Aleurites moluccana (Kukui) - Agroforestry Net

IN BRIEF 

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry 

www.traditionaltree.org 

Distribution Widespread throughout the tropics. 

Size Typically reaches 10–15 m (33–50 ft), with similar 

crown diameter. 

Habitat Subtropical dry to wet and tropical very dry to 

wet forest climates. Typically 0–700 m (0–2300 ft) with 

rainfall of 640–4290 mm (25–170 in). 

Vegetation Associated with a wide variety of cultivated 

plants. 

Soils Prefers light and medium textured soils; grows even on 

Aleurites moluccana (kukui) 

Euphorbiaceae (spurge family) 

‘ama (Marquesas); candlenut, candleberry, varnish tree, Indian or Belgaum walnut (English); kukui, kuikui (Hawai‘i); 

lama (Samoa); lauci, nggerenggere, sikeci, sikeli, sikethi, toto, tuitui, tutui, waiwai (Fiji); lumbang (Guam); raguar (Caroline 

Islands); rama (Mangareva); sakan (Palau); sakan, shakan (Pohnpei); tahii, tahiri, tiairi, ti‘a‘iri, tutui (Moorea 

[French Polynesia]); tuitui (Mangaia [Cook Islands], Futuna, Makatea, Niue, Tonga, Tubuai, Uvea); tutu‘i, ti‘a‘iri 

(Society Islands); tutui (Rimatara, Rurutu, Tahiti) 

Craig R. Elevitch and Harley I. Manner 

basalt, red loams, stony clay ground, sand, and limestone. 

Growth rate Moderately fast growing in favorable conditions, 

growing 0.5–1.5 m (1.6–5 ft) per year. 

Main agroforestry uses Windbreak, screen/hedge, soil 

stabilization, homegardens. 

Main products Oil from seed, nut shells for leis. 

Yields 80 kg (176 lb) seeds per tree/year in cultivation. 

April 2006 

ver. 2.1 

A gathering place under kukui. 

Intercropping Planted as a boundary or windbreak tree. 

Invasive potential Moderate, has naturalized in many areas. 

Rarely considered a pest. 

photo: C. ElEvitCh

INTRODUCTION 

Kukui is one of the great domesticated multipurpose trees 

of the world. It is one of the most useful trees introduced by 

the aboriginal people of the Pacific islands. A tall, spreading 

tree in open areas, it commonly attains heights of 10 m 

(33 ft) and a canopy diameter about as wide as the tree 

is tall. Kukui grows in homegardens, in and around farms, 

and naturalized along streams, gulches, and valley slopes. It 

is easily recognized by its characteristic silvery gray-green 

foliage, which is particularly ornamental. 

Kukui is native to the Indo-Malaysia region and was introduced 

in ancient times throughout the Pacific islands. It 

can grow in a wide range of dry to wet tropical and subtropical 

habitats but is most at home in the moist tropics 

with annual rainfall of 2000 mm (80 in) or greater. Kukui 

tolerates drought and wind and grows readily on poor soils 

as well as steep slopes. Due to its many traditional uses and 

its role in ecosystems, kukui is recognized as the official 

state tree of Hawai‘i. 

The traditional uses of kukui are extensive. Throughout 

Polynesia kukui is known in local languages by names 

whose root means “light,” referring to the traditional use 

of seeds and oil which were burned for illumination. Many 

parts of the plant including the seeds, leaves, flowers, and 

bark were used in traditional medicine. Caution is advised 

in using the plant medicinally or for consumption, as all 

parts of the tree are toxic. Dyes extracted from various 

plant parts were used to color tapa cloth and canoes, as 

well as in tattooing. Today, in addition to its traditional 

uses, kukui has found commercial uses, particularly in the 

cosmetics industry. 

In urban areas, kukui makes a lovely shade tree or visual 

screen. In agricultural systems it can be integrated for use 

in windbreaks, shade, soil stabilization, and improved fallow. 

Kukui can regenerate and naturalize where planted, 

and it has been described as a moderate invader in certain 

areas. However, it is rarely considered invasive or problematic. 

DISTRIBUTION 

Native range 

Kukui is native to Indo-Malaysia. It thrives in moist tropical 

regions up to 1200 m (3940 ft) elevation. 

Current distribution 

Kukui is today widespread throughout the tropics. It was 

introduced aboriginally throughout the Pacific islands and 

is now a common tree of the Pacific at elevations up to 700 


m (2300 ft). In Hawai‘i, kukui has naturalized in forests 

on all the main islands and is commonly found in cultivation. 

It is particularly at home in moderately moist valleys, 

where it has become a conspicuous part of the landscape. 

Elsewhere in the Pacific, it is primarily found in cultivation 

in villages and plantations or in secondary growth following 

cultivation or along stream banks. The tree is also found 

in Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Malagasy, Sri Lanka, 

southern India, Bangladesh, Brazil, the West Indies, and 

the Gulf Coast of the United States. 

BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION 

Preferred scientific name 

Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. 

Family Euphorbiaceae (spurge family) 

Non-preferred scientific names 

Synonyms no longer in use include: 

Aleurites javanica Gand. 

Aleurites remyi Sherff 

Aleurites triloba Forster & Forster f. 

Camirium moluccanum (L.) Ktze. 

Croton moluccanus L. 

Jatropha moluccana L. 

