Caring for Pollinators - Bundesamt für Naturschutz
Caring for Pollinators - Bundesamt für Naturschutz
Caring for Pollinators - Bundesamt für Naturschutz
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<strong>Caring</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
Safeguarding agro-biodiversity and wild plant diversity<br />
- Current progress and need <strong>for</strong> action presented in a side<br />
event at COP 09 in Bonn (22.05.2008) -<br />
BfN – Skripten 250<br />
2009
<strong>Caring</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
Safeguarding agro-biodiversity and wild plant diversity<br />
Results of a workshop and research project commissioned<br />
by the German Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation<br />
Axel Ssymank<br />
Andreé Hamm<br />
Mareike Vischer-Leopold<br />
Ecology of Culture Landscape
Cover picture: Fruit basket with its pollinators (Photos: A. Hamm, M. Schindler, K.L. Schuchmann,<br />
A. Ssymank, M. Tschapka)<br />
Editors’ addresses:<br />
Dr. Axel Ssymank Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation<br />
Mareike Vischer-Leopold Konstantinstr. 110, 53179 Bonn<br />
http://www.bfn.de;<br />
e-mail: SsymankA@BfN.de, VischerM@bfn.de<br />
Fon: +49 228 8491 1540, Fax: +49 228 8491 1519<br />
Dr. Andreé Hamm Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation<br />
Section Ecology of Cultural Landscape (Zoo-Ecology)<br />
University of Bonn<br />
Melbweg 42, 53127 Bonn<br />
http://www.tierökologie.uni-bonn.de, e-mail: a.hamm@uni-bonn.de<br />
Fon: +49 228 9101913, Fax: +49 228 9101930<br />
Project supervision: Dr. Axel Ssymank, Mareike Vischer-Leopold<br />
Research beneficiary: Prof. Dr. D. Wittmann (University of Bonn)<br />
Commissioned by: Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation, Bonn (BfN)<br />
This book is the result of a research and development project (F+E-Vorhaben) „Workshop zur Diversität der<br />
Blütenbestäuber“ (FKZ 350 88 20 200), supported by the Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation (BfN) with<br />
financial resources of the Federal Ministry <strong>for</strong> the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety<br />
(BMU).<br />
This publication is included in the literature database “DNL-online” (www.dnl-online.de)<br />
BfN-Skripten are not available in book trade but can be downloaded in a pdf version from the internet<br />
at: http://www.bfn.de/0502_skripten.html<br />
Publisher: <strong>Bundesamt</strong> <strong>für</strong> <strong>Naturschutz</strong> (BfN)<br />
Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation<br />
Konstantinstraße 110<br />
53179 Bonn, Germany<br />
URL: http://www.bfn.de<br />
All rights reserved by BfN.<br />
The publisher takes no guarantee <strong>for</strong> correctness, details and completeness of statements and views in this<br />
report as well as no guarantee <strong>for</strong> respecting private rights of third parties.<br />
Views expressed in the papers published in this issue of BfN-Skripten are those of the authors and do not<br />
necessarily represent those of the publisher.<br />
No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any <strong>for</strong>m or by any<br />
means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or by any in<strong>for</strong>mation storage and retrieval<br />
system without written permission from the copyright owner.<br />
Printed by the printing office of the Federal Ministry <strong>for</strong> the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear<br />
Safety.<br />
Printed on 100% recycled paper.<br />
Bonn, Germany 2009
Preface<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> posses a key function in ecosystems and secure a substantial portion of world sustenance.<br />
The biological diversity of pollinators is deemed to be an important foundation <strong>for</strong> the conservation<br />
of species diversity in the international context (CBD-target stopp the loss 2010), the<br />
European context and also in Germany. The decline in numbers of the natural pollinators has led<br />
to the composition of the “Sao Paulo Declaration on <strong>Pollinators</strong>” <strong>for</strong> the protection and sustainable<br />
use of pollinators 1998 in Sao Paulo within the scope of the International <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative and<br />
to its signing at the COP 5. Since then the International <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative, under the direction of<br />
the FAO and regional pollinators initiatives, works on safeguarding this important ecosystem service.<br />
Besides the honeybee it is mainly numerous feral bee- and fly species that significantly secure the<br />
pollination of our crops and of feral plants. However, many of the pollination relevant animal species<br />
are threatened through numerous dangers, of witch habitat loss, change of land use and application<br />
of pesticides are just a few examples. Global changes such as e.g. the warming of the<br />
climate and its repercussions additionally accrue.<br />
As small as they may be, pollinating insects are indispensable <strong>for</strong> the pollination of many horticultural<br />
crops and there<strong>for</strong>e are of high economic value. About 35% of the world production of food<br />
depend on flower visiting insects (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations 2008).<br />
In addition pollinators are important <strong>for</strong> the maintenance of the biodiversity of a majority of feral<br />
plants and <strong>for</strong> the thereon depending animals. Last not least the aesthetic and recreational value of<br />
a blooming meadow that contains various species should be mentioned.<br />
It is undisputable that the ef<strong>for</strong>ts made <strong>for</strong> the conservation of pollinators have to be continued to<br />
counter the dangers faced and to maintain biological diversity. The side event of the Federal Nature<br />
Conservation Agency and the University of Bonn at the ninth Conference of the Parties of the<br />
Convention on Biological Diversity has given new proposals here and has contributed to the networking<br />
of the <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiatives at international level. The present volume documents the current<br />
state of the work of the <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiatives, gives recommendations and points out the need<br />
<strong>for</strong> action and research. We hope to therewith give assistance and suggestions <strong>for</strong> the long term<br />
preservation of pollinators and their ecosystem services.<br />
Our special thanks go to the <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiatives, the University of Bonn and to all those who<br />
have contributed to the success of this project.<br />
Prof. Dr. Beate Jessel<br />
President of the Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation, Germany
Vorwort<br />
Blütenbestäuber nehmen eine Schlüsselfunktion in Ökosystemen ein und sichern wesentliche Anteile<br />
unserer Welternährung. Die Biodiversität der Bestäuber gilt als wichtiger Grundstein zum Erhalt<br />
der Artenvielfalt in Deutschland, im europäischen und im internationalen Kontext (CBD-target<br />
stopp the loss 2010). Der Rückgang natürlicher Bestäuber hat dazu geführt, dass 1998 in Sao<br />
Paulo im Rahmen der Internationalen Pollinator Initiative die "Sao Paulo Declaration on <strong>Pollinators</strong>"<br />
zum Schutz und zur nachhaltigen Nutzung von Bestäubern ausgearbeitet und während der<br />
COP5 unterzeichnet wurde. Seither arbeiten die Internationale Bestäuber-Initiative unter der Leitung<br />
der FAO und regionale Bestäuber-Initiativen an einer Absicherung dieser wichtigen Ökosystem-Dienstleitung.<br />
Neben der Honigbiene sind es vor allem zahlreiche wildlebende Bienen- und<br />
Fliegenarten, die maßgeblich die Bestäubung unserer Kultur- und Wildpflanzen sichern.<br />
Viele <strong>für</strong> die Bestäubung wichtige Tierarten sind jedoch von zahlreichen Gefährdungen wie z. B.<br />
Habitatverluste, Landnutzungswandel oder Pestizideinsatz bedroht. Hinzu kommen außerdem<br />
globale Veränderungen wie z. B. der Klimawandel und seine Folgen.<br />
So klein sie auch sein mögen, blütenbesuchende Insekten sind unabdingbar <strong>für</strong> die Bestäubung<br />
vieler Kulturpflanzen und haben daher einen hohen wirtschaftlichen Wert. Rund 35 % der Welt-<br />
Nahrungsproduktion hängen von blütenbesuchenden Insekten ab (Food and Agriculture Organization<br />
of the United Nations 2008). Daneben sind sie <strong>für</strong> den Erhalt der biologischen Vielfalt eines<br />
Großteils der wildlebenden Pflanzen und der davon abhängigen Tierarten wichtig. Nicht zu vergessen<br />
sind auch der ästhetische und der Erholungswert, den z. B. blüten- und artenreiche Wildwiesen<br />
bieten.<br />
Es ist unumstritten, dass die Anstrengungen zum Erhalt der Blütenbestäuber <strong>for</strong>tgeführt werden<br />
müssen, um den Gefährdungen entgegenzuwirken und die biologische Vielfalt zu erhalten. Das<br />
Side-event des <strong>Bundesamt</strong>es <strong>für</strong> <strong>Naturschutz</strong> und der Universität Bonn auf der 9. Vertragsstaatenkonferenz<br />
zum Erhalt der Biologischen Vielfalt (COP 9) im Mai 2008 hat hier neue Impulse gesetzt<br />
und einen Beitrag zur Vernetzung der Bestäuberinitiative gerade auch auf internationaler Ebene<br />
geleistet. Der vorliegende Band dokumentiert den derzeitigen Stand der Arbeiten der Bestäuberinitiativen,<br />
gibt Empfehlungen und zeigt den Handlungs- und Forschungsbedarf auf. Wir hoffen damit<br />
Anregungen und Handreichungen <strong>für</strong> den langfristigen Erhalt der Blütenbestäuber und ihren Ökosystemleistungen<br />
geben zu können. Unser Dank gilt den Bestäuberinitiativen, der Universität Bonn<br />
und allen Beteiligten, die zum Gelingen dieses Projektes beigetragen haben.<br />
Prof. Dr. Beate Jessel<br />
Präsidentin des <strong>Bundesamt</strong>es <strong>für</strong> <strong>Naturschutz</strong>
Contents<br />
1. Introduction<br />
A. SSYMANK (BfN), A. HAMM (University Bonn), M. VISCHER-LEOPOLD (BfN) & D. WITTMANN<br />
(University Bonn) .................................................................................................................1<br />
2. Presentations<br />
2.1. The International Perspective – <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiatives<br />
L. COLLETTE, FAO, Italy ......................................................................................................5<br />
2.2. The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI): “Update of recent progress”<br />
B.F.S. DIAS, Ministry of Environment, Brazil .....................................................................11<br />
2.3. Small bees have a big job: holding up biome diversity<br />
D.W. ROUBIK, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Republic of Panamá .................26<br />
2.4. Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
A. SSYMANK, BfN, Bonn & C. KEARNS, Santa Clara University ... ......................................39<br />
3. Posters<br />
3.1. North and Inter-American Pollinator Initiatives<br />
M. RUGGIERO, Smithsonian Institution, USA; L. ADAMS, Pollinator Partnership, USA; A.<br />
SARAIVA, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil ...........................................................................53<br />
3.2. An overview of pollinator studies in Kenya<br />
M. GIKUNGU, National Museums of Kenya, Kenya; M. HAGEN & M. KRAEMER, Bielefeld<br />
University, Biological Collection, Germany .......................................................................56<br />
3.3. Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative: Biodiversity and sustainable use of pollinators<br />
V. L. IMPERATRIZ FONSECA, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de S. Paulo, Brazil; A.M.<br />
SARAIVA, Escola Politécnica, Universidade de S. Paulo, Brazil; L. S. GONÇALVES,<br />
Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciencas e Letras Rebeirao Preto, Universidade de S. Paolo, Brazil;<br />
D. DE JONG, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirao Preto, Universidade de S. Paolo, Brazil;<br />
D. DE A. ALVES, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de S. Paulo, Brazil; C. MENEZES<br />
& T. M. FRANCOY, Faculdade de Filosofia, Ciencas e Letras Rebeirao Preto, Universidade<br />
de S. Paolo, Brazil .............................................................................................................64<br />
3.4. Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative – Time line<br />
V. L. IMPERATRIZ FONSECA & D. DE A. ALVES, Instituto de Biociências, Universidade de S.<br />
Paulo, Brazil; A.M. SARAIVA, Escola Politécnica, Universidade de S. Paulo, Brazil;<br />
M.C.P.P. LANDEIRO & B.F.S. DIAS, Ministério do Meio Ambiente, Brazil ..........................72<br />
3.5. The Oceania <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (OPI): Integrated In<strong>for</strong>mation System <strong>for</strong> OPI based on a<br />
federation of distributed databases
L.E. NEWSTROM-LLOYD, J. COOPER, N.J. SPENCER & A.D. WILTON, Landcare Research,<br />
New Zealand......................................................................................................................78<br />
3.6. OPI: Monitoring <strong>Pollinators</strong>: Case studies from Australia and New Zealand<br />
C.L. CROSS, Ecosystem Management, the University of New England, Armindale, Australia;<br />
L.E. NEWSTROM-LLOYD, Landcare Research, Lincoln, New Zealand; B. HOWLETT, Crop<br />
and Food Research, New Zealand; G. PLUNKETT, Management, the University of New<br />
England, Armindale, Australia & B.J. DONOVAN, Donovan Scientific Insect Research,<br />
Christchurch, New Zealand................................................................................................86<br />
4. Statements<br />
4.1. The status of European pollinators<br />
S.G. POTTS & S. ROBERTS, Centre <strong>for</strong> Agri-Environment Research, University of Reading,<br />
UK; W.E. KUNIN & J.C. BIESMEIJER, Institute of Integrative and Comparative Biology and<br />
Earth and Biosphere Institute, University of Leeds, UK. ...................................................94<br />
4.2. Pollinator declines and loss of pollination services: research in the framework of the EUproject<br />
ALARM<br />
I. STEFFAN-DEWENTER, Population Ecology Group, Department of Animal Ecology I, University<br />
of Bayreuth ...........................................................................................................100<br />
5. Highlights - Zusammenfassung<br />
A. SSYMANK (BfN).............................................................................................................107<br />
6. Annex<br />
6.1. Impressions of the side-event and the pollinators buffet – demonstrating the benefits of<br />
pollination<br />
A. HAMM; A. SSYMANK .....................................................................................................121<br />
6.2. Fruit crops presented on the pollinators buffet<br />
A. HAMM; A. SSYMANK .....................................................................................................127<br />
6.3. An overview on the main pollinator groups – short fact sheets<br />
Hymenoptera: A. HAMM ...................................................................................................148<br />
Bees (Apidae): A. HAMM ..................................................................................................151<br />
True Flies (Diptera): A. SSYMANK, C. KEARNS, T. PAPE, F. C. THOMPSON .......................155<br />
Flower Flies (Syrphidae): A. SSYMANK ............................................................................159<br />
Butterflies and Moths (Lepidoptera): A. HAMM, D. WITTMANN ..........................................163<br />
Beetles (Coleoptera): A. HAMM ........................................................................................167<br />
Birds (Aves): K.-L. SCHUCHMANN .....................................................................................170<br />
Bats (Chiroptera): M. TSCHAPKA ......................................................................................177<br />
Literature <strong>for</strong> all fact sheets..............................................................................................181<br />
6.4. Links.................................................................................................................................190
Ssymank, Hamm, Vischer-Leopold & Wittmann Introduction<br />
1 Introduction<br />
by A. Ssymank, A. Hamm, M. Vischer-Leopold & D. Wittmann<br />
Pollination is a key function in all terrestrial ecosystems, interlinking the fate of plants and<br />
animals. Pollinating animals are themselves a major part of the biodiversity worldwide, they<br />
are safeguarding plant biodiversity and indirectly all the animals depending on fruits or<br />
leaves of animal pollinated plants <strong>for</strong> their food. A world without pollination is beyond imagination<br />
and would have lost all its richness and most of its vegetation. Pollination services<br />
cannot just be replaced by humans, are extremely valuable and are a precondition <strong>for</strong> or<br />
affecting an estimated 35% of the world’s crop production, increasing outputs of 87 of the<br />
leading food crops (FAO 2008). The total economic value of pollination services worldwide is<br />
estimated to €153 billion, with vegetables, fruits (see fruit buffet, p. 121 as the leading crop<br />
categories in value of insect pollination (Gallai et al. 2008).<br />
There is direct and indirect evidence of pollinators decline worldwide in different regions,<br />
which is likely to impact production of fruits and vegetables and to accelerate the loss of species<br />
diversity. This is particularly important in highly modified agricultural landscapes, where<br />
pollinators are most needed <strong>for</strong> food production and crop security.<br />
Animal pollination is wide-spread among plant species (estimated 85 % of all plants) with<br />
probably close to 300,000 flower visiting animal species worldwide (Nabham & Buchmann<br />
1997). Pollen limited fecundity in wild plants is frequent and pollen transfer by animal is vital<br />
<strong>for</strong> the biodiversity of all terrestrial ecosystems. For example many of the beautiful tropical<br />
cacti (<strong>for</strong> example Pachycereus pringlei) are bat-pollinated, many ornamental plants with<br />
large red or orange flowers are bird pollinated. However the large majority of plants are insect-pollinated:<br />
wasps, beetles and butterflies visit flowers. Especially the bees and the true<br />
flies are the main pollinator groups worldwide (see fact sheets of pollinator groups, p. 148).<br />
They transfer the pollen between different flowers while using plant resources and ensure or<br />
enlarge the reproduction success of cultivated and wild plants.<br />
Bees were called “testimonies of the golden days” by Virgil, the Roman writer Publius Vergilius,<br />
70-19 BC. In his book “Georgica” (about Agriculture), Virgil displayed no knowledge on<br />
where nectar comes from. He thought that honey ‘drops from the sky as tears of Narcissus’.<br />
He also had no notion of pollination by wind or by animals. Only as late as the 18th century<br />
did such facts emerge, recorded by a school teacher and naturalist living in the small German<br />
town of Jena. Christian Konrad Sprengel observed that in the fields and woods around<br />
his home several insects, especially bees, transport pollen grains and deposit them on the<br />
stigma of a flower. In a series of careful experiments he discovered that those pollen grains<br />
are essential <strong>for</strong> the production of fruits and seeds. He published his results in the book “The<br />
Discovered Secret of Nature in the Morphology and Fertilisation of Flowers”, in 1793. This<br />
should have been a breakthrough <strong>for</strong> science. Instead, Wolfgang von Goethe, celebrated<br />
writer of “Metamorphis of Plants” and well known nature scientist condemned Sprengel’s<br />
findings. The non-scientific argument he gave was that such a wonderful creation as a flower<br />
could not possibly depend <strong>for</strong> its reproduction on such an ugly creature as an insect.<br />
1
Ssymank, Hamm, Vischer-Leopold & Wittmann Introduction<br />
Today we understand that bees and other pollinators have an outstanding function in ecosystems<br />
because they literally maintain terrestrial plants. In other words, pollination ranks<br />
with photosynthesis as the most important processes in plant life. Today we indeed have to<br />
be somewhat afraid that the golden days of bees on earth are about to end. Although there<br />
are more than 25,000 bee species, we are losing pollinators in agricultural areas, where we<br />
need them most. And losing pollinators means losing fruits, seeds, and money - about € 153<br />
billion per year .<br />
Flies represent one of the largest insect groups of the world with approx. 160.000 species in<br />
162 families. They play a major role in pollination of wild plants and crops with over 70 families<br />
known to visit regularly flowers.<br />
No chocolate without flies! Who knows that the cocoa-tree is pollinated by small midges and<br />
that only fly-pollination will yield the cocoa-fruit, refined into chocolate, a product that had an<br />
overwhelming triumphant success shortly after its introduction in Europe.....<br />
This is just one example of many crops and flies are second in their importance as pollinators<br />
compared to the better-known bees. They have been largely neglected and have special<br />
importance <strong>for</strong> example in sub(arctic) or high altitude ecosystems, in the understory of tropical<br />
<strong>for</strong>ests and many wild plants worldwide are almost exclusively pollinated by flies. While a<br />
few groups of flies are known as vectors of diseases, the major part of the flies are beneficial<br />
and essential in their pollination services, in decomposing organic material or as biological<br />
control agents.<br />
More than 200 years after Sprengel’s insight, some 40 scientists initiated the International<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (IPI) in Sao Paulo, Brazil. The decline in numbers of the natural pollinators<br />
has lead to the composition of the “Sao Paulo Declaration on <strong>Pollinators</strong>” <strong>for</strong> the protection<br />
and sustainable use of pollinators 1998 in Sao Paulo within the scope of the International<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative and to its signing at the 5th Conference of Parties (COP 5) of the<br />
Convention on Biological Diversity.<br />
In April 2002 the Convention on Biological Diversity (COP 6) adopted the Decision VI/5, a<br />
“Plan of Action <strong>for</strong> the International Initiative <strong>for</strong> the Conservation and Sustainable Use of<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong>” prepared by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO)<br />
together with leading pollination scientists<br />
(http://www.bees<strong>for</strong>development.org/info/info/pollination/international-pollinator-.shtml). This<br />
plan under the leadership of the FAO aims to promote co-ordinated action worldwide to:<br />
• Monitor pollinator decline, its causes and its impact on pollination services,<br />
• Address the lack of taxonomic in<strong>for</strong>mation on pollinators,<br />
• Assess the economic value of pollination and the economic impact of decline of pollination<br />
services, and<br />
• Promote the conservation and the restoration and sustainable use of pollinator diversity<br />
in agriculture and related ecosystems.<br />
2
Ssymank, Hamm, Vischer-Leopold & Wittmann Introduction<br />
The plan has four elements: assessment, adaptive management, capacity building and<br />
mainstreaming, each with a detailed operational objective, rationale, activities, ways and<br />
means and a timing of the expected outputs.<br />
A series of international and national activities has been organized to conserve and sustain<br />
the use of pollinators, and to maintain or restore their habitats (African <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative,<br />
Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative, European <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative, North American <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
Protection Campaign and Oceania <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative). Each initiative has the aim to integrate<br />
and co-ordinate local, national and international activities relating to pollination into a<br />
cohesive network.<br />
Furthermore there is a UNEP/GEF project “Conservation & Management of <strong>Pollinators</strong> <strong>for</strong><br />
Sustainable Agriculture through an Ecosystem Approach” witch will contribute to the conservation,<br />
sustainable use and management of pollinators <strong>for</strong> example by developing and implementing<br />
tools, methodologies, building local, national, regional and global capacities to<br />
enable the design or promoting the coordination and integration of activities related to the<br />
conservation and sustainable use of pollinators at the international level to enhance global<br />
synergies.<br />
As the following pages will show, there is a growing number of research and activities to<br />
maintain pollination services. However there is still a long way to go with research, networking<br />
and in<strong>for</strong>mation transfer, political awareness and pollinator management as core activities<br />
to maintain biological diversity worldwide.<br />
We may hope that pollinators will be kept in our minds. We need them and we<br />
need to care <strong>for</strong> them!<br />
Citations:<br />
FAO (2008): A contribution to the International Initiative <strong>for</strong> the Conservation and sustainable Use of<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong>. – Rapid Assessment of Pollinator’s Status. January 2008, 52 pp., FAO, Rome.<br />
GALLAI, N., SALLES, J.M., SETTELE, J. & VAISSIÈRE, B. (in press): Economic valuation of the vulnerability<br />
of world agriculture confronted to pollinator decline. Ecological Economics (in press;<br />
doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.06.014).<br />
NABHAM, G. P. & BUCHMANN, S. L. (1997): Services provided by pollinators. In: Nature´s services (ed.<br />
Daily G.), pp. 133-150. Island Press, Washington D.C.<br />
SPRENGEL, C. K. (1793): Das entdeckte Geheimnis der Natur im Bau und in der Befruchtung der Blumen.<br />
– Berlin (F. Vieweg).<br />
3
Ssymank, Hamm, Vischer-Leopold & Wittmann Introduction<br />
Authors' addresses:<br />
Dr. Axel Ssymank & Mareike Vischer-Leopold, <strong>Bundesamt</strong> <strong>für</strong> <strong>Naturschutz</strong> (BfN, I.2.2, German Federal<br />
Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation), Konstantinstr. 110, 53179 Bonn, Germany. Website:<br />
http://www.bfn.de, E-mail: Ssymanka@bfn.de, vischerm@bfn.de<br />
Dr. Andreé Hamm & Prof. Dieter Wittmann, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation<br />
Section Ecology of Cultural Landscape (Zoo-Ecology), University of Bonn, Melbweg 42, 53127 Bonn,<br />
Germany. Website: http://www.tierökologie.uni-bonn.de, E-mail: a.hamm@uni-bonn.de, wittmann@uni-bonn.de<br />
4
Collette International Perspektive - FAO<br />
2.1 International Perspektive<br />
by Linda Collette, FAO<br />
- The International Perspective -<br />
Global challenges<br />
FAO<br />
CBD COP IX<br />
Side Event: “<strong>Caring</strong> <strong>for</strong> pollinators”<br />
Bonn, Germany<br />
22 May 2008<br />
Convention on Biological Diversity<br />
International <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (IPI)<br />
FAO’s Global Action on Pollination Services<br />
<strong>for</strong> Sustainable Agriculture<br />
FAO/UNEP/GEF Global Pollination Project<br />
Looking ahead<br />
- Content -<br />
5
Collette International Perspektive - FAO<br />
- Global Challenges -<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> provide an essential ecosystem service, contributing to<br />
crop production and hence food security<br />
Approximately two-thirds major world crops and 80% of all<br />
flowering plant species rely on animal pollinators (Klein)<br />
Agricultural production, agro-ecosystem diversity and<br />
biodiversity are being threatened by declining pollinator populations<br />
Some contributing factors to declining pollinator populations<br />
include habitat loss/fragmentation, land management practices,<br />
agricultural and industrial chemicals, parasites/diseases, alien species<br />
- Convention on Biological Diversity -<br />
CBD COP Decision III/11<br />
The São Paulo Declaration on <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
CBD COP Decision V/5 (2000): established the International<br />
Initiative <strong>for</strong> the Conservation and Sustainable Use of <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
(International <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative - IPI) and called <strong>for</strong> the<br />
development of a Plan of Action<br />
At CBD COP V (Decision V/5), the CBD Executive Secretary was<br />
requested to “invite the Food and Agriculture Organization of the<br />
United Nations to facilitate and coordinate the Initiative in close<br />
cooperation with other relevant organizations...”<br />
CBD COP Decision VI/5 (2002):<br />
Adopted the Plan of Action <strong>for</strong> the International Initiative <strong>for</strong><br />
the Conservation and Sustainable Use of <strong>Pollinators</strong> (IPI)<br />
6
Collette International Perspektive - FAO<br />
- International <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative<br />
(IPI) -<br />
Objectives of the IPI:<br />
Monitor pollinator decline, its causes and its impact<br />
on pollination services;<br />
Address the lack of taxonomic in<strong>for</strong>mation on<br />
pollinators;<br />
Assess the economic value of pollination and the<br />
economic impact of the decline of pollination<br />
services; and<br />
Promote the conservation and the restoration and<br />
sustainable use of pollinator diversity in agriculture<br />
and related ecosystems.<br />
-International <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative –<br />
-Elements of the Plan of Action -<br />
Element 1: Assessment<br />
Element 2: Adaptive Management<br />
Element 3: Capacity Building<br />
Element 4: Mainstreaming<br />
7
Collette International Perspektive - FAO<br />
- FAO’s Global Action on Pollination<br />
Services <strong>for</strong> Sustainable Agriculture -<br />
Knowledge management of pollination services<br />
(Pollination Management In<strong>for</strong>mation System<br />
(PIMS))<br />
Best practice profiles <strong>for</strong> management of pollination<br />
services<br />
Pollinator diversity and abundance on farms<br />
Climate change and pollination services<br />
Awareness-raising<br />
FAO/UNEP/GEF Global <strong>Pollinators</strong> Project<br />
- FAO/UNEP/GEF Project on Conservation and<br />
Management of <strong>Pollinators</strong> <strong>for</strong> Sustainable<br />
Agriculture, Through an Ecosystem Approach -<br />
Objectives<br />
The development objective of the project is improved<br />
food security, nutrition and livelihoods through<br />
enhanced conservation and sustainable use of<br />
pollinators.<br />
The immediate objective is enhanced understanding,<br />
conservation and sustainable use of pollinators through<br />
the ecosystem approach in selected countries <strong>for</strong><br />
sustainable agriculture.<br />
8
Collette International Perspektive - FAO<br />
- (...cont’d) -<br />
Four main components of the Project<br />
Expansion of the Knowledge Base<br />
Promotion of Pollinator-friendly Practices<br />
Capacity-building<br />
Public Awareness, Mainstreaming and<br />
In<strong>for</strong>mation-sharing<br />
5 year project (Brazil, Ghana, Kenya, India, Nepal,<br />
Pakistan, South Africa)<br />
- Looking ahead -<br />
Global collaboration<br />
Cover all pollinators<br />
Contribute to PIMS and other global<br />
databases<br />
Regional international initiatives<br />
Raising awareness<br />
Building capacity<br />
Mainstreaming<br />
9
Collette International Perspektive - FAO<br />
Authors address:<br />
Linda Collette, FAO – AGP, FFSnet, Viale della Terme di Caracalla, 00100 Rome, Italy,<br />
e-mail: linda.collette@fao.org<br />
10
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
2.2 The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
by Braulio F. de Souza Dias, Brazil<br />
THE<br />
BRAZILIAN<br />
BRAZILIAN<br />
POLLINATORS<br />
POLLINATORS<br />
INITIATIVE<br />
INITIATIVE<br />
(BPI)<br />
(BPI)<br />
“Conservation and Management of <strong>Pollinators</strong> <strong>for</strong><br />
Sustainable Agriculture through an Ecosystem<br />
Approach”, FAO Project No. EP/GLO/301/GEF<br />
Braulio F. de Souza Dias<br />
STOCKTAKING<br />
Director<br />
AND NEEDS<br />
of Biodiversity<br />
ASSESSMENT<br />
Conservation<br />
REPORT<br />
Brazilian Ministry of the Environment<br />
Side events COP 9 – Bonn 2008<br />
FAO, Rome, 13-16 December 2004<br />
UPDATE<br />
Junho/2006<br />
The Bahia <strong>Pollinators</strong> Network (Repol)<br />
was created by initiative of State<br />
Government of Bahia, FAPESB, and<br />
Universities researchers.<br />
11
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
GOALS<br />
• Researcher groups integration;<br />
• Dissemination of the in<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
about <strong>Pollinators</strong> diversity;<br />
• Researcher partnership and projects<br />
elaboration incentives;<br />
• Technological transfer facility.<br />
UPDATE<br />
Junho/2007<br />
The FAO/MMA Project: “Conservation<br />
and Management of <strong>Pollinators</strong> <strong>for</strong><br />
Sustainable Agriculture through an<br />
Ecosystem Approach has approved in<br />
GEF Work Program”<br />
12
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
Conservation and Management of<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> <strong>for</strong> Sustainable Agriculture<br />
through an Ecosystem Approach<br />
Components<br />
1) Development of a Base Knowledge<br />
2) Extension and Promotion of Pollinatorfriendly<br />
Best Management Practices<br />
3) Capacity Building<br />
4) Sharing of Experiences, Dissemination<br />
of Results and Awareness Raising<br />
UPDATE<br />
Agosto/2007<br />
Meeting of the Integrated Fruit<br />
Production – EMBRAPA/MAPA-<br />
Project partner- With lectures of<br />
Dr. Breno Freitas and Dr. Braulio<br />
Dias.<br />
13
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
UPDATE<br />
Setembro/2007<br />
Brazilian Congress of Ecology<br />
Caxambú/MG<br />
Pollination Ecology Table Participants:<br />
Ludmila Aguiar (Embrapa Cerrado),<br />
Blandina Viana (UFBA), Rogério<br />
Gribel (INPA), Marcia Maués<br />
(Embrapa Cpatu) and Marina<br />
Landeiro (MMA)<br />
UPDATE<br />
October/2007<br />
PORTALBio<br />
www.mma.gov.br/portalbio<br />
The Probio subprojects results –<br />
Pollinating Management Plans -<br />
became available in PortalBio .<br />
14
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
April/2008<br />
UPDATE<br />
February/2008<br />
SIDE EVENT SBSTTA/CDB<br />
Rome, Italy<br />
Dra Maria José Campos<br />
participation (UFSCar) in the side<br />
event about Agriculture<br />
biodiversity organized by FAO<br />
UPDATE<br />
Workshop about pollinating deficit mechanism<br />
Avignon, França<br />
Dr. Breno Freitas, as BPI member, and Dr.<br />
Paulo Oliveira, as a subproject Probio<br />
coordinator.<br />
15
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
UPDATE<br />
July/2008<br />
Symposium SP+10 Table<br />
Braulio Dias (MMA)<br />
GEF <strong>Pollinators</strong> Project –<br />
Update and Events about<br />
Pollinating in COP9;<br />
Marina Landeiro (MMA)<br />
Report BPI 2006/2007 e 2008<br />
and Presentation of the analysis<br />
of the questionaires sent to the<br />
researchers<br />
UPDATE<br />
July/2008<br />
Symposium SP+10 Table<br />
Breno Freitas (UFC)<br />
Pollitating Deficit<br />
Maria José Campos<br />
Agriculture biodiversity<br />
16
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
PROBIO (Brazilian Biological Diversity<br />
Conservation and Sustainable Use Project)<br />
• Two Public Calls to support projects on<br />
pollinators management (September<br />
2003 and January 2004).<br />
• 58 proposals were submitted, 13 of<br />
which were approved by CONABIO and<br />
contracted by CNPq, with a total sum of<br />
approximately US$ 500,000.00 of<br />
financing from MMA plus counterpart<br />
funding from the executing<br />
organizations.<br />
North:<br />
AC - Acre<br />
AM – Amazonas<br />
AP – Amapá<br />
PA – Pará<br />
RO – Rondônia<br />
RR – Roraima<br />
TO – Tocantins<br />
Northeast:<br />
AL – Alagoas<br />
BA – Bahia<br />
CE – Ceará<br />
MA – Maranhão<br />
RN – Rio Grande do Norte<br />
SE – Sergipe<br />
PB – Paraíba<br />
PE – Pernambuco<br />
PI - Piauí<br />
17<br />
Regions<br />
North<br />
Northeast<br />
Central - west<br />
Southeast<br />
South<br />
Probio Subprojets<br />
1 Subproj. Paraná<br />
1 Subproj. São Paulo<br />
2 Subproj. Minas Gerais<br />
1 Subproj. Bahia<br />
2 Subproj. Pernambuco<br />
2 Subproj.. Paraíba<br />
1 Subproj. Maranhão<br />
1 Subproj. Mato Grosso<br />
1 Subproj. Amazônia<br />
1 Subproj. Pará<br />
Central-west:<br />
DF – Distrito Federal<br />
GO – Goiás<br />
MS – Mato Grosso do Sul<br />
MT – Mato Grosso<br />
Southeast:<br />
ES – Espírito Santo<br />
MG – Minas Gerais<br />
RJ – Rio de Janeiro<br />
SP – São Paulo<br />
South:<br />
PR – Paraná<br />
RS – Rio Grande do Sul<br />
SC – Santa Catarina
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
Subproject 1: Assessment and Management of <strong>Pollinators</strong> of<br />
Mangaba (Hancornia speciosa, Apocynaceae) and West Indian Cherry<br />
(Malpighia emarginata, Malpighiaceae) in the State of Paraíba<br />
Objective: to elaborate an assessment and management of<br />
