a cure for goitre. (M.Grieve.)The urticating properties of the hairsare attributed to the presence of acetylcholine,histamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine(5-HT). A histamine-liberatingenzyme is also present.Acetylcholine is present in theleaves, rootlets, rhizomes and cortexin the ascending order of concentration.Histamine is not present in theunderground parts of the plant. Itsconcentration in the leaves is aboutfour times than that in the stem-cortex.Betaine and choline are present in theleaves.The leaves gave flavonoids (includingrutin), sterols, carotenoids, vitamins(including C, B group, K), minerals,plant phenolic acids. The coumarinscopoletin has been isolated from theflowers and the root.A polysaccharide fraction obtainedfrom aqueous extract showed antiinflammatoryactivity in carrageenaninducedrat paw oedema and lymphocytetransformation test. A lectin wasfound to stimulate proliferation of humanlymphocytes. (Planta Med, 55,1989.)The leaf and root is contraindicatedin kidney disease and pregnancy.5-hydroxytryptamine is a uterotropicconstituent. (Francis Brinker.)Urtica parviflora Roxb.Family ◮ Urticaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas andthe Nilgiris.Ayurvedic ◮ Vrishchhiyaa-shaaka.Folk ◮ Shisuun (Kumaon).Action ◮ Roots—employed forthe treatment of fractures anddislocations. Leaves and inflorescences—prescribedas a tonic andas a cleaning agent after parturition.Urtica pilulifera Linn.Family ◮Urticaceae.U

688 Usnea longissima Ach.UHabitat ◮stations.English ◮Simla and other hillRoman Nettle.Ayurvedic ◮ Used as a substitute forVrishchiyaa-shaaka.Unani ◮Anjuraa.Action ◮ Diuretic, astringent,haemostatic.The leaves and stems contain an indolealkaloid, bufotenin. 5-hydroxytryptamineis located mainly in strings.Urtica urens Linn. (Dog Nettle,Small Nettle) is found in Dehra Dunand is Udhampur district of J. & K.The inflorescence and leaves containthe flavonoid compounds of kaempferol,isorhamnetin, quercetin, apigenin,diosmetin and luteolin. Presence ofchlorogenic acid is also reported.The fluid extract of roots has beenfound to be useful in mild cases ofprostate enlargement by improvingmicturia in men over 60 years.Usnea longissima Ach.Family ◮ Usneaceae.Habitat ◮ Common in temperateand alpine Himalayas, as a moss ontrees.English ◮ Lichen.Unani ◮ Ushnaa.Action ◮ Moss—used as an expectorantand in the treatment ofulcers.Key application ◮ German CommissionE approves Usnea (dried thallusof U. barbata, U. florida, U. hirta andU. plicata) for mild inflammationsof the oral and pharyngeal mucosa.Usnea preparations are used clinicallyby North American herbalistsfor antibacterial action against Grampositivebacteria in local or systemicinfections and for antifungal actionagainst Candida albicans. (ExpandedCommission E Monographs.)U. longissima contains 3–4% usnicacid, also barbatic acid and arabitol.Usnic acid and barbatic acid possessmarked anti-tubercular activity. Barbaticacid produces usnic acid, is activeagainst Streptococcus haemolyticusand pneumococcus sp. and inhibits thegrowth of tubercle bacillus.Utricularia bifida Linn.Family ◮ Lentibulariaceae.Habitat ◮ Marshy places, as a weed.English ◮ Bladder wort.Folk ◮ Jhangi (smallar var.)Action ◮ Diuretic (used against urinarydisorders), anti-inflammatoryand antispasmodic (used againstcough). Used topically for mucousmembrane inflammations, burnsand wounds.U. stellaris is equated with biggervar. of Jhangi.Uvaria narum Blume.Family ◮ Annonaceae.Habitat ◮ Western ghats fromMaharashtra southwards up to analtitude of 1,200 m.

Uvaria narum Blume. 689Siddha/Tamil ◮Pulichan.Action ◮ Root and leaves—usedin intermittent fevers, biliousness,jaundice; also in rheumatic affections;bruised in salt water, usedin skin diseases. A decoction ofthe root bark is given to women tocontrol fits at the time of delivery.Acetogenins, including stereoisomers,are important constituents ofthe root bark. Glutinone, glutinol,taraxerol, beta-sitosterol and benzylbenzoate have also been isolated. Theessential oil of the root bark of Keralaplant contains bornyl acetate 15.2% andpatchoulenone 8.1%.A decoction and roots of Uvariagandiflora Roxb., synonym U. purpureaBlume (Indian Botanic Garden,Kolkata) is used for flatulence,stomachache; also after childbirth.A decoction of U. micrantha (A. DC.)Hook. f. & Thoms. (tropical forestsof the Andamans) is also administeredafter childbirth as a prophylactic.U

VVaccaria pyramidata (L.) Medik.Synonym ◮ Saponaria vaccaria L.Family ◮Habitat ◮a weed.English ◮Folk ◮Caryophyllaceae.Throughout India, asSoapwort, Cow Herb.Musna, Saabuni.Action ◮ Roots—used for cough,asthma and other respiratorydisorders; for jaundice, liver andspleen diseases (increases bile flow).Mucilaginous sap—used in scabies.Saponins of the root showed haemolyticactivity. Lanostenol, stigmasterol,beta-sitosterol and diosgeninhave been isolated from the plant.Xanthones, vaccaxanthone and sapxanthone,and a oligosaccharide, vaccarose,have also been isolated.Vaccinium myrtillus Linn.Family ◮ Vacciniaceae.Habitat ◮ UK, Europe and NorthAmerica. (About 21 species ofVaccinium are found in India.)English ◮ Bilberry, Blueberry.Action ◮ Astringent, diuretic,refrigerant.Key application ◮ Fruit—in nonspecific,acutediarrhoea; topically inmild inflammation of the mucousmembranes of the mouth andthroat (German Commission E);anthocyanine enriched extracts ofthe fruit, in symptomatic treatmentof problems related to varicoseveins, such as heavy legs. (ESCOP.)Cranberry (Vaccinium sp.) is usedin urinary incontinence and forUTI prevention. (Sharon M. Herr.)The main constituents of the Bilberryfruit are anthocyanosides 0.5%.Other constituents include tannins, hydroxycinnamicand hydroxybenzoicacids, flavonol glycosides, flavan-3-ols,iridoids, terpenes, pectins and organicplant acids. (ESCOP.)In India, V. symplocifolium Alston,syn. V. leschenaultii Wight, known asKilapalam in Tamil Nadu, is abundantlyfound in the mountains of South Indiaup to an altitude of 2,400 m V. neilgherrenseWight, known as Kalavu inTamil Nadu and Olenangu in Karnataka,is commonly found in the hills ofKerala, Karnataka and Tamil Nadu ataltitudes of 600–2,000 m.Valeriana dubia Bunge.Synonym ◮ V. officinalis auct. nonLinn.Family ◮ Valerianacea.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas,Kashmir at Sonamarg at 2,400–2,700 m.English ◮ Common Valerian.Ayurvedic ◮ Abhramaansi.

692 Valeriana hardwickii Wall.Action ◮ Rhizome and roots—sedative, hypotensive, cardiotonic;depressant on CNS, antispasmodic;used for hysteria, neurosis,nervousness, hypochondriasis.The roots and rhizomes yielded alkaloids—dipyridylmethylketone,actinidine,iso-valeramide and valerianine;sesquiterpene ketone-valeranone.Bornyl acetate is the major constituentof the root oil, 31.5%, whereas it is only6.6% in leaf oil. Bornyl isovalerate isreported from the root oil.Baalaka is a confusing synonym ofTagara. It should be equated with Pavoniaodorata Willd. (Malvaceae).Baalaka (syns: Ambu, Baala, Barhishtha,Hrivera, Jala, Kacha, Muurdhaja,Udichi, Udichya) is known asSugandhabaalaa in Northern markets.In South India Coleus vettiveroidesK. C. Jacob (Labiateae) is preferredas Baalaka. Delphinium brunonianumRoyle (Ranunculaceae), with synonymsKutila, Nata, Vakra, is also usedas Tagara.VValeriana hardwickii Wall.Family ◮Valerianaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Bhutan at altitudesof 1,200–3,60 m and in the Khasiand Jaintia hills between 1,500 and1,800 m.Folk ◮ Sugandhabaalaa, Tagger,Taggar-ganthodaa. Asaarun (Kumaon).Action ◮ Used as V. jatamansi and V.officinalis.Valeriana hardwickii is known asTaggar-ganthodaa in Mumbai andAsaaruninKumaon. InUnanimedicine,Asaarun is equated with Asarumeuropaeum Linn. (Aristolochiaceae). Itis known as Subul-e-barri, Naardinbarriand Persian Tagar; Wild Nard,Hazel Wort and Asarabacca in English.Though sedative and brain tonic,Asaarun should not be equated withTagara.Valeriana leschenaultii DC. var.brunoniana C. B. Clarke.Family ◮ Valerianaceae.Habitat ◮ Karnakata and the Nilgiris.Ayurvedic ◮ Tagara (related species).Folk ◮ Sugandhabaalaa, Taggar,Baalaka.Action ◮ Used as a substitute forvalerian.Valeriana officinalis Linn.Family ◮ Valerianaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Eurasia. (V.officinalis auct. non Linn. is foundin Kashmir at Sonamarg at 2,400–2,700 m)English ◮ Valerian, Garden Heliotrope,Common Valerian.Ayurvedic ◮ Tagara, Nata. Baalaka(syn. Udichya, Jala, Barhishtha) isalso equated with Valeriana sp.Folk ◮ Sugandhabaalaa, taggar.

Valeriana pyrolaefolia Decne. 693Action ◮ Tranquillizer, hypnotic,a natural relaxant to highernerve centres. Used for nervoustension, sleeplessness, restlessness,palpitation, tension, headache,migraine, menstrual pain, intestinalcramps, bronchial spasm.Key application ◮ Internally forrestlessness and sleeping disordersbased on nervous conditions(German Commission E). (SeeExpanded Commission E, ESCOPand WHO monographs.)Constituents of the root include valtrates,didrovaltrates and isovalerates.Other constituents include 0.4–1.4%monoterpenes and sesquiterpenes, caffeic,gamma-aminobutyric (GABA)and chlorogenic acids, beta-sitosterol,methyl, 2-pyrrolketone, choline, tannins,gums alkaloids and resin. (ExpandedCommission E Monographs.)The volatile oil (0.5–2%) containsbornyl acetate and bornyl isovalerate asthe principal components. Other constituentsinclude beta-caryophyllene,valeranone, valerenal, valerenic acidand other sesquiterpenoids and monoterpenes.The co-occurrence of three cyclopentane-sesquiterpenoids(valerenicacid, acetoxyvalerenic acid and valerenal)is confined to Valeriana officinalisL. and permits its distinction from V.edulis and V. Wallichii. (WHO.)The important active compounds ofvalerian are the valepotriates (iridoidmolecules) and valeric acid. Originallyit was thought that valepotriates wereresponsible for the herbs sedative effect,but,lateron,anaqueousextractof the root has also been shown tohave a sedative effect. Since valepotriatesare not soluble in water, it wasconcluded that valerenic acid is alsothe chemical factor responsible for thesedative effect of the herb. Most commercialextracts in Western herbal arewater-soluble extracts standardized forvalerenic acids.Large doses of valepotriates from theherb decreased benzodiazepines anddiazepam withdrawl symptoms in rats.At low doses valerian enhances bindingof flunitrazepam, but at high doses itinhibits binding of the drug. Valerenicacid inhibits breakdown of GABA, andhydroxypinoresinol binds to benzodiazepinereceptor. (Sharon M. Herr.)The safety of valepotriates has beenquestioned.Currently valerian is an approvedover-the-counter medicine in Germany,Belgium, France, Switzerlandand Italy. (The British Herbal Compendium.)See Valeriana dubia Bunge, syn. V.officinalis auct. non Linn., known asCommon Valerian.Valeriana pyrolaefolia Decne.Family ◮Valerianaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Bhutan.Ayurvedic ◮ Dhyaamaka (includingamong aromatic drugs of Jatamansigroup.)Folk ◮Action ◮Sugandhabaalaa.Used as V. jatamansi.V

694 Valeriana wallichii DC.VValeriana wallichii DC.Synonym ◮ V. jatamansi Jones.Nardostachys jatamansi (Jones) DC.Family ◮ Valerianaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas fromKashmir to Bhutan, above 3,000 m,and Khasia Hills.English ◮ Indian Valerian.Ayurvedic ◮ Tagara, Sugandhabaalaa,Kaalaanusaari, Kaalaanusaarikaa,Nata. (Delphinum brunonianumRoyle, Ranunculaceae, syn. Kutila,Nata, Vakra, is also used as Tagara.)Unani ◮ Asaarun, Tagar Reshewaalaa.Siddha ◮ Tagarai.Folk ◮ Taggar, Baalaka, Mushkbaalaa,Asaarun, Tagar-ganthodaa.Action ◮ Rhizomes and roots—used as a substitute for Valerianaofficinalis; prescribed as a remedyfor hysteria, nervous unrestand emotional troubles, and asa sedative.Rhizomes and roots contain cyclopentapyrans,acacetin-7-O-rutinosides,valtrate, didrovaltrate, linariniso-valerinate, valepotriates and an iridoidester glycoside, valerosidatum.Cyclopentapyrans exhibit sedative,tranquilizing and bacteriocidal properties.Valtrate and didrovaltrate were cytotoxicto hepatoma cells in culture andinhibited synthesis of DNA and proteinin tumor cells.Root—spasmolytic. Essential oil—antibacterial. (Indian Valerian oils areconsidered poor as compared to thoseof V. officinalis oils.) The essential oilfrom roots contains calarene, betabargamotene,valeranone, ar-curcumene,maalioxide and maalitol. Mainacids present are isovaleric acid and(+)-beta-methyl valeric acid.Valeriana jatamansi auct. non Jones,synonyms Nardostachys grandifloraDC. and N. jatamansi DC. is equatedwith Indian Spikenard, Musk-Rootand Jataamaansi.Dosage ◮ Rhizome—1–3 g powder.(API, Vol. I.)Vallaris solanacea KuntzeSynonym ◮ V. heynei Spreng.V. dichotoma (Roxb.) Wall. ex G.Don.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India;cultivated in gardens.Ayurvedic ◮ Aasphotaa, Asphuka,Bhadravalli, Saarivaa-utpala (whitevar.).Folk ◮ Haapharamaali var. Dudhi-bel(Garhwal).Action ◮ Latex—applied to oldwounds and sores (mildly irritant).Bark—astringent. Seeds—cardiactonic.Seeds are rich in cardiac glycosides;contain acoschimperoside P,mono-O-acetylvallaroside, mono-Oacetylsolanoside,mono-O-acetylacoschimperosideP, vallaroside, vallarosolanoside,solanoside and 16-deacetyl-16-anhydroacoschimperosideP. O-acetylsolanoside is a potent cardiotonic.

Vanda spathulata Spreng. 695The seed oil contains palmitic, oleicand linoleic acids. The leaves gavebeta-sitosterol, beta-amyrin and ursolicacid.Vallaris glabra Kuntze (West Bengal)is also equated with Aasphotaa.Vallisneria spiralis Linn.Family ◮ Hydrocharitaceae.Habitat ◮ Hydrophyte; throughoutIndia.English ◮ Eel-Grass, Tape Grass,Wild Celery.Ayurvedic ◮ Shaivala, Shaivaala.(Ceratophyllum demersum Linn. isalso equated with Shaivala.)Folk ◮ Sevaar.Action ◮ Plant—stomachic, refrigerant,demulcent. Also used inleucorrhoea and spermatorrhoea.Extracts of the plant yielded polysaccharidescontaining D-galactose,D-xylose, L-arabinose, L-rhamnose,uronic acid, acidic xylan and an arabinogalactan.Vanda roxburghii R. Br.Synonym ◮ V. tessellata G. Don.Family ◮ Orchidaceae.Habitat ◮ From Uttar Pradesh toWest Bengal, extending southwardsto Kerala.Ayurvedic ◮ Raasnaa (used inEastern India). Pluchea lanceolatais the accepted source of Raasnaa.Throughout South India Alpiniagalanga is used as Raasnaa.Folk ◮ Baandaa-Raasnaa.Action ◮ Roots—antipyretic, antiinflammatory,tranquilizer, tonic toliver, laxative. Used in rheumatism,lumbago, inflammations; diseasesof the nervous system; diseases ofthe abdomen, dyspepsia; bronchitis,chest diseases. Roots form a constituentof medicated oils, usedexternally on rheumatic swellingsand neurological affections. Rootis also used in the treatment offractures.Petroleum ether, chloroform andmethanol extracts of the root showedanti-inflammatory activity in rats.Ethanolic extract of the root alsoshowed hepatoprotective activity inalbino mice.The root yielded tetracosyl ferulateand beta-sitosterol D-glucoside.Petroleum ether, chloroform and methanolextracts of the root showed 54.3,42.1 and 21.9% anti-inflammatory activityat a dose of 0.5 g/kg in rats.Heptacosane, octacosanol and tracesof their higher homologues, a bitterprinciple, saponin, beta-sitosterol andtannins were isolated from the plant.Vanda spathulata Spreng.Family ◮ Orchidaceae.Habitat ◮ Kerala.Ayurvedic ◮ Svarna-pushpa Bandaa,Baandaa.Folk ◮ Ponnampomaraiva (Kerala).V

696 Vandellia pedunculata Benth.VAction ◮ Flowers—dried flowers arepowdered and given for asthma,consumption, also for mood-swingsand psychosomatic bursts.Vandellia pedunculata Benth.Synonym ◮ Lindernia cordifolia(Colsmann) Merrill.Family ◮Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas up to 1,200–1,700 m and throughout India.Folk ◮ Gadaga-vel (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Used for sexually transmitteddiseases and urethral discharges.Vandellia pyxidaria Maxim, synonymVandellia erecta Benth. (TheHimalayas from Kashmir to Assam,common in Bengal; also in central andSouth India) is known as Vakapushpi.The plant is used for gonorrhoea.Plant juice is given to children whopass green stool.Vangueria spinosa Hook. f.Synonym ◮Meyna laxiflora Robyns.Family ◮ Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ West Bengal, Bihar andOrissa.Pinditaka, Snigdh-Ayurvedic ◮pinditaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮Manakkarai.Folk ◮ Muyana. Chiracholi, Alu(Maharashtra).Action ◮ Fruits—refrigerant andcholagogue; used in biliary complaintsand hepatic congestion. Dryfruits—narcotic; used in dysentery.The seeds contain linoleic, oleic,palmitic and stearic acids.Vateria indica Linn.Synonym ◮ V. malabarica Bl.Family ◮ Dipterocarpaceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular India, fromKanara to Trivandrum and inCoorg.English ◮ White Damar, IndianCopal-Tree, Malabar Tallow tree,Piney Varnish-Tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Sarja, Sarjaka, Karsya,Sasyasumbara, Devdhuupa,Marich-patraka. Chhaagakarna.Ajakarna and Shaala (relatedspecies) are also equated with V.indica.Unani ◮ Raal.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Kungiliyam, VellaiKundarakam.Action ◮ Resin—astringent, antibacterial,antidiarrhoeal, emmenagogue.Used for chronic bronchitis,piles, skin eruptions, ringworm,scrofula, tubercular glands, ulcers,wounds, boils; urinary discharges;amenorrhoea; gonorrhoea andsyphilis. Bark—antidysenteric. Oiland resin—antirheumatic. Resinenters into a number of antisepticand anti-inflammatory ointments.Leaves—juice is applied to cureburns. Orally administered toprevent vomiting.

Ventilago madraspatana Gaertn. 697The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the resinous exudateinternally (1–2 g) in lipid disorders,anaemia, genitourinary diseases, diarrhoeaand diseases due to vitiatedblood; externally in gout, abscesses,skin diseases, burns, eruptions.The bark contains polyphenols—dlepi-catechin,levorotatory isomers offisetinidol, fzelechin; and bergenin.Resin is a complex mixture of severaltriterpene hydrocarbons, ketones,alcohols and acids, along with smallamounts of sesquiterpenes. On distillation,the oleoresin gave an essentialoil (76%), consisting of phenolic constituentsand azulenes. The essentialoil shows marked antibacterial activityagainst Gram-positive and Gramnegativemicro-organism.The leaves and roots contain bergeninand hope phenol. The seed alsocontain bergenin. Hope phenolshowed fungicidal activity. The plantexhibited anti-ulcerogenic activity inrats.The fruit shell contains 25% tannins.Dosage ◮ Resinous exudate—1–2 g(API, Vol. IV.)Ventilago denticulata Willd.Synonym ◮ V. calyculata Tul.V. madraspatana var. calyculata(Tul.) King.Family ◮ Rhamnaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India in hotterparts, usually climbing on trees.Ayurvedic ◮ Raktavalli.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pappili.Folk ◮ Pitti, Raamadhaani, Kevati(var.).Action ◮ Stem bark—powdered andmixed with sesame oil, externallyapplied to skin diseases andsprains. Root bark—used for atonicdyspepsia, mild fever and debility.Sap—used for the treatment ofdeafness.The stem bark gave friedelin andseveral anthraquinones. The root containsanthraquinones, ventinones Aand B. Major constituents of the rootbark are emodin, its glucoside and correspondinganalogues, ventiloquinones.The fruit, leaves and stem gavelupeol, beta-sitosterol and its glucoside.Ventilago madraspatanaGaertn.Family ◮ Rhamnaceae.Habitat ◮ Maharashtra and SouthIndia.Ayurvedic ◮ Taamravalli, Kaivartikaa,Vaamataruni.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pappili-chaka,Vempadam, Sural-pattai.Folk ◮ Kevati.Action ◮ Root bark—carminative,stomachic, febrifuge; used inatonic dyspepsia, debility and skindiseases. The plant is used againstscabies.The roots contain anthraquinones,ventinones A and B, physcion andV

698 Vepris bilocularis (Wight & Arn.) Engl.Vchrysophanol. The root bark affordednaphthalene derivatives and severalnaphthaquinones, anthraquinones—islandicin, emodin, xanthorin and its5-methyl ether.In South India, V. bombaiensis Dalz.is found in Mukkali forest, CoimbatoreDistrict, Tamil Nadu, and V. goughii inCoorg, Nilgiris and Kurnool.Vepris bilocularis(Wight & Arn.) Engl.Synonym ◮ Toddalia bilocularisWight & Arn.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ North Kanara, forestsof Malabar, Annamalai andTravancore, up to 1,200 m.Ayurvedic ◮ Krishna-Agaru. (InSouth India V. bilocularis is usedas Krishna-Agaru and Dysoxylumlabricum Bedd. ex Hiern asShveta-Agaru.)Siddha/Tamil ◮ Devadaram.Action ◮ Wood—extract in oil isused for rheumatic swellings andskin diseases. Root—used forbiliousness.Alkaloids from stem bark includedkokusaginine, skimmianine, flindersiamine,evoxanthine, N-methylacridonederivatives, maculine and veprisone.The leaves contain a triterpenoid,lupeol.Veratrum viride Ait.Family ◮Liliaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate regions ofnorthern hemisphere; introduced inJammu and Kashmir for cultivation.English ◮ American Hellbore, GreenHellebore.Action ◮ Rhizomes and roots—cardiac depressant, hypotensive.(Contraindicated in cardiac disease.Large doses cause bradycardia.)Used in the treatment of convulsions,headache, neuralgia,inflammatory affections of respiratorytract; and as sedative. Formerlyused for high blood pressure,especially associated with toxemiaof pregnancy.Ceveratrum-type alkaloids, foundas esters, are hypotensive and causevasodilatation (probably by inhibitionof vasomotor centre and stimulation ofthe vagus). Overdoses cause vomiting.Alkaloids are teratogenic.Verbascum thapsus Linn.Synonym ◮ V. phlomoides L.Family ◮ Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas,Western Ghats and the Nilgiris.English ◮ Cow’s Lungwort, CommonMullein. (Large-flowered Mullein isequated with V. densiflorum Bertol.)Ayurvedic ◮ Ban Tambaaku, GidarTambaaku, Phullaa.Action ◮ Herb—soothing andrelaxant for irritable respiratoryconditions (asthma, emphysema,tracheitis), pectoral demulcent,antispasmodic, mild sedative.

Vernonia cinerea Less. 699Key application ◮ In catarrh ofthe respiratory tract. (GermanCommission E.)The capsule contains saponins, thapsuinesA and B and hydroxythapsuinesA and B. The plant also containsvaratric acid, 5-ethoxymethyl furfural,saikogenin, alpha-spinasterol and iridoids,aucubin and catalpol. The leavescontain rotenone.The flower extract showed activityagainst influenza and herpes simplexvirus.The plant has been employed for thetreatment of asthma. There is little evidenceto indicate that the plant canoffer more than mild astringent andtopical soothing effects.Verbena officinalis Linn.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, Khasi andLushai Hills, Bihar, West Bengal,Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.English ◮ Vervain, Pigeon’s Grass.Unani ◮ Saal-ul-hamaam, Faristariun.Action ◮ Plant—nervine, antidepressant,anticonvulsant; prescribedin liver and gall bladder complaints(spasm of the bladder andstrangury), nervous and menstrualdisorders; also for bronchitis,asthma and febrile affections.Included among unapproved herbsby German Commission E.The plant contains an iridoid glycoside,hastatoside; loganin; methylcyclopentanemonoterpenoid, verbenalin;verbascoside and eukovoside.The stem and roots are quite rich instachyose. Aerial parts gave lupeol,beta-sitosterol, ursolic acid, aucubinand artemetin.The herb is credited with weak parasympathomimeticactivity. Verbenalinexhibited mild purgative activity in animalstudies. Emetic in high doses.Vervain tea decreased absorption ofnon-heme iron by 59% in human subjects.(Sharon M. Herr.)Vernonia cinerea Less.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Distributed throughoutIndia. Common in waste places androad side.English ◮ Ash coloured Fleabane,Purple Fleabane.Ayurvedic ◮ Sahadevi, Uttamkanyaka,Dandotpalaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Naichotte Poonde.Action ◮ Plant—febrifuge, diaphoretic(infusion of herb, combined withquinine, is used against malaria).Used as a specific herb for leucorrhoea,dysuria, spasm of bladder,strangury and for haematologicaldisorders, as a blood purifier andstyptic. Also used in asthma.Seeds—anthelmintic, antiflatulent,antispasmodic; used in dysuria,leucoderma, psoriasis and otherskin diseases. Roots—anthelmintic;decoction used for colic.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the plant in inter-V

700 Vernonia javanica DC.Vmittent fever, filariasis, pityriasis versicolour(tinea versicolor), blisters, boils,vaginal discharges and in cases of psychoneurosis.Aerial parts gave luteolin-7-monobeta-D-glucopyranoside.Whole plantgave triterpene compounds—betaamyrinacetate, lupeol acetate, betaamyrinand lupeol; sterols—beta-sitosterol,stigmasterol and alpha-spinasterol;phenolic resin and potassium chloride.Dosage ◮ Whole plant—10–20 mljuice; 5–10 g powder for externaluse. (API, Vol. III.)Vernonia javanica DC.Synonym ◮ V. arborea Hook. f. non-Buch.-Ham.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ West Bengal, Assam,Meghalaya and Western Ghats.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shutthi.Action ◮ Bark—febrifuge. The barkis chewed as a substitute for betelleaves.Vernonia patula Merrill.Synonym ◮ V. chinensis Less.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ The Aka hills of ArunachalPradesh, as a weed.Action ◮ Leaves and roots—decoctionusedincoldsandfevers. Young plants—used forthe treatment of convulsions inchildren.Vernonia roxburghii Less.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Himachal Pradesh, UttarPradesh, West Bengal and Bihar.Ayurvedic ◮ Sahadevi (relatedspecies).Folk ◮ Doraa-baahaa.Action ◮ Roots—used for articularrheumatism.Vernonia teres Wall. ex DC.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical Himalayas fromKumaon to Sikkim; Bihar andCentral India.Action ◮ Herb—used for dysmenorrhoea,and for the treatment ofwounds and ulcers. Flower-heads—ascaricidal.The leaf juice showed in vitro activityagainst earthworms, tapeworms androundworms.Veronica beccabunga Linn.Family ◮ Scrophulariaceae.Habitat ◮ Western Himalayas andKashmir at 2,700–3,600 m.English ◮ Brooklime.Folk ◮ Titalokiyaa, Tezhak.Action ◮ Antiscorbutic, bloodpurifier, alterative, diuretic. Usedfor scurvy, scrofulous affections,swollen piles, lithiasis, skin diseases,burns, ulcers.

Viburnum coriaceum Blume. 701The plant gave iridoid glycosides includingaucubin; bitters and tannins.Aucubin has been reported to stimulatethe uric acid secretion of the kidneys.Vetiveria zizaniodes(Linn.) Nash.Synonym ◮ Andropogon muricatusRetz.A. squarrosus Hook.f.(nonL.f.).Family ◮ Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ A perennial grass,cultivated chiefly in Rajasthan,Uttar Pradesh., Punjab and the WestCoast.English ◮ Vetiver, Khas.Ayurvedic ◮ Ushira, Bahu-muulaka,Sugandhimuula, Jataamedaa,Indragupta, Nalada, Laamajjaka,Sevya, Samagandhaka, Jalavaasa,Virana, Aadhya.Unani ◮ Cuscus, KhasSiddha ◮ Vettiver, Vilamichaver.Action ◮ Root—infusion used asrefrigerant, febrifuge, diaphoretic;stimulant, stomachic, antispasmodic,emmenagogue, astringent, bloodpurifier. Used in fevers, colic, flatulence,vomiting, spermatorrhoeaand strangury. Root oil—usedin obstinate vomiting, colic andflatulence.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommend the root in dysuria.Major constituents of North Indianlaevorotatory oil, (obtained from wildroots) are antipodal terpenoids, whilethose of South Indian dextrorotatoryoils (obtained from cultivated roots)are sesquiterpene ketones and alcohols.The North India Khas oil containslarge amounts of khusilal, other sesquiterpenesinclude khusol, khusimol,khusitone, cadinene and laevojuneol.The South Indian Khas oil constituentsare largely nootkatone, vestipiranesand substances of tricyclic zizaanestructure. Khusilal is absent in typicaldextrorotatory Khas oils.The oils from other producing countriesare found to be dextrorotatorysimilar to that from South India.Dosage ◮ Fibrous root—3–6 g forinfusion. (API, Vol. III.)Viburnum coriaceum Blume.Family ◮ Caprifoliaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromPunjab and Bhutan at altitudes of1,200–2,500 m, also in the Nilgiris.Ayurvedic ◮ Tilvaka (related species).Folk ◮ Kaalaa Titmuliyaa, Tita,Karwaa (Kumaon).Action ◮ The root and stem bark—antispasmodic, uterine sedative.Ethanolic extract of the aerial partsshows antiprotozoal activity againstEntamoeba hystolytica.The root and stem bark (also ofV. foetidum) possess distinct odour ofthe root of valerian. The extracts ofroot and stem bark exhibited antispasmodicactivity and were comparablewith those of the bark of V. opulusvar. americanum and V. prunifolium.Laal Titmuliyaa (Kumaon) is equatedwith Viburnum mullaha Buch-Ham.V

702 Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don.Vex D. Don syn. V. stellulatum Wall exDC.Viburnum cotinifolium D. Don.Family ◮Caprifoliaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Bhutan at altitudes of1,200–3,300 m.Folk ◮ Richh, Richhabi, Khimor(Punjab), Gwiaa, Ghinwaa, Guyaa,Ghenu (Kumaon).Action ◮ Bark—used in menorrhagiaand metrorrhagia.Viburnum foetidum Wall.Family ◮ Caprifoliaceae.Habitat ◮ Khasi hills at altitudes of900–1,800 m.Folk ◮ Narwel (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Leaves—astringent,antispasmodic. Juice used inmenorrhagia and as a sedative (asubstitute for American Viburnumbark) in uterine disorders, and inpost-partum haemorrhage. SeeViburnum coriaceum and V. opulus.Viburnum nervosumHook. f. & Thoms.Synonym ◮ V. grandiflorum Wall. exDC.Family ◮ Caprifoliaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromKashmir to Sikkim at altitudes of3,000–4,000 m.Ayurvedic ◮Tilvaka.Folk ◮ Telam, Timoi (Kumaon),Tilen, Thelkaa (Garhwal).Action ◮ Bark—astringent; contain13.1% tannin on dry basis.Viburnum opulus Linn. var.americanum (Mill.) Ait.Family ◮Caprifoliaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to North America.Dried bark imported into India.Cranberry Bush, Cramp-English ◮bark.Action ◮ Used as a diuretic andas a uterine sedative in functionaluterine disorders.The activity of the bark has been attributedto the presence of uterine relaxants,acting directly on the muscleand not through sympathomimetic action.Themusclerelaxantsincludeanessential oil, an amorphous, bitter phenolicglucoside, esculetin and scopoletin.The bark contains hydroquinones,arbutin, methylarbutin and traces ofhydroquinone; coumarins includingscopoletin and scopoline; tanninsmainly catechins.The polycondensed tannins producedsignificant angioprotective effectin rats.Viburnum prunifolium Linn.Family ◮Caprifoliaceae.