Common names 

Candlenut, candleberry, varnish tree, Indian or Belgaum 

walnut (English) 

The roots of the Polynesian names below mean “light,” referring 

to the ancient use of burning the nuts or oil extracted 

from the nuts to provide illumination: 

‘ama (Marquesas) 

kukui, kuikui (Hawai‘i) 

lama (Samoa) 

rama (Mangareva) 

tahii, tahiri, tiairi, ti‘a‘iri, tutui (Moorea, French Polynesia) 

tuitui (Mangaia [Cook Islands], Futuna, Makatea, Niue, 

Tonga, Tubuai, Uvea) 

tutu‘i, ti‘a‘iri (Society Islands) 

tutui (Rimatara, Rurutu, Tahiti) 

Other common names from the Pacific include: 

lauci, nggerenggere, sikeci, sikeli, sikethi, toto, tuitui, tutui, 

waiwai (Fiji) 

lumbang (Guam) 

raguar (Caroline Islands) 

sakan (Palau) 

sakan, shakan (Pohnpei) 

Names from other world regions include:

Left: Kukui often is found in the regrowth of abandoned agricultural sites, such as here in American Samoa. (pictured: Tuipuavai 

Tago) Right: The distinctive canopy often stands out in the landscape, such as here on the slopes of Waipi‘o Valley, 

Hawai‘i. photos: C. ElEvitCh 

arbol llorón, avellano, avellano criollo, nogal de la India, nuez 

(Spanish) 

bancoulier, noyer de bancoul, noyer des Moluques, aleurites, 

noisette, noix, noyer, noyer des Indes (French) 

calumbàn, noz da India (Portuguese) 

kamiri (Indonesian) 

kandeltri (Bislama, Vanuatu) 

Kerzennussbaum, Lichtnussbaum (German) 

le noix de Bancoul (French, Vanuatu) 

lèrit, nwa, nwazèt (Creole) 

ragaur (Carolinian) 

tung (trade name) 

Size and form 

Kukui is a large spreading tree that can reach 20 m (66 ft) 

in height and 0.9 m (3 ft) trunk diameter, although it typically 

reaches 10–15 m (33–50 ft) when growing in the open. 

Crooked trunks and irregular, wide, spreading or pendulous 

side branches are typical. In narrow valleys kukui usually 

has a branchless trunk and achieves its greatest height. 

Dense clusters of kukui are often seen in areas favorable 

to its growth, with the inner trees having tall trunks with 

relatively few side branches and trees on the edge having 

outer side branches and foliage often down to the ground. 

Flowers 

Kukui is monoecious (having both male and female flowers 

on the same plant). The greenish-white, fragrant flowers 

are arranged in a 10–15 cm (4–6 in) terminal panicled 

cyme, with many small male flowers surrounding the female 

flowers. The corolla is whitish with five free petals, 

dingy white to creamy in color, oblong in shape and up to 

1.3 cm (0.5 in) in length. The ovary is pubescent, superior, 

and two-celled, each with one ovule. Staminate flowers are 

longer and thinner than pistillate flowers. 

The plant typically flowers in the spring, although flowers 

can be found nearly any time of year in many areas. 

Leaves 

This tree is easily discernible by its very distinctive leaves, 

which are three- to five-nerved from the base, alternate, and 

simple, with entire, wavy margins. The leaf blades are 10–20 

cm (4–8 in) long with two glands at the junction of the 

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org)

Upper left: The scientific name for kukui, Aleurites, comes from the Greek word for “floury,” referring to the dusted-flour appearance 

of young leaves and flower buds. Upper right: Trees often flower nearly continuously. Lower right: Ripe fruit in tree. 

Lower left: Bark is smooth and light gray in color, often with lichen growth in moist areas. photos: C. ElEvitCh 

leaf base and petiole that secrete a sweetish sap. Leaves of 

young plants and those of the lower branches are three- to 

five-lobed with a rounded, heart-shaped base (subcordate), 

while the apex is acute (sharp). Younger leaves are usually 

simple and deltoid to ovate in shape. The upper surface of 

young leaves is whitish with a silvery gloss, becoming dark 

green with age. The underside is rusty stellate-pubescent 

when young (having a hairy glossy indument). 

Fruit 

The green to brownish fruit is a laterally compressed, ovoid 

to globose indehiscent drupe 5–6 cm (2–2.4 in) long by 

5–7 cm (2–2.8 in) wide. It has also been described as being 

“round, hard apple-shaped” with fleshy to leathery husks. 

The nuts contain an oil similar to tung oil from Aleurites 

fordii. 


Seeds 

The seeds are contained within a hard, black, rough shell 

elliptical in shape and about 2.5–3.5 (1–1.4 in) cm long. The 

shells are similar in shape and texture to walnuts, although 

smaller and thicker. There are about 100–120 seeds (with 

shells on, but with husks removed) per kilogram (45–55 

seeds/lb). 

Similar species 

Aleurites trisperma Blanco is a small tree similar to kukui (A. 

moluccana). Unlike kukui, A. trisperma has unlobed leaves 

and prominently ridged three-seeded fruits. 

GENETICS 

Variability 

There is great variability in kukui, particularly in the leaves,

which can vary tremendously in size, shape, color, and texture, 

even on a single tree. For example, leaves of young 

plants and of the lower branches are three- to five-lobed 

while older leaves and those of the upper branches are usually 

simple and deltoid to ovate in shape. Fruits can range 

in size up to 4 cm (1.6 in) in diameter. 

Known varieties 

The variety aulanii is named for small-fruited plants from 

Waipi‘o Valley, Hawai‘i (Wagner et al. 1999). The variety 

katoi (mango-leafed kukui) has “narrow, lanceolate leaves 

with lateral lobes obscure or absent” (Stuppy et al. undated). 

