Manga Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey. - Coastal Forests of ...

Appendix 2: Taxonomic verification 96 

24. Shaka, J.M. & H. Mwanga. 1996. Soils and vegetation of Mlungui Proposed Forest Reserve, Maramba 

Division, Muheza District, Tanga. 

25. Shaka, J.M. & A. Msangi. 1996. Soils and vegetation of Manga Forest Reserve, Bombwera Division, 

Muheza District, Tanga. 

26. Shaka, J.M., W. Kabushemera & A. Msangi. 1996. Soils and vegetation of Kambai Forest Reserve, 

Bombwera Division, Muheza District, Tanga. 

27. Shelutete, M. 1996. Focus on women - report of a consultancy on conservation and women in the East 

Usambara mountains. 

28. Johansson, S.G. & Sandy, R. 1996. Protected areas and public lands - land use in the East Usambara 

mountains. 

29. SEE. 1996. Biodiversity survey methods report. – Technical Paper ?? of the Society for Environmental 

Exploration, London. 

30. Cunneyworth, P. & Stubblefield, L. 1996. Magoroto Forest: A biodiversity survey. 

31. Cunneyworth, P. & Stubblefield, L. 1996. Bamba Ridge Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey. 

32. Cunneyworth, P. & Stubblefield, L. 1996. Mlungui Proposed Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey. 

33. Cunneyworth, P. 1996. Kwamarimba Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey. 

34. Cunneyworth, P. 1996. Longuza Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey. 

35 Cunneyworth, P. 1996. Kambai Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey. 

36. Shaka, J. M., W. Kabushemera & A. Msangi 1997. Soils and vegetation of Semdoe Proposed Forest 

Reserve, Bombwera Division, Muheza District, Tanga. 

37. Vainio-Mattila, K., L. Mwasumbi and K. Lahti 1997 Traditional use of wild vegetables in the East 

Usambara Mountains. 

38. Sandy, R.O., G. Boniface and I. Rajabu 1997 Amani Botanical Garden Survey. 

39. Doggart, N. H., M. S. Dilger, R. Kilenga and E. Fanning 1999 Mtai Forest Reserve: A biodiversity 

survey. 

40. Doggart, N. H., M. S. Dilger, P. Cunneyworth and E. Fanning 1999 Kwamgumi Forest Reserve: A 

biodiversity survey. 

41. Doggart, N. H., L. Joseph, J. Bayliss and E. Fanning 1999 Manga Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey. 

42. Doggart, N. H., A. Ntemi, K. Doody and E. Fanning 1999 Semdoe Forest Reserve: A biodiversity 


43. Doody, K., N. H. Doggart, L. Joseph and E. Fanning 1999 Segoma Forest Reserve: A biodiversity 


Suggested citation: Doggart, N., Joseph, L., Bayliss, J. and Fanning, E. 1999 Manga Forest 

Reserve: A biodiversity survey. East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme 

Technical Paper No. 41. 

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme 

Technical Paper 41


East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper Series 

(ISSN 1236-620X) 

The East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Papers Series 

consists of reports on forestry issues in the East Usambara Mountains. This series started in 

1991. These reports aim to make information more widely available to staff members of the 

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme, to the Forestry and Beekeeping 

Division, and to other institutions and individuals concerned and interested in the 

conservation of the East Usambara forests. 

The reports are prepared by staff members of the East Usambara Conservation Area 

Management Programme or by other researchers, consultants and interested individuals. The 

views expressed in the reports are those of the author(s). 

Current titles in the series are: 

1. Mwihomeke, S.T. 1991. Some notes to identify and discuss coopeation in forestry research in the East 

Usambara mountains. 

Räsänen, P.K. 1991. Outline of a research planning programme for the East Usambara Conservation 

Area Management Programme. 

2. Hyytiäinen, K. 1992. Forest management plan for Longuza teak plantations. 

3. Seymour, M. 1992. Manual harvesting of Maesopsis eminii in the East Usamaba mountains, Tanzania. 

4. Newmark, W.D. 1992. Recommendations for wildlife corridors and the extension and management of 

forest reserves in the East Usambara mountains, Tanzania. 

5. Häkkinen, I. & Wambura, M. 1992. A Frame plan for the Amani Nature Reserve. 

6. Masilingi, W.M.K. 1992. Consultancy report on the legal establishment of the Amani Nature Reserve. 

7. Binagi, E.R. 1992. Consolidation of environmental education for adults: critique of FINNIDA-funded 

forestry projects in Tanzania. A case study of the East Usambara Conservation Area 

Management Programme. 

8. Tuominen, V. 1993. Marking of the forest reserve boundaries in the East Usambara mountains. 

9. Pirttilä, I. 1993. The discharge of Sigi River as an indicator of water catchment value of the East 

Usambara mountains in Tanzania. 

10. Hyytiäinen, K. 1993. Combined seed and timber production in Longuza Teak plantations, Tanzania. 

11. Kajembe, G.C. & Mwaseba, D. 1994. The extension and communication programme for the East 

Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme. 

12. Hyytiäinen, K. 1995. Land use classification and mapping for the East Usambara Mountains. 

13. Hall, J.B. 1995. Maesopsis eminii and its status in the East Usambara Mountains. 

14. Heinonen, P. 1995. PSPs in East Usambara Mountains: present findings and future recommendations. 

15. Munuyku, F.C.N. 1995. Report on an inventory of selected proposed forest reserves in Muheza District, 

Tanga Region. 

16. Kamugisha, S.M. & Materu, E.M.A. 1995. Preliminary results from a study on water flow and in Sigi 

and Bombo rivers in the East Usambara mountains. 

17. Ellman, A., Tye, A., Rwamugira, S., Mallya, B., Mahenge, F. and Mndolwa, A. 1995. Development of 

forest trails and drive routes in the Amani Nature Reserve. 

18. Ellman, A.E. 1996. Handing over the stick? Report of a village forest management and farm forestry 

consultancy 

19. Katigula, M.I.L., Mmasi, S.E., Matiko, W., Mshana, L., Kijazi, M.S., Rwamugira, S. 1995. Planning 

ourselves. Evaluation report on the participatory planning of the EUCAMP Phase II project 

document. 

20. Fowler, S. & Nyambo, B. 1996. Invasive species and biodiversity - Report of a short consultancy on the 

potential of biological control of invasive species in Amani Nature Reserve. International 

Institute for Biological Control & EUCAMP. 

21 Howard, P.C. 1996. Baseline biological surveys in selected East Usambara forest reserves and forests, 

1995-96 - project evaluation report 

22. Woodcock, K. 1995. Indigenous knowledge and forest use: two case studies from the East Usambaras, 

Tanzania. 

23. Shaka, J.M. & A. Msangi. 1996. Soils and vegetation of Bamba Ridge Forest Reserve, Maramba 

Division, Muheza District, Tanga. 


Technical Paper 41


Appendix 2: 

BOTANY 

Taxonomic Verification 

Ahmed Mdolwa TAFORI Silvicultural Research Centre, P.O. Box 

95, Lushoto, Tanzania 

ZOOLOGY - VERTEBRATES 

Bats and small mammals: 

Prof. Kim Howell Department of Zoology University of Dar es Salaam, P.O. Box 

35060, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

khowell@twiga.com 

Dr. Dieter Kock Frankfurt Zoological Museum Saugetiere III, Senckenberg, 

Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt 

am Main, Germany 

dkock@sng.uni-frankfurt.de 

Rodents and Shrews: 




Dr. Dieter Kock Frankfurt Zoological Museum Saugetiere III, Senckenberg, 

Senckenberganlage 25, 60325 Frankfurt 

am Main, Germany 

dkock@sng.uni-frankfurt.de 

Amphibians: 




Prof. J. Poynton British Natural History Museum Cromwell Road, South Kensington, 

London, UK. 

Reptiles: 

Prof. Kim Howell Department of Zoology University of Dar es Salaam , P.O. Box 



Dr. Don Broadley The Natural History Museum of 

Zimbabwe 

ZOOLOGY - INVERTEBRATES 

Millipedes 

Dr R. Hoffman Virginia Museum of Natural 

History 

Butterflies 

Steve Collins African Butterfly Research 

Institute 

P.O. Box 240, Bulawayo, Zimbabwe 

bfa@coldfire.dnet.co.zw 

1001 Douglas Avenue, Martinsville, 

Virginia 24112, USA 

rhoffman@neocomm.net 

P.O. Box 14308, Nairobi, Kenya 

collinsabri@iconnect.co.ke 


Technical Paper 41

Appendix 1: General plot information 93 

Appendix 1: 

Plot Number Topography Altitude 

(metres) 

General Plot Information 

Slope 

(degrees) 

Vegetation 

Type 

Canopy 

Height 

(metres) 

1 LP 128 10 B

Manga Forest Reserve 92 

Rodgers, W.A. 1996. Biodiversity values of Tanzanian forests: A training and awareness manual for 

forest managers and conservationists. FAO, Dar es Salaam. 

Rodgers, W.A. & Homewood, K.M. 1982. The conservation of the East Usambara Mountains, 

Tanzania: a review of biological values and land use pressures. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. 24: 285-304. 

Ruffo .K.; Mmari, C.; Kibuwa, S.P.; Lovett, J.; Iversen, S. & Hamilton, A.C. 1989. A preliminary list 

of the plant species recorded from the East Usambara forests. In A.C. Hamilton & R. Bensted-Smith 

(eds.). Forest conservation in the East Usambara Mountains Tanzania. IUCN, Gland. Pp 157-179. 

Schmidt, P. 1989. Early exploitation and settlement in the Usambara mountains. In A.C. Hamilton & 

R. Bensted-Smith (eds.). Forest conservation in the East Usambara Mountains Tanzania. IUCN, 

Gland. Pp 357-361. 

SEE, 1998. Methodology Report. Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme. Technical paper of 

the Society for Environmental Exploration, London. 

Stuart, S.N. 1989. The avifauna of the East Usambara mountains. Chapter 35 - Forest conservation in 

the East Usambara mountains Tanzania. In A.C. Hamilton & R. Bensted-Smith (eds.). Forest 

conservation in the East Usambara Mountains Tanzania. IUCN, Gland. Pp 357-361. 

Tye, A. 1994. Magoroto rainforest conservation - Proposal for establishment of a new reserve. 

EUCDP, IUCN, Amani, Tanzania (unpubl.). 

Zimmerman, D.A., Turner, D.A. & Pearson, D.J. 1996. Birds of Kenya and Northern Tanzania. 

Russel Friedman Books, South Africa. 


Technical Paper 41


Hyytiäinen, K. 1995. Land use classification and mapping for the East Usambara mountains. East 

Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme. 

IUCN 1996. 1996 IUCN Red list of threatened animals. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 

Iversen, S.T. 1991a. The Usambara mountains, NE Tanzania: History, Vegetation and conservation. 

Uppsala University, Uppsala. 

Iversen, S.T. 1991b. The Usambara mountains, NE Tanzania: Phytogeography of the vascular plant 

flora. Uppsala University, Uppsala. 

Johansson S. & Sandy R. 1996. Updated Forest area information in the Usambara mountains. East 

Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme, working paper 19. 

Kielland, J. 1990 Butterflies of Tanzania. Hill House, Melbourne/London. 

Kikula, I.S. 1989. Spatial changes in forest cover on the East Usambara mountains. In A.C. Hamilton 

& R. Bensted-Smith (eds.). Forest conservation in the East Usambara Mountains Tanzania. IUCN, 

Gland. Pp 79 - 86. 

Kingdon, J. 1974. East African Mammals. An atlas of evoluntion in Africa. Vol. 2B: Hares and 

rodents. University Chicago Press, Chicago. 

Kingdon, J. 1989. East African mammals. An atlas of evolution in Africa. Vol. 2A: Insectivores and 

bats. University of Chicago Press, Chicago. 

Kingdon, J. 1997. The Kingdon field guide to African Mammals. Academic Press, London. 

Kingdon, J & Howell, K. M. 1993 Mammals in the forests of Eastern Africa. In J.C. Lovett, & S.K. 

Wasser (eds.). Biogeography and ecology of the rain forests of eastern Africa. Cambridge University 

Press, Cambridge. Pp 229-241. 

Larsen, T. B. 1996 The butterflies of Kenya and their natural history. Oxford University Press, 

Oxford. 

Litterick, M. 1989. Assessment of water quality of the Sigi river. In A.C. Hamilton & R. Bensted- 

Smith (eds.). Forest conservation in the East Usambara Mountains Tanzania. IUCN, Gland. Pp 141- 

155. 

Lovett, J.C. 1993. Eastern Arc moist forest flora. In J.C. Lovett, & S.K. Wasser (eds.). Biogeography 

and ecology of the rain forests of eastern Africa. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Pp 33-56. 

Lovett, J.C. 1989. The botanical importance of the East Usambara forests in relation to other forests in 

Tanzania. In A.C. Hamilton & R. Bensted-Smith (eds.). Forest conservation in the East Usambara 

Mountains Tanzania. IUCN, Gland. Pp 207-212. 

National biodiversity database (1996). Unpubl. Department of Zoology and Marine Biology, UDSM, 

Dar es Salaam. 

Passmore, N. I. And V. C. Carruthers 1995 South African frogs: a complete guide.Southern book 

publishers. 

Poynton, J.C. 1997. Amphibians. In N.D. Burgess & G.P. Clarke (eds.), The coastal forests of eastern 

Africa: status, history, biodiversity & conservation. 

Poynton J.C. & Broadley, D.G. 1991. Amphibia zambesiaca 5. Zoogeography. Ann. Natal Mus. Vol 

32:221-277. 


Technical Paper 41


8.0 REFERENCES 

Binggeli, P. 1989. The ecology of Maesopsis invasion and dynamics of the evergreen forest of the East 

Usambaras, and their implications for forest conservation and forestry practices. In A.C. Hamilton & R. 

Bensted-Smith (eds.). Forest conservation in the East Usambara Mountains Tanzania. IUCN, Gland. 

Pp 269-300. 

Branch, B. 1994. Field guide to the snakes and other reptiles of Southern Africa. Struik Publ., Cape 

Town. 

Broadley, D. G. 1995 A new species of Prosymna Gray (Serpentes: COLUBRIDAE) from coastal 

forest in northeastern Tanzania. Arnoldia Zimbabwe 10 (4): 29 – 32. 

Broadley, D.G. & Howell, K.M., in press. Reptiles. In N.D. Burgess & G.P. Clarke (eds). The coastal 

forests of eastern Africa: status, history, biodiversity & conservation. 

Broadley, D.G. & Howell, K. M. 1991 A check list of the reptiles of Tanzania, with synoptic keys. 

Syntarsus 1: 1 – 70. 

Bruen, M. 1989. Hydrological considerations of development in the East Usambara mountains. In 

A.C. Hamilton & R. Bensted-Smith (eds.). Forest conservation in the East Usambara Mountains 

Tanzania. IUCN, Gland. Pp 117-139. 

Cambridge Tanzania Rainforest Project. 1994. A biological and human impact survey of the lowland 

forests, East Usambara Mountains, Tanzania. Birdlife Study Report No. 59. Birdlife International, 

Cambridge. 

Collar, N.J.; Crosby, M.J. & Stattersfield, A.J. 1994. Birds to watch 2. The world list of threatened 

birds. Birdlife International, Cambridge. 

Collar, N.J. & Stuart, S.N. 1987. Priorities for conservation action. ICBP Monograph No. 3. 1988. 

Cambridge. 

Cunneyworth, P. & Stubblefield, L 1996b. Bamba Ridge Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey - East 

Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper No. 31. Forestry and 

Beekeeping Division & Finnish Forest and Park Service & Society for Environmental Exploration, Dar 

es Salaam, Vantaa & London. 

Cunneyworth, P. & Stubblefield, L. 1996c. Mlungui Proposed Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey 

- East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme Technical Paper No. 32. The Society 

for Environmental Exploration, London; Forestry & Beekeeping Division, Dar es Salaam; & Finnish 

Forest & Park Service, Vantaa. 

Griffiths, C.J. 1993. The geological evolution of East Africa. In J.C. Lovett, & S.K. Wasser (eds.). 

Biogeography and ecology of the rain forests of eastern Africa. Cambridge University Press, 

Cambridge. Pp 9-22. 

Groombridge (ed.) 1993. 1994 IUCN red list of threatened animals. Cambridge IUCN. 

Hamilton, A.C. 1989. The place and the problem. a survey of forest types on the East Usambaras 

using the variable-area tree plot method. In A.C. Hamilton & R. Bensted-Smith (eds.). Forest 


Howell, K.M. 1989. The East Usambara Fauna. In A.C. Hamilton & R. Bensted-Smith (eds.). Forest 


Howell, K.M. 1993. Herpetofauna of the eastern African forests. In J.C. Lovett, & S.K. Wasser (eds.). 

Biogeography and ecology of the rain forests of eastern Africa. Cambridge University Press, 

Cambridge. Pp 173-201. 


Technical Paper 41


extracted by villagers include building poles, bush meat, fuel wood and edible plant 

leaves. 

Conservation 

The forests of the East Usambara Mountains are recognised as being a biodiversity 

hotspot of global significance. They are a conservation priority due to their floral and 

faunal diversity and to the high number of endemic species. The forests also have a 

direct value to surrounding communities as a principal water catchment area and as a 

source of fuelwood and medicinal plants. 

The forests of the East Usambara Mountains have been reduced to fragments within a 

matrix of agricultural land. Little forest remains outside of the gazetted Forest 

Reserves. For those species that are forest dependent, the Forest Reserves now 

provide almost the only available habitat. 

There are differences in the perceived value of the forests between the villagers and 

the Forest and Beekeeping Division. Alternative sources of building material and fuel 

are required in order to meet the needs of surrounding villages while ensuring the 

protection of the forests. 

As a Catchment Forest Reserve, Manga Forest Reserve is legally protected from 

deforestation however the law does not specify that the reserve’s biodiversity be 

conserved. It is therefore theoretically possible to replace the natural forest with 

plantation. A higher level of protection aimed specifically at the conservation of the 

forest’s biodiversity would provide greater security for the fauna and flora of the 

reserve. 

Fire is a serious threat to the integrity of Manga Forest Reserve as it affects both 

forest structure and species composition. Forest dependent species will be affected 

disproportionately by fires. This includes many of the endemic and near-endemic 

species. 

Manga Forest Reserve is home to a number of species of particular conservation 

concern including the new species of butterfly found during this survey which appears 

to be endemic to the reserve. The protection of Manga Forest Reserve will increase 

the chances that these species have of surviving for future generations to admire and 

study. 