Vicoa indica DC. 703Habitat ◮ Native to eastern and centralUSA. (Experimental cultivationin the Nilgiri hills.)English ◮ Black Haw.Ayurvedic ◮ Tilvaka (related species).Action ◮ Uterine sedative (usedin the treatment for threatenedmiscarriage, under strict medicalsupervision. Spasmolytic. (TheBritish Herbal Pharmacopoeia.)Used after childbirth to checkbleeding and pain, also in dysmenorrhoea.The stem and root bark gave coumarinsincluding scopoletin, aesculetinand scoplin; a biflavone, amentoflavone;triterpenes including oleanolicand ursolic acid and their acetates,caffeic acid derivatives; salicylic acid,salicin, arbutin (traces); tannins (2%).Coumarin, scopoletin, is a uterinesedative, while salicin is an analgesic.Vicia faba Linn.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to North Africa;commonly grown in North WesternIndia.English ◮ Broad bean, Windsor bean.Unani ◮ Baaqlaa.Action ◮ Fresh beans—cookedalone or with meat, are prescribedin Unani medicine for cough,also for resolving inflammations.Externally, the bean and flowers areused as a poultice for inflammations,warts and burns.A number of harmful principles arereported in the broad beans. A largeamount of Dopa, mainly in free stateand partly in the form of its betaglucoside;and gluco alkaloids, vicineand convicine, have been isolated.Ingestion of fresh, uncooked or partiallycookedbeansisnotrecommended.The seeds gave positive test for hydrocyanicacid and also contain arsenic.The fresh beans exhibit an oestrogenicactivity. Phytoalexins of the immatureseeds exhibit antifungal activity.Malic, citric and glyceric acids arethe principal organic acids present inthe pods (also present in the hulls).The glyceric acid on subcutaneous injectionproduced a marked diuresis inrabbit. (A decoction of the leaves andstems of the field bean, Faba vulgarisMoench, is used as a diuretic.)An aqueous extract of the root nodulesexhibited vasoconstricting activityon rabbits.Vicoa indica DC.Synonym ◮Family ◮V. auriculata Cass.Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the drier partsof India, ascending to an altitude ofabout 1,800 m in the Himalayas.Ayurvedic ◮Siddha/Tamil ◮Poondu.Folk ◮Vandhyaavari.Jimikipoo, Mookuti,Banjhori, Vajarangi.V

704 Victoria regia Lindl.VPlant—used for contracep-Action ◮tion.Aerial parts contain the sesquiterpenelactones (vicolide A-D), the 28-nortriterpenoidal glucosides (vicosideA and B), the triterpenoid vicosigeninand monoterpenediol vicodiol, besidesseveral n-alkanes and n-alkanoic acidesters.Vicolide A-D showed anti-inflammatoryactivity against cotton pelletgranuloma in rats. Vicolide D showedantipyretic activity.Antifertility activity has been attributedto the presence of vicolideB and D, while A and C have beenreported to be devoid of antifertilityactivity. Vicolide D was found to beanti-oestrogenic in nature.Victoria regia Lindl.Synonym ◮Family ◮V. amazonica Sow.Nymphaeaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South America;growninpoolsinbotanicgardens.English ◮ Royal Waterlily. WaterMaize (seeds).Ayurvedic ◮Brihat-patra Kamal.Action ◮ Seed—refrigerant, coolingto the nervous system. PondLily root—externally, astringent,antiscrofulous. An infusion is usedas a gargle for ulcers in the mouthand throat.The leaves contain the anthocyanins,delphinidin and cyanidin.Vinca major (Linn.) Pich.Synonym ◮ V. pubescens Urv.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe. Foundin the Himalayas, West Bengal andPalni Hills.English ◮ Green Periwinkle, GreaterPeriwinkle.Action ◮ Astringent, antihaemorrhagic,hypotensive. Used to treatmenorrhagia and leucorrhoea.The herb contains indole alkaloids;majdine, isomajdine, majoridine, akuammine,akuammigine, carpanaubine,irvine, reserpine, serpentine, sarpagine,tetrahydroalstonine, vincamajineand vincamajoreine; and tannins.The cytotoxic dimeric alkaloidspresent in Vinca rosea L., used in thetreatment of certain types of cancer,have not been found in Vinca major.Vinca minor Linn.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Grown in Indian gardensas an ornamental.English ◮ Lesser Periwinkle.Action ◮ Astringent and circulatorystimulant (contain alkaloid vincamine).Used for gastric catarrh,chronic dyspepsia; restlessness,headache, dizziness, and for theprevention of premature aging ofbrain cells, as a geriatic support.The herb contains indole alkaloids(0.15–1.4%). The major constituent

Vinca rosea Linn. 705in vincamine; others include vinic,apovincamine, vincadifformin.Vincamine is hypotensive; increasesblood flow and oxygen supply tothe brain. The vincamine content inthe herb is low and fluctuates greatly.Overdose of the extract brings abouta severe drop in blood pressure.Vincamine, as a pure substance isavailable for therapeutic administration.Vinca pusilla Murr.Synonym ◮ Catharanthus pusillus G.Don.Lochnera pusilla (Murr.) K. Schum.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ West Bengal and throughoutgreater part of India, as a weed.Ayurvedic ◮ Sangkhi, Sangkhaphuli(The Wealth of India).Folk ◮ Milagaipoondu (Tamil Nadu),Kapavila (Kerala), Vishakanegale(Karnataka), Neru (AndhraPradesh) Mirchaai (Bihar).Action ◮ Plant—oncolytic (tumourresolving).A decoction of the driedplant boiled in oil is used in thetreatment of lumbago.The plant contains ajmalicine, rauwolscine,vindoline, pusiline and pusilinine,while leurosine, lochnerinine,venoterpine, vindorosine and vincapusinehave been isolated from the leaves.The root gave lochnericine.Leurosine is cytotoxic. Pusiline andpusilinine cause marked depression ofthe heart.Vinca rosea Linn.Synonym ◮ Catharanthus roseus(Linn.) G.Don.Family ◮Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Native of West Indies;commonly grown in Indian gardens.English ◮Madagascar Periwinkle.Ayurvedic ◮ Sadaapushpaa, Sadampushpa,Nityakalyaani, Sadaabahaar.Siddha ◮ Nithiya kalyani, Sudukadumallikai.Action ◮Cytotoxic.Over one hundred monomeric andbisindole alkaloids have been isolated.The indole alkaloid, vincamine, isa vasodilator; the bisindole alkaloidsvinblastine and vincristine proved tobehighly effective as cancer chemotherapeuticagents.Vinblastine and vincristine are clinicallyused in a number of thrombocytopenicdisorders, such as refractoryidiopathic thrombocytopenic purpureaand haemolytic anaemia.Vinblastine in combination withother chemotherapeutic agents (cisplatinand bleomycin) is used for thetreatment of metastatic testicular cancer;also against bladder cancer, breastcancer, non-small cell lung cancer andHodgkin’s lymphoma in combinationwith other drugs.Vincristine, in various combinations,is highly effective in acute leukemiain children and lymphocytic leukemia;and pediatric tumours. (The Treatiseon Indian Medicinal Plants.)V

706 Viola biflora Linn.VViola biflora Linn.Family ◮Violaceae.Habitat ◮ The temperate Himalayasfrom Kashmir to Sikkim at altitudesof 1,800–3,000 m.Unani ◮ Banafashaa (related species).Action ◮ Leaves—laxative, emollient.Flowers—antiseptic, pectoral,diaphoretic. Root—emetic.The herb is used as a substitute forBanafashaa obtained from V. odorata.The leaves are used for treating skineruptions and the flowers for skin irritation.Viola cinerea Boiss. var.stocksii (Boiss.) W. Beck.Synonym ◮ V. stocksii Boiss.Family ◮ Violaceae.Habitat ◮ Punjab, Western Rajasthan,Gujarat.Unani ◮ Banafashaa (related species).Folk ◮ Jinkobanafashaa (Gujarat).Action ◮ Root—emetic. Used asa substitute and adulterant of ipecac.The herb is sold in the market asBanafashaa.Viola odorata Linn.Family ◮ Violaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; cultivatedin Kashmir.English ◮ Sweet Violet.Unani ◮ Banafashaa, Banafsaj,Kakosh, Fareer.Action ◮ Expectorant, antiinflammatory,diaphoretic, antipyretic,diuretic. Used forcatarrhal and pulmonary affections,also for diseases of liver andintestines.Included among unapproved herbsby German Commission E, but it hasbeen mentioned that the traditional useof sweet violet root as an expectorantfor the respiratory tract is well documented.The British Herbal Pharmacopoeiarecognizes expectorant activity of theleaf.The flowers (var. maxima) are asource of rutoside. The flowers alsocontain anthocyanin, violanin chloride,which on hydrolysis yields glucose,delphinidin, rhamnose and p-coumaric acid. High content of tocopherolis also reported from flowers.Dried flowers contain anthocyanin4.0, total flavonoids 1.1, rutoside 0.4,mucilage 18, and ash 8.5%.The leaves contain friedelin andbeta-sitosterol.The essential oil from the entireplant consists of methyl salicylate. A di-C-glycoside, violanthin, has been reportedfrom the plant.Viola patrinii Ging.Family ◮ Violaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas, Easternand Western Ghats.Unani ◮ Banafashaa (related species).Action ◮ Dried flowers—usedfor coughs and colds. Herb—

Viscum album Linn. 707bruised and applied to ulcers;also prescribed in syphilis andscrofula. (In Chinese medicine,recommended against cancerousgrowths.)Viola pilosa Blume.Family ◮ Violaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir to Sikkim andNilgiri hills at 1,500–2,100 m.Unani ◮ Banafashaa (related species)Folk ◮ Thungtu (Kumaon).Action ◮ Uses same as those of V.odorata. A medicinal oil of Unanimedicine, Roghan-e-Banafashaa, isprepared from the plant. Flowers, astea, are used for treating headache.Active principle of the herb is analkaloid, violine.Viola sylvestris Lam. (in part)Family ◮Violaceae.Habitat ◮ Kashmir at 1,200–2,400 m.English ◮ Pale Wood Violet, WoodViolet.Unani ◮ Banafashaa (related species).Action ◮ Plant—pectoral, bechic;used in chest troubles. Stem, leafand flower—applied to foul soresand wounds.Viola tricolor Linn.Family ◮Violaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Europe; grownas an ornamental.English ◮ Heartsease, Wild Pansy.Unani ◮ Banafashaa (related species).Action ◮ Herb—anti-inflammatory,antiallergic, expectorant, diuretic,antirheumatic, alterative. Used forbronchitis, rheumatism, chronicskin disorders and for preventingcapillary haemorrhage when undercorticosteroid therapy. Root—antidysenteric; used as a substitutefor Cephaelis ipecacuanha.Key application ◮ Externally inmild seborrheic skin diseases andmilk scall in children. (GermanCommission E.) The British HerbalPharmacopoeia recognizes theherb as an expectorant anddermatological agent.The herb contains rutin, violin andsalicylic acid. The flower containsrutin, quercetin, violanthin (6,8-diglycosideof apigenin), violaxanthin, p-hydroxycinnamic acid and delphinidin.A flavone C-glycoside-saponarinhas also been obtained from flowers.Flowers, in addition, contain 15-cisviolaxanthin.The herb exhibits anticoagulantproperty and diminishes the aggregationof platelets. It can be used asa preventive measure against thrombosis.Viscum album Linn.Synonym ◮ V. costatum Gamble.Family ◮ Viscaceae; Loranthaceae.V

708 Viscum articulatum Burm.VHabitat ◮ Temperate Himalayas fromKashmir to Nepal between 1,200and 2,700 m (a semiparasitic plant).English ◮ European Mistletoe.Ayurvedic ◮ Bandaaka, Suvarnabandaaka.Vrikshaadani (substitute).Unani ◮ Kishmish Kaabuli.Action ◮ Vasodilator, cardiac depressant,tranquiliser, stimulatesthe vagus nerve which slows thepulse, anti-inflammatory, diuretic,immune enhancer, antineoplastic.Used for hypertension andtachycardia, as a nervine tonic.The extract of leafy twigs is antiinflammatoryexerting an action uponcapillary permeability and oedema. Itstimulates granulation and the neoformationof connective tissue.Key application ◮ For treatingdegenerative inflammation ofthe joints by stimulating cutivisceralreflexes following localinflammation brought about byintradermal injections; as palliativetherapy for malignant tumourthrough non-specific stimulation.(German Commission E.)Mistletoe contains glycoproteins;flavonoids, usually quercetin-derived(dependent on host tree to some extent);polypeptides; phenylcarboxylicacids; polysaccharides (including viscidacid); alkaloids; lignans.Cardiotonic activity is due to the lignans.The polysaccharides stimulatethe immune response. Antineoplasticactivity is claimed to be responsiblefor prolongation of survival time incancer patients. Polypeptides (viscotoxins)inhibit tumours and stimulateimmune resistance.(For uses of lectin from Mistletoe incancer, see Eur J cancer, 2001,Jan,37(1),23–31; Eur J Cancer 2001, 37 (15), 1910–1920.) (For application in hepatitis, seeFitoterapia, 70, 2001.)Viscum articulatum Burm.Family ◮ Viscaceae, Loranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Most parts of India;a superparasite in Western Indiaon Loranthus sp. which itself isparasitic on Eugenia sp.Ayurvedic ◮ Bandaak (relatedspecies); Jivantikaa, Kaamavriksha,Nilavalli. (The Wealth of India.)Folk ◮ Panapuuduu (Maharashtra),Bodobaando (Gujarat).Action ◮ Plant—febrifuge, aphrodisiac.Paste is applied to bonefractures.The plant gave oleanolic acid, ceryloleanolate and meso-inositol.Viscum monoicum Roxb. ex DC.Family ◮ Viscaceae; Laoranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Sikkim, a parasite ofStrychnos nux-vomica tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Katukavalli, Pashumohanikaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pulluri, Pullurivi.Folk ◮ Kuchleikaa-malang, Kuchlekaa-baandaa.

Vitex agnus-castus Linn. 709Action ◮ Properties more or lesssimilar to Strychnos nux-vomica.Used as a substitute for strychnineand brucine.(The plant is also parasitic on Albiziaamara, A. odoratissima, Pongamia pinnataand Ziziplus oenoplia.)Viscum orientale Willd.Family ◮ Viscaceae; Loranthaceae.Habitat ◮ Bihar, West Bengal andKerala. (The plant parasitizingStrychnos nux-vomica tree are usedin Indian medicine.)Folk ◮ Baandaa.Action ◮ Used as a substitute fornux-vomica. Poultice of leaves isused for neuralgia; ashes of the plantfor the treatment of skin diseases.Vitex agnus-castus Linn.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Mediterranean region;South-West Asian countries, up toPakistan. (Seeds are imported fromIran.)English ◮ Monk’s Pepper-tree, Hemptree.Ayurvedic ◮ Renukaa (seed).Renukaa and Harenukaa aresynonyms in Indian medicine.Unani ◮ Sambhaalu.Action ◮ Dried ripe fruit—actson the anterior pituitary gland,reducing FSH and increasing LSH;stimulates production of progesteroneby reducing oestrogen;used as a substitution therapy inprimary and secondary corpusluteum deficiency. Used for premenstrualsyndrome, for regulatinghormones in amenorrhoea and forbleeding between periods; also asa galactagogue and to assist bustdevelopment.The herb is also used in the treatmentof premature old age due tosexualexcess, nervous debility and impotence(as a homoeopathic drug). Vitex agnusextract is found to lower prolactin levelsin men (the decrease in prolactinlevels results in improved sexual performance.Males with hyperprolactinaemiafrequently face impotence).Key application ◮ In irregularitiesof menstrual cycle, premenstrualcomplaints, mastodynia. (GermanCommission E.) Asahormonalmodulator. (The British HerbalPharmacopoeia.)The methanolic extract of the floweringstems of Vitex agnus-castus yieldediridoids, angnucastoside-A, B andC, in addition to aucubin, agnuside,mussaenosidic acid and 6 ′ -O-p-hydroxybenzoylmussaenosidicacid, andphenylbutenone glucoside, myzodendrone.Dopaminergic compounds, presentin the herb, are clinically importantcompounds which improve premenstrualmastodynia and other symptomsof premenstrual syndrome.The herb may counteract birth controlpills. (Sharon M. Herr.)V

710 Vitex leucoxylon Linn. f.VVitex leucoxylon Linn. f.Family ◮Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout DeccanPeninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Paaraavata-padi,Kaakajanghaa. (Kaakajanghaa isalso equated with Leea aequataLinn.)Action ◮ Roots—febrifuge, astringent.Ethanolic extract and cold aqueousinfusion of the leaf were found to suppressacetic acid-induced writhing inmice and carrageenan-induced hindpaw oedema in rats. The flavonoidsexhibited anti-inflammatory activity.Vitex negundo Linn.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India in thewarmer zones; ascending to 900 min the North-western Himalaya.English ◮ Five-leaved Chaste tree.Ayurvedic ◮ Nirgundi, Shephaalikaa,Sindhuka, Sindhuvaara,Suvahaa, Sugandhikaa. Nila, Nilanirgundi,Shveta nirgundi (var.).White-flowered var. is knownas Sinduvaara, blue-flowered asNirgundi or Shephaali,Unani ◮ Sambhaalu, Fanjankisht.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Nochi, Nalla Nochi,Vellai Nochchi, Nirkundi.Action ◮ Seeds—prescribed inspermatorrhoea, and for promotingspermiogenesis (in Unanimedicine). Also given as a rejuvenatingtonic for retarding old ageand for retaining and promotingvirility. (in Ayurvedic medicine).Leaf—anti-inflammatory, analgesic;removesfoetiddischargesandworms from ulcers. Flowers—astringent,febrifuge, antidiarrhoeic;prescribed in liver complaint. Oil—applied to sinus, scrofulous sores.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the leaf (also the root)in excessive vaginal discharges, oedema,skin diseases, pruritus, helminthiasis,rheumatism, and puerperalfever.A water extract of the leaves, whenadministered to rats, exhibited antiinflammatory,analgesic, antihistaminicand membrane stabilizing and antioxidantactivities. (J. Ethnopharmocol,2003, (203), 199–206.) Methanolicextract of leaves showed remarkableantihistaminic activity.The leaves contain iridoid glycosides,isomeric flavanones and flavonoids,besides casticin and the glucosides,luteolin-7-glucoside and alpha-D-glucoside of a tetrahydroxy monomethoxyflavone.Dried powder of roots contains hentriacontane,beta-sitosterol and its aetatand stigmasterol. Alcoholic extractof the root showed 40–60% antiimplantationactivity with no antiovulatoryeffect in rats.Flavone vitexicarpin (1), isolatedfrom the leaves, exhibited broad cytotoxicityin human cancer cell line panel.Two pentacyclic triterpenoids, betulinicacid and ursolic acid, along with analiphatic alcohol, n-hentriacontanol,

Vitis vinifera Linn. 711beta-sitosterol and p-hydroxybenzoicacid have been isolated from leaves.The seeds contain p-hydroxybenzoicacid, 5-oxyisophthalic acid, glucoseand the triterpene, vitextriterpene.Several anti-inflammatory triterpenoidsand flavonoids have also beenisolated from the seeds. The flavanone,5,7,3 ′ trihydroxy-6, 8,4 ′ -trimethoxyflavoneexhibited anti-androgenic activityin adult mice and dogs.Dosage ◮ Leaf—10–15 ml juice (API,Vol. III); root—10–12 ml juice (API,Vol. IV.)Vitex peduncularisWall. ex Schauer.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Assam, West Bengal, Biharand South India.Ayurvedic ◮ Kaakajanghaa. (Leeaaequata Linn. is also equated withKaakajanghaa.)Folk ◮ Chirai-godaa, Chirai-gorwaa,Naagpheni.Action ◮ Leaves and bark—used inmalarial and black water fevers.Leaves—antibacterial.The leaves and root bark gave pachypodol,ursolic acid, vitexin and peduncularcin.Vitex trifolia Linn.Family ◮ Verbenaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India intropical and subtropical regions.Ayurvedic ◮ Sinduvaara, Nirgundi(white var.).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karu Nochi, SiruNochi.Folk ◮ Paani-Sambhaalu.Action ◮ Leaves—febrifuge, antibacterial,anthelmintic, cytotoxic.Extract of the leaves showedinhibitory action against Mycobacteriumtuberculosis. Leaves used aspoultice in rheumatism, inflammationsand sprains. Root andflowers—febrifuge. Root—expectorant.Fruit—used in amenorrhoea.Aerial parts gave friedelin, betasitosteroland its beta-D-glucoside, anda long chain hydrocarbon. The leavesgave the flavonoids—artemetin, luteolin,orientin, casticin; and iridoid glycosides,aucubin and agnuside. Thefruitscontainanalkaloid,vitricin.Vitrosin A and vitexicarpin, isolatedfrom the plant, blocked spontaneouscontraction of isolated guinea-pig tracheainduced by histamine. (PlantaMed, 2002, Nov., 68/11).The leaves are reported to improvememory and favour hair growth. Leafextract showed significant antitumouractivity in the murine tumour system.Vitis vinifera Linn.Family ◮ Vitaceae.Habitat ◮ A woody, shrubby vine,cultivated in Punjab, Rajasthan,Delhi, Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra,Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh andTamil Nadu for edible fruits.V

712 Vocanga foetida (Blume) Rolfe.VEnglish ◮ Wine Grape, EuropeanGrape. (Chinese: P’u-t’ao.)Ayurvedic ◮ Draakshaa, Go-stani,Mrdvikaa. Dehydrated fruit—Daakh, Munnakaa, Kishmish.Unani ◮ Angoor. Dehydratedfruit—Daakh, Maweez, Zabeeb,Munaqqaa, Kishmish.Siddha ◮Draksha.Action ◮ Dried fruits, seedless—nourishing and invigorating.Used in prescriptions for cough,respiratory tract catarrh, subacutecases of enlarged liver and spleen;and in alcohol-based tonics(Aasavs).The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends dried mature fruits(5–10 g) in anaemia, jaundice, dyspepsia,constipation, haemorrhagic diseases,gout, cough, dyspnoea, and alcoholism.Grape vine contains flavonoids, tannins,tartrates, inositol, carotenes, cholineand sugars. The fruit contains tartaricand malic acids, sugars, pectin,tannin, flavone glycosides, vitamins A,B1, B2, C and minerals; anthocyaninsin red leaves and red grapes. Anthocyaninsreduce capillary permeability.Red leaves are astringent and antiinflammatory;an infusion is used fordiarrhoea, heavy menstrual bleedingand uterine haemorrhage; also in thetreatment of varicose veins and haemorrhoids.Oligomeric proanthocyanidin extractof the seed is used in atherosclerosisdue to its free radical scavengingability, also in venous insufficiency,night vision, oedema due to injury andpost surgery oedema.Proanthocyanidin extract decreasedhepatotoxicity of acetaminophen inmice. Grape polyphenols, extractedfrom skin and seeds decreased hepaticinjury from alcohol, but had no effecton ethanol-induced lipid changes inrats. (Sharon M. Herr.)Dosage ◮ Dried mature fruits—5–10 g. (API, Vol. III.)Vocanga foetida (Blume) Rolfe.Synonym ◮ Orchipeda foetida Blume.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Indonesia; cultivated inIndian gardens.Action ◮ Latex—used for treatingfistula, pustules and tumours.The bark contains a bitter alkaloid(yield 0.25%).A related species, V. grandifolia(Miq.) Rolfe has been introduced intothe Indian Botanic Garden, Kolkata.All parts of the plant contain alkaloidswhich vary seasonally. The trunk barkcontains as high as 2.72% of alkaloidson dry basis in November. The leavescontain a mixture of alkaloids (yield upto 1.23% on dry weight basis) containingvobtusine, vobtusine lactone anddeoxyvobtusine.Volutarella ramosa Roxb.Synonym ◮ V. divaricata Benth &Hook. f., in part.

Volutarella ramosa Roxb. 713Tricholepis procumbens Wight.Amberboa divaricata Kuntge.Family ◮Compositae.Habitat ◮ All over India, except WestBengal and eastwards.Unani ◮ Baadaavard, Al-baavard,Shukaayi.Folk ◮ Bhu-dandi, Sukaayi (Maharashtra).Action ◮ Plant—deobstruent,aperient, febrifugal, styptic. Usedfor disorders of the liver. Themucilage is used in coughs.The plant yielded a glucoside procumbeninA which yields an aglyconeprocumbenidine and glucose on hydrolysis.Fructose, surcose, lactoseand maltose are also present in theplant.Shukaayi of Unani medicine is alsoknown as Al-shukaayaa, Al-shaukatul-arabiaand Arabian Thorn. The fruitand root are used in Unani medicinein chronic fevers and diseases of liverand intestines.Baadaavard has also been equatedwith Tricholepis procumbens Wight andCarduus bendictus. Tricholepis sp. areknown as Brahmadandi in Ayurvedicmedicine. Carduus nutans Linn. isknown as Gul-Baadaavard in Kashmirandisusedasfebrifuge.V

WWagatea spicata Dalz.Family ◮Habitat ◮Ayurvedic ◮Caesalpiniaceae.Western Ghats.Guchh-karanja.Siddha ◮ Okkadi-kodi, Pulinakkagondai.Folk ◮ Vaakeri (Maharashtra).Caesalpinia digyna Rottl. is alsoknown as Vaakeri.Action ◮ Roots—used in pneumonia.Bark—used externally in skindiseases.The root contains vakerin. Vakerindid not inhibit the stimulating effect ofhistamine and acetylcholine.Pods contain considerable quantityof tannic acid.Wahlenbergia marginata(Thunb.) A. DC.Synonym ◮ W. gracilis Schrad.Family ◮ Campanulaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South Africa;occurring throughout India.Folk ◮ Tosad kesari, Dudma Saaga.Action ◮ Root—used in pulmonaryinfections. Herb—used externallyfor strengthening the loose teeth,also for skin diseases.The flower contains delphinidinchloride-3,5-diglucoside. The rootscontain glucose, sucrose, methyl 9,12-octadecadienoate, beta-sitosterol,beta-sitosterol glucoside and lupenone.Walsura trifoliata(A. Juss.) Harms.Synonym ◮ W. piscidia Roxb.Family ◮ Meliaceae.Habitat ◮ Karnataka, Western Ghats,Palni and Anaimalai Hills, alsowestern India.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Cheddavokko,Kanjiram.Folk ◮ Waalsuuraa.Action ◮ Bark—stimulant, expectorant,emmenagogue, emetic. Alsoused to kill vermin in the hair.The bark contains saponin and tannin.Waltheria indica Linn.Synonym ◮ W. americana Linn.Family ◮ Sterculiaceae.Habitat ◮ Tropical regions of India.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Shembudu.Folk ◮ Khar-Duudhi (Bengal).Action ◮ Plant—emollient, bechic,febrifuge, purgative, abortifacient.Root—prescribed in internalhaemorrhages.

716 Wedelia biflora DC.WThe plant yields pelargonidin andcyanidin glycoside and apigeninidin.Anthocyanins were also detected. Thealkaloid, adouetin-7 sulfamate, inducedhypothermia and sedation atlow levels and hyperexcitability at highlevels.A decoction of roots possesses antisyphliticproperty.Wedelia biflora DC.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Near sea-coasts and theAndamans.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhringaraaja (yellowfloweredvar).Action ◮ Leaves—used as poulticeon ulcers, sores, varicose veins;paste applied to fungal infections.Leaf decction—vulnerary andantiscabious. The juice of leaf is alsogiven internally with cow’s milk asa tonic after child birth.The dried leaves contain veratrylidenehydrazide and quercetin derivatives.The stem contains stigmasteroland grandifloric acid. The leaves andstem showed antifungal activity.Wedelia calendulaceaeLess. non-Rich.Synonym ◮ W. chinensis Merrill.Family ◮ Compositae; Asteraceae.Habitat ◮ Bengal,Assam,Konkan,and Tamil Nadu.Ayurvedic ◮ Bhringaraaja (yellowfloweredvar.), Pitabhringi,Pitabhringa-raaja, Avanti, Kesharaaja,Kesharaaga.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Manjal karisaalai,Potralai kaiyan tagarai, PatalaiKaiantakerai.Action ◮ Leaves—bechic; usedin alopecia, juice used for dyeinghair and for promoting hairgrowth. Plant—deobstruent;used in menorrhagia and abdominalswellings, as a tonicfor hepatic and splenic enlargement.See Eclipta alba.The expressed juice of the herb containedan oil-soluble black dye 11.2; tannin220; saponin 500 (contradictoryreports) and phytosterol 3.75 mg/100 gamong other constituents. The leavescontain isoflavonoids.The bisdesmosidic oleanolic acidsaponins have been isolated from thefresh leaves. Significant hepatoprotectiveactivity has been found in the prosaponinfrom ginsenoside Ro (chikusetsusaponinV);and in coumestans,wedelolactone and demethyl wedelolactone,isolated from the methanolextract of the herb.Wedelolactone has also been foundto be a potent and selective 5-lipoxygenase-inhibitor,the process beingan oxygen radical scavenger mechanism.Wedelolactone (0.05%), isolatedfrom the leaves, is analogous in structureto coumestrol, an estrogen fromMelilotus sp. (clover).

Withania ashwagandha Kaul (cultivated var.) 717Wendlandia exserta DC.Family ◮Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan region,West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh,Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra.Ayurvedic ◮Tilaka.Folk ◮ Tiliyaa(Bihar),Tilki,Mimri(Bengal).Action ◮ Bark—administered inurinary affections.Wendlandia tinctoria DC.Family ◮Rubiaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract fromGarhwal eastwards to Bhutan andKhasi hills.Ayurvedic ◮Tilak (related species).Action ◮ Bark—used for cramps incholera patients.Wigandia caracasana Kunth.Family ◮Hydrophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical America;introduced into Indian gardens.Action ◮ Leaves and branch tips—a decoction is used in rheumatism;also for whooping cough andrespiratory problems.Solvent extracts of the leaves (ethanol,acetone and n-hexane) were foundactive against Gram-positive bacteria.Wikstroemia indica Mey.Synonym ◮ W. viridiflora Meissn.W. indica var. virdiflora Hook. f.Family ◮ Thymelaeaceae.Habitat ◮ Eastern Assam; as a weedin Tamil Nadu.English ◮ Small-Leaf Salago.Folk ◮ Salago.Action ◮ Root bark—diuretic,vesicant, purgative and piscicidal.The root bark is reported to containa flavone glycoside, wikstroemin,which exhibited diuretic activity.In Chinese folk medicine, the barkis used for schistosomiasis.The stem contains wikstromol, a ligninprototype which exhibited antineoplasticactivity. Daphnoretin, isolatedfrom the plant, caused plateletaggregation in the blood of rabbits.A polysaccharide, comprising glucose,arabinose, galacturonic acid, galactoseand xylose, protected mice against radiationand enhanced the formation ofmacrophages.Withania ashwagandhaKaul (cultivated var.)W. somnifera (Linn.) Dunal (ChemotypeI, II, III: Israele.)Family ◮ Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout the drier andsubtropical parts of India.English ◮ Winter Cherry. (Physalisalkekengi is also known as WinterCherry.)W

718 Withania ashwagandha Kaul (cultivated var.)WAyurvedic ◮ Ashwagandhaa, Hayagandhaa,Ashwakanda, Gandharvagandhaa,Turaga, Turagagandhaa,Turangagandhaa, Vaajigandhaa,Gokarnaa, Vrishaa, Varaahakarni,Varadaa, Balyaa, Vaajikari. (Asubstitute for Kaakoli and Kshirakaakoli.)Cultivated var.: AsgandhNaagori. (Indian botanists considerthe cultivated plants distinct fromthe wild ones.)Unani ◮ Asgandh.Siddha ◮ Amukkuramkizhangu.Action ◮ Root—used as an antiinflammatorydrug for swellings,tumours, scrofula and rheumatism;and as a sedative and hypnoticin anxiety neurosis. Leaf—anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective,antibacterial. Fruits andseeds—diuretic. Withanine—sedative, hypnotic. WithaferinA—major component of biologicallyactive steroids; as effectiveas hydrocortisone dose for dose.Antibacterial, antitumour, antiarthritic,significantly protectiveagainst hepatotoxicity in rats.The root contains several alkaloids,including withanine, withananine,withananinine, pseudo-withanine,somnine, somniferine, somniferinine.The leaves of Indian chemotype contain12 withanolides, including withaferinA. Steroidal lactones of withanolideseries have been isolated.Withanine is sedative and hypnotic.Withaferin A is antitumour, antiarthriticand antibacterial. Anti-inflammatoryactivity has been attributedto biologically active steroids, ofwhich withaferin A is a major component.The activity is comparable to thatof hydrocortisone sodium succinate.Withaferin A also showed significantlyprotective effect against CCl4-induced hepatotoxicity in rats. It wasas effective as hydrocortisone dose fordose.The root extract contains an ingredientwhich has GABA mimetic activity.The free amino acids present in theroot include aspartic acid, glycine, tyrosine,alanine, proline, tryptophan,glutamic acid and cystine.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends Ashwagandha in impotency.This claim could not be sustainedin a recent experiment and raisesa doubt about the equation of classicalAshwagandha with Withania somnifera.A methanolic extract of Withaniasomnifera root induced a markedimpairment in libido, sexual performance,sexual vigour and penile dysfunctionin male rats. (Llayperuma etal, Asian J Androl, 2002, 295–298.)The total alkaloids of the root exhibitedprolonged hypotensive, bradycardiacand depressant action of thehigher cerebral centres in several experimentalanimals.A withanolide-free aqueous fractionisolated from the roots of Withaniasomnifera exhibited antistress activityin a dose-dependent manner in mice.(Phytother Res 2003, 531–6.)(See also Simon Mills; AmericanHerbal Pharmacopoeia, 2000; NaturalMedicines Comprehensive Database,2007.)Dosage ◮ Root—3–6 g powder. (API,Vol. I.)

Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz. 719Withania coagulans Dunal.Family ◮Solanaceae.Habitat ◮ Drier parts of Punjab,Gujarat, Simla and Kumaon.English ◮ Vegetable Rennet, IndianCheese-maker.Unani ◮ Desi Asgandh, Kaaknaj-e-Hindi, Paneer, Paneer-band. Akri(fruit).Siddha/Tamil ◮ Ammukkura.Action ◮ Alterative, emetic, diuretic.Ripe fruits—sedative, CNS depressant,antibilious, emetic, antiasthmatic,diuretic, anti-inflammatory;used in chronic liver troublesand strangury. Dried fruits—carminative, depurative; used fordyspepsia, flatulence and strangury.Leaf—alterative, febrifuge. Seeds—anti-inflammatory, emetic, diuretic,emmenagogue.Though known as Desi Asgandh, theroot is not used in Indian medicine.Ashwagandhaa (Bengali) and Ashwagandhi(Kannada) are confusing synonymsof W. coagulans. In the marketno distinction is made between theberries of W. coagulans and W. somnifera.The berries contain a milk-coagulatingenzyme, esterases, free aminoacids, fatty oil, an essential oil and alkaloids.The amino acid compositionfairly agrees with that of papain. Theessential oil was active against Micrococcuspyogenes var. aureus and Vibrocholerae; also showed anthelmintic activity.The withanolides, withacoagin, coagulanand withasomidienone havebeen isolated fromthe plant, along withother withanolides and withaferin. 3-beta-hydroxy-2,3- dihydrowithanolideE, isolated from the fruit showed significanthepatoprotective activity andanti-inflammatory activity equal to hydrocortisone.The ethanolic extract ofthe fruit showed antifungal and thatof the leaves and stem antibacterialactivity.Woodfordia fruticosa Kurz.Synonym ◮ W. floribunda Salisb.Family ◮ Lythraceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout North India,rather scarce in South India.English ◮ Fire-flame Bush, Shiranjitea.Ayurvedic ◮ Dhaataki, Dhaatri, Kunjaraa,Taamrapushpi, Bahupushpi,Vahnijwaalaa.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Velakkai.Action ◮ Dried flower—purifiesblood,healsulcers,astringent,prescribed in haemetemesis,erysipelas, dysentery, diarrhoea,menorrhagia, leucorrhoea. Flowersare used in alcohol-based tonicsfor fermentation (a yeast strain,saccharomyces cerevisiae, has beenisolated). Bark—uterine sedative.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends the flower in acutediarrhoea, haemorrhages, ulcerationsand erysipelas.The dried flowers are powdered andsprinkled over ulcers and wounds. Theflowers also enter into an ointmentused on pustules of smallpox.W

720 Wrightia tinctoria R. Br.WIn small doses the plant stimulates,while in large doses depresses the centralnervous system.The flowers and leaves gave polyphenols—ellagicacid, polystachoside andmyricetin-3-galactoside. Flowers alsogave anthocyanins—pelargonidin-3,5-diglucoside and cyanidin–3,5-diglucoside;octacosanol, chrysophanol-8-O-beta-D-glucopyranosideandbeta-sitosterol. Hecogenin, mesoinositoland flavone glycosides—quercetin-3-rhamnoside, naringenin-7-glucosideand kaempferol, have been reportedfrom flowers.The bark contains C-glucoside, bergenin.The flowers, leaves and bark containtannins—24.1, 12–20 and 20–27% respectively.Dimeric hydrolyzable tannins—woodfordinsA,BandC,andtrimeric tannins woodfordin D andoenothein A and B have been isoaltedfrom dried flowers. A new tanninmonomer, isoschimawalin A and fiveoligomers—woodfordin E, F, G, H andI, have also been isoalted.Oenothein A and B exhibited remarkablehost-mediated antitumouractivity. Woodfordin C and D alsoshowed antitumour activity. WoodfordinC showed inhibitory activitytoward DNA topoisomerase II.Dosage ◮ Flower—3–6 g powder.(API, Vol. I.)Wrightia tinctoria R. Br.Family ◮ Apocynaceae.Habitat ◮ Atree,foundinRajasthan,Madhya Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.English ◮Pala Indigo Plant.Ayurvedic ◮ Shveta Kutaja. (whiteflowered),Punkutaja,Indrayava(seeds).Unani ◮Irum-paalai, Nila-Siddha/Tamil ◮paalai.Inderjao Shireen.Action ◮ Bark—antidysenteric. Alsoused in piles and skin diseases.Seeds—antidysenteric, astringent,febrifuge, anthelmintic. Bark andseeds—prescribed in flatulence andbilious affections.Pods, without seeds, contain thecycloartanes, cycloartenone and cycloeucalenolalong with alpha- andbeta-amyrin, beta-sitosterol, ursolicacid, oleanolic acid and the terpene,wrightial. The leaves contain betaamyrin.Stem bark gave beta-amyrin,beta-sitosterol and lupeol.The seeds, leaves and roots havebeen shown to contain an indigoyieldingglucoside.The flowers gave 3-O-rhamnoglucosidewhich exhibited significant antiinflammatoryactivity in carrageenaninducedhind paw oedema.The bark is commonly used as anadulterant of Kurchi Bark (obtainedfrom Holarrhena antidysenterica).Wrightia tomentosaRoem. & Schult.Synonym ◮ W. arborea (Dennst.)Mabberley.Family ◮Apocynaceae.

Wrightia tomentosa Roem. & Schult. 721Habitat ◮ Punjab, Rajasthan, Bihar,Assam and Western Peninsula.Ayurvedic ◮ Kutaja (red-flowered).Indrayava (seeds).Siddha/Tamil ◮Pala.Action ◮ Two varieties—maleand female—are mentioned inAyurvedic texts. Mostly, Holarrhenais supposed to be the maleand Wrightia the female. InUnani medicine, Inderjao Talkh(bitter) is equated with Holarrhenaantidysenterica (Conesse Bark)and Inderjao Shireen (sweet)with Wrightia tinctoria (knownas Dyer’s Oleander, Blue DyeingRoseberry).DriedbarkisusedasasubstituteforHolarrhena antidysenterica bark. Alkaloidconessine is the active principleof both the barks.Besides conessine, other alkaloidspresent in the bark are conessine dihydrate,holarrhine, kurchicine andaveryminutequantityofconkurchine.The bark contains beta-sitosterol, lupeol,alpha-amyrin and reducing sugarsbesides alkaloids.The isoflavone, wrightiadione, isolatedfrom the stem bark, displayedcytotoxic activity. Two aliphatic compounds,n-tritriacont-16-one and hexaconsan-3,6-diol-12-oic acid, have alsobeen isolated from the bark.See Wrightia tinctoria and Holarrhenaantidysenterica.W

XXanthium strumariumLinn.Synonym ◮Roxb.Family ◮Habitat ◮English ◮X. indicum Koenig. exCompositae; Asteraceae.Tropical India.Cocklebur, Burweed.Ayurvedic ◮ Shankheshwara, Arishta,Aartagala.Siddha/Tamil ◮Marlumutta.Folk ◮Bana-okraa.Maruloomatham,Action ◮ Plant—used for leucoderma,ulcers, abscesses, strumous andmalignant diseases.Root—antitumour. Leaves andshoots—applied externally on venerealsores, herpes and scrofula.Leaves contain seaquiterpene lactones—xanthinin,xanthumin, xanthanoland iso-xanthanol. Leaves alsocontain isohexacosane, chlorobutanol,stearyl alcohol, beta-sitosteroland palmitic acid. A highly toxic compound,carboxyatractyloside, has beenisolated from the plant.Beta-sitosterol glucoside is anti-inflammatory,xanthumin is a centralnervous system depressant. Alcoholicsolution of xanthinin shows strongantibacterial activity against Gramnegativebacteria and fungi. A cytotoxiccompound, xanthatin (a seco-4,5-guaianolide) has been detected inthe resin.The root gave n-heptacosanol, stigmasterol,3,4,-dihydro oxycinnamicacid, beta-sitosterol and its D-glucoside,and campesterol.Xanthium spinosum Linn. (introducedfrom Europe into West Bengaland Assam), known as Spiny Clotbur,is used as a diuretic, antiperiodic (alsoin intermittent fevers), sudorific,antidiarrhoeal and styptic.The whole plant gave several xanthanolides.The sesquiterpene lactones,xanthinin, solstitialin and stizolicin,isolated from the plant, demonstratedlimited antitumour action invitro. Xanthatin has also been isolated.Ximenia americana Linn.Synonym ◮ X. spinosa Salisb.Family ◮ Olacaceae.Habitat ◮ Both the Peninsulas andthe Andaman Islands.English ◮ Tallow-Wood, FalseSandal-Wood.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Chiru-illantai,Kadaranji, Siruyilandai.Action ◮ Fruits—known as WildPlum or Wild Olive, are used asa substitute for lemon. Fruits andseeds—laxative. Root and leaves—decoctiongiveninjaundice,diarrhoea and during fevers.Root—used for venereal diseases.Bark—astringent, applied to sores.Wood—used as a substitute forsandalwood.

724 Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub.XThe root contains fat, rich in acetylenicacids, including ximenynic acid.The bark contains 17% tannin. An extractof leaves gave positive test forpresence of free triterpenoids.Alcoholic extract of the plantshowed antiviral and hypotensive activityin primary tests on animals.A cyanogenic and antimicrobialconstituent, sambunigrin, is presentin the plant. Natural lignified productsfrom the plant significantly stimulateiodination of human peripheral bloodpolymorphonuclear cells.The fruit contains 60.3 mg/100 gascorbic acid.Xylia xylocarpa (Roxb.) Taub.Synonym ◮ X. dolabriformis Benth.Family ◮ Mimosaceae.Habitat ◮ Peninsular India.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Irul.Folk ◮ Jambu, Suriaa.Action ◮ Bark—anthelmintic,antidiarrhoeal. Seed oil—antirheumatic.Bark and seed oil—antileprotic, used for ulcers andpiles. A decoction of the barkpowder is given with honey asavermifuge.The leaves contain beta-sitosteroland t-5-hydroxypipecolic acid whichwas shown to be an inhibitor of bloodplatelet aggregation.The bark from South India gave tannin17.1 and non-tans 11.1%; also containstriterpenes. The leaves contain2.8% of tannins.The seed yielded oil with oleic 21.5,linoleic 34.8, behenic 21.3 and lignoceric10.2% fatty acids.Xylocarpus granatum Koen.Synonym ◮ Carapa granatum (Koen.)Alston.Habitat ◮ Coastal regions of India,especially in Tamil Nadu.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Somanthiri, Kanlolanyey.English ◮ The Puzzle Fruit tree.Folk ◮ Pussur, Dhundul.Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antidysenteric,febrifuge.The bark and leaves contain friedelin,beta-sitosterol, stigmasterol; tetranorterpenoids—oxomeliacderivatives.Bark, in addition, contains triacontanol.The heartwood containsbeta-sitosterol and gedunin. Differentparts of the plant contain tannins—fruit pulp 8.57, leaves 7.92, twig bark14.82, branch bark 20.58, bole bark23.73, branch wood 4.67 and bole wood4.94%.A closely related species X.gangeticusPrain occurs in West Bengal andthe Andamans.Xylopia parvifloraHook. f. Thoms.Family ◮ Annonaceae.Habitat ◮ Evergreen forests of Keralaup to an altitude of 600 m.

Xyris indica Linn. 725Folk ◮ Saanthu, Kalpottan (Kerala),Kalpootha, Chiddavintai (TamilNadu), ulli (Karnataka).Action ◮ Root bark—antiseptic,used for ulcers. Root bark, flowers,fruits—used for oral hygiene.Fruits of Xylopia aromatica arechewed with betel leaves; also usedin cough and cold. The fruits, knownas Suvaali Pippali, have no relationshipwith Pippali of Indian medicine.The plant contains pinenes.Xyris commplanata R. Br.Synonym ◮ X. anceps HK. f.Family ◮ Xyridaceae.Habitat ◮ South India.Folk ◮ Kochelachi-pullu (Kerala).Action ◮ Herb—antiseptic. Bruisedleaves and their juice, driedinto powder and mixed withbrandy, are used for ringworm,itches, leprosy and other skindiseases.Xylosma longifolium Clos.Family ◮ Flacourtiaceae.Habitat ◮ Shady ravines of theWestern Himalayas from Kashmirto Kumaon and on low hills up toan altitude of 1,500 m.Folk ◮ Sallu (Kumaon), Sailu(Himachal Pradesh, North India),Dandal (North India), Katahaar(Assam).Action ◮ An extract of young andtender leaves resembles opium inaction and is used in Assam forintoxication. The herb exhibitsantispasmodic, narcotic andsedative activity. It is prescribedin dysentery, restlessness andinsomnia.Xyris indica Linn.Synonym ◮ X. robusta Mart.Family ◮ Xyridaceae.Habitat ◮ West Bengal, Assamand Western Peninsula, generallyon sandy soils and salt marshes.Ayurvedic ◮ Daadmaari, DhobiDeeb.Folk ◮ Haabiduuba (Bengal),Kochelachi-pullu (Malayalam).Action ◮ Plant—used for ringworm,itches and leprosy.Xyris pauciflora Willd. (marshy areasin Bihar, West Bengal and TamilNadu) is prescribed as a sedative forinsomnia.X

YYucca aloifolia Linn.Family ◮Liliaceae, Agavaceae.Habitat ◮ Common in gardens inwarm tropical regions.Action ◮fruit—used as a purgative.Flowers contain aloifoline. Seedscontain indole melanins. The leavescontain tigogenin (76%), sarsasapogenin,gitogenin, hecogenin, smilagenin,neotigogenin and samogenin.Aloifoline is specifically activeagainst Lewis lung-tumour as well asother transplanted mouse neoplasms.Several spirostanol saponin glycosidesfromrhizomesandinflorescencehave been isolated.Yucca filamentosa Linn.Family ◮Liliaceae; Agavaceae.Habitat ◮ Indigenous to southernUnited States; introduced intoIndian gardens.English ◮Adam’s Needle.Action ◮ Rhizomes and leaves—usedfor the treatment of glandular andliver and gallbladder disorders; inbilious headaches accompanied byyellow tongue; in despondency andirritability. Root—tincture is usedin the treatment of rheumatism;a poultice or salve is used ininflammations.The leaves contain steroidal sapogeninssarsasapogenin, gitogenin, tigogenin,diosgenin, kammogenin,yuccagenin, hecogenin, manogenin,mexogenin, chlorogenin and smilagenin.The rhizomes contain mainlysarsasapogenin.Tincture of the herb is used inHomoeopathic medicine for bilioussymptoms with headache.Yucca gloriosa Linn.Synonym ◮ Y. recurvifolia Salisb.Family ◮ Liliaceae; Agavaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Central America;introduced into India as a gardenplant.English ◮ Spanish Dagger-Plant,Adam’s Needle.Action ◮ Fruit—anti-inflammatory,blood purifier, cholagogue. Used inrheumatism, oedema, bronchitis,asthma and chest diseases; alsofor ulcers, sores, dysentery andhaemorrhagic septicaemia.Yuccas are an important source ofsteroidal sapogenins, precursors ofsex-hormones and steroids. Relatedspecies, Yucca bacata, Y. glauca, andY. brevifolica, are used for hormonaldisturbances, menstrual disorders,varicose veins, arthritis and rheumatism.

728 Yucca gloriosa Linn.Oxycanthin, extracted from Yuccaplant, is used for the treatment of pruritus.It also stimulates hair growth.The leaves of Yucca gloriosa containsapogenins—titogenin derivatives,smilagenin, hecogenin, diosgenin, gloriogenin,12-beta-hydroxysmilageninand chlorogenin. Beta-sitosterol is alsoreported from leaves.Essential oil fromleaves contains cis-9-nonadecene and cis-8-heptadeceneas major constituents.Y

ZZamia angustifolia Jacq.Family ◮Cycadaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to tropical andsub-tropical America; introducedinto Indian gardens.Action ◮Plant—toxic, insecticidal.The leaves contain bilobetin, ginkgetinand sciadopitysin, which havebeen isolated from the leaves of Ginkgobiloba Linn. (Ginkgo extract is used forcerebral insufficiency and for improvingmental performance in geriatricpatients.) Other flavone compoundsinclude amentoflavone, sequoiaflavoneand amentoflavone derivatives.Zanonia indica Linn.Family ◮Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ The peninsular India,khasi hills of Meghalaya and theAndamans.Ayurvedic ◮ Chirpoti, Chirpotaa,Kuntali, Tiktaka.Siddha/Tamil ◮Folk ◮Parpoti.Penar-valli.Action ◮ Fruits—cathartic, usedfor cough and asthma. Leaves—antispasmodic; topically applied toreduce inflammation and irritation.Plant—febrifuge.Zantedeschia aethiopica(L.) Spreng.Synonym ◮Kunth.Family ◮Habitat ◮Orissa.Richardia africanaAraceae.Cooler parts of Bihar andAction ◮ Leaves—used as a poulticeon sores, boils, wounds, burns,insect-bites and on painful parts ofgout and rheumatism.The plant contains an acrid juicewhich is poisonous and irritant; irritationis caused by raphides of calciumoxalate. A toxic principle has been reportedfrom the inflorescence, spatheand flower stem. It produced effect inrabbits ranging from hypo-aesthesia toparalysis.The flowers contain cytokinin alongwith swertisin, swertiajaponin, cyanidin,peonidin and ferulic acid.Roasting and boiling appear to destroythe toxicity of leaves.Zanthoxylum acanthopodiumDC.Family ◮Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-tropical Himalayafrom Kumaon to Bhutan, and inKhasi hills.Ayurvedic ◮Tumburu.

730 Zanthoxylum armatum DC.ZFolk ◮Nepaali Dhaniyaa, Timur.Action ◮ Plant—uses similar toZanthoxylum armatum.The fruit gave tambulin and tambuletin.The stem bark contains lignans—sesamin,fargesin and eudesmin;triterpenoids—beta-amyrin andbeta-amyrenone.The seeds are extensively used in thepreparation of tooth powders.The essential oil from the seed (fromKanpur) contains d-linalool (37.6), dipentene+phellandrene(47), citral (6),esters as methyl cinnamate (6.2%) andfree acids. Seeds from Sikkim contain50% d-linalool.Zanthoxylum armatum DC.Synonym ◮ Z. alatum Roxb.Z. var. planispinum Sieb. & Zucc.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Jammu & Kashmir andGarhwal.English ◮ Toothache tree, IndianPrickly Ash.Ayurvedic ◮ Tumburu (fruit).Tejabala, Tejaswani, Tejohva,Tejovati (stem bark).Unani ◮ Faaghir, Kabaab-e-Khandaan.Siddha ◮ Tejyovathi.Folk ◮ Nepaali Dhaniyaa.Action ◮ Stem bark—used in cough,dyspnoea, hiccup, stomatitis,rheumatism. (The AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India.) Stemsandthorns—hypoglycaemic. Bark—used for cleaning teeth, also fortreating diarrhoea. Fruits, seeds,bark—carminative, antispasmodic,anthelmintic. Fruits and seeds—used as a tonic in fever, dyspepsiaand skin diseases. Essential oil ofthe fruit—antibacterial, antifungaland deodorant. Used in toothpowders.The essential oil from dried fruitscontains linalool (64.1%), linalyl acetate,citral, geraniol methyl cinnamate,limonene and sabinene.Dried bark and branches containlignans—sesamin, fargesin, eudesmin;a lactone pulviatide; dictamine, 8-hydroxydictamine and gamma-fagarine;magnoflorine and xanthoplanine.The root contains magnoflorine, xanthoplanine,skimmianine, dictamineand gamma-fagarine. Seeds containflavonoids tambulin and tambulol.Dosage ◮ Stem bark—10–20g fordecoction; fruit—3–4 g. (API, Vol.II; Vol. IV.)Zanthoxylum americanum Mill.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Canada and NorthAmerica.English ◮ Toothache tree, PricklyAsh.Action ◮ Bark, berries—usedinternally and externaly to treatrheumatism and toothache; alsofor circulatory insufficiency andfevers.

Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum Edgew. 731The bark contains alkaloids gammafagarine,beta-fagarine, magnoflorine,laurifoline, nitidine, chelerythrine,tembetarine, candicine; coumarins includexanthyletine, xanthoxyletin andalloxanthyletin.Related species, found in India, givemore or less similar pattern of chemicalconstituents and therapeutic activities.The bark of Z. armatum isused for cleaning teeth. The seeds ofZ. acanthopodium are extensively usedin the preparation of tooth-powders.The fruits of Z. budrunga and theroot of Z. nitidum are prescribed fortoothache.Zanthoxylum budrungaWall. ex DC.Synonym ◮ Z. limonella (Dennst.)Alston.Z. rhetsa DC.Fagara budrunga Roxb.F. rhetsa Roxb.Family ◮ Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ Meghalaya, foothills ofAssam and Peninsular India.Ayurvedic ◮ Tumburu (Kerala),Ashvaghra, Tejabala.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Tratechai.Action ◮ Fruits—used for diarrhoea,dyspepsia; asthma, bronchitis;rheumatism; diseases of the mouthand teeth. Pericarp—astringent,digestive, stimulant. Essentialoil—disinfectant, used in infectivedermatosis. Bark—cholinergic, diuretic,hypoglycaemic, spasmolytic.Root—emmenagogue, febrifuge.The trunk-bark from Assam gave alkaloids—chelerythrine(0.014%), evodiamine(0.03%) and hydoxyevodiamine(0.05%). The essential oil fromthe fruit contains l-sabinene, alphaterpinene,beta-phellandrene, 1,4-cineole,decanal, octanal, terpinen-4-ol,dihydrocarveol, l-cryptone and cuminaldehyde.The essential oil exhibits anti-inflammatory,anaesthetic and antagonisicactivity.Z. nitidum (Roxb.) DC. (Bihar eastwardsto Sikkim and Assam) is knownas Tezmul in Assam. The root is usedin toothache and stomachache.Theplantisusedasoneoftheingredientsin the preparation of pharmaceuticaltablets given to drug addictsfor the treatment of withdrawl symptoms.Methanolic extract of the roots gavenitidine, chelerythrine and isogaridine.The extract showed antitumourproperty.Z. ovalifolium Wight (Eastern Himalayas,Meghalaya, the WesternGhats of South Kanara and Kerala)is known as Armadalu in Karnatakaand Diang-shih in Meghalaya (KhasiHills). The leaf contains diosmetin andthe heartwood contains flavonoids ofdihydrofisetin and cinnamaldehyde.The bark and fruit possess propertiessimilar to other species of the genus.Zanthoxylum oxyphyllumEdgew.Synonym ◮ Xanthoxylon violaceumWall.Fagara oxyphylla (Edgew.) Engl.Z

732 Zataria multiflora Boiss.ZFamily ◮Rutaceae.Habitat ◮ The Himalayas fromGarhwal to Bhutan at 1,800–2,700 m, and in Khasi Hills at 1,200–1,800 m.Folk ◮ Mezenga (Assam); Timur,Bhansi (Nepal).Action ◮ Bark—stimulant, stomachic,sudorific; used in colic; alsoadministered in fevers. Fruits—prescribed for dyspepsia, also forasthma, bronchitis, rheumatismand toothache.Alkaloids, xanthoxyphyllin andcorydine and a lactone 3,5-bis furan 2-one have been isolated from the roots.Stem bark gave zanoxyline and rhetsinine.Dried branches with bark gavelignans (sesamin, eudesmin and epieudesmin),fluoroquinolone alkaloidgamma-fagarine, triterpenoid lupeol,beta-sitosterol and syringaresinol.Zataria multiflora Boiss.Family ◮ Labiatae.Habitat ◮ Iran, Afghanistan andPakistan. Imported into India.English ◮ Wild Thyme.Unani ◮ Saatar Faarsi, Al-Saatar,Origanon.Action ◮ Herb—stimulant, antiinflammatory,anodyne, diaphoretic,diuretic, emmenagogue,anthelmintic, antilithic. Detoxifiesliver, stomach and intestines. Usedfor inflammatory conditions of theliver.Essential oil contained phenols 69%(consisted mainly of carvacrol andtraces of thymol) and nonphenols 31%(including p-cymene, cineol, borneol,zatarinol). Besides essential oil, thedrug contains alkanes, beta-sitosterol,betulin, fatty acids and triterpenic ketones.Zea mays Linn.Family ◮Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to South America.Grown as a food crop mainly inUttar Pradesh, Punjab, MadhyaPradesh, Bihar, Andhra Pradeshand Jammu and Kashmir.English ◮Ayurvedic ◮Unani ◮Maize, Corn, Indian Corn.Mahaa-Kaaya.Makkaa, Zurraa Makkaa.Action ◮ Corn Silk—diuretic,urinary demulcent, antilithic. Usedfor cystitis, urethritis, prostatitis,irritation of the urinary tract byphosphatic and uric acids, nephritis,uncontrollable bladder, retention,pus in the urine, bed-wetting.The corn silk gave saponins; alantoin;sterols, especially beta-sitosteroland stigmasterol; alkaloid hordenine;polyphenols; mucilage; potassium; vitaminC and K; cryptoxanthin, anthocyanins,plant acids, tannin.The glycoproteins, seperated fromcorn silk, inhibited IgE antibody formationand enhanced IgG and IgMformation; they showed antiviral andantitumour activities.

Zingiber officinale Rosc. 733Zehneria umbellata Thw.Synonym ◮ Melothria heterophylla(Lour.) Cogn.Solena heterophylla (Lour.) Cogn.Family ◮ Cucurbitaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout Indiaascending up to 2,100 m.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Pulivanji.Folk ◮ Tarali. Gometi (Maharashtra).Banakakaraa (Punjab). Kudri(Bengal).Action ◮ Root—used for dysuriaand spermatorrhoea. Leaves—topically applied to skin inflammation.The seed contains linolenic and oleicacids; the root gave columbin.Zingiber cassumunar Roxb.Synonym ◮ Z. montanum (Koen.)Link ex. A. Dietr.Z. purpureum Rosc.Family ◮ Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Wild throughout India,also cultivated in tropical parts ofIndia.English ◮ Cassumunar Ginger.Ayurvedic ◮ Vanardraka, Peja, Peyu,Aardikaa, Shringaberikaa.Folk ◮ Adarakhi, Bana-adarakhi.Action ◮ Rhizome—carminative,stimulant, antispasmodic. Used fordiarrhoea and colic.The occurance of an active diastasein the rhizome has been reported.The enzyme resembles in its activitywith alpha-amylase of Aspergillusoryzae. The rhizome gave an essentialoil consisting of terpinen-4-ol (about35%); other constituents are alphaandbeta-pinene, sabinene, myrcene,terpinene, limonene, p-cymene andterpinolene. The fresh rhizomes containphenyl butenoic dimers, alongwith cyclohexane derivatives. Hexaneextract of the rhizome contained(E)-4-(3 ′ 4 ′ -dimethoxyphenyl)-but-3-en-1-ol, known as compound D. CompoundD showed antispasmodic effecton guinea-pig ileum and trachealsmooth muscle, also a dose-relateduterine relaxant effect in situ in nonpregnantrats; in pregnant rats the responsevaried with the period of pregnancy.Aqueous extract of the rhizomeshowed smooth muscle relaxant andanti-inflammatory activity. Antioxidantactivity was found to be moreintense than that of known curcuminoidantioxidants. It is attributed tocassumunin A.Zingiber officinale Rosc.Family ◮Zingiberaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to Southeast Asia;now cultivated mainly in Kerala,Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,West Bengal, Maharashtra.English ◮Ginger.Ayurvedic ◮ Fresh rhizome—Aardraka, Aadrikaa, Shrngibera,shrngavera, Katubhadra. Dried rhizome—Shunthi,Naagara, Naagaraa,Naagaraka, Aushadha, Mahaushad-Z

734 Zingiber zerumbet Rosc. ex.Sm.Zha, Vishvaa, Vishvabheshaja,Vishvaaushadha.Unani ◮ Fresh rhizome—Zanjabeele-Ratab,Al-Zanjabeel. Driedrhizome—zanjabeel, Zanjabeel-eyaabis.Siddha ◮ Fresh rhizome—Inji,Allam, Lokottai. Dried rhizome—chukku, Sunthi.Action ◮ Rhizome—antiemetic,antiflatulent, hypocholesterolaemic,anti-inflammatory, antispasmodic,expectorant, circulatory stimulant,diaphoretic, increases bioavailabilityof prescription drugs. Usedfor irritable bowel and diarrhoea,colds and influenza. Showedencouraging results in migraineand cluster headache (J Ethnopharmacol,1990, 29, 267–273; AustJMedHerbalism,1995, 7/3, 69–78; Natural Medicines ComprehensiveDatabase, 2007.) TheAyurvedic Pharmacopoeia of Indiarecommends dried rhizomes indyspepsia, loss of appetite, tympanitis,anaemia, rheumatism, coughand dyspnoea; fresh rhizomes inconstipation, colic, oedema andthroat infections.Key application ◮ For dyspepsiaand prevention of motion sickness(German Commission E); vomitingof pregnancy, anorexia, bronchitisand rheumatic complaints (TheBritish Herbal Compendium);as a post-operative antiemetic.(ESCOP).The rhizome contains an essentialoil containing monoterpenes, mainlygeranial and neral; and sesquiterpenes,mainly beta-sesquiphellandrene, betabisabolene,ar-curcumene and alphazingiberene;pungent principles, consistingof gingerols, shogaols and relatedphenolic ketone derivatives. Otherconstituents include diarylheptenones,diterpenes, gingesulphonic acid andmonoacyldigalactosyl glycerols.Gingerol and shogaol have beenshown to suppress gastric contractions.Both fresh and dried rhizomessuppress gastric secretion and reducevomiting. Gingerol and shogaol havegained importance due to their sedative,anti-inflammatory, antipyretic,analgesic, hypotensive and hepatoprotectiveactivities.Cardiotonic effects of ginger hasbeen attributed to 6-and 8-shagaolsand gingerols. (Antithrombotic effectsremain unconfirmed.) Antimigraineeffect is due to ginger’s ability to decreaseplatelet aggregation. It also actsas a potent inhibitor of prostaglandinswhich enhance release of substance Pfrom trigeminal fibers. (PDR, 2004.)Indian ginger is considered only secondto Jamaican in quality.There are three main types of Indianginger—Cochin ginger (light brownor yellowish grey; Calicut ginger fromMalabar (orange or reddish brown, resemblingAfrican ginger) and Kolkataginger (greyish brown to greyish blue).Zingiber zerumbet Rosc. ex.Sm.Synonym ◮ Z. spurium Koen.Amomum spurium Gmel.A. sylvestre Poir.Family ◮Zingiberaceae.