The remyi variety, also the probable result of aboriginal Hawaiian 

selection, has “lengthened, simple lanceolate leaves 

(with or without obscure lobes) or deeply lobed leaves with 

the lateral lobes very narrow and the terminal lobe much 

elongated,” while a cultivar from New Caledonia has orbicular 

leaves (Stuppy et al. undated). A variety found in 

Vanuatu (Maewo) has seeds which can be eaten without 

any apparent toxic effect (Walter and Sam 2002). 

Culturally important related species 

In China, tung oil is produced from Aleurites fordii (Stone 

1970). In Japan, A. cordata is used for the same purpose, 

while other related species are A. montana and A. trisperma 

(Anon. undated [2]). 

ASSOCIATED PLANT SPECIES 

As kukui is an aboriginal introduction to the Pacific islands, 

it is generally found in disturbed mesic (moderately moist) 

forest habitats. In Hawai‘i, it is very conspicuous along 

stream valleys and ravines. However, it can also be found 

in association with native species. It is found in cultivated 

forest remnants in the Marquesas and other high volcanic 

islands of the Pacific. 

Associated native species commonly found 

On Mangaia (Cook Islands), kukui is found in “disturbed 

native” mixed-species forest dominated by the native tree 

species Elaeocarpus floridanus and Hernandia moerenhoutiana 

(Merlin 1991). Introduced species associated with kukui 

include Cocos nucifera, Morinda citrifolia, Hibiscus tiliaceus, 

and Psidium guajava. 

In Pahole Gulch, O‘ahu, Hawai‘i, kukui is a dominant 

species in a forest composed of Diospyros hillebrandii, D. 

sandwicensis, Pisonia umbellifera, and P. brunoniana (Mueller-Dombois 

and Fosberg 1998). Kukui is also a dominant 

in non-native forests of the Pahole Gulch Natural 

Area, composed of Syzygium cumini, Psidium spp., Schinus 

terebinthifolius, and Eucalyptus (Mueller-Dombois and 

Hawaiian sayings (Pukui 1983) 

He kumu kukui i he‘e ka pīlali. 

“A kukui tree oozing with gum.” 

(A prosperous person.) 

Ka malu hālau loa o ke kukui. 

“The long shelter of the kukui trees.” 

(A kukui grove shelters like a house.) 

Pupuhi kukui—malino ke kai. 

“Spewed kukui nuts—calm sea.” 

(Pour oil on troubled waters.) 

Fosberg 1998). 

On Moorea (Fr. Polynesia), kukui, Hibiscus tiliaceus, Rhus 

taitensis, and other trees are found on the sides of valleys. 

On rocky slopes, kukui is found in association with 

indigenous species such as Pisonia umbellifera, Boehmeria 

virgata, Pandanus sp., Freycinetia impavida, Hernandia sp., 

Cyclophyllum barbatum, Macaranga sp., Weinmannia parviflora, 

Glocihdion sp., Neonauclea forsteri, Ixora moorensis, and 

Tarenna sambucina (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998). 

Species commonly associated as aboriginal introduction 

in Pacific islands 

In Tahiti, kukui is found in the submontane rain and valley 

forests in association with native species along with breadfruit 

(Artocarpus altilis), mango (Mangifera indica), and 

coconut (Cocos nucifera) (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 

1998). 

In the Marquesas, this species is found in formerly cultivated 

valley bottomlands. The vegetation here has been 

described as a mesophytic (medium moisture) forest 

composed largely of food and other useful plants such as 

Artocarpus, Annona, Ceiba, Cocos, Citrus, Coffea, Syzygium, 

Inga, Inocarpus, Mangifera, Pandanus, Persea, Psidium, 

Pometia, and Spondias (Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 

1998, Decker 1992). On Eiao Island (Marquesas), kukui is 

found in the gulches with Pisonia grandis, Hibiscus tiliaceus, 

Thespesia populnea, Dodonea viscosa, and Annona squamosa 

(Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998). 

ENVIRONMENTAL PREFERENCES 

AND TOLERANCES 

Climate 

This species has a large geographical distribution. Climati- 


cally it is found in subtropical dry and wet climates and 

tropical very dry to wet forest climates. In Hawai‘i, the 

species is found between 0 and 700 m (0–2300 ft) (Wagner 

et al. 1999). Near the equator, the tree is reported to 

grow on a variety of soils up to 2000 m (6560 ft), although 

it is more likely that it has an upper limit of about 1200 m 

(3940 ft). 

Elevation range 

0–700 m (0–2300 ft) (Hawai‘i), but can grow up to 1200 m 

(3940 ft) closer to equator. 

Mean annual rainfall 

640–4290 mm (25–170 in) (mean of 14 cases, 1940 mm [76 

in]) (Duke 1983) 

Rainfall pattern 

Kukui grows in climates with summer, winter, bimodal, 

and uniform rainfall patterns. 

Dry season duration (consecutive months with < 0 

mm [1. in] rainfall) 

3–5 months or longer, as the species is often found along 

streams that may have subsurface water even after longer 

dry spells 

Mean annual temperature 

19–27°C (66–81°F) 

Mean maximum temperature of hottest month 

26–30°C (79–86°F) 

Mean minimum temperature of coldest month 

8–13°C (46–55°F) 

Minimum temperature tolerated 

8°C (46°F) (estimate) 

Soils 

Said to occur on a variety of soils, including red loams, 

stony clay ground, sand, and limestone. As evidenced by 

its relative absence in Northern Guam (which is underlain 

by limestone), kukui does not seem to prefer alkaline soils. 