the mangabeira (Hancornia speciosa, Apocynaceae) and<br />
aceroleira or West Indian cherry (Malpighia emarginata,<br />
Malpighiaceae) pollinators.<br />
Administration: Federal University of Pernambuco<br />
Development Support Foundation - FADE, in partnership<br />
with the Federal University of Pernabuco - UFPE, the<br />
Federal University of Paraíba - UFPB, The Campina<br />
Grande Federal University and the Paraíba State<br />
Corporation <strong>for</strong> Agriculture Research.<br />
Agreement value: US$ 26,359.46 funded by PROBIO, with a<br />
co-funding of US$ 116,344.82.<br />
(This subproject has received an initial<br />
disbursement from PROBIO of US$ 55.539,25).<br />
Subproject 2: <strong>Pollinators</strong> Assessment and Management in Mango<br />
(Mangifera indica, Anacardiaceae) and Passion Fruit (Passiflora spp,<br />
Passifloraceae) of the São Francisco valley in the State of Pernambuco<br />
Objective: to conduct a pollinators assessment in the São<br />
Francisco Valley traditional and organic crops mainly<br />
Mango (Mangifera indica) and Passion Fruit (Passiflora<br />
edulis) crops.<br />
Administration: The Embrapa Center <strong>for</strong> the Semi-Arid.<br />
Agreement value: US$ 37,5155.51 funded by PROBIO, with a<br />
co-funding of US$ 79,665.86.<br />
18
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
Subproject 3: Management Plans <strong>for</strong> <strong>Pollinators</strong> of Mango (Mangifera<br />
indica, Anacardiaceae), Passion Fruit (Passiflora edulis,<br />
Passifloraceae), Guava (Psidium guajava, Myrtaceae) and Umbu<br />
(Spondias tuberosa, Anacardiaceae) in the State of Bahia<br />
Objective: to undertake a pollinators assessment of the<br />
following crops: Mango (Mangifera indica), Passion Fruit<br />
(Passiflora edulis), Guava (Psidium guajava) and Umbu<br />
(Spondias tuberosa), and to propose a management plan<br />
<strong>for</strong> the pollination of these crops.<br />
Administration: Bahia Polithecnic School Foundation<br />
Agreement value: US$ 51,501.37 funded by PROBIO, with a<br />
co-funding of US$ 63,488.27<br />
(This subproject has received an initial<br />
disbursement from PROBIO of US$ 45.884,44).<br />
Subproject 4: Management of <strong>Pollinators</strong> of Passion Fruit (Passiflora<br />
spp, Passifloraceae) in the State of Paraná<br />
Objective: development of a management plan and a<br />
practical manual <strong>for</strong> the pollinators sustainable use in<br />
Passion Fruit cops in Paraná State.<br />
Administration: Federal University of Paraná Foundation <strong>for</strong><br />
Science, Technology and Culture Development - FUNPAR<br />
administrates and implements this project in partnership<br />
with the Federal University of Paraná, the Tuiuti<br />
University of Paraná and the Londrina State University.<br />
Agreement value: US$ 51,113.59 funded by PROBIO, with a<br />
co-funding of US$ 31,358.52.<br />
(This subproject has received an initial<br />
disbursement from PROBIO of US$ 37,961.85).<br />
19
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
Subproject 5: Melipona quadrifasciata Management as Pollinator of<br />
greenhouse tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum, Solanaceae) crops in<br />
the State of Minas Gerais: a conservationist alternative<br />
Objective: to increase the productivity of greenhouse tomato<br />
crops using the pollination of wild stinglessbees of the<br />
species Melipona quadrifasciata. This project also aims to<br />
disseminate this technique due the smaller impacts<br />
compared to use of pesticides in wild bees populations.<br />
Administration: Rain Forest Research Institute — IPEMA and<br />
the Viçosa Federal University - UFV researchers<br />
implement it in the State of Minas Gerais.<br />
Agreement value: US$ 55,539.25 funded by PROBIO, with a<br />
co-funding of US$ 53,620.68.<br />
(This subproject has received an initial<br />
disbursement from PROBIO of US$ 55,539.25).<br />
Subproject 6: <strong>Pollinators</strong> Assessment and Management in Cotton<br />
(Gossypium hirsutum, Malvaceae) and Soursop (Annona muricata,<br />
Annonaceae) crops in the State of Paraíba<br />
Objective: to elaborate a wild pollinators assessment and<br />
management plan <strong>for</strong> Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum,<br />
Malvaceae) and Soursop (Annona muricata, Annonaceae)<br />
crops.<br />
Administration: Federal University of Pernambuco<br />
Development Support Foundation – FADE<br />
Implemented: researches of the Federal University of Paraíba<br />
- UFPB -, the Federal University of Pernambuco – UFPE,<br />
the Campina Grande Federal University – UFCG, the<br />
Embrapa Center <strong>for</strong> Cotton and the Agriculture Research<br />
Institute from Pernambuco.<br />
Agreement value: US$ 51,659.9 funded by PROBIO, with a<br />
co-funding of US$ 28,893.00.<br />
(This subproject has received an initial<br />
disbursement from PROBIO of US$ 24,066.66)<br />
20
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
Subproject 7: Crop Management and <strong>Pollinators</strong> Diversity in tomato<br />
(Lycopersicon esculentum, Solanaceae) crops in the State of São<br />
Paulo<br />
Objective: to evaluate in tomato crops how opposite<br />
techniques (organic and traditional) and the landscape<br />
frame have influenced on pollinators diversity in<br />
agriculture systems. The preliminary results will be the<br />
base <strong>for</strong> a management plan proposal to identify bees as<br />
a potential pollinators and so to guarantee the arrival,<br />
establishment and maintenance of the pollinators in the<br />
crop areas. The subproject also has a goal to disseminate<br />
the research results and to give permission to the local<br />
farmers to access in<strong>for</strong>mation about the importance of<br />
pollinators to increase the crop output and about the<br />
importance of pollinators conservation.<br />
Administration: State University of São Paulo– UNESP<br />
administrates and implements the project.<br />
Agreement value: US$ 51,712.75 funded by PROBIO, with a<br />
co-funding of US$ 31,189.65.<br />
(This subproject has received an initial<br />
disbursement from PROBIO of US$ 24,771.11)<br />
Subproject 8: Wild <strong>Pollinators</strong> Management of the assai palm<br />
(Euterpe oleracea, Palmae) in Eastern Amazonia<br />
Objective: to make a review of the Assai Palm (Euterpe<br />
precatoria, Palmae) reproductive biology, to study and<br />
disseminate the breeding methods and colony<br />
multiplication of two species of Stingless bees (Melipona<br />
fasciculata e M. flavolineata) and to evaluate the impact of<br />
the introduction of stingless bee colonies on the increase<br />
of fruit production.<br />
Administration: Agriculture and Amazon Forest Development<br />
and Research Support Foundation – FUNAGRI<br />
administrates this subproject and has as its implementing<br />
partner the Embrapa Center <strong>for</strong> Eastern Amazonia –<br />
CPATU.<br />
Agreement value: US$ 43,333.44 funded by PROBIO, with a<br />
co-funding of US$ 31,144.82.<br />
(This subproject has received an initial<br />
disbursement from PROBIO of US$ 40,152.96).<br />
21
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
Subproject 9: Cupuassu (Theobroma grandiflorum, Sterculiaceae)<br />
Pollination in Central Amazonia: technics development <strong>for</strong> crops and<br />
pollinators management<br />
Objective: to understand the genetic factors related to autoincompatibility<br />
mechanisms as well as ecological<br />
mechanisms related to pollination that affect de<br />
productivity of the Cupuassu (Theobroma grandiflorum,<br />
Sterculiaceae). Bee colonies breeding techniques of main<br />
pollinators will be developed, to quantify the effects of the<br />
introduction of these colonies on the pollination rate and<br />
on fruit production in Cupuassu crops.<br />
Administration: Djalma Batista Foundation and the Amazon<br />
National Research Institute – INPA’s researchers<br />
implements it.<br />
Agreement value: US$ 19,965.51 funded by PROBIO, with a<br />
co-funding of US$ 18,068.96.<br />
(This subproject has received an initial<br />
disbursement from PROBIO of US$ 15,256.75).<br />
Subproject 10: Management of Araticum or Marolo (Annona<br />
crassifolia, Annonaceae) <strong>Pollinators</strong> in savannahs of the State of<br />
Mato Grosso<br />
Objective: to understand the relation ships of the pollinators of<br />
Araticum or Marolo (Annona crassifolia, Annonaceae)<br />
relationship in the savannahs (“cerrado”) of the State of Mato<br />
Grosso. The results will contribute to the conservation of<br />
pollinators through reproductive biology studies of Araticum and<br />
the ecology of the beetle pollinators.<br />
Administration: The Mato Grosso State University – UNEMAT<br />
administrates this subprojects and implements partnership with<br />
the Viçosa Federal University – UFV.<br />
Agreement value: The value of the agreement is US$ 45,816.92<br />
funded by PROBIO, with a co-funding of US$ 16,091.03. (This<br />
subproject has received an initial disbursement from PROBIO of<br />
US$ 29,725.92).<br />
(This subproject has received an initial<br />
disbursement from PROBIO of US$ 15,256.75).<br />
22
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
Subproject 11: Management of Murici or Nance (Byrsonima<br />
crassifolia, Malpighiaceae) <strong>Pollinators</strong> in natural areas of the State of<br />
Maranhão: species diversity, nesting and the their use<br />
Objective: to increase the knowledge about the guild of pollinators<br />
in native Murici or Nance (Byrsonima crassifolia, Malpighiaceae)<br />
populations (diversity, frequency, abundance and seasonally).<br />
Administration: Souzandrade Development Support Foundation<br />
linked to the Federal University of Maranhão – FSADU<br />
Implementation: researchers of the Federal University of<br />
Maranhão – UFMA.<br />
Agreement value: The value of the agreement is US$ 44,680.68<br />
funded by PROBIO, with a co-funding of US$ 14,724.13.<br />
(This subproject has received an initial<br />
disbursement from PROBIO of US$ 39,601.85).<br />
Subproject 12: Sustainable Management of Carpenter bees<br />
(Xylocopa spp, Apidae) <strong>for</strong> Pollination and Production of Passion<br />
Fruit (Passiflora edulis, Passifloraceae) in the State of Minas Gerais<br />
Objective: to assess the populations of the genus Xylocopa in<br />
yellow Passion Fruit crop areas and in surrounding natural<br />
vegetation in Araguari and Uberlandia counties in the State of<br />
Minas Gerais to subsidise the development of a management<br />
plan that optimises the fruit production and the conservation of<br />
the natural pollinators.<br />
Administration: University Support Foundation and is implemented<br />
by the researchers from the Uberlândia Federal University.<br />
Agreement value: US$ 50,347.58 funded by PROBIO, with a cofunding<br />
of US$ 17,425.51.<br />
(This subproject has received an initial<br />
disbursement from PROBIO of US$ 37,225.55).<br />
23
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
Subproject 13: Management of Passion Fruit (Passiflora edulis,<br />
Passifloraceae) <strong>Pollinators</strong> in the north of the State of Rio de Janeiro<br />
Objective: to assess the pollination of Passion Fruit (Passiflora<br />
edulis, Passifloraceae) in the North of the State of Rio de Janeiro<br />
and to assess the effect of natural pollinators and their bionomic<br />
characteristics in native vegetation areas, to subsidise the<br />
elaboration of a management plan of these pollinator species in<br />
the Passion Fruit crop areas<br />
Administration: Foundation <strong>for</strong> Regional Development of the North<br />
of Rio de Janeiro State - FUNDENOR, and is developed by<br />
researchers from the Northern Rio de Janeiro State University.<br />
Agreement value: US$ 20,076.20 funded by PROBIO, with a cofunding<br />
of US$ 20,620.68.<br />
(This subproject has received an initial<br />
disbursement from PROBIO of US$ 19,416.29).<br />
PROBIO – Expected Products<br />
• Management Plans <strong>for</strong> pollinators of 19<br />
crop species;<br />
• Manuals <strong>for</strong> capacity building of farmers<br />
in small and large properties, local<br />
communities and their organizations <strong>for</strong><br />
the sustainable management of the<br />
diversity of pollinators and the increase<br />
of the pollination service they provide<br />
24
Dias The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI)<br />
Authors´ address:<br />
Mr. Braulio Ferreira de Souza Dias, Ministerio do Meio Ambiente, Avenida LN4 SCEN Trecho 02, Bl.<br />
H, Campus do IBAMA 70818-900 Brasilia DF, Brasil. E-mail: bfsdias@nutecnet.com.br, or<br />
bfsdias@mma.gov.br<br />
25
Roubik Small bees have a big job<br />
2.3 Small bees have a big job - holding up biome biodiversity<br />
by David W. Roubik, Panama<br />
Open habitats are tree graveyards. Their shade, wood, fruit, flowers and seeds have been<br />
replaced by a different set of species, obviously including humans, with their domesticated<br />
and associate organisms. While ‘Homo consumatus’ appropriates landscapes and<br />
subsequently thrives, the benefits of growing many kinds of plants and having natural<br />
reservoirs of pollinators to service them has become a subject of considerable concern.<br />
Which pollinators are important, and how does what we require complement or conflict with<br />
their biology? One resounding successs has been the mobilization of plants and certain<br />
pollinators, those we have learned to keep in mobile pollination units, throughout the globe.<br />
The flaws in this technique are the gaps in our practical knowledge of biology―both of crops<br />
and pollinators―and our inadequate understanding of their limits and susceptibilities. Many<br />
of the fruits of our collective labors are tropical, and much of their continued existence is a<br />
mystery, or attributable to blind luck. A science of pollination ecology and the awareness of<br />
what pollinates these crops and how these animals live, particularly in the tropics of the<br />
world, is the theme of this presentation. Our ef<strong>for</strong>ts to insure pollination through the use of<br />
exotic species, like the honey bee Apis mellifera, which has become invasive in much of the<br />
world, may result in either failure or success. The many other organisms that either were the<br />
original pollinators, or that continue to per<strong>for</strong>m their services, unappreciated, are themes that<br />
should be <strong>for</strong>emost in future ef<strong>for</strong>ts to understand and guarantee continued pollination<br />
services. The alternative, largely to continue the status quo, is untenable.<br />
A tree graveyard, “woodhenge”?<br />
26
Roubik Small bees have a big job<br />
Workers of Apis florea visit the flowers of aquatic ‘lilies’ even in the<br />
dense urban settlement of Bangkok, Thailand. They have survived<br />
human landscapes.<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> to the<br />
rescue!<br />
Female Xylocopa latipes on the wing, one of the most common and<br />
powerful pollinators in Asia, prepares to ‘stop and shop’ <strong>for</strong> pollen at<br />
a flower of the melastome, Melastoma affinis in S. China.<br />
27
Roubik Small bees have a big job<br />
A pair of male Euglossa igniventris (Neotropical orchid bees)<br />
engaged in brushing odors from the flowering bucket orchid,<br />
Coryanthes in central Panama.<br />
Orchid bees are wonderful<br />
indicators<br />
A natural <strong>for</strong>est is a reserve <strong>for</strong> pollinators. A view of the<br />
disappearing rain <strong>for</strong>est from Central Panama, seen from atop Cerro<br />
Bruja at 700 m elevation. The Atlantic Ocean, and the remaining<br />
‘biological corridor’ between Central and South America, lies<br />
between the observer and the ocean, at 13 km distance.<br />
28
Roubik Small bees have a big job<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> are backpackers! These photographs are of several<br />
Euglossa (mixta, analis, tridentata, deceptrix, ignita) with a<br />
pollinarium load from a flower of Coryanthes. The dual pollen<br />
packets, called pollinia, contain thousands of individual pollen grains.<br />
What goes up must come down!<br />
No. Individuals<br />
5000<br />
4000<br />
3000<br />
2000<br />
1000<br />
0<br />
BCI Light-Trap Bees (41 Spp.)<br />
Megalopta & Other bees<br />
29<br />
R 2 = 0.467<br />
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18<br />
Year (1977-1994, 907 weeks)<br />
Bee population dynamics require time to study and understand. The<br />
data shown here were gathered using two ultraviolet light traps on<br />
Barro Colorado Island, Panama. Shown are population trajectories of<br />
two noctural Megalopta (blue dots), 39 other, diurnal solitary and social<br />
bees (green line) and a curve fitted to their dynamics over time. See D.<br />
W. Roubik and H. Wolda. Do competing honey bees matter?<br />
Dynamics and abundance of native bees be<strong>for</strong>e and after honey bee<br />
invasion. Population Ecology 43:53-62 (2001).<br />
800<br />
700<br />
600<br />
500<br />
400<br />
300<br />
200<br />
100<br />
0
Roubik Small bees have a big job<br />
Despite the richness and abundance of wildlife, bees and flower held<br />
by wildlands worldwide, much of this ‘space’ is needed <strong>for</strong><br />
agriculture, which nonetheless continues to rely on a certain diversity<br />
and abundance of native, and increasingly, exotic, pollinators.<br />
Shown are some crops that depend on bees: beans and coffee in<br />
Central America, and honey (from exotic A. mellifera) in China.<br />
China is one example of a mosaic landscape that contains patches<br />
with agriculture and natural vegetation. The rubber, tea, coffee and<br />
vegetable plots are interspersed with some <strong>for</strong>est trees and other<br />
woody vegetation.<br />
30
Roubik Small bees have a big job<br />
A coffee shrub in flower, Coffea arabica, a plant native to eastern<br />
equatorial Africa.<br />
Wet-processing of Coffea arabica in Panama. ‘Beans’ taken after<br />
fermentation has removed their mucilage are slowly dried <strong>for</strong> a few<br />
months until ‘green’ and ready <strong>for</strong> export, and eventual roasting.<br />
31
Roubik Small bees have a big job<br />
Asian Apis cerana pollinating the flower of African Coffea liberica in<br />
S. China.<br />
Giant Asian Apis dorsata nesting on the branches of tall trees in S.<br />
China.<br />
32
Roubik Small bees have a big job<br />
Rubber trees from tropical America, Hevea brasiliensis, are widely<br />
cultivated in Asia. A cup with raw rubber is taken from a ‘tapped’<br />
tree.<br />
Rubber tree plantation in S. China.<br />
33
Roubik Small bees have a big job<br />
Native flowers rely on diverse native bees as pollinators. Workers of<br />
Trigona corvina take nectar and extrafloral nectar from Poinsettia =<br />
Euphorbia pulcherrima in Panama.<br />
Workers of both Apis cerana and A. mellifera <strong>for</strong>age on flowering<br />
Coffea arabica in S. China.<br />
34
Roubik Small bees have a big job<br />
How ‘safe’ and ‘stable’ is a protected <strong>for</strong>est? In the Americas, all<br />
protected <strong>for</strong>ests, like this one in the Chagres National Park of<br />
Panama, have been invaded by exotic honey bees from Africa or<br />
Europe. The ‘big’ question is whether invasive bees are more likely<br />
to enrich or threaten such natural ecosystems.<br />
Are honey bees worth the ‘risk’?<br />
What do they normally visit?<br />
5 extensive Neotropical pollen studies—<br />
Show AHBs use 20-55 local plant families,<br />
38-250 species<br />
Mostly rosids (not mostly asterids), many<br />
monocots, roughly 25% local flora<br />
What do we need to consider be<strong>for</strong>e purposefully introducing exotic<br />
Apis, which are invasive? Their flower visitation habits are one longneglected<br />
aspect of their biology. In natural habitats, at least in the<br />
American tropics, they visit a full range of flowering plants, including<br />
many grasses, sedges, and trees, but not very many of the pretty<br />
‘daisies’ upon which they are frequently depicted.<br />
35
Roubik Small bees have a big job<br />
Proportional pollen use<br />
0,5<br />
0,4<br />
0,3<br />
0,2<br />
0,1<br />
0<br />
Sapotaceae<br />
Malpighiaceae<br />
Centris pollen<br />
Fabaceae<br />
36<br />
Anacardiaceae<br />
Euphorbiaceae<br />
PRE-Apis<br />
POST-Apis<br />
How do invasive honey bees impact native bees? One long-term<br />
study utilized a natural experiment that occurred in a large biosphere<br />
reserve in Yucatan, Mexico. An abundant native bee, Centris analis,<br />
substantially shifted its floral resources to avoid competition with the<br />
honey bees, and it survived (R. Villanueva and D. W. Roubik, Why<br />
are African honey bees and not European bees invasive? Pollen diet<br />
diversity in community experiments. Apidologie 35:481-491; D. W.<br />
Roubik and R. Villanueva, <strong>Pollinators</strong> adjust to invasive honey bees,<br />
Biology Letters (in review).<br />
Unknown to many merchants, much of their produce comes from the<br />
work of pollinators- like the chile, mangoes, fruit and even chicle from<br />
the tree Manilkara, sold here in S. Mexico.
Roubik Small bees have a big job<br />
Save the animals that depend on<br />
pollinators<br />
Unknown to most people, bees and other pollinators literally make<br />
the world go around- their work insures that vegetation, fruit, and<br />
seeds continue to be provided to many different herbivores. The one<br />
shown here, the three-toed sloth Bradypus variegates, eats a lot of<br />
leaves from Cecropia trees, and those trees are pollinated by bees,<br />
including many derived from African Apis mellifera (ibid. Villanueva<br />
and Roubik, 2004).<br />
The End<br />
A little patch of Impatiens growing near coffee farms. Impatiens<br />
provides pollen loaded with the crystals of calcium oxalate- probably<br />
a deterrent to unwanted flower visitors- but nonetheless has orchid<br />
bees visiting its flowers <strong>for</strong> nectar. There are still countless such<br />
interactions and systems awaiting discovery and explanation, which<br />
may eventually lead to wise management.<br />
37
Roubik Small bees have a big job<br />
Authors' address:<br />
Of a never ending<br />
story…<br />
David W. Roubik, Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute, Unit 0948, Republic of Panamá<br />
e-mail: roubikd@si.edu<br />
38
Ssymank & Kearns Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
2.4 Flies –<strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
by Axel Ssymank, Bonn & Carol Kearns, Santa Clara<br />
1. Diptera as pollinators<br />
Diptera, the true flies, are an important, but neglected group of pollinators. Diptera can be<br />
distinguished from other insects by their two membranous front wings and the highly<br />
reduced halteres that represent the remnants of the second pair of wings. They are an<br />
ancient group, and were probably among the first pollinators of early flowering plants.<br />
Fig. 1: Neoascia podacrica, a small<br />
flower fly looking <strong>for</strong> nectar on a<br />
Euphorbia-flower near a pond<br />
margin.<br />
Fig. 2: The drone-fly, Eristalis tenax, a<br />
harmless flower fly pollinating a garden<br />
Aster.<br />
Fig. 3: Rhingia campestris, a flower<br />
fly with a long snout concealing a<br />
proboscis as long as its body sitting<br />
on a Geranium-flower.<br />
Many people think of flies as pests, and certainly there are many pest species. Fewer people<br />
realize the beneficial activities provided by flies, including pest control, as food <strong>for</strong> valued<br />
species such as birds and fish, as decomposers and soil conditioners, as water quality<br />
indicators, and as pollinators of many plants.<br />
Fig. 4: Anopheles mosquito,<br />
known as vector <strong>for</strong> malariadisease.<br />
Fig. 5: Chironomidae – midge<br />
larvae<br />
Fig. 6: Aphid-eating flower fly<br />
larvae (Syrphus spec., Syrphidae)<br />
At least seventy-one of the 150 (Evenhuis et al. 2008) Diptera families include flies that feed<br />
at flowers as adults. More than 550 species of flowering plants are regularly visited by<br />
Diptera (Larson et al. 2001) that are potential pollinations. Diptera have been documented to<br />
be primary pollinators <strong>for</strong> many plant species, both wild and cultivated.<br />
39
Ssymank & Kearns Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
Fig. 7: Tachinidae<br />
Fig. 8: Bombyllidae-fly (Systoechus)<br />
on Echinaceus (Asteraceae)<br />
Fig. 9: metallic fly on Euphorbia esula<br />
Flies live almost everywhere in terrestrial ecosystems and they are abundant in most<br />
habitats. With over 160,000 species, flies <strong>for</strong>m an extremely large and diverse group,<br />
varying in mouth parts, tongue length, size and degree of pilosity. The diversity of flowervisiting<br />
flies is reflected in their effectiveness as pollinators. Some flies, such as longtongued<br />
tabanids of South Africa, have specialized relationships with flowers, while other<br />
flies are generalists, feeding from a wide variety of flowers. In some habitats, such as the<br />
<strong>for</strong>est under-story where shrubs may produce small, inconspicuous, dioecious flowers, flies<br />
seem to be particularly important pollinators. In arctic and alpine environments, under<br />
conditions of reduced bee activity, flies are often the main pollinators of open, bowl-shaped<br />
flowers, with readily accessible pollen and nectar.<br />
Fig. 10: Muscoid fly on Thymus vulgaris. Fig. 11: Flower fly (Sphaerophoria spec., female) on<br />
Thymus vulgaris.<br />
2. Why do flies visit flowers?<br />
Flies visit flowers <strong>for</strong> a number of reasons. The most important is <strong>for</strong> food in the <strong>for</strong>m of<br />
nectar and sometimes pollen. Nectar, a sugary solution, provides energy. Pollen is rich in<br />
proteins, which is required by some adult flies be<strong>for</strong>e they can reproduce.<br />
40
Ssymank & Kearns Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
Other flies visit flowers to lay eggs, and the larvae feed on the flower heads or the<br />
developing fruits and seeds. Plants with carrion flowers deceive flies into visiting and<br />
effecting pollination by providing a scent and appearance that mimics the carcasses where<br />
these types of flies normally lay their eggs.<br />
In cold, arctic and alpine habitats, some flowers attract flies by providing a warm shelter.<br />
Flies bask in the warmth, which can be more than 5 degrees C warmer than the ambient<br />
temperature (Luzar and Gottsberger 2001). This keeps their flight muscles warm, and allows<br />
them to fly at temperatures that would thwart most bees. Their movement between flowers<br />
results in pollination.<br />
Flowers can also serve as rendezvous sites <strong>for</strong> mating. Large numbers of flies will<br />
congregate at a particular type of flower, and the byproduct of their behavior can be<br />
pollination.<br />
Fig. 12: Stapelia hirsuta, carrion<br />
flower<br />
3. Cultivated plants pollinated by flies<br />
Fig. 13: Plecia nearctica, Bibionidae<br />
– “love bug” flies on Solidagoflowers.<br />
Fig. 14: Muscoid fly on Linum<br />
lewisii<br />
More than 100 cultivated crops are regularly<br />
visited by flies and depend largely on fly<br />
pollination <strong>for</strong> abundant fruit set and seed production (Ssymank et al. 2008). In addition a<br />
large number of wild relatives of food plants, numerous medicinal plants and cultivated<br />
garden plants benefit from fly pollination. Klein et al. (2007) reviewed the literature <strong>for</strong> crop<br />
pollination and concluded that 87 out of 115 leading global food crops are dependent on<br />
animal pollination. They present a table of pollinators <strong>for</strong> those crops where this in<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
is known. For thirty crop species flies are listed as pollinators and visitors (with 14 cases<br />
referring to flower flies, Syrphidae).<br />
This result certainly underestimates the importance of fly pollination <strong>for</strong> two major reasons:<br />
first pollination studies focus mainly on bee pollination, second the literature and data on fly<br />
pollination are much more dispersed and often published in smaller journals with less<br />
complete indexing. From just my own non-systematic field data (Ssymank) we could add at<br />
least 12 crop species which are visited or partly pollinated by flower flies, such as Fagopyron<br />
esculentum (18), Mangifera indica (6), Prunus spinosa (35), and Sambucus nigra (24;<br />
number of fly species known to visit in brackets).<br />
41
Ssymank & Kearns Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
Fig. 15a: A cocoa-plantation (Theobroma cacao) in<br />
Togo, Africa with the ripening fruit on the stem.<br />
Fig. 15b: cocoablossom<br />
Fig. 15c: cocoafruit<br />
Fig. 16: Ornidia obesa, a large metallic green<br />
neotropic flower fly, now spreading in cocoaplantations<br />
over the whole african continent.<br />
No chocolate without flies: For the cocoa tree (Theobroma cacao, Fig. 16a) fly pollination is<br />
essential <strong>for</strong> fruit production, with various levels of self-incompatibility present in different<br />
cocoa varieties. Here very small midges of the families Ceratopogonidae and Cecidiomyidae<br />
pollinate the small white flowers emerging from the stems.<br />
In addition to these midges, Ornidia obesa (a flower fly, Fig. 17) may visit the cocoa flowers,<br />
since it is widespread in tropical cocoa plantations and larvae<br />
live in organic waste in the<br />
moist environment.<br />
Larger flies such as carrion and dung flies visit and pollinate pawpaw (Asimina triloba). Many<br />
Rosaceous flowers in<br />
the northern hemisphere are visited and at least partly pollinated by<br />
flower flies (Syrphidae): Apple (Malus domestica) and Pear (Pyrus communis) trees,<br />
strawberries (Fragaria vesca, F. x ananassa), Prunus species (cherries, plums, apricot and<br />
peach), Sorbus species (e.g. Rowanberry) and most of the Rubus-species (Raspberry,<br />
Blackberry, Cloudberry etc.) as well as the wild rose Rosa canina.<br />
42
Ssymank & Kearns Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
Fig. 17 (◄): Mango trees<br />
(Mangifera indica) represent an<br />
important tropical crop on local<br />
markets with a complex<br />
pollinator system involving<br />
many flower flies.<br />
43<br />
Fig. 18: The flower fly Asarkina<br />
madecassa is an endemic flower<br />
fly visiting Mango-flowers in<br />
Madagascar.<br />
Flower flies are among the most important pollinating insect groups other than bees<br />
(Apidae), pollinating and visiting a number of tropical fruits such as Mango (Mangifera indica,<br />
Fig. 18, 19), Capsicum annuum and Piper nigrum. They also visit a number of spices and<br />
vegetable plants of the family Apiaceae like fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), coriander<br />
(Coriandrum sativum), caraway (Carum carvi), kitchen onions (Allium cepa), parsley<br />
(Petroselinum crispum) and carrots (Daucus carota).<br />
Most people are aware that bees are vital <strong>for</strong> the pollination<br />
of flowers. Fewer people realize<br />
that flies are second in importance to bees as pollinating insects. Compared to bees, which<br />
must provision a nest with floral food, adult flies have low energy requirements. Although this<br />
makes flies less devoted to the task of moving quickly between flowers, it also frees them to<br />
bask in flowers and remain active at low temperatures.<br />
Conditions affecting bee populations can be quite different from those affecting fly<br />
populations due to the great difference in larval requirements. Most entomophilous flowers<br />
are visited by multiple types of insects. Since insect populations fluctuate temporally, the<br />
relative importance of a particular pollinator to a flower is likely to vary with time. Many types<br />
of flies have few hairs when compared to bees, and pollen is less likely to adhere to the body<br />
surface. But under conditions when bees are scarce, an inefficient pollinator is better than<br />
none. Higher flight activities of flies may well compensate lower pollen carrying capacity.<br />
Even in cases where honeybees are abundant on flowers and specialised bees like<br />
Megachile lapponica on Epilobium angustifolium are <strong>for</strong>aging, flower flies (Syrphidae) can be<br />
the most effective pollinators producing the highest seed set (Kühn et al. 2006).
Ssymank & Kearns Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
Fig. 19: Prosoeca<br />
peringueyi, a fly of the family<br />
Nemestrinidae with extremely<br />
long proboscis <strong>for</strong>aging on<br />
Lapeirousia pyramidalis<br />
subsp. regalis on flowers in<br />
Iris family, South Africa.<br />
Fig. 20: Some harmless flower flies<br />
like this Temnostoma meridionale<br />
display a remarkable wasp mimicry in<br />
coloration and behaviour.<br />
4. Flower flies (Syrphidae) as pollinators and in biocontrol<br />
Flower<br />
flies (Syrphidae) represent a large family of flies with a double role in ecosystems:<br />
adults are mostly flower visitors and of high importance <strong>for</strong> pollination services, while about<br />
40 % of the world’s species have zoophagous larvae contributing<br />
to biocontrol in agriculture<br />
and <strong>for</strong>estry.<br />
The family of flower flies has approximately 6000 named species in 200 genera worldwide.<br />
They occur in almost every terrestrial habitat, from dunes, salt marsh, heath lands, bogs, all<br />
grassland ecosystems,<br />
scrub and <strong>for</strong>est-ecosystems, from low altitudes up to glacial<br />
moraine fields. They are represented in all zoogeographic regions of the world. Flower flies<br />
as pollinators have a wide range of adaptations <strong>for</strong> visiting different flower types, including<br />
proboscis lengths from 1mm to almost body length (with 11 mm <strong>for</strong> example in Rhingia,<br />
Ssymank 1991), enabling them to exploit deep corollas of zygomorphic flowers.<br />
Flower flies visit large numbers of different plant species. For example in Germany more<br />
than 600 plant species are visited (Ssymank unpubl. data) and in Belgium more than 700<br />
plant species (De Buck 1990, 1993). Regional studies in Europe (Ssymank 2001)<br />
showed<br />
44
Ssymank & Kearns Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
that up to 80% of the regional flora may be visited by flower flies. Preferences <strong>for</strong> certain<br />
colours, flower types, flight height and phenology of simultaneously flowering plants usually<br />
ensure a high flower constancy of flower flies. With their high flight and flower-visiting activity<br />
they can be quite effective pollinators. Even long distance pollen transport is possible by<br />
migrating species like Eristalis tenax or Helophilus species.<br />
Fig. 21: On <strong>for</strong>est margins Dasysyrphus tricinctus is<br />
pollinating Euphorbia-species<br />
Many flower fly larvae play an important<br />
role in biocontrol. About 40% of the<br />
species have zoophagous larvae, mainly<br />
eating crop-damaging aphids. Some<br />
species, such as Episyrphus balteatus in<br />
Europe can reproduce rapidly, producing<br />
large numbers of eggs and up to five<br />
generations per year. Females can smell<br />
aphid colonies and and use olfactory<br />
cues to oviposit directly in or in the<br />
vicinity of the colonies. Provided seminatural<br />
structures are present in a<br />
habitat, rapid population growth and<br />
effective biocontrol preventing aphid<br />
outbreaks is possible.<br />
Fig.<br />
23: The flower fly Rhingia campestris com<strong>for</strong>tably leans<br />
back and probes the pollen of a Nepeta garden mint with its<br />
long proboscis.<br />
45<br />
Fig. 22: In continental dunes on the dry<br />
sparse sandy grasslands the purple flowers<br />
of Armeria elongata are visited by the flower<br />
fly Chrysotoxum festivum.
Ssymank & Kearns Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
The life cycle of an aphidophagous flower fly like e.g. Episyrphus balteatus can be<br />
completed within only 15 – 20 days under optimal conditions. Eggs are laid in aphid<br />
colonies,<br />
larvae hatch immediately, fist larvae mould after 1 day, the second larvae mould<br />
after 2-3 days and larval stage 3 is devouring up to 300 aphids per night until it pupates. The<br />
newly emerged adult is after a short time ready <strong>for</strong> mating and giving rise to a new<br />
generation.<br />
Fig. 24 a: Third stage larvae of<br />
Syrphus eating aphids.<br />
5. Plant-pollinator interactions<br />
Fig. 24 b: Flower fly pupae<br />
be<strong>for</strong>e hatching (Syrphus).<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
have a keystone function in ecosystems.<br />
Without pollination many wild plants could not reproduce<br />
and survive. Animals, too, are indirectly<br />
dependent on<br />
pollination services, as they feed on fruit or plants that<br />
would not exist without pollinators. Pollination is an<br />
ecosystem service that maintains wild plant and crop<br />
diversity, guarantees food safety and is a cornerstone of<br />
animal diversity. Flies and bees are the most important<br />
pollinator groups. Over 71 families of Diptera are known<br />
to visit and pollinate flowers, linking the fate of plants and<br />
animals. Depending on the region, the time of the day,<br />
the flowering phenology and weather conditions, flies<br />
may be the main or exclusive pollinators, or share<br />
pollination services with bees and other pollinator<br />
groups.<br />
46<br />
Fig. 24 c: Newly emerged<br />
Episyrphus balteatus, male.<br />
Fig. 25: The flower fly Chrysotoxum<br />
bicinctum visiting the small flowers of<br />
Polygonum aviculare on a field margin in<br />
western Germany.