Technical Paper 41


7.0 CONCLUSIONS 

This report presents the raw data of the survey with preliminary descriptions and 

analyses in terms of ecological type and endemic status. These two factors provide an 

indication of three main aspects of biodiversity and conservation: 

1. the relationship between forest dependency and endemism; 

2. the extent to which non-forest species are established in the reserve; and 

3. the relationship between disturbance and areas of biological value. 

Manga forest, gazetted as a Forest Reserve in 1955, covers an area of 1616 ha in the 

central area of the East Usambara range. With altitudes between 120 m and 360 m, it 

consists of lowland forest, grassland and patches of woodland. 

Species Richness 

The Forest Reserve was found to contain a minimum of 329 species of trees and 

shrubs; 30 mammal, 82 bird, 26 reptile, 22 amphibian, 94 butterfly, 12 millipede and 

16 mollusc species. 

Flora 

Three species were recorded which are endemic to the Usambara Mountains. 

Twenty-two species have ranges restricted to the Eastern Arc and/or East African 

lowland forests. Twenty-six species are dependent only on primary forest, and of 

these species ten are also endemic or near endemic to the Usambara mountains. 

Nineteen non-forest tree and shrub species are established within the reserve 

boundaries. 

Fauna 

Two butterfly species were recorded which are endemic to the Usambara Mountains 

and 22 animal species were recorded as near-endemics, having ranges restricted to the 

Eastern Arc and/or East African lowland forests. Fifty-four species are considered 

dependent only on primary forest, and of these species, 17 are also endemic or near 

endemic to the Usambara mountains. Twenty-three non-forest species are established 

in the reserve. 

Disturbance 

Timber was extracted commercially from Manga in the 1980s and the impact on the 

forest is still visible. Timber extraction at a commercial scale has now largely stopped 

however pole and timber continue to be collected by local villagers throughout the 

reserve. The highest rates of pole and timber cutting were in the north-west of the 

reserve. Fire has affected large areas of Manga and 37% of the plots had been 

affected by fire. In some areas, particularly in the north of the reserve there is no 

forest only woodland and grassland dominated by the invasive grass Rottboellia 

exaltata. It is clear from the mango and banana trees within the reserve, that 

cultivation occurred in some of these open areas. Forest products commonly 


Technical Paper 41


exist and would appear to be in a reasonable condition; a water collection tank would 

provide the water required for tourists. 

At present tourists are limited to a few visiting biologists. The presence of a number 

of rare bird and butterfly species and the area’s high biodiversity also attracts a few 

specialist tourists. However the forest is not of a high enough quality to attract a nonspecialist 

tourist particularly if it were in competition with Amani Nature Reserve. 

This situation will, of course, change if the forest is left to regenerate particularly 

around the Mruka River and in the south-west of the reserve. The basic visitors 

requirements would be a safe and fairly comfortable place to stay, and a 

knowledgeable guide of the Forest Reserve. The old Lanzoni managers house could 

possibly be renovated to provide accomodation for visitors, and the local Catchment 

Forest Officer could act as a guide, if given training. 


Technical Paper 41


Mkwajuni villagers expressed favour for Brachylaena hutchinsii (mkarambati) which 

was once in abundance in the area but is now unavailable due to overuse. People say 

they are finding it increasingly difficult to obtain good quality building materials from 

public forest and some say that they have no choice but to take from the forest 

reserve. 

Pitsawing has been banned in the area since January 1993, however recent signs of 

pitsawing were discovered in the reserve. Carpenters expressed concern over the 

pitsawing ban and said that they would be forced to stop production when their stocks 

are depleted and return to farming. Many households own planks which they obtained 

before the ban and they use these when they require furniture. 

Millicia excelsa (mvule) is the preferred tree species for furniture making because it is 

hard and resistant to termite attack. 

6.3.5 Peoples attitudes to conservation 

In general, most villagers feel that the forest reserve should be for their use and 

livelihood, in terms of agricultural land and forest products. They are well aware of 

the restrictions on the use of the forest reserve and who officially controls it. They 

feel that the restrictions make their daily activities unnecessarily difficult and 

therefore continue to use the reserve. They also feel that the forest guards, by 

protecting the forest also protect the crop pests which most farmers spend 

considerable time trying to prevent from attacking their crops. A few farmers see the 

forest as important for the prevention of soil erosion. 

6.4 Eco-tourism potential 

6.4.1 Aim 

• To assess the eco-tourism potential of Manga Forest Reserve and the surrounding 

land. 

• To determine the extent of the present facilities available to tourists and their use 

by them. 

• To identify the requirements of tourists not presently met, and provide suggestions 

for the development of these facilities. 

6.4.2 Existing tourist facilities 

Existing tourist facilities are poor. The old Lanzoni Estate Managers house (built at 

the turn of the century by the German company, Meyer brothers) is structurally sound 

and impressive enough to be considered as a possible base for tourists. The 

architecture has Arabic influences and there are large doors carved in Zanzibarian 

style. It could potentially house up to twenty or more people, and has an impressive 

view of the surrounding mountains. Manga Forest Reserve is also bordered by the 

Sigi River, which adds to the scenic value of the area and there are crocodiles present. 

There are two roads leading into Mkwajuni, the village neighbouring the forest. Both 

are dirt roads in a bad condition. In the wet season a four wheel drive vehicle is 

required. There are electricity lines installed to Mkwajuni. However the old Lanzoni 

Estate managers house does not have electricity, but installation would not require 

much work. There is also no running water at the house however water pipes still 


Technical Paper 41


The forest is not a significant source of fruit for most members of the household. For 

most people it seems more convenient to obtain fruit from trees on their own 

farmland. 

There are a few individuals in each village who have experience in collecting honey 

from wild tree hives. Hives are most often found in forest 

Hunting of forest dwelling animals is an activity undertaken both in forest and on 

shamba. Hunting appears to fall into three categories; scaring, trapping and 

sometimes killing animals from shamba; hunting in groups in the forest and hunting 

alone in the forest using traps and guns. Immigrants who live in Vumba (sub-village 

of Kwatango) have an organised hunt once a week into the forest with the sole 

purpose of reducing populations of wild animals which may attack their crops. They 

do not utilise the carcasses. 

The most commonly hunted animals are bush pig (Potamochoerus lavatus), blue 

monkey (Cercopithecus mitis), vervet monkey (Cercopitheus aethiops), Harvey’s 

duiker (Cephalophus harveyi), bushbuck (Tragelaphus scriptus), and African civet 

(Civettictis civetta). Other animals hunted include banded mongoose (Mungos 

mungo), tree hyrax (Dendrohyrax validus), colobus monkey (Colobus angolensis) 

and baboon (Papio cynocephalus). Bushmeat tends to be for domestic consumption. 

Communities do not depend on hunting as a source of protein or income. Rather than 

a necessity, bush meat is perceived as an occasional luxury. It is also an important 

male social event. 

The fronds of the wild date palm, Phoenix reclinata are used by women for weaving 

baskets and mats for household use and for wedding gifts 

Collection of medicinal plants within the forest is minimal since many species are 

collected from bushland and shamba. There does not appear to be any commercial 

exploitation of plants for medicinal purposes. 

In all communities, areas of traditional spiritual value are known. These have a 

number of characteristics in common, such as they were all found on hills and under 

the cover of forest. In Kwatango and Mkwajuni many people know of the 

significance of Mlinga Peak and Kweukindo in Segoma forest. 

Communities adjacent to the reserve usually collect fuelwood from their shambas and 

bushland, and admit to collecting occasionally from the reserve. The reason given for 

collecting from the reserve was that the alternative source is up to two hours walk 

away. Kwatango women who are surrounded by public forest say that they are 

required to penetrate deeper into the forest now to find the best firewood, suggesting a 

reduction in availability of good quality firewood. 

Poles are collected from the forest for the construction and repair of houses. Building 

poles are collected exclusively by men. Live trees are most commonly utilised for 

building construction, replacement and repair. Poles are cut from saplings for the 

withies (diameter 2cm, length 2.53m) and larger trees are often taken and split for the 

vertical poles (diameter 10-15cm, length 2.5-3m) and beams. 


Technical Paper 41


6.3.3 Land tenure 

The majority of households acquired their land through family inheritance, with land 

inheritance being patriarchal. Women do not own land but are given shambas by their 

fathers, husbands or brothers on which to farm. Mkwajuni villagers have moved from 

their fathers land (known as Chambangwe) due to soil infertility. In 1981 Kibaranga 

Sisal Estate returned a portion of estate land to the public. Each household head was 

given eight to ten acres on which to farm, depending on the number of sons and the 

extent to which farmers were able-bodied. 

Immigrants to the area apply for land through the village government or are given 

land by friends or family with excess. Land is rarely bought and if it is not given it is 

often lent for an extensive period of time. Villagers perceive the forest as agricultural 

land for the next generation. Hence, when forest was gazetted, the local community 

often felt that 'their' land and livelihood had been stolen from them. 

The traditional farming method is shifting cultivation. Traditionally farmers work an 

area of land for two to five years and then move to other land when crop yields 

decline. Cleared forest land is the preference for new farmland. The area is slashed 

and burned before planting. In this way agriculture exerts pressure on the natural 

forests. They will return to farm the same land after approximately five years. 

6.3.4 Forest Resource utilisation 

All households in both Kwatango and Mkwajuni said that they collect and eat wild 

plants. In the dry season between January and Febrary, and between July and 

September when there is reduced crop availability from the shamba, villagers are 

required out of necessity to supplement their diet more frequently from the wild 

resource. Mkwajuni villagers collect and eat wild plant leaves on a daily basis 

throughout the year. Through discussion with Mkwajuni villagers it was suggested 

that daily dependency on wild plant resources was due to lack of access to alternative 

food sources such as bush meat, the distance to market and low ownership of poultry 

and goats. 

It was discovered that those communities, such as Kwatango living adjacent to public 

forests collected and ate forest derived plants more frequently than those communities 

adjacent to forest reserves who ate more bushland and shamba derived wild plants. 

Those communities adjacent to forest reserves do not collect forest derived plants due 

to lack of access and availability. 

Few vegetables are cultivated close to the home, however since many are abundant 

around the shamba, along paths this does not appear to have been necessary. It would 

seem however that those communities without access to the forest have adapted by 

using edible plants from the shamba. 

Edible mushrooms are utilised by the majority of households from forest, bushland 

and shamba. Communities adjacent to the forest reserve do not use forest derived 

mushrooms again due to a lack of access. Collection is based on seasonal availability, 

with the majority of collection and utilisation in the short (vuli) and long (mwaka) 

rains. 


Technical Paper 41


Over the last ten years, Kwatango Village has allowed approximately ten families 

from Lushoto District to settle on public forest land, immediately adjacent to the 

reserve. The immigrants were advised by their own village government to migrate to 

the Kwatango area because it was perceived that there was plenty of fertile land. 

6.3.2 Economic activity 

The main source of income is the sale of cash crops. There are also sales of local 

alcohol, baskets and mats. Women rank crop sales as the largest source of family 

income, followed by alcohol production, mat and basket weaving and shamba 

cleaning. 

Off-farm employment may running a small shop for food and household goods, tea 

houses (selling tea, doughnuts, chapatis and occasionally ugali and beans), tailors, 

carpenters and teachers. 

The main cash crops are maize, cassava, coconuts, oranges, sugarcane and 

groundnuts. The main markets are Muheza and Tanga. Mkwajuni and Kwatango 

villagers often join together to hire a vehicle to transport crops at harvest time. 

Kwatango villagers complain severely about the condition of their road and some 

even say that their harvests are simply rotting in the village due to difficulty in 

transporting them to market. 

The most commonly grown tree crops are bananas, coconuts, oranges, limes, 

mangoes, jack-fruit, papaya and cashew nuts. Few non-fruit trees are found on 

shambas in Mkwajuni, this is probably due to the fact that most of the land was 

previously under sisal cultivation. Non-fruit trees are rarely planted, however during 

land clearance specific timber species are often retained. 

The main subsistence crops are maize, cassava, beans (kidney, pigeon-peas and 

mung), coconuts and bananas, with sugar cane, sweet potatoes, yams, pineapples, 

oranges, cashew and groundnuts also common, plus small quantities of vegetables 

such as spinach, okra, tomatoes and ngogwe (a kind of green tomato) grown in 

gardens close to the home. 

Almost all households own chickens and ducks, which are managed by the women, 

and approximately fifty percent of households own goats and sheep, which are 

managed by the men and boys. Other livestock owned are pigs, rabbits and guinea 

pigs. It is not usual to eat meat regularly from these animals, goats and sheep in 

particular are reserved for ceremonies and in exceptional circumstances will be sold in 

times of severe hardship. Cattle are not traditionally owned in this area, however in 

Mwarimba village there was one farmer who owned dairy cows. Dairy cows were 

introduced into the area in 1985 by the Tanga Smallholder's Dairy Development 

Programme (TSDDP) and these are zero grazed for the majority of the time. All other 

grazing animals are forest and bushland grazed. Only Kivuleni (sub-village of 

Mkwajuni) was noted as having a specifically designated area for goat grazing (nine 

acres) which is communally owned. 


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6.0 SOCIO-ECONOMICS 

By Kerry A. Woodcock 

6.1 Introduction 

A socio-economic study was conducted in two villages Mkwajuni and Kwatango, on 

the boundary of Manga Forest Reserve between October and December 1994. The 

aim of the study was: 

• to describe resource use in the reserve; 

• to assess the extent of forest-related activities; 

• to record local people’s attitudes and problems concerning the reserve. 

6.2 Methods 

A multidisciplinary case study approach was used for the socio-economic study. Two 

villages on the boundary of Manga Forest Reserve, Mkwajuni and Kwatango, were 

studied in depth. Mwarimba village was also visited on two occasions. Three 

approaches were combined to triangulate data rapidly and progressively: rapid rural 

appraisal (RRA), household interviews and ethnography. 

The study used various RRA methods including formal and informal group meetings, 

key informant interviews, participatory social mapping, transect walks and seasonal 

calendars. Household interviews were carried out in all sub-villages of Mkwajuni and 

Kwatango. Households were specifically selected to cover a wide range of socioeconomic 

circumstances, taking into account religion, gender of head of household, 

ethnic group and wealth. The ethnographic element involved the researcher Kerry A. 

Woodcock working closely with one woman in Mkwajuni village. The researcher 

learnt and practised typical daily activities, such as collecting firewood, water, and 

vegetables; farming, weaving and cooking. 

6.3 Results 

6.3.1 The villages and the population 

Manga Forest Reserve has two settlements in close proximity to its boundary; 

Mkwajuni, on its north-eastern corner and Kwatango on its north-western corner. 

Mkwajuni village is five minutes walk from the reserve whereas Kwatango is 

approximately one hour’s walk from the reserve boundary and is also surrounded by 

public forest. These two settlements fall under Misozwe Ward, Muheza District, 

Tanga Region. 

The total population of the two villages is estimated at around 1600. The majority of 

families originate from Muheza District and are of the Wasambaa and Wabondei 

tribes. There is a small proportion of the population who originates from other areas 

of Tanzania and who initially moved into the area for employment on the sisal estates 

(Kibaranga, Lanzoni, Sigi- Miembeni) or with Sikh Sawmills (1988-1992). 


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Figure 30. Areas of highest disturbance in relation to the distribution of animal 

species that are both forest dependent and near-endemic. 


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5.5.6 CITES 

All the birds from the families ACCIPITIRIDAE and STRIGIDAE, Tauraco fischeri, 

Tyto alba, Chamaeleo dilepis, Kinixys belliana, Cordylus t. tropidosternum, Varanus 

niloticus and Crocodylus niloticus are listed under Appendix II of CITES. 

5.5.7 IUCN Status 

According to IUCN criteria (see Section 1.2), the survival of three species found in 

Manga Forest Reserve is endangered. These species are: Rhynchocyon petersi, 

Lygodactylus kimhowelli and Mertensophryne micranotis. There has been insufficient 

data on the skink Melanoseps longicauda to categorise it however it seems likely that 

given its apparent rarity it will also be categorised as a threatened species. 

According to IUCN criteria the following species, found in Manga Forest Reserve, are 

vulnerable to extinction: Otus ireneae, Sheppardia gunningi, Agama montana and 

Scolecomorphus vittatus. 


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creona, Colotis regina, Eurema brigitta, Eurema floricola, Eurema hecabe and 

Axiocerses tjoane. 

Table 36. Summary of ecological type of faunal species (excluding molluscs and 

millipedes). 

Ecological type No. of species % of total species 

recorded 

(F) Forest dependent 58 22 

(f) Forest dwelling but not forest dependent 171 64 

(O) Non-forest species 24 9 

Unknown 13 5 

Total: 254 

5.5.3 Endemic Status 

Two butterfly species endemic to the Usambara Mountains were recorded during this 

survey. These are Charaxes usambarae and Euthecta sp. nov. 

Table 37. Summary of endemic status of faunal species (excluding molluscs and 

millipedes). 

Endemic status No. of species % of total species 

recorded 

(E) Endemic to the Usambara Mountains 2 1 

(N) Near-Endemic: ranges in restricted locations 21 8 

(W) Widespread 233 89 

Unknown 6 2 

Total: 254 

5.5.4 New Species 

• The butterfly Euthecta sp. nov. was first recorded in Manga during the 

preliminary survey in 1994. The late Jan Kielland started to describe this species 

and had proposed that it be called Euthecta baylissi. 

• Two new genera of millipede were recorded from Manga. 

5.5.5 Range Extensions 

• Melanoseps longicauda has previously only been recorded from Pangani and was 

known from only two specimens (Broadley and Howell 1991). 

• Bufo lindneri has not previously been recorded north of the Coastal Region of 

Tanzania. 

• Afrixalus sylvaticus was formerly known only from Kazimzumbwi F.R. and the 

Shimba Hills, Kenya. 

• The butterfly Charaxes etesipe is listed as being a western Tanzanian species by 

Kielland (1990). 


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5.5.1.1 Amphibians 

The most commonly caught amphibian was Arthroleptis stenodactylus. It was 

recorded 125 times. Other species which appear to be locally common are Hemisus 

marmoratus, Bufo gutturalis, Leptopelis flavomaculatus and Afrixalus sylvaticus. It is 

notable that Bufo brauni was not recorded in Manga. This is common in most other 

Usambara forests. 