However, its presence on Mangaia, which has Makatea 

soils with some limestone, suggests a tolerance of neutral 

to slightly alkaline soils. The species is dominant on moist, 

well drained acidic soils (perhaps Inceptisols and Andosols) 

of the high volcanic islands of the Pacific Basin. 

Soil texture 

The tree prefers light and medium texture soils (sands, sandy 

loams, loams, and sandy clay loams). 


Soil drainage 

It requires free drainage. 

Soil acidity 

It grows in lightly acidic to alkaline soils (pH 5–8). 

Special soil tolerances 

Kukui tolerates infertile soils. 

Tolerances 

Drought 

Kukui is quite drought tolerant once well established. 

However, it flourishes in moist environments. 

Full sun 

The tree prefers full sun and can grow as a pioneer species 

in open areas with suitable rainfall. 

Shade 

Kukui can grow in a modest amount of shade, up to 25%. 

Fire 

The species is probably intolerant of fire. 

Frost 

It is probably intolerant of frost, as it is generally confined 

to the lower slopes of pali (steep slopes) that do not experience 

frost (up to about 700 m [2300 ft] in Hawai‘i). 

Waterlogging 

Although the species is an indicator of stream courses, it 

favors well drained, moist soils. 

Salt spray 

Kukui tolerates a modest amount of salt spray and is occasionally 

found growing near the coast. 

Wind 

It tolerates both steady and storm winds and makes a suitable 

windbreak tree, especially in a multi-row windbreak. 

Abilities 

Regenerate rapidly 

The tree can grow well even on relatively poor sites, provided 

ample soil moisture is available, particularly during 

establishment. 

Coppice 

Kukui regrows very well even after severe pruning, although 

it has a tendency to die after two or more prunings

in quick succession. 

Other 

Kukui is known for its ability to grow well on 

slopes, even steep gulches and cliffs. 

GROWTH AND 

DEVELOPMENT 

There is little direct information on the growth 

and development of kukui. It is said that the 

tree is quick growing and readily colonizes disturbed 

gaps and forest margins. Given these 

characteristics, kukui probably has growth rates 

comparable to other common secondary forest 

tree species. The tree requires little attention 

once it is established. 

Flowering and fruiting 

Flowering and fruiting begins at 3–4 years old. 

In many places flowering and fruiting take place 

almost continuously, frequently with flowers 

and fruits of all stages of ripeness occurring on 

each tree. 

Reaction to competition 

Kukui can hold its own even in the presence of 

grasses and other herbaceous weeds. 

PROPAGATION 

Propagation of kukui seedlings is easily done 

by seed. Although the seeds can take up to 3–4 

months to germinate, they are large and quickly 

grow into strong, stout seedlings ready for field 

planting. Seedlings are not finicky about growing 

location (tolerating sun or partial shade), 

nor do they require special growing medium 

or watering regimes. Due to the quick growth 

of germinating seeds into seedlings, seeds lend 

themselves to either being direct-seeded in the 

field or pregerminated in the nursery, then direct-seeded. 

Kukui can also be propagated by 

cuttings, but this is uncommon and may not 

yield a plant that grows as vigorously as a seedling. 

Seed collection 

Kukui flowers and fruits intermittently throughout the 

year. Mature fruits can be picked from the tree or collected 

from the ground. 

Ripe fruit can often be collected from underneath the lower canopy (top), 

or seeds can be collected from the ground under trees with the husk already 

deteriorated (bottom). photos: C. ElEvitCh 

Seed processing 

If the fruits are fresh, they are allowed to decay a few 

days in a moist area, which facilitates peeling off the thick, 

leathery outer husk. This exposes the hard shell that encloses 

the seed. There are about 100–120 seeds per kg (45–55 

seeds/lb) with husk removed and shells on. Typically, germination 

is about 80% over the course of several months. 


To improve the germination rate, bad seeds can be floated 

off in water. 

Seed storage 

Seeds can be stored for several months when dried to 

10–12% moisture content. Often seeds lying on the ground 

under trees are viable and can be used successfully. 

Pre-planting treatments 

Untreated seeds germinate in about 4 months. Sun warming 

of a moist medium is thought to hasten and improve 

germination. Cracking the seed coat (shell) and soaking 

overnight in water may also hasten germination. Fungi 

growing on the seed coat may become a problem for germinating 

seeds, so treating the seeds with a fungicide prior 

to sowing may be helpful in reducing fungal problems. 

Seed scarification with acid does not benefit germination. 

Growing area 

Kukui seeds can grow in moderate shade, but full sun also 

works and may hasten germination. 

Germination 

Seeds can be direct-seeded in containers or pregerminated 

in beds. When seeds are pregerminated in a bed, it is best to 

transplant the seeds just as they begin to germinate when 

the seed cracks open. Pregerminated seeds can either be 

planted in nursery containers or direct-sown in the field. 

Media 

Because kukui germinants have a large, thick taproot, it is 

recommended that seedlings are grown in 2–4 liter (1/2–1 

gallon) root-training containers. Use a well drained potting 

medium such as 50% peat moss, 25% perlite, and 25% 

vermiculite, amended with a little compost, dolomite lime, 

gypsum, and 14–14–14 slow-release fertilizer. Potting media 

should also be inoculated with mycorrhizal fungi from 

a reputable commercial source, particularly if the trees will 

be planted in degraded soils. 