Ssymank & Kearns Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
While some flower – pollinator relationships are highly<br />
specialised, many pollinator<br />
interactions are complex systems usually involving several pollinators. Daily and seasonal<br />
changes in pollinator communities are frequent, especially in plants with long flowering<br />
periods. Plant species with large ranges or cultivated in large areas may have a significant<br />
regional or geographical variation in pollinator communities, and the surrounding landscape<br />
with its features and habitat requisites can play an important role. Many pollinator<br />
assemblages are not well understood or even known, a fact not only true <strong>for</strong> wild plants but<br />
also <strong>for</strong> many crops and cultivated plant species.<br />
Fig. 26: The flower fly Chrysotoxum “intermedium”<br />
(aggregate) pollinating the flowers of the tree spurge<br />
(Euphorbia dendroides) on the Maltese islands.<br />
6.<br />
Pollinator decline and research needs<br />
47<br />
Fig. 27: A small and black flower fly (Melanogaster<br />
nuda) with a preference <strong>for</strong> yellow buttercup flowers<br />
eating pollen on Ranunculus repens.<br />
Our understanding of pollination services is considerably hampered by a lack of some very<br />
basic knowledge. Although some types of fly pollinators have been well studied, as a group,<br />
fly pollination deserves far more research. It is striking how large the gaps in species<br />
knowledge are: probably less than 10% of all Diptera species are named worldwide;<br />
considerable gaps exist even in Europe, where the fauna is generally well documented. For<br />
many groups, even the existing knowledge is not easy to use, as identification keys are<br />
missing.<br />
Fig. 28: Monoceromyia is a flower fly genus with<br />
many afrotropical species, mimicking wasps, and<br />
visiting tropical trees.<br />
Pollination services of flies are underestimated<br />
and functional relations poorly understood. In<br />
the past, much pollination research has focused<br />
on bees, leaving a wide opportunity open <strong>for</strong><br />
the study of other pollinator assemblages. A<br />
systematic look at ecosystems without bees<br />
(e.g. on some islands, in high mountains, nordic<br />
or arctic environments) could provide insight<br />
into functional replacements, and into the<br />
evolution of plant and fly adaptations. The<br />
review by Klein et al. (2007) makes it apparent
Ssymank & Kearns Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
that even crop plant - pollinator systems are incompletely studied. Many cases of “unknown”<br />
pollinators or order-level indications of “Diptera” indicate the need <strong>for</strong> more research.<br />
Today, ecologists are concerned that<br />
climate change may decouple the<br />
synchrony of inter-dependent<br />
organisms. For the majority of flies, we<br />
do not have baseline phenology<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation. For flower flies (Syrphidae)<br />
the data are better than <strong>for</strong> many other<br />
small Diptera groups. Examples of<br />
changes in range and phenology of<br />
flower flies exist – however possible<br />
desynchronisation of flowering plants<br />
and their pollinators have not yet been<br />
studied. There is evidence of parallel Fig. 29: One of the biggest European flower flies Volucella<br />
pollinator and insect-pollinated plant zonaria, mimicing hornets, exploiting nectar from Knautia<br />
arvensis with its long proboscis in a dry calcareous grassland in<br />
decline <strong>for</strong> flower flies and bees in UK western Germany.<br />
and NL (Biesmeijer et al. 2006). The<br />
factors threatening the species are mostly<br />
unknown. Data from other countries is largely<br />
absent. Many pollinating Diptera groups are not even assessed in Red-data-Books as no<br />
data or no fly specialists exist.<br />
Fig. 30: The flower fly Ischiodon aegypticus visiting the<br />
spurge Euphorbia millii, a wide-spread cultivated plant,<br />
in its natural environment in Madagascar.<br />
Fig. 31: The flower fly Parhelophilus frutetorum walking<br />
over the umbels of Heracleum sphondylium, freely<br />
offering nectar and pollen.<br />
What consequences can we expect from the loss of pollinators? To what extent can any one<br />
pollinator be replaced by another? The answers to these questions are unknown and<br />
urgently need investigation. The<br />
loss of honeybees to Colony Collapse Disorder has led to<br />
severe declines of bee colonies in the U.S. Unwise application of pesticides has caused<br />
honeybee losses again and again. The loss of honeybees has not only beekeepers and<br />
ecologists, but the general public alarmed. And yet loss of natural pollinator communities<br />
may cause dramatic changes in ecosystems and biodiversity. Our current knowledge is too<br />
48
Ssymank & Kearns Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
limited to extend to natural systems. There is an urgent need <strong>for</strong> networking among<br />
researchers, and <strong>for</strong> more fundamental and applied research toward improving our<br />
knowledge of pollination services. A new and better understanding will allow <strong>for</strong> active,<br />
effective management of pollinators <strong>for</strong> crop production and <strong>for</strong> the conservation and<br />
maintenance of biodiversity of terrestrial ecosystems worldwide.<br />
49
Ssymank & Kearns Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
Fig. 32 (top left): Tropidia quadrata, Syrphidae.<br />
Fig. 33 (top right): Bombyliidae (Systoechus) on Potentilla.<br />
Fig. 34 (bottom left): Sphaerophoria, Syrphidae.<br />
Fig. 35 (bottom right): Male flower-fly (Erstalis interrupta) on Aster carrying pollen on the whole hairy body.<br />
Fig. 36 - 38: Examples <strong>for</strong> habitats rich in flower flies: lakes with their margins, old deciduous oak-hornbeam<br />
<strong>for</strong>ests in northeastern Germany, richly flowering dry calcareous meadows with Primula veris.<br />
50
Ssymank & Kearns Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
Acknowledgements & photo credits<br />
Anne W. Gideon, USA, Georgia Southern University, USA. Fig. No. 13.<br />
Peter Goldblatt, Ph.D., Copyright 1996, with permission; Missouri Botanical Garden, USA. Fig. No. 19<br />
Insect Images.Org, Contributers: Cheryl Moorehead, USA. Fig. No. 6.<br />
David W. Inouye, Ph.D., University of Maryland and Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory, USA. Fig.<br />
No. 33.<br />
R.A. Howard, Copyright Smithsonian Institution, Richard A. Howard, Photograph Collection, USA. Fig.<br />
No. 12<br />
Carol Kearns, University Colorado, USA, Fig. No. 14.<br />
Ken Keefover-Ring, Ph.D., University of Colorado, USA. Fig. No. 7, 8, 9, 10, 11.<br />
Thomas Murray, Copyright 2008, with permission; Massachusetts, USA. tmurray74@yahoo.com. Fig.<br />
No. 5, 32, 34.<br />
Axel Ssymank, Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation, BfN, Bonn. Fig. No. 1, 2, 3, 15 a-c, 16, 17,<br />
18, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 a-c, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 35, 36, 37, 38.<br />
US Dept of Health and Human Services, www.cdc.gov/malaria/biology/mosquito/frame., Fig. No. 4.<br />
Further suggested reading:<br />
KEARNS, C. A. 2001. North American dipteran pollinators: assessing their value and conservation<br />
status. Conservation Ecology 5(1): 5. [online] URL: http://www.consecol.org/vol5/iss1/art5/<br />
Special COP9-issue of Tropical Conservancy on Agrobiodiversity:<br />
SSYMANK, A., KEARNS, C.A., PAPE, TH. & F.C. THOMSON: Pollinating Flies (Diptera): A major<br />
contribution to plant diversity and agricultural production. - Tropical Conservancy 9 (1 & 2): 86-89.<br />
Introduction to flower flies:<br />
GILBERT, F.S. (1986): Hoverflies. Naturalists’ Handbooks. - Cambridge, 66 pp.<br />
SCHMID, U. (1996): Auf gläsernen Schwingen. Stuttgarter Beiträge zur Naturkunde, Serie C 40: 1-81,<br />
Stuttgart. [in German]<br />
Citations<br />
BIESMEIJER, J. C., ROBERTS, S. P. M., REEMER, M., OHLEMÜLLER, R., EDWARDS, M., PEETERS, T.,<br />
SCHAFFERS, A. P., POTTS, S. G., KLEUKERS, R., THOMAS, C. D., SETTELE, J., AND W. E. KUNIN, W. E.<br />
2006. Parallel declines in pollinators and insect-pollinated plants in Britain and the Netherlands.<br />
Science 313 (5785): 351-354.<br />
DE BUCK, N. 1990. Bloembezoek en bestuivingsecologie van Zweefvliegen (Diptera, Syrphidae) in het<br />
bijzonder voor Belgie. - Studiendocumenten Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences. 60: 1-167,<br />
Brussels.<br />
51
Ssymank & Kearns Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings<br />
DE BUCK, N. 1993. Bloembezoek en bestuivingsecologie van zweefvliegen (Diptera, Syrphidae) in het<br />
bijzonder voor Belgie. Appendix to working document '60' of the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural<br />
Sciences. – unpublished, 56. pp.<br />
EVENHUIS, N. L., T. PAPE, A.C. PONTAND, F.C. THOMPSON (Eds.). 2008. Biosystematic Database of<br />
World Diptera, Version 10. http://www.diptera.org/biosys.htm, accessed on 20 January 2008.<br />
KLEIN, A.-M., VAISSIÈRE, B.E., CANE, J.H., STEFFAN-DEWENTER, I., CUNNINGHAM, S.A., KREMEN, C. & T.<br />
TSCHARNTKE (2007): Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes <strong>for</strong> world crops. - Proc. R.<br />
Soc. B (2007) 274, 303–313, Published online 27 October 2006.<br />
KÜHN, J., A. HAMM, M. SCHINDLER, D.WITTMANN (2006): Ressourcenaufteilung zwischen der<br />
oligolektischen Blattschneiderbiene Megachile lapponica L. (Hym., Api<strong>for</strong>mes) und anderen<br />
Blütenbesuchern am schmablättrigen Weidenröschen (Epilobium angustifolium, Onagrarceae). Mitt.<br />
Dtsch. Ges. Allg. Angew. Ent., 15: 389-391.<br />
LARSON, B. M. H., P. G. KEVAN AND D. W. INOUYE. 2001. Flies and flowers: The taxonomic diversity of<br />
anthophiles and pollinators. Canadian Entomologist 133(4): 439-465.<br />
LUZAR, N. AND G. GOTTSBERGER 2001. Flower Heliotropism and Floral Heating of Five Alpine Plant<br />
Species and the Effect on Flower Visiting in Ranunculus montanus in the Austrian Alps. Arctic,<br />
Antarctic, and Alpine Research, Vol. 33, No. 1 (Feb., 2001), pp. 93-99<br />
SSYMANK, A. (1991): Rüssel- und Körperlängen von Schwebfliegen (Diptera, Syrphidae) unter<br />
Berücksichtigung der Verwendung von Alkoholmaterial. – Mitt. Schweizer. Entom. Gesellschaft 64:<br />
67 – 80.<br />
SSYMANK, A. 2001. Vegetation und blütenbesuchende Insekten in der Kulturlandschaft [Vegetation<br />
and flower-visiting insects in cultivated landscapes] - Schriftenreihe Landschaftspflege und<br />
<strong>Naturschutz</strong> 64, 513 pp., Bonn-Bad Godesberg.<br />
SSYMANK, A., KEARNS, C.A., PAPE, TH. & F.C. Thomson: Pollinating Flies (Diptera): A major<br />
contribution to plant diversity and agricultural production. - Tropical Conservancy 9 (1 & 2): 86-89.<br />
Authors' addresses:<br />
Dr. Axel Ssymank, <strong>Bundesamt</strong> <strong>für</strong> <strong>Naturschutz</strong> (BfN, I.2.2, German Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature<br />
Conservation), Konstantinstr. 110. 53179 Bonn, Germany. E-mail: Ssymanka@bfn.de.<br />
Carol Ann Kearns, Ph.D. Department of Biology, 500 El Camino Real, Santa Clara University, Santa<br />
Clara, CA 95053-0268, USA. E-mail: thekearns@gmail.com.<br />
52
Ruggiero, Adams, Saraiva North and Inter American Pollinator Initiatives<br />
3.1 North and Inter-American Pollinator Initiatives<br />
by Michael Ruggiero, USA; Laurie Adams, USA; Antonio Saraiva, Brazil<br />
Two important regional pollinator initiatives have developed as a result of the concern <strong>for</strong><br />
declining pollinator populations in the Americas: the North American Pollinator Protection<br />
Campaign (NAPPC) and the Inter-American Biodiversity In<strong>for</strong>mation Network’s (IABIN)<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> Thematic Network (PTN). The <strong>for</strong>mer is a partnership of more than 120<br />
organizations in the United States, Canada, and Mexico, while the latter is a pollinatorspecific<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation network relevant to the countries of the western hemisphere. This<br />
presentation highlights several activities that can be classified among the major elements of<br />
the International <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (IPI) implementation plan as elaborated by the UN<br />
Convention on Biological Diversity. These elements include assessment, adaptive<br />
management, capacity building, and mainstreaming.<br />
Assessment stresses the need to determine the status and trends of pollinator populations,<br />
prepare checklists and catalogs of pollinators, and associate pollinators with their sources of<br />
pollen. NAPPC partners have supported a study by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences<br />
on the status of pollinators in North America. The 2007 report found direct evidence <strong>for</strong> the<br />
decline of some pollinator species. NAPPC partners (the Integrated Taxonomic In<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
System (ITIS) and the Smithsonian Institution) have contributed to the development of a<br />
world checklist of bees (available at www.itis.gov, www.discoverlife.org, and the Species<br />
2000 and ITIS Catalogue of Life Annual Checklist) and to digitizing and providing an on-line<br />
version of the seminal work, Catalog of Hymenoptera in America North of Mexico (Krombein<br />
et al., 1979 at http://www.archive.org/search.php?query=krombein). The IABIN PTN has<br />
collaborated with the FAO Global Pollination Project to develop a schema and tool <strong>for</strong><br />
entering data on pollinators and their associated plants and making it available on the web.<br />
Adaptive management includes conservation measures such as preventing the importation<br />
of exotic pollinators, restoring native vegetation to support pollinators, and supporting<br />
targeted research on the causes of pollinator population declines. NAPPC partners have<br />
responded by publishing a “white paper” on the Importation of Non-native Bumble Bees into<br />
North America: Potential Consequences of Using Bombus terrestris and Other Non-Native<br />
Bumble Bees <strong>for</strong> Greenhouse Crop Pollination in Canada, Mexico, and the United States<br />
(Winter et. al., 2006) and a series of regional planting guides <strong>for</strong> farmers, resource<br />
managers, and gardeners. In addition, NAPPC has worked with private industry (Burt’s<br />
Bees and Häagen-Dazs Ice Cream) to fund research on Colony Collapse Disorder in<br />
honeybees.<br />
53
Ruggiero, Adams, Saraiva North and Inter American Pollinator Initiatives<br />
Capacity building involves promoting awareness of pollinators and pollination as well as<br />
developing in<strong>for</strong>mation networks. NAPPC has developed a wide variety of in<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
materials to educate the public about pollinators. A particularly significant activity was<br />
working with the United States Postal Service to create a special set of stamps about<br />
pollinators. NAPPC and partners have also developed several websites <strong>for</strong> pollinator<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation including www.pollinator.org, www.nappc.org, and http://pollinators.nbii.gov. The<br />
IABIN <strong>Pollinators</strong> Thematic Network is building a distributed data and in<strong>for</strong>mation network<br />
that will provide content in the following areas: pollinator checklists, experts, specimens and<br />
observations, pollinator-plant-relationships, and literature. This in<strong>for</strong>mation can be accessed<br />
at http://pollinators.iabin.net and http://pollinators.incubadora.fapesp.br.<br />
Mainstreaming requires the incorporation of pollinator conservation practices into broader<br />
societal programs. NAPPC has supported the inclusion of pollinator conservation measures<br />
into national agricultural legislation (the Farm Bill) in the United States and has prepared a<br />
report on laws affecting pollinators in Canada. The U.S. Secretary of Agriculture issued a<br />
proclamation establishing National <strong>Pollinators</strong> Week and federal land management agencies<br />
have signed agreements with NAPPC to protect pollinators on more than 1.5 billion acres of<br />
federal and public lands in the United States.<br />
The North American Pollinator Protection Campaign and the IABIN <strong>Pollinators</strong> Thematic<br />
Network have provided rallying points <strong>for</strong> carrying out activities relevant to the International<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative. NAPPC is largely a human network and IABIN PTN is largely a digital<br />
network. Both types are necessary <strong>for</strong> supporting and communicating the broad regional<br />
programs needed to conserve pollinators and their habitats and to prevent their further<br />
decline.<br />
Authors' addresses:<br />
Dr. Michael Ruggiero, Integrated Taxonomic In<strong>for</strong>mation System (ITIS), Smithsonian Institution, P.O.<br />
Box 37012, NMNH, Room CE-120, MRC – 0180, Washington, DC 20013-7012<br />
e-mail: RUGGIERM@si.edu<br />
Laurie Adams, Pollinator Partnership, USA<br />
Antonio Saraiva, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil<br />
54
North and Inter-American<br />
Pollinator Initiatives<br />
Michael Ruggiero, Smithsonian Institution, USA<br />
Laurie Adams, Pollinator Partnership, USA<br />
Antonio Saraiva, University of São Paulo, Brazil<br />
Assessment Adaptive Management<br />
Status and Trends Electronic Catalogs<br />
Identification Tools<br />
Prevention Conservation<br />
Private Research Funding<br />
Capacity Building Mainstreaming<br />
Awareness<br />
Networking<br />
Proclamation<br />
Legislation<br />
Protection
Gikungu, Hagen, Kraemer An overview of pollinator studies in Kenya<br />
3.2 An overview of pollinator studies in Kenya<br />
Mary Gikungu, Kenya; Melanie Hagen & Manfred Kraemer, Germany<br />
Introduction<br />
Biological<br />
Collection<br />
University of Bielefeld<br />
Pollinator communities are currently endangered more than ever globally following the<br />
continuous degradation of natural habitats. Rapid increase in human population in Kenya<br />
has not only led to biodiversity loss but also increased poverty levels and the consequent<br />
degradation of habitats. While a lot of knowledge exists in the country on various functional<br />
groups and their roles in ecosystem functioning, very little is known about pollination<br />
interactions, and its conservation. Lack of data in this field is attributed to the fact that<br />
pollinationservice has been <strong>for</strong> granted over the years until recently.<br />
Moreover, lack of local expertise and well curated reference collections, especially of<br />
insects, have been major barriers in pollinator studies in East Africa. However there has<br />
been a rapid increase in pollinator studies in the recent past triggered by the global outcry to<br />
conserve and manage pollinators following Sao Paulo declaration. Currently there are ef<strong>for</strong>ts<br />
to develop strategies <strong>for</strong> conserving Kenyan pollinators in order to enhance food security<br />
and biodiversity conservation.<br />
Trends in pollinator studies<br />
Pollinator studies in Kenya are at their infancy and only a few studies have been published<br />
(e.g. Bogdan 1962, Onim 1979, Morimoto et al 2004, Njoroge et al 2004, Gikungu 2007).<br />
The first pollinator study in Kenya was conducted by Bogdan (1962) on grass pollination but<br />
this was followed by a lag phase in pollinator research (Fig. 1). Because agricultural<br />
production and agroecosystem diversity are threatened by declining populations of<br />
pollinators, the current pollinator studies in Kenya endeavor to adhere to the key priority<br />
topics as identified by Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and<br />
International <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (IPI). These include<br />
• Monitoring pollinator decline, its causes and its impact on pollination services<br />
• Addressing the lack of taxonomic in<strong>for</strong>mation and expertise on pollinators<br />
56
Gikungu, Hagen, Kraemer An overview of pollinator studies in Kenya<br />
• Assessing the economic value of pollination and the economic impact of the decline<br />
of pollination services<br />
• Promoting the conservation and the restoration and sustainable use of pollinator<br />
diversity in agriculture and related ecosystems<br />
Number of studies<br />
30<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />
Fig. 1: Current trends in pollination studies in<br />
Kenya<br />
Diversity of pollinator studies in Kenya<br />
Number of studies<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
0<br />
Crop Comm Indiv. Breeding Econom.<br />
unity plant<br />
Fig. 2: Types of pollinator studies in Kenya<br />
Most pollination ecology studies in Kenya have been on crop pollination (e.g. Onim et al<br />
1979, Khaemba 1985, Njoroge 2004) followed by community studies (Gikungu 2002, 2006,<br />
Gikungu & Njoroge 2007)(Fig 2). Crop pollination studies have been mainly on important<br />
cash crops such as coffee, fruits and vegetables. There is need to conduct more community<br />
studies especially in natural and proteced areas in Kenya, where a lot has been documented<br />
on big mammals but virtually nothing on pollinator diversity and their interactions with plants.<br />
However, the existing pollinator studies in Kenya have not been equally distributed and they<br />
are skewed towards western Kenya (Fig 3). In the recent past two major projects that is,<br />
BIOTA East (Biodiversity Monitoring Transect Analysis in Africa) and RPSUD (Research<br />
Programme in Sustainable management and Utilization of Dry land biodiversity) have<br />
contributed greatly to pollinator studies in Kenya.<br />
57
Gikungu, Hagen, Kraemer An overview of pollinator studies in Kenya<br />
Apis mellifera visiting cowpea flower<br />
Western Kenya:<br />
Number of studies<br />
9<br />
8<br />
7<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
Complete<br />
Ongoing<br />
0<br />
Western EasternCentral Coast Rift Nyanza North<br />
Valley Eastern<br />
Fig. 3: Current distribution of pollinator studies<br />
in Kenya<br />
Recent studies in Kakamega Forest, the only remnant of the Guineo-Congolian rain<strong>for</strong>est in<br />
Kenya, revealed that agricultural ecosystems are richer in bees than the <strong>for</strong>est itself (Fig.4).<br />
Over 240 species of bees including several new species have been recorded in this <strong>for</strong>est<br />
(Gikungu 2006). Interestingly, contrasting observations were documented around Mt. Kenya<br />
(Gikungu 2002). Furthermore, <strong>for</strong>est fragmentation has been found to influence pollinator<br />
diversity and abundance as well as reproduction of important <strong>for</strong>est plant species. Bergsdorf<br />
(2006) tested the effects on five plant species (Fig. 5) and observed a general tendency of<br />
higher visitation frequencies as well as seed set in <strong>for</strong>est fragment study sites compared to<br />
58
Gikungu, Hagen, Kraemer An overview of pollinator studies in Kenya<br />
the main <strong>for</strong>est. However, he did not find a general pattern in fruit set. The encountered<br />
tendencies were attributed to edge effects and a high diversity of pollinators in the<br />
agroecosystems.<br />
In order to appreciate the role of pollinators in agricultural economics, some studies have<br />
been conducted on selected crops in western Kenya. The net economic benefit gained by<br />
farmers due to bee pollination (on eight different crops) in the Kakamega region was about<br />
40% of their annual market value, amounting in total to 3.19 Million US$.<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Fig. 4: Cumulative number of bee species collected at seven study sites over 24 months, Kakamega<br />
Forest, Kenya<br />
Eastern Kenya:<br />
In the Eastern part of Kenya a few community and individual plants studies including crops<br />
such as water melon (Njoroge 2004, 2006) and Pigeon Pea have been conducted and some<br />
are still ongoing. Because the Eastern province is mostly a dry area, most pollinator<br />
conservation projects have been on apiculture and meliponiculture with the aim of alleviating<br />
poverty and enhancing biodiversity in general. In addition, the traditional knowledge and<br />
diversity of stingless bees have been conducted where a lower diversity of stingless bees<br />
was observed as compared to Western Kenya (Gikungu & Njoroge 2007).<br />
Coastal Areas:<br />
Pollinator studies in coastal areas are still scarce but some work has been published on<br />
studies on bee diversity, <strong>for</strong>aging behaviour (e.g. DIno 2004, Gikungu & Schwarz in press).<br />
Further studies on pollinator diversity and nesting ecology are still ongoing especially in the<br />
59
Gikungu, Hagen, Kraemer An overview of pollinator studies in Kenya<br />
coastal <strong>for</strong>ests. According to the current data, the coastal <strong>for</strong>ests are fairly rich in bee<br />
diversity but they cannot be compared with Kakamega Forest (Gikungu in press).<br />
Fig. 5: Seed set in study sites:<br />
(A) Acanthopale pubescens; (B) Acanthus eminens;<br />
(C) Heinsenia dervilloides; (D) Dracaena fragans<br />
Capacity building in pollinator studies<br />
Pollination ecology has been the most poorly studied link in biodiversity ecology and<br />
conservation in Kenya. However, with the increased awareness of declining pollinators and<br />
their role in enhancing food security, there has been a sudden rise in Msc, PhD and<br />
parataxonomist training through international collaborations (Fig 6). The greatest contributor<br />
to increased capacity building in Kenya has been BIOTA-East followed by UNESCO and<br />
local expertise, especially in bee taxonomy. Thus, in the recent past there has been a<br />
tremendous increase and enthusiasm in pollination ecology studies. With the <strong>for</strong>mation of<br />
API (African Pollination Initiative) and the implementation of BIOTA-East in 2001, two<br />
parataxonomist courses have been held in the country since 2003 and the third one will be<br />
held in August 2008 <strong>for</strong> one month funded by the BIOTA-East. Further, a pollination centre is<br />
under construction at National Museums of Kenya (Fig. 7).<br />
60
Gikungu, Hagen, Kraemer An overview of pollinator studies in Kenya<br />
Fig. 5: Construction of the Pollination Centre at Nairobi Museums<br />
Fig. 7: Training in Pollination Ecology and Bee Taxonomy at National Museums of<br />
Kenya<br />
61
Gikungu, Hagen, Kraemer An overview of pollinator studies in Kenya<br />
Way <strong>for</strong>ward and recommendations:<br />
Conservation of pollinators in Kenya is urgent, given the prevailing anthropogenic<br />
disturbances and threat from climate change. It is un<strong>for</strong>tunate that a lot has not been<br />
documented in pollinator relationships and requirements. There is need <strong>for</strong> increased<br />
pollinator studies at landscape level, pollinator management and restoration in every part of<br />
the country. Further understanding of pollinator networks in different eco-regions and more<br />
research collaborations remain very crucial.<br />
But who is willing to participate in saving Kenyan pollinators but not in zoos...?<br />
References:<br />
BERGSDORF, T (2006): Forest fragmentation and plant-pollinator interactions in Western Kenya. PhD<br />
thesis. University of Bonn.<br />
MARTINS DJ (2004): International Journal of Tropical Insect Science 24:105-115.<br />
GIKUNGU MW (2002): A study on bee population and some aspects of their <strong>for</strong>aging behaviour in Mt.<br />
Kenya Forst. Msc thesis. University of Nairobi.<br />
GIKUNGU MW (2006): A study on bee diversity and their interactions with plants in successional<br />
tropical community. PhD thesis. University of Bonn.<br />
GIKUNGU MW & G NJOROGE (2007): Discovery and Renovation 9(3).<br />
GIKUNGU MW & M SCHWARZ (2008): Nesting ecology of Macogalea candida and M. mombasa along<br />
the East African Coast. (in press)<br />
KHAEMBA BM (1985): Studies on sunflower pollination by honey bees and the damaged caused by the<br />
African bollworm. Proceedings of the Third International COnference of APiculture in Tropical<br />
climates.<br />
MORIMOTO Z, GIKUNGU MW & P MAUNDU (2004): International Journal of Tropical Insect Science 24:<br />
79-86.<br />
NJOROGE G, GEMMIL B, BUSSMANN R, NEWTON LE & VW NGUMI (2004): International Journal of Tropical<br />
Insect Sciences 24: 73-77.<br />
ONIM JFM, PATHAK RS & CM VAN EIJNATEN (1979): Influence of insect polliantors on the degree of<br />
outcrossing in pigeon pea in Kenya, Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on pollination,<br />
Maryland Agricultural Experimental Station.<br />
Authors' addresses:<br />
Dr. Mary W. Gikungu, Department of Invertebrate Zoology, National Museums of Kenya, PO<br />
Box 40658, 00100 GPO, Nairobi, Kenya<br />
Mail: mgikungu@yahoo.com, Website: www.museums.or.ke<br />
Melanie Hagen & Manfred Kraemer, Bielefeld University, Biological Collection, Bielefeld,<br />
Germany<br />
62
Mary Gikungu 1 , Melanie Hagen 2 & Manfred Kraemer 2<br />
1. National Museums of Kenya, Zoology Department, Nairobi, Kenya. mgikungu@yahoo.com;<br />
2. Bielefeld University, Biological Collection, Bielefeld, Germany. melanie.hagen@uni-bielefeld.de<br />
Introduction<br />
Pollinator communities are currently endangered more than ever globally following<br />
the continuous degradation of natural habitats. Rapid increase in human population<br />
in Kenya has not only led to biodiversity loss but also increased poverty levels and<br />
the consequent degradation of habitats. While a lot of knowledge exists in the<br />
country on various functional groups and their roles in ecosystem functioning, very<br />
little is known about pollination interactions, and its conservation. Lack of data in this<br />
field is attributed to the fact that pollination<br />
Trends in pollinator studies<br />
Pollinator studies in Kenya are at their infancy and only<br />
a few studies have been published (e.g. Bogdan 1962,<br />
Onim 1979, Morimoto et al 2004, Njoroge et al 2004,<br />
Gikungu 2007). The first pollinator study in Kenya was<br />
conducted by Bogdan (1962) on grass pollination but<br />
this was followed by a lag phase in pollinator research<br />
(Fig. 1). Because agricultural production and<br />
agroecosystem diversity are threatened by declining<br />
populations of pollinators, the current pollinator studies<br />
in Kenya endeavor to adhere to the key priority topics as<br />
identified by Food and Agriculture Organization of the<br />
United Nations (FAO) and International <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
Initiative (IPI). These include<br />
•Monitoring pollinator decline, its causes and its impact<br />
on pollination services<br />
•Addressing the lack of taxonomic in<strong>for</strong>mation and<br />
expertise on pollinators<br />
•Assessing the economic value of pollination and the<br />
economic impact of the decline of pollination services<br />
•Promoting the conservation and the restoration and<br />
sustainable use of pollinator diversity in agriculture and<br />
related ecosystems<br />
Number of studies<br />
30<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000<br />
0<br />
Crop Comm Indiv. Breeding Econom.<br />
unity plant<br />
Fig 1. Current trends in pollination Fig 2. Types of pollinator studies in<br />
studies in Kenya<br />
Kenya<br />
Diversity of pollinator studies in Kenya<br />
Most pollination ecology studies in Kenya have been on<br />
crop pollination (e.g. Onim et al 1979, Khaemba 1985,<br />
Njoroge 2004) followed by community studies (Gikungu<br />
2002, 2006, Gikungu & Njoroge 2007)(Fig 2). Crop<br />
pollination studies have been mainly on important cash<br />
crops such as coffee, fruits and vegetables. There is<br />
need to conduct more community studies especially in<br />
natural and proteced areas in Kenya, where a lot has<br />
been documented on big mammals but virtually nothing<br />
on pollinator diversity and their interactions with plants.<br />
However, the existing pollinator studies in Kenya have<br />
not been equally distributed and they are skewed<br />
towards western Kenya (Fig 3). In the recent past two<br />
major projects that is, BIOTA East (Biodiversity<br />
Monitoring Transect Analysis in Africa) and RPSUD<br />
(Research Programme in Sustainable management and<br />
Utilization of Dry land biodiversity) have contributed<br />
greatly to pollinator studies in Kenya.<br />
Apis mellifera visiting cowpea flower<br />
AN OVERVIEW OF POLLINATOR STUDIES IN KENYA<br />
Number of studies<br />
14<br />
12<br />
10<br />
8<br />
6<br />
4<br />
2<br />
Apis mellifera visiting flower<br />
of Justicia flava<br />
service has been <strong>for</strong> granted over the years until recently.<br />
Moreover, lack of local expertise and well curated reference collections, especially of<br />
insects, have been major barriers in pollinator studies in East Africa. However there<br />
has been a rapid increase in pollinator studies in the recent past triggered by the<br />
global outcry to conserve and manage pollinators following Sao Paulo declaration.<br />
Currently there are ef<strong>for</strong>ts to develop strategies <strong>for</strong> conserving Kenyan pollinators in<br />
order to enhance food security and biodiversity conservation.<br />
Western Kenya:<br />
Recent studies in Kakamega Forest, the only remnant of the<br />
Guineo-Congolian rain<strong>for</strong>est in Kenya, revealed that<br />
agricultural ecosystems are richer in bees than the <strong>for</strong>est itself<br />
(Fig.4). Over 240 species of bees including several new<br />
species have been recorded in this <strong>for</strong>est (Gikungu 2006).<br />
Interestingly, contrasting observations were documented<br />
around Mt. Kenya (Gikungu 2002). Furthermore, <strong>for</strong>est<br />
fragmentation has been found to influence pollinator diversity<br />
and abundance as well as reproduction of important <strong>for</strong>est<br />
plant species. Bergsdorf (2006) tested the effects on five plant<br />
species (Fig. 5) and observed a general tendency of higher<br />
visitation frequencies as well as seed set in <strong>for</strong>est fragment<br />
study sites compared to the main <strong>for</strong>est. However, he did not<br />
find a general pattern in fruit set. The encountered tendencies<br />
were attributed to edge effects and a high diversity of<br />
pollinators in the agroecosystems.<br />
In order to appreciate the role of pollinators in agricultural ec<br />
nomics, some studies have been conducted on selected crops<br />
in western Kenya. The net economic benefit gained by<br />
farmers due to bee pollination (on eight different crops) in the<br />
Kakamega region was about 40% of their annual market<br />
value, amounting in total to 3.19 Million US$.<br />
Eastern Kenya:<br />
In the Eastern part of Kenya a few community and individual<br />
plants studies including crops such as water melon (Njoroge<br />
2004, 2006) and Pigeon Pea have been conducted and some<br />
are still ongoing. Because the Eastern province is mostly a dry<br />
area, most pollinator conservation projects have been on<br />
apiculture and meliponiculture with the aim of alleviating<br />
poverty and enhancing biodiversity in general. In addition, the<br />
traditional knowledge and diversity of stingless bees have been<br />
conducted where a lower diversity of stingless bees was<br />
observed as compared to Western Kenya (Gikungu & Njoroge<br />
2007).<br />
Coastal Areas:<br />
Pollinator studies in coastal areas are still scarce but<br />
some work has been published on studies on bee<br />
diversity, <strong>for</strong>aging behaviour (e.g. DIno 2004, Gikungu<br />
& Schwarz in press). Further studies on pollinator<br />
diversity and nesting ecology are still ongoing especially<br />
in the coastal <strong>for</strong>ests. According to the current data, the<br />
coastal <strong>for</strong>ests are fairly rich in bee diversity but they<br />
cannot be compared with Kakamega Forest (Gikungu in<br />
press).<br />
Way <strong>for</strong>ward and recommendations:<br />
Conservation of pollinators in Kenya is urgent, given the prevailing anthropogenic disturbances and threat from<br />
climate change. It is un<strong>for</strong>tunate that a lot has not been documented in pollinator relationships and requirements.<br />
There is need <strong>for</strong> increased pollinator studies at landscape level, pollinator management and restoration in every part<br />
of the country. Further understanding of pollinator networks in different eco-regions and more research collaborations<br />
remain very crucial.<br />
But who is willing to participate in saving Kenyan pollinators but not in zoos...?<br />
20<br />
0<br />
Number of studies<br />
9<br />
8<br />
7<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
Complete<br />
Ongoing<br />
Western EasternCentral Coast Rift Nyanza North<br />
Valley Eastern<br />
Fig 3. Current distribution of pollinator studies in Kenya.<br />
Figure 4. Cumulative number<br />
of bee species collected at<br />
seven study sites over 24<br />
months, Kakamega Forest,<br />
Kenya<br />
Biological<br />
Collection<br />
University of Bielefeld<br />
Fig. 5: Seed set in study sites:<br />
(A) Acanthopale pubescens, (B) Acanthus<br />
eminens (C) Heinsenia diervilleoides<br />
(D) Dracaena fragrans<br />
Capacity building in pollinator studies<br />
Pollination ecology has been the most poorly<br />
studied link in biodiversity ecology and<br />
conservation in Kenya. However, with the<br />
increased awareness of declining pollinators and<br />
their role in enhancing food security, there has<br />
been a sudden rise in Msc, PhD and<br />
parataxonomist training through international<br />
collaborations (Fig 6). The greatest contributor to<br />
increased capacity building in Kenya has been<br />
BIOTA-East followed by UNESCO and local<br />
expertise, especially in bee taxonomy. Thus, in<br />
the recent past there has been a tremendous<br />
increase and enthsiasm in pollination ecology<br />
studies. With the <strong>for</strong>mation of API (African<br />
Pollination Initiative) and the implementation of<br />
BIOTA-East in 2001, two parataxonomist courses<br />
have been held in the country since 2003 and the<br />
third one will be held in August 2008 <strong>for</strong> one<br />
month funded by the BIOTA-East. Further, a<br />
pollination centre is under construction at<br />
National Museums of Kenya (Fig. 7).<br />
Fig 7. Training in Pollination Ecology and Bee<br />
Taxonomy at National Museums of Kenya<br />
Fig 6. Construction of the Pollination Centre at Nairobi Museums<br />
References:<br />
Bergsdorf, T (2006) Forest fragmentation and plant-pollinator interactions in<br />
Western Kenya. PhD thesis. University of Bonn.<br />
Martins DJ (2004) International Journal of Tropical Insect Science 24:105-115.<br />
Gikungu MW (2002). A study on bee population and some aspects of their<br />
<strong>for</strong>aging behaviour in Mt. Kenya Forst. Msc thesis. University of Nairobi.<br />
Gikungu MW (2006) A study on bee diversity and their interactions with plants<br />
in successional tropical community. PhD thesis. University of Bonn.<br />
Gikungu MW & G Njoroge (2007) Discovery and Renovation 9(3).<br />
Gikungu MW & M Schwarz (2008) Nesting ecology of Macogalea candida and M.<br />
mombasa along the East African Coast. (in press)<br />
Khaemba BM (1985) Studies on sunflower pollination by honey bees and the<br />
damaged caused by the African bollworm. Proceedings of the Third International<br />
COnference of APiculture in Tropical climates.<br />
Njoroge G, Gemmil B, Bussmann R, Newton LE & VW Ngumi (2004)<br />
International Journal of Tropical Insect Sciences 24: 73-77.<br />
Morimoto Z, Gikungu MW & P Maundu (2004) International Journal of Tropical<br />
Insect Science 24: 79-86.<br />
Onim JFM, Pathak RS & CM van Eijnaten 1979. Influence of insect polliantors on<br />
the degree of outcrossing in pigeon pea in Kenya, Proceedings of the 4th<br />
International Symposium on pollination, Maryland Agricultural Experimental<br />
Station.
Fonseca, Saraiva, Gonçalves, de Jong, Alves, Menezes, Francoy Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
Initiative<br />
3.3 Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative: Biodiversity and Sustainable Use<br />
of <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
by Vera Lucia Imperatriz Fonseca, Antônio Mauro Saraiva, Lionel S. Gonçalves, David De<br />
Jong, Denise de Araujo Alves, Cristiano Menezes and Tiago M. Francoy, Brazil<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiatives are characterized by actions of different stakeholders who activate and<br />
develop parts of the framework defined by the International <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative. People are<br />
generally encouraged to carry out these activities through the program focal point and<br />
leaderships as well as a result of increased awareness concerning the role of pollinators as<br />
ecosystem services providers. The “Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative” is developed by several<br />
actors from civilian society who define the bases of activities to promote the sustainable use<br />
and conservation of <strong>Pollinators</strong> and Pollination (Imperatriz-Fonseca et al., 2008).<br />
Brazilian activities related to pollinators since 1998 included mainly assessment and<br />
management.<br />
Assessment<br />
In assessment we consider in<strong>for</strong>mation on pollinators as the first step. A survey of the<br />
Brazilian literature on pollinators and pollination was published in 2006 as a book. The<br />
biodiversity and the sustainable use of pollinators were also discussed in important<br />
meetings, held in Brazil with participants from several countries. The first survey was<br />
prepared after the International Workshop on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> in Agriculture, with an Emphasis on Bees, by Kevan & Imperatriz-Fonseca eds.<br />
(2002; reprinted in 2006). Freitas & Pereira organized the first meeting considering solitary<br />
bees as pollinators in Brazil and the book from this meeting. Imperatriz-Fonseca et al.<br />
reviewed the results of the meeting S. Paulo Declaration on <strong>Pollinators</strong> plus 5, assessing the<br />
status and suggesting best practices <strong>for</strong> the use of bees as pollinators in Brazil.<br />
The Catalog of Bees (Hymenoptera, Apoidea) in the Neotropical Region is a very important<br />
source of in<strong>for</strong>mation on stingless bees, by João M. F. de Camargo and Silvia R. M. Pedro;<br />
literature until 2005 was included. An electronic version of this catalog will be on line in<br />
August 2008.<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> Network and other In<strong>for</strong>mation Technology Tools<br />
Many activities related to the use of in<strong>for</strong>mation technologies <strong>for</strong> research, education and<br />
awareness on pollinators in Brazil deserve attention. They include instrumentation systems,<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation systems and networks on pollinators.<br />
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Initiative<br />
Data acquisition systems <strong>for</strong> research on pollinators have been developed mainly by L.S.<br />
Gonçalves and collaborators (<strong>for</strong> Apis) and by A.M Saraiva, V.L. Imperatriz-Fonseca and<br />
collaborators (<strong>for</strong> stingless bees). Examples are instruments <strong>for</strong> studying flight activity and<br />
thermo-regulation inside the colonies. Networked sensors that can be accessed by the<br />
Internet are also the focus of the Virtual Network Center of Ecosystem Services. Weblabs on<br />
pollinators are being developed, e.g. laboratories whose data and/or experiments can be<br />
accessed via Internet. The availability of an Internet 2 connection between the project<br />
partners at the Universidade de Sao Paulo, (Agricultural Automation Lab and BeeLab) will<br />
allow sharing contents such as high definition images and real-time high-definition video.<br />
Video and audio data can be recorded and analyzed <strong>for</strong> behavioral studies. This project is<br />
financed by FAPESP (TIDIA – KyaTera project). Other novel approaches such as wireless<br />
sensor networks are currently being studied <strong>for</strong> use on pollinator research.<br />
Handheld computers have been used to run computer programs that help collect data in the<br />
field. Ethologer (<strong>for</strong> behavioral studies, developed with J.C. Nieh, from U.C. San Diego) and<br />
Trap nest scouter (<strong>for</strong> trap nest experiments) are two examples of specific software<br />
developed <strong>for</strong> use in pocket PC computers.<br />
In<strong>for</strong>mation about Brazilian native pollinators have been on-line at the BeeLab’s web pages<br />
since the mid 90’s and led to the development of WebBee, which is an on-line in<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