5.5.1.1 Butterflies 

The most commonly caught butterfly was Bicyclus safitza. It was recorded 79 times. 

Another forty one species are locally common. Relative to other forest reserves in the 

East Usambaras, Manga Forest Reserve has the highest diversity of butterflies. 

5.5.1.1 Molluscs 

The most commonly recorded molluscs were Maizania sp and unidentified urocyclids. 

5.5.1.1 Endemics and near-endemics 

Of the 24 faunal Usambara endemics and near-endemics found in Manga, four 

species, the rodent, Beamys hindei and the butterflies Charaxes contrarius, Charaxes 

lasti and Charaxes usambarae appear to be locally common as they were recorded at 

least three times during the survey. 

5.5.1.1 Forest dependent species 

Of the 53 forest dependent species, eight appear to be locally common. These are: 

Mertensophryne micranotis, Leptopelis flavomaculatus and six butterfly species. This 

does not include birds as abundance was not systematically recorded for birds nor 

molluscs and millipedes as insufficient information is known on their ecological 

requirements. 

5.5.1.1 High risk species 

The locally uncommon species that are both forest dependent and near-endemic or 

endemic should be of conservation concern due to their low poulation density and 

restricted range. These species are: Rhynchocyon petersi, Leptotyphlops macrops, 

Lygodactylus kimhowelli, Aparallactus werneri, Bebearia chriemhilda and Euthecta 

sp. nov. Melanoseps longicauda may also be at high risk although it is unclear 

whether the reason for it being recorded so rarely is due to its scarcity or to it being 

highly cryptic. 

5.5.2 Ecological type 

Of the forest dependent species, four are mammals, 18 are birds, four are reptiles, five 

are amphibians and 22 are butterflies. 

Twenty-one non-forest species are established in the reserve. These non-forest 

species are: Streptopelia semitorquata, Centropus superciliosus, Caprimulgus 

pectoralis, Phoeniculus purpureus, Pycononotus barbatus, Apalis flavida, Mabuya 

boulengeri, Bitis arietans, Panaspis wahlbergii and Bufo maculatus, Acraea neobule, 

Charaxes jahlusa, Charaxes zoolina, Junonia hierta, Junonia oenone, Belenois 


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5.5 Discussion 

5.5.1 Species richness and abundance 

In this section, species are examined in terms of how frequently they were recorded. 

Those species which have been captured or observed three or more times during the 

survey are considered locally common. An assumption is made that the frequency 

with which an animal is recorded reflects its abundance. It is recognised that some 

species are highly cryptic and so are easily overlooked. Such cryptic species may 

therefore be more abundant than is suggested by this survey. However the objective 

of this discussion is to identify species which may of concern as well as broadly to 

describe the typical fauna of the forest. 

Table 34. Summary of faunal families and species. 

Taxon Number of families Number of species 

Mammals 16 30 

Bird 35 82 

Reptiles 13 26 

Amphibians 8 22 

Butterflies 8 102 

Millipedes 7 12 

Molluscs 8 16 

Relative to other forest reserves in the East Usambaras the species richness of Manga 

FR is above average for mammals (24), reptiles (21), amphibians (16) and butterflies 

(50). 

Table 35. Summary of capture locations of faunal species by plot number. 

Taxon 1* 2 5 10* 12* 30* 42* 32 Unknown capture 

location 

Mammal** 3 1 1 8 5 5 0 

Reptile 6 2 1 5 4 4 1 10 

Amphibian 7 6 8 2 2 1 20 

Butterflies 42 38 36 21 27 

* Trap site. 

**primates and bats excluded due to their large ranges. 

5.5.1.1 Mammals 

The most commonly recorded small mammal (excluding bats) was Crocidura sp.. 

Other animals which appear to be common locally are Beamys hindei, Grammomys 

sp., Acomys sp., and Mus sp.. The most commonly caught bat was Hipposideros 

ruber. Two other species, Epomophorus wahlbergi and Rhinolophus deckenii are 

also locally common. 

5.5.1.1 Reptiles 

The most commonly caught reptile species was Hemidactylus mabouia. It was 

recorded eleven times. The other species which appear to be locally common are 

Mabuya m. maculilabris, Leptotyphlops scutifrons merkeri, Philothamnus punctatus, 

Thelotornis capensis mossambicanus and Cordylus t. tropidosternum. 


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5.4.6.3 Millipedes 

A total of 12 species from seven families were collected during casual collections. At 

least three genera and four new species were discovered during this survey. The 

identification of those millipedes collected during the systematic collections has not 

been completed. 

Table 33. Summary of millipedes. 

Species 

SPIROBOLIDA 

PACHYBOLIDAE 

Gen & Sp. Nov. 

SPIROSTREPTIDA 

SPIROSTREPTIDAE 

Otostreptus stylifer 

Lophostreptus aff. Armatus (Pocock) 

HARPAGOPHORIDAE 

Apoctenophora sp. indet. 

ODONTOPYGIDAE 

Xystopyge ?robusta (Attems) 

Xystopyge sp. indet. 

Gen. & Sp. Nov. 

POLYDESMIDA 

PARADOXOSOMATIDAE 

Aklerobunus sp.? 

OXYDESMIDAE 

Ctenodesus pectinatus 

Rhododesmus mastophorus 

GOMPHODESMIDAE 

Astrodesmus laxus 

Marptodesminae gen. & sp. nov. 


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A total of 208 specimens were retained for taxonomic purposes. Only those 

specimens collected casually have been identified. These represent 16 species from 8 

families. Remaining specimens are held at the Zoological Museum of Copenhagen 

and await identification. 

Table 32. Summary of molluscs. 

Species Total 

ACHATINIDAE 

Achatina albopicta ? (half grown) 1 

ARIOPHANTIDAE 

Sitala leroyi 2 

Sitala jenynsi 1 

ENIDAE 

Rhachistia picturata 2 

Rhacidina braunsi 2 

MAIZANIIDAE 

Maizania sp. 3 

POMATIASIDAE 

Tropidophora calcarea 2 

STREPTAXIDAE 

Edentulina ovoidea 2 

Tayloria usambarica 1 

Streptaxis sp. 2 

Streptaxis craveni 1 

SUBULINIDAE 

Pseudoglessula sp. 1 

Eunyma magilensis 2 

UROCYCLIDAE 

Atoxon sp. 1 

Elisolimax sp. 1 

Urocyclos kirkii / elegans 1 

Unidentified Urocyclid 6 


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Species Ecological Endemic Capture location by plot and number Total 

type status 

collected 

1 42 30 12 10 Other 

LYCAENIDAE 

Anthene lemnos f W 1 1 

Anthene sp. 1 1 

Axiocerses tjoane O W 1 1 

Baliochila latimarginata F N 1 1 

Eicochrysops hippocrates f W 1 1 

Euthecta sp. nov. E 1 1 

Leptotes pirithous f W 1 1 1 

Pentila rogersi F N 1 1 

Pentila tropicalis F W 1 1 2 

Spalgis lemolea f W 1 1 

Teriomima subpunctata 

HESPERIDAE 

F N 1 1 

Acada biseriatus f W 1 1 2 

Ampittia parva f W 1 1 2 

Andronymus neander f W 1 1 

Asticoptrerus stellatus f W 1 1 

Astictopterus tura f N 1 1 

Borbo fatuellus f W 1 1 

Borbo lugens f W 1 1 

Celaenorrhinus galenus F W 1 1 

Coeliades chalybe f W 1 1 

Pardaleodes incerta f W 1 1 

Tagiades flesus f W 1 1 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 31 (Definitions based on those described in Section 1.2). 

Ecological type: 

• F - Forest dependent species: This is defined as primary forest only. It does not include forest edge or secondary forest; 

• f - Forest dwelling but not forest dependent: Species occurring in primary forest as defined above as well as other vegetation 

types. Thus these are not forest-dependent species; and 

• O - Non-forest species: These are species that do not occur in primary or secondary forest or forest edge. 

Endemic status: 

• E - Endemic: Occurring only in the Usambara mountains; 

• N - Near endemic: Species with limited ranges usually only including coastal forest and/or East African lowland forests; 

• W - Widespread distribution. 


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type status 

collected 

1 42 30 12 10 Other 

NYMPHALIDAE cont. 

Charaxes contrarius f N 4 4 

Charaxes etesipe F W 1 1 

Charaxes ethalion f W 1 1 

Charaxes jahlusa O W 9 1 10 

Charaxes lasti F N 1 9 27 5 1 43 

Charaxes macclounii f W 1 1 

Charaxes protoclea F W 4 1 5 

Charaxes usambarae F E 3 3 

Charaxes varanes f W 1 1 2 

Charaxes violetta f W 13 3 2 5 23 

Charaxes xiphares F W 2 1 3 

Charaxes zoolina f W 2 1 3 

Euphaedra neophron F W 2 2 

Euptera kinungnana F W 2 2 

Euryphura achlys F W 3 3 6 

Eurytela dryope f W 1 1 1 6 9 

Euxanthe wakefieldi f W 1 1 3 1 6 

Hamanumida daedalus f W 3 3 

Hypolimnas anthedon f W 1 1 2 1 6 11 

Hypolimnas deceptor f W 1 4 5 

Hypolimnas misippus f W 4 1 1 1 6 

Junonia natalica f W 2 2 

Junonia oenone O W 4 5 1 9 

Libythea labdaca f W 2 1 2 5 

Neptidopsis ophione f W 1 1 

Neptis carcassoni f W 3 3 

Neptis goochi f W 1 1 2 

Neptis melicerta F W 1 1 

Neptis saclava f W 3 2 5 

Neptis serena f W 1 1 

Neptis sp. 1 1 

Neptis trigonophora F W 1 1 

Pseudacrea boisduvali f W 3 3 

Pseudacrea dolomena f W 1 1 

Pseudacrea eurytus F W 1 1 

Pseudacrea lucretia F W 4 1 27 32 

Tirumala petiverana 

ACRAEIDAE 

f W 2 1 3 

Acraea encedon O W 1 1 

Acraea eponina f W 1 2 1 3 

Acraea esebria f W 2 2 

Acraea insignis f W 1 1 

Acraea johnstoni f W 1 1 

Acraea natalica O W 1 1 

Acraea neobule O W 1 1 2 

Acraea rabbaiae f W 1 1 

Acraea servona F W 1 1 

Acraea zonata F W 1 1 

Bematistes adrasta f W 1 1 


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5.4.6 Invertebrates 

5.4.6.1.1 Butterflies 

A total of 515 individuals were retained for taxonomic purposes. These specimens 

represent 102 species from eight families. Ecological type and endemic status were 

compiled from Kielland (1990) and Larsen (1996). Identifications were made by 

Steve Collins and the late Jan Kielland. Specimens are held at the African Butterfly 

Research Institute in Nairobi. 

Table 31. Summary of butterflies. 


type status 

collected 

1 42 30 12 10 Other 

PAPILIONIDAE 

Papilio constantinus f W 1 1 

Papilio dardanus f W 2 2 1 5 

Papilio demodocus 

PIERIDAE 

f W 1 1 2 

Appias lasti f W 1 1 2 

Appias sabina f W 1 1 

Belenois aurota f W 1 1 

Belenois creona O W 7 3 4 14 

Belenois thysa f W 1 1 13 15 

Catopsilia florella f W 4 2 6 

Colotis evippe f W 2 4 6 

Colotis ione O W 1 1 

Eurema brigitta O W 1 1 

Eurema floricola O W 1 9 2 12 

Eurema senegalensis F W 1 4 5 

Leptosia alcesta f W 2 1 3 

Nepheronia argia 

DANAIDAE 

F W 2 2 

Danaus chrysippus f W 5 5 

Danaus petiverana 

SATYRIDAE 

f W 1 1 1 

Bicyclus campinus f W 6 1 4 11 

Bicyclus safitza f W 16 15 3 5 40 79 

Melanitis leda f W 3 6 4 4 12 29 

Ypthimomorpha itonia 

NYMPHALIDAE 

O W 1 1 

Amauris niavius f W 1 1 1 2 

Amauris ochlea f W 1 1 2 

Apaturopsis cleochares F W 2 4 1 7 

Aterica galene F W 1 1 

Bebearia chriemhilda F N 1 1 

Byblia ilithyia f W 3 3 

Charaxes acuminatus F W 4 2 6 

Charaxes aubyni F W 1 1 

Charaxes brutus f W 4 1 6 2 13 

Charaxes candiope f W 1 1 

Charaxes castor f W 2 2 

Charaxes cithaeron f W 1 6 6 13 


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Figure 29. Distribution of near-endemic amphibian species. 


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Figure 28. Distribution of forest dependent amphibian species. 


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Ecol. End. IUCN Capture site by plot and number Total 

type status status 

collected 

1 30 12 10 42 32 35 UK 

PIPIDAE 

Tropical platanna 

Xenopus muelleri 

SCOLECOMORPHIDAE 

f W 2 2 

Scolecomorphus vittatus F N V 1 1 

Unknown 5 6 11 










IUCN status: 

• EN - Endangered 

• V - Vulnerable 

Table 30. Ranges for near-endemic amphibian species recorded (Howell, 1993). 

Species Range 

Hyperolius mariae Coastal lowlands of NE Tanzania, S.E. Kenya, also Zanzibar 

and Mafia. 

Leptopelis parkeri Usambara, Uluguru and Udzungwa Mountains. 

Afrixalus sylvaticus Kwale, Kenya. 

Scolecomorphus vittatus Usambara, Uluguru, N. Pare Mountains. 

Mertensophryne micranotis Coastal forests including Sokoke Forest in Kenya, E. 

Usambaras including Kilulu Hill, Zanzibar and Songo-Songo 

Island (Kilwa District). 


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5.4.5 Amphibians 


represent 22 species from eight families. Ecological type, endemic status and IUCN 

status were compiled from the National Biodiversity Database (UDSM, 1996), 

Poynton & Broadley (1991). Common names are from Passmore & Carruthers (1995). 

Table 29. Summary of amphibians. 

Ecol. End. IUCN Capture site by plot and number Total 


collected 

1 30 12 10 42 32 35 UK 

ARTHROLEPTIDAE 

Common squeaker 

Arthroleptis stenodactylus f W 13 33 27 31 2 19 125 

Arthroleptis xenodactyloides f W 4 10 14 

Arthroleptis sp. 

BUFONIDAE 

Guttural toad 

5 26 2 33 

Bufo gutturalis f W 22 7 1 2 32 

Bufo lindneri 

Flat-backed toad 

f W 2 2 

Bufo maculatus O W 1 1 1 3 

Bufo sp. 

Bunty’s dwarf toad 

6 6 

Mertensophryne micranotis 

HEMISIDAE 

Marbled shovel-nose 

F N EN 1 2 3 

Hemisus marmoratus 

HYPEROLIDAE 

Argus reed frog 

f W 6 11 25 42 

Hyperolius argus 

Coast reed frog 

f W 3 3 

Hyperolius mariae f N 2 2 

Hyperolius puncticulatus (?) 

Tinker reed frog 

F W 1 1 

Hyperolius tuberilinguis 

Ornate treefrog 

f W 4 4 

Leptopelis flavomaculatus 

Glade treefrog 

F W 4 2 6 12 

Leptopelis argenteus 

Glass tree frog 

O W 3 3 

Leptopelis parkeri F N 1 1 

Leptopelis sp. 1 1 

Afrixalus brachycnemis O W 2 2 

Afrixalus sylvaticus F N 3 3 

Afrixalus sp. 

RANIDAE 

Zanzibar puddle frog 

10 10 

Phrynobatrachus acridoides 

Plain grass frog 

f W 10 10 

Ptychadena anchietae 

Sharp-nosed grass frog 

f W 1 1 1 3 

Ptychadena oxyrhynchus 

RHACOPHORIDAE 

Foam-nest treefrog 

f W 1 1 

Chiromantis xerampelina f W 1 1 2 


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Figure 27. Distribution of near-endemic reptile species. 


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Figure 26. Distribution of forest dependent reptile species. 


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• LC – Least concern 

UK - Unknown capture location 

Table 28. Ranges for endemic and near-endemic reptile species recorded (Howell, 

1993). 

Near-endemic Species Range 

Lygodactylus kimhowelli Amboni Caves Forest and E. Usambara Mountains. 

Melanoseps longicauda Northeastern Tanzania (also S.E. Kenya?). 

Leptotyphlops macrops E. Usambaras, coastal forests of NE Tanzania and SE 

Kenya. 

Aparallactus werneri Usambara and Uluguru Mountains. 


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Species Ecol. End. IUCN Capture location by plot and number Total 


collected 

1 2 5 10 12 30 42 UK 

COLUBRIDAE cont. 

Olive marsh-snake 

Natriciteres olivacea 

East African shovel-snout 

f W 1 1 

Prosymna ambigua 

stuhlmanni 

South-eastern green-snake 

f W 1 1 

Philothamnus hoplogaster 

Spotted bush-snake 

f W 1 1 

Philothamnus punctatus 

Herald snake 

f W 1 1 1 3 

Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia 

Northern marbled tree-snake 

F W 1 1 

Dipsadoboa flavida 

broadleyi 

Brown house snake 

f W 2 2 

Lamprophis capensis 

Mozambique vine-snake 

f W 1 1 

Thelotornis capensis 

mossambicanus 

f W 1 1 1 3 

Table 27. Summary of reptile observations. 

Species Certainty Ecological Endemic Observation 

LACERTIDAE 

Eastern serrate-toed 

tree-lizard 

type status 

location 

Holaspis guentheri 

ELAPIDAE 

Forest cobra 

Definite f W UK 

Naja melanoleuca 

VARANIDAE 

Nile monitor 

Definite f W UK 

Varanus niloticus 

CROCODYLIDAE 

Nile crocodile 

Definite f W Near Sigi River 

Crocodylus niloticus Definite f W Sigi River 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 26 & 27 (Definitions based on those described in Section 1.2). 









IUCN status: 


• V - Vulnerable 

• NT - Near-threatened 


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5.4.4 Reptiles 


represent 22 species from 9 families. An additional four species from four families 

were observed but not collected. Ecological type, endemic status and IUCN status 

were compiled from the National Biodiversity Database (1996), Broadley & Howell 

(unpubl.), Howell (1993), and Branch (1994). Nomenclature follows Broadley and 

Howell (1991). 

Table 26. Summary of reptiles. 