Time to outplanting 

After germination, plants are ready to be transplanted into 

the field after about 3–4 months. 

Approximate size for outplanting 

Trees are ready to outplant when they have attained a 

height of about 25 cm (10 in) and stem diameter of 12 mm 

(0.5 in). 


Guidelines for outplanting 

It has been reported that 200–300 seedlings are planted 

per hectare for oil seed production. In windbreaks, kukui 

can be planted 3–4 m (10–13 ft) apart in the row. 

DISADVANTAGES 

There are very few disadvantages to planting the widely 

adapted and multipurpose kukui tree. Perhaps the biggest 

commercial disadvantage is that no large markets exist for 

any kukui products. Also, it is so easy to grow in many 

environments that there is no clear commercial advantage 

to growing it in any specific place. For example, any kukui 

product that can be produced in Hawai‘i can be easily reproduced 

in other tropical regions where the costs of land 

and labor are cheaper. 

Potential for invasiveness 

Kukui has naturalized in several Pacific islands, particularly 

in Hawai‘i, and has the potential to become established 

outside of cultivation. Despite this, kukui is rarely considered 

a harmful invasive or pest species. 

Susceptibility to pests/pathogens 

The following fungi are known to attack kukui: Cephalosporium 

sp., Clitocybe tabescens, Fomes hawaiensis, Gloeosporium 

aleuriticum, Physalospora rhodina, Polyporus gilvus, Pythium 

ultimum, Sclerotium rolfsii, Sphaeronema reinkingii, Trametes 

corrugata, Xylaria curta, Ustulina deusta. Nematodes 

include Meloidogyne sp. (Duke 1983). 

AGROFORESTRY/ENVIRONMENTAL 

PRACTICES 

Mulch/organic matter 

Kukui leaves make a good mulch. To preserve the health 

of the tree and encourage rapid regrowth, only a small percentage 

of the leaves (less than 20%) should be removed at 

any one time. 

Soil stabilization 

Kukui grows well on steep slopes and in gulches. Along 

with koa (Acacia koa), kukui was one of the first trees 

planted by the Hawai‘i Division of Forestry for watershed 

rehabilitation. 

Crop shade/overstory 

Although not considered overly competitive with other 

plants, kukui’s dense shade limits its use as shade for lightdemanding 

crops.

Alley cropping 

Although kukui will regrow after severe pruning, 

its moderate growth rate makes it unsuitable 

for frequent pruning for mulch in an alley 

cropping system. 

Homegardens 

Because of its usefulness and beauty, kukui is 

grown in homegardens throughout the Pacific 

and elsewhere in the tropics. 

Living fences/visual screen/boundary 

markers 

It is often used as a living fence or boundary 

marker in Tonga, Hawai‘i, and elsewhere. 

Planted densely as a double row on 2 x 2 m (6.5 

x 6.5 ft) or 3 x 3 m (10 x 10 ft) spacing, kukui 

makes a wonderful visual screen. 

Windbreaks 

Kukui makes a good windbreak component, 

particularly in a multi-row windbreak. 

Ornamental 

Kukui is widely used as an ornamental tree for 

its thick silvery-green foliage. This is perhaps 

its most common use in cultivation. 

USES AND PRODUCTS 

With its innumerable uses, kukui was disseminated 

aboriginally throughout the Pacific 

islands. Virtually all parts of the tree—leaves, 

fruits, bark, wood, roots, sap, flowers, etc.— 

were useful for medicine, illumination, housing, 

dyes, food, ornamentation, and many other uses. 

Even today, many of kukui’s traditional applications 

are still in use. During the 19 th century 

kukui oil was a commercial export of Hawai‘i, 

and it has recently been revitalized as a commercial product 

there and elsewhere in the Pacific. 

Nut/seed 

The raw seeds are toxic and have a strong purgative effect, 

but cooked seeds can be eaten sparingly, especially as 

a condiment. Some varieties, such one found in Vanuatu 

(Maewo), have no apparent toxic effect (Walter and Sam 

2002). 

Medicinal 

Folk remedies are reported for general weakness due to 

Kukui makes an excellent screen along roads and boundaries. Top: Privacy 

hedge along driveway. Bottom: Boundary hedge next to coffee plantation. 

photos: C. ElEvitCh 

stomach or bowel disorder in children, asthma, bad breath, 

skin sores or ulcers, “swollen womb,” and rejuvenating 

the body after poisoning (Kaaiakamanu and Akina 1922). 

Kukui nut oil makes a strong laxative and is sometimes 

used like castor oil. The leaves have been used for poultices 

for deep contusions and swellings. 

Flavoring/spice 

Hawaiians have traditionally used the roasted, pounded 

kukui seed kernel mixed with salt and seaweed or chili 

peppers as a condiment called ‘inamona. 


Kukui is the official tree of the State of Hawai‘i because 

of “the multiplicity of its uses to the ancient Hawaiians 

for light, fuel, medicine, dye, and ornament, as 

well as the distinctive beauty of its light-green foliage 

which embellishes many of the slopes of our beloved 

mountains.” (Neal 1965) 

Animal fodder 

After removal of the oil, the remaining seed cake has been 

used for cattle fodder. 

Timber 

The wood is straw colored and very light weight (sp. gr. 