system (developed originally with support from CNPq-Brazil), with a database of stingless<br />
bees species data: text, images and videos and also hosting most of the activities of the<br />
Brazilian Pollinator Initiatives (www.webbee.org.br). The experience gained in the<br />
development of this system has been important to help develop the IABIN <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
Thematic Network (http://pollinators.iabin.net). This is a distributed data and in<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
network that will provide content in the following areas: pollinator checklists, experts,<br />
specimens and observations, pollinator-plant-relationships, and literature. This project of the<br />
InterAmerican Biodiversity In<strong>for</strong>mation Network (IABIN) aims at providing access to<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation on pollinators from the integrating data providers from all American countries,<br />
linking to other global data networks, such as GBIF, the Global Biodiversity In<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
Facility.<br />
The digitization of biological collections data is a crucial and basic point. Many Brazilian<br />
pollinators collections have now been digitized by CRIA (Centro de Referência em<br />
In<strong>for</strong>mação Ambiental), with support from agencies such as Fapesp in Brazil, and GBIF<br />
which helped develop the speciesLink project (splink.cria.org.br). Biological collections on<br />
pollinators are included, 12 collections are part of the network, with around 213,000 records<br />
online, of which 169,000 are georeferenced (20% of total estimated records in Brazilian<br />
collections).<br />
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Initiative<br />
Automatic bee identification<br />
Automatic identification of bees is also a subject of interest to Brazilian researchers. As the<br />
Meliponini are one of the most important bee groups in the tropical region, the development<br />
of identification techniques other than traditional taxonomy is of extreme importance. Among<br />
the new morphometric techniques used to identify bee species, one that is presenting very<br />
good results is geometric morphometry of <strong>for</strong>ewings. It consists in photographing the<br />
<strong>for</strong>ewings of the specimens and in plotting vein junction landmarks. After software rotation of<br />
the images <strong>for</strong> an optimal fit, the relative positions of the landmarks are used to describe the<br />
wings and to calculate the differences among the groups. All the softwares needed to make<br />
these analyses are available via internet at http://life.bio.sunysb.edu/morph/. As preliminary<br />
results, we present the discrimination of 17 stingless bee species that are found on the<br />
campus of the University of Sao Paulo in Ribeirao Preto. When we analyzed the<br />
identification of individuals, we obtained a rate of 91% of correct identifications and the major<br />
problems we found were in the Scaptotrigona group, a group not very well resolved in<br />
taxonomic terms. When working with colony identifications, using five workers per colony,<br />
we achieved 96% correct identifications. The problem was found again in the Scaptotrigona<br />
group. The results obtained till now are very important and are encouraging us to keep<br />
working on this line, a very promising one. Other algorithms are being studied to help<br />
improve the rate of correct identifications and will be integrated in a software tool.<br />
Management<br />
Stingless bees<br />
Beekeeping and inbreeding<br />
The wide scale production of stingless bee nests is an important aspect to be investigated,<br />
because these bees are potential pollinators of several crops. We studied queen and male<br />
production in Melipona scutellaris, a species found in Northeast Brazil that has a high value<br />
<strong>for</strong> regional meliponiculture, in an isolated population, located in São Simão, São Paulo<br />
State, and we compared the results with data obtained from colonies belonging to a<br />
beekeeper near Recife, Pernambuco state, a natural population. Alves et al. evaluated 53<br />
brood combs (18,929 bees) from different colonies of the inbred population, and 44 combs<br />
(16,812 bees) from colonies of the exogamic population. The inbred population began with<br />
two nests 12 years ago, and 30 nests were reached due to successive splitting by Dr. Paulo<br />
Nogueira-Neto. The results until now indicate that colonies in the isolated population invest<br />
significantly more in reproductives (queens and males) than colonies in the natural<br />
population. This could be due to an inbreeding effect, which we are investigating with<br />
molecular tools (microsatellite markers) to look <strong>for</strong> diploid males in these populations and the<br />
responses to their presence in the colonies.<br />
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Initiative<br />
How to obtain stingless bees nests in nature<br />
Trapnests are widely used <strong>for</strong> solitary bees in several regions of the world. Beekeepers in<br />
Brazil have been using plastic bottles to attract stingless bee swarms, with successful results<br />
<strong>for</strong> some species, mainly Tetragonisca angustula and Plebeia spp. Using a standardized<br />
methodology, we have been testing the practicability of the method and the influence of<br />
cavity size to attract Meliponini swarms. The trapnests are well accepted in disturbed areas<br />
and attracted 5 Meliponini species in one of the experiments. Out of 200 groups of trapnests,<br />
each group containing four plastic bottles of different volumes, we collected 38 nests of<br />
stingless bees during one year. A special tool <strong>for</strong> field data acquisition (trap nest scouter<br />
software on a pocket PC) was developed to facilitate the field work. Experiments are in<br />
progress to test different materials <strong>for</strong> the trapnests and their efficiency in various<br />
environments.<br />
Queen production in stingless bees in vitro<br />
For Meliponini bees we highlight the importance of developing in vitro techniques <strong>for</strong> rearing<br />
queens, fertilization under controlled conditions and development of small colonies into<br />
normal colonies. In most stingless bee species any female larva can become a queen if a<br />
large quantity of larval food is provided. The technique <strong>for</strong> rearing in vitro queens has been<br />
improved in the last few years and we have already obtained 93% of success with<br />
Scaptotrigona depilis. We have successfully tested the technique <strong>for</strong> two other species until<br />
now (Nannotrigona testaceicornis and Plebeia droryana), and other researchers have had<br />
success with Tetragonisca angustula and Frieseomelitta varia. Hypothetically, it would be<br />
possible to use this technique <strong>for</strong> any stingless bee species, except <strong>for</strong> Melipona genera.<br />
Although we have already demonstrated the viability of these queens <strong>for</strong> Nannotrigona<br />
testaceicornis (publication in preparation), other experiments are in progress to compare in<br />
vitro queens with natural queens. Fertilization under controlled conditions and development<br />
of small colonies into normal colonies are the next steps <strong>for</strong> this project. The success of this<br />
project would make many important improvements in Meliponiculture possible, such as<br />
colonies multiplication on a large scale and selection <strong>for</strong> more productive colonies.<br />
Africanized honey bees<br />
Bees to be used in Pollination<br />
Beekeeping in Brazil has grown considerably since the introduction of the African honey bee,<br />
Apis mellifera scutellata, in 1956, as beekeepers learned to work with the polyhybrid<br />
Africanized honey bee (AHB), a product of crosses between the African bee and the<br />
previously introduced European honey bees (Apis mellifera ligustica, Apis mellifera mellifera,<br />
etc.). The introduction of the African bee to Brazil is the event responsible <strong>for</strong> the expressive<br />
change and development of beekeeping since its beginnings in this country in 1839; today<br />
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Initiative<br />
the AHB is the only honey bee found in nature and used in commercial beekeeping. At the<br />
beginning of this new era of beekeeping, especially in the 1960s, the Africanized bees<br />
caused serious concern due to stinging incidents; numerous social and economic problems<br />
were caused by its aggressiveness and high tendency to swarm. At that time, the chaotic<br />
period of our beekeeping history, researchers had no in<strong>for</strong>mation available about the biology<br />
of these new bees, and beekeepers did not know how to handle them; consequently many of<br />
them abandoned their apiaries. However, <strong>for</strong>tunately thanks to the continuous scientific and<br />
technical support of researchers and technicians, today the biology and behavior of the AHB<br />
is better understood. The number of scientific and technical publications about bees<br />
increased more than 30 times after the arrival of the African bees. Beekeeping technology in<br />
Brazil improved considerably, so that today there is now no need to import beekeeping<br />
equipment and working with these bees became possible. Brazilian honey production be<strong>for</strong>e<br />
1956 was about 5,000 tons/year; today it is more than 50,000 tons/year. These bees thrive<br />
in climates where European bees did not survive, making beekeeping viable throughout the<br />
country. An important feature of the AHB is that they have been little affected by the mite<br />
Varroa destructor, one of the world’s most important enemies of honey bees, which<br />
appeared in the 1970s in Brazil. Honey bees in other countries must be treated with<br />
acaricides in order to survive this mite. However, <strong>for</strong>tunately, the AHB rapidly became<br />
tolerant to Varroa. As a result, no chemical products are imported or needed to treat <strong>for</strong> this<br />
mite; indeed, Brazilian beekeepers do not treat their colonies <strong>for</strong> any disease or parasite.<br />
This makes Brazilian honey ‘naturally’ organic. Brazil has not traditionally been an important<br />
honey exporter. However, since 2000 the international honey market changed after<br />
problems with contaminated Chinese honey; consequently, Brazil became a large-scale<br />
honey exporter. Since 2004, Brazil annually exports around 20,000 tons of honey, especially<br />
organic honey; the Northeast region of Brazil (with considerable native vegetation: Caatinga,<br />
Cerrado etc.) is responsible <strong>for</strong> about 30% of the exported honey, produced mainly by Piauí<br />
and Ceará states. However, beekeeping in that region still needs developing; beekeepers<br />
lose about 50% of their colonies every year due to swarming and absconding. Brazil has<br />
today about 2,500,000 colonies available <strong>for</strong> bee products production (propolis, pollen, wax,<br />
royal jelly, bee venom and honey, including organic honey) and <strong>for</strong> pollination purposes.<br />
There are already many beekeepers who rent colonies <strong>for</strong> pollination in Brazil, especially <strong>for</strong><br />
apples and melons. In order to obtain export quality fruit, bee pollination is absolutely<br />
necessary. The aggressiveness and swarming behavior of the AHB are still a serious<br />
problem <strong>for</strong> beekeepers and <strong>for</strong> the public. In order to understand and control swarming<br />
behavior of AHB, we set up a project on swarming behavior induced by temperature using a<br />
climatic chamber both in Ribeirão Preto-São Paulo state and Mossoró-Rio Grande do Norte<br />
state. We observed that many factors can influence the colony and provoke colony<br />
abandonment, such as: lack of water, high temperature, lack of food and other types of<br />
stress. A key factor, according to our findings, is temperature. We observed in our<br />
experiments that when the temperature reaches about 41 o C inside the hive, there is an exit<br />
in mass of all colony individuals (absconding), leaving behind brood and food. This helps<br />
explain the great loss of colonies due to absconding in the northeast every year. In other<br />
research we have shown that the AHB is superior to European honey bees <strong>for</strong> pollination<br />
purposes; however, be<strong>for</strong>e we can fully explore their potential the difficulties with managing<br />
AHB <strong>for</strong> pollination in the field must be resolved. The main difficulties are:<br />
68
Fonseca, Saraiva, Gonçalves, de Jong, Alves, Menezes, Francoy Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
Initiative<br />
1. There are no established techniques <strong>for</strong> using AHB under Brazilian conditions on most<br />
crops. There is also very little mechanization of beekeeping.<br />
2. Often the hives are not made with standard measures, or with inferior materials, making<br />
transport and management difficult.<br />
3. The bees are quite defensive and growers are often reluctant to place them in or near the<br />
crops that need pollinating.<br />
4. There is not sufficient care in the transportation of colonies, so that accidents are common<br />
and this discourages their use <strong>for</strong> pollination.<br />
5. Beekeepers are unaware of disease problems, and sometimes incorrectly try to treat their<br />
colonies; some have introduced contaminated bee products and equipment from abroad,<br />
threatening beekeeping throughout the country.<br />
6. There is a lack of central laboratories that can provide timely and accurate diagnoses of<br />
bee diseases, and also there are no field personnel to advise beekeepers about this kind of<br />
problem.<br />
7. Growers are frequently unaware of the importance of bees and pollination, and in fact they<br />
often prohibit the introduction of bees into their properties; they use insecticides<br />
indiscriminately and incorrectly without any concern <strong>for</strong> the effects on commercial and native<br />
bees.<br />
8. There is no tradition <strong>for</strong> making pollination contracts that include a provision <strong>for</strong><br />
compensation <strong>for</strong> the beekeeper in the case of losses due to pesticides or the stealing of<br />
hives on the grower's property. There should also be a provision <strong>for</strong> responsibilities in the<br />
case of an accident with the bees.<br />
9. The availability of honey bee colonies <strong>for</strong> pollination would be increased considerably if<br />
the beekeepers could avoid the serious problems caused by swarming and absconding<br />
observed each year.<br />
10. Organic honey and pollination fees are important sources of income <strong>for</strong> beekeepers,<br />
especially in the Northeast region of Brazil; however, beekeepers need technical support so<br />
that they can more efficiently attend these markets.<br />
Undoubtedly, increased investment in beekeeping technology in Brazil would improve its<br />
status as one of the most important food producing regions of the world.<br />
69
Fonseca, Saraiva, Gonçalves, de Jong, Alves, Menezes, Francoy Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
Initiative<br />
Authors' addresses:<br />
Prof.-Dr. Vera Lucia Imperatriz Fonseca & Denise de A. Alves, Instituto de Biociencias,<br />
Universidade de Sao Paulo, Rua do Matao, travessa 14, 321 CEP 05508-900 S. Paulo,<br />
Brazil<br />
e-mail: vlifonse@ib.usp.br, daalves@ib.usp.br<br />
Lionel S. Gonçalves, Cristiano Menezes & Tiago M. Francoy, Faculdade de Filosofia,<br />
Ciencas e Letras de Rebeirao Preto, Universidade de S. Paulo<br />
Antonio M. Saraiva, Escola Politécnica, Universidade de S. Paulo, Brazil<br />
David De Jong, Faculdade de Medicina de Ribeirao Preto, Universidade de S. Paulo<br />
70
http//moure.cria.org.br/project<br />
e-mail: vlifonse@ib.usp.br<br />
Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative:<br />
Biodiversity and Sustainable Use of <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
Vera Lucia Imperatriz Fonseca; Antonio Mauro Saraiva; Lionel Segui Gonçalves<br />
New tool <strong>for</strong> automatic<br />
identification under<br />
development: morphometric<br />
geometry of Meliponini wings<br />
(T.M. Francoy, USP)<br />
Assessment Stingless Bees Management<br />
Nesting of stingless bees in trapnests.<br />
Tools <strong>for</strong> field data<br />
acquisition: trap<br />
nest scouter software<br />
on a pocket PC<br />
(E.M.M. Jorge & A.M.<br />
Saraiva, USP)<br />
Portals <strong>for</strong> pollinators data: IABIN – <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
Thematic Network (pollinators.iabin.net) with CoEvolution<br />
Institute, ITIS, NBII. (L.D. Adams coordinator, M. Ruggiero and<br />
A.M. Saraiva)<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> Collections Network<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> collections and their records: The pollinators<br />
collections network has 12 collections with about 213<br />
thousand records of which 169 thousand are georeferenced<br />
(20% of total estimated records)<br />
15<br />
14<br />
13<br />
12<br />
11<br />
10<br />
9<br />
8<br />
7<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
frequency of brood combs (%)<br />
15<br />
14<br />
13<br />
12<br />
11<br />
10<br />
9<br />
8<br />
7<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
frequency of brood combs (%)<br />
Queen rearing in vitro in<br />
Nannotrigona and<br />
Scaptotrigona<br />
(Meliponini)<br />
(C. Menezes, USP)<br />
A)<br />
n=2180 queens<br />
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28<br />
frequency of queens of females (%)<br />
B)<br />
n=4128 males<br />
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75<br />
frequency of males (%)<br />
15<br />
14<br />
13<br />
12<br />
11<br />
10<br />
9<br />
8<br />
7<br />
6<br />
5<br />
4<br />
3<br />
2<br />
1<br />
0<br />
Stingless bees conservation and management<br />
in Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil<br />
S.W. Freitas (FEPAGRO); B.<br />
Blochtein (PUC-RS) & V.L.<br />
Imperatriz-Fonseca (USP)<br />
frequency of brood combs (%)<br />
frequency of brood combs (%)<br />
60<br />
55<br />
50<br />
45<br />
40<br />
35<br />
30<br />
25<br />
20<br />
15<br />
10<br />
5<br />
0<br />
C)<br />
n=883 queens<br />
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28<br />
frequency of queens of females (%)<br />
D)<br />
n=1737 males<br />
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75<br />
frequency of males (%)<br />
Distribution of the frequency of queens (of females) (A, C) and males (B, D) in M.<br />
scutellaris brood combs. A-B: isolated population; C-D: natural population. (D.A.<br />
Alves, USP)<br />
A-B<br />
C-D
Fonseca, Alves, Saraiva, Landeiro, Dias Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative – Time line<br />
3.4 Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative - Time line<br />
Vera L. Imperatriz Fonseca, Denise de A. Alves, Antonio M. Saraiva, Marina C. P. P.<br />
Landeiro & Braulio F. S. Dias, Brazil<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiatives are characterized by actions of different stakeholders who activate and<br />
develop parts of the framework defined by the International Pollinator Initiative. People are<br />
generally encouraged to carry out these activities through the program focal point and<br />
leaderships as well as a result of increased awareness concerning the role of pollinators as<br />
ecosystem services providers. The “Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative” is developed by several<br />
actors from civilian society who define the bases of activities to allow the sustainable use<br />
and conservation of <strong>Pollinators</strong> and Pollination.<br />
The Brazilian activities time line is presented here, 10 years after the meeting held in S.<br />
Paulo in October 1998 that encouraged the proposal <strong>for</strong> an International <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative<br />
in CBD-agricultural biodiversity program.<br />
Time line<br />
1998. International Workshop on the Conservation and Sustainable Use of <strong>Pollinators</strong> in<br />
Agriculture, with an Emphasis on Bees, was held in Sao Paulo, Brazil, from 7 to 9<br />
October 1998. Result: S. Paulo Declaration on <strong>Pollinators</strong>.<br />
1999. S. Paulo Declaration on <strong>Pollinators</strong> (http://www.cbd.int/doc/case-studies/agr/cs-agrpollinator-rpt.pdf)<br />
was presented by the Brazilian Government at the Fifth Meeting of the<br />
Subsidiary Body on Scientific, Technical and Technological Advice.<br />
2000. Brazilians are encouraged to work on Bees as <strong>Pollinators</strong> and Pollination, and the<br />
programme was presented by Dr. B. F. S. Dias at the meeting IV Encontro sobre Abelhas<br />
de Ribeirão Preto.<br />
2000. COP 5, decision V/5, establishes an International Initiative <strong>for</strong> the Conservation<br />
and Sustainable Use of <strong>Pollinators</strong> as a cross-cutting initiative within the work program on<br />
agricultural biodiversity.<br />
2001. The first project aimed at using In<strong>for</strong>mation Technology <strong>for</strong> building a pollinator<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation network in Brazil is approved (executive agency CNPq): WebBee – a Brazilian<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation network on bee biodiversity. www.webbee.org.br (coordination: A. M. Saraiva<br />
and V.L. Imperatriz-Fonseca).<br />
2002. COP 6 (http://www.biodiv.org/doc/meetings/cop/cop-06/official/cop-06-04en.pdf),<br />
Decision VI/5 - adoption and decision to periodically review, as appropriate, the plan<br />
of action <strong>for</strong> the International Initiative <strong>for</strong> the Conservation and Sustainable Use of<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong>.<br />
72
Fonseca, Alves, Saraiva, Landeiro, Dias Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative – Time line<br />
2002. The workshop World Bee Checklist was held within the meeting Trends and<br />
Developments in Biodiversity In<strong>for</strong>matics, (http://www.cria.org.br/eventos/tdbi/wbcw), in<br />
Indaiatuba, SP, Brazil, coordinated by CRIA (V. P. Canhos), ITIS (M. Ruggiero) and BPI<br />
(V.L. Imperatriz-Fonseca).<br />
2002. The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative and the role of bees in pollination was<br />
presented at National Meetings (XIV Brazilian Beekeeping Congress; V Encontro Sobre<br />
Abelhas de Ribeirão Preto). Dr B. F. S. Dias presented the plans <strong>for</strong> a global project, under<br />
FAO facilitation and GEF support.<br />
2003. First Brazilian Field Course on Biology and Ecology of Pollination, by B. F. Viana<br />
(Bahia Federal University) and P. G. Kevan (Guelph University).<br />
2003. Brazilian participation in the workshop in South Africa (Building a Policy and<br />
Pollinator Conservation Strategy). Delegates: V. L. Imperatriz-Fonseca, B. M. Magalhães<br />
Freitas and M. S. de Castro.<br />
2003. The Brazilian Government included the <strong>Pollinators</strong> and Pollination in the Pluriannual<br />
Government Program (2004-2007).<br />
2003. The Brazilian Government (MMA) improved financing aids <strong>for</strong> a National Project on<br />
crop pollination in Brazil (PROBIO). 13 proposals approved.<br />
2003. B. M. Freitas represented BPI at the CGIAR meeting Managing Agricultural<br />
Biodiversity <strong>for</strong> Sustainable Development, in Kenya, Africa.<br />
2003. S. Paulo Declaration on <strong>Pollinators</strong> plus 5 Forum, with 2 workshops: “Standard<br />
Methodologies” and “Pollinator Initiatives and the role of IT: building synergism and<br />
cooperation”. Participation: 12 countries, 77 participants. Financial support: FAO, MMA and<br />
MCT (Brazil), USP.<br />
2004. International Workshop on Solitary bees and their role in pollination, held in<br />
Beberibe, Ceará, organized by B. M. Freitas, from Ceará Federal University. Published<br />
book: FREITAS, B.M. & PEREIRA, JOP. (eds.) Solitary bees - conservation, rearing and<br />
management <strong>for</strong> pollination.<br />
2004. XV Brazilian Beekeeping Congress and First Brazilian Meliponiculture Congress- BPI<br />
<strong>for</strong> beekeepers.<br />
2004. Beginning of <strong>Pollinators</strong> Collections Network at CRIA, with digitalization of two bee<br />
collections In S. Paulo State, around 107.000 records. Support from FAPESP.<br />
2004. First National Stakeholders Meeting of the Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative as part<br />
of the FAO Project EP/GLO/301/GEF .<br />
73
Fonseca, Alves, Saraiva, Landeiro, Dias Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative – Time line<br />
2004/2005. Development of PDF-B of the project financed by GEF and coordinated by FAO,<br />
Conservation and management of pollinators <strong>for</strong> sustainable Agriculture through an<br />
ecosystem approach.<br />
2005. The project ViNCES – Weblabs on ecosystem services, aimed at developing on line<br />
experiments and data on pollinators (and photosynthesis) was approved by FAPESP.<br />
www.ib/usp/br/vinces. Coordination: A. M. Saraiva, V. L. Imperatriz-Fonseca and M. S.<br />
Buckeridge.<br />
2005. Brazilian Ministry of Environment makes the Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative official,<br />
through an inter-ministry designation, representative <strong>for</strong> civil society.<br />
2005. Second National Stakeholders Meeting of the Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative as<br />
part of the FAO Project EP/GLO/301/GEF.<br />
2005. Second Brazilian Field Course on Biology and Ecology of Pollination, by B. F.<br />
Viana (Bahia Federal University) and P. G. Kevan (Guelph University), in Bahia State, Brazil.<br />
2006. VII Encontro sobre abelhas de Ribeirão Preto, with two symposia on <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
and the Brazilian Program coordinated by MMA.<br />
2006. Activities of BPI in the XVI Brazilian Beekeeping Congress and II Brazilian<br />
Congress of Meliponiculture, held in Sergipe, Brazil.<br />
2006. Settlement of Repol, Network of <strong>Pollinators</strong> from Bahia State, Brazil, supported by<br />
Bahia State Scientific Agency.<br />
2006. IABIN Pollinator Thematic Network project approved by the Organization of the<br />
American States. The consortium led by CoEvolution Institute (L. D. Adams) has Brazilian<br />
partners (University of São Paulo – A. M. Saraiva and V. L. Imperatriz-Fonseca), besides<br />
ITIS (M. Ruggiero) and NBII (L. Sellers). The Brazilian group is responsible <strong>for</strong> the IT<br />
infrastructure.<br />
2006. Meeting in COP8, side event <strong>Pollinators</strong>, Curitiba, Brazil.<br />
Publications supported by the Ministry of the Environment: Brazilian References on<br />
Pollination and pollinators; Pollinating bees: the conservation link between nature<br />
and agriculture (revised edition) and Solitary bees and their role in pollination<br />
(reprinted).<br />
Publication supported by FAO and Conservation International-Brazil: Bees as pollinators in<br />
Brazil: assessing the status and suggesting the best practices (Imperatriz-Fonseca et<br />
al., eds.).<br />
2006. Workshop Pollinator In<strong>for</strong>mation in the Americas was held in Indaiatuba, SP,<br />
Brazil, as a joint workshop of IABIN and GBIF. Organized by A. M. Saraiva, P. Correa and<br />
the <strong>Pollinators</strong> Network Thematic (PTN) project colleagues (www.iabin.net ).<br />
74
Fonseca, Alves, Saraiva, Landeiro, Dias Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative – Time line<br />
2006. The Thematic project Biodiversity and sustainable use of pollinators, with<br />
emphasis on bees, supported by FAPESP was approved and started. Coordination: V.L.<br />
Imperatriz-Fonseca.<br />
2007. Approval of the project GEF Conservation & Management of <strong>Pollinators</strong> <strong>for</strong><br />
Sustainable Agriculture through an Ecosystem Approach. Executive agency: FAO.<br />
2007. Third Brazilian Field Course Biology and Ecology of Pollination, by B. F. Viana<br />
(Bahia Federal University) and P. G. Kevan (Guelph University), in Bahia State, Brazil.<br />
2007. <strong>Pollinators</strong> Collections network: CRIA digitizes additional nine pollinators’ collection<br />
in Brazil with 213,345 records until May 2008.<br />
2007. Round table on <strong>Pollinators</strong> Ecology. VIII Brazilian Congress of Ecology, held in<br />
Caxambu, 24 th -28 th September, organized by I. Alves-dos-Santos.<br />
2007. Publication of the Catalogue of Bees (Hymenoptera, Apoidea) in the Neotropical<br />
Region (Moure, J.S.; Urban, D. & Melo, G.A.R.).<br />
2008. Dra. M. J. O. Campos participated (UNESP Rio Claro) in the side event about<br />
Pollination of Crops organized by FAO Rome, Italy.<br />
2008. Participation of Dr. B. M. Freitas (UFC), as a BPI member, and Dr. Paulo Oliveira<br />
(UFU) as a Probio project coordinator in the INRA /FAO Workshop about pollinating deficit.<br />
Avignon, France.<br />
2008. First International Field Course on Biology and Ecology of Pollination, with<br />
emphasis on Agriculture, by Breno M. Freitas (Ceará Federal University), Peter Kevan<br />
(Guelph University) and Blandina Viana (Bahia Federal University).<br />
2008. Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative was presented in COP9 side event on <strong>Pollinators</strong>,<br />
<strong>Caring</strong> <strong>for</strong> pollinators: safeguarding agrobiodiversity and wild plant diversity, held in<br />
Bonn, April 22.<br />
Acronyms<br />
BPI Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative<br />
CGIAR Consultative Group on international Agricultural Research<br />
CNPq Brazilian National Research Council<br />
COP Conference of the Parties<br />
CRIA Reference Center on Environmental In<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
75
Fonseca, Alves, Saraiva, Landeiro, Dias Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative – Time line<br />
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations<br />
FAPESP The São Paulo State Research Support Foundation<br />
GEF Global Environmental Facility<br />
IABIN Inter American Biodiversity In<strong>for</strong>mation Network<br />
IPI International Pollinator Initiative<br />
ITIS International Taxonomy In<strong>for</strong>mation Service<br />
MMA Ministry of the Environment<br />
MCT Ministry of Science and Technology<br />
PDF-B Project Development Facility phase B<br />
PROBIO National Biodiversity Project<br />
UFC Ceara Federal University<br />
UNESP São Paulo State University<br />
USP University of São Paulo<br />
VINCES Virtual Network Center of Ecosystem Services<br />
76
Fonseca, Alves, Saraiva, Landeiro, Dias Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative – Time line<br />
Authors' addresses:<br />
Prof.-Dr. Vera Lucia Imperatriz Fonseca & Denise de A. Alves, Instituto de Biociencias,<br />
Universidade de Sao Paulo, Rua do Matao, travessa 14, 321 CEP 05508-900 S. Paulo,<br />
Brazil<br />
e-mail: vlifonse@ib.usp.br, daalves@ib.usp.br<br />
Antonio M. Saraiva, Escola Politécnica, Universidade de S. Paulo, Brazil. amsaraiv@usp.br<br />
Marina C. P. P. Landeiro & Braulio F. S. Dias Ministério do Meio Ambiente, Brazil.<br />
marinalandeiro@mma.gov.br ; braulio.dias@mma.gov.br<br />
77
Newstrom-Lloyd, Cooper, Spencer, Wilton The Oceania Pollinator Initiative<br />
3.5 Integrated In<strong>for</strong>mation System <strong>for</strong> the Oceania Pollinator<br />
Initiative based on a federation of distributed databases<br />
by LE Newstrom-Lloyd, J Cooper, NJ Spencer, AD Wilton, New Zealand<br />
Introduction<br />
Most of the island ecosystems of Oceania evolved in isolation from continental landmasses<br />
and have unique and fragile plant-pollinator partnerships that are particularly vulnerable to<br />
climate change, land use intensification, habitat losses and invasion by alien species. The<br />
Oceania Pollinator Initiative (OPI) is a network of pollination ecologists and other<br />
researchers, policy makers, farmers, agronomists, beekeepers, conservationists and<br />
interested public to promote the conservation and sustainability of pollinators in natural and<br />
agricultural ecosystems in the region. OPI is aligned with four other continental size<br />
pollinator initiatives under the umbrella of the CBD International Pollinator Initiative (IPI),<br />
facilitated and coordinated by FAO. Our website is at www.oceaniapollinator.org<br />
The Oceania Pollinator Network Challenge<br />
A first assessment of the status of pollination services in Oceania will require sharing<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation across a broad geographic region with small remote islands in the Pacific Ocean.<br />
In<strong>for</strong>mation needed <strong>for</strong> conserving and sustaining pollination systems <strong>for</strong> the nations of<br />
Oceania is scarce, scattered or non-existent and many key pollinator collections are in<br />
overseas museums. We are initiating and seeking funding <strong>for</strong> an in<strong>for</strong>mation network of<br />
linked integrated databases to aggregate existing in<strong>for</strong>mation from diverse local, national,<br />
regional and global resources. This will allow us to target in<strong>for</strong>mation gaps in our future<br />
monitoring ef<strong>for</strong>ts and case studies. Our vision is to build on existing databases to provide<br />
dynamic updatable in<strong>for</strong>mation primarily via the internet with tools <strong>for</strong> querying the<br />
databases and downloading current summaries based on reliable, traceable, evidencebased<br />
data.<br />
78
Newstrom-Lloyd, Cooper, Spencer, Wilton The Oceania Pollinator Initiative<br />
We will integrate four major types of in<strong>for</strong>mation (names, occurrences, descriptors, and<br />
summaries) and develop “end to end” reporting tools that will support decision making and<br />
promote awareness of pollinator sustainability issues. The in<strong>for</strong>mation <strong>for</strong> names (taxonomy),<br />
specimens, observations, distributions, and images are relatively straight<strong>for</strong>ward to manage,<br />
while the in<strong>for</strong>mation <strong>for</strong> interactions, traits data and summaries are more complex and<br />
specialised to the field of pollination biology. For example, our interaction and traits<br />
databases that we have initiated <strong>for</strong> New Zealand draw in<strong>for</strong>mation from specimens,<br />
distributions, literature reviews and field data from monitoring studies that we have<br />
conducted. The dynamics of native and exotic naturalised pollinators visiting both native and<br />
exotic plants has resulted in complex patterns of floral resource visitation overlaying the<br />
original native-to-native interactions. The remoteness of oceanic island geography means<br />
that the evolution of the flora and fauna progressed in isolation from other regions and<br />
there<strong>for</strong>e the vulnerability of the native pollination networks on these islands needs to be<br />
assessed and understood.<br />
Proposed OPI Integrated In<strong>for</strong>mation Network<br />
Figure 1 shows a diagram of the proposed content and hierarchical structure of the OPI<br />
Integrated In<strong>for</strong>mation system with inputs and outputs, data resources, services,<br />
technologies and related networks. The organization from local, national, regional to<br />
international data sources in a “federated distributed network” will allow in<strong>for</strong>mation flow up<br />
and down the hierarchy. The OPI national level is exemplified in Figure 1 primarily by<br />
existing New Zealand and Australian databases but other Oceania nations will be added as<br />
they are developed. Our future plans are to utilise existing and developing technologies and<br />
databases at each level shown in Figure 1 from national (e.g, 22 member nations of Oceans)<br />
to regional (e.g., Oceania, Africa, Brazil, Europe and North America) to international (e.g.,<br />
the global Plant In<strong>for</strong>mation Management System (PIMS) of FAO (Gemmill-Herren et al.,<br />
2008). We propose to adopt and leverage current and emerging international protocols <strong>for</strong><br />
transferring biodiversity data (Figure 2). Some of these technologies and databases are still<br />
in development and so are marked in red * on Figure 1 and 2. We also are engaged in<br />
following data exchange standards <strong>for</strong> inter-compatibility to the wider community of<br />
international initiatives in particular PIMS-FAO (Gemmill-Herren et al., 2008) and the Inter-<br />
American Biodiveristy In<strong>for</strong>mation Network (IABIN) <strong>Pollinators</strong> Thematic Network (PTN)<br />
(Ruggiero et al., 2008). We are hoping to be able to link to existing regional networks such<br />
as PBIF and others as OPI develops further.<br />
Proposed Outputs and Outcomes <strong>for</strong> OPI<br />
The proposed future outputs from the OPI Integrated In<strong>for</strong>mation system will be widely and<br />
freely available via the internet and as published booklets and reports on request. The OPI<br />
79
Newstrom-Lloyd, Cooper, Spencer, Wilton The Oceania Pollinator Initiative<br />
portal will provide search tools <strong>for</strong> queries by plant or pollinator species as well as habitats at<br />
various spatial and temporal scales. Web-based in<strong>for</strong>mation pages will contain summary<br />
reports with analyses, images, and in<strong>for</strong>mation on species interactions or pollination systems<br />
or communities with references to the literature and data sources. Tools <strong>for</strong> endusers will<br />
include “snapshots” of the raw data traceable to the source (at any level) as well as<br />
updatable summaries integrating the current state of in<strong>for</strong>mation available <strong>for</strong> Oceania. The<br />
portal will deliver new research on best practice management with summaries from the<br />
literature. The in<strong>for</strong>mation will support and enhance decision making by policy makers, best<br />
practice management by farmers and agronomists, research by pollination ecologists, and<br />
conservation and restoration planning by conservationists. We are planning to develop<br />
educational pages that will increase awareness and understanding of the nature and<br />
vulnerability of pollination systems in Oceania and feedback up to the global levels to<br />
promote International Pollinator Initiative goals.<br />
References:<br />
Gemmill-Herren B, Collette L, DeGiovanni R, Klein A, Kagoiya R, Mayfield M, Roberts S, Jepson P.<br />
2008: Knowledge Management <strong>for</strong> Conservation and Use of Pollination Services <strong>for</strong> .Sustainable<br />
Agriculture. Poster abstract from FAO at the SBSTTA – 13 meetings of the United Nations<br />
Convention on Biological Diversity, Rome, Italy Feb 18-22, 2008.<br />
Ruggiero M, Sellers E, Saraiva AM, Correa PLP, Adams L. 2008. A Network <strong>for</strong> Pollinator<br />
In<strong>for</strong>mation and Extertise in the Western Hemisphere. Poster abstract from FAO at the SBSTTA –<br />
13 meetings of the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, Rome, Italy Feb 18-22, 2008.<br />
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Newstrom-Lloyd, Cooper, Spencer, Wilton The Oceania Pollinator Initiative<br />
Figure 1 (next page): Schematic diagram <strong>for</strong> structure of the proposed Oceania Pollinator Integrated<br />
In<strong>for</strong>mation System with three levels of a hierarchy from local/national to regional to global and<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation flow in both directions.<br />
Authors' address:<br />
LE Newstrom-Lloyd, J Cooper, NJ Spencer & AD Wilton, Landcare Research, P.O. Box 40,<br />
Lincoln 7640, New Zealand, e-mail: newstroml@landcareresearch.co.nz<br />
81
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82
Newstrom-Lloyd, Cooper, Spencer, Wilton The Oceania Pollinator Initiative<br />
83
Newstrom-Lloyd, Cooper, Spencer, Wilton The Oceania Pollinator Initiative<br />
Figure 2: List of existing and developing technologies and databases that are proposed <strong>for</strong> use in<br />
developing the Oceania Pollinator Integrated In<strong>for</strong>mation System.<br />
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Gross, Newstrom-Lloyd, Howlett, Donovan The Oceania Pollinator Initiative<br />
3.6 Monitoring <strong>Pollinators</strong>: Case studies from Australia and New<br />
Zealand<br />
by CL Gross, New England; LE Newstrom-Lloyd, B Howlett, New Zealand; G Plunkett, New<br />
England and BJ Donovan, New Zealand<br />
Pollination is an essential ecosystem service — yet in Australia, New Guinea, New Zealand<br />
and on the Oceanic Islands- we know very little about our pollinators. Monitoring is a key<br />
step here as it provides data on longer term trends and the in<strong>for</strong>mation we lack on the<br />
distribution and ecology of pollinators and their ecosystem service-role. In addition the<br />
relative contributions of introduced and native pollinators in natural and agro-ecosystems is<br />
poorly understood from an economic perspective.<br />
To establish baselines <strong>for</strong> monitoring trends in pollinator services in Oceania, we have<br />
adopted diverse methods depending on the type of plant-pollinator interaction and the<br />
purpose of the investigation. Monitoring is undertaken <strong>for</strong> a variety of reasons, e.g. to detect<br />
change in pollinator communities in fragmented landscapes, to gauge the impact of exotic<br />
pollinators on native and exotic plant species, or to determine the contribution of alternative<br />
native pollinators in crops. Pollination systems in Oceania depend on the pollinating fauna<br />
available which is of very low diversity on most of the small remote islands (e.g., New<br />
Zealand) but higher in diversity in large continental sized islands (e.g., Australia).<br />
In island systems, exotic naturalized insects and plants are significant components of many<br />
habitats. Exotics may have positive or negative effects on native pollination systems<br />
(Newstrom and Robertson 2005). In some cases, it is clear that only exotic pollinators (e.g.,<br />
bumblebees or honeybees) are capable of pollinating exotic plants. This type of interaction is<br />
called an “invasive mutualism” because without the exotic pollinator the exotic plant would<br />
not set seed and spread (e.g., broom, Simpson et al. 2005). In other cases, exotic<br />
pollinators may benefit native flora because they replace lost pollinators (e.g. birds on the<br />
mainland of New Zealand). Similarly, exotic plants rich in floral resources may benefit native<br />
pollinator populations but this could lead to abandonment of native plants leaving them<br />
bereft of pollinators.<br />
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Monitoring <strong>for</strong> Conservation in Australia<br />
10 year monitoring of a native legume<br />
Monitoring <strong>for</strong> pollinator decline is a time consuming operation that involves replication of<br />
sites over the landscape and over many years. The legume shrub Pultenaea campbellii<br />
(Fabaceae) (Fig. 1) is a rare species that exists in a fragmented landscape in northern New<br />
South Wales, Australia.<br />
Fig. 1: Lycaenid butterfly on the<br />
flowers of Pultenaea campbelli<br />
Fig. 2: Fruit to flowers ratios in plants of P. campbelli in a ten year interval 1999 (N = 6<br />
populations) and 2008 (N= 7 populations) showing that in 2008 plant population size is<br />
correlated with fruiting success and that overtime there has been a decrease in reproductive<br />
per<strong>for</strong>mance in this insect-dependant species.<br />
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Gross, Newstrom-Lloyd, Howlett, Donovan The Oceania Pollinator Initiative<br />
Fig. 3: Mean number of insect visitors to flowers of P. campbelli in 2007 (N = 7 populations)<br />
showing that floral visitation is positively correlated with plant population size.<br />
In our monitoring study we have value added to our temporal data set (ten year monitoring<br />
period) by using plant populations of different sizes. In this way we have detected a<br />
relationship between fruit to flower ratios against population area over time (Fig. 2) which is<br />
correlated with floral visitor patterns against population size (Fig. 3).<br />
This study is an example of using indirect or remote methods such as fruit to flower ratios in<br />
a pollinator dependant species to obtain efficient results when visitation data are difficult to<br />
collect.<br />
88<br />
Fig. 4: The honeybee Apis mellifera<br />
is an introduced species in Australia<br />
and here a feral worker is visiting an<br />
inflorescence of the introduced and<br />
invasive weed Lippia (Phyla<br />
canescens). Lippia is not capable of<br />
automatic self-pollination (Gorrell &<br />
Gross 2007, unpub. data).