Species Ecol. End. IUCN Capture location by plot and number Total 


collected 

1 2 5 10 12 30 42 UK 

TESTUDINIDAE 

Southeastern hinge-back 

tortoise 

Kinixys belliana 

GEKKONIDAE 

Tropical house gecko 

f W 1 1 

Hemidactylus mabouia f W 1 1 1 8 11 

Lygodactylus kimhowelli 

AGAMIDAE 

Montane rock agama 

F N EN 1 1 

Agama montana 

CHAMAELEONIDAE 

Common flap-necked 

chameleon 

F N V 1 1 

Chamaeleo dilepis 

SCINCIDAE 

Long-tailed limbless skink 

f W 1 1 

Melanoseps longicauda 

Boulenger’s skink 

f N DD 1 1 

Mabuya boulengeri 

Speckle-lipped skink 

O W 1 1 

Mabuya maculilabris 

Maculilabris 

Savanna snake-eyed skink 

f W 3 1 4 

Panaspis wahlbergii 

CORDYLIDAE 

East African spiny-tailed 

lizard 

O W 1 1 2 

Cordylus t. tropidosternum 

LEPTOTYPHLOPIDAE 

Worm-snake 

f W 1 1 1 3 

Leptotyphlops macrops 

Merker’s worm-snake 

F N 1 1 

Leptotyphlops scutifrons 

merkeri 

VIPERIDAE 

Puff adder 

f W LC 1 3 4 

Bitis arietans arietans 

COLUBRIDAE 

Usambara centipede-eater 

O W 1 1 

Aparallactus werneri F N V 1 1 


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IUCN status: 

• V – Vulnerable 

• LC – Least concern 

• NT – Near Threatened 


Technical Paper 41


Species English Name Ecological Endemic IUCN 

TYTONIDAE 


Tyto alba 

APODIDAE 

Barn owl O W LC 

Cypsiurus parvus African palm swift O W 

Apus affinis 

COLIIDAE 

Little swift O W 

Colius striatus 

ALCEDINIDAE 

Speckled mousebird O W 

Alcedo semitorquata Half-collared kingfisher O W 

Ceryle rudis Pied kingfisher O W 

Megaceryle maxima 

MEROPIDAE 

Giant kingfisher O W 

Merops apiaster 

CORACIIDAE 

Eurasian bee-eater O W 

Eurystomus glaucurus 

INDICATORIDAE 

Broad-billed roller O W 

Indicator indicator Black-throated honeyguide O W 

Indicator minor 

HIRUNDINIDAE 

Lesser honeyguide O W 

Hirundo abyssinica Lesser striped swallow O W 

Hirundo smithii 

PICNONOTIDAE 

Wire-tailed swallow O W 

Andropardus importunus 

TURDIDAE 

Zanzibar sombre greenbul O W 

Cossypha caffra 

MUSCICAPIDAE 

Cape robin-chat O W 

Muscicapa striata 

SYLVIIDAE 

Spotted flycatcher O W 

Prinia subflava 

MALACONOTIDAE 

Tawny-flanked prinia O W 

Tchagra australis 

ORIOLIDAE 

Brown-crowned tchagra O W 

Oriolus larvatus 

CORVIDAE 

Black-headed oriole O W 

Corvus albicollis 

NECTARINIIDAE 

White-naped raven f W 

Nectarinia bifasciata 

PLOCEIDAE 

Purple-banded sunbird O W 

Amblyospiza albifrons Grosbeak-weaver O W 

Ploceus ocularis Spectacled weaver O W 

Ploceus cucullatus Black-headed weaver O W 

Euplectes nigroventris Zanzibar red bishop O W 

Euplectes capensis 

ESTRILDIDAE 

Yellow bishop O W 

Estrilda astrild Common waxbill O W 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 24 and 25 (Definitions based on those described in Section 1.2). 







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PLATYSTEIRIDAE 


Batis mixta Forest batis f W LC 

Bias musicus 

PRIONOPIDAE 

Black-and-white flycatcher F W 

Prionops retzii Retz's helmet-shrike f W 

Prionops scopifrons 

MALACONOTIDAE 

Chestnut-fronted helmet-shrike f W 

Dryoscopus cubla Black-backed puffback f W 

Laniarius aethiopicus 

CAMPEPHAGIDAE 

Tropical boubou f W 

Campephaga flava 

DICRURIDAE 

Black cuckoo-shrike f W 

Dicrurus adsimilis Common drongo f W 

Dicrurus ludwigii 

ORIOLIDAE 

Square-tailed drongo f W 

Oriolus auratus African golden oriole f W 

Oriolus chlorocephauls 

STURNIDAE 

Green-headed oriole f W 

Lamprotornis corruscus 

NECTARINIIDAE 

Black-breasted glossy starling f W 

Anthreptes collaris Collared sunbird f W 

Anthreptes neglectus Uluguru violet-backed sunbird F W 

Anthreptes pallidigaster Amani sunbird F N 

Nectarinia olivacea 

PLOCEIDAE 

Olive sunbird f W 

Ploceus bicolor 

ESTRILDIDAE 

Dark-backed weaver f W 

Hypargos niveoguttatus Peter's twinspot f W 

Mandingoa nitidula Green-backed twinspot f W 

Spermophaga ruficapilla Red-headed bluebill F W 

An additional 34 species were recorded from agricultural land adjacent to the forest 

reserve and from the Sigi River. These records are not included in the summary 

statistics. 

Table 25. Birds recorded from adjacent public land. 


SCOPIDAE 


Scopus umbretta 

ACCIPITRIDAE 

Hamerkop O W 

Buteo sp. Buzzard W 

Hieraaetus pennatus 

HELIORNITHIDAE 

Booted eagle O W LC 

Podica senegalensis 

SCOLOPACIDAE 

African finfoot O W 

Actitis hypoleucos 

COLUMBIDAE 

Common sandpiper f W 

Turtur afer 

CUCULIDAE 

Blue-spotted wood dove f W 

Oxylopus levaillantii Levaillant's cuckoo f W 


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BUCEROTIDAE 


Bycanistes bucinator Trumpeter hornbill f W 

Tockus alboterminatus 

CAPITONIDAE 

Crowned hornbill f W 

Pogoniulus simplex Eastern green tinkerbird F W LC 

Stactolaema leucotis White-eared barbet f W 

Stactolaema olivacea 

INDICATORIDAE 

Green barbet F W LC 

Indicator meliphilus Pallid honeyguide f W 

Indicator variegatus 

PICIDAE 

Scaly-throated honeyguide f W 

Campethera mombassica Mombasa woodpecker f W LC 

Campethera cailliautii Little spotted woodpecker f W 

Dendropicos fuscescens 

EURYLAIMIDAE 

Cardinal woodpecker f W 

Smithornis capensis 

MOTACILLIDAE 

African broadbill F W LC 

Motacilla clara 

HIRUNDINIDAE 

Mountain wagtail f W 

Psalidoprocne holomelas 

PYCNONOTIDAE 

Black saw-wing f W 

Andropadus virens Little greenbul f W 

Chlorocichla flaviventris Yellow-bellied greenbul f W 

Nicator gularis Eastern nicator f W 

Phyllastrephus debilis Tiny greenbul F W 

Phyllastrephus flavostriatus Yellow-streaked greenbul F W 

Pycnonotus barbatus 

TIMALIIDAE 

Common bulbul f W 

Illadopsis rufipennis 

TURDIDAE 

Pale-breasted illadopsis F W 

Cercotrichas quadrivirgata Eastern bearded scrub robin f W 

Cossypha natalensis Red-capped robin-chat f W 

Neocossyphus rufus Red-tailed ant thrush f W LC 

Sheppardia gunningi 

MUSCICAPIDAE 

East Coast akalat F N V 

Muscicapa caerulescens Ashy flycatcher f W 

Myioparus plumbeus 

CERTHIIDAE 

Lead-coloured flycatcher f W 

Erythrocercus holochlorus 

MONARCHIDAE 

Little yellow flycatcher f W 

Terpsiphone viridis African paradise flycatcher f W 

Trochocercus cyanomelas 

SYLVIIDAE 

Blue-mantled crested flycatcher F W 

Apalis flavida Yellow-breasted apalis f W 

Apalis melanocephala Black-headed apalis F W 

Camaroptera brachyura Grey-backed camaroptera f W 

Hyliota australis Southern hyliota f W 

Macrosphenus kretschmeri Kretschmer's longbill F W LC 


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5.4.3 Birds 

A total of 82 species from 35 families were recorded within the reserve. An 

additional 34 species and seven families not recorded within the reserve were 

recorded from outside of the reserve along the Sigi River and in neighbouring 

agricultural land. These additional species are not included in the summary 

information. Ecological type, endemic status and IUCN status were compiled from 

the National Biodiversity Database (1997) IUCN (1996) and Zimmerman et al. 

(1996). Nomenclature follows Zimmerman et al. (1996). 

Table 24. Summary of birds. 


ACCIPITIRIDAE 


Accipiter melanoleucus Great sparrowhawk f W LC 

Accipiter minullus Little sparrowhawk f W LC 

Accipiter tachiro African goshawk f W LC 

Circaetus fasciolatus Southern banded snake eagle F W LC 

Gypohierax angolensis Palm-nut vulture f W LC 

Hiraaetus ayresii Ayres's hawk-eagle f W LC 

Lophaetus occipitalis Long-crested eagle f W LC 

Polyboroiodes typus African harrier hawk f W LC 

Stephanoaetus coronatus 

NUMIDIDAE 

African crowned eagle f W LC 

Gutter pucherani 

COLUMBIDAE 

Crested guineafowl f W 

Columba delegorguei Eastern bronze-naped pigeon F W 

Streptopelia semitorquata Red-eyed dove f W 

Treron calva African green pigeon F W 

Turtur tympanistria 

MUSOPHAGIDAE 

Tambourine dove f W 

Tauraco fischeri 

CUCULIDAE 

Fischer's turaco f W NT 

Centropus superciliosus White-browed coucal O W 

Cercococcyx montanus patulus Barred long-tailed cuckoo F W 

Ceuthmochares aereus Yellowbill f W 

Chrysococcyx klaas 

STRIGIDAE 

Klaas's cuckoo f W 

Otus ireneae Sokoke scops owl f N V 

Strix woodfordii 

CAPRIMULGIDAE 

African wood owl f W LC 

Caprimulgus pectoralis 

APODIDAE 

Fiery-necked nightjar O W 

Telacanthura ussheri 

TROGONIDAE 

Mottled spinetail f W 

Apaloderma narina Narina trogon f W 

Apaloderma vittatum 

ALCEDINIDAE 

Bar-tailed trogon F W LC 

Halcyon albiventris 

PHOENICULIDAE 

Brown-hooded kingfisher f W 

Phoeniculus purpureus Green wood-hoopoe f W 


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Figure 25. Distribution of near-endemic mammal species. 


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Figure 24. Distribution of forest dependent mammal species. 


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5.4.2 Bats 

A total of 20 individuals were retained for taxonomic purposes. These represent ten 

species from five families. Ecological type, endemic status and IUCN status were 

compiled from the National Biodiversity Database (UDSM, 1996), IUCN (1996) 

Kingdon (1974) and Kingdon (1997). Nomenclature follows Kingdon (1997). 

Table 23. Summary of bats. 

Species Common name Ecological Endemic Number 

PTEROPODIDAE 

type status collected 

Rousettus aegyptiacus Egyptian rousette bat f W 2 

Epomophorus wahlbergi Epauletted fruit bat f W 3 

Myonycteris relicta Collared fruit bat W 2 

Microchiroptera 

HIPPOSIDERIDAE 

Hipposideros ruber Leaf-nosed bat f W 4 

Triaenops persicus afer Persian leaf-nosed bat f W 1 

RHINOLOPHIDAE 

Rhinolophus landeri Horseshoe bat f W 1 

Rhinolophus deckenii Horseshoe bat f W 3 

VESPERTILIONIDAE 

Myotis bocagei hildegardeae Hairy bat f W 2 

Miniopterus fraterculus Long-fingered bat f W 1 

MOLOSSIDAE 

Tadarida (Chaerephon) pumila Guano bat f W 1 (in barn 

owl pellets) 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 23 (Definitions based in Section 1.2). 

Ecological (Ecol.) type: 



Endemic (End.) status: 



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6.4.1.3 Mammal observations 

A total of 10 species from seven families were observed but not retained for 

taxonomic purposes. Ecological type, endemic status and IUCN status were compiled 

from the National Biodiversity Database (UDSM, 1996) and Kingdon (1989). 

Table 22. Summary of mammal observations. 

Species Certainty Ecol. type End. status IUCN Observation 

COLOBIDAE 

Angola pied colobus 

status location by plot 

Colobus angolensis 

CERCOPITHECIDAE 

Yellow baboon 

definite F W 2, 30 

Papio cynocephalus 

Vervet monkey 

definite f W 

Cercopithecus aethiops 

Gentle monkey 

definite f W 

Cercopithecus mitis 

GALAGONIDAE 

Small-eared galago 

definite f W 

Otolemur garnetti 

Matundu galago 

definite f W 

Galago sp. nov. ‘udzungwensis’ 

MACROSCELIDIDAE 

Zanj elephant shrew 

probable f W 

Rhynchocyon petersi 

VIVERRIDAE 

African palm civet 

definite F N EN 30 

Nandinia binotata 

SUIDAE 

Bush pig 

probable f W UK 

Potamochoerus larvatus 

BOVIDAE 

Blue duiker 

definite f W 

Cephalophus monticola definite F W 15, 43 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 21 and 22 (Definitions based on those described in Section 1.2). 









IUCN status: 


u/k: Unknown capture location 

Certainty: Indicates the probability of the correctness of the identity of the species observed; 

Definite: Can be regarded as occurring in the reserve. 

Probable: Identification is likely but requires further information before being considered on the reserve’s species 

list. 

Possible: Species identification is may not be accurate. 


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6.4.1.2 Dung survey 

Dung from at least seven mammal species was recorded. Identifications were made 

based on a reference collection, discussions with local hunters and using Walker 

(1988). It is difficult to determine the dung of particular duiker species and so the 

differentiation between Cephalophus monticola and the Sylvicapra grimmia may be 

unreliable. 

Table 20. Abundance of duiker, bushbuck and hyrax dung. 

Duiker Bushbuck Hyrax 

Transect Transect Dung sitings Rate / ha Dung Rate / ha Dung Rate / ha 

length 

sitings 

sitings 

1 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 

2 3128 24 19 4 3 0 0 

3 3484 20 14 1 1 0 0 

4 4050 15 9 2 1 0 0 

5 3036 16 13 0 0 0 0 

6 650 0 0 0 0 0 0 

Table 21. Summary of dung survey. 

Species Ecol. Type End. Status IUCN status Times encountered 

THRYONOMYIDAE 

Cane rat 

Thryonomys sp. W 1 

MURIDAE 

Common mouse 

Mus sp. W 4 

MACROSCELIDIDAE 

Four-toed elephant shrew 

Petrodromus tetradactylus f W 

SUIDAE 12 

Bush pig 

Potamochoerus larvatus f W 1 

BOVIDAE 

Bushbuck 

Tragelaphus scriptus f W 7 

Bush duiker 

Sylvicapra grimmia O W 9 

Blue duiker 

Cephalophus monticola f W 55 


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5.4 Results 

5.4.1 Small mammals (non-bat) 

A total of 69 specimens were retained for taxonomic purposes. These specimens 

represent at least ten species from six families. Many have yet to be identified to 

species level. Ecological type, endemic status and IUCN status were compiled from 

the National Biodiversity Database (UDSM, 1996), Kingdon (1989), Kingdon (1997) 

and IUCN (1996). Nomenclature follows Kingdon (1997) and Kingdon (1989). 

Table 19. Summary of mammals. 

Species Ecol. Endemic IUCN Capture location and number Total 


collected 

1 2 5 10 12 30 

CRICETIDAE 

Lesser pouched rat 

Beamys hindei 

MURIDAE 

Narrow-footed woodland 

mice 

f N V 6 4 1 11 

Grammomys sp. 

Soft-furred rats 

1 1 6 10 18 

Praomys sp. 

Spiny mice 

2 2 

Acomys sp. 

Common mice 

3 3 

Mus sp. 

Multimammate rats 

6 2 8 

Mastomys sp. 2 2 

Rodents not yet identified. 

SCIURIDAE 

Red-bellied coast squirrel 

1 1 2 

Paraxerus palliatus 

MACROSCELIDINAE 

Four-toed elephant shrew 

F W 1 1 

Petrodromus 

tetradactylus 

SORICIDAE 

White-toothed shrews 

f W 1 1 

Crocidura sp. 

VIVERRIDAE 

African civet 

3 1 14 1 19 

Civettictis civetta f W 1 1 2 


Ecological (ecol.) type: 




Endemic (end.) status: 



IUCN status: 

• V = Vulnerable 


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Figure 23. Location of trapping sites. 


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5.3 Trapping sites and sampling intensity 

Five trapping sites were conducted in various habitats. Table 16 describes the sites 

and Tables 17 and 18 summarise the sampling intensity for each site and for each 

trapping method. 

Table 16. Summary descriptions of trapping sites. 

Plot 

number 

Vegetation type Altitude (m) Topography Slope 

(degrees) 

10 grassland / open woodland 145 gentle mid-slope 13 

12 lowland forest 115 gentle lower slope 11 

30 lowland forest 150 gentle lower slope 12 

42 lowland forest 318 ridge / hill top / peak 15 

1 riverine forest 120 steep lower slope 29 

Table 17. Sampling intensity by trap night (number of nights x number of traps). 

Trapping method Plot 10 Plot 12 Plot 30 Plot 42 Plot 1 

Date 7 th -16 th July 18 th -26 th July 29 th July - 7 th 

August 

10 th -19 th 

August 

20 th -29 th 

August 

Snap traps 926 989 938 965 979 

Bucket pitfall* 330 330 330 330 330 

Butterfly traps 50 50 50 50 50 

Molluscs** 3 3 3 3 3 

Millipedes** 3 3 3 3 3 

* Each bucket represents one trap night. 

**This represents plots sampled not trap nights. 

Table 18. Summary of bat-netting sites. 

Site description Sampling 

intensity 

(hours) 

Altitude Topography 

Across Mruka River 12 110 Valley floor 

Across Manga access road 12 128 Gentle lower slope 

Manga Peak 12 320 Hill top 


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5.2.5.1 Butterflies 

The aim of this study was to collect and identify a representative sample of the reserve’s 

butterfly community. The community of butterflies was sampled using ‘Blendon’ 

styled traps set in the tree canopy. Rotting bananas were used for bait. Traps were 

checked every morning. Five traps are set for 10 nights in each of the five trapping 

sites. Identifications were made by Steve Collins of the African Butterfly Research 

Institute and the late Jan Kielland. Specimens are deposited at the African Butterfly 

Research Institute. 