0.35). Because it is not resistant to decay or insect attack, it 

is rarely utilized for timber. The wood is readily colonized 

by fungi and has been used successfully as a substrate for 

growing mushrooms, particularly the ear fungus (Auricularia 

sp.) known in Hawai‘i as pepeiao. After 

heavy rains, deadwood under kukui trees often 

has large quantities of edible fungus. 

Fuelwood 

The wood can be burned as a low-quality fuel. 

Canoe/boat/raft making 

The Hawaiians used the easily worked wood 

for short-lived, light-weight canoes and fishnet 

floats. 

Rope/cordage/string 

A bark infusion with water was used by Hawaiians 

to preserve fishnets. 

Resin/gum/glue/latex 

The whitish sap was painted on tapa cloth to 

make it more durable and waterproof. 

Body ornamentation/garlands 

The empty shells are strung to make a popular 

lei. The mature black seeds and immature white 

to brown seeds are commonly used in lei making, 

polished and unpolished. The shells, which 

can be polished to a high luster, are fashioned 

into earrings and other costume jewelry. The 

leaves with or without the flower clusters are 

woven into impressive leis. 

Tannin/dye 

Hawaiians used the seed husk to make a black 

dye for tattooing and the root bark to make a 

dye to paint canoes. The soot from burned seed 

10 Aleurites moluccana (kukui) 

kernels (traditionally used for illumination) is used for an 

indelible black dye in tattooing and tapa cloth, particularly 

in Samoa and Tonga (Whistler 1991). 

Toxin/insecticide/fish poison 

Kukui oil can protect cotton bolls from the boll weevil and 

prevent feeding by the striped cucumber beetle. 

Cosmetic/soap/perfume 

Oil extracted from the seed can be made into soap. Chewed 

seeds are used as a soap substitute. Refined kukui oil is today 

widely sold in the cosmetic industry and may currently 

be kukui’s primary commercial product. 

Fertilizer 

After removal of the oil, the remaining seed cake has been 

used for fertilizer. 

Due to its light weight, poor durability, and crooked form, the wood is 

rarely used for timber. photo: C. ElEvitCh

Oil/lubricant 

Oil extracted from the seeds was traditionally 

used by Hawaiians as a preservative for surfboards. 

The oil can also be used as a basis for 

paint or varnish, burned as an illuminant, made 

into soap, and used for waterproofing paper. Today 

kukui nut oil is marketed as a skin moisturizer 

and protectant. With chemical modification 

the oil can also be burned as fuel in diesel engines. 

Illumination/torches 

The oily kernels are dried and strung on a skewer 

such as a coconut leaf midrib. Each nut in the 

string burns for about 3 minutes and emits a 

somewhat fragrant smoke. 

Ceremonial/religious importance 

The likeness of a pig’s head carved from kukui 

wood is set on an altar for the Hawaiian festival 

of Makahiki (Kamehameha Schools 1994). 

Other 

The seeds have been used as toys such as marbles 

and tops. The crushed seeds have been used 

mixed with other ingredients as fish bait (Abbot 

1992). 

URBAN AND COMMUNITY 

FORESTRY 

Kukui is found in homegardens and community 

areas throughout the tropics. It has many traditional 

products for home use such as a condiment, 

medicines, dye, and utility wood. The tree 

is also highly prized for its amenity services including 

shade, living fence, and ornament. 

Size in an urban environment 

Kukui typically reaches 10–15 m (33–50 ft) tall 

with a broad canopy when grown in the open, 

with dense foliage often growing down to the 

ground. When grown in the shade of nearby 

trees, kukui grows more upright, with a dominant 

main stem and little side foliage. Trunk diameter 

at maturity can reach 1.5 m (5 ft). The tree 

tolerates pruning very well and can be controlled 

in size and shape as desired. 

Rate of growth in a landscape 

In favorable conditions young trees can grow 1–2 

Top: The kukui kernel has numerous uses including medicine, condiment, 

and a basis for oil and soap. Bottom: The sap which wells up at the stem 

attachment just after harvesting young kukui fruits is used traditionally by 

Hawaiians to treat cuts and skin sores. photos: C. ElEvitCh 

Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 11

m/yr (3.3–6.6 ft) in height. As trees grow older, the rate of 

growth declines. 

Root system 

There is no indication of the root system interfering with 

other plants, pipes, or structures. 

Products commonly used in a Pacific island 

household 

The flavorful but somewhat toxic kernels are consumed 

to varying degrees throughout the Pacific. In Hawai‘i 

the seeds are traditionally roasted and crushed together 

with sea salt to prepare a condiment called ‘inamona. The 

crushed, roasted kernel is frequently used in small quantities 

in Indonesian and Malaysian cuisine. In Samoa the 

kernels are eaten by children, although more than 2–3 kernels 

can cause nausea, vomiting, abdominal pains, or diarrhea. 

Various parts of the plants are used in traditional medicine 

throughout Oceania (Thaman and Whistler 1996, Whistler 

2000, Walter and Sam 2002). A black dye used to dye 

tapa cloth is made from the fruit, bark, or roots. Leaves, 

flowers, and seeds are used in making leis in Hawai‘i. The 

leaves and young branches are considered to be an excellent 

mulch material and were formerly used to mulch taro 

in Hawai‘i. Many more uses are listed in “Uses and products” 

above. 

Light requirements 

Kukui prefers full sun and grows more upright and spindly 

in partial shade. 


Water/soil requirements 

The tree grows in a wide variety of soils, including infertile 

soils. It requires free drainage. 

Life span 

There is no data available, but kukui trees are estimated to 

live 40–60 years. 