Gross, Newstrom-Lloyd, Howlett, Donovan The Oceania Pollinator Initiative<br />
An Australian Invasive Mutualism<br />
The invasive species Phyla canescens (Lippia) (Fig. 4) relies on pollinators <strong>for</strong> seed set. We<br />
have determined using video monitoring at virgin flowers (Fig. 5), followed by bagging, that<br />
the introduced honeybee, Apis mellifera, is facilitating the spread of this weed by being the<br />
only pollinator in introduced landscapes in Australia.<br />
Fig. 5: The monitoring set-up at patches of Lippia. Video<br />
footage is gathered <strong>for</strong> 10-20 minutes at ‘virgin’ flowers of Phyla<br />
canescens. The plant patch is then re-bagged to capture fruits<br />
and to extrapolate the efficacy of floral visitors. The video<br />
footage Native was exotic scored crossovers <strong>for</strong> the number in New of Zealand visitors per minute and<br />
compared with fruit to flower ratios <strong>for</strong> the same flowers which<br />
showed Disrupted that pollination feral honeybees systems are the obligate pollinators <strong>for</strong> this<br />
invasive species (Gross & Gorrell 2008, unpub. data).<br />
New Zealand flowers evolved with no large social bees (Lloyd 1985). The native bee fauna<br />
is comprised of 32 species of solitary bees in Leioproctus, Hylaeus and Lasioglossum<br />
(Donovan 2007). Exotic social bees, honeybees (Apis mellifera) and bumblebees (Bombus<br />
spp.), introduced <strong>for</strong> agriculture in the 19th century, are fully naturalized throughout New<br />
Zealand. Evolutionarily we would expect exotic pollinators to prefer exotic plant species and<br />
native pollinators to prefer native plant species. However, many exotic bees are<br />
supergeneralists and may displace native bees. Many exotic plant species are rich in nectar<br />
and pollen and may draw native pollinators away from native plants (Newstrom and<br />
Robertson 2005).<br />
Rapid assessments of pollinator abundance<br />
To investigate crossover among native and exotic plants and pollinators, we made rapid<br />
assessments of day active floral visitors along transects in regenerating scrub habitats. For<br />
methods see www.landcareresearch.co.nz/research/biocons/pollination/<br />
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We observed a total of 370 plants in 58 exotic and 34 native plant species at 4 times a day<br />
<strong>for</strong> at least 12 days at each of 7 sites (Fig. 7). We made a total of 15,000 observations and<br />
counted 32,000 floral visitors.<br />
Extensive crossover in both directions<br />
The pattern of crossover is shown in the graphical summary (Fig. 6). Many native plant<br />
species are dominated by exotic bees while some exotic plant species are dominated by<br />
native bees. These baseline data can be used in the future to detect trends in crossover<br />
patterns or declines in floral visitor abundance. Further research is needed to determine the<br />
impact of crossovers, the pollinator per<strong>for</strong>mance of floral visitors, and the floral resource<br />
base needed to maintain native pollinator populations.<br />
Fig. 6: The relative proportion of exotic bee, native bee and other floral visitors to native and<br />
exotic naturalized plant species summed over 7 sites in New Zealand. Red letters indicate exotic<br />
and blue letters native plant species. Numbers in brackets indicate total number of visitors<br />
observed <strong>for</strong> each species.<br />
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Gross, Newstrom-Lloyd, Howlett, Donovan The Oceania Pollinator Initiative<br />
Native pollinators in crops in New Zealand<br />
Native insects as alternative pollinators<br />
Native pollinators in crops may become more important as honey bee populations decline<br />
from pests and diseases such as Varroa and Colony Collapse Disorder (Winfree et al. 2007).<br />
To assess the potential role of native insects in crops, we monitored commercial onion and<br />
pak choi over 5 years in 5 regions of New Zealand. We observed floral visitors and used<br />
window pan traps to intercept flying insects in the crop during peak flowering.<br />
Diversity and Abundance of Natives<br />
We found 9 species of native bees and at least 16 species of native flies visiting onion<br />
flowers. Figure 7 shows the relative abundance of native bees (Leioproctus and<br />
Lasioglossum) versus exotic bees (Apis mellifera and Bombus spp.) in traps in onion fields<br />
during 2004 and 2005 across all regions.<br />
Fig. 7: The relative proportion of native and exotic bees from traps in onion fields during<br />
peak flowering in regions of New Zealand. SI = South Island; NI = North Island<br />
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Gross, Newstrom-Lloyd, Howlett, Donovan The Oceania Pollinator Initiative<br />
Pollinator Per<strong>for</strong>mance of Natives<br />
We compared pollen loads and pollen deposition on onion stigmas <strong>for</strong> 15 flower visiting<br />
species. Pollen deposition on virgin stigmas correlated strongly with pollen loads (loose<br />
pollen) and insect body length. The larger native bees in Leioproctus and flies (Calliphoridae<br />
and Tachinidae) carried and deposited a number of pollen grains comparable to honey bees.<br />
Smaller native bees in Lasioglossum transferred much less pollen but their high abundance<br />
in the crop counterbalanced this. Future research aims to understand the lifecycle and<br />
landscape factors that influence native pollinator population dynamics. Management<br />
strategies can then be <strong>for</strong>mulated to increase the reliability of native pollinators in crops.<br />
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Gross, Newstrom-Lloyd, Howlett, Donovan The Oceania Pollinator Initiative<br />
References:<br />
DONOVAN, B. J. (2007): Apoidea (Insecta: Hymenoptera). Fauna of New Zealand 57, 295 pp.<br />
LLOYD DG (1985): Progress in understanding the natural history of New Zealand plants.<br />
New Zealand Journal of Botany 23: 707-722.<br />
NEWSTROM LE, ROBERTSON AW (2005): Progress towards understanding pollination systems<br />
in New Zealand. Invited Godley review New Zealand Journal of Botany 43:1-59.<br />
SIMPSON, S., GROSS, C.L., SILBERBAUER, L. (2005): Brooms and honeybees: an alien liaison.<br />
Plant Biology 7(5): 541-548.<br />
WINFREE R, WILLIAMS NM, DUSHOFF J, KREMEN C (2007): Native bees provide insurance<br />
against ongoing honey bee losses. Ecology Letters, 10(11): 1105-1113.<br />
Authors' addresses:<br />
CL Gross & G Plunkett, Ecosystem Management, The University of New England, Armidale,<br />
NSW, 2351, Australia<br />
LE Newstrom-Lloyd, Landcare Research, PO Box 40 Lincoln 7640, New Zealand, e-mail:<br />
newstroml@landcareresearch.co.nz<br />
B Howlett, Crop and Food Research, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch, New Zealand 8140<br />
B.J. Donovan, Donovan Scientific Insect Research, Private Bag 4704, Christchurch, New<br />
Zealand 8140<br />
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Potts, Roberts, Kunin & Biesmeijer The status of European pollinators<br />
4.1 The status of European pollinators<br />
by Simon G. Potts, Stuart Roberts; William E. Kunin & Jacobus C. Biesmeijer, UK<br />
Importance of European pollinators<br />
It is estimated that more than 150 (84%) of European crops are directly dependent upon<br />
insects <strong>for</strong> their pollination (Williams 1994). Crop pollination is estimated to be worth €14.2<br />
billion per year in European Union (Gallai et al. 2008). European crops <strong>for</strong> which the number<br />
of fruits and seeds and their quality are dependent upon, or enhanced by, insect pollination<br />
(Corbet et al. 1991; Williams 1996) include:<br />
Fruits – apple, orange, tomato, pear, peach, melons, lemon, strawberry, raspberry, plum,<br />
apricot, cherry, kiwifruit, mango, currants, olives and grapevine; Vegetables – carrot, potato,<br />
onion, pepper, pumpkin, field bean, French bean, eggplant, squash, cucumber, and soy<br />
bean; Seeds and nuts – sunflower, almond, walnut and chestnut; Herbs – basil, sage,<br />
rosemary, thyme, coriander, cumin and dill; Industrial crops – cotton, oilseed rape, white<br />
mustard, and buckwheat; Fodder crops <strong>for</strong> animals – alfalfa, clover and sweetclover;<br />
Essential oils – chamomile, lavender, and evening primrose.<br />
To date there is a growing body of case studies and anecdotal evidence <strong>for</strong> declines in<br />
pollinators in Europe and elsewhere, however the in<strong>for</strong>mation is very fragmented and often<br />
reported outside the mainstream literature. Since many European crops depend on<br />
pollinators, and loss of pollination services may have huge negative impacts it is essential to<br />
understand the status and trends of Europe’s pollinators. The ALARM project (Assessing<br />
Large-scale threats <strong>for</strong> biodiversity with tested methods. www.alarmproject.net) undertook<br />
large scale studies of the trends in honeybees, solitary bees and hoverflies at the national<br />
and continental scales.<br />
94<br />
© IBRA
Potts, Roberts, Kunin & Biesmeijer The status of European pollinators<br />
Are European honeybees (Apis mellifera) in decline?<br />
There is increasing concern that managed honeybees are under increasing threat in Europe.<br />
Severe losses of colonies have been reported by many individual beekeepers and<br />
beekeeping organisations but no overall continental scale picture could be drawn. In the US,<br />
Colony Collapse Disorder (CCD) and other factors have been linked to the massive<br />
decrease in honeybee colonies from 1989-1996 and a recent drop in 2005 (National<br />
Research Council, 2006). As many European crops depend upon pollination and<br />
honeybees are the most important managed species of bee it was there<strong>for</strong>e necessary to<br />
quantify the current status of honeybees in Europe and assess recent trends in their<br />
numbers.<br />
We collated data, where available, on colony numbers collected from national beekeeping<br />
journals, national beekeeping organisations and government reports on the numbers of<br />
honeybee colonies in 1985 and 2005 in 17 European countries: Austria, Belgium, Czech<br />
republic, England, Finland, Germany, Greece, Ireland, Italy, Luxemburg, Netherlands,<br />
Norway, Portugal, Scotland, Slovakia, Sweden and Wales. We considered Austria, Belgium,<br />
Czech republic, England, Germany, Luxemburg, Netherlands, Portugal, Scotland, Slovakia,<br />
and Wales to be central European with the remainder as geographically peripheral<br />
European. We calculated the percentage change in colony numbers between 1985 and<br />
2005 (see Fig 1).<br />
Trends were mixed across countries: some showed clear declines while other showed<br />
increases in colony numbers, but the overall trend was an 11% decline since 1985. There<br />
were distinct regional differences with central European countries exhibiting an overall 23%<br />
decline and peripheral regions countries a 6% increase. There were also declines in<br />
colonies from 1965 and declines in the number of beekeepers (see Potts et al.).<br />
Scotland<br />
Sweden<br />
England Netherlands<br />
Ireland<br />
Wales<br />
Germany<br />
Belgium<br />
Czech Republic<br />
Luxembourg<br />
Slovakia<br />
Austria<br />
Portugal<br />
20% 20%<br />
increase decrease<br />
Norway<br />
Italy<br />
Greece<br />
Finland<br />
Figure 1: Proportional change in honeybee<br />
colony numbers between 1985 and 2005.<br />
Size of arrows indicate relative extent of<br />
change.<br />
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Potts, Roberts, Kunin & Biesmeijer The status of European pollinators<br />
Several causes of the declines in European honeybees have been recorded and include the<br />
increased incidence of diseases (e.g. Varroa and tracheal mites, chalk brood), unusually<br />
cold winters and summer droughts, overuse of pesticides and loss of good bee <strong>for</strong>age<br />
habitats. Combinations of different drivers in each country and region are likely to be the<br />
causes of the observed patterns but further research is needed to quantify this. Though<br />
CCD has been suggested to be in Europe, actual evidence has not been provided to date.<br />
However, given that CCD, small hive beetle and other diseases are potential threats to<br />
European honeybees, future risks <strong>for</strong> further losses are high. As honeybees and wild bees<br />
have such a high economic value in Europe and many of our food crops and wild plants rely<br />
on their services, it is essential that we invest in research to fully understand the nature of<br />
the problem and in activities which will help safeguard pollinators and pollination services <strong>for</strong><br />
the future.<br />
Are European wild bees and hoverflies in decline?<br />
While there has been substantial discussion about loss of wild pollinator and some striking<br />
case studies, until recently there was little solid evidence of geographically widespread<br />
declines. This is largely due to the lack of any coordinated monitoring programmes <strong>for</strong> bees<br />
or other pollinators – or indeed <strong>for</strong> any but the most charismatic (butterflies) or destructive<br />
(agricultural pest) invertebrates. In the absence of such monitoring data, scientists have had<br />
to rely on less direct methods to test <strong>for</strong> changes in the pollinator community.<br />
Biesmeijer and colleagues (2006) devised a novel approach based on the accumulation of<br />
records in national entomological databases. Many countries have societies of largely<br />
amateur naturalists, who record sightings of insect species in shared databases. While<br />
these databases are not systematic sampling programmes, they nonetheless include<br />
hundreds of thousands of carefully collected records. Biesmeijer and his colleagues used a<br />
technique called rarefaction, in which random samples of records of different sizes are<br />
repeatedly sub-sampled from the pool of all records, providing a fairly robust measure of<br />
species diversity despite uneven sampling ef<strong>for</strong>t. They examined bees and hoverflies, the<br />
two biggest groups of insect pollinators, in two countries with excellent entomological data:<br />
the UK and the Netherlands.<br />
The results were striking (see Figure 2). In both countries, the diversity of bees has fallen<br />
significantly in the majority of landscapes (80% in the Netherlands, 70% in the UK), while<br />
very few landscapes showed significant diversity increases. The results <strong>for</strong> hoverflies were<br />
quite different, with increased diversity in the Netherlands, and a mixed response in the UK.<br />
Reduced biodiversity in itself might have only a limited impact on pollination services, if the<br />
species remaining had traits similar to those being lost. However, further analyses of the<br />
traits of the pollinators involved suggested that this was not the case. In both bees and<br />
hoverflies, there tended to be declines in specialist and sedentary species, while mobile<br />
generalists tended to thrive.<br />
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Potts, Roberts, Kunin & Biesmeijer The status of European pollinators<br />
In addition, the research found evidence of shifts in the plant communities of the two<br />
countries that echo the shifts in the pollinator communities. In the UK there has been a<br />
recent decline in animal-pollinated plants that depend on pollinators <strong>for</strong> reproduction,<br />
whereas self pollinating and wind-pollinated species have held constant or increased. In the<br />
Netherlands, however, where bee diversity declines have been accompanied by increased<br />
hoverfly richness, only bee-pollinated plants have declined, while plants pollinated by<br />
hoverflies and other pollinators have continued to thrive. The parallel dynamics between<br />
plants and their pollinators suggest some sort of link between the two, but its nature is<br />
unclear. It could be that plant declines are caused in part by lack of pollination services, or<br />
bees could be declining due to lack of floral resources, or indeed both could be declining due<br />
to shared sensitivity to environmental changes. Only by additional research into pollinator<br />
populations and the pollination services they provide can the answers become known.<br />
Figure 2: Change in pollinator richness in British (GB) and Dutch (NL) landscapes since 1980. Bee<br />
richness decreased in 80% of Dutch and 70% of British landscapes, whereas hoverfly show no<br />
change (UK) or tend to increase (NL)<br />
A Europe-wide assessment is currently in process and the first results indicate that on<br />
average about half of the wild bee species are threatened in European countries (average of<br />
12 countries, ranging from ~30-65%) and that again the specialists tend to be declining more<br />
than the generalists. A survey among bee specialists in 12 countries indicates an overall<br />
opinion that land use change and habitat loss, particularly agricultural intensification and<br />
change in management, are the major causes <strong>for</strong> wild bee declines (Biesmeijer et al. in<br />
prep.).<br />
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Potts, Roberts, Kunin & Biesmeijer The status of European pollinators<br />
European Pollinator Initiative<br />
Across Europe there are large numbers of activities addressing pollinators and pollination<br />
services. These include scientific research, conservation activities, and the commercial use<br />
of pollinators and pollination products. These are well established and diverse activities but<br />
in many ways quite fragmented due to geographical, linguistic and disciplinary<br />
fragmentation. There<strong>for</strong>e there has been a clear opportunity to bring together interested<br />
parties <strong>for</strong> the exchange of knowledge and a tool was needed to facilitate the integration of<br />
different stakeholders.<br />
The European Pollinator Initiative (EPI) was established in 2000 and shares the same core<br />
objectives as the IPI but with a European focus. The EPI aims to bring together interested<br />
parties to focus on a range of activities which will help conserve and manage pollinators to<br />
enhance the services they provide. The overarching mission of EPI is to protect and<br />
enhance the biodiversity and economic value of pollinators throughout Europe. The EPI<br />
aims to integrate and co-ordinate local, national and international activities relating to<br />
pollination into a cohesive network in order to safeguard the services provided by pollinators<br />
across the continent. EPI works as an in<strong>for</strong>mal network with a bottom-up approach with a<br />
network of national contact points which aims to facilitate collaborations across borders and<br />
sectors. A list of national contacts can be found at www.europeanpollinatorinitiative.org.<br />
References:<br />
BIESMEIJER J.C., ROBERTS S.P., REEMER M., OHLEMUELLER R., EDWARDS M., PEETERS T., SCHAFFERS<br />
A., POTTS S.G., KLEUKERS R., THOMAS C.D., SETTELE J., AND KUNIN W.E. (2006): Parallel declines in<br />
pollinators and insect-pollinated plants in Britain and the Netherlands. Science 313: 351-354<br />
CORBET, S.A., WILLIAMS, I.H. & OSBORNE, J.L. (1991): Bees and the pollination of crops and wild<br />
flowers in the European Community. Bee World 72: 99-116.<br />
GALLAI, N., SALLES, J.M., SETTELE, J. & VAISSIÈRE, B. (in press): Economic valuation of the vulnerability<br />
of world agriculture confronted to pollinator decline. Ecological Economics (in press;<br />
doi:10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.06.014).<br />
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL (2006): Status of pollinators in North America. Nat. Academic Press,<br />
Washington D.C.<br />
POTTS S.G., ROBERTS S.P.M., DEAN R., MARRIS G., BROWN M., JONES R. & SETTELE J. (in press) Are<br />
managed honeybees declining in Europe?<br />
WILLIAMS, I.H. (1994): The dependence of crop production within the European Union on pollination by<br />
honeybees. Agricultural Zoology Reviews 6: 229-257.<br />
WILLIAMS, I.H. (1996): Aspects of bee diversity and crop pollination in the European Union. In: The<br />
Conservation of Bees (eds Matheson, A., Buchmann, S.L., O'Toole, C., Westrich, P. & Williams,<br />
I.H.), pp. 210-226. Linnaean Society Symposium Series 18. Academic Press, London, UK.<br />
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Potts, Roberts, Kunin & Biesmeijer The status of European pollinators<br />
Authors' addresses:<br />
Simon G. Potts and Stuart Roberts, Centre <strong>for</strong> Agri-Environment Research, University of<br />
Reading, UK. Tel.: +44-1183786154; Email: s.g.potts@reading.ac.uk<br />
William E. Kunin and Jacobus C. Biesmeijer, Institute of Integrative and Comparative Biology<br />
and Earth and Biosphere Institute, University of Leeds, UK.<br />
99
Steffan-Dewenter Pollinator declines and loss of pollination services<br />
4.2 Pollinator declines and loss of pollination services: research in<br />
the framework of the EU-project ALARM<br />
by Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter, University of Bayreuth<br />
Introduction<br />
The International Convention on Biological Diversity specifically cites pollination as a key<br />
ecosystem function that is threatened globally. This ecosystem service is not only essential<br />
<strong>for</strong> the pollination of approximately 80% of wild plant species but also ensures the production<br />
value of crops. Pollinator diversity and consequently pollination services are at risk due to<br />
the destruction and fragmentation of natural or semi-natural habitats, increasing land use<br />
intensification, pesticide use, environmental pollution, invasive species and climate change.<br />
However, the relative importance of these risk factors and in particular there combined<br />
effects on plant-pollinator interactions are mainly unknown. Furthermore, risk factors may<br />
vary between different habitat types, landscapes and biogeographical regions. In the<br />
following I will briefly describe the structure, aims and key results of research per<strong>for</strong>med in<br />
this context in the framework of the EU-project ALARM (www. alarmproject.net).<br />
Structure and aims of the “Pollinator loss” module in the EU-project ALARM<br />
The EU-Project ALARM (Assessing large-scale risks <strong>for</strong> biodiversity with tested methods) is<br />
an Integrated Project (IP) under the 6th EU Framework programme (subpriority 6.3<br />
sustainable development, global change and ecosystems). ALARM started on 1st February<br />
2004 and has a duration of five years. Currently it is the largest EU-funded research program<br />
dealing with environmental risks <strong>for</strong> biodiversity. The general objectives are to assess and<br />
<strong>for</strong>ecast large-scale shifts in biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. The focus is on risks<br />
arising from climate change, environmental chemicals, rates and extent of loss of pollinators<br />
and biological invasions including pathogens and the development of ecological and socioeconomic<br />
risk indicators. Accordingly, the project is subdivided into 5 closely cooperating<br />
modules. The module on loss of pollinators plays an important integrative role in the project<br />
as pollinators are on one side threatened by several environmental drivers while on the other<br />
side pollinator loss itself might trigger future loss of biodiversity and ecosystem services<br />
(Figure 1). The “Pollinator loss” module has the following general objectives in order to<br />
mitigate risks <strong>for</strong> pollinator diversity and ensure sustainable pollination services in the future:<br />
(1) Quantify distribution shifts of key pollinator groups across Europe, (2) determine the<br />
relative importance of drivers of pollinator loss (land use, climate chance, environmental<br />
chemicals, invasive species), (3) measure the economic and biodiversity risks associated<br />
with the loss of pollination services in agricultural and natural ecosystems, (4) promote the<br />
conservation and sustainable use of pollinators in natural and agricultural ecosystems, and<br />
(5) develop predictive models <strong>for</strong> pollinator loss and subsequent risks.<br />
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Fig. 1: Integration of the “Pollinator loss” module in EU-project ALARM<br />
Key achievements of the project<br />
The project is now in its final phase and several interesting and highly relevant results have<br />
been obtained. In the following I will give a brief overview of some key results with respect to<br />
four leading questions:<br />
1) Is there a pollinator decline?<br />
2) Which methods are most effective <strong>for</strong> monitoring pollinators?<br />
3) What are the major drivers of pollinator loss?<br />
4) What are the consequences of pollinator declines <strong>for</strong> rare plant and crop pollination<br />
services?<br />
Documenting pollinator declines<br />
Simon Potts and colleagues from the University of Reading compiled data <strong>for</strong> managed<br />
honeybee colonies across Europe. They can show that overall numbers of managed<br />
honeybee colonies declined by 11.2 % with largest declines in Central Europe with 23.3%<br />
decline between 1985 and 2005. However, in some Mediterranean countries they found<br />
slight increases of colony numbers during this time (Potts et al., submitted). In a second<br />
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study Koos Biesmeijer and coworkers from the University of Leeds per<strong>for</strong>med a large-scale<br />
analysis of pollinator diversity in the UK and the Netherlands based on grid data <strong>for</strong> the<br />
occurrence of bee and syrphid species be<strong>for</strong>e and after 1980. Their data provide evidence<br />
<strong>for</strong> significant declines of bee species richness in both countries in almost 80% of the cells,<br />
whereas syrphid flies showed no direction or even increased (Biesmeijer et al. 2006).<br />
Monitoring pollinator diversity<br />
A critical aspect of long-term monitoring of pollinator declines is the lack of well evaluated<br />
and standardised methods. In this project we systematically evaluated the per<strong>for</strong>mance of<br />
six commonly used sampling methods across a wide range of biogeographical regions in<br />
Europe in different agricultural and seminatural habitat types (Figure 2). The results allow the<br />
comparison of different methods with respect to their efficiency and the calculation of the<br />
required sampling ef<strong>for</strong>t to reach sufficient sample coverage. The most efficient method in all<br />
geographical regions and habitat types was the pan trap method. It had the highest sampling<br />
coverage, collected the highest number of species and showed no collector bias. The<br />
transect method was also relatively efficient, but had a significant collector bias. The tested<br />
methods will provide the basis <strong>for</strong> the development of standardised long-term and large<br />
scale monitoring and risk assessment schemes of pollinator declines (Westphal et al. 2008).<br />
Fig. 2: Different methods to assess pollinator diversity evaluated in five European countries<br />
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Drivers of pollinator loss<br />
Several case studies identify habitat fragmentation and land use intensification as important<br />
drivers of pollinator declines (Figure 3). The reduction of habitat area and the increase of<br />
habitat isolation lead to lower species richness and abundance and shifts in community<br />
composition. Particularly food plant specialists, cuckoo bees and small, solitary bee species<br />
are affected by habitat fragmentation (Steffan-Dewenter & Westphal 2008). Interestingly, not<br />
only local habitat characteristics but also the management of the wider landscape play a vital<br />
role <strong>for</strong> pollinator diversity. Thus the implementation of adequate agri-environmental<br />
schemes could contribute to the conservation of pollinators in agricultural landscapes<br />
(Steffan-Dewenter & Westphal 2008, Meyer et al. 2008). The functional consequences of<br />
pollinator declines <strong>for</strong> pollination of rare plants and crops are a controversially discussed and<br />
still unsolved research question.<br />
Fig. 3: The interplay of<br />
pollination services, pollinators,<br />
habitat fragmentation and land<br />
use intensification (from Steffan-<br />
Dewenter & Westphal 2008)<br />
Consequences of pollinator declines <strong>for</strong> rare plant pollination<br />
In the framework of the EU-project ALARM we developed a common study design and<br />
protocols to evaluate the importance of population size, patch size and plant density on<br />
flower visitation, pollinator diversity, and fruit or seed set. The research was per<strong>for</strong>med in 5<br />
European countries with altogether 10 focal rare plant species. The results show no effect of<br />
overall population size but significant effects of patch area and patch density on flower<br />
visitation rates and seed set. For five out of 10 plant species the data provide evidence <strong>for</strong><br />
significant pollination limitation (Dauber et al., submitted).<br />
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Consequences of pollinator declines <strong>for</strong> crop pollination<br />
In a recently published review on the “Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes <strong>for</strong><br />
world crops” by Alexandra Klein from the University of Göttingen and coauthors we evaluate<br />
the reliance of world crop production on animal pollination based on primary data from 200<br />
countries (Klein et al. 2007). We found that fruit, vegetable or seed production from 87 of the<br />
leading global food crops is dependent upon animal pollination, while 28 crops do not rely<br />
upon animal pollination. <strong>Pollinators</strong> turned out to be essential <strong>for</strong> 13 crops, while production<br />
is highly pollinator dependent <strong>for</strong> 30, moderately <strong>for</strong> 27, slightly <strong>for</strong> 21, unimportant <strong>for</strong> 7, and<br />
is of unknown significance <strong>for</strong> the remaining 9 crop species.<br />
In the context of the EU-project ALARM we per<strong>for</strong>med collaborative crop studies in five<br />
different countries with a focus on annual field crops (Figure 4). Crop fields were studied<br />
along gradients of increasing land use intensification to evaluate the possible loss of<br />
pollination services in monotonous agricultural landscapes without source habitats <strong>for</strong><br />
pollinators (Figure 3). The data indicate that lower visitation rates in such landscapes result<br />
not only in lower yields but also negatively affect yield quality (Bommarco et al., submitted).<br />
Further, Bernard Vaissère and coworkers from INRA Avignon assessed the monetary value<br />
of insect pollinators in Europe. The total economic production value of 80 crops used directly<br />
<strong>for</strong> human food was 127.7 billion € in 2005. 41 of these crops depend or benefit from insect<br />
pollination <strong>for</strong> their production resulting in an estimated annual economic value of pollinators<br />
in Europe of 12.3 billion € (Gallai et al. 2008).<br />
Fig. 4: Collaborative crop studies in 5 countries per<strong>for</strong>med in the framework of the EU-project<br />
ALARM<br />
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Conclusions<br />
The presented examples and results provide only an incomplete overview of the research<br />
activities per<strong>for</strong>med in the EU-project ALARM. A major strength of the presented project is<br />
the rather unique implementation of collaborative studies with standardised study designs<br />
across Europe. Further major achievements concern the development of a European bee<br />
data base and multiple cross-cutting studies that aim to identify effects of combined drivers<br />
of pollinator loss including habitat fragmentation, land use and climate change, invasive<br />
species and environmental pollution.<br />
In conclusion the ongoing research in the EU-project ALARM significantly adds to the<br />
progress made in landscape-based research on pollinators and plant-pollinator interactions<br />
over the last decade. However, to understand and counteract the ongoing declines of<br />
pollinators and insect-pollinated plant species more comprehensively, future studies should<br />
build up on the knowledge achieved to reach a more general understanding of the combined<br />
effects of different drivers at different spatial and temporal scales on pollinator diversity.<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
Many thanks to Axel Ssymank <strong>for</strong> the invitation to write this paper and to all partners of the<br />
ALARM project <strong>for</strong> the fruitful collaboration. We were supported by the Integrated 6th<br />
framework EU-project ALARM (Assessing LArge-scale environmental Risks <strong>for</strong> biodiversity<br />
with tested Methods, www.alarmproject.net, Contract number: GOCE-CT-2003-506675).<br />
References<br />
BIESMEIJER, J.C., ROBERTS, S.P.M., REEMER, M., OHLEMULLER, R., EDWARDS, M., PEETERS, T.,<br />
SCHAFFERS, A.P., POTTS, S.G., KLEUKERS, R., THOMAS, C.D., SETTELE, J. & KUNIN, W.E. (2006):<br />
Parallel declines in pollinators and insect-pollinated plants in Britain and the Netherlands. Science,<br />
313, 351-354.<br />
BOMMARCO, R. & VAISSÉRE, B. (submitted): Effects of pollination of rape seed on crop yield and quality.<br />
DAUBER, J., BIESMEIJER, J, GABRIEL, D., KUNIN, W.E., LAMBORN, E., MEYER, B., NIELSEN, A., POTTS, S.G.,<br />
SÕBER, V., STEFFAN-DEWENTER, I, SETTELE, J, STOUT, J, TEDER, T., TSCHEULIN, T., VIVARELLI, D.,<br />
PETANIDOU, T. (submitted): Effects of plant population structure on flower visitation and seed set of<br />
wild plants at two spatial scales: a pan-European approach<br />
GALLAI, N., SALLES, JM., SETTELE, J., VAISSIÈRE, B.E. (2003): Economic Valuation of the Vulnerability of<br />
World Agriculture Confronted to Pollinator Decline.. Ecological Economics, In press and available<br />
at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolecon.2008.06.014.<br />
KLEIN, A.-M., VAISSIÈRE, B.E., CANE, J.H., STEFFAN-DEWENTER, I., CUNNINGHAM, S.A., KREMEN, C. &<br />
TSCHARNTKE, T. (2007): Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes <strong>for</strong> world crops.<br />
Proceedings of the Royal Society of London Series B-Biological Sciences, 274, 303-313.<br />
MEYER, B., JAUKER, F. & STEFFAN-DEWENTER, I. (2008): Contrasting responses of species richness and<br />
density of hoverflies (Diptera: Syrphidae) to agricultural land-use change. Basic and Applied<br />
Ecology (in press).<br />
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POTTS S.G., ROBERTS S.P.M., DEAN R., MARRIS G., BROWN M., JONES R. & SETTELE J. (submitted): Are<br />
managed honeybees declining in Europe? Apidologie<br />
STEFFAN-DEWENTER, I; WESTPHAL, C (2008): The interplay of pollinator diversity, pollination services<br />
and landscape change, Journal of Applied Ecology, 45, 737-741<br />
WESTPHAL, C., BOMMARCO, R., CARRÉ, G., LAMBORN, E., MORISON, N., PETANIDOU, T., POTTS, S. G.,<br />
ROBERTS, S. P. M., SZENTGYÖRGYI, H., TSCHEULIN, T., VAISSIÉRE, B. E., WOYCIECHOWSKI, M.,<br />
BIESMEIJER, J. C., KUNIN, W. E., SETTELE, J. & STEFFAN-DEWENTER, I. (2008): Measuring bee<br />
biodiversity in different European habitats and biogeographical regions. Ecological Monographs, in<br />
press.<br />
Authors' address:<br />
Ingolf Steffan-Dewenter, Population Ecology Group, Department of Animal Ecology I,<br />
University of Bayreuth, Universitätsstr. 30, 95447 Bayreuth, Germany, e-mail:<br />
ingolf.steffan@uni-bayreuth.de<br />
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5. Highlights<br />
by Axel Ssymank<br />
1. Objectives<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> provide an essential ecosystem service ensuring crop production and food security<br />
world wide as well as maintaining the biodiversity of plants. A decline in pollinators is<br />
thus a serious threat to biodiversity as a whole. With COP V/5 decision in 2000, an International<br />
<strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (IPI) was established under the coordination of FAO - and in 2002,<br />
with COP Decision VI/5, an action plan was endorsed. Since that time, a number of regional<br />
pollinators initiatives has been established, and become operational.<br />
At COP 9, a side-event was held on “<strong>Caring</strong> <strong>for</strong> pollinators”. The main objectives of the sideevent<br />
were to: (i) support the various pollinator initiatives, by raising awareness on the importance<br />
of pollinators and possible consequences of their decline (FAO report 2008); (ii)<br />
broaden the work in order to investigate all main pollinator groups; (iii) identify the actual<br />
state of action being taken to conserve and manage pollinators and actions needed in future.<br />
The side-event was organized by the Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation (BfN), Bonn<br />
in cooperation with the University of Bonn (Prof. Wittmann). It consisted of two components:<br />
a workshop and a pollinator’s buffet. The workshop started with oral presentations to illustrate<br />
and introduce the key ecosystem service of pollinators with bees and flies as main pollinator<br />
groups and presented the tasks of the International <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative and the practical<br />
example of a regional initiative with the successful Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative. A series<br />
of posters with the work of the other regional pollinator initiatives complemented the<br />
presentations.<br />
The pollinator’s buffet was a fruit buffet to demonstrate that fruits worldwide are dependent<br />
on pollination: fruit diversity and our food is directly linked to pollinator diversity and offered<br />
the occasion to discuss different issues of pollination with delegates at COP9.<br />
2. Presentations and posters<br />
The following oral presentations were given:<br />
2.1. “The Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative: Update of recent progress“ by Braulio Dias, Ministry<br />
of Environment, Brazil<br />
Braulio Dias introduced the Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI), being one of the most active<br />
regional pollinator initiatives. The BPI was established in 2000, and has initiated a number of<br />
activities, in addition to participating in the development of the FAO coordinated project<br />
“Conservation and Management of pollinators <strong>for</strong> Sustainable Agriculture, Through an Ecosystem<br />
Approach”. Amongst the activities initiated, the Probio (Brazilian Biological Diversity<br />
Conservation and Sustainable Use Project) Project issued two public calls to support projects<br />
on pollinators management were launched in 2003 and 2004. Nineteen subprojects<br />
have developed management plans <strong>for</strong> pollinators of nineteen different crop species and<br />
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manuals <strong>for</strong> capacity building of farmers have been elaborated, including <strong>for</strong> example west<br />
indian cherry, mango, passion fruit, tomatoes, cotton and assai palm.<br />
2.2 “Little bees with a big job: holding up biome diversity” by David Roubik, Panama<br />
David Roubik gave some wonderful insights into bee pollination and functional aspects of<br />
pollination. Effective pollinators need to transfer the pollen from one plant to another, reach<br />
the pollen and stigmas and not only to visit a flower. Interactions between tropical bees and<br />
orchids are fascinating and can be very complex. Fluctuations, vertical and spatial distribution<br />
of plants and their pollinators in tropical <strong>for</strong>ests make studies difficult and challenging.<br />
Solitary bees may adjust in different ways and react to introduced African honey bees and<br />
other impacts. Saving the bees as major pollinators does not only save many plants, but also<br />
larger animals depending on pollinators <strong>for</strong> their food (fruits or plants). Bees sustain biome<br />
diversity and need our attention and sustainable management.<br />
2. 3 “Flies – <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings” by Axel Ssymank, BfN & Carol Kearns, University of<br />
Colorado<br />
Flies (Diptera) <strong>for</strong>m an extremely species rich group with over 160,000 known species inhabiting<br />
almost all terrestrial habitats. Over 71 families of flies regularly visit flowers and contribute<br />
to pollination services with more than 100 cultivated plants depending largely on fly pollination<br />
<strong>for</strong> abundant fruit set and seed production. The reality of “No chocolate without flies”<br />
was presented, as cocoa is a typical example <strong>for</strong> fly pollination of small midges. Flower flies<br />
(Syrphidae) were presented as a case study being both important pollinators and many species<br />
playing an important role as larvae in bio control. Pollinator decline, large gaps in species<br />
knowledge and even in food plant -pollinator systems and largely underestimated pollination<br />
services, were addressed. Flies and bees are the main pollinator groups worldwide.<br />
2. 4 “The International Perspective - <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiatives” by Linda Collette -FAO<br />
Linda Collette began FAO’s presentation by giving an overview of the global challenges in<br />
the context of pollination services. She then provided the international context <strong>for</strong> the International<br />
Initiative <strong>for</strong> the Conservation and Sustainable Use of <strong>Pollinators</strong> (IPI), describing<br />
the chronology and decisions taken at the Conference of Parties of the Convention on Biological<br />
Diversity. She described the four main elements of the Plan of Action of the IPI, which<br />
are assessment, adaptive management, capacity building and mainstreaming. Finally, FAO’s<br />
Global Action on Pollination Services <strong>for</strong> Sustainable Agriculture was presented, highlighting,<br />
and describing the major components and activities of, the global-sized FAO/UNEP/GEFproject<br />
on the “Conservation and management of pollinators <strong>for</strong> sustainable agriculture<br />
through an ecosystem approach“.<br />
The work of other regional Pollinator Initiatives was presented as Posters:<br />
2. 5 “North and Inter-American Pollinator Initiatives” by Michael Ruggiero, Smithsonian Institution,<br />
USA; Laurie Adams, Pollinator Partners-hip, USA; Antonio Saraiva, University of São<br />
Paulo, Brazil<br />
In America two important pollinator initiatives have developed: the North American Pollinator<br />
Protection Campaign (NAPPC) and the Inter-American Biodiversity In<strong>for</strong>mation Network’s<br />
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(IABIN) <strong>Pollinators</strong> Thematic Network (PTN). Following the main elements of the IPI action<br />
plan, the work and achievements of NAPPC are presented: Assessment - NAPPC partners<br />
supported a study by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences on the status of pollinators in<br />
North America and contributed to a world checklist of bees and a Catalogue of Hymenoptera<br />
in America North of Mexico. Activities on adaptive management included research on pollinator<br />
decline, restoration of native pollinator communities and contributing to research on<br />
Colony Collapse Disorder in honeybees. Capacity building, awareness raising and public<br />
education is a major part of the work of North and inter-American pollinator initiatives, as well<br />
as mainstreaming (<strong>for</strong> example the inclusion of pollinator conservation measures into national<br />
agricultural legislation).<br />
2.6 “An overview of pollinator studies in Kenya” by Mary Gikungu, Melanie Hagen & Manfred<br />
Kraemer<br />
Pollinator interactions are not well studied in Kenya, despite pollinator declines and continuous<br />
degradation of natural habitats. Monitoring pollinator decline, the lack of taxonomic in<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
and expertise, the assessment of economic value of pollination services and the<br />
conservation and sustainable use of pollinator diversity in agricultural and <strong>for</strong>estry ecosystems<br />
are essential fields of work, which need urgent action. The poster gives an overview of<br />
trends in pollinator studies, highlighting the lack of community studies and at landscape<br />
level, gaps in research especially in natural and protected areas and in capacity building. In<br />
Western Kenya the number of ongoing studies is higher than in any other region of Kenya.<br />
Despite recent ef<strong>for</strong>ts in Biota east Africa and RPSUD (Research programme in sustainable<br />
management and utilization of dry land biodiversity) further understanding of pollinator networks<br />