Ziziphus jujuba (Lam.) Gaertn. non-Mill. 735Habitat ◮ Throughout India from theHimalayas, southwards. Cultivatedin Asian tropics.English ◮ Zerumbet Ginger.Ayurvedic ◮ Mahaabhari-vachaa(also equated with Alpinia galanga),Sthula-granthi (also equated withAlpinia speciosa). Source ofMartinique Ginger, used as Shunthiin Indian medicine.Unani ◮ Narkachoor, Zarambaad.(Curcuma caesia is also equatedwith Narkachoor.)Folk ◮ Karrallamu (Telugu).Action ◮ Rhizomes—used for cough,asthma; colic; intestinal worms, andin leprosy and skin diseases. Oil—antiseptic.The rhizome contains several flavonoidglycosides and curcumin.The oil of Zerumbet contains about13% monoterpenes and several sesquiterpenesof which humulene andzerumbone are major constituents.The major constituent of monoterpenesis camphene. Unlike the oil of Z.officinale, Zerumbet oil does not containany methyl heptanone; instead, itcontains camphor.Zerumbone inhibits the growth ofMicrococcus pyogenes var. aureus andMycobacterium tuberculosis.Indian samples contain only 37.5%of zerumbone, while those from Fiji58.7, Vietnam 72.3 and Tahiti 65.3%.Zizania caduciflora Hand.-Mazz.Family ◮Gramineae; Poaceae.Habitat ◮ North-east India (asan aquatic grass). (It forms animportant parat of the floating grassisland in Logtak Lake, Manipur.)Cultivated in China.English ◮ Zizania.Action ◮ Clums, rhizomes, grains—used in China against anaemia andfevers, also for heart, kidney andliver affections. The herb exhibitsdiuretic activity; leaves are rich invitamin C (142 mg/100 g).Ziziphus jujuba(Lam.) Gaertn. non-Mill.Synonym ◮ Z. mauritiana Lam.Rhamnus jujuba L.Family ◮ Rhamnaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout India and inthe outer Himalayas up to 1,350 m.English ◮ Indian Jujube, CommonJujube.Ayurvedic ◮ Badar, Kola.Unani ◮ Ber.Siddha ◮ Handai.Action ◮ Fruits—wild var.: astringent,anodyne, cooling, stomachic,styptic. Ripe and dry cultivatedvar.: mild laxative, expectorant.Seeds—antidiarrhoeal. Kernels—antispasmodic, sedative, antiemetic.Leaves—astringent and diaphoretic.Stem bark—astringent, used indiarrhoea. Root bark—juicepurgative, externally applied torheumatic inflammations and gout.Leaves and twigs—paste applied toZ

736 Ziziphus jujuba Mill.Zabscesses, boils and carbuncles andin strangury.Leaves gave protopine and berberine;exhibited anticholinergic activity.FruitsgavecyclicAMPandcyclicGMP,Sisyphus saponins I, II and III; jujubosideB and p-coumaroylates of alphitolicacid. Seeds gave saponins—jujubosidesA and B; the saponin yields thesapogenin—jujubogenin.AvarietygrowninHaryana(Naazuka)contains sugars 10.5% and ascorbicacid 205 mg/100 g.Dosage ◮ Dried fruit pulp, devoidof seed—3–6 g; stem bark—3–5gpowder,10–20gfordecoction.(API, Vol. III.)Ziziphus jujuba Mill.Synonym ◮ Z. sativa Gaertn.Z. vulgaris Lam.Family ◮ Rhamnaceae.Habitat ◮ Native to North China.Also found in Punjab, HimachalPradesh, up to 1,950 m, eastwardsto West Bengal.English ◮ Chinese Tsao.Unani ◮ Unnaab.Action ◮ Fruit—a nourishing,tonic, emollient, antitussive,antiallergic; protects liver andprevents stress ulcer formation.Seed—used for dry cough andskin eruptions. Kernel—used ininsomnia. Bark—used for ulcersand wounds.The leaves contain the flavonoids,3-O-glucosides, rutinosides and diglucosidesof quercetin, rhamnetin anderiodictyol, also C-glucosides. Thebark yields cyclopeptide alkaloids—sativanines A, B, C-G; also alkaloids—frangulanine, nummularine B and mucronineD.Theberriesgavesaponinsof dammaran type, known as Sisyphussaponins; jujubosides, zizybeosidesand zizyvyosides, together withpentacyclic triterpenoids. Flavonoidsinclude naringenin glycosides, vomifoloiland roseoside. (Also see WHOmonograph.)Antiallergic activity is due to highlevels of both cyclic AMP and cyclicGMP in the fruit extract. Sedativeactivity and in vitroantitumour activityhas been shown experimentally.Seed extract produces a transient fallin blood pressrue and a prolongationof thiobarbital-induced sleeping timein animals.Ziziphus nummularia(Burm. f) Wight & Arn.Synonym ◮ Z. rotundifolia Lam.Rhamnus nummularia Burm. f.Family ◮ Rhamnaceae.English ◮ Wild Jujube.Ayurvedic ◮ Karkandhu.Unani ◮ Jharber, Sadarber.Action ◮ Fruit—cooling andastringent. Prescribed for biliousaffections. Leaves—used in scabiesand other skin diseases.The root bark contains 12% of tanninand cyclopeptide alkaloids—nummularinesA, B and C, mucronine D

Ziziphus xylopyra Willd. 737and amphibine H. The leaves containascorbic acid. Nummularine M, Rand S, besides frangufoline have beenisolated from the stem bark. NummularineR and S showed antibacterialactivity against Gram-negativebacteria, while frangufoline was activeagainst both Gram-negative andGram-positive bacteria. The alkaloidfraction, obtained from the bark,showed significant analgesic activity.Ziziphus oenoplia Mill.Synonym ◮ Rhamnus oenoplia L.Family ◮ Rhamnaceae.Habitat ◮ North India and both thePeninsulas.English ◮ Jackal Jujube.Ayurvedic ◮ Laghu-badara, Shrgaalabadari.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Soorai.Action ◮ Fruits—stomachic. Root—given for hyperacidity and ascarisinfection.Stem bark and root bark contain cyclopeptidealkaloids—zizyphines A, B,C, D, E, F and G, and zizyphinine. Thebark contains 12% tannin.Aerial parts exhibit diuretic and hypotensiveactivity.Ziziphus rugosa Lam.Family ◮ Rhamnaceae.Habitat ◮ Sub-Himalayan tract fromKumaon eastwards, Bihar, Assam,in Central and South India.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Charai Kattu Ilandai,Kottaimaram, Todari.Folk ◮ Churnaa, Sekaraa (Bihar);Torana (Gujarat).Action ◮ Bark—astringent, antidiarrhoeal.Flowers—used inprescriptions for menorrhagia.Stem and fruit—hypotensive.The bark contains vanillic acid, betulin,betulinic acid, kaempferol, quercetin,myricetin, apigenin and apigenin-7-O-glucoside.The bark also containsseveral N-formyl cyclopeptide alkaloids.The triterpene saponins isolatedfrom the bark showed CNS depressant,tranquilizing and analgesic activity inalbino rats and produced no hepatotoxicity.The cyclopeptide alkaloids ofthe plant show antibacterial as well asantifungal activity.Ziziphus trinervia Roxb.Synonym ◮ Z. glabrata Heyne exRoth.Family ◮ Rhamnaceae.Habitat ◮ Gujarat, Western Ghatsof Tamil Nadu and Kerala at lowelevations.English ◮ Jagged Jujube.Siddha/Tamil ◮ Karakattam.Action ◮ Leaf—depurative; employedto purify blood and as an alterativein chronic venereal affections.Ziziphus xylopyra Willd.Family ◮Rhamnaceae.Z

738 Zornia diphylla (L.) Pers.Habitat ◮ Lac host in MadhyaPradesh, Uttar Pradesh andPunjab.Ayurvedic ◮ Ghontaa, Ghonta-Phala.(Rangeeni lac is recovered from thetree.)Siddha ◮ Kottei. Kombarakku (lac).Action ◮ Astringent.Fruit contains catechol-type tannins(8–12%), bark contains 7.2% tannins.Alcoholic extract of the bark possessesanti-nociceptive, anti-convulsantand anti-inflammatory properties.The plant contains alkaloids, amphibineH and nummularine K. Boththe alkaloids showed significant antimicrobialactivity.Host plant of Laccifer sp. (L. indicolaKapur, synonym L. indica Misraand L. jhansiensis Misra) is Z. mauritianaLam. in Bihar and Jhansi (UttarPradesh). Lac is styptic, used in haematemesis;promotes tissue regenerationand wound healing. Applied tocarries and diseased dentition.The herb, collected at the floweringstage from Mumbai, contained silica3.87, calcium 1.02, magnesium 1.00,potassium 0.53, phosphorus 0.18%; iodinecontent 0.026–00.049 ppm (drymatterbasis).Zosima orientalis Hoffm.Synonym ◮ Z. absinthifolia Link.Family ◮ Umbelliferae; Apiaceae.Habitat ◮ West Asia. Recorded fromMaharashtra.Action ◮ Herb—used for cough andbowel disorders.The fruits and roots yield a mixtureof coumarin lactones, 1.5% and 3.2% respectively;these include two isomericdihydrofurocoumarins—zosimin anddeltonin. On saponification, zosiminyielded a hydroxyacetone called zosimoland cis-2,3-dimethyl acrylic acid.It showed antitumour activity againstEhrlich ascites cells in vitro.Herbal cheese is prepared from thefresh leaves and stems in Turkey.ZZornia diphylla (L.) Pers.Family ◮ Papilionaceae; Fabaceae.Habitat ◮ Throughout plains ofIndia, ascending up to 1,200 m inKumaon.Folk ◮ Samraapani (Gujarat),Dupatiyaa.Action ◮ Herb—used for thetreatment of dysentery. Root—given to induce sleep.Zygophyllum simplex Linn.Family ◮ Zygophyllaceae.Habitat ◮ Arid and sandy tractsof Punjab, Rajasthan and Gujarat.Folk ◮ Alethi (Punjab), Lunio,Lunwaa (Rajasthan).Action ◮ Leaves and seeds—aninfusion is applied to the eyes inophthalmia and glucoma. Seeds—anthelmintic.

Zygophyllum simplex Linn. 739An acylated glycoside was isolatedfrom aerial parts. Isorhamnetin,its 3-O-glucoside, kaempferol-3-Orutinoside,sitosterol glucoside andquinovic acid-3 alpha-L-rhamnosidewere present in the herb.An infusion of the leaves acts asa skin cleanser. The plant containsfree ascorbic acid. The leaves andfruits contain kaempferol; quercetin(0.10 mg/g dry weight) is present infruits.Z

AppendixAbbreviations5-HTACEACTHAFIAPIAq.BPBritish HerbalCompendiumBritish HerbalPharmacopoeiabw.CCRASCCRUMCIMAPcmCNSCVSdDOPAECG5-hydroxytryptamineAngiotensin converting enzymeAndrenocorticotrophic hormoneThe Ayurvedic Formulary of IndiaRevised English EditionThe Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, PartI,VolumeI 1989, Volume II 1999, III 2001, IV 2004.AqueousBlood pressureEd. Bradley PR., published by British Herbal MedicineAssociation, 1992.Published by British Herbal Medicine Association,Exeter, UK., 1996.Body weightCentral Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha,New Delhi. Standard Nomenclature of AyurvedicMedicinal Plants.Central Council for Research in Unani MedicineCentral Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants,Lucknow. Dictionary of Indian Medicinal Plants,Akhtar Husain et al., 1992.CentimeterCentral nervous systemCardiovascular systemDay(s)DihydroxyphenylalanineElectrocardiogram

742 AppendixE. coli Escherichia coliESCOPESREtOHExtgEuropean Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy.Completely revised second edition.Erythrocyte sedimentation rateEthyl alcoholExtractGramg/kgGABAGermanCommission EGITGOTGPTHbHDLICMRIg.i.m.i.p.i.v.IHDIUKCallLD50LDLL-DopaLHmcgmgGrams per kilogramGamma aminobutyric acidMonographs (1998) and expanded monographs (2000)published by American Botanical Council.Gastrointestinal tractGlutamic-oxaloacetic transaminaseGlutamic-pyruvic transaminaseHaemoglobinHigh density lipoproteinIndian Council of Medical Research, New DelhiImmunoglobulinIntramuscularIntraperitonealIntravenousIschaemic heart diseaseInternational unitsKilocalorieLitreMedian lethal doseLow density lipoproteinsL-3,4-DihydroxyphenylalanineLuteinizing hormonesMicrogramMilligram

Appendix 743minminmlmmmp.MinimumMinute(s)Millilitre, 20 drops of water, 1 ccMillimetreMelting pointNo.NumberPDR PDR for Herbal Medicines, Third Edition, 2005,Published by Thomson PDR, Montvale.pet.PetroleumpoPer oralppmscParts per millionSubcutaneousSGOTSGPTShsp./spp.Staph.Strept.tsptbspUTIUVSerum glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminaseSerum glutamic-pyruvic transaminaseShigella(one) (several) speciesStaphylococcusStreptococcus1 heaped teaspoonful: 3 gram1 levelled teaspoonful: 1.5 gram or 4 ml1 tablespoonful: 3 tsp. or 15 mlUrinary tract infectionUltravioletv. VolumeVDVLDLVib.w/wVenereal diseasesVery low density lipoproteinsVibroWeight per weightWHO Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants Vol. 1,2,3.wk.wt.WeekWeight

Appendix 745Commission E, ESCOP, WHO,The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of IndiaIn 1978, German Federal Health Agency (now called the Federal Institute forDrugs and Medical Devices) established an expert committee on herbal remedies(called Commission E). The Commission E is composed of 24 members, includingphysicians, pharmacists, non-medical practitioners, pharmacologists, toxicologists,biostatisticians, and representatives of the pharmaceutical industry. Fiftypercent are experts from clinical/therapeutic field. There are 13 full universityprofessors on the Commission. The interdisciplinary nature of Commission E isunique in the world. The safety and efficacy of over 380 herbs have been assessedby the Commission.Since 1995, the Commission E has not issued any new monographs. Data fromstudies published subsequent to the Commission E monographs is now used forthe preparation of ESCOP (European Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy)monographs. Fully revised and updated 80 monographs have been publishedby ESCOP in its first bound edition in 2003. This is the culmination of 14 yearswork by the ESCOP Scientific Committee involving about 50 committee delegatesfrom 15 European countries. Members of ESCOP include experts from Austria,Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Netherlands, Norway, Spain,Sweden, Switzerland and United Kingdom.The World Health Organization (WHO) published Guidelines for the Assessmentof Herbal Medicines in 1991. Subsequently, The WHO Monographs on SelectedMedicinal Plants, Vol1waspublishedin1999andVol2in2003. Vol. 3isthelatest addition. These volumes contain 28, 29 and 31 monographs respectively.American Botanical Council, Austin, Texas 78714-4345, published The CompleteGerman Commission E Monographs (1998) and Herbal Medicine—ExpandedCommission E Monographs (2000).First bound edition of ESCOP monographs has been published by ESCOP,Argyle House, Gandy Street, Exeter EX4 3LS, UK, in collaboration with GeorgeThieme, Germany and Thieme, 333 Seventh Avenue, New York, NY 10001, USA.WHO monographs, published by The World Health Organization, Geneva,Switzerland, are available worldwide through its regional offices.The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, Part I, Vol. I was brought out in 1989,Vol. II in 1999, Vol. III in 2001 and Vol. IV in 2004. These volumes cover80,78,100 and 68 single herbs, respectively.The working format of laying down the standard on single drugs of plant originwas prepared more or less on the pattern of Indian Pharmacopoeia (IP), BritishPharmacopoeia (BP)andUnited States Pharmacopoeia (USP), but “properties andaction” of the herbal drug are not evidence based. These are based on scripturalreferences and traditional applications of classical polyherbal formulation, andon the Ayurvedic concepts.

746 AppendixFollowing explanation has been given in Vol. I:“Since the effort is to compile pharmacopoeial monographs of Ayurvedic drugs,the accent on classical attributes of respective drugs according to the doctrineof Rasa, Guna, Veerya, Vipaaka and Karma has not been lost sight of, thoughsome of them appear to be abstract and subjective in the absence of an establishedexperimental methods to qualify them.” (Same explanation has been given in Vol.IV.)Rasa, Guna, Veerya, Vipaaka and Karma, as well as therapeutic uses of theherbal drug have been given in Sanskrit (Roman script).Non-Ayurvedic readers are advised to refer to the Second Revised EnglishEdition of The Ayurvedic Formulary of India, Part I, 2003, for approximate Englishequivalents of diseases and technical terms mentioned in The AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India. Therapeutic uses and important formulations in thePharmacopoeia have been quoted from the recognized Ayurvedic classics (inSanskrit).The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India is a legal document and every licensedmanufacturer of Ayurvedic medicines will have to comply with the standardsprescribed in it.

Appendix 747Divergent Plant Sources of Important Classical HerbsPLANT DRUG ACCEPTED SOURCE OTHER SOURCESAgaruBhaarangiBhuunimbaKiraatatiktaDaaruharidraaDuraalabha/DhanvayaasaHapushaa/HavushaaJivantiMuurvaaAquilaria agallocha(Thymelaeaceae)Clerodendrum serratum(Verbanaceae)Swertia chirata(Gentianaceae)Berberis aristata(Berberidaceae)Fagonia cretica(Zygophyllaceaea)Juniperus communis(Pinaceae)Leptadenia reticulata(Asclepiadaceae)Marsdenia tenacissima(Asclepiadaceae)South India: Dysoxylum malabaricum(Meliaceae)South India: Premna herbacea(Verbanaceae)Bengal:Picrasmaquassioides (Simarubaceae)South India: Andrographis paniculata(Acanthaceae)South India: Coscinium fenestratum(Menispermaceae)South India: Tragia involucrata(Euphorbiaceae)South India: Sphaeranthus indicus(Asteraceae)South India: Holostemma rheedei(Asclepiadaceae)South India: Chonemorpha macrophylla(Apocynaceae) Sansevieria roxburghiana(Liliaceae) (IMPCOPS, Chennai)Naagakeshara Mesua ferrea (Clusiaceae) SouthIndia: Calophyllum inophyllum(Clusiaceae)TamilNadu:Cinnamomumwightii (Lauraceae)andDilleniapentagyna (Dilleniaceae)fruitsPaashaanabhedaPrasaariniPriyanguBergenia ligulata(Saxifragaceae)Substitute: Aerva lanata(Amaranthaceae)Paederia foetida(Rubiaceae)Callicarpa macrophylla(Verbenaceae)Substitute: Prunus mahaleb(Rosaceae)South India: Rotula aquatica(Boraginaceae), Homonoia riparia(Euphorbiaceae) Gujarat: Iris pseudacorus(Iridaceae)South India: Merremia tridentata(Convolvulaceae) (An altogether differentplant)South India: Callicarpa tomentosa(Verbenaceae); Zanthoxylum rhetsa(Rutaceae); Aglaia roxburghiana fruits(Meliaceae); Myristica malabarica(Myristicaceae) dried flowers (IMPCOPS,Chennai)Prishniparni Uraria picta (Fabaceae) SouthIndia: Pseudarthria viscida(Fabaceae) Kerala: Desmodiumgangeticum (Papilionaceae)

748 AppendixPLANT DRUG ACCEPTED SOURCE OTHER SOURCESRaasnaaRenukaaSahacharaPluchea lanceolata(Asteraceae)Substitute: Alpinia galanga(Zingiberaceae)Vitex agnus-castus(Verbenaceae)Barleria prionitis(Acanthaceae)South India: Alpinia calcarata and Alpiniagalanga (Zingiberaceae)AndhraPradesh:Dodonaea viscosa (Sapindaceae)EasternIndia: Vanda roxburghii (Orchidaceae)Bihar: Lepidagathis trinervis(Acanthaceae)MadhyaPradesh:Blepharispermum subsessile (Compositae)South India: Vitex altissima, Vitexnegundo (Verbenaceae)InSouthIndia,fruits of Vitex spp. are sold as Arenuka.Fruits of Piper aurantiacum (Piperaceae)are used as Harenukaa/Renukaa.(IMPCOPS, Chennai.)South India: Niligirianthus ciliatus,(Acanthaceae) Kerala: Ecbolium viride(Nila Sahachara), Justica betonica (ShvetaSahachara) (Acanthaceae)Saarivaa Hemidesmus indicus South India: Decalepis hamiltonii;Shveta Saarivaa (Asclepiadaceae) Cryptolepis buchanani (Asclepiadaceae);Ichnocarpus frutescens used as KrishnaSaarivaa (Apocynaceae) Kerala, TamilNadu, Karnataka: Decalepis hamiltonii(Asclepiadaceae)ShatiHedychium spicatum(Zingiberaceae)South India: Kaempeferia galanga,Curcuma zedoaria (Zingiberaceae)ShankhapushpiShringiKarkatashringiVidhaariConvolvulus pluricaulis(Convolvulaceae)Pistacia integerrima (galls)(Anacardiaceae)Pueraria tuberosa(Fabaceae)South India: Evolvulus alsinoides, Clitoriaternatea (Convolvulaceae and Fabaceaerespectively) Bengal: Canscora decussata(Gentianaceae), Lavandula bipinnata(Labiateae; Lamiaceae)South India: Rhus semialata galls, Rhussuccedanea galls (Anacardiaceae).South India: Adenia hondala(Passifloraceae); Ipomoea paniculata(Convolvulaceae); Cycas circinalis(Cycadaceae)Accepted Sources: Based on Appendix of Ayurvedic Formulary of India,2003.Other sources: Based on Ayurvedic Drugs and their Plant Sources, V V Sivarajan and IndiraBalachandran, 1994; Formulary of Ayurvedic Medicines,IMPCOPS,Chennai,1987;K.VasudevanNair et al., Ancient Sc Life, 5(1): 49–53, 1985; Plants of Bhava Prakash and Medicinal Plantsused in Ayurveda, Rashtriya Ayurveda Vidyapeeth, 1999, 1998.

Appendix 749Important Herbs of Non-Indian Originused in Unani system of MedicineBOTANICALNAMEAchilleamillefoliumCOMMONNAMEBaranjaasifENGLISHNAMEYarrow,MilfoilHABITATEurasia, North America,temperate zonesAgaricus albus Ghaariqoon White Agaric Fungus grown on old pinetrees in South and CentralEuropeAlhagipseudalhagisyn. AlhagicamelorumAlthaeaofficinalisAnacycluspyrethrumAquilariaagallochaAristolochialongaAristolochiarotundaArtemisiaabsinthiumArtemisiamaritimaAsaruneuropaeumAsparagusofficinalisTuranjbeen(AlhagiManna)KhatmiAkarkaraaDhooplakkar,AgarZaraavandTaweelZaraavandMadahrajCamel ThornPersianManna PlantMarshMallowSpanishPellitoryAloe-woodEagle-woodMediterranean and Saharato Central Asia and theHimalayasEurope, from DenmarksouthwardsSpain and otherMediterranean countriesMalayan Peninsula, Assam,Manipur, Silhat, BhutanMAINSOURCEPakistanEuropePakistanIranMoroccoMalaccaBirthwort Southern Europe KabulBirthwortA. Clematis (Europe)A. Longa (North America)A. Indica (India)Afsanteen Worm wood Europe, South America,North Africa, Siberia,MangoliaDirmaanaaTurkiKirmaalaaAsaaroonAsarabaccaHalyunSantonicaWorm seedWild NardHazelwortSperage,SparrowGrassNorth America, Brazil,Iran, Baluchistan,Pakistan, Kashmir,Nepal, TibetTemperate Europe,North Asia(Birthwort family)Europe, Greece, WesternAsia, Southern parts ofRussia, PolandIranNepalIranChinaIran

750 AppendixBOTANICALNAMEAsparagusracemosusAstragalussarcocolaBambusaarundinaceaBerberisvulgarisBlepharisedulisBoragoofficinalisCardiospermumhalicacabumCarum carviCentaureabehenSalviahaemotodesColchicumautumnaleCinnamomumzeylanicumCommiphoramukulCOMMONNAMESataawariAnzaroot(gum)Banslochan(Manna)TabaasheerENGLISHNAMEAsparagusvar.HABITATUpper Gangetic plains,Dehradun, Bihar plateau,Tropical and sub-tropicalparts of India including theHimalayas and Andamans.A. adscendens: WesternHimalayas, HimachalPradesh, Kumaon, ChambaSarcocola Iran IranThornybamboomannaSouth-East AsiaZarishk Barberry Europe and the BritishIsles, naturalized in parts ofNorth AmericaUtanganSindh, BaluchistanseedsGaozabaanEngland, Europe, NorthAfrica, North AmericaHabb-e-QilqilKaalaajeeraaBehmanSafedBehmanSurkhSuranjaanTalkhBaloon VineTropical America extendingto Africa and AsiaEurope,NorthAfrica,AsiaMAINSOURCENepalIndonesiaAfghanistanPakistanIran,BaluchistanIranIranWhite behen Persia AfghanistanRed behen(sage)BittercolchicumMeadowsaffronEurope, part of British Isles,North Africa, KashmirAfghanistanDaarchini Cinnamon Southeast Asia, China China,IndonesiaGuggulu(exudate)BdelliumArid rocky tracts ofRajasthan, Khandesh,Berar, Mysore, Sindh,BaluchistanPakistan

Appendix 751BOTANICALNAMECommiphoramyrrhaCommiphoraopobalsamumConvolvulusscammoniaCorylusavellanaCuscutaepithymum(LesserDodder)C. europaea(Greater orCommonDodder)DoremaammoniacumDoronicumpardalianches/DoronicumhookeriDracaenacinnabariEphedra gerardiana/EphedravulgarisEuphorbiaresiniferaFerulaassafoetidaFerulagalbanifluaCOMMONNAMEBol,Hiraabol(exudate)BalsaanENGLISHNAMEMyrrhBalsam tree,GileadHABITATArabia, Somaliland,North-East AfricaIn countries of both sides ofRed SeaMAINSOURCEDubaiYemenSaqmonia Scammony Mediterranean region EnglandFunduq Hazelnut Turkey,Italy,Spain,USA England,TurkeyAftimoon(Driedwhole plantof Cassythafiliformis,also ofCuscutareflexa aresold asAftimoon)UshaqDarunajaqrabiDamm-ul-AkhwainSomlataaDodder orCuscutaGumAmmoniacLeopard’sBane (Alsoequated withArnicamontana)Dragon’sBloodA parasite in most parts ofthe worldIran, extending intosouthern SiberiaEuropeSaudi Arabia, East AfricaWest-Central China,Southern Siberia, Japan.Also Spain BaluchistanPakistanIranIran,EuropeYemenPakistanFarfiyun Euphorbium Morocco MoroccoHing Assafoetida Eastern Persia, WesternAfghanistanJaosheer(gum-resin)OpopanaxtreeGalbanumIran, Cape of Good HopeAfghanistan,Kazakhstan,IranIran

752 AppendixBOTANICALNAMECOMMONNAMEENGLISHNAMEHABITATMAINSOURCEFerula persica Sakbeenaj Sagapenum Iran IranFraxinusornus/F.routindifoliaSheerkhisht(exudate)Manna Southern Europe,parts of AsiaSpainGarciniahanburyiGentianaolivieriGlycyrrhizaglabraUsaar-e-RevandGambose,Gutta(extract)PersianGentianSiam, SouthernCochin-China, Combodia,Sri LankaIranAsl-us-Soos Liquorice Spain, Germany, France,Italy, RussiaHelicteres isora Marorphali East IndianScrew treeHelleborusnigerHyoscyamusnigerKharbaqSiyahGhaafis Gule-GhaafisBazr-ul-BanjKhoraasaaniAjwaayinBlackHelleboreHenbaneseedsNepal, Bihar, Bengal,central, western andsouthern India,Andaman IslandsCentral and southernEurope, Germany, Greece,Asia MinorCentral and southernEurope, Western Asia,SiberiaThailandAfghanistanIran,AfghanistanNepalGermanyBaluchistan,AfghanistanHyssopus Zufaa Hyssop Southern Europe AfghanistanofficinalisIllicium verum Star Anise Anise ofChinaChina, South-East Asia ChinaIpomoea purga/ ConvolvulusjalapaJuniperuscommunisLallemantiaroyleanaLaurus nobilisLavandulastoechasJalaabaa,JalaapaaHauber,AbhalJalap Mexico MexicoCommonJuniperEurope, North Africa,North Asia, North AmericaPakistanBaalangu Western Asia, Iran Pakistan,BaluchistanHabb-ul-GhaarUstukhuddusBay Laurel,RomanLaurelFrenchLavenderShores of MediterraneanSouthern EuropeMediterranean regionSaudiArabiaMorocco

Appendix 753BOTANICALNAMELepidiumsativumCOMMONNAMEHabb-ul-Rashaad,HaalimENGLISHNAMEHABITATGarden Cress Iran IranLupinus albus Turmus White Lupin North and South America,Southern Europe, EgyptMarrubiumvulgareMatthiolaincanaMeliaazedarachMelissaofficinalisMerenderapersicaMyristicafragransMyrrhisodorataMyrtuscommunisOcimumbasilicumOcimumpilosumFaraasiyunTurdi Zard(TudriSurkh isequatedwithCheiranthuscheiri)WhiteHorehoundGilli FlowerWall FlowerCommonStockEngland, Europe,Baluchistan, IranMediterranean region,Western EuropeBakaayin Persian Lilac China, Baluchistan,Kashmir, WesternHimalayas,South IndiaBaadranjboyaa,BillilotanSuranjaanShireenCatmintCatnipMountainBalmSweetHermodactylEurope, North America,IranIranJaiphal Nutmeg Native to Malacca Islandsand New Guinea, SriLanka, West IndiesAnjudaanRoomiHabb-ul-AasMuuradTukhmsharbati(seeds)Tukhm-e-Rehaan(seeds)MAINSOURCEIranIranIranAfghanistanIranIranSri LankaSweet EnglandIranCherirelMyrtle Southern Europe AfghanistanSweet Basil France, Central Asia EuropeWild BasilTropical and warmtemperate regionsPakistan,IranOlea europaea Zaitoon Olive Mediterranean region Europe

754 AppendixBOTANICALNAMEOligochaetaramosa syn.Volutarellaramosa V.divaricataTricholepisprocumbensAmberboadivaricataOrchislatifolia/Orchissp.OriganumvulgarePaeoniaofficinalisPastinacasecaculPeganumharmalaPeucedanumgrandePhoenixdactyliferaPimpinellaanisumPinussuccinifera(now extinct)COMMONNAMEBaadaaward(Importedherb isactuallyFagoniaarabica)Saalab Misri(root)Saalabpanjaa(root)Saalabgattaa (root)MarzanjoshENGLISHNAMESalepWildMorjoramHABITATMediterranean region,Central Asia, IndiaCentral and southernEuropeEngland, Europe, NorthAfrica, AsiaOod saleeb Peony root Southern Europe, WestAsiaShaqaq-ul-Iran, Afghanistan, EgyptMisriHarmalDuku patti(seed)GondChhuhaaraaHarmal,Syrian Rue,Wild Rue,ForeignHennaMediterranean region,mexico, Asia, Ladakh,Kashmir, PunjabIranNorth Africa, Egypt, Syria,Saudi ArabiaAnisoon Anise Originally from EgyptMinor. Now cultivated inwarmer climates and AsiaKahrubaa(fossil resin)AmberBaltic Amber or MalayArchipelago found inScandinaviaMAINSOURCEIran,PakistanIran,PakistanTibet,ChinaPakistanAfghanistanPakistan,IranIranIran,PakistanChina,Hong Kong,Taiwan,Malaysia,VietnamGermany

Appendix 755BOTANICALNAMEPiper cubebaCOMMONNAMEKabaabchiniKankolENGLISHNAMEHABITATMAINSOURCECubeb Java, Sumatra IndonesiaPiper longum Peepali Long pepper North-eastern, SouthernIndia, Sri Lanka, BengalPistaciaintegerrimaRhussuccedaneaPistacialentiscusPistacia veraPolygonumbistortaPolypodiumvulgarePunicagranatumQuercusinfectoriaKaakraasingi(galls)Mastagi,RoomiMastagiGul-e-Pistaa(flower)AnjabaarBisfaayej(root)GulnaarFaarsiMaazu (gall)Crab’s ClawMastich(resin)Bistort,Odewort,Snake WeedGall Oak,Dyer’s Oak,Aleppo orTurkey Galls(collected inAsiaticTurkey in theprovince ofAleppo)Mecca gallsMediterranean region toEast Asia, Himalayanranges on the North-westMediterranean region, Iran,Afghanistan, KabulSyria, Iran, AfghanistanSouthern Scotland,Western Asia, JapanEurope, TurkeyIran, Saudi Arabia,Afghanistan, Baluchistan,IndiaGreece, Asia Minor, Iran,Syria. Mecca galls are fromBassorahRheum emodi Revandchini Rhubarb Kashmir to Sikkim, Assam.Chinese: R. palmatum andR. officinale. English:R.rhaponticum (Rhapontic).Indian: R. emodi and R.WebbianumRhus coriaria Sumaaq Sumach,Japan WaxtreeMediterranean region,Spain, Italy, Sicily, Iran,Afghanistan, Saudi ArabiaIndonesiaPakistanKabul,GreeceIran,AfghanistanTurkey,NepalPakistan,AfghanistanIran,TurkeyNepal

756 AppendixBOTANICALNAMERubiatinctorumSalvia plebeiaSisymbriumirioSmilax aristolochiaefoliaCOMMONNAMEENGLISHNAMEHABITATMajeeth Madder Southern Europe and partsof AsiaSamundarsokh(seeds)Khoobkalaan,Khaaksi(seeds)UshbaaMaghrabiSage SeedsLondonRocketMexicanSarsaparillaTemperate and tropicalregionsNorthern India, Iran,EuropeCentral AmericaMAINSOURCEIranPakistanIranMexicoSmilax china Chobchini Eastern Asia, China, Japan ChinaStrychnos Papitaa Ignatius Bean Philippine Islands, Phillipinesignatii VilaayatiCochin-ChinaStyrax benzoin Lobaan GumbenjamineSyzygiumaromaticumTanacetumumbelliferumTeucriumchamaedrysThymusserpyllumTrifoliumalexandrinumTrigonella uncata/MelilotusofficinalisQaranful,LaungBuzidaanVilaayatiUsqurdiyunKamaazariusCloveSweetPellitoryWallGermanderJava, Sumatra, Malay,MalaccaCultivated in Tamil Nadu,Kerala, Sri Lanka,Indonesia, Malacca Islands,Tanzania, Madagascar,Penang, Brazil, otherTropical partsIranEngland, EuropeHaashaa Wild Thyme England, France, EuropeIspastNaakhuunaaIkil-ul-MalikClover,TrefoilberseemMeliot (bean)Tonkin beanEngland, Europe,Mediterranean regionCentral and Northern AsiaIran, AfghanistanPenang,IndonesiaZanzibarIranEuropeSeeds ofAmaranthusretroflexusareimportedfrom IranIran