Varieties favored for use in homegardens or public 

areas 

There are many forms found regionally (see “Variability” 

above). These selections would be favored for home and 

village gardens. 

Seasonality of leaf flush, flowering, fruiting 

In optimal conditions with ample moisture available, leaf 

flush, flowering, and fruiting are nearly continuous. 

Exceptional ornamental values 

The silver-gray foliage stands out in the landscape. Kukui 

is also recognizable by its domed and dense canopy. Trees 

are often in flower; the white to cream-colored flowers are 

attractive and slightly fragrant. 

Use as living fence, hedge or visual/noise barrier 

Given ample sunlight and space, kukui’s dense crown 

makes a very good visual barrier, particularly since foliage 

tends to extend down to the ground. A row of trees planted 

3–5 m (10–16 ft) apart forms a solid canopy. 

Birds/wildlife 

Many types of birds find shelter in the kukui canopy. 

Left: In open areas, the foliage usually extends down to the ground. Right: When pruned up, the area under the canopy makes 

a wonderful sitting area. photos: C. ElEvitCh

Maintenance requirements 

Young seedlings benefit from regular weeding and irrigation 

if necessary. Once established, trees require little 

care. Kukui does not require fertilizer except in the most 

infertile soils. It tolerates drought but will grow best in 

consistently moist conditions. The dense canopy tends to 

suppress weed growth within the drip line. The tree regrows 

well after pruning. If desired, lower branches can be 

pruned up along the perimeter to open a view underneath 

the canopy. The tree can also be pollarded to control the 

height and canopy diameter (Salim et al. nd). In pollarding, 

a framework of several stems is formed at a desired height 

by pruning the tree during its early development. These 

stems are then pruned back heavily every 2–3 years. 

Special considerations regarding leaf, branch, and 

fruit drop 

Kukui holds its branches very well in normal conditions 

and even in storms. The ground beneath the trees is often 

covered with fruits and seeds. 

Nuisance issues 

None. 

Hazards 

Newly fallen fruits are hard and round, about the size of 

golf balls. They present a real danger on streets or sidewalks 

where people could easy slip on them. 

Common pest problems 

Pests or diseases rarely seriously affect kukui. There are no 

pests of economic importance (Siemonsma 1999). 

COMMERCIAL CULTIVATION 

The widespread cultivation of kukui has traditionally been 

for its many non-commercial uses. At one time the seed oil 

was used as a basis for varnishes and paint, although the 

oil derived from tung (Aleurites fordii) is superior for these 

uses. In more recent times, the primary commercial product 

derived from kukui is the oil extracted from the seed 

for the cosmetic industry. The oil is rich in polyunsaturated 

oils (linolenic, oleic, and various linoleic acids), and is said 

to have a high penetrability and soothing effect on dry or 

sunburned skin and other skin maladies such as psoriasis, 

acne, and eczema. Most oil produced in India, Sri Lanka, 

and other places is consumed locally and does not find its 

way into international trade. 

Spacing 

A suggested spacing for oil production is 200 trees/ha, 

which can be achieved with a spacing of about 7 x 7 m (23 

x 23 ft) or 6 x 8 m (20 x 26 ft). 

Management objectives and design considerations 

Seeds can be harvested from the ground, although the 

heavy leaf mulch usually found under kukui trees hinders 

harvesting the fallen seeds. Picking seeds from the trees 

is often impractical due to the height and the difficulty of 

judging maturity of the ripening fruit. The propensity of 

kukui to grow well on steep slopes may be used to some 

advantage, as the large spherical fruits can roll to collection 

areas if designed properly. 

Yields 

For tropical plantations with trees spaced at 200 trees/ha 

(81 trees/acre), nut yields were reported as 80 kg/tree (176 

lb/tree), or 16 mt/ha/yr (7.1 t/ac/yr), of which 3 mt (3.3 t) 

would be oil Given a spacing of 200 trees/ha and an expected 

yield of approximately 80 kg of seeds per tree per 

year, about 16 mt/ha/yr can be produced. About 20% of 

this yield can be extracted as oil, which is equivalent to 

3.2 mt/ha (1.5 t/ac) of unrefined oil per year. The current 

retail value (year end 2003) of kukui nut oil is about $43/kg 

($19.50/lb). This represents a considerable potential retail 

value per hectare for the processed oil, and an incentive to 

investigate value-added processing methods. The residues 

can be converted to alcohol. Fruit yields range between 4 

and 20 mt/ha/yr (1.8–8.9 t/ac/yr) and an oil yield of 3100 

kg/ha (2760 lb/ac) has been reported (suitable, with modification, 

for diesel uses) (Duke 1983). 

On-farm processing methods 

Removing the outer husk and drying to ca. 12–15% moisture 

should be carried out on-farm. This stabilizes the 

seeds (prevents fungal growth and insect infestation) and 

prepares them for pressing. 

Markets 

Kukui nut oil is marketed widely through health food stores 

and on the Internet. Market volumes are not known. 

INTERPLANTING/FARM 

APPLICATIONS 

Some interplanting systems include: 


Example 1 

Location 

Keauhou, North Kona, Hawai‘i. 

Description 

This project is a 2.4 ha (6 ac) orchard planted in 1993. The 

elevation is 230 m (700 ft) and rainfall ca. 1040 mm (45 in) 

annually. The purpose is a visual screen. 

Crop/tree interactions 

The interior of the property was planted with avocados, 

mango, and sapodilla trees. The kukui afforded modest 

protection from the periodic storm winds. 