The aim of this study was to collect and identify a representative sample of the 

reserve’s mollusc community. The community of molluscs was sampled within three 

1 m x 1 m plots at each trapping site. Plots were measured and string laid out along 

the boundaries. Leaf litter and the upper layers of soil were searched. All specimens 

were collected. Unless otherwise indicated, taxonomic identifications were made by 

Dr. B. Verdcourt (see Appendix 2). 

5.2.5.3 Millipedes 

The aim of this study was to collect and identify a representative sample of the 

reserve’s millipede community. The community of milllipedes was sampled within 

three 3 m x 3 m plots at each trapping site. Plots were measured and string laid out 

along the boundaries. Leaf litter and the upper layers of soil were searched. All 

specimens were collected. Unless otherwise indicated, taxonomic identifications were 

made by Dr. R. Hoffman (see Appendix 2). Specimens are deposited at the Virginia 

Museum of Natural History. 


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shortly before dawn for 420 hours (number of hours x number of nets). Each bat 

caught was weighed and measured at the netting site. Trapping and biometric 

information was recorded on standardised data sheets. 

5.2.1.4 Duiker dung survey 

The aim of this study is to provide base line information of the population size of 

duiker in the reserve. Because duiker respond quickly to conservation activity, 

repeating this method through time will give an indication as to how well 

conservation activities are actually working. 

The disturbance transects are surveyed for duiker dung from reserve border to border. 

The transects are walked by a team of three people. One person surveys 2 m on one 

side of the transect, the other person, 2 m on the other side. The third person records 

the findings. 

5.2.1.5 Mammal observations 

Other mammals including primates were recorded opportunistically throughout the 


5.2.2 Birds 

Birds were observed on a casual basis. The list is a provisional list only as no netting 

was carried out. 

5.2.3 Reptiles 

The aim of this study was to collect and identify a representative sample of the forest 

reptile community. The community of ground-dwelling reptiles was sampled using 

the bucket pitfall method (see 6.2.1.2 above). Opportunistic captures were also 

conducted by hand, and a snake stick where necessary. Unless otherwise indicated, 

taxonomic identifications were made by Prof. K. Howell or Dr. D. Broadley (see 

Appendix 2). Specimens are deposited at the Department of Zoology and Marine 

Biology, University of Dar es Salaam and at the Natural History Museum of 

Zimbabwe. 

5.2.4 Amphibians 

The aim of this study was to collect and identify a representative sample of the forest 

amphibian community. The community of ground-dwelling amphibians was sampled 

using the bucket pitfall method (see 6.2.1.2 above). Opportunistic captures were also 

conducted, especially in reference to tree frog collections since they are often beyond 

capture with the bucket pitfalls. After rain, typical amphibian habitats were targeted 

for sampling. Unless otherwise indicated, taxonomic identifications were made by 

Prof. K. Howell or by Prof. J. Poynton (see Appendix 2). Specimens are deposited at 

the Department of Zoology and Marine Biology, University of Dar es Salaam and at 

the British Natural History Museum. 

5.2.5 Invertebrates 

Three groups of invertebrates were sampled: (1) butterflies; (2) millepedes and (3) 

molluscs. 


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5.0 FAUNA 


The faunal biodiversity of Manga forest reserve was investigated using standard, 

repeatable, survey methods. Studies on small mammals, bats, reptiles, amphibians 

and various invertebrate groups were carried out. An inventory of all fauna 

encountered was compiled. This data was analysed to assess the biodiversity value of 

the area. 

5.2 Methods 

All methods used during the expedition survey are outlined in detail in the FT FRP 

methodologies report (SEE¸1998). A brief description is presented below. The 

location of trap sites are presented in Figure 23. 

5.2.1 Mammals 

Four different methods are used to sample the mammal community within Manga 

Forest Reserve: (1) snap trap lines, (2) bucket pitfalls, (3) bat netting (4) dung surveys 

and (5) opportunistic observations. Unless otherwise indicated, specimens were 

identified by Prof. K. Howell or by Dr. D. Kock (see Appendix 2). Specimens are 

deposited at the Department of Zoology and Marine Biology, University of Dar es 

Salaam and at the Frankfurt Zoological Museum. 

5.2.1.1 Snap-trap lines 

In order to sample the community of rodents, large break-back traps (snap-traps) were 

used. Typically the traps were set out in three lines of approximately 33, with traps 

positioned at least 2 m apart. The traps were set each evening and checked early the 

following morning. Half of traps were baited with fried coconut rolled in peanut 

butter, one quarter with fish and one quarter with oatmeal and peanut butter. Each 

mammal caught was weighed and measured. Trapping, habitat and biometric data 

were recorded on standardised data sheets. 

5.2.1.2 Bucket pitfall trapping 

The bucket pitfall traps consist of three lines of eleven 20 litre plastic buckets sunk 

flush to ground level in a linear transect. These were positioned approximately 5 m 

apart. A continuous piece of plastic sheeting ran perpendicular to the ground across 

the centre of each bucket forming a ‘drift fence’. A lip of plastic sheeting was kept on 

the ground on to which soil and leaf litter was placed. An animal was, therefore, 

channelled along the plastic to one of the buckets. The bucket pitfalls, acting as live 

traps, were designed for sampling shrews and small mice within the forest. Each 

mammal captured was weighed and measured. Trapping and biometric information 

was recorded on standardised data sheets. 

5.2.1.3 Bat netting 

Bat mist netting was used to collect and study a representative sample of the forest bat 

community, and also provide data on species’ ranges. Mist nets were placed near 

potential roost sites and across obvious flight “corridors”, such as paths and rivers. 

Nets were set up at dusk, observed continuously throughout the night and closed 


Technical Paper 41


Endemic Status 

Of the plant species recorded in the vegetation plots, 80 have widespread 

distributions. Near-endemics contribute 22 species from 14 families to the floristic 

composition of the reserve. These near-endemics are most abundant in the centre of 

the reserve and account for 208 of the surveyed specimens or 19.7% of all recorded 

trees and shrubs in the reserve. Of the 36 plots surveyed, seven were found to have 

greater than ten near-endemic trees. The most common near-endemics in the reserve 

are Scorodophloeus fischeri and Dombeya shupangae. Of these near-endemic 

species, seven species are also considered to be forest dependent. Two near-endemics 

are non-forest species 

Three of the species surveyed in the vegetation plots are endemic to the Usambaras. 

All three are found in both the East and West Usambaras and are Chassalia albiflora, 

Sericanthe odoratissima and Uvariodendron oligocarpum. All three species are 

considered to be forest dependent species, restricted to wet evergreen forest (Iversen, 

1991b). An additional two endemic species were recorded through casual collections, 

Psychotria triclada, and Tricalysia sp. H. 

Disturbance 

Pole and timber cutting is spread throughout the reserve although it was not recorded 

from all plots. It is most prevalent in the north-east and around the edges of the 

reserve. In 26% of the plots no pole cutting was recorded and in 50% no timber 

cutting was recorded. In almost 96% of plots, the natural rate of tree fall is higher 

than the rate of timber cutting. Similarly in 93% of plots the natural rate of sapling 

fall is higher than the rate of pole cutting. Between plots the highest rate of timber 

extraction was in Plot 20 at 60 timbers cut / ha. Pole cutting was also highest in this 

plot, at a rate of 80 poles / ha. There is access to this plot along an abandoned logging 

road. 

Fire was recorded from 37% of the plots. Recurrence of fire seems to be prolonging 

areas dominated by Rottboellia exaltata and Lantana camara. 

The forest has been disturbed by commercial timber extraction in the past and this is 

still evident from the network of abandoned logging trails and from the areas 

dominated by grass and disturbed secondary forest. 

A number of introduced species are established within the reserve particularly in areas 

previously inhabited by people. Introduced species recorded within the reserve 

include the fruit trees Mangifera indica, Citrus limonia, C. sinensis and Psidium 

guajava and the weed Olyra latifolia. 

The invasive species Maesopsis eminii was not recorded within the reserve. Since its 

introduction into the area this species has spread rapidly in the Usambara Mountains 

particularly around Amani where there is concern that it may begin to dominate the 

forest (Binggeli 1989). In 1997 it did not appear to be a problem in Manga. 

There was evidence of encroachment of agricultural land along the southern border of 

the reserve. At the time of the survey the position of the border was being clarified 

and clearly marked. 


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4.4 Discussion 

Manga forest reserve covers an area of 1616 ha with altitudes ranging from 120 to 320 

m asl. 

Species Richness 

In the systematic vegetation plots 1054 trees and shrubs were surveyed, representing 

115 species from 29 families. An additional one family and 10 species were recorded 

in the regeneration layer but not in the larger plots. Casual observations recorded a 

further 204 species from 24 families not previously recorded. In total 329 species of 

vascular plants from 54 families were recorded. 

Of the 36 plots systematically surveyed, 20 plots were in lowland forest, five plots in 

grassland, five plots in scrub/thicket, three in woodland and one in riverine forest. 

Relative to the other ten forest reserves so far surveyed by Frontier-Tanzania in the 

East Usambaras, Manga has a below average species richness (115/139) in the 

systematic vegetation plots. However when the casual collections made by the 

Missouri Botanical Gardens collectors are included the reserve has the highest species 

richness. Collecting effort is a significant factor in obtaining this result. 

Species Accumulation Rates 

After approximately 36 plots the species accumulation curve for the 50 m x 20 m 

subplots reaches an asymptote. Although this suggests that the majority of trees had 

been recorded by the systematic survey, numerous trees were only recorded through 

casual collections. 

Ecological Type 

Forest dependent species defined as limited to primary forest only were recorded 147 

times. This represents 14% of all specimens recorded. Forest dependent individuals 

are distributed throughout the reserve. They are most abundant in the south. The 

most common forest dependent tree Ehretia cymosa. Ten of the forest dependent 

species are also endemic or near-endemic to the Usambaras. 

Nineteen non-forest species were recorded. They were recorded throughout the 

reserve but were most abundant close to the northern grassland. Leucaena 

leucocephala is the most common non-forest species. It was recorded 34 times in a 

single plot. Dombeya shupangae was also abundant and was recorded 29 times from 

seven plots. 

Habitat 

Of the tree species surveyed in the vegetation plots with known altitude 

characteristics, 53% are considered to be typical of lowland forest and 32.2% are 

considered typical of submontane forest. Submontane species occur in 19 plots, all of 

which are in lowland forest. This data indicates the variability in the ecological 

requirements and niches of these submontane species. The most common 

submontane species is Cola greenwayi. 


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Figure 22. Areas of highest disturbance in relation to the distribution of tree and 

shrub individuals that are both forest dependent and near-endemic. 


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Figure 21. Areas of highest disturbance in relation to the distribution of tree and 

shrub individuals that are both forest dependent and endemic. 


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Table 15. Frequency of selected human disturbances recorded in the forest in 

vegetation plots and along disturbance transects. 

Disturbance Total number of plots in which Percentage of plots in which disturbance was 

disturbance was recorded 

recorded (n=34) 

Pole cutting 26 76 

Timber cutting 22 65 

Fire Damage 17 50 

Cultivation 3 9 

Pit saw workings 1 3 

Road 1 3 

Animal remains 1 3 

Old campsite 1 3 

Settlement 1 3 


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Figure 20. Distribution of timber cutting in the reserve. 


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Table 14. Disturbance transect results for timber counts. 

Transect 

number 

Length of 

transect 

(m) 

Total 

trees 

sampled 

Live 

trees 

Naturally 

fallen 

timber 

Rate 

per 

hectare 

Cut 

timber 

Rate 

per 

hectare 

Percentage 

of trees cut 

1 100 19 10 9 90.0 0 0.0 0.0 

2 3128 866 686 179 57.2 1 0.3 0.1 

3 3484 880 766 93 26.7 21 6.0 2.4 

4 4050 1065 879 134 33.1 52 12.8 4.9 

5 3036 956 787 137 45.1 32 10.5 3.3 

6 650 117 99 4 6.2 14 21.5 12.0 

Number of trees per ha 

350 

300 

250 

200 

150 

100 

50 

0 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

Transect number 

Note: Timber is defined as >15 cm dbh and 3 m straight trunk. 

Cut timber 

Naturally dead trees 

Live trees 

Figure 19. The relative abundance of live, naturally dead and cut timber. 


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Figure 18. Distribution of pole cutting in the reserve. 


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4.3.2 Disturbance transects 

Six disturbance transects were recorded for pole and timber extraction during the 

survey. The results of the disturbance transects are summarised in Table 13 for poles 

and Table 14 for timber. The terms pole and timber are used in this section only as 

this method examines the forest in terms of its extractive value. 

Table 13. Disturbance transect results for pole counts. 

Transect 

number 

Length of 

transect 

(m) 

Total 

poles 

sampled 

Live 

saplings 

Naturally 

fallen 

saplings 

Rate 

per 

hectare 

Cut 

poles 

Rate per 

hectare 

Percentage 

of saplings 

cut 

1 100 68 50 17 170.0 1 10.0 1.5 

2 3128 2307 1756 522 166.9 29 9.3 1.3 

3 3484 1762 1559 177 50.8 26 7.5 1.5 

4 4050 2352 2024 255 63.0 73 18.0 3.1 

5 3036 1967 1708 216 71.1 43 14.2 2.2 

6 650 123 91 7 10.8 25 38.5 20.3 

Number of poles per ha 

800 

700 

600 

500 

400 

300 

200 

100 

0 

1 2 3 4 5 6 

Transect number 

Cut poles 

Naturally dead saplings 

Live saplings 

Note: Poles are classified as having a dbh between 5 and 15 cm and a minimum of 2 m long relatively straight trunk. 

Figure 17. The relative abundance of live, naturally dead and cut poles. 


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Figure 16. Botanical species richness. 


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Figure 15. Vegetation of Manga forest reserve. 


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Figure 14. Distribution of near-endemic tree and shrub species. 


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Figure 13. Distribution of near-endemic tree and shrub individuals. 


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Figure 12. Distribution of endemic tree and shrub species. 


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Figure 11. Distribution of endemic tree and shrub individuals. 


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Figure 10. Distribution of submontane tree and shrub species. 


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Figure 9. Distribution of submontane tree and shrub individuals. 


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Figure 8. Distribution of non-forest tree and shrub species. 


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Figure 7. Distribution of non-forest tree and shrub individuals. 


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Figure 6. Distribution of forest dependent tree and shrub species. 


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Figure 5. Distribution of forest dependent tree and shrub individuals. 


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Endemic status (refer to figures 11,12,13,14): 

Table 11. Summary of endemic status for tree and shrub species (based on Table 4). 

Endemic status Number of 

species 

% of total 

number of 

species 

Number of 

individuals 



individuals 

(E) Endemic 3 2.6 3 0.3 

(N) Near Endemic 22 19.1 208 19.7 

(W) Widespread 80 69.6 808 76.7 

Unknown 10 8.7 35 3.3 

Total: 115 100 1054 100 

* EU - East Usambara mountains 

WU - West Usambara mountains 

Timber Value 

Formerly logging was permitted in Manga Forest Reserve. Table 12 lists the most 

commonly extracted trees (Ruffo 1989) to give an indication of the remaining 

populations of these species. 

Table 12. The abundance of selected timber species. 

Species Number of plots in % of plots in Total % of all 

which present which present individuals stems 

Cephalosphaera usambarensis 0 0 0 0.0 

Khaya anthotheca 1 3 1 0.1 

Milicia excelsa 12 33 41 3.9 

Newtonia buchananii 0 0 0 0.0 

Ocotea usambarensis 0 0 0 0.0 


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Ecological type (refer to figures 5,6,7,8): 

Table 8. Summary of ecological type for tree and shrub species (based on Table 4). 

Ecological type Number of 

species 



species 


individuals 



individuals 

(F) Forest dependent species 26 22.6 147 14.0 

(f) Non-forest dependent Species 59 51.3 734 69.6 

(O) Non-forest species 19 16.5 131 12.4 

Unknown 11 9.6 42 4 

Total: 115 100 1054 100 

Habitat (refer to Figures 9 and 10): 

Table 9. Summary of habitat for tree and shrub species (based on Table 4). 

Habitat Number of 

species 



species 


individuals 



individuals 

(L) Lowland Species 61 53.0 521 49.5 

(S) Submontane Species 37 32.2 316 29.9 

Unknown 19 14.8 217 20.6 

Total: 115 100 1054 100 

Table 10. Submontane species occurring in lowland areas and the lowest altitude at 

which they were recorded. 

Species Lowest altitude at which recorded 

Acacia mellifera 120 

Albizia schimperiana 110 

Ceiba pentandra 130 

Cola greenwayi 180 

Diospyros kabuyeana 150 

Dracaena steudneri 110 

Drypetes usambarica 110 

Haplocoelum foliolosum 175 

Leptactina platyphylla 160 

Margaritaria discoidea 210 

Maytenus acuminata 140 

Maytenus undata 110 

Tricalysia anomala 110 

Uvariodendron oligocarpum 270 


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Species accumulation rates: 

number of species 

120 

100 

80 

60 

40 

20 

0 

1 

3 

5 

7 

9 

11 

13 

15 

17 

19 

21 

23 

25 

27 

29 

vegetation plot number 

Figure 4. Species accumulation rates of recorded species by vegetation plot. 

In 1986 - 1987 a botanical survey was conducted in the East Usambaras (Ruffo et al. 

1989). The survey did not include Manga Forest Reserve although neighbouring 

forests including Marimba and Mlinga were visited. 14 species recorded in Manga by 

the current survey were not recorded by Ruffo et al. in the Sigi Valley group of forests 

although they were recorded elsewhere in the Usambaras. These are listed in Table 7. 

Only those species listed by Ruffo et al. (1989) are included in this comparison. 

Table 7. Trees found outside their previously recorded range in the East Usambara 

Mountains. 

Species Location as previously recorded 1 

Albizia zimmermannii Kwamgumi, Segoma and Mtai FRs 

Cola greenwayi Kwamkoro and Lutindi 

Commiphora eminii Lutindi and Mtai 

Cussonia zimmermannii Kwamgumi, Segoma and Mtai FRs 

Diospyros mespiliformis Amani area and Kwamgumi / Segoma area 

Diospyros natalensis Kwamgumi, Segoma and Mtai FRs 

Ficus exasperata Southern part of main range, Lutindi, Kwamgumi / Segoma, 

Mlinga and Mtai 

Ficus sur Northern and southern part of main range, Mlinga and 

Kwamgumi / Segoma area 

Ficus sycomorus Kwamsambia, Kwamgumi / Segoma and Mtai. 