and capacity building remain crucial and pollinator studies in Kenya are at their “infancy”.<br />
2.7 “Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative: Timeline & Biodiversity and sustainable use of pollinators”<br />
by Vera L. Imperatriz Fonseca, Denise A. Alves, Antonio M. Saraiva & Lionel S. Gonçalves<br />
In addition to the presentation held by Braulio Dias two posters highlighted the work of the<br />
Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI). The development and timeline of the BPI from 1998 until<br />
2008 with its activities and main projects is presented, such as Brazilian field courses on<br />
biology and ecology of pollination, pollinators in the government program, the pollinators<br />
collections network, the catalogue of bees and scientific congresses and events. The second<br />
part of the poster illustrates some of the achievements of the BPI in detail, such as the catalogue<br />
of bees, bee identification tools and stingless bees management with rearing and conservation<br />
in the Rio Grande do Sul area.<br />
2.8 “The Oceania <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (OPI): Integrated In<strong>for</strong>mation System <strong>for</strong> OPI based<br />
on a federation of distributed databases” by L.E. Newstrom-Lloyd, J. Cooper, N.J. Spencer &<br />
A.D. Wilton, Landcare Research New Zealand<br />
Island ecosystems of Oceania host fragile plant-pollinator partnerships which may be particularly<br />
vulnerable to climate and land use change and to invasive species. As data on pollinators<br />
in this region are scarce and widely scattered, OPI will create an integrated in<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
system with components on taxonomy, specimen, observations, distributions, image<br />
data, interactions, traits data and summary analyses. This will build primarily on existing New<br />
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Zealand and Australian databases and integrate distributed data, as they become available,<br />
and seeks to have a close link to existing pollination in<strong>for</strong>mation systems.<br />
2.9 OPI: Monitoring <strong>Pollinators</strong>: Case studies <strong>for</strong>m Australia and New Zealand by C.L.Gross,<br />
L.E. Newstrom-Lloyd, B. Howlett, G. Piunkett & B.J. Donovan<br />
The poster focuses on monitoring of pollinator communities. Major reasons <strong>for</strong> monitoring<br />
are to detect changes in pollinator communities and to assess the impact of exotic pollinators<br />
and their relationships with both native and introduced plants, because these play a major<br />
role in many of the oceanian islands. Examples are given from Australia with a legume<br />
shrub Pultenia campbelli, the invasive mutualism of the introduced plant Phyla canescens<br />
pollinated solely by introduced honeybees. New Zealand studies investigated the use of native<br />
flowers by exotic bees in relation to native bee species, as well as the role of native bees<br />
in crop pollination of onion and pak choi.<br />
3. The <strong>Pollinators</strong> Buffet<br />
The pollinators buffet was a practical demonstration of the benefits of pollination services: 55<br />
different fruits worldwide - from tropical to temperate regions - were presented on a large<br />
buffet to taste the delicious results of pollination. Each fruit was labelled with name of the<br />
plants, its pollinators and its country or region of origin. The selection of fruits was well balanced<br />
to demonstrate all different pollinator groups, such as flies, bees, butterflies, bats,<br />
mammals etc. with the fruit they are responsible <strong>for</strong> pollinating. Fruits could be eaten directly<br />
from the buffet and were at the same time offered cut, <strong>for</strong> tasting by a professional cook;<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation on the producers was also available, and a fruit cocktail bar served freshly<br />
squeezed juices. The buffet was a full success and attracted approximately 1200 visitors and<br />
delegates within 3 hours, resulting in vivid discussions, talks on cooperation and on the importance<br />
of pollination services. A result of this “pollinators buffet” was the demonstration<br />
that pollination services are “palatable“ and deserve a lot more attention, and highlighted the<br />
need to encourage raising public awareness on the vital ecosystem services of pollination.<br />
4. Additional in<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
In addition to the presentations and poster of the workshop, the book includes a more complete<br />
overview of the various <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiatives, as well as a contribution of the work of<br />
the EPI (European Pollinator Initiative) by Potts et al. Projects from the European Union on<br />
pollinators are also presented, through the EU-ALARM project (Steffan-Dewenter et al.): an<br />
overview is given on current research, and first results of the pollinator module are summarized.<br />
The book includes annexes with detailed in<strong>for</strong>mation on the pollinators buffet, an overview<br />
on the main pollinator groups in short fact sheets and a collection of web-links with useful<br />
in<strong>for</strong>mation and some of the most important institutions involved.<br />
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5. Highlights<br />
Considering the functional importance of pollinators in ecosystems worldwide, the pollinator<br />
decline due to climate change and other causes with the risk of a major reduction in pollination<br />
capacity, the FAO 2008 first Rapid Assessment of <strong>Pollinators</strong>’ Status Report<br />
(http://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/sbstta/sbstta-13/other/sbstta-13-fao-pollinators-en.pdf) the<br />
functional and economic importance of pollinators in all ecosystems worldwide, the presentations<br />
and discussion reiterated and stressed the following:<br />
1. a rein<strong>for</strong>cement of studies on pollination ecology<br />
• Rein<strong>for</strong>cement of fundamental taxonomic research, in order to reduce the large number<br />
of pollinators that remain undescribed or virtually unknown, even in the most<br />
"well-studied" regions:<br />
• The recognition of Hymenoptera and Diptera as the most important pollinator groups<br />
and flower visiting insects among a number of other pollinator groups;<br />
• Build determination tools/ keys <strong>for</strong> all key pollinator groups<br />
• Rein<strong>for</strong>cement of studies on pollination ecology (both in fundamental & applied research)<br />
• Enhancement and completion of in<strong>for</strong>mation on pollinator species, their ecology and<br />
functional interactions as a necessary basis <strong>for</strong> assessing pollination services and to<br />
maintain biodiversity<br />
• to systematically expand applied pollinator research to all crops (including regional<br />
crops)<br />
2. greater capacity-building<br />
• Greater capacity-building in institutions and higher levels of human resource development<br />
and training;<br />
• Maintenance and rein<strong>for</strong>cement of the activities of the existing pollinator initiatives,<br />
based on a review of the ongoing projects around the world;<br />
• Expansion of the activities of pollination initiatives to cover all major ecosystems & all<br />
major pollinator groups;<br />
• Creating a Non-Bee Pollinator Initiative/ Action Group and to put more emphasis on<br />
so far neglected groups like the Diptera.<br />
3. improved awareness and networking on pollinator issues;<br />
• The global economic importance of pollinators to sustainable crop production (food,<br />
biofuels, animal-feed-stuffs);<br />
• Awareness of pollination services to the maintenance of the diversity of medical<br />
plants and to plant diversity as a whole;<br />
• Improved communication, education and public awareness and networking on pollinator<br />
issues<br />
• Greater financial support and more political awareness <strong>for</strong> taxonomic initiatives relating<br />
to pollinator biodiversity, in cooperation with the Global Taxonomy Initiative (GTI)<br />
• systematic assessment of the value of pollination services <strong>for</strong> all major pollinator<br />
groups<br />
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Ssymank Highlights - Zusammenfassung<br />
4. establishment of monitoring systems and sustainable management of pollinators<br />
• Establishment of a system <strong>for</strong> monitoring and assessing pollinator declines and their<br />
causes<br />
• Systematic monitoring <strong>for</strong> pollinators and pollinator shifts resulting from climate<br />
change<br />
• Taking into account all major pollinator groups in landscape assessments, impact assessment<br />
and management planning in nature conservation;<br />
• Further develop integrated functional systems in order to maintain or promote pollinations<br />
services <strong>for</strong> sustainable crop production;<br />
• Assess and monitor risks <strong>for</strong> pollinators and pollination services of landscape change<br />
due to biofuel production and GMO’s in modern agriculture<br />
While political decisions and declarations exist within the frame of the CBD and the 2010<br />
targets, research, capacity building, awareness, monitoring and management of pollinators<br />
as functional key organisms <strong>for</strong> ecosystem services and maintaining biodiversity will need<br />
more attention and action worldwide.<br />
Acknowlegdement<br />
Many thanks to Linda Collette <strong>for</strong> providing valuable comments and corrections to the summary.<br />
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Ssymank Highlights - Zusammenfassung<br />
5. Zusammenfassung<br />
von Axel Ssymank<br />
1. Hintergrund und Ziele<br />
Die Blütenbestäuber leisten unverzichtbare Dienste in unseren Ökosystemen. Sie stellen<br />
durch ihre Blütenbesuche sowohl die weltweite Produktion vieler Nahrungsmittel als auch<br />
den Erhalt der biologischen Vielfalt der Wildpflanzen sicher. Damit ist ein Rückgang der<br />
Bestäuber eine ernsthafte Bedrohung <strong>für</strong> die Biodiversität insgesamt. Im Rahmen der COP<br />
V/5 wurde im Jahr 2000 die Internationale Bestäuber Initiative gegründet, die von der FAO<br />
koordiniert wird. Bereits 2002 (COP-Entscheidung VI/5) wurde ein Aktionsplan beschlossen.<br />
Seitdem sind zahlreiche regionale Bestäuber Initiativen gegründet worden und haben ihre<br />
Arbeit aufgenommen.<br />
Während der COP 9 fand das Side-Event „<strong>Caring</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Pollinators</strong>“ statt. Die Hauptziele des<br />
Events waren: (i) die Unterstützung der verschiedenen Bestäuber Initiativen bei der Öffentlichkeitsarbeit<br />
hinsichtlich der Wichtigkeit der Bestäuber und den möglichen Folgen ihres<br />
Rückgangs (ii) die Ausweitung der aktuellen Arbeiten auf die Er<strong>for</strong>schung aller Hauptbestäubergruppen,<br />
(iii) einen Überblick über den aktuellen Stand der Arbeiten zum Schutz<br />
und zum Management der Bestäuber sowie über zukünftige Forschungsschwerpunkte zu<br />
geben.<br />
Das Side-Event wurde vom <strong>Bundesamt</strong> <strong>für</strong> <strong>Naturschutz</strong> (BfN, Bonn) in Zusammenarbeit mit<br />
der Universität Bonn (Prof. Wittmann) organisiert. Wesentliche Teile des Events waren ein<br />
Workshop und ein Früchte-Buffet. Im Workshop wurde in Powerpoint-Präsentationen die<br />
Schlüsselfunktion der Bestäuber in Ökosystemen am Beispiel der beiden Hauptbestäubergruppen,<br />
den Bienen und Fliegen, dargestellt. Außerdem wurde in die Aufgaben der Internationalen<br />
Bestäuber Initiative eingeführt und als erfolgreiches Beispiel die Arbeit der brasilianischen<br />
Bestäuber Initiative dargestellt. In einer Posterausstellung nutzten die anderen<br />
regionalen Bestäuber Initiativen die Gelegenheit, ihre Arbeit zu präsentieren.<br />
Das Früchtebuffet demonstrierte eindrucksvoll die Abhängigkeit der Früchteproduktion von<br />
den Bestäubern: die Vielfalt der präsentierten Früchte spiegelte die Vielfalt der Bestäuber<br />
wider und war damit Grundlage und Auslöser zahlreicher Diskussionen unter Delegierten<br />
und Besuchern der COP 9.<br />
2. Präsentationen und Poster<br />
Folgende Powerpoint-Präsentationen wurden vorgetragen:<br />
2.1 “Die Brasilianische Bestäuber Initiative: Aktuelle Entwicklungen“ von Braulio Dias, Ministry<br />
of Environment, Brasilien<br />
Braulio Dias gab eine Einführung in die Arbeit der Brasilianischen Bestäuber Initiative (BPI),<br />
als eine der aktivsten regionalen Bestäuber Initiativen. Die BPI wurde 2002 gegründet und<br />
hat seitdem bereits eine Vielfalt an Aktivitäten initiiert, darüber hinaus hat sie bei der Erarbei-<br />
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Ssymank Highlights - Zusammenfassung<br />
tung des von der FAO koordinierten Projektes „Conservation and Management of pollinators<br />
<strong>for</strong> Sustainable Agriculture, Through an Ecosystem Approach“ mitgewirkt. Im Rahmen des<br />
Probio Projektes (Brazilian Biological Diversity Conservation and Sustainable Use Project)<br />
fanden in den Jahren 2003 und 2004 zwei öffentliche Ausschreibungen statt, um Projekte<br />
zum Management der Bestäuber zu fördern. Das Projekt ist in 19 Unterprojekte gegliedert,<br />
in denen Managementpläne <strong>für</strong> Bestäuber von 19 verschiedenen Kulturpflanzen (darunter<br />
z. B. Mango, Passionsfrucht, Tomate und Baumwolle) erstellt und Praxisleitfäden zur Weiterbildung<br />
von Landwirten erarbeitet werden.<br />
2.2 „Kleine Bienen haben einen großen Job: sie erhalten die Diversität der Biome“ von David<br />
Roubik, Panama<br />
David Roubik gab einen wunderbaren Einblick in die Bestäubergruppe der Bienen und stellte<br />
die funktionalen Zusammenhänge der Bestäubung dar. Für eine effektive Bestäubung muss<br />
der Pollen von einer Pflanze zur anderen transportiert werden und dabei in Kontakt mit den<br />
Narben kommen; ein einfacher Besuch der Blüte ist nicht ausreichend. David Roubik erläuterte<br />
die faszinierenden Interaktionen zwischen tropischen Bienen und Orchideen, die ausgesprochen<br />
komplex sein können. Durch Populationsschwankungen sowie die vertikale und<br />
räumliche Verteilung von Pflanzen und deren Bestäubern in den tropischen Wäldern werden<br />
Forschungen schwierig und anspruchsvoll. Solitär lebende Wildbienen passen sich in vielerlei<br />
Hinsicht an und reagieren so auf die Einführung der afrikanischen Honigbiene und andere<br />
negative Umwelteinflüsse. Der Schutz der Bienen als Hauptbestäubergruppe sichert nicht<br />
nur das Fortbestehen vieler Pflanzenarten, sondern auch größere Tiere hängen über ihren<br />
Nahrungsbedarf (Früchte, Pflanzen) von den Diensten der Bestäuber ab. Bienen erhalten<br />
die Diversität der Biome und verdienen daher unsere Aufmerksamkeit und ein nachhaltiges<br />
Management.<br />
2.3 “Fliegen – Bestäubung auf zwei Schwingen” von Axel Ssymank, BfN & Carol Kerans,<br />
Universität Colorado<br />
Die Ordnung der Fliegen (Diptera) stellt mit mehr als 160.000 bekannten Arten eine extrem<br />
artenreiche Insektengruppe dar, die in nahezu allen terrestrischen Habitaten anzutreffen ist.<br />
Fliegen aus über 71 Familien besuchen regelmäßig Blüten und tragen zur Bestäubung und<br />
damit zur Frucht- und Samenproduktion von mehr als 100 Kulturpflanzen bei, die in hohem<br />
Maße von Fliegenbestäubung abhängig sind. Unter dem Slogan „Ohne Fliegen keine Schokolade“<br />
wurde verdeutlicht, dass die Kakaopflanze ein typisches Beispiel <strong>für</strong> die Bestäubung<br />
durch kleine Fliegen darstellt. Die Gruppe der Schwebfliegen (Syrphidae) wurde beispielhaft<br />
als wichtige Bestäubergruppe präsentiert. Bei dieser Gruppe spielen die Larven vieler Arten<br />
außerdem eine wichtige Rolle in der biologischen Schädlingsbekämpfung. Auf die möglichen<br />
Folgen eines Bestäuberrückganges wurde ebenso hingewiesen, wie auf große Wissensdefizite<br />
im Bereich der Artenkenntnis und der Interaktion zwischen Nutzpflanzen und Bestäubern.<br />
Oft werden die Dienste der Bestäuber deutlich unterschätzt: Fliegen und Bienen sind<br />
weltweit die beiden wichtigsten Bestäubergruppen.<br />
2.4 “Die internationale Sichtweise – die Bestäuber Initiativen” von Linda Collette, FAO<br />
Linda Collette von der FAO gab zunächst einen Überblick über die weltweiten Heraus<strong>for</strong>derungen<br />
zum Schutz der Bestäuberleistungen. Im Anschluss daran stellte sie die Internationale<br />
Bestäuber Initiative (IPI) <strong>für</strong> den Schutz und die nachhaltige Nutzung der Bestäuber vor<br />
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Ssymank Highlights - Zusammenfassung<br />
und erläuterte dabei die bis heute auf den Vertragsstaatenkonferenzen zur Biodiversitätskonvention<br />
getroffenen Entscheidungen und Beschlüsse. Sie stellte die vier Hauptelemente<br />
(„assessment“, „adaptive management“, „capacity building“ und „mainstreaming“) des<br />
Aktionsplanes der IPI vor. Schließlich wurden der weltweite Handlungsrahmen der FAO <strong>für</strong><br />
Bestäuberleistungen und die nachhaltige Landwirtschaft präsentiert mit besonderem Hinweis<br />
auf das weltweit ausgelegte Projekt „Conservation and management of pollinators <strong>for</strong> sustainable<br />
agriculture through an ecosystem approach“, das von FAO, UNEP und GEF gemeinsam<br />
durchgeführt wird.<br />
Posterpräsentationen der anderen Bestäuber Initiativen<br />
2.5 “Nord und Zentral-Amerikanische Bestäuber Initiative” von Michael Ruggiero, Smithsonian<br />
Institution, USA; Laurie Adams, Pollinator Partnership, USA; Antonio Saraiva, University<br />
of São Paulo, Brazil<br />
In Amerika haben sich zwei wichtige Bestäuber Initiativen gegründet: die „North American<br />
Pollinator Protection Campaign“ (NAPPC) und die „Inter-American Biodiversity In<strong>for</strong>mation<br />
Network’s“ (IABIN)/ „<strong>Pollinators</strong> Thematic Network“ (PTN). Den vier Hauptelementen des<br />
Aktionsplanes der IPI folgend, werden die Arbeit und die Erfolge der NAPPC präsentiert:<br />
„Assessment“: Die Partner der NAPPC unterstützten eine Studie der Amerikanischen Akademie<br />
der Wissenschaften (U.S. National Academy of Sciences), die den Status der Bestäuber<br />
in Nord-Amerika untersuchte. Daneben trugen sie zu einer weltweiten Bienen-Checkliste<br />
und einem Hymenopteren-Katalog <strong>für</strong> Nordamerika bei. „Adaptive management“: Es wurden<br />
Untersuchungen zum Bestäuberrückgang durchgeführt, natürliche Bestäubergemeinschaften<br />
wiederhergestellt und Beiträge zur Untersuchung des Absterbens der Völker der Honigbiene<br />
geleistet (CCD, Colony Collapse Disorder). „Capacity building“ und „Mainstreaming“:<br />
Die Sensibilisierung der Öffentlichkeit nimmt einen großen Teil der Arbeit der Nord- und<br />
Zentral-Amerikanischen Bestäuber Initiative ein. Beispielweise wurden Maßnahmen zum<br />
Schutz der Bestäuber in der nationalen Gesetzgebung zur Landwirtschaft verankert.<br />
2.6 “Ein Überblick über Bestäuber-Studien in Kenia“ von Mary Gikungu, Melanie Hagen &<br />
Manfred Kraemer<br />
Trotz des Bestäuberrückgangs und der anhaltenden Zerstörung natürlicher Habitate sind die<br />
Interaktionen zwischen Bestäubern in Kenia nur ansatzweise untersucht. Dringenden Handlungsbedarf<br />
gibt es beispielweise in den entscheidenden Arbeitsfeldern wie Monitoring des<br />
Bestäuberrückganges, dem Schließen von taxonomischen Wissenslücken, der Herausarbeitung<br />
des ökonomischen Wertes der Bestäuberdienste sowie beim Schutz und der nachhaltigen<br />
Nutzung von Bestäubern in land- und <strong>for</strong>stwirtschaftlich genutzten Bereichen. Das Poster<br />
gibt einen Überblick über Trends, die in den verschiedenen Bestäuber-Studien herausgefunden<br />
wurden, es weist auf das Fehlen von Studien auf der Ebene von Bestäubergilden<br />
sowie auf landschaftsökologischer Ebene hin. Außerdem werden Forschungsdefizite speziell<br />
in <strong>für</strong> die Natur geschützten Gebieten und Defizite in der Ausbildung und In<strong>for</strong>mation von<br />
Landnutzern angesprochen. Im Westen Kenias ist die Anzahl der laufenden Studien deutlich<br />
größer als in den anderen Regionen Kenias. Trotz der derzeitigen Bemühungen von BIOTA<br />
Ost-Afrika und RPSUD („Research programme in sustainable management and utilization of<br />
dry land biodiversity“) sind die Weiterbildung von Landnutzern und Er<strong>for</strong>schungen der Zu-<br />
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Ssymank Highlights - Zusammenfassung<br />
sammenhänge im Bestäubersystemen weiterhin entscheidend. Außerdem stecken viele<br />
dieser Studien in Kenia noch immer in den Kinderschuhen.<br />
2.7 “Brasilianische Bestäuber Initiative: Zeitachse & Biodiversität und nachhaltige Nutzung<br />
von Bestäubern“ von Vera L. Imperatriz Fonseca, Denise A. Alves, Antonio M. Saraiva &<br />
Lionel S. Gonçalves<br />
In Ergänzung zu der von Braulio Dias vorgetragenen Präsentation wurden zwei Poster ausgestellt,<br />
die die Arbeit der Brasilianischen Bestäuber Initiative (BPI) veranschaulichten. Der<br />
Aufbau und die Zeitachse der BPI von 1998 bis 2008 inklusive ihrer Hauptprojekte und Aktivitäten<br />
wird vorgestellt. Dazu gehören zum Beispiel brasilianische Untersuchungen zur Biologie<br />
und Ökologie der Bestäubung, zur Einbindung von Bestäubern in Programme der Regierung,<br />
ein Netzwerk der Museumssammlungen von Bestäubern, ein Bienenartenkatalog<br />
sowie wissenschaftliche Kolloquien und Veranstaltungen. Der zweite Teil des Posters stellt<br />
einige Erfolge der BPI im Detail dar, wie z.B. den Bienenkatalog, automatisierte Bestimmungshilfen<br />
<strong>für</strong> Bienenarten und das Management stachelloser Bienen, die in der Region<br />
Rio Grande do Sul gezüchtet und geschützt werden.<br />
2.8 “Die Ozeanische Bestäuber Initiative (OPI): Das integrierte In<strong>for</strong>mationssystem der OPI<br />
basiert auf dem Verbund dezentraler Datenbanken.“ von L.E. Newstrom-Lloyd, J. Cooper,<br />
N.J. Spencer & A.D. Wilton, Landcare Research New Zealand<br />
Die Insel-Ökosysteme Ozeaniens beherbergen sensible Pflanzen-Bestäuber-<br />
Partnerschaften die teilweise durch Klimaveränderung, Änderungen in der Landnutzung und<br />
die Einwanderung invasiver Arten besonders gefährdet sind. Da die Daten zu Bestäubern in<br />
dieser Region rar und zudem weit zerstreut sind, entwickelt die OPI ein integriertes In<strong>for</strong>mationssystem<br />
mit Komponenten z.B. zur Taxonomie, Probennahme, Beobachtung, Verbreitung,<br />
Bildern, ökologischen Daten, Interaktionen und mit zusammenfassenden Analysen. Es<br />
baut in erster Linie auf in Neuseeland und Australien bereits vorhandenen Datenbanken auf,<br />
die vernetzt werden und integriert dezentrale Daten, soweit sie verfügbar sind. Außerdem<br />
wird eine enge Verbindung zu bestehenden Bestäuber-In<strong>for</strong>mationssystemen hergestellt.<br />
2.9 “OPI: Monitoring von Bestäubern: Fallstudie aus Australien und Neuseeland” von<br />
C.L.Gross, L.E. Newstrom-Lloyd, B. Howlett, G. Piunkett & B.J. Donovan<br />
Das Poster stellt das Monitoring von Bestäubergemeinschaften in den Mittelpunkt. Einer der<br />
wichtigsten Gründe <strong>für</strong> ein Monitoring sind Veränderungen in den Bestäubergemeinschaften<br />
zu erkennen und den Einfluss exotischer Bestäuber und deren Beziehung sowohl zu einheimischen<br />
als auch zu eingeführten Pflanzen zu bewerten, weil diese eine wichtige Rolle<br />
auf vielen ozeanischen Inseln spielen. Beispielhaft werden der als Gemüse genutzte australische<br />
Strauch Pultenia campbelli (Fabaceae) vorgestellt und der Mutualismus der eingeführten<br />
Pflanzenart Phyla canescens, die ausschließlich von eingeführten Honigbienen bestäubt<br />
wird. Neuseeländische Studien er<strong>for</strong>schen das Aufsuchen einheimischer Blüten durch exotische<br />
Bienenarten im Vergleich zu einheimischen Bienenarten, sowie die Rolle einheimischer<br />
Bienen bei der Bestäubung von Zwiebeln und Pak Choi.<br />
3. Das Bestäuber Buffet<br />
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Ssymank Highlights - Zusammenfassung<br />
Mit dem Früchtebuffet wurden die Dienstleistungen der Bestäuber in beeindruckender Weise<br />
veranschaulicht: 55 verschiedene Früchte aus der ganzen Welt – von tropischen bis zu den<br />
gemäßigten Regionen – wurden zur Verkostung angeboten. Ein kleines Schild gab zu jeder<br />
Frucht Auskunft über deren Namen, seine Bestäuber und die Herkunftsregion. Die Früchte<br />
wurden so ausgewählt, dass die verschiedenen Bestäubergruppen (wie Fliegen, Bienen,<br />
Schmetterlinge, Fledermäuse, Säugetiere) ausgewogen präsentiert werden konnten. Ein<br />
professioneller Koch bereitete die Früchte am Buffet zu, wo sie direkt verzehrt werden konnten,<br />
In<strong>for</strong>mationen zum Erzeuger waren verfügbar. An einer Cocktailbar wurden frisch gepresste<br />
Säfte gereicht. Das Buffet war mit dem Besuch von 1200 Delegierten ein großer<br />
Erfolg. Es entstanden lebhafte Diskussionen und Gespräche über Kooperationen und über<br />
die enorme Bedeutung der Dienste der Blütenbestäuber. Ein wichtiges Fazit des Früchtebuffets<br />
war, dass die Leistungen der Bestäuber ausgesprochen schmackhaft und nahrhaft sein<br />
können und deutlich mehr Aufmerksamkeit verdienen. Herausgestellt wurde, dass das öffentliche<br />
Bewusstsein <strong>für</strong> die Bedeutung der Blütenbestäuber erhöht werden muss.<br />
4. Weiterführende In<strong>for</strong>mationen<br />
In Ergänzung zu den Präsentationen und Postern des Workshops enthält das Buch ausführlichere<br />
In<strong>for</strong>mationen zu den verschiedenen Bestäuber Initiativen sowie einen zusätzlichen<br />
Beitrag über die Europäische Bestäuber Initiative (EPI) von Potts et al. Projekte der Europäischen<br />
Union im Zusammenhang mit Blütenbestäubern werden mit dem EU-ALARM Projekt<br />
(Steffan-Dewenter et al.) ebenfalls vorgestellt. Dabei wird ein Überblick über den aktuellen<br />
Forschungsstand und die ersten Ergebnisse gegeben.<br />
Das Buch enthält im Anhang detaillierte In<strong>for</strong>mationen über das Bestäuberbuffet, einen Überblick<br />
über die verschiedenen Tiergruppen, die als Hauptbestäubergruppen von Bedeutung<br />
sind in Form kurzer Datenblätter und eine Sammlung von Internetlinks <strong>für</strong> nützliche<br />
In<strong>for</strong>mationen und Kontakte zu Organisationen, die sich mit der Bestäuberthematik beschäftigen.<br />
5. Highlights<br />
In Anbetracht der weltweit hohen Bedeutung der Bestäuber in den Ökosystemen, des Bestäuberrückgangs<br />
z.B. aufgrund der Klimaveränderung und des damit einhergehenden Risikos<br />
bezüglich des Fortbestandes der Bestäuber-Leistungen, verfasste die FAO 2008 einen<br />
ersten Status-Bericht über die Situation der Blütenbestäuber<br />
(http://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/sbstta/sbstta-13/other/sbstta-13-fao-pollinators-en.pdf). Vor<br />
diesem Hintergrund und der funktionalen und ökonomische Bedeutung der Bestäuber in<br />
allen Ökosystemen weltweit kristallisieren sich folgende Er<strong>for</strong>dernisse heraus:<br />
1. Eine Intensivierung der Studien zur Bestäuberökologie<br />
• Verstärkung grundlegender taxonomischer Forschung um die Anzahl unbeschriebener<br />
bzw. unbekannter Bestäuber auch in den vermeintlich gut untersuchten Regionen<br />
zu minimieren,<br />
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Ssymank Highlights - Zusammenfassung<br />
• die Anerkennung von Hymenopteren und Dipteren als Hauptbestäubergruppen und<br />
wichtigste blütenbesuchende Insekten unter einer Vielzahl anderer Bestäubergruppen,<br />
• Erstellung von Bestimmungshilfsmitteln/ -schlüsseln <strong>für</strong> alle wichtigen Bestäubergruppen,<br />
• Vorantreiben von Studien zur Bestäuberökologie (sowohl grundlegende als auch angewandte<br />
Forschung),<br />
• Erweiterung und Vervollständigung von artbezogenen In<strong>for</strong>mationen zu Bestäubern,<br />
deren Ökologie und Interaktionen als nötige Grundlage zur Einschätzung der Bestäuberleistung<br />
und deren Beitrag zur Erhaltung der Biodiversität,<br />
• Systematische Erweiterung der Bestäuberstudien auf alle Nutzpflanzen (inklusive regionaler<br />
Nutzpflanzen).<br />
2. Verbesserung der Handlungskompetenzen und der Wissensvermittlung (capacity buil<br />
ding)<br />
• Erhöhung der institutionellen (personellen und finanziellen) Kapazitäten und Fachkompetenzen<br />
einschließlich der hier<strong>für</strong> er<strong>for</strong>derlichen Fachausbildung,<br />
• Erhaltung und Verstärkung der Aktivitäten in den bestehenden Bestäuber-Initiativen,<br />
auf der Grundlage einer Analayse aller laufenden Projekte weltweit,<br />
• Ausweitung der Aktivitäten der Bestäuber-Initiativen auf alle wesentlichen terrestrischen<br />
Ökosysteme und alle Hauptbestäubergruppen,<br />
• Gründung einer „Nicht-Bienen“-Bestäuber Initiative/Aktionsgruppe, wie z.B. Fliegen<br />
(Diptera), um eine verstärkte Er<strong>for</strong>schung und Beachtung der bisher wenig berücksichtigten<br />
Bestäubergruppen zu erreichen.<br />
3. Verbesserung des öffentlichen Bewusstseins und der Zusammenarbeit in Bestäuberfra<br />
gen (awareness & networking)<br />
• Anerkennung der weltweiten ökonomischen Bedeutung der Bestäuber zur Nutzpflanzenproduktion<br />
(Nahrungsmittel, Biokraftstoff, Tierfutter),<br />
• Herausstellen der Leistungen von Bestäubern <strong>für</strong> die Erhaltung der Vielfalt von Arznei-<br />
und Heilpflanzen und der Vielfalt wildlebender Pflanzen insgesamt,<br />
• Verbesserung der Kommunikation und Wissensvermittlung, Sensibilisierung der Öffentlichkeit<br />
und der Vernetzung der verschiedenen Bestäuber-Aktivitäten (Expertennetzwerke)<br />
• Erhöhung der finanziellen Unterstützung und größere politische Unterstützung <strong>für</strong> taxonomische<br />
Initiativen zur Bestäubervielfalt in Zusammenarbeit mit der Global Taxonomy<br />
Initiative (GTI),<br />
• Systematische Herausstellung des Wertes der Bestäuberdienstleistungen <strong>für</strong> alle<br />
Hauptbestäubergruppen.<br />
4. Einrichtung eines Monitorings und nachhaltiges Management von Bestäubern<br />
• Einrichtung eines Monitoringsystems zur Beobachtung und Abschätzung des Bestäuberrückganges<br />
und dessen Ursachen,<br />
• Systematische Beobachtung der Bestäuber und Beobachtung der Verschiebung in<br />
den Bestäubergemeinschaften aufgrund der Klimaveränderung,<br />
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Ssymank Highlights - Zusammenfassung<br />
• Berücksichtigung aller Hauptbestäubergruppen bei der Bewertung von Landschaften<br />
und Eingriffen sowie bei der Managementplanung im <strong>Naturschutz</strong>bereich,<br />
• Weiterentwicklung integrierter Systeme um die Bestäuberdienste im Sinne einer<br />
nachhaltigen Nutzpflanzenproduktion zu erhalten bzw. zu fördern,<br />
• Abschätzung und Beobachtung der Gefährdungen <strong>für</strong> Bestäuber, insbesondere im<br />
Zusammenhang mit den Landschaftsveränderungen durch den Anbau von Biokraftstoffen<br />
und den Anbau genetisch veränderter Organismen (GVO).<br />
Zwar bestehen die politischen Entscheidungen und Erklärungen im Rahmen der CBD und<br />
bezüglich des 2010 Zieles. Es wird weltweit allerdings deutlich mehr Aufmerksamkeit und<br />
Handlungsbereitschaft in den oben genannten Punkten <strong>für</strong> Bestäuber als Schlüsselorganismen<br />
<strong>für</strong> Ökosystemdienste benötigt, um den Erhalt der biologischen Vielfalt zu sichern. Dazugehören<br />
z.B. Forschung, Weiterbildung, Sensibilisierung, Berücksichtigung von Bestäubern<br />
in der Land- und Forstwirtschaft und ein Monitoring um Folgen der Klima- und Landnutzungsänderungen<br />
abpuffern zu können.<br />
Dank<br />
Mein Dank gilt Linda Collette (FAO) <strong>für</strong> Anregungen und Hinweise zur Zusammenfassung.<br />
Authors' address:<br />
Dr. Axel Ssymank, <strong>Bundesamt</strong> <strong>für</strong> <strong>Naturschutz</strong> (BfN, I.2.2, German Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature<br />
Conservation), Konstantinstr. 110, 53179 Bonn, Germany, E-mail: Ssymanka@bfn.de.<br />
119
Programme:<br />
18:15 h Opening by AXEL SSYMANK - BfN<br />
18:20 h Intro by LINDA COLLETTE - FAO<br />
Impressions from the side event and the „<strong>Pollinators</strong> Buffet”<br />
22 May 2008<br />
<strong>Caring</strong> <strong>for</strong> <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
18:30 h „The Brasilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative: Update of recent progress“<br />
– BRAULIO DIAS, Ministry of Environment, Brazil<br />
18:45 h „Little bees with a big job: holding up biome diversity“<br />
– DAVID ROUBIK, STRI-Panama<br />
19:00 h „Flies - <strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings“ – AXEL SSYMANK, BfN &<br />
CAROL KEARNS, University of Colorado<br />
During the whole SIDE EVENT:<br />
Ecology of Culture Landscape<br />
BfN – Uni Bonn, Side Event – 118 Salon Haydn<br />
• Postersession: Projects and work of pollinator initiatives<br />
• Pollinatorbuffet: Juices and fruits from animal pollinated plants<br />
German Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation, (<strong>Bundesamt</strong> <strong>für</strong> <strong>Naturschutz</strong>, BfN),<br />
Konstantinstrasse 110, 53179 Bonn, Germany (E-Mail: BfN@BfN.DE, phone +49 228 8491 1540)<br />
Institute of Crop Science and Ressource Conservation - Ecology of Culture Landscape, Animal<br />
Ecology, Melbweg 42, 53127 Bonn (E-Mail: tieroekologie@uni-bonn.de, phone +49 228 910 1913)
Hamm & Ssymank Impressions of the side-event<br />
6.1 Impressions of the side-event and the pollinators buffet –<br />
demonstrating the benefits of pollination<br />
by Hamm, A. & Ssymank, A., Bonn<br />
At the 9 th Conference of Parties of the Convention on Biological Diversity, a side-event was<br />
held on “<strong>Caring</strong> pollinators” in the conference rooms of the Hotel “Maritim” in Bonn. The<br />
event opened with a workshop of four presentations, introducing the Brazilian <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
Initiative, presenting bees and flies as main pollinator groups and the work of the<br />
International Pollinator Initiative.<br />
Linda Collette (FAO, Italy) introducing „The International Perspective”<br />
(Photo: A. Ssymank)<br />
Braulio Dias (Ministry of Environment, Brazil) during his presentation “The<br />
Brasilian <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiative (BPI): Update of recent progress”; In the<br />
backround: David Roubik (Smithonian Tropical Research Institute, USA).<br />
(Photo: A. Ssymank)<br />
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Hamm & Ssymank Impressions of the side-event<br />
A lot of delegates and participants of the COP 9 listened to the presentations.<br />
(Photo: A. Ssymank)<br />
During the following poster session after the presentations the possibility was given to<br />
discuss actual problems concerning “<strong>Caring</strong> <strong>for</strong> pollinators” with a presentation of the work of<br />
the regional Pollinator Initiatives.<br />
Dieter Wittmann (Institute of Crop Science and Ressource Conservation,<br />
University Bonn); David Roubik (Smithonian Tropical Research Institute, USA);<br />
Axel Ssymank (Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation, Germany). (Photo: A.<br />
Hamm)<br />
122
Hamm & Ssymank Impressions of the side-event<br />
Pollinator´s talk: Axel Ssymank (Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation,<br />
Germany) and Linda Newstrom – Lloyd (Landscare Research, New Zealand).<br />
(Photo: M. Vischer-Leopold)<br />
Poster discussion: Mary Gikungu (National Museums of Kenya, Zoology Departement,<br />
Nairobi, Kenya; Denise de A. Alves, and Vera L. Impertrize Fonseca (Instituto de<br />
Biociencias, Universidade de S. Paulo, Brazil); Axel Ssymank (Federal Agency <strong>for</strong><br />
Nature Conservation, Germany); Dieter Wittmann (Institute of Crop Science and<br />
Ressource Conservation, University Bonn). (Photo: A. Hamm)<br />
123
Hamm & Ssymank Impressions of the side-event<br />
To demonstrate practically the benefits of the “work” done by the pollinators <strong>for</strong> humans<br />
worldwide, the “<strong>Pollinators</strong> Buffet” opened during the poster session. The idea of the<br />
“Pollinator Buffet” was to present fruits from many countries of origin and regions of all<br />
continents and to offer them to consumption. Each fruit was labelled with its name, its<br />
pollinators and its origin. We selected fruits consumed either directly or maybe as juices<br />
worldwide every day. There<strong>for</strong>e a lot of different fruit juices were also offered at a “Juicebar”<br />
next to the buffet. In that way and in addition to the presentations and the posters we wanted<br />
to make obvious the significance of animal pollination. Overall more then 55 different fruits<br />
and juices were presented. The “Pollinator Buffet”, organised together with an event agency<br />
(CMP-EVENT GmbH, Troisdorf/Germany), was a great success. The fruits were provided<br />
from a local fruiterer (Abels Früchte Welt GmbH, Bonn/Germany).<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
Diversity made by <strong>Pollinators</strong> !<br />
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Photo: A. Hamm
Hamm & Ssymank Impressions of the side-event<br />
Diversitity <strong>for</strong> everyone !!<br />
More than 1200 visitors tasted the healthy “<strong>Pollinators</strong> Buffet”.<br />
125<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
Photo: A. Hamm
Hamm & Ssymank Impressions of the side-event<br />
Authors' addresses:<br />
Dr. Axel Ssymank, Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation, Konstantinstr. 110, 53179 Bonn,<br />
Germany. Website: http://www.bfn.de, E-mail: SsymankA@BfN.de<br />
Dr. Andreé Hamm, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation Section Ecology of Cultural<br />
Landscape (Zoo-Ecology), University of Bonn, Melbweg 42, 53127 Bonn, Germany. Website:<br />
http://www.tierökologie.uni-bonn.de, E-mail: a.hamm@uni-bonn.de<br />
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Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
6.2 Fruit crops presented on the pollinators buffet<br />
by Hamm, A. & Ssymank, A., Bonn<br />
The following chapter contains most of the fruits provided during the “Pollinator Buffet”. The<br />
specific in<strong>for</strong>mations on the different fruit species are taken from KLEIN et al. (2006), ROUBIK<br />
et al. (1995), FAO 2007 and complemented by observations of the authors. The list is not<br />
listing all known visitors and pollinators, but giving a selection of species within each pollinator<br />
group. Beside the indicated kind of animal pollination, wind pollination often is possible as<br />
well. Because of the context of this volume, we did not include additional in<strong>for</strong>mation <strong>for</strong><br />
mixed pollination systems. However the positive impact by animal pollination <strong>for</strong> fruit set and<br />
yield is given. By reading this list, please keep in mind that there are many useful, cultivated<br />
plants that depend on animals as pollinators. So-called insect pollinated “cash crops” like<br />
coffee, cotton, vanilla or alfalfa, have an enormous economic importance worldwide.<br />
Actinidia deliciosa (Actinidiaceae)<br />
Crop name: Kiwifruit<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: SW China<br />
Main producers: New Zealand, Italy, S Europe<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey Bees (Apis mellifera); Bumble bees<br />
(e.g. Bombus terrestris); Solitary bees<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
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Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae)<br />
Crop name: Cashew, Maranon<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: Brazil<br />
Main producers: Brazil<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees, Wasps (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis dorsata, A. mellifera);<br />
Stingless bees (Meliponini); Bumble bees;<br />
Solitary bees (Centris tarsata); Megachili-<br />
dae; Halictidae; Xylocopa<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Flowerflies (Syrphidae); Calliphoridae<br />
Butterflies (Lepidoptera)<br />
Birds (Aves)<br />
Hummingbirds (Trochilidae)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
Annona muricata (Anonaceae)<br />
Crop name: Soursop, Guanabana<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: C America, W India<br />
Main producers: Florida, Hawaii, Egypt, India, S China,<br />
SO Asia<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Beetles (Coleoptera)<br />
Nitidulid beetles (Carpophilus hemipterus, C.<br />
mutilatus)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott<br />
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Photo: A. Hamm
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Annona squamosa (Anonaceae)<br />
Crop name: Shugar apple<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: C America, W India<br />
Main producers: Florida, Hawaii, Egypt, India, S China,<br />
SO Asia<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Beetles (Coleoptera)<br />
Nitidulid beetles (Carpophilus hemipterus, C.<br />
mutilatus)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott<br />
Artocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae)<br />
Crop name: Jackfruit<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: unknown<br />
Origin: W India<br />
Main producers: Thailand, Malaysia, Brazil, Kenya.<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Stingless bees (Meliponini)<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Moths (Lepidoptera)<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
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Photo: A. Hamm
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Averrhoa carambola (Oxalidaceae)<br />
Crop name: Starfruit, Carambola<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: India, Malaysia<br />
Main producers: Malaysia<br />
Main pollinator and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis cerana); Stingless bees<br />
(Trigona thoracia)<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
Carica papaya (Caricaceae)<br />
Crop name: Papaya<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: little<br />
Origin: C America, S Mexico<br />
Main producers: Brazil, Pantropics<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis sp.)<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Flowerflies (Syrphidae); Calliphoridae;<br />
Tephritidae<br />
Moths (Lepidoptera)<br />
Butterflies (Lepidoptera)<br />
Sphingidae (Macroglossum trochilius, Herse<br />
sp.); Noctuidae; Hesperiidae<br />
Birds (Aves)<br />
Hummingbirds (Trochilidae)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
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Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Citrullus lanatus (Cucurbitaceae)<br />
Crop name: Watermelon<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: SC Africa<br />
Main producers: China, Turkey, Iran<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymnoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis cerana); Bumble bees<br />
(Bombus cali<strong>for</strong>nicus, B. impatiens, B. vos-<br />
nesenskii); Solitary bees (Halictus tripartitus,<br />
Peponapis pruinoisa; Lasioglossum sp.)<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Flowerflies (Syrphidae: Allobaccha sp., Al-<br />
lograpta nasuta, Betasyrphus adligatus);<br />
Calliphoridae<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
Citrus aurantifolia (Rutaceae)<br />
Crop name: Lime<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: little<br />
Origin: N India<br />
Main producers: USA, Italy, Spain, Argentina, Iran, Egypt,<br />
Turkey.<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis cerana, A. mellifera);<br />
Bumble bees (Bombus sp.)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
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Photo: A. Hamm
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Citrus limetta (Rutaceae)<br />
Crop name: Kumquat<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: little<br />
Origin: N India<br />
Main producers: USA, Italy, Spain, Argentina, Iran, Egypt,<br />
Turkey, S Europe<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis cerana, A. mellifera);<br />
Bumble bees (Bombus sp.)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
Citrus limon (Rutaceae)<br />
Crop name: Lemon<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: little<br />
Origin: N India<br />
Main producers: USA, Italy, Spain, Argentina, Iran, Egypt,<br />
Turkey<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis cerana, A. mellifera); Bum-<br />
ble bees (Bombus sp.)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott<br />
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Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Citrus paradisi (Rutaceae)<br />
Crop name: Grapefruit<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: little<br />
Origin: Barbados<br />
Main producers: USA<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis cerana, A. mellifera);<br />
Bumble bees (Bombus sp.)<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
Citrus sinensis (Rutaceae)<br />
Crop name: Sweet Orange<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: little<br />