Appendix 757BOTANICALNAMECOMMONNAMEENGLISHNAMEHABITATUrginea scilla Isqeel Squill Mediterranean region,Spain, Protugal, Morocco,Corsica, Southern France,Malta, Algeria, Italy,Dalmatia, Greece, Syria,Asia MinorUrticapiluliferaValerianahardwickii/V.jatamansiViola odorataViscum albumWithaniacoagulansWithaniasomniferaZatariamultifloraZizyphusjujuba MillZ. sativaGaertinAnjuraaSugandhabaalaaTaggarMushkbaalaaBanafshaaGul-e-BanafshaaKoli daakh,Mavizaj-e-Asli,KishmishKaabaliPaneerPaneerDodaa(fruit, seed)AsgandRomanNettleIndianValerianEuropeTemperate Himalayas fromKashmir to Bhutan; Khasiand Jantia Hills. Valerian(Valeriana officinalis):Europe and Northern AsiaMAINSOURCEItaly, Spain,PakistanEuropeNepalSweet Violet Europe, Britain, Asia PakistanMistletoe Afghanistan, Europe AfghanistanVegetableRennetWinterCherryAfghanistan, Baluchistan,Sindh, PunjabIsrael, East ofMediterranean region,South AsiaSaatar faarsi Savory Saudi Arabia, Iran,Afghanistan, BaluchistanUnnaab Jujube China, Far East, MiddleEast, AfricaIran,PakistanAfghanistanPakistan,AfghanistanKabul

Appendix 759Standardized Extracts of Indian Herbs used in IndiaBotanical name/ Common use/Activity Form, Chemical marker(s)Part usedAbies webbiana leaf Expectorant Powder/Paste, Alkaloids >0.5%Abroma augusta root Emmenagogue Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.15%,Tannins 2.4%–4%Abrus precatorius seed Abortifacient Powder: Glycosides 15%,Alkaloids 1%Abutilon indicum seed Diuretic, Nervine tonic Powder: Mucilage 10%Acacia arabica bark Astringent Powder: Tannins 40%Acacia catechu gum Astringent Powder: Tannins 60%,Catechins 20%Acacia concinna pods Detergent Powder/Paste: Saponins 10%–20%Achillea millefolium seeds Stimulant, Antispasmodic Powder: Bitters 3%Achyranthes aspera plant Alterative, Diuretic Powder/Paste: Saponins 3%Aconitum heterophyllum Antiperiodic, Antiemetic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 1%–1.5%plantAconitum sp. root Antipyretic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 2%Acorus calamus rhizome Antispasmodic Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 1%Adhatoda vasica leafExpectorant,BronchodilatoryPowder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.5%–2.5%Aegle marmelos leaf Anti-diabetic Powder: Tannins 7.5%Aegle marmelos unripefruitHaemostatic,Anti-dysentericPowder/Paste: Tannins 5%,Mucilage 10%–15%Albizia lebbeck bark Anti-inflammatory Powder/Paste: Tannins 15%Allium cepa bulbs Hypolipidemic,Powder/Paste: Quercetin 5%HypocholesterolemicAllium sativum bulbs HypocholesterolemicAntirheumaticPowder/Paste: Alliin 1.5%–2.5%by HPLCAloe vera leaf Purgative Powder/Paste/Gel/Gum: Aloin1.5% (3:1), Polysaccharides 50%(200:1)Alpinia galanga rhizome In bronchial catarrh Powder/Paste: Shagaol >4% byHPLCAlstonia scholaris bark Alterative, Astringent Powder: Alkaloids 0.3%

760 AppendixBotanical name/Part usedAnacyclus pyrethrumflowersAndrographis paniculataplantCommon use/ActivityForm, Chemical marker(s)Stimulant, Sialogogue Powder: Alkaloids 0.5%Hepatoprotectant,AntiviralPowder/Paste: Andrographolides>10%Anethum sowa seed Carminative Powder/Paste: Vol.Oil 3%Aphanamixis rohituka Astringent Powder: Tannins 10%barkApium graveolens seed Carminative Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 5%Argyreia speciosa root Alterative, Nervine tonic Powder: Resin 4.5%Asparagus adscendens root Nervine Tonic,Powder: Saponins >10%GalactogogueAsparagus racemosus root Galactogogue Powder/Paste: Saponins >15%Asteracantha longifolia Antirheumatic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.35%herbAtropa belladonna leaf Antispasmodic, Sedative Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.95%–1.6%Atropa belladonna root Antispasmodic, Sedative Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 3%Azadirachta indica bark Astringent Powder: Bitters 1%Azadirachta indica leaf Blood purifier Powder/Paste: Bitters 2.5%Bacopa monnieri herb Brain Tonic Powder/Paste: Bacosides 15%–50%, Alkaloids 5%Barleria prionitis herb Lymphadenitis,ToothachePowder: Tannins 5%, Alkaloids0.5%Bauhinia variegata bark Alterative, antileprotic Powder, Tannins 25%Berberis aristata root Emmenagogue,Powder/Paste: Berberine >8%CholagogueBergenia ligulata root Antiurolithiatic Powder/Paste: Tannins 10%Boerhavia diffusa rootDiuretic,HepatoprotectivePowder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.01%–0.08%Boswellia serrata gum Antiarthritic Powder/Paste: Boswellic acids>50%Butea frondosa flowers Astringent Powder/Paste: Glycosides >8%Caesalpinia bonducella Antipyretic Powder/Paste: Bonducin 2.5%nutCalotropis gigantea root Emetic, Antiperiodic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.3%

Appendix 761Botanical name/ Common use/Activity Form, Chemical marker(s)Part usedCamellia sinensis Antioxidant Powder/Paste: Polyphenols >45%by HPLCCapparis spinosa root Analgesic, Antirheumatic Powder: Glycosides 15%Capsicum sp. fruit Antirheumatic Powder/Paste: Capsaicin >3%Cassia angustifolia leaf Laxative Powder: Sennosides 15%Cassia angustifolia pods Laxative Paste: Sennosides 2.5%Cassia fistula fruit Laxative Powder/Paste:Oxymethyl-anthraquinones >1%Cassia occidentalis fruit Purgative Powder/Paste:Oxymethyl-anthraquinones 1.2%Cedrus deodara wood Antirheumatic Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 1%Celastrus paniculatus seed Antirheumatic,TranquilizerPowder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.1%Centella asiaticaLeprostatic, Memorytonic, SedativePowder/Paste: Asiaticosides>10%,Asiatic acid 2%Cephaelis ipecacuanha Emetic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 1%rootCephalandra indica leaf Antidiabetic Powder: Resin 2.5%Cicer arietinum seeds Nutritive Powder: Protein 15%Cichorium intybus seeds Liver and spleen tonic Powder/Paste: Bitters >1%Cinchona ledgeriana bark Antimalarial Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 4%Cissus quadrangularis Bone healing Powder: Ketosterones >5%stemCitrullus colocynthis fruit Purgative Powder: Bitters 4.5%Citrullus colocynthis root Purgative, Antirheumatic Powder, Bitters 5%Citrus aurantium peel Antioxidant Powder/Paste: Flavones >4%,Vol. Oil 1%Citrus medica peel Antiscurvy Powder: Acidity as citric acid 2%,Flavones 5%Colchicum luteum corms In uric acid diathesis Powder: Alkaloids >0.5%Coleus forskohlii rootCommiphora mukul gumcAMP stimulator,HypotensiveAntarthritic, Antilipemic,AnticholesterolemicPowder: Forskolin >2.5%, 10% &20% by HPLCPowder/paste: Guggul sterones2.5% to 10% by HPLC

762 AppendixBotanical name/ Common use/Activity Form, Chemical marker(s)Part usedCommiphora myrrha gum Mouthwash, Astringent Powder: Vol. Oil 5%Coriandrum sativum Carminative Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 1%seedsCrataeva nurvala bark Lithotriptic Powder: Saponin >2.5%Cucumis sativus seeds Diuretic Powder: Mucilage 24%Cuminum cyminum fruit Carminative, Stimulant Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 1%Curcuma amada rhizome Carminative,HypolipidaemicPowder/Paste: Vol.Oil 10%Curcuma longa rhizomeAnti-inflammatory,StomachicPowder/Paste: Voil. Oil >10%,Curcumin >10%Curculigo orchioides root Uresis, Skin diseases Powder: Saponins 20%, Mucilage30%Cynodon dactylon herb Astringent Powder: Tannins 5% Alkaloids+iveCyperus scariosus rootDGL DeglycyrrhizinatedLiquoriceDashmool (The TenRoots)Datura stramonium leafIntestinal antiseptic,Anti-inflammatoryPowder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.15%–0.5%Antiulcer, Antacid Powder: Flavones 1%,Glycyrrhizin3%Embelia ribes seed Anthelmintic Powder/Paste: Tannins 1%,Embelin 1%Emblica officinalis fruitAntioxidant, Source ofVitamin C, Antacid,AstringentPowder/Paste: Tannins >20%,Ellagic acid >5%Enicostemma littorale herb Bitter tonic, Laxative Powder/Paste: Bitters 4%Ephedra vulgaris herb Stimulant Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.2%–0.5%Eugenia jambolana seed Antidiabetic Powder: Saponins 4%, Alkaloids0.4%

Appendix 763Botanical name/ Common use/Activity Form, Chemical marker(s)Part usedEuphorbia hirta herb Antispasmodic Powder/Paste: Flavones >6%Evolvulus alsinoides plant Memory tonic Powder/Paste: Bitters >2.5%Ferula foetida resin Carminative, Stimulant Powder: Vol.Oil 1.5%Ficus racemosa leaf Astringent Powder: Tannins 5%Ficus racemosa bark Astringent Powder: Tannins 10%Foeniculum vulgare fruit Carminative, Spasmolytic Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil >1%Fumaria Officinalis herb Diaphoretic Powder/Paste: Bitters >1%Garcinia cambogia rind In obesity Powder/Liquid: HCA 50% byHPLCGlycyrrhzia glabra rootGossypium herbaceumrootExpectorant,Anti-inflammatoryEmmenagogue,GalactagoguePowder/Paste: Glycyrrhizin byGarratt method >15%/24%Powder: Alkaloids 0.4%,Flavones 1.5%Gymnema slyvestre leaf Antidiabetic Powder: Gymnemic acids 25%–75%Hemidesmus indicus root Alterative, antiseptic Powder/Paste: Saponins 7.5%Holarrhenaantidysenterica seedAntidysenteric Powder: Alkaloids 3%Holarrhenaantidysenterica barkAntidysenteric,AnthelminticPowder/Paste: Alkaloids >4%Hydrastis Indian root Emmenagogue Powder/Paste: Hydrastin 1%Hyoscyamus niger herb Antispasmodic, Sedative Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.28%–0.3%Hypericum perforatum Antidepressant Powder: Hypericin 0.3%herbIndigofera tinctoria plant Antiseptic, Astringent Powder: Saponins 10%Inula racemosa root Antirheumatic, In chronicbronchitisPowder/Paste: Alantolactone2.5% by HPLCJuglans regia bark Astringent, Antiseptic Powder: Tannins 12%Lawsonia alba leaf Antimicrobial,Powder/Paste: Tannins >5%Anti-inflammatoryLeptadenia reticulata herb Spermatogenic,Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.5%GalactagogueLobelia nicotianaefolia leaf Antispasmodic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.5%Mangifera indica bark Astringent Powder: Tannins 20%

764 AppendixBotanical name/Part usedMatricaria chamomillaflowerMentha spicataMesua ferreafruit & flowerbudCommon use/ActivityForm, Chemical marker(s)Antiseptic Paste: Vol. Oil 1%Carminative, Stimulant, Powder/Paste: Flavones >2%SpasmolyticAstringent, Styptic Powder/Paste: Bitters >2.5%Mimusops elegni bark Astringent Powder: Tannins 10%Momordica charantia fruit Antidiabetic Powder: Bitters >2.5%Morinda citrifolia fruit Stimulant Powder/Liquid: Morindin 15%,Scopoletin 0.17%Moringa oleifera bark Emmenagogue Powder: Glycosides >5%Moringa oleifera leaf Anti-inflammatory Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.1%Mucuna pruriens seeds Antiparkinsonian,AphrodisiacPowder: L-Dopa by IP method>15%Myrica nagi bark Astringent, Carminative Powder: Tannins 5%Myristica fragrans fruit Hypocholesterolemic,CarminativePowder/Paste: Vol. Oil 4%Nardostachys jatamansirootSedative Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 0.1%–0.5%Nelumbo nucifera seed Stimulant Powder: Saponins 30%Nigella sativa seed Anthelmintic,CarminativePowder/Paste: Bitters 3%,Saponins 15%Nyctanthes arbortristis leaf Antirheumatic,Powder, Alkaloids 0.15%AnthelminticOcimum basilicum leaf Carminative, Vermifuge Powder/Paste: Tannins 5% Vol.Oil 1.5%Ocimum sanctumherb/leafOldenlandia corymbosaplantImmunomodulator,ExpectorantHeptoprotective,FebrifugePowder/Paste: Tannins >7%,Ursolic acid >2%Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.35%Onosma echioides root Anticutaneous Powder/Paste: Alkamine 1%Operculina turpethum Purgative Powder: Resin >10%rootOpuntia dillenii herb Antispasmodic Powder: Tannins 10%Orchis mascula tubers Nervine tonic Powder: Saponins 4%,Mucilage 20%

Appendix 765Botanical name/ Common use/Activity Form, Chemical marker(s)Part usedPhyllanthus niruri herb Antihepatotoxic, Antiviral Powder/Paste: Bitters 1.4%–2%Picrorhiza kurroa rootAntihepatotoxic, BittertonicPowder/Paste: Kutkin 4%–6%,Bitters >6%Piper cubeba fruit Carminative, Expectorant Paste, Vol. Oil 8%, Piperine 10%Piper longum fruit Carminative,Bioavailability enhancerPowder/Paste Vol. Oil 10%,Piperine 5%Piper nigrum fruit Carminative,Vol. Oil 7%, Piperine >10%Bioavailability enhancerPistacia integerrima galls In bronchitis Powder/Paste: Tannins 20%Plumbago indica root Anticutaneous Powder: Alkaloids 0.08–0.15%Podophyllum emodi Purgative Powder: Resin >20%rhizomePolygala chinensis root Anticatarrhl Powder/Paste: Saponins 5%Pongamia glabra seed Anticutaneous Powder/Paste: Fixed Oil 10%Prunus serotina bark Astringent Paste: Tannins 10%Psoralea corylifolia seed Antipsoriatic Powder/Paste: Psoralen >5%Pterocarpus marsupiumwoodPterocarpus santalinusbarkAntidiabetic Powder: Alkaloids 0.4%,Pterostilbene 4%–5%,Flavones 5%Astringent, Antidiarrheal Powder/Paste: Santalin >3%Pueraria tuberosa root Demulcent, Nervine tonic Powder/Paste: Flavones 6%Punica granatum rind Astringent Powder: Ellagic acid by HPLC>8%, Tannins 10–20%Putranjiva roxburghii Antiviral Powder: Alkaloids 0.5%berriesPyrus malus fruit Nutritive. Natural source Powder/Paste: Iron 4%of IronQuercus infectoria galls Astringent Powder/Paste: Tannins 40%Randia dumetorum fruit Antioxidant,heptaprotectinePowder/Paste: Oleonolic acid>5%Rauvolfia serpentina root Hypotensive Powder/Paste: Alkaloids >8%Rheum emodi rootRicinus communis leafBlood purifier, Liverprotectant, LaxativeAntiheptatoloxic,Anti-inflammatoryPowder/Paste: Oxymethylanthraquinones >5%Powder: Alkaloids 2.5%

766 AppendixBotanical name/ Common use/Activity Form, Chemical marker(s)Part usedRicinus communis root Laxative Powder: Alkaloids 0.5%Rubia cordifolia root Anticutaneous Powder/Paste: Tannins >2%Salacia reticulata rootAnticutaneous,AntirheumaticPowder: Glycosides >15%,Flavones >5%Santalum album wood Coolant, Antibacterial Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 2%Saraca indica bark Uterine tonic Powder/Paste: Tannins >2.5%Saussurea lappa root Antispasmodic,Powder/Paste: Alkaloids >0.2%CarminativeSida cordifolia root Nervine Tonic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids >0.1%Silybum marianum seeds Hepatoprotectant,Diuretic.Powder: Flavones >50%,Silymarin 50%Solanum nigrum berries Expectorant, Liver tonic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.2%,Bitters >1%Solanum xanthocarpumplantStrychnos nux vomicaseedsAntiasthmatic,Powder/Paste: Solasodin >1%ExpectorantCNS stimulant, Analeptic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 3%–6%Swertia chirayita plant Blood purifier Powder: Bitters 4%Symplocos racemosa bark Uterine tonic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.5%Taraxacum officinale herb Hepatic stimulant Powder/Paste: Bitters 2.5%,Alkaloids 0.5%Tecomella undulata bark Astringent Powder: Tannins 10%Tephrosia purpurea plant Antioxidant,AntihepatotoxicPowder/Paste: Rutin 2%–6%by HPLCTerminalia arjuna barkCardio vascular support,AntiarrhythemicPowder/Paste: Tannins >25%,Arjunic acid >1%Terminalia bellirica fruit Detoxificant , Spasmolytic Powder: Tannins >10%Terminalia chebula fruit Detoxificant, Purgative Powder: Tannins 20%–40%Tinospora cordifolia root Hepatoprotective Powder/Paste: Bitters >1.5%Trachyspermum ammi Carminative Powder/Paste: Vol. Oil 10%fruitTribulus terrestris fruit Spermatogenic, Diuretic,NephroprotectivePowder/paste: Saponins 15%–45%Trichosanthes dioica leaf Antidiabetic Powder: Saponins 10%Trigonella foenumgraecumseedAntilipemic,AnticholesterolemicPowder: Saponins 15%–40%

Appendix 767Botanical name/Part usedTrikatu:Dryginger,Longpepper and Black pepperTriphalaa The ThreeMyrobalansCommon use/ActivityIncreases bioavailability ofdrugsForm, Chemical marker(s)Powder/Paste:Vol.Oil>1%,Piperine >2%Detoxificant Powder: Tannins >25%Triticum sativum bran Nutritive Powder: Vit B1= 40 mcg/g B2=6.28 mcg/g B5= 1130 mcg/gTriticum sativum germ Anticutaneous Oil, Vit. E 0.8% by HPLCTylophora indica leaf Antiasthmatic Powder/Paste: Alkaloids >0.1%Urginea indica bulbs Cardiac stimulant, Paste: Glycosides 10%DiureticValeriana wallichii root Sedative Powder/Paste: Valeric acid 0.8%Viburnum sp. bark Emmenagogue Powder/Paste: Tannins >1.4%Viola odorataflowers/leaf Expectorant, Antiseptic Powder/Paste: Saponins 2.5%Vitex negundo leaf Anti-inflammatory Powder/Paste: Alkaloids 0.15%Vitis vinifera fruit/seed Antioxidant Powder/paste: Polyphenols >20%by HPLCWedelia calendulacea herb Hepatoprotective Powder/Paste: Tannins 5%,Saponins 2%Withania somnifera rootWoodfordia floribundaflowersZingiber officinalerhizomeImmunomodulator,AntioxidantPowder/Paste: Withanolides>2.5%Antileucorrhoeic Powder/Paste: Tannins 7%Anti-inflammatory,Carminative,AntinauseantPowder/Paste: Gingerols byHPLC >5%(continued)

768 AppendixHerbal extracts for Cosmetic/Topical ApplicationBotanical name/Part usedCommonnameFormAcacia concinna pods Shikaakaai Powder Shampoos, soapsAcorus calamus rhizome Sweet flag Powder/Paste Aromatic, dusting powders,skin lotionsAllium sativum bulbs Garlic Powder/Paste Skin healing productsAloe vera leaf Aloe Powder/Paste Radioprotective, moisturizer,sunscreenAlpinia galanga rhizome Galanga Powder/Paste Aromatic, in dusting powdersAvena sativa fruit Oat Powder/Paste Skin tonic/moisturizerAzadirachta indica leaves Neem Powder/Paste Toothpastes, soaps, shampoosBalsamodendron myrrha Myrrh Powder/Paste Soaps/shampoosgumCalendula officinalis Marigold Paste Skin care productsflowersCedrus deodara wood Deodaar Powder/Paste Shampoos/soapsCentella asiatica plant Gotu kola Powder/Paste Wound-healingCichorium intybus seed Chicory Powder/Paste For sore eyes/skin of blemishesCitrus aurantium peel Orange Paste Skin creams, soaps, shampoosCitrus limon peel Lemon Powder Skin and hair loss productsCoriandrum sativum Coriander Powder Anti-inflammatoryseedCrocus sativus stigma Saffron Liquid Postbath massageCurcuma longa rhizome Turmeric Powder/Paste Antibacterial,skin creams and lotionsCurcuma zedoaria Zedoary Powder/Paste Antibacterial, aromaticrhizomeDaucus carota seeds Carrot Oil Natural source of Vit. AEclipta alba plant Bhringaraaj Powder/Paste ShampoosGlycyrrhiza glabra root Liquorice Powder/Paste Anti-inflammatoryHedychium spicatum Kapurkachri Oil Hair oilsrhizomeHibiscus rosa sinensisflowersChina rose Paste ShampoosUse

Appendix 769Botanical name/Part usedCommonnameFormIris florentina root Orris Powder Additive to dusting powdersLawsonia alba leaves Henna Powder/Paste ShampoosMatricaria chamomilla Chamomile Powder/Paste Hair tonic/analgesicflowersMoringa oleifera seed Benjamin Oil Hair oils, suntan lotionPrunus serotina bark Wild cherry Powder ShampoosbarkPterocarpus santalinus Red Powder/Paste Skin creamsbarksandalwoodRubia cordifolia root Manjisthaa Powder/Paste Wound-healingSantalum album Sandal wood Powder/Paste Skin lotionsTriticum sativum germ Wheat germ Oil Skin lotions, natural source ofVit ESource: Vikram Naharwar, Director, Amsar Pvt. Ltd. Indore-452006. INDIA.Use

Appendix 771Internet Resources of Herbal MedicineAGRICOLA (Agricultural Online Access):http://www.nal.usda.gov/general_info/agricola/agricola.htmlAlternative Herbal Index:http://onhealth.webmed.com/alternative/resource/herbs/index.aspAlternative Medicine Connection: www.arxc.comAlternative Medicine Home Page, from the University of Pittsburg:http://www.pitt.edu/-cbw/altm.htmlFor WHO Herbal Monographs under “Development”, see entry for AlternativeMedicine Home Page from the University of Pittsburg.Alternative Medicine, University of Texas:http://www.sph.uth.tmc.edu/utcam/therapy/htmAmerican Botanical Council: http://www.herbalgram.orgAmerican Herbal Pharmacopoeia: http://www.herbal-aph.orgAmerican Herbalists Guild: http://www.americanherbalistsguild.comAndrew Weil’s Website: www.drweil.comAyurvedic medicines: www.dabur.com www.thehimalayadrugco.comBritish Herbal Medicine Association: http://www.ex.ac.uk/phytonet/bhma.htmlChinese Medicine: http://www.cintcm.com/index.htmCongress on Alternative and Complimentary Therapies:www.alternativemed.comEuropean Scientific Cooperative on Phytotherapy (ESCOP):http://www.escop.comFacts and Comparisons, The Review of Natural Products:www.factsandcomparisons.comHerbs, Chemistry:http://friedle.com (flavonoids)http://realtime.net/anr (Austin Nutritional Research)http://www.aspp.org (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of plants)

772 AppendixHerbMed: http://www.herbmed.orgHerbal Past and Present Database:http://www.extra.hu/hbock/dbase/index.htmlHerb Research Foundation (HRF): http://www.herbs.orgLinks to Medline:www.herbmed.orghttp://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/herbalmedicine.htmlhttp://www.seanet.com/?vettf/Medline4.htmThe Longwood Herbal Task Force: www.mep.edu/herbalMedical Herbalism Online: www.medherb.comMother Nature Health Encyclopedia:www.mothernature.com/ency/herb/lingustrum.aspNational Centre for Complimentary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM):http://nccam.nih.govNational Library of Medicine: www.nlmgateway.comNatural Medicines Comprehensive Database: www.naturaldatabase.comThe Natural Pharmacist (TNP):http://www.memorialhospitaljax.com/healthcontent.asp?page=/choice/demonstrationNew York Academy of Sciences: www.nyas.org www.scientificamerican.comNew York Academy of Sciences: www.nyas.orgPhyto Net: http://www.escop.com/phytonet.htmThorne Research Alternative Medicine Review:www.thorne.com/altmedrev/index.htmlUnited States Pharmacopoeia (USP): http://www.usp.orgWorld Health Organization (WHO):http://who.int/medicines/library/trm/medicinalplants/monographs.shtml

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Bibliography 775The Treatise on Indian Medicinal Plants, Asima Chatterjee and Satyesh ChandraPakrashi, Vol. I to VI, NISCAIR, 2003.The Toxicology of Botanical Medicines, Francis Brinker, third edn., Electic MedicalPublications,Sandy, Oregon. 2000.Unani Dravyagunaadarsha, Vol. II ( (Hindi), Daljit Singh, Ayurvedic and TibbiAcademy,UttarPradesh,Lucknow.1974.The Wealth of India, Vol. II to XI, original series, NISCAIR, New Delhi.The Wealth of India, Revised edns., Vol. 1 to 3 (Ci), NISCAIR, New Delhi.The Wealth of India, First Supplement series, Vol, 2, 3. (2001), Vol. III (2002),Vol.IV(2003),Vol.V(2005).NISCAIR (National Institute of Science Communicationand Information Resources, CSIR) New Delhi.WHO Monographs on Selected Medicinal Plants,Vol.1,2,Vol.3(Website).Source of dosage: Dosage consensus of the crude drug is based on the recommendationsof The Ayurvedic Pharmacopoeia of India, Vol. I, II, III and IV,and Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha, Ministry of Health andFamily Welfare, Govt. of India, New Delhi (as cited in Standard Nomenclature ofAyurvedic Medicinal Plants).

About the AuthorC.P. KhareC. P. Khare was born on December 18, 1932, and has been a herbalist for morethan fifty years.He was born into a family of herbal physicians. He studied the original Ayurvedictexts and acquired first-hand knowledge of the cultivation and processingof herbs and their usage even before going to college.In 1952, he took up journalism. Since then he has edited and contributed manyfeatures on health and personal problems to various journals. He has been Directorof India’s largest magazine publishing group for the last twenty-five years–publishing twenty six magazines in nine languages (English, Hindi, Gujarati,Marathi, Bengali, Kannada, Tamil, Telugu and Malayalam), commanding a totalcirculation of more than 4 million.As founder President and Director of the Society for New Age Herbals, whichstarted functioning in 1990 in Delhi, he sought the cooperation and participationof physicians of modern as well as traditional medicine, pharmacologists andscientists to modify, restructure and reassess and age-old herbal formulationsin the light of pharmacological research and clinical trails being undertaken invarious research institutes of India.He has also been included among the directors of Dabur Ayurvedic SpecialitiesLtd., a herbal major in India.This reference work is the outcome of ten years of in-depth study and literaryresearch of more than 2000 plant sources of Ayurvedic, Unani and Siddha systemsof Indian medicine.By the same author: East and West integrative 400 detailed monographs on Indianmedicinal plants—in contemporary setup: Encyclopedia of Indian MedicinalPlants/Indian Herbal Remedies. Published by Springer.

Index787IndexBotanical NamesAAbelmoschus esculentus 1Abelmoschus moschatus 308Abies alba 2Abies larix 363Abies pindrow 1Abies smithiana 484Abies spectabilis 2, 270Abies webbiana 1, 2, 270, 546Abroma augusta 2Abrus 93Abrus fruticulosus 3Abrus laevigatus 3Abrus precatorius 3Abrus pulchellus 3Absinthium officinale 63Absinthium vulgare 63Abuta grandiflora 152Abutilon asiaticum 4Abutilon avicennae 4Abutilon fruticosum 4Abutilon glaucum 4Abutilon graveolens 4Abutilon hirtum 4Abutilon indicum 3, 4, 563Abutilon muticum 4Abutilon persicum 4Abutilon polyandrum 4Abutilon theophrastii 4Acacia alba 7Acacia arabica 4Acacia benthamii 5Acacia caesia 8Acacia canescens 5Acacia catechu 5, 6, 8Acacia chundra 6Acacia concinna 6Acacia farnesiana 7Acacia ferruginea 8Acacia intsia 8Acacia leucophloea 7Acacia nilotica 4, 5Acacia pennata 8, 9Acacia polycantha 8Acacia rugata 6Acacia senegal 8Acacia sinuata 6Acacia suma 8Acacia sundra 6Acacia torta 5, 8Acacia verek 8Acalypha ciliata 9Acalypha fruticosa 9Acalypha indica 9Acanthospermum hispidum 9, 669Acanthus ilicifolius 10Acca sellowiana 261Achillea lanulosa 10Achillea millefolium 8, 368Achras zapota 11Achyranthes aquatica 166Achyranthes aspera 11Achyranthes bidentata 12Achyranthes rubra-fusca 12Achyranthes verschaffeltii 12Aconitum atrox 12Aconitum balfourii 12Aconitum bisma 15Aconitum chasmanthum 12, 13Aconitum deinorrhizum 13Aconitum falconeri 13Aconitum ferox 13, 14, 15Aconitum heterophyllum 14Aconitum laciniatum 15Aconitum luridum 15Aconitum nepellus 13, 14Aconitum palmatum 15Aconitum spicatum 15Aconitum violaceum 15Acorus calamus 16, 17

778 IndexAcorus gramineus 16Actaea acuminata 17Actaea spicata 17Actea alba 147Actea pachypoda 147Actea rubra 147Actiniopteris australis 17Actiniopteris dichotoma 17Actiniopteris radiata 17Actinodaphne angustifolia 17Actinodaphne hookeri 17Actinopteris dichotoma 234Adansonia digitata 18Adelia neriifolia 314Adenanthera pavonina 18Adenema hyssopifolium 239Adhatoda beddomei 19Adhatoda vasica 18, 19, 478Adhatoda zeylanica 18Adiantum aethiopicum 19Adiantum capillus-veneris 19, 20Adiantum caudatum 20Adiantum emarginatum 19Adiantum incisum 20Adiantum lunulatum 20Adiantum philippense 20Adiantum venustum 20Adina cordifolia 20Aegle marmelos 21, 104Aeilema scapiflorum 425Aeilema tuberosum 425Aerva javanica 21Aerva lanata 22, 90, 440Aerva persica 21Aerva sanguinolenta 22Aerva scandens 22Aerva tomentosa 21Aesculus hippocastanum 22Aesculus indica 23Aframomum korarima 23Aframomum melegueta 23Aganosma calycina 24Aganosma caryophyllata 24Aganosma dichotoma 24Agaricus albus 24Agaricus campestris 24Agaricus ostreatus 25Agati grandiflora 600Agave americana 25Ageratum conyzoides 25Aglaia elaeagnoidea 25Aglaia roxburghiana 25, 112Agrimonia eupatoria 26Agrimonia pilosa 26Agropyron repens 26Ailanthus altissima 27Ailanthus excelsa 27Ailanthus glandulosa 27Ailanthus malabarica 28Ailanthus triphysa 28Ainsliaea aptera 28Ainsliaea latifolia 28Aisandra butyracea 391Ajuga bracteosa 28Alangium begoniaefolium 29Alangium chinense 29Alangium lamarckii 29Alangium salviifolium 29Albizia amara 29, 709Albizia julibrissin 30Albizia lebbeck 30Albizia odoratissima 709Albizia procera 30Aleurites fordii 31Aleurites moluccana 31Aleurites triloba 31Alhagi camelorum 31Alhagi maurorum 31Alhagi pseudalhagi 31, 259Alkanna tinctoria 32, 427, 449Allemanda cathartica 32Allium ameloprasum 34Allium ascalonicum 32Allium cepa 33Allium fistulosum 33Allium leptophyllum 35Allium macleanii 34, 452Allium macrostemon 33Allium porrum 34Allium sativum 34Allium schoenoprasum 35Allium tuberosum 35Alocasia indica 35, 541Alocasia macrorrhiza 35Aloe barbadensis 36Aloe indica 36