Maytenus acuminata Kwamkoro and Amani area 

Maytenus undata Northern part of main range 

Sterculia appendiculata Kwamsambia, Lutindi, Kizara, Mlinga, Kwamgumi / Segoma 

and Mtai 

Teclea nobilis Kwamkoro, Kwamsambia and Kwamgumi FRs. 

Uvariodendron oligocarpum Kwamkoro and Kwamsambia / Kihuhwi FRs 

1 Information is based on Ruffo et al. (1989). 

31 

33 


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35 

37 

39 

41 

43 

45


Species Ecological status Habitat Endemic status 

SOLANACEAE 

Solanum goetzei F W 

STERCULIACEAE 

Cola microcarpa F S N 

Cola sp. 

Cola stelacantha 

Dombeya shupangae O S W 

THYMELAECEAE 

Synaptolepis kirkii f L(&S) W 

TILIACEAE 

Corchorus aestuans 

Grewia sp 

ULMACEAE 

Celtis zenkeri f L&S W 

Trema orientalis f L&S W 

UMBELLIFERAE 

Steganotaenia araliacea O L&S W 

URTICACEAE 

Laportea lanceolata f L&S N 

Obetea radula O L&S W 

Urera hypselodendron f S W 

VERBENACEAE 

Clerodendron capitatum f L&S W 

Lantana camara f L&S Introduced 

Premna chrysoclada O L N 

Vitex strickeri f L&S W 

VIOLACEAE 

Rinorea arborea F L W 

Rinorea ilicifolia F L&S W 

Rinorea squamosa F L N 

VITACEAE 

Ampelocissus multistriata f L&S W 

Cyphostemma braunii f L&S N 

Rhoicissus revoilii O L&S W 

ZAMIACEAE 

Encephalartos hildebrandtii f W 

KEY TO ABBREVIATIONS FOR TABLE 4, 5 and 6 

Ecological type: (based on Iversen, 1991b) 





Habitat: (based on Hamilton, 1989) 

• L - Lowland: Species occurring at altitudes of 850 m. 

In the case where species occur in both lowland and submontane habitats, the most common habitat will be listed first and only 

this habitat will be counted in the summary statistics. If a species is common in forest gaps, rather than in the forest proper, this 

will also be noted. 

Endemic status: (based on Iversen, 1991b): 

• E - Endemic: Occurring only in the Usambara mountains; 

• N - Near endemic: Species with limited ranges in the Eastern Arc mountains and/or the East African lowland forests; 


EU - Range limited to the East Usambaras; WU - Range limited to the West Usambaras 


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MALVACEAE (cont.) 

Sida acuta O W 

Wissadula rostrata 

MYRTACEAE 

Psidium guajava Introduced 

OCHNACEAE 

Ochna thomasiana W 

ONAGRACEAE 

Ludwigia erecta 

PALMAE 

Elaeis guineensis F L&S W 

PASSIFLORACEAE 

Adenia cissampeloides f S W 

Schlecterina mitostemmatoides F L W 

PERIPLOCACEAE 

Cryptolepis sp. 

RUBIACEAE 

Breonadia salicina F L&S W 

Heinsia crinita O L W 

Keetia sp. 

Oxyanthus pyriformis f L&S W 

Parvetta sp. 

Pentas micrantha f L W 

Psychotria goetzei F S N 

Psychotria meridiano-monta f S W 

Psychotria triclada F S E 

Rytigynia amaniensis f L(&S) W 

Tricalysia ovalifolia f L&S W 

Tricalysia sp. H F L E 

Vangueria infausta f L(&S) W 

RUTACEAE 

Citrus limonia Introduced 

Citrus sinensis Introduced 

Clausena anisata f L&S W 

Diphasia morogorensis f S 

Teclea amaniensis f L&S N 

Toddalia asiatica O L&S W 

Zanthoxylum chalybeum O S W 

Zanthoxylum usambarense F S W 

SAPINDACEAE 

Allophylus abyssinicus F S W 

Paullinia pinnata f L&S W 

SAPOTACEAE 

Bequartiodendron natalense f L&S W 

Malacantha alnifolia f L&S W 

Pachystela msolo F L&S W 

SCROPHULARIACEAE 

Clausena anisata 

SIMAROUBACEAE 

Harrisonia abyssinica f W 

SMILACACEAE 

Smilax anceps f L&S W 


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FLAGELLARIACEAE 

Flagellaria guineensis O W 

GRAMINEAE 

Olyra latifolia f L Introduced 

Oplismenus hirtellus F L&S W 

Panicum brevifolium F L(&S) W 

Paspalum conjugatum O W 

Pennisetum purpureum f L&S W 

Rottboellia exaltata 

Sorghum verticilliforum O L&S W 

Themeda triandra f L&S W 

GUTTIFERAE 

Garcinia volkensii F (L&)S W 

Harungana madagascariensis F L&S W 

HYPERICACEAE 

Psorospermum sp. 

LABIATAE 

Hoslundia opposita f W 

Hyptis suaveolens Introduced 

Ocimum usambarensis 

Basilicum polystachyon 

LEGUMINOSAE-CAESALPINIOIDEAE 

Afzelia quanzensis f L&S W 

Caesalpinia bonduc O L W 

Caesalpinia trothae F L&S W 

Caesalpinia volkensii f L&S W 

Piliostigma thonningii O L&S W 

Tamarindus indica O L&S W 

Zenkerella sp. 

LEGUMINOSAE-MIMOSOIDEAE 

Acacia brevispica O L&S W 

Acacia robusta f W 

Acacia schweinfurthii F L W 

Albizia versicolor O L&S W 

Dichrostachys cinerea O L&S W 

Entada pursaetha f L W 

LEGUMINOSAE-PAPILIONOIDEAE 

Baphia kirkii f L N 

Crotalaria retusa O L(&S) W 

Crotalaria zanzibarica O L&S N 

Dolichus oliveri O S W 

Eriosema psoraleoides O L&S W 

Millettia sacleuxii f L N 

Millettia usaramensis O S W 

Mucuna pruriens O L&S W 

Ormocarpum kirkii O L&S W 

Vigna sp. 

LOGANIACEAE 

Strychnos panganensis f L W 

Strychnos spinosa f L W 

Strychnos usambarensis f L&S W 

MALVACEAE 

Abutilon sp. 


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COMBRETACEAE (cont.) 

Combretum paniculatum f L&S W 

COMPOSITAE 

Aspilia kotschy 

Aspilia mossambicensis f W 

Bidens pilosa O W 

Brachylaena huillensis O W 

Microglossa parvifolia W 

Vernonia colorata O W 

Vernonia galamensis f N 

Vernonia subuligera S W 

CONNARACEAE 

Agelaea setulosa f L N 

CONVULVULACEAE 

Astripomoea hyoscyamoides O S W 

Hewittia sublobata O L&S W 

Ipomoea mombassana O L&S W 

CUCURBITACEAE 

Coccinia grandis f L&S W 

Cucumis prophetarum O L&S W 

Luffa cylindrica f L&S W 

Momordica foetida f L&S W 

Momordica glabra F L&S W 

CYPERACEAE 

Cyperus latifolius 

DICHAPETALACEAE 

Dichapetalum arenarium f L N 

Dichapetalum mossambicense f L W 

DIOSCOREACEAE 

Dioscorea asteriscus f L&S W 

Dioscorea sansibarensis f L&S W 

DRACAENACEAE 

Dracaena aletriformis 

Dracaena usambarensis f L W 

Sansevieria kirkii O W 

EBENACEAE 

Diospyros amaniensis F L(&S) N 

EUPHORBIACEAE 

Acalypha psilostachya f W 

Acalypha sp. A O L W 

Antidesma venosum f L&S W 

Bridelia melanthesoides O L&S W 

Croton sylvaticus f L&S W 

Drypetes natalensis f L&S W 

Drypetes reticulata f L(&S) W 

Erythrococca kirkii O L&S W 

Erythrococca usambarica F L&S N 

Monadenium capitatum O S W 

Synadenium glaucescens O L&S N 

Tragia brevipes f L&S W 

Tragia furialis f L(&S) W 

FLACOURTIACEAE 

Grandidiera boivinii f L&S W 


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APOCYNACEAE (cont.) 

Saba comorensis f W 

Schizozygia coffaeoides F W 

Tabernaemontana ventricosa F L W 

Voacanga africana f W 

ARACEAE 

Amorphophallus stuhlmannii F L&S N 

Anchomanes abbreviatus F L N 

Callopsis volkensii F L ?W 

Culcasia orientalis f L N 

Gonatopus boivinii f L(&S) 

Zamioculcas zamiifolia f L W 

ASCLEPIADACEAE 

Calotropis procera O W 

Kanahia laniflora O W 

Parquetina nigrescens f W 

Sarcostemma sp. 

ASPARAGACEAE 

Asparagus falcatus f W 

ASPHODELACEAE 

Chlorophytum filipendulum 

ASPLENIACEAE 

Asplenium buettneri f N 

ASTERACEAE 

Mikania cordata 

BEGONIACEAE 

Begonia princeae 

BIGNONIACEAE 

Markhamia obtusifolia O W 

Markhamia zanzibarica f W 

Stereospermum kunthianum f L&S W 

BOMBACACEAE 

Adansonia digitata O W 

BURSERACEAE 

Commiphora pteleifolia O L&S W 

Commiphora zanzibarica O S W 

CACTACEAE 

Opuntia cochenillifera O L Introduced 

CAPPARACEAE 

Maerua triphylla O L&S W 

CAPPARIDACEAE 

Capparis erythrocarpos O L&S W 

Capparis tomentosa f L&S W 

CECROPIACEAE 

Myrianthus holstii f S W 

CELASTRACEAE 

Salacia leptoclada F L&S W 

Salacia pyriformis f L&S W 

CHRYSOBALANACEAE 

Parinari sp. 

COMBRETACEAE 

Combretum apiculatum O L&S W 

Combretum molle O L&S W 


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Table 5. Species found in the regeneration plots but not in the main vegetation plots. 

Species Ecological Type Habitat Endemic Status 

ANNONACEAE 

Mkilua fragrans F S N 

COMBRETACEAE 

Pteleopsis myritifolia f W 

EBENACEAE 

Phyllanthus sp. 

EUPHORBIACEAE 

Acalypha ornata f W 

LAURACEAE 

Parkia filicoidea F W 

LEGUMINOSAE - 

CAESALPINIOIDEAE 

Cynometra sp. 

MORACEAE 

Dorstenia kameruniana f L&S W 

SAPINDACEAE 

Zanha golungensis F W 

SAPOTACEAE 

Pouteria alnifolia 

Vincentella passargei f W 

Table 6. Summary of opportunistic botanical records. 


ACANTHACEAE 

Adhatoda engleriana 

Asystasia gangetica O W 

Hypoestes aristata O W 

Hypoestes hildebrandtii 

Justicia euosmia f S 

Justicia pseudorungia f W 

Pseuderanthemum hildebrandtii f W 

Thunbergia affinis O W 

AMARANTHACEAE 

Achyranthes aspera f L&S W 

ANACARDIACEAE 

Mangifera indica f L&S Introduced 

ANNONACEAE 

Asteranthe asterias f L N 

Isolona cauliflora F L N 

Lettowianthus stellatus f L N 

Monanthotaxis fornicata f L N 

Monanthotaxis trichocarpa F L(&S) N 

Uvaria acuminata f L W 

Uvaria tanzaniae F N 

APOCYNACEAE 

Adenium obesum f W 

Ancylobothrys petersiana O W 

Landolphia kirkii f W 

Oncinotis tenuiloba f W 

Rauvolfia mombasiana f L N 


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Species 

MORACEAE 

Ecological type Habitat Endemic status 

Antiaris toxicaria f S&L W 

*Ficus exasperata f S&L W 

Ficus natalensis 

Ficus sp. 

f L W 

Ficus sur f S&L W 

Ficus sycomorus1 F L W 

Milicia excelsa f S&L W 

*Streblus usambarensis f L W 

Trilepisium madagascariensis 

OCHNACEAE 

f S&L W 

Ochna macrocalyx 

Ochna sp. 

O W 

Ouratea scheffleri 

RUBIACEAE 

f N 

Chassalia albiflora F S&L E(EU&WU) 

Leptactina platyphylla f S W 

Polysphaeria multiflora f L&S W 

Rothmannia manganjae F S&L W 

Rytigynia celastroides 

*Rytigynia sp. 

f L(&S) W 

Sericanthe odoratissma F L&S E(EU&WU) 

Tarrena nigrescens1 f L W 

Tarrena pavettoides F L&S W 

Tricalysia anomala 

Tricalysia sp. 

RUTACEAE 

F S N 

*Teclea nobilis 

SAPINDACEAE 

f W 

*Allophylus rubifolius f (L&)S N 

*Blighia unijugata f L&S W 

Deinbollia borbonica O L&S W 

Haplocoelum foliolosum O S W 

*Lecaniodiscus fraxinifolius f L&S W 

Melanodiscus oblongus1 SAPOTACEAE 

f L&S W 

Manilkara sulcata f L W 

Mimusops kummel 

STERCULIACEAE 

f L W 

*Cola clavata1 F L W 

*Cola greenwayi F S W 

Dombeya shupangae O N 

*Sterculia appendiculata 

TILIACEAE 

F L W 

Carpodiptera africana O W 

Grewia goetzeana f L N 

Grewia holstii 

*Nesogordonia holtzii 

f N 

1 

ULMACEAE 

Celtis africana F L W 

Celtis mildbraedii F S&L W 

Celtis wightii f L&S W 

1 

Species which do not appear in Iversen (1991b). Summary information is based on Ruffo et al. (1989), Lovett (1993) or the 

Flora of Tropical East Africa. 

2 

Information is based on Ruffo et al. (1989). 


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Species Ecological type Habitat Endemic status 

EBENACEAE 

Diospyros kabuyeana f S N 

Diospyros mespiliformis f L W 

*Diospyros natalensis f L W 

Diospyros squarrosa 1 F L W 

EUPHORBIACEAE 

Antidesma membranaceum f S&L W 

Bridelia cathartica f L&S W 

Bridelia micrantha f S&L W 

Drypetes usambarica f S N 

Euphorbia nyikae O L N 

Flueggea virosa f L&S W 

Manihot glaziovii O W 

Margaritaria discoidea f S W 

*Mildbraedia carpinifolia f L&S N 

Ricinodendron heudelotii f L W 

*Suregada zanzibarense f L W 

HERNANDIACEAE 

Gyrocarpus americanus f L W 

LECYTHIDACEAE 

Barringtonia racemosa f L W 

LEGUMINOSAE - CAESALPINIOIDEAE 

Cynometra engleri F L N 

*Cynometra webberi f L N 

Dialium holtzii f L N 

Julbernardia globiflora O S&L W 

Julbernardia magnistipulata f L&S N 

*Scorodophloeus fischeri f L N 

Senna singueana O W 

LEGUMINOSAE - MIMOSOIDEAE 

Acacia mellifera 1 O S W 

*Acacia senegalensis 1 O L&S W 

Albizia adianthifolia f L&S W 

Albizia anthelmintica O S&L W 

Albizia glaberrima f L W 

Albizia petersiana f S&L W 

Albizia schimperiana F S N 

Albizia zimmermannii f L W 

*Leucaena leucocephala O W 

Newtonia paucijuga F L N 

LEGUMINOSAE - PAPILIONOIDEAE 

*Craibia brevicaudata f L W 

Erythrina caffra 1 F W 

Lonchocarpus bussei O L&S W 

Millettia stuhlmannii 1 O L&S 

Pterocarpus mildbraedii F L N 

Pterocarpus tinctorius F S&L W 

MALVACEAE 

Thespesia danis O L W 

MELIACEAE 

Khaya anthotheica 1 F L&S W 

Trichilia emetica f L&S W 


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4.3 Results 

4.3.1 Quantitative vegetation analysis 

Table 4 presents a checklist of the tree and shrub species recorded in the 20 m x 50 m 

vegetation plots. Species are described, using the FTEA where possible, in terms of 

their ecological type, their habitat and their endemic status. Nomenclature follows 

Iversen (1991a) and the Flora of Tropical East Africa. 

Table 4. Checklist of trees and shrubs. 

Species 

ANACARDIACEAE 

Ecological type Habitat Endemic status 

Lannea schweinfurthii f S&L W 

Lannea welwitschii F L N 

Rhus natalensis f S&L W 

*Sorindeia madagascariensis 

ANNONACEAE 

f S&L W 

Annona senegalensis f S&L W 

Monodora grandidieri f L&S N 

Polyalthia stuhlmannii F L N 

Uvariodendron oligocarpum F S E(EU&WU) 

*Xylopia parviflora 

APOCYNACEAE 

f L W 

Holarrhena pubescens 

ARALIACEAE 

O L W 

Cussonia arborea O L&S W 

Cussonia zimmermannii 

BIGNONIACEAE 

f L N 

Fernandoa magnifica f L W 

Kigelia africana f L W 

*Markhamia lutea f S&L(forest W 

gaps) 

BOMBACACEAE 

Bombax rhodognaphalon f L N 

Ceiba pentandra f W 

BORAGINACEAE 

Ehretia cymosa F (L)&S W 

BURSERACEAE 

Commiphora eminii f L W 

CELASTRACEAE 

Maytenus acuminata F S W 

Maytenus mossambicanis f L&S W 

Maytenus senegalensis O L&S W 

Maytenus sp. 

Maytenus undata f S W 

COMBRETACEAE 

Combretum illairii f L W 

Combretum padoides f L&S W 

Combretum schumannii F L W 

Terminalia sambesiaca f L W 

DRACAENACEAE 

Dracaena steudneri f S W 


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Figure 3. Location of vegetation plots and disturbance transects. 


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between 5 and 15 cm and a minimum of 2 m long relatively straight trunk. Timber is 

classified as having a dbh > 15 cm with a minimum 3 m long relatively straight trunk. 

These divisions are based on differences in use. Data are presented as a total and as 

an average per hectare. 