Spacing/density of species 

The outer boundary was planted with a double row of 

kukui trees 2.6 m (8 ft) apart within rows and 2.6 m (8 ft) 

between rows. 

Example 2 

Location 

Located at the Moloka‘i Research and Demonstration 

Farm in the Ho‘olehua Ag Park, Moloka‘i, Hawai‘i. The 

project is planted on 0.15 ha (0.36 ac). 

Description 

This project is called, “A Demonstration of a Multi-Cropping 

System in Establishing and Producing Native Trees” 

(Arce 2003). Five rows of trees were planted in a northsouth 

orientation with six kukui trees in each row. There is 

4.6 m (15 ft) between rows to accommodate the tractor for 

mowing the area between rows. In addition to the growth 

rate of the kukui and other trees, the project measured the 

performance of understory crops such as alfalfa, ginger and 

anthuriums for cut flowers, kava, edible fungus, and cacao. 

Alfalfa was successfully grown during the early years, before 

the kukui trees shaded the surrounding area too much. 

Kukui’s natural habit of dropping its branches and many 

falling nuts posed a hazard to understory crops such as the 

flowers. Ear fungus, a popular edible fungus known in Hawaiian 

as pepeiao, was introduced to kukui logs which were 

set in piles between the trees. Small amounts of edible fungus 

were produced, which could probably be increased by 

improved mycoculture techniques. 

Spacing 

Trees were planted at 3 m (10 ft) between trees, 4.6 m (15 

ft) between rows. 


Kali Arce shows her kukui trees in an agroforestry demonstration 

project in Ho‘olehua, Moloka‘i, Hawai‘i. photo: J. B. 

Friday 

PUBLIC ASSISTANCE AND 

AGROFORESTRY EXTENSION 

Extension offices for agroforestry and forestry in the 

Pacific: http://www.traditionaltree.org/extension.html 

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(☛ indicates recommended reading) 

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Uses of Plants. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu. 

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Arce, K.M. 2003. A Demonstration of a Multi-Cropping 

System in Establishing and Producing Native Trees. Unpublished 

research results. CTAHR Cooperative Extension, 

University of Hawai‘i, Ho‘olehua, Hawai‘i.

Bonner, F.T. Undated. Aleurites moluccana (L.) Willd. In: 

USDA. Woody Plant Seed Manual, rev. ed. . 

CAB International. 2003. Forestry Compendium. CAB International, 

Wallingford, UK. 

Clarke, W.C., and R.R. Thaman (eds.). 1993. Agroforestry in 

the Pacific Islands: Systems for Sustainability. The United 

Nations University, Tokyo, Japan. 

Cox, P.A. 1991. Polynesian Herbal Medicine. In: Cox, P.A., 

and S.A. Banack. 1991. Islands, Plants, and Polynesians— 

An Introduction to Polynesian Ethnobotany. Dioscorides 

Press, Portland, Oregon. 

Decker, B.G. 1992. Secondary plant cover of upland slopes, 

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Bulletin 363: 1–36. 

☛ Duke, James A. 1983. Handbook of Energy Crops. 

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Guides for Pacific Islands. Permanent Agriculture 

Resources, Holualoa, Hawai‘i. 

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protocol for production of container Aleurites moluccana 

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Traditional Tree Initiative—Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry (www.traditionaltree.org) 


Authors: Craig R. Elevitch 1 and Harley I. Manner 2 

1. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), PO Box 428, Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i 96725, USA; Tel: 808-324-4427; Fax: 808-324-4129; Email: 

par@agroforestry.net; Web: . 

2. University of Guam, College of Arts and Sciences, UOG Station, Mangilao, GU 96923 USA; Tel: 671-735-2874; Fax: 671-734-5255; 

E-mail: hmanner@uog9.uog.edu 

Acknowledgments: The authors and publisher thank Kali Arce, Dale Evans, Heidi Johansen, Scott Peterson, Diane Ragone, Art 

Whistler, and Kim Wilkinson for their input. The photo contribution by J. B. Friday is greatly appreciated. 

Recommended citation: Elevitch, C.R., and H.I. Manner. 2006. Aleurites moluccana (kukui), ver. 2.1. In: Elevitch, C.R. (ed.). Species 

Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i. . 

Sponsors: Publication was made possible by generous support of the United States Department of Agriculture Western Region Sustainable 

Agriculture Research and Education (USDA-WSARE) Program; SPC/GTZ Pacific-German Regional Forestry Project; 

USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service (USDA NRCS); Kaulunani, an Urban Forestry Program of the DLNR Division 

of Forestry and Wildlife and the USDA Forest Service; State of Hawai‘i Department of Land & Natural Resources Division of 

Forestry & Wildlife; USDA Forest Service Forest Lands Enhancement Program; and Muriel and Kent Lighter. This material is 

based upon work supported by the Cooperative State Research, Education, and Extension Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 

and Agricultural Experiment Station, Utah State University, under Cooperative Agreement 2002-47001-01327. 

Series editor: Craig R. Elevitch 

Publisher: Permanent Agriculture Resources (PAR), PO Box 428, Hōlualoa, Hawai‘i 96725, USA; Tel: 808-324-4427; Fax: 808-324- 

4129; E-mail: par@agroforestry.net; Web: . This institution is an equal opportunity provider. 

Reproduction: Copies of this publication can be downloaded from . This publication may be reproduced 

for noncommercial educational purposes only, with credit given to the source. © 2006 Permanent Agriculture Resources. All 

rights reserved. 

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