Index779Aloe littoralis 36Aloe vera 36Alpinia galanga 37, 38, 500, 695Alpinia malaccensis 37Alpinia officinarum 37Alpinia speciosa 38Alpinia zerumbet 38Alsine media 624Alstonia constricta 39Alstonia scholaris 38, 39, 664Alstonia venenata 39Alternanthera denticulata 39Alternanthera repens 39Alternanthera sessilis 39Alternanthera triandra 39Althaea officinalis 40, 395Althaea rosea 40Altingia excelsa 40, 631Amanita muscaria 40Amanita pantherina 41Amanita phalloides 606Amaranthus blitum 41Amaranthus caudatus 41Amaranthus gangeticus 42, 643Amaranthus hypochondriacus 41Amaranthus melancholicus 42Amaranthus polygamus 42Amaranthus spinosus 41Amaranthus tricolor 42Amaranthus tristis 42Amberoa divaricata 42, 713Ambroma augusta 2Ammannia baccifera 42Ammi majus 43Ammi visnaga 43Amomum aromaticum 44Amomum melegueta 23Amomum spurium 734Amomum subulatum 44Amomum sylvestre 734Amoora cucullata 44Amoora rohituka 56, 649Amorphophallus campanulatus 45Amorphophallus konjac 45Amorphophallus paeoniifolius 642Amorphophallus sylvaticus 45Amphicome emodi 44Amygdalus communis 45Amygdalus persica 45, 521Anacardium occidentale 46Anacyclus officinarum 46Anacyclus pyrethrum 46, 622Anagallis arvensis 47Anamirta cocculus 47Anamirta paniculata 47Ananas comosus 48Anaphalis contorta 48Anaphalis neelgerriana 48Anastatica hierochuntica 48Anchusa azurea 49Anchusa italica 49Anchusa strigosa 234Andrographis echioides 49Andrographis paniculata 49, 632Andropogon citratus 191Andropogon exilis 588Andropogon jwarancusa 191Andropogon martinii 192Andropogon muricatus 50, 701Andropogon nardus 192Andropogon schoenanthus 192Andropogon sorghum 619Andropogon squarrosus 701Anemone obtusiloba 50, 427Anemone pulsatilla 50Anethum graveolens 51Anethum sowa 51Angelica archangelica 51Angelica glauca 52Anisochilus carnosus 52Anisomeles malabarica 53Annona cherimola 53Annona muricata 53Annona reticulata 53Annona squamosa 53Anogeissus acuminata 54Anogeissus latifolia 54Anthemis nobilis 54, 55, 400Anthistiria gigantea 658Anthocephalus cadamba 55, 417Anthocephalus chinensis 55Anthocephalus indicus 55Anthriscus cerefolium 473Antiaris toxicaria 55Aphanamixis polystachya 56Apium crispum 475

780 IndexApium graveolens 56Apium leptophyllum 57Aplotaxis auriculata 586Aquilaria agallocha 57Aquilaria malaccensis 57Arachis hypogaea 58Aralia binnatifida 58Aralia pseudo-ginseng 58Arctium lappa 58Arctostaphylos uva-ursi 59Areca catechu 59Argemone mexicana 60, 100, 253Argyreia elliptica 371Argyreia nervosa 60, 61, 83, 334Argyreia speciosa 60, 61, 334Aristolochia bracteata 61Aristolochia bracteolata 61Aristolochia indica 61, 450Aristolochia longa 62Armoracia lapathifolia 62Armoracia rusticana 62, 163Arnebia benthamii 63Arnica montana 223Artabotrys hexapetalus 63Artabotrys odoratissimus 63Artemisia absinthium 63Artemisia lacrorum 65Artemisia maderaspatana 294Artemisia maritima 64Artemisia nilagirica 65Artemisia officinale 63Artemisia parviflora 65Artemisia scoparia 338Artemisia siversiana 65Artemisia stechmaniana 64Artemisia vestita 64Artemisia vulgaris 65, 368Artocarpus heterophyllus 65Artocarpus integrifolia 25, 65Artocarpus lacucha 66Artocarpus lakoocha 66Arundo bambos 80Arundo donax 66Asarum europaeum 67, 692Asclepias annularis 313Asclepias curassavica 67Asclepias tuberosa 68Asparagus adscendens 68, 142Asparagus curillus 69Asparagus filicinus 69Asparagus gracilis 69Asparagus officinalis 68Asparagus racemosus 68, 507, 508Asparagus sarmentosus 69Asphodelus fistulosus 69Asphodelus tenuifolius 33, 69Aspidium filix 226Aspidopterys indica 70Aspidopterys roxburghiana 70Asplenium adiantoides 70Asplenium adiantum-nigrum 70Asplenium ceterach 307Asplenium falcatum 70Asplenium laciniatum 70Asplenium nidus 70Asteracantha longifolia 70, 317Astragalus candolleanus 71Astragalus gummifer 71, 72Astragalus hamosus 71, 676Astragalus sarcocola 72Astragalus strobiliferus 72Atalantia floribunda 72Atalantia monophylla 72Atropa acuminata 72Atropa belladonna 72, 73, 204, 396, 592Atylosia barbata 73Atylosia goensis 73Atylosia scarabaeoides 73Avena byzantina 73Avena sativa 73Averrhoa bilimbi 74Averrhoa carambola 74Avicennia alba 75Avicennia officinalis 75Azadirachta indica 75, 403Azanza lampas 658Azima tetracantha 76BBacopa monnieri 77, 152Balanites aegyptiaca 77, 584Balanites roxburghii 77Balanophora involucrata 78Balanophora polyandra 78Baliospermum axillare 78Baliospermum calycinum 78

Index781Baliospermum montanum 78, 180, 346Baliospermum polyandrum 78Balsamodendron caudatum 79Balsamodendron mukul 79Balsamodendron myrrha 79Balsamodendron opobalsamum 80Bambusa arundinacea 80Bambusa bambos 80Banksea speciosa 587Barbarea vulgaris 81Barleria buxifolia 81Barleria cristata 82Barleria prionitis 82, 440, 603Barleria strigosa 83Barringtonia acutangula 83Barringtonia racemosa 83Basella alba 83Basella rubra 83Bassia latifolia 392Bassia longifolia 84, 392Bassia malabarica 392Bassia neriifolia 392Bauhinia acuminata 85Bauhinia candida 86Bauhinia malabarica 85Bauhinia purpurea 85Bauhinia racemosa 85Bauhinia retusa 86Bauhinia semla 86Bauhinia tomentosa 86Bauhinia variegata 86Begonia laciniata 87Begonia palmata 87Belamcanda chinensis 87Benincasa cerifera 88Benincasa hispida 88Berberis aristata 88, 89Berberis asiatica 88Berberis chitria 89Berberis lycium 88Berberis nepalensis 393Berberis ulicina 89Berberis vulgaris 89Bergenia ciliata 90Bergenia ligulata 22, 43, 90Beta vulgaris 91Betula acuminata 91, 92Betula alba 92Betula alnoides 91Betula bhojpattra 91Betula pendula 92Betula utilis 91, 92Bidens chinensis 92Bidens pilosa 92Bignonia stans 648Bignonia undulata 649Bignonia xylocarpa 535Biophytum sensitivum 92Biota orientalis 660Bistorta affinis 508Bixa orellana 93Blepharis edulis 93, 362Blepharis linariaefolia 94Blepharis molluginifolia 94Blepharis persica 93Blepharis sindica 94Blepharispermum subsessile 37, 94Blumea balsamifera 94Blumea densiflora 94Blumea eriantha 95Blumea fastulosa 95Blumea glomerata 95Blumea lacera 95Boerhavia chinensis 96Boerhavia diffusa 96, 668, 669Boerhavia erecta 96, 668Boerhavia procumbens 96Boerhavia punarnava 96, 668Boerhavia repanda 96Boerhavia repens 96Boerhavia verticillata 96Bombax ceiba 97, 573Bombax insigne 574Bombax malabaricum 573Borago officinalis 97, 449Borassus flabellifer 97, 590Borreria articularis 98, 620Borreria hispida 98, 620Boswellia serrata 98Brassica alba 99Brassica campestris 99Brassica juncea 100Brassica juneja 99Brassica napus 100Brassica nigra 101Brayera anthelmintica 101

782 IndexBreynia patens 101Breynia retusa 101Bridelia montana 101, 655Bridelia retusa 102Brucea javanica 548Brucea sativa 102Brucea subtlis 102Brugmansia suaveolens 102Brunella vulgaris 103Bryonia alba 396Bryonia callosa 182Bryonia laciniosa 103Bryonia rostrata 353Bryonia scabrella 407Bryonopsis laciniosa 103Bryophyllum calycinum 103, 352Bryophyllum pinnatum 21, 103, 352Buchanania angustifolia 104Buchanania axillaris 104Buchanania lanzan 104Buchanania latifolia 104Bunium persicum 124Bupleurum 141Bupleurum flacutum 105Butea frondosa 105Butea monosperma 105Butea parviflora 106Butea superba 106Buxus sempervirens 106Buxus wallichiana 106CCaccinia crassifolia 107Caccinia glauca 107Cadaba farinosa 107Cadaba fruticosa 107Cadaba indica 107Caesalpinia bonduc 107, 108Caesalpinia bonducella 107Caesalpinia coriaria 108Caesalpinia crista 107Caesalpinia digyna 108, 715Caesalpinia pulcherrima 109Caesalpinia sappan 109Cailliea cinerea 212Cajanus cajan 110, 222Cajanus indicus 110Calamus amarus 111Calamus draco 199Calamus jenkinsianus 199Calamus rotang 110, 111Calamus roxburghii 110Calamus tenuis 111, 199Calamus travancoricus 111Calendula officinalis 111Callicarpa incana 112Callicarpa macrophylla 112, 521, 602Calonyction bona-nox 331Calonyction aculeatum 331Calophyllum apetalum 112Calophyllum inophyllum 112Calophyllum wightianum 112Calotropis gigantea 113Calotropis procera 113Caltha palustris 114Calycopteris floribunda 114Camellia sinensis 114Camellia thea 115Canarium commune 115Canarium sikkimense 115, 116Canarium strictum 115Canarium vulgare 115Cannabis indica 116, 579Cannabis sativa 116Canscora decussata 116, 117, 162Canscora diffusa 117Canscora lawii 117Canthium parviflorum 117Capparis aphylla 117Capparis decidua 117Capparis horrida 119Capparis moonii 118Capparis sepiaria 118Capparis spinosa 118Capparis zeylanica 119Capsella bursa-pastoris 119Capsicum annuum 119Capsicum frutescens 120Carallia brachiata 120Carallia integerrima 120Carallia lucida 120Carapa granatum 724Cardiospermum halicacabum 121Carduus bendictus 713Carduus heteromallus 586Carduus nutans 713

Index783Careya arborea 122Careya herbacea 122Carica papaya 122, 629Carissa carandas 123Carissa opaca 123Carissa paucinervia 123Carissa spinarum 123Carmona microphylla 231Carthamus oxyacantha 124Carthamus tinctorius 123Carum bulbocastanum 124, 184Carum carvi 124, 184Carum copticum 665Carum roxburghianum 665Carvia callosa 628Caryophyllus aromaticus 636Casearia elliptica 125Casearia esculenta 125Casearia ovata 125Casearia tomentosa 125Casearia zeylanica 125Cassia absus 126Cassia alata 126Cassia acutifolia 127Cassia angustifolia 127Cassia auriculata 127Cassia fistula 128, 525Cassia javanica 128Cassia obovata 128Cassia obtusa 128Cassia obtusifolia 129Cassia occidentalis 129Cassia rhombifolia 128Cassia senna 127Cassia sophera 129Cassia tora 130Cassine glauca 233Cassytha filiformis 130Castanea dentata 131Castanea sativa 131Castanea vulgaris 131Casuarina equisetifolia 131Catharanthus pusillus 705Catharanthus roseus 131, 132, 705Catunaregam uliginosa 536Caulophyllum thalictroides 147Cayratia carnosa 132Cayratia pedata 132Cayratia trifolia 132Cedrela toona 132, 641Cedrus deodara 133, 505Cedrus libani 133Ceiba pentandra 134Celastrus paniculatus 134Celosia argentea 135Celosia cristata 135, 234Celus vettiveroides 468Centaurea behen 135, 575Centaurium roxburghii 245Centella asiatica 77, 136, 170Centipeda minima 137Centipeda orbicularis 137Centratherum anthelminticum 137, 523Cephaelis ipecacuanha 24, 138, 284, 434Cephalandra indica 162Ceratonia siliqua 138Ceratophyllum demersum 138, 695Cereus grandiflorus 139, 595Ceriops candolleana 139Ceriops tagal 139Ceriscoides turgida 282Ceropegia biflora 139Ceropegia bulbosa 139Ceropegia candelabrum 140Ceropegia intermedia 140Ceropegia juncea 140Ceropegia tuberosa 140Ceterach officinarum 307Cetraria islandica 140Chamaemelum nobile 54, 400Chamomilla recutita 400Cheiranthus cheiri 140Chenopodium album 141Chenopodium ambrosioides 141Chenopodium botrys 142Chloris gayana 142Chloris incompleta 142Chloris virgata 142Chlorophytum arundinaceum 68, 142, 143Chlorophytum attenuatum 143Chlorophytum indicum 143Chlorophytum tuberosum 143Chloroxylon swietenia 143Chondodendron tomentosum 143Chonemorpha fragrans 144Chonemorpha macrophylla 144

784 IndexChrozophora plicata 144Chrozophora rottleri 144Chrysanthemum indicum 144Chrysanthemum parthenium 145Chrysanthemum vulgare 645Chukrasia tabularis 145Cicca acida 481Cicer arietinum 145, 517Cichorium endivia 146Cichorium intybus 146Cimicifuga racemosa 147Cimicifuga foetida 147Cinchona calisaya 148Cinchona ledgeriana 147Cinchona officinalis 147Cinchona robusta 147Cinchona succirubra 148Cinnamomum aromaticum 149Cinnamomum camphora 148Cinnamomum cassia 149Cinnamomum glanduliferum 376Cinnamomum impressinervium 150Cinnamomum malabatrum 151Cinnamomum obtusifolium 150Cinnamomum tamala 2, 150, 151, 270Cinnamomum verum 150Cinnamomum wightii 150, 411Cinnamomum zeylanicum 150, 151Cissampelos pareira 151, 190, 624Cissus quadrangularis 152Citrullus colocynthis 152, 672Citrullus lanatus 153Citrullus vulgaris 153Citrus aurantifolia 153Citrus aurantium 154Citrus decumana 155Citrus grandis 155Citrus limon 154Citrus maxima 155Citrus medica 153, 156Citrus paradisi 155Clausena anisata 157Clausena excavata 157Clausena pentaphylla 157, 427Claviceps purpurea 157Clematis gouriana 158Clematis napaulensis 158Clematis recta 158Cleome brachycarpa 158Cleome gynandra 299Cleome icosandra 158Cleome monophylla 159Cleome vahliana 158Cleome viscosa 158Clerodendron siphonanthus 159Clerodendrum indicum 159Clerodendrum inerme 159Clerodendrum infortunatum 160Clerodendrum multiflorum 160Clerodendrum phlomidis 160Clerodendrum serratum 160, 485, 515Clitoria ternatea 161Coccinia cordifolia 162Coccinia glauca 449Coccinia indica 162Cocculus hirsutus 162, 171Cocculus indicus 48Cocculus leaeba 162Cocculus pendulus 162Cocculus villosus 162Cochlearia armoracia 163Cochlearia cochlearioides 163Cochlearia flava 163Cochlospermum gossypium 163Cochlospermum religiosum 163, 626Cocos nucifera 163Coffea arabica 164Coix gigantea 165Coix lachryma 165Coix lacryma-jobi 165Colchicum autumnale 165, 166Colchicum luteum 165, 677Coleus amboinicus 21, 166Coleus aromaticus 166Coleus barbatus 166Coleus forskohlii 166Coleus vettiveroides 167, 692Coleus zeylanicus 167Colocasia antiquorum 167Colocasia esculenta 167Commelina benghalensis 168Commelina diffusa 168Commelina nudiflora 168Commelina obliqua 168Commelina paludosa 168Commelina salicifolia 168

Index785Commiphora 168Commiphora abyssinica 79Commiphora molmol 79Commiphora mukul 79, 329Commiphora opobalsamum 80Commiphora wightii 79Conium maculatum 169Connarus santaloides 554Convolvulus alsinoides 256Convolvulus arvensis 169Convolvulus bilobatus 333Convolvulus hederacus 332Convolvulus jalapa 334Convolvulus microphyllus 169Convolvulus muricatus 332Convolvulus nil 333Convolvulus pluricaulis 162, 169, 170, 365Convolvulus prostratus 169Convolvulus scammonia 170Convolvulus tridentatus 411Convululus vitifolius 335Copaifera langsdorffii 302Coptis chinensis 171Coptis teeta 170, 657Corallocarpus epigaeus 171Corchorus acutangulus 171Corchorus aestuans 171Corchorus capsularis 171, 172Corchorus depressus 172Corchorus fascicularis 172Corchorus olitorius 171Cordia dichotoma 173Cordia myxa 173Cordia obliqua 173Cordia rothii 173Cordia wallichii 173Coriandrum sativum 174Cornutia corymbosa 516Corydalis cucullaria 211Corydalis govaniana 174Corydalis solida 174Corylus avellana 175Corylus colurna 175Corylus ferox 175Coscinium fenestratum 88, 175, 344Costus speciosus 176, 288, 587Cotyledon laciniata 352Crataegeus oxyacantha 176Crataegus crenulata 176Crataegus laevigata 177Crataegus monogyna 177Crataeva magna 177Crataeva nurvala 177Cressa cretica 177Crinum asiaticum 178Crinum defixum 178Crinum latifolium 178Crinum zeylanicum 178Crocus sativus 178Crotalaria juncea 179Crotalaria verrucosa 180Croton oblongifolius 180Croton polyandrus 78Croton tiglium 180, 345Cryptolepis buchanani 181, 473Ctenolepis cerasiformis 181Cucumis callosus 182Cucumis maderaspatana 407Cucumis melo 181Cucumis myriocarpus 181Cucumis prophetarum 181Cucumis pseudo-colocynthis 182Cucumis sativus 182Cucumis trigonus 182Cucumis utilissimus 181Cucurbita hispada 88Cucurbita lagenaria 358Cucurbita maxima 53, 182, 183Cucurbita moschata 183Cucurbita pepo 183Cucurbita siceraria 358Culex quinquefasciatus 504Cuminum cyminum 184Cupressus sempervirens 184, 194Curculigo orchioides 185Curcuma amada 185Curcuma angustifolia 81, 186Curcuma aromatica 186Curcuma caesia 187Curcuma domestica 187Curcuma longa 186, 187, 525Curcuma zedoaria 188Cuscuta epithymum 189Cuscuta reflexa 130, 189Cyamopsis tetragonoloba 189Cyclea arnotii 190, 625

786 IndexCyclea peltata 190Cyclosorus dentatus 226Cydonia oblonga 190Cydonia vulgaris 190Cymbopogon citratus 191Cymbopogon jwarancusa 191Cymbopogon martinii 192Cymbopogon nardus 192Cymbopogon schoenanthus 192Cynara scolymus 193Cynodon dactylon 193Cyperus 93Cyperus articulatus 194Cyperus esculentus 194Cyperus kyllinga 356Cyperus platystilis 195Cyperus rotundus 195, 196, 680Cyperus scariosus 195Cyperus triceps 356Cytisus monopessulanus 196, 197Cytisus scoparius 196DDactyloctenium aegyptium 199Dactylopius cacti 451Daemonorops draco 199Daemonorops jenkinsianus 199Dalbergia emerginata 200Dalbergia frondosa 199Dalbergia lanceolaria 199Dalbergia latifolia 200Dalbergia multiflora 201Dalbergia sissoides 200Dalbergia sissoo 200Dalbergia sympathetica 201Dalbergia volubilis 201Daphne oleoides 201Datisca cannabina 202Datura alba 202Datura fastuosa 203Datura innoxia 202Datura metel 202, 203Datura stramonium 203Datura suaveolens 102Datura tatula 203Daucus carota 204Daucus visnaga 43Decalepis hamiltoni 205, 607Delima scandens 205Delonix elata 205, 206Delonix regia 205, 206Delphinium ajacis 206Delphinium brunonianum 206, 692Delphinium cashmirianum 206Delphinium consolida 206Delphinium denudatum 207Delphinium elatum 207Delphinium pauciflorum 207Delphinium semibarbatum 208Delphinium speciosum 207Delphinium staphisagria 207Delphinium vestitium 207Delphinium zalil 208, 588Dendrobium crumenatum 208Dendrobium macraei 208, 480Dendrobium normale 208Dendrobium ovatum 208Dendrophthoe falcata 208, 383Dendrophthoe pentandra 384Derris indica 209, 511Derris trifoliata 209Derris uliginosa 209Descurainia sophia 209Desmochaeta muricata 213Desmodium gangeticum 210, 522Desmodium triflorum 210Desmos chinensis 683Desmos cochinchinensis 684Desmostachya bipinnata 211Dianthus anatolicus 211Dianthus carophyllus 211Dicentra canadensis 211Dicentra cucullaria 212Dichroa febrifuga 212Dichrostachys cinerea 212Dicoma tomentosa 212Dictamnus albus 213Didymocarpus macrophylla 213Didymocarpus pedicellata 213Digera arvensis 213Digera muricata 213Digitalis lanata 213Digitalis purpurea 214Dillenia indica 214Dillenia pentagyna 150Dillenia pentagyna 214, 411

Index787Dillenia speciosa 214Dioscorea aculeata 216Dioscorea alata 215Dioscorea anguina 215Dioscorea atropurpurea 215Dioscorea bulbifera 215, 573, 642Dioscorea clarkei 217Dioscorea daemona 216Dioscorea deltoidea 216, 217Dioscorea esculenta 216Dioscorea faciculata 216Dioscorea glabra 217Dioscorea globosa 215Dioscorea hamiltonii 217Dioscorea hirsuta 216Dioscorea hispada 216Dioscorea nepalensis 216Dioscorea oppositifolia 217Dioscorea pentaphylla 217, 331Dioscorea prazeri 217Dioscorea puber 215Dioscorea purpurea 215Dioscorea rubella 174Dioscorea sativa 215Dioscorea skkimensis 177Dioscorea spinosa 216Dioscorea triphylla 217Dioscorea versicolor 215Diospyros dubia 219Diospyros ebenum 218Diospyros embryopteris 218Diospyros exsculpta 220Diospyros hebecarpa 218Diospyros kaki 218Diospyros malabarica 218Diospyros melanoxylon 219Diospyros montana 219Diospyros peregrina 218Diospyros tomentosa 220Diplocyclos palmatus 103Dipteracanthus suffruticosus 561Dipterocarpus alatus 220Dipterocarpus incanus 220Dipterocarpus indicus 220Dipterocarpus turbinatus 220Dodonaea viscosa 37, 221Dolichandrone falcata 221, 298Dolichos biflorus 222Dolichos falcatus 222Dolichos lablab 222, 223Dorema ammoniacum 223Doronicum hookeri 223Doronicum pardalianches 224Doronicum roylei 224Dracaena cinnabari 224Dracocephalum moldavica 224, 444Dracontium polyphyllum 224Dregea volubilis 225Drimia indica 685Drosera burmannii 225Drosera indica 225Drosera lunata 225Drosera peltata 225Drosera rotundifolia 225Drynaria quercifolia 226Dryobalanops aromatica 226Dryobalanops camphora 226Dryopteris barbigera 227Dryopteris blanfordii 227Dryopteris dentata 226Dryopteris filix-mas 226Dryopteris marginata 227Dryopteris odontoloma 227Dryopteris schimperiana 227Drypetes roxburghii 227, 528Duranta plumieri 227Duranta repens 227Durio zibethinus 227Dysoxylum binectariferum 228Dysoxylum labricum 698EEcballium elaterium 229Ecbolium linneanum 82, 229Ecbolium viride 229Echinochloa colonum 229Echinochloa crus-galli 229Echinochloa frumentacea 230Echinops echinatus 230Echium amoenum 49Eclipta alba 230, 716Eclipta prostrata 230Edwardsia mollis 617Ehretia aspera 231Ehretia buxifolia 231Ehretia laevis 231

788 IndexEhretia obtusifolia 231Eichhornia crassipes 232Eichhornia speciosa 232Elaeocarpus cuneatus 233Elaeocarpus ganitrus 232Elaeocarpus glandulosus 233Elaeocarpus oblongus 233Elaeocarpus serratus 233Elaeocarpus sphaericus 232Elaeocarpus tuberculatus 233Elaeodendron glaucum 233Eleocharis dulcis 233Eleocharis plantaginea 233Eleocharis tuberosa 233Elephantopus scaber 234Elettaria cardamomum 234Eleusine aegyptiaca 199Eleusine coracana 235Eleusine indica 236Elsholtzia blenda 236Elsholtzia ciliata 236Elsholtzia cristata 236Elytraria acaulis 236Elytraria crenata 236Embelia ribes 237, 430Embelia robusta 237Embelia tsjeriam-cottam 237Emblica officinalis 238Emilia sonchifolia 239Enhydra fluctuans 239Enicostemma axillare 239Enicostemma hyssopifolium 239Enicostemma littorale 239Enicostemma verticellatum 240Entada phaseoloides 240Entada pursaetha 240Entada scandens 240Ephedra gerardiana 241, 584Ephedra major 241Ephedra sinica 241Epicarpurus orientalis 627Equisetum arvense 241Eragrostis cynosuroides 211Erianthus munja 567Erigeron canadensis 242Eriobotrya japonica 242Eriodendron anafractuosum 134Eruca sativa 102, 243Ervataemia coronaria 244Ervataemia divaricata 244Ervatamia coronaria 641Ervatamia dichotoma 641Ervatamia divaricata 641Ervatamia heyneana 642Erycibe paniculata 244Eryngium caeruleum 244, 467Eryngium foetidum 244Eryngium maritimum 245Erythraea centaurium 245Erythraea roxburghii 245Erythrina indica 245Erythrina stricta 246Erythrina suberosa 245Erythrina variegata 245Erythronium americanum 450Erythroxylum coca 246Erythroxylum indicum 246Erythroxylum monogynum 246Eucalyptus globulus 247Eugenia acutangula 83Eugenia aromatica 636Eugenia caryophyllata 636Eugenia hemispherica 638Eugenia jambolana 637Eugenia jambos 639Eugenia malccensis 639Eugenia operculata 637Eugenia uniflora 247Eugenia zeylanica 639Eulaliopsis binata 248Eulophia campestris 248Eulophia herbacea 248Eulophia nuda 248, 301, 541Eulophia pratensis 249Eulophia ramentacea 249Euonymus atropurpureus 249Euonymus tingens 249Eupatorium ayapana 250Eupatorium cannabinum 249Eupatorium odorum 250Eupatorium triplinerve 250Euphorbia acaulis 250, 253Euphorbia antiquorum 250Euphorbia dracunculoides 251Euphorbia hirta 251, 254Euphorbia hypericifolia 252

Index789Euphorbia indica 252Euphorbia ligularia 252Euphorbia microphylla 181Euphorbia neriifolia 252Euphorbia nivulia 252Euphorbia pilosa 253Euphorbia pilulifera 251, 254Euphorbia resinifera 253Euphorbia royleana 253Euphorbia thomsoniana 253Euphorbia thymifolia 254Euphorbia tirucalli 254Euphoria longan 254Euphrasia officinalis 255, 469Euphrasia simplex 255Euryale ferox 255Evolvulus alsinoides 161, 162, 169, 170, 256Evolvulus angustifolius 256Evolvulus hirtus 256Evolvulus nummularis 256, 335Exacum bicolor 256Exacum hyssopifolium 239Exacum pedunculatum 256Exacum perrottetii 256Exacum tetragonum 256Excoecaria agallocha 256Exogonium purga 257, 332, 334FFaba vulgaris 703Fagara budrunga 731Fagara oxyphylla 731Fagara rhetsa 731Fagonia arabica 259Fagonia bruguieri 259Fagonia cretica 259Fagonia schweifurthii 259Fagopyrum esculentum 259, 260Fagopyrum tataricum 260Fagus sylvatica 260Farsetia hamiltonii 260Farsetia jacquemontii 260Feijoa sellowiana 261Feronia elephantum 261Feronia limonia 261Ferula assafoetida 261Ferula foetida 261, 262Ferula galbaniflua 262Ferula gummosa 262Ferula jaeschkeana 262, 281Ferula narthex 261, 263Ferula persica 263Ferula silphion 262Ferula sumbul 263Ficus altissima 263Ficus arnottiana 263Ficus asperrima 264Ficus benghalensis 264Ficus benjamina 265Ficus carica 265Ficus caricoides 267Ficus conglomerata 266Ficus cordifolia 265Ficus cunia 266Ficus daemona 266Ficus dalhousiae 266Ficus glomerata 268Ficus heterophylla 266Ficus hispida 266Ficus infectoria 267Ficus lacor 267Ficus microcarpa 267Ficus oppositifolia 266Ficus palmata 267Ficus racemosa 268Ficus religiosa 269Ficus retusa 267Ficus rumphii 265Ficus semicardata 266Ficus talbotii 269Ficus viren 267Ficus virgata 267Fimbristylis annua 269Fimbristylis monostachya 269Fimbristylis ovata 269Flacourtia indica 269Flacourtia ramontchi 269Flacourtia cataphracta 270Flacourtia jangomas 270Flacourtia sepiaria 271Flueggea suffruticosa 594Foeniculum vulgare 51, 271, 325Fomes officinalis 24Frangula purshiana 541Fraxinus excelsior 272Fraxinus griffithi 272

790 IndexFraxinus hookery 272Fraxinus ornus 272Fritillaria cirrhosa 273Fritillaria imperialis 273Fritillaria roylei 273Fucus distichus 273Fucus nodosus 274Fucus vesiculosus 273Fumaria indica 304Fumaria officinalis 274, 275Fumaria parviflora 275Fumaria parviflora 275Fumaria vaillantii 275Fusarium nivale 577GGalium aparine 277Galium verum 277Ganitrus sphaericus 232Garcinia cambogia 277Garcinia cowa 278Garcinia gummi-gutta 277Garcinia hanburyi 278Garcinia indica 278Garcinia kydia 278Garcinia mangostana 279Garcinia morella 280Garcinia pedunculata 280Garcinia pictoria 280Garcinia purpurea 278Garcinia tinctoria 280Garcinia xanthochymus 280Gardenia arborea 281Gardenia augusta 281Gardenia florida 281Gardenia gummifera 281Gardenia inermis 281Gardenia jasminoides 281Gardenia latifolia 281Gardenia lucida 282Gardenia resinifera 282Gardenia turgida 282Garuga pinnata 282Gaultheria fragrantissima 283Gaultheria procumbens 283Gelidium amansii 57, 283Gendarussa vulgaris 350Gentiana chirata 632Gentiana chirayita 632Gentiana dahurica 284Gentiana decumbens 284Gentiana kurroo 283Gentiana lutea 256, 284Gentiana olivieri 284Gentiana tenella 284Gentianella tenella 284Geophila reniformis 284Geophila repens 284Geranium affine 285Geranium nepalense 285Geranium robertianum 285Geranium wallichianum 285, 427Geum elatum 286Geum urbanum 285Ginkgo biloba 286Girardinia diversifolia 287Girardinia heterophylla 287Gironniera cuspidata 287Gironniera reticulata 287Gisekia pharnaceoides 287Glinus lotoides 287Glinus oppositifolius 418Gloriosa superba 287, 317, 378Glossocardia bosvallia 288Glossocardia linearifolia 288Glycine hispada 288Glycine max 288Glycine soja 288Glycosmis arborea 289Glycosmis cochinchinensis 289Glycosmis pentaphylla 289Glycyrrhiza glabra 289Gmelina arborea 290Gmelina asiatica 291Gmelina parvifolia 291Gnaphalium luteo-album 291Gnetum montanum 291Gnetum scandens 291Gnetum ula 292Gnida eriocephala 292Gnida glauca 292Gordonia obtusa 292Gossampinus malabarica 573Gossypium arboreum 292Gossypium barbadense 292Gossypium herbaceum 293

Index791Gouania leptostachya 293Gouania microcarpa 293Gouania tiliaefolia 293Gracilaria lichenoides 293Grangea maderaspatana 294Graptophyllum hortense 294Graptophyllum picum 294Grewia asiatica 294, 479Grewia hirsuta 295Grewia microcos 413Grewia obliqua 295Grewia optiva 296Grewia polygama 295Grewia populifolia 295Grewia scabrophylla 295Grewia sclerophylla 295Grewia subinaequalis 294Grewia tenax 295Grewia tiliaefolia 295Grewia ulmifolia 413Grewia villosa 296Guaiacum officinale 296Guazuma tomentosa 296Guazuma ulmifolia 296Guettarda speciosa 297Guizotia abyssinica 297Gymnema hirsutum 297Gymnema montanum 297Gymnema sylvestre 221, 297, 298, 494Gymnosporia Montana 298Gymnosporia spinosa 298Gynandropsis gynandra 299Gynandropsis pentaphylla 299Gynocardia odorata 299Gynura nudicaulis 300Gynura pseudo-china 300HHabenaria acuminata 301Habenaria edgeworthii 301Habenaria goodyeroides 301Habenaria griffithii 301Habenaria intermedia 301Haematoxylon campechianum 301Hagenia abyssinica 101Haplanthus verticillatus 301Hardwickia binata 302Hardwickia pinnata 354Hedera helix 302Hedera himalaica 302Hedera nepalensis 302Hedera rhombea 302Hedychium album 303Hedychium coronarium 303Hedychium spicatum 303, 351Hedyotis corymbosa 288Hedyotis diffusa 304Hedyotis herbacea 304Hedyotis umbellata 448Hedysarum gangeticum 210Hedysarum pictum 684Hedysarum triflorum 210Helianthus annuus 304Helianthus tuberosus 305Helicteres isora 305Heliotropium indicum 305Helleborus niger 17, 47, 306Helleborus virdis 306Hemerocallis fulva 306, 355Hemidesmus indicus 205, 306, 323, 355, 473,568, 607Hemidictyum ceterach 307Hemionites arifolia 307, 577Heracleum candicans 307Heracleum concanense 308Heracleum lanatum 307Heracleum nepalense 307Heracleum regins 308Heracleum thomsoni 308Herniaria glabra 308Herniaria hirsuta 308Herpestis monnieria 77Hesperethusa crenulata 376Heterophragma quadriloculare 308Heterophragma roxburghii 308Hibiscus abelmoschus 308Hibiscus cannabinus 309Hibiscus esculentus 1Hibiscus mutabilis 309Hibiscus populneus 659Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 309Hibiscus sabdariffa 310Hibiscus surattensis 311Hibiscus syriacus 310Hippocratea grahamii 540Hippocratea indica 540