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4.0 VEGETATION 


An inventory was conducted of the trees and shrubs found within the reserve. Simple, 

quantitative and repeatable methods were employed and the results are comparable 

with other forest surveys undertaken by FT FRP. Human disturbance within the 

forest was also recorded. Botanical and disturbance data collected by this survey have 

been entered onto the EUCAMP database. 

4.2 Methods 

The forest block is divided into a grid of numbered rectangles marked in the field by 

tagged transects. All methods are based on this grid system and are detailed in the FT 

FRP methodologies report (SEE, 1998). A brief description is presented below. The 

location of vegetation plots and disturbance transects are illustrated in Figure 3. 

4.2.1 Forest composition 

Three methods were used to analyse forest composition: (1) quantitative vegetation 

analysis (2) casual botanical collections and (3) disturbance transects. 

4.2.1.1 Quantitative vegetation analysis 

A standardised method of vegetation plot sampling was used, based on a 450 m x 900 

m grid system. The grid system is identified using transects marked with boundary 

tape. One 50 m x 20 m sample plot was recorded in each grid rectangle, giving an 

approximate sampling intensity of 0.25%. Within the sample plot, every tree with a 

dbh (diameter at breast height) of 10 cm or greater was recorded, labelled and 

identified. The regeneration layer was recorded within a 3 m x 3 m plot at the centre 

of each vegetation plot. All plants with a dbh below 10 cm were recorded in these 

plots including herbs. A botanist from the Tanzanian Forestry Research Institute 

(TAFORI) provided the field identification of plant species. 

4.2.1.2 Casual botanical collections 

Throughout the survey period casual botanical collections were made by the Botanist, 

Ahmed Mndolwa, in order to make the inventory as comprehensive as possible. In 

addition the survey was joined by collectors from the Missouri Botanical Gardens 

Local Collectors Training Programme. The results of their collections have been 

included. 

4.2.1.3 Disturbance transects 

Disturbance transects were used to record the intensity of pole and timber cutting. 

The disturbance transects were based on the 450 m x 900 m grid prepared for the 

vegetation plots. Each transect running east-west was sampled from border to border. 

Disturbance was recorded by 50 m section along the transect. 

Every self-standing tree and sapling (i.e. not lianas or creepers) above 5 cm dbh was 

measured within an area 5 m either side of each transect line. Each plant was recorded 

under one of three categories: live, cut or naturally fallen. Within these categories a 

distinction is made between poles and timbers. Poles are classified as having a dbh 


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Figure 2. Topographical map. 


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Figure 1. The location of Manga Forest Reserve in relation to other East Usambara 

forests. 


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3.1.3 History and Status 

Manga Forest Reserve was one of six forest reserves, in the Usambaras, gazetted by 

the government after the Second World War. In 1962 there was pressure to degazette 

the forest or to turn it into a teak plantation. These plans were resisted although the 

eastern boundary of the reserve was moved back in order to give the villagers of 

Mkwajuni 60 acres for settlement purposes. The forest was logged in the 1980s and a 

number of logging roads formerly ran through the reserve. These are now overgrown 

and impassable by vehicle. 

In 1999 an additional 855 ha to the west of the River Mazingira were gazetted 

bringing the total area of the reserve up to 1635 ha. 


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3.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST 

3.1 General description 

3.1.1 Description 

Name: Manga Forest Reserve 

Muheza District, Tanga Region, Tanzania. 

Area: 1616 ha; 16.2 km 2 , 5.8 sq. miles 

Status: Central Area Forest Reserve 

Gazettement Notice 112 (1955); Gazettement Notice 146, 204 (1961) 

Maps: Ordnance Survey topographic maps 1: 50 000 Series Y742 

Sheet 130/2 ‘Muheza’ of 1990 

3.1.2 Location 

Forest Division map: JB 2282 

Grid reference: 38 o 45’E - 38 o 47’E; 5 o 00’S – 5 o 02’S 

Elevation 120 - 360 m above sea level 

Manga Forest Reserve is located to the east of the main East Usambara Range. The 

northern border is the Sigi River. Running north-south through the centre of the 

reserve is the Mruka River, a tributary of the Sigi River. To the east of the reserve the 

land rises to 360m around Manga peak. There are a number of other smaller hills in 

the west of the reserve. 

Agricultural land adjoins the reserve on all sides. To the north-east of the reserve lies 

the village of Mkwajuni, to the south lies Misozwe and in the north-west lies 

Kwatango. On the opposite bank of the Sigi lies the village of Segoma. 

The latest survey of the area was carried out by Hyytiäinen (1995), and updated by 

Johansson & Sandy (1996). The results for Manga forest reserve are summarised in 

Table 3 below. The majority of Manga forest reserve can be classified as dense 

lowland forest. In addition to forest there are expanses of grassland in the north of the 

reserve which were not described by Johansson & Sandy (1996). 

Table 3. Land use distribution (Johansson & Sandy, 1996). 

Manga Forest Reserve Area (ha) Percent (%) 

Dense lowland forest 1348.8 83.5 

Poorly stocked forest 258.3 16.0 

Cultivation under forest 8.9 0.5 

Total for the reserve: 1616 100 


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2.0 AIMS OF THE SURVEY 

The specific aims of the survey as outlined in the Terms of Reference between 

Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme (FT FRP) and the East Usambara 

Conservation Area Management Programme (EUCAMP) are: 

• to conduct biological baseline surveys in selected gazetted forests and in forests 

which are proposed for gazettement; 

• to provide information on the biological value and importance of these forests in 

order to assist in the development of management plans and practices for these 

forests; 

• to develop a system for monitoring aspects of forest biodiversity, both on a general 

as well as a forest-specific level. 

Furthermore, the aims of the survey methods applied are: 

• to sample the vegetation and tree species composition of selected forests of the 

East Usambaras using systematic sampling techniques along systematically located 

vegetation transects, which sample approximately 0.25% in area of each forest 

reserve; 

• to assess levels of disturbance by systematically sampling the incidence of tree 

cutting, animal trapping and other illegal activities along the vegetation transects; 

• to use standard and repeatable methods to record biodiversity values of the forest 

in terms of small mammal species, reptiles, amphibians, and invertebrate species; 

• to collect opportunistic data on all other groups of vertebrate and invertebrates. 

Species lists resulting from this will be compared against standard appraisals of 

species rarity and other values in order to assess the overall biodiversity values of 

each forest. 

• to undertake a socio-economic appraisal of the impact of resource-use activities by 

human communities in the vicinity of each forest and produce a brief assessment of 

how these activities affect the integrity of the forests. 

By using standardised and repeatable methods these surveys provide an assessment of 

the biodiversity value of the forests, enabling their importance to be determined and 

their biodiversity value to be monitored in future. 


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which they represent. In those plots where no spot is shown, the relevant taxa was not 

surveyed. 

1.4 Data and monitoring 

Data is stored in a Microsoft Access database currently stored at the East Usambara 

Conservation Area Management Programme, Frontier-Tanzania and at the University 

of Dar es Salaam. It will shortly be available on the Internet. Zoological data is also 

stored on the National Biodiversity Database at the University of Dar es Salaam. This 

is also a Microsoft Access database. The data are geographically referenced and so 

can be used as a baseline for biodiversity monitoring. 

1.5 Survey period and personnel 

The survey of Manga Forest Reserve was conducted between March and May 1994 

and between July and September 1997 for a total of 126 research-days. The survey 

was conducted by Frontier-Tanzania staff, Catchment Forest Officers, volunteers and 

field assistants from Maramba and Semdoe. 


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vegetation types. It should be emphasised that many of these species are still 

dependent on a forest habitat albeit forest edge or disturbed forest. Most species 

in this category will still be adversely affected by forest destruction. 

• Non-forest species (O): These are species that do not normally occur in primary 

or secondary forest or forest edge. 

Levels of endemism are defined in terms of: 

• Endemic (E): Occurring only in the Usambara Mountains; 

• Near-endemic (N): Species with ranges restricted to the Eastern Arc Mountains 

and / or the East African lowland forests; 

• Widespread (W): Species with ranges extending beyond the Eastern Arc and East 

African lowland forests. 

The typical habitat association of plant species is categorised as either: 

• Lowland (L): Species occurring at altitudes of 850 m. 

This refers to the habitat in which they are typically found in East Africa rather than 

to where they have been recorded in the reserve. 

These three criteria are used to analyse the uniqueness of the biodiversity of the 

reserve and its vulnerability to disturbance. 

The categories are based on information from various sources. For plants the 

ecological type and endemic status are primarily based on Iversen (1991a). Forest 

dependent species refers to those species listed as being exclusively associated with 

Iversen’s categories 1a (wet evergreen forest), 1b (dry evergreen forest) and / or 1c 

(riverine forest). Forest dwelling also includes other habitats. 

The habitat type is based on Hamilton (1989). For those species not listed by Iversen 

or Hamilton, the information is taken from the Flora of Tropical East Africa. 

For the animals, the following references were used (in order of priority): 

Mammals: Kingdon (1997), Kingdon (1989) and Kingdon (1974) 

Birds: Zimmerman et al. (1996) 

Reptiles: Howell (1993) and Broadley and Howell (1991). 

Amphibians: Howell (1993) 

Butterflies: Kielland (1990) and Larsen (1996) 

The IUCN conservation status is cited for those animals listed in the 1996 IUCN red 

data books. However many Tanzanian species are not included in the 1996 IUCN red 

data book as insufficient data was available at the time of its publication. The IUCN 

status listed for the amphibians and reptiles is based on the National Biodiversity 

Database. The status of these species is undergoing national and international 

evaluation. 

1.3 Maps 

The distribution of species within the reserve is presented as a series of maps. These 

are thematic maps where the size of each spot is directly proportional to the value 


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Table 2. Forest area in the East Usambaras (based on Johansson and Sandy 1996). 

Forest type Area % of area 

Lowland forest 29497.4 62.9 

Submontane forest 12916.6 30.6 

Forest plantation 2723.6 6.5 

TOTAL 45137.6 

The mammals of the East Usambaras show limited endemism (Kingdon and Howell 

1993). However, there are several species of special interest. These include: the 

restricted Zanj elephant shrew, Rhynchocyon petersi, which is common in the 

Usambaras (Collar & Stuart, 1987) yet listed as globally ‘Endangered’ by IUCN due 

to a decline in habitat extent and quality; Eastern tree hyrax, Dendrohyrax validus, 

listed as ‘Vulnerable’ by IUCN (1996) and the Lesser Pouched Rat, Beamys hindei 

which is considered ‘Vulnerable by IUCN (1996). 

There are at least 11 species of reptiles and amphibians endemic to the East and West 

Usambaras (Howell, 1993). The East Usambara Biodiversity Surveys provide further 

information on new species and species’ range extensions. A new species of snake, 

Prosymna semifasciata, was recently found in Kwamgumi Forest Reserve (Broadley, 

1995) and an undescrcibed species of Stephopaedes sp. nov. has been recorded by the 

surveys in Mtai and Kwamgumi Forest Reserves. 

The forest avifauna of the East Usambaras has a high diversity with at least 110 

species (Stuart, 1989). Six species occurring in the lowland forests are considered 

‘Vulnerable’ to global extinction: Sokoke Scops Owl, Otus ireneae; the endemic 

Usambara Eagle Owl, Bubo vosseleri; Swynnerton’s Robin, Swynnertonia 

swynnertoni; East Coast Akalat, Sheppardia gunningi; Amani Sunbird, Anthreptes 

pallidigaster and the Banded Green Sunbird, Anthreptes rubritorques (IUCN, 1996). 

The East Usambaras are essentially forest ‘islands’ (Lovett, 1989). There has been 

natural forest in the area for several million years. The Usambaras harbour many 

species that have been geographically separated from their closest relatives for long 

periods. They also serve as a refuge for formerly widespread flora and fauna that 

have become extinct over much of their former area (Iversen, 1991). 

These forests have been under continuous exploitative human pressure for at least 

2,000 years (Schmidt, 1989). Until recently, especially before the past 50 years, 

(Kikula, 1989), this pressure was sustainable. However, the growing human 

population in the area is leading to increased pressure on the remaining natural forest, 

and represents the main threat to their survival. 

1.2 Report structure 

This report provides a floral and faunal inventory of Manga Forest Reserve. Each 

species is described in terms of its ecological requirements and its endemic status. 

Ecological requirements are defined in terms of: 

• Forest dependent species (F): Species dependent on primary forest only. It does 

not include forest edge or secondary forest species; 

• Forest non-dependent species (f): Forest dwelling but not dependent on primary 

forest: species occurring in primary forest as defined above as well as other 


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1.0 INTRODUCTION 

1.1 The East Usambara Mountains and forest diversity 

The East Usambara Mountains support ancient and unique forests rich in endemic 

species (Hamilton, 1989). Their old age, isolation and role as condensers of the 

moisture from the Indian Ocean make them an important conservation resource. The 

mountains are situated in north-east Tanzania within 40 km of the coastal town of 

Tanga between 4 O 48’-5 O 13’S and 38 O 32’-38 O 48’E. These mountains form part of a 

chain known as the Eastern Arc that stretches down the coast of East Africa from 

southern Kenya to southern Tanzania. This is a chain of isolated mountains 

composed of Precambrian rock exposed by block faulting and slow uprising 

(Griffiths, 1993). Being adjacent to the Indian Ocean, considerable orographic 

rainfall occurs in this area. The rainfall distribution is bi-modal, peaking between 

March and May and between September and December. The dry seasons are from 

June to August and January to March. However precipitation occurs in all months. 

Rainfall is greatest at higher altitudes and in the south-east of the mountains, 

increasing from 1,200 mm annually in the foothills to over 2,200 mm at higher 

altitudes. Because of the topographical and climatic interactions, the west-facing 

slopes of the mountains are drier compared to the east-facing slopes. 

Research in the East Usambara Mountains began in the late 1890s with substantial 

botanical collections being undertaken. Later, in 1928, surveys were undertaken on 

amphibians and by the 1930s detailed ornithological work had begun. Since these 

early studies biological research in the mountains has steadily increased. Recently, 

work in the area has also included an attempt to understand the drainage and 

catchment value of the mountain’s forests (Bruen, 1989; Litterick, 1989). 

The East Usambara forests have been likened to the African equivalent of the 

Galapagos Islands in terms of their endemism and biodiversity (Rodgers & 

Homewood, 1982; Howell, 1989). They are considered to be one of the most 

important forest blocks in Africa, if not the most important (Tye, 1994). Currently, at 

least 3450 species of vascular plants have been recorded in the Usambaras of which it 

is suggested that over one quarter are endemic or near-endemic (Iversen, 1991a). 

Many are threatened (Rodgers, 1996). 

The forests of the East Usambaras are not only important for their biodiversity, they 

also play an important role in maintaining the hydrological cycle which feeds the Sigi 

River. The Sigi River is a vital water source for the local communities as well as 

supplying water for the large coastal town of Tanga. Deforestation in the area will 

lead to increased soil erosion particularly from the steeper slopes. Soil erosion is 

liable to result in more irregular run off and in a deterioration in water quality due to 

siltation. 

The latest survey of the East Usambaras shows that approximately 45,137 ha of the 

East Usambaras remain as natural forest (Johansson and Sandy 1996). This can be 

divided into two types: submontane rain forest and lowland forest. Altitude is the 

factor differentiating these two forest types (Hamilton, 1989), with submontane forest 

generally occurring above 850 m. The area recorded as forest in the East Usambaras 

according to these categories is described in Table 2. 


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Manga Forest Reserve xi 

The results of a botanical collection made by the Missouri Botanical Gardens Local Collectors 

training programme at the time of the survey have been incorporated and we are greatful to 

Peter Philippson from Missouri Botanical Gardens, Mr Sitoni from the National Herbarium and 

all the trainees for providing us with this data. 

REPORT WRITING 

Author: Nike Doggart 

Editorial Comments: Veli Pohjonen, Chief Technical Adviser, East Usambara 

Conservation Area Management Programme; Prof. K. Howell, 

University of Dar es Salaam; Neil Burgess, Birdlife Denmark; 

Alan Rodgers, UNDP and 


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Manga Forest Reserve x 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 

This report is the culmination of the advice, co-operation, hard work and expertise of many 

people. In particular we would like to thank the following people: 

MANAGEMENT 

FRONTIER-TANZANIA 

Managing Director of SEE: Eibleis Fanning 

Director of Research: Leigh Stubblefield 

UDSM Co-ordinators: Professor K. M. Howell 

Dr M. H. Muruke 

EUCAMP: 

Chief Technical Advisor: Dr S. Johansson (until 1998) and Dr V. Pohjonen (from 1999) 

Project Manager: Mr Katigula (until 1997, now deceased) and Mr E. Nashanda 

(from 1998) 

FIELD RESEARCH 

FRONTIER-TANZANIA 

Research Assistants: Jane Aspell, Thomas Bean, Caroline Boffey, Jonathan 

Bradley, Rachel Carson, Matthew Colls, Matthew Davey, 

Steven Duncan, Stewart Fast, William Goodall-Copestake, 

Torbjorn Haugaasen, Jeremy Hill, Julia Holland, Nicky Hill, 

Richard Jones, Jennifer Kinns, Paula Kiss, Simon Loader, 

Amy Mackinnven, Gillian Marshall, Annabel Mulder, Russell 

Saxby, Keith Simpson, Philip Smith, Adam Vanbergen, 

Catherine Watkins, Caroline Weall and Thomas Wolter. 

Project Co-ordinators: Julian Bayliss and Pamela Cunneyworth 

Research Co-ordinator: Nike Doggart 

Assistant Research Co-ordinator: Liana Joseph and Tom Evans 

Socio-economist: Kerry Woodcock 

Camp Co-ordinators: John Ramsey and Garry White 

Field Assistants: Hassani Abadi, Valentin Kimwaga Mwanamkuu Mohamedi, 

Zahara Rashidi and Stephen Hiza Magwiza. 

EUCAMP: Raymond R. Kilenga, Albert Ntemi, Rashidi Shughuli, 

Cosmas Ndakidemi, Jared Otieno, Gerald Boniface, Maingu 

Kanyere, Esther John, Leah E. Mmbaga and Aison 

Ndeonansio. 

Special thanks also go to the people of Mkwajuni and Kwatango for their assistance in the 

socio-economic study. 

TECHNICAL SUPPORT 

We would also thank to thank the following technical staff: 

UDSM: Professor K. M. Howell, Department of Zoology and Marine 

Biology. 

Frank Mbago, Curator of the Herbarium, Botany Department 

Bernard Mponda, Technician, Botany Department. 