Origin: SE Asia, China<br />
Main producers: Brazil<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis cerana, A. mellifera);<br />
Bumble bees (Bombus sp.)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
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Photo: A. Hamm
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Cucumis melo (Cucurbitaceae)<br />
Crop name: Cantaloupe<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: Africa<br />
Main producers: China, USA, Spain<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis mellifera); Bumble bees<br />
(Bombus sp.); Solitary bees (Ceratina sp.)<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
Diospyrus kaki (Ebenaceae)<br />
Crop name: Chinese Persimmon<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: little<br />
Origin: China, Japan<br />
Main producers: Italy, Israel, Japan, New Zealand, Florida,<br />
Cali<strong>for</strong>nia<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees, Wasps (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis cerana, A. mellifera);<br />
Bumble bees; Solitary bees<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
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Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh
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Eriobotrya japonica (Rosaceae)<br />
Crop name: Loquat<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: China, Japan<br />
Main producers: China, Japan, India, S Europe<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis cerana); Bumble bees<br />
Bats (Megachiroptera)<br />
Roussetus spp.<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
Fortunella spp. (Rutaceae)<br />
Crop name: Kumquat<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: unknown<br />
Origin: S Asia<br />
Main producers: America, Africa, S Europe<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
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Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Fragaria vesca and x ananassa (Rosaceae)<br />
Crop name: European strawberry<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: modest<br />
Origin: America, Chile<br />
Main producers: Worldwide<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis mellifera); Stingless bees<br />
(Meliponini: Trigona angusula, T. minangka-<br />
bau, Nannotrigona testaceicornis) Bumble<br />
bess (Bombus terrestris); Solitary bees<br />
(Osmia cornuta)<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Flowerflies (Syrphidae: Syritta pipiens, Epi-<br />
syrphus balteatus, Eristalis spp.,<br />
Sphaerophoria spp.)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
Luffa cylindrica (Cucurbitaceae)<br />
Crop name: Smooth Loofah<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: unknown<br />
Origin: Tropics<br />
Main producers: Tropics, Asia, Africa, America<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis sp.); Stingless bees<br />
(Meliponini. Trigona sp.); Solitary bees (Xy-<br />
locopa sp.)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
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Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Lycospersicon esculentum (Solanaceae)<br />
Crop name: Tomato<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: little<br />
Origin: SC America<br />
Main producers: Worldwide<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis mellifera); Bumble bees<br />
(Bombus hypnorum, B. pascuorum, B. sono-<br />
rous, B. Terrestris, B. vonesenskii) ; Stin-<br />
gless bees (Meliponini: Melipona quadrifas-<br />
ciata, Nannotrigona perliampoides); Solitary<br />
bees (Amegilla chlorocyanea, A. holmesi,<br />
Xylocopa spp.)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
Malus domestica (Rosaceae)<br />
Crop name: Apple<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: SW China<br />
Main producers: China, USA, France, Italy<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis mellifera, A. cerana); Bum<br />
ble bees (Bombus sp.); Solitary bees (An-<br />
drena sp., Anthophora sp., Osmia corni-<br />
frons, O. lignaria propinqua, O. rufa)<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Flowerflies (Syrphidae: Eristalis cerealis, E.<br />
tenax, Episyrphus balteatus, Eupeodes<br />
corollae)<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
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Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
Photo: A. Hamm
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae)<br />
Crop name: Mango<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: S Asia, Himalaya<br />
Main producers: India<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees, Wasps, Ants (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis sp.); Stingless bees<br />
(Meliponini: Trigona sp.); Halictidae<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Flowerflies (Syrphidae: Senaspis sp., Asark-<br />
ina sp., Syritta sp., Eristalis sp.)<br />
Bats (Megachiroptera)<br />
Pteropus sp.<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
Origin: Mexico, Costa Rica<br />
Main producers: India, Sri Lanka, Malaysia, Mexico,<br />
Venezuela<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
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Photo: A. Hamm<br />
Manilkara zapota (Sapotaceae)<br />
Crop name: Chicle<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: modest<br />
Photo: A. Hamm
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Musa balbisiana (Musaceae)<br />
Crop name: Banana<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: SE Asia<br />
Main producers: Brasilien, Ecuador, Honduras, Costa<br />
Rica, Panama<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bats (Chiroptera, Megachiroptera)<br />
Birds (Aves)<br />
Nephelium litchi (Sapindaceae)<br />
Crop name: Litchi<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: little<br />
Origin: S China<br />
Main producers: India, China<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees, Wasps (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis sp.); Stingless bees<br />
(Meliponini: Trigona sp.)<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Flowerflies (Syrphidae)<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
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Nephelium lappoceum (Sapindaceae)<br />
Crop name: Rambutan<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: little<br />
Origin: S China<br />
Main producers: India, China<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees, Waps (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis cerana); Stingless bees<br />
(Meliponini. Trigona sp.)<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae)<br />
Crop name: Prickly Pear<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: modest<br />
Origin: Mexico<br />
Main producers: Mexico<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Bumble bees (Bombus sp.)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
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Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh
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Passiflora edulis (Passifloraceae)<br />
Crop name: Maracuja<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: Neot.<br />
Main producers: S America, New Zealand, Australia<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees, Wasps (Hymenoptera)<br />
Solitary bees (Xylocopa frontalis, X. sus-<br />
pecta); Bumble bees<br />
Birds (Aves)<br />
Hummingbirds (Trochilidae)<br />
Persea americana (Lauraceae)<br />
Crop name: Avocado<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: Neot.<br />
Main producers: Mexico, Spain<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees; Stingless bees (Meliponini);<br />
Solitary bees<br />
Bats (Megachiroptera)<br />
Pteropus sp.<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Flowerflies (Syrphidae: Allobaccha sp.,<br />
Paragus sp.); Calliphoridae; Sarcophagidae;<br />
Muscidae<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
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Photo: A. Hamm<br />
Photo: A. Hamm
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Prunus armeniaca (Rosaceae)<br />
Crop name: Apricot<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: N China<br />
Main producers: Turkey<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis mellifera); Bumble bess;<br />
Solitary bees; (Osmia cornifrons, O. lignaria<br />
propinqua)<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Prunus avium (Rosaceae)<br />
Crop name: Sweet cherry<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: Europe, Asia<br />
Main producers: Turkey, USA, Italy<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis mellifera); Bumble bees;<br />
Solitary bees (Osmia lignaria)<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Flowerflies (Syrphidae: Cheilosia lenis; Ch.<br />
vernalis)<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
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Photo: A. Hamm
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Prunus pesica (Rosaceae)<br />
Crop name: Peach<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: China<br />
Main producers: China, USA, S Europe, S Afrika, S<br />
Amerika<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis mellifera); Bumble bees;<br />
Solitary bees (Osmia cornifrons, O.lignaria<br />
propinqua)<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
Prunus domestica (Rosaceae)<br />
Crop name: Plum<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: S Asia<br />
Main producers: China, USA, Germany<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis mellifera); Bumble bees;<br />
Solitary bees (Osmia lignaria propinqua)<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Flowerflies (Syrphidae: Eristalis sp.,<br />
Cheilosa pagana)<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
143
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae)<br />
Crop name: Common Guava<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: modest<br />
Origin: C America<br />
Main producers: Mexico, Brazil, Florida, S Africa, S Asia<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis mellifera); Stingless bees<br />
(Meliponini: Trigona cupira, Melipona sp.,<br />
Xylocopa sp.) Bumble bees (Bombus mexi-<br />
canus); Solitary bees (Lasioglossum sp.)<br />
Bats (Megachiroptera)<br />
Rousettus sp.<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
Pyrus communis (Rosaceae)<br />
Crop name: Pear<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: China<br />
Main producers: China, S Europe, USA, S America,<br />
S Africa, Australia<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis mellifera); Bumble bees;<br />
Solitary bees (Osmia sp.)<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Flowerflies (Syrphidae: Eristalis sp.)<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
144<br />
Photo: A. Hamm
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Rubus fruticosus (Rosaceae)<br />
Crop name: Blackberry<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: Europe, Asia, N America<br />
Main producers: USA, Europe, Chile<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Honey bees (Apis mellifera); Bumble bees<br />
(Bombus spp.); Solitary bees (Osmia aglaia,<br />
O. cornuta)<br />
Flies (Diptera)<br />
Flower flies (Syrphidae: Eristalis sp.)<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
Solanum muricatum (Solanaceae)<br />
Crop name: Pepino dulce<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: The Andes<br />
Main producers: S America, Switzerland, Spain<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
145
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Solanum quitoense (Solanaceae)<br />
Crop name: Naranjilla, Lupo<br />
Positive impact by animal pollination: great/essential<br />
Origin: Columbia, Ecuador<br />
Main producers: Columbia, Ecuador<br />
Main pollinators and visitors: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Bumble bees (Bombus sp.); Solitary bees<br />
(Eulaema sp.)<br />
Literature<br />
Photo: W. Barthlott/W. Rauh<br />
FAO (2007): Crops, Browse and <strong>Pollinators</strong> in Africa: An initial Stock-taking. 55pp., Rome.<br />
KLEIN, A.M., VAISSIERE, B.E., CANE, J.H., STEFFAN-DEWENTER, I., CUNNINGHAM, S.A., KRE-<br />
MEN, C., TSCHARNKE, T. (2007): Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes <strong>for</strong> world<br />
crops. Review in Proceedings of The Royal Society 274, 3003-313.<br />
ROUBIK,W.D. (Ed.), (1995): Pollination of Cultivated Plants in the Tropics. FAO Rome, Italy.<br />
146
Hamm & Ssymank The pollinators buffet<br />
Acknowledgements<br />
Many thanks to David Roubik <strong>for</strong> providing valuable comments and corrections.<br />
The fruits <strong>for</strong> the buffet were delivered by ABELS FRÜCHTE WELT GMBH (Justus-von-Libig-Str.<br />
2, 53121 Bonn, Germany; Phone: +49 (0) 228 – 668020; Fax: +49 (0) 228 – 6680222) and<br />
the event was organized by CMP-EVENT GMBH (Laarstraße 120, D - 53844 Troisdorf, Germany;<br />
Phone: +49 (0) 2241 – 404381; Fax: +49 (0) 2241 – 943768; email: cmp@cmpevent.com).<br />
Furthermore we would like to thank W. BARTHLOTT and W. RAUH (NEES-Institute of Plant<br />
biodiversity, University Bonn) <strong>for</strong> providing fruit photos and J. Riedel (Institute of Crop Science<br />
and Ressource Conservation – Ecology of Culture Landscape, Animal Ecology – University<br />
Bonn) <strong>for</strong> help with the manuscripts and the translation.<br />
Authors' addresses:<br />
Dr. Axel Ssymank, Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation, Konstantinstr. 110, 53179<br />
Bonn, e-mail: SsymankA@BfN.de, Website: http://www.bfn.de;<br />
Dr. Andreé Hamm, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation Section Ecology of<br />
Cultural Landscape (Zoo-Ecology), University of Bonn, Melbweg 42, 53127 Bonn, e-mail:<br />
a.hamm@uni-bonn.de, Website: http://www.tierökologie.uni-bonn.de<br />
147
Hamm Fact sheet pollinators: Hymenoptera<br />
POLLINATOR GROUP:<br />
HYMENOPTERA<br />
Author: ANDRÉE HAMM<br />
Species number<br />
Worldwide: nearly 100.000<br />
Distribution<br />
Virtually in all terrestrial habitats<br />
worldwide. Across from arid<br />
deserts to swamps and from<br />
sub arctic tundra to tropical<br />
rain <strong>for</strong>ests.<br />
Hymenopterans and pollination<br />
Celonites abbreviatus eating pollen from Satyreya thymbra out of<br />
her front tarsus after wiping over her cortex. (Photo: V. Mauss)<br />
The order Hymenoptera (bees, wasps and ants) is characterized by a large number of species<br />
and high diversity regarding biological organisation and behaviour. Hymenopterans diversified<br />
to occupy many terrestrial and semi-terrestrial habitats and also display both diurnal<br />
and nocturnal activity. They use a seemingly endless variety of resources as food. Hymenopterans<br />
can be phytophagous or carnivorous and perhaps most are parasitic and live within<br />
their host during part of the life cycle. Multiple specializations also exist, <strong>for</strong> example by<br />
adults that visit flowers and also are parasites of other insects.<br />
Many phytophagous species have a narrowly defined relationship to specific plants. They<br />
feed on nectar and pollen or lay their eggs in specific plant parts. During their “residence” in<br />
or on the flowers Hymenopterans often act as pollinators. That partly resulted in complex<br />
adaptations involving not only morphological and behavioural features, but precise responses<br />
to host odors or chemicals. A long history of coevolution between plants, arising<br />
during the Cretaceous, typifies many Hymenoptera. Some examples are the fig trees of the<br />
genus Ficus which depend on one or two figs-wasps (Agaonidae) <strong>for</strong> pollination. Other examples<br />
are the pollen-wasps (Masarinae) which use pollen <strong>for</strong> feeding their larvae.<br />
Ants, because of their small body size and smooth integument, lacking hairs that might<br />
transport pollen, only rarely achieve plant pollination. There<strong>for</strong>e ants usually are nectar<br />
thieves. Anyway some ants do <strong>for</strong>m a mutualistic relationship with plants and provide <strong>for</strong><br />
pollination in an indirect way: they guard flowers and discourage nectar and pollen consumers<br />
that are not pollinators, and also keep the plant free from herbivores.<br />
Bees – with 20.000 or 30.000 species worldwide – contrast greatly with ants: Many are hairy<br />
and have other adaptations <strong>for</strong> acquiring the pollen they use as food. They are the most important<br />
pollinator group. To a large degree bees are responsible <strong>for</strong> the preservation of biodiversity<br />
in terrestrial ecosystems (see fact sheet bees).<br />
148
Hamm Fact sheet pollinators: Hymenoptera<br />
Major flower preferences<br />
Because of their remarkable diversity it is difficult to characterize the typical flower prefer-<br />
ences <strong>for</strong> the Hymenoptera as a whole. Wasps <strong>for</strong> example prefer flowers that present nec-<br />
tar of easy access. These flowers are often brown coloured and lack complete morphological<br />
or anatomical features or specific fragrances or have long tubular corollas in which the an-<br />
thers, stamens and nectar are presented. The sugar type or concentration and even the<br />
presence of ultraviolet colors (seen by bees but not by humans), and even reflectance of<br />
nectar are among floral traits that aid and entice bees to visit flowers. Moreover, the floral<br />
structure often determines which Hymenoptera can extract their food, often requiring a cer-<br />
tain tongue length, body size or behaviour.<br />
Pollinated crops<br />
Primarily the honey bees (Apis mellifera), bumblebees and wild bees are usefull crop pollina-<br />
tors. At least 30% of human food comes from bee pollinated plants world wide. The most<br />
important cash crops are among these plants.<br />
Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae); Macadamia integrifolia (Proteaceae); Macada-<br />
Cashew<br />
mia<br />
Artocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae); Jackfruit Malus sylvestris (Rosaceae); Apple<br />
Brassica alba (Brassicaceae); Mustard Mangifera indica and M. foetida (Anacardiaceae);<br />
Mango and Gray Mango<br />
Brassica napus (Brassicaceae); Rape Medicago sativa (Fabaceae); Alfalfa<br />
Carica papaya (Caricaceae); Papaya Nephelium litchi (Sapindaceae); Litchi<br />
Citrullus lanatus (Cucurbitaceae); Watermelon Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae); Prickly Pear<br />
Citrus paradise (Rutaceae); Grapefruit Passiflora edulis (Passifloraceae); Maracuja<br />
Citrus limon (Rutaceae); Lemon Prunus avium (Rosaceae); Sweet cherry<br />
Cocos nucifera (Arecaceae); Coconut Prunus domestica (Rosaceae); Plum<br />
Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae); Arabian Coffee Pyrus communis (Rosaceae); Pear<br />
Coriandrum sativum (Apiaceae); Coriander Rubus fruticosus (Rosaceae); Blackberry<br />
Diospyrus kaki (Ebenaceae); Chinese Persimmon<br />
Rubus idaeus (Rosaceae); Raspberry<br />
Fragaria x ananassa (Rosacaea); Strawberry Vanilla planifolia (Orchidaceae); Vanilla<br />
Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae); Sunflower<br />
Lycospersicon esculentum (Solanaceae); Tomato<br />
Vicia faba (Fabaceae); Bean<br />
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Hamm Fact sheet pollinators: Hymenoptera<br />
Hymenopterans and biodiversity of wild plants<br />
The impact of hymenopterans on maintenance of wild plant diversity is the highest among<br />
insects.<br />
Aceraceae Cornaceae Linaceae Ranunculacae<br />
Apiaceae Cucurbitaceae Malvaceae Salicaceae<br />
Araliaceae Dipsacaceae Oleaceae Scrophulariaceae<br />
Arecaceae Ebenaceae Onagraceae Solanaceae<br />
Asteraceae Ericaceae Orchidaceae Tiliaceae<br />
Betulaceae Fabaceae Papaveraceae Violaceae<br />
Boraginaceae Fagaceae Plantaginaceae Vitaceae<br />
Brassicaceae Gentianaceae Polygonaceae<br />
Cactaceae Geraniaceae Rosaceae<br />
Campanulaceae Liliaceae Rubiaceae<br />
See also fact sheet Flower Bees.<br />
Specific remarks<br />
The earliest fossil records of Hymenoptera are from the Middle Triassic of Central Asia and<br />
the Upper Triassic of Austria. By the time of the Jurassic (200 mya) the group had radiated<br />
considerably (approximately 21 families were represented). The first groups were phyto-<br />
phagous exclusively on non-flowering vascular plants. Most of the modern families began to<br />
appear towards the end of the Cretaceous. The hymenopteran families of today probably<br />
arose with the radiation of the angiosperms in the late Cretaceous. The most recent hymen-<br />
opteran families have existed <strong>for</strong> at least 50 million years and the oldest bee specimen is<br />
from Bumese Amber of nearly 100 mya in age.<br />
Acknowlegdement<br />
Many thanks to David Roubik <strong>for</strong> providing valuable comments and corrections.<br />
Authors' address:<br />
Dr. Andreé Hamm, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation Section Ecology of<br />
Cultural Landscape (Zoo-Ecology), University of Bonn, Melbweg 42, 53127 Bonn, e-mail:<br />
a.hamm@uni-bonn.de, Website: http://www.tierökologie.uni-bonn.de<br />
150
Hamm Fact sheet pollinators: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
POLLINATOR GROUP:<br />
BEES<br />
Super family Apoidea<br />
Order Hymenoptera<br />
Author: ANDREE´HAMM<br />
Species number<br />
Worldwide: over 17.000,<br />
estimated > 30.000<br />
Number of genera: 425<br />
Distribution<br />
Bees live in almost all terrestrial habitats. The places where they establish nesting populations<br />
are most often warm and their microsites are open or not densely vegetated. That is<br />
the reason why the number of species increases from the poles towards the equator, while<br />
in equatorial <strong>for</strong>ests, where species that live in perennial colonies predominate, species<br />
numbers are not the highest.<br />
Bees biology and pollination<br />
Most bees collect pollen and nectar <strong>for</strong> rearing their larvae. Some species also collect plant<br />
oils and even certain floral scents. The bees often have a close relationship to particular<br />
plants as a result of co-evolution. Bumble bees (Bombus) and orchirds (Orchidaceae) in<br />
Europe, some sand-bees (Andrenidae) and petunias (Solanaceae), or euglossinae bees<br />
(Euglossini) with the orchids of neotropical <strong>for</strong>ests are examples of such close relationships.<br />
A great number of bee species are apparently specialized on particular flowers. As so-called<br />
oligolectic bees they exclusively use pollen from plants which are members of one family or<br />
order. The reproductive success of these specialized bees depends on the availability of<br />
their flowers.<br />
Major flower preferences<br />
Andrena haemorrhoa on a flower of Prunus avium, Photo: M.<br />
Schindler<br />
Melittophilous plants (“Beeplants”) are attractive <strong>for</strong> bees. Frequently their flowers are blue<br />
or yellow, but rarely red. They have a sweet odour. Bee-pollinated flowers show the highest<br />
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Hamm Fact sheet pollinators: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
diversity of all animal-pollinated plants. Much of their diversity in shape is due to a high variety<br />
of mechanisms by which they conceal or present their pollen and nectar. A further explosion<br />
of diversity in plants and bees is based on the offering of resources which can only be<br />
found in melittophilous flowers: droplets of resin, fatty oils and perfumes, which are collected<br />
by highly specialised bees. Furthermore several melittophilous flowers imitate the shape and<br />
the sex perfumes of female insects in order to attract the males as pollinators. Many flowers<br />
visited by bees have the following characteristics:<br />
Major flower preferences<br />
favored floral shapes flowers <strong>for</strong>med like a bell, brush, jaw, flag or tube<br />
morphological characteristics<br />
zygomorphous flowers with landing plat<strong>for</strong>ms, often a bottom<br />
lip, deep flowers, opportunity to enter<br />
microscopic characteristics Non-slip surface, sometimes with silky gloss<br />
favored colours blue, yellow, white<br />
scent mild, often like honey<br />
nectar concealed, from 15 to 60 % sugar<br />
Composed and modified after HEß, D. (1983)<br />
Bees as crop pollinators<br />
More than 30 % of human foods belong to bee pollinated plants. A great number of herbs or<br />
medicinal plants or animal-fodder or ornamental plants are also pollinated by bees. Bees<br />
and their pollination service are responsible <strong>for</strong> an enormous yield increase in cultivated<br />
plants and crops. Wild bees pollinate crops like red clover, alfalfa, beans and tomatoes better<br />
than honey bees. There<strong>for</strong>e the “pollination-service” of the bees, which cannot be replaced<br />
by technology, has not only an enormous ecological, but also an economic importance.<br />
Honey bee pollinate more crops than any other bees, but their services are artificial<br />
and variable. At present the most important insect pollinated crops in Europe have an annual<br />
market value of 65 million €.<br />
Because of the continuous decline of pollinator abundance in croplands, particularly in wild<br />
bees, a “pollination-deficit“ is a reality. Biodiversity as well as yields in agriculture are reduced.<br />
There<strong>for</strong>e appropriate pollinator management is needed both <strong>for</strong> natural ecosystems<br />
and agricultural ecosystems.<br />
Fruits and nuts<br />
Actinidia deliciosa (Actinidiaceae); Kiwifruit Malus sylvestris (Rosaceae); Apple<br />
Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae);<br />
Cashew<br />
Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae); Mango<br />
Averrhoa carambola (Oxalidaceae); Starfruit Myrciaria cauliflora (Myrtaceae); Jaboticaba<br />
Carica papaya (Caricaceae); Papaya Nephelium litchi (Sapindaceae); Litchi<br />
Citrullus lanatus (Cucurbitaceae); Watermelon Opuntia ficus-indica (Cactaceae); Prickly Pear<br />
Citrus limon (Rutaceae); Lemon Passiflora caerulata (Passifloraceae); Maracuja<br />
Citrus paradise (Rutaceae); Grapefruit Persea americana (Lauraceae); Avocado<br />
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Hamm Fact sheet pollinators: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Citrus sinensis (Rutaceae); Sweet Orange Prunus armeniaca (Rosaceae); Apricot<br />
Cucumis melo (Cucurbiaceae); Cantaloupe Prunus avium (Rosaceae); Sweet cherry<br />
Diospyros kaki (Ebenaceae); Chinese Persimmon<br />
Prunus communis (Rosaceae); Almond<br />
Eriobotrya japonica (Rosaceae); Loquat Prunus domestica (Rosaceae); Plum<br />
Eugenia uniflora (Myrtaceae); Surinam cherry Psidium guajava (Myrtaceae); Common Guava<br />
Fortunella spp. (Rutaceae); Kumquat Pyrus communis (Rosaceae); Pear<br />
Fragaria vesca (Rosaceae); European strawberry Rubus idaeus (Rosaceae); Raspberry<br />
Lycospersicon esculentum (Solanaceae); Tomato Solanum muricatum (Solanaceae); Pepino Dulce<br />
Macadamia integrifolia (Proteaceae); Macadamia Solanum quitoense (Solanaceae); Naranjilla<br />
Malpighia punicifolia (Malpighiaceae); Acerola<br />
Seed crops<br />
Syzygium jambos (Myrtaceae); Rose Apple<br />
Brassica napus (Brassicaceae); Oilseed Rape Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae); White Mustard<br />
Cocos nucifera (Arecaceae); Coconut Gossypium hirsutum (Malvaceae); Seedcotton<br />
Helianthus annuus (Asteraceae); Sunflower seeds<br />
Spieces and vegetables<br />
Linum usitatissimum (Linaceae); Flaxseed<br />
Allium cepa (Alliaceae); Onion Pastinaca sativa (Apiaceae); Parsnip<br />
Elettaria cardamomum (Zingiberaceae); Cardamon<br />
Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae); Mustard<br />
Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae); Fennel<br />
Others<br />
Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae); Coffee<br />
Vanilla planifolia (Orchidaceae); Vanilla<br />
Bees and biodiversity of wild plants<br />
Bees are pollinators of most of the 300.000 species of vascular plants. For 80% of flowering<br />
plants they are the most important pollinators. Because of their very high influence on the<br />
reproduction of flowering plants and biodiversity as a whole, bees are called “keystone species“.<br />
A selective list of their host species that they sustain includes:<br />
Acanthus longifolius (Acanthaceae) Helianthemum nummularium (Cistaceae)<br />
Acer campestre (Aceraceae) Impatiens glandulifera (Balsaminaceae)<br />
Aconitum napellus (Ranunculaceae) Iris pseudacorus (Iridaceae)<br />
Adonis vernalis (Ranunculaceae) Knautia arvensis (Dipsacaceae)<br />
Aegopodium podagraria (Apiaceae) Lathyrus pratensis (Fabaceae)<br />
Antirrhinum majus (Scrophulariaceae) Leucanthemum vulgare (Asteraceae)<br />
Atropa belladonna (Solanaceae) Leucojum vernum (Amaryllidaceae)<br />
Aquilegia vulgaris (Ranunculaceae) Linaria vulgaris (Scrophulariaceae)<br />
Berberis vulgaris (Berberidaceae) Lotus corniculatus (Fabaceae)<br />
Borago officinalis (Boraginaceae) Medicago sativa (Fabaceae)<br />
Calceolaria integrifolia (Calceoariaceae) Melampyrum pratense (Scrophulariaceae)<br />
Campanula rapunculoides (Campanulaceae) Muscari botryoides (Hyacinthaceae)<br />
Campanula scheuchzeri (Campanulaceae) Nigella damascena (Ranunculaceae)<br />
Centaurea jacea (Asteraceae) Origanum vulgare (Lamiaceae)<br />
Cornus sanguinea (Cornaceae) Pedicularis sylvatica (Scrophulariaceae)<br />
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Hamm Fact sheet pollinators: Bees (Hymenoptera)<br />
Corydalis cava (Papaveraceae) Polygala chamaebuxus (Polygalaceae)<br />
Cytisus scoparius (Fabaceae) Pulmonaria officinalis (Boraginaceae)<br />
Daucus carota (Apiaceae) Reseda lutea (Resedaceae)<br />
Delphinium consolida (Ranunculaceae) Rhinanthus alectorolophus (Scrophulariaceae)<br />
Digitalis purpurea (Scrophulariaceae) Salix sp. (Salicaceae)<br />
Echium vulgare (Boraginaceae) Salvia pratensis (Lamiaceae)<br />
Epilobium angustifolium (Onagraceae) Stachys sylvatica (Lamiaceae)<br />
Epipogium aphyllum (Orchidaceae) Symphytum officinale (Boraginaceae)<br />
Euphrasia rostkoviana (Scrophulariaceae) Trifolium pratense (Fabaceae)<br />
Galanthus nivalis (Amaryllidaceae) Vinca minor (Apocynaceae)<br />
Gentiana acaulis (Gentianaceae) Tropical orchids (Orchidaceae)<br />
Hedera helix (Araliaceae)<br />
Specific remarks<br />
During an international workshop in Sao Paulo in 1998 it became clear that a sustainable<br />
pollinator management is only possible if between specialised bees and their plants are well<br />
known. For example, little is known about the pollen use by the bees and the development of<br />
their larvae. As research progresses, more important in<strong>for</strong>mation will become available.<br />
Acknowlegdement<br />
Many thanks to David Roubik <strong>for</strong> providing valuable comments and corrections.<br />
Authors' address:<br />
Dr. Andreé Hamm, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation Section Ecology of<br />
Cultural Landscape (Zoo-Ecology), University of Bonn, Melbweg 42, 53127 Bonn, e-mail:<br />
a.hamm@uni-bonn.de, Website: http://www.tierökologie.uni-bonn.de<br />
154
Ssymank, Kearns, Pape & Thompson Fact sheet pollinators: Flies (Diptera)<br />
POLLINATOR GROUP:<br />
TRUE FLIES<br />
Order Diptera<br />
Authors: A. SSYMANK, C.<br />
KEARNS, T. PAPE & F.C.<br />
THOMPSON<br />
Species number<br />
Worldwide: 154.322 named<br />
species [estimated total:<br />
1.5 million]<br />
Number of families: 162<br />
Distribution<br />
Worldwide true flies occur in virtually all habitat types except the open oceans. The true flies<br />
are represented with 45,443 extant valid species in the Palaearctic, 21,505 in the Nearctic,<br />
31,430 in the Neotropical, 20,268 in the Afrotropical, 22,917 in the Oriental and 19,053 species<br />
in the Australasian/Oceanian Region (species counts provided by the BioSystematic<br />
Database of World Diptera on 14 Nov. 2008). The knowledge on true flies in the different<br />
regions is heterogenous, but the relative rank of the regions probably reflects the true biodiversity.<br />
True Flies, biology and pollination<br />
Diptera, together with Hymenoptera, <strong>for</strong>m the two most important pollinator groups world-<br />
wide. Diptera from at least 71 families are known to be regular flower visitors capable of act-<br />
ing as pollinators, and they represent a complex and wide-ranging spectrum of pollination<br />
strategies. The large majority of anthophilous dipterans are nectar consumers and only a<br />
modest number of species are regular and obligate pollen consumers. Flower flies (family<br />
Syrphidae) are among the most prominent flower visiting flies (see separate fact sheet <strong>for</strong><br />
flower flies). Strong fliers like many Bombyliidae, Muscidae, Nemestrinidae, Tabanidae, and<br />
Tachinidae as well as small, delicate gnats like many Ceratopogonidae, Sciaridae and Myce-<br />
tophilidae visit and pollinate flowers.<br />
Bombylius, probably facialis Cresson (Bombyliidae),.western Colorado<br />
, photo by David W. Inouye, Rocky Mountain Biological Laboratory,<br />
USA.<br />
Flies are well-adapted <strong>for</strong> visiting flowers by having trichromatic colour vision and morpho-<br />
logically complex, sucking mouthparts <strong>for</strong>ming a proboscis, which in some species may be<br />
greatly elongated. The world record is found in the South African tangle-veined fly Moegis-<br />
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Ssymank, Kearns, Pape & Thompson Fact sheet pollinators: Flies (Diptera)<br />
torhynchus longirostris (Wiedemann), which has a proboscis of 90-100 mm, which is about<br />
three times its body length.<br />
Nectar and pollen are usually ingested while the fly is sitting on or in flowers, but some flies<br />
are able to hover in front of the flowers while sucking nectar (e.g., some Bombyliidae,<br />
Nemestrinidae, Tabanidae). Some flies show learning behaviour <strong>for</strong> flower colour and nectar<br />
reward. Flies can fly at low temperatures, and they often outnumber bees in damp or shady<br />
places such as the understory of rain<strong>for</strong>ests. Flies show an increasing dominance at higher<br />
altitudes and higher latitudes.<br />
Main flower preferences<br />
Diptera <strong>for</strong>m a major part of the pollinator guild <strong>for</strong> plants that are pollinated by multiple in-<br />
sect groups. Even generalist flower visitors have been shown to contribute significantly to<br />
fruit set. An increasing number of flowering plants are being discovered that are entirely de-<br />
pendent on dipteran pollinators. Examples include the ‘seed-<strong>for</strong>-seed’ mutualism where spe-<br />
cies of the anthomyiid genus Chiastocheta pollinate the closed flowers of Trollius europaeus,<br />
and the gall midge pollination of Artocarpus integer, which is a mutualism involving also a<br />
parasitic fungus. A significant number of flowers have specialized in being pollinated by car-<br />
rion flies, including the world’s largest flower Rafflesia arnoldii and its relatives, and several<br />
commercially important flowers like Stapelia spp., Amorphophallus spp. Many flies prefer<br />
white, yellow or inconspicuous small or greenish flowers. Flat or bowl-shaped actinomorphic<br />
flowers and umbels of the Apiaceae are commonly visited by flies. Flowers are visited not<br />
only <strong>for</strong> food (pollen and nectar), but <strong>for</strong> several other reasons as well. For example, some<br />
flies warm up by sitting in flower cups that face the sun; others rendezvous with mates at<br />
certain types of flowers; some flies are are fooled or trapped by flowers (carrion flowers,<br />
mate-deceiving flowers, funnel-traps like in the plant family Araceae or Asclepiadaceae) that<br />
they unwittingly pollinate. Even pollinia (pollen packages) of some orchids may be distributed<br />
by flies (the flower fly genera Microdon, Eristalis).<br />
Flies and pollinated crops<br />
More than 100 cultivated plants are known to be pollinated by Diptera. Among them plants<br />
like Cocoa, where small Diptera are a guarantee <strong>for</strong> good harvests and later on chocolate-<br />
production. Also, flies are increasingly being used <strong>for</strong> the pollination of various greenhouse<br />
crops.<br />
Examples <strong>for</strong> pollinated plants are:<br />
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Ssymank, Kearns, Pape & Thompson Fact sheet pollinators: Flies (Diptera)<br />
Fruits Spice-plants and vegetables:<br />
Acacia tortilis (Fabaceae); Umbrella Thorn Allium ampeloprasum var. porrum (Alliaceae);<br />
Leek<br />
Anacardium<br />
Cashew<br />
occidentale (Anacardiaceae); Allium cepa (Alliaceae); Onion<br />
Camellia sinensis (Theacaceae);Tea Plant Carum carvi (Apiaceae); Caraway<br />
Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae); Arabian Coffee Daucus carota (Apiaceae); Carot<br />
Fragaria x ananassa (Rosacaea); Strawberry Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae); Fennel<br />
Malus domestica (Rosaceae); Apple Lycopersicon (Solanaceae); Tomato<br />
Mangifera indica and M. foetida (Anacardi- Manihot dulcis and M. esculenta (Euphoraceae);<br />
Mango and Gray Mango<br />
biaceae); Sweat Cassava and Bitter Cassava<br />
Persea americana (Lauraceae); Avocado Petroselinum crispum (Apiaceae); Parsley<br />
Pyrus communis (Rosaceae); Pear<br />
Theobroma cacao ssp. cacao (Sterculiaceae);<br />
Cacao<br />
Sinapis alba (Brassicaceae); Mustard<br />
In addition a number of medical plants and many ornamental plants are pollinated by flower<br />
flies.<br />
See also fact sheet <strong>for</strong> Flower flies.<br />
Flies and biodiversity of wild plants<br />
The contribution of flies to maintaining wild plant diversity is very high. They are often pre-<br />
sent in large numbers in a wide variety of different habitats where they visit or pollinate many<br />
different flowers. A study in Belgium showed that flower flies alone visited more than 700<br />
plant species in 94 different families. Flies may be the most effective pollinators in some<br />
ecosystems, e.g., small flies may be the most important pollinators in the <strong>for</strong>est understory,<br />
particularly <strong>for</strong> shrubs with numerous small, inconspicuous and dioecious flowers<br />
Examples of plant families with many fly-visited or -pollinated species are:<br />
Alliaceae Caprifoliaceae Euphorbiaceae Polygonaceae<br />
Anacaridaceae Caryophyllaceae Geraniaceae Polygonaceae<br />
Apiaceae Celastraceae Hypericaceae Ranunculacae<br />
Araceae Chenopodiaceae Lauraceae Rosaceae<br />
Araliaceae Cistaceae Liliaceae Rubiaceae<br />
Asteraceae Convolvulaceae Malvaceae Salicaceae<br />
Berberidaceae Crassulaceae Mimosaceae Saxifragaceae<br />
Boraginaceae Cucurbitaceae Onagraceae Scophulariaceae<br />
Brassicaceae Cyperaceae Plantaginaceae<br />
Caesalpiniaceae Dipsacaceae Poaceae<br />
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Ssymank, Kearns, Pape & Thompson Fact sheet pollinators: Flies (Diptera)<br />
Specific remarks<br />
• Probably as little as 10% of fly species are named and described. Considerable re-<br />
search is needed to fill large gaps in current taxonomic knowledge. In addition, ap-<br />
plied research into Diptera as pollinators in agriculture and of wild plants is needed.<br />
• Diptera probably were among the first angiosperm pollinators and may have been in-<br />
strumental in early angiosperm radiation.<br />
• Mobility of species varies a lot, ranging from local territorial behaviour around a single<br />
bush to long distance migration.<br />
• Diptera visit many species of wild plants, but they are also important <strong>for</strong> pollination in<br />
greenhouses (Calliphoridae, Syrphidae) and <strong>for</strong> commercial seed production.<br />
Authors' addresses:<br />
Axel Ssymank, <strong>Bundesamt</strong> <strong>für</strong> <strong>Naturschutz</strong> (BfN, I.2.2, German Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature<br />
Conservation), Konstantinstrasse 110, 53179 Bonn, Germany. E-mail: Ssymanka@bfn.de<br />
(Corresponding author).<br />
Carol Ann Kearns, Ph.D. Department of Biology, 500 El Camino Real, Santa Clara Univer-<br />
sity, Santa Clara, CA 95053-0268, USA.<br />
Thomas Pape, Natural History Museum of Denmark, Zoological Museum, Universitetsparken<br />
15, DK - 2100 Copenhagen, Denmark<br />
F. Christian Thompson, Systematic Entomology Lab., ARS, USDA, c/o Smithsonian Institu-<br />
tion MRC-0169, PO Box 37012, Washington, D. C. USA 20013-7012.<br />
158
Ssymank Fact sheet pollinators: Flower Flies (Syrphidae, Diptera)<br />
POLLINATOR GROUP:<br />
FLOWER FLIES<br />
Family Syrphidae<br />
Order Diptera<br />
Author: AXEL SSYMANK<br />
Species number<br />
Worldwide: 5926<br />
Number of genera: 198<br />
Distribution:<br />
Sericimyia silentis visiting Calluna vulgaris (Scots Heather) flowers<br />
in a sandy heathland. (Photo: A. Ssymank)<br />
Worldwide in almost all habitat types, except marine, being more abundant in temperate<br />
areas. The family is represented with 2,048 extant valid species in the Palaearctic, 818 in the<br />
Nearctic, 1,518 in the Neotropical, 591 in the Afrotropical, 879 in the Oriental and 416 species<br />
in the Australasian / Oceanian Region (species counts provided by the BioSystematic<br />
Database of World Diptera on 14 Nov. 2008).<br />
Flower Flies biology and pollination<br />
Adults: Both male and female flower flies visit flowers <strong>for</strong> nectar or pollen. Egg-production in<br />
females is at least partly dependant on pollen ingestion as a source of protein. Proboscis<br />
length is varies from 1 mm up to more than 11 mm. Species with long probosces, and those<br />
with a narrow head and slender thorax may use flowers with deep corollas. Flower flies have<br />
trichromatic vision (yellow, blue and ultra-violet). They show indications of learning behaviour<br />
related to flower colour. Buzz pollination is known <strong>for</strong> some larger species. Syrphidae usually<br />
show a marked diurnal activity pattern in flower visiting.<br />
Larvae: Flower fly larvae exploit a wide range of different food sources with zoophagous<br />
larvae (mainly aphids; important in bio-control), phytophagous larvae (in leafs, roots, and<br />
bulbs), saprophagous larvae (in plant material, and dead wood) aquatic detritophagous larvae<br />
(e.g. rat-tailed maggots in ponds and lakes), and larvae living in ant or other hymenopteran<br />
nests; Thus flower flies live in a wide range of different habitats all over the world.<br />
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Ssymank Fact sheet pollinators: Flower Flies (Syrphidae, Diptera)<br />
Main flower preferences<br />
The number of flowering plants in a community that are visited by syrphids is usually high,<br />
reaching up to 80% of the regional flora. Flower constancy is usually high due to individual<br />
species’ preferences <strong>for</strong> flower colour, height and floral type combined with the requirement<br />
<strong>for</strong> synchrony of fly and flower phenology. Many species prefer white and yellow flowers<br />
with easily accessible nectar, however a number of species are highly specialised. Anemophilous<br />
plants, including some grasses, shrubs and trees may be partly pollinated by flowerflies.<br />
In Europe, the plant families known to be regularly visited by flower flies include Apiaceae,<br />
Asteraceae, Brassicaceae, Chenopodiaceae, Dipsacaceae, Hypericaceae, Polygonaceae,<br />
Ranunculaceae and Rosaceae. Some grasses and sedges (Poaceaea, Cyperaceae and<br />
Juncaceae) are regularly visited by flower flies of the genera Melanostoma and Platycheirus.<br />
In sheltered situations, these flies are likely to be important <strong>for</strong> the pollination of otherwise<br />
wind-pollinated plants like in Plantago (e.g. Stellemann 1978). Some typical “Diptera-flowers”<br />
like Sanicula europaea, Galium sp. and Saxifraga species may be more or less exclusively<br />
pollinated by flower flies.<br />
Flower flies as crop pollinators<br />
In Europe<br />
Brassica napus (Brassicaceae); Oilseed Rape<br />
Fragaria x ananassa (Rosacaea); Strawberry<br />
Malus domestica (Rosaceae); Apple<br />
Pyrus communis (Rosaceae); Pear<br />
Rubus-species like Rubus idaeus, Rubus chamaemorus (Rosaceae); Raspberry and Cloudberry<br />
Sorbus aucuparia (Rosaceae); Mountain Ash<br />
In tropical regions<br />
Mangifera indica and M. foetida (Anacardiaceae); Mango and Gray Mango<br />
Camellia sinensis (Theacaceae);Tea Plant<br />
Coffea arabica (Rubiaceae); Arabian Coffee<br />
Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae); Cashew<br />
Persea americana (Lauraceae); Avocado<br />
Acacia tortilis (Fabaceae); Umbrella Thorn<br />
Spice-plants and vegetables<br />
Petroselinum crispum (Apiaceae); Parsley<br />
Allium cepa (Alliaceae); Onion<br />
Carum carvi (Apiaceae); Caraway<br />
Daucus carota (Apiaceae); Carot<br />
Foeniculum vulgare (Apiaceae); Fennel<br />
A number of medical plants and many ornamental plants are pollinated by flower flies.<br />
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Ssymank Fact sheet pollinators: Flower Flies (Syrphidae, Diptera)<br />
Flower flies and biodiversity of wild plants<br />