792 IndexHippophae rhamnoides 311Hiptage benghalensis 312Hiptage madablota 312Holarrhena antidysenterica 312, 720, 721Holarrhena pubescens 312Holoptelea integrifolia 108, 313Holostemma ada-kodien 313Holostemma annularis 313Holostemma rheedii 313Homonoia riparia 314, 571Hordeum vulgare 314Hovenia acerba 314Hovenia dulcis 314Hugonia mystax 315Humulus lupulus 315Huperzia serrata 388Hura crepitans 316Hybanthus enneaspermus 329Hydnocarpus heterophylla 316Hydnocarpus heterophyllus 646Hydnocarpus kurzii 316Hydnocarpus Kurzii 646Hydnocarpus laurifolia 316Hydnocarpus odorata 299Hydnocarpus wightiana 316Hydrocotyle asiatica 77, 136Hydrocotyle javanica 317Hydrocotyle rotundifolia 317Hydrolea zeylanica 317Hygrophila auriculata 317Hygrophila schulli 317Hygrophila spinosa 70, 317Hymenodictyon excelsum 318Hymenodictyon orixense 318Hyoscyamus muticus 318Hyoscyamus niger 318Hypecoum loptocarpum 319Hypecoum pendulum 319Hypecoum procumbens 319Hypericum perforatum 319Hyptis suaveolens 320Hyssopus officinalis 320IIberis amara 323Ichnocarpus frutescens 323Ilex aquifolium 323Ilex paraguariensis 324Illicium anisatum 324Illicium griffithii 325Illicium verum 325Impatiens balsamina 325Imperata arundinacea 326Imperata cylindrica 326Indigofera arrecta 326Indigofera articulata 326Indigofera aspalathoides 327Indigofera caerulea 326Indigofera cassioides 327Indigofera enneaphylla 327Indigofera linnaei 327Indigofera oblongifolia 327Indigofera paucifolia 327Indigofera prostrata 328Indigofera pulchella 327Indigofera tinctoria 289, 328Indigofera trifoliata 328Inula helenium 329Inula racemosa 329, 586Inula royleana 329Involucraria lepiniana 671Ionidium suffruticosum 329Ipomoea alba 331Ipomoea aquatica 330Ipomoea batatas 330Ipomoea biloba 61, 333Ipomoea bona-nox 331Ipomoea digitata 331, 527, 573Ipomoea eriocarpa 331Ipomoea hederacea 332, 333Ipomoea hispida 331Ipomoea jalapa 334Ipomoea marginata 332Ipomoea mauritiana 331Ipomoea maxima 335Ipomoea muricata 332Ipomoea nil 333Ipomoea obscura 332Ipomoea paniculata 331Ipomoea pes-caprae 333, 334Ipomoea petaloidea 61, 334Ipomoea purga 169, 257, 334Ipomoea purpurea 334Ipomoea quamoclit 335Ipomoea reniformis 256, 335Ipomoea reptans 330

Index793Ipomoea sepiaria 335Ipomoea sessiliflora 331Ipomoea tridentata 411Ipomoea turbinata 332Ipomoea turpethum 257, 334, 399, 449Ipomoea vitifolia 335Iresine herbstii 12Iris ensata 336Iris florentina 336Iris germanica 336Iris kumaonensis 336Iris nepalensis 337Iris pallida 336Iris pseudacorus 337Iris versicolor 337Isatis tinctoria 337, 338Ixora coccinea 338Ixora javanica 339Ixora parviflora 338Ixora pavetta 338JJacaranda acutifolia 341Jacaranda filicifolia 341Jacaranda mimosifolia 341Jacaranda ovalifolia 341Jacaranda rhombifolia 341Jacobinia tinctoria 19Jambosa hemispherica 638Jambosa vulgaris 639Jasminum angustifolium 341Jasminum arborescens 341Jasminum auriculatum 342Jasminum azoricum 342Jasminum bignoniaceum 342Jasminum bracteatum 343Jasminum flexile 342Jasminum grandiflorum 343Jasminum heterophyllum 342Jasminum hirsutum 343Jasminum humile 342Jasminum malabaricum 343Jasminum multiflorum 343Jasminum officinale 342, 343Jasminum pubescens 343Jasminum rottlerianum 344Jasminum roxburghianum 341Jasminum sambac 342, 344Jateorhiza calumba 344Jateorhiza palmata 176, 344Jatropha curcas 180, 345Jatropha glandulifera 345Jatropha gossypifolia 346Jatropha multifida 346Jatropha panduraefolia 346Juglans cineraria 347Juglans regia 346, 347Juncus communis 347Juncus effusus 347Juniperus bermudiana 349Juniperus chinensis 349Juniperus communis 348Juniperus excelsa 348Juniperus macropoda 348Juniperus procera 349Juniperus recurva 348Juniperus virginiana 349Jurinea dolomiacea 349Jurinea macrocephala 349Jussiaea fissendocarpa 349Jussiaea linifolia 349Jussiaea suffruticosa 349Jussiaea tenella 349Justicia adhatoda 18Justicia betonica 349Justicia betonica 82Justicia ecbolium 229Justicia gendarussa 350Justicia nasuta 545Justicia pectinata 564Justicia picta 254Justicia procumbens 288, 350Justicia tranquebariensis 350Justicia vasculosa 350KKadsura heteroclita 351Kadsura roxburghiana 351Kadsura wightiana 351Kaempferia galanga 351Kaempferia rotunda 351Kalanchoe brasiliensis 352Kalanchoe integra 352Kalanchoe laciniata 352Kalanchoe pinnata 103, 352Kalanchoe schweinfurthii 352

794 IndexKalanchoe spathulata 352Kandelia candel 353Kandelia rheedii 353Kedrostis foetidissima 353Kedrostis rostrata 353Khaya senegalensis 353Kigelia africana 354Kigelia pinnata 354Kingiodendron pinnatum 354Kirganelia reticulata 354Kleinhovia hospita 354Knema angustifolia 355Knema attenuata 391Kochia indica 355Kochia scoparia 355Krameria triandra 355Kydia calycina 355Kyllinga monocephala 356Kyllinga tenuifolia 356Kyllinga triceps 207, 356LLablab purpureus 222Laccifer indica 738Laccifer indicola 738Laccifer jhansiensis 738Lactuca heyneana 357Lactuca remotiflora 357Lactuca runcinata 357Lactuca sativa 357Lactuca scariola 357Lactuca serriola 357Lactuca virosa 358Lagenaria leucantha 358Lagenaria siceraria 358Lagenaria vulgaris 358Lagerstroemia flos-reginae 358Lagerstroemia indica 359Lagerstroemia parviflora 359Lagerstroemia reginae 358Lagerstroemia speciosa 358Laggera alata 359Lallemantia royeleana 575Lallemantia royleana 360Lamium album 360Lamium amplexicaule 361Lamprachaenium microcephalum 361Lannea coromandelica 361Lannea grandis 361Lansium domesticum 361Lantana aculeata 362Lantana camara 362Laportea crenulata 362Larix americana 362Larix decidua 362, 363Larix europea 363Larix griffithiana 362Larix griffithii 362Larix laricina 362Lasia aculeata 363Lasia spinosa 363Lasiosiphon eriocephalus 292, 363Lasiosiphon glaucus 292Lathyrus aphaca 363Lathyrus sativus 363Lathyrus sphaericus 363Lathyrus tingitanus 363Launaea asplenifolia 49Launaea chondrilloides 364Launaea mucronata 364Launaea pinnatifida 364Launaea sarmentosa 364Laurus nobilis 364, 656Lavandula angustifolia 364Lavandula bipinnata 162Lavandula bipinnata 365Lavandula burmanni 365Lavandula officinalis 364Lavandula spica 364Lavandula stoechas 103, 365Lawsonia inermis 366Ledebouria hyacinthina 590Leea aequata 366, 711Leea crispa 367Leea hirta 366Leea indica 367Leea macrophylla 367Lens culinaris 367Lens esculenta 367Leonotis nepetaefolia 368Leonurus cardiaca 10, 368Lepidagathis cristata 369Lepidagathis hamiltoniana 369Lepidagathis hyalina 369Lepidagathis incurva 369Lepidagathis trinervis 369

Index795Lepidium iberis 369Lepidium latifolium 369Lepidium ruderale 369Lepidium sativum 370Leptadenia pyrotechnica 371Leptadenia reticulata 370, 480Leptadenia spartium 371Lettsomia elliptica 371Leucaena glauca 371Leucaena leucocephala 371Leucas aspera 372Leucas cephalotes 372Leucas lavandulaefolia 372Leucas linifolia 372Leucas martinicensis 373Ligularia kaempferi 373Ligularia tussilaginea 373Lilium candidum 373Lilium giganteum 373Lilium martagon 374Lilium polyphyllum 374Lilium tigrinum 374Lilium wallichianum 374Limnanthemum cristatum 374, 442Limnanthemum indicum 374Limnanthemum nymphaeoides 375Limnophila aromatica 375Limnophila conferta 375Limnophila gratioloides 375Limnophila gratissima 375Limnophila indica 375Limnophila racemosa 375Limnophila roxburghii 375Limnophila rugosa 375Limonia crenulata 376Limonia oligandra 467Limonia pentaphylla 289Lindenbergia indica 376Lindenbergia urticaefolia 376Lindera nessiana 376Lindernia cordifolia 696Linum usitatissimum 376Lipasis rostrata 377Lippia alba 378Lippia geminata 378Lippia javanica 378Lippia nodiflora 378, 480Liquidambar formosana 378Liquidambar orientalis 40, 378, 631Liriodendron tulipifera 379, 677Litchi chinensis 379Lithospermum officinanle 379Litsea chinensis 380Litsea glutinosa 380Litsea monopetala 380Litsea polyantha 380Litsea sebifera 380Litsea stocksii 381Lobelia affinis 382Lobelia cardinalis 382Lobelia chinensis 381Lobelia cordigera 382Lobelia erinus 382Lobelia excelsa 382Lobelia fulgens 382Lobelia inflata 381, 382Lobelia leschenaultiana 382Lobelia nicotianaefolia 382Lobelia pyramidalis 382Lobelia radicans 381Lobelia succulenta 382Lochnera pusilla 705Lochnera rosea 131Lodoicea maldivica 382Lolium temulentum 383Lonicera angustifolia 383Lonicera caprifolium 383Lonicera glauca 383Lonicera japonica 383Lonicera periclymenum 383Lonicera quinquelocularis 383Loranthus falcatus 383Loranthus pentandrus 384Lubis firmun 380Ludwigia octovalvis 349Luffa acutangula 384Luffa aegyptiaca 384Luffa cylindrica 384Luffa echinata 385Luffa graveolens 385Luffa pentandra 384Lupinus albus 385Lupinus angustifolius 385Lupinus hirsutus 386Lupinus luteus 386Lupinus mutabilis 386

796 IndexLuvunga eleutherandra 386Luvunga scandens 386Lycium barbarum 386Lycopersicon esculentum 387Lycopodium annotinum 388Lycopodium clavatum 387Lycopodium complanatum 388Lycopodium selago 388Lycopus europaeus 388Lycopus virginicus 388Lygodium flexuosum 388Lygodium japonicum 389Lygodium pinnatifidum 388Lyonia ovalifolia 389MMaba nigrescens 391Machilus macrantha 474Macrotomia benthamii 63, 449Madhuca butyracea 391Madhuca indica 391Madhuca longifolia 84, 392Madhuca neriifolia 392Maerua arenaria 393Maerua oblongifolia 393Magnolia grandiflora 393Magnolia pterocarpa 393Magnolia sphenocarpa 393Maharanga emodi 449Mahonia napalensis 393Majorana hortensis 452Malaxis acuminata 414Malaxis muscifera 414Mallotus philippensis 393Mallotus philippinensis 526Malpighia glabra 394Malpighia punicifolia 394Malus domestica 394Malus pumila 394Malus sylvestris 394Malva coromandeliana 396Malva neglecta 395Malva rotundifolia 395Malva sylvestris 395malvastrum 396Mammea longifolia 443Mandragora autumnalis 396Mandragora microcarpa 396Mandragora officinarum 396Mangifera indica 189, 396Manihot esculenta 397Manilkara achras 11Manilkara hexandra 397Manilkara kauki 397Manilkara zapota 11Maranta arundinacea 81, 398Marrubium vulgare 398Marsdenia hamiltonii 399Marsdenia roylei 398Marsdenia tenacissima 399Marsilea minuta 399Martynia annua 399, 669Martynia diandra 10, 399Matricaria chamomilla 400Matricaria recutita 400Matthiola incana 401Maytenus emarginata 298Maytenus senegulensis 298Meconopsis aculeata 401Meconopsis horridula 401Meconopsis napaulensis 401Meconopsis wallichii 401Medicago sativa 401Melaleuca alternifolia 402Melaleuca genistifolia 403Melaleuca leucadendron 402Melaleuca virdiflora 402Melastoma malabathricum 403Melastoma normale 403Melia azadirachta 75, 403Melia azedarach 403Melia composita 404Melia dubia 353, 404Melilotus 716Melilotus alba 71, 404, 676Melilotus indica 404Melilotus officinalis 206, 208, 405Melilotus parviflora 404Melissa axillaris 405Melissa officinalis 406, 436Melissa parviflora 405Melochia corchorifolia 407Melothria heterophylla 733Melothria maderaspatana 407Melothria perpusilla 407Memecylon edule 407

Index797Memecylon umbellatum 407Mentha aquatica 408Mentha arvensis 408Mentha longifolia 408Mentha piperata 409, 414Mentha spicata 409Mentha sylvestris 408Mentha viridis 409Menyanthes hydrophyllum 374Menyanthes indica 374Menyanthes trifoliata 410Merendera persica 677Merremia emarginata 256, 335, 577Merremia gangetica 335Merremia quinquefolia 410Merremia tridentata 411Merremia vitifolia 335, 411Mesua ferrea 113, 178, 150, 411, 443Mesua nagassarium 411Meyna laxiflora 412, 696Michelia champaca 412Michelia montana 412Michelia nilagirica 413Microcos paniculata 413Microglossa pyrifolia 413Microglossa volubilis 413Micromelum integerrimum 413Micromelum minutum 413Micromelum pubescens 413Micromeria biflora 414Micromeria capitellata 414Microstylis musifera 377, 414Microstylis wallichii 377, 414Mikania cordata 414Mikania micrantha 414Mikania scandens 414Miliusa velutina 415Millettia auriculata 415Millettia extensa 415Millettia racemosa 415Millingtonia hortensis 415Milnea roxburghiana 25Mimosa entada 240Mimosa pudica 372, 416, 437Mimusops elengi 416Mimusops hexandra 397Mimusops kauki 397Mirabilis jalapa 417Mitragyna parvifolia 417Mollugo cerviana 417Mollugo hirta 287Mollugo lotoides 287Mollugo pentaphylla 418Mollugo oppositifolia 418Mollugo spergula 418Mollugo stricta 418Momordica balsamina 325, 418Momordica charantia 418Momordica cochinchinensis 420Momordica cymbalaria 420Momordica dioica 420Momordica tuberosa 420Monarda punctata 409Moniera cuneifolia 77Monochoria vaginalis 420Monotropa uniflora 421Morinda bracteata 421Morinda citrifolia 421Morinda coreia 421Morinda tinctoria 421Morinda umbellata 421Moringa concanensis 422Moringa oleifera 422Moringa pterygosperma 422Morus acidosa 423Morus alba 423Morus australis 423Morus indica 423Morus nigra 423Mucuna cochinchinensis 425Mucuna monosperma 424Mucuna nivea 425Mucuna pruriens 424Mucuna prurita 424Mukia scabrella 407Murdannia nudiflora 425Murdannia scapiflora 425Murraya exotica 425Murraya koenigii 425Murraya paniculata 425Musa paradisiaca 426Musa sapientum 426Mussaenda frondosa 427Mussaenda glabrata 427Mycrotomia benthami 427Myrica esculenta 428

798 IndexMyrica nagi 428Myristica attenuta 391Myristica fragrans 428, 429Myristica gibbosa 355Myristica malabarica 26, 429Myroxylon balsamum 429Myroxylon pereirae 430Myroxylon toluiferum 429Myrrhis odorata 38Myrsine africana 430Myrsine capitellata 430Myrsine semiserrata 430Myrtus communis 430Myxopyrum serratulum 431NNaravelia zeylanica 433Narcissus tazetta 433Nardostachys grandiflora 433, 694Nardostachys jatamansi 170, 174, 433, 596,694Naregamia alata 434Nasturtium indicum 553Nasturtium officinale 102, 434Nelumbium speciosum 435Nelumbo nucifera 435, 441, 554Nepeta cataria 406, 436Nepeta elliptica 170Nepeta hindostana 170, 406, 436Nepeta longibractea 320Nepeta ruderalis 436Nephelium litchi 379Neptunia oleracea 437Neptunia prostrata 437Nerium indicum 437Nerium odorum 437Nerium oleander 437, 659Nervilia aragoana 438Neuracanthus sphaerostachyus 438Nicotiana rustica 439Nicotiana tabacum 438Nigella damascena 439Nigella sativa 439Nilgirianthus ciliatus 440Nopalea cochenillifera 451Nothopanax fruticosum 511Nothosaerva brachiata 440Notonia grandiflora 440Nyctanthes arbor-tristis 440Nymphaea alba 441Nymphaea lotus 441Nymphaea nouchali 441Nymphaea rubra 441Nymphaea stellata 442Nymphoides hydrophyllum 374Nymphoides indicum 374Nymphoides macrospermum 374, 442Nymphoides peltata 375OOchna jabotapita 443Ochna pumila 443Ochna squarrosa 443Ochrocarpus longifolius 443Ocimum americanum 444Ocimum basilicum 443, 452Ocimum camphora 445Ocimum canum 444Ocimum caryophyllatum 443Ocimum gratissimum 445Ocimum kilimandscharicum 445Ocimum minimum 443Ocimum pilosum 443Ocimum sanctum 444, 445Ocimum tenuiflorum 445Ocimum viride 446Odina wodier 361Oenanthe javanica 447Oenanthe stolinifera 447Oenothera biennis 447, 517Oenothera octovalis 349Oenothera odorata 447Olax scandens 447Oldenlandia corymbosa 288, 304Oldenlandia herbacea 304Oldenlandia umbellata 448Olea europaea 448Oleum chaulmoograe 646Onosma bracteatum 97, 170, 448Onosma echioides 32, 427, 449Onosma emodi 449Onosma hispidum 449Onosma hookeri 449Operculina petaloidea 334Operculina turpethum 257, 334, 399, 449, 450Ophelia alba 506

Index799Ophelia chirata 632Ophelia multiflora 633Ophelia paniculata 633Ophelia wallichii 633Ophioglossum pendulum 450Ophioglossum vulgatum 450Ophiorrhiza mungos 450Opuntia cochinellifera 451Opuntia dillenii 451Opuntia ficus-indica 451Opuntia stricta 451Opuntia vulgaris 451Orchipeda foetida 712Orchis latifolia 248, 452Origanum majorana 452, 453Origanum vulgare 452, 453Oroxylum indicum 453Orthosiphon aristatus 454Orthosiphon glabratus 454Orthosiphon grandiflorus 454Orthosiphon pallidus 454Orthosiphon spiralis 454Orthosiphon stamineus 454Orthosiphon tomentosus 454Oryza sativa 454Osbeckia chinensis 455Osmanthus fragrans 455Osmanthus suavis 455Osmunda regalis 456Osyris arborea 456Osyris quadriparita 456Osyris wightiana 456Ougeinia dalbergioides 456Ougeinia oojeinensis 456Oxalis acetosella 456Oxalis corniculata 457Oxalis martiana 457Oxalis sensitiva 92Oxyria digyna 457Oxystelma esculentum 458Oxystelma secamone 458PPaederia foetida 459Paederia scandens 459Paederia tomentosa 459Paeonia emodi 459Paeonia officinalis 459Panax burkillianus 460Panax fruticosus 511Panax ginseng 461Panax pseudoginseng 460Panax quinquefolium 396, 460Panax schinseng 396, 460Panax sikkimensis 460Pandanus facicularis 461Pandanus odoratissimus 461Pandanus tectorius 461Pandanus utilis 461Panicum colonum 229Panicum crus-galli 229Panicum frumentaceum 230Panicum miliaceum 461Papaver argemone 463Papaver dubium 463Papaver hybridum 463Papaver nudicaule 462, 463Papaver orientale 462, 463Papaver rhoeas 462Papaver somniferum 462Paris polyphylla 16, 463Parmelia perlata 464Parthenium hysterophorus 464Parthenocissus himalayana 464Paspalum scrobiculatum 465Passiflora edulis 465Passiflora foetida 465Passiflora incarnata 466Passiflora laurifolia 466Passiflora quadrangularis 466Pastinaca sativa 467Pastinaca secacul 467, 508Paullinia asiatica 467Pavetta indica 468Pavetta tomentosa 468Pavonia odorata 167, 468, 692Pavonia zeylanica 468Pedalium murex 468, 669Pedicularis pectinata 469Pedilanthus tithymaloides 469Peganum harmala 470Pelargonium graveolens 470Peltophorum pterocarpum 470Pentapetes phoenicea 471Pentatropis capensis 471Pentatropis cynanchoides 471

800 IndexPentatropis microphylla 400, 471Pentatropis spiralis 400, 471Pergularia daemia 472Pergularia extensa 298, 472Pericampylus glaucus 472Perilepta auriculata 472Perilla elata 236Perilla frutescens 472, 473Perilla polystachya 236Periploca aphylla 473Periploca calophylla 473Periploca indica 306Peristrophe bicalyculata 473Persea americana 474Persea gratissima 474Persea macrantha 474Persica vulgaris 521Petiveria alliacea 474Petroselinum crispum 475, 515Peucedanum grande 476Peucedanum graveolens 51Peucedanum sativum 467Peucedanum sowa 51Phaseolus aconitifolius 476Phaseolus adenanthus 476, 477Phaseolus dalzellii 476Phaseolus inamoenus 476Phaseolus lunatus 476Phaseolus mungo 476Phaseolus nanus 477Phaseolus radiatus 477Phaseolus sublobatus 476Phaseolus trilobus 477, 651Phaseolus vulgaris 477Phlogacanthus jenkinsii 478Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus 478Phoenix acaulis 478Phoenix dactylifera 478Phoenix paludosa 479Phoenix pusilla 479Phoenix sylvestris 479Pholidota articulata 479Phragmites communis 480Phragmites karka 480Phragmites maxima 480Phragmites roxburghii 480Phyla nodiflora 378, 480Phyllanthus acidus 480Phyllanthus amarus 481, 482Phyllanthus distichus 481Phyllanthus emblica 238Phyllanthus fraternus 481, 482Phyllanthus maderaspatensis 482, 577Phyllanthus niruri 482Phyllanthus reticulatus 354Phyllanthus simplex 482Phyllanthus urinaria 482Phyllanthus virgatus 482Physalis alkekengi 483, 717Physalis angulata 483Physalis minima 483Physalis peruviana 483Physochlaina praealta 484Picea abies 484Picea excelsa 484Picea morinda 484Picea smithiana 484Picrasma excelsa 485Picrasma quassioides 485Picrorhiza kurroa 284, 485, 486Picrorhiza scrophulariaeflora 486Pieris ovalifolia 389Pilocarpus microphyllus 486Pimenta dioica 486Pimenta officinalis 486Pimpinella anisum 324, 486Pimpinella saxifraga 487Pinus excelsa 487Pinus gerardiana 488Pinus insularis 488Pinus khasya 488Pinus larix 363Pinus longifolia 488Pinus pinaster 489Pinus pindrow 1Pinus roxburghii 488Pinus succinifera 489Pinus wallichiana 487Pinus webbiana 2, 270Piper attenuatum 489Piper aurantiacum 493Piper bantamense 489Piper betle 489Piper chaba 490, 590Piper cubeba 490Piper hamiltonii 491

Index801Piper longum 15, 490, 491Piper nigrum 490, 492Piper officinarum 490Piper peepuloides 492Piper retrofractum 490Piper schmidtii 492Piper sylvaticum 492Piper thomsoni 493Piper wallichii 493Piscidia erythrina 493Piscidia piscipula 493Pisonia aculeata 493Pisonia grandis 494Pisonia morindaefolia 494Pistacia chinensis 494Pistacia integerrima 494, 549Pistacia khinjuk 495Pistacia lentiscus 494Pistacia vera 495Pistia stratiotes 232, 495Pithecellobium bigeminatum 496Pithecellobium dulce 496Pithecellobium gracile 496Pithecellobium monadelphum 496Pittosporum dasycaulon 496Pittosporum floribundum 496Plantago amplexicaulis 497Plantago ispaghula 498Plantago lanceolata 497Plantago major 498Plantago ovata 498Platanus orientalis 499Platycodon grandiflorum 499Plectranthus barbatus 166Plectranthus incanus 499Plectranthus mollis 499Plectranthus zeylanicus 167Plectronia parviflora 117Plesmonium margaritiferum 500Pluchea indica 500Pluchea lanceolata 37, 221, 369, 500, 695Plumbago auriculata 501Plumbago capensis 501Plumbago indica 501Plumbago rosea 501Plumbago zeylanica 501Plumeria acuminata 502Plumeria alba 502Plumeria rubra 502Podophyllum emodi 28, 503Podophyllum hexandrum 396, 503Podophyllum peltatum 503Podophyllum pleianthum 503Podophyllum sikkimensis 503Pogonia flabelliformis 438Pogostemon benghalensis 504Pogostemon cablin 504Pogostemon heyneanus 505Pogostemon parviflorus 504Pogostemon patchouli 504, 505Pogostemon patchouli 504Pogostemon plectranthoides 504Pogostemon pubescens 504Pogostemon purpurascens 504Poinciana elata 205, 206Poinciana regai 205, 206Polianthes tuberosa 505Pollinidium angustifolium 248Polyalthia longifolia 505Polyalthia simiarum 505Polyalthia suberosa 505Polycarpaea corymbosa 506Polycarpaea corymbosa 288Polycarpon loeflingii 506Polycarpon prostratum 506Polygala arvensis 506Polygala brachystachya 507Polygala chinensis 506, 507Polygala crotalarioides 507Polygala glomerata 507Polygala heyneana 507Polygala senega 506, 517Polygala sibirica 507Polygala telephioides 507Polygala tenuifolia 506Polygonatum cirrhifolium 507Polygonatum multiflorum 508Polygonatum verticillatum 467, 508Polygonum affine 508Polygonum aviculare 508Polygonum bistorata 509Polygonum glabrum 391, 509Polygonum hydropiper 510Polygonum paleaceum 509Polygonum plebeium 510Polygonum viviparum 510

802 IndexPolypodium quercifolium 226Polypodium vulgare 510Polyporus officinalis 511Polyscias fruticosa 511Polyscias scutellaria 511Pongamia glabra 511Pongamia pinnata 108, 209, 511, 709Populus alba 512Populus nigra 512Portulaca oleracea 513Portulaca pilosa 514Portulaca quadrifida 513Portulaca tuberosa 514Potentilla anserina 514Potentilla arbuscula 213, 514, 603Potentilla fruticosa 514Potentilla fulgens 515Potentilla nepalensis 515Pothos scandens 515Prangos pabularia 515Premna arborea 290Premna barbata 515, 516Premna corymbosa 516Premna herbacea 515, 529Premna integrifolia 160, 516Premna latifolia 516Premna obtusifolia 516Premna tomentosa 516Primula acaulis 517Primula denticulata 517Primula elatior 517Primula officinalis 517Primula veris 517Primula vulgaris 517Pristimera grahamii 540Pristimera indica 540Prosopis chilensis 517Prosopis cineraria 518Prosopis juliflora 517Prosopis spicigera 518Prosopis stephaniana 518Prunella vulgaris 103, 623Prunus amygdalus 45, 518, 625Prunus armeniaca 519Prunus avium 519Prunus cerasoides 520Prunus cerasus 287, 520Prunus communis 521Prunus domestica 521Prunus mahaleb 112, 521, 602Prunus paniculatus 634Prunus persica 45, 521Prunus puddum 520Psalliota campestris 20Pseudarthria viscida 522Psidium cattleyanum 523Psidium guajava 522Psidium guineense 523Psoralea corylifolia 137, 316, 523Psychotria ipecacuanha 138Pterocarpus dalbergioides 523Pterocarpus indicus 524Pterocarpus marsupium 102, 355, 524, 655Pterocarpus santalinus 524, 525, 636Pterospermum acerifolium 525Pterospermum canescens 526Pterospermum suberifolium 526Pueraria javanica 528Pueraria lobata 528Pueraria phaseoloides 528Pueraria tuberosa 331, 414, 527, 573, 611Pulicaria dysenterica 527Punica granatum 527Putranjiva roxburghii 227, 528Pygmaeopremna herbacea 515, 529Pyrethrum indicum 144Pyrola rotundifolia 529Pyrus communis 529Pyrus malus 394QQuamoclit pinnata 335Quassia indica 531Quercus ilex 531Quercus incana 22, 531Quercus infectoria 22, 532Quercus leucotrichophora 531Quercus robur 83, 532Quillaja saponaria 532Quisqualis indica 533RRadermachera xylocarpa 535Randia brandisii 535Randia dumetorum 412, 535Randia longifolia 535Randia spinosa 535, 536Randia tomentosa 535

Index803Randia uliginosa 536Ranunculus aquatilis 537Ranunculus arvensis 536Ranunculus muricatus 537Ranunculus sceleratus 536Ranunculus trichophyllus 537Raphanus caudatus 538Raphanus sativus 531Rauvolfia beddomei 539Rauvolfia canescens 539Rauvolfia densiflora 539Rauvolfia micrantha 539Rauvolfia serpentina 538Rauvolfia tetraphylla 539Reinwardtia indica 540Reissantia grahamii 540Reissantia indica 540Rejoua dichotoma 641Remusatia vivipara 541Reseda luteola 541Reseda odorata 541Rhabdia lyciodes 558Rhamnus catharticus 542Rhamnus frangula 542Rhamnus jujuba 735Rhamnus napalensis 542Rhamnus nummularia 736Rhamnus oenoplia 737Rhamnus procumbens 541Rhamnus purpurea 542Rhamnus purshiana 541Rhamnus triquetra 542Rhamnus virgata 542Rhamnus wightii 391, 543Rhaphidophora laciniata 543Rheum australe 543Rheum emodi 543, 544Rheum moorcroftianum 544Rheum nobile 544Rheum officinale 544, 545Rheum palmatum 544, 564Rheum rhaponticum 544, 545Rheum spiciforme 544Rheum webbianum 544, 545Rhinacanthus communis 545Rhinacanthus nasuta 545Rhizophora apiculata 546Rhizophora mucronata 546Rhododendron aeruginosum 547Rhododendron anthopogon 270, 546Rhododendron arboreum 546Rhododendron barbatum 547Rhododendron campanulatum 547Rhododendron cinnabarinum 548Rhododendron falconeri 548Rhododendron lepidotum 270, 546Rhododendron puniceum 546Rhododendron setosum 546Rhus acuminata 549Rhus aromatica 549Rhus chinensis 548Rhus coriaria 548Rhus glabra 549Rhus hookeri 548Rhus insignis 548Rhus javanica 548Rhus parviflora 549Rhus semialata 548Rhus succedanea 549Rhynchocarpa foetida 353Rhynchosia bracteata 550Rhynchosia jacobii 550Rhynchosia minima 550Ribes nigrum 550, 551Ribes rubrum 551Richardia africana 729Ricinus communis 551Rivea corymbosa 552Rivea hypocrateriformis 552Rivea ornata 552Rivina humilis 552Rivina laevis 552Robinia pseudoacacia 553Rorippa dufia 553Rorippa indica 553Rorippa islandica 553Rorippa montana 553Rorippa nasturtium-aquaticum 434Rosa alba 553Rosa bourboniana 554, 555Rosa brunonii 556Rosa canina 554Rosa centifolia 554Rosa chinensis 554, 555Rosa damascena 555Rosa gallica 556Rosa indica 555Rosa macrophylla 555

804 IndexRosa moschata 556Rosa multiflora 556Rosa polyantha 556Rosa rubra 556Rosa sericea 557Rosa webbiana 557Roscoea procera 557Rosmarinus officinalis 557Rotula aquatica 558Rourea minor 558Rourea santaloides 558Roylea calycina 559Roylea cinerea 559Roylea elegans 559Rubia cordifolia 559Rubia munjesta 559Rubia sikkimensis 560Rubia tinctorum 448, 559, 560Rubus ellipticus 560Rubus fruticosus 560Rubus idaeus 561Rubus moluccanus 560Rubus niveus 561Rubus rugosus 560Ruellia strepens 561Ruellia suffruticosa 561Ruellia tuberosa 561Rumex acetosa 457, 562Rumex acetosella 562Rumex crispus 562, 563Rumex dentatus 563Rumex hastatus 563Rumex maritimus 563Rumex nepalensis 563Rumex scutatus 564Rumex vesicarius 564Rungia parviflora 564Rungia pectinata 564Rungia repens 565Ruscus aculeatus 565Ruta chalepensis 565Ruta graveolens 565, 566SSabal palmetto 599Sabal serrulata 598Saccharum arundinaceum 567Saccharum bengalense 567Saccharum munja 368, 567Saccharum officinarum 567, 568Saccharum sara 567Saccharum spontaneum 568Saccolabium papillosum 568Sagittaria sagittifolia 569Sagittaria trifolia 569Salacia chinensis 125, 569Salacia flavescens 569Salacia grandiflora 569Salacia longifolia 569Salacia macrophylla 569Salacia macrosperma 125, 569Salacia oblonga 570Salacia ovalis 569Salacia prinoides 569Salacia reticulata 570Salicornia brachiata 570Salix acmophylla 570Salix aegyptiaca 270Salix alba 570Salix babylonica 571Salix caprea 111, 571Salix daphnoides 571, 572Salix elegans 571Salix fragilis 572Salix nigra 572Salix purpurea 572Salix tetrasperma 572Salix viminalis 572Salmalia insignis 573Salmalia malabarica 97, 573Salsola kali 574Salvadora indica 574Salvadora oleoides 574Salvadora persica 574Salvia aegyptiaca 575Salvia coccinea 575Salvia haematodes 575Salvia lanata 575Salvia moorcroftiana 576Salvia officinalis 576Salvia plebeia 60, 577Salvia pumila 575Salvia spinosa 577Salvinia cucullata 577Samadera indica 531Samadera lucida 531

Index805Sambucus ebulus 577Sambucus nigra 578Sambucus wightiana 577Sandoricum indicum 578Sandoricum koetjape 578Sanicula europaea 579Sansevieria hyacinthoides 579Sansevieria roxburghiana 579Sansevieria zeylanica 579Santalum album 579, 636Santolina chamaecyparissus 580Sapindus laurifolius 580Sapindus mukorossi 581Sapindus trifoliatus 580Sapium discolor 582Sapium indicum 581Sapium sebiferum 581Saponaria officinalis 582Saponaria vaccaria 582Sapota achras 9Saprosma ternatum 582Saraca asoca 371, 505, 583Saraca indica 583Sarcococca pruniformis 583Sarcococca saligna 583Sarcococca trinervia 583Sarcostemma acidum 584Sarcostemma brevistigma 584Sarcostemma brunonianum 584Sarcostemma esculentum 584Sarcostemma intermedium 584Sarcostemma secamone 458, 584Sarcostemma stocksii 584Sarcostigma kleinii 584Sarothamnus scoparius 196Sassafras albidum 584Sassafras officinale 584Sassafras variifolium 584Satureja hortensis 585Satureja montana 585Sauropus androgynus 585Saussurea affinis 585Saussurea auriculata 586Saussurea candicans 586Saussurea costus 586Saussurea gossypiphora 586Saussurea heteromalla 586Saussurea hieracioides 586Saussurea hypoleuca 586Saussurea lappa 176, 329, 576, 586Saussurea obvallata 587Saussurea sacra 587Saxifraga ligulata 90Scaevola frutescens 588Scaevola koenigii 588Scaevola taccada 588Schima wallichii 588Schizachyrium exile 588Schleichera oleosa 589Schleichera trijuga 589Schrebera swientenioides 589Schweinfurthia papilionacea 589Schweinfurthia sphaerocarpa 589Scilla hyacinthiana 590Scilla indica 590Scindapsus officinalis 590Scirpus 93Scirpus articulatus 591Scirpus corymbosus 591Scirpus grossus 591Scirpus kysoor 591Scirpus lacustris 591Scirpus maritimus 591Scirpus tuberosus 591Scleria biflora 592Scleria levis 592Scleria lithosperma 591Scleria pergracilis 592Scoparia dulcis 592Scopolia anomala 592Scopolia carniolica 593Scopolia lurida 592Scutellaria baicalensis 593Scutellaria barbata 593Scutellaria galericulata 593Scutellaria grandiflora 593Scutellaria lateriflora 593Scutellaria rivularis 593Scutia indica 593Scutia myrtina 593Sebastiana chamaelea 594Secale cereale 594Securinega ramiflora 594Securinega suffruticosa 594Securinega virosa 595Selaginella involvens 595

806 IndexSelaginella rupestris 595Selaginella tamariscina 595Selaginella wallichii 595Selaginella willdenovii 595Selenicereus grandiflorus 595Selinum candollei 596Selinum monnieri 596Selinum tenuifolium 434, 596Selinum vaginatum 596Semecarpus anacardium 597Semecarpus kurzii 597Sempervivum tectorum 598Senecio aureus 598Senecio jacquemontianus 598Senecio kaempferi 373Senecio vulgaris 598Seronoa mauritiiformis 599Seronoa mexicana 599Seronoa minor 599Seronoa repens 598Seronoa umbraculifera 599Sesamum indicum 599Sesamum orientale 599Sesbania aculeata 600Sesbania aegyptiaca 601Sesbania bispinosa 600Sesbania grandiflora 600Sesbania sesban 601Seseli diffusum 601Seseli indicum 601Seseli sibiricum 601Setaria italica 462, 602Shorea robusta 602Shretia cuneata 558Sibbaldia parviflora 603Sida acuta 603Sida alba 605Sida carpinifolia 603Sida cordata 605Sida cordifolia 563, 603Sida humilis 605Sida rhombifolia 604, 605Sida spinosa 605Sida veronicaefolia 459, 605Siegesbeckia orientalis 606Silybum marianum 606, 617Sinapis alba 99Sisymbrium irio 210, 553, 607Sisymbrium loeselii 607Sisymbrium sophia 209Smilax 306, 307, 608Smilax aristolochiaefolia 607Smilax aspera 608Smilax china 608Smilax febrifuga 607Smilax glabra 608Smilax lanceifolia 609Smilax macrophylla 609Smilax medica 607Smilax ornata 609Smilax ovalifolia 609Smilax perfoliata 609Smilax prolifera 609Smilax regelii 607Smilax zeylanica 609Solanum aculeatissimum 609Solanum albicaule 610Solanum anguivi 612Solanum aviculare 610Solanum coagulans 613Solanum dubium 610Solanum dulcamara 610Solanum elaeagnifolium 611Solanum erianthum 611Solanum ferox 611, 613Solanum indicum 610, 612Solanum khasianum 611Solanum lycopersicum 387Solanum maccanni 615Solanum melongena 612, 613Solanum nigrum 613Solanum rubrum 613Solanum spirale 614Solanum surattense 615Solanum torvum 614Solanum trilobatum 614Solanum tuberosum 614Solanum verbascifolium 611Solanum virginianum 615Solanum xanthocarpum 610, 615Solena heterophylla 733Solidago virga-urea 615Sonchus arvensis 616Sonchus asper 616Sonchus oleraceus 616Sonneratia caseolaris 617

Index807Sophora japonica 617Sophora mollis 617Sophora secundiflora 618Sophora tomentosa 618Sopubia delphinifolia 618Sorbus aucuparia 618Sorghum durra 619Sorghum vulgare 619Soymida febrifuga 619Spathodea campanulata 619Spergula rubra 620Spergularia rubra 620Spermacoce articularis 620Spermacoce hispida 98, 620Sphaeranthus africanus 621Sphaeranthus hirtus 620Sphaeranthus indicus 92, 620Sphaeranthus senegalensis 620Spilanthes acmella 621Spilanthes calva 621Spilanthes oleracea 622Spilanthes paniculata 621Spilanthes pseudoacmella 621Spinacia oleracea 622, 656Spinacia tetrandra 622Spondias cytherea 622Spondias dulcis 622Spondias mangifera 622Spondias pinnata 622Stachys officinalis 623Stachys palustris 623Stachys sylvatica 623Stachytarpheta indica 623Stachytarpheta jamaicensis 623Stellaria aquatica 624Stellaria media 624Stenolobium stans 648Stephania glabra 624Stephania hernandiifolia 151, 625Stephania japonica 625Stephania rotunda 625Sterculia foetida 625Sterculia urens 625Sterculia villosa 626Stereospermum chelonoides 626Stereospermum colais 626Stereospermum personatum 535, 626Stereospermum suaveolens 535, 626Stereospermum tetragonum 626Stereospermum xylocarpum 535Streblus asper 627Striga asiatica 627Striga gesneroides 627Striga lutea 627Striga orobanchioides 627Strobilanthes auriculatus 472Strobilanthes callosus 628Strobilanthes ciliatus 440Strobilanthes cusia 628Strobilanthes flaccidifolius 628Strophanthus kombe 628Strophanthus wightianus 628Strychnos cinnamomifolia 630Strychnos colubrina 628Strychnos ignatii 629Strychnos nux-vomica 629, 708, 709Strychnos potatorum 630Strychnos rheedei 630Strychnos wallichiana 630Styrax benzoin 631Styrax officinale 631Sutherlandia frutescens 631Swertia affinis 631Swertia angustifolia 631Swertia chirata 374, 632Swertia chirayita 44, 159, 240, 245, 256, 632,633Swertia ciliata 632Swertia corymbosa 633Swertia decussata 633Swertia densifolia 633Swertia lawii 633Swertia paniculata 633Swertia purpurascens 632Swertia tongluensis 632Swietenia mahagoni 633Symphorema involucratum 634Symphytum officinale 634Symphytum peregrinum 634Symplocos beddomei 635Symplocos candolleana 635Symplocos chinensis 634Symplocos crataegoides 634Symplocos laurina 635Symplocos paniculata 634Symplocos phyllocalyx 636

808 IndexSymplocos racemosa 635Symplocos ramosissima 635Symplocos spicata 635Symplocos sumuntia 635Symplocos theaefolia 636Syphaeranthus indicus 348Syringa vulgaris 636Syzygium arnottianum 636Syzygium aromaticum 640Syzygium caryophyllatum 640Syzygium cerasoideum 637Syzygium cuminii 637Syzygium hemisphericum 638Syzygium jambolanum 637Syzygium jambos 639Syzygium malaccense 639Syzygium nervosum 637Syzygium operculatum 637Syzygium zeylanicum 639TTabernaemontana coronaria 244, 641Tabernaemontana dichotoma 641Tabernaemontana divaricata 641Tabernaemontana heyneana 642Tacca aspera 642Tacca integrifolia 642Tacca leontopetaloides 642Tacca pinnatifida 642Tagetes erecta 642Tagetes glandulifera 643Tagetes minuta 643Tagetes patula 643Talinum triangulare 643Tamarindus indica 643Tamarindus occidentalis 643Tamarindus officinalis 643Tamarix aphylla 644Tamarix articulata 644Tamarix dioica 644Tamarix ericoides 645Tamarix gallica 645Tamarix indica 645Tamarix orientalis 644Tamarix troupii 645Tanacetum parthenium 145, 646Tanacetum vulgare 645Taractogenos 316Taraktogenos kurzii 646Taraxacum officinale 646Tarenna asiatica 647Taverniera cuneifolia 647Taverniera nummularia 647Taxus baccata 648Taxus wallichiana 648Tecoma stans 648Tecoma undulata 56, 391, 649Tecomella undulata 391, 649Tectona grandis 649Tephrosia hamiltonii 650Tephrosia purpurea 650Tephrosia spinosa 651Tephrosia uniflora 651Tephrosia villosa 650Teramnus labialis 476, 477, 651Terminalia alata 655Terminalia arjuna 651, 652Terminalia bellirica 652Terminalia bialata 653Terminalia catappa 653Terminalia chebula 653Terminalia citrina 654Terminalia coriacea 654Terminalia myriocarpa 655Terminalia paniculata 655Terminalia procera 653Terminalia tomentosa 655Tetracera assa 656Tetracera indica 656Tetracera laevis 656Tetracera scandens 205Tetragonia expansa 656Tetragonia tetragonioides 656Tetrastigma serrulatum 656Teucrium chamaedrys 657Teucrium scordium 657Thalictrum alpinum 658Thalictrum elegans 658Thalictrum foetidum 658Thalictrum foliolosum 657Thalictrum javanicum 658Thalictrum minus 658Thalictrum reniforme 658Thamnopteris nidus 70Themeda arundinacea 658Themeda quadrivalvis 658

Index809Theobroma cacao 246, 658Thespesia lampas 658Thespesia populnea 659Thevetia neriifolia 659Thevetia peruviana 437, 659Thlaspi arvense 660Thuja occidentallis 349, 660Thuja orientalis 660Thymus serpyllum 660, 661Thymus vulgaris 661Thysanolaena agrostis 661Thysanolaena maxima 661Tilia 661Tilia cordata 661Tilia europaea 661Tilia vulgaris 661Tiliacora acuminata 662Tiliacora racemosa 662Tinospora cordifolia 662, 663Tinospora crispa 663Tinospora malabarica 663Tinospora rumphii 663Tinospora sinensis 663Tinospora tomentosa 663Toddalia aculeata 467, 663Toddalia asiatica 663Toddalia bilocularis 698Toona ciliata 132Torenia asiatica 664Torenia polygonoides 664Torenia thouarsii 664Torenia travancorica 664Trachelospermum fragrans 664Trachelospermum jasminoides 664Trachelospermum lucidum 664Trachydium lehmanni 467Trachyspermum ammi 665Trachyspermum copticum 665Trachyspermum involucratum 666Trachyspermum roxburghianum 665Tragia involucrata 666Tragopogon porrifolius 666Tragopogon sinuatum 666Trapa bispinosa 667Trapa natans 131, 667Trapa quadrispinosa 667Trema amboinensis 667Trema orientalis 667Trewia nudiflora 667Trewia polycarpa 668Trianthema 96Trianthema decandra 668Trianthema govindia 668Trianthema monogyna 668Trianthema pentandra 668Trianthema portulacastrum 96, 668Tribulus alatus 669Tribulus terrestris 669Trichodesma indicum 670Trichodesma zeylanicum 670Tricholepis angustifolia 361, 671Tricholepis glaberrima 42, 671Tricholepis procumbens 713Trichosanthes anguina 671Trichosanthes bracteata 671Trichosanthes cordata 672Trichosanthes cucumerina 672Trichosanthes dioica 672Trichosanthes lepiniana 671Trichosanthes nervifolia 673Trichosanthes palmata 671Tridax procumbens 673Trifolium alexandricum 674Trifolium pratense 405, 674Trigonella corniculata 674, 676Trigonella foenum-graecum 674Trigonella incisa 675Trigonella polycerata 675Trigonella uncata 71, 676Triphasia trifolia 676Triticum aestivum 676Triticum repens 26Triumfetta angulata 677Triumfetta rhomboidea 677Triumfetta rotundifolia 677Tropaeolum majus 677Tubiflora acaulis 236Tulipa gesneriana 677Tulipa stellata 677Turnera angustifolia 678Turnera diffusa 678Turnera ulmifolia 678Turraea villosa 678Turraea virens 678Tussilago farfara 678Tylophora asthamatica 679

810 IndexTylophora fasciculata 679Tylophora indica 679Tylophora tenuis 680Tylophora tenuissima 680Typha angustata 680Typha australis 680Typha elephantina 680Typha laxmanni 681Typhonium trilobatum 681UUlmus fulva 683Ulmus wallichiana 683Uncaria gambier 683Uncaria rhynchophylla 683Unona desmos 683Unona discolor 684Uraria alopecuroides 684Uraria crinita 684Uraria lagopodioides 684Uraria lagopoides 684Uraria picta 210, 684Urena lobata 685Urena sinuata 685Urginea coromandeliana 686Urginea indica 590, 685Urginea maritima 590, 685, 686Urginea wightiana 686Urtica dioica 686Urtica parviflora 687Urtica pilulifera 687Urtica urens 688Usnea barbata 688Usnea florida 688Usnea hirta 688Usnea longissima 688Usnea plicata 688Utricularia bifida 688Utricularia stellaris 688Uvaria gandiflora 689Uvaria micrantha 689Uvaria narum 688Uvaria purpurea 689VVaccaria pyramidata 691Vaccinium leschenaultii 691Vaccinium myrtillus 691Vaccinium neilgherrense 691Vaccinium symplocifolium 691Valeriana dubia 691, 693Valeriana edulis 693Valeriana hardwickii 374, 641, 692, 694Valeriana jatamansi 468, 692, 693Valeriana leschenaultii 692Valeriana officinalis 369, 691, 692Valeriana pyrolaefolia 693Valeriana wallichii 693, 694Vallaris dichotoma 694Vallaris glabra 695Vallaris heynei 694Vallaris solanacea 694Vallisneria spiralis 138, 695Vanda roxburghii 32, 500, 695Vanda spathulata 695Vanda tessellata 32, 695Vandellia erecta 696Vandellia pedunculata 696Vandellia pyxidaria 696Vangueria spinosa 412, 696Vateria indica 489, 602, 696Vateria malabarica 696Ventilago bombaiensis 698Ventilago calyculata 697Ventilago denticulata 697Ventilago goughii 698Ventilago madraspatana 697Vepris bilocularis 698Veratrum viride 698Verbascum densiflorum 698Verbascum phlomoides 698Verbascum thapsus 698Verbena officinalis 699Vernonia anthelmintica 137Vernonia arborea 700Vernonia chinensis 700Vernonia cinerea 616, 699Vernonia javanica 700Vernonia patula 700Vernonia roxburghii 700Vernonia teres 700Veronica beccabunga 700Vetiveria zizanioides 50, 191, 701Viburnum coriaceum 701, 702Viburnum cotinifolium 559Viburnum foetidum 702

Index811Viburnum grandiflorum 702Viburnum mullaha 701Viburnum nervosum 702Viburnum opulus 701, 702Viburnum prunifolium 701, 702Viburnum stellulatum 702Vicia faba 703Vicoa auriculata 703Vicoa indica 703Victoria amazonica 704Victoria regia 704Vigna aconitifolia 476Vigna mungo 476, 651Vigna pilosa 477Vigna radiata 477Vigna trilobata 477Vigna unguiculata 222Vinca major 132, 704Vinca minor 132, 704Vinca pubescens 704Vinca pusilla 705Vinca rosea 131, 132, 704, 705Viola biflora 706Viola cinerea 706Viola odorata 706Viola patrinii 706Viola pilosa 707Viola stocksii 706Viola sylvestris 707Viola tricolor 707Viscum album 707Viscum articulatum 708Viscum costatum 707Viscum monoicum 708Viscum orientale 709Visnaga daucoides 43Vitex agnus-castus 493, 709Vitex leucoxylon 710Vitex negundo 493, 710Vitex peduncularis 711Vitex trifolia 711Vitis capreolata 656Vitis carnosa 132Vitis himalayana 464Vitis pedata 132Vitis quadrangula 152Vitis trifolia 132Vitis vinifera 47, 157, 711Vocanga foetida 712Vocanga grandifolia 712Volutarella divaricata 42, 712Volutarella ramosa 712WWagetea spicata 715Wahlenbergia gracilis 715Wahlenbergia marginata 715Walsura piscidia 715Walsura trifoliata 715Waltheria americana 715Waltheria indica 715Wattakaka volubilis 225Webra corymbosa 647Wedelia biflora 716Wedelia calendulacea 716Wedelia chinensis 716Wendlandia exserta 717Wendlandia tinctoria 717Wigandia caracasana 717Wikstroemia indica 717Wikstroemia viridiflora 717Withania ashwagandha 717Withania coagulans 719Withania somnifera 47, 273, 483, 717, 719Woodfordia floribunda 719Woodfordia fruticosa 719Wrightia arborea 720Wrightia tinctoria 720, 721Wrightia tomentosa 720XXanthium indicum 723Xanthium spinosum 723Xanthium strumarium 723Xanthoxylon violaceum 731Xeromphis spinosa 535Ximenia americana 723Ximenia spinosa 723Xylia dolabriformis 724Xylia xylocarpa 724Xylocarpus gangeticus 724Xylocarpus granatum 724Xylopia aromatica 725Xylopia parviflora 724Xylosma longifolium 725Xyris anceps 725

812 IndexXyris commplanata 725Xyris indica 725Xyris pauciflora 725Xyris robusta 725YYucca aloifolia 727Yucca bacata 727Yucca brevifolica 727Yucca filamentosa 727Yucca glauca 727Yucca gloriosa 727Yucca recurvifolia 727ZZamia angustifolia 729Zanonia indica 729Zantedeschia aethiopica 729Zanthoxylum acanthopodium 729, 731Zanthoxylum alatum 730Zanthoxylum americanum 730Zanthoxylum armatum 730, 731Zanthoxylum budrunga 731Zanthoxylum limonella 731Zanthoxylum nitidum 731Zanthoxylum ovalifolium 731Zanthoxylum oxyphyllum 731Zanthoxylum rhetsa 731Zataria multiflora 732Zea mays 732Zehneria hookeriana 407Zehneria umbellata 733Zingiber cassumunar 733Zingiber montanum 733Zingiber officinale 196, 733Zingiber purpureum 733Zingiber spurium 734Zingiber zerumbet 734Zizania caduciflora 735Ziziphus glabrata 737Ziziphus jujuba 735, 736Ziziphus mauritiana 735Ziziphus nummularia 736Ziziphus oenoplia 709, 737Ziziphus rotundifolia 736Ziziphus rugosa 737Ziziphus sativa 736Ziziphus trinervia 737Ziziphus vulgaris 735Ziziphus xylopyra 737Zornia diphylla 738Zosima absinthifolia 738Zosima orientalis 738Zygophyllum simplex 738Spellings of botanical names based on “The Wealth of India” series, CSIR, New Delhi, India.

Crude Herb Identification GuideAbies webbiana leaf (Dabur)Abrus precatorious seed (Himalaya)Abutilon indicum root (PLIM)Acacia catechu dried wood (Dabur)Acacia concinna dried pods (Dabur)Aconitum ferox dried rhizome (Dabur)

Acorus calamus dried rhizome (Himalaya)Aconitum heterophyllumdried rhizome (Dabur)Aegle marmelos dried pulp (Himalaya)Adhatoda vasica dried leaf (Hamdard)Albizia lebbeck bark (Himalaya)Aloe barbadensis dried herb (Himalaya)

Alpinia galanga rhizome (Himalaya)Alpinia khulanjan rhizome (Hamdard)Alstonia scholaris stem bark (PLIM)Althaea officinalis seed (Hamdard)Althaea officinalis flower (Hamdard)Amomum subulatum fruit (Himalaya)Anacyclus pyrethrum root (Dabur)Ananas comosus dried flesh (Himalaya)

Anethum sowa seeds (Himalaya)Apium graveolens fruit (PLIM)Aquilaria agallocha dried wood (Dabur)Areca catechu red/commonnut (Hamdard/PLIM)Argyreia nervosa plant part (CCRAS)Aristolochia indica root (Hamdard)Asparagus racemosus roots (CCRAS)Asteracantha longifolia seed (Himalaya)

Azadirachta indica dried leaf (Himalaya)Bacopa monnieri leafBaliospermum montanum root (PLIM)Barringtonia acutangula seed (Dabur)Bauhinia variegata stem bark (PLIM)Berberis aristata stem bark (Dabur)

Bergenia ligulata rhizome (PLIM)Betula utilis outer bark (Himalaya)Boerhavia diffusa dried herb (PLIM)Borago officinalis flower (Hamdard)Boswellia serrata gum (PLIM)Butea monosperma flower (Himalaya)Butea monosperma gum (Hamdard)Caesalpinia bonducella seed (Himalaya)

Calotropis procera plant parts (CCRAS)Callicarpa macrophylladried flower (Dabur)Capparis spinosa stem (Himalaya)Capsicum annuum fruit (WOI)Carica papaya dried pulp (Himalaya)Carthamus tinctorius seed (Hamdard)

Carum carvi fruit (PLIM)Cassia absus seed (Hamdard)Cassia angustifolia leaf (Hamdard)Cedrus deodara wood (Himalaya)Celastrus paniculatus seeds (Dabur)Centaurea behen root (Hamdard)

Centella asiatica leafChlorophytum arundinaceumroot (Himalaya)Cicer arietinum fruit (Himalaya)Cinnamomum tamala leaf (PLIM)Cinnamomum tamala bark (Hamdard)Cinnamomum zeylanicumstem bark (Himalaya)

Cissampelos pareira root (PLIM)Clitoria ternatea plant parts (CCRAS)Coleus forskohlii dried herb (Dabur)Colchicum luteum sweet/bitter corms(Hamdard)Commiphora molmol gumCommiphora wightii gum (PLIM)

Coptis teeta rhizome (Hamdard)Coriandrum sativum fruit (Himalaya)Crataeva nurvala bark (Himalaya)Crotalaria juncea seed (WHO/PLIM)Croton tiglium seed (WHO/PLIM)Cucumis sativus cut fruits (Himalaya)Curculigo orchioides cut rhizome (Dabur)Curcuma zedoaria rhizome (Dabur)

Datura metel plant parts (CCRAS)Cyperus rotundus rhizome (Dabur)Daucus carota dried root (Himalaya)Decalepis hamiltonii root (CCRUM)Delphinium denudatum root (Hamdard)Didymocarpus pedicellatadried herb (Himalaya)

Dioscorea bulbifera tuber sections (Dabur)Dolichos biflorus seed (WHO/PLIM)Dracaena cinnabari resin (WHO/PLIM)Elaeocarpus ganitrus fruit (Himalaya)Elettaria cardamomum fruit (WHO/PLIM)Embelia ribes fruit (Dabur)

Emblica officinalis dried fruit (Dabur)Eucalyptus globulus dried leaf (Himalaya)Euphorbia neriifolia stem (WHO/PLIM)Evolvulus alsinoides aerial parts (Himalaya)Ficus benghalensis bark (WHO/PLIM)Ficus carica dried fruit (Himalaya)Ficus lacor bark (WHO/PLIM)Ficus recemosa plant parts (CCRAS)

Ficus religiosa plant parts (CCRAS)Foeniculum vulgare fruit (WHO/PLIM)Fumaria officinalis dried herb (Himalaya)Glycyrrhiza glabra stem (CCRAS)Gossypium herbaceum seed (WHO/PLIM)Gymnema sylvestre dried herb (Dabur)Hedychium spicatum rhizome(WHO/PLIM)Helicteres isora fruit (Hamdard)

Hemidesmus indicus root (WHO/PLIM)Hibiscus rosa-sinensis dried herb(Himalaya)Hiptage benghalensisplant parts (CCRAS)Holarrhena antidysentericabark (Himalaya)Holarrhena antidysenterica seed (Dabur)Hyoscyamus niger fruit (Himalaya)

Inula racemosa root (Dabur)Ipomoea digitata dried herb (Himalaya)Jasminum grandiflorumdried herb (Himalaya)Jateorhiza palmata rootJuglans regia shell (Himalaya)Kaempferia galanga fruit (Hamdard)

Lactuca serriola seed (Himalaya)Lavandula stoechas flower (Hamdard)Lens culinaris seed (Himalaya)Leonurus cardiaca seed (Hamdard)Leptadenia reticulata stem (Himalaya)Linum usitatissimum seed (Himalaya)Malus pumila dried herb (Himalaya)Mangifera indica bark (Dabur)

Marsdenia tenacissima root (WHO/PLIM)Martynia annua fruit (Dabur)Mentha arvensis dried plant (Himalaya)Mesua ferrea anthers (Dabur)Michelia champaca bark, stem (CCRAS)Mimosa pudica dried herb (Himalaya)Mimusops elengiplant parts (CCRAS)Moringa pterygosperma seed (Himalaya)

Mucuna pruriens seed (Hamdard)Murraya koenigii dried herb (Himalaya)Nardostachys jatamansi rhizome (Dabur)Myristica fragrans aril/nut (Himalaya)Nelumbium speciosumdried herb (Himalaya)Onosma bracteatum dried plant (Himalaya)

Operculina turpethum root (Dabur)Orchis latifolia root (Hamdard)Pandanus tectorius root (WHO/PLIM)Parmelia perlata lichen (Himalaya)Pastinaca secacul root (Hamdard)Phyllanthus fraternusdried herb (WHO/PLIM)Picrorhiza kurroa root (WHO/PLIM)Piper cubeba fruit (Dabur)

Piper longum fruit (Dabur)Piper longum stem (Dabur)Piper nigrum fruit (Hamdard)Pistacia integerrima galls (Dabur)Pluchea lanceolata leaf (Dabur)Plumbago zeylanica root (Dabur)

Polygonum bistorata root stock (Hamdard)Polypodium vulgare rhizome (Hamdard)Pongamia pinnata plant parts (CCRAS)Premna integrifolia stem (Dabur)Prunus amygdalus kernel (Himalaya)Prunus armeniaca kernel (Himalaya)Psoralea corylifolia seed (Himalaya)Pterocarpus marsupiumheartwood (WHO/PLIM)

Pterocarpus santalinus heartwood (Dabur)Punica granatum dried skin (Himalaya)Punica granatum flower (Hamard)Quercus infectoria gall (Hamdard)Randia dumetorum fruit (WHO/PLIM)Raphanus sativus seed (Himalaya)Rauvolfia serpentina root (Himalaya)Rheum emodiknotted aerial parts (WHO/PLIM)

Rheum emodi exudate lump (WHO/PLIM)Ricinus communis seed (Himalaya)Rosa damascena dried flower (Hamdard)Rosmarinus officinalisdried herb (Himalaya)Rubia cordifolia stem (Himalaya)Santalum album heartwood

Saraca asoca bark (Himalaya)Sapindus mukorossi seed (Dabur)Saussurea lappa root (Himalaya)Saxifraga ligulata rhizome (Himalaya)Scirpus kysoor rhizome (WHO/PLIM)Selinum candollei rhizome (WHO/PLIM)

Semecarpus anacardiumfruit (WHO/PLIM)Sesamum indicum seed (Himalaya)Shorea robusta gum (WHO/PLIM)Sida cordifolia dried herb (Himalaya)Smilax aristolochaefoliaroot stock (Hamdard)Solanum nigrum berries (Hamdard)Solanum surattense dried herb(WHO/PLIM)Sphaeranthus indicus flower (Hamdard)

Strychnos nux-vomica seed (Dabur)Strychnos potatorum seed (WHO/PLIM)Swertia chirayita dried herb (Hamdard)Symplocos racemosa bark (Himalaya)Syzygium aromaticumflower bud (WHO/PLIM)Tecomella undulata bark (Himalaya)Tectona grandis fruit (Himalaya)Terminalia arjuna bark (Dabur)

Terminalia bellirica seeds (CCRAS)Terminalia chebula yellow var.fruit (Hamdard)Tinospora cordifolia plant parts (CCRAS)Trachyspermum ammi fruit (WHO/PLIM)Tribulus terrestris fruit (WHO/PLIM)Trigonella foenum-graecumfruit (Himalaya)

Triticum sativum seed (Himalaya)Urtica dioica dried rootValeriana wallichii leaf/rhizome(CCRAS/PLIM)Verbena officinalis dried herbVetiveria zizanioides dried grass (Himalaya)Viburnum prunifolium dried herb

Viola odorata flower (Hamdard)Vitex agnus-castus dried berriesVitis vinifera dried fruitWithania ashwagandha root (Hamdard)Woodfordia fruticosa dried flower (Dabur)Wrightia tinctoria bark (Himalaya)Yucca recurvifolia plant

Zingiber officinaledried rhizome (Hamdard)Zizyphus jujuba Mill.—fruit (Hamdard)AcknowledgementsCCRAS: courtesy of Central Council for Research in Ayurveda and Siddha, New DelhiCCRUM: courtesy of Central Council for Research in Unani Medicine, New DelhiDabur: courtesy of V.C. Burman, Chairman, Dabur India Ltd., Kaushambi, Ghaziabad-201010. U.P. www.dabur.comHamdard: courtesy of Hammad Ahmed, Senior Director, Hamdard (Wakf) Laboratories,2A/3, Asaf Ali Road, Hamdard Building, New Delhi-110 002. www.hamdard.comHimalaya: courtesy of Dr. S.K. Mitra M.D., Executive Director, The Himalaya Drug Company,Makali, Bangalore-562123. www.himalayahealthcare.comWHO and PLIM: grateful acknowledgement to the World Health Organization and PharmaceuticalLaboratory of Indian Medicine, III-A, C.G.O. Complex-I, Kamla Nehru Nagar,Ghaziabad-2010002. Reproduced from R.U. Ahmad et al. (eds) Plant Drugs of AyurvedicPharmacopoeia of India, Vol. I, 2001; Album of Crude Drugs; Production of ISMDrugs with Current Good Manufacturing Practice, 2002. Photographs by S.N. DhusiaWOI: courtesy of The Wealth of India, CSIR

Indian Medicinal Plants - An Illustrated Dictionary - Asian Journal of ...

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