TAFORI: Ahmed Mndolwa, Botanist. 

We are also grateful to all of the taxonomists listed in Appendix II for providing us with the 

identifications of the zoological specimens. 


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Manga Forest Reserve ix 

FOREWORD 

The East Usambara forests in north-eastern Tanzania are part of the Eastern Arc 

mountains. More than one hundred years of biological interest and research have shown 

that these forests have a unique diversity of flora and fauna, and an exceptionally high 

degree of endemism. They have gained global recognision as being part of a Biodiversity 

Hotspot (Conservation International), an Endemic Bird Area (BirdLife), a Centre of Plant 

Diversity (WWF and IUCN) and a Globally Important Ecoregion (WWF). Since 1990, the 

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme (EUCAMP) (formerly 

known as the East Usambara Catchment Forest Project (EUCFP)) has worked in the 

East Usambara Mountains with the mission to protect these natural forests. The project 

is implemented by the Forestry and Beekeeping Division (FBD) of the Ministry of 

Natural Resources and Tourism (MNRT) with financial support from the Government 

of Finland, and implementation support from the Finnish Forest and Park Service. 

Although a considerable amount of biological information exists from the East Usambaras 

much of this is restricted to the Amani area and systematic surveys are few. In order to get 

more comprehensive information on the forests, biodiversity surveys were initiated and 

contracted in July 1995. The surveys are conducted by Frontier Tanzania, a joint venture 

between the University of Dar es Salaam and the Society for Environmental Exploration, 

together with EUCAMP. The aim of the surveys is to provide systematic baseline 

information on the biological values of different forests as a basis for management 

planning and long-term monitoring, as well as training forestry staff in the use of 

biological inventory techniques. They will also help setting of priorities in the 

conservation of this valuable area. 

The surveys have been carried out over ten-week field phases. The programme involves 

short-term expatriate volunteer research assistants, permanent EUCAMP, Frontier- 

Tanzania, University of Dar es Salaam, and Tanzania Forestry Research Institute staff, as 

well as an international network of taxonomists and other experts. The surveys have 

become progressively more systematic and quantitative, and have already resulted in the 

discovery of several previously unknown taxa. This will further raise awareness of the 

unique conservation values of the East Usambaras. EUCAMP has also commissioned the 

development of a biodiversity database, a work which also contributed the maps to these 

reports. All data collected during the surveys is entered in this database, which is linked to 

the national biodiversity database. 

The reports are the result of the work of many people – too many to be listed here. We 

would like to thank all of them for their invaluable effort. We hope that the surveys will 

make yet another contribution to the long historic chain of efforts to study and understand 

these unique forests. Perhaps even more than that we hope that this information will 

contribute to a better management and conservation of the East Usambaras so that the 

beauty of the area will continue to amaze coming generations and that the light in the 

tunnel will become the bright future. 

Evarast Nashanda Veli Pohjonen 

Project Manager Chief Technical Adviser 


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Manga Forest Reserve viii 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 

Manga Forest Reserve, in the East Usambara Mountains in north-east Tanzania was 

gazetted in 1955. It is situated in Muheza District, Tanga Region and covers 1616 ha 

between 120 – 360 m asl, encompassing lowland forest and grassland. 

As part of the East Usambara Catchment Forest Project (from 1999 East Usambara 

Conservation Area Management Programme, EUCAMP), Frontier-Tanzania conducted 

a biological survey of Manga Forest Reserve between March - May 1994 and between 

July - September 1997 for a total of 126 research-days. The survey covered 

systematically all parts of the reserve with a sampling intensity of 0.25% for the 

vegetation survey and five zoological trapping sites. This report provides an inventory 

of the trees, shrubs, herbs, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, birds, butterflies, millipedes 

and molluscs recorded during the survey. The report also describes patterns of human 

disturbance within the reserve and presents the results of a socio-economic study in 

neighbouring villages. The species richness, endemism and ecological affinities of the 

taxa recorded are summarised as Table 1. 

Table 1. Summary of biodiversity of taxa surveyed. 

Taxon Total 

no. of 

species 

% forest 

dependent 

No. of 

nonforest 

species 


endemics 


nearendemics 

No. of forest 

dependent 

endemics and 

near-endemics 

trees, shrubs and herbs 329 19 73 5 51 23 

mammals 30 2 0 0 2 1 

birds* 82 7 6 0 2 2 

reptiles 26 2 3 0 5 4 

amphibians 22 2 3 0 5 3 

butterflies 102 22 12 2 7 6 

Total 591 97 7 72 39 

*This does not represent an inventory as burds were not surveyed systematically. 

Manga Forest Reserve is significant, in terms of conservation as a good example of 

mature lowland forest with a high species diversity. The reserve provides habitat to a 

number of endemic and threatened species including three trees endemic to the 

Usambaras. 

In terms of fauna, the reserve is home to three endangered species and four vulnerable 

species according to IUCN categories. Relative to other forests surveyed in the East 

Usambaras, Manga has the highest diversity of butterfly species including Euthecta sp. 

nov. which was discovered during the survey. The reserve also has a diverse bird fauna 

including the near endemic East Coast akalat and the Amani sunbird. 

Commercial timber extraction has now largely stopped however poles and timber are 

still cut throughout the reserve. Fire had affected 37% of the plots leaving some areas 

as woodland and grassland. There is some resentment from the villagers that they have 

been denied access to resources following the gazettement of the Forest Reserve. 

The information collected will be used for management planning by the EUCAMP. 

The survey results are also available as a baseline for monitoring. The data is stored on 

a Microsft Access database and is available on the Internet at the address: 

www.usambara.com 


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Manga Forest Reserve vii 

LIST OF FIGURES 

Figure 1. The location of Manga Forest Reserve in relation to other East Usambara forests. 8 

Figure 2. Topographical map. 10 

Figure 3. Location of vegetation plots and disturbance transects. 13 

Figure 4. Species accumulation rates of recorded species by vegetation plot. 23 

Figure 5. Distribution of forest dependent tree and shrub individuals. 26 

Figure 6. Distribution of forest dependent tree and shrub species. 27 

Figure 7. Distribution of non-forest tree and shrub individuals. 28 

Figure 8. Distribution of non-forest tree and shrub species. 29 

Figure 9. Distribution of submontane tree and shrub individuals. 30 

Figure 10. Distribution of submontane tree and shrub species. 31 

Figure 11. Distribution of endemic tree and shrub individuals. 32 

Figure 12. Distribution of endemic tree and shrub species. 33 

Figure 13. Distribution of near-endemic tree and shrub individuals. 34 

Figure 14. Distribution of near-endemic tree and shrub species. 35 

Figure 15. Vegetation of Manga forest reserve. 36 

Figure 16. Botanical species richness. 37 

Figure 17. The relative abundance of live, naturally dead and cut poles. 38 

Figure 18. Distribution of pole cutting in the reserve. 39 

Figure 19. The relative abundance of live, naturally dead and cut timber. 40 

Figure 20. Distribution of timber cutting in the reserve. 41 

Figure 21. Areas of highest disturbance in relation to the distribution of tree and shrub individuals that 

are both forest dependent and endemic. 43 

Figure 22. Areas of highest disturbance in relation to the distribution of tree and shrub individuals that 

are both forest dependent and near-endemic. 44 

Figure 23. Location of trapping sites. 51 

Figure 24. Distribution of forest dependent mammal species. 56 

Figure 25. Distribution of near-endemic mammal species. 57 

Figure 26. Distribution of forest dependent reptile species. 66 

Figure 27. Distribution of near-endemic reptile species. 67 

Figure 28. Distribution of forest dependent amphibian species. 70 

Figure 29. Distribution of near-endemic amphibian species. 71 

Figure 30. Areas of highest disturbance in relation to the distribution of animal species that are both 

forest dependent and near-endemic. 81 


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Manga Forest Reserve vi 

LIST OF TABLES 

Table 1. Summary of biodiversity of taxa surveyed. viii 

Table 2. Forest area in the East Usambaras (based on Johansson and Sandy 1996). 2 

Table 3. Land use distribution (Johansson & Sandy, 1996). 6 

Table 4. Checklist of trees and shrubs. 14 

Table 5. Species found in the regeneration plots but not in the main vegetation plots. 17 

Table 6. Summary of opportunistic botanical records. 17 

Table 7. Trees found outside their previously recorded range in the East Usambara Mountains. 23 

Table 8. Summary of ecological type for tree and shrub species (based on Table 4). 24 

Table 9. Summary of habitat for tree and shrub species (based on Table 4). 24 

Table 10. Submontane species occurring in lowland areas and the lowest altitude at which they were 

recorded. 24 

Table 11. Summary of endemic status for tree and shrub species (based on Table 4). 25 

Table 12. The abundance of selected timber species. 25 

Table 13. Disturbance transect results for pole counts. 38 

Table 14. Disturbance transect results for timber counts. 40 

Table 15. Frequency of selected human disturbances recorded in the forest in vegetation plots and along 

disturbance transects. 42 

Table 16. Summary descriptions of trapping sites. 50 

Table 17. Sampling intensity by trap night (number of nights x number of traps). 50 

Table 18. Summary of bat-netting sites. 50 

Table 19. Summary of mammals. 52 

Table 20. Abundance of duiker, bushbuck and hyrax dung. 53 

Table 21. Summary of dung survey. 53 

Table 22. Summary of mammal observations. 54 

Table 23. Summary of bats. 55 

Table 24. Summary of birds. 58 

Table 25. Birds recorded from adjacent public land. 60 

Table 26. Summary of reptiles. 63 

Table 27. Summary of reptile observations. 64 

Table 28. Ranges for endemic and near-endemic reptile species recorded (Howell, 1993). 65 

Table 29. Summary of amphibians. 68 

Table 30. Ranges for near-endemic amphibian species recorded (Howell, 1993). 69 

Table 31. Summary of butterflies. 72 

Table 32. Summary of molluscs. 75 

Table 33. Summary of millipedes. 76 

Table 34. Summary of faunal families and species. 77 

Table 35. Summary of capture locations of faunal species by plot number. 77 

Table 36. Summary of ecological type of faunal species (excluding molluscs and millipedes). 79 

Table 37. Summary of endemic status of faunal species (excluding molluscs and millipedes). 79 


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Manga Forest Reserve v 

5.5.4 New Species............................................................................................................................................ 79 

5.5.5 Range Extensions.................................................................................................................................. 79 

5.5.6 CITES....................................................................................................................................................... 80 

6.0 SOCIO-ECONOMICS.............................................................................................................................. 82 

6.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................82 

6.2 METHODS....................................................................................................................................................82 

6.3 RESULTS......................................................................................................................................................82 

6.3.1 The villages and the population................................................................................................... 82 

6.3.2 Economic activity ........................................................................................................................... 83 

6.3.3 Land tenure...................................................................................................................................... 84 

6.3.4 Forest Resource utilisation ........................................................................................................... 84 

6.3.5 Peoples attitudes to conservation ................................................................................................ 86 

6.4 ECO-TOURISM POTENTIAL........................................................................................................................86 

6.4.1 Aim..................................................................................................................................................... 86 

6.4.2 Existing tourist facilities................................................................................................................ 86 

7.0 CONCLUSIONS......................................................................................................................................... 88 

8.0 REFERENCES ........................................................................................................................................... 90 


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Manga Forest Reserve iv 

TABLE OF CONTENTS 

TABLE OF CONTENTS....................................................................................................................................... IV 

LIST OF TABLES ................................................................................................................................................... VI 

LIST OF FIGURES ...............................................................................................................................................VII 

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.................................................................................................................................VIII 

FOREWORD............................................................................................................................................................ IX 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ....................................................................................................................................X 

1.0 INTRODUCTION.........................................................................................................................................1 

1.1 THE EAST USAMBARA MOUNTAINS AND FOREST DIVERSITY..............................................................1 

1.2 REPORT STRUCTURE ...................................................................................................................................2 

1.3 MAPS.............................................................................................................................................................3 

1.4 DATA AND MONITORING.............................................................................................................................4 

1.5 SURVEY PERIOD AND PERSONNEL.............................................................................................................4 

2.0 AIMS OF THE SURVEY............................................................................................................................5 

3.0 DESCRIPTION OF THE FOREST.........................................................................................................6 

3.1 GENERAL DESCRIPTION..............................................................................................................................6 

3.1.1 Description .........................................................................................................................................6 

3.1.2 Location...............................................................................................................................................6 

3.1.3 History and Status.............................................................................................................................7 

4.0 VEGETATION ........................................................................................................................................... 11 

4.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................11 

4.2 METHODS....................................................................................................................................................11 

4.2.1 Forest composition ......................................................................................................................... 11 

4.3 RESULTS......................................................................................................................................................14 

4.3.1 Quantitative vegetation analysis.................................................................................................. 14 

4.4 DISCUSSION.......................................................................................................................................................45 

5.0 FAUNA.......................................................................................................................................................... 47 

5.1 INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................................................................47 

5.2 METHODS....................................................................................................................................................47 

5.2.1 Mammals .......................................................................................................................................... 47 

5.2.2 Birds.................................................................................................................................................. 48 

5.2.3 Reptiles............................................................................................................................................. 48 

5.2.4 Amphibians...................................................................................................................................... 48 

5.2.5 Invertebrates.................................................................................................................................... 48 

5.3 TRAPPING SITES AND SAMPLING INTENSITY..........................................................................................50 

5.4 RESULTS......................................................................................................................................................52 

5.4.1 Small mammals (non-bat)............................................................................................................. 52 

5.4.2 Bats.................................................................................................................................................... 55 

5.4.3 Birds.................................................................................................................................................. 58 

5.4.4 Reptiles............................................................................................................................................. 63 

5.4.5 Amphibians...................................................................................................................................... 68 

5.4.6 Invertebrates.................................................................................................................................... 72 

5.5 DISCUSSION................................................................................................................................................77 

5.5.1 Species richness and abundance ........................................................................................................ 77 

5.5.2 Ecological type...................................................................................................................................... 78 

5.5.3 Endemic Status...................................................................................................................................... 79 


Technical Paper 41

Manga Forest Reserve iii 

East Usambara Conservation Area Management Programme (EUCAMP) 

The East Usambara rain forests are one of the most valuable conservation areas in Africa. Several plant 

and animals are found only in the East Usambara Mountains. The rain forests secure the water supply of 

200,000 people and the local people in the mountains depend on these forests. The East Usambara 

Conservation Area Management Programme has established Amani Nature Reserve and aims at protecting 

water sources; establishing and protecting forest reserves; sustaining villager’s benefits from the forest; 

and rehabilitating the Amani Botanical Garden. The programme is implemented by the Forestry and 

Beekeeping Division of the Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism with financial support from the 

Government of Finland, and implementation support from the Finnish Forest and Park Service. To monitor 

the impact of the project, both baseline biodiversity assessments and development of a monitoring system 

are needed. The present activity is aimed at establishing baseline information on biological diversity in 

selected East Usambara forests. 

The University of Dar es Salaam (UDSM) 

The University of Dar es Salaam was established in July 1970 as a centre for learning and research in the 

arts and the physical, natural, earth, marine, medical and human sciences. The University is surveying and 

mapping the flora and fauna of Tanzania and is conducting research into the maintenance and 

improvement of the environment and the sustainable exploitation of Tanzania’s natural resources. 

The Society for Environmental Exploration (SEE) 

The Society is a non-profit making company limited by guarantee and was formed in 1989. The Society’s 

objectives are to advance field research into environmental issues and implement practical projects 

contributing to the conservation of natural resources. Projects organised by The Society are joint initiatives 

developed in collaboration with national research agencies in co-operating countries. 

Frontier Tanzania Forest Research Programme (FT FRP) 

The Society for Environmental Exploration and the University of Dar es Salaam have been conducting 

collaborative research into environmental issues since July 1989 under the title of the Frontier Tanzania 

Forest Research Programme (FT FRP). Since July 1994, the FT FRP has been working in the forests of 

the East Usambara mountains in collaboration with the East Usambara Catchment Forest Project (EUCFP). 

This survey of selected forests collects baseline biodiversity data and assists the EUCFP in the 

management of the East Usambara forests. 

Forestry and Beekeeping Division 

P.O. Box 426, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

Tel: 255-51-111 061/2/3/4 

Fax: 255-51-114 659 

TLX 41853 misitu tz 

E-mail: misitu@twiga.com 

East Usambara Conservation Area 

Management Programme 

P.O. Box 5869, Tanga, Tanzania 

Tel: 255-53-43453, 46907, 43820 

Fax: 255-53-43820 

E-mail: usambara@twiga.com 

Internet: www.usambara.com 

Dept of Zoology / Dept of Botany 

University of Dar es Salaam 

P.O. Box 35064, Dar es Salaam, Tanzania 

Tel: 255-51-410462 

E-mail: zoology@udsm.ac.tz 

For more information: 

Department for Development Co-operation 

Ministry for Foreign Affairs 

Katajanokanlaituri 3 

FIN-00160 Helsinki, Finland 

Tel 358-9-134 161 

Fax 358-9-1341 6293 

Finnish Forest and Park Service 

P.O. Box 94, FIN-01301 Vantaa, Finland 

Tel: 358-9-857 841 

Fax: 358-9-8578 4401 

E-mail: knowhow@metsa.fi 

Society for Environmental Exploration 

77 Leonard Street, London, U.K. 

Tel: +44 20 76 13 24 22 

Fax: +44 20 76 13 29 92 

E-mail: enquiries@frontierprojects.ac.uk 


Technical Paper 41

Manga Forest Reserve ii 

© Metsähallitus - Forest and Park Service 

Cover painting: Jaffary Aussi (1995) 

ISSN 1236-630X 

ISBN 9987-646-04-2 


Technical Paper 41

Manga Forest Reserve i 


Technical Paper 41 

Manga Forest Reserve 

A biodiversity survey 

Nike Doggart, Liana Joseph, Julian Bayliss and Eibleis 

Fanning 

Department of International 

Development Co-operation, Finland 

Finnish Forest and Park Service 

Ministry of Natural Resources and Tourism, 

Tanzania 

Forestry and Beekeeping Division 

Tanga 1999 

Frontier-Tanzania 

University of Dar es Salaam 

Society for Environmental Exploration 


Technical Paper 41

TECHNICAL PAPER 41 

Manga Forest Reserve 

A biodiversity survey 

Nike Doggart, 

Liana Joseph, Julian Bayliss 

and Eibleis Fanning 

1999

Manga Forest Reserve: A biodiversity survey. - Coastal Forests of ...

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