The importance of Flower flies <strong>for</strong> the pollination and fruit set of wild plants is very high: They<br />
are often present in high numbers and the pollen-carrying capacity is medium, to high in species<br />
with dense fur or curled hairs. High local flower constancy due to flower preferences<br />
and local phenology combined with medium to high visitation rates and flight activity may<br />
ensure pollination. Long distance migration in some species makes long distance pollen<br />
transport and fertilization possible. Flower flies visit a large range of different flower families.<br />
Plants visited by flower flies, examples:<br />
Aegopodium podagraria (Apiaceae); Bishop´s Heracleum sphondylium (Apiaceae); Hogweed<br />
Weed<br />
Alliaria petiolata (Brassicaceae); Hedge Garlic Hypericum per<strong>for</strong>atum (Clusiaceae); St John´s<br />
Wort<br />
Armeria elongata (Plumbaginaceae); Common Knautia arvensis (Dipsacaceae); Blue Buttons<br />
Thrift<br />
Chenopodium album (Chenopodiaceae); Fat Knautia dipsacifolia (Dipsacaceae);<br />
Hen<br />
Cornus sanguinea (Cornaceae); Common Dog- Origanum vulgare (Lamiaceae); Oregano<br />
wood<br />
Crataegus monogyna (Rosaceae); English Haw- Sanicula europaea (Apiaceae); Butterwort<br />
thorn<br />
Filipendula ulmaria (Rosaceae); Meadow Sweet<br />
Specific remarks<br />
• Mobility of species varies greatly, ranging from local territorial behaviour around a<br />
single bush up to regular migration, with some flies capable of crossing the Alps and<br />
covering distances of over 200 km in a few days.<br />
• Many species mimic stinging hymenoptera such as wasps, and bees. Sometimes<br />
mimicry is only in coloration, but other times includes flight sounds and behavioural<br />
mimicry (examples include Volucella bombylans, Temnostoma, Criorhina, and Spilomyia<br />
species).<br />
• The larvae of some phytophagous species feed from the same plants where the<br />
adults collect nectar and pollen (e.g. Cheilosia fasciata and Portevinia maculata on<br />
ramson, Allium ursinum) and show a double relation to these plant species.<br />
See also: contribution Ssymank & Kearns: “Flies –<strong>Pollinators</strong> on two wings” in this volume.<br />
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Ssymank Fact sheet pollinators: Flower Flies (Syrphidae, Diptera)<br />
Web links:<br />
World names: http://www.diptera.org/biosys.htm<br />
General in<strong>for</strong>mation, distribution Europe, Africa: www.syrphidae.com<br />
German Diptera Group: www.ak-diptera.de<br />
Nearctic checklist: http://www.nearctica.com/nomina/diptera/dipsyrph.htm<br />
Australasian/Oceanian catalogue: http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/aocat/syrphidae.html<br />
Authors' address:<br />
Dr. Axel Ssymank, <strong>Bundesamt</strong> <strong>für</strong> <strong>Naturschutz</strong> (BfN, I.2.2, German Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature<br />
Conservation), Konstantinstraße 110, 53179 Bonn, Germany. Website: http://www.bfn.de, E-mail:<br />
Ssymanka@bfn.de<br />
162
Hamm & Wittmann Fact sheet pollinators: Butterflies and Moth (Lepidoptera)<br />
POLLINATOR GROUP:<br />
BUTTERFLIES, MOTH<br />
Order: Lepidoptera<br />
Authors: ANDREE´ HAMM,<br />
DIETER WITTMANN<br />
Species number<br />
World wide: 180.000<br />
Number of families: 130<br />
Distribution<br />
Polygonia c-album (Nymphalidae) inbibing nectar on a flower,<br />
Photo: A. Hamm<br />
After the beetles the lepidopterans are the largest insect order. They occur almost all kinds<br />
of terrestrial biotopes on all continents except the Antarctica. Temperate and tropical biotops<br />
with high diversity of flowering plants are characterized by a high diversity of butterflies and<br />
moths.<br />
Butterflies/Moths alimentation and pollination<br />
Because of their food requirements, instars and adult butterflies depend on specific feeding<br />
plants. Adult butterflies normally imbibe nectar from different plants while larvae mainly<br />
depend on specific food plants, where they feed on leaves. Their plant preferences range<br />
from poly- to monophagie. Due to their specific food requirements populations of some<br />
monophagous species of lepidopterans can easily get endangered. As adults have to visit<br />
many flowers <strong>for</strong> taking up nectar as fuel <strong>for</strong> their flight activities they do a good job as<br />
pollinators.<br />
Main flower preferences<br />
Butterfly-pollinated flowers are red, blue and yellow and emit agreeable scents. Many of<br />
these flowers are star shaped with elonged nectar tubes which are considerably shorter than<br />
the tubes of sphingophilous flowers. They are open all-day and usually will be visited during<br />
daytime. Nectar is offered in small amounts. Its concentration is low so that it can pass<br />
through the narrow canal <strong>for</strong>med by the mouthparts of the lepidopterans.<br />
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Hamm & Wittmann Fact sheet pollinators: Butterflies and Moth (Lepidoptera)<br />
Moth-pollinated flowers open at night. In order to be detectable they have white and<br />
ultraviolet star like corollae and emit strong sweet odors. When moths take up nectar from<br />
the deep nectar tubes, they remain on wings. As the moth gets just a small amount of<br />
nectar, they have to change the flowers frequently. This is of great advantage <strong>for</strong> the flowers<br />
as they get multiple visits which assure good pollination. Furthermore, migration of<br />
lepidopterans, like Monarch butterflies which move between Canada and Central Mexico,<br />
leads to pollen transfer over long distances.<br />
Main flower preferences<br />
Butterflies<br />
favored floral shapes flowers <strong>for</strong>med like a tube<br />
morphologic characteristics flowers often with landing plat<strong>for</strong>ms, marginally feathered<br />
anatomic characteristics fine structures<br />
favored colours red, blue, yellow<br />
colour marks yes<br />
scent milder than moth-plants<br />
nectar concealed, up to 40mm deep<br />
periodic phenomenons<br />
Moth<br />
flourish during the day, seldom close by night<br />
favored floral shapes flowers <strong>for</strong>med like a tube<br />
morphologic characteristics strongly feathered<br />
microscopic characteristics fine structures, often with a waxy surface<br />
favored colours white, dirty-yellow, greenish, reddish<br />
colour marks no<br />
scent strong and sweet<br />
nectar concealed, up to 200mm deep<br />
periodic phenomenons flourish during the night, scent during the night<br />
Composed and modified after HEß, D. (1983)<br />
Butterflies/Moths and pollinated crops<br />
The following list presents a selection of crops visited and pollinated by lepidopterans:<br />
Butterflies<br />
Anacardium<br />
Cashew<br />
occidentale (Anacardiaceae); Cephaelis ipecacuanha (Rubiaceae);<br />
Arachis hypogaea (Fabaceae); Peanut Cinchona calisaya (Rubiaceae); Quinine<br />
Macadamia ternifolia (Proteaceae); Macadamia<br />
Moth<br />
Grewia asiatica (Malvaceae); Phalsa<br />
Arthocarpus heterophyllus (Moraceae); Jackfruit Luffa acutangula (Cucurbitaceae); Angled Luffa<br />
Bombax malabaricum (Malvaceae); Indian Silk<br />
Cotton<br />
164<br />
Myristica argentea (Myristicaceae); Papuan<br />
Nutmeg
Hamm & Wittmann Fact sheet pollinators: Butterflies and Moth (Lepidoptera)<br />
Cananga odorata (Annonaceae); Ylang-Ylang Pachira aquatica (Malvaceae); Chestnut of<br />
America<br />
Carica papaya (Caricaceae); Papaya Trichosanthes cucumerina (Cucurbitaceae);<br />
Snakegourd<br />
Carissa edulis (Apocynaceae); Egyptian Carissa Yucca filamentosa (Agavaceae); Yucca<br />
Lagenaria siceraria (Cucurbitaceae); Bottle<br />
Gourd<br />
Butterflies/Moths and biodiversity:<br />
Much of the diversity of moth pollinated plants originates from variations of the length of the<br />
floral tubes. Tube length and length of the mouthparts of butterflies and moths are shaped by<br />
co-evolution. This happened in many different angiosperm families. Between lepidopteras<br />
and plants some highly specific mutualistic relationships evolved.<br />
For example moth of the genus Tegeticula (Perdoxidae) have a special impact on the<br />
reproduction of some yucca – plants, due to their behaviour inside the flowers. During their<br />
visits they actively pollinate the flowers with their front legs and their mouthparts.<br />
Several hawk moth (Sphingidae) have a extremely long proboscis. There<strong>for</strong>e, while hovering<br />
and taking up nectar the insect will not get into contact with the flower. The advantage of the<br />
long proboscis is that it keeps the insect in a secure distance from hunting spiders which<br />
await their pray at flowers.<br />
Butterflies Moth<br />
Anacamptis pyramidalis (Orchidaceae) Angraecum sesquipedale (Orchidaceae)<br />
Bougainvillea spectabilis (Nyctanigaceae) Calystegia sepium (Convolvulaceae)<br />
Cardamine pratensis (Brassicaeae) Capparis spinosa (Capparaceae)<br />
Centranthus ruber (Valerianaceae) Lilium martagon (Liliaceae)<br />
Dianthus deltoides (Caryophyllaceae) Lonicera caprifolium (Caprifoliaceae)<br />
Gentiana verna (Gentianaceae) Oenothera biennis (Onagraceae)<br />
Gymnadenia conopsea (Orchidaceae) Phlox spp. (Polemoniaceae)<br />
Lilium bulbiferum (Liliaceae) Platathera bifolia (Orchidaceae)<br />
Narcissus poeticus (Amaryllidaceae) Platanthera chlorantha (Orchidaceae)<br />
Phlox spp. (Polemoniaceae) Silene nutans (Caryophyllaceae)<br />
Silene dioica (Caryophyllaceae) Yucca filamentosa (Agavaceae)<br />
Viola calcarata (Violaceae)<br />
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Hamm & Wittmann Fact sheet pollinators: Butterflies and Moth (Lepidoptera)<br />
Specific remarks:<br />
As butterflies use their habitats in different ways we can discriminate three types of habitat<br />
inhabitants:<br />
„One - habitate - inhabitants“: In these species the development from the egg to the imago<br />
takes place within a single habitat in which the adult butterflies also remain (e. g. Parnassius<br />
apollo).<br />
“Biotope – complex – inhabitants”: The adults of these species move <strong>for</strong> feeding to different<br />
biotopes (e. g. Papillio machon, Iphiclides podalirius).<br />
„Different – biotope- inhabitants“: These species are able to settle in different biotopes.<br />
However, once settled in a biotope they behave like „one - habitat – inhabitants“ (e.g<br />
Eumedonia eumedon, Euphydryas aurinia, Brenthis ino).<br />
Authors' addresses:<br />
Dr. Andreé Hamm & Prof. Dieter Wittmann, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation<br />
Section Ecology of Cultural Landscape (Zoo-Ecology), University of Bonn, Melbweg 42, 53127 Bonn,<br />
Germany. Website: http://www.tierökologie.uni-bonn.de, E-mail: a.hamm@uni-bonn.de,<br />
wittmann@uni-bonn.de<br />
166
Hamm Fact sheet pollinators: Beetles (Coleoptera)<br />
POLLINATOR GROUP:<br />
BEETLES<br />
Order: Coleoptera<br />
Author: ANDREE´ HAMM<br />
Species number<br />
Worldwide: 380.000<br />
Number of families: 187<br />
Distribution<br />
Trichodes apiarius (Cleridae) pollinating Leucanthemum vulgare (Asteraceae),<br />
Photo: M. Schindler<br />
Beetles live on all continents except Antarctica. They are the insect order which is represented<br />
with the most species worldwide. Because of their enormous diversity, they occupy<br />
all biotops except ice and pure salt water.<br />
Beetles biology and pollination<br />
The order Coleoptera comprises the largest number of pollinating species and individuals. A<br />
lot of beetle species live only on the flower products nectar and pollen (e.g. Nitidulidae,<br />
Cerambycidae, Buprestidae). Many predatory species additionally eat pollen of different<br />
flowers. While feeding in a flower beetles frequently get in contact with both anthers and<br />
stigmas. Some beetles are good pollinators as larvae (e.g. Meloe spec.). After hatching the<br />
larvae climb into specific flowers, where they feed on pollen. When an adequate host bee<br />
visits the flower the beetle larva mounts the bee (e.g. Andrena spec.) and is carried to its<br />
nest. There it feeds on the bee´s larva provisions.<br />
Major flower preferences<br />
Flowers pollinated by beetles emit strong odours to attract their pollinators. Odour emission<br />
often is en<strong>for</strong>ced by the warming of the flowers through the sun light. Visual cues are not so<br />
167
Hamm Fact sheet pollinators: Beetles (Coleoptera)<br />
important <strong>for</strong> the detection of the flowers by the beetles. Beetle pollinated flowers normally<br />
white, yellow or brown coloured and easy to access. There<strong>for</strong>e they are <strong>for</strong>med like a disk or<br />
a bowl. Some flowers <strong>for</strong>m traps that catch visiting beetles and shed them with pollen be<strong>for</strong>e<br />
releasing (Calycanthus floridus).<br />
Major flower preferences<br />
favoured floral shapes flowers <strong>for</strong>med like a disk or bowl<br />
morphological characteristics no<br />
microscopic characteristics no<br />
favoured colours white, yellow, brown<br />
scent strong, fruity<br />
nectar open, accessible<br />
Composed and modified after HEß, D. (1983)<br />
Beetles as crop pollinators<br />
Because of their unspecific behaviour beetles are normally not important <strong>for</strong> crop pollination<br />
like <strong>for</strong> example flies or bees. Anyway their flower visits often have an “additive“ pollination of<br />
certain crops as a result. A famous example <strong>for</strong> beetle pollination is the oil palm tree Elaeis<br />
guineensis (Aricaceae). The african beetle Elaidobius kamerunicus (Cucurlionidae) is the<br />
main important pollinator of Elaeis guineensis. Because of his affectivity it has been introduced<br />
in SO Asia. The annual benefit of the oil crop increased about 100 Mio. US Dollar.<br />
Acacia tortilis (Fabaceae); Momordica balsamica (Cucurbitaceae); Balsam-<br />
Apple<br />
Annona muricata (Anonaceae); Soursop Momordica charantia (Cucurbitaceae); Balsam-<br />
Pear<br />
Annona squamosa (Anonaceae); Shugar apple Parkia biglobosa (Fabaceae); African Locust<br />
Bean<br />
Bactris grasipaes (Arecaceae); Peach Palm Sambucus nigra (Caprifoliaceae); Elderberry<br />
Elaeis guineensis (Arecaceae); African Oil Palm Ziziphus jujuba (Rhamnaceae); Jujube<br />
Beetles and biodiversity of wild plants<br />
A large range of plant species of various families are visited and pollinated by a high number<br />
of beetle species. These beetles are responsible <strong>for</strong> the conservation of plant biodiversity in<br />
the ecosystems world wide. The biggest flowers on earth, Amorphophallus titanium, are pollinated<br />
by beetles.<br />
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Hamm Fact sheet pollinators: Beetles (Coleoptera)<br />
Specific remarks:<br />
Beetles belong to the oldest group of flower visiting and pollinating animals. In the earthhistory<br />
Hymenoptera, Diptera or Lepidoptera appeared later. Some authors believe that beetles<br />
are essentially responsible <strong>for</strong> the radiation of angiosperms. Today beetles still remain<br />
important pollinators especially <strong>for</strong> ancient plants like magnolias or spicebushes.<br />
Authors' address:<br />
Dr. Andreé Hamm, Institute of Crop Science and Resource Conservation Section Ecology of Cultural<br />
Landscape (Zoo-Ecology), University of Bonn, Melbweg 42, 53127 Bonn, Germany. Website:<br />
http://www.tierökologie.uni-bonn.de, E-mail: a.hamm@uni-bonn.de<br />
169
Schuchmann Fact sheet pollinators: Avian pollinators: Hummingbirds, Sunbirds,<br />
Honeyeaters, Hawaiian Honeycreepers (Trochilidae,Nectariniidae,<br />
Meliphagidae, Carduelidae)<br />
POLLINATOR GROUP:<br />
BIRDS<br />
Author: Karl-L. Schuchmann<br />
I. Hummingbirds<br />
Family Trochilidae<br />
Order Apodi<strong>for</strong>mes<br />
Non-Passeres<br />
Species number<br />
New world: c. 330<br />
Number of genera: 115<br />
Distribution<br />
Blue-throated Hummingbird (Lampornis clemenciae), Arizona,<br />
USA, visiting flowers of Penstemon sp. (Scrophulariaceae),<br />
Photo: Karl-L. Schuchmann<br />
New World only (Nearctic and Neotropical Region). Extremely wide range of habitats from<br />
sea-level to Andean snowfields and glaciers above 4000 m, absent only in extreme hot<br />
South American deserts (Peru and Chile). Highest species diversity in the equator-near<br />
mountains (Andes, Atlantic Rain Forest Mts. of Brazil) between 1000-2000 m a.s.l.<br />
(Schuchmann 1999). 70% of all species occur in South America, species number declines<br />
strongly with increasing latitudes.<br />
Hummingbird biology and pollination<br />
Hummingbirds are the smallest of all nectarivorous birds. Their body mass ranges from 1.9<br />
to 22 g.<br />
Thousands of New World plant species rely exclusively upon hummingbirds <strong>for</strong> pollination.<br />
As a consequence of the year-round high energy requirements of trochilids, plants that are<br />
pollinated by hummingbirds provide nectar at all times of the year, creating the opportunity of<br />
a phenological displacement of flowering times as a means of reducing interspecific pollen<br />
flow.<br />
170
Schuchmann Fact sheet pollinators: Avian pollinators: Hummingbirds, Sunbirds,<br />
Honeyeaters, Hawaiian Honeycreepers (Trochilidae,Nectariniidae,<br />
Meliphagidae, Carduelidae)<br />
The evolutionary relationship between hummingbirds and their food plants is a good<br />
example of close mutualism, resulting in the many adaptations between flower and pollen<br />
vector that together is called ornithophily. Plants that have converged upon the<br />
“hummingbird” syndrome bear relatively large flowers, solitary or loosely clustered, often<br />
placed in a horizontal or pendent position. Typical hummingbird plants open their blossoms<br />
during the day: the flowers are generally brightly coloured, often red, orange or yellow,<br />
sometimes in combination with contrasting white corolla parts. Exceptions can be found in<br />
the Gesneriaceae, where some epiphytic species exhibit solitary inconspicuous whitisch<br />
flowers. However, hummingbirds are attracted to these well-camouflaged flowers by their<br />
ornamental red-edged or red-centered leaves, a little studied advertisement strategy in<br />
hummingbird-pollinated plants known as phyto-flagging.<br />
The corolla of a typical hummingbird flower is often long, thickened, tubular in shape, and<br />
scentless. It contains sucrose-rich nectar which is taken by trochilids in hovering or hoverclasping<br />
flight. Many characterisitics of hummingbird-pollinated flowers, such as red colour,<br />
lack of odour, or the floral tubes with their thick walls, are adaptations either to avoid<br />
attracting insect competitiors or to prevent nectar robbing. Ornithophily seems to be<br />
energetically expensive <strong>for</strong> plants. Although the energetic expenditures of plant reproductive<br />
strategies are still poorly understood, it is most likely that this process is energy-demanding.<br />
The evolution of ornithophily must there<strong>for</strong>e be viewed from from the perspective of costs<br />
and benefits, obviously well balanced between hummingbirds and their plants.<br />
Due to their relatively high body mass hummingbirds have a much higher potential mobility<br />
than most insects. Foraging distances of more than 1 km have been reported <strong>for</strong> trochilids<br />
visiting widely distributed flowering shrubs in a single feeding bout. For most insects the<br />
travelling distance between successive flower visits tends to be much smaller and <strong>for</strong>aging<br />
strategies are much more stereotypic. A long-lived pollinator such as a hummingbird<br />
experiencing several flowering seasons during its lifespan, combined with the capacity of its<br />
excellent spatial memory, can easily remember localy or patchily flower stands. Thus, the<br />
floral environment <strong>for</strong> trochilids is much more differentiated in time and space than <strong>for</strong><br />
insects.<br />
Main flower preferences<br />
Hummingbirds pollinate about 30% of all Neotropical angiosperms. In cloud <strong>for</strong>ests (c. 1000-<br />
2500 m), where trochilids are the major pollinators, up to 60% of the local angiosperm<br />
population may depend on hummingbirds as pollen vectors.<br />
Common and well-studied hummingbird-pollinated species belong to the genus Zauschneria<br />
(Onagraceae), Delphinium and Aquilegia (Ranunculaceae), Mimulus (Scrophulariaceae),<br />
Aphelaria (Acanthaceae), Centropogon (Lobeliaceae), Psamisia and Cavendishia<br />
(Ericaceae), Psittacanthus (Loranthaceae), Heliconia (Heliconiaceae).<br />
171
Schuchmann Fact sheet pollinators: Avian pollinators: Hummingbirds, Sunbirds,<br />
Honeyeaters, Hawaiian Honeycreepers (Trochilidae,Nectariniidae,<br />
Meliphagidae, Carduelidae)<br />
Most ornithophilous plants are dicotyledonous perennial herbs and shrubs, and only a few<br />
trees are pollinated by hummingbirds. Flowering trees with a very large nectar source, like<br />
many Erythrina (Leguminosae) species, are quickly occupied by territorial hummingbirds<br />
which remain in the tree tops <strong>for</strong> the whole flowering period until the nectar declines. By<br />
doing so, pollen flow is greatly reduced. The most efficient pollinators of ornithophilous trees<br />
in America are songbirds, such as orioles (Icterus), which move in groups between widely<br />
scattered flowering trees. The pollen loads from different conspecific trees, deposited on<br />
their feathers, support the obligate reproductive system of these trees: cross-pollination<br />
(Grant and Grant 1968, Proctor et al.1996, Schuchmann 1999, Thery et al.).<br />
Hummingbirds and pollinated crops<br />
Hummingbirds have been observed to visit various crops during flowering (e.g., plantations<br />
of coffee, banana, pea etc.). However, no proof exists that trochilids play an obligate role<br />
during the reproductive process of crops in general.<br />
II. Sunbirds (incl. sugarbirds,<br />
flowerpeckers,<br />
and spiderhunters)<br />
Family Nectariniidae<br />
Order Passeri<strong>for</strong>mes<br />
Species number: Old world: c. 170; Number of genera: 40<br />
Distribution<br />
Old World radiation. Afrotropical region, Madagascar and near-by islands, Oriental region,<br />
Palaearctic region (Levant), New Guinea, Solomons, eastern Australia. About 50% of all<br />
species occur in the Afrotropical, 40% in the Oriental region (Cheke et al. 2001, Wolters<br />
1983).<br />
172
Schuchmann Fact sheet pollinators: Avian pollinators: Hummingbirds, Sunbirds,<br />
Honeyeaters, Hawaiian Honeycreepers (Trochilidae,Nectariniidae,<br />
Meliphagidae, Carduelidae)<br />
Sunbirds biology and pollination<br />
Sunbirds are small to medium sized birds of 6 – 30 g.<br />
They occur in almost all tropical and subtropical habitats, reaching high mountain altitudes in<br />
the Himalayas above 3000 m. They mainly <strong>for</strong>age near water and rarely invade arid areas or<br />
swamps.<br />
The diet of sunbirds consists to a much smaller fraction of nectar than in hummingbirds<br />
(sunbirds less than 40%, hummingbirds over 90%). Their main food constituent are<br />
arthropods (c. 60%; in hummingbirds c. 10 %) (Schuchmann 1984). Besides nectar, fruits,<br />
and pollen are known to be consumed by all sunbirds. Arthropods are frequently collected at<br />
or around flowers. Sunbirds mainly consume nectar while perching. During feeding at<br />
flowers pollen is dusted onto the bill, tonuge, and the feathers. Any that is not consumed will<br />
be carried to other conspecific flowering angiosperms inducing pollination. Many sunbirds<br />
are nectar robbers piercing the bases of corollas thus reducing the chances of pollination.<br />
In sunbirds pollen is deposited mainly on the crown feathers and on the bill. However in the<br />
case of Strelitzia nicolai (Strelitziaceae) pollen seems to be transferred to the reproductive<br />
organs via the feet (Frost & Frost 1981). Sunbirds are generally much less associated with<br />
certain angiosperms. So far the only known exception is the Cape Sugarbirds (Promerops<br />
cafer) which seems to pollinate only South African Protea species (Proteaceae).<br />
Main flower preferences<br />
Common and widely distributed angiosperms, e.g. Leonotis leonurus (Labiatae) and<br />
Strelitzia sp. (Strelitziaceae) are known to be pollinated by sunbirds. Flowering exotic<br />
ornamental plants are frequently visited by sunbirds in search <strong>for</strong> insects and nectar.<br />
However, these angiosperms rarely depend on sunbirds <strong>for</strong> pollination. The pollination<br />
syndrome of sunbirds and their flowers is much less known to science than in hummingbirds.<br />
Sunbirds and pollinated crops<br />
No in<strong>for</strong>mation is available on that topic.<br />
Sunbirds and biodiversity of wild plants<br />
Sunbirds have a wide range of food items (esp. arthropods, fruits) and depend much less on<br />
nectar, which frequently is compensated by sugar-rich fruits. Hence their impact on the<br />
reproductive system and speciation mode of plants seems to be less effective.<br />
173
Schuchmann Fact sheet pollinators: Avian pollinators: Hummingbirds, Sunbirds,<br />
Honeyeaters, Hawaiian Honeycreepers (Trochilidae,Nectariniidae,<br />
Meliphagidae, Carduelidae)<br />
III. Honeyeaters<br />
Family Meliphagidae<br />
Order Passeri<strong>for</strong>mes<br />
Species number: Old world: c. 173; Number of genera: 52<br />
Distribution<br />
Old World. Australasian region, including New Zealand and New Guinea, Lesser Sunda and<br />
Bonin Islands, Micronesia, Melanesia, Polynesia, and Hawaii. Australia is the most speciesdiverse<br />
region (68 species) (Pizzey 1980). Honeyeaters occupy every vegetational zone<br />
including mangroves and subalpine habitats as far as 4500 m asl.<br />
Honeyeaters biology and pollination<br />
Honeyeaters are fairly slim birds with elongated often slightly decurved bills. They vary in<br />
size and body mass (size 10 – 40 cm, 8 – 80 g). Although many species are basically<br />
sedentary they still show local movement, especially in those taxa occuring in arid habitats.<br />
A few species are regular migrants, e.g., Yellow-faced (Lichenostomus chrysops) and Whitenaped<br />
Honeyeaters (Melithreptus lunatus), which migrate from south to central-east<br />
Australia. Much movement is associated with flowering patterns of major food plants, such<br />
as eucalyptus, coastal banksias or the arid-zone emu-bush (Eremophila).<br />
Probably all honeyeaters consume some nectar and some of them depend on it as their<br />
main food source of energy, others take it when it becomes locally abundant. Likewise, all<br />
honeyeaters feed on arthropods (c. 60% of all food items), fruits and mistletoe berries (e.g.,<br />
Painted Honeyeater, Grantiella picta). Unusual food items include crustaceans (Mangrove<br />
Honeyeater, Lichenostomus fasciogularis) and lizards (Wattled Honeyeater, Foulehaio<br />
carunculata).<br />
Main flower preferences<br />
Honeyeaters are important pollinators of native plants of the families Myrtaceae, Proteaceae,<br />
and Epacridaceae in Australia, New Zealand, and elsewhere (Armstrong 1979, Ford & Paton<br />
1986). Bird flowers are usually red, yellow or white, though some are cryptically coloured.<br />
Corollas are open and cup-like, tubular or gullet-shaped. Many inflorescences of native<br />
plants in Australia and New Zealand are brush-like. Some honeyeaters are seed dispersers,<br />
others are both pollinators and seed dispersers of mistletoes (Loranthaceae).<br />
174
Schuchmann Fact sheet pollinators: Avian pollinators: Hummingbirds, Sunbirds,<br />
Honeyeaters, Hawaiian Honeycreepers (Trochilidae,Nectariniidae,<br />
Meliphagidae, Carduelidae)<br />
Honeyeaters and pollinated crops<br />
No in<strong>for</strong>mation available.<br />
Honeyeaters and biodiversity of wild plants<br />
The importance of honeyeaters <strong>for</strong> the pollination of native plants is not well documented.<br />
However, <strong>for</strong> some species of the families Myrtaceae, Proteaceae, and Loranthaceae,<br />
honeyeaters are obligate pollinators.<br />
IV. (Hawaiian) Honeycreepers<br />
Family Carduelidae<br />
Order Passeri<strong>for</strong>mes<br />
Species number: Hawaiian islands only: 22; Number of genera: 17<br />
Distribution<br />
Endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. All island habitats above 600 m asl (Pratt et al. 1987).<br />
Honeycreepers biology and pollination<br />
The ancestors of Hawaiian honeycreepers stem from Eurasian cardueline finches, most of<br />
them seedeaters. Hence it is not surprising that during their radiation on the oceanic islands<br />
of Hawaii distinct feeding habits gave raise to fairly defined groups. One group includes<br />
finches not very different from the thick billed seedeaters of other taxonmic groups. The<br />
second group includes an array of thin-billed mainly “green” birds of superficial similarity that<br />
feed on both nectar and insects. The third group comprises some of the most brightly<br />
coloured (red) long-billed nectar-feeders, that are strongly associated with the red-flowering<br />
ohia-lehua tree (Metrosideros collina). Nectar-feeding honeycreepers are extremely<br />
territorial. They aggressively defend their food sources against conspecifics and other<br />
nectarivores. When nectar is scarce many species feed on fruits and on foliage insects. The<br />
body mass of Hawaiian honey ranges from 8 – 40 g (Berger 1981).<br />
175
Schuchmann Fact sheet pollinators: Avian pollinators: Hummingbirds, Sunbirds,<br />
Honeyeaters, Hawaiian Honeycreepers (Trochilidae,Nectariniidae,<br />
Meliphagidae, Carduelidae)<br />
Main flower preferences<br />
Besides the ohia tree (M. collina), lobeliads, such as the endemic Clermontia arborescens,<br />
as well as various introduced passiflora and banana species are the basic nectar source <strong>for</strong><br />
most members of the nectarivorous guild (Scott et al. 1986). However, M. collina seems to<br />
be the dominant species pollinated by various Honeycreepers (e.g. Vestaria coccinea,<br />
Himatione sanguinea, Drepanis pacifica).<br />
Honeycreepers and pollinated crops<br />
Not known, but unlikely.<br />
Honeycreepers and biodiversity of wild plants<br />
Presuming <strong>for</strong> less than a dozen angiosperms Hawaiian honeycreepers are obligatory<br />
pollinators (Scott et al. 1986), a quite frequently observed phenomenon <strong>for</strong> plant populations<br />
occurring on subtropical or tropical oceanic islands.<br />
Authors' address:<br />
Prof. Dr. Karl-Ludwig Schuchmann, Zoologisches Forschungsmuseum Alexander Koenig, Abteilung<br />
Ornithologie, Adenauerallee 160, 53113 Bonn, Germany. Website: www.zfmk.de, E-Mail:<br />
kl.schuchmann.zfmk@uni-bonn.de.<br />
176
Tschapka Fact sheet pollinators: Bats (Chiroptera)<br />
POLLINATOR GROUP:<br />
BATS<br />
Order: Chiroptera<br />
Author: MARCO TSCHAPKA<br />
Species number<br />
Worldwide: ca. 100 species.<br />
Number of families: 2<br />
(Phyllostomidae, Pteropodidae,<br />
additionally very few<br />
opportunistic flower visitors<br />
in other bat families, e.g.<br />
Mystacinidae)<br />
Distribution<br />
Subtropical and tropical regions. Main specialized flower visitors in the Neotropics are the<br />
Glossophaginae (Phyllostomidae). Among the Old World Pteropodidae (Flying Foxes) are<br />
only a few specialized flower visitors, while a larger number of species opportunistically visit<br />
flowers and supplement their fruit diet with nectar.<br />
Bat biology and pollination<br />
A Neotropical Lichonycteris obscura (Phyllostomidae: Glossophaginae)<br />
approaching an inflorescence of Marcgravia nervosa (Marcgraviaceae), a<br />
canopy liana. Photo by Marco Tschapka, University of Ulm.<br />
Bat pollination (Chiropterophily) is an entirely subtropical and tropical phenomenon, due to<br />
the necessity of year-round availability of the floral resources <strong>for</strong> the long-lived animals. Corresponding<br />
to size and food requirements of their comparably large pollinators, bat pollinated<br />
flowers are usually rather big and offer considerable amounts of nectar and pollen.<br />
Main bat flower visitors in the Old World are flying foxes (Pteropodidae), bats that evidently<br />
have lost their echolocation capability and rely instead on an excellent night vision <strong>for</strong> nocturnal<br />
orientation (Teeling et al. 2005). Most of the pteropodid bats are rather unspecialized<br />
flower visitors that opportunistically consume nectar in addition to a diet mainly based on<br />
fruits. Only a number of taxa, e.g. the genera Macroglossus, Megaloglossus and<br />
Syconycteris specialize on nectar and show distinct adaptations to this diet, such as elongated<br />
rostra and tongues. Nectar is mainly consumed while clinging to a flower; hovering<br />
visits are rare. Another Old World flower visitor is the extraordinary Mystacina tuberculata<br />
(Mystacinidae) from New Zealand. This bat, one of the two species of native terrestrial<br />
mammals in New Zealand, feeds mainly on arthropods but visits also a number of flowers<br />
that appear to be specialized on bat pollination (Lord, 1991, Arkins et al. 1999).<br />
177
Tschapka Fact sheet pollinators: Bats (Chiroptera)<br />
In the New World bat pollination systems appear to be more specialized. Especially the<br />
Glossophaginae, a subfamily within the ecologically extremely adaptable New World Leaf-<br />
Nosed bats (Phyllostomidae) evolved into using nectar as their main dietary item. Fruits and<br />
insects <strong>for</strong>m <strong>for</strong> several species also part of the diet; however, the main morphological and<br />
behavioural adaptations of Glossophagines are only related to nectarivory: An extremely<br />
long tongue and an associated long rostrum allow the access to nectar produced deep within<br />
blossoms; teeth are frequently reduced and flowers are visited in short hovering flights. New<br />
World glossophagine bats are distributed from the Southern United States to Argentina and<br />
live in deserts, rain <strong>for</strong>ests and tropical mountain ranges up to 3000 m. A few species migrate<br />
seasonally in response to the phenology of important food plants, such as Agave spp.<br />
and columnar cactus species. Besides the specialized Glossophagines and the small Antillean<br />
subfamily Phyllonycterinae, there are also a number of opportunistic phyllostomid flower<br />
visitors such as Phyllostomus discolor (Phyllostomidae: Phyllostominae) or Artibeus jamaicensis<br />
(Phyllostomidae: Stenoderminae) that feed mainly on other resources, such as<br />
insects or fruit but may include also nectar from large flowers into their diet.<br />
Main flower preferences<br />
The main motivation <strong>for</strong> flower-visitation by bats is nectar; only in a few plant species serve<br />
fleshy floral parts as a reward <strong>for</strong> the visitors (Lord 1991, Tschapka 2003). Pollen is <strong>for</strong> specialized<br />
nectar-feeding bats an important source of protein that is ingested both directly from<br />
the flower and also indirectly while grooming the fur during nocturnal resting periods. Nightblooming<br />
flowers pollinated by bats both in the New and the Old World are characterized by<br />
– to humans – not very pleasant odours, that have been compared to e.g., the smell of garlic,<br />
mouse urine or human excrements (Dobat & Peikert-Holle 1985). To facilitate the flower<br />
access <strong>for</strong> the relatively large bats, inflorescences are often raised well above the leaves or<br />
hang on long stalks into the open air space below branches (flagelliflory). At some trees<br />
flowers emerge also directly from the trunk or from larger branches (cauliflory). During the<br />
night bright colours are of less importance <strong>for</strong> finding flowers, and consequently many batpollinated<br />
flowers are dull brown, green, or purple. Nevertheless, white flowers, such as<br />
those of some columnar cacti in the Mexican deserts (e.g. Stenocereus spp., Pachycereus<br />
spp.), may also provide optical guidance <strong>for</strong> the bats in these more open habitats. Some<br />
flowers in the Neotropics may even address the bats´ echolocation system by providing particularly<br />
good sound reflecting properties, such as the vine Mucuna holtonii (Fabaceae)<br />
(Helversen & Helversen 1999). Flower visitation by pteropodid bats in the Old World occurs<br />
mainly by landing on the flowers, and the specifically adapted flowers, such as Musa<br />
(Musaceae) or Kigelia (Bignoniaceae) have to be robust enough to support the weight of<br />
their large visitors. The hovering capabilities of the New World Glossophagines, however,<br />
allowed also some of the more fragile plant families to develop mutualisms with pollinating<br />
bats. Consequently Neotropical bats visit robust flowers, such as Agave spp. and Ochroma<br />
pyramidale, but also smaller and more delicate flowers, even from herbs, such as Irlbachia<br />
alata (Gentianaceae), Capanea grandiflora (Gesneriaceae) or Burmeistera spp. (Lobeliaceae).<br />
The latter are exclusively used by the hovering glossophagines, while opportunistic<br />
nectar-feeding phyllostomid bats generally perch on some of the more robust flowers.<br />
178
Tschapka Fact sheet pollinators: Bats (Chiroptera)<br />
Bats and pollinated crops<br />
Bat-pollinated plants are utilized by humans in many ways, ranging from fruits like durian<br />
and bananas, to fibres and trees cultivated <strong>for</strong> their wood. Occasionally, generalist bats of<br />
the genus Glossophaga carry in their fur also pollen from some cultivated plants where they<br />
probably do not contribute much to pollination, but just opportunistically exploit insect –<br />
pollinated flowers, e.g. coconut (Cocos nucifera) or papaya (Carica papaya).<br />
Examples are:<br />
Fruits Other:<br />
Durio zibethinus (Bombacaceae), Durian, O Agave tequilana (Agavaceae), Tequila, N<br />
Musa spp. (Musaceae), Banana, O Agave sisalana (Agavaceae), Sisal, N<br />
Stenocereus spp. (Cactaceae), Pitaya, N Ceiba pentandra, (Bombacaceae), Kapok, O &<br />
N<br />
Anacardium occidentale (Anacardiaceae),<br />
Cashew N<br />
179<br />
Crescentia cujete (Bignoniaceae), Calabash<br />
tree, N<br />
Matisia cordata (Bombacaceae), Zapote, N Bombacopsis quinata (Bombacaceae), wood, N<br />
Syzygium jambos (Myrtaceae), Malay apple, O Ochroma pyramidale (Bombacaceae), wood, N<br />
The letters N (New World) and O (Old World) in the table indicate the natural occurrence of<br />
the mentioned species in the respective regions. However, bat-pollinated plants transferred<br />
from one region to the other will frequently get visits from non-coevolved flower-visiting bats,<br />
e.g. the Old World species Musa spp. and Kigelia aethiopica are in the New World readily<br />
visited by glossophagine bats.<br />
Bats and biodiversity of wild plants<br />
While bats pollinate certainly fewer plants than most insect groups, they may play especially<br />
in dry habitats an important role as valuable long-distance pollinators that may cover up to<br />
100 km during just a single night (Horner et al. 1998). Some examples of families with bat<br />
pollinated species are:<br />
Family Selected genera and species:<br />
Bignoniaceae Crescentia alata, C. cujete, Kigelia spp., Parmentiera<br />
spp.<br />
Bombacaceae Bombacopsis quinata, Pseudobombax ellipticum,<br />
Ceiba spp., Matisia spp., Adansonia digitata<br />
Bromeliaceae Werauhia (Vriesea) spp.<br />
Cactaceae Stenocereus spp., Pachycereus spp., Carnegia<br />
gigantea, Weberocereus spp.<br />
Capparaceae Cleome spp., Crataeva spp., Capparis spp.<br />
Caesalpiniaceae Bauhinia spp., Hymenaea courbaril<br />
Fabaceae Mucuna spp., Erythrina spp.
Tschapka Fact sheet pollinators: Bats (Chiroptera)<br />
Malvaceae Abutilon spp., Wercklea spp.<br />
Mimosaceae Inga spp., Parkia spp., Calliandra spp.<br />
Musaceae Musa spp., incl. many cultivated varieties<br />
Solanaceae Merinthopodium spp., Solandra spp., Trianaea<br />
spp.<br />
General summaries on chiropterophily and bat pollinated plants are found in Dobat &<br />
Peikert-Holle (1985), Helversen (1993) and Tschapka & Dressler (2002). A review by Fujita<br />
& Tuttle (1991) focuses particularly on Old World pteropodid bats’ interactions with plants. A<br />
valuable online resource is the regularly updated database on Neotropical bat / plant interactions<br />
(Geiselman et al. 2002).<br />
Specific remarks<br />
Bats are in many regions of the earth threatened indirectly by habitat conversion but also<br />
directly by destruction of their roosting places. The New World frugivorous and nectarivorous<br />
species are frequently confused with vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus, Phyllostomidae:<br />
Desmodontinae) that regularly drink blood from livestock and may even transmit dangerous<br />
diseases, such as rabies. In consequence, many people project the characteristics of these<br />
potentially harmful species on all bat species, kill them whenever they find them and destroy<br />
encountered bat roosts. Environmental education initiatives are essential to overcome these<br />
misbelieves and to secure the bats´ pollination services <strong>for</strong> the future.<br />
Web links<br />
GEISELMAN, C.K., MORI, S.A. & F. BLANCHARD (2002 onwards). Database of Neotropical Bat/Plant Interactions.<br />
http://www.nybg.org/botany/tlobova/mori/batsplants/database/dbase_frameset.htm (accessed<br />
9.12.08)<br />
Authors' address:<br />
Dr. Marco Tschapka, Institute f. Experimental Ecology – Biology III, University of Ulm<br />
Albert-Einstein-Allee 11, 89069 Ulm, Germany, email: Marco.Tschapka@uni-ulm.de, Website:<br />
http://www.uni-ulm.de/index.php?id=7894<br />
180
Literature<br />
Literature<br />
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Links<br />
International <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiatives<br />
Convention on Biological Diversity: International Pollinator Initiative<br />
http://www.cbd.int/agro/pollinator.shtml<br />
The Sao Paulo Declaration on <strong>Pollinators</strong><br />
http://www.biodiv.org/doc/ref/agr-pollinator-rpt.pdf<br />
COP 6 (Decision VI/5). Plan of Action of IPI.<br />
http://www.biodiv.org/decisions/default.aspx?lg==&dec=VI/5.<br />
Convention of biological diversity (COP9, 9th Conference of Parties, Bonn, 2008)<br />
http://www.cbd.int/cop9/<br />
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO)<br />
http://www.fao.org/biodiversity/ecosystems/bio-pollinators/en/<br />
Rapid Assessment of <strong>Pollinators</strong>´ status (FAO 2008)<br />
http://www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/sbstta/sbstta-13/other/sbstta-13-fao-pollinatorsen.pdf<br />
Regional <strong>Pollinators</strong> Initiatives<br />
African Pollinator Initiative<br />
http://www.up.ac.za/academic/entomological-society/rostrum/apr01/page5.html<br />
http://www.scienceinafrica.co.za/pollinator.htm<br />
Asia: International Centre <strong>for</strong> Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD)<br />
http://www.icimod.org/?page=86<br />
Brasilian Pollinator Initiative<br />
http://eco.ib.usp.br/beelab/<br />
European Pollinator Initiative<br />
http://www.europeanpollinatorinitiative.org/<br />
North American Pollinator Protection Campaign<br />
http://www.nappc.org/<br />
Oceania Pollinator Initiative<br />
http://www.oceaniapollinator.org/<br />
Other interesting links<br />
Brazilian in<strong>for</strong>mation network on bee biodiversity<br />
http://www.webbee.org.br/<br />
Centre <strong>for</strong> Agri-Environmental Research<br />
http://www.apd.rdg.ac.uk/Agriculture/CAER/<br />
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EU Project: Assessing large-scale risks <strong>for</strong> biodiversity with tested methods<br />
http://www.alarmproject.net/alarm/<br />
Global Biodiversity In<strong>for</strong>mation Facility<br />
http://www.gbif.org/<br />
Global Taxonomy Initiative<br />
http://www.cbd.int/gti/<br />
List of national focal points<br />
http://www.cbd.int/doc/lists/nfp-gti.pdf<br />
German contact<br />
http://www.gti-kontaktstelle.de/kontakt_nat.html<br />
International Bee Research Association (IBRA)<br />
http://www.ibra.org.uk/<br />
International Federation of Beekeepers' Associations<br />
http://www.beekeeping.com/apimondia/<br />
International Network of Expertise <strong>for</strong> Sustainable Pollination (INESP)<br />
http://www.uoguelph.ca/~inesp/<br />
National Biological In<strong>for</strong>mation Infrastructure<br />
http://pollinators.nbii.gov<br />
Pollinator Partnership<br />
http://www.pollinator.org/<br />
Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute<br />
http://www.stri.org/<br />
Task Force on Declining Pollination of the Species Survival Commission World Conservation<br />
Union (IUCN)<br />
http://www.uoguelph.ca/~iucn/<br />
The BioSystematic Database of World Diptera: http://www.diptera.org/biosys.htm.<br />
World Bees Checklist workshop. Assess<br />
http://www.cria.org.br/eventos/tdbi/wbcw<br />
World Fly Names (BioSystematic Database of World Diptera)<br />
http://www.diptera.org/biosys.htm<br />
Editors homepages<br />
Federal Agency <strong>for</strong> Nature Conservation<br />
http://www.bfn.de<br />
University of Bonn<br />
http://www.tieroekologie.uni-bonn.de<br